oye Whee en ! a: Op sacs “ (Wins laste eal Ye phate Mae pene lde H ty ¢ D Ay Meas howd PRO ae ey eve peed ® Wega A A08 eti we mopng bee ARONA toler v9 ota od 4A ae wud “ tr fd Hts sited Poy tidiery ate “ ‘ hed) ul Pore j 4 ie sais seat Meee Wot PL ay sei hives YEAH By ey I WOe afc ” 4Py Welt e erty ‘ie! bP Hated yrosl eroemrenr erty ‘ PEEP ob Hey i Ne ote AE Tirhaetural red Dihateeby Gripahe ihaeS ee aay i tidy! isuieains' we inualite EW beta tat ni ‘ aid suit borha aed ' jahe ML wit ya! “tt [Peta a 194d 54 trteh Star aii eval tatt LL beet Mt Wogvied eve (taaivaee qly tae nai ‘att iy itt Masri iad PA (} cui tet ie ou te pate} HA iA sh Niserh st) Wis Y Ebihaqutey oh j ie i % el aa i i Hy +, ’ LPS end Et oth fh : WiGpdetrd lay taihnd haath i Seeds t aber eg) ea seve h)) 1 viet gia LL te ii se tye ye hed SST) Calero! AAS Heat ut ee ated ft aH a en “ ) hye ip ey ees te ens die ‘ i ahaa we hats pee tints haart onl Powine Wat Wet,’ ot brietyrot eter 44d royhidite ma padi yy see senititses:. rent ‘ ita Vetedit isp tbe dei bet Petit h ant Y rv i zinc Bi TE at pea te eh Mt bi. erreur rt ee otk vhayaspe pe yyter Ape Hut it ana Tye Alba teseters (rit POP ered Pelee BgUra tees ihe if ryt H vy qin baal ety 14! Saray HL Hi iybhee Whete Lebiregtae hee Abirs whe 1412) byhld sfiein) Ubigt ponds in Tieldaday Arde Hy) Midnhaied i: ai rte pita ane i igergasitt ii Mnetrrid hit ahh Pegveregt Telbuie " this ‘| , ite Ait ” Peed 4 +4 n LLY ee re ee IPE OGL irda OD bard f vd eabihe Faeliyy? at bat lianar 1a tHleedst tidy Woh Ay dinate: Hye Issn toa eaat WW aihy abe (yt 4) je} w (pny ape } hepteb a i ‘ ui Hyde (ork f Vth yr ihe owls aren) ew P+iet at beg tli pace sed viet dtp Ue rare rhe pe bap ve aall h el th t # yi olny bebads Eta TT (+ fist n Ta ieavate ii aid Nendeieiels sd tebe Mh ‘ alias Dipeiee veer j Hees ripe j ia ath OTP Henk ae H) Depa etary f Wit bie atant Laie) Dist iets ere Hirspaprist tatstees ata ie vere aN ty. ew qaag Fidliviere MM lee ip MAT Se aneis og od Wi ri Chea dale PA sor ay yt ante, PMLA Tee ih vere wh Yipee a 4qy Sy pe tien rong dg ley Brinker se niet Wasuh ast Ne 4404 ty sg Wt hAg t eda ised ~ Covi ‘eae # Wesasti ey cee Vib erste ura reveeigiitcd eta teey tenor mrcmeas gs vy) Ciba oee op eran bons * ine ad pe Rete pd otis AH Mab red phe ! Het Witty ee nani nH it Wt Memeitoarriid ! t it f lat yeaatet tes "y ai ‘ Utiyiley heist 4 ; paeegnesdniwty wile ae + Lier 7 ; ipa) ¢ 4) fn pel aia ‘ MULE OMe Bare 4 Myre enn yeep Lean nat WA tak erg bat Hii ee \ N MANU AK Keo ett I9E Lg ETM epilit Pasay teert Sua thd rare aes " rived detey? Pete we AEE viedo awi ges iv ys ae, ity © Lilasing Fisaegt Aiahesh ods Gedo} Haieeey ure hae ay ‘s tery biowh 1 publ te mat yt hhpelarebe kth she habe weal La deg ne ry ‘ sweetest he i oy yineksis a { whygeie ts foteyin pager + oat “ avis lent Aber , icin TAN Pieter iinet See pe (hat tana ae ha WW dw 4 oH? conrad nity dvie 1 eprwsatierracanéainite (stg teid st) rene inh yin Pettis FU 1K 944 (14 Oe Sp es aged th ; i Sauteed Bes oariade siting PUNTA Marte qirtttinay ial oof oreo a Mata a Visas aiey ol LA een he tavesaed ° pane Php Pall tinh Mey ba " via! sedi beman adh Seen rr seve ay ihe per tae al foretedun aes 4 A heriyen athe vid 94) setae nents fy tecebts ait uti ye Aid lee 7 at ‘iit ta Maat eres tf iy eth i 4 en sealers ‘ 4 ? Sheet be ie civterey se araliey - at ¥ Hell iteegegareels Martine ate trate WARM atta wr ee Rie He EY yin My it jens) yh aoa bag) Aviinctidveanadon Nita Iw i arneeet : +4 ayer Wy ye thy feboerqal vet) Misa tbls) veh 4 04 Petr at 1 ; ster ttart hj enaly ever teh eteys 7 eee ees tert otee woe ow ore, rat ean prema i clapacytseah a 4 Ca 4 ect bey aag ay tte ig Ped eile Bray sits at deus pee Heh ated hawt | vies blae Nsbat sa taeyety at eaey Ps ‘ ral tale ba fT “4 4 AV eew arte eeded ai RLOP IPM tT salt 0) Caramel Tree ny IY Yt Ste FORTHE PEORLEE FOR EDVCATION FOR S CLENGE ® ‘ THE AMERICAN EUM OF NATURAL HISTORY So s na cs ig es U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Department Bulletins Nos. 501-525, _ WITH CONTENTS AND INDEX. Prepared in the Division of Publications. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1920 \f ee TiN): if Ik ®) \ yh Ai “sy 4 S - A ‘ A By * 5 oa itt a ne Per ee ae ae se P “a : IA! AC ie | 2 a ‘ ‘ F “ j CE ae vay QI BH : E i | Vie SARANE TO ye Mee, et rime CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 501.—A Stupy In THE Cost oF Propucine MiLK on Four Dairy Farms, LOocATED IN WISCONSIN, MicHIGAN, PENNSYLVANIA, AND NorTH CAROLINA: hp SBD) OT UNS UON) 6 6 SOR Bra on cas dagedaeSedas5 Goo ctSe OBE en 3% Locations and descriptions of farms where cost records were obtained . ...- MSOC SOMprocurimng Catass cess. ios eee ears eee peels ee sae ES Factors involved in the cost of producing milk........-..........------- DD atagirommvotlver/ SOURCES 1. rte n= sone oe anes eee oie ome BDISCUSETONEOIMMES UGS tee cee tees ee ee ee we eee rae cae Relation of individual cow to cost of production. ............----------- SY SEETTA SY eee oe a seg NR 0 EE i ee ye Bee 1 Da EPR U RSS CTT YG bass eo RA ap a eS ae eae DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 502.—THE Drarnace oF IRRIGATED SHALE LAND: MG ETOC UIC EL OMe sere eyes reise oe co Sees IP eee et LN ete ee cer yates Sia SRE OOPUCAlMeALULeS a jmia ce oe se = cle ees Ane eee sete, Se Pe ooo ise ate EAA HLOPOC TAD My eee ence c's een eo tun ence, Mae etre clear Mind ercround waters..-00-.--0------= see Ses Cae aad ae eave ae Alkahi . 1 PETIA OG Ta SH OCT FS Rees ees Sem Hh ee a al ie a lem ABOU ECC ET OI eee eee rate PUT TR MREMAME ARS RAE pe Whe PAE) EAP die ls Bee OOS GLEN a oS Se On nS Ne Mea ee A Exam plesrolmethods ress eS Nt Ne NaS SUITS BRD “HESS ON Gay OEE acs Ci PRE 1 aa a ay a SS BGG HIST ONS a acne Nee cn gO Ir ee orn SA OS PRY) ts ie ae DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 503.—TurRNIeS, BEETS, AND OTHER SUCCULENT Roots, anp THEIR UsE as Foop: Root vegetables less commonly known....-.---.---+-----2----¢-+-+---- Eromisnisedsas condiments. 6805 505855. . ae ee ee SV CELERE DER? 5 1 SS a. eR, and a eA Re DEPARTMENT BuLuLeTIN No. 504.—TuEe THErory ofr CORRELATION AS APPLIED To Farm Survey Data on FATTENING BAaBy BEEF: BG ATEPOGIIEC G10 ie ne ee ence ee ee ee eS cumalamik reece LUE eVB OV: OPE: CLONE SM EY soy oS Se ep im Cea aN BU PN amine Ono CoOemiClentss 25... [Sl pee ereeioncr Gerece ner hice orcieiae Interpretations of the (OWEN CUEMNE Ge soc so = = sos cacdnceonsacssdeesse ddr see OS TEESE 2 aie i eo agp me Ra lla Mao oP DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 505.—Dicerstipiniry or SomME VEGETABLE Fats: © LETH Te UB RETO a See a TS NE RWB kl PERN UU NESS cD ear) MOE Beregs CTR Tibet lestnd LINO See oe rote ass sR Me Lec crcne pinay day ate aire Fenn Digestion experiments—Olive oil, cottonseed oil, peanut oil, coconut oil, sesame oil, cocoa butter RB OTACLUSION SHA aarNe mM Me Sie a meen a 2 a ele DEPARTMENT BuLiEtIN No. 506.—PRopucTION oF LUMBER, LATH, AND SHINGLES In 1915 anp LuMBER IN 1914: eMmOOMe GION 3) Sate Mie eM en ee ety A Repaiaia Es Ya en an cae pa elec Lip gn MIP MIOMON COMApHa LOM. Vs Seti ame Re) ee 9 yl em eee Production, by classes of mills ESTOUUCUIOMY Dy bALCSe «25 tk 8 oo ec iha a. Re ik es era eal ops get Ras de Production, by kinds of wood ENR S bain. Ss Cap ae MR 2 SN RN 2 Sr a re ALAIN SO “SU LETIYERL OS) 2 1a OS Ne eT ol a a LE" 2k AR RNS yee AST I BAe RAVES ata Se cain ors... Mena atte once ONY ei a Di ee ays separ ab eee aN ae I NI ee i aN aR PEPE MGS. NOMA ss LAA SUL CS neers eect. iN emue eels Soya ae ohana a 3 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 501-525. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 507.—Stupres oN THE DiIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL Fats: Page PritOMenOn sto 2 0. eck. age, ERR. a ee 1 Expermmentalomethods:. ...:<.. . a0. «oo ic bane aoe eee 2 Digestion experiments—chicken fat, goose fat, brisket fat, cream, and fat in, ero vol and im fish..: 2.5: <.~sese shoeghs es 2s. oo ee eee 4 DUMMY: 2 bine sabe Nese SEO Se ea eee 18 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 508.—YIELDS FROM THE DeEstRucTIVE DisTILLA-— TION OF CERTAIN HARDWOODS: Purpose of experiments: ...- >. ---.- Gdecescee 2 ose tee oe Plan ofinyvestigation.:.2. 2... ... 55. -+-2eeeeeee en: ee ee eee Method i recording datay 02. 0 es ee ee Yieldson per cent weight basis. ..2- ): (ae 5 wee eee Yields ‘per cord, alcohol; and acetate. <= eee". 125) ©. ee ee Pyrolieneous ‘acid, ‘tar, ‘and charcoal’:-)) gees... - 2. sre eee Commercial distillation. 2-2 -2ee- a eee eee rape Nee Re nal ap. DEPARTMENT Buietin No. 509.—TuHe THrory or Dryine AND ITs APPLI- CATION TO THE NEw Humipity-REGULATED AND ReEcIRCULATING Dry Kin: Introduction....0.2 252020 2 sci. . Re ec i Hlementary principles of drying... 2.05.5 yeeeeee eee ere Hlementary. principles of hyerometry..-— - wees. 4-6-4 - 2. ae eee Typesiof balms. 3 222822220 28) See Drying by superieated ‘steam 2°... 2 SPI eee Importance of proper piling of lumber? >See Theory and description of the Forest Service kiln.-............--------- 10 ‘Theoretical discussion of evaporation 2225-2." -- 2-2 eee ee 13 Theoretical analysis of heat quantities: =o. 2c. = ees ee 18 DEPARTMENT Butitetin No, 510.—Timper StroraGE CONDITIONS IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES WITH REFERENCE TO DEcAY PROBLEMS: Trrtroducttom . <2). eo esas nls 5 So I Cause of decay in timber ._ ... «.025.- 56-52 soe oo ee ee 2 Handling timber at. sawmoills:.. 2.2). oa ee te 7 Location of mills and its relation to decay’. 2-255. - eee - eee eee 8 Quality of stock with reference to decay-.....-.-..-----------s-------- i 11 SNWNN IDR Condition of storage sheds/at mulls. _ ass 22.2 3222 oan ee ee ee Condition’ of storage yards’at mills... 3222-52542 33 ee Handling timber at-retanll sy airds..= ~ 22 Sa ee - 27 Pune which rot stored limibern] |. 2 aaee ar ee eee ae eee 30 Wood: preservatives in the lumber yard: 22 55552 soo es 38 Branding strictural-timlber- 22. . ee ee 40 Concltisions’. 260°) 2 2.220 2 2 41 DEPARTMENT Buutietin No. 511.—Farm Practice IN THE CULTIVATION OF Corton: Injtroduletion:.....5 2.2555: 522552521 ° NEA 5a eee 1 General statements’ 222220055. 2- - SU = aarp 3 Subsoiling? = 22 2la.2202 2202 222. Se Sec care see eae ae 4 Dramiage! 200. c leis 3.2. . a oa ee ee 5 Tillage: betore’plowanies 22.0: 2.5: Sat MRR RNR ates oe et ee eee 6 Plowing: :--.c.2e2ssedsceses 2.25. A 6 Preparation after: plowing... :: 2...) Meshes 2262: cece ete ee eee 9 Plantmg™ : 20.208, JB G8 gl 2 PE Re ee ee 10 Normal averages of farmconditions.\3s02... 222222 1S. eee oe eee 12 The relation of crop rotations to crop yields...........-....--2-----+---- 14 The relation of tillage and price of land to crop yields.........---.----+-- 15 Groups of cotton-growing areas. ... P55tit 2.00. ieee ee eee 16 General farm practices.and conditions. :.........+...2-«-ssss"=-seeee eee 17 SUMMAL Yn oss rncecs aie e oe 0's os UR o eo oe ea 61 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 512.—PREVENTION OF THE EROSION OF FARM LANDS BY TERRACING: Introduction-o.2 i222. fh i Se hes ee eee eee ul Forms of erosion 22222 F2o.. 2. 8 ee eee 2 Methods’ of preventing erosion......255..-222..: 0060272055. e50e eee eee 3 MPPRRCUIG bbe asset 2s 52 bee bceie’ Se cc co ac eee 5 Reclamation of gullied lands. ..:2. 221.32. 5i5--562 50822. e eee eee 38 Sulimary 52 Seales. Pee eee eae eee 38 CONTENTS. 5 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 513.—FUMIGATION OF ORNAMENTAL GREENHOUSE | PLANTS WITH HyDROCYANIC-ACID GAs: Page. LLpoHrerg FN AToy a Wie Me A RE ames: Eee edie See ee ieee Pam sone il | Equipment necessary for fumigation..-.-..--.--.-0.i22.02---+ 22-22-24. 2 ere parationu.ol. house for, iunmigation :/ 225. Lc. <= ==. ea y 4 ed JG se eee 3 Method of computing the cubical contents of even and three-quarter-span PreEeMHOUsSES. 4-2 io oon oe te nie ele on ee ee ee ene see eels 4 iaseonmnani Cation: (2p Ler sca he ro Het ae es PRS «cee ede oad ee ewe 4 Chemicals required for‘fumigation...1.0225--.2.------.---seseueeee- Hee 5 Determining the amount of cyanid to be used...-..-..--..--.-----.--:-. 5 Chemical formula to be employed’... Wye ies ee ete: teeee ce nis ieee 6 arcmmentmerehemicale: 0.20 ai) 2 MSO alice a tele. io Ble ae 7 Number of generators, te be employed aa. 5-2 - tebe t elas aippie Se ee i IB MOSUTOS oes Ure enh Se oo ee pepe ntl. Qe vey Lind ie 7 Wenilation aitertumication:: ¢. Pe ape rice cece cee ae eee 8 Effects of weather conditions on fumigation.......-....--------------e ee 8 Adyisability of a fumigation box....:-:2-2-:-.2+2+-+--+-22-222----2022: 9 How insects are disseminated from house to house.........-..---++-++++-- 9 Cost of hydrocyanic-acid gas fumigation.......--.------------------+---- 10 EPO GONG je. es che. | ne ey reins AE ea Caylee) a) aE lal Plants and insects fumigated in greenhouses........--------------------- i Plants and insects fumigated in fumigation box...............-.---------- 18 ion ins TOTS oe ese eases St ES rch SE pce uate heey Aa ae 20 i DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 514.—WuHeEatT, YIELDS PER AcRE AND PRICES, BY | Staves, 50 YEARS, 1866-1915: Tas 70 Li eniS Cov AGN ie tevermt rere ea ee ee eee Userof wlustrative materiale 2x..--:5) 0) Fase ee ee eee Distnibutionvol time! and (creditthsssssye eee eee eee * ‘The homie projects se Gse 5 52). GER pore saratavanerch nop SOS Outline for soils and crops, first year........2.- 020-0200. 5. cet eee eens Suggestions for home projects, first-year-.........-...2.2.-62--0e2ee eee Laboratory equipment for soils and crops....-....---..------+-------+---- Texts.and.references-for.soils and. crops! eee. 402. Haeeas see oe Outline for animal husbandry, second year. ......-...-..-------+-+-+--- Suggestions for home projects in animal husbandry..........-..--------- Equipment for animal husbandry: 03205282. 4. J-eSiaeee Ree eee eee Texts and references for animal fuebandan wah afatei defo tare tm parerate lola Sie eRe DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 522.—CHARACTERISTICS AND QUALITY OF MONTANA- GROWN WHEAT: Introduction wiisce Ae eo). - he eee Future. of wheat production.ini Montanas <2ees4. 28s S228 tae ee ee eee Marketing conditionsin Montana. 2223 «see 4s 2 342% 32 ee pee ee eee Varieties and types of wheat grown in Montana. ..:..........--.-------- Grading Montana wheat... <= - 0. =<. -2\-seeece oo eee Ee Ee eee eee Wheat.qualtty ... 5.25.0 -.-..2,2-- n.-anigee sot per ieee Se eee eee Shaveiare Color ‘of flour and bread ey. je. cce-.- cies « eee ace eee Water absorptlolls: 9: ds casos ee ee oe oe aa ee POLES Loaf volume and textures 2 soi) et se ie we > eee eee eee Hard wittter whest-222 3668 eee... eo bee ee eee Correlation of physical characters and milling quality.............------- Comparisons with the hard winter wheats of other sections..........----- Montana:hard.spring wheata::......-ge.--. 22h ee eeeeeeeeen ee erie at Westernmred:-and: whitetwheat:t2-) 2 ee eee eee Montana durum wheatss2e.-2 527... ERG. 2 on eee ee eee Summary of the characteristics of the five classes of Montana wheat...... DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 523.—UtT mization oF ASH: Introduction: 0 re eo Ses «5 oe eo 2 7 Cee OLE ECL Commniéreial species. 72.45 22s. 2S Bae eee Demand and supply: i\2. 0. . 2... eet sees 2 [eee eae Characteristics of ashwoodt?s 2. 20/22 RG 2 oS a Se ee ee - Utilization by industries... ...-... 2. 82.06.32... - eee eee eee Lumber and stumpage values... ..2-2e2'--- =): - See eee Summary of important:poimts.. : «22-0. . .0...- jraeeesee ed dee sees cee 2s 508 3-7 pecmenclanvields trom hard woods.....-:.2.-2s2.<0¢-2-s-t-n02%-+ 508 2-3 Acid— gore. yield or hardwoodse. >... .224 Wess oeees 2 oe des seen 508. 7 pyroligneous, yield of hardwoods......... 2.202. 20s000.c0e20-5 508 7 Aeroplanes, construction, use of ash lumber........----.--.-.----- 823 37, 52 Alabama— Chambers County, survey and tillage records for cotton.......- 511 45-46 gam yieldsiand prices, 1866-1915... {2 gn... nt... 2 = se 515 ll wheat, yields and prices, TSEC 1915. ge ee tt ne 514 1 Alcohol— saleldyper'cord trom certain hard Woodse. esses es = = syataee et n 508 3-7 predsiimam hardw0ds cies)... ic. REN ees de 508 2-7 Alkali, presence in shale lands, determination. ......-...-.-.-.-.- 502 7-11, 39 Almond, earth, nature and food 1ISe NOTE 2 fae Ls cr ae ated 503 15 Animal— a@useasesvaor schoolishudiess i)... 2 FORA et 521 50-51 fats. See Fats, animal. husbandry— equipment tor school studies. /). . /2 Uehara Oo 51-52 home projects and substitutes for school studies. .-.....-.-- 521 dL Schoolistudies: second: year. s 5. -:. s.8Beeeee ss 22 asa saa 521 37-53 texts and references for school studies...-.......-.-------- 521 52-53 Animals— farm, feed and-feeding, school studies............+....-..---: 521 4\-42 MENZONeMent. School studies: . 552520590. wees Ae Nes oes es 521 40-41 See also under specified names. . Anthriscus cerefolium, nature and food use, note.........--.-.----- 503 15 Apple, orchards— mamienance labor, details; and cost... --2eeee ses Shs. 0) See 518 19-40 Bprayinon detalls and) COStS! 23. 3s... = -)-,- 5S Se OS a oa 518 34-39 Apples— cost of production— in Hood River Valley, bulletin by S. M. Thomson and G. H. WMinilereeee ns rae ee enone... SAN mNmmemetey. es Nae oar, 518 - 1-62 relation to yield, size of orchard, etc-...-..-.2.+:----24-:-- 518 50-52 growing— costs other than labor, fertilizers, materials, and fixed costs 518 48-50 labor costs for maintenance and handling..............--.-- 518 19-48 packing, details and costs, Oregon, Hood River Walleyeie. in 518 43-46 varieties in Hood River Valley Orchards. /CMaeeets See) 518 15 Arizona— corn yields and prices: 1882-1915... |S eee a 515 14 wheat, yields and prices, 1882-1915................---------. 514 * 14 Arkansas— eocny yields/and prices 1866 —19ie. =: - - - opens ie acl aise 515 13 St. Francis County, survey and tillage records for COLON sae a= 511 40-42 mineat yleldsand prices, 1866-1915... -. ae ee hee: 514 13 ae canadense, mature andtood Wsel\. = .\- <2) ae eels elastic 503 17 sh— annual cut and value, by States, 1899-1915. ..............---- 523 8-11 lum ber— prices, 1909-1916, by States, and 1896-1910................. 523 39-44 production, 1899-1914, and estimates, 1915.............. a 506{ par production, rank of States, 1899 and 1904-1915............. - §23 11-13 uses in different wood-using industries. .....-.......-.--- 523 49-52 | MuidlizationebyAMGMUStEless is. 2.4. «+ yo eo aas elt eee 523{ “ee 5 173121—20-——_2 1 2 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 501-525. Ash—Continued. is Page. range of different species.......% 2+ 2. ice t ew ae none en ee 523 3 species— characteristics and physical and mechanical properties.... 523 17-25 commercial, demand and supply--..--.:--...---..+--9-=5- 523 2-15 distillation, yields of alcohol, lime acetate, etc-.-..-...--.- 508 3-7 SYACe) DANICS ore septs oe eleie ns soo 2 ate =~ eeeniee eterna ere ree eteeetete 523 2 timber— commercial Species ><. .)7..'. 2... 4, Bese ee en eee eee eee 523 2 disease and insect control... ......- .aseess=-+ ogee ee 523 26 ks Bi 29, 30, ol, stiampage Valwe-o-- 2. >--0,0 2 -+ dod Mae:- tee ee ee 522 4547 supply, acreage, and stand : 2.225. Semen: «nine se ee 523 14-15 utilization, bulletin by W. D. Sterrett: 2222) >... .. 20ers 523 1-52 wood— characteristics 2S. 8 | PR oe eee eee 523 15-27 chemical properties: 25-24 --\-— ame eee 523 25-26 fuel. value, comparison ‘with coal 2383... eee eee 523 15 seasoning, comparison with other hardwoods.............. 523 25 structure, comparison with osage orange and catalpa-......- 523 15-16 Baby beef— cost of production— correlation of factors, studies, and reports on 67 farms-...... 504 2-13 reports from 67 fATMS....+..---... Meee > 504 2 profits, relation to weight. -.-.--.-... eesem-o. 2-5 22 oe 504 3-5 Bacterium pullorum, infection in fowls, intradermal test, bulletin by Archibald R. Ward and Bernard A. ‘Gallagher. - FERC ESS aly 1-15 See also Diarrhea, white. “Bad, lands’ topography: 2220S 2c2s <2 SB - oats eee 502 12-13 8-11, 22, Baking, tests of Montana wheat. 2... .. 0.022. eee he ee 5224 24, 26-28, 30, 31, 34 Barrows, H. R., bulletin on ‘‘Courses in secondary agriculture for southera Schools’’ 2t2222o Sls o2 0... eine ota ee = eer ee 521 1-53 Basswood lumber, production, 1899-1914, and estimates, 1915.....- soe ae Bedding, dairy cow, requirements and cost, studies. ......-.--.-.. 501 4 Beech— distillation, yields of alcohol, lime acetate, etc.-......-....... 508 3-7 s lumber, production, 1899-1914, and estimates, 1915........... 506 13-15, 26 eef— baby, fattening. theory of correlation as applied to farm-survey data, bulletin» by H.R. Tolley... ae 3. a s>- eee 504 1-15 See also Baby beef. fat, digestion’ éxpertinents 2... ee ee ee 501 1-35 Birch— distillation, yields of alcohol, lime acetate, etc.......-..-.-.--- 508 3-4,7 lumber, production, 1899-1914, and estimates, 1915........... 506 13-15, 25 Blancmange, medium for digestion experiments..............----- { a 7 Boat, building, use of ash lumber ~ nalfetles wes eo sbn es Cette 523 33, 48, 50 Boerner, E. G.,-bulletin on ‘‘Table for converting weights of me- chanical separations into percentages of the ericle analyzed’ ‘ 516 1-21 Borpen, A. D., and E. R. Sasscer, bulletin on “Fumigation of ornamental greenhouse plants with hydrocyanic-acid gas’’...... 513 1-20. Borer, ash-wood, control... <..,.-..,..<.<,<.qacecee<+ccs.cn Seen ee eee 523 26 Boxes, construction, use of ash lumber. - 2223 ic sec so eee 523 32-33, 50 Branding, timbers, suggestions and Valle: i... osc asic so nce eee 510 40-41 INDEX. 3 Bulletin Bread— No. Page. millet cicestibility ExXPeMMents. . .-..- meh «jm miepoye'> 3-015 tala 525 5-8 wheat, from Montana, baking tests........--.-...-0cccesseecee 522 7,9-11 Perel itv. GIPestiOn EXPelMMENts. -...-.--- omcacine nce on cnnccwcces 507 8-11 bansaepple orchards, disposal. ..-.....-...i. ci (ej ales «ice mine S00 518 20-21 Buildings, infection by wood-rotting fungi............-..-.- peor ke 510 32, 35,37 Erigastyiserd, COS’ Of KECPING = 2. = oo. occ aettetasaelnietn tern epmnrn i open 501 13 Butter— fat— ; cost of production, study of four dairy farms............... 501 18 production per cow, studies on four dairy farms........... 501 17 yield per cow, studies on four dairy farms..............-.- 501 18 . Tancid, treatment with lime, practices...........-..-.---.----- 524 20-22 renovation, use of lime as neutralizer, analyses of products... .- 524 20-23 MRIS OM ASH MIMI DC Ese 13 108- ays, oP. +, Ae, ckkes- eget auni> Baie ~ 3 eye 523 29, 48,49 Butters, quality from limed and unlimed cream................... 524{ 10 a, Calamus, nature and food use and value..................-.-e-0+0> 503 16-17 Calf, dairy cow, credit in ccst of milk production...............-- 501 16 California— eommadeldsand prices, 1868-1905... ca) eee inet Sater, = 515 15 Meat ees ANG prices, ISG8—LO1D. . Ponies aw eine - aeleinielore = 514 15 Calves, fattening for baby beef, theory of correlation as applied to farm-survey data, bulletin by H. R. Tolley.................-... 504 1-15 Carrots, composition and food use and value.........-.-.-+-------- 503 3, 9-10 Catalpa wood, comparison with ash wood and osage-orange.-..-..-- 523 16 Cates, H. R., bulletin on ‘‘Farm practice in the cultivation of cot- RPM ae Nee Se ol Se cc .ci seis wo iin nie « Lal Pga eno Ses ... .... Res. koe eee 507 11-13 neutralized by lime, analyses... ....giei.2~-:2 == .=,5/2)= fa mst bie ieee 524 10-14 sour, neutralization, practices at creameries........-...--..--- 524 1-2 Creams, analyses of neutralized and unneutralized........... saiet tha 524 5-6 Crop rotations, relation to cotton yields, studies................-...-- 511 14-15, 6 INDEX. 5 Bulletin No Page 18. 25, 27- 28, 29, 30, Crops— D2 OO. Ok, Cottonnemmaince rotations ete s). oi... eee Se 511 38, 40-41; 44. 46, 48, 50, 51, 54, 56, 58, 59 heldustudiesforischool.2$ 22:32:22: .ckiee ses eecnset esis eee 521 21-34 texts and references, for school studies............-.-..--.--.--- 521 36 Mucumber indian, food use;notes...00).. 2 eee 503 15 Cypress— lumber production, 1899-1914, and estimates, 1915............... 506 13-15, 21 polesspurchased im L907; 1901 VOD. . See Saat tote. ie 519 1-3 Daedalea quercina, lumber-rotting fungus, description..............--- 510 32 Dairy— farm— Michigan, management and cost of milk production.........- 501 : as North Carolina, management and cost of milk production... 501 3,5, 9-19 Pennsylvania, management and cost of milk production. - . 01 3; “Ela Wisconsin, management and cost of milk production ....... 501{ jet iarmaine+eredits other/than milk... 2:22. jc agse sees) ice le 501 14-17 farms, study of cost of milk production, Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina, bulletin by Morton O. Cooper, C. M. Bennett, and L. M. Church.................-..- 501 1-35 products— ash content, analyses for determination of use ofneutralizer. 524 2-5 liming, influence on CGE Bey BR rs he on. a aca en ee 524 8-14 - neutralization by lime, detection, bulletin by H. J. Wich- TED UOT TR AR PNA ENS Te ae i SU ee esi Mie de yk 524 1-22 See also Butter; Cream; Milk. supplies, wooden utensils, use of ash lumber .........-.------- 5234 ne a ’ Dairying— buildings and equipment, requirements 501 27-29 problems, feed, labor, depreciation, etc...........-..-.--------- 501 21-29 Delaware— corm feldsand prices OGG TONS... . ../< ae memento lela oc re- let 515 6 wheat, yieldsand-prices, 1866-1915... 22... 0525022.22 222-2222 -2 514 6 Dew point, explanation and method of finding.................-.. 509 5-7 Diarrhea, white— artificial infection of fowls, experiments and snl pe ky 517 2-14 isseMuMaAt Onli TOWIS2c = <4 20.0 At ooo <2 eee eee 2 517 1-2 intradermal test, bulletin by ‘Archibald R. Ward and Bernard AN, GALES GPS Set PAS ee! Oa MS. 5 pa ae A 517 1-15 Diet, use and value of vegetables, discussion............-....------- 503 3-8 Digestibility— animal fats, studies, bulletin by C. F. Langworthy and A. D. JE LCN ra Gears neath ear lnc SR MS <5 re ee a an I 507 1-20 millets, determination experiments, bulletin by C. F. Lang- worthy Ue ELONMES 2 ty eek - s TREN gene yee 525 1-11 vegetable fats, bulletin by C. F. Langworthy and A.D. Holmes. 505 1-20 Digestion, experiments watnamimaliatsea.. _ . aap ise aot 507 4-18 Distillation, destructive, of certain hardwoods, yields from, bulletin by R.C. Palmers 0 00s SCC as oS SUG ig ds el 508 1-8 Ditches, hillside, value in erosion prevention............-...-..---- 512 5 Drainage— cotton-srowing practices, studies.......-...-2sechec- eee e eens 511 5-6 effect on plant growth, school studies...........----..-..-.-.--- 521 15-16 irrigated shale lands, bulletin by Dalton G. Miller and L. T. Je FISSION DAS Sot cee Aoks Cok CNTs EOE a ea MO <3 eA eel 502 1-40 shale lands— ; effectiveness, conditions governing........--..........----- 502 11-20, 40 CxEMT CS eon boos cents shih. sete eee ep 2 AOP gees 502 23-29 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ‘BULS. 501-525, Drainage—Continued. shale lands—continued. sy = SERUMOG, RIMLGUCS... 5 2% 2 sme =.= - - + cee oe okie Soe ae 502 system for shale lands, construction and cost..........---------- 502 Drains, shale-land, location, and depth...............2...ce.-e-2-s- 502 Drying— lumber, theory, and its application to the new humidity- regulated and recirculating dry kiln, bulletin by Harry D. WIGTAANIN Sono oa amis nae = &s'>+ - GE oak 06s aa 509 principles, evaporation, circulation, and humidity.............. 509 ‘Dry-rot fungus,”’ description and occurrence...........---.+------: 510 Earth almond, nature and food use, note.............---..2-e-ee0ee- 503 Education. See Schools. Eggs, transmission of white diarrhea................-20-5eceeeeecces 517 pave Vouk fai, digestion experiments. j.....'<.-Af-assomen sae asec 507 m— lumber production, 1899-1914, and estimates, 1915............... 506 spp., distillation, yields of alcohol, lime acetate, etc.............. 508 Erosion— ae lands, prevention by terracing, bulletin by C.E. Ramser.. 512 soil— asicause of abandoned farms: . 2. 17: 2 BRE Uae: ae 512 conirolimethods»schoolistudiess: [ee see eeee eee eee 521 prevention methods ii 2954. 2. BRE PAs Yaseen see 512 Vaiagus forms... ....-...-...-.-3-sees- + oe ee ee eee ee 512 Eucalyptus, distillation, yields of alcohol, lime acetate, etc........... 508 Evaporation, theory, discussion. ....:...-/2s each ees - date ee eae See 509 Experiment stations, New England, studies of cost of producing milk. 501 Vxporis; ‘ash lumber.\... 2. ..255; - - 6 Shenae he eee 523 Farm— dairy. See Dairy farm. lands, erosion, prevention by terracing, bulletin by C. E. Ram- BOD n.. joo oi na ynaciees eeckie ies = «5 SO ES ee oe ee 512 Farming, cotton cultivation, practice, bulletin by H. R. Cates...... 511 dairy, study of cost of milk production, Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina, bulletin by Morton O. Cooper, C. M. Bennett, and L. M. Church.........-...--.... 501 See also Dairy farms. fattening baby beef, correlation theory as applied to data, bulle- :, tin by H. BR. Tolley... 2... --. 52 tes 66 2 eee 504 at— butter production per cow, studies on four dairy farms......... 501 See also Butter fat. poultry, dicestibility, Studies... 22. -4c.--..---.-. eee 507 Fats— animal— digestion) experiments. .... 5. 8-25 -)-a0y- eet eee eee 507 studies on digestibility, bulletin by C. F. Langworthy and A, 0; Holness) 321). =.<. requirements and cost, studies on four dairy farms............ 501 BESO SCN ONOEL esis = = 3.0. el lela = ae aie oot pe tare ee 501 Feeding, dairy cow, methods, requirements and cost, studies at four GSAT TANI ooo aie ca Reino won 2 one AoE E lai Sicln Sidhe 20-25 ak eae 501 Fertilizers— honie Wixine, school stiidies... ive. .-.«.ie,-—-ls nen Se 521 Studies Tor schoOlS. 5.20 cc. cis 210: - iopeetioss “09: -[0 1 Sap 521 See also Manure. Fir lumber— Douglas, production, 1899-1914, and estimates, 1915.......... : 506{ 18-19 17-21 13-15, 16-17 production, 1899-1914, and estimates, 1915..............-.-. 506 18-15, 30 INDEX. Fish fat, digestion experiments. . .... Fs SE rer eee Flacroot, nature and food use and value. ......-....-....2---.---- Florida— corm yields and prices, 1866-1916... . 4. pik iitiel. cect weer wheat, yields and prices, 1866-1869, 1881-1882..............- Food— mallets. use Russia,.and Iindia..-..5.2022 2.2.0.6... 22 se. IMeMMeAMONS +hsts sey asta 6 oo ea eee Te ee he tome roots, value and use of turnips, beets, and other succulent roots, bulletin by C.F. Langworthy.: Set i.e. a5 2.22. 2° Foresting, value in erosion prevention. .........-.-....---------- Fowls, infection with Bacterium pullorum, intradermal test, bulletin by Archibald R. Ward and Bernard A. Gallagher..............-- Fraxinus, spp. See Ash. Fumigation— boxe value forrereenhousessis 3). +.saedgees 2 Pees hydrocyanic-acid gas, cost for various insects.........---.----- ornamental greenhouse plants, with hydrocyanic-acid gas, bulle- timpbyes He Sasseerand A.D. Bordeni.. 22. ....2.5--<---- Fungi, wood-destroying, description, and occurrence...........---- Fungus, wood-destroying, description and action......-.......---- “DiseneulHUEREL GELS Soc ere eg ee ene so a Ags ene a GALLAGHER, BERNARD A., and ArcHIBALD R. Warp, bulletin on “ An intradermal test for Bacterium pullorum infection in fowls” . . Garlic— composition and food use and value.....-.--.---.----------- NAME MOOd Tse.and, Valuer 7452... 2 see see eee ae eee sees Gas, hydrocyanic-acid— fumigation of ornamental greenhouse plants, bulletin by E. R. Sasseerand A: Dts orden sii. 592 -. Wea hie TREN plants and insects fumigated with, list. ............-----.-.-- use in fumigation, cost for’various insects..............-.-.--- valieras funncamt, isetand: Ganger: . ... eede eee. < vie a 5 Sacre Georgia— Bulloch County, survey and tillage, records for cotton. ...-..-- Gorn) yaelds and prices, 1866-1915... .. aol). Sees ates Pike County, survey and tillage records for cotton............- Tift County, survey and tillage records for cotton.......-.-.--- wihteatyaeldsand orices, 1866-1915... eek esse tee e Ginger— Pare mod pseyand Wales see... . 4 oeele es am cam ciel nie ppl Gena GEC) 2G AOOGEUSC peste. - <2. = SEAR So so ain ee ce Gooseiat. ;aisestion, experments: 3:0. ....-- meee ss cca nee ee Grain, weights of mechanical separations, table for conversion into percentages of the sample analyzed, bulletin by E. G. Boerner... . See also Corn; Millet; Wheat. caine smell sch ool Studies. je.) 25.5 ac. - - 25 eEl es Grasses collection studies for schools... .. ...2s882--.---2-.-...2: See also Nut grass. Greenhouse— fumigation time, chemicals required, use, method, and formula. preparation for fumigation with hydrocyanic-acid gas.......... Greenhouses, fumigation equipment, preparation, ete.............. Gum red lumber, production, 1899-1914, and estimates, 1915....... Handles, ash, prices and marketing of raw material................ Hardwood lumber, fungi attacking, descriptions and damage........ Hardwoods— eeulttion, commercial, comparison of yields with laboratory RACISM Min etree ce OS St... SR. aorsaise: Face gs fomiber cdiryins problem 2 sacl. a. < PE -se ae Homes, A. D. and C.F. Lanewortay, bulletin on— = Digestibility of some vegetable fata”. Wenky.3 aca ueer ee eee “Experiments 3 in the determination of the digestibility of mil- CtB in. ons ecko ke cee ns opcked hee fe GREE Oe ee eee “Studies on the digestibility of some animal fats............. Hood River Valley— agricultural development. . wise w nie, once = 30 a eee aera a location, commercial importance, soil, climate, ChC 3505.3 Eee Horse- radish, composition and use in food Horses— care:and feeding, school studies... 9) see ie nee ee eee types and breeds; schoolistidiesJ +44. eeeeeee eee ete oee eee Humidity— measurement instruments, discussion..............-....------ regulation in Forest Service kiln, description..........-.------- Humenrey— C. J., bulletin on ‘‘Timber storage conditions in the Eastern and Southern States with reference to decay problems’. ~-iin-s:/< Joun R., and Roy L. NewTon, bulletin on ‘‘A system of ac- counts for cotton warehouses”, . .. /cge~s. nc--5 - ee ee Hydrocyanic-acid gas— deadly. nature? noters: sis . os yt ee Ea es fumigation of ornamental greenhouse plants, bulletin by E. R. Sasscer and A.D. Borden .:..\....<:.. see as eee ee eee eee Hygrometry, principles, discussion. ..-.-.... i SuuL ex ot Jae, Sees Idaho— corn yields and prices, ASB2=19V . ... 0. Be SL ee eR eee wheat; yields and prices; 1882-1915... =... Le ba cee eee ele Ilinois— corn yields and prices, 1$86=1915.... 3. Wemen< 5 Je De eee wheat, yields and prices, 1866-1915. 2.2.1... 02.22.02 Le Implements— ash ee ee i i i ea ee ee ena ee a Indian Territory— corn yields and prices, 1901-1906. 22.2... 2. 322 sneer wheat, yields and prices, 1901-1905. .................-..----- Indiana— corn yields and prices, #866-1915. 206 a0. 2) wheat, yields and prices, 1866-1915. ............-.-2+-----6- Insects— fuMication in.ereanhouses, List; ...;. Aes ad << -\1e5 ae. see infestation of greenhouses, introduction and spread............ Mj UTOUs tO ash: timpbenmcontrol .. .itere'.-..<)-0)-e so ee eee ee Inspection certificate, cotton warehouse, description and use......- Instruments, humidity measuring Iowa— corn. yields and prices! 1866-1915. ¢ /2 000 De 20. 2 wheat, yields and prices, 1866-1915. .........-..--.--2---0++: Jrrigated lands, shale, drainage, bulletin by Dalton G. Miller and Ms. Ve A CSSD 2 ae RT Bo A ot ost RR a Irrigation, apple orchards, Oregon, Hood River Valley........--.--- Bulletin No. Page. 518 43 510 34 509 1-27 13-15, 506) “j9-96 506 13-15, 31 521 45 521 39-40 505 1-20 525 1-11 507 1-20 518 78 518 5-11 503 15-16 521 A4 521 38 509 7 509 10-12 510 1-43 520 1-32 513 1 513 1-20 509 5-7 515 15 514 15 515 8 514 8 523 32,50 mus, 11: 19, 20, 21 511) 96 99) 33° 37, 38, 42 525 2,8 503 15 515 16 514 16 515 8 514 8 513 11-20 513 9-10 523 26 520 3-4, 12, 15 509 7 515 9 514 9 502 1-40 518 29-31 INDEX. Buleun 4 No. age. Japanese labor, Hood River Valley, Oregon, notes.............------ 518 11 Jessup, L. T., and Daron G. Minter, bulletin on ‘The drainage _of irrigated Blslesayad) suena 40 2 Ne OMe uate oa ok ae 502 1-40 Kansas— eronicldsiano prices, 18661915... ih. cee ee te cite iniye 515 11 milcar yields and prices, 1860-1015. 2) Nsw ee 514 11 Kentucky— boriweldsand prices’ 1866-1915... evra re ror rol erst rer) 515 11 wheat, yields and prices, 1866-1915................------------ 514 ii Kiln— dry, humidity-regulated and recirculating, and theory of drying, Dmllenn byseatty Ds LIemMaAn nN . .:. shasta oN nne oon Aes 509 1-28 Forest Service, description and operation..........------------- 509 10-13 lumber, humidity-regulated and recirculating, and theory of uy drying, Diehiny byaktomny 1) Tiemammems tetera. Vanni ene 509 1-28 ilns— humiber, types and methods of drying... 86 .2..22 5002222 tle 509 7-8 lumber-drying, types and operation.................-...---- se5 GUY 5-7 Kohl-rabi, composition and food value and use.....-.-..-.---------- 503 12-13 Labor— apple-orchard maintenance, details and cost. ...........------- 518 19-40 applesmbandling and. packing, costs... cs -Sesaet..2s.2s- tes eS 518 40-47 conditions in Hood River Valley, Oreg..............- ee debi 518 10-11 dairying, requirements. cost, etc., discussion.................--. 501 24-26 milk production, requirements and cost, studies...........-.... 501 10-11 rey equipment for school studies of soils and crops........-.-.- 521 35 ands— PET CUR RC CLAM ALON. vis tante a yas ee ea Ue Sk 5 eine 512 38 worn-out and abandoned, relation to soil erosion................- 512 1-2, 38 LanGwortny, C. F.— and A. D. Hotmgs, bulletin on— “‘Digestibility of some vegetable fats”...................- 505 1-20 “Experiments in the determination of the digestibility of ITH ESI sae eee Ns RRR a. 5 ag pe 525 1-11 “Studies on the digestibility of some animal fats” ........ 507 1-20 bulletin on ‘‘Turnips, beets, and other succulent roots, and their USNS OO Gliese se Ne eee ee ALO SFC 2 2 mene Se RN ot 503 1-19 Larch lumber, production, 1899-1914, and estimates, 1915.......... 506, mae Lath, production— 1915, andimulls reporting, by States... 5 Seemann. Pek 506 37-41 in 1915 (and production of shingles in 1915, and lumber in 1914 mesioito) bulletin by. Os Nellis: . 2. Sweet kere fk 506 1-45 Hheekesnatune and food, uses... 2282). 222 28 Poe et ie ee 503 14 Legumes, inoculation, studies for schools. .................-...---- 521 29-31, 32 Lenzites, spp., lumber-rotting fungi, descriptions and damage....... 510 32-33 Light companies, purchase of poles, O15 2": RENMEI ee re Sete oe 519 Lily PUTS OOMRUSe NOLES Mee ssl) | es Cs ee 503 15 Lime— 2 acetate, yields from distillation of certain hardwoods.........- 508 3-7 etlecision soll sschoolstudiesi so... 2. . cee atc scan nealciatns = 521 21 use as neutralizer in dairy products, detection, bulletin by JEU) NGI at a0 ir ope eM OR RR le, Ss a Ceca 524 1-23 Live stock— diseases! list for school studies) ecj4. 402. . eee ee) 20. ook 521 50-51 feed andyiecding: school’studies 24... . . .. eee His Pes HENS 521. 41-42 See also Bull; Calves; Cattle; Cow; Horses; Mules; Sheep. Louisiana— eomlyreldsandsprices. 1866 19152)... - Cea a io sine 515 12 wheat, yields and prices, 1866-1870, 1881-VSS 2A utes. Siiois fae 514 12 10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 501-525, Lumber— ash— demand and:supply.)... <2 255... Saeeie Way 2 ee prices, 1909-1916, by States, and 18961910, certain parts .- decayieppreventiOnets sec. sttd exis <. > -. - peo epee drying, theory and its application to the new humidity-regulated and. recirculating dry kiln, bulletin by Harry D. Tiemann. . infection by strange fungus, Alabama and Mississippi, discus- infection by wood-destroying fungi, processes..........-.-....-- Kalas; Gy pes- 2c Seieeia- Seca - eects 2 ee eee piling; amportance--- 7. -<=-----.-.(s2 Gee ek eee ee eee preservatives, nature, application and value................-- production— TS99R VON. oo enn nnn sina = = + =o on ES Se ee 1899-1914, and estimate, 1915, by kinds of wood......2.... 1915, and mills reporine, by states-sees-e-- ee eee eee by Kinds.66 wood, 1899-1914... 3. 2. 3eeee co ee ee in 1914 and 1915 (and production of lath and shingles in 1915), bulleiim by J.C; Nellis: . Sees ate eee 1914, kinds of wood, and mills reporting, by States......... stackisp methods-..--.....--... 22. 22 neeee See eee eee ee statistics, compilation methods--.-...-2954:32 222 sosteea2 ook stored— decay irom frimetisprowths=... <)ees- eee eee eee eeeee BOARS TOG ae a a oie i er yards— at mills, conditions oes - 3 en ee eee Machine construction, use of ash lumber......................---- Maine— corn Vields/and prices; 1866-1915... Bees =. sin cae wheat, yields and prices, 1866-1915 -- see ee: eee en ee Manure— barnyard, care and use, school studies.............----2---:-- dairy farm, value, Studies. i..../ Miss leeles ite io eelioneaane Maple— lumber production, 1899-1914, and estimate, 1915.............. spp., distillation, yields of alcohol, lime acetate, CLOLUHRa see Marketing apples in Hood River Valley............--0-.22-eeeeees Maryland— corn yieldsand prices, 1866-1915_. -Seo---.. 2-2 oe wheat, yields and prices, 1866-1915.....................-...60- Massachusetts— corn yields and prices, 1866-1915...............22...--.--224-. milk production, COSb. -.2--- ~~... icieretniesnreseie arene su memati wheat, yields and prices, 1866-1885....................---..--- MoCre1Gur, Artuur M., bulletin on ‘‘ Poles purchased, 1915”..... Medeola virginica, food use, BIOL « «= <:0+2-6 apete siw os Se seid ete ete ae Merulius lachrymans, lumber-rotting fungus, description, occurrence AG GAMAP Ooo 7 0) oimioimis mieten jc p'e.< win » 5 GISTs oe whe ato’ s cre Goa ete Michigan— corn yields and prices, 1866-1915. .......-....-....022ceeeedeee dairy farm, management and cost of milk production.........-. wheat yields and prices, 1866-1915... 02... 2 ences esses seeee Bulletin No. Page 523 7-14 523. 39-44 593 «44-45 523 1-52 27-39, 523, 48-59 11-27 510{ fee 509° 1-28 510 35-87 510 4-7 509 7-8 509 9-10 510 38-40 506-3, 7-12 506 ~—s«:13-36 506 «37-41 506 13-84 506 1-45 506: 42-45 510 22-97 506 4-5 510 2-7,9-41 510 30-87 506 —- 36-37 510. «1-27 510 27-30 11-27, 510{ 41-43 523. «35,51 515 4 514 4 521 «19-20 501 15-16 506 13-15, 22 508 : 3-7 ) 7-18 518 40-47 515 6 514 6 BIS 4 501 19-20 514 4 519 1-4 503 15 510 84 515 9 INDEX. 11 Milk— Bee Page. EETCCRIOL WETIVEDMDTOOUCEs «<5 <2. UMAa ma aero cites ote aides « 524 5 HAUL PROCUeLS, SCHOOL StUMIes! 22-5252 uaeee sc ccc ne be ec te sete, 521 45-47 cost of producing, study on four dairy farms, located in Wiscon- sin, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina, bulletin by Morton O. Cooper, C. M. Bennett, and L. M. Church.......-. 501 1-35 Lai onms) Gisestion Experiments. .elltce- cece ce seb ss ss- seer se 507 11-13 production— FAELOTS AMICOS OF POMUGHON .- -seseieis oes oye oe ee 501 4-20 per cow, studies on four dairy farms...............---.-.- 501 17 yield per cow, average on four dairy farms...........-.-..--.. 501 18 MiLtLER— Darron G., and L. T. Jessup, bulletin on ‘‘The drainage of irrigated shale lands”.....- Pe esos tie ty alae, Me 3 502 1-40 G. H., and 8. M. THomson, bulletin on ‘‘The cost of producing HopressinyMoodseivier Valley’? |) Me ieee rere wn emacs 518 1-20 Millet— emumony dices ity experiments: Ya sec - ses. ee ee es 525 2-9 Camimorn LOOM userinelndiar:.. 5 25 +4 \MR Se e hE eee ee aie o's 525 1,8 Millets— digestibility, determination, experiments, bulletin by C. F. Hameywortny, and A.D srlolmes!ersee emesis nea ociaekie = 525 1-11 MReRAA OOM TieUscianamd UNIS . . . «nee ese ie ee cee eta as 525 1-2,8 Mills— -lumber, output of ash, by States, 1904-1915, amount and value. 523 8-11 See also Sawmills. Minnesota— combyieldsiand prees.1867—-1910-"> =o eaeee eee cca eke 515 9 wheat. yields and prices; 1866-1915. 22h se 514 9 Mississippi— _~ ommaytelds aiid prices, ESGG-1OUa.s2- 0 segue as cae nee Sere ce cee eee cer 501 19-20 wheat, yields and prices, 1866-1900... -.22222.0----2-5--<-<5-- 514 4 New Jersey— corn, yields and prices, 1866-1915................-..-.-..---- 515 9) wheat. ydields'and prices, 1866-1915... .. 25 s22eeecs---ens-e--2--) O14 i) 12 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 501—525. : Bulletin New Mexico— No. corn, yields and prices, 1882-1915. ..... 22.5... ccke soon wee mee 515 wheat, yields and prices, 1882-1915... ...- 00.0.0... .22- cece 514 New York— ; corn, yields and prices, 1866-1915 « .. wc 4gj jn eaten wedlereei oe =e 515 wheat, yields and prices, 1866-1915............55.5..02-0-0s0- 514 Newron, Roy L., and Joun R. Humrpurey, bulletin on ‘‘A system Of accountsfor colton. wareholises’”’.-. 2. Jc .geees. ene ooeeee e oe 520 North Carolina— corn, yieldsand prices, 1866-1915... 4.2---e- =. .acse sere 515 dairy farm, management and cost of milk production.-......... 501 Mecklenburg County, survey and tillage records for cotton... .. 511 Robeson County, survey and tillage records for cotton. .....-... 511 wheat, yields and prices, 1866-1915... .......0...-.-.2:ei<-20e0- 514 North Dakota— corn yields and prices, 1882-1915... 2. - Scwdce = s/s a2 we emet “lene 515 wheat, yields and prices; 1881-1915: .)_ 2s teeeee. ee 514 Nut grass, nature and food use, note....... .-Ueee anne aeeeeele. 503 Nutrition; publications; list... 2.52. 2.2... Pe eee eee 507 Oak— lumber, production, 1899-1915, and estimates, 1915.....-.------ 5064 poles, purchased in 19071911) 1915 52. GaSe wee = oer 519 spp., distillation, yields of alcohol, lime acetate, etc.....-.-.--- 508 Gus seed, treating for smut, school studies..................----- 521 o— corm yields and prices; 1866-1915... . .. Soe ¢222eaeteae eek ee 515 Aa wheat, yields and prices, 1866-1915... 2 -2.00c--e25-22--ce seme 514 1 —_— cocoanut, digestibility and food value, experiments.........-.. 505 cottonseed, digestibility and food value, experiments.......-.-- 505 Olive, digestion and food value. -......coeke eee oe eee 505 peanut, digestibility and food value, experiments......-.......- 505 sesame— digestibility and food value, experiments........--.------- 505 sollrce and Natures. 5csee- 2: « = + 25 ee eee 505 Oils, vegetable, digestibility and food value, experiments. ...-..-..- 505 See also Cottonseed oil; Olive oil; Peanut oil; Coconut oil; Sesame oil. Oklahoma— corn, yields'and prices, 1899-1915. < 2°. Aemer icin ney eens eter 515 Johnston County, survey and tillage records for cotton......-.-. 511 wheat, yields and ‘prices, 1894-1915 2030 3.222522 <.,.j5- «aeret oc) 514 Olive oil— digestion experiments.) c.50.. 4... .-- 2 Abe Nets an «0-1 ee 505 food vale? 522 eee. OE a ae a ees 505 Onions, composition and food value and use.......-.-.-.-.------ moby! EN: Orchards— apple, in Hood River Valley, Oreg., conditions, management and vieldsice..sedueeies 515 Hood River Valley, cost of producing apples, bulletin by S. M. ‘Thomson and G. H,.Maller.. fo)! Sass eee eee ee 518 wheat, yields and prices, 1869-1915............2.20-2eeeee scree 514 Organic matter, effects upon soils, school studies............-------- 521 Osage orange, wood, comparison to ash wood and catalpa....--...-- 523 Oyster plant, composition and food value and use........-.-.------ 503 Page. 14 14 INDEX. oles Bulletin No. Page. Packing, apple, details and costs, Oregon, Hood River Valley... . - 518 43-46 Packing-house, apple, practices in Hood River Wallen ae ey a ce 518 4346 Pautmer, R. C. , bulletin on “Yield from the destructive distillation Pecaimhrdwoode eee! ne Meme RN LET TLDs 508 1-8 Panicum miliaceum. See Proso. Parsnips, composition and food value and use..-.-....-..---------- 503 10-11 Pasturing, value in erosion prevention..........-...---.----------- 512 4 Peanut oil, digestibility and food value.....-.-....--.------------- 505 8-10 Peniophora gigantica, lumber-rotting fungus, description, occurrence EVEN MCL AINA Oe cpt me minis Cerna Sie si= <1 OND OR be eae api/sisterg.aiafaislsie sieve 510 37 Pennsylvania— “ cate yaclastand: prices t866—1915: S255" Sears tees oe. 515 dairy farm, management and cost of milk production........... 501 3; ae fe wikeat, yields and prices, 1866-1915. -.6 2am ee ee 514 6 ine— lodgepole, lumber production, 1899-1914, and estimates for 1915. 506 13-15, 32 lumber, fungi attacking, descriptions and damage..........--.- 510 31-37 polessspurchased im 190/91 OI be ee ee eet 519 1-3 sugar, lumber production, 1899-1914, and estimates for 1915.... 506 13-15, 30 white, lumber production, 1899-1914, and estimates, 1915...... 5064 Le yellow, lumber production, 1899-1914, and estimates, 1915.... 506 13-16, 21 Plant ‘‘ boarders, ’’ cause of insect introduction and spread in green- MOUSE See ceees ome Rent et oS SAM en cio ag oe wate re 513 9-10 Planting, cotton, time and methods, studies..............-...--..-- 511 10-11, 62 Plants— MMA On lt STeenhoUses iSt.,..'. . see a we a ea See 513 11-20 Crawimen Seno! SUUdLeSsets. S06 o.. cS oe ce ee ee ston 521 4-7 ornamental greenhouse, fumigation with hydrocyanic-acid gas, bulletin by E. R, Sasscer and A. D. Borden...............-. 513 1-20 Witten mise. SCHOOL SLUGIES. «ease nae aie eee ic SRN 521 14 Plowing— - contour, value im erosion prevention..:-22222..-.-........--.. 512 4 spring or fall, cotton growing, practices, studies.....-.......-.-- 511 6-8, 61 Plows, cotton cultivation, typesiand! use. .-Sesteryasc cece noe e es. dll 8 Poles— preservation, methods of treatment................-.-.---...-. 519 4 _ purchase— mm 1907, LOM and 1915; by kinds of weod!2--). 522.2... 28 519 1-3 in 1915, bulletin by Arthur M. Mc@rereitye se eo oe 519 1-4 Polyporus— jraxinophilus, fungus injurious to ash wood, control............ 523 26 Spp., lumber-rotting fungi, descriptions and damage........... 510 31-382 Polystictus— spp., lumber-rotting fungi, descriptions and damage........... 510 31 versicolor, hardwood fungus, distribution and damage.......... 510 31, 32-33 Poplar, yellow, lumber production, 1899-1914, and estimates, 1915 506 13-15, 23 Potatoes ucOMmpositionays-p es Caan e 66) fon S.). CMMs ee ee 503 3 Romlinyenstudtesfonschoolss 4.228202 2-200 thee cs ke ec cee 521 47-49 See also Chickens; Chicks. Power companies, purchase of poles, 1915....-................-.- 519 2 Preservatives, wood, use in lumber yards......--.-..-.----------- 510 38—40 Prices— applestor tloodeKiver Vialleyz.: 2.0... oop eee a See ee 518 17-18 5 wheat, and yields per acre, by States, 50 years, 1866-1915....... 514 1-16 roso— migesti plain experimMents: 0.20.02... ..- seem ams nano) aie 525 2-9 food use in Russia and India...............22.2..-2.0---0-2eee 025 2,8 Pruning-:sapple treess practices: : 2255.02.) .. deeeence sec ete cee cess 518 19-20 Pe ennomer cr descliphones teres oh.) . . eee ee cee oats 509 a Pyroligneous acid, yield from certain hardwoods.................-- 508 7-8 14 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 501-525, Bulletin - age. Radishes, composition, food value and use......-....-..----------- 503 11-12 Railways— electric, Purchase Ol poles, 1915. |... oo ee ke eee 519 2 steam, japirchase OF poles 1910.2. --<. . ogee eee se ee 2s = ae 519 2 Ramse_er, ©. E., bulletin on ‘“‘ Prevention of the erosion of farm lands Boy PTR on ih i A le ed wn win, = 5:5 yey a iy 512 1-40 Redwood lumber, production, 1899-1914, and estimates, 1915...... 506 13 cpap eae ee = we oie Sycamore lumber, production, 1899-1914, and estimates, 1915...... Tag, cotton warehouses, description and use, and record. ......-..- onyrcid stom certam hard woods.-..--..-----socgess-ecos-22 260+ 4. Telegraph companies, purchase of poles, 1915.....-....-.-.------- Telephone companies, purchase of poles, 1915..............-.- ba Tennessee— coutyielas and: prices? 1866-7901 5.2522.. See: acer 2 Giles County, survey and tillage records for cotton. .........-. wheat, yields and prices, TRGREIGIE, 5 son. 2as tees es eee eee use in prevention of erosion of farm lands, bulletin by C. E. FUAERGEES co 30 aa et ehcie «, < ennin es = < ce Sete «kn Test— agglutination, for Bacteruim pullorum in fowls. ........-..---- intradermal, for Bacteriwm pullorum infection in fowls, bulletin by Archibald R. Ward and Bernard A. Gallagher........-- Texas— corm yields and ‘prices 1866-1905... i. eae eee eee Ellis County, survey and tillage records for cotton......-...... wheat, “yrelds ‘and ‘prices; 1866-1915. 0.52 shee es se eee ‘Thinning, apples, practices. y..c0- 5 [nee at. meee | eee ee eee Tuomas, Levi M., bulletin on ‘‘Characteristics and quality of Mon- fana-prowm wheat’:: 25258522 525222: 2 ey See ce See ee Tuomson, S. M., and G. H. Mier, bulletin on ‘‘The cost of pro- ducing apples'in Hood’ River ‘Valley’? i... eee ee TreMANN, Harry D., bulletin on ‘‘The theory of drying and its appli- cation to the new humidity-regulated and recirculating dry kiln.”’ Tillage— cotton-growine practices, studies... 22205. Gee ee. - seen ee ee deep, value in ‘erosion prevention..: 225578222622.) sae ees ances Timber— ash, stumpare value..<: 22. '. 222 - 2a = miieMmMen Mena eandse 85... ee ANS ei Oe i Waters, drainage and seepage from shale lands, analyses..........-- Weather, effect on greenhouse fumigation...........-...---..----- Weeds— SitTG CLS) TUN (STO 0010) ERE re RIS ae Mn sen Ue aaa trowblesome, onvcottonlands: ....5.5-) 24520220222 eS Aaa Weights, mechanical separations from samples of corn, table for con- version into percentages of the sample analyzed, bulletin by 1S) (Gi, LEYS OS) aS ea ale er NR il ere aa oe Wells— relief, drainage of shale lands, purpose, action, and influence... use and value in drainage of shale lands, depths, etc........--- West Virginia— coumneldsiang prices, LS66—1915... keeles Se eee "wheat, yields and prices, 1866-1915... 0222... 2222-22 2.2- ge - Wheat— baking tests of Montana hard winter variety............-..----- Montana-grown, characteristics and quality, bulletin by Levi ee G INAS e ete, anne Suen” A aipaepe say ees a SM physical character and milling quality, correlation............- yields per acre and prices, by States, 50 years, 1866-1915... .-. Wheats, Montana-grown, comparison with other hard winter wheats. White diarrhea, intradermal test, bulletin by Archibald R. Ward Meer at de At) Galion ers ae S26. 0.) Re ei aes uae Wicuman, H. J., bulletin on ‘‘ Detection of lime used as a neutral- PACER OOAEN PTOCUCES. ess. 2052-2 5. =< 2a ak tee tee Wisconsin— corn yields'and prices, 1866-1915. .... [ess . ose 2e- sce ee dairy farm, management and cost of milk production.........-- when, wields. and prices, 1866-1915. ...-2 sees 2 need: Wood— ash— PHMATACECRISUICS ue te tetera oy. |’. amen ae ee ah o8 miclvalive combyalent 60: COL. <.)..) eeee ool ete 2 preservation, treatment of poles. .........25eBeee 2.22.2 -2 25. Wood-using industries, utilization of ash lumber...............---- Wyoming— cotteyvicids:and prices. 1892-1915... 2... vam Se wheat, yields and prices, 1882~1915..................------004- 173121—20——3 17 Bulletin No. Page. 515 15 514 15 B21. s«18-14 502 6-7, 39 502 8-9 513 8-9 521 «33-84 20, 23, 26, 29, 33,35, 38 40, 41, 5114 42; 44. 46, 48, 51, 58, 55, 56, 59, 61 516 1-21 502 16-20 502 16-20, 40 515 7 514 7 8-11, 22, 522! 24, 26-28" 30, 81, 34 522 1-34 HETHE) 522) “97, 29, 33 514 iG 522 «17-20 517 1-15 524 1-23 515 9 2,47, 501 pe 514 9 523 15-27 523 15 519 4 27-39, 523 48-53 515 13 514 13 Washington, D. C. BULLETIN No. 501 § OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY ‘\ Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief PROFESSIONAL PAPER February 20, 1917 A STUDY IN THE COST OF PRODUCING MILK ON FOUR DAIRY FARMS, LOCATED IN: WIS- CONSIN, MICHIGAN, PENNSYLVANIA, | AND NORTH CAROLINA. By Morton O. Cooper, Scientific Assistant; C. M. BENNETT, Agriculturist, and L. M. Caurcu, Assistant. CONTENTS. Page. Page. The scope ofthestudy................-..---- 1 | Factors involved in the cost of producing Locations and descriptions of farms where milk—Continued. cost records were obtained......._.......- 2 Miscellaneous items. .....-..-.-------:-- 14 Methods of procuring data..................- 4 Overloads. i.e liaciacmse ceetetie aes 14 Factors involved in the cost of producing Credits other than milk....-...-....---- 14 Toa. 3s NS Ae eee aa Se ee Ne Sa eae 4 Quantity of milk produced....:...--.- ae 16 Feed and bedding.............-.--.-.--- 5 Net cost per unit of product......-- ae a 6 17 ILRI 538 SescceSeSe Re co OaE EE see mene aane 10 | Data from other sources......--..---.------- 19 Use of buildings.................2.......- 12 SDiscussioniofmesulise.-s---e essere eee een eee 21 Use of equipment...................-..- 12 | Relation of individual cow to cost of produc- Use of bull............. Baad deren Gage eee 13 WOO Sire So SOR ATCO OAc SESE ANSE cee 29 MINE ORESberes cece wicia legis osine/cis ste clas soso ce 13) | SSUMIMARYyereeccccece eae senate noe cee 33 Depreciation... ......+..00+-+6-- Boao 13 1\) Materatunercited ee ss44-s9en4- se sees 34 THE SCOPE OF THE STUDY. Concerning an enterprise so extensive as dairying, it is important that something be known of the cost of production of the principal dairy products and the economic factors affecting each. It has been found that by making a detailed study of the business on an indi- vidual farm it is possible to draw conclusions which, in a general way, hold true for other farms of the same type operating under similar conditions. By means of carefully kept cost-accounting records the Office of Farm Management has procured data on the cost of producing milk on four dairy farms of the better sort, located in separate and distinctive dairy regions, namely, those of Wisconsin, Michigan, Penn- sylvania, and North Carolina. These records cover periods of from four to seven years. It is the purpose of this bulletin to outline the prob- lem of obtaining the complete cost of producing milk on these farms and to show the relationship among the various items making up the total cost, as indicated by the data procured. 68922°—Bull, 501—17—1 Pe BULLETIN 501, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION OF FARMS FROM WHICH COST RECORDS WERE OBTAINED.'! The four farms from which data were obtained for this publication are located, respectively, in Dane County, Wis.; Macomb County, Mich.; Chester County, Pa.; and Edgecombe County, N. C. These farms will hereafter be mentioned as the ‘“ Wisconsin farm,’’ the “Michigan farm,” the “Pennsylvania farm,’ and the “North Carolina farm.’’ THE WISCONSIN FARM. The Wisconsin farm is representative of milk production on farms where there is an abundance of pasture. This farm, consisting of 550 acres, has about 100 acres of nearly level land under cultivation, and the remainder, which is rolling and sidehill, is in pasture and woods. Most of the rolling land is too rough for cultivation, but has a naturally fertile soil which furnishes an abundant growth of - grass throughout the summer months. This farm is best suited to a type of live-stock farming that provides for the profitable use of pasture. Small grain, corn, mixed hay, and alfalfa are grown in the cultivated area. Most of the corn is made into silage. These crops are all fed to live stock, and in addition some concentrates are pur- chased. The dairy herd normally consists of about 50 high-grade and pure- bred Jersey cows, two registered bulls, and about 40 calves and young stock. The practice is to have the cows freshen during the early fall, so that the heavy production comes during the fall and winter months, when prices of butter fat are highest. Also, the increased labor required in the production of crops comes at a time when less labor is needed in the care of the dairy herd, thus providing a more uniform distribution of labor throughout the year. For four years, 1909-1912, the milk was hauled to a local creamery and sold on the butter-fat basis. The skim milk was returned to the farm and fed to the calves and pigs. The skim milk not needed for the calves has made it pos- sible to raise 50 to 75 pigs per year. Some young stock is sold, be- cause more is normally raised than is needed to keep up the herd. THE MICHIGAN FARM. The Michigan farm is an example of milk production on farms where no natural pasture land is available. This farm, contaming about 195 acres, lies well and is practically all tillable land. During the summer 15 to 20 acres are used by the cows for exercise and pasture, and the remainder of the farm is devoted to the production of crops which are consumed on the farm. The whole business of the farm centers around the dairy enterprise, and practically all of the receipts 1Acknowledgment is due Mr. C. I. Brigham, of Wisconsin; Mr. Geo. A. True, of Michigan; Mr. C. G. Huey and his father, Mr. A. B. Huey, of Pennsylvania; and Mr. H. L. Brake, of North Carolina, for their hearty cooperation in furnishing the detailed reports that made this publication possible. 7 A STUDY IN THE COST OF PRODUCING MILK. 3 are from dairy sales. The herd consists of about 50 grade and pure- bred Jersey cows, one or two bulls, and enough heifers to replace cows discarded and maintain the herd at the desired number. The use of a pure-bred sire and the careful selection of heifers has enabled the owner to increase the value of the herd during the record period. The cows are stall-fed the entire year, and silage has an important place in the ration. The dairy products are sold as milk, cream, and ice cream, and good prices are obtained. THE PENNSYLVANIA FARM. The Pennsylvania farm is within the market-milk zone of Philadel- phia and is an example of the production of market milk on many diversified farms where dairying is the principal source of income. There is enough rough and rolling pasture land not suitable for culti- vation to carry from 40 to 50 head of cattle. The farm contains about 200 acres of fertile and rolling land not unlike many other farms in the southeastern part of the State and the adjacent parts of Maryland. Corn, wheat, and hay are grown in a 6-year rotation. It has been found more profitable to sell wheat and a part of the hay and to buy some concentrates than to grow all the concentrates required for feed. Enough corn is put into silos to make about 200 tons of silage each year; thus the second-year corn land is cleared in time for the sowing of the first-year wheat. The herd contains about 35 grade cows, some Holstein and others Guernsey; a pure-bred Guernsey bull, and several head of young stock. The milk is shipped in 40-quart cans from a near-by station to a dealer in Philadelphia. THE NORTH CAROLINA FARM. The North Carolina farm is in the Coastal Plain region, where dairy- ing is a comparatively new enterprise and the prices received: for milk are relatively high. Feed prices, other than for cottonseed products, are also high, for most of the crop land in this region is devoted to cotton and bright-leaf tobacco, and grain and forage are not produced in quantities sufficient to supply local demand. This farm comprises about 120 acres of sandy soil, about half of which is swampy and partially covered with soft pine. The swampy woodland furnishes some pasture. About one-quarter of the crop land is devoted to cotton and tobacco, and the rest to corn, winter oats, cow-’ peas, and clover, most of which is fed to cows and work stock. Two feed crops can be grown each year. On most of the land more feed can be grown per acre than on any of the three northern farms, because of the longer growing season. ‘The herd is newly established and has increased in value during the record period by the introduction of pure-bred Holstein heifers. It consists of about 20 cows. The milk until 1913 was sold by the gallon to a city dealer. During 1914 the milk was retailed. 4 BULLETIN 501, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. METHODS OF PROCURING DATA. The data contained in this publication were procured by a system of careful cost accounting in which the owner cooperated with the Office of Farm Management. In this system each farmer sent in daily reports showing the hours of work performed by men and horses, the use made of materials, the quantities of feed consumed by the live stock, and the financial transactions, supplemented by explana- tory notes. In addition to these reports, individual cow records were kept of milk, feed, and inventory values. FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE COST OF PRODUCING MILK. In determining the cost of producing milk it is highly important to know all the factors that must be considered and their relative importance. Indeed, one of the most important results of any cost- accounting investigation is the determination of the different items of expense and their relation to the whole. This relation is of funda- mental importance in efficiency studies. For convenience in studying the results on these four farms, the items of cost are grouped under the headings ‘‘Feed and bedding,” “Labor,” ‘‘Use of building,” ‘‘Use of equipment,” ‘‘Use of bull,” “Tnterest,”’ ‘‘Depreciation,” ‘‘Miscellaneous items,” and ‘‘Overhead.”’ These items are summarized in Table I, and the relative importance of each is shown. The ratio between each item and the total cost of keeping a cow per year is quite uniform in different herds where methods of management are similar. Tas LE I.—Relative importance of factors which make up the cost of producing milk. Actual cost per cow per year. Item. A - «He Pennsyl- North Wisconsin | Michigan | “Vania | Carolina g 2 farm. farm. Feed and bedding ?.).) 0 hy OS ae $49. 23 $71.77 $53. 7 $68. 06 abor: Cows and dairy ...6 ote fe aes oo She Se 29. 34 2 32. 09 21. 04 22. 63 Marketing milk -o07 35 soo See Sooo oe okies aes 2 90 e605 eck oot 3. 72 6. 41 Use or buildings! Sse eee eS Le 6. 74 3. 98 6. 62 6. 38 Useiofequipment 32-5 2n sie ees tee eee eee 1, 28 2. 61 1.45. 3. 22 Use olibull 22 ora eee ee ee 1. 92 2. 87 1.47 3.52 STUCCLESE ise ee en ee ee eee. th es 2.70 3. 22 2. 07 5.72 Wepreciation Vs 55- ote ase oe ae ee ob eee RE eee serene 238, 5. 13 3. 52 Miscellancousitenis= 2902. eee oa bee eee 2. 67 1.95 |- 2. 94 - 66 Overheads 2222 SS Eee rae ts). | ka ee 4, 84 5.97 4.91 | 7. 64 Totals 29. See a eet: ee eee 101. 62 125. 45 103. 12 127. 76 RELATION OF EACH ITEM TO TOTAL COST EXPRESSEDIN PERCENTAGE. Fead and bedding: <- 35-22-22. eee a0 oasis da eee 48. 5 57. 2 52.1 53. 2 Labor: Cowssand dairy. (2. i cee sees owen eee 28.9 2 25.6 20. 4 17.8 Marketing millcy-/2.. 32152) 20a: A) oe ee 2.8) ees ses seee 3.6 5.0 Wise Of ildin ras aos EI eke aie = nin ge ee 6.6 3. 2 6.4 5.0 Maciof equipments. - 5. steel Uss ee... ee ts ae 1.3 2.1 1.4 2.5 Wag Of Dill S300 5 sect. chee ee ae Soke. 2 1.9 2.3 1.4 2.8 Teresh sao ss eee. te noanac bes se ot ss 3b oe eae 2.7 2.6 2.0 4.5 Dre Chee Na ss etd rete ne E o mia win nso os cin ee | otto eteimisal tere -8 5.0 2.8 MiscellanGous 10GIS) 0.822. Se ee oe ct eis eee 2.6 1.5 2.9 -p Dike dite be he ae ee eS 6 es 4.7 4.7 4.8 5.9 OEMs a cise ee eno Smee ae so son cole 7)g)0www Oypzzttttttttztttt£z::: Gi Misce//aneous ER Labor Feed Ea Credits other than milk Fic. 3.—Relation between the credits other than milk and the total cost of keeping a cow on each of the four farms. VALUE OF MANURE. Manure is the most important credit. This was valued at $15 per head per year for the Michigan farm and $10 per head on each of the others. The value of manure produced by the herd bulls was credited to the cows, which accounts for the increase in the figures given in Table IX. The higher rate per cow on the Michigan farm is attributable to the fact that the cows are fed in the barn all the year, and thus more manure is recovered than on the other farms. 16 BULLETIN 501, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. These values are figured on the basis of a ton of manure. being worth $1 at the barn and on a production of approximately 14 tons per cow per month during the period they are kept in the stable. From the data on three of these farms, showing the quantity of manure actually hauled to the fields, it is evident that the credit given for manure is liberal. It is easy to overestimate the actual credit value of manure per cow, and before deciding on a definite valuation for any herd it may be well to consider the care taken of the manure and the quantity that is actually returned to the land where crops can use it. VALUE OF CALF. The value of calves at birth depends upon their breeding and sex. Heifer calves from high-producing grade cows are usually valued higher than males. In regions where the main product of the dairy is market milk the common practice is to raise but few of the heifer calves. All the bull calves and most of the heifer calves are dis- posed of shortly after birth. On the Pennsylvania farm the number of heifers selected for raising was relatively small as compared with the numbers sold or killed at birth, so that the credits for calf values in this herd is low, amounting to but $1.16 per cow. Calf credits on the other three farms are $4.16, $4.52, and $4.74 per cow. MINOR CREDITS. Certain minor credits are shown on these farms as receipts for sale of hides, fees for bull services, fair premiums, and rebates for feed sacks. APPRECIATION CREDIT. In some herds for certain years, or for a period of years, there may be a credit for appreciation. This may be the result of careful management in building up a higher producing herd by using a pure- bred sire and the introduction of pure-bred cows. This method of management accounts for the appreciation of $6.37 per cow on the | Wisconsin farm. Adding this appreciation credit to the $15.38, as given in Table IX, the percentage of costs other than feed offset by credits on this farm is increased from 29.3 to 41.2 per cent. On the North Carolina farm there is an appreciation for one year, which is more than offset by the depreciation of other years, and the result is an average net depreciation of $3.52 per cow, as shown in Table I. The question of depreciation is discussed farther on (see p. 26.) QUANTITY OF MILK PRODUCED. Table X gives the average quantity of milk produced per cow on the four farms for each year production records are available. On- three of these farms the yearly average is little over 5,000 pounds ; A STUDY IN THE COST OF PRODUCING MILK. 17 per cow, while the Michigan farm shows a production above 6,000 | pounds. In 1909 several heifers were added to the Michigan herd, | and their yield, while not low for heifers, pulled down the average. Heifers also account in part for the lower yields on the Wisconsin farm for 1910, 1911, and 1912. Frequent individual butter-fat tests were made on all except the North Carolina farm. Of these, the two Jersey herds, Wisconsin and Michigan, have an average production of _ 256 and 281 pounds of butter fat, respectively, which gives an average test of 4.89 and 4.47 per cent, respectively. According to the Thirteenth United States Census (1910) the aver- age milk production per cow in the 10 leading dairy States is less than 4,200 pounds, and the State showing the highest production has an average of but 4,470 pounds. From this comparison it may be seen that the herds on each of these four farms are representative of good dairy herds. TABLE X.—Quantity of milk and butter fat produced per cow per year on each of the four | farms. , ea North Wisconsin farm. Michigan farm. Pennsylvania farm. | Carolina farm. Year. Milk. Butterfat. Milk. Butterfat. Milk. Butterfat. Milk. = ——————— SEER EEE | | Pounds.| Per ct. |Pounds.|Pounds. A ct. |Pounds.|Pounds.| Per ct. |Pounds.| Pounds. 5,550 4.93 274} 5,590| 4.44 Dares on Sree See ee 3, 988 5, 245 4.90 257 | 6,721 4.48 301 | 5,805 4.0 232 4,542 4,990 | 4.91 245 | 6,722 | 4.45 299 | 5,483 4.2 230 4, 983 5, 130 4.82 247 | 6,102 4.53 276 | 5,273 4.1 216 5, 056 Sd aes emia ge OMA UG 22i| Wa 4, 832 4.1 198 5,240 Ae es oR ae ee co ee See ieee eed eee ee 6, 381 Averagel....| 5,240] 4.89 256 | 6,284 | 4.48 281 | 5,348 4.1 207 5, 032 ee Ee EE ea Be Pe peeees Sena Average?....| 5,240 4.89 256 6, 536 | 4.48 293 5, 053 4.1 207 5, 142 1 Average of all years for which reports are given. 2 Average years for which complete and comparable costs are available. These are the average produc- tion figures used in determining cost per unitin Table XI. The years included iu this average are: Wis- Bear een sigs -1912; Michigan farm, 1910-1912; Pennsylvania farm, 1912 and 1913; North Carolina arm, 1911-1913. NET COST PER UNIT OF PRODUCT. Table XI shows the net yearly cost that is chargeable to the pro- duction of milk and the cost per unit of 100 pounds of milk, per 40-quart can, and per quart. The cost per pound of butter fat, not deducting credits for skim milk and buttermilk, is also shown. The cost per 100 pounds of milk varies from $1.52 to $2.16, and the cost of other units of measure vary in like proportions. The pounds of | milk are changed to quarts by dividing by 2.15. The gross feed cost on the Wisconsin farm is 1.59 cents, as compared with 2.43 cents per quart of milk on the North Carolina farm. The relative proportion of each item of cost in the production of 1 100 pounds of milk, which is equally applicable to any other unit | used in measuring the product of the dairy, is illustrated by fig. 4. 68922°—Bull. 501—17——3 18 BULLETIN 501, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. These charts are constructed on the basis of cost per cow after de- ducting, pro rata, the credit for value of manure, calf, etc. FEED 485% ili |LABOR 25.67) N J MICHIGAN FARM FARM oS <—) y PENNSYVANIA NORTH CAROLINA FARM FARM Fic. 4.—Relative importance of each item in the cost of producing 100 pounds of milk on each of the four farms. The four dairy herds in question are well managed, and it is safe to say the production per cow for each is above the average of the dairy herds of its community. TasLe XI.— Yearly cost per cow, production per cow, and cost per wnit of production on each of the four farms. Average per cow. Cost per unit of product. =e ee Butter Barn Credit Yield. Milk. fat. Total other Net cost. than cost. 40- oe - | Butter] 100 > milk. Milk. fat. pounds. aur Quart. | Pound. Pounds.| Pounds. Cents. | Cents. Wisconsin); 2253 sects. 4 22 $101.61 | $21.75 | $79. 86 5, 240 256 $1. 52 $1. 31 3.28 31.2 MICH SAN io eee ete cae 125: 45 20.33 | 105.12 | 6,536 293 1.61 1.38 3.46 35.9 Penrsy Wangs 25. - cc :cyae~ 22's 103.12 12.27 90.85 | 5,053 207 1. 80 Wa55 3.87 49.8 North Carolina... 2... .2. 127. 76 16.81 | 110.95 } 5,142 |........ 2.16 1.86 BGAN rants ciel 1 The data compiled in this table are for the same years as those averaged in Table I. A STUDY IN THE COST OF PRODUCING MILK. 19 It is not within the scope of this bulletin to discuss the profits and losses in the production of milk on these four farms. However, it may add interest to give the average receipts per cow from the sale of milk during the period covered by records, as shown in Table XII. Comparing the figures of Tables XI and XII, it will be seen that, on the average for the entire period, each of these farms made a profit from their dairies. TaBLE XII.—Average receipts per cow from sale of dairy products on each of the four farms. y 5 ere Pennsyl- North Year. Misonsip Miiehean vania Carolina - Q farm. farm. TVD) sis oo Sh Tei AR OF SES SS ek ee en el $88. 47 GOT G8x ease se Sal eee Are ISTO. soe Saga oS ee eee ea era ee ee 82.72 1S S704 Remarc aaa) Geese soba TISUUTL os 55 Sali CARR BRE eS OSL aro Pe ca ge ae 79.08 TOTES 51 Cerone teen ees TOD. oo ane SB Resp Gore cone Or aCe Oa Oe aoe ae me 80. 92 120. 92 $96. 77 $136. 00 BEG cy es oT foe PES Mops we OL IL hk CR ee eet eal ae SESE R 113. 45 130. 76 IMSTGTOREOG SSS AS 5) Se ees Se ee ea ee eee 81. 40 110. 96 105. 11 133. 38 DATA FROM OTHER SOURCES, In connection with this same problem, other investigators have published certain results. The publications from the New Hamp- shire, Massachusetts, and Connecticut’ (Storrs) agricultural experi- ment stations give the cost per cow in sufficient detail, so that the items may be studied under the groups shown in Table I. The relation of each item of cost to the total cost of keeping a cow as reported by the three New England experiment stations is given in Table XIII. Taste XIII.—Relative importance of factors which make up the cost of producing milk as reported by three New England agricultural experiment stations. ? Cost per cow per year. Item. Connecticut.’ |Massachusetts.2) New Hamp- shire.3 Actual| Per | Actual| Per | Actual} Per cost. | cent. cost. cent. cost. | cent. DGGE oo ob dd Seb eC BORA CROC Oe CR ee ee Ser ae eee $85. 02 56.7 | $89.24 54.9 | $73.03 49.4 Labor: Wowsndtdairyetees ssf tipo seatee sce clece ses 33. 60 22.4 | 35.00 21.6 | 32.33 21.8 AVI KO UUL oe hee crave ree cere ae Sis atm (ol epeisi a scares Lin ato) aia A ee epepelell be siatela| civalllats aicials beodcnoedee seer eco seeUeeRsSBeOosebnas ceca ec occocesHdalleestenoeccn 96 77 IBIGAT Done GOI! (ABUICOM ee dogeeassceenosseebadese ssodasrecacecocasepcerer 434 849 710 INinmeacnel (NOM Ween eee oe heen ae neem mES bn D2.) an eos Baer 4,004 577 1, 687 (Chaviormnin® (CU) pees SUA SRG Nera S a Ae ae eee ee che iar Lira 480 1,038 2, 783 (Criteiom, (CASE ababic toca de asbres Cae Bee Spe ee ee ABE RmN ards Ack. Saece aeeia 1,110 567 535 iiepmesiniia (MIO): ob Soeee coe ed beeoeene oceeceeceeeeercuseccccco- sabes sere 523 2,481 - 2,556 Sorensen) (INE) ne oos basco reoeeratesae ot Ha TBD Orbe erpa deacon eodcsousodenpecac 1,725 6,376 15, 318 INGEN 9 Sen Oeee EHS OtEe CaO Obs SE AMS ner Be resem erage en ria 12, 512 33, 784 61, 278 Hypothetical combinations. Socuumcaroonate (NasCOs)ease-c ae see cee see ae seis sie ete eiaeieeralel= im lle inialeleyarar 170 136 Magnesium chloride (MgCl).........-.--.--.-.--.----=------2-+---------- LER iat Gace Sime ce San Marnesiumisulphater(MeS O41) 222 2... 2k eee ee eee ioe 2, 402 12, 282 12, 653 Sodimmemitnaver@NaNi@s)e: Seer ies ter le Se OLE a eee oe ei ta ale 5, 489 791 2,313 SOG DI ONIde\@NACI)Eeatoes sca. eceiee fae o tice Seema ae ee eaeiieeer sas = NEE D. SNS SS a) Sr SS SSS Hepes SS SSASSSESS 1 SS Se ek Ss eee 7T/LE DRA/ Boundary of Affected Area._..+ Hau! Herght above Datum..-....--..—90— SCALE OF FEET 100 ~—SCt«O 500 Fic. 10.—Twenty-acre tract near Grand Junction, Colo., showing plan of drainage. edge of the ridge. The system was installed in the spring of 1914. The tile were put at an average depth of 6 feet and connected with relief wells 2 inches in diameter that were bored into the shale to depths of from 6 to 12 feet below the bottom of the trench, where the water-bearing strata were encountered. One of these wells, of which there are 35, was installed every 17 feet, and practically the entire flow of water discharging at the outlet of the tile system comes from them. DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATED SHALE LAND. For the first year the discharge from this drainage system averaged 43 gallons per minute, or about 0.095 of a cubic foot per second, practically the entire quantity of which was collected by the 35 relief wells in about 1,000 feet of tile. The hydrograph shown in figure 11 was plotted from measurements at the outlet of the system made at irregular intervals during the first 14 months after the drains were in- stalled. It indicates the discharge in gallons per minute and shows a marked seasonal fluctuation. As determined from this hydrograph, the flow from the relief wells has averaged 1.2 gallons per minute per well. The quality of the drain- age water is indicated by analyses F and G in Table I. Considering the size of the af- fected area, the quantity of water developed is unusually large for this type of land, and would indi- cate the source of supply to be either leakage from the canal one- half mile north or the seepage of water supplied on not less than 20 or 30 acres of the higher-lying lands in the neighborhood. In either case, before reaching the drains the water must pass through shale for several hundred | feet. While the upper 34 feet of soil on this tract has been dried out thor- oughly, the efficiency of the drain- age system would have been in- creased by installing the main drain up the backbone of the shale ridge 8 feet deep instead of 6; more- over, another lateral drain with relief wells is needed, beginning 400 feet north of the outlet of the system, where the main tile line 5 10 1520 25 June 5 10 15 20 May 5 10 15 20 Apr. Mar. PEELE REREREDZ § 10152025 5 10 152025 Feb. Jan. 5 10 15 2025 5 10 1520 25 Dec. Nov. Pees tan PEEEEEEEE PPPS PEEP EECEEL ECL EEEEEELEEEED HA 5 10 1520 25 cg canitii Oct 5 10 152025 Sept ALONG 1000 FEET OF TILE DRAINS IN SHALE 5 10 15 20 25 DISCHARGE OF 35 RELIEF WELLS. 5 10 15 20 25 Aug Fig. 11.—Hydrograph of discharge from drainage system shown in figure 10. 5 10 152025 July 5 10 1520 25 June 5 10 1520 25 May Apr is} Ss D> S S 8 SSS ANuUlp Jad SUOIDO Ui agiDYOsiG \* 10 15 20 25 Se) =J 38 BULLETIN 502, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. makes its first turn, and running a little east of due north for about 200 feet. EXAMPLE VIII. i] The tract shown in figure 12 exemplifies the method of drainage as applied where a broad, flat shale ridge contributed the seepage water. Lateral A was installed two seasons prior to drilling the relief wells, and no benefits whatever resulted from the drain. Both sides of the trench were very wet almost to the surface of the ground wherever the trench was opened for the purpose of connecting the relief wells with the tile lines. After the wells were installed a marked improve- ment became apparent almost immediately and the tract was put SCALE OF FEET 100 O Sang relief Wells,and Depth......-.-. 230 Strongest Flowing Wells...-..----- e Helght above Darum...-.-- ——15—— VIVE OP EUTS Lash a eX —_——S— W.D.N. Fic. 12.—Forty-acre tract near Montrose, Colo., showing plan of drainage. under cultivation the following season with satisfactory results. The depths of the most effective relief wells are indicated on the map. Attention is called to the distances between wells, from 150 to 200 feet, which are unusually great. Generally speaking, this project was one of water-logging rather than of alkali. The analysis of the water discharged at the outlet of the tile system after completion is represented by A in Table I. RESULTS OF DRAINAGE. Drainage of any type of agricultural land is successful only to the extent that the land increases in productivity after the completion of the drainage system. As illustrative that adequate drainage of shale lands will fulfill this requirement, attention is called to Plates DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATED SHALE LAND. 39 VIII and IX. All the lands represented had become water-logged, alkalied, and unproductive. They have been reclaimed by drainage to the extent that the crop yields are normal again. Before drainage the orchard shown in the background of Plate VIII, figure 1, was dying, while the land now in alfalfa was barren. Since the comple- tion of the drainage system no trouble has been experienced on this tract. All the improvements shown by Plate IX, figure 2, were made after the drainage system was installed and the benefits to the land evident to the owner. CONCLUSION. Outcroppings of shale and lands immediately underlain by shale, as treated in this bulletin, are found in northern New Mexico, in southeastern Arizona, in large areas of Colorado, in the eastern portion of Utah, in the extreme eastern part of Idaho, in Wyoming, Montana-and in the western parts of Nebraska and the Dakotas. Shale is an important factor in the movement of underground water, especially in those areas where uplifts and displacements have occurred. , Three different ways by which shale becomes a factor in the move- ment of seepage water have been considered: (1) Over the top of the undisturbed and impervious strata; (2) between the layers; and (3) through joints, faults and cleavage planes. The minor features of the surface of the underlying shale are fre- quently quite irregular and are masked by the overlying soil. They can be determined only by soil borings. The source of the seepage water is deep percolation, resulting from irrigation and from seepage losses from canals and laterals. Artesian conditions exist usually where the seepage water moves through the shale, although the pressure may be low owing to a large number of areas of leakage in the confining medium. There is a relation between the seepage areas and the topography of the underlying shale. The affected areas usually occur near shale ridges and points. This is due to the fact that there is greater porosity in the shale ridges than in the deeper zones, the former hav- ing sustained the effects of weathering and therefore being more shattered and fractured and the joints more open and greater in number. Furthermore, the soil covering is shallowest over the ridges. The deeper zones carry most of the water, owing to continuity and greater area of cross section, and the general movement of the water is parallel with the main jointing systems of the shale. Practically all the shales run high in alkali salts, and the seepage waters leach out large quantities. Consequently many of the waters discharged from drainage systems in shale carry a salt content as “high as 2 and 3 per cent, in which are many nitrates, Because of 40 BULLETIN 402, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. this condition of the seepage water the soils of shale lands that have become water-logged develop a severe alkali problem rapidly. The drainage of shale lands can not be accomplished by ordinary methods of drainage, due to the movement of the water through the shale under pressure and also to the extreme retentiveness of the overlying adobe soil. The three essential factors for successful drainage of shale lands are: (1) Proper location of drains, (2) sufficient depth, (3) relief wells. Drains must be located so as to tap the contributing shale features, such as ridges, points, knolls, etc. To so locate drains necessitates careful and complete preliminary examinations. The amount of shale reached and the amount of water developed are augmented by increasing the depth of the drains. These depths never should be less than 6 feet, and generally depths of 7 and 8 feet and greater are essential to success. A system of drainage in many of the shales will be incomplete and unsuccessful without relief wells. The area of influence of relief wells is small; this necessitates that they be closely spaced—in many cases 5 or 6 to 100 feet of trench. The most efficient depth for the wells has been found to range — from 6 to 20 feet below the bottom of the tile drain. The major portion of the water developed by most of the drainage systems in shale comes from the relief wells. A diameter of 2 inches has been found to be sufficient for the relief wells, and in most of the shales they have been installed with the soil auger. Frequently, however, hard strata require the use of a churn drill. For trenches in shale ranging from 6 to 7 feet in depth, and with labor at $0.25 per hour, unit costs for excavating, laying tile, and back-filling, together with the cost of installing the relief wells, have ranged from $0.12 to $0.25 per linear foot of trench. This does not include the cost of any material for the drains. The acreage costs of drainage of the lands referred to in this bulletin have ranged from $13 to $100 per acre for the area actually affected. Once seepage trouble has developed in shale lands, the affected area increases rapidly. The quantity of the alkali salts at or near the surface of the ground also increases rapidly in water-logged lands of this type. As a result of these conditions, the drainage problem and the one of removing the excessive salts are simplest, the construction most economical, and the results most satisfactory if the drains are installed at the first indication of trouble. O Contribution from the States Relations Service A. C. TRUE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 6, 1917 TURNIPS, BEETS, AND OTHER SUCCULENT ROOTS, AND THEIR USE AS FOOD. By C. F. LAnewortuy, Chief, Office of Home Economics, States Relations Service. CONTENTS. : Page. | Page. RAT ENOG MERION serene a Se 1 Roots used as condiments_________ 15 Food value of succulent roots_____= SSAA Fels TOT B89 72 fea ely RE lee SE SMe 17° Root vegetables less commonly known- 14 > y INTRODUCTION. The succulent roots, so called because water (juice) makes up so large a part of their edible substance, include such common and long-known vegetables as turnips, parsnips, radishes, carrots, salsify, beets, celeriac, onions, and garlic. In the same general group belong also a few roots which are used as condiments or spices rather than for their food value, the most common being ginger and horse-radish. The succulent roots which are grown as garden vegetables have undoubtedly all been developed from wild forms, though, as is the case with many other plants which have been under cultivation for centuries, the wild forms of most of them are not definitely known. It can be said with certainty, however, that as they have come under cultivation the roots have increased in size, the texture has become less tough, and the flavors have been modified. Those here grouped to- gether include such diverse forms as bulbs, roots, stalks, root-stocks, and tubers. It is evident, therefore, that from the botanist’s stand- point this use of the term “roots” is not accurate; it has come into use in discussing the matter from a household standpoint doubtless Note.—This bulletin is of special interest to housekeepers and to home economics exteasion workers, teachers, and students. It summarizes data regarding the nature, uses, and food value of succulent roots. 70537 °—Bull. 508—17— 2 BULLETIN 503, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for the lack of a more exact yet simple word, and is here used be- cause of its convenience as a general descriptive term. As a whole, “succulent roots” and “starchy roots,”! the two great groups into which edible roots are commonly divided, together constitute one of the most important sources of food. The succulent vegetables owe their popularity in considerable measure to their good keeping qualities. After harvesting in the late autumn, they will keep in a cellar, or other cool storage place, for a long time in reasonably good condition, though as the season advances they may become somewhat tough and strong in flavor. It is a common custom in the Northern States to store such vegetables in sand rather than in bins or boxes, and some sorts, such as parsnips and oyster plant, are frequently left in the ground and dug in early spring. In the parts of the United States where the weather is mild and yet too cool'to permit growth, this is an especially common method of keeping winter vegetables, for it is possible to dig them at almost any time during the winter. | Now that cold storage and improved methods of transportation / have made it easily possible to secure a greater variety of vegetables at all times of the year than was formerly the case, the stored root vegetables are relatively less important. This does not mean that their use is likely to disappear, but rather that the northern markets are being supplied also with more delicate varieties; for instance, small tender beets, which many would prefer to the larger and tougher ones commonly stored for winter use. In southern markets one can obtain such vegetables fresh a good part of the year. The usefulness of root vegetables is not limited to their under- ground portions, since in many cases the leaves and stems, when young and tender, are good as potherbs. Most commonly used are beet tops and turnip tops, but radish and horse-radish leaves also make good “ greens,” especially for mixing with greens of milder flavor, and occasionally carrot tops are also used for this purpose. The careful housekeeper who buys beets and turnips by the bunch will save and use the tops for greens. If she has a garden she will use the young plants when they are thinned out, and may also often get, a dish of greens by picking tender leaves here and there from her garden bed of beets or turnips. The young green tops of onions are much used for seasoning and are also tender and palatable when cooked as a vegetable. Celeriac tops, too, are useful as a seasoning. Most of the common succulent vegetables—turnips, beets, parsnips, carrots, etc.—are biennial plants, and if by any chance the roots re- 1The nutritive value and uses of starchy roots have been discussed in U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 468 (1916). Recipes for preparing such vegetables for the table will be found in U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 256 (1906). SUCCULENT ROOTS AND THEIR USE AS FOOD. 3 main in the ground and are not killed, they will start to grow and send up their flower stalks and bear seed. This is, of course, the purpose for which nature designed the reserve material stored up in the roots which we use as food. This second-year growth may be turned to advantage for the table; a surplus of turnips, too wilted for table use, may be planted out in spring and, while the leaves are still tender, will furnish a crop of good greens, or may be added to salads if one prefers. FOOD VALUE OF SUCCULENT ROOTS. Many factors may be considered in deciding on the food value of any material, but one which must be taken into account is its ehemical composition. When that has been learned, there is a definite basis-for discussing its value in supplying the protein essen- tial as a source of nitrogen for use in tissue building and which also supplies energy, the energy-yielding starches, sugars, and fats, the tissue-building and body-regulating mineral matters, and so on. The following table presents these facts regarding the more impor- tant succulent roots: Average composition of succulent roots, tubers, and bulbs. Edible portion. Carbohydrates. Kind of vegetable. Refuse. 5 Hel o TO- value Water.| tein, | Fat. Sugar, eas Ash. per, stare ound. eons fiber. ly Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Calo- : cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. Ties. MBGStS MITOSD oe ccisecskawssesccces = ses 7.0 87.5 1.6 0.1 8.8 0.9 1.1 210 IBBELSNCOOKE Ge es nee e sense sauce cise|todoss ee 88.6 2.3 ail 7.4 1.6 180 SCOTIA ee eee es 3 20.0 84.1 1.5 4 11.8 1.4 .8 285 Carrotsmiresnes. Lek Ob ee 2 eee ye 2 20.0 88. 2 L1 4 8.2 taal 1.0 205 Carropsn desiccated! saae hos eee. uleee gens 3.5 Ted 3.6 80.3 4.9 1,745 AR AT STU S a eee Mee eee eames a aiais 20.0 83. 0 1.6 .5 11.0 25 1.4 295 Balsifiy; oyster plant? 2-22.32 5.8 25.0 85. 4 4.3 -3 6.8 2.0 1.2 250 Ba cKs Sal sity Ges 5 Oe Ee ae ae ee 20.0 80. 4 1.0 5 14.8 2.3 1.0 350 TRAYS WS aYEtSS de Ee ep sel aU ae 91.8 1.3 sil Spal Lai 1.0 135 SPMLMPS A WILeset soe 28 aoe sees 10.0 89.6 1.3 12 6.8 3 8 180 _ Turnips, yellow (rutabagas).......... 10.0 88.9 1.3 2 7.3 1.2 ipa 185 LCG ET EE 0) RN AE 2 OT JR SE 20.0 91.1 2.0 il: 4.2 ales} 1.3 140 TOTS ee es ao wk Scrly aaies Ole 30.0 87.6 1.6 ae 9.1 .8 .6 220 GALLIC Mee Ueto i es EE EY Cys 64.6 6.8 Bal 26.3 .8 1.4 620 IROLALOCSe eins aise e ee cine a ceoaaeaet 20.0 78.3 2.2 ail 18.0 A 1.0 380 Horse radish........ RCE SE NEG ea te te 76.7 2.7 4 15.9 2.7 1.6 400 As a rule the succulent roots, tubers, and bulbs contain larger quantities of water than the starchy vegetables and consequently have a lower nutritive value, pound for pound. The proportion of nitrogenous material which they contain is low, and of this small amount not more than a third, and frequently only a fifth, is in the 4 BULLETIN 503, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. form of true protein. As regards carbohydrates, various sugars, pectose bodies, and, in some cases, pentosans, very generally con- stitute the reserve material which the plants store up instead of the starch, which is the principal carbohydrate in potatoes, sweet potatoes, etc. These facts are brought out clearly in figure 1, which shows the composition of common root vegetables in comparison with bread, and in figure 2, which makes a similar comparison between root vegetables, bread, and milk as sources of energy to the body. As a class these succulent roots are characterized by very marked flavors and odors, the flavor being due in part to the sugar and plant acids, and in part to the small amounts of volatile oils and similar substances which they contain and to which the odors are mainly due. Thus the peculiar flavors of turnips, radishes, onions, etc., are due chiefly to sulphur compounds. It is not enough to consider protein and energy value in discussing food values. Mineral substances must be taken into account also, since they are essential for body growth and maintenance and for other physiological purposes. The need for iron in making red blood (hemoglobin) and the need for lime in making bone are well- known examples of the necessity for mineral substances. Work done in recent years has emphasized another important reason for sup- plying mineral matters in the diet, and from vegetable as well as animal food materials. It is now an accepted fact that the body performs its functions best when the tissues and fluids are either neutral or slightly alkaline and that different classes of food mate- rials, after they have been digested, leave the tissues and fluids of the body in different condition, some alkaline, some acid, and may, therefore, be spoken of as potentially acid or potentially alkaline. Many vegetables and fruits, owing to the presence of citric and other similar acids, are not alkaline when eaten but are potentially alkaline, because these acids leave behind an alkaline salt after being burned in the body. Foods rich in protein, such as meat, poultry, fish, and eggs, are potentially acid, because the sulphur and phosphorus which they contain are not completely burned but are partially left behind in the form of so-called fixed acids. It is to neutralize such acid residue that the potash and other salts of alkaline property supplied by fruits and roots and other vegetables are so valuable. Expressed in everyday terms, the results of labora- tory experiments show that when the diet contains such foods as meat, eggs, and fish, a generous supply of vegetable foods should be supplied also—an ample justification of the old household cus- tom of serving potatoes, turnips, beets, and other vegetables in abundance with meat. SUCCULENT ROOTS AND THEIR USE AS FOOD, 5 AALISTS EQIGLE PORTION T7UPN/ LOIGLE PORTION CAALOT EQIBLE PORTION RR Celeb OLE OL ES 5 IY fPPOTEIN 1.3 25 FAT OPS CAREOWVOKATE EL 5 ZZZZZA Ligh 2. ete es a % ASH OG % RBOHYORATE 2,3 Y PASH 40% GAPEAD FOR COMPALYSON) SOULE PORTION WATER GS396 PROTEIN BEX; WU W666, FAT PF H% CARBOMWVORATE SB.1% 5 ASPK 1.1 Yo SNELL, il ay fFOO. ee PORTION : ae ocean | ONM/O. LLIBLE PORTION WATER G2E% SAT O38 % CARBONVOATE 9.9 Y Fig. 1.—Carrot, onion, beet, and other root vegetables compared in composition with each other and with bread. BULLETIN 503, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. STANLARO FOP COLTfEARISOV 4000 CALOFIES CARROT FI OVStYA BELT ZOD CALOAVES S35 CALOAUES 210 CALORYES FOOT CLL EA Y 7 UAM PH ONION CSS CALOVES (EO CALOAVLS 2EO C4LOUEAS BEAD PUL PO 4185 CALOPUES BIS CALOAIES Fic. 2.—Energy value of edible portion of root vegetables per pound. Just as am engine must have fuel as a source of the power it supplies, so the body, which is a living engine, uses its food as fuel to supply the energy for the work it per- forms. For measuring the energy value of food the calorie is the most con- venient unit. It represents in round numbers the amount of heat required to raise 1 pound of water from 0° to 4° F., and equals very nearly 3,087 foot- pounds. If it be assumed that the large square at the head represents 1,000 calories, the amount of energy which a pound of the different succulent vege- tables would supply is shown in graphic form by the black rectangles used for comparison. These values are, in general, low as compared with such a food as bread. Nevertheless, the succulent root vegetables as a group contribute ma- terially to the energy value of the diet in addition to furnishing material for the structural needs of the body. They are especially important for the mineral elements they supply, and in this respect rank high in comparison with other kinds of food. SUCCULENT ROOTS AND THEIR USE AS FOOD. a In respect to final alkalinity, beets and carrots make the best showing of the succulent roots and are superior to all our common food materials except some of the green vegetables and fruits. Par- snips and radishes outrank potatoes; while turnips, which stand below potatoes, are yet higher than sweet potatoes.* Though many vegetables are more economical sources of protein and energy than is sometimes realized, they are probably of even greater value for their ash constituents than for the carbohydrates and other organic substances which they contain. EF urthermore, in considering the food value of vegetables, as of fruits, some of which are regarded merely as luxuries, one must not overlook the fact that they possess an actual advantage in enabling us to round out our dietary, as regards both bulk and palatability, without making the protein or energy intake excessive or compelling us to restrict the consumption of foods already in use. It can be said then, that a more liberal use of vegetables is to be encouraged; and if the cost of the diet must be strictly limited, it is often wise to re- strict the use of some other food rather than this group. It should not be forgotten, however, that the cheaper vegetables are fully as valuable for the purposes mentioned as are the expensive and out- of-season sorts. To sum up what has been said regarding the food value of the succulent roots, tubers, and bulbs, they are much less important food materials; when considered from the standpoint of the protein, fat, and carbohydrates which they supply, than are the concentrated eereal foods or even the starchy roots and tubers. They are, how- ever, very valuable in the diet for other reasons. They furnish some nutritive material, and are appetizing and generally relished, and their use often makes palatable an otherwise flavorless dish or meal. Perhaps the most important function of these roots, etc., as indeed of most of our common vegetables and fruits, is to supply the body with mineral salts which are needed for the building and repair of tissue, for the proper carrying out of the physiological functions, and particularly, to insure the alkalinity of the tissues and fluids. Not many experiments have been made to test the digestibility of this: group of vegetables. What definite technical information there is indicates that they are much lke other vegetables and fruits in this respect, being neither more nor less well assimilated than they are. Thus it has been found in the case of beets that 72 per cent of the protein, 97 per cent of the carbohydrates, and 90 per cent of the total energy were utilized by the body. 10. S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Buls. 185 (1907) ; 227 ( ©10). Chemistry of Food and Nutrition. By H. C. Sherman. New York, 1911. Food Vroducts. By H. C. Sherman. New York, 1914. 8 BULLETIN 503, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The ways in which these and other vegetables may be prepared for the table are very numerous and have been discussed in an earlier bulletin of the department. The various vegetables included in the table of Wes sd have each some special characteristics which merit discussion, so the more important will be taken up separately. BEETS. rs Although the greater part of the total crop of beets is used for the production of sugar or for the feeding of farm animals, beets are used in such large quantities as a human food that they rank as one of the most common table vegetables. White or yellow table beets are occasionally seen, but the red ones are the most usual. The flavor is more delicate in the summer varieties than in the later maturing sorts: Each year the southern-grown beets are becoming more com- mon in our winter market and are superseding the large, fully matured roots which were formerly so often stored as winter vege- tables and which, late in the season, often develop a rather bitter and unpleasant fiavor. It is sometimes said that beets are more nutritious than turnips, carrots, etc., but a comparison of the values for average composition given in the table (p. 3) does not substantiate this statement, all these vegetables being very much alike as regards the proportion of nutritive material present. Cane sugar constitutes a considerable portion of the total carbo- hydrates of beets, as high as 10 per cent or more having been often reported. Some reducing sugar is also present. In the varieties of beets grown for sugar making the percentage of cane sugar is con- siderably higher, sometimes 20 per cent or more, though such high values are the exception. Beets are sometimes said to be very rich in cellulose, but this does not seem to be the case with American varieties whose average composition has been quoted. When beets are cooked, a part of the sugar and other soluble nutrients which they contain is extracted, but how much material is removed can not be stated, as no cooking experiments with beets have been found on record. Beets are frequently canned at home for winter use, and the com- mercial canned article is a very well known product. The canned goods have practically the same chemical composition as freshly cooked beets. Some of the girls’ canning clubs, which the State and county organizations and the United States Department of Agri- culture are conducting in cooperation, have put up young beets with the tops left on, or have canned both beets and tops together—an excellent way of providing iron-rich greens in the winter diet, as bzev tops make a very palatable potherb. 1U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 256 (1906). SUCCULENT ROOTS AND THEIR USE AS FOOD. 3 stem just above the seed leaves or cotyledons. Although, strictly speaking, it does not belong to the roots and tubers, it is so similar to them in composition, in methods of cookery, and in uses that it has been included in this discussion. Kohl-rabi is considered best in the early summer, when it is still young and tender, but it is commonly found on the market until late fall. In flavor it is more delicate than either the turnip or cabbage, though it resembles them more nearly in this respect than it does other common vegetables. Like turnip, it can be diced, cooked, and served with butter or cream sauce. It can be cooked with other vegetables with salt meat in a “boiled dinner,” or sliced and used in soup as a seasoning vegetable. Kohl-rabi leaves if not too tough are excellent when cooked as greens, and may be served as a border around the kohl-rabi or as a separate dish. ONIONS, GARLIC, AND SIMILAR VEGETABLES. These plants are prized for use alone and for the flavor they im- part to other foods, so they can be classed both with succulent roots and with those used as condiments. Onions are so frequently eaten as a vegetable that it seems logical to discuss them primarily in com- parison with such materials as beets, radishes, etc. All the members of the onion family are characterized by very strong flavor and odor, due to the presence of allyl sulphid, an oil- like organic compound of sulphur. Different varieties vary some- what in flavor and composition, and the flavor is usually more pro- nounced in the bulbs and roots than in the leaves or other parts, and in old than in young plants. The flavor-yielding material is very volatile and is broken down by heat to some extent. Consequently, the cooked vegetable has a milder flavor than the raw. In the United States the common onion in its many varieties is the best known and most used member of the onion family. The bulbs vary in size from the tiny pearl onions used for pickle making to the very large Spanish onions weighing a pound or more each. The range in color is also wide and varies from silver white, cream white, green, or yellow to red or reddish purple. The total crop pro- duced is very large, and quantities are also imported from southern Europe, Bermuda, and the West Indies. As with most vegetables, the young and somewhat immature onions are preferred to the fully matured bulbs, though the latter have the best keeping qualities. In general, white varieties are milder in flavor than the red or yellow sorts and are generally preferred as table vegetables. If they are to be kept through the winter, onions should be taken from the ground as soon as the stalks begin to wither and cured or dried in the air for about 10 days. If moist when stored they will not keep well. The proportion of water and nutrients in onions varies greatly, not only with the variety but with the stage of growth and the 14 BULLETIN 503, U. S. DEPARTMENT: OF AGRICULTURE. method of storing them. Roughly speaking, the chemical composi- tion is very similar to that of the succulent roots included in the table (p. 3). Onions contain, however, rather larger quantities of cellu- lose, particularly in the outer layers, which is a reason why these are usually removed before cooking. The waste in peeling and trimming onions (fig. 4) for the table may be as high as 50 per cent, but 20 or 30 per cent is perhaps a fair average. They are commonly con- ceded to be wholesome and have been prized since the earliest times as a valuable addition to the diet. The characteristic sulphur com- pound which they contain is believed to stimulate the flow of diges- tive juices, and this and other constitutents have a desirable effect In overcoming a tendency to constipation. As onions contain no appreciable amount of starch and little sugar, they are commonly allowed to invalids from whose diet starchy foods (TE LE is chen Geepes, eherexaladeds Garlic is a member of i Seige oe Se the onion tribe which pro- duces a collection of small bulbs called “cloves” in the place of one large bulb. Some of the mild varieties grown in the Mediterranean region are eaten as vegetables, but in this country garlic is used mainly as a flavoring. Even so, its use is uncommon except among persons of foreign birth or food habits, and ‘this seems unfortunate, as, rightly used, garlic may add to the pala- tability of salads, meats, and other dishes. Shallot, cibol, etc., are varieties of the onion family yielding bulbs which are much esteemed for their flavor in Europe, though they are not common in the United States. Leeks and chives, two other sorts, develop almost no bulbs and are grown for their leaves, leeks being used as a green vegetable or potherb and chives mainly for seasoning. Although most families in the United States are familiar with onions, they do not generally know the similar vegetables. However, pro- fessional cooks consider that the other members of the group are well worth using and that some of them are almost indispensable for seasoning purposes. As is the case with so many of the succulent root vegetables, the green tops of onions and leeks are excellent cooked as greens. Fic. 4.—Loss in peeling and trimming onions. ROOT VEGETABLES LESS COMMONLY KNOWN. In other parts of the world, or in other times, many succulent roots have been used as food which, though known in the United States and grown to some extent, are seldom seen on our tables. Some of them might well be more commonly known, while others are suffi- SUCCULENT ROOTS AND THEIR USE AS FOOD. 15 ciently interesting for one reason or another to be worth at least brief mention here. Chervil is a plant, two forms of which are common in Europe. One of them (Anthriscus cerefolium) is sometimes called sweet cicely and is cultivated mainly for its leaves, which are used as a salad. The other, known as tuberous or turnip-rooted chervil (Cherophyl- lum bulbosum), is a true root vegetable. The roots are about the size and shape of small carrots and are gray or blackish on the out- side, with yellow-white flesh and with a distinctive flavor. They are used in much the same way as young carrots. Seedsmen offer the seeds, but they have never been common in the United States. The chufa, or nut grass, or earth almond, for it is known by all of these names, is the small tuberous root of a sedgelike plant which has a flavor suggesting nuts. A native of southern Europe, it is now cultivated in many countries. Though uséd as a food in a limited way, it is chiefly important as a feeding stuff. The chufa nuts are well known to children in the Southern States. The bulbs of various lilies are eaten in the Orient and are on sale in Chinese quarters and served in Chinese restaurants in many Ameri- can cities. The American Indians ate and to a small extent still use lily bulbs or corms, both roasted and raw, including the Indian cucumber (Ifedeola virginica), a relative of the trillium, the roots of water lilies, and many other wild roots, few of which have been taken over into the diet of other peoples. _ROOTS USED AS CONDIMENTS. Several roots have pronounced aromatic qualities which give them a condimental value quite independent of the nutritive material which they contain. In addition to increasing the flavor of foods, it seems possible that such condiments may stimulate the flow of diges- tive juices as well as please the palate. Horse-radish and ginger are the most common condimental roots, though chicory, so commonly considered in Europe a palatable addition to coffee, may also be men- tioned, as well as licorice root and calamus, or sweet flag, and wild ginger, or snakeroot. Horse-radish is a moisture-loving plant of the mustard family which is cultivated throughout north-temperate countries and is very frequently found wild in the United States, as it long ago escaped from cultivation. The root is long, rather slender, and has a sharp, peppery flavor, owing to the presence of an essential oil which much resembles in general character that in the radish and other members of the mustard family. As regards composition, horse-radish contains on an average 86.4 per cent water, 1.4 per cent protein, 0.2 per cent fat, 10.5 per cent total carbohydrates, and 1.5 16 BULLETIN 503, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. per cent ash, and has a fuel value of 225 calories per pound. Its water content is so high that it may be grouped with the succulent roots in spite of the fact that starch constitutes the principal carbo- hydrate present. As might be expected from the stringy character of the roots, the percentage of crude fiber is rather high. Though certain varieties of horse-radish are sometimes cooked as a vegetable and it is used for seasoning pickles, for making sauces,! to serve with meat, etc., its most common use in this country is as a condiment, when it is mixed with vinegar. It is popularly supposed that the vinegar softens the crude fiber to some extent and makes it more di- gestible. Ginger, the underground rootstock of the ginger plant (Zingiber officinale), is perhaps most frequently used dry as a spice, though the fresh root or green ginger is common in autumn, being used in pickle making, preserving, and in other ways. Large quantities of ginger root are preserved in rich sugar sirup, “ Canton ginger” in its round stone jars being an old-fashioned confection which is still much prized. The crystallized or candied ginger is even more com- mon; it, like preserved ginger, is frequently served as a sweetmeat. It is also used in making desserts of various sorts? and is generally used like candied fruits. While the nutritive value of preserved or crystallized ginger depends, of course, quite largely on the added sugar, the fresh root contains some nutritive material, the average composition being 85.6 per cent water, 1 per cent pro- tein, 0.6 per cent fat, 11.4 per cent sugar, starch, etc., 1 per cent crude fiber, and 1.4 per cent ash, and has a fuel value of 240 calories per pound. Of the total fat or ether extract, about half consists of the ethereal oi] which, together with a pungent, nonvolatile con- stituent called gingerol, gives to ginger its characteristic flavor. The young and tender ends of the branching root, or rhizome, called ginger buds, are the most delicate portion as regards both texture and flavor. Calamus, or flagroot, is found wild in Europe, as well as in the United States, and has long been known for its pungent and aromatic flavor. The root is most often gathered, though the young blossom portion is also eaten and has a specially mild flavor, Flagroot was used for a seasoning in earlier times in England and in the United States also, where it is still used to a limited extent like candied citron to flavor stewed fruit and so on, though its use at the present time is very largely limited to the candied flagroot which house- keepers often make at home and which is also a commercial product. 1U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 391 (1910), p. 27. [Recipe for making horse-radish sauce. ] 20. S. Dept. Agr., Yearbook 1912, pp. 505-552. Raisins, Figs, and Other Dried Fruits and Their Use. SUCCULENT ROOTS AND THEIR USE AS FOOD. LU Wild ginger (Asarum canadense), or the snakeroot of our northern woods, may also be mentioned. The spicy, aromatic root of this plant was gathered quite commonly in earlier times and dried, being used like many other wild plants in domestic medicine. Its use as a condiment was also common, a bit of the dried root being carried about and nibbled at odd times in the same way as calamus and dried orris root. In pioneer cookery it occasionally took the place of some _ more common spice, and does now, the fresh root being used to some extent like true ginger in pickle making. It also can be candied. Laboratory tests have shown that both flagroot and wild ginger root used in cookery in small quantities in place of other spices give a distinctive flavor which many would consider pleasant. Another native American root—sassafras—which has some impor- tance for condimental purposes, may be mentioned here. The bark of the: root yields a flavoring extract more used in confectionery making than in the home. However, it is interesting to know that tea made from this root, which was once so common a beverage under the name of “saloop,” is still used to some extent in parts of the United States, both in the home and commercially. SUMMARY. The plants which store their reserve material in underground roots, tubers, and bulbs have, in many instances, come to be regarded by man as among the most important foodstuffs. Cultivation has to a great extent modified the size, structure, flavor, and appear- ance of the parts which are eaten, and the garden varieties are as a rule superior to the wild in these respects and show important modifications in the season of growth and in other ways. As a class the edible roots, tubers, and bulbs may be divided into the following groups: (1) Starch-yielding vegetables, as potatoes, sweet potatoes, dasheens, etc.; (2) succulent roots, as beets, carrots, and parsnips; and (3) condimental or flavoring roots, as horse-radish and ginger. The edible roots, tubers, and bulbs have a high water content and are valued ‘as additions to the diet for their appetizing, succu- lent qualities and the bulk which they give, as well as for the nutri- tive material which they supply. Starch is the material most com- monly stored in the underground receptacles, though it is replaced in some plants by closely related bodies such as inulin, mannin, etc., by sugars of different sorts, pectoses, or other carbohydrates. The proportion of nitrogenous material in such foodstuffs is small, and true albumin seldom constitutes more than a third of the total pro- tein. The proportion of fat is also small, being composed in some cases very largely of wax-like bodies found in the skin, or of color- ing matter;.and in other cases, of volatile oils and similar sub- 18 BULLETIN 503, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. — stances, which give the plants their charaeteristic flavor and odor. Mineral matter is an important constituent of these vegetable foods, the proportion, though small, being about the same as is found in many other common articles of diet. Sodium, potassium, iron, sul- phur, and phosphorus compounds are the common mineral con- stituents. As the mineral matters exist in combination with organic acids and other bodies, they contribute materially to the flavor of the tubers, roots, etc. Beets, carrots, parsnips, salsify, turnips, and onions are the most common of the so-called succulent root crops used as food. They differ from starch-yielding vegetables like potatoes mainly in con- taining a larger proportion of water, 85 to 90 per cent on an average, and consequently a smaller proportion of nutritive material. Further- more, it is generally true that starch is not the characteristic carbo- hydrate of these vegetables, its place being taken by sugars of differ- ent sorts, pectose bodies, and other similar carbohydrates, while the percentage of crude fiber is also rather higher than in the edible starch-yielding roots and tubers. Many of the vegetables included in this group are characterized by marked flavors and odors due to the presence of volatile organic sulphur compounds in their juices. In the members of the onion tribe these are especially strong, and some varieties are used almost exclusively as flavoring materials, while other and milder sorts are also used in large quantities as table vegetables. Though not very nutritious in proportion to their bulk, root crops as a class offer some advantages over most other vegetable foods. They are so easily grown and so productive that under ordinary con- ditions they sell at prices within the reach of all. Many of them may be kept over winter in such good condition that they are prac- tically never out of season, or are in season when other vegetables are scarce. The carbohydrates, the principal nutritive material present, are in forms which are readily and well assimilated. The character- istic flavor which some of these vegetables possess is a decided ad- vantage, as it makes the vegetables palatable and adds to the variety of the diet. Succulent vegetables of all sorts contribute bulk to the diet and so are valuable from. the standpoint of hygiene, because within limits bulkiness is a favorable condition for normal digestion and also of importance in overcoming a tendency to constipation. They are among the important sources of necessary mineral matters in the ordinary diet. Since the body performs its functions best if its tissues and fluids are either neutral or slightly alkaline, and since vegetables tend to produce that effect, they have a special value as regulators of the body processes. | PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OF INTEREST IN CONNECTION WITH THIS BULLETIN. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Potatoes, Sweet Potatoes, and Other Starchy Roots as Food. (Department Bulletin 468.) Principles of Nutrition and Nutritive Value of Food. (Farmers’ Bulletin 142.) Preparation of Vegetables for the Table. (Farmers’ Bulletin 256.) Potatoes and Other Root Crops as Food. (Warmers’ Bulletin 295.) Care of Food in the Home. (Farmers’ Bulletin 375.) : Storing and Marketing Sweet Potatoes. (Harmers’ Bulletin 548.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING ; OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Extension Course in Vegetable Foods: (Department Bulletin 123.) Price, 10 cents. Cassava. (Farmers’ Bulletin 167.) Price, 5 cents. Losses in Boiling Vegetables and Composition and Digestibility of Potatoes and Hggs. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 43.) Price, 5 cents. Course in Use and Preparation of Vegetable Foods for Movable and Corre- spondence Schools of Agriculture. (Office of Hxperiment Stations Bulletin 245.) Price, 10 cents. 19 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. EXON 5 CENTS PER COPY v WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 r Ly Haste mer t nag Eine tan! rah aery uy OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER May 23, 1917 THE THEORY OF CORRELATION AS APPLIED TO FARM- SURVEY DATA ON FATTENING BABY BEEF. By H. R. Toxttry, Scientific Assistant. CONTENTS. ‘ Page. Page. SISA AUN Gs Oye ee 1 | Interpretation of the coefficients ___ g IBheonywoR correlation 2-22 2ee Se 1 PSHE T1900 Wo ny ES OS i oe 13 Computation of the coefficients____ 6 INTRODUCTION. This paper sets forth the results of an experiment in applying the theory of correlation, hitherto used chiefly in the analysis of biologi- cal, sociological, psychological, and meteorological statistics,t to the study of some of the data of the Office of Farm Management. The material for the investigation was obtained from 67 records taken during the years 1914 and 1915 from farmers of the corn belt who were fattening baby beef for market.? The factors considered were: The profit or loss per head, the weight, value per hundred- weight, value of feed consumed per head, cost at weaning time, and date of sale (see Table I). Coefficients of correlation were computed. for every pair of these factors and used as a measure of the relation- ship existing between them. THEORY OF CORRELATION. The writer will not attempt a detailed explanation of the theory of correlation but will discuss briefly the meaning of coefficients of correlation and the method by which they are obtained. 1Yule, G. U.: ‘‘ Introduction to the Theory of Statistics,’ 1912. Yule, G. U.: ‘“‘On the Theory of Correlation,” Jour. Roy. Stat. Soc., 1897, p. 812. Davenport, C. B.: ‘‘ Statisti- cal Methods, With Special Reference to Biological Variation,” 1914. Hooker, R. H.: “The Correlation of the Weather and the Crops,’ Jour. Roy. Stat. Soc., 1907, p. 1. Smith, J. W.; “ Effect of Weather on Yield of Corn,’ Monthly Weather Review, vol. 42, p. 72; and ‘“‘ Effect of Weather on Yield of Potatoes,” ibid., vol. 48, p. 232. Brown, Wm.: ““Hssentials of Mental Measurement,” 1911. 2For detailed account of the methods by which these data were obtained and the costs . computed, see. Report 111, Office of the Sscretary, 1916. 70070°—17 VOL eli ‘ Q BULLETIN 504, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ’ Taste I.—Data on cost of producing baby beef. . Cost per MaRaNo Profit per | Weight | Value per Bpioly: ale head at | Date of sale ‘ 4 head.'! | per head. | hundred- i neat weaning | (months).? . . Weight. y time. Pounds. 1 +812. 785 $8. 35 $31. 49 $23.12 8.7 2 — 22.98 750 7.75 29. 62 46. 33 6.3 3 + 2.7 690 7. 20 20. 90 30. 94 2.6 4 + 6.07 820 8.00 30. 00 30. 02 6.4 5 — 14.05 $52 4:52 31. 88 44.15 12.7 6 — 9.93 1,000 9.75 _ 387.47 64. 34 12.3 7 + 13.68 $25 8. 50 32. 68 25. 76 8.8 8 + 15.15 825 8. 50 23. 04 32. 64 8.8 9 + 27.42 800 9. 50 31. 06 18. 01 8.5 10 — §.92 875 9.75 59. 10 33. 92 8.8 11 — 19.09 922 10.14 70. 52 40. 20 9.9 12 + 18.7: 810 9.30 30. 25 28. 08 9.0 13 — 7.07 1,080 9.75 71. 01 38. 62 8.9 14 + 13.53 1,048 10. 11 47. 43 39. 83 10.0 15 + 38.15 1,012 10. 35 49.47 | 20. 47 10.9 16 + 9.83 1,000. 9.75 40. 56 42. 89 10.0 17 + 19.05 807 9. 70 3. 58 28. 43 4.3 18 — 5.73 915 9.10 38. 41 51. 36 8.0 19 — 2.39 910 9915 45. 48 42.17 5.0 20 + 10.93 890 9. 70 48, 95 25. 86 8.2 21 + 9.67 876 9. 40 23. 91 43.98 8.7 22 —" 3.65 988 8.75 43.95 38. 52 12.2 23 + 49.37 1,05 9.75 27.08 27.74 10.3 24 — 7.28 798 8.25 42. 84 30. 09 8.0 25 — 43.00 675 8. 00 44,71 50. 80 6.6 26 + 5.65 689 ako 23.39 24.61 5.5 27 + 0.59 860 * 10.00 © 49.74 35. 85 7.5 28 — TUL 746 8.00 26. 53 40. 30 6.7 29 — Tits) 850 8.90 33. 35 43. 46 6.5 30 =| 1.36 890 7. 30 20. 33 49. 80 3.5 31 06.10 859 8.15 27. 73 30. 89 4.0 32 + 7.91 765 8.10 21.02 30. 83 6.0 33 + 18.07 744 9. 48 34.95 19. 51 7.2 34 liao 700 9. 00 31. 61 28. 25 5.0 35 — 32.63 740 9, 25 45.72 49. 76 5.9 36 + 12.97 800 9. 00 31. 00 26. 57 6.5 37 + 11.15 800 7.30 17. 96 27.11 2.7 38 — 43.71 740 8.50 20.12 85. 66 5.0 39 + 18.15 700 Te vhs) 9.38 24.78 3.8 40 — 9.86 785 8.25 33. 70 38. 73 8.8 4} + 2.18 656 8.14 21.90 30. 09 4.9 42 + 23.99 925 8. 60 26. 75 28855 5.9 43 — 22.97 766 8. 40 54, 46 35. 09 6.9 44 — 12.73 750 8.50 18. 02 54. 33 7.0 45 + 11.80 805 8.00 20. 76 34. 62 5,0 46 — 22.90 924 9.85 57. 59 56. 63 8.0 47 + 0.27 800 9, 25 48, 53 28.97 7.6 48 + 5.37 800 8.25 29. 79 29. 03 5.7 49 + 5.33 862 10. 20 49.77 30. 90 10.7 50 + 2.82 800 9. 00 24. 81 42. 86 7.0 51 + 16.68 840 10. 00 45. 54 19.54 8.0 52 —= 7.07 840 9. 25 41.09 37, 53 LUT 53 — 3.09 650 7. 50 12. 28 41. 66 3.0 54 — 24.04 775 8. 40 39. 86 47.90 6.0 53 — 10.45 741 8. 50 29. 04 45. 68 6.0 56 + 2.83 768 7. 20 24. 53 29. 62 6.0 57 — 0.09 1,060 8. 30 47.10 45. 41 3.0 58 + 3.88 900 8.95 37. 02 42. 27 6.0 59 — 6.42 793 9. 60 56. 46 27.69 8.5 60 — 8.37 855 8.55 42. 40 40. 51 5.5 61 — 27.61 850 8.05 43. 83 51. 29 6.0 62 + 1.64 915 8. 55 34. 41 39. 39 6.2 63 — 0,18 811 8.60 37.13 32.90 8.9 64 — 1.00 775 8. 20 18. 30 43.72 5.0 65 + 8.00 742 8.25 17.39 34, 85 6.9 66 + . 5.55 827 8. 50 22. 30 42.05 7.3 67 + 21.73 950 9. 50 33. 64 32.09 12507 4" Average..| + 0.78 834 8. 76 35. 02 37. O1 7.2 1 A plus sign before the quantity in this column indicates a gain; a minus sign, a loss. 2 In order to facilitate computation, the dates have been expressed in months and decimals of a month after Jan. 1; i. e., 8.7 indicates Aug, 20, 21, or 22; 6.3 indicates June &, 9, or 10, etc. Be CORRELATION AS APPLIED TO FARM-SURVEY DATA. 3 If, in two series of associated variables, as, say, the profit per head and the weight per head in the data under consideration, there is a tendency for a high value of the first to be associated with a high value of the second, the variables are said to be correlated, and the correlation is positive; while if a high value of the first is asso- ciated with a low value of the second, and vice versa, the correlation is said to be negative, and the best measure yet devised of the amount of the correlation is the so-called coefficient of correlation. In Table II is shown the calculation of the coefficient of correlation between profit and weight per head. The method is as follows: 1. Find the average value for each of the variables. Here the average profit per head is $0.78, and the average weight 834 pounds. 2. Calculate the departure of the individual values from the average. In the case of record No. 1, the departure of the profit from the average is +$11.29, and of the weight, —49 pounds. ; 3. Find the square root of the average of the squares of these departures. This is the so-called “standard deviation,” and is a measure of dispersion or the amount of variability of each variable. 4, Find the algebraic sum of the products of each pair of individual depart- ures, i. e., for each record, multiply the departure of the profit from the average by the departure of the weight from the average, and prefix the proper sign; then find the difference: between the sum of all the plus products and the sum of all the minus products. 5. Divide this result by the number of records and the standard deviation of each of the variables in turn, prefix the proper sign, and the figure obtained is the coefficient of correlation between the two factors under consideration. If there are approximately the same number of positive and nega- tive products and they are of the same size, it will be evident that there is no correlation, and this will be shown by the fact that the coefficient of correlation will be zero, or nearly so. If high values of the first variable are associated with high values of the second, -and low values of the first with low values of the second, most of the products will be plus, and the greater their sum the closer will be the correlation and the larger will be the coefficient obtained. If a value of one variable below the average is generally associated with a value of the other above the average, the correlation will evidently be negative, and this will be shown by the fact that the sum of the products will be negative, the degree of the correlation and the size of the coefficient depending upon the size of this sum. Expressed algebraically, the coefficient of correlation, PIE YD | I == 0,0, ) ( ) where Ly is the sum of the products above mentioned, n is the num- ber of pairs of variables (the same as the number of records) ; oz bh! 4 BULLETIN 504, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLE II.—Calculation of coefficient of correlation between profit and weight per head. , ~ Profit s s Weight Farm No. per head. ae x2. per head. y- y?. xy. Pounds 1 | +$12.07 +11. 29 +127. 69 785 — 49 +2,401 |— 553.7 2 — 22.98 —23.76 566.44 750 — 8&4 7,056 |+ 1,999.2 3 + 2.79 + 2.01 4.00 690 —144 20,736 |— 288.0 4 + 6.07 + 5.29 28.09 820 — 14 * 196 |— 74.2 5 — 14.05 —14.83 219.04 852 + 18 324 |— 266.4 6 — 9.93 —10.71 114.49 1, 000 +166 27,556 |— 1,776.2 7 + 13.68 +12.90 166.41 825 - — 116.1 8 + 15.15 +14.37 207.36 825 — 9 81 |— 129.6 9 + 27.42 +26. 64 707.56 800 — 34 1,156 |— 904.4 10 — 8.92 — 9.70 94.09 875 + 41 1,681 |— 397.7 11 — 19.09 —19.87 396. 01 922 + 88 7,724 |— 1,751.2 12 + 18.7. +17.97 324.00 810 — 24 576 |— 432.0 13 — 7.07 — 7.85 62.41 1, 080 +246 60,516 |— 1,943.4 14 + 13.53 +12.75 163. 84 1,048 +214 45,796 |+ 2,739.2 15 + 38.15 +37.37 1,398.76 1,012 +178 31,684 |+ 6,657.2 16 + 9.83 + 9.05 81.00 1, 000 +166 27,556 |+ 1,494.0 17 + 19.05 +18. 27 334. 89 807 — 27 729 |— 494.1 18 — 5.73 — 6.51 42.25 915 + 81 6,561 |— 526.5 19 — 2.39 — 3.17 10. 24 910 + 76 5,776 |— 243.2 20 + 10.93 +10.15 104.04 890 + 56 3,136 |+ 571.2 21 + 9.67 + 8.89 79.21 876 + 42 1,764 |+ 373.8 22 — 3.65 — 4.43 19.36 988 +154 23,716 |— 677.6 23 + 49.37 +48. 59 2,361.96 1, 050 +216 46,656 |+10, 497.6 24 — 7.28 — 8.06 5. 61 798 — 36 1,296 |+ 1.6 25 — 43.00 —43.78 1,918. 44 675 —159 25,281 |+ 6,964.2 26 + 5.65 + 4.87 -0O1 689 —145 21,025 |— 710.5 27 + 0.59 — 0.19 - 04 860 + 26 676 |— 5.2 28 — 7.71 — 8.49 72.25 746 — 88 7,744 |+ 748.0 29 — 2.78 — 3.56 12.96 850 + 16 256 |— 57.6 30 — 1.36 — 2.14 4.41 890 + 56 3,186 |— 117.6 31 + 6.76 + 5.98 36.00 859 + 25 625 |+ 150.0 32 + 7.91 + 7.13 50.41 765 — 69 4,761 |— 489.9 33 + 18.07 +17.29 299.29 744 — 90 8,100 |— 1,557.0 34 + 1.33 + 0.55 36 700 —134 17,956 |— 80.4 35 — 32.63 —33.41 1,115.56 740 — 94 8,836 |+ 3,139.6 36 + 12:97 +12.19 148. 84 800 — 34 1,156 |— 414.8 37 + 11.15 +10.37 108. 16 800 — 34 1,156 |— 353.6 38 — 43.71 —44.49 1, 980.25 740 — 94 8.836 |-+ 4,183.0 39 + 18.15 +17.37 302.76 700 —134 17,956 |— 2,331.6 40 — 9.86 —10. 64 112.36 785 — 49 2,401 |4+ 519.4 41 + 2.18 + 1.40 1.96 656 —178 31,684 |— 249.2 42 + 23.99 +23. 21 556. 96 925 + 91 8,281 |-+ 2,111.2 43 — 22.97 —23.75 566. 44 766 — 68 4,624 |+ 1,618.4 44 — 12.73 —13.63 184.96 750 — & 7,056 !+ 1,142.4 45 + 11.80 +11. 02 121.00 805 — 29 841 |— — 319.0 46 — 22.90 —23. 6S 561.69 924 + 90 8,100 |— 2,133.0 47 + 0.27 — 0.51 125 800 — 34 1,156 |+ 17.0 48 + 5.37 + 4.59 21.16 800 — 34 1,156 |— 156.4 49 + 5.33 + 4.55 21.16 862 + 28 + 128.8 50 + 2.82 + 2.04 4.00 800 — 34 1,156 |— 68.0 51 + 16.68 +15.90 252. 81 840 + 6 36 |+ 95.4 52 — 7.07 — 7.85 60. 84 840 + 6 36 |— 46.8 53 — 3.09 — 3.87 15.21 650 —184 33,856 |+ 717.6 54 — 24.04 —24.82 615. 04 775 — 59 3,481 |+ 1,463.2 55 — 10.45 —11.23 125.44 741 — 93 8,649 |+ 1,041.6 56 + 2.83 + 2.05 4.00 768 — 66 4,356 |— 132.0 57 — 0.09 — 0.87 81 1, 060 +226 51,076 |— 203.4 58 + 3.88 + 3.10 9.61 900 + 66 4,356 |+ 204.6 59 — 6.42 — 7.20 51.84 793 — 41 1,681 |+ 295.2 60 — 8.37 — 9.15 64 855 + 21 441 |— 193.2 61 — 27.61 —28. 36 806. 56 850 + 16 256 |— 454.4 62 + 1.64 + 0.86 81 915 + 81 6,561 |+ 72.9 63 — 0.18 — 0.96 1.00 811 —- aa 23.0 64 — 1.00 — 1.78 3.24 775 — 59 3,481 |+ 106.2 65 + 8.00 + 7.22 51. 84 742 — 92 8,464 |— 662.4 66 + 5.55 + 4.77 23.04 827 - = 33.6 67 + 21.73 +20. 95 441.00 950 +116 13,456 |+ 2,436.0 Average, 18, 452.16 Average, 660,257 |+30, 457.6 +0. 78 oz=$16.60 834 cy=99 lbs. Dry +30457.6 1 Tgsoy GORD) Poot 1-712 Er= +.6745 ——=+.076 Jn 1A plus sign before the quantity in this column indicates a profit, a minus sign a loss. The quantities in the column headed # are given to two places of decimals, but it was found that the use of one decimal place would give the quantities in the 2? and zy columns with sufficient accuracy, and the computations were made accordingly. Thus, for farm No. 1, (11.3)?—=127.69, and (+11.38) )—49)=— —6553.7. CORRELATION AS APPLIED TO FARM-SURVEY DATA. Bei is the standard deviation of the first variable; and o, the standard deviation of the second. The value of “7” will always be between +1 and —1, +1 indicating perfect positive correlation, and —1 perfect negative correlation; and to be significant, the value should be appreciably greater than its probable error, _ +.6745(1—1?) ' E, ao (II) In the example, 7=+.277, and its probable error is +.076, so there was a tendency for the heavier calves to return a greater profit, but the correlation is by no means perfect. PARTIAL CORRELATION. A study in which many factors are concerned is not complete until it is determined whether or not an apparent correlation, meas- ured in the manner explained above, is due to the fact that each of the two variables (or factors) under consideration is correlated with another or even several other variables. For instance, in the data under consideration there is apparently a high correlation be- tween the weight of the calves and the value per hundredweight received for them (7=+.56), and the question now arises if heavier calves really do demand a higher price on the market. This corre- lation might be due entirely or in part to the fact that the heavier calves in the records obtained were sold at a later date, and that the price of cattle in general was higher later in the season; that is, the correlation exhibited here might be due to the fact that both weight and price are correlated with date of sale. In a problem of this type, where it is necessary to consider simul- taneously the relation between three variables and to determine the correlation between any two,a coefficient of net or partial correlation? can be determined by the formula— Tab — Vac be ee Can oe Calling the three variables a, b, and ¢, the terms of the formula are: Tap-c 1S the coefficient of net correlation between a and 6, when the effect of ¢ is considered; 74, is the ordinary coefficient of gross corre- lation between a and 6 and is obtained as explained above; fac and 7s are the coefficients of gross correlation between a and ¢ and 6 and e, respectively. Continuing with the example above, let us endeavor to determine the degree of correlation between weight and value per hundredweight, after taking into account any effect that date of sale might have had. In other words, we seek an answer to the question: 1Yule, G. U.: ‘ Introduction to the Theory of Statistics,” p. 229 et seq. OTe) rate ee! ME AY TF. 6 BULLETIN 504, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. What would have been the coefficient of correlation between weight and price if all the calves had been sold on the same date? Calling the weight w, the value per hundredweight v, and the date of sale d, the gross correlation coefficients are:? %,.=+.563 7ya=+.61; ?wa=+.60. Applying the formula (III), we have: _ +.56—(+.61)(+.60) _ Twv.d = Vi =61)(1 — 60) +.31 This value, +.31, is appreciably smaller than the value, +.56, of the gross coefficient, showing that the apparent correlation between weight and price is partly, but not entirely, due to their mutual correlation with the date of sale. 5 This theory can be applied to the case of several variables by a simple extension of the formula.? In the general case for six variables, the total number considered in this paper— Yab.cde — Yaf.cde’ bf.cde ] Tab.cdef = ‘ (IV) BT Vi iieer ieee) (1 i ene cued Tab-caet 18 the net coefficient of correlation between a and 6, when the four factors, c, d, e, and /, are taken into account: 7ap-cacy Taf-cac) ANA Tof-cac are the coefficients of correlation between the two variables before the period in each case when ¢, d, and e are taken into account. COMPUTATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS. The first step in the arithmetic was the computation of the gross correlation coefficients. As stated above, the variables or factors considered were: (1) The profit or loss per head; (2) weight; (3) value per hundredweight; (4) total value of feed consumed per head; (5) cost per head at weaning time; and (6) date of sale. These six variables, if taken two at a time, can be combined in 15 different ways. The first calculation was to find the coefficients of correlation between these 15 different pairs. In Table III these are the first values given. The effect of every other factor on these gross coefficients was then eliminated by successive applications of formule III and IV. As an example, take profit and weight, the first pair of variables correlated. The gross coefficient was first. corrected for the effect of value per hundredweight, value of feed consumed, initial cost, and date of sale, in turn. Then the effect. of these four factors was considered, taking them two at a time. That is, the correlation was determined when both the value per hundredweight and the cost of feed were taken into consideration at the same time. When the effect of all these factors, taking them 1See Table III: Correlation coefficients. 2Yule, G. U.: ‘‘ Introduction to the Theory of Statistics,” p. 229 et seq. CORRELATION AS APPLIED TO FARM-SURVEY DATA. Profit (p) and - Weight (w). Tow +0. 28 Tpw-v ap ols) Tpw-f + .50 Tpw-e + .48 Tpwed + .24 Tpw:vf . + .39 Tpw-ve ar 43 Tpw-vd + . 20 Tpw-fe + .85 Tpw-fd -- 43 Tpw-ed + 49 Tpw-vfeo + .91 Tpw-vfd =- ~42 Tpw-ved se -46 Tpw-fed + . 83 Tpw-vfed + .97 TasLE III.—Correlation coefficients. Profit (p) and Value per hun- dredweight (v). Tpv +0. 23 Tpy-w + .10 Tpv-f + . 56 Ipy-e + .25 Tpy-d + .19 Tpv-wf + .48 Ipv-we — -04 Ipvewa + .12 Tpvatel 4 -27 Twf-ped SF - 80 Twe-pfd ate -79 Twd-pfe a= . 36 Tyf-ped ae -77 Twv-fed + -16 Iwi-ved + -22 Iweevid + -14 Iwd-vie + -40 Ivi-wed + -50 Twv-pfed — -90 Iwf-pved -+ -97 Tywe-pvfd + .96 Iwd-pvfe + -81 Tvi-pwed + -97 Value per hun- Value per hun- - aiedweieot (©) | Gredwent cs) | Valuqofted() | Valugofteed () | Costat meaning and Cost at wean- and Date of weaning time (c) 1 (d fsal (d ing time (c). sale (d). eaning time (c). sale (d). of sale (d). ioe 0509 excl +0. 61 Tec +0.01 Tid +0 42 Ted —0.04 Ivo-p + .12 Tyd-p + .60 Tfe-p — .28 Tfd-p + .48 Tcd-p + .09 Tve.w — .16 Tvd-w + .41 Tic.w — .03 Tid-w + .16 Ted-ew ' — -ll Tock eles Medes + .49 ieee + .10 Ttdev, + .03 Ecdey. + .02 Eacd — .08 Tyd-c + .61 Tfc.d + .04 Tfdec + .42 renee — .05 eee ae ADI! near. SpamengOM Wii Pedeee jitter slay ltl cdipe seat Tve-pf + .54 Tvd-pt + .41 Tfe-py — .58 Tid-pv + .04 Yed-pyv + -03 Tye-pd + .08 Tydene hce09 Yfc-pd — .37 Tid-pe + .53 Ted-pf + .27 Tyc-wf — .17 Tyd-wf + . 39 Tfc-wv + .07 Yid-wv — .07 Ted-wv fon - 05 Trowdi 1 — ols fyaewel te 240. Ifeewd — .01 Etdewa + .16 iat — .10 Tvc-fd — .12 Tyd-fe + .48 Vfc-vd + .10 Tfd-ve + .03 eneot + .01 eee enictectAG Tvd-pwe + .41.] Tfepwy — -92 Tid-pwy — -15 Yed-pwy — -18 Tve-pwa — -05 Tyd-pwe t+ -40 Yfe-pwad — «07 Tid-pwe + -O1 Ted-pwi — -13 Tve-pfd + .49 Yvd-pfe + .dd Tic-pvd — -98 Tfd-pyve + .07 Ted-pvfé + -06 Tvostidiey— kt Ivd-wie + .38 Ticewvd + .06 Yidewyve — -06 Ted-wyf — 04 Tye-pwfd + -90 Tvd-pwfe + -81 Tic-pwvd — -96 Tfd-pwve — -82 Yed-pwvf — «40 8 BULLETIN 504, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. two at a time, had been considered, they were taken three at a time, and finally all four were taken into account simultaneously. In all, 260 of the coefficients were computed. Some of them, however, are of little interest, and if this were simply a study of the data, and not also an exposition of the method used, the computation of | some of them might have been omitted. In order to avoid needless repetition in the tables, the different factors are designated by letters as follows: Profit=p, weight=w, value per hundredweight=», value of feed per head=f, cost at wean- ing time=c, date of sale=d, and the notation for the different coefii- cients is the same as that used in the explanation of the theory, viz: Tabscdy eters 18 the coefficient of correlation between a and 6 when «, d, etc., are taken into account. INTERPRETATION OF THE COEFFICIENTS. There are four factors, namely, initial cost, value of feed consumed, weight, and selling price, which determine almost entirely the profit or loss to the farmer in finishing cattle for market. In fattening baby beef animals, the weight of the calves and the value of feed consumed both depend, to a large extent, on their age when sold and the length of time they were on feed. Also the price per pound received for them is rather intimately connected with the date on which they were sold, prices having had a tendency to rise as the season advanced. The calves for which data were gathered were all born in the spring, went on feed in the fall or early winter, and were sold some time during the following year. Consequently, any one of the three factors, age, length of feeding period, and date of sale, is a very good measure of the other two, and on account of this only the date of sale has been considered. If the price per pound, value of feed, initial cost, and date of sale were constant, and if nothing else affected the profit, it would vary directly with the weight in every case and, according to the theory, the coefficient of correlation between the two should be +1. The coefficient, 7pw-vfeay Obtained here is +.97. Similarly, if all things were constant except’ value per hundredweight and profit, there would be perfect positive correlation between them. The net coeffi- cient, 7p»-wrea, given in Table III is +.94. If all things were constant except the value of feed consumed we should expect a high negative correlation between it and profit, i. e., the calf that received the least feed would return the greatest profit. The net coefficient, 7p;.wrea, 18 —.98. Similarly, other things being equal, perfect negative correla- tion should exist between initial cost and profit. The net coefficient in this case, 7pce-wrta, 1S also —.98. An examination of the remainder of these net coefficients, which are the last ones given in the table, CORRELATION AS- APPLIED TO FARM-SURVEY DATA. 9 will show that, with the exception of the five between date of sale and the other variables, they are all numerically equal to or above .90. It has been shown that part, but not all, of the correlation be- tween weight and price was due to the date of sale, and since date of sale is only an approximate measure of age and length of feeding period, it would not be reasonable to expect the net correlation be- tween it and the other variables to be perfect. The fact that all the net coefficients except these five are so nearly +1 or —1, when there was every reason to expect perfect correlation, is striking proof of the reliability of this method of analysis as well as of the accuracy of data such as those under consideration, and is at the same time a very good check on the computations. In the interpretation of the coefficients care must be taken to dis- tinguish between subjective and relative factors, i. e., between cause and effect. Most interest is naturally attached to determining to just what extent each of the factors under consideration is respon- sible for the farmer’s loss or gain in his baby-beef enterprise, and here there can be no confusion of cause and effect, for all the other factors are necessarily causative. Throughout the remainder of the investigation the amount of profit or loss is an effect and not a cause, and consequently too much weight should not be given to a coefficient in which the effect of profit has been taken into account. THE APPARENT CORRELATIONS. In taking up the discussion of the coefficients themselves, the ap- parent correlations between profit and the other five factors are first considered : Coefficients of correlation. Profit Profit Profit Profit vend | Value ae Codie and Weicht enya Value aha Date of Soren eae of feed, oe sale dredweight. time. +.28 +. 23 —.27 —.73 +.14 These five coefficients should show the average effect of each of the five factors on the profit. The coefficient for profit and date of sale (+.14) shows that the profit on the calves sold early in the season was practically as great as on those sold later. The first three are all of nearly the same size, but are too small to indicate more than slight relationship. In regard to them we may say, therefore, that in the data under consideration: (1): There was a tendency for the heavier calves to return a greater profit; (2) there is some correlation be- tween price per pound and profit; (3) generally speaking, the farmer whose calves consumed feed worth more than the average made a profit somewhat less than the average. 10 BULLETIN 504, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A very high degree of correlation between profit and cost at wean- ing time is shown by the coefficient —.73, and, as would be expected, it is negative. The size of this seetiont as compared to the others indicates that the cost. of producing the calves and carrying them until weaning time is by far the most important factor in determin- ing the profit derived by any particular farmer from the production of baby beef. In all of the records considered the calves were with the cows until they went on feed, and there was no expense directly chargeable to them. Bearing this in mind, the further statement is justified that the cost of maintaining the breeding herd and the size of the calf crop have considerably more to do with the profitableness of the enterprise than the actual preparation of the calves for market. Coefficients of correlation between weight and factors other than profit. Weight Weight ares peal Wei ignt tial Weight Value Valve Cost at Date of eed wreight. 0: feed. WeaneT sale. +.56 +.51 +.07 +.60 The coefficient +-.07, for weight and cost at weaning time, is the most striking one given here. Its very small size shows that there is no connection between the cost of the calves up to the time they went on feed and the weights at which they were sold. The cost of a calf at weaning time is determined very largely by the manner in which the breeding herd is handled, and consequently this coefficient shows further that on the farms studied the calves from the herds which were maintained at a low cost per head weighed just as much when sold as did those from herds having a high maintenance cost. The coefficients for weight and value of feed and weight and date of sale are what should normally be expected. The calves that received more feed than the average weighed more than the average, and the ones that were sold in the | latter part of the season also weighed more than the average. The high correlation, exhibited by the coefficient +.56, between preiout and price per pound is a surprising one, but it will be shown later that it is almost entirely due to the mutual corre- lation of these two factors with some of the others. The gross coefficient for value per hundredweight and polite of feed,’ +.65, shows another apparently high correlation which may or may not disappear when some of the other factors are taken into account. There is no correlation between value per hundredweight and cost at weaning time. The correlation between value per pound and date of sale is shown by the coefficient +.61, which confirms 1¥or this and all coefficients mentioned hereafter, see Table III. | CORRELATION AS APPLIED TO FARM-SURVEY DATA. ed: the statement already made that the price was generally higher later in the season. The remaining gross coefficients are +.01 for total value of feed consumed per head and cost at weaning time, +.42 for value of feed consumed and date of sale, and —.04 for cost at wean- ing time and date of sale. The coefficients +.01 and —.04 show that cost at weaning time is uncorrelated with either value of feed con- sumed or date of sale. With regard to the correlation between value of feed consumed per head and date of sale, we may say that the value of feed consumed is probably very nearly proportional to the length of the feeding period, and if the actual length of time on feed had been used here instead of its approximate measure, the date of sale, the correlation would probably have been higher. EFFECT OF THE OTHER FACTORS ON THE APPARENT CORRELATIONS. The small degree of correlation present between profit and weight is mostly due to differences in price, the coefficient being reduced from +.28 to +.18, when the value per hundredweight is taken into account; that is to say, the tendency of the heavier calves to be the more profitable is mostly due to the fact that they sold for a better ‘price per pound than that commanded by the smaller calves. The coefficient 7,7 1s +.50, which is considerably higher than the gross coefficient, showing that if the value of feed had been constant while other things remained unchanged, the correlation between profit and weight would have been greater. The correct explanation of the size of the coefficient rp»... which is +.48, is not so apparent. It indicates, however, that if the in- fluence of the cost at weaning time, the factor most closely. related to profit, were eliminated, the correlation between profit and weight would be greater. When the date of sale is taken into account, the correlation be- tween profit and weight becomes somewhat less than the gross cor- relation, but the difference is not enough to be significant. The coefficients obtained for the correlation between weight and profit, when the effect of the other factors, two at a time, is con- sidered, are generally higher than when they are considered one at atime. This means that if the influence of two of the factors con- tributing to the profit or loss is eliminated, its correlation with any of the remaining factors is higher than if the influence of but one had been eliminated. It is interesting to note here that the correlation between weight and profit, even when the other factors are taken into account, is almost entirely independent of the date of sale. The apparent cor- relation, +.28, becomes +.24 when date of sale is taken into ac- count. When value per pound is taken into account, the coeflicient is +.18; when price and date of sale are considered simultaneously, 13 BULLETIN 504, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the coefficient is +.20. Similarly, 7,).,=+.50, and fpy.sa= +.48;3 ow.c= +-48, and Pyycda= +-49; Tpwof=+-39, and Mpw.fa= +-423 Tpw.oc= +-48, aNd Tyw.vca= + -463 Tpw.fe= +-85, aNd Toy jea= +-833 Tow ofe= +-91, and Tpow.ofca= +-97. The peecender of the coefficients will not be taken up in detail, for the same reasoning may be applied as has been used for those between profit and weight. The notation is consistent throughout, and the arrangement is such that any desired coefficient can be found. There does not seem to be any relation between cost at weaning time and any of the other factors considered except profit, and since cost at weaning time had more influence on profit than any of the others, it might be of interest to know the relationship that would have existed between profit and the other factors if the initial cost had been constant. The coefficients are as follows: Tpw-c- Tpv-c- Tpf-c- Tpd-c- +.48 +.25 —.38 +.16 From these coefficients, it is evident that if the initial cost of all the calves had been the same, the most important factor in deter- mining the profit would have been the weight when marketed; the other factors in the order of their importance being the total value of feed consumed, the price per pound, and the date of sale. How- ever, the correlation between profit and date of sale is still too small to be important. The statement has already been made that the apparent correla- tion between weight and value per hundredweight (r=+.56) is due to the effect of other factors. A study of the coefficients obtained when these other factors are taken into consideration shows that when the influence of date of sale is eliminated, the coefficient is re- duced to +.31; when the influence of the value of feed consumed is eliminated, the coefficient becomes +.35; and when the two factors are taken into account simultaneously, the coefficient is +.14. This shows that the quantity of feed consumed per head was responsible for nearly as much of this correlation as was the date of sale, and — that the two together account for practically the whole of it. In other words, the value of feed consumed and the date of sale need to be considered simultaneously here, because the later the date of sale, the longer is the feeding period, and consequently the greater the quantity and value of Feed consumed. The gross correlation between date of sale and value per ee 1s shown by the coefficient +.61, and that between total value of feed consumed per head and value per pound, by the coefficient +-.65. CORRELATION AS APPLIED TO FARM-SURVEY DATA. ite These rather large coefficients become very little smaller when all the other causal factors are taken into account. Therefore, there must be some relationship existing between value per pound and date of sale, and value per pound and value of feed consumed. The reason for the correlation between value per pound and date of sale has already been given. It is probable that the reason for the high corre- lation between the value per pound and value of feed consumed is due to the fact that the calves which were fed the heaviest ration, regardless of the length of feeding period, were the fattest when marketed, and consequently sold at a higher price. However, the relation between the profit and value of feed consumed per head as measured by the correlation coefficient 7; 1s —.27, and when the in- fluence of a longer feeding period is taken into account by elimi- nating the effect of date of sale the correlation is still negative Ce —.37) ° SUMMARY. The results show that data such as those obtained by farm manage- ment surveys can be analyzed very thoroughly by the use of the corre- lation coefficients. It is generally known before the analysis is at- - tempted which factors are causal and which resultant, and conse- quently there should be very little difficulty in interpreting the coeffi- _ cients correctly. The coefficients of net correlation afford a very good means of determining the net effect of each of several factors bearing upon a result, or of eliminating the effect of other factors when it is desired to find the true relationship existing between any two. Although it is not possible to give a definite concrete meaning to cor- relation coefficients, they are very concise relative measures of the degree of relationship existing between the factors being studied. They therefore give the investigator a single index which will show what, by the ordinary tabular method, it takes a whole table to show. While properly constructed tables will show whether or not any rela- tionship exists between two factors, it is a difficult matter to deter- mine which of two causes, say, has the greater effect on the result, and it is impossible, without a large number of records and a great amount of sorting and tabulation, to separate all the factors being considered in a study and find the effect that each one would have had if the others had not been present, or if they had been constant throughout the investigation. If the gross coefficients of correlation between every pair of factors have been determined, it is possible to find these relationships by simply substituting in the formula for determining a net coefficient from the gross coefficients, without any further refer- ence to the records themselves. This method should be especially use- 14 BULLETIN 504, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ful if only a limited number of records or observations are available, for it does away with the necessity of sorting into many groups, with - the consequent falling off in the reliability of the averages obtained. The analysis of the data on fattening baby beef animals showed: (1) That for the herds considered, the cost of producing the calves and carrying them until weaning time was by far the most important factor in determining the profit ; : (2) That there was no connection between the cost at weaning time and any of the other factors, for the calves which were produced cheaply were seemingly just as good feeders and brought just as good i price per pound as the more expensive ones; (3) That the weight at which the calves were sold and the date of sale had very little effect on the profit, except for the fact that in the two years of the records the price was higher in the latter part of the ~ summer, at the time when the heavier calves were put on the market ; (4) That the calves which consumed the heaviest ration sold at higher prices than the others, but did not return a correspondingly greater profit, as the advanced price scarcely offset the extra value of feed consumed. OTHER PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO THE SUBJECT OF THIS BULLETIN. Wlementary Notes on Least Squares, the Theory of Statistics and Correlation, for Meteorology and Agriculture. (Monthly Weather Review, vol. 44, 1916, p. 551.) Effect of Weather on Yield of Potatoes. (Monthly Weather Review, vol. 43, Pat Ons av 232,))" Hiffect of Weather on Yield of Corn. (Monthly Weather Review, vol. 42, 1914, p. 72.) Methods and Cost of. Growing Beef Cattle in the Corn Belt States. (Report No. 111, Office of the Secretary. ) 15 THE SUPERINTENDENT Or - pocuMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, DiC Ant , eae ey vane 5 CENTS PER COPY beeen > le UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF a ee BULLETIN No. 505 ¥ Mh im pics th wae, Contribution from the States Relations Service A. C. TRUE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER February 13, 1917 DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME VEGETABLE FATS. By C. F. Lanewortuy, Chief, and A. D. Houmss, Scientific Assistant, Office of Home Economics. CONTENTS. Page. Page. BRN ROMUCHION eece sine cece cialeicca s2cas olsen 6 1 | Digestion experiments—Olive oil, cottonseed Experimental methods........-..-........-- 1 oil, peanut oil, coconut oil, sesame oil, cocoa INTRODUCTION. Studies of the digestibility of some common animal fats, including lard, beef fat, mutton fat, and butter, have been reported in a previous paper ! of this series. The results of these experiments showed that all the animal fats investigated were satisfactorily digested and are suitable for use in quantity as food. The available supply of animal fats, however, is now little if any in excess of the demand, and it is likely that the supply of such fats for culinary purposes in the future will be even less adequate than at the present time. It is probable, therefore, that in the future ereater reliance must be placed on the vegetable fats to supplement the available animal-fat supply. The experiments reported in this bulletin, showing the thoroughness of digestion of certain vegetable oils and indicating in a general way their suitability for food, have an important bearing on this question. The fats studied included - olive oil, cottonseed oil, peanut oil, coconut oil, sesame oil, and cocoa butter. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. The digestion experiments with the vegetable fats were conducted by the same methods that were employed in the study of the animal fats, and accordingly the results are directly comparable. A _ basal 1U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bul. 310 (1915). Nore.—This bulletin records studies of the digestibility of olive oil, cottonseed oil, peanut oil, coconut oil, sesame oil, ard cocoa butter, and is primarily of interest to students and investigators of food problems. 70069°—Bull. 505—17——1 29 BULLETIN 505, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ration (supplying a minimum of fat) composed of wheat biscuits, oranges, sugar, and tea, or coffee if desired, was supplemented by a blancemange or cornstarch pudding, in which was incorporated the vegetable fat under consideration. The test periods were of three days’ or nine meals’ duration, to agree with the experimental conditions under which the animal fats were studied, and the followmg four days formed a rest period in which the subjects furnished their own meals, which differed in no special way from an ordinary mixed diet. Normal young men in good health and moderately active, all of whom were medical or dental students, were the subjects of the diges- tion experiments. The prescribed routine involved regularity, espe- cially with respect to the time for eating, but the subjects were per- mitted to exercise in their customary ways and as required in the performance of their daily work. In most cases the subjects had had previous experience in similar experiments, and all of them proved to be careful and trustworthy assistants. Weighings were made of the net amounts of food eaten and feces excreted, and samples of both food and feces were analyzed to deter- mine the percentages of protein, fat, and carbohydrate which were actually digested. The experimental method followed has been reported in a previous bulletin of this series, the analytical methods being those which are approved by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.” DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS. OLIVE O%L. Although olive oil has been known from earliest times as a food product, exact information regarding the proportion assimilated by the body is comparatively limited, its food value having been gen- erally discussed with respect to its theoretical energy value, its quality, and culinary and table uses. As regards earlier work, a five-day experiment with a healthy man was conducted by Berta- relli,? who tested the digestibility of a mixture of olive and colza oils in a basal ration of white bread and meat; the fat was 95.8 per cent digested. Moore * has reported a number of animal feeding experi- ments in which he found that olive oil was assimilated to the extent of from 96.7 to 98.7 per cent. In a comparative series of tests he noticed that uncooked oils in the food of guinea pigs were somewhat less thoroughly available than was the case when the oil was cooked with the food. In general all of the vegetable fats studied were digested to practically the same extent. 1U.8. Dept. Agr. Bul. 310 (1915). 20.8. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Bul. 107 (1912), rev. ed. 3 Riv. Ig. e Sanit. Pub., 9 (1898), Nos. 14, pp. 538-545; 15, pp. 570-579. 4 Arkansas Sta. Bul. 78 (1903), pp. 33-41. DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME VEGETABLE FATS. 3 Arnschink ! reports an experiment of four days’ duration with a dog of 8 kilogramsbody weight. Fifty grams of olive oil was consumed daily and 97.77 per cent digested. Olive oil has been studied from another viewpoint, namely, its ability, as compared with certain animal fats such as butter and cod liver oil, to maintain growth. Work along these lines has been reported by Osborne and Mendel? and McCollum and Davis,’ who concluded that olive oil was not capable of stimulating or maintain- ing growth. In experiments here reported five subjects took part in the 11 diges- tion experiments, the results of which are given in the following tables: Data of digestion experiments with olive oil in a simple mixed diet. sn é M a Carbo- Weight. | Water. | Protein. Fat. hydrates. Ash. Experiment No. 151, subject D. G. G.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blancmange containing olive oil....... 1,579.0 734.7 26. 7 192.6 618. 4 6.6 SWaheaumoisCuit aeons see seije cite cele 633.0 57.0 67.1 9.5 489.3 10.1 PERU ee eRe oe 803. 0 697. 8 6.4 1.6 93.2 4.0 SiS AdooeadeSacecEeseoee aesSeMeE se MGI O noe soose ssllosscesccesllocoosancos LOUZ ON eeecetee Total food consumed.........--- 3,206.0 | 1,489.5 100. 2 203.7 | 1,391.9 20. 7 TRESS ee SRA Roe EEOC a Seer AR Si eee Sessom 30.6 10.0 65.4 8.5 Amount utilized...........---- sHaRe | GeenG anne eb oo che ie 69. 6 193.7 | 1,326.5 12.2 TeerP @Sialy WHATS 5 oc ano nono ee osenan |coueaseocullocsc0cacee 69. 5 95.1 95.3 58.9 Experiment No. 153, subject R. L. S.: Blancmange containing olive oil....--.- 1,587.0 738. 4 26. 8 193. 6 621.6 6.6 Wiese bISCUIbe ses sence nee seein sii 417.0 37.5 44.2 6.3 322.3 6.7 THUS 5 od SURBE e nS Ree ee Aenea see 810. 0 703.9 6.5 1.6 94.0 4.0 SHOT son oaceaeacnocecescuogasonaasoes MILO |locceosooea|esoooececsllooccccocsa GIRO) begandeace Total food consumed....--.-..-- 2,905.0! 1,479.8 77.5 201.5! 1,128.9 17.3 INQCaS 5 b 5 Sees n Ca OnE Oe eeSEEeeeae NOPE |oacancoces 31.4 17.2 44,1 9.8 ANcaI ONT WHBMIVAG = od Soe RoSoaneaeensollscuoseecaallaoocossccce 46.1 184.3 | 1,084.8 too Per cent utilized. ---.-..---.-----.---|---+------|---------- 59. 5 91.5 96. 1 43. 4 Experiment No. 154, subject R. F. T.: Blanemange containing olive oil......- 1, 865. 0 867.8 31.5 227.5 730. 4 7.8 Wie ai OISCULt) 22 na-))-)- 2 leer eos 46.0 4.1 4.9 otf 35.6 7 ISOs a Gousas oder souaeobese ra aeetoeers 1,283.0 | 1,114.9 10.3 2.6 148.8 6.4 Sige pe et ee Ud Se 1395 0):| aeRO a ES Ree PO eseeagenve Total food consumed.........-.. 3,326.0 | 1,986.8 46.7 230.8 | 1,046.8 14.9 WEGES . coccascnesaegucoocdosecedededees GHEE Noooccoesee 16. 4 14.6 32.1 6.4 ANNOTOANH THHI EO oc oon bose ouseadado|loosnoscenalocgocomnce 30.3 216.2 | 1,014.7 8.5 AZO TCOM UpUUUIZ eC Cie spare sera o alata iareralee Bien e sca ane cei eae 64.9 93.7 96.9 57.0 Experiment No. 183, subject D. G. G.: Blanemange containing olive oil. ...... 1,127.0 494.0 21.1 138.8 465. 1 8.0 iWiheaty biscuits, 2285.66. <-25 22. oe see 561.0 50. 5 59.5 8.4 433. 6 9.0 SIDI t ya aie ese ce asics Secnisiems 775.0 673.5 6.2 1.5 89.9 3.9 SUS ate echo jasnetee seins eiews oe 2098 Ohi Mctemeetevenn | eee UNO en ees Z09KOH|Oeissaee a Total food consumed........... 2,672.0 | 1,218.0 86.8 148.7 | 1,197.6 20. 9 Feces. ...--- ssepgcosgasoagecasogsa0009 69: On a ieeseclenes 21.4 7.5 34.2 5.9 JNO baie DITA SS SAM Sab eoene ndeor ace lboereeeras eoncaceces 65. 4 141.2 | 1,163.4 15.0 TP OTACOMEHUILULIZOG errs sraye sate nc actos ae eee is nae Sco se Meera 75.3 95.0 97.1 71.8 1 Ztschr. Biol., 26 (1890), No. 4, pp. 444, 445. 2 Jour. Biol. Chem., 16 (1913), No. 3, pp. 423-437. 8 Idem, 15 (1913), No. 1, pp. 167-175; 19 (1914), No. 2, pp. 245-250; 20 (1915), No. 4, pp. 641-658; 21 (1915), No. 1, pp. 179-182. Wisconsin Sta. Bul. 240 (1914), pp. 33, 34. BULLETIN 505, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Data of digestion experiments with olive oil in a simple mixed diet—Continued. a mere Carbo- Weight. | Water. | Protein. Fat. hydrates. Ash. Experment No. 184, subject R. L. S.: Grams..| Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blancmange containing olive oil....... 1, 827.0 800. 8 34.1 225.1 754.0 13.0: Wheat biseath?-f: ces -6 ssc seesccis-c 314.0 28.3 33.3 4.7 242.7 5.0 ir PERO oer is, Sate aL cr a 1,347.0} 1,170.5 10.8 2.7 156.3 6.7 Sugar ssek eee ees seen eas 12250) |em« ve ee). ae eee et eB eeene W224 On Soe miscican Total food consumed............ 3,610.0 | 1,999.6 78.2 232.5 | 1,275.0 24.7 WOCAS ia. emase teas te ciseiaciatcte liaise ain CBO eee sanecae 20.3 10.9 27.2 5.6 Amount utilized........ Seecoabalbasaseses-|lAascoccees 57.9 221.6 | 1,247.8 19.1 Percent utilized se Sesesecs- ce seuss oe cre elsceealneecee see 74.0 95.3 97.9 Ts2) Experiment No. 185, subject O. E. 8.: Blanecmange containing olive oil....... 1,958.0 858. 2 36. 6 241.2 808. 1 13. 9 Wheat biscuit. 20 25sec ees sees 153.0 13.8 16.2 2.3 118.3 2.4 IOTULt Sersnise oe seed soeee anew oeeennseraee 1,568.0 | 1,362.6 12.6 3.1 181.9 eS Supar. cecuee ooh anise se niseemasencemeec ee TSSi00 52 eens oS tenella sess ASSIOn OEM tale Total food consumed............ 3, 867.0 | 2,234.6 65. 4 246.6 | 1,296.3 24.1 ECES ee eee eee Ser. sateen neces 4230) ||... -seenene 12.6 5.1 20. 3.8 J TOE HIME. 65 5 o Beaeceeosnuensco|boseosesca|sco7scc00¢ 52.8 241.5 | 1,275.8 20.3 Per cenbiwtilized ey eres csees cee see tales ee eee tcoeeeee ee 80. 7 97.9 98. 4 84.2 = SS Experiment No. 186, subject R. F. T.: Blanemange containing olive oil....... 1,322.0 579.4 24.7 162.9 545.6 9.4 Wheat biscuit:. 33:5: 2o ae eee eee oeee 91.0 8.2 9.6 4 70.3 1.5 TUTE ee sic Seek ok Se ce ee ease 7 I 1.9 -0 172.2 7.4 SER oon snons tose gocansbococcosseced 1B On leeeSocscs5 Total food consumed. ... 971.1 18.3 IND 5 eceosassoLcesencneson 33.6 8.0 Amount utilized 937.5 10.3 Per cent utilized 96.5 56.3 Experiment No. 243, subject D. G. G.: Blanemange containing olive oil....... 2,321.0 985.0 43.6 266.5 | 1,014.3 11.6 Wheat biscnit:-25 22. sse2hi3 esse seee 500.0 45.0 53.0 7.5 386.5 8.0 MT te sees achat cisinntetios oes 1,202.0 | 1,044.6 9.6 2.4 139.4 6.0 Sugars ase cos eae e se cece ean 1:20: Oi) sess alae oem ee (eee eae 12050) Heeee eee Total food consumed...-..-...-. 4,143.0 | 2,074.6 106.2 276.4 | 1,660.2 25.6 WMOCES i: wise eb es n 437.0 39.3 46.3 6.6 337.8 7.0 rit: 4 is. s octeaseeieeee ree cme eee ae 546.0 474.5 4.4 1.1 63.3 2.7 Stiar..: vectors eee aes S550). Sac). ). - sic Re pees eee SHOU | Reieececce Total food consumed...........- 8,211.0 | 1,423.3 91.0 253.7 | 1,422.6 20. 4 ILOCOS ois elo) fein) Bceitne clean cnet nia lse is aos $4.0) eee ease 24.7 11.2 41.8 6.3. AMOUNGUTMIZE 2c 220m Sapeite win cis shee se cisine ence | Meee ene te 66.3 242.5 1,380.8 14.1 Per comb iwtilized ects soinwlajnieimis siete iactel| cele ee eee | eee sete 72.9 95.6 97.1 69.1 Experiment No. 245, subject O. E. §.: Blanemange containing olive oil....... 2,690.0 | 1,141.6 50.6 308.8 | 1,175.6 13.4 Wheatibiscuitu)25- 3222 eee ances 497.0 44.7 52.7 7.5 384.2 7.9 PUIG. So oe ideas ese eee 1,228.0 | 1,067.1 9.8 2.5 142.5 6.1 BUG ai as secen sot maice ihe malt se lores eles 1770 3| Pee ae Sa saslennee eee eee U7OUY Bee eaeRaao Total food consumed..........-. 4,592.0 | 2,253.4 113.1 318.8 | 1,879.3 27.4 ROCCS oso od cin siaicte eatnie sic eos ce aele 26-033 Sereteistetein'= > 33.4 17.8 66.7 8.1 Amowumnititilized soso ees fe eee sete cle ee caceere Meee eee 79.7 301.0 | 1,812.6 19.3 Per cent 1tilized:: o/j.cfss cece clos ows soweses Bee eemcoacee 70.5 94. 4 96.5 70.4 Average food consumed per subject perday | 1,153.8 601.3 27.0 76.0 442.3 7.2 DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME VEGETABLE FATS. 5 Summary of digestion experiments with olive oil in a simple mixed diet. Experi- . Bi Carbohy- ae No. Subject. Protein. Fat. aacece Ash. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. AUG) Bea TD) (Cty Cree See Seg Cone acc Meee anata Rees me ict, 69.5 95. 1 95.3 58.9 UGE ee esas IR 1U Sis See S Rec Aa tae A RS Eeetense cm Att 1S 59. 5 91.5 96.1 43.4 TGs oee ee FE aH neta ea ecete ers si Ola SiSsal tein Seo fcte ais oleraeree mltereste 64.9 93. 7 96.9 57.0 US see 1D); (GES CIES 2B Eis a eR eer Se ee 75.3 95.0 97.1 71.8 1 ey ees FE Sa en ses Mtr ye ie clin ela ui alela stolen eimai ieee 74.0 95.3 97.9 Wad Nghe eek CO) TBE ISIS SERS Bee ee ome gay Aenea rare ieee ec Site 80. 7 97.9 98. 4 84.2 BSG wiseiers TB la NS a Se TES SS DRO Ne ee PE eI TO 62.1 93.5 96. 5 56.3 ASE SE GRR G een eine one san eloas wales «crate cc ee eee 64.9 95. 4 95. 7 62.9 Be ae Tie Lie fe ie a NE re Oe re ON aR ao 72.9 95.6 97.1 69.1 SA ees (OO) TOSS 3s She eater ne ae earache oS Be 70.5 94,4 96. 5 70. 4 JAS GIRIRD 3 Sa Sean eoadcenehs SGasu Bad eoees SoscDOGn 69. 4 94.7 96.8 65.1 The average coefficient of digestibility of all the fat eaten during these tests was 94.7. As the ether extract of the feces, however, is known to contain metabolic products, a correction has been applied to all of the value for the average availability of total fat consumed. Digestion experiments with the basal ration alone as the only source of fat have been reported in connection with the animal-fat experi- ments, from which it was concluded that 9.89 per cent of the total weight of water-free feces occurs as metabolic products. Subtracting the quantity represented by this percentage from the total ether extract of the feces, a value is obtained more nearly representing the weight of unutilized fat. The corrected value for the availability of olive oil then becomes 97.8 per cent. The five subjects reported that they remained in normal physical condition during the experimental periods. In experiment No. 185, in which 80 grams of olive oil was eaten per day, the subject O. E. S. reported that the diet had a constipating effect. In experiments Nos. 248, 244, and 245, in which 82, 89, and 103 grams of olive oil were consumed, the subjects reported that the diet produced a pro- nounced laxative effect. However, in the experiments in which the laxative effect was noted, the olive oil was as completely assimi- lated as in the remaining experiments, and the tests as a whole yield additional evidence that, used in the usual ways for cooking and on the table, olive oil is a wholesome, valuable food. COTTONSEED OIL. Refined cottonseed oil is a common food product used as such in large quantities for culmary and table purposes, and also in the manu- facture of hardened fats and other commercial fats designed for use in cookery. Very few results have been found on record which concern the digestibility of cottonseed oil by the human organism, though animal feeding experiments have been rather common. Moore? has reported 1U.S8. Dept. Agr. Bul. 310 (1915), p. 20. 2 Loc. cit. 6 BULLETIN 505, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. experiments intended to compare the digestibilities of several of the more common vegetable fats, concluding that all vegetable fats are equally well digested. The experiments made at this time coneern only the actual per- centage of fat available to the body, though it might be possible at the same time to notice approximately how much of the oil can be used without producing a laxative effect or other physiological dis- turbances. Six subjects assisted in the work, and the same methods were used which hitherto have proved entirely satisfactory. The data describing the results of the 12 test periods are as follows: Data of digestion experiments with cottonseed oil in a simple mixed diet. Experiment No. 139, subject D. G. G.: Blancmange containing cottonseed oil- Wheat biscuit=----- ~~ 2-2-2222 --- 2 oo Rericentittilizedieee = =. ae peissce eee te Experiment No. 140, subject H. D. G.: Blancmange containing cottonseed oil. Wiest OISCu Gee e eri er elie Feces Experiment No. 141, subject R. L.S.: Blancmange containing cottonseed oil. WiheatbIscuitsscereceece -cmae=cekioce Fruit HeCas Pha. st se ere eee tee e male oe Percentiintilizedsssjs-s-eee eneoesaeccests Experiment No. 142, subject R. F. T: Blanemange containing cottonseed oil. Wihleabiniscuite s ceases eeemepeme eee ace TUL Ges sete secs aoeee sere acre eens Percent Utilized er Pace cneinie cree « Experiment No. 143, subject D. G. G.: Blancmange containing cottonseed oil. Wheat biscuit ETC e ators este tole see wee oe nia Weight. | Water. | Protein. Grams. | Grams. | Grams. 1,915.0 913.4 32.6 722.0 65.0 76.5 1,351.0 | 1,174.0 10.8 66:0} | je-Sicioes| see eeeee 4,054.0 | 2,152.4 119.9 1O2KO} | Saeemere ae 27.5 LS on i epeel| teense a 92.4 Re et ae 77.0 1,148.0 547.6 19.5 598.0 53.8 63.4 1,274.0 | 1,107.1 10.2 TU Beeeeesore Mosccosucollosscandcos 3,116.0 | 1,708.5 93.1 HOO ibse5=cs500 26.7 Neer mates Bins AS acre 66.4 PSE esa Was ho ae 71.3 1,495.0 713.1 25. 4 444.0 40.0 47.1 1,246.0 | 1,082.8 10.0 P19. Oise eeeeers siesteeeetee 3,304.0 | 1,835.9 82.5 S75ON teem 28.0 Sata ibrate siete | Baca ete 54.5 a Seema s Baccano 66.1 2,099.0} 1,001.2 35.7 110.0 9. iy 1,304.0 | 1,133.2 10.4 85.10 |] s!0/s)sterevereys)| siolete mrtrovete 3,598.0 | 2,144.3 57.8 T2sO Mere creisee 16.9 be occ nicer Ee aie 40.9 See e sailed See 70.8 1,632.0 768.8 32.2 913.0 82.2 96.8 957.0 831.6 7.7 168.0) 24 Saeeie| ot = wae clemel Sere eee 3,665.0 | 1,682.6 136.7 1A AC al Poses occ BPAY Me tse aay 104.5 Carbohy- drates. Ash. Grams. | Grams. 697.1 7.6 558. 1 11.6 156.7 6.8 GGXOK ets aa 1,477.9 26.0 53.6 9.2 1,424.3 16.8 96.4 64.6 417.9 4.6 462.2 9.6 147.8 6.4 O3,(0))] See ae 1,123.9 20.6 53.3 10.1 1,070.6 10.5 Once 51.0 544.2 6.0 343.2 fede 144.5 6.2 ONOG Beas 1,150.9 19.3 31.3 9.6 1,119.6 9.7 97.3 50.3 764.0 8.4 85.0 1.8 151.3 6.5 SONOM Bees ie care cie 1,085.3 16.7 37.0 6.3 1,048.3 10.4 96.6 62.3 603. 2 7.0 705.7 14.6 111.0 4.8 LOSHOW eects | 1,582.9 26.4 76.5 ila 1,506. 4 15.3 95. 2 58.0 DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME VEGETABLE FATS. Data of digestion experiments with cottonseed oul in a simple mixed diet—Continued. Experiment No.144,subject H.D.G.: Blancmange containing cottonseed oil. Feces IGCOSH nee Pent es SRE le a Per cent utilized Experiment No. 146, subject R. F. T.: | _ Blanemange containing cottonseed oil. Total food consumed INCE c 3 Be Sane Ne ee Eee Bee eet Amount utilized Per cent utilized Experiment No. 246,subjectH.F.B.: Blanemange containing cottonseed oil. Per cent utilized Experiment No. 247, subject D. G. G.: Blanemange containing cottonseed oil. Per cent utilized Experiment No. 248, subject R. L.S.: Blanemange containing cottonseed oil. Per cent utilized Experiment No. 249, subject O. E.S.: Blanemange containing cottonseed oil. WenCeni tI Zed yao ascent eeeeoee Average food consumed per subject per day F : Carbohy- Weight. | Water. | Protein. Fat. AURSvioge Ash, Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. 1,241.0 584. 6 24.5 167.9 458. 7 8 775.0 69.8 82.1 11.6 599.1 12.4 1,118.0 971.5 9.0 2.2 129.7 5.6 WA SHON | eiereseayseel| rere ea te lel cheer cata ays WACLO Ws edcoradcs 3,312.0 1,625.9 115.6 181.7 1,365.5 23.3 OL iil eaere accuse 37.8 11.4 60.4 11.9 NRA ere (ey ee aa 77.8 170.3 | 1,305.1 11.4 |oaacsessonlaocesscoss 67.3 93.7 95.6 48.9 1,497.0 705.3 29.5 202. 5 B18) 6.4 359. 0 320 38. L 5.4 PN ond 1, 266.0 1,100.2 10.1 2, 0) 146.9 6.3 LOX OU IGNe eres Charcot alee neat ne TORO ee lee Nees 3,198.0 | 1,837.8 en 210.4 | 1,053.7 18.4 Ohta ue oe see 2.1 | 14.0 43.5 8.7 BeBosncceolosdeccasue 52.0 196.4 | 1,010.2 9.7 PRN EVEN aE, ca Palate ay os 66.9 93.3 95.9 52.7 2,112.0 995. 0 41.6 285.7 780.6 9.1 114.0 10.3 12 il i7 88.1 1.8 78. 4 4 2.4 136.6 5.9 NOZNON See sereer 3, 506.0 2, 029.0 63.1 289.8 1,107.3 16.8 BU on le ocacacdae 11.0 9.1 26.8 3.9 RPE a AI TE 52.1 280.7 | 1,080.5 12.9 2 ree Be eee 82.6 96.9 97.6 76.8 2,602.0 | 1,082.5 47.5 359.3 | 1,097.1 15.6 721.0 64.9 76.4 10.8 557.3 11.6 1,750.0 | 1,520.8 14.0 3.5 203.0 8.7 DOSS Oe Recs cen sel ee ea AL Ls eee I 2095 OF Ree eeeaee 5,282.0 | 2,668.2 137.9 373.6 | 2,066.4 35.9 LOSSO} Renee re: 40.5 22 89.4 13.9 epee Ee Sao seae 97.4 352.4 | 1,977.0 22.0 BR eee So \oc es Meas 70.6 94.3 95.7 61.3 2,162.0 899.3 39.5 298. 6 911.6 13.0 317.0 28.5 33.6 4.8 245.0 fl 1,657.0 | 1,489.9 13.3 Boe) 192.2 8.3 AOS aes ocousllaoeosonenulaossetoae. RG ONO pees 4,305.0 | 2,367.7 86.4 306.7 | 1,517.8 26. 4 ll Os aan seer §2.8 11.0 38.8 8.4 Nee Ve ee | Eg a a ene 33.6 295. 7 1,479.0 18.0 PERE eLloncecae acs 38.9 96.4 97.4 68. 2 2,005. 0 834.1 36.6 276.9 845.4 12.0 366. 0 32.9 38.8 5.5 282.9 5.9 1,229.0} 1,068.0 9.8 94,15) 142.6 6.1 SOO Ee ete des ey eau |B Eh ses eaga 89:103)|2 7 sae 3,689.0 | 1,935.0 85. 2 284.9 1,359.9 24.0 kes Oi incense meacer 37.0 13.4 20.2 7.4 ais wantrepeeee| Bemepseyee ees 48.2 271.5 1,339.7 16.6 Bimere ry bi Se hee 56.6 95.3 98.5 69. 2 2,725.0 | 1,133.6 49.7 376.3 | 1,149.0 16.4 433.0 39.0 45.9 6.5 334.7 6.9 1,745.0 1,516.4 14.0 Bee) 202. 4 8.7 SIS Oy | eeemrnete nent Prec mete aN stot ar TSPSOM SL oho 5, 084. 0 2,689.0 109.6 386.3 1,867.1 32.0 NOGBO |esoscecece 34.2 12.1 51.6 8.1 aictbie sieeve le eaereeteree tere 75.4 374.2 | 1,815.5 23.9 eee eer J2osseaceos 68.8 96.9 97.2 74.7 1, 280.9 685. 5 32.4 89.6 465.5 7.9 8 BULLETIN 505, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Summary of digestion experiments with cottonseed oil in a simple mixed diet. Experi- | : ene , Carbohy- ; ane No.| Subject. Protein. Fat. coe Ash. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. ESE Gs = 2 PRGUG is a eek os atten realoa fee Se 2 Ree 77.0 95.8 96. 4 64.6 EU ee eee PMD AG eS eerie onsite so hale [siskcd soak cae eee be 93.9 95.3 51.0 ee URES soe sere eae ee ses oe racie (=. cinch le.cie, Ss eee os See 66. 1 91.6 | 97.3 50.3 142-2 3.2: Sopa! PN RRS CA OB a ee ae CPE creer ta 70.8 95.8 96. 6 62.3 it: 6 eer Dt GG ohio e tetea e oa.s siais wd orale See ee ee 76.4 95.1 95. 2 58.0 14d ahs PID Guster sector ci seiiag ences cesse beets somes 67.3 93.7 $5. 6 48.9 (VG ine eae BUS G: Ss isos eae otek Saks we secede ae ce Oe eee 66.9 93.3 95.9 52.7 T4682 852 Ran DE ey Aa ee ore oe Lita... Susie an EEE eee 82.6 96.9 97.6 76.8 PAG ES ace INE. Bick Sega s Seam eee eae cis lenie oSidie cis sles oe 70. 6 94.3 95. 7 61.3 PAT een as DG Gee So Se erates Sects So Se eS eee 38.9 96.4 97.4 68. 2 DASE oie REGS 2225 Sees oe ea Bae cep cstsinas ce eee ees 56. 6 95.3 98. 5 69. 2 DAG We OD DNG Sioa rsseeeoeee see ot eet: eee 68. 8 96.9 97.2 | 74.7 94.9 96. 6 | 61.5 The average coefficient of digestibility of the fat, of which over © 96.3 per cent was cottonseed oil, was 94.9 per cent, while 67.8 per cent of the protein and 96.6 per cent of the carbohydrates were retained in the body. Making allowance for that portion of the ether extract designated metabolic products the actual availability of the cotton- seed oil becomes 97.6 per cent. In 9 of the 12 experiments the sub- jects reported that the feces were of a normal consistency. In experi- ments Nos. 142 and 247, in which 94 and 98 grams of cottonseed oil was consumed, the subjects reported that the feces were softer than normal. In experiment No. 249, however, in which 125 grams of cottonseed oil was eaten daily, the subject reported the diet as being constipating. Accordingly, it would seem that cottonseed oil does not act as a laxative when eaten in amounts not exceeding 125 grams daily. In view of the fact that 86 grams of cottonseed oil was eaten by each subject daily without digestive disturbances of any kind it is reasonable to conclude that cottonseed oil may be used freely for culinary or table purposes. PEANUT OIL. The total quantity of peanuts eaten is very large and it follows that the amount of oil eaten as an integral part of the nuts is also large. The partially separated oil as it occurs in peanut butter is easily recognized, and this, too, is eaten in quantity. The expressed oil has long been known for culinary and table purposes, and its use has increased in the United States as the methods of manufacture have improved. The only investigations of the food value of peanut oil of which accounts have been found in the literature are those of Moore’ on the relative digestibility of various edible fats and oils of vegetable origin, which showed that peanut oil was 86 per cent digested by guinea pigs. : Part of the oil used in the experiments reported in this bulletin was prepared by the Bureau of Chemistry of the United States Department of Agriculture, and the remainder was purchased in the open market. That obtained from the Bureau of Chemistry was 1 Loe. cit. DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME VEGETABLE FATS. 9 manufactured in its laboratories, and being freshly made was judged to be of most excellent quality. The commercial samples were much older, but were considered excellent in odor, flavor, and color. There was no apparent difference in the flavor of the two samples, which would seem to indicate that peanut oil which has been carefully han- died has good keeping qualities, and as no noteworthy differences in properties appeared in the digestion experiments no further reference will be made to the source of the oil used. Four different subjects assisted in the study of this fat, and the usual uniform and standardized conditions of conducting the work were maintained throughout the experiments. The results of the five tests are as follows: Data of digestion experiments with peanut oil in a simple mixed diet. Weight. Water. j Protein.| Fat. {,C2%O | ach. | hydrates. Experiment No. 30, subject J. N. F.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. 1,918.0 | 1,037.0 47.8 340.6 481.2 11.4 241.0 21.7 25.5 3.6 186.3 3-9 1,002.0 847.7 4.0 5.0 142.3 3.0 EP Ud ee cornea) bee eeeeens [Pe eeatee S210) hy se. aes 3,213.0} 1,906.4 77.3 349. 2 861.8 18.3 CREO esaecencs 23.8 8.8 27.2 8.2 ie on toe rere AM Jne-eeecee- 53.5 340. 4 | 834.6 10.1 emeormuicilized sb 2807... seals. oad: TOR 69.2 97.5 96.8 55.2 Experiment No. 31, subject W. E. L.: | Blancmange containing peanut oil.....| 1,476.0 797.0 36.9 262.5 370.9 8.7 Wires biscuits ne hehe Ses lhe. eee 26.0 | 2.3 2.8 0.4 20. 1 0.4 PAUL eyeyatsioe le sec erasiamsta= see ead Se ee 1,000.0 846.0 4.0 5.0 142.0 3.0 SUPaiem eee stece s-nrese cet -ebijatcsee LASOy| Peete per oe soe ce os cis eset WER) easacancod Tota) food consumed. ..-..---.-- 2,645.0 | 1,645.3 43.7 267.9 676.0 12.1 Heeces mp e reie eee Stee els ree Giaele 3270) (eee ects 11.4 6.4 10.5 3.7 AiGytNE TINO Olek sc eoeedoneleeeoSe aad |pauaocecce|+sepcabeda 32.3 261.5 665.5 8.4 IP (gir Gadi WACO. - coene ec cs cee enssadesease=oee lsoeccacecn 73.9 97.6 98.4 69. 4 Experiment No. 32, subject W. A. D.: | i Blanemange containing peanut oil....-| 1,833.0 1,022.4 47.2 332.6 469.7 li.1 WiheaiiibisCuit =.) 22sec -cee nee cenaece 442.0 39.8 46.8 6.6 341.7 setioe: PRT EEE bayer sae (os cyeyose iciseeS cies beeee bee 819.0 | 692.9 3.3 4.1 116.3 2.4 SUREIOo Scan secre ee Secon ORCS SSeS aeeree GE |lesoncossce eotecconas|eoseeoeaad (eB |joss-seea =e Total food consumed...-..-..--- 35 21270)) 1750. 1 97.3 343.3 995.7 20.6 IRE COS Maes ares nameersars ee issaiseinisin slave cele (830) eee 18.1 13.4 36.7 9.8 PACT O UNG LUTZ Oday eerie ae ste ss ese aca =a Sela oe eee 79.2 329.9 959.0 10.8 Per cent utilized..............-. Nera. ee Hay gl.4| 96.1 96.3 52.4 Experiment No. 36, subject J. N. F.: li Blanemange containing peanut oil.....| 1,787.0 | 1,059.3 43.4 275.8 397.2 11.3 Wheat biscuit | 20.2 23.7 3.4 173.1 3.6 Fruit 1,321.8 12.2 3.0 176.4 7.6 SYS. SoC Sais tG a oe SETS ea eae eee aa Pm OSU Uae Sa a I eee ee 40:0) |Heseetacee 5 SON) 2.40183 79.3 282. 2 786. 7 22.5 OCIGs Sean SDC deR Re ane eater CG onene 1830 Bescon ee 18.1 W727) 31.5 10.7 AONE EIZE ds Meee oe aeote sea cecess |e. sec Dera eur saa re 61.2 264.5 755. 2 11.8 wericemtotiiacder sane Jono eats: |: Seen ee eons TAD OS er 96.0 52.4 Experiment No. 37, subject J. V. C.: | Blanemange containing peanut oil....-| 1,704.0 | 1,010.7 41.6 262.9 377.8 11.0 Wailea biSCii te ee ay tes eaters Ses 291.0 | 26.2 30.8 4.4 224.9 4.7 TET IUI arp eee DE a oe 1,442.0 | 1,253.1 11.5 2.9 167.3 n2 SERIF > .coccmcoseccesepene aeaeyaseorneg PaO O) | oconsepcos|sarsescneelesosacacse PBNAD) lsoncossce= / — Total food consumed-.-....------ 3,668.0} 2,290.0 83.9 270.2} 1,001.0 22.9 ECES fahe ates aaryeeme se aclncise ers peters s aie W810) ee Se os 20.0 12.7 32.6 120 PAMTOUT UTED Zed 2 see Se esos oe = ce esl 2 acme see senesaseas 63.9 257.5 968. 4 10.2 ICH COMbsUbIMZ CG el iace severe ae soeee siae| a coisas | EB ELS cls 76. 2 95.3 96. 7 | 44.5 | : } Average food consumed per subject perday.| 1,087.3 666.5 25, 4 100.9 288.1 | 6.4 70069°—Bull. 505—17——2 10 BULLETIN 505, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Summary of digestion experiments with peanut oil in a simple mixed diet. Experi- P . Carbo- ment xi: | Subject. Protein. Fat. hydrates. Ash. te Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cay Per cent. 3 RPUN IS tele pape eee IN a els crcle eaten f sidle ms ote winless ele ates Je? 5G) 96. 55. SLOAN, gee eter cee cheats cee oars 2.523 sunt ee eee eee 73.9 97.6 98.4 69.4 SEM SNe Dea? 2 A ee ae ene er esis ee 81.4 96.1 96.3 52. 4 3 GNM el ls eed I Bah SINE i re a Reo, 77.2 93.7 96.0 52.4 BZ, IN ca ee oe wiats wnitctaroei crema istae wis. cee s dol webeesaenoee 76.2 95.3 96. 7 44.5 96.8 54.8 Approximately 98 grams of peanut oil or 97 per cent of the total amount of fat in this diet was eaten per subject per day, and as the coefficient of availability, 96 per cent, implies, the fat was very com- pletely assimilated. This value is increased somewhat by correct- ing for metabolic products, from which it is calculated that peanut oil is 98.3 per cent digested. The protein and carbohydrate in the ration were also well utilized, for by way of comparison it has been found that in the total food of the ordinary mixed diet 92 per cent of the protein, 95 per cent of the fat, and 97 per cent of the carbohydrate are retained by the body.! As the subjects reported no unusual effects as a result of eating this diet, and as no laxative effect was observed, it is apparent that peanut oil of good quality is a useful food, which can be eaten in the same quantities and can be as thoroughly digested as those fats and ous at present most commonly used in the diet. COCONUT OIL. Coconut oil is obtained from the fruit of the palm Cocos nucifera. In recent years it has become rather widely known and is assuming considerable importance as a culinary and table fat. It is used in the commercial baking trade more commonly than it is for household purposes and to some extent in the preparation of butter substitutes. The digestibility of coconut oil has not been extensively studied. Bourot and Jean? carried on a series of experiments with subjects who received foods prepared first with natural butter and then with coconut butter. They concluded that the vegetable product was somewhat more thoroughly assimilated than was butter, the former being 98 per cent and the latter 96 per cent digested. In a series of tests of 28 days’ duration, divided into a fore period of 7 days, a 14-day experimental period, and an after period of 7 days, Von Gerlach ? found that purified coconut oil, called ‘‘sanella,”’ and true butter were both 97 per cent digested. Liihrig 4 reports a similar study in which different amounts of so-called coconut butter designed for use as a butter substitute were 1 Connecticut Storr’s Sta. Rpt. 1901, p. 245. 2 Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. [Paris], 123 (1896), No. 16, pp. 587-590. 3 Ztschr. Phys. u. Dititet. Ther., 12 (1908-9), No. 2, pp. 102-110. 4 Ztschr. Untersuch. Nahr. u. Genussmtl., 2 (1899), No. 8, pp. 622-632. - eaten in a simple mixed diet. In one of the tests 136 grams of the fat was consumed daily for three days, and in the second 90 grams per day for the same length of time. In the first test the fat was 97 per cent available and in the second, 96 per cent was assimilated. Seven experiments are reported in this paper to compare the digestibility of coconut oil with that of other edible fats, and four experienced subjects assisted in the work. Under conditions custom- ary in these tests, the data have been collected and are summarized in the following tables: - DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME VEGETABLE FATS. ° iia Data of digestion experiments with coconut oil in a simple mized diet. Weight. | Water. | Protein. Fat. hy ainess Ash. | ) Experiment No. 175, subject D. G. G.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blanemange containing coconut oil.-.-| 1,057.0 498. 6 19.8 108. 9 424.1 5.6 ae 656. 0 59.1 69.5 9.8 507.1 10.5 660. 0 573.5 5.3 1.3 76.6 3.3 NOGRQilbos ase con lecaecoaeee SAREE eseae IDEA benssocee= Total food consumed......-.-.--- 2,498.0 | 1,131.2 94.6 120.0 | 1,132.8 19.4 HG CES Eee seine icine sca ccc ese = ne OS On sees neers: 28.4 8.5 52.4 8.7 PART OUT LIZ EG een tase ee siesinss > =o a| oe BS om he leseeszesse 66. 2 111.5} 1,980.4 10.7 iS @aint) CENT cals ue a a re ea 70.0 92.9 95.4 55.2 Experiment No. 176, subject R. L. S.: Blancmange containing coconut oil...-| 1,518.0 716. 0 28.5 156. 4 609. 1 8.0 WVHeTiRDISGULbee se. 2 ones sae esos oe 293. 0 26.4 31.0 4.4 226. 5 4.7 INU ore Cer eee es a ee 1,335.0 | 1,160.1 10.7 2.7 154. 8 6.7 SUPA ea pee kone eekuacics dc vei. sales TAOS tess eet os | eer ee area 17 EOH ee oa ates Total food consumed....--.----- 3,273.0 | 1,902.5 70.2 163.5.| 1,117.4 19.4 PHO CES maetepee aac rater le usc Saisie are ce wie PAS Us (ei eke ee 26.3 13.6 30. 5 8.7 PNET OUT ETAZEGs sja< ae lace wae ee eee te eee ae 43.9 150.0 | 1,086.9 10.7 IReECemuUllIZed s/s 2)2 5s Gaz eeee eee os ess cele eee 62.5 91.7 97.3 55. 2 Experiment No. 177, subject O. E. S.: Blanemange containing coconut cil. 1,741.0 821.2 32.7 179.3 698. 6 9.2 Wheat biscuit.........- Jesetishws siiaee 98. 0 8.8 10.4 1.5 75.7 1.6 INTOIIES oa eset ese e Teco: SoOrer rare 1,398.0 | 1,214.9 11.2 2.8 162.1 7.0 RULE Ro aoe Seg od ROB eee ee eee STiOo | Bas eee ee see seeoeecloosecs once 370 ease cess Total food consumed......--..--- 3,274.0} 2,044.9 54.3 183. 6 973.4 17.8 WCC ES mei re Meher mine eee ses. Ee Ble Ose teeet ee 25.0 8.3 36. 6 7.1 PMT OUT UIIZM be meee eee seo: =| nese a veal nee 29.3 175.3 936. 8 10.7 if OIC LEIIZOM = mee pees pate = sere seep ones = Shae peee eee 54.0 95.5 96. 2 60.1 Experiment No. 178, subject R. F. T.: Blanecmange containing coconut oil...-| 1,460.0 688. 7 27.4 150.4 585. 8 7.7 Wheat iisemithonsc- crocs gin. ee 74. 0 6.7 7.8 1.1 57. 2 1.2 INGLE 4 CS SaC Bee agen eOEeEe enone espe 1,317.0; 1,144.5 10.5 2.6 152. 8 6.6 Sugars cece ce se Seep aa Naccicceeeeset - L395 07 | terse eee eee as ce nik a ar T39U0# |Sat et ceee Total food consumed........-.-.- 2,990.0 | 1,839.9 45.7 154.1 934. 8 15.5 Feces. .-.-.-. SE SEE Seo BARREN neS nae O2A0N Reap eee 13.8 (enh 24.8 5.7 « PMT OUT ELD UZ EC etary apa nae oer | sos 5 se | eee 31.9 146. 4 910. 0 9.8 paverieialized espe. ue aes 2. |:.. |. sccm 69.8 95.0 97.3. 63.2 Experiment No. 199, subject D. G. G.: Blanemange containing coconut oil. -- -| 863. 0 398.9 16.7 90.9 350. 2 6.3 Witteatsbiscmiti22 lovers eh ani ae | 525. 0 47.2 55. 7 7.9 405. & 8.4 TET AUI See ee ey te ee 396. 0 344.1 3. 2 0.8 45.9 2.0 SEL Ape acine Cee eee Serene seine - VG 208 erste ee eee pee aa oN aaa 8 P16 250) eee Total food consumed..-....----- 1,946.0 790. 2 75.6 99.6| 963.9 16.7 GUIs debe casedise Se BUOSn pe aae He sabesNe O4 507 acacia eae 28. 8 11.9 44.8 8.5 PAHIOUEN A EHIZEd seecnne ert cee naee tn 2 dS eae Senne 46.8 87.7 919.1 8.2 FE GHCOULUIIZOM ale tesa ces sace a aacoe |e ee eae oes 61.9 88.1 95.4 49.1 12 BULLETIN 505, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Data of digestion experiments with coconut oil in a simple mixed diet—Continued. Weight. | Water. | Protein.| Fat. |,C2™O- | Ash, hydrates. Experiment No. 200, subject R. L. S.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blancmange containing coconut oil... - 1,537.0 710. 4 29.8 161.9 623.7 WW ROE ee so5 2 sf oc seoenseeeedede 6. 32.9 38. : Per cent utilized Experiment No. 201, subject O. E. S.: cia s cae Blanemange containing coconut oil... . 1,841.0 850.9 35.7 193.9 747.1 13.4 Wheat bisetit. ss scccesecce sit cesses 5 : 5 .8 3. 3.0 PU be iooe ae sase Lawes aete ee eee oe : 4 8.6 SEG eee ae OR 86 SER ee heroes Total food consumed IN OCOS) aceon cate secen adem e oemca nee Amount utilized Per cent utilized Experiment No. 202, subject R. F. T.: Dita hia. Sins. |. Blancmange containing coconut oil....| 1,247.0 576.4 24.2 131.3 506. 0 9.1 Wiheat DISCHIt 8 -. case ane aaceoeese ee 62.0 5.6 6.6 0.9 47.9 1.0 INTULG eiece tsa see Se ee eee 1,412.0} 1,227.0 11.3 2.8 163.8 (oi Stiga sBeds doc canun ile son tere ee fe 78 0a) eee | Ne et eeaeoleae NEO Sade teee Total food consumed...........- 2,833.0} 1,809.0 42.1 135.0 829.7 17.2 WOCOSH Sacer ae eee cee ee eae eee SoU sscecadeos 10.5 6.1 16.2 4.2 Aart WER ote cosy gdecoee as Shs cree [are See ee | ee ae 31.6 128.9 813.5 13.0 POT CONTI ZOU ae occas kee nic OF | | sere ae See ee 75.1 95.5 | 98.0 75.6 Experiment No. 222, subject D. G. G.: pra | PRED | OE | | Blanemange containing coconut oil.... 1,625.0 744.2 30.5 238. 7 600. 2 11.4 Wiheati biscuits sic ciccostecscsee eenee 490.0 44.1 51.9 7.4 378.8 7.8 TULL GE isn aoe See eee eee hen 965.0 838.6 7.7 1.9 112.0 4.8 SUPA ee hee seo senate eee ZLON OM ees eel ge i al | PAOLO) beeaoree Total food consumed............ 3,290.0 | 1,626.9 90.1 248.0 | 1,301.0 24.0 ROCOS! Sasee eh = Be hese eee ee ee 84. Oli eeeese 25.8 9.5 41.3 7.4 sAMIOU TEE WALZ seer ee = eras een a ee eee eee 64.3 238.5 | 1,259.7 16.6 Pericentartilized: 2262. oe eke i eel Se eee | ee 71.4 96. 2 96.8 69. 2 Experiment No. 223, subject R. L. S.: ems aE as Blancmange containing coconut oil... 1, 847.0 845.9 34.7 271.3 682. 2 12.9 Wiheatibiscuitcee: teeeere ee ee eee 290.0 26.1 30.7 4.4 224.2 4.6. MOP UENO! fate rowel os eee ere ene ee 1,065.0 925.5 8.5 2.1 123.6 5.3 PULA. Sees ccm kept ox cee eee Oe US Bt aeeeeeers Sa sors coda) ascaereous S6SOR Eeeeasecae Total food consumed............ 3,298.0 | 1,797.5 73.9 277.8 | 1,126.0 22.8 COS ee cnet ene eames og amen. clan 93.0 hee seine 29.0 17.5 36.7 9.8 PATTIOLN GU CUIZOM. ele cee eee aed: ene ae eee ee 44.9 260.3 ; 1,089.3 13.0 Per cent utilized................. Wen Serie rarer Sh 60.8 93.7 96.7 57.0 Experiment No. 224, subject O. E.S.: iia eis Ga. Blancmange containing coconut oil... . 2,678.0 | 1,226.5 50. 2 393. 4 989.1 18.8 Wiheat Discuite se en ccsteecoseene 263.0 PEY TS 27.9 3.9 203.3 4.2 OPLLUG 2 oroistere tite oe ee mee senso sae e 1,449.0 | 1,259.2 11.6 2.9 168.1 7.2 SUPaT sae cat ete ee ee eee eens 1960)... Ree. ees | ere NGGAOE ere cise Total food consumed............ 4,586.0 | 2,509.4 89.7 400.2} 1,556.5 30. 2 CCGG ao ios ones slaves neon eae eee 963:0))|). eee AS 26.9 14.9 46.6 7.6 AmMOuN tized si ee ee ee reel ose sees | eee 62.8 385.3 | 1,509.9 22.6 Per cent utilized........2.22.0.20.-04- ee ine MN laa: 97.0 74.8 Experiment No. 225, subject R. F. T.: up Lr | eae | aa Blanemange containing coconut oil... 1,696.0 776.8 31.8 249.1 626. 4 11.9 Wheat biscuit 25.5 os ae 221.0 19.9 23.4 3.3 170.8 3.6 ODL so he iy aetete ee see met clo oe Ee ere 1,317.0 | 1,144.5 10.5 2.6 152.8 6.6 PSUR EM te erg cad cieree ras shia oeicin a he ee oe es 1300! |. see te ethe| oo eee Soe LETOS CU Ea ere Total food consumed............ 3,364.0 | 1,941.2 65.7 255.0 | 1,080.0 22.1 LE as Se ey ae, .. , ae (iM esa anicisen 20.8 18.7 29.5 9.0 At 1G) 38117164) 1107.10 (ts oe, eee eee pies Ce a Be 44.9 236.3] 1,050.5 13.1 Gigs (421017 ee Ro ae) REY We cs a 68.3 92.7| 97.3 59.3 Average food consumed per subject per day aia 047.7 578.9 23.4 66. 8 aaa yf 9 DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME VEGETABLE FATS. 13 Summary of digestion experiments with coconut oil m a simple mixed diet. Experi- ae a Subject. Protein. | Fat. fees Ash. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. FEE ae TDi GG Rte Se es a a er gE mr NE ot 70. 0 92.9 95. 4 5d. WAGE Sees Fig Lbs Sha ES ei Seta a LE Es ae eee ete Bete 2. fe hae te 62.5 91.7 97.3 55. 2 Witenes Qo TO TSI is ci eI ep Sa apne ye ey ha 54.0 95.5 96.2 60.1 essere TR LE as ts eee A ne SE Iai 69.8 95.0 97.3 63. 2 199. _|| Ds Gio Gissigue.c65e dace eee oe ene e i bate bi 61.9 88.1 95. 4 49.1 PAN eee § Ro dle SSS aes Ss Se See eae eed Oe ee es Se 53.9 90.6 96. 2 39.3 240) ty a ©. Ths SiGe pct cae Gene eee Sartre Ree ee eee eee 57.0 94.1 96.6 62.4 UGA, Maree Bho IRS 4h datas See aoc ERC era noe ise (fo. 1 95.5 98. 0 75.6 Cp ea SED ) IDS Goes Si Per Rees ees Bee, os eee oe ere oh ne 71.4 96.2 96.8 69. 2 poReaeses | TRe 1c Sines oA Genelec tee ain ieee tate 60. 8 93.7 96.7 57.0 OAR Se | Qs Big Sis crate meee A Sasa ae ie ef Cpe a 70.0 96.3 97.0 74.8 Vip Jaye FE fem ean cee ee IL ep 68.3 | 92.7 97.3 59.3 PANY OTE PO Sr arctan isin a sito cra sl oere eye ae el 64.5 93.5 96.7 60. 0 On an average 64.6 grams of coconut oil was eaten daily and was well digested by the four subjects in these experiments, the average coefficient of digestibility being 93.5 per cent. The coefficient of availability is increased to 97.9 per cent by correcting for the meta- bolic products occurring in conjunction with the unutilized fat in the ether extract of the feces. In experiment No. 224, with subject O. E.5., a relatively large amount of the fat, 131 grams per day, was even more completely assimilated and, as evidenced by the report, produced no abnormal alimentary symptoms. In fact, no one of the subjects reported any laxative condition. The protein and carbohydrates were 64.5 per cent and 96.7 per cent available to the body, values which compare favorably with the thoroughness of digestion of these constituents usually found in similar tests. It may be reasonably concluded on the basis of these results that coconut oil is suited to serve satisfactorily for food oe SESAME OIL. The seeds of the sesame plant (Sesamum indicum) yield when sub- jected to pressure an oil very similar in properties to cottonseed oil. Sesame oil is not produced in the United States for culinary purposes, although it is well known elsewhere and is imported to some extent for use by those who have become accustomed to its use in other countries. Although tests of its digestibility have not been found on record, it is evident from a knowledge of oriental food habits and diets that sesame oil is well known as a useful food in the far eastern countries. The experiments herein reported were undertaken in order that the comparative results obtained with the vegetable fats might be as comprehensive as possible. The same methods were employed in these tests as with the other fats, and four subjects took part in the work. The experimental data are recorded below: 14 BULLETIN 505, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Data of digestion experiments with sesame oil in a simple mixed diet. Weight. | Water. | Protein.| Fat. | C@®Pohy-) acy. Experiment No. 325, subject O. E. S.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams Grams. Blanecmange containing sesame oil....-| 2,052.0 | 1,000.1 44.9 245.4 752. 1 9.5 Wheat biscuit 4. 35. ‘ 5: K 6.3 7 5 f 6.9 2.7 8.7 4.0 61.7 8.8 7.0 5. 2 98. .7 | 1,499.9 21.0 HECES Sie ee Siro bas ea a ee ae ee ISAO) eas coed 43.9 21.6 53.2 1263 Amount UtWIZEd {as-oseeh eee oes see |se eee esses caeemees 54. 8 286.1 | 1,446.7 8.7 Percent utilized) reset eer eee eae is Sees 5b. 5 93.0 96.5 41.4 Experiment No. 331, subject D. G. G.: 9 sae a8 Blancmange containing sesame oil... - - 1,409.0 640. 5 29.0 196. 4 537.3 5.8 Wihea bis cuitta snes ase a ee 594. 0 53. 4 63. 0 8.9 459. 2 9.5 TUG See ers cece eae ae eee 489.0 424.9 3.9 1.0 56. 7 2.5 SHESLe Sees ie a eet eee Seats 1360.25 ok: ee eepere Meee eee IG Oe sesacease Total food consumed...--.---.-- 2,628.0) 1,118.8 95.9 206.3 | 1,189.2 17.8 I OCOS ats a Aina Oreste Byes pact arate S45 ON ees er 41.6 16.2 65. 7 10.5 Armounitilized ae mae te tere ss elena See emacs | Ee een 54.3 190.1 | 1,123.5 io IPeriGeniniblizedenss eee eee ena eee Bed te 56. 6 | 92.1 94.5 41.0 Experiment No. 332, subject R. L. S.: ; % Blanemange containing sesame oil. 2, 028. 0 921.9 41.8 282. 7 Midas 8.3 Wiha tibisciitwr.. see seins ot se cere 382. 0 34.4 40.5 Dull 295.3 6.1 1D) [BDA ea jp enn cient eis, Mets ey tot or 601. 0 522.3 4.8 a2 69. 7 3.0 Sagar ss eee cee sce cme ees ae EO eae Pn deal ood sasas D2 AO) eaters aise Total food consumed..-.-.-..----- 3,133.0} 1,478.6 87.1 289.6] 1,260.3 17.4 TH OCOS Bian a ote oiep ciate winchester iia PO esses: aieise 32.7 16.5 36.5 9.3 ATIOUMTIbIIZ ed Pee eats Feet eie nies 2 aaa | eee oh 54.4 273.1 | 1,228.8 8.1 Par cont ubilizedo sees cee cs cokes 58ers | eS 62.5 ginal eeakorar 46.6 Experiment No. 333, subject O. E. S.: $ a3 9a Blanemange containing sesame oil...-.| 2,291.0} 1,041.5 47.2 319. 4 873.5 9.4 iWiheat biscuits ee ssaeen eae e as eee 411.0 37. 43. 6 6.1 317.7 6.6 Tbs eh toate heise eee sees 1,274.0} 1,107.1 10. 2 2.5 147.8 6.4 SULal. < Se ceheseeceeeec.e cee se >: eee BYE ee naaiee acm ccs cellanehocasoc S710) (0) ee be soote Total food consumed...--..-..--- 4,296.0] 2,185.6 101.0 328.0} 1,659.0 22.4 OCG BS A ape Ammen Ache a SEIS Iam gm se LAO eee 36. 6 18. 2 51.1 11.1 ATH OUTUDUUIZEd eye er eee lemon ee ser ees | eee 64.4 309.8 | 1,607.9 11.3 Pencentibilizeds Ve ets et es ee een eee een Sea 63.8 94 5 96.9 50. 4 Average food consumed per subject per day | 1,191.4 595. 9 fl 32.0 | 92. 4 464.4 6.7 Summary of digestion experiments with sesame oil in a simple mixed diet. * Ae Subject. Protein. Fat. Carney, Ash. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Opec eer ORE Be a oko ees. coe eas Oe ee ees 68. 4 95. 3 97.3 61.7 Oavecaencs ENEMIES a 2c ales istn caja SERS otare oe eR Cees eee 55.5 93. 0 96.5 41.4 Boles ewe GEG) Foe ee als nts ere eeetcte scr ee aia eRe eee ete 56. 6 92.1 94.5 AL.0 Dose LR DL Gs ge peat ts Ah eer ap mean: Manne ho ls 62.5 94.3 97.1 AG. 6 BOO se alate COIS sistas meen croucw ote oie aie eis alee se ox 6 ee cles one ete 63. 8 94.5 96. 9. 50. 4 Tevetape eet Ree es ooh ee _ Peta |eaaae 96.5 48.2 DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME VEGETABLE FATS. 15 The results of these tests indicate that sesame oil compares favor- ably with the preceding vegetable fats as regards thoroughness of digestion. Of the total fat in the diet, 93.8 per cent was available while 61.4 and 96.5 per cent of the protein and carbohydrates were utilized by the body. The revised value for the digestibility of sesame oil alone, allowing for metabolic products, is 98 per cent. The amount of sesame oil eaten per subject daily was 90 grams, and in one case, experiment No. 333 with subject O. HE. S., 106 grams of the fat was consumed daily without apparent physiological aversion, and when eaten in amounts not exceeding 106 grams daily it appar- ently produces no laxative effect. Sesame oil, therefore, may be considered a useful food. COCOA BUTTER. Cocoa butter is obtained as a by-product of the manufacture of cocoa from the cocoa bean, the fruit of Theobroma cacao. The product is @ hard, yellowish fat of the odor of cocoa and has an agreeable taste and rather low melting pomt. Compared with other vegetable fats cocoa butter is relatively expensive and for this reason no doubt it is little used as such in the preparation of food products, although large quantities of cocoa butter are eaten as an intimate constituent of chocolate. As no neteworthy records of physiological tests of this fat have been found in the review of the literature it is hoped that the results of these experiments may be of special value. The fat, already used in quantity in the making of confectionery, may assume importance in other ways when it is possible to have a definite opimion regarding the dietetic value of chocolate (retaining the cocoa fat) and cocoa (rom which fat has been removed). The experimental data are recorded in the following table: Data of digestion experiments with cocoa butter in a simple mixed diet. : s Carbo- Weight. | Water. | Protein. Fat. hydrates. Ash. Experiment No. 167, subject D. G. G.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blanemange containing cocoa butter..| 1,315.0 594.3 23.0 180.8 511.1 5.8 WWiheatibiscuitis. ja42 s55-2- soe see ee 497.0 44.7 52. 7.4 384. 2 8.0 INAH hos Seno OR BRO DBE ee een SC aee ene 611.0 531.0 4.9 1.2 70.9 3.0 DUA TE eet cere ce ose oem tue e ats ABO Sees eenosallacuossacccissasesests IEW Weaaassbace Total food consumed.......-.-- 2,614.0 | 1,170.0 80.6 189.4 | 1,157.2 16.8 WOGNEog cebaeoeoaCane CEoe LECeC eae EAE ZL eects 30. 2 13.3 57.8 10.7 PANIIT OUT GULL GUT Ze Ce Ne RN OE 2c Ne | ear re rape 50. 4 176.1 | 1,099.4 6.1 PE CTACE TAC RUTUL Ze Gi aaye maser s ee tc bal aoe Meal 22 ee 62.5 93.0 95.0 36.3 Experiment No. 168, subject R. L. 8.: r ‘ Blancmange containing cocoa butter..| 1,310.0 592.0 22.9 180.1 509. 2 5.8 WiheatbISCUite Geese see tates see 291.0 26. 2 30.8 4.4 224.9 4.7 TEOMA ey thes OT RIAA TAT a aL 1,232.0 | 1,070.6 9.8 2.5 142.9 6.2 SRE Gobo Ce Rt es AE ROE Ae E Eee ROBISON eee there oleracea ta ae ee 6350) Sema seuais Total food consumed.........-.- 2,896.0] 1,688.8 63.5 187.0 940. 0 16.7 COS Baap i as eee anemia ernie Tc AS Qi lie edie state 25.6 19. 2 30. 8.7 PASTLOUIG Mi bUlLZ OC eee ied ey aias base eccle Led A Sia a en 37.9 167.8 909. 5 8.0 SRETACO TUG TILAIL Ze Cl esp mesta a peer yo ts af AN NED OUA cae 59.7 89.7 96.8 47.9 16 BULLETIN 505, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Data of digestion experiments with cocoa butter in a simple mixed diet—Continued. Weight. | Water. | Protein.| Fat. {,C2™PO- | ash. hydrates. Experiment No. 169, subject O. E.S.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blancmange containing cocoa butter..| 1,465.0 662. 0 25.6 201.4 569. 6.5 Wheat biscuit. 2itpeaccteesine ences. =e 83. 0 7.5 8.8 1.2 64.2 1.3 REM ys cacie nema o aime eneee cindece ws 1,392.0] 1,209.6 11.1 2.8 161.5 7.0 Supers ee eyesore ee eke esecce eee 8.00 [2 sine ic nis eects | eee ees GSsOs| Ree eee sees Total food consumed..........-- 3,008.0 | 1,879.1 45.5 205.4 863.2 ROCESS ene eho eanen Caen esis G8iOU Pees Saas 18.9 16.3 26.2 Amount ltihzed =o sckacccsnacessoac selene Seeeeeleeee neces 26.6 189.1 837.0 Wer cent utilized’: 2% S285. See e oe Bee Ea 58.5 92.1 97.0 Experiment No. 170, subject R. F. T.: Blancmange containing cocoa butter..| 1,391.0 628. 6 24,3 191.3 540.7 Wheat biscuit.........--.-----0:-+.. 71.0 6.4 7.5 1.1 54.9 NOD bet So eaciossceseresecsentecocares 1,459.0 | 1,267.9 Thy 7 2.9 169.2 ESTE EEE: pe ey see an epee) kere Uh as PALO aS Stee ae ee eet 141.0 Total food consumed..........-- 3,062.0} 1,902.9 43.5 195.3 905.8 RECESS ee Sa eR Oe areeiBas Seis aera GSO) eee setoe 13.8 11.4 29.8 Amount mtilizeds oo2 sons epic sa cence sees | Se eee 29.7 183.9 876.0 Percent Utilized = ss sae swash has os see ee tees heroes 68.3 94.2 96.7 Experiment No. 191, subject D. G. G.: Blancmange containing cocoa butter... 582.0 261.7 10.4 80.6 225.9 Wiheat DISCULE 5 ncicen ss ccmeene cee ee 509. 0 45.8 54.0 7.6 393.5 PPG eps. cock. cdewe sees oseeee me eee 432.0 375.4 3.4 0.9 50.1 SUGBE oe Sasser cece sawe cease coe T8950" | ic srseleee ne | eee ee beer eeeete 189.0 Total food consumed..........-- 1,712.0 682.9 67.8 89.1 858. 5 MOCOSS aoe. Naan Soe eae eS 69.03 Keteeoee: 21.6 9.4 31.2 AMONG UU ZEW sons cece ce ene eee eee | een eae eee eee ee 46.2 79.7 827.3 Pericentutilized(.)- a5: oe eines eas oc ee eee | aaa 68.1 89.5 96.4 Experiment No. 192, subject R. L.S.: Blancmange containing cocoa butter. . 812.0 365.2 14.5 112.4 315.1 Wiheat; biscuits sense ae ene i neeees 564.0 50.7 59.8 8.5 436.0 MMM ceo etece cob se reese eee coe 1,372.0 | 1,192.3 11.0 2.7 159.1 Spans essences e ccs eeee een oso ae ee 1.23::0) |k. ocSteeeecls oetien ees Cee eee 123.0 Total food consumed.....-.-..-- 2,871.0 | 1,608.2 85.3 123.6 | 1,033.2 RO COS see oes oie chee ne oo ee eee ee 11410 eee Slog 25.8 41.5 Amountrurtilized’. G25s.) a2. oes cemeces hee emeoees Cee eeercs 53.6 97.8 991.7 Per: cent Mtilized ss seeee cs cscinct ic cise nen ae oe cen eee eeeeee 62.8 79.1 96.0 Experiment No. 193, subject O. E. S.: Blancmange containing cocoa butter.. 1, 230.0 553. 1 22.0 170. 2 477.3 Wiest bisciit= ie aence eee oaeeoe 127.0 11.4 13.5 19 98. 2 LONE ae eres ee = eres eee 1,482.0 | 1,287.9 11.8 3.0 171.9 Sugar 2.4 lassen she pope ceceee ees seer O80 eeeieete owlleigisiciee won eepReRees 198.0 Total food consumed.......-.... 3,037.0 | 1,852.4 47.3 175.1 945. 4 MOCES oF a ataepeis emcee cee uae neee 40..0)\|-- 25sec ser 11.9 7.9 15.9 Amount wtilized |... oS. bostiockeek ae |e lenest occ eee eee 3m 4 167.2 929.5 Percent ttilized oc 57 are ccs aewcis ora a bia ae Saeeistte | eee 74.8 95. 5 98.3 Experiment No. 194, subject R. F. T.: Blancmange containing cocoa butter. 807.0 362. 9 14.4 111.7 313.2 Wiest biscuits 5-0. sec. eee eas 93.0 8.4 9.8 1.4 71.9 BY 2S ae ean ere a er 24) Detailedisummany.-* +4. 2252-2. Seen ee 37 TO ces eater See Sea E ee eee emer 25 | Appendix—1914 statistics.........0......2... 42 TOBIN SAN cha ae ie Sas Ue aR 25 INTRODUCTION. Detailed statistics on the 1915 production of lumber, lath, and shingles are given in this bulletin. Preliminary statements issued in the spring of 1916 summarized the data for the early informa- tion of the lumber trade. There is now presented a permanent and complete record of the 1915 lumber cut, with comparisons of the production in that year with previous years. Nore.—Acknowledgment for assistance in compiling the bulletin is due R. S. Kel- logg, secretary National Lumber Manufacturers’ Association: A. B. Strough, New York Conservation Commission; P. T. Coolidge, New Jersey Department of Conservation and Development; and the following members of the Forest Service: F. H. Smith, A. H. Pierson, C. M. Granger, C. W. Gould, C. A. Kupfer, H. N. Knowlton, and A. L. Brower. 69849°—Bull. 506—17—_—_1 2 -BULLETIN 506, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This bulletin is one of a series issued annually, covering the years 1905 to 1915, inclusive, with the exception of 1914. Data for that year were compiled by the Bureau of the Census in coop- eration with the Forest Service, and the totals announced early in 1916. A detailed summary of the 1914 lumber cut is given in the appendix. The 1913 lumber census was conducted by the Forest Service in cooperation with the Bureau of Crop Estimates, and the results published as United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 232. The work for the other years mentioned above, except 1905, was done by the Bureau of the Census in cooperation with the Forest Service, and the results issued as a Forest Service bulletin for 1906 and as Census bulletins for 1907 to 1912, inclusive. The Forest Service secured the data and issued the report for 1905. Statistics on lumber cut were also secured by the Census for the quinquennial year 1904 and decennial years 1899, 1889, etc., back to 1850. The detailed results appear in the Cnr rane fe those years. The Bureau of the Census discontinued annual lumber-cut sta- tistics after 1912 because of lack of funds, but the quinquennial census of manufactures covering 1914 included the lumber industry, with the exception of custom and very small mills. In securing figures for lumber production in 1915 the National Lumber Manufacturers’ Association agreed to cooperate financially, provided figures on the total cut would be issued before May 1, 1916. This condition was fulfilled. It was necessary to rely chiefly upon correspondence in securing reports from the mills, and in this work the national association and regional associations? also cooperated heartily. The New York Conservation Commission and the New Jersey Department of Conservation and Development furnished the statistics for those States. All other States east of the Rocky Moun- tains were handled by the Office of Industrial Investigations, Forest Service, Washington, D. C., while the Western States were taken care of by the Forest Service district products offices at Albuquerque, Den- yer, Missoula, Ogden, Portland, and San Francisco.. The Pennsyl- vania Department of Forestry, which annually compiles data on stumpage cut, assisted in completing returns from Pennsylvania mills. The Office of Industrial Investigations was the clearing house for all statistics, issued the preliminary statements giving fig- ures for the whole country, and prepared this bulletin. 1 Georgia-Florida Sawmill Association. Northern Pine Association. Ifardwood Manufacturers’ Association. Southern Cypress Association. Michigan Hardwood Manufacturers’ Asso- Southern Pine Association. ciation. West Coast Lumbermen’s Association. Mississippi Pine Association. Western Pine Manufacturers’ Association. North Carolina Pine Association. Yellow Pine Exchange (Alexandria, La.) Northern Wemlock & Hardwood Manufac- turers’ Association, - PRODUCTION OF LUMBER, LATH, AND SHINGLES. 3 Table 1 shows the reported lumber cut for each year since 1899 for which data have been compiled, and the number of active mills re- porting each year. In connection with the recent study of the lumber industry by the Forest Service, the total cut in most of the years listed has been estimated, and these figures also are given. The statistics for different years are not exactly comparable, because of the varying number of small mills which reported. For 1899 and 1909 the enumeration was complete, special agents of the Bureau of the Census canvassing the mills in connection with the decennial censuses. The figures for other years were secured mostly by cor- respondence. Further, reports from mills cutting less than 50,000 feet were omitted from the statistics for 1904, 1910, and later, and the censuses of 1904 and 1914 excluded custom mills, while for the other years previous to 1910, except 1904, all mills for which reports were secured are included in the statistics. The lumber cut of 1915 was infiuenced by a large surplus carried over from 1914 and by the restricted markets brought about by the European war. Domestic lines of trade were kept at fair volume through the year, and this created a fair domestic demand for lum- ber. However, the lumber industry failed to share greatly in war orders, because of lack of shipping. A greatly increased amount of thick walnut lumber was cut for gunstocks. Dimension stock in ash for aeroplanes, and ash, hickory, and oak for vehicles and tools, prob- ably figured largely in war orders, but such material does not show in this bulletin, because it would not be reported as lumber. The latter part of 1915. witnessed a remarkable revival of domestic lumber buying, largely for building purposes, but it occurred too late in the year to keep the probable total cut from being less than for any census year since 1899. . TABLE 1.—Number of active sawmills reporting, quantity of lumber reported, and estimated total cut: 1899-1915. | Quantity oflumber. | Quantity of lumber. Deseeet - Number of active of active Year. seer Reported eee | Year ees Reported a reporting. u otal eu reporting. ? | total cut M ft.b.m. eed Mit.b.m.| wtp m. EWR 2h ack Paamarige BL, 830 | 39,084,100 |...--------- ADIOSE Sees <5 231,934 | 40,018,282 | 44,500,600 BOQ eee osc. =) 218,277 | 34,135,139 | 43,000,000 |} 19113........... 228,107 | 37,003,207 | 48,000,000 TODD ER ee oe 11,666 | 30,502,961 | 43,500,000 |} 1912...........- 229,005 | 39,158,414 | 45,000,000 NGO GS teehee 22,398 | 37,550,736 | 46,000,000 || 1913............ 221,668 | 38,387,009 | 44,000,000 TC 28,850 | 40,256,154 | 46,000,000 || 19141........... 227,506 | 37,346,023 | 40,500,000 HOOS SE aie oka c 31, 231 | 33,224,369 | 42,000,000 )| 1915...........-. 216,815 | 31,241,734 | 38,000,000 HOOOL Si Ae 5 146,584 | 44,509,761 | 44,509,761 1Custom mills excluded. 2 Mills cutting under 50 M feet excluded. *Including mills which manufacture lath and shingles exclusively (1,500 estimated). 4 Includes 4,543 mills cutting less than 50 M feet, and all cooperage, veneer, millwork, box, furniture, and other factories cutting any lumber at all in 1909. BULLETIN 506, U..S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. METHOD OF COMPILATION. The collection of reports, mostly by mail, was continued until the last of April, 1916. At that time, with reports from 16,815 mills of an aggregate cut in 1915 of 31,241,734,000 board feet as a basis, the Forest Service computed the total cut of lumber in 1915 to be 37,011,- 656,000 board feet by 29,951 mills assumed to have been active. AI- though these figures were arrived at by a process of computation based on known facts, it is possible that the results are too conserva- tive. In all, there may have been 33,000 or 34,000 mills active. If this was the case, practically all of the additional mills were of the smallest class, cutting on an average less than 200,000 board feet each. The total cut of these mills might have amounted to nearly a billion feet, and it is therefore possible that the grand total lumber cut in 1915 was 38,000,000,000 feet. As reports from the big mills came in, the Forest Service issued a cumulative series of comparisons of the 1915 and 1914 production of identical mills cutting 5,000,000 board feet or over in either year, in- cluding mills idle one year but not mills cutting out. Since such mills cut 65 per cent of the total lumber production, data on their operations are significant in showing the trend of production. The final comparison resulted in the following figures representing per cents of increase or decrease in 1915 as compared with 1914 in re- spective States, in the cut of the largest mills: Num- | Increase Num- | Increase State. ber of| or de- State. ber of | or de- mills.| crease. mills. | crease, Per cent. Per cent. IAT ICANSAS Ss Sea ee ee eee 72 — 4|| Pennsylvania...................- 20 8 ORS OnIa? 22 er ree tee Sas 5 +-21"|| New York...2$. 2352 -c5. see 9 —3 GRASS a oe Bop = eee soeeome Oe 69 -+ 2 |} New Hampshire and Massachu- IGR TET a ease see srin sseebeebe 168 —3 BOUUS eee eee =e eee eee 7 +29 Missiseippi. cn es. soueee eas eevee 102 = | Maines 6o'25 28 cee ee ae 40 +1 AISHAMS cores aoe pee ee 49 -—1 GOOreiaT so A Aaa sere oe =a ee 37 —1 Centraland NorthernStates.| 390 —14 PIOTICa So Ace cee ee eee eee 65 —1 South Carolinas. et cates eee 37 17 {ly Washingtonian ena. cae eee 149 +5 NorthiCarolina ls o5s2 ieee A 80 — I |) Oxrepongy cee eee 64 —10 WAT UTS oo oo coc oe he 35 0: ||, Californiatecy. .> == "stout ]T FOT (26 O82 “CE 18h ‘6h STO‘OFE | 9S2‘8eT | en “ce 99 'FO1 ae Oce FLT 69F OFT 160 (291 QOOfGOT = |itrtt ttt titt et puepsreyy 0 eh L 826 £99 ‘POT 698 ‘SFT 908 ‘891 P86 ‘OF ‘ pee ae O51 ‘PPE LIV ‘BOG E8h ‘PE Tes POE =| Yes "P8E =| 002‘ : : vee 2 Oe onthe ee ¢ ; 198 902 ‘68% LIE ‘E26 68 “69% 08S ‘FZ% : weeese tees eos‘eze | seczee | aapiece | ovo'eze | zto‘toe (| Tz é a eee ee Ze Sivonen 3 g ‘198 C18 ‘FS HSS ‘68 £86 ‘CEz é 9 ; - G89 ‘CC? O8F ‘9E% LGL ‘828 P18 ‘ere eo ‘118 aac ‘ 4 ; CL atce ee hipaa Poetion: ¢ “808 680 ‘618 OTF ‘82% PLT ‘GLE 16° ss ; =e T 666 (980 T ees ‘e0¢ 808 ‘LFP 062 ‘F0S 898 ‘TIP STF ‘9e¢ ‘ ‘ rie or ae eat a ae i ¢ £96 ‘26P €19 ‘098 110 ‘10% £66 EE Tas‘ : pigee” sEpr sean PSL ‘ESL OF6 “eeg #80 ‘20S PLL ‘SPS 886 ‘Scr 6ST ‘099 : ‘ G See ag nae See cas Te Ca Hise Ee ace 18020 eee eee 169 ‘T0¢ 989 ‘STP OLF ‘Zar 809 “OTF TL¢ ‘OLE ooofoce = fit 77777 ="*"TIMOSSTAL oer a7 ance eeetare ati areca 08 680 (06F TOT S220 PES ‘667 Sh6 FIP £90 ‘98% 000 ‘00% Biber S hese o=== "OO P6 O18 189 $20 ‘908 £82 “9%g Tee ‘209 OCL ‘LE C6r‘ “ Res gEEOS A LpP SLE 16¢ ‘16F 6EZ “BSE £20 ‘FEL 092,909 909 . 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The actual cut of tupelo in 1915 was undoubtedly less than in 1914. In Louisiana, where the mills distinguish between tupelo and red gum, the cut of tupelo was one-third less. é The rather consistent decline in the cut of hickory lumber, while pointing to the exhaustion of hickory stumpage in many sections, really indicates that hickory timber is more and more being cut, as recommended by the Forest Service, into more profitable dimension stock for handle and vehicle manufacturers. Dimension stock is not reported as lumber. The hickory lumber reported should, according to the best standard of utilization, be thick stock for the eedal ects. tries demanding hickory. The unusually big production of walnut iris in 1915 was largely caused by orders for thick lumber to be manufactured into gunstocks for use in Europe. In the portion of the bulletin which follows, the principal kinds of lumber are discussed separately. While the computed total cut of each wood is shown in the tables, only the actual production reported by the mills is given for each State, since it is felt: that this indicates sufficiently a State’s relative position as a producer of each wood. The average values given in the tables following were compiled from reports made by about one-half of the 16,815 mills which re- ported their lumber cut. Values were reported, however, by a part of each class of mills in each State, and the weight of the production of each class was considered in the computations, so the results are very fair average values. Differences in State values are due only in part to distance from consuming markets and to supply and demand. Other factors are quality of timber, how well the lumber is manu- factured, and the efficiency of sales organizations. In the case of those kinds of wood comprising more than one species recognized by the lumber trade, the principal species cut in each State are noted in the tables. The standard name given for each species is that adopted by the Forest Service, and is in most cases the one now used by the lumber trade. The Latin scientific names of all species are given to facilitate reference, especially in the case of foreign readers. YELLOW PINE. Yellow pine lumber is produced chiefly in the Southern States. Three species—the longleaf, loblolly, and shortleaf—supply most of the stumpage, while minor yellow pines are cut to a limited extent. The lumber known commercially as North Carolina pine, and coming 16 BULLETIN 506, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, includes both loblolly and shortleaf pine. Slash pine is usually cut and sold along with longleaf pine. The several species, in order of importance, are: Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) : Also commonly called hard pine and Georgia pine and exported as pitch pine. Cut principally in the Gulf States. Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda): “ Loblolly” is not used generally by the trade, which calls this pine shortleaf, oldfield, rosemary, and Virginia pine. Cut mostly in Virginia, North Carolina, South Caro- lina, Arkansas, and Texas, and to a less extent in the other Gulf States and Georgia. Shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata): Cut mostly in Arkansas, Vir- ginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Louisiana, and ia eeeanpas and to a less extent in the other yellow-pine States. Slash (or Cuban) pine (Pinus caribwa): Cut in Georgia and Gulf States east of Mississippi River. Serub pine (Pinus virginiana): Also called Jersey pine. Middle Atlantic States. Pitch pine (Pinus rigida): Middle Atlantic and Northern States. Spruce pine (Pinus glabra) :-Gulf States. Pond pine (Pinus serotina): South Atlantic States. Sand pine (Pinus clausa): Florida and Alabama. Table-mountain pine (Pinus pungens): Appalachian Mountains. Taste 5.—Reported production of yellow pine limber. 1915. [Computed total production ia United States, 14,700,000 M feet b. m.] e ofactive | Quantity eae State. Principal species cut. mills gee : ian M feet report- Saal ; £0. D2 ing. heey mill. United'States 22-52: Aa. ae 6,006 | 12,177,335 | 100.0 $12. 41 Louisiana 205 | 2,881,615 23.7 12.35 Mississippi. 3.2 -o. 5-2 2 2-aApe ee eee ese an Oyster eee 512 | 1,657, 887 13.6 12.30 Wexns Ss Stes 2 l asaeiat and loblolly 238 | 1,557,270 12.8 12.58 North Carolina. ...| Loblolly and shortleaf. 1,194} 1,130,144 9.3 12.21 Arkansas... ..-| Shortleaf and loblolly. 391 | 1,082,155 8.9 12.99 Alabama. .. A Longleal Se ee aH 618 | 1,023,306 8.4 12.13 Florida... S53 eee GOke Se ene 185 830, 815 6.8 12.29 South Carelina 27.2. 2 ae see Loblaiy and shortlea : 380 592, 184 4.9 12.56 WALEED CR ceo eeere ceme p eee eee MO. ch oe eee eon 907 562, 926 4.6 12.59 Georgia... 6. Soe oe ee Longleaf and loblolly... .. 561 525, 747 4.3 11.93 Oklahoma ts bol esk bo EE ee Siertleatite\[222e eee 51 161, 951 1.3 12.76 Missonri-\:5 ees koe a cece eee >> ae Ons: 2 aa ees 84 50, 421 4 12.15 ‘Termessee... 2 5ss. et ee See ee dol 32 $232 a 235 48, 523 4 11.78 Maryland. 2 Seles enbscu nase Loblolly and shortleaf... -- 129 25, 625 .2 13.19 POBUENCKY 3%. epee wea eet aoeee | Sinsrtloaf- 32. 322 wee reee 76 12, 909 se! 13.47 All tag States (see: Sumimary,.|-). sae. 32 oo cence et eee 240 33, 857 5c} doeer code p. 38). | DOUGLAS FIR. Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga tuxvifolia) of the Western States is available in larger stands than any other single species in the United PRODUCTION OF LUMBER, LATH, AND SHINGLES. 17 States, but the past and present total annual production of “ yel- low pine,” including longleaf, shortleaf, loblolly, and several species of minor importance, far exceeds the yield of Douglas fir. The wood of Douglas fir is quite similar to that of longleaf pine in many of its properties and uses. It is sold under the name of Douglas fir, Oregon pine, red fir, yellow fir, Douglas spruce, Washington fir, Ore- gon fir, and locally in California as spruce. TABLE 6.—Reported production of Douglas fir lumber, 1915. [Computed total production in United States, 4,431,249 M feet b. m.] Number * Average of active Suancty, Per | Value per State. mills MSE +, | Mfeet ‘ report- b ee Cont) aT eombe ing. 2 fe mill embed States masa ees tee bo etre a ec Mae arts Un rc 1,017 4,121,897 | 100.0 $10. 59 Micerretonemeingin. ol sy ete! NSE tas aR ort 317 | 2,754,179 | 66.8. 10.56 COVTREEIOTD om SS REA a Even reed a 309 1, 119, 395 27.2 10. 66 (CRNA S S35 Bourne beeen ose ek cent ia here ie ee earner ee eee 73 117, 951 2.9 10.27 CEN So CSE ESSENSE SR I Ro i ape i Ae ee RN 152 76, 283 1.8 10.05 IN IGSOIG HESS 5 Ca ee Recent ee ee a ee ee eee eee ees 55 41, 464 1.0 12.15 All other States (see Summary, p. 88)..:....-.--.-------------- 140 12, 625 SA scien ere OAK. The several commercial oaks furnish the largest quantity of any kind of hardwood lumber. The general lumber trade calls all oak lumber either white or red oak. These trade names are based on the appearance of the two general kinds of lumber cut from oak trees, white oak lumber being light in color and dense and red oak lumber being somewhat reddish and porous. Since these two kinds of lum- ber are supplied by distinct groups of botanical white and red oaks, the trade distinction is logical. The bulk of oak lumber is cut. from less than a dozen species. The largest part of the oak lumber is furnished by white oak and red oak, chestnut oak and Texan red oak being of next importance. Following is a list of the principal commercial oaks, divided into two groups. , WHITE OAKS. White oak (Quercus alba) is the white oak common throughout the eastern half of the United States. Chestnut (or rock) oak (Quercus prinus) occurs in the Appa- lachian Mountain region. Post. oak (Quercus stellata) and bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) have about the same range as white oak, but are not so abundant. Overcup oak (Quercus lyrata) and cow (or basket) oak (Quercus michauxt) are the most important of the southern white oaks. 69849°—Bull. 506—17 9 vo 18 BULLETIN 506, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.. RED OAKS. Red oak (Quercus borealis) is the red oak common in the eastern half of the United States, except in the Gulf States. Texan red oak (Quercus texana) furnishes the main supply of red oak lumber in the lower Mississippr Valley. Pin oak (Quercus palustris) occurs in many Eastern and Central States. “Scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea) is a northern and northeastern tree. Yellow (or black) oak (Quercus velutina) is found in most States east of the Rocky Mountains. Willow oak (Quercus phellos) is of commercial importance in the Southern States only. Lor TABLE 7.—Reported production of oak lumber, 1915. [Computed total production in United States, 2,970,000 M feet b. m.] Number . Aver: of active Quanity me ses State. Principal species cut. mills pore’: c M feet ae M feet cent. port- juin f. 0. b. ing. pean mill. United States a2. S22 ce ccna icoeciass ees aoe e ee eee 9,517 | 2,070,444 | 100.0 $18. 73 West Virginia | White, red, chestnut...._- 483 291, 261 14.1 19. 03 Arkansas..... S|) Whey examen 439 223, 752 10.8 18. 40 Kentucky. SEO Wihite; red <2. as eeaeee eee 584 222, 964 10.8 18. 79 Tennessee . a EN co avenge a SS GOS erences tree eee 747 210, 965 10. 2 19. 62 Virginia... White, red, chestnut.....- 929 165, 592 8.0 16. 64 OnIOp- sen Eeecs cst: eee Saeceie ee COs ee aes eeeme 593 128, 562 6.2 21. 46 PenisyvlVanlae- on. os eee eae meee es eae 0 Fa ere at pet AS Nie 2 835 125, 581 6.1 19. 73 Nori Carolina,..-. 2- sestede-o eee 06). ice bhp ceee eee 97, 014 4.7 16. 42 MMASSOUMIL eee See eet eke esos | White, red, Texan...-.-.- 95, 435 4.6 16. 51 MUISSISSIp ls eee eee see sea ne | White, Pons 050 aan 89, 469 4.3 18. 61 THOT oe a. Seen ee omens aimee See Wihite red 252205 oneness 80, 289 3.9 22. 58 TVOWMISIAM YE os )oee see Aaah ate White, Ue Change eee ona sce : 74, 304 3.6 18. 48 pee PS AE tes oe PRS Taare Deere ao Mayelejnida cei arora pee ee Ete be us : q0- oe (>. bs cere Otani: SM ts ele, Sees ya anes, eel mreananna( 0 (0 aN IaN FR Mie INE OR ; 5 16. 72 Misiey (err de eee eee eee ee ee eee White, red, AIEEE BERS ie £24, 348 1.2 Wine, UM OISE hoe oe eee eee Peon cetee White, red.t., .dtaece ae 22, 660 ET 19.15 INGW Works iiecade ea cee SSE RA eta See (6 Cone ermine epcraesr-teinc 21, 617 1.0 19. 70 GeOTRIA SS ota n oes te eae White, Texan. ..2....222-- 20, 467 1.0 16. 06 Wasconsiie ets Ses ee ae SE, Bes ISWihite, red: ae seks en eee 13, 658 .6 21. 96 INC W, LOTS Vass 2 etic ab cena eee (oem Sects aeoc oak © 13,155 6 24. 03 All ig Plates (GES PUMIMIAT YS Maeeincens ee eect emcees 5 79, 699 33) chi eS NAeoG p. 40). WHITE PINE. Under “ white pine” is included the common white pine of the North and the western, or Idaho, white pine. There are also included Norway pine and jack pine, which are lumbered with white pine in the Lake States and eastward, and for which the mills can not readily give separate figures. The scientific names and commercial range of these species are as follows: a PRODUCTION OF LUMBER, LATH, AND SHINGLES. 19 White pine (Pinus strobus) is the familiar white pine of the Lake States, the Northeast, and the Appalachian region. Norway (or red) pine (Pinus resinosa) is lumbered in the Lake States and farther east. Botanically it is a yellow pine. The better grades are often sold with white pine, but the wood also has a market under its own name. Jack pine (Pinus banksiana) is a small tree of the Lake States, and is used to,a limited extent. Western white pine (Pinus monticola), sometimes called silver pine, supplies the white-pine lumber cut in Idaho, Montana, Wash- ington, and to a limited extent in Oregon. Taste 8—Reported production of white pine lumber, 1915. [Computed total production in United States, 2,700,000 M feet b. m.] cractive | Quantity hes State. Principal species cut. mills | Teported, | Per | ‘iy feet a M feet cent. »port- i). idl f. 0. b. ing. Rivest mill. mitediStates 2.222. ote a RO eNO eS re, 7 Ape Se 3,349 | 2,291,480 | 100.0 $17. 44 NEITAIOS O Galanin cee -ecicee dice cle <2 Eastern white, Norway... 171 869, 574 38. 0 18. 41 (WG BIE ty Seay ie oa ee ene ee Western white. ...-..-..-- 37 301, 600 13. 2 17. 34 PIE eee ee ie ia RS ae Shenae Se Eastern white, Norway... 478 270, 581 11.8 17.10 Wisconsin .......... eS a eens lator ln) Sea eatae aasee er 244 191, 306 8.4 19.19 INGweaMI PSN. - o5-)5 3 cg deci bial en 2 se GOEL 8. Steel ee 284 139, 645 8.3 16. 59 WMerssaehusebis seen t= sees tee elec oe OEE eae teat oe 223 106, 824 ae 16. 44 PI eee he ae ee Western white. .-.......-. 32 90, 240 3.9 16. 33 NCIC ee =. en RET ee Eastern white, Norway... 181 64, 267 2.8 19. 84 INE aRVCOR RAE a le Boe ee ae eee Le COs oS eae ore 2 ek 755 60, 576 2.6 19. 71 (Parnsylvariaes soon cos. e wecelee see Os Lia D RA SS Ate Paes 406 39, 181 107 19. 33 LHVaNat Reng) = tens ere ae een os ee ree Western white...........- 9 27,330 1.2 16. 59 Norii.@arolmay:.22 22 2.9...882.2 2) Eastern white...... ha ghes 61 16, 647 “a 17. 48 WGI CSS IS Jt oe See Sabet eee Eastern white, Norway... 103 15, 040 .6 17. 45 Wrestavarcitia 25. ioe scl 5.2524 Eastern white /.....--..:. 72 13, 859 .6 18. 02 All other States (see Summary, |....-- ROS BOAO AH OROO Ee tac 293 34, 810 V5. |e ce eetases p. 38). 1 HEMLOCK. Hemlock (7'suga canadensis), the eastern hemlock, is lumbered in the Lake States, the Northeastern States, and the Appalachian re- gion. Western hemlock (Z'suga heterophylla) is the main source of hemlock lumber in the Northwestern States, and its production is increasing. Although the mill value is lower, it is superior to the eastern hemlock, and is often sold with Douglas fir. The western mountain or black hemlock (7’suga mertenstana) and the Carolina hemlock (Z’suga caroliniana) of the Appalachian region are only occasionally lumbered., 20 BULLETIN 506, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 9.—Reported production of hemlock lumber, 1915. [Computed total production in United States, 2,275,000 M feet b. m.] ofactive | Quantity Ae State. Principal species cut. mills epee aoe M feet report- Oh Fa 2 ah.lo3Ds ing. ANG mill. United! States. JAreh= #50. Soaloes 2280 be natidce Soe 3,739 | 2,026,460 | 100.0 $13.14 AWAISGOTISITIS Se ose tate aes eae HMastenny si Se Se eke 256 474, 371 23. 4 13.17 Michizane? > 3220 6 eh Pe eee See ate GO geet aa eee 251 372, 512 18. 4 13. 34 Wrashinetoncsicc15. 22a see eee Westernvissesctse st ce eeos 91 306, 570 15.1 9.43 Pennsylvania <2 2. nat gece Nese Master ose ees oe eee 494 259, 914 12.8 15.41 WestiVirginia 222. i2o ce beeen ete dosseie EA ee 134 160, 923 7.9 14.73 ING WENYGOR oS oe fe ee MU aaa eas SITE Oe ten ee 1,038 93, 008 4.6 15. 26 IMB ITIO 2 Set aia 3.5 oe eet eh aistate all eaten GOS Nasi SeR RE A 431 69, 568 3.4 14. 35 Orerones = s. Va ee saee IWIGStOLI =z... 2 overuse Ss eeeee 27 61, 963 3.1 9.58 Northi@arolina: _-/.555...004.-55e2e8 astern. 63.502 ocean cee 80 46, 546 2.3 12. 62 New Hampshire: 3.3. 42.5422 chloe GOceos dsc .eek hess 236 39, 262 1.9 14. 22 Menon ne eee Lene eete ome eee GO sites eee eee 281 29, 589 oR 14. 87 NBT UE es fe Sh bear tee eel ees Oi eee o ee ae Do 86 25, 935 1.3 13.90 PONTIOSSEG Sa... Saisie Semis Saati ce leet CO UO eA EARS etal te R yt Set 56 23, 252 1.1 12.14 Massachusetts. = 2p. se nee e eee eee GOs eee ee 125 21, 671 Li 15. 28 Koninckiycenen he ee ee ane | ns 0 2fe ee gy eee 63 18, 041 9 14.11 Allother wstates. (Seem Summanyy |. een cis 2 aeeelsie eee 90 23, 335 174 eee coawe se p. 38). | SPRUCE. Several spruces are cut for lumber, but red and Sitka spruce furnish the greater portion. Red spruce (Picea rubra) is the important species in the Northeast and Appalachian region, and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) on the northern Pacific coast. In the Northeast black spruce (Picea mariana) and white spruce (Picea canadensis) are cut to a small extent, while white spruce furnishes the lumber cut in the Lake States. Engelmann spruce (Picea engel- manni) is the source of spruce lumber in the Rocky Mountain region. The annual cut of spruce in the Northeast and Northwest is fairly uniform. However, in the Appalachian region, the West Virginia tracts are being cut out, and new tracts are being opened in North Carolina. The 1915 reported cut of spruce in West Virginia was less than one half as much as in 1912, while in North Carolina the mills reported cutting fifteen times as much as in 1912. TABLE 10.—Reported production of spruce lumber, 1915. {Computed total production in United States, 1,400,000 M feet b. m.] Number - Average : of aetive Seat ie Per | Value per State. Principal species cut. mills pe aay | arya M feet report- (5 aa TalederOn be ing. ae mill, United Stanes $3 a- te sees tae els se oe oe es ee 1,573 | 1,193,985 | 100.0 $16. 58 MAING 3 Fe asl ei gae bee eee Rede. .cicsencenceteeL eee 362 362, 704 30. 4 17. 28 Wrashinetoms Sif. sehen hy< bees: Sidhe... 3.05.25 ae 49 196, 203 16. 4 14. 08 New: Uampshine 252th ss eases Redes 32 en cae eeeeene 138 112, 904 9.5 17.67 Wiest Warpiitig: ©, | 5th a mere t esl TRAE A SEA Sete 25 91, 780 Ligh 17.97 North Carolina pie Ve eo enamine arity YC 8 83, 601 7.0 17. 66 WCRI OMG em eae ea Te UR GOn.22 hn ee 278 69, 134 5.8 17.10 Oregon... Bitka. 5-5-5. acts 20 65, 327 o-0 13. 56 Minnesota WUT oo Sek es epee ee 91 58, 472 4.9 17.78 New York.. PROC: cm ke ie ee CM 932 53; 185 4.4 17.97 Massachusetts... . aes = es CLO eae oid co rs ae 41 34, 389 2.9 17. 85 Ai other States (See Summarys |s sche ee cece eee ane | 329 66, 286 BR Be rcigies te p- 38). | } | | * PRODUCTION OF LUMBER, LATH, AND SHINGLES. 21 WESTERN YELLOW PINE. Western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa) is cut for lumber in every western State from South Dakota to the Pacific coast. Bull pine is a common woods name for the tree. The lumber is generally sold under the trade names of California white pine, New Mexico white pine, western soft pine, and western white pine. The better grades are soft and light, and compete with white pine. TABLE 11.—Reported production of western yellow pine lumber, 1915. [Computed total production in United States, 1,293,985 M feet b. m.] Number : Average F Quantity State Ormills | Feported, | Per | Vane per % ra M feet cent. eet port- ee Ga fo. b. ing sue mill. : lire eirnned SLAbeSe = hs- 2 2 5 0e sast ates iaccss swan ahesecetce 726 | 1,252, 244 100.0 $14.32 EaTiornia lh x ge ocbe Ogenea baud Seca RenBebb Sooce sesucoec ceHaeeeucoe aah ee ar a ; 14.89 FIND a - so ween eee ee ae che Gok s UAE coe poeoneEeEporoooneert copes 3 : 12.37 Soon. GUE Ay, kL) aL OE ORE AE RA cl Soe 134 189,203 | 15.1 16.31 Washisevon S 5 ORBS OF ESOS a As Eee Eee Bate ER CORE poe Sener rete aerate La i eB a 9 14.39 Gs Ses cher see ames ec ese see lee bo} aU Opener Oneee sec osecodees -5 13.33 ATID TU oy at pe ae fig ee a a 14 75, 843 6.1 13.21 ionume ICO mms So se ae bcs se oe se eee ot sonal ae Asisas 43 61, 466 4.9 13.78 Colorsdorse eee s te er cee totes ais ce aes a ede sats 75 37, 241 3.0 13.06 SYS Suit dD VE CH Sa ee Se pete ie eae ea nae 28 22, 457 1.8 16.98 All other States (see Summary, p. 38) .....---.----22252-2+---- 43 6; 476 Ft tas eC 1 Includes 1 mill in Nevada. CYPRESS. Bald cypress (Taxedium distichum) is the commercial cypress. The principal stand of cypress-is in Louisiana, and that. State is the principal producer of cypress lumber. Other southern States are next in importance, and some is cut in the Atlantic and Central States. New tracts of cypress have been opened in Florida during ~ the past two years, and the reported lumber cut in that State was 60 per cent more in 1915 than in 1912. TABLE 11.—Reported production of western yellow pine lumber, 1915. [Computed total production ia United States, 1,100,000 M feet b. m.] Number | . Average of active | Quaniy Per | Value ee State. mills Mieet’ | cent, | M feet report- } ae f. 0. b. ing. cata mill. - | (UPL GS Larose eee eee sates ic caics Anise eplociemeines 647 | 926,758 | 100.0 $19. 85 LQTS BIG hes Adee bas Bee SEs sae a ae ee Ne ice se Sena 91 560, 751 60.5 20.55 TET QG Be) Soo eis tees ee oe, Nel ORT te nes Im Nog rai 34 161, 123 17.4 20.99 HCO Tie iN ee 6 We ne Se Se id nr oe ees 39 49, 703 5.4 17.61 Guu Car OUIIA tense nme ee ene SMe Sts ae see asa ye 38 30, 062 a2 17.05 Runa ALO iat P-picture nome Set! els heen pel aes 103 27, 059 2.9 16.31 PAG AS AS ae eo oo oe seas a eee me tase Jen. ss0s a0 Senos ee ee eee 112 25, 383 2.7 17.53 WHISSOUM ee hese tan tart ee vac cis esate one tan nen sse ema sesee sec 41 23, 986 2.6 14.95 IMTS SSTISSSSTT op Oy (SS se a co = LO ee ret 70 23, 656 2.6 17.65 mibotheri Staves (see summary, p38)... 222222252. .e5-225554! 119 25, 035 DET: as oe were 22 BULLETIN 506, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, MAPLE. The lumber trade recognizes two kinds of maple—hard and soft. Hard-maple lumber comes from the sugar-maple tree and soft-maple lumber from the silver and red species. These three species have a botanical range covering the eastern half of the United States. Sugar (or hard) maple (Acer saccharum) and silver maple (Acer saccharinum) are lumbered principally in the Northern States. Red maple (Acer rubrum) is most important asa timber tree in the Southern States. Both silver and red maple are commonly called soft maple. . ; Eastern species of minor importance are mountain maple (Acer spicatum) and striped maple (Acer pennsylvanicum). Oregon maple (Acer macrophyllum) is cut in the Pacific Coast States. TABLE 13.—Reported production of maple lumber, 1915. [Computed total production in United States, 900,000 M feet b. m.] | Number , Average of active Quaritit Per _ | Value per State. Principal species cut. mills Ae ? M feet ne M feet cent. port- ae f.o.b. ing. Pera mill. WUmited States eae nso. ck carleye sais tel rep ete eee ae 4, 294 771, 223 | 100.0 $15. 21 Michi fan sees asses eee eee SWgareeetea occas 279 339, 618 44.0 15.32 MAISCODSIN ee erent ont eee moe GOs act sch teak aces 263 122, 016 15.8 14.72 Wiest Winpinia 5.25 cesses sete oe Ose care etree 213 76,934 | 10.0 14.97 POnNSyIVAMinen sco eee some eee meee locos DOS ae Saanemsaac sees 537 52, 316 6.8 15. 53 INOW ORK 9 30a Saat een eaten Ge | ees GO} ear eee rae ae 861 45, 407 5.9 15.56 ONIOt ee een nee ee eee ewes CO ee ee ae eee ee 407 32, 255 4.2 15.97 MONON 2 acess a, eee a ace eee ae DO oactss ae ee case eae 245 22,119 2.9 15:35 Snidianat 220.2222 Cae ee eens do. tacit See 290 15, 662 2.0 15.69 All pee States (see Summary, |.--.--.....-. Beene ec: 1,199 64, 896 son ae eee p. 40). RED GUM, Red (or sweet) gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is a single species, and what is commercially known as “sap gum” is the sapwood of the red gum tree. It is of most importance commercially in the lower Mississippi Valley, but is also cut farther east and north. TABLE 14.—Reported production of red gum lumber, 1915. [Computed total production in United States, 655,000 M feet b. m.] Number | Quantity Average State of active reported, Per value per é mills M feet cent. M feet reporting. Depeite f.o.b. miil. Grited. (States oe ote ce eoae ee wee hese eee 1,700 | 478,099 | 100.0 $12. 54 UC ORE RA Sa a ee I os Ss. | See eae RE Se) ar 203 153, 091 32.0 12.74 BAISBISSID DL fae: SMO SEES Siies 1c cake Cee os ene ee 171 110, 285 23.1 12.57 Dpuisisna ee. 552 a ae So ee See ie cee ae 48 39, 540 8.3 12.11 de oe Se : ia ri 5 75 28, 345 5.9 12.78 AM iclcc tS, Se RR ae ee ae eee oe aE ta 190 24,729 5.2 12.89 FSOTLUIC AT OLED ee aan eee Pee es Sees ss a ake ee 38 21, 821 4.5 11.69 Ma Maitint ieee Si Mica att Cs EMMA hd a he Aaa rgen 82 18, $29 3.9 11.97 pes Ge ci tee Soe rae ie Soe heels oct Aaa nal ae EE 41 18, 003 3.8 12.32 ROL REMC ROLLS ee osars fe. eas 6 be Oi Set teat ee 125 14, 831 Saw 10.93 TAL PREM eRe trent her Es 5. coals «eee oe as) AAR a eet eee 139 13, 255 2.8 11.66 All other States (see Summary, p. 40) ......--....-...--.-- 588 35,370 (GCM BeasoshoncieS eee PRODUCTION OF LUMBER, LATH, AND SHINGLES. 23 CHESTNUT. Only one species of chestnut (Castanea dentata) is native in the United States. It is lumbered throughout most of its range in the Central and Eastern States. The chestnut-bark disease, or chestnut blight, which has killed much of the timber north of the Potomac River, is now invading the more valuable Appalachian forests. Blight-killed chestnut timber, utilized before it deteriorates on the stump, is suitable for all purposes for which chestnut is used. TABLE 15.—Reported production of chestnut lumber, 1915. [Computed total production in United States, 490,000 M feet b. m.] Number : Average : Quantity 5 3 va M feet cent. port- a an f. 0. b. ing. vitae mill, RW aiL eds babes seas sak paca tee eee eS SN ae ee Se 3, 266 399,473 | 100.0 $16. 17 AN GSE VALE ee ae b ho Sores GO eE AEC HaAB ont a Oee nem I ewsrear 334 117, 989 29.5 15.93 PCr S VRE OVE syne nian vote aS ok Re 691 54, 388 13.6 16. 42 wee QM LTTI ee or yyy mee Matin panama Ae 50S 2 WPI ER pa In ale ay as M 3 15. BS irginia.. sas 55 5, DT: i 15. 31 Tennessee 284 28, 484 Weil 15.16 Connecticut Bets 111 27,351 6.9 17. 03 Semi uC kaye nea A aseereneieceeece te cine Marae nina cay ee ticict we hee Sets 249 15, 508 3.9 15. 67 ESC Meise Gisee mia ape en A ed yeep A rE pals oe hea at 134 15,138 3.8 16. 32 Manylangh seek ees Bese eS LE SE Qe amen Savane tates 87 14,191 3. 6 14,15 ING Warton Kean Somes stare aoe cee RR ae BU Ae SAC a enero 435 13, 425 3.4 18. 89 INIOR A AIGIS EN a Ce HUB r Acie AES ter sts SEU enna Ree Mauna Sore Sect 127 13, 301 oie 19.91 All other States (see Summary, p. 40)......-...-.---------0.--- 284 23, 249 ate) |loceoacacda YELLOW POPLAR. Yellow poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), a single species, is also known as whitewood, poplar, or tulip poplar. The best-known trade name is simply poplar. The Appalachian States constitute the principal producing region. TABLE 16.—Reporied production of yellow-poplar lumber, 1915. [Computed total production in United States, 464,000 M feet b. m.] Number F Average 7 Quantity L State. imilis, | Teported, | Per | Verge Peport le eo Ce ors ing. a mill. TWhrihtie) SieiGSe AEs EO es came aii cles See a eee 3, 046 377, 386 | 100.0 $22. 45 AGE EATON is Sears eae SAS cash eee eR I a eae 295 100, 863 26. 7 24.90 AMO THT Clay tae ta Neisseria No same Sak cain she Somer hem LTO 364 49,154 13. 0 23. 24 eee SE Net eet sh Ce er Pa MeenotaridocdaKonsaes 415 46,129 12. 2 22. 82 TEAR OD hs as Soe a RI Oke kd EIEN Rey a i Ret at th eae 438 40, 899 10.9 20. 30 North Carolina. <.<.0.02. 2.0.0.0. 22eseceseeeeeeeeeeteeecits 319 33,168] 8.8 19.71 Or ee es ca eed Le LR eS Rill yc be ape ee AOE TN 244 29,175 Get! 27.76 serrate eA PITS RRM EG i Co 129 22°308| 6.1 18, 25 REC OTLEY Pipe yh 5 Menai SN MANA Tsk Sia ie di ate a RTS BB Di 93 20, 343 5.4 19. 36 All other States (see Summary, p. 40)..........-------:-------- 749 34, 847 Or Dri eeene cee 24 BULLETIN 506, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. REDWOOD. Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), which supplies most of the redwood lumber, occurs mostly in California and to a very small extent in southern Oregon. The bigtree (Sequota washingtoniana), the largest tree species in the world, which is found only in Cali- fornia, also supplies a part. The 1915 estimated total cut of 420,294,000 feet is based on 418,- 824,000 feet reported by 32 California mills. The average value was $13.54 per M feet f. 0. b. mill. CEDAR. A number of species are grouped in this bulletin under the com- mon name “cedar.” In importance as lumber producers the several species rank as follows: Western red cedar (Thuja plicata): The source of three-fourths of the shingles made in the United States; is also cut for lumber in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho. Port Orford cedar (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana): Cut mostly in Oregon; the principal cedar cut in that State. The 1915 reported cut of cedar in Oregon was 70 per cent more than in 1912. Northern white cedar, or arborvitae (Thuja occidentalis): Cut in the Lake States and Northeastern States. Incense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) : Cut in California. Southern white cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides), often called juniper: Cut in the Atlantic Coast States. Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana and J. barbadensis) : Cut mostly in Tennessee, Florida, and Alabama. Yellow cedar (Chamaecy paris noothatensis) : Sometimes lumbered in Washington. TABLE 17.—Reported production of cedar lumber, 1915. (Computed total production in United States, 420,000 M feet b. m.] Number 2 Average ; Fs: 3 of active ee Bee value per State. Principal species cut. mills M feet Gant M feet report- Bins eS te i ing. ane mill. oaiciepie se adh gana 12 ate a ela ren oOo 649 | 352,482 | 100.0 $16. 10 United States. WVASDINS GON. cee as Be tec i ct eke Western red)... seen 102 201, 561 57.2 15. 40 OA ea Baa IR Dae Sg Se ae PomOriords silo see 43 39, 835 11.3 19.37 CANO oo an ite coe scented hone Wrestern'red 224 so ie ae 22 29, 654 8.4 9.44 IVE OUI Soto ce oo a cree peter= sents oe Southern white...........- 29 21,994 6.2 22.53 Maine) css eh i wee Ree eek Northern white..........- 79 15, 700 4.5 14.14 Califor tars 3 on ola beech se ops Tneense. 2.35... base 35 12, 185 3.5 12.08 MICIU EAT teense baesteaee ea E oee Northern white............ 39 8, 283 2.3 15.59 WVISCONS tree aia. 8 bene ens ore Gectinn see (i {a eR Re Bere ne at 47 6, 679 1.9 14. 66 All other States (see Summary, TSS cence aly be emits eee 5 253 16, 591 ty al oe p. 38). PRODUCTION OF LUMBER, LATH, AND SHINGLES. 25 BIRCH. Two species furnish the bulk of the birch lumber produced, but these are seldom separated in the trade. Yellow birch (Betula lutea) is the principal source of lumber in New England, New York, and the Lake States, while sweet (or cherry) birch (Betula lenta) is the principal species cut in Pennsylvania and West Virginia. In northern New England paper birch (Betula papyrifera), often called canoe or white birch, is the principal source of material for spools, toothpicks, and novelties and some is cut into lumber. River (or red) birch (Betula nigra) is poorer in color and figure than the other birches, but is sometimes cut for lumber in the Southern States. In the lumber trade “red birch” means lumber eut from the heartwood of yellow or sweet birch. Western birch (Betula occidentalis) is sawed into lumber to a minor extent on the Pacific coast. White (or gray) birch (Betula populifolia) is a small timber tree in New England used for minor purposes. TABLE 18.—Reported production of birch lumber, 1915. {Computed total production in United States, 415,000 M feet b. m.] Number 3 | Average Es Quantity es i of active reported, Per | Value per State. Principal species cut. mills : M feet ra M feet cent. »port- Te ih f. 0. b. ing. pane mill. United States...... sh HDS IANS aaa eerh or RS ee ly 2h197 355,328 | 100.0 $16. 52 WASCONISIMM ari. kee ge tee esioe) EVCLLOW se Sraa sere rams eee 247 161, 853 45.6 16.77 iOhtrigl au tegaiac sth eae este eo a eee CCS BAI a iy ar oats 178 56,869 | 16.0 Aut \WWGTT(TTORS 55 SB ear rey e een ae ee dO eee ee 240) 27,352 ted 16. 09 MBINOR ei piss. o4k ie: ian Sage Yellow and paper......-.- 211 27, 138 7.6 16. 42 ING We VIO RN eke ee a age WWiello wes ie eee ee 420 20, 949 5.9 16. 23 WiestAVATeiniases ia) NL i Sweet Ss Gea a ei ei 111 17, 715 5.0 16.51 New Hampshire...........---.---- MWOllOW 33555 oe eens: 115 13, 629 3.8 15.94 IRennsylvanias.2 2/822 So. Ls OWeOtiss ies see reyee ae 276 11,771 3.3 15.73 All ai Stabesm (SECs OUMUM AL YAM ecclcnicle cece element ae 399 18, 052 Oe Mall Seer Solvers ~ p. 40). ; LARCH. The term “larch” is here used to cover two closely related and similar species, tamarack (Larix laricina), cut in the Northern States from Minnesota to Maine, and western larch (Larix occidentalis) , cut in Montana, Idaho, Washington, and Oregon. Although sold for less at the mill, the lumber of the latter is more valuable than tama- rack, because the tree is much larger and the wood has more strength and figure and better finishing properties. 26 ' BULLETIN 506, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 19.—Reported production of larch lumber, 1915. (Computed total production in United States, 375,000 M feet b. m.] Number . Average of active ropa Per | Value per State. Principal species cut. mills DP , M feet M feet cent. report- ral f.o.b ing. S53 mill. UWNIteGiSiatess ose ee Ne ame ere ete eet le cents 571 348,428} 100.0 $10. 78 Montana......... ee sesree acd sees Western larch... 2.2.22... 39 115, 001 33.0 10.79 TORH Oe eo Ste ainelaseas eee eel aes GO: Beas ooo 49 111, 345 32.0 8.89 Minnesota 3.2.08 5255 ee ee ee Tamaracky A732 532 eee 118 37, 898 10.9 13.90 WASCONSIDE (2 Se cen. Feacsncce ae sense GOA. 2. ese as note 151 24 231 6.9 13. 83 Michipan's SS 30s o> Bakes oes See CMTE ee dO eRe eee 123 22° 368 6.4 14. 53 Washinton? soo. 5h cates ccm eee Wiestermiarch sos sree 46 21,477 6.2 8.78 OPO ZO Jose cae eee lene Hoke ate Sense COs echie ss Syste shee ii 15, 506 4,4 8.98 All aoe tates (SCO SUMIMANya lao cee senaevecn ee eee ee eee 34 602 Pi ee ae ee p. 38 BEECH. There is but one kind of beech native to the United States (Fagus ferruginea). Beech lumber is cut in nearly all the hardwood States, but Michigan, New York, and the Ohio Valley eres are the most important. TABLE 20.—Reported production of beech lumber, 1915. {Computed total production in United States, 360,000 M feet b. m.] Number . Average of active Quentin Per | Value per State. mills dF an pera | CE . report- b a EE Oe sala ing. 2 Pes “mill. Wnitedi States 22) Mas oa wees ke sae see eeu eee aad eee 3,329 303,835 | 100.0 $14.01 (Machi p an oe 2s ek ea eA ys ee ee eater Serre ae eee 205 65, 998 21.7 14.35 Pennsylvania 2 Sse deo 1 cee whe he wanioe Svcs be eine eo mee ae Een eee 376 43,168 14.2 13.95 WresbaVian cine he £5 coon eae UI Geen Seen hr. he eee eee ee 213 38, 952 12.8 13. 43 ING WHXOrks feet oe 2) LAE ce J seinen ee eee ROP Ree R ene 650 32, 689 10.8 14.31 LO Ete oe te Ae Se ees bara eee Ee axe pe EU aes a ee Ss 442 31, 923 10.5 14. 66 ATG UT Way: PO rae ola ee A ae pee os ene Cee SEO de OG 338 31,316 10.3 15.41 Rien hickay 2 nei Hee a Oe aes ee ee 8 ee ae epee eae 274 20, 578 6.8 12. 28 WW OLITON Ge one he oe tee Res oo ee eae a ene Eee 172 9, 162 3.0 13.75 ATIGTATIOSS EO se Sea e aes cheater eR eee re te ee eR eet een ee 159 6, 556 2.2 11. 84 Wow Hampshire spi isco san) crc eee re eee Le ere ie 72 6,016 2.0 13. 86 All other States (see Summary, p. 40)... 2.2... cbse. sec ese ecees 420 17, 477. GY GN aoiemcenos BASSWOOD. Three botanical species of basswood are cut for lumber, but no distinction is made on the market. Common basswood (or linn) (Tilia americana) is cut mostly in the Lake States, common basswood and white basswood (7%lia hetrophylla) in the Appalachian Moun- tains, while downy basswood (T7%lia pubescens) is a scarce tree in the Southern States, ‘ eae a PRODUCTION OF LUMBER, LATH, AND SHINGLES. - 27 TABLE 21.—Reported production of basswood lumber, 1915. [Computed total production in United States, 260,000 M feet b. m.] Number : Average F Quantity S =e otactive | reported, | Per | Value pet Ene ork M feet cent. | $5 5 490 b. m. lei ing. mill, (initreiel SUBUIES Soap A aCe Rae SSO eo a eee Ieee eee meee 2, 889 207,607 | 100.0 $18. 89 Wisconsin MS ME etc) 2 a 286 73,929 | 35. y 18. 94 Jas tothe CE ASB TERR ees tae cana s PG BO anes Ue aimee ai Memes ot ad ees 213 28, 71 13. 19. 57 Want at inginia Eee a eM cr kt ta een 191 26,956 | 13.0 19.13 INGraYaGlca my Metts elabicye see RNa SOR RRL Sie ee ROE 848 18, 114 8.7 19. 50 pouusyivania. SSS EE SBE SEEN: Oi ret se te menmepareI ne de rreseats esata 220 5 Be 3 2 He oo 1D). = 2 St GES GEG GE Cee a IEE ETE es eee OR eae peer yoy 191 ile 3. 19. SPINEL D0 fom Gee SIS a RES 177 6, 200 3.0 17. 71 Varein orth earoune SALSE pada Pe neraN tata fanart. the eR es Brae 56 B % g ie a Bec as Noe enn a ens Rak 55 , 131 } 18. All fone States (see Summary, p. 40)......-.....--....-...-.-- 652 26, 441 TOG eioe en eisieie ELM. Elm lumber is sold as soft and rock elm, the soft elm lumber com- ing from the botanical species white and slippery. White (or Amer- ican) elm (Ulmus americana) is found in all States east of the Rocky Mountains and furnishes the larger part of the soft elm lumber sold. Slippery (or red) elm (Ulmus pubescens) covers the eastern half of the United States, and is next to white elm in importance. Cork (or true rock) elm (Ulmus racemosa) is found in the North- ern States, and is cut mostly in the Lake States. Wing elm (Ulmus alata) and cedar elm (Ulmus crassifolia) of the lower Mississippi Valley are sometimes cut for lumber. TABLE 22.—Reported production of elm lumber, 1915. " [Computed total production in United States, 210,000 M feet b. m.] ofactive | Quantity | | value per State. Principal species cut. mills af er || versyat M feet report- D ae ete DOE ing. ian mill, (Orato! ISHENICSS co sencnsasccombladeneccobossessHesootoceecks , 2, 730 177,748 | 100.0 $16. 98 MIScOnSTIE ete OR Whites ce Seat anions 264| 42,534 | 23.9 17.50 WIN dangein 20 on Jeebososedouccsecdans legeee WO HEstohoee~ceoapecde ss 217 35, 598 20. 0 18.15 JSURBO SB Siaig sod soeeooobenscencendcoclesues CO mdseredesctonaosaaes 72 17, 055 9.6 15. 32 PAGES ss ice anon ae See een [ec deiOl sc de Le deamelaeis 2) 293 15,129] 8.5 18. 03 eee Perea we) ye) oa) ee Bay WOR. 4 ye ska5 soe gudes seo sarOo =| s5s2H0 Oreosnee jeodcsspcsa5e- , 435 : : AUNSSDWIN. - soos ogsocescucaseesecocen|scce= GOs ccosccccessossecses= 135 8, 817 5.0 14. 83 TBWPEESES) 55 noose cosaeessasesedac | cones OOnscaadosessasseecs005 116 7, 825 4,4 16. 38 ILO EOS ooas none osaesanoncenendesl|ecoce Ol resescacecostenodaccs 26 6, 031 3.4 15.15 All other States (seeSummary, p. |------.--..--.-------------- 718 21,509 PAN Ey Re ee eee 40.) | | ASH. Three kinds of ash are important sources of lumber. White ash (Fraxinus americana) is cut mostly in the Central hardwood States 28 BULLETIN 506, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. anc the Northeast, and to some extent in the Lake States. A great deal of the ash lumber cut in the Lake States comes from the black ash (Fraxinus nigra), while the same species is cut to considerable extent in the Northeast. Green ash (raxinus lanceolata) is the principal source of ash lumber in the Southern States. The lumber trade divides ash lumber into white ash and brown ash; white-ash lumber is cut from the white ash and green-ash tree, while brown-ash lumber comes from the black-ash tree. In the Pacific Coast States, Oregon ash (Fraxvinus oregona) is sometimes cut, while red ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) is used to a limited extent in the East. TABLE 23.—Reported production of ash lumber, 1915. [Computed total production in United States, 190,000 M feet b. m.] Number . Average . Quantit : a a aa ae of active | rep artoa “Por | Value per State. Principal species cut. mills M feet a M feet cent. port- | 0. b. ing. xR moill. MTGE CYS CALCS ss ae ey Se Pcie etic oe eee eae eee 3, 486 159,910 | 100.0 $22.15 Arkansas... .. Green anes cate e eae 87 18, 957 11.8 23.35 Tennessee. ... One see eeeee see ee 193 15, 233 -5 23.37 Louisiana... - ClO SSA Ae eee eee nse as 49 14, 602 9.1 22.47 WASCONSIS eee eaten eee White and black.-.-...... 213 13, 733 8.6 19. 96 Undiana. ak ea eee eee Wihtte Sees e eee eee ee 238 11, 006 6.9 23.75 OLIGO ars ee eee Se tee et Oe EE i naa wee ame 273 8, 616 5.4 24. 59 Michi pam ss 285. cease ascent White and black.........- 174 7, 839 4.9 21.36 MISSISSIPPI - ee eee Con ose aoe onsoasoncoks ony 7,381 4.6 22. 51 INOW) WON. one dc oecasedescoosesac White and black...-...... 702 7, 163 4.5 23.90 Mentuehkey25 eee ie sce ceioe ees Wihtte 2a ee es 156 6, 966 4.4 23. 69 All ee Supe: (GEGy Rule AyS | a sccocauucacnseoceecs BER aeS 1,322 48,414 B0ySulisnnaeeee~)< p. 40). | — COTTONWOOD. Cottonwood lumber is cut from a number of related species. Common cottonwood (Populus deltoides) furnishes the bulk of the lumber. It is found in the whole country east of the Rocky Moun- tains, but is lumbered principally in the lower Mississippi Valley. Swamp cottonwood (Populus heterophylla) is cut with common cottonwood in the lower Mississippi Valley States. Aspen (or popple) (Populus tremuloides), often called poplar, is cut mostly in the Lake States and the Northeast, but also occasionally in the Rocky Mountains and westward. Large-toothed aspen (Populus grandidentata), an eastern species, is not usually distinguished from the other. Balm of Gilead (Populus balsamifera), commonly known as balm, is cut in the Lake States and eastward. Black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa) is lumbered on the Pacific coast. It is the largest of the cottonwoods. PRODUCTION OF LUMBER, LATH, AND SHINGLES. 29- Taste 24.—Reported production of cottonwood lumber, 1915. [Computed total production in United States, 180,000 M feet b. m.] ofactive | Quantity valine State. Principal species cut. mills reported, Per M feet M feet cent. report- ib, f. 0. b. ing. a ity: mill. WinaiedsStatesee ey iottc 2s) yee soll 8 ve ecd od oblige sea ree 1, 037 | 138,282 | 100.0 $17.36 IMISSISSUP PU es oat see cise nce eee Common cottonwood. .--.. 46 37, 139 26.8 18. 66 PAGKATISAS Hen i So ek iee Sess eiuilee ees GoOesnes 52 eee 39 23, 389 16.9 18.14 QUISIA AEs fae feels eieiee eee soa | See ae MOS slic Soe ers 21 17,121 12.4 19.16 Minmimeso tae eee eee her Gace) iss Aspen and balm.....-...- 79 14,074 10. 2 12. 59 WRONTIESSC Haye tec ese deste cae ot Common cottonwood....- 49 10, 466 7.6 19. 33 ANION) ae oar Sees eee ee eee Aspen and balm.........- 51 8, 188 5.9 15. 44 ae 2 RADE Seater ae ne men comaion cottonwood. ..-- of 3) oe 2 e ie ds septedsotsesccboecosacseo ssc dodiconsas Qoossccccnesdacsocaye Ode D 5 AllotherStates| (see Sumtmary, p: -o---2-------ed--- 2 seer e ee 636 21) 402 AUN erates 40). TUPELO. The term “tupelo” is here used to cover two important and one minor species of the botanical genus Nyssa. Most of the tupelo - lumber is cut in the Gulf States from cotton gum (Vyssa aquatica), commonly called tupelo. This tree furnishes the lumber sold under the trade name of “tupelo.” Black gum (or pepperidge) (Vyssa sylvatica) is of next importance and is cut in the Atlantic and Cen- tral States; the lumber is sold both as tupelo and black gum. A little lumber is made from water gum (Vyssa biflora) in the South- ern Atlantic States. Under “ Production by kinds of woods,” on page 15, errors on the part of mills in reporting black gum under red gum in previous years are pointed out. The 1915 schedule sent to mills indicated that black gum should be reported under tupelo, and the result was a largely increased reported cut of this species in the Atlantic and Central States. TABLE 25.—Reported production of tupelo lumber, 1915. [Computed total production in United States, 170,000 M feet b. m.] eractire | uate a tne State. | Principal species cut. mills Te DoTue etl ot M feet report- Mieet | cent. ie, Ib ing. [De Hit mill. Ws SaLeS te is ees Se eien as IMs Rca a unc N eia MenSTae 636 153,001 | 100.0 $12. 25 OWISTEN A eee ise ees Ns Wottony stim eee 45 62, 402 40.8 12.79 Be Carolina ssng se yack sok Blac SUING le eee ges ae 16, 58 11. 4 11. 67 APU eee pes tc DNR Uae nel! NF CUR as Ole aj sR eS eee oe ee - 15, 83 10. 11.49 ANI op yaT eye DS AN SNL be ee are eer Cotton gum... 2.22222... 30 14,546 9.5 11. 23 SOwEeCar ola ee ee a (BI eks eI ee eran 17 7, 922 5.2 12. 02 IMBSSISSUD DUS ae ers eemy ana ctu Cottonyicumest ee eee ese 40 7, 844- hal 12. 80 IMASSO (es eae een wat eain ea UEae Blackie umen eee a-eeeaeere 34 5, 822 3.8 10. 97 KGa BTO Rialto 5 CBee HER = Oe fel eee Gojase saree ee ak } 74 5,198 3.4 12.50 All ines States (see Summary, | [at eeceee eens eee cA DES a 317 16, 677 ALONSO sl Ene ame p- | . 30 BULLETIN 506, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. WHITE FIR. White fir is cut only in the West. White fir (Abzes concolor), also called balsam fir, is the principal source of white fir lumber in all the Western States except Oregon, Washington, Idaho, and Montana. Other species, sold as white fir and therefore here included under that name, are grand fir (Abies grandis), silver fir (Abies amabilis) sometimes called amabilis fir, noble fir (Adzes nobilis), red fir (Abies magnifica), and alpine fir (Abies lastocarpa). The cut of white fir lumber in Idaho and Montana is increasing. TABLE 26.—Reported production of white fir lumber, 1915. {Computed total production in United States, 125,048 M feet b. m.] ofactive | Quantity ae State. Principal species cut. mills reported, Per M feet report- feet cent. ey, ing. ieocaa mill. (ied iS tales skies mets eae cee ie oe ee PERE e nee 236 121,653 | 100.0 $10.94 Californigyd). 82) Sin Se eee Wihitetin; ned fins. sos eee 45 50, 820 41.8 11.61 Toh ees aoe ame cet e-em Grand din ses seer 57 42,906 35.3 10. 80 Oregons nese cece fo Teles os oe INobletine ose. sone cece ce 51 12,592 10.3 9. 41 IWisshinetion(. 4022/5526 ss 22 eee Sulver iin. ose ee maecoeneee 27 6, 783 5.6 9.11 Montenass ae at poet te ee eee Grand ihr en ee ee 6 6,510 5.3 10. 40 AHVotkher States (See “Summmary, \-;>-----+---+--22+2--2- se see 50 2,042 DLA Ps ar eae pale p. 38). ] 1 Includes 2 mills in Nevada. SUGAR PINE. Sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) is the largest pine in the United States. ‘The wood resembles white pine, and the uses of the two are similar, The estimated total cut of 117,701,000 feet is based on 114,494,000 feet reported by 42 mills in California and 615,000 feet reported by 2 mills in Oregon. The species grows in no other States. The average value for California was $17.41 and for Oregon $15.00. BALSAM FIR. One species furnishes all of the balsam fir lumber produced. This is the common balsam fir or balsam (Abzes balsamea), which is lumbered in the Northeast and in the Lake States. TABLE 27.—Reported production of balsam fir lumber, 1915. {Computed total production in United States, 100,000 M feet b. m.] Number in Average of active Guaiaily Per | Value per State. mills Aieet’ | cent, | Mf feet report- Dd. ma ‘i ii, Le Le), ing. pte | mill. Dnited rates 2 bas tals ==. SS ee meee >" = eBuTpOIRD Tynog "7" "* ">> pURIsy epoyy “7 ">" grea Asma g ; “77>"""* TOB0IO cn ee ---emoyepio wtoerstseseoes esr VUTLOIvD TION 7 2) eo MON “rr osss"*"*OorxeyT ALON ~- AQSIOL MONT “"*"*-9rrgsdueyy AVeN Se es aa GUS UOT >>“ LIMosstpl -*> >> -TddIsstssty pie a SIOSORUTET I S100 0) 9 1 ~*~" syjesnyqorsseyy Ben See a DUBTAIE TT ~* > BUBIPUT Bien oa erin See ae a OM GPE “>>> BI3I005) Bi eal Bplopl iy “""""-9IBAM RTO "77 r7 77777 "gnotoeum0g “=== opRI0[og 7777755757 BELIOFTTSO = She See "* ooo 7° *"" SEsneH IW -**- euOZzIIV pores > eMBAUry so1Big pezag "GT6L ‘sayni gs fig ‘sajburys pun yyn) pun saqun) fo pury yova fo wouonpoud pajsoda. puv ‘buyusodas (laao pun Jy og buajjno) s)prumns aanopy— 9g AIA, or) ine) PRODUCTION OF LUMBER, LATH, AND SHINGLES. cease OVE ed ey a TI "EPBAON UI [[[Ut [ Sopnyour z ; *SPCAON UL S[[It Z SOpNpOUT + BGG Poegles aa loge | ee |e GGL 918 °% pee ee RT Ree Milita ne semen er * LOT‘CT. |80T ‘GT (29 Weeuars s|LccavcrlG.0. 0" | \getee:||egr=- cslcnOed Spee a WARE Di Ze ROS AGES | aa rita chase) QTL POL JOFL SST “T |&8e Bale Bak “722777 7]084 516 |" =" "ee6 OOT f6S8 "eT Gh9 016 {P08 ‘296 OTS: 884 °9 {LLP TS |T99 TOs] = 7777 |"" ""7" "806 (96 684 ‘SFT 049 (908 OFS (06 : ZI8 GGL ‘E [SPE 9GL “E |O8E , Bee OGG lee ss 0G2 LG (OGr Tet yea’ “-Ice6 ‘Ge |P&6°G 926 ‘c9¢ |91c‘229 |S6r‘616 (Sho T Ofeeeees U2 Genelia 6 heen "*|P8 69 “""|GFS ‘SCE GTS SOT Bee SE TSR RRS ee ar ek Sie Gee --128z ‘8 ----l9¢8‘0T |Z68 ‘OT [82 "1887 T “=-lonz ‘299 “T lech Sa ‘T cog ‘819 “T |F9% U[SMOOST AA, CIUTSILA 4SOAA 1109.3 GTYSE AA SDROP SPE HSS SSS e CUNT IUA BULLETIN 9506, U. 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Weewee (OEE Se een 918 ‘I Gh G14‘ |902'2 [996 |LnL‘G9 |pLe‘O9 |LE9‘ZT |TOL‘c fora izez | 706 (09% See ac GLa ile |) ec ee ede Oe eee PSI'PE |89S'E (98066 1801819 1oq}0 11V 77 “ULSHOOST MA. “77777 * @TUTSIEA JSO AA WOSUIYSe AA ~-RIUTSILA, soreressss= -ATTOUIIOA. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF Ale athe ae Contribution from the States Relation Service A. C. TRUE, Director. Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 24, 1917 STUDIES ON THE DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL. FATS. By C. F. Lanawortxy, Chief, and A. D. Hommes, Scientific Assistant, Office of Home Economics. CONTENTS. Page. Page. EIPER ERIC TOM as Li sec iaiseehe ee eas 1 | Digestion experiments—Chicken fat, goose Experimental methods . HA Aare Ree et sera Leh vaya 2 fat, brisket fat, cream, and fat in egg yolk INTRODUCTION. Previous papers‘ reported the results of experiments undertaken to determine the thoroughness of digestion of lard, beef fat, mutton fat, butter, olive oil, cottonseed oil, peanut oil, coconut oil, sesame oil, and cocoa butter, which showed that fairly large quantities of these fats incorporated in a simple mixed diet could be eaten without digestive disturbances and that all were well digested, the coefficient ‘of digestibility being proportional to the melting point of the fat. In continuation of the study of animal and vegetable fats and their dietetic uses, this bulletin reports a study of the digestibility of chicken fat, goose fat, brisket fat, cream, fat in egg yolk, and fat or oil in fish. Fats are so very similar in their chemical nature that it is natural to assume that they would not differ materially with respect to their food value (of which digestibility is’ an important factor) under comparable conditicns. While race experience would indicate that this is true in the main, there is reason to believe that the question of the digestibility of fats and the closely related matter of the energy which they supply to the body merit further study. That the digestion of different sorts is not alike in all its steps is indicated 1U. S. Dept. Agr. Buls. 310 (1915); 505 (1917). Note.—This bulletin records studies of the digestibility of chicken fat, goose fat, brisket fat, cream, fat in egg yolk, and fat or oilinfish. It is primarily ofinterest to students and investigators of food problems. 70239°—Bull. 507—17——1 g BULLETIN 507, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. by the work of Tangl and Erdélyi’) and of Von Fejér,? who have observed that fats with a melting point somewhat higher than normal body temperature do not leave the stomach so readily as those of a lower melting point, and, furthermore, that they are not so easily emulsified in the intestine. Apparently no connection has been shown between these observations and thoroughness of diges- tion. Before one can assume that the fuel value of fat, or more accurately the fuel value of digested fat, actually represents its energy value to the body, one must take into account such work as that of Lusk* and his associates, which showed that the digestion and assimilation of foods (including fat) caused an increased output of energy, not ascribable to muscular work, and designated specific- dynamic effect. The test reported did not compare different fats. That in comparing fats we must consider not alone such questions of thoroughness of digestion and energy expenditure as a result of digestion and their relation to nutrition is apparent from recent work of McCollum and Davis‘ and Osborne and Mendel,> who concluded that certain fats carry either as an integral part or as a complement a small amount of substance important in growth. In discussing dietetics, it is commonly assumed that fat and carbohydrates can replace each other as sources of energy in proportion to their theo- retical energy values. There are times when it is not wise to do this, at least under pathological conditions, as recent work would indicate, since, according to Ringer,® there is a limit beyond which this replacement can not, go without serious results, some carbohy- drate, it is claimed, being essential for the complete combustion of fat. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. The investigations here reported form a part of a series of studies of the thoroughness of digestion of culinary and table fats of animal and vegetable origin, including those eaten as such, those added to foods in cookery, and those which form an integral part of the foods in which they naturally occur. In all the same general procedure was followed. The experimental methods were those adopted | in earlier work’ carried on by the department as a part of its investigations of the nutritive value of foods as a result of extended studies ‘of the advan- tages and disadvantages of differences in technique and in laboratory methods. The subjects were young men ieadiea or dental students) in good health, of similar occupation and muscular activity. The diets 1 Binder. fee br., 34 (1911), No. 1-2, pp. 94-110. 2Idem, 53 (1913), mb, 1-2, pp. 168-178. 3 Jour. Biol. Chem., 22 (1915), No. 1, pp. 15-41; Cornell Univ. Med. Bul., 5 (1915), No. 2 (pt. 1, paper 14), 4 Jour. Biol. Chem., 15 (1913), No. 1, pp. 167-175. 6 Idem, 16 (1913), No. 3, pp. 423-437; 17 (1914), No. 3, pp. 401-408. 6 Idem, 17 (1914), No. 2, pp. 107-119. 7U.S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Bul. 143 (1904), pp. 57-77. DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL FATS. 3 were simple, the fat-containing food, which was the principal item, being supplemented in each case by carbohydrate foods (such as biscuits or crackers, and mashed potato), fruit (oranges or apples), and tea or coffee with sugar, if a beverage besides water was desired. The subjects were not required to eat like quantities of the food supplying the fat, or of the other foods, but in every case they were expected to eat an amount of fat which would supply about 30 per cent of the total energy value of the ration, this being the quan- tity which fat contributes to the average American and European diet, as shown by a compilation of data made for this study. With the experimental diets chosen this would mean about 100 grams of fat. Special pains were always taken to use fat which was not rancid, since Adler,' on the basis of experimental data, has attributed a hemolytic action to the presence of free fatty acids in foods. In making up the diets for the experiments a stiff cornstarch pud- ding or blancmange (heavily flavored with caramel to mask any distinctive fat flavor) was used as a vehicle for the separated fats. The same sort of blancmange was also used in the experiments with cream and egg yolk. For the study of fish oil a typical fat fish was used as the source of the fat. In these, as in the earlier digestion experiments reported, the three- day or nine-meal test period proved entirely satisfactory. The test periods were followed by rest periods of four days, in which the sub- jects were permitted to eat whatever they desired. Obviously, the diet during the experimental periods was limited to the prescribed ration. In every case weighed portions of the different foods were prepared in advance for each meal for each subject and the subjects were instructed to reserve any uneaten portions of the diet for weigh- ing, in order that the exact amount eaten might be ascertained. They were also instructed to observe due care in the collection and separation of the feces pertaining to an experimental period. The records of the experiments include data for the amounts of food eaten and for the feces. Samples of both food and feces were analyzed to determine what percentages of protein and carbohydrate as well as fat were available to the body. The percentage of fat in the feces was determined by ether extrac- tion of the air-dried sample for 18 to 20 hours by the Soxhlet method, as described by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists.” It is recognized that by this method some fat in the form of soaps may not be extracted. However, comparative tests by the Folin- Wentworth? method and the Soxhlet. method, made as a part of the digestion work of this office, have given results that are not uniform and are not significant from the standpoint of dietetics. The éther extract obtained by the method followed is assumed to represent.the fat of undigested food, and this quantity less the pro- 1 Jour. Med. Research, 28 (1913), No. 1, pp. 199-226. 2U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Bul. 107 (1912). 3 Jour. Biol. Chem., 7 (1910), No. 6, pp. 424, 425. 4 BULLETIN 507, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. portion ascribable to the fat supplied by the basal ration to repre- sent the undigested portion of the fat studied. The significance of such values, in discussing problems of dietetics and the theoretical and other considerations having to do with metabolic products in feces, are fully discussed in earlier publications.1 DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS. CHICKEN FAT. Although chicken fat as such is not avaliable in quantity in most markets the very large demand for poultry, especially mature poultry, would indicate a very considerable consumption of the fat along with the chicken meat. Little information, however, as to its digestibility and nutritive value has been found in a survey of the literature. In studies of the digestibility of fish and poultry, Milner? found that chicken fat eaten as an integral part of poultry in a simple mixed diet was 97 per cent digested. Several pounds of chicken fat, which had been taken in small quan- tities from fat birds drawn at the market for those not desiring the excess fat, were procured. It was passed through an ordinary meat grinder and heated in a double boiler to a temperature higher than its melting point, after which the fat was easily separated from sur- rounding tissues by straining. For use in the digestion experiments the product was thoroughly mixed and incorporated in a blancmange or cornstarch pudding in the way previously described. Eight experiments of three days’ duration were completed in which four normal subjects assisted. The results of these tests are recorded in the following tables: Data of digestion experiments with chicken fat in a simple mixed diet. : Pro- Carbo- Weight. | Water. al Fat. hydrates. Ash. Experiment No. 274, subject H. F. B.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams.| Grams.| Grams. | Grams. Blancmange containing chicken fat rare 2,357.0 | 1,072.0 45.7] 359.7 863.6 16.0 Wiheatpisculto.- 3-2 a -hcbae secet ale somes 545. 49. : : TUNG! Sacer cena. ce ane a okrisemcm sccm eeecae SUSar eco oe oes sac iinwe coe ete esate ae oid Per cent utilized Experiment No. 275, subject D. G. G.: “ | Blanemange containing chicken fat.......... 1,597.0 | 726.3 31.0 | 243.7 585. 1 10.9 Wheat biscuit SHOE Spe eee SScCOrC os sae 396. 0 | 35.7 42.0 5.9 306. 1 6.3 DUNG ais, Beas cata Se ere eee ec cesiah oe ote 492.0 427.5 3.9 1.0 b7.1 2.5 SHEAL Sa cree iets 6 aciewie nein = ole Bs loti ataterlole L580 ese neem [eh Pia ae Meee TCH (ON Bea e eae Total food consumed...............------- 2,643.0; 1,189.5 76.9 | 250.6) 1, a E 19.7 PR BCOS SSS cerns chine terme nated oie a's sista sleisiGole SSL OV. eee 26. 2 15.6 6.1 A MOLING TIGL ZOR's ata Sate dicen oclcabne ne au cs |erme Seen MNT! gn mapa 50.7 | 235.0) 1, 06e, ; 13.6 Parent uttlzediiy i 1/22) (aM. ha Vinge oleae aie 65.9| 93.8 96.4| 69.0 1U.S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Buls, 126 (1903), pp. 18-20; 193 (1907), pp. 47-59; Connecticut Storrs Sta. Rpt. 1896, pp. 178-180. 2 Connecticut Storrs Sta. Rpt. 1905, pp. 135, 136. : Pe } DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL FATS. 5 Data of digestion experiments with chicken fat in a simple mixed diet—Continued. Tat Pro- Carbo- | Weight. | Water. pene Fat. hydrates. Ash. Experiment No. 276, subject Te SEs Grams. | Grams. | Grams.| Grams.| Grams. | Grams. Blanemange containing chicken fat.......... 2,073.0 942.8 40.2} 316.3 759. 6 14.1 VT AVS fait 1 OT YC) BWI ae at gre a er 340.0 30.6 36.0 : : 5 LETH SO G5 a VST UAE La ana 7 SUSE ococbat deb ea see beheonaenoss ee Sece nh») S65 5556585 Seeranen Baeesteel mimic oN pisces nae Total food consumed cy 3 pet eipeaiiived 011. 18.5 » Percent utilized 76.1 Experiment No. 277, subject O. E. S.: f Blancmange containing chicken fat........-.- 2,380.0 | 1,082.4 46.2 | 363.2 872.0 16.2 NAVE, [OUEST TH Foes Se a eg 450.0 40.5 47.7 6.7 347.9 7.2 STAT eee ee tLe ce soe se, WER 22 1,505.0} 1,307.9 12.0 3.0 174.6 7.5 SIGRID 3 SAV epee tle een Ae ee de U7 TRO ORE Sao ee ae 7 OS eae Total food consumed.............-.-.----- 4,506.0 | 2,430.8 | 105.9 | 372.9] 1,565.5 30.9 rats a eee citar feisdetelha es Scets T2420 IE eee tie 36.7 29.9 46.3 11.1 PMETTOUETEC TREDILZOGE siete nei yet Mae um Sy eo a es 69.2 | 343.0] 1,519.2 19.8 eempant natilizedis esta k's 2 i. id iy Lec i ae eee 65.3| 920| 97.0] 641 Experiment No. 290, subject H. F. B.: Blancmange containing chicken fat.......-.. I, 983.0 903.7 37.2 | 299.4 726. 2 16.5 RVideatpIscUIte se sa Eset PP ee ay ikea 499.0 44.9 52.9 7.5 385. 7 8.0 TEENIE (8 rae pee aoe SUE eae ee 1,319.0 | 1,146.2 10.6 2.6 153.0 6.6 SHEERS 2 le IN 2 ae ergs PE ee heme ee 127 50m eee ee a en ea Sa ay IPH kee aS Total food consumed...........-...-.-.--- 3,928.0 | 2.094.8} 100.7] 309.5] 1,391.9 31.1 Heces ese pnb ocecoraodedesbesecsoubenccas 1SZONOF ER See ee 37.6 23.9 55. 4 13.1 PATO TEUNZOG sen aes a2 Se a eRe Sa ane NI. 2 UME Se sis 2 63.1] 285.6} 1,336.5 18.0 Bepeant mislized sc!) ii Pl ae eee 62.7 | 92.3 96.0) 0 Maree. Experiment No. 291, subject D. G. G.: Blancmange containing chicken fat.........- 1, 250.0 569.6 23.5 | 188.7 457.8 10.4 Meat bisciiteee his Ts ie we Ey eke cy 480.0 43.2 50.9 7.2 371.0 Ue PDT he else OR ICS ate le 636. 0 552.7 5.1 1.2 73.8 3.2 SAORI DS cS leS 6 IAS AE eR ks OE Ne LSGRORIBE Ree eit userid Sibert kee PSGUOR Pease Total food consumed.....................- 2, 522.0 1,165.5 79.5 | 197.1 1, 058. 6 21.3 DEI, 152 52 ys Reid Se Meh ee HAO) eee ee 23.9 12.0 32.0 Sh PRTHOUT Gs IPULZEC sere et oe et Cire Ay Sek 2) area 55.6 | 185.1] 1,026.6 12.2 PST (200 RU ELL ee Se pe || CI a 69.9] 93.9 97.0 57.3 Experiment No. 292, subject R. L. S.: j Blanemange containing chicken fat ......._- 1, 706.0 777.4 AYA UN PETE 624. 7 14.2 We atADISCII Ges se a See kaa eay ! g 3.8 Ly) 319.2 6.6 PESTLE ena pyogenes ey SED MeN a i aah Cate .2 3 74.9 3.2 ESTO NEES 2 Nt gO ae I BAL OME ee siecle ele food consumed : : 1,072.8 ae ECOSER EARP ERC Zoe Ag. : b Hy 27.3 P Amount utilized 1,045.5 17.2 Per cent utilized 97.5 ila Experiment No. 293, subject O. E.S.: - Blancmange containing ehicken fat.-........ 1, 708.0 778: 3 32: 1)|) 257.9 625.5 14.2 Wheat biscuit renee Sah MIRAI OAL Lh ge Aad 411.0 37.0 43.6 6.1 317.7 6.6 VOSA EME 2 REN UNSC Tne SIE i ca eg a eae 1,273.0} 1,106.2 10. 2 2.5 147.7 6.4 PSUS Seis, SU CGA an cr Aa IZA) 4) Sse AC pated Wa Mg TAO} Bese Motaliiood'consumed:; 22022. 225.8.25 502. 3,963.0} 1,921.5 85.9 | 266.5 1, 261.9 oie OES = CSS Se IES Oa ETE ns et oo oe 89. OF Rese ee 6.3 20.7 1 B £2500 GUELENE CHANTAL IE EM ENR sv ei bee | 05 SN ita 59.6 | 245.8] 1,228.8 18.3 PESCIACOLIGNI ELIZ Cree een ons a An noir a width tS) ARR ET 69.4 92.2 97.4 67.3 Average food consumed per subject per day..... 1, 167.8 601.7 30.4 98. 2 | 428.7 8.8 6 BULLETIN 507, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Summary of digestion experiments with chicken fat in a simple mixed diet. Experi- : « Carbohy- Went Nios Subject. Protein. Fat. drates. Ash. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 7 6. ORE Ie TST doe 5 ie a Se ea ee Seis args ee Me aL = es 61.7 92.9 96. 1 62.3 QLD wis cases DG Gata co AER cere 5 ee Ri SR nce cena 65.9 93. 8 96. 4 69.0 BIG eee Toil Pt SOS se Set RIA Staaten errs ryt Sere cg Sha ae 75.3 94. 6 98. 0 76.1 21h EEO (Ol 2 js Re Pa or piney PE ee aE ws Mae 65.3 92.0 97.0 64.1 OOS sea een FS SB acoce Su ee yinibe cece daecs hus aaeemainee camer 62.7 92.3 96.0 57.9 7a N Ree eae UD GG aa a a Ne) OL Re a ee 69.9 93. 9 97.0 57.3 BODE 2 442% Bea Sek oa ee eae Be BA 76.0 95.3 97.5 Tiles Date a See ad OBIS Bie casas Be Beye ol ole aie Sores 5 a A 69. 4 92. 2 97.4 67. Atyerageiie sans Oo soo. eee Se eee ec erata 68.3 93. 4 96.9 65.7 The average coefficient of digestibility of the total fat eaten during these tests was 93.4 per cent. As the ether extract of the feces, how- ever, is known to contain metabolic product and undigested fat from the basal ration, which though nearly so was not absolutely fat free, a correction has been applied in the case of this fat and the others studied to determine the average digestibility of total fat consumed. “Digestion experiments with the basal ration as the only source of fat have been reported in connection with the earlier animal fat experi- ments, from which it was concluded that 9.89 per cent of the total weight of water-free feces is made up of metabolic products and undi- gested fat from the food,! which latter must have been an insignifi- cant quantity, since the total amount in the diet was so small. Subtracting the quantity represented by this percentage from the total ether extract of the feces, a value is obtained more nearly repre- senting the weight of unutilized fat. The corrected, value for the digestibility of fat then becomes 96.7 per cent. GOOSE FAT. In the United States goose fat is used as such only to a very limited extent and chiefly among those of foreign birth or parentage who adhere to special food customs. Owing to the impossibility of obtaining goose fat in quantity from local dealers, an unusually fat or ‘“‘stall-fed’”’ goose was purchased. It weighed 27.5 pounds, 13 pounds of fat being obtained when the fat was cut away from the flesh and rendered in the usual way. The goose fat, which at room temperature (about 20° C.) is a soft, pale- yellow, granular solid, tended to separate into two layers on stand- ing—an upper, oily layer, and a lower, more or less solid layer. By using freshly rendered fat, rancidity was avoided, which is likely to occur on keeping, perhaps owing to the 0.7 to 3.5 per cent of soluble fatty acid which the fat contains. As regards previous work with this fat, Arnschink ? conducted an experiment of four days’ duration with a dog weighing 8 kilograms, in which an average of 50 grams, containing 70 per cent of oleic 1U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 310 (1915), p. 20. 2 Ztschr. Biol., 8 (1890), pp. 443, 444. DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME ANIMAL FATS. 7 acid and a relatively large amount of free fatty acids was eaten daily and 97.51 per cent digested. So far as can be ascertained, no experi- ments with human subjects have been recorded. In the work here reported a series of seven digestion experiments has been completed, the essential data of which are given below. Data of digestion experrments with goose fat in a simple mixed diet. = Pro Carbo- Weight. | Water. oan Fat hydrates Ash ay Seniment No. 209, subject O. E. S.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. lanemange containing goose fat..-......... i 940. 7 36. 7 Wheat biscuit WBE a sees TPES ee el pa ee OICOMaUUTIZEC aps Seep elas Ie sole size |e é a= - eRe ae eee soak 72. Experiment No. 2@2, subject H. F. B.: Blanemange containing goose fat.............| 2,424.0] 1,100.3 44.6 Wiest ISCHI Ge co Mens ye ee 602. 0 54.2 63.8 EGTUTM erate oe ces ebcecisnemecsccastales oe 1,178.0} 1,023.7 9.4 Birorepee eee cme ee ul) De ee ato P7S5ON Cae ae oe tea eat ok oe otal food consumed)s: 20245. 26.22.2222. ./2 4,377.0 | 2,178.2 | 117.8 ECE ereepies ote tN Ligh eck (bei ois 0 toe al ae 15szOR eee oe 39.7 PMITOVEMALEMIZEC syorseiie a eee lois = oysiccia's ee. | nie sie oo Seen wioeine ee 78.1 TRB Sil WU ne ae eerie oe em eae an 66.3 Experiment No. 264, subject R. L. S.: lanemange containing goose fat..........-. 2,059.0 934.6 37.9 | 265.8 805.1 15.6 Wheat biscuit 321.0 28.9 34.0 4.8 248.1 5.2 MUG ep eee ete seen 28 897.0 779.5 7.2 1.8 104.0 4.5 SSE Geek emer peees aL Sue NE SLI sca gy ON NIC ZB ee os OR Sekar eae UR ea 22 0Neaeeaee Total food consumed......-...-.-.-.--- | 3,349.0] 1,743.0 79.1] 272.4 | 1,229.2 25.3 IE CES eee Lee uu ene e saeeteee CLUS) ea 22.6 9.6 31.9 5.9 PRITOUTMA LT UINIZEC nye ecm epecie eto me eye eet cys a ail naive & SR eee eee 56.5 |] 262.8} 1,197.3 19. 4 PEPTIC OM URL IIZCC eran ota te te en pS eel) Ney Ns SOT eran) a 71.4 96.5 97.4 76. 7 Experiment No. 265, subject O. E. S.: Blanemange containing goose fat.............| 2,451.0] 1,112.5 45.1 316.4 958. 4 18.6 WEA TDISCHIbsss sees Se ee ie ee 370.0 33.3 39.2 5.6 286.0 5.9 PES ERT a crepe pees rere NN mnie Her SEA En NE 1,219.0 | 1,059.3 9.8 2.4 141.4 6.1 (STDP EUS I Ge BIRO ai a ee eS a Nn DOO) 52 Sa Ae ee | (ap L270} Saeriosee Total food consumed...-.-...-.....-....-- 4,167.0} 2,205.1 94.1] 324.4] 1,512.8 30.6 CCOSEME NE rans sesh uane ieee ees fee. TOSHON A ee Rey ee 30.9 Mes 51.8 7.8 PAEROM ERE TIUUIZEC pases erence bps Cts IMA ae i eo 63.2 | 306.9! 1,461.0 22.8 ETC ONG LIN ZEG aes -2d ppb wes Cahifonnias 2%: aa'-\an evi eer MOG 7 heb coer. ADAG it o's aaa IAC E OAK ome seis ston Sats niet ata) =n eal am oles GOL) Wie cence ccutaesnene 2116.3 88.3 | 2142.7 103.5 SWI Oakes neta nem et -o8 -- eis amet SOUISisnia tee += eb sise. «ee sae = 89.2 78. 4 88. 0 97.8 MUCH PLUBracs a= s scence see cciaeblan's > = California ee: -.26 sees e reals 99.0 | 124.1 |) 102.8 119.3 14 more detailed discussion of the commercial possibilities of distilling the California oaks is given in Metallurgical and Chemical Engineering, Vol. XII, p. 623. 2 Limbs. YIELDS FROM DISTILLATION OF CERTAIN HARDWOODS. 5 The relative value of the species, obtained by taking the average of beech, birch, and maple heartwood as 100 per cent, is given in Table 3, and the same values are shown diagrammatically in figures 1 and 2. OC a {ZSREEN, BLUE,S YELLOW ASH-TENN.6& M0--82.9 7/7 SC a Zee ennscens LL eich ase ava) CO [pnive eun-vaneas IL MET thr ie Ujerncx asu-wis- 89.9 7////////) ea Pes an Zcnestwut oax-tenn-90.8/////////// pe 2 ETT OO —— OAK-= iil i i ao il i i Sa | | CU | mn Tt fT | [zaman ZT 4S cena ECO Ll | ii LTE UCI eee oS mao oO LOLI een Uj EUCALYPTUS -CAL= 119.3 VYVYYYywywyy TTT Y Zjancex asn-no- 913 Y/Y) a posers | 25 50 Sk _— a PERCENTAGE Fic. 1.—Relative yields of acetate of lime per cord. (Average yield from heartwood of beech, birch, and maple from Indiana and Wisconsin equals 100 per cent.) 6 BULLETIN 508, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In Bulletin 129 the averages for beech, birch, and maple included yields from heartwood and lumber. Later experiments on tempera- ture control have shown that in these experiments yields from lum- ber were not strictly Taam with those from heartwood, and ACE a a om a gL eae [Zsuwven marce-wis-00.07/ an a i ZL a Si TTT ZEAE Aa ZA (ail LE iaamverrne 8 TUTE Fi LTTE V/SuiereRy eum-wis~100.7/// Ft at a U7 TANBARK OAK-CAL= 106.7 VYYYyYyyvy LE = ile aan Cee 7 mci AC mS a een atone JV«J€Cd Ht eee pear ax oes VT Dp V MMM ett eT ea 7/, aT SEE RR ! _—$——————— Fic, 2.—Diagrammatic section of improved dry kiln with spray chambers on sides. Double- truck form. densers G G. Here the column of cooled air descends into the spray flue B, where its velocity is increased by the force of the water spray. It then passes out from the baffle plates to the heaters and repeats the cycle. Various modifications of this arrangement may be made. For instance, a single-track kiln may be used. This:form would be repre- sented by simply dividing the diagram vertically into two parts by extending the wall G (on the left side) upward to represent the outer wall, and erasing the part to the left of this line. Or, again, the spray chambers may be kept on the sides as shown in figure 2. The Jumber would then slope in the opposite direction with respect to HUMIDITY-REGULATED AND RECIRCULATING DRY KILN. 13 the center of the kiln and the air would rise in the center and descend on the sides. One of the greatest advantages of this natural circulation method is that the colder the lumber when placed in the kiln the greater is the movement produced, under the very conditions which call for the greatest circulation—just the opposite of the direct-circulation method. This is a feature of the greatest importance in winter, when the lumber is put into the kiln in a frozen condition. One truck load of lumber at 60 per cent moisture may easily contain over 7,000 pounds of ice. In the matter of circulation the kiln is, in fact, self-regulatory— the colder the lumber the greater the circulation produced, with the effect increased toward the cooler and wetter portions of the pile. Preliminary steaming may be used in connection with this kiln, but experiments indicate that ordinarily it is not desirable, since the high humidity which can be secured gives as good results, and, being at as low a temperature as desired, much better results in the case of certain difficult woods like oak, eucalyptus, ete. This kiln has another advantage in that its operation is entirely independent of outdoor atmospheric conditions, except that baro- metric pressures will affect it slightly. THEORETICAL DISCUSSION OF EVAPORATION. In considering the drying effect of vapor alone (superheated steam) and of air mixed with the vapor, one very significant fact must be noticed. Saturate vapor alone in cooling and in order to remain saturate must absorb heat. Its specific heat is negative, so that the only way it can heat a body is by condensation. It is, therefore, incapable of producing evaporation. When air is present with the saturate vapor, however, the air can supply some of this heat, according to the pressure of the air present, so there will be less condensation. Still more important is the fact that when air is present with the vapor sufficient heat can be supplied to the body being dried by means of the air without greatly superheating the vapor, thus keeping a high relative humidity and at the same time supplying a sufficient amount of heat to carry on the evaporation. With vapor alone (superheated steam) a relatively high degree of superheating, which means a correspondingly low relative humidity, is required in prac- tice in order to supply the necessary heat for evaporation, after the material has become heated through to the temperature of the sat- urated vapor at the pressure used. Remember that the temperature of the wet wood corresponds to that of the wet bulb in the hygrom- eter when air is present, but very nearly to the dew point in the presence of superheated vapor alone. 14 BULLETIN 509, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EVAPORATION IN THE ABSENCE OF AIR. In vapor alone, no air being present, evaporation from a surface of water takes place at the dew point, but when the water is inti- mately contained in other substances the temperature must be higher than the dew point. If air is present it retards the rate of evapora- tion from a free surface of water, so that the surface is warmer than the dew point, depending upon the degree of relative humidity in the air. While the surface of wood is wet its temperature will not rise above that of the wet bulb in the presence of air, nor above the dew point in superheated vapor alone. As it becomes drier, how- ever, its temperature will rise, due to its affinity for retaining mois- ture. In the former condition there is no danger of too rapid drying, but in the latter condition, if the humidity is too low or the superheat too high, the drying from the surface may become more rapid than the rate at which the moisture is transmitted from the center, and casehardening results. In considering the manner in which drying takes place in super- heated steam, suppose the pressure is atmospheric and that a wet piece of wood has been heated in saturated steam to 212° F. No evaporation will take place until additional heat is added. Now, suppose steam superheated to 232° F. or 20° of superheat is in- troduced. The portion immediately in contact with the surface of the wet wood will be cooled to 212° F., and in so doing it will vaporize a certain portion of water from the surface. As the specific heat of this steam is, in round terms, one-half, and as it requires about 1,000 thermal units to vaporize one unit of water, to vaporize a single molecule of water at 212° F. will require contact of 100 of the molecules of superheated steam at 232° F. We will then have 101 molecules of steam in the saturated condition at 212° F. Evapora- tion must then cease unless this saturated steam is replaced by some fresh superheated steam. Evaporation from a free surface of water in the absence of air (in superheated steam) always takes place at the boiling point (which in this case is the same as the dew point). If, however, there is a deficiency of water in-the wood more heat will be required to separate it and to vaporize it, and evaporation will take place at a higher temperature than the dew point. In fact, evaporation may cease altogether in the superheated steam, and a higher degree of superheating be required (which is equivalent to a lower humidity) to get the moisture out of the wood. In the case of a surface of free water the rate of evaporation depends entirely upon the amount of heat transmitted to the water, whether by in- creasing the circulation or by increasing the degrees of superheat. In the latter case, when the moisture is intimately contained in the HUMIDITY-REGULATED AND RECIRCULATING DRY KILN. 15 wood, the rate depends largely upon the relative humidity.‘ There is a balance between what might be termed the retentive or attractive property of the wood, “hygroscopicity,” and the tendency of the moisture to vaporize. It is the difference between the tension of the vapor at the higher temperature of the wood and the tension actually existing in the space surrounding the wood. This retentive prop- -erty increases as the wood becomes drier and decreases as it ap- proaches the wet condition. Experiments indicate that generally it is nearly inversely proportional to the amount of moisture remain- ing in the wood. EVAPORATION WHEN AIR IS PRESENT. When air is present with the superheated steam or water vapor the conditions are quite different. Vaporization of a particle from the surface of the free water is retarded by the air pressure, so that the temperature of the water may be raised above the dew point. The air now, as well as the vapor, conducts heat to the water, so that the rate of evaporation at given pressures depends not alone on the quantity of heat supplied (by circulation and degree of superheat- ing) but upon the relative amounts of vapor and air present. That is to say, the lower the relative humidity the greater is the rate of evaporation at a given temperature and pressure. The temperature of the water will correspond to that of the wet bulb, and not to that of the dew point. When the wood becomes partially dried its tem- perature will rise, as in the case of superheated steam, and it may be heated even above the boiling point at the given pressure without giving up all of its moisture, provided there is some vapor in the air. CONCLUSIONS AS TO DRYING IN VAPOR ALONE AND IN AIR AND VAPOR. Thus it is seen that the rate of drying may be controlled by the relative humidity, provided there be sufficient circulation to supply the heat required. In the case of steam alone, the rate of drying, as just shown, depends upon the quantity of circulation as well as the degree of superheating. Hence the conclusion follows that moist air, with ample circulation, should give more uniform drying throughout than superheated steam, which varies with the rate of circulation in each portion. 1 In uSing the term relative humidity as applied to superheated steam it is understood te mean the ratio of the actual vapor pressure to that of the pressure of saturated vapor at the given temperature, as explained before. 2%n reality what probably happens is that the layer of air in immediate contact with the water becomes saturated and has a higher vapor pressure corresponding to the tem- perature of the surface of the water, and the air retards the diffusion of this vapor. The temperature of the water, however, can not exceed the boiling point for the given pres- sure, at which point the conditions must become the same as those for superheated steam alone, since then the air will become entirely displaced by the water vapor. 16 BULLETIN 509, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. But the chief difficulty with superheated steam at or above atmos- pheric pressure is the high temperature to which the material must be subjected, the minimum with very wet wood being 212° F., and increasing as the wood dries. Below atmospheric temperatures, costly apparatus is required for operating at a vacuum, and the heating medium is attenuated, requiring an excessive volume of vapor to be circulated if the danger is to be avoided of the wood, as it becomes dry on the surface, being heated too high. Instead of a vacuum the same result can be obtained by combining air with the vapor, in which case the air makes up the deficiency of pressure. For in- stance, a vacuum of 28 inches, which is about the extreme in mechani- cal operations, will give an absolute vapor pressure of about 1 pound and a temperature of 101° F. for saturated conditions. Precisely the same value for the vapor occurs if saturated air at 101° F. and atmospheric pressure is used instead, in which case the additional heating capacity of the air present is also available. There would then be in a cubic foot of space vapor pressure of 1 pound (nearly) per square inch and 13.7 pounds of dry air pressure. This amount of vapor would weigh 0.0029 pound and the air 1/15.2 or 0.0658 pound (15.2 being the volume in cubic feet of 1 pound of dry air at 13.7 pounds pressure and 101° F. temperature). HEATING CAPACITIES OF AIR AND VAPOR IN MIXTURE. The heating capacity of the vapor in this cubic foot of space, in falling 1 degree, from 102° F. to 101° F-., is .0029.421—.00122 B. t. u., as before, while that of the air present is .0658.237=.0156 B. t. u., or more than ten times that of the vapor present. The total heating capacity of 1 cubic foot of the mixture, in falling 1 degree, from 102° F. to 101° F., is then the sum of these two, viz, .01682 B. t. u. The latent heat of evaporation at 101° F. being 1044, it will require the heat given up by 1044/.01682—62,206 cubic feet of the mixed air and vapor falling 1 degree, from 102° F. to saturation at 101° F’., to evaporate 1 pound. This is very much less than that required for vapor alone, which, as will be shown farther on, is 829,433 cubic feet. In fact, the quantity in volume is less than that of dry air alone at 212° F. and one atmospheric pressure (69,000), as figured farther on. If the vapor is superheated, say, to 112° F., its pres- sure remaining the same as before, this is simply equivalent, so far as the vapor is concerned, to air at atmospheric pressure with a rela- _tive humidity of less than saturation. Im this case the relative humidity would be the pressure of the actual vapor—0.972 pound per square inch—divided by the pressure which the vapor would have if it were saturated at 112° F., viz, .972/1.34=73 per cent humidity. 1 The specific heat of superheated vapor at this temperature is 0.421 as given by Thiesen. HUMIDITY-REGULATED AND RECIRCULATING DRY KILN. 17 It should now be evident that superheated vapor is the same thing as moist air with the air removed. The same effects upon the mate- rial to be dried are produced in both cases, as far as the vapor is concerned; but in the case of moist air, the effect of the air is added to that of the vapor. The same laws apply to the vapor, whether the air is present or absent. The air conveys heat, but by its presence retards the diffusion of the vapor, and consequently retards the rate of evaporation. RELATIVE HEATING CAPACITIES OF AIR AND VAPOR. To compare the relative heating capacities of dry air and of super- © heated vapor, the following deductions are made: The specific heat of water vapor at a pressure of one atmosphere is 0.475; that is to say, 1 pound of superheated steam in falling 1° F. gives up 0.475 British thermal unit. To evaporate 1 pound of water at 212° F., therefore, will require the heat given up by 966 (latent heat at 212° F.)— .475=2034 pounds of steam falling 1 degree. At 212° F. the volume per pound is 26.78 cubic feet; therefore, 203426.78=54,470 cubic feet of superheated steam falling 1 degree are required to evaporate 1 pound of water. The specific heat of dry air is 0.237 and the vol- ume of 1 pound is 16.93 (0.05907 pound per cubic foot) at 212° F. and atmospheric pressure. Therefore, to evaporate 1 pound of water at 212° F. (966 B. t. wu.) will require the heat given up by 966 — =69,000 cubic feet of dry air falling 1 degree. Thus it is seen that the heating capacity per unit of volume of superheated steam at atmospheric pressure is but little greater than that of dry air at the same temperature and pressure, in the ratio of 69,000 to 54,470, or about 5 to 4. At temperatures above 212° F. and the same pressure of one atmosphere a greater volume is necessary to produce the same effect, since the gas and vapor expand with temperature, but the ratio of the heating capacity of superheated steam and dry air remains very nearly the same. The specific heat of vapor increases slightly at higher temperatures. Thus, figuring in a similar man- ner, it will be found that at five atmospheres pressure (59 pounds gauge) the heating ratio of equal volumes of steam and air is 1.42 to 1, and at 1 pound absolute pressure or a vacuum of 28 inches, it is 1.104 to 1. The volume of steam at five atmospheres pressure and 306° F. in falling 1 degree necessary to evaporate 1 pound of water at this pressure and temperature is 10,336 cubic feet, and at a vacuum of 28 inches at 101° F. it is 829,483 cubic feet. Thus it is seen that there is but little advantage, from the point of view of the volume of gas to be moved, in the use of superheated steam over that of dry air. 18 BULLETIN 509, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In this discussion a cubic foot of space has been used as the basis of the calculations. In analyzing the heat quantities in the drying operation it will be easier to use 1 pound of dry air as a basis, with its accompanying moisture, and follow it through its various stages. Its volume will therefore not remain fixed, but will change with every change in temperature, and consequently the degree of satura- tion produced by a definite amount of moisture accompanying it will depend upon the volume which it occupies. THEORETICAL ANALYSIS OF HEAT QUANTITIES. For this purposeethe simplest way will be to follow a pound of dry air through a drying cycle as a basis for computations. While in reality the vapor does not enter the air like water in a sponge, but occupies the same space whether air is present or not, we may, for convenience, conceive of a pound of air ascontaining a certain amount of vapor, which, in reality, means that the space occupied by a pound of dry air under given conditions contains a certain amount of vapor. VAPOR AND AIR IN MIXTURE. As already explained, the total pressure always is the sum of the individual pressures of the air alone plus the vapor alone. Thus we may speak of a pound of air as being wholly or partially satu- rated with vapor, meaning that it is the space occupied by the pound of air which is in this condition of vapor. If a pound of air said in this sense to contain a given weight of vapor is heated a given amount under a pressure of one atmosphere, both air and vapor will expand the same amount, so that at the new temperature both will occupy the same relative amount of space; the pound of air, however, will still contain the same weight of vapor. The amount of vapor con- tained in a pound of air alone, when it is saturated, can not be used as the divisor in obtaining the relative humidity when compared to the amount of vapor actually contained in the pound of air alone, because when the air is saturated the pressure of the air alone will have been reduced, corresponding to the increase in the vapor pres- sure (since the sum of the two make up one atmosphere), so that for a pound of air a much greater space is required, and, consequently, an equivalently greater weight of vapor to occupy this larger space. For relative humidity it is necessary to compare the weights of vapor ' which occupy the same amount of space when partially or wholly saturated, or, better still, to compare the vapor pressures. CYCLE IN DRYING OPERATION OF 1 POUND OF AIR. In following the pound of dry air through its cycle of opera- tion, let the air enter the heater either from outside or from the spray chamber at temperature t,, and let it contain d, pounds of HUMIDITY-REGULATED AND RECIRCULATING DRY KILN. 19 vapor. (See fig. 3.) After passing through the heater both the air and the vapor are raised to the temperature t,. Each pound of air still contains d, pounds of moisture, since the vapor expands to the same extent as the air if no vapor is added or subtracted during the heating from t, to t,. In passing through the lumber, the air and vapor become cooled to t,, and an amount of moisture, w, is added from the evaporation, so that the pound of air at temperatures t, now contains d,=(d,-+w) pounds of moisture. Thence they either escape into the outer air, as in a ventilating kiln, or pass into the spray chamber, where the heat added by the heater and the extra amount of moisture w isremoved from the pound of air into the spray water, and is re- turned at the initial tem- perature t, saturated to re- peat the cycle. The changes in total pressure will be so slight that they may be neg- lected, and the whole op- eration considered to take place at a uniform pressure | of one atmosphere. Let r equal the specific heat of air at constant pressure, and s that of superheated vapor. These will be taken as 0.237 and 0.475, respectively. Then the quantity of heat imparted to the pound Fic. 3.—Diagrammatic plan of drying cycle. of air and its accompany- ing d, pounds of vapor by the eaten is (1), (.237+d,x.475) (t,—t,) and the amount of heat given up in evaporating the water w is (2), (.2387+d,x.475) (t,—t,). The amount of water evaporated is w=(d,—d,). Now the heat required to evaporate the water w in continual operation will be that required to raise it from its initial temperature to the evaporating point, plus the latent heat of vapori- zation at this point; also the heat necessary to raise the temperature of the wood alone the same amount. As the latter is small, it will be neglected. Suppose that the initial temperature of the outside air and of the wet wood is 32° F. Then the heat required is simply the total heat H of w pounds of vapor at the temperature t, (nearly).? 1 Evaporation will actually take place at the temperature of the wet bulb if the air is _not saturated, after which the vapor is superheated to tz. 20 BULLETIN 509, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ~ Hence (3), (.287+4, 475) (tp—t,) =wH= (4,—d,) H or =? = 3 1 37-4, 47S" In this equation t, is a known quantity, being de- pendent upon the kind and condition of the material being dried. d, is known, being the weight of moisture of the outside air per pound of dry air, or the weight required to saturate 1 pound of air in the spray kiln at the temperature t,. H is known approximately (but not exactly, since its value varies with t,, or more properly with the wet-bulb temperature), and may at first be assumed for some temperature between t, and t,, and afterwards be correctly assigned. t, and d, are the unknown quantities required. If the air is to be considered saturated at t,, then t, and d, are dependent variables, their equation being that of the curve of saturation for water vapor. As the equation is complex, their relative values can be more readily obtained from a table of saturated vapor, and successive values sub- stituted in equation (3) until the equation is fulfilled. Having thus determined t, approximately, the correct value for H may be in- serted and the more exact value of t, determined. This has been done by E. Hausbrand in “ Drying by Means of Air and Steam”? for diffrent temperatures of t, and t,, as well as for different humidi- _ ties and pressures. EFFICIENCY OF OPERATION. With no air present—that is to say, with water vapor alone under a so-called “vacuum,” or with “superheated steam” at pressures of one atmosphere or greater—all the heat may be utilized in evaporating the moisture, the leaving and entering temperatures being the same and the pressure constant. With air present, however, and the pres- sure constant, it follows that if the entering air is saturated the leaving air must be at a higher temperature, in order that it may contain the additional vapor at the same pressure. Thus in raising the temperature of the air leaving the lumber a greater amount of heat is required than that utilized in evaporation. There is another combination of conditions possible in which the temperature at exit may be the same or even less than that of the entering air or vapor. With air present this is only possible by de- creasing the pressure below that of the entering saturated air. In this case the heat supplied may be even less than the theoretical amount required fer vaporization, and the theoretical efficiency as reckoned by temperatures is more than 100 per cent. The advantage gained here is at the expense of the heat energy in the departing air and vapor, being somewhat analogous to the case of the condenser in a steam engine. The gain in heat is from the fact that the enter- 1 Translation from the German by Wright. Published by Scott Greenwood & Sons, 1901. HUMIDITY-REGULATED AND RECIRCULATING DRY KILN. 2 ing air is at a higher temperature than the leaving air. If the en- tering air is not saturated, a similar condition is possible, since some evaporation may take place without necessitating a higher tempera- ture of the leaving air. From the foregoing it might be concluded that the use of a vacuum or of superheated steam would be the most economical way in which to dry materials. In practice, however, the vacuum has certain dis- advantages, as explained heretofore, the chief one being the greater volume of vapor required and the difficulty of producing a uniform circulation of vapor at high attenuation. The other drawback is the expense of the apparatus and difficulty of operation at pressures other than atmospheric. With superheated steam the temperature is too high for most woods. CONCRETE EXAMPLES OF RELATIONS OF HEAT QUANTITIES. To illustrate the relations of these quantities under the various conditions, let us take a concrete example where the initial tempera- ture of the air is 32° F. and the air is saturated both at the entrance and upon leaving. ‘This is heated to 158° F. and then passed through the material to be dried. The volume of the gas required at the tem- perature of 158° F. and the theoretically least possible expenditure of heat required to evaporate 1 pound of water from an initial tem- perature of 59° F. at various pressures are given below in Table 1. TaBLeE 1—Volume of gas required at a temperature of 158° F. and the theoreti- cally least possible expenditure of heat required to evaporate 1 pound of water from an initial temperature of 59° F. at various pressures. Total heat Absolute pressures. Volume. required. il) @UIIGR DI NOTES. pn cacobonBuabeoGbeuaue USasE upepbasbeas sconb cba euocosedoseeceerpe , 010 1 atmosphere=760 mm. of mercury............---.-.-----+---------------------- 876 1, 692 500 mm. of mercury, partial vacuum ...............-----...--------------------- 1, 247 1,578 ZUM sO MMerCUGY, Pakbial VACUUM seme a5 < oc) le selene ee oer sees o ees. = 2,121 1,346 Using steam alone superheated from 140° to 158° F. at pressure of 148 mm. of mer- cury, corresponding to saturated conditions at 140° F..............-.-.-.----- 16, 821 1,125 The minimum theoretical expenditure of heat, as here calculated, has no direct bearing on the efficiency of any method of drying lumber, since the physical requirements of the lumber may, and generally do, demand conditions totally incompatible with the high- est theoretical heat efficiency. They apply directly only to the evapo-. ration of a free body of water, irrespective of length of time re- quired and with no radiation losses. The calculations are useful, however, in showing the limiting values of the efficiency which it is possible to attain under the conditions which have otherwise been found most suitable for drying the lumber inh question. It is instructive to know the highest possible theoretical efficiency in evaporating a pound of water under given conditions, considering no losses by radiation or otherwise. For this purpose Table 2 has 4 22 BULLETIN 509, U. S. DEPARTMENT’ OF AGRICULTURE. been worked out, assuming the water to start with an initial tem- perature of 59° F. and to evaporate at the temperature t,, which is the temperature of the leaving air. The efficiency here expressed is the ratio of the total heat of water vapor at t, above 59° F. divided by the least possible expenditure of heat necessary to evaporate it under the assumed conditions of the entering and leaving air at atmospheric pressure. When the temperature t, of the entering air approaches that of the heated air t,—that is, when a high humidity is used—the calculations become very uncertain, since the quantity of air called for under the assumed conditions approaches infinity, while the temperature differences between t, and t, become infini- tesimal. The minimum volume of air required to evaporate 1 pound of water is also given in Table 2. TABLE 2.—Mazximum possible theoretical heat efficiency of evaporation under given conditions (hy, te, ha, hs) at atmospheric pressure (760 mm.). Heatcon-| Total sumed ie BSS D oF : 2 evaporate oun Entering air. |After heating.| Leaving air. | 1 aeand olvapar Minimum of water at ts volume |Efficiency from above of air H+G. initial initial | required. tempera-| tempera- ture of ture of ti hi te he ta hg 59° F. 59° F. ST etaren\ Jak Weta e|| Sa ea Gra) 121 OP B.i.u. | Cubicft. 32 | 100 95 11 65 75 2,353 1,074 2, 163 0.457 59 | 100 95 31 76 75 2, 100 1,078 3, 426 514 32 | 100 | 158 2 84 75 1,911 1, 080 993 565 59 | 100 | 158 6 92 75 1,715 1, 082 1, 126 .631 86 | 100 | 158 13 | 107 75 1,556 1, 087 1, 402 . 698 32 | 100 | 212 GBP Gr 75 1, 758 1, 084 694 .617 59 | 100 | 212 2 | 103 75 1,572 1, 086 731 . 690 86 | 100 | 212 4 | 114 75 1, 422 1, 089 796 . 767 32 | 100 95 11 84 25 6, 136 1,030 5, 738 .176 32 | 100 | 158 2.| 110 25 2, 972 1,088 1, 495 . 366 86 | 100 | 158 13 | 141 25 4, 869 1, 098 4,385 225 32 | 100 | 212 0+| 126 25 2,352 1,093 | 930 457 86 | 100 | 212 4 | 146 25 2; 166 1,099 1, 206 507 32 | 100 95 rol 60 100 1,974 1,073 1, 836 544 59 | 100 95 31 70 100 1,679 1, 076 2, 733 641 86 | 100 95 74 88 100 1,476 1, 081 9, 725 .733 32 | 100 | 158 2 79 100 1,692 1,079 876 . 636 86 | 100 | 158 13 99.5 | 100 1,390 1, 085 1,329 . 781 140 | 100 | 158 63 | 140.9 | 100 1,119 1, 098 3, 879 . 981 32 | 100 | 212 0+] 90 100 1, 582 1, 082 625 . 684 86 | 100 | 212 4 | 106 100 1, 350 1, 087 721 ~ 804 176 | 100 | 212 47 | 176.5 | 100 1,130 |. 1,108 | 2,002 972 IN WATER VAPOR ALONE. 140 | 100 | 158 63 140 | 100 1,097 1,097 | 16,418 1.00 212 | 100 | 230 71 212 | 100 1,119 1,119 | 3,657 1.00 212 | 100 | 320 16 212 | 100 1, 121 1, 121 664 1.00 HUMIDITY-REGULATED AND RECIRCULATING DRY KILN. 23 GENERALIZATION. A study of the theoretical heat relations, as shown by Hausbrand’s tables, makes possible the following generalizations: 1. With t, constant and entering air saturated, the expenditure of heat is less, the higher the temperature, t,, of the entering air. 2. With t, constant, the expenditure of heat is less, the higher the temperature, t,, to which the air is heated. 3. Other things being the same, the heat expenditure increases rapidly with reduction in humidity of the emergent air. 4, Other things being the same, the heat expenditure is less, the lower the humidity of the entering air. 5. Other things being the same, the expenditure of heat increases with increase of pressure. 6. With water vapor in the absence of air, the theoretical efficiency becomes 100 per cent. In regard to the weights and volumes of air required, the following observations are obtained, with entering air saturated: With t, constant, both the weights and volumes of air required to evaporate 1 pound of water increases with increase of the initial © temperature, t,, of the entering air. With t, constant, both weights and volumes decrease with increased temperature, t,, of the heated air. With the emergent air only partially saturated, the weights and volumes increase with decrease of relative humidity in the emergent mie CONCLUSIONS AS TO EFFICIENCY OF OPERATION. From this analysis of the heat equations the following conclusions as regards the efficiency of the drying may be drawn: ! 1. The air should be heated to the highest temperature compatible with the nature of the material to be dried. 2. The air upon leaving the apparatus should be as near saturation as practicable. 3. The temperature of the entering air should be as high as possible. APPLICATION OF ANALYSIS TO THE WATER SPRAY OR CONDENSING KILNS. The above deductions apply to any form of moist-air kiln. The fol- lowing have more especially to do with the Forest Service water spray humidity regulated kiln. The amount of heat: absorbed by the spray water and the con- densed moisture aside from losses through the kiln walls is the 1[t should be noted, as stated above, that these deductions apply solely to the evapo- rating process alone, from a theoretical standpoint, and do not take into consideration _ heat losses through the kiln walls or through extraneous conditions; nor do they signify what is the condition best suited for conducting the drying operation from the stand- point of the physical effect upon the wood. a 24 BULLETIN 509, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. difference between the total heat in the saturated air as it leaves the lumber at t, and the total heat in the air at t,. It is, in fact, the amount of heat given up by the coils, since the air is brought back to its initial state in the cycle and the water evaporated from the wood is added to the spray water. Hence the amount of heat removed in water at a temperature t, is (4), G(t,—t,) X (e+sd,), when G is the weight of dry air in the mixture required to evaporate 1 pound of water. c ands are the specific heats of the air and vapor. Of this the amount G(t,—t,) (c+sd,) represents the loss not ac- counted for in the latent heat of the pound of water which has been evaporated and is taken up by the spray water. The maximum possible thermal efficiency is therefore (5), oe if just enough 2 1 air is circulating to give up all its available heat to the evaporation of the water so that it leaves the lumber in a saturated condition. From equation (2) and (3) the value of t, is determined for any given values of t, and t,. These values may be most readily obtained from the tables given by Hausbrand, before referred to. t; and t, are arbitrary values determined entirely by the physical conditions of the material to be dried. In actual operation, however, the efficiency will be much less than this maximum, since the air leaving will not be saturated, and a much larger quantity of air will need to pass through the material than the minimum indicated by the equation. If no evaporation takes place, all the heat will be used in heating and cooling the cir- culating medium. The total heat used per pound of air will then be (t,—t,) (c+sd,), and this will go simply to heating the spray water. COMPARISON OF EFFICIENCY. Comparing the theoretical efficiency of the condensing with that of the ventilating type of kiln, it will be seen that under identical run- ning conditions its efficiency is much greater, because the initial tem- perature t, is very much higher. Let the temperature of the outside air be 82° F., so that the water has to be raised from 32° F. to the tem- perature of evaporation an dthen evaporated. Let the air leaving the lumber be three-fourths saturated, 75 per cent humidity. Also let t,=113° and t,=—140°, giving a relative humidity of 48 per cent. Then d, for 1 pound of saturated air at 113 is 0.0653 pound. Substituting those values in equation (3) it is found that t,=125° and d,=0.06889. Since w=d,—d,, the number of pounds of air required to evaporate 1 pound of water is G= an a -=279, 8 i which contains 279<0.0653=18.2 pounds of vapor. The pressure of the saturated vapor alone at 113° is 71.4 mm. of mercury; hence that of the air alone is 760—71.4=688.6 mm. of mercury. The HUMIDITY-REGULATED AND RECIRCULATING DRY KILN. 95 ’ volume occupied by 1 pound of dry air at 113° and a pressure of 688.6 mm. of mercury is 16 cubic feet (more exactly 15.921), which must be the same as that occupied by the 0.0654 pound of vapor present in the pound of air. As 279 pounds of air are required with its inherent 18.2 pounds of vapor, the volume of air, or com- bined air and vapor, is 15.921279=4,442 cubic feet at 113°. At 125° this will occupy 4,535 cubic feet. The total heat consumed is 279 (0.237-+-0.0653 x 0.475) & (140—113) =2,019 B. t. u.,t of which the useful work has been the total latent heat of 1 pound of vapor above 32° F. evaporated at 116° F. (the wet-bulb temperature) and superheated to 125° F.=1,122 B. t. u. This should be the same as the heat given out by the air and superheated vapor in cooling from 140° F. to 125° F., 279 (0.287-++ 0.0653<0.475) X (140—125) =1,122. The thermal efficiency is — aE 140—125 % 1122 _ means. ° per cent. Also 5019 708 per cent. Compare this first with a ventilating kiln in which the air enters saturated at 32° F., is heated to 140° F., and leaves at 75 per cent hu- midity, escaping to the outer air. We then have t,—82°, d,=.00387 pound per pound of air t,=140° t,—calculated=80.2, and d, at 75 per cent humidity=.01692. The quantity of air required to evaporate 1 pound of water is: 1 C= 01692 —.00387 This air contains 76.6 .00387=0.296 pound of vapor. The total heat consumed is: 76.6 (.237+.00887X.475) (140—32)=1,969 B. t. u. 140—80_ 140—32 — the same as in the condensing kiln, but examination will show at once that the two cases are not analogous. In the condensing kiln the =76.6 pounds. _ The thermal efficiency is 55.6 per cent, which happens to be 1 Another way of arriving at this result is to compare the total heats; thus, in the vapor at 125° and 75 per cent saturation : Total heat in the air alone at 125°=279 X 0.237 (125—32) equals______________ 6, 149 Total heat in saturate vapor at the dew point of 115° (75 per cent humidity at ea) Mo pa OG SSO olalelripe CQUL ALS: <= = = see upene memset ark ee he Laie ah Se 21, 491 Superheating this vapor from its dew point of 115° to 125°—279 x 0.06889 x Orie lO Keg uals: os eee SERS Ae See ee oe es eee ee 91 AIG Gare te aD eee ee eS ee a os i 27, 731 At the initial stage, 113°: Total heat in air—=279 X0.237 (113—82) equalgs2-2—-------_-------________-_— 5, 356 Total heat in saturate vapor at 113°=279 X 0.0653 * 1116.4 equals______________ 20, 339 PROTA CaaS ces ee see eee RE La Se a Se os 25, 695 The difference, 27,731 —25,695—2,036 B. t. u., is the heat added to the air. This should be the same as before, namely, 2,019, the difference being in inaccuracy of the constants used. 26 BULLETIN 509, U. $. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. humidity after heating to 140° F. was 48 per cent; in the other kiln © it is only 3 per cent, an extremely low amount. For a correct comparison, the condition of the air entering the lumber should be the same in both cases, namely, it is necessary to raise the humidity in the ventilating kiln from 3 per cent to 48 per cent. This can be done by allowing live steam to escape into the heated air sufficient to saturate it at 113° F., the dew point for 48 per cent humidity. Now, if 1 pound of dry air saturated at 32° F. is heated to 113° F. it will still contain its original weight of vapor, namely, 0.00387 pound; but to saturate a pound of air at 113° F. re- quires 0.0653 pound of vapor; consequently, the difference between this and 0.00387 or 0.06143 pound of vapor must be added for each pound of air at 113° F., in order to make the two cases comparable; they are then exactly alike, and we shall have for our kiln, to re- capitulate, as before— t,—1138° saturated t,—140° humidity 48 per cent t,=125° humidity 75 per cent. Number of pounds of air required to evaporate 1 pound of water at 115° from initial temperature of 82°=279— Total heat required=2,019 B. t. u. Heat lost +2,019—1,122—897 B. t. u. In the ventilating kiln, on the other hand, we shall have by com- parison : t,=382° saturated. t.=140° at 3 per cent humidity. t,=125° humidity 75 per cent. h,=heat in vapor added to raise the humidity to saturation at 118° F.; 0.0614 pound are required per pound of air. The total heat in saturate vapor at 113° above 32°=1,117 B. t. u. per pound; 1,117.0614=68.58 B. t. u. required per pound of air. There are 279 pounds of dry air required as in the other case. 68.5X279=19,134 B. t. u., which must be added as vapor. K,=heat required to raise temperature of the air and vapor from 32° to 113°=279 (.237-+.00387X.475) (118—32°) =5,396 B. t. u. Therefore, in this case the total heat which must be given to the air to evaporate 1 pound of water is— B.t. u. Heat given by coils to raise the air from 32° to 118° equals____________ 5, 396 Heat given by coils to raise saturate air from 113° to 140° as before equals 223i" aes ee eS Oa ee 2, 019 Heat supplied:in vapor. equals..2 02.) © eee 19, 134 Totalheat required x: 21.) rc MA eee Uk ee 26, 549 Heat lost (provided it all escaped to the air) 26,549 minus 1,122 equals. 25, 427 1Jn the spray kiln this is not in reality lost, since part is utilized in producing the circulation and all the remainder is recovered in the spray water. It is simply a transfer of heat from lumber to spray water. HUMIDITY-REGULATED AND RECIRCULATING DRY KILN. 27 Compared to the loss in the Forest Service kiln, as just shown, of enly 897 B. t. u., this would be enormous. It would mean an effi- ciency of only me =4.41 per cent. The assumption, however, that it all escapes to the outside air is not carried out in practice in moist air kilns, but instead a large proportion of this is returned by inter- nal circulation, and only a small amount escapes into the air. It is not possible in the latter case to calculate the theoretical efficiency, since there is no means of knowing what portion of the heat is re- turned in the recirculation within the kiln. The analysis is instruc- tive, however, in showing what enormous heat losses are possible in a ventilating kiln. In no case can the theoretical efficiency of the ventilating equal that of the Forest Service kiln when operating under identical conditions within the drying chamber. INCREASE IN DENSITY PRODUCED BY EVAPORATION. TaBLeE 3.—Increase in density of mixture of air and vapor produced by the spontaneous cooling of the mixture from the evaporation of moisture as it passes through the lumber. After heating before Weight of 1c. c. of mix- entering lumber. Entering air. ture in grams. Leaving lumber. Dew Entering at | Leaving at ti. hy. to. he point. t3. h3. tehe. tah3. Capi) | EACTACEIC-\\) scuplie = ela CEs|| on Ee °F. |Percent. 32 100 158 1.8 32 78.8 1 0. 0010264 0. 0011658 32 100 158 1.8 32 110.5 25 . 0010264 . 0011057 86 100 158 | 13 86 99.5 100 . 0010126 - 0011094 86 100 158 | 13 86 140.5 25 - 0010126 - 0010394 140 100 158 | 64 140 140.9 100 . 0009525 - 0009779 140 100 158 | 64 140 151.7 75 - 0009525 . 0010154 86 100 | 212 | 14 86 105.8 100 . 0009310 - 0010915 86 100 212 | 14 86 146.3 25 . 0009310 . 0010255 176 100 212 | 47 176 176.5 100 . 0007820 - 0008221 The weights are given in grams per cubic centimeter of the mix- ture. The independent variables which may be assumed at choice are (1) the temperature of the entering air t,; (2) the relative hu- midity of the entering air h,; (3) the temperature to which the air is heated before it enters the lumber t,; and (4) the degree of satu- ration of the air leaving the lumber, h,. From these, h,, t,, and the volumes and weights of the air and vapor are determined. METHOD USED IN CALCULATING TABLE 3. ie he temperature, t,, of the air leaving the lumber is determined first, as for Table 1. The dew point must also be determined in order to determine the vapor pressure. 28 BULLETIN 509, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2. The following equation gives the value of the density (grams _ per c. c.) of the mixture of air and vapor: q—B—0:348 e _, .00129305 1 760 1-+.003670t B=total barometric pressure in millimeters of mercury. e=pressure of the vapor in the mixture. t=—temperature Centigrade of the mixture. .00129305 is the weight in grams of 1c. c. of dry air at 0° C. pressure 760 mm. under gravity at 45° latitude and sea level. The figure .003670 is the coefficient of ther- mal expansion of air at 760 mm. The first fractional expression may be explained as follows: Let d,=density of dry air at B-e mm. pressure. d,=density of vapor at e mm. pressure. Then d=d,+d,. The air pressure alone is B-e and e oo x de x 760° when .622 is the density of Moos compared to air at 760 pressure. .622 Xe B-378e Were eo ie ot sae |=4, | 760 Knowing the values t, and t, and the vapor pressures at these two points (pressures at the dew points) the values of d, and d, are obtained from the above equation. It will be noted that in every case chosen in Table 3 the density increases due to the evaporation, hence the tendency of the air is to descend as it passes through the pile of lumber. 1See Smithsonian Meteorological Tables, Tables 83 to 86. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE * WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1917 — » Aix WINNS 1) Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER May 17, 1917 TIMBER STORAGE CONDITIONS IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES WITH REFERENCE TO DECAY PROBLEMS. By C. J. HumpuHreY, Pathologist, Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology. (In cooperation with the Forest Products Laboratory of the United States Forest Service, Madison, Wis.) CONTENTS. 3 Page Page rt OG MCHION Me tesa ces Meese ee cmiceietniebaee de 1 | Condition of storage yards at mills........... 11 Cause of decay in timber............---.----- 2 | Handling timber at retail yards............-. 27 Handling timber at sawmills.............-.- 7 | Fungi which rot stored lumber.............- 30 Location of mills and its relation to decay... 8 | Wood preservatives in the lumberyard....... 38 | Quality of stock with reference to decay--...-. 9 | Branding structural timber................-- 40 Condition of storage sheds at mills........... 10? |A@onelusions:: 2.2) sos tees cso oecmiee aeelcenlas 4] INTRODUCTION. During the past few years a large number of requests for infor- mation on the control of decay in building and factory timbers have reached the United States Department of Agriculture. In many instances the cases reported have involved serious losses, often run- ning into the thousands of dollars. The rapidly rising interest in the question on the part of the public may be attributed to two general causes: (1) The greater publicity being given to this work in the Department of Agriculture, partic- ularly through the activities of the Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology of the Bureau of Plant Industry and the Forest Products Laboratory of the Forest Service, and (2) the increasing use of timber less resistant to decay, which has become very marked during the past decade. As a preliminary to an investigation into the prevalence of decay in building timbers, with the prime object of securing some basis for GA022 tt 2 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the effective control of such losses, a field study covering about seven months’ active work was undertaken during 1914 to determine the conditions under which lumber and structural timbers are stored, for it is a well-known fact that timber infected with wood-destroying fungi during storage may be the direct cause of outbreaks of rot in buildings when such timber is placed in situations favorable to decay. On account of the many failures in timber in important structures during recent years,’ such an investigation is of the highest impor- tance, both from the standpoint of owners and contractors and from that of the timber interests themselves. The writer has encountered a number of instances where he was informed that wood has been replaced by steel or concrete for no e other reason than the failure of locally available timber to withstand decay. An increasing use of these structural materials is bound to occur unless the lumber industry takes steps to improve the quality of its product for the North American market, and the first step in this process of regeneration lies in the better sanitation of lumber storage yards, so as to remove the danger of directly transferring fungous infections from the lumber dealer to the consumer. During the course of this study a large number of sawmills and wholesale and retail lumberyards were visited in the eastern half of the United States. The region comprised 10 States along the Atlantic coast from Maine to Florida, all of the Gulf States, and the Central States of Arkansas, Iowa, Illinois, and Wisconsin. In addition to a personal inspection of the yards, much valuable in- formation was obtained directly from the operators. CAUSE OF DECAY IN TIMBER. Decay in timber is almost exclusively due to the action of fungi, the greater part of the destruction being referable to one of the higher groups of these organisms, namely, the Hymenomycetes. In the life cycle of these fungi there are two distinct phases of develop- ment: (1) The vegetative stage (mycelium) and (2) the fruiting stage. MYCELIUM. The mycelium consists of microscopic threadlike filaments, usually branched, which penetrate the wood either by traversing the natural longitudinal passages, such as the pores, resin canals, or cell cavities, or by passing through the walls or through the pits in the walls of the wood fibers or tracheids (PI. I, fig. 1). The mycelium also in- vades the pith rays, which contain a great abundance of food mate- 1Jn this connection, see the report by F. J. Hoxie, entitled ‘‘Dry Rot in Factory Tim- bers,” 34 p., 19 fig., Boston, 1915, published by the Inspection Department of the Asso- ciated Factory Mutual Fire Insurance Companies, Boston, Mass. TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 3 rials readily available to the fungus and whose walls are thinner than those of the wood fibers and hence more readily penetrated. The growth of the mycelium is conditioned by four factors: (1) The presence of satisfactory food supplies, (2) a suitable amount of moisture in the wood, (3) a temperature favorable for growth, and (4) at least a small supply of air to furnish the necessary oxygen. Food supplies—The mycelium, being a living, growing plant, must have nourishment for growth, and so utilizes for tlfis purpose various constituents of the wood substance. These consist of the different compounds which go to make up wood tissue, the celluloses and ligno-celluloses being utilized as well as sugars, starches, and certain organic acids. To break down the woody tissues, which are chemically very complex, and thus render them assimilable ‘to the fungus, certain imperfectly understood chemical substances (en- zyms or ferments) are secreted by the organism. These act upon the wood substance, reducing it to simpler nutritive compounds. A number of these ferments have been isolated and studied by various investigators and their physiological and chemical action deter- mined. ‘They are quite specific in their action; different substances which enter into the composition of wood require different ferments to disorganize them. In general, however, the wood-destroying fungi are well supplied with the ferments necessary to produce seri- ous disintegration of most of the constituents of woody tissues. Moisture-—A considerable amount of moisture is necessary for rapid decay. Timber in an air-dry condition during dry weather will not ordinarily be affected, but during periods of rainy weather, when the atmospheric humidity is high, fungous infections may become serious. In highly humid stagnant air a surface development of mycelium (PI. I, fig. 2) is possible, but under conditions of free air circulation the surface is usually kept too dry for this to occur, although the interior of large timbers may still retain sufficient moisture for decay to progress within them. Temperature.—W ood-destroying fungi can maintain themselves over. rather wide ranges of temperature, but have an optimum. for most rapid development within comparatively narrow limits. Ac- cording to German investigations Merulius lachrymans (Wulf.) Fr. ' has an optimum between 65° and 72° F. (18° and 22° C.); Conio- phora cerebella (Pers.) Schréot. (=C. puteana (Schum.) Fr.) be- tween 72° and 79° F. (22° and 26° C.), and Lenzites serene (Wulf. ) Fr. between 82° and 90° F. (28° and 32° C.). Growth below these points is often considerably retaned, while a rise of 4 to 8 degrees above the optimum often causes total inhibi- tion of growth or even death, as in the case of Merulius lachrymans, which is very sensitive to temperature changes above the optimum. 4 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Air.—Under ordinary conditions the air supply within and sur- rounding the timber is amply suflicient for decay. Fungi develop best in still air in closed spaces, but this is due to the greater humidity rather than to air requirements, for a good air circulation dries the timber to a point unfavorable to the development of the organisms. In the case of timber thoroughly saturated with water, however, so that the cell cavities are filled with the liquid, decay is prevented entirely through lack of sufficient oxygen. / FRUITING BODIES. Fruiting bodies are an expression of fungous activity within the wood., They form only after decay has well started. They appear at the surface in the form of single or imbricate shelves or brackets, leathery or waxy incrustations, or, in a few cases, as mushrooms (Pl. I, fig. 3) with central or eccentric stems bearing an expanded cap at the top. The fruit bodies of the many fungi which cause decay in timber may vary in color from white through reds and yellows to dark brown or blackish. The consistency or texture is also highly vari- able, from fleshy to tough and leathery, and occasionally hard and woody. In some species the under side, or outer surface where the fungus is spread out as a crust (resupinate), is smooth (Stereum, Corticium, Peniophora, Coniophora (frequently warted)). In other cases, the under side, or the outer surface where resupinate, bears numerous pores (Polyporus, Poria (PI. I, fig. 5), Merulius, Tra- metes, Daedalea, Fomes). Still other species have platelike gills on the under side (Schizophyllum, Lentinus, Lenzites). Occasionally, forms with distinct spines (PI. I, fig. 4) or teeth are encountered (Hydnum). Various other species are illustrated in Plates III to X. HOW WOOD-DESTROYING FUNGI SPREAD. There are two general methods by which wood-destroying fungi spread from infected to sound timber: (1) By a direct overgrowth of mycelium from an infected stick to adjoining or near-by timber, and (2) by the blowing about of spores produced by the fruit bodies or by the mycelium. Infections by myceliwm—tin wholly or partially inclosed moist spaces, such as are often found in the basements of buildings, in mines, or beneath low, poorly ventilated lumber piles, the mycelium finds sufficient moisture in the air to allow it to develop on the surface of timbers, and in this way: may progress along the timber for considerable distances. Such may be the case also where timber is close piled; the writer has records where severe infections have TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 5 thus passed during rainy weather from the bottom upward through piles 12 to 15 feet high. In lumber storage sheds or in the base of close piles the mycelium of several species of fungi has frequently been observed developing in great abundance, not alone on the moist foundations and lower layers of lumber (PI. II, fig. 1), but also spreading profusely on the soil (PI. II, figs. 2 and 3). With some species of wood-destroying fungi the mycelium within infected timber may remain alive for long periods, even under air- dry conditions, a fact which makes the use of infected timber in - building operations a dangerous procedure. As an example, we have the experimental evidence advanced by Bayliss: that the mycelium of Polystictus versicolor in wood can survive a period of four years under the dry conditions of a herbarium. Infections by spores—The chief purpose of spore formation in fungi, just as in seed formation in ordinary green plants, is the perpetuation of the species through reproduction. Spores serve the two-fold purpose of tiding the fungus over unfavorable periods and of allowing its rapid spread under favorable growth conditions. Nature is lavish in her methods, and the number of spores produced is often enormous. For instance, Buller? computed from partial counts that each pore on the under side of Polyporus squamosus produced in the course of a few hours an average of 1,700,000 spores, or a total of over eleven billion for the entire under surface of a fruit body having an area of 250 square centimeters (38.75 sq. in.). When one recalls that spores are either constantly or intermittently produced by a single fruit body over a long period the further state- ment made by Buller that “the number of spores produced by a single fungus * * * in the course of a year may, therefore, be some fifty times the population of the globe ” becomes intelligible. At least two general types of spores are recognized for most wood- destroying fungi, the most easily observed being the basidiospores produced by the fruit bodies. These may frequently be seen en masse aS a white or colored powdery deposit which has fallen from the sporophores (Pl. II, fig. 4). These spores are produced on short stalks at the ends of club-shaped cells which form a palisade layer (Pl. II, fig. 6) covering the under surface of the fruit body, or, in case the fruit body is of the incrusting type, covering its outer surface. When mature, the spores are cast off the basidia into the air and are blown about by the wind. When they lodge in a moist place favorable for growth they readily germinate and produce a new infection. 1 Bayliss, Jessie S. The biology of Polystictus versicolor (Fries). In Jour. Econ. Biol., v. 3, no. 1, p. 1-24, 2 pl. 1908. 2Buller, A. H. R. The biology of Polyporus squamosus Huds., a timber-destroying fungus. In Jour. Econ. Biol., v. 1, no. 3, p. 101—138, illus., pl. 5-19. 1906. 6 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Both the fruit bodies and basidiospores vary greatly in vitality among the different species of fungi. External temperature and moisture conditions exert a great influence, particularly when the two are working together in an unfavorable role. Low temperatures appear far less injurious than high temperatures. Buller and Cameron? report gathering living fruit bodies of Schizo- phyllum commune from a woodpile at Winnipeg, Canada, in March at a temperature of —17° C. (1° F.), after exposure for several months at winter temperatures ranging between —15° and —40° C. (5° and —40° F.). After thawing for a few hours the fruit bodies cast spores readily. They further report that immersing an active fruit body of the same fungus in water and placing it in the open over night at a minimum temperature of —31° C. (—24° F.) did not suffice to kill the organism, although it was frozen into a solid block of ice. Carrying the work still farther, Buller? exposed fruit bodies of the same fungus (previously kept dry for two years and eight months in ordinary air) to the temperature of liquid air, —190° C. (—310° F.), for three weeks in a vacuum tube. Upon removal and moisten- ing, the fruit bodies were still alive and cast spores in abundance. In his larger work* and certain later articles, the same author shows that at ordinary temperatures dried fruit bodies retain their capacity to produce spores for long periods; for instance, Daedalea unicolor can remain alive in the dark at least 84 years and Schizo- phyllum commune at least 64 years. Certain others may retain their vitality for only two or three years. In the case of temperatures above the optimum, however, the in- jurious effect may become marked within a comparatively small range. For instance, Falck‘ states that fruit bodies of Lenzites abietina fail to produce spores after five days at 26° (78° F.) and the spores fail to germinate at 42° C. (108° F.). A corresponding relation is also said to exist with Merulius lachrymans and other species, for the same author ® states that fresh fruit bodies of Meru- lius domesticus (=M. lachrymans in part) are killed in 30 minutes at 40° to 42° (104° to 108° F.) and in 15 minutes at 46° C. (115° F.); at 42° C. (108° F.) dry spores are knlled in 12 to 16 hours. In addition to spores produced in fruit bodies, another set of reproductive bodies is often produced directly by the mycelium. 1Buller, A. H. R., and Cameron, A. T. On the temporary suspension of vitality in the fruit bodies of certain oe CHOI CET CT In Proc. and Trans. Roy. Soc. Canada, s. 3, Ne hoeie ee R. eae he ee of vitality by dried fruit bodies of certain Hymenomycetes, including an account of an experiment with liquid air. Jn Brit. Mycol. Soc. Trans., v. 4, 1912, pt. 1, p. 106-112. 1913. 2 Buller, A. H. R. Researches on Fungi . . . 287 p., illus., 5 fold. pl. London, 1909. 4Falek, Richard. Die Lenzites-Fiiule des Coniferenholzes. In Moller, Alfred. Taus- schwammforschungen. TIeft 3, p. 69 and 98. 1909. 5 Falck, Richard. Die Merulius-Fiiule des Bauholzes. In Moller, Alfred. Haus- schwammforschungen., Heft 6, p. 339. 1912. TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 7% These bodies may be borne on short stalks on the mycelial threads (conidia), or the mycelium itself may break up into short cells (oidia), or specialized thick-walled cells (chlamydospores) may form within the mycelium. The last kind of spore, on account of its thicker wall, is adapted to withstand unfavorable weather conditions ; the two former kinds are usually thin walled, minute, and readily blown about by the wind. With these fundamental facts in mind, let us now turn to a discus- sion of the present conditions under which timber is stored and see wherein these conditions contravene the known facts regarding the development and spread of decay-pro- ducing fungi. HANDLING TIMBER AT SAWMILLS. \ The practice at different sawmills va- ries widely. A few of the larger mulls, particularly in the longleaf-pine belt, put almost their entire cut through the dry kaIn and then store it under closed sheds. This practice is to be highly, commended, and if the storage sheds are well drained and properly ventilated beneath, no pear t ble f f - Hic. 1.—Bird’s-eye view of a clean lumber-mill yard in rou e trom ung Arkansas, showing the usual method of open storage. should be experienced. However, comparatively few mills have the facilities for handling their product in this approved fashion, and the great majority have kiln capacity for only the B and better grades of lumber. The re- mainder of the output is piled in the open yard (fig. 1), the higher grades of Jumber often being dipped in sodium bicarbonate or sodium carbonate to prevent blue stain. Some few mills of the poorer class and smaller type dispense with both kiln drying and dipping and pile their entire green stock in the open yard. The few mills of this type which the writer has visited are usually also very lax in their methods of piling and of yard sanitation. 8 > BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LOCATION OF MILLS AND ITS RELATION TO DECAY. The location of sawmills is usually determined by certain economic considerations which do not readily admit of change. Many of the P64F Fic. 2.—Lumber piled at the water’s edge on the Atlantic coast. High waves Sweep over this during storms, wetting the lumber and producing rot. mills are located either on streams or along the low and swampy Atlantic or Gulf coasts. Very often higher dry land is not available for storage purposes and then, particu- larly in the South, the conditions for decay are excellent. In some instances at- tempts have been made to fill in this low land with saw- dust, bark débris, etc., with the result that the soil is made over into a most ex- cellent culture me- PO5F Fic. 3.—Silt deposited in the base of a lumber stack during dium for the devel- a Mississippi River flood. This condition permits the lumber to rot rapidly. opmen t of wood- destroying fungi. In other cases yards, even when on comparatively high ground, are so graded as to allow drainage into the yard rather than away from it. In the coastal regions, where mills are at times located just above the level of high tide, storm waves frequently beat in from the sea Bul. 510, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. tie “wee LUMBER SANITATION: WOOD-ROTTING FUNGI.—I. Fic. 1.—Thin section of ‘‘red-heart”’ pine, showing fungous threads and holes where these have bored through the walls of the wood cells. Fic. 2.—Mycelium on a board from a clay mine, Joplin, Mo. Fic. 3.—The mushroom Pluteus cervinus on arotten log. Fic. 4.—A species of Hydnum. Bul. 510, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. LUMBER SANITATION: WooD-ROTTING FUNGI.—II. Fic. 1.—Strands of mycelium of the ‘‘dry-rot”’ fungus, Merulius lachrymans, on the face of pine planks in a lumber pile at Portland, Me. (the fungus has progressed to a height of six layers or more). Fic. 2.— The same fungus on the ground and in litter beneath an open storage shed, Philadelphia, Pa. Fic. 3.—Mycelium of a white Poria on the ground and on wood fragments beneath a cotton mill, Adams, Mass. Fic. 4.—Powdery deposit of spores cast by a mushroom over night (after Atkin- son). Fic. 5.—A species of Poria from a porch ceiling, Madison, Wis. Fic. 6.—Thin section of ee Sueneuns fruit body of Merulius lachrymans, showing palisade layer of basidia bearing spores (after Falck). TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATUS. 4 and sweep over the lumber, wetting it and depositing silt over great quantities of the stock (fig. 2). The writer has seen instances along the Atlantic seaboard where lumber stacks at least 12 feet high were thus silted completely to the top. A somewhat similar condition exists along certain rivers during times of flood (fig. 3). Where it is necessary to store lumber upon low swampy ground (figs. 4 and 5), the weed problem also becomes a serious factor. In the first place the growth of vegetation is so luxuriant as to require constant attention, and in the second place the ground is not even or firm enough to allow convenient mowing. The result is that some- times the weeds are allowed to develop above the height of the foun- dations, thus cutting off air circulation be- neath the piles and hence increasing the danger from fungi many fold. QUALITY OF STOCK WITH REFERENCE TO DECAY. The fact that American mills are utilizing their timber to a smaller size than formerly throws a greater quantity of the inferior grades upon the storage yards. Rapid deteri- P66F oration in this low- Fic. 4.—Lumber piled on low swampy land at a Texas grade stock may re- sawmill. The serious decay in this yard is due to the oR excess of soil moisture and poor circulation beneath sult unless it be care- the stacks. fully handled. Inthe ; case of many yellow-pine structural timbers it is a matter of common observation that the quality is growing decidedly poor, this being in large part due to the fact that small second-growth trees are being logged and cut into dimension sizes. In the shortleaf-pine business, in particular, a single mill rarely attempts to cut both board and dimension stock. As a rule, it is said to be more profitable to cut the better grade larger shortleaf and loblolly trees into 1 and 2 inch stock. Hence, for structural sizes the trade largely depends on cer- tain timber mills, as well as a multitude of small portable mills operating in young second-growth timber. The storage of these less AO eri 0a 10 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. durable grades at times becomes a considerable problem, not alone at the mills but also in the retail yards. In fact, the writer has been told by certain retailers that deterioration due to decay in these low grades had become so serious with them that they had discontinued carrying such hazardous stock. . In the case of hemlock, spruces, firs, low grades of pine, and cer- tain of the less durable hardwoods, storage difficulties are bound to. develop at times during exceptionally wet seasons, but much of the trouble can be fore- stalled by applying the proper methods of sanitation. It is necessary that if such material is to enter into the con- struction of buildings it should be entirely free from fungous infection. Responsi- bility for clean lum- ber must rest with the lumberman. CONDITION OF STORAGE SHEDS AT MILLS. ve oo tore, ) SAS nO tedumeLore, ° Fic. 5.—Pine lumber piled in a swamp on high skids over' . 4 standing water at New Orleans, La. Note the luxuriant Many mills, includ- vegetation, which checks proper air circulation beneath ing some of the larger aga ones, are operating cade serious disadvantages of location as far as decay is con- cerned. The better types of storage sheds are inclosed at the sides, with ample ventilation beneath (fig. 6), but those open on both sides are not uncommonly met with. The exclusion of water from stored lumber becomes a necessity when such material is put in close piles under cover, where the drying action of wind and sun does not have full play. This is particularly true where sheds are built over low swampy ground where the vapors on rising from the wet soil are more or less imprisoned, keeping the air at a high humidity. A little extra moisture in such cases may be sufficient to permit the outbreak and rapid spread of fungous infections. The greatest source of danger in storage sheds lies in placing the lumber too close to the ground, and several instances have been noted TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 11 where widespread infections of some of the worst building fungi in the country have been prevalent in the foundation timbers and stored lumber in contact with them (Pl. X, figs. 1 and 3). Many of the sheds over low ground have drainage canals beneath to carry away excess water, and in some instances, where the pitch of the ground is not sufficient, stagnant water may accumulate over long periods. This may cause high humidities, approaching saturation, which per- mit the white cottony mycelium of wood-destroying fungi to develop rapidly over the surface of the timber. In general, it has been the experience of the writer that moisture conditions around the foundations of storage sheds are often very favor- able to decay. Leaky roofs at times be- come a source of trouble. A few instances have come to the writer’s attention where comparatively small leaks have caused a considerable amount of visible, material decay in the upper parts of lumber piles. However, when we realize that in many cases the infection, on account of the short time in storage, does not have the op- portunity to cause marked Fic. 6.—Large storage shed at Laurel, Miss. cet deterioration, but still is on concrete piers, -high off the ground, with present in an incipient stage suet MEE cues. Slee Le ae eae ready to progress farther when placed under moist conditions, we can readily see the serious consequences which may ultimately accrue. CONDITION OF STORAGE YARDS AT MILLS. GENERAL SANITATION. The vital necessity, viewed from the standpoint of decay, for abso- lute cleanliness around lumberyards is perhaps not fully appreciated by most lumbermen. The question of fire hazard, however, has led most mills to take certain steps in this direction which are of very great importance. These steps have usually assumed the form of keeping grass and weeds down, particularly in the dry season, and of removing rotten débris to a considerable extent. 1 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A broad survey of the lumber industry shows some instances where absolutely no atten- tion is given to yard sanitation (fig. 7) and also a few other in- stances where the yards are sodded and handled like a well- kept lawn (fig. 8). The great majority, however, fall between these extremes. As a rule, grass and weeds are kept under fairly good control either by mowing or by pastur- ing, Tin most ..in- ‘stances some rotting débris is scattered about. The factor of location often plays an important part in rae Sa hae vom. Lor on Fic. 7.—A small, very insanitary mill in Louisiana. l id the 1 The conditions at this mill are a disgrace to the lumber swampy tan 1e 1eS- industry. Note the rotten, dilapidated tramway, the sened fire danger lumber stacks placed within 2 to 4 inches of the ground, and the débris scattered about and breeding tends to encourage infection. carelessness. Any decaying tim- ber which has been allowed to accumu- late about the yards should be collected and burned. The mere carting of such débris to a conven- ient near-by pile (Pl. ITI, fig. 1; text fig. 9) is not sufficient, for the fungi will con- tinue to thrive in such material for long periods and to produce fruit bodies . . . P73F which will liberate Fic. 8.—The well-kept grounds of a high-class longleaf-pine illions upon mil- mill in Louisiana. Practically all the lumber is run = P : I through the dry kiln and stored in large sheds, thus lions of spores into eliminating the problem of storage rots, TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 13 the air to infect whatever sound lumber may be in the vicinity. The writer has seen scores of instances where small piles of rotting débris have been scattered about lumberyards and even at times piled di- rectly against sound lumber (fig. 10). Very frequently this débris consists of old ties (fig. 11) or timbers from the tramway platforms. In other cases it may be yard stock which has rotted in storage and has been left in situ or carted a few rods and discarded just beyond the confines of the yard. One such mill yard was visited where several hundred thousand feet of pine and hardwood lum- ber had been thrown into an adjoining rice swamp in close prox- imity to and extend- ing for nearly a mile along a row of lum- ber stacks (see fig. 9). In this same yard it was also commonly noted that sound lumber fresh from the saw was piled upon the bases of old lumber piles which were thoroughly rot- ted (fig. 12). Also in this yard, as well as in a yard in Mississippi, vines were allowed to grow P74F up over some of the Fie. 9.—Pine and hardwood lumber which has rotted in . : storage in the yard shown in figure 11. Instead of burn- lumber piles (fig. 13). ing the débris it was thrown into an adjoining rice This IS, of course, swamp. Fungi developing on this débris will geaia infect the sound lumber. highly pe ieeuionable, since such vegetation tends to collect moisture and famipedes venti- lation. Such conditions as chess are bound to be a serious menace to the effective storage of lumber. TRAMWAYS AND RAILWAYS. Practically all sawmills have a more or less extensive tramway or railway system for the distribution of lumber from the mill to the yard and other units of the plant (fig. 14). It is quite the uni- versal condition that these structures harbor multitudes of various — a ee 14 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. wood-rotting fungi, which cast off innumerable viable spores to be carried about by air currents to sound lumber. The elevated posi- tion of these fruit bodies on high tramways gives much ere facility to the wide distribution be their spores. Since the tramways require large amounts of timber in their con- struction, the use of wood preservatives in protecting them from decay is worth careful consideration. This would effect a direct saving both by prolonging the life of the timber and by preventing the development of the fungous fruit bodies. In only one part of the tramway structure is decay secondary to other deteriorating fac- tors, and this is in the planking. Where the trucks or “bug- gies” operate con- stantly, the wear at the center very often nicely balances the decay at the ends, but even here, from the standpoint of sanitation alone, a light preservative treatment sufficient to immunize the tim- ber so that fungous Fic. 10.—Partially rotted hardwood boards piled against a fruit bodies can not lumber stack. Infection will spread by contact to the 2 sound lumber, develop is strongly recommended. The initial cost of constructing extensive tramways from 10 to 25 feet high reaches a considerable figure, even at the actual mill cost of the timber. In the upkeep of these structures replacements are necessary as rapidly as the timbers fail, the resulting maintenance charges being a considerable item of expense. In none of the mills visited had thorough wood preservative treatments been applied. Partial attempts were noted in several instances, where brush treat- ments, usually of some patented coal-tar compound, had been applied at the joints. Ordinarily it is the more widely advertised trade prod- ucts which reach the attention of millmen. The cheaper preserva- P75F TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 15 tives appear to be little known. In the opinion of the writer, thor- ough preservative treatments would effect an ultimate saving in maintenance charges, a considerable part of the cost of application being offset by the use of cheaper grades of timber, which when treated properly will last longer than the highest grade of natural wood available. In very few lumberyards are the railway ties preserved in any way. In most cases they consist of inferior timber which readily decays. Many fruit bodies of dangerous fungi are usually present (Pl. III, fig. 2), so that it is important hice from the standpoint of sanitation to re- move this source of infection by the ap- plication of wood preservatives, such as creosote or zinc chlo- mdmmyAtitrack» in which the ties are creosoted is shown in figure 15. FOUNDATIONS. Probably no other. factor involved in the storage of lumber in yards is open to more criticism from the sanitation stand- point than the foun- PIGF Fig. 11.—A highly insanitary mill yard in South Carolina. dations to the piles Hundreds of thousands of feet of stored lumber have (figs. 16 and 34). rotted in this yard as a result of these conditions. All i=) E this rotten débris should be removed and burned. Almost invariably these timbers are severely infected and often abundantly supplied with sporulating fruit bodies of serious wood-rotting fungi (PI. ITI, figs. 3 and 4). Various types of foundations are in use. The most primitive and most insanitary type consists in laying planks directly on the ground and stacking the lumber upon them. This procedure occurs at only a few of the smaller mills. A few of the mills make use of built-up plank foundations (Pl. III, fig. 3), but the more usual method is to use 6 by 8 or 8 by 10 stringers, blocked up to a height of 16 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1 to 2 feet (fig. 16) or set on short posts. A few of the best mills make use of concrete piers for this purpose. The latter type of foundation would be greatly improved by the use of stringers treated with a wood preservative. The dangers arising from partially rotted foundations are evident, as has been seen from the earlier discussion of the activities of wood- destroying fungi. Where wood blocks are used to support the skids, fungi often progress directly from the moist soil upward, in this way frequently infecting the skids, thus adding the possibility of direct mycelial infection to that of spore infec- tion. The infected skids themselves are dangerous, since the fungous mycelium can progress directly from them to the bot- tom of the lumber piles (PLiIV; fig... 3; text fig. 17). Once started, and the weather conditions being warm and moist, such infections may pass through an entire stack. In con- sidering the menace of infected skids, we must also not lose sight of the fact that e7F such timbers are a Fic. 12.—Rotten base of an old hardwood stack upon : which sound lumber has been piled. This is a most prolific source of insanitary practice, as fungous infection will be spread fyryit bodies (Pi. LET, both by the contact of the diseased with the sound lumber 4 . and indirectly by the production of fruit bodies and fig. 3) with their spores, the latter blowing about, reaching sound mate- many spores, to be rial, and germinating to produce new infections. borne up into the lumber piles either directly by the wind or by convection currents which occur in relatively still air. The proof of this latter form of air currents is often before us in the form of rising mists or fogs. The first requisite in building foundations is to get them well off the ground, so as to allow ample ventilation beneath, which will dry out the timbers themselves as well as the soil below. A height of at least 24 inches from the top ofthe skids to the surface of the ground should be adhered to. Bul. 510, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE ‘Ill. LUMBER SANITATION: WOOD-ROTTING Funal.—Ill. Fic. 1.—A pile of rejected hardwood logs which should have been removed or destroyed and not left to breed fungi (fruit bodies of 6 or 7 different organisms were identified from this pile). Fic. 2.— Lenzites berkeleyi fruiting on a hardwood tie. Fic. 3.—Hardwood pile foundations severely infected with Polystictus versicolor. Fic.4.—Daedalea quercina fruiting around a foundation block in a Penn- sylvania storage yard. Fic. 5.—A badly infected piling stick in use at a Florida mill. Fic. 6.—A group of infected piling sticks at a Tennessee hardwood mill. Fic. 7.—Pile of 3-inch hard pine planks badly infected with Peniophora gigantea (a very common condition at Portland, Me.; the fungus is introduced from the South and develops rapidly in close piles). Bul. 510, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. LUMBER SANITATION: WooD-ROTTING FUNGI.—IV. Fic. 1.—Shortleaf pine which has rotted during 10 months’ storage in a retail yard at New Orleans. Fic. 2.—A structural pine timber which lay on the ground until severely rotted and was then thrown up into a pile of sound lumber. Fic. 3.—Mycelium of a wood-destroying fungus on the face of pine boards just uncovered in breaking down a pile (at a height of 6 to 8 boards from the bottom, but probable has gonemuch higher). Fics. 4 to 6.—Polystictus versicolor: 4, Upper surface; 5, lower sur- face; 6, plant growing on the end of a hardwood board ina lumber pile. l*'1Gs. 7 and 8.—Polystictus hirsutus: 7, Upper surface; 8, lower surface. TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 17 The use of untreated wood blocking, particularly on low, moist ground, should be discouraged, as such material invariably harbors fungi. The most desirable practice, and one which would be free from all objections, is the use of concrete or brick piers, preferably the former, and skid timbers treated with some preservative. Such skids, about 94 inches high, treated with creosote, are now in use at the Forest Products Laboratory (fig. 18). Foundations with concrete piers and untreated skids are at present in use in a number of yards and have given entire sat- isfaction. At one Mississippi mill (figs. - 14 and 19) unfavor- able conditions of low ground have been mainly overcome by good drainage, care- ful attention to the removal of débris, and the use of con- crete foundations well off the ground. A description of the foundations and their cost may be of in- Ala terest. P79 erst eS aaa ete pice, roma eet were placed and the because the dense foliage prevents the lumber from rap- tramways rebuilt be- idly drying out after rains, thus promoting decay. tween 1908 and 1910, after a number of years of unsatisfactory expe- rience with wood, at a reported cost of about $30,000 for a mill having an annual cut around 60,000,000 feet of pine a year. In the two years preceding the placing of the concrete foundations and the rebuilding of the tramways, the annual charge for material and labor in the upkeep of the yard was $18,000 and $17,000, respectively. Follow- ing the equipment of the yard with concrete foundation piers and concrete footings for the tramway posts, this charge was materially reduced. The present maintenance cost as reported by the company, 71022°—Bull. 510—17——3 18 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. based on a consump- tion of 600,000 feet of timber a year at a value of $12 per 1,000 feet b. m., is $7,200, or 12-cents per thou- sand of mill cut. The timber used consists of pine heart seconds having an average life of 5 to 6 years and a maximum life of 8 to 10 years for material not in con- tact with the ground; pile foundations and ms tramway footings Ire 14.—General view of a mill yard in Mississippi, show- @Verage 4 tod years. ing concrete pile foundations and tramway footings. In addition to the The ditch assists materially in draining the yard. No ° - : 2 débris is allowed to accumulate. The stacks are high direct Saving In main- off the ground and amply ventilated beneath. The tram- tenance charges, we way and pile foundation timbers would be improved by a . preservative treatment with creosote. must also keep in mind the advantage gained in preventing deterioration in the stored lumber itself, due to improved sani- tation. While this item is very difficult to estimate, the company believes it a very ap- preciable asset of its storage practice. The approved type of concrete foundation pier now in use by this company is of the form illustrated in figure 20, consisting of a _ base block 3 feet square, tapering upward and cast in position. Upon this base block is cast PIO6F the top block, 29 feet Fic. 15.—A clean, sanitary retail yard, having concrete foundations throughout and creosoted ties in the rail- square and also taper- fond Ace TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES, 19 ing upward, being 1 foot square at the top, which gives a good bear- ing surface for the horizontal wooden skids or for the vertical posts where it is necessary to elevate the skids to a height consistent with the height of the tramways. ; A concrete mixture of 1-24-5 is used, at a cost for labor and ma- terial of $5 per cubic yard, or an average cost of about $5 per pier. The foundations follow the slightly varying contour of the ground. To compensate for the more marked differences in soil elevation the skid timbers are frequently blocked up to an approximately level condition by the use of short sections of pine posts treated at the ends with a tar or cresote preparation. There are two ad- vantages in casting the piers in two pieces: (1) The re- duction-in weight of the individual blocks when it becomes nec- essary to shift them about the yard, and (2) the greater ease of alignment when erecting the skids. All the skids are well off the ground at heights never less Ps0F than 18 to 24 inches Fic. 16.—Thoroughly rotted pine skids in a mill yard in : Texas. Such decayed foundation timbers are very com- and. frequently 36 mon. Fungous infection can pass directly from these inches and over. The timbers to the lumber piled on them. Creosote would 5 : have prevented this condition. lumber is not piled directly on the wooden skid timbers, but rests on a 1-inch pine strip, usually about 3 inches wide, to give a smaller bearing surface. This method is not uncommonly employed in various yards. It is of distinct advantage where lumber is piled on infected skids, and if the dry strips are freshly laid for each pile they materially assist in reducing infections in the base of the stack. In direct contrast to these concrete foundations with ample venti- lation beneath, one frequently meets with the type illustrated in figure 21. The one figured is built of 2-inch pecky cypress planks about 14 feet long, resting directly on the ground. The,amount of lumber used was computed for one of the squares and’ totaled ap- proximately 585 feet b. m. While pecky cypress is often used in the South for foundations of this type, in many other cases either non- 20 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. durable hardwoods or the cheaper grades of pine are used. Decay is often serious in such foundations. There is very little chance for ventilation, and this often leads to storage rots in the base of the piles. The open type of foundation is always much the better from a pathological standpoint. In certain of the Gulf cities, where munici- palities in cooperation with the United States Public Health Service are making strong efforts to get rid of rats to safeguard against the bubonic plague, certain ordinances have been passed requiring structures to be raised at least 12 inches from the ground and left open beneath. This requirement will react very favorably upon lumber storage, for the first necessity is to get the timber off the ground, with ample ventilation beneath. Figure 29 illustrates the method of elevating the skids em- ployed in a retail lumber- yard at Mobile, Ala., which has only recently occupied the premises. Timber foundations are frequently the cause of con- siderable trouble on account of decay failure under heavy loads, thus allowing the piles to topple over or to crush to the ground, where they have every opportunity : to rot. Figure 23 shows two We, 172A 12 yaa ing, maine CR such piles at a South Caro- showing a rotten hole in the face which lay in lina mill. Rot In founda- contact with infected skids. tion timbers is extremely common and, in fact, has been encountered in practically every yard examined where timbers are employed for this purpose. PILING STICKS. Practically all yards in which the lumber is “ stuck ” fail to appreci- ate the necessity of keeping the sticks free from infection. The strong tendency is to scatter them about on the ground wherever they hap- pened to fall when the previous piles were taken down (fig. 24). In a very few yards attempts are made to improve the appearance of the premises by gathering the sticks endwise into conical piles or by stacking them carefully on the ground beneath the skids (fig. 25). TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 21 This question of the sanitary handling of the piling sticks is of very great significance, particularly in regions of high humidity, where every precau- tion must be taken to safeguard stored lumber. Plate III, figures 5 and 6, shows such infected sticks found in Florida and Tennessee lum- beryards, where sev- eral species of wood- destroying fungi were frequently noted in the piles. When one keeps in mind the fact that the soil in and about lumberyards often becomes, in the : BS, _ Par ‘ Fig. 18.—Pile foundations consisting of creosoted timbers course of time, thor- resting on concrete piers in use at the Forest Products oughly intermixed Laboratory, Madison, Wis. This is a very satisfactory ; type of foundation. with sawdust and partially decomposed woody matter which offers a fertile field for the development of wood-destroying fungi, the necessity of keeping all sound material out of contact with it be- comes very evident. In cases where saw- dust and bark or wood débris are used to produce artificial fills the danger is further increased. Such filling mate- rials are not infre- quently used. Such situations in- eer troduce the further Fig. 19.—Concrete foundations with untreated skid tim- ti A bers in general use in a mill yard at Laurel, Miss. Only question as to what two rows of piers are used for stock 14 feet or less in material should be length. : : used for filling in low portions of the yards. While the material used will necessarily be governed largely by local conditions, it is the opinion of the writer 22, BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that clean clay or sandy soil will serve the purpose admirably. While sandy soil allows fungi to spread within it more rapidly than clay, it offers the advantage of rapid seepage, and where the surface is amply ventilated no difficulty should be experienced. (Pl. X, figs 1 and 3.) The principal need is to have the yards so laid out that sur- face water will not ac- cumulate. Ordinary ashes are not consid- sidered a good filling or surfacing material, since they absorb Fic. 20.—Sketch of a concrete foundation pier in use in moisture readily and a mill yard in Mississippi. It is cast in two sections, : 1 ] for convenience in aligning and moving about the yard. ho Id 1% tenaciously, : particularly when they are in a finely pulverized condition. Less finely divided mate- rial, such as coarse cinders, gravel, or slag, is better adapted on account of the rapid seepage. Moreover, wood-destroying fungi appear to grow through ashes quite readily when they are in a moist condi- trout.» In: fact, “the writer has a record of one case where fungi developed lux- uriantly in a_ pile of ashes in the open when exposed to prolonged rainy weather. (PI. IX, fig. 3.) METHODS OF STACKING LUMBER. I 4 7 P84F Lumber piled in Fic. 21.—Pecky cypress foundations in use at a mill in the open must be al- South Carolina. Wach large square contains from 500 to lowe Vv i ion 600 board feet. This type of construction does not d ent lati allow sufficient ventilation beneath the piles. around the individ- ‘ ual pieces, and this is usually arranged for in storage practice. In some instances, however, this necessity is ignored in certain TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 23 retail yards where it is the custom to dispose of the stock within very short periods, say, two or three months. In some of the northern retail yards along the Atlantic coast, where southern pine comes in by boat in a comparatively green condition, this prac- tice often leads to severe fungous infections throughout entire piles. This infection undoubtedly gets a good start in the hold of the vessel during transit and propagates further when close piled in congested lumberyards. Such a pile of diseased pine is Pa5F Fig. 22.—Foundations at Mobile, Ala., built to conform to an ordinance requiring all structures to be raised at least 12 inches off the ground and left open underneath. shown in Plate III, figure 7, where the infection extends up high into the stack. It is not the intention in the present bulletin to enter into a dis- cussion of detailed methods of stacking lumber. ‘The primary con- cern, from the standpoint of sanitation, is to dry the lumber as rapidly as possible and maintain it in this condition. However, other considerations, such as checking and warping, must be taken into account in many instances. The humidity or dryness of the climate will be of great weight in determining the proper amount of ventilation to give the best results from all standpoints. 24 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Certain general considerations, however, apply to practically all cases. The method of using special narrow cross sticks is probably in greatest use, and this offers certain advantages when the sticks are handled in a sanitary manner. In the first place, the strips are kept in an air-dry condition, © which* offers consid- erable advantage over green material; in the second place, the strips, being nar- row, do not offer a bearing surface Fic. 23.—Foundations which have failed. aeoueh acca Woe? than 1 to 4 permitting the piles to topple over. This would have inches wide. A dis- been prevenued by the use of a good preservative. tinct a d va nta ge would also accrue with the use of sticks cut from*highly durable material; for instance, resinous heart pine or resistant hardwoods, such as white oak and heart red gum. The second gen- eral method of pil- ing lumber consists in using the nar- rower widths of the lumber itself for crossing strips (fig. 26). The wider boards ordinarily offer too much of a bearing surface for good air circulation. At one of the Arkan- 1 1] 7 P87F Sas mills visited it Fig. 24.—Piling sticks lying on the ground at a mill in was customary in South Carolina, showing the insanitary method of han- : dling them. Such sticks lying for only a week or two in the earlier days to contact with fungus-infected ground may themselves use the regular run become seriously infected, and decay may in turn pass on of lumber up to 12 to the lumber stacks. inches wide as crossers, but this practice was discontinued on account of the serious loss from decay. The manager of the mill informed the writer that considerable rot would occur in 8 to 12 inch stock TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 25 within a year under such conditions. The present practice is to use strips 4 inches wide and 1 inch thick of air-dry No. 2 pine. This method has proved entirely satisfactory. In laying sticks careful attention should be paid to ree the successive strips vertically one above the other. If they are placed hit or miss, certain ones may fall in the span of the next tier below, thus producing much unnecessary warping of the lumber, due to the pressure of the overlying layers. In all cases of flat piling of green lumber care should be taken to leave a space of at least half an inch between the edges of the stock. This gives a vertical air circulation, which is particularly effective. 5 5 P88F Wig. 25.—Piling sticks placed on wet ground beneath the skids. In order to keep them free from infection, such sticks should never be placed in contact with the soil. Two other methods of piling 2 to 3 inch stock are used to some extent with good results. The edge piling of 2 by 4’s (fig. 27), sticking the pieces in the usual way, has given good results at several mills where flat piling produced an appreciable amount of deteriora- tion. The method of flat piling without the use of sticks, occasion- ally employed with 2 by 6’s, in which horizontal circulation is pro- vided for by leaving wide spaces between the edges of the stock (fig. 28), would not appear to offer as good opportunities for drying lumber in a moist climate as the more usual method which makes use of sticks. 26 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Besides the proper sticking and lateral spacing of lumber, a cen- tral flue one board wide running vertically through the middle of the pile is often of decided advantage. Many millmen recognize this as good practice, but few of them consider they have sufficient yard space to carry out the method con- sistently. Another factor which enters into the storage of lumber is the piling of stock in even or approximately uniform lengths (see fig. 26). A few mills consider that such pre- liminary sorting is feasible from an eco- nomic standpoint, on account of the greater facility with which such stock can _ be billed out. From a = pathological stand - Fic. 26.—Lumber piled in even lengths in a southern point the practice is mill yard. The crossing strips consist of the narrower highly commendable widths of lumber. Uneven lengths allow rains to beat in, and also offer convenient and favorable lodging places for fungous spores. Likewise, marked disparities in length permit considerable warping of the ends, which often project out several feet from the main body of the pile. Figure 29 shows this condition in an exag- gerated form. To protect the ends of the lumber from beating rains as far as possible, the cross strips should be placed at least flush with the ends, both in Te » : Fic. 27.—Edge-piled 2 by 4 pine atan Arkansas mill. This front and behind. method of piling permits better vertical air circulation ‘There still remains and consequently more rapid drying and less danger from decay during storage. ATM the question of roof- ing the piles. The commonly accepted pitch for lumber piles is 1 inch to the foot, and with a loose roof of lapped boards the greater part of the rainfall will drain away. The roofs must necessarily extend somewhat beyond the piles, in order to carry the drip clear of TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 27 the stack at the rear. Roofing the piles should never be omitted, as the protection afforded against rain is of undoubted value and the operation itself adds very little to the cost of piling. HANDLING TIMBER AT RETAIL YARDS. The storage problems involved at retail yards are somewhat dif- ferent from those at mills, although they may be discussed under exactly similar heads. LOCATION OF YARDS WITH REFERENCE TO DECAY. As a first observation, we may say in general that retail or whole- sale yards, as opposed to yards in connection with a sawmill, have the advantage of a higher and drier location, which, in turn, should make sanitation measures easier to practice. The necessity of lo- cating on streams or bodies of water is not ordinarily a prime consideration, but rather the lo- cation on or near a railway line and as convenient as possible to the actual consumer. Naturally, in the seaport towns, where much’ of the lumber comes in by boat, the most favorable location from the standpoint of transportation is along the water front, but in inland towns, where the shipment of lumber is by rail, the other factors of accessibility to the local market and the price of land play the important part. This general advantage of lo- P9IF cation, however, is often consid- Hig. 28. ot ee inch stock piled without 0 sticks, a method rarely used in the yards erably offset by the necessity for visited. Not used, as far as observed, close piling, without adequate with stock less than 6 inches wide. ventilation either between the piles or through them, due to the higher cost of land. When this is coupled with he fact that much of the product has been in storage elsewhere for varying periods, sometimes a year or more, it can readily be seen why decay is rather frequently uegunteran. in the retail yard. The salvation of the retail dealers usually lies in disposing of their stock rapidly. Most of them aim to turn it at least three or four times a year, for they recognize that long storage will prove disas- trous. Timber showing Feleriero tom through lees is not difficult to find in most retail yards. However, this is very often only in the 28 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. incipient stage and is not readily noticed by the casual observer. Yards which dress the lumber just before filling orders can in this way supply to the trade clean-looking lumber, but this does not always imply freedom from fungous infection. The opinion seems to be prevalent among many lumber dealers that the mere brightening of the lumber by running through the planer serves to remove all objection to infected stock. This is far from the fact, however. It merely gives it a better sale appearance, and the danger to the ulti- mate user still remains. The adage that “ beauty is only skin deep ” applies to such infected stock with particular force. | While perhaps the majority of lumber dealers have merely over- looked the full significance to the building trades of the dangers which lurk in diseased stock and are trying in every way to satisfy their trade and meet competition, there still remain a considerable number who do not look into the future but are content to get the stock off their own hands without any care as to the service which it will give the consumer. This is a thoroughly mistaken policy, for the lumberman should in every way strive to increase the value of his product. In the first place, it is good business pol- -icy, and, second, there remains the question of moral and legal responsi- bility. P92F STORAGE SHEDS. Fic, 29.—A stack of pine lumber of uneven lengths. Note the irregular distribution of the piling sticks and the In many retail consequent warping and twisting of the boards. : . = yards shed _ condi- tions are very poor. The closed type of shed is in the minority. Since lumber under cover is as a rule piled closely in bins, the need for ample ventilation beneath and a tight roof above is imperative. All the decay observed in lumber sheds is directly traceable to one or the other of these factors; mainly, however, that of improper ventila- tion. It has frequently been the custom merely to lay a narrow timber sill directly on the ground, or at best within a very few inches of it, to serve for the foundation (fig. 30). The best practice, however, has been to place the sills on brick or concrete piers not less than 18 to 24 inches high, running the siding of the shed only to the bottom of the sills, so as to allow a free circulation of air regardless of the direction of the wind. Such a construction is represented in figure 31. Another defect of the open shed which has been frequently noted is the strong tendency to allow the ends of the longer stock to project 7 TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 29 beyond the eaves (fig. 32). Very few sheds are equipped with gut- ters (fig. 31), and the drip during rains may run back along the projecting pieces well into the center of the piles. When once wetted the close piles will retain this moisture for long periods, during which a serious outbreak of decay may be initiated. A few cases of severe’outbreaks in retail lumber sheds will be de- scribed and illustrated later. . YARDS. On account of very limited storage space, nearly all retail yards fail to observe the proper spacing of lumber to insure ample ventila- tion. The general tendency is to pile altogether too close to the ground for safety, and in many instances the lumber is not spaced as well in the piles as it should be (fig. 33). The principal danger lies in the foundations, which are very often seriously infected with rot (fig. 34) or are not adequately constructed to insure proper venti- lation. The danger in allowing lumber to come in‘ contact with the soil is evident in figure 35. As the ques- tion of foundations in mill yards was dis- cussed in considerable detail earlier in this PoaF Fic. 30.—An old, dilapidated shed on the Mobile River publication and since in which the lumber is too close to the ground. Many the fundamental con- severe cases of rot have developed under just such siderations apply with ‘°™7'4°" equal force to retail yards, only certain features which serve to connect these fundamentals with the direct problems of the retail yard will be added here. Many retail lumber yards use solid or latticed foundations of built-up plank running parallel to the alleys (figs. 36 and 37); others resort to wood blocking for the support of the skids. The use of concrete is very limited, but has given complete satisfaction wherever introduced. It is usually laid down as solid foundations parallel to the alleys. In one yard at Birmingham, Ala., the founda- tions were 8 to 10 inches high, 6 inches thick at the top, and placed in triple parallel rows spaced 7 feet apart (fig. 38). The advantage of reinforcing the concrete is well shown in figure 39. 30 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Somewhat higher foundations than these are to be preferred in many situations, but in this yard, where every precaution was taken to keep the ground free from all infected débris, and where the drainage was excellent, this height has proved satisfactory. Piers have the advantage over a solid wall in permitting better ventilation, but piers also involve the use of wooden skids, which if not bested with a good preservative may more than SaeeY the ad- vantage gained in better ventilation. The careless handling of crossing sticks and lumber in retail yards is just as evident as in mill yards. The gen- eral practice in many of the yards visited is to throw sticks about on the ground when the stacks are torn down, and there they often remain until they are needed again. This insanitary prac- tice needs no further comment. A compari- son of the yard shown in figure 40, where the lumber is scattered about promiscuously on the ground, with the yard shown in fig- ure 15, where concrete P95F Fic. 31.—A retail shed in Tennessee, well roofed, pro- foundations and treat- vided with gutters, and set on brick piers with ample ventilation beneath from all sides. ed ties are in use and all débris is carefully collected into a wagon (fig. 41) and hauled away, may be of interest in this connection. ) FUNGI WHICH ROT STORED LUMBER. A considerable number of different species of wood-destroying fungi have been encountered in lumberyards. These, of course, are more frequently found fruiting on the foundations, tramway timbers, and ties than on the stored lumber, but this is only a question of the time which the timbers have been in the yard. The fact that elevated tramway posts and girders will rot in the South in a few years is proof conclusive that lumber stored in the open will also rot if it becomes necessary to hold it in storage too long. In the Gulf States low-grade lumber stored in the ordinary manner will show consider- TIMBER STORAGH IN THH KASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 3] able deterioration within a year. Plate LV, figure 1, shows a small pile of shortleaf pine seriously rotted after a period of only 10 months in a retail yard at New Orleans; in fact, the owner of this yard suffered so much loss from decay in the less durable grades of pine that he has discontinued handling them. Fungi are in evidence in lumberyards in the vegetative stage (moldlike growths; Pl. II, fig. 1, and Pl. IV, figs. 2 and 3) and in the fruiting stage. Almost any species occurring in a given region may occasionally be introduced into storage yards, but the great majority of the speci- mens found fruiting fall within a comparatively few species. One of the common forms, Polystictus versi- color (L.) Fr., is shown in Plate IV, figures 4, 5, and 6, growing both from the ends of stored hardwood lumber and from built-up plank foundations (Pl. III, fig. 3). This organism is profusely distributed throughout the entire United States and is more destructive to hardwood timber than any other fungus. Other members of this genus, such as Poly- stictus hirsutus (Schrid.) oar (PL TV, figs. 7 and 7%, S254 Jt sd in Aaveme in whieh tne 8), dee pargamenus Fr. from rains. This condition favors decay when the (Pl. V3: figs. 1 and 2), water runs back along the boards into the piles. and P. abietinus Fr. (Pl. V, figs. 8 and 4) are likely to be found in most lumberyards throughout the United States, occasionally fruit- ing on stored lumber, but more often causing sap rots of tramway timbers, foundations, and ties. The last species grows on coniferous timber almost exclusively; the other two on hardwood timber. Among other menfbers of the true pore fungi may be mentioned Polyporus adustus (Willd.) Fr. (Pl. V, figs. 5 and 6), which is usu- ally thin, tough, and leathery, creamy above and smoky below; P. sanguineus (i) Fr. (Pl. VI, fig. 4), of a bright red through- 32 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. out, shiny above, rather thin and shelflike, which is found abun- dantly throughout the South on hardwood timbers; and P. gilvus Schw. (Pl. VI, figs. 2 and 8), a firm, comparatively thin, rather rigid species, yellowish within and reddish brown without as it ages. In the northeastern United States one occasionally finds on oak or chestnut timbers the heavy, tough, corky fruit bodies of Daedalea quercina (L.) Pers. (Pl. VI, fig. 1): When the plant develops nor- mally it forms large and sinuous pores, but in lumberyards it more often appears as abortive clay-colored cushions (Pl. III, fig. 4). It is one of the few fungi which attack white oak.and chestnut. Another destructive group of fungi is represented by the genus Lenzites. Among the brown species there are three principal ones to be feared: Lenzites sepiaria (Wulf.) Fr. (Hi Vigoss 5 and 6), L. berkeleyi Sacc. (Ele Weenies 7). .and L. trabea (Pers.) Fr. CP vole ae." 1"), The first two con- stitute the most seri- ous enemies of conif- erous structural tim- ber in the United States. The last spe- cies rots both the heartwood and sap- wood of many differ- ent kinds of hard- woods. All three are eer = =brown throughout Fic. 33.—A very congested retail yard at New Orleans, La., showing lumber temporarily placed on the ground in solid and ] eat her MW to piles. This is a bad practice, because under such condi- corky in texture. In tions decay may start in a very short time. some fruit bodies the under surface may consist of distinct gills; in others, the gills may more or less run together to form sinuous to subcireular pores, easily visible to the naked eye. Another species, Lenzites betulina (L.) Fr. (Pl. VII, figs. 2 and 8), of a general creamy color, with an upper surface frequently banded with shades of yellow, orange, and brown, occurs on hardwood tim- ber throughout the United States. It has commonly been noted in lumberyards on timbers used in various struetures. In one large mill yard where oak was largely used for planking the elevated tram- ways, this species, in conjunction with Polystictus versicolor, suc- Bul. 510, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. LUMBER SANITATION: WOOD-ROTTING FUNGI.—V. Figs. 1 and 2.—Polystictus pargamenus: 1, Upper surface; 2, lower surface. Fics.3 and 4.—Polystictus abietinus.: 3, Typical form from a pine log; 4, plants showing upper and lower surfaces, Fics. 5and 6.—Polyporus adustus: 5, Upper surface; 6, lower surface. Bul. 510, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. ‘ SO sae BY Ne LUMBER SANITATION: WoOOD-ROTTING FUNGI.—VI, Fic. 1.—Daedalea quercina growing on an oak tie. Fas. 2and 3.—Polyporus gilvus: 2, Upper surface; 3, lower surface. Fia. 4.—Polyporus sanguineus, upper surface. Fas. 5 and 6.—Lenzites sepiarias 5, Upper surface; 6, lower surface. Via. 7.—Lenzites berkeleyi, upper and lower surfaces. Bul. 510, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. LUMBER SANITATION: WooD-ROTTING FUNGI.—VII. Fig. 1.—Lenzites trabea, upper and lower surfaces. Fias. 2 and 3.—Lenzites betulina: 2, Lower sur- face; 3, upper surface. Fic. 4.—Lentinus lepideus, typical form on railway ties. Bul. 510, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. : PLATE VIII. LUMBER SANITATION: WooD-ROTTING FUNGI.—VIII. Fia. 1.—Lentinus lepideus, under surface. Fa. 2.—Schizophyllum commune, upper and lower surfaces. Fias. 3 and 4.—Sterewm fasciatum: 3, Upper surface; 4, lower surface. Fics. 5 and 6:—Coniophora putcana: 5, Smooth form growing on spruce sheeting in a mine; 6, warted form from a mine. Bul. 510, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. LUMBER SANITATION: WooD-ROTTING FUNGI.—IX. Figs. 1and 2.— Mcrulius lachrymans: 1, A well-developed fruit body with porous moisture-conducting strand (from a residence in Pennsylvania); 2, mycelium growing over the surface of the rotten wood. Ties. 3 and 4.—An unidentified fungus in a Mississippi cotton warehouse; 3, flooring rotted hy the organism; 4, fruit bodies developing on other parts of the floor. (This is the same species illus- trated in Plate X, figures 1 and 2.) Bul. 510, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. LUMBER SANITATION: WOOD-ROTTING FUNGI.—X. Fias. 1 to 4.—A severe infection of an unidentified fungus in an Alabama lumber yard: 1, Open shed where the fungus has progressed upward to the second bin, 5 fect from the ground; 2, corner of closed shed on the same premises where rolls of tarred roofing paper resting on the floor (not shown in the picture) were severely rotted at the ends; 3, the shed shown in figure 1, showing how the infection started by piling too close to the ground over a cinder fill; 4, the same shed after the lower bins had been raised in an effort tocontrol thespread ofthe rot. Fries. 5and 6.—Peniophora gigantea: 5, Inter- mixed with molds and developing on moist pine shingles in a close pile in a Tennessee retail yard (growth, which an antiseptic dip at the mill would have prevented, had started during transit); 6, the mature stage growing on a pine log. TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 33 ceeded in rotting the planks at practically the same rate at which they wore down mechanically. Of the true gill fungi may be mentioned two species—Schizophy!- lum commune Fr. (Pl. VIII, fig. 2) and Lentinus lepideus Fr. (P1. VU, fig. 4, and Pl. VIII, fig. 1). The former occurs everywhere in the United States on both coniferous and hardwood timber. It is white to grayish, very thin and flexible, woolly above, and has very distinct gills below, which are split longitudinally at the edge and each half curled over, much as a dandelion stem curls when split. It is a comparatively small fungus, usually not projecting out more than 1 or 14 inches. At times it is attached at the center of the back and then presents a circular out- line with the gills ra- diating from a common center. When dry it is much curled and in- rolled, but during rainy weather it readily revives and appears fresh and expanded again. Fortunately, it deteriorates wood but _ slightly and need occa- sion no fear among lumber users. ° en Lentinus lepideus Fr. Fic. 34.—Built-up pine foundations in a retail yard in Tennessee. Many of the foundation timbers are seri- iS a fungus of the ously decayed and infection may pass to timbers piled “toadstool ” type, with in contact with them. Figure 17 shows what hap- ; l b Ay pened to a structural timber placed on a foundation a circular, DYOA@ALY — in this yard similar to these. convex, scaly cap, and a stout, fibrous, central or eccentric stem. It is white throughout, except for the brownish scales on the upper side of the caps and on the stem. The under side is provided with coarse gills, which become considerably toothed and split as the plant ages. : This fungus is a very rapid grower and primarily attacks timber in contact with the soil. It rots pine railway ties very rapidly, growing through sandy soil from one stick to another. Serious out- breaks of the fungus in pine warehouse floors have been reported several times, and it should be carefully guarded against in lumber storage yards. 34 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Of the fungi having a smooth under surface, two species are common enemies of structural timber—Sterewm fasciatum Schw. (Pl. VIII, figs. 3 and 4) and S. lobatum Knze. These fungi are too much alike for the layman to attempt to distinguish between them. They are very thin and flexible, the individual shelves often growing one above the other. The general color is grayish to creamy. Among the incrusting forms three deserve particular attention, viz, Merulius lachrymans (Wulf.) Fr., Coniophora puteana (Schum. ) Fr. (=C. cerebella (Pers. ) Schrot.), and Pentophora gigantea (Fr.) Mass. The fir 2 two species are notoriously dangerous and have been found in a number of lum- beryards extending from Massachusetts to the Gulf of Mexico. They are also the most frequently re- ported of all fungi occur- ring in buildings, and also the most destructive. Merulius lachrymans (Pl. II, figs); 2, and! 6, and Pl. IX, figs. 1 and 2) is a soft, subgelatinous fungus, forming a brown, crumpled growth with a white, fluffy margin over the surface of timber. As it develops it produces dirty gray to brownish minutely porous strands, which serve for the con- _j} duction of water, thus en- por abling the fungus to Fie, 28 Profectng ends of ler which De“ spread rapidly over com- paratively dry substrata. For this reason it has been frequently termed the “ dry-rot fungus.” On account of its destructiveness to buildings in Europe it also goes under the German name “ Hausschwamm.” It rots coniferous timber for the most part. Coniophora puteana (Pl. VIII, figs. 5 and 6) resembles Merulius lachrymans in color and general habit of growth. It is less gelati- nous, however, and produces no porous strands. In some situations it produces.a smooth, very thin, membranaceous layer on the surface of timber; at other times the surface is quite warted or convolute. The danger from the fungus is enhanced by its ability to rot hard- wood as well as coniferous timber. TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 35 The fact that we are dealing here with two fungi which are known to be widely distributed in lumberyards in the United States, not only in the region covered by this study, but also along the Pacific coast, coupled with our knowledge of the rather common occurrence and seriousness of the same organisms in buildings throughout the same range, is a cause for grave concern on the part of both lumbermen ~ and builders. Both fungi can readily be introduced into buildings by means of diseased lumber, and it is very probable that at least some of the outbreaks in compara- tively new buildings which have come to the attention of the writer can be attrib- uted to this source. Besides Merulius lachrymans and Co- niophora cerebella the writer has twice en- countered another or- ganism of much the same habit of. growth and _ destructiveness. This organism, the identity of which has not yet been deter- mined, was first found in a retail lumberyard in Alabama and later in a cotton warehouse . . . . . ee Li Mississipp1. The Fig. 36.—The solid type of built-up plank foundation. owner of the lumber- This permits air circulation beneath the piles in only one direction. The ends of the stock have been painted to prevent checking. yard had appealed to the writer for assist- ance in eradicating a very serious infection, so a careful inspection . was made at the first opportunity and the organism was found in great abundance in all three of the open storage sheds, where it had - destroyed many of the foundation timbers and also passed upward into the stored lumber (PI. X, figs. 1-4). The first serious infection noted in this yard occurred six years ago, when two carloads of 6 by 6. pine timbers piled in the open yard were so badly decayed to a height of 6 to 8 feet in the piles as to be rendered useless for building pur- poses. This material was at once disposed of for firewood. ‘Three years later a further outbreak occurred in two of the open storage sheds and in an addition attached to the small office building. Dur- ing 1913 a serious infection was also found in a third open shed 36 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. According to the owners, the immediate loss of this yard in stock and repairs up to October, 1914, was estimated to be between $1,000 and $2,000. This represents, however, only the actual loss to the com- pany in lumber, figured at wholesale prices, and labor: necessary in making repairs. The potential danger to the consumer using such stock, even though but very slightly infected, would amount to very much more than this sum, for a single stick introduced into each of a number of new buildings would occasion an incalculable amount of damage if such timbers happened to be placed in a moist situation favorable for the further development and spread of the fungus. As soon as the infec- tions were noted as seri- ous, the company at- tempted eradication and control measures. In the office building the spread of the fungus has been checked by proper ven- tilation, and in the sheds the same methods are be- ing applied by removing the cinder fills beneath them and raising the foundations to a height of 18 to 24 inches, plac- ing the sills on brick piers. In future repairs the writer has suggested the application of either mercuric chlorid or some creosote compound to the new timbers. 3 PIOOF Fic. 37.—The latticed type of built-up plank founda- tions. This is an improvement over the solid type, One member of the si s be ilati h iles. as it allows better ventilation beneath the piles company so firmly be- lieved that the cinders used for filling about the yard had been highly favorable to the development and spread of the infection | that orders were given to remove all of them from beneath the - sheds. While it is possible that the infection may have been in- troduced by means of the cinders, the rapid growth of the fungus was mainly due to poor ventilation. Cinders have been used by a considerable number of other yards with complete satisfaction. .- Ashes, however, are not to be recommended. There are records in German literature where ashes used for filling between floors to deaden them have been the source of fungous outbreaks. The case of a cotton warehouse investigated by the writer, where pine flooring * TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 37 laid on flat 2 by 6’s resting on ashes was very quickly rotted out by this same fungus (Pl. IX, figs. 3 and 4), likewise offers circum- stantial evidence. The remaining fungus which needs consideration 1s Peniophora gigantea (Fr.) Mass. (Pl. X, figs. 5 and 6). This is a white to pale creamy moldlike growth when immature. When mature it forms a waxy incrustation on the surface of the timber, closely ad- herent when fresh, but when dry tending to become hard and horny and to curl up at the free edges. This organism is widely distrib- uted, mainly on pine timber, throughout the southern pine belt, and also occurs on conifers in the Rocky Mountain region. In the South it is frequently found in the woods, whence it readily passes to stored. lumber. Many lumberyards have been abundantly infected with it ever since they started in business; so long, in fact, that to sever the attachment would be lke losing an old acquaintance. From the southern yards it has been in- troduced northward and is very conspicu- ous at certain points along the North At- lantic coast (Pl. III, fig. 7). The timber reaches these points mainly by boat. Close storage of the green or partially dried stock in the hold of a vessel during an ocean voy- PIOIF age of perhaps several Fig. 88.—Concrete foundations in the retail yard in : Alabama shown in figure 15. weeks usually permits a vigorous development of the fungus. As a result of this, infections are so abundant in some of the North Atlantic yards that one would have difficulty in finding any clean material whatever. It is fortunate that the organism does not approach in destructive- ness such forms as have been previously described, else many lumber- yards would be doomed immediately. It is a wood-destroying fun- gus, however, which limits its action to the sapwood. Although the deterioration is comparatively slow, it does weaken the timber to a considerable extent and should be guarded against along with the more dangerous fungi. 38 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. WOOD PRESERVATIVES IN THE LUMBERYARD. Aside from the advisability of preserving permanent structures in the lumberyard by the use of antiseptics applied to or injected into the wood, the question of preserving the lumber itself from incipient infection until it reaches the consumer is one which merits careful thought. During the past decade the use of soda (sodium carbonate or bicarbonate) dips to prevent blue stain has become general throughout the southern pine belt. Within the writer’s own experi- ence, sawmill men who in 1909 scoffed at such a measure had within three or four years fallen in with the procession and were enthu- siastic advocates of it. As yet the idea of dipping the lumber to prevent infection from true wood-rotting fungi has not been con- sidered by the lumber- men. The soda dip is not sufficient to accom- plish the desired end, “so we must look else- where for a suitable preservative. Mercuric chlorid is a hazardous thing to use on general stock, on account of its extremely poisonous nature, but is very effi- cient and safe enough for special purposes. Zine chlorid is objec- tionable mainly on ac- rizr, count of its capacity to Fic. 39.—Broken foundations, a result brought about h by not reinforcing the concrete. The company later attract moisture. Of embedded some old 20-pound steel rails in the con- the remaining colorless crete near the top. salts in use for wood preservation sodium fluorid or some es salt of hydrofluoric acid would probably meet the needs of the situation. very well. So- dium fluorid is highly toxic to fungi, but can be handled by workmen with no danger of poisoning. It is colorless, easily soluble, and can be handled in any way that the soda dip can. It is more effective than soda and so could readily be substituted for it, thus protecting against both the blue stain and the wood-rotting sir by a single treatment. This whole feature of dipping lumber in, this way to keep it in a clean condition for the consumer must necessarily involve the close cooperation of millmen, wholesale men, and retailers. The millman may feel indifferent to the proposition, claiming that the de- TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 39 terioration in his yard is not sufficient to warrant it. But this is not merely a mill problem; it is a lumber problem which involves the entire industry and the cooperation of all its members. Even though the mill operator may not in many cases suffer personal monetary loss, still he is often a contributing factor in the losses borne by the retailer and consumer, for incipient decay originating in mill yards and passed over to retail yards may during the later period of storage progress rapidly. The added cost of treatment would be insignificant in comparison with the benefit derived, and if the lumber trade would take the trouble to explain the benefits to the consumer the slight additional expense would in all probability readily be met by him. Even though it should not be deemed feasible to add the cost of treatment to the finished product, the direct saving ac- eruing to the lumber dealer himself should warrant the -expense. It is imperative that something be done by the lumberman to put his product on a more favorable competing basis with other struc- tural materials if he is to safeguard the lum- PIosF 5 Fie. 40.—A southern retail yard, showing a most in- ber business for the sanitary way of handling lumber. - Structural timbers future. ; should never be thrown promiscuously about on the . ground in this manner to become infected with wood- mmother, lime Of €f- destroying. fungi. deavor which would reflect favorably on the whole industry is for the lumber dealer to carry in stock, or at least be in a position to produce on order, timber thoroughly treated for construction purposes by certain of the well-known preservative processes. The wood-preserving in- dustry to-day is primarily conducted for the benefit of the heavy consumer. The builder who may need only small quantities of treated stock to place where decay is most likely to occur in his structure is usually unable to obtain it except at prohibitive cost. The preservative treatment of timber is no magic process and in- volves no heavy expenditures for necessary apparatus, especially in connection with the simpler methods of treatment. The kyaniz- 40 BULLETIN 510, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ing process consists merely in the immersion of the timber in an open wood or concrete tank containing a solution of mercuric chlorid. Any of the other water-soluble salts could be applied in the same way. Creosotes and carbolineums can also be applied in this manner. While in many cases the amount of preservative which can be in- jected in this way would not be sufficient to fully protect timber in direct contact with the ground, in most cases where treatment is indicated in buildings it would be sufficient. Such treatments could be carried out by any one at any point, and the local treatment of timber would probably be cheaper than when done at a distant cen- tralized plant. In the East, such a local method of treatment is being carried out by at least two lumber dealers within the writer’s ac- quaintance. If treated timber were put on the local markets as a standardized product, as readily available to the man who needs 100 feet as to him who uses it by the 100,000 feet, the favorable results experienced by the public in the use of the treated product would in the course of a few years create a demand and be a stepping stone toward a more profitable lumber in- dustry. BRANDING STRUCTURAL TIMBER. PLO6F Fic. 41.—Wagon loaded with fragments of lumber i's 5 l d to be hauled away. This is the highly com- | Lhe discussion now leads mendable practice by which one lumber company ys to a consideration of the keeps its yard clear of débris. ‘ . advantages of branding timber in order to safeguard both the reputable timber producer and the consumer. Such a practice is of particular value in the case of dimension timbers where a standardized uniform product, graded particularly on strength and durability, must be supplied. It is customary at the present time to so brand longleaf pine for export, but the practice is very little followed for the interior trade. Some few retailers stencil their name or brand on certain stock, but this is with them more a matter of advertising than a guaranty of quality, TIMBER STORAGE IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES. 41 and this must necessarily be the case until a standard and succinct set of grading rules is put into practice by all dealers. Branding not only puts the company’s guaranty of quality behind the product, but indicates as well the kind of timber supplied. Thus, for example, an operator in Douglas fir and western white pine in Idaho could not then possibly confuse his product with southern pine or eastern pine when it reaches the eastern market. For the architect it is very essential to know that the kind of timber he receives accords with the specifications. The biggest and most enduring reputations in any line of indus- trial activity are based on the best type of service. When the lum- berman who has the highest desire for good service throws his prod- uct promiscuously on the market with the lower grade materials, he is at the same time throwing away an industrial asset of no doubtful value. This will become more and more the case as the building public wakes up to the dangers lurking in the use of inferior or fungus-infected timber. The timber of the United States is a national asset in which the citizens have a certain vested interest which calls for the best utili- zation possible. The lumberman as guardian of these interests cer- tainly owes to the public no less than his best efforts to convert the forest into a finished product which shall ultimately reach the con- sumer in prime condition. CONCLUSIONS. Improvement of lumber storage conditions can be brought about by modifying present insanitary practices along the following lines: (1) Strong efforts should be made to store the product on well-drained ground, removed from the possible dangers of floods, high tides, and standing water. (2) All rotting débris scattered about yards should be collected and burned, no matter whether it be decayed foundation and tramway timbers or stored lumber which has become infected. In the case of yards already filled in to considerable depths with sawdust and other woody débris the situation can be improved by a heavy surfacing with soil, slag, or similar. material. (3) More attention should be given to the foundations of lumber piles in order to insure freedom from decay and better ventilation beneath the stacks. In humid regions the stock should not be piled less than 18 to 24 inches from the ground. Wood blocking used in direct contact with wet ground should be protected by the application of creosote or other antiseptic oils or else re- placed by concrete, brick, or other durable materials. Treated horizontal skid timbers would also be highly advantageous, for stock should never be piled in direct contact with diseased timber. (4) Instead of throwing the “stickers” about on the ground, to become infected, they should be handled carefully and when not in use piled on sound foundations and kept dry as far as possible. If resinous pine or the heartwood of such durable species as white oak or red gum be employed, the danger of possible infection will be greatly decreased. 49 BULLETIN 510, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (5) In most regions lumber should not be close piled in the open, but should be “stuck” with crossers at least 1 inch thick. Lateral spacing is also very desirable. Roofing the piles should not be neglected. (6) In storage sheds the necessity for piling higher from the ground is very apparent in many cases. The same remedies apply here as for pile foundations in the open. The sheds should be tightly roofed and the siding should not be run down below the bottom of the foundation sills. Free air circulation should be allowed from all sides beneath the inclosure. Only thoroughly dry stock should be stored in close piles under cover. (7) Should fungous outbreaks occur in storage sheds not constructed to meet sanitary needs the infected foundation timbers should all be torn out and replaced with wood soaked in an antiseptic solution or by concrete or brick. In all cases the new foundations should be so constructed as to keep the lumber well off the ground, and the soil and timber immediately adjoining the infected area should be sprayed or painted with an antiseptic solution of a water-soluble salt, like sodium fluorid, mercuric chlorid, zine chlorid, or copper sulphate. Stock which has become infected should never be sold for permanent con- struction purposes. The placing of such infected stock in buildings may lead to disastrous results, for which the dealer may be held responsible. (8) The dipping of yard stock in a water solution of sodium fluorid appears advisable from the standpoint of preventing blue stain and incipient infection with wood-destroying fungi during storage. PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELAT- ING TO TIMBER STORAGE CONDITIONS, ETC. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Cottonwood in the Mississippi Valley. (Department Bulletin 24.) The Southern Cypress. (Department Bulletin 272.) Measuring and Marketing Woodlot Products. (Harmers’ Bulletin 715.) The Preservative Treatment of Farm Timbers. (Farmers’ Bulletin 744.) Preservation of Piling Against Marine Wood Borers. (Forestry Circular 128.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Jses for Chestnut Timber Killed by the Bark Disease. (Farmers’ Bulletin 582.) Price, 5 cents. 4 Rocky Mountain Mine Timbers. (Department Bulletin 77.) Price, 5 cents. The Toxicity to Fungi of Various Oils and Salts, Particularly Those Used in Wood Preservation. (Department Bulletin 227.) Price, 10 cents. Forest Pathology in Forest Regulation. (Department Bulletin 275.) Price, 10 cents. Wood Preservation in the United States. (Forestry Bulletin 78.) Price, 10 cents. : Preservative Treatment of Poles. (Forestry Bulletin 84.) Price, 15 cents. The Preservation of Mine Timbers. (Forestry Bulletin 107.) Price, 10 cents. Experiments on the Strength of Treated Timber. (Forestry Circular 39.) Price, 5 cents. The Preservative Treatment of Loblolly Pine Cross-Arms. (Forestry Circular 151.) Price, 5 cents. The Prevention of Sap Stain in Lumber. (Forestry Circular 192.) Price, 5 cents. The Absorption of Creosote by the Cell Walls of Wood. (Forestry Circular 200.) Price, 5 cents. 43 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 20 CENTS PER COPY V ee , BULLETIN No. 511 Joint Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, WM. A. NG a TAYLOR, Chief, and the Office of Farm Management, W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 31, 1917 FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON.! By H. R. Carss, Scientific Assistant, Office of Forage-Crop Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. DU ROOT CULO betes lad eat ec ets eas 1 | General farm practices and conditions—Con. G@cneralistarements.2 452!) sieeece i. ese 2 oe 3 Survey in Barnwell County, S. C......-.- 29 UUSOUMION te Nees BS Bao eee ean Staite 4 Survey in Pike County, Ga-....-.--..--. 31 [OTRO ee Re eee ee 5 Survey in Tift County, Ga_..-..----.--- 34 Millacepetore:plowine= 2 +2222 foess foe te 6 Survey in Giles County, Tenn-....-...-- 36 FRAG NEE Ee ae NAL 6 Survey in Bulloch County, Ga........-- 38 Preparation after plowing. ........--...----. 9 Survey in St. Francis County, Arx..-..- 40 AA ERED ge sae sess Setince ce Ce Soe Ss eins es 10 Survey in Ellis County, Tex.....-.:---.. 43 Normal averages of farm conditions.-....--...- 12 Survey in Chambers County, Ala--....-. 45 The relation of crop rotations to crop yields... 14 Survey in Johnston County, Okla....... 47 The relation of tillage and price of land to Survey in Jefferson County, Fla......... 49 CUOUSVACIOS Res cs ot clnste ie ade weet 15 Survey in Lincoln Parish, La... -.-..-.-- 51 Groups of cotton-growing areas. -..--..------ 16 Survey in Lavaca County, Tex........-- 53 - General farm practices and conditions. --.--. 17 Survey in Houston County, Tex----..-.. 55 Survey in Pemiscot County, Mo.-....-.-- 17 | _. Survey in Monroe County, Miss...-..-... 57 Survey in the Mississippi Delia...-....-- 21} +‘ Survey in Bexar County, Tex........... 59 Survey in Robeson County, N. C.--..-.- 24. | ASTIN A py eerssn sersinas se eet oc ocean aoe 61 Survey in Mecklenburg County, N. C-... 27 INTRODUCTION. The data presented in this bulletin? represent the first step in a comprehensive study of farm tillage practice in the cultivation of cotton. In this study facts are presented as to what practices are actually employed by the average farmer in the various regions of the South, A study of these practices and the conditions under which they exist should be of value to cotton farmers and investi- gators in all regions where cotton is grown. In collecting these data it was found necessary to take into con- sideration many economic and even sociological factors which might 1 This work was begun in the Office of Farm Management in 1914 when that office was a division of the Bureau of Plant Industry and has been continued in the Office of Forage-Crop Investigations of the same bureau. 2 Acknowledgment is due R. W. Pease for assistance rendered while collecting the data presented in this publication. : 70799°—Bull. 511—17——1 2 BULLETIN 511, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. have an influence on the tillage practice employed and on the results obtained. ; This information was secured by thesurvey method. Areas through- out the cotton belt which had conditions and practices representa- tive of large regions were selected. In all, 19 areas were studied. (Fig. 1.) These are so located that practically all the conditions and customs found in the cotton belt are represented. Complete farm records were secured from 25 or more farmers in each area. The record shows the general farm practices and conditions, together with a detailed statement of the usual tillage practice employed with cotton on each farm. : .These data are presented in tabular form. The general facts are summarized for each area studied and appear in tables which show Fic. 1.—Outline map of the southeastern United States, showing the Cistribution of cotton production by States, each dot representing 20,000 bales (census of 1914). The letters represent the areas in which surveys were made, as follows: A, Pemiscot County, Mo.; B, Mississippi Delta; C, Robeson County, N.C.; D, Mecklenburg County, N.C.; #, Barnwell County, S.C. F, Pike County, Ga.; G, Tift County, Ga.; H, Giles County, Tenn.; J, Bulloch County, Ga.; J, St. Francis County, Ark.; K, Ellis County, Tex.; ZL, Chambers County, Ala.; M, Johnston County, Okla.; N, Jefferson County, Fla.; O, Lincoln Parish, La.; P, Lavaca County, Tex.; Q, Houston County, Tex.; R, Monroe County, Miss.; S, Bexar County, Tex. the average normal conditions for all areas. The purely tillage data are presented in subsequent tables. A set of tables, one for each area studied, is submitted, giving in detail the tillage practice em- ployed by every cotton grower visited. In addition to these tables a short discussion is included for each area surveyed, presenting the prevailing farm practice, conditions, and customs in the various regions studied. Summary tables are also presented, showing the average normal tillage practice employed and the normal yields of cotton obtained in each region. The yields of cotton, however, must not be con- sidered as indicating the representative efficiencies of the different methods of tillage employed. Previous investigations with corn! ‘Cates, H.R. Farm practice in the cultivation of corn. U.S, Dept. Agr. Bul. 320, 66 p., 40 fig. 1916. FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 3 have shown that crop yields are far more closely related to and influenced by inherent soil fertility and by other farm practices than by the tillage methods. From such a study as this, therefore, it is not to be expected that a best method of tillage for cotton will be determined which would be applicable under all conditions and circumstances. This paper presents a broad, general idea of what practices are employed in growing cotton under various conditions. It is highly probable that some practices found in one area might be employed elsewhere to advantage. The object of this publication, however, is not to recommend any certain methods for cultivating cotton, but rather to give the reader a detailed knowledge of the various practices which are employed in the different areas, in order that he may adopt any suggestions which might prove advantageous under his conditions. TasLE I.—Number of farms surveyed, with the average sizes of farms, average acreage per head of live stock, etc., in nineteen areas in the cotton belt. Cultivated 7 Region surveyed (fig. 1). Land in farms. ae, pa Heng Use Cost ohana = Date of} Record s survey.| taken. K ik Val S$ rea| Area alue : : - Culti- |Inter-| Per Per = | County, State, ete. per | culti-| per se Hogs. H b : Racine wertede tracrat tle. vated. |tilled.}| day. | month. 4 1914. Acres.| Acres. Acres.|Acres.|Acres. |Acres. A | Pemiscot, Mo......| Aug. 25 | 159 147 |$108. 00 34 7 19 16 |$1.15 | $22.50 B | Mississippi Delta. ..| July 25 {1,316 824 | 55.00 16 8 19 17) .90 16, 00 C | Robeson, N.C..... une 25 | 260 123 | 55.00 37 7 22 19 70 17. 50 D | Mecklenburg, N. C.| June 25] 172] 115| 120.00] 12] 16] 24] 14] .70| 16.50 E | Barnwell, S.C. ....| June 25 | 193 13 34. 50 31 9 28 24 70 15. 00 PIKE Gain. 35. ccee July 25 | 144 96 | 44.00 22 17 27 21 {| .80 13. 50 (Cr) GE Ce Ree npereesee June 25 | 160 83 | 41.50 13 4 28 21 | 1.00 19. 50 H | Giles, Tenn-.-...-. July 25 | 222 136 | 67.50 8 5 17 12 80 16. 50 I} Bulloch, Ga........ June 25 | 178 85 | 54.00 7 3 25 22 95 16. 50 J | St. Francis, Ark....| Aug. 25 | 356 22 34. 50 19 16 20 18 95 17. 75 He) |e Bllis| Mex... s.0.--- ept 25 194 174 | 146. 50 46 12 24 2 |) Tas) socosase L |. Chambers, Ala..... July 25 | 408 231 | 30.00 18 17 26 22 70 15. 00 M | Johnston, Okla.....| Sept 25 | 239 163 | 34.00 10 5 25 19} 1.15 20. 00 N | Jefferson, Fla...... July 25 179 101 22. 00 12 4 34 29 70 15. 50 O | Lincoln Parish, La.| Aug. 25 | 125 62| 20.50] 10 8 20| 17] .95| 14.00 P | Lavaca, Tex..-.... Sept. 25 | 210 102 | 85.50 7 7 15 12) .95 15. 50 Q | Houston, Tex......| Sept 25 | 241 108 | 26.00 13 15 19 17 | 1.00 20. 00 R | Monroe, Miss.......| July 25 | 299 166 | 35.00 8 23 17 75 16. 75 S | Bexar, Tex.........| Oct 25 | 295 130 | 97.00 14 16 19 19 | 1.20 20. 00 GENERAL STATEMENTS. In all the general tables the areas included in this study are ar- ranged in order of rank in yield of seed cotton per acre. The facts presented in Tables I and II have little direct bearing on or relation to tillage other than showing the acreage of cultivated land and intertilled crops per horse and the price of farm labor. Indirectly these data have a very important relation to tillage, in that they show the general farm conditions and practices as found in the various regions surveyed, so that the purely tillage data as presented in subsequent tables may be better interpreted. The data presented in Table II will give some idea regarding the type © 4 BULLETIN 511, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of farming practiced in the various areas in so far as can be indi- cated by the crops grown, crop acreage, and crop yields. Taste IIl.—Normal average acreage per farmand acre yields of various crops on the farms surveyed in each of the nineteen regions studied. {The key letters under “‘Region surveyed”’ refer to the location of farms studied, as follows: A= Pemiscot County, Mo.; B= Mississippi Delta; C=Robeson County, N. C.; D=Mecklenburg County, N. C.; E= Barnwell County, S. C.; F= Pike County, Ga.; G= Tift County, Ga.; H= Giles County, Tenn.; I= Bul- loch County, Ga.; J=St. Francis County, Ark.; K= Ellis County, Tex.; L=Chambers County, Ala.; M= Johnston County, Okla.; N=Jefferson County, Fla.; O= Lincoln Parish, La.; P= Lavaca County, Tex.; Q= Houston County, Tex.; R= Monroe County, Miss.; S= Bexar County, Tex.] Cotton. Corn. | Oats. Sugar cane. Sweet potato. Region iS pat veyed = 2 | : _ = (fig. 1). er 7: er rs er . er . er : © farm. | vield- | go | Sided. Ui parry | MHCN S| irre fo tCl a eee eli told. Acres. | Pounds. | Acres. | Bushels. | Acres.:| Bushels. | Acres. Acres. | Bushels. Tab ay 71 1, 200 57 EY Ae seen emmeeneerte Ae eM! Soot a CS ee Bete osee 540. 5 1, 034 197 30.5 39 42) Sas Selects cicketna| Sere Serre ates ee orale Cie eee ee 65.5 | 1,006 39.5 24 7 30) We secsecel Seaseerns Mee eeee eset eiee iD eee eer 35 958 32 22. 5 17 74 Tam [eee yl Fe ges ate = ee | [Ea pe 1D cepa ae 62.5 925 47.5 16.5 12 Day | a ayxiarnicinal ints ecco ae al Ea Choe . .555 -2- 2 11,350 | 23 1,135 | 15 |1,140] 6 |1,000] 2] 950] 211,000) 0] 0 1,117 South Atlantic division..| 1 500 | 33 792 | 40 817 | 54 836 | 20 825 | 38 980 | 14 |896 854 Intermediate areas.......| 18 | 642 | 25 736 | 35 697 | 15 693 4 975 3 916} 0] O 714 Southwestern division...| 22 | 620 | 47)| 601 | 24| 620] 23) 593| 2| 550] 7) 650} 0} O| 617 TOb AIR cat: 2 et 28 |3, 264 |114 |3,274 | 98 |3,122 | 28 |3,300 | 50 13,546 | 14 |8c6 |..... Average | --| 816 j-.-.| 819 |...) 780 |--..) 825). Sos ee apd aula ae FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 9 PREPARATION AFTER PLOWING. The type of soil and the prevailing tillage methods determine what implements are used in preparing the cotton land after plowing. Table VI is presented to show these implements. It also shows the areas in which each implement is used and to what extent it is employed. Tasie VI.—Practices with cotton in nineteen regions surveyed relating to tillage after plow- ing and before planting, showing implements used and average number of workings. [The key letters under ‘‘ Region surveyed”’ refer to the location of farms studied, as follows: A= Pemiscot County, Mo.; B=Mississippi Delta; C=Robeson County, N. C.; D=Mecklenburg County, N. C.; E= Barnwell County, S. C.; F=Pike County, Ga.; G=Tift County, Ga.; H=Giles County, Tenn.; I= Bulloch County, Ga.; J=St. Francis County, Ark.; K=Ellis County, Tex,; L=Chambers County, Ala.; M=Johnston County, Okla.; N=Jefferson County, Fla.; O=Lincoln Parish, La.; P=Lavaca County, Tex.; Q=Houston County, Tex.; R=Monroe County, Miss.; S=Bexar County, Tex.] Harrow. Roller. Cultivator. Region surveyed. Gay) Spike-tooth. Disk. Spring-tooth. Farms | Ofall | Farms} Ofall | Farms! Ofall | Farms| Ofall | Farms} Ofall using. | work. } using. | work. | using. | work. | using. | work. | using. | work. Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct: 20 8 8 3 4 For bedding. th ee -horse 1-shove oe : Region Log drag. | plow to lay off Ber eet dis) Average surveyed Turning plow. Lister. BOWS: puber (fig. 1). | workings. Farms | Ofall | Farms}| Ofall | Farms} Ofall | Farms| Ofall | Farms | Ofall using. | work. | using. | work. | using. | work. | using. | work. | using. | work. Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. : 25 2 3 3.5 3.5 3 3.5 3.5 ay 1G 2 3 2 1.5 2.5 2 2 1.5 P45) a Two-horse 1-row lister planter. 70799°—Bull. 511—17——2 a6 . "ye SR ea | oY: Ny 7 a atts 10 BULLETIN 511, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The spike-tooth and disk harrows are extensively used on every type of soil. In most areas the turning plow is used for bedding the land. Quite often the middle buster, or lister, is employed for this purpose. This implement is also used to some extent for plowing land in parts of Texas and Oklahoma. Fertilizer distributors (fig. 4) are used in all areas where fertilizer is applied to cotton. This imple- ment is often employed instead of a shovel plow for opening up th rows. iit ) PLANTING. The time of planting cotton is governed largely by the type of soil and the climatic conditions. Clay soils do not warm up as rapidly in Fic. 5.—Chopping cotton. The seed is sown in drills, and at the first or second cultivation the plants are chopped to a stand with a hoe, leaving one stalk every 12 to 15 inches in the drill. the spring as light sandy soils; therefore, cotton is planted later on — the heavy clay soils, other conditions being equal. It is customary to plant cotton on a slightly raised bed. There are two reasons for this: (1) It is much easier to thin the cotton to a stand when it is planted on a bed than when it is planted level, cotton being thinned by hand with a hoe and much labor being involved (fig.5). (2) Another reason for planting cotton on a bed is that when land is bedded up, more surface is exposed to the air and sunshine, and consequently the land warms up more quickly, thereby giving the cotton an earlier start. Bedding up also affords better drainage con- ditions, which must be considered in many parts of the cotton belt. In only a few areas, where dry weather prevails during the growing season, is cotton ever listed. FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. lish Cotton is always sown in drills and thimned to a stand at the first or second cultivation. The rows range from 3 to 4 feet apart and the stalks are left one or two to the hill, with the hills from 12 to 18 inches apart in the row. Usually from 2 to 4 pecks of seed are planted per acre. More seed is usually planted per acre on clay soils which bake readily than on light sandy soils. Very little cotton is planted by io Fic. 6.—A type of 1-horse cotton planter. hand, 1-horse 1-row planters being generally used (fig. 6). In Fic. 7.—A combined lister and planter, an im- : plement used for planting cotton in parts of some areas of Texas and Okla- Oklahoma and Texas, especially in those areas homa the 2-horse 1-row planter where dry weather prevails during the growing is used, and quite often a lister ~~ is attached to the planter (fig. 7). This same type of planter with a different attachment is used for planting corn. Details as to the time and methods of planting cotton will be found in Table VII. TasLE VII.—Tillage practices with cotton in nineteen regions surveyed, showing the dates and methods of planting. [The key letters under “ Region surveyed” refer to the location of farms studied, as follows: A= Pemiscot County, Mo.; B=Mississippi Delta; C=Robeson County, N. C.; D=Mecklenburg County, N. C.; E= Barnwell County, 8S. C.; F= Pike County, Ga.; G=Tift County, Ga.; H=Giles County, Tenn.; I= Bulloch County, Ga.; J=St. Francis County, Ark.; K=Ellis County, Tex.; L—Chambers County, Ala.; M=Johnston- County, Okla.; N=Jefferson County, Fla.; O=Lincoln Parish, La.; P=Lavaca County, Tex.; Q= Houston County, Tex.; R=Monroe County, Miss.; S= Bexar County, Tex.] Farmers plant- | Average dis-| & Planters used by 2 Date. ing a— tance apart. | © farmers. o o § c >A S. x ga Ae S 2-horse. D eh . > by . a 2) ge Average. _ Range. es 3 a & Soils ts sh g : e cy 2 2 3 ES 2 @ ho} 8 ES 5 H) CP) q | i) = ie ae pa a & qe A Os ee ee SS D ey ih P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.| Feet. | In. | Sq.ft. | Peck. | P.ct.| P.ct.| P. ct. A | Apr. 21 | Apr. 10 to May 10 |..--.-- TOO! | 5 34 | 16 5 4 60 40 |...... B | Apr. 11 | Mar. 25 to Apr. 30 16 corel anes 4 17 6 4 96 21 tS C | Apr. 14| Apr. 8 to Apr. 20 8 ORES ser 4 13 4 4 HO ae aeclsenects D | Apr. 23| Apr. 15 to May 4|....-.- OD |eaceee Baas | 2.3.5.) 4 TOOM sz Ala ase E | Apr. 11 ar. 15 to Apr. 30 |..----- AGO 4 154 5 AVS SOT ELS SSRN F | Apr. 15} Apr. 1toMay 1 16 S4 ase 2 see hy 1) 1183 3.5 5 LOOMIS 8 Seay: G! Apr. 4] Mar. 15 to Apr. 20 28| 64 8 Me AGki | ub |. 25! MOOS eae Pe ts H | Apr. 15 | Mar. 10 to Apr. 30 20 SO lesoees 3 13 3.5 SE UND eaeelcoses I | Apr. 1] Mar. 15 to Apr. 15 4] 84 12 4 164 5.5 3 LOO ES Sees J | Apr. 25| Apr. 1 to May 20 4 96)|2 2s ed 34 | 14 4.5 G5) |e LOS eaaeeel Beetoe K | Apr. 13| Apr. 1 to May 15 Sh aeoo | Nias 3 | 13 Sarl 2. Sale =e b4 96 L j Apr. 11 are e25etoy Maye lence - LOO? |e 34; 134 4 5 HOO st Sos s alee M | Apr. 21) Apr. 1toJune 8 16 64 20 3% | 154 4.5 2.5 64 4 32 N | Apr. 1 ar. 1 to Apr. 15 8 CPF Saecee 4 13 4 4 92 4 c4 O | Apr. 18] Apr. 1 to May 15 ]....... 100 |....-- 4 14 4.5 4 LOO? eee | PELE P ar. 25 ar. 1 to May 1/).....-- 100 |....-.- 33] 13 4 5.5 Si lBeesse 92 Q | Apr. 16 | Mar. 30 to May 30 Ad ees OG" |'ssitee 34 | 12% 3.5 3 92) |S saeet 8 R | Apr. 15| Apr. 1to May 1 4 96 Eevee 34) 15 4.5 4 967 (Saas. 4 S | Mor. 25| Mar. 1 to Apr. 15 40| 20| 40 Sa ISk |e 55 \ 3h ieee ee 4 96 @ All planted with drill, b Three-horse 1-row planter. .¢ Hand planter, 12 BULLETIN 511, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. NORMAL AVERAGES OF FARM CONDITIONS. Normal averages of farm operations and conditions are presented in Table VIII. Of the areas studied, the nine having the highest acre yield of seed cotton have an average normal acre yield of 954 pounds, while the nine areas having the lowest acre yield of seed cotton average 628 pounds. This great difference in yield is probably due to many fac- tors. In the areas where higher yields are made it is probable that _ the inherent fertility of the soil is greater, and the sociological, eco- nomic, and climatic conditions are such that, generally speaking, better farming prevails. Furthermore, it is probable that the addi- tional commercial fertilizer used and the extra tillage given account to a large extent for the increased yields, even where other condi- tions are equal. The average depth of plowing for the nine areas having the highest yield of seed cotton is 6 inches, while the average depth for the nine areas having the lowest yield of seed cotton per acre is only 43 inches. It is probable, however, that this is only an associated factor rather than a correlated one, and the real cause for the variation in depth of plowing may be found in the type of soil. The high yields of cotton are made on sandy-loam or clay-loam soils. These soils are usually plowed deeper than the heavier clay soils, on which the yields of cotton are somewhat lower. After plowing and before planting the average number of workings for the nine areas having the highest average yield of cotton is three, while for the nine areas having the lowest average yield of cotton the average number of workings is only two. One cause of this difference is the fact that in the higher yielding areas 70 per cent of the farmers use commercial fertilizers and in the lower yielding areas only 43 per cent of the farmers use such fertili- zers. The fertilizer is applied with a distributor, the operation being recorded as equivalent to a working. In the nine areas having the highest average yield of seed cotton per acre the average number of cultivations after planting is six, while the average number of cultivations given in the nine areas having the lowest normal yield of seed cotton per acre is only five. It appears that there is a direct correlation between the amount of cultivation given after planting and the yield of seed cotton per acre. (Table X.) The number of hand cultivations is approximately the same for all areas. It is customary to go over the cotton with a hoe at the first or second cultivation and thin to a stand (see fig. 5), then at the third or fourth cultivation to go over the row again and take out any weeds or any extra cotton stalks that may have been left. FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 13 Taste VIII.—Practices with cotton in nineteen regions surveyed, showing average data in regard to depths of plowing, number of cultivations, price of land, commercial ferti- lizer used, and normal acre yields. Commercial Region surveyed (fig. 1). Average number of— feniahivernseds Depth | Work- ; Price of | ings | cuiti- of Yield Ke; plow- eee vations | Hand | land. |Farms| po, . ; cae County, State, ete. mg. [Pio =| after | culti- apPly-| acre Ler: bofore | Plant- |vations. ing. plant- aS. ing. . Inches. P. ct. |Pounds.| Pounds Neer bemiscot; Mo- -..2252222-- 24 5 2.5 6 2 |$108.00 | Os eee se 1, 200 B Mississippi Delta-...........-- 44 2 9.5 2.5 | 55.00 24 130 1, 034 C€ | Robeson, N.C........-...-..-- 64 3 6.5 2.5 | 55.00 100 676 1, 006 D | Mecklenburg, N.C...--....-. 6 3.5 5.5 2 120. 00 100 330 958 E Barnwell oeCs2 2222 2.222: 6 3.5 6.5 2.5 | 34.50 100 666 925 F PEGE a Grae ee ea A 6 3 DD 2 44.00 109 416 904 Grape litte Gar cto SS 2 Fol. 7 3.5 So) 2 41.50 100 342 881 H (Cui teste BG eae ae oe 5s 3.5! §.5 2 67. 50 12 200 860 I BullochsGaesunss 4-2 2-6 sne 7 3.5 | 5.5 2 54.00 100 506 816 J bipctrancisy Ark # .3-.-=.52.4- 4 1.5 | 5 2 34. 50 On See see 767 TH DIT Wipe Boo, Ge a ee 4 2 5 2.5 | 146.50 Ot ees 684 ie | Chambers, Ala. ----..-...---- 54 3 5.9 2 30. 00 100 312 676 M | Johnston, Okla...........-.-- 4 2 5.5 2 34.00 4 300 676 Nig} etterson,. Was: <2... ecsece ss 5 1.5 5 1.5 | 22.00 92 286 665 O Lincoin Parish, La..-.......-- 43 2.5 5 2 20.50 84 205 644 P Mavaca,, Pex: . 222... 256. 425-6< 4% 2 4.5 2 85. 50 Olay eae 642 Qa Houston; Lex 22. 222 S22 22222 =: 43 2 4.5 2 26.00 60 202 610 R | Monroe, Miss............----- AB oo gh, || mes 2 | 35.00| 48| 202 586 Se Bexar Lexcs..0222.-.o.-ee< 6 2.5 4.5 2 97.00 Dilek ess 472 SuMMARY SHOWING AVERAGES BY REGIONS AND DIVISIONS. Area in farms. Per acre. Average number of— jv oumencial; Depth | Work- z Brat of ings F Regions and divisions. Culti- - plow- | after 2 Culti- | Price | Nor- ing. |plowing vations| Hand | Farms| p,, Total. | Voted of mal after | culti- | apply- pay *| land. | yield. before plant- |vations.| ing. | H plant- ing ing. Regions: Acres. | Acres. Pounds.| Inches. P.ct. | Lbs. Nine best: -....--- 311 193 | $64.50 954 6 3 6 2 70 408 Nine poorest. - --.- 245 137 | 55.00 628 4.5 2 5 2 43 251 Average of all ~ areas studied. . 282 168 | 58.50 790 5 2.5 5.5 | 2 54 341 Divisions: : | Delta area..-..-.. 212 121 | 50.00 854 6 3 5.5 2 99 442 South Atlantic di- 5 vision........--- 737 486 | 81.50} 1,117 5 2.5 7.5 2.5 12 130 Intermediate areas 251 148 | 39.50 714 4.5 2 5 2 36 202 Southwestern di- vision........... 236 135 | 78.00 617 ba} a 2 5 2 13) |) =251 The price of land and the yields of cotton per acre are somewhat related, but there is only a slight correlation. (See Tables VIII and X.) However, the average acre value of land for the nine areas having the highest acre yield of seed cotton is $64.50, while the average acre value for the nine having the lowest average normal 14 BULLETIN 511, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, yields is $55. Aside from crop yields there are many economic and sociological features which enter into the determination of the market price of land; for example, land in the Mississippi Delta will produce as much or more corn per acre than the land in the northern Mississippi Valley corn belt, yet the environment and conditions in the Delta are such that the land sells for less than half what the corn- belt land will bring. It is probable that in the cotton belt the eco- nomic and social features of an area have more to do with regulating the price of land than do crop yields. THE RELATION OF CROP ROTATIONS TO CROP YIELDS. Generally crop rotations affect crop yields. The rotations having the largest percentage of those crops which add organic matter to the soil, such as hay or pasture, are usually conducive to the best yields. Regarding this factor, the data from all the records taken have been compiled in Table IX to show the relation between the crop yield and the normal average percentage of cultivated land in cotton. When the combined data from all the areas are compared (Table IX) there appears to be no effect on crop yields of growing a larger or a smaller percentage of the land to cotton. In the South Atlantic divi- sion, however, where large quantities of commercial fertilizers are applied each year, better crop yields are secured where 40 per cent or more of the land is in cotton. This is probably due to the large quantities of fertilizers used, a part of which remains in the soil from year to year. Taste IX.—Relation of percentage of cultivated land in cotton and normal acre yields of cotton. Percentage of cultivated land in cotton. | 29 or less. 30 to 39. | 40 to 49. | 50 to 59. | 60 to 69. | 70 to 79. | 80 to gg, | 90 2nd Areas. over. B/S lols leis lsislisislidisisdisiais Jie (betel Wes mt RE Vee Jee fa eae t=] Peet pete ie} all Pet ih ero) ep eS a DO OO 0 0 Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. ‘Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Delta areas..........-.--- 3)1,133] _6/1,316| 5/1, 280] 10/1,060] 14] 964] 10/1,160| 2|1,225] 0} 0 South Atlantic division. .| 36] 801] 33] 864] 45] 901] 53) 844] 23] 878| 10| 780/ o| Oo] Oo] oO Intermediate areas.....-. 38] 737] 13] 696] 13] 611| 23| 645! 5] 730/ 6] 691/ 21 975! o| oO Southwestern division....| 6] 800] 16] 618] 21} 609] 30] 533] 24/ 600] 16] 590| 11] 631) 1; 500 otal! see se eee 83/3, 471] 68/3, 494} 84/3, 401) 116)3,082| 66|3,172| 42/3,221| 15/2,821| 1) 500 Average. J. ea ssene| mee 868|....| 874/....| 850]....| 771|-...| 793]-...| 805]--..| 940]....| 500 It is generally found that the inherent fertility of the soil and the climatic conditions largely determine the crop yields. Another im- portant factor in determining the crop yield in many parts of the cotton belt is the quantity of fertilizers used. Of the areas studied, in the nine having the highest yields of cotton 70 per cent of the farms surveyed use commercial fertilizer, and the average application per a FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 15 acre for a cotton crop is 408 pounds. In the nine areas having the lowest yields of cotton, only 43 per cent of the farms surveyed use commercial fertilizer, and the average application per acre for a cot- ton crop is 251 pounds. THE RELATION OF TILLAGE AND PRICE OF LAND TO CROP YIELDS. In Table X the data are arranged to show the relation of tillage after planting and the price of land to yields of cotton per acre. This table shows that there is little correlation between the price of land and the acre yields of cotton, but a very decided relation be- tween the amount of tillage given after planting and the yields of cotton per acre. In a recent study of farm practice in the cultiva- tion of corn ! it was found that there is little or no relation between yields of corn and the amount of tillage given after plantng. Pre- vious investigations * have shown that with corn, if weeds be elimi- nated, any sort of tillage after planting is of minor consideration. Recent experiments have indicated that in growing cotton ordinary tillage operations are of minor consideration other than for control- ling weeds. It would appear, however, from these studies that extra tillage does increase the yields of cotton, which, generally speaking; is not found to be true with corn. Taste X.—The relation of tillage and price of land to normal acre yields of cotton. Number of cultivations. Average. 3 or less. 4 or 5. 6 or 7. 8 or 9. 10 or more. Acre value. of farm. eu eeoe eet) ees | eee ee seb phon | By ee eal es | sae OR raete ec Seo | ar a Ra ics ral ies ra ie va is Pal & al AY val Tbs Lbs. Lbs. Lbs. Lbs Lbs SIMON IESG 55.52 ve). Soc 2 oe 2 900 | 99 636 | 50 767 3 833 1 800 | $21. 80 787 PIR OMROU gs scene ae soe ose ee 1 400 | 61 725 | 52 940 7 930 6 967 41. 80 792 POLO Ocesssck css cdeae ss oaess 0 12 720 | 18 958 5 910 1 | 1,400 60. 00 997 CATAL TONE 30 (0 eee eee ee ate go) 4 538 | 26 665 | 14 843 | 2 900 | 3 | 1,166] 77.50 822 PO LOMIMIOE. Uke cok ee eo eek 0 0 | 28 887 | 16 994 | 2) 1,300} 0 0 | 100. 00 | 1,060 $111 to $130.....: Re Sarai aS 1 500 | 10 875 8 970 1 | 1,200 0 0 | 124. 25 $131 to $150... .- Spain 2 ie aoe oe haa 400 | 16 774 | 8 800 | 0 0; 0 0 | 148. 00 658 PU EGO Mil (Omen conch cee as 0 O- 2 12 || 875 | 0 0!| 0 0 | 162. 50 800 SUA TO GIO. oae = ee ee ee 0 0 2 875 1 | 1,000 0 0 0 0 | 175. 00 937 $190 or Over...........--..---- 0 0| 2 750 | 2 925 | 0 0/ O 0 | 212. 50 837 Motaleerc see sees secs 9 | 2,738 |258 | 7,632 |171 | 9,072 | 20 | 6,073 | 11 | 4,383 '.....-:-|.-.-.- PAVICLAB Care ca citciee ste =n asuel = GAS Wesccle (es) jeass|, “SO lecooh MON ie Sea ORs apes lasaeo = 1 Ui In consideration of the different root systems of the cotton and corn plants, this might be expected: The corn plant has many shallow fibrous roots, many of which are destroyed by cultivation, and it is probable that by cultivating corn the injury to the corn plants by destroying these numerous roots is as great or greater than the bene- fits of liberating plant food and conserving moisture. 1Cates, H. R. Farm practice in the cultivation of corn. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 320, 66 p., 40 fig. 1916. 2Cates, J.S.,and Cox, H.R. The weed factor in the cultivation of corn, U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Tndus. Bul. 257, 35 p., 10 fig. 1912. ; 16. BULLETIN 511, U. $. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURR. The cotton plant, on the other hand, has a deep taproot system, with very few shallow surface roots. Extra cultivation therefore does very little injury to the cotton roots, and the advantages of cultivation, such as aerating the soil, liberating plant food, and con- serving moisture, are all secured without detriment to the cotton plant. GROUPS OF COTTON-GROWING AREAS. The areas in which cotton-tillage surveys were made may be grouped into four divisions (Table IX): (1) The Delta areas; (2) the South Atlantic division; (3) the Intermediate areas; and (4) the Southwestern division. The Delta area studies were made in Yazoo, Sharkey, and ee ington Counties, Miss., and in Pemiscot Coan Mo. ie this Fis some sense alle in Mississippi, the farms are very large and are da ennid by the tenant system. Usually the owner lives in a near-by town or village and visits the farm only occasionally to direct the work. A hired superintendent lives on the farm and has direct control of it and the supervision of the tenants. The soils in the Delta areas are very fertile, and little commercial fertilizer is used. Average crop yields are higher than in any other area studied. More tillage after planting is given cotton in this area than in the other regions surveyed. This is due largely to the fact that many of the fields are infested with nut-grass, and to control it extra tillage is required. The South Atlantic division is composed of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and Alabama. In this division eit sur- veys were made. The oe are of medium size and are largely oper- ated by the tenant system, but under the direct supervision of the own- ers. The prevailing system is to furnish each tenant with a mule and 20 or 25-acres of land, the greater part of which is planted to cotton. Cotton is the most profitable crop in this area, and one reason for a 1-horse tenant system is that when each tenant has only a 1-horse crop he grows all the cotton he and his family can pick. With a 2-horse crop the tenant could not increase his cotton acreage because of scarcity of labor for harvesting, so he would necessarily grow other crops, such as corn or oats; consequently a larger percentage of the land is cultivated in cotton by the 1-horse tenant system, with a relatively larger return for the landowner. Considering crop yields, land values in this division appear fairly low; but in this connection the fact that large applications of com- mercial fertilizers are required to produce such yields tends to alleviate the apparent low price of land. Throughout this division the prevail- ing soil type is the Norfolk sandy loam, but it grades into a clay loam in those areas farther from the coast. om FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 17 Land is plowed deeper in this division than in the other areas studied. This is probably due to the fact that the soils are pre- dominantly of a sandy type, and soils of this texture are, generally speaking, broken deeper than clay soils. In this division it will be noted that more tillage is given after plowing and before planting. This is due primarily to the use of a fertilizer distributor, which is not so extensively employed in other divisions. The Intermediate areas include Giles County, Tenn., Monroe County, Miss., St. Francis County, Ark., and Lincoln Parish, La. In each of these areas there are varying conditions. Part of the land in each region is rolling and rough, with irregularly shaped fields and small farms, and part is broad level bottom land divided into large farms. The upland rolling farms are usually worked by the owners or by tenants who supervise their own work. Crop yields are not so good as on the bottom-land farms, which are often very large and are usually worked by tenants under the supervision of the owner or a hired manager. Little uniformity is found in these areas with regard to general conditions and tillage practice. The Southwestern division includes Texas and Oklahoma. Five areas were surveyed in this division. Here the predominating soil type is a clay loam. Most of the farms are operated by the owners or by tenants who supervise their own farming. Heavier teams and implements are employed both for preparing the land and for culti- vating the crop. The land is comparatively fertile, and little or no commercial fertilizer 1s used. The crop yields are probably gov- erned here more by climatic conditions than by soil fertility or tillage practice. The depth of breaking land and the amount of tillage given both before and after planting are about the average, yet crop yields are below the normal average for other areas studied. This is prob- ably due primarily to scant rainfall. GENERAL FARM PRACTICES AND CONDITIONS. SURVEY IN PEMISCOT COUNTY, MO. Pemiscot County is located in the extreme southeastern part of Missouri along the Mississippi River. The tillage records for this county (Table XI) were taken near Caruthersville. This is a typical Delta region. The soil and subsoil are a silty clay loam and very fertile. No commercial fertilizer is used, and stable manure is not considered valuable. The country is exceptionally flat, and the soil is such that no surface or tile drainage is required. The excess water is collected by broad open ditches and runs into central canals, which are dug by the county. 70799°—Bull. 511—17——3 18 BULLETIN 511, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe XI.—Tillage practices with cotton in Pemiscot County, Mo., showing depths of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal acre yields. [In columns 5 to 9 and 11 to 18 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1=first working or cultivation, 2=second working or cultivation, etc.] * ill f lowin, . 5 Plowing. a a Beton canine Tillage after planting. Harrow. 5 2-horse cul- Cultivator. 3 tivator with P a . i; ale ey sweeps. 8 PE ? fhe 5 2 ¢ a ™ O ire] 5 ee alee os Sas S s ia eS 3 ut Ss Pe ana is) a { oy = 2\'s es| 8 Phe ® 8) 2 g a -|slels/ea| a a 1eS 0 SM as cS = [oly | eas) 4 2 hee & IS) g és 18) [glE) | SSS ai ee) Si ee i ie B |E| 8 A ea o|3 2p | Pes a ne) if) ir) 5 > ra 2))) 3 — | 2 2 o nan) a Ss n od b a a a) f n | rd o b ® a =) D i} ° i“ a) pr] =| 3) ) E BElSisl2/S Bigial8 |2ivea 1a] 2 (Sele ewes Be Ete cot VEN NCS ta cy ON oat] eee ANG, ne ce aes a |4| & - 1 2131}4/5/6)} 7 |8/9 /10| 11 | 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 (|19| 20 ib areSe ORELe EL a2 ie ih) 88 e283 see 4 5 6 | 2,3 as ee tls 6 | 1,200 Thea er ee Ted PEE 2 TO TMi eee | URE ey LD Me COSA TRING lly 5 | 1, 200 Shee ra Ue Sa Poe (oA Patel Fas Ee io eal aes Sos FH We ZrO) G50 Wen ciel CSP ie viene YN sca de ek 7 | 1,000 Yee Gy lsee| L lescles eels ese eS) Neca, 2, CO'6 Wek) a Sete SESS pe ie emi | ao 6 | 1,000 Ne ote Ze) Ui NES ay LG 2 a ee eS Ana eens. | pera 2to5 Co Kearse sc Neh aa al a Scat 1 | 6 | 1,500 Gi ais 7 Vs Ge (pe Vis tf a PE gee A WC geal: beewe ss 1to9 | 9 | 1,200 Mine ae Sy oA seli4 Aor! Stale cecal ves Die DEO). BH tors els iy Bae DAS eA ee 5 | 1,500 Bees Oriel | Semleees SST 720 | Fes Nt Nes, el eee 21bOrD) ||| sone UM sViey yea as eS 5 800 Ore ee An all ers OM ee|eo We oo eee GOONS) |S a2 2 Sie eal aes ae nue | 5 | 1,500 Oe. AA cee eel eee D2 (92 Wasco ZHO9 | oc. sc eee eee eee ee | Oe 5 | 1,400 Piste & ed ei be babys ieee a | See OR MAN AS TR pe a 2) OSE sae a Soe aye anne 5 | 1,000 1D ee Hee ea eel eye eres od etesen cate [imesh 2 1 8, AG tl es 5a |e ety ee ee Cc} ae 6 | 1,200 aie cre ites ied ah de se Hells Lieb) ae Has seks 2to5 Coe (ieee a Gl Lessee gs ee i ee ce 7 | 1,000 jy ae 590] fe em Tal ea nO Kn PN IT ea ae LVS 4s) NS on ne bg | 5 |.1,300 pas (Ghd stl alla Se eel | ai SAS al SAS eee 4 2,3 yal ehia ss 6 | 1,000 162255. Coyote Pa Ya Be Pater eee 2S led Nn Pa es eeeea loo Sak Di EEE cot 5 | 1,000 Anand Se Ge SE Due oe nba Ween es al ee 4,5 a | aes tse Bi een tee 7 | 1,200 ASS es CS) VB ee Wt LO a Nate TNS Al r4 nD ee Se 2,0) || 4,1D MMR ee Gi | ees 7 | 1,000 i ht ae AME ay alae Dial Sealer 4 2 i een ZOD! |hs.2e se eo Re see se mee | ae re 5 | 1,500 Ot ae a Hay | See is Wi Rae 8 FS ye iS ee elt ee ie PAC tl ee Eesha de dle = Lael oe 4 | 1,500 DUS SA LE 8 BD Ea aD, 1 Bee 2 U0: Gr le aiaealk o/s Sec G8 |S Re eee eee 6 | 1, 250 72} NL el Van Pa pe DF eee ke ed, Oh ea QbOD |isctescral SS AAs ee ete ee che nee 5 | 1,000 Tay LS ZAP ee A al |rt leas Rope| elles Ge AON 7 LT GOvG | Saeki 6 | 1,750 ieee a a8 52 || el eT | a OSV Ani). cel eennetae eee EGE 5 | 1,000 7 ea SPN NES Sela coe aa Bt |e tea | as 6075 1 Onl eae ee ty ec 6 | 1,000 Farms | | using, 3 per ct.|...|60 |40 64 |20 |} 72 |56 |20 |---| 60 8 84 32 24 12 40 DTM Re bret Aver- Fs 75 ee US a ae bd P| be Se (eee A) a ey tl eS a oe Salt 7 tee we ae 6 | 1,200 j a Shovel plow. b One-horse spring-tooth cultivator. Large tracts of land are owned by afew men. This land is divided into farms of 100 to 150 acres and rented to white tenants on a cash. basis. About 50 per cent of the farms are worked by tenants. Often the land is rented for cash and then sublet on a share basis. The principal crops grown are cotton, corn, and alfalfa. No set rotations are practiced, and cotton is often planted on the same land for a number of years. Alfalfa does exceptionally well here and is grown on every farm. ‘The yield is from 2 to 5 tons of hay per acre. The cotton yields are high, but the quantity produced is limited by the labor available for picking. Cotton and hay are the principal money crops, although some corn is sold, Enough hogs are kept to supply meat for home demands, FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 19 but few cattle are raised. Not enough fruit and truck is produced to supply the local markets. The tillage methods employed with cotton combine features of both the corn and the cotton belts, in that the heavy teams of the corn belt are employed, with the type of implements and methods Fic. 8.—Harrowing a field before plowing the land for cotton. In many parts of the cotton belt a disk harrow is used to cut up the old cotton stalks before plowing the land. found in the cotton belt. In preparing the land the old cotton and corn stalks are cut up with a stalk cutter or disk harrow before plow- ing. (Fig.8.) The land is then broken with a 2-horse or 3-horse plow. About half the land is broken level. Later itis harrowed with a spike- tooth harrow and macucd with a middle buster, or lister. These beds are sliehily leveled off with a log drag and the cotton planted on the bed. Abouthalfthefarmers bed the land as it is broken. This is done with a lister or Fig. 9.—A spike-tooth harrow, well adapted for pre- with a turning plow. The beds paring a seed bed on any type of soil. are harrowed witha spike-tooth harrow (fig. 9) and then leveled off with a log drag before planting the cotton. Cotton is always planted on a shght bed and either a 1-horse 1-row or 2-horse 2-row planter is used. The rows average 34 feet apart, and about a bushel of seed is planted per acre. After chopping, the stalks are left from 15 to 20 inches apart in the drill. The cultivating after planting is largely by means of 2-horse imple- ments, The first cultivation is given with a 2-horse l-row cultivator _——oeoe 20 BULLETIN 511, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. equipped with two scrapes, one of which runs on each side of the row and scrapes the soil away from the cotton plants, leaving them on a small ridge, where they can be easily chopped to a stand with a hoe. After chopping, the next cultivation is given with a 2-horse 4-shovel cultivator equipped with four 6-inch or 8-inch sweeps instead of shovels (fig. 10). These sweeps push the earth back to the cotton plants. Three or four cultivations are given with this implement, and the size of the sweep is increased at each cultivation up to 12 or 14 inches. For the last cultivation this same implement is used, equipped with only two large sweeps. (See fig. 11.) Often a 2-horse disk cul- Fig. 10.—A 2horse 4-shovel cultivator with small sweeps attached instead of shovels, extensively used for the tillage of cotton in Texas, Oklahoma, and other sections of the cotton belt. tivator is used for the last cultivation. A few farmers emphoy a 1-horse sweep in cultivating, but most of the work is done with 2-horse implements. The cotton is left slightly ridged at the last cultivation. (See fig. 12.) In all, five or six cultivations are given. At the third or fourth cultivation the rows are again gone over with a hoe and any weeds or extra cotton stalks are chopped out. No cover crops are grown. The principal varieties of cotton grown are Georgia Big Boll, King’s Improved, Rowden, and Mebane. The most troublesome weeds are cocklebur, crab-grass, careless weed, morning-glory, and pigweed. FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. ze SURVEY IN THE MISSISSIPPI DELTA. The tillage records for the Mississippi Delta (Table XII) were taken in Yazoo County, near Yazoo City, Miss., in Washington County, near Greenville, Miss., and in Sharkey County, near Rolling Fork, Miss. The Mississippi Delta extends approximately from Vicksburg to the northern boundary of the State, and conditions throughout the region are fairly uniform. The topography is exceptionally level and drainage is by open ditches which surround the fields. Practically none of the land is tile drained. The soil is a dark-brown silt loam and very fertile. No commercial fertilizer is used and little stable manure is produced. The farms are large and only about 60 per cent of the land is cul- tivated. All the farming is done by negro tenants under the super- vision of the owner or a hired manager. Cotton is the princi- pal crop grown and is the only source of in- come on most farms. Nearly every farmer crows afew oats, which are fed on the farm. No set rotations are practiced, and on many of the farms cot- ton has been grown on the same land con- tinuouslyfor 75 years, but still produces a profitable yield. On some farms a 3-year Fig. 11.—A 2-horse 2-shovel cultivator equipped with long Sweeps in- ; ij stead of shovels, used for the tillage of cotton in Pemiscot County, ‘rotation is par tly Mo., and other sections of the cotton belt. maintained, in which cottonis grown two years followed by corn one year. Cowpeas are sown in the corn at the last cultivation and the vines are plowed under after the corn is harvested. Not enough cattle and hogs are kept to supply home demands and none are raised for market. Very little fruit or truck is grown. In preparing the land for cotton 2-horse teams are used. After the cotton is picked the old stalks are cut up with a stalk cutter (fig. 3) and the land is plowed in the early spring, most of it being bedded as broken. Either a 2-horse turning plow or a liter is used. If the land is not bedded as broken it is bedded before the cotton is planted. Ifa lister is used for breaking, the beds are plowed up a little higher by running one furrow with a 2-horse 22 BULLETIN 511, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. turning plow on each side of the bed. These beds are then harrowed down with a spike-tooth harrow until they are only 3 or 4 inches high. Sometimes a disk harrow or 1-horse cultivator may be used for leveling down the bed. The cotton is planted on this slight bed with a 1-horse planter. The rows are about 4 feet apart and 3 to 4 pecks of seed are planted per acre. When chopped, the stalks are left from 15 to 20 inches apart in the rows. Taste XII.—Tillage practices with cotton in the Mississippi Delta, showing depths of plowing, implements used, number of times each is used, and normal acre yields. [In columns 5 to 10 and 12 to 21 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1=first working or cultivation, 2—second working or cultivation, etc.] Plow- |Tillage after plowing and : Hi ing. before planting. Tillage after plowing. op Bo, & ! 3 Har- 5 S Harrow. Cultivator. FE Tow. iS S E Farm p i E ae , ' 2) No. | - Sel la Cue call 2-horse olen a de Tel NS oa § |.— |4-shovel, .|@lala@ io) 5 -|da| |oSig). x Ao g | @. | with— jy) @l-a).e)] 3 3| | lea) |SSe| len leis|] $ | 42. | 2 | 73 8) 2 | B/S) 8 ae S/25 aid }e/8) Boe Voll alee B\e |e \2| 8 pailht aI 2 a |Elo B/S ry) od oO 28 Ke} cl eal ey ay eS & Sisiolo |ylole mia ielg| # as Babi TVR Mi Iza aa ea eS ates Bibles (Zia i8 (Be sel So 2 8 | see eee eles Asia jaja jae Kia) 3 a mofo fal a fal | a] 1 |2/3/4) 5 16/7] 8 {9} 10 |11)12) 18 14 15 | 16 /17) 18 /19) 20 | 21 | 22) 23 ee ESA Riu ss -|(eealli tl PAV OA eee ale yoy. ose (2) |3 4| 5] 8,11]....| 15} 800 255 15] Ppa Pet eg sg eet eget E ile TE |i AR Girt Ol Ol eee | 2 Segal ea 3 10)1, 500 Soe TS Tye alle YA ae pal P| ees 2) 1 2 3 CONT) soso ee Hs eek ee Te ae ee |e 7\1, 200 Ae Bp se | Bie Wee 2 Sle Ai) WW ae seace 9 to 12).22-- SOS ee eee ee a [Dies 3 12/1, 000 Seen O| steel O alae ae Siem ease Slee) enh imten lees eelloacte ES 2 Adley | Be eeeere | See 9} 750 eee at Alea |) |e | ene en Syl eeacone 5.85.91 283 All eS ad a ee 10}1, 200 7a Bee aT) foe aye aH krae PAG a Be IU et tea 138546) sten |e ee See HOS ee | a 7|1, 200 tS a peed Ua fe | ae Peers Bl La 2|cellseeee (Olek eel a etsltes PANE Poy Abo slPice oll aka 8] 800 9.. Ay etl eres eel eee ree eae 2 | Wal See acre L857, Oy Ge) i ale omen lee ee | el | ee 9/1, 500 1022 Al alsa epee iF ey RST a oe 3 OD LOM eeeme (@)y4 22) eeeterees| ae 2| 1} 8) 400 tiles Alea euy Pall eee ates Shoe PAN Vie ses D8) 2p Blteceeclee ATO silos se alecer 8]1, 100 igs Stal call hee all bal hPa Siholse|aeeeee 1,5, 7,8/2,4,6].--.-. é Sit allbeere dliee 8}1, 500 TSE aA |e elt el roe a pees lee ee ili). : 7 Pea Bea calso.5 oc wefeneeeee sal Sere (e) | 9)1, 400 14.. CANN Pe Wey fete 7 a ea 2): Vln Acco P eel ese eecen eee CAR GEE ee | | eee eee 12/1, 200 1 Uy Wed 4 Var Mag eae Wg ah al QI. De Sees Beedle eee 2 Oy Ol CA | Semele 6]. 6}1, 100 16.. ai sei OU ere lease ile 1,2 4to10)..... Bs} Pig ge ae | a al 10} 800 ile/e Algal eal ee | LS STDC RE AQ SE as |e eee ee 4609/2. 2) 2a ee Pe eG ON ate eee 9| 750 1g ANE Uae oli eral Se octets PATA ease 1,2,.3,:55 75.9] (Ce). | cers Osi eerie || eee | eer 10)1, 400 1 eee rT |mall| Se See | ko eee ae ee Se Eee Bee aes rast se (2) AIS Ce) nt eae seeelee ee 11} 800 plies Al A SU Ph LN Sa 2 Se rs ee | ee 2-2 Qa 1) AGO Ds ee epee |e epee | ae | eres | eee 11} 900 ie ALES et Leslie |e eet Dye LA) - 55:2 COLO) SEs sl ee Ses | ea ete | 2,3, 6]. 10} 800 22. 75) (0 Pir Vata PER es eS ah 23) poe mela Sit0. 8] 2.0 Slane ol ee leu ae os 9} 800 2322.2) Al By 4 eae Oh) 53 | neers 162, 4.5/6 VO9|. cmeimlee | serene Sibsecaleace 9} 950 24. OlpoleLiteee|oca (Ll 2|ceee ee |seee 2A 1 3 G0) 7) 5 | ei = 2a |-stiallies) |e q 2 \o S| a |e/Vl2lse lela] 6 iS Sis} 6 ® sf) Ss 3 BIPISlal 8s |S$14@i/slelals| a] 4 a |e| 2 Be) os eh EN es) (yesh eS tii a VS eet tes ape tas) abies al el ey ih ol aaa ath a |al|a| a 1 QS 4 a 6 | 4) 8 1-9) 10 ar 13 14 15 |16| 17 18 19 | 20) 21 Very SMe: Or) de eee ess 1 aD eee 2 or 3) 4: alWacisslnnoceds UB se 2) 3to6 A 6 | 1,300 Cs sg es CO) |i al FE) al We Br ilgoocllasal eerie: 1,2 Sl eis srl celal seers 4,5 |. 5 750 Bi SE a 5) |p Talo sa bel eee [ce esa e ee pier edie Laieeere te go T163 foes e ege 3,4,5|---.| 5] 600 AMG Dues EN ST | PEE es AN fiesta Ne tane3 (rs |e |e Diy; Gil Sages eel aeee ese seas SPN) 63 /51,350 eG Fi may RL oe Ag Se aH QMleSuli4 || Pee eee cae BR LE Prog t ii 6 750 Gena GWE ee Ws Ie see 3 RADE ys [ued ese Bp a Gy one BS BO We iba a 600 [Seca Henge ian Bg |aea ee af. 8 [Beles a ee Te 2) 1 to5 a 5 500 CFS Ara 9 alle fer 1,4 |. | 2] 3] 4 1,30 Bees aes a) 5 |2,4,5,6 |. 6 900 Oeihecet, Bld S sellocel bse 3 ACa Ul eee sie Maes salle cea oa eer 5| 1to6}- 6 650 HOME ste ee Giles | ae 8} lees -|| il Dra Beh LAS | eRe oe geee een lisse a 2 to 5 |. 5 600 MURR RUAN TE Oh Net ae eed eee 4) 1)2)] 3) 4 Ly P2anco yee ees|(22e32|a sae ee p 5 800 POE ee Sled sce Selene ae le oI Silt Mare as TU AiG) Bhs ee a ie ee : 5 | 1,000 PBR Lao day ae) Hie | leat ee 3 1 Palos tae Wil ee nies (SiS Selene hoe eae 2to6 |. 6 800 1 seen oe ee (eile | so 2|4 Mee cial eaves y nek DN I J a abel | ciel a lh 2to7 |. 7 | 1,200 TSU eee COLI TT a eel Thy ess AB ap Di iors Wessel he 2 I eae ie Mig ARO ei 3 to6 |. 6 900 LG Sel we ext: fee Ill beets Ne RAM Slit ieee: |e 1D hee el eee te reise 2to 5 |}. 5 700 Dpaee mere Ss aa pe | gn MH al AVI DiS a TT yg a | ge 3,5 | 2,4,6 |: 6| 700 PREU Ges 2k Galeton AAP 2) Neale eed li 1/3 oe 2 BC Gi ts el 9. ||_ 5 | 1,000 (Ge tee G2 Seale sa eee BF lbeectielle | ie 2) esta Mall eee Sue eee! By Pee |e 5 600 DO SRE. 5 (peti eee By TS idl inal ae) Be a. Se ae 1,2 |) 455.6 ll 6 | 1,100 Dy ee ee Boal By Ere gal tbe odd as: b1 ia eat pa) Sek Seaoale 5 750 OO sah aa Ge ey eel a ieee te BINS bila eae we a ema SY all eae 2 to6 |. 6 700 Dames sel. iO)5) fll Mega lb eee Be eee e Beales: 2, Sie team tae. i ea 4to7 |. 7 700 Sie Aas SiN 3 TPN Pa a 3 1 Os 12)| Deana Lb rue SMT a Al 700 Peta ts ais 4/1 TU SET IL ah OPA Have a et Ve SI EP (ce) |3,6] 8 750 Farms using, per cent.|... 96 | 4 |20 | 52 |68 | 24 |76 |100 |...136 | 36 Bh a || S|) BS 885 PESel aves) eee PALVCLAR Os | 9 7/)) 2a \\a/—a|ieeal eee la a= Sade Seal aes Bee eee leeess pecsoc cl skBeE rabllanpsdlBeScoase ----| 5.5} 816 ! y i @ Spike-tooth harrow. 6 One-horse 2-shovel plow. ¢ Cultivations 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, and 8. 40 BULLETIN 511, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The cultivating after planting is all done with 1-horse implements. The first cultivation is given with a 1-horse harrow-tooth cultivator or a 1-horse 3-shovel cultivator. The cotton is then chopped to a stand. After chopping a 1-horse sweep or scrape is employed. Some farmers use a l-horse 3-shovel cultivator equipped with small sweeps instead of shovels. Where the 1-horse sweep or scrape is employed, 14-inch or 16-inch lengths are used at first and a size larger for each succeeding cultivation. For the last cultivation a 22-inch or 24-inch sweep is used. ‘Two furrows are given for each cultivation, and at every other cultivation an extra furrow is given so as to plow out the entire middle. The 1-horse turning plow, the 1-horse 1-shovel plow, the 1-horse harrow-tooth cultivator, and the 1-horse 5-shovel cultivator are used less extensively. During the season five or six cultivations are given. At the third or fourth cultivation the cotton is again gone over with a hoe, to take out any extra stalks or weeds. Very little stable manure is produced, but commercial fertilizer is used extensively. The average quantity applied per acre for cotton is 506 pounds. No cover crops are grown, and organic matter is supplied only by crop residues and by weeds and grass which are plowed under. The principal varieties of cotton grown are Toole, Sea Island, and Mortgage Lifter. The most prevalent and troublesome weeds are crab-grass, wild coffee, cocklebur, Bermuda grass, and pigweed. SURVEY IN ST. FRANCIS COUNTY, ARK. St. Francis County is located in the east-central part of Arkansas. The tillage records for this county (Table XX) were taken near Forrest City. The topography and soils are very irregular. In parts of the county extensive bottom lands are found, which are level and very fertile. Other parts of the county are extremely hilly and rolling and not so productive. The predominating soil type is a silt loam grading into a heavier subsoil. The bottom lands are-drained by means of deep open ditches which surround the fields. The hill farms are drained by numerous terraces and surface ditches, which are necessary to control the surface water and prevent erosion. The hill farms are of medium size and are worked by the owners or by tenants who supervise their own work. The bottom-land farms, however, are larger and are adjusted mostly on a commercial basis. The work is all done by negro tenants, but supervised by the owner or a hired manager. The principal crops grown are cotton, corn, oats, and cowpeas. No definite rotations are practiced. Cotton is the principal crop Se FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. Al and is grown on the most productive land. Only a few oats are erown, and these are often cut for hay while the grain is in the dough stage. Cowpeas are usually sown on the stubble land and the vines cut for hay. Cowpeas and peanuts are also planted between the corn rows and harvested by hogs or cattle. Some alfalfa is grown on the bottom lands. Watermelons and truck crops are grown for home use on nearly every farm. Little fruit is produced. Many farmers grow Bermuda grass for pasture. Enough cattle and hogs for home use are kept on every farm and a few are sold, but the principal source of farm income is cotton. Taste XX.—Tillage practices with cotton in St. Francis County, Ark., showing depths of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each vs used, and normal acre yields. [In columns 5, 6, and 8 to 12 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1=first working or cultivation, 2=second working or cultivation, etc.] Tillage after Plowing. plowing and Tillage after planting. before planting. a) : : : 4 1-horse. Cultivator. EB | § BS Farm. No. Mi F 3 a 5 be 3 3 = iB 2) ne ° 5 Ee a fs SIGE AVS. : Wee ON es Ua gi la lee| @leeelae | ey tes |e | 2 8 gq Ah we | eel 4 OAR el || Oo re Ae Me 4 i) Bee |= |e We | Bases) 2 Svea oalaacel eilal2i eis By) eS) ome a Brel ee os il ne alE|eo|4i|s 4 | See | See D on Se) 29 )o}s a, | ® = Bon | nPa Bs poi fe |) | = 2) 13) | mn jaa} < an “ DN a a | a Pal 1 2;3)41] 5 6 7 8 9 10 il 12)18)] 14 Sl erie Teen 1} @1,2 5 3,4 5 600 ANNE S| oii esse ara Ae Tg ee, ZN 98) 5 | 900 ANCL) WPL oe wk 1 ees ke Be 7| 900 Gl Decco ENGR By ee ce cok. a] ioe 4) 750 ee hes tome | ieee 1 ACS |i eS 2405 |- 5 750 3 |. Bree Al | 1 Ne Sa 8.4 | 4| 650 4 |. i) a a 2 1,5 d 4 |2,3,6,7 |. 7 0 4]. 1 2 1 Pais ene (e) Bh 4b |e 4 750 5 |- i aie eeaeee PAE ete: is ANS eo Pa 1to5 |. 5 750 4]. 1 2 1 2/a1,2,4 BO ee ee 5 750 & fle TD SO eee 2 Wille eae eae 2tod 5 600 6 |. 1 2 1 2 1,6 4,5 6 750 4 |. Tp? || ® 1,5 3 2,4 5 Wa eat 4]. 1 Ta eye yet ae Tle ako SAG dan eens Meee 6 750 Sule TD Se A aa 1 2 AIS WT SG) LCi a 6} 700 6 |. 1 2 1 Di Ee ae ea) IO SAGccasse 5 700 6 |. TAT ee 1 1| 3,4,5 Ha REAP ESA aA 6 | 1,200 3 |. 1) 2 1.1) 421) SRS eRe SHAN NS ANF 5| 750 3 1 2 1 2 1 4 25S iH eeaan is oe | 6 750 5 1 aL leaner 1 1,2 Sl ean@): |aesevooce 6 900 3 |. aA rere 1 1 eee sho elle iOS ||s-coscec5 5 750 3 | eae es |e ae 1 i Se 4,5 oe 5| 700 4 Te Aes okeeaie 1 IPRA |B DiSc hi hu aE 5 | 800 6 ie earaay es es 1 iL) Saas POL GE eee ie 6| 750 4 1 2 1 2 1 2 Br |e eee 4 750 Farms using, per cent..|.-.-| 4 | 96] 96 Aa eae 76 56 96 S14 ees clesoces PAVCTAGO a i scacs-sisin cies A eat vay 0 yey ecaray eso OPAC Ieee | ee Raa ee tees Ces Bede 767 a Spike-tooth harrow. c Shovel plow. e Cultivations 1, 2, and 3, with turning plow. > Plank drag. ¢d Turning plow. 4Y BULLETIN 511, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The general methods of preparing a seed bed for cotton are very uniform. During the winter the old cotton or corn stalks are cut with a stalk cutter and in the early spring the land is plowed with a 1-horse or 2-horse turning plow. Most often 1-horse plows are used. As broken, the land is thrown into beds the width apart the cotton rows are to be. Before planting, these beds are har- rowed once or twice with a spike-tooth harrow, which brings the bed down almost level. If the land is rough or not in good condition, it is often rebedded with a turning plow and then harrowed with a spike- tooth harrow just before planting. Cotton is planted on this small bed with a 1-horse planter. The rows average 34 feet apart and 12 bushels of seed is planted per acre. After thinning, the stalks are left from 12 to 15 inches apart in the drill. For cultivating after planting, 1-horse implements are largely employed. About 10 days after planting, the first cultivation is given with a 1-horse harrow-tooth cultivator known as a “‘side harrow.” This implement is sometimes used for the second cultivation. After the first or second cultivation the cotton is chopped to astand. The following cultivations are given with a 1-horse sweep or scrape. Small 12-inch or 14-inch scrapes are used at first, and Fic. 20.—A I-horse 3shovel cultivator the size increased with each cultiva- equipped with small Sweeps instead of tion up to 20 or 22 inches. Many shovels, used for the tillage of cotton in : St. Francis County, Ark., and other parts farmers use a 1-horse 2-shovel culti- pene carb sberts vator equipped with solid sweeps in- stead of shovels. A few farmers use a 1-horse 3-shovel cultivator (fig. 20) and a 2-horse 2-shovel cultivator equipped with broad sweeps instead of shovels. At the third or fourth cultivation the cotton is — again gone over with a hoe and any extra stalks or weeds are chopped out. In all, five or six cultivations are given. In cultivating, the soil is gradually worked toward the cotton, thus leaving the row on a slight ridge at the last cultivation. No cover crops are grown and no commercial fertilizer is used. What stable manure is produced is applied to the truck crops and on the poorer spots over the fields. There are numerous varieties of cotton grown in this county. Some of the most popular are King’s Improved, Russell’s Big Boll, and Simpkins’ Prolific. The most prevalent and troublesome weeds are crab-grass, Bermuda grass, cocklebur, morning-glory, Johnson grass, and nut-grass. #ARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 48 SURVEY IN ELLIS COUNTY, TEX. Ellis County is located in the northeastern part of Texas. The tillage records for this county (Table X XI) were taken near Waxa- hachie. This is one of the most prosperous farming counties in the State. The soils are exceptionally fertile and the seasons are usually favorable. Taste XXI.—Tillage practices with cotton in Ellis County, Tex., showing depths of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal acre yields. [In columns 5, 6, 7,9, and 10 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1=first working or cultivation, 2=second working or cultivation, etc.] Wiaine Tillage after plowing and before Tillage after ee planting. planting. 2-horse. 4 Farm No. 2-horse | 41 ésnaedo: Spike- Ali 4-shovel | pepe Level. pate tooth | 4-shovel | poy, | work- |cultivator oa (inches). eS: harrow .|cultivator list ings. with AN F er tions. with planter Sweeps. Sweeps. ae : 1 2 3 ees) 6 7 8 9 10 11 | eA PELE TY o> As BN Se Ney |e Rote cell ips nei: 1 1 1to5 5 750 3) 002 Serene 1 ene 1 2 1 3 3 1to6 6 750 Byes ies es Les est Oe tee sake. 2 IEEE eta ie aaye seis 2 1 1 1to4 4 750 Che ee oeeeneee 7 ST (eae re 1 Da es se gs | 2 2 1to4 4 750 eR Eaa Saeco ae AP NERY Jepsen = 1D ta open |e cores, = 95.5 1 1 1to4 4 750 Gee eat acts BPs | eee Te Rass =, a\| 2 a eres 1 1 1to4 4 750 le ey Eee! Aa Ss Sa DD Shy ek eae 1 1 1to5 5 700 (Sh st 6 a ee aa HOA Sete een CTS arent ea) mele | 1 1 1to6 6 500 QEPA ESM). 20184 27a eee ae 1 ae eres) 2 2 1lto4 4 600 JO EE ee a ee AW ee epee 1 TS oe weer 2 2 1to5 5 750 LTS OC) ee ee eae AOD | RS 1 UR ese ee | 2 2 1to7 7 600 Tee Sei 3 le Re ree es 1! 1 Sete | 2 2 1to5 5 700 see apie cee ee a Guabe re See 1 AB eek tet | 2 2 1to-4 4 500 TS eer Geen Chee eee 1 iE) er ae 2 2 1to4 4 600 SERS tees SE: AS Bene DME Me 002) 5 | Ss eae 1 1 1to4 4 750 GM set Bai ce Ae, | a ee 1 it een r 2 2 1to5 5 650 Wieaeee tat eee): 5) ANS 1 a eee se) 2 2 1to5 5 750 A Eee tap) en 4 Wy 1 a2 3 3 1to4 4 750 QUE Hae oe 2 As Bares cs 1 1S) bbe a Sree 2 2 1to6 6 750 FO oe Gane eee Be ee ee Dats see a 2a ees cl bl 1 (c) 4 750 Das Ais Le eae ee kl seme 1 1 yak ee ee 2 2 1to5 5 750 Oc aed 2) yal ee 1 ae ese aie 2 2 2 1to4 4 500 QBS EES Nd Gil Geee ae 1 AM a ae 2 2 1to5 5 800 TEESE eee | ence 1 1 j.........- 2 2 1to6 6 500 Oi) Dee ass See yen) ae heed 1 Dae ees ae 2 2 1to6 6 700 Farms using, [OSI CSOs Ges See eeege 4 96 68 4 IK) eeeeees IG) Oa Bee eee Se aesaae at Average.....-- Claas Bie | ba Da ASAI SS (ees Ue is CB Se iE 5 684 @ One-horse sweep. ec Cultivations 1 to 4, with 4-horse 2-row cultivator. b Three-horse 2-row lister planter. Many rural improvements have been made, and the country is very attractive. Most of the roads have been macadamized and are kept in excellent condition. Good schools and churches are maintained. The farmers have exceptionally good houses and good barns and outbuildings. The rural population is mostly native white Americans. In the eastern part of the county many Germans and Bohemians have set- tled. Many negroes are found around the towns. Most of the farms 44 BULLETIN 511, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. are of medium size and are worked by the owners or by tenants who supervise their own work. Improved labor-saving machinery is largely employed, which enables one man to work 40 to 50 acres of cotton with the exception _of chopping to a stand and harvesting the crop. For this extra work negro labor is secured in the cities; men, women, and children come out in parties and live in tents while doing this work. Through the central part of the county runs a broad belt of Houston black-clay soil. This is a prairie region, with broad, gently rolling land that requires very little drainage. In this belt 80 per cent of the cultivated land is in cotton annually. Some corn and oats are grown for feed, but no rotations are practiced. In the western part of the county some wheat is produced, and in the eastern section on the sandy soils peaches and truck are extensively grown; but in both areas cotton is the principal money crop. Few cattle and hogs are kept, and few farm products other than cotton are sold. In preparing the land for cotton heavy teams and large implements are used. During the late winter or early spring the land is plowed with a 4-horse middle buster, or lister. The old cotton stalks are plowed up and the land thrown into beds the width apart the cotton rows are to be. With this implement only one furrow is required for each row. If the stalks are rank, they are cut up with a stalk cutter before plowing or are raked up after plowimg and burned. Before planting, these beds are harrowed once with a spike-tooth harrow. Cotton is planted with a 2-horse 1-row lister planter. This planter has a broad shovel which tears down the bed and leaves the cotton _ planted almost level with the surface. The cotton rows average 3 feet apart, and 2 to 3 pecks of seed are planted per acre. After thinning, the stalks are left from 12 to 15 inches apart in the drill. After planting, all the cultivating is done with a 2-horse 1-row 4-shovel cultivator equipped with buzzard-wing sweeps instead of shovels. For the first cultivation, which is given ten days or two weeks after planting, small 6-inch or 8-inch sweeps are used next to the cotton and 10-inch or 12-inch sweeps on the outside. The cotton is chopped to a stand after the first cultivation and gone over with a hoe once or twice later in the season, to chop out any extra stalks and weeds. For later cultivations 12, 14, and 16 inch sweeps are used on the same cultivator. During the season four or five culti- vations are given, and level cultivation is always practiced. The black soils are very fertile and no commercial fertilizer is used. Little stable manure is produced, and this is applied broadcast to the poorer spots in the fields. The principal varieties of cotton grown are Mebane and Rowden. The most prevalent and troublesome weeds of this county are careless weed, hurrah grass, cocklebur, morning-glory, and Johnson grass. FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 45 SURVEY IN CHAMBERS COUNTY, ALA. Chambers County is located in the east-central part of Alabama. The tillage records for this county (Table XXII) were taken near Lafayette. The soil is principally a clay loam with a clay subsoil, but the bottoms and lowlands are sandy loam. This county is on the border line between the Piedmont and Coastal Plain areas and there is a combination of gently sloping plains and steep hills. The steeper lands are drained by numerous terraces and surface ditches. The organic content of the soil is very low, and this extensive drainage system is necessary to prevent erosion. The landowners of the county are very prosperous and have good country homes. The farms are large and are mostly worked by negro tenants and supervised by the owner or by a white tenant who rents the entire farm from the owner for a stated quantity of cotton or amount of money, and then subrents to negro tenants on a share basis. TaBLe XXI1.—Tillage practices with cotton in Chambers County, Ala., showing depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal agre yields. {In eolumns 5 to 9 and 11 to 15 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1—first working or cultivation, 2=second working or cultivation, etc.] Plowing. Tillage joe ae and be Tillage after planting. 1) 4 4 | s |e B B 5 3 5 Se: 1-horse. Farm No. @ A | See eed, |) a SS ala o Siete |e SEIS! 6 | GS |Asl oD u Sys a Selo. oes] | 4 1a 5] S,: ° Sines s 5 = EGlaS a i o8 |A es] 3 Zz) of | xg |F QaAo|-s | Oo lao! $8 LK oO lo a Z noa| @ owas) | olor tsa ge aa, Bs | A Sh | eg ee: SAU RE eS NS ay ASN are ee ead oe Sas eae el a 2 | oO o| °° = Oo” |4°| EF] 2 |od| ge \# a] o8 o|z Bele ene io omnes eel cil csi Sn mone nan el pee Se Vi hk WS | see |r, | ele niet lee | dat loa la Id on =< | 1 2':3\/415 6 7 8 | 9 |10/11|)12)] 138 | 14 15 16 | 17 | Se thaee ar lean J Ilene un eas ee eee 8 1 1 Beee 2| 3] 4] 4 LA satial eats 2to6|6 | 750 Pass sie a a Zl (eas pineal Nall ten aes 1 Dal seal is 1 eee (eee 2to6|6 | 750 ee eee kis eo aaiencie’s 7 Tele La oercie 7A Ne eel |e 2 bfeele 2 \- Lto 7 | 7 750 Ale sei cs. a eee ne 6 i |e Ma 1,3 71 Se 3 ON eae eae 2,3,4 | 4 | 500 ie oe oe ae ok Be atlas ie Se 2 esi =| RI ga La 3 |2,4,5,6] 6 | 750 Qe ae Seas alee tte | 4 Ne eee PM ie NCU eee Pe eecl Nuala] Meese Baie 2to5|5 600 Es ee nn 13 jaja) Sees ais 6 i le Din ieieys ete Bi Paes, C251 Nie: Gl ore 0 eer See 2to6|6 | 600 Se ee ee aise Soe 4 el eee besa 1 Pd pes SA Sl eh le See beg ae 2to5|5 | 500 es Se ee aries ciel mane ae 8 1b ts iM le cee 3 2 EGE) POs ees eae eee 1| 2to5] 5 800 i eeceecaehae emer sae 5 iby Se eee 1 231) 730 Secale oe calles | cone alae 1to6|6 | 800 Mec oo See cee eee eeeoee 6 1 |. el SA Seer ees) eae (ern a ee (es sa be 2to6|6 | 750 pepe ne erent 20s 5 1 |. ee ae Pp aie eG esd eoeel ee 1 2to5|5 | 500 econ poSsdee Lee Bee eeeee Bl TN ot Cal IB a |e eet U2 RO liaery |e ohn rete 2 3to6|6 | 750 1b eee ah en ei 4 ieee leat Wal ake eee PAN Bil oe ell Gilt DS etic Hoes 2to6/]6 | 600 Ec eee BBO. Sap es Ih ATT | (ead DW BW Zeal Ze a ON wey 4-7,9|9 | 700 Gee ears Sele oie ci coos 4 SS | Sree erie eases 2 Chale se) eoalle ees Le 2to5|6& 600 ieee oo sala SaaS AMIS SS ELS Ns PICT 1 Foleo ciel Paull 1 ee ea eee 2to6}6 | 800 Tee San SStesre GeBeEEeee 9 TEs et Lapeer eet bea |, aaa nee 1} 2| 3,4,5)5 | 600 ee Saat eam ep Ol a een ce le a ON Ble Ae il |. 2,3,4|4 | 750 ss cee AES eee EEE 5 1 ee lleete 1 PUN Weel eree|\ Galle Ie eel see 2to6|6 | 600 DA pel seh te Se ae ee ee 4 1 1 PEN VE) ee ce|) Here UG Eee ec 2to5|5 700 DO aa iais asia ines 252 So 5 4 1 AL Sash be 2| 3 4) 4}. 1 2to6/|6 | 750 NN Na ert ats Ste iajaicie eae 6 1 1) See 2) tessa | ee al ames |S 1 eel Res 2105 | 5 700 AAS ee nme aoc Sale'e, oii 4 1 1 PHA eC ce)! ule 1 2to5|5 700 DE ee te eae acres, fe 7 1 ait pees PN real) ell). aoe He eee eeyall het 2to5|5 | 600 Farms using, percent..|...-| 72 | 18 | 60 24 | 100 | 84 |} 32 ]....| 16 | 48 40 | 12 100) | See2 |e 222 FANVICLAL OLS sees e sie 28 Epler a Seda Saas pepe aera Ese Seco 724 eae Gees sesene) Cee eScorcor 5% | 676 @ Spike-tooth harrow. 6 Spring-tooth harrow. 46 BULLETIN 511, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The principal crops grown are cotton, corn, dnd oats. No defi- nite rotations are practiced. About two-thirds of the land is in cot- ton annually. Hardly enough corn is produced for home use. What oats are produced are fed on the farm and often without thrashing. Cowpeas, peanuts, sugar cane, sweet potatoes, fruit, and truck ¢rops are grown for home use. Enough cattle and hogs are kept for home use, but little is sold from the farm except cotton. In preparing a seed bed for cotton there are two general methods employed. By the first method, which is largely employed, the old cotton or corn stalks are plowed out with a 2-horse middle buster, the fertilizer applied in this furrow, and a bed made on the fertilizer with a 1-horse turning plow. Sometimes the land is broken level, the rows laid off with a middle buster or broad shovel, the fertilizer applied in this furrow with a distributor, and a bed made on the fertilizer with a 1-horse turning plow. Four furrows are required for each bed. This plowing is done in the early spring. If the old cotton or corn stalks are rank they are sometimes cut up with a stalk cutter before breaking the land. . At planting time, if the land is rough these beds are harrowed with a spring-tooth harrow. Cotton is planted on the bed with a 1-horse l-row planter. The rows average 34 feet apart, and 14 bushels of seed are planted per acre. After thinning, the stalks are left from 12 to 15 inches apart in the drill. For cultivating after planting, 1-horse implements are generally employed. Just after the cotton comes up, often a spike-tooth harrow is used, and later a 1-horse shovel plow with a sweep attached. This implement throws the soil away from the cotton and leaves the plants on a small ridge, giving the same effect as barring off with a turning plow. Sometimes a turning plow is used for this cultiva- tion. After the first cultivation the cotton is chopped to a stand. For later cultivations the 1-horse sweep or scrape is used entirely. At first 16-inch or 18-inch sweeps are used, and three furrows are required for each row. For later cultivations longer sweeps are used. During the season five or six cultivations are given and the cotton is slightly ridged up during the cultivating. At the third or fourth cultivation any extra cotton stalks or weeds are chopped out with a hoe. No cover crops are grown and little stable.manure is produced. Commercial fertilizer is used on every farm. The average application per acre for cotton is 312 pounds. The principal varieties of cotton grown are Christopher, Russell’s Big Boll, King’s Improved, and Cook’s Improved. The most prevalent and troublesome weeds are crab-grass, coffee weed, cocklebur, Johnson grass, Bermuda grass, and nut-grass, FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 47 SURVEY IN JOHNSTON COUNTY, OKLA. Johnston County is located in the south-central part of Oklahoma and is a part of the area which comprised the Indian Territory. The tillage records for this area (Table XXIII) were taken near Tishomingo. The prevailing soil is a sand or clay loam with a heavier loam subsoil. The topography of this area is irregular. Some parts are very rolling or hilly and are drained by surface ditches. In other parts of the county there are broad, gently rolling prairie areas which require no drainage. | Tasie XXIII.—Tillage practices with cotton in Johnston County, Okla., showing depth of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal acre ytelds. [In columns 5 to 8 and 10 to 14 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1=first working or cultivation, 2=second working or cultivation, etc.] : Tillage after plowin: : : Plowing | ca as eee Se Tillage after planting. Harrow. Cultivation. 5 q 2-horse 4-shovel Farm No. a 3 pow a 5 3) jo) Q a IS | n = g Sene| lake EL a | 3 S a SE eu bs a|3| 4 S al 6 BE lesolics lasse. ) els Bil to S uo) oO n coil ira (o} C=) a a a ae] a = tes dle, Aleit el 3 A ir [oY a] 3 = 2 |S g AW eT ES le > @ al 5 us} Bet ela eet! |e) oleae oa adel ee) lp e a St da ep a SU cao aol ea ey AM eo, VE 1 2/3 /4 5 6/7}8]9] 10 | 11 12 13 14] 15 16 1 one Be BOSE a See 4. DS eee Le 2 FA es ey [eee ese teen 1,3,4| 2 4 600 Di se ae OS See aE Ai ee hd 1,2 |. ite 2 Don eer ee Sina 2to6 |.... 6 800 FO Ree ae ee Sut loa yank ne Dal ON ane 1 2| 3,4,5 5 600 2 a a AI Baas 1]. |) 2 I aA ade 3 to6 6 800 BRS BREE Ree eae Syyh as aelmeeueseasee IY Wezel Ht | [Sac sateen 1 to 4 4 700 OL ee eases ce Nard teehee Ira 1 Pa en 2h ears epee | Seam 1to9 9 600 (les Nene ena 8 The 2 Nal DN ae @1to6 |..-..--- 6 | 1, 200 is ese re Sie reer 5 I bahay I Hesse 24 Oi mewe km sd Sea 1to5 5 600 (Sart ey EEE eee ee Biull ent en loses Ee Uaebl AGA pee fe Seal seth ea 1to4 41 600 IO SS enes SSR eee eee 4 SA se eee ETS IO, Rate Shea ta 1to5 5 400 Th ee aces ae eer 5 i le 8} e5o-|| 0 Bier am |oiee ce paras oat 1to8 8 | 1, 200 eee aaalaae ts a eee 44 ALG aeoatel ever azar see De ees | Neer betas 1to5 5 600 GE a eae eee eee CA eae ate Tol epee apm Se See eae Maney Ie Gest I eseene, 2to6 |¢7 7 800 TIS i ca a fin ee eal eat Lge eel oes lte4e lin 2 1 Sieve |i seeese 2to7 7 500 Nivel eiernieteyete Tas <'a) om s/o a2) 4 Ibs SE eal [een PANS aaa cea es eee aes 1to5 5 800 AL Gee eer aia eia.o eal 4 Tbe A Dee dille Desa ners pal ane Sul ees at 2 1to5 5 600 Te Geen eee 3 1 |. DPS seal mesh be BN ee 1] 2to8 6 800 A ee rate lay aiets a yearn 3 il We eS st DOU De hea ipsa pete |i thy areata ae ve 1 to 4 j-- 4 400 TIS eS OS ee 5 1 |. Ieee alee le PA) eA | eels Seats 1to5 5 400 Ae era aes elec lo) 6 Iie AL eee Pee nye PA ena A eae, Ootaie 2 to 6 6 | 1, 200 OAs i aU ea ea ZL ta Se Ml ae en TUN ea Nia SGD, aT Sa as 3,4,5 5 | "400 ee rate setae es ajeicis (sieves 5 ib lie a | SE Seo peo seer sens 1] 2to5 5 500 Sener etpaeisiaicieiciais'Saa's (oh es sl fs Bi ae (ee He Nia L Loerie soe poSceoee 1to5 5 600 BAe ree ett erates meio 3 1 1 2 Deen Se oral aA eRe 1to5 5 600 Eee ras ayes Soltic ss altin 4 Dp lispereyees eee 2 ssn An 1 a] estes a eee one 2 to6 6 600 Farms using, percent.|...-| 60 | 40 72 | 16 | 56 | 28 |...-| 20) 16 16 CO MS eiscillaoacte ANVICVAGO ELS s one le. ASH HERD psi ES S| ered ae BAO EEN Spar | eC cee nee tes LAY il Pee OR 5.5 676 aT wo-horse, 6-shoyel cultivator with shovels used for third cultivation. 6 Lister. ¢ One-horse sweep. 48 BULLETIN 511, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The farms are worked largely by the owners or by white tenants who supervise their own work. Many Indians live in this region, and a large part of the land is owned by them. The average-sized farm surveyed is 239 acres, with 163 acres culti- vated. Cotton, corn, oats, kafir, and clover are the principal crops grown. A few farmers grow alfalfa on the bottom lands, and much prairie grass is cut for hay. Sweet potatoes, peanuts, watermelons, truck crops, and some fruits are grown for home use. A few cattle and hogs are raised for market, and from the prairie-land farms hay is sold. Cotton, however, is the principal money crop, and the most productive land is planted to this crop. In preparing a seed-bed for cotton the old cotton or corn stalks are cut up with a stalk cutter during the winter months and the land plowed in early spring. About half the farmers break the land level with a 2-horse or 3-horse plow and lay off the rows with a 1-horse 24-inch sweep which slightly ridges the land. Cotton is usually planted on this low bed. A few farmers plant between the beds, and sometimes a sweep is attached to the planter, which tears down the bed and plants the cotton almost level with the surface. Another method which about half the farmers employ is to break the land with a 2-horse or 3-horse middle buster, or lister, which leaves it in beds the width apart the cotton rows are to be. These beds are harrowed with a spike-tooth harrow before planting, and the cotton is planted with a 2-horse lister planter, which tears down the bed and leaves the cotton planted almost level with the surface. After planting, 2-horse cultivators are employed. Just after the cotton comes up many farmers use a spike-tooth harrow. Where the cotton is planted between beds, a 2-horse 1-row lster cultivator, an implement especially designed for use in listed crops, is sometimes employed for the first cultivation; but most farmers use a 2-horse 4-shovel cultivator equipped with small buzzard-wing sweeps instead of shovels. At first 6-inch or 8-inch sweeps are used, but as the cotton plants get larger the sweeps are increased in size to 12 or 14 inches. During the season five or six cultivations are given. After the first cultivation the cotton is chopped to astand and at the third or fourth cultivation it is again gone over with a hoe, to take out any extra stalks or weeds. . No cover crops are grown and no commercial fertilizer is used. The cultivated lands are fenced and cattle allowed to run at large, so little stable manure is produced. The principal varieties of cotton grown are Mebane and Rowden. The most prevalent and troublesome weeds in this county are crab- grass, cocklebur, lamb’s-quarters, smartweed, careless weed, John- son grass, and morning-glory. FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 49 SURVEY IN JEFFERSON COUNTY, FLA. Jefferson County is located in the northern part of Florida. The tillage records for this county (Table XXIV) were taken near Monti- cello. This is in the Coastal Plain region, and the predominating soil is sand or a sandy loam; the subsoil is clay. The country is level or gently rolling and little drainage is required. Taste XXIV.—Tillage practices with cotton in Jefferson County, Fla., showing depths of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each 1s used, and normal acre yields. i [In columns 5 to 8 and 10 to 14 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1=first working or cultivation, 2=second working or cultivation, etc.] Tillageafter plowingand | Tillage after planting (all 1-horse Plowing. before planting. implements). | Cultivator. Farm No. 1-shovel plow. turning plow. Depth (inches). ~ Into beds. Rows run with 1-horse Spike-tooth harrow. Fertilizer distributor. Bedded with 1-horse Turning plow. Sweep or scrape. 5-shovel. Spring tooth. Yield (pounds). ) “al workings. x | Al cultivations. — i) i) > or oO al 2 _ S i = _ i) = i) — cs WHE SWHNNMWwWh: WHNWNWymwmwe: & CC COO GD OD CUE ON CGO CCT CCR EN OT CET EN ~I a —) + 90 nS Average..........-- Cd eres) ese eee Farms using, per cent.|....| 52 | 48 2 | 8 | 88 : oe @ Two-horse cultivator. ¢ First cultivation with turning plow; fifth cultivation with shovel plow. b Shovel plow. Some rural improvements have been made. Most of the leading roads have been improved with sand and clay, but where this has not been done traveling is difficult on account of the deep sand. Fairly good schools are maintained, many farmers have telephones, and the farmhouses are neat and comfortable. 50 BULLETIN 511, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Lumbering and turpentine are important industries in this county. The farms are large, with only about one-third of the land cleared. Many of the stumps have not been removed from the cleared land. The land is owned by white men and worked by negro tenants under the supervision of the owner. Very few white men work their own farms. No definite rotations are practiced. The principal crops grown are cotton, corn, oats, and watermelons. Hardly enough corn is grown for home use. Watermelons are extensively grown for northern markets. . Cowpeas and peanuts are often grown between the corn rows and later pastured with hogs and cattle. Peanuts are often planted alone and pastured with hogs. At the last cultivation of watermelons, cowpeas are sown broadcast over the field. The vines furnish shade for the melons, and with the crab-grass, which comes up voluntarily, they make an excellent hay. Sweet potatoes, sugar cane, cantaloupes, and truck crops are grown for home use. Many pecan groves have been planted, but as yet are not bearing much. Some fruits, especially peaches, are grown for local demands. | Because such a large percentage of the land is not tilled, the culti- vated land is fenced and the live stock allowed to run at large. Each farmer has a special brand by which he can identify his stock. Enough cattle and hogs are produced for home use, but few are sold. The farm income is principally derived from the sale of cotton. The tillage methods employed with cotton are very uniform. If the old cotton or corn stalks are rank, they are cut up with a stalk cutter or chopped off with a hoe, raked up, and burned before the land is plowed. The land is usually plowed in the spring with 1-horse or 2-horse plows. About half the farmers break the land level and about half plow it into beds of the desired width for the cot- ton rows. Where the land is broken level the cotton rows are laid off with a fertilizer distributor, which also applies the fertilizer. A bed is then made on this fertilizer with a 1-horse shovel or turning plow. Where the land is bedded as broken the fertilizer is either applied in the water furrow between the beds and the land rebedded or the fertilizer is applied on top of the bed and no. further prepara- tion is given. The soil is of such a nature that harrowing is seldom necessary. Cotton is planted with a 1-horse planter in rows 4 feet apart, and 1 bushel of seed is planted per acre. After thinning, the stalks are left from 12 to 15 inches apart in the drill. For cul- tivating after planting, 1-horse implements are employed. About ten days or two weeks after planting, the first cultivation is given with a 1-horse turning plow or a 1-horse sweep. A furrow is plowed on each side of the cotton row and the soil thrown away from the cotton to the middle of the row, leaving the plants on a small narrow ridge. This is known as barring off. After this cultivation, the cot- ton is chopped to a stand. 3 7 aa te FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON, 51 A small 1-horse sweep is employed for the next cultivation. Three furrows are required for each row. The entire middle is plowed out, throwing the soil back to the cotton. After this, larger sweeps are used and only two furrows are required for each row. A few farmers use the 1-horse 5-shovel cultivator and the 1-horse spring-tooth cultivator, but most of the cultivating is done with sweeps, starting with 12-inch or 14-inch sweeps and increasing the size at each culti- vation up to 20 or 24 inches. In all, four or five cultivations are given. At the third or fourth cultivation the cotton is again gone over with a hoe and any weeds or extra stalks are chopped out. No cover crops are grown and little stable manure is produced. Commercial fertilizer is used by nearly every farmer. The average application per acre for cotton on the farms studied is 286 pounds. The varieties of cotton are very much crossed and few farmers have distinct varieties. Those predominating are Toole, Bank Ac- _ count, and King’s Improved. The most troublesome and prevalent weeds are coffee weed, beg- garweed, crab-grass, Bermuda grass, and nut-grass. SURVEY IN LINCOLN PARISH, LA. Lincoln Parish is located in the northern part of Louisiana. The tillage records for this county (Table X XV) were taken near Ruston. The soil is sandy or sandy loam, in either case underlain with a clay subsoil. As a rule the land is gently rolling or hilly and is drained by means of surface ditches and small terraces. None of the land is tile drained. ' The system of farming is such that elaborate barns and outbuild- ings are not needed. Less than 50 per cent of the land is cultivated. The farms are of medium size and are usually worked by the owners or by tenants under the supervision of the owners. No definite rota- tions are practiced,’ but cotton often follows corn or cotton. The principal crops grown are cotton, corn, and oats. Cowpeas are often planted between the corn rows. The peas are harvested by hand and the vines plowed under. Cowpeas are also sown after oats and the vines cut for hay. Sugar cane, peanuts, sweet potatoes, truck crops, and fruits are grown for home supplies. Cattle and hogs are not grown for market. The farm income is almost entirely from the sale of cotton. In preparing the land for cotton the old cotton or corn stalks are cut up with a stalk cutter or broken down with a log drag during the winter. In the early spring the land is plowed with a 2-horse turning plow or with a lister. Beds the width apart the cotton rows are to be are made as the land is plowed. Fertilizer is then put in between these beds and the land rebedded on the fertilizer with a 1-horse or 2-horse turning plow. A few farmers break the land level, lay off the 52 BULLETIN 511, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. rows with a shovel plow, apply the fertilizer, and with a turning plow make a bed on the fertilizer. TaBLtE XXV.—Tillage practices with cotton in Lincoln Parish, La., showing depths of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal acre yields. ; [In columns 5 to 8 and 10 to 12 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1=first working or cultivation; 2=second working or cultivation, etc.]} Tillage after plowing Tillage after planting Plowing. fs (all 1-horse imple- and before planting. mentee Pp ra: Es = | 2 (4 : ot? Se) 2B E B ES Farm No. a m5] ta B as o a : Q Sal 821s Sr hee Q a | @ a Pe Mae A Pa cd Reorder ohee =) le Vey | ee S} _|B9| 3 feo] s = |-BrS } Solace & lable (Fels | 2 |2)/S85|) 2 1B] 8 Sc} [sles silo 8| # |el/bal 8 |B] & Sl eal ete) || Verily eve co 1 iS) | a5 Q, 3 = ~ oO a eo ov = o ue) Q o|E og | x 2° $ =) = o] Blase sey fe ules E\ 3s Beet te A}sH]4 | Fy | n 4 H|n nN 4 an 1 2;38/4/5)6/7)8 9 |10}] 11 12 13 | 14 Le SHES GOSS BER SOs Sa becmpcrpApescos Bis 0 | es a Sale ee, A al (Sea 2,3,4] 4 750 Phan te SH Say OI ONE AS AAEO MI IOROS BOS 3 Me aces ered tea el [eee 1 Ieeeee 2to5| 5 750 F\ ae AS Sp Gi Me Olas ame ORN Oe ttn Syallimerle ieee |e Tie ifn ASS] we a leas 2,3,4] 4] 750 Ae ee ele a een ee ae estate eee 5 gE cel tesemeeaet ages) a bs Gees 6) ots eee 2to5| 5 800 aT 2-5 Bete Opie tige 2 as. ere ee 3 1 Eales 2a Belo Webs aoe 2to5| 5 500 Cin errs See Sone cee ere searec eine 6 DU Pe |) eA Ph) i Wesocss 2to5] 5 300 USERS oe CEES SSE CHEE AC SES Ee 6 UE SSS sie Ne Pale AN hy lect Be: 2to6| 6 500 sey ae elie ia cae a tee eee ae ee ote 4 1 | Sec eele eee FAN eee 2to6] 6 750 INNS EEL CAEN AE MEE Dea, Foe eT a) APB Ie 3 |. 1] 2,3,4] 4] 500 IL) Sa Re Pts Tere RE Re ay 4 1) | at eo ee as 1] 2,3,4| 4] 500 0 eS SECC eee Ree Reece eee Bh pds | Sees ees ear Bill aloes cae 2,3,4| 4 500 (POE mR HE TERESI a eae mera oe ga 5 PAS soe ieenlea| eeea| PAN a oes a5 2106] 6) 750 UES arse ele i re A Re ale Se ec ae ee 5 | 1j....]| a1] 2] a3] 4 Aa eile | eee 2to5| 5 400 (Vue Se peek MIE SUR EAN milan Peleal cae 5 Mlemccl| il 2.9 3 |. b1,2| 3t06| 6| 750 MO atasccceacscced wsees Case csees 5 Tes oe fae PP i) A |sosose 2to5] 5 600 1 | apis Seen ere Ceres A ce ae 3 1 be eat Wey $2 orale 1 Ba eet bal oe 2to5} 5 400 DESPRE. SORE 2 Sek ee eS. Aes sad Pee Os peor Ve Feat 22a ea ese 3] 2 b1| 38to6| 6 600 SERRE ret isecad = amb Hoa Semmes eee 6 AA ss Raat Pea leaks 2) alte eer 2to5] 5 700 WO pnp ice Auiteete toate Hasna Meee esi 3 1 Ee Ee ees De Le OA sect 2,3,4| 4 500 A erage oie iste baa ta = Seep arate aa evar 5 Ine 1} °2)) 3 ede Reese 1] 2,3,4] 4 900 DIES Sh Set tae mee ie SR gk he Ee 5 1 ta hn? 49 ates Zee eae soe 2to7| 7 900 Lae ee Ie Ore ea cits Meee aie SESE 4 5 Ly aes bets i a eee bE hes el PSE see 1to4| 4 750 Doe see: Se) Se ESE ei eee A) ey F221 ee aa eee 3: | See eased 2to5 | 5 | 1,000 2 ee SAA EPA REE aetna ei ROE EIS 5 Leal Ny ell eo ee 4 1 a ROERISe 2to5| 5 500 (Ae Be SE RARC AAD SEB OaN Aan e satan Shoo 2c'l, OG SS EI oe eee 2°) pale | ee one 2to5 | 5 750 Farms using, per’cent..-2.-2-.-2---- 2.2 2],/28 | 725) 786) | 2845)) 82) S28ree. sae 80 20 LOO WEL OSS ee Ess PSV ELAPO se coe aiAae cece eet eee Ya Pee | Sel [es Sissel cial oat] ratate [tae eters [Eamets 5 644 a Lister. b Spike-tooth harrow. Cotton is always planted on a bed with a 1-horse planter. The rows average 4 feet apart, and 1 bushel of seed is planted per acre. After thinning, the stalks are left from 12 to 15 inches apart in the drill. . For cultivating after planting, 1-horse implements are used. The first cultivation is given with a 1-horse turning plow and two furrows are given each row, plowing the earth away from the cotton on each side of the row and leaving the plants on asmall ridge. This is known as barring off. After this cultivation the cotton is chopped to a stand. For the following cultivation a 1-horse sweep or scrape is used. At first, 12-inch or 14-inch scrapes are used and three furrows are given each row, plowing the soil back to the cotton. For later cultivations ‘ ee Se ee te FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 53 larger sweeps are employed and only two furrows are given each row. At the third or fourth cultivation the cotton is gone over with a hoe again to take out any extra cotton stalks or weeds. In all, five or six cultivations are given. The principal varieties of cotton grown are Triumph, Simpkins’ Prolific, Bank Account, and King’s Improved. ~The most prevalent and troublesome weeds are crab-grass, Ber- muda grass, cocklebur, pigweed, careless weed, and ragweed. SURVEY IN LAVACA COUNTY, TEX. Lavaca County is located in the southeastern part of Texas. The tillage records for this county (Table X XVI) were taken near Halletts- ville. The soils consist of Houston black clay, some black sand, and large areas of sandy loam, all underlain with a clay subsoil. The land is level or slightly rolling, and little draimage is required. TaBLE XXVI.—Tillage practices with cotton in Lavaca County, Tex., showing depths of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each is used, and normal acre yrelds. [In columns 4, 5, and 7 to 9 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1=first working or cultivation, 2=second working or cultivation, etc.] Tillage after planting. : | Tillage after plowing Plowing. : 8 and before planting. Oorscrculiivator with sweeps. Yield Farm No. All |(pounds). ie l-horse| Giiti- oe orse Sweep. | oy Depth | Into pee 1-row ee Ny a a P- \vations. (inches). | beds. |) Prow.| lister | Tt shovel. | ) “a | = = i) | oS 4 alalsiai laelsiat | = lal a a sie feet oc tele 1 2/3/)415/)/6/7/8/|9 110} 11 | 12) 18 14 15 |16| 17 18 | 19 Pee eee dhs SMES oe tebe se Me ae Us Elin 3 | Sto Gr 20s asss 6 | 500 Bsns reese 5 2 WG ee kes Vet een (eee) (2 fe 3 Bie Ie ie eee PEN SIO) esd Eaeeeaae 6 | 750 Reha ae 5 Ate al | ental Ed 2 DAA es th ee aa Nh P43) Ae On| coe | Veet 6 | 500 Lea a ee 8 4 Wo eal er Wa gst |e 1 3 Bit eo ses See 1 Ve 0) | eke ee ees 5 | 600 ee SES | a pee eee to tl uae Bae (Ue ates ps aeyteal OS A aa ee 2,5,6 jal 3,4 6 | 500 Gi As 5 |. rll Eee a EE Esselte ear gl TG ||: 2 obey | ea aera & Bi Cle) || 9} yon a- 5 | 500 pe cer c= Se Soe be sates eile seliae 1 2a eae 1,2,3,5 AS aA iy Least ae 5, 500 Ch SSD aaa 5 |. LES IP a5 tees be bree 1 3) 1 2 4,5 SESE Tee ec Ex 5 | 500 Cae eer 5 ft. TIP eel oan ep SEN lence Cea 2 pay a Le Dalat COM | ae cise 7 | 500 Late at cae 5 Thales eae 3a a Ee oe 12/1 Pee hc ot: Dior Arey: ees os 4 | 750 ibe peck 8]. Tes lt a eae MY rib erie cue) ea PA A eI US 4 | 800 Uy Sa ee 4 1/1 DE eet eS Rees ia CA hl ee geal [eee eee 1to4 4 | 750 8 ee Pi best US) 2s oe 25h od UO. Onl ee | Sener 6 | 750 5 Dap 0 |224 epee eee ea eee 3 | 400 6 1 Daltre pale IS Gaol el en ras 5 | 500 4|. 1 one SEED IEG Ala yee 5 | 500 5 |. 1 it Wee gw Ate Vall see 4 | 500 1 2)1 Diora eee likes hoe 5 | 500 i J q 1 3106 |2-2|522. 225. 6 | 750 Hee Ue NAR acai ere wank 5 | 750 1 8) || i 3,4,5 |. 6 | 750 1 1 ens 2,3,4 |. 4 | 500 ae 2 |..." 253, 4 |. 4 | 500 1 Leo 2,3,4 |. 4 | 400 1 1}1 2to 5 |. 5 | 700 ..-| 20 | 80 48 | 12 |20 |24 | 12 | 48 |...-.. 48 32 44 96 |12 Susi iseices lias NNT TENELSY ANT? © G9 TB CA Te ee Re | SA) LOR | SS Stee ae ie ee ee ek SAI Ease he Bs 5 | 586 a Six-shovel cultivator with shovels. b Turning plow. This county is very irregular in regard to soil and topography. Most of the upland is sandy loam, with a clay subsoil, but some of the soiulis very sandy. The bottom lands, which comprise a large acreage, are mostly clay. A large part of the county is in the prairie region which has a black-clay soil with a clay subsoil. The prairie land is gently rolling, and only surface ditches are required for drainage. In the bottoms a few ditches or canals have been cut. The sandy or 58 BULLETIN 511, U: S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sandy-loam lands are rather hilly, with numerous level plateaus and © bottoms. The farms are large, and especially so in the prairie sections. The average size of the farms studied is 299 acres, with 166 acres culti- vated. No definite rotations are practiced. The principal crops grown are cotton, corn, oats, cowpeas, and peanuts. Some sweet potatoes, Irish potatoes, and truck crops are grown for home use. Only enough corn and oats are grown to feed the farm live stock. Cowpeas are usually cut for hay or are planted between the corn rows, the peas picked by hand, and the vines pastured by cattle. Peanuts are often grown between the corn rows and pastured by hogs after the corn has been harvested. In the prairie regions alfalfa and John- son grass are grown extensively. Bermuda-grass pastures are main- tained on many farms. Some cattle and hogs are raised for market, and a few dairies are maintained. Enough fruit is produced to supply local markets and for home demands. In the prairie regions hay is an important product, but im all areas the farm income is largely from the sale of cotton. . In preparing a seed bed for cotton most of the work is done in the spring. At some time during the winter or early spring the old cot- ton or corn stalks are cut up with a stalk cutter, and the land is plowed in the early spring. For plowing, 2-horse teams are generally used, and as broken the land is thrown into beds the desired width apart for cotton rows. On sandy land a few of the small farms use 1-horse plows for breaking, and on some of the larger farms 2-horse middle busters are employed. Before planting, these beds are harrowed with a spike-tooth har- row. Many farmers rebed the land before harrowing, using the same plow for this as for the first breaking. Fertilizer is applied only on the sandy or sandy-loam lands. The average quantity applied per acre for cotton is 202 pounds. This is applied between the beds, and usually the land is rebedded on the fertilizer. Sometimes this fertilizer is applied on top of the bed just before planting. No cover crops are grown, and very little stable manure is produced. Cotton is planted during April. A 1-horse planter is used. The rows average 34 feet apart, and an average of 4 pecks of seed is planted per acre. After thinning, the stalks are left from 12 to 18 inches apart in the drill. In cultivating after planting, a number of different implements are used. Soon after the cotton is up, the field is harrowed with a spike- tooth harrow or with a 1-horse harrow-tooth cultivator. The next cultivation is given with a 12-inch or 14-inch 1-horse sweep, and three furrows are given each row. Sometimes a 1-horse spring-tooth cul- tivator is used for the second cultivation. After this, practically all the cultivating is with 1-horse sweeps, the size of the sweeps being increased at each cultivation. A few farms use a 1-horse 1-row cul- FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 59 tivator and a 2-horse 2-row cultivator equipped with sweeps instead of shovels. The cotton is usually chopped to a stand after the first or second cultivation and again gone over with a hoe at the fourth cultivation to chop out any weeds or extra cotton stalks. During the season four to six cultivations are given. Many varieties of cotton are grown. Some of the more popular varieties are Russell’s Big Boll, Miller’s, King’s Improved, Cook’s Improved, and Triumph. The most prevalent and troublesome weeds are crab-grass, John- son grass, nut-grass, cocklebur, and morning-glory. SURVEY IN BEXAR COUNTY, TEX. Bexar County is located in the southern part of Texas, just on the edge of the semiarid regions of the western part of the State. The soil is mostly black clay loam and sandy loam. ‘The subsoil is clay. The tillage records of this county are shown in Table XXIX. The country generally is rolling or hilly, with broad level bottoms and plateaus. The farming is mostly on the bottom lands. The hills are irregular and rocky, with scant vegetation. Few trees are found in the area except along the streams. The rainfall is very low and is the principal limiting factor in crop production. The soil is” of such a nature and the rainfall so scant that no drainage is required. Artesian wells have been drilled near San Antonio, and irrigation is practiced by truck farmers, but it has not been profitable for general farming. In general, the county is prosperous, and many improvements have been made. Many of the leading roads have been macadamized. Fairly good country schools are maintained. The farmers have exceptionally good farmhouses and outbuildings. Telephones are found in many farm homes. Most of the farmers work their farms and hire what extra labor is needed. The people are largely of Ger- man and Bohemian descent, but the hired laborers are mostly Mexicans. The farms are rather large. The average size of the farms surveyed is 295 acres, but much of this is rough waste land. An average of only 130 acres is cultivated. No rotations are practiced. The principal crops grown are cotton, corn, sorghum cane, oats, and milo. Feterita is becoming an impor- tant crop. Cotton is the principal money crop. Hardly enough grain is grown to feed the farm animals. Feterita and milo are grown for grain. One of the most important crops is sorghum cane sown broadcast and cut for hay. Often two crops are cut a year, with a total yield of 3 or 4 tons. Much of this hay is baled and sold. Only enough fruit and vegetables are grown to supply home demands. Very few cattle and hogs are raised for market. The principal sources of farm income are corn, hay, and cotton. 60 BULLETIN 511, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In preparing the land for cotton very uniform methods are em- ployed. If cotton follows cotton or corn the old stalks are cut up witha stalk cutter soon after the crop is harvested. Most of the land is plowed in the fall. For breaking, 3-horse and 4-horse sulky and gang plows are generally employed. The land is plowed level and no other preparation is given until the followimg spring, just before planting time, when the land is harrowed with a spike-tooth harrow. Many farmers use a 2-horse 4-shovel cultivator for laying off the rows, which leaves the land slightly ridged. These ridges are the distance apart of the cotton rows. If the land is rough or cloddy, sometimes a disk harrow is used, but this is not a common practice. TaBLE XXIX.—Tillage practices with cotton in Bexar County, Tex., showing depths of plowing, implements used in order of use, number of times each 1s used, andnormal acre yields. [In columns 5 to 8 and 10 to 15 the figures show the order in which the implement was used on the several farms; as, 1=first working or cultivation, 2=second working or cultivation, etc.] Tillage after plow- ing and. before Tillage after planting (all with cultivators). planting. Plowing. Har- 2-horse 6-shovel 2-horse 4-shovel row. | >Home: with— with— Z ~~ Farm No. = S : oe a) Lo} pe ala = ~ o = 2) 2 al (2 fl an are Z i) -| > Py a) =} a I es} A/ 13/8) sf glk a6 ae ees LS o| 8 2 a|, 3|\'e i] a i) a a6 a BES Sl/al2)]a] ./Ee|ES\ 9S o = Fy i og a =a BIiZlol¥ |#ige fe Ale > 2 > iB) ou mR o| a S'S (Sta |2 |e |= & = & Ss E a =| 72 AlAlsala'ial+ IA. /4 n n n n mM i | 1 21/3/4/5/6)1.7)]8/9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16) 17 ihe se a 5|1 Ale sales 2|2 De DeSales el aeRO 4) 450 7A GS: See 6.) 1 Oi al eee PA OM i eas Od V0 Bo [eiseinin e Seeska as eee eeee 6 | 400 ri Shiela ae BS 4}1 Bas es xe 2/2 1,2, B fee nll eee le egos 4,5 | 5 | 500 Lee ae ee 8|1 Le 2)| es ea 3/3 ee eae Oy 4 |ocssaee 7a [ae 4 | 400 DFA N A HOLES 6|1 Di Sehee.. ate, lass eect e ease 2 60D) lec bes a 5o55 5 | 400 Ge oe 8}1 a (yet i 22 1 oy) Ye eters, (oes ne ee ice eget 5 ; 500 Jie ae ae ee 8} 1 1a eee PAN 1to' Sale oS ok Se aaa 1S 5 eR Pee anes nee See 5 | 400 che eles aoe ae 4}1 1 PAA Wie al es a eee so nee soe 13,4 2) 56 oncemes | eeeere aes 6 | 400 Sees ea ear 6/1 rae GD SY Rae af byt] Ea eine reece De GOA e| aca oe ele SA eae eck 4 | 500 ia s anaes 6|1 iti | oes J I J Petco ee Go 1 A PRES JT RE eas a 3 | 400 iS Sa Gat 1 2 (31-3 1to5 5 | 500 1 Pee ee eae Ay ea! Sete | (dt 24min 1to7 7 1h SERS ISe, 6) 1 PARE is Ul ee lea 3 7 Lk: ea epee sae 6\1 1 2 AY WS) 4 Lee oe eee BL le 1 2 3 | 3 6 ified Be Ree aD) hails es Nar es) [5 DAD: 3 (eee eres Gy) Lee hy |\65 2) oe 2) 2 -| 4 LS Pee 8 aya eed at L-|...| ee PA) 4 (OPES ere ayes 5 | 1 ee Se 5 7A oe ep Dilleaalee ee tes Z lee | 4 QA wes Sees 3 SRLS S33) aie 2 PANE? -| 4 QM aaa ig oe CAV e tee Lo 5t ee 2 | 2 -| 4 PAP A Rae eee 8} 1]. 1 2 313 3 A Ns Mow Gilani 1 2 |.2 -| 3 ree BS gh a ea Bile es Pe 5 Farms us- ing, per cent...... ..-|92-| 8 | 84] 8 | 36] 96}... 48 24 44 24 16 ZF hs fats 3 Average..| 6 So be er on a Ee Os) ae isle pane ial Sr Raph Ns |-"2 fled Beale enna 5 | 472 4 q 7 j 7 1 . FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON. 61 Usually cotton is planted in March or the first part of April. A 2-horse 1-row lister planter is used, which leaves the rows level or slightly listed. The rows average 34 feet apart, and an average of 3 pecks of seed is planted per acre. After thinning, the stalks are left from 15 to 20 inehes apart in the drill. In cultivating after planting, 2-horse 4-shovel or 6-shovel culti- vators are employed almost entirely. These cultivators are some- times equipped with shovels or with sweeps, and sometimes with shovels near the cotton and sweeps for the middle of the row. Many farmers use small sweeps instead of shovels for the later cul- tivations. During the season four or five cultivations are given. After the first cultivation the cotton is chopped to a stand and again gone over with a hoe at the third or fourth cultivation to chop out weeds or extra stalks of cotton. No cover crops are grown, and very little stable manure is produced. No commercial fertilizer is used. The principal varieties of cotton grown are Mebane, Se and King’s Improved. The most prevalent and troublesome weeds are careless weed, Johnson grass, morning-glory, and buffalo grass. SUMMARY. The results of these studies are presented to portray the prevailing conditions, customs, and tillage practices found in the various regions where cotton is grown. No attempt is made to make recommenda- tions based on the data presented. These studies clearly show that yields of cotton are governed largely by climatic conditions, the inherent fertility of the soil, the quantity of commercial fertilizers used, and the character of tillage given. The yields of cotton are directly related to the amount of tillage given after planting. The principal types of drainage employed in the cotton belt are terraces and surface ditches, open ditches, and tile drains. The type of drainage employed is derermived by the character of the soil, the topography, the amount of rainfall, and the value of land. Tillage before plowing is primarily for the purpose of cutting up the stalks and weeds of the previous season’s growth, so that they will not interfere with cultivation. Little thought is given to bene- fits derived from pulverizing the surface soil before breaking. Whether land be plowed in the fall or spring is governed largely _ by the previous crop and by the type of soil. The conditions in the cotton belt are such that most of the land is plowed in the spring. The depth of plowing land for cotton is largely determined by the type of soil. The light sandy or loamy soils are plowed slightly 62 BULLETIN 511, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. deeper than the heavy clay soils. There is little or no relation between the depth of plowing and the yield of cotton. In preparing the land after plowing for cotton, the type of soil and the prevailing tillage methods determine what implements are used and the amount of tillace given. In planting cotton, 1-horse planters are chiefly used. The time of planting is enyimnad largely by the type of soil and the climatic conditions. Cotton is generally planted on a slight bed, and in only a few areas where dry weather prevails during the growing season is it ever planted level or listed. Cotton is sown in drills from 3 to 4 feet apart and thinned to a stand at the second and third cultivations. After thinning, the stalks are left from 12 to 18 inches apart in the drill. The amount of cultivation given after planting is directly related to the yields of cotton obtained. This was not found to be true in the cultivation of corn.! | In the cotton belt where crops which add organic matter to the soil, such as hay and pasture, enter little into the rotations practiced, the percentage of cultivated land grown in cotton each year does not appear to affect the yields of cotton obtained. In those areas where heavy applications of commercial fertilizer are made every year and where from 40 to 50 per cent of the cultivated land is planted to cotton, there appears to be a slight increase in the yields of this crop. The cotton belt may be grouped into faut divisions: (1) The Delta areas, (2) the South Atlantic division, (3) the Intermediate areas, and (4) the Southwestern division. For each diyision the general customs, practices, and conditions are fairly uniform. The methods employed in each division are, generally speaking, those most advisable under the existing conditions. It is believed from these studies that the kind of tillage given cotton and the tillage implements used are governed largely by economic conditions, topography, type of soil, and, not least, custom. The amount of tillage given is‘determined largely by the kind and number of weeds, the economic conditions, and the prevailing weather. 1See U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 320, previously mentioned, ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY BULLETIN No. 512 Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 5, 1917 PREVENTION OF THE EROSION OF FARM LANDS BY TERRACING. By C. E. RAMSER, Drainage Engineer. CONTENTS. Page Page ITIP OCICMOMaes ae oats Cewek ee 1 | Terracing—Continued. sHonmis/onerosions.. 2-222 22.2225. 666.255. ee: 2 The graded-ridge terrace............--.------ 21 Methods of preventing erosion...........-.---- 3 The narrow-base form ..........-.-------- Dian Deep tillage and application of humus....... 3 Mheybroad-base formas. sees aes eee 22 MISCOBCOVERCIOPS so efe ek oe Se 4 Terraces with uniform grade.......-...... 24 Practice of level qulture..................---- 4 Terraces with variable grade........-...-- 27 Pasturing and foresting...............--.---- 4 Omid is AEB Ub eee dandeces sane bonseeeepoaee 28 iderdraimingee ee em ed et ly 5 General discussion.........-..------------ 29 Use of hillside ditches...................-...- 5 Comparison of terrace types...-...-.-.------ 30 TROMTACITI Se A ene yar Sunt 5 Laying off a terrace system........-.-------- 32 Definition and classification of terraces....... 6 Construction of terraces..-.....--.----------- 35 Mn omMeEnehiternaceticss2)0 sok saa we ge oe 7 Maintenance and cultivation of terraces...-.. 37 The level-ridge terrace.........---.----. __... 19 | Reclamation of gullied lands-.......----.....-- 38 ‘The narrow-base form..................--- ily) || (Sbbemaee yO e oso sa soe ecase sone secu cose sascec 38 ‘The broad-base form..................--.-- 12 ‘General discussion ....... yee i a ena ae 18 INTRODUCTION. The existence of vast areas of so-called worn-out hill lands throughout the United States may be attributed chiefly to soil erosion, due to the natural agencies of wind, frost, and rain. In most lo- ealities wind and frost, owing to their comparatively slow processes, play but a minor part in the depletion of the soil and the ultimate destruction of good farm lands. It is the failure of the soil to absorb the rain water which falls upon it that presents by far the most serious aspect of the problem. It is estimated‘ that the Poto- mac River each year carries off in solution about 400 pounds of solid 1 Bulletin 17, North Carolina Geological and Economic Survey, p. 21. Notre.—This bulletin treats of terracing as a means of preventing erosion of hillside jand. It describes the different-types of terraces and points out the applicability of each to the yarious kinds of soil and topography. It discusses the principles of terrace design. While the investigations upon which the recommendations are based were made in the Southern States, the information is applicable generally to any State in the umid section. 71775°—Bull. 512—17——1 2 BULLETIN 512, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. matter per acre of land drained, containing plant food sufficient to produce a crop. Unless this loss be replaced by natural agencies or _ by the application of fertilizer, it is obvious that the land soon will deteriorate greatly in productiveness and eventually be abandoned. In addition to the loss of the soluble elements of the soil, a notice- able impairment occurs in the physical condition of the soil. When the moving water washes the soil particles from the surface of the hillside and deposits them on the land below, the heavier particles, or the sandy constituents of the soil, are deposited first, and the finer, or clay, parts last. Since neither pure sand nor pure clay possesses the productive characteristics observed in a soil composed of the proper intermixture of sand and clay particles, it 1s apparent that the effect of this sorting process is to diminish greatly the fertility or productive power of the soil. Hence, not only the eroded land suffers but also the land at a lower level upon which the eroded material is deposited. Portions of the flood plains of small streams often are covered with a layer of sand, the fertility of the land so covered be- ing practically destroyed, since it is a most difficult task again to build up a productive soil over such areas. Drainage channels, also, constructed at considerable cost, often become filled with soil washed from the hill lands. (See PI. I, fig. 1.) Asa result the ad- joining bottom land reverts to swamp and becomes unprofitable for cultivation. FORMS OF EROSION.1 Erosion due to moving water occurs in two forms—sheet washing and gullying. Small areas are practically ruined by gullying (PI. I, fig. 2), while sheet washing (PI. II, fig. 1) diminishes the ° produe- tive power of large areas. Gullying generally is the most dreaded of the two types on account of its more apparent destructive effects. Where the ravages of ero- sion proceed unchecked, deep gullies invariably develop in the field. Their appearance causes not only absolute loss of land and incon- venience in cultivating, but a marked lowering in the water table, with a possible accompanying inability of the soil to retain the proper moisture content for the production of crops and to withstand periods of drought. The injury due to sheet washing, which occurs throughout the United States, generally is underestimated and is regarded by many farmers as of no particular consequence. It is this type of erosion that slowly carries away the very fertility of the soil without appris- ing the farmer—except through slightly diminished crop yields each year—that the application of remedial measures is imperative in order to save his farm. To the very slowness of its action can be 1¥or a more extended discussion of the translocation of soils, see U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 180, by R. O. E. Davis. PREVENTION OF EROSION BY TERRACING. 3 ascribed the difficulty often encountered in convincing the landowner that destructive erosion is taking place on his farm. In some sections of the United States, particularly in the South, erosion is assisted materially by the alternate freezing and thawing of saturated soil. (PI. II, fig. 2.) The freezing process upheaves a thin layer of the soil near the surface. As this layer of loosened soil thaws, it settles, with a tendency to move slightly down the slope. It is very common for heavy rains to occur directly after the thaw- ing period and wash away the loosened soil from the surface of the field. Probably no other combination of natural conditions could operate more effectually to rob a field of its most fertile soil in the same period of time. METHODS OF PREVENTING EROSION. Erosion is due chiefly to the free movement of water over the sur- face of the land, which carries off particles of soil. If all rain water were absorbed by the ground upon which it falls, soil erosion would be reduced to a minimum. It is obvious, therefore, that in order to prevent or reduce erosive action the soil must receive treatment that is conducive to the admission and the storage of large quantities of rain water; and methods must be employed to reduce the velocity, and thereby the transporting power, of the run-off water. Since the storage capacity of a soil depends upon its porosity, any treatment which results in an increased porosity of the soil will re- duce erosion materially. This porous condition usually is obtained directly by deep plowing and by a thorough incorporation of organic — matter in the soil. Methods of subsurface drainage which lower the ground water level improve the porous structure of the soil and in- crease its ability to absorb surface water. The treatment of cover, such as seeding land to pasture, growing timber, and planting cover crops in the winter, tends to check and diminish erosion greatly. Other methods which retard the flow of the water and conduct the excessive run-off from the field with a reduced amount of erosion, are contour plowing, hillside ditching, and terracing. It is the purpose of this paper to deal primarily with the preven- tion of erosion by means of terracing; but since all of the methods of prevention enumerated above tend to mitigate the destructive effects of erosion, some of them should be used invariably in connection with terrace systems. The manner in which each contributes to the pre- vention of erosive action will be described briefly. DEEP TILLAGE AND APPLICATION OF HUMUS. By deep plowing the absorptive power and reservoir capacity of a soil is increased greatly. It is said‘ that 10 inches of loose, plowed _ 1Soil Report N. 3, Illinois Agricultural Hxperiment Station, p. 16. 4 BULLETIN 512, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. soil will absorb 2 inches of rainfall. The incorporation of organic matter or humus in a soil adds materially to its moisture-holding capacity. This is best accomplished by plowing under deeply, ma- nure, stubble, stalks, and various cover crops. This organic matter, in a decomposed state, is capable of absorbing considerable water and forms a richer and deeper top soil. USE OF COVER CROPS. Vegetation or cover crops will protect the soil in four ways: (1) by holding rain water on the surface for a time, thus giving the soil a better opportunity to absorb the water; (2) by keeping the soil open through the growth of the roots, which form passages for the water to reach the subsoil; (3) by holding the soil particles together through the binding power of the roots; and (4) by reducing the movement of soil particles through diminishing the velocity of sur- face water. Cover crops usually are grown during the winter or when the land is not being used for other crops. Their importance as a means of protecting land from erosion at such times can not be emphasized too strongly. Vetch, clover, cowpeas, wheat, and rye are used commonly for this purpose. It can be said generally that good farming and the use of cover crops go hand in hand. PRACTICE OF LEVEL CULTURE. Contour plowing and the following in general of practically level lines in farm operations tend to check the surface flow down a slope and to retain the water where it falls. In cultivating crops each row is banked up and a shallow depression which holds the surface water is left between the rows. Thus the absorption by the soil of this impounded water is facilitated and the rapid run-off down the slope, with its destructive eroding power, often is entirely eliminated in case of ordinary rains. Contouring contributes also in a consider- able degree to the conservation of moisture on hill lands. The very apparent benefits of this practice merit its universal use on lands sub- ject to erosion. PASTURING AND FORESTING. Often it seems impossible to prevent erosion on lands with exces- sive slopes. No attempt should be made to cultivate such areas but they should be seeded to meadow or pasture and usually retained as such. In well-sodded land the soil is not exposed directly to the erosive action of the water, so that erosion is much less destructive than in cultivated fields. ; In many sections of the country timberland on excessively steep slopes has been cleared for cultivation, and in many instances after Bul. 512, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. DI8I FiG. 2.—EROSION IN THE FORM OF GULLYING. Bul. 512, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. 4286A Fia. 2.—EROSION ASSISTED BY ALTERNATE FREEZING AND THAWING OF THE SOIL. PREVENTION OF EROSION BY TERRACING. 5 clearing it was found impossible to control or check the erosion. Such lands should be reverted to timber; otherwise the ravages of erosion will reduce it soon to a state of barrenness. It is known that erosion is least active in forested areas, because of the penetra- tion and binding power of the roots and the accumulation of a thick layer of leaves and organic matter on the soil surface. The soil possesses great coherence and power of resistance to the erosive action of the water and the layer of humus protects the surface and also absorbs considerable water. UNDERDRAINING. It can be seen readily that by the underdrainage of land to carry ‘off the excess water from the soil space is created for the reception of more water from the surface. The water falling upon the sur- face sinks into the soil, percolates through it, and is conducted away by the underdrains to an open drainage channel without running over the surface and causing destructive erosion. Entrapped air, which often prevents the entrance and free movement of water in the soil, finds a means of escape through subdrainage channels. The physical condition of the soil is altered by underdrainage through the aeration and flocculation of the soil particles. A perceptible expansion and a slight upheaval of the soil take place, resulting in an increase in the size of the individual pore spaces. Hence, the rainfall percolates more easily and quickly into the soil and a diminution in the run-off follows. This system of draining is accomplished best by the use of tile drains. USE OF HILLSIDE DITCHES. Hillside ditches, as the name implies, are ditches constructed on hillsides to intercept run-off water and carry it at a low velocity to the nearest open drainage channel. Wherever this method of pre- venting erosion is employed there is likely to be a constant, percep- tible draining off of the finer particles of soil, and a continual en- largement of the ditch takes place, the extent depending upon the amount of fall given to the ditch. (See Pl. III, fig. 1.) It is inad- visable, therefore, to resort to this method except when it is neces- sary to intercept surface water from adjoining higher land on which methods of preventing erosion are not employed. Sometimes hill- side ditches are constructed to serve as outlets for systems of graded terraces where natural drainage outlets are not available. TERRACING. The greatest benefits from the foregoing methods of prevention come when they are applied in connection with a system of terraces. 6 BULLETIN 512, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Terracing affords the best means of conserving the hillside soils against the washing due to heavy rains. A field trip was made by the writer through the States of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi for the purpose of studying the nature, causes, and effects of erosion, and more particularly the method of preventing erosion by .means of terraces. Surveys of terraced fields which afford typical examples of every form of terrace in use were made with a view to deducing from a close study of the field data comprehensive and definite in- structions for the design and construction of adequate and efficient systems of terraces. It was found that a great diversity of opinion exists among the landowners as to the best form of terrace and in the rules employed in planning a system of terraces. However, this difference of opinion, in most cases, could be attributed directly to varying conditions of soil and topography or to differences in farming methods. The subject of the proper methods of terracing was discussed at length with experienced farmers—men who are pioneers in the prac- tice of terracing and who are interested vitally in the preservation of their lands for themselves and their posterity. The deductions and conclusions reached are the result of an endeavor to treat from an engineering standpoint the information obtained from actual observation of field conditions in connection with the data derived from field surveys and the advice and opinions of the best informed and most experienced farmers. DEFINITION AND CLASSIFICATION OF TERRACES. As applied to the protection of farm lands, a terrace is any ar- rangement or disposition of the soil the object of which is to retard the rapid movement of surface water and thereby arrest the process of erosion. According to the earliest practice, terracing consists of building land up in a series of level areas resembling stair steps, the interval between the risers being horizontal and the riser itself being vertical or nearly so. This type of terrace has long been used ex- tensively in Europe and China and is used to a great extent on the steeper lands in the United States. It is known generally as the level bench terrace, but to avoid confusion in the use of the term “level” it will be referred to in this paper as the horizontal bench terrace. Strictly speaking, this is the only true terrace, but the word “ terrace ” in this country is applied also to ridges of soil thrown up and located in such manner as to prevent the rapid flow of water down a slope. This type of terrace will be referred to in this paper as the ridge terrace to distinguish it from terraces of the bench type. The following classification (fig. 1) of terraces shows the various forms of bench and ridge types. PREVENTION OF EROSION BY TERRACING. 7 The bench type of terrace is subdivided into two classes, the hori- zontal and the sloping, the essential difference between the two being shown clearly by figure 1. Practically all terraces of the bench type are level, which means that they have no fall along the direction of their length to drain off surface water to the edges of the field or to an outlet channel. The ridge type of terrace is subdivided into two general classes, the eraded and the level, depending upon whether it has fall in the direction of the terrace to carry off the surface water. Graded and level-ridge terraces are subdivided further into two classes with re- spect to breadth of base, namely, the broad-base and the narrow- base forms. The broad-base graded terrace is subdivided again with HORIZONTAL BENCH BENCH TYPE SEOPING: BENCH): 92 Sao alia le oe _ TERRACES Narrow Base LEVEL Broad Base RIDGE TYPE Narrow Base) 22 qumais ayer Unitorm Grade Broad Base lYarrable Grade N Fic. 1.—Classification of terraces. GRADED respect to grade, the uniform-graded and the variable-graded ter- races. Figure 2 shows actual profiles taken on terraced fields ae illustrates the various types. THE BENCH TERRACE. Bench terraces, as stated, are of two classes—the horizontal and the sloping—depending upon whether the bench is horizontal or sloping. There are not many good examples of the true horizontal-bench terrace in this country, while the sloping-bench terrace is quite common. (See fig. 2-A, and Pl. ITI, fig. 2.) This is due to the fact that the horizontal bench is developed from the sloping bench by the gradual movement of the soil down the slope, owing to erosion, and to the use of the hillside plow, which always throws the soil down the slope. The time required for the leveling down of a sloping bench 8 BULLETIN 512, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. depends upon the amount of soil moved down the slope each year and upon the vertical distance between the terraces. It is necessary to maintain a shoulder of earth at the lower side of the bench for slop- ing-bench terraces, and it is advisable that this be done for hori- zontal-bench terraces, for the purpose of retaining that portion of the rain water which does not sink into the soil. This shoulder and the lower side of the embankment should be seeded to grass. (See Pl. IV, fig. 1.) The sod permits the use of a steep slope on the lower 0 5 100’ . 150’ 0° L a a ee . | .SLOPING/ BENCH TERRACES) a) nimi | ie — — Gem A as a im ae Se ee EE Ta ine En Td ot iae ctr ra / TET 4a FARAAEMAWOUATOTOEWIGGWVIGOMEUOI Ww S TTT mn BEES GAR ERAGE As CUE nN S. BASEL SSEEEEE eal 30’ TIAL ! E 20° Ss TTT PLETE Fie. 2.—Actual profiles of terraced fields, taken across terraces. side of the embankment and protects both the shoulder and the em- bankment from erosion due to surface water overtopping the shoul- der. .The leveling-down process mentioned above sometimes is con- tinued until the slope of the bench isreversed. Thus, the water falling on the bench will flow to the foot of the embankment above. In this case no shoulder will be required to prevent the water from washing over and eroding the embankment. Bul. 512, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Ill. Fic. 1.—HILLSIDE DITCH WHICH IS WASHING BADLY. Fla. 2.—FIELD OF SLOPING BENCH TERRACES. | Bul. 512, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. DI76 Fic. 2.—FIELD OF NARROW-BASE LEVEL-RIDGE TERRACES, PREVENTION OF EROSION BY TERRACING. 9 Figure 3 shows a cross section of two adjacent sloping-bench ter- races, with the various dimensions designated by letters for reference. Surveys were made of a number of fields in the Piedmont sections of Georgia and South Carolina which have sloping-bench terraces. The average dimensions of the terraces in each field were determined. The minimum and maximum of these averages are shown in the fol- lowing table: Actual dimensions* of sloping-bench terraces. Field averages. Dimension. Minimum. | Maximum. Height of shoulder, h...*.....-------- AL ASR L ONS ee ee) A) eh eed ses RCPS feet... 0.4 0.8 Width of upper side of unease Dips RACE SE eal fe kOe SIU Reta en tear eta (a do.... 1.8 2.3 Vertical distance between terraces, EDS ak OO NR IIE OTL ag, NR oN do.. 3.4 10.4 TRYEUIKD) CE (GTO ap Se a I Ef elt ee Ae Pn gS 2a per cent... 58 121 (Soyo CEI apa Co lS SS 8) Se ee Ae et a ee ep ene ae 5.5 28 1 See fig. 3. A comparative study was made of the conditions existing in the fields and the data obtained from the surveys with a view to ascer- ha: Fig. 3.—Cross section of two adjacent sloping-bench terraces. taining proper values to use in constructing a terrace of this style. The best terraces were found where the greatest height and width of shoulder were used with the smallest vertical distance between the terraces. It is believed that the height of shoulder (A) should be not ‘less than 0.5 foot for horizontal-bench terraces or less than 1 foot. tor newly constructed sloping-bench terraces, and that the width (0) should be not less than 2 feet for the former or less than 3 feet for the latter. The vertical spacing between the terraces should be gov- erned by the type of soil, the slope of the land, and the ease of start- ing and maintaining a heavy sod on a steep and high embankment. The best practice indicates that this spacing never should be less than 3 feet or more than 6 feet. The smaller spacing should be used on gently sloping land while the greater spacing applies to steep land. The question of proper spacing depends to a great extent upon the care and maintenance of the terraces. Unless considerable attention is to be given to the maintenance of the terrace banks the smaller 71775°—Bull. 512—17—_—2 10 BULLETIN 512, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. spacing should be used. For the 3-foot spacing a greater number of terraces are required and narrower benches result, but the terraces are easier to build and maintain than for a greater spacing. However, many farmers favor the wider benches because of the fewer terraces required and the fact that it is more convenient to cultivate the field in a few broad strips than in a greater number of narrow ones. In other words, they are willing to incur a greater loss by erosion for the sake of greater convenience in cultivation. The slope of the terrace bank, or the ratio of ¢ to d, was found to range from 58 to 121 per cent. It is believed that this bank could be maintained easily at a slope of $ to 1, or 50 per cent. This would reduce the area of waste land in a terraced field. The curves in figure 4 show the widths of bench for different ver- tical spacings on land of various slopes. Each curve is drawn for a certain vertical spacing between terraces. The widths of bench are computed for horizontal-bench terraces having a slope of 4 to 1 for the terrace banks. When constructed and maintained properly, bench terraces give excellent protection against erosion. However, many landowners object to this terrace on account of the difficulty of moving farm machinery from one bench to another, the necessity of cultivating each bench separately, the loss of the land occupied by the uncultivated embankments, and the growth of weeds and grass on the embankment, which robs the adjacent cultivated soil of its plant food and tends to seed the entire field to weeds and ob- jectionable grasses. These reasons are sufficient to militate against the use of this terrace except on steep slopes where no form of cul- tivable terrace can be employed. The. best practice indicates that the bench terrace should not be used on slopes exceeding 20 per cent. However, they are actually in use on slopes up to 80 per cent, with a vertical interval of 8 to 10 feet; but in such instances the labor of cultivating the narrow benches and of maintaining the high embankments is considerable, and it is be- lieved that such slopes could be devoted more profitably to pasture or timber. THE LEVEL-RIDGE TERRACE. The narrow-base form.—The narrow-base level-ridge terrace (see fig. 2-B, and Pl. IV, fig. 2) is used to a great extent throughout the Piedmont region of the South. It is essentially the first stage in the construction of a bench terrace, but methods of plowing are em- ployed to prevent it from developing into a terrace, of the bench type. It is built usually 3 to 5 feet wide at the base and from one- half to 1 foot high. Where these terraces are sodded heavily they render satisfactory service on pervious soils and slopes not greater than 5 to 8 per cent. They should be spaced from 2 to 3 feet apart in vertical distance. A close spacing reduces the volume of water | PREVENTION OF EROSION BY TERRACING. 11 which collects above the terraces, and the sodded surface prevents erosion of the terrace due to impounded water overtopping it. This type of terrace is cheap to construct, easy to maintain, and affords a very convenient guide row in plowing and planting. The 80 » 7 A S S g Sy Width of Bench for Horizontal Bench Terraces, in Feet a Ss 7 Average Slope of Land in Feet per Hundred Fig. 4.—Horizontal-bench terraces. Curves showing width of bench for different land slopes and vertical distances between terraces. principal objections to its use are (1) the land occupied by the sodded’ terrace reduces the total amount of tillable land in the field; (2) the growth on the terrace saps the strength from the adjoining soil, resulting in a dwarfed plant growth on either side of the terrace; % 12 BULLETIN 512, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and (3) the weeds which often are allowed to grow on the terrace tend to seed the entire field, and harbor objectionable insects in the winter. Owing to these objections, this type of terrace is losing favor rapidly among the most advanced farmers. Some attempts have been made to cultivate this terrace and thus do away with the objectionable features, but such attempts have been attended with very little success, except where the soil is very sandy and capable of absorbing most of the rain water as fast as it falls. Where this water is not absorbed readily by the soil, it con- centrates above the terrace, generally breaks it and rushes down the slope, usually washing a deep gully and carrying away large quanti- ties of fertile soil. The broad-base forn.—The many disastrous attempts to cultivate the narrow-base level-ridge terrace on all types of soil have led to the development of a terrace with a broader base, known as the broad-base level-ridge terrace. (Fig. 2-C and D, and PI. V, fig. 1.) The broad-base embankment of earth provides the strength necessary to withstand the weight of the impounded water above, and the ter- Fic. 5.—Cross section of two adjacent broad-base level-ridge terraces. race is built sufficiently high to hold all run-off water from the drain- age area above the terrace. . Surveys and examinations were made of several fields provided with these broad-base terraces in Alabama, Georgia, North Carolina, and South Carolina, and much information was obtained from farm- ers with many years of experience in the successful use of this type of terrace. A thorough study has been made of the data collected in connection with existing field conditions for the purpose of standard- . izing the dimensions employed in the construction of this terrace for different slopes of land and types of soil. Figure 5 represents a cross section of two adjoining broad-base level-ridge terraces, with the various dimensions designated by letter. The v Enel height of the terrace above the point c is represented by h; w is the width of the base of the terrace, d the horizontal distance, and w the vertical distance between terraces. These dimensions were obtained from surveys of eight fields representing the best practice in the use of this form of terrace. The average dimensions of the terraces in each field were determined. The minimum and maximum of these field averages are shown in the following table, together Bul. 512, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. D660 Fia. 1.—VIEW OF LOWER SIDE OF A BROAD-BASE LEVEL-RIDGE TERRACE; COTTON ROW ON TOP OF TERRACE. DI93 Fia. 2.—TERRACE OUTLET IN DEPRESSION OF FIELD, SEEDED TO GRASS TO PREVENT EROSION. PREVENTION OF EROSION BY TERRACING. 13 with the absolute minimum and maximum values found in the surveys: Actual dimensions* of broad-base level-ridge terraces. Field averages. Absolute | Absolute Dimension. minimum. | maximum. , Minimum. | Maximum. Base width of terrace, W.............-...-.-.----- feet... 5 18 6.8 11.6 Heichtiof terrace, hoo... koe. bs Bae Ae Gdosass 25 1.6 -8 1.4 Vertical distance between terraces, v.......-..-.- donee 1.9 6.1 BST 4.8 ‘Slope of land surafce.....:...-.-.-...-.-2---- per cent... ‘1.4 BAL sb Pel 11.8 1 See fig. 5. From a study of the above data and observation of field conditions, it 1s believed that a broad-base level-ridge terrace should be not less than 14 feet high and at least 10 feet broad at the base. Methods of plowing and cultivation should be adopted which will tend to increase the base width from year to year and thus virtually trans- form the whole field into a series of terraces. (See fig. 2—D.) Since the stability of a broad-base level-ridge terrace with closed ends depends upon its ability to retain the surface run-off water due to rainfall over the area between it and the next terrace above, it is apparent that the reservoir capacity above the terrace must be sufli- cient to store this water. Upon this principle are based the following remarks on the design of a system of broad-base level-ridge terraces. Referring to figure 5, it is seen that the cross-sectional area of the water that can be stored above a terrace is represented by the area acba. A plan view of the line to which water is backed up before overtopping the terrace is shown in figure 6. A good idea of the size of the reservoir area can be obtained from this plan. Assuming that no water escapes around the ends of the terrace and that no water is lost through percolation into the soil, it follows that for the retention of all of the surface water the area ac 6 a (fig. 5) must be made equal to the product of the depth of the rainfall and the horizontal distance d. If percolation does take place, then the amount of water lost should be deducted from the total amount of rainfall. By equating the amount of surface run-off to the amount of storage above the terrace per unit of length, the following expres- sion is obtained: dr_ dh? , wh _ 600h?+-3hws 12 N2n ean | Oh Sane IRATOOR where r=surface run-off depth, in inches; h—height of terrace, in feet; w—base width of terrace, in feet; v=vertical distance between terraces, in feet ; d=horizontal distance between terraces, in feet; s=slope of land, in feet per hundred, oes, 14 BULLETIN 512, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF. AGRICULTURE. It is assumed that the cross section of the stored water is triangular in shape. Using the values, h=1.25 feet. and w=10 feet, then pen 8 810.3758 r Hence, if the values of 7 and s are known, v, the vertical distance between the terraces, can be computed from the above equation. The value that should be assigned to 7 depends upon the absorptive capacity of the soil and upon the amount of rainfall for the heaviest single storm. From a general study of the rainfall records for the United States it is found that rainfalls exceeding 8 inches per 48 hours do not occur frequently in a given locality, and it is believed net Way, Miny, NTVUUUILULLUU LILI TLLOLL ULL LOLOL TTT TAP RRR ttl an A —_— ER BA G TERRACE » >-——-—-— -— -— -— wit wit MV “em tininnunnnntn” SCALE. OF FEET Contours 100 So r) 100 200 300 TerraceS__.-— TVA Fig. 6.—Plan of hill protected by broad-base level-ridge terraces. that provision for 8 inches of rainfall in the design of a system of terraces would give satisfactory results. By using values of 7 ranging from 2 inches to 8 inches, depending upon whether a small portion or all of the rain runs off, and using average slopes of land surface of 5, 10, 15, and 20 feet per hundred, a curve for each slope was plotted. (See fig. 7.) The vertical scale on the left of the axis indicates the percentage of an 8-inch rainfall (in 48 hours) that runs off. This percentage depends upon the amount of water absorbed by the soil. To determine the proper vertical spacing for a system of terraces for any particular field it is necessary to know the average slope of the land surface and the approximate percentage of the rainfall that will percolate into the soil. The former can be measured readily by some form of leveling instrument and the latter can be ascertained PREVENTION OF EROSION BY TERRACING. 15 by a knowledge of the physical character, the humus content, and the tillage condition of the soil. The susceptibility of the subsoil to the percolation of water also is an important factor to be con- sidered in estimating the run-off. 390 80 oy vel | | Sy broad Le 8 ith ve aed abo un | aN CS /™m7po YY LN) 2 17. | | Percent of &inch Raintall in 48 hours that runs off 8 the Surtkace ard Collecrs above Terrace -Off In N Run 20 2 3 4 nS 6 Vertical Distance Between Terraces 17 Fees Wie. 7.—Curves showing vertical distances between broad-base level-ridge terraces, for different rates of run-off and land slopes. Tt is by no means an easy matter to estimate the percentage of rainfall that will run off for the various types and conditions of soils. For instance, the difference in the rates of percolation for clay and sandy soils is very marked, the latter permitting a much 16 BULLETIN 512, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. higher rate than the former. This is due to the fineness of the particles and the compact structure of the clay soils as compared with the open, porous structure and coarse particles of the sandy soils. The open structure of a soil facilitates the entrance and rapid circulation of both air and water, since resistance to flow varies inversely as the size of the individual pore spaces. After a long dry period the pores in the upper layers of a soil become filled with air which, until it is expelled, tends to retard the entrance of soil water. A deeply plowed soil will absorb a greater percentage of rainfall than one where shallow plowing is practiced, and the greater the amount of humus in a soil the greater will be its capacity to absorb water. The rate of absorption after the top soil is saturated with water depends upon the permeability of the subsoil.’ A close, impervious subsoil checks the rate of percolation and thereby in- creases the run-off at the surface. The water capacity of the top foot of farm land in good tilth has been stated* to be 4 to 5 inches; thus a soil 12 inches deep could absorb this amount of rainfall provided the rain is supplied to the surface at the same rate at which the soil is capable of receiving it. If the former rate is greater than the latter, the excess water runs off over the land surface with a velocity depending upon the slope. The steeper the slope the more rapid the run-off, and correspondingly less would be the time allowed for the absorption of water by the soil. Hence, the steeper the slope the greater will be the percentage of the rainfall flowing off. To assist in the determination of the percentage of rainfall flowing off from any particular field, the following table was prepared: Probable percentages of rainfall running off, for the different types of soil, and for a rainfall of 8 inches in 48 hours. Run-off expressed in percentage of rainfall. Approxi- mate ‘ percent- | Open, pervious subsoil. Impervious subsoil.! Kind of soil. age of silt Slope of land in feet Slope of land in feet ; and | per hundred— per hundred— in the ; soil. Per | Per | Per | Per | Per | Per | Per | Per Per cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. | cent. RET ds ae eRe aU adaer aac erosepeCaree. > JEAB 20 40 45 50 55 45 50 55 60 Sand valommiy i heen sence weenie bist er 40 50 55 60 65 55 60 65 70 Clay Toam Lb toAse Shae eS eBe Sh MR 60 65 70 75 80 70 75 80 85 Cay ae ee ou aa ee Aue islen lola Ok Pei Samet oie, 2 80 80 85 90 95 85 90 95 100 1 The word impervious should be construed to mean that the subsoil admits water but much more slowly than an open, pervious subsoil. NoteE.—If soil is deeply plowed and contains much humus, deduct 10 from the above values. 1U. 8S. Geological Survey, Water Supply Paper No. 192, p. 315, PREVENTION OF EROSION BY TERRACING. A Br The values in the above table are based upon a field study of the effect of soil and slope upon the run-off. A knowledge of the soil, slope and design of several terraced fields which were known to have withstood heavy rainfall successfully for a number of years furnished data from which was estimated the percentage of rainfall that runs off. These figures were used as a basis for interpolating the inter- mediate values. The figures given in the above table are to be used in conjunction with the curves in figure 7 to determine the proper vertical spacing of broad-base level-ridge terraces. For example, if it is proposed to terrace a field having an average fall of about 5 feet per hundred, a pervious subsoil, and a deeply plowed clay-loam topsoil containing considerable humus, then the percentage of water flowing off as taken from the table would be 55. This is found by following the space marked “clay loam” to the right until the column headed 5, “slope of land in feet per hundred,” under “ pervious subsoil,” is reached. The value 65 is found at this point. Now the note below the table specifies that 10 should be deducted from the table values for soil deeply plowed and containing much humus. Hence, the value to be used is 65 minus 10, or 55 per cent. To determine the proper vertical spacing from the curves (fig. 7), extend a horizontal line from the ordinate 55 per cent until it intersects the curve marked 5 feet per hundred, and from the point of intersection project a vertical line to the horizontal axis. Such a line intersects the horizontal axis at about 2.6 feet, which is the required vertical distance between terraces. Where the average slope of a field is less than 5 per cent, use the vertical spacing as obtained from the 5 per cent curve. For inter- mediate slopes for which no curve is given, the vertical spacing can be obtained by interpolating between the curves plotted. Where the rate of fall of a field varies down a slope, the vertical spacing may be varied between the terraces to suit the slopes. However, a very small portion of a field often has an excessively steep slope as compared with that of the rest of the field. In such cases the vertical spacing should be chosen to suit the lesser and more general slope of the field. This will place the terraces on the steep slope very close together, but it undoubtedly is the most satisfactory solution of the problem. It can be seen from the curves in figure 7 that the vertical spacing between terraces decreases as the slope decreases, which precludes the possibility of an excessive slope distance between terraces. This rela- tion minimizes erosion between terraces by reducing both the volume of water and the distance traveled by the run-off water from one ter-. race.to another. The horizonta! distance between broad-base level- 71775°—Bull. 512—17——3 18 BULLETIN 512, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ridge terraces can be obtained from the curves in figure 4 by adding one-half the vertical distance to the width of the bench for a horizontal-bench terrace. ‘Were it not for the fact that the terraces would need to be placed very close together on steep slopes, thus necessitating a greater num- ber of terraces, it would be well to reduce the height of the terrace as the slope of the land increases. This would obviate the difficulty encountered in the construction of large terrace embankments on steep slopes. The equation from which the curves in figure 7 were constructed is based upon the assumption that the ends of the terraces are closed. In the field investigations many terraces with closed ends were found. Some followed contours completely around a knoll or hilltop, form- ing a closed circuit with no outlet. (See fig. 6.) But most of the level terraces examined had outlets at either one or both ends. In the foregoing discussion the terrace was taken as 1} feet high; with. closed ends it would overflow for a rainfall in excess of 8 inches in 48 hours. However, if one or both ends of a terrace be left open a liberal factor of safety against overflowing is provided. To pro- vide a factor of safety for terraces with closed ends it is recommended that they be made about 14 feet high. General discussion—The success or failure of a broad-base level- ridge terrace depends largely upon whether or not it is laid out on an absolute level. Since the surface of the water stored above the terrace is level, it is imperative that all points along the top of the terrace be above this water level. If one point is low, the water flows over and soon washes away a section of the terrace. All of the water above the terrace then flows toward this crevasse and contributes to the further destruction of the terrace and often erodes a deep gully down through the field. Hence, in laying out a level terrace, the top should be main- tained at the same elevation throughout its length. It is desirable also that the base of the terrace follow the contour of the ground as closely as practicable. This often necessitates the use of very sharp curves and abrupt bends, but it eliminates the exist- ence of any low places or pockets above the terrace which collect and hold water on impervious soil. These sharp bends occur usually at crossings of draws and depressions. Most farmers object to them on account of inconvenience in cultivation and prefer to give the ter- race a gradual bend by crossing such places at a lower elevation. Then it is necessary to build the base of the terrace on lower ground and still maintain the top at the same elevation as that of the rest of the terrace, which requires that the terrace be built higher and wider at the base. (See fig. 8.) One landowner who was experienced along this line advised that a terrace crossing a gully or depression be built one-third higher than the required height of the terrace, to provide PREVENTION OF EROSION BY TERRACING. 19 against subsequent settling. Examinations of a great number of poorly terraced fields showed that breaks occur usually at such cross- ings, because of the failure to build the terrace to a sufficient height or to the required breadth at the base. The advantage of crossing a depression at a low elevation lies in the convenience and facility of cultivation. It eliminates the neces- sity of following around abrupt bends in farming operations. Some objections to it are the initial cost of constructing the large embank- ment, the impracticability of cultivating such an embankment, the Contours ——|03——~ Terraces DUAL a be \\ \O™ nn Mya 1S UM CTs 2 0 Cross Section at E-F Fic. 8.—Showing two methods of crossing gully. Note height of embankment at D. extreme susceptibility of this portion of the terrace to failure, and the standing of impounded water above the terrace sufficiently long to injure crops.’ The disadvantage of the impounded water can be offset by a tile drain laid down the middle of the depression to a natural drainage outlet, and the adoption of this expedient can not be recommended too strongly. Figure 9 shows a cross section taken down the center line of a de- pression, or gully, and the method of removing impounded water and retaining sediment by means of a tile drain and drop inlets. If more rapid drainage is desired on a field of level terraces a complete system of tile drains can be installed. The lateral tile drains should 20 BULLETIN 512, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1 , be laid along the upper side of the terrace and made to discharge into the main drain laid down the center of the depression or gully. Where stone is available an inlet may be made by filling a section of the trench to within 1 foot of the surface with loose stones. This will facilitate greatly the entrance of the surface water. This prac- tice can be followed also on the tile lines laid down the gully, thus eliminating the objectionable drop inlets which interfere with farm operations. In addition to removing the surface water through the soil and thereby eliminating surface erosion many other benefits re- sult from the practice of tile drainage. In planning a system of broad-base level-ridge terraces it is de- sirable, though not necessary, that the terraces end at natural drain- age channels. In the absence of such channels they may end at property lines, fence rows, or timbered areas. Cooperative agree- Drop Inlets; Screens about /2foot below Top of Terraces Jas . ZINC ALENT AIK) LAT, TEIN ARRAN SOO Le I al PLAS VS Y 5 FW TNS Terrace DS LLYASNSS FZ INN eh Wi a WAAIe EK 2 ee NS al NSS Ne SL as = AT ae Na ZI =F ESN ZZ ISN ES (2G = AON aE ES NG ZXIN= 2S FETE TVA SUAS NSW ip AS NUE TR Ro a RRO SV aE QUEZ GF Sa FANS els CR wil SIE WS 222 AGS= NIUE Wy = uy MWIAGENDSTY/ RN. » Ai) AEWA ALES PREZ LIRICA AN RE Fic. 9.—Method of removing water impounded behind terraces in a gully. ments between neighboring landowners for extending a terrace system from one farm to another so that the terraces shall terminate at natural drainage channels would result in increased effectiveness. Where the system of broad-base level-ridge terracing is employed practically all the fertile particles of soil and the accumulated humus are retained on the surface, and, by proper methods of farming, the fertility of the land is built up from year to year rather than worn out through soil losses. The small amount of soil that moves down the slope, due to such little erosion as takes place between the terraces, can be prevented from accumulating above the terrace by proper methods of plowing and cultivation; that is, by frequently throwing the soil up the slope with the plow and by planting and cultivating the crop rows on level ridges.. The result is that each square foot of land surface tends to drink up the maximum amount of the rain- fall, and erosive action is thereby reduced to a minimum. 5 The question arises often as to what becomes of the water above the terrace and whether it remains sufficiently long on the surface to sour the land or injure the growing crop. Experience shows that the natural drainage of open soil on hill lands ordinarily is so rapid that a deficient supply of moisture for crops results and the land is PREVENTION OF EROSION BY TERRACING. 21 unable to withstand even a moderate period of drought. The broad- base level-ridge terrace tends to correct this by the detention of water above the terrace. While most upland soils suffer from a lack of moisture, it is true that “worn-out,” impervious clay soils with an impermeable subsoil foundation will not permit a ready percolation of surface water. With such soils the rain water would coliect on the surface above the terrace, if pockets exist, and remain sufficiently long to injure plant growth. It is essential in such cases that the ends of the ter- races be left open; then if the terraces are laid out absolutely level, the water will flow slowly toward the ends by virtue of the higher elevation of the water surface midway the length of the terrace. The subsoil plow or explosives are used sometimes to loosen up the soil above the terrace and thereby increase the amount of percolation. A complete system of tile drainage, as before mentioned, forms a valuable adjunct to a system of level terraces. The testimony of a number of farmers experienced in the use of the broad-base level-ridge terrace is, that in dry seasons or periods of drought they obtained the best crop yields from level-terraced fields as compared with adjacent unterraced and graded-terraced lands, and that their crops were equally good in seasons of abundant rainfall. The broad-base level-ridge terrace is best adapted for use on open, pervious soils and on slopes up to 15 per cent. But it can be used successfully on any type of soil if the vertical spacings are as shown by the curves in figure 7 and means are employed to remove any surface water which may collect in depressions above the terrace. This terrace is used often on slopes steeper than 15 per cent, where such slopes occur in portions of fields having a smaller average slope. Wherever used, it is vitally important that proper methods be em- ployed and care exercised in the laying out, construction, and main- tenance of the terrace system. THE GRADED-RIDGE TERRACE. The narrow-base form.—Like the level terraces, the first graded terraces were small, with narrow bases, and the terrace embankments were seeded to grass or allowed to grow up in weeds to protect the terrace against erosion due to the flow of the water above. The narrow-base graded-ridge terrace is built usually from 3 to 6 feet wide at the base and from one-half to 1 foot high, with a fall of one- half foot to 2 feet in the 100. Some objections to this terrace are, the necessity of growing a protective covering on the terrace, the erosion along the upper side of the terrace due to the flowing water and the failure of the small terrace embankments to withstand the water pressure above or the effects of erosion due to overtopping. 22 © BULLETIN 512, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. If the terrace has a fall greater than one-half foot per 100 feet, erosion occurs above the terrace, a channel is scoured out and it develops practically into a hillside ditch. Although this type of terrace is used extensively in the Piedmont region of the South, it is being supplanted rapidly by forms of the broad, cultivated terrace. The broad-base form.—The broad-base graded terrace, generally known as the Mangum terrace, has been adopted in many sections of the country for the reason that the entire terrace bank can be culti- vated—thus utilizing all land and preventing growth of objection- able weeds and grass. This terrace can be crossed readily at any angle in planting and cultivating crops with large farm machinery. When it is intended to use such machinery and to cross at an angle, the terrace must be made broader than when all farming operations are in lines parallel with the terrace. The following tabulated values are the results of surveys of terraced fields of the Mangum type near Wake Forest, N. C.: Actual dimensions of Mangum broad-base graded terraces. Field averages. Absolute | Absolute Dimension. minimum. | maximum. Minimum. | Maximum. Basorwid th of terracesa-c- sees aeeeiseseeee sees feet... 25 50 30 33 ISI MTOMECEU ACOs eae = ra lseideinemiomasialein oiini= clei stale feet... 3 1 5 6 Vertical distance between terraces,......--.-.---- feet... 2 8.9 2.8 (ext Length of terrace........-.---. mB boot sosoncosoguc feet... 450 1250), e bie epoe yee acai Sy ALE Gradoobiterraces ease ce eee idee eacacte eee per cent... 1.69 2.24 2 Din Slopelofland! surface... 22 2 . sees cco Sass SUE TL ely Sih Pe Sesh i Severe burn- ing. BUN CHOSID SD a see nes eee Sk oly Oe ee, 2 cae oub ee Slight burning. Bute Sp. (boxwood)...-.|.-..-. 5 Bb 2) |. ema Manes oe No raat zy rs Ses ee Ns am IL I Mi Tah ASS fe | 2s eae ares eter llesetadate CLO ie rater te WACTISWE NE eum en nan hit aac aa ten TU RI COM ete ye aaa Oke ae’ D0) Lies A a Ra ie | Meats TAH] SOB ARM EI Ae el does sere call LIT a cae mea A Sal aetna ea Is OY a8] mies cet ree eat | Ar ae a Berta (0) SEN a/R AS EN OMY a Se EN) | | eve hoe- TEC CLO) Pats Sse i eset bares cres ee . ehee 1D 0) SRS aR eee eee 5 Se GO tol. Sener eee ars | ele Gone sete: cake SD ee eae SVEN Fist BEES AG be Gaadnalseae go en ey (0s Wea Seated el eeamaies SUH ay LS Gesell as oS 5 CRS ek ee eae (OS SHAE aoc Camellia japonica.......-.|..---- # OGY Bee OCU S Hea Se ear dosajees COMME SD esse eee ene Sage ae DS SH Bend aaa aS kad te oh dose vate DQ oie Ne Saale a TAI TE RL) aS Ree ae Bey does 14 Taste I.—Plants and insects funvigated with hydrocyanic-acid gas im green- houses—Continued. Rate in ounces per 1,000 Paes Results of treatment. cubic EI feet. 2:5 Name of plant. a 2 | Infestation. mb |e .lo18 = SS 5 8 EE @ es Sa) On plants. On insects. Bel Se| bs Q ae Ae oF. Camoensia sp)... 2. se Ne e aes Fi ea Var a ate .| Slight burning. Canaga odorata. ES eee 1 | 66 No burning... Dow = 2 pea Tee [LC ee = ons ich oe oes = dOoeaeeeea Canna .. As liens (a ed ge See EEE dois tteae 1D he ae Bee 2 ae ee 4 Male la Wha es ces Sas Acer lapse dors sees ETAT RT AG STFS TEL ape ete = eae A ES) Nil oe WAS aac .| Slight burning Carissacarandas.........-|___... SNe Ne ve | 20 eer ae No burning... OTC Bee Won are tn SO ae | En ey Ie IE eA Sk See eeraee Slight burning. Camishion se ssees.e- eo see 5 (alae TPIG2) [EE 2 eee a wietere No burning. -. é DO saat eae ae ae pig een Tra EASY Se SS SSR Sele da ets oa DO Nees oe a ae AS EMlle Robe 1 Rem [OE SS SMe eee eee Ol A Se Cassia beareana.....------|_..... c(t Wey Go [ee cocoa ace Sight burning. Cassia ae SAS 2a Na i te 738 A ee (a 63 Ie yee eae eee (Ses © dot eee Casha edulis: 20.2222 Pull pe ee A) G65) nee epee ee dor tacaas LUD ES e Renna eh emetic i | amas il | Gi-\eess2s5s35Ss554-bse5- dole. t4a8 Ceiba pentandra.......----|__.... yes hao Vi 3g epee SS eee al eee Gout ee Centaurea._........-....- Ja) ware 1 | 60) Onion thrips. .|...-- don kia 95 per cent killed. Cereus (night-blooming) Bi llicte sod TN) GAG ais Re eraretr ees No bo cae Hos hae Albee Nahe Se RN rues Ea] Oe aaa (eae (ae) Oe TR Areca no Ceropegia thorncroftii.....-|_..._: ile ; To | ur SE ieee as Severe burn- ing. PB ea aos a Pe es Al 62.) eee. 2 ae dO: a2 a2 DOSS a Bier ae ete Salt saa 1 | 76| Aphids.... doves 100 per cent killed. DOr ese sae ee ey Ese| |e eay fly (Misi age oo'soce emcees tok dO anaes 1D Ys ee epee cae 2 Tie 2 WEE BSS N66" [Esc eater peer eal tare (6 (oe RR Cipar plants ls ee! realle aaa ah | 70" | Agoura sss fee 8] VCs dove sosaer Do. LD See eee memes ae 5p eae He RCS) eee ee cl ere do e225 383 Gmorariase 222 2 Sedna ea eee Tes) Jsccosssaceatsec Old foliage burned. Cinnamomum camphora eal | eomrae LOM 66) hs Speers. te No burning... Dee, Fee stan le hee BA FETE Vn teeter ores | sre doy tee PDO, Ets iis ed ASE 190") (G8) | 32) See Cee te el ee dose tae vtech aurantium......... il peeckos 1 | 60} Longscale....|..... GO Re 80 per cent killed. SO aNe Se tLe sd Eel We epee Hs gee eb sya eee eee ays | eeeeta Lae SG 2 Citrus plumbago......-..-|.... ley 5] 87] BOC Nes eee a dosp cae CHTUB'SD 2.0) eet ioseae oe do pe Recess ft | 64! |. aS dO 1k aes DD asa foe es estat eae 13} “4 |----] Blorida | red)|2:22: does 20 243 90 per cent killed. scale LD Ta) yt ee LM Eee fl abate TE Hol Lindl ee Cees oot sear dowels 59/1 a ie See ent ee (iT 10) | REL es ee Se Tender foliage burned. Clianthus dampieri......-. Pr ike 18 TE G2! 3 See os No burning... Dose sev se jea ease Ol ieee O74 SS RE oa al ees don E ae5 Clerodendrom. 3252 320 Ne pelW ee 2 66.2”. See Steere do. eee COCKBCOMD : 2 ooe- dees o 20 oT he ees 63) '6 50/2 eee or eee Oreo naa i Coleus A nd Prince) . . By ies Sk fF NGO) Orphezia. sae. | ee Goss ene 75 per cent killed. Ha ceracanesacdee 5: #|......]1 | 66].....do........| Old foliage | 80 per cent killed. burned, 2 Coleus Cees Brend) eet So) 2 oh | aeate TPO see DO see sci No burning... .| 75 per cent killed. ae ee ESTEE tae 4 |. 0.2) 2 | 60))-2.22do2 22 52>.) S82do. eee | eOiper contialiads Coleus etG olden bedder).. Malays 4) BON loess MOP sat ianaja|hore Gos Re ease 75 per cent killed. a ree sncceeee 4|......|1 | 60|-..--do........| Old foliage | 80 per cent killed. burned. Coleus (Golden Queen)... A de> -oe 1 Die 35 Ua ee 0 size oma No burning... .| 75 per cent killed. DOR eda ste ee ae 2 AA SO) le - Aopeecesalesced do. Sees 80 per cent killed. teed (Mrs. Hayes)....-- bo es 3 A GON Ds ce (oS eee rea dO. ene oee 70 per cent killed. Bit Des Os ae $1.0 ce) 1 | 60 |..2dOsen. +. 2-|i22-doll 222285 80iper cantykalled: Colens (Pfeister Red)..... ry ee 1 GONE Ses (71 as ee AGEE seas 70 per cent killed. Sees s aaa bee 2 1s..-c2) 2 | 60}... 2:do. 4. ... css :doleeuer a eiiper cenpianion: Gclate Aoi Yellow». | coo e 5 Da fs eet "che eae eee) (Eee dog 3582 70 per cent killed. em eaboeentee: cae a) ..-.0-| 2 [60 |--.-:dO.-.....2|2... do... 2.5] SO men cent males Coleus rig Bank). 222. - is See 960 jee ae Ons ss= sc] eens do} 7 4osee 70 per cent killed. De Sry eee eee 41 5e-|1 | 60\|....2d0s. 2, 2.2-|oose Or ec ens sa peOmmericent kiliods Coleus (Shirrock Jr.) ici3..) # |igeesee DV BO ieee sre (Yee een | a Onn cceaee 70 per cent killed. ie ae tae tere oh ; -.----|1 | 60|.....do........| Old foliage | 80 per cent killed. burned. Coleus (Queen Victoria)..| 4 |-....-. x A UG ea do........| No burning...] 70 per cent killed. (ee ACC Ee Ce) lu bey a Eee 1} CO cosa GP. -sidwaalmoees Gon uees .--] 80 per cent killed. BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FUMIGATION OF ORNAMENTAL GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 15 Taste I.—Plants and insects fumigated with hydrocyanic-acid gas im green- _houses—Continued. Name of plant. pola (Verschaffelti)...- - Coleus aad) ie Coreopsis Cosmos Cudrania javanensis....--- Cudrania tricuspidata Cyclamen Do Deuizia gracilis Deuizia scabra Digitalis _ Do cdneroonsgdbecdacs Dracaena godseffiana Dracaena indivisa MCU SDs cleo ns =< voces “Daye SBA ae BO Ferns:1 Adiantum cuneatum....-' Adiantum croweanum... Birds nest Nephrolepis scottii....._- Nephrolepis scholzelii.... Mobo whitmanii .. Pee Sp eeee ites cee dla Ficus utilis Ficus sp Rate in ounces per 1,000 Slings Results of treatment. cubic 218 feet Bolles me a 5 Infestation. b VN as Ea|g|2 sq | a q 4B & On plants. On insects. galSbh/a|s 5 Or |) FA I aS nD Ay eB |e eh Saal EAs 1 | 60{ Orthezia..-..- No During: -| 70 per cent killed. else aes TS) GU feel. COR areal Lea GonrenEes: 80 per cent killed. TN Ae PGA ae! Gor ee ee ra CORA aon 100 per cent Killed. nee ae ONY o-4n Mt ce ue tl Ae CO Rea PES S22 DS TRGO) I i, ert Tips burned. BASES POUT TS leo 1: Sy aa ees Se Slight burning oa eae eae 11 bl Toot ee ec AS ek lel No burning... PGE eae Dba o20CHia Rees so cise eas GR Moga eae oe Sepak 2 $ | 4)..--| Greenhouse |.....do.........| All stages except eggs white fly. and late pupz killed. Paar ee ROSwlos.. = Se poeetee eae ees Ome yeas Bed Sel Die [eZ 7OH Meera eco oe reer Rae st cd CLR ES Bias Eat ete 1 | 56} Longseale....)_...- ae a of Slime 100 per cent killed. Ba ae TES pe elf MR IL Eee URI Veg eh Bee ed TS a liven [ees doen eae Shae unin Us ay LSD Res ees ee aaenra Seek aL ee Oia) st a Belle oh 1 Bat Wa yootl ea ENS Eee ly aia No burning 3 Tie TA 2.2 Sapa a We Chop ae es 1 nel (cts NRO he Ea eH at Dp GO aes Ay Gay See |< Pena Slight burning neil (IS Yo remem 2 mene No burning... Die RTS |) d') cee te Severe burn- ing of new foliage. a ae she Tes Aphids.......{ No peace .-| 100 per cent Killed. BSE oe S| ie Ve Kage) es Ae | 0 U0) Rem ie ass RG OTIS IER OLS ES a donee Nee ALR DPE Ma ses ects ee hea | donee: Bei | Havel - a Weal Cay bay Aap A Oe Ea aN dome ese re Om) 7G 3 eR Rh Clonee ae eae 5 2166) |eia)= se eee ge eed Oak nu OR SS 5 SOD DU: Caer alae RUE GT Qe ee EMBED Tae Ab My CNM ANN cpa a AINE SUELO ile trctaleierc Le WE aL 76) eee oa ses 5s5ce|| Sliltorrlopooma rates Salat aia UW Oko Pees No burning... 2a es ee PPI) MPA Sie) Weep hres Lech ta aa down ae eee a Yo oy ba) pee i 1) IR COs atmes eens 1 Gi |e RRR RR A ARI Posey Po aes IOAN tah mare as ds RU dows Foe TAU eee ee he ay does! ees Ty) Ly i73"'|- ee eee | Severe. burn ing of young foliage. Ee Bae 1 No burning. .. BH See eG OF 12 sr SR aaRape ped epson, NEA Goes: Bille ajay ARIS ugh U APRIL ale dose raaas Byala inh DERG 2 ima 8 ALS a Be Ope aaS Bila as LOO} |S 2 aes RE ee dos isos Paid LN cho R aes oS ao mete eteieat Gosia se Lees 5 2 HES done rl eee DGD 1 NSM REG eae eT I RH Coe siai ce Pa ee UB oOo erp ht oe NM a dose tees Bealeton TD RO), [2 ESR a aR GOA eRe ee Pt eee Di GS ithe os Sapa Oe as N 3 Gos iene: alias ag SSO) |.) 5 eae Aaa ae I yey 2 dozer yeaa nee dU Vices ra.ig amare GEL Sl ce done oes ss SEU As TU VC p7A amtaese S al ea onsen: Spies ies UCR GS hh SSC ape a ee) Gee Gone cay Sealy fetes 1 BAAR GZ ORR pepe Sats 0s I Eee does? BEA\ ee eek OE PaCS) ON eS Se eae eb eae Gone eas ety Ne TTY OH Pee SCN Ce AO LONA HEA Sule 2a 13) 1 Slight burn- ing of new growth. Ae a 2h] % -| Cottony scale.| No burning... All stages except eggs killed. 1Asparagus plumosus and A. sprengert belong to the Lily family and are to be found under Asparagus. 16 BULLETIN 513, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste I.—Plants and insects fumigated with hydrocyanic-acid gas in green- houses—Continued. Name of plant. FACus Sp se Sage os Sn oe ree See SEE See fad Garona spans. set eee Gardenias sie ee Geraniums: ae Reha Seid s loot e riety). Do OLN ethan ol Sorae oes Lees Ipomoea sp. (morning glory). , te paris oa ae ris| (Spanish) 252 5oe8 eo Doce se ssbeehsiectoee Lantana FS ne eric ene ae DO aia crcreteme cetera craig Laurus nobilis............ IG syomeres eea sete t ed Sodium cy- anid a Potassium cyanid. ~1 ke 74 iN ies Results of treatment. 5 |3 ols a 2 Infestation. 2| 8 2/9 On plants. On insects. als x | 5 A} OUR 1 |....| Thread scale. .|Severeburning;| All stages killed. all leaves knocked. In- jury sary ely due toe proximity of generator to plant. OL chat ele 2h ps es Ee Severe burn- ing of tender : foliage. ; 3 |....| Aphids........| No burning. ..} 100 per cent killed. DY OO sees te Store estate asses Gores oh IPT NT UN Veet si yeep aes cel [os oe, oi cteacece 1 | 60} Greenhouse |..... do... .| All stages except eggs white fly. and late pupe killed. 1 AGS) |eeeee Goes. -bleeae GO 5s28ke Do. $1 Gules eeememosenese Slight burning 1\')| 1G 25) aaseee eee oe No burning... gM) U1 0L) Ha Reg 8 Se doesn wie 1) | NG Bie ivf ee eee ce a eae doen ae £66: | oiseqeeeeecss ts oc aeeiee dows sare 1G Se et, SSS el Slight burning A RS Are Re AS No burning... B16 Bi] GASES eee Ne Flowers burned 1 | 70| Aphids........| New growth | 60 per cent killed. 1 burned. IH} 20) SHCOS SE. 2 Sellacetis- Sateen eer 100 per cent killed.1 Ass | YHOU esc tate eee cers No burning. . - nA Ws hoe (eee oy ea ST do. sduceee 1 | 60} Greenhouse }..... dors. fae All stages except eggs white fly. a late pupe killed. 1 1 1 1 1 1 4 3 1 ‘ 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 3. 1 1 ..-| 100 per cent killed. 1 F 1 DL” NN GON. terete aia abetmis amy |iaietaye CLO satater startet 1 G4 osc Sectereri aim steerer erate a CLO teeta atone £166) [acne ..| Tips nicaedes 1 | 60 .| No burning... ..| 70 per cent killed. |G eres hale ates Sesto tole | alata 0.0. ean 4/52) Soft brown |..... dois cee Immature stages killed. scale. 1 ae Gir teeters do). iteae 90 per cent killed. 1 The difference in results noted was due to the difference in the tightness of the two houses. FUMIGATION OF ORNAMENTAL GREENHOUSE PLANTS. 17 TABLE I.—Plants and insects fumigated with hydrocyanic-acid gas in green- houses—Continued. Rate in ounces per 1,000 mies Results of treatment, cubic a| 8 feet. 5|8 Name of plant. = | 3| Infestation. oi Ee 5 8 ete aflg|e On plants. On insects. ma |/Sh| a] 8 5 oo |] K ° op) Ay | Lilies: Lilium formosum...-..-- 4 snecee } 100 per cent killed. D See ey 4 |------ Liliwm multiflorum..... iy |lcnbece 1 » Do. 1DYa) ae ae Eas 5 eka 1 @hinesess. i ssGee.sb 5-2. gaan 1 Wega, SAE S Sears a eeraae Be do Woquate. 02. 53.4. Ree eal aaa ae LV Z ie 0 LS Sts SS ae Slight burning Malic owen sens sic sue 3 |lonoaoe UH ICT U8) Raeaenpe e No burning... GS ORR R is eae eee F llsooscie LY sya} (nee Oe ee do. 1D) 3) 5 eee 8) |ibccose % |....| Aphids.......- Slight burning Do. Marguerite..........-.-.-- al eeteset We) |e does: No eRe y Do. Oe oe sicicis by ic oeeise 1 | 60 | Hemispherical|....-do..-...... 95 per cent of immature scale. scales killed. BP uae. ico ARR IEEG aeveiate 1 0 RRS ie Que oe ae Marigold (French).....-.- by llposon0 TANGY) RMR se SLD Be doves Re cts Mab Le ocala Ft |eSbaac DG aal ee. OSU SSE A 22: do...... or Mignon ette Sls hE bee Bs Saeoris ES WO: ee Mabe see UT aI doe seas Mimulus moschatus Gy [aso ace ZO) eso se ee a eae do... D Ft lecoses Ut Gal eon doe ey: 23 |lnogane 1 Open flowers burned. TOO). Sa SHE eee Py \laeande Le NIGO |e: 5 58 Seer Flowers and ; buds burned. Narcissus poeticus......... Pelle seanc DBD) os «2 naeeeeselee No burning... Narcissus barri.......----- Bee eta 1 Nasturtium.........-..... ean 1 Ni pellame ene e ane LG Al hia ely yeas 1 100 per cent killed. Dy pe a eh eee 1¢| 3 Oleander teases ee Ae sferet2s 1 DO ash dkebe se ZIRE Hue sean 5 D3 Olivet Cay, a a 7 | 3 Orchid: Cattleya trianae.......-. Pe ee 1 Oxalis (flowering)........ Phos 2 1 OSAMA EE es 3 Cepeda Bete fees 1 Palms: Areca lutescens........- BAe 1 Chamaerops pumila... . Heese. 1 1BYa eae = eae FEBS He 1 GOCoSiSDe a mcr mckic r= sae eee Palate Kentia belmoriana....... AS Whee sf 1 DOM es eae odie Salle a 1 Ratomiasp.-.2-2- 4.5225. SP ee 1 Phoenix canariensis ....|...... 5 $ Pandanus graminifolius... Be IPH cles 2 1 Ta A Re RR ES SN il 1 Pandanus veitchi......... ae ea ie 1 1D 0s ey SS Sd eR PE ss mab 1 NP ATIS Vere atom miers osieee A eee 1 Do. WOE meioe eters cate ES ee 1 Do. Pelargonium odoratissi- GONE SES U eB OCC ECE oe TESA SN oie as ean Ge ke ee Slight burning Pelargonium sp.......---. a een CNG Qe sone ee eae No burning... y DOR eso sel oceec PA ae ee 1 | 68| Aphids.......]..... BD ae aAs 75 per cent killed. Pentstemon. ...-22.-.222.|6.55- 5 SHH ees 45 Sse te en ASenEK® lee emcee CO) iG aE ad fod MR et a Ta lea eels | c= See Slight) burning. Persea americana.........|.----- 31 | 55 | Hemispherical| No burning...| 100 per cent immature scale. scales killed. PIN OEY Sti ee a LE Mal Mt ON Pa At ih Siero ae Slight burning. DOL U Ae aE Raa nN ANE 311 | 66] Avocado white] No burning...| All stages except eggs fly. and late pupe killed. PRODUIT eae erate ster ele gy aL AAW GON Eis 2) ey enevarspatatace |btsrae 2 Cl@sacdecns Poinsettia...) 22506455 ae ee TP CO Qe ce ES Se IRE Goneer een iRomepranates2 ey. Sse a/c er ESI 4 2) | Ro a AM Ea On ene Poppy (Shirley).......... ga Se Meg NGO ess eee ee Taye ee 18 BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLtE I.—Plants and insects fumigated with hydrocyanic-acid gas in green- houses—Continued. Rate in ounces per 1,000 Ae eke) Results of treatment. cubic 4 5 feet. SB aics Name of plant. = | 8 | Infestation. Be ae ws Eee ay a8|o6|2 On plants On insects. g2 | 55/8 2 n im fA |e Primula chinensis......--- lire a) Lt AS Reeves deletes No burning. Z Se re era ee ees aia cl Fan sees Bb 3) SOO)! | S eeeee oe ter arate | eter doses OD Re Se 5 Se Soler 5 2. 1/66: [eisai on cee Alek donee es Beriut malacoides...-..- Eales aoee ol Sy ile Sears epee yee lea LEGOL Re ate Primula obconica.....---- Holes Bi sia 1 | 58 Gregnnouse Beene Oscar eve All stages except eggs white fly. and late pups kille Pe ae ae syle pide a | HB? eat ages tal ea doe yan poe a Psidium guajava.......---|.----- & 4 S2say)= Pe ae meer yeas aa oe Do... +. .-.------------|----- = 7| 3 |--- ong scale... .|...-. O) = ciniaiars Immaturestages kill Rhododendron........2ec}osc. Bil S| 66, aaa cel ee dia Aion Eeeetled. Rhyncospermum sp.------|------ CN Ae fae alee ae SME en doy ele Rosemary ts teh 2 22). 14: Ml elalese De oily GA ketenes Sage se nae do. 8 DOS Sea cee sae eeke eee by \pnoase Bh 2G) | aaa eS cele, Sea do. ISSGhE Soe sabe ceeadaanan ds By \lbatace a kay Be occ Spoke. amc Tender growth burned. DO ess Se bsvaseear eee BN \lesses2 1 | 62 Rose leafhop- |..... dOnae ees 100 per cent killed. per. DD Peek) sei tabece tee epee LS AE Aline: eet clan Ate ee era dota ees Sagerscarlet= 222.025 --e. Py\lpoopbe i) Ney: ee es Re 2 ee No burning... 10 ee ee eee A ey eae GO) | {ee eta fia A eats AOL 2 ees DON ere ee ae eee eee Sileense\= A) 1/60! |: eee 2 tera ee Goeeeseahe Schizanthus sp...--------- Bel eate ees NN UH Bec esos Meas Bean eee (kv Ase DOGS ek See ches aoe Saeko. ab S/|OG) | avsretermureierscie eet eel Merete do. is Scilla Nutans...2 222222 -<5- a ee 8 Iiay| [eee toF4| ease - me ee eee LA GOK Be ase Srl S2 ak eee eee pi 5 PNGB 2 | eee yas eee ye Beal seen a Rolo eee ae BY ie Ee 2 lene Pe cae Tl A leo es SNe eM A re Severe burning. Snapdragones 3g 322i... Big he he DR ASO) Pf) Tender tips burned. DO ee weet eeoce eee sare A eS ae 1} GO) ee cis ees ep eget doe 328. Spiraca cantoniensis....-..|.-..-. 144 2 te | Agama sta Sees No burning Do. Spiraea tatifolia.....--....|..---- ADS ne a GOe 2 CARN Nees doleveesle Do. Spiraca thunbergii.........|.....- a Sm ML Co koa epu St dO) ee ee Do. Spiraea vanhouttei.....-.. fale DS a Ee a tea Go ch Fe hd| ase g3 do. Aedes Do. SPRLCUSD cues eeacen cone ty paneled = Se 1 GO t's 2 ee Be Ss do Hea e Stephanandra fleruosa.....|....-- Ae) Foilbe ce) Aphid sh en eee (okey Le Do. Stephanotis floribumda.....|....-- 5 (6G isk eee See al erste Gos ae eae: SEEUIUSD ew se pe mekin see Pils. : = 2 1 GO! | ee i eS eT Tee GO) Baa PSCC el at nd eR a IESG ts ae Ta I DE 3 PR ea doe. ay Sweet peas.......-..---.- a la ae 1 | 62] Aphids......- Tips and blos- Do. soms burned. Thunbergia erecta........- ies ae BU G4 | 2 eae a sel No burning. . DOr cla soeeieeineeetion, Be Neots 2 UI 7S nec e cis eeeEoe-dlocine & doe tae Piatlip sce ee oes oe 8 leeet 1B ote Ieee: ocae bee sere |i eee do). 5c M30 65) 01) see er we ea Aes ieee, 33 BJP GAs ck) Es she | opin zie ey Oe aes eaten EIN ese [GOA ane Wie Pa ae Golde ee Verbena (lemon)......... ro ae MO 4e Sa RS See Tender growth urned. Vinca major variegata Be See i Me Vea ess cee eee, No burning Lee een 5 Sea se aR ee TB 268-3 a ecR mae abel mcmae dowlceecee: Dares ore eee ce eles a 5 BGG) | seetemerae eee pana aa ee don Fe. eae WANCO TF OGEU eee eee aoe By Wee ie SN BUS Wetec) oS Skene cel ee GOA) esse DOL eee sew tawascee a eee a W160) |ceeete ees all eleae do's) cee Wandering Jew.......-.- Pa ee om A SGA hss eiereeeeeters iis So beitlr es MECH ea -Lnae ee te esta cioe (AU RRP ee Goo dense aO mere No burning. . PLANTS AND INSECTS FUMIGATED IN FUMIGATION BOX. To determine the susceptibility of the plants listed in Table IT, these plants were fumigated in an air-tight box under favorable con- ditions. Not only were they fumigated in an inclosure much tighter than a greenhouse, but they also received dosages much in excess of those commonly used in greenhouse work. FUMIGATION OF ORNAMENTAL GREENHOUSE PLANTS. Taste II.—Plants and insects fumigated with hydrocyanic-acid gas in fumigation box. 19 Name of plant. Amaranthus sp..---------- Arenga mindorensis....-- -- Atalantia glauca...------- D Do Belou glutinosa MOS TMeaGONS 222 aces cise = [a= MET OLOD Este = nie lee nia = sees Pout HI nae 2) Orchids (in growing con- dition): Angraecum eburneum. . Cypripedium sp. -------- Coelogyne flaccida.....-- Coelia baueriana..------ Dendrobium fimbrica- tum. Schomburgkia undulata . Orchids (dormant): 1 Cattleya trianae....----- ye SPO ne sees Sina Osbeckia stellata.-.....-..- Palms: Kentia belmoreana..... -- Areca lutescens....-.--- Corypha CLOLG Ey)
  • lor) 17.0 Yield. | Price. Cents. Value. 152.7 | $15.05 145. 2 _ S eee bees & CWO mo a> 5 sks SOEs IG ES) SING AS NOD OM ORO WOODET HORN HORUS 16. 83 North Atlantic. Yield. | Price. edad SONNF (8000000 NOODD rOOWw rb Cents. Value. 186.7 | $24. 56 180.8 151.5 105.7 120.0 133. 2 148. 4 142.6 111.9 114.4 117.4 128. 2 100.0 135. 0 113.0 136. 2 108.0 109.9 86.9 97.0 84.8 82.5 108.5 87.5 99.9 100.6 82 4 68.3 57.9 66.1 = eee _ OSwass SIDS GPE ES aS NOR Whey OWOND WONS OOD OSOo~1 ES SS) SOS ken 23.94 20. 37 16. 27 15.19 22. 06 17.31 20.15 16.94 13. 52 16.15 18. 83 16. 21 20. 28 17. 29 17. 76 15. 43 13.61 12. 59 11. 22 11.91 9. 42 14. 84 11. 22 12. 82 16.01 12.38 9. 68 8. 70 11.07 12.38 18.12 12. 60 10. 22 10. 73 11.95 12.00 12. 82 14. 60 15. 59 14.17 17.76 18. 09 19. 46 17.78 13. 88 16.91 16.18 20. 01 20. 87 19.03 15.94 11.80 13.10 17.51 North Central, East. Yield. Bush. -6 Bee ee BR eee _ MWR OOD OOO WAIDRO See Ee EO Se NEU ella eo) ——o— Price. | Value. Cents. 146. 2 ie) ~ Se ESESH RaSaA S CrOOCOM He COIN! Oss ATIWOon NWOODMH PNHFON PIP ON WOrROHO Nr MIO MI Nore _ = MSS BSSSS SENSS SSOSN ASSES SNSri a Soa FEN WHEAT, YIELDS PER ACRE AND PRICES. 3 Wheat, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. | North Central, West. South Atlantic. South Central. Far West. Year. ee Ee Yield. | Price. |Value. || Yield. | Price. |Value. || Yield. | Price. | Value.|| Yield. | Price. | Value. Bush. | Cents. Bush. | Cents. Bush. | Cents. Bush. \'Cents. 16.2 | 106.4 |$17. 26 6.6 | 199.1 |$13. 24 GION LAS soem Ser2ei||| eyes orate oll tetaveratetel| sit eral 12.7 | 110.6 | 14.02 8.5 | 162.3 | 13.79 8.5 | 150.8 | 12.80 16.6 | 110.0 | $18. 26 14.6 | 73.8 | 10.81 8.1 | 148.9 | 12.03 7.3 | 142.4 | 10.41 20.0 | 103.0 | 20.60 -5 | 47.4 6. 86 10.0 | 107.6 | 10.78 9.5 | 98.3] 9.37 18.8 | 98.3 18. 46 .6] 73.1 9.92 9.2 | 116.3 | 10.74 9.5 | 97.7 9. 25 19.6 | 109.7 21.48 -6 | 92.7 | 10.80 8.2 | 131.8 | 10.75 5.8 | 121.9 7.09 12.2 | 1385.8 16.61 -0} 82.8 | 10.79 8.6 | 141.5 | 12.17 10.7 | 122.7 | 13.18 13.1 | 108.2} 14.15 .6 78.4 | 11.42 8.2 | 142.4 | 11.62 8.4 | 121.3 | 10.17 14.6 | 124.8 18.17 .6] 64.5] 8.11 8.8 | 113.0] 9.97 9.8) 99.7 9.75 14.1 95.8 | 13.54 -0} 70.7 8.51 8.3 | 114.2} 9.50 9.6 | 92.9} 8.96 12.2 | 111.8 13. 69 WSGee eset se = 9.3 | 80.8 | 7.50 9.0 | 111.5 | 10.04 9.2| 91.3] 8.44 13.8 | 107.3 14. 83 1 ESA TORE i ROSS 15.3 | 87.2} 13.32 10.8 | 122.5 | 13.21 9.7 | 103.1 | 10.00 11.6 | 122.2] 14.17 S(Ses 2 see cls 11.8; 54.9] 6.48 8.6] 96.9] 8.36 7.7 85.4] 6.54 15.8 | 91.4 14. 43 STO. ce eA: 11.7} 93.2] 10.86 10.2 | 129.3 | 13.20 9.1 | 111.1 | 10.09 13.9 | 114.8] 16.00 LSSOR cesses 11.4 | 82.4] 9.35 9.4 | 111.0 | 10.45 7.2) 98.6] 7.13 16.2} 91.2] 14.79 TBS Uistse eee se 8.7 | 107.1 9.31 8.5 | 139.3 | 11.79 7.2 | 137.0 9.85 14.9 |} 101.4 15.11 PSS 2s eats cies 13.0 | 75.3] 9.78 9.7 | 105.7 | 10.23 9.8} 93.0 | 9.11 14.0} 91.1 12.77 PSSA. oh seins > 13.3 | 78.3} 10.40 8.3 | 109.9 | 9.10 6.7 96.9 6. 51 14.4} 96.5] 13.86 WQS. 5 ete cfeie 14.0} 50.0} 6.98 8.4] 86.3 | 7.27 8.6] 79.2] 6.80 14.4 66.1 9.51 S85 \eyereie ace ala 11.0} 66.1 72.6 6.0} 98.0] 5.85 5.1 90.7 4.61 12.3} 69.9 8.62 ASSG Sse Soe cies 12.4] 57.5) 7.13 7.8 | 86.9 | 6.79 8.8] 79.8 7.01 12.7 71.1 9.05 USSHes sc see ses 12.3} 57.1] 7.02 8.1 85.0} 6.84 te Ia i a) 7.03 13.8 | 71.7 9. 86 1 SSB eee eee sss 10.2} 88.6] 9.03 8.3 | 101.6 | 8.59 9.0} 96.5] 8.68 14.3 | 82.5 11.77 W889 oe cues 12.8 61.0 7.79 8.3 86.4 7.14 8.9 76.9 6.85 14.4 70.5 10.15 T890 eeitssnsae WB goal 8. 68 6.9 | $6.6] 6.62 7.41) 95.7 7.10 13.7 76.6 10. 49 16.0 | 74.9 | 11.98 9.4 | 101.0] 9.54 10.8} 91.8] 9.93 15.1 88.0 13. 30 13:4 |) 5453)| 727 9.5} 79.0] 7.52 10.7 69.9 7.51 14.4 65.4 9.41 9.2) 45.5] 4.17 10.4} 71.6] 7.46 10.1 58.2} 5.90 15.0} 53.3 8.00 11.1 45.6 5.05 9.5 59.5 5. 62 11.3 52.0 5.85 13.8 52.0 7.15 15.4 | 42.1 6. 49 9.9 68.2] 6.73 9.4 60. 4 5. 65 15.0 55.1 8. 25 12.4 64.3 7.98 10.4 83.9 8.76 9.4 74.2 6.99 16.1 77.9 12. 52 ipl 74.5 8.98 iB} ih 93.3 | 12.24 14.0 87.1 | 12.18 15.1 75.0 11. 28 14.4) 51-4] 7.40 12.9 72.8} 9.39 14.3 | 61.8] 8.83 19.3} 60.4 11. 62 11.7 52.8 6.16 9.5 73.6 7.02 10.6 64.0 6.7 17.9 56.5 10. 10 11.6 | 58.0 6. 70 12.4 | 77.5) 9.65 14.7 64.8 | 9.52 NG) |) Gi ®) 8.51 14.9 | 57.9 8. 63 IbI@ |) Zee ib 8.93 25h 70. 4 8.52 19.2| 56.4 10. 83 14.7 56.7 8. 34 8.1 80.2 | 6.86 9.3 | 69.2) 6.45 16.8 | 71.7 12. 03 13.2 62. 4 8. 23 8.8 85.4 7.49 11.4 73.3 8. 36 16.9 76.4 12. 92 12.0 | 86.4 | 10.38 10.5 | 112.1 | 11.82 11.4 | 103.9 | 11.83 18.1 83.6 15.10 14.2) 70.0| 9.94; 11.0} 89.6] 9.86 8.8 | 82.8 7.29 18.2 | 70.3 12. 82 14.2} 61.4) 8.69 12.4 82.7 | 10.22 12.8 | 69.2) 8.87 20.8 | 67.4 14. 06 12.2 85.6 | 10.44 13.1 | 101.24 13.28 9.7 91.3 8. 86 22.6 80.6 18.19 12.7 | 90.3 | 11.52 12.3 | 104.4 | 12.81 11.1} 94.9} 10.51 20.2) 85.7 17.34 15.0 | 93.9 | 14.06 11.9 | 116.2 | 13.86 11.6 | 108.0 } 12.51 23.3 | 93.3 21.77 11.7 87.6 | 10.25 13.5 | 100.2 | 13.58 14.4 | 92.1 | 13.30 19.5 | 82.2 16. 07 9.7 89.5 | 8.66 12.6 | 97.7 | 12.34 10.2 | 94.7) 9.64 23.1 74.5 17. 20 16.2 | 72.0} 11.65 12.1 | 101.9 | 12.34 12.2] 87.3 | 10.67 24.1 70.5 | 17.00 13.4 | 75.6] 10.15 12.9} 98.6 | 12.77 12.5} 91.0] 11.37 22.8 | 72.7 16. 58 15.1 97.0 | 14.62 15.7 | 111.0 | 17.38 16.7 96.6 | 16.18 22.5 95.4 21.48 16.0 | 88.0} 14.07 13.2 | 112.8 | 14.90 12.3 | 98.9 | 12.21 24.9} 81.9 20. 42 10-YEAR AVERAGE. 1866-1875..... 13.5 | 80.0] 10.85 8.4 | 137.7 | 11.46 8.5 | 119.3 | 10.02 15.7 | 110.8 17. 22 1876-1885..... 12.0} 77.5) 9.12 8.9] 111.0] 9.95 8.0] 98.6] 7.91 14.1 95.2] 13.41 1886-1895..... 12.4} 60.4] 7.46 8:8} 83.6] 7.28 9.6 | 75.9] 7.15 14.2] 68.6 9.74 1896-1905..... 13.1 63.4 | 8.27 10.8 | 84.6] 9.20 11.6] 75.2] 8.67 17.3 | 68.4 11.77 1906-1915. .... 13.6 | 84.1 | 11.41 13.0 | 102.7 | 13.35 12.4} 92.4] 11.41 22.4] 80.4 18.01 BULLETIN 514, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wheat, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. Maine. Year. Yield. | Price. | Value. Bush. 1S0G. eo 12.7 | $1.99 1325. 27 RSG Zech 5 ess 10.6 2.00 | 21.20 1g ee ee 10.0 1.79 | 17.90 1ShOee ob eee 15.4 1.45 | 22.33 EGOS: FS se 14.8 1.60 | 23.68 ilsyd l= Sale sen 13.0 1.62 | 21,06 PSA.) s Se SSE 15.0 1.70 | 27.20 TSiao- ote eee 11.0 P75) 19525 BVA. se - 15.0 1.39 | 20.85 Uy A Gee eae 14.0 1.43 | 20.02 BSG te cone 12.0 1.45 | 17.40 ROTA ase See 14.0 1.56 | 21. 84 VABo. otek ee 14.0 1.31 | 18.34 ESTO Pee EEE 16.0 1.44 | 23.04 BSROG 7 BS eee 12.0 1.47 | 17.64 pL. Bee Se 14.1 1.56 | 22.00 1a). ees 11.7 1.40 | 16.38 ASRS 05.5 os SHS 14.2 1.40 | 19.88 IRAE Oe Eel 15.0 1.25 } 18.75 EBSDE oS se see 2 13.8 1.25 | 17.25 14.4 120 Te 12.2 1.05 | 12.81 14.5 1.20 | 17.40 14.2 1.00 | 14.20 13.5 J515 |} 15.52 16.3} 1.10 | 17.93 16.7 1.02 | 17.03 LG OF 1 BER?) | 16r32 21.1 .79 | 16.67 19.2 .82 | 15,74 22.0 . 84 | 18.48 16.5 1.06 | 17.49 19.5 .89 | 17.36 22.5 -91 | 20.48 19.5 .90 | 17.55 23.9 -97 | 23.18 25.3 .92 | 23.28 49) -98 | 24.99 23.3 1.04 | 24.23 23.0 1.06 | 24.38 24.8 1.01 | 25.05 26.2 | 1.01 | 26.46 23.5 1.04 | 24.44 25.5 1.10 | 28.05 29.7 1.02 | 30.29 21.0 1.10 | 23.10 PAN) 1.03 | 24.20 PA pa 1.01 | 25.76 27.0 1.09 | 29.43 28.0 1.12 | 31.36 10-YEAR AVERAGE. 1866-1875... .. 13.2] 1.67 | 21.88 1876-1885..... 13.7 1.41 | 19.25 1886-1895....- 15.8 1.04 | 16.09 1896-1905... .. 275i I -96 | 21.14 1906-1915... . 25.5 1.05 | 26.81 New Hampshire. Yield. | Price. | Value. Bush 16.2 | $1.79 |$29. 00 ipyal 2.07 | 25.05 iby 1.80 | 21.06 17.5 PAT 25: 72 14.8 1.43 | 21.16 15.2 1.55 | 23.56 16.5 1.63 | 26.90 15.0 1.73 | 25.95 16.0 1.40 | 22. 40 17.0 1.43 | 24.31 15.0 1,42 | 21.30 17.0 1.56 | 26.52 14.0 1.48 | 20.72 11.7 IRD) L7ebS 14.0 | 1.40} 19.60 15.2 1.56 | 23.71 12.9 1.35 | 17.42 15.8 1.38 | 21.80 14.7 1.20 | 17.64 15.4 | 1.24 | 19.10 15.2) 1.18] 17.94 10.5 1.04 | 10.92 14.6 | 1.20 | 17.52 15.4 1.00 | 15.40 15.3 1.15 | 17.60 16.5 | 1.15 | 18.98 16.3 1.00 | 16.30 | 15.0 -85 | 12.75 20.0 .80 | 16.00 19.3 .76 | 14.67 21.0 |, 1.00 | 21.00 16.0 1.10 | 17.60 19.0 .92 | 17.48 iA? 95 | 16.34 16.3 .92 | 15.00 15.2 | 1.63 | 24.51 14.6} 1.41 | 20.54 15.8] 1.01 | 15.80 Vermont. Yield. | Price. | Value. Bush. 20.2 | $1.86 |$37.57 15.8] 1.98 | 31.28 16.0] 1.68 | 26.88 18.0] 1.24 | 22.32 16.8 | 1.46 | 24.53 16.6 | 1.46 | 24.24 16.0 1.54 | 24.64 16.0 1.54 | 24. 64 17.0 | 1.29 | 21.93 WEA) alah |) GEG 14.7} 1.31 | 19.26 19.0] 1.41 | 26.79 7.0} 1.15 | 19.55 15)52°|) 239) 213 15.0] 1.33 | 19.95 18.0 1.47 | 26.46 L729! | ea (2s 16.4 | 1.24 | 20.34 16.8 ; is Lee) . 19.0 15.0 aliyard 16.5 17.2 17.5 17.2 13.8 22.0 29.0 24.5 17.0 22.5 22.0 23.5 18.7 18.8 20.9 25.1 18.8 22.3 23.0 23.0 25.0 29.3 27.8 25.0 24.5 29.0 30.0 17.0 | 1.54 | 26.16 16.8} 1.27 | 21.35 18.8 -96 | 17.57 21.2 -95 | 20.10 25.9 | 1.01 | 26.28 Massachuseits. Yield. | Price. | Value. Bush 24.4 | $1.93 | $47.09 16.0 | 2.01 | 32.16 STG |) eee 18.0} 1.39 | 25.02 Ue |) easy es OYE? 18.2} 1.51 27. 48 17.4 | 1.73 | 30.10 19.0] 1.53 | 29.07 14.5] 1.31 | 19.00 16.0} 1.19 | 19.04 18.0] 1.19 | 21.42 22.0] 1.46 | 32.12 22.0} 1.50] 33.00 18.0] 1.5 27. 00 17.0 | 1.30{ 22.10 15.8 | 1.50] 23.70 17.0} 1.45] 24.65 16.7 | 1.45 | 24.22 R 1,12 L i 1225) ue Al, Year. 10-YEAR AVERAGE. 1866-1875-..... 1876-1885... .. 1886-1895... .. 1896-1905... .. 1906-1915..... WHEAT, YIELDS PER ACRE AND PRICES. Wheat, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. Rhode Island. Yield.| Price. | Value. Bush 15.0 |} $1.95 |$29. 25 16.9} 1.95 | 32.96 14.3 | 1.64 | 23.45 17.0] 1.27 | 21.59 17.6 15.7 | 27.63 18.0 1.48 | 26. 64 10.4 | 1.50 | 15.60 "45.3 | 1.40 | 21.42. Yield. | Price. | Value. New York. New Jersey. Yield. Connecticut. Yield. | Price. | Value. Bush 17.3 | $1.97 |$34.08 17.5 1.88 | 32.90 15.5 1.49 | 23.10 17.5 1.11 | 19. 42 17.8 | 1.36 | 24.21 17.0} 1.39 | 23.63 17.0 1.46 | 24.82 18.0 1.52 | 27.36 18.0 1.31 | 23.58 16.0 | 1.16 | 18.56 14.5 1.19 | 17.26 17.0 1.41 | 23.97 13.0 1.02 | 13.26 18.0 1.50 | 27.00 18.0} 1.40 | 25.20 17.7 1.42 | 25.13 20.3 1.20 ; 24.36 15.8 1.25 | 19.75 16.4 1.00 | 16.40 14.1 1.05 | 14.80 16.4 -98 | 16.07 17.0 99 | 16.83 14.9 | 1.20 | 17.88 15.5 92 | 14.26 16.0 | 1.10 | 17.66 17.u | 1.06 | 18.02 ER A ene ink | Be RE | ae “20.0 | 1.00 | 20.00 20.0 -88 | 17.60 18.3 -95 | 17.38 20.8 . 82 | 17.06 17.2] 1.46 | 25.17 16.5} 1.24 | 20.71 Bush 15.2 | $1.86 |328. 27 14.5} 1.89 | 27.40 14.6 1.55 | 22.63 16.0 1.09 | 17.44 13.8 1.27 | 17.53 17.2 1.36 | 23.39 12.5 1.46 | 18.25 13.5 1.47 | 19.84 15.6 1.14 | 17.78 8.0 1.14 9.12 15.0 1.20 | 18.00 18.0 1.19 | 21.42 19.0 1.02 | 19.38 15.0 1.40 | 21.00 16.0 1.17 | 18.72 13.9 | 1.37 | 19.04 15.7 Tet S20 10.3 1.11 | 11.43 16.5 -85 | 14.02 15.4 96 | 14.78 16.3 -84 | 13.69 15.2 . 82 | 12.46 14.1 1.10 | 15.51 13.8 -90 | 12.42 14.5 1.00 | 14.50 16.6 | 1.00} 16.60 16.2 .85 | 13.77 14.5 - 76 | 11.02 14.8 . 62 9.18 18.1 -68 | 12.31 16.0 - 88 | 14.08 21.4 -90 | 19. 26 21.2 . 72 | 15.26 18.5 -80 | 14.80 W757 .77 | 13.63 13.1 -82 | 10.74 16.8 -79 | 13.27 17.8 - 81 | 14.42 11.3 1.09 | 12.32 21.0 - 86 | 18.06 20.0 .82 | 16.40 17.3 -99 | 17.138 iao -99 | 17.32 21.0} 1.11 | 23.31 23.7 -96 | 22.75 19.5 -95 | 18.52 16.0 -99 | 15. 84 20. 0 -93 | 18.60 22.5 1.08 | 24.30 25.0] 1.01 | 25.25 14.1 1.42 | 20.16 15.5 1.14 | 17.51 15.4 - 86 | 13.15 17.5 - 84 | 14.58 20. 2 -98 | 19.94 = CHM CUANMO AMoo Pt et et Bow h oh CORON cre N=} cme el a PwWOOC Rok ot BWW RN ONO Price. | Value. $2. 04 5) 527. 54 25. 6 BULLETIN 514, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wheat, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. Pennsylvania. Yield. | Price. | Value. _ To ee eho Has _ or —_ Oo — Go i bt et et Be ee Bee ee Be Ree Hee DOGS ICO) UNIGO COTS: SUR CUS COCO SSO OUR IR OY SINOIRQIERICO RO) SOICRIA CORD | SUSTICNIOVICR: Suite On: Ba Ree ee OrFoon fe eee iS Tork. | tt Ft > OO ADNaso lorkaoaolorior) OwusIst NMNWOa CWwoorn co 00h CO bo © oo : — = co eo) Ped ed dl ol ad 10-YEAR AVERAGE. Yield. | Price. by ~J a SSSNS AwHR> Shon SHwows | ell all aol 8 a et et et NSS CSA WIN) ROR ON: Sor — — Ae eiaie leteiien Pet et ee et ido ot es — _ SE a GS SRS SOE BSS (SISA sey Co) SOnaIN COOCMO WMONUN WHWMO. DMONSOM NIMSPMOF NTSOWNe BOSCO TUSCONS COUNCWo= dl eed ed a ee a a ee eco d ee Nel el ed ell en Ol SROARK TRSOD AWNENA SS PE I aU CS 8 SOS iO COINS 100) Virginia. Yield. | Price. | Value. Bush. 6.7 | $1.98 | $13.27 8.0} 1.52] 12.16 8.4] 1.41] 11.84 10.5 -96 | 10.08 9.6} 1.11] 10.66 8.0 | 1.25] 10.00 8.4 1.38 11. 59 7.5 1.34 10. 05 7.8 1.06 8. 27 8.0} 1.05 8. 40 8.5 1.04 8.84 10. 4 1.15 11.96 ae - 89 6.41 9.2] 1.27) 11.68 9.5 | 1.05 9. 98. 8.0] 1.33 10. 64 9.0| 1.06 9. 54 9.0] 1.05 9.45 8.0 - 80 6. 40 4.4 -93 4.09 8.2 81 6.64 7.6 81 6. 16. 8.3 | 1.00 8.30 8.4 . 86 7.22 7.0 - 96 6.72 9.0 1.00 9.00 9.5 - 76 1.22 11.2 . 63 7.06 > 925 - 46 eras 9.3 .65 6. 04 9.3 - 80 7.44 12.0 92 11. 04 14.1 . 66 9.31 8.4 .69 5. 80 11.9 72 8.57 10.9 73 7.96 Ril -79 4.50 8.7 84 7.31 10.2} 1.09} 11.12 11.4 88 10. 03 12.5 -81 | 10.12 L2n5 98 12. 25 11.4 1.01 11.51 11.2 1.15 12. 88 12.8 -97 | 12.42 12.0 96 11. 52 11.6 1.01 11.72 13.6 - 96 13.06 14.5} 1.08] 15.66 13.8 1.08 14. 90 ¥ WHERAT, YIELDS PER ACRE AND PRICES. 7 Wheat, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. West Virginia. North Carolina. South Carolina. Georgia. Year. | Yield.| Price. | Value. || Yield.| Price. | Value. | Yield. Price. | Value. || Yield.| Price. | Value. Mle : : | panes | | ‘ Bush. Bush. | Bush. | Bush. RG Gemetrse rte leh alate |x cae fe <|'s'cirevsto 5.8 | $1.89 |$10.96 || 4.7 | $2.22 $10. 43 4.0} $1.89 | $7.56 VS67eo ch eyes 10.5 | $1.71 |$17. 96 6.9 1.51 | 10.42 6.4 1.70 | 10.88 8.0] 1.68 13. 44 HS68 en tess<-:-:s 10.7 1.40 | 14.98 5.9 1.49 | 8.79 5.6 L6f\ 95385 5.6 1. 64 9.18 UGGS eae eee 11.7 1.00 | 11.70 8.4 1.21 | 10.16] 6.6 1.66 | 10.96 7.4 1.31 9.69 ICV 98 Seen 11.4 1.10 | 12.54 8.6 1.09 | 9.37 7.0 1.70 | 11.90 8.0} 1.32 10. 56 | NS (eae hocrey es 10.0 1.18 | 11.80 6.0 1. 28 7.68 5.0 1.83 9.15 5.0 1.49 7.45 NSU Direc trarersre = 10.3 1.27 | 13.08 | 8.2 1.36 | 11.15 6.1 1.67 | 10.19 9.0 ip 1B}. 7/7) IRVeS ee osese 9.6 1,32 | 12.67 6.2 1. 43 8.87 5.5 2.07 | 11.38 7.0] 1.61 11. 27 LE ee re 11.6 90 | 10. 44 3.0 1.24} 9.92 6.3 1.67 | 10.52 7.3 1.38 10. 07 Vie as eee 6.8 1.20) 8.16 Hod) 1.08} 8.10 7.0 1.48 | 10.36 08 ieit 9. 82 VSG eas! 11.0} 1.02 | 11.22 (633 1.10} 8.03 8.0 1.52 | 12.16 6.0} 1.23 7.38 CF 12.2; 1.21 | 14.76 8.3 1.06} 8.80 9.9 1.51 | 14.95 9.5 1.32 12.54 TS See aye eS) 86 9.89 6.5 1.00} 6.50 BH) |] 5 dleeXO) |) 7/6 il) 7.0 1.18 8. 26 i OSA een 13.0 1.08 | 14.04 | 7.0 1. 28 8.96 || 8.4 1.57 | 13.19 9.0 1. 26 11.34 Gh) As Ae eee 12.2 91 | 11.10 | 6.4 11, 11K 7.36 || 4.8 1.44 6.91 6.3 1.36 8.5 | ESRI SS Scenes 10.5 1.25 | 13.12 6.9 1.49 | 10.28 5.7 1.65 9. 40 6.1 1. 63 9.94 pCR ae eens 1L3 95 | 10.74 (ot 1.06} 8.16]; 7.5 1.20 | 9.00 7.5 1.08 8.10 1S ee ee 10.0 1.08 | 10.80 5.9 1.17 6.90 574 1.30 | 6.76 5.1 1.20 6.12 NS ee 10.5 -80} 8.40 6.1 -89 5. 43 6.1 1.05 6. 40 6.4 1.05 6. 72 WSRb Rey ta ceseis 2 5.6 1.01 5.66 4.1 1.00 4.10 5.3 1.10 5.83 6.2 1.09 6. 76 WSS G Re hie 10.6 .80 | 8.48 4.6 1.00 4.60}; 5.0 1.08 | 5.40 4.4 1.05 4.62 SS TPS sete shay ct 9.4 . 76 7.14 7.1 . 88 6.25 || 6.4 .99 6.34 6.6 95 6. 27 ICE ee eee 9.5 - 96 OP lier oe 1.05 5.67 5.0 112 5.60 Gy Al 1.10 5. 61 R89 ooo sos 10. 2 | . 83 8.47 || 6.2 -90 5.58 |} 6.0 .95 5.70 6.3 -98 6.17 NSIO RS eon Tie 7 -95 1.32 || 4.4 1.00} 4.40] 4.2 1.05 4.41 || 4.1 1.10 4.51 180) Ls ees 10.3 -96 | 9.89 6.8 1.02 6.94 5.5 1.10 | 6.05 eo) 1.10 8. 25 DIG PAN eee eee 10.7 75 8. 02 eal . 89 6.32 6.5 93 6. 04 6.8 90 6.12 SO SRS ae Sores!) 11.5 72 8.28 || 8.2 a0; 5.90 6.3 98 6.17 2. -90 6.48 P89 4 Fs hs Sys 9X iL . 60 7.26 |) d.0{ .65 3.25 || 5.6 87 4.87 6.9 . 76 5. 24 POQO merase 10.6 69 teolelite 659) 5 4.97 || 6.4 88 | 5.63 6.2 ~ 82 5. 08 | | E SOG RE ase 10.3]. .78| 8.03] 7.3] .83] 6.06]| 68] .89] 6.05 8.0] .89| 7.12 Lk nee ae eae 13.4 -89 | 11.93 || 8.0 - 94 UPN BEE 1.18 | 10. 27 9.4 1.03 9.48 NSO Bie cos papal Ss 13.8 7 9.80 9.2 . 78 7.18 10.6 .94 9.96 10.0 -98 9.80 aU). ena Qa ree 6. 60 6.7 182] 5149))| 655° .99 6. 44 6.8 98 6. 66 TIO Sas Sh 9.8 77 Vio) |) OG 82 7.87 | 9.0 1.01 9.09 9.1 95 8. 64 QO San aac 32 10.9 (a 8.39 8.7 . 82 7.13 8.8 -98 8. 62 | 8.2 S945) 5 ied EL DI cae s aes Wed 82 6.31 5.3} .92 | 4.88 5.6 NOY | &,7Al 6.0 -98 5. 88 OOS Fos 10.2 85 8. 67 5.1 97 4.95 6.5 1.01 6.56 6.2 -96 5.95 L904 Sea go: 10.1 1.09 | 11.01 8.6 1.19 | 10. 23 8.1 1.26 | 10.21 8.8 1.26 11. 09 IO aoe eee 12.3 89 | 10.95 6.7 1.02} 6.83 6.1 1.11 (oh, 7/0 6.9 1.07 7.38 AGOGE ase ges s2 12.7 81 | 10. 29 9.1 93 8. 46 9.3 1.10 | 10. 23 10.0 1.02} 10.20 GO Gas aaa x 12.2 1.00 | 12.20 9.5 1.07 | 10.16 8.5 1.20 } 10. 20 9.0 1.15 10. 35 90S R- oer se ye 13.0 1.03 | 13.39 10.0 1.07 | 10.70 9.0 1.30 | 11.70 9.2 1.21 11.13 OQ EAS) Sos o 13.0 1.13 | 14.69 9.5 1.27 | 12.06 10.0 1.46 | 14.60 10.0 1.45 14.50 AGIOS 2b Sooo. 12.5 1.02 | 12.75 11.4 1.10 | 12.54 11.0 1. 26 | 13.86 10.5 1.30 13.65 OOS eee 11.5 1.02 | 11.73 10.6 1.02 | 10.81 11.4 1.23 | 14.02 12.0 1.14 18. 68 POTD he os cis 14.5 1.01 | 14.64 8.9 1.11 9.88 9.2 1.19 } 10.95 9.3 1522) 11.35 IONS See Se 13.0 1.00 | 13.00 11.7 1.06 | 12.40 12.3 1.30 | 15.99 1D 1.20} 14.64 a je ee ear 15.0] 1.08 | 16.20 12.0 1.17 | 14.04 11.5 1.45 | 16.68 Wy, 1.34 16. 21 AQIS Soh sess: 15.0 1.08 | 16.20 10.9 1.20 | 13.08 10.8 1.38 | 14.90 11.0} 1.29 14.19 10-YEAR | AVERAGE. | 1866-1875... .. 110.3 | 11.23 |) 12.59 7.2] 1.36] 9.54 6.0} 1.77 | 10.51 6.9 | 1.52] 10.28 1876-1885... . . 10.8 1.02 | 10.97 6.6 1.12} 7.45 6.6 1.36 | 9.18 6.9 1.24 8.57 1886-1895... . . 10.3 -80} 8.13 6.2 -88 | 5.39 5.7 1.00} 5.62 6.1 97 5. 84 1896-1905... .. | 10.8 .83 8.92 7.5 91 6.81 Wed 1.04 7.97 7.9 1.00 7.99 1906-1915... .. 13.2 1.02 | 13.51 10. 4 1.10 | 11.41 10.3 1.29 | 13.31 10.5 23 12. 99 | | | ! a FA rE RE a ID SSM SS etme } f-vear average—i8€7-1875. 8 BULLETIN 514, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wheat, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. J Florida. ! Ohio. Indiana. Illinois. \| j Year. Sa PaeET i =I i ; ] Yield.| Price. Value. | Yield. | Price. |Value.| Yield.| Price. Value. || Yield. | Price. ppalue. | | } | | | | } Bush. | || Bush. | Bush. | || Bush. | | .2 | $1.75 | $7.35 5.9 | $1.68 ) $9.91 || 13.0 | $1.34 | $17.42 .6 | 1.69 | 19.60 10.5 | 1.58] 16.59 jj 11.4] 1.41 16.07 -0} 1.23 | 15.99 11.2) 1.12 { 12.54 || 11.5 -89 |} 10.24 .d 82 | 12.71 14.4 . 74 | 10.66 || 11.2 - 60 6. 72 3.8 98 | 13.52 11.0 -90 | 9.90 || 12.0] . .84 10.08 3.9 1) Ld) Mosdh T270)|) De1Sa| Seopa tens) alsOb Nh ai3s04 .7 | 2.26 | 14.74 12.4 1.17 | 14.51 12.1 1.09 | 13.19 .0 | 1.21 | 14.52 11.2} 1.12 | 12.54 13.5 | 1.01 13. 64 5.0 94 || 140101], 12.21) Nh) StS a eae alee gal e897 5 95 | 9.02 9.0 85 | 7.65 ||. 10.5 79 8. 30 \ | .8| 1.04] 12.27 |] 11.0] .93|10.23]] 9.3] .85| 7.90 .O} 1.21 | 18.15 14.5} 1.10 | 15.95 |} 16.5} 1.01 16. 66 0 86 | 15.48 16.0 81 | 12.96 || 13.6 | 75 | 10.20 .5 | 1.20} 23.40 20.3 | 1.17 | 23.75 18.7 | 1.07] 20.01 .5 | 1.02 | 17.85 16.8 99 | 16.63 | 16.7 | 95 | 15.86 -3 | 1.29 | 17.16 10. 8 8.2 | 1.22} 10.00 5. 1 95 | 14.34 16.5 17.7 -86 |} 15.22 .0 99) 9:90 10. 4 10.0 . 92 9. 20 5.3 75 | 11.48 12.5 11.6 . 63 7.31 2 91 | 9.28 10.6 8.5 - 81 6. 88 0 74 | 11.10 14.8 13.7 - 69 9. 45 pil 75 | 9.82 13.5 15. 2 -70 | 10.64 . 8 97 | 10.48 10. 4 13.7 -93 | 12.74 6 76 | 11.10 14.7 16.0 70} 11.20 A) 91 | 11.38 12 9.8 87 8.53 oil 92 | 15.73 |, 18.1 18.0 85 | 15.30 6 68 | 9.25 14.7 16, 2 63 | 10.21 5 57 | 8.26 14.1 11.5 ol 5. 86 . 0 49} 9.31 18. 4 18. 2 45 8.19 3.3 60} 7.98 9.2 11.0 53 5. 83 9.0 78) 7.02]| 9.0 14.7 .74 =10.88 9 88 | 14.87 || 13.0 7.9 -89 7.08 9 66 | 11.15 |) 15.6 11.0 - 60 6. 60 .2 64} 9.09 || 9.8 10.0 .63 6.30 mt) 71 | 4. 26 5.3 13.0 -64 «8. 32 5.3 71 | 10. 86 15. 8 17.6 69 12.14 sll 71 | 12.14 16.0 17.9 59:10. 56 3.7 80 ; 10.96 10.0 8.4 751 6.30 -o}| 1.10 | 12.65 9. 2 13.8} 1.01 13. 94 pil 82 | 14.02 18.3 16.0 81 | 12.96 a4 71 | 14.48 20.7 19.5 69 | 13.46 3 92 | 15.00 14.4 18.0 87 | 15.66 0 99 | 15. 84 16.6 13.0 97] 12.61 5.9} 1.12 | 17.81 15.3 17.4] 1.04; 18.10 2 90 | 14.58 15.6 15.0 -88} 13.20 0 91 | 14.56 14.7 16.0 -89 | 14.24 0 98 | 7.84 8.0 8.3 88 7.30 8. 0 90 | 16. 20 18.5 18.7 86] 16.08 .5} 1.05 | 19.42 Wie 18.5 |. 1.01 18. 68 BO) LOS QTL oiiene 19.0} 1.00] 19.00 | | 10-YEAR | | AVERAGE, l I | | } 1 | | BBG IST ics no) 3 oto areas Beecere ) 12.0} 1.20 | 13.73 || 11.0} 1.11) 1182+) 11.9, .98) 11.77 rie ee i AOD Bi 2 BSS | 14.6] 1.02 | 14.93 |) 13.9] .96| 13.55. 131] .91] 11.92 ISSO 1805 acs 2.) Sc Seats eee ce [eee h ee | 14,4 74 | 10. 44 | 13.9 -70 | 9.63 | 14.3 . 69 9, 80 AS96=1905 5.5, —-- 14.0 Pe aoe | | See rAcis cl ate cyace cee | oe epee | Sesre Seaena | Se eee | ee 15.5 rit 11.00 NR6OS Sone 14.1 - 63 Cet | Sees Aeesoe MAP ariel |bGcm eat ee eer cee an = 17.8 40 7.12 1 by | PERE ee 13.0 Oe O66) | ae eaee teen Be ostibeel || Sh cshellseakseelle sss sin= 14.4 aay; 8. 21 I bey bee Pee 13.4 POF | ASSIS NS cress Sisco Ppa | ee ee ee | 10.3 81 8.34 1 A Be 8.8 1225; '}' D100) || 522-56 2 | i Se a ee a Se ee Loe, 69 8. 42 Ly Sj eee eae 12.8 EOFs) TS SU || Fee eee Se ae a ct eeemeel | ee ate hee oe 15.5 69 10. 70 Ta 7Aa Soe 13.5 7. LOM02' || 525 Se 2] Ae ee eee | ee | ae ee 11.6 54 6. 26 iby (AR AP aeaeee 9.0 83 eA |W soe ae ol lese ae ctaco steel | eres moa Seen | eee 9.8 56 5.49 Ly eae See 12.4 B21) TOSV 7 il Fase nA ae carte cal sneer | | (eae | ke re oe en Te 72 8. 28. ik aeG See 14.0 OT 1358) || FS Bae cae oe ae | a eee | eee eee ee 15.0 81 12.15 iG G\3 Bee aeSSe 11.0 67 (6cy al ||P eer baesees poreme st eek ae get ee ale Ooo 13.1 49 6.42 1879 =. 4s 14.0 i C0) Ue BC: ein cee ae melee es ee Srsclis OU: onc 11.3 . 84 9.49. 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Price. | Value. | Yield. | Price. | Value.|| Yield.| Price. } Value. | | Bush. | Bush Bush. Bush. TREGE:.. e288 4 ECONO] ETL Pak Spates a mE (0 UB 1] 12:0) || SL OLN SID: 2s ee ae eb TE tes ee 9.5 | 1.72 | 16.34 || 8.0] $1.79 |$14.32 G5: | MB [PTE SOE tema On epee cee Ee ee 9.1] 1.63 | 14.83 7.3] 1.86 | 13.58 6.0 | 1. ent eee eee 9.0} 1.39 | 12.51 |] 11.5 £99) MEBS' ||| Med! | ies (ty (ga eee 9.7 | 1.36 | 13.19 9.7} 1.36] 13.19 |} 11.7] 1. ARTES ee ee ONO) |Peaeth 43) |p 4b S30) eee. | eee | ee 11.5 ‘hy ae 10:3) 2 Ie BO) | eso ee | Re eS eee 18.5 (ey Gh Ea 9:6 PMOL |et5s 46:1) Meee 2: |e eee 17.0 eye ee or ee 9.2] 6 N58 (4854! ||| ee es 12.5 1ST Se EY: LILO: PUES PAO 5 ||| SS: Re | 18.0 ICY Gee as eese Fe |b AUS QBN) AOETZO) || Boe ae | ee ae 13.0 ISiesa mask: SONI MESS: | holis OF) || Seee | ene | Rie: 12.0 1S7S = = s-8st: - GUSH) MUS 12 ONL sl | ee 28 eee | 16.0 (ny CO See pee ee D8 Bie 36) | GeO: || sean ee | oe eee 7.6 TS80 ns seee = 6.8: IE 9 PSE 77, ||| Ae ee ee | ee 8.0 (S810 = 5.6} 1.60] 8.96 3.3 | 1.50 | 4.95 || 12.7 A883 o ares ek! : ECGS) PR Gea BBCUl TOR I) ceo te Ghai TESS Sache Ee 5 O.a|¢ A1820 "| 1GHOO || sae. hh eee ee Renee S55 ISSA 55 Oe. fs GEO) slay) eas CO be aedae hescasa|-ososck 10.0 HSS) ss5.ee2se = ON SLOAN) ESS |e cceaalbeseaonllsassaae Tie ASSGmee soe fee ALO) (pentose 0) |i 145,40))| | ees ers eee | eee | 10.2 iy Sop esceece 7.5 EQ5: [ice 2 | eee cc A ene 10.0 ASS A PS 52 G6 3i [4 MOS Gr62 || ees 2. Cee eee 10.6 TORO 2 Ae eee 6.5 ATEN We Bal i rea He ay UA ah 10.3 TOONS we 2 AUF MENON Toe 7, ||| Se 2 |e eee | ees 7.0 Te Sal als O0) | uae SON| | aa ee =| amore | Renee || 12.0 6.8 CO GION enGhe sal aaosede| be stece ieel2a3 ais G5 le Oso acl Pete cece «| meee 10.5 9.8 Aga E-AEZIS Faye | |e cael awe alsa | bd 15.1 1.3 8.0 610 7488: || | eee 2 Cee ee 5.7 1.4 8 8.5 25: | BkOr || eee |e eee eee | 41.7 75 | 8.78 || 13.0 68 | 8.84 10.0 GONE DE 90i|| |e lh aes eee 15.8 89 | 14.06 || 19.0 76 | 14.44 13.9 SBN | PUNE 5A ae ee 2 | eee er een 14.8 68 | 10.06 || 14.9 52 7.75 77 7S GUO) ||| Wee a teary | eee 11.1 68 | 7.55 || 13.3 53 7.05 9.6 84: EISEOG | ee | emer | eee 18.4 64 | 11.78 || 19.0 53 | 10.07 8.8 ee ery alles eel tera ae eae 8.9 78 | 6.94 || 15.8 64} 10.11 8.0 B85: | 2 OL SO) eee | ene sl eee mee 9.0; .77] 6.93 || 11.3 ei 6. 67 8.0 SOS Te 4d | Cee | Regen pel pee 13.4 78 | 10.45 |} 14.5 . 64 9, 28 SES NOLS | SEO | tence «| Nee eee eee ne TOBA IO Talyee || Gai -94 | 11.37 TV Fie aes Be 10.8 5 101 OF 26's |Mseoe tes | (Sie tepa ea [pena 8.9 88 | 7.83 8.5 .70 5.95 HODG os eects 10.0 Efe IES Sec Um | [a ree ls 2 11.5 7| 8.86 || 13.7 . 56 7.67 A een ee ee 11.0 288 uli OOS) | eps toads al sarees cee | eopeeeetee 7.4 99 | 7.33 9.0 83 7.47 CY es comme ae AMS |e Sue | | eee | een 11.0 98 | 10.78 || 11.6 -88 | 10.21 LOOG so ee. t= 1110) |6 De 20g e132 31) || Re ess |e em eee 9.1] 1.18 | 10.74 |} 12.8] 1.01 | 12.93 MOOS cee cee PASO) |e 165 e165 24 eee | ees | eee 15.0 98 | 14.70 || 16.3 .87 | 14.18 AOU coe tee 12NO) | 100 |G 12005 esr ear | cee es Se 9.4] 1.00} 9.40 8.0 92 7.36 AGI ee ee 12.0 G7 ele VE564 | ec (hres | See 15.0 93 | 13.95 || 12.8 75 9. 60 HOLS ieee nee se 14.0 955) 139800 lesa. Zee noe 17.5 94 | 16.45 || 10.0 82 8. 20 iC ele TSNOUN E25 ah LBa25: | Bernt |e ee cea | ete 13.0 99 | 12.87 || 19.0 -92| 17.48 HOLD owners oe « 2040) Me Os OT OO) | | ees yon | ee | ee 15.5 | 1.07 | 16.58 || 11.6 .89 | 10.32 10-YEAR | AVEBAGE. 1866-1875 ..... O72 eso eT BERS MB ss ee Ge ees 12.8 IS76-1885 5 ool) Grou Deen Wn ied) fees ae cleseectee | Span! 10.8 1886-1895..... 6.9 93:10 O424 | Peete. | eee sae |e paett 10.4 1896-1905..... 4 1 R|| ae a |e oe Ee = aoe | } 1906-1915..... 524 iil) Meee A eee | ee WHEAT, YIELDS PER ACRE AND PRICES. 13 Wheat, yrelds per acre and prices, by States—Continued. Arkansas. Montana. | Wyoming. | Colorado. Year. Yield. | Price. | Value.|| Yield.| Price. | Value.|| Yield.| Price. | Value.|| Yield.| Price. | Value. } ah os > se = was be entenn | Bush || Bush || Bush | Pa EC ha iceeeee Serena eae ccc eee a Gey pics) Cet tt old || Sere eee! eee pee ec eee ie CO GEOR Tene eon) eae seaccrc Pace teat tee ween the aoe NL ee |, See 1.49 | 20.12 | 265c ccd leeanand| oboe call|SonceesloscoddolsassaalllAaosorelloetercellosecaece 1520} | e145 LY [esata Moe 2 Seis | occa Potee atalio = Ae Se Se APs 2 essa eoreyoiestell oe eT WL ONGAS ies eee eet nee eal ea ee rales wee ote c te Hee ots Aly oe | | TS Tiles sess a eet Tubs Gel Ane mealaaeereel neeccorl | |somcee.cl eecrcna Facets | tbecre elloeeeee er: Bat [Nei 24 aoe se eee TOK25 4) eet |) ee ee ee eclescoess|eocccac |J----2--|-------]---5--- | eee eee meee ee eee. R73 ee ee ae se 2 10,0) WsGi3 || WEED Nico seecrlteocesa|oecsee|l|aen2coclasscsodimoedecs Herd saw asl cose li eee 1 edry iors Ap Ul Rigo 1105 3.) Sala yAll 1 Sete ee ee aeel|Oaeeser nodes. H SPs eeceecarial Iessrts Wisesehalis-doa3s le 'saeaee iG dy wane 12.3 CRAG Paha y4:lli abe evens! i hate eicicscte | | eee reed ne orien ||S eee Sere cee |sacte se ne | | TSVGT. esse: 8.2 60 |) eID oeAeoscl|ecanedy| ee cesualllsocscac||>oocecelasconelllaanenselbetcedolanssndic IGG Himes gen ee 9.0 oft) || Ge OF || aoce secon soccs|hoos=cs|||soceaes||>sacces|lonececa||lsosacen|ecocseulecene nc Tbe fees Wee ia 6.0 aoe, StU | Se eaesol SR Se ees ces| | aereierael | deeeaeel eeepc dodesnallocogeallonnsess 1879....- GO| TG \ SbBOIoonceseleeacoselloe ooze |czoeeeelscosees|[osescee ease es Eero t's Bae SSO ee es ZoO || WOH | Wee oes cecleetosee|oe=522ai|locdoces|ecscesc|asorsor 17.0 | $0.95 | $16.15 {GE 28 sees ApH ect EGO) Merete) Sees onl oN sere II\eeeoesalicecceaslonscene 19.8] 1.33} 26.33 IGE D> ao meena Wo .99 | 7.23 |! 16.0 | $1.45 !$23.20 || 16.0 | $1.20 |819. 20 16.8 94! 15.79 1WoStetee ee Gbil | a3 | GH 16.3 92 | 15.00 15. 2 98 | 14.90 21.0 96 | 20.16 TISAI ty Tpit ah AG OB) WoW 18.0 70 | 12.60 16.0 73 | 11.68 20.0 56 | 11.20 TGSH ee ee 6.5 | 1.00] 6.50 20.4 | 77 | 15. 71 20.8 80 | 16. 64 19.8 82] 16.24 | TSRGw ee ae tas 7.8 .85 | 6.63 || 17.0 75 | 12.75 || 18.9 70 | 13. 23 19.8 70} 13.86 [ICR 7/ ones ee eae 9.9 82} 8.12 18.0 (Op 32080! | Paracas (eye ree eee a 21.0 a fay |) La as ASRRe oe sete ose 9.7 -95 | 9.22 || 16.5 SOU TARO 2M eeepc reyes =| pete lay 17.5 90 | 15.75 TSSOe hia. 7.6 -85 | 6.46 || 18.1 TDy Sy OS I Nseeree tce ere ls 21.2 72.| 15.96 PROM eto ses ce 7.1 .98| 6.96 || 17.0 SOULS AGO eee secs [se sesee 18.5 81 | 14.98 PSO Ms oy ese oc 9.6 -90| 8.64 20.0 84 | 16.80 20. 0 82 | 16.40 20. 2 73 | 14.75 SQIs > Lae. 8.2 80 | 6.56 Palin) 69 | 14. 84 17.5 66 | 11.55 19.1 58 | 11.08 RO Sie soe 2.0 35 | 5.20 21.5 60 | 12.90 18.7 65 | 12.16 13. 2 52 6. 86 TIfSToy/ te Se eae 8.8 55 | 4.84 || 24.8 54 | 13.39 19.6 63 | 12.35 17.9 65) 11.64 tes See 9.4 59 | 5.55 || 23.9 73 | 17.45 26. 0 64 | 16. 64 23. 5 56} 13.16 ASOGw Ub tee 8.0 5 Chl |) Bee) 26. 5 66 | 17.49 24.5 62 | 15.19 || 17.5 61 | 10.68 ASOT ce a 10.5 E840 18282) ||) 8245 68 | 22.19 25. 0 70 | 17.50 24.0 70 | 16.80 TWROSHE AF aac 11.0 .58 | 6.38 || 29.5 58 | 17.11 23.7 69 | 16.35 26. 3 56] 14.73 NOG. 2 gee 8.6 -64 | 5.50 25.7 61 | 15. 68 18.8 67 | 12.60 23.7 57 | 13.51 HOO eee 10.1 -65 | 6.56 26. 6 | 61 | 16.23 |) 17.6 76 | 13.38 22.6 59} 13.33 | OO 1 ee eel. 8.8 -78 | 6.86 26. 5 | 67 | 17.76 24.5 69 | 16.90 24.1 67) 16st 1902... 9.1 -67| 6.10 26. 0 62 | 16.12 |} 23.5 81 | 19. 04 18.0 75 | 13.50 1OO3. SES. = (ON enon ae 28. 2 | 66 | 18.61 || 20.9 74 | 15.47 26. 6 66 | 17.56 190i ee 10.1 | 1.01 | 10.20 || 293.9] .89 | 21.27 || 22.1 90 | 19.89 | 22.8 91 | 20.75 WOO beet ee ci 7.9 -wy | 7.11 23.8 | 71 | 16.90 25.4 72 | 18.29 25.0 70 | 17.50 AQOGS.). det ee 10.8 .75 | 8.10 24.0 | 64 | 15.36 |) 28.7 73 | 20.95 32.5 Ga) |) -2iel2 OW ocoscteese 9.5 -95 | 9.02 28.8 | 81 | 23.33 | 28.5 77 | 21.94 29.0 78 | 22.62 1908S. 62h E.- 10. 0 -95 | 9.50 24. 2 | 86 | 20.81 || 25.4 85 | 21.59 21.0 88 | 18.48 1OOOe. Los. 4. 11.4] 1.10} 12.54 30. 8 | 87 | 26.80 || 28.7 .99 | 28.41 29.5 93 | 27.44 1910... 13.9 .94 | 13. 07 22.0 | 86 | 18.92 25. 0 95 | 23.75 22.3 82] 18.29 TWihl se Bae ss5ee 10.5 90 | 9.45 28.7 | .77 | 22.10 | 26.0 94 | 24.44 18.9 84] 15.88 1 (OI ey ae eee 10.0 94 | 9.40 || 24.1 .64 | 15.42 || 28.7 80 | 22.96 24.2 73 | 17.67 LOWS oe Sees - = 13.0 90 | 11.70 || 23.8 -66 | 15.71 || 25.0 72 | 18.00 |} 21.0 78 | 16.38 AOIAR oe. - - 13.0 99 | 12.87 || 20.2} .91 | 18.38 22.9 89 | 20.38 | 23.8 87} 20.71 IMG so anesees 12.5) 1.01 | 12.62 || 26.5 . 78 | 20. 67 26. 5 78 | 20. 67 24.2 80} 19.36 10-YEAR AVERAGE. 1866-1875. .... HORS Vest eloe cal IE 8a ee |E aa cts | semen le see sates cieete le order ee | [tc eee lh=, = 2) | ps Nene 1876-1885... .- Ce eet PTA Be (he dA | Oe ee i a ee | ee en ee eee 119.1] 1.93 | 117.64 1886-1895... .- 8.6 .79| 6.82 || 19.8 o2ot | TASS). sees ees |e eee ae 19.2 69 | 13.31 1896-1905... .- 9.1 -76 | 6.87 26.9| .67! 17.93 || 22.6 73 | 16.46 23.1 67} 15.45 1906-1915. .... 11.5 94 | 10.83 | 25.3 . 78 | 19.75 |; 26.5 84 | 22.31 24. 6 81 | 19.80 16-year average—1880-1885. 14 BULLETIN 514, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Wheat, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. New Mexico. Arizona. Utah. Nevada. Year. Yield. | Price. | Value.|| Yield. | Price. | Value.|| Yield. | Price. | Value.|| Yield. | Price. | Value. Bush Bush Bush. Bush TSAG eee eee ee pencnes [bccn ae lasceenslecaceeel pease Jrcccsce|eececce[eeeceee|ereee eee eeeeee 1 ay Bees see! Based SARSRS=5 Bae RSRS | SCASSHs RABerce moscrce eee e eee eee e eee |e eeeee|leee eee e[e eee eee] e eee. D6, nn SSS | De Dd ee eae | ee ees 117) ee a ee BSSa8sd PR anand becss5e)|/Seseaed Kecssce soce sa ||soesced lsocidasciy= -ceecils=aeo¢/ specs serasss TE yY/ Maps so cod bottosd Sass 4 Laces Satiseeel Hakdacd bechcen| Gass dics-tccdlsoscnce 23.5 | $1.50 | $35, 25 ASTU Sc Ale Sacra fence cee se secs [eeaecae Rats Sate Roe Oee ee emer ereeev ate | eens 24.0] 1.75] 42.00 U7 7 eds Ml | eid Ee, Fe hl | need inte arn | Sepiesal sete sales css 25.0] 1.75} 43.75 FOOT ce ee ee eceeee [mena oe |[eecoece tamer | PEReeee ee Sao a= See 20.0} 1.75] 35.00 Bagh Aba ee |e eee [es ee no [mie Peale tite (he Bae [ear peel loafe eel eee 19.0] 1.75] 33,25 TF £5 ain Sage) | miei US ed IF Sees | [A ES ag | nese | sieae da at (ede aes |Seee ee 18.0] 1.20] 21.60 icy (Tepe Sot ee Ba Sneb oud bonesee| boocsal bescocsl|-aeSon5lcsoatss Hein? sjmra | Sa conccd hice =ed5 18.2; 1.10} 20.02 117 See eee Hes oned| Sesenee -Scatae | Scomhna | coossa kesbees | Geeeace eee beet | eee eee ee UA 7 epeain s ( | ete ee | (eke eee re Setleacho lope tos Sees st See erates eee TS7OS ser [ee Soe eee |e SE a es ee eee ae Ths wis coe dares oo | serach | meer are aN TSAO EA eae belle Soe cleo cnaes| desc lbeamene lbessaee eemeees | Boeceee | Seeaee: |S aeeee 17.0} .95} 16.15 Ieee SE A Alee ses sa Heosens tencosal||soendbalacoesaincconce SEReapaeaaae -Clieoasace 14.5] 1.20) 17.40 cop Ee eee 12.0 | $1.50 |$18.00 || 14.2 | $1.40 )$19.88 |; 15.3 | $0.92 )$14.08 |} 21.0] 1.20} 25.20 if eee Oe eee 15.0| 1.05] 15.75 || 14.1] 1.05] 14.80'| 19.0] .92].17.48|| 183] 1.10] 20.13 TREE a aes 13.6 -90 | 12. 24 13.4 -75 |} 10.05 18.0 - 82 | 14.76 18.9} 1.00] 18.90 oe ee eee 14.0 | 1.02 | 14.28 14.0 -95 | 13.30 19.9 61 | 12.14 18.5 -92| 17.02 ARRG et baat eo 11.4 . 70 7.98 13.5 -93 | 12.56 15. 2 -62} 9.42 12.9 aude) 9. 68 TRO E A Pea ss 4 15.0 -90 | 13.50 13.5 . 82 | 11.07 19.0 .61 | 11.59 19.9 .80] 15.92 PSR ees 22 15.0 -95 | 14.25 15.0 -90 | 13.50 16.3 . 76 | 12.39 16.0 -92| 14,72 TSR ge 12.7 aie | okad 13.0 .75 | 9.75 15.3 .75 | 11.48 18.3 Ay at BP [RSG is Sey 12. 2 -95 | 11.59 12.0 90 | 10.80 | lee . 78 | 13.65 1635) -86] 11.61 1b IRS) 82] 9.43 14.5 75 | 10.88 17.5 = 05) |) 1s} 18.3 . 87 15. 92 13.8 80 | 11.04 15.6 78 | 12.17 17.3 - 62 | 10.73 19. 2 -75 | 14.40 16.8 75 | 12.60 17.5 65 | 11.38 13.8 -60] 8.28 14.7 -73} 10.73 18.0 88 | 15. 84 17.0 1.00 | 17.00 22.0 - 53 | 11. 66 20.0 715 15. 00 20. 4 73 | 14.89 20.5 65 | 13.32 || 22.4 -44] 9.86 21.7 -49 |} 10.63 21.0 66 | 13. 86 23.0 . 80 | 18.40 || 26.5 - 68 | 18.02 30.0 .69 | 20.70 24.0 75 | 18.00 18.0 iAaliletoe, 21.0 -68 | 14. 28 24.3 -90 | 21.87 23.8 62 | 14.76 ol. 7 92 | 29.16 28.0 54 | 15.12 29.0 95) 27.55 13.8 61 8.42 15.3 64} 9.79 20.7 53 | 10.97 18.0 76 | 13.68 21.0 68 | 14.28 14.6 79 | 11.53 20.9 55 | 11.50 24.5 70 | 17.15 2125 72 | 15.48 21.8 -85 | 18.53 20.5 70 | 14.35 25.1 88 | 22.09 iyo 86 | 14.71 18.7 | 1.05} 19.64 21.2 76 | 16.11 27.1 98 | 26.56 18.4 75 ; 13.80 25.3 -93 | 23.53 22.6 80 | 18.08 27.6 99 | 27.32 19045 See Ss 12.8} 1.06} 13.57 25.5 | 1.13 | 28.82 26.6 86 | 22.88 26. 2 92 | 24.10 10 Oe a2 5 252% 22.2 90 | 19.98 | Pepe) lai We Gal 26.4 67 | 17.69 27.0 77 | 20.79 1906 Ae ies 25.0 83 | 20.75 25.2 | 1.03 | 25.96 27.4 65 | 17.81 31.5 85 | 26.78 190 fe. Ses: 2 24.0 93 | 22.32 || 25.9 1.05 | 27.20 28.8 74 | 21.31 32.0] 1.04] 33.28 19085 3223 2283 25.0 94 | 23.50 26.7 | 1.20 | 32.04 26.5 85 | 22. 52 30.0} 1.13] 33.90 MG00 eee Po oc 24.5 | 1.17 | 28.66 25.0 | 1.39 | 34.75 25.9 90 | 23.31 28.7] 1.04| 29.85 CO eee 20.0 1.00 | 20.00 22.3 | 1.20] 26.76 22.1 84 | 18.56 26.5] 1.09 | 28.88 13) Ree es ae 22.9 1.00 | 22.90 29.6 95 | 28.12 PPA -70 | 15.61 28.3 95 | 26.88 it) Ve eee 20.9 90 | 18. 81 30.7 | 1.10 | 33.77 PU .75 | 19.28 23.2; 1.00] 29.20 IIS 3 je se 18.8 97 | 18. 24 32.0} 1.10] 35.20 24.2 .73 | 17.67 27.7 82) 22.71 pie ao ee ae 24.2 90 | 21.78 28.0] 1.25 | 35.00 25.0 - 86 | 21.50 29.6 95 | 28.12 (ta 22.2 90 | 19.98 28.0] 1.15 | 32.20 25.7 - 86 | 22.10 29.6 95} 28.12 10-YEAR AVERAGE. | ISG6-18755 2 o2elbcees oJ eenieeee se eee | ee eee -eecccc | Sees eects ciscidoc 121.6 | 11.62 | 135.14 1876-1885. c|icc od cables ee |dc Secles || Bee ereee] bos cine cael bclee cto crc tees | Eero 218.1 | 21.07 | 2.19.26 1886-1895... .- 14.7 82 | 12.04 15.2 -81 | 12.24 17.6 65 | 11.22 17.4 ote tr 43523 1896-1905... .. 19.6 76 | 14.69 21.6 -90 | 19.89 23.4 68 | 15.90 25.9 -85 | 22.18 1906-1915. .... 22.8 95 | 21.69 27.3 | 1.14] 31.10 25.4 79 | 19.97 29.3 98 | 28.77 16-year average. 27-year average, WHEAT, YIELDS PER ACRE AND PRICES. 15 | Wheat, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. Idaho. Year. Yield.| Price. VSS 2 ares rile 16.0 | $1.40 ES Se peaseoe 15.3 90 W884 ere octet - 18.9 ~ 712 BE. socasanbe 18.5 15 TD 5 5 sdanspoe 15.9 -12 Rilo oeeodasoe 17.5 U7 Tes < G5 sane6 16.3 87 I) oecoeasos 17.8 tid 1890.......... 16.5 78 1891. ........- 20.6 . 84 Ne Aeon cabne 22.0 - 60 USER). -rosecsce 19.3 60 te Stonesnoas 20. 6. 46 eB ep eoscsoe 17.8 247 1 ROGE eee 24.5 -65 UW (6 5 ee sonics 22.0 - 70 Ieee se sae oce 31.0 ol ieee spoeoasos 24. 2 -50 TOOO syareateiciielsi= 20. 8 - 46 MOG apodesons 21.2 -61 IPAS S oeoossee 22.1 70 ISB Gebsoegne 21.1 75 IG Sec aosoee 22.9 - 80 1905. ..-.....- 28. 2 - 66 19062. 3-22 = 2) 24,4 - 60 WS sosesaone 25. 3 67 HGOR tcc es 28. 2 74 ASOD eeijecinrs =e 27.8 87 AGIOS eases era/2 22.6 712 AGE T reese 30. 7 - 66 OND sede imc 28. 6 - 66 eT Bear dass 27.6 63 AGUA ee ins 26. 2 87 ahh Gy eases 28. 0 . 80 10-YEAR AVERAGE. eras Sac Saosoed Geedess besS5or By (Ca Eis Sees becasee Hocoses Hebenoe 1886-1895. ..-. 18.4 . 69 1896-1905... .. 23.8 - 63 1906-1915..... 26.9 72 i} Value.|| Yield.) Price. | Value. Washington. 16.5 | $0. 83 18.7 85 12.6 - 60 17.5 12 17.0 67 18.0 67 18.5 78 16.5 70 18.5 16 17.5 75 17.2 58 20.3 - 48 16.6 39 15.5 Al 18.0 ~74 23.5 - 68 24. 2 04 22.7 OL 23.5 51 29.1 47 22. 2 65 20.3 . 69 22. 2 80 24.6 - 66 20. 8 62 26. 0 15 18.8 82 23. 2 93 16.9 78 22. 7 > a1 23.5 - 68 23. 2 13 23.5 | 1.00 25.7 - 82 17.6 -62 23.0 - 62 22.4 78 15. 90 Oregon. California. Yield.| Price. | Value. Bush 19.0 | $0.85 |$16.15 19.5 95 | 18.52 19.2 1.04 | 19.97 18. 2 . 74 | 13.47 19.0 -90 | 17.10 19.5 .68 | 13. 26 17.6 87 | 15.31 17.0 . 70 | 11.90 20.0 1.11 | 22.20 21.0 .92 | 19.32 16.0 .98 | 15. 68 17.0 . 73 | 13.26 17.2 88 ' 15.14 16.7 ~85 | 14. 20 16.5 .90 | 14. 85 18.0 48] 8.64 15.9 .69 | 10.97 12.6 68 8.57 17.5 .68 | 11.90 16.3 78 | 12.71 16.2 70 | 11.34 14.5 75 | 10.88 19.0 . 88 | 16.72 15.7 .64 | 10.05 7/55) 55 | 9.62 iT 7 - 43 7. 61 20. 0 .47 | 9.40 17.0 .72 | 12.24 17.0 72 | 12.24 20.5 .62 | 12. 71 19.2 .53 | 10.18 13.8 ay || Tafa) 21.1 . 54 | 11.39 20. 0 .67 | 13.40 18.2 ~77 | 14.01 19.0 . 81 | 15.39 18.6 .68 | 12.65 20.0 . 66 | 13.20 23.4 . 78 | 18. 25 20. 8 . 84 | 17. 47 20. 2 -93 | 18.7! 22.1 . 84 | 18.56 21.0 5 (5) |) 15s, 7A 25. 0 . 72 | 18.00 21.0 SOF | LOnTo 20.8) 1.02 | 21.22 22,2] .84 | 18.65 118.9} 1.86 {116.25 17.5 . 83 | 14,62 16.7 -66 | 10.88 18. 4 -66 | 12.18 21.6 . 81 | 17.56 Yield.| Price. | Value. Bush 20.0 | $1.03 | $20.60 18.2 .93 16. 93 19.0] 1.10] 20.90 11.0} 1.41 15. 51 IDAPF alert 13. 54 13.5 | 1.382] 17.82 13. 2 -99 | 13.07 11.0} 1.18 |- 12.98 13.0] 1.14 14. 82 9.5 1 SON | Pe L235 17.0 1.03 17. 51 14.0 25) 17. 22 16.0 . 96 15. 36 12.0 1.03 | 12.36 13.0 -90} 11.70 13.0 1.00} 13.00 13.2 ai} 9.50 9.4 67 6. 30 11.6 73 8.47 11.0 . 74 8.14 12.1 .85 | 10.28 iB} 8} . 70 9.31 2.0 . 16 9.12 13.0 -95 12.35 13.0 . 68 8. 84 13.3 . 00 7.05 11.3 ROY! 6. 44 13.0 . 60 7.80 14.6 . 83 12.12 10.0 . 83 8. 30 9.1 Br? 6. 55 14.1 62 8. 74 10.3 58 5.97 13.0 . 60 7. 80 10.9 . 80 8.72 11.2 . 87 9. 74 10.8 . 88 9.50 9.3 . 82 7. 63 ea AD 12. 82 15.0 .93 | 14.70 14.6 1.02 14. 89 14.0 1,11 15. 54 138.0 94 16. 92 18.0 -88} 15.84 17.0 -93 | 15.81 14.0 -95} 13.30 17.0} 1.04 17. 68 16.0 -95 | 15.20 214.8 | 21.13 | 216. 42 13.0} 1.00) 13.01 12.4 si. 8.78 11.3 16 8.51 16.1 -96 | 15.27 17-year average. 28-year average, 16 BULLETIN 514, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wheat, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. The Territories. Indian Territory. Year. Yield. | Price. | Value. |} Yield. | Price. | Value. Bush. Bush Lt ee ee ee ee a es | MPa Mm em mse os loans scion = ect eeee ee LEST Ae CPI on 3 es TY eR on A 163.6: | S105 S18. 260i see ae eis beer aU Te SS Sana Ae ae are rea a 32 Nea se Ne sepse ae W209) |), 2 DA 2b 0G hl Sees | see | eee cee ASG 1889" * 25 Sob eae te ee eS eer een ae ttt 215.8 29512 15700!) aaes ee eee eee ee 1886-1805 22.28 2b eels hee ko oo RB an i ee lees E ae | eee | eee eee TRO TOD at a2 Se ha ee bee ee Seer Sea an hee eee reece Cee asl yea seh secs pA 5 CL pe Se ae 5 A | = 2 | I oh 36 Sotilidc aus cncliosccoccd lense eons 18-year average. %-year average. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE WJ i; Sie » AN NA % f Contribution from the Bureau of Crop Estimates. LEON M. ESTABROOK, Chief. Washington, D. C. "4 February 12, 1917 CORN, YIELDS PER ACRE AND PRICES, BY STATES, 50 YEARS 1866-1915. The year 1915 completes the first 50 years of continuous reports by the United States Department of Agriculture of the yield and value of important crops in the United States, by States. The figures relating to corn have been assembled in this circular for reference and as an historical record of one phase of American agri- culture. In the following pages the figures under yield represent bushels per acre; under price, the prevailing price paid to producers on or about December 1; and under value, the product of the given yield and price figures. The States included in the several divisions on pages 2 and 3 are: North Atlantic—Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, and Penn- sylvania; North Central, East—Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, and Wisconsin; North Central, West—Minnesota, Iowa, Missouri, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas; South Atlan- tic—Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, West Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida; South Central—Kentucky, Tennessee, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas; Far West—Montana, Wyoming, Colorado, New Mexico, L-dzoinn, Utah, Nevada, ise, Washington, Oise, and eaiiornia, 71300°—Bull. 515—17 2 BULLETIN 515, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Corn, yields per acre and prices, by States. United States. North Atlantic. North Central, East. Year. SS See Yield. | Price. | Value. || Yield. | Price. | Value. || Yield. | Price. | Value. Bushels.| Cents. Bushels.| Cents. Bushels.| Cents. 25.3 47.4 | $11.99 32. 73.1 | $23.69 34.4 Bond $11.58 23.6 57.0} 13.46 32.0 91.1 29.10 26.9 52.0 13.99 26.0 46.8 | 12.16 34.3 80.6 | 27.63 34.0 38.5 13.08 23.6 59.8 | 14.08 29.8 79.8 | 23.79 24.9 51.5 12. 82 28.3 49.4 13.99 34.7 73.8 | 25.56 37.2 35.9 13.34 29.1 43.4 12.62 34.6 (P41 24.97 37.5 33.7 12.63 30.8 35.3 10. 86 38.2 58.0 | 22.21 39.3 25.4 9.99 23.8 44.2 10. 51 33.7 60. 4 20.38 25.4 34.6 8.78 20.7 58. 4 12.09 32.4 76.4 24.76 23.8 50.6 12.02 29.5 36.7 | 10.81 37.8 58.1 | 21.94 33.6 33.7 11.32 26.2 34.0 8.89 33.7 55.7 | 18.81 28.7 31.9 9.16 26.7 34.8 9. 28 33.4 55.1 18. 41 29.7 31.8 9.44 26.9 31.7 8. 54 35.6 49.7 17. 62 30.9 28.1 8.69 29.2 37.5 10. 94 34.0 58.6 | 19.95 34.9 34.2 11.93 27.6 39.6 10. 91 38.3 56.4 | 21.59 30.5 38.7 11.80 18.6 63.6 11. 82 D5 77.0 | 19.81 21.9 59.0 12.92 24.6 48.5 | 11.94 29.4 74.5 | 21.93 7A fea 51.6 13.99 PPE 42.4 9. 63 26.6 69.7 | 18.53 25.3 42.5 10. 74 25.8 35.7 9.19 31.0 56.2 | 17.44 29.3 34.0 9.98 26.5 32.8 8.69 32.1 53.6 | 17.18 33.3 29.7 9.87 22.0 36.6 8.06 29.3 51.9 | 15.22 27.8 32.8 9.11 20.1 44.4 8.93 32.4 54.4 17.61 21.2 43.9 9.32 26.3 34.1 8.95 31.9 53.9 17.21 34.3 spl 10. 81 27.0 28.3 7. 63 30.1 48.2 14.53 30.2 26.7 8.07 20.7 50.6 | 10.48 28.5 62.7 17. 86 DD 46.2 11.84 27.0 40.6 10.98 33.4 62.4 | 20.83 32.4 39.0 12. 66 23.1 39.4 9.09 31.7 58. 4 18. 51 27.6 39.4 10. 86 22.5 36.5 8. 21 26.3 52.1 13.71 PAPA 35.0 8. 83 19.4 45.7 8. 86 31.6 57.3 18.08 27.5 40.1 11.03 26.2 25.3 6. 64 34.6 41.9 | 14.48 34.8 24.2 8.43 28.2 21.5 6.06 37.8 85.2 13.31 38.9 19.4 7.56 23.8 26.3 6. 26 34.1 36.7 12.50 31.9 22.4 7.14 24.8 28.7 7.10 36.3 41.4 15. 03 33-3 26.2 8.74 75533 30.3 7.66 33.0 42.5 14. 02 35.7 27.7 9.89 25.3 30.7 9. 02 28.6 46.5 | 13.28 37.4 Span Ff 12.25 16.7 60.5 10.09 35.0 65.9 | 23.10 23.1 ant 12. 86 26.8 40.3 10. 81 32.5 60. 4 19. 62 36.8 38.5 14.19 7315) 42.5 10. 82 28.3 58.2 | 16.49 31.9 38.9 12.41 26.8 44.1 11.79 32.9 61.2 20.15 33.7 41.7 14.04 28.8 41.2] 11.88 36.7 56.9 | 20.85 39.2 39.4 15.45 30.3 39.9 12. 06 38.3 54.4 20. 81 38.4 37.5 14.38 25.9 51.6 13. 38 31.3 66.4 20. 74 35.0 47.1 16. 46 26.2 60.6 15. 88 39.3 74.9 | 29.40 BPA 59.7 19.50 26.1 58.6 15.32 33.4 MISCO er Sey 3u.2 53.4 19. 87 Plait 48.0] 13.31 40.3 60.9 | 24.56 37.7 41.6 15.70 23.9 61.8 | 14.79 42.4 71.4 | 30.27 34.9 56.5 19. 69 29. 2 48.7 14. 20 41.4 66.1 27.34 39.8 43.6 17.36 23.1 69.1 15.99 36.8 74.9 | 27.54 32.2 62.3 20.09 25.8 64.4 16. 65 42.0 76.6} 32.20 33.0 61.2 20.18 28.2 57.5) | 16.220he 390 (BBE WNC Bes 36.0 55.3 19.93 26.1 47.8 12.26 34.0 72.3 24. 40 31.7 39.0 11.96 25.5 40.1 9.98 32.0 60.6 19.13 29.2 38.2 10. 85 23.4 38.2 8.78 31.0 54.3 16. 80 28.7 35.9 10.10 2Ds2 oie 9.15 33.5 50.5 16. 84 34.2 34.3 11.45 26.6 56.0 | 14.78 38.5 69.1 26. 60 35.7 18.32 CORN, YIELDS PER ACRE AND PRICES. Corn, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. North Central, West. South Atlantic. South Central. Year. Yield. | Price. |Value. || Yield. | Price. |Value. || Yield.| Price. | Value. Bush. | Cents. Bush. | Cents. Bush. | Cents. UGG Sena saeee 31.3 | 36.0 |$11. 25 11.9 | 75.1 | $8.92 20.3 | 60.3 |$12. 27 1/30) (Sea eeeS 30.8 44.4 | 13.67 14.9 71.1 | 10.63 21.2 52.7 | 11.18 PSOSeracreicrrcs - = 31.9 | 37.6 | 11.98 15.6 63.8 9.93 21.6 45.7 9. 86 USGOE Sh episcies= 33.5 42.2 | 14.13 14.2 81.6 | 11.56 21.3 69.6 | 14.83 PST Open see =ii=7s 31.4 | 36.6 | 11.47 15.3 | 72.6 | 11.08 24.0 | 66.2 | 15.87 Ue eS eee 40.2] 24.8] 9.95 14.9 | 68.1 | 10.18 20.6 | 62.7 | 12.91 GY Pee ees 38.2 | 22.0 8. 43 15.9 62.0} 9.84 23.5 49.1 |} 11.52 WSUSis to sicisie sar = 28.7 30.7 8.79 15.0 64.7 9.69 21.0 | 60.3 | 12.66 STA Ae Sore /o sss 21.1 50.1 | 10.55 15.1 70.2 | 10.58 17.2 67.8 | 11.67 WR (Dares cieieeisis = 36.6 | 23.0] 8.40 15.8 | 58.6} 9.23 22.6 | 49.2 | 11.09 31.4 | 23.9) 7.51 15.0] 50.4] 7.58 22.4 | 37.6 | 8.42 Si Of 23.6 7.73 14.6 55.6 8.10 21.6 43.4 9.37 34.0 | 19.3] 6.56 14.0] 49.3 | 6.93 19.6 | 47.5 | 9.29 36.9 | 24.5] 9.07 14.4] 58.4] 8.40 19.9 | 55.5 | 11.01 32.6 | 29.4} 9.56 17.3 | 53.0} 9.16 22.2 | 47.1 | 10.45 21.7 | 50.9 | 11.07 12.3 | 79.1] 9.71 13.0 | 84.9 | 11.05 29.9 | 37.7 | 11.26 || 15.9 58.9 9.35 |} 20.4 51.6 | 10.51 29.3 30. 2 8.83 | 12.3 61.9 7.60 || 17.8 52.1 9. 26 34.9 23.2 8.10 |} 13.1 60.5 7.95 || 17.4 52.8 9.19 32.5 23.7 7.69 12.9 51.3 6.61 || 19.8 44.1 8.72 24.0] 28.2) 6.77 || 12.9] 52.2] 6.72 | 18.2] 46.5] 8.47 22.3 35.0 7.79 || 14.3 55.1 7.89 || 18.0 51.5 9. 29 31.9 | 25.9 8.27 ||- 12.9 53.6 6.91 |} 19.1 43.2 8. 24 35.4 | 19.7) 6.97 || 18.6 | 49.3 | 6.73 || 19.4] 39.7] 7.70 23.1 | 43.9 | 10.16 13.8 | 59.6 | 8.24 '| 16.4] 61.0} 10.00 32.1 | 32.0 | 10.29 15.8 | 59.2] 9.33 || 20.4] 48.9] 9.99 27.0 32.0 8.64 || 12.8] 53.9 6. 89 18.4 45.2 8.31 27.2 | 28.6 adi 13.6 51.5 7.03 | 17.5 48.0 8.38 15.1 | 42.7). 6.44 ||- 14.3 | 53.5! 7.67) 19.1] 48.31} 9.20 27.2 18.9 5.14 15.4 39.8 6.12 23.0 31.1 enlo 32.7 | 15.9] 5.19 15.2 | 37.0 | 5.63 16.6 | 33.9 | 5.64 25. 4 19.7 5.01 14.6 41.4 | 6.05 17.8 39.8 7.09 24.5 24.2 5.92 15.2 | 40.4 6.13 22.6 32.6 7.39 28.1 24.9 7.00 14.4 | 44.3 6.37 17.9 39.2 7.01 27.7 | 29.9} 8.29 12.9} 53.0) 6.83 17.9| 46.5} 8.31 100) eae Scaeeae 15.6] 54.7) 8.53 || 14.2] 69.6, 9.85 11.9 | 72.5) 8.63 1902R Neeecies se 32.0 | 33.0 | 10.54 14.7 60.1 8. 86 16.8 49.9 8.38 VOUS Re ears 27.9 | 34.51 9.63 15.3 | 61.4! 9.39 22.4 | 50.0! 11.20 GOES se eeice =< 28.7 | 36.2 | 10.39 16.5 | 63.3 | 10.44 23.1) 50.2 | 11.61 HOSS 212 25s. 32.4 | 33.7 | 10.91 16.0 | 60.6 | 9.69 21.8 | 48.2 | 10.51 AQ0G2 ec cca- = 34.1 | 32.5 | 11.08 16.9 | 61.1 | 10.30 24.8} 46.3 | 11.47 OO WES Sefasiarainic 26.8] 44.3 | 11.89 17.8 70.6 | 12.54 21.5 58.8 | 12.61 GOS Bare seiscieis:< 27.4 | 53.4 | 14.65 18.3 | 77.1 | 14.18 22.7) 63.3 | 14.34 1909. ........- 26.7 52.1 | 13.91 18.7 79.8 | 14.90 18.7 68.1 | 12.72 NOIDA cee. 3c- 28.5 | 40.1 | 11.43 19.6 | 72.3 | 14.21 21.5 | 58.3 | 12.55 TOM eres Soe Se. 23.9 | 56.3 | 13.44 20.0 | 78.8 | 15.76 16.1 | 69.7 | 11.20 1) aie 31.5 | 38.6 | 12.17 19.5 | 76.0 | 14.83 21.4} 60.8 | 13.01 1G sae eee 20.7} 62.3 | 12.88 20.5 | 84.2 | 17.29 19.3! 79.1 | 15.30 140) ee eee 27.8} 55.9 | 15.80 19.6 | 82.9'| 16.24 19.2} 71.5 | 13.71 LOWS reece esc 29.1 51.9 | 15.12 20.7 75.0 | 15.55 23.8 58.4 | 13.89 10-YEAR_ AVERAGE. 1866-1875. .... 32.4] 34.7 | 10.86 14.7 | 68.8 | 10.16 21.3} 58.4 | 12.39 1876-1885. .... 31.6 28.6 8.74 14.2| 57.8] 8.14 19.4] 51.7 9.73 1886-1895. .... 26.5 30.7 | 7.82 13.9} 52.8] 7.35 19.0] 46.3 8.67 1896-1905... -. 27.5} 80.7 | 8.14 14.9] 53.1] 7.92 18.9] 46.3] 8.58 1906-1915. .... 27.6 | 48.7 | 13.24 19.2 | 75.8 | 14.58 |} 20.9) 63.4 | 13.08 Far West. Yield.| Price. |Value. Bush. | Cents. 29.4} 90.0 | $26. 46 45.0 | 100.0 45.00 32.3 | 100.8 | 32.53 35.5 | 108.6 | 38.57 32.8 | 104.8 | 34.39 34.0 93.3 31.68 34.1 83.3 | 28.40 32.0 98.9 31.68 30.2 | 104.1 31.40 28.5 | 100.6 28.71 26.9 80.9 21.75 32.4 | 60.8} 19.72 29.0) 84.7} 24.57 29.9 73.6 21.99 30.1 90.1 27.09 ‘| 24.9 91.2 22.68 il] Bajo uL 84.4 19. 49 | 27.4 62.4 17.10 25. 2 69.3 17. 46 | sO GA, 16.08 27.2 63.4 17. 24 23.6 67.3 15.91 24.9 58.1 14. 46 23.9} 66.4 | 15.85 | 27.6 | 68.3 18.85 || 23.7 50.5 11.99 i 22245 5356 | 12:01 20.2 61.8 12.48 24.6 | 47.9 | 11.76 20.9 | 45.7 9. 52 22.5 46.9 10. 56 19.9} 48.4 9. 64 19.8 | 50.9 10. 06 20.8 | 53.9 eal PAY II 72.2 16. 68 21.6 69.7 15.04 23.8 | 65.6 15. 59 24.1) 66.4) 16.01 Aes) || (PLP 16.37 29.6 | 61.0 18. 06 lo ® 73.4 20. 21 25.3 | 79.2 | 20.07 Pilees | (SS || Pale ay 2350) | 7233 16.62 19.9 | 82.1 16.34 PBT || (BEB 14. 97 LOSS tine | loe29 25.9 70.4 18. 25 27.0 | 67.1 18.10 30.5 | 88.4} 30.01 27.7 | 79.8 | 22.06 24.4 | 60.0| 14.66 22.3 58.2 13.07 24.9] 72.5 17.95 4 BULLETIN 515, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Corn, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. Maine. New Hampshire. Vermont. Massachusetts. Year. a eee Yield. | Price. | Value.|) Yield.| Price. } Value.|| Yield.| Price. | Value.|| Yield.| Price. |Value. Bush. Bush. Bush. Bush. PSGG ere eee 33.0 | $0.94 |$31.02 32.0 | $0.95 |$30. 40 33.3 | $0.98 |$32.63 34.0 | $0.93 | $31.62 3.4] 1.14 | 38.08 35.5 | 1.12 | 39.76 36.2 |} 1.09 | 39.46 35.7] 1.10] 39.27 -8 | 1.03 | 30.69 35.0 | 1.06 | 37.10 38.5 | 1.00 | 38.50 37.6 -98 | 36.26 -3 1.01 | 24.54 30.0} 1.03 | 30.90 34.0 | 1.11 | 37.74 34.2] 1.05] 35.91 .0O | 1.02 | 33.66 36.5 -98 | 35.77 39.6 -99 | 39.20 33.0 -88 | 29.04 2 .88 | 23.94 Rey .8d | 30.34 35.6 - 89 | 31.68 34.3] .88] 30.18 3.5 .83 | 27.80 38.2 . 84 | 32.09 39.0 . 74 | 28.86 34.0 -80 | 27.20 .0 .84 | 20.16 BYG5) -85 | 31.88 31.0 .78 | 24.18 35.0 77) 26.95 .6} 1.02 | 25.09 36.4 | 1.01 | 36.76 36.1 -99 | 35.74 32.0 -99 | 31.68 .5 . 84 | 25.62 38.0 .82 | 31.16 37.0 .82 | 30.34 37.0 .83 | 30.71 .0 .72 | 22.32 || 42.0 .72 | 30.24 |} 39.0 .71 | 27.69 || 35.0 -69 | 24.15 .0 .76 | 27.36 42. .77 | 32.72 39.0 .75 | 29.25 34.7 -68 | 23.60 .0 .65 | 26.00 39. -61 | 23.79 41.0 -58 | 23.78 36.0 .62 | 22.32 .0 .76 | 22.80 32. .78 | 25.35 36.0 .73 | 26.28 36.0 -78 | 28.08 4 77 :| 27.26 38. 13 | 27.74 32.0 ~ 71 | 22.72 33.5 -75 | 25.12 .0 -91 | 30.94 34. .87 | 29.75 35.7 .86 | 30.70 || 25.1 -88 | 22.09 L2 -92 | 26.86 23% -96 | 22.46 33.9 .94 | 31.87 21.7 -95 | 20.62 .0 .82 | 28.70 36. ~82 | 29.52 31.0 .79 | 24.49 35.0 -80 | 28.00 BU .75 | 26.02 33. .76 | 25.23 33.2 .65 | 21.58 34.0 ~72| 24.48 .3 .70 | 22.61 33. .71 | 24.00 32.2 .64 | 20.61 34.0 .70 | 23.80 .67 | 21.04 |] 35. .68 | 24.07 || 32.8 .66 | 21.65 || 32.7 .66 | 21.58 -68 | 23.94 34. ¢ .69 | 23.67 35.5 .68 | 24.14 35.4 -70 | 24.78 -75 | 14.48 22. .72 | 16.27 24.3 .66 | 16.04 30.1 .68 | 20.47 .57 | 20.52 36. . 56 | 20.44 35.0 -o9 | 19.25 34.3 54} 18.52 .74 | 26.79 36. .72 | 26,28 33.5 .72 | 24.12 34.5 -70} 24.15 .80 | 30.00 || 35. SU | eae BP .76 | 28.27 || 39.5 -78 | 30.81 .67 | 23.78 37. .65 | 24.57 38.0 .64 | 24.32 38.7 | » .62] 23.99 .62 | 18.79 ale .57 | 18.07 32.4 .61 | 19.76 33.5 62 | 20.77 -72 | 28.73 34.: .76 | 26.07 40.8 -69 | 28.15 34.5 -61 | 217.04 .54 | 22.68 40. -51 | 20.50 45.6 -48 | 21.89 43.9 .52 | 22.83 -47 | 17.39 || 34. .45 | 15.30 || 35.0 -43 | 15.05 |} 32.5 -47 | 15.28 -48 } 19.20 || 41. .46 | 18.86 |} 43.0 -44 | 18.92 40.0 .49 | 19.60 -49 | 19.11 36.0 -47 | 16.92 || 36.0 -51 | 18.36 -56 | 20.72 40.0 .50 | 20.00 || 38.0 .54 | 20.52 . 78 | 30.03 40.0 .73 | 29.20 |} 40.5 -76 | 30.78 -73 | 17.01 21.8 .68 | 14.82 |} 31.3 74} 23.16 .63 | 13.23 23.4 .62 | 14.51 24.0 .66 ; 15.84 .72 | 19.66 |} 35.9 .73 |. 26.21 36.0 .72 | 25.92 -69 | 25.53 || 34.7 -68 | 23.60 || 37.5 -70 | 26.25 -50 | 18.00 |} 39. -55 | 19.80 || 37. . 76 | 29.94 |) 38. .74 | 16.06 23. .66 | 19.93 21. -81 | 32.16 27. .69 | 23.67 || 37. .64 | 23.68 |} 37. -75 | 27.75 || 35. .84 | 34.02 |} 39. .80 | 30.40 |} 35. -71 | 32.66 || 46. 5 0 5 0 2 4 0 2 8 4 3 6 5 5 8 8 7 3 2 -47 | 17.39 || 42.0 -45 | 18.90 || 41.0 .38 | 15.58 || 43.0 -46 | 19.78 0 0 0 0 5 3 0 3 0 5 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 .90 | 39.60 45. 82 | 36.90 41.0 - 80 | 32.80 44.0 .83 | 36.52 -75 | 30.00 46. 75 | 34.50 40.0 . 72 | 28.80 45.0 -77 | 34.65 . 87 | 33.06 37. 81 | 29.97 37.0 .81 | 29.97 40.5 85 | 34.42 . 88 | 40.48 46. 82 | 37.72 47.0 - 81 | 38.07 47.0 -85 | 39.95 .85 | 34,85 45. 76 | 34.20 46.0 . 84 | 38,64 47.0 -80 | 37.60 10-YEAR AVERAGE, | 1866-1875.....| 29.3 .96 | 28.06 30.0 95 | 33.62 36.0 94 | 33.83 34.6 92} 31.88 1876-1885..... 33.8 .78 | 26.09 35.5 77 | 27.08 35.3 74 | 25.90 32.5 76 | 24.23 1886-1895.....| 34.3 -68 | 23.08 34.5 66 | 22.75 35.5 64 | 22.76 35.7 64 | 22.89 1896-1905 35.1 -61 | 21.35 34.0 60 | 19.84 35.1 57 | 19.48 35.9 60 | 21.55 1906-1915..... 40.8 - 80 | 32.65 41.2 76 | 31.28 40.3 75 | 30.30 42.3 78 | 32 93 CORN, YIELDS PER ACRE AND PRICES. 5 Corn, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. Rhode Island. Connecticut. , New York. New Jersey. Year SS Yield. | Price. |Value. || Yield.| Price. | Value.|| Yield. | Price. | Value.|| Y ield.| Price. | Value. Bush. Bush. Bush. Bush. 27.3 | $0.99 |$27. 03 33.0 | $0.88 |$29. 04 27.0 | $0.81 |$21. 87 43.3 | $0.72 | $31.18 25.7 | 1.17 | 30.07 33.0 1.07 | 35.31 30. 4 -95 | 28. 88 33.1 88} 29.13 27.0 | 1.23 | 33.21 34.0 1.00 | 34.00 32.0 - 83 | 26. 56 37.5 SUES | 27/5705) 25.2) 1.01 } 25.45 31.2} 1.03 | 32.14 27.1 . 82 | 22.22 30.8 5 fs) |} 28}, 1) 26.0 -95 | 24.70 26:4) 1.02 | 26.93 34.0 -78 | 26.52 33.0 -73 | 24.09 27.3 - 89 | 24.30 31.4 -96 | 30.14 33.0 74 | 24. 42 36.0 -67 | 24.12 30.0 - 80 | 24.00 31.2 - 81 | 25.27 37.5 ~62 | 23.25 39.5 -55 | 21.72 28.7 -85 | 24. 40 30.0 -87 | 26.10 31.0 .64 | 19. 84 36.0 57 | 20.52 24.3 1.06 | 25.76 30.0 1.06 | 31.80 30. 0 . 84 | 25. 20 35.0 -74} 25.90 27.5 -96 | 26. 40 29.0 87 | 25. 23 34.0 -65 | 22.10 41.0 5a |) PAL BY7/ 35.0 .69 | 24.15 32.5 -68 | 22.10 30.0 -62 | 18.60 36. 0 - 51 18. 36 33.0 - 82 | 27.06 29.0 78 | 22.62 32.0 -58 | 18.56 36. 4 . ol 18. 56 32.0 -53 | 16.96 29.6 -62 | 18.35 36.0 -50 | 18.00 36.0 - 45 16. 20 32.0 -75 | 24.00 29.0 74 | 21.46 33.0 -61 | 20.13 34.0 . 58 19. 72 30. 0 -90 | 27.00 29. 0 75 | 21.75 34.8 -o7 | 19.84 41.0 -58 | 23.78 27.0 -90 | 24.30 25.5 -80 | 20. 40 26. 4 e77 | 20.33 23. 2 o Ue 17. 86 23.0 92 | 21.16 20.1 96 | 19.30 P25 (7 | 21.18 28.9 . 76 21.96 32.0 85 | 27.20 30.0 81 | 24.30 23.0 (3 | 16.79 28.0 -65 18. 20 30. 4 78 | 23.71 31.0 65 | 20.15 30.1 -60 | 18.06 32.0 . 04 17. 28 33.5 72 | 24.12 35.0 63 | 22.05 30. 7 -58 | 17.81 32. 0 5 8) 16. 96 B86 eee sa cice 31.5 67 | 21.10 34.3 63 | 21.61 31.3 - 56 | 17.53 iene, - 50 13.60 SSaese Ass =. 32.6 -70 | 22. 40 34.0 67 | 22.78 33.0 -57 | 18.81 30.0 .55 16. 50 SSS eae a)-t-=i6 380. 4 -70 | 21.28 31.2 65 | 20. 28 32.4 -58 | 18.79 32.4 BOS 17.17 PSSOe ere ose at 31.3 56 | 17.53 31.0 54 | 16.74 29.3 49 | 14.36 30. 2 - 50 15. 10 SOO Mv teei sites BL 7 72 | 23. 54 35.7 70 | 24.99 26.6 -§5 | 17.29 31.3 -62) 19.41 V8OU tee! i 34.5 79 | 27.26 36.0 76 | 27.36 31.8 -66 | 20.99 34.2 -65 | 22.23 i elt Pas a Raa 33. 4 5 63 | 21.04 34.5 62 | 21.39 33.0 -60 | 19.80 31.6 -58 | 18.33 SOR Reclame 24.4 69 | 16. 84 28.2 64 | 18.05 29. 5 -o5 | 16.22 2549 5) || BK AY/ 1894. -2..----. 31.4 75 | 23.55 31.0 68 | 21.08 28. 2 -61 | 17.20 33.1 - 4 17. 87 DRO 5S ser iai' =i 30.9 -56 | 17.30 37.9 -51 | 19.33 35.6 45 | 16.02 33.0 -42) 13.86 PROG ae ese wick 34.0 49 | 16.66 38. 0 42 | 15.96 34.0 .38 | 12.92 33.0 -36 | 11.88 PSO ace ae 31.0 -54 | 16.74 31.5 49 | 15.44 31.0 -40 | 12.40 31.5 -38 | 11.97 ROR Rey ese ee 34.0 64 | 21.76 37.0 -52 | 19. 24 33.0 -43 | 14.19 37.0 -40 14. 80 1899.....----. 31.0 53 | 16. 43 39.0 50 | 19.50 31.0 245 | 13.95 39.0 - 40 15.60 19002022555... 32.0 -67 | 21. 44 38.0 55 | 20.90 32.0 -47 | 15.04 33.0 -45 | 14.85 DOOM ee et 32.1 -76 | 24. 40 39.0 75 | 29.25 33.0 -72 | 23.76 36.9 -66 | 24.35 ODP nate 28. 4 -78 | 22.15 31.5 74 | 23.31 25.0 -67 | 16.75 34.5 . 56 19. 32 GOS ere toate 30.1 81 ! 24.38 22.4 67 | 15.01 25.0 -60 | 15.00 24.0 oO 13.68 1904s sein 34.1 - 84 | 28.64 38.9 73 | 28. 40 27.3 -64 | 17.47 38.0 -58 | 22.04 1900 sae Seo ais 32.5 -71 | 23.08 42.7 -71 | 30.32 31.5 -61 | 19.22 35.8 -55 | 19.69 190622 ee 33.1 64 | 21.18 40.0 60 | 24.00 34.9 -59 | 20.59 36.3 -53 19. 24 USOGese ea: 31.2 » 80 | 24.96 33.0 75 | 24.75 27.0 -71 | 19.17 31.5 .63 19. 84 1908. 222-225 42.8 90 | 38. 52 41.3 80 | 33.04 38. 8 -80 | 31.04 38.0 -69 | 26.22 1909...----..- 33. 2 -97 | 32.20 41.0 75 | 30.75 36.0 74 | 26.64 32.7 ofl |} ZR eR) TG) eee 40.0 83 | 33. 20 53. 2 68 | 36.18 38.3 -63 | 24.13 36.0 -60 | 21.60 45.0 95 | 42.75 48. 5 - 83 | 40. 26 38.5 -77 | 29.64 36. 8 71 26. 13 41.5 -88 | 36.52 50. 0 77 | 38.50 38.6 -70 | 27.02 38. 0 -68 | 25. 84 36.5 -99 | 36.14 38.5 85 | 32.72 28.5 . 81 | 23.08 39.5 -75 | 29.62 42.0 98 | 41.16 46.0 - 89 | 40.94 41.0 83 | 34.03 38. 5 76 | 29. 26 43.0] 1.00 | 43.00 50. 0 -85 | 42.50 40.0 .78 | 31.20 38. 0 -75 | 28.50 10-YEAR AVERAGE. 1866-1875...-.| 26.9 99 | 26. 53 30.9 -96 | 29.60 31.6 e@7 | 24.09 36.5 -69 | 25.09 1876-1885... -- 30. 8 ' 29.1 274 | 21.25 30. 4 -63 | 18.93 32.8 -59 | 18.89 1886-1895. - - -- 31.2 33.4 -64 | 21.36 31.1 -d7 | 17.70 30.9 -04 |] 16.75 1896-1905 - - - -- 31.9 35. 8 -61 | 21.73 30.3 - 54 | 16.07 34.3 -49 |} 16.82 1906-1915... -- 38. 8 44,2 -78 | 34.36 36. 2 - 74 | 26.65 36. 5 -68 | 24.95 6 BULLETIN 515, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Corn, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. Pennsylvania. Delaware. Maryland. Virginia. Year. ee Yield. | Price. | Value.|| Yield.| Price. | Value.|| Yield.| Price. | Value.|| Yield.| Price. | Value. Bush Bush. Bush. Bush. SHG lo a oe 34.4 | $0.63 $21.67 16.0 | $0.61 | $9. 76 30.0 | $0.65 ($19.50 20.0 | $0.51 | $10. 20 TY / ASR ae 32.0 . 84 | 26.88 16.3 .73 | 11.90 28. 4 78 | 22.15 20.9 -61 12. 75 TRGS so eae a= 35.0 . 74 | 25.90 25.0 -63 | 15.75 PACE .65 | 18.00 19.3 57 11. 00 18695 -L sso sc 31.4 SEN PEAY: 18.0 200 9. 90 20. 2 -58 | 11.72 15.5 ~72) 11.16 (7 (eee see a eA 35.8 . 67 | 23.99 25.0 -58 | 14.50 22.5 . 64 | 14.40 20.0 58 11. 60 1 Cy ee pe aode 35.5 .69 | 24.50 22.0 .54 | 11.88 23.6 -58 | 13.69 22.6 -60 | 13.56 Ah PSS eas 39.0 -93 | 20.67 20. 0 -49} 9.80 23.0 -50 | 11.50 21.0 51 10. 71 IY Gb Saascecias 35.1 -55 | 19.30 19.0 -49} 9.31 21.4 -63 | 13. 48 19.0 54 10. 26 They Oe Se ee 33. 2 -69 | 22.91 18.0 .63 | 11.34 20.5 . 66 | 13.53 20.0 -58 | 11.60 1S(Oe oe cs = 40.0 -d1 | 20.40 26.0 -90 | 13.00 30.0 . 48 | 14.40 22.0 47 10. 34 STG eee es - 35.0 .50 | 17.50 || 30.0 -46 | 13.80 || 29.0 -45 | 13.05 20. 0 42 8. 40 SET SSeeee see 33.0 -50 | 16.50 22.0 -49 | 10.78 28.0 52 | 14.56 19.6 45 8. 82 1h oy Ce ere 35.0 - 48 | 16.80 25.0 a8} 9. 75 23.5 45 | 10.58 17.5 43 1G? TS79ee eek es 35.0 .54 | 18.90 27.0 -09 | 14.85 30.6 52 | 15.91 19.0 49 9.31 TRSO RSA e aa 40.6 .08 | 21.52 32.0 -90 | 16.00 32.0 49 | 15.68 25.0 42 10.50 165 [es 25.2 .75 | 18.90 14.4 -60} 8.64 24,2 64 | 15. 49 15.0 71 | 10.65 The een ae Sk ae 31.3 .70 | 21.91 18.9 -99 | 11.15 25.9 58 } 15.02 19.1 53 10. 12 TESS ep ee 27.0 . 67 | 18.09 18. 0 -50} 9.00 23:0 51 | 11.98 14.0 - 60 8.40 1 S's ON ae 31.0 .d2 | 16.12 18.5 -43 7. 96 21.8 48 | 10.46 one 56 8.51 Taye See Ss 32.5 -49 | 15.92 19.3 - 40 7. 72 22.0 46 | 10.12 14.9 47 7. 00: 28. 2 -47 | 13, 25 16.6 -42 | 6.97 20.9 43 8.99 15.5 45 6. 98 Boe -50 | 16.10 20.0 - 43 8. 60 27.0 45 | 12.15 17.5 47 8. 22 32.5 -50 | 16. 25 17.4 44 7. 66 23.7 45 | 10.66 16.3 49 7.99 29.8 - 46 | 13.71 17.5 .42 G20 20.6 -43} 8.86 15.9 44 7. 00 27.9 -60 | 16.50 18.5 -90 | 9.25 22.5 50 | 11.25 17.5 .50 9.62 33.3 .57 | 18.98 || 22.0 .05 | 12.10 || 25.5 53 | 13.52 19.7 .50 9. 85 30. 5 200 |) L388 18.7 . 44 8. 23 20. 6 45 9, 27 15.3 -53 8.11 24.5 -49 | 12.00 24.6 -40 | 9,84 24.2 44 | 10.65 18.9 - 46 8. 69 32.0 .d0 | 17.60 22.0 45 9. 90 22.9 50 | 11.45 19.1 47 8.98 33.5 -39 | 13.06 21.0 34 7.14 26.8 wot |) (9392 18.6 Boys 6.88 40.0 .33 | 13.20 || 22.0 .25 | 5.50 |] 32.0 32 | 10.24 21.5 382 6. 88 36. 0 . 34 | 12. 24 29. 0 -30} 8.70 33.0 -30] 9.90 18. 0 38 6. 84 37.0 -40 | 14.80 25.0 31 7. 75 31.0 35 | 10. 85 22.0 .35 7.70 32.0 -41 | 13.12 22.0 34 7.48 32.0 36 | 11.52 20.0 -38 7. 60: 25.0 -45 | 11.25 |} 24.0 38} 9.12 || 26.0 -41 | 10.66 16.0 49 7. 84 35.0 .62 | 21.70 || 30.0 57} 17.10 || 34.2 .58 | 19.84 |} 22.2 59] 13.10 36.1 -98 | 20. 94 28.0 49 | 13. 72 32. 4 51 | 16.52 22.0 52 11. 44 31.2 -o7 | 17.78 27.5 49 | 13.48 28.7 51 | 14.64 21.8 Ruy) 11.55 34.0 .59 | 20.06 30. 4 49 | 14.90 33.4 50 | 16. 70 23.3 09 | 138.75 38.9 .o4 | 21.01 30. 4 47 | 14.29 36.9 48 | 17.71 23.4 -53 12, 40: 40. 2 -52 | 20.90 || 30.0 42 | 12.60 || 35.0 45 | 15.75 || 24.3 .55 | 13.36 32.5 . 64 | 20. 80 27.5 52 | 14.30 34.2 54 | 18. 47 25.0 . 64 16. 00: 39.5 73 | 28. 84 32.0 59 | 18. 88 36.6 62 | 22.69 26.0 Aza 18. 46 32.0 .70 | 22.40 || 31.0 58 | 17.98 || 31.4 65 | 20.41 |} 23.2 74] 17.17 41.0 -59 | 24,19 31.8 52 | 16.54 33.5 58 | 19. 43 25.5 65 16.58 44.5 - 68 | 30.26 || 34.0 61 | 20.74 || 36.5 -63 | 23.00 || 24.0 78 | 17.52 42.5 -63 | 26.78 34.0 51 | 17.34 36.5 -55 | 20.08 24.0 71 17. 04 39.0 . 72 | 28. 08 31.5 99 | 18.58 33.0 5 21.45 25.0 76 19. 76 42.5 .73 | 31.02 36.0 62 | 22.32 37.0 -68 | 25.16 20.5 . 81 16. 60 38.5 - 70 | 26.95 || 31.5 62 | 19.53 || 35.0 -61 | 21.35 || 28.5 71 | 20,24 10-YEAR AVERAGE. 1866-1875..... 35.1 -66 | 22.91 20.5 .58 | 11.71 24.7 -62 | 15. 24 20.0 Ay s 11.32 1876-1885... .. 32.6 -57 | 18. 22 22.5 -49 | 10.96 26.0 -51 | 13.28 17.9 51 8.92 1886-1895... .. 30. 4 -51 | 15. 48 19. 8 -44) 8.70 23,5 -46 | 10.67 17.4 47 8. 23 1896-1905....- 34.5 -48 | 16.61 26. 8 41 | 11.20 32. 0 -43 | 13. 86 21.0 47 9. 91 1906-1915..... 39. 2 - 66 | 26,02 31.9 56 | 17. 88 34.9 - 60 | 20.78 24.7 10 17. 27 CORN, YIELDS PER ACRE AND PRICES. Corn, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. West Virginia. Year. Yield. | Price. | Value. Bush. 29.7 | $0.64 1$19.01 35.0 -56 | 19.60 27.8 -63 | 17.51 30.4 -57 | 17.33 27.6 SOM Lowe: 28.5 -49 | 13.96 29.0 -50 | 14.50 26.5 -55 | 14.58 29.1 -49 | 14.26 28. 2 -41 | 11.56 25.5 -46 | 11.73 27.2 -42 | 11.42 31.0 -46 | 14.26 30.0 -47 | 14.10 PPAF -74 | 16.80 25.4 .58 | 14.73 24.3 -53 | 12.88 20.0 -56 | 11.20 23.8 -40} 9.52 22.8 42} 9.58 19.0 -54 | 10.26 23.8 -48 | 11.42 22.4 -40} 8.96 20.0 .60 } 12.00 PHl8) .52 | 14.20 22.5. .56 | 12.60 21.7 -50 | 11.94 18.5 .57 | 10.54 24.2 -40 | 9.68 30.0 .34 | 10.20 24.5 -40 | 9.80 29.0 .37 | 10.73 26.0 -45 | 11.70 27.0 -60 | 13.50 23.0 -65 | 14.95 26.5 -54 | 14.31 22.6 .64 | 14.46 25.3 .64 | 16.19 29.8 -53 | 15.79 30.3 -55 | 16.66 28.0 -72 | 20.16 31.2 ~@7 | 24.02 31.4 . 74 | 23.24 25.0 .68 | 17.68 Deus .77 | 19.79 33.8 .65 | 21.97 31.6 .80 | 24.80 31.0 -83 | 25.73 31.5 74 | 23.31 1.56 |1 16.28 -90 | 12.82 -90 | 11.12 -51 | 13.16 .72 | 21.74 North Carolina, Yield.| Price. | Value. Bush. 12.0 | $0.78 | $9.36 11.6 74 8.58 14.3 .58 | 8.29 14.8 -79 | 11.69 14.6 -70 | 10.22 14.0 -64} 8.96 16.0 .55 | 8.80 14.2 .59 | 8.38 16.4 -65 | 10.66 15.0 ~92) |) 7280 14.6 -49 W15 14.0 abil 7.14 13.6 45 6.12 15.0 -58 | 8.70 16.4 252) 1) (8255 11.7 79 | 9.24 14.0 3) 7.42 11.5 .65 | 7.48 12.5 -60 | 7.50 9.9 55] 5.44 10.5 aay 5.98 13.4 .59 | 7.91 10.6 -58 | 6.15 12.0 .53 6.36 13.3 5a | 78% 14.1 -58 | 8.18 10.2 - 54 5.51 12.3 -00 | 6:15 13.4 -47 | 6.3 14.5 38 | 5.51 12.0 .o7 | 4.44 13.0 -43 | 5.59 14.0 -43 | 6.02 13.0 -47| 6.11 12.0 57 | 6.84 12.0 -73 | 8.76 13.9 .60 | 8.34 14.7 -61 8.97 15. 2 -62 | 9.42 13.9 .64} 8.90 15.3 .68 | 10.40 16.5 .74 | 12.21 18.0 -79 | 14.22 16.3 -85 | 14.28 18.6 -76 | 14.14 18.4 .82 | 15.09 18.2 .83 | 15.11 19.5 .88 | 17.16 20.3 -86 | 17.46 21.0 o@é | 16.17 14.3 -65 | 9.27 13.3 57} 7.47 12.4 -53 | 6.54 13.4 .00 | 7.34 18.3 -80 | 14.62 South Carolina. Georgia. Yield. | Price. | Value.|| Yield.) Price. | Value. Bush. Bush. 5.9 | $1.10 | $6.49 6.2 | $1.06 $6.57 9.6 atsPA \ Tate 13.1 -69 9.04 10.2 74 7.55 IDET -68 8.64 11.6 1.11 | 12.88 11.0 - 96 10. 56- 8.9 -95 | 8.46 13.5 Sl 10.94 10.0 . 83 8.30 10.3 84 8.65 10.5 -85 | 8.92 IPA) -76 9.50 9.5 -87 | 8.26 117.33 16 9.35 11.0 -90 | 9.90 11.1 .83 9.21 10.2 .87 | 8.87 10.0 15 7.50 8.2 sail 5.82 11.0 BoD 6.05 9.0 -76 | 6.84 10.5 - 66 6.93 9.3 .54 5.02 11.0 61 6.71 7.5 5 1) 5.62 9.3 70 6.51 9.3 Bus 7.16 9.2 .69 6.35 6.7 -99 | 6.63 8.3 sry 8.05 12.0 -68 | 8.16 13.3 .65 8.64 8.0 5163 5.84 8.7 -67 5.83 9.2 - 68 6. 26 10.8 -70 7.56 9.0 - 56 5.04 11.3 -58 6.55 9.1 . 60 5. 46 10.8 - 60 6.48 10.0 -62] 6.20 11.0 -63 6.93 8.7 - 60 5. 22 9.6 -60 5.76 11.5 .54 6.21 11.2 55 6.16 10.2 .70 7.14 10.5 -69 7.24 11.6 . 70 8.12 P22 .69 8.42 10.5 BOG 5.98 11.2 -56 6.27 Wath . 60 4.62 ita il -56 6. 22 11.2 -65 7.28 11.7 -08 6.79 11.1 -46 | 5.11 13.0 41 5.33 9.0 . 46 4.14 11.0 43 4.73 9.0 .49 4.41 11.0 48 5. 28 10.0 -46 4.60 9.0 48 4.32 9.0 . 50 4.50 10.0 -50 5.00 7.0 -64 4.48 10.0 at) 5.70 6.9 84} 5.80 10.0 82 8. 20 10.4 -69 | 7.18 9.0 578) 6.57 10.3 -69 7.11 11.7 .69 8.07 12.4 -70 8.68 11.9 yal 8. 45 10.9 . 74 8.07 11.0 . 70 7.70 12.2 -73 | 8.91 12.0 .67 8.04 15.1 .78 | 11.78 13.0 16 9.88 14.1 -91 | 12.83 12.5 -82 | 10.25 16.7 -90 | 15.03 13.9 -86 | 11.95 18.5 ~62 | 15.17 14.5 2f8 | 1130 18.2 -91 | 16.56 16.0 -83 13. 28 17.9 Oo) | dos 22 13.8 -85 11.73 19.5 -97 | 18.92 Tat) 91 14.10 18.5 92 | 17.02 14.0 -85 | 11.90 16.5 -87 | 14.36 15.0 -78} 11.70 9.7 -90 | 8.75 11.3 81 9.00 8.8 -72!1 6.24 10.3 -68 6.92 10.2 -60 | 6.13 11.2 59 6. 56 9.5 -62} 5.90 10.5 -61 6.40 16.7 -87 | 14.58 14.0 81 11.41 19-year average—1867-1875. 8 BULLETIN 515, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Corn, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. Florida. Ohio. Indiana, Tllinois. Year, aa <= | | Yield. | Price. | Value.|| Yield. | Price. | Value.|| Yield.| Price. | Value.|| Yield.| Price. | Value. | Bush Bush. Bush. Bush. E8005 sem eer sat 13.2 | $1.04 |$13.73 || 38.0] $0.38 $14.44 || 36.5 | $0.31 |$11.32 |} 31.6 | $0.30 | $9.48 WG See scones 11.8 -99 | 11.68 || 28.7 - 59 | 16. 93 29. 2 -47 | 13.72 || 23.8 -49 |} 11.66 TL eee ewes 10.5 | 1.05 } 11.02 || 34.0 -45 | 15.30 || 34.0 -39 | 13.26 || 34.2 32] 10.94 if Bea aeaeape 11.2] 1.15] 12.88}| 30.1 -57 | 17.16 || 23.2 -55 | 12.76 || 23.2 -45] 10.44 ikey(U5 Sed boe 10.8] 1.21 | 13.07 || 39.0 -43 | 16.77 || 39.5 -34 | 13.43 || 35.2 -31}] 10.91 UT bbarisaces 10.7 -98 | 10.49 || 38.5 -40 | 15.40 || 35.7 -33/ 11.78 || 38.3 29) 11.11 eyPeek Gassrse 9.6] 1.06 | 10.18 }) 39.5 -30 | 11.85 || 38.7 -26 | 10.06 || 39.8 21 8.36 Levee Gansesce 10.4] 1.02] 10.61 |} 35.0 -39 | 13.65 || 25.6 .37| 9.47 || 21.0 +29 6.09 Sy Ae ancaabe 10. 6 -89 | 9.43 || 36.0 -52 | 18.72 || 27.0 -46 | 12.42 || 18.0 - 50 9. 00 iY eeoocnanos 10.0 -94] 9.40 || 34.5 -38 | 13.11 || 34.0 -34 | 11.56 || 34.3 29 9.95 S76 sees ena 10.0 -79 | 7.90 || 36.7 -35 | 12.84 |] 30.0 .31 | 9.30 || 25.0 . 28 7.00 ihre Leazpneeoe 12.9 -69} 8.90 }| 31.5 -39 | 12.28 || 30.0 -33 | 9.90 || 29.0 - 28 8.12 TE Th ea Seo sso5 9.0 73 | 6.57 ||. 34.9 -33 | 11.52 || 32.8 -27| 8.86 || 27.1 -25 6.78 TORE aaeeeee 8.5 -81 | 6.88 || 35.0 -39 | 13.65 || 33.0 -34 | 11.22 || 35.0 -31} 10.85 IRC) eeAsaaone 9.4] .85] 7.99]| 37.5] .41 | 15.38]! 29.0] .40)| 11.60 |} 27.2) .36}] 9.79 UREA sais ages 8.8] 1.00] 8801) 25.4 -61 | 15.49 || 21.8 .60 | 13.08 || 19.4 58 | 11.25 UE PES omerene 925 -80} 7.60 || 31.3 -62 | 19.41 |] 31.3 -48 | 15.02 || 23.0 47 | 10.81 ifee3i5 Sb o5564 8.5 -82} 6.97 || 26.1 -47 | 12.27 || 27.0 -41 | 11.07 || 25.0 40 | 10.00 Tee eageope 9.5 .80 | 7.60 || 30.0 -41 | 12.30 || 29.0 -34 | 9.86 || 30.0 31 9.30 Til 6 Sst opeac 9.0} .70] 6.30]| 37.1 -32 | 11.87 || 35.5] .29) 10.30]; 31.4 28) 8.79 US aebeeeape 10.4 71} 7.38 || 32.2 -35 | 11.27 || 31.9 - 32 | 10.21 24.5 31 7. 60 UCR aha Soames 10.6 -71 |] 7.53 || 26.3 -48 | 12.62 || 20.0 -45 | 9.00 19.2 41 7. 87 9.8 -65 | 6.37 || 32.5 -35 | 11.38 || 34.8 -31 | 10.79 || 35.7 -29| 10.35 10.7 -58| 6.21 29. 6 -31 | 9.18 || 29.0 -27 | 7.83 || 32.3 24 7.75 9.3 -75 | 6.98 || 23.5 -51 | 11.98 || 24.7 -47 | 11,61 26. 2 43 | 11.27 11.0 -80 | 880 || 32.0 -41 | 13.12 || 33.3 -38 | 12.65 || 33.5 37] 12.40 9.0 -60 | 5.40 {| 29.4 -42 | 12.35 || 29.3 -40 | 11.72 || 26.2 37 9. 69 De -68 | 6.60 || 23.8 -40 | 9.52 || 24.7 -36 | 8.89 || 25.7 31 7.97 10.1 Pf ee | 4) -43 | 11.31 28.9 -37 | 10.69 || 28.8 39 | 11.23 11.2 -47| 5.26 || 32.6 -27| 8.80]|| 32.8 -23 | 7.54 || 37.4 - 22 8. 23 10.0 -53 | 5.30 |) 41.0 -21 | 8.61 35. 0 -19| 6.65 || 40.5 18 7. 29 8.0 -50 | 4.40 32.5 -25 | 8.12 30.0 -21 | 6.30 32.5 21 6. 82 9.0 50 | 4.50 || 37.0 -27| 9.99 |) 36.0 -25 | 9.00 || 30.0 25 7.50 10.0 -53 | 5.30 || 36.0 -30 | 10.80 || 38.0 -27 | 10.26 || 36.0 26 9.36 8.0 -60 | 4.80 || 37.0 .34 | 12.58 || 38.0 -32 | 12.16 |} 37.0 32 | 11.84 9.0] .85) 7.65 || 26.1 -57 | 14.88 |) 19.8) .55 | 10.89 |} 21.4 57 | 12.20 8.6 -77 | 6.62 |) 38.0 -42 | 15.96 || 37.9 .36 | 13.64 || 38.7 36; 18.93 9.9 -(3 | 7@.23 29.6 -47 | 13.91 || 33.2 -36 | 11.95 || 32.2 36 | 11.59 10.7 -75 | 8.02 || 32.5 -46 | 14.95 || 31.5 -41 | 12.92 || 36.5 39 | 14.24 10.1 -66 | 6.67 || 37.8] .43 | 16.25 |} 40.7] .38] 15.47 || 39.8 38 | 15.12 11.0] .62) 6,82 |) 42.6] .39] 16.61 |} 39.6] .36) 14.26 || 36.1 36] 13.00 11.3 -80 | 9.04 || 34.6 -52 | 17.99 || 36.0 -45 | 16.20 || 36.0 44] 15.84 10.5 -82 | 8.61 || 38.5 - 63 | 24.26 || 30.3 -60 | 18.18 |} 31.6 57} 18.01 12.6 - 83 | 10.46 || 39.5 - 56 | 22.12 || 40.0 -50 | 20.00 |} 35.9 -52| 18.67 13.0 -85 | 11.05 || 36.5 -46 | 16.79 || 39.3 -40 | 15.72 || 39.1 -38] 14.86 14.6] .80]| 11.68 || 38.6) .58| 22.39 || 36.0] .54 | 19.44 |} 33.0 55 | 18.15 13.0 -79 | 10.27 || 42.8 -45 | 19.26 || 40.3 - 42 | 16.93 40.0 41 | 16.40 15.0 - 82 | 12.30 || 37.5 - 63 | 23.62 || 36.0 -60 | 21.60 |} 27.0 -63 | 17.01 16.0 - 80 | 12.80 |} 39.1 -61 | 23.85 || 33.0 -58 | 19.14 |} 29.0 61 | 17.69 15.0] .73 | 10.95 |} 41.5] .56] 23.24 || 38.0] .51 | 19.38 |} 36.0) .54] 19.44 10-YEAR AVERAGE, 1866-1875... .. 10.9 | 1.03 | 11.25 || 35.3 -44 | 15.33 || 3.23 -38 | 11.98 |} 29.9] .34] 9.79 1876-1885... .. 9.5 -80| 7.55 || 32.6 -43 | 13.70 || 26.9 -38 | 11.02 || 27.2 .35 9. 27 1886-1895... .- 10. 2 -67| 6.77 || 28.8 -39 | 11.15 |} 28.9 -36 | 10.09 || 29.0 -33 9. 44 1896-1905... .. 9.3 -65 | 6.05 || 34.8 -37 | 12.60 || 34.0 -33 | 10.92 |} 34.5 -33 | 10.99 1906-1915..... 13.2 -79 | 10.40 || 39.1 - 54] 21.01 || 36.9 -50 | 18.08 || 34.4 -50 | 16.91 CORN, YIELDS PER ACRE AND PRICES. 9 Corn, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. fichigan. Wisconsin. Minnesota. Towa. Year. Yield.| Price. | Value.|| Yield.} Price. | Value.|| Yield.} Price. | Value || Yield.| Price. | Value. Bush. | Bush. Bush. Bush. 32.0 | $0.57 |$18. 24 PAI |) EOS RSG Rs MI oee oS Socl|anasocdleasenos 31.5 | $0.31 | $9.76 31.4 .69 | 21.67 || 33.6 .62 | 20.83 || 30.0 | $0.77 |$23.10 || 33.8 -39| 13.18 33.0 57 | 18.81 33.0 - 43 | 14.19 33.5 -48 | 16.08 37.0 -28 10. 36 28.9 .59 | 17.05 26. 4 .52 | 13.73 29.1 -50 | 14.55 33.2 -40| 13.28 37.0 -49 | 18.13 38.0 -47 | 17.86 33.0 -46 | 15.18 32.0 ol 9.92 32.4 50 || une ily 37.7 .39 | 14.70 || 37.3 -40 | 14.92 42.5 21 8.92 36.0 .38 | 13.68 38.0 .35 | 13.30 || 35.2 .32 | 11.26 || 39.8 16 6.37 31.0 .43 | 13.33 30.0 -41 | 12.30 || 31.5 -38 | 11.97 || 29.0 29 8.41 27.0 59 | 15.93 28. 2 56 | 15.79 |} 31.0 46 | 14.26 || 29.2 39] 11.39 33.0 53 | 17.49 21.0 47 | 9.87 || 29.2 37 | 10.80 || 35.0 24 8.40 29.0 48 | 13.92 || 34.0 38 | 12.92 || 25.4 37 | 9.40 || 30.0 23 6. 90 31.0 38 | 11.78 28.0 32 | 8.96 || 29.0 37 | 10.73 32.5 24 7.80 37.4 38 | 14.21 37.5 29 | 10.88 || 38.1 29 | 11.05 37.4 16 5.98 37.0 45 | 16.65 || 39.0 39 | 15.21 || 35.0 27| 9.45 || 38.0 Dan |On 12 40. 7 46 | 18.72 || 33.0 39 | 12.87 || 35.0 36 | 12.60 || 38.0 26 9.88 | 28.0 63 | 17.64 27.6 54 | 14.90 |} 32.0 53 | 16.96 || 25.8 44) 11.35 30. 7 59 | 18.11 28.8 53 | 15.26 32.0 -45 | 14.40 25.9 38 9.84 23.5 bf) || a BB) 21.0 48 | 10.08 20.8 - 43 8.94 24.3 32 7.78 28.0 40 | 11.20 24.6 34 8.36 33.5 33 | 11.06 || 34.5 23 7.94 BVA 7 34 | 11.12 30.1 34 | 10.23 28. 4 3 9.09 || 32.1 24 7. 70 29.1 38 | 11.06 25.7 37 | 9.51 || 29.8 .34 | 10.13 OF, iL 3 7.53 22.5 48 | 10.80 25.3 42 | 10.63 29.8 ood |) MiB II) 25.5 35 8. $2 30.0 42 | 12.60 30.6 36 | 11.02 29.3 32) 9.38 || 35.8 24 8.59 Py (5) 37 | 8.70 26.3 29 7.63 || 28.5 | 27 7.70 39.5 19 7.50 26.7 55 | 14.68 30.0 C6 |) 1&0) |) re || 42 | 11.63 26.0 41 | 10.66 29.5 48 | 14.16 26.7 44 | 11.7. | 26.5 39 | 10.34 || 26.7 30 11.01 25.Q 46 | 11.50 | 27.3 38 | 10.37 27.0 37 | 9.99 28.3 32 9.06 23.7 45 | 10.66 | 29.8 -35 | 10. 43 28.3 34| 9.62 || 33.9 27 9.15 23.2 50 | 11.60 20. 7 45 9.32 18.4 43 7.91 15.0 45 6. 75 33.8 32 | 10.82 | 31.8 30] 9.54 oul 2 20] 6.24 3H, 1 18 6.32 38.0 24 9.121) 37.0 22] 8.14 30.5 19} 5.80]| 39.0 14 5. 46 ol. 5 27 8.50 | 3.0 25 8. 25 26.0 24 6. 24 29.0 17 4,93 34.0 34 | 11.56 || 35.0 28 | 9.80 |] 32.0 24) 7.68 35. 0 23 8.05 25.0 36 | 9.00 || 35.0 30 | 10.50 || 33.0 24| 7.921) 31.0 23 els 36.0 30) 135382 40.0 33 | 13.20 33.0 29 9.57 38.0 27 10. 26 34.5 52 | 17.94 27.4 52 | 14.25 26.3 45 | 11.84 25.0 52 | 13.00 26. 4 52 | 13.73 || 28.2 50 | 14.10 22.8 40 | 9.12 32.0 33 10. 56 33.5 |- .46 |] 15.41 29.3 43 | 12.60 28.3 38 | 10.75 28.0 3 10. 64 28.6 52 | 14.87 29.7 46 | 13.66 26.9 36 | 9.68 32.6 33 10. 76 34.0 46 | 15.64 || 37.6 42 | 15.79 32.5 33 | 10.7 34.8 34] 11.83 37.0 44 | 16.28 41.2 41 | 16.89 || 33.6 34 | 11.42 || 39.5 32| 12.64 30.1 55 | 16.56 32.0 55 | 17.60 27.0 -50 | 13.50 29.5 43 12. 68 31.8 64 | 20.35 Bh 7 61 | 20.56 || 29.0 -55 | 15.95 || 31.7 52| 16.48 35.4 61 | 21.59 33.0 60 | 19.20 || 34.8 49 | 17.05 31.5 49 15. 44 32.4 53 | 17.17 || 32.5 52 | 16.90 || 32.7 45 | 14.72 || 36.3 36| 13.07 33.0 65 | 21. 45 36.3 60 | 21.78 33.7 53 | 17.86 || 31.0 53 | 16.43 34.0 57 | 19.38 || 35.7 51 | 18.21 34.5 37 | 12.76 43.0 35 | 15.05 33.5 67 | 22. 44 40.5 60 | 24.30 40.0 -53 | 21.20 || 34.0 60 | 20.40) 36.0 67 | 24.12 40.5 65 | 26.32 35.0 -52 | 18.20 38.0 55 20. 90 32.0 68 | 21.76 || 23.0 68 | 15.64 || 23.0 -62 | 14.26 |} 30.0 51} 15.30 10-YEAR AVERAGE. 1866-1875.....- Be, BD .04 | 17.15 31.4 -48 | 14.87 ||132.2} 1.46 |114.68 || 34.3 30} 10.00 1876-1885_.....| 31.8 -46 | 14.56 |} 30.4 -40 | 11.97 || 30.9 237 | 11.37 || 31.9 27 8. 43 1886-1895 26. 7 -44 | 11.66 || 27.4 -38 | 10.37 || 27.7 34] 9.40 || 30.1 30 8.55 1896-1905......| 32.2 -41 | 12.91 33.2 eof | 12.03 29.1 sol 8.93 32. 4 29 9. 26 1906-1915...... 33.5 .60 | 20.11 34.8 -57 | 19.80 || 32.3 49 | 15.69 || 34.4 47 | 15.84 1 9-year average—1867-1875. 10 BULLETIN 515, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Corn, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. Year. Missouri. Yield. | Price. |Value. Bush 30.8 27.2 30.3 30.6 31.4 38.0 37.0 23.5 16.0 36.6 27.8 29.0 26.2 37.0 28.4 16.5 29.5 27.5 33.0 31.3 HOSG RE Soe oS 22.2 Oy BAe SORES 22.0 TSSSe se ees: 31.0 PESON Ss Bee a2 32.2 i ees 25.8 ASS 29.9 USO DBs ae recs 27.7 SOS R aa ee re L 27.9 1SO4E AP Bes = 22.0 1S952 = So sel sae 36.0 1S9G = se Ss 27.0 Ly (see Een oie 26.0 ROSS Oe see 26.0 1 fot! ee eae 26.0 LO0O 2 ose e acct 28.0 iM bs Soe a ae 10.1 WGOZiE ee. 39.0 WO0S22 2 tes 2: 32.4 i U2 eee ee 26.2 ithe eae 33.8 WO0G cs asisnies - 32.3 WOOT =o Sate Sn 31.0 OSes eS 27.0 Us See ere 26.4 NOLO eS cizoe 33.0 bt 1b le 26.0 OL 2 re eee oa 32.0 NOLS aeee cai. 17.5 NOUES See on 22.0 LOT h ss Sate sae 29.5 10-YEAR AVERAGE 1866-1875. .... 30.1 1876-1885... .- 28.6 1886-1895... .. 2d 1896-1905..... 27.4 1906-1915... .. 27.7 $0. 40 -47 eB 8. ie $12. 1 32 80 20 North Dakota. Yield. | Price. |Value. South Dakota. Yield. | Price. |Value. Bush. Bush. 125.0 | $0.51 |$12. 75 118.2 45] 8.19 130.0 -30} 9.00 128.9 28} 8.09 123.9 .37 | 8.84 133.0 .30 | 11.55 125.5 -33 | 8.42 118.0 -33 | 5.94 113.6 -50 | 6.80 18.0 . 40 7.20 21.4 -40 | 8.56 20.7 -38 7.87 19.2 -44 1) 8.45 21.3 Be bel 35.0 Boda 3 7b) 17.0 ~o2| 5.44 19.0 .36 | 6.84 23.0 -o3 | 7.59 16.0 42] 6.72 22.6 . 46 | 10.40 19.4 45} 8.73 25.2 -42 | 10.58 21.2 -40} 8.48 27.5 .36 | 9.90 27.8 .39 | 10.84 20.0 -60 | 12.00 23.8 -60 | 14.28 31.0 -55 | 17.05 14.0 58 | 8.12 25.0 .60 | 15.00 26.7 -43 | 11.48 28.8 -52 | 14.98 28.0 -58 | 16. 24 14.0 -67.| 9.38 2105 .37 7.87 22.6 .38 8.34 23.9 .50 | 12.94 125.0 | $0.51 |$12.75 NWNwoco WOR 118.2 -45 | 8.19 130.0 .30 | 9.00 128.9 -28 | 8.09 123.9 .37 | 8.84 133.0 .30 | 11.55 125.5 .33 | 8.42 118.0 .383 | 5.94 113.6 -50 | 6.80 22.5 .35 | 7.88 22.3 .33 | 7.36 23. .25 | 5.92 4. -46 | 1.93 11. .23 | 2.55 26. 18] 4. 24. -21| 5. 28. .23 | 6. 26. -26 | 6. 27. -29 | 7. 9. Ue 9: 0. 9. SCOoOUneGo ONIN OFRNOO COOCCO FhDA~I ww ror) ee Oran RINE GS for) SSRSN SESKS PSNee 8 -3) }] 6.72 25.8 -30 | 7.74 27.8 -46 | 12.66 Nebraska. Yield. |} Price. | Value. Bush 29.3 | $0.47 | $13.77 36.0 -53 | 19.08 22.9 -51 | 11.68 42.2 -29 | 12.24 29.9 ~o2 9.57 41.5 ~ 22 9.13 37.8 16 6.05 35.0 . 26 9.10 10.0 . 66 6.60 40.0 5 il9/ 6.80 30.0 2D) 7.50 38.0 .18 6.84 42.0 -16 6.72 41.0 21 8.61 31.0 5745) vert: 27.4 -39 | 10.69 34.9 -o3 | 11.52 36.0 24 8.64 37.7 18 6.79 36.7 -19 6.97 27.4 - 20 5. 48. 24.1 -30 Uaioe 35. 2 «22 7.74 36.5 .17 6. 20 18.0 -48 8.64 35. 2 26 9. 15. 28. 2 . 28 7.90 2552 27 6.80: 6.0 - 50 3.00: 16.1}. .18 2. 90: 37.5 13 4.88 30.0 -17 5.10 21.0 22, 4.62: 28.0 23 6.44 26.0 -ol 8.06: 14.1 54 7.61 32.3 .30 9. 69: 26.0 28 Wess 32.8 -33 | 10.82 32.8 «32; 10550 34.1 29 9.89 24.0 41 9.84 27.0 a DL atOod 24.8 -50 | 12.40 25.8 36 9. 29 21.0 00) Ih ls oo _ 24.0 any 8.88 15.0 .65 9.75 24.5 -53 |” 12.98 30.0 -47 | 14.10 32.5 -36 | 10.40 35.5 24 8. 20 25.2 ~29 6.50 28.0 - 28 7.50 25.0 -46} 11.24 1 Dakota Territory. CORN, YIELDS PER ACRE AND PRICES. 11 Corn, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. Kansas. Kentucky. Tennessee. Alabama. Yield. Mine EES Toa |e Saal lS Ia Yield.| Price. | Value.|| Yield.| Price. | Value.|| Yield.| Price. | Value.|| Yield.| Price. | Value, Bush. Bush. Bush. Bush. 34.2 | $0.44 |$15.05 31.8 | $0.34 /$10. 81 22.0 | $0.54 |$11.88 9.0 | $1.05 | $9.45 38.6 «39 | 15.05 24.7 -47 | 11.61 23.7 .39 9. 24 16.2 -Ol 9.23 18.0 . 74 | 13.32 32.7 .35 | 11. 44 25.3 -36 9.11 10.8 . 64 6.91 48.4 .35 | 16.94 25.0 .52 | 13.00 20.0 -61 | 12.20 15.0 ae) 13. 5 28.0 .o2 | 14.56 32.1 -43 | 13.80 25.8 42 | 10.84 17.5 83 14. 52 40.0 26 | 10.40 27.3 42.) 11.47 || 23.0 46 | 10.58 14.5 83 12. 04 38.5 19 7.32 ole? 33 | 10.30 || 23.5 43 | 10.10 17.6 69 12.14 39.1 29 | 11.34 29.5 41 | 12.10 || 22.5 53 | 11.92 14.5 77 11.16 10.5 82 8.61 25.0 50 | 12.50 16.8 61 | 10.25 12.3 84 10.33 40.0 20 |} 8.00 BBbo 36 | 11.99 26.5 36 9. 54 12.6 65 8.19 43.5 22} 9.57 BBD 27 | 9.04 24.5 29 | 7.10 13.0 44 5.72 36.5 20 | 7.30 30.3 31 9.39 25.0 39 | 9.75 12.0 66 7.92 33.9 19 6. 44 22.7 40 9.08 19.3 41 7.91 12.0 59 7.08 33.0 27 8.91 32.0 37 | 11.84 25.0 37 9.25 13.0 66 8.58 29.3 29) 8.50 29.1 38 | 11.06 22.4 36 8. 06 12.4 67 8.31 18.2 58 | 10.56 17.0 70 | 11.90 12.4 72 | 8.93 9.9 -97 9.60 33.7 37 | 12.47 24.3 52 | 12.64 24.1 42 | 10.12 13.9 . 60 8.34 36.7 26 9.54 24.0 42 | 10.08 20.0 44 8. 80 11.5 - 64 7.36 36.9 22 8.12 22.1 43 9.50 20.3 45 9.14 13.0 .61 7.93 32. 4 24 7.78 2020 35 8.92 PAI} 39 8. 27 13.4 -05 U-2i 21.8 .27 | 5.89 74 BYE Bd 20.7 40 | 8.28 12.1 . 60 7. 26 14.6 ~3f 5. 40 18.3 56} 9. 70 21.5 50 | 10.75 13.6 54 7.34 26.7 . 26 6. 94 25.8 34 8.77 20.8 42 8.74 12.7 55 6.98 35.3 -18 | 6.35 26.5 .34 | 9.01 22.0 37 | 8.14 13/5 51 6.88 15.6 pial 7.96 22.6 -49 | 11.07 18.8 52 | 9.78 10.2 68 6.94 26.7 -34 9. 08 30.0 -40 | 12.00 22.7 43 9.76 12,7 63 8.00 24.5 ol 7.60 23.3 .40 9.32 20.3 43 8.73 1282) 52 6.34 21.3 .3l 6.60 287, 5) -43 | 10.10 21.3 39 8.31 11.5 59 6.78 11.2 43 4.82 23.0 .44 | 10.12 21.9 39 8. 54 1133.7 53 7.26 24.3 .19 | 4.62 ol 2 27 | 8.42 25.0 27 | 6.75 15.9 37 5. 88 28.0 -18 | 5.04 28.0 -25 | 7.00 23.0 -28 | 6.44 12.5 45 5.62 18.0 -,22 | 3.96 23.0 Bots) 8.05 21.0 700 7.56 12.0 46 5.52 16.0 - 26 4.16 31.0 27 8.37 26.0 29 7. 54 15.0 41 6.15 27.0 20 Oro: 21.0 BY |) We 7H 20.0 .39 | 7.80 12.0 47 5. 64 19.0 .32 | 6.08 26.0 40 | 10.40 20.0 -49 | 9.80 11.0 58 6.38 7.8 . 63 4.91 15.6 61 9. 52 14.2 .65 | 9.23 10.9 ote 8.39 29.9 .34 | 10.17 27.0 42 | 11.34 21.9 -47 | 10.29 8.4 .67 5.63 25.6 . 36 9. 22 26.6 56 | 14.90 23.5 49 | 11.52 14.8 Ot 8.44 20.9 41 8.57 26.9 49 | 13.18 25.0 50 | 12.50 15.0 - 60 9. 00 27.7 -33 | 9.14 29.7 43 | 12.77 24.6 50 | 12.30 14.8 64 9.47 28.9 "O2) |) Gozo. 33.0 42 | 13.86 28.1 47 | 13.21 16.0 64 10. 24 22.1 44 9.72 28.2 53 | 14.95 26.0 57 | 14.82 15.5 75 11.62 22.0 55 | 12.10 25.2 65 | 16.38 24.8 64 | 15.87 14.7 -83 12. 20 19.9 54 | 10.75 29.0 62 | 17.98 22.0 70 | 15.40 13.5 85 11.48 19.0 45 | 8.55 29.0 53 | 15.37 25.9 56 | 14.50 18.0 71 12.78 14.5 63! 9.14 26.0 63 | 16.38 26.8 61 | 16.35 18.0 78 14. 04 23.0 40 9.20 30.4 55 | 16.72 26.5 61 | 16.16 Wie) 79 13. 59 3.2 78 | 2.50 20.5 76 | 15.58 20.5 77 | 15.78 17.3 89} 15.40 18.5 63 | 11.66 25.0 64 | 16.00 24.0 68 | 16.32 17.0 80 | 13.60 31.0 51 | 15.81 30.0 56 | 16.80 || 27.0 58 | 15.66 17.0 -69 | 11.73 10-YEAR oe AVERAGE. 1866-1875....- 33.5 -42 | 12.06 29.3 41 | 11.90 || 22.9 -47 | 10.57 14.0 -78 | 10.75 1876-1885..... 33.4 -28 | 8.92 26.0 42 | 10.34 21.4 -42) 8.73 12.4 . 7. 82 1886-1895 ..... 22.2 ce || 48) 24.9 40 | 9.71 21.5 -41 8.78 12.8 55 6.97 1896-1905.....| 22.0 .33 | 6.80 25.5 42 | 10.33 21.9 -44 | 9.50 12.6 56 7.02 1906-1915.....| 20.2 -62} 9.87 27.6 59 | 16.00 25.2 62 | 15.41 16.4 7 12. 67 12 BULLETIN 515, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Corn, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. Year. 10-YEAR AVERAGE. 1866-1875 1876-1885 1886-1895..... 1896-1905 1906-1915 Mississippi. a . ais Orie sa = RUAMNHS ASOSOSO CHmmnoe . . . Os . . . . . . . : WRBOO CDSOOMNGM ONAN MoO WTWH _ SRE CAE SUNSWS oIwom Yield.| Price. | Value. $1.09 |$15. 80 - 78 | 12.25 -55] 9.40 - 89 | 15.58 - 88 | 14.52 - 88 | 12.32 - 78 | 13. 65 - 78 | 12.09 -91 | 12. 56 .63 | 11.3 -50 | 7.50 -60 | 9.00 64] 8.32 -62 | 9.92 -63 | 9.20 - 96 | 10. 56 5) | 9.24 -63 | 8.50 -62| 8.37 04] 7.24 -59 | 7.73 3/53) || SE il -04 | 7.94 -50 | 7.40 -70| 8.75 -58 | 8.82 sail || Ops) -55 | 7.20 -49 | 8.43 -37| 5.85 44) 5.94 45 | 6.52 -39 | 7.02 -46| 7.3 -58 | 6.38 -74 | 8.07 -61 | 7.02 54} 9.94 - 56 | 10.70 65] 9.3 . 61 | 11. 28 .75 | 12.75 . 83 | 14.36 . 81 | 11.74 - 63 | 12.92 - 72 | 13.68 -71 | 12.99 -77 | 15. 40 -73 | 13.50 -65 | 12.35 - 82 | 12.95 -63 | 8.78 54] 7.83 -54 | 7.82 72 | 13.10 Louisiana. Yield.} Price.| Value. Bush 17.0 | $0.86 |314. 62 15.6 - 79 | 12.32 22.0 56 | 12.32 25.0 .86 | 21.50 22.5 -99 | 22. 28 14.4 1.01 | 14.54 18.5 78 | 14.43 16.5 -83 | 13.70 15: -90 | 13.95 te), (3) - 78 | 12.09 17.2 - 64 | 11.01 17.0 -56 | 9.52 19.9 -60 | 11.94 15.0 .76 | 11.40 19.0 .61 | 11.59 13.0 98 | 12.74 18.5 -60 | 11.10 14.2 -66] 9.37 IPA . 67 8. 51 16.8 BOS 8. 90 15.6 map) || feito) 18.9 aril 9.18 14.8 -93 7. 84 Wea) -oL 8. 92 16.0 .70 | 11.20 7/383 - 60 | 10.38 14.8 -50} 7.40 14.2 Sov 8.09 16. 2 62 | 10.04 18.1 - 40 7. 24 13.0 B44 51 OneD 17.0 . 45 7. 65 18.0 41 7.38 18.0 - 44 7.92 17.0 . 90 8. 50 Bs 7 .75 | 10. 28 12ND -66 | 8.25 20.6 -98 } 11.95 19.9 .o7 | 11.34 BY 7/ . 61 8. 36 ie, . 60 | 10.32 17.5 -70 | 12.25 19.8 - 70 | 13. 86 23.0 -69 | 15. 87 23.6 55 | 12.98 18.5 .70 | 12.95 18.0 . 68 | 12.24 22.0 .77 | 16.94 19.3 75 | 14.48 20.5 64 | 13.12 18. 2 . 84 | 15.18 16.3 - 66 | 10. 61 16. 2 -55} 8.89 16.3 . 54 8.75 19.9 -68 | 13.50 Texas. Yield.| Price. | Value. Bush. 26.0 $0. 65 |$16. 90 - 54 | 15.23 Oklahoma. Yield.| Price. |} Value. Bush “19.0 | $0.20 | $3.80 26.0 - 26 6. 76 9.7 . 76 ieow 25.4 41 10. 41 25.5 .39 9.94 30.2 - 40 12.08 26. 4 . 34 8.98 33.3 aol 10.32 24, 4 ~ 44 10. 74 24.8 Abit 12. 65 17.0 - 55 9.35 16.0 51 8.16 6.5 -70 4.55 18.7 41 7. 67 ‘11.0 . 72 7.92 12.5 . 64 8.00 29.5 -46} 13.57 193.2 | 139 | 18.48 19.4 202 9. 29 1 7-year average. CORN, YIELDS PER ACRE AND PRICES. Corn, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. 13 Montana. .| Price. |Value. Wyoming. Colorado. .| Price.|Value. Yield.} Price. | Value. Arkansas. Year. Yield.} Price. |Value. Bush. 1866.......--. 24.0 RG Zeerelec eins. 26.5 1868........ 30.5 U869. cece 28.0 TSTOR eas. 31.8 STE aes ccs 26.7 iC Paneer 23.5 SBR ee elciees 23.5 STAN he's 12.6 IGE Geen eeee 30.0 WISAGE cralscicics + = 24.0 UY. Bae ee 24.0 CoS onoeeeine 24.0 LS OSCE 24.0 W880) oc ene. 25.0 14.8 21.6 17.5 18.5 20.2 20.4 20.0 19.5 20.0 16.7 21.2 46 | 9.75 17.5 47 8. 22 16.2 -45 7.29 19.2 47 9.02 21.5 -32 | 6.88 13.5 .37 | 5.00 16.0 -40 | 6.40 20.0 -29} 5.80 20.0 .38 7.60 19.0 43 8.17 8.1 .81 | 6.56 21.3 49 | 10.44 20.9 | .51 | 10.66 21.6 -53 | 11.45 17.3 -55 | 9.52 23.6 .47 | 11.09 17.2 .68 | 11.70 20.2 -66 | 13.33 18.0 72 | 12.96 24.0 .58 | 13.92 20.8 .72 | 14.98 20.4 -67 | 13.67 19.0 .78 | 14.82 17.5 -80 | 14.00 23.0 64 | 14.72 10-YEAR AVERAGE. 1866-1875..... 25.7 -66 | 16.40 1876-1885... .. 21.4 -53.| 10.91 1886-1895... .. 19.2 -47 | 9.00 1896-1905... .. 17.8 -48} 8.16 1906-1915..:..| 20.4 -67 | 13.52 19.4 -68 | 13.19 27.5 - 70 | 19.25 32.7 .82 | 26.81 25.0 -75 | 18.75 26.0 -60 | 15.60 18.0 .65 | 11.70 28.0 .66 | 18.48 23.0 52 | 11.96 15.0 -59 | 8.85 25.0 -90 | 22.50 22.0 . 72 | 15.84 24.1 -62 | 14.94 22.2 .68 | 15.10 19.4 .68 | 13.19 23.4 .65 | 15.21 22.5 -68 | 15.30 23.4 -90 | 21.06 35.0 -86 | 30.10 |; 23.0 -95 | 21.85 26.5 -80 | 21.20 25.5 70 | 17.85 31.5 77 | 24.26 28.0 16 | 21.28 28.0 -69 | 19.32 22.3 -66 | 14.82 26.7 78 | 20.74 18.5 | $0.61 |$11. 28 18.5 .63 | 11.66 30.0 .65 | 19.50 27.5 57 | 15.68 25.0 78 | 19.50 12.0 -50 | 6.00 16.0 -55 | 8.80 22.0 .43 | 9.46 34,0 -60 | 20.40 39.5 . 72 | 28.44 19.8 -59 | 11.68 19.4 -58 | 11.25 32.5 .O7 | 18.52 26.9 .75 | 20.18 27.0 -99 | 15.93 25.0 .70 | 17.50 28.0 76 | 21.28 28.0 .78 | 21.84 10.0 -66 | 6.60 15.0 .76 | 11.40 23.0 .64 | 14.72 29.0 .80 | 22.20 25.0 .70 | 17.50 25.0 .67 | 16.75 24.7 .61 | 15.42 23.5 -71 | 16.67 25.5 | 1.05 20.0 - 90 25.0 85 28.1 -65 34.5 - 68 31.5 50 30.0 63 22.6 57 25.4 58 18.2 - 63 21.5 53 22.3 40 16.5 ol iG) 7 61 20.7 41 16.0 36 19.0 38 18.0 40 17.0 43 19.0 48 17.1 oA 16.5 59 19.8 04 20.5 54 23.8 AT 27.9 50 23.5 65 20.2 71 24.2 70 19.9 60 14.0 78 20.8 50 15.0 13 23.0 . 60 24.0 50 125.3 | 1.82 22.8 oA 18.7 -49 21.2 63 16-year average—1880-1885. 14 BULLETIN 515, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Corn, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. New Mexico. Year. .| Price. Value. NSBG=1875 =: eicial| mwicicraiase| sieceimstals| stolacateca’e 107 i hy) Deeemne| POorese| Snopes || aeecd arrace aot oced | Poeeses Pocae ccna croc .0 Lore ia ee) eee 19.0 BRR Oe Perers cis 18.5 TBROE Se 20.0 Tht bees a eee 20.0 LSOte . Gaee eS 18.3 a es Seen 20.0 iC aa ee 25.3 UG) SS ee 19.1 Ce a See 27.2 USOG 2 ee es 16.0 UC Sse eas see 27.0 ISOS eee ee 21.0 TROON. See 20.0 OOD epee oe 22.0 UA ae ee 31.6 1902 tee 22.0 TODS 2 te 24.0 I ane |) PPA LOG ec series. 245583 LONG eee 29.4 NGO case csc 29.0 OOS este eo 27.0 J Ue el eee a 31.3 LOO a Se ne Si. 23.0 ee a 24.7 OT ese oy 22.4 TOTS ete is 18.5 Oa oe Mes 28.0 MOUS Pesos te 26.0 10-YEAR AVERAGE. 1886-1895. .... 20.7 1896-1905... .. 23.2 1906-1915..... 25.9 -69 67 79 14.18 15.65 20. 53 1 §-year average. Arizona. Yield.}| Price. | Value. 19.0 65 | 12.35 Pape all se 65 | 11.31. 17.8 66 | 11.75 18.6 | 1.00 | 18.60 26.0 75 | 19.50 rae ye eee eS 18.0 90 | 16.20 20.2 | 1.01 | 20.40 22.4 90 | 20.16 23.8 91 | 21.66 27.0 97 | 26.19 29.5 85 | 25.08 37.5 90 | 33.75 33.2 | 1.05 | 34.86 32.1 | 1.00 | 32.10 32.5 | 1.10 | 35.75 33.0| .97 | 32.01 33.0] 1.00 | 33.00 28.0 | 1.10 | 30.80 32.0 | 1.20 | 38.40 30.0] 1.15 | 34.50 , 3.94 | 20,92 32.1 | 1.03 | 33.02 17-year average. Utah. Yield.| Price. | Value. 21.6 .75 | 16.20 14.5 -63 | 9.14 18.3 -61 | 11.16 21.0 -68 | 14. 28 19.0 -60 | 11.40 18.1 -58 | 10.50 21.5 98 | 12.47 24.4 58 | 14.15 20.3 49 | 9.95 25.0 51 | 12.75 22.0 55 | 12.10 21.0 60 | 12.60 20.0 59 | 11.80 20.0 63 | 12.60 19.4 90 | 17.46 20.1 67 | 13.47 21.4 -70 | 14.98 33.2 . 72 | 23.90 36,2 10 | 25.34 32.0 74 | 23.68 25.5 72 | 18.36 29.4 72 | 21.17 31.4 87 | 27.32 30.3 84 | 25.45 35.0 81 | 28.35 30.0 75 | 22.50 34.0 - 70 | 23.80 35.0 75 | 26.25— 34.0 -80 | 27.20 19.9 -61 | 12.12 23.8 -66 | 15.70 31.7 .77 | 24.41 Nevada. Yield.| Price. | Value. 27.8 62 | 17.24 “"30.0 | 1.00 | 30.00 30.5 | .90| 27.45 30.0| .98| 29.40 34.0] 1.18| 40.12 36.0| 1.10] 39.60 35.0| .93| 32.55 131.3 [11.40 }1 44.01 294.2} 2.79 1219.16 132.6 |14.02 }133.19 3 5-year average. CORN, YIELDS PER ACRE AND PRICES. 15 Corn, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. Idaho. Washington. Oregon. California. Year. an Ta as | hee Yield. | Price. | Value.|| Yield.| Price.) Value.|| Yield.| Price. | Value.|| Yieid.| Price. | Value. Bush Bush Bush Bush NOND 5 Sas Soe Sale ote Sl seers Repeco eal [eee Ingmar JONES of eer asses acgee ae ea ACen] Fe iNeed WSO 3 oo cod pea EBSCO GEE IOS Oereed [SARIS cel | caesar ce Paani [a cots tee eas Ne ge tree | es ete aera Mp ah TARE 5 cond Sa CASE EERO SEO CEC TT Neve ae esl RMEnE estes [Giese na | [Eanes ed tee LP a ie een 45.0 | $1.00 | $45.00 LIA) 6 é gaden bel bee Bags ISBeoaral SEOs a al Ae ciere ie rmetee ay aia Sena 35.0 | $0.80 |$28.00 41.4 90 37. 26 NETO. so bos eee Secrecy cts ey bette | Melani en memes soe | mre 29.7 | 1.00 | 29.70 35.6 | 1.20] 42.72 EV «a5 Sica ace AC SEAS) ene es ey [Reveal || ee eugene] eee er oes 26.6 | 1.00 | 26.60 38.0] 1.16] 44.08 SSID le SAN BA ae xa TS | ee a Ue 28.0 93 | 26.04 5.0 1.00 35.00 IVE. conc do casleeeaeee bSkoees| ceca | eee ete Immense een meee 30.0 60 | 18.00 41.0 73 29.93 UF oo GOSS SSI ORL EERE ene [eerie || EYES even Rage) rel ae 30.5 94 | 28.67 36. 2 98 35. 48 UCT SS CECH OSI ee eel RSs (ere seeae sr |S roan REMMI oc] | er ree 26.5 91 | 24.12 36.3 1.07 | 38.84 Us Bocoude cogesl DEEGOS SIC Roe es loco eee | Seer (Meee Ietapeee is 30.0 90 | 27.00 38.0 | 1.07) 35.31 NOT cg COOGEE DEI OR a el SIE eal ENS Serer I Ree era RR te Leet pe 26.0 90 | 23.40 30.0 95 28.50 HOB 5.58 Geel cle CARES | ees iene eves ureter | ener ah ne] [En ates te a 38.0 92 | 30.64 34.5 60 | 20.70 ESO ey) etrare re levee aes ce Ses aislore|'s x ae eeraleoereaiee 32.0 93 | 29.76 28.0 79 | 22.12 ASS () eer PS | ermal Seimei eters IS) pass cima ic cele ee 23.3 82 | 19.11 32.0 76 24,32 TEST a es | Paes ra DR ie Fa AT 21 SS | ee 20.2 75 } 15.15 21.2 78 | 21.22 W882 Mees acse ee 28.5 | $1.05 |$29. 92 23.4 | $0.80 |$18. 72 23.9 80 | 19.12 28.3 85 24.06 OCS) Sao Ree 29.0 .90 | 18.00 23.0 .90 | 20.70 3.5 75 | 17.62 24.5 85} 20.82 32.7 75 | 24.52 27.8 62 | 17.24 30.0 60 18.00 26.4 71 | 18.74 22.8 70 | 15.96 24,7 68 | 16.80 26.1 75 | 19.58 26.7 75 | 20.02 27.2 62 | 16.86 21.9 67 | 14.67 27.3 64 | 17.47 30.0 61 18.3 20.0 58 | 11.60 22.5 68 | 15.30 27.8 70 | 19.46 SASHA MeEsone Scoeoen 20.0 65 | 13.00 28.2 57 | 16.07 er Na ape en | | Sie i 21.6 66 | 14.26 27.5 65 17.88 hr Rees eR ILA eA 27.0 71 | 19.17 34.5 71 24.50 18.0 60 | 10.80 21.5 56 | 12.04 30.3 55 16. 66 21.3 §2 | 13.21 24.7 47 | 11.61 37.1 50 18.55 20.8 69 | 14.35 25.4 56 | 14,22 19.3 57; 11.00 17.1 40 | 6.84 26.4 55 | 14.52 34.5 53 18.28 14.0 57 | 7.98 22.0 56 | 12.32 37.0 53 19.61 18.0 55 | 9.980 25.0 53 | 13.25 31.5 56 | 17.64 12.0 42| 5.04 24.0 60 | 14.40 26.0 62} 16.12 23.0 55 | 12.65 22.0 64 | 14.08 27.0 60 | 16.20 20.0 59 | 11.80 23.0 57 | 13.11 25.0 61 15, 25 OOM rer ac 23.0 60 | 13.80 7 58 | 10.15 20.8 57 | 11.86 31.0 68 | 21.08 OO Desa ae 24.7 62 | 15.31 23.0 65 | 14.95 23.4 66 | 15. 44 30.5 77.| 23.48 IO) Spee eyes 34.5 57 , 19.66 23.1 55 | 12.70 25.8 67 | 17.29 30.7 14, 22.72 GWAR ears oe 29.3 70 | 20.51 24.7 66 | 16.30 28.8 61 | 17.57 28.6 73 \- 22.31 TOTO ee ae 27.2 66 | 17.95 24,2 60 | 14.52 23.0 59 | 13.57 32.0 76 | 24.32 GOGH ee eke 28.3 56 | 15.85 25.2 55 | 13.86 27.6 65 | 17.94 34.9 67 | 23.38 COE Saeeonaee 30.0 70 | 21.00 27.0 70 | 18.90 PA) 74 | 20.35 34.0 85 | 28.90 TOO Bie eae 29.0 70 | 20.30 25.5 76 | 19.38 27.8 77 | 21.41 32.0 88 | 28.16 GOO Rees se 30.6 75 | 22.95 27.8 86 | 23.91 30.7 80 | 24.56 34.8 91 | 31.67 IDO see. 32.0 GY || 22 28.0 75 | 21.00 25.5 80 | 20.40 37.5 80} 30.00 OU eee 30.0 85 | 25.50 28.5 79 | 22.52 28.5 80 | 22.80 36.0 90 | 32.40 OES Gatos 32.8 70 | 22.96 27.3 77 | 21.02 31.5 75 | 23.62 37.0 85 | 31.45 ONS eS Saye roars 32.0 68 | 21.76 28.0 80 | 22.40 28.5 70 | 19.95 33.0 88 | 29.04 Oe a ae 31.0 72 | 22.32 27.0 73 | 19.71 30.0 82 | 24.60 36.0 87} 31.32 tT Ee eee 35.0 65 | 22.75 27.0 77 | 20.79 35.0 82 | 28.70 41.0 88 | 36.08 10-YEAR AVERAGE. SEG HRI is eves | reste e ore ateen etaeiat nar [armcaelle ta. seeeliocieatcrss Lb 1.89 |125.88 || 238.6 | 21.00 | 238.54 1876-1885 . . ~8l | 21.50 29.2 -79 | 23.18 WSSGS1 S052 ee ae Eee ese iS ‘ 5 : -62 | 15.16 29.6 -60 | 17.76 1896-1905..... : 5 5 , 5 : Be -60 | 14.29 29.9 -66 | 19.87 1906-1915..... - : 3 5 i 5 «77 | 22.43 35.6 .85 | 30.24 1 7-year average. 2 8-yeal average. 3 5-year average. 16 BULLETIN 515, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Corn, yields per acre and prices, by States—Continued. 10-YEAR AVERAGE. RSOG UBS Bie io 2 ale = als) alm ae otieini te alsa = io eee re te awinet=| eS ONO) 1.98 | 129.15 --| 228. 2.8 1876-1885 Year. The Territories. Indian Territory. Yield. | Price. | Value. || Yield. | Price. | Value. 1 8-year average. 2 6-year average. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 516 & Joint Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry ~ WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief, and the Office of Markets and Rural Organization, CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv December 28, 1916 TABLE FOR CONVERTING WEIGHTS OF MECHAN- ICAL SEPARATIONS INTO PERCENTAGES OF THE SAMPLE ANALYZED.' By E. G. Boerner, Assistant in Grain Standardization. INTRODUCTION. The rules and regulations for the enforcement of the United States Grain Standards Act prescribe a definite procedure for securing a representative sample upon which the grade of any particular lot or parcel of shelled corn is to be based. The rules provide that the original sample must be not less than 2 quarts in quantity, of which approximately 1} pints must be placed in an air-tight container and the remainder inclosed in a cloth sack. The portion in the container is intended for the determination of the - percentage of moisture, and this portion should be used for that test only. The remainder of the sample, contained in a cloth bag, will approximate 24 pints, and this portion is to be used for the remain- ing determinations, including color, damaged corn (not including heat damage), heat-damaged corn, and foreign material and cracked corn. The grades specify the maximum and minimum percentages permitted for the factors mentioned, and these percentages are to be determined by weight. Because of the time involved, it is impracticable to make the mechanical separations for color, damage, and foreign material and cracked corn on the entire 24 or more pints, and it therefore becomes necessary, in most cases at least, to divide the sample in order to obtain a smaller representative portion for the determination of the factors mentioned. Experiments have shown that the sample upon which the deter- minations for color, damage, foreign material, etc., are based should 1 The work covered by this bulletin was done under the direction of Dr. J. W. T. Duvel, in charge of the Office of Grain Standardization of the Bureau of Plant Industry. Since August 18,1916, the grain- standardization work of the Department of Agriculture has been administered jointly by the Office of Markets and Rural Organization and the Bureau of Plant Industry in connection with the administration of the United States Grain Standards Act. 71842°—Bull. 516—16——1 2 BULLETIN 516,'U./.S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. be approximately 250 orams in size. After the mechanical separa- tions and weighings have been made, mathematical calculations are involved in order to convert these weights into terms of percentage, and the accompanying table enables the analyst to accomplish these results without any calculations. DIRECTIONS FOR USING THE TABLE. Table I shows percentage equivalents ranging from 0 to 40 for samples weighing from 240 to 260 grams, inclusive, which covers the aces whieh oper? Lacks ultyeh Scour (770 OuvEer fiul(177E/ Ces WHO 176 VLLU7IEL \ 3 /nner furmel Onler Feri7et Aeceofacle SE EE eee eee Fic. 1.—A vertical cross section of the sampling device, showing the paths taken by the material in passing from the hopper to the containers. entire range of corn of other colors, damage, heat damage, and foreign material and cracked corn specified in the numbered Federal Corn Standards. In using the table to ascertain the percentage equivalent of a cer- tain weight of a separation of damage, etc., always read from left to right. TABLE FOR CONVERTING! WEIGHTS INTO PERCENTAGES 3 The solution of the following problem will illustrate the’use of the table: Problem.—A sample weighing 240 grams contains 8 grams of damaged corn. What is the percentage of damaged corn contained in the sample? Referring to Table I (p. 6), follow down the first column to the figure 8.0 (the weight of the separation of damaged corn in grams), The figure opposite (in the second column, with heading 240) is found to be 3.3, which is the correct percentage expressed to the nearest tenth of 1 per cent. a Ducrs which! \ gspod7 (17ro \ warmer furry7e/ XA Ne / Spaces which -TURIS FF . . . . . . . e . e . e . ° . . e e ° . I . 9), 8 50's "iW eis 3° . . . ° ° . . ° . . ° e ° ° saat ° . . . : 1 Ga (eae weis z 40°0 40°O | $0°O | $0°0 | £0°0 | F0°O | F0°O | F0°O | F0°O | 40°O | F0°O | F0°O | F0°O | FO°O | F0°O | FOO | FOO | F0°O | F0°O | FOO | FOO FT wees [°0 49°D | 90d | 40°ad | 29d | 8d | 9 a9 | 99-99 a | 99a | 28a 99g | 29d | 20a | 90 ad | 90a | 29 | 99 a | 29a | 99°a | 20'S ‘aie a | — SS oe 096 686 896 L&G 996 GGG GG SSE G&G IGG 0&3 646 8h LPG 9FZ StS FRG SG BEE OAKS OFS mopyeielos . eviedas JO FUSION *(SUIBIS) pozA][VUT dTdUIeS JO FYSTIOA i = 2 = = > —— — “wanih aio uoyvindas youpyoau ayy fo 7yhian ay) pun pazhyoun ajduups ayy fo qyhram ayy uaym “aja ‘wivsb fo ajdwns v fo abnjuaoiad quaypunby— J aATavy, QUGY oo oo be r= Gu ° SF bs ° ° e TABLE FOR CONVERTING WEIGHTS INTO PERCENTAGES. ° Sm mw aa hed det dis 12806 Or Pre ODD OSB ODS Or Se Sse see SS Ss se ee SUIEIS 0°S SULBIS 6°F “SUIVIS 89°F “SUIBIS 2°P *SUIRIS 9°F SUIS GP “SULVIS FP * SUIGIS 2°F ** SUITIS [°F SUIBIS [°F *"SUITIS 0°F ** sues ° *SUeIs G * Sur * sur Be 6 BIS 8° z. 9° ee AR a == s ae sen bn ep * SULBI a S v 0 6 8 ZL & & AS & & & & os & ‘S °G G G G G SUIGIS 9° 5 BULLETIN ee) 16, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ° . bs . a] . a ° e oo al ee ale . . . F °s ee ag ee c : 2 6° ras ee eee se ete 0°% 0°% 0°% 0°S 40°q ‘Pd | P'd 0°S 40‘ 0°% “Og L°G 0°% "40" 10 “ff 0°S 0°G (Geass 693 | 8gz PSG 896 0°% 90 “d 6°% L°% 0°S ROE cH *(SMITAS) pozA[LUR ofdwuers Jo FYSTO AK 0°% "10 “cf 0°32 | 0°% "40d | 20d *ponurju0,) 1% ‘10 'd —uanb a0 uoyniodas poovunyoan ayy fo qybran ayy pun pozhynun aydups ayn fo qybran ay) uayn “aja ‘urab L°% FFG "20 “ef . 1% ‘Pid | SES | GE 0's 8°% $°S [°S ‘Pd 2 t's D = = =| Ss = of "°°" smels ** > sureiS # 8 SUWRIS 2° 9 c “sueis “SUIRIS F°9 “"" " SURIS E°9 “"*"Surels Z°g9 “**" SUIRLS [°9 “""“STIRLS O°9 “SUIRIS 6°e ***"SUIBIS 9°e “**" SULBIS 2°@ LZ “* “ SUIRIS 9°@ “*" * SUIRIS @°¢ “"* " SURIS Fe “"* * SUIBIS E°e ***" SULBIS Z°C “*** SUItIs [°C *ropperedas JO FUSION fo ajduns p fo abnjuaoiad quappunby— JT AAV, 9 TABLE FOR CONVERTING WEIGHTS INTO PERCENTAGES. 8's 6°S Pel as ce | alae yl mag oe Bolatesle a = ° v's Sess ete ale rig a ee tr e or) T & 2 © ° SO Om aa tO Hh it coe | ebe8 ISO Ore rr OD BAS eses e563 «ees e658 CQ Ges He His “*** SURI O°OT *** *SUIBIS 6°6 “** *SUIBIS 8°¢ " SULRIS £°6 “"*" SUIBIS 9°6 “7 SUIRIs G°gG **** SULRIS $°¢ * SUIRIS $°6 “** * SUIBIS Z°6 “*" SUeIs 1°6 “"* * SUIeIs O°6 “**" SUItIS 6°8 “"*“SUIBIS 8°S “**"SUIBIS 2°8 > SUIBIS 9°8 SUITIS G°8 Pa G 71842°—Bull. 516—16——2 BULLETIN 516, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 10 > sureld #2 e e ° ° 8°F e ° e ° 6°R e e ° e 0°s ) . ° e e Ls Z°g ° 2°h ° ° ° e 83°F ° e ° ° e 6°R e . . 0's e- e ° T°e "sured S°3E e e e 2 °P e e ° e S°R ° ° e ° es 6 a id ° e e o°s . I *g : : i * sures rd I 9 °F ° ° ° ° 2°R . ° e e ° 83°R ° ° ° ° 6'R e e e o°s sures ard | ° ° 99°F ° ° . e L°R e e ° e e Q°P e . . ° 6°F e o°¢ "** SUIRIS O°SE ° ° ° e 90°F e e e ° 2 °F e e e e . 8°F . . e e 6 °F sueis 6°1IL ° or ° ° e . 9°F e ° e ° e 2 °F e e . e 8°F e e 6 i a ases “ SuIRIS SIL ° . ° GPT ° ° ° ° 9°F e ° . e e 2°? ° . e ° 8°r 6°R “""" sores Pit . ° ° . ° G°F e e e e e 9° . e e ° L°R ° e e 8° F "sureties 9°LL ° e °r ° e « ° CO ° e e ° e °F e . e ° L° . 8°F 2 ee sures CIE ° ° ° e PP . ° e ° Gp e e e e e 9°F ° e e ° LF ">" smreis FIL 8°R e ° °. e e $°R e e e e e CCR e e e e 9°R e e L°t **" soreis SIE ° e e 8°F e ° - ° PR ° ° e ° e e’yP . ° ° e 99°F L "> eae 8 sureis ZI ° . . ° . 8°R e . e e . PR e e e e Ce ° . e 9° eae *smeis Lit e Sr ° ° ° ° ° °F e e ° e e Pr e ° e e Che 7 e 9 a mii) “SUIRIS OIL e ° ° e Sh e ° e ° 2°P e ° . e . FP e e e ° G'F ede sures 6°01 1°? . ° ° e ° Z°Pr ° ° e e e g°P e °. ° ° F°? e e G°F “** "Smeg 8'0L . ° UF e ° ° ° ° 2°h ° e ° e ° 2°F e ° ° . ° t'F ‘She “smeris 2°01 ° ° ° °. ° lt ° ° ° ° e SF ° e ° e g°r e e ° Ft ie ** sme 9°01 e 0°? ° e e ° ° L °P ° e ° e ° z °h . ° e e . 83°F tt a ee) suRis @'OL ° . ° 0°F e . ° e ° Lt ° ° ° ° ° ar e e e - ° 2°F "*** SUIBIS $ OT . ° e . . . 0°? ° e “ e e LP e ° . e e 2°r . 83°F -"sureis £°OT . . 6 °g . e . . . 0O°r ° i 2 e e e I a ° ° e : e e z i ares “ SUIRIS ZOL 6°S 6°S 6°S 6°S 6°S 0°r O°F 0°F 0°F 0°r O°F O°F UP I’? i’? IU’? LU’? U'? °F o°P GF fp SWBIS TOT D'd | d | W'd | | 9d | dT | d | 'd | Od | d | 9d | Wd | Wd | 'd | 'd | 'd | Wd | -'d | “Pd | “W'd | “Wd | Bez | IFS | OF | } *uo;zeredoes JO ISOM = *(suieis) pozAyeue ofdues Jo FYSTOM *ponurjyuoy) —uaryb an uoyniodas yooyunyoowu ayy fo 1yhian ayn pun pazhyoun ajduns ayn fo qybram ayn uayn “93a ‘uansb fo apduns vo fo abrjusoied quapunby—J ATAV, 11 TABLE FOR CONVERTING WEIGHTS INTO PERCENTAGES. 0°9 0°S t°9 ag e oe AD AS Sms wa 5 1915 1 0S SS SS CS ° 19rd i191 3919 1420 169169 COG Het His 199 Sr ker OM ae oR) ag “** SUIBIS O°CT “"* SULBIS 6° FL “*-"SuIvl3 8° $1 “""" SUIBIS 2° “** “SUVIs 9° FT “"""“ SMBIS G°FL SULGIS FFL ‘Ses $°FL “""" SULBIS 2° PL “** SUBis [PL *** SULRLS O° FL *** “ SmIeIs 6°81 “" SUIBIS 9°ST “"" SHIBAS 2°80 *“ SUBIS 9°81 **“ SUIRIS G°ST “"SUIRIS £SE ““ SUIBIS SSE SUItIS 7ST “"" " SmIeis [ST SMeIs OST ‘*" SUIBIS 6°31 SMIBIS Q°SL “"* “SUIBIZ 2°30 *** SMIBIS 9°CI “*"" SULBIS G°ZE BULLETIN 516, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 12 © Co) . *@ . 8°S ‘d | Pd L°9 8°s ‘pid 693 896 ‘Pid LQG 8°9 hep 5 i rote . e ° 6°9 ° . Seto a Se es eae : ‘ee b. . : 2 9 e e . 8°9 . e L 9 e ° . g°9 : ; » ley ts . . 9°9 . ° LZ "9 . : si iotgh tas : : ery | * . a |g tgy ame ces | asy dees 4 - | 99 . ; «Teta. | es : sealliaiy cl i ° learn e . t°9 e e e ae : - leo |s- . 8°9 . e . | P'S : : saeasge hee ‘ Bi gig | os : » | gto : TSP ex : . 19 | ° ; sl aig | Ble eee 3 een ‘ . - Its | - ‘ ab Vee : : ~ lpg 09 |0°9 |0'9 [| T'9 | T'9 | I'9 ‘pid | I'd | 'd | 90"d | 9 'd | 'd OGG | GEG | SFG | LFS ord 1936 e I yd . . . . : Hawes ee 5S) one ee Amie F Flow Wes : 6 9 . . . O°L ‘ et rae ial ‘ Bors ae Neg es il ekg. | ON : ‘ ; : es bs a £ a!) . . . 8°9 ‘ fed iene ; 979: tes 8b: pee wa al a ‘ . : ; sal cig tea Soden sgt = * Tats . . gs "9g ) | . Can bes : - 1 9'9 ae ees ‘ . : ‘ ot nell sos ge (ra : : : we ata ak ‘ se | * ‘ ae ak ° < a°9 =.» Ww 39 | 3'9 | 3'9 | 39 | 8°9 ‘Pd ID'd 4 Pd | P'd ‘Pd org | FF3 | SHR | BES | TFs HH HS 18S Or rer OND ABH SOS CF mA an SS CSS SS SS ss Ss Ss SS Se BK Ker we eee *smris FL1 “** "SuUIvIs @°2T “+? * omer raat "SURES [ZT “"* "SUBIS O'LE “"" " SUIBIS 6°9T . "*** STIRIS Q'OT “"*" SUBIS 2°9T > Sued 9°91 “"" SUIRIS O°9T “SURI $9 +> SURLS GOT “* SURIS [OL “*" SUIRIS [OT ""* SUIRLS O'OT “"* SUIRIS 6°CT ~""""SUITIS O°eT “"" SUIRIS 2p°ey “"* “STIRIS 9°CT “** “SUIRIS @°CT “'*SUIRIS Fey “'*" SUIRIS E°CT *(smvis) pozAyRue oTdURS JO WYSTOM *ponut}u0K, ge" “** "SURI Z°ey g° “"""SUIRLS [°CL ‘Pd OFS “worpeirndes JO FUSTOAL —uanb aso uonnindas yonunyoou ayy fo 7ybram ayy pun pazhyoun apdwuos ayy fo pybran ayy uayn “oa ‘urnub fo o)d.uos v fo abojuaowad quappunby— | XIV, : na TABLE FOR CONVERTING WEIGHTS INTO PERCENTAGES. GL “**"Surel3 0°03 “7 gurels 6°61 8 8 § |] Swedes 9°6t "Sg f° Sureds 2°65 8 8 ae 6368 *"* “SULRIS 9°6T “**" SMBIS GG] °g of Surers $°61 “-*" surels &°61 "Sg f° Ssureis 2°61 2 f° Surers [°6R oo oF wma ® “**" SUlBIS 0°61 2 f° Surerd 6°81 {°° “SWeIS Q°ST *** “SUIeIs 2°81 **“SUIBIS 9°87 ** SUIPIS @°ST -- >" smreIS £8 I swueas ¢°gp “*" STURIS Z° ST } SUIS [ST 196 «Ore Eh OH AH f° SUIRIS OST ‘ smrels 6°21 }-- + sureiS 9°21 f°" SUITS 2°27 “*""SUIBIS 9°27 *** SUIBLS G2, Coed HSH HIS BULLETIN 516, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 14 9°8 hone eh gee - 1 6°8 a og : 2 ~ | 9g : ale : lets : - Les ” | or e's A ae |r : ~ Tog : - | gg 5 2 tare 3 - @°8 ; & | og : | peg : | geg . ete : - |e ; - | 9g : | ane : - | e-g : : . £8 , - | erg 4 - |og | peg : Fil rg b 3 - | sg - Seale 3 - |g 4 - Tas eee 2's : | gg . | o-g : ete 5 | ng : . e's . - | sg ; - | erg : ase . eg ; a lpr . | gg : Be ll ae : Tog : ‘ 3°8 : . - | eg : - | Fg - | eg ; - iors : . - | gg : | gg : ol eng : - Leg ‘ 5 1's , - | ag , - Jeg : - |geg : coat og : 2 1°8 : ~ | gg ; | gg : | ag : aS Salere f a | ees ; - | ag * - | ¢-g . - |e-s : : 0's ; - a) peg - ” Lag : ~ | gag 5 ” | peg ; : 0°8 - ; - | 1s : - | gee : - [ess : : : : i | ong 5 ~ [Ts “ | ag f | erg 3 : 6°2 : - | o's : - |g : - | arg 5 - | gg 5 wee A Sette : | og : | eg : wT ag : : 8'2 ee re gees : - Tow : : 1's A " - | gg : "2 ‘ il gs, . : - | og . - | ; 5 . . . bo tag) 4 ° . 6°2L . . 0°s . . Ls | . L°L 8°L 8°L 8°L 8°L 6°L 6°L 6°L 0°8 0°8 0°8 1°8 L*8 1°8 Od | 'd | 'd | d | d | dP 'd | Wd | Pd | Pd | Pd | Pd | Pd | "ad = ees earees SS, SE | PS, | ec, | Peas | he 09% | G92 | 893 | 49% | 993 | Geo | Fes | SEs | Bes | Tez | 08s | GES | SHB | LEZ se 16 *(SuItIs) pozdyrur ofdurrs Jo YSToO A, ‘ ponUl} mo, ) $°8 SS CoOf FA AN 6868 9 Or wre DH BAD His tt 2 . Cae . . Bh DH BH OHH NE HH DWH BH GH GH aoa gee “*** Sulels $°23 “""" SULBIS $°Z% “"" "SURI S33 “"" "SUlRl3 [1°33 “** " SMIBIS 0°26 , SUIBIS 61S “*""SUIBVIS S°1S “""*sureis 2°1% “** * SMIBI3 9°1S “"* "SURIs @1Z “"""SmRIs F1G “**"Smlel3 $°1zZ “""" Smlel3 13 “"*"smlelS [°1Z “""" SuRIs O°1S “"""SURIS 6°03 *"" "SuIRI3 8°0Z% ""*" suIeI3 9 "*" " SUIBIS ¢° t "**"SuIvis $°0% “"*" SUIBIS B03 ""* * SUIBIS [°03 “mo; eredes JO FUSIO A, —warrh amp Uoynindas jooiunyoout ay) fo 7y bran ay) pun pazhynun ards ayp fo qybram ayn uayn “aja “una fo ajduins v fo abpzuaosed quajvaanby—] aay f : t f 1 | yor Yh Ur: jo Ui l } [oMnogd— T iL Wen) 1 TABLE FOR CONVERTING WEIGHTS INTO PERCENTAGES. 9°6 8°8 6°8 Cr frre 2H 202 29° Cn wa 19 “KH He 5 A aa aa as “*** SUers 0°EZ “"* SUIGIS 6°FZ “"" “ SUIeIs 8°$Z “"*" SUIBIs 2°FZ “"* * SuleIs 9°F% “""" SUIRLS G°FZ “"*" SUIVls $°$Z “"" “SULvIS 8° FS “""" Smers ZF “"" Suleis [°F aa Gai “*** SUIRIS O°F “**"* SulVIs 6°¢ t as “"""SmIRIs 9°e “> surers 2°g a ete “*" "SURI 9°Sz “** "SUIRIs Ge "** SULRIS $°Sz “"*"SUIRIS 8°27 “"*"SUIRIS Z°Sz “"-" gureas T°Sz “** " Smlels 0°Sz ">" SUBS 6°SS “"*" SUIRIS 9° ZS "3 SULeIs 2°23 “"*"SUIRIS 9°23 "*** SULBIG G° CZ BULLETIN 516, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 16 9°6 "10 “e 096 £°6 ‘Pid 896 ‘ 6 ‘OT 8°OT 3 ci 8°OL £°Or 5 f L°Or “+ | 2°Or 9°OT : E 9°01 Gor . . oor i $*Or FOL : r FOL 6 OL ‘ SOL : 3 Or GOL z 5 6 °OL TOL ; : Lor : LOL 0°OL , 0°01 O°OL | O°OL “jd | "]0'd S96 196 *(SmtIs) pozA[RUB o[duWeS JO JYSTOM StS & OL Pid “ponulj wor FUL | | SWMIVIS F2z FUL | SWBIS §°25 SUL | SWBIS 7727 S°UL ff swers [2% GUL fo suers O25 GIL | SWRIS 6°93 GIL .f °C SWIBIS 8°97 TIL | suiers 2°93 TIL J °° suvis 9°9% O°IT f° Suleis ¢°9% O°LT | SWIRLS $95 6°OL J °° SWRIS $793 6°OL J ( SUIRIS 3°93 6°OL f° sweis [°9Z 8‘OL J smvis 0°92 SOL f° suteis 6°43 L°OL J swieas 9°¢zg L°OL f° swtrs 2°¢% LOL J swears 9°¢z 9°OL | surers @°¢% 9°OL | swRis ¢°¢% G°OL J surers ¢°¢% G°OL f° sues o°¢% FOL J SUR [°ez ‘pd OFS . “wot, RIvdas JO FUSTOM —uaiih ain uoypindas joovumpau ayy fo qybriam ayy pun pozhynun apdiups ayz fo qyhran ayy uaym “oa ‘ure fo ajdiups v fo abnjzuaoiad quaypanby— | L1AV I, 17 EN TAGES. ‘ aR FOR CONVERTING WEIGHTS INTO PI TABLE 8°Or a) ‘IL oir es ° es 6 ; ag == =e COC SURI > SUBIS SUIS ° SuUvIs SUIVIS s : Csr : 9°Cr ‘ L°SL a 8°cr | 6°SE : 0°&T ‘ Ts = 6ST ‘ ‘st - F'SL | S°St [°° smvis F°7g gi F°SL : C°or 5 9°GL : LoL E 8°oL . 6°3T : 0°8T : T°st ; ZS : $°SI : ¥°SL | sueis ¢°cE ‘al $ F Sr ie ead § . 9°SI - L°stL ; 8°6L 5 6 °6T z 0°ST : T‘st ‘ GSI | 8°&I : St | SmeIs 37g EI $°3L . FST ‘ Ss ; 9°SI ¢ L°@L * 8°ST 6°SL . 0°SsT : T°St | G°St 2 S°Sl | PSL | SWbis [ZS a oe 4 $°3L . FUL ¥ oor é 9°sI 5 L°or : 8°sr i 6°GL | O°&T : T°st |. * 6S ; 2°St J smvis o°ze Pp 4 $°36L % F GL 3 3 rf . 9°GL | L£°Gt E 8'3L : 6°SL : 0°sI : [st : 2 SL | S°kL f° SwBis G1E re Z°SL = £°3Sr F FST si G‘3L 3 9°SL ¢ L°3L e 8°3L % 6 °GI 0°SI i I ‘st : | S°SE | °° “sues g°1g g % GSE . $°3L 4 PCL : Sxgh. 9°sL 3 L£°eL z 8°6r E 6°GL ; 0°S&T 3 T°St | G°SL J SWBis 2°18 1°6t : Z SL 5 $°ar “s PSL Gol Z 9°SL = L°aL ~ 8°6L ; 6°GI : O°SE | T°St | 3° J °° sweIs 91g a Lal a % BSL : $°GL ‘ FOL ‘ SSL : 9°GL 4 L°@r 4 8°sL | 6°SL a 0°SsI : | £°SE f° Sueis eg 4 F Tal K GGL Sal é Fol : Gol 9°GL : L°OL : 8°aL : 6 ‘ZI 2 O°SI | L‘SL J ( sueis F'1g &, O°SE 5 L°Gl E BSL : $°6L P FOL r Gol e 9°sr > L°sL ‘ 8°eL : 6°éI : O°SL | SWRIS $°1g eA ‘3 0°6r ‘ era § 3 GGL R $°6L . an! 4 er & 2 9°or : L°sL : 8°GL : 6°SL | O°SE J SWRIS ZTE al 9 5 0°SE > ord § ‘ iar § ‘ S°GL PSL iS CSL 5 9°SL ‘ L°OL 4 beet cM lee | 6°sE f* “SURIS [°TS 5 Ee Ge : 0°oL 3 . L°sL ; GGL > $°6r re F°GL 5 G°sl . 9°GL : L£°GE | S°GL ; 6°ZL f° CSUIRIS OLE be 3 6°IL ‘ 0°Gr - | rf ° GGL P $°GL 3 = F°sr | Sol 3 9°S6L % LOL 3 S°Gk 6°SE f° SUIBIS 6°08 3 8‘IL : 6°Lt : 0°ar ° 1 ora | ; GOL : $°3r q POL ‘ SSL z 9°oL ; L°6L ¥ | S°SL. f° °° swuers g°0g . 8°IL % 6°IT % 0°SL rs L°oL c GGL 4 $°SL ‘ PSL Z Ss : 9°6L : L°GE | 8°GE f° SWiBIs 2°08 wn . SIT , : 6°IT : 0°SL ‘ ToL : GGL : $°GL s Fol Z G°sl 3 9°GL 3 Se (eles “SUIRIS 9°08 5 LiL ‘ 8°IL % 6°IL x - 0°SL ‘ L°@L “4 oor $°ST < PSL ‘ ard § x 9°SL | 2°SL J SWRIs C°0g - 5 Ltt s 8°IL ‘ 6°TL . 0°S6L 2 ord § = : GGL < S°or ; FOL | S°ar 5 | | L°SL J sweis F'08 © 9°IT % L°ur . 8°Ir a 6°IL : 0°SL E 1°oL 3 GGL ‘ $°GL y ESL r e°sl E 9'3L | SWUIBIS §°0E ao OAT pas Pere Scar | ear te OCR he Lt Eee | os oe c8E Rese. [obs PBT | | Seer | acen psc earein og vs 9°IL 9°IL | 2°UL | 2°UL | LSU | SUL | SUL | GTI | GILL | OSL | O°SL J L°SL | LSE | SSL | SSL | SSL ES SL | ESL | F°GL | SSL | SSL PY SWIRLS [0g Bae FO acti eta a hce | g2P cL 2A | 20 YIP ch Ae I chy 90h | APR PPP | 40 0c De | OTe IPP PR ed | 10 ed 29h aoe ica} => -_ —EE = po -= 4 = ail} = —— — — is 096 696 893 £96 986 BTS 9G £96 G&G 1&3 0&6 6FG 8s LEG 9FG OFS PEG SPS GES LS xc OFS =) “woyjuredas aa JO 3ILSTOM *(smivis) pozA[VUR o[duies Jo IWSTO A, ee : ‘ponur} 0; : 19 TABLE FOR CONVERTING WEIGHTS INTO PERCENTAGES. - 6°SI C~ ° oD = a 8 = a ° oD = 6st roar) f O°FL O°rL 6°E&1 == ° bs = ie ce loc) = 101.0 oo) = = 19 “** "SMR LS O°GE “** * SUIBIS 6°FS “"* " SUIRIs Q°FR “"** SUIRIS 2°FS ****SUIRLS 9°FS “"""SULRIS GFE SUICIS F°FR “*""SUIBIS E°FS “"**SUIRLS ZFS “"*"Sureds [FE ** "Sues OFS “"" "SUIBLS 6°88 "**"SUIvIs 9°SS “SUIRIS 2°ES ***SUIRIS 9°S8 SUITIS G°SS suvis #°SE *"SUIRIS $°g8 STIRIS Z°SE SUBIS T°ES SUIS O°SS SUIBIS 6°SE “*"SUIRLE 8°S “"""SUIRIS 2°ZE “* *SUIRIS 9°SE “**SUIBIS C°6E BULLETIN 516, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 20 0°FT s TFL : GPL < S°vL | FFL : G°rl . ° . aal : 9°81 P L°8t , 8°sL , 6°SI S O°PL | L°rL - GFL S°FL : FFL 3 : z : : SFL | FPL S°sT A 9°ST . L°8t : 8°sI E 6°8L | O°PE |. ° aa! 8 SPL | S°FL i $°sI S°S | 9°SL | 9°&L | L°SL | S°SL | 8°SL | CSL | G°SL | O'FL | O°FL | L°FL | LPL | GFL | SFL | SFL "dV '10'd 110° | 90'd | 20a ad 90 t | daa | oad | ota | 90a 90a | 20° | 20a | ota | yo" 1D of} 3 *"* "sumer 9°¢ “"" "SUIBIS G°@ is oe) """ "SmIRIis F'eg “*""SmIBIs $°eg SUIBIS Z'°CS SUIRIS [°C§ i ¥ FL : G°Pl | 9°FT . LPL ; S°rL | 6°FT e 0°ST ‘ E°St ; S°St $°STt : F°ST | SSL | 9°ST J smBIs F2¢g S°rL : PPE | SPL ; 9°F1 F L°PL | S°FL i 6°FI ‘ O°Sst | E°St 4 G°ST : S°SE | VSI . Q°et fF surers g°ng $°FL “ VFL ‘ o°rr : O°FL | 2°FL : 8°FL ¥ 6°FL | 0°ST : t°St : G°ST | S°SE : F°SL | S°ST f° smers T2g = S°rr “f F°vr : G°rE | O°FL i L°Fr ° 8°rL e 6°FL | O°ST . E°St | GSE : $°St b F°SL | smers 12g GFL P|, OA 2. 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L°vL | 8°FL 6°FE | OST “"* “SUIBIS §°98 6°SL g 0°FL ; I ‘FI ° SFL | 8 ‘FL 3 FFT x StL 2 9°FL | L°FE [ 8°FL ; 6 °FE “SUIRIS Z°9§ ‘ 6°8I - O°rI 5 L°tE | orl &°rr i Laas F S°rL | 9°F1 ‘ LPL S S°FL | 6° FL """SUIBIS ['9§ 8st : 6°SL | O°FI 5 L°FE | L°hL | GPE i S°PL \b'°RE | S°rL S 9°FT : L°tL | 8°FL 3 SUIRIE HOE 8°st . 6 °ST : 0°FT e ‘FL i GPE | S°hE : ‘tL s G*ri 9°FE | 2 °FL a 8°Ft SULBIS §°C§ ‘ 8°st e 6°éI : 0°FL r L°E | ot z $°rL . trl 3 Q°FL | 9°F1 "** *SUIRIS °Cg L°8t 8°sL 4 6°SL ‘ O°rE | CVE G°rE | ° $°FL s b°rE | S°FL : SUIBIS £°Gg O9G | 696 86 LoS | 9&6 GSS PSG 896 693 196 093 646 StS LPS | 9FG *moyjeIRdas JO FUESPOAL *(SUIBI3) poZA[VUL oj des JO WYSTOAL ‘ponury mos) —Uanh ain woynsndas JooUDyvawu ay? fo 7ybran ay; pun pazhyoun ajdiups ayz fo ,ybram ayn uayn “oja ‘urnib fo ajdwuos v fo abyzuaoiad quoppamnby—T AAV, 21 aS. I v G TABLE FOR CONVERTING WEIGHTS INTO PERCENTA =e cet SSE 6ST o°St T°St L°st a 6°St SST 6°FI wD a $ qa 1s £°9T 9°9L 9°9L ¢*9t ¢G°9or v'9OL v°9T FOL €°9L SOL GOL GOL GOL tot T°90 0°9T 0°9L 6 °ST 6 °ST 6 “ST 8°St 8°St L°Sh 2£°ot 2°ST 3°St “SUIRIS 0°0F “SUIBLS 6°6E “SUILIS 8°68 “SUIBIS 2°62 “SUIVIS 9°62 “SUIGIS GEE *SUITIS F°6E “SUIBIS §°6E “SUIPIS 7°62 “SUIPIS 1°6E “SUITIS 0°6E “SUIRLS 6°8E “SUIRIS 8°8e “SUITIS 2°SE “SMIeIS 9°8e “SUIBIS G°98g “STUIVIS F°8e “SUITIS ¢°8e “SUIRIS Z°SE “SUITIS LSE ** SUIRIS 0°88 ** SUIRIS 6°2E “SUIRIS S°28 “SUIRIG 2°28 “SUITIS 9°28 “SULELS G°2E * UA Fg a, i 4 b o* * - weer : = eile ee ee ee eo ‘ & » S a hn ies S ee a 4 a ¥ z o 7s T . $ NE EEE EOE—EOEOEOEOEOEeEeEeEeEeeee eee ie Sie BULLETIN No. 517 4 Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry “el A. D. MELVIN, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER February 16, 1917 AN INTRADERMAL TEST FOR BACTERIUM PULLORUM INFECTION IN FOWLS. By ARCHIBALD R. Warp and Bernarp A. GALLAGHER, Pathological Division. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Dissemination of infection in white Comparison of results of agglutina- GisiEnned ea ee ee 1 tion and intradermal tests______~_ 12 The agglutination test-_________~_ 2 | Significance of swelling as an indi- Experimental work—-_----_--~~-~-- D) cation of reaction-_-___--___-~-_ 13 Tests of artificially infected birds 2 | Various biologic tests-___________- 14 Field trials of the intradermal Summary and conclusions__--___~- 14 ECSU et 10 DISSEMINATION OF INFECTION IN WHITE DIARRHEA. Of the numerous diseases to which poultry are susceptible it is safe to say that bacillary white diarrhea is by far the most widespread and most destructive. Its ravages are confined principally to baby chicks, but it is the pullorum infection in the hen which is directly responsible for outbreaks of white diarrhea in the chicks, since a certain percentage of her eggs hatch infected chicks and the excre- tions of these spread the disease to the other birds in the brood. The exceedingly high mortality of white diarrhea, amounting in some cases to almost 100 per cent of the hatch, practically prevents the rearing of chicks in infected flocks. ‘The disease is contracted dur- ing the first four days of life, and deaths occur as a rule during the first month. It has been demonstrated conclusively by several in- vestigators that chicks which recover may carry the causative bac- terium in the ovary and serve as a source of infection in the future. Infected hens usually exhibit an ovary containing several angular, hard, discolored ova; however, the organ may continue to func- tionate and from time to time an ovum is released which harbors the infective agent. Outbreaks of white diarrhea as a result of con- Novre.—This bulletin is a report on a study of a disease of fowls that is quite de- structive, and should be serviceable to those who are interested in poultry and poultry diseases. 72248°—Bull. 517——17 bo BULLETIN 517, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. taminated incubators or brooders could be controlled readily by sani- tary measures, but infection through the egg must be prevented by - au process of weeding out the carriers among the hens used fer breeding. ‘ THE AGGLUTINATION TEST. Since the presence of the Bactertwm pullorum in the ovary ot the hen is not betrayed by external symptoms, it was necessary to devise a biologic method of diagnosis in order to detect the presence of the disease in the affected birds. The agglutination test was found to be applicable for this purpose, and several agricultural experiment stations have taken up the work on an extended scale, offering the service to poultrymen at a price that barely covers the cost of the work. This, in Connecticut, is understood to be 10 cents a fowl. The work of drawing blood samples and sending to a laboratory is necessarily tedious and relatively expensive as compared with the value of a bird. A simpler, cheaper, and equally accurate diag- nostic method would undoubtedly contribute to greater popularity of this valuable work in disease prevention. EXPERIMENTAL WORK. The writers have undertaken to determine the possibility of pre- paring a biological product from Bacterium pullorum to be used for the diagnosis of the disease caused by that organism. The general idea was to develop a diagnostic method somewhat analogous to the intradermal tuberculin test, particularly as applied to fowls. TEST OF ARTIFICIALLY INFECTED BIRDS. Two strains of Bacterium pullorum were planted in 1,500 c. c. of plain bouillon in the amount of one loopful each. This culture was incubated at 37° C. from September 19 to October 19, 1914. It was then placed in the ice box until May 4, 1915. On this date 100 c. ¢. of the culture was passed through a Berkefeld filter. The filtrate was determined to be sterile by cultural tests. Carbolic acid was then added in sufficient quantity to make a 0.5 per cent solution. On May 17, 1915, two drops of this filtrate were injected into the right wattle of a hen that had been injected with Bacterium pullorum on September 22, 1914. The liquid was injected slightly above the lower border of the wattle and no attempt was made to place it within the layers of skin. Twenty-four hours later the wattle showed an edematous swelling. The following day, 48 hours after injection, there was noted a pronounced edematous infiltration of the entire wattle. A swelling of this size in other intradermal tests would be considered as positive. The temperature was normal. On May 20 the swelling of the wattle decreased ccnsiderably, and 90 hours after TEST FOR BACTERIUM PULLORUM INFECTION IN FOWLS. 3 injection the wattle appeared normal. The wattle of a control, a noninfected bird, injected at the same time, remained normal. On autopsy the ovary of the infected bird presented several angular ova typical of pullorum infection. > Sra lise (i eeeaeae ees a i se Trace. | Positive .......- ee ae + — Normal.....-.-- — ee + = leccos GOs5ossc0805 = ak Trace mai sell iefaone GO wensaeee — ae + + Positive.....-..- — | — - Normal _..--.-- — We cts Trace — Questionable... . = ects 4k — Positive......--- + |e = — Normal..-.....-. — ets Trace — iROSibivie sesso ee = | eee 4k _ Questionable. . - - a eae + _ Positive......... + | pens ae Trace. |....- GO- ane aeee ak Py ae ak iracesa| sees dois tees oe a — a he Sas Coxe ess + | ae + Mrace:y eacce (lee emcoooee — eet + Trace. | Questionable. ... — = Trace _ Normal ........- = = = _ | Not killed.......|......-- ees — = yea (CKO) Renesas ar oc |e eee p= - _ NORM al secre eee io = _ — Died ai sees _ = = = Nonna eee eee pene = — _ INOtikilledseseaes| 2) Ses cee — — =o) ease Choe ed ee ce) |S ee ae = _ —TPaE Sora Co Ko eee 4) Nemesia = — cam | WOE AS 5 ret alee eee = — — Sakcis ORS eee eats | sees e.. 1 Controls. SUMMARY OF THE TESTS WITH ARTIFICIALLY INFECTED BIRDS. In the course of the experiments recorded in the foregoing, 32 birds that had been exposed to infection by injection of live cul- tures were employed. When tested for the first time 29 of these, or 90 per cent, revealed edematous swellings rated as either shght or positive at 24 hours after injection with the diagnostic agent. When read at a 48-hour interval, 23, or 71 per cent, of the same birds gave TEST FOR BACTERIUM PULLORUM INFECTION IN FOWLS. 9 reactions rated as either slight or positive. Thus, the 24-hour in- terval yielded the largest percentage of reactions. Practically all birds, both those inoculated and controls, exhibited a swelling shortly after injection and therefore no diagnostic value has been attributed to swellings observed before the lapse of 24 hours. Three birds gave negative readings at both 24 and 48 hours. Autopsy of two of these revealed unquestionable lesions of pullorum infection, from which the organisms were obtained, while in the third one the lesions were questionable and no culture was obtained. Thus, the test failed to detect 6 per cent of the birds in which lesions were found. In all but two cases the same birds were retested after an interval of 7 or 8 weeks. Of the 30 birds retested 22, or 73 per cent, gave a reaction rated as either a trace, sight, or positive at 24 hours on the second test. At 48 hours on the second test only 8, or 26 per cent, displayed reactions rated as a trace, slight, or positive. Further, 8 birds, or 26 per cent, showed no reaction at either 24 or 48 hours. Tt is evident that a retest after an interval of about 8 weeks is far less reliable than a first test. Of the 32 birds tested, autopsy revealed unquestionable lesions in 18, or 56 per cent. In 8, or 25 per cent, the lesions were regarded as questionable. In 6 birds, or 16 per cent, no lesions were found, although all were positive to the test at 24 hours. Twenty-six controls were tested for the first time. These had been gathered from various sources and there was no assurance that they were free from infection. Of these, 5 at 24 hours after injec- tion displayed swellings rated as slight or positive and 4 displayed the same condition at 48 hours. At autopsy 2 were found to be in- fected, and 1 through accident was not examined. No lesions were found at autopsy of 2; however, 1 of these came from the same flock as one of the unquestionably infected controls, and had been in the same cage as the infected bird. While agglutination tests were made on serum drawn from inocu- lated birds, after injection with the diagnostic agent, and the results appear in the various tables, it is realized that agglutination would naturally be expected as a result of the various injections. We have observed that as a result of the artificial infection with cultures of Bacterium pullorum, the agglutinating value of the serum of these birds varied within a wide range. Some birds gave an agglutina- tion at a dilution of 1:1,000, while others that had been repeatedly injected with the test fluid gave no agglutination, owing to the strong bacteriolytic properties of their sera, presumably resulting from the various injections. Negative control birds after one injection with the test fluid gave an agglutination titer of 1:50. i lg 10 BULLETIN 517, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The disadvantages of work with artificially infected birds, due to the large amounts of culture injected and to the severe reactions re- sulting, were thoroughly realized, and work with naturally infected birds was undertaken. FIELD TRIALS OF THE INTRADERMAL TEST. Through the courtesy of the Connecticut agricultural experiment station, opportunity was afforded to apply the intradermal test to two flocks tested at the same time by Dr. L. F. Rettger by the agglu- tination method. One flock of 231 birds injected on February 28, 1916, contained at the time over 40 birds showing more or less evidence of swelling of the wattles due to frostbite, while 6 others showed very slight swell- ing attributed to the same cause. When examined 38 hours after injection none was regarded as showing reaction to the intradermal test. One bird gave a reaction to the agglutination test and was killed by the owner before arrangements were made to retest by the intradermal method. However, the owner had made an autopsy and reported that he regarded the bird as infected. In the second flock in which work was done the Connecticut Agri- cultural Experiment Station tested 50 birds in the regular routine work of testing. Of these 1 reacted to the agglutination test and failed to react to the intradermal test when examined 46 hours after injection. A number of birds showed slight abnormal conditions, regarded at the time as due to frostbite, but noted in connection with the problem of determining the least amount of swelling to be re- garded as a significant intradermal reaction, under the conditions in question. The bird that gave a positive reaction to the agglutination test was retested by both methods about a month later by Dr. Rettger. At 24 hours after injection the wattle was swollen to about 2.5 times normal thickness, and when observed at 48 hours the swelling was 1.5 times normal. An agglutination test made at the same time also gave posi- tive results. It is probable that the failure of the intradermal test when used the first time was due to some error in technique. Further, it is the belief of the writers that readings should be taken at about 24 hours, and not as late as 36 and 48 hours, as in these trials. In the same flock the intradermal test alone was applied to about 100 birds, and those showing any enlargement of the wattle at 46 hours were tested by the agglutination method by Dr. Rettger. The results yielded by both methods are given in Table VIII. The size of the swelling following the intradermal injection is indicated as nearly as possible by arranging them in order of decreasing size from the top to the bottom of the list. Here, again, cognizance was taken TEST FOR BACTERIUM PULLORUM INFECTION IN FOWLS. ital of every degree of swelling, without implying that the slighter swellings were significant. TABLE VII.—Comparison of intradermal and agglutination tests. Ageglu- | Agslu- Hos Intradermal test. Fan: eee Intradermal test. nea test. test. ——— | — 93 | Whole wattle swollen, <3; droops..| — 66 | Swelling and drooping of feathered 76 | Whole wattle swollen, X3-..---..-- [en beats skin at edge of wattle. ......._.. = 77 | Lower half swollen, X3-..-..------- + 52 | Trace of swelling at lower edge of MOMMoNVOllEN SC 2e bec oNane cose sea see _— OPEL (o) ASCH Tee eee es A he —_ 722, || (SRYOlIG SS Oates aaeee seecotede ae (2) 99 | Swelling possibly due to trauma- OGnimo wollen doe scete oe ek bo _ tism, as wattle is very blue....._. _ 29 | Lower halfswollen, X2-......-.---- -_ 60 | Questionable swelling of feathered 59 | Lower half swollen, X1.5.-.-.-...- _ skin at edge of wattle...........- e+ 81 | Lower halfswollen, X1.5.........- — 95 | Trace of swelling on posterior half 100 | Lower half swollen, X1.5.-......-. _ OLWAttIe pace e ean hee eee - 97 | Lower half swollen, X1.5.-......-. — The results were particularly discordant in the case of fowl 93, which had been placed at the top of the list as showing the best intradermal reaction, while it failed to give a reaction to the agglu- tination test. In view of the discrepancy, Dr. Rettger obtained the bird in question, together with three others, for retest and autopsy. The results are shown in Table LX: TABLE 1X.—Comparison of retests and autopsy findings. Intradermal test. Conditi Fowl Ageglutina- sores won Gi No.— tion test. SKK ar 24 hours. 48 hours. PSY - CR eae cies Slipkiteeeer oe eere = = | Normal, Websceees Swollen, X2.....} Swollen X1.5.... — | Do. 19) tod ae = = = | Normal (small). GOL 2225—. — — — | Normal. The result of the retest and autopsy of birds 93 and 72 is not wholly satisfactory. The repetition of the reaction in both cases is. significant; but, on the other hand, the results of the agglutination test and autopsy leaves the matter inconclusive. As to the remain- ing discrepancies in Table VIII, the many other cases noted as surely the result of freezing indicate that it is not desirable to apply the intradermal test where there is a possibility of freezing. TRIALS BY OTHER INDIVIDUALS. In several instances the test product was sent to interested indi- viduals on request. One report on the results was received in which 1,301 birds were tested and 78 gave a positive reaction. The latter were retested by the agglutination method, and 70 gave a positive reaction. 2, BULLETIN 517, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COMPARISON OF RESULTS OF AGGLUTINATION AND INTRA- DERMAL TESTS ON NATURALLY INFECTED BIRDS. Through the assistance of Roy E. Jones, we located and purchased 47 birds that had given positive or questionable agglutination tests, apphed by the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station. These, together with nine controls, were injected for the intradermal test on June 23, 1916, and readings were taken at 24 and 48 hours. Of the birds reported positive to the agglutination test applied by the Connecticut station, there was total agreement in 28, or 70 per cent, of the cases in that they also gave positive intradermal test as determined 24 hours after injection and displayed unquestionable lesions when eventually slaughtered. Of those reported positive to the agglutination test, 30, or 75 per cent, revealed lesions at autopsy. Thirty-five birds gave positive reactions to the intradermal test. Autopsy revealed that of these 29, or 83 per cent, possessed un- doubted lesions, in 5 the lesions were questionable, and in 1 no lesions occurred. Of those reported positive to the agglutination test, 3 birds, or 7 per cent, failed to react to the intradermal test, and autopsy revealed no lesions. On the other hand, 2 birds, or 5 per cent, that had given positive agglutination tests, gave negative in- tradermal tests, and autopsy revealed lesions. Thus, the percentage of absolute failures of each test as judged by the other test and by the autopsy findings were very similar in amount. Seven birds had given questionable agglutination tests. Of these, 3 were negative to the intradermal test and negative at autopsy. One reported questionable gave a positive intradermal reaction and autopsy revealed lesions. The intradermal test on the other 3 yielded positive, negative, and questionable results, respectively, and autopsy of all 3 furnished inconclusive information. Of the nine controls, one displayed a marked reaction at 24 hours, consisting of a swelling of the wattle to three times its normal thick- ness. Autopsy revealed undoubted lesions, and a pure culture of Bacterium pullorum was isolated from the ovary. Four others dis- played traces consisting of swelling of the lower border of the wattle to about twice the normal thickness. On autopsy, one of these was found to contain undoubted lesions and a pure culture of B. pullorum was obtained. The examination of the wattles at 48 hours revealed swellings vary- ing from a trace to positive in only 22 birds, or 46 per cent, of those tested. This result compared with the 28 birds regarded as positive at 24 hours and verified by subsequent autopsy, again indicates that 48 hours is too long to secure all the positive reactions. Among the controls only 1 displayed any swelling whatsoever, and this case proved on autopsy to be positive. TEST FOR BACTERIUM PULLORUM INFECTION IN FOWLS. 13 On June 26 all the 47 birds and 9 controls were-reinjected and ex- amined 5 hours later. At this time every bird, including controls, displayed a swelling varying in the different individuals from a trace to five times the normal thickness. The observation merely em- phasizes the fact of the occurrence of a nonsignificant swelling fol- lowing injection with the diagnostic agent. At 24 hours 39 birds displayed swelling of the wattle varying from a trace to enlargement to five times the normal thickness. Autopsy revealed undoubted lesions in 30 of these, questionable lesions in 7, and no lesions in 2. Total agreement between the results of this reading, the agglutination test, and autopsy findings occurred in 70: per cent of the birds tested. In two cases, or 4 per cent of the birds, the positive readings by the agglutination test were not sup- ported by the negative results of the intradermal test and the autopsy. In 1 case, or 2 per cent, negative results of the intradermal test were contradicted by the positive results of agglutination test and autopsy. Thus, the results yielded by the first and second 24- hour readings of the test on supposedly infected birds vary but little. The results yielded by the test on the control birds were perfect, as confirmed by the autopsy. The only two birds that displayed traces of swelling proved on autopsy to be infected. The fact that the results of the agglutination test, intradermal test, and autopsy are in complete agreement in 70 per cent of the cases, coupled with the fact that the absolute diagreements are very small, indicates that the two tests are equally accurate. The results obtained at the autopsy of the birds emphasize the difficulty of determining a standard for comparison of the accuracy of the two tests under trial. Thirty-one cases, or 64 per cent, were found to possess unquestionable lesions consisting of the angular ova characteristic of the infection. . All of the cases had given positive reactions to one or both tests. In nine cases, or 10 per cent, the autopsy: was inconclusive in that there were present only very small dark ova or cysts. Of these 9 questionable cases 3 had given ques- tionable agglutination readings but positive intradermal reactions. In two cases the agglutination and intradermal tests disagreed. In feur cases both tests had given positive results. SIGNIFICANCE OF SWELLING AS AN INDICATION OF A REACTION. In determining the significance in diagnosis of an edematous swelling of a wattle one is confronted with the fact that in all birds such swelling occurs shortly after injection. The problem is to determine the point of time after injection to read the test when this preliminary swelling has disappeared, yet not too late to escape 14 BULLETIN 517, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. observing a significant edema. ‘The tests on birds in the laboratory and probably also those in the field indicate that 48 hours is too late. While some observations on birds in the field made during freezing weather would indicate that slight swellings should not be con- sidered, yet the entire experience with birds in the laboratory indi- cates that even a trace may be indicative of a positive reaction. Some few cases would indicate that a 24-hour reading might give false results due to the inclusion of some cases in which the preliminary nonsignificant swelling had not quite subsided. At present, the 24- hour interval has given the best results, but the examination of a series of readings at 30 hours would be desirable. VARIOUS BIOLOGIC TESTS. During the course of these experiments several attempts were made to produce a reaction to the diagnostic agent by injecticn into the comb, but no satisfactory results were obtained. The ophthalmic, palpebral, and subcutaneous tests also failed to produce a reaction. Also limited complement-fixation tests on the blood serum of infected fowls gave uncertain readings. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. A killed culture of Bacterium pullorum grown for about a month and held for several weeks before use and without further treatment other than carbolizing, has given the most satisfactory results. It seems to be a fact that the edematous swelling resulting from the injection of this product into the wattle of a fowl, when observed at a proper time interval, is an indication of the presence of infection of B. pullorum in the fowl. Our experience to date with readings at various time intervals leads to the conclusion that the 24-hour interval has given the most accu- rate results. However, it seems desirable to test on a large number of birds the accuracy of readings made at a slightly longer interval. The weight of evidence indicates that any perceptible swelling of the wattle should be regarded as significant. A second intradermal test made at an interval of four days gave results varying but little from the first test. Others made at intervals up to two months gave less accurate results the second time. Thus, there is no advantage in retesting. Of birds artificially infected with the disease and tested in the laboratory, in round numbers 90 per cent gave positive reactions; and in 6 per cent the test failed to indicate a reaction when lesions were present. In 3 per cent no reaction occurred and no lesions were present. TEST FOR BACTERIUM PULLORUM INFECTION IN FOWLS. 15 In a field test on 231 birds made simultaneously with the agglutina- tion test, the intradermal test at 38 hours failed to detect one case reported positive to the other test. In a second flock of 50 birds in which the two tests were compared, the intradermal test when read at 46 hours failed to indicate one case that was detected by the agglu- tination test. Another group of about 100 birds tested under un- favorable conditions gave less satisfactory results. Forty-seven birds that had been tested by the agglutination method by the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station in the field were purchased for experiments with the intradermal test. Of these, 40 had given positive reactions to the agglutination test and 7 doubtful reactions. There was complete agreement between the agglutination test, the intradermal test, and autopsy findings in 70 per cent of the cases. The agglutination test reported positive in 3 cases, or 7 per cent, was not confirmed by the intradermal test nor by the autopsy findings. The result of the intradermal! test was negative in 2 cases, or 5 per cent, when it was not confirmed by the positive agglutination test and autopsy findings. Thus the percentage of absolute failures of each test was small and very similar for both tests. Autopsy does not furnish an absolute standard for comparing the accuracy of tests. Seventy-two per cent only of naturally infected birds that had reacted to one or both tests were found on autopsy to be unmistakably infected. The intradermal test detected the presence of infection in 4 of the 34 control birds injected in connection with the tests in the laboratory on artificially and naturally infected birds. In a field trial not made by the writers, 1,301 birds were tested intradermally and 78 reacted. Of these 70 reacted to the agglutina- tion tests made subsequently. The intradermal test has already shown sufficient promise to war- rant further extensive trials in the field in comparison with the agglutination test. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. €. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W. J. Spillman, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv March 17, 1917 THE COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY.’ A Tietailed Study, Made in 1915, of the Current-Cost Factors Involved in the Maintenance of Orchards and the Handling of the Crop on 54 Farms. By S. M. THomson, Scientific Assistant, and G. H. Mitirr, Assistant Agriculturist. CONTENTS. Page. Page acts TOuene. Outs. --cs2cc2 ss. ase esse o- o0d 2) | Orehard managements. «2 sae 2-222 oe ace cine 18 WOTIGITSIONS ie csiteeitis sae ecleticic ae cizesncc eee 40 Maimtenance labore scecceecsn scene eeceeneoe 19 The Hood River Valley.-...-..--..--.-.------ 50) ddiandlimg Crops acjemm cele ae yamereeicis eee eee 40 HAM OLFAMIZAOM Ss s.\222 65-0254 520--0--=- TZ SDotallaboriCostSmjsencienasee eee eee eee 47 iDheorehards.=.)...22:--- Pace eta Ts Ba De EE 15 | Material and fixed costs................-.... 48 Marketing and prices received.............-. LE | Lotaheostsin. Gece. cece ee aie eee eee emia 50 During the summer of 1915 an investigation was conducted with reference to the factors entering into the annual cost of producing apples in the Hood River Valley of Oregon (see fig. 1) up to the point of delivery at the shipping station. On account of orchards being of varying ages, and operated in some instances by absentee owners, it was difficult in many cases to secure accurate data. However, 54 complete and detailed records of orchards were se- cured. All these were obtained from growers who supervised their own orchards and who were able and willing to give ee infor- mation.. The purpose of this investigation was not only to arrive at the annual cost of production, but to determine the economic status of 1 This is the third of a series of bulletins on the cost of apple production. Department Bulletin No. 446, ‘“ The Cost of Producing Apples in Wenatchee Valley, Washington,” and Department Bulletin No. 500, ‘‘The Cost of Producing Apples in Western Colorado,” have already been published. Norre.—Acknowledgment is due to the Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investi- gations of the Bureau ot Plant Industry for material assistance in the preparation of this bulletin; also to Mr. J. Clifford. Folger, who aided in securing the necessary data. 72668°—Bull. 518—17. 1 | 2 BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, the apple industry in the valley and the general farm-management conditions prevailing in the region. The method of investigation was to question the grower on all items of labor and materials used, system of management, yield, and every other factor affecting the annual cost of operating an orchard. Throughout this entire bulletin the acre is the unit used, thus giving each record or orchard the same weight in the final averages. Four kinds of costs are considered in arriving at the total annual cost of production: (1) Maintenance, (2) handling, (3) material, and (4) fixed charges. Labor costs. Costs other than labor. * Maintenance. Handling. Material. | Fixed. MAUUEUE: Picking. Manure. Taxes. Hauling shooks. ae -sulphur. Insurance. Depot of brush. Hauling to packing Lead Equipment charge. Plowing. house. Bordeaux, CuS0Os, Apple: house deprecia- Cultivating. Packing. Box. Sowing mulch crop. Sorting. Nails. Interest. Handling mulch crop. Waiting. Paper. Waiter rent. Propping. Foreman. Thinning. Nailing. Spraying. Haul to station. Miscellaneous. FACTS BROUGHT OUT. Total costs—It is found that the total cost of apple production for 54 bearing orchards, representing the commercial and well-cared- for orchards of Hood Rien Valley, is $1.02 per box. Costs per acre are $222.83 for orchards under clean cultivation and $232.32 under mulch crops. (See Table I.) Analysis of costs——The cost per box, exclusive of interest on orchard-land investment, is $0.68 for clean-cultivated orchards and $0.645 for orchards in mulch crops or irrigated, or $0.664 for all orchards. Net labor costs for all records average $0.383 per box, or 37.5 per cent of total cost (17.6 per cent is for maintenance and 19.9 per cent for handling). Costs other than labor, including all material and fixed costs, con- stitute 62.5 per cent of the total cost (18.9 per cent for material and 43.6 for fixed charges). The fixed cost is nearly 70 per cent of all costs other than labor. Interest on orchard-land investment alone is $79.26 per acre, or $0.357 per box—approximately 35 per cent of the total cost of production. The cost per box (labor, material, and fixed charges) up to the time when the apples are ready to harvest from the trees is $0.676, while the cost of labor and material for harvesting is $0.45. The COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. 3 total labor and material cost for harvesting is 33.77 per cent of the total of all costs. Credits —Cull fruit pays a net annual cash credit of $4.06 per acre (gross $5.13, less $1.97 per acre for extra labor on culls). Twenty-four mulch-crop orchards show an average annual credit of $6.18 per acre for hay (gross $9.59 per acre, cost of harvesting $3.41). Size and type of farms.—The 54 farms studied average 39.45 acres im size, with 69 per cent of the farm area tillable. Apples and straw- berries are the staple fruits. Considerable quantities of alfalfa and of timothy are grown and a small acreage of grain. The orchards — The orchards studied average 12.4 acres in size, 12 years of age, and 72 trees to the acre. Apple or- chards constitute 32 per cent of the total farm acreage. Yel- low Newtown and Esopus are grown, practically to the exclusion of other varieties. Investments.— Total investment per farm is $23,487.36; per acre of apple orchard, $990.74. Orchard manage- ment.—Thirty of the 54 growers practice clean cultivation, while 24 use mulch Fic. 1—Map of western Oregon showing the location of Hood River Valley where the investigation was made. The shaded area is Hood River County. crops, usually in the form of alfalfa or clover. In general the clean- cultivated orchards are not as yet irrigated, while all the mulch-crop or shade-crop orchards are under irrigation. Yield—The average yield, all records, is 222 boxes per acre; for clean-cultivated orchards, 218; for mulch-crop orchards, 228. This refers to packed boxes of marketable fruit only. 4 BULLETIN 3518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE I.—Swmmary of costs after crediting orchard with hay and culls. Clean cultural (30 Mulch crop or shade records). crop (24 records). All records (54). Item. yaaa Cost | Cost | Per | Cost | Cost | Per | Cost | Cost | Cost | Per per per |centof} per per |centof| per per per | cent of acre. | box.:| total. | acre. | box. | total. | acre. | tree. box. | total. Maintenance......-. $43.63 |$0.2001 | 19.58 | $35.41 |$0.1554 | 15.25 | $39.97 | $0.555 |$0. 1801 17. 63 Pandiinge eso. eee 44.15} .2025] 19.81] 46.27} .2029] 19.91] 45.08 -626 | .2031 19. 88 Materiales 9.5 --as5 41.12] .1886] 18.46] 45.064) .1976} 19.40] 42.80 - 594 - 1927 18. 86 Kixediec2c = Fs 93.93 | .4309} 42.15 | 105.58} .4682] 45.44] 99.11] 1.376] .4458 43.63 Total.........| 222.83 | 1.0221 | 100.00 | 232.32 | 1.0191 | 100.00 | 226.96.| 3.151 | 1.0217 | 100.00 CONCLUSIONS. In general it may be said that the results of this study bear out the reputation of the Hood River Valley as a very progressive fruit district, the success and fame of which are due to the efforts of its settlers and organizations, together with the realization that a good trade name could be obtained and held only by putting on the market a first-class and reliable product. The conclusion is inevitable, how- ever, that the popularity of the valley is also due to its almost un- paralleled scenic beauty, and that the price of land has been de- termined, not only by considerations of agricultural value, but also by the fact that the valley is a highly desirable place of residence. The following specific conclusions apply directly to the business of apple production on the 54 farms studied: (1) The average grower must get over $1 per box for apples, f. 0. b., to realize any profit above interest on his investment, and must get $0.67 per box before he begins to realize any interest. (2) Even though in some cases fruit does not pay full interest on investment in high-priced land, it does not necessarily follow that fruit should not be grown, since it probably pays a higher interest than any other crop would. (3) Though the cost per acre increases as the yield increases, the cost per box decreases. Hence, efforts to cut the cost of production should be devoted primarily to increasing the acfe.yield of market- able fruit. (4) Investment and fixed costs are as high per acre where the yield is small as where it is large. Thus, a yield of 200 boxes per acre costs 100 per cent more per box for fixed costs than a yield of 400 boxes. (5) Farms in the valley are, in general, over-specialized. In many cases it is now almost impossible to diversify enough to insure the production of a fair proportion of the farm products consumed on the farm. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. 5 (6) Though the average yield of the valley is lower than that of some other sections, the region studied, however, produces apples of the very highest quality. (7) The valley is particularly well adapted to the production of Yellow Newtown and Esopus, both of which grow to perfection here. These conclusions, of course, apply to the 54 farms studied in the valley. Individual growers often obtain much better results than those indicated by the averages here presented ; indeed, in some years exceptional yields run as high as 1,000 boxes per acre. It is believed, however, that the averages derived from the records of the 54 farms studied are a fair measure of the normal business of the apple in- dustry of the valley. Considering the residential advantages of the locality, the high erade of the fruit shipped, and the valley’s already long estab- lished reputation for high quality of product and reliability of pack, it seems reasonable to conclude that Hood River Valley will continue to occupy an important place in the apple-growing industry. THE HOOD RIVER VALLEY. For several reasons Hood River Valley, although studied in con- nection with apple-growing regions in other parts of the Northwest, should be discussed as a unit. It is more or less isolated and is of limited extent, presenting conditions not comparable with those of such apple-producing regions as the Wenatchee and Yakima Valleys in Washington State or the apple-producing localities of western Colorado. It is a region with a rainfall equaling that of New York. It thus has a climate which is often very favorable to fungus troubles. It has not been irrigated until recently, and much of it is still un- irrigated. The trees have a different habit of growth, with a lower average annual yield, than the trees of most other apple sections of the Northwest. The fact that Yellow Newtown and Esopus are the leading commercial varieties of the valley accounts very largely for the lower average yield as compared with some other sections. These varieties are characterized by bearing smaller annual crops. It is a highly specialized fruit region which has developed its own name, its own methods, and determined its own success. In many respects it is entirely different from other important apple-growing districts. LOCATION AND EXTENT. The Hood River Valley is a limited area, 80 miles east of Port- land, Oreg., on the south side of the Columbia River. The Hood River rises at the foot of Mount Hood and flows for about 30 miles north into the Columbia River, the town of Hood Bo eames lal VAM 6 BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. River being located at its mouth. (See fig. 2.) The valley is nar- row, varying from 2 to 8 miles in width, and the cultivated area extends from the town of Hood River to Parkdale in the upper valley, a distance of about 24 miles. It is divided into what are known locally as the lower, middle, and upper valleys. The lower valley contains the most bearing fruit and the greatest percentage of tillable land. The middle valley is considerably less intensive in - OO: CLE toe Fic. 2.—A topographical sketch of Hood River Valley, looking south from the north bank of the Columbia River. its agriculture, being -to some extent devoted to general farming, while the upper valley is as yet little cleared, the small settlements being scattered and separated by areas heavily wooded with pine. The Hood River divides the valley into what is known as the east side and the west side. The east side is the more developed and inten- sive. It is of a less rocky nature and seems better adapted to fruit. The best bearing apple orchards are now found on the east side, which is much narrower than the west side, but the cultivated area COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. a of which extends much farther up the valley. More general farming is found on the west side, and less detailed care is given the orchards there. The Oak Grove district, a large district on the west side, has many beautiful homes of people who have ranches for pleasure as well as for profit. Pine groves and trees are numerous, and add greatly to the natural charm of the region. Mount Hood to the south and Mount Adams to the north, both beautiful mountains and continually capped with snow, add a crowning touch of grandeur to the landscape that has made this valley famous for its natural beauty. (See plates I and II.) Hood River is a fast-flowing stream; it is really a mountain brook. (See Pl. III.) There are no broad, level, fiat lands that one thinks of as characterizing a river valley. The orchards are located on the benches and rolling land between the stream bed and the mountains on each side. The topography is extremely varied, and is a combination of buttes, slopes, rolling hills, and fairly level fields, often cut up with little creeks. The areas of level ground are very limited in extent. ; COMMERCIAL IMPORTANCE OF HOOD RIVER. The popularity and commercial importance of Hood River are based not so much on the quantity of fruit shipped, as on its quality, and the dependence the trade has learned to place in Hood River apples. The apples of Hood River are largely limited to two very important commercial varieties which grow to {perfection here. These varieties are.Yellow Newtown and Esopus. According to the census figures, there are 60,345 acres of tillable and 62,598 acres of nontillable ed in Hood River County. Of the tillable area 18, 446 acres, or 22 per cent, are in apple orchards, and of this amount there are 2,665 acres, or about 20 per cent, in trees 10 years of age or over. ebven hundred and fifty cars of pole: were shipped out of the Hood River Valley district in 1911, 1,100 cars in 1912, 1,050 cars in 1918, and 1,200 in 1914, or an average of about 1,000 cars per year. The usual number of packed boxes per car is 680. AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT. The first settlers in the valley occupied mainly the narrow strip of alluvial soil along the Columbia River and the more level parts of the valley above. The isolation of the valley retarded its de- velopment, and the lack of market, together with the fact that all produce had to be shipped by boat on the Columbia River, limited the agricultural activities almost exclusively to stock raising. The + - 8 BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. early farming was confined principally to those areas where there was little or no timber. The valley was for the most part heavily timbered, particularly on the east side. For many years the only work done in clearing was on the small tracts around the settlers’ cabins, which supplied all the land necessary for agricultural pur- poses until markets became available. The first orchard in the valley was planted about 1875, on the west side, but none of commercial importance was planted before 1890. From this time on the plantings increased, the maximum amount of planting being done between 1902 and 1909. During the last few years plantings have largely ceased. The west side having a sandy soil, it was thought for many years to be the only part of the valley suitable for profitable fruit grow- ing. At the present time it is the principal strawberry-producing section. The more sandy soils of the valley seem particularly adapted to strawberries, and the strawberry industry held an important place in the agriculture of the valley long before the apple became domi- nant. On account of the higher altitude the upper-valley straw- berries ripen much later than those of the lower valley, thus giving the district a long marketing season. Apples have been planted almost to the exclusion of other orchard fruits. The land on the east side was developed later than that on _ the west side, but when it was found that the land on the east side was well adapted to apples it was rapidly bought up in small tracts, cleared, and set out to orchard. The east side has now considerably more orchard area than the west side, the farming being more in- tensive, and devoted more largely to commercial fruit production. (See Pl. IV.) The more recent settlers confined their attention al- most wholly to fruit farming. As the demand for land increased the price rose very materially. To avoid these high prices the newer settlers often located on the slopes, in many cases above the irriga- tion canal, and in the upper Hood River Valley, where the land as yet is little cleared. Recent development of transportation facilities has contributed to the valley’s rapid development. SOIL. The Hood River Valley is located within the area of an important rock formation known as the Columbia lava. Thus, the soil of the valley is in general of volcanic origin, modified by glacial action. The commercial orchards of the lower valley are for the most part located on the Hood silt loam type of soil. The Hood silt loam is generally of a light gray color. The silt content is low and it often approaches a sandy loam in texture. This soil covers the greater ‘9108 Jod 910M 10000 TH 1B pon[vA : ST UOLSO1 O]VIPOMIUIT SITY] UL PUBT ‘S19]}]98 9TQBAISOp AUBUT JY SNOIg puB AzTIE[Ndod s}T 0} A[JVoIs PappB SBT IOATY POOH Jo Anvoq [vanyeu oy], "3ONVLSIG SHL NI AVMY SATII GS COOH -LNNO|| H.LIM ‘LOdg TVILNSGISSY INdILNVag V SV SNOWY ‘SLLNG NYOH NVA SHL dO MalA Iture. icu Bul. 518, U. S. Dept. of Agri PLATE II . Dept. of Agriculture. ac U Bul. 518, *AOT[BA OY} UL posBuBUl 4soq oY} JO OO ‘SUTIBEq OJUT SuUTUOD Asn{ YOOTC 910¥B-98 UB SI PUNOISaIOF OY} UL PIVYdIO oY, “WOLseL oy} JO uUOTJOeS o[dde dAISMO}UT JSOUL OY, "AAD TIVA YSMO7 SHL SO 3GIS LSVQ SHL NO ‘HONVY ScHaLSd AHL WOUS YSAIY GOOH SSOYOY DNIXOO7 PLATE III. iculture. of Agr Bul. 518, U. S. Dept. "AHdVUDOdO | NSASNQ SHL GNV Gag WS4aNO MONNVN SHL D\NIMOHS 'YSAIY GOOH SONMOL SHL SAO9Y SATII 9 3GIS LSV4 SHLNO LNIOg V WOU ASTIVA YSAIY GOOH 3HL dn Mal 1 ae age Ps PLATE IV. Bul. 518, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. “GNNOUDSYO4 3HL NI GYVHONO GALVAILINO NV319 ANV 3SNOH DNIMOWd V DNIMOHS ‘3GIS 1SV¥ 3HL NO AVMHDIH NIV) SHL WONS ASTIVA HSMO7 SHL SSOUOY M3IA COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. <9 part of the lower valley between Hood River and the range of mountains along the eastern boundary of the area as far up as Odell. On this area is located the largest and most intensive apple section of the valley. The drainage is generally good. The soil of the Underwood loam covers the largest areas of the valley, in fact, more than all other types combined. It occurs on the slopes of the mountains in and about the valley. The soils of the middle valley are almost entirely of this type. It is a residual soil, derived from the weathering of the underlying basalt. Its value for agricultural purposes varies according to the topography. With the exception of the steeper slopes the parts which are cleared are used for the production of apples and strawberries. Many other types of soil are found in the valley. The Parkdale loam covers most of the upper valley. It is probably derived from weathered ice-laid material. On the west side of Hood River Valley the soils are of the Wind River types, varying from a strong loam to a fine sandy loam. Be- cause of their coarse nature, these soils are rather excessively drained. They need irrigation and are in general more difficult to cultivate than the prevailing types found on the east side of the river. Of all these types the Hood silt loam apparently is the best adapted to apple culture.* CLIMATE. Hood River is located to the east of the main range of the Cascade Mountains, but in a region of moderately abundant rainfall. It is characterized by moderate winters, with frequent heavy snowfalls, long, rather cool summers, and comparative freedom from damaging frosts. The rainfall, which is approximately 35 inches per year, is equal to that of the apple-growing sections of New York or Missouri, but owing to the fact that there is a rainy and a dry season, it is often desirable to. resort to irrigation, which is now becoming a general practice. Destructive storms seldom occur, and damage from hail or storms is infrequent. Because of the irregular topography there is a marked difference in temperature and precipitation between the different sections of the valley. The number of clear days is considerably greater in the lower than in the upper valley. The length of season may vary a month between the town of Hood River and the town of Parkdale, located in the upper valley about 24 miles to the south. Climato- 1U. S. Dept. of Agr., Bureau of Soils, Field Operations 1912, Soil Survey of the Hood River-White Salmon River Area, Oregon-Washington, by A. T. Strahorn and E. B. Wat- son. 72668°—Bull. 518—17——2 10 BULLETIN 518, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. logical records give the average date of the last killing spring frost for the past 15 years in Hood River as April 22. For the same period the average date of the first killing frost in the fall was near October 14. This gives an average of 175 growing days. The mean annual temperature is 50.1° F. This, it should be remembered, is for the lower valley, near the town of Hood River. Mist-like rains occur frequently during the early summer months. As a result fungus troubles, particularly apple scab, are serious and necessitate a relatively large amount of spraying. The prevailing winds are from the west. In general, they follow the Columbia River gorge from the coast, thus tending to maintain fairly cool temperatures during the summer season and preventing extreme cold during the winter. Truck and forage crops naturally adapted to a fairly cool tem- perate climate succeed well here, provided suitable soil is chosen. TRANSPORTATION. The town of Hood River is located on the main line of the Oregon- Washington Railroad & Navigation Co., which gives it easy access to Portland, about 80 miles distant, and also furnishes an outlet to eastern points. There is a local railroad line, known as the Mount Hood Railroad, which traverses the Hood River Valley, connecting the town of Hood River with Parkdale in the upper valley. There are several important fruit-loading stations on this line, including Van Horn and Odell. Transportation by boat on the Columbia River is also available. This was formerly the only means of trans- portation. RURAL SOCIAL CONDITIONS. There are few rural communities where better social conditions exist than in Hood River Valley. The people are for the most part well educated. The excellent schools and churches, the means of recreation, and the systems of telephones and of rural mail delivery which prevail throughout the valley provide advantages as yet un- available in the average rural community. The homes of Hood River are more elaborate and expensive than the average farmhouse, much of the money invested in them having been made through out- side sources. (See fig. 3.) The ranch houses are near together. Indeed, in the lower valley, especially on the west side, they are almost a part of the town itself as regards conveniences. As yet the people in the upper valley are somewhat isolated. LABOR CONDITIONS. There is little complaint with regard to labor conditions in this section. The rates paid are not quite as high as in some other North- COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY - 11 west sections. Both whites and Japanese are employed. White help, employed by the month, receives wages varying-from $25 to $40 per month with board, or $40 to $60 per month without board. Much of the orchard work is done with day labor at 20 to 25 cents per hour. Japanese labor is cheaper, costing 174 cents per hour, and is used largely for strawberries. Growers say the Japanese are good laborers if a white foreman superintends. Except as house servants, Japanese are rarely employed by the month. On the 54 orchards taken into account in this investigation the average rate paid for all kinds of labor for the past few years was Fic. 3.—One of the many bungalow homes found in the rural districts of the valley. 224 cents per hour, or at the rate of $2.25 per day. Month labor usually is fully as expensive per hour in this region as day labor, for it often occurs that little productive labor is done on certain days where a man is employed by the month. In order to make the records comparable the average rate of 224 cents per hour is used on all the farms. An operator’s time is charged at the same rate as the men he em- ploys. If he were paid for his managerial ability each operator would receive a different wage; for all practical purposes it is best to figure all man-hours at the same rate. Horse labor is figured at the rate of 15 cents per hour. i Ep BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FARM ORGANIZATION. The farms or ranches in Hood River Valley are primarily spe- cialized fruit farms. Other crops are grown mainly or exclusively for home use. These include hay for the horses and garden truck for the use of the farm family. Strawberries work in well with apples and are grown extensively as a cash crop, particularly on the west side of the valley. On account of the small size of the farms and the consequent necessity for intensive operation, together with the high value of the land for fruit culture, it is hardly practicable for growers to follow a diversified system of farming beyond the point of raising feed for the stock kept, and potatoes, garden vege- tables, etc., for home use. Furthermore, the limited area of the valley makes it practically impossible to expand, particularly in the lower valley. Farms have been bought, settled, developed, and organized with fruit as the main, and often the only, source of income. This is particularly true on the east side of the lower valley, where this investigation was made. Because of the natural limitations and the topographical features of the valley, the ranchers do not have easy access to any extended area for general farming purposes. Hence the agriculture of the valley is specialized, and will no doubt remain so, with the farm prob- ably furnishing the greater share of the products required for use on the farm. These conditions make the growers almost wholly de- pendent on their income from fruit. TYPE OF FARMS INCLUDED IN SURVEY. The 54 farms included in this survey are all located on the east side of Hood River and all on the Hood River silt loam soil, with the exception of a very few on the Underwood loam of the middle valley. They range in size from 10 to 150 acres and average 39.4 acres, 69 per cent of which acreage is tillable. The average size of bearing apple orchard on these farms is 12.4 acres, with an average young apple orchard of 6.24 acres. These farms are typical of the commercial apple district of Hood River Valley and represent the conditions of full-bearing orchards as they exist in the lower valley to-day. Nearly all are intensive and apples are the chief source of income. TYPE OF GROWER. ’ Many of these farms are operated by men who came from other walks of life. Several of the growers are college graduates. There are also among them many professional men and tradesmen who chose fruit growing as an occupation after retiring from their pro- COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. .- 13 fessions or trades. The larger farms are usually owned by the pio- neers of the valley. These are usually men with considerable agri- cultural experience. In some cases, however, the man from the city who applies thorough business methods is more successful than his more experienced neighbor. INVESTMENT. In Hood River Valley on the 54 farms studied the average invest- ment per farm as estimated by owners is $22,503.70, the average size of farm being practically 40 acres. The average investment per acre Wig. 4.—A typical ranch 2 miles west of Odell, showing an orchard in bearing and a young orchard planted on land recently cleared of pines This land was valued at about $250 per acre before it was cleared. - in apple orchards is $990.70. As shown in Table II, the investment is somewhat higher for mulch-crop than for clean-culture orchards. This is due to the fact that those under the mulch-crop system are all irrigated and generally better located than those still under the clean-culture system. An investment of nearly $1,000 per acre is easily accounted for when all the existing factors which have influenced the price of land are considered. The original raw land suitable for orchard purposes, when fairly well located, sells for $200 to $250 per acre. (See fig. 4.) The cost of clearing this land, which is heavily wooded, usually with pine, is from $90 to $150 per acre. 14 BULLETIN 518 , U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE II.—Sitatistical summary of the 54 apple orchards studied in Hood River Valley. Clean Mulch Item. ealtainl: crop. Allrecords. Number Gf records 2 = ses e 82 och sec sates cee AS See ae SOB S 30 24 54 Acreage per farm: ROGHIS =S ater a cee cee cerminicsjae SECS oda am mecimaaaeemee omeaeeielee 44. 22 33. 50 39. 45 In‘ bearing appleiorchard 2:2 o7:- - 2 3... =. Ser ee eee 12. 25 12. 70 12. 45 Per cont m'hearmpvapple'orchard 22% J. <2). ce 2ascs asses ane ems 39. 45 55. 03 46.38 Investment per farm: : Potal = 20 o Bees ectaesns ss cas ccen ce ee te nome eee $24, 704. 09 | $21,966.44 | $23,487.36 Land and iniprovement..22- 502 thers. SLE: &: 2 ee ee eee 23,673.33 | 21,041.67 22, 503. 70 Working capital: 22> 2 esteeaeape ees toa ccm e neces Bememaen seen 1, 148. 76 1, 053. 65 1, 106. 49 Mguipment.2. /3225. 05 Geese ede e eae ose Pke, ee ee ea Bee 528. 03 446. 67 491. 87 15 (0) pos sR Re ed Nee a Mea ets Sema oases aoe 349. 77 312. 50 333. 20 Otherstock 4113220 2 2. Se Be ek Sook Ss Sac Se eee 120. 96 154. 48 136. 04 Investment per acre of bearing apple orchard: otal nc son Sle oa. de see Se tye Scie tee ee ee 931. 67 1, 064. 58 990. 74 Per cent oftotal farm investment apple orchard represents. - 48. 93 60. 40 54. 03 Land and improvement: Per cent of total investment in land and improvement - appleorchard' represents. 922555... 2 =) 60 eb ae ae eee 51. 26 63. 31 56. 61 Equipments. - os ee eee ees Se ee 21.51 24.12 22. 67 Number of horses per farm ss oso. 2a oss eee eee 2.33 2. 25 2.30 1 Average of percentage of bearing apple orchard found on each farm. The price of the raw land throughout the valley was greatly en- hanced in the early days by the high prices obtained for fruit. These prices brought many settlers to the valley. The price of land increased with the demand for it, and finally rose to a figure which practically prohibited the man of small means from purchasing land suitable for growing fruit. Men with considerable capital settled in Hood River Valley, attracted largely by the natural beauty of the valley and its advantages as a location for a home. The fact that fruit growing was a thriving business, looked upon as one of the most pleasurable and interesting agricultural pursuits, was of course the principal attraction, but the impressive beauty of the valley was a close second. These unusual attractions determined the price which prospective purchasers could be induced to pay for land. The price and the actual agricultural value of land are often very different, and they do not bear as close a relation to each other here as is desirable from the standpoint of profit in farming. Hood River Valley, however, is not unique in this respect. The investment in equipment is high per acre on account of the small size of the average farm in this region. The largest single item of equipment investment is represented by the spraying outfit; 80 per cent of the growers whose records were considered have their own spray rigs. As might be expected, the investment in stock other than horses is small, but is larger on those farms growing mulch crops. They keep more stock because they have the feed for it. In arriving at interest and depreciation charges no account is taken of investment in dwellings or other buildings not used exclusively for apples. It was not thought fair to charge the orchard with the upkeep or interest on buildings, which often represent an investment far above that of the average farm buildings. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. 15 THE ORCHARDS. SIZE. The bearing orchards included in this survey vary in size from 34 acres to 39 acres. In most cases orchards are 10 to 15 acres in size, and the average of all is 12.4 acres. Large farms, as a rule, do not have exceptionaly large orchards. The average farm of .50 acres has as large an orchard as the average farm of 100 acres. AGE. The average age of all the orchards considered is 12 years, the youngest being 9 and the oldest 18 years. All these orchards are con- sidered by their owners to be in full bearing. One noticeable char- acteristic about orchard plantings in this section is the lack of uni- formity as regards age. Many planted their orchards over a series of years, so that- the number of bearing blocks of uniform age is limited. TasLEe III.—Size of farms and of orchards studied. Clean Mulch | Allrec- Item. cultural.| crop. ords. Average acreage per farm: 3 QUE 3 ie Secrets NaS te ERS eR RR 2 el 44.22 33. 50 39. 45 impoeamin eon Chandy ee sy ke ae ke Lee ye ee lar NT 12. 25 12. 70 12. 45 ray OUTTSCOn Chan Caer reese Spee ee eon eciesstd eno mice De Pe em eeao na aces 7. 48 4.69 6. 24 iRergentace Olareatittapless see eae. ooh 6.) 452 Peace eee ae 75. 75 60. 86 69. 10 Bearing orchards: : Average aze..2.-.:-= eee Beenie a ae ee oe ebis RRR EEE REECE GE esene 12. 00 12. 00 12. 00 PRECESIPOIIACKO ye rea = seme tes SE oe) ot a ee ee yee eae ee | 72. 00 72. 00 72. 00 VARIETIES. The varieties of Hood River Valley apples are principally two— Yellow Newtown and Esopus. The commercial name of. the valley has been built up on these apples. Hood River Valley is thus more limited in its number of commercial varieties than any other North- west section. There are, however, about 75 varieties found in the bearing orchards of the valley. Others of commercial importance are Ortly, Monmouth, Ben Davis, Arkansas Black, Arkansas, Jona- than, Rome Beauty, and Gravenstein. Some of these are often planted as pollenizers. Yellow Newtown and Esopus do not come into full bearing as early as Jonathan, Winesap, Rome Beauty, and most other commercial varieties of the Northwest. TREES PER ACRE AND METHOD OF SETTING. The number of trees per acre in these orchards runs very uniform. In the 54 orchards there is an average of 72 trees per acre, and prac- tically all he between the limits of 60 and 80. There are many 16 BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. methods of setting trees, but the usual way is to set on the diagonal, 24 by 24, 26 by 26, or 28 by 28 feet. The trees are not often crowded. CONDITION OF THE ORCHARDS. The condition of the 54 orchards studied was in general very good. The foliage of some of them, however, was discolored and the trees apparently lacked vigor. Such orchards were usually those under a system of intensive clean cultivation and not irrigated. The orchards considered were well cared for and of a fairly uniform type repre- sentative of the commercial bearing orchards of the valley. - ‘YIELDS. The average yields from these orchards are considerably lower than those of many of the irrigated sections. The average yield for the 54 orchards is 222 packed boxes per acre, or 3.08 boxes per tree. This average covers, in general, a 5-year bearing period. For the 30 clean-culture orchards the yield is 218 packed boxes, and for the orchards with a mulch crop, all of which are irrigated, there is a yield of 228 packed boxes per acre. Taste I1V.—Hood River yields. Number Size of Age of Trees Yields Yield Type of orchard. ats orchard. | orchard. | per acre. | per acre. | per tree. : Acres. Boxes Boxes Glean cultivated)... 05s 3 s5.c 2 hsecke oe eee 30 12. 25 12 72 : Mach Crepise.s: o =e hee sect eee ee eee 24 12.70 12 72 228 3.17 PAINOPGRATGS oes ccs sae sen sees 54 12. 45 12 72 222 3.08 The size of orchard apparently has a marked influence on the acre yield. As will be seen from Table V, the smaller the orchard the larger the yield per acre. As the number of trees per acre is prac- tically the same, regardless of size of orchard, the difference in yield may be credited to the more intensive management of the smaller orchards and the greater care which individual trees receive. TABLE V.—Yield, according to size of orchard, on farms studied. Yield (in boxes) in orchards of each specified size. Type of orchard. 1 EM ae Under 6} 6t010 | 11t0 20 | Over 20 acres. acres. acres. acres. Clean tilisee'cuitivated. .. 22. 25. fo eecce sept ee set nee ee eee 262. 6 224.2 206.9 190.1 MADER CKO DE. 222. Sook sth Seek cate rk Ma DAA i eS 299. 1 232.9 215. 0 202.9 A INGECHATOS 255s Ae dca-duoed isos owed oo eb, ee ee 280.9 227.7 210.7 196.5 COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. 17 As concerns the age of the trees, the orchards show a steady in- crease in yield up to 10 years, and thenceforward the yield per acre remains practically steady, barring fluctuations according to the season. Another factor which influences the yield is the variety of fruit. Both Yellow Newtown and Esopus are trees which, comparatively speiking, come into bearing late in life. Soil, condition of tree, insect pests, diseases, pruning, thinning, etc., are other factors which have an influence on the yield of marketable fruit. The average yield in Hood River Valley may show an increase in the next few years, due to the fact that irrigation and the use of mulch crops.are coming into more general use. Mulch crops, when properly handled, add considerable humus to the soil. It can not be said conclusively that the mulch-crop system of management pro- duces a larger yield in all cases, but the mulch-crop and irrigated orchards yielded 10 boxes per acre more than did those in clean culti- vation and for the greater part unirrigated. Clean cultivation with- out the addition of humus of any kind, especially in the orchards without water, tends to deplete the soil. This is shown very conclu- sively by the condition and health of the trees on those orchards of bearing age which have been intensively cultivated for years without the addition of any plant food in the form of manure or a mulch crop. MARKETING AND PRICES RECEIVED. It is not the purpose of this investigation to follow the fruit farther than the loading station, and the costs here given are for the fruit delivered f. o. b. at Hood River station. The net prices which are returned to the grower are usually on this basis, all loading, freight, selling, and association charges being deducted. The fruit in Hood River Valley has in general been handled by associations or distributing agencies. These may be either coopera- tive or otherwise, but most of the fruit has been shipped through | cooperative organizations. Such organizations usually handle the fruit at a fixed cost per box, this being ordinarily 10 cents, or it may be handled on commission. Hood River apples reach widely different markets, many of them entering the foreign trade. The grower does not hold the fruit in storage on his place, but it is often stored by the association, the grower being charged a fixed amount per box for storage. The net prices returned to the grower vary greatly. Extra fancy bring the highest price, followed by the fancy, and then by C grade. It sometimes happens that a grower’s returns are greater for lower 72668°—Bull. 518—17——3 18 BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. grade fruit than for higher grade, there being sometimes a demand for the lower grade which makes its marketing more successful. Ordinarily, however, this is not the case, and the aim of growers is to produce the highest percentage possible of extra fancy fruit. Because of the fact that Yellow Newtown and Esopus are the prin- cipal varieties of the valley, both being of high quality and com- manding correspondingly high prices, the average price received has been somewhat in advance of that received in some other sections where a greater proportion of the lower priced varieties are grown. During the last few years prices have varied greatly. The returns received f. o. b. by the growers from whom figures were obtained averaged $1.11 per packed box for the years 1910 to 1914, inclusive. The averages by years are $1.52 for 1910, $1.41 for 1911, $0.77 for 1912, $1.23 for 1913, and $0.63 for 1914. ; These variations in price are due to many factors. In years of very large yields the price is correspondingly low, while in years when there is.a scarcity of fruit the price is high. In 1912 and 1914 the prices received for northwestern fruit were disastrously low, but the other years have helped to make up a fair average. The annual yields corresponding with the yearly prices were a third greater in 1912 and 1914 over that of the other years mentioned. The average price received was due not to the production in the orchards of the valley, but to the annual production in most apple regions of the country. In 1915 and 1916 good prices were received. It will be seen that the price received per box, averaged for a period of 5 years, is about $0.09 above the cost of production, all annual charges up to the time the fruit is delivered at the station being considered. ORCHARD MANAGEMENT. The orchards in Hood River Valley are in general well managed. The typical commercial orchard is run in a businesslike way. There are two distinct systems of management—the clean-cultural system and the shade-crop, or mulch-crop, system. All orchards using mulch crops are irrigated, but only about 27 per cent of the clean- cultural orchards are irrigated. Thus the two general divisions are the clean-cultivated and usually unirrigated, and the mulch-crop or irrigated orchards. There is more total labor connected with the mulch-crop system, but when the orchard is credited for the hay removed the net cost per acre for labor is somewhat less than in the clean-cultural system of management. Under orchard management will be discussed all those items pertaining to the growing and har- vesting of the fruit. These items are manuring, pruning, disposal of brush, cultivation, handling mulch or shade crop, irrigating, COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. 19 propping, thinning, spraying, picking, hauling, sorting, packing, and all incidental labor in any way connected with growing or handling the crop.. MAINTENANCE LABOR. MANURING. The practice of applying manure is not general. Of the or- chardists interviewed, 65 per cent apply manure to a greater or less extent, but the average amount of stock kept is small and as there are few dairy herds in the neighborhood, the amount of manure available for the orchard is very limited. A few orchardists haul manure from town, but on account of the long haul this is not gen- erally done. The average grower will have about 15 to 20 tons of manure for his entire farm. He does not apply this evenly over his orchard, but puts it where it is most needed. It may all go on one or two acres, but the parts heavily manured probably will not receive another coat for several years. The manure is hauled out usually by one man and a team, using a sled or wagon, during the fall or early spring, or as the manure accumulates. It may be put in piles to be spread later, or spread as hauled out. It is usually worked or harrowed into the soil in the spring; if applied on a mulch crop, it is left until the latter is plowed under. In a few cases commer- cial fertilizers have been applied, but this is not common, and the growers usually do not believe it pays. The orchardists using mulch crops do not manure to such an ex- tent as those practicing the clean-culture system. Only 58 per cent of the former apply manure, as compared with 70 per cent of the latter, but those mulch-crop men who do apply manure put on more per acre. The quantity applied per acre averages for all records about 14 tons, at a cost of $1.34 for labor, or a total cost of ee 56 per acre for labor and material. PRUNING. Winter pruning is the general practice in Hood River Valley, al- though considerable summer pruning is practiced on Esopus trees. Growers try to prune every year, although a great many prune only every other year. In some cases an orchard is pruned only once in three or four years. A few men were found who believed in very little pruning. The orchards during the greater part of their life have been without irrigation, and the’trees have not made as rapid growth as those in many irrigated sections. No particular method of pruning is practiced. It might be said that the open-head system is approached, as contrasted with the center-leader type of pruning. The trees are generally headed low and the branches hang low; thus in many orchards the trees have a 20 BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. “squatty ” appearance. Generally they are set at such a distance and so pruned that there is sufficient light and air. The amount of propping required depends upon the habit of growth and shape of the tree, but thinning and harvesting are facilitated by heading the trees low. The summer pruning consists usually in tipping the branches. 34 BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. taken down and hauled in in the fall. On account of the variation in the methods of propping and the small number of orchardists who followed any one method, no segregation in time is made, the aver- age propping time being calculated without regard to the practice followed. . . The average amount of labor for propping, all records considered, is 14.23 man-hours and 13.56 horse-hours per acre, at an annual cost of $5.65 per acre, $0.08 per tree, and $0.0255 per box. The average cost per acre on these farms is almost exactly the same for each of the three operations of pruning, thinning, and propping. (See Table XII.) . Fic. 14.—Trees propped to prevent breaking. This orchard is also heavily thinned every year. The varieties are Newtown and Hsopus, in full bearing. TaBLE XII.—Comparison of pruning, thinning, and propping costs (54 farms). Cost. ; Number i Operation. of or- chards. Per acre. | Per tree. | Per box. Wet y EVN ee ne BE ea gat d9e ch) SIC (OOS 2 IGS aG APO D IIA IeOe eT Eee 54 $5. 48 $0. 08 $0. 0247 AD overiit rey ee Cee BEERS So atdDe- can oaeeee She core a aace, 54 5. 54 - 08 . 0250 Lela ayia oe ee Wore acpeduer oot. |. Sepeeeeenoapa suc sodacehc 54 5. 65 - 08 .. 0255 SPRAYING. Spraying the orchards for diseases and insect pests is a universal practice in the valley, representing considerable labor and cash out- COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. 35 lay for the average Hood River grower. On the 54 farms the aver- age spraying-labor cost is $8.83 per acre, or $0.0398 per box. The cost of materials for spraying is $8.69 per acre, or $0.0391 per box, a total cost for. labor and material of $0.0789 per box. The use of itfe spray rig is a separate expense included under equipment charges. Forty-three growers own their own power-spray outfits, while 11 hire their spraying done. A number of steam spray outfits are still in use in the valley, but these are being replaced by gasoline power sprayers. The average size spray tank holds about 150 gallons, the size varying from 100 to 250 gallons. The pressure maintained in spraying varies from 150 to 225 pounds. In spraying two or three men are commonly employed. When three men are used, which is the practice of 57 per cent of the grow- ers, one man drives the team and tends the engine, while the other two handle the lines of hose. In nearly all cases two lines of hose about 50 feet long are used. A spray rod is attached to each hose. Where two men are used, as on practically 40 per cent of the farms, both hold spray rods. The average length of spray rod is 10 feet, although a few 12-foot rods are used in the older orchards. The rods are usually bamboo over aluminum tubing. Spray towers are not used except in very few instances, the practice differing in this respect from that of many growers in the East. The trees are of a low habit of growth, so that ordinarily it is not necessary to use a tower in order to spray the top of the tree thoroughly. The average crew of two men and a team, or three men and team, sprays about 54 acres a day and applies from 1,100 to 1,500 gallons of material in this time. There is no appreciable difference in time between a 2-2 crew and a 3-2 crew, the extra man employed being the driver, two leads of hose being used in each instance. Two rows of trees are sprayed at a time, one lead of hose being used for each row. The principal diseases which it is necessary to control in Hood River Valley are apple scab, apple powdery mildew, and anthrac- nose. The principal insect pests are San Jose scale, leaf roller, aphis, blister mite, and coddling moth. Where a spray rig is hired, the usual rate paid is $13 per hour for man, rig, and team. Only ie regular rate is here figured for the labor, leaving 474 cents per hour for the use of the rig itself. This charge of 474 cents is included in the fixed charges with deprecia- tion and upkeep, in order to make the cost items comparable with those on farms having their own spray outfits. 36 BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XIII.—Comparative efficiency of hired and of owned spray rigs on farms studied. RS n n . wo neo g 2 3 2 4 a3 2.3 Cost per acre. _=T 2) Bp el | sis = AS oe i Si ae a) “o> ra gq. q q re Ownershipof |2|F2] 8 | 28] eg a eS » eee ; 2 a3 B/SF/ Fs) ss] 8 | 28 | Sok | hoe a 5 Sissel aalaa] @ 3 aU ois g cal mal H#is°| sg 8 x a S°8, |Sxs)] 8 £ 8 rye 3 5 = ° 3) 3 Oosn Orn 3 Ss ° 5 Z2\|< a a < oD a A A = A ‘s) ONgiee eset eee 43} 5.7 | 26.39 | 20.99 | 5.38 | 1,172.14 | 1,241.81 | 17.31 | 9.09 | 8.71 | 17.80 | 0.0789 Mines tee 11] 5.1 | 23.00 | 17.59 | 5.91°| 1,395.11 | 1,203.89 | 16.81 | 7.81 | 8.69 | 16.50]. .0791 Own and hire 54] 5.6 | 25.70 | 20.30 | 5.47 | 1,205.42 | 1,234.09 | 17.21 | 8.83 | 8.71 | 17.54 | .0790 The comparative efficiency of the owned and hired rigs is shown in Table XIII. The average number of sprays is 5.7 for the owned and 5.1 for the hired rigs. As would be expected, there are fewer man and horse hours per acre in the latter case. It is seen that those who own rigs spray an average of 5.38 acres in 10 hours, applying 1,172 gallons of material, while hired rigs spray 5.91 acres, applying 1,395 gallons in 10 hours. Thus, although the labor cost per acre is less in the case of the hired rigs, the total material cost is nearly the same. The cost of labor and material for the owned rigs is $17.80 per acre, while for the hired it is $16.50 per acre. It would seem therefore that so far as the actual labor and material cost of spraying is concerned, it makes little difference whether the rig is owned or hired. Because of the effect of climatic conditions upon spraying, no well-defined spraying schedule is followed in the valley. Most growers have their own ideas about spraying. Some troubles, par- ticularly apple scab, are very hard to control, and spraying is as yet in somewhat of an eereamenial stage here. This region differs from most others in that a great many differ- ent kinds of sprays are made of varying strength. The first spray applied in the spring is usually a lime-sulphur dormant spray, which is applied ordinarily in March. This, often called the “ clean up” spray, is made primarily to control the San Jose scale. The strength of this spray is usually 1-10, that is, 1 gallon of commercial lime-sulphur to 10 gallons of solution. Usually a single nozzle and a coarse spray are used, with a pressure of about 175 pounds. Prac- tically 90 per cent of the growers make a practice of using this spray, and make but one application of it during a season., Man- hours per acre for this spray average 4.74 and the horse-hours 3.72. The average acreage for all crews is 5.38 acres per day. The labor cost per acre is $1.62, material cost $2.45, making a total of $4.07 per acre. If this spraying cost is distributed over all the orchards COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. BY the cost is found to be $3.55 for material and labor, or 20 per cent of the total spraying costs on all the orchards considered. A later dormant spray is now being advocated for killing the leaf roller and aphis eggs. It is made with a soluble oil or miscible oil, diluted and mixed with water at the rate of about 3 gallons of oil to each 50 gallons of spray mixture. In applying this, high pressure is used, and the spray is driven against the branches with great force. The nozzles are held close, so as to cover thoroughly the terminal buds, fruit spurs, and smaller limbs. Large-chamber type mist nozzles are used for this purpose. This spray is not gen- erally practiced as yet, but it is increasing in favor. The second regular spray is generally applied about the time the fruit buds are showing pink and is known as the “ pink spray.” In the lower valley itis made around April 20. This is apphed primarily as a preventive against apple scab. A 33° Baumé (25 per cent sul- phur in solution) lime and sulphur solution, mixed at the rate of 1-25, or 2 gallons of the solution to each 50 gallons of spray, is the strength generally used. This spray, used by about 50 per cent of the growers, is applied very thoroughly. The aim is to cover the extire surface of the tree, paying particular attention to the leaf buds and expanding fruit buds. The average time in applying the pink spray, together with other lime-sulphur sprays which may be later — appled without lead, is 4.13 man-hours and 3.39 horse-hours per acre, or an average of 5.9 acres per day. About 1,300 gallons of material is used in 10 hours. The labor cost of $1.44 and a material cost of $0.97 make a total of $2.41 per application. The cost of all -lime-sulphur diluted sprays appled for scab (in combination with - no other material) is $1.39 per acre, or about 8 per cent of the total cost for spraying for all orchards. The third regular spray, and perhaps the most important of all, is the calyx, or first arsenate of lead spray, coming about May 10, when about 90 per cent of the petals have fallen. This spray is ap- plied so as to place the poison well into the calyx cup, for the control of the codling-moth larva. A fungicide is ordinarily used at this time, in order to cover the foliage and forming fruit as a preventive for apple scab. The “ calyx spray ” is made by all orchardists of the valley, although there is some variation in the kind and quantities of spray materials used. A common mixture used by about two-thirds of the growers is made of 1 gallon of lime-sulphur and 2 pounds of paste lead arsenate to 50 gallons of spray mixture. A few use only lead arsenate and water at the rate of about 2 pounds of lead arsenate to 50 gallons of water. For the most part those who use no lime-sulphur use a 38 BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bordeaux 44-50 solution—that is, 4 pounds of lime, 4 pounds of blue vitriol, and 50 gallons of water. The lead arsenate is used the same strength as above. Im all cases growers use arsenate of lead in this spray for the control of the codling-moth larva, although some omit the other ingredients. Where either Bordeaux or lime- sulphur is used it is for the control of apple scab. Some growers now make a practice of using about 3 pounds of atomic sulphur to 50 gallons of spray mixture for apple powdery mildew, and apply it in combination with the calyx spray. Whatever mixture is used, the number of acres Pare per day is between 5 and 6. Cost ae labor is $1.47 per acre for diluted lime-sulphur and lead-arsenate spray, $1.50 for Bordeaux and lead arsenate, and $1.54 for lead-arsenate spray alone. The material cost for these sprays is $1.48, $2.41, and $0.75, respectively, or a total labor and material cost of $2.95, $3.91, and $2.29. (See Table XIV.) The lead arsenate and water spray is thus the cheapest, followed by the lime-sulphur and lead arsenate, and, lastly, the Bordeaux and lead arsenate, which is much the most expensive. In this calyx spray the most popular and, judging by the number using it, evidently the most effective combination is the lme-sulphur and lead-arsenate spray. If mildew is troublesome, atomic sulphur may be added. The next lead-arsenate spray follows the calyx application in about 10 days. It is made by only a part of the growers. If the weather is favorable to apple scab, lime-sulphur, diluted 1 to 40 or 1 to 50, or atomic sulphur, 5 pounds to 50 gallons, is often added to this lead-arsenate spray. Some growers do not put lead arsenate in this spray, but use only the lime-sulphur or atomic sulphur. The “ thirty-day ” spray is usually the second and a very essential spray for the control of codling moth. This occurs about 30 days after the calyx spray, hence its name. Lead arsenate at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons is used. Atomic sulphur may be added at the rate of 5 or 6 pounds to 50 gallons for scab and mildew control. Other sprays for scab control are sometimes apphed if the weather continues wet, and ordinarily the third and last lead-arsenate spray for the codling moth is applied about the 1st of August. However, there may be an intervening codling-moth spray between the thirty- day spray and the final spray for the moth. In this spray lead arsenate is applied at the usual rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water. Bordeaux 44-50 may be combined with this as a further protection against scab. In many of these sprays, particularly the early ones, a nicotine solution is often added for the control of the aphis, at che rate of about 14 pints to 200 gallons of spray mixture. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. 39 TasLeE XIV.—Spraying practices (54 farms). Lime- Lime- 5 Lime- | sulphur | sulphur | Lead |Bordeaux) Fall! Other | Total Item. sulphur, } diluted, | diluted | arse- | and lead | Bor- are of all dormant.| not dor- | and lead | nate. | arsenate. | deaux. | SPZ°Y®- sprays mant. | arsenate. Number of growersusing..... 47 27 36 42 9 42 1 54 Average number of sprays.... 1 1.15 1.81 2. 26 1.56 1.24 1 5.65 Number using 3-2 crew...... 28 13 19 24 7 22 1 31 Number using 2-2 crew....-- 17 12 16 16 1 18 ! 0 21 Number using other crews... 2 2 1 2 1 2 0 2 Averages per spray: : Man-hours.--.......------ 4.74 4.13 4. 29 4.49 4.31 5. 06 8.57 4.55 Horse-hours......-------- 3.72 3.39 3.38 3.0L 3.54 3.99 5.71 3.59 MEAD OTICOSUS Soe so cine te 2 <5 $1. 62 $1. 44 $1.47 | $1.54 $1.50 | $1.74] $2.78 $1. 56 Material cost ..2 222. -- 2.45 97 1.48 a5: 2. 41 2. 28 4.41 1.54 AROUANCOSE- -5e 222 ssacese5s 4.07 2.41 2.95 2. 29 3. 91 4.02 7.19 3.10 Total cost of spraying per orchard using SPLIQYVS cccenesiccisecice 2 4.07 2.77 5.33 5.19 6.08 4.98 yep) 17.54 Average total cost of spraying for all or- : chards studied ....... 3.55 1.39 3.55 4.03 1.02 3. 87 oilp! 17.54 Percentage of total spraying costs........ 20. 24 7.92 20.24 | 22.98 5.82 | 22.06 -74 | 100.00 1 Oi these 42 growers making a fall Bordeaux spray for anthracnose, 10 made an additional spray during the summer with Bordeaux alone for apple scab control, using a strength of 4-4-50 as compared to a 6-6-50 strength for the fall spray. As a general rule a final spray is applied in the fall for anthrac- nose. Nearly 78 per cent of the growers use this spray. It is a dor- mant spray, applied after harvesting the fruit, and is made with a 66-50 mixture of Bordeaux. It often takes a little longer to apply than the other dormant sprays or the lead arsenate spray, because of the time required for mixing the ingredients. In Table XIV spraying practices are summarized. On account of the great number of different practices followed in spraying, no attempt has been made to arrange this table according to the time of application. The average number of sprays of all kinds used for all orchards is 5.65, and the total cost for material and labor for these sprays is $17.54 per acre, or practically $0.08 per box. MISCELLANEOUS. There are many items of orchard labor which may be classified as miscellaneous. Summer pruning is included in miscellaneous labor, as are all such items as doctoring trees, painting wounds, care of lateral ditches for the orchard not included in irrigating time, and any other odd items which may appear. For these miscellaneous items there was found to be a labor cost of $2.03 per acre for the clean-cultural orchards, $1.17 per acre for those under the mulch-crop system, or $1.65 per acre for all orchards. The cost per box was $0.0074. 40 BULLETIN 518, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TOTAL MAINTENANCE COST. Considering all items pertaining to the maintenance of the or- chard in the 30 clean-culttiral orchards there is found to be a total of 133.75 man-hours and 90.28 horse-hours per acre, at a net labor cost for maintenance of $43.63 per acre, or $0.20 per box. In the case of the 24 mulch-crop orchards there are 152.75 man-hours and 70.82 horse-hours for annual maintenance, with a cost of $45 per acre, or $0.197 per box. When both kinds of orchards are considered, there are 142.19 man-hours and 81.63 horse-hours, with a total main- tenance labor cost per acre of $39.97, or $0.18 per box. This is 47 per cent of all labor cost, and 17.6 per cent of the total cost of production. : HANDLING THE CROP. The labor cost of handling the crop is the largest of all labor costs, and since it is necessary to handle the fruit in a comparatively short time the cash expense for harvest labor represents the largest cash expense of the season. The handling cost includes picking, hauling shooks to the ranch, hauling out empty boxes from the packing shed to the orchard, and hauling in full loose boxes of fruit to the packing house. It also includes labor in the packing house, — sorting, packing, nailing, and stamping, waiting on the packers, fore- man, trucker, or any other extra packing-house labor. The last labor item of handling is hauling the packed boxes to the station. This handling or harvesting cost makes up 59 per cent of the total labor cost, or 22 per cent of the total annual cost of production. The handling cost per box was found to be very uniform and varied but _ little except as affected by yields and acre costs. PICKING. Harvesting the fruit from the trees is done by hand, either from the ground or from ladders. Ten-foot stepladders, costing from 25 to 50 cents per foot, are most common in use. Picking pails and bags of various description are used. These picking bags or buckets hold about one-half bushel and usually empty from the bottom. Two usually fill a picking box. The boxes are not filled so full as to prevent one being placed on top of another in hauling them in. Picking ordinarily begins late in August with the Gravenstein and ends with the Yellow Newtown and Ben Davis late in October. As over 80 per cent of the output of the valley is Yellow Newtown and Esopus, most of the harvesting comes during the month of October. The labor is usually hired by the day. In a few cases men hire pickers by piecework; that is, the picker is paid so much COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. £41 per box. Day labor, however, is generally more satisfactory, as the apples are more carefully handled than when picked by the box. Several factors influence the time required in picking, such as the variety, the age and size of the tree, and the condition of the fruit. The average time for all growers, with an average yield of 992 packed boxes, is 56 hours per acre, at a cost of $12.63, a cost per loose box of $0.0379 and per packed box of $0.0569, or nearly 6 cents per box. Taste XV.—Influcnce of sise of orchard on picking time (54 farms, Hood River Valley). : Boose Cost per Sinclar norchand Number} Boxes | boxesin | Cost per 5 ae q_ | Cost per HAE OOO SENG orchards.| per acre. | 10 hours | acre. Ee ox. | loose box. per man. 75 WWiNdeHIG:ACKES!-\4-208 acne « lecice c= 2 oe esc ele 4 280.9 59.8 $15.85 | $0.0564 $0. 0376 Gow Oaeresee eae ean a eee cee se 25 227.7 59. 5 12.91 - 0567 . 0378 ILD) AY) BGS Sas eet ea ee oon seen a aeeeD 19 211 59.1 12.05 0571 - 0381 OMe IZ OIACTOS eee ee ae water oe sictein lone - 6 196. 5 59. 4 11.17 . 0568 . 0379 AN TREOWO ES) se ese ee ooadee 655 soseeeoosenpese 54 222 59. 4 12. 63 - 0569 . 0379 The size of orchard and the yield per acre are two factors which would be expected to influence time required in picking. However, in the case of the farms studied this is not borne out by results, which show a remarkable uniformity in cost per box regardless of size of orchard or of yield. Table XV shows the cost of picking according to size of.orchard, and Table XVI shows time and cost ac- cording to yield. It should be stated here, however, that the yield per acre would undoubtedly have affected the picking cost if the trees in general had been large, entailing much shifting of the ladders. This was noted in individual cases too scattering to materially affect the averages. TABLE XVI.—Influence of yield on picking time and costs (54 farms.) I Number Boxes in Cost per Yield (packed boxes). of Boxes | 19 hours | COSt Per packed orchards. | P®& 2¢T®- | ner man.| °T°: box. t5Gipoxesiandivinder sss) tes cess acess eee 11 115.0 58.1 $6.68} $0. 0581 LE ORZOOHDORKESY oe ee yee ee a al a 10 177.6 68. 0 8. 82 . 0497 ZAUL WO) ZED) [OOROS a ese tet eS re es Ye ah eM 17 219. 6 63.6 11. 66 . 0531 AROS O DORCSe ee ao pee eiciots sini paranisiecrcieeeiciee 7 270.0 bah 7 16. 97 - 0629 SOLtTOAIOIDOXeS 8 - oae e e ees eee cee lee 6 335. 2 57.3 19.78 . 0590 GV CTEA ORR ae ye ee oe SMES ENE Bey Syl Bae Ss 3 440.8 52.7 28. 24 - 0641 PAVE CC ORM Ses teat mele ese < ee Sy au es 54 222.0 59. 4 12. 63 0569 These tables show averages for hired pickers working by the day. They would show different results if piecework were under consider- ation. There is no doubt that the average picker can pick more boxes per day in heavily loaded orchards than in those with a light yield. The fact that they do not when hired by the day may be 42 BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. attributed largely to the fact that day labor considers a certain num- ber of boxes as_a fair day’s work. They will pick a reasonable number in any case, working faster or slower according to the yield, but actually picking few more per day in one case than in the other. This, of course, does not apply to men who do their own picking cr to other help personally interested in an orchard. HAULING. There are four hauling operations, namely, hauling the loose box shooks from the station to the ranch to be made up, hauling the empty boxes to the orchard, hauling the full picking boxes to the packing house, and hauling the packed boxes to the loading station. In hauling shooks, in the case of the farms studied, one man and team will haul an average load of 433 box shooks 2.01 miles at a cost of $0.004 per box shook, or $0.002 per box shook per mile. In many cases the box shooks are delivered at the farm, the price of delivery usually being from one-quarter to one-half cent per box. Taking all cases the cost per acre for getting the box shooks to the farm, including the contract labor, is $0.83 per acre, or $0.0037 per box. The box shooks are usually hauled during the late summer, carly enough to give the grower time to make up his boxes. Haul- ing the loose boxes to the orchard from the shed, or wherever they are made up, is comparatively inexpensive, as they may be stacked on a sled or wagon and many of them hauled out at once. The most common practice is to combine hauling out the empty boxes with hauling in the full boxes. For those who make a separate operation of hauling out the empty boxes the cost per box averages about one- half cent. In hauling in the full boxes, where no hauling-out time is considered, it is found that a man and a team, with a wagon or truck, will haul 42 loose boxes per load, at a cost of $0.015 per packed box. When both hauling out and in are considered the cost is $3.59 per acre, or $0.016 per packed box. Either one or two men may work at hauling the full loose boxes to the shed. Where there are enough pickers to keep the haulers busy, two men can do this work to better advantage than one. This hauling is done almost entirely on the low truck wagon. (See Table XVII.) TABLE XVII.—Average time required for hauling on farms studied when man and team are used. Man- Horse- | q . Cost per Cost per ; ; Cost per | Size of ; Number Item. hours per | hours per] ~ : packed : box per athe. sures acre. load. ae of miles. mile. Boxes. HAM SNOOKE! - 8-25» 22 esses 1.80 3.35 $0.91 433 | $0.0041 2.01 $0. 002 Haulin full boxes.............. 7.05 12. 82 3.51 42 0152) tei see mie see eee Hisnl'to station... .>-s522.0.22- lpaalilerso 23. 46 6.16 87 - 0285 4.00 007 COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. 43 The most expensive of all hauling operations is delivering the ap- ples at the shipping station. A man and team haul on the average 87 boxes per load 4 miles, at a cost of $0.0285 per box for the average distance hauled, or $0.007 per box per mile. There is considerable contract hauling, while many boxes are shipped to the association at Hood River via the Mount Hood Railroad at a freight cost in the lower valley from 24 cents to 34 cents per box. Considering all rec- ords, the total cost of delivering these apples f. 0. b. at Hood River station is materially increased by this freight charge, making a total cost of $8.28 per acre or $0.0373 per box. The total cost of all haul- ing for the 54 farms, including the shooks, loose boxes in the orchard, and hauling to the station, including contract hauling, is $12.70 per acre, or $0.0572 per packed box. PACKING-HOUSE LABOR. Labor in the packing house includes sorting, packing, nailing, stamping, waiting on the packers, foreman, and any other labor em- ployed about the packing shed. The cost of making the box is not included here, but under the cost of made-up box. This labor, when all records are considered, amounts to $0.1073 per box, or about 50 per cent of all handling labor costs, and 28 per cent of the total labor cost. . Taste XVIII.—Packing house averages and practices on farms studied. Packed Man- eat Cost per | Pro rata . Number | Per cent boxes in | Cost per op . Operation. practic- | practic- Hou SPer) i@hours | acre. pecied Cost cE ing. ing. * | per man. a ce HAC One ee teen nase 53 98.15 29. 03 i. 5 $10. 24 | $0.0457 $0. 0453 AN SON Aa Se I ere eae 32 59. 26 43. 62 53.3 9.81 - 0463 - 0262 Machine sizer-.....-..---------- 21 38. 89 34.31 82 7. 72 - 0320 - 0135 INGUIN See ee Chee eecee se a2 UE 14 25. 93 10. 20 232 2.30 - 0108 - 0027 NaalanGs wate sea 22m cine 40 74. 07 14.13 200 3.18 -0141 - 0106 (Honemanl See ee a. Sle Seek oe 16 29. 63 13. 28 213.4 2.99 0121 - 0040 IVE GIT Operant ey SE 6 11.11 11.31 260 2.54 - 0096 - 0013 Other packing labor......-...-- 6 11.11 33. 03 95 7.41 - 0357 0037 PROUTKCOST DET WOKE Mea SECM aN IL 3 Ge) AU RNa | ces Ve eee ee Al ed oe ce, . 1073 Table XVIII shows the packing-house practices, indicating the number: who practice the different operations, together with the average time and costs per acre and per box. The pro rata column is the cost per box distributed over all the records, so that the total column represents the actual packing-house cost for the 54 records. Sorting.—All apples are sorted and packed in the packing shed or tent. There are two methods of sorting. The apples may be sorted either by hand or on the sorting tables of a sizing maching. Pre- vious to the introduction of the sizing machine many apples were 44 BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, sorted and packed by women. Usually on the larger ranches men are now employed in the packing house. The crew in the packing house will vary with the size and condi- tion of the crop. It is usually necessary to have more sorters than packers. Often four sorters are necessary to keep three packers busy. Many growers use a mechanical sizer and claim that much time and expense is saved. These machines cost from $125 to $250 each. In the type most generally used the apples are dumped upon padded tables at the end of the sizer. From these they are placed on an endless carrier, the extra fancy apples on one side and the fancy on the other side of a partition. Choice, or C grade apples, as well as cookers and culls, are not put through the machines at the same time, although they may be sized later. The sizing device permits the apples to roll down into padded bins or receptacles placed along the side of the carrier. Most of the growers, however, sort by hand. The sorters work at tables and sort from the loose boxes into three grades, but do not size the fruit. Sorters are paid usually by the hour. When working at a sizer they will sort 82 packed boxes, or about 120 loose boxes, a day. By hand they will sort 53 packed or about 75 loose boxes. The labor cost of sorting for those who use a sizer is $0.032 per packed box, or $0.021 per loose box, while for those who sort by hand it costs $0.046 per packed box, or $0.031 per loose box. Sorting time depends very largely on the relative freedom of the fruit from insect injuries and fungus disease. Packing.—Packers work by the box, and men and women are paid at the same rate. Many growers prefer women to men for packing fruit. They apparently become expert packers much more quickly, and do neater work than men, although usually averaging fewer boxes during the season. Packing labor in Hood River Valley gen- erally receives 4 to 5 cents per packed box. The 4-cent rate is paid where apples are both sized and graded for the packer; that is, where a sizing machine is used. The 5-cent rate is used where the apples are graded for the packer, but not sized; that is, when the sorting is done by hand. Packing is done at benches along the side of the sizing machine. When hand sorting is done the packers usually work at tables or benches. The diagonal method of packing is commonly used. All three grades of apples are wrapped. Sometimes cookers are also wrapped. Cardboards are placed inside both on the top and the bottom of the box. Packers earn higher wages than day help. The average packer packs 77.5 boxes per 10-hour day in the case of the 54 orchards considered. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. 45 Nailing and stamping.—All boxes are nailed, and stamped with the name of the grower, the grade, the number of apples in box, the variety, the packer’s number, and the cubical contents of the box, which is 2,173 cubic inches. The nailing bench or rack is arranged with a device for holding down the box cover over the bulge so that it meets the ends of the box and can be easily nailed. The nailer is usually an expert and nails very rapidly, but for an amateur it is slow work. In all cases the nailer also stamps the boxes; in 74 per cent of all cases he also helps to wait either on the packers or on the sorters. The average nailer will nail and stamp 232 boxes per day, -and the average cost per box is about 1 cent. Some men nail and stamp by piecework; the usual price paid is 1 cent per box. In the case of nailing and waiting the cost is higher, being $0.014 per box. One or more waiters, according to the number and size of the crew used in packing, carry apples to the sorters as needed, and carry graded apples from the sorters to the packers. In many cases sorters and packers wait on themselves. Especially is this true where the orchard is small and there is not a great amount of fruit to pack. In large packing crews a trucker is often employed who trucks the nailed-up boxes from the nailers and stacks them up ready to be hauled. Where mechanical sizers are used one extra man is often employed to look after the machine and usually acts as foreman. Sixteen of the growers, or not quite one-third, had foremen who had no other duties but supervision, and whose labor is charged entirely to the boxes put out by the packers. There was but one grower of the 54 who sorted his apples as he packed them; that is to say, the packer sorted his own apples. In Colorado and many other Northwest sec- tions a great many packers sort their own apples. That sorters are employed more generally in Hood River than in most other sections, and that the sorting cost is about as great as the packing cost, is due largely to the fact that Hood River apples are carefully watched for spots caused by the apple scab, a fungus preva- lent in that region. The cost of all labor employed about the packing house for Hood River Valley is $0.1073 per packed box. There is a chance to lower labor costs in the packing house materially in the case of many grow- ers. If the crew is not large the foreman may very well be a packer, sorter, nailer, or the like, but all crews, whatever their size, do need a packing foreman to see that the apples are properly sorted and packed. Some growers have already lowered their harvesting cost per box materially by increasing efficiency in the handling of har- vesting crews, both inside and outside of the packing house; but in general there is room for considerable improvement in this regard. 46 BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Culls—Under “ culls.” are included all apples which do not meet the standards required for bex apples. The best of them are sold for “ cookers” in loose boxes or crates. The poorer’ grades are used for making cider or they may be fed to the hogs. A cooperative cider factory is operated in Hood River, the stockholders buying stock amounting to $10 per acre for their bearing orchard land. The grower then gets the privilege of selling all his cider apples to the factory. Nonmembers receive the same price per ton as do members, but are able to dispose of their fruit only when the demand exceeds © the supply offered by the members. In 1914 the price per ton for cider apples was $6, but in prior years the price of cider apples had usually been $8. Some cider apples are sold to Portland firms. Windfalls and other inferior apples are taken to the cider mill. Part of these are picked up on the ground and sacked in the orchard, and part of them come from the packing shed, where they have been handled by the sorters. Many orchardists do not pick up the fruit which drops from the trees, but leave it on the ground and allow the hogs to have it. : . The term “ cookers” is usually applied to those apples which have some minor defect or blemish. They are “jumble” packed and usually shipped to Portland. They average about 50 cents per box f. o. b. Hood River. Some growers do not ship “cookers.” In this study “ cookers” were taken into account only when marketed. The average annual credit derived from culls, including “ cookers,” on the 54 farms studied is $5.13 per acre, or a net credit of $4.06 above the labor of picking and hauling, which amounted to $1.07 per acre. This, it should be remembered, is only labor in excess of that already included under harvesting and packing-house labor. Where the apples are picked up in the orchard one man will sack or pick up about 50 sacks per day. A man and team will haul about 2 tons of cider apples per load and 2 loads per day from the lower valley to Hood River, a distance usually of from 4 to 6 miles. The filled sacks weigh about 70 pounds each. In marketing the cull fruit which comes from the packing shed all the extra handling necessary is the hauling. Hence there is greater profit in handling these than in handling windfalls. TOTAL HANDLING COSTS. The total of all harvesting-labor cost for the 54 farms, allowing no credit for culls, is $49.14 per acre, or $0.221 per box. Deducting the net value of the culls there is a net labor cost of $45.08 per acre, or $0.203 per box. This is 53.01 per cent of all labor costs and 19.86 per cent of the total cost of production. If the labor cost of handling is added to the material and fixed cost connected with handling, which includes made-up boxes, paper, nails, and the annual packing- house costs, there is a total cost for handling of $79.92 per acre, or $0.36 per box. This is 35.21 per cent of the total annual cost of production. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. ee TOTAL LABOR COSTS. Table XIX summarizes the labor costs per acre and per box for both the clean-culture and the mulch-crop system of management. TasLeE XIXN.—Swmmary of all labor costs. Clean cultural; 30records;} Mulch crop; 24records; | All records; 54 records; yield 218 boxes. yield 228 boxes. yield 222 boxes. 3 a7) 3 B 3 a7 8 ./8¢ 8 |8¢4 8 | 84 Z| 28 i || Bee 4| 88 . ~ LY . “_ . of — Boose) es 2a) 6 ie bes ies) 8) 8 | es | ee Gs} fo} = B Yo) 3 3 po} + ZI ie} eS 3 2 ~ A oy i=] i] i=] = ~~ i= i 2/2 |83/858| 2] 2 |8e|/85| 2] & | 8a) es 22 Wesel emer eel eae. |e. ‘S) tS) Ay Au 1S) 1S) AY Ay 1S) 1S) Ay Ay Manurings 2: sss. 5.2.6. $1. 60 $0. 0073} 1.82) 0.72) $1.01/$0.0044) 1.24) 0.44] $1.34/$0.0060} 1.58} 0.59 Pruning Bese ee a Nees cee 5. 28) .0242) 6.02) 2.37) 5.74) .0252|) 7.03) 2.47) 5.48) .0247) 6.44) 2.41 Disposal of brush....... 2.45) .0112} 2.79) 1.10) 2.25) .0099} 2.75) .97) 2.36) .0106} 2.77) 1.04 MO Wane 2a aie =! coy 1.10) .0050| 1.25) .49) .70} .0031) .86; .30) .92) .0041] 1.08) .40 Cultivating . te Ace ae 10.64) .0488} 12.12) 4.78] 3.74] .0164) 4.58) 1.61) 7.57} .0341) 8.90) 3.34 Trrigating eM ao 35 -71| .0033) .81 .32| 6.66] .0292) 8.15) 2.87) 3.35) .0151) 3.94) 1.48 MinMin sews se - 2 5. 60] .0257) 6.38] 2.51) 5.47] .0240) 6.70| 2.36) 5.54) .0250|) 6.51) 2.44 EroD hays Se eae ee eee 5.71} .0262) 6.51) 2.56) 5.58} .0245) 6.83) 2.40) 5.65) .0255) 6.64) 2.49 iscellaneous.......-..-- 2.03} .0093) 2.31) .91) 1.17) .0051) 1.43) .50) 1.65) .0074) 1.94) .73 ae spray..-.-- 1.30) .0060) 1.48) .58) 1.52} .0067) 1.86) .65) 1.40) .0063} 1.65) .62 Other sprays--.-.---.---- 7.21) .0331} 8.21) 3.24) 7.70} .0338) 9.43) 3.31] 7.43) .0335| 8.74) 3.27 Sowing mulch crop...-..|.--:--.|-------|--- ean ee ee -05) .0002} .06) .02) .02) .0001) .02) .01 Harvesting mulch crop..|-.---.-|--.----|------|------ 3.41) .0150} 4.17) 1.47) 1.52} .0068) 1.79 67 Total labor cost previous to har- : vesting.........- 43.63] .2001| 49.70) 19.58) 45.00) .1975) 55.09} 19.37) 44.23) .1992) 52.00 19.49 VA Che Gita ase meister S| pedo gle aces | PS ccllnomine s 9.59) .0421) 11.74) 4.13) 4.26) .0191) 5.01; 1.88 Total net labor cost previous to harvesting. ...-- 43.63] .2001} 49. 70) 19.58] 35.41] .1554| 43.35) 15.24] 39.97} .1801) 46.99) 17.61 Haul shooks...........- . 84; .0039) .96) .38 782 - 0036; 1.00) .35) .83) .0037| .98 Bott Haul loose boxes to and from orchard..--....-- 3.55) .0163] 4.05) 1.59) 3.64) .0160) 4.46) 1.57) 3.59) .0162|} 4.22) 1.58 PAC KAT Geese ee ee 11.97} .0594| 13.64) 5.37) 13.46) .0590) 16.48} 5.79) 12.63} .0569) 14.85) 5.56 All packing house labor-| 23.59] .1082) 26.87} 10.58} 24.09} .1057| 29. 49) 10.37] 23.81] .1073) 27.99) 10. 49 Haul to station. ........ 8.40] .0385| 9.57) 3.77) 8.14] .0357| 9.97) 3.50} 8.28) .0373) 9.74] 3.65 Pick up and haul culls. 1.11} .0051) 1.26) .50} 1.03) .0045) 1.26) .44] 1.07} .0048) 1.26) .47 Total labor cost for 7 harvesting. ..... 49.46] .2269) 56.35) 22.19) 51.18) .2244) 62.66) 22.02) 50.21) . 2262) 59.04) 22.12 Credit for culls.......... 5.31) .0244) 6.05) 2.38) 4.91) .0215) 6.01) 2.11) 5.13) .0231} 6.03) 2.26 _ Total net labor cost for harvesting ..-| 44.15] . 2025] 50.30} 19.81) 46.27) . 2029) 56.65] 19.91] 45.08] . 2031] 53.01) 19. 86 Total net cost for J all labor.......-- 87. 78| .4026/100. 00) 39.39} 81.68] .3583/100.00} 35.15) 85.05) .3832)100.00| 37. 47 It will be seen from this table that soil management is the only factor of either system that has any great influence on the labor-cost items. The only credits are for hay and culls, the hay credit lowering the net cost of maintenance somewhat, this cost being $43.63 per acre in the clean-culture and $35.41 per acre in the mulch-crop orchards. 48 BULLETIN 518, U. S$. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The cull credit is about the same in both cases. There is then a total net labor cost for the clean-culture orchards of $87.78 per acre, or $0.40 per box, while for those in mulch crop it is $81.68 per acre, or $0.358 per box. For all records there is a net labor cost of. $85.05 per acre and $0.383 per box, while the labor cost is 37.47 per cent of the total cost of production. The net cost of maintenance for all records is $39.97, and $45.08 is the net cost for handling. Yield per acre is the factor which has the greatest influence on the labor cost per box on the farms studied in the various regions. The higher the yield the higher the labor cost per acre but- the lower the labor cost per box. It also appears that the cost of maintenance is a lower percentage of the total labor cost on those farms where the average yield is high than where it is low. COSTS OTHER THAN LABOR. Costs other than labor include two kinds of costs, material and fixed. Material costs include such items as manure, spray materials, seed, boxes, nails, paper, etc., while fixed costs refer to overhead charges, which are little influenced by the size of the crop. Fixed costs include equipment charge, apple-building charge, taxes, water rent, insurance, and interest on investment. The average price per ton of manure is $1.50, and the average amount applied annually per acre is 1.48 tons, making a yearly cost of $2.22 per acre, or $0.01 per box for manure. Spray ma- terials are charged at the regular price paid by most growers, which is $6.50 per barrel for lime-sulphur, $0.07 per pound for arsenate of lead paste, $0.01 per pound for lime, and $0.075 per pound for copper sulphate or “bluestone.” Dry lead arsenate costs $0.175 per pound. Alfalfa seed is charged at the rate of $0.18 per pound and clover at $0.20 per pound. As they are sown only occasionally, there is a very small annual charge for this item, Shooks cost $0.095 per box, or $0.103 for the boxes made up, the contract cost for making being usually $0.80 per hundred. Paper and nails cost $0.039 per box. There is thus a total cost for boxes, including paper and nails, of $0.142 per finished box. On the farms studied the total material costs amount to $42.80 per acre, or $0.192 per box. This is 18.86 per cent of the total annual cost of production. ‘In the fixed charges, which make up 43.67 per cent of the total annual cost of production, certain items are considered which many growers do not take into account, the principal charge being interest on investment. This, however, is a proper charge, as it is a factor ~— ae ee E COST. OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. 49 which ofter determines the success or failure of a great many fruit growers. It is an actual cash expense to the grower who has a mortgage on his place. The equipment charge for these farms is $6.50 per acre annually. It is made up of depreciation, upkeep, interest, and taxes on equip- ment. Only the spray rig is charged entirely to the orchard, charges for all other machinery being apportioned according to the relative extent to which it is used for work on the bearing orchard and on other crops. A 25 per cent annual charge is used for equipment other than the spray rig, consisting of 11 per cent depreciation, 8 per cent interest, 5 per cent upkeep, and 1 per cent taxes. The spray rig cost also amounts to about 25 per cent, but is made up somewhat differ- ently. The total annual equipment or machinery cost is $6.50 per acre, or $0.029 per box. This is practically $0.03 per box. _ The building charge is the annual charge for apple buildings, such as packing sheds or tents. This amounts to $3.27 per acre, or $0.014 per box. Many growers have very inexpensive packing sheds, but there are a few who have a very large investment in such buildings. In such instances the cost is very high. Only average conditions are considered here, and expensive packing sheds are not the rule. Taxes are high in Hood River Valley, as in many other Northwest sections. he average annual tax per acre in the case of the 54 apple orchards is $8.19, or $0.036 per box. The orchard’s share of fire in- surance 1s $0.33 per acre, or $0.0015 per box. Water rent amounts to $2.62 per acre for those who irrigate. This amounts to $1.56 for all records, or $0.007 per box. Interest on investment in apple orchard, the largest item entering into the cost of production, makes up 55.85 per cent of the material and fixed costs and 34.9 per cent of the total annual cost of produc- tion on the farms studied. This cost is figured on an average invest- ment of $990.74 per acre at 8 per cent and an average yield of 222 boxes per acre. The interest charge per acre is $79.26 and the charge per box is $0.357. This interest cost has been fully discussed under investment. 50 BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XX.—Jaterial and fixed costs (54 farms). Clean-culture; 30 | Mulch-crop; 24 rec- records; yield,218| ords; yield, 228 | All records; 54 records; boxes. boxes yield, 222 boxes. 3 3 ay |3s Ttem. Seal, ve | 3 teal eee at a oO i) ml 5 geese es SB. Sus eg § jez | 3, Ko a Syn |e a ea |e 2 |28 | 2a 5 ee] ee ys 8 |as| 8 gS |e .| 2s roy a S ror a S a a jog) 5 B B = B 7A hi B B |e@S| wn S| 08s e | Ha fAieS le gone get | erm ia pelean ice MANGNO sacs Sonne eee 0. 87} $2.57] $0.0113} 1.11) $2.22] $0.0100] 1.56) 0.98 Lime-sulphur.........- 1.42) 4.11) .0180) 1.77) 3.58) .0161) 2.52) 1.58 SC Sateen MEL Ses eee 1. 05) 61 0114 1.12) 2.45 0110} 1.73, 1.08 Other spray material..-.........-- 1.20) 2.64) .0116} 1.14) 2.66) .0120) 1.87) 1.17 pS 0 Ae AS ein SPS Sl Meine Ice enn LA ise 71} .0031) .31) .32) .0014) .23) .14 Cost of made up boxes 10. 07} 23.48] .1030) 10.11) 22.87] .10380] 16.12) 10.08 Paperjand nails #2222. ce. = as seeee 3.84] 8.94) .0392) 3.84] 8.70) .0392) 6.13) 3.83 Total materialcost............ ----) 41.12) —. 1886] 18. 45) 45. 06| . 1976} 19.40) 42.80) .1927) 30.16 18. 86 Equipment charge.........-.----- 6.34) 0291] 2.85] 6.71} .0294| 2.89] 6.50) 0292) 4.58] 2.86 Apple building charge...........-- 4.13) .0189) 1.85} 2.18) .0096] .94) 3.27) .0147) 2.31) 1.44 PAROS 2 b= Fea Sse cst be cese ee oe 7.85) .0360) 3.52) 8.61) .0378] 3.71) 8.19) .0364) 5.77) 3.61 AMSUTANCES: 5 ee ya oe eee eo cee -of|, OOLT — . 17) <4. 29) SeO01S =. L2| eos! OLS |e ao lene ike Wraterrent.7t2 nee eoeeses pee - 71} =. 0033) — .32) *2.62) 0115) 1.13) 1756) } 0079) ~1.10) 69 Interest on investment....-.---.-- 74.53} .3419) 33.45) 85.17) .3736] 36.66] 79.26) .3570} 55.85) 34.92 Total fixedicostss 92. =e 55-6 93.93] .4309) 42.16]105.58] .4632) 45.45) 99.11 - 4458) 69. 84} 43. 67 Total material and fixed costs./135.05} . 6195] 60. 61/150. 64] — . 6608} 64. 85 141.91). 6385}100. 00) 62. 53 Table XX gives a summary of material and fixed costs for both clean-culture and mulch-crop orchards. The two kinds of orchards have very nearly the same cost per box for material, namely, $0.188 for the clean-culture and $0.197 for the mulch-crop orchards. The difference come in the fixed costs, which are $0.43 per box for the clean-culture and $0.463 for the mulch-crop orchards. This differ- ence is due mainly to the high valuation of land in mulch crop and the larger irrigation, or water tax, charge. The total material and fixed cost for all records amounts to $141.91 per acre, or $0.638 per box, or 62.53 per cent of the total annual cost of production. Of this total material and fixed cost, 30.16 per cent is for material and 69.04 per cent is for fixed cost, or the material cost is 18.86 per cent and the fixed cost 48.67 per cent of the total annual cost of production. TOTAL COSTS. The total of all annual costs, after crediting the orchard with hay and culls, is $226.96 per acre, or $1.021 per box; of which 374 per cent is for labor and 623 per cent is for material and fixed cost. If the orchards studied are separated into clean-culture and mulch-crop systems there is found to be a total cost of $222.83 per acre, or $1.022 per box, for the former and $232.32 per acre, or $1.019 per box, for the latter. Thus, although there is a difference in acre cost of $9.49, the difference in box cost is only $0.003, the yield per acre being 10 boxes more in the case of the orchards in mulch crops than in those under the clean-culture system. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY. 51 TABLE XXI.—Summary of all costs for Hood River (54 farms). Clean-culture, Mulch-crop. All records. 30 records; yield, 218 24 records; yield, 228 54 records; yield, 222 boxes. boxes. boxes. Cost Cost Per Cost Cost Per Cost Cost Per gfe [938 of total gi jlo of total es Bee of otal acre. box. cost. acre. pox. Cost acre. pox. Cost Net cost of labor prior to INAMVOSGE SSS ce acckik. acc eaeaes $43.63 |$0. 2001 19.58 | $35.41 '$0. 1554 15. 24 | $39.97 |$0.1801 17.61 Net cost of labor for harvest- DRA OVE epee each ve cial swinvelals 44.15} .2025 | 19.81 46.27 -2029 | 19.91 45.08 | .2031 19. 86 Net cost of all labor.......... 87.78 | .4026| 389.39] 81.68 | .3583 | 35.15 | 85.05 «3832 37.47 Material cost...............- 41.12) .1886|) 18.45] 45.06 | -1976 |} 19.40 | 42.80} .1927 18. 86 JOrb.<2y6 | (COS SR SEE ea eee eee 93.93 -4309 | 42.16 | 105.58 | .4632 | 45.45 | 99.11 - 4458 43.67 Material and fixed costs. ....| 135.05 | .6195 | 60.61 | 150.64 | .6608| 64.85 | 141.91 | .6385 62.53 Motalieostia.\s: e552. 22. 222.83 | 1.0221 | 100 | 232.32 | 1.0191 | 100 | 226.96 | 1.0217 100 Table X XI shows the summary of these costs and their melas percentage of the total annual cost. On the farms studied the total annual cost of eae is influ- enced by several factors, but the factor of greatest influence appar- ently is the average yield per acre. Table X XII has been prepared to show this influence. It will be seen that the larger the yield the higher the acre cost but the lower the box cost. For instance, in the case of orchards with a yield of 440 boxes there is a cost of $304.66 per acre, or $0.691 per box, while in the case of the other extreme, with a yield of 115 boxes per acre, there is a cost of $180.51 per acre, or $1.57 per box. In other words, the lowest yielding orchards have a total acre cost of $124.15 less than the highest yielding ones, but a total box cost of $0.88 more. Those orchards with a yield of 177 boxes per acre have an acre cost of $200.68, or $1.13 per box, as com- pared with orchards with a yield of 835 boxes and an acre cost of $282.27 or a box cost of $0.8421. As between these two groups the acre cost is $81.59 less in the case of the small yield, but $0.288 more per box. TABLE XXIII.—Relation of yield to total annual cost of production (54 farms). Costs. Aver- Yield age ; Number (in boxes) yield |Maintenance.| Handling. Material. Fixed. Total. of z (in records. boxes). i Acre. | Box. | Acre.| Box. | Acre.| Box. | Acre.| Box. | Acre. | Box. 150 and under..| 115 |$36.33 $0.3168/$23. 62/$0. 2054|/$24. 64/$0. 2143/$95. 92/$0. 8341/$180. 51|$1. 5706 11 POLLO 200). 22 2 177.6) 34.63) .1950) 35.37] .1992) 34.23) .1927| 96.45) . 5431] 200.68] 1.1300 10 201to0 250 _... 219.6] 37.01} .1685) 40.73] .1855} 43.81} .1995]105.08] .4785] 226.63] 1.0320 17 251 to 300. . __.. 270° | 45.05) .1669} 59.80) .2215) 51.97} .1925/101.12) .3745) 257.94] .9554 7 301 to 400... .... 335. 2} 53.88) .1607] 74.37] .2219) 60.36} .1801] 93.66) .2794) 282.27) .8421 6 Over 400....._. 440. 8) 48.26, .1095] 88.08} .1998] 76.32] .1731] 92 . 2087| 304.66} .6911 3 All records. 222 39.97) .1801) 45.08} .2031} 42.80) .1927) 99.11) .4458) 226.96) 1.0217 54 52 BULLETIN 518, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The handling and material costs per acre are the costs most affected by yield, but the box cost is little affected by these items. The main- tenance cost is also affected by the yield. Yield is no doubt influ- enced in turn by the maintenance cost. The fixed cost per acre, how- ever, remains practically the same for all yields. On this account the fixed cost per box on low yields is very much higher than where the yield is large. Thus with an increased yield the material and handling cost per box is not much reduced, but the fixed cost per box is very materially reduced, and to a lesser extent the maintenance cost. It is thus obvious that the higher the yield the less the cost per box, and that this reduced cost per box comes principally from de- crease in the fixed charge per box. The relation of size of orchard to annual cost of production is shown in Table XXIII. The slight increase in cost per box as the size of the orchard increases is due principally to decreased yield, for the yield per acre decreases as the size of orchard increases. TABLE XXIII.—Relation of size of orchards to total cost (54 farms) Cost of production in orchards of each specified size. 5 ae eae 6 to 10 acres 11 to 20 acres | Over 20 acres anididced: (223-box yield, | (211-box yield, | (196-box yield, y ae ds) 25 records). 19 records). 6 records). Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per acre. box. acre. box. | acre. box. | acre. box. Mamtenancems vie aco. oe eee $63. 26 |$0. 2252 | $40.38 |$0.1773 | $35.77 |$0. 1695 | $36.13 | $0. 1839 Handhinp Ay Ua Le ie Sse ee sae eh eee 56.14 | .1999 | 47.03 |- .2066 | 42.89] .2033 | 36.67 . 1866 Pabor cost. 5-228. ses ese 119.40 | .4251 | 87.41] .3839| 78.66} .3728 | 72.80 - 3705 Materialicosti sts e252 35 ee eee 53.94 -1920 | 43.60 1915 | 41.15 -1950 | 37.68 - 1918 EXEC COSLES 2552s oe coe aoe ee 102.36 | .3644} 98.27] .4316 | 100.92} .4783] 94.68 - 4818 Material and fixed cost........- 156. 30 - 5564 | 141. 87 - 6231 | 142.07 - 6733 | 132.36 - 6786 TOLAal COSta< eon cee oo ene 275.70 | .9815 | 229.28 | 1.0070 | 220.73 | 1. 0461 "205. 16} 1.0441 From the results on the orchards studied it is evident that with a yield per acre as large as is the rule with the smaller orchards the larger orchards would show a marked decrease in the cost of produc- tion. In other words, with the yields the same in all cases the larger the acreage the less the cost per box. But as conditions exist in Hood River Valley, with the low yields on the larger acreages, the cost is not greatly affected by the size of orchard. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY A a a ee ee ee UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ‘Contribution from the Forest Service Sag HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Me Sef. | Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 24, 1917 POLES PURCHASED, 1915. By Arruur M. McCrereur. INTRODUCTION. The Forest Service, through its Office of Industrial Investigations, has compiled statistics on the number of poles purchased during 1915 in the United States by the telephone and telegraph companies, steam and electric railroads, and electric light, heat, and power companies. The census was taken exclusively by correspondence with approximately 17,000 purchasers, representing practically all the pole users in the country. About 12,000 concerns returned schedules in reply to either the first or the second request for data. This was 70 per cent of the total number of concerns to which inquiries were sent. Actually, however, the figures given in this bulletin rep- resent between 90 and 95 per cent of the poles purchased, because the nonreporting companies were principally the smaller ones. : Information regarding the prices paid for the various species of poles was not requested. Table I shows the number of poles purchased each year from 1907 to 1911 and for the year 1915, by kind of wood. Figures for 1911 and previous years were taken from reports compiled in cooperation with the Bureau of the Census: Statistics were not obtained for the years 1912 to 1914. TaBLE 1.—Poles purchased, by kind of wood, 1907 to 1911 and 1915. _ Kind of wood. 1915 1911 1910 1909 1908 1907 PNiiptcinid See) Pe ia oo 4,077,964 | 3,418,020 | 3,870,694 | 3,738,740 | 3,249,154 | 3, 988, 268 CRISTO ate ene ee 2,521,769 | 2,100,144 | 2,431,567 | 2,439,825 | 2,200,139 | 2.109, 477 SUSI ees Se he ae a 651, 643 | 693,480 | 677,517 | 608,066 | 516,049 | 630, 282 ATG c coaec oe eae Oe a renee 546,233 | 161,690 | 184,677 | 179,586 | 116,749| 155,960 AER ee ie Soe 199, 442 | 199,590 | 265,290 | 236,842] 160,702] 76,456 (COEESS brs CAB OSE IRE RS ae eer eee 67, 644 72,995 75, 459 77, 677 90, 579 100, 368 Wiiige iors sc a 91,233 | 190,112 | 236,184] 196,744] 164/936 | 210,731 A total of 4,077,964 poles was reported as purchased during 1915, which represents an increase of 659,944, or 16 per cent, as compared with the number reported purchased in 1911. It is the largest number of poles reported in any single year. 72667°—Bull, 519—17 2 BULLETIN 519, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The annual demand for poles, which now exceeds 4,000,000, was supplied principally from three different regions of the United States: The northern white-cedar region of the Lake States, the chestnut region of the eastern portion of the country, and the western red-cedar region of the Northwest, which includes Idaho, Oregon, and Washington. The principal properties called for in pole timbers are durability, strength, lightness, straightness, and a surface which takes climbing irons easily. All of the species of cedar reported purchased combine practically all of these properties in a high degree. Cedar (including northern white, western red, southern white, and red) supplied 2,521,769 poles, or 61 per cent of the total number purchased. This is an increase of 421,625, or 16 per cent, as com- pared with the number purchased in 1911. Next to cedar comes chestnut, which showed a decrease of 42,846 poles, while pine showed an increase of 384,543, or 70 per cent, as compared with the 1911 purchase. Most of the pine reported was that commonly known as southern yellow pine, and includes longleaf, shortleaf, and loblolly. Of these, the longleaf is the most durable. It is reported that loblolly pine gives very brief service unless it is treated with a preservative. Western yellow pine was also reported in small quantities, but, like loblolly, it requires a preservative treatment to insure reasonable length of service. Oak poles were purchased in practically the same number as in 1911, while cypress poles showed a decrease of 5,351 poles. The use of cypress as a pole timber seems to be falling off each year. Cedar, chestnut, and pine together formed over 91 per cent of all poles reported purchased, cedar alone, as before stated, constituting over 61 per cent. The minor species reported were redwood, spruce, tamarack, and osage orange. All of these, however, were reported in small quan- tities. Table II shows the number of poles purchased in 1915, classified according to class of purchaser and kind of wood. Taste II.—Poles purchased, by class of consumer and kind of wood, 1915. Tele- Electric phone | railways, me p and tele-|light,and; Steam Kind of wood. Total. graph | power |railroads. com- com- panies. | panies. CATIA ire ciaiass meters Oem eats oli myyinle alee a ele erates alas 4,077,964 |1, 680, 880 |1, 430, 122 966, 962 Worthertwhite cedars: so:42s on. Ae =: sn bene cine meee cer ee 1, 747,210 |1,029,219 | 239,864] 478,127 (Ors 6h eee Oona a poetesescceerc leu . Sabor gacssncreEbostitoae—z= 651,643 | 336,496 | 275,304 39, 843 Western Tedicedar.,. tac sn 22: Seta. cs. ier eeee eee eee ee ace 567,770 | 105,590 | 422,312 39, 868 inte. se nee LD cot ane ke MMC = 8. Sue NI Some alee eas 546,233 | 69,787 |. 388, 210 88, 236 Wits Od eset ee aces ceeee eT... ; CARE Er Ore OAS Arma 177,799 34, 644 13,110 130, 045 rad Cane eens he ee ame os aoe dee CIRC eel 117,545 | 21,386 8, 424 87, 735 Southermiwhite cedars34.0..- 2222p s-- 22. eeak.caseeeseoee 89, 244 16, 661 14, 686 57, 897 “Op pee a ie AIDS, EOE HER MDE BS CE 67,644 | 24,162] 18,174 25,308 RadiGakeie es. ate coh Satake ee oben eae Ree oars eee meee 21, 643 6,912} 13,001 1,730 PAIN OTL Or eee ne bos c8h cies ioe Tae ae Sook bau er oon eee eae 91,233 | 36,023} 37,037 18,173 POLES PURCHASED, 1915, 3 / As indicated in the above table, the principal purchasers of poles were the telephone and telegraph companies. They reported 44 per cent of the total number purchased. The electric railways and power companies purchased about 35 per cent of the total, while the steam railroads purchased 21 per cent. A decrease of 721,844 poles, or 30 per cent, was reported by the telegraph and telephone companies as compared with the number purchased by these companies in 1911, while the electric railways, light, and power companies reported an increase of 642,473 poles, or 44 per cent. The steam railroads reported an increase of 739,315, or 76 per cent, as compared with their purchases in 1911. Table IIi shows the number of poles purchased, classified by length and by kind of wood. Poles are usually purchased in the round form, although occasionally a purchaser reported several species being sawed. However, these are of minor importance and were either redwood or western pine. Tasie IIl.—Poles purchased, classified by length and by kind of wood, 1915. rs aoe) Under | 20 to 29 | 30to039 | 40t049 | 50 feet Kind of wood. Total. | 90 feet. feet. feet. feet. | and over. INU Tear GhS) eee oA ram acer 4,077,964 | 1,236,694 | 1,531,441 | 980,091 | 256, 236 73, 502 Northern white cedar_.....-..-.---------- 1,747,210 | 540,565 | 755,311 | 373,874 67, 358 10, 102 CHES EIU E es eee enn CS ae oe as 651, 643 23,992 | 255,951 | 285, 717 63, 676 12, 307 iWestenmredicedart 222. 2820-28 ees eee. 567, 770 17,874 | 314,010 | 139,041 71, 608 25, 237 PMG o odee dooce ae SAUD ae Eee nae ese 546, 233 | 373,688 69, 931 65, 004 23, 914 13, 696 WAIT OOD et eee ees hed oo cecleem ee seeds 177,799 | 120,393 33, 550 16, 120 5, 998 1,738 Hetikced araeee ear ns Ue eprint 117,545 | 94,997) 14,870 5, 624 1, 541 513 Southern white cedar.../..............--- 89, 244 4,414] 13,282] 49,964] 15,73 6, 550 (CRiTURES So wesc ee Ge RE 67,644 | 13,048] 22,211 | 26,316 4,542 1, 527 12a) CMe i NG a ata aE a | 91,643 3,737 | 16,341 1, 280 139 146 JNU Cpa Gee seer tes Sp ouae ee onerea | 91, 233 43,986 35, 984 7,851 1,726 1, 686 Poles are generally classified commercially in 5-foot lengths and by diameters at specified points, principally at the tops and 6 feet from the butts. ‘To condense the figures the poles shown in the above table are divided into classes differing in length by 10 feet. Of the total number purchased 2,768,135, or 67 per cent, were under 30 feet. Poles of these lengths are most commonly used by the telephone and telegraph companies. The poles under 20 feet in length were reported chiefly by the rural telephone companies. Among the prominent woods reported under this classification were northern white cedar, pine, and white oak. The number of poles ranging from 30 to 50 feet in length aggregated about 30 per cent of the total, while those exceeding 50 feet in length represent but a small proportion. Ail of the leading woods covered by the table contributed poles of all lengths, although red oak contributed but a small per cent of the larger poles. More than half of the white-oak and pine poles were under 20 feet in length. 4 BULLETIN 519, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In comparing the 1911 purchase of poles with the 1915 purchase, an increase of 832,966 poles under 20 feet in length was reported, while the number between 20 feet and 30 feet showed a decrease of 330,375. The total number of poles purchased in the other lengths did not vary greatly from the 1911 figures, slight increases in all being reported for 1915. PRESERVATION. One of the most important factors in determining the value of a pole is its ability to resist decay in contact with the soil. While durable woods are generally preferred as pole timbers, there is a tendency toward purchasing other species which are not as dura- ble, but which can be rendered less liable to decay by preservative treatment. In the treatment of poles several methods are used. Among these are the brush treatment; the open-tank treatment, im which the poles are stood on end in open tanks or vats containing the presery- atives; and the pressure treatment, m which the poles are placed in cylinders into which the preservative is then run and pressure applied to force it into the poles. Much progress is being made in the butt treatment of cedar poles by the open-tank method, which is being used extensively in Idaho, Washington, and California, and in the Minneapolis and Chicago districts. A considerable propor- tion of the cedar poles sold receive a butt treatment. The Forest Service did not request information relative to the number of poles treated by the various railroads and other compa- nies reporting the purchase of poles. It has, however, obtained information from 102 treating plants operating throughout the United States. These plants reported a total of 125,639 poles treated in 1915, which is estimated to be about one-half of the actual number subjected to treatment. A large number are treated merely by applying the preservatives with a brush, and these were not reported. it is impossible to submit a tabulated statement showing the number of poles treated by the different kinds of preservatives, owing to the lack of detailed information obtained. In treating the poles in 1915 the principal preservative reported was creosote oil, the average absorption being about 11 pounds to the cubic foot. About 85 per cent of the poles treated were yellow pine, while others reported were western red cedar and Douglas fir. The cost of treating poles varies according to the kind of wood treated, kind and quantity of preservative used, and process em-~ ployed, but experience has demonstrated that the adoption of a pole- treating policy generally proves economical and insures added life to the poles in service. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 ; BULLETIN No. 520 ¢ ‘N Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural Organization, CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief Washington, D. C. v June 26, 1917 A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR COTTON WARE- HOUSES. By Roy L. Newton, Assistant in Warehouse Investigations, and Joun R, Humpwrey, Investigator in Market Business Practice. CONTENTS. Page. Page ETttROMUCHONM se oh. 2 os ese Secs e SOP ok eh 1 | Description of the system—Continued. Description of the system.................-.- 2 Mhedailyereports: «ss -)-eesse ses ee ote 9 AMaVG UBIS ASS Cras eee Sapa ee eee aa 2 Cas iney oar ales ss ave aay et yn Sel pete ee 9 The certificate of inspection.........-.-. 3 Cash disbursement ticket..........-....- 11 The warehouse receipt.........---------- 4 Cashireceipt tickets... 2... \ijea-tee 2 alt The consecutive tag record...........-- = 7 Salerticketaiaes os asmse eke cee eee case 11 The individual account record.........-. 7 | Operation of the system..........-.-.-..---- 11 IMbevlocation beokse. 2 do.22 0222 2 8 | Arrangement of bales in the warehouse. ...-. 13 The out-turn order.............-.-..---- 8%] Gonclusioneey Meee ss awe jceoene cosine es se 13 INTRODUCTION. The warehouse receives cotton for the account of another party, provides the owner with a proper place for conserving his product, and gives its receipt as evidence that the cotton has been stored. Upon the integrity and financial standing of the warehouse which issues this receipt depends the value of the receipt, and it should be the desire and aim of every warehouseman to give his receipt its utmost value. The efficiency of a cotton warehouse depends in a very large degree upon its methods of keeping accounts and records of its transactions. The general use of a simple, concise system of accounts, compre- hensive enough to fill the needs of the larger as well as of the small warehouse, would be a step toward the adoption of a standardized system of cotton-warehouse accounting. To attempt to fill the need for a satisfactory system of accounts capable of general use, to suggest forms of warehouse receipts which Notre.—This bulletin should be of special interest to all cotton warehousemen and of general interest to their patrons and to those who are concerned in the reliability of warehouse receipts. 72961°—Bull. 520—17——1 2 BULLETIN 520, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. can be recommended for the use of cotton warehouses, and to promote the general use of uniform receipts are the aims of this bulletin. It describes a simple system of accounts for the use of cotton ware- houses, which will be found comprehensive enough to meet the requirements of any organization which does only a cotton ware- housing business.t. A complete set of forms is shown and their use explained. More complex organizations, such as compresses which conduct a warehouse business or warehouses that maintain various other departments, of necessity will be compelled to enlarge upon a system of this character, but an effort has been made to have the primary ideas practicable even for such organizations. The best fea- tures of the systems already in use have been combined into this system, which has been tried out under commercial conditions. Simplicity in any system of accounts is desirable, so that rapidity in handlmg maybe attained without sacrificing accuracy, and the plan must be such that any data desired are quickly available. Information may be needed in regard to a certain lot of cotton or a certain outstanding receipt; about a specific bale in a remote corner of the warehouse or the exact number of bales a certain patron may have in storage. The records should be such that any one, or all, of these inquiries may be answered immediately. All of the forms used should be interlocking, so that if one fact is known full particu- lars may be obtained by a reference to that fact. DESCRIPTION OF THE SYSTEM. As this bulletin is intended to be sufficiently complete to enable a warehouseman to install the system, a detailed description of the forms comprising it is essential. The complete system includes the following twelve forms, which will be described in the order of their use: (1) The tag; (2) the certificate of inspection; (3) A, B, C, D, or E), the warehouse receipt; (4) the consecutive tag record; (5) the individual account record; (6) the location book; (7) the outturn order; (8) the daily report; (9) the cash journal; (10) the cash dis- bursement ticket; (11) the cash receipt ticket; (12) the sale ticket. ~ THE TAG. Various methods are in use in cotton warehouses for the identifi- cation of the bales, but by far the most successful, and the one most generally used, is that of the numbered tag, supplemented by a record of the owner’s private mark. Form 1 (page 14) shows a form of tag that is recommended. In every instance the tag shouid be made of reasonably heavy waterproof paper or of linen. Double eyelets with modities during the spring and summer, when there is little demand for storage. For this reason provi- sion has been made for this class of business in the system of accounts described herein. 4 A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR COTTON WAREHOUSES. 3 an extra reinforcement strip are desirable, and a double flexibie wire, preferably copper, for attaching the tag will give the best results. The tags should be numbered consecutively and used in ee sequence throughout the season. The selection of the tag to be used should be made with great care, as it is to become the principal means of identification of the cotton when the baleis in the warehouse. A tag of poor quality, improperly fastened to the bale with a single small steel wire, may be easily pulled or rubbed off the bale in handling or lost by the rusting of the wire. Numerous instances have occurred where the tag, even when securely fastened to the bale with a single small steel wire, has been twisted off by the action of the wind. Much trouble is caused by such a loss, especially if more than one bale is affected. In order to provide against this contingency it is recommended to the warehouseman that he invariably take an accurate record of the customer’s private marks that appear on the bale. This record will be of great assistance when it becomes necessary to establish the identity of the cotton. Attention is called to the double eyelets and the extra reinforcing strip on the tag. These features make it especially desirable, for it is possible to tear the greater part of the tag away and still leave be- tween the wires this strip which contains the number and thus serves the chief purpose of the tag. It is advisable to have the tag made with the detachable coupon (see Form 1), especially when the warehouse furnishes a sample from the bale, as the coupon, which should be numbered to agree with the tag, may then be torn off, and placed inside the sample to identify it. Some warehousemen furnish a sample to the customer, and retain — one at the warehouse. Where this is done the tag should have two coupons. THE CERTIFICATE OF INSPECTION. The certificate of inspection, (Form 2, page 15,) is asigned certificate from the weigher and grader, showing that he has tagged, weighed, graded, and inspected the bale or bales of cotton. On it is to be detailed the following data: (1) The depositor’s name and address; (2) the tag number; (3) the owner’s marks; (4) the weight; (5) the grade; (6) the standard of classification used; (7) the length of staple; (8) the condition of the cotton; (9) the signature of the weigher and grader. The sheets should be arranged in pads in order that a carbon copy of each certificate may be made. The lines of the forms in the ‘“‘tag no.” column may be numbered in advance with at least the last numeral of the tag numbers, in consecutive order. This will facilitate the fillmg in of the tag numbers and will secure numerical sequence. Attention is here called to the fact that the certificate is not the ware- house receipt, and should not be used as such. However, it may be 4 BULLETIN 520, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. given to the depositor, in addition to the receipt, as his private memo- randum. Often it is not possible to weigh or grade the cotton imme- diately upon its arrival at the warehouse, and the owner may be unwilling to wait for his receipt until this is done. In this event the certificate may be issued subsequently, and the original attached to the receipt. The carbon copy of the certificate is to be used only as a record of the warehouse, and is for the information of the officer writ- ing the receipt, who after noting upon it, in the place provided for that purpose, the numbers of the receipts which cover the cotton listed upon it, files it away, in numerical order. A convenient size for the certificate is 7 by 93 inches with }-inch ruling. THE WAREHOUSE RECEIPT. Many forms of receipts are in use in cotton warehouses, and no attempt is made to give forms here that would conform to the ideas of all warehousemen. The receipts shown embody all of the require- ments of the United States warehouse Act, which is especially de- signed to increase the value of the warehouse receipt as collateral, with the exception of the statement that the receipt is issued subject to the United States warehouse Act and other special terms or con- ditions which might be required by the Secretary of Agriculture for the purposes of that act, which would of course be required only on receipts issued by warehouses licensed thereunder. The terms and conditions of receipts required by the Uniform Warehouse Receipts Act, which has been adopted by 32 States, Alaska, the District of Columbia, and the Philippine Islands, are substantially the same as those of the United States warehouse Act, except that the latter adds somewhat to the requirements embodied in the former. The following data are required in the issuance of warehouse receipts, under the United States warehouse Act and must be embodied within the written or printed terms of such receipts, as set out in section 18 of the act: (a) The location of the warehouse in which the agricultural products are stored. (b) The date of issue of the receipt. (c) The consecutive number of the receipt. (d) A statement whether the agricultural products received will be delivered to the bearer, to a specified person, or to a specified person or his order. (e) The rate of storage charges. (f) A description of the agricultural products received, showing the quantity thereof, or, in case of agricultural products customarily put up in bales or packages, a description of such bales or packages by marks, numbers, or other means of iden- tification, and the weight of such bales or packages. (g) The grade or other class of the agricultural products received and the stand- ard or description in accordance with which such classification has been made: Pro- vided, That such grade or other class shall be stated according to the official standard of the United States applicable to such agricultural products as the same may be fixed and promulgated under authority of law. * * * * * * * A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR COTTON WAREHOUSES. 5 (h) A statement that the receipt is issued subject to the United States warehouse Act and the rules and regulations prescribed thereunder. (i) If the receipt be issued for agricultural products of which the warehouseman is owner, either solely or jointly or in common with others, the fact of such ownership. (j) A statement of the amount of advances made and of liabilities incurred for which the warehouseman claims a lien: Provided, That if the precise amount of such advances made or of such liabilities incurred be at the time of the issue of the receipt unknown to the warehouseman or his agent who issues it, a statement of the fact that advances have been made or liabilities incurred and the purpose thereof shall be sufficient. (&) Such other terms and conditions within the limitations of this act as may be required by the Secretary of Agriculture. (1) The signature of the warehouseman, which may be made by his authorized agent: Provided, That unless otherwise required by the law of the State in which the warehouse is located, when requested by the depositor of other than fungible agricultural products, a receipt omitting compliance with subdivision (g) of this section may be issued if it have plainly and conspicuously embodied in its written or printed terms a provision that such receipt is not negotiable. Compliance with all of the conditions of receipts issued under the United States warehouse Act is not obligatory unless warehousemen operate under that law. Hither a negotiable or a nonnegotiable receipt may be issued and it may be well to explain the two types. A negotiable receipt must state either that the goods received will be delivered to the bearer, or that they will be delivered to a specified person or his order. A receipt in which it is stated, either that the goods received will be delivered to the depositor only, or that they will be delivered only to a specified person named in the receipt, is not negotiable. A nonnegotiable receipt should always bear the words ‘‘Non- negotiable” or ‘‘Not negotiable’’ written or printed upon its face. Form 3D (page 21) shows a form of nonnegotiable receipt. In the case of a lost or stolen receipt, if another is issued, the word “Duplicate” should always be marked across its face, and usually a bond is required in order to protect the warehouseman from loss in case of the reappearance of the original receipt. The practice in this and other transactions in connection with the receipt necessarily must vary in accordance with the State laws on the subject, and every warehouseman must be careful to comply with the applicable law of the State or other jurisdiction in which he operates. There is a wide variance of opinion among warehousemen as to the relative merits of the one-bale and the multiple-bale forms of warehouse receipts. The tendency in many of the well-organized warehouses seems to be toward the use of the one-bale receipt, and in most cases this form seems to be preferable to the multiple-bale form. There are arguments both for and against this form. The fact that the one-bale type requires more work in its issuance is bal- anced by its desirability in the event that a person desires to sell or transfer only one or a few bales out of a lot that would otherwise be 6 BULLETIN 520, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. covered by asingle receipt. Also the issuance of a separate receipt for each and every bale stored gives less opportunity for altering the receipt. Form 3C (page 19) shows a form of multiple-bale receipt. There are occasions when this form is the more desirable than the one-bale type of receipt. When this multiple-bale form of receipt is used the original certificate of inspection is to be attached. Form 3E shows another form of multiple-bale receipt, in which the description of the bales is shown on the face of the receipt rather than on the attached certificate of inspection. The wording of the receipt in regard to the guaranty of the grades, weights, and lengths of staple may be altered to fit the practices and policies of the various warehouses by which they are issued. How- ever, the nearer the wording approximates an absolute guarantee of these qualities by the warehouse, the greater will be the value of the receipt. While it is true that warehouses in many instances attempt to disclaim responsibility for the descriptions they have given on the receipt it must be remembered that the persons to whom the re- ceipts may be transferred should be protected in accepting these descriptions. Many warehousemen guarantee their descriptions at least within reasonable variations, while some guarantee them to be absolutely correct. By so doing, these warehousemen furnish a receipt which is most acceptable as collateral. In some instances, a special charge is made for this guaranty, usually one-sixteenth of a cent per pound on the cotton, while in others the service is given without additional charge. All receipts should be bound in book form, preferably 100 to the book, numbered consecutively, and arranged so as to allow the making of a carbon copy. This carbon copy should be plainly so marked, and should be used only for the purpose of record in the office. Some warehousemen require the depositor to give written acknowledgment of receipt for all original warehouse receipts issued. The form of the acknowledgment may be printed on the face of the carbon copy of the warehouse receipt. In case a large number of warehouse receipts are issued to one person, some other method of acknowledging receipt may be used, so as to avoid the inconvenience of a large number of signatures. Form 3B (page 18) shows a form on the carbon copy of the nego- tiable receipt, one-bale type. Upon the return of the warehouse - receipts and the delivery of the cotton, the receipt should be plainly marked “‘Canceled”’ across its face.’ Canesled receipts should be safely filed away by a system that will make it easy to refer to them if necessary. Some ware- housemen paste them back into their original places in the books, which makes them readily accessible. Others place them, with all A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR COTTON WAREHOUSES. 7 papers in connection with the lot of cotton they represent, in an envelope, which is filed. Either of these methods is satisfactory, or the warehouseman may select any convenient method. THE CONSECUTIVE TAG RECORD. After the receipt is written, the next step in the operation of the system is the posting of the desired data in the consecutive tag record. (See Form 4, page 24.) This form is printed on sheets to be filed in a loose-leaf binder. The lines are numbered to agree with the tag numbers used by the warehouse, in consecutive order through- out. Thus it will be seen that when this book is posted from the data shown on the carbon copy of the receipt, a record of each bale is immediately available, because of the consecutive numbering of the individual bales as identified by the tag numbers. The size of the sheets should be 8 by 15 inches with 4-inch ruling. The following information is given in the consecutive tag record: (1) The tag number; (2) the marks of the bale; (8) the name of depositor; (4) the date received; (5) the receipt number; (6) the location in the warehouse; (7) the date of delivery. As the date of the delivery of the cotton out of the warehouse is always posted in the ‘‘ Date-of-delivery”’ column, it is apparent at all times just which bales remain in storage. THE INDIVIDUAL ACCOUNT RECORD. It is advisable to have an account with each depositor, and this arrangement will be found to be useful in various ways as explained below. The individual account record (see Form 5, page 25) also is to be used in a loose-leaf binder. The accounts are filed alphabet- ically by the names of the depositors, alphabetical index sheets being used in the book, and the data for posting are obtained either from the carbon copies of the receipts or from the filed copies of the certifi- cates of inspection. The sheets should be 8 by 15 inches in size with 4-inch ruling and should provide for the following data: (1) The date of receipt; (2) the receipt number; (3) the weight; (4) the grade; (5) the length of staple; (6) the tag number; (7) the date of delivery; (8) the number of months in storage; (9) the amounts of different charges; (10) totals; (11) accrued charges. The principal advantage to be gained by the use of this form is that the record of each depositor’s cotton is concentrated at one place on the books, and the number of bales on hand is readily apparent. This point will be appreciated by the warehouseman who deals with a large number of customers who are constantly requesting information in regard to small lots of cotton belonging to them. If the record is not in this form it is necessary to look over the entire tag record, with the attendant possibility of mistakes. In addi- tion to this point, if the totals of accrued charges are brought up to date 8 BULLETIN 520, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the ‘‘Accrued charges’’ column, the monthly earnings of the warehouse are always in view. It is customary for the warehouse company to carry all charges until the cotton is taken from the ware- house. Nevertheless the company is earning revenue during the entire time that the cotton is in store, and monthly earnings should be ascertained. With all of the other charges stated, it is necessary only to compute the storage and insurance from the basis rate, to total the amounts, and to enter the sum in the column reserved for the month desired, which accounts for all of the recorded cotton remaining at the time on the page, in one operation. The five forms described above comprise the essentials of a system of cotton-warehouse records, but the location book and the other forms described below will be found to be of great value when used in conjunction as auxiliary forms. THE LOCATION BOOK. The location book, a page of which is shown herewith (see Form 6, page 26), is designed to show the exact location of each bale in the warehouse, and its use will greatly facilitate the handling of cotton. Warehouses which are composed of several compartments will find its use especially beneficial, and it is essential in the smaller ware- houses having a large number of customers. In houses of the latter class there are frequent requests to locate cotton either for the purpose of procuring samples or for turning out of the warehouse. When the bales are placed in the compartment in no regular order, and no record is kept of their location, this service usually entails long search, with loss of valuable time, while with a properly kept location book the difficulty is entirely eliminated. If a tag has been lost from a bale in a compartment, the book will aid in identifying the bale. A reference to the book will show what bales are in the compartment or row, and by checking and eliminating the bales found with tags it is a comparatively easy matter to determine the identity of the bale from which the tag has disappeared. All changes in the location must be recorded, and it is advisable to have the book of such shape (a convenient size is 4 by 94 inches) that it may be carried by the “‘outside”’.man at all times. The lines in the book are numbered consecutively throughout according to the tag numbers in use by the warehouse, and the sheets are ruled to show, besides the tag number, the exact location as’ to house, sec- tion, and tier, and the date of removal. An extra column is provided for any change which may be made in location THE OUT-TURN ORDER. The out-turn order (Form 7, page 27) is a signed order from the office to the ‘‘outside” man to turn out and deliver from the ware- . house certain bales of cotton. This order is not written until the return and ‘cancellation of the receipt and the application of the depositor or the holder of the receipt for delivery of his cotton. The tag numbers and marks of the bales to be delivered are listed upon the order, which serves as a checking list by which the “‘out- side’? man may check out the cotton. A form of receipt, to be signed by the party receiving the cotton from the warehouse, is also provided. After checking out the cotton and obtaining the signature to the receipt, the ‘‘outside’’ man signs the statement that the work has been done as ordered and returns the order to the office. The accumulated orders should be held until the close of the day in order to determine the number of bales delivered from the ware- house on that date for use in making out the daily report, after which they may be filed in date order for future reference. A convenient size for these sheets is 6 by 83 inches, and they should be arranged in gummed pads. A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR COTTON WAREHOUSES. 9 ¢ THE DAILY REPORT. Form 8 (page 28) is a form.of daily report for the use of managers of warehouses. By keeping this record properly an accurate knowl- edge of the conditions and activities of the warehouse will be main- tained, and the manager will have at his disposal a great deal of information that will enable him to conduct the business more intelligently. He will know from day to day the amount of cotton in store, the amount of insurance that it is necessary to carry, the cost of labor, the per-bale cost of handling, the daily expenditures, and the cash receipts. In making this report the number of bales received by the ware- house is determined by reference to the “consecutive tag record,” and the ‘‘out-turn’’ orders of each day’s business should not be filed until after the report is made, so that the number of bales turned out of the warehouse may be ascertained. If the totals are carried forward from day to day, the difference between the in and out col- umns should be the number of bales in the warehouse, any excep- tions being provided for. The insurance report and the labor, col- lections and disbursements records are self-explanatory. A conyenient size for the daily report sheet is 8 by 104 inches. CASH JOURNAL. The cash journal (Form 9, pages 29 and 30) is provided for the pur- pose of recording the charges and credits which are later to be posted to the various accounts in the ledger. This form is used as a double page, the charges being in columns to the left of “Items” column and the credits in columns to the right. 72961°—Bull. 520—17——-2 10 BULLETIN 520, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The debit columns of this form are designated as follows: Folio. General ledger. Grading. Cash. Accounts receivable. Weighing. Bank deposits. Miscellaneous expenses. | Insurance. ) In the “ecash’’ column are recorded all the receipts of cash as they occur. The total is deposited when convenient and entered in the “bank deposits’’ column in the exact amount of the deposits made. At the end of the month the “bank deposits” column will furnish an itemized statement of the deposits and wiil give a record of the total receipts for the period. The deposits plus the cash balance from the previous month, which should be entered at the head of the ‘bank deposits’ column, constitute the total debit to cash for the month. The most satisfactory method is to require a statement of account from the bank at the end of each month and to reconcile the cash to that statement. When it is necessary to pay small items of expense jn cash, a check should be drawn to “petty cash”’ in order to.establish a fund out of which such payments can be made. This amount should be charged to ‘‘petty cash’’ account in the ledger. At the end of the month the total amount of such expenditures should be credited to “netty cash,’ and be charged to the proper expense accounts. At the beginning of the next month the fund can be renewed by drawing a check to “petty cash’’ for the amount of the previous month’s expenditures. All entries of general accounts not classified under separate head- ings should be carried in the ‘‘general ledger’’ column and should be posted to their respective accounts in the ledger from that column. Charges to customers for services or material should be entered in the “accounts receivable’’ column and be posted to the customers’ accounts in the ledger. Under ‘‘ Miscellaneous expenses otherwise classified. In order that the warehouse may know its position in regard to weighing, grading, and insurance, these items are carried under separate headings and the totals are posted to these accounts at the end of each month. The credit columns are designated as follows: ” should be entered all items not Folio. Accounts receivable. Storage. Check No. Weighing. Insurance. Bank withdrawals. Grading. Miscellaneous. General ledger. A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR COTTON WAREHOUSES. ET All checks issued should be listed by their numbers in the “check no.’’ column and the amounts entered in the “bank withdrawals”’ column. The difference between the totals of the “bank deposits’’ column and the “bank withdrawals’? column is the available balance of cash in bank. The “general ledger’’ column is used for the purpose of crediting the accounts debited through the “general ledger’’ debit column. All payments on accounts receivable are entered in the ‘accounts receivable’’ column and from there posted to the credit of the proper individual accounts in the ledger. The columns headed “weighing,” “grading,” ‘storage,’ and “in- surance’’ receive credits to these accounts, the totals for the month or other period being posted to the respective accounts in the ledger. _ Miscellaneous credits are entered in and posted from the “ miscella- neous’’ column, and sales of material can be credited in the blank columns at the right under their appropriate headings. The monthly totals of these columns are then posted to their respective accounts in the ledger. The size of this form should be 11 by 14 inches with }-inch ruling. 7 66 ) “ THE CASH DISBURSEMENT TICKET. All expenditures of petty cash should be recorded on ‘cash dis- bursement”’ tickets (Form 10, page 31) which should be kept as petty cash vouchers. ¢ THE CASH RECEIPT TICKET. All receipts of money other than checks should be recorded upon a “‘cash receipt’’ ticket (Form 11, page 31). The practice of receiy- ing scrip or coin without making a record of the transaction at the time of receipt often leads to discrepancies which are difficult to account for later. THE SALE TICKET. In warehouses handling supplies, all sales should be recorded on duplicate sale tickets, the originals being given to the customers and the duplicates retained for record in the books of account. These sale tickets are similar to those used in any merchandising business and can be either printed specially or secured in stock form. Form 12 (page 31), is a form of sale ticket suitable for general use. OPERATION OF THE SYSTEM. In order to explain fully the operation of the system it may be well to follow the various steps as they occur in the process of ware- housing a lot of cotton. 12 BULLETIN 520, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. When the cotton arrives at the warehouse the weigher and grader first tags the bales with consecutively-numbered tags in the series then current. He then weighs, grades, and staples each bale, exam- ines it for moisture or damage, and records the data upon the “certificate of inspection,’’ making an original and one carbon copy. Both original and copy are then sent to the office, where the receipt is written from the data on the certificate. The orig- inal certificate is attached to the receipt only incase the form of receipt shown in Form 3B is used. If any of the other forms of receipt is issued the original certificate may be given to the storer. In every case the carbon copy of the certificate of imspection is filed in the consecutive order of the numbers on the tags, after there has been noted upon it the numbers of the receipts covering the cotton listed on it. The receipt is now issued, and a full entry of the details required is posted to the “consecutive tag record’’ from the carbon copy of the receipt, against the corresponding tag numbers. Then the ‘individual account record”’ is posted from the carbon copy of the receipt, and given, its alphabetical position in the binder. The amounts of the various fixed wis are posted in their respective columns. In the meantime the cotton has been removed to its proper place in the warehouse and its location has been recorded in the location book. At some time during the day this book is taken to the office so that a proper entry of the location of the cotton may be made in the column provided for it in the consecutive tag record. The operation is now completed except for the making of the daily report and the monthly determination of sae amount earned © on the lot of cotton while in storage. Later, when the receipt is presented for delivery of the cotton, and it is found that the receipt is properly indorsed, and that a tender of all charges and advances has been made, the out-turn order is made out and delivered to the ‘‘outside” man. By referring to the location book the cotton is readily located. The bales are checked out and delivered according to the order, and a receipt is taken which shows to whom delivery was made. The “outside” man then signs the statement that the work has been performed as ordered, and the order is returned to the office. The date of delivery is then recorded in the columns provided for it. (See Forms 4 and 5.) The returned receipt is conspicuously marked ‘‘Canceled”’ across its face and filed away. The accumulated out-turn orders are held until the close of the day, when they are used in determining the number of bales delivered from the warehouse. Proper entries are made on the tickets provided for the purpose, of the money received - for storage and other charges, and of disbursements, and the necessary entries are made on the cash journal and posted to the ledger, as explained above. A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR COTTON WAREHOUSES. 3 ARRANGEMENT OF BALES IN THE WAREHOUSE. The ideal arrangement from the standpoint of economy in hand- ling, as well as insurance, is to stand the bales on end one bale deep. This arrangement necessitates a much larger floor space than is usually available; in case floor space sufficient for this arrangement is not available, stacking becomes necessary. In storing the bales, it is always advisable to arrange them so the tag on each pelt will be in sight. If the bales are stacked, they may be arranged in “workway’’ formation, that is, beginning at one side a row should be placed, then a space should be left for a narrow aisle; then a double row and an aisle; another double row, and an aisle; and so on. When cotton is stored on ditt floors, and even on brick or concrete floors, it is always advisable to stack the bales on wooden skids or stringers in order to raise the cotton from the floor and thus allow a circulation of air. Much damage may be avoided by this practice, especially when the cotton is placed in the warehouse while not absolutely dry or where the proper care is not taken to provide per- fect drainage. (a9 CONCLUSION. The various operations necessary in using the Office of Markets and Rural Organization cotton warehouse accounting system have been outlined very briefly in the foregoing pages. The adoption of a uni- form system of accounting for cotton warehouses should be of great benefit to warehousemen and to the public who utilize storage facili- ties. ‘The system herein outlined will present to the warehouseman at all times a true and concise record of the operations of the warehouse, and thesimplicity of its arrangement makes this record immediately available. The depositor has in his receipt every item of information in regard to his cotton that the warehouseman retains on his records, and this should enable the parties to avoid all misunderstandings in this respect. The negotiable receipts shown in this system have been devised after careful study, and their requirements and conditions are designed to increase negotiability. Lack of uniformity, especially in receipts, under present conditions makes it impossible for the small warehouse of moderate means to issue a receipt that will be readily acceptable as collateral for loans outside of a limited local field. The main purpose of the United States warehouse Act enacted August 11, 1916, is to give to the warehouse receipt the greatest possible value as collateral. The form of receipt shown here embodies the prin- 14 BULLETIN 520, U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cipal requirements of this act and it also conforms to the essential features of the Uniform Warehouse Receipts Act, which has been adopted by 32 States, Alaska, the District of Columbia, and the Philippine Islands. For the convenience of those interested in the system described in this bulletin and for those who desire to have the various forms printed, the Department of Agriculture, through the Office of Markets and Rural Organization, will supply, without cost, printers’ copies of the several forms used in this system. Warehouses installing the system may refer to this office any questions regarding its installation or operation. When it is possible to do so, the Office of Markets and Rural Organization will render such assistance as may be required in making minor changes in the receipt or in other forms, to meet local conditions. (uMoL) ASNOHAAVM JOG LZLL6€ 39771 039771 oO, DOE WAREHOUSE ' ' 1 ‘ ' ' | 1 | > 2 & 3 =! Ri 1 4 =! a ~ DoE WAREHOUSE (Town) (State) OUry) 0. M. & R. 0. 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I hereby certify that, other than the following, there are no liens or mortgages against the cotton described on the face of this receipt. (Gesicd)= “Wee Witness: Rk [Dee SS __ Se Reverse side Form No. 3A. -£doo oy} Jo voeJ oy} sso1oe AjesIoAsUBI} pe}uLid oq PMoYs }UeUIE1e3S ST} ‘sn penjoe Joy Suu uy + eee ‘Ge ON WOT ‘M}sAg osnoyareM 10190) OU P NO SRO ici ee igh Ga ero ag Pv gee Mah. Tae eee on SNOIUL]IOSTPY Goh A) Ra a de — Why OG a! 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(07819) (aMoL) g : 4B po} BOOT OSMOTHIVA 8} UL osnoyore M\ CO Ot} Aq 9381048 LO} W0}}09 JO B[Bq BU paqLiosep MOjEq 9} STA eee ki SEE RR RE 1000) aC hee On Tia eee y TO.$ Sey ee ee WOUd ATAIBOAY “"NODLOO AO AITVA ANO Wow LdIHOaUN ASNOHAUVM oes Sete rae ¢ MOOLG IVLIdV() NI GIVg Gen ght OREN ere ee ih Mec ge ih 8 SN aaa SMV] GHL UTAN(] AALVHOAUOONT aoa ue es eaten ete tse aL (07818) (amor) ATAVILODAN LON aes en ead ‘ON Ldigoay ‘ASNOHUUVM HOC AdOO [cc en pet a ee 18 19 ~ x S FOR COTTON WAREHOUSES. A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNT “of ‘ON U0, “MIe4SAs esnOyeIeA B07}00 OUPNO CROCE EITC OS Sina BODOG OOS OGC OCHO BeOS Sa ROe Se snooUv] [OST Se ssioieteleie © tare sinickess ci she ieleieis sie ese inde Siaies sie fie xeeke le pooursApe Aou0py Cen) PIO CCIE CHR I RH ES hs dt eee a a sosreyo LYSOL, SEG C DSO. CC BOO OO Sr mini eeghne sp Ig siete'sie ots res= ws cece cece cece senses eeesesersss eecees Sunde eeeeeeeeee ecereecseeseereereesesese wae er eee eee ttt ee Super ORI Te IOI IONS IDF EAN ALU SYS Ch htt gars ee PSR SUIYSTON wiekelolerejele/erninie leLelmings Si) Sater gc cece eos, a eae Lc (poustg) Slefesieselelaravn! -Wrele/ainseiainia) = ietelsieiz=\> eheicc) Corscha haps © jo aera ea OE god ‘Joorey} yred [eUOTOVIA, IO YYUOUT TOCees es yo 9721 OY 9B ‘107300 FO ydreoed JO o}ep WOT, OOUBINSUT “qep10 My AO; fog EN" eo eae eee ae ey Ui eemeng: es eee aleq Sisiei =) Si0/setegerctetenein Sheol ol selichgicie cece aS DOE Ala a 0} AjoyeIpouUNT pote god ‘jooroy) yavd [euoTJOeIy 10 YUOUL o CLepamentees -AT[OP 0 [[TA ‘oVOYTZI09 poyor}ye OY} UL peqtosep “110}}00 JO SoTVq, yo oyer oY} 9B ‘07309 Jo qdredar Jo yep WOT 981039 sis c's a4 ‘Mossy SeTpTTIGeI] pus ‘gqouBAPe ‘SosIvYO [][B JO WSU :SMOT[OF SV ‘PoTIMOUL Sot}IqeI] pues ‘gpeul SooUvA PS - SE 109909 preg ‘O]BOUTJA0N poyoezyB OY} UI JNO yoS UOTJIPUOD puUeB ‘oydvqs jo SY}OUCT ‘(OSIMIOO pezB4s Ajssordxo ssoyun S07BIG pou oY} JO SspilVpuUBysS 107409 [BIOTFO OY} OF SUIPLOVN’) SopVis ‘S}TSIOM oY} JO OB ‘sy09Jop PeyTBooU0d . puB SUOTPBIIBA e[qvuosvol OF qoolqns ‘pus ‘Sy IBU pue sioquinu 0B} oud Aq peytyuopt 918 03300 JO SofBq ~ (997819) (mMoL) ¢ peg "4NO Jos JoFeUTOIOY SUOT}IPUOS OY} 04 Woolqtis geet rs foe Tao a ee ee ee ASNOYOIVAM S}I UL ‘ASNOYaIEA SOC OY} Aq O5vI10}S LOF ‘qneoyIys0o poysyye OY} UL peqiosep ‘09300 Fo Sofeq ~~~" epee ene re gO ee ae eon Sod NTO PLO OSHO Feb eli 7 WOw 3 LdIHOUU ASNOHAUVM Seria TOOLGVIV Ld OeNI CIV 7 wo ao rr crt cro" FO SMV] GHL YAaN{) aqaLVvuodyOoNny (:e7%19) (UMOL) SSR SS ear ee VE *AITVILOOUN S32 ON, al Oa Ny HSQOHHUVM HOC TVNIOTYO 90 BULLETIN 520, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INDORSEMENTS. - ew ee ee et ew ew ew eww ew ew ew mM Be eM ew MW ew ew ew ew eK BM Bw ee ew ew ee ee ee ee KK CK LE STATEMENT OF LIENS. I hereby certify that, other than the following, there are no liens or mortgages against the cotton described in the attached certificate. —_- ee we ew Ke ew ew ew ew ew ew eo ew ew ew ew ew ew em Bw eK em we KM em ew ew ew we ew ew ew ew Bw eM ew ew ew Bw Mw ew ew ew ew ee - K- —-- ee ewe ew ewe ww ew ew ew ew ew ew ew ew ew ee Be ew ew em ew eB ew we ew em ww eRe ee HK ee eK ee eK eK -- = oe @— ew ew ww ee ee ow ee MW mw He ee Be He ww ew ew eM ew ew ew eM ew ew ew Ke eK on em ee ee ewe ow we - = ~- ee ee we ew eM Ke ew ew eK ew He ewe fe Be Ke Ke He Ke em Be wm Wm fm ee eRe ee eR wm we ewe ee a en ee we ee ee ew Me ew Ke eK ee eK em ee SH eK ee ee we ee We om ee BK ee ee oem oe me ~~ eK KK (Signed), 2 02 2 SS: . a eee Witness *:2. 222.4: 23 ee Sa ee Reverse side Form No. 3C. * he 21 A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR COTTON WAREHOUSES. (e1yL) "de “ON WOT “UIeysAg esnoyerv AA 004300 OF P WO Peis eo eee Ae eet ee PS Gs Ie ce: | (tes te pease nes [ieee | ee | ea |= = oa ates o *sur[d Fe a ‘ *7n0 -e1¢ & pe "@sBIOIS || .¢ ; *9[d'e4s ‘ON = tena : < a SedUvA |], : SUL eoue ||. AJOATIOP || “ON 45) esto drap || “PeAte0e1 a sesieyo penio0y [210.L -py VU SOl ; ee pus -q31eq4 |! -msuz 9381019 nee a jo oe || Seq, oF aa pein | 7ysTOM ie aed su -pery io) H mn : hate gee enna rt x Belg al es Cee Saar oer SST Gi eaaa es eee eta ook tase ay oe eee era 9” 2) eae eo eee ey aa YOY AIAOLS 5 ‘ON WaOa : WALSAS ASNOHAUVM NOLLOO ‘O “YB “WO 26 BULLETIN 520, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF O.M. & R. O. CoTTON WAREHOUSE SYSTEM, ForM No. 6: LOCATION. No. Original. Transfer. House. |Section. ; | Tier. | House. Section.) Tier. Ce Ee oy eee | eee eee eee eee ee ee es Se ee es AGRICULTURE. Sees ee eee eet eee ey ee Sees ees eee ees ee es eee See ee ee es See ee ery eee ed ee ees ee ry ees | ee ee ee eee eee | eee ee ed er ee eee eee Cee ee rr rr ie Sees ee ees eee ees ee re ste tee ele eww ee---- 08 A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR COTTON WAREHOUSES. O. M. AND R. O. Corton WarEHousE System For No. 7. OUTTURN ORDER. BD aiien. Aa bee eh. Sitges Turn out of the warehouse and deliver to cree Se Ri RIE as described by the following tag numbers and marks: Marks. Marks. Work done as ordered — Pee sere ors: Mee MO. | Received for Marks. (Sioned) 260 1: RR os Se ee __B/C _______....from the Dor Warrnovse the above checked ____ (Sign e dia cei ate er he bo I 28 BULLETIN 520, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ee emanmmmene O.M. & R. O. Cotton Warehouse System. Form No. 8. DAILY REPORT OF OPERATION DOE WAREHOUSE, ——“Wowmy— —Giatey Dates eee COTTON IN OUT Received previous to date......... -.-...-. b/e Turned out previous to date....... -.....-- b/e_ Received to-day. 220-2222 -2csln Sees = b/e -o4furned' out to-day 222e-5 = eer eee eae Spee b/e Total. cies. oe asses be waeseos b/e Total 5% 55 Se:enis seen. teen secre see b/e Exceptions.) - ass: -s5- cee eae. acess b/e Number of bales on hand.....--.-. ----.--. b/e INSURANCE Previously carried .....-..-.--:..---- Jacosoces Prema S = ose = ste ee eee eater es New policies:ieace == heer nce Mes tSegae- PTOMUUIN See eee eee eee een scigs Canceled ze. cs-cc~ eee ee oe eee ee See Return premiums..........-..-------. Cees Total to-night................-- See INGE. sale 5. ea ee Tae LABOR Paid out for labor this taal a PRBS Ree paee ease aba -Heeeanaereiedo Snes sucotasckoceccoses Sota. Number bales handled: -. 3/20: 22 5.5.2... Sac. ss pee eso =e): 25-2 eee ee eat as Cast por ale l( certs) se) ceo ser -y=t im el ate Sob tzbaee CASH RECEIPTS CASH DISBURSEMENTS Previously reported...-..-.-.-.------ Si sconaee Previously reported..........-..-..--- ener e Received to-day ........-..--..-.-.-- $2262 Jae Paid out to-day... oats aes t eee Mopac sie sec cta ote eee ence Ses ee Total ccs 32 aoe ees ee eee See ee a Balance: -.3-...2-.2- eee == Pee anaes REMARKS This report includes— Cash receipts No. --.- to No. ..-.. Cash disbursements No. .... to No. -.... Duplicate checks No. .... to No. -..... Warehouseman. ES, eat a) A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR COTTON WAREHOUSES. See eee ee ee ew wee ee nee eee ee nee en nn ee ee meee eee ee ee ns eee ee ee i “m19}] we elem ween [lec oelece sees eee||~ oe *sqisodep que *193p9] [ereuex) *e[QeATOOeI s}un000V “sosued xo SnosuUe][OoSIL “SUTPeIy) “BUTTSTO NA *‘goueINSsUuy, “IVNGUDOL HSVO \LIGda "6 ‘ON WOT ADLSAG ASOOHTUVAM NOLLOD ‘OU FP -W'O Te Pecoeee||asee See seaee | Sere) PSs | erty reese! Ls stele Semote ee oncecse pil Geet) Gee oo ace al oko) mnce tse rel leica:tall S oaeteerers wll evatal ate wets Tree ere eda Benoa lee gj Bre al rer | sented a reves ra| | eieer| ict ares ls cA ic cre cievel ll email arsteleteic;o eters] | ecaterel] RRO ome | (RRR: Me, Sie Ine a cre Ra SN 2 Teeecal| [ee cc eee cred meee ees 2 onal ek aed | some ‘eal P| aera nOricl occ ettsal La ISG Ome metal sinh JOD ached tela) lac) RSS | Ooi) mnie | ier (Sei isieicy | eieirs Sierieiraricacd | tries ny CRO SENS f rr ee LS RE Ea LAP Ia AYE Seed | Pp 5 # sal metallia aren eiatwie wtetmiei|]'ae cel ') |e 9) ceria nea] | Raa RR ei ee oe sci enn See mig oe ae ee ae A ESCs) Peseee | et || = re llcekaae SSA LE ce ee a eee esa DRA apeecore AU lie aate eaten [Seatac ere acs (eee eee ieee emer (|S, ety alee melee er (o) —_ | Be ee cece mee| | ona leusin mine] |as= =|m ace em ec||linnies'|e =wielvlonln Be esses | See erred | ecirics wielafeln ecateim ||| aleuin’| Ulalelele/ «iui qcals) || o:alelall wiaielsla'aie eiets|| aieia/at| eiute| «[Ria > =.6 Be ee Seno cola oS es | eee ] oO } ee | AN ee Ale epee erate icrereterab terall llatocarell aavadaiata ets aie’ Sse tetera it mies | | otk a tetera tet! ates | ermal aiettare'|| mates | tata Mara shone! | min atiniaia ies | | cietea |< de eeinm ne elon ls alo canoe ue Jrtteeeee \ tere att Sie oem |, 6 ie | ll Uh css |G iets eet cia ape ee eae [LPP al heees ool || ere ee a pean Gia ease (> | a | le oO —, Gpeie (\b2|-ree. sll: ante|coeeteinenl | pues eee lteeas| > ke wl ts |e ea sc | (Rs | ae Ml he cl ice wmasncl | callers nee al leacleccee.cce| (CB. [ee d a ed ee ee 0 es 0 es Od ee weer eeeee | ee wn » Ps es ears oe bees ee 0 es en ne 0 0 0 es 0 0 er oe es EELS TE |” aM RRS (SoS 85 S| RR li (i ee Ue elec WR Fee oe |b | EC ee | | 1 ree (ie. | Yon) 4 | 1-1 4+__) 1 pes ieee le ee ee eS ee eee a “snooul ‘ é : : ; -g[qearevod “103 po] ‘speavrpyytas || "on ||. a egyoosryy || “22ueINSUT 980J099 Surpeay Sursie eae rechtep I et rlees sanyo || ood a —— = wanna oe AE —— rs Lis t IVNYUNOL HSVO 6 °ON WUOT a) “LIGHUYD ‘WOLSAS ASNOHAUV AA NOLLOD "OU P “N'O oD SESS SS Se Re a eee ee ene SS ae Lees Foes f A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR COTTON WAREHOUSES. ‘ O.M. & R. O. CoTTON WAREHOUSE SYSTEM. Form No. 10. CASH DISBURSEMENT TICKET. ING a 2h. 4 See ee, ee Famine woce Sh e e 2 va wiQi Amount. See eee ee ee ee ed Bee eee i ed i Se Gi ieee ar ee ieee ee ee ee Da O. M. & R. O. COTTON WAREHOUSE SYSTEM. Form No. 11. CASH RECEIPT TICKET. Nop c(e ies eye weUk i ito culo) et Aiaed bn ecelvedrom) j2 0.2 da ae Wate os arom: 2 Amount. eee een meee sear seem ecees ocean eenese re cseses senses eee esas ema eceee esse seen ewel|scwcnweese|ae noes BR ee ee ee eed a ee eww twee ewe we se cece sees e ete en ee m ame e nem eee ew este esses ete seem seesaw esceleaeesaces=|neenee O.M. & R. O. CoTToON WAREHOUSE SYSTEM. Form No. 12. SALE TICKET. Date”. 2. Meee ete ee a ns ‘SiOIICG ki e0 eo MN co CO ec pma a wee ere tcc meer esc e cece os esac cess eames sees ses scesec ease esas neanecesessescelecensenmeeel|e----- eee mc cree ata rosso neces esees ec aseeaser sees cm aeec ceases es econ ase cet etenelenesaceseel(ene ene ee eet weer eee en eat ematerecesesaseseser mecca asses aeaseseesesensesscesasaealanneccesealecnnne wep e tates aces cesmee eset eee sec at aces ae aster nese ease eseesces ceases eseeeenalescesaseeelen nas meme tee ceases ese e aces esos ec eset esas ese ences ecesneccessc acess cesta esses aes[eceseesesa|- eee es RRS nn re ei ied ered ER OAT CAGES ay etercee te nreiote = = evens ie terete) ayeie'a = aiaialetctate alec SIMS oinise as Sie Seoete ee ese mee alee als 31 PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO MARKETING OF COTTON. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Studies of Primary Cotton Market Conditions in Oklahoma. (Department Bulletin 36.) Relation of Cotton Buying to Cotton Growing. (Department Bulletin 60.) Economic Conditions in Sea Island Cotton Industry. (Department Bulletin 146.) Cotton Warehouses: Storage Facilities now Available in the South. (Department Bulletin 216.) Cotton Warehouse Construction. (Department Bulletin 277.) Disadvantages of Selling Cotton in the Seed. (Department Bulletin 375.) Relation Between Primary Market Prices and Qualities of Cotton. (Department Bulletin 457.) A Study of Cotton Market Conditions in North Carolina with a View to Their Improve- ment. (Department Bulletin 476.) Cotton Ginning Information for Farmers. (Farmers’ Bulletin 764.) Losses from Selling Cotton in the Seed. (Farmers’ Bulletin 775.) Cotton Improvement on a Community Basis. (Separate 579 from Yearbook 1911.) Improved Methods of Handling and Marketing Cotton. (Separate 605 from Year- book 1912.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Cotton, the Greatest of Cash Crops. (Office of the Secretary Circular 32.) Price 5 cents. Controlling the Boll Weevil in Cotton Seed and at Ginneries. (Farmers’ Bulletin 209.) Price 5 cents. A Profitable Cotton Farm. (Farmers’ Bulletin 364.) Price 5 cents. ——s ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY BULLETIN No. 521 ¢ “~\ Contribution from the States Relations Service A. C. TRUE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 30, 1917 COURSES IN SECONDARY AGRICULTURE FOR SOUTHERN SCHOOLS.: (FIRST AND SECOND YEARS ) By H. P. Barrows, Specialist in Agricultural Education, States Relations Service. CONTENTS. Page Page HntroduchiOn tects. 025 ssescse sense eee eens 1 | Laboratory equipment for soils and crops... - 39 Adaptation to local conditions........-.----- 1 | Texts and references for soils and crops.....- 36 Use of texts and references.....-.-..--.-.---- 2 | Outline for animal husbandry—second year.. 37 Use ofillustrative material..........-......- 3 | Suggestions for home projects in animal hus-~ Distribution of time and credit ........-....- 3 bandiny she ed fue Se Ui is Sl 51 Mnerhwomeyprojectie =. 2 fs lh hl eee 3 | Equipment for animal husbandry..-.-.--.-..... 51 Outline for soils and crops—first year ...----- 4 | Texts and references for animal husbandry. . 52 Suggestions for home projects—first year. -... 35 INTRODUCTION. The following outlines are the result of a demand for a more uni- form standard in agricultural instruction in secondary schools of the South. They are to cover work in agriculture for the first two years of a 4-year course. It is assumed that the students have had work in nature study and a general course in elementary agriculture in the graded or rural school. ADAPTATION TO LOCAL CONDITIONS. It is not. expected that all the lessons will be given in their present order of sequence. It is left with the local teacher or supervisor to work out a seasonal sequence or such order of presentation as will fit local needs. Neither is it expected that topics will be given equal im- portance in all districts. Im adapting these courses.to meet local needs it may be necessary to expand one subject or topic at the expense 1 Prepared under the direction of C. H. Lane, Chief, Specialist in Agricultural Education. (3398°—Bull. 521—17——_1 2 BULLETIN 521, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of another. For example, lessons are outlined covering wheat, rice, and cane. It is not expected that these topics will be of equal im- portance in any one district. Where rice or cane is important it may not be necessary to treat wheat as a lesson, in which case more time may be given the other crops. Adaptation to students.—The lessons should be adapted to the needs and capacities of the students. Particular care should be taken with those lessons dealing with the science underlying agricultural prac- tice that the subject be kept within the range of secondary students. For example, students may get a comprehension of how plants grow and the principles which underlie plant breeding without going into technical plant physiology and genetics. Likewise, as an aid to a better understanding of the practice of feeding, students should know the simpler aspects of digestion and assimilation and under-: stand the basis for scientific feeding, yet preliminary lessons on these subjects need not involve anything beyond very elementary chemistry and physiology. The extent to which these lessons are considered will depend upon the maturity of the students and their training in elementary science. USE OF TEXTS AND REFERENCES. It is hoped that the outlines with the references given will keep the instructor from following a textbook too closely. A list of books for use as general references is given at the end of each course. While the students may be required to buy one or more books during the course, these texts should in all cases be supplemented and adapted to both the student and the community by making special assignments to other references. Special references to bulletins of this department * are given with nearly every lesson. It is expected that publications of the State agricultural college, experiment station, or board of agriculture will be used also, especially the bulletins of the State in which the school is located. It is assumed that the school will main- tain files of. such publications of their own State as pertain to agri- culture, the Yearbooks of the United States Department of Agri- culture, and all Farmers’ Bulletins pertaining to the agriculture of © the district in which the school is located. Reference material should — be secured early so that it will be available as the lessons are taken up. ’ een Pie ON EE POO SS 1¥armers’ Bulletins and Yearbooks of the United States Department of Agriculture may | be obtained free as long as the supply lasts, on application to the Secretary of Agricul- ture, Washington, D. C., or to any Senator or Representative in Congress. Other pub- lications of the Department of Agriculture and those named when no longer available for free distribution may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government — Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at a nominal price. Price lists covering various Gov- — ernment publications may be obtained free from the Superintendent of Documents. Each — teacher should secure a copy of Price List No. 16, which includes Farmers’ Bulletins, Yearbooks, and department bulletins of the United States Department of Agriculture. Lists of these publications prepared for teachers may be obtained from the agricul- tural instruction division of the States Relations Service. AGRICULTURE FOR SOUTHERN SCHOOLS. 3 USE OF ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL. In connection with most of the lessons suggestions are made for ilustrative material to use in the classroom. The instructor should go over the course early in the year, as much of this material must be gathered in season or secured from a distance. DISTRIBUTION OF TIME AND CREDIT. In the preparation of the outline it has been assumed that there will be in the school year 36 weeks of five days each. Periods of 45 to 60 minutes, three days each week, are to be spent in the classroom, and time equal to two hours a day, two days in the week, in field trips, practicums, and home-project work. One hundred and four lessons are given, leaving four classroom periods for examinations or reviews. In the course in soils and crops the remainder of the time is divided equally between the laboratory and home projects. In the course in animal husbandry relatively more time is left for home work. As many practicums may be worked out at home to greater advantage than at school, credit should be given for such work when evidence is given that it is properly done. Work in- volving skill in farm operations is suited especially well to home practicums. Credit for home work should be allowed on the same basis as that given for practical work at school—that is, two hours’ work for one hour credit. . THE HOME PROJECT.* In the course in soils and crops time equal to 36 double periods, or 72 hours, is left for the student’s individual project. This ap- proximates the time needed to produce an acre of corn, hence, grow- ing an acre of corn may be required of the student before he is given credit for the course. It is even more necessary to adapt practicums and projects to the needs of the student and the community than it is to adapt the work of the classroom. All students in the course may not be able to grow an acre of corn, but it may be possible for them to grow some other crop. Projects should be provided for students who-do not live on farms, as they are in special need of practical instruction. Where the school owns a farm it may be pos- sible for all such students to work out their projects at the school, or if they can secure work upon.a farm which may be connected in a definite way with their course, credit should be given for such work as a substitute for a home project.’ — ' | 1 See U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 346, Home Trojects in Secondary Courses in Agriculture. \ 4 BULLETIN 521, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OUTLINE FOR SOILS AND CROPS_FIRST YEAR. (One unit.) HOW PLANTS GROW. (Nine lessons, three double periods for practical work.) Reference: Any modern high-school text in botany. Lesson 1.—Development of a Plant from the Seed. 1. What the seed represents. 2. Conditions essential to development. 3. Vitality of seeds. 4, Parts of seed and plantlet. 5. Testing seeds. Illustrative material: Germinating seeds of different types. Exercise 1.—Germination Test of Seeds. Purpose: Testing for viability and to determine conditions essen- tial to germination. Directions: Secure a quantity of wheat or any small hardy seed known to be fresh, and another lot of the same kind of seed known to be at least 10 years old. Have each student count out 50 to 100 seeds of each sample and place them in a plate between moistened Canton flannel or blotting paper. With a slip of paper to designate the sample, this seed should be covered with another plate or a piece of glass to prevent too rapid evaporation of moisture. (Paper pie plates, one within another, if kept moist, serve well without blotters or cloths.) These plates of seeds should be kept in a warm room and enough water added to keep the seeds moist but not wet. The class as a whole should take three samples of the fresh seed, one to be kept moist, but placed where it is cold; the other two to be kept in a warm place, but one lot kept covered with water to exclude air, and the other allowed to become dry. At the end of six days the tests should show results in a vigorous germination of the fresh seed kept warm and moist and a lesser degree of vigor in the old seed and those sam- ples deprived of warmth, moisture, and air. Record and report: Each student should make a record of how the tests were made and write a report bringing out answers to the following questions: What per cent of the old and the fresh seed germinated? Why did the old seed lack vigor in germination? Why did the seed covered with water fail to germinate well? What effect did the low temperature have upon the seeds?) What was the effect of the lack of moisture? What conditions are essential to the germination of seeds? Under what conditions should farm and gar- den seeds be tested for viability? (Tables showing optimum, mini- mum, and maximum temperatures at which common seeds germi- nate and the number of years various kinds of seeds remain viable will prove helpful in connection with a study of germination.) AGRICULTURE FOR SOUTHERN SCHOOLS. 5 Special reference: Testing Farm Seeds in the Home and in the Rural School, Farmers’ Bulletin 428. Lesson 2.—The Work of Roots. . Development of roots. . The plant cell. . Root hairs. . Kinds of roots. . Munction of roots. . Root systems. Illustrative material: Plants showing root hairs; charts showing struc- ture of roots. Exercisr 2.—A Study of Root Hairs and Osmosis. Purpose: To show how plants take in mineral food. Directions: If the germinated wheat seed is allowed to become slightly dry between the paper pie plates or the folds of the blotting paper the root hairs will develop to an abnormal length so that they may be seen readily with the naked eye. The method by which mineral food in solution is taken into the plant through the root hairs may be shown in the following man- ner: Fill a thistle tube partly full of molasses and tie over the large end of the tube a piece of moistened bladder. Insert the tube in the cork of a wide-mouthed bottle and immerse it in water colored with ink. In a few hours the water should pass through the bladder and force the molasses out of the top of the tube. _ Record and report: Drawings should be made of a plantlet, show- ing the root hairs, and of the apparatus illustrating osmosis. Each student should also make a written report of the demonstration in which the following questions are answered: Why do root hairs develop to a greater extent if the roots of the plantlet become slightly dry? What is the nature of the root hairs?) Upon what part of the root are they found? How is the principle of osmosis applied to the taking in of plant food by the root hairs? Lxsson 3.—The Work of Stems. 1. Development of the stem. 2. Structure of stems. 3. How stems grow. 4. Buds. 5. Movement of sap. 6 I OD OP OOD a . Kinds of stems. llustrative material: Different kinds of stems; charts showing cellular structure of stems. Lusson 4.—Leaves. 1. Forms of leaves. 2. Arrangement. 38. Structure. 4. Photosynthesis. 2 Tilustrative material: Leaves of different forms; charts showing struc- ture and photosynthesis. 6 BULLETIN 6521, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Lesson 5.—F lowers. 1. Function of flowers. 2. Parts of flowers. 3. Forms of flowers. Illustrative material: Flowers of different forms; charts showing struc- ture. Lesson 6.—fertilization of the Ovule. 1. Conditions essential to fertilization. 2. How the pollen reaches the ovule. 3. Devices for securing cross-pollination. Tilustrative material: Charts showing fertilization of the ovule. Lxsson 7.—Some Principles of Plant Breeding. 1. Law of heredity. 2. Law of variation. 3. Selection. (a) Natural. (6) Selection by man. . Inducing variation. . Technique of cross-pollination. . Propagation. (a) Sexual. (6) Asexual. i Illustrative material: Chart showing Mendel’s law. Exercise 3.—A Study of Plant Growth. Purpose: To show how plants develop from the seed. Directions: Wave each student fill a flat box to a depth of 5 inches with sand. On one side seeds of corn, squash, peas, and beans should be planted at a depth of 1 inch, and on the other side the same kind of seeds 4 inches deep. The planting should be done two weeks before the study is to be made, and the box placed where it may be kept warm and moist. The seeds should be studied by the students as they germinate and as the plants develop. | Record and report: Drawings of an entire plant of each kind should be made and the parts named. In a written report which should accompany the drawings the following questions should be answered: In what respects are the pea, bean, and squash alike? How do they differ from the corn and wheat in germination? In relation to its cotyledons, how does the pea differ from the bean in germination? How do the cotyledons of the bean differ from those of the squash in the development of the plant? How does the*squash get rid of its seed case? What service do the cotyledons render the developing plant? What happens if one or both of the cotyledons are broken off? Why may corn and peas be planted deeper than beans and squashes? How do the roots of the plants differ? Lesson 8.—Llements of Plant Food. 1. Sources of plants. 2. Definition of element and compound. 8. Food from the air. 4, Food from the soil and water. oO Oe AGRICULTURE FOR SOUTHERN SCHOOLS. 7 Lesson 9.—Composition of Plants. 1. Organic v. inorganic matter. 2. Crude fiber. 3. Carbohydrates. 4. Proteids. 5. Fats. ; ‘TWustrative materiai. Chart showing composition of plants. SOILS. (36 lessons, 18 periods for practical work.) References; Any of the general texts in soils. Also, United States Depart- ment of Agriculture Bulletin 355, Hxtension Course in Soils. Price List No. 46, United States Public Documents Relating to Soils (for sale by the Superinten- dent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C.). Lesson 1.—Weather and Water in Soil Making. 1. Weathering of rocks. 2. Work of water. 3. Ice as a factor. Lesson 2.—Work of Plants and Animals. 1. Lichens and mosses. 2. Stems and roots. 3. Work of animals. 4. Sourees of organic matter in the soil. 5. Life in the soil. Illustrative material: Stones upon which lichens, mosses, or other plants are growing. ‘ Lesson 3.—Transportation of Soils. 1. Residual soils. 2. Gravity as a factor——colluvial soils. 3. Water as a factor—alluvial soils. 4. Ice as a factor—glacial soils. 5. Wind as a factor—loessial soils. Exercise 4.—A Field Study of Soils. Purpose: To determine the nature of soil and to study the various processes of formation and transportation. Directions: In connection with a study of soil formation the entire class should be taken to a near-by railroad cut, a gully washed by water, or some excavation where the students may study the relation of the soil to the subsoil] and the underlying rock and note the effects of the various agencies in the formation and modification of soils. Record and report: A written report, which should be required of each student, should bring out, with any notes of special interest, answers to the following questions: Are the soils of the neighborhood visited residual or transported? What relation, if any, do you note between the nature of the prevailing types of soils and the rocks which prevail in the district? What is the difference between the soil and subsoil? What particular effects, if any, did you note of the action of water in the making of soils? What are the effects of water in the transportation of soils?’ What effects of lichens, mosses, 8 BULLETIN 521, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and other plants were noted? Did you note any particular effects of the work of animals? To what agents do you attribute whatever crumbling of surface rocks you have seen? Why should the farmer understand the forces and agents which are making and moving soils? Can the farmer do anything to aid the formation of soils? Can he do anything to hold the soil where it is needed ? Lesson 4.—Physical Nature of Soils. 1. Fineness of soils. 2. Texture of soils. 3. Weight of soils. 4. Color of soils. Lesson 5.—Water-holding Capacity of Soils. 1. The soil as a reservoir for water. 2. Forms of soil moisture. 8. Relation of capacity to nature of soil. 4, Relation to depth of soil. Exercise 5.—A Study of the Water-holding Capacity of Soils. Purpose: To test the capacity of soils of different types to take in rainfall or irrigation water. Directions: Tie cheesecloth over the small ends of five student- Jamp chimneys, which should then be mounted in a rack with the covered ends each placed in a glass tumbler. (If the lamp chimneys can not be procured, long-necked bottles, such as vinegar bottles, may be used after the bottoms have been removed in the following manner : File a groove parallel with the bottom. Lay a poker heated red hot upon the groove. As soon as a small crack’is started draw the poker around the bottle and the crack will follow.) Fill the chimneys or bottles to the same height, with the following kinds of soil: (1) Gravel, (2) sand, (8) loam, (4) clay, and (5) peat or leaf mold. The soil should be made firm by jarring the rack three or four times. Pour water into each of the chimneys just rapidly enough to keep the sur- face of the soil covered and note the exact time before it begins to drop into the tumbler below. To show the effects of packing take two chimneys with an equal quantity of the same kind of soil, packing it firm in one chimney and leaving it loose in the other. Repeat the water-pouring process, noting the time as before. To show which soil drains the more readily empty and replace each tumbler as soon as all free water has disappeared from the upper surface of the soil above it. After the water has ceased dripping from all the chimneys measure and compare the water in each tumbler, making a record of the order in which they cease dripping. To determine which soil will store up the greatest quantity of moisture weigh each chimney before and after filling it with dry soil, and again after the water has ceased dripping from it. The AGRICULTURE FOR SOUTHERN SCHOOLS. 9 difference between the net weight of the dry soil and that of the wet soil is the weight of the water stored. During the time that the chim- neys are dripping, which may be several days, they should be covered to prevent evaporation of water from the surface of the soils. _ fecord and report: A record should be made by each student of the time and weights involved in each part of the exercise. a tiy Ss ( ¢ Se Ps 4 fs #6 kYs AD, “4 yr oJ Id Ya ef y SS og y We & ry. fH gf on =o wal? -IP | CIs, Cy g i] Os. : 13S WNewyuee J Dy og a o ae Ge oe oo is r go B g% pi jm Q° XA Ay CSastssSu WOT QQg’Sy ~ COMPARISON OF MONTANA HARD WINTER (TURKEY) WHEAT WITH THAT OF OTHER SECTIONS, SHOWING THE LARGER AND MORE UNIFORM KERNELS OF THE MONTANA A, Dark hard Turkey grown in Nebraska; B, typical Montana-grown Turkey; C, yellow- berry Turkey grown in Kansas. PLATE Il. Irs ) 4 a= ae D8 gee »4 Abs > . ‘ oe Jy ri y? Pane NN, »2 1. VA 1 c Oo oO uw a < Fe Ze ate es ae «co Wel uw WINTER WHEAT SAMPLES RE R RELATING PHYSICAL CHARACTERS AND NT OF HARD dly adly ed; Cand D, piu to a little d F, plump to fairly thin, ba hed and sprouted or b bleac Sap ump, bright to slightly_bleac small percentage sprouted; EH a tage sprouted; Gand H, badl nd a bleached d B, Plump or fairly pl a Sap BESS ahaa _ @ | MONTANA-GROWN WHEAT. 9 Tas.e I1.—Baking tests of Montana hard winter ( Turkey) wheat, showing sources of sam- ples, milling quality, protein, and moisture content, for stated years. Tests of straight flour. ou ; is Crude County in i ip oe Ab- pm | Crude .. | ¢Pro;_| Mois- Sample No. which grown. |straight| mill- | Color | sorp- pro- | Mois- | tein in} ture in : tein | ture |wheat,) wheat. flour. | ing. of tion | Vol- | Tex- sa in |NX5.7 bread.} of ume | ture art flour, | flour water of of NX5 » loaf. | flour pees Crop of 1908 12. Gy P. ct. | Score.| P.ct. | C.c. | Score.| P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.\ P. ct. DOT Ge ee. Caseade..... 71.6} 4.4 98] 58.8} 2,270 }...-.2 12.54 | 8.85 | 12.94 12.0 Crop of 1909: DOs e webecis = Gorge ke. 70.6 | 3.6 97 ils By || PP e eee 11.34 | 10.32 | 11.80 12.0 MOS ae cies <= bs | Gallatin... .. 69.4} 4.1 99 Fe aoO On hes 2 10.77 | 11.37 | 11.12 13.0 VANS 8 SAE a eee 72.9 | 2.0 JO5e | SSL SalpenooU lee ee 12.37 | 10.58 | 13.40 13.0 Crop of 1910 (BS Se hae Cascade... .. 72.6 9 99 | 54.4 | 2,110 96 | 13.40] 9.69 | 14.71 10.3 (ek ae ee eter eens dose 2-2 72.0) oh 98 | 52.4 | 2,280 96 | 12.77 | 10.43 | 138.57 11.9 (BMS ers Fergus...... 73.0 1.3 7 | 56.5 | 2,250 98 | 12.37 | 9.61 | 13.74 10.2 Oo ae ass eal oi. does. - 72.2} 2.4 96 | 53.8 | 2,130 98 | 11.57] 9.27 | 11.34 12.0 AO eee hel. S23 6 CS eee 72.8 .6 99 | 54.7 | 2,130 99 | 11.51 | 10.01 | 12.03 12.9 CAD ee OS oS) obs 2 7 omnes: 74.2} 0 98 | 54.1 | 1,950 98 | 11.17] 9.45 | 12.08 9.8 Wie oe wlll ye we Osan oe: Past 202 98 | 53.2 | 2.300 98 | 12.14] 9.92 | 13.51 11.6 (Cae e es oa S dotees-- 71.9 | ¢.1 99 54.7 | 2,350 99 | 11.97 | 10.11 | 11.80 12.1 WAT asec eles dost 2. 72.8 4 97 | 56.5 | 2,150 97 | 14.59 | 9.81 | 15.96 11.0 Agree Sas ate] 22kS os Goweess? 72.3 vl 99 Daerah Sar OON |e a ee 14.08 | 10.10 | 15.68 11.3 CAG as ae all e2e donne a. 74.4 4 98 Donon LOOM |e 2 14.54 | 19.11 | 15.33 10.2 (i Users as be Ores So 70.8 ea OG pe bone pe woOne- = 55. 14. 54 | 10.84 | 15.16 12.0 (EER ees Ree domeese. 72.9 | ¢2.7 96 | 54.1 | 2,220 394 | 14.08 |....... 15. 68 12.8 (PADAC ree Gallatin... _. BN Oo 99 | 52.6 | 1,900 96 | 9.41] 9.86 | 10.26 10.8 VES Se ceise oleae Gone a. 72.0] 1.3 96 | 52.4 | 2,230 96 | 9.98 | 10.38 | 11.17 10.5 DD eee Via Yellowstone 67.7 | 3.8 97 | 538.8 | 2,520 | 100 | 12.65 | 10.87 | 12.71 12.3 LODE ets eietel| ost 2 « doses! 70.9 1.0 99 | 53.2 | 2,540 100 } 12.31 | 10.34 | 11.74 11.2 (2 SOR SERS o Aone Goze es- 70.5 1.2 98 | 52.9 | 2,350 100 | 12.26 | 10.02 | 12.94 2) LO 2 Ee ee ee (27h 84 98 | 54.3 | 2,225 98 | 12.56 | 10.06 | 13.26 11.4 (1910). = =| nt Crop of 1911: Uy ASS aeee Flathead... . 69.2] 4.1 96 | 55.3 | 2,190 95 | 9.41 | 10.25 | 10.20 13.6 QA eee ee cca Caseade.._..- 2.8 eal 98 60.0 | 2, 100 94 9.98 | 10.05 | 10.15 11.5 ca ccScele| Seas dozer e-e 13.6 oa 101 58.2 | 2, 190 96 | 10.32 | 9.49 | 11.40 12.6 ie cei eee Goneene: 69.4) 3.1 99 57.6 | 2,170 95 | 10.66] 9.68 | 11.57 3.0 Fergus...... 70.9 1.8 98 | 59.7 | 2,340 94 | 12.48 | 10.89 | 13.68 14.3 BRS Ae ee (aes Cont ee 68.6 | 2.3 97 | 58.2 | 2,230 96 | 12.60 | 10.54 | 13.28 13.6 TC aa ese paces OE HSS 64.4 |. 4.6 101 | 58.2 | 2,380 OW WAT acess 12. 83 17.2 Be Se SeRS| Boeee dower: 70.3 2.6 98 | 58.2} 2,100 93 | 11.63 | 10.66 | 12.7 14.0 wei does 74.4 | ¢1.4 100 | 58.5 | 2,080 96 | 13.85 | 9.87 | 14.82 11.9 AGS A Ge 66.9 ileal G4 56. 8 | 2,190 90 | 13.57 | 10.13 | 15.05 13.4 be dose 5 68.3 il 95 55.0 | 2, 109 96 | 13.22 | 10.43 | 15.28 13.4 sealers Omer ere (Alo Al 2.4 94 61.5 | 2,230 92 | 12.31 | 10.18 | 12.60 12.5 Bee dow eeie 69.0 2.8 101 59. 7 | 2,250 94 | 11.63 | 10.73 | 12.31 13.6 Ses done vss. WOR2n eed 98 61.8 | 2,000 92) 9.12] 10.29] 9.18 14.2 saoee Chyyeaes 71.9 1.6 $8 58.8 | 2,070 94 | 11.69 | 10.47 | 11.51 14.6 eee CLONE Saas 70.2 4.0 103 61.5 | 2,13 94 | 10.03 | 10.55 | 10.37 14.4 nates COsKeees 70.1 PAPA N= AOR? 59.1 | 2,210 95 | 10.83 | 10.93 | 11.97 15.4 Bane donee. 74.2 Bs 102 | 60.6 | 2,040 941 10.89 | 9.69} 11.69 12.0 Taga dotea 7? 67.9 | 3.9 105 59.1 | 2,160 94 8.72 | 10.49 | 8.72 14.7 = DS Pa oO UG os eee [Pama Gio. faces (2, 4 99 58.8 | 2,150 95 | 10.83 | 10.07 | 12.37 13.0 ae Ooo Gee COL sees GU BEB} 99 | 61.2) 2,270 95 | 10.83 | 10.61 | 11.17 14.0 sc CSS Son Gee dons: 66.5 1.4 94 60.2 | 2,370 95 | 12.03 9.72 | 13.05 12.0 OSs Se8) Gee doe eter 73.4 | c1.7 97 | 57.9 | 2,020 94 | 11.97] 9.07 | 12.14 11.5 BG Oe ee donee Howe ath 100 | 58.5 | 2,130 94} 9.86] 9.50] 10.20 11.4 Lewis-Clark 78. 2 1.6 101 57.9 | 2,190 96] 8.61 9.67 | 8.32 11.8 Ravalli..... 78.4 | ¢3.1 100 | 57.6 | 2,080 96 | 9.86] 9.30} 10.37 10.2 Gallatin... _. 72, 2 ipa 101 57.9 | 2,030 96 | 10.72 } 10.19 | 11.00 12.2 Spree ci|a.- 2 < doseatea 73.6 a4 98 | 57.9 | 1,890 94} 9.23 9.95 | 9.92 11.1 Parkaeeeene 74.6) 1.6 94} 58.2 | 1,580 92} 9.12] 10.01} 9.12 13.9 Meagher..... Tees 1.8 98 | 58.5 | 2,040 93 | 10.77 | 10.13 | 11.74 14.0 Custer....... 74.0 He 98 | 56.5 | 2,140 94 | 10.83 9.41 | 11.17 11.2 Average, |) oo 34 kb Falsal 1.6 99 59.0 | 2,140 94 | 10.98 | 10.09 | 11.61 12.9 (1911). : == ! = = === a Baking test with patent flour. ° b Montana Turkey wheat secured at Chicago, Ill., where it was classed as Pacific coast red. ¢ Gain in milling. 73682°—Bull. 522—17——2 fc 10 BULLETIN 522, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLeE II.—Baking tests of Montana hard winter ( Turkey) wheat, showing sources of sam- ples, milling quality, protein, and moisture content for stated years—Continued. Tests of straight flour. - Crude Yield os Strength. Sample No. County in of Ab- mds Mois anh pols which grown. straight mill- Color | sorp- P P in " mane Seat flour. | ing. of | tion | Vol- | Tex- ee ae NXS, fal] Vee bread.| of | ume | ture} gone | four uf water.| of of NX5 b loaf. | flour ae eiZH of 1912: PCE || Pct: |) Scones 2... Chiy| was Cam SCOne: | leaCien er a eee Chanleios Cb. 75.38 | 2.4 92 59.4 | 1,920 | 88 11.90 | 10.16 | 12.43 10.8 74.0 | 2.47] 94 61.8 | 2,020 | 90 12.77 | 10.73 | 13.85 12.2 68.4} 3.55] 92 59.7 | 1,960 | 98 10.83 | 10.89 | 12.08 12.5 72.7 | 1.89} 96 57.9 | 2,220 | 94 11.00 | 9.61 | 12.08 12.6 72.5 1.62 | 92 61.2 | 1,885 | 92 10.20 | 10.46 | 10.72 12.0 72.4 | 2.63) 94 57.9 | 2,130 | 92 12.60 | 10.60 | 13.34 13.1 GPA | Beet || Oe 59.7 | 1,970 | 92 11.23 | 10.01 | 12.48 12.0 70.8 | 3.55 | 90 55.9 | 2,020 | 92 12.20 | 10.95 | 13.00 13.0 75.2 | 4.05) 90 57.9 | 1,940 | 85 12.83 | 9.97 | 13.51 10.9 WoSOyllelazs uiengO. 57.4 | 1,940 | 88 12.83 | 10.45 | 12.94 11.2 73.7 | 1.84) 92 59.1 | 1,945 | 88 12.20 | 10.90 | 13.85 11.5 68.3 | 4.97] 94 58.5 | 2,080 | 94 10.03 | 11.19 | 10.77 12.4 71.9 |@1.12 | 90 57.9 | 2,265 | 94 12.08 | 10.24 | 12.77 13.0 74.7 |a@ .11| 98 50.6 | 2,000 | 94 10.55 | 10.45 | 11.17 13.3 71.6] 4.481 92 57.4 | 2,160 | 93 10.55 | 11.08 | 11.63 14.8 PRES Ce 3 57.9 | 2,050 | 90 11.34 | 10.92 | 12.48 12.4 74.4 | 2.93 | 98 56.2 | 2,005 | 93 10.26 | 10.74 | 11.17 14.0 76.6 .24 | 90 54.4 | 1,860 | 90 11.63 | 10.61 | 11.51 12.7 74.7 .52 | 94 53.8 | 1,905 | 90 9.80 | 10.56 | 10.60 12.4 76.8 | @.14] 94 53.5 | 1,825 | 90 10.09 | 11.45 | 10.83 12.6 70.3 | 4.17); 95 59.1 | 2,100 | 93 11.17 | 10.64 ; 11.80 12.8 72.4 | 4.59 | 95 58.8 | 1,940 | 94 11.40 | 9.81 } 11.97 12.6 68.3 | 4.65] 95 57.9 | 2,110 | 92 12.77 | 10.48 | 13.57 12.2 64.7) 3.7: 95 64.1! 1,928 | 92 8.95 | 10.46 | 9.06 13.7 74.5 | .1.54 | 95 53.8 | 2,220 | 95 12.14 | 11.29 | 13.74 13.0 72.3 f.21 96 56.2 | 2,230 | 90 11.40 | 11.38 | 13.05 14.1 AVOTALE) ||h Cosme cei 72.5 | 2.40] 93.2) 657.2 | 2,063 | 91 11.30 | 10.62 | 12.16 12.6 (1912). Crop of 1912: } 19745. 2 42 Fergus...... 70.8 | 4.6 97 60.6 | 2,120 | 92 10.72 | 11.71 | 11.57 13.0 LOT. ses healeaeee do-te ae CCBA thats 94 60.6 | 2,280 | 91 12.77 | 11.38 | 14.54 13.1 Crop of 1913: 1973 Goo sese al eenoc doze 552 72.4 | 2.7 96 61.8 | 2,070 | 92.5 | 11.97 | 11.55 | 13.40 12.5 a Gain in milling. b Tested in 1913. Typical loaves from the flour of the 1912 wheat crop are shown in figure 3. The Montana wheat of the 1912 crop showed certain char- acteristics that were peculiar to most of the northern-grown wheats Fic. 3.—Loaves of bread from Turkey wheat grown in Cascade and Fergus Counties, Mont., crop of 1912: a, From Cascade County; b,c, d, ec, and /f, from Fergus County. that year. The wheat was quite uniformly plump and gave a good yield of flour, which, however, was not of the best color, being for the most part quite creamy. Likewise, the wheat of this year was not MONTANA-GROWN WHEAT. 11 of high baking strength, though containing a fair amount of gluten. In strength, as indicated by loaf volume and texture, this wheat was decidedly the poorest of the three years. This characteristic was apparently due to certain climatic conditions that were general throughout the 1912 wheat-growing season, as the same variations were noted with Mon- tana spring wheat and the spring wheat of Minnesotaand the Da- [vo .<$§_ es “7° ikotae., Nhis\is shown | o.oo ee yeco diagrammatically in figure 4, which com- pares the loaf volume and texture of loaves madeninom Hour TLepa%)\,,a.n-a.warer Bo resenting wheats of =e Ele the crops of 1911 and Fic. 4.—Diagram comparing northern-grown wheat of the 1911 and z 1912 crops, showing the generally lower strength of the wheat crop HO, lhe results fore J0QUIA PieU T “ON 0 ZI Oa Ih dad ae cae RS coe €IIT #6 020% | 8'8S 86 6 TL | 109UTA\ prey g ON | ODinaa 9 FI Lh ESE BES tao OIL 96 O6T‘Z | Z's TOL ON CHa oy ange ODeaaes ~ 10] UTA Pley Z “ON, 9 ZI (75) Gl leeaeaemen tte ies S201 26 Oss‘T | z'8S +6 Q°FL | 41097UTM PlVy TON | 409UTA prey T “ON fo ODS gg eee eases dumyd * ‘punog 6°81 cl eee ae eS 6901 £6 OFO 16 ¢'sg¢ 86 Rae “JOqUTA PlIVyZ ON | 4OQUTM PIVY Z ON | OD Sissies eevee mg g dumyd Ayarey ‘ punos | 0°FI OO se ate es oneaee make SSOT 96 080‘Z | ¢-8¢ O0T Pete | Pee ODES aealce Gr nears ODES Pea e rae peat cp sa (0) Ries Saal eps ea cene pe Scene OD 6 IT LOW | een aoa as PSO 6 o0r‘s | 28S 86 €°0L | JoqUTA Pivey TON | JequIa prey TON | OD ses Mise ees sae enie esas dumyd ‘punog | 0 ‘+1 1Gys 2 Bese e me renon.2 oc eS0T #6 OFT‘% | $9 86 OF, | J0}UTM Prey ‘ON |* pod UJOSOA\ T “ON [777 ODS ea Coe epee aoe cares ORE) one ram at 19 :eai| Gaeksescaines eee 670I £6 O68‘T | 6°LS 86 9°eL Hae pemetaeO Da atoe yl ea eis Teen oe OPr=s Rese e sh aens OPS Ae eee dumyd Ayirey ‘punog | TIT [9iber ine ce eereereene SPO #6 oor ‘Z | 0°09 86 QE Co meen Summer ace OD ines as “JOJUIA Pley TON | 99907 oe Coy Oeste egiiate ire Sasi peeve te dumnyd ‘punog | ¢ ‘IT Caer liieaging = ERS Fs Pa [1161 Jo do1p 86 OLT‘% | o'#¢ 86 Oh) sat | cee py ee as See |e ieoas pet gee Nghe tae apg Sty eae ene Re SE EARS emt eth a 011 ‘79 | ~~ "(OI6T) osei0ay sce OOT‘S | ¢-9¢ 86 PY Aen Cas see OD PAI MA Ree ae ah ell RE Co OD Wie a Piageae che mam eae Geen DISS INCROD £9 16 OST ‘z | ¢-9g 16 oN Te Wea rn a (0) Oa a oes eee ah eke [eater ogee ea ODE Bel RE **~-dumyd Ayirey punog | 0°TT G"e9 66 ose‘z | 2 °S 66 Geis Poe eases OD ea|aas pares ye ~JOFUIM Piety T “ON | 97> dumyd ‘peyoretq APYSIIS | 1 ‘Zr €9 86 066 I | 1#S9- | 86 (Sif ag a |B Sees SESS (0) Oeeko- itl lias Soong Sega Sokal [Rates hare Shr eae Y feo gr ea aens PR re Wane op---*- 86 99 66 Ost ‘e | 2°FS 66 No eat | ieee C0) OR Pity | eee erneeo ree matte OMY ORR ae RO eae | Ee meh ee eee ee ODaaaae 6 ZI G "99 86 Ost ‘e | 8°E¢ 96 (eit tricia Renee OPS Poi ene Re Ce) vag | Doke eek eonedtotm ered ate Noe mre oe Ge DASE ES 031 99 86 0Sz‘z | ¢-9¢ 16 0°82 BIAS ISSO Dic esi [ ent wa OO seg | ich me De Meee Been ge Gea age Pe sls s°20psos= ran) G79 96 OIl‘S | £ FS 66 9 °OL BIE IO 9) eis iP Ee oben ae atG AR EO RMSE OP igs aca ar dumyd Ayres ‘punos € 01 +9 96 0&% % PGS 96 03 SERS 0) aren ene re Bee a ee me Peo oe O Digan Eesere sac ease na dumyd ‘ ‘punos | ¢ OT c9 96 006‘T | 9°2o | 66 (Ao eon e oaeaoe wie CO) ee 5 ate csas oe een eR ees Were aneoe hee op" dumyd Aparey “ptmog | 8 ‘01 G9 00T ors‘z | 2°s¢ 66 6 ‘OL ARMA ONO |L RONP [22 ee SLO] TEE AN DUG Ua Pars O) Nite See Serer ste are oom, Snes rarer ees Sun ZIT 29 be al09§| *2°9 29 Lag | *aL00G) | “70 Lag 0 lag | Spunod)|. OI6T Jo do1p ae “JBOT . aany | 2° oe “1ayeM | “pearq -xoL TOA JO M01} jo “mop “9 dojoodsuy *g Iojoedsuy *y 1ojo0dsuy neat ‘peteeyo! |-dr RCo) (0) : 4 . PET eo. Mee “MOTI pUOD ure} Se “ON e[dures “qysueng PIeLx “SIOW | usr wi) “MOY JYSIVIYsS JO S]Sa 7, F ‘apBiIs PUL WOLVOYISSL[O [VIOIoWUIOD ‘aGNOOG GSIMUTHLO GNV ‘GGHOVATG ATHDITIS OL LHDIUG ‘dWATG ATYIVT WO dWATG NIVADN—y anouy Jd ‘supah paqnjs.1of yoayn (fayiny,) wayuin puny vunjzuopy fo hayonh buyjyuu pun ssajovunyo yooishyd fo wornpailog— JI] ATAVY, 14 BULLETIN 522, U. 8S. 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S161 Jo doig “-""(TI6T) osestea y Reet deer ee ae a 86 21161 Jo doi > -"(O16T) 988100 Vy :ot6t jo doy ‘ON o[dures 24 BULLETIN 522, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In Table VI and figure 14 a comparison is made of the average baking values of Montana spring wheats of the 1911 and 1912 crops with average commercial Nos. 1, 2, and 3 northern wheat. The com- mercial samples were secured oe es terminal markets and represent in each case the average of 20 to 30 car lots for each of the grades. From the figures given here, the conclusion may be drawn that the Fig. 14.—Comparison of bread from three grades of Minneapolis spring wheat with that of Montana-grown wheat, crop of 1912: a, b, and c, Nos. 1, 2, and 3 northern, Minneapolis; d, Fife (hard spring), Gallatin County; e, Fife, said to be hard winter, Gallatin County; f, Bluestem (hard spring), Valley County. Montana wheat about equals average spring wheat in quality, except that as a rule the flour will not be found to rank as high in baking strength. What has been said of the winter wheat relative to strength applies equally well to the spring wheat, for, although the average is somewhat lower, about the same range in quality is observed in the spring wheat of other sections as is found in that grown in Montana. TasLe VI.—Baking tests of Montana hard spring Wyhedis compared with average com- mercial Nos. 1, 2, and 3 northern, crops of 1911 and 1912. Tests of straight flour. ; Crude Num-} 1; ber | * uel Strength. | Crude Pen. | Mois- Class or type. of straight] Co] Ab- pro- | Mois-|° turein sam-|"flour. | of | SOrP- bee tein | ture |wheat,| Wheat. Dies. ‘ moh q,|tionof] Vol- | Tex- | in in |IN%X<5.7, ‘| water.| ume | ture | flour, | flour. of loaf.) of loaf.|N 5.7. Crop of 1911: Per ct. | Score. | Perct.| C.c, | Score. | Perct.| Perct.| Perct.| Per ct. Montana hard red spring. - 6 Tp 99 | 58.8] 2,376 96 | 11.46 | 10.52 | 12.03 14.4 Average commercial spring wheat— : No. 1 northern....-.-. 17 71.9 99 | 56.9 | 2,517 97 | 12.22 | 10.67 | 93.11 12.5 No. 2northern.......- 15 70. 4 99 | 57.0] 2,561 97 | 12.18 | 10.41 | 13.17 13.0 No. 3 northern... ..-.-- 10 68. 6 98 | 56.7} 2,631 97 | 12.47 | 10.68 | 12.98 13.1 Crop of 1912: Montana hard red spring. . 9 71.5 94] 58.4] 2,129 93 | 12.05 | 10.46 | 12.40 13.1 Average commercial . spring wheat— No. 1 northern........ 5 72.6 93) 5 2, 228 94 | 11.53 | 10.75 | 11.97 13.1 No. 2northern......-.. 5 71.3 92] 56.4 | 2,246 93 | 11.69 | 10.99 | 12.34 13 } No. 3 northern.....-... 5 71.9 91] 56.7] 2,210 93 | 11.70 | 10.56 | 12.52 12, Figure 15 shows a comparison of the bread from Montana-grown wheat and that from a composite sample of Minneapolis No. 1 north- ern, crop of 1912: a, No. 1 northern, Minneapolis; 6, Fife, Gallatin MONTANA-GROWN WHEAT. 25 County; c, Turkey, Yellowstone County; d, Bluestem, Valley County; e, Fife, Gallatin County, described as hard winter wheat; /, durum, Valley County. WESTERN RED AND WHITE WHEAT. Under the head of western wheat is properly classified the wheat of the soft varieties, both red and white. Commercially these wheats are conveniently separated under two classes. The western red class includes a number of varieties, of which Crail Fife is principally grown, and is an especial favorite in irrigated districts because of its large yields under this treatment. In general properties, the flour produced therefrom resembles flour from soft red wheat. A number of other varieties are grown within the State. Of these, one called Velvet Chaff resembles the Crail Fife wheat very closely in milling and baking quality. Galgalos is a peculiar variety which mills much lke a soft wheat, producing a characteristic light, fluffy flour, but, on the other Fig. 15.—Comparison of bread from Montana-grown wheat with that from a composite sample of Minne- apolis No. 1‘northern wheat, crop of 1912: a, No. 1 northern, Minneapolis; 6, Fife, Gallatin County, Mont.; c, Turkey, Yellowstone County; d, Bluestem, Valley County; e, Fife, Gallatin County, described as hard winter wheat; f, durum, Valley County. hand, it is more glutinous and usually has better baking qualities. Crimean spring and Pringle Champlain are varieties which perhaps ‘should be classified as hard spring wheat, but such results as so far have been secured indicate that they are inferior to the standard varieties, such as Fife and Bluestem. Complete milling and baking results with samples of these wheats are givenin Table VII. Further information as to the condition of the individual samples and the com- mercial classification is given in Table VIII. In Tables IX and X are presented similar results with Montana- grown white wheats. These varieties of white wheat are also largely grown upon irrigated lands and are of even a more starchy and softer character than the Crail Fife. Because of the light, fluffy nature of the flour it was very difficult to estimate accurately the quantity of flour that could be produced from this wheat with the milling machin- ery which was available. The yield figures should be considerably higher than those given in the tables. The flour of this wheat is very low in crude protein and in baking strength. ce 5 i 4 =) oO —- oe o < ical Cc ise A x a = °c Rees Hees Pee oe CFIT NORGE cee ee se uredwmeyD osu |7-~~" POUL BTID aie sen Some eS Le) eae CFOT 9°89 een, “19 UTAN wep HORTON lem es ROU GT Mea | one ee ee 2S Ae ZLOT Lat) ewe Sel ieee armas” ge HOLOS ,UBOUNIG) | |e ODAC Sale tet ten Des Tad Tae q LLOT toa AS), Paes Wi eat Skee tae Xo) (23) 21 i ene SUSIO ape” ee oes eS CQor ‘TI6T Jo dor DOO ee ee eae (0) OSD ad aoe OD pee ala tae oy ae eee 83L | 20161 Jo dorp 50 Bie |e ae Tate ele Opin. 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 6£°8 6 ‘0S FCS quad Lag ara | GI ‘OL ¢ ‘st 8o°L 81 09 ‘OT 9°IT 86 °6 amas 98 °6 9°e1 LL 01 er FE IT 9 IL 19 °8 Zt 8L°8 ¢"€T £% "6 66 66 FT ane GL'8 yuo Lag | quad lag “LOoXN ; “VeOM yeoy a UT ur eINSOW | yy 401d epg “mop ur oIN4SIOW, 916 68 9G ‘T 79°L 02 oer ‘T 0Z‘0r =| 28 092 ‘T IP ‘6 88 008 ‘T 216 98 969‘ £8 OT 08 oss ‘T reIt | 06 O8L ‘T OSL £6 019 ‘T 2L'8 £6 099 ‘T COL weld assis -1[[eaey BBRESIOSDOse sutids Aepmeyg }7-7-- “aN eRTTeH verter eee eee eee eeee erouog |*--*-*-"sn8i0q wee eee eee ee eee eee eee ODitekeal Pay ess eSOD er 2dbonetE one sate qn[9 sutidg |----~---"op----~ Inertiahac orate soe ops777|-777 7 URTeD ERI TRS Cray OT) Cbs Opsaae iene s aSN SO: Bess tesp se picicinine qnio ea | aR “UA013 TOTAL “APTICA - ur Ajuno0g “7 27"7> >> 93BI0A8 IveA-C Mist Bona bs vay ahs 2a USB AQ MeOE A i ie AAR ERS QV II6 Saat Ges Pere ien svete (2141) egal heen cea. papain 5'E5 kaa Rae aS ee “196% 78061 JO dog ‘ON of dures ‘sivah avissaoons auf sof hyyonh buryjuu pun ‘Ajaruna ‘sajdups fo saounos burnoys ‘qnayn apyn nunjuoyy fo 87827 buryog— XT FIAVL fop) N MONTANA-GROWN WHEAT. “OITM TI81S0M & “ON See Sess sree eee tie “OUI TI04SeM Z ‘ON “O}TM W1e4s0M F “ON |" 071 T10}s0M F “ON “OUT M TI81seM Z “ON “O}IT[M WI8jseM T “ON "OPIUM UWiojJsomM GON [Oo | ¢g cco‘T |6°0S | S6 ¥°19 on |ser't | 60s | 26 879 (631 O9L‘T | 6°2g +6 TOL 88 O08 I | 9°%s 96 TL 98 c69‘T | 2°E¢ 06 8°99 08 Oss ‘T cg +6 649 06 0&2 ‘T | 6°LF 96 99 £6 O19'T | LF 16 €°389 £6 099 ‘T 9°LP 86 é 19 *31009'| *9°Q | *Ja lag | 21009 | “70 ag “yeoyT Jo | ‘yeor, jo 9i4 |eUINTOA| “1070 M -xo,L jo ton Deere -diosqy|J0 70190 | -mog qustelys WW3ueng | | JO PIPLA “NOY ISVs JO ssa, *() 10;00dsuy *g 10,00dsuy ‘epeis pUe UOT PoUIssvlO [vloremMUOD “aq M T19}s0M Z “ON |-~,, pojsor,, ‘WaxunsYs ‘paqore, g “OqIYM T10}SeM € “ON |,, Pojsodj,, ‘duinyd Ayparey ‘poyoeo,_ “OUTTA WI0}Ssom T°ON [7770 punos ‘uexUMIYS “OUTIM Ta}sea\ Z “ON |- «< P24soy},, ‘peyoval goles cei aint Scien ate sioareie'e ((aROSes|[=e=9ssoreerorats weyunIYs ‘punog secleicisleisteisierpinoiociciniakiaicie lite pests ge ODE SNe eet Ses oie ee COO punos “OTM TLIO}SOM T “ON |-7 7777 dumyd ‘peyove,a *V 10,00dsuy “MOHIpueg) ara § 6°09 | esvioAeieoA-g Ge (ees Sen See O9FT ZI6I Jo dog 8°11 CO eee eee “""VTI6 91 605 Pee iaaat (aa at TOs ae se See ecor 9 "ST 09% = |FSsa sec 101 1161 Jo dorp ara | C0 Sees ee ks OFL 9 IT GTO ee oes ZeL Co RG TOR Sse = ee ine 621 40 lag |'spunod| 0161 JO dory ‘ *pomesyo} qo ayer | Pred ‘ON o[dueg STOW | y310M “supah avissavons 9ady} 1of sajdwos fo bupvi6 jowsawu0s pun uoyypuos burmoys ‘qnoyn apyn nuvjuopy fo hyyonb buyyuu pun ssajovunyo qoorshyd fo wornjaiiog— X ATVI, 30° BULLETIN 522, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table XI presents the results of baking tests of Montana soft red and white wheats of average quality as compared with average No. 2 red winter wheats grown in 1911 and 1912. TaBLE XI.—Baking tests of Montana soft red and white wheats of average quality compared with average No. 2 red winter wheats, crops of 1911 and 1912. Tests of straight flour. Num- Seine F R Crude ber ield 0 trength. pro- Mois- baracten ats straight Abe Crude __ | tein in | turein yp pee samt- flour. Gola sorp-“[a = @ [eal ee ane fetes wheat,| wheat. es. ° i iS x= ur NX5.7. P bread. tion of} Vol Tex flour, | flour. = water. | ume of | ture of loaf. loaf. NX5.7. Soft red wheat (west- - ern red ),4-year av- Per ct. | Score. | Per ct.| C.c. | Score. | Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. erage, 1908-1911. - . 13 68.5 98 53.6 | 1,787 84] 10.38] 10.05} 11.08 12.3 Soft white wheat (western white), 5- Deion See ceeeene 11 66.7 96 50.9 | 1,756 85 9.16 9.98} 10.12 12.2 Averagecommercial, : Ee) EW No. 2 red winter, 191} crope..-cecsse 43 69. 4 98 52.9 1, 989 93 9.90 9.89} 10.72 11.4 Averagecommercial, No. 2 red winter, 1912 crop.........- 20 69. 4 95 51.6 | 1,853 91 8.65 | 10.50 9. 47 12.7 MONTANA DURUM WHEAT. Montana-grown durum wheat does not differ widely in any essen- tial characteristic from the durum wheat grown in other sections.! It is very hard and flinty, and in grinding ita high percentage of a creamy or yellow flour is produced. The baking quality of this flour is usually somewhat poorer than that of hard winter wheat. As a rule, it contains a high percentage of crude protein. But two exceptions are noted to this in the samples examined, and, of these, one, No. 1067, contained a little less than 11 per cent of crude protein, while the second, No. 1469, contained about 9.5 percent. The results of tests and a description of such durum wheat samples as were examined are to be found in Tables XII and XIII. Figure 12 affords a compari- son of the bread from Montana durum wheat with that of other classes of wheat. As has already been suggested, durum wheat is admirably suited for the production of coarse flours and semolina for use in the manufacture of macaroni and other edible pastes. It is not especially suited for the production of white bread flours except for blending with the flours of other wheats. The yellow color of durum wheat is highly prized by the macaroni manufacturers. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 89, p. 13-80. 1910. Wheat investigations. Milling, baking,and chemical tests. N. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 93, p. 203-253. 1911. ee ee ld re ian) WHEAT, MONTANA-GROWN £ GI 8&1 0 “eT G41 ¥ OL FIl 8 It o°It *qUa0 Lag "JeoyA\ UT e1n4sto Wy ¥8 “€T GS 6 68 ‘OT OL ‘OT 61 '9T SZ ‘91 PL ST 9S “€T "qua lag *moy 3ue7ed YIIM $}seq ZuTye” v “SUI[[IUL UI Ure q 816 8c eT 06 $86 ‘I 9°L¢ 88 TZa T'9L 96 ‘OT 60 ‘OT 06 G92 ‘T 6 oS 6 oF 9 TL 9F OT et IL G8 099 ‘T 8 “9S g8 ve Powe 91 01 GL ST 88 000 * 12S 82 8° 4 G82 16°8 00 ‘91 6 096 ‘1 G-E9 88 6° 4 hip 288 06 ‘ST 26 -0L6‘T G9 88 €° 4 Z'8L 62 6 10 I 6 020% ae) 06 I'T@ T 82 gigs is LT°€1 f2e7 2 aOR TES 9 °8¢ 6 Gra 8 °SL “qUad Lad | °2U90 Lag “aL099 200 “JUad LOT “aloog’ “quad Lad | Uad Lag OXN “yeoy JO “ROT Jo : “mog ut | ‘mog ur 91N}X8f, | suo A Bie “peaiq -Suryroa 01N4SIO WT meron -diosqy JO 10[0D | ULssoT “mop pnip ‘W8uang qysiv34s JO PIOLA “MOT IYZle14S JO s4say, DEA ae GOO STDS ete es ea ee AQTIVA Rae cape (MAGS Seta eg WNC ag oR ee |e Wed Sree EN) eyueqny | ~~~" “snsi1oq Roast ipa OS REG JaIssejeag |-° °°" -"-"op"--*~ BREST ARO PGR IS A Ap 250° SOP Pee 125 1ojeM peolg BEBO ECS Bae “-"--eyueqny |°- "> ~~~" -Jeysng Sel eiaitiel® BR ACR A TODO RC POOR (nee “AqOLTe A SEER Bee ae 69F'T espe a a eo 78061 0 do19 ‘UMOIS GOWN ur Ayano) ‘ON [dures ‘supah paqnjs sof Ayyjonb buyjuu pun ‘fjarsna ‘sajduns ay) fo aounos Buramoys ‘yoayn wninp vunzuoyy fo s3sa7 buyog—"T[~X ATAV], al 5 a =) =) 1e) = rs o (BUBOLIOULB SNUIXBIA ) USB OI MA. “-* > (GUBOLIOWIS SNUIXBIY ) USB O9IT AA. *-(epunjoid snurxei7) Yse urydun f “-*"*(@)8[090UB] SNUIXBIY ) USB W901, “7-"-(eJ{R[OoDUL] SNUIXBIT ) Se 1901) --(eyeMsueipenb snurxel7 ) yse ong so sessss==(@ISIU SNUIXVIY ) USB Yoel *(BUBOIONIA [IG SNUIXBIA ) YSt o10WIAIg “dHNOSVaS ULV “+ ** (BUBOPIOUI’ SNUTXPIY) YS® ONT AA “°*""(SUBOLIOMIB SNUIXB1) USB OFT MA BULLETIN 523, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 20 082 Ssh | 86h | 82E POLIT £29 | 909 | O&F | 2S | OTFIT pg | e99 | 198 | 62e | 90E'T lop | GLb | ¥F | 482 | 060'T ZL | 188 | FoF | O6E | 8G /T 119 | 919 | T¥8 |.298 | 991°T SL | S6g | O9e | 692 | SOE 'T 79 | 089 | TSF | 198 | OSs 'T 099 | 20g | 86 | 808 | 629 ‘T ess | PO | EST | G2G | FEL, zoe | egg | eee | Lee | £0 19h | 61S | Sze | 208 | 6F8 Osh | shh | e2¢ | 008 | S00'T e19 | #9 | See | FEE | 8ES'T p99 _ | LO¢_ | eS | ees | S02 T *uiBs| -ur*bs | *sqT| *sqT| “ur bs Jad | sad Jad “8QT | “S9T “SqT s/o y}e| a7] Bel fee | Beles acl eee | alee Bl doiees (eee las 5 408‘ eer iT geet ect ‘T 198 ‘T 66 ‘T o1e‘T $82 ‘T 899 ‘T OLL 996 $88 ZL0‘T ZF ‘T 09¢ T “wi bs dad “SQT “TeIpey —SI 9INfIeJ JO oovjINs WOM *UlB1d 04 ICT -notipuediod woIsuaT, “TIPTA Jo yout zed 4ysuet4s OsBATIIO “uIe13 07 [eTTe1ed Y4sued4s Bulieelg 1Sh __ | 088, 612 ‘1 | Ber ‘T | 112‘ 280 T | L246 €40 T cr9 TS9 6LL F68 082 688 PEL 662 Crs. 08, | SLL, | £86, L¥G‘T | ZECIT | 882 ‘T €r0 T | €10 LT | OFT I Shr L¥P Tog 099 969 TFL 6g¢ 9FE O19 T69, | 299 | TS, $90 LT | 196 090 T 898 8&8 €S6 “SOT | “SOT “SOT ie Bee |e Oe piice n 5 S| 8 | 18 % So S 5 e ay 2 "1904 -OULeIp S}Ij[ey-euo 0} T1eq YWourppr’o @ pequt o} peimb -91 pvo’y *ssouprepxy 186, TOT ‘T 210 ‘T OFZ 898 108 OF8 COI ‘T +66 Tre OSPF 607 CTL 086 G18 ur “bs dad “SqT “4TULT] OTISB{O 4B SSAI]S 1OGTT “ules 4‘: IeTMotpued -lod worsseidur0op (0) ¥0Z‘T | 008 is 661 ‘T | OTL SST | 098 F Z92‘T | 088 ‘¢ 002 ‘I | O9T'F LOFT | 0F0'F 000‘T | 009 ‘¢ ZO9'T | 08 7 808 ‘T | OST? oes | O8L'T ZOFT | 080'E OZIT | OFE'S 862 ‘T | 026 ‘s TEL ‘T | 028% 887 ‘T | 086 ‘s surbs |*ut “Bs- Jad sq) dad o00'r | “sqT ke e) =) 4 alae = = a | 8 Saa|7 4 e | & Se alane 2 er g “8QT “yRUT] OYSeTO 4@ Ssorqs IOGLT “UT13 04 [OT -jered woTssordu09 ae |o'e | 6 | OCL'2 FF | O'S | SE8T | 062 (ZI L8|%'% | T2S'T | OST “IL 8% |Z" | OBT'T | G2 ‘IT 6€ | 6¢ | 90S‘T | 0Z0'ZT ze | 9°S | 888T | Oo. ‘IT 6& | O'F | TL3‘T | OTO‘OT 89 | 19 | 68F. 5.022 shee ae Jes eee sabe ceed SACS See |ss doo ab ccd sasnsosese Panseessaalecouce sso phessecoss Total food consumed........-.-- 3,097.0 | 1,756.9 130.3 349.2 805. 4 55. 2 IBC OSM ae cae cece cua cer cite se 1570) |\o2 Sse 76.3 15.8 52.5 12.4 PARI OPIN RLLA ZC Societe oN ee sips oan dte no = ois] ee eee 54.0 333. 4 752.9 42.8 Digestibility of entire ration (per cent).|........--|-..------- 41.4 95.5 93.5 77.5 1 Estimated digestibility of bread alone (pericent)ioe-: 22 Lcovoscoonereadlcsensoeode leopeonasee BON Be ceses == OSE OIE ees Experiment No. 470, subject A. J. H: rai Bread 341.5 5.8 465.3 : 3.4 . 8.1 4.7 Digestibility of entire ration (percent) |..........|.......--- 48.8 | 93.0 96.5 73.4 Estimated digestibility of bread alone (percent)! 5. 52s 22d. de ash ELINA PIE eee es BT. Aree ads QOSA2U it. Se aSe ete Experiment No. 471, subject P. K.: ES eu ese 2 hataio 2a) 5, Washington, D.C. | PROFESSIONAL PAPER February 20, 1917 A STUDY IN THE COST OF PRODUCING MILK ON FOUR DAIRY FARMS, LOCATED IN WIS- CONSIN, MICHIGAN, PENNSYLVANIA, AND NORTH CAROLINA By MORTON O. COOPER, Scientific Assistant C. M. BENNETT Agriculturist, and L. M. CHURCH, Assistant CONTENTS Page Page The Scope ofthe Study ..... ~~. 1 Factors Involved in the Cost of Producing Locations and Descriptions of Farms Milk—Continued where Cost Records were Obtained . . 2 Miscellaneous Items . . . » Methods of Procuring Data Overhead . . . « © « « » Factors Involved in the Cost of Producing Credits Other Than Milk .. Quantity of Milk Produced Net Cost per Unit of Product eece Data from Other Sources . . o oie Use of Buildings . 2 Discussion of Results . . . 2 os » » » Use of Equipment = Relation of Individual Cow to Cost of Pro- Use ofBull. .. +. OUCHON io at eta sien ey alee ts Interest . . 2 « - DAMUNAEV/o 0 ole \iel\eilecs ese. 6.6 ete Depreciation . .. aire Literature Cited . «5s soe ee @ © WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE . ¥ ir “2 ores UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 502 Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER — April 23, 1917 ~ THE DRAINAGE OF IRRIGATED SHALE LAND By DALTON G. MILLER, Senior Drainage Engineer, and L. T. JESSUP, Junior Drainage Engineer ® CONTENTS j ; Page Introduction ... . Construction . Geological Features Surface Topography Examples of Methods Underground Water Results of Drainage AIK etc eee Conclusion. ... © Drainage Methods. . . » - - © » « [lil —s> ~ WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 510 f Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief | Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER May 17, 1917 TIMBER STORAGE CONDITIONS IN THE EASTERN AND SOUTHERN STATES WITH REFERENCE TO DECAY PROBLEMS By C. J. HUMPHREY, Pathologist Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology (in cooperation with the Forest Products Laboratory of the United States Forest Service, Madison, Wis.) » CONTENTS -. Introduction . . : Condition of Storage Yards at Mills . . Cause of Decay in Timber f Handling Timber at Retail Yards .. . Handling Timber at Sawmills Y Fungi Which Rot Stored Lumber . . Location of Mills and Its Relation to Wood Preservatives in the Lumberyard . Decay . Branding Structural Timber . . © o« »o Quality of Stock with Reference to Decay Conclusions » © » © » © © © © © eo Condition of Storage Sheds at Mills . . i WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 ey a po ster can ae ‘UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE | BULLETIN No. 511 Joint Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief, and the Office of Farm Management, W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 31, 1917 FARM PRACTICE IN THE CULTIVATION OF COTTON By H. R. CATES, Scientific Assistant, Office of Forage-Crop Investigations ~ CONTENTS Introduction Normal Averages of Farm Conditions General Statements The Relation of Crop Rotations to Crop Subsoiling ; Drainage ; The Relation of Tillage and Price of Land Tillage before enone to Crop Yields Plowing Groups of Cotton-Growing Areas .. . Preparation after Plowing General Farm Practices and Conditions . Planting. . ... =. -. SuMmatyerr esi ea ey ete wali eiseae WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 191787) ian oe te in ei n UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 512 Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 5, 1917 PREVENTION OF THE EROSION OF FARM LANDS BY TERRACING By C. E. RAMSER, Drainage Engineer ; CONTENTS ; Page Page _ Introduction . . . 1. 2. » 2 2 « aenice Ay | ROEPACMN Gc) feito ons al oak ies wicre=t eae 5 Forms of Erosion . . . » « s «© s « 2 | Reciamation of Guilied Lands. . .. - 38 Methods of Preventing Erosion. . .. 3 |,Summary . . © » «© «2 2 - 2» 38 - WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 518 OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief Washington, D. C. March 17, 1917 THE COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN HOOD RIVER VALLEY A DETAILED STUDY, MADE IN 1815, OF THE CURRENT COST FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE MAINTENANCE OF ORCHARDS AND THE HANDLING OF THE CROP ON 54 FARMS By S. M. THOMSON, Scientific Assistant, and G. H. MILLER, Assistant Agriculturist CONTENTS Facts Brought Out Orchard Management Conclusions Maintenance Labor The Hood River Valley Handling Crop Farm Organization Tota! Labor Costs The Orchards Costs Other Than Labor Total Costs WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 Re Se RE a <5 * Ries ice Bae ae te Se ee ee RT ae OES ee are i i ae a Pee zs i Rim 2 a2 goo Reyne | See Kaa se ar Bat St sacle se Si oe RO oR a iin a a Bee UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 520 Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural Organization CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv : June 26, 1917 A SYSTEM OF ACCOUNTS FOR COTTON WAREHOUSES By ROY L. NEWTON, Assistant in Warehouse Investigations and JOHN R. HUMPHREY, Investigator in Market Business Practice CONTENTS , Page Introduction 1 | Arrangement of Balesin the Warehouse 13 Description of the System 2 | Conclusion. . » 0 5 » © eo wo oo I Operation ofthe System .....e.. Il ; WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICGB, 1917 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 521 Contribution from the States Relations Service A. C, TRUE, Director Washington, D. C. PRCFESSIONAL PAPER .- March 30; 1917 COURSES IN SECONDARY AGRICULTURE FOR SOUTHERN SCHOOLS (FIRST AND SECOND YEARS) By H. P. BARROWS, Specialist in Agricultural Education CONTENTS Page Introduction : Laboratory Equipment for Soilsand Crops 35 - Adaptation to Local Conditions . . . . Textsand Referencesfor Soilsand Crops 36 Use of Texts and References Outline for Animal Husbandry—Second Use of Illustrative Material Year Distribution of Time and Credit. . . . Suggestions for Home Projects in Animal The Home Project Husbandry . 51 Outline for Soils and Crops—First Year . Equipment for Animal Husbandry . .. 51 Suggestions for Home Projects—First Texts and References for Animal Hus- MOAR etches) Dandey (oe oo) Meee 6), eu De WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 tegehy oon Rac” ie ¥, x UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 522 Joint Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief . and the Office of Markets and Rural Organization CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv May 18, 1917 CHARACTERISTICS AND QUALITY OF MONTANA-GROWN WHEAT By LEVI M. THOMAS, Assistant in Grain Standardization CONTENTS Page Introduction . . 2. 2. 2 » © «© 2 e 1 | Hard Winter Wheat Future of Wheat Production in Montana 2 | Correlation of Physical ye oe and Marketing Conditions in Montana. . . 3 Milling Quality Varieties and Types of Wheat Grown in Comparisons with the Hard ‘inter Montana. . . . Wheats of Other Sections Grading Montana Wheat Montana Hard Spring Wheat Wheat Quality ... Western Red and White Wheat . Color of Flour and Bread Montana Durum Wheat. .. .- = Water Absorption Summary of the Characteristics of ‘is Loaf Volume and Texture Five Classes of Montana Wheat. . . WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE aS ae ~ i Sal nee tire poe i iy ‘ hy Oy tat ANSE aa aia aaa a aid ONAN cise alah *, ae N * ip aw ae UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 523 Contribution from the Forest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER June 29, 1917 UTILIZATION OF ASH > By W. D. STERRETT, Forest Examiner CONTENTS Introduction . Utilization by Industries Commercial Species : 2 | Lumber and Stumpage Values ... - Demand and Supply’ 7 | Summary of Important Points Characteristics of Ash Wood 15 | Appendix . WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 BRANCH OF RESEARCH. -Earte H, Crarp, Assistant Forester in charge. ff ° S 7 -InpusrRiaL INVESTIGATIONS. _ H. 8. Betts, in charge. Forest INVESTIGATIONS. Rapnarn Zon, Chief. S. T. Dawa, Assistant Chief. » ; ett vay: tA 100159647