tse. eee n : <> Sahinils si xz pR2Sezs oes — Sat ae Fr tetes ahs ee shezirsiz me eceserd at ] : iets a " { ‘4 at tra 4) 1 sho petit he wee ny yayie nn , He Hi helene? vate t tf ¥ Prsiatal eed Ath yale Vel iayle, iain we serine tone ‘ ee tales aa H Tripp! wey fa eye whet th Bib Re ee = yo ah bat a er an hy ash ape gee it us igh Lerten tad i Roa) POR Reine jut ! a, Oy ie - 1 i aya ty rae 1 yan i itt ete is ita ie oie ty te ! ” wiki reas nee pies ten . Le 4 i whee i ett i Hie rae 10 tis oe eat mn i ' chili A a ite sient bem t ina Fal saan ie ae stadia . ae i 9 ite 4 i! ae Hh Heeb paslt i ee \ my rgeehe bil Md tai’ ra Hi nH Kertoy gott he a itt Tat cone iii ae i i yh ay 4!) in in ae deal ary rN ‘ Heidt Ate % aie Tee Me He iit ‘ hea) i a i) Nit Hgts ae iN ot Ks i i ? ; vi at bya) ee hye igh thy ath r i one i Me re ne ce bea f i y f t oh We Ae ; eat it at i 1 z f a id ait ne Faas ue eas ee saree Hee t: hee ‘ie tt ths At ae Nath Man i lasiaa : ie 1344 ie ‘rane 1h) yt ystas 3a iy ih a ei TCD y Nine gst ( R ‘ it oe fiat iH wan ; (is his iy He Rt : halt it ‘ny Wh ae ve Mel RAN taken site i : a i be ae | f ae ‘ etl ok eat a ce eat A he i ae \ ; {i il ‘| ' a Prey a ae iN! jet Meteo by a Wet } th mT ee | we inte ait { ye the if . ae a - eat : * i bet TM oF a ' ; itatag if iH Hite annul Lh sy! ie ee an cia iis i 7 care he 7 soratatl tye tialitae hts ee a a Hh se ati eee Pall ne i i Ae Uy st iia ay Neate iia etd a - FOR THE PEORDBE FOR EDVCATION AFR SCIENCE NCELLED LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - Department Bulletins Nos. 526-550, WITH CONTENTS AND INDEX. Prepared in the Division of Publications. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1920. OTs CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 526.—EXPERIMENTS WITH SINGLE-STALK COTTON CuttuRE IN Loutstana, ARKANSAS, AND NortTH CAROLINA: Importance of single-stalk cotton culture Localities where experiments were made Methods of procedure Selection of cooperators Plan of the experiments Thinning single-stalk rows Recording the yields Results obtained Yields of seed cotton Yield and quality of lint Se ee ASHMAN AY 5 ae a TAC Ca etl gM Leela MLA an Ga es Casale aH DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 527.—SomE EXERCISES IN FARM HANDICRAFT FOR RuRAL SCHOOLS: HGrOMMChLON ne ee ec peach Pose cs i hid olga iciamacs ee Tools and their uses Terms used in woodworking Se vortacliccswyain sys ae cr eee eA Re CL ee A ek Ne isnnaee eC eae NC Exercise I. . Seed germinator............-. . Seed-corn drying rack . Seed sample case-.-.--...--- . Hotbeds and cold frame HORCIN oe Domes ap see. sees . Sorting table for vegetables and fruits PPlamiane Woardessete. Serer . Stamper for crushing lumps of fertilizer.........---.-.- . Feed hopper for poultry HEAT AEUES baa een ee eo en HA DTOOEs COODES2 eases ss Seen Pelaoultrye houses ares. 222s. ae . Wooden troughs for swine . Hurdles for use in stock judging AAO OMTOURES Ese eels 21. Hk Bi a Malika estoolisssaass 2 525 522 » Calfistanchiions as 1. .22ete8 pear ae eee 5) ee Ropeworlk io fee ice ate “Concrete workaeae) 04 042 9a. DEPARTMENT BuLLetiIn No. 528.—SEASONAL DistTRIBUTION oF FARM LABOR IN CHESTER CouNTY, Pa.: Part I.—Chester County (Pa.) data— Territory surveyed and method used Labor efficiency as affected by soil, topography, and field arrange- 10.2) a1 Fp a ea OPO Be Se NOR eee act) Ae PMOL EE AE AUT a mie Ce Lee ER abo be Ug Cate reat aE Types of farming Available time for field operations Period of performing field operations Succession of operations Crews and machinery Summary of labor requirements of crops Page. OID OD CVOvT Ot ® OO co bo He 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 526-650. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 528.—SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FARM LABOR IN CHESTER County, Pa.—Continued: Part I1.—How to use the foregoing data— Description of farm selected... .-... .././<,-=-)2-\- 40 eae eee eee Determining labor requirements of old system...................---- Replanning « GEOD PUNE SYSLCM aoe ie mec np te o> =e ee ee Comparative labor: requirements:. 2.23.4. Y.-..5.. see eee eeeaees Comparative Terns... ... 22 si..2. wos os oe eee eee eee Conclusion...222.5..0:25.. Steel 022. oie eb ee DEPARTMENT BuLuetTIn No. 529.—VALIDITY OF THE SURVEY METHOD OF RESEARCH: Accuracy of the‘farmer’s' knowledge -.0 sere = = ae eer Accuracy ‘of cost-accounting methods -....2--2- ea eee Law of error <2 p22 5200207 2 fs ee oe. 2 eee eee Mistaken notions of accuracy -2 22 322-2 :2 a ae ee eee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 530.—THE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF A Farmers’ Mutua Fire INSURANCE Co.: Introduction... 2000... 22.) ngeee -+- . o> eae ee ee Purpose of the company ..-.-.--..=--= +2... 6ce 9oe ee eee eee Business territory. 2.00: =. osc. gee Sos oe eee eee ee Membership and voting privileges. -..s.....- sce a> oajae eee eee Byard Of Cire Lots a cere ete ete a eee alee Applications for insurance. 2222 ee- 0. - (a5. ce2 ee ee eee Inspection ‘of risks. 253550022. no. eee Horm and term: of policy? 502.0. ga2 03a ee ee Limiting the sizeof individual risks=: 357230522. eee eee ee Hvils‘of ‘blanket: msurance.. =: 225252 Sa ee eee Inability of the company and of ‘theinsured==---2 5 --e ee eee eee Reduction/andcancellation‘of imsurance™: eee eee Eee ee eee eee eee Fees and assessments2- 5-155. See 2 2 oe eee ee eee Classification of risks... on 2. ee eee Settlement: of losses: 2s257 02-0 1157 eee eo ne ee ee Reserve 2252220020 250 222 So ne = oe mits Sa oe eee Amendment of by-laws and articles of incorporation...............------ Suggestive organization and business forms....-......-..-..-..----------- DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No.531.—Ruizopus Rot oF STRAWBERRIES IN TRANSIT: Introduction .....- - 3i43t 5-4 ¢.- +e = > Reaees Gee eee eee eee Causes of decay in transit.......-.-.---- oe te See NS sd amorecone ac Physiology of Rhizopus mignicans: 4--- .-- 2 - = cee eet eee Present shipping practices... .-.-.9--0----- 02: -=eaaqeReee: eee ee eee Sources of infection by Rhizopus niericans.:: a ag-2s6e. oer Summary). =.=. - 222.2. aes eee = oe eee eee eee eee Literattire citéed..-....2.--scbbeee eee sect oe ee eee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 532.—TuHr EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF Con- CRETE AND CONCRETE Roaps: Laboratory measurements of expansion and contraction............------- Results of expansion and contraction measurements. .....--..----------- Measuring the contraction and expansion of concrete roads.........-.----- Results of test measurements at Chevy Chase, Md.......-..----..------- Expansion and contraction of Ohio Post Road............---------------- General discussion of the expansion and contraction of concrete pavements. Conclusions. .5 220 0.2.2.2. 5-5-5022 cbeee.- +. 2eRloe oS eee oe ee eee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 533.—ExTENSION OF CoTTON PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA: Introduction: 3 - ct, .. is seis ot. ae - 1. Sd ee ee Increasing demands for long-staple cotton...........---0---2-5--smeee === New types of cotton available... . 2... cae... = -.s,002 = 22ers Cotton formerly erown in California. . .wjo.2 issues Dee ee eee eee Extent of possible cotton territory in California. .............--.--------- Natural conditions favorable... 2... .c'..--+.- -..4 > sib cee ee eee ee Leturns that may be expected from cotton........----is5..22-25222hess-- Labor requirements of cotton... 94 be'=- cp PM sats usa fe coke pe ectose cs oe yennetone Even waist Mewlibera Gline aice sete eitsc cies cis << etre see earns tea OP ee io AOR ee act "TN i) ROSTER OAS ea a pn OE cee eee a (Ca rere raa see esa a VSS ae as SI I NE SER I ES AWicai Mere OmloltkOnserarr mete len iauee tats.) Ue BANMN aE a cers Soe Scher Se eet Rens elatuvesusceptioility of apple varieties. 2225.2. .2 25. - eset Sacer VeMMeGialimMeAaS nese ay = .5 jel a ee ee Re eR A Ge Re SUMO U EDN YS apes naa ae 5 Da ra RE a iG a eNO) A) a SL JL THA ST RARER) OTE leet ge ap RR SR OI SE 6 ACME RETO Sat DEPARTMENT BuuuETiIn No. 535.—THe Horse-RADISH FLEA BEETLE: ITs Lire History AND DISTRIBUTION: mPowo moor coNr a SRRTUB THEN HOT ase a chao at a hans REN ow ye di peor Ney S cae atin Re axe fans = lo eae 1 IWESEEUD LUV emer a emis e ernie tesa ls Sacete aN aie SNES UNG BOR E'S 3 Drscmnuiionmin, North AMenCasjco5-5020. 202k ae ee oo eee Rie eee 5 Wineamvam GGA SeenaMa GION a eee ne... Sey ce iy ae ce See ee Dee a tee 6 ireMmeNmOUUNLerattOue tte cee teen. an oe Se eee eee Ey 7 Roodsplamtsmey sce verener sees Ne ee ee a cman eae Deere sai hae tise 8 SDS CAD IVS Waa es nl nee pn Re PR ee goa gD 8 Recent injury.....--- alti te ES ps Oi er yet Gm eee. ea mann ie 12 INicc OUI, CINGITOIES ese pis eo SOBRE ee ISI alam meate ln op i biat aah ps 13 PMBSO CIR AOGL TUTE CU he hate eta ail hat ie he ge ena aN be ales 13 Reo KOM OM ERO ters re setae Nae EO ie ve ete Sees 13 SIDER TORT EY sehen eV hl aU Ao uP pe 14 TBS OVATE OL ONY ite yest beee dee A s/o ts elon Hanae atelier sea Pepa 15 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 5386.—THE MEDITERRANEAN Fruit Fry 1n Hawat: TSN ERG (CLC Yea A ek, NH RR ES a date eh ae eae 1 We cmb ena eee eee eee. «Senin a ap Sey tO See ner 2 CYRISAE 5 oem eh costae Ae a eR arena iA A dee a ee aR 2 TE AS TETTH DUCITRINGST GS pacha lll Sa fl A amis aie” MSE, Si eh Nae a Me et ee 3 SOUneeomeawallal ItestatiON. <<>> kee: Lys bees Teel asses 8 Conditions favorable to establishment in the Hawajian Islands. .......... 9 Ecomomnmve IMM OTtAMC Cn esata es sete te sce ns rae a Seed nae aN aiegey bara 15 TOF TTIE Ys 5 Sept REA ue oS ah 2 La a gia NO ee ne aaa 16 UST OVO GS DI SOTRSENG Leese neil eer ey em ame sya ay ig in a 18 TE-OStb TOOT Steric exerts seer ia mate ef i ae ef ae a aa repute 21 PiewichOnyaanadcceseriptrones* {eee Ss eo ee Ne ae es 49 CASO UA StOnye es ae eee sete neg Se NS TAN NE en eo 75 2S BuT Cz , GOSUTRO tere ea seh a ers eR igh eS nara a a 77 AT USUENGUA | COUT ROD eras eo oe esc: ccs mM aa al a aaa aS 101 SUCCEIIT WAY: alacant lb a nai ge spel. ote ul an i eal 116 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 537.—THE ReEsuLTS oF PuysicaL Tests or Roap- BUILDING Rock 1Nn 1916, INCLUDING ALL CoMPRESSION TESTS: Hime CHING TOMye eens Ne Teeemi eS te aly ee cre ac es Lee 1 Crusis shrensth oriconmpressiom test: - 2. o 2. 0-sse cmos. 2 oe rs - retet 1 Interpretation of results of physical tests..... Scale BISA HO OF RNR GET TR 2 Table I.—Results of physical tests of road-building rock in 1916.......... 3 Table II.—Results of compression tests of rock to January 1, 1917.......-.- iy Table I11.—Geographical distribution of rock samples tested to January 1, NOIRE Smet eree NER se winds MMR (YA ONAN! EES: VECTOR Bi oh Pe Se 22, Table I1V.—General limiting test values for broken stone..............---- 23 DEPARTMENT Butietin No. 538.—SHrimp: Hanpiinc, TRANSPORTATION, AND USEs: VGTIBE cd Es NR ae te enc cal aed epee Ne Ua eee ra cee il TE GBNSUMT IE? sm esteesnges se sheet tala eapllci ae AgebSe piV,bof aM e eig f 2 HO THINS coe ares ie est css pa es mem ez a Se eC aR a 2 Erepsnine cooked shrimip ion market. 5-0 4eot vs ce eae ee ee 5 RAckinesrawishnina py torshipmentess. 5272 ee ums inet. ak thy ae 6 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 526-550, DEPARTMENT BuLieTiIn No. 538.—SHrimp: Havo. «a, 1. ’ NSPORTATION, AND Uses—Continued: Page. Dried shrimp and other specialives: ---..- 0 0.2-- -. een ee ee 6 Foau valine Gt shrimp meat. - ore. oS tee | ee ee ee 7 Upivasiion etshrimp waste. - 8... 2.2. 22a 2 eee ee 7 SUIMIMNATY gee ee ne Ss eens SOR ee ete Oe ea 8 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 539. is LEssER Corn STALK-BORER: Intraduciton=:- 25320-77224 2-2 SRR2 2202002 Dee 1 Biconomie historys oso. 352 42 SoS; 2 os Se eee 2 Systematic history and synonymy: -:.5-..5 252 aie jee ee eee eee 3 Geoesraphical distribution: -: 25292222: : 522 222 22252 eee 4 Food planis=..=.*-2/.2.:4 5,30 55ens : - (Lee eee 5 Recent-imjuries:-. 22/222 ssa 3 ee eee 6 Deseriptions: > 2222.8) 3252 2-2 tee. - en ee ee eee 8 Seasonal history 2-253 22.0 2 1 ee ee ee ee 12 Rearine methods: 3*+)--* =~) +) Sees: h: - See eS ee eee 23 Nafnral enemies ! 22225722525 fee 2 ee 12 Methods: of control: 22: = 2225 ee 24 Literature cited £2.41. 2213/2 AREO?. 91.177 eee eee 25 DEPARTMENT BuwuetTin No. 540.—A First-yYEAR CoursE In Home Eco- NOMICS FOR SOUTHERN AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS: ec Buuietin No. 541.—CooperativE ORGANIZATION ae LAWS: imporiance’of by-laws... ......-<24.- . - 2 - =n eee ee ee 1 Adaptation of by-laws io local needs... . 222220222 -he2 ee oe ee 2 Importance and advantages of incorporation........:........---------- 2 Section 6 of the Claytoniamendmenty....2 2.202 25. eee eee eee 3 Dealing with nonmembers. -- ..2 2sasacwe=2 - 22 oa eee 5 Differences between the nonstock and stock form organization.......-.--- 6 Financing and perpetuating nonstock organizations............---.------- if Section 6.and existing organizations «3. =o: ee 10 Section 6 organizations and State incorporation laws..........------------ 12 Section 6-and the State antitrust laws. -.- 225 222/-2 3252 eee 12 Adopting: therbyAawe:-2--- vos: Saale 2 42 eee ee 12 Caution that the department’s views of law are not conclusive......----.--- 13 Suggested form of by-laws for a cooperative nonprofit marketing asso- ciation formed without capital stock *2 2550-2.) seo eee eee 14 Suggested form of by-laws for a cooperative marketing association formed with capital stock: 2225222. {532885 2.: 2 (35 See ee eee 22 DEPARTMENT Buxietin No. 542.—THE PoLiinaTION oF THE MANGO: Introduction: 2222... 22 5S. . = = = Gaps ~ 2 2 ee eee 1 The mango flower and its pollination. -.-.-. 1... jecga-ce- and, Joe eee 2 The pollens.°. >. . 22. oe b22en sore - ~~ Sa eee 9 The production of fruit. ...- =. 2-2 2eee - - - -..- 2-256 eee 13 Flowering habits of the mango..--<--...... 22. sen eee ee 16 Summary. <2... te Lee - «2 be ee ee 20 DEPARTMENT BuuueTiIn No. 543.—Conrrou or Preach BaAcTEeRIAL Spor IN SOUTHERN ORCHARDS: Introductions... 2... en sce ee: > - ee ee Description of the disease. >. 202 Seid. - -. devices: Cee ee Cause of the diséase- “2.2. oc soe eee Varietal susceptibility. .-..-. 92-2 trace: - -..2.cee se ee eee 548 1-12 AUNE, BEYER, “and F. D. Farre.t, bulletin on “‘Effect of fall irriga- tion on crop ’ yields at Belle Fourche, Saale? sss. a2 eee 546 1-15 Australasia, Mediterranean fruit fly, distribution and Tavages. .....-- 536 5-6 : ; 3 4 : 5 ; Be 17, 24 Avocado, infestation with Mediterranean fruit fly, in Hawaii......-- 5364 43-45, 69 Back, E. A., and C. E, Pemprrron, bulletin on “‘The Mediterranean ruil fly una wag so. ce ea A so = ade ys 536 1-119 Bacterial spot, peach, control in southern orchards, bulletin by John W.. Roberts. ....-.+.....-.-. 8b oa st. De ee ee 543 1-7 Bacteriosis, peach, control 22 ...- ). dee: ea eee eee 541 1-23 Beans, cooking, lesson outlines for first year and correlative studies. 540 39 Beardtongue, blue, description, habits, and forage value......-.---- 545, cae Beer, spruce; source. and. use... . 28843-02020. Oe eee 544 Beetle— eastern spruce, damage to spruce, and control.-..-.--.-.------ 544 27, 28 southern pine, damage to spruce, and control........-.-..----- 544 27, 28 Beetles, bark and wood borers, injury to pine and spruce, habitsand . control... 5. -.2le cel et eee 544 27-29 Beets, yield, effect of fall irrigation in South Dakota. ---- - Bene one 546 6, 7 Belle Fourche experiment farm, fall irrigation, effect on crop yield, bulletin by F. D. Farrell and. Beverage — 22 eeeee eee 546 1-15 Bermuda Islands, Mediterranean fruit fly, distribution and ravages. 536 6 Bestill, infestation with Mediterranean fruit flys. 22s eee 536 24, 48 Biiuines, Georce A., bulletin on “‘Seasonal distribution of farm labor in Chester County, Pa’) ..---cee <. ¢< see eee 528 1-29 Bird house, construction exercise for rural schools...-.-.---.-....-- 527 11-18 Blotch, apple, and its control, bulletin by John W. Roberts.....--- 534 1-11 Bluegrass— little, description, habits, and forage value.-........----.---.- 5454 a ad region, Kentucky, business of ten dairy farms, bulletin by J. H. Amold....7 2.0 32a a ee - 3 ae ee eno ee eee 548 J-12 Bluejoint, description, habits, and forage value.....--.-...-------- 545 15-16 Bordeaux mixture, use against apple biptch ..62.2..26 . 52 ic)'ia' — ~ 2-okahe a a Re ini e <6 Scare Sr 541 5 records, methods of obtaining... 4. ani... «s2..sebd ao ee 529 2-7 surveys, averages and errors, studies....-..-.----------seetee 529 9-13 INDEX. Farmers— cooperative organizations— by-laws, importance, and suggestions. .....-..------.--.-- classes of business, by States..........-...:--..----.---- status under Clayton Amendment to Antitrust Law, discus- cooperative purchasing and marketing organizations in the United States, bulletin by O. B. Jesness and W. H. Kerr.... mutual fire insurance company, organization and management, ule tunnel Nie NYS Wiglerems |e) Paige 8 OL eve eas tal ofeian Farming— available days for field operations, by months and crops..-.-.-.- Chester County, Pa., types and methods...........-...------- field operations, length of seasons and succession of operations, WATLOUSCLOMS! Mes neers el ie Muy eM ARE ay einen, muck of aa Farms, dairy, business of 10 in blue-grass region of Kentucky, bulle- GTM pe Peels Atrsra O Cleiare see A ESAS Oa a ie eaten adie any | Farrew., F. D., and Beyer Auns, bulletin on ‘Effect of fall irri- gation on crop yields at Belle Fourche, South Dakota?’.........-- Feed— dairy cows, cost on 10 farms in blue-grass region.............-- hopper, poultry, construction, directions for schools...-....-.... Fertilizer, shrimp, utilization and value, note.................... Fertilizers, peach orchards, experiments in control of disease... ...- Festuca viridula, description, habits and forage value......-..------ Rie saostot Mediterranean fruit fly; 0.4. .5.226..-022 5-2 eee ele Fire insurance— POMKeinaVicheml Wells uoionie te sean ay ck ue cee Ie Baal company, farmers’ mutual— Membership, Oficlalsimiskssebesy! vole es sash e eta. organization and management, bulletin by V. N. Valgren- - Pikes Ganeers LOS PEUCeHLEEeS 22. ie ealind . 2. aes. i 2 Bi gia A aad Fireweed, description, habits and forage value on range.........-.- Fish, shrimp, handling, transportation and uses, bulletin by Ernest D. Clark, Leslie McNaughton, and M. E, Pennington............ Plats, gardener’s, construction amd uses:.1.. 222.2 so ee. cc el veel le. Flax, yield, effect of fall irrigation, in South Dakota.............. Flea-beetle, horse-radish— coniroljby sprayine and replanting 22.90 ere Sek as distribution, list of localities where found......... Brie, Sieh rae life history and distribution, bulletin by F. H. Chiutenden and Neaiea Howard 3 ataee aust pis. co atelig aan Hop eanirhe cooperative organizations— ’ eigerty ot lawiceees + vase Meee te ally epee the Breezing /etiect/on Mediterranean fruit fly.......................2 Fruit— associations, cooperative, location, number, methods, etc.....-- cooking lessons for first-year classes, and correlative studies. ___. Bulletin No. Page. 5412-23 547 «19-95 541 3-5 B47 1-82 5304s 84 528 8 528 4-8 528-1 BAS ans jd le 546, gif dais 548 4 527 «27-28 538 7-8 543 5-7 545 6-9, 58, 59 536 84. 37 530 12 530 «2-34 530i elead 544. 23-24 43-44, 55 58 66 538 Lg 527: 21-29 546 6,7 535 «13-14 535 5 BB nal 16 535 67 5386 112-115 547 68 15, 40, 547{ 43-44 537 45 538 7 545 «61-63 545 1-63 527 «2-95 30-31 55 58, 59 536. 109-111 9-10, 12, pan] 51, 56-59 540-24, 25 8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 526-550, Fruit—Continued. fly, Mediterranean— geonirol, natural and artificial 2. 0i2c2 is ee eee host fruits in Hawaii, list and description................ in Hawaii, bulletin by E. A. Back and C. E. Pemberton... lifehistery'and description =. -. -.: cv. 168. ea spread: methods 32)... ../33eee. . ».\. Saks Ve ee protection from insects by bags:-......2.-....s0c2.. co0nsuen Rhizopus rot; occurrence... : 25 sae ns so a Fruits— covering as protection against Mediterranean fruit fly... .-..... Hawaiian, spreading the Mediterranean fruit flies.........-..- infested, disposal, for control of Mediterranean fruit fly. ....-.. injury by Mediterranean fruit fly, nature and appearance. -..-. Fungi, growth on strawberries, varieties.-.....:..-...-------------- Gall louse, spruce, injury to spruce, note....5..2..-.2-.02 22 e220.4 Gate iarm.. construction ..2. <=> 5 so eee 2 = eee eee eee Georgia— cooperative organizations, types, membership and volume of business, LOM2=19L5. os aoe - Bee eee road-building rock, physical tests2u-. -). 5.222289. See Geranitum— viscosissimum, description, habits, and forage value......-..---- wild, description, habits, and forage value..........---------- Germinator, seed, construction, exercises for rural schools..-.......- Gins, cotton, community control, advantages. ...-..-------------- GoupBEcK, A. T., and F. H. Jackson, Jr., bulletin on ‘‘The expan- sion and contraction of concrete and concrete roads”..-.--------- Grape belt, Erie-Chautauqua, control of grape-berry moth, bulletin by Dwight Isely...:,.1.0..: 29:2 .2peeie eh eee ee Grape-berry moth— control in Erie-Chautauqua grape belt, bulletin by Dwight Isely- distribution and habits. -..-.2. 2285.02. 2. 2e eee eee Grapefruit, infestation with Mediterranean fruit flyin Hawaii. ...... Grapes— infestation with Mediterranean fruit fly..........--...---.---- spraying, mixtures and schedule for grape-berry moth......-..- Grass, elk, description, habits, and forage value. ......--..--.--..- See also Bluegrass; Bluejoint; Brome grass; Bromus; Bunch grass; Elk grass; Hair grass; June grass; Pine grass: Redtop; Reed grass; Wheat grass. Grasses— key to tribes and ‘penera.- 2-2... 22 eeee----2-..25-e ee range, description and forage valiie- 225... ...:21 [2222 ee eee true; morphology ~-. ... 3 doo ciety ~ = Selatan Guavas, hosts of Mediterranean fruit fly in Hawaii................- Hair-grass— slender, description, habits and forage value........-..--.----- tufted, description, habits and forage value.............--.---- Handicraft, farm, exercises for rural schools, bulletin by H. O. Lt Se ah SNP. Harlequin cabbage bug, pest of horse-radish, note.......-.........- Hawaii— conditions favorable to establishment of Mediterranean fruit fly. laa ate fruit fly, bulletin by E. A. Back and C. E. Pem- DOLUOM « 7 in nels che isa)h ich slate a cto bin 6 ores REI o.«' «aloha eee = eae Hawaiian Islands, map, showing relation to spread of fruit fly.....-- Bulletin No. Page. 536 77-115 11-15, 536 24-48 536. «1-119 536 «49-76 536 «18-31 536 101 531 9-11 536 101-102 5, 5364 24-48 536 115 536. 16-18 531 4 544 OT 527 36-37 547-15, 40 537 6,17 42-43, 5431 58-60 49-43, 545, 58, 60 527. «13-17 533 «12-13 532 1-31 550 1-44 550 qa 550 9-5 24, 28-29, 536, 39-33 536 «24, 48 550 13-39, 40 34-36 545 58, 59 545 5-6 545 4-31 545 4 12, 13, 24 536) 7 45-46 17-19, 545 58-59 16-17, 545, 58, 59 527 1-38 535 1 536 9-15 536 ~—s« 1-119 536 8-9 INDEX. 9 Bulletin No. Page, ; ° 23, 24, 25, Health, relations of water, food, etc., course for first-year classes. -. . 5404 24 49 Hellebore, false, description habits and forage value ...-..-.-.-.---- 5454 ae Hemp, growing on dairy farm in bluegrass region, advantages and POUIT IBS oe els ee yal cal aa fea MN 548 3 Hewnis, C. M., plowing records and comparisons, in North Dakota. 529 6 Hiaracium cygnoglossoides, description, habits and forage value. . . - - :: 5454 ae a Home economics, first-year course for southern agricultural schools, cunyoy Mouise Stanley2 60.0.2. ies. 3. oe ose Sete ose eee 540 1-58 Honolulu, climatic conditions....... eh eels. eee erro een Ne teers 536 9-10 Horsemint, description, habits, and forage value on range......-..-- 5454 ae Horse-radish— flea-beetle, life history and distribution, bulletin by F. H. Chit- hemdeupand: -Nealevk). HOW amd 2.14 ore: d-nortetmernioiecie seme 535 1-16 value of crop and insects injurious, note.........--.----------- 535 1 Higiocde comstniction) directions... 00's ese 527 19-21 House, cleaning, lesson outlines for first year, and correlative studies. sao Tee Howarp, Neate F., and F. H. Currrenpen, bulletin on ‘‘The horse-radish flea-beetle: Its life history and distribution”........ 535 1-16 Huspsparp Prevost, and FRANK H. Jackson, JR., bulletin on “The results of physical tests of road-building rock in 1916, in- eludinallcommpressiow tests /2422292 146+ 7-202 c ee ee 537 1-23 Huckleberry, high, description, habits, and forage value on range. 545 46, 58, 60 Hurdle, stock judging, COUMStMWMELTOM es se a's ee ere ea et 527 Idaho, cooperative organizations, types, membership, and volume of business, IGOLTO TE pat ean 7 a 8 Sa Sen 547 15 Ilinois— cooperative organizations— GUPesiai laws. 0 20t sere ae. OUND Soa a Rainer s st Shia 547 69 types, membership, and volumeof business. .......------- 547 16 Road pouldine rock. \plivsicaly testsusee <2 ete cers See Se 537 The Wi Incorporation, importance, and advantages, to farmers’ organizations 541 2-3 Indiana— cooperative organizations— CLE OSE OT NER Seats seer sa wea INN Se Ose! rey tee reer 547 69 types, membership, and volume of business, 1912-1915..... 547 16 RoaGoouliaime tock physical tests-2 se... 2. bs ee oo 537 16 7 Inkberry, Chinese, infestation with Mediterranean fruit fly in LEIBA MTL IS ie BES ace lee Ne ch cana ot, ie PRS noes OS eri ee 536 24, 27 Insecticides. See Bordeaux mixture. isects: injuries to spruce trees, list. J... 22... 2. wee 544 27-29 Insurance, fire, farmers’ mutual, organization and management, ‘pligtom ly Woe Wellgkenl acerca on soc Ss auene ee eos iss oo wees 530 1-34 Jowa, cooperative organizations— SERN, Ob LIBRIS aS ei Ni MOIR ge Saeco al Ral 547 69-70 types, membership, and volume of business, 1912-1915. ......- 547 16 Irrigation, fall, effect on crop yields at Belle Fourche, S. Dak., ipelletin iby; KF. Ds Barrell and. -BeyertA une sss 32552 S2ht So. eases! 546 1-15 IseLy, Dwieut, bulletin on ‘‘Control of the grape-berry moth in the glee hamiaulguaetapevelt (2). oases: ennui rete le 550 1-44 Jackson, F. H., Jr.— and A. T. GoLDBECK, bulletin on “The expansion and con- traction of concrete and concrete roads” ye 532 1-31 and Prevost Hussarp, bulletin on “The results of “physi- cal tests of road- puilding rock in 1916, including all compres- SLOTS tas ae matte a iy noms hs Lagat nn d9 4 Ue Si 8 537 1-23 Jambosa malaccensis, infestation with Mediterranean fruit fly.-.... 536 24-37 Jams, making, lesson outlines for first year, and correlative studies.. 540 15 J elly, making, outlines for first-year lessons, and correlative studies. 540 11, 12,18 ae 10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 526-550. Jesngss, O. B.,— Bulletin No. Page. and C. E. Bassert, bulletin on ‘‘Cooperative organization by- laws” ... BG. 2 BIE Sie 541 1-23 and W. H. “Kerr, ‘pulletin on “Cooperative purchasing and marketing organizations among farmers in the United States” 547 1-82 Juncoides parviflora, description, habits, and forage value.....-..-..- 545, oa 4 Juncus parryi, description, habits, and forage value........-.-..-.- 545, + eS June grass, mountain, description, habits, and forage value....-.... Kamani— ball, nuts, infestation with Mediterranean fruit flies-..........- winged, infestation with Mediterranean fruit fly.............-. Kansas, cooperative organizations— eet Ofdlaws= =. 26255 256,56 528 e Ree ee «025 eee ere types, membership, and volume of business, 1912-1915........ Kentucky— rere grass region, business of ten dairy farms, bulletin by J. H. (UNTO OS SS Sa apes Sed Sit J oo bee Sm eee SasisShocscccse z cooperative organizations, types, membership, and volume of business, 1912—-191> 2 nas yates ce tae 332 eee road- building rock; physical:testese¢2: : 5.32. 242208 Bae eee Kerr, W. H., and O. Be ESNESS, bulletin on ‘“‘Cooperative pur- chasing and marketing organizations among farmers in the United Gates? 2c coe eee cen aes pee ee. 2 eee ee ae Koeleriaoristata, description, habits, and forage value.....-....----- Labor— cooperative organizations, by-laws, importance, and suggestions. cotton, requirements in California.222 -.-.2 2.4. Sseneeee eee efficiency, conditions affecting, Chester County, Pa.....-.-.----- farm, seasonal distribution in Chester County, Pa., bulletin by George A. Billings.2 2.220222. See). 2 SSeS eee income, dairy farms in blue-grass region.....---..----.-------- Laboratory, equipment for teaching home economics.........------ Laundry, lesson outlines for first-year classes, and correlative studies. Laws— antitrust, rulings not within Department’s junds ee cautions - cooperativ e organizations— digest, by Statesoosc. eu. SORRY - 2.2. . Soe BURMMIATY ~... 04a). == sone = eee Bee eee 547 12 types, membership, and volume of business, 1912-1915.... 547 19 road-building rock, physical tests.....-...........- ce eee 537 10 New Mexico— cooperative organizations— digest of laws. 2. 2..5. Soc) Sake ages o> - ope eee ee 547 72 types, membership, and volume of business, 1912-1915.... 547 20 road-building rock, physical tests:252-.. 22. =2--00-2 See eee 537 10 New York— cooperative organizations— digest:of laws. fy. 0 Sue. Se: eee 547 72-73 types, membership, and volume of business, 1912-1915.... 547 20, 40 road-building rock, ‘physical tests. s=-): ..... S2osse- oe eee eee 537 10, 19 North Carolina— cooperative organizations— digest of laws. 2.25... eee 547 72 types, membership, and volume of business, 1912-1915.... 547 20, 40 cotton, single-stalk culture, experiments and yields............ 526 ake road-building rock, physical tests: ->25-......=...0 assem eee 537 11, 20 North Dakota, cooperative organizations— digest of laws"... .......254.-seeeReee - - 2-40 pce 547 73-74 types, membership, and volume of business, 1912-1915........ 547 20 Oates, M. B., investigations of labor in Louisiana................ 529 5-6 Oats— growing— Jalior Tequirenicnts. - = -- 25> ce awee- - cane eee 528 15, 18, 23 SUCCessION Of Operaiaons.°_--2< Bees... 02. ees ern 528 9-10 ite yield, effect of fall irrigation in South Dakota................ 546 6,7 o— cooperative organizations— digestiot lawsy: >: sae ss... 2s SGeeee. 25.2 2 ee 547 74 types, membership, and volume of business, 1912-1915... 547 21 post road, expansion and contraction, measurements, tests... . 532 20-27, 28 road-building rock, physical tests. 22-0... ...0). 2524 see 537 11-12, 20 Oil mills, cotton, community control, advantages.............-.-- 533 12-13 Oklahoma— cooperative organizations, types, membership, and volume of Dusiness, LOLOL hss A ee oreo chance cee 547 21 road- building rock, crushing tontoLeeees, :....22.poulaec see 537 20 INDEX, 13 Bulletin No. Page. Oleander, yellow, infestation with Mediterranean fruit fly.........- Onion— grass, description, habits, and forage value.............--.-.-- mountain, description, hanits, and forage value.........---.-.-- Opius humilis, parasite of Mediterranean fruit fly, description, etc. . Oranges, infestation with Mediterranean fruit fly in Hawaii.......- Orchards— apple, occurrence of apple blotch and control measures......-.- peach, control of bacterial spot in South, bulletin by John W. TRRaT IVERSEN aes P a ale adie cece hele ie BA Meee Di hanes Mle ge Oregon, cooperative organizations— GINGASIE OH IERIE esis Siete chats et eee ee eae es ONE Res it teeta _ types, membership, and volume of business, 1912-1915.......- Ozarks, peach bacterial spot, injury and control experiments. ....-. Packinge— materials, spread of Mediterranean fruit fly........--.-..----- SiraiperoOr Market, sOLACCeS: go 5. cee ek ee es alesis cance Palm, sugar, fruit, infestation with Mediterranean fruit fly in Hawaii. Panicularis nervata, description, habits, and forage value.....-...-- Papaya, infestation with Mediterranean fruit fly in Hawaii........ Parasites— fruit fly— deseniptien and, Uses ss. coe SRR ET ts eR OT PARC Scr ry improducton into kawal, mistonye -vT Nee 2 see eee 2 rearing in Hawaii, methods.......................------- MM MEVeS GO SPruCce trees, NSESe) oss... ce eee eee teens Passion vine fruits, infestation with Mediterranean fruit fly.......- Pavements, concrete— expansion and contraction, discussion.........--....--------- expansion and contraction, measuring methods..........-.-..--- Peach— orchard, fertilization experiments in control of disease......-.-.- orchards, southern, control of bacterial spot, bulletin by John NWVAUIENOD CL GGe las ceags stores ae yal nce lee o/c aieahcn cys een Se ED I SEED trees, bacterial spot disease, injury and control...........-.-.- Peaches— ‘ infestation with Mediterranean fruit fly, various countries... ... EVLMZOD IS LOb, OCCUIEEMEC sash. sncmiey «ou cco cc petyecinie oan ane . Pears— infestation with Mediterranean fruit fly.................--...- be7OpUS TOL, OCCURENCE. =. 2 sa. 0 9ee . 2. oes cine le eitgeinee sees PEMBERTON, C. E., and E. A. Back, bulletin on ‘The Mediterra- BAM ITN iey nie VRAD 2 cols oe a UR 2 oak ee cr ne Ge IE Penicillium rot, occurrence in strawberries...........-...--.---.- Pennineton, M. E., Ernest D. Criarx, and Leste MacNaucu- TON, bulletin on “Shrimp: Handling, transportation, and uses’’.. Pennsylvania— Chester County— farm-management survey, territory surveyed and methods. . seasonal distribution of farm labor, bulletin by George iN Une ee coe ho ce =~ = PR IONE See | ot cooperative organizations— digest of: laws: 94522 -D00T Oe LL SORTED waitchivrs 10o8 types, membership, and volume of business, 1912-1915. . grape-berry moth, control experiments....................-.-- road-building, physical Pests TES eeenOl pests see eine 527 27-29 Power companies, purchase of crossties, 1915, by kinds of wood..... 549 8 Precipitation, Belle Fourche,:S. Dak 2egee. ....-.-<-Seeee eee eee 546 2 Preservatives, wood, use on crossties, OWS... ot Ree ee Bea eee 549 7 Preserves, lesson outlines for first year, and correlative studies..... 540 de i TS ? Produce associations, cooperative, location, number, methods, etc.. 547 Ani 56-59 Publications, cotton culture, Jist..d:2 oie. - : 21 Sane eee 533 16 Pulp; paper; use of spruce, note....-.. encase: >+--+sessseseeieeear 544 2 Pulpwood, spruce, consumption, 1909........-... 2.0.25 - sec esnees 544 4 Purchasing organizations, cooperative (and marketing), among farmers in United States, bulletin by O. B. Jesness and W. H. CUT. oo acek steed hoe W aie Suis 0-3 bcc DER - - «Slee ene ee 547 1-82 Quince, host of Mediterranean fruit fly..................-.-.------ 536 24, 36 Radicula armoracia. See Horse-radish. “‘Rag-doll” seed tester, description and management........-.---- 527 16-17 Railroads, purchase of crossties, 1915, by kinds of wood..........--- 549 3,4, 5-6 Railways, electric, purchase of ‘crossties, 1915, by kinds of wood..... 549 3 Range plants— important, life history and forage value, bulletin by Arthur W. Sampson Ie gece ois dds ocak Cislatet aig col Duiepn REM =), Syst RA eee 45 1-63 moisture requirements, blooming periods, etc......------------ 545 58-60 INDEX. Bulletin No Redtop, Alpine, description, habits, and forage value.............. Reed grass, slender, description, habits, and forage value....-..... Reforestation— spruce forests, sowing and planting, methods..........--...... spruce trees, unfavorable competition from other tree species. . . Remoeration strawberries in transit. 622.5. sr ess lee cee eee Rhizopus— nigrigans, nature, occurrence on plants, etc., studies....-..--.-- rot of strawberries in transit, bulletin by Neil EK. Stevens and 184, TBs: NAVAL Xo: craes preset erties marae Mis Nga aa ge Lae a SR Rhode Island— cooperative organizations, types, SOs tay and volume of business, 1912-1915 Be as Sy aaenie aittate cleia.crs isa nat giasie Ss mane ee ro ee road building, plysical-testse= sees a ae ok els ae Road-building rock, physical tests in 1916, including compression tests, bulletin by Prevost Hubbard and Frank H. Jackson, jr---. Roads, concrete, expansion and contraction, bulletin by A. T. Cumdoeckeand Ma Ea Jackson jr stues 8. 2... chee eee Seka eet Roserts, Joun W., bulletin on— eM pleiblotel and its COniUOly Uaisees.).-.sten ses ye eee ajee ““Control of peach bacterial spot in southern orchards”.......- 8 F. E., creamery investigations in New Jieapehie ae ae vOCK— road-building, physical tests in 1916, and compression tests, bulletin by Prevost Hubbard and Frank H. J ACKSOM eileen RESIS Oates ANG TOCAItIes ets Wee eee ee tae Rot, Rhizopus, of strawberries in transit, bulletin by Neil E. Stevens Pee PPM icons. 1 eT ah Soe IMED PS nce Atle MAE A Rush— @eseription, habits, aid forage vale: - 3-202. 2 22 een et noes So. eee. ae eee Jetss ROPES see cone Riverdale......... J. W. Sears. 1D Ys ARS Seen SSE ee ees iB. CAgbetersonls eee neoeee os Vanceboro......-- _ Do. 1 Three experiments were conducted at this point. When the farms were visited on August 13, 1915, the conditions all appeared favorable to single-stalk culture. However, repeated requests have failed to bring any report of the final results obtained, so these experiments can not be included herein. In the case of some of the farmers listed in the table, as will be pointed out later, relatively poor stands were obtained, for which certain allowances must be made. In most of the cases in which the stands were uniformly good, a fairly adequate comparison of methods was possible; but in others, as will be shown, thinning certainly was done too late to secure the best results, and in some instances the crop may have been injured in this way. METHODS OF PROCEDURE. SELECTION OF COOPERATORS. : The county agents selected from among thefarmers in theirrespective counties (or parishes) a few of those who were most interested and gave evidence of being able to carry out instructions. They are not necessarily the best farmers in their respective counties, but they are representative of the better farmers. Their farms are so distributed as to afford conditions fairly typical of those over a large part of each State, except in the case of Arkansas, where flood damage re- sulted in the abandonment of most of the experiments that were begun. Although the experiments in North Carolina were confined to the eastern district, a large part of the total cotton-growing acreage of the State is represented. In Louisiana, experiments were conducted in sections typical of the larger areas of the State where cotton is grown. EXPERIMENTS WITH SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE. 5 PLAN OF THE EXPERIMENTS. The county or parish agents were requested to make arrangements with the farmers for conducting the experiments on ordinary fields of cotton, planted and cultivated in the usual manner. It was sug- gested that a more accurate comparison of the systems of culture employed would be possible if the methods were compared in alternate rows and in alternate blocks of 4 or 5 rows. To do thisit would be nec- essary to thin at the usual time each alternate row or block and leave the others for later thinning. In several instances this plan was fol- lowed, but in some instances comparisons were made only in alternate rows. In one case in Louisiana an entire acre, located in the center of a field of several acres, was grown by the single-stalk method. THINNING SINGLE-STALK ROWS. Any intelligent grower, after a little careful observation, can tell when to thin; but for the purpose of these experiments it was con- sidered more dependable actually to demonstrate the method than merely to issue written instructions. Accordingly, some one familiar with the new system directed the thinning of the single-stalk rows in most of the experiments. The few farmers whose farms it was im- practicable to visit at this time thinned according to written instruc- tions, and these experiments were, with one or two exceptions, fairly dependable. The general advantage obtained in applying single-stalk culture is the suppression of vegetative branches. ‘The distance at which the plants should stand in the row is a secondary consideration and must be regulated to suit local conditions, but as a rule the largest yields have been obtained with the plants much closer together than is now customary. Accordingly, the plants in the single-stalk rows of these experiments were spaced 6 to 10 inches, the standard aimed at being about 8 inches. The plants as thinned by the farmers in the old-method rows were variously spaced, according to usual practice, 18 to 36 inches. RECORDING THE YIELDS. The recording of yields in each case was left with the farmer, who in some instances was assisted by the county agent. However, it was requested that the yield from each row at each picking be re- corded separately, and blanks for this purpose were furnished. Row yields were reported by 17 of the 21 farmers, while only total yields were reported by 4 farmers. The general rule followed was to have the picking done from only one row at a time and have the yield of that row recorded before proceeding to the next. 6 BULLETIN 526, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RESULTS OBTAINED. As these experiments were largely demonstrational, it is of chief importance to consider their economic phases. While more detailed reports of the flower counts, boll counts, branch measurements, etc., would be of interest from the standpoint of a scientific consideration of the factors involved, these data are treated only incidentally in this report. The interest at this time lies in knowing whether single-stalk culture increased the yield of seed cotton, whether it had any effect on the percentage of lmt, and whether the quality of the lint was in any way affected. YIELDS OF SEED COTTON. The experiments are herein discussed by States, in the following order: Louisiana, Arkansas, North Carolina. In presenting the yields of seed cotton obtained, each experiment is first considered in detail, apart from the others. A summary table, bringing together the total yields of all the experiments, is then presented to facilitate comparisons. LovuIsIANA. The nine different experiments conducted in Louisiana, all under boll-weevil conditions, are considered by parishes, as follows: Pointe Coupee, in the south-central part of the State; Madison, in the north- eastern part; Bossier and Caddo, in the northwestern part. POINTE COUPEE PARISH. Two experiments were conducted in Pointe Coupee Parish, on the farms of Messrs. John Hebert and Alfred Robillard, near Ventress. They were about a quarter of a mile apart. Both are located on sandy soil, typical of that drained by the Mississippi River in this part of Louisiana, and in each instance the cotton was planted on low beds in rows 44 feet apart. Unfavorable weather influenced both crops early in the season, wet weather during March being followed by drought. The Hebert expervment.—Mr. John Hebert planted Sugarloaf cotton on May 10, which was considered unusually late in this section. He planted at the rate of 25 pounds per acre, which was heavier than usual. Germination was good, and an almost ideal stand was secured. Single-stalk culture was compared with the usual method in alternate rows, there being 14 rows of each. The old-method rows were thinned on May 25, when the plants, 3 to 4 inches high and with 2 to 3 leaves, were spaced about 18 inches apart. When the single-stalk rows were thinned on June 6, the plants were 10 to 12 inches high and had 6 to 8 leaves. ‘They were spaced 6 to 10 inches apart. Had the thinning of the single-stalk rows been done a little earlier, it is likely that it would have been EXPERIMENTS WITH SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE. if better, but, as Table II shows, significant differences in yield were obtained. Only the total yields of each picking were reported. TasLe II.— Yields, obtained in a single-stalk culture experiment with cotton conducted in 1915 by John Hebert, Ventress, La. Yield of seed cotton (pounds). Spacing system. First Second picking. | picking. | T0t@l- Single-stalk rows, thinned June 6..----.-------------- ocodeceneadacuesees 505 350 855 Old-method rows, thinned May 25......-..-.-.----------------+---------- 380 300 680 Difference: IPOWERG Bsc CoutomnabocodadSonuaaussHeoobucoqobebasssoodoucusescodposces 125 50 175 lege @iillitss dowe ab deaBent bes CRRA AOAC SABE E CASO E, oS AAS BOOB SBE eee eer on of 32.9 16.7 25.7 Table II shows single-stalk culture to have had a marked advan- tage from the standpoint of earliness as well as of total yield. Single- stalk culture yielded 32.9 per cent more cotton at the first picking than the old method, and 16.7 per cent more at the second picking. This gave an increase in total yield of 25.7 per cent. The Robillard expervment.—Mr. Robillard planted Bank Account cotton on May 6, using only 15 pounds of seed per acre. Only a fair stand was obtained; the seedlings were somewhat scattered and in some rows there were short skips. This made it impossible to apply single-stalk culture to the best advantage. Moreover, Mr. Robillard spaced the plants in the single-stalk rows farther apart than was recommended. ‘There were 20 rows in the experiment, the two systems of culture being compared in alternate rows. The old-method rows were thinned on May 19, when the plants were 4 to 5 inches high and had 2 to 3 leaves; the single-stalk rows were thinned on June 8, when the plants were about 10 inches high and had 7 to 8 leaves. The plants in the old-method rows were spaced 18 to 24 inches apart, and in single-stalk rows 10 to 12 inches. Three pickings were made in this experiment, and the yields are reported in Table III. Only the total yields of each picking were reported. TaBLE III.—Yv%elds obtained in a single-stalk culture experiment with cotton conducted in 1915 by Alfred Robillard, Ventress, La. Yield of seed cotton (pounds). Spacing system. First Second Third Total picking. | picking. | picking. the Single-stalk rows, thinned June 8..............-.----- (geht eel 226 211 169 606 Old-method rows, thinned May 19..................-------.--- 177 178 134 489 Difference: i HSU Se Aeers ETO VTi AS Weare eH Aon ait: ONY ye) FS 51 33 | 35 117 JETEIP GELORER' oe Rs stem dP ere Om a Ae PR ET 28.8 18.6 26.1 23.9 8 BULLETIN 526, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table III shows that the increase in yield from each picking favored single-stalk culture by 28.8, 18.6, and 26.1 per cent, respec- tively, giving a total increase of 23.9 per cent. MADISON PARISH.! Three experiments were conducted in Madison Parish, located at intervals of about 5 miles between Tallulah and Delta Point, the latter bordering on the Mississippi River. 'Two of these were on sandy alluvial soil, and the other was on heavy buckshot soil, both soils being fairly representative of types found in that section, known as the Delta. In all cases the cotton was planted on low beds in rows about 4 feet apart. Spring conditions were unfavorable generally, a wet March being followed by drought through April and May. The Killarney expervment.—This experiment was on buckshot soil located on the Killarney Plantation, at Mounds. Owing to the poor stand obtained from the first planting, a second planting of Simpkins cotton was made on April 15, and a fairly good stand was secured. On June 3, a few plants from the first planting were visible in the single-stalk rows and it was suggested that at thinning time, about a week distant, these older plants be removed, since there were enough of the younger plants for single-stalk purposes. To leave the older ones would have resulted in nonuniformity. Mr. T. I. Watson, parish agent, directed this later thinning. : The old-method rows were thinned on May 22, when the plants, 4 to 6 inches high and with 3 to 5 leaves, were spaced 18 to 30 inches apart. The single-stalk plants, thmned on June 12, when they were 8 to 10 inches high and had 6 to 8 leaves, were spaced 8 to 10 inches apart. In practically all of the rows of this experiment there were a few skips 3 feet or more in length. Toward the end of the season the skips appeared to be greater in the aggregate in the wide-spaced rows than in the single-stalk rows, and this was doubtless a factor in the increased yields, as often occurs with the new system. Prior to the time of thinning the wide-spaced rows, the stand of all the rows was so uniform that no appreciable differences in the number and length of skips per row were perceptible. Any differences of soil 1Jn reporting the yields from the experiments made in Madison Parish, Parish Agent T. I. Watson told of the results of an informal experiment with single-stalk culture conducted on his own initiative by Mr. N. C. Williamson, of Millikin, East Carroll Parish, La. Mr. Williamson applied single-stalk culture on 2acres. Ofthe yields obtained, Mr. Watson said: I was at his [Williamson’s] place on November 24 and secured his yield, which was 1,300 pounds of lint from the 2 acres, or an average of 650 pounds of lint per acre. His general crop is making about 1,280 pounds of seed cotton per acre, or 80 bales on 100 acres. Mr. Williamson does not consider that he carried out the method fully enough to be recognized as an experiment, but thinks well of it ard says he is going to try it out next year. Mr. Williamson’s crop of 80 bales of lint from 100 acres is equivalent to about 400 pounds of lint per acre. Compared with this, as reported by Mr. Watson, the 2 acres of cotton grown by the single-stalk method yielded an average of 650 pounds of lint. On the basis of these figures, it is seen that single-stalk culture yielded 250 pounds of lint per acre, or about 62 per cent, more than the old method. EXPERIMENTS WITH SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE. 9 or other local conditions would tend to be equalized by the alter- nate-row method of-comparing the two systems of culture. But more numerous and wider skips often appear in wide-spaced rows on account of injury to seedlings, due to greater exposure in the early stages of their development. Fewer plants are injured in single-stalk rows because of the mutual protection afforded by the thick-standing seedlings, and such injuries as occur are rendered unimportant because enough plants remain to thin as desired. This feature has been previously pointed out as one of the many advan- tages of later thinning.' There were 16 rows in the experiment, the two systems being compared in alternate rows. Two pickings were made, but the yields from only the first picking were reported. These are shown in Table IV. TaBLeE 1V.—Row yields of the first picking obtained in a single-stalk culture experiment with cotton conducted in 1915 on the Killarney Plantation at Mounds, La. Yield of seed cot- Yield of seed cot- ton (pounds). ton (pounds). Row. aa as a a a Row Single Old Single Old stalk. method. stalk. | method. INGE eS ouee Sone ote poe ee eee 35 DON WINO: Teas ie os ec eiromee eee 38 27 ING: 2 Geek Sete Seer 43 BASH MINOE NS SEBO SAO terme aaererre 33 20 WIGS Bacaees Ses esee ase eee 33 24 IRIOE 5G ye aR es Boe ee 38 26 To tallureyace se 5 sa 287 207 ING, Baesy SESS aes BERS meee 35 25 Diflerence seen eli SON saenee Ose ING: Gackudopeneec ee see eee eC eee 32 28 Increase ...... per cent... BY Pets MV Sara, Table IV shows that in this experiment single-stalk rows yielded more cotton in every instance than adjoiming old-system rows, the total increase for the first picking being 39 per cent. Judging by the appearance of the rows in August, when counts of immature bolls were made by Mr. Watson and the writer, showing 75 to 100 per cent more bolls on the single-stalk rows than on the others, it is believed that the difference in yield from the second picking, had it been recorded, would have been even greater than 39 per cent. But even if it were no greater, or considerably less, the difference in the first picking is of marked significance, since the experiment was located in a section of maximum boll-weevil infestation, where earliness in the cotton crop is of the greatest importance. The Boney experiment.—This experiment was on sandy soil located on the farm of Mr. R. K. Boney, at Duckport. Half-and-Half cotton was planted under fairly desirable conditions (date and rate not reported) and a good stand was secured. Definite details concerning the time of thinning the old-method rows and their condition when thinned were not reported. The plants in these rows were spaced, 1SeeCook,O.F. Leaf-cut, or tomosis, a disorder of cotton seedlings. In U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cir. 120, p. 29-34, 1 fig. 1913. : 75103°—18—Bull, 526 2 10 BULLETIN 526, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. however, 18 to 24 inches in the row. When inspected on June 3, the old-method plants were branching normally, indicating fairly early thinning. At this time, also, the plants in the single-stalk rows were rather too far advanced for the best results, numerous fruiting branches being visible. Although thinning was completed within the two days following, on June 4 and 5, it is reasonable to assume that more significant results would have been obtained had thinning been done several days earlier. When thinned the plants were 8 to 12 inches high with 6 to 8 leaves. With a long-staple variety, this would have been more nearly the proper time to thin, but with Half- and-Half, a short-staple cotton, it unquestionably was too late. The plants were spaced about 8 inches apart. There were 12 rows in the experiment, and the two systems of culture were compared in alternate rows. Two pickings were made, the yields of each row for each picking being as reported in Table V. TABLE V.—Row yields obtained in a single-stalk culture experiment with cotton conducted in 1915 on the farm of R. K. Boney, Duckport, La. | Yield of seed cotton (pounds). Ror First POE Second picking. Total. Single Old Single Old Single Old stalk. | method.} stalk. | method.]| stalk. | method. Gp Ue See eroserursase Sornhesedosendscto 38 34 16 24 54 58 INO M2: 28 be a, veces een aetalasseet ass 34 35 31 24 65 59 INO Noose eee setete er eect e saci eres eso 38 34 29 22 67 56 INO 14 2s ae Pye es ee ee ye ee ei eee 40 30 27 21 67 51 INOS Dieses Seo SS Sen Pes ae ee rab séceechotsage 35 35 24 21 59 56 NDS G2 2eee see sere ee eRe eeee eee eee 42 38 22 28 64 66 Motalss esses 5... betes eee £2 227 206 149 140 376 346 Ditlerencess: aso SS se ee ee 20 sfc sc]! OM tere settee alu Eaters TICTBASE oe! ar ee =o ee per cent.. LOR ase s5282 = Gal. gst aed Qa eee ek cn 0 Table V shows that the yield per row at each picking favored single-stalk culture in all but 4 instances, in one of which the yields were identical. In total yield, single-stalk culture led in four of the six rows. The total yield at each picking favored single-stalk culture by 10 and 6 per cent, respectively, the total increase for both pick- ings being 9 per cent. This difference is considerably less than was forecast by boll counts made on August 14, when it was found that single-stalk rows had from 40 to 50 per cent more bolls than old- method rows. The chief reason for this discrepancy between the boll counts and the yields reported may lie in the probability that more bolls opened earlier on the single-stalk rows than on the old- method rows and more of the cotton on the former was lost before picking time. This explanation appears the more credible if we take into account the fact that varieties of the type used in this ex- periment are lacking in stormproof qualities. EXPERIMENTS WITH SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE. Jit The Webb experiment.—Mr. R. C. Webb, of Delta Point, planted Money Maker cotton on sandy soil on April 20 at the rate of three pecks per acre. The stand secured was poor generally, there being also a number of skips in each row. Owing to nonuniformity in germina- tion, there were, moreover, plants of various sizes in the single-stalk rows at thinning time. The smaller plants were still too young to have had their vegetative branches completely suppressed, while the larger plants had reached the stage where their fruiting branches were being suppressed. Since it was necessary to leave plants of all sizes in the row in order to have the spacing as uniform as possible, some allowances should be made in ‘considering the results of the experiment. There were 30 rows in the experiment and the two systems of cul- ture were compared in alternate rows. The old-method rows were thinned on May 20, when the plants were 4 to 5 inches high and had 3 to 4leaves. Thesingle-stalk rows were thinned on June 6, when the plants were 6 to 12 inches high and had 6 to 10 leaves. The plants in the old-method rows were spaced 18 to 24 inches apart, while the single-stalk plants were spaced at about 8 inches wherever the stand permitted such close spacing. Two pickings were made, the yields from each row for each picking being as shown in Table VI. Taste VI.—Row yields obtained in a single-stalk culture experiment with cotton con- ducted in 1915 on the farm of R. C. Webb, Delta Point, La. Yield of seed cotton (pounds). Row. First picking. Second picking. Total. Single Old Single Old Single Old stalk. | method.| «stalk. | method.| stalk. | method. UNO plese eel omic oc «ciel vo Scien tisiearnecine 13 13 32 24 45 37 INO s Biase setae tos ceACOReS Bane Bao COR AEESE 9 18 25 18 34 36 IN@sSicces odeShesec ogee Tee EE eC e ee aes 18 19 23 22 41 41 IN@, Gl oac+ 6 See BAe AGES GSE Bee sASSeRa ae 9 13 23 21 32 34 INI@y Betas ac SoS Re REC ORE OBOE e eee ene 13 14 32 20 45 34 IN@s Gaads LSSUE SS LORS Se eee a ae 11 18 20 18 31 36 INO¢ (ocas aS SEC OOOO ERE e eee et Eee ee TSE 14 18 16 16 30 34 INOs Bsedo gees Oe MOORE CO ae eee ee ae 8 14 14 15 22 29 INO Occoc nes S EEE Os EEO eee Cee eee ae 13 13 16 20 29 33 IN@, ID sone bemeios beg osee tee aeeeeeeeEeee 13 18 16 15 29 33 IN@, Wl. cos beep one eS Oee Ree ee eee See ee ae 14 14 17 14 31 28 INI@, UPL code sdascebee SECO eee Se ae ae ae 14 13 15 12 29 25 iOe US} ote acae SEER Ia Soe Eee: Annee 8 18 16 18 24 36 INO; Wcoacé dase ebe ne cue saeco eee eae eee eaae 18 13 15 15 33 28 IN@s 1Bs30 ab soe ee SO aeRO SEE Cee =mer eet ne 18 13 15 14 33 27 Potala ees seek See seek ee el ee 193 229 295 262 488 491 Wiherence ke teks sees eee ose eA eye eek 6 36 33) ees ceo eeercteme INMCTCASOS= 2 st Sel ssease 8 pELicentea|Pasceeee-- 19 15; | 22)-e eee osle eee sec acs 0.6 Table VI shows a difference of 19 per cent in favor of the old system of culture at the first picking. The lower yield of the single-stalk rows at this picking doubtless resulted, as already explained, from the fact that the thinning was done too late in the case of some 12 BULLETIN 526, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. plants and too early in the case of others in the same row. However, as often happens in such cases, the difference was practically offset by the yields of the second picking, which favored single-stalk culture by 15 per cent. There was practically no real difference in total yield, though the old system had a very slight advantage. This was con- trary to what was to be expected, in spite of the poor stand, as counts of immature bolls made on August 14 indicated an increase for ELE stalk culture of 15 to 20 per cent. BOSSIER PARISH. Two experiments were conducted in Bossier Parish, both in the immediate vicinity of Benton. One of these was on the farm of Mr. E. S. Burt, parish agent, and was conducted by Essie Jackson, a tenant; the other was on the farm of Mr. W. B. Wilbourn. The Jackson expervment.—Cotton of the Brown variety was planted April 7 on low beds 4 feet apart. The soil, a sandy loam, was in good condition and a full stand was obtained. Wet weather prevailed during April, followed by dry weather during May, this being unfa- vorable to good growth. The old-method rows were thinned on May 17, the plants, which were 3 to 4 inches high with 4 to 5 leaves, being spaced 18 to 24 inches apart. The single-stalk rows were not thinned until June 9, when the plants, being 10 to 14 inches high with 6 to 10 leaves, were spaced about 8 inches apart. There were 26 rows in the experiment, and the two systems of culture were compared in alternate rows. Two pickings were made. The yields of each row for each picking and the total yields are reported in Table VII. TasLe VII.—Row yields obtained in a single-stalk culture experiment with cotton conducted in 1915 by Essie Jackson on the farm of E. S. Burt, Benton, La. Yield of seed cotton (pounds). Bow First picking. Second picking. Total. Single Old Single Old Single Old stalk. | method.| stalk. | method.) stalk. | method. LT SES ee es Se a Y - e 26 30 15 10 41 40 EES Se ree) eee, ~ Packs 30 28 15 10 45 38 NON eee Sane ee nee tones. eee 26 28 15 15 41 43 1 Ut et Se Os ee or en Mae eee oir 26 26 15 20 41 46 Ge. Sone ahs ek oor eee a: Meme a aa 25 25 20 15 45 40 NON Gee ob ee sh aoe aoe eee oe 28 28 15 15 43 43 ING: ds. cose see see bos oe oe hee ee = 28 28 15 10 43 38 Lf ee Se Te oes ee eee, - - ae 23 24 15 15 39 OOS core noo ae ean ee en ee a 28 28 20 10 48 38 Yih g 11) Soe Ee - . eee ees _ ene 23 23 15 10 38 33 ay TE Ue yd ee ae eae Oe ee Merete ie «|e ee 28 28 15 10 43 38 LMT TOAD Se Se Ss age eee” iene 18 10 10 33 28 Cee Bie See A ee he Pee aes 22 24 10 10 32 34 PROMS Sesto eee te cee eee 336 338 195 160 531 498 WIICTONCG S200 es oh oboe ull = gee het aid ee ieee SB | a: -aintalctael es aa Pierre ones nierease ioc eo sk ee oe per cents /|oJs5. oe 0.6 | 22;| = + Ape iN Wise oes. EXPERIMENTS WITH SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE. 133 Table VII shows a slight increase in the total yield from the first picking in favor of the old method, though in only 4 of the 13 in- stances did old-method rows yield more than single-stalk rows. In 7 in&tances the yields were identical. It is believed that the reason for this difference in yield at the first picking may be found in the fact that the single-stalk rows were thinned much later than was advisable, some suppression of the lower fruiting branches already having taken place. By the time the second picking was made this handicap had been overcome and the single-stalk rows yielded 22 per cent more cotton than the others, making a total increase in yield of 7 per cent. An interesting point in regard to the value of single-stalk culture under sanditzore conducive to unusually rank growth was observed | in connection with this experiment. A hogpen once stood near one end of several of these rows and the soil here was much richer than elsewhere in this field. The cotton plants grew to heights of 5 to 7 feet and put on a dense foliage. The plants in the early-thinned wide-spaced rows threw out long vegetative branches, and when nearing maturity these settled to the ground, in many cases breaking away from the main stalk and in all cases obstructing the space between the rows. It was difficult also to pick cotton from these plants, and owing to its being allowed to touch the ground much of the cotton was spoiled. The single-stalk plants, on the other hand, stood erect, their fruit well off the ground and easily accessible. Moreover, the space between these rows was left open enough to allow cultivation. The Wilbourn experiment.—Cotton of the Brown variety was planted on April 7 in low beds in rows about 4 feet apart, and a fairly good stand was secured. Wet weather prevailed during the remainder of April, followed by drought during May, which was not favorable to good growth. The thinning of the old-method rows was done on May 17, when the plants were 3 to 4 inches high, with 2 to 4 leaves, while the sin- gle-stalk rows were not thinned until June 9, when the plants were about 8 inches high and had 6 to 8 leaves. The plants in the old- method rows were spaced 18 inches apart and those in the single- stalk rows 6 to 8 inches. There were 40 rows in the experiment and the two systems of culture were compared in alternate rows. Only one picking was made. The yields obtained from each row are reported in Table VIIl. Table VIII shows that in no instance did single-stalk culture yield more than the old method with which it was compared, the total increase for the old method being 17 per cent. This is abso- lutely the reverse of what was indicated on August 16 by boll counts 14 BULLETIN 526, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. made by Mr. E. S. Burt, agent for Bossier Parish; Mr. A. J. Scott, agent for Caddo Parish; and the writer. Then there were 40 to 50 per cent more bolls on the single-stalk rows and it was confidently expected by all present that the yields would vary in about the same proportion, favoring single-stalk culture. It is believed that much of the cotton on the single-stalk rows had fallen from the bolls before picking time, for the crop was not picked until October 26, which was unusually late. TaBLe VIII.—Row yields obtained in a single-stalk culture experiment with cotton conducted in 1915 on the farm of W. B. Wilbourn, Benton, La. Yield of seed cotton Yield of seed cotton (pounds). (pounds). Row Row Single Old Single Old stalk. method. stalk. | method. INIONIS S Sarees eR SS a 35 45 WENOA18%: 2922-53...) See 35 35 IMDS Tish. eae Sea See a 35 45, ENO! D4 sey: 2 5a ae a 35 40 INO pone ee ee es Fea se 2 os BE 50 45: |IMNOS1bEs |e). SE ee ee 30 40 IN OSA seep or se RE Aen been 35 40: ENO: 16522 S242 Sao eee 35 35 INOND PEO wes sees s. eee ave 35 45 |IWNO: 17 323553: 2 eee eee 30 40 IRIE (Th ee Meet re Bek 40 45° || |SN0: 18 3.3558). es eee 25 30 INO eae ia 3s. ee te 30 45' || ENios19 22/5.) SA een Se 30 40 INGNS Betis Spee Ns nie nee eae 30 35: ISNO220 ces ceo ae eee eee 25 25 Norge eee. 2 Ree a ett ae 30 40 IN ONE Ose tne en eee Mie 30 35 Totals: <2. 2. ne Cae ne 645 780 INO SRURe he reer! 0 pat Te ae 35 40 Difference. 25.1) - eee eee 135 IN OMB a eo ae Sao e ee eee eee 35 35 Increase... ... pericent<4| fee 7 CADDO PARISH. Two experiments were conducted in Caddo Parish, one on the farm of Mr, C. C. Herndon, near Shreveport, and the other on the farm of Mr. William Mercer, at Gilliam, about 20 miles northwest from Shreveport. ) While early seasonal conditions in this part of the State were | more favorable to the normal growth of the crop than in most other sections, they were not ideal, im that some drought obtained during April and May. The Herndon experiment.—This experiment was the only one of the series in which single-stalk culture was compared with the usual method on an acre basis. The single-stalk acre was located in a rather low corner of a field of several acres, and it maintained only a fair stand. Moreover, there were several skips in each row. The field was planted rather late in April, and dry weather prevented uni- form germination. There was a difference of only nine days in the time of thinning the two plats in this experiment. The old-method rows were thinned on June 4, when the plants were 3 to 4 inches high and had 2 to 4 leaves, while the single-stalk rows were thinned on June 13, when the plants were 6 to 8 inches high and had 5 to 8 leaves. The plants in the former rows were spaced 18 to 24 inches apart and those , in the latter 6 to 8 inches. EXPERIMENTS WITH SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE. 15 The yields reported in Table IX are for the first picking from 10 representative rows in the single-stalk acre and 10 in an adjoining acre. No complete report on the second picking is available. Taste 1X.—Row yields of first picking obtained in a single-stalk culture experiment with cotton conducted in 1915 on the farm of C. C. Herndon, Shreveport, La. Yield of seed cotton Yield of seed cotton (pounds). (pounds). Row. Row. Single Old Single Old stalk. | method. stalk. | method. INO) hs eA ee en 13 Ue INO N See Sacra see eee 13 it IN@) Bs bees Sa eee il LOM AN OBO ao oso eet eee 14 12 INO, Bosse xseee eee ae 12 LDA WINO seh Os aa acjestes semcctse seer 13 14 INO> Coe nébaddeeneen eee eee 10 11 INO. Boss cos Gee ee 12 12 Total yau eae ae sarpan ye 123 112 INIOs Osecs da cose ee nea cee eaaeee 12 10 Difference............-.- UNDE | pee: Ne epee INI@S Ucedocs cose ede ee aeEeeeeee 13 9 Tncrease....-- per cent... oa eke sel see Table IX shows that in 6 out of 10 instances greater yields were obtained from single-stalk rows. In two instances the yields were identical, while in two other instances the old-method yield exceeded the single-stalk yield by 1 pound per row. The total yield of the 10 rows favored single-stalk culture by 9.8 per cent. The Mercer experiment.—While Mr. William Mercer, of Gilliam, cooperated in this work on the same basis as other farmers, he was left much alone in the conduct of his experiment. It was imprac- ticable to visit his ‘field at thinning time, and consequently he thinned his cotton according to his interpretation of the general instructions offered. At all times, however, he cooperated with Mr. A. J. Scott, county agent. No report of how he planted his cotton or the time and method of thinning is available. The only data available are given in Table X, TaBLe X.—Row yields obtained in a single-stalk culture experiment with cotton con ducted in 1915 on the farm of William Mercer, Gilliam, La, Yield of seed cotton (pounds), HO? First picking. Second picking. Total. Single Old Single Old Single Old stalk. | method.| stalk. | method.| stalk. | method. INIGb dhs 6 ga Soo a aE ee Aes e eee einem 12 9 2 22 14 31 INO; Ms Sa pGuC Es Bae Gene ae Ae eee eer a 10 10 22 22 32 32 INOS Bc Coo SH OAR EGA MD ee aoe eee eer ine 9 10 12 2 21 12 IN OMA erates ae ee etnias eke cninc sos cis auene 9 10 12 22 21 32 INO» Gace g SOR EE ace es See Nt Ih ae ee ear 10 10 2 22 12 32 INO; Ogee o Bed SAS OE BEDE Eee Sate ean See 10 9 22 2 32 11 INOS ae eee see et 22 eed 10 10 22 2 32 12 NO» Bs Ss Ghats SOE SEE Se ee eee eee 10 9 2 2 12 11 INORORERS CER SAS teed SES a eS 9 10 2 22 11 32 INS NOSE Saas oeees ASH OS CUS EEE ee eee ee 10 9 2 2 12 11 Total SPO SOU OHO BOR RRS GE CEES 99 96 100 120 199 216 Ditrerence. sre sh 8 Ui Leon Oe) Coy eeSecsed aSEeeeeece 208 eee eee 17 IMCKEASO =o )=-- 0 54-- Old method....-.- 300/178)... .1140) 262/160)... .|...)120)...| 31)]--.} 78).-.--|.2<].-. B20 | peepee ees wale Third picking: Single stalk........ PNT BONS mba 5 2 Sin, il okie: il pee RASS ol ca PM Rese alley Brie 47)... Old method....-.. Ce TS4| eee co oe tel tear Soe eee ead Otel lee ep Pal trol See hee ar ',<'— Total: | Single stalk........ 855|606'287'376| 488/531] 645 123/199/115}118). . .]917 1, 074|582|699)1, 821/850 765/1, 029/649 Old method....... 680|489 207,346] 491.498) 780 112/216) 90/113). - .|764 1, 004/540/582)1, 672/782 722) 817/631 Increase (per cent): Gain or loss (—) } for single stalk...| 26) 24) 39) 9/—0.6 Heal 10}—8} 28) 4] 11] 20 7| 8} 20 9 9 6 26] 3 1 Actual yields not reported. EXPERIMENTS WITH SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE. ON. In six of the nine experiments conducted in Louisiana the total yield of seed cotton favored single-stalk culture by 9 to 39 per cent. In the other three experiments the total yield favored the old method by 0.6, 8, and 17 per cent, respectively. In the latter instance only one picking was made, and this so late that it is feared some cotton was lost, particularly from the single-stalk rows, which probably opened earlier than the others; also the reports of this experiment are so defective as to throw some doubt upon their record value. In the second instance the experiment was not inspected by the writer and only the yield records are available, so that it can not be stated with assurance that single-stalk culture was properly applied. In the first instance the stand was so poor that the new system could not be applied to good advantage, and it appears, moreover, that the first picking was made too late to secure the full yield. More than one picking was made from six of these experiments. In four of the six instances single-stalk culture yielded 3 to 32.9 per cent more seed cotton at the first picking. The yields from the other two experiments were influenced by thinning that was too late and by a poor stand, respectively. In five of six instances single-stalk culture yielded 6 to 22 per cent more at the second picking. A third picking was made in only one instance, and this favored single- stalk culture by 26.1 per cent. There were three experiments in Arkansas, and in total yield these favored single-stalk culture by 4, 11, and 28 per cent, respectively. In one instance, where thinning was done a little too late, the old method yielded 4 per cent more seed cotton at the first picking, but this was offset by a 26 per cent increase for single-stalk culture at the second picking. In all of the nine experiments in North Carolina, single-stalk culture gave greater total yields than the older methods, the differences varying from 3 to 26 per cent. In one instance, where the time of thinning was too late, the old method gave 22 per cent more seed cotton at the first picking, but this was offset by a 353 per cent in- crease for single-stalk culture at the second picking. In another in- stance, where three pickings were made, single-stalk culture yielded more seed cotton at each picking than the old method, the difference for each picking being 22, 32, and 42 per cent, respectively. YIELD AND QUALITY OF LINT. Having seen the effectiveness of single-stalk culture in increasing the yield of seed cotton over that of the usual systems of culture, it is of importance to know whether the lint was affected by the new system. It might be expected that the suppression of vegetative branches and the closer spacing of the resultant smaller plants would so affect the yield or quality of lint as largely to offset the advantage 28 BULLETIN 526, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. gained through increased yield of seed cotton. This condition does not exist, however, as shown by the results of determinations made in connection with the present experiments and those previously reported. LINT PERCENTAGES. Table XXII gives the per cent of lint as determined in samples of seed cotton sent in by five farmers from their respective experiments. Reference to Table I, page 4, will show the locations of these farmers, which fairly represent the general distribution of the experi- ments. One is in south-central Louisiana, one in northeastern Louisiana, one in southwestern Arkansas near the Arkansas- Louisiana line, and two are in North Carolina. The varieties used in these experiments were, respectively, Half-and-Half, Sugar Loaf, Triumph, Prolific (probably King), and Cleveland Big Boll. ~ TABLE XXII.—Percentage of lint in samples of seed cotton taken in five single-stalk culture experiments with cotton conducted in 1915 in Louisiana, Arkansas, and North Carolina. R. K. John J. E. H.D. |L.M.San- Sample. Boney. | Hebert. } Tanner.| Sloan. | derson. Old method: NOide= Sec. eee See 5 Sede aes 2a pee eae Ee 35 35 36 37 36 IND; 2a teint eee ek Cee eee a eee 37 34 34 35 37 INO Bs ost ae ob ee a tee Bae See Ree eee comes 35 33 33 36 37 NWos4ssiittil-et TEE Sas ee ee eee eee 36 33 36 35 39 ieee ae epee aa eee MGalt 5 eee Sac 38 34 33 35 37 Single stalk: INOS ce Hs cet he oe eae eS See te aes eee 39 34 33 35 36 INO 2e2 = SNS 3 SS. eee ae. Be eee ee 37 33 34 35 37 PS eee eee re eee oe pe eae 36 33 35 38 35 INO 4a see eS EES EEE PPE ESAS Pe on 33 32 39 37 NORD nate ee eee peepee oh nee eee eee ata oe 32 33 34 37 37 Average: Oldimofhod < 2.55 2--2s225225252-ose eee eee ene 36. 2 33.8 34.4 35.6 ie ST 5G ee eee eeeee A maa sene aes tes Saas ooo 36.2 33.2 33.6 36.8 36.4 Table XXII shows practically no difference in the average percent- age of lint obtained under the different systems of culture. The difference is remarkably small in view of the great differences in per- centage among the individual samples from some of the experiments. The greatest difference in average percentage of lint is 1.2, and this favors single-stalk culture. In three other instances the differences range from 0.6 to 0.8 per cent in favor of the old method. In the remaining instance the average percentages are identical. RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF LINT. The percentage of lint in itself is no more a safe basis for compar- ing the effect of different cultural methods than it is for judging the relative value of varieties.1 The percentage of lint would vary 1 Cook, O. F. Danger in judging cotton varieties by lint percentages. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cir. 11,16 p. 1908. Meloy, G.S. Lint percentages and lint index of cotton and methods of determination, U.8, Dept. of Agr. Bul. 644, 12 p.,2 fig. 1918. EXPERIMENTS WITH SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE. 29 materially with the size of the seed if the abundance of lint on the surface of the seed remained constant. Conversely, if the abundance of lint were not constant, the lint percentages might appear uniform even though the size of seed varied considerably. Thus it is desir- able to know whether the size of seed and the amount of lint per seed were affected by single-stalk culture. The weight in grams of 100 seeds taken from each of the samples discussed in connection with Table XXII is shown in Table XXIII, together with the lint indexes, or the grams of lint on 100 seeds, of the same samples. TaBLE XXIII.— Weights of 100 seeds and lint indexes (grams of lint on 100 seeds) of jive different varieties of cotton as determined from samples of seed cotton grown in five single-stalk culture experiments with cotton conducted in Loutsiana, Arkansas, and North Carolina. Weight of 100 seeds (grams). Lint pee ne aka on 100 seeds Sample. B.K.| or | Ton | H-D-| ‘Sane | RK: | wor | Ton: | B.D. | Bane oney-| bert. | ner * | derson. ®Y-| bert. | ner. oan. | derson. Old method: ING a ese Peeeenee 9.1 9.7 12.0 9.7 12.4 4.9 5.2 6.8 Be 7.0 INO Beeeceseeese 9.7 9.8 13.1 9.4 11.2 5.7 5.1 6.8 5.1 6.6 INOsSeegce once: 9.4 9.7 12.8: 10. 2 11.8 5.1 4.8 6.3 5.7 6.9 INON Rates 10.2 9.7 12.6 10.6 11.7 HY 4.8 Weil 5.7 Wao INOKD Msc ces cee 9.6 8.9 13.5 10.3 12.6 5.9 4.6 6.6 5.5 7.4 Single stalk: No. 1...- 9.5 10.2 12.7 10.3 11.8 6.1 5.3 6.3 5.5 6.7 INON 2 Eee 8.9 9.9 11.9 9.6 11.8 5.2 4.9 6.2 5.2 7.0 INKD Slosacecceusee 9.9 9.4 11.2 9.8 ih 7 5.6 4.6 6.0 6.0 6.3 INOW4 A eee ees 9.5 9.8 12.6 11.1 2) 5.6 4.8 6.0 7.1 6.6 IN On Oeste Fas 2 10.6 9.0 12.2 10.1 10. 2 5.0 4.4 6.3 5.9 6.0 Averages Old method. .-..- 9.60 9.56 | 12.80 | 10.04] 11.94 5. 46 4.90 6. 72 5.54 7.08 Single stalk..... 9.68 9.66] 12.12} 10.18] 11.34 5.50 4.80 6.1 5.94 6.52 It will be seen from Table XXIII that, while there was con- siderable variation in the weights of seed representing either of the systems of culture, the average weight of 100 seeds was about the same for each system. ‘This fact, in addition to the fact that there was no significant difference in the percentage of lint, would indicate that the density of lint on the seeds was about the same under the different systems of culture. That is, we would expect to find that the weight of lint per seed did not vary significantly. The figures in the second part of Table XXIII show that such was the case. ‘The lint index, or the number of grams of lint on 100 seeds, is seen to vary only slightly and in direct proportion to the size of ee GRADE AND LENGTH OF LINT. Samples of lint in each of the experiments discussed in connection with Tables XXII and XXIII were submitted to Mr. Fred Taylor, cotton technologist of the Bureau of Markets, for a report on the grade and length of the lmt produced by the different systems of culture. Mr. Taylor’s report is embodied in Table XXIV. 30 BULLETIN 526, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE XXIV.—Grade and length of lint of five different varieties of cotton grown under single-stalk and old-method systems of culture in 1915. xen eT. : Length Grower and system of culture. Grade. of staple. R. K. Boney: Inches, Old method?:*s--— =: -* = Re ee ES As eee Re Strict Middlings= -22222 seas. z Sinvle Stabe seen s jose boee te ring Dee n5 3 eee ee seine eee GOSS cs ata eek we eas 18 John Hebert: UG lilt 3 a5 sia 35255282 322262 s5sesdseeos soe se toscogeese- Good Middling.......-.....- i DINPIO SALE scenes eee Na ae ae ee 2 Seen ae ea oe ee GOEL NTS IEE £55 Baht Ka anner: - Old:method: = ...2.22 22 422 Shes eee 2222 ee eee oes See dose eke eee 1 pimple stalk. = 22.22 Ps sero b eke ee eee est eee ee cee ree | nee (6 (oe ear ee ia 145 H. D. Sloan: (Ol irre HOG ea ee eee ee Strict Low Middling.-....... pes Singleistalk: - 2:22.22 22). AUS See oes: tL CES SS ae | ee do. $::..s5thi ewe eee ag L. M. Sanderson: Oldimethod: «.. : -3.222 52 525k Sect alas alas 2 eee es eee Strict, Middling coe o- ener 18 SHI g ee pest oo esas: pasasssesestcacbe 52552225202 ces208s Good Middling.............. 1 Table XXIV shows that there was practically no difference in the lint from the different systems of culture. In three instances the length of lint was slightly (;4 inch) greater for single-stalk culture, and in two instances the lengths were identical. In no instance did the lint from the old-method samples show any superiority in length or grade over that from the single-stalk samples. SUMMARY. Under an informal cooperative agreement with the Office of Extension Work in the South of the States Relations Service, 21 experiments with single-stalk cotton culture were conducted in 1915 in nine parishes and counties of three States, namely, Louisiana, Arkansas, and North Carolina. These experiments were located in ordinary fields of cotton, single- stalk culture usually being compared with older methods in alternate rows or in alternate blocks of 2,3, or 4 rows. In one instance the two systems were compared on an acre basis. Tn all cases the old-method rows were thinned in the usual manner at the usual time, while the single-stalk rows were thinned later and the plants were left closer together than usual, as is required by this method. In all other respects the rows received identical treatment. All picking was done under the direction of either the farmer him- self or the county or parish agent directly interested and a record of the yields forwarded to Washington. There was no significant difference in the lint produced by the different systems of culture, the lint percentage, the size of the seed, the lint index (grams of lint on 100 seeds), and the grade and length of lint remaining about the same. Looking at all of the experiments as a group it is seen that single- stalk culture gave greater total yields in 18 of the 21 instances; it gave greater yields at the first picking in 16 of the 21 instances; it EXPERIMENTS WITH SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE. 31 gave greater yields at the second picking in 9 of 11 instances, and it gave greater yields in the only instances where third pickings were made. While some of the differences are so small as to be insignifi- cant in themselves, there was a general increase throughout the entire series of experiments, in several instances by more than 20 per cent. Eliminating, for the present, those experiments in which it is known that the thinning of the single-stalk rows was done too late, those in which the stands were generally poor and single-stalk culture was applied to only the short spaces in the rows where the stand per- mitted the application of the new system, those in which there is no assurance that single-stalk culture was properly applied, and those of which the reports are defective, there remain at least five experi- ments—three in Louisiana and two in North Carolina—that may be considered as fairly reliable tests of single-stalk culture. The yields of seed cotton from these favored the new system by 20 to 39 per cent. It is not to be inferred that the particular treatment applied in these experiments is the best development of the single-stalk method or that this method is to be recommended for general application in the States where the experiments were located. The suitability of the new system for any region requires that the local conditions and the behavior of the plants be well understood. How to secure the greatest possible advantage from the control of the branching habits of the plants is a problem worthy of the attention of experimenters who are interested in improving cultural methods with cotton. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY rf i) bi tet th 7 ont elise ‘ Ws oe ahi perio u Oe sith shia fee ideal ade sdf rT o ever eh: ae pomctu ara ea Be ee a: warts LOT Rae won th ‘sae ve i ; Te wired irks etka: “eh sept rey eae aantlir auntne ara sanok je ery fi vgn re ty OR. taco fat) Hoe ve ‘ae fon Bie isd biace ot: rutios Jeti area eae See ch2tary 4s OTS or ie yeh eiteva 2) NE Beyhvant toi gin scoala adie aaa ? ; LP ter tw cee ss tai re isgarie sei tie Sn conte sinh | ; ‘ : f { ite is % x 3 if : i ‘ is. | = ia i URS aR ss ue 5 is reas: wey prey age he nope Seat: 4 . an ae rere te: 4 ‘SR My } “eke See a iN we Mont Ban Piste 1% iia 4+ cto TOD GREER TC OS ii? on cota ar ss Btw ey 4 a a 3 1 eee hE kee 3 Sa Ae wna 4 ig vk | * Gs | ° " P i 4 ee aonacre. | 4 ee) yah 4 4 " is 7 . ei A ‘ $ Y ie ‘ UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE “\ Contribution from the States Relations Service A. C. TRUE, Director ESSIONAL PAPER July 26, 1917 Washington, D. C. PROF SOME EXERCISES IN FARM HANDICRAFT FOR RURAL ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS '*» By H. O. Sampson, Assistant in Agricultural Education. CONTENTS. Page. Page. FROGUMCTIOM Es aie Sei See Oe ek 1 | Exercise XII. Stamper for crushing lumps of Tools and their uses. ...---...---.-.--------- 2 fertilizer.\o 3) 2)))2 522 4e2 Nee 27 Terms used in woodworking. .........-....-- 6 XIII. Feed hopper for poultry..-).: 27 Use of drawings...........----..---------+-- 7 XIV. Trap nest................-2- . 4 29 Exercise I. Nail box...-..-----..----------- 9 XV. Brood coop.....-.--.-------- 30 MMeESawhorse’s 222 eee oe Tes 10 XVI. Poultry house.........-.-..-. 32 Mey Birdshiouses.-a4-- esse il XVII. Wooden troughs forswine.... 32 IV. Seed germinator..-.....-......-- 13 XVIII. Hurdles for use in stock V. Seed-corn drying rack.........--. 17 judging. As.5 22 Sa. 2 ase. 33 VI. Seed sample case....-...-..----- 18 XIX. Hog houses.......-----.---.- 33 VIL. Hotbed and cold frame......-.-- 19 XX. Milking stool.......-..--..-.. 34 BVPI ES sets Soke Se cece ee 21 X XI. Calf stanchions............... 35 EX Horcing box.- 5-2-2522 2255522. 3. 22 XXII. Farm gate........-....-.--.- 36 X. Sorting table for vegetables and XXIIL Rope work..............-.-5- 37 TIDUS OMe Ge aS aes Bee 25 XXIV. Concrete work............... 37 XI. Planting board.............--.-- 26 ? XXV. The painting of woodwork... 38 INTRODUCTION. The purpose of this bulletin is to give instruction in the making of ‘useful articles for the school, farm, and home. It is intended primarily for rural school teachers and for pupils of the seventh and eighth grades. The exercises have practical application to the agri- cultural work of the school and also to the various club projects in agriculture. In some States farm mechanics, or as it is termed, handicraft work, is conducted as a regular club project and is proving to be desirable for this purpose. Many of the exercises and drawings are compiled from extension bulletins of the different States. Bulletins published by Kansas and Towa agricultural colleges have been used very freely. In these 1 Prepared under the direction of C. H. Lane, Chief Specialist in gricultural Education, States Relations Service. Notr.—This bulletin furnishes elementary lessons in farm mechanics and is of interest to teachers and pupils of rural schools in all parts of the United States. 80746°—Bull. 527—17——1 9 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF .AGRICULTURE. States the handicraft club work has received considerable attention. Others of the exercises are from publications of this department; still others are original with the author, beimg those he has used in giving instruction in agriculture in public schools and in his work on the farm. It is hoped that the exercises outlined will suggest many others. A large number of school, farm, and home appliances can be made by schoolboys, and the making of these things trains the hand and the eye and develops habits of accuracy and neatness. The work can be done as a part of the regular school work or during spare time at home. It will be a recreation as well as a benefit. TOOLS AND THEIR USES. A large investment in tools is not necessary to carry on this work, and many boys on farms will find all the necessary tools at home. For most of the woodworking exercises the yf Sie following are sufficient: Crosscut saw, rip- Y saw, 2-foot rule, steel square, try square, hammer, jack plane, block plane, marking CAOSS CUT SAW gauge, 4-inch and 4-inch chisels, bits and ) : brace, and screw Y) driver. These tools will cost, if pur- same ule! chased new, ap- Fig. 1.—Teeth of crosscut and rip proximately S12 ae The tools should be of good quality; it seldom pays to pur- chase inferior ones. Carpenters when buy- ing tools find it economy to select those bearing the stamp of areliable manufacturer. Allfarm boys have had more or less experi- ence with tools and know how to use them Fic. 2.—Position of hand, elbow, fairly well;nev- and _ shoulder, when using a erthelessa brief mention of the uses of the tools given in the list will be of value. The crosscut saw, as thename indicates, is used to cut across the grain of the wood. Its teeth are filed to sharp points, as shown, at A, figure 1. The teethare usually set or bent alternately so as to be at a slight angle with the body of the saw blade. The insides of the Fic. 3.—Starting the saw. a teeth are filed in sharpening, as Indicated in the figure. The ripsaw is used to cut with the grain of the wood. Its teeth are filed to the shape of chisels placed one behind the other, as shown at B, figure 1. Figure 2 shows the position of hand, elbow, and shoulder when using asaw. The FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. 3 _ index fingershould be along the top of 3 4 5 the handle on the el 20 19 right side and the thumb on the left side. They are then in a position to guide the saw. The hand, elbow, and shoutder should be in a straight line, as shown in the drawing. To start saw- ing, place the left hand on the mark on the board, as shown in figure 3, to guide the saw Fig. 4.—Divisions of a carpenter’s rule. ieee sara Ss) e778 9 10 It 42 19:14 15 16.17 and make a light up TONGUE stroke. Continue [4 with a few light strokes up and down until the saw is well started and finally take full strokes the length of the blade. The rule is the @ Fie. 5.—Steel square and try measuring gauge. square. : Naturally, accurate measurements are necessary if good work is done. On the 2-foot rule one edge is di- ——- _ vided into inches, halves, quarters, and eighths, and the other into inches, halves, quarters, eighths, and sixteenths, as shown in figure 4. To save time when measuring a number of. pieces of the same length it is advisable to make a measuring stick of the length required and use this instead of the rule. Figure 5 shows the two kinds of squares in use: The carpen- ter’s steel square at (A), and the try square at (B). As shown in the drawing, the parts of a steel square are tongue and blade, 4 &—Sduaring up a board with a steel square. and the parts of a try square are blade and beam. The carpenter’s square is used for measuring Iumber and also for squarmg across boards when cutting stock into lengths. Figure 6 shows how a steel square is used for squaring across a board. Notice that the long sideis parallel with the SLADE SLADE 23 22 2i 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 1! 10 9 6 7 6 5 4 8B eB 4 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. length of the board. As the square forms a right angle, the short side will then be at right angles to the sides of the board; consequently, a line drawn on the board along this short side will be at right angles to the side of the board. The try square is used for squaring up boards, as shown in figure 7, and also for testing surfaces and testing angles. Figures 15 and 16, pages 6 and 7, the handle near the end farthest from the Theses show these operations. The hammer has two uses—to drive nails, Joh and to pull nails. When driving nails, grasp head; you Fic. 7.—Squaring up a board with ean strike CHIP’ IF7ON e ——————_—_—_——————————— a try square. a more ef- fective blow than if you grasp it near the other end. When pulling nails, the hammer acts as a lever; it is surprismg how much pul ling force is exerted on the nail. LATEFIL. SLANE /frON TLAINE ITTON SCHEW Fig. 8.—Plane iron, plane-iron screw, and cap iron. The planeisused tosmooth ADIUSTMENTS. surfaces. The jack plane is p Ln LVUVISS CIPSUSTING NOT Fig. $.—Parts of a plane. plane before you, examine all these parts. When a plane is properly adjusted the plane iron projects the same distance from each side of the throat. The adjustment is tested by sighting, as shown in figure 10, and by feeling with the fingers to see that the edge projects equally on each side. The marking gauge is used to gauge, or mark, a line parallel to one edge of a board. To set the gauge, hold it point side up in the left hand, and with the rule in the right hand place the end of the rule against the gauge block and see that the the onemost commonly used. The plane iron is the cutting part of the tool. Figure 8 = shows the plane iron, the wp plane-iron screw, and the eh cap iron, and figure 9 shows a cross section of a plane with the different parts clearly indicated. With a Fie. 10.—Sighting to adjust a plane. measurement desired on theruleis at the point of the gauge, as shown in figure 11. Tighten the set screw, and the tool is ready for use. FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. 5 To mark a line, hold the gauge firmly with the thumb and fore- finger encircling the gauge block and tip the gauge away from you, as shown in figure 12. To make the line, push the tool—never pull it toward you. Do not press hard against the pomt—a line only as fine as a knife line is required. The chisel is used in clipping and paring out portions of wood. When cutting with a chisel, grasp the handle with the right hand and the shank with the left hand and, instead of pushing straight down or straight ahead, incline the tool to get a paring action. Figure 13 shows the parts of the brace and bit. Unless boring a slanting hole, the bit should enter the wood straight. If the side lips touch the wood ai the same time you are sure that the bit has entered the wood straight. When using a screw driver, be careful not to break the head off thescrew. A little soap placed on the screw before inserting it into the wood will make it enter more easily. Fig. 11.—Setting the gauge. CARE OF TOOLS. Fig. 12.—Method of using the If you expect to do good work with tools eee you must see that they are well cared for. If tools are allowed to become rusty and dull and parts are lost good work can not be expected. Wipe the polished surfaces of tools with an oily cloth once a week, at least, and whenever the bright surface of a tool becomes wet wipe it dry and rub it well with the oily cloth. If rust accumulates, it can be removed by the use of powdered pumice ANG stone. A place must be provided in which to keep the tools when they are not in use, SHANE, otherwise they may be lost or broken. Drawers in the work bench, or cupboards placed on the wall where they will be easily accessible, are convenient places for hold- ing tools. The cutting edges of tools must be kept sharp; good work can not be done with a dull tool. Ifchisels or plane irons become ‘S%*' very dull, they are first sharpened on a HES Fe per grindstone or emery wheel, then dressed on an oilstone. They are ground at an angle of 25° and dressed on the oilstone at an angle of 30°, as shown in figure 14. If but shghtly dull they may be rubbed up on the oilstone only. Hold them firmly on the grind- 6 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stone or emery wheel, bevel side down, and grind until a thin wire edge is seen; next, rub them on the oilstone, first on the bevel side and then flat on the stone with the bevel side up. Repeat until the wire edge disappears and the edge becomes sharp. Saws must be sharp. The sharpening is not an easy matter, and pupils should be aided by some one who has had experience in doing this work. Lin to0° TERMS USED IN WOODWORKING. Certain terms are used in de- scribing woodworking operations. These are (1) cutting the stock or lumber, (2) squaring up the stock, (3) laying out the work, (4) cutting to lines, and (5) assembling the parts. By cutting the stock is meant the getting of the rough pieces of lumber ready to make the article. For finishing, add one-sixteenth inch to the thickness, one-eighth inch to the width, and one-half inch to the length of each piece. The width and thickness of rough lumber are always somewhat less than the stated dimensions. For example, a so-called inch board is usually seven-eighths inch in thickness. This must be kept in mind when cutting stock. Always try to avoid waste. To do this one must measure and calculate carefully before cutting the pieces. Squaring up the stock means making the rough piece into one that has smooth, flat, straight sides that are at right angles and that is of the desired length, breadth, and thickness. The term ‘finished stock’ is applied to stock that has been squared up. When squaring up stock you should establish a working face and a working edge. To establish a working face plane the board ononeside. When planing place the board on the bench with the grain of the wood yg. 15,-Testing the surface. away from you and push it against the bench stop; begin planing along one edge of the face, take a stroke the length of the board, and continue in this way, moving across the piece. Test the surface by means of the try square. This is done by placing the edge of the square on the planed surface as shown in figure 15, moving it about, and noticing if it touches at all points. If the face is not smooth, as indicated by the try square, continue planing until it is. This smooth face is the working face. Mark it with a cross (X) or some other mark to distinguish it. The working edge is obtained by planing one edge until it is smooth and square with the working face. To test the edge, place the beam Fig. 14.—Methods of sharpening tools. pee FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. a of the try-square against the working face and the blade against the edge, as shown in figure 16, and slide the square along the board. If the blade touches along the entire edge the working edge is at right angles to the working face. Gauging the width and the thickness is another operation in squaring up the stock. Set the gauge to the desired width and thickness and, working from the working face or the working edge, draw gauge lines to show the de- sired width and thickness of the finished piece of stock. Plane to the gauge line and test with the try square. Measuring for length is another detail of squaring up the stock. Square a sharp pencil line across the working face and the working edge near one end of the board, as shown in figure 17, saw off the end just outside the line, and plane to the line. Measure the length and make a point to indicate its location, square a line through the point, saw to length just outside the line, and plane to the line as before directed. Laying out the work has reference to the drawing of lines on a piece of finished stock to indicate the shape it is to be cut. The work Se should be laid out on the working face Ss and the working edge. . Cutting to lines means to remove the stock to the lines that have been laid out. Assembling the parts has reference to the fastening of the different pieces together. Fig. 16.—Testing the edge. Fic. 17.—Squaring across a board. USE OF DRAWINGS. Accompanying most of the exercises are drawings that will aid in the work. The drawings are of three kinds: (1) Perspective drawings, which show the appearance of the finished article; (2) detail drawings, which show the size and the shape of each part; and (3) working drawings, which show the outline of the articles when viewed from the top, the front, and the end. In order to get the three different kinds of drawings clearly in mind refer to figure 18. At the top is shown the perspective drawing of the article, a nail box; below this is the detailed drawing marked sides, bottom, ends, handle; below this is the working drawing marked top view, front view, end view. The outlines in working drawings are what would be seen if one looked squarely down on the top, the front, and the end of the article. In ~ 8 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. figure 19 is shown the working drawing of the nail box described and idustrated in Exercise 1, with the front, top, and end views, looked “at inthe directions of A, B, and C, drawn out and shown in heavy lines to illustrate how they are obtained. In the working drawing of figure 18, these views are shown laid out flat. Solid lines in working. sh L534 7OP VIEW Jp sg +] k—— /0* FPONT VIEW LENO VEW Fig. 18.—Nail box. ~ drawings show the front edges of the boards; those that can be seen. Dotted lines indicate the edges of boards that can not be seen, be- cause of boards in front of them. In some of the exercises all three kinds of drawings are shown. In others only the perspective drawing is shown, as it in itself will show how to make the article. FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. 9 EXERCISE I. NAIL BOX. A nail box will be needed in connection with the woodworking ex- ercise. The one shown in figure 18 is equipped with two compartments and a handle; it will be found convenient for use in the school and- about the farm. | The material required is one-fourth pound of 8-penny finishing nails and a piece of lumber 1 by 6 inches by 8 feet 6 inches. This piece is cut with finished dimensions as follows: ise Number of| Finished dimen- : pieces. sions. aloo aloo dele (er oa << S ee) Ne Crordcr cn lee} ie) ot co ie) B . Newb hy Waco Falco leo ieo foo lomomomomoy S434 Sete logon Cut the pieces called for, allowing 4 inch in width and 4 inch in length on each one; remem- ber that finished dimensions are given above. Plane one of the surfaces of a side smooth and flat to form the working face and test it with a try square. When finished, mark it with a cross (x). Plane one of the edges square with the working face to form the working edge. Test with the try square. When finished, mark it with a check (V) to designate it as the working edge. Gauge for thickness by setting the marking gauge at ? inch and marking a line from the working face along the edges. Plane the board down to this gauge line and square the side with the working edge. Gauge for width in the same way, measuring from the working edge. Square a pencil line across the working face and working edge near one end, saw the board just outside this line, and plane carefully to the line. Measure the fin- ished length. Finish the other end of the piece in the same way. Follow the same plan in making the ends and bottom. . To assemble the frame, nail the sides to the end pieces, as shown in the drawing. Plane the edges if necessary to make them fit evenly. Fasten the bottom to the frame. To do this fit the bottom boards to 80746°—Bull. 527172 ye: | FRONT WEW Fig. 19.—Working drawing. 10 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the edges of the frame, test the corners with a try square to make sure the frame is square, and nail the bottom to the frame. To make the handle, follow the same directions for squaring up the stock as given for the sides, ends, and bottom. Lay out lines for a hole for the handle, as shown by the drawing. This hole is 1 inch wide and 5 inches long and is placed 1 inch from the top and midway from the ends of the piece. Cut out most of the wood from the hole with a chisel or a brace and bit, and with a knife or chisel care- fully smooth to the lines and round the B07 70M BRACE TOP BRACE handle. Place the Po atl = r241 board that forms the \8 a handle in the proper bxas erg 7H place in the box and — ==G nail securely. n co oe To make. the parti- i tion pieces, square up ay SADDLE ol the stock as previous- ly directed for other pieces. Lay out the lines for shaping the top of the partition pieces, as shown in the drawing, either by hand or with arule and com- pass. Cut out most of the wood with a saw, and trim with a knife to the line. Place the partition pieces in the box, as shown in the drawing, and nail in place. Plane off any unevenness that is found, and the box is finished. Fig. 20.—Saw horse. EXERCISE II. SAWHORSE. A pair of sawhorses will be a convenience in making the wood- working articles. Explicit directions for making a very serviceable pair are given in this exercise. Figure 20 gives the necessary draw- ings. The lumber required is one piece hard pine 2 by 4 inches by 5 feet, and two pieces white pine 1 by 4 by 16 inches. The lumber should be what is known as No. 1 common S48. The abbreviations S45 and FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. 11 S28 are used to designate lumber surfaced on four sides or two sides, respectively. The hardware required for the sawhorse is 4 pound of 8-penny nails and 1 pound of 10-penny nails. The bill of stock with finished dimensions and the use of the pieces are as follows: Number of] Finished dimen- Use pieces. i Inches. Saddles. ae: 1 | 13 by 33 by 42 Gis boned tenecs 4 | £ by 33 by 252 Ton brace. --...-- 2 | £by 34 by 7. Bottom brace... . 2 | = by 34 by 172 Cut the pieces called for above, allowimg 4 inch in width and 4 inch in length for the finishing. It is not necessary to trim the length to the exact measurement. Next, lay out the saddle and the braces. In laying out the saddle first lay out the shoulder on the ends of the piece, as shown in the drawing. Saw out these shoulders, making them 24-inches wide at the top, 34 inches at the bottom, and 42 inches long. Smooth up the shoulders with a chisel. Lay out the top brace, making one edge 4 inches long and the other 7? inches long, then lay out the bottom brace, making it 15$ inches on one edge and 173 inches on the other. Do not cut off the ends until you assemble the parts. The next step is to assemble the parts. Nail the legs on the beveled shoulders of the saddle. Have the mside edges of the pieces even with the top of the saddle. The outside corners will be sawed off later. Use 10-penny nails, drivmg them partly in. Measure 254 inches - from the top end and square a line across the face or the edge of the piece. This is the length of the legs. Tack a strip of board across the bottom of the legs to hold them 20 inches apart. Try the top braces to see if they fit. If they do, saw off the ends and nail them in place, using 8-penny nails. If they do not, square them up to fit. Fit the bottom braces in place in the same manner. Saw off the outside corners of the top of the legs and plane them even with the surface of the saddle. Saw off the lower ends of the legs to make the horse stand firmly on the floor. EXERCISE III. BIRD HOUSE. The study of birds is an important phase of agricultural work. Birds are the farmers’ friends; they destroy insects and weed seeds. In addition, their presence about the farm home helps to make the surroundings attractive. In order that birds may be provided with shelter, houses for them should be built and placed near the school buildings and homes. Figure 21 shows an attractive and easily con- structed bird house. 12 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The material required for this house is one piece of clear white pine } by 6 inches by 6 feet, S45, and a small quantity of 1-inch brads or shingle nails. Often a box can be found that will contain enough 4-inch pieces to make the house. Take the box apart care- fully to avoid splitting the wood. The bill of stock with finished dimensions and the use of the pieces are as follows: - Use Number of] Finished dimen- E pieces. sions. Inches. Bottom:.¢222-e.=¢ 1 | 4by6by 10. Sides-2 25. 5-:eee=: 2 |4by4by8. nd. )a.2 secur 2 | 4 by 4h by 6. ROOls 6 Hes fe-c eee 1 | 4by4 by 10. ROOfe ss5--a} one end, as shown in the drawing, bore a 4-inch hole for the perch pin, bore 2-inch holes along the inner side of the line laid out for the door, trim to — A the lines with a knife, . layout and cut theend " boards to the proper 2 FIECES OF (700F 1— FXO" slant for the roof. In assembling the parts, nail the sides to the end pieces, using the 1-inch brads or shingle nails, nail bot- tom to frame, nail on roof boards, whittle a k—_—_———-/o"-——|_ perch pin } inch in di- ae CEU, JOE | MLM. ameter and 2 inches Fia, 21.—Bird house. long shad) wedge niin the hole below the door. The bird alights on this pin before en- tering the door. Paint the bird house; a dark green or a brown is a good color. SS! (0) igiol FERCH PIN FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. ib3? Nore to TEACHER.—This exercise may be correlated with drawing, language, or geography, as well as agriculture. Have the pupils make a drawing of the house to scale. Let them design and build other types of houses and put them up at home and about the school yard. See list of references given, especially Farmers’ Bulletin 609. Language-lesson topics that may be used are: Birds, the Farmers’ Friends, Food of Birds, Nature Study and Birds, and Where Birds Migrate. As a geography lesson have the pupils locate the States to which the birds migrate and study the climatic conditions of these States. As lessons in agriculture make studies of the feeding habits of birds and learn what weed seeds and insects are eaten by birds. Learn methods of keeping crows from taking freshly planted corn. List of U. S. Department of Agriculture publications on birds. DEPARTMENT BULLETINS. No. 107. Birds in Relation to Alfalfa Weevil. 128. Distribution and Migration of North American Rails and Their Allies. 171. Food of Robins and Bluebirds of United States 185. Bird Migration. 187. Preliminary Census of Birds of United States. 205. Eleven Important Wild Duck Foods. 217. Mortality Among Waterfowl Around Great Salt Lake, Utah. 280. Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United States. 292. Distribution and Migration of North American Gulls and Their Allies. FARMERS’ BULLETINS. No. 493. The English Sparrow as a Pest. 497. Some Common Game, Aquatic, and Rapacious Birds in Relation to Man. 506. Food of Some Well-known Birds of Forest, Farm, and Garden. 609. Bird Houses and How to Build Them. 628. Game Laws for 1914. 621. How to Attract Birds in Northeastern United States. 630. Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. YEARBOOK SEPARATE. No. 620. American Thrushes Valuable Bird Neighbors. 642. Shore Birds and Their Future. BIOLOGICAL SURVEY CIRCULAR. No. 94. Directory of Officials and Organizations Concerned with Protection of Birds and Game. 1913. EXERCISE IV. SEED GERMINATOR. In figure 22 is shown a type of seed germinator that is very con- venient for testing seed corn. The box is divided into squares by broom wire or cord. Sand or soil is placed in the box, and the kernels are planted in the squares. The rows of squares are numbered one way of the box and lettered the other way. Each square can then be designated by a number and a letter in the same manner as cities and countries are often designated on maps. For example, the upper left hand square is A 1, the upper right hand one, A 10. When corn is to be tested, the ear from which a group of kernels is taken is desig- nated by the same letter and number as the square in which it is planted. 14 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The material required is one piece $ by 10 inches by 2 feet, one piece 8 by 12 inches by 4 feet, about 32 feet broom wire or cord, and a few 6-penny and 8-penny finishing nails. The stock, with finished dimen- sions and use of each piece of lumber, are as follows: = Number Use. of pieces. Sidesiz:2ice 132 2 WNGSS<2 224. ceeee 2 Bottom..-=--55e4 2 = —— ———— 206 ——— —_a | 20% 2/2 Fia. 22.—Seed germinator. nail the bottom boards in place, using 6-penny nails. Finished dimen- sions. Inches 3 by 2 by 203 3 by 2 by 194 3 by 92 by 214 Rip the ~ by 10 inch by 2 foot board, making four strips, each 2} inches wide. Cut to lengths of sides and ends and plane to dimensions given above. Saw from the 3? by 12 inch by 4 foot board two pieces, each 214 inches long and plane to dimensions. Cut notches in ends of end pieces as shown in the drawing. To assemble, nail the ends to. sides. Use 8-penny nails, putting three nails into each cover, two through the end pieces into the side pieces, and one through the side piece into the end piece. This method of nailing makes a good strong corner. Be careful not to split the wood when nailing. Next, Cover the crack between the two bottom boards with a narrow strip of wood to prevent the sand or soil from sifting through the crack. FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. 15 To provide pegs on which to string the wire to make the squares, drive 6-penny nails 2 inches apart into the top edges of the sides and ends of the box, allowing the heads to project 4 inch above the surface of the wood. Stretch the broom wire or fan around the nails to form the division, as shown in the drawing. Print letters and figures along one end and side, as shown in the drawing. Place sand or soil in the box, and it is iets for use. A seed germinator similar in construction to the one just de- scribed, but without the wires, is often used in seed-corn testing work. Figure 23 shows a perspective drawing of a convenient- sized tester of this kind. The box is 12} inches wide, 184 inches long, and 2 inches deep. A box of this size will test 45 ears of corn. The box used in the previous exercise can be used if desired. Half fill the box with sand or sawdust that has been soaked in water at least an hour, pack the material level, and above it stretch a piece Fig. 23.—Seed germinator. of muslin that has been ruled into 2-inch squares. Number the squares from 1 to 45, as shown in the illustration. Place the kernels to be tested, germ side up, in the spaces, cover the cloth with another piece of cloth a few inches larger than the box, and place wet sand or sawdust above this cloth. Cover the box with a piece of glass or oilcloth to prevent evaporation of the moisture and set it away in a warm place for a few days. When examining the kernels to see if they have germinated, always roll the top cloth back care- fully, otherwise you are likely to get the kernels from the different squares out of place. In the illustration the part marked A shows germinated kernels, that marked B the numbered squares, and that marked C the kernels ready to be tested. Instead of filling the box with sand or sawdust, the seed bed can be made of heavy canton flannel or similar material. Use two or three thicknesses in the bottom of the box and one or two thick- nesses for covermg the kernels. A new cloth should be washed . before usmg. It is well to bear in mind that canton flannel comes 16 BULLETIN 527; U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 27 inches wide. A box of the dimensions given above is just the right width for canton flannel once folded, allowing for shrinkage. For use, soak the cloth in water and place the half of the cloth, double thickness, which has been marked in squares, in the bottom of the germinating box. Place the kernels from ear No. 1, germ side up, in square No. 1, and so on, as,already described. When all of the squares have been filled fold the other end of the cloth carefully over the kernels. If during the sampling the cloths have become dry, sprinkle them well with water. The principal advantage of this method is that it is almost impos- sible to injure the corn by the addition of too much water, as is frequently done where tests are made in sand or sawdust. Fig. 24.—Rag-doll seed tester. In making the box, follow directions (except with regard to dimen- sions) given for the box shown in figure 22. One should have no difficulty in figuring the amount of material required, cutting the pieces into the proper lengths and assembling them. . In figure 24 is shown what is known as the rag-doll tester.1_ This is one of the cheapest as well as most convenient and accurate methods of testing seed corn. It requires no box. To make this tester, secure sheeting of a good quality and tear into strips from 8 to 10 inches wide and 3 to 5 feet long. Where these are to be used very much it is well to hem the edges, as otherwise the ravelings sometimes disarrange the kernels in unrolling. Each cloth should then be marked with a heavy pencil; first, lengthwise in the middle, and then crosswise, as shown in the accompanying illustration, making squares about 3 inches wide. Number the squares as shown in the illustration. Moisten one of these cloths and lay it out on a board of convenient size in front of the ears which are to be tested. Place kernels from each ear in squares numbered to correspond to number of ear. When the cloth has been filled, begin at the upper end with ears Nos. 1 and-2, etc., and roll the cloth up. Since the cloth is moistened, 1 The description and illustration are based on Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 135. ih ON lide FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. 17 the kernels will not push out of place. If a small irregular-shaped piece of wood or some other substance is used as a core in rolling, a more uniform germination may be secured. When the rolling of the cloth has been finished, tie a string rather loosely about the middle of the roll, or, better still, use a rubber band, and number this roll No.1. Then proceed with roll No. 2 in the same way. As many rolls may be used ag are necessary to contain the corn which one has to test. From 20 to 50 ears may be tested in each roll, depending upon the length. After the rolls have been filled they should be placed in a bucket of water, where they may remain for from 2 to 18 hours, depending upon the preference of the operator. At the end of this time pour off the water and turn the bucket upside down over the rolls—or a common dry-goods box may be used for this purpose. A couple of small pieces of wood should preferably be laid under the rolls, and one edge of the pail should be lifted from 4 to 1 inch in order to give suf- ficient ventilation. Some have left the pail in an upright position, placing a few sticks or corncobs in the bottom of the pail to insure proper drainage, and then packing a moist, coarse cloth over the rolls to prevent exces- sive drying. At the end of five days the kernels should be ready to read. Depending upon the arrangement of the ears, select, first, either roll No. 1 or the last roll filled. This cloth will be unrolled in front of the ears which are represented. Ex- amine all the kernels carefully. In all cases in which all six kernels are not strong in germination the ear should be thrown away. ‘Nort to TEAcHER.—One of the very best lines of agricultural work for schools is the testing of seed corn. It is a means of get- ting not only the pupils, but also the parents interested in agriculture. Often the latter is a very important consideration in the success of the work. It pays to test seed corn, for it is often the means of preventing a poor stand or the replanting of a crop. As correlations with the agricul- tural work and the manual-training exercise, have the pupils compute the value of the lumber in a box, the value of the time to make it, the cost in time of testing, say, 100 ears of corn, and use the figures obtained in formulating problems to determine whether or not the testing of seed corn is an expensive practice. Fic. 25.—Seed-corn drying rack. EXERCISE V. SEED-CORN DRYING RACK. Seed corn should be stored in a cool, dry place, and the ears should be kept apart, in order that air can circulate freely about them. A very convenient and easily constructed rack is shown in figure 25. To make this rack, rip a piece of 2 by 4 inch in strips 2 by 2 inches 80746°—Bull. 527—17——3 | j : | 18 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and 6 feet long. Exact measurements, however, are not necessary. Smooth up the pieces, bore a half-inch hole near one end, and loop a rope through it. This rope is hung over a nail or hook in the ceiling of the storage room when the rack is in use. Drive 10 finish- ing nails on each side of the piece, spacing them 53 inches apart. Number the nails from 1 to 40 (there will be 10 on each side of the piece). This may be done with a pencil, or figures may be cut from a calendar and the numbers pasted on the wood. When the rack is to be used, the butts of the corncobs are stuck on the nails, as shown in the illustration. Nore ro TracnEr.—The pupils should be impressed with the necessity of storing seed corn properly. The making of these racks by the pupils will create an interest in this phase of the work. In Farmers’ Bulletins other devices for drying seed corn are given. EXERCISE VI. SEED SAMPLE CASE. Collections of farm seeds, weed seeds, and farm seeds contaiming weed seeds as impurities should be made in the schools and kept for use in studying crops, weeds, and seed adul- terations. Tocare for such collections prop- erly, a case to hold the seeds is necessary. Figure 26 shows a con- venient case in which small bottles of seeds may be stored. The bottles are straight sided, 3 inch in diam- eter and 24 inches deep; they can be pur- chased at drug stores (| for about 10 cents a I |i ne dozen. Those with Us b screw tops are more be% convenient than those Sig FFROMT) LUE} L£NO WILY with corks. Fic. 26.—Seed case. The material re- quired for making the case is a piece of white pine 2 by 4 by 20 inches. Finish the piece to the dimensions shown in the drawing, 13 by 3 by 194 inches. Gauge two lines 3°; inch from both sides on one edge. On these gauge lines lay off centers for holes 1} inches apart, beginning 14 inches from one end. Place the piece, with a strip of scrap board against it on one side, in a vise, and with a 2-inch bit and brace bore holes 2 inches deep on the centers that have been laid off. The scrap board prevents the lumber from FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. 19 slivering. Bore the holes straight into the wood. See directions on page 5. To aid you in boring the holes to the exact depth desired, bore a $-tnch hole lengthwise through a piece of scrap lumber 14 by 14 by 4 inches, and slip this on the shank of the bit to form a collar; the bit should extend 2? inches beyond the collar. Bore a trial hole in a piece of scrap Jumber with this collar on the bit; if the hole is too shallow, cut off the end of the collar to get the correct length; . if the hole is too deep, make another collar. After the holes are bored, trim the edges along the sides of the piece until each opening is 3 oh wide. SA or stain the case; this will improve its appear- ance as well as preserve the wood. Norse to TracherR.—Collections of seeds are very useful aids in teaching agricul- ture. A pupil will get a much better idea from examining the seeds themselves than by reading about them. If you are to do efficient work in crop studies, you must have the seeds and, moreover, they must be arranged in some kind of order and be of convenient access. The seed sample case solves the question of a place in which to put theseeds. Foran extended discussion of this subject see Farmers’ Bulletin 586. Descriptions of weed seeds and methods of eradication are good topics for written lessons. Many weeds have been introduced into the United States from foreign countries; the Russian thistle, for example. A study of the climate and plants of these countries will add to the interest of the geography lessons. Enlarged drawings of seeds as they may be seen under a lens are useful, not only for their agricultural value, but for the drawing lessons as well. : EXERCISE VII. HOTBED AND COLD FRAME. A hotbed is a bed of fertile soil surrounded by a glass-covered frame, usually of wood, and heated artificially. Asa rule fresh stable manure is placed in the’ bottom of a hotbed as the source of heat. A cold frame is a box-like frame covered with glass or muslin. These frames are similar to hotbeds except that no heat is supplied artifi- cially. The sun’s rays through the glass are depended upon as the ‘source of heat. The principal use of hotbeds is for the production of plants for early setting. Cold frames are used primarily to harden off plants that have been started in a hotbed. They are used also | to mature crops earlier in the season than if they were grown in the field and to lengthen the growing season of certain crops that do not normally mature in a given locality. Temporary cold frames are sometimes built over partly grown crops in the field; lettuce, for example, for the purpose of protecting the plants during the cold weather of early spring and hastening their growth. Hotbeds and cold frames should be set in well-drained soil and should slant toward the south. The most common sash used for hotbeds and cold frames is 3 feet wide and 6 feet long, with the side pieces, known to gardeners as stiles, extending 2 inches beyond the ends. These projections 20 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. serve to strengthen the corner joints, and they are used as handles when removing the sash from the frame. The sash when in use is laid on the frame, the weight holding it in place. Figure 27 shows a simple one-sash cold frame that can be used also as a hotbed by placing it over an excavation in which has been placed 2 inches of ashes or stone, 3 or 4 inches of straw, and a layer of fresh horse manure. The thickness of the manure will vary from 6 to 24 inches, ~ SSsss SSSoscs = t je ZACH LZWVVD Kt GDE 4 | GZ LIV VEY SIDE WEVY Fic. 27.—Cold frame. depending on the climate and the season. Above the manure, 2 or 3 inches of straw and 5 or 6 inches of mellow soil are placed. When the frame is used as a cold frame it is placed directly over the soil in which the vegetables are to be grown; this soil should be put into a good state of tilth before the frame is built. The material required for the frame shown in figure 27 is one piece of board % by 12 inches by 15 feet, one piece } by 8 inches by 3 feet, one piece 2 by 4 by 21 inches (if a piece of 2 by 4 inch dressed lum- FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. OF ber is used it will probably measure 13 by 34 inches), one glass sash 3 by 6 feet, and a quantity of 8-penny common nails. The bill of stock with finished dimensions and uses of the pieces is given below: > Number of ae 2 rs 4 Uses pieces. Finished dimensions. Sides: Stl. 2 | by 12 aeHies at one end and 8 inches at the other by 5 feet. Bp ackse se Mish ees 2 1 | 2 by 12 inches by 2 feet 104+ inches. GON Geter sso ee 1 | ~ by 8 inches by 2 feet 10; ‘inches. Posts at back. --. 2 .| 13 by 12 by 12 inches. Posts at front...- 2 | 12 by 12 by 8 inches. Cut from the 7% by 12 inch by 15 foot board two pieces 6 feet long and one piece 3 feet long to form the sides and back pieees. Taper the side pins by laying off a slanting line on the board with one end 12 inches from the base and the other 8 inches, and saw and plane to this line. If the board lacks a little in width, say, if only 11? inches wide, use this dimension instead of the 12 inch. The back, too, will be the same length. Square up the 3-foot board cut from the large board to the dimension given for the back. From the 3-foot board (8 inches wide) given in the list of material, square up the piece for the front. Rip the 21-inch piece of 2 by 4 inches into two pieces ~ and saw each in two to form the posts. To assemble, place the corner posts on the inside ends of the side boards and nail with 8-penny common nails. Place end boards in position even with the side boards and nail securely. Saw posts flush with top. Lay the sash on ne frame, and the cold frame is ready for use. Nore To TracuEr.—Hotbeds and cold frames can be used very effectively in school and home garden work. They lengthen the growing season so much that several months more gardening work can be done by the pupils. In northern sections green plants can be grown in hotbeds as late as December, and in many southern sections cold frames make gardening possible all winter. For further suggestions concerning the use of hotbeds and cold frames see Farmers’ Bulletins 255, The Home Vegetable Garden; 642, Tomato Growing in the South; 647, The Home Vegetable Gar- den in the South; 460, Frames as Factors in Truck Growing. School and Home Garden Circulars 1 to 10, published by the Bu- reau of Education, Department of the Interior, contain information about hotbeds and cold frames. These may be secured by writing to the Commissioner of Education, Department of the Interior, Washington, D. C. EXERCISE VIII. FLATS. Vegetable growers have much use for small wooden trays known as flats. They are especially useful in transplanting plants from the hotbed to the cold frame. In one method of transplanting the Bate Pe 22 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. gardener removes a quantity of plants from the hotbed to a warm room and transplants them to the flats. The flats with the newly planted seedlings in them are then placed in the cold frames. Later they may be transplanted to the soil of the cold frame or to the field direct. Flats vary considerably in size. Perhaps the most common sizes are 20 to 24 inches in length, and 15 to 16 inches in width; 24 inches is the usual depth. The ends are in most cases made of }-inch i material and the sides and bottom of 4-inch ~—eZE => material. Cracks } inch in width are left in the bottom to provide for drainage. Figure 28 shows a flat 24 by 16 by 24 inches inside measurement. Make several flats of this or any other convenient size, using 4-inch material for the ends and 4-inch material for the sides and bottom. Leave 4-inch cracks in the bottom. From the experience you have had in previous exercises you will be able to construct them without having the de- tailed mstructions before you. Make out a bill of materials, a bill of stock, cut the pieces, square them up, and assemble them. Inexpensive flats are often made by gardeners from soap or other similar boxes by sawing the box into sections about 24 inches in depth and nailing strips on these sections to form bottoms for the flats. Figure 29 shows how to mark out the box for sawing it into sections. Get a box and some pieces of 4-inch strips for bottoms and make a few flats in this way. If the box has a bottom and a cover on it, you can use these for the bottoms of two of the flats. Nore to TEACcHER.—Flats should be found in every school where agriculture is taught. They may be used in connection with a hotbed and cold frame as described previously or be placed in sunny windows in the schoolhouse. Plants for study during the winter or for transplanting to the garden to secure early crops are often grown successfully in flats in schoolhouses. A shelf wide enough for the flats is built on a level with the window sill. Fig. 28.—Flat. Fic. 29.—Method of marking box for sawing into flats. EXERCISE IX. FORCING BOX. A very practical piece of equipment for use in forcing the growth of rhubarb and asparagus in the early spring is shown in figure 30. One of these boxes is placed over a clump of rhubarb or asparagus late in the fall or early in the spring, and barnyard manure is filled in around the box. The heat from the manure and from the sun’s rays through the glass cover warms the soil under the box, and as a result the plants start to grow earlier. Often plants can be forced to pro- oo N FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. Taming 1 se ee a oe SSS BHI fo iE _¢ (ee KS IISSSSHHNHANTST PNT . SHS DOL SOS SFIA/TF Fig. 30.—Forcing box. 24 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. duce a crop three or four weeks earlier than usual. Some gardeners place a half-barrel or a keg over the plants and cover it with manure to force them in the spring, but the forcing box is preferable on account of the heat that comes through the glass; also, because the plants—rhubarb especially—lack the green color when grown in the dark. The material needed is one piece of board, cypress preferred, } by 12 by 42 inches, one piece % by 8 by 28 inches, one piece of glass 13 by 13 inches, a few 8-penny nails, 1-inch brads, and 10-ounce carpet tacks, and a piece of leather large enough for the two hinges. The stock with finished dimensions and the use of each of the pieces are as follows: - Number of HE ‘ : Use. pieces. Tinished dimensions. BaCKRE 2a: cosh ae 1 | 2 by 114 by 123. Sidevers22 sei ea2 2 | 2 by 113 at oneend and 7} at the other end by 14 long. TON see ones 1 | 2 by 72 by 128: Covers ees soagsees 2 | by 14 by 14 Cc petauere been 2 | 2hby 14 by 144 Cut the | by 12 by 42 inch piece into three pieces, two of them.144 inches and the other 13 inches long. Square these up to dimensions given for back and side pieces. Bevel the back piece as shown in the drawing. To make the top edge of a side piece slanting, draw a line on the board with one end 114 inches from the base and the other 74 inches and saw and plane to this line. Cut the } by 8 by 28 inch piece of material into two lengths, one 13 inches long and the other 15 inches long. Square up the first of these pieces to form the front piece of the box. Bevel this piece as shown in the drawing. Rip the other piece into four strips, each 1Z inches wide, and square up to form the four pieces of the cover. Lay off and cut the ends of these pieces to form the half-lap joints at the corners of the cover as shown in the drawing. With the pieces all cut and squared up, the next step is to assemble the parts. Nail the front and back pieces to the side pieces, using 8-penny nails. Place the four strips of the cover in position and nail the half-lap joints, using 1-inch brads and bending them over on the’ under side. Fasten the cover to the box by means of the pieces of leather that form the hinges. Place the glass in position on the cover and drive carpet tacks into the wood along the front and sides to hold the glass in place. Also, drive two or three tacks along the back edge; these tacks can be removed and the glass slid out when venti- lation is necessary or the plants are to be gathered. FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. 25 Nore to TEACHER.—These forcing boxes can be made useful aids in teaching agriculture. Ifyou have no rhubarb or asparagus in the school garden, undoubtedly you can get permission to use a few clumps at some near-by farm. The pupils will be interested in observing the difference between the forced and unforced plants, and, in addition, it will show them the necessity of warmth in plant growth. The making of the boxes and their use in a garden will suggest good ideas for written lessons. As problems in arithmetic, have the pupils keep records of the sale prices of forced and unforced rhubarb and asparagus and compare the results, taking into account the cost of the boxes. As the boxes should last, say, five years, they should be figured at one-fifth of the actual cost. EXERCISE X. SORTING TABLE FOR VEGETABLES AND FRUITS. In figure 31 is shown a sorting table for use when packing vegeta- bles and fruits. It is especially useful for tomatoes and apples. The po ee \ ! N ~{ % oe dae | one —_ "—#O | eZ —— : = Se tug Wp ee > Z Fig. 31.—Sorting table. table is 3 feet high, 3 feet 2 inches wide, and 4 feet long and will accommodate two packers. The top is made of burlap or canvas stretched loosely on the frame; this provides a yielding surface that will not bruise the product to be packed. The baskets or other con- tainers to be filled are placed on rests made by a board extending across the bottom of the frame. Two of the side boards extend out a foot to provide a rest against which a box or other flat container can be leaned, if such a type is used. The lumber required is one piece of 1 by 8 inches by 16 feet, one piece 1 by 12 inches by 10 feet, two pieces 1 foot by 3 inches by 10 feet, two pieces 1 foot by 3 inches by 8 feet, and one piece 2 by 4 inches by 12 feet. The other material required is two pieces of burlap or canvas, each 4 by 5 feet, 14 feet of old rubber hose, and a quantity of 8 and 10 penny nails. 26 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEFARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The bill of stock is as follows: Use oes: Dimensions. Inches. Feet. Hramey? .sb257. 4 2 |1by 8by5 ape eae 2 |1by 8by3 Rest boards...... 2 |1 by12by5. BTACHS =< = 3 4 |1lby 3by5. Braces ss scft2 te 4 |1lby 3by4 WEPS ate cee 4 |2by 4by3 Saw the 16-foot board into four pieces to form the frame, the 10-foot board into two pieces to form the rest boards, the 2 by 4 inch into four pieces to form the legs, the two 10-foot strips into four pieces for braces that will run the long way of the table, and the two 8-foot strips into four pieces for braces that will run the short way of the table. 7 To assemble, nail the frame together, turn it upside down and nail the legs in place, using 10-penny nails, nail the rest boards in place, turn the table right side up and nail braces in place along the sides, using 8-penny nails, saw off the ends of the braces flush with the leg, nail the two thicknesses of burlap or canvas on the top of the frame, and nail the piece of rubber hose around the edge of the frame. This rubber hose gets rid of the sharp edge. If no hose is available, nail several thicknesses of burlap on the edge of the frame before the two thicknesses of burlap are fastened. Note to TEACHER.—As an aid in teaching agriculture, have one or two of these. sorting tables made and carried to an orchard where apples are to be harvested. The pupils can be given some practical lessons in sorting the fruit. Be sure they learn that the burlap or canvas is to aid in protecting the fruit from bruising. After sorting a few baskets of fruit, compare them with an unsorted lot. The better appearance of the sorted fruit will often be a surprise to them. Too much fruit goes to market carelessly sorted. ; : These tables are useful in tomato-club work. A carefully sorted lot of tomatoes makes a much better appearance than a vine-run lot. EXERCISE XI. PLANTING BOARD. The usual method followed when laying out an orchard for plant- ing is to set a stake at the point where each tree is to be located; but as this stake must be removed when the hole for the tree is dug, a planting board is often employed to get each tree in its proper place. In figure 32 is shown a drawing of a planting board, with the dimensions given. When using a planting board, the 2 by 2 inch notch is placed over the stake that indicates where the tree is to stand, and two stakes are driven into the ground at the points of the notches at both ends of the board. The board is then removed and the hole dug. When the tree is to be set, the planting board FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. 27 ~ is placed over the hole with the two notched ends over the stakes in the same position as before. The tree is placed in the hole at the position of the 2 by 2 inch notch in the board. Thus the tree stands in the same place as the stake did before the hole was dug. To make a planting board, get a piece of 1 inch by 6 inch by 3 foot 6 inch lumber and saw out the notches as shown in the drawing. Nore to TEACHER.— The planting of an orchard Fig. 32.—Planting board. is such an important part of fruit growing that some instruction about it should be given in the schools. An important item of the work is to get the trees in straight lines. The planting board described in this exercise is a means whereby this can be accomplished, and for this reason it is well to have each pupil make one. EXERCISE XII. STAMPER FOR CRUSHING LUMPS OF FERTILIZER. In the home mixing of fertilizer one of the tasks necessary in pre- paring the material is to crush the lumps of certain of the ingredi- ents. A very handy tool for this work, and one easily constructed by the pupils, is the homemade stamper shown in figure 33. Tomake the stamper, cut off 18 inches from a piece of 6 by 6 inch hemlock, smooth up a 3-foot piece of hickory or other tough wood that is about the size of a pick handle, bore a hole in the end of the hemlock block, and wedge in the handle. Often an old pick or sledge handle can be used for the purpose. Nott to TEAcHER.—The home mixing of fertilizer is a subject that should be taught in every country school. This simple exercise can be made the means of interesting your pupils, and also their parents, in the work. One of the arguments often given against the home mixing of fertilizer is the fact that some of the ingredients are likely to be lumpy. If you can get the pupils to mix a batch of fertilizer er a and use this stamper to crush the lumps, they will learn that the | lumpiness of the ingredients usually is not a formidable objection to 2 home mixing. - EXERCISE XIII. FEED HOPPER FOR POULTRY. ~eom s - A very convenient hopper for grains and ground meals Fic.33.—Home- 5 3 : 3 madestamper {for use in poultry houses is shown in figure 34. It is ee een easily constructed, mexpensive, and where used has ; given satisfaction. The material required is one piece of cypress 3? by 10 inches by 8 feet, two small hinges, 1 dozen $-inch screws, and a quantity of 6-penny finishing nails. BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 28 BSACAT LOWER FRONT Lat yes S| ISS LI Ke : : : BO7TTO*7 Z 29> <7 ib; fo + r | |! | | ] | | : sf —— ~~~ -~~--» a — /5—— .- FRONT WEW Fig. 34.—Feed hopper. FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. 29 The bill of stock is as follows: Number of ete E : Use. pieces. Finished dimensions. Inches IBACKere decease acct sec 1 | $by 13 A a0, UBS is ma of 2 pieces). IROttomMss..-2ss-c-< 1 | by 133 by 5 Centerboard ae 1 | & by 84 ‘by MO Seaesreeee ct iesee 2 | by 53 by 123 IG) 8 ae ee ee 1 | 8 by 64 by 15. Upper part of front. 1 | $by 13 by 15 Lower part of front... 1 | 8 by 23 by 15 Top piece......-..-.- 1 | &by 2i by 15 Cut from the 8-foot board one piece 154 inches; from this piece rip off 5$ inches and square up to make the bottom piece, and square up the other piece to be 34 inches wide for one of the pieces of the back. Cut another piece 15% inches long from the original board and square it up to 94 inches in width to form the second piece of the back. Bevel the top of the back, as indicated in the drawmg. Cut a piece 13% inches in length from the original board and square it up to the dimensions required for the centerboard. Rip a strip 22 inches in width from what remains of the original board and cut and square up to form the upper and lower parts of the front, and the top piece. Bevel the pieces that form the upper part of the front and the top piece, as shown in the drawing. From the remaining part of the original board cut and square up the end pieces and lid. Bevel the lower end of the lid piece, as shown in the drawing. To assemble, nail the end pieces to the bottom, nail the center- board to the end pieces, carefully adjustmg the centerboard to the correct position, as shown in the drawing, nail the upper and the lower pieces of the front to the end boards, nail the back to the end boards, placing the narrow piece above the wider piece, nail the top piece to the top of the end boards and the back, place the lid in posi- tion, and screw the hinges in place. Nore to TracHer.—Poultry is found on every farm, and this fact makes poultry husbandry an especially desirable subject to be taught in the schools. In order that the teaching may be profitable, it is necessary that the pupils take care of a few fowls, either at the school or at home as a home project or home practicum. The making of convenient appliances as described in this and some of the subsequent exercises will add much interest to the work. EXERCISE XIV. TRAP NEST. A trap nest is a laying nest so arranged that after a hen enters it she is confined until released by the attendant. By using such nests the egg record of each of the hens of the flock may be determined. A very convenient type of trap nest, the one used at the Government poultry farm, is described with full directions for making in Farmers’ Bulletin 682. In working out this exercise, send to the Department of Agriculture for this bulletin and follow the directions given. 30 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EXERCISE XV. BROOD COOP. In figure 35 are shown detailed drawings of a brood coop described in Farmers’ Bulletin 574. By following directions carefully you should be able to build one of these coops. The bill of material is as _ follows: 1 piece hemlock, 2 by 3 inches by 5 feet. 3 pieces white pine or spruce, 1 by 2 inches by 10 feet. 1 piece white pine or spruce, 1 by 3 inches by 3 feet. 2 pieces 4 by 2 inch stop, 30 inches long. 34 square feet {-inch matched yellow-pine flooring. 1 pair 2 by 2 inch steel or japanned butts. 3 pounds 8-penny common nails. 1 piece wire netting, 4-inch mesh, 10 by 30 inches. 1 piece wire netting, 4-inch mesh, 9 by 15 inches. 2 pieces wire netting, 4-inch mesh, 4 by 4 inches. A few staples. The material should be examined to see that it is what was ordered; then the pieces should be laid out to cut with least waste, laying out first the longest pieces required. To build the bottom of the coop, cut the 2 by 3 inch by 5 foot hem- lock into two 30-inch pieces. Cut enough of the matched flooring into 18}-inch lengths to cover the length of 281 inches. Nail the pieces of flooring to the 2 by 3 inch strips, nailing on the 3-inch face with 8-penny common nails. As shown in the sketch, the flooring is to be kept % inch back from the face and the ends of the 2 by 3 inch strips to allow for thickness of ends and sides. To build the back, cut from the 1 by 2 inch white pine or spruce two pieces 28} inches long. Next, cut enough pieces of flooring 16 inches long to cover 30 inches. Nail the flooring to the 1 by 2 inch strips as illustrated, observing that the strips are kept back at each end % inch to allow for the sides to fit in, and the bottom strip up inch to fit over the coop bottom. The end sections are made in pairs—right and left. From the 1 by 2 inch strips cut one piece 164 inches and one about 21 inches long. Cut enough pieces of flooring 26 inches long to cover 19 inches. Place the bottom strip $ inch up from the bottom of your flooring and % inch in from edge of floormg, then measure 24 inches to the long point of the end from bottom and 16 inches to short point of end and place top strip at these points. Having nailed the flooring to the strips, cut the flooring along the top edge of the top strip, forming the slope of the roof. Then cut the top strip back % inch on each end from the edge of the flooring. With compasses describe a circle as shown in the figure, and with brace and bit and compass-saw cut out the circle described. On the inside of the coop nail a piece of wire screen over this hole with wire staples. FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. Sil To build the front section, cut from the 1 by 2 inch strips two pieces 28} inches and three pieces 15 inches long. Cut enough pieces of flooring 15 inches long to cover 18 inches. Cut a piece of wire netting 10 by 30 inches’and nail to nailing strip. Then nail flooring and slats to nailing strips-as illustrated, keeping top nailer 4 inch aD NON ANN OSS ANY DOOR FRAME Wi CORNER HALVED TOGETITEFR Fig. 35.—Brood coop. above flooring and bottom nailer { inch above bottom of flooring. Next, make sliding door 4 inch smaller than distance between nailers and 17 inches long. Do this by fastening together with screws four 1 by 2 inch strips of proper lengths halved together at the angles, as shown in the illustration. Tack piece of wire netting 9 by 15 inches to this frame, and the door is ready to place with wire cloth on inside | } | | ] 32 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of coop, between the nailing strips. To hold this door in between the slides, nail a piece of 4 by 2 inch stop to top and bottom nailers as shown. If you haven’t a piece of this stop, a lath, a piece of beveled siding, or a strip of tin or galvanized iron may be used. Assemble the sections thus far completed. .To do this place the back and one end in position on the bottom and nail the back to the end. Then place the other end in position and nail the back to it as you did at the other end. Next, put the front in position and nail to both ends. Do not nail back ends or front to the bottom; the coop is to be lifted from the bottom to clean it. . Finish up the front by nailing a piece of 1 by 2 inch across the top between the ends, and tack the piece of wire netting to it. Cut 30 inches from the piece of 1 by 3 inches by 3 feet and 30 inches from the piece of 1 by 7 inches by 3 feet, hinge the two together with the 2 by 2 inch butts, and nail the 1 by 3 inch into place across the top. The coop is now ready for a roof. Cut enough pieces of flooring 4 inches longer than slope of end of coop to cover 34 inches and nail them to front and back. EXERCISE XVI. POULTRY HOUSE. To carry on a home project in poultry some type of poultry house is necessary. Often boys of the rural schools will desire to construct houses. Plans, specifications, and bills of material for good types are given in Farmers’ Bulletin 574. Pupils desiring to build poultry houses should write to the United States Department of Agriculture for a copy of this bulletin and follow the plans given. EXERCISE XVII. WOODEN TROUGHS FOR SWINE. In figures 36 and 37 are shown two types of wooden troughs that are used extensively by swine raisers. The one shown in figure 36 is designed for use in feeding young pigs. As shown in the drawing it is shallow _and is constructed with a flat bottom and wide end pieces, The shallowness makes it easy for the young pigs to get at the feed, and the wide ends make it difficult for the pigs to overturn it. The cross pieces prevent the hogs from lying in the trough. The drawing gives all necessary dimensions. Make out a bill of material and a bill of stock, cut the pieces, and assemble them. Fig. 36.—Trough for young pigs. 7. ae FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. 33 Figure 37 shows a V-shaped trough for older hogs. Like the one shown for young pigs, it is wide at the ends and provided with cross pieces. The drawing _ gives all necessary dimensions. Make out {bills of material and stock, and. construct. _~ Notre to TEACHER .— Where pig projects are a feature of school work the boys will be interested in building troughs such as are described in this exer- cise. This exercise and some of those that follow will fit well with the class in- struction dealing with swine raising as well as with the club work. Fic. 37.—Trough for mature hogs. EXERCISE XVIII. HURDLES FOR USE IN STOCK JUDGING. A hurdle as described in this exercise is a panel of boards made as shown in figure 38. Hurdles are portable and are useful when sort- ing hogs or sheep into groups or keeping the animals, especially hogs, separated when scoring and judging them. Three or four hurdles fastened together at the ends make a very good temporary pen. Fic. 38.—Hurdle. The materials required are four pieces 1 by 4 inches by 12 feet, one piece 2 by 4 inches by 8 feet, and 2 pounds of eightpenny common nails. To build the panel, cut the pieces as shown in the drawing. Lay the four pieces of 2 by 4 inches on the floor, spacing them 4 feet apart, nail the bottom board, space 2 inches and nail the second board, space 3 inches and nail the third board, nail the fourth board on the top. F EXERCISE XIX. HOG HOUSES. The members of pig projects will need some kind of hog house. Farmers’ Bulletin 438, entitled ‘‘Hog Houses,” gives some very practical plans for houses, and those desiring to use this exercise should send for a copy of this bulletin and follow the directions given. 34 BULLETIN 527, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE: EXERCISE XX. MILKING STOOL. A very substantial milking stool is uUlustrated in figure 39 and described in this exercise. The material required is one piece of white pine 1 by 8 by 21 inches, one piece 2 by 4 by 14 inches, a few SSS TOP VEW ei BEVEL 3"ON /7ICE BEVEL 4° ON EDGE BEVEL # FULL AROUND THE £NO >| Iz! l< FITONT VIEW LNO VLIW Fig. 39.—Milking stool. 8-penny nails, and a hardwood wedge. The bill of stock with fin- ished dimensions and the use of the parts are as follows: Use Number | Finished dimen- ¥ of pieces. sions. BQatr oo eee men ae 1 f by I Seat brace.....-.-. 1 by 72 by 73 Leg 1 1 FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. 85 Cut the seat and seat brace from the 21-inch board and square up the pieces to the dimensions given in the bill of stock. Place the seat brace in position on the bottom of the seat, having the grain of the seat brace crosswise of the grain of the seat. Nail the two pieces together, driving the nails from the top and clinching them on the bottom of the brace piece. Lay out the mortise on both sides of the two pieces, as shown in the drawing. Bore three holes with a 32-inch bit inside of the lines and trim to these lines with a 23-inch chisel. Cut the leg from the piece of 2 by 4 inch, squaring it up to dimen- sions and beveling it as shown in the drawing. Lay out the tenon on the end as called for in the drawing. Saw to the lines and trim the tenon smooth with a 3-inch chisel. See that it will fit snugly into the mortise of the seat. Saw a slot in the tenon for a wedge. This should be made lengthwise and through the center of the tenon. To assemble the leg and seat, slip the tenon into the mortise and drive a small hardwood wedge into the slot of the tenon. This will hold the leg and seat together firmly. Bore a ?-inch hole in the leg near the end to provide a means for hanging up the stool when it is not in use. EXERCISE XXI. CALF STANCHIONS. When calves run together in a pasture or feed lot, a row of stanchions should be provided in order that each calf may be held until it gets the proper quantity of feed and to prevent it from sucking the next one’s ears. Figure 40 illustrates this exercise and describes a prac- tical row of stanchions for this purpose. White pine, spruce, or hemlock may be used. The bill of material is as follows: Quantity. Dimensions. | Quantity. Dimensions. NDICCE S22 see ae 1 by 5 inches by 12 feet. | Ipieceress = eae 1 by 8 inches by 12 feet. IBDIECE ee sas. se : 1 by 4 inches by 12 feet. |: Sibolishe= =a a 2 by 33 inches. dqpiece: SEI jas. | 1; by 4 inches by 12 feet. 3 pair light strap HIDIECE eas = ce 1+ by 4 inches by /0 feet. hinges. piece 35225 52 32.2 11 by 5 inches by 7 feet. 2 pounds eight- penny com- mon nails. From the piece of 14 by 5 inches by 7 feet cut two pieces 3 feet 6 inches long, and from both the 1 by 5 inches by 12 feet and 1 by 4 inches by 12 feet cut two pieces 6 feet long. Then nail the ends of the 1 by 4 inch by 6 foot pieces to the top of the 14 by 5 inch by 3 foot 6 inch pieces, as shown, nailing the 1 by 4 inch pieces on each side of the upright. Nail the two pieces of 1 by 5 inches by 6 feet in the same way, 18 inches below the top board. From the 14 by 4 inches by 10 feet and 14 by 4 inches by 12 feet cut the stanchion boards, as shown. Nail a piece of 14 by 4 inch 86 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. between the top and bottom rails as shown, leaving a 2-inch space between the corncr upright and this piece. Next, space 4 inches from this bar to the swinging bar, drop the bar in place between the rails, and with a brace and 4-inch bit bore a hole through the center of the 5-inch rail and 4-inch bar and insert one of the 3-inch bolts. Space again 4 inches from the bar and nail in the next bar. Proceed in this way with the remaining stanchions, then nail the two pieces of 1 by 8 inch by 6 foot to the back of the two end uprights, as shown. AE 7 To hold the swing- eS FAI : ; aes ing bars in place, | Thin screw one side of the | di light hinge to short Ith blocks of the 14 by 1 NN : : 6 4 inch pieces and | | TT fasten the hinges to | Sil the top of the bar 1 ui to the right of the Fic. 40.—Calf stanchion. swinging bar in such a way that when the swinging bar is in closed position this block will drop in place and hold the bar. Nore to TeEacHER.—This exercise will fit into instruction in either dairying or beef raising. Boys who feed calves at home will be especially interested in these stanchions. EXERCISE XXII. FARM GATE. In figure 41 is shown a very good type of farm gate. The con- structing of such a gate is not especially difficult and makes a very good exercise in farm mechanics for farm boys. For a gate 12 feet long the material required is: 1 piece 1 by 4 inches by 14 feet. 7 pieces 1 by 4 inches by 12 feet. (White pine or other dressed lumber.) 1 pair bolt and eye gate hinges with bolts. 3 pounds 8-penny common nails or 5 pounds } by 2 inch bolts. From the piece of 1 by 4 inches by 14 feet cut two pieces of 4 feet 2 inches long. Space the boards as shown in the illustration, placing the two upright pieces 12 feet apart from outside to outside. First, nail six of the 1 by 4 inch by 12 foot boards to the strips. Next, nail the remaining 1 by 4 inch by 12 foot piece as a diagonal brace. Be sure to have this brace run to the bottom hinge end of the gate. From what is left of the 1 by 4 inch by 14 foot piece cut the two short braces as shown, and nail the diagonal and short braces to each board, Bolts may be used instead of nails to fasten the boards together, They are a better construction, but somewhat more expensive. FARM HANDICRAFT FOR SCHOOLS. a7 To adjust the hinges, bore a hole through the gate post, insert the bolt member of the hinge, and fasten it to the post by screwing a nut on the opposite side of the post. Having fastened the bolt to the post, place the eye member of the hinge on the bolt and deter- mine how much space is required between post and gate. This is usually about 3 inches. Allow 1 inch more for play between the gate and the opposite post if the gate is to swing clear, both ways, between posts. Thus, for a 12-foot gate the posts should be 12 feet 4 inches apart. Screw the eye members in place, and the gate is ready to hang. Fig. 41.—Farm gate. EXERCISE XXII. ROPE WORK. The whipping and crowning of rope and the tying of various knots and hitches provide practical work for pupils in the seventh and eighth grades. Rope-tying contests will add interest to a Friday- afternoon program. Bulletins issued by the extension service of the agricultural colleges of some States have described and illustrated this rope work thoroughly. In other States, where these bulletins © are not available, teachers will find the manual of the Boy Scouts of America very helpful. The boy scout is required to learn to tie knots and is examined as to his proficiency in this in much the same way as might be done at school. EXERCISE XXIV. CONCRETE WORK. Concrete work, such as the making of posts, floors, and sidewalks, is a type of farm mechanics that appeals to farm boys. In many cases teachers can have the boys build a fence or a sidewalk for the school grounds. Usually the shovels, trowels, and other tools necessary will be brought from home by some of the pupils. Many boys who have practice in concrete work at school will continue the work at home. Instructions for working this exercise are found in three Farmers’ Bulletins, and these should be requested from the 38 BULLETIN 527, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. United States Department of Agriculture and the directions followed. No. 461 gives instructions for mixing and placing concrete; No. 403 tells how to make concrete fence posts; and No. 481 tells how to lay a concrete feeding floor. A sidewalk is laid in a similar manner. EXERCISE XXV. THE PAINTING OF WOODWORK. Some of the articles made in the exercise will need to be painted. For information regarding the mixing and handling of paint, see Farmers’ Bulletin 474. Write to the United States Department of Agriculture for a copy of this bulletin and follow the directions given. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY A UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 928 OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY Contribution from the Office of Farm Management. W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief. Washington, D. C. A April 13, 1917 SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FARM LABOR IN CHESTER COUNTY, PA. By Grorce A. Bruines, Agriculturist. CONTENTS. Part I—Chester County (Pa.) data: Page. | Part IJ—How to use the foregoing data: Page. Territory surveyed ana method used.... 2 Description of farm selected. -...-....... 20 Labor efficiency as affected by soil. topo- Determining labor requirements of old graphy, and field arrangement ....-..- 3 SVSHeMMa sees Seats rey ey aN ae 22 Types of farming......-...-...---.---.-- 4 Replanning cropping system....-...-.-.. 25 Available time for field operations.....-. 8 Comparative labor requirements... ....-- 28 Period of performing field operations. - -. 9 Comparative returns. ........-....--..-- 28 Succession of operations.........-..-..--- 9 Conclusions: Si yee ae tias VON Anis ies 29 Crews and machinery..................- 11 Summary of labor requirements of crops. 17 PART I.—CHESTER COUNTY (PA) DATA. The purpose of this bulletin is (1) to set forth the actual labor distribution that prevails on farms profitably conducted in a par- ticularly successful farming community, and (2) to show how these data may be applied profitably in replanning a farm of the type covered in the survey upon which this study is based. It often happens that when a farmer undertakes to put into opera- tion a new system he encounters grave and unforeseen difficulties through the conflict of the labor and equipment demands of his different enterprises. Even more frequently it happens that long existing farming systems chronically suffer in their operations through the strenuous labor demands of certain seasons and through the enforced idleness of others. When an abundance of day labor, both man and horse, is easily and continually available, the problem is never a serious one. ‘There is, however, a great advantage in being able to employ labor by the season or by the year, and it is practically necessary to keep on the farm horses and equipment adequate to 77500°—Bull, 528—17—1 2 BULLETIN 528, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. meet the maximum demands of the rush season. It is important, therefore, that the farmer contemplating a change in his cropping sys- tem should have some method by which he may measure the labor requirements of a proposed system to determine its feasibility under his limitations as to labor and equipment. It is equally important for the farmer who is already encountering difficulties through con- flicting labor demands to be able to make an analysis of his system with a view to making changes that will obviate these difficulties. It is to give these farmers a:basis upon which to plan with reference to seasonal distribution of labor that this bulletin has been prepared. TERRITORY SURVEYED AND METHOD USED. The region studied was the southern part of Chester County, Pa. It extends from the Maryland line on the south to the Chester valley on the north, and from the more broken region in the western part of the county to the vicinity of West Chester on the east. It includes the region already covered by a farm-management survey! made by this department, and, in addition, areas outside of this area having similar agricultural conditions. This special study was conducted in the summer of 1915. Only the more successful farms were visited, that is, those yielding labor incomes above the average found in the previous farm management survey. In that study the average of 389 farm owners was $789. The 215 farmers visited were selected from this list except a few from closely adjoining territory. The object of this survey was to study the farm practice and labor efficiency of well-managed farms, to the exclusion of others. By ‘‘labor income”’ is meant the amount of money that the farmer has left after paying all business expenses of the farm and deducting 5 per cent for interest on the money invested in the farm business. By ‘‘farm practice” in this connection is meant the general order of performing the various farm operations, from the application of manure, plowing, and preparation of seed bed to the marketing of the crop. Data as to the different types of implements and other equip- ment used, information concerning the use of commercial fertilizers, the methods of cultivation employed, and the yield and disposition of the products were obtained in the study of farm practice. By ‘‘labor efficiency” is meant the number of loads or tons handled or the area covered by an implement with a definite crew of men and horses, in a day or other unit of time, for every operation in the grow- ing of the crop. In this connection estimates were obtained from the farmer as to the number of days actually available for field work throughout the growing season, the number of days actually worked 1“Parm Management Practice in Chester County Pa.,”? U. S. Dept. Bulletin No. 341. SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FARM LABOR. 3 in hauling manure or marketing a crop in winter, and the average number of hours worked per day for each month. From the dataon the distribution and efficiency of labor, factors have been worked out by which it is possible to calculate very closely the amount of horse and man labor required for any cropping system and for any arrange- ment and acreage of crops, provided of course that topography, climate, and other conditions approximate those that obtain where this study was made. The second part of the bulletin illustrates the application of these data and the factors derived therefrom in the operation of a typical Chester County farm, offering a concrete example that may be used to more or less advantage by the farmer who wishes to replan his farming system along the lines here suggested. LABOR EFFICIENCY AS AFFECTED BY SOIL, TOPOGRAPHY, AND FIELD ARRANGEMENT. The average efficiency for any crew working tillage machinery will vary to some extent with the kind of soil, the size and shape of the field, the rough or rolling nature of the field, and the amount and distribution of rainfall. These things must be considered, there- fore, when the following data are to be used in regions where the conditions vary to any considerable extent from those that prevail in Chester County. The surface soil of the Chester loam,! which is mapped on the greater part of this area, is a mellow, soft, brown silty loam about 10 inches in average depth, sometimes varying from a silty to a heavy loam, or to a sandy or micaceous loam. Under average climatic con- ditions these soils work comparatively easily when 1,200 to 1,400 pound horses are used. The soil does not easily crust or bake. Under very dry conditions it is sometimes rather difficult to plow, and some allowance should be made if clover, eae ly, or alfalfa seedings are to be made in August. The ; general shape of the field has much to do with the efficiency of horse labor. Where the topography is rolling and but little broken by rough wooded areas or streams the general arrangement of the fields may be changed to economize labor. In Chester County, however, we have conditions very hard to change, since the area studied is often much broken by small streams with adjacent steep slopes, often wooded, dividing the farming area into natural divisions with irregularly shaped fields which require an unusual amount of horse labor in handling farm machinery. It is for this reason, probably, that the average number of crop. acres per horse on the farms visited is less than on the farms surveyed in certain other regions. On many farms visited, however, a rear- 1Soil Survey of Chester County, Pa. 4 BULLETIN 528, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. rangement of fields would no doubt be a strong factor in enhancing labor efficiency. Long rectangular fields require a minimum of turn- ing, and therefore entail the least waste of time in handling imple- ments, and there is little doubt that the averages in the labor require- ments given in the following tables could be reduced if due attention were given to this detail. The climatic conditions in this region are comparatively uniform. The average amount of rainfall for 33 years at Kennett Square is 49 inches, and the average monthly rainfall for the six summer months during this period is 4.6 inches.. Under good soil manage- ment, such as has been followed on the farms visited, the soils are generally retentive of moisture, intertilled grain crops suffer but lit- tle, and the season is exceptional that forces the farmer to break the regular routine of plowing or preparation for seeding. TYPES OF FARMING. Few agricultural regions have a more uniform type of farming than that found in southern and central Chester County. » The character of the soil is especially adapted to the growing of forage crops and grain, especially corn, wheat, clover, and timothy. These favorable conditions and the fact that this region is convenient to good mar- kets—Philadelphia, Pa., and Wilmington, Del.—is probably the rea- son why general farming and dairying is the principal type of farming in this region. The systems of farming followed have not materially changed in the last 50 years. The fruit industry until recently has been confined to the home orchard, which, as a rule, has received but little care and has given but little return. However, on selected slopes where the drainage is good, apples are now commanding increased attention. A number of new orchards have been planted, and the returns from those orchards which have begun to bear indicate a future for the fruit industry. Hitherto soy beans have not been grown in Chester County to any great extent, but it is believed that this is a crop which may profit- ably take the place of oats in the rotation. The acreage in oats has decreased in recent years. Evidently the farmers are finding this crop unprofitable. Soy beans have been successfully grown by a few Chester County farmers, and their great advantage from a farm man- agement standpoint, in that the product has a high feeding value, can be harvested for hay or grain, and that the crop has considerable influence in soil improvement, makes this legume a promising crop for this region. Three years ago less than 1 per cent of the farmers visited grew alfalfa, but the acreage has been rapidly increasing since then. How- SHASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FARM LABOR. 5 ever, if alfalfa becomes a prominent hay crop, this may have a marked effect on the cropping systems. The production of corn, wheat, and hay combined with live stock— generally dairy cattle—brings the most uniformly profitable returns to the Chester County farmer. Beef cattle are found only on a few of the larger farms. The rotation generally practiced by all farmers, as well as as those visited, is as follows: 1. Corn planted on timothy sod, usually harvested for grain, but sometimes for silage. . 2. Corn for silage, potatoes, oats, or soy beans. 3. Wheat. 4. Clover and timothy for hay. 5. Timothy for hay, one or two years. There is practically no change in the order of succession of these crops, and all variations usually come the second year after breaking the sod. VARIATIONS IN METHOD. Manure is generally applied for corn, potatoes, alfalfa, and often as a top dressing on mowing land and pasture. It is seldom applied for wheat or oats. About 50,to 60 per cent of the 165 farmers from. whom labor records were obtained haul out manure only in the spring and fall, 5 to 10 per cent do so daily, and the remainder weekly. There is little difficulty, however, in finding a Bes to spread manure profitably at any season of the year. The greater number of these farmers plow in the spring, though considerable areas of sod are often fall plowed. Except on steep slopes, which are apt to wash badiy, fall plowing of sod is of advantage because it will facilitate spring work. There is more or less variation even among the best farmers in the - preparation for seeding. It is their universal practice, however, to roll or plank-drag a field immediately after plowing, to compact the soil, level, and give a surface better fitted for the action of the harrow which follows. The majority of these farmers use a disk harrow, working it one or more times for each crop, which is usually followed by a spike-tooth smoothing or a spring-tooth harrow, finishing the preparation with a roller or plank-drag. Until recently the spring- tooth harrow was generally used on these farms, but this is being replaced by the disk harrow. A large number of these successful farmers, however, entirely prepare for seeding with a spring-tooth harrow and a plank-drag. The spike-tooth harrow is not in as gen- eral use here as in some other regions, and is used largely in surface finishing preparatory to seeding and for harrowing corn or potatoes just preceding cultivation. The weeder is little used, its place being taken by the spike-tooth harrow. 6 BULLETIN 528, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. There is a growing opinion among farmers in the part of Chester County where these records were taken that midsummer plowing should not be done, but the preparation for wheat, for alfalfa, and for timothy and clover seeded in August should be with disk and sur- face harrows only. This opinion is backed up by demonstrations from a number of farmers. They reason (1) that it is very hard to compact the soil after plowing at this season of the year so as to obtain good moisture conditions for seeding; and (2) that by plowing the farmer turns under roots, stubble, and other humus material and brings up soil containing less humus, which makes the field more apt to wash badly during the winter and early spring season. If disk harrowing is done at the proper time there is very little difficulty in working under stubble or manure and obtaining a firm, fine seed bed. There is little difference, however, between the two systems in the amount of labor required. When fertilizer is applied for corn it is distributed broadcast more often than in the planter; on the other hand, fertilizer for potatoes is seldom broadcasted, but applied in the row at the time of planting. _The practice of applying lime once during the rotation is increasing. Years ago farmers used burned lime freely, and many farms in the county still show abandoned lime kilns., Then the practice of using commercial fertilizers gradually replaced the general custom of apply- ing lime until the soils got into such a condition that the practice of liming the soil had to be resumed. The application of caustic lime in the form of burned stone lime, slaked, and applied by hand is gradually being superseded by the use of ground stone lime, prepared hydrated lime, or finely ground limestone. This is undoubtedly due to the fact that burned or stone lime must be slaked before applying while the pulverized forms of lime or limestone can be handled more conveniently by a distributor. In fact, it was impossible to obtain sufficient labor data for handling lime by hand, as the lime spreader is generally used. Lime is usually applied at the time of preparation for wheat, for clover and timothy, or for alfalfa in order to obtain a good stand of these legumes. While these farmers grow from 1 to 5 acres of potatoes, or an average of about 4 acres, this crop, as a rule, has not given profit~ able yields; the average yield on the farms visited was only 84 bushels per acre. The cause of this low yield is not easily determined, and it might well be made the subject of investigation and experimental work, Very little spraying is done for blight; what spraying is done is usually to apply poison for the potato beetle. ‘The potato planter is generally used among the larger growers, but digging is more often done by the potato plow type of implement than by the elevator type of machine. SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FARM LABOR. 7 The ordinary method of seeding to clover and grasses in the region studied is to drill in timothy at the time of seeding wheat and broad- cast clover in the spring before the ground has settled. The dry and hot weather in summer has a tendency to burn out the young clover in wheat. Hence, the practice of preparing wheat stubble and seed- ing both clover and timothy in August obviates this difficulty and this method of seeding is being more generally practiced. The results obtained seem to justify the additional labor required for preparation and seeding. The writer has observed many excel- lent crops of clover obtained by this method of seeding, whereas by the old method it is quite common to see an overabundance of white top and other weeds. Where seeding clover in wheat is still done, clipping the wheat stubble in July or August has resulted in a tae and cleaner growth the following year. The practice of mixing alfalfa with clover and timothy for August seeding is strongly recommended by a few farmers in order not only to assist in inoculating the soil with the alfalfa bacteria, but also to improve the quality of hay. The following seed mixture has given good results: 5 to 6 quarts of alfalfa, 4 quarts o red clover, 3 quarts of alsike clover, and 2 to 3 quarts of timothy. This will usually give two cuttings annually, and sometimes three cuttings. The first will be largely of timothy and clover and the later cuttings almost pure alfalfa. Under good weather sonditone, clover and timothy hay requires very little handwork except in leacine and storing, and a hay loader is used on many farms. The advantage of ‘5 use, however, is doubtful with clover and alfalfa. Hay caps for protecting alfalfa are used only on a few of the farms visited, but those who do use them believe that they are of decided advantage, with very little additional labor in harvesting, 'and that the increased value of the hay, due to improvement in quality, is sufficient to justify their use. This improvement in quality is due to the saving of the leaves of the plant and the preservation of its original green color. The soy bean, in labor requirements, does not seriously compete with other field crops. While the preparation of oats usually interferes with the planting of corn or potatoes, ground for soy beans, on the other hand, may be prepared and planted after corn has been planted, and the crop can be harvested for hay before silo-filling time, or as grain after the corn crop has been cut. In either case, the land can be cleared in time to sow to fall grain. 1 In order to be sure of a permanent stand of alfalfa, farmers should give attention to the essentials as to the quality of seed, use of lime, inoculation, and the preparation of the seed bed for alfalfa adopted by successful growers as the result of years of experience in the region and other regions having similar agri- cultural conditions. 8 BULLETIN 528, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AVAILABLE TIME FOR FIELD OPERATIONS. In order to determine whether it is possible to carry out a proposed cropping system with a certain amount of man or horse labor, it is necessary to know the approximate number of days available for field work and the average length of the workday. This is given in Table I on a monthly basis. TaBLe 1.—Available days for field work and hours in workday. Data. Jan. | Feb. | Mar. | Apr. | May.| June.| July.| Aug.| Sept.| Oct. | Nov.| Dec. Days available..........-.-- 3 3 10 16 19 21 22 22 21 17 14 Hours in workday...--...-- Lag 7 These figures were the averages of 195 farmers’ estimates. The farmer was asked to give the average number of days actually available for field work each month, after deducting Sundays, rainy days, and days when the condition of the soil would prevent field operations. Plowing is sometimes done in December and March, but the figures in those months include also the time spent in hauling manure. An average of three days each for January and February also represents time spent in the same work. TaBLeE IT.— Number of days (exclusive of rainy days and Sundays) available for the several ' field operations. Timothy Operation. Corn. Oats. |Potatoes.| Wheat. and clover. Days. Days. Days. Days. Days. Days. Preparation and seeding. .....-.-....-.--- 30 15 16 32 259 Cultivatiowsss- 5. t ce ee i Se Se PAM ewe. Pa TS linens Pp Ps iege arae ts OND ae RAAT VESPIDIE ee hace eae Sete ite ates 31 115 15 | 110 | 16 8 1 This does not include thrashing which is hired done. 2 Includes seeding clover and timothy in August, or timothy alone with wheat. In the latter case clover is seeded Apr. 1 to 18 following. Table II gives the average number of days that labor can be per- formed in the field after deducting Sundays, rainy days, and days when the soil is unfit to cultivate, and the period of seeding, cultivating and harvesting of six of the principal crops in this region. The application of these data will be made when it is necessary to determine whether it is possible to prepare the field, plant, cultivate, or harvest certain acreages of crops with a given field force. The preparation for corn, oats, and potatoes to a certain extent overlaps, and the farmer not infrequently plans for a greater acreage than can be planted within the limits of successful crop production. Moreover, in the case of a late spring, it is important to figure on the extra labor necessary to carry out the cropping plan or else reduce the acreage of these crops within the limits of the regular farm labor. \ PERIOD OF PERFORMING FIELD OPERATIONS. Pannell SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FARM LABOR. 9 There is a considerable variation in the length of season for doing various farm operations, according to the 165 labor records, yet the average of these data obtained and charted is not far from the actual period in which most of the farmers perform these operations; at least it is sufficiently accurate to use as a guide in planning the cropping system. Figure 1 gives the period of performance of the various farm operations for corn, potatoes, oats, wheat, clover and timothy, and alfalfa. SUCCESSION OF OPERATIONS. Before any plan can be worked out showing the labor requirements and the general distribution of labor, the succession of farm opera- tions with any crop must be known. The aim has been to standard- ize the field operations and arrange them in the order in which they are usually performed. There is considerable variation even among the more successful farmers in the manner of preparing the ground and handling the crop. The outline which follows gives the order which the greatest number of these farmers follow, with the impor- tant variations. CORN. (1) Manuring.—On sod, August to December; on stubble, early spring; 12 tons to acre. (2) Plowing.—Generally in spring; 12 or 14 inches, walking plow. (8) Rolling or planking.—Immediately after plowing. (4) Harrowing.—Majority use 4-horse double disk, working once each way, following with spring-tooth or spike-tooth harrow. Forty-five per cent of these farmers use spring-tooth harrow only, harrowing two to four times in different directions. (5) Drilling fertilizer—With grain drill. (6) Roll- ing or planking. (7) Planting.—With two-row planter. (8) Weeding.—Spike-tooth harrow used before regular cultivation begins. (9) Cultivating —Usually four times with 2-horse and once with l-horse. (10) Cutting and shocking. —By hand, 36 hills to shock, binder used occasionally for silage corn. (11) Husking and hauling. (12) Hauling stalks. j POTATOES. (1) Manuring.—Late fall, winter, or early spring. (2) Plowing.—In spring; 12 to 14 inches, walking plow. (3) Rolling or planking.—Following plowing. (4) Harrow- ing.—Disk used by 57 per cent of 33 farmers, from whom records were obtained, followed by spike-tooth or spring-tooth harrow; remainder use spring-tooth harrow only, working two or three times. (5) Planting.—Few of these farmers plant by hand. (6) Weeding.—With spike-tooth harrow, working twice. (7) Cultivation.—Four or five times with riding cultivator. (8) Spraying.—One to three times for potato beetles; few spray for blight. (9) Digging, picking, and hauling.—Many use potato plow type of digger; potatoes usually stored in cellar. OATS. (1) Plowing.—Usually in spring, sometimes the fall before (oat ground is always plowed). (2) Rolling.—After plowing; sometimes before seeding. (3) Harrowing.— Spring-tooth harrow generally used by these farmers, working the field twice. (4) Seeding.—With 6 to 10 foot drill. (5) Cutting, shocking, and hauling. (6) Thrashing. 77590°—Bull. 528—17——2 10 BULLETIN 528, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SSNS a Sa oe PLOW ROLL 94963 GSE © Be DISC HARROW eee se SPRING TOOTH HARROW aS 0 Gara aera SPIKE TOOTH HARROW & WEED ORILL FERTILIZER eee Se HAUL GRAIN HAUL STALKS, CULTIVATE 0c cama oe PICK UP & BAG © 60S 2eaGgae HAUL & STORE ees egee POTATOES DISC _HARROW SPRING TOOTH HARROW GOS Game Beee PLANT SPIKE TOOTH HARROW eapeons os CLOVER 8a TIMOTHY ao assa8 : SPRING OR SPIKE TOOTH HARROW Sescece=meases FERTILIZER, INQGULATE, & SEED HARVEST AGU Zou. Sst Fic. 1.—Periods of performance of farm operations (Chester County, Pa.). The full line represents the period when most of.the farmers perform these operations, and the dotted line gives the range within which these operations may be performed. SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FARM LABOR. 11 WHEAT. (1) Plowing.—Oat stubble, soon after harvesting, land allowed to lie fallow until about October 1; when wheat follows potatoes or corn the ground is plowed (sometimes only disked) immediately after the harvesting of those crops. (2) Rolling or plank- ing.—After plowing, sometimes also before seeding. (3) Harrowing.—Majority of the farmers visited use disk followed by spring-tooth or spike-tooth harrow; many use spring-tooth harrow only, working two or three times; when disk is used instead of plow, the ground is worked four to six times. (4) Seeding.—With drill. (5) Harvest- ing.—With 3-horse 6-foot binder. (6) Hauling—To stack ormow. (7) Thrashing.— Done at barn, occasionally in the field. TIMOTHY AND CLOVER. (1) Manuring.—As top dressing on sod, in fall or winter; on new seeding, in summer. (2) Plowing.—Often soon after wheat harvest. (3) Rolling or planking.—After plow- ing; sometimes again before seeding. (4) Harrowing.—Nearly 50 per cent of the farm- ers visited use disk, followed by spike-tooth harrow; many use spring-tooth harrow only; a few use disk followed by spring-tooth harrow. (5) Liming.—Usually after wheat harvest when the land is prepared and seeded in August. (6) Seeding.—Timo- thy is seeded with wheat, and clover the following April; about 23 per cent prepare wheat stubble and seed in August. (7) Harvesting.—With 5-foot mower; hay fork is used and hay loader frequently. ALFALFA. (1) Manuring.—About 12 tons per acre as a top dressing or at seeding of previous crop. (2) Plowing.—Disk gaining in favor. (3) Rolling or planking.—Immediately after plowing; again between harrowings and often after seeding. (4) Harrowing.— Disk is generally used by these farmers, working twice after plowing; double disk three to six times when plow is not used; spring-tooth harrow sometimes follows disk- ing, but more often follows plowing without disking. (5) Liming.—With the distrib- utor,except in a fewinstances. (6) Inoculation. (7) Seeding.—With drill or wheel- barrow seeder, 20 to 25 pounds per acre. (8) Cutting. (9) Tedding.—Tedder not always used when followed by side-delivery rake. (10) Raking.—Side-delivery rake generally used; some of the smaller farms use a dumprake. (11) Cocking.—Immedi- ately after raking when the hay is to be protected with hay caps; in this case hay standsin cock for one to three days and isopened up two hours before hauling. (12) Haul- ing.—Where a loader is used the hay is picked up from the windrow. (13) Top dress- ing.—Manure sometimes applied in fall; fertilizer in early spring or immediately after first or second cutting. (14) Harrowing.—Disk or special sharp-pointed spring-tooth harrow often used after cutting, to eradicate blue grass and weeds. CREWS AND MACHINERY.! In order to determine the amount of labor in man-days and horse- days necessary to perform any operation, it is necessary to know the crew, that is, the number of men and horses, the number of acres covered in a 10-hour day, or the number of tons or loads handled in the same period of time, and the average length of the work day. If these data are in tons or loads, by knowing the capacity of the wagon, the rate of application, and the yield of crop, the acreage covered can be obtained. From these data the day’s work per acre for man or horse can be determined. 1See U. S. Department Bulletin No. 3, A Normal Day’s Work for Various Farm Operations. 12 BULLETIN 528, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tae III.—Crews and duty of machinery in plowing and preparation of soil (average of 165 farms). Crew. Days per acre. INGE pear Operation. beep 10-hour day. | 9-hour day. Men.| Horses.| ay. _ Man.| Horse. | Man.| Horse. Manuring,! 12 loads, 14.4 tons.................- egal 2 1.44 | 0.7 1.40 |.0.77 1.54 Manuring,! 14 loads, 16.8 tons...............-....- 2 2 1.68 | 1.19 1.19 | 1.50 1.50 Manuring,? 14 loads, 16.8 tons.................-..- 3 2 1.68 | 1.79 1.19 | 2.25 1.50 Plowing, 14-inch walking plow...................- 1 2 1.80 55 1.10] .62 1.24 Plowing, 2- plow, 22 inch. 2. ee ee 1 4 3. 60 28 1A t= 28 1.11 Rolling ,? 9-foot to 12-foot width................... 1 2 15.00] .07 -14] .07 -14 Disk harrowing (single).........-...-------.------ 1 2 9.10} .11 -22} .12 - 24 Disk lapping half (single)................../..---- 1 2 4.50 | .22 44] .25 -50 Disk harrowing (double)............--.-----.----- 1 4 9.50) .11 44 12 -48 Spring-tooth harrowing..........--.-------------- 1 2 10.00} .10 -20) .11 -22 Spike-tooth harrowing.......-..-----.------------ 1 2 12.00} .08 -16 09 -18 Spike-tooth harrowing........-.--.--------------- 1 3 13.50 | .07 -22| .08 - 24 Distributing lime 4 (machine).........---....--...- 1 2 10.50} .09 .18 11 Aer) Hauling lime to spreader.........--....-.-.------ 1 2|12loads. | .09 -18 11 . 22 Drilling fertiliver:s Joes) hes b enc cat ose eee ee ee 1 2 8.00 12 - 24 14 - 28 1 With manure spreader, 10 tons per acre. 2 Spread by hand. 3 A plank drag is often used instead ofa roller with the same duty per acre. 4 On the basis of 13 tons per acre. ; Table III gives crews and duty of machinery as the average on 165 farms for plowing and preparation of seed bed for the principal crops of the region. By duty of machinery is meant the amount of work accomplished in a day. For example, one man with a 14-inch plow and two horses will plow on an average 1.8 acres of land. Dividing 1, or the number of men, by 1.8, the result will be 0.55, which means. that it takes 0.55 of a 10-hour day, or 5.5 hours, for one man with a team to plow an acre. In the same way, dividing 2, or the number of horses, by 1.8, or the acreage plowed in one day, the result is 1.1, | which means that it requires 1.1: days, or 11 horse-hours, to plow an acre. ‘This is expressed in horse-days, or a fraction of a horse-day, rather than team-days, in order to have the figures on a uniform basis, as a crew may be made up of two or more horses. In the same manner, the day’s labor per acre is given for the average length of day devoted to field work in that region, which is 9 hours per day, except in July during harvest, when full time is made. In hauling manure with a crew of one man and two horses, or two men and two horses, a manure spreader was used. The second man in this case helped load and did not make full time, but the day was so broken that very little other work could be accomplished. In the case of a crew of three men with two horses, two wagons were used, one man loading and two men spreading by hand. The figures for plowing include both sod and stubble, hence for sod the acreage plowed will be a little less and for stubble land slightly greater than the average. Very inconclusive data were obtained on the working of the 2-gang plow, as only a few are in SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FARM LABOR. 13 use. It is quite possible also that the acreage plowed in July and August, when the ground is dry and compact, will be less than the figures given. The average disk harrow has usually 12 disks in the single and 24 disks in the double acting harrow, from 14 to 16 inches in diam- eter, with a cutting surface about 8 feet wide. The spike-tooth harrow is usually 2 to 3 section, with a cutting surface of from 8 to 12 feet, and the spring tooth has a cutting surface of from 6 to 8 feet in width. The plank drag is usually made with three planks overlapping, and the man usually rides. Following a deep-working _ harrow the drag is an excellent tool for leveling and breaking clods. TABLE 1V.—Crews and duty of machinery in cultivating and harvesting corn (average of 24 farms). Crew. Days per acre. Acres covered Operation. , in 10-hour day. | 9-hour day. Men. | Horses.| Men. |Horses. Planting (2-row machine).....-...-...-.---------- 1 2 10. 50 AV ofaya ba Fee StS epee ene 1 1 18. 00 Npike-Loothiharrow.s.< 223.08 ee 1 2 13. 00 Galvivestan epee ee eel Ne Oa ee Ne oer en eS 1 2 7.70 Cate DO-puUshelsyieldseeee ao! ja. 2 2. Du See ee | 1 0 1.25 G0=80-pushell yield sis o05 te ea eae te 1 0 il: Soibusbelsiand Overs4- 30 55-6 S see eee. 1 0 “ Husking: WO-bushelkyield 22.3 jbo see os ee ele 1 0 3 60=s0-bushelivields so.8 0 8.2). bes. besa Sse iL 0 é 8O\bushels and Over_..-22.5.-2:-24-)-222-$ 22222 1 0 s EI AMIN penne Sea sec ee ke ents ee ee 1 2 2. DOE ARS eee ss kai Osa ae tot Use ilar 2 2 3. PEP AUILEH PISbAl Gee ee ee bee ee wee dees Ly 2 2 5. TD ay Ss crete 2k ae ge ee ee ee ee LT 3 2 6. Filling silo: 2 5 Cutting by hand and loading..........-.....- 6 0 atin cio cutters 22 yeaa ee Bo 4 8 Hedin ene CUtben sss). ee es ee Ls ia 1 0 4.00 | 3.50 Sfonmmenmisilow esas eee se eae ae. 8) 2 0 RunMNPeneine aso. ee ee eee 1 0) 1 This operation is usually performed 4 times. 2 Average yield of silage corn, 12 tons per acre. Table IV gives crews and duty of machinery as the average on 24 farms for planting, cultivating, and harvesting corn. Planting is usually done with a 2-row planter. The figures used do not include the drilling of fertilizer in the row at the time of planting, which consumes extra time, and allowance should be made in the acreage planted where fertilizer is applied. The figures for spike harrowing in this table are for harrowing after planting. Field corn is usually checked 34 feet each way by most of these farmers, though a number of good corn growers are planting in drills. Silage corn is planted either in drills or in hills. No figures were obtained for hand planting, as the 2-row planter is universally used. Corn is cut and shocked by hand except where it is to be put in the 14 BULLETIN 528, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. silo. “Horses” or “gallows” for supporting each shock, which are made by tying the tops of four hills, are often made a number of days before cutting, if there is any danger of the corn blowing over. The figures for filling the silo are for a large crew that will keep a 16-inch cutter continuously running. Smaller crews often are used to advantage, however. Where a small crew is used, three men cut and load the corn without dropping it in bundles on the ground. Three teams are required. At any given time one will be loading, one unloading, and the third on the road. In unloading, the drivers hand directly to the feeder. No extra man need be em- ployed where a gasoline engine is used. It will be of advantage to keep two men in the silo. Altogether the crew will consist of nine men and six horses, and the day’s work per acre, when 2} acres are cut per day, will be 4 man-days and 2.66 horse-days. Four teams will be required for long hauls. TABLE V.—Crews and duty of machinery in planting, cultivating, and harvesting potatoes (average of 33 farms). Crew. Days per acre. Sa oo ACERS Operation. coveted 10-hour day. | 9-hour day. Men. | Horses.| hour day.|—__——__ Men. | Horses.| Men. | Horses. Cuttingiseed, 15 bushels. ..).2 222 222.243. 2. eee 1 0 1.00 | 1.00 |........ a ae ae Planting plowed ine) ici. ieee ee 3 2 2.50 | 1.20 0.80 | 1.33 0. Pldnting picker type 2 oa... 22g. 2) eee sweden 1 2 4.00 25 -50} .28 56 Pid Cini po-MIa tY Ne | oe ie ee eee ale eee 2 2 3. 50 Bye 57 | .63 63 SpHikée-tooth harrowing! 2. 32 eye ee 1 2 13.00 08 -16 | .08 16 CCOINE Scie wisn ose o sete yee so = Bo tip soca ee 1 1 18. 00 05 -05 | .06 12 cltivatinp.: sok ble ee oy oe eee if 1 4.00 25 -25-| .28 é Cultivatin pieiib Te SE ee Ss ae eee es sash boc ose 2: 1 2 6.10 | .16 32.) .18 36 Sprayane (quid) KATOWS. fo ee. eee ee 1 1 15.00} .06 -06 | .07 14 Digging with elevator..........-.. AMS SE ec). Ses 1 4 3.50 | .31 1.26 | .32 1, 28 Digging with potato plow...............---- Spe 1 2 3.00 | .33 -66 | .37 74 Picking up and bagging!..............--.-..----- 1 0 5072.00 }..-..-.6 02 Mannie to collars. So 5 ee 2 2 3.70] . ‘ - 60 Sorting and bagging in cellar......... ps See a 2 1 0 © 80) 1.30) | sees AON oes... Hauling to market, 2 miles............-..-.-.---- 1 2 1.20} .83 1.66} .93 1.86 1 Average yield from 120 to 130 bushels. 2 9 loads of 50 bushels each. Table V gives the crews and duty of machinery as the average on 33 farms for planting, cultivating, and harvesting potatoes. The potato planter is used by most of these farmers, but small areas are often planted by hand. These are of two types, the so-called picker machine, and the machine where a second man sits behind and regulates the dropping. On small areas Paris green, mixed with plaster, is ordinarily used for beetles, but where 4 acres or more are planted, a liquid sprayer applies Paris green or arsenate of lead. A few farmers are spraying for blight. SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FARM LABOR. v5 Digging is done with a potato plow or other digging implement. One man can pick up in barrels or bags behind an elevator digger, on a field free from weeds yielding about 200 bushels per acre, about 100 bushels a day. Under Chester County conditions, however, and particularly after a potato-plow type of digger, 60 to 75 bushels is an average day’s work. A few farmers sell immediately after digging, but the greater number store their potatoes and wait for a special market. TaBLE VI.—Crews and duty of machinery in seeding and harvesting oats (average of 19 farms). Crew. Days per acre. DOT OS ON Operation. aaa 10-hour day. | 9-hour day. Men. |Horses.| ay. Man. | Horse. | Man. | Horse. SCC CLRTT a ti LN NS I ie te al ae 1 2 9.50 | 0.11 0. 22 | 0.12 0. 24 Cutting, binder 6-foot cut.............--.--------- 1 2 9.00 TT UR ae 1 Nea POI IG 2! DDS SOB SOS ERI RUST Eaten MeIan ene ananers Ge one ata 1 3 10.80 | .09 2 | eyes lice raises SOC itl oe IRC AN aS RDM NW Fale 1 0 GLOOM i eggs |e ears Hise ap se yall enn fawlinewtoybarn bso) 23 eke ce ecb e ee 2 2 6.00] .34 Bey See ceaibserys ela DO) SOAS RETO GH BEC Se rae Seperate PE PIE ARIS Ale 3 2 6.50} .46 SOON eee c ee 1 All the farmers visited hire thrashing done at from 2 cents to 3 cents per bushel, furnishing fuel and board for the hands. Three to five men in addition are often furnished. Table VI gives the crews and duty of machinery as the average on 19 farms for seeding and harvesting oats.1 TasBLe VII.—Crews and duty of machinery in seeding and harvesting wheat (average of 83 farms). Crew. Days per acre. Acres) — Operation. ears. 10-hour day. | 9-hour day. Man. | Horse. day. Man. | Horse. | Man.} Horse. Seeding 6 to 8 foot drill! .........--.--...----.--- 1 2 9.50 | 0.11 0. 22 | 0.12 0. 24 Cutting, binder 6-foot cut.............--.---.----- 1 3 10.00 | .10 myers cet | eats SUC Kam pre aes Ean OE ee ee a as 1 0 fait {0 i Wiieesa es ol bapa eri ad aeons Hauling to barn. ..........--.-- Peet st as apegeg Te 2 2 5.30 | .36 365 Posieos lees Hating to Darn. 222s fee os Tee 3 2 5.75 | .51 Sa eee a 1 Timothy can be seeded at the same time that the wheat is drilled, at no extra labor expense. 2 All these farmers hire thrashing done'at 4 to 5 cents per bushel, furnishing fuel'and board for the hands. Three to five men in addition are often furnished. Table VII gives the crews and duty of machinery as the average on 33 farms for seeding and harvesting wheat. In most cases the wheat is hauled to the barn and thrashed whenever it is convenient 1 Some of the farmers in this region who were visited expressed their opinion that oats were unprofitable anda numberof farmers are substituting soy beansfor this crop. However, as but few farmers are growing soy. beans, the data obtained were insufficient to present as an average for this crop. The figures given for preparation of land will apply for soy beans. When the crop is planted in rows the acreage planted per'day will be'greater than for potatoes and less than for corn. The figures given for wheat will apply to soy beans when this crop is drilled broadcast. In harvesting for hay, labor requirements about equal those given for alfalfa. 16 BULLETIN 528, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to obtain thrashers. .A few are thrashing from the shock, and this is possible except in very unfavorable seasons. TasLe VIII.—Crews and duty of machinery in seeding and harvesting timothy and clover (average of 38 farms). Crew. Days per acre. Raa | CS Operation. coerae 10-hour day. | 9-hour day. MEN Te Raastael | aay | Man. | Horse. | Man.| Horse. Seeding with wheat drill... 2.-.-.---..+.-.2-.-2-2- 1 2 10.60 | 0.09 0.18 | 0.10 0. 20 Clover seeding (wheelbarrow)..............------- 1 0 LONGO) O50) 220 eee S(03), ere aie Mowing, 5-fo0t Cute oe nee Rae il 2 9.50 |’ .10 PAU et Gl kee eo Tedding, 6 to 8 feet wide...........-..-.-.-.--.--- tp} 2 14.50 | .07 Oe a aa) A a Raking, dump rake 8 to 10 feet wide.-..-..------- 1 2 17.00 | .06 oH oa i] ea Raking, side-delivery rake.........--------------- 1 2 16.00 | .06 | Ln | iseeell ited 2 ipplbiatedivelait| (LAER SOs eee oe abe auine Sebo me gomedia: 1 0 BAO) | ove Bete | Si Te ees ae Loading, hauling, and storing:! | Siloads 1s tons yieldeus: 222622. 2. a ee a 3 | 2 5.50 | .54 BGy ous osha ts 12)loads, 14 tons yield.e ee oo) oo cae es eee 4 | 4 8.50} .47 Arh eyebtal elu pe en iSiloads; 1} tons yields se ee 5 | 4 9.00) .55 1 a aie nes ee ace by hand, unloaded with fork. The results will be somewhat increased by the use of a hay oader. : ; Table VIII gives the crews and duty of machinery as the average on 38 farms for seeding and harvesting timothy and clover. The figures given for broadcasting with a wheelbarrow seeder are for using the seeder one way. Where one-half of the seed is drilled in one direction and one-half broadcasted in a cross direction, simply add the work units for seeding with drill and seeding with a wheel- barrow seeder. Very few mowing machines wider than a 5-foot cut are used for the ordinary hay crop. The tedder is usually used for clover or for heavy timothy and mixed grasses. Both the dump and side-delivery rakes are used, but the latter is generally preferred. This implement is especially necessary if the hay is loaded with a loader from the windrow. The side-delivery rake will, furthermore, quite largely take the place of the tedder. The figures given for loading, hauling, and storing are based on pitching in the fields by hand and un- loading in the barn with a horse fork or sling. Insufficient data were obtained on the use of a hay loader, but there is little doubt that in favorable weather the hay loader would be of decided advan- tage, particularly with timothy or mixed grasses. Table IX gives the crews and duty of machinery as the average on 18 farms in seeding and harvesting alfalfa. Alfalfa is a compara- tively new crop in Chester County, but a few successful growers were interviewed, from whom data were obtained. Inoculation has been done by applying soil from an old alfalfa field at the rate of 300 or more pounds per acre. Recently commercial cultures have been introduced. While the cost of these cultures usually exceeds the cost of applying soil, the convenience of handling is an important SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FARM LABOR, 7 factor. Cultures can be applied at no extra labor expense other than is required in the application to the seed. TABLE 1X.—Crews and duty of machinery in seeding and harvesting alfalfa (average of 18 farms). Crew. Days per acre. | Aeres |- Operation. eryered, 10-hour day. | 9-hour day. Men.| Horses.| day. |————__— Man.| Horse. | Man.| Horse. inoculating with sods se. 6s sol205 22. 2 eh bcs. 1 2 12.00 | 0.08 0.16 | 0.09 0.18 Prillingiseedialone si) 72a! veh a Se ee 1 2 14.30] .07 1 08 16 Seeding (wheelbarrow machine)!...............-.- 1 0 OED LO emcee AG nee Mowing, 5-foot cut machine?.............--.----- 1 2 10.00] .10 20} .11 ne, Mowing, 8-foot cut machine..............-.-.----- 1 2 15.00} .07 -14) .07 -14 PROGGIH ERP Soe eee ees ou Se 1 2 14. 50 07 14] .07 14 iNakinee dump rakes 2 ol oo 225222282 2e eee. eee eee: 1 2 17.00 06 12] .06 12 Raking, side delivery........-------------++---++2- 1 2 10. 00 06 S12 a 207, 14 ec Recep ae RE INE TGS SN es aN 1 0 G00) | t Tense a5 Ts) Mite WARE eee eee Cee ae DU Uhr abe 1 1 20.00 05 05] .05 05 Loading, hauling, and storing:3 10 loads, 14-2 tons yield.........-...-.-.------ 3 2 5. 50 54 36] .58 39 15 loads, 14-2 tons yield... oe 4 4 8.50 48 48} .50 -50 16 loads, 14-2 tons yield... .- 5 4 9.00 55 44] .60 48 1 One-half of the seed sown lengthwise, the remainder town crosswise. 2This record is for the first cutting. Three cuttings are usually made, but the second and third cuttings are lighter, and will require less labor. i 3 aeaded by hand and unloaded with fork. The results will be somewhat reduced by using a hay oader. When hay caps are used, a cap 50 to 54 inches square, of light- weight canvas, is used. These may be weighted at their corners with stones or cement weights, or the cap may be fastened on the hay with wire pins. It is more convenient usually to distribute caps from a spring wagon or one-horse cart. SUMMARY OF LABOR REQUIREMENTS OF CROPS. In making use of the following figures on man and horse labor for the several operations in crop production, it is well to bear in mind that the data from which this tabulation was taken were collected from 165 farmers above the average of the county in progressiveness, receiving considerably more than the average net income. These men followed successful methods of soil and crop management, and in most cases laid emphasis on the careful preparation of the soil and careful cultivation. In some cases the number of hours per acre is greater than in some other regions... They are, however, a good guide in estimating labor in this region or other regions having similar conditions. These summary figures are based on the prac- tice of the majority of the farmers, as averaged in the preceding tables. Hence, for any individual case where a system of farm practice is followed differing from that outlined, the labor require- ments can be revised and worked out from Tables ITI to IX. 1 See “Farm Management,” by Prof. G. F. Warren, of the College of Agriculture, Ithaca, N. Y. 18 BULLETIN 528, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FIELD OPERATIONS AND LABOR REQUIREMENTS (165 FARMS). Hours of labor per acre, Corn (for grain): Man labor. Horse labor. Manuring....... Sel SG lg Sve See een om chee eae ee Le 9 TIN9 PLO WATE ee iets eee ec CRN Ae 5. 5 11.0 Rolline 2 times: oo 2202 eis 2 os ee 1.4 2 GR Duskine Se mmesir is ee a De few ka oie ba Eee Se 2.2 8.6 Spike-tooth harrowing, 2 times... 2.42). 22 ee 1.6 3.0 Drdline fertilizers! 222k 222 eben eae 2.4 Seeding. oct EN Ea RS ee that 2.1 Oultivating. oooh. oo ld ee 5H) 10. 4 Cutting, .70-bushell yield ii.) 6.1.2. . J) 8. ee 10.0 Husking, 70-bushel yield. 22... 2002-. /s..2 2025 2S eee 19.0 Be: Hauling prain.. osc.) 2 faeces ee 6.2 6. 2 Haalinestalkss ier es Uo ute ie A Sei ela a ae 4.0 4.0 69.3 62. 4 Corn (for silage): Preparation, seeding, and cultivation..............-.-----.-.-. 30.1 BVA Harvesting and: fillimp,silot: 0 20 20 a ae Se ee 35. 0 20. G 65. 1 72.2 Potatoes: Manuring: oo.) oes yes ee 119. 11.'9 PHO WING eehsis ech A oe ie re 5. 5 11.0 Rolling, 2 timese. 2) 2. sed £5... Bees Vie 1.4 2.8 Disking) "2 times! 6.352. li) et eee eae ae, 8.8 Spike-tooth ‘harrowing, 3 times:...)... 2.2.2.0). 0) ee 2. 4 4.8 Guitting seed.) 6. 24h WS 2 eee Se re ea 10.0 wes Planting. 22202 )000 252 fg SER, 4.1 5.3 Cultivating, 5 times. 2.302225. 4055.82 2) eee 8.0 16.0 Spraying foribugs, 2 times: 2) )L005 5 a. eR es 1.2 1.2 Dipeine,. sce oO a als ee 3.2 9.6 Picking up‘and bagging. 012.0 2.0 So PS eee 20.0 Sate Haulinpiand storing...) 09). 2292 0.22 ee eee ca 5.4 5.4 Miweobemeys 35-0 4 sil. ede Sele aie abl ve ddecd nes see eens 16. 6 96. 6 93. 4 Oats: Plowing <3 obdcis.0)2 easiie eo ky... eee 5.5 11.0 Rolling, 12. tiakeh 2.2 se... Yo als oS eh ie ale 1.4 2.8 Spring-tooth harrowing, 2 times......-......-.- ab te apa ee 2.0 4.0 Seeding. acs ie ke ais + ee PU ene = cle ee Oe ae ie Or? mts te Be Ses S22 AES Do 9 2.7 Shveking?. i si20./09 Bo OV a hie Austere eee LZ Speed Hauling to barn..... Beye oie == cat T 6 , “? (4 ‘OL v *¢ 0 IG Vv SS Het nn hapeon | me aa a ace ea | he ncaa | Ni a ain SSI a AS aa A we een RN UlBIs JOT u10p Be ee eee 5 z S = eB z ey z Ss g a5 g S 2 Es S 5 z 5 g *uorye1edo 10 dorp *IEQUISAON | “10qG030Q | ‘Joquieydog | "4snsny “Aine ‘oune 23 1) * Tdy *YoleW *AIENIG OT "XT 02 JIT $2190, ws unoys sv aion vad sdoso quasaffip sof syuawasnbat 1090) ‘pjaq— X ATAVL, 24 BULLETIN 528, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. When a type of general farming is followed which carries no animals except work stock, the horse-labor should run much more evenly than on a dairy farm. Data which have been obtained from these : —eEE | a WW a \W ECHO || TT INWWN cf SWS TEM \ LT Bs 1. oo | MSEC BEF ECCC CARS CIS ECCCCEEE NV Tell EAC: ECRCCCCOIR CCCI: EE CCC OTN so ENN! eC ECC E ET ae et TT TTT TAN TT TT EA BERRI \ KCN UK ae Hl NAVEEN CCE ECC AWY ere alt oc EB eT TT TT ET INN ANNA En EE ae LISI TT TIN: PEL ne ene en BP 8s ere, e828 Ss) Sew ee Fic. 3.—Available time for two men and one 2-horse team compared with work that must be done (dotted line ,available time; shaded area, work to be done). farmers show that on a dairy farm, as a rule, at least 30 to 40 per cent of the total labor required will be work other than field operations. While it may appear that the man and horse labor is not well employed on this farm in April, May, and June, considerable labor always is SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FARM LABOR. 25 required at this season for repairs and improvements of fences, buildings, or implements, and the hauling of fertilizer, feed, and milk, which is not shown in this chart. REPLANNING CROPPING SYSTEM. After having studied this cropping system from the standpoint of labor, the next point is to consider whether or not the cropping system can be changed, either by rearranging the fields to establish a ‘definite rotation, by rearranging the acreages of crops, or by the introduction of new crops to balance the months of very high labor requirement, so as to increase the net income of the farm. The effect on the income of the farmer is the primary point of view to be taken in replanning a farm, taking into consideration, of course, the maintenance of soil and equipment and the availability of labor. If extra horse or man labor can be obtained whenever necessary, a farmer may be justified in practically ignoring labor requirements and selecting those enterprises which are best adapted to the farm conditions. The layout of the farm in question was studied with a view to such rearrangement and a 7-year rotation was established as follows: . Corn for grain. . Corn (for grain, 7.1 acres; for silo, 2.7 acres.) . Corn for the silo. Wheat. . Clover, timothy, and alfalfa hay (2 cuttings). . Timothy and alfalfa hay (2 cuttings). . Timothy and alfalfa hay (mostly alfalfa). NOD OUR OD In contemplating a change in the cropping system the rotation must conform to the general layout of the farm. There are often conditions which prevent the readjustment of fields in the manner desired. Moreover, it is desirable to make changes that will require the least expense. The rotation outlined in the revised plan of this farm is not a rotation generally recommended for the average Chester County farm, but is suggested because it is best adapted to the existing field arrangement. Under ordinary farm practice, with clover one year, followed by timothy for one or two years, three years of corn in succession might have an influence to decrease crop yields. On this farm, however, the influence of an alfalfa sod supplemented by an application of manure to the corn crop will tend to increase, rather than decrease, crop yields. The principal crop area was divided into five fields of 9.8 acres each, a triangular field of 3.4 acres at the farther end of this tillable tract, and one field of 6.4 acres formerly in wheat seeded to alfalfa on the other side of the farm lane, making together 9.8 acres which 26 BULLETIN 528, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. can be planted to the same crop. The seventh field to enter into the — rotation will be the 9.1-acre field, separated from the pasture area. In addition to the rotation area, 10.2 acres can be kept permanently in alfalfa and 9.5 acres in timothy, reseeding any portion when neces- sary by first planting corn for the silo, following with wheat. The 9.5 acres of permanent timothy is a field that is irregularly shaped for cultivation, rather low, and best suited to this crop. The periods of harvesting corn for grain, for plowimg sod, and for hauling manure, have been varied (within the limits of possi- bility, however) from the outline given in Table X, in order to facili- tate labor. It was found that by increasing the acreage of field corn, and decreasing the acreage of alfalfa, the crops could be handled with about the same amount of labor, but that this labor would be much more evenly distributed throughout the season. Table XII gives the total amount of man and horse labor re- quired under the revised system. Because of the increased acreage of corn, a part of the labor for harvesting this crop was carried over into November, and the figures for this month also include the manuring and plowing of 9.8 acres of sod land to be planted to corn for grain the next season. The balance of the corn land to be planted for grain will be manured in February and the area for silage manured in March. The graphic illustration of the labor required in the replanned crop- ping system (fig. 3, B) shows a much more even seasonal distribution of horse labor. The greatest variation comes in June, which is due to the fact that the grass mixture contains alfalfa, which requires early harvesting. Because of the labor requirements in enterprises other than field crops, it is possible that four farm horses should be kept on this farm. By arranging the work and concentrating all efforts on the field crops during the month of June, it is probable that this harvesting can be done without hiring extra horse labor. When it is necessary to reseed the permanent alfalfa or timothy, the horse- labor for August will be greater than represented on the chart, but in no case greater than for June. The man-labor requirements for September and October are much greater than for any other month. This condidtion is hard to change. It may be possible, however, to lower the amount of man labor in September by the use of a corn harvester, and this can be done with- out radically changing the horse-labor distribution. It is compara- tively easy, furthermore, to hire extra labor in husking corn. If the farm help is needed in thrashing wheat, this operation could more advantageously be done in the month of August. 27 SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FARM LABOR. SEE $86 | 898 | 699 | C6E | 889 LEP | 698 csé | LST 6h |. GFT | #8 Asse azine re gre Se ae eee [#30 PIS SIS po Seq | 02 wocs sions ee ctosscrcfacscssyeeseecinassssls= "9999108 8°6 ‘SUIPOOS VITRI[e pues ‘Ayjouml} ‘I0AO[O Se fees es HOSE e See (aaa sacs s spe re cn ejecc ses fec srs steosecstossenl=="""S9l08 Z OL ‘1OZI[I910} YIM VI[BI][e SUISseIp-doy, | eee cr | arg ee we | nh ey (ea) I SLES Sere Sy a nec] oe ape (eae | pee eo) | cyano S| seer manic ieee [ears al ‘17 -"""ser0e ¢°6 “oMUBUL WIA AT}OUNT Sutsserp-doy, eee 02 02 £9 £9 corres frst sc stoescssissscrejesces sie scer sp scss sess sess ="-*"s9108 GOL ‘SSUI9IND ooIYy ‘“SITEITW RE SEC PE Be aa 9% | 98% teste pecs s ee pec cers leesesetesseccisss---)--"-"-S9l08 8'8¢ “SUI9IND PUODeS ‘BIT Bj[e PUB IAACTO a epee | ees | Ss | es | | a Lae | a [rms cpcememal | rca rsvcv ene ls seve ove | oem re SSSR eS | PS STE Us CSTs Seinen coca eee ED a epee RPS aye ggg ‘suTq{NO ysIy “ey[eyTe PuE “IOAO[O “AYAOUATY, aS eee 961 92 Gol 19 Sees |e £9 Se eae ees [oe | eae |e ed Se Se eee ee SOTO RO SBOE AN pee | ee eat | See | meee OGG, RE ie ere | eo eee eee aL c¢ CSG €0T S&T 69 6FT 6FT Wee OPT RS |S SESS ae Beet SS S008 CGI OSelIS JOy UIO) eee | TLE | SLE | 86h |----- iT) Ka Fes ate eta eee Pees | ey eee Cee a0 Ge =| LEC pees [eget cle we Pal Wes | ae ee S108 6'9T “UTe1d 10y WIN jas] S 22] Ss jaa) & | Ss ee is ee S jaa) S jan} is jan} Ss joa} S poles |e | gle | ee | eS eee ee a le ee @ bt e iy 4 bo e So P a id 5 e bt ? bt g fay g my ELE EEE ElEl/ElElE| Eel ele] ele] eieleie eo Bee oe fe Slee |e ol | Bea leame cio | Pia leace | a BE | w BE | g BE | 2 ee Se “IequIeAON *1eq010Q0 | “Jequie3deg | “4ysn3ny “Ame ‘oun “ACH ‘Tidy . “Voie *Aren1qo,7 ‘(pasiaas) squamaunbat 09D) pjag— TIX ZTAV 28 BULLETIN 528, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COMPARATIVE LABOR REQUIREMENTS. The calculated cost of man and horse labor required in field opera- tions for the cropping systems illustrated in figure 2 from March to November, inclusive, is as shown in Table XIII. TaBLe XIII.—Comparative labor requirements. ORIGINAL CROPPING SYSTEMS. Crop or operation. Acres. ee Eley Total. Orion PAINS 32. os a acee cones ck eek Sees ae eee eee 12.3} $119.33 $84. 42 $203. 75 Cornfor’ Silage yas oso a ee re eee ean ee ae 12.3 112.10 97.69 209. 79 OLALOOS Ss ha teoe esa eee. Sk eS Rae ee a ae 1.5 20. 29 15. 41 35. 70 Harvesting mixed hay). 2255. Ss he ee ee 31.4 44. 40 32. 46 76. 86 Harvesting alfalia hay. 62225025: 58h aces) eee, eee 10.6 42. 29 33. 35 75. 64 Harvesting wheatsoe so 2:7 soit be oar ae Ee ai ey i ae 19.6 17.56 14. 23 31.79 Seeding wheat 2725) Soe Re Se SE ats vce a 12:3 24.11 43. 84 67.95 meadinp al ial fa 2 ike ee Ee ae est eis pe ca 12.8 53. 94 74.91 128.85 Seeding clover, timothy, and alfalfa........................---- 13.2 19.04 31.51 50. 55 Potala. 52. Soa ek 2k ans sea oa ee oc ae eee eo 427. 82 880. 88 REVISED CROPPING SYSTEMS. Wamdorietane sd 22 cea Fee eh. So, 3c LORY Anil 16.9 | $163.96 | $115.99 $279. 95 Condor silage 2 25 a) ane helo sree oe a OS ce ee 12.5 113. 93 99. 27 213. 20 iarvesiing mixed hay lise eo alk a A a ee es a 38.3 87. 22 65. 56 152.78 Harveshinmalialia Raye sss eiaseyes o1260) Sea RRR tA eae 5: Se loaaes 10.2 40. 70 32.09 72. 79 HETVESLING WWNGAb 2 ote nae ees ee oe Soe eee oe ee 9.8 8.78 7faalt 15.89 Seeding wheat. suelo eee ee baa ho 2 oo ol aie apr, kere ote penal 9.8 19. 21 34. 93 54.14 Seeding clover, timothy, and alfalfa.............-...-..--.--.-- 9.8 14.13 23.39 37.52 Topdressing timothy with manure...................-..-..-.-- 9.5 15. 82 12. 43 28. 25 Topdressing alfalfa with fertilizer..........-...----.---.-------- 10.2 3.92 6.16 10. 08 Total: 55/0 es ee 467. 67 396. 93 864. 60 1 A second crop, mostly alfalfa, on 28.8 acres will be cut the second time. In the preceding table it is obvious that the changes in the cropping system can be made without increasing the cost of labor. The rear- rangement has increased the amount of man labor, but on the other hand decreased the amount of horse labor. The total cost of horse labor was decreased to the amount of $30.89, and the total labor, — $16.28. COMPARATIVE RETURNS. A comparison of the gross incomes from crops in the two cropping systems will give further light on the relative desirability of the two systems. The values assumed, based on the average yield of crops obtained by successful farmers in the locality and on market prices at the farm, are shown in Table XIV. Thus it will be seen that the revised system brings a gross income of more than $550 over that of the first system, while the total labor bill is at the same time reduced from $880.88 to $864.60.1 The saving in this case is not so much in amount of labor as in its utilization. 1 It is impossible in this bulletin to work out all the factors which enter into the total cost of the crop. There is so much variation in the previous management of the soil, in the soil conditions in respect to the amounts of fertilizer used, the rental charge for land, the equipment charge and overhead charges, that these costs should be worked out for each individual case. SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FARM LABOR. 29 TABLE XIV.—Comparative returns. Gross income. 1 rs Price per |— a Crop. Yield per acre. A unit. First Second system system. Corn for grain _....-| 70 bushels. ---- $0. 60 $516. 60 $709. 80 Corn for silage Balt 2)FOuS see 4.00 590. 40 600. 00 Corn stover......----. Bel 2 tonstee aes 4.00 98. 40 135. 20 TPADVIR THORNS Oi Sa a EAP 125 bushels. -- . -60 112520) (Se aa Mixed hay, first cutting... .-.2-5. 22-52-25. 2c2 22. Zitonss ees 16. 00 1,004. 80 1, 225. 60 Mixed hay, second cutting..........-...-.-.-.----- tony sss ASA OON eee ae ees 518. 40 Maar aCignes =. e eee eee e ee oe. 3.5 tons......- 18.00 667. 80 642. 60 VE GE ie Seek Gece ORIN SPE ee ea lee 25 bushels... - - -95 465. 50 232.75 VAULTS, STEEN a a Aston sss wae 5. 00 98.00 49. 00 “TP OTHED oy eit ACSA ERIE EPRI IEEE Hess | aaa Re ra eo AES Hane 3, 553. 70 4,113.35 CONCLUSION. It is plain to be seen from this comparison that the consideration of the labor requirements of a farm in working out any plan of farm organization and carrying the plan into operation is not the least important factor in farm management. Too many times this matter has received very little attention, particularly with farmers with but little farm experience. A study of these questions gives a basis of increasing labor efficiency. The real object of this bulletin is not to show what the farmers in Chester County are doing, but to illustrate principles which may be applied anywhere in devising a cropping system for efficient utilization of labor. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY Vv \ UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Office of Farm Management. W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief. Washington, D.C. | PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 5, 1917 VALIDITY OF THE SURVEY METHOD OF ‘RESEARCH. By W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief, Office of Farm Management. CONTENTS. Page Page TI GLOMUCHIOMe saiac('s.< =) eis)sscisne Sena Semis ioe 1 | Accuracy of cost-accounting methods.......- 8 How farm records are obtained...-..-..----- PN) Wehy Oi GON 22 bone Saceccecseedserosess-nceo 9 Accuracy of the farmer’s knowledge.......-: ‘7 | Mistaken notions of accuracy......-.-.-..--- 13 INTRODUCTION. The distinguishing feature of farm-management investigations is the application of the inductive method of reasoning to farm prac- tice. In practically all farming communities can be found examples of successful and of unsuccessful farms. It is assumed that a careful analysis of the methods and business system of a large number of farmers, all working under essentially similar soil, climatic, and economic conditions, may be made to reveal the reasons for the suc- cess of one and the failure of another. The essential difference between the farm-management method and the laboratory method of investigation lies in the fact that the laboratory investigator varies his causes and studies the resulting variation in the effects produced. The farm-management investigator has his experimental results already produced for him. He merely collects the results of farm experience, arranges them in such manner as to display the varia- tions of a causal factor, and then studies the resulting variations in the effects produced. Suppose, for example, it is desired to know what degree of soil fertility will result in the greatest profit to the farmer under the conditions prevailing in a given locality. Having analyzed the business of a large number of farms in the locality, the farms are first grouped on the basis of their yields per acre, with enough farms in each group to give reliable averages. The average profit made by the farms in each group is then determined. Table I 77589°—17 ‘ 2 BULLETIN 529, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. shows this relation for a group of 378 farms in southeastern Penn- sylvania. The results indicate that under the conditions prevailing in this locality, and with the methods practiced by local farmers, the point of diminishing returns is reached when the yield on a given farm reaches about 40 per cent above the general average of the com- munity. Yields higher than this appear to be obtained at an ex- pense greater than the increase in income due to the increased yields. The figures would naturally differ for different regions. TABLE I.—Relation of crop yield to labor income. Groups of farms based on yield per acre. Average yields expressed in percentage of the com- PUTT WAV CLALC coe rer |aate sternal ase sin eae ata ure totaal tee 84 and 85-99 | 100-114 | 115-139 | 140 and less. over. Average labor income expressed in percentage of the COMMIT Yy AVeLage.. es kee es pene ae ee 49 74 108 153 | - 130 HOW FARM RECORDS ARE OBTAINED. Knowledge of the details of farm practice and of the results arising from this practice may be obtained in two ways. First, careful records may be kept of the details of the farm work and the business transactions of the farmer. Second, such details may be obtained by interviewing farmers who give them as accurately as may be from memory, or from such desultory records as may have been made of the farm operations. The first of these methods involves years of labor and enormous expense; the second gives an enormous amount of data in a short while and at a nominal expense. The question is as to the relative accuracy of these two methods. When farm management investigations first began it was supposed that the only way to get at the facts of farm practice with a degree of accuracy sufficient for investigational purposes was by means of carefully made records. Accordingly, cost-accounting records were begun on a large number of farms. It was soon perceived, however, that the cost of such records and the time required for their accumu- lation were serious obstacles. Furthermore, practice differs so widely in different regions, on different farms in the same locality, and even on the same farm from year to year, that it would be an interminable task to collect sufficient data in this manner to solve the numerous problems which the study of farm practice had re- vealed. Because of the amount of time involved the results would frequently be out of date before the work could be finished. Finally it was decided to give the second method a trial. At first many students of farm management had misgivings as to the validity of data obtained from farmers who keep few or no records. Accord- ingly, in order to test this point a number of investigations were un- _ VALIDITY OF THE SURVEY METHOD OF RESEARCH. 3 dertaken. These were of necessity limited to data which were either already available in reliable records or of which such records could be secured by instituting a system of cost accounting. The results of these investigations are given below. INVESTIGATIONS BY F. E. ROBERTSON. Where a community of farmers sell all their milk to local cream- eries it is possible. to get an accurate record from the creameries of the amount of milk sold by each patron and the receipts for the same. In a dairy community in southern New Hampshire 135 farmers were found who sold all their milk to local creameries. These farmers were asked to give an estimate of the amount received for milk dur- ing the preceding year. Many of them at first professed to be un- able to do this, but a little questioning as to the number of cows kept, © the amount of the monthly milk check, etc., finally elicited an esti- mate from each of them. Later the precise amounts were copied from the books at the creameries. The results are shown in Table II. The error in these estimates, taking all farms together, was $346, or slightly less than one-third of 1 per cent of the total. TABLE II.—Comparison of farmers’ estimates and creamery records of annual receipts for milk on 1385 New Hampshire dairy farms. Hsimateduvalie) or milk sold vallyfarm gies se ee ee oe $106, 183 Actual value of milk sold, all farms_____ Papel ASE Ba Sa NEE uel 2 AAD a he 105, 837 PE UeT i Gy Weg TTIR SETI EU Sees PN CS II oS a ak A MY eh Rt 346 Before this investigation was finished it occurred to the investi- gator to include also the amount of milk sold. Accordingly, the remaining farmers, 79 in number, were asked to estimate this item. These farmers were in the habit of thinking in terms of dollars and cents but not in terms of pounds or gallons of milk. They found it more difficult to estimate quantity than value of milk sold. The results are given in Table III. In this casé the error in the total for all the farms was nine-tenths of 1 per cent. TABLE III.—Comparison of farmers’ estimates and creamery records of pounds of milk sold annually on 79 New Hampshire farms. Hstimated pounds of milk sold; all) farmg22 04 2b ee a eee 3, 518, 816 Aciual pounds OL milk) soldj; all) farms = 20 eis Ce ee 8, 487, 320 HELOrain, vestimeates/ (pounds) 22S Bee = ee ee ee ee Ee 31, 496 INVESTIGATIONS BY A. D. MceNAIR. An investigation was made at Belton, 8. C., of the pounds of seed cotton per bale from estimates of seven farmers and from gin records of 400 bales. The average for the 400 bales, according to the gin records, was 1,362 pounds of seed cotton per bale. The average of 4 BULLETIN 529, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the seven farmers’ estimates was 1,369 pounds, the difference being about one-half of 1 per cent of the gin record. The same investigator obtained the percentage of lint to seed cotton from gin records of 1,192, bales of cotton at Atkins, Ark., and from farmers’ estimates on 151 bales in the same locality. According to the gin records, the average turnout of lint cotton was 32.5 per cent; the average of the farmers’ estimates was 33.1 per cent. He made a similar investigation at Dermott, Ark., the gin results being 31.75 per cent (on 907 bales) and the farmers’ estimates being 31.2 per cent (on 65 bales). Records kept on 15 farms in an Arkansas community on the amount of cotton picked per day per man gave an average of 140.4 pounds. The average of the estimates of 50 farmers in the same locality was 140.3 pounds per day. | On 23 plantations in Coahoma County, Miss., on which were 9,326 acres of share croppers’ cotton and 1,509 acres of share crop- pers’ corn, the number of days of labor on these crops as shown by planters’ estimates was 129,347. Each planter also estimated the number of days of “outside labor” performed, and this amounted to 14,018, or a grand total 143,365 days of labor for the share crop- pers and their families. On the same plantations each owner was asked to estimate the gross yearly value of the labor of the share croppers and their families, and the total for the 23 plantations.was $144,007. This sum of money is equal to a daily wage of $1.004 for each of the 143,365 days of labor performed, which is a close _ approximation to the current wage of $1 per day. From the above data it appears that in the case of important items of the farmer’s business he has knowledge which is quite accurate. Matters of less importance are usually not kept in mind so ac- curately. In the matter of the amount of labor done in producing a crop, which involves a knowledge of an average day’s work at plowing, harrowing, seeding, cultivating, etc., the farmer’s knowledge is based on experience usually covering many years, and the answers he gives to such questions are averages rather than figures applicable to any one year. Because of differences in the preceding crop, amount of rainfall from year to year, variations in tempera- ture, etc., the work done on an acre of corn, for instance, may in any one year depart quite widely from the average. It is therefore im- possible to test adequately the accuracy of the farmer’s estimates of items of this character by comparison with actual records for any one year. In order to show the variations that may occur between estimates based on many years’ experience and accurate records for a single season, the following data relating to a group of 29 farms at Conway, Ark., are given. Each of these farmers was asked to estimate the VALIDITY OF THE SURVEY METHOD OF RESEARCH. 5 amount of man and horse labor required by an acre of cotton and an acre of corn, in both cases up to the time the cultivation of the crop is finished. The questions asked the farmer related not to the total amount of this labor but to the various operations usually performed and rate of work per day for each operation. That is, the questions were asked, in the terms in which the farmer thinks. Later these same farmers were induced to keep accurate records of all the labor on their farms for a year. Table IV shows the results in com- parison. Because of the variation from year to year of the actual amount of work done per acre on a given crop even on the same farm it is impossible to tell whether the actual work done during the season for which records were made on these farms is more accurate than the farmers’ estimates. In any case the differences are seen to be relatively small when compared, for instance, with the differences in yield on duplicate plots in field experiments on the yield of crops. TABLE I1V.—Comparison of 29 farmers’ estimates with actual records for a single season of labor on cotton and corn to “ laying by.” Man-days per Horse-days per acre. acre. Crop. Ksti- mates. Records. (ORO wis oe SL SSIS aA a ae I Ae i 5. 76 6.05 (CROTON e 5. 22 6.39 INVESTIGATIONS BY M. B. OATES. Investigations of a similar nature were conducted in northwestern Louisiana. The results are given in Table V. The figures given are averages of 10 records and 11 estimates on cotton, 13 records and 13 estimates on corn, and 11 records and 10 estimates on peanuts. Ordinarily these numbers are too small to give reliable averages, yet the agreement between estimates and records is fairly satisfactory. TABLE V.—Comparison of records and estimates of man and horse labor on cotton, corn, and peanuts in Louisiana. Man hours per acre. | Horse hours per acre. Crop. Estimates. | Records. | Estimates. | Records. (CLR OTS 3 Si SUN IS a Rela A area sete Ue a ee ee 47.0 47.7 34.9 (CHOveT OY 3a bck MN NE EP Dp CL SY 32.3 27.2 38. 1 33. 1 PEC ATULDL Seay aya ete ee ucen pe meres he iL Nid onl Ce IT 2 ee 23.1 29.4 30. 2 0. 0 Estimates were also secured from 10 farmers of the number of days available for field work during the year. This number naturally varies with the character of the weather from year to year. Later ' 6 BULLETIN 529, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. these same farmers kept records of the actual days available for such work on their farms for a year. Table VI gives a comparison of the estimate and the record on each of the 10 farms. TABLE VI.—Days per year available for field work. VARI NO aes er wee Ce RRR aL tite cian wile nue we cle 1 2 3 4 ig, 6 7 8 9 10 By Tecord 53 f:*t etch we cat dee se oka ee eeu 225 | 208 | 220 | 215 | 203 | 207 | 205 | 202 | 212 218 By VNOSUIMATO. Lene a tee ares seat Ce eS ce aaa me 221 | 203 | 216 | 221 | 212 | 182 | 203 | 212 | 216 | 206 The average of the 10 estimates is 209 days and of the 10 records 212 days, a difference of only 1$ per cent of the total. Considering the fact that the quantity here under consideration actually: varies considerably from year to year and that the records are for a single year, the agreement between the estimates and the records must be regarded as very satisfactory. INVESTIGATIONS BY C. M. HENNIS. In cooperation with the North Dakota Experiment Station the Of- fice of Farm Management secured the data given in Table VII. TaBLteE VII.—Acres plowed per day. Records. Estimates. Number | of horses. | Number Number of Average.| of esti- | Average. records. mates. Acres. Acres 3 15 2.81 1 2.73 4 32 3.83 16 4. 26 5 60 5. 02 37 5.17 6 15 §.55 10 5. 61 When it is remembered that the numbers averaged are in most cases very small and that the farmers making the records were not the same as those giving the estimates, but were located in the same general region, it must be admitted that it is possible to get just about as reliable results from farmers’ estimates as it is from the most careful records provided the questions asked the farmer are within the range of his experience and thinking and provided the number of estimates is large enough to permit the proper working of the law of averages. CASE OF A GEORGIA FARM. In a farm management survey it happened that one enumerator obtained the record of a certain farm from the overseer at the farm, while another enumerator obtained the record of the same farm from the manager at his office in town. In both cases the record was given VALIDITY OF THE SURVEY METHOD OF RESEARCH. fi _. from memory. The record from the manager gave a labor income of $3,688, that from the overseer $3,656, a difference of $32, which is less than 1 per cent of the quantity involved. It should be remem- bered that records of this kind are used only in averages, so that errors in them are for the most part eliminated by the law of aver- ages. (See p. 9.) ACCURACY OF THE FARMER’S KNOWLEDGE. The opinion prevails quite widely, even among farmers them- selves, that the average farmer knows very little of the details of his business. The results given in the foregoing pages indicate that this opinion is not consistent with facts. During the past decade the Office of Farm Management has analyzed the business of nearly ’ 20,000 farms. The experience gained in this work indicates that the average farmer does know the details of his business with a fair degree of accuracy, the discrepancy in his knowledge being relatively small in the case of the larger and more important items, but in- creasing as the importance of the items decreases. One reason for this is the fact that in a year’s business on the average farm there are relatively few business transactions, most of them being fairly large items. The principal product of the farm is, in many cases, disposed of in a single sale, and the farmer remembers the details of this sale quite accurately until the corresponding figures for a new year replace them in his mind. In many other cases a product, such as eggs, milk, etc., is sold in fairly regular quantities from month to month, and the farmer remembers with a fair degree of accuracy the usual monthly income from such sales, as well as the variations in this income. But though the farmer does know fairly well the details of his business, he is not always aware of this fact; and it requires no slight skill on the part of the investigator to reduce his questions to the terms in which the farmer carries the information in his head. Un- less this is done, the answers given by the farmer are mere guesses and are of small value. Thus, if we ask a farmer how much profit he made on a certain field of corn he will usually not even hazard a guess at the answer, because he realizes he does not know; but if we analyze the cost and income from this field into its elements we find the farmer has very definite knowledge of these elements. He knows the operations, such as plowing, harrowing, planting, etc., done in raising the crop. He knows the amount and value of the fertilizers applied. He knows how much corn was secured and its market value. The trouble is not that the farmer does not know the facts necessary to arrive at the profit made from the field, for he does know them; but he does not know how to use these facts in calculating the profit, because his knowledge of cost accounting methods is meager. The 8 BULLETIN 529, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. investigator, if he is competent, supplies the deficiency in the farmer’s knowledge of bookkeeping, and together the two of them are able to arrive at an approximately correct solution of the problem. Similarly with the profits from the entire farm. The farmer knows the facts necessary to calculate these profits, even though he may not know how to make the calculations. It should also be rememembered that the farmer’s less accurate memory for small details is not a matter of great importance, for the smaller the item the less influence an error in it has on the final result. ACCURACY OF COST-ACCOUNTING METHODS. ° Those having even the most elementary knowledge of the prin- ciples of cost accounting are aware that such work always involves estimates, no matter how accurately it may be done, and these esti- mates not infrequently constitute an important proportion of the - cost. Consider, for instance, the cost of a day of horse labor. This is the annual cost of keeping the horse divided by the number of days’ work the horse does in the year. It is possible to arrive at a. fairly accurate valuation of the feed the horse consumes and of the man labor required in caring for the horse, though the lattér item itself is based partly on estimates (especially of the cost of the man’s keep). Even then the variation in feeding practice from farm to farm and in the eating capacity of individual animals make the actual cost of feed a highly variable quantity, so that a single so- called “accurate” record is of little, if any, more value than an intelligent estimate of an experienced horseman. Another item in the cost of keeping the horse is interest on investment. To arrive at this we must estimate the market value of the animal. Deprecia- tion is also an important element. In arriving at this we must not only assume a value for the horse, but we must make a guess at how long he will last. Barn rent is another item. To arrive at this we must estimate the value of the barn, the length of time it will last, the cost of future repairs, and the relative value of the space occu- pied by the horse, as compared to that used as a shelter for machin- ery, etc. We must also estimate the cost of harness required in order that the horse may do its work. The animal must also be credited with the value of his manure, another estimate. The above facts suffice to show that on the farm even cost account- ing is at best largely a matter of estimates. It is merely a question of the dependability of the estimates. It has been shown above that in matters in which farmers have had extended experience their estimates are so sufficiently reliable that when large numbers of them are averaged the results possess a very satisfactory degree of accu- racy. However, it is not possible to overestimate the importance of VALIDITY OF THE SURVEY METHOD OF RESEARCH. | 9 making questions submitted to farmers conform to the terms in which the farmer’s knowledge exists. When this is done a proper study of data furnished by farmers may reveal numerous important facts never suspected either by the farmer or his questioner. For instance, if in the farm-management survey made some years ago in Lenawee County, Mich., the farmer had been asked directly what the manure of a horse or cow was worth to him, he probably would not have hazarded a reply. If he had it would have been little more than a guess, not an estimate. But when the question was broken up into its elements and he was asked to state the acreage and yields of his various crops, the prices at which his products were sold, the number and kinds of animals kept on the place, he answered readily enough. By taking these data from many farms and comparing those having relatively little stock with those having many, the actual increment in crop values due to the manure of a single animal was easily calculated.* LAW OF ERROR. The law of error, frequently called the law of averages, may be stated in many different ways. Perhaps as comprehensive a state- ment of it as any is this: “Errors of measurement or observation tend, in the absence of ‘bias,’ to group themselves about the true value of the quantity Ee Si in such manner as to eliminate each other in the final average.” The manner in which such errors group Herisel ee about the true average will be discussed in some detail a little later. Absolute accuracy is not obtainable in any kind of measurements. In any case it is merely a question of degree of accuracy. The accuracy of any average depends on three things. First, and most important of all, is freedom from “bias”’; that is, entire absence of any tendency to make each measurement too high or too low. In general, we have found bias singularly absent in practically all our field studies of farm practice. It is true that some farmers deliber- ately overestimate, but fortunately there seem to be about as many who deliberately underestimate. These over and under estimates tend to cancel each other and thus to reduce their effect on the resulting averages. Second in importance is the Punaber of items on which an average depends. The larger the number the more reliable the average. The reason for this hes in the fact that when a number of items is aver- aged the larger the number the better the chance that any error will be canceled by a similar error in the opposite direction. Since no measurement of any kind is absolutely accurate, every measurement represents an error of greater or less magnitude. 1See Dept. Agr. Bul. 341, Table LX, p. 98. 10 BULLETIN 529, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Abundant study of the law of error has shown that large errors occur less often than small ones, and if bias is absent plus errors of any magnitude occur just about as often as minus errors of similar mag- nitude. This is well illustrated in Table VIII, which shows the dis- tribution of errors in 354 separate measurements of an area. TABLE VIII.—Distribution of errors. Number Number Magnitude oferror.} of plus of minus errors. errors. OOO See eee ee 89 93 BUTO Ms Ose seeeee 51 55 AGUTON Oe sees 26 22 AOU GOs 2) ANN 8 8 3 PUPA wey [a CTO foe 2 0 Total number! 176 |+178=354 In these measurements there were in all 176 plus and 178 minus errors. Furthermore, of the errors of any given magnitude there are about as many plus as minus. In so far as we have been able to test the matter, the errors arising in securing data from farm experience distribute themselves about the true value in approximately the manner above illustrated. It is therefore possible, by securing large numbers of estimates, to get | averages of a very satisfactory degree of accuracy. The third factor governing the accuracy of an average is the ac- curacy of the individual items averaged. Inaccuracies in these items, if bias is absent, tend to eliminate each other because of the manner in which errors group themselves about the true mean, provided the number of items is large enough. For this reason inaccuracies in the original measurements are less important than either absence of | bias or number of items averaged. Pearl and others have shown by actual count that an average is more accurate than the data on which it is based. This fact has in- deed long been known. The relation of the accuracy of an average to that of the items averaged is given by the well-known formula Be Vi where £# is the probable error of the mean, e the probable error of a single observation, and n the number of observations aver- aged. Thus it might be said that an average based on, say, 40 ob- servations of a variable quantity is twice as reliable as one based on 10, and an.average based on 100 observations is 10 times as trust- worthy as a single observation. Even if the probable error of the individual estimates is as much as 25 per cent, the probable error of the average of 100 such estimates is only 2$ per cent. Hence, even if the farmer’s knowledge of the details of his business were even. less definite than experience has shown it to be it would still be VALIDITY OF THE SURVEY METHOD OF RESEARCH. 11 possible to get fairly reliable results by securing large numbers of estimates and using only averages of them. This principle is taken advantage of in the study of farm practice, and there is reason to believe that, within the proper limits of use of the results obtained, studies of this kind are entitled to at least as much consideration from the standpoint of accuracy as are those involving experi- mental work conducted under the most favorable field conditions. Indeed it is believed that when carefully conducted by those properly trained both in the collection of data and in the in- terpretation of these data, the results of such studies approach in accuracy those obtained in laboratory investigations.., The so-called law of averages is merely one manifestation of the laws of probability, or chance. It is not feasible here to discuss these laws in detail. They are fully treated in standard texts, with which every experimentalist should be familiar. In fact, the interpretation of experimental results which does not take into account the law of error is nearly as apt to be wrong as it is to be right. A little con- sideration will show that in a highly variable quantity, such as the yield of a. given plot treated in a given way, six duplicate plots is far too small a number .to insure with any degree of certainty that the action of the law of averages will eliminate the departures from the true average. In general, the average of six such yields, no matter how accurately each yield is measured, is far less reliable than would be the average of 60 estimates of farmers based on years of experience with a given field. Sixty such estimates give a chance for the law of averages to eliminate a large proportion of the errors in the individual estimates, and these errors are in general no larger than those in plot yields, no matter how accurately these yields are measured. While we may not here consider the laws of chance in detail, a few illustrations of them may serve to show that such laws actually exist. In flipping a penny it is an even chance whether heads or tails turn up at any particular throw. Now, it has been proven by abun- dant experiment that as the number of times the penny is thrown in- creases, the tendency for the total number of heads to equal the total number of tails increases. In other words, where the chance is even the event will, on the average, turn out in one of two possible ways as often as it does in the other. In throwing a single die there are six possible results, all equally likely to occur. There is thus a tendency, when a die is thrown many times, for any one of the six faces to turn up one time in six on the average. An excellent illustration of the workings of the laws of chance was recently found in tabulating the replies to a circular letter sent out SS a eee ee eee 12 BULLETIN 529, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. by the Office of Farm Management. The latter contained a list of implements, and the farmers to whom it was sent were asked to state - in connection with each item whether he owned the implement named and whether he recommended its purchase by farmers. The partic- ular tabulation with which we are concerned here included only those farmers recommending the purchase, the object being to ascertain what proportion of them had acted on their own recommendations. The blanks used in tabulating the replies had spaces for entering 700 replies relating to a particular implement. The replies when entered in several cases filled two or more pages of the blank. After the answers had all been recorded, it was noticed that where the replies relating to a particular implement filled more than one page, the pro- portion of farmers owning the implement among those recommending its purchase was nearly the same on each separate page. Table IX has been constructed to show this interesting operation of the laws of chance. Take, for instance, the figures relating to the emery wheel (see Table IX). Of the 1,400 replies relating to it 976 were from farmers owning this implement. It happened that in tabulating the replies, exactly half of the owners were recorded on each of the two pages. Since this fact was not noticed until the tabulations had been completed, and since the replies were handled without any thought of the matter here under discussion, this perfectly even distribution of the 976 owners between the two arbitrary groups of 700 can only be ascribed to pure chance, or as nearly pure chance as can be imagined. | It was an even chance whether any particular owner’s reply should be recorded on the first page of the blank or on the second; hence half fell on one page and half on the other. That this result is not wholly capricious but is really due to the operation of a law is shown by every other case where two full pages of the blank were filled. There are nine such cases in the table. In no case where an even chance existed does the number of owners recorded on a page exceed 52 per cent or fall below 48 per cent of the total number of owners on the two pages. : The figures relating to the set of stocks and dies are an excellent illustration of the importance of numbers in arriving at an average. The replies in this case filled slightly more than two pages. On the first page, containing 700 replies, 52.71 per cent were from farmers owning a set of stocks and dies. On the second page the percentage is 52.43, or practically the same. But on the third page, where there are only six replies, 834 per cent are from owners. Six is too small a number to give a reliable average in such a case. | In the case of most of the implements of the list there was one page of the tabulating blank only partially filled. In all these cases, excepting only the one just mentioned, the proportion of owners is VALIDITY OF THE SURVEY METHOD OF RESEARCH. As nearly the same as on the corresponding full pages. Thus, in the case of the drill press the third page contains only 44 replies, but the percentage of owners among them is nearly the same as on the pre- ceding full page. Even here the number of replies is sufficient to permit the law of chance to make itself evident. ? TABLE IX.—Illustrating operation of law of chance. Percent- Per cent Page| Number | age of Nampa of those Implement. N 2 of farms | owners | jocqom. |_Trecom | baving. | ontwo | 1 onding.| mending pages. 8: having Carborundum or emery wheel....----------------------- 1 488 50. 00 700 69. 71 2 488 50. 00 _ 700 69. 71 SRMONSTOR KS ANG CIASe es secs Soe cleeise ces eee eters oscil 1 369 50. 14 700 52. 71 2 367 49.86 700 52. 43 3 OM uc aierstere ete Gir | eee as arsolime DlOWLOLCH ates oes siaele onic - sls aele ae eiweinei =<. -/- il 205+ | abet eis 700 29. 28 2 5 Seer 426 24. 64 NVC LOO Meer eee) eis cinta 2212) ols iicinicia ec aeeme =s = = Sac il 537 50.3 700 76. 71 ' 2 532 49.7 700 76. 00 3 TBS eerie 180 73. 88 TEArela 0G iP. Oe desech oder E Use BB OP SEM Be BOCs Seuacire eee ii 612 50. 5 700 87.43 2 598 49.5 700 85. 43 : 3 RAR beeen ce ses 104 83. 65 ISLCIE SBI? a Ghede debe Sowa RE Bee Se cee eee ees Sae See aeeace 1 478 Le 5) 700 68. 28 2 450 48.5 700 64. 28 3 Bio Beceem re 53 71.69 Sian oisteaences eres soer ac eae sae Saleen case 1 520 50.1 700 7A. 28 2 519 49.9 700 74. 14 3 AS he eee es 220 67. 27 Drill press, or breast drill.-.--.-.---.-------------------- 1 454 52.0 700 64. 85 2 420 48.0 700 60. 00 3 74 Nees Se 44 59. 09 Combination vise, drill, and anvil....--.-..--.--.---.---- 1 370) Steen. 700 52. 85 2 SAO le ae aeloees 654 52. 75 Combinanormplierse sso. 222-2 se eee 2 ==> = 1 638 50.15 700 91.14 2 634 49. 85 700 90. 57 3 190 Sos ee es 216 87.96 DSA ORIMNSNOT Oh ee ee cee semecooecaneeese eer eradseeeesors 1 BAe Sao a be 700 49. 86 2 296% sac ease 568 52.11 Conibinationi bevel square. 225552227352 522 eee oe 1 7 Falla ee a 700 53.57 : ] 2 Di AR ee 494 55.46 Heavy shears, or tinner’s snips....-----.---------------- 1 448 51.32 700 64. 00 2 425 48.68 700 60. 71 3 Get ees serine 86 61. 62 The fact that in each case it is page 1 that has the highest propor- tion of owners is of no significance, since the full pages were deliber- ately arranged in this order after the tabulation was completed, the original chance arrangement being thus lost. MISTAKEN NOTIONS OF ACCURACY. In the endeavor to find the average value of a variable quantity, such as annual rainfall, the yield per acre of a crop under given con- ditions, etc., there is such a thing as gross inaccuracy in the final re- sult even where the individual measures are made with a high degree of precision. Suppose, for instance, it is desired to ascertain the average yield of winter wheat after summer fallow as compared with the yield after a preceding crop of small grain, under the soil and climatic conditions prevailing on a particular tract of uniform soil. 14 BULLETIN 529, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Suppose the actual average for summer fallowed land, as determined by the average of an indefinitely large number of trials extending over a series of years sufficient to give average climatic effects, is 30 bushels per acre and that in a particular experiment it is 20 bushels. Now there is in this latter figure an inherent error of 10 bushels, and this error can not be eliminated by any degree of accuracy in measur- ing the 20-bushel yield. The only way to eliminate errors of this kind is to get enough observations to allow the law of averages to operate on them; that is, to insure the elimination of errors in one direction by the occurrence of similar errors in the opposite direc- tion. The relatively small importance of accuracy in the items to be averaged as compared with the great importance of the number of these items is well illustrated by the following facts concerning rain- fall at Penn Yan, N. Y. The annual precipitation at this station has been measured to the hundredth of an inch each year for a period of 60 years. The average of the 60 annual records is 29.113 inches. If instead of the actual rainfall for each year we use the nearest multi- ple of 10, thus recording 26.73 as 30, 23.87 as 20, and so on, we get an average of 28.667, which is in error 1.532 per cent, assuming 29.113 inches to be the true average. If now we divide the 60-year period into six periods of 10 years each, using the measurements to the hun- dredth of an inch, the averages of these six periods are in error to the extent of 3.24, 7.51, 2.95, 7.24, 2.94, and 3.52 per cent, respectively. That is, the 60-year average based on measurements made to the nearest multiple of 10 inches is more accurate than any one of the 10-year averages based on the most accurate measurements. It is not intended here to convey the impression that accuracy in original data is a matter of small importance. Such accuracy is im- portant. The main point to be made is that numbers of items to be averaged is still more important. Our studies lead to the con- | clusion that errors in the farmer’s knowledge of the details of his business and of the work he does are in every way comparable to the departures from the true mean in field plot experimental work and that they distribute themselves about the true values in approximately the same manner. The fact that the survey method of investigation gives data sufficient to permit the law of averages to eliminate plus errors by the occurrence of similar minus errors while plot experiments ordinarily do not do this appears to justify the statement that the survey method is a more reliable means of arriving at those facts to which it is applicable than the field plot experimental method. It appears, in fact, to occupy a place inter- mediate between plot experiments on the one hand, where variations 5 VALIDITY OF THE SURVEY METHOD OF RESEARCH. 15 in other factors than that under observation occur and are not ade- quately eliminated, and laboratory studies on the other hand, in which variations in other factors are largely prevented. ‘These varia- tions due to factors other than that studied do occur in using the ‘survey method, but the amount of data obtained by this method is sufficient to permit the elimination of such variations by the opera- tion of the law of averages. The fact that there is such unanimity in the conclusions of investigators using the survey method in all parts of the country is, of itself, evidence of the general validity and great utility of this method of research. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AD 5 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from Office of Markets and Rural Site Miles. CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief Washington, D. C. V May 8, 1917 THE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. | By Vo N. VALERBN, Investigator in Agricultural Insurance. CONTENTS. Page. Page. MIRO GUI CULO Mase aaa 2 Ld EE 1 | Evils of blanket insurance................--: 12 Puspose ofthe company-.-)-.-:j....224222 2 | Liability of the company and of the insured. 13 EUISIMESSIUCETIGOL Ys ..s een aise oto ce Soe eae 3 | Reduction and cancellation of insurance-... 14 Membership and voting privilege.........-.-- 3) Meesandiassessmentseesmase seta eee eae 15 yoandkondine cuonsiss sce alos sel eae ta Dull eC laSsifi cartons teil ssi ss seeps er 16 Officersand committees .....-/-.-----..-+-:- G- | Settlementsoflossess. se aa ee eee 17 Applications for insuramce............------- 8)2'|' FRESETRVe sy egepeten sioner ereee etaleeansis nee Neate aes 18 ImsSpecuonrotmdSk:se ss a5 ee ke Sa ee 10 | Amendment of by-laws and articles of incor- Hommiand! termiotl policy... 2-22.---+------ce- 10 POLATIONS Seana ee aN Adee Se ee a 18. Limiting the size of individual risks.._.._..- 11 | Suggestive organization and business forms. - i9 INTRODUCTION. Farmers’ mutual fire insurance companies represent one of the most successful efforts at rural cooperation in the United States. Nearly 2,000 such companies are in existence, with a total amount of insur- ance in force exceeding 54 billion dollars. These companies are increasing rapidly in number and size. In some States of the Middle West ely three-fourths of all insurable farm property is now insured in the farmers’ own companies. Organizations of this kind are found in every State except Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, New Mexico, Arizona, and Nevada. The eerie eon of a farmers’ mutual insurance company should be preceded by a certain amount of preparatory work. The legal Notr.—This bulletin is intended mainly for two classes of readers—those contem- plating the organization of a farmers’ mutual fire insurance company and those desiring to improve the methods and practices of an existing company. It aims to outline principles and methods developed by successful companies of this kind and to set forth the advanced ideas held by their officers, rather than to discuss the subject theoretically. 78934°—Buil, 530—17——_1 2 BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. step of incorporation should not be taken until as large a percentage as possible of the substantial farmers in the community have been interested in the undertaking. Twenty-five States now provide in a separate chapter or division of their insurance laws for the incorpora- tion of farmers’ mutual fire insurance companies. In most of the other States it is possible to incorporate such companies under the insurance laws referring to fire insurance mutuals in general. In any case the organizers are required to set forth in a formal paper, usually called articles of incorporation, the name of the pro- posed company, the location of its home office, the purpose of the organization, the business territory, the conditions of membership, a brief outline of the form of management proposed, and the condi- tions under which the various provisions outlined in the articles of incorporation may be altered or amended. As soon as incorporation has been accomplished, a set of by-laws should be drawn up. If the articles of incorporation have described the nature and purpose of the organization in outline only, these same topics should be taken up fully in the by-laws. The machinery of management should be provided for and the conditions of insur- ance should be carefully stipulated. Detailed provisions regarding the routine of the business should be avoided, however, and consider- _able discretion in these matters should be left to the directors. PURPOSE OF THE COMPANY. The purpose of the organization should be stated clearly in the by-laws. It should be made evident that the object of the company is to safeguard its members against the burdens of disastrous losses, and that this is to be accomplished in the way that best serves the interests of the membership as a whole. This means that the com- pany must promote energetically the elimination of preventable losses and distribute on an equitable basis the burden from those losses that it can not prevent. The fact that a company of this kind is organized to prevent disas- trous loss burdens does not mean that it should remove all burdens from the individuals who suffer losses of property. In all cases a reasonable part of the loss should be borne by the owner. It should be to his interest, above all others, to have his property remain in existence. If the entire loss is assumed by the company, it becomes a matter of no economic consequence to the owner whether his prop- erty is destroyed or not, and his strongest incentive to safeguard his property has been removed. There is also danger that a slight change of economic conditions may make it directly to his pecuniary advan- tage to have his property destroyed. A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. o BUSINESS TERRITORY. There has been a growing tendency in recent years on the part of legislatures to permit farmers’ mutuals a wide business territory. Several States now permit companies of this kind to operate in the entire State. The tendency on the part of the companies to avail themselves of this privilege has been somewhat less marked. While it seems a natural ambition on the part of a farmers’ mutual to desire to grow by extension of its territory as well as by adding to its risks within the territory already partly covered, there is danger that such ambition eventually will lead to less desirable results. One of the most important advantages that farmers’ mutuals in general enjoy over larger companies is that of a community interest and a com- munity pride in the success of the undertaking. Each member dis- tinctly feels himself a part of the company. The individual member actively promotes the interests of the organization, is anxious to see all losers receive equal justice, and is usually satisfied with a reason- able settlement in case he himself suffers a loss. These conditions, together with the knowledge of one another’s character and business affairs, tend to reduce the moral hazard to a minimum. Even if a case of overinsurance in a farmers’ mutual should occur in connection with property owned by an unscrupulous member who would be quite ready to occasion a loss to a large insurance company, located perhaps in a distant city, such a member is likely to hesitate to throw the loss upon his own neighbors. Thus the moral hazard is greatly reduced in the local farmers’ mutual. Many of the local mutuals have done business for half a century or more without a single lawsuit. Such a record would rarely be possible except in a company founded on true cooperation and embodying the principle of community interest in some direct form. When risks are con- fined to a limited territory the saving in traveling expenses of di- rectors, inspectors, and adjusters is also a large item. MEMBERSHIP AND VOTING PRIVILEGE. All persons whose applications for insurance have been accepted should be members of the company in every sense of the word. The character of the owner as well as the physical condition of the prop- erty should be considered before the application is approved. Once his application is accepted and a policy is issued to him, however, the new member should be treated in exactly the same way as the charter members. Active cooperation of all the members should be the aim. The annual meeting should be well advertised and, if possible, made an interesting and significant community event. Occasionally a set of directors and officers are well satisfied to have the members neglect the annual meeting, thus leaving to those already in office all responsi- A BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. bility, including the question of their own reelection. No intelligent or effective cooperation on the part of the membership can be ex- pected under such circumstances and it is not conducive to true and continued progress, either in the improvement of risks or in the strengthening and expanding of the influence and reputation of the company. Members who know little or nothing about the organiza- tion to which they belong can hardly be expected to prove effective voluntary promoters of its interests. A cooperative organization is logically an aggregation of persons rather than of wealth. While many plans of voting based on the amount of insurance carried are in use by the farmers’ mutuals in different States, it is commonly conceded that the simple plan under which each member has one vote for each official to be elected, or for each measure to be passed upon, is best. A somewhat stronger case is presented in favor of the right of a member to cumulate his vote upon less than the total number of directors to be elected. For instance, if three directors are to be chosen, each member is permitted three votes, which he may cast, one for each of three men, cr two for one man and one for another, or all three for the same candidate. This plan is intended to give a reasonable representation to a minority faction, if such faction should exist. The plan is subject to the possibility of accident, however, unless it is combined with the very cumbersome preferential voting plan, and under certain circumstances it may make for minority control instead of for majority control with minority representation. Such an outcome is doubtless rather unlikely, but it is by no means impossible. Under the old plan of one vote for each of three candi- dates, the minority faction, if there be one, may be left unrepresented, but this is certainly less objectionable than to have the control of an organization turned over by mere chance to a minority. A provision for votes by proxy, without proper safeguards, should be avoided. In a number of farmers’ mutuals it has led to unde- sirable results. The vote of a member, as a rule at least, should be cast in person at the formal gathering of the membership, where the yoter’s own opinion can be expressed, and any such opinion based upon misunderstanding can be corrected. In a company with a lim- ited business territory such a requirement can not be said to be unreasonable, so far as the average member is concerned. Individual cases may exist, of course, in which persons with sound and settled opinions in regard to the company’s affairs find it difficult or even impossible to attend a given meeting. If it is thought desirable to provide for these exceptions, and if the laws of the State permit, voting by mail, under proper restrictions, may be provided for, or proxy voting may be permitted with a close limitation upon the number of proxy votes that may be assigned to any one member. A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. 5 BOARD OF DIRECTORS. The management of the company should be vested in a board cf directors. The members of this board should be elected on such a plan that the term of office of only a part of the directors expires each year. Thus the board is a continuous body. The number of the directors should be sufficiently large to give representation to the different districts in the business territory, and to ‘assure reasonably careful deliberation of questions of policy. If the number is too large, however, the transaction of business is likely to be unduly retarded by the profusion of opinions, and further, the per diem allowances for board meetings will become a needlessly heavy ex- pense. Except where local conditions appear to require a certain grouping or distribution of the directors, nime members seem to form a board of convenient size. As nine is an odd number, there is no possibility of a deadlock when all members are present; at the same time a board of nine directors can be divided fer election purposes into three groups or classes with the same number in each class. If fewer than three classes are provided for, the group or class arrangement, which is intended to make the board a continuous body, becomes of little value, since the policy of the board may be entirely reversed by the new members chosen at a single election. The same danger may easily appear, even with three classes provided for, when the number of directors is either seven or five. With a board of seven members, for example, one class would consist of three direc- tors and the other two classes of two directors each. In the year when-the term of the three directors regularly expired a single acci- dental vacancy in either of the other two classes would cause a majority of the board to be elected at one meeting. An opportunity to make a radical change in the management at a single meeting might be desirable if a large number of the members always attended the annual meetings. But where the attendance is usually small, as is frequently the case, one or two dissatisfied mem- bers may bring in a few friends and control the meeting. If all or a majority of the directors are to be elected at this meeting, the affairs of the company may thus be controlled for an entire year by men who represent a very small percentage of the membership. On the other hand, when only a third of the directors are to be elected at one meeting, the opportunity. for such an action is removed. Even if one small group should control one meeting, there is ample oppor- tunity for the membership in general to be informed of the situation before the next annual meeting, so that the election cf another third of the directors by the few disaffected members is readily prevented. 6 BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. While factional difficulties have been rare in the farmers’ mutuals, they are by no means unknown. Since the directorate represents the members, a vacancy in the board should theoretically be filled by election in the manner in which the position was originally filled. An extra meeting for the purpose of filling such a vacancy, however, involves considerable trouble and expense, and it is perhaps well to provide that the remaining members of the board shall fill the vacancy temporarily, the one so selected holding office only until the next regular meeting. The board of directors, subject to the articles of incorporation and the by-laws, should have full and complete charge of the business of the company. The limitations upon its powers provided for in the by-laws should be such as affect the broader policies of the com-. pany only. Details of administration should be left in general to the discretion of the board. Without discretionary powers in these matters the directors are not in a position promptly to meet new conditions that may arise, nor can they properly be held responsible for the efficient management of the company’s affairs. All officers and employees should be elected or appointed by the board or its representatives and should hold office only so long as they discharge their duties faithfully and efficiently. The compensation of all such officers and employees should be fixed by the board. Only the com- pensation of the directors themselves should be stipulated in the by-laws. OFFICERS AND COMMITTEES. There are good reasons why the regular officers should generally be elected by the board from their own number. It is probable that the members will have elected as directors the men in the com- munity who are best qualified to transact the company’s business for them. Hence to insist that the officers be elected from outside the board may deprive the company of the active service of its best qualified members. The officers acquire an experience and a practical insight into the business which should be made to count in the directors’ meetings. Especially is this true of the secretary and the president. The duties of the treasurer, however, as ordinarily pre- seribed, bring him but little into touch with the actual insurance business, and this office may well be held by any responsible person, regardless of other connection with the company. An official or responsible employee of a local bank often makes a desirable treasurer, since he usually has the requisite training and the conveniences for keeping accurate accounts with a minimum of labor and expense. Moreover, his methods of keeping accounts may give the secretary valuable suggestions in regard to the keeping of his books, for, with A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. i all his knowledge of farm risks and mutual insurance principles, the secretary is seldom a skilled bookkeeper or accountant. In excep- tional cases 1t may be found expedient to elect a secretary who at the time has no farm property to insure and therefore can not be a member of the company in a technical sense. He may be a retired farmer, for example, who for years has been an active member of the company. While the directors as a body are responsible to the members, it involves needless expense to have them meet to pass upon routine business. On the other hand, it is undesirable to leave too much to the judgment of a single individual. The best plan, probably, is to provide for an executive committee to pass upon all matters of importance which are more or less routine in their nature. The president, secretary, and vice president properly constitute such a committee. The first two are connected -actively with the details of the business in any case. There seems good reason for making the vice president the third member of this committee, since his duties as a committee member will keep him in touch with all angles of the business and qualify him for the duties of acting president, which he may be called upon to perform. By this plan the regular meetings of the board of directors may be reduced to about four a year. Special meetings of the board should be called whenever any extraordinary problems confront the company. Another important committee for which all companies should provide is an auditing committee. It is almost impossible to over- emphasize the importance of a thorough annual audit of the books of the company. It is an added incentive to the officers in charge of the books to keep their records accurate and in good form. While cases of misplaced confidence appear to be rare in companies of this kind, nevertheless provision should be made to prevent the possibility of misconduct or misuse of funds. Even though the reputations of the officers are such that fraud on their part seems impossible, it is desirable to maintain sound business practices and to guard against insinuations by some disaffected member. The officers themselves should insist upon a thorough annual audit as a matter of self-protection. It may be desirable to have the books audited annually by an experienced accountant, but this involves considerable expense. Under ordinary circumstances, especially for the company of moderate size, the most practicable auditing com- mittee consists of members of the company. In a committee of three the chairman and at least one other member should be selected at the annual meeting from outside the board of directors. It may be well to have the third member selected by the board from their own number in order that no needless misunderstandings may arise. 4 8 BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, APPLICATIONS FOR INSURANCE. The most important single problem confronting a newly organ- ized farmers’ mutual fire insurance company is that of securing a sufficient number of acceptable applications for insurance within a reasonable distance of the home office. In passing upon applications, the standard applied to risks must vary somewhat with the economic development of the community which the company is intended to serve. In a new or undeveloped community risks will have to be accepted which, in a community more advanced in a material way, can and should be rejected. The cost of insurance will be higher, of course, in the undeveloped community, but since commercial rates for insurance, if protection of this type is available on any terms, will also be much higher, the saving through cooperative enterprise in fire protection may equal or even exceed the saving Ges Rnses in the more advanced community. While the standards for the material forms of the risk may thus vary to suit the locality, the requirements as to personal character of applicants need not and should not vary. A thriftless or dis: honest person has no place in a farmers’ mutual insurance company. When an individual is known to have these characteristics, it is the duty of the management not only to avoid soliciting his insurance, but to reject lis application if it should be tendered. Those in charge of the company have no right to endanger its stability in order to avoid this unpleasant duty. Where mere suspicion of dis- honesty exists and the management does not feel justified i in reject- ing an application for insurance and membership in the company, sisal precaution should be taken to see that the property is con- servatively valued. Even where no suspicion of dishonesty exists, due care always should be exercised to avoid the creation of néed- less temptation through overinsurance, which frequently leads to a bad moral hazard. With the above statements few, if any, of the men experienced in farmers’ mutual insurance will deere: On the question of who should solicit or accept applications, however, a variety of opinions will be found. In about 35 per cent of the farmers’ mutuals all applications are taken by one or more special agents, and in an additional 10 per cent of the companies applications are taken at least in part by special agents. The other 55 per cent of the com- panies restrict the right of taking applications to the directors ex- clusively, to the officers exclusively, or to the directors and officers. The extent to which the cooperative spirit has been developed in the community should be taken into consideration in deciding upon a plan for securing business. It is believed, however, that the plan of charging the directors with this duty, wherever it can — be put into practice, will increase the cooperative spirit. It will help to give the organization a broad and firm basis and make it more truly a community affair. Under the agency plan, on the other hand, there is greater danger that the interests of the com- pany will be sacrificed in an effort te secure large applications and commissions. The compensation for securing business should be a fixed amount rather than a percentage of the advance charges collected. The fixed amount leaves the one who takes the application unbiased as to the valuation and the consequent amount of insurance written. While a thoroughly conscientious and unselfish person may refuse to let the matter of his own compensation influence his judgment, there is no doubt as to the wisdom of eliminating temptation wherever possible. The application should contain an accurate and fairly detailed description of the property to be insured and should also contain the proposed member’s formal acceptance of the articles of incorpo- ration and the by-laws of the company, together with his agreement to meet his share of all losses and legitimate expenses. The latter obligation frequently is embodied in a separate assessable note, though in most cases where this is done it merely adds another paper to be cared for, without corresponding advantage. The policy or membership fee and the initial premium should be forwarded with the application to the secretary, unless a plan for periodic settlement of accounts between the company and the person receiving the application has been provided. Such application, when _ fully and regularly approved by the company’s representative taking it, should impose full liability upon the company until a policy is issued or the application has been formally rejected. In the absence of such a provision, especially where the secretary does not give his full time to the duties of his office, the delay in issuing a policy may mean that the applicant goes without protection for some time after he has taken all necessary steps on his part to have his prop- erty insured. - When a conditional or tentative approval by the company’s repre- sentative taking the application is provided for in the by-laws, an application so approved should not bind the company until finally passed upon and accepted at the company’s home office. In any case, aiter due consideration of the application, either a policy should be issued and forwarded to the applicant or the application, together with the advance charges collected, should be returned promptly with formal notice that it has been rejected. The reason for rejec- tion should be clearly stated whenever practicable. 78934°—Bull. 580—17—2 A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. 9 10 BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INSPECTION OF RISKS, . By means of reasonable care in the selection of the risks from a physical standpoint, together with precautions to eliminate the moral hazard, it is possible for a farmer’s mutual fire insurance company to bring the average annual loss ratio considerably below what would be expected from the experience of larger commercial concerns in- suring farm risks. Since the expense item in the annual budget of a farmer’s mutual is easily held below the corresponding outlays of commercial concerns, a considerable saving to the members can be effected. To stop here, however, is to fall far short of realizing the possibilities of a farmers’ mutual insurance company, The annual fire loss in the United States, within as well as outside the farmers’ mutuals, is very much higher than it should be, judged by the ex- periences of other countries. A large percentage of the fires that occur are readily preventable, and there is no better way for the company to live up to its purpose of safeguarding its members against disastrous loss burdens than to eliminate, as far as possible, all preventable losses. The first and perhaps the most important step in a program for the improvement of risks and the elimination of preventable losses is an efficient system of inspection. Many defects that constitute fire dangers could be discovered and removed by a more thorough inspec- tion than is now generally made by the representatives of the com- pany who take the applications for insurance. It may be doubted, however, whether highly satisfactory results can be secured without the employment of a special inspector who makes a careful study of fire dangers and who inspects thoroughly all risks of the company at least every two or three years. It may be found that annual in- spection is necesesary for the best results. The experience of other classes of mutuals has amply demonstrated that money spent for efficient inspection of risks is a wise and profitable investment. FORM AND TERM OF POLICY. A reasonable uniformity among the farmers’ mutuals in regard to their policy forms is undoubtedly desirable and should be en- couraged. The advisability, however, of requiring them to use a standard policy applicable to all classes of insurance may be ques- tioned. In many instances where the use of the standard policy by these companies has been prescribed by State law, they have con- tinued to consider the by-laws printed on the back of the policy as the real agreement between the company and the insured. It is unquestionably a condition essential for success in cooperative effort that the agreement between the organization and its members A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. 1l be read and understood. The standard insurance policies of the va- rious States, it must be admitted, are difficult reading for one not accustomed to legal phraseology. The provisions contained therein regarding manufacturing establishments and their operation are of no interest to the members of a farmers’ mutual. These considerations appear to have induced the legislatures in a majority of the States that have special legal provisions for farmers’ mutual companies to exempt such companies from the use of the standard fire insurance policy of the State. A difference of opinion exists as to the term of years for which a policy should be written. A small number of the farmers’ mutuals make their policies perpetual in form. The advantages claimed for such a plan are that it tends to give permanency to the company, and that it saves the expenses incident to the making of renewals. However, as the value of a given farm risk changes from time to time with the addition of new buildings, the deterioration of old ones, increase or decrease in the amount of stock or machinery on hand, such a policy, as a rule, will require changing at intervals, making it in effect a new contract, even though technically the old policy continues in force. There is also the danger that in the absence of a specific termination of a policy, the revaluation of the prop- erty will be unduly postponed, resulting in cases of overinsurance, with the consequent tendency toward a bad moral hazard. The duration of the limited-term policies issued by the farmers’ mutuals varies from a single year to 10 years. The usual length of term, however, is five years, and more than seven-tenths of the farmers’ mutuals write their policies for this period of time. LIMITING THE SIZE OF INDIVIDUAL RISKS. It is very important, especially in the early history of a company, when the total amount of its risks is relatively small, to limit care- fully the amount of insurance written on a single building or on a group of buildings subject to the same fire. Not to limit the size of the risk is to invite disaster. The exact limit fixed upon such single risks must be determined to some extent by the average value of farm buildings in the community. It is perhaps safe to say, however, that no recently organized company should attempt to write more than $2,000 on a single risk. Some provision for sharing the liability involved in the larger risks with one or more other companies should be made whenever possible. Two ways of accomplishing this division are in vogue. One of these is the plan usually referred to as joint or concurrent insurance. Under this plan two or more companies issue separate policies for specified amounts on the same risk, care being taken that 12 BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the total amount of the two or more policies shall be well within the actual value of the property. The second plan of sharing lability with other companies is that of reinsurance. Under this plan the original company in the first place insures the entire risk, but later makes a contract with another insurance company to assume a certain part of the liability. The first of these two plans is the more easily applied, since the two or more companies sharing a given risk are practically inde- pendent of one another; hence uniformity in practice or approval of one another’s metheds is not required. Under the second plan the knowledge and approval of one another’s methods and affairs are necessary before an agreement for reinsurance can be brought about. EVILS OF BLANKET INSURANCE. From the point of view of the company the insurance written should be as specific as possible. The practice of writing blanket insurance, that is, of covering a variety of insurable objects by a single lump sum of insurance, is unfair both to the company and to the members with a small amount of property to insure. It enables a member owning a large amount of property to protect himself against loss with a relatively small amount of insurance. In extreme instances all the personal property located on several separate farms has been thus covered by a single sum of insurance. Since loss of. more than a small fraction of this property by any ene fire is impos- sible the owner, under such a blanket plan, can protect all his per- sonal property by an amount of msurance equal perhaps to 10 or at most 20 per cent of the value. A corresponding opportunity to secure more protection than is actually paid for is not open to the member who has but few items of personal property and these in a - large measure subject to destruction by a single fire. Inasmuch as under the blanket plan the property covered by the insurance is invariably out of proportion to the amount of insurance written, it makes the assessment per hundred of insurance unduly large, and thus in addition to giving an unfair advantage to the more wealthy members, it discredits the work of the company by making the average cost of protection appear higher than is actually the case. A number of the farmers’ mutuals have reduced their rate of assess- ment materially, while at the same time they have made their assess- ments more just, by the simple method of changing their plan from one of giving blanket insurance to one of specific enumeration and valuation of the various kinds of property covered by the contract. A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. 13 LIABILITY OF THE COMPANY AND OF THE INSURED. Even large legal-reserve companies find it necessary in their con- tracts to exempt themselves from liability for losses due to such catastrophes as invasion, insurrection, riot, or civil war. A local mutual is, of course, even less capable of assuming liability for loss caused by such disasters, in which the destruction cf property may surpass all expectations or estimates for which an insurance company can reasonably make provision. Since the destruction by windstorm of a building in which light and heat are used involves the proba- bility of fire resulting from the fall, it is proper for the company to arrange for exemption from liability in the case of such fire loss. The insured should rely upon windstorm insurance for indemnity against loss primarily due to the windstorm hazard. A few farmers’ mutuals limit their liability for indemnity in case of all losses, whether total or partial, to three-fourths of the value of the property. Where the insurance written is limited to three- fourths of the actual value of each risk, as is here advocated, the member suffering a total loss bears one-fourth of the less himself. A part of a partial loss can be borne by the insured with even less hardship. Prevailing practice requires full indemnity in the case of partial losses, however, up to the amount of the insurance carried, and this practice has been recognized in the accompanying by-laws. The main reason for not embodying in the accompanying by-laws the more logical practice of three-fourths indemnity in all cases is the danger that unfair competition might result. In spite of its reasonableness, the practice offers an opportunity for agents of com- peting companies to alienate members who have suffered partial loss, by pointing out to them the greater indemnity that would have been paid by another company. A recent loser is likely to overlook the les- sened cost of insurance resulting from the three-fourths provision, in his contemplation of the greater indemnity that he would have re- ceived under the full indemnity plan for partial losses which another company offers. He is not reminded, and may himself forget, that as a total loser he would be required to bear part of his own loss in either company. Hence, until insurance companies in general agree to adopt a better practice, it may be disadvantageous for a local mutual to adopt the three-fourths plan. Where a company already has adopted such a plan, however, and where the members under- stand and appreciate the closer approach to justice given thereby, it should be continued. The lability of the insured is either limited or unlimited. Un- limited liability in this case means that a member binds himself to pay his pro rata share of all losses and legitimate expenses of the com- pany. Many persons have objected to this unlimited liability feature t 14 BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in farmers’ mutuals, although about seven-tenths of the companies are doing business successfully under this plan. It is argued that the apparently impossible might yet come to pass, that is, that losses in such number and amount might be experienced by a company that the necessary assessments would bankrupt the members who had not suffered fire losses. The fact is that in a farmers’ mutual company with a reasonable number of risks, located on separate farms, any- thing corresponding to a conflagration loss is inconceivable. The only exception would seem to be a frontier community in which ex- tensive prairie or forest fires were still possible. REDUCTION AND CANCELLATION OF INSURANCE. Inasmuch as the value of the insured property of a farmer changes from time to time, it becomes necessary to provide in the contract. for readjustment in the amount of insurance. The opportunity for such readjustment should be open to the insured as well as to the com- pany. The contract should provide also for the cancellation of the policy at the option either of the company or of the insured. No at- tempt should be made on the part of the company to retain a man who no longer desires to be a member, and it is absolutely necessary for the safety of the company to reserve the right arbitrarily to can- cel any policy upon giving fair notice. The reasons for the com- pany’s wish to cancel may be perfectly valid from a practical stand- point and yet be of such a nature that they can not be argued with the insured. Such is the case in practically every mstance where a bad moral hazard is discovered. When cancellation takes place at the initiative of the insured, it is reasonable to charge him a short-term rate which is higher than the pro rata cost for the whole term of the policy. This is merely a proper recognition of the expense that the company has incurred in placing the insurance upon its books. The balance, if any, of the advance charges paid by the member, after the deduction of such short-term rate, should be returned. The by-laws should provide, however, that in case of voluntary cancellation by the insured follow- ing heavy loss experiences, he must be held liable for his share of all losses and legitimate expenses incurred by the company before such cancellation. Unless this is provided for there is the possibility that a member may cancel his policy because unusually heavy losses have been incurred which will make the next assessment higher than the average. When, on the other hand, cancellation takes place at the initiative of the company, only the pro rata cost of insurance for the time pro- tection has been given should be deducted from any advance charges paid by the insured. If a short-term rate is applied under these conditions the insured is likely to feel that he has been mistreated and wilfully defrauded. A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. 15 FEES AND ASSESSMENTS. A reasonable policy fee, or membership fee, should be provided for in the by-laws. This fee is usually large enough at least to com- pensate the representative of the company who takes the applica- tion and makes a survey of the risk. Apparently many of the farmers’ mutuals, in their early history, followed the plan of levying assessments after each material loss, and a few companies still adhere to this plan. It has been found, however, that after a company has reached a fair size this plan proves needlessly burdensome to the officers and also involves unnecessary expense in notifying members of their assessments and in receipting for these assessments when paid. The members themselves fre- quently find it annoying to be called upon for small assessments several times during the year. Other companies have adopted the plan of borrowing money with which to pay losses as they occur, and levy an assessment sufficient to repay the loans at the close of the busi- ness year. An increasing number of farmers’ mutuals, however, are adopting the plan of requiring the prepayment of an initial premium at least equal to one year’s average cost and then collecting at the beginning of each succeeding year of the policy term an annual assessment in advance. This plan not only obviates frequent assessments but also eliminates much of the trouble occasionally experienced in enforcing payment by delinquent members. The fact that a reasonable amount of money is always on hand in the treasury of the company further tends to inspire confidence in the organization both on the part of the members and on the part of business men with whom the company or its policy holders may wish to deal. Where the annual prepayment plan has been adopted the initial premium as well as the successive annual assessments should be based on a liberal estimate of the needs of the company for the coming 12 months, taking into consideration any funds already on hand. Should it be found, however, that the funds have become exhausted some time before the next regular assessment, the management should not hesitate to make good the deficiency by levying a special assess- ment upon all risks insured at the time of the occurrence of the unusual losses that exhausted the company’s funds. In the case of special assessments, as well as in the case of all regular assessments when levied in arrears, it is important that the payment of all dues be enforced in a businesslike manner. Several companies have suffered loss of reputation, and subsequently of mem- bership, because of their failure to take prompt and effective meas- ures to enforce their assessments. Once it is understood that the management of the company means what it says in its assessment _— 16 BULLETIN 530, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. notice, little trouble is experienced in the collection of its dues, except perhaps from renters who have removed their insured personal prop- erty to some other State or locality. CLASSIFICATION OF RISKS. With relatively few exceptions the farmers’ mutual fire insurance companies of this country hitherto have charged the same rate for zll classes of farm property. In explanation of this practice it may be said that httle information has been at hand on which a classifi- cation of the various kinds of farm property could be based. It also has been argued, for example, that while a barn may involve a greater fire hazard than a dwelling, each member, as a rule, owned and insured one building of each kind; hence little injustice was done by taking the more hazardous barn at the same rate as the less hazardous dwelling. Especially, it has been argued that the classi- fication of property would involve an undesirable amount of addi- tional work for the officers of the company, particularly for the sec- retary in making out his notices and records of assessments. The amount of insurance on each class of risk would have to be muiti- plied by its particular rate and then the sum of these products ascer- tained for each policy, while under the current practice the deter- mination of a member’s assessment involves but a single calculation. In spite of these arguments, all of which must be admitted to have more or less weight, a reasonable classification of risks is re- quired by considerations not only of justice but also of expediency. There is, after ail, a very considerable difference in the nature of the property offered for insurance by different farmers. In one case the more hazardous barn may be worth twice as much as the less hazardous dwelling, and in another case a reverse relation between the two may exist. One farmer insures a large number of live stock and another does not. Still further, experience is bringing out more and more clearly that farm buildings put to the same use are by no means equally hazardous. The material of which they are constructed, the location with regard to other buildings, the ab- sence or presence of proper lightning rods, very materially affect the fire hazard. In fact, this differentiation of risks with reference to the fire hazard is increasing rather than decreasing as the community progresses from an economic standpoint. While in the past prac- tically all farm buildings were built of wood with shingle roofs, an increasing number of buildings are now constructed of brick or stone, while slate, tile, or metal roofs are even more frequent. The Jarger commercial companies, and also the larger mutuals that either classify or carefully select their risks, are making increased efforts to secure as risks farm buildings so constructed that the fire hazard A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. i isreduced toa minimum. Unless the local farmers’ mutual is willing to make concessions from its average rate for a risk of this kind, such risk is likely to be lost to the company. Furthermore, by giv- ing reasonable concessions in its charges on desirable risks, the com- pany offers a strong inducement to the farmer to improve his prop- erty by eliminating needless fire dangers. A suggestive classification of farm property will be found in the accompanying by-laws. If an initial premium proportionate to the hazard is charged, and this premium is used as the basis for all assess- ments on the plan also provided for in the by-laws, the added work imposed upon the secretary by classification will be very smali. Such a classification will enable a company to make more equitable charges for insurance, to safeguard itself against competition, and to encour- age the improvement of its risks. - The method of handling the classification is further explained by the application and policy forms attached. In the space in the appli- cation for summarizing the insurance by classes will be found sug- gestive rates for each class. These rates, like the classification itself, will need adjustment in many instances in order to reflect, as nearly as may be, both average insurance cost and relative hazards on the different classes. SETTLEMENT OF LOSSES. The duty of the insured to prevent afid to limit fire losses as far as possible should be clearly expressed in the by-laws. A provision should also be made to the effect that a sworn statement may be required of the insured as to his knowledge and belief in regard to the cause of the fire and the amount of damage or loss. Arbitration should be provided for to settle difficulties that may arise as to the amount of indemnity due. The simplest and perhaps the most satis- factory way of arranging for this arbitration is to have the company and the insured each select one member of the arbitration board, and then require the two so chosen to select a third member. The cost of the arbitration should be borne equally by the company and the insured. It is sometimes argued that the party who, accord- ing to the findings of the board, is proven to have been in the wrong should pay the entire cost of arbitration; or, in other words, that the cost should be borne by the insured unless the award previously offered by the company is increased by the decision of the board. When such a provision exists, however, it frequently causes the arbi- tration expenses to influence the action of the board in a needless and unwarranted manner. It is felt, for instance, in the case of a member with modest resources who may have been honestly mistaken as to the value of the destroyed property, that circumstances justify the rais- 78934°—B ull. 530—17——3 18 BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ing of the previous award of the company by a very small amount in order to throw all expenses of arbitration upon the party which can better afford to bear them. Such action, however, is decidedly unfair to the company. The addition to the award and the expenses of arbitration may not in themselves be serious considerations, but by having its original award set aside the company’s reputation for fairness in the settlement of its losses is unjustly undermined. The damage by fire or lightning to a given piece of property often appears to the owner much more serious than it really is. For this reason a provision to the effect that the company may satisfy the claim against it by repairing or rebuilding frequently proves of‘value. RESERVE. The question of whether a farmers’ mutual insurance company should aim to establish and maintain a reasonable reserve fund is closely related to the question of advance or post assessment already discussed. The reserve problem, however, leads still. further into the question of how far the farmers’ mutuals shall imitate the plan now imposed by law upon all capital-stock insurance companies and, in general, upon larger mutuals; namely, that of maintaining a cer- tain reserve proportionate to the amount of business transacted. It is frequently held that to build up a reserve fund deprives the mem- bers of capital which each member might as well have in his own possession until it is needed by the company. The truth of the argument, so far as it goes, must be conceded. However, the neces- sary additional amount to be contributed by each member in order to build up a reasonable reserve is so small that it can not affect seriously the business operations or the prosperity of the individual members. A reasonable reserve in the treasury of the company, on the other hand, performs a very useful function by equalizing the assessment from year to year. In case unexpectedly heavy losses should be ex- perienced it may thus prevent dissatisfaction on the part of the mem- bers. In an extreme case it may even save the company from dis- solution. The opinion appears to be growing among farmers’ mutual insurance men that under a plan of annual assessments a reserve of about $3,000 per million of insurance in force is useful as a shock absorber in the loss experience of the company. AMENDMENT OF BY-LAWS AND ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION. The by-laws, as well as the articles of incorporation, should pre- scribe carefully the method of their own amendment. A reasonable permanency in the company’s plans and methods doubtless requires that something more than a mere majority of favorable votes should ca A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. 19 be necessary to bring about an amendment. The percentage of favorable votes required should not be so large, however, that a rela- tively small number of members, aided by mere inertia or the atti- tude of opposition to all change on the part of other members, can block a desirable reform. A three-fifths majority represents a suit- able requirement for amendment to the by-laws. The majority re- quired for change in the articles of association logically should be slightly higher. Even here, however, two-thirds rather than three- fourths is believed to constitute a reasonable majority. No amendment should be passed without due warning to the mem- bers that a change is contemplated. Such warning may be provided for by requiring that a notice of a proposed amendment shall be sent to every member a reasonable time before the meeting at which the amendment is to be considered. This special notice may properly be omitted only when an amendment has been formally acted upon and recommended by a majority vote at a regular or regularly called meeting of the members preceding that at which final action is ogni SUGGESTIVE ORGANIZATION AND BUSINESS FORMS. The accompanying suggestive articles of incorporation, by-laws, application, and policy embody the principles emphasized in the pre- ceding pages. In many States it will be necessary to modify them to conform to local conditions and to comply with legal requirements. The advice of the State insurance commissioner should be freely sought in all cases of serious doubt. Especially is such consultation necessary when the question concerns the laws, or the interpretation of the laws, regulating insurance in the State. Even when changes are necessary, however, it is believed that the accompanying sug- gestive organization and business forms will be found useful.! 1So far as its facilities permit, the Office of Markets and Rural Organization of the United States Department of Agriculture is ready to assist individual rural communities both in the formation of new organizations and in the improvement of existing insurance companies. 20 BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ARTICLES OF INCORPORATION. FARMERS’ MutTuAL Frre INSURANCE COMPANY. We, the undersigned, residents of County, State of , who severally own property within said County, having a total insurable value of dollars, which we desire to insure, said property consisting of separate risks, hereby associate ourselves together as a body corporate, and for that purpose subscribe to and adopt the following articles of incorpora- tion: ARTICLE I, The name of the corporation shall be Insurance Company. Art, IJ. The principal office of this company shall be located in Art. III. The business of this company shall be to safeguard its members, so far as possible, against property losses by reason of fire or lightning, and to distribute among all the members, on the mutual-insurance plan, any loss by fire or lightning which may occur in spite of all reasonable precautions. Art, IV. The business territory of this company shall be confined to Art. V. Membership in this company shall be limited to persons who own or have a substantial interest in farm or country risks or similar detached risks within the limits of cities and villages which may be insurable under the rules pf the company, in compliance with the laws of the State of Art. VI. The management of this company shall be vested in a board of nine (9) directors, who shall be elected for such term and in such manner as the by-laws shall provide. Art. VII. These articles of incorporation may be amended by a two-thirds vote of the members present at any annual meeting or any regularly called special meeting (a quorum being present), at least thirty (80) days’ notice of such proposed amendment having been given. Art. VIII. The duration of this corporation shall be years. Art. IX. Until the first regular meeting of the members, the following shall act as a board of directors: Farmers’ Mutual Fire (Name. ) (Address. ) 1, ‘ a 34 £te. Signed (by incorporators) : (Name.) (Address. ) 1. 2. 3. Ete. A FARMERS” MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. 21 BY-LAWS. IARMERS’ MUTUAL TIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. SECTION 1. Purpose. - The purpose or object of this company shall be to protect its members against property losses from fire cr from lightning. In the accomplishment of this purpose the company shall employ the following means: First, careful periodic inspection of the property insured, followed by advice and warnings against fire dangers, and, when necessary, by orders for the im- provement of bad risks; also, so far as possible, the general enlightenment of its members on matters of safe construction and proper maintenance and care of property in order to avoid danger of loss or damage. Second, the distribution among its members on the mutual-insurance plan of any loss caused by fire or lightning which may occur in spite of all reason- able precautions. Sec. 2. Property that may be insured. This company shail insure only farm or country property consisting of de- tached dwellings and their contents; farm buildings, including silos, and their eontents; farm machinery; vehicles; grain and hay in bin, stack, or loft; and live stock; and detached risks of similar hazard within the corporate limits of cities or villages, not less than 1600 feet distant from all other risks in places lacking adequate fire protection, and not less than 50 feet distant in places having efficient fire protection: Provided, That no property of any class not considered reasonably safe by the board of directors or their representatives shall be insured: And provided further, That old and dilapidated structures, buildings wherein fire is used and the flues are defective or dangerous, paint- ings, jewelry, money, or securities or other evidences of ownership or of credit, shall in no case be insured by this company. Sec. 3. Membership and meetings. (a) MeMBERSHIP.—The membership of this company shall comprise all per- sons who have property insured therein. J (b) ANNUAL MEETING.—The annual meeting of the company shall be held on the third Tuesday in January of each year, in the city of ————. The exact place and hour of meeting shall be designated by the executive committee here- inafter prGcvided for. Notice of such meeting shall be sent by the secretary to each member at least 15 days before the date of the meeting. (c) SPECIAL MEETINGS.—Special meetings of the company shall be called whenever the board of directors by a two-thirds vote shall so order, or when- eyer one-fourth of the members shall petition for such meeting. (d) VoTINe PRIvILEGE.--Hach member shall be entitled to one vote on all questions arising at the annual or special meetings of the company. No vote by proxy shall be allowed. (e) Quorum.—At all annual or special meetings of the company 15 members shall constitute a quorum, 22 BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Sec. 4. Directors. (a) ELEcTION AND TERM.—At the first annual meeting of the company nine directors shall be elected to succeed those designated as a temporary board in the articles of incorporation. The directors so chosen shall be divided by lot into three classes of three directors each. Those in class 1 shall hold office for one year; those in class 2 for two years; and those in class 8 for three years. At all subsequent annual meetings three directors shall be elected, to hold office for a term of three years, or until their successors are elected. (b) METHOD OF FILLING VACANCIES.—Vacancies in the board of directors may be filled temporarily by the remaining members of the board. Persons so chosen shall hold office until the next annual meeting, when such vacancies shall be filled by election for the unexpired term. (c) PowERS AND DuUTIES.—The board of directors shall have charge of all the business of the company. They shall hold meetings at such times and places as they deem necessary. They shall elect the officers of the company. They shall direct the levying of all assessments and shall appoint, or authorize the appointment of, all inspectors, adjusters, and other employees of the com- pany. They may divide the business territory of the company into districts and apportion among themselves the agency and supervision of these districts in such manner as will best serve the interests of the company. They shall designate depositories for the company’s funds. (d) QUORUM AT BOARD MEETING.—Five directors shall constitute a quorum at a board meeting. Sec. 5. Officers. (a) TITLES, ELECTION, AND TERM.—The officers of this association shall con- sist of a president, a vice president, a secretary, and a treasurer, and shall be elected by the board of directors from their own number: Provided, That the office of treasurer may, by a two-thirds vote of the board, be filled by any competent and trustworthy person without reference to other connection with the company. If the treasurer is not a director, he shall attend and be heard at the meetings of the board, but shall have no vote at such meetings. Hach officer, unless removed by a two-thirds vote of the board, shall hold ofiice for one year or until his successor has been elected and qualified. (b) DUTIES OF THE PRESIDENT.—The president shall preside over all meet- ings of the board of directors. He shall aiso call to order all meetings of the company and shall preside until a temporary chairman has been elected. He shall sign all policies, vouchers, or orders issued by the company, and shall perform such other duties as are usually performed by such officer, or as the board may assign to him. It shall also be his duty to see that the auditing committee hereinafter provided for does its work, and to fill by ap- pointment any vacancies in this committee that may oceur. (c) Duties OF THE VICE PRESIDENT.—The vice president, in addition to his duties as a member of the executive committee hereinafter provided for, shall perform all the duties of the president during the absence or inability of that officer. , (d) Durtres or THE sEcRETARY.—The secretary shall keep a complete and accurate record of all transactions of the company. He shall write and sign all policies, vouchers, or orders issued by the company. He shall, under the direction of the board of directors, have charge of the levying of all assess- ments and the collection of these assessments and any other money due the company, and shall turn over all money so collected to the treasurer. He shall make a complete and accurate report of the year’s business at each A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. 23 annual meeting of the company, and shall perform such other duties as the board may assign to him. (e) DUTIES OF THE TREASURER.—The treasurer shall, under the direction of the board of directors, have charge of all the funds of the company. He shall deposit said funds in the depository or depositories designated by the board, He shall pay all vouchers or orders properly attested by the secretary and the president and shall make a complete and accurate report of the finances of the company at each annual meeting. (f) Bonps.—The secretary and the treasurer, before entering upon their respective duties, shall each give bond in such sum and in such form as shail be required by the board. Sxc. 6. Committees. (a) HXEcUTIVE COMMITTEE.—The president, secretary, and vice president shall constitute an executive committee, which shall exercise such powers and per- form such duties aS may be delegated or imposed by the board of directors, or as in these by-laws provided. (b) AUDITING COMMITTEE.—The members shall at each annual meeting elect two competent persons, who, together with a third person selected by the board from their own number not later than December 31 of the current year, shall constitute an auditing committee. Said committee shall audit carefully all hooks and accounts for that year and report their findings at the next annual meeting. A special audit of such books and accounts by an expert accountant may be ordered by the members at any annual meeting or any regularly called special meeting. Such special audit may also be ordered at any time by the board of directors. Sec. 7. Salaries. (a) SALARIES OF DIRECTORS.—Hach director shall receive $2 per day and neces- sary expenses for such time as he actually spends in transacting the business of the company. The compensation for taking applications for insurance shall be equal to the policy fee provided for in section 12, and no per diem shall be allowed directors for such services. (b) SALARIES OF OFFICERS AND EMPLOYEES.—The officers and employees of the company Shall receive such reasonable compensation as the board of directors shall determine: Provided, That no officer who is also a director shall receive pay both as a director and as an officer for the same service. Sec. 8. Applications for insurance. (a) RECEIVING APPLICATIONS.—It shall be the duty of the directors, each in his own community, or in such district as the board shall designate, to receive and at their diseretion to solicit applications for insurance from all persons of good character and reputation who are the owners of property insurable under the rules and regulations of this company. All such applications must be ap- proved and signed by the director before being forwarded to the secretary and, unless otherwise ordered by the board, must be accompanied by the policy fee and initial premium hereinafter provided for. Before indicating his approval of an application the director shall satisfy himself by means of careful personal inspection and survey that the description of the property is correct and that the risk is in all respects a desirable one; or if serious defects are found he shali see that these are remedied before his approval is given. In case of less danger- ous defects that can not be readily remedied, or that the owner is unwilling to go to the expense of removing, the director shall, if it seem to him proper, give the application his conditional approval. accompanying the application with a full and accurate statement of his reasons for such conditional approval. ——EEE——- —— 94 BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (b) FINAL APPROVAL BY THE COMPANY.—An application reaching the secretary with the conditional approval of a director shall be passed upon by the executive committee before a policy is issued to the maker of such application. An applica- tion received with the full approval of a director may, unless the board other- wise orders, be passed upon by the secretary, who; in case no errors or incon- _ sistencies or other reasons for delay or for reference to the executive committee are discovered by him, shall promptly issue a policy on the basis of said applice- tion and forward such policy to the applicant. Sec. 9. Special inspection of property. At least once every three years the property insured shall be thoroughly inspected by a competent person employed by the company as special inspector. Said inspecter shall carefully examine the fiues of all dwellings or other pbuild- ings wherein fire is used, note the placing and the condition of stoves and fire- places and the disposition of ashes therefrom, inquire into the system or method of lighting buildings, examine all lightning rods, and ascertain if fences are properly grounded. He shall take careful notice of any and all defects or dangerous practices. He shall also note the presence or absence of means of combating a fire, such as readily available water supply, or chemical extin- guishers, and suitable ladders by means of which the top of the roof can be quickly reached. He shall advise with the insured concerning the general im- provement of the risks, and shall recommend specific measures for the removal of conditions materially increasing the hazard thereof. He shall report to the company, upon blanks furnished him for that purpose, the condition of each member’s risk or risks, together with the recommendations, if any, made by him for the removal of dangerous conditions. Refusal or neglect on the part of the insured to carry out specific recommendations of the inspector may, in the discretion of the board of directors or their representatives, be made cause for the cancellation of his policy or policies. Src. 10. General conditions of insurance. (a) TERM OF POLICy.—Except as hereinafter provided, all policies shall be written for a term of five years, and shall date from the date specified in the application, An application which has the full approval of a director shall cause the insurance applied for to be in full force and effect from the date specified therein, unless and until such application is rejected by the executive committee and notice thereof given to the applicant. An application with the conditional approyal of a director shall impose no liability upon the company until approved by the executive committee. (b) LIMITS TO THE AMOUNT OF INSURANCE.—The directors of this company shall exercise due care to prevent the insurance of any property for more than three-fourths or less than one-half of the cash value of the property: Provided, That until the company has $500,000 of insurance in force no single risk or group of property subject to one and the same fire shall be insured for an amount greater than $1,500, nor shall such maximum single risk exceed $2,000 until the company has $1,000,000 of insurance in force, nor shall it later exceed two-tenths of 1 per cent of the insurance in force: And provided further, That the insurance placed on live stock shall not exceed an amount per head of $200 on horses, $60 on cattle, $15 on hogs, and $10 on sheep. (c) LIABILITY OF THE CoMPANY.—This company shall in no case be liable for loss or damage from other cause than that of fire or lightning, nor for more than the actual cash value of the property at the time of the loss, nor shall it be liable for loss caused directly or indirectly by invasion, insurrec- tion, riot, or civil war, or by order of any civil’ authority. If a building or any part thereof fall, except as the result of fire or lightning, the insurance A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. 25 by this company on such building, or on its contents, shall immediately cease. (d) Lrasrniry oF THE INSURED.—The liability of the insured shall be limited to his pro rata share of the losses and expenses of the company, plus a reasonable contribution to the reserve. (e) JOINT OR CONCURRENT INSURANCE.—Property insured in this company shall not be insured in other companies except with the written consent of this company. Where joint insurance is permitted, this company shall be liable only for such part of the loss as the insurance carried in it represents of the total insurance carried on the property, whether the insurance carried in the other company or companies is valid or not. (f) INSURANCE TO BE SPECIFIC.—Buildings shall be separately described, and the value of each building and the amount of insurance thereon shall be stated in the application and in the peclicy. The value of each class of other property and the amount of insurance thereon shall be similarly stated. (g) FALSE STATEMENT BY APPLICANT.—A false description of the property by the applicant or any false statement by him, either in regard to ownership or relative to any other material fact, shall render the insurance on the property in question void. (h) SALE OF PROPERTY AND TRANSFER OF PoLIcy.—The sale of insured prop- erty Shall immediately suspend the insurance thereon, and unless application for transfer of the policy is received and accepted within 10 days after the date of sale, the policy shall be canceled. A policy may be transferred or assigned by obtaining the consent of the company and paying a fee of 50 cents. (i) REMOVAL OF PROPERTY AND CHANGES IN FORM OR USE.—The permanent removal of personal property, or any change or alteration in the form, occu- pancy, or use of a building affecting it as a risk by increasing the fire hazard, shall render the insurance thereon void, unless the consent of the company has been previously obtained for such removal or change. Sec. 11, Reduction and cancellation of insurance. (a) ACTION BY THE INSURED.—A member may at any time, upon written request to the secretary and the payment of all valid claims against him, have his policy canceled. He may also, upon showing cause, have the amount of his policy reduced. (b) AcTION BY THE cCoMPANY.—The company may, upon five days’ notice, for refusal to remedy dangerous conditions, or for any other cause- deemed sufficient by the board of directors or their representatives, cancel any policy or any part thereof. (c) RETURN OF UNEARNED PREMIUM OR ASSESSMENTS.—When cancellation takes place at the request of the insured the company shali return such part of the premium or last regular assessment as remains after the deduction of one-eighth thereof for each month or major fraction of a month that has elapsed on the current policy year: Provided, That should the pro rata cost of insurance for such period exceed the short-term rate above prescribed, the actual pro rata cost shall be deducted. When cancellation takes place at the initiative of the company, such part of the premium or regular assessment shall be returned as is proportional to the unexpired part of the current policy year. Src. 12. Fees and assessments. (a) PoLicy FEE AND INITIAL PREMIUM.—A policy fee of $1.50 and an initial premium to be fixed by the board shall be paid by the applicant, or satisfac- tory security for their payment shall be given by him, at the time of making application for insurance. For additional insurance a member shall be charged, 26 BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in addition to the initial premium, a policy fee of 75 cents when the additional insurance applied for is $500 or less, and $1.50 when the sum applied for is greater than $500. (b) REGULAR ASSESSMENT.—Not later than October 20 of each year the board of directors shall determine the rate of assessment for that year, basing such rate upon past experience as to the needs of the company. Said assessment shall be due on or before November 30 of the same year. Policles written on or after December 1 of the previous year and before June 1 of the current year shall be subject to the regular assessment of the current year. and to three succeeding regular annual assessments. Policies written on or after June 1 of the current year and before December 1 of the current year shall be exempt from the regular annual assessment of that year, but shall be subject to four succeeding regular annual assessments. (c) SPECIAL ASSESSMENTS.—Should unexpectedly heavy losses occur which can not be met by the funds on hand, supplemented at the discretion of the board of directors by a sum not exceeding two-tenths of 1 per cent (1%) of the in- surance in force, which may be borrowed, a special assessment shall be levied on all policies in force at the time of such loss or losses. (d) NovricE oF ASSESSMENT.—Not later than November 1 of each year the secretary shall, by letter directed to the post-office address given in the appli- cation, or to the latest address, if he has been informed of a change, notify the member of the amount due from him. He shall also include with this notice such information bearing upon the business of the company as may be considered of practical interest and value to the member. Should the member continue to neglect or refuse to pay such assessment for 10 days after the assessment has become due, the secretary shall send by registered mail a second notice, adding 25 cents to the assessment to cover the extra work and expense occasioned by the member’s neglect. Sec. 18. Suspension, forfeiture of membership, and reinstatement. (a) SUSPENSION OF PoLIcy.——The sending of the two notices described in paragraph (d) of section 12 shall constitute legal notice, and unless payment is received within 10 days after the sending of the second notice the policy in question shall stand suspended until the assessment is paid. The company shall not be liable for any loss suffered by the holder of such policy during the period of suspension, nor shall the later acceptance of the full assessment render the company liable for such loss. The part of the assessment corre- ponding to the cost of insurance for the period during which the policy was Suspended shall be considered a penalty for delinquency. (b) ForFEITURE OF MEMBERSHIP.—One month after the second notice, a policy still remaining suspended shall be canceled, and the holder shall be dropped from membership in the company. Such cancellation shall in no way release the former member from any debt already incurred to the company. (c) ReINsTATEMENT.—A person having forfeited his membership under the provisions of paragraphs (a) and (b) of this section may, at the discretion of the board of directors, upon proper application for reinstatement, the payment of past dues, if any, the acceptance of a new policy, and the payment of the regular policy fee and initial premium, have his membership restored. Sec. 14. Classification and rates. (a) CLASSIFICATION.—Property insured by this company shall be classified as follows, the contents of buildings taking the same classification as the ' Where the State law specifically provides the manner in which the insurance liability may be terminated and no suspension of a policy is provided for, direct cancellation without previous suspension may be necessary. A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. 27 building in which they are kept: Provided, That the board of directors shall have power to prescribe rules under which kinds of property not specifically hereinafter enumerated may be placed in one or the other of the following classes, or in additional classes created by the board. Class A.—Brick or stone dwellings with roof of slate, metal, or other non- combustible naaterial, when properly rodded against lightning. Class B.—Brick or stone dwellings with wooden roof, when properly rodded. Wooden dwellings with roof of noncombustible material, when properly rodded. Unrodded brick or stone dwellings with roof of noncombustible material. Class C._—Wooden dwellings with wooden roofs, when properly rodded. Unrodded brick or stone dwellings with wooden roof. Unrodded wooden dwellings with roof of noncombustible material. Granaries, corn cribs, and hog houses located not less than 100 feet from the dwelling, nor less than 50 feet from the barn, such buildings being properly rodded in all cases where the insurance applied for is $200 or more. Live stock not pastured during the summer months except where all fences are properly grounded. : Ciass D.—Barns properly rodded. Unrodded wooden dwellings with wooden roofs. Granaries, corn cribs, and hog houses located nearer the dwelling or the barn than as specified for Class C, or lacking the lightning protection required for that class. Live stock pastured during the summer months where fences are not properly grounded, Class H—Unrodded barns and other property deemed to be of similar hazard. (b) INITIAL PREMIUM RATES* AND BASIS OF ASSESSMENT.—The rates of initial premium for the various classes of property shall be determined by the board of directors, and shall be so adjusted as normally to cover one year’s cost of in- surance together with a reasonable contribution to the reserve. Assessments shall also be determined by the board, shali be based on the initial premium, and shall constitute a fixed percentage thereof, being equal to, greater, or less than 100 per cent, as the needs of the company may require. Suc. 15. Losses. (a) PREVENTION OF Loss.—It shall be the duty of the insured to cooperate with the company in making his property as safe from loss as may be reason- ably possible. In case of fire he shall use his best endeavors to save his property and to protect from further damage such parts thereof as are not destroyed. (b) Noricr oF Loss.—A member incurring a loss shall immediately notify the eompany, and the latter shall promptly provide for the adjustment of such loss. (c) STATEMENT OF LOSS.—It shall be the duty of the insured, when so re- quired by the company. to make a complete and sworn statement of the loss in- curred by him. Such statement shall include a complete list of the property ‘lost or damaged and the value thereof before the loss occurred, and shall in- dicate the time of the loss, the member’s knowledge or belief as to the cause of the loss, and if by fire, his knowledge or belief as to how such fire originated. (d) SETTLEMENT OF DISPUTED CLAIMS.—In case of disagreement between the adjuster or adjusters and the member sustaining the loss, the company and the insured shall each select one person, not an officer or director of the com- pany nor a relative of the insured, and the two so chosen shall select a third. These three shall constitute a board of arbitration, and their award shall be 1 Suggested rates for the classes of property above outlined may be found in the appli- eation form (p. 30) under “ Summary.” 28 BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, final and binding upon both parties. The members of the board of arbitration shall be compensated on the same basis as is provided for directors, and the costs of this board shall be borne equally by the company and the insured. (e) CoMPANY MAY REPLACE OR REBUILD.—The company reserves the right to repair, rebuild, or replace any building or other property damaged or de- stroyed: Provided, That such repaired, rebuilt, or replaced property shall be of 2 value equal to that of the insured property immediately before the loss oc- surred. (f) PAYMENT OF LOSSES. of adjustment. Losses shall be paid within 60 days after the date Src. 16. Reserve. It shall be a part of the working plan of this company to build up and to have on hand a reserve fund of three-tenihs of 1 per cent (3/10%) of the in- surance in force. Sec. 17. Amendments. The by-laws of this company may be amended by a three-fifths yote of the members present at any annual meeting or any regularly called special meet- ing (a quorum being present), provided notice of the intended amendment has been given in writing to the secretary in time to be included with the notice of such meeting, or provided the submission of such amendment was proposed and approved by a majority vote at the previous annual meeting. It is specifi- cally provided and agreed that any amendment so passed shall immediately upon its passage affect and become a part of all outstanding policies, as well as of those issued after such amendment is made. i The provision in regard to the force of the action of the arbitration board, though in general use by existing companies, may in some States have to be omitted because of conflict with State laws. - A FARMERS” MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. 29 = Form for outside of application: Nana oe APPLICATION for Insurance in the —_—. Farmers’ Mutua Fire Insurance ComMPANy of made by Address. Amount of insurance Policy fee Tnitial premium Total Agent’s approval: This application has my approval. Full or conditional. Signed Norer.—lIf your approval is conditional, be sure to give your reasons in a letter to accompany the application. Officially accepted and ordered led 1 ahr Seek ae rejected returned 80 BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - Form for application. APPLICATION. I, the undersigned, owner of the property hereinafter enumerated and described, located on the eae 1 of the ...:.. 4 of section .... of ...... township, ...... County, in the State of ...... , hereby apply ta Te Farmers’ Mutual Fire Insurance Company for insurance on said property in the respec- tive sums indicated, said insurance to be in effect from the ...... aay (0! (7-2... , 191.., at noon, to the ssesc. day of ...... , 192.., at noon. as Tnsur- Value. ar Class. Dwelling built of ...... WAU. Sse TOOL TAM eee eg BeaLT, LOCC ee mee eee eee ete eee eee fouseholdigoodsanid'welling:.< | 2. 5.5.2 .2- saeco - « - ss sie eee eine eee | erate ae ee | eee ele ae iWearing/apparelin dwelling... . 2 s/21c<...qjesjajslemomeinilsisis + «'+ os cist ee seine ee se ree | ean Se eet espe PYOVISlONSI TE GWellin elon. - sem aes seer ls «a= Eee eee - = = =e ee eee | Se eee eters eee Musical instruments inid welling) as foHOws:----aseseeee- - - 124 -e ees see er Ree en eee eens peers Summer kitchen}... ft. by .-..ft., .... £. poster ims serepair.. 0250 sen seo hn. ie eign emmeseein eu et Wood hotse 2.2.2. by 2. tt., ..~. ft. posts, im Sere pair....6 29s Cee eae eee eee Granery built of .....- swith 225055: roof,in...... pepair; rodded? ..: :caneee loo ce ete eee Contents of above-mentioned granary . - ....)--= -ceeteerne:. - «s/h > Sepp eRe Dee ne Eee nero e ee neers seman Cornerib..... ft. by... ik., -. st. posta, Amn. soe Repoet. —. SERA RARE Coa o Rema eiske ace os Silo with contents, diameter ....ft., height ....ft.,in -..... repair: 3 See ee eee eal eee DENG See See Bee See hatece Ube TS ota 2 oe ee ee > 3 va eee fagteaee a ej earases pa Further descriptions. SUMMARY. Dwelling—main part, .... ft. by .... ft., ....ft. posts, .... stories, built hs Poems ; with wing or attachment .... ft. by .... ft., .... ft. posts, -built in ...... ; finished rooms ...., unfinished rooms ....; foundation | Tnsur- Le ....--; number of chimneys ....; material ...... , resting how? ._.... ; | ance by |/ Class | Initial are stove pipes properly insulated where passing through partitions or | Jags, and rate. |premium. ceilings? ...... ; disposition of ashes ...... ; lighting system ...... : occupied by ---b.-. = satay Granary—main part, ...-ft. by .... ft., .... ft. posts, built in ...... 5 A 15 with attachment or lean-to .... ft. by .... ft., .... ft. posts, used for |°°~-=77">" ay ON) cae Barn—main part, te. by 1122 ty VV posts, Built in 177220) with [---------- Cee attachment or lean-to .... ft. by ....ft., .... ft. posts, used for ........ |7°°-""""7- lips Ceaearyn bes cece freteenseee| Motaley serene <= I hereby accept and subscribe to the articles of incorporation and the by-laws of the Farmers’ Mutual Fire Insurance Company, and in consideration of the above-stipulated insurance bind myself my heirs and assigns, to pay my pro rata share of all losses and legitimate expenses incurred by sai company while said insurance remains in foree. I also affirm that the valuations, statements, and descriptions given in this application, are to the best of my knowledge and belief, correct. Dated this ...... day of ...... i (:) | ie) EPR 8 52 so 4e sc qoUS sso dsoRaae Address, A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY, oa Form for diagram of farmstead, to go on application: DIAGRAM OF THE FARMSTEAD. Assuming the dwelling to be located at the point so labeled, indicate the location of the other buildings on the place in a Similar manner, giving the distance from the dwelling and from each other. Buildings not insured, if any, Should be indicated by means of a. cross over the square, thus: N. W. Oo K. Dwelling. S. 32 BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Form for outside of policy: No. ——. POLICY Issued by the Farmers’ Murua Firr Insurance Company of pels Yo) Naa ara eee aS 2 Sed ee Ofaee wR RRR 1 2 Amount of insurance, Snes sles Policy fee, $e Initial premiums, oa Total, oye, <2 WITS = Se teers SES eee | eae Pied t° Ye: Application taken by A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY. oe Form for policy: FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY x LOCATED AT In consideration of the agreement contained in the application and of ...._. dollars ($...... ), duly re- ceived, does insure ..........--.--- Ole eee , Subject to the provisions of its by-laws, for a term of ...... Name of insured. Address. years, from the ...... Gayioiee eas , 191.., at noon, to the ...... dayiot eye. , 192_., at noon, against ail direct loss or damage by fire or lightning, except as in said by-laws provided, to the hereinafter-described Property, located on the ...... #4 of the ...-.. % of section ...... ODE. <3 township, ...-.-. county, State Ofertas Insur- Value. Brae Class. Dryeluinodeschibediandundicated injapplicahign.- 2. accesses esac eae seers) soe eeeleece esse celhen eee FENCES TONLE rexnyaya teh stalh aby ey N aay se AEN Sr eae 1 eR ac estes ae en aa ee La Mueaniicran panclamidyelbing ses seen iiss Maem 29 enero ae bal Maia e An peu ETON BSIO LORE CWC LUITA Sees meets ec oct eestor ce cots oie sini =o 5 cP eR EE ESS Bieler es oiers Sees telco cee Oh oes Musical instruments in dwelling, ds follows: ......--..-..-------------- Sa eat ateaa Gly nineties. eeae Summer kitchen, described and indicated in application.......-...2.2.2...... Sr oe Woodhouse, described and indicated in application...........---.....-.----.|......----|..--------|..---- Granary, described and indicated in application....2- 22202). 2 lel rooms Cantontsousbove-mMentioned srananyae ses asst. s.- + sae nlee emesis eee sere fing ease NEE See ee Corncrib, described and indicated in application..............0002.0000000000[loilicli flit. Contents of above-mentioned cornerib.........-...-.----+--- aE Ry aN ch i oil (Be LO a ees Hog house, described and indicated in application. .----2 2222222 22st flee ieee eee elee eee INTEC nay SGC She seecide ce Sob Ue ROU BD CHE Soe eS 6 CURB ERE EES OCOHC Son eC OC mer Een Maren erry Paes metaenal een er PARMPIMpeMnVentsianGrbOOlsees ee - eee ewe... 2 I ee See a ee EM heap ale rine \WEioims,, Ceiiaees, Giael Mens. oes Sea oe coe. ChaBE eee ecur - vec seeooeueboes Hollsacneocdeselladcqsseecc|ooscnc TENG OS UOC! TANI MTU BGO OS eo ae le ak oe ed ed I ER se pe ee tener a SL lmnop een CE yrEl@, THUAN RSA Sn SO SES Oe era eee es oe ee eam mR 8 UPR Be eS ee eva Keer gers Ey Nell essere Barn, described and indicated in application .....................-------..-| Hay and grain in above-mentioned barn......._...........-.---------------- Silo with contents, described and indicated in application...............-.... [esse ieee Bilas ae ll pa SUMMARY. Insur- Initial Class ance by * pre- class. |20¢zate.| minum LTR Pa A Pe) ial nea eee BN cys ates Bio OQ gle ae sepa = ol LAS ee ee Ce aon eee een, ses Sis crcee ets DeeeNBSa eee coe ge Dra aeoae Se ie AO MI Mesos ar oe Bes ay MOtAISHs ea sea And said company promises and agrees to indemnify the insured against loss or damage from the above mentioned causes, in the amounts above Specified, not exceeding a totalsum of $ ...... , Nor in any case exceeding the cash value of the property immediately before the loss or damage occurred. In witness whereof the Farmers’ Mutual Fire Insurance Company has executed and attested this policy on this -..... day of ...... 9 giles ce Secretary. 34 BULLETIN 530, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Form for assignment, to go on policy: Norice.—No assignment of this policy shall be valid until approved by the company. ASSIGNMENT. For value received, I hereby transfer, assign, and set over unto AAG ewe _ tod assigns all my rights, title, and interest in this Policy of In- surance, and all benefit and advantage to be derived therefrom. Witnessimy hand this === day, of 2ee=: __, Lutes Approved at —~-__-. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Vv BULLETIN No. 531 Y Contribution from the Bureau of Piant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER May 28, 1917 RHIZOPUS ROT OF STRAWBERRIES IN TRANSIT. By Nein EB. Stevens, Pathologist, and R. B. Wiicox, Scientific Assistant, Fruit-Disease Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. IMtLOMUCHON sno. ce ss sede reese cso + sees 1 | Present shipping practices................--- 11 Causes of decay in transit.....--......-.---- 2 | Sources of infection by Rhizopus nigricans. - 13 Conditions of transportation .....-..--.- 2 infechonmnetertield ee = sae 13 Condition of fruit..----.-.-..----------- 2 Unsanitary conditions usually prevailing BUD - ~~ --=--- 22 0c teen enn meen en een nos 4 in the packing house...............--. 14 Rhizopus HSE oe Hobe ea aad =

-. - «<.\s 255 ateeeee sce aee tenes. = See ene eee Eee 1,153 35 Washed in dirty water used inthe packing house... ........--.----s--ee----------- 1, 067 17 The generally low average of sound fruit was due to the length of time the berries had been kept at room temperature after reach- ing their destination. In northern markets, however, one frequently finds berries which contain no higher proportion of sound fruit. The results given in Table II indicated that the commercial method of washing berries was injurious to their shipping qualities and also that this injury would be largely overcome by the use of clean water. The frequent changing of water in the tub usually would not be inconvenient in Florida, for wells and pumps often are located at or near the packing houses. DRYING BERRIES AFTER WASHING. As already mentioned, a few growers make a practice of packing their fruit wet, though most of them expose it to the air, either in the shade of the packing house or, more frequently, in the sun, until most of the water has evaporated from the surfaces of the berries. Experiments were undertaken to determine the relative effects of these different methods from the standpoint of inhibiting the growth of Rhizopus in the fruit. When berries are dried they are spread upon cloth-covered frames or packing tables. These cloth covers usually are not renewed during a shipping season. Often they are soaked with juice from the strawberries, and it was suspected that they might serve as carriers of infection to fruit spread upon them. Numerous careful experiments for the determination of this point, however, gave RHIZOPUS ROT OF STRAWBERRIES IN TRANSIT. V7. negative results, indicating that any increase of infection from this source is relatively unimportant. In investigating the effect of drying the fruit after washing, a number of experimental shipments were made, the fruit being han- dled in the same manner as in the washing experiment already de- scribed except that part of the berries in each shipment were packed wet, while the remainder were partially dried, usually by exposure to direct sunlight for a few minutes. The results were conclusively in favor of packing the fruit wet. Taking the average of,all these experiments, it was found that drying berries washed in clean water had reduced the proportion of sound fruit 36 per cent. Among those washed in dirty water the reduction caused by drying was even greater—43 per cent.1 Table III summarizes the results of all ex- periments on drying the berries after washing. TasBLE III.—lHffect of drying strawberries after washing. ( * Packed without drying. Packed after drying. Treatment of fruit, if any. Number Sound Number Sound of berries after of berries after ‘| arrival. i ‘| arrival. Per cent. Per cent. INGE WHSOGG!. oS ELA SCUE AE SORES = SURAMER = JPS UE Me ate IV ay eee 1,939 SO ee eee ee ese. ! Wiashedsinicleanmwatersns2 sss oc. . east! Bie eee 2, 886 48 2, 881 30 Washed in water used in the packing house.........---...----- 650 33 1, 144 19 In no case were these results reversed, though they differed in degree in the various shipments. These variations were correlated with differences in temperature when the berries were packed, the com- parative benefit of wet packing being greater in those: shipments pre- pared on very warm days than in those packed during cool, cloudy weather. Drying the fruit, even in the shade, proved injurious, though less so than exposure to direct sunlight. _ The laboratory experiments already cited indicate that the rate of growth of Rhizopus nigricans increases very rapidly with the rise of temperature above 10° C. (50° F.). When infected berries are held for a few hours at a relatively high temperature, for instance, 30° C. 1 Smith and Goodman, of the Department of Agriculture of British Columbia, have conducted experiments upon the fanning of strawberries before shipment. They report , (Winslow, R. M. Report of horticultural branch, 1914. In 8th/9th Rpts. Dept. Agr. [Brit. Col.], 1913/14, p. 84. 1915.) that berries dried for an hour in a strong cur- rent of air from an electric fan carry to market in better condition than those shipped even slightly wet. Though not so mentioned in their report, this operation would have the effect of lowering the temperature of the berries quickly and considerably by increas- ing the rate of evaporation of the water from their surfaces. It would thus be, in effect, a precooling process, allowing the berries to be placed in the car at a relatively low temperature if loaded at once; if, after fanning, however, the fruit were hauled several miles to the station during hot weather, much of the benefit of rapid drying would be lost. 18 BULLETIN 531, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (86° F.), the fungus develops so rapidly in their tissues as to cause them to collapse. The growth of the fungus may be checked by lowering the temperature, but with ordinary refrigeration growth will not entirely cease, and it may continue sufficiently to cause the berries to soften in transit; it will in any case resume rapid develop- ment whenever the temperature is again raised, as when the berries reach their point of destination. If infection has occurred, a dif- ference of a few degrees in the temperature of the berries, main- tained for several hours, will make a decided difference in the length of time before rot becomes apparent. This accounts for the harmful effects of drying the berries. Dry berries remain at air temperature until placed in iced cars or other refrigerated containers, usually a period of several hours. Dur- ing part of this time the crates are often exposed to the sun or covered with a dark cloth. When berries are immersed for a few seconds in water their temperature is lowered somewhat. Subsequent evapora- tion from their surfaces results in still further cooling. If they are packed immediately after washing, evaporation continues slowly and exerts a cooling effect for. several hours, usually until the berries are placed under refrigeration. When berries are being loaded into cars in the afternoon, several hours after picking, the difference in tem- perature between unwashed fruit and that packed wet can be readily felt with the hand. When, after washing, the berries are dried for a few minutes in the shade, the water evaporates before packing, and they lose the continued cooling effect of prolonged evaporation. If they are exposed to direct sunlight there is the added disadvantage of a further rise in temperature. The beneficial effect of packing the ber- ries wet is greatest, of course, when the temperature of the air is highest. Professional packers claim that berries are softened by washing and must be handled with great care to avoid bruising if packed while wet. This probably is true, but it is more than compensated for by the cooling of the fruit. Exposure to sunlight, unless very brief, has the further undesirable effect of giving the berries a dull appearance. Heating unwashed ber- ries by exposure to the sun increases rot, but not so markedly as with washed berries. This is illustrated by an ee shipment pre- pared at Lakeland, Fla., on the morning of March 22, 1916, a clear, warm day. Sound berries of the Mary variety were pac After’ treatment they were packed by a professional packer, carried to the railroad station at noon, and shipped to Washington in a ventilated crate without refrigeration. They were three days in transit. Their condition on arrival is shown in Table LV. RHIZOPUS ROT OF STRAWBERRIES IN TRANSIT. 19 Taste 1V.—/ffect of drying or heating strawberries. Unwashed fruit. Washed fruit. Treatment of fruit, if any. Number | Sound | Number | Sound of ber- after of ber- after Ties. arrival. ries. arrival. Per cent. Per cent. Packed without drying OP IN RNNMO 3o eco copeceensee se ef 396 72 352 69 Exposed to air (21° C., 70° F.) in shade of packing house . nM 430 ee Bee eerie anna oes Exposed to sunlight (30° Cio HOP MI) eb esenondos nougsaseouans 412 56 416 47 Spread on table covered with black cloth and placed in sun; PETER EALMTO SO ricen (Oia wirs se 4”. ee ee eS eye a elevate 473 Paid Nek i ee a tl aL Observations at points of shipment and destination show that car lots of berries picked and shipped on very warm days under similar conditions of transit do not arrive at northern markets in such good condition as those shipped during cooler weather. This further illus- trates the fact that the temperature of the berries from the time they are picked until placed under refrigeration influences their shipping qualities. A final series of experiments was undertaken to eubstantiate further the previous results in regard to the effect of washing fruit in clean water and drying before packing. In this series, as before, shipments were made in small iced containers, commercial refrigerators, and in ventilated crates without refrigeration. Table V summarizes the re- sults of these shipments. They agree with the former experiments in showing the harmful effects of drying and emphasize the benefit de- rived from packing the fruit wet, for berries treated in this manner arrived at their destination in even better condition than those not washed. TABLE V.—Hffect of washing strawberrics in clean water and of subsequent drying. Number} Sound Treatment offruit, if any. of ber- after ries. arrival. # —| Per cent. DIG, WHEBLORG ec Be ce GG ae SERED 3 CASE ee oe See NE ane ee ee 3, 027 46 Washed in clean water and DACkeG weirs kee cane. eee oo bem sae cps eee ee 2, 809 51 Washed in clean water and dried before packing............-.----.------------------ 2, 826 32 SUMMARY. The conclusions given here are drawn chiefly from field studies and experiments made in Florida and Washington in the winter and spring of 1916 and in Louisiana and Chicago in 1917. The deterioration of strawberries in transit may be due to the con- dition of the berries at the time of shipment or to inadequate trans- 20 BULLETIN 531, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. portation or refrigeration facilities, but it is often induced by fungi, chiefly Rhizopus nigricans. Rhizopus causes the softening and rapid collapse cf strawberries, accompanied by the escape of much juice. Berries though bearing the spores of Rhizopus when shipped may still, with proper handling and refrigeration in transit, reach the market in good condition. The fungus is not able to penetrate un- injured epider mis, but enters readily through wounds in either ma- ture or green berries. ieapus has not been found of primary iiportincs as a cause of field rot, but usually develops in berries at some time after they are picked. The humidity of the air has no perceptible influence upon the rate at which Rhizopus nigricans rots strawberries. The growth of Rhizopus nigricans is very slow at 10° C. (50° F.) or below, but increases rapidly with the rise of temperature above that point. Therefore the proper cooling and refrigeration of the berries from the time they are picked until marketed will reduce the losses from this rot. | Since the diversity of shipping practices does not always permit such complete refrigeration, the reduction of infection by means of sanitation and careful handling is important. The conditions at the packing houses are frequently unsanitary, affording favorable opportunities for the growth of Rhizopus, and bruising the fruit during handling allows infection to take place. The packing houses and tables should be kept clean. Injury to the fruit should be avoided by care in handling, or preferably, by the elimination of all unnecessary handling. Washing berries in water in which dirt has accumulated injures their shipping qualities. The temperature of the berries during the time between picking and shipping has an important influence upon the later development of rot. Drying washed berries, especially by exposure to sunlight, in- creases decay, because the subsequent exposure of the dry berries to prevailing high air temperatures favors the development of Rhi- zopus within their tissues. The higher shipping quality of fruit packed wet seems to be due to the facts that the temperature of the fruit is lowered by washing in cold water and that by prolonged evaporation the berries are kept cool for a considerable time, during which they may be hauled to the station and placed under refrig- eration. (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (14) (15) LITERATURE CITED. AMES, ADELINE. , 1915. The temperature relations of some fungi causing storage rots. In Phytopathology,.v. 5, no. 1, p. 11-19. BEHRENS, JOHANNES. 1898. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Obstfaulnis. Jn Centbl. Bakt. [ete.], Abt. 2, Bd. 4, No. 12, p. 515-516. HARLE, I. S. °1901. Development of the trucking interests. In U. S. Dept. Agr. Year- book, 1900, p. 487-452. HWARLE, PARKER. : 1882. [Discussion upon strawberries.] Jn Trans. Ill. State Hort. Soc., n. s., v. 15, 1881, p. 109-110. EHRENBERG, C. G. 1820. De Mycetogenesi. In Nova Acta Phys. Med. Acad. Caes. Leop. Carol. Nat. Cur., t. 10, p. 161-221, pl. 10-15. Gorr, E. S. 1896. Miscellaneous horticultural work. Jn Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. 13th Ann. Rpt. [1895]/96, p. 233-242. HALSTED, B. D. 1892. Some-fungous diseases of the quince fruit. N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 91, 16 p., 12 fig. 5 Hanzawa, J. 1914. Studien tiber einige Rhizopus-Arten. Jn Mycol. Centbl., Bd. 5, Heft 5, p. 230-246, 12 fig.; Heft 6, p. 257-281. HAWKINS, Lon A. 1916. The disease of potatoes known as “leak.” In Jour. Agr. Re- search, v. 6, no. 17, p. 627-639, 1 fig., pl. 90. Literature cited, p. 639. Hotcomes, T. A. BH. 1870. Report of the vice-president of the 18th district. Jn Trans. Il. State Hort. Soc., n. s., v. 38, 1869, p. 20-22. OrTON, W. A. 1909. Decay of potatoes due to Rhizopus nigricans. (Abstract.) In Science, n. s., v. 29, no. 753, p. 916. STEVENS, F. L. 1914. a30 > ere w k wl 4 Use Z ro) ° Bry ot etna e*oro erie RRS Sars 74 iu x Bit Ais 7) oo8 es a a ae | I se 5,—Concrete stored in air. 0000 0.0001 00% 000 0004 wo 2 s a s 8 o 6 NOM IVYLNOD. LIND Fic. somewhat greater in the 1:2 than in the 1:3 mortar. The shrinkage of air-cured 1:3 mortar which has been allowed to dry out is approximately 0.078 per cent at the . age of 6 months, and that of 1:2 mortar at the same period is 0.085 per cent, which figures are quite like those of other in- vestigators. It will be noted that both the 1:2 and 1:3 mortars haye expanded when immersed in water, and at 6 months the values for the respective mortars are 0.015 per cent for 1:3 and 0.025 per cent for, lt. CONCRETE STORED IN AIR. On figure 5 is shown the behavior of conerete when it is allowed to dry out immediately after molding. The speci- mens are 1:2:4 and 1:3:6 mixtures of very wet and of very dry consistencies. It is seen that contraction takes place almost immediately, due to drying out of the water, and at the age of 1 week the approximate contraction is from 0.01 to 0.03 per cent, or from 0.0001 to 0.0005 inch per inch of length. If the modulus of elasticity of concrete is assumed to be 2,000,000 pounds per square inch in ten- sion, the tensile stress that would be de-- veloped by a contraction of only 0.0001 inch per inch of length would be 2007 pounds per square inch. Unless free con- traction of the concrete. were provided some of this stress would be developed and cracking surely would result, as the tensile strength of the concrete then would be exceeded. These curves repre- sent merely the contraction due to change in moisture, and all temperature effects are eliminated. 1:2:4 AND 1:3:6 CONCRETE, ALTER- NATELY WET AND DRY. The curves on figure 6 show very clearly the effect of changes in moisture content on the change in length of conerete. The specimens were mixed in different pro- portions and consistencies, and all were kept wet for 15 days after pouring the iThe ‘ flow” effect of concrete probably will decrease this figure. This is mentioned later. S - 80045°4 EXPANSION CONTRACTION UNIT © 3 MORTAR SPECIMEN ae thy A a a 3 8 2 AGE IN DAYS g 2 e 8 ie 2 , = WATER CURED T T mi © abo 4 |_| Teme “4 aa fe | le i all —|—|— ll : = == aig I 1 BIE tt a] 4 + > Pales i i = = + x a a | eo a es J 80045°—17—Bull. 532. (To face page 6.) No. 1. Fic. 4—1;2 and 1:3 mortar, stored in air and also in water. EXPANSION UNIT CONTRACTION SPECIMEN E WHERE SPECIMENS WERE IMMERSED IN WATER. tely wet and dry. 80045°—17— EXPANSION UNIT CONTRACTION © SPECIMEN NO. 236, 12:4 VERY WET MIX. 248, 1:3:6 ” v 2 27,7 ” DRY .# 278, 1:2:4 MEDIUM ” 0.0003) 0.0004 “| Bosc ce = eal Bb eae ea CPE anos ale eile ct lca a LARGE CIRCLES DENOTE WHERE SPECIMENS WERE IMMERSED IN WATER. Wie. 6.—Dxpansion and contraction of 1;2:4 and 1;3:6 concrete alternately wet and dry. 80045°—17—Bull. 532. (Tofacepage6.) No. 2. EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF CONCRETE. v4 eoncrete. This was done by covering them with burlap and keeping the bur- lap wet constantly. As soon as the concrete had become sufficiently hard, or in most instances not over two days after pouring, the forms were removed and initial readings of the Specimens were made. Referring to the curves, which are plotted with age in days as abscissas and with unit expansions and contractions as ordinates, note that during the first 15 days when the specimens were kept wet there was a continuous expansion, the maximum’ amounting to about 0.0001 inch, or 0.01 per cent. At the end of 15 days the specimens were permitted to begin drying out, and the effect of this drying is seen on the curve, which drops, or shows contraction, immediately. The specimens continued to contract for a period of practically one year, when the maximum contraction was about 0.0006 inch, or 0.06 per cent. After the specimens were more than a year old (460 days and 540 days) they again were kept continually moist and immediately started to expand, but did not regain their former length. The amount of expansion was roughly 0.0004 inch per inch of length, or about 0.0002 inch short of their original length. Note that during the first few days after reimmersion these specimens expanded only from 0.0001 to 0.0002 inch per inch of length and their subsequent expansion was slow, requiring several months to reach the maximum. ‘The above speci- mens were dried in the rather dry and warm atmosphere of the laboratory, and therefore were almost as dry as it was possible to make them. It will be noticed that there is no great difference in the contraction and expansion of the different mixtures tested, whether they were 1:2:4 or 1:3:6, very wet or very dry. Comparing figure 5 with figure 6, it will be noted that the ultimate contraction is about the same whether or not the concrete was subjected to an initial period of wetting. Let it be supposed that the ends of a concrete construction are immovable and that it is subjected to extremely dry conditions, so that it will shrink 0.0006 inch per inch of length. Then, if a modulus of elasticity of 3,000,000 pounds per square inch is accepted as correct, the tensile stress produced will be 3,000,000 X 0.0006=1800 vounds per square inch. Obviously, under such con- ditions as these, concrete must crack, since a stress, of only 200 pounds per square inch is not far from the maximum tensile strength of concrete. There are, however, very few concrete structures that are subjected to’ the degree of drying out suffered by the specimens reported, and the results are given merely to show what can and does happen to concrete under conditions favorable to its thorough drying. These curves show quantitatively what occurs in a concrete pavement just after it is laid and demonstrate the efficacy of the practice of keeping the concrete wet for a short period after pouring. The curves show that concrete remains expanded as long as it is wet and contracts as soon as it begins to dry out, with the consequent tendency to form cracks. In a concrete pavement, where there is always some restraint due to friction at the base, any tendency toward shrinkage will be resisted, and tension will be developed. In the earlier stages of hardening the tensile strength of concrete is very low, and consequently a very minute shrinkage may produce cracking, irrespective of the presence of expansion joints. A consideration of the excessive shrinkage of concrete due to complete drying out, with a resulting hazard of overstress in tension, shows the great necessity for maintaining concrete structures in a moist condition for a few weeks after pouring. By this’ practice it is seen that they may be kept expanded, and, therefore, under small compressive stress. When they do dry 8 BULLETIN 532, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. out, after several weeks, they shrink and develop tension, but they are then somewhat fortified by their maturity and are better able to resist the tensile 029 _ Stresses developed. The PLT TE TE TEAL [J penctice of xeeping con- iS he eS ee ee iP We erete wet must be em- phasized from this standpoint, as well as ber of cracks that form in concrete pavements. 1:2:4 AND 1:3:6 CON- tL | a7) anne CRETE; LONG INITIAL WETTING. a ie eae 3 i from the fact that by ors H so doing a more com- TAPP tee sarin th SCE 00¢ | of cement is effected and ETP] tne streneen merase ney. aa (5a spel elena somewhat thereby. The 097 Ha)} practice of subjecting ea Lie eae Se the concrete to an ini- rey hee ed age] GaSe tial period of wetting nw (08P | ean not wholly prevent 3 ee in feo ee cracking, but it does aid Ee naen” bed Ea a in decreasing the num- Ks Brae a C9) a On figure 7 are shown > 00¢ 7 U/ i Bee Ley e/a 082 be expansion and contrac- eu. Sb A od Ea iat Se iia a/c © Oz wag wet and very dry con- HC AMOR Se | fs Apes ee mens differ from the 00z Hy Wa others in that they eee Ly FL | TE | | | were sept in water tor et Fi? Pies, H | months, then removed > pf le A Vat Ree Se He ee ee. u — bi ozI =f] [ laboratory. Note that bo CAPE concrete unter om S pol th fie Ree be paleeae: stantly moist conditions $e il maintains almost con- “ 2. M so o8 UW) . . ° 2080 CO © 6 8) 09 iF is moist, and that the 2aen i ; joe alae laa amount equals approxi- t¢ Lt Ov . S 6 z % say sa ae ie mately 0.0001 inch, or Bet eae et 0.01 per cent. Theoreti- Z ie 2 " &a fat a Baedon cally, when the ends of Site s 3 sg ie 8 3 $s $ 8 8 8 a concrete structure are a $. 3,3. 88.8.8. 8 8 8 8.2 restrained irom ove NOISNvdx3 NOILIvaLNO? LINA ment, this would pro- duce a compressive stress of 3,000,000 pounds per square inch, multiplied by 0.0001 inch, or 300 pounds per square inch, provided stresses can be figured in this. EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF CONCRETE. 9 way and are subjected to no other influences. Recent researches * have shown that under constant stress concrete exhibits a slow yielding, or “ flow,” making the deformation produced by constant stress very much greater than that produced by a static stress of short duration. In the curves on figure 7 it is seen, again, that there is very little difference between the contraction and expansion of 1:2:4 and1:5:6 concrete, whether wet or dry. Ap- parently there is not enough dif- ference in the degree of richness of the mixture to cause a differ- ence in the contraction and expan- sion of concrete. The maximum contraction obtained in this set of experiments was about 0.0008 inch per inch of length. GRAVEL CONCRETE, STORED OUT OF DOORS. 557, 1:2:4 gravel concrete 85 per On figure 8 is shown the effect of exposure to the atmosphere of a specimen made of 1:2:4 gravel concrete. This specimen was stored in a vertical position out of doors at a place where it was in shade for perhaps three or four hours every day. No effort was made to protect it from rain or sun. This curve, like the preced- ing ones, simply shows the effect of moisture, all temperature effects having been eliminated. It is seen that there has been but very little change in the length of the con- erete due to moisture changes in the specimen. This seems reason- able to expect ina specimen cured out of doors, as the alternate wet- ting and drying to which it was subjected, due to changes in the weather, occurred with such fre- quency that there was little chance for moisture changes to be effec- tive, and it has been pointed out already that large changes in Specimen No. cent cement, 15 per cent hydrated lime. IN BATS AGE ee ee ee Nope Mi) eT pod ZI) Fic. 8.—Specimen No. 556, 1: 2:4 gravel concrete cured outdoors. S s 3 8 S$ Cala ar length, due to moisture changes, MeCN MOM MOTE: Oye Kore, 216 are apt to be slow and progressive, SE ONS OE ERT ba Ithough ch f 0.0001 t oe hex NOISNVd x3 NOLMSVALNOS LING ime CO OUSH Changes) hun 0 0.0002 inch per inch of length may occur in the course of a few days. The influence of moisture on this specimen cured out of doors probably is somewhat typical of the behavior of concrete in roads that have a well-drained subbase. 1“ Wow of Concrete under Sustained Loads,” by E. B. Smith, Proceedings of American Concrete Institute, 1916. 80045°—17—Bull. 582——2 10 BULLETIN 532, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, GRAVEL CONCRETE WITH HYDRATED LIME, STORED IN AIR. Curve 557 on figure 8 shows the contraction of a 1:2:4 gravel concrete specimen in which 15 per cent of hydrated lime was substituted for cement. This specimen was cured indoors and allowed to dry out immediately after molding. Here again, as in the case of the ordi- nary concrete specimens, we have a progressive eontraction, the maximum amount being about . 002 0.00045 inch. This is somewhat less than in the specimen untreated with hydrated lime. As but one specimen was measured, no claim can be made that the hydrated lime aided in decreasing the contraction. TAR-COATED SPECIMEN. It is reasonable to expect that any application of more or less waterproof material to the sur- face of the concrete will greatly retard the ab- OS! sorption of moisture, or, if the concrete be already wet, will prevent it from drying out rapidly. In order to determine the effect of such a coating on the change in length of con- crete, a mixture of 1:2:4 concrete, having a crushed gneiss aggregate, was prepared, and measurements were started two days after pouring. It was then immersed in water and the measurements continued. At the end of 13 days the specimen was removed from water and, after surface drying for one day, a hot applica- tion of vertical retort tar was made. Note that after 13 days’ expansion continued slightly, al- though the specimen had been removed from the water and coated with tar, while at the end of about 80 days this expansion ceased and a slight contraction began. However, the speci- men was still somewhat expanded up to the end of 150 days, after which it contracted very slowly. The tar coating evidently served to re- tain the moisture in the concrete for a con- siderable length of time and thus kept it ex- panded. Fic. 9.—Tar coated specimen. IN DAYS ee en 001 AGE REINFORCED CONCRETE SPECIMENS. CIMEN REMOVED FROM WATER AND COATED WITH TAR AFTER SURFACE DRYING FOR ONE DAY. Four specimens were made up of 1: 2:4 gravel ry D conerete containing 0.61 per cent, 1.2 per cent, W e and 1.8 per cent of steel. These specimens were allowed to dry out in the air of the laboratory, and measurements were taken at frequent in- tervals. The plain gravel specimens showed a maximum contraction of only 0.035 per cent at NOWWWx0s3a0 LINN the age of 6 months, as compared with 0.06 per cent for the crushed gneiss specimens previously reported. This difference in contraction is not due necessarily to the different aggregates. The specimens containing 0.61 and 1.2 per cent steel showed a contraction of only 0.02 per cent, — oOo _ o o o = o o Cc Q o So 9° EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF CONCRETE. 11 while the specimen containing 1.8 per cent steel contracted less than 0.01 peh cent, or about one-fourth of the contraction of the plain concrete specimen. 002 06! os! 02) OS! | OS! ov oz orl ol 00) AGE IN ei o 7:4 GRAVEL CONCRETE, PLAIN AND REINFORCED to) ~ fo} ) (o) w So t o<¢ =o Gees aoe oe Ses Eiehy -_— (2) _ 2) oO To) ° qo oo 6 (2.8 2 ° 9 °o fo) S (<) Ss oO NOILOVYLNOSD LINN Fic. 10.—Effect of reinforcement on expansion and contraction. If there were perfect bond between the conerete and the steel, this amount of shrinkage in the concrete wouid pro- duce a stress of about 3,000 pounds per square inch in compression in the steel reinforcing of specimen No. 549, and about 7,500 pounds .per square inch in specimens Nos. 547 and 548. The more concrete is restrained from shrinking, the greater will be the ten- sile stress induced by the compression in the steel. The specimen containing 1.8 per cent of steel contracted, roughly, 0.0001 inch per inch of length, while the plain, and therefore unrestrained, specimen contracted 0.00035 inch. In other words, the steel prevented the eonerete from contracting by an amount equal to 0.00025 inch per inch in length. Assuming the modulus of elasticity of this concrete to be 3,000,000, the tensile stress produced by 0.00025 inch elongation would be 3,000,000 multiplied by 0.00025, equals 750 pounds per square inch, which stress, if it actually existed, would, of course, surely produce cracking of the conerete. If cracks were present in the specimens, they were not discern- ible, but they usually would be very small, and, moreover, it is probable that the slow flow of concrete pre- viously mentioned took place under the extremely gradually applied load, making the induced tensile stress very much smaller than the calculated amount. Reinforcing, it is seen, does not prevent the contraction of concrete due to the drying out of the moisture, and in view of the fact that steel and eonerete have very nearly the same coefficient of expansion and contrac- tion, the steel can not aid in any way in preventing changes due to tempera- ture. Reinforcing can not prevent the cracking of concrete, but it does serve the purpose of holding the cracks together and keeping them exceedingly minute. SPECIMEN REINFORCED ON ONE SIDE. If a concrete road be reinforced with steel placed either near the top or bot- tom surface, any shrinkage resulting from drying out necessarily must be un- equal at the two surfaces because of the restraining influences of the steel. To show the relative amounts of this shrinkage a specimen was made of 1:2:4 concrete, reinforced by two 3-inch round rods with their centers placed 1 inch 12 BULLETIN 532, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, from the side of the 8 by 8 inch column. The curve on figure 11 was obtained partly by measurement and partly by theory, assuming that the deformations from the reinforced side to the plain side varied as the ordinates to a straight line. This assumption has been shown to be true a number of times in the cases of beams subjected to bending stresses. Note that the steel seems to have had a bending effect on the specimen, the unreinforced side shrinking much more than the reinforced side. The amount of shrinkage on the plain side of the column at the end of one year amounted to approximately 0.1 per cent; that of the steel amounted to 0.03 per cent. Any such shrinkage as this would tend to cause compressive stresses in the concrete on the unreinforced side and ten- sile stresses in the concrete on the reinforced side. In a concrete pavement, with the reinforcement placed near the top or bottom, there would be unequal shrinkage at these two surfaces, thereby creating a tendency to curl and crack. To eliminate the unequal shrinkage in concrete pavements, due to eccentric NOTE: CONCRETE DEFORMATIONS MEASURED ON UNREINFORCED SIDE AOE ms rev ie UNIT CONTRACTION Fic. 11.—Specimen reinforced on one side.: placing of the steel, and at the same time to take care of settlement cracks as efficiently as possible, it is well to place the reinforcement in the center of the pavement. MEASURING THE EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF CONCRETE ROADS. Although the laboratory measurements of expansion and contrac- tion of concrete gave much information on the influences affecting the length of a concrete road, the actual conditions of moisture in the road are so different from those of the laboratory that it was thought well to obtain additional information of the movements that take place by actually measuring the changes in the road. A concrete road is subjected to a great range of variables. In the initial stages of its hardening it generally is kept moistened arti- EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF CONCRETE, 13 ficially for a period of 10 days. It is then subjected to all of the changes of temperature and moisture of the atmosphere. In addi- tion to atmospheric influences, however, the condition of the sub-base has an effect on the condition of the concrete. If the sub-base be not well drained, there will be very little tendency for the concrete to dry, irrespective of weather conditions. On the other hand, with a well- drained sub-base the moisture may disappear rapidly after a heavy rain, and the concrete then will dry out quickly. In either case the concrete will absorb much moisture from the underlying soil by capillarity, so that the extreme drying experienced by laboratory specimens rarely will take place in the concrete road. The shrinkage changes of laboratory specimens therefore should be expected rarely in actual construction, as the conditions are not generally favorable. Tt is possible, however, that expansion due to the absorption of mois- ture will be accentuated in the concrete road. A special instrument was designed by one of the authors in order to study the effect of temperature, moisture, and any other physical influences on the expansion and contraction of concrete roads. As the movements in the concrete undoubtedly were small, it was neces- sary that the measuring apparatus possess great accuracy. It also was necessary, in view of the great temperature ranges to which the instrument would be subjected throughout the day’s work and at various seasons of the year, to have some means of correction for these changes in temperature. It was considered advisable, in view of the extremely small changes in length expected in the concrete, to make the measurements over quite a large gauge length, and for this reason 10 feet was selected as the length of the instrument. The device (fig. 12) in its final shape as used on the road, is made up of two gauge tubes, one of steel and one of brass, supported so that they can not bend, and provided with rounded tips against which meas- urements are made with micrometer screws. By means of these micrometer measurements, corrected to constant temperature, the changes in length between plugs set in the concrete road are obtained. The tubes A and B are the gauge tubes, and they are supported at frequent intervals by brass disks, D, fastened within a brass casing, K, 2 inches in diameter. This casing extends the full length of the instrument and is surrounded and supported at intervals by another casing, F, 3 inches in diameter. At the ends of this outer casing are two collars, N, which rest in the supporting blocks, G. These blocks are provided with pins, H, whose conical ends fit into holes drilled in bronze plugs set in the road during its construction. One end sup- porting block, G, is provided with flat-ended contact pins, J, and the block at the other end of the instrument carries micrometer screws, I. Adjusting screws, M, shown in the end view are provided merely to support the instrument on the road, when not in use. The fiber col- 14 BULLETIN 532, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lars, L, likewise are provided merely for protection when the tube is detached from the end supporting block. The great length of the in- strument with the consequent attendant probability of the temperature at the two ends being different, due to one end being in the shade and the other in direct sunlight, led to the use of two gauge tubes of . different materials from which to take measurements. Knowing the coefficients of expansion of these tubes, ob- tained by proper calibration, the difference in the microm- eter readings furnished a means of obtaining the tem- perature of the bars. This temperature then could be used in correcting the microm- eter measurements to a stand- ard temperature. Thermom- eters were inserted in the 2- inch casing at the ends of the instrument. The mean of these end temperature read- ings, as a rule, approached within 1° C. of the tempera- ture obtained from the mi- crometer readings. Before using this instru- ment on the road it was cali- brated in order to obtain the coeflicients of expansion of the steel and brass. tubes. In do- ing this a 10-foot steel gauge bar was mounted in a tank of water and immersed about 1 inch below its surface. Ther- mometers were laid in the water on top of the gauge bar and read from time to time Fiber Protecting peal Bs Collar bo Zz ES QD \ as = ZZ CA Do LZ SANE Cae rs Rare WOW St BS Fic. 12.—Instrument for measuring the expansion and contraction of concrete roads. EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF CONCRETE. 15 to insure that the temperature was not changing. The instrument then was mounted on the gauge bar, and a jet of steam was passed through the inner casing surrounding the steel and brass tubes. When the temperature of this inner casing had become constant, micrometer readings were taken. A stream of cold air then was run through, and again temperature readings were taken at each end of the instrument, until it was determined that the inside temperature had become constant. Micrometer readings were taken again. Sev- eral sets of readings made in this way gave values for the coefficient | of expansion of the steel tube averaging 0.0000110 per degree centi- grade, and for the brass tube 0.0000179. Knowing the difference in readings in the steel and brass tubes at the two measured temperatures, and having determined the coefficients of expansion of the metals, a curve giving the difference in length of the bars at various tempera- tures was plotted readily. When readings were made out on the road the temperature of the bars of the instrument was obtainable easily by means of the difference in their measured length. Bronze plugs spaced 10 feet apart were set in the concrete road. A depressed cone formed the top surface, and its center was drilled with a one-sixteenth-inch drill. The top of the plug was protected with a brass tube which was set flush with the surface of the road, and, except when readings were taken, was filled with putty. Great care had to be exercised in setting the plugs as nearly 10 feet apart as possible so as not to exceed the range of the instrument. ‘The greatest possible care likewise was taken to keep the holes in the plugs clean while measurements were being made. In manipulating the instrument one operator was required at each end. After setting the supporting points of the blocks into the holes drilled in the plugs the brass and steel gauge bars were slid gently through the casing a very short distance, slightly jolting the blocks. This seemed to settle them into place so that check readings could be taken. After each reading the instrument was removed entirely from the holes and reseated. The readings were repeated again, and an average of three or four more was recorded as the true reading for the set. The steel-bar reading then was corrected to what it would have. been if the bar had remained at constant temperature, and in this way changes in temperature of the instrument were eliminated. RESULTS OF TEST MEASUREMENTS AT CHEVY CHASE, MD. Beginning in September, 1912, a length of experimental road was constructed on Connecticut Avenue, beginning at Bradley Lane and extending north to Chevy Chase Lake. This road was composed of six sections of different varieties, as follows, beginning at Bradley Lane: Section I. Bituminous concrete, Topeka specification. Section II. Bituminous concrete, District of Columbia specification. 16 BULLETIN 532, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Section III. Cement concrete, surface treated with bituminous materials. Section IV. Oil-cement concrete. Section V. Cement concrete. Section VI. Vitrified brick. Some of the above sections were not built in continuous lengths. Because of unfavorable weather, work was stopped on this road on December 15, after the concrete of Section III had been poured. Work was resumed in the following spring and carried to comple- tion. On the bottom of figure 13 will be found a partial layout of the various sections of the road as constructed, giving the dates of construction and the character of the coarse aggregate. A complete description of the road and method of construction may be found in other publications of this office. During the construction of the cement concrete sections bronze plugs of the type previously described were inserted in the road sur- face, spaced 10 feet apart in a line 5 feet from the east side of the road. At every fifth plug there was placed also a transverse plug offset 10 feet from the line of plugs paralleling the road. The layout of the sections of the road measured is shown in figure 13. The first set of measurements was taken as soon as practicable after the concrete had hardened. The dates and temperatures are given on this plate just above the road layout. Referring to the second set of readings, it will be seen that in general, when the tem- perature is lower than the initial temperature, the uncracked portions of concrete show contraction, and when the temperature is higher than the initial temperature, expansion occurs. Cracks are indicated by dotted lines and are seen at various intervals throughout the length of the road, in practically all the different sections except that containing limestone aggregate. In the cold weather, during which this set of readings was taken, the cracks opened up, as shown by the expansion readings. The shrinkage of the concrete naturally would cause an opening of the cracks. In the spring of 1913 a bituminous carpet coat was placed over the concrete up to the end of the oil-cement gravel-aggregate section (station No. 210), and expansion measurements were made in the hot weather of the spring, summer, and fall. It is interesting to note that the readings taken on July 3; 1913, all showed expansion, even those taken over the cracks. Expansion at the cracks as well as in the concrete is rather difficult to account for with certainty. However, during the previous winter the cracks undoubtedly opened up very wide during the coldest weather, owing to low tempera- ture contraction, aided perhaps by the freezing of water in the cracks, and became filled with material from the road which prevented 1 Office of Public Boa pineuian NOW OO acm. Depneamers of Agriculture Bulletin No. 105. _ FOURTH i SET _JUNE 6 14 73° F. JUNE. &, 19!4 VOCs APRIL 21 1S MAY 26714] L334 0! Ni SSHONI— NOIMLoOvad tNOS NOILOVYLNOD INV NOISNVdX%4 6 ra 4 Ze £ OW a Ol dy itt} Ls Uy) tc ars xg i jd ae E 8 é ) 2 rr aa 6 7 ON n anko : o a ZO nr) seers pa oe a uw ole ioe oO ° 9% { mo rd 9g ss ‘ < E Ra! lnf?er 4a Lin S58) 3 = 2 = ero ie 7 Same -m EBEQ & a y aes sa —| iat guiw S ! = ooZ a 566 | ee : ——— ire 4 | HOz 4 : Ar: a secwmneee S : one a3 g Some Se © K : —— M E ae tan } Lali ic) 0 are ; Q|. = =| | Phe D gS Boe *|o § —— < r walt x [0S Se calla -|t9 o 6 o@ | real ars a One re ia) To = J \ral Fla x aoc | fe) S$ a4 4 Lb. z= glee 28 o > S ea) ne ie) < eS o EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION INCHES JN IO FEET |__Is se 3 0.08} cs) ' i : -- _— - — et MAY 26714 “MAY 27,1914 [[_May 28} MAY 29 JUNE 3, 1914 95°F. * Suan 86°F, idea 62°F. [Jone 5 RUNES aIS/aiel ROR eel (stata + 79°F. | eae Ie || 0.4, f APRIL 14,1914 [apric| teal apeni7 14 60°F. | 524F. 77°F. looal fal ; 3 loo2| = = : 0.0 eS i ! Free : aed _| FOURTH meer ST yet 008| S66 - | fies ‘ loos ||"! ea lool CONTRACTION ta FEC Leama ae A — : 6 0 cll de rei ee ee ism Fn em Tt | | —+— JULY 3.1915 : AUGUST 1911913, |_ SEPT.5,13 JUNE 17,1915 JUNE 18 , 1913 JUNE 19 [0 Oct. 27, ae APRIL 21 , 1Sl4- GEM le 84°F. [84°F 1 90°F. 85°F: 80°F. [a8 | 6° F. ; ! t 4 E y H 1 = —_—___— 0.02] ! ‘ot H 1 i 1 Titty Hy 1 r) u Hen ela SN See H + = (ee ye eae -— ee a ace TELAT nf cy I (ise arn See | 3 [—| FEB. 5, 1913 FEBRUARY 6, 1913 i _ FEB. 11,1913) FEB. 8, 1913 FEB. 10,19)3 ] JULY 13,1913 | (eal a a —* z 26°F [| 38°F. __ 32°F 32°F. cs a aa. 100° F. | LAYOUT OF EXPERIMENTAL SECTIONS NOV. 14,1912 54°R NOV. 22 59°F NOV. i6 '12 se Ver NOV. 16 47°F. NOV. 27 53°F. NOVEMBER 15,1912 46°F. NOV. 25 NOV. 26,1912 47°F. 46°F. BEc. 7, 1912 i | MAY 20, i913 INITIAL READINGS 54°F. 65™- 80°F. TAKEN |-Laip NOV.5, 1912->1< — Nov. 8 a NOV. 11, 1, 1912->ke nov iar} Nov. 6 Birr 20-4 — NOV. 22,1912 —>Lnov. 254¢—nov. 26,1912—>| [-—aPRiL 23 3+} APRIL 22>4 STATION O 1o* 20 30, 40 50 60 80 90 100 110 160 199 200 2 220 230 240 2580 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370. 380 PLAIN CEMENT PLAIN CEMENT : PLAIN CEME! oiL CEMENT PLAIN CEMENT PLAIN CEMENT OIL CEMENT OlL CEMENT GRAVEL AGGREGATE LIMESTONE AGGREGRATE GRAVEL AGG. | GRAVEL AGS. GRAVEL AGG. LIMESTONE AGGREGATE | LIMESTONE _AGG, | TRAP AGc. Fie, 18.—Hxpansion and contraction of concrete 102d, Connecticut Ave, extended, Chevy Chase, Md. Laid in 1912 and 1918. 80045° (Lo face page 16.) EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF CONCRETE. 17 them from closing when the expansion of the adjacent concrete took place. The section of road read on July 3 was adjacent to a stretch of bituminous concrete laid on a concrete base. On the very hot day preceding these readings there was an upheaval at the junction of the concrete section with the bituminous concrete section, and the concrete base of the bituminous pavement was sheared off to some extent. Note that one of the cracks had opened more than one-eighth of an inch when the readings were taken. Measurements made on August 19 are very little different from those of the preceding February, notwithstanding the high tempera- ture existing during the August readings. The September 5 and June 17 readings also are peculiar in that they show very little change from those of the preceding winter, and, moreover, the June 17 read- ings still show contraction, notwithstanding the hot weather. On June 18, with the temperature not greatly different from that of the preceding day, a slight expansion was shown. No definite conclu- sions can be drawn from the remaining readings of the third set. Some of the cracks which had opened in the preceding winter re- mained open during the summer, and others became smaller. In April, 1914, an incomplete set of readings was taken and the concrete in general showed decided contraction compared with the preceding summer. The contraction of the concrete was accom- panied by an opening of the cracks. The low temperature here seems to have played an important part in influencing the length of the concrete. The fifth set of readings, taken in the spring and summer of 1914, on the whole shows the same characteristics as the third set. In the previous July (1913) the section of road which had buckled was cut out and filled with three double courses of vitrified paving brick - with tarred joints. In the spring of 1914 buckling again took place at the same spot, and the bricks were removed and the space filled with concrete. Note that at the fifth set of readings some of the cracks showed by actual measurement an opening of nearly one-quarter of an inch at the section where maximum expansion took place. The crack openings were even wider than during the preceding summer. Un- fortunately, no measurements were made over this section during the winter of 1914. Itis probable, however, that such readings would have shown that the cracks had opened very wide at this season and then were prevented from closing again because of becoming filled with loose material. It will be seen that at other sections of the road cracks which were indicated as quite small by some of the previous readings had opened wide. Note the large expansion in the crack which opened in the plain-cement gravel-aggregate ‘section, read on 18 BULLETIN 532, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. June 3, 1914, and the comparatively large contraction in the crack about 100 feet away. . Figure 15 plots the results of that part of the Chevy Chase meas- urements taken over the uncracked portion of the concrete. The ordinates represent the unit deformations of the solid concrete and do not include the movement at the cracks, and the abscissas repre- sent age. At the bottom are plotted temperature and precipitation measurements for the vicinity of Washington, supplied by the Weather Bureau. The daily precipitation records were averaged for each month, and the average precipitation for the month is plotted on an exaggerated scale and is shown by the dotted line. . It will be seen that there is no decided relation between the shape of the expan- sion and contraction curves and that of the precipitation curve. On Fie. 14.—The measuring instrument in use on the Chevy Chase Road. the other hand, there is a tendency for the expansion and contraction curves to conform with the temperature curve. Note that as the temperature decreases at the approach of winter the concrete con- tracts, and in the summer season, during the highest temperatures, the concrete expands. It would seem from this set of measurements that temperature changes have played a more important part than have atmospheric moisture changes in influencing the movements of the concrete. The moisture in the concrete may or may not bear any relation to the atmospheric moisture, but will be influenced by the degree of wetness of the sub-base. Therefore, no very great im- portance can be attached to the precipitation record. Note that at the beginning of the measurements, just after the concrete was laid, there was a contraction in every case, notwithstanding the fact that the temperature remained not far from constant. It would seém that this EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF CONCRETE. 19 | initial contraction must be explained by the drying out of the mois- ture in the concrete. It has been shown in the previously described Bee ee "a ip ca SS eg sauuss?/stee Saseee=e aan iia! Gon ¢ 5 e errearreetee 28 Nae? 77 SUaneeeee ea ae oe he oa PLAIN CEMENT LIMESTONE BIT. TOP aaesee a | ae ee =, = el i oe [2B | | aS ere 2a 0 a aren Smee eS a eee a el sear) (ema | Ce ea es ie cb fl GRAVEL - % PLAIN CEMENT 2 383 a St nn nN iL PLAIN CEMEN i tx] > PLAIN- Oo} ‘CEMENT = 2 | Se eee : Ao Soaeiess sae eeine saa 93 St aia | Oc ier oie taitebataty atta altel Fig. 15.—Curves of unit expansion and contraction of uncracked portions of concrete road, Chevy Chase, Md. MEAN PRECIPITATION TEMPERATURE ° laboratory tests that great shrinkage of concrete can take place during the initial stages of hardening, due to the drying out of the moisture, | 20 BULLETIN 532, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 5] and it is an observable fact that as soon as the wet-earth covering is removed from the surface of the concrete it begins to dry out and, necessarily, to shrink. The maximum average shrinkage shown by the concrete in any of the sections of different mixtures was approxi- mately 0.0001 inch per inch of length, and this occurred about three months after the pavement was laid. The temperature in this time, however, had dropped 20°, and this fall in temperature accounts almost exactly for the shrinkage. It has been shown by means of laboratory specimens stored out of doors and subjected to all the changes of the atmosphere that very little change in length takes plaee. under such conditions. It seems probable that the moisture content of the concrete at Chevy Chase changed so little that the length of the concrete was very little affected thereby. A hard rain, thoroughly soaking the concrete, will have no immediate great effect upon its length. It has been pointed out that moisture changes are rather slow and progressive, and therefore it is unlikely that hard rains of even several days’ duration will have great effect on the expansion of the concrete in the road. EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF OHIO POST ROAD.1 These measurements were taken over three 300-foot experimental sections of the concrete Ohio Post Road constructed in 1914 under the supervision of the Office of Public Roads. The Ohio Post Road is located partly in Muskingum County and partly in Licking County, Ohio, and runs west from Zanesville, Ohio, for 24 miles over the old National Pike to the Moscow Bridge over the South Fork of the Licking River. This road was constructed on a sub-base composed mainly of a stiff red clay. The total width of concrete surfacing is 16 feet, with a thickness of 6 inches at the edges and 8 inches at the center. Expansion joints made of one thickness of 2-ply tar paper were spaced 30 feet apart throughout the length of the road, with the exception of the three experimental sections, on each of which the spacing varied from 20 feet to 100 feet, intervening sections being 40, 60, and 80 feet long. Expansion joints were placed at an angle of 15° across the road. Both gravel and crushed stone were used as coarse aggregate, the proportions in the former case being 1:14:3 and in the latter 1:1%:3. Crushed stone used in the experimental sections was obtained from limestone quarried on the Scioto River at Marble Cliff. The sand and gravel were obtained from a washing plant at Dresden, Ohio. As soon after laying as possible the concrete surface was covered with canvas, which was removed when the concrete was 24 hours old and replaced by a 2-inch earth covering. This was allowed to remain 1The authors desire to acknowledge the assistance of the Ohio State Highway Depart- ment in conducting the tests on this road. EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF CONCRETE. 21 om the road for two weeks and was kept wet. At the end of that tiie it was removed and the road opened. LOCATION OF EXPERIMENTAL SECTIONS. The three 300-foot experimental sections referred to above were located on the road as follows: Section I, in Licking County, one-half mile east of National Road Station. This section comprised the last 300 feet at the bottom of a 4 per cent grade 2,000 feet long. The coarse aggregate was lime- stone, and the section was laid July 6, 1914. The distances between expansion joints varied from 100 to 20 feet, as noted above, with the 100-foot section at the bottom of the grade. At the time of laying bronze plugs, similar to those used in the Chevy Chase experiments, were cast 10 feet apart along the center of the road. Readings on this section were taken on July 7, 8, and 22, on October 31, 1914, on March 4 and June 19, 1915, and on February 25, 1916. Section II, in Licking County, about 500 feet east of Moscow Bridge, on a 0.4 per cent grade. Limestone was used as the coarse ageregate, and the spacing of the joints and placing of the measuring plugs was the same as on Section I. The first 180 feet of this section was laid on July 29 and the last 120 feet on July 30. This break was caused by an accident to the mixer. Readings were taken on August 1, November 2, 1914, on March 3 and June 17, 1915, and on Febru- ary 25, 1916. Section ITT, in Muskingum County, at Mount Sterling. This sec- tion was laid at the bottom of a vertical curve with a 6 per cent grade 400 feet long rising eastward and a 6 per cent grade 600 feet long rising westward. Gravel was used as a coarse aggregate. The sec- tion was laid on November 5, 1914, and readings were taken Novem- ber 6 and 7, 1914, March 6 and June 15, 1915, and February 22, 1916. MEASUREMENTS ON SEctTion I. The initial readings on Section I were taken on July 7, 1914, one -day after the concrete was laid. The temperature of the concrete was determined by means of a thermometer inserted in a small brass tube cast in the top of the pavement, the thermometer bulb being about 4 inches below the surface of the pavement. The hole was packed with putty and covered with a box to protect it from the sun, and here the thermometer was allowed to remain until a uniform temperature was obtained. On July 8, one day after making the initial readings, or two days after the concrete was laid, the second set of readings was taken and is shown graphically on the curve. If a crack is included within the 10-foot gage length, the reading is in- dicated by a dotted line; if a construction joint is included it is shown by a dash and dot line. Almost all the readings taken over 92 BULLETIN 532, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the solid concrete show a slight contraction, while the joints show in expansion, or, in other words, they have opened slightly. The contraction of the concrete took place notwithstanding the fact that it was wet continually. It is to be noted, however, that the tempera- ture fell from 82° on July 7 to 75° on July 8, and this probably ac- counts for the slight contraction observed. Up to July 22 the road was kept covered with wet clay, and the third set of readings was taken on this date. Here it is noticed that there is a sight expansion of the concrete with a large contraction at three of the joints and an expansion at two. The temperature at these readings was slightly higher than that taken during the initial read- ings. This, combined with the moisture expansion, could account EXPANSION + INCHES IN (O FEET = == i _—_—_—— CONTRACTION =INCHES IN IOFEET JULY 68,1914 JULY 22,1914 OCTOBER 31,1914 MARCH 4, 1915 JUNE 19,1915 FEBRUARY 25,1916 TEMPER EENT ©W1IG, 16.—Expansion and contraction of concrete, Ohio Post 7 Suny & = ase Road. Section near national road station. Laid July 6, fara - 30° ° 1914. Section I. JUNE IS -— 68° ree. 25 - 34° for the slight expansion noted in the concrete. But during this period of initial hardening, while the concrete was kept wet, it is seen’ that very little change took place in its length. It is important to note, however, that even on the second day, when the readings showed a slight contraction of the concrete, a transverse crack ap- peared. The slight tensile stress induced in the weak green concrete by the contraction evidently was enough to produce rupture. Just after July 22 the earth covering was removed from the road ~ surface, and it was subjected directly to atmospheric influences. On October 31, with the pavement temperature at 50° (32° lower than the initial temperature), the uncracked concrete showed large con- traction, while the cracks and joints opened or gave an expansion EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF CONCRETE. 23 reading on the instrument. The total contraction over the uncracked portions of the pavement equaled 0.462 inch in a total length of 230 feet, or 0.00017 inch per inch of length. The calculated contraction for the fall in temperature between the initial reading (82°) and this reading (50°) equals 0.000176 inch per inch of length, almost iden- tical with the actual measured contraction. On March 4, when the temperature of the pavement was 30° F., another set of readings was taken. In the interval the pavement had been subjected to the extreme cold of the winter. Here again is seen the effect of change in temperature upon the concrete: That part of it which remained free from cracks contracted 0.000307 inch per inch of length. The decrease in temperature during this period was 52°, and hence the theoretical contraction would be equal to 0.00029 inch per inch of length, so that here again the temperature influence seems to be borne out by actual measurement. It will be seen that the cracks and expansion joints in this section opened con- siderably, and the colder the weather the greater the openings be- came. | In June, 1915, not quite a year after the road was constructed, another set of readings was made and gave the results shown on the curve. The warm weather had decreased the contraction of the con- crete below the amount shown in the preceding March. This section was laid in warm weather when the temperature exceeded 82° and the temperature for the pavement on June 19 was only 68°, so that some contraction of the uncracked concrete should be expected. This - amounted to 0.0167 inch, or 0.00006 inch per inch of length. The theoretical contraction for this fall in temperature is 0.000077 inch, just a little more than the actual measured contraction. A feature of this measurement is the great contraction at some of the expansion joints and a very large expansion at another joint and at two of the cracks. The large contraction or closing of some of the joints and the large opening at one may be accounted for by the relative move- ments of the slabs due to inequalities in the sub-base and to the fact that the section under test is at the bottom of a long 4 per cent grade. In February, 1916, the last set of measurements was taken in cold weather. Here again the contracting effect of low temperatures is seen on that part of the concrete which has remained intact. A con- traction of 0.00023 inch per inch of length occurred by actual meas- urement, whereas the figured temperature contraction was 0.000264 inch per inch of length. Temperature again has played a prominent part in influencing the length of the concrete. Note that the 100-foot length cracked in two places, whereas the sections of smaller length did not crack. 24 BULLETIN 532, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MEASUREMENTS ON SEcTION II. OHIO POST ROAD AT MOSCOW BRIDGE. Section IT was laid on a 0.4 per cent grade with limestone aggregate with joints spaced successively 20, 40, 60, 80, and 100 feet apart. This section, laid one month later than Section I, showed much the same characteristics as far as expansion and contraction are con- cerned. As the weather became colder and colder, the concrete showed more and more contraction. In the hot weather of the summer one year after laying the concrete showed about the same amount of expansion that it showed three days after laying. One of the cracks, however, that had opened in the preceding winter, instead of closing because of the expansion of the concrete, remained open, probably fs .ti $ teat pil ened egtemae sel Here oS Ge ee Hit atiweciaw ee tae) ERR SENG) Bie Toe ad Pesos Joget obi vl a eee al (eae aun eee (RET ie (Es (ae Sie ae Maat ies) re 2 al (aes Se er ae a (mame Set RET SETS RST AE 2 ea PR a GR EZ 2 g es Pe ee ay he la) oos Zz as Se ineiee eee Sige Pees peeve er wees, | STEe Gen Ea 3 (ES Pe ee Prmie Baas oo Serer) Mae Mee tay nl ROD Te a Bees] eae PT Fs ee eto! Fra a [Po a eel (CSRs hao | Sivoo2 fee ee ee Fs es RS S| a CE, rr big See Sd eee 8 SS ae a ee Peo ie Ee ae Paneer - PPRRUeaRreas ener ea Sey HA Lh PR BH Pg eT ne ot © 0.07 -——. | MN a A HA || z | (Wu es | es a Ropes | ekcmeaes tate SE Se RS ee g Es ee erie Ben a ee ar) a) ene vais) DAML pewmrees lee | faalielflie i é ER es BA ei) ° iy) a a Per meee) TON Ny ikee Sia p 4 es Pe BR ee Pa Ea ; id ae RAE METRES | ‘4 TEMPERATURE OF PAVEMENT SENS! Saale Fic. 17.—Expansion and contraction of concrete, (es P 5 Ze Ohio Post Road. Section at Moscow Bridge. MAR. 3 - 30° Laid July 29-30, 1914. Section II. JUNE I7- 78° FEB: 25- 37° owing to the presence of foreign material. This same crack opened considerably wider in the cold weather of the following winter, as seen in the measurements of February 25, and the remaining joints likewise expanded considerably. Note that a crack formed in the 100-foot section and did not form in the 20, 40, 60, or 80-foot sections. MEASUREMENTS ON Section IIT. OHIO POST ROAD AT MOUNT STERLING. Section III shows much the same characteristics as the preceding Sections I and II. This section was laid on November 5, and the initial readings were taken on November 6 at a temperature of 51° F. _ ae = On November 7 the second set of readings was taken at a tem- perature of 54° F. A very small expansion of the concrete was indi- cated, but at one of the joints a small expansion took place. This is somewhat hard to explain but is of no practical consequence, since it is so small. On March 6 the third set of measurements was taken when the temperature was 37° F., or 14° lower than the initial temperature. Note the large contraction of the concrete and the correspondingly large expansion at the joints and at the single crack that formed in the 100-foot section. EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF CONCRETE. 25 ites ey etait ee ey ea ll (ie ees Re ae) (SETTTTae Brel e [tae as eee ae Re ae fea ae i [fC E Re ea a WwW uw rs (aN Se | (SE Sa Se 2 (7 eS | herrea z SRS EE | aS Tear CH 6) a eee ene | SE Se 5 Rae Fo Se ae, Sica. SEs al a z (UR 2 a o 2 4671) i eS TT i a < SES Ae ae a os @iee| Le a Se ae - Sas aa] Se 4 a Ht i 5 Sak: pA SO r= (17) ee Q Pear ee ead = gcilhdn a a 2 tis ones 2 | Z) Ace 2 ae ere z aoe lhl OE ‘ é 0.08 FE 3 0.10 BF 6 FEB. 22,1916 15) a TEMPERATURE OF PAVEMENT Fic 8.—Hx si i Tae EEIOD 18.—Wxpansion and contraction of NOV.7-54° . concrete, Ohio Post Road. Section at MAR.6 - 37° Mt. Sterling. Laid Nov. 5, 1914. Sec- JUNE 15-75? o FEB, 22-41° tion III. On June 15 the fourth set of readings was taken at a temperature of 75° or 24° warmer than when the initial readings were made. Again it will be noticed that the uncracked portions of the concrete have expanded with the higher temperature. A second crack had formed during the previous winter, and it, together with the first formed crack, showed expansion or widening. Note the enormous contraction of one of the expansion joints, a contraction of 0.472 or almost one-half inch. One side of this joint overrode the other, so that it projected above the surface of the road about 14 inches. The last set of readings was taken on February 22, when the temperature was 10° F. below the initial temperature of the road. Enormous expansions are seen to have occurred at the cracks and smaller expan- 26 BULLETIN 532, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sions at some of the expansion joints, and the joint which had pushed together and overrode during the preceding summer remained in the same condition. In an effort to determine whether atmospheric moisture or tem- perature played the most important part in influencing the expansion a ——— d iti SS esi. ea iM ce oe We Fe se] ies wee SS : paES : Pe ee eee Pe Ge ee os oR (CL eS = ees ie: Pee. | ea ey et CONF ges os eee a ee ara Ly RaeN ee eo ee RE i sae ee See os Pe: ears ee ee Go a ir ee ere 5 Sines SSS ooo é = ff ele a fee A eed a sacs pe qe ae (et a fe a ie el ela ED : SER EeCeSEaee eee fest ste ee ee ee icsee omen i al eA Beey ahiteamaAcs Seo a ee ee) le carl a OE MituotommansiGieie fo. — jor: Pe Wee ew etal eal Bie eee 3 Bibra Bo Bho e[on (sale of ams [ost aa epee BB loc BT a nae ep Pees 3 a a fees ceri res | —>——_—__]} __, : rm cee ee Rae pee Dt ae Re = ee eT eae Bemba ea we Ee ee a of tt CLL ae ee Sf Coe Fe eee vores ; EES ° “6 be 9 a = ee EE ES a fees Ses es 0 g HEH Ee ae SSS t 4— 8 n PRECIPITATION ° TEMPERATURE 3 MEAN Pa Fig 19.—Curves of unit of expansion and contraction of uncracked portions of concrete road, Ohio Post Road. ileus and contraction of the Ohio road, the curves shown in figure 19 were plotted. The unit expansions and contractions shown were obtained by summing up the changes in the concrete in the uncracked portions. Each curve represents the unit deformation in a different slab of concrete included between different joints or cracks. In the same section of road these curves should be of practically the same EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF CONCRETE. oti, shape, since the kind of concrete and temperature and other condi- tions were identical. The precipitation records were obtained from the Weather Bureau records for Columbus, Ohio, and are approxi- mately correct for the three different sections of road measured. The precipitation records during each month were averaged, and the dotted curve represents this average. It is difficult to distinguish the effect of temperature from that of moisture, as indicated by the pre- cipitation curve, since they are so nearly identical. Again, it must be pointed out that the condition of moisture in the concrete is dependent on the moisture in the sub-base rather than on atmosphere moisture, and the precipitation curve is only a gener al indication of the moisture in the sub- base. GENERAL DISCUSSION OF THE EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION : OF CONCRETE PAVEMENTS. The preceding laboratory and field measurements show that con- -erete changes in length owing to at least two separate agencies: (1) Change in moisture content and (2) change in temperature. (1) Change in moisture content——By laboratory measurements made on large specimens it has been demonstrated that concrete changes in length from its wet condition just after setting to an ex- tremely dry condition at six months or one year later by an amount equal to 0.0005 to 0.0006 inch per inch of length. A change of 0.0006 inch is as much as wouid be caused by a change in temperature of 0.06=0.0000055=109° F. and would produce considerable stress under favorable conditions. This change, however, is a very slow one. It occurs most rapidly during the first few weeks of drying out and becomes very slow at the end of three months. At one year the change due to drying will have become constant in amount. It has also been seen that when concrete is kept wet it does not contract, but it expands and maintains a constant expansion of about 0.0001 inch per inch of length. Furthermore, it has been demonstrated that by subjecting hardened concrete to alternate wetting and drying, its length may be changed irrespective of temperature changes. Such moisture changes, however, are rather slow in their action and a pro- longed period of wet conditions or a prolonged period of dryness is necessary to effect a large change in the length of the concrete such as might be obtained in a very short time by the influence of tempera- ture. When specimens are stored in the weather and subjected to rain and sunshine, they change very little in length because of mois- ture changes, unlike specimens that are stored under prolonged con- ditions of extreme wetness or dryness. In the field measurements on the Chevy Chase and Ohio Post roads, except that at Mount Sterling, Section ITT, it is difficult to diccmeuen the effects of moisture, since apparently they are overshadowed so | 4 q 28 BULLETIN 532, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. greatly by the temperature expansion and contraction. It seems that the concrete in the road, when subjected to actual weather condi- tions, does not suffer the prolonged extreme ranges of moisture con- tent suffered by the laboratory concrete specimens kept indoors in the dry air of the laboratory and therefore does not expand or con- tract because of moisture changes to the extent that the laboratory — specimens change. Undoubtedly in warm, dry weather there will be some slight contraction just after the moisture is allowed to dry out from the concrete, particularly in a well-drained sub-base. It seems that enough of the water absorbed by the concrete, due to rains or to capillarity, remains in the concrete during the dry weather to prevent much change in length. There may be conditions of pro- longed extremes of wetness and dryness in the road which will affect the expansion and contraction to an appreciable extent. Thus in the spring of the year the prolonged moisture of the previous winter might so aid the expansion occurring during the first day of high temperature that the road will heave where proper allowance has not been made for this expansion. There are also conditions of poor drainage in the sub-base, particularly in a low section in the road, where the concrete will be practically constantly saturated, in which case the expanding effect of the moisture will be in evidence. (2) Effect of variations in temperature—field measurements.—It has been pointed out that, as a rule, the concrete in a road expands and contracts as the temperature rises and falls. It will be interest- ing to compare the actual measurements of the expansion and con- traction of the concrete in the road with the calculated change, as- suming no friction at the base and assuming a coefficient of expansion of 0.0000055 per degree F. Table I shows a comparison of the actual with the theoretical unit changes in the concrete of the Ohio Post Road. Taste I.—Change in length of conercte in Ohio Post Road. Section I. Section IT. Oct. 31. Mar. 4. June 19. Feb. 25. Nov. 2. Mar. 3. Change in temperature......-. —32 —h2 —14 —48 —22 —45 Actual unit change.........-.- —0. 00017 —0. 00031 | —0. 000064 —0. 00023 | —0. 000076 | —0. 000227 Caleulatedtemperature change] —0.000176 | —0. 00029 | —0.000077 | —0.00026 | —0. 000121 | —0. 000248 Section II. Section III. | June 17. | Feb. 25. Nov. 7. Mar. 6. June 15. Feb. 22. Change in temperature....-.-.- | +3 —38 +3 —14 +24 —10 A otal unit ahahes Lwiahetee Wie ete | +0.000624 | —0. 000168 |+-0. 0000096 | —0.000109 | + 0.000148 +0. 000072 Calculated teuiperotpnp huang? +0. 000017 | —0.00021 |-+0. 0000165 | —0.000077 | +-0.000132 | —0.000055 EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF CONCRETE. 29 These comparisons of the actual change with the theoretical change, considering temperature alone to be the cause, are ‘inter- esting. Observe that in Section I the agreement of the theoretical with the actual change in length is quite close, indicating that tem- perature was almost the sole cause of the change, and indicating, moreover, that the resisting effect of friction at the base must have been small. In Section II the agreement is not quite so close, and in Section III the agreement is poor. The actual unit change in many cases is in excess of the calculated temperature change, thus indicating that moisture is causing some expansion and also that the restraining effect of friction in preventing expansion and con- traction may be quite small. The discrepancies between the measured changes and theoretical changes are very noticeable in Section III. It will be seen from the description of Section III that it hes at the bottom of two 6 per cent grades and the conditions are very favorable for a wet sub-base. Moreover, this section of the road was covered continually with mud tracked in from adjacent roads, and this aided in pre- serving the road in a moist condition. The actual change in length on June 15 and February 22 was greater than the calculated change, and these days were preceded by a considerable period of wet weather, as shown. by the precipitation curve. These conditions were promotive of a wet sub-base, and this probably accounts for the increase in expansion of the actual over the theoretical. On June 15 the actual expansion is 0.000148 minus 0.000132, or 0.000016. On February 22 the excess. unit expansion equals 0.000127 inch. As shown by laboratory measurements, this is approximately the amount of expansion produced in concrete by continued moisture, and this measurement therefore tends to confirm the presumption that the moisture effect is causing the difference between the actual _ expansion and calculated temperature expansion. The apparently small effect of friction in preventing expansion is interesting and is not unreasonable when it is considered that the pavement is sub- jected to continued vibration which would tend to relieve tem- porarily any friction between a wet clay sub-base and the concrete. Moreover, the slow yielding of the sub-base as the concrete creeps helps to relieve the stresses of friction. The foregoing expansion and contraction measurements are pre- sented in the hope that they will be of assistance to the engineer having charge of concrete road construction. Much theory might be developed from these measurements, but this development, together with the practical application of the results, will be left for the present to the constructing engineer. Some broad conclusions may be stated as the result of the investigations described, combined with the investigations of others. 30 BULLETIN 532, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CONCLUSIONS, BASED ON EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION MEASUREMENTS. 1. Neat cement when allowed to dry, first contracts rapidly, then more slowly. The amount of contraction seems to vary with the cement, size of specimen, and condition of atmosphere in which drying takes place. The amount at 28 days is about 0.1 per cent and at 6 months about 0.2 per cent. 2. Mortar contracts on hardening in air and expands on hardening in water. The contraction in warm, dry air at 28 days is about 0.045 per cent for 1:2 and 1:3 mortar and at 6 months is 0.078 for 1:3 mortar and 0.085 for 1:2 mortar. The expansion in water is 0.01 per cent for 1:3 and 0.017 for 1:2 mortar at 28 days, and at 6 months 0.013 for 1:3 and 0.02 per cent for 1:2 mortar, ’ 3. Both 1:2:4 and 1:3:6 concrete contract on drying in warm, dry air from 0.02 to 0.04 per cent at 28 days and from 0.04 to 0.07 per cent at 6 months. When hardening in water an expansion of about 0.01 per cent takes place at 28 days and 6 months in 1:2:4 and 1:3:6 concrete. 4. The richness of the mix of concrete seems to exert a small in- fluence on the contraction; the richer the mix the greater the change in length. 5. Concrete alternately wetted and dried may be made to expand and contract owing to these causes. The expansion due to wetting is more rapid than the contraction on drying. The thoroughly dried specimens of concrete do not recover their original wet length when immersed. : 6. Concrete stored in the outer air and exposed to the weather does not contract to the same extent as the above described specimens ex- cept under very dry conditions. 7. A waterproof covering, such as coal tar, prevents the rapid change in moisture content and greatly retards the expansion and - contraction. 8. Reinforcement decreases, but does not prevent, the shrinkage and expansion of concrete due to drying and has no effect on tempera- ture changes. Reinforcement can not, therefore, entirely prevent cracks, but seems to distribute them and keep them small. 9. Concrete roads are affected by both temperature and moisture. When the drainage is good and the sub-base not wet, the temperature effects seem to be most important. A wet sub-base may add to the temperature expansion by about 0.01 to 0.02 per cent. The restrain- ing effect of ‘friction at the base seems to be almost negligible when figuring temperature and moisture expansion and contraction. In very dry climates shrinkage due to drying must be added to contrac- —« EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION OF CONCRETE. 81 tion due to fall in temperature. A shrinkage of 0.04 per cent (one- quarter inch in 50 feet) is a safe allowance due to drying. 10. Temperature at time of construction of road should be con- sidered in designing joints. Cold-weather construction requires a full allowance for temperature expansion and, on wet sub-bases, for mois- ture expansion also. Hot-weather construction theoretically requires no joints at all, even in wet sub-bases, as the temperature contraction exceeds the moisture expansion. However, the difficulty of keeping the cracks clear probably renders joints imperative. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ~ WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY V PY wWAY> met poy fae BORON any ay BY re or eae: fiero ah sr ia o Amory? ay ‘30544 eh pane tk: Hig yt: a eae fh eine pa ee roy . ‘aay ids aes 7 2 Pd \ ; ; : a Shs A: ae P iw | 4 ‘ Yona" A vem s+) oe . d a ’ . § ‘ er r 4 ee thi* ry ; * 5 igh oe ; ' : rs ar) ae: r fs feet ig? ey ' *2 ; ( 4 Me 2 t ze - y ts .. . t . Ne 22h “ , ; - } > < f : 3 ; ‘ Mon ‘ ee Sen, Vee « Ley | ” AL A a ek Eee s | ; 5 4 Paar et ee | Bea it, wee | elma” . f 5 , oy ob : | re . ‘ . . 4 ; \ * rey ‘ 7) ; ‘ 5 i ebPsT ‘ sit 7 A - . n , fi, aw] ‘ v yea , ‘, J ‘ % fix i er di . Z iT { ry ie: ia = i> 5 “is LY o.*% a s. ni i . a i &o $ ; , . eet oe i - ©, iH « NK 4 ? : “1 ‘ . c ~*~ { i Hod » e F ? > ' 3 ' rs o ’ * . ’ J ‘ UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 533 ¥ N Ss Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv Ifarch 3, 1917 EXTENSION OF COTTON PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA. By O. F. Coox, Bionomist, Bureau of Plant Industry. CONTENTS. Page Page PROG CLIOW EA crc ccaicclexccltacehcjscieeceineit sc 1 | Labor requirements of cotton...............- 9 Increasing demands for long-staple cotton... 2 | Cotton culture a community undertaking.. 11 New types of cotton available..............- 3 | Community control of gins and oil mills.... 12 Cotton formerly grown in California........ : 4 | Agricultural advantages of community or- Extent of possible cotton territory in Cali- PAMIZAAIDNeP as: Oe ae od ae el 13 aaa Saree Coal a gg coe reds (fas eT el (TIS) 1 oe aE ONE 14 atural conditions favorable........- Ht eas BE wa Publicat: t MUTTON 22 oeese cee ne 16 Returns that may be expected from cotton.. 8 CIS RES Ge Cups INTRODUCTION. Every season of scarcity and high prices brings renewed inquiries regarding the possibility of extending the production of cotton into new regions. The industrial uses of cotton are being increased more rapidly than facilities of production. As Europe produces scarcely any cotton, the industries of many countries are dependent upon im- ported raw materials. Manufacturers continually urge the need of developing more adequate and regular supplies, especially of the better classes of cotton fiber. Experience of the frequent fluctuations of crops and prices in the American cotton belt have led to numerous attempts, subsidized by associations of manufacturers or with the direct support of govern- ments, to increase the production of cotton in other parts of the world. Statistics show a decline in the proportion of the world’s cotton crop furnished by the United States. This means that the world’s demand for cotton has grown faster than the ability of this country to supply it, and that the production of cotton in other coun- tries is increasing more rapidly than here. Some parts of the American cotton belt have been too acutely de- pendent on this single crop. Many farmers who relied entirely upon 80473°—Bull. 5838—17 2 BULLETIN 533, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cotton were brought to disaster through the destruction of cotton by the boll weevil or by the loss of a market at the beginning of the European war. These crises were the more acute because cotton had been considered so long a safe crop and afforded new demonstrations of the danger of complete reliance of any community on a single crop. In California it is beginning to be understood that many com- munities are devoted too exclusively to special industries and that there is need of some such crop as cotton for opening the way toward a safer policy of more diversified farming. In many of the tropical and subtropical regions of Asia, Africa, and America, efforts are being made to establish cotton culture as colonial enterprises on a basis of permanent competition with the United States. There can hardly be a question of the desirability of utilizing our resources of production as far as feasible. One of these undeveloped resources is the production of Egyptian cotton, which experiments have shown to be possible in Arizona and Cali- fornia. The need of supplementing our importations of Egyptian cotton by domestic production has recently been very acute, and the high prices that are now being paid are attracting public attention to the possibilities of cotton growing in California. “INCREASING DEMANDS FOR LONG-STAPLE COTTON. No danger of direct competition with the older centers of cotton production in the Southeastern States is involved in the development of cotton culture in California, for the reason that it will be so ob- viously to the advantage of California to produce cotton that will not need to enter into competition with the South, such as the Egyptian cotton, which our manufacturers are importing on a scale of many millions of dollars every year. All previous records were exceeded in 1916,*with importations amounting to about 350,000 bales, valued at more than $35,000,000. The rapidly increasing demand for Egyptian and other superior types of cotton is due to a variety of causes, the most important being, undoubtedly, the enormous proportions attained by the auto- mobile tire-fabric industry and the greater attention being given by manufacturers, dealers, and the public generally to the fact that strength and durability of fabrics depend very largely on the quality of the cotton fiber. Recognition of this fundamental fact in rela- tion to automobile tires in time may be reflected in other branches of the textile industry and in turn lead eventually to a general elimi- nation of the enormous waste of industrial effort involved in the production, manufacture, and use of weak, inferior fiber. New communities can secure a great advantage in the production of long-staple cotton by limiting themselves to the planting of a single superior variety. In the older parts of the cotton belt, where EXTENSION OF COTTON PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA, 3 each farmer is likely to plant a different kind of cotton, the varieties can not be kept pure. The fiber deteriorates in quality and declines in market value. New varieties are introduced frequently, but these soon deteriorate through admixture and the neglect of selection. No general or permanent improvement can be expected as long as the condition of unorganized communities and miscellaneous plant- ing continues. . NEW TYPES OF COTTON AVAILABLE. As a result of experiments conducted by the Department of Agri- culture for several years past in the Southwestern States, the Egyptian type of cotton has been acclimatized and superior varieties have been bred, which are now being raised on a commercial scale in the Salt River Valley of Arizona. During the same period numerous experiments have shown that the Egyptian cotton is not well adapted to replace the Upland type of cotton, either in Texas or farther east. Susceptibility to injury by drought and disease both appear much greater under conditions in the cotton belt. The need of a longer growing season is another serious handicap for the Egyptian type of cotton in the eastern United States and would exclude it from competition with Upland cotton in all of the regions that are infested by the boll weevil.’ Even with the same long-staple variety grown in California as in the eastern districts, there may be no direct or injurious competition. — The conditions of soil, climate, and water supply in California are so different as to give the iint distinctive qualities, and there is less danger of the annual fluctuations in yield and quality of fiber that have made it unsafe for manufacturers to rely upon eastern long staples exclusively. The production of Durango cotton in the Im- perial Valley, by giving it a recognized place in the market, has served to stimulate the planting of this variety in eastern districts. This relation would doubtless continue even if the production of Durango cotton in California were greatly increased, for there seems likely to be a very large demand for this type of cotton if only it can be produced with such regularity that manufacturers can rely upon adequate supplies being available. The possibility that produc- tion might be increased more rapidly than the demand must be recognized, but it does not appear to be a present danger in view of the special scarcity and high prices of the Egyptian cotton. As eastern varieties of cotton have not proved to be well adapted to conditions in the irrigated districts of the Southwestern States, 1Thus, there are natural limitations to competition in either direction. The Egyp- tian type is sure to be preferred in the Southwestern States as long as higher prices make its cultivation more profitable. If other types are grown they are likely to be of the same general commercial character as the Egyptian, with fiber of special qualities that can not be produced to the same advantage in the Southeastern States. 4 BULLETIN 533, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. there is as little occasion for farmers to undertake to bring in Upland seed from the cotton belt as to get Egyptian seed from Egypt. To make importations of Egyptian or other foreign seed is contrary to regulations under the Federal plant-quarantine law and the State quarantine law of California and is extremely dangerous on account of the possibility of introducing the boll weevil or other parasites. The ravages of the pink bollworm in Egypt, India, and other regions show that it is a very serious pest, like the boll weevil. It is of the utmost importance to keep these insects out if cotton growing is to develop in California. While regular importations of seed are prevented, the public needs to be warned of the danger from seed that may be brought in casually by travelers or immigrants from foreign countries or by settlers from Texas or other weevil-infested States. COTTON FORMERLY GROWN IN CALIFORNIA. In the San Joaquin Valley, cotton growing can hardly be consid- ered as a new industry but rather as a return to a beginning that was made in the early years of the agricultural history of the State, in the middle of the last century, and maintained through the period of the Civil War and beyond. The Ninth Census, that for 1870, notes the production of 34 bales of cotton in San Diego County, but it is known that larger acreages of cotton were being planted in the San Joaquin Valley during this period. In the report of the Tenth Census, that for 1880, published in 1884, California was included with the other cotton-growing States on a basis of production of 295 bales, grown on 375 acres in Merced County, the lack of more complete statistics being explained by a note saying that “the enumeration schedules sent to this State did not include cotton.” In the general discussion of the conditions and prospects of cotton culture in California, also published in the Tenth Census report, plantings estimated at 1,500 to 2,000 acres are said to have been made in Merced County in 1873, and in that year a firm of Merced County growers made an export shipment of 22,886 pounds of cotton to Liverpool. This seems to have marked the climax of the early ef- forts, but areas of 350 to 500 acres continued to be planted in the next decade, or possibly later, though no cotton was returned from California in the Eleventh Census, that for 1890. Hilgard shows that cotton had begun to attract attention in Cali- fornia as far back as 1856, when a premium of $75 was offered by the State Agricultural Society for the best acre of cotton. In 1862 the State Legislature offered an aggregate of $6,500 in premiums for cotton in lots of 100 bales, the best lot to be rewarded with $3,000, but the prizes remained unclaimed until 1865, when the $3,000 was paid to a farmer in Los Angeles County who raised 108 acres, the yield EXTENSION OF COTTON PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA. 5 not being stated. The counties from which successful plantings were reported in the early period are Butte, Colusa, Fresno, Kern, Lake, Los Angeles, Merced, Sacramento, San Diego, Santa Pama Shasta, Sutter, Tulare, and Yolo. Other counties supposed to afford conditions favorable for cotton were Napa, Sonoma, and Tehama. The general conclusions reached by Hilgard from his detailed investi- gations of the California cotton industry in 1879 were stated as follows: From the record above given it appears that cotton has been successfully grown at many points, practically covering the whole of the great valley, a part of the foothill lands of Shasta and a part of Napa County, and to the southward all the agricultural portion of the southern region. By inference drawn from similarity of climate and products, without direct test, we may include within the possible cotton-growing portions of the State the valleys of Napa and Sonoma, the agricultural portion of Lake County, the foothill region of Tehama, and the entire lower foothills of the Sierra. On the other hand, all the bay region, as well as the seaward valleys of the entire Coast Range, are excluded from the cotton-growing area by reason of the cool summers, trade winds, and fogs to which they are subject. .In addition it may be broadly stated that in the Sacramento Valley cotton may on deep soils be grown without irrigation, while in the San Joaquin Valley it, like all other crops, must be irrigated to insure profitable returns. The best experience seems, moreover, to indicate that, as in the case of the vine, the minimum irrigation that will enable the plant to develop is that which on the whole gives the best results, inasmuch as late irrigation especially tends to retard the opening of the bolls and in the low portions of the fields to start new growth, leaving the older bolls stationary. The Sea Island variety is a failure thus far wherever tried. That cotton culture has not assumed larger proportions in California as yet is adequately explained by the fact that the home market is, in the absence of cotton factories, extremely limited, and the long distance from the world’s markets renders competition with the Atlantic Cotton States on the one hand and with India on the other a doubtful matter, which could be turned in favor of California only by exceptional circumstances, such as peculiar excellence of the staple. At the same time, cotton production has been found profitable so far as the home demand has gone, and good prices have been obtained; and when exported the California staple has rated high in SOMES with the average product of the Gulf States. What, then, are the inducements toward an expansion of cotton culture in California and the possible establishment of cotton factories on the coast to create a home demand? With the equalization of the prices of labor, in consequence of increased facilities of communication, there certainly is no reason why the home demand for cotton goods on the Pacific coast should not be supplied from home growth and manufacture, and there is reason why it might secure a large share of the Asiatic market, with which it is in the most direct connection.’ Hilgard referred to plantings of Sea Island cotton in several locali- ties, but in no case was success reported from this type of cotton. In 1 Hilgard, E. W. Report on the physical and agricultural features of the State of California, with a discussion of the present and future ef cotton production in the State... p. 76-77. In U.S. Dept. Int., Census Off., 10th Census, y. 6, pt. 2. 1884, 6 BULLETIN 533, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a published newspaper article an ill-advised planting of over 500 acres of Sea Island cotton in Colusa County was mentioned. The cot- ton had only begun to bloom in October when the crop should have been ripe; yet a few Upland plants that grew in the same field had fruited abundantly. The best results were claimed for Upland short staples from Tennessee and Georgia, but an Upland long-staple va- riety called “ Petit Gulf,” from Louisiana, is said to have done well in several places. Cotton was urged by Hilgard as a better crop than wheat for many of the lands of the central valleys, on the ground of being less likely to lead to exhaustion of the soil, as less likely to lead to harmful con- centration of alkali in the surface layers of the soil on account of being a tillage crop, and as needing less water for irrigation purposes than other crops that had been proposed as substitutes for wheat. The point was made that cotton could be exported while alfalfa could not, and that the California grower would have a great advantage over his southern competitor in not having to “fight the grass.” It is evident throughout Hilgard’s report that he looked upon cot- ton as one of the California industries that were sure to develop, and this idea finds very definite expression in the statement that closes his general discussion: Keeping all these points in view, the writer can not but think that the wider introduction of cotton culture into California is but a question of time, and that in many respects it will serve to improve the agricultural prosperity of the State. EXTENT OF POSSIBLE COTTON TERRITORY IN CALIFORNIA. Of new territory readily available for cotton in the United States, California probably has the largest areas. Recent demonstrations of cotton possibilities have been afforded by the beginnings that have been made in the Imperial Valley and the Colorado Valley in extreme southern California, but the San Joaquin and other more northern valleys contain much larger areas of irrigated or readily irrigable land that might be used for cotton. Hilgard estimated that one-third of the agricultural land of the State lay in the central valleys, with an area of more than 17,000 square miles. While only a part of this territory is suited to cotton, it seems not unreasonable to suppose that the central valleys might produce about 10 times as much cotton as the Imperial Valley. It is to be expected that much of the cotton will be grown on the level lands in the open valley where fruits and other tender crops are excluded by low winter temperatures, but places may also be found for cotton as an additional crop in communities that are now devoted to fruit growing or other industries. Indeed, the best results are likely to be secured, at least at first, in communities that are already EXTENSION OF COTTON PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA. a established and well organized on the basis of other crops. Farmers who are familiar with the local conditions and have only to learn the requirements of the new crop are likely to make better progress than those who have everything to learn, as in communities formed of new settlers, some of them with no agricultural experience and others persisting in the use of methods to which they have been ac- customed in other regions, but which are not adapted to the special conditions and requirements of the irrigated districts. NATURAL CONDITIONS FAVORABLE. That natural conditions of soil and climate very favorable for cotton culture are to be found in the interior valleys of California - has been shown again in recent years by the behavior of series of different kinds of cotton that have been grown and studied at several points representing the general range of climatic conditions—Red Bluff, Chico, Marysville, Davis, Stockton, Dos Palos, Visalia, Exeter, Semitropic, and Bakersfield. The general result of these experimental plantings has been to leave no doubt that cotton is able to make normal growth and mature good crops in the warmer districts of the interior valleys; that is, in the northern part of the Sacramento Valley and the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley. The most successful plantings have been those at Bakersfield and Semitropic in Kern County, and at Dos Palos in Merced County, where the plants were extremely well grown and productive, with bolls of very large size and lint of ex- cellent quality, results that are obtained only under conditions thoroughly favorable for the development of the plants. Much more extensive experiments would be necessary to determine how far cotton culture might be carried toward the cooler climate of the Bay districts in the central part of the State by using early short- season varieties or selecting for adaptation to the local conditions, but no special difficulties seem likely to be encountered in the warmer parts of the valleys. The cotton plant is able to thrive on a great variety of soils, a moderate but regular supply of moisture being the chief requirement. While the plants are able to survive drought, the crop is likely to be injured by any extreme condition that checks or forces the growth of the plants. It has to be expected that any undertakings with a new crop, wherever the beginnings may be made, must pass through an experi- mental period, in order to test fully the possibilities of the soil and local climatic conditions and determine the methods that can be ap- plied to the greatest advantage. The most that can be said at present is that practical experiments with cotton are likely to be justified in any of the warmer districts where soils of reasonable fertility and adequate supplies of water are available. 8 BULLETIN 533, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, It is very desirable that experimental efforts in cotton growing be limited to communities in which the general agricultural conditions, as well as the present interests and activities of the community, are such as to give ground for a reasonable expectation that an annual irrigated crop like cotton, if found to thrive, would be likely to be- come a permanent resource. For a few scattered individual farmers to plant cotton in communities that are not likely to engage regularly in its production is not advisable. It is expensive to ship cotton seed and not worth while to install gins and oil mills male the pro- duction of cotton reaches convener proportions. RETURNS THAT MAY BE EXPECTED FROM COTTON. The first step toward the commercial planting of cotton, or con- sidering it as a practical alternative of any other crop, is to determine whether cotton is likely to be more profitable or at least sufficiently remunerative to be added to the existing series of crops. Undoubt- edly the chief obstacle to the production of cotton on a large scale in the San Joaquin Valley and other districts of California lies in the fact that attention has been directed to other industries that have been considered more profitable than cotton growing. While cotton | can probably be grown on many lands that are now used only for grain or pasture, it seems reasonable to expect that at least the first beginnings with cotton in new localities will be made by farmers who are already settled on the land and engaged in the production of fruit or other intensive crops. Even at the highest prices for cotton it should not be expected to compete with the bonanza figures that are sometimes realized from fruit crops. Though acre returns of $150 or even $200 are not alto- gether impossible, they can be obtained only in exceptional conjunc- tions of very large yields and very high prices, like those that ruled in the season Bi 1916, when 40 cents and upward per pound was ob- tained. — The most that can be considered as a reasonable expectation from cotton at moderate, normal prices is a gross return of $75 to $100 per acre. This is on the basis of Durango or some other Upland long-staple variety selling between 15 and 20 cents a pound and yield- ing at the rate of a bale per acre, which requires favorable conditions and good farming. The cost of production per pound increases with every reduction in yield, because the cultural operations and the ir- rigation water have to be applied to poor-yielding cotton as well as to good. With a yield of a bale of 500 pounds of lint cotton the cost of pick- ing an acre of the Durango variety is between $15 and $20, an amount about equal to the total cost of the previous care of the crop, EXTENSION OF COTTON PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA. 9 so that half of the return, or $35 to $50 an acre, may be reckoned as a net gain from the farm operations. With Egyptian cotton, the cost of picking must be reckoned as about double that of Durango, and the ginning of Egyptian cotton is also more expensive, roller gins being required instead of saw gins, which are used for Upland staples. To make good these differences, a premium of 4 or 5 cents a pound for the lint is necessary to render the Egyptian more profit- able, but the new and rapidly increasing demand for Egyptian cot- ton for automobile tires and other industrial uses, and the stationary or declining production in Egypt favor a substantial premium for Egyptian. It may be that yields will average higher with Durango, in view of the fact that Egyptian cotton requires a longer season to mature a full crop, though with favorable conditions Egyptian may yield as much as Durango. Profits of $150 to $250 per acre are claimed for growers of Egyptian cotton in the Salt River Valley in 1916, but these must be considered as altogether exceptional and cer- tainly not to be used as a basis of calculation. It is possible that difficulties may be encountered in providing roller gins in case a greatly increased acreage of Egyptian cotton should be planted in Arizona and southern California in the season of 1917. Roller gins are not made in the United States, but have to _ be imported from England. The demand for them has been limited in the past to the Sea Island districts of the South Atlantic States. \ LABOR REQUIREMENTS OF COTTON. That the labor requirements of the cotton crop have not been well understood in California may be one of the chief reasons why more efforts have not been made to extend this industry before. The popu- lar idea that large supplies of very cheap labor must be available, as in Egypt, India, China, and formerly in the American cotton belt, has been shown to be erroneous. The last and most striking demon- stration of this fact is the establishment of Egyptian cotton produc- tion in the Salt River Valley of Arizona. Although labor appeared to cost about 10 times as much in Arizona as in Egypt—$2 a day, as compared with 20 cents—it has been possible by the use of farm machinery, improved cultural methods, and especially the breeding of better and more uniform varieties of cotton to make good the differences in cost of hand labor. Egyptian cotton has been grown to advantage in Arizona for several years past, during a period of unusually low prices. The chief difficulty in the newly settled southwestern communities is not that the cost of labor is prohibitive, but that not enough labor is available when needed. This seems to have been the difficulty that was encountered in the early attempts at cotton culture in the San 10 BULLETIN 533, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Joaquin Valley, as it has been in recent years in the Imperial Valley and the Salt River Valley of Arizona. The supply of farm labor now available in the San Joaquin Valley certainly is very much greater than it was half a century ago, when irrigation agriculture was new. How much of the available labor can be applied with advantage to the care and harvesting of a cottan crop is a question that must be decided independently in each community. Experience gained in Arizona and elsewhere in the United States in recent years does not indicate that the cotton industry requires or is limited to the use of cheap and irresponsible labor. Dependence on such labor tends rather to injure and restrict the development of cotton culture by keeping it on a low plane, limited to inferior varieties and mixed seed, so that poor and uneven lint is produced, the value of which is still further depreciated by careless harvesting and handling. When the several unnecessary wastes and losses are taken into account and the possibilities of avoiding these are recognized, one is brought inevitably to see that the very best quality of agricultural » skill and of careful, intelligent labor can be utilized in the production of cotton and that the industry is much more hkely to prosper if it can leave behind the traditiongof cheap labor. Hence, it is not neces- sary to suppose that the establishment of cotton culture in California would increase the present dependence on transient labor. It seems quite as likely to add to the permanent population by making it easier for new settlers to establish themselves. ; Farm work with cotton is not of a nature to be considered as heavier or more laborious than with crops that are already grown in California. Methods of plowing, preparation, and seeding are not unlike those for corn or other tillage crops. Thinning and cultivat- ing make less demands than for sugar beets. The gathering of the . crop, though representing by far the largest item of labor cost in the production, is neither a heavy nor an unpleasant kind of work in comparison with the harvesting of many other crops. In com- munities of new settlers or where women and children share in the outdoor work of the farm, the planting by each family of small acre- ages that could be handled without extra labor would be worthy of consideration. ‘The lint as it hangs exposed in the open bolls is perfectly clean and must be kept in that condition if it is to have the highest market value. } Careless picking diminishes the value of the fiber to the manufac- turer because additional labor and machinery are required to clean the carelessly picked cotton and because some of the fiber is turned into waste as a result of the cleaning operations. An estimate of what it costs the manufacturers every year to overcome by machinery and mill labor the results of carelessness and ignorance in the produc- EXTENSION OF COTTON PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA. 11 tion and handling of cotton would run far into the millions, and even into the hundreds of millions. Thus, there is reason to believe that refinements in methods of production and handling, like those that have been worked out in California for fruits and other special prod- ucts, could be appled with very great advantage to cotton. AI- though cotton is not a perishable product, its value depends very largely upon the condition in which it is placed upon the market. Taking into account the experience that agricultural communities in California have had in working out and applying special methods of production, handling, and marketing their crops, it would seem that the possibilities of producing cotton of the highest quality and placing it in the market in the best condition are more likely to be attained in that State. Another advantage of cotton as an element of diversified farm- ing is that it is less exigent than most other crops in demanding labor at particular times. Cotton can be planted early and thinned early or planted late and thinned late if allowance be made by leav- ing the plants of the later thinnings closer together. Early plant- ings may be made in March or as soon as the danger of cold weather is past, but the planting may continue through April and May. Even June plantings are sometimes successful. _ Unlike fruits and other perishable products that have to be gath- ered and shipped or cured at once or within a very few days after the proper stage of maturity is reached, cotton can be picked through a long season. The bolls open at maturity, but the cotton remains in place and in dry weather suffers no injury by being left on the plants for a week, or even a month. The picking season may extend over a period of two, three, or four months. In the interior valleys of California cotton begins to open in Sep- tember. Picking probably would commence soon after the grape harvest and extend through November or even till Christmas. It is better, of course, not to wait too long after the bolls have opened, for some of the cotton is likely to fall out or become soiled or stained from rain or dust. But even these contingencies, while they reduce the value of the cotton, do not result in total loss, as they would with many other crops. COTTON CULTURE A COMMUNITY UNDERTAKING. With: general reference to the warmer parts of the San Joaquin and Sacramento Valleys it may be said that the chief question is not whether cotton could be grown or whether its culture could be made as profitable as others that are being followed, but whether there are communities of farmers who will organize for such an undertaking. Some form of organization is a practical necessity for beginning cotton culture in a new region. Unlike many other crops that can 12 BULLETIN 533, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. be grown to some advantage even on a very small scale and either used in the household or sold for local consumption, an icolated in- dividual farmer can hope for no advantage from the planting of a small acreage in cotton. The peearanee of cotton pulfama dt in the South Atlantic States can be traced back to the time when spinning and weaving were house- hold industries and cotton was made into cloth and used on the same plantation where it was raised; but with the modern organiza- tion of the industry cotton has become a strictly commercial crop, grown only to be sent to market. ‘The effect is to limit the produc- tion of cotton to districts where facilities for marketing exist or to communities that can begin cotton culture on such a scale as to enable these facilities to be provided. In order to send cotton to market it has to be ginned, to separate the seed from the fiber, and packed into bales. For both of these operations special machinery is required; not very expensive ma- chinery, it is true, but too expensive for the individual farmer to install for any ordinary farm acreage of cotton. Unless a commu- nity appears likely to plant 1,000 acres or more of cotton the in- stallation of ginning machinery can hardly be considered advisable, either by the community itself or by an independent ginning com- pany. It is not absolutely necessary that large acreages be planted the first year, since the cotton from small experimental plantings in a new community can usually be shipped to some established center where gins are in operation or can be held over in case it is decided to plant on a commercial scale during the next year. Still larger acreages must be in prospect if a community is to be provided with its own oil mill, which is necessary for disposing of the seed to the best advantage. Oil-mill equipments are more expen- sive than gins, but they are not beyond the reach of large and well- organized communities, like those that own and operate fruit-packing houses and many similar undertakings in California. COMMUNITY CONTROL OF GINS AND OIL MILLS. Control of the gin and oil-mill equipment by the community is very desirable, not only for the financial reason of enabling the growers to secure a larger share of the profits of the industry but also for more directly agricultural reasons. It is out of the question to maintain pure stocks of seed without special precautions that are very seldom observed at privately operated commercial gins. The mixing of different varieties or stocks of seed at the gin is the most frequent cause of deterioration of the varieties, the result being to destroy the uniformity of the fiber and lessen the commercial value of the cotton produced by the community. ae EXTENSION OF COTTON PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA. 13 The careless ginning of the cotton may seriously impair the value of the fiber, injure the reputation of the product of the community, and keep the farmer from getting a full price for his crop. Long staples are more likely to suffer in this respect than short staples, for there is greater need of careful ginning. Ginning is often con- sidered by oil-mill companies a merely incidental line of business. Another way in which ill-advised management of oil mills has been known to interfere with the agricultural development of commu- nities is by bringing in and recommending: to the farmers seed of inferior varieties in complete disregard of the chief interest of the community on the side of producing superior fiber. In some cases attempts have.even been made by .the use of financial pressure to | force upon farmers the planting of varieties that were distinctly inferior in quality of fiber, but were supposed to promise profits for the oil business. AGRICULTURAL ADVANTAGES OF COMMUNITY ORGANIZATION. In addition to the need of special care to avoid mixing seed of dif- ferent kinds of cotton, there is equal need to prevent crossing in the field, which is likely to occur whenever two kinds of cotton are planted close together or even in neighboring fields. The pollen of the cotton plant is not blown about by the wind, because the surface of the grains is sticky and adherent, but bees and other insects carry the pollen, sometimes for half a mile or more. The closer the fields the greater, of course, is the liability of crossing, so that in thickly set- tled communities it becomes practically impossible for the individual farmer to maintain a pure stock of a superior variety of cotton. The simplest and most effective way to avoid these dangers of admixture and deterioration of varieties is for communities to organize for the production of a single variety. The variety should be determined, whenever possible, by preliminary experimental com- parisons of the behavior of the more promising sorts grown under the local conditions. The most effective test is to plant several small blocks, consisting of four or five rows of each variety, alternately in the same field, and to record the pickings of each row separately. Such tests are being conducted by the Department of Agriculture in cooperation with communities located in different parts of the cotton belt. With only one variety grown in the community it becomes possible to preserve its purity and uniformity by selection. It is useless to expect that the fiber will continue to be uniform if the stock is allowed to deteriorate through seed admixture or cross-pollination. This not only lessens the commercial value of the fiber but diminishes the yields, the aberrant plants being less fertile than the normal in- 14 BULLETIN 533, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. dividuals. Failure to maintain the purity of stocks is the basis of the popular belief that varieties of cotton soon run out. No variety ~ should be expected to remain uniform unless selection is continued and admixture with other varieties prevented. In addition to this primary consideration of maintaining the purity and uniformity of varieties, organized communities can deal to better advantage with most of the problems of production and marketing of the crop. Cultural methods are likely- to be much better understood and more skillfully applied in a community where only one kind of cotton is grown and differences between varieties are not being confused with effects of cultural methods, soils, or sea- sonal conditions. - Marketing problems are also greatly simplified in communities that can offer commercial quantities of one superior variety of cot- ton. The classing of the cotton is a function of the community organization, whether done by local talent or by an expert employed by the community. Classing is necessary not only for selling the cotton at its true value, but for using the bales as security for loans, in case the farmer lacks ready money to meet the cost of picking or wishes to hold his cotton for better prices. Communities that have a regular system of classing and warehousing their cotton are able to arrange for loans on better terms than the individual farmer. Community action is also very important in relation to insect pests or plant diseases. Measures of protection that can be expected to do very little good if applied only by scattering individual farmers may be rendered very effective if used by the entire community. This is notably true of the precautions that are advised against the boll weevil, but is likely to be equally so with any other parasite or dis- ease that may appear in any district. If only a few of the parasitic insects or diseased plants are destroyed, the farmer who takes the precautions may fare no better than his more careless neighbors, but if it were possible to get action by the entire community the effect of any remedial measure would be definitely shown. CONCLUSIONS. Cotton was grown in California half a century ago, but the early attempts were made on a basis of direct competition with the South, which could not be maintained when normal conditions had been ' reestablished after the Civil War. The present possibilities of de- velopment of cotton culture in California le in the direction of pro- ducing Egyptian or other special types of long-staple cotton. The demand for cotton of the Egyptian type is increasing rapidly and not likely to be met by increased production in Egypt, where the crop is endangered by the invasion of a new insect pest. EXTENSION OF COTTON PRODUCTION IN CALIFORNIA. 15 Experimental plantings in the region of Bakersfield indicate that the Egyptian type of cotton can be grown in the southern part of the San Joaquin Valley. No assurance can be given that Egyptian cot- ton will mature a crop outside of the Bakersfield-Fresno region. If plantings are to be made in the northern part of the San Joaquin Valley or in the Sacramento Valley, the Durango cotton or other long-staple Upland varieties are more likely to succeed, since they do not require as long a season as the Egyptian. While cotton inpeee larger demands for hand labor ‘ion many other crops its requirements for attention at particular times usually are not so acute, which renders it well adapted for fitting in with other crops to’ form practical systems of diversified agriculture. Labor is needed chiefly at the picking season, which comes in the fall after the grapes and most ef the other fruit crops have been harvested. Although favorable natural conditions may be found in many places, it is not advisable to attempt to grow cotton on a commercial scale except in communities that can be organized for this purpose, so. as to have an assured prospect of production on such a scale as to warrant the establishment, preferably under community auspices, of the ginning establishments and oil mills that are a part of the neces- sary equipment of a cotton-producing community. Farmers in California are advised against undertaking the plant- ing of cotton on a merely individual basis, not only because of the difficulties of handling and marketing a new crop to advantage, but also in order to avoid as far as possible the danger of attempts being made to bring in cotton seed either from the cotton belt or from Egypt. Such importations of cotton seed are now forbidden by Fed- eral and State regulations, the object being to prevent the introduc- tion of the boll weevil from the cotton belt and the pink bollworm from Egypt. Another reason for advising that efforts to establish cotton culture be centralized in communities is that much more effective cooperation can be extended by the different branches of the Department of Agri- culture that have been working in recent years in cooperation with new communities. The nature of the cotton industry is such that many things can be done by communities which are impracticable for the farmer who attempts to grow and market his crop individually. Efforts to establish the cotton industry in new districts have, of necessity, to pass through an experimental period in order to deter- mine the best variety to be grown, the special cultural methods re- quired by the local conditions, the form of organization adapted to the community, and the most desirable system of handling and mar- keting, as well as to solve other problems that are encountered in developing new communities. 16 BULLETIN 533, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PUBLICATIONS ON COTTON CULTURE. The following publications relating to the Egyptian and Durango cotton and to methods of cotton culture that are used in irrigated districts of Arizona and southern California have been issued by the Department of Agriculture: Brand, C. J. Improved methods of handling and marketing cotton. Jn U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1912, p. 448-462, pl. 53-56. 1913. Cook, O. F. Cotton improvement on a community basis. U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1911, p. 397-410. 1912. Cotton farming in the Southwest. In U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cire. 182, p. 9-18. 1913. affecting the production of long-staple cotton. In U. 8S. Dept. Agr Aes Plant Indus. Cire. 123, p. 3-9. 1913. A new system of cotton culture. In U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cire. 115, p. 15-22. 1913. Single-stalk cotton culture. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. [Misc. Pub.] 1130, 11 p., 12 fig. 1914. Hudson, E. W. Preparation of land for Hgyptian cotton in the Salt River Valley, Arizona. In U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cire, 110, p. 17-20. 1913. Growing Egyptian cotton in the Salt River Valley, elaine U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 577, 8 p. 1914. Kearney, T. H. Breeding new types of Egyptian cotton. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 200, 39 p., 4 pl. 1910. Seed selection of Egyptian cotton. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 38, 8 p. 1913. McLachlan, Argyle. The branching habits of Egyptian cotton. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 249, 28 p., 1 fig., 3 pl. 1912, Community production of Durango cotton in the Imperial Valley. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 324,16 p. 1915. Martin, J. G. The handling and marketing of the Arizona-Egyptian cotton of the Salt River Valley. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 311, 16 p., 3 pl. 1915. Scofield, C. S., Kearney, T. H., Brand, C. J., Cook, O. F., and Swingle, W. T. Community production of Egyptian cotton in the United States. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 332, p. 28-30. 1916. This bulletin contains an approximately com- plete list of earlier publications relating to experiments with Egyptian cotton in the Southwestern States. Taylor, Fred, and Dean, W. 8. Comparative spinning tests of the different grades of Arizona-Egyptian with Sea Island and Sakellaridis Egyptian cot- tons. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 359, 21 p. 1916. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5CENTS PER COPY Vv WASHINGTON : GOVPRNMDNT PRINTING OFFICH : 1917 ? a vy + : : UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER June 28, 1917 APPLE BLOTCH AND ITS CONTROL. By JoHn W. ROBERTS, Pathologist, Fruit-Disease Investigations. CONTENTS. Page Page. TT OMM CE OMM ate sch ects aoe at peek seoseeee 1 | Weather conditions...............-......---- 8 Description of apple blotch .....-.-..-..--.--- 2 | Relative susceptibility of apple varieties. -.-. 9 Cause of the disease.............---.--------- 3 | Remedial measures................-.-------- 9 Review of the literature..........------ Soabe 3 IP SUMM ayyayses- cee obec. See cele wath sertsaiceeas 10 RH CMM OTIS HP ache esis oh cae eiein- sine oesaee AN | MUIGERAtUEC CLLCM a icete cise sicisicie ssieeninis camiaceces ii Cultural relations......0.2.2..-2-25-02.-5-0224 8 INTRODUCTION. In the more southern apple-growing sections of the United States the disease known as apple blotch is one of the most destructive with which orchardists have to contend. It first came generally to the notice of plant pathologists about 15 years ago and soon after- wards was regarded as important throughout southern apple-growing sections. As early as 1895 the disease was recognized by Mr. M. B. Waite, pathologist of the Bureau of Plant Industry. He photo- graphed the diseased fruits and determined the organism present to be a species of Phyllosticta. His photographs, which are on file in the Office of Fruit-Disease Investigations, show that he was work- ing with typical specimens of the disease. The fact that blotch was previously confused with apple scab by growers, because both of these diseases occur comparatively early in the season, accounts for the rather late recognition of its importance. Blotch is not so universally distributed, even throughout the South, as scab. While in some sections it will be found in practically every Nore.—This bulletin is of interest to plant .pathologists and to the apple growers of Llercastenn half of the United States, especially those of the more southerly apple-growing sections. 81030°—17 1 2 BULLETIN 534, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. orchard, in other sections it is only locally severe. The former is the case in the Ozarks of Missouri and Arkansas and in the commercial apple-growing sections of Kansas, while the latter is true in Virginia and Maryland. On account of the above-mentioned facts it is very difficult to com- pute the amount of damage caused by the disease, but it is probable that $2,000,000 would be a conservative estimate of the annual loss due to it. . In orchards in which blotch has not been placed under control by spraying, the entire crop of susceptible varieties may succumb to the disease and the trees themselves may be severely injured, in extreme cases even killed. Losses of 50 to 75 per cent of the entire crop are common in some sections. The disease is, found in practically all the eastern and middle- western apple-growing regions from Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, northern Missouri, and Nebraska southward. It is most serious and widely prevalent in Kansas, southern Missouri, northern Arkansas, Tennessee, and Kentucky. It is also a serious disease in fruit-growing sections bordering on or near the Ohio River. In Vir- ginia and Maryland it is only locally severe, but it has become much more prevalent during the last two years. Blotch has been gradually extending farther north, but should not become serious in properly sprayed orchards. In those sections which have been free from the disease and in which a fungicide such as lime-sulphur solution or Bordeaux mixture is annually applied to apple trees about three weeks after the petals have fallen, blotch should not be able to gain a foothold. DESCRIPTION OF APPLE BLOTCH. Blotch occurs on the fruit, foliage, and twigs of the apple. On the fruit it first appears as small dark, somewhat raised spots, which later enlarge slowly. Usually these spots have in midseason a dark fringed or stellate appearance, though on some varieties, such as Maiden Blush, the center of the spots may be somewhat more raised or blisterlike in appearance and of rather light color, due to the raised cuticle (PI. I, figs. 2 and 3). A later phase of this disease on the fruit is the coalescence of sev- eral spots, a general homogeneous darkening, with complete elimina- tion of the stellate configuration typical of earlier stages. On some varieties, notably Ben Davis, a cracking open of the fruit often in three micemicas from a central point, is very common in orchards in which the disease is at all serious (PI. I, fig. 1). A characteristic spot is raised, alistening black, with ei so deeply cut in and so irregular as to give the spot its commonly noted stellate appearance (PI. I, fig. 4). The tissues beneath the epi- APPLE BLOTCH AND ITS CONTROL. 8 dermis are not invaded directly and are affected only indirectly as the diseased epidermis may permit the entrance of rot organisms or as extensive cracking may affect the flesh. Not only may the fruit be cracked open and otherwise made unsightly by the disease, but in severe cases it may be so dwarfed and distorted as to be wholly worth- less. Kven on very young spots the tiny glistening pycnidia of the causal fungus are always in evidence. On the leaves (PI. II, figs. 1 and 2) the disease appears as small nearly white spots scarcely more than a millimeter in diameter. Usu- ally a single pycnidium of the fungus is to be found near the center of the spot. Under ordinary conditions blotch is not to be considered a serious foliage disease, but in cases where an orchard is severely in- fected the spots on the leaves are numerous enough to affect seriously the synthesis of carbohydrates and even cause defoliation. On the young twigs and water sprouts the disease is first noticed as a dark raised area, soon dotted with numerous pycnidia. Later the infected part becomes somewhat sunken. As the twig becomes more mature the infected portion becomes lighter colored, and during the next season the diseased area will appear as an older tan-colored portion surrounded by a newer dark-colored area (Pl. II, figs. 3 and 4). In the older portion the fungus is dead, but in the newer portion it will be found alive, extending the previous year’s destruc- tion. In ordinary cases not many twigs are killed and few are badly injured (PI. IT, fig. 6) ; but in sections in which the disease is severe, and especially on certain varieties, such as the Northwestern (North- western Greening), the infection may be so severe as actually to kill the tree. The fruit spurs may be attacked and in extreme cases even killed. In uncared-for orchards or in orchards in which the disease has been very prevalent and without proper control by means of spraying, many of the fruit spurs may be injured seriously. CAUSE OF THE DISEASE. The cause of the disease is the fungus Phyllosticta solitaria, first described by Ellis and Everhart (2)* in 1895. The type specimen was found on the leaves of the wild crab apple (Pyrus coronaria L.). The specific name is suggestive of the tendency of the fungus to form a single pycnidium in each spot on the leaf. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE. In 1902 Clinton (1) published a description of the disease as it occurs on the fruit of the apple and considered it due to an unknown species of Phyllosticta. He also noted that pycnidia on the fruit produced fewer spores as the season advanced. 1 The serial numbers in parentheses refer to ‘‘ Literature cited,’ p. 11. ars ie 4 BULLETIN 534, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In 1907 Scott and Quaintance (5) described the disease and gave tentative recommendations for its control. The first extensive report on the life history of the fungus and the first definite recommendations for its control were published by Scott and Rorer (6) in 1907. Later (1909), by comparison with type speci- mens they identified the fungus definitely as Phyllosticta solitaria E. and E. and determined by cross inoculations that the fungus found on leaves, fruit, and twigs is identical. They further determined that the fungus passes from one season to another in small cankers on the twigs. Sheldon (7) in 1907 reported the presence of the fungus on twigs. He was the first to identify the fungus as Phyllosticta solitaria FE. and E. and gave a good description of the disease on leaves, fruit, and twigs. Lewis (3) gave a detailed description of the disease on the fruits of different varieties and noted particularly the destruction of fruit spurs. THE FUNGUS. The life history of the causal organism has been traced by Scott and Rorer and by Sheldon. They found that the fungus passes the winter alive in the small twig cankers, where it grows and develops spores the following spring. From this source the young fruit, leaves, and twigs become infected early in the season. Later, spores from the spots of apples thus affected may spread the disease farther during the current season. Scott and Rorer found almost no spores in mummied fruits of the preceding year and concluded that mummies were not a source of the spring infections. At different times during the spring of 1915 the writer undertook to examine for spores something more than a bushel of mummied fruits that had been badly affected with blotch during the preceding year. The varieties selected were Ben Davis and Mis- sourl (Missouri Pippin), both of which are very susceptible to the disease. On the average, six blotched areas on each apple, especially selected for the large number of pycnidia contained in them, were examined. The period during which the mummied fruits were col- lected and examined extended from April 1 to June 1, 1915. The fruits were from trees particularly noted during the preceding year as heavily infected with the disease. It was thought that by examin- ing such specimens at intervals during this period it could be ascer- tained (1) whether spores remained in the pycindia through the winter, (2) whether an ascogenous form was produced during the winter or spring, and (3) whether new pycnidia with spores were produced after the growing season started in the spring. All the material was sectioned on the freezing microtome and examined care- Bul. 534, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. APPLE BLOTCH. 1, Ben Davis apple, showing cracking due to blotch, Bentonville, Ark., August 10, 1914; 2 and 3, Maiden Blush apples affected with blotch, Anderson, Mo., July 8, 1915; 4, Yellow Newtown apple affected with blotch, Greenwood, Va., August 6, 1916. Bul. 534, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il. APPLE LEAVES AND Twi@s SHOWING BLOTCH. 4 i and 2, Leaves of the Arkansas Black variety, with spots caused by the blotch fungus, Centerton, Ark., July 31, 1915; 3, 1-year-old blotch canker on Ben Davis apple twig, Bentonville, Ark., 1914; 4, 2-year-old blotch canker on Ben Davis appis eres Bentonville, Ark., 1914; 5, leaf of the Missouri variety, showing lesions on petiole and midrib produced by artificial inoculation with apo of Phyllosticta solitaria from pure cultures; 6, an older blotch canker on a Ben Davis twig, Bentonville, Ark., September 9, 1916. APPLE BLOTCH AND ITS CONTROL. 5 fully under the microscope. In the old pycnidia no spores were found. No ascogenous stage and no newly formed pycnidia were discovered. The fungus appears to be in no way saprophytic, since not only does it fail to live over on decayed fruits, but it dies out in the older parts of the twig cankers, living only along the margins and dying out entirely in the third or fourth year as the twig be- comes more woody. In order to confirm the cross-inoculation experiments of Scott and Rorer, in which the disease was produced on the fruit by spores from twig lesions and on the twigs by spores from diseased fruits, the writer undertook a series of experiments differing from those of Scott and Rorer in that the latter used spores taken directly from twig lesions and diseased fruits, whereas those of the writer were made with spores from pure cultures from those sources. The fungus isolated from twigs and fruits from Kansas was grown on sterile apple twigs in pure culture, and when the spores were mature a suspension of them in sterile water was sprayed on leaves, fruit, and twigs. Inoculations were made on twigs, water sprouts, and fruits of the Missouri variety on July 6. On August 7 typical blotch spots began to appear on the leaf blades and petioles, with an abun- dance of fertile pycnidia in the dark sunken lesions on the petioles and midribs (PI. II, fig. 5). Minute spots on the fruits also were beginning tod appear. On September 6 the spots on leaves and fruits were numerous and conspicuous. The disease was beginning to appear also on the twigs and water sprouts. By September 14 lesions on the stem portion of the water sprouts and twigs were appearing abundantly. These were black raised areas, bearing numerous pycnidia filled with spores, and were only on the younger portions of the twigs and water sprouts. The fungus was reisolated from leaves, fruit, and twigs and reidentified as Phyllosticta solitaria. The writer at various times has attempted to infect the fruit in August and September with spores from pure cultures, but without success. Apparently fruit and twigs become resistant as they grow older, possibly through the increasing impermeability of the epider- mis and the changing of stomata to lenticels. The heaviest infections on fruit occur early in the season, decreasing as the season advances. This is due, not only to a decrease in the number of spores produced by the fungus in the cankers and fruit, but probably in a much greater degree to the previously mentioned increased resistance on the part of the fruit. The writer has never been able to inoculate fruits of Ben Davis and Missouri after August 1 by spraying them with a suspension of spores in distilled water. It may be noted also that at that time the natural supply of spores capable of infecting is still not wholly wanting in so far as those produced from cankers 6 BULLETIN 534, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. are concerned, while many are still produced from the diseased fruits. It is a rather curious thing that leaf infections are comparatively rare in Arkansas, whereas in Kansas they are rather abundant. This may be partly, though not wholly, accounted for by the more numerous cankers and consequent heavier infection in Kansas orchards, Fic. 1.—Section through a pycnidium of Phyllosticta solitaria produced in 1914 on a blotched spot of a young Ben Davis apple., The fruiting bodies (pycnidia) are found on the newer parts of the twig cankers until the cankers are about 4 years old. They are most plentiful on young cankers which had begun their development dur- ing the previous season. ‘They occur on the leaves also, particularly in the lesions on the midrib and petiole, and in the blotches on the fruits. The pycnidia (fig. 1) are rather small, black, glistening, sub- globose or somewhat depressed, varying from 75 to 250 yin diam- eter. When mature they are filled with spores, but those formed late Fic. 2.—Spores of Phyllosticta solitaria . th liv faule from twig cankers of the Ben Davis In € season usually Tal Oo ma- apple. Bentonville, Ark. May 25, ture. The period of maximum ae pycnidium production is in May on the twigs and in late June and early July on the fruit and leaves. Those on the leaves rarely produce spores. The spores (fig. 2) are hyaline, one celled, and when mature are filled with rather large, uniform-sized, often closely compacted granules. They are oval to subglobose and measure 8 to 10 by 5.5 to APPLE BLOTCH AND ITS CONTROL. a 6.5 u. When newly formed it is easy to demonstrate the presence of a gelatinous covering about the spore, especially when, as is often the case, it is prolonged into a stout hyaline appendage (fig. 2). The spores (fig. 3) germinate in 15 to 20 hours. The germ tube is some- what darker than the spore and usually shows a pronounced thickening at the point of emer- gence (fig. 3). More than one germ tube may issue from a single spore (fig. 3). Spores from the twig cankers in which the fungus has passed the winter are usually mature and ready to infect the young fruit and leaves about three weeks after f the petals have fallen. This was frie. 3.—Germinating spores of Phyllo- ifirst determined by Seott and sticta solitaria. Spores from Ben Davis 5 i twig cankers. May 25, 1914. Rorer by noting the latest time at which spraying would effectively ‘prevent infection. The time of infection was directly determined by the writer during the seasons of 1914 and 1915 by germination tests of spores from twig cankers. Table I shows the results of such tests. TABLE I.—Results of germination tests of spores of apple blotch from twig cankers. Germi- Germi- Germi- Date. nating Date. nating Date. nating spores. : spores. spores. 1914. Per cent. 1914. Per cent. 1915. Per cent. PATO OO span mat et-tais/oetafice O|) May 1522.2. --.....-.-- Opi Manet 2 eer ee eneer 10 May Alieae Won ciciacc ani ek Opi May 21 ese Oo eee Maynliqe (Suh eee ae 20 May Gues s §o. de os leu ON PMaiy 423 ee ays Cee 7) Wilby Pll eee oaoecesscoKe 20 Mav Ste eenmeeaa cece: on Onl Maya 2o eee) ee (Go) | May Zee cake be Lae 75 May Ge eek bite fe ye) QB Mian 2Q Sar Os hauls S283 Wor Mave 282 222s 2 see ea 75 For each test, pycnidia were scraped from the newer portions (the current year’s growth) of young twig cankers. These pycnidia were then examined under the microscope for spores. If spores were sufli- ciently abundant and appeared to be mature, they were suspended in distilled water in Van Tieghem cells and the percentage of germinat- ing spores was noted daily for periods ranging from three to five days. As the spores when mature usually germinate within 24 hours, it was really unnecessary to prolong the attempted germination over so long a period. The cankered twigs used in this work in 1915 were collected from the same trees as those used in 1914. During both seasons the time of petal fall was April 28. As these two seasons were about average ones, it is evident that in the Ozarks 8 BULLETIN 534, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the first spraying for the prevention of blotch infections should be well under way when three weeks have elapsed after petal fall. This is particularly true during a season of belated blooming due to cold or otherwise unseasonable weather, as the period of growth and ma- turity of the fungus and its spores does not seem to be influenced so much by such conditions as does the blooming period of the host. As determined by artificial inoculations, Phyllosticta solitaria grows very slowly and is not perceptible on the fruit until three to six weeks after infection has taken place. Ordinarily the blotched areas are not large enough to appear conspicuous before the early part of July. “CULTURAL RELATIONS. Phyllosticta solitaria will grow on a wide range of culture media. It will also produce pycnidia on all of the ordinary solid culture media. These pycnidia, however, do not produce spores. The only medium on which the writer has been able to grow the fungus with the formation of both pycnidia and spores is sterile apple wood, which was the medium used by Scott and Rorer. Even on this me- dium two to three months elapsed in the case of all the strains used by the writer before mature spores were produced. WEATHER CONDITIONS. In orchards in which twig cankers are abundant, dry weather does not appear to reduce greatly the number of infections, because prac- tically every apple is affected anyway; but in the average blotch- infected orchard of the Ozark section the reduction is very notice- able. In 1914 the absence of rain during the latter half of May and during the first three weeks of June greatly reduced the number of infections. In Arkansas the period of heaviest infection did not occur until about July 1. In Kansas, where blotch is a particularly serious disease, it was found, as Lewis had noted previously in dry seasons. that the disease was not greatly hindered by the dry weather. The sources of infection, that is, twig cankers, are much more abun- dant in Kansas than in Arkansas, and even if a large proportion of the expelled spores failed to germinate there would still be enough to infect the fruit heavily. Undoubtedly, as in the case of most fungous diseases, moist weather is particularly favorable for the oc- currence of the maximum number of blotch infections. The writer has never been able to note any relation between the amount of infection and the temperature extremes during May and June. Neither extreme appears to be particularly favorable or par- ticularly unfavorable. APPLE BLOTCH AND ITS CONTROL. 9 RELATIVE SUSCEPTIBILITY OF APPLE VARIETIES. The list of susceptible, moderately susceptible, and resistant vari- eties shown in Table II is based on the publications of Scott and Rorer and of Lewis and upon the writer’s own observations. It often occurs that a variety which is quite resistant and which has no twig cankers of its own will show some infections on the fruit if it is growing in close proximity to a badly infected variety. TABLE II.—List of apple varieties, showing their relative susceptibility to blotch infection. Very susceptible. Moderately affected. Resistant varieties. Varieties. Varieties. Varieties. Varieties. Missouri. Gano. Oldenburg. McAfee. Winesap. Ben Davis. Domine. Benoni. Ralls. Jonathan. Northwestern. Huntsman. Arkansas. Yellow Bellflower. | York Imperial. Limbertwig. White Pearmain. Bradford. Northern Spy. Givens. Maiden Blush. Smith. Ingram. Stayman Winesap. Lawver. Tolman. Collins. Fink. Shockley. Fameuse. Rambo. Minkler. Clayton. Wagener. Golden Russet. Wealthy. Willow. Gilpin. Grimes. Rome Beauty. Arkansas Black. Yellow Newtown. REMEDIAL MEASURES. Under ordinary conditions blotch is controlled rather easily by spraying, but under conditions of severe infection the spraying must be done with great promptness and thoroughness. In mild cases control is accomplished by spraying with lime-sulphur solution (32° to 84° Baumé) diluted at the rate of 14 gallons to 50 gallons of water (or homemade lime-sulphur solution diluted to equal strength), but under conditions of severe infection lime-sulphur solution is not efficient. Under such conditions control is attained through the use of Bordeaux mixture containing 3 pounds of bluestone (copper sul- phate) and 4 pounds of lime to 50 gallons of water. Where lime- sulphur gives adequate control it should be used, as it is less likely to injure the fruit and foliage than Bordeaux mixture. The first spraying for the control of this disease should be finished three weeks aiter the blossom petals have fallen, the second should occur three weeks later, and the third about 9 or 10 weeks after the petals fall. By thorough spraying for three or four years, the number of twig cankers will be greatly reduced, making control much easier. The old cankers will die out after that length of time, and the coat- ing of spray on the young twigs will prevent the formation of new ones. In this way Mr. Leslie Pierce, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and the writer greatly lessened the number of twig cankers and in- creased the ease of control in an orchard in northwestern Arkansas during 1913, 1914, and 1915. 10 BULLETIN 534, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This orchard, consisting of trees of Missouri, a very susceptible variety, was, prior to 1913, badly infected with blotch. In fact, pre- vious to 1913 the orchard, mainly because of blotch, had not matured a crop. After three years of thorough spraying, done at the proper time, the trees are almost free from twig cankers and the disease is nearly eliminated from the orchard. Spraying, then, not only prevents the infection of fruits during the current year, but tends also to lessen the number of possible infec- tions during succeeding years. Furthermore, since, as the writer (4) has shown, the bitter-rot fungus may live through the winter in blotch cankers, the elimination of the latter may be an aid in the control of bitter-rot in orchards in which that disease is present. SUMMARY. (1) Apple blotch, a serious disease of the more southern apple- growing sections of the United States, affects the twigs, fruit, and leaves of the apple. It has been shown by previous investigators (Waite, Clinton, Sheldon, and Scott and Rorer) to be caused by the fungus Phyllosticta solitaria, which, as Sheldon and Scott and Rorer discovered, winters over in twig cankers and infects the young fruit, leaves, and twigs during the following year. Neither Scott and Rorer nor Lewis considered mummied fruit of the previous year an impor- tant source of infection. (2) The writer has made successful cross inoculations on fruit, leaves, and twigs from pure cultures of the fungus obtained from naturally diseased fruit and twigs, thus confirming the inoculation work of Scott and Rorer, which, however, was not done by the use of pure cultures. The reason so few infections occur late in the season is due to the increased resistance of the host, in addition to the fact that there is a gradual decrease in the number of spores produced by the causal fungus. A large number of mummied fruits were examined at in- tervals throughout the spring, but no spores were found. Hence it is concluded that mummies are not an important source of infection. Wet weather favors blotch, but in orchards in which twig cankers are abundant the disease is not checked effectively by dry weather. (3) The disease is controlled by three sprayings with 34-50 Bordeaux mixture at intervals of three weeks, the first of which should be completed about three weeks after the blossom petals have fallen. Summer-strength lime-sulphur solution may be substituted for Bordeaux mixture where the disease is not severe, thus lessening the risk of injury. The proper time for the first application has been determined both by spraying experiments and by spore germination tests in the laboratory. This spraying schedule differs only slightly from that originally worked out by Scott and Rorer. (1) (2) (3) (4) {5) (6) (7) APPLE BLOTCH AND ITS CONTROL. 11 LITERATURE CITED. CLINTON, G. P. 1902. Apple rots in Illinois, Ill. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 69, p. 189-224, pl. A-J. His, J. B., and EveRHART, B. M. 1895. New species of fungi from various localities. In Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., Phila., 1895 p. 413-441. Lewis, D. E. 1913. The control of apple blotch. Kans. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 196, p. 517-574, 18 fig. RospERtTS, J. W. 1915. Sources of the early infections of apple bitter-rot. Jn Jour. Agr. Research, v. 4, no. 1, p. 59-64, pl. 7. Literature cited, p. 64. Scort, W. M., and QUAINTANCE, A. L. 1907. Spraying for apple diseases and the codling moth in the Ozarks. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 283, 42 p., 7 fig. and Rorer, J. B. 1909. Apple blotch, a serious disease of southern orchards. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 144, 28 p., 6 pl. (1 col.). SHELDON, J. L. 1907. Concerning the relationship of Phyllosticta solitaria to the fruit blotch of apples. Jn Science, n. s., v. 26, no. 658, p. 183-185. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Wir WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 Cats ics he im Pai thes, wot a f er aa tie ay GE, LAL) dP, aR, pea re lahat Oke Cte ee, A Oe Pm A aot “ar ee i oe Bd oferet 1. Biohoott & * Sy Spay arnt tsintndht Fe wea i es. ihe Leet : it ‘ ai echt. = i Ve a ae . ie etah off at ee ts ail shu git .4 St nes ‘a irae i : » 4 ; ¥ ie aS ea ae? ne Sg yf, | Pty LF shane eon Ao saeuape | . Ai oy £), fa Hy) ofl BS ee on ay Hine As? “it oS id ica arin’ Whaat ides “4 ‘il | Hat el iP BAB ne? OE 4 Fal St haan: ‘ i eye ite hi eine uta? ‘yoo , Cree | ie ek n a i i WOA RPC : / P : P : } « a f ; etry so BA bpethlat. ce natin wit art a vaneseniie P Pee Hes wie Sor Toe spider wie st Me Oe Gay Et Hi eahit aa: onan ihe re! . ay y Hi ‘ f ; ; t ‘1 {> a A 4 i ee we ee “4 follnd han ue 1 et wie Pat ee we in. DAE ey * oF 1% £ oi wae roa a a sled Yad ha Tt 4 , ai lk: Le ial | ee areen ie Fo SN cre 2h Ree 3 a i ier { C5 Boel 3 ; f tS am hie § i plete 57 75 , Fey AKT Ae Be CMON RIOD ORE AAR a i ry 7 : UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ¥ BULLETIN No. 535 X 4 ' Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv June 28, 1917 THE HORSE-RADISH FLEA-BEETLE: ITS LIFE HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION. By F. H. CuHirrenpen, Hntomologist in Charge of Truck Crop and Stored Product Insect Investigations, and NEALE FEF. Howarp, Specialist. CONTENTS. Page Page. airodueconyer = aN-c seasons ee asec seas sae teil’ TE CEM ESN UINy ee ae ae eee ss eee = aime 12 IDES CHU Cmaer ates ee nie ene ncig shew Adon ceee ace 3m) Niahinalenemiese= = see meee eeaee re see seer 13 Distribution in North America.........-.--- 5p UASSONE ING) INEOCUS Se cea cdecckeaceenecosaussoo 13 Origin and dissemination.........-..-...--.. Gr PMethodston controlaaeeseeeReee este erer sence 13 EVO NAC WA OM IILCLAUUNC ms eine erence oe soca ee 7, ||) SUM eyes ee 2) Renee 2 ea enc ae 14 Hoods MlatiSmte ne: osc tees cee tee cece sence 8h) Biblioonaphyaeses see teen ase er eaeeeeerences 15 SeasonalmiShOmyeees sleet ees ceeee acne f asceot 8 ‘ INTRODUCTORY. Nearly every year there is brought to this country some insect immigrant, and frequently, in the course of time, these immigrants prove to be pests. As a rule, they are introduced through the large seaports, particularly’ Boston, New York, New Orleans, and San Francisco, from which points they spread westward, northward, or southward, and less frequently eastward. Occasionally such an in- sect is carried by commerce beyond the coasts and makes its first appearance inland. This happened in the case of the insect to which the senior author has given the name of the horse-radish flea-beetle (fig. 1) and which is known zoologically as Phyllotreta armoraciae Norre.—Horse-radish is widely cultivated in the United States and especially where the horse-radish flea-beetle is now most injurious. The farm yalue of horse-radish is not far from $400,000 per annum, considering its growth for home use. Two other insects than the horse-radish flea-beetle are especially attracted to it, the horse-radish webworm (Plutella armoracia Busck) and the horse-radish caterpillar (Hvergestis straminalis Hibn.). Neither of these is of any importance, but in the southern range of growth of horse-radish the harlequin cabbage bug is a most destructive pest, seeming to prefer this plant to other crucifers. ‘The horse-radish flea-beetle will continue to spread and soon become a dangerous pest unless growers practice methods of control. 81307°—17 i, BULLETIN 535, U. S.:. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Koch.t It was obtained for the first time in 1893 on the withered leaves of horse-radish in a vacant lot within a fourth of a mile of the grounds of the Columbian Exposition at Chicago, Ill. It is possible that the species was actually introduced at about that time, but probably the time was one, two, or more years earlier, and it was not reported as a pest until 1908. ‘ The larvee as well as beetles live on the leaves and petioles of the common horse-radish (|Vasturtium]| Radicula armoracia) and when numerous injure the plant to such an extent as to reduce materially the root crop. The larve mine the petioles or midribs (fig. 2), while the adults feed on the leaves, causing the charac- teristic flea-beetle iInjury—withering and dying—or gouge deep pits in the petioles or midribs. ° i This beetle belongs to the same genus as the well-known injurious striped cabbage flea-beetle (Phyllotreta vittata Fab.) but may be distinguished readily from all other species occurring in this country by its elytra or wing- covers, which are mostly of a pale cream color with a comparatively nar- row sutural black stripe, as shown in figure 1. The horse-radish flea-beetle, having recently become an economic factor in the growing of horse-radish? on a commercial scale in Brown County, near Green Bay, Wis., the junior author has been able to trace its life ic. 1.—The horse-radish flea- : beetle (Phyllotreta armoraciae): economy and history. It first appeared Adult. Greatly enlarged. (Origi- nal.) in sufficient numbers to be seriously in- jurious in the summer of 1914, when it was reported and observed by Prof. J. G. Sanders. In the two years following, the beetles reappeared in large numbers in the same locality. While as yet not vert generally distributed and confined to attacks on the relatively unimportant crop of horse-radish, the pos- sibility that this insect in its new domain may adapt itself to the other and more important members of the cultivated cruciferous plants renders it worthy of such notice as can be supplied. 1 Order Coleoptera, family Chrysomelidae, subfamily Ialticini. *The authors desire to acknowledge the cooperation of the Department of Evonomie Entomology, University of Wisconsin, and the many favors received from Mr. George B. Smith, Green Bay, Wis., on whose farm the junior author was stationed when many of the data in this paper were obtained. THE HORSE-RADISH FLEA-BEETLE., 3 DESCRIPTIVE. THE ADULT. In appearance Phyllotreta armoraciae is distinct from any species of flea-beetle belonging to or introduced into this country. It is ‘somewhat larger and wider than any of the native species of the genus. It is of oval form, strongly convex, and black in color. The first three antennal joints, the apices or tips of the four anterior femora, the tibie, and the tarsi are reddish yellow. The elytra are very light yel- lowish, or cream color, nearly white, with a very thin black lateral margin and a broadened sutural stripe, widest at the mid- dle and constricted at each end and extending from the base of the thorax to the apex of the elytra, where it joins the lateral line. The frons or front is very finely, and the prothorax and elytra densely, punctate. Vag Yoru. F L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 26, 1918 THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN HAWAII. By E. A. Back, Entomologist, and C. E. PemsBerton, Assistant Entomologist, Mediterranean and Other Fruat-fly Investigations. CONTENTS.! Page Page MPTOMUetIOWe mee. cece sees eee + se il) Saar y See Sw SE gs. 22t Soe 16 Common WaMes es. eyo 2s =: anateekie cies 2 | sMethodsiotispready << scmecs. seen saane 18 Oba So ene 2: (EOS Ghimuitisberet. 9 S/o... seems ee ne 21 Distributloneece sees s42 52s e Sooo. ees 3 Fruits erroneously listed as hosts....-...- 22 Source of Hawaiian infestation. ...........-. 8 Proven hosts in Hawaii-......:-..--.--- 24 Conditions favorable to establishment in the Life history and description.......-.-.-..-.- 49 Hawaiian Islands...............-..-----.- 9" | eSeasonalahistonyee. ne. -ceeee ea -4-c-e-6) © 1D Climatic conditions in Honolulu .......- Cel Na turalcontLrolsess- 2 -4-008e= ge ace eee ee ce 77 ETOSU CONGITLONS) ae. == scien Sees oe ole LABS ee Arr hitieialkConmtroleectie 2. - 2 recente ene e ee 101 Economic importance...........-...-.------ 1B) | Sibinhnbiny ss ape oase kann Ghote Sees ester 116 INTRODUCTION. The Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata Wied.) (fig. 1; PL. 1, fiz. 1) since its discovery in the Hawaiian Islands in 1910 has caused a serious and permanent check upon horticultural pursuits in these islands. The history of this pest shows that it has been gradually spreading to all tropical and subtropical countries. The frequency with which infested fruits from Hawaii are being discovered and con- demned at California ports by representatives of the Federal Hor- ticultural Board indicates that this fruit fly might have become es- tablished in parts of California and in our more Southern States and might now be doing untold injury to fruit interests but for the effi- cient quarantine maintained on the Pacific coast by State and Fed- eral authorities. It is feared, however, that the Mediterranean fruit fly ultimately will be able to find some unavoidable weakness in the quarantine work and eventually become established on the main- land of North America. The investigations reported in this publication have been carried on by the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agri- 1 Tt has been found necessary to omit a bibliography consisting of about 350 references accompanied by brief résumé material. Reference should be made to Silvestri, Bulletin No. 3, Hawaiian Bd. Agr. and Forestry, for the most complete printed bibliography. 81340°—18—B ull 536-——1 2 BULLETIN 536, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUREs culture, under the immediate supervision of Mr. Charles L. Marlatt, assistant chief of the bureau and chief of the Division of Tropical and Subtropical Fruit-Insect Investigations. This work was undertaken during September, 1912, primarily to make available for mainland fruit-growing interests information that will prove of mestimable value in determining the extent of the possible. distribution of this pest and the factors of control which will be most important in eradi- cating newly discovered outbreaks. The senior writer wishes to acknowledge his obligations to Mr. Marlatt, who has greatly aided these investigations by his direction, and to express his appreciation of the assistance rendered by his associates, Messrs. C. E. Pemberton and H. F. Willard. Fic. 1.—The Mediterranean fruit fly (Ceratitis capitata): a, Adult female; b, head of same from front; c,spatula- like hair from face of male; d, antenna; e, larva; /, anal segment of same; g, head of same. a and e, Enlarged; 6, 9,/, greatly enlarged; c, d, still more greatly enlarged. (Howard.) COMMON NAMES. The common name ‘Mediterranean fruit fly’’ was first used by Frogatt in 1899 to distinguish Ceratitis capitata from other fruit flies found in Australia. At the present time this name is the most widely used and most satisfactory of the common names by which this pest has been known and will be used by thewriters. Other common names found in literature are ‘the fruit fly,” ‘‘the maggot,’ “peach fly,” “peach maggot,” “fruit grub,” “apricot worm,” “trypeta fly,” “West Australian fruit fly,” ‘orange fly,” and ‘orange fly trypeta.” ORIGIN. Although Wiedemann first described Ceratitis capitata from speci- mens collected by Daldorf, supposedly in the East Indies, the failure of subsequent entomological exploration in the Indo-Malayan region to MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN HAWAII. 3 locate this species, except where it is known beyond question to have been introduced, has led entomologists to seek its original home else- where. Known facts concerning the artificial spread of this pest narrow its probable origin to the African continental area. According to Bezzi, the genus Ceratitis is of African origin. Information gained by various writers indicates that southern Europe is not its native home, although it has been recorded from this region for many years. Leonardi states that the Mediterranean fruit fly was not recorded as a pest in southern Italy until 1863, nor in Sicily until 1878. Had it been a native of Italy its ravages, as were those of the olive fruit fly (Dacus oleae Rossi), would have attracted the attention of writers prior to this time. While De Bréme first records specimens reared in southern Spain in 1842, it is easier, in the light of more recent investigation, to believe Spain to be an adopted rather than the original home. Compere states that in 1903 there was living at Carcagente, Valencia — County, Spain, an aged priest who could well remember the time in his childhood that peaches in that part of Spain were free from fruit- fly attack. Compere is also authority for the statement that com- mission merchants at Seville found that the pest was spreading farther inland to the north every season, even as late as 1903. The work of Graham (1910) and Silvestri (1912) has proved that (0. capitata is present in the little-developed West African countries of Nigeria, Dahomey, and the Kongo, and Gowdy found the species already established in Uganda as early in the development of that country as 1909. These records, coupled with the information by the South African entomologists regarding its spread into the south- ern part of the African Continent, lend color to the statement of Silvestri that the natural habitat of Ceratitis capitata is ‘certainly tropical Africa south of 8° N. latitude.’ Silvestri, however, is of the opinion that one can not state whether the whole of this region should be considered as the natural habitat, or only the western portion, until careful studies have, been made in French Equatorial Africa and British East Africa. Further exploration of the west coast of Africa north of 8° north latitude is very likely to establish new rec- ords of distribution and extend somewhat these limits of origin to include more semitropical territory. DISTRIBUTION. The Mediterranean fruit fly is at present established on every continent except that of North America. It has been recorded from the following regions: Europe: Spain, France, southern Italy, Sicily, Greece, and Malta. Asia: Asiatic. Turkey (Beirut, Jerusalem, Jaffa.) Africa: Egypt (Cairo and Kafir el Zayet), Tunis, Algeria, the Azores, Madeira Islands, Canary Islands, Cape Verde Islands, Dahomey, southern Nigeria, the Kongo, Cape Colony, Natal, Delagoa Bay, southern Rhodesia, British East Africa, Uganda Protectorate, Mauritius, and Madagascar. ~ 4 BULLETIN 536, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Australasia: Western Australia, New South Wales, Victoria, and Queensland, northern New Zealand, and Tasmania. South America: Brazil and Argentina (Buenos Aires). North America: Bermuda Islands. Hawaiian Islands. MEDITERRANEAN REGIONS. The dates of the first discovery of the Mediterranean fruit fly in the countries bordering on the Mediterranean can not be used with precision in establishing a chronology of dispersion, since the pest may have been present many years prior to the first entomological observations recorded unless statements to the contrary are made in literature. Aside from our first record of establishment in Mau- ritius by Latreille in 1817, the earlier records refer to damage in the Mediterranean region. According to MacLeay this pest was well established in the Azores, Cape Verde, and Madeira Islands as early as 1829, and was the source of much injury to. oranges arriving at London from these islands., It was first recorded from Spain in 1842, from Algeria in 1859, and from Tunis in 1885. Compere gives _ us our first records of its presence in Egypt at Port Said and in Asiatic Turkey at Beirut, Jaffa, and Jerusalem in 1904. During the same year, Cartwright records the infestation of oranges at Kafir el Zayet (Egypt) and four years later Froggatt found many infested oranges in the Cairo (Egypt) markets. Literature does not record the presence of this pest in Malta until 1890, although it was known to have become established there about 1875. In France the Mediterranean fruit fly was reared from apricots at Courbevoie, in the environs of Paris, in 1900, and by 1904 the fruit industry around Maritimes was ruined, according to Hooper. In 1916 the citrus crops in Attica (Greece) and Epirus (Southern Albania) were reported infested. AFRICA. Very little is known regarding the general distribution of the Mediterranean fruit fly throughout the great central portion of the African continent. While it is known to be a serious pest along the Mediterranean shores and to have spread into the southern portion, too few entomological observations have been made to warrant state- ments concerning spread throughout the more tropical regions. Graham in 1910 and Silvestri in 1913 state that it occurs in Dahomey, southern Nigeria, and the Kongo. Gowdey’s records from Uganda in 1909 are the first from tropical East Africa, although Anderson states in 1914 that he had found C. capitata infesting coffee cherries in Brit- ish East Africa. In 1912 Jack lists C. capitata as abundant through- out southern Rhodesia, but Morstatt states definitely that the pest did not occur in coffee cherries in German East Africa during 1913 and 1914. The first record of injury caused by the Mediterranean fruit fly in South Africa was made by Miss Ormerod in 1889; but, as Mally states Bul. 536, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. THE MEDITERRANEAN Fruit FLY. Fic. 1.—Three adults of the Mediterranean fruit fly ( Ceratitis capitata) about natural size, attempting to oviposit in an orange; note the relative size of flies and fruit. Fic. 2.—Ripe apple showing many punctures in the skin made by C. capitata in confinement. (Original.) MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN HAWAII. : oe in 1904, it was introduced many years before. In 1893 Bairstow writes that he was familiar with C. capitata in South Africa in 1880, and that the Rt. Rev. Bishop Richards remembered damage done as far in the past as 40 years. In 1903-4 Fuller records C. capitata as one of the newly observed pests among the Natal orchards. It is not known whether the introduction in South Africa was by infested fruit from the Madeiras or by the gradual spread overland along the coastal regions, although the Madeiras seem the more probable source. C. capitata was first recorded from Madagascar during 1914, when it was found seriously injuring the peach crop. AUSTRALASIA. Western Australia.—The Mediterranean fruit fly was first recorded in literature as a pest in Australia in 1897 by Fuller, who states that it had been known to have been established in western Australia for about two years in Claremont and Perth and along the Swan River, especially at Guildford. According to Despeissis, the first report of injury in Australia was made to the Bureau of Western Australia in 1894, which was, in his opinion, about one or two years after the date of its actual introduction. The pest has since been recorded from as far north as Geraldton and Northampton and as far south as Bunbury. New South Wales.—In New South Wales the Mediterranean fruit fly was first reared in 1898. French found that peaches imported into Victoria from Sydney were infested and notified Froggatt. Within a few days Froggatt was able to verify this record by rearings of his own from fruit supposed to have been infested by the Queens- land fruit fly- (Bactrocera tryont Froggatt). As Froggatt had been on the watch for C. capitata, it is probable that it became estab- lished about Sydney during 1898, although Rose, in 1897, states that in the northern part of New South Wales, at Warialda, peaches and nectarines had been nearly all destroyed in 1897 by a fruit fly first appearing about 1895 and identified by Froggatt as probably C. capitata. According to Froggatt, the pest has spread through- out all the citrus orchards of New South Wales to a greater or less extent. Victoria.—Editorial comment in 1907 states that serious infesta- tion of C. capitata had been recently discovered in the orchards in Goulburn Valley and farther west at Bendigo and at Horsham, and Froggatt is authority for its establishment at Albury and for the statement that it is present throughout the northern half of Victoria. Queensland.—There are very few references to the presence of 0. capitata in Queensland. Froggatt states, in 1909, that for a. long time it was believed that it was not to be found in this part of Aus- tralia, but that, while it might not be abundant, he had specimens 6» BULLETIN 536, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, from Brisbane. Voller, in 1903, mentions Brisbane, Toowoomba, and Warwick as places especially subject to C. capitata attack. Tasmania.—The Mediterranean fruit fly became established in Tasmania about Launceston during the early part of 1899 and, ac- cording to Lea, attacked apples, pears, and peaches. As the ae of a meeting of the Tasmania Council of Agriculture, held on June 1, to discuss correspondence regarding establishment and methods of eradication, a vigorous clean-culture campaign was authorized, which apparently was responsible for the eradication of the pest. No cases of infestation have since been observed in Tasmania fruit. New Zealand.—Kark states in 1901 that the Mediterranean fruit fly had not, up to that time, appeared in any New Zealand fruit- growing district. Two outbreaks were later recorded,.at Blenheim and at Napier, respectively, but were reported to have been quickly stamped out by the destruction of the fruit and treatment of the soil. A third instance of temporary establishment in New Zealand was recorded in 1908 at Davenport. At present the Mediterranean fruit fly is not known to exist in New Zealand. Islands about Australia.—In 1904 Kirk states that he had never reared C. capitata from fruits received in New Zealand from the islands of Suva, Nukualofa, Vavau, Rarotonga, Mangaia, Heratine, and Samoa. BERMUDA ISLANDS. The Mediterranean fruit fly was not recorded from the Bermuda Islands until 1890, when specimens of infested peaches were sent Dr. C. V. Riley. It was known as a pest in Bermuda during the 25 years previous, and is supposed to have become established about 1865, when a vessel carrying a cargo of fruit from the Mediterranean region, bound for New York, was forced by severe storms to dischange her cargo in Bermuda. WEST INDIES. There are no known records of the presence of Ceratitis capitata in the West Indies. The fact that the Jamaica Botanical Department in 1900 published a bulletin on orange culture and diseases, by Borg, in which reference is made to C. capitata as a pest of the orange, has led some to believe that the Mediterranean fruit fly has become established in Jamaica. The subject-matter of this bulletin was originally presented before the Malta Archeological and Scientific Society and contains nothing to warrant the conclusion that the author was dealing with the subject except in a most general way, particularly as he speaks of the fly occurring only about the Mediter- ranean. Ballou, in an article published in 1913 on the prevalence of some pests and diseases in the West Indies during 1912, states that ‘‘fruit-_ fly’’ attacks were not so general in Dominica as in former years. The editor of the Review of Applied Entomology erroneously iden- MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN HAWAII, tified the “‘fruit fly’ as ‘C. capitata.”’ Ballou has since denied in correspondence that C. capitata was the insect in question. SOUTH AMERICA. Dr. L. O. Howard first identified the Mediterranean fruit fly from South America from specimens reared from peaches sent him by Dr. H. von Ihering m 1901. Compere, in 1904, and Lounsbury, in 1905, found the pest in the States of Sao Paulo and Rio de Janeiro. In 1906 Hempel states that C. capitata was the most common of the fruit flies attacking peaches in Sao Paulo. In -writing of fruit culture in Argentina in 1905, Lounsbury states that peaches near Buenos Aires were badly affected by an unde- termined species of fruit fly which he thought likely to be Ceratitis capitata. Silvestri definitely records C. capitata from Buenos Aires, presumably as a result of this statement of Lounsbury. HAWAIIAN ISLANDS. The Mediterranean fruit fly was first observed in the Hawaiian Islands by Mr. D. T. Fullaway, who captured a living adult in the insectary at the U.S. Department of Agriculture Experiment Station on June 21, 1910. During the followmg September another adult was captured by Terry and Perkins on the laboratory windows of the Hawaiian Sugar Planters’ Association. Observations made in the field during September by Terry showed that the pest was already established in the Punchbowl! district of Honolulu on oranges and limes, and from that time new records of infestation were rapidly brought to light. By October, 1911, the pest had already become established on the island of Kauai, and was known to exist on Molokai at least by January, 1912, when it was first recorded from the Kohala district of the island of Hawaii. During March, 1912, specimens of infested coffee cherries were reported from the Kona district of Hawaii. The first records of establishment in the Puna district of Hawaii were made during March, 1913, when infested oranges and peaches were found at Naalehu and Hilea. Peaches were not reported infested in the Hilo district of Hawaii until the spring of 1914, but soon after infestations were found throughout the Hilo and Hamakua districts. The fruit fly was found established on the Island of Maui by May, 1912. By July, 1914, the Mediterranean fruit fly had spread to every important island of the Hawaiian group, and at present is well established im every village and wild guava scrub examined by the writers. Judging from the rapidity with which this pest has soread throughout new districts in Hawaii, the writers agree with Ehrhorn that the pest secured its first foothold m Hawaii at Honolulu about 1907, although there are several well- informed horticulturists in Honolulu who believe establishment occurred even one or two years earlier. 8 BULLETIN 536, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, SOURCE OF HAWAIIAN INFESTATION. There is little doubt that the Mediterranean fruit fly was carried to the Hawaiian Islands from Australia on one or more of the ships : ‘AY WINIJ WeeteIIeII poy oY} JO MOLNIISIp OY} UI JoYyJOUL GUO 0} WOT}LIeT OG} Pus WoTISOd OATIe[OI LOY} SULMOYS ‘SpUe[s] ULEMeA oy} Jo de— ted 3 B Ps ir PE Zaha ul lpver BH] a lSolBo s /gle/slele/8/$/ 2/8/2181 8| 8 ges = —- A Slelsl(4lselelelalelioligzialse oe Island of Oahu: TCT Nid OO Nae 2 a Oy OA (ide OA fg 8 OY OA asl ray Ora) nhl ad Oral Honoluli. 2c 2. 234% 2349-558 111/70. 0/69. 7/71. 4/73. 3/74. 3/75. 3/76. 4/78. 176. 8|75. 2/74. 7/72. 4|74. 0} 85) 58 Waist Malle ooo S52. eee 30)70. 4/68. 7/71. 072. 7/73. 4\74. 4/75. 877. 0/75. 9/73. 9172. 8)70. 5]73.0) 91) 55 Wraianae £2525 zoe: be eee 671. 3/70. 4/71. 9/73. 8/74. 8)77. 3/79. 2:80. 0/79. 3/75. 5|74. 8/73. 2|75.1] 91) 52 66. 6 65. 8/67. 4/68. 9/69. 8)71. 0/73. 0/74. 0/73. 2|71. 2/66. 4/68. 1/69. 6] 89} 51 63. 6)64. 1/66. 3/67. 2/68. 0/67. 7/69. 3/70. 4/69. 1/68. 5/67. 4/65. 6 67.3) 84) 54 70. 2'70. 4|71. 474. 0/76. 0/77. 3/79. 3/80. 0/79. 4/76. 5/75. 2/73. 0/75. 2) 92) 57 68. 8 69. 2/69. 8'72. 2/73. 0'74. 1/75. 5!77. 4|75. 8/74. 0172. 8)70. 9/72. 8] 89! 56 67. 2/67. 2/68. 6/69. 5/70. 7/70. 7/72 ae 2/72.4/71. 8]70. 4/68. 7/70. 4| 83] 57 68. 4/68. 7/69. 4|70. 8/71. 3/72. 4/74. 0)74. 6/73. 8)73. 0/71. 4|69.6,71.4] 88} 55 67. 6)67. 8)70. 1/71. 0/72. 3)72. 6/73. 4/74. 6,72. 8/72. 4\71. 2/69.0'71. 2) 90) 53 50|67. 0/66. 6/66. 7/68. 8/68. 3/69. 4/70. 8/71. 2/70. 8/69. 4/68. 2/66. 2/68.6] 84] 51 65. 2/65. 4/66. 4/68. 3/68. 6|70. 1/72. 6/73. 3/71. 7/69. 8/68. 8/66. 8/68. 9] 87] 50 50/68. 6/68. 4/68. 7/71. 2/71. 2)72. 1174. 075. 2/74. 9/73. 0/72. 4/72. 0/71. 8) 91) 53 Kohala Mill: i282 eee 270/68. 4/67. 9/69. 7/70. 9/72. 2/72. 6/74. 2/75. 2/74. 2/73. 171. 7/70. 2,71. 7] 86) 54 Wialmea: 3. = 25. sence a 2, 720/58. 6)60. 462. 0/61. 9/61. 9/61. 8/63. 6 65. 1/63. 7/64. 2/61. 7/60.4.62.1) 80) 44 Volcano House.........---- 000/57. 8/58. 6/59. 0/59. 6/59. 2/60. 1/60. 0,59. 2/59. 3)61. 0/60. 8/60. 4/59.6) 72) 42 Biological work has shown that even the lowest monthly means of localities up to 1,500 feet elevation have little effect upon C. capitata other than to retard development somewhat. It is never cold enough throughout littoral Hawaii to render either the adults or the larve inactive. Asaresult there are no periods of the year at any Hawaiian port when the climatic conditions are unfavorable for the establish- ment or increase of this pest. Data presented later in the text indicate that a continuous temperature ranging between 58° and 62° F., or the lowest range of temperature usually experienced in littoral Hawaii, does not increase the normal mortality among the immature stages of the fruit fly, and that these stages withstand for short periods, with- out injury, temperatures lower than any recorded in Table II. The two stations, Holualoa and Huehue, at about 1,350 and 2,000 feet elevation, respectively, may be taken as fair examples of altitudes above which host fruits are only scatteringly grown, but at which the fruit fly has demonstrated its capacity to injure fruits seriously. MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN HAWAII. 11 HOST CONDITIONS. Favorable as are the climatic conditions for the establishment and increase of the Mediterranean fruit fly in Hawaii, the host conditions are even more so. Mr. H. J. Quayle, who has studied fruit-fly con- ditions throughout southern Europe,-and Mr. J. C. Bridwell, who has had similar opportunities in western and southern Africa and in Aus- tralia, have stated to the writers that nowhere have they found host conditions so favorable for establishment and rapid increase as in littoral Hawaii, especially about Honolulu and Hilo. Under the sub- ject of host fruits, on page 24, the writers record 72 species of fruits growing in Honolulu that are subject to attack by C. capitata. The discussion of their susceptibility to attack, however, throws little light upon their numerical abundance or upon the seasons of the year during which their fruit is available for fruit-fly infestation. During the clean-culture campaign waged against this pest in Honolulu during 1913, data were secured which forcibly demonstrate the ideal host conditions found in Honolulu, making possible extraordinary increase and excessive infestations. The residents of Honolulu are justly proud of their magnificent vegetation and have taken great pleasure in growmg an unusually large assortment of trees and shrubs upon their town properties. An inventory of such trees and shrubs; that bear fruits subject to infestation, growing upon 60 blocks in that portion of Honolulu bounded by Liliha, Punchbowl, Beretania, and School streets, is given in Table III. TaBLeE I1T.— Number of host trees and shrubs of the Mediterranean fruit fly growing during 1918 in that portion of Honolulu bounded by Liliha, Punchbowl, Beretania, and School streets. Lots | Trees | Lots | Trees | Lots | Trees Lots | Trees Block. in in Block in in || Block. in in Block. in in block. | block. | block. | block. block. | block. block. | block. il 19 81 16 18 90 31 7 19 46 9 160 2 10 17 6 13 By 10 62 47 4 51 3 10 105 18 5 20 | 33 5 10 48 15 217 4 3 19 23 101 | 34 5 | 22 49 23 167 5 16 137 20 12 48 35 5 9 50 6 111 6 9 28 21 18 118 | 36 8 | 51 51 16 112 fi 0) 64 22 7 59 | 37 14 134 52 9 41 8 4 59 23 3 0 38 13 108 53 5 65 9 6 18 24 | 14 75 39 41 115 54 14 83 10 9 124 25 3} 8 | 40 12 74 55 23 112 11 28 132 26 7 25 | 41 36 135 56 | 26 158 12 6 163 27 4 | 42 17 76 57 12 37 13 9 66 28 4 15) | 43 18 208 58 4 0 14 9 66 29 9 42 44 24 144 59 124 15 25 86 30 2 39 45 9 54 60 12 98 Total number of lots in 60 blocks, 712; total number of trees, 4,610; average number of trees per lot, 6.5; average number of trees per block, 76.8. a From this it will be seen that there was a total of 4,610 trees and shrubs on the 712 lots under consideration, or an average of 6.5 trees per dooryard capable of supporting the fruit fly. In Table IV are given data indicating the relative abundance of different hosts. 12 BULLETIN 536, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie 1V.—Number and species of host trees of the Mediterranean fruit fly growing in that portion of Honolulu covered by Table III. Apricotisessse.ic4s Ce Pee ee ee 201 | Mandarin........- 28 | Rose apple........ 25 A-VOCACO.-.-ni52 6 = 653 | Guava, common. . 94) Mango...- 2-2-2... 1,154 pele earn 5 Breadfruit .......- 58 | Guava, strawberry 73 | Mangosteen... .--. 7 | Sapota............ 30 Carambala.......- 48 | Java plum........ 80 | Mountain apple... 41 | Soursop........... 57 Chinese inieberey.- 6 | Kamani, ball. .... 4 | Mock orange....-. 33 | Spanis: Gere. 1 Chinese orange. - 148 Kamani, Mba rag 13 | Orange, sweet.... 372 | Starapple........ 4 Coffee. .21: bse 2. 298 Kumquat.. - 4| Papaya.:....2...- 687 | Surinam cherry.. 63 Coffee, Liberian... S| Demons. a5. -.5 22,| ReaGhi. eeeee ets GO oe er 19 Cotton -c.wsrs). 23 I iphicheersecsdcer cys 40 | Pear, Bartlett..... 2| Waiawai.......... 60 Custard apple....- 1 Be Me ba Banh a he ai 10 | Pomegranate. . --- 128 Damson plum. . 4 | boquatis =: - ee, 33 | Pomelo.........-. 15 Total..:2.5 4,610 In Hilo, island of Hawaii, host conditions are quite as favorable for fruit-fly development asin Honolulu. Thus the following numbers of host trees and shrubs were found in certain yards of Hilo durmg March, 1914: YARD 1. YARD 2, YARD 3. YARD 4. 1 Rose apple.! 2 Surinam cherry. 11 Rose apple. 4 Peach. 4Surinam cherry. 2 Papaya. 2 Mango. 6 Mango. 2 Japanese plum 1 Thevetia. 3 Thevetia. 1 Loquat. 6 Mountainapple. 2 Orange. 1 Avocado. 3 Winged kamani. 1 Star apple. 2 Strawberry guava. 2 Surinam cherry. 34 Coffee trees. 14 Coffee. 1 Strawberry guava. 20 Common guava. Bananas. 15 Brazilian banana. 2 Avocado. 4 Avocado. 1 Peach. 3 Mango 3 Fig. 2 Papaya. 2 Mountain apple. 5 Orange 2 Lichee nut. 1 Peach. 3 Common guava. 1 Grape. 1 Winged kamani. 1 Mangosteen. 1 Fig. 1 Mimusops. There is no time in Hawaii when fruits are entirely out of season. The fact that several hosts, such as the Chinese orange (Citrus japonica), Surinam cherry (Eugenia michelw), and mock orange (Murraya exotica), bear several crops a year, while others, such as certain specimens of ball kamani (Calophyllum inophyllum) (PI. V1) and winged kamani (Terminaha catappa) (Pl. XTX), appear to be sel- dom entirely free from ripening fruits, assures food for the fruit fly the year round, The succession of fruits is also increased by the individuality of trees of the same species, or even of certain branches of a single tree, _ which results in a very uneven ripening of the fruit. While the data in Table V do not indicate the seasonal abundance of host fruits, they have been summarized from the collections of clean-culture inspectors made during 1913 to show the remarkable succession of host fruits found ripening in greater or less quantities throughout 1 For scientific names of fruits see section on host fruits, p. 24. Bul, 536, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il. RELATION OF FLORA OF HAWAIIAN ISLANDS TO THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY. Fig. 1.—Men grubbing out a guava scrub which has taken possession of pasture land. Many thousands of acres are thus overrun in Hawaii and furnish excellent breeding grounds for the fruit fy. The ripening fruits fall into the dense grass and the larvee within them develop unmolested by the heat of thesun. Fic. 2.—Thickets of guava bushes often crowd upon the country roads and ripen tons of fruit. This fruitis gathered by pedestrians and autoists and carried to all parts of the islands, thus becoming a medium for the wide dissemination ofthe pest. (Original.) PLATE III. S. Dept. of Agriculture. U Bal. 536, ; ([euIsi1Q) ‘s}mMay 4Soy py UL poyoue1jue Apysnor10T}) st Ap yINIj oy} PUNoIs yor OY} UL sureyUNOUI pens pue snoyrdroeid ey} ynoysnomyy, ‘ved 011,09 YY ynoysnoIy} 410ddns sj 10f pooy ‘s}souy eSat{} JO syinay Suruedr1 ey} UL ‘spuy 4g 4indj Oy} seoetd YoNs UT *see1) VI[VUTUIIAT, ese, AUeUI 8.18 Jo}UeD OY} UL OITA ‘“BACNS JO SJOHOIYY esuep ‘4j0] PUL JYSIT oY} 4B ‘SULMOIS O1B “M800 EY} pus punarzei0y eq} UL pjey efddveurd oy weeM40q ‘MoMeI\sNqIT o19 Aue jo SPPy pezeatyno WeMey UL puy OF 4[MOWTp SI 4 eAogeey} ut “Ap 4inIy ON} Jo sjsoy pla Aq popunossns Ajasojo you ere yey "ATS LINUS NVANVYYSLIGS|] SHL OL SONV1S] NVIIVWMVH SHL SO VYOT4 SHL SO NOILVISY | | Bul. 536, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY. Fic. 1.—A dense forest growth of the mountain apple (Jambosa malaccensis) near Hilo, which i} illustrates one of the many strongholds in Hawaii that the fruit fly found favorable to its | thorough entrenchment. Fig. 2.—Rose apple trees ( Hugenia jambos). While the fruit of this ' tree ripens chiefly during the months of March to May, afew may be found beneath trees at i any time. Fruits of both the mountain apple and the rose apple are among a class of host fruits that are carelessly taken on board ships by tourists, in whose possession they have Conk ae by the officers of the Federal Horticultural Board at San Francisco. riginal. a a ae, ee Bul. 536, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY AND THE COFFEE INDUSTRY. Fic. 1.—Coffee plantation on the Kona slopes of Hawaii. Fic. 2.—A fruiting branch. Fic. 3.—Low type of coffee tree. Fic. 4.—Coffee cherry cut to show the two large beans which are of commercial value, and the very thin outer pulp. This pulp is the only portion of the cherry eaten by the fruit-fly larvae. Note that the well-grown lary illustrated feed so close to the papery epidermis that parasites have no difliculty in ovipositing in them. Thousands of acres are densely planted to coffee on the island of Hawaii and offer food for the fruit fly the year round. (Original.) MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN HAWAII. 13 the year in Honolulu. The presence of so much ripening fruit, coupled with the favorable climatic conditions and the hardiness of the fruit fly itself, has made the establishment of C. capitata and its multiplication a most easy problem within the city limits. While the fruit fly finds host conditions most favorable within the city limits, because of the large number of host trees and shrubs, some of which are bearing at all seasons of the year, it has been able to establish itself and multiply in the country, often miles from towns, in some one or more of its hosts which have escaped cultivation, and to have spread over uncultivated and uncultivable areas. Of such hosts, the common guava (Psidwum guayava) is the most abundant. It has taken possession of the roadsides, pastures (PI. I1), vacant town lots, mountain gulches and hillsides, and even crevices in precipices, from sea level up to 1,500 feet elevation. So easily does this plant grow from seed, and so thoroughly distributed are its seeds by cattle, birds, and man, that it is seldom that a bush can not be found within a stone’s throw. In the lowland pastures and mountain gulches up to an elevation of at least 1,300 feet, particularly when sheltered from strong winds and well watered, the guava may become very treelike and form dense thickets (Pl. III). At higher altitudes, and in wind-swept or arid areas, it may remain a low, scrubby bush. While the guava fruits most heavily during the spring and fall months, the bushes are continually blooming and ripening a sufficient number of fruits to support the fruit fly every month in the year. The writers are depending upon the illus- trations to acquaint the reader, as words can not, with the well- nigh universal distribution of this host and the wonderful oppor- tunities it offers C. capitata for easy establishment and thorough intrenchment. Second to the guava as a host occurring in wild, uncultivated areas is the prickly-pear cactus (Opuntia vulgaris) (Pl. XVII). While the fruits of this plant are not preferred by the Mediterranean fruit fly, they are sufficiently infested in the absence of more favored hosts to serve as food, and, as in the case of the guava, there is almost no time during the year when a few ripe fruits may not be found in any cactus scrub. Other host fruits, wild or escaped, are not so universally distrib- uted. As a few of the many examples, there may be mentioned a grove of ball kamani trees in an isolated valley on the island of Molokai, gulches overgrown with the passion vine (Passiflora sp.) and the damson plum (Chrysophyllum oliviforme) on the island of Maui, the thickets of winged kamani growing along the windward shores of the island of Oahu, and the wild coffee and mountain apple (Pl. IV, fig. 1) in the forests of Oahu and Hawaii. 1 Stunted bushes have been observed at 4,000 feet elevation. —_ ts ectors of the clean-culture campaign in Honolulu collected various fruits infested by the Mediterranean fruit fly.! insp V.—Data indicating the seasons of the year when TABLE BULLETIN 536, “TE-#2 "02 | “IZ-9I “00 | "bI1-6 ‘oa | “L-@ 00 | "0-62 “AON | *8-RT “AON | "9I-IT “AON | “6-1 “AON | "T “AON-2Z "200 | "6-02 “200 | "SI-€1 "20 | ‘IL-9 "20 | “"p900-62 “3dag | "2@-@e “4dag “0Z-ET “3dag | "E1-8 “4dag | "9-1 “adag | "0g-Gz “Sny | nH HR nw Kn ‘Kw thw thw iw ‘HH KKH tnx thw KKM KKK nwa KKK KKH Kw U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. x TKK KKK HAM KKK KKK TKK RK WK SKM K TKK MK OOK KM RK OK KAR KKH DAK KK OOM IMM SKK KKK KTH K KKK KKK KKK KK AM EK PKK WH iAH MMMM PPR aE x ‘HA THK TKK KM AK Oe THEA MKK EMMA DK OT tHK KKK DK HA KK KKK iH SMM AMM MK OK OOH iHtM KKK iA bie KKH xX|xX|xX seeleceleeelene MMMM MH tMothM UMMA DM RMA tH AMM KAKA tMHK THK M KK: iM Ob KKM KK ee coclece! KX fowcfesclace|ecclece|ecslece|cvclcce x|/xX/xX . . . A . . HW tM MMR KK thotKK IMM MH iK KH IKK EMM tHoIK MK AK Tae KKK KKH THEM tM KK KKK "ez-Q1 “Sny | ‘9-11 ‘3ny | ‘6-4 any | | nw nA WK nna DKK KK SE tHn KE Asie er ; iMotMM ba CHR KKK ‘MH SHRM HMMM HW IKK KM KKK WK TAM TMK OM EM MA tH MS TMA MK tHotM EMMA KM KK ‘Zsny-gz Ame | “9z-1¢ Aqne | “6I-FI1 Ame | ‘g1-2 Aqne | -¢ Aqne-og oung | KK iA MAM EM EMM OOK AK OM IM MRK DH IM EKKO PM EM PKA OOM OM EM RK "ge-€¢ oune. | "Iz-9T oun | *pI-6 oung | "L-~@ vung | "Te-9¢ Avy | "FG-61 Avy | “LT-@1 Ae | “OI-S Ae | TA TAM SAK IK IKK DAK OS MK SHARK Ka tM EMM TM eM EK AK ORK ODM EK THOM K EEK KKK KH OM DMA MMR a i i Mot IMM TM DMM OM AH fF OM Ona OKA 'HAHK HK KKH Pe babe nie ‘HHA K AH HHH KKK TAR HAA KA Pe iesdadts its teeta ‘Hh oIA MAKE | +g Auge ady | "9¢-1z “1dy | AK AKKMKK DKK KAKA HAMM COMM HW OK AK R RM HMMM KK IKK MAK ‘AKA AK WH IMAM KK "6I-F1 “Idy | Sr “gady-Té “18H | "62-Fe “Ie | "ZE-LI “IEW | “CL-O1 ‘1ey | ’ ’ . ' . . . . . ’ . . ’ . . ’ ’ . . . ’ . . . . . ' . . . WAM KOK M OK AK KRM WH bHMK KKH OMAK KKK HHH KKHKH 1H IM HM HH x) xX tH SKA KAKA AK KK HW tKhK IKK IKK AH SHR KAM IKK KH OK WKH KM EK TAK THK KK TA MM MH te HIM MM KKH OM MH MMH DMM MRR es WWM KKH OM KM MMR CM RA oe ‘gee | tnx sich shslatalatctalalaictcialciiitelal.s itis st ie) —, _ NOOF AWTS NK ONMNWOOWS SEH OWWWWORMORFWONFRNOOCSO tt led dl e SRO OoNtIOAOCNIOCOONUANAWOoCoCoO _ ROCoCOoOrFOoOFOCOOCOOCOCOCoCooConNoo-o = _ RR ONN EEN ON STO WYN WNDOAANOHNWUON AUDEN OWWAITE ODF ODOR ROOOOCOWNONDOOWOOONOCSOS _ iw) Anmnonoocoococococoocoeocooo Coo oooowNoro = Seceessososesesescoocsceoscesoessesoescescessosoessoowsoosescescs mt et — SMN WOOTEN AS WR KH DORE NIOOK KR DOWDKE CON WHE OOCONDOWKR AON WDHRWOANWNOO 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 3 0 0 0 0 0 2 0 0 0 0 5 0 0 3 3 | 0 5 0 6 0 2 0 5 4 6 8 3 coe eae 1 4 2 BD ge 9 6 et ats 15° 9 eas Sa 3 3 Pa eee oe et 9 3 Wy pee Rites 12 0 1 RA 9 6 2 Be AG SN Fees od 8 3 Ee ate [a Se en 13 5 1 | eel Sate eit a 9 12 Pee Be REE” 3 3 pide, al ET oa! 7 8 Wa Brae it 2 4 6 od. BE CNES AG, SRR 18 11 1 1 1 Fae Reale a 0 0 aS AL ae ee 15 7 1 es ie |e ee 6 5 1 1 (4) Es Pe 12 7 1 9 SASS 0 6 Bal aan WG | tet, > 7 2 Zillion 4 2 (Pa? = a Se 0 7 Fl atone ad eee ee 0 9 Gt lee ot 8 eae 0 6 OURS Ros bee Joe 0 0 0 0 6 334 4 4 1 0 10 10 0 4 0 0 10 2] (5) 9 0 Cie ee tee: 12 1 0 Vial Sete 3 0 Co eee a 0 5 6 ee Fs ow 16 14) es 12 6 5 0 0 2 6 3 7 2 10 0 7 3 0 3 " 4 8 6 0 a ee 5 2 3 0 Bi, eae 4 0 1 Dates on which none of the flies oviposited are omitted from the table. 2 Died on this date; 30 eggs present in abdomen. 3 Escaped on this date. 4 Died on this date. 5 Died on this date; 15 eggs present in abdomen. MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN HAWAII. 7G ib TasLe XIX.—Daily rate of oviposition of the Mediterranean fruit fly in 1914—Contd. Number of eggs deposited. Date of oviposition. Fly Fl Fly Fly Fly Fly | Fly FL Fl No. 1. No.2. No. 3. | No. 4. | No. 5. | No. 6. | No. 7. No.8. No.9. 1 oth 2G Gan as 0 (i atianee 63a Ra ea 9 DNs Culpa e 3 Ui ist eee DP leprae 3 al Sea Sas Or | tee ee 8 Fy ERs en Oriseasckes 4 0 | Seapine Or iiese as 0 Onesweraan Bileae 00> 3 Bu Ea oe he es 0 3) (Ea ye 4 a Os/PRECE a 0 |. 0 Ae se ota 0 |. 2 OUR Esse 14 |. 0 Oh eae 0 |. 3 (i) eri cr 11 4 0) eae Falls wr ea 7 Oilssieree shia ae ae es 0 Sh ee es see ery: 0 (Vial Aa ea Lh ee 3 OR eae eee 0 Oe Reson 0 | Pe Sy TAY oe 0 (iis aie 2 Wh lee 5 0 4 4 2 5 5 0 2 0 0 4 3 Sept. 2 Dts One cis eS Ee OS ACRE AO Oe SE EEE PSE eee eee ee ae eee one docomsesede ypeausecuc cas | hes Hose obeeccE HBoeseee essecsae (4) Motaleee ss. soe 191 34 86 314 622 1 Died on this date; 16 eggs present in abdomen. 3 Died on this date; 2 eggs in abdomen. 2 Died on this date; no eggs in abdomen. 4 Died on this date; 3 eggs in abdomen. ABILITY OF FEMALES TO BEGIN OVIPOSITING REGULARLY AFTER A PERIOD OF SEVERAL MONTHS DURING WHICH HOST FRUITS WERE NOT AVAILABLE. Females which have been kept in confinement without an oppor- tunity to oviposit in host fruits will begin actively ovipositing when such fruits are made available. Thus, females emerging on Febru- ary 28, 1914, were kept in glass jars until about 4 months old, when, on June 28, they were placed with fruits and a record kept of the eggs deposited. These data secured from 6 females show that for the days on which they oviposited they laid an average of 8.1, 4.6, 0, 6.3, 4, and 7.2 eggs. These averages compare favorably with the averages for females given an opportunity to oviposit from the time they were sexually mature until death. Fly No. 1, with its average of 8.1 eggs, deposited 22 eggs on July 26, or when it was a2 BULLETIN 9536, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 148 days old, and this is the largest number of eggs ever obtained by the writers during one day from any female. The flies of Table XX oviposited on the sides of their containing jars during the period up to the time they were given fruits in which to deposit eggs, but not in a normal manner. TABLE XX.—Daily rate of oviposition of the Mediterranean fruit fly. [Females emerged on February 28, 1914; hence were 4 months old on June 28, 1914. Given an opportunity to oviposit on fruit for first time on July 1.] Number of eggs deposited. Number of eggs deposited. Date. 1 , Date. 1 Fly | Fly | Fly | Fly | Fly | _ Fly Fly | Fly | Fly | Fly | Fly | Fly No. 1. |No. 2. |No. 3. |No. 4. |No. 5. | No. 6. No. 1. |No. 2. |No. 3. |No. 4. |No. 5. |No. 6. 1914. 1914. Trlyws it = 0 0 0 0 6 0 || July 19.. 6 DS | Poe 0 One see ae 9 0 0 0 2 0 20.. 0 DE | ees 4 One css 3.3 0 0 0 0 4 0 PA oe 5 DH |rccctare 6 OF eaaae 4_. 10 4 0 0 0 6 22). 0 Soe a Di ee 5.. 4 0 0 0 0 0 23... 0 pee 0 Onesies: 6.. 5 6 0 4 0 0 24. 2 (13.9 eeapet UNS} [h (Ce eee aes (ee 0 0 0 0 0 12 25. 6 Dae eo On Se Se sees EE 10 6 0 0 0 6 26. 22 ahd eater (Da) bo Ee ae ea 95.8 0 4 0 9 0 13 P(e 9 De rats One eo 105 15 6 0 3 0 2 28. 9 OR eee TT sal SS clare S 1h Ee 5 2 0 0 0 4 29)\es 6 Uh eee, ORS Ses 13. . 12 7| (@) 5 0 0 BOP IAaS 0 Oe lessees (OP, i fe. | 14.. 2 Oleeases 5 WK Genel |esubreabmenn|es | (11) (CG) beedee On eared: 2 15... 7 Ove s2 253 0 OnRets 23 On ae AS oes ON ee el 8 cee 16.. 0 Silas e iat 0 ia (aes PA AG Cae eer Seek (Oye Es Sips a ene 13 Bilsseeee 11 Os |Fecree — SS) ——— | 18.. 5 Osa 2225 4 ON ete Total..| 162 97 0 76 12 43 1 Dates on which none of the flies oviposited are omitted from the table. 2 Died on this date; no eggs in abdomen. . 2 Died on this date; 11 eggs in abdomen. 4 Died on this date; 5 eggs in abdomen. 5 Died on this date. 6 Died on this date; 4 eggs in abdomen. One female emerging March 3, 1914, was isolated from fruits until August 29, or for 5 months and 26 days. When placed with fruit on August 29 she deposited 4, 5, 11, 14, 9, and 9 eggs on August 31, September 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7, or an average of 8.7 eggs for each day on which she oviposited. She deposited 11, 14, 9, and 9 eggs, respec- tively, on the first 4 days of the seventh month of her life, but died on the fifth day. NUMBER OF EGGS DEPOSITED BY SINGLE FEMALES. No attempts have been made by previous writers to determine the egg-laying capacity of the female. In 1906 Fuller assumed as a basis for data -on multiplication that each female deposited 50 eggs at one time. Silvestri, after becoming familiar with the work of the writers while in Honolulu, stated that the total number of eggs deposited is not less than 300. In general, entomologists invariably have used the number of eggs found in the body as a basis for computing the egg-laying capacity. In Table XIX the only data obtained by the writers on this sub- ject show that the total number of eggs deposited by a single female MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN HAWAII. 13 may be as high as 625. Fly No. 5 deposited 622 eggs and held 3 well-formed eggs in her oviducts at death. Fly No. 9, on the other hand, deposited only 3 eggs during her life. ‘The writers believe that hardy females may deposit as many as 800 eggs, or even more, under favorable conditions. Fly No. 5, which deposited 622 eggs, lived only 153 days, while other females have oviposited for periods covering more than 10 months and might be expected to deposit more eggs. As noted above, one female deposited 11, 14, 9, and 9 eggs during the first 4 days of the seventh month of her life. NUMBER OF EGGS DEPOSITED AT ONE TIME. During the period from January 23 to 27, 1914, when the tempera- tures during the heat of the day ranged between 74° and 76° F., 15 females were observed to oviposit in apples. The time required from the instant the females started ovipositing until the ovipositor was withdrawn varied from 2 to 5 minutes, with an average of 3.8 minutes. Each puncture was found to contain from 1 to 4 eggs, and averaged 2.4 eggs. During the warmer period of the year, on April 13, 1914, when the temperature averaged about 82° F., 8 females consumed from 2.5 to 4.5 minutes in completing the process of oviposition in apples, and deposited from 3 to 9 eggs, or an average of 5.4 eggs in each puncture. NUMBER OF EGGS DEPOSITED IN A SINGLE EGG CAVITY. Females oviposit repeatedly in egg cavities or punctures in table fruits, especially in those fruits in which they have difficulty in making egg chambers. Thus while females, as already noted, deposit normally only from 3 to 9 eggs in a puncture in apples at one time, cavities in apples left with females from 3 p. m. until the fol- lowing morning contained from 42 to 106 eggs. As many as 300 eggs _ have been taken from one egg cavity m the rind of grapefruit, 129 from a cavity ina lemon, and 926fromacavityinamango. (PI. XIII, fig. 3.) Observations indicate that after depositing a few eggs the females feed and move about only to return in many instances to the same spot to continue ovipositing. Frequently newly laid eggs can be found in punctures in citrus fruits in which several batches of eggs already have been hatched. Bearing m mind that only from 1 to 9 eggs are usually deposited in an egg cavity at one time, the data m Table XI will prove interesting. OVIPOSITION BY VIRGIN FEMALES. Females confined in jars immediately after emergence and given no opportunity to mate will deposit eggs, but none of the eggs will hatch. On September 10, 1913, 500 newly emerged virgin females were placed im a jar and began ovipositing in a normal manner on Sep- tember 16, or after 6 days. One hundred and twenty-eight eggs 74 BULLETIN 536, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. deposited September 16 did not hatch. The temperature during this period varied between 71 and 84° F., with a mean for the period of 78.5° F., and the relative mean humidity averaged about 66 per cent. Two hundred females emerging November 13, 1914, were confined without males and began ovipositing November 23, or after 10 days. During this period the temperature ranged between 65 and 80° F., with a mean of 74.6° F.; the relative humidity, averaging 69.2 per cent, ranged between 52 and 85 per cent. Although no daily oviposition records of these females were kept, 450 eggs deposited by them in apples on 17 different occasions when they were given an opportunity to oviposit between November 13 and March 4-5 failed to hatch. In three other experiments not one of 2,264 eggs deposited by virgin females hatched. Virgin females which have been depositing eggs that failed to hatch may mate later and deposit fertile eggs. Thus 200 virgins emerging on March 13,1915, oviposited quite regularly until May 14, when males were placed in the jar with them. Previous to May 14 all eggs deposited had failed to hatch. On May 16, 11 eggs were deposited; of these all hatched but 2. INFLUENCE OF WEATHER CONDITIONS ON ADULT ACTIVITIES. No satisfactory data on this subject can be secured out of doors in the Hawaiian Islands, as the colder temperatures which seriously affect adult activities are not to be had except at higher altitudes, where the fly is not to be found. At the Volcano House, Hawaii, at about 4,000 feet-elevation, where the November mean is about 60° F. and the daily range is between 45° and 72° F., adults in jars were inactive during the early mornings and late afternoons. During the warmer period of the day adults became active and oviposited in. apples hung in their jars after the temperature reached 61° F. At Honolulu, at a temperature of 65° to 67° F., 27 eggs were deposited in peaches by about 40 females, and 40 eggs by a lot of 60 females. At higher temperatures many more eggs would have been deposited under otherwise similar conditions. Adults in jars were noted to mate as usual on March 17, when the temperature was 69° F. On March 18, 9 a. m., at 67° F., adults endeavored to oviposit in apples, but did not seem to succeed in puncturmg the skin. A female emerging on August 12, 1914, was placed in a large glass refrigerator, the temperature of which averaged 61° F., but varied for the period between 58° and 62° F. She was accompanied by males and depos- ited 3 and 6 eggs on September 12 and 20, respectively, but died on September 25. This fly was replaced by another of like age, which deposited 9, 5, 8, 4, and 6 eggs, respectively, on September 26, 27, 28, 29, and October 2. At a mean temperature of about 78° F., adults may deposit eggs during the night, but deposition during this portion of the day has MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN HAWATITI, 75 been found most unusual. In the laboratory and out of doors adults feed and oviposit at all times of the day during the warmer months. Lounsbury has stated that in South Africa adults seek shelter beneath dried leaves, etc., in rearing cages during the colder weather, and Compere has observed adults active on orange trees in Spain during the warm hours of a day following freezing night temperatures. LENGTH OF LIFE CYCLE. _ During the warmest Hawaiian weather, when the mean tempera- tures average about 79.5° F., the egg, larva, and pupa stages may be completed in as few as 13 or as many as 33 days, according to the ~ individual and its host. At this season large numbers pass through the immature stages in from 18 to 20 days. As the length of the adult life has been found to vary from a few days to 230 and 315 days, it is evident that the life cycle may be as long as 11 months when the fly passes its immature stages during the warmest portions of the year. At an average mean temperature of about 68° F., which is the coolest mean found by the writers where host fruits were readily available for study, the immature stages required from 40 to 69 days. Data already discussed indicate the difficulty in stating just what varia- tions there may be in the length of the life cycle in still cooler climates. Thus the egg stage has been increased from 2 to 24 or 25 days by the application for 22 days of a temperature of from 48° to 53° F. A third-stage larva survived a temperature of 48° to 54° F. for 79 days, while another larva remained in the first instar 57 days at an out-of- door temperature ranging from 27° to 73° F., with a mean of about 48°F. The fruit fly has been held in the pupa stage at an out-of-door temperature ranging between 38° and 72° F., with a mean of about 53° to 54° F. for about 2 months. At Kealakekua, where the tem- perature ranged between 58° and 80° F., with a mean of about 68° F., 3 larve in very firm apples required 28, 58, and 74 days to become fully mature and leave the fruit to pupate. Add to the 74 days required for larval maturity 4 days for the egg stage and 20 days for the pupa stage, and one has a cycle for these stages of 98 days, or over 3 months. A very conservative estimate for the pos- sible length of the immature stages, or a period sufficiently long to outlast the coldest seasons of semitropical regions, is 3 to 4 months. SEASONAL HISTORY. . In littoral Hawaii there may be as many as 15 or 16 generations of the Mediterranean fruit fly each year, provided one considers the length of a generation as extending from the time the eggs are de- posited until the female of the next generation begins to oviposit. With such an understanding a generation at Honolulu may require under the most favorable conditions as few as 17 days during the warmest weather, or as few as 31 days during the coolest winter 76 BULLETIN 536, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. weather. As the females are capable of living long periods and of depositing small batches of eggs almost daily, the generations become hopelessly confused. In those portions of the islands where the winter monthly means drop to about 68° F., as in the Kona district of Hawaii at about 1,300 feet elevation, there may be not more than 10 to 12 generations. The number of generations is naturally less in colder habitats. At Strawberry, a ranch station on Hawaii at about 4,500 feet elevation, there appears to be only asingle generation a year, which is evident in the last fruit to ripen on a few peach trees. As may be expected, adults are abundant at all seasons in the littoral regions of Hawaii where host plants are grown. With the hopeless confusion of generations that exists, there can be no seasonal broods. Instead, adults may be found actively ovipositing every day of the year. That the cooler weather of the winter months does lengthen the life cycle has already been proved. This slowing down of development naturally results in the emergence of fewer adults. This is indicated by the data of Table X XI. TaBLE XXI.—Seasonal abundance of adult Ceratitis capitata at Honolulu. [Average daily catch of 147 kerosene traps for the weeks indicated below, from Apr. 21, 1913, to Aug. 4, 1914. Traps exposed in Punahou district of Honolulu, east of Punahou Street and south of Wilder Avenue.) Num- Num- Num- Num- Num- Date. ber. Date. ber. || Date. ed Date. ae Date. ae | gar ea alee ay Searcy ee 26. .| 279 |} Aug.2...-] 905 || Nov.8-.---] 358 || Feb. 13.... 58 || May 23.... 291 ay 3..- 347 || Aug.9...-| 937 || Nov.15--.-.| 237 || Feb. 20....| 117 || May 30.-... 259 May 10-.| 677 || Aug.16..-| 763 || Nov. 22..-.| 137 || Feb. 28....|° 64 || June6..... 389 May 17.. 901 |) Aug. 23...| 562 || Nov. 29...| 182 || Mar. 7...-- 71 || June 13... 729 May 24..| 1,738 ||) Aug. 30...| 439 |) Dec. 6..... 219 |} Mar. 14... 49 || June 20....) 1,074 May 31.-.| 1,498 || Sept.6--..| 316 || Dec.13....| 324 || Mar. 21.... 74 || June 27... 935 June 7...} 1,413 || Sept.13...) 219 |) Dec.19....| 355 || Mar. 28__.. 64 || July 4....- 1,676 June 14..} 1,047 |] Sept. 20...) 152 |] Dec. 27....| 240 || Apr. 4.--.. 92 || July 11....| 2,50 June 21.. 855 || Sept. 27...) 141 || Jan. 2..... 176 |} Apr. 11...-} 123 || July 18....| 2,002 June 28..| 1,084 || Oct. 4..... 16% pang) a 2s 48 || Apr. 18...-] 150 || July 25_...| 1,677 July 5..- 769 |} Oct.11....| 200 || Jan. 16..-: 84 || Apr. 25...-| 124 || Aug. 1.... 964 July 12.. 723 || Oct.18....| 200 || Jan. 24.... 46 ay 2....- 188 || Aug. 4..-. 523 July 19..| 769 || Oct. 25 205 || Jan. 31.... 51 || May 9....- 343 July 26.. 727 || Nov.1.-.-| 270 || Feb. 7..... 72 || May 16....) 455 These data on the number of males captured in 147 traps in an area equal to about four city blocks are taken as indicating the relative abundance of adults in a single year, in a section of Honolulu where many host trees occur. The adults are most numerous during late May, June, and July, and less numerous during January, February, and March. The numerical abundance of adults in Honolulu, where the climate never seriously retards development, is affected more by the numerical abundance of ripening host fruits, which is greatest during the early summer and least during the winter. The fact that there are relatively fewer adults during the winter months is of no practical value to growers of fruit in Hawaii, since the smaller amount of fruit ripening at that season is nearly as badly affected as are the fruits ripening during the summer. MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN HAWAII. rere NATURAL CONTROL. No striking examples of control by natural agencies were evident in Hawaii previous to the introduction of parasites. As indicated below, there are several minor factors of natural control, aside from parasites, but they are of no practical value under Hawaiian conditions. A certain amount of natural mortality occurs among larve and pup, but it is small under ordinary conditions. It has been suggested that there occurs an unusually high mortality among pupe formed by larve developing in such juicy fruits as the mango, but this has been disproved by experimental work. ‘The high rate of mortality among pupz derived from mangoes in laboratories is _ produced by the severe sifting process necessary to separate the pupe from the wet sand.in which they form, or from insanitary conditions. EXCESSIVE HEAT. The larve within fruits which lie in the direct sunlight after they have fallen are killed in large numbers. Often all the larve in the portion of a fruit exposed to the sun will be found dead. During August, 1914, mangoes were exposed to the sun for two days over sand in shallow trays. Examinations later proved the 17 fruits to contain 17 living and 84 dead third-instar larve, with 14 larve dead on the surface of the fruits. One larva died when partly out of a fruit and 103 succeeded in pupating normally. In 23 other fruits held in the shade as a check there were found 168 living and 9 dead third-instar larve, and beneath them 167 pupz. While every larva in certain of the fruits exposed to the sun was killed, it is evident the many larve in the protected portion of the fruit may escape and pupate normall y: PREDACIOUS ENEMIES. Although Compere reported certain staphylinid beetles in Brazil and forficulids in India attacking larve of fruit flies, they seem to be of little ‘value as practical checks. The writers have observed earwigs within decayed areas of fruits infested by C. capitata and drosophilid larve in Hawaii under conditions which indicated that they were feeding upon fruit-fly larve. Harwigs confined in jars within the laboratory were observed to attack and devour well-grown C. capitata larve. Their numbers, however, are far too small to have any effect upon fruit-fly increase.. The small brown ant (Pheidole megacephala Fab.), known also as the Madeira house ant and the harvester ant, unquestionably is an important factor in natural control. This ant, which inhabits most abundantly the littoral regions, is frequently found swarming over and throughout fallen fruits, killmg many larve as they leave the fruit to pupate. Ants were observed to remove from a fallen ball kamani nut 86 medium sized C. capitata larvee between 11.18 and 11.58 a. m., April 5, 1913. An examination at the end of this period 78 showed that 34 larve in a firm portion of the flesh had escaped attack. Within the laboratory this ant has demonstrated its ability to destroy pupe. BULLETIN 536, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CLIMATIC CONTROL. There is little opportunity in Hawaii to study the effect of adverse climatic conditions upon the Mediterranean fruit fly. Development appears to progress most rapidly after the Hawaiian temperature means reach 75° or 76° F. At a mean of 68° F. the developmental period is about doubled. A temperature rangmg between 58° and 62° F. has no detrimental effect upon the development as shown by the emergence of adults from pupe held in a well-lighted refrigerator. These emergence data, recorded in Table XXII, and supplemented by - four other experiments, indicate that the pupa stage may be increased from 38 to 41 days, or that, at this temperature, the length of develop- ment may be increased to three or four times the normal during the warmest weather. Only 9 out of 39,500 pupe held at a tempera- ture of from 49° to 51° F. yielded adults within refrigeration, while the remainder died. All cold-storage data obtamed by the writers indicate that approximately 50° F. is the temperature at which little or no development can take place and below which complete mortality occurs if exposures are continued sufficiently long. TaBLE XXII.—The effect upon pupal development of the Mediterranean fruit fly of 58° to 62° F. Age of pupz when placed in storage and number yielding adults. Days in storage. 4 day. | 1 day. | 2 days. | 3 days. | 4 days. |5 days. | 7 days. | 8 days. | 9 days. |10 days. | | EES RSS Se eS) eae RESAasno M5. took: aa os Bao 1 Set pols raat. als oc sobestsaoeqee 27 DU ewiciwe og eeoe [tea ncdee|ademceee sien cet leeeace cee | ll 334 | 1,290 Bose: Set eee te BE aS bat arnt | ae caren Amina Meme aE A HIN ST eS We a 3 949 657 ARLE, Shoot WEIS LS Se edie essay Mace riba Pecpanentel Pate ate cell aaah die Selle er 20} 1,469 28 as Se eee ore Oe qT ates Re eal ie eral apneic me Ul a ee 10 135 96 14 (CC IE ee a le aie Ba Wad ery Biel eA I i ne Et at 8 | 2,066 Ce | ea TCE g Sate eer ee Be See cee oe eee elem eA Pie a 4 36 918 RVers Buen eee tt. Se eee i A Talk ay Ol bd tae ered bl hp ES A tlt Eo 2 687 55 2 1 Re eee ee Sane Roe ARSE eg NI Aa Ae E co | Rochoeac he 10} 2,118 13 2 1 LES Aes PETAL EEN Roe A RDOe “Oa O i Caer Se ee sme ets 23 479 4 1 1 1 Sey ae Oe eee ee La BR ee Pew aT ah oie Bae 1 18 43 Aileen utuye 1 UME SD as SNS a Re ae a SP Ee Ee ae Baebes 2 | 2 604 Ob slp eres Ollemeeatte 1 eo eM (ene eer FU SC IET yf LO Ss Bees aD 6 1} 5 930 Galette Dy learn oe LR eae aaa toe Bice eee AEE Pree Ce Seas | 6 (eC RR ee elicit as Bet G NS] eee is Lee See pe Sere es Se in Se 8 1 Sal Were 1 Cat Ee os SSeS Be ay el toe aioe ie | 2h cea Ue AS 2 tie eal bt fol Fe pee 2 | 3 4 14 3) i ie eee ah CR ERR NN LW ia ey See et eRe IO” aS ale aes 28 ok 33 Oi hans geil ~ tere seal cheretulare sliowe skeet Le AES ee oe Se eee [ee 15 2 566 BE RSRAR SS ln Saece als a855e|aeOmotan NOES: SAS E GEL oe RRS 2 lee es el 1,324 21 a: 3 IR aa re ee eg 2 UM 3 Sa ae ed Me ee 4 29 25 381 1h: TS Re ress | yah set SARIS! || BS ae ee SERS eT RT a Oa 131 319 38 i Oe ollie we OY ae Pe a ao DE els ICA i 4 203 | 1,316 4 BANS EG Maes ane eran eee Os 7 ee Rd RNA 2 a ND 4 6 399 335 Fleece ke oiled oe opel agate Selene eRe core TADR OE - ANNE IAT OS 12 4| 1,477 21 1 rN eee ats a0 Saabs’ Seiad ae aera OFA ec Pes 9 36 | 1,013 6 1 besnottred SL sage See OM eres Sei |e I Soya 7 6 et ep patel opt 16 392 1 3 ee ee Pear a mene ee at etree selin) eae 2 Ie yf ate ee I kN ara SUA ora ate 44} 1,515 15 V2) Sieg 3 | eet’ « P pre mh San] me pe ene ee erates a fers 1 Po hh eR = he EVM EY 1 367 708 7H ae pe aga | nso wow occ] ha wpm ace 3 yet een he | es mee ee | een | eae cate Pp ae ae Tae 1,217 AON «oc enc|ecseepmdlbled cb oie eS, ee a IS ee a ee od Se oie 159 Bil Reseed be see -ebie fee Sed ree oa 3 1 Cena |e Re See eg none ee a gee aD ee Meee Sele 2D aarees ae | sate aie t= | Nereis | elated, 3 jae achetees Ve Sw afi tel te tea lane at! Se hee deity. Miyata UL oia pals ols cE a a 2 ereinya flo scere esin alle ore = 0 0/2 /c)) o)aleiaiecc.a re | als aye etah et te eee a | eae ev 1 a eee a Ble co vce efde ia = a — ee a ce koa ne GL SAINI SUSI CICICIIETE ip fenetog egies gz |ter joer jos SS SIINY *CEt t= a “(s101 9) et6r “00a beafiers | abel miele Hides Hee iro tm ci fern inte misicd | ereltialo (ite =fallieciereior= steer Gn GO! GGOrITEGaL ICSG LI GOG Ua OGLa OS lie lo mean eae B7B71dBd"O Od aS A Pa a j= Hea | a aa SPT a pss ep eR al “Ayipruiny} + *einye GAT}BIOI | -1adUle4} |gP/LF\ChIFE|Sh SPIOPIGE LE/9E/ES/6z\22|9/S7' FS |ES|Ze| TZ/OZ/6T| ST | LT | OT | ST | FT €T rai Il OL |6/8 Deonks Ube | -ojistied pue ysoH “218d “tantiednd 04 Jo UoTyeUrIOJ oy4 109Je sABp Jo JoquINU oY} UO SuTsIoWL9 oyIsvied Io soy Jo 1OQUINN fif pn uvauowappayy ayn fo nuodnd oy) wouf saspind aundo fo douabiawa uo nIVOgJ— AXX ATA, MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN HAWAII. 95 Taste XXVI.—Percentage of GEaetisin among larve of the Mediterranean fruit fly emerging during various periods after the gathering of the host fruit (coffee). Percentage of parasitism. Number Date of Date of OL pune |S a a eee Locality. collection larval yielding t Dia- jatee of fruit. emergence. {adults or} Opius | (nasma | chasma | Total parasites.| humilis. tryoni. |fullawayi. : i Oct. 21-23. . 37 78.4 0 16.2 94.6 Bie ee veiteet, Hono: hoet. 21, — |JOct. 23-25. 34 64.7 0 15 79.7 ates Oct. 25-27... 52 20.0 0 5.4 25.4 Dee. eae 256 G 5 Mi Opel 92.5 . 10-13. 338 b : 78.1 79 Beh Wetgie-F ance Vat. \Dee. 8, 1915 |{Dec. 13-16. 609 6 1 43.81 44.5 y- ec. 16-18. 258 0 0 12.8 12.8 Dec. 18-20. 76 0 0 6.6 6.6 Dec. 1-2... 5 40 60 0 100 Dec. 2-3.... 15 86.7 13.3 0 100 ee caer Mana dis; \ee. 1,1915 Dec. 3-4... 21 71.4 23.8 0 95.2 Dec. 4-5.... 33 66.6 21.2 0 87.8 Dec. 5-6... 46 54.3 13 0 67.3 June 18-19. . 46 63 30.4 0 93.4 Kainaliu, Kona district...| June 18,1915 |; June 19-20. . 65 50.7 41.5 0 92.2 June 20-21.. 107 56 32.7 0 88.7 41 80.4 PP) 0 82.6 Kahaloa, Kona district...) Oct. 30,1914 Nov. 8. 240 23.3 0.4 0 23.7 125 3 0 0 3.7 Ne ou soe 64 0 0 0 0 eels ae 52 16.7 40.7 0 57.4 Hookena, Kona district...) Oct. 31,1914 |{Nov. 8, ie 36 17 19 0 36 : Nov. 6-9... 86 1.2 0 0 12 Nov. 9-11... 7 0 Feat!) 0 0 Resistance to cold-storage temperatures.—Indications are that Opus humilis can withstand greater cold for longer periods than can its host. Thus 5 O. humilis emerged from 2,500 C. capitata pupe after they had been refrigerated for 9 days at about 26° F. Four lots of 1,200 pupe refrigerated at the same temperature for 5, 6, 7, and 8 days yielded on removal to normal temperatures 30, 32, 8, and 4 Opius. No adult C. capitata emerged from those pupe refrigerated from 5 to 9 days, but from 1,300 pupe, refrigerated at about 26° F. for a period of 4 days, 3 adults emerged along with 40 O. humilis. No adult C. capitata emerged from two lots of 1,900 and 4,500 pupe refrigerated for 9 and 10 days, respectively, at 32° F., but 7 and 13, respectively, of O. humilis emerged. From 1,228 pupe refrigerated for 18 days at 34° to 36° F. there emerged no adult C. capitata but 2 O. humilis. REARING PARASITES. In rearing parasites the writers have followed, in the main, the methods employed by the Hawaiian Board of Agriculture and Forestry as developed by Messrs. Silvestri, Fullaway, and Bridwell. The board failed to rear the opiine parasites successfully until Mr. J. C. Bridwell, then assistant superintendent of entomology, altered 96 BULLETIN 536, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. _the procedure so that the parasites were given an opportunity to oviposit in the larve within host fruits under more normal conditions. The methods previously used permitted much moisture to gather on the sides of the glass jars in which the host fruits and parasites were placed. The method now recommended by Mr. Bridwell consists in the use of two ordinary nursery flats, the boxes being 16 by 12 by 3 inches. Into one of these is placed a layer of dry sand and a wire container so arranged that it will hold the infested host fruits exposed within it clear of the sand. The second tray, the bottom of which has been replaced by fine-mesh copper wire, is used as a cover and is made sufficiently small so that it can be inverted and thrust down into the tray containing the sand and fruits as soon as vials containing the adult parasites have been unstoppered and placed upon the fruits. By pressing the edges of the covering tray well into the sand the adult parasites are prevented from escapimg and ants are, temporarily at _ least, prevented from interfering with the experiment. When the covering tray is in place, the wire-screen top is not far from the ex- posed fruits; hence the parasites are forced to confine their activities where they net the best results. The Bridwell method has not only made it possible to rear large numbers of opiines quickly and without skilled labor but is largely responsible for the success of the Fullaway- Bridwell parasite expedition to Africa. The writers have been able to rear both sexes of the opiine parasites in large numbers very easily since the summer of 1914 by merely placing in test tubes about 2 inches in diameter a number of infested host fruits and parasites. This method requires greater care and produces much sweating of the sides of the containers, but parasitic material of both sexes can be very quickly secured for experimental work, and the investigator has the advantage of being able to observe the activities of the adult parasites. The objectionable feature of excessive moisture was overcome by the use, in the summer of 1914, of a wooden box, the top and bottom of which was of fine-mesh copper wire which contained a sliding shelf made of coarse-mesh wire supported midway between the top and bottom of the box and which could be easily removed through one end of the box which was hinged. This device possessed the advantage, demonstrated by Bridwell, in that it prevented accumulations of excessive moisture and confined the parasites closely to their hosts, but was not so well adapted to the purposes of parasite work since the host larvee which pupated on the bottom of the box could not be so readily secured. After the host larvee have emerged from the exposed fruits the pup may be easily sifted from the sand beneath the fruits and held in glass jars until the adult parasites have emerged. J It was not necessary to expose adult opiine parasites to strong sunlight for a few minutes each day to hasten mating, as recommended MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN HAWAII. 97 by Bridwell, and both sexes were obtained within the laboratory without this precaution, possibly owing to the fact that the labora- tories were remarkably well lighted. ~ Cannibalism.—Although thousands of adults representing all three of these opiine parasites have been reared during the past two years, not more than a single individual has been reared from one fruit-fly puparium. Larve of the Mediterranean fruit fly within coffee cher- ries which had been exposed to the attack of Diachasma fullawayi during January, 1916, were found to have been attacked in several places, and examination made of the body contents of the parasitized fruit-fly larve proved that as many as 8 eggs had been deposited in certain instances. It seems very probable, therefore, that in the field, under normal conditions, adult parasites do not discriminate against larvee already parasitized when seeking a host and that due to an excessive number of parasitic larvee within a single host a cer- tain amount of cannibalism occurs. Cannibalism among opiine parasites was first observed by the senior writer while examining the body contents of larve parasitized by Diachasma fullawayi as pre- viously mentioned. A newly hatched larva was observed vigorously and effectively to attack a second larva of the first instar with its large mandibles. Later examination of large numbers of fruit-fly larvee by the junior writer have proved conclusively (1) that the last opline parasite to hatch within a host first kills all other parasitic larvee within the same host; (2) that the newly hatched larva is more capable of vigorous attack than one which has become engorged; and (3) that it may attack not only larve of another species but _those of its own as well. As’many as eight dead and one living first- instar larve have been found in a single host. STRUGGLE FOR SUPREMACY AMONG PARASITES. The parasites of Ceratitis capitata have been introduced too recently into Hawaii to warrant conclusive statements regarding the outcome of the struggle for supremacy which is clearly taking place. Opius humilis has an advantage among the opiines of being more hardy and of being able to pass through the immature stages more rapidly, and it is somewhat less affected by cool weather, whereas Diachasma tryont and D. fullawayi have the advantage of possessing much longer Ovipositors and are consequently better equipped to reach their host larve through the tissues of infested fruits. The more rapid develop- ment of the egg and larva stages of Opius humilis is, however, not in its favor when it is forced to compete within the same host with either Diachasma tryoni or D. fullawayi, owing to the cannibalistic habits of the newly hatched opiine larva, which impel it to seek out and destroy larve that have hatched earlier and already commenced feeding within the same host. 81340°—18—Bull. 536——7 x: SS BULLETIN 536, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. While it will probably take a number of years to determine just what advantage the longer ovipositor will afford Diachasma tryont and D. fullawayi over Opius humilis, the data in Table XXVII clearly demonstrate the value of the cannibalistic habits of the newly hatched larva to the more slowly developing species. TaBLe XXVII.—Percentage of parasitism by Opius humilis and Diachasma tryoni in larve of Ceratitis capitata in Kona, Hawaii. Barrgaleee of para- Percentage of para- Pates of sitism. Da ns 0 f sitism. mate arva. ca AREA oe ce, Pe arva Loeality. emergence, a Locality. emergence, Pa se ROR chasma} Total. oe beet cosine Total. mi | tryoni. Jan. 15-16 97.6 0.8 98.4 Mar. 24-26 81.2 0 81. 2 Jan. -16-18 92.7 -8 93. 5 June 17-18 46.7 | ~ 40.3 87.0 une 19-20 40 49.6 89.6 Feb. 68| 85.3] 9.3| 94.6 || Honaunau..- 3 Kainaliu Mar. 15-18 92 0 92.0 Sept. 19-20 13.9 65. 1 79.0 pa era, Mar. 18-19 | 85.1 0} 85.1 Sept. 20-21] 10.6] 69.6] 80.2 June 18-19 63 30. 4 93. 4 Feb. 6-8 79 0 79 June 19-20 50. 7 41.5 92. 2 June 20-21 56 32.7 88. 7 | June 16-18 31.4 23.9 55. 3 Kealakekua - Jan. 19-20 82.8 3.4 86. 2 Sept. 18-19 17.6 67.6 85. 2 Honaunau...|{Feb. 9-10 64. 2 Ant, 68. 9 Sept. 19-20 23 56. 4 79.4 Mar. 19-24 73.9 6 74. 5 Sept. 20-21 37.3 48.3 85. 6 Data previously published by the writers have shown that O. humilis itself is capable of killing as high as 80 to 100 per cent of the larve of Ceratitis capitata developing in coffee cherries in the Kona district of Hawaii. The data secured during 1915 showed that there was a decided increase in the percentage of parasitism caused by D. tryont. This increase, however, as shown by the data - of Table X XVII, was largely at the expense of O. humilis, since the total percentage of parasitism was not in excess of that which O. humilis could have brought about by its own efforts. In the absence of large amounts of data necessary to the definite estabushment of this point, the writers are of the opinion that similar fluctuations in the relative importance of humalis and tryoni are likely to oceur each year unless fullawayi becomes thoroughly established, in which case it is likely to supplant tryont. The gradual increase in the abund- ance of tryoni during the year is accounted for by the gradual removal, as the summer months approach, of the restrictions upon parasite devel- opment which cause a greater relative acceleration in the development of tryont than in the case of humilis. This, aided by cannibalism, explains the ascendancy of tryona during the summer and of humilis during the colder winter months. It would appear that C. capitata in the coffee sections of Hawaii would have been quite as effectively controlled had no opiine other than hwmilis been introduced. i It is doubtful if the same fluctuation in the relative abundance of tryont and fullawayi on the one-hand and of humilis on the other MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN HAWAII. 99 will take place in the warmer littoral regions about Honolulu where checks due to cool weather are not so effective asin Kona. A study of the data in Table XXVIII shows that Diachasma fullawayi gives promise of being a most efficient parasite, particularly of fruit-fly larvee in coffee cherries, since almost unaided it produced a mortality, im one instance, of 92.5 per cent of 256 larve emerging from coffee cherries in Honolulu on December 8 to 10, 1915, which date was about one year after it had been liberated. Data more recently secured by the junior writer indicate that instead of supplementing the work of the opiines, Tetrastichus giffardianus will prove a competitor, as its larve appear to be able to hold their own against opiine larvee within the same host, usually causing their death. While both Tetrastichus giffardianus and Pachycrepmdeus dubius (Pl. XX, fig. 2) have been reared during 1915 and 1916, neither is suffi- ciently abundant to become an effective factor in control at present. GENERAL EFFECTIVENESS OF PARASITE CONTROL. Only a beginning has been made in determining the effectiveness of parasites as a control factor in the Hawauan Islands, yet the rapidity of establishment and increase of the parasites has been very gratifying. The data already published recording the percentage of parasitism secured during 1914 and 1915, together with the addi- tional data of Table XXVIII, indicate, however, that while para- sitism in such fruits as the coffee cherry is remarkably high, in fruits with a thicker pulp, such as the orange, it is very low. The data of Table XXVIII have been chosen particularly as they demonstrate that immense numbers of adult Ceratitis capitata are developed in spite of the excellent work of the parasites in certain host fruits. Since adult fruit flies can live many months and oviposit quite regu- larly as shown by the biological data, they have been able, with the aid of the unprecedented variety and abundance of host fruits growing in Hawaii, thus far to keep such an ascendency over their parasites that ee cause the infestation of practically all fruits which are per- mitted to ripen. It would appear that unless effective pupal or egg parasites are introduced, or unless care is given to the elimination of host fruits which more thoroughly protect the larve from parasite attack and to the planting of fruits in which the fly is heavily para- sitized, little of practical value can be expected from the parasites dis- cussed in this paper either in rendering host fruits entirely free from attack or in raising the present quarantine against Hawaiian fruits. In Kona, Hawaii, where the percentage of parasites in coffee cherries has been phenomenally high for two years, it has been high enough merely to render an occasicnal fruit free from attack. The control 1The statement of W. M. Giffard that the infestation of coffee cherries during 1914 was at least 50 per _ cent less than during the previous year, and that in some fields it was difficult to find any great infesta- _ tion, should be interpreted as referring to the cherries which, although nearly all infested, were infested So late in development that their pulp was little affected when the fruits were picked. 100 BULLETIN 536, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. executed by parasites has, however, effected a benefit to coffee grow- ers which has probably already repaid the Territory of Hawai for all money expended in parasite introduction, since the parasites, by greatly reducing the abundance of adult flies, have postponed the infestation of the pulp until the cherries ous become quite well ripened, at which stage little loss to the coffee results.1 TaBLeE XXVIII.—Percentage of parasitism among larvx of the Mediterranean Fruit fly developing in host fruits during November, 1915-February, 1916.” fe SRS) 3% ed Dateotldivaly |e 3 « ate of larva ; Locality. Host fruit. emergence. | Bas EP ao 6 hea, {" sem oprar E) [TeIsNV | 68E0T LOT 6°E 1 ‘01 6S" LT COs eos ae SO pees ars Opes |e eee (YQNOs seTIUL F) YOM | Sseor 19 LY 9°8 89° GLI (i) ae Sea ae See eer O Deere ; “77 >> (qqnos oprur ¢) YWIOMOYW | L8e0T €°L1 Tz 9°¢ 0s* 691 (G0 ate aA Se Seren SSLOTEO OC OU Gla |e eee enn (JSOMYIION Soft F) VIJOLIVI | Z8EOL Lg (1) fe 1" LOT (7) firtiiitt itt tssreus orayedsppog [~~ "7777777" +7 ops >= 7 "| -urequno jy Avesauuey JsvayNog | TSEOT €&I (1) 1) £6" 881 (1) “rartrttts ts ssteud epue[quioy [7777777777 opt 7 7*“[-7* 77" "e109 ureIUMOW 4SoT | OSEOT 9ST 2 1'¢ 9° cor (1) TTT TT ropes rrr ope prs" -* aarey eeqoooyey7eyO | 2801 €°LT 29 ¢°9 19° OLT (1) “op” "777" "QqOD |° "~*~" (GyNOs seprUr FT) BIQOTIVY | 12E0T LST (1) (1) eg" L9T 1) **SSlols O10 | ~~ ToT topr ist s]esttss755777"Go ynos) suey y | TZrOT LU eg GL 92° 691 1) 777" "ssreus eyrueip |" ~~ a O De aalee saeees ---op"--**| STFOL 1°81 8°9 6°S Lt LOT 1) Sick ape OD ES Poa | Sia eneiee aos a OD er ag | ac scgeee sae "> sueyty | OcFOT GALE 16 bP 8¢° €91 (1) Pee ee eS 0 Drea a eran cae Opal | sees (LOSE NO] TUL) SOU Var POPU PST (i) (x) 9ST £91 (1) Re ae ae See GOD sea Pee ieee te Se OD es eal 777777""(qsoM so[lal F) SUSU | ZSrOT 1°81 $9 P'9 - 89° COT QESseass OP SE et OU TIeIs ON OL Eg A] <2" SS SS OMaR yr Sa 2s ae “"*sueqyy | ZTFOT ¢OT 1Z 0°61 02 °T 181 (1) PS aS (yjiou eyrur T) UopMog | L¢9OT 1°91 (1) 9 ee 891 (Gi), Seal aga ees Sree OS TMO COL a | pees ee ge OL eer ee ae ““ortadooy | €c90T LL ale og ZIT C61 Qs isIypas epusfqusioy eyoprdgy |= "77777" SES SEO DSSS Paes = =e ay eats “AIQvyW | TS90T 6°81 04 Lg 1S" 89T , (Gi ese pee a ee "777" 4stypos OYTJOT |7 "7777777 Ts Opt **-}- - Gsvoyynos soprur F) WOITTOIID | GFIOT O°LT rane LL 9¢° 69T (Go lseers Rete SSSR See Te eea OD cces Exe getees Sree) aise [Soa Se (qsto sofrur F) ayduray, | Sc9or 081 EG) Go) 19° 991 (Resa Sie ese SSIOUd OFJOLG |= -7 =~ ==" 7 Ops = "Qsvoyqiou sera 1) UoITOIIB | FC9OT LST | e°8 8'P ec" 89 (Ci) geen Ee eS pete es eae O Deeg |e cce pipettes tates 0) 0S ae ee ee ~** MO}JOIIBD | SEOOT C'ST 11°8 9° ie 691 (Gy aia? | pees pees SO 0) eS ae 3 ~ Op" **""}" GseayyNos saprur Z) WOIN[OIED | LF9OT L'8T | 6'8 cP oo" COL () Boge ggeecl se ~“sstoud O} TURIN) | ~~~ ~~~ pear OP gaat asa pee eee ~**MO}TJOLIVD | 9F9OT LL 1 ¢°8 LY Ge" OLI GD) sleet ageing SSIOUS OJIJOTG, |> 77777777777 TTOLIVD J > *(Q}10U SOTTU F) WOFTJOIIBD | CFOOT 6 ‘FI e°g Gel £0 °F CGT (i) SF SELON NITY HELIS Sons tote UE Ee | oe ee “OTTASNILL | Z610T L‘S1 (1) () 98% 2ST (iss lene eats peg soo == "5 euojspuBg |=" ~~" 777777777 Ops => 7 7]---- (qysOu SeyTuT Z) WOINIS ssBD | OOFOT (Gp aie ISL 0°36 #L°8 CPI Qa "7 OUOISpUBS SNOUTsNIIY |o 7777S TTT Ope OT[TASIONIVD | G680T 8°61 0'8 0's 1Z°0 6ST (as esos eee “--qsTyos ZyIeN® | ~~ ~~” Sp MONIB Y= ae (4S¥0 SOTTUL §) OT[LASIOJIVD | S6EOT VIDUOAD L‘FI zs ara (1) (1) (1) ee ~9M0}SOUIT] SNODDTITS | ~~ “op" “77 777*(qsoa\ sopttd ¢T) Joytdne | TSFOT (1) ey ZLE (;) (i) 8 ices Oe ates Ree ODRSES |aagestie ea ose [pate a (avo) UoJUAOG | OSFOT (i) 80 60S (y) (1) Wier sores aaa OUOJSOUTT] [TOUS | **==- yorog wyeq | 777777 (Qsea sopra g) AVITOC | TTFOT LT () () q) G) Gq) Saint Meee OOO} SOUL SMOCOTT ICY |p comes me ee ine PUBMON ES: aes ae ee eee (z) | 9LL0T “Spunod | “spunog “your . *qOoy “400 erenbs : IBOM JO], : ssou IBOM JO orqno orqno od. % : “he ON -pieH waafouseoo quoo sag | aod u0Ty jod spunod [e107 8 JO OUR NY Ayunep A400 10 UMOT, [eLiog Bena -diosqy | 94810 | ‘W3u0ms Surysnip ‘Dqn) pun ‘ony 0,40g ‘npoung “VdINO TH ‘sang papug ay) wouf yoo Burpping-pno. fo ssa) pposhyd fo synsay— J] ATAVY, TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK IN 1916. ‘uMOUY ou ApTPVoo] OVX T z “OPCUl 10U ISA], 1 $ CLT 0°9 19 ZS" 29 Or le “7 >" 9qTUBID, ~----*"Arren® Aopsuey | Z9Sor $ GLI Dish ZS 19° 291 (1) 2 BER OREO OSH OEA(0) De sa Cobos So ee ORe (Jo ySoMTINOS) UOSAVIN | TOGOT i Z ‘ST Deo og TL" COT tt OJFUBIS PIOSSTOU f= Opry tee sjeoyg AoUvATHOW | O9SOT S 0ST 02 Lg We 8ST 1) - O}TUBIS OF T}OTT (qS89 SoTTU Z) WOSABIX) | 6SSOT g 0'8I 18 9 °F 19° COL GU) ag Sa ees SES O Pits |e ae os a es D ak ges | eas eee ecg oR 8SC0T. “(1SB: 9 PST Z°8 6°F Cs COL (1) -YJNOS SETI 9) O[[TAVOMEIMET | LSCOT F Lu (1) (1) 98° COL (1) "= (4880 SopTU §T) O[[LAeoUWIIMe'T | GCCOT 9 o 61 89 6°¢ (Be GOT Gu) ies. es Ge eae sO MMIC) teas isis Sine ies OP Seana beri Neeru ae et Q[[TACOUAIMVT | FSCOT € LOLI el G'¢ (e)° COL tH --""=-9TTTATToUg | G9COT 9 6ST Te 9°¢ 69° ray ry) BR agro oe SRI OURIENMO GL P&Se2 eos SaaS Se gyp eo sos Ose coo eS esoSer anos “-pnqesor | F9S0T ¢ O'LT 06 + F 29° 6ST. Cine | eee aes sstous 04 TUeIx) *Q][TASOUeIMVT | ESOT () G) 19 9°9 Gg° 961 () aoe 4STYos opus, qus10H SRS SEES 2° (GISEE) -UY10U SOTIU ZT) O[[TAVDUGIMBT | 9SGOT G L°ST (1) (1) 09° 81 (1) O[[IACOUIIMVT | LPSOT 9 € ‘ST 86 lt 80° OLT (1) 16801 G LPL 0), g"¢ 1G" 69T (1) anojsourT So ae eae 9680T 9 L191 T'6 + F 96° GLI (1) 7" 77 *Sslous 041}01q epue[quI0 L916 6 081 8 I ans 9g" GOT (y) ~-SsTous oy TUBIy) 9926 9 1°81 0°8 0S 81° GOT ieee een Ceo yeas sstous a] Org [~~~ GOL6 L 061 (1) (1) je $81 (1) Sslous Opus,quI0 £916 b LPI G9) (1) £0 'T CLI () 7" Sslous 01101 “---0p"-" "| 2926 6 € ST FIL Gg OF GOL (G0 ares eer meet eee Sele SO DAE pan pores Sas (teow) BUTT V | 0926 a €'81 ¢Or 88 08" 891 Qi) ope ODEs "ToT T Trequepyy | 6946 1 $61 86 L¥ iGae GOL (1) EEO Dre eae SPCR Ghee os 8616 L Z LT (@) @) 10'T GOL (Gi ev eee cee eee eee LO) Diese ae oe eer ee eR LOO) ae ee eee Re I ee Opes 1916 L 181 $6 oy 08° COT (i) SsTous O}TUBIN) *“(avow) BULTTV | 9°26 OT L 81 € eT 0's 88° GOT (6) a | eee SSTOUS BOI eqyuvyyy | S26 2 el SF ia} +6" cor G0) sae eee Sen ee eee SSTOUS 991401 ¢ #916 6 1°81 (1) (1) es° GOT (io eee eee Res ““SSToUs OJTUBIN) VOD eas GS16 (1) (i) GOL 8's Ge" 89T G9) SSO) Meters 8616 8 $61 (1) @) cst 291 (1) ae OD cack: | Sp ae a es OD uaigs | ees ase “oo see TW | $926 L 081 coare) LY ine COT G9) “o}IUBIs PIOSSIEUy, OpEeeel ee saee: Bees Seo RS ODmeas 1926 8 § 81 8°01 L's fave 89T (1) >>> 9}TUBIS EITOLG Reuse een see “*" (Iwo) BURTYV | 1926 91 e241 001 0+ 6S" LOT (i) Peo a lotontsevangy sialoeaia fisting PPPS ayy ose sa “(Jo 4svoyyNos) eayonuIy | POT 8 191 GOL 8g ZIT 891 G9) eeeel |S Oe oe CUO TSOUNTGE|E Seite Bree OD ae See Snes eee eee Opes €ZC01 8 0°91 C6 oP 02° S91 (1) pas 22 “90 ISOULT] O10 O SOO mane See OS a ras “Op" "~~ "| 26201 9 0°eL Cay GG ¢cg° SOT (@) A a *9U04S9 UII] OUI[[VISAID POY DP HS ~“Qseoyqnos 9] TUL T) esyonully | [Zc0T &I L FI jee? 9°¢ G6" LOL (1) Seats OUGASOLUDTISTIOOOE [Jl Lay pall essence eee acne OY ecataa | chee eee “>> 9uloy | TIZOT ¢ Pach Z8 6'F race 691 (0) es |e eee sce eee Opa ae “7-"-mosurg | 001 i LT ay 1¢ aa OLT (1) 777 @UO}SOUIT’T | =- = SETS SORES RECE Se “777 "5 * = Yeo JOrZzo | COZOT or LST BL 1S Wee 891 (1) |-- 77 >>> -eUOJSeMMTT SNOeoeTIISIV elo) Oia escent! (JOU So[TUI g) EUOAT | OOZOT 9 0'9I Ll 9° Gone OLT (Gy ees Sea CSRS ets ~ 9u0} SONI’ ROD amas "77775" > 001}81g JexeyNE | 86101 66 LAE (q) (1) LET e9T (1) ~7>*"9ml0Jspues elo} Oa i Ie “""*"ureyunoy, Jopuear’y | 66101 8 ay () (1) FL % er A) ee |e eee mec |TEUS SLD AO] 9) ys |etaeeee ceca pAopa |7777777 777 espltg 3eerD yore, | LOTOT ¢ $61 8'T ZG 1S GI (1) “--"-*"9T109SeTI] [JES SNOVdIIIS “myeoeq |---7 ~~ Saya ces ccna ate “soy | 6986 - “(sem ygnos g € ST GL eS oF" T6T (GQ) PREP Seen RECO aA folapatolamay! Po Se "7" sssop'"**"| sofa 7) woMVIg Meseuuey | S6E0T L 081 (1) (1) 8 GLI Go) P= SOAS CAN GAM OD AAC | oe neo OOo oe ~*(qsea soyrur 7g) eurAuIg | 62807 L 0ST () (1) GOT O8T (1) Se ee cee oy SRL OD seca lees “7775 """°Qp""-""| (JO Y4dOW) UTBIUMOW AvsouuEy | F6E0T L e-L1 o'8 6% oP 81 Ose°2T |-------"""~" sslous opueyquioH |------- =" ---- =" Op=----|(UJAOMETTUI T) WOTeIS TTEMyoVla | E6E01 “‘psenurjwoN—-VINUOAD co 8 “UO)—LI6T ‘Tune 07 ‘9767 ‘Tune wodf‘nqng pun ‘ory o,og ‘ppoungD ‘saIwIg panug ey)? wolf yoos burpjing-poo. fo 8)8a} pooshyd Jo sjjnsey— |] AIAVY, a Oa LOT ong ok LLY 6ST Co) 4S Ses ee ea BICSU Ce ooo aye 8 QUO WOT ne eee Auoyiy “3S | ZOFOT =) = . 3 OHVdI 5 a) 9 SLT (1) @) () (1) u Pe oe au0ISOTIT] SNOBOTTTS Ree te Oe eee Ten ene. 48) "| O2208 oe (1) 8 £61 o'6 (aa 0F* 891 Die alee es ee OUTWBIS 01}01g **** (qsBeT NOs SeTItH Z) WOS}IOT | OPSOT a ry) L 1°81 @ ‘01 6'E 9g" SOT esas ew ao eee ee ESE SSIOUUGLO ULUU TE) ees enn en O De eal | renee rae (Jo 4svo) snquINTOD | TSsoT v OL 1°81 8 0L Lg gc: e901 u eae SsTous Opus, quo ~*"(Qsveq} 10M sojIul fg) UBTWEH | C9gOT cs ) L L°8T £6 ig e8° £91 (pees a ee reas SSTOUS O}TUBIN) “7*""*(Qqlou seTTur g) SNqUINIOD | F980T fo) I 6 1°81 I TT 9°g 0g * £91 ) ~~" (Gsvoq}10u so[tar fg) UBTUEH | EOSOT & I 6 1°81 92 e°¢ 68° POI i) “77> GseavqjNOs 9] T) WOS}IOT | Z980T I Or L ‘81 8 OT JEG SP" LOT 1) 77777" "*({INOS SOT F) WOs}IOT | TOSOT a I g 1°91 0'8 0g Sia 611 ) SSE aes Seas Op are 6S80T a De Pe) LOT 6'8 cP Go" 6L1 (1) 77777" (Q}IOW Soya F) snquInyoo | Scsor = I 9 L'81 8°¢ 69 6S" £91 (1) POPS par ss ae Opies egeor i I 8 0°81 19 9°9 9g" 191 8 ~-eyqoreyy oddq | #8gor 6s 82 (8 (1) PI G's FL 9ST 1) ESSEC ES RAR ope a2 OFL6 x 8 1) (1) erat Gas 60% 9ST Gee (gegen ED 6 (0 Ja tate a ae ec VN Te ee eG aera sae 6826 (48% a fn (1) () Gas (arg 08 “61 COT (1) “YOU soptar FT) S[TAs}Ioqoy | LE80T DES lleig OAT (1) CES lane O6T Qe sea qsTuos epud[quIoR jo-- 77 7st Tt ODE Paleo work (qS¥0 so[TUr ¢) UOSIOYOLS | YCVOT ° (1) g € ‘81 TL 9°¢ G9° €9T (GU iees more pee tages Gee tS Pear OU TOIR.LE) 4 iste cre ee ODiese: 3 ~~ (Q}lOU sopTur F) WosIoyoLr | 9FCOT 2) (1) L ST 0 ‘0T 0% 8P° GOL (gc a |pese eee Sslous epuoe[qUIOP] | === Co) oa iss a ge (avou) SUTPIS JOPIOH | SFSOT . G) |¢ DE o08 9°2 &1'T T9T GO Spe Se SS ee Scene ssyous eyTaBay |o* 778 OSes | Sear stg yee ote omlyey | FSSOT Pp (a4 91 061 TI 9° 60° #81 8 opens Cea OSeqeIp OUTATIO |7-7 7-777 IOS YO E Tua lle oot pesaaanae sae ar SsvisIopued | SFCOL ZL el 0 ‘81 8 ‘IL rs (aoe 061 Tiara Sere reg a ©) KOO] Ry CLUE) yaa |e ODse eal ts ({SOM SO][TU F) O[[IA@DUBIMLT | OS9OT = (7) 19 € ‘81 0 ‘OI 0% 62" Zor (Gr aoe | nlaentces ess page poe ae OD Gees Shee eee a Ope SES (JsvoyINOS seTTU Z) oT[LAT[ous | 99COT es (1) 9 £81 Ged gg a noe eae (Go). Sas | PPSOSeCEcS FEaeeon SSSA: ONUULRIEE) il ecco aire sien JJOUUIMS |" ~(JSeMTINOS softut g) UOSALID | SCOT A Be ee Fa Ea ae [Ea a a a ee ae = “yout : - *400J *1OOJ erenbs ea en[ea ? , I@OM JO}, ; ‘Oxr Saar | siamo, | pave PHI HOO| zm 2 | sad ne| “kad” | sputioa | TeH@vEWr0 euro -Syun09 Sy rommoy as pie) BRUNE -diosqy | 14810M | ‘q933u013s 4 - | surysnip Sd “UMOTY JOU AITTROOT 1OeXT z “OPCUL JOU ISO, 1 | eg ig eh eaue 2°81 129 er (7) | 77777 UOASeTATT SnOdoRTTISIy |-7- == "557 Teast | oe cea “"= "M1019 | 0826 (i) (1) @ | @ (1) (1) (1) 0882 Rae aes BOI PUOJSOWITT |-~ ~~~" "7" ">" WOqInog |-~~ “(Jo 4SOAA SoTTUE 7) 43009 4I0.T | 6696 : “SVSN VOI ~ 1 OF g 00 cr 6'8 GL°8 StL a3 77777 > 9UOSOUIT] SNOSDET[ISIV | 9-777 ETSI) ge eter es ay aeons Serene -7=7(z) | $6901 Oo g carey E G‘L £°S caus 991 DE aoe sec eeees OUOJSOUIVT |= -- 7-7 PUGS (a) a PRS Gass oa cee eee “(z) | $690T a Gy 8 0ST c'9 69 68% GOT (GO Sees ee See Seen OPIUMOTO(T }- = - SS SE STTOU Neale ees a ones Sos UoIMUTA | SS66 » co «OF 6 e ST 6°8 cP 188 6ST (QO BSS RS Sec eee poe eemees (0) OMe Sane ee ae TESSTOIMMBIW E288 S08 2922S O86 Sos ~ PleHeqra | OZOOT 9% g 06 Gg oy] 10°T O91 (aes | BRC os enos SOS @uOnsewaigt jee s-oc= SESE EO) ESE | EERE Sec r ames ~-apqseoueery) | 2701 a 8I 9 0°81 (1) (1) 00% 691 Gores eres SS ate eer eee OP Re ace SS FOW Say seca er ae See op’ *-*| 02¢0T 3G 9 (aaa (1) (1) GCRG 6ST. (1) 7777777" "@WOISOUIT] SNOSDET[ISIW }----- 7-77 >= BERPEIO ORoeee ME SERS eg oe ESS S ES “OOM | 61S0T OF g 1-91 (1) (1) 99° Sol GO) 535 Saas ee PESO) ORERRE eee eosipni@iariigysy PS Oe ese oe eases sn ees a[ysBoueers) | 0986 a & l LI e°8 8 °F €0°T GST Go eee | Rees ES BE OUOISOUIPT |--- ~~" Seon) se Ba eee cee Secar es mm ODsreae €6F0T S og g 9 FI (1) (1) (1) (1) (pe eee SUOISOUL] SNOODET[ISLy [~~~ - 777 De ae sip |e eee ~-uoysuTMOoT_ | SCOT ec 9% Gg See RORGIL (1) (1) (1) (1) (Go nears SEE Ses eee """9UOJSOUWITT |--- ~~" "7" *"-eOTMOT |" - > “"--(JO 48¥9) WOJSUTULOOTE | 9SZOT 2% P 0°CI 6 °F 18 06°9 6FT (@eaal neers ees BESS =) SSE OLGL |e eS See (0)) 0) Se (neat ate eet ears ‘op. L¥801 -_ -Le 6 eS o 01 6'e 80% 191 (uy) eles eee OUO! SONU GT |e eae 0 Deen eee ea ea “-"Op"* >> "| FE80L a AS) 6 eS 0'8 0's 0 F 6ST Gu) aa iia gee es REASON) (aes) ROO eC OCS So sraumaneyp fjooe eee soonesesicec oases ““mOuINA | 1186 en) L 0 FI 16 1? 01'S £91 OCT GCa Sees eae Seeks)! 10 5(0) (OY ¢ Wl ane ~“mo}suyuN yy | > pees "77>" mo9suNuM Ee | STIL = eh rail € ST ¢ OT 8g 89'S 691 Cee Paes ** >" QUOISOUIT] SNOBDTTIG |" ~*~ 7 ~~~ TESS stoqng |--7**-7777-7"" "=" =-9]]TATTeuyoS | 990TT apes AS g € eI 001 0'F 10 'T 891 (Gp) gees | eres Sais 2 esas eS op" Gags SD ESE SRS 20) Gee Rat ee SrpoNprasarerenlcoS op" PIIOL is) 6 g OFT 16 pF 10% 891 (1) pease SSRs OCMURBYG, P2 PPP == ee ssescecaass "neq 4S | 686 ma & 8 L$ 6'8 Cr 69% 191 (i): PS seeeeassersnsoo oS ewiolise mma, Poossee rz S530 Psexny cee cag aoe eee Gee ras op*****| SZort i 1% r 1°83 BU, aG 81% Sct (7) pees (0) cencee eens tear ee ---Op" ">" "| PSOIT S| &I y LST 16 tP | 19° 89T (Wm) | pees eees BEG Parees pes access u. ae “"-7-0p"*"*"| SZ0TT a «8s 9 1°91 6'8 cP digo 891 (cee Ore Sees 001512) 000 (a aie SERCO Tees | Paes eae eae Op" -***| S20TE ae 9 IT. @ ST € SI 0's LIT S91 (paar RES **-QUO}SOUIT] SNOsDeTTIsIy |---~-* BO FES ROD Eres SBE Oe a eee eae Op***~*| T2011 82 IL eS PIL Ge 09° 191 (io eo Sonne eae eee Pee ey Opes ass Bees see POST) Oe ae a eeprom “Op***>*| OZOTT fees 2a 18S L 0ST LIL 9°e 99° SOT (0 ares ete og eee ace ORE ESS Pea RSA ee Seeen OD open (nea se mas en anaes SSrs "5 SOO mauaas 610TT OB II € 91 vit ee 9¢° LOT a SRS eRe AAO Deter peers us SESSA DION ANEUQ) PS Sos Fen esceo ce Stig nee UMOTNA | SLOT SF It e°L1 £6 er 99° PLT 1) pte OS SS "7" euoqsomTy |-°--* >" ESee cei ING Os een eee ee Oe [ize1g | 80TT w eg & 00 6g € 01 &6°S OST. (O)Seclereae rs O}IWMOTOP SNOBDVT[Is1y |---- = TBE |r See pas “-==="(2) | 8896 n = VNVIGNI OL L 1°81 G'g eh 00°0 ZIZ (i) Spr] SIRE [0 ULL se nae (0 baeeeal | nese Toor sess @omMy | SLL0T 68 8 ToT Z'8 67 SIT 891 OST Sian Sassi te ONTO Oa eens a= ESS POTEAA | soe eran en anaes qOTOL | L286 09 (1) (1) T's 6 GL ard 9ST (1) * > WO4SSULATT ““oeryuod | Sg1IT 18 8 eel 68 6 °F 19'T 691 () orogeny Se BS OD eeaaia eee pees **-][BpuosT "> dtysumoy, XO | 80Z01 (46 g 0°91 8F $8 ZI SSI (WoV GSE) Gente pace ee eee ae ee tse o}TMOTO”, | --~*"--**- -eexeyUR yy soxeyuey | LOOT () (i) (1) oS CRG 110 123 (Gi) a FRG ESE os ~" BUIS Jeqpowg f---- 7-7 OUD fia eis ase ee ee ae “-BI0INV | 0SL6 “SIONITII : : 9) II 0'9T 62h =" 4} L's : pois payee es eae TeNcO Derg ipa f) a OT | Obs * | U8 << |e0' | Se fs) cee SSIS ODE SACH o ORIG | eae. Zu ips aareel C3 : 2 : IAT I ayruers oy1j01g Ogee | ir oe a ae d 3 I IZ ¢ 81 9°82 eT () @ hee earn seee se d Ge |psann as Se Ciara s MONE | sees yun eae ssroxtorct | TOLL eacie E ee oes bi a haa ia tiara See (dex}) aseqviq AJou03} WOW ~--"uOSIexoIq | TOTOT = Jem Reese ge a ae | even heed aie Mincierens serie EA Reet et a Dee ee emer WON | To00r e 1 {Soul {OMG Pade |S tinge crn aes “-"-yoMepely | SOLOT H 4 +=) 2) et LF if O'LT £°6 8 Or" 2 | z @ | gar bee as 28° Oot anual) 0°20 See a g a £81 08 98° COT QOS free ec ueeracae **oqTueIs oF 1}01g BFOL ee a g: i TI fs £o" 891 OPS pai 2S. ena oy TURID) 08. fe ' ‘6L 6 I Ke &% COT (Ger ieee = Siamese oy URIs O41}01 8100 8 ast, (1) (1) (1) (1) (OS fess ioe een ae ae Boeta ODE tamer esr anes Op>=235 7 seshy232S pice ea ODaeee cose. ey I rat OG (1) (1) (1) (Pal OSA Tes cP SEES eae De aac dee E | £8 oF () (1) | S2L'Te * eqTaRiy) “77 Alren® oytuer) | 686 (x) sI 0°81 vIr Ls 19° GLI (x) fae OD Sapna ce epee ~“(z) | €260T (x) Or 0°81 al LG GET 891 (9 eet eae ee eee ne OParie peecsctee nos OD gomgaleor seamen ee ea er eee OD aes L601 eg L £61. 16 tT 90° 391 Wes Sze “7-7 +7 sstous eo} 01g |----- 77 oqmooung Spaces "> OT[TAOYSY | 8686 91 (x) (1) ou, gg SP 261 (Rea leseee Dees Sen ODRiaee |e Sees Sg MODE eee en sa eae Se en O Deaee FOIOT ST ) @) £6 er 0L°0 802 OF sess SsTous OpUe[AUIOH |---- 77 =~" ~~ so AToay [o-oo eoo oso" = ATrequerD | 6101 ‘VNITOUVO HLUON (1) g 0°81 6°9 8°g Pye 89T 002 “9T SSP SSSR SEES ONS Pe N RAED). | TOT Oprr st |rr rrr trros sess 9 CMO THIOR | 66111 (x) 6 O°LT a4! gg Z9° 6LT Qa ies oyTueds ouoyysied AH |" -* ~~ ~~ ~~~ -oysorpo}samM |" ~~" ~~~" 7" -(JO YINOS) [[E{syoed | 60601 (1) €1 al eel. 0°8 401 991 09 ‘2 SO Dasa Ray ote Sas. WOOdTIOD | Z8IIT (i) ia! € ST 1 Gt e's 9° TAT 008 “92 ~-URATTING woIsnT | I8TIT L é1 0'ST € 71 8% 20% L&T (1) aoUoIMeET 49 “7777777 s uojurydoxy | T6101 1g 61 3p \ | est 0g 82", 681 (1) ODS 8U4 Pees oe eee eee ops" ***| TZ20T 19 rat 0°61 ene 9°e Niche es (1) op. op ¥6001 66 ae 0°61 €°s1 og 61" 181 () / pueppooy oye] puelyooy | E6001 @) 6 ELI 8°11 vs (x) () 000108 7-777" Se ss oUOJSpURy |-~=~= >=" semen") £0) WOIdTY | FOOL rat OL 0°81 €F1 8° 6r" e91 006 ‘82 eee oyruery | 22 OD st se op 6101 ©) ral L-8I ) @) (1) @) (1) 22S Sea GMNUNOUPE, PS See uosieger |--"""" "777" "Avg erapuexely | 9E20T 62 Ot e°eT 621 1 99°0 LI Ga See ieee) 1027 [ Ia |e =a AO UNIS IO Mr pees eemecces asset ee a[[TAes[od | 26001 MaOA MAN (x) “ST 9ST 8°IT $'S €L°T 9ST Qin sles Arkydiod oj1ueIig poleypy |---* 97777 gUBTD [9 AYO TOATIS | 8926 “OOIXGW MUN G0) seca eh OF TIT 9°8 ve" 891 IS ees ae he “eu0jSpues SNoereopeg | === OSIOULOS "**"eoTIENBUOD | CFEOT ee ras L°91 arg aes €9° OLT 0S2 "Ge |" "7-7" euUO4spuRs oTyVdspfom |--=7 == CG Oe peers ee Sas BfoyoUS | O6TIT ny [2 06L _@) AG) 8 Sor fy sstous oyrjorg [7777777 "7" erydjeperd SIMQSeUjOH | 186 (1) rat 06I 131 £€ eg" £91 id eel eee coca eterna O}IZITVNG |= = == puejrequinyyION [7° *2 777s t to Joule JUNOW | 6ZFOT = = £01 € Let &F £6 cht SFI (1) “BeIS QOVULIN-4Se[ gq uojdwey}ION ““WHOYETTIEG YINOS | LETOT pl OgS 6 @ ‘81 0ST 9% iF 991 (y) [77777777577 euoyseunTy snoearytg |°°-7 7777777 SOD a ee a ee eroys Aesief | ZL90T m 28 9 291 19 9:9: Or" 891 O9F “Ee |" "7777" eMOYSoUTT] SNoBoRTTISTy |7-"- "777" **Suru004T ““OTTASMO}UOW | STSOT > 98 éI £11 € FI 8% 9F 0 891 (GO ree eee ae ouojsoUTTT SNOBOTTTG |-"7* 777777 OOAU ps se en eTTAsTouMOD | £226 a (1) 6 0°8T _G) _G) (1) fr (x) 0 [777771 TTT ssreus eqorg =Ose MEO [See eae (z) | LSe0T - (1) gI L ‘ST aid LT (1) 1) (ee S| Sere ee te ees ONCE a oS vane ona sylog |" *° “(qeot) o1oqsprg | FOTOT 5 (1) ial 3ST () )) (1) (1) SEP “8s surepy [77 """ eae “""""-eqTmBID) | 9826 ) eS i 5 5 =< & of ia’ mat 0°01 0% 80°% 891 Cre aes See ee RO Die we see ODE fee sIOMMT}TET YON | 1°66 e) a =sile args €°¢ gL 88 T COT fr Peer -+== "1901 Surow L¥66 eee 3 Q@r | e's gL 89°& (0) en 1 AGyON'T | OFEOT Sere : GOL 8 IT re él ty LOT fr SUBq MON | 6ESOI ee : 0°21 gL q's G) rat Wie |eeseree ee ee ~~ euoyseuN'T | £266 ie 8 as Ue eae) a et QOb ties pe oe ONL spray Axo | CF66 = a f 6 vay cs cs c (7) (1) ae it) OS oe | SESOT = I I I 1) (1) Ao | ee = op ops SScor fe 60k € _G) _G) 4) G) (1) (1) ou0;SeUIT] SNosoRT[Is1y Soo “ TeTTAeqUeD | ESOT < ue as 0ST €'8 8 16° SLT (ES ae eee Spee ee OR ey f(s ee = OD ee ee ee op-"**" Secor if OI , | 6€ € 01 €o°% 9ST (Gee |S eee *7-- oy TUIOTOT a enbiq | LEcor B Tt 9 £°6 ¢°9 69 06% T9L (Wis Sees aa OUOSOTAT] SNOBITTIS | "77" eSNOH eT AL | L60IT 88 PI € ‘91 £41 8% 60% 891 (1) eee eeesaep eres See 9} TULOTOT Sipe O Dieses ett ge oem” ogee Op== rs €866 LY II €°91 T@r ee 98° 89T SS ee OPTUIOTOP SNOvdv][IaTy |= 777777 SEOMe Saeco ee STTAIOIB A | 0686 mM 1Z 9 0°91 6°9 8°¢ e2" I8T 8 ees BRIS ddVUINJ-3sepg [777777 GOUGLANGEPS| Dose easy eens Wo}UOIT | O86 . as g 09 38 6% 68 °F 9ST aes Pas eee eet ees SiiLCes QO gh eS Se DOM |og cs! @eaess sees G anagiiod | S6rTT “(r1Bpou “AY = tPF Or 0°9T 0°8 0's 19°% 89T (() i RECESS OJIULO[OP SNovsoe][IsTy |---* Arusy | -UN0D poo) aoMINI[eg YWION | E886 gee kG 9 @ ST _@) Pee (t) (1) (1) Ns ES OUOJSOUAT] SNOdOBI[IALY |= 777 CORN |e ee BIO eqseW | 9es0r aE g L°81 T'9 9°9 6F" 291 Dicehaxs ees ouoysoUIT] SNOVOTITS |7*~ ~~~" SS es OD iF al 0e cone ter oo ee ee Op ae: LTSOI 9€ b et 9-4 og 99°T TAT (Go) eeemin| Fanaa SS eee CUO}SOUA1G is ionamin neaes TO} UNG) 3 | ap eee oe ean JouIBT | 9TSOT 7, “spunod | ‘spunogd 3 ei | | rf | eS SS es a *“qoutl. . ‘ z bs 4 SUES *ssou ‘ssou |, 280M JO | -reom Jo aie ead eee Tqno orqno rod . ; “ON Dp ioe 5 | Wnoy | -pieH Saitakuee 41080 on god 101} aad spunod TORIC T SUC LOLS N Ayano) 4310 10 WAOT, fens — Af -diosqy | 9ustoA, | ‘q93u019Ss : Surysnig 12 *ponut}u0)—OTHO ‘UO)—LT6L ‘I “Une 07 ‘9T6T ‘1 Une worl *ngng pun ‘ony oog ‘npoung ‘seIn}1g papnugQ ey}? woul yoo. burpping-pvo. fo 8789) poorshyd fo sy)nsay—'T ATAV], 13 TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK IN 1916. 9T 06 OF 9T 06 (1) @ (1) (1) () () “UMOTY JOU AITTROOT OVE z rm no COIDD Hr BAHAI PAAWOIN GOA 00 00 co sH (as ‘Opeul 40U 4SOT, 1 oS £6 - er 69% SOL (1) “777777 *- 9 UTUIOTOP SNosdeT[ISIy SRS O BESO) || FBG LST I GL ee 981 FL (i) es RS ee OUIUIO[OP SNOVOdTTIS PIFOL fare I 9°9 09 ee" 891 (1) ~ > --@UOJSELAT] OUTT[e}SAID &Ze0T e211 6 oF ee" TAL (G0) sen a ee Soap oat SO) Oe eee oe STS0L 1°91 8 °F £°8 jire 191 (1) 3s SS OU 0] SOUML S| on cea a uae ee nO aries |stats occ oes OD nates LUGO LOFT $9 9 OF 691 (Gp) a Rae eee SOUL ON SOUT PESTA GT Gs neem meet etaie (0 csc | a ace nO)| aeeia 9101 eL1 00L OF f° SLI (1) "77> 7 >" @UO}SpURS SNOUTSNIIET | ~~~ ~~ GTeOT 0°91 8°6 ire 06° SLI CS | eee ee 222 OUOLOTOCE | Se oe aes *xouy Se JOOSBI | 1886 0°ST Le 801 16° CFL (1) "7775 >>> 7="=-9m0ISpueg ~"SselqU0y ~--uMojsouree | S8FOT ZS 8°6 Lt $6 OLT (1) =" "= Q]TUIOTOP SMOBDTTIG |= - T]oMezeL AON | T8SOL € oT 86 L'? 06 °T GAL (Cres al Sa = Se RG cancer peLO DSR e Ee pa ae OD ee cere “(Teoul) TomezeT MON | 9FFOT €-1 TIL 9° 98 °T TL (Gee Sais ee Sie eo ODES eae ee ie SEO Dr tage eee eras eyesIley | LZ80T 0°91 COL Zs G6" FLL (Gl ante Rate SES CLO Sees Sse O1TULO[ OG |S ie so oe 80 Dis es (ee eens (Tee) o7B31IIeH | 9Z80T £8 C6 oP 81 TAI (i). © ~*~" @UOJSOUM] SNOBOTTIS | ~~ —— “""""]JoMezey, MON | Z6c0T LST £6 7 0g" 891 Dest Bete eee ee 75> seu0\seummry | Fee OD pres ene creo ee CD eeee £666 £91 GOL 8°e 0F 0 891 () 7 ->="""-@U0}SOUIT] SNOSDeTIISTY: |" ~~~ ~~ ee eens VU O] Cleans sorsc#ssssssesscorta Arey | 666 - “AASSHNNAL € 61 8 FT L% 83° POL Gye EO “**"oyzqren® |" ees 96801 LST 8 71 LG is” O61 CRs eee ee =< OSC CIDIOUIAT Os | eee seer ODEs os |e C6801 e 61 9°8% tT Me” €91 i) eS Sa eg OPN SSE SESS Sees SOP aie os ee as Se STI@ KNOG | F680 £61 € FL 8% 1F0 COL (as ee eee “oc cepzqren® [oo -"----eyeqeuaryy | “s" "spidey Ted | S0L0r VLOMVG HLAOS LLT 8°6 Lt GL: 991 (Go) eel ae Boeesee iis SS) <1 061211 C0) lee naS10(:>: (2) > lf a a “777 >" AjleAeg | OSTOT OAT o's 08 89° CLI (1) “"7 oo 7755 **"Ssious epue[quUIOF | -- =” SESE SOP ec |es as eae de ee ee “O][IAMO0TH) | GZLOT 2°81 16 iad a8 SOT Ci) SS=s ene snes ese Zhe SOURED ee pete “OAWOOIH [°° ~*~ (HIOAY SeTLUT JT) .op[AUeeELH | TETOT €°81 16 PP 6¢ 0 Cor (1) ee ee "-e}TUeIs OIT}OTg |--7 > SAS p OUAGies ee eer aaa sas “"""mOry | TeS0T ‘VNITOUVO HLAOS LSI £01 6's 18° TOL (1) Rowe pee oa eee “*OUUBI) |= “""mOsUTYSVM |------ “77-7 >" ATI01SOMA | L9F0T 0°8T el 9° 6¢° 891 8 "| >>>***-@m0ISpuRS oIpVdSpleq |------ 7 ESI) Oe al eee “QDUSPIAOIg 3SeH | SPZOT LSI £01 6's 110 OLT 1) RETR Dee. na: “““SSIOUS OJTUBIX) |--" "~~~" => "@OUOPIAOIgG |~-~ >" 77-7 “=*==-"T00UrT | TLLOT “adNVISI AACOHY BULLETIN 537, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 14 Gi |0L 2°81 8°8 oy 01% 8ST aR eee Saeeeneare -goQuOrspuys (25S 7-25 rs OSDANG |" SB See ee “SEM | O8LOT oe a 0°91 L‘6 IF 88° 891 Cpe [eee eee euojsoUy] SNoeovIs1y [7-777 COS 2220S eee ee 18D | Of60T og (1) | 8°20 (1) (1) | SLT SLI GO ge pete See eee ees, eseqerd, |77 °° 777 ULNIEAA COUN j°°57 77777777 “TTT puvpypeng | 8601 le g € FL PL ime GL" LOT (i) Se hata eee eee eee “2 (3) | 2266 98 i 9°L1 GL es 29'T SLI GQ cba es ssous eyjorg [7-777 YEAST? |: a agi Seas paiement 7 cc (s) | 8266 VINIDUIA 61 6 0°61 € FI 8% Le. Sor aces eee oyyaess eyyorg [777777777 DON SGTHSG Mie ceraoh en ene of Bei alIeg | £196 96 6 S20 €'s1 0-8 oF TAT Ce Sec see ear 9UOISOUAT] SNOBIT[IS |= 7777777 SIEGOIIN «|eSae anoeaea eae Aqied | T6TIT 88 a Lot ET Le 96°0 e91 eh tie Salant O}TULO[Op SMOsaTTS |-~*- =" = -77" wopue}TyD [nner Wo}SUTLING | SFSOT “LNOWUAA G) 0°0 () () 08 “21 PEL (7 aca oae se eee omoysounyy ABQ [nn MOBRGIE) » |). 52" Se Sak aaa ree saa ne (s) | FFOOT “spunod | “spunogd “yout ; : 400} *400} erenbs ones *ssou *ssou TBOM JO | seam jo orqno orqno rod 2 Z x ‘ON * aur -yBnoy, -pivH yae}oyJe00 quao sag | sod uo | , rad spunod [BI10] eM JO OUIB NT Aqunop Ajo 10 UME, retog + 9 ene -diosqy | 348101 | ‘q73u0q}s Surysnig ‘SVXOL UO )—LIGL ‘I “up 07 ‘9T6L ‘Tune woLf‘nqng pun ‘ony opog ‘npouny ‘sang payin) ay) woul yoos burpping-poow fo 7827 poorshyd fo synsay—J ATAVY, Yon) "UMOU 1OU AI[VIOT YOVX A “OpBUl 4OU SA, 1 ri is 1g 9 € OT 0's 0's fait” 89 AGS sa |e eee *-- 9mOjSoUMI] SNOsORTIIdIy |*~ ~~~ 77 SSeS OP Sys |eetg arse eae Ses sO pes IeOTCOL: 0g Or $41 801 Le C0" LOT (1) phe ase OUO}SOUNT] SNODDITIG |=" °°" "77777 >> -reyON, “77 """"staed | 60901 (49 id as ere SAlh oG'S 9cT (1) : ~-9uoyspues oryyedspyo,y | ~~~ sresssss == oT BOtT “="*"(qeom) 900d g | 9F00T ?) 6 9°9T £01 68 69° PST (1) een Ob gaa “-euojspueg |°°""*" “059 Ysroye yy ““gOI4St TE, deay, | O&TIT (8 6 € ST 00 07 OFS 09T (1) : "-9UOJSpUBS SNOUTsNIIOT | °° SSOps Si pinto eg Some es qUSTIGTV | 6FE0T (1) G eat 6° 18 881 PST (ie) ok aetna EE ces otemers OUOJspUBy |" "= 7°77 777 * UOYSOIg |° == 777 = 7772" (avatt) WUSTIGTV | 8FE0T LF Or LOT "eT 08 9g" 891 A Peepers ee eC. SELLE L SIL CS OTT (eee tere ae de 6 Us BB Se he aaa ies ee ee ee ee SS te 3 baal ae nes (oy). 89T 1) ; “QUOJSOMIT] SHODDBTIISIV | *-elyesuouoy | ~- >> °° -""19014) | 9966 D> (1) 9 0 FI 8 FT D6 (1) (1) 1) : Tees See Be) DRESS Ree RARE eae tosIeyot |---- "=" * “soso "scoTtAAourve yy | SOTO Tae VEG 6 25st 86 ia to" 89T (1) Seater “9u0jSOUE] | ~~ ~~ Sr ER) oes pesos sess oss sulds 410m | 2166 7, TF 8 € 9 GOL 8's 99° 89 (1) eer Rath eee rie a0) seen ee es ** TOLIqueery) YOrUory | 9766 Hi 1g (1) (1) PL #¢ 09° 991 (1) “*"" "> OUOJSOUITT SNOVDBTISIY |e query) I19YOS | TISOT (1) 9 191 DER rake] (1) (1) (1) RE CSSOD Repel PEE ees O Dieses BIMQSUrIVW | ZOLOT i 68 g 08ST 6°9 8S 9¢° SOT 1) SOSA) SOO DS sae ee ees (JO Yjnos) sinqsuryreW | 9800T Oeeze ia 191 18 9% os" CLT C) io aes eae os OP ea S| rs ee a eee Pe LO) ON ees sey epee ee eacee nese “---oquaino | Ss00T Oo 0 g € 91 8°9 6S 8a" 89T (1) iene Gare rae soe SOUOTSOUNT GT | esas case eine eee O Oepesn |aeraerien ed peo ee uojrerg_ | FS00T 8 1 (re ece8 Ly (1) (1) 1) |77"(PexTur) euojsomy pueqzeyD | 22227 tT tops eee “JOB M SUTTTRT | E8007 th 8G ( (oe og 6¢° 891 1) py a snee ct ODE dll + (aeou) JOM SUTTEA | GROOT bo oF ig OFT 0-2 Lg ise 89T (1) ere se tO) 0) ae een iii suridg souog | T8001 een «5 Or 1°81 a9 G9 1g° GLT D TTT raps sss pisses 75s aM095100H OT44T | O8O0T a) li 8 L9T c's LP 1z'T SOT 1) op IOV M SUITE | 6200T Spee ST € ‘ST 6'8 CP lee S91 (1) Se See Se pee sO Dee eal Pere ee RNS ““¥MBYCUIOT, | 8L00T rs eg i 0ST 0°8 0s Te" 891 (1) SRE Se Wegener euojsoulry |°- 77°77 POSER AEE OS See ne Somesebae “-OT[TASoyIed | 1200T Boe oe IS ORS WSs 5 INC nL Go eerie re ee Oe Be “IIe. Mimes) eraseagio we | 92001 QO 62 I (1) Te) 9°¢ ce" 89T (1) "Op" (JO 4s9) UOYSUIpE | SLO0T tee RG I LST z9 G9 9F° CLT (1) : * * 9UOJSOUIIT SNOddRI[IS1y- 3 ereees “UMOJSPIBIII) | FL00T < CP i 0°ST c6 oP 1a" 89 1) : Seiki eae Se) ears Toot teres sses esse sss suridg | 2100T ro) Ze g 0°9T Z'8 67 er 89T {3 Pee Re ea et eee eee SO Deas cop cessseseessesss*""UMOIeGIN | TLOOT Mm +8 P 0°9T SL Ts ican 891 1) Sey ee ee “OUOJSOUITT J opr ports royung. | 02L00T €e Or 0°91 Z'8 6'F 61° CLT I "** ">" @UOJSOUITT SNCVOeT[ISIY [977 opto Sia 8900E i 6h 6 £11 16 iaia T° 891 I oo 7555" * "5" 9U0}SOUIIT SNC8OTTIS am ee 19001 OF .¥8 v 0°91 79 £9 ide 891 TLS ale cet oucy soul] TTT i goreis Aopexregt | 99001 mn 8 9 2°91 82 Ig 61" 891 IP ~ | SUOJsoUTIT SNCaORTTTaIV vooceee recess, , C1B0W) WOMTETE | COO0T Ee 8698 alee O'FI $9 oo T9°T 891 6 SNRs eee a lee Eo Fae /_ Ospir [ened | E0007 dp) JAE Zz £61 card 9°91 61° aa! 1) eat ec Panny a RISO eens vile 2900T a. Below le jee Bt 1a | y uepe errors a 4 ey ; ‘ : BRN RC ces Ee Oe 7 8 (3 1°81 9°S Ca crs OFT () ~ -9u0jspues OI edsplaq HOPE lie tse LONG STINE | 6900R 62 01 £91 LIL 9°e 1¢°0 SLT 1) SOS SEE SIO STE SISOS AN TOLO) LOCC Aojoyog |" 7 ~~~ ~ “(JO yyNos) smasurjsey_ | P9O0T \ ‘VINIDUIA LSUM ‘ #1 # €°81 a 9% 260 LLT @)asashe sss eGo Es ae peel ate “o> erueureyg | - ~~ ~~ “(JO YyroU solrur g) YOO | 6EZ0T “NOLONIHSVM 4 BULLETIN 5387, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 16 “UMOUY JOU AqTTed0T {OVX Hs “epeul 40OU 4897, 1 28 €I €'8T $01 66 TR cot (1) 0 [orate tt rttss euoysouny AzieqD |“ OrzeyUO JO eouTAOIg |°" 7777" crrssestssss*""-puBlTeM | 9FL6 (1) | OF 0'8T 8 "81 6% 86" coT Gael [= aCe ay OUUBIS OFOTE foes Opes aD ee Scion pugs] AgseyaM | ZEkOT a 8I L'st ‘81 % 09°0 9ST 6) eee fe ae “-7-- eqrueds eyfjoyudeNn | - “oeqen® Jo eouraoig |--~"* Say este ote [eerqUOW | LTOOT ‘VaVNVO IP 9 ats! 99 Te 0 I 891 Co al Waseem aa FIOMOIOIOGS eo. eo et eee Oa Pe ares ene (<) | SZ00T € g ‘81 aa es 16T ect Riba ehsahes 2. SS seers oUOJspUBg j-- TTT POO.AA sprdey puri | 6Stor 08 8 € ‘FI gg vil GIT SLT (G0 oe eee ees OI{WLOTOP snoooe][IsTy |" 7777 BONEBZO! | Pret ta Tess sae a ee cAMIs}eq | CZOOT Té 8 € “ST 8°6 Day eg" SLT G22 Ree ee es Ops Ss ae Ona" ese ed TL66 it 6 Ly L'8 97 gg" SLT Cite eae Sees Ss eee ORMOAOTO GE |= eee CRNS BIN ee a YEeID HOV | 0166 (1) g 0'8T £8 8 °F 61% a (i) | 25 25282 VeUOFS PUES SHOeRwA| ED), | OSS BATU ee SH®M | S860T 29 II ST ¢ ‘Or seg -| 10% 891 (O00) ieee eet eae eee ee Opera Bates ag RODE Lee ea eee Ure eae Op2a2:- 621IT () 8 L‘¥1 8% As 11% 891 (1) [77777 7 > "e}TUMOTOP snoeoRTTIS.Ly |--=- 7-7 OOQNBATTY |" tape eae =e BsOJVANTAL | FIOOT eI 08 €‘6r 2 ‘81 2% ie LOT (ie |= SoS aaa -"oqrmeds poleypy |-""°- "7777 > -eygonbaepy jo“ osteo retorts oveuNE | SOTOT gT GZ 0°61 £°1 6'T 910 Sor Cy Per Se PEER ICL SCG: i rr OWT USO [SS eS UII | 6666 "Spunod | “Spunog “yout E A “4003 “400 eienbs oh iae “ssou *ssoul TOM JO | ream jo orqno orqno sod : “ON aur -ysnoy, | -preH vane queo 19g | aod won| 10d spunod TEL EUG TS CUS Ni Ayuno) Ajfo 10 UMOL, [eLeg mt 9 ‘ q Af -diosqy | 34810 | ‘q98u014s sulysnig “NISNOOSIM UOD—LIGI ‘LT upp 07 ‘9T6L ‘Lune wmwoLf ‘nqn, pun ‘oany ojo g ‘opouny ‘sain gy panuyQ ay, woufyoos Buapping-poo. fo 78a} poaishyd fo sj)nsxy— J AIAVY, « ~ THSTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK IN 1916. 17 Taste II.—Results of compression tests of rock complete to January 1, 1917. ARKANSAS. Crushing pana i f : ounds cere Locality. County. . Name. a per square inch. Dees Mbamiares cca ee Wee La ec) Johnson. 232252222 2 Feldspathic sandstone........- 21, 980 6331 | Bald Knob..........-.....-.-.-- Winite sso oeeerne i Sandstone.........--.-.-2..-.- 19, 860 CONNECTICUT bane wee : GOI ROMECO ss sence esc aee waaay S Windham.|___.--. JSWOVAGKS) fenznOU Ks) 5 we 16, 635 11098 |..... LORE RRM NE HN OAN IMs Ut Te dos Ee Yd OU MN ET) MIEN a, 23, 290 P1099) 2s CLOSE Pa tealerssia stores saa eetalie hale do: aaa G@ncissoid STaTMbe eee eae ee 20, 200 GEORGIA 10381 | Southeast side Kennesaw Moun- HEHE ADE a a ae es STN a a Cobb esas055 UE ost Feldspathic gneiss.......-...-. 18, 500 10382 | Marietta, 4 miles southwest of.-.|...-- Olsens os Birotite gmeiss-)\-5. 5252-22-22 = 14, 000 10389 | Austell, 3 imal VERIbs Ho accbaeueedleeaee CG Koyo oa TAS Grae VTC SS sae eee 12,890 10393 | Blackwell Station, 1 milenorthof)....- doze eeeeer eee | eLormblendejeneissi see eee nee 17, 350 ILLINOIS 4422 | Embarras.............-.-.-.--+.| ; ILE STOWE). occ goseceonatoanac 17,300 08) || MUO alee Se aeeaaaaes eae seeuae Dolomite tessa eyes eee yee 23, 060 6053 |.-.-- OR eens SNS uate sls Sowinte Abyss 20 Ol. vamerenatania Mae As dO seas Snasaea yay se MSE 16, 880 yf |) JEDI ICS SoS boaganaabadeancnsecee Argillaceous dolomite ......... 15,730 A660) | Munnel ys e ee! Ali SLOM eC eee eee ese eee 19,150 7509 | Reevesville...-.....- d i i 25, 780 7510 |... .- CORES Neer bt 28, 400 4764 | Kankakee.......-..... 20, 610 5550 |.---- ORE Na sa Gaeta ae EAN craves stl) Seva do 17,710 6088 |..... CLO eed as ah AEN aa 2 RU Argillaceous dolomite......... 20, 830 6165) 5-25. GLOBE AREA AN a Nu 2h Re eo A 252 Seen eet ED) OLO TTL GE ey eres py eres ae nan 11, 660 6865 |....- CLP oe NW oats Fale ed A ali fens e pO Massccssceseécliodaes Ow es BAUR a a ean 13, 500 7298) |e es LOWE ant te raiean wea Rey a ry Argillaceous dolomite. ......-. 25, 850 7299 |..-2. COSeee ewe UR Ne SUL dO. 2: aE SMI eh GOs o8 eNO ae UN 20; 000 7300 |-..-- LORE Sees ta au a Dae sh Os Vaan ot oon s Na oe er BL es a ors Sayan th 19, 800 BOL eae OO aS aaa USED Ur pee Mmmm Copan, i UA NEE Loe a NURS Le 19, 700 7302 |.---- ORY CNS SOR RR Sei tineee te Dt 1D olor terme ene see eee 17,050 orden leet eh oa sates NE Pa boas G02. ee rae Argillaceous dolomite Ae Be te 16,700 OS Gig lphCamlica eeu set hs laine rena Ee Atl Uy ie 0.2: Dolomite sey ae Me eee 11,180 CGA." UNIMON AY ie A cle ale Se yay Madison22e2e222 3 IEAIMESCONC siete eee ene 1b, 100 Ha22 eBrookwille seh. 25 ee hs Oplels. 2 GNE uy che Argillaceous dolomite _...-- my 18, 640 7423 |..--- LO SEM eye UU ita t sat CP Me KORE E NS Bee sells ae LO ee nae ie WAR A el 18, 180 CSO AG) i Seo aN a SRC et abc eae (Waa one: 2 eee eee MAIMES TOME Pe Hate iy a een 19, 510 OS 2m OMeb orotate ae YAW GR ose sc 8 sbe.|] Idolos esa bea ee ee 8,130 ! INDIANA 5534 | Logansport..............-.-.-.-- Cass... = Ane ae ILMENES WOE soe op ecaseedebeenes 20, 350 AGO) GTCCMSI UTS ys sees eu ges s eee Decatur yess ee Dolontitessssasee se eee eee 17, 960 ANGI IL (Sieg dete OU SS eS Ae a ee ata en lg a do... eeeeeeee Himestones == 25220220 18, 400 4659 |....- Oa EST ain a Ce eec oso deke Dolomitic limestone. . Ne 20, 510 AGODA MNWESUDOT a eke eet EN. Ce eis Cl eeee one oo eeeleonee doses DON ianee ean aa 20,000 DOSS ota alle seoes ee a hae 3 GO). Senet cee NGITITES TOME Hs epam ern eee ee a ener 19,800 11183 | Huntington ..-| Huntington......- DOLOMITE Ae Rea eae mea 25, 420 ALOT Matehelies sh ese ane Lawrence. ..-._._- Argillaceous dolomite. .-.....- 12, 250 DOMME ECTOnds tase ea eR GNC AN Eee 3 Closer oe Ledioseee WUMeESTOMe Hamu as aaa ape ae 6, 900 UPB) cee OKO) Ser eat ances Seema Tay LS Nm COPS toe see auuel| oor e (0 (oe eter te ane ay a 6, 450 Bitte) || (Cavs) oA eee eee eceb eno ite rns ee aves Oma eae e Ne Tada aie ost 16, 000 TextHll RO SEOO CAs: eee yA Se aya RUN IRpley, 2 speeeey ee ea Saale (6 Ko) aE ee ae eae te aE 14; 470 AGT Alm Wicbashies tas Skene vis Ue a Wabash / 2225222. - Dolomitic limestone.-......... 18, 790 18 BULLETIN 537, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE II.—esults of compression tests of rock complete to Jan. 1, 1917—Continued. IOWA. Crushin, : strength, ate Locality. . County. Name. pu square ine 5525 | Cedar Rapids): Mrederick sts *22/3f eects tee eee Erederickoso:: J2=- Limestone: 2.5).4.dsscesenesee 17, 580 5694 | Havre de Grace............-...- Mar fordeeeto. cece Gneissoid granite............-- 34) 410 5695 |..... (6 (a ee ey ey is on pen Dea 5 SEINE hh CGO eercetas Sore Sericite/eneiss. kee seer eee 20,090 5696 |....- COA ho Se ee ee ai eke Goze secs Gneissoid granite.............- 21,670 D697. |-- dee MOF natuotscucs Mees ane ae 6 (0), SEE ‘Amphibolite.. ssceeponcsnsecce 34, 380 5698 |...-- (6 (per ems Sey yo: . Aes Ne eal lene Go) saps cel to Gneissoid granite............-- 35, 210 5699 |..... BO ne Shoe nse Sate te Alea dO: Jeetosse se. !| Sa GO! sb pies caayonc aie eee 22,190 MASSACHUSETTS 8 a OD LISS ee oars cin ate, =1- ao clo el 2) 2 Berkshire......... Granite. 2 ioue causes Spee 18, 260 GROVE LOCK POL ooioc oie oe pana tepbe = 2.0) SSOX-. ep tiic cnn. Biotite granite... 6.2). .cen---- 22,370 6892 |..... Gest ko: tice nse e ee gee as doe dep wee alae GD). «5.2 5c. peach ees ee 23,610 6893 |..... DOSS sao saen Seno eee ecees| eee (a oS Eo a 6 (+) I, a Sy Lt! 22,670 6894 |..... Ge Siete ene a eeeacleeer: loses: CO pegmeet case lene Cc (: ee Pte cee | 21, 600 8796 |..... Oo ccts wnat coe none el eee Fo CoN 3 8 ea al Piel | dO). . .\. 2c oer 23, 830 0649"! Gloucesteress ccs. ceoeel ss. ee aces do se oie ss Granite: 19, 580 9650 |..... CO we bis sce sachs Sse dens [acme Ota ee se aoe | eee 0}... eee 18,130 9651 | Roe 7 ah De ies, ee tes ee cele Hovteeeera anes (see dé Bie oc cee Cae Eee 22,390 Mi SenN ce POD is tie oct be iste ete cael | teeta dose... |... OM... | 5a 18, 780 5671 Westfield Slee epics Sas eee ones Re Hampden......... itored diabasez ich isdeeeeeeee 32, 850 TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK IN 1916. 19 Tasie II.—Results of compression tests of rock complete to Jan. 1, 1917—Continued. MASSACHUSETTS—Continued. Crushing eee, Serial A ounds No. Locality. County. Name. Pp ae square inch SSG2MMNVESHIOLG 22862250 ose Sa Middlesex...._..-.- Granite 22 ss elie ae See 2 13, 980 SRA eee LOR IN PSE SARL NOE eT yi. Go'> / i PORES ees LOR TEU Nha ae DSI 17,000 8875 |...-. Cla Gre atts she seater ee endl egerea al Repeat do}: : Re ee! CO eS Ten aes tie: Os 16, 250 5988 | West Auburn.........-.--.--.-- NVOTCeStCL aes Micajeneisseess essa seeeeea ee 21, 950 MICHIGAN. HOSSalwMonroeis se se - oes = he See Monroesseereseeee Argillaceous dolomite......... 11, 750 CO) BY |)’ (CEA Vert Ne ie esa Presque Isle:+.....| Limestone...........2..22.2.2 10,300 MINNESOTA. A AmRGCOCKLOM Sate seis ue ste NS Winona: saeeeeee Argillaceous dolomite......... 16,000 MISSOURI. Gaiam wEvochelontsn meen apie ieee ssa g hs). 13, 900 10169 | West Line te! 16, 690 GS MO WeCNOy soc Sees owe. 14, 900 (BESTE |) ED) Sah Se aD rea i A ii lial Chntons = Areeeeeee Plagioclase gneiss..5........-. 18, 500 (GAU5IS) || (CD) cis he Salsa aaa A ee oN: ee dO: 2 eee Pyroxene gneiss............... 20, 500 GEXOMUTL SH) aes A I ea eye og Diutchesssaseeeeees ID oy kavaat hirer Mae | 34, 450 AAMC AMC Oeste wee ee Lei el meee ee CO ppcoccscoses|osos= Gos eee swan w eek a ee 29,050 eye) |) /Nikaroyar bball das eee eee eon Oe Pirie: 2... aes Cherty limestone:_.._ 75252. 16, 700 8577 | Gloversville.............-...-.-- Hulton=eeeeeeee IBIObILe PMeISSe eee eee 14,585 4157 | Alexandria Bay-...-......2.-.-- Veiersoneeeee eee GEEATTEG Se RUA eg 21, 600 8833 |....- LO ERS SALOME CEC Ay Gn dO = 2 Rad LOU Oe NEE 26, 180 8902 HE CLO Meetups. At RCTs EON Cat ballin ts CO pgs siccGocbelocos CLO Sys ee Ura eee 14, 150 9129) ee Cele SO Sdle SADE ID Meee aes Peebles CWespecoccpees|eseea COPA NUS Eee aE 14,390 VIED ja see ClO) .sdndaboaesosssesaeeeeeaee peaee dos: pereeeeee Gneissoid granite.............. 17, 600 EBON none CD) Jr gousesasoEsauesneH aes mee lau CO Gepciccevsse Granites ew lek eine yes ae 27, 200 10236 |_...- Ch ee Ne ae LE ee me doe. See Biotite granite..../........... 28, 130 OLIN PAULO Teh eee NE oe ESE 3 Orleans Seaeeeeee San dstonessae ese een eee 29, 000 SORE? || (CO) eae eee ea Se a Rockland...-..... Gabbroitic diabase............ 31,300 SSXOULBS. |b ODS fe aM A a Gos eee Siliceous dolomite........._.. 22, 200 HOTGE WEopkamtone wake ee eee St. Lawrence......| Samdstone.............2.._..2. 35, 240 MTS 2h Callicoome ss se Oe te Sullivans eeeeeeee Feldspathic sandstone......_. 22, 620 LUTE || ANS ae ee a eae eeMaee d 26, 300 11199 | Yorktown 16, 200 CRE | Nid ooo Cau ee be aoeeeeEeaenbee Cheshire: esas ee- Granites ue ae eee eau Si) es 15, 615 GR GE MAL OM ars Nyaa sae a Ue do: : SRE S| TEMES GO NES EN 15, 250 O95 alee Zwalbiama Uses eee Ue hee ee GO! 23 RS Wai opsrsee Coote A Se eee Neen Ee 10, 830 OBA |) CO) ES TOD TOE Sa Seg do: Ea ORI ar Sh ae el a 26, 100 8872.) Melford... 2222-2222. yin (EnilISbOrOssseeee ses Serer COE NSE NC Ceres 2 ai 15, 050 SOLON oe. LORIE eal ap Tas ace ay SAN EA a Rd do. eee se Biotite granites. 662.0). 16, 640 9011 |..... CGS eS NI RT a NN GO. ARN a GOEDEL TIN 14, 870 GOLAN Cees CG Ka ae tec a ld eo a Nt ae a Oi) See ere Oa) erase ith shea a pe I 18, 230 COST Conconde et Ce aes Merrimack........ Granite cs ses eae sae aL ane Ne 16, 600 9036 |..... OME ie CMs sem. Eas MNT GO: seme” Seis Noe a a Aare A 13, 420 9037 |....- LOBE Nahe OE Geren sR ORE 2) do. ee ae GON ES ee eee nae 13, 900 8870 |...-- CLO Sos eal id aT NS SER Ss ST as >) Go: .;) See a ee CONGR UM BE er heen ice. eu alae 15, 100 9994 PAT IOTAUO WIL 2, Se cicero ise eels GO: Sees a Lae (6 (oS AUS ANA ONG NTS Sk 18,110 1 Hxact locailty not known. 20 BULLETIN 537, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe II.—Results of compression tests of rock complete to Jan. 1, 1917—Continued: NORTH CAROLINA. Crushing . strength, uel Locality. County. Name. ay square inch SB0B NC) iso foes Baan eee cet ene Forsythe.........- Granite: i! jo. ssa wotepeee pc aee 13, 140 BSG 7 AE) LR ON REI igen ee en gna Gomer se Fe Hypersthene gabbro.........- 11, 880 8682 | Spencer Mountain............... Gastonia jas see Feldspathic quartzite......... 31, 520 88st] (Gastoniass. o1e 85... teense EE co (oyna Ss Quartzite [22 Aaa peers ae 17, 100 8576;|Monresvalle. 2.20 3) eo ae ee Tredell aes nee Biotite pramite 522222222222: 26, 00C DOTS OQ) Se ace er See Sena McDowell........- Sandstone: 2322. Ss saee esse 22, 600 OOZSil Py WaISOT Se i Ee ee Nee iWilson'she.. --cupne Granttev ssc. Se Gee ee 16,070 5956) Siaceye sake. Su kw ey Rockingham . .| Granite gneiss... 23, 220 BAGGY SAUSDUTY. aban cea ce Sere een Rowan........- -| Granite . 33, 750 9892 | Granite Quarry _-22¢ 222-222 Sei |22. 2 do: eee GOS ase net oe cere eeeeter 21, 130 10306 ; Granite Quarry (near)..........|-.--- Gorn sats Sead esas (0 Vo Reeser eerie, Ger nae Bt Fe 34, 860 TU OH eee a SREB SE nen nah oe noel a Seis dose seems aes GCOS s os seep etna e eae 20, 930 TEER Ih 6 aa a Ee PAS iS aE Se CoN a PN do. 5 12 Wt Saas ae aoa 23, 580 AO 770) y(t Se ae ye sferike en Mine NAS Oe GOs ee Fa Pee ae Loess as Seah See elise eka 17, 800 T1200) CEs eee eee Ooi pe ee ey donee een Eacee GOH e eee aa ae 26, 400 GOs) MBOShICHe Sei oo: sete: See Rutherford........ Biotite gneiss. ~ ---2 22.2222 22. 16, 100 BROTH MONT Ady Scenes sea be nee SULLY nen eee Granites eee Seek eae ine 18, 400 TES bose (Oe eet Pee SO a ees Mn. e oe Choe ee etoeeselecese Ost sosep sd ASeeetcomene see 15, 200 8901 |-..--- OL: SPIO SSS eae ee ae el eo Gol sceease Phe oleae (6c RAR rc os 5,100 9048 |..-.- (6 (SAE ee Pees caine Sees | ees doe ee H0 OSS oee one eb Ss. Seae oe 16, 440 $419) Granita (Hear) osc ccce ose eeeaee Wale Sees oe “Biotite STAMIGCs Ha ee eee tere 14,160 BROZL | FWHSOs) fe ae cen enone eee ige Wrarreniecse an wise | eR amor, mea al ANS 18, 240 BSNsileeee Osean ahs San he a ere ee a 6 (ost Eee TOKENS come Seis Sh 18, 560 BS 74d Descoeetas EUV Ronn Oe oe ean O WANCOY eee sees Guarini Pree ERAN AE pata! Seal ACR UE 12, 900 OHIO. AEGAN OSHORNG nhs tag ee eee eee Clarke.........-.--| Dolomiticlimestone........... 8,690 AGOhul Sprinetiold) ce! s.~ woose se eee | ae Ge ae See One Dolomite: ) Saipan eee 18, 960 Q282 ’Clovelan dens 2 sere 0 eles Cuyahoga.....-.-- Granite), ai eee see nets 31,790 ps3) Bee Oem OR Sane Mah eSBeSA Asal Mbpmce OO ope bees lonico Oe eee a Tame ia eee Me 27,900 9284 |..... DOs steep sackets | sees BG) seo os Bae oldeco.: CG Ko SR aes orn Bit ate lh 1 24, 790 9285 |... (ce canna 6 ey aisle SE LI ite oe aa mp Sei Ci Ne Pee ha Bal Ls 26, 990 9459 |....- GO Re eens ons cee eee | omen Ose ee nee eee Cho Eanes anes yeale sae 24, 900 4378 ee eye Bis woe eee sete De eee 5 ee eee Wimestone see see see ere ae 19, 400 ral Abe oles Sof aes tapecoe coda) aces bonoe COR ee sneer eee CORSE abr ae Matis AeNieaaiyts 21,850 5753 Castalia aE oe antares POeeEeE Eee lemeat doen a aya Ae Dolomiticlimestone........... 18, 530 6055 |.---- Oe Wo Each are a ema Seiya Monee pO ko y= a ee eee a Ibimestonie tt oe see see peers 20, 810 6056 |pAkroniunction 2 2. ye eee eels do-22) 24... 5.4) Chertylimestone-a-see sees 31,180 B50 eMarble@liti i. seeecea eee ae Bram ilies o 2s eee bimestones Jeo owen cen eee sete 16, 750 5506 |... -- GOs see sso 2's see ae cles late cis Sheetal miele > «CL Ones a Sele ees Ors. ae 2. sac omer 12, 350 56300 iColumbys: 2 227 ete aca ae o Ferruginous sandstone........ 21,800 4693 | Patterson....... ; i Doone Lew Sete tomiterine 11,360 5553 | Dunkirk.-... 26, 200 4707 | Hillsboro... 15, 590 8347 | Clarksfield 9, 490 4656 |e Bie ODLINeS eee eee Logan.............| Argillaceous limestone ........ 16,380 COSTAL VULCAN Ss 8 ee. Gone Sop WAUICAS uaets caeeten Siliceous limestone............ 25, 480 60574) CELOUATIOS +. 6oe ao aise Ae eee neat C6 Fo Ye 52 Siok YS eee Argillaceous limestone ........ 19, 430 8402 | Toledo, 10 miles west of....-....|.-..- CO sseeess 2 =. -2,-|) DO LOMILO Hse eee neers ae eee 11, 600 10537) Piqua 505 3. SSS ee ace se Miami eee 2 05 i es doe Ne la ea ee 9, 810 10538 |..... One eal aa eee b lente stones ete GOsscee iss nt alee £6 Ca UN ne terry Ree yes et 15, 150 6D52) Witte Hiockss- oes ese eae Ottawaiin..ss-': Alea GOLA Beier tee 16, 620 9045). ROCKVERAGRC! don acres donee Alene ole es o) >| tae [s Ko Peeper a pmb 2 et 2 LIN 28 13,3'0 10539 i NewuParis’. <2. 2ces eau de se Problosee) 2225 ae GOo-} Maids steiee tema 16, 480 55564 Bloomiville:... 2. 3-- see coe ses Senecazey ss... sth Ibimestone 5/225, eeeeeeeeee 20, 250 6555,)| Middleport=.. - 22.2 mee 2 se. oe Wan Werter.. js. Dolomite: oii tae eee 25, 200 OKLAHOMA O688.|'Granites..-3..5u le Vee ste 56 Greer seme 5-255 Granite 252 cose ae 18,000 PENNSYLVANIA. ISO OTANI a see qe eeee it soe bie eet Adams -perevecsc. - Gabbroitic diabase.........-..- 28, 440 DOO? | CLVMGIMAN =... chee dealt an Bedfordeeveu.. 2.1). Impure limestone...........-. 24,150 4 | ie ees 6 Ce Re Ne See ed Re et alle A Ba obo 5 eer ee Siliceous limestone............ 21, 860 BGS2 || HITOBDOLOUs « sacec sey Suse sees cow Berksoaweet....-'. - Altered diabase.....-......--. 1 Exact locality not known. TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK IN 1916. 91 TABLE II.—Results of compression tests of rock complete to Jan. 1, 1917—Continued. PENNSYLVANIA—Continued. Crushing Bae euenen eria < , . pounds a Locality. County. Name. per square inch. Argillaceous limestone......... 15, 480 Bere CORAM NS Ce onsen 2 20, 880 .| Blast-furnace slag.......-..-.- 9, 000 Pyroxene quartzite, 31, 800 IMICAISCHISh Se =see ea eemuae AD 23, 500 pe CORSA. Wee AEN 238000) Argillaceous limestone........ 18,710 Siliceous limestone...-..--.... 26, 500 Mim eStONC Eee Herero aeReeee 8, 510 EEE LOWEN Beha 19, 250 .| Siliceous dolomite....-........ 9, 640 @) Ferruginous sandstone-........ 14, 150 5771 | Indian Creek Station.-.......... Hayetteeseaeeaeee Calcareous sandstone.........- 37, 740 (HOG | LBW REID SS rs ge ears a ae Cosi 2 n/a WUIIMEST OM Cp aeese aera ee yee 13. 450 Osa Conmellsvilles =. e820 n i S| CKO epee Homes acme ClO pe Ree Ee oAeaEoeene sooo! aan 26, 050 5604 | Water Street.........-.......-.- Earnie Oa Feldspathic sandstone......... 22, 330 Ean UN ULORG serecize cs tee pe Nae t. Lawrence. .----..- Weimestone seme se eer ee sass 27, 500 10518 | Montoursville..........-........ Lycoming......... Argillaceous limestone......... 23, 460 10672 | Jersey Shore........-..-----.-.-|.---- Gol.) Saas ae Siliceous limestone .....--....- 20, 360 6153 | Porter Township........-..-....|.---- Os. eee Argillaceous limestone-..-....- 28, 580 ca eee ah a AS a lh bn Oe: : {eae ils 2 GOP eA Meelon ereseriemae ae 26, 860 Lee dO.) aT MGs ee S SUN Ae 18,610 ase GOSS) =| Nepee el bisete s Olats acta oral Sates uiat eats ately Sato 22, 930 ee dol sneer s|szimestone=t) ys ess Se 21, 900 Man See 2 ROR hae ANN eae RE a 0 14, 160 McKean..........- Feldspathic sandstone...--.... 9, 680 A) Beak «SR Eee Ferruginous sandstone-....... 12,130 (URES a nes ele 8 Loe RE Re GEL UE 14,000 (GO EEE Be 3A. 2s Hens Mabe OE Se Soe saeiyuie aaerisi sae 12, 480 Pike) Sk) 2 Suess Feldspathic sandstone..-.-.... 25, 250 Philadelphia...... iBiobibeleneissaee assess eee 21, 530 3243 | MeSpadden..........-..-..---.- Somerset...-.----- Sandstone pe sens see se eee 26, 900 103455) Contluence =): 222-2 22s -ciaeiellesen dol a eee Sone Calcareous sandstone-...-..-.- 24) 790 5830 | Prompton.......-.....-.-.----.- WidiyIle=. eee sae Feldspathic sandstone........- 26, 340 5605 | Blairsville Intersection........-.. Westmoreland. ..-| Siliceous limestone-...--.-.--. 32, 560 Ce PASS SCT els | ei Re SWOT kes hc See A Dolomitic marble............. 27, 400 RHODE ISLAND SSO MMIMWIESLCTEY Eee. Ki owe fers ae Ae Washington......- Graniter cries eae saat 11, 740 8868 |....- CLO a RMR EEN CT ole: Se nae OE Li i FE AON Den 20, 300 8869 |..... Ovens ee sae ee as ce=ry sci ise teal atest dos 2a pees | sane COs eee ceases ams See 20, 750 SOUTH CAROLINA. Anderson.....-.-- 12, 990 || Ewa 6-4 sobellbesoe d 29,180 TOON es CON ACS Be 5s 25, 790 Jeo cE TEE SSE oeEnE rere ence do. alam Tee 7a 19, 240 Ue NC Sy ae arse ieee ou henu ae (Ko pay ees As = oA es 33, 880 SISA APACS UO RA re! See aoa dos.) Seen 25, 540 TENNESSEE FRO (PURI ARS Ess AB ae shen BAe eee see Cantons: ) epee: Limestone 22, 750 Bee 4 ae TN do. 21, 730 Nee Mn seats 28, 340 Dolomite. ..--..--- 38, 070 Marblesn- seas acbe cc ealc ce 17,970 VERMONT 5543 | East Wallingford............... iguAbHale se 25556 Altered diabase..-....-.-.---- 16, 800 S805, MB ALTO cece aha = seuees,. Sau ae Washington.....-- Granite eee eae e ee eee eee 19, 560 1 Exact locality not known. 92 BULLETIN 537, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE II.—Results of compression tests of rock complete to Jan. 1, 1917—Continued. VIRGINIA. | a Crushing hae ePposth, Seria F ounds No. Locality. County. Name. Pp ae square inch UGS AN Oty ra sats 355 - Secs Bediord saree eeeene Granite gneiss...!......-...... 13, 820 103440)\ Lynchburg 2). --.c2---.--seecee Campbell. ........ Quantaltes~ use eeee een soe . 25, 885 GTOGN 2) ee Se a ER eee Doe Dinwiddie. .--.... Grate: 0 deel eee eee 13, 150 4900A | Broad Run. .--2--2---.----2.-.- Hanquier. . <2. 22) Quartz 2 2 levee eee eee 28, 400 4900B |....- GME 5 cae dee see eses-cd-c25 20 =n|bsoo- Oe S652 adq52 HE pid OSIb0 je eee seas aneaesee 28, 000 bO371 SELabhmMore.....-.c2028-\46-< eeu Fluvanna.....--.. Chlorite epidote schist... .....- 13, 210 5678 | Eggleston (near)..--.-...-.---.- Giles. 5226 -e cette Dolomites.c. 2 shoe eer eae 45, 690 Ho OSCODE La seee ees eee ere Goochland. .....-- Granite gneiss... /-.-.2.-2/.--- 13, 550 6615 | Korah Station. ..........-.....- enricol fo eee Biotite granite: - == 22 lessees 20, 300 5925) (Green Ways == ae ann eee = - Nelsonzeeeeeepeae= Feldspathic quartzite... -- : 16, 500 5492 | Nokesville. - Prince William . . .| Ferruginous sandstone 17,780 HO 2n Greenleshetensees ee asn eee eeeaee Rockbridge... ....- Dolomitic marble. ..-......... 36, 900 5382 | Bluff Water Station Rockingham .....- Inimesfone seep e nese eae 21, 450 5385 |-.-.- Glo). 5 ssa coses pe bess scscecocelaooe GSS ossosnsece{b ace Os (c= 2 sine eee eae ane eee 40, 850 SRG) | Stra EPA SE Se See ee Seer 3000 ussellc. oe 225002 Sie ae CO eee ae ee ene 17, 600 7217 | Burkes Garden ......-.-.-..--.- Mazewelle 2 2228-22 Dolomitic sandstone.......... 21, 500 WEST VIRGINIA. | BSN PDOLKOIOY en sem enn ter = naar eee Berkeley.-..-.---- Limestone... see ee eee 23, 350 DONTE) URONIC Keser ore iste aia tela ae heer Greenbrier. --..--- Crystalline limestone. ......--- 21, 300 HOUR a ET AVIOne seer soe a en ae ee oe | See Gli co tareeinas HiMmMeStone se eee eee 17, 450 BILD! SHOW WACO seems se econ eo a| eee GO eee ears | eee (Ki emmen EES Oe A is 5 13, 550 7475 | Green Spring, east of..-...-.-.-- Hampshire... ..--- Siliceous limestone -.......---- 34, 400 . TEEN Bee (oc SANS aN ye AIR CIN Sas COs eee ee Quartzite)- eo ieee 15, 050 6109 | Spring SET ee ae oe Kanawha..-.-.--- Sandstone se. s.eee eee eeeeee 12, 400 O152.0| SMAInMON ieee pasate reas peels Manlone tees -cer ere reeee LO. ae ee ener a ae 5, 420 Oisan re ee (iC Re ee elon ones tees ol sec Os eeer ee. 2a eee dogs foe eee ene 5, 720 edhe Oc Se aie ee NR ee Cae a ema LO}! Aa ee 6, 080 56107 Stureisson 2) 2-5 ¢) eee Monongalia..-.... Siliceous limestone.........-.- 22, 440 SGI2 22 Ona a pristenct ee teeta ete cece Clo sascbe sso" Limestone see seer e eee 17,910 pias | a) dO ee seek i soechosae | Gees On Sea seeee ks Argillaceous limestone. - .-..-. 14, 300 5614 |....- donc. S Oe optineree ine spinels | eeioe On seen. -aee =e Calcareous sandstone. -.....--- 29, 840 Bot Dn ssa: CO ee Sasso ase sae el oer GOnn s.coseswee Impure limestone.-.......-.-.- 19, 650 5616 |.---- dO. Se Med. een se eesebectgettonys|etbeee dosieah: ohaate Argillaceous limestone. - -- -.-- 24, 850 | 8147) Parkerspurg.- 22s seosce soos eeee Wood 252ee eases Feldspathic sandstone. - ..-.-- 11, 910 1 WISCONSIN. HOD a ECHOES ame cts cc emia see cme Fond du Lac..-..- Dolomitieni 4 ese cepa 32, 600 SAAB PAMDEI EA fF. - ce sence ese sense Marinette......--. Biotite granite. --.....-.------ 20, 000 LLI29| Wauwatosa. . 2223528 52 asia 2 Milwaukee.....-..- Argillaceous dolomite. .......- 45,310 8656 | Lannon.....-...-.---. she sesdice Waukesha.....-.--| Dolomite...-..-.....-..- booue 23, 020 1 Exact locality not known. Taste III.—Geographical distribution of rock samples tested to Jan. 1, 1917. Alabama......--- Oo | eansaseee cs sea 13 | New Jersey..-..--- 75 i 3 Heep iaekyi=* sweSstee 46 | New Mexico.....- 1 17 | Louisiana. aia 7 | New York.....-..- 148 101 Bille see Ass Sae8 2 86 | North Carolina. 149 28 | Maryland........- 121) WOHIO2 si eee eae 65 52 Maseactaeaitd See) 19024 "Okiah omens 50 30 | Michigan......... 95 | Oregon....... Bi 14 Florida ean ee 13 | Minnesota......-- 17 | Pennsylvania..... 610 Georgis.” 225.252: 256 | Mississippi... .---- 13 | Rhode Island..... 41 shies Sos sesh 10\| Missourpe..--....- 39 | South Carolina... 30 THinois 2 cst see 128 | Montana.....-...- 4 | South Dakota. -.. 15 Indiana... ......- 179 | Nebraska.......-.- 12 | Tennessee. ......- 77 NOW Ewe corey a 23 | New Hampshire. . PH ih id =<: CR 8 63 By comparing the results of tests on a sample of rock with the limits as shown in the following table, a general idea of the types of road construction for which it is best suited may be obtained. TESTS OF ROAD-BUILDING ROCK IN 1916. 93 TasBLe LV.—General limiting test values for broken stone. Limiting values. Type of construction. Traffic.1 uae coefficient | Toughness.| Hardness. of wear. K(RAg TG 2 aera 5to 8 5to 9 10 to 17 Water-bound macadam, plain or with dust NtoGlerara 9 to 15 10018 | aorover! palliative treatment. ea yee 16 or over. | 19 or over. | 17 or over. Macadam with bituminous carpet...-..-..... Light to moderate...) 5 orover. | 5 or over. 2 Bituminous macadam with seal coat......... Moderate woe yy. .| 7 or over. u0 or over, |..-.- a ; Reece . . Light to moderate...| 7 or over. or over. 2 Bituminous concrete - Pa Mes ih hab eon |\ Moderate to heavy - -| 10 or over. | 13 or over. |...------.-. Binder course for sheet asphalt or Topeka | Any....-...-.-.-.-- 7 or Over. | 6 or Over. (2) type. Pordand cement concrete.........--.---.---- Moderate to heavy. . (3) 8 or over. | 16 or over. Bltonempavineplockauy Phe) vee eee one Army LES RRR iN cua (3) 9 or over. | 16 or over. Broken stone foundations......-.....-------- Saene Co Co Male aerate Benes 3 or over. | 3 or over. 8 or over. Cementconcretetoundahlonsy=- ej siete hs cee sce ees sense eee cellcciceice. cece e! SLR ONY SRD DNS eee ee ean 1 Light traffic is assumed as less than 100 vehicles per day, moderate traffic between 100 and 250 vehicles, and heavy traffic over 250 vehicles per day. 2 Numerous tests have shown that limits for hardness are unnecessary if the material possesses the.re- quired French coefficient of wear and toughness. 8 Limits for French coefficient of wear are not at present considered necessary for this type of construction. 4 Crushing strength, 20,000 pounds or over per square inch is sometimes required. Cementing values should show over 25 in all cases if material is to be used in water-bound macadam construction. In general, granites, gneisses, schists, sandstones, and quartzites should not be used in the wearing course of water-bound macadam roads. Shales and slates never should be used in this connection; therefore cementing value tests have been discontinued on these materials. For further details and explanation of results in this table and also for tests on all materials to January 1, 1916, see U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 370. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM ‘ THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv June 27, 1917 SHRIMP: HANDLING, TRANSPORTATION, AND USES. By Ernest D. Crarx, Investigator in Fish and Fish Products, and Lesitrz Mac- Naveuton, Formerly Assistant in Fish Investigations. “Prepared under the direction of M. E. Pennineton, Chief, Food Research Laboratory. CONTENTS. Page Page INGO ies EG ae CAE RS I es eset es one as 1 | Dried shrimp and other specialties.......... 6 JBI apry La Xe Ig A es ar a Sear a A Me 2 | Food value of shrimp meat......-.-.-....... " «(tara vatraer 03.) SE RN Aan Senos ae fae ela Se 2 | Utilization of shrimp waste.................. 7 Preparing cooked shrimp for market.......-. as SVL TANNER Yoetie oF Cote aye hatabsin arars Shwe cons Dea etna 8 Packing raw shrimp for shipment..-......- 6 That both raw and cooked shrimp can be shipped to distant markets without the use of preservatives and arrive in good con- dition is established both by the experience of careful packers and by the investigations reported in this bulletin. To do this, however, the handler must observe two precautions. In the first place, he must keep raw shrimp iced or cold from the time they are caught until they reach the consumer. Secondly, he must wash the raw shrimp thoroughly, as soon as possible, in order to remove slime and foul stomach contents which are likely to contaminate the product and give it an unsatisfactory color or flavor after it has been cooked. Careful handling is necessary at every stage to avoid un- necessary breaking or damaging of the shrimp. ICING. Jnless they are iced or cooled immediately when caught, shrimp will soften quickly, especially in warm weather. Whenever there is danger of such softening, shrimp boats or trawlers should carry. plenty of ice. Shrimp buyers should refuse to take stock that is not im good condition at the dock. Heavy icing is particularly important when the shrimp are molting, because then they are soft, easily broken in handling, and more subject to decomposition. Care in handling shrimp properly begins the moment the net is raised. All soft, damaged, or small shrimp should be culled out and 83184°—Bull. 538—17 2 BULLETIN 538, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the slime and dirt removed by thorough washing with water. Culled and cleaned shrimp should be stored in the boat at once with cracked ice. As soon as the boat reaches the dock the shrimp should be removed from the hold, sorted a second time, and weighed. Unless the stock is to be headed at once, or is to go immediately to the kettle, the shrimp should be placed in cooling tubs filled with cracked ice and water, or go into a refrigerated room, the temperature of which is below 40° F., and allowed to stand there for several hours until com- pletely chilled. When shrimp are to be shipped raw they should always be thoroughly chilled before shipment. If the chilling is thorough, less ice will be required in transit and the stock will be firm when delivered. HEADING. In certain sections the trade demands headless stock. In other markets, especially in the South, consumers are suspicious of headed shrimp, as they erroneously regard the absence of the head as an indication of spoiled stock. Such consumers ultimately pay the express on the entire weight of the package and then throw nearly half of the shrimp away. Experiments indicate that the heads and appendages constitute from 43 to 45 per cent of the raw whole stock and about 41 per cent of the cooked whole stock. It is essential that the shrimp be headed before they have become warm, because the dark liquid in the stomach of the shrimp consists of oily, partially digested plant and animal material, which readily decomposes. This liquid, as well as the body slime, must be removed immediately after the shrimp are headed. COOKING. THE BRINE. The crude, haphazard methods of cooking practiced in some plants explain in large part the losses in cooked shrimp and the unpalata- bility of some products. Such ‘‘rule-of-thumb” methods as cooking until the meat pulls away from the back of the shell will not give uniform results. The careful packer when cooking seeks to sterilize the shrimp by the heat and to let the stock absorb enough salt from the brine to insure proper seasoning and to promote keeping qualities. At the same time the packer must control his operation so as to pre- vent excessive loss in weight from overcooking and loss in quality from undue hardening and salting of the meat. Undercooking is also to be guarded against, as it results in a flabby, tasteless product, poor in keeping quality. The initial step in cooking first-class stock is to use brines of proper strength. No definite rules can be laid down as to the strength SHRIMP: HANDLING, TRANSPORTATION, AND USES. 3 of the brine, as this will depend on the relative amounts of shrimp — and brine used, the time allowed for cooking, and the degree of saltmess desired. Each packer, by experiment, can determine readily the strength of brine and the length of cooking which will yield the results he desires. In general, the brine should contain not less than 10 per cent, by weight, of salt and not more than 25 per cent. There should be at least 4 gallons of brine for each 10 pounds of shrimp. The careful packer will equip himself with a hydrometer so that he can measure accurately from time to time the density of his brine. THE COOKING VESSEL. The shape of the vessel in which the shrimp are cooked directly affects the evaporation of water from the brine, and consequently has a bearing on the density of the brine during cooking. Deep kettles with straight sides that have as little surface as possible for loss of heat and for evaporation, are the most satisfactory. They should be heated from some constant source—preferably coils of steam pipes immersed in the brine—which permits of exact control of tem- peratures. It is not desirable to cook shrimp in metal tubs, in pots, or in wide, shallow kettles over open fires. LENGTH OF COOKING. It is very important to have the brine actually bubbling before any shrimp are put into the kettle. Cold shrimp will chill the brine so that it stops boiling, but if the volume of liquid is sufficiently large, active boiling will be resumed within afew minutes. Since the shrimp in cooking develop air spaces and rise to the surface, they should be held down by a weighted wire screen or similar device to insure proper cooking. The length of cooking depends upon the strength of the brine, the quantity of shrimp to be cooked, and the flavor desired. In general, shrimp are cooked from 15 to 20 minutes after the brine in which they have been placed begins to boil. The shorter the cooking and the weaker the brine the less will be the shrimp’s loss in weight. When a minimum amount of salt is used, continuous refrigeration is necessary 1n order to prevent spoilage, and the product is suitable only for shipping to near-by markets. Shrimp that will be shipped to distant markets should first be cooked in 15 per cent brine for 15 to 20 minutes, cooled in a chill room to 35° F., or less, and then shipped in a sealed package surrounded by ice,. ACCURATE CONTROL OF COOKING. To insure accurate cooking, the packer should use a thermometer which registers as high as 250° F. It should be made entirely of glass, as brine affects wood or metal frames. The packer should also have 4 BULLETIN 538, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a hydrometer graduated in salt percentages, Baumé scale, or specific gravity. Hydrometer readings should be taken only in cool brines, the temperature of which is as near 60° F. as possible. With these instruments the packer can determine readily by a few experiments the best brine and the best temperature as related to time of cook- ing. Cooking for 15 minutes ina 15 per cent brine might be used as a starting point in these experiments. The following table shows the approximate relationship between the boiling points, densities, and specific gravity of the brines, and the amounts of salt needed to make a brine of given percentage. In ordinary practice, however, it is necessary to have from 10 to 20 per cent more than the specified amount of salt. As commercial salts vary in impurities and moisture content, this table is suggested only asa guide. It must be modified after experiment to fit the particular salt used. TaBLe 1.—Approximate relationships between bowling points and strength of brine. : Dry salt Boiling Beeeie Density | required Salt. | point of | 8 Y | of brine | for 100 of brine ° : rine. |. ° at 60° F.| gallons at 60° F. of brine. Per cent. Ba, ° Baumé.| Pounds. -0 214 1.035 5.0 43 7.5 216 1.054 7.4 65 10.0 217 1.073 9.8 86 12.5 219 1.092 12.2 113 15.0 221 1112 14.5 139 17.5 223 1.131 16.7 165 20.0 225 1. 152 19.0 191 if 25.0 228 1.192 2352) 230 COOKING WITH LIVE STEAM. Live steam, occasionally used for cooking headed shrimp that are intended for drying, may also be employed in cooking shrimp for ordinary purposes. The shrimp are sprinkled evenly with salt and allowed to stand ashort time. They are then placed in a steam-tight box and subjected to the action of live steam for half an hour. This process, aside from obviating the necessity for making and handling brines, requires less salt, prevents soaking out of flavors, and results in less loss in weight. Where brine is used, chemical analysis of the scums and brines after cooking shows that considerable amounts of albuminous and mineral matter have passed from the shrimp into the brine. The albumin coagulates upon boiling in much the same manner as does the white of an egg. This loss in albuminous and mineral matter means that the shipper loses, since he has fewer pounds of shrimp to ship, and that the consumer does not receive the full food value of the product. Bul. 538, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. é | BC-—FRL-S-1! Fic. 1.—TRAWL NET BOATS USED FOR CATCHING SHRIMP. BC-FRL—-S—2 Fia. 2.—SHRIMP IN SHALLOW WATER ON THE BEACHES ARE CAUGHT IN THESE LONG Nets BY WabIna MEN. Bul. 538, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. BC-—FRL-S-3 Fia. 1.—BoiILING SHRIMP OVER OPEN FIRES BY “ RULE-OF-THUMB” METHODS IS LARGELY RESPONSIBLE FOR THE LOW QUALITY SHRIMP SOMETIMES FOUND IN NORTHERN MARKETS. BC-FRL-S—4 Fic. 2.—SHRIMP HEADS. A VALUABLE FERTILIZER Now GOING TO WASTE. SHRIMP: HANDLING, TRANSPORTATION, AND USES. 5 PREPARING COOKED SHRIMP FOR MARKET. COOLING SHRIMP AFTER COOKING. After they have been cooked the shrimp should always be cooled thoroughly before being packed for shipment. Unless this cooling is done properly they can not be shipped to market successfully. The spoilage of shrimp in transit is due more to incomplete chilling before packing than to any other single factor. The shrimp should be placed in thin layers on cooling racks of wire screens in a temperature below 50° F., if possible, and exposed to a free circulation of air. Under this treatment the shrimp quickly lose their heat and the excess of water absorbed from the brine. The packer should not judge their temperature merely by touching the shells. Cooked shrimp contain air spaces between the meat and the shell and as the shell is a poor conductor it frequently is cold to the touch even when the shrimp meat itself is still warm. The degree of coolng may be tested by removing a shell and breaking open the meat. In the Southern States the temperature of the air may be from 75° to 90° F. This is too warm to cool the shrimp to the de- gree necessary in the case of such a perishable foodstuff. Under such conditions the shrimp must be placed in a refrigerated room. Proper cooling is of the greatest importance because it means less danger of spoilage in transit, results in the use of less ice in packing, and insures freshness in the product when it reaches the market. PACKING COOKED SHRIMP FOR SHIPMENT. There are several ways to pack shrimp, depending on the demands _of the markets and the distances to which the shrimp are shipped. For near markets whole or headless cooked shrimp are packed in small boxes or crates and shipped in the cool months, usually without re- frigeration. The containers should not hold over 30 pounds, as a larger bulk increases the danger of heating. Unless the shrimp are ab- solutely dry and cooled to a temperature of less than 40° F. it is hazardous to ship them in air-tight containers because of danger of sweating and consequent decomposition. For this reason some pack- ers use ventilated containers or crates. Dry cooked shrimp are thoroughly cooled, packed, and sometimes shipped in 1 to 5 gallon tin cans that are lined with paper and provided with water-tight covers or tops which are soldered or fastened tightly tothe can. The sealed cans then are packed in ice in burlap-covered barrels with drainage holes at the bottom. Such packages are reiced by the express company when necessary, and even in warm weather can be transported in good condition. _ Some shippers pack the cooked stock in tight cans in light brine supposed to act as a preservative. The dry-packed stock, however, 6 BULLETIN 538, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. has a better flavor and keeps just as well if it has been properly cooked and handled. Packing brines should not be over 5 to 10 per cent strength. Heavier solutions tend to make the shrimp leathery and too salty and weaker ones produce softness and flabbiness in the stock and have no appreciable preservative effect. A brine of 7 or 8 per cent strength should be satisfactory for shipping purposes. In such packing both shrimp and brine should be cooled before shipping; otherwise there is danger that the ice may melt during transit and the shrimp consequently decay. Headless cooked shrimp packed in kegs in strong brine of from 15 to 20 per cent strength keep very well. This ‘‘keg stock’”’ sometimes is used in restaurants or hotels, where the necessary freshening can be done. Most housewives prefer the product packed in weak brine because it is more convenient and has a better flavor. PACKING RAW SHRIMP FOR SHIPMENT. Raw shrimp before being packed are chilled with ice to 40° F. or below. A layer of ice is placed in the bottom of a barrel provided with drainage holes. A layer of chilled shrimp is placed on the ice, then another layer of ice, and more shrimp. A large cake of ice or ‘‘header”’ is placed on the top of the barrel. Another method is to provide a bottom layer of ice and then place on end in the center of the barrel a long, narrow cake of ice. The shrimp are packed around this cake, or core, of ice, the ‘‘header”’ cake is placed on top of the barrel, and the barrel and its contents covered with burlap. Cooked shrimp, as a rule, are sent by express in small lots. In the case of raw shrimp, car lots of iced barrels occasionally may be shipped by fast freight in refrigerator or ventilator cars. DRIED SHRIMP AND OTHER SPECIALTIES. Dried shrimp are prepared in certain sections of Louisiana and Florida. The cooked shrimp are dried outdoors in the sun and the meats threshed out from the shells. Under an improved process raw shrimp sprinkled with salt are cooked with live steam and dried over steam pipes. This rapid drying results in a bright, attractive food product which has not been subjected to the molding or decomposi- tion frequently taking place when shrimp are dried outdoors under varying weather conditions. This product deserves a wider market. Headed and peeled shrimp meats also should prove popular. These meats after being cooked in a weak brine are cooled and dried on wire screens. They are then packed dry in tightly sealed tin cans (some- ‘times lined with paper) of from 1 to 5 gallon capacity. The cans are shipped in barrels of cracked ice. Shrimp pastes are prepared by grinding shrimp meats and adding salt and flavoring. They are used like anchovy paste forsandwiches SHRIMP: HANDLING, TRANSPORTATION, AND USES. i and as arelish. Potted tuna fish, smoked salmon paste, and similar preparations of halibut have recently met with some sale in this country. It is believed that a somewhat similar by-product can be made profitably from broken or small shrimp or from surplus stock taken in periods of slack markets. ‘FOOD VALUE OF SHRIMP MEAT. Chemical analysis shows that shrimp are a nitrogenous food con- taining constituents similar to those found in cheese, meat, oysters, and eggs. Almost all of the edible portion of raw shrimp is protein, the muscle and tissue building food element. Since shrimp are a concentrated nitrogenous food they may be used as the principal dish of a meal as well as the basis of a salad or as an appetizer or relish. Table 2, which shows the results of analyses of shrimp obtained from different localities and prepared in various ways, gives compari- sons between shrimp and other foodstuffs of a nitrogenous nature. TaBLE 2.—Analyses and food values of shrimp and certain other foodstuffs. [Calculated on the fresh dasis. ] Shrimp (edible portion). Other foods (edible portion). = = u ot ; ; A a iS a. |a S| é rd td Constituents. ca | BA jas |e i138 NE ite i Etna Sy 4 ue aS a og ae aS o g d | a 3 | 34 | Ss Spee ete | eeiei| Seis ee eee See Wes I ool aunts, Wee lee ace les |e en Sie set lineal, ey i Sameera. Ne: MSH ong ES 1S) (Ss) 'S) A Mm |O 'S) & = | ela P.ct.| P. ct. | P. ct. | P. ct. |P. ct. | P. ct.| P. ct.| P. ct.|P. ct. |P. et. |P. ct. |P. ct Protein ss 445 kL). ti 27.6 | 25.5 | 20.0] 71.4 | 14.8 -2 | 21.8] 18.6 | 13.4] 21.3] 3.3] 28.8 Warhol dratesaasce sere eece| pact sal teceasclocsoess Soar sense eee resis lee neces |e ie Ne a CBN eee SHG ee eee ve aia 1.0 0.8 0.5 BO oSecas 1.2 | 12.1 5.2] 10.5] 7.9} 5.0] 35.9 AWicttele set ace ewes ss 64.5 |} 67.7) 75.7] 12.5 | 80.3 | 86.9 | 63.5 | 75.4 | 73.7 | 70.0 | 87.0] 31.6 SEU Ge Ge aaa ae emee 4.8 2.9 TO AOR sae cooiisacuce TESCO Sea es set tones (aS ee 1.7 Comparative fuel value per pound (calories) ..| 559 505 395 | 1,540] 345) 235) 915] 565] 720] 730] 325 | 2,055 UTILIZATION OF SHRIMP WASTE. When shrimp are headed about 43 per cent of their weight is thrown away. Small amounts of this material are used locally by farmers, who report that it has excellent fertilizing value for certain crops. As a thousand barrels of shrimp (50,000 to 60,000 pounds) are landed sometimes in a single day it is obvious that a large amount of poten- tially valuable fertilizing material is obtained from the heading of shrimp. Some attention has been given to the drying of shrimp heads for sale as fertilizer. Experiments indicate, however, that in the process of drying a large amount of nitrogen is lost in the form of ammonia or other volatile substances. To retain this nitrogen it would seem advisable to mix the material before drying with a suit- able acid-reacting substance of value as a fertilizer. The material 8 BULLETIN 538, U.\S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. when dried in this manner should constitute a valuable by-product. Analysis shows that dried shrimp waste contains over 11 per cent nitrogen, calculated as ammonia, and 24 per cent phosphorus, calcu- lated as phosphorus pentoxid.’ These figures indicate high ferti- | lizing value. SUMMARY. Cleanliness, proper cooking, and care in handling shrimp, com- bined with a discontinuance of the practice of using preservatives, have resulted in the production of a finely flavored product which is gradually increasing in popularity. At the same time improvements in methods of packing and preparation have made shrimp accessible to many new markets at long distances from the producing sections. Packers in the South and on the Pacific Coast should make every effort to keep their own products up to the highest standard and should do everything possible to promote the general adoption of high standards by the trade. The increased consumption of shrimp and the opening of new mar- kets are stimulating the industry to increase its catches. If shrimp are taken at the wrong time of year or in excessive numbers their extermination is probable. Those interested in the shrimp industry, therefore, should give early attention to the question of conserva- tion. It is also to the interest of those whose livelihood is dependent upon catching and packing shrimp to encourage investigations planned to determine the periods of spawning, the times of migra- tion, and the feeding habits of shrimp, and to do their part in helping to make such investigations result in the adoption of protective measures. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. September 8, 1917 THE LESSER CORN STALK-BORER.’ By Pause Lucinsitt and Gro. G. Arsiz, Entomological Assistants, Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations. CONTENTS. Tage Page Anitroduetion 22. . 32) S200 n2. 0S. oe ise 13) “Wesentptions?. . PSM Seer Me 8 Economic history............-..--.--------- 2.| Seasonal histony.4. 6 sseee-i-e-ein=- --e 42s 12 Systematic history and synonymy...-...---- 3) |e Reanmeogmethods.: 222) 32252050 ae acacia 23 Geographical distribution..............22--- 4° |) Natural’enemies! i $2222 2s) i.e 24 ELC STOTT LS Pe see eco d be see hoe jaa 5 | Methods of control...........-...------------ 24 VE COMUMMI UTES == are ae c/s ot aie Sa dele cee s oni 6: | arbenaturercited.s 65 .0:. 2652-22520 sss 26 cee 25 INTRODUCTION. Although the lesser corn stalk-borer (EHlasmopalpus lignosellus Zell.) heretofore has occurred in injurious abundance only in sporadic outbreaks, it now has become an insect of considerable economic importance in the Southern States, since crops grown in the poorest types of soils, orin soils lacking humus, are usually the most seriously affected. The injuries to plants by larve of this species sometimes resemble closely those of certain beetle larve commonly known as | ‘‘budworms’’ (Diabrotica 12-punctata Fab.) and it seems probable that injuries frequently attributed to the latter are in reality the work of the lesser corn stalk-borer. While engaged in other investigations early in the season of 1913 near Columbia, S. C., the senior author was informed by the authori- ties Siipeemmending the State farm near that city that the lesser corn stalk-borer was responsible for considerable damage to their field crops almost every year. Investigations begun immediately were continued through 1914 and 1915. The junior author, while engaged in certain investigations in Florida during the winter of 1913-14, encountered this same species in destructive numbers. The following paper, therefore, is a compilation of the results ob- tained from studies made at Columbia, S. C., during the years 1913—- 1915 by the senior author (27)? and at Lakeland, Fla., in 1913-1914, by the junior author. 1The authors wish to acknowledge the cooperation of A. H. Beyer and H. L. Dozier in field investiga- tions. 2 Reference is made by number to “‘ Literature cited,’’ p. 25. 83986°—Bull. 539—17——1 2 BULLETIN 539, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ECONOMIC HISTORY. Although the lesser corn stalk-borer was originally described by Zeller (3) in 1848, and was known to scientific workers from several parts of the Western Hemisphere, it was not until 1881 that it began to have other than a purely scientific interest. In July, 1881,C. V. Riley, then entomologist of the United States Department of Agriculture, was notified that an insect (later identified as this species) was injuring corn, both old and young, in the vicinity of Augusta, Ga. Steps were taken at once to learn more of the life history and habits of the pest, and agents of the Division of Entomology spent the remainder of the year conducting investigations at these points in order that they might be able to propose remedial or preventive measures. The studies made at that time showed that this insect had not been known as a pest until about 1878, and that during the period 1878— 1881 it had become of economic importance in Georgia and South Carolina, specimens being taken even as far north as Chapel Hill, N.C. The life history was partly worked out and published by Dr. Riley (8, 9, 10)'!; but, as no further complaints were received, the investigation was suspended. In a discussion of the corn insects of Nebraska, Prof. Lawrence Bruner (14) published a brief account of this species and its work, but did not state that it had been found in Nebraska. In 1884 (11) and again in 1893 (16) Riley listed it as injurious to the stalk of corn. Not until nearly twenty years after the first recorded damage did it again become the object of special study by entomologists. In 1899 Dr. F. H. Chittenden, of the Bureau of Entomology, received com- plaints of injury to beans by the insect in Alabama and South Caro- lina, and also to peanuts in Georgia (19). Specimens of the insects sent to Washington were identified as Hlasmopalpus lignosellus, and further biological studies were begun. All the available information at this time was brought together, and the results published in Bul- letin 23 of the Division of Entomology by Dr. Chittenden (18). A brief note by Dr. Chittenden (21) in Bulletin 40 of the Bureau of Entomology, published in 1903, reported damage to cowpeas in Texas and Virginia, and the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture for 1903 (22) records injury to cowpeas, beans, and soy beans in Texas, Alabama, and Virginia, part of these records undoubtedly being repetitions of those given in Bulletin 40. In 1904 Titus and Pratt (23) listed it as injurious to corn, beans, and peas. Dr. S. A. Forbes (24) included this species in his monograph of the insects injurious to corn, drawing largely from Riley’s account in describing its habits and methods of attack. He added the infor- mation, however, that adults had been taken in Illinois in August 1 See ‘‘Literature cited,’’ p. 25. THE LESSER CORN STALK-BORER. 3 and September, but the account does not indicate that the species caused damage in the State at that time. In 1905, as reported in the Yearbook of the United States Depart- ment of Agriculture for that year (25), sorghum, cowpeas, and crab- grass were totally destroyed in some fields near Columbia, S. C., and re- ports of damage were received from other localities in South Carolina and Georgia. On November 4, 1915, the junior author also found at Nashville, Tenn., a small wheat plant killed by a larva which was nearly full grown and which entirely filled the burrow that it had excavated in the stem. SYSTEMATIC HISTORY AND SYNONYMY. The lesser corn stalk-borer was first described by Zeller (1) from Brazil, Uruguay (Montevideo), and Colombia, South America, and a .single female from ‘‘Carolina,’”’ U.S. A. In this article, aside from the specific description, Zeller describes three unnamed varieties, basing his descriptions almost entirely on color variations. No further notes are given in this account except from the localities listed. Four years later Blanchard (2) redescribed the species under the name Elasmopalpus angustellus, erecting for its reception the genus Elas- mopalpus, which recently has been accepted as the proper position for the species. Not until two decades later is there a further refer- ence to the species in the literature, when Zeller (8), in an article dealing with some North American moths, adds somewhat to our knowledge of its seasonal and geographical distribution, recording it from Brazil and Colombia, in South America, and ‘“‘Carolina” and Texas, in the United States. At the latter place three females were taken, one on July 15 and the other two a month later. He also adds the descriptions of two varieties, incautella and tartarella, based on color variations. Each of these varieties was described from a single specimen, and both were taken at the same place and on the same date. The species as a whole is extremely variable and Zeller himself in a later publication (7) placed «ncautella as a synonym of lignosella though still retaining tartarella as a valid variety. Another variety, designated as ‘‘ variety B,’”’ was described by Zeller (4) from material collected at Valparaiso, Chile. In 1875, Berg (5), using material taken in Patagonia and elsewhere in southern South America, supple- mented Blanchard’s description of /. angustellus, going into detail, particularly in describing the venation, and two years later, in a further paper on Patagonian insects (6), came to the conclusion that the species he had been considering Blanchard’s angustellus was Zeller’s lignosella. Since both the species are genotypes, the reduction of angustellus to asynonym of lignosella made Elasmopalpus a synonym of Pempelia, where it remained until revived by Hulst in 1890 (13) for this same species. In 1881 Zeller (7) gave some notes on the amount 4 BULLETIN 539, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of variation in the species, basing his remarks on a collection of 25 specimens from Colombia, South America, most of them taken in September and October. Hulst (12) redescribed this species as new, from Texas, under the name Dasypyga carbonella, a mistake which he later rectified in his monograph of the Phycitidae (13), in which he places carbonella as a synonym of Zeller’s variety tartarella. In the same publication he redescribes lignosellus, places it in the genus Elasmopalpus for the first time under that name, and gives a bibliography and notes on the distribution and seasonal occurrence. Ragonot (15) covers much the same ground as several of the previous authors, giving the synonyms, bibliography, and a descrip- tion of the species and calling attention to its great variability. He also uses the name major, the first word of Zeller’s description, for the variety B mentioned above and lists it as a variety of the species . lignosellus. Smith (17 and 26) records the species from New York, and Dyar (20) lists it with its synonyms in his catalogue of the Lepidoptera of North America, giving the distribution as the Atlantic States and South America. The junior author has gone carefully over all the descriptions given by the various authors mentioned above, examining the specimens in the United States National Museum, and has come to the conclusion that the use of all varietal names in this species may well be discontinued. The varieties that have been described are not constant in any respect either as to size, geographical distribution, or seasonal occurrence, and apparently they mdicate merely indi- vidual aberrations in color, size, or markings. The synonymy, then, stands as follows: Pempelia lignosella Zeller (1), Elasmopalpus angustellus Blanchard (2), Pempelia lignosella tartarella Zeller (3), Pempelia lignosella incautella Zeller (3), Dasypyga carbonella Hulst (12), Elasmopalpus lignosellus (Zeller) Hulst (13), Elasmopalpus lignosellus incautellus (Zeller) Hulst (13), Elasmopalpus lignosellus tartarellus (Zeller) Hulst (13). GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION. This species is limited in its occurrence to the Western Hemisphere. It occurs practically throughout South America, having been reported from widely separated localities in all parts of that continent. The list as given by Hulst includes Venezuela, Colombia, Brazil, Argen- tina (Buenos Aires), Chile, and ‘‘Patagonia.’’ In North America (fig. 1), while its range is not so great, it may be said to, occur over the entire southern half of the United States. It has been. most THE LESSER CORN STALK-BORER. 5 commonly reported from the States bordering the Gulf of Mexico and the southern Atlantic coast. It has been encountered causing injury in Arizona. Dr. Forbes reports it as having been taken at Various points in southern Illinois. There is aspecimen in the National Museum rather indefinitely labeled ‘Iowa.’ The late Prof. F. M. Webster observed some of the moths years ago at Lafayette, Ind. In addition to the one mentioned above there are specimens in the National Museum bearing locality labels indicating that the moths have been taken at Cohasset, Mass.; Clemson College, S. C.; Miami, Palm Beach, and Lakeland, Fla.; New Orleans, La.; Dallas, Browns- ville, Sabinal, Kerrville, Victoria, and Burnet County, Tex.; and San Diego, Cal. John B. Smith, in his List of the Insects of New Jersey, records it from Newark and Montclair and states that it will Fic. 1.—Map showing present known distribution of the lesser corn stalk-borer (Elasmopalpus lignosellus) in the United States. (Original.) be found throughout the State. It undoubtedly occurs throughout Mexico and has been reported from the Bahama Islands. FOOD PLANTS. The following is a list of food plants upon which the larve of this species have been found to feed, given here with locality, date, and collector or observer: BEANS: Auburn, Ala., August 16, 1889 (F.S. Earle); Charleston, 8. C., September 27, 1889 (11. M. Simmons). Corn (Zea mays): Augusta, Ga., 1881 (C. V. Riley); Tllinois, 1905 (S. A. Forbes); Lakeland, Fla., April 25, 1913 (Geo. G. Ainslie); Columbia, 8. C., 1913-1914 (P. Luginbill); Tempe, Ariz., October, 1914 (Edmund H. Gibson). ~ 6 BULLETIN 539, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CowPEas: Victoria, Tex., August 30, 1902 (W. D. Hunter); Fredericksburg, Va., Sep- tember 2, 1902 (G. W. Koiner); Columbia, 8. C., and other points in the State, and Georgia, 1905 (F. M. Webster); Columbia, §. C., 1914 (P. Luginbill); Gainesville, Fla., July and August, 1916 (R. N. Wilson and H. L. Dozier); Boca Grande, Fla., June 29, 1916 (H. L. Dozier); Arcadia, Fla., June and July, 1916 (Joseph Crews). Cuura (Cyperus esculentus): Arcadia, Fla., June and July, 1916 (Joseph Crews). CraB GRASS (Eleusine indica): Columbia, S. C., other points in the State and Georgia, 1905 (F. M. Webster); Columbia, S. C., August 27, 1913 (P. Luginbill). JAPANESE CANE: Arcadia, Fla., June and July, 1916 (Joseph Crews). JOHNSON GRASS: Tempe, Ariz., November 3, 1914 (Edmund H. Gibson). Mino MAIZE: Tempe, Ariz., October, 1914 (Edmund H. Gibson), PEANUTS: Athens, Ga., September 25, 1889 (Thomas I. Todd). SorGHUM: Columbia, 8. C., other points in the State and Georgia (F’. M. Webster); Colum- bia, S. C., 1913-1915 (P. Luginbill). SUGAR CANE: New Orleans, La., June 16, 1914 (T. E. Holloway). TURNIPS: Athens, Ga., October, 1889 (Thomas I. Todd), feeding on the leaves. WHEAT: Nashville, Tenn., November 4, 1915 (Geo. G. Ainslie). Although it would seem from the above that the larve are omniy- orous, the investigations of the writers disclose the fact that they show a decided fondness for the Graminez and probably would confine themselves almost exclusively to plants belonging to this order if always obtainable. RECENT INJURIES. This species is particularly injurious because it shows a decided fondness for attacking plants growing in sandy soil. Soil of this type generally is deficient in fertilizing elements and also suffers very quickly from drought. Consequently plants growing in such soil are not as thrifty and vigorous as those growing in loamy soils, and when attacked they lack vitality to counteract the injury and suffer more than do those in soils of more favorable nature. It frequently occurs that only certain portions of the field are of this sandy type and in such cases infestation is confined to the sandy areas, it often being difficult to find larve in the rest of the field. During the summer of 1913 about 2 acres of sorghum in a field on the State farm near Columbia, 8. C., was practically laid waste by the ravages of this species. The soil in this area was almost pure sand, while the rest of the field was sandy loam. In many instances, THE LESSER CORN STALK-BORER. 7 as shown in Plate I, figure 2, no trace of plants could be found when the photograph was taken, the larve having killed them outright when young. Those that did survive were much dwarfed and rendered practically worthless, and in most instances were devoid of central stems. In the latter part of April, 1913, fields of small corn near Lakeland, Fla., were being attacked and ruined by these larve, about 10 per cent of the plants exhibiting evidences of injury at this time. The plants continued to die for about 10 days, at the end of which time in some portions of the fields fully 90 per cent were dead and the stand everywhere was poor. The parts of the fields most lacking in humus suffered the greatest injury. During the same year con- siderable damage was done to cowpeas in fields near Columbia, S. C., the soil in the infested fields being very gravelly and in some places composed of almost pure sand. The injured plants, at the time of the discovery, were wilting, which made it appear as though they were suffering from want of moisture. At one place this species, together with Diatraea zeacolella Dyar, destroyed the greater part of a 7-acre field of corn. In 1914 about 2 acres of corn (PI. I, fig. 1), in a field on the State farm near Columbia, S. C., was damaged very severely by the larve. In many instances the plants were apparently killed outright when young, as in the case of the sorghum previously mentioned. Those that recovered were very much dwarfed, became one-sided, and gave rise to a number of suckers. The soil in this infested area is composed almost entirely of sand, while the rest of the field is a sandy loam. Under date of October 7, 1914, Mr. Edmund H. Gibson, of the Bureau of Entomology, recorded larvz of this species as injuring seriously corn in laboratory plats at Tempe, Ariz. Pulling up 15 stunted ‘and withered corn plants, he found the larva in every stalk. Later in the month the larvee were more abundant on corn and were also taken from sorghum sprouts and milo maize. On November 3 of the same year larvee were collected from Johnson grass growing in a barley field, and about 70 per cent of the grass was injured, although the barley showed no evidence of injury. During July and August, 1916, about 2 acres of sorghum in a field on the State farm near Columbia, S. C., was again practically laid waste by the ravages of these larve. The soil in this area also was of a sandy nature. Some of the badly infested plants were from 1 to 2 feet tall and without a central stem, as late as September, whereas plants uninfested were from 5 to 8 feet tall and in head. Under date of August 19, 1916, Mr. H. L. Dozier, of the Florida Agri- cultural Experiment Station, informed the senior author that larvee of this species were damaging cowpeas in plats on the station grounds. 8 BULLETIN 539, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The soil in these plats was of a sandy nature. He further stated that a report was received from Boca Grande, Fla., that 2 of 18 acres of cowpeas had been destroyed by this pest. Mr. R. N. Wilson, of the Bureau of Entomology, who was instructed to investigate this infestation more fully, confirmed Mr. Dozier’s statement, young plants being injured by the larve bormg into and upward in the stems, while in older plants the stems were girdled at or slightly below the ground. The result in ‘both cases was that the injured plants wilted and died, although it was noted that in exceptional eases the plants, bemg vigorous, overcame the injury. Mr. Wilson further submitted a letter which had been received from Mr. Joseph Crews, farm demonstrator at Arcadia, Fla., stating that the ‘‘worms”’ injured cowpeas, Japanese cane, corn, and chufa. Cowpeas wera damaged to some extent in the stiff black soil, but more serious damage was done in the sandy soil. ‘This soil had all been well limed and heavily fertilized. Damage was done to Japanese cane planted in an old piece of land which was cleared years ago but had not been under cultivation for a number of years until the present. At least 90 per cent of the crop was damaged and the crop Jost about 50 per cent in value. While the increasing number of records of damage by this insect in the last few years is due in part to the fact that injury by-it is more likely to be reported now than was the case years ago, it is also prob- able that the species is slowly modifying its habits to correspond with modern methods of agriculture and that, in the future, occasional outbreaks, perhaps more severe than any yet recorded, may be expected unless means are taken to check them in advance. DESCRIPTIONS." THE EGG. The egg (fig. 2) is ovate, circular in cross section, 0.67 mm. in length and 0.46 mm, - in diameter; greenish white when first deposited, pinkish in from 18 to 24 hours, an approximate Alizar crimson with a tinge of yellow at end of incubation period; strongly iridescent. Exochorion sculptured with shallow pits pentagonal to polygonal in outline. Endocho- rion apparently smooth. LARVAL INSTARS. First instar.—Length 1.7 mm. Head slightly bilobed, flattened, highly polished dark brown, width 0:23 mm., about as high as wide; clypeus triangular, 0.11mm. high. Paraclypeal pieces not percep- tible, region dusky; labrum pale, tips of mandibles reddish brown, not projecting; setz 0.11 mm. long; antennze pale, moderate. Cer- vical shield almost straight in front, much rounded behind, one not quite as wide as the head. Prespiracular tubercle bears 2 sete, the upper of the two being the shorter; subventrical tubercle also bears 2 sete, the cephalad one being corn stalk - borer: Egg. Greatly en- larged. ( Original.) 1 Descriptions by senior author. Measurements of all stages made from alcoholic material. That given for the length of larva in stage 5 is alittle low on account of insufficient material on hand for a better average, Bul. 539, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Fia. 1.—CORN INJURED BY THE LESSER _CoRN STALK-BORER IN A FIELD NEAR CoLumeiA, S. C., IN 1914. (ORIGINAL.) Fic. 2.—INJURY TO SORGHUM BY THE LESSER CoRN STALK-BORER NEAR CoLumBia, S. C., IN 1913. (ORIQINAL.) DAMAGE TO CORN AND SORGHUM BY THE LESSER CORN STALK-BORER (ELASMOPALPUS LIGNOSELLUS). THE LESSER CORN STALK-BORER. 9 the shorter. Anal plate somewhat triangular, dusky. Body pale yellowish to yel- lowish green; posterior portion of each segment bright red to reddish brown on dor- sum; whole dorsum of joint 5 of this color. These areas are joined by faint stripes, some little distance apart, of the same color, giving the larva, a longitudinally striped as well as transversely banded appearance. Segments all slightly swollen, except last. Tubercles small; “iv-v” coalescent on joints 5-13, inclusive, below spiracle on joint 5, laterad and slightly cephalad of spiracle on joints 6-12, inclusive, directly laterad of “iii” injoint 13. Sete “iib” ofjomt3 and “iit” of joint 120.25 mm. long, about twice as long as others. Abdominal segments except terminal crossed trans- versely through the middle by shallow grooves on dorsum. Thoracic {feet pale, though somewhat dusky; abdominal prolegs all whitish. Second instar—Length 2.7mm. Head slightly bilobed, flattened, highly polished, blackish brown, width 0.29 mm., clypeus0.14mm. high. Cervical shield concolorous with head, 0.26 mm. in width. Anal plate dusky. Body pale yellowish; transverse bands and stripes adjoining as in preceding stage. Tubercles “‘iib” of joint 3 and “111” of joint 12 large, each supplied with a long seta as before; subprimaries present. Thoracic feet pale to dusky; abdom- inal prolegs same as venter of body, pale yellowish. Third instar.—Length 5.7 mm. Head as in second instar except trifle paler, width 0.44 mm., a little wider than high; clypeus 0.20 mm. high; labrum pale amber, mandibles dark amber, almost black at tips; antennez pale amber at tips, otherwise pale whitish. Cervical shield large, darker than head, the anterior border extending somewhat over the head lobes, wider than head, width 0.54 mm., length 0.30 mm., corneous, polished. Body pale greenish white to pale yel- lowish green; transverse bands and connecting stripes reddish brown to brown, sometimes only greenish white between the stripes; tapering posteriorly. Thoracic legs dusky; abdominal prolegs pale yellowish green, same as venter. Fourth instar.—Length 6.9 mm. Head slightly bilobed, polished dark brown, 0.61 mm., about two-thirds as high as wide; clypeus 0.25 mm. high; around base of spines pale. Cervical shield concolorous with head, width 0.89 mm., length 0.45 mm. Prespiracular tubercle large, somewhat corneous, Fic. 3.—The lesser corn dusky; subventrical tubercle also dusky, normal. Body as = 8ta!k-borer: Larva. 2 : . : Greatly enlarged. (Orig- in preceding stage except that venter is taking on deep green Sib) color; greenish white more conspicuous and breaking into the transverse bands, very deeply in some segments; stripes joining transverse bands wider than before. Thoracic legs and abdominal prolegs as before. Fifth instar —Length 8.8 mm. Head bilobed and polished as before, very dark brown black, width 0.89 mm., clypeus 0.32 mm. high, the paraclypeal pieces distinct, the sutures almost touching the beginning of the intersection point of the lobes on the vertex, whitish; labrum pale amber, mandibles amber, very dark at tips. Cervical shield darker than head, 1.02 mm. wide, 0.62 mm. long; on the meson is a pale stripe extending longitudinally from the posterior border to a point almost across the shield. Body as in preceding stage except that transverse bands are now'at a point of being broken up, giving way to pale yellowish white color of the dorsum, the dark color being now confined chiefly to the longitudinal stripes, now almost continuous over the body but very irregular; in some specimens there is a whitish patch, ellipsoidal in outline, on the dorsum of joints 3 and 4; venter tinged with pale reddish. Thoracic legs and abdominal prolegs as in preceding stage. Sixth instar.—Length 16.2 mm. (fig.3).. Head slightly bilobed, somewhat flattened, dark brownish black, highly polished, width1.11mm. Clypeus triangular, somewhat 83986°—Bull. 539—17——2 10 BULLETIN 539, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pale in the upper angle, extending over two-thirds of height of head (0.43 mm.). Paraclypeal pieces prominent, sutures converging at the beginning of intersection point of head lobes on vertex; sete pale, stiff, pale around base; proximal parts of anténnze pale whitish, distal amber; labrum pale amber, width 0.32 mm.; mandibles dark red, black at tips. Cervical shield dark brown, width 1.49 mm., length 0.93 mm.; pale line on meson extending across the shield, coming to a point before; ex- tending over head to intersection of lobes. Body Nile green, pre- vailing color on the dorsum greenish white, which almost breaks up completely the dark brown transverse bands; longitudinal stripes conspicuous, dark brown, somewhat broken. 'Tubercles “Ga” and “ib” of joint 3 small, setze short, “‘iia” and ‘‘iib” small, seta long; ‘“‘ia” and ‘“‘ib” of joint 4, small, seta short, ‘‘iia” and “lib”? small, seta long, caudad of latter is dusky patch, somewhat polished; on joints 3 and 4 ‘‘i11” is caudo-laterad of “‘iib,” distant, “iv” is cephalad and slightly laterad of ‘‘iii,’”’ distant, ‘“‘v” Fic. 4.—The lesser cephalo-laterad of ‘‘iv,’’ well separated; ‘“‘iv-v” is coalescent on corn Sstalk-borer: aor ¢hanuleane joints 5 to 13, inclusive, arrangement as before; on joint 13 ‘‘vi” larged. (Original.) 1s near ‘‘v”; on joints 12 and 13 “‘ii” is much nearer meson than “7,”? on joint 11 “i” and ‘“‘ii” arranged in form of square. All segments slightly swollen except last two; transverse grooves prominent. Thoracic legs dusky; abdominal prolegs pale. PUPA. The pupa (fig. 4) when freshly formed is pale green, yellowish on abdominal seg- ments; later brown and just preceding emergence of adult uniform black; lustrous; delicate; length 8.1 mm., width 2mm. Spiracles ellipsoidal, prominent, except on joint 12, obsolete. Dorsum of terminal segment has slight elevation or hump which slopes abruptly posteriorly and forms the obtuse tip. Anterior portion of this eleva- tion corneous, rugose, and black. At tip is a row of six hooked spines arranged trans- versely, about 0.17 mm. in length. Tip of the male pupa is rounded, that of the female pupa irregular. Other sexual differencesin pupal stage shown in figure 5, a and b. Abdominal segments 1 to 7, inclusive, densely and finely pitted on dorsum, very abundant and scattered almost over whole surface of first four segments, scant and restricted to anterior border of last three. COCOON. The cocoon is cylindrical, compact, 15.9 mm. in length, and 5.9 mm. in diameter, oval in outline, frequently supplied with exit tube at an angle of about 145°; 23.9 to 30 mm. in length and 4 mm. in diameter; lined throughout on inside very smoothly with silk and covered without with sand and dirt particles. (Pl. II, figs. 3 and 4.) ADULT.! Expanse 17-22 mm. Head brown to blackish. Labial palpi erect, not recurved; somewhat longer in the male than in the female and more slender, heavily scaled, lying close together on Fig. 5.—The lesser corn stalk-borer. the shining crest which is hollowed out for Comparison of terminal segments of them; somewhat clavate toward the tip, end Wale and female pups showing sexual ea Wert, aboulk colt hiatlt aie differences: a, Female; b,male. Greatly member very short, abou one-elg e middle; enlarged. (Original.) groove for the pale papillary tufts reaching almost to the apex and very deeply impressed. Basal segments pale gray outside, within bearing a longitudinal white stripe which broadens somewhat at the ena of - 1 Compiled from descriptions of Zeller and Hulst by the junior author. THE LESSER CORN STALK-BORER. 11 the second and beginning of the last segment. Maxillary palpi pencil-tufted. Proboscis long, strong, scaled. Ocelli present. Antennze brownish, simple, bent and expanded above the base, with a heavy tuft of scales in the bend in the male; in the female more slender and without the tuft. (Fig. 6.) Thorax ochre-brown to blackish. Legs brownish gray, darker on the outside; tarsal seements bright yellow. Forewings very narrow, much elongated, 8-9 mm. long; distal margin oblique, posterior margin waved; in male (fig. 6, a) ochre-brownish on posterior margin from base out, with a poorly defined median stripe of ochre-brownish reaching almost to distal margin; remainder of margin varying from a narrow edging of brown to a complete covering of wing with blackish to plumbago; disk yellow- ochreous to reddish; on subdorsal vein slightly before middle where posterior margin begins to darken lies a dense brown dot marking position of first transverse line; diagonally outwards above it upon median vein is a smaller dot and beyond a more prominent one on cross vein; both lie in the bright median space but close to yellowish- brown shading of anterior margin; distal margin marked by row of black confluent dots within which is indistinct grayish stripe dusted with whitish atoms; within this in the dark color of suriace appears beginning of second cross line very close to distal Fiq. 6.—The lesser corn stalk-borer: a, Male moth; 6, forewing of female moth. Greatly enlarged. (Original.) margin and most apparent on anterior margin; fringes brownish gray, beneath shining brownish gray; in the female (fig. 6, 6) markings are the same but generally darker _than in male; dot on the subdorsal vein enlarged but not prominent, dot on cross vein somewhat more distinct. Hind wings white, pellucid, somewhat grayish or brownish along anterior and distal margins and at apex shading back into the wing for a greater or less width; fringes whitish, brownish toward apex and bearing a faint yellowish line paralleling margin; beneath along anterior margin browner than above. Venation: Forewings, eleven veins, 4 and 5 separate, 10 separate; hind wings, 2 more or less distant from angle, 4 and 5 stemmed, 6,7, and 8 stemmed, cell rather short. Abdomen yellowish to fuscous, darker in female; terminal tuft of male yellowish at the end and in the middle, gray laterally, darkening toward end; of female yellow- ish. Male genitalia: Uncus longer, more slender than usual in related genera, bifid at base; these parts arched; the spine long, harpes broad with long hairs along upper edge forming somewhat of an anal tuft; a strong bent spine at base; lower plate conical, within entrance a long, slender, bent spine; last segment of abdomen beneath with two tufts of hair. 12 BULLETIN 539, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SEASONAL HISTORY. OVIPOSITION. Eggs of this species have not been found in the field; but, judging from the results obtained from rearing, they are probably deposited on the stems of plants, in the axils of the leaves, or on the ground at or near the bases of the stalks. The larve upon hatching crawl to the stalks and begin feeding. In rearing cages, the eggs are deposited generally on the cheese- cloth which covers the lantern globe. Sometimes, however, they are deposited on bits of grass leaves or stems, pieces of cloth or other loose material placed in the bottom of the cage, on the stem of grass placed in the cage as food or, not at all infrequently, upon the cotton which holds the sprig of grass in place. Most of the eggs deposited on the cloth top are pushed through the mesh of the cloth by the female and are found on the upper side of the cloth, appearing as though they were deposited from without. Eggs are placed singly as a rule, though sometimes two or three en masse may be found glued securely together. In such cases they lose their individual rotundity and flatten out somewhat at points at attachment. A mucilagimous sub- stance secreted by the female, which hardens after exposure to the air, glues the eggs firmly to the object. The females begin to oviposit shortly after dusk and continue until the early hours of the morning. The majority of the eggs are deposited during the forepart of the night and it is probable that all of them are laid at this time under field conditions. No eggs are deposited during the day or in bright light at night. Oviposition will take place, however, in diffused light, although not as many eggs will be deposited as in total darkness. . EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON OVIPOSITION. Oviposition did not take place when the temperature fell much below 80° F. Two cages containing a number of females and males were kept under normal conditions; three others, also supplied with a number of moths of both sexes, were keptin a room the temperature of which rose to somewhere between 80 and 90° F. during the day and fell gradually, reaching approximately 80° F. by early evening and practically normal by morning, as the windows were kept open all night. Eggs were obtained in all the cages kept in the room, all of them being deposited during the early part of the evening. No eggs were obtained in the cages kept under normal conditions. The same type of cage was used in both cases, consisting of a flower- pot surmounted by an ordinary lantern globe, the top of which was closed with a bit of cheesecloth held in place by a rubber band. 5 ai THE LESSER CORN STALK-BORER. female at Columbia, S. C., 1918. Deposited. Date. Number of eggs. Motaleae Hatched. Incu- bation Date. Number | period. of eggs. Days. 50 3 57 3 40 3 49 3 36 3 30 3 26 4 17 4 7 4 3 3 0 pga ate Le 3.16 13 Tasie I.—Jncubation records of eggs of Elasmopalpus lignosellus obtained from one TABLE II.—Incubation period of eggs of Elasmopalpus pignesellis deposited during 1914 and 1915 at Columbia, S. Deposited. Hatched. | ; | Number Number Date. of eggs Date. of eggs. Aug. 31,10 p.m.toilp.m........ 1 elit > f Be Ht Paice ee DEM Be Fe 1 ept. POLO TO, 160) ea ars Be 12 Aug. 31, 11 p.m.tol2m-..........- 14 Sept. fe Fay ey nM I STON 2 SOS dl, Wicd ws NS -cessaoreseeeeeecs 1 Rept & 3 au SHS AAR aa aE es one 1 ept. POUND INU Sc) by vere Qersatlne 14 Sept. 1, 12m......----------+-++--- 30 {pepe 6, te 50) 900 A hid eg eg A 16 SCDi Oe Sipe Te eae mack eeeee sak 2 sepe ie ae 106 (an eee) Se ee ee 2 yes WAP MO os ily eee ee eRe eee 21 Sept. 9, 8p.m.to10p.m-........-. 23 {Sept 12, HORROR accion Gollan 2 Hepes 2a Oona ys 66) Sept iG porary sere eee a 66 ROD Deeeseteeeeesocsceevcoses ae LOTR RISTS Su Rese otc emecaMe eae ee Be eats il SID Cl Cie cals SONY Eien 36): SEDUNS aa ee eee PERE fe oa een 36 SOA TO So. 38 fg ae eae Ce eae eee & Dahil DED Ua oieeee rae sets seme oa eae ae 53 SOoibs BA 3e6 eee ss Aes es ae eat 24) Sep teiS See we roen oly Le wo. 24 BUUIT OVO ere mter se ates Sayers eiettee ety: iK\\ SUNCrA Ge eee: kc eel ee ue ase 27 Hours. 116-117 116. 5-117. 5 128. 5-129. 5 110 WoW ee 14 BULLETIN 539, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LENGTH OF INCUBATION PERIOD. From Tables I and II it will be seen that the egg stage varies from three days in the summer time to five days in early fall, being influ- enced greatly by temperature conditions. In late fall, eggs were obtained that required from six to eight days to hatch. Taste III.—Number of eggs deposited by female of Elasmopalpus lignosellus in 1 day and during life, at Columbia, S. C., 1915. Cage 15-1112. Cage 15-1113. Cage 15-1114. Paae sere Number || Date of ovipo- | Number |} Date of ovipo- | Number Date of oviposition. | of eggs. sition. of eggs. sition, of eggs. June 15 73 25 Ag Oli ache 15 June 16 11 36 Septal j-th. 31 June 17 73 11 Sept. 2-3..... 38 June 19 61 5 Sept. 4-5..... 19 June 21.. 27 9 Sept. (?)....-. 60 June 22.. 39 7 Sept. 9 22 June 23.. 27 20 Sept. 10 3 June 24.. 15 Sept. 11 3 June 25-. 6 12 Hep, leneeeee 1 June 26 4 June 28 6 Totaleeeccce sv ssiene Bae Wc esciececnen jae 1S4- |hokcosteneienerett 192 Average per day...| 24.43 ||...............- CDirallSdeeske eee (?) Cage 15-1115. Cage 15-1116. Cage 15-1117. ae Las Number || Date of ovipo- | Number || Date of ovipo- | Number Date of oviposition. | of eggs, sition. of eggs. sition. of eggs. Septs deco oo fe cena cee 53 Sept. 822s... 56 Se@ptqloneeeee 24 Sept. 11 56 Sept. 9 35 Sept: 14222222 55 Sept. 12 38 Sept. 10 34 Sept. 15...... 12 Sept. 13 34 Sept. 11 33 Sept. 14 1 Sept. 12...... 28 Sept. 15 9 Sept. 14...... 8 Sei lOsesesee esse aoe 2 Sepihseerseasch eae 4 Rotaly sek -eeeeee 197 lo. ctmeeeacteeee ce 194 THe ciarsas at astotee 91 Average per day...| 24.63 |/........-...---- 74 fra Wet | eee ee ek 30. 30 NUMBER OF EGGS DEPOSITED BY ONE INDIVIDUAL. The number of eggs deposited by one individual under laboratory conditions varies (as will be seen by referring to Table III) from 91 to 342, with an average of 190. The small number deposited in Cage 15-1117 was probably due to premature death of the female. The number of eggs deposited by one individual in any one day varies from 1 to 73. The daily average computed from the daily average of the four cages in Table III is about 26.77 eggs. In two other experiments conducted in July, 1914, 188 eggs were obtained in one cage and 311 eggs in the other, THE LESSER CORN STALK-BORER, 15 PROCESS OF HATCHING. Shortly before the larva is ready to emerge it can be seen very distinctly through the semitransparent shell. The brown-black head and the pinkish markings on the segments especially are con- spicuous. The larva occupies a curled position inside of the shell, with its head resting on the ultimate and penultimate segments of the body. Just preceding emergence a wavelike rhythmic motion is seen, starting at the head and continuing from segment to segment slowly to the end of the body, after which the larva moves its head about and with its mandibles makes an incision large enough for it to pass through. This takes about five minutes. The larva then usually rests a few minutes, after which it begins to draw itself out of the shell. NUMBER AND LENGTH OF INSTARS AND LENGTH OF LARVAL LIFE. The number of instars and their iength, as well as the total length of the larval life, are extremely variable, as will be noted by referring to TablesTV,V,and VI. These variations are due in part to differences of temperature. During the summer months the larve may molt four or five times and in fall five or six, making from five to six instars for the former and six to seven for the latter. The seventh instar in such instance resembles the sixth in color pattern and size. The second instar and sometimes the third is somewhat longer than the first during the summer months. In fall, however, the first instar / is longer than any of the others, except the last one, or the one just preceding pupation, which is generally also the longest during the summer months. The length of the life of the larva is somewhat dependent upon the number of instars. The larger the number of instars the larva under- goes, the longer the period it will take in reaching maturity, as is brought out by comparing the averages of the instars in Tables IV, V, and VI. In Table IV the larvez having five instars reached maturity in 374.5 hours, while those having six mstars reached maturity in 406.33 hours. In Table V those having five instars reached maturity in 397 hours, as compared to 453 hours for the six-instar larve. In Table VI the six-instar larve required 842 hours while the seven-instar larve required 906 hours to reach maturity. The larvee may reach maturity in the short period of 13.8 days, but generally in about 16.8+ days, during the summer months. How- ever, one larva required as many as 20.8+ days to reach maturity. In fall, when temperatures are low, this period is considerably lengthened, varying from a minimum of 22.0+ to a maximum of 41.6 days. : 16 BULLETIN 539, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste I1V.—Number of instars, their length, and length of larval life of Elasmopalpus lignosellus during the months of June and July, 1914, at Columbia, S. C. 5 . . . Length = First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth Number of tube. | instar. | instar. | instar. | instar. | instar. | instar. offeswel Hours Hours Hours Hours. Hours Hours Hours. 1 Rae eee eae 5 60 48 96 i ie: | eae 404 p18 eee 1 wd 22 oS 44 36 48 60 NEAT oS lee 332 pee AC 44 36 60 48 U4 144 404 arcu f L 44 36 48 60 84 144 416 fp Se eae 44 36 48 60 48 172 408 Gas. Sea ALEC 56 60 48 72 PAG IP BA RL), ee 408 Tes bee sk ee 44 36 48 84 Ad: 8) Beas seat Pe 356 tess SRR Ee Bae Et 44 36 60 72 84 108 404 Qe ssl eae Soe oee = 44 36 48 84 72 120 404 | 1G. 32 £585. ess. S 44 36 48 60 84 132 404 1b Ee ae see 44 48 36 60 72 144 404 OSS: tI 44 48 36 60 84 156 428 \ 5 ee eae 44 48 36 60 84 156 428 1). eS ane core 44 36 48 60 48 120 356 Pes Pees ees 44 36 60 72 MAGN occcarege 356 WGsese 2 sS2sse235- 44 36 60 72 P20) Nee Se eae 332 Mioest fae ede Se 44 36 48 60 84 144 416 1 Pe eR Senn cic 44 36 60 72 72 120 404 19 ee eo eer 56 48 84 84 TSO) oS sens 452 Dee SR 44 36 48 84 4g! wi) eee Ae 356 Average. .-.--- 45.8 40.8 50.5 69 104 138.3 393.6 TazsLe V.—Number of instars, their length, and length of larval life of Elasmopalpus lignosellus, during the month of August, 1915, at Columbia, S. C. First | Second | Third | Fourth | Fifth | sixth | Vength instar. instar. instar. instar. instar. instar. life. Number of tube. Lp WiOsstee ceea tes 69 72 72 48 72 96 429 W571 6 22252 scans 69 72 72 48 72 120 453 Ve eUiletece = we cee 69 60 60 72 72 120 453 15-786 2220s 325) 69 72 48 72 24 168 453 LS-[B8 ccosnecuaes 81 60 72 72 120) bes aoeese 405 15-700 e352 69 60 60 72 120° | Sas eae 381 15-191 2222522220. 69 72 48 72 72 144 477 5795s cee ret S 93 60 60 72 L200} |h «22ers se 405 U1 9 cwocae we 69 72 48 72 120) ce ee mamee 381 55-9253... a2 ean aeee 69 48 48 72 120 yi"... 3848 See 357 f 15-926 vases Sects ce 81 48 60 72 LOS a ie seeeeee 429 A502 (os 5 sees A 69 48 48 72 JAAN Woe foe 381 15-920: «25 eae 69 48 72 72 1200 We eae 3 381 LH-O8S sess - Rees. 81 60 48 72 240. i aceele 501 Average......- 66 59.6 58.6 69 115.8 127.6 413.5 Taste VI.—Number of instars, their length, and lenath of larval life of Elasmopalpus lignosellus, during the months of September and October, 1914, at Columbia, S. C. Number of First | Second | Third | Fourth | Fifth | Sixth | Seventh | Length tube. instar. instar. instar. instar. instar. instar. instar. of ie Hours Hours Hours Hours Hours. Hours Hours Hours ee 55, ae 7 108 156 120 108 144 927 7 ae SE BS ie 153 84 72 96 192 120 168 885 Soaeseee coe ere 165 108 204 132 48 144 ce eect 799 Pe EM Seb Paci 165 84 252 96 72 288): jcc Setenwee 957 Pacey rains ols aren 117 156 108 84 84 258" | |siewaniettetee 837 Crees AB cteuesse 129 120 144 72 96 216) {beat sees Ti7 Average.....] 156.3 104 | 148 106 102 194 156 | 863.7 THE LESSER CORN STALK-BORER. 117 DURATION OF THE MOLTING PERIOD. During the summer months the time required for the larve to molt varies from 12 to 24 hours in all the instars and during the fall from 12 to 26 hours and sometimes 48 hours. The majority of the larvee in fall require only 24 hours. Generally a longer time is required in the last instars than in the first ones. DESCRIPTION OF ECDYSIS. The larva when about to cast its skin becomes pale, sluggish, and usually remains motionless in tunnel or tube unless disturbed, and even then it is not as active as normally. The first real indication that molting has commenced is the appearance of a pale whitish patch in the region of the neck. This patch is the outer conjunctival | layer which, having been loosened, is being unfolded to accommodate the growing larva. This patch becomes more and more evident as molting progresses. The eyes at this time can be seen through the semitransparent conjunctival layer, appearing a little distance back of the head mask. The outer layer of the cuticle, having been loos- ened throughout, ruptures immediately back of the head mask, first on the venter, then rapidly extending laterally and dorsally. The larva with wavelike rhythmic motions gradually draws itself out of the old cuticular layer. Just at the point when the last joint is being extricated the larva bears down with the head and frees itself from the mask. FEEDING HABITS OF THE LARVA. The larva of the species, as its common name would indicate, has 2 habit of boring or tunneling into the stems of growing plants (PI. III, fig. 3) and feeding within. This manner of feeding is especially characteristic where young corn and sorghum plants are attacked. The larve in such cases tunnel into the stalks at or slightly below the surface of the ground, through and sometimes up the heart for a distance varying from 1 to 2 inches. The bud leaves of such af- fected plants die, having been severed from the main plant; Plate III, figure 2, shows the appearance of such a plant. The bud leaves dry up and wither away. Some of the plants may survive, but such plants remain in a dwarfed condition or become deformed and one sided. Injury to corn in this manner resembles closely the work of the southern corn rootworm (Diabrotica 12-punctata Oliv.); however, HE. lignosellus is an upland species, being found only in the driest of soils, while the corn rootworm breeds generally in the moist lowlands. In older corn and sorgnum, as well as in cowpeas, the damage con- sists primarily in the girdling of the stems at or slightly below the surface of the ground, but the larve aise tunnel into the stems, 18 BULLETIN 539, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. thereby weakening them to such an extent that very little pressure is required to break them off, and frequently infested plants break off at this point when attempts are made to pull them up. Cowpea plants have been found almost completely cut in two, at a point near or slightly below the surface of the ground, by the larve girdling the stem, while in other cases the larvae were found tunneling into the stems as in the case of corn and sorghum.! It is seldom that larvee are found in the tunnels of the plants upon which they feed, but more often in specially constructed tubes which lead away from the entrance to the tunnel in the stalk, lymg even with or slightly beneath the surface of the ground or sometimes curved around the stems. Plate II, figures 1 and 2, shows the tubes attached to the stems at the entrance to tunnels. These tubes are often 2 inches or more in length and have a number of side galleries or chambers (PI. III, fig. 1). They are composed of particles of sand and dried excrement of the larve spun together with silk. They are generally rather delicate and fall to pieces unless handled with great care. The larve apparently use these tubes as a means of retreat when disturbed while feeding. In young corn and sorghum not more than two larve have been found feeding on one plant, each from within a separate tube, and in cowpea plants never more than one. In older corn and sorghum as many as 6 larve have been found feeding at one time on the same plant and 13 cocoons taken from the surrounding soil. Dr. Forbes (24) reports that as many as 13 larve have been found feeding on a single corn piant. In our rearing cages larve were fed cowpea leaves in test tubes and jelly glasess. During the first and second instars the Jarve have a habit of partially skeletonizing the leaves, devourmg the epidermis of one side and the mesophyll, leaving the epidermis of the other side intact. They construct on the leaf delicate tubelike coverings made up of dried excrement spun with silk and feed from under this covering. After the second instar the larve begin to eat the leaves, perforating them and devouring all except the mid- veins. They persist in skeletonizing the leaves even when almost mature, and this is especially noticeable when given leaves that are somewhat tough or whose tissues have hardened. The boring habit (Pl. ILI, fig. 3), so characteristic of the work of the larve in stalks, was demonstrated even while the larvee were feeding upon leaves, the larve even in their earlier stages boring into the larger veins of the leaves and petioles and constructing tubes leading away from the entrance to the tunnel. This habit was discontinued in the last stages, the larvee feeding as do those of most Lepidoptera. 1 Dr. Chittenden (22) makes mention of this method of feeding and illustrates it with a figure. THE LESSER CORN STALK-BORER. 19 ACTIVITY OF THE LARVA. The larve of this species, while very active, even when quite young, are much more so as they become older. They have a habit, when disturbed, of skipping and jumping about, an acrobatic feat which lasts from one to four seconds, during which time they go through all kinds of contortions, frequently throwmg themselves clear of the surface upon which they have been placed. Just how this is accom- plished is not definitely known, as it is done almost too quickly for the eye to follow. However, they appear to bear down with the head and posterior end of the body at the same time, with such force that the impact throws them into the air. On account of this skip- ping habit the larve are frequently but erroneously termed “skippers.” That the larve are resistant to rough treatment is indicated by the following ordeal through which one was put by the junior author in an effort to photograph it. It was chloroformed for 15 minutes and, bemg then still somewhat active, was put into 80 per. cent alcohol for 15 minutes more. The next morning it had revived and, except for a loss in the brillancy of its coloring due perhaps to its enforced fast, was as active as before. The larvee in all stages spin a silken thread wherever they go, and the younger ones readily suspend themselves by it. LENGTH OF PUPAL STAGE. The length of the pupal stage varies considerably, .as will be seen from Table VII, temperature conditions having a great effect upon the length of this stage. This stage varies from 7 to 11 days in July, from 7 to 10 days in August, from 8 to 18 days in September and October, and from 19 to 21 days in October and November. The general average from the records of Table VII is 10.16 +days. It should be stated that the records obtained during the fall of the year are approximate, as it has been found that the larve, upon entering the pupation tubes, sometimes do not transform immediately. 20 BULLETIN 539, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste VII.—Length of pupal stage of Elasmopalpus lignosellus. Records obtained at Columbia, S. C., in 1915. Date of— Number paar Dw of indi- Days. Sex. viduals, Pupa- Emer- tion. gence. 1913. 1913. 1 | Sept. 29 | Oct. 16 1? ooeeses Male. 1 | Sept. 30 |.-.do.... 16 | Female.... 1914, 1914. 2| July 8| July 17 Otek Oseeeee Do. 1| July 9/]..-.do. Si]. OL e Nee 1 |.-.do July 15 TT ee aaecd 1 |...do....| July 20 1h I epee 4) Tutlliys Wee edoree. 9 | 2 females.-| 1 male. 1 | July 12 |...do 8 | Female... 1} July 13 | July 21 Cal ney ah ee Wi ea-alsa sa) ely 20 VA Soctot ssa 1915, 1915. 1 | Aug. 16 ug. 25 Oi saaceeiecene Male 1 | Aug. 17 |---do-2 8 | Female.. 1 | Aug. 18} Aug. 27 Quills cease Do 1 do... ug. 28 LOY) -2e eee meee Do 1) Ate =220)|222do-55- 8 | Female 1 o....| Aug. 30 LOM ee aeee eee Do. 1 | Aug. 21 | Aug. 28 Till pees Do 1 o....| Aug. 29 Sie e eat Do 1 do....| Aug. 30 Ql Jeans Do 1 do....} Aug. 31 10 Eee eee Do 2| Aug. 23 donee 8 | Female.. Do. 3 | Aug. 29 | Sept. 6 8 | 2 females..| 1 male. 1 do.-..| Sept. 7 9 | Female.... 1 do....| Sept. 9 LD at Shee Male. 1 | Aug. 30 | Sept. 7 8 | Female 1 | Sept. 24 | Oct. 4 OD eR S88 2 Do. 1} Sept. 25 | Oct. 6 DD le eee Do. 1 Ope Ocin 49 14 | Female 1 | Sept. 27} Oct. 7 10) bose eee Do. 1} Sept. 28! Oct. 6 Sareea ee ees Do. 1 oe Oct. 7 CF ae oes Do. 2 do....| Oct. 9 11 | Female Do. 1 doze es ,Octy 12 14 dOsseeee 1 do....| Oct. 14 16) |2--doseeeee 1 Goes |sOctauto Vip OLna ane 1 | Sept. 29 |...do.... Loy p-edoleaees 1 | Sept. 30 | Oct. 16 16) s-dOeee eee 2) Oct. 1/|-.-do 15 dossenae Do. 1} Oct. 41] Oct. 18 14 Gozseere Do 1 Oct. 6 do.... 12 Goetiecee 1} Oct. 7] Oct. 19 12 Goteesee ee edones |. Oct 20 13 doles 1 do Oct. 23 16 Gotesees 1 do Oct. 25 18 doves 1 do. Oct. 28 21 On eenae 1} Oct. 13] Nov. 1 TOs eee Foye ele Do 1 0....| Nov. 8 26 | Female 1 | Oct. 18 Gorter ZAM lasers Oseye te 2} Oct. 20] Nov. 10 21 | 2 females. . DON esc cietsis, 2 ai[isia tore etna 10. 16+ Average length of pupal stage, 10.16+ days. Maximum length of pupal stage, 21 days. Minimum length of pupal stage, 7 days. MATING. Moths of this species usually mate the second day after emergence from pupee in the summer time, and in the fall this period issomewhat lengthened. Mating probably takes place at night, although the moths have never been seen in coitu. A pair were found in copula in a cage in the morning and upon examination it was discovered that they were unable to disconnect themselves. Bul. 539, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. FEEDING TUBES AND COCOONS OF THE LESSER CORN STALK-BORER. Fies. 1, 2.—Feeding tubes attached at entrance to tunnels, at base of sorghum stalks. Fic. 3.— Cocoon opened, showing pupa in situ. Fic. 4.—Cocoons, with and without exit tubes. (Orig- Bul. 539, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. DAMAGE TO SORGHUM BY THE LESSER CORN STALK-BORER. Fic. 1.—The many-branched feeding tube attached at entrance to tunnel, at base of sorghum stalk. Fic. 2.—Sorghum severely damaged by stalk-borers, as shown by the dead bud leaves. Fic. 3.—Stem sectioned to show the borer tunnel within. (Original.) THE LESSER CORN STALK-BORER. 21 ACTIVITY OF THE MOTHS. The moths are very active during the night. They are positively phototrophic to bright light and even react positively to diffused light. This probably accounts for the fact that copulation and oviposition were not observed, for as soon as cages were placed in light sufficient for observation the moths became restless and began to roam around in the cages. LENGTH OF LIFE OF ADULTS. The length of life of the adults of this species varied from five to eighteen days in the rearing cages, as is shown in Table VIII. The average duration of this period is approximately the same in both sexes. Adult moths confined in cages and supplied with food (sugar sirup) lived longer than when deprived of it. Tasie VIII.—Length of life of moths of Elasmopalpus lignosellus, at Columbia, 8. C. Male. Female. No. Emerged.| Died. Days. No. Emerged:| Died. Days. Maryan Ne cetsteieieace June 15| July 3 18 Te SH OCOE Cec June 15| July 3 18 Disheeei shel tateieiicrets uly 17 | July 27 10 Doi eas ia uly 17] July 27 10 See easiest July 17} July 27 10 Se cs July 17| July 28 11 fe a eee ge July 19] July 28 9 Arie BENE NS aie 2 ug. 22 | Sept. 9 18 Ei a eee ee ug. 30 | Sept. 13 14 BAe seers Mica Aug. 30 | Sept. 13 14 (Beale de sealed Aug. 30 | Sept. 16 17 Geeeen een ell Aug. 30 | Sept. 12 13 TE yet ately bib ote 2 July 17} July 24 7 Lie oS ua se Stee Sept. 10 | Sept. 15 5 PASTIOTA SOs tiles § atarsisreleic (ica tinre Sy velele 12.1 VAN CLACC ayy palsisicte 32)4l[aixer seen 12.7 POLYGAMY. Experiments were conducted to ascertain whether polygamy exists among the moths of this species. The moths that were used — in these experiments emerged from pupe which had been placed in individual tin boxes, and there was absolutely no chance of their having mated upon issuing, before being placed in the rearing cages.' The male, after the death of the female (Cage 15-1113) with whom he had mated and from whom 134 eggs were obtained, was placed with a freshly issued female (Cage 15-1117). From this female 91 eggs were obtained. All of the eggs that were obtained in both of these cages were fertile. In another cage, the male, which had mated with a female (Cage 15-1114) and from whom 192 fertile eggs resulted, was placed (Cage 15-1116) with a virgin female. From this female 194 fertile egos were obtained. 1 All of these cages are recorded in Table IIT. 22 BULLETIN 539, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LIFE CYCLE. The lite cycles of the generations (Table IX) during summer are considerably shorter than those of the fall of the year and possibly shorter than that of the spring generation. The spring generation has not been reared but probably has about the same cycle as the fall generation. They are about as follows: TaBLE X.—Duration of the spring and fall generations of Elasmopalpus lignosellus at Columbia, S. C. Summer Fall Period or stage. broods broods Days. Days. Time elapsing between emergence and oviposition..........-.....--------------+---- 2 2.5 Higg Stage. -:o oe. Scere nce ee cinta ain em pls = ie laje Sa ai binle el nie wins ere ae ee 3.5 5.6 Larval stage «2 2 ain otal a = =/enie = =] 29 2.8 285. 6 17.5 34. 4 11.5 (GNeiE SU Sey Geta a i 14 1.3 | 311.6 18.5 | 37.1 12.0 Mverage of all2...) Wl). 2 8b. 1050! | 228 ene | 192.0 14.1 30.6 9.2 i} [(b) Averaged according to butt diameter.] Per cent Number Average Class. of trees. of valal age. Wray? 110 initia) sae Base See ee Seca eRe as Ghee n pone Stone sense 42 4.0 162.0 LGA METS OR Bee ee ne ee oe ee Ae as ono Bit ote ce ae een 97 9.2 170.1 LRP O Tale OS g,0, PAeOe See tet eel ee CLM noe Enso aaron ares 123 11.7 WAL} TAT) TEES SAS 3 Meet che es eee Sate RE eee a ree ere se eee 158 15.1 174.0 TSI ERCHES So sec---- -- Senn ee Ems. ue Se eek crap rae ea ia 162 15.3 3.189. 1 PAE MIM CHER emer neem ect scees Meee esos lt en es see aie oe Semen 117 11.2 3185.4 UFO WACICSS Sci 5e SO ee ee ee eer era es A bien SEDs oe See 94 9.0 197.7 TR=M7/ Ta NON AO ee Rn Bee ee ee to ae see aes Site 76 To3 214.0 L7H MG IGS JES Soho doen eo eae Gone ene ee eee EPee re ree oho weae 62 5.9 217.1 [GI RECN 6 CCR S SURE Cow POOR EE IS NE Een amen ese iain NG 43 4.1 228.7 1A WIG TCR SS Genre unos BOR Saar e en a ROAR ne eae mee omibse me aes rica 19 1.8 230.1 One OMe Mester eens = ae ies Seis Sita) av cd Satsle eeeisoeelaeeere ane 57 5.4 244. 8 IASC HEIs es ete ales a a 1 From a special report ‘‘On the Growth of Spruce, by Austin Cary, in the Second Annual Report of the Forest Commissioner of the State of Maine, 1894. in explanation of the foregoing table Mr. Cary says: “Ty all, 1,050 spruce logs were examined for this purpose, taken on drives and millyards. The length and end diameters of each log were measured, and the rings of the butt counted to ascertain the age. About two-thirds of the logs were grown in the western part of the State on the drainage ofthe Androscoggin. The remainder were partly from the Kennebec, partly from the Aroostock branches of the Penobscot. A small proportion of the logs measured were cut for pulp, which renders the selection all the more representative. The tables which embody the results of the work need, it would seem, very little explanation. The trees were first divided into age classes, and the dimensions of the logs in each class averaged. Then the same logs were divided according to butt diameters and the average age ascertained for trees ofeach size. The most usable result of the work is the grand average of these facts for the whole 1,050 logs. The average dimensions of the logs represent a tree containing about 23 cubic feet, or say 120 board feet, and this was grown on the average in 192 years. Adding to the log 2 cubic feet for stump and 7 more for the top, adding also to the age 20 more years for the height growth of the stump, then dividing contents by age gives the figures fifteen-hundredths cubic feet. Thatistosay,aspruce tree on the average and throughout its life until cut, maintains a growth of 1 cubic foot in six and two-thirds years. In adult life the growth per tree would be considerably greater. In young seedlings it would for many years be less. The percentage of growth to stand can not be immediately derived from these figures.” [In connection with the information just quoted, it seems evident that the words “log” and “‘tree” are used. synonymously in referring to the ‘‘ used length.”,—Author. } 2 A log of these average dimensions contains 23 cubic feet, or about 120 board feet. 3 A 134-inch tree, of course, is not as a rule older than a 144-inch tree. Theirregularity shown in the series would doubtless be corrected if the larger number of trees was taken, Average of 50 pine logs: Age, 102.8; butt diameter, 16.1; length, 30.3; top diameter, 11. A log of these dimensions contains 30 cubic feet, or about 175 board feet. It is in most cases of little practical value to the lumberman to know the direct relation between the actual age and the diameter of trees in a selection forest. A knowledge of the length of time required for a tree to grow from 1 inch diameter class to the next is, however, important. Tables 9, 10, and 11 show this as well as the corre- sponding rate of growth per annum of each diameter class.1 1 Besides showing these values based on an average of all trees measured, the West Virginia and Adiron- dack tables show absolute maximum and average maximum values as well. These are obtained by using only values representing maximum and average minimum growth conditions, eliminating all periods which show the effect of suppression. 84949°—Bull. 544173 34 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 9.—Diameter growth of spruce in Maine, by types.’ {Based on the last 20 years.] [CURVED.] Lower spruce | Upper spruce Average of all and hardwood | and hardwood Lower spruce | Upper spruce types, 1,174 ’ 5) land, 564 trees. | land, 379 trees. | S!0Pe, 144 trees. | slope, 87 trees. trees. Diameter breast : ; ) : : high. Perio |) SAMO |! perit| 785) paris weer Per aaa Peri- enn ee cured seat anit dt ne ane danual uted Sina pores growth 7 = ae growth Ceene growth.| 5 ore growth.|') ae growth. Racer Inches. Inches.| Years. |\Inches. | Years.| Inches.| Years.| Inches.| Years.| Inches.| Years. Shins o.teestin oeweseae 0. 036 28 | 0.054 19} 0.015 67 | 0.026 38 | 0.034 29. See I «eR 3 048 21 063 16 022 45 030 33 - 045 22 Wot nae eee cosets 063 16 071 14 - 032 31 034 29 . 056 18 SS AE ee a ee 080 13 078 13 046 22 - 038 26 068 15 Qa sesh pe ores - 098 10 085 12 - 067 15 . 041 24 081 12 LOS oe 3 eee .114 9 091 il 093 11 044 23 093 11 i eee See - 126 8 096 10 pile} 9 - 047 21 105 10 (DE ss 5 ee a ere nee . 136 if . 102 10 - 124 8 . 049 20 115 9 LS oa eee - 142 7 - 109 9 AiR; 8 - 052 19 122 8 1 ee Seer - 146 i 112 9 . 126 8 . 055 18 126 8 ADRS? see ceo cet cee - 148 7 112 9 5122 8 . 058 17 . 129 8 AGH es ee eS. Se - 150 7 . 109 9 .116 9 - 060 17 130 8 iY (od SPA ee - 148 7 . 106 9 ili) 9 . 062 16 - 129 8 Lee Seer aes 4 Seems © . 146 7 - 106 9 - 103 10 . 062 16 126 8 LOR os SEE oes - 142 7 - 106 9 - 096 10 - 062 16 . 122 8 7. LSE Seana 8 ie eee . 138 7 - 106 9 - 091 il - 000 17 116 9 Average....... 141 7 | 104 10 | oe | 9 052 19 119 8 1 From data secured by R. S. Hosmer, 1902, on partially culled land in Squaw Mountain Township, Me., and including trees of all crown classes. TaBLeE 10.—Diameter growth of spruce in New York." [All types, spruce-hardwood type chiefly; dominant trees only.) [CURVED.] Absolute maxi- Titel. Average maximum.) Average. | Diameter < | reast n * . asis | : Arie Time aie Time «as Time high. Periodic required Periodic required Periodic required annua! | to grow ual | ‘togrow | 202ual | to crow | growth. iveidn growth. aa growth each Inches. Inches Years. | Inches Years Inches Adios 29:43 0.176 5.7 0.111 9.0 0. 046 ; Dre she 3 . 218 4.6 - 140 7.1 . 061 F abe eects . 253 4.0 . 164 6.1 -075 LR Ose - 282 3.5 . 186 5.4 - 089 c | Dees cee . 309 3.2 . 205 4.9 -101 9.9 10 | Gosn css . 324 3.1 «217 4.6 . 110 9.1 42. | eeepc - 331 3.0 . 223 4.5 .115 8.7 32 | 8 Bs Se - 328 3.0 . 223 4.5 -118 8.5 57 es eae -317 3.2 219 4.6 «121 8.3 46 10 cee ae . 297 3.4 - 210 4.8 - 124 8.1 65 11 Be - 270 3.7 . 197 5.1 . 124 8.1 44 | VES eee - 245 4.1 . 184 5.4 . 123 8.1 27 13 wees - 216 4.6 - 168 6.0 -119 8.4 19 WA ocesee . 187 5.3 . 150 6.7 -112 8.9 25 Uy eee . 156 6.4 . 128 7.8 -101 9.9 15 LG recess - 132 7.6 -110 9.1 - 089 11.2 4 Uigriisasca - 110 9.1 . 093 10.8 . 076 13, 2 4 IB ova weucl cee ec cea Ms ««s vooc| sa cebaupens|aeeememees . 064 15.6 P4 19. os teal oat Soles. okie cel lactone ceeeelbeeebier bed 051 19.6 1 LD ora oie sna| vince on 6502] epin ein ac 0 onl ae nanis cislee sa ¥ayiele.c(ee aie ele aleinteteee | eteetie ete] eee 393 1 From data collected by the Conservation Commission of New York in 1912 on culled land in Essex and Herkimer Counties. _ ? The time required to grow to a diameter of 1 inch at breastheight was 11 years for “ absolute max- imum” growth conditions, 17 years for ‘‘average maximum,” and 36 years for ‘‘average.’’ THE RED SPRUCE. TaBLE 11.—Diameter growth of spruce (virg’n) in West Virginia. [Spruce slope type.] [CURVED.] Absolute maximum.| Average maximum. Average. Bp esmncter fn a o breas ee ime AOE I ime eae ime Basis. nich, | Periodic | poquirea | Petiodic required | Periodic | poquirea annual annual annual 73 to grow to grow to grow | growth. | yinch. | SOW. | yincn, | StOWtb. | 4 inch. |- ee Inches. Inches. Years. Inches. Years. Inches. Years. Trees el hae eee 0. 202 5.0 0.125 7.9 0.051 7 dee rene . 220 4.5 -138 (ee - 056 : Syonecel . 235 4.3 -148 6.8 - 060 5 Aes ttre | . 250 4.0 .157 6.4 - 064 ¥ eee . 262 3.8 - 166 6.0 -039 14.5 1 G55S2)% . 274 3.6 ol! 5.7 074 13.5 3 ioe Oey 284 33565 . 182 5.5 - 079 12.7 1 Beeace 291 3.4 . 188 5.3 - 084 11.9 5 Qe zee . 296 3.4 . 193 5.2 - 099 ible 12 LO. es - 309 33) - 198 yd - 095 10.4 24 18 hoe - 300 3.3 - 201 5.0 - 102 9.8 27 Ara - 390 3.3 2203 4.9 - 106 9.4 37 Sessa - 298 3.4 . 204 4.9 - 109 9.2 28 4 sec . 294 3.4 | . 202 5.0 - 110 9.1 42 Noyes . 290 3.4 - 200 5.0 petit 9.0 19 UGS Soe 282 33-5) - 196 5.1 - 110 9.1 33 Meier et EParta) 3.6 . 192 5.2 - 108 9.3 13 ETE eas 205 3.8 - 186 5.4 - 106 9.4 17 ers 2152 - 254 3.9 -178 5.6 - 103 9.7 8 DANE = 3a . 243 4.1 -172 5.8 - 100 10.0 20 290 35 1 From data collected by John Foley in 1903 in Greenbrier County and including trees in all crown classes. 2 The time required to grow to a diameter of i inch at breastheight was 7 years for “absolute maxi- mum” growth conditions, 11 years for “average maximum,” and 26 years for “‘average.”’ Diameters in even-aged stands vary directly with the age of the stand, so that the relationship of one of the other is of considerable importance. This relationship is brought out in Table 12, which is based on the average diameter growth of the dominant (including codominant) and intermediate trees. TasiLe 12.—Diameter growth of red spruce im even-aged, old pasture stands in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, according to age and site qualities. [Average diameter breast high | of all dominant (including codominant) and intermediate trees in stands of different ages.] Site qualities. Basis. TI. Inches. DOD HR Nr OAT 01 © DF 01 00 SO O00 | Inch S PEI PGE CACC ICES TEC ESR ALNOOIMANOUNROWISOH S. Inches. [X) De fen aos pe CA INE NICO CI CO Cre) PNUODORNOTAE AN OO 1 ¥rom sample plot data collected in 1919. 36 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. For purposes of comparison Table 13, giving diameter growth of Norway spruce (Picea excelsa) is included. TABLE 13.—Diameter growth of Norway spruce. [CURVED. } ae 5 diameter Age. | breast high of stand. Years. Inches. 5 1.0 10 8 15 4.4 20 5.7 25 6.8 30 Dah 35 8.4 40 9.0 45 9.6 50 10.2 55 10.8 60 11.4 1 Based on the measurement of all trees in 11 plantations (8 Qualities IT and 3 Quality IL) 24-55 years a mide) by Messrs. Tillotson, Barrows, and Williamson in 1911, in Rhode Island, Connecticut, Illinois, Even more than with height comparisons it is necessary to bear in mind the influence of soil, spacing, and cultural methods on the diameter growth of volunteer stands and plantations when drawing conclusions from the foregoing figures as to the relative growing qualities of red and Norway spruce. SECTIONAL AREA GROWTH. The growth in sectional area, or. the increase in the superficial area of a given cross section, is effective as a means of comparison for even-aged stands of different ages or of the same age but of different site qualities. Either the total basal area of the stand at a definite height from the ground, usually at breastheight, or the basal area of the average tree, may be employed. Table 14, covering second-growth, even-aged spruce stands of the old pasture type shows the relative average total basal area of stands of different ages and site quality based (1) on all green trees; (2) on green trees 6 inches and over; (3) on all dominant trees; and (4) on all domi- nant and intermediate trees. “ ; | ee THE RED SPRUCE. 37 a Tasie 14.—Breast-high sectional area growth of red spruce in even-aged, old pasture stands in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont, according to age and site qualities. | QUALITY I. | [CURVED. ] | All green trees. Geen tiees 6 inehgs Rominant dnd saber Dominant trees only. | Age Aver- Aver- Aver- Aver- : age . age = age : age Trees | Basal aaa preg Basal | diam- pees Basal | diam- Trees Basal | diam- wae area. | eter ne @. | area. |_ eter ae area. |_ eter Bee @, | area. |_ eter , Te: breast | @ breast 3 breast o breast ; high. high, high. high. 3 Years. No. | Sq.ft. |Inches.| No. | Sq.ft. \Inches.| No. | Sq.ft. \Imches.| No. | Sq.ft. \fnches. a PAN eS Bee 1, 580 115 SHOellanomeer laser aaleeca so 1, 294 102 3.8 489 54 4.5 ‘ Tae Se ee eas 1, 295 142 4.5 102 20 6.0 | 1,076 140 4.9 466 80 5.6 ; Gb Sica Eee 1,119 168 Jd 187 47 6.7 887 | 169 5.9 447 106 6.6 j OMe y ae 989 193 6.0 267 77 es} 756 190 6.8 432 129 7.4 CO Se Sa ee eens 882 216 Oh x 345 114 7.8 668 205 ie 420 150 8.1 : CUE AE ee ee 898 237 es 419 157 8.3 603 216 8.1 410 167 8.7 A LD Es Siete 752 256 7.9 462 195 8.8 558 225 8.6 402 183 geil i eer. Metice a een 707 272 8.4 480 222 9.2 527 | 232 9.0 395 195 9.5 : Gl soa Sspedseee 668 286 8.8 487 241 9.5 506 238 9.3 388 206 9. 9° 5 Games ee ea. 640 298 9.2 490 256 9.3 490 242 9.5 383 215 10. 2 j COPIES: Besa 620 398 9.5 491 268 10.0 478 247 9.7 378 223 10.4 (GS Ae oer peel 603 317 9.8 490 278 10. 2 467 230 9.9 373 230 10.7 CU )od ee Seren see 590 325 | 10.1 489 287 10.4 457 253 10.1 368 236 10.8 ; Hise mere es epee 579 332 10.3 487 294 10.5 447 256 10. 2 363 240 11.0 F (On322 Sees 568 338 10.5 485 301 10.7 437 259 10. 4 359 245 ie) OD aire pene Seii2t 558 344 10.7 483 308 10.8 427 262 10.6 | 355 249 ies OU shete ae ees 549 349 | 10.8 481 313 | 10.9 417 264} 10.8) 351 252 11.5 al! : QUALITY II. OS ARES SNS ae 1, 996 OST PR OSOM saa ses |Lt her sale h ese 1, 603 SAeleeSent 566 40 3.6 | PA ociaet oa eee 1,520 120 Shis dssaeesc|| seteree sean cor 1,316 115 4.0 530 60 4.6 CUES: as ie ear 1, 285 142 ARON aad BES Sa Ae Ss Lees 1,062 139 4.9) 504 81 5.4 ST baase eames 1,142 162 Gs ik 260 58 6. 4 890 157 NS 7 484 101 6.2 AQ Seats: 1,032 182 ae tl 335 88 7.0 774 171 6.3 470 119 6.8 A ete eS 949 199 6. 2 403 122 7.4 697 181 6.9 459 136 7.4 DORMS cs ses 880 215 6.7 467 155 7.8 643 189 7.4 451 151 7.8 | wees see icc 830 229 Weak 497 180 8.1 605 |; 196 Tet Ie e443 162 8.2 | GU RSA a eee ae 789 242 168 516 199 8.4 575 | 201 8.0 435 172 8.5 | Gore ke se 756 253 7.8 530 214 8.6 551 206 8.2 427 181 8.8 { AO saey sarees 42h 732 262 8.1 540 226 8.8 532 | 210 8.5 420 188 9.1 | oA ee a1 708 270 8.4 544 235 8.9 516 213 8.7 413 194 9.3 | UME On eae eee 689 278 8.6 544 244 On 503 216 8.9 407 290 9.5 | iis Cope eee 672 284 8.8 542 251 9:2 492 220 9.0 401 205 9.7 ODL Sas 2285-5. 656 299 9.0 540 257 whe 482 223 9.2 395 209 9.8 | Chu Basco seeaes 642 295 |- 952 537 263 9.5 472 226 9.4 390 213 10.0 LOO RE = <3 632 300 9.3 533 268 9.6 463 | 228 9.5 385 217 10. 2 i “a | f QUALITY IIt. : Dae ee 2, 803 GAUCHE 5 OREN IO ee ote Oe erate 2,134 Gi 2a) ee 27 oi 1 Te See Pees 1, 870 98 Sees SS A Se eee 1,620 90 3. 2 623 42 325 t Sl Baeeo see ae 1, 540 115 Siig et eee EES area 1,304 109 3.9 580 oO 4.3 k SiS 2 See eet 1,357 131 AE Da Soe ee | cee ee ee 1,074 124 4.6 548 73 5. 0 ; CA (eee eee ey = 1, 224 147 4.7 311 61; 6.0 924 136 §. 2 526 90 5.6 ! 1 ee ae 1,129 161 api! 386 89 6.5 827 145 5.7 514 105 6.1 5 Me erista = 3 = 1, 055 175 5.5 455 115 6.8 755 153 6.1 505 119 6.5 | DD ee a 996 187 5.9 515 138 7.0 703 159 6.4 496 129 6.9 : (Doc! Sau ee 945 198 6.2 549 156 1.2 664 164 6. 7 488 138 7.2 5 Te) soe eee eee 903 208 Co) a 171 7.4 634 168 7.0 480 146 6%) t RUE ES ceoseaenes 866 216 6.7 587 183 7.6 609 172 7.2 472 153 7.7 (UL eee epee eee 838 224 7.0 597 193 len 588 176 7.4 464 158 we E CUS ae eee 813 230 ade 606 201 7.8 569 180 7.6 457 164 8.1 i ASE) Es a eee 790 236 7.4 602 207 8.0 551 183 7.8 450 168 8.3 SO etre Yan a AY 712 242 7.6 596 212 8.1 533 186 8.0 443 173 8.5 b by a eee Ee eee 769 246 dex 588 217 8.2 516 189 8.2 436 iin 8.6 ; OO arr 8S 2 leerino 251 7.8 580 222 8.3 499 192 8.4 430 181 8.8 ; Based on 59 sample plots, measured in 1910. Total area, 13.1 acres. COW PENS nn ge pe mn 38 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. VOLUME GROWTH. The increase in volume of trees growing in the virgin, or selection, forest is seldom considered on the basis of age for reasons already discussed under height and diameter growth. We are not much interested, for the present at least, in knowing how long it took, or would take again, to produce a spruce of a certain size under similar virgin forest conditions. Most lumbermen are desirous of knowing what can be expected of trees of given sizes for the immediate future. The conditions under which such growth is likely to take place will vary widely, so widely in fact that general tables of growth would be of little value. A local table made up to fit the special conditions of each case is much preferable. Such a table is readily prepared from volume or taper tables and the general data already presented. In preparing a table of this kind it is usually assumed that a tree now 10 inches in diameter at breastheight will, when it has grown to a diameter of 11 inches, have the volume of the 11-inch trees with which it is at present associated. Diameter growth figures thus form the basis of the calculations. If the future growth of a virgin stand is to be forecasted, the diameter growth figures employed must be those derived from trees growing under these average conditions. Usually, however, an immediate partial cutting is contemplated. Whether the growth figures for the “average maximum” or “absolute maximum”’ should be used will depend upon the extent to which the cutting opens up the stand. Conditions would need to be exceedingly favorable to warrant using the “absolute maximum’”’ figures of diameter growth. It might even happen that the “average max- imum”’ would show too high results, particularly for forecasting results within the succeeding decade. Spruce does not respond immediately to an opening up of the crown cover. Intermediate trees of from 6 to 10 inches in diameter may not respond at all inside of 12 or 15 years. The following example will suffice to show how these data are combined: Suppose one desires to ascertain the probable volume of the 14-inch trees in an average stand of spruce in New York 15 years after a cutting to a 16-inch diameter limit. Assuming such a sized tree to be able to take full advantage of growth conditions and develop at the full “average maximum’’ rate, the annual increment in diameter would be, according to Table 10, 0.150 inch. In 15 years, consequently, it would have added 2.25 inches to its diameter and become a 16.25-inch tree. The average 14-inch tree, according to Table 4, is 62 feet tall and has a volume according to Table 9 of THE RED SPRUCE. 39 1361 board feet. A 16.25-inch tree similarly is 66 feet tall and has a volume (interpolated) of 188 board feet. Thus the increased growth during the 15 years is 52 board feet, equivalent to 38 per cent. When the future yield of whole stands is to be computed a tabular arrangement of such values will be found convenient.? Corresponding : Corresponding yolume value volume. picnataien from (4).1 Inch Corre- diameter |sponding| jrect class. height. from ne 10 years | 20 years | 30 years | 10 years | 20 years | 30 years volume ameedl hence. hence. hence. hence. hence. hence. table. j 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Feet. Board ft. | Board ft.| Inches. Inches. Inches. | Board ft.| Board ft. | Board ft. 8 47 34 31 10.2 12.5 14.7 61 107 162 9 50 43 43 11.2 13.4 15.6 77 128 188 10 53 55 58 IO Al 14.2 16.3 97 148 209 11 56 82 75 13.0 14.9 16.9 | 118 167 227 12 58 97 95 13.8 11535 77 eo 13 191 245 13 60 120 118 14.7 16.4 18.0 162 212 260 14 62 130 143 15.5 17.0 18.5 185 23 278 15 64 150 170 16.3 17.6 18.8 209 248 288 16 66 200 200 17.1 18.2 19.3 233 267 306 17 68 230 230 17.9 18.9 19.8 257 291 324 18 70 20 QEOMES cays etal ete serene | ae ee eoreetee lls aarercraic ge [ins Moses sie [eects 19 71 290 71 al ISERIES ES cis chat cline isc aed BECO ECR ee Een eel EME eme 20 73 320 OS [esi 2t2 Se eeyaye leer | SEIS ee | Oe isle ese tke | ere eye ell eesels eee 1 Interpolated. It will be noted that in column 3 the values have not been interpolated, although they might well have been. Instead they have been read directly from the volume table and the irregularities evened off in column 4 by curving. The values in columns 8, 9, and 10 are interpolated from column 4 in order to eliminate the irregularity that would otherwise result from rounding off the diameter values in columns 5, 6, and 7 and reading direct from column4. Curving ofthe values in 8, 9,and 10 may in some instances be necessary. The figures contained in Tables 15 and 16 show the comparative development of spruce in the Adirondacks and West Virginia under “average maximum” growth conditions. Unfortunately, the data were insufficient upon which to extend the New York table above 120 years. An inspection of the height and diameter tables upon which this is based, however, shows the growth of each very much slack- ened. Inspection of Table 15 itself shows that the periodic annual stowth culminated in the ninetieth year, while the mean annual would unquestionably culminate under 150 years. In West Virginia, on the other hand, the periodic annual growth does not begin to slacken until the one hundred and fiftieth year, while the mean annual erowth continues unabated until the two hundred and fiftieth year. 1 Under ordinary circumstances it would be sufficiently accurate to use the value corresponding to a 14-inch tree 60 feet in height which, according to Table 29, is 130 board feet. In computations of this sort however, the volume table values had better be interpolated so as to secure a closer reading. Thus, it may be assumed that if a 14-inch tree has a volume of 130 board feet when 60 feet tall and 160 board fest when 70 feet tall, when it is 62 feet tall its volume will be 136 board feet (130 (160-130) by 0.2). 2 The tabular form indicates all the steps to be taken in making up such a, table of values for red spruce in New York under ‘‘average maximum’’ growth conditions. 40 TaBLE 15.—Cubic volume growth of red spruce in the Adirondacks, N. Y. BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (For ‘‘aver- age maximum” diameter growth conditions.) Age. Years. Diameter breast high. Inche. ~I NaMADOMNCUWwUF Height. [CURVED.] Periodic | Mean Volume. | annual | annual growth. | growth. - Cu. ft Cte fey | oi Cw. ft cu .u cre pales both ance uo 8,9) Neues oon mmmrE 8.0 0.41 133 15.0 -70 .214 23.0 80 . 288 32.0 -90 -306 40.0 - 80 -400 47.0 -70 427 54.0 7 -450 Dominant trees—spruce hardwood type. This table is a combination of growth-diameter Table 10, height Table 4, and volume Table 40. Data collected by the Conservation Commission of New Yorkin 1912 in Essex and Herkimer Counties. TaBLE 16.—Cubic volume growth of red spruce in West Virginia. (For “average maxi- mum” diameter growth conditions.) [CURVED.] Diameter Periodic Mean Age. breast Height. | Volume. | annual | annual high. growth. | growth. Years. Inches. Feet. Cu. ft Cu. ft. Cu. Ft 10 0.9 TOS URES Sees TA epee tae ee 20 Pepi LT Ae Se oe Se ae} a ee ee 30 BY) Co yea mt eS el With hd rane aD 40 Sel et ee Seer en eae Iprae pire al 50 6.8 44 AT ees Seer 0. 094 60 8.6 54 10.7 0.60 -178 70 10.5 64 19.0 . 83 «2th 80 12.5 73 30.0 1.10 375 90 14.5 81 43 0 1.30 478 100 16.4 87 60.0 1.70 600 ‘ 110 18.2 93 78.0 1.80 . 709 120 19.9 97 96.0 1.80 «800 130 21.4 100 115 0 1.90 . 885 140 22.8 103 134.0 1.90 957 | 150 24.2 106 154.0 2.00 1.027 160 25.4 108 174.0 2.00 1.088 170 26.6 109 193.0 1.90 igalss3} 180 27.6 111 212.0 1.80 1.178 190 28.6 112 230.0 1.80 1.211 200 29.5 113 247.0 1.70 1.235 210 30.3 114 263.0 1.60 1.252 220 31.0 114 279.0 1.60 1.268 230 31.7 115 293.0 1.40 1.274 ¥ 240 32.3 116 307.0 1.40 1.279 250 32.9 116 321.0 1.40 1.284 260 33.5 117 334. 0 1.30 1.285 270 34.0 117 347.0 1.30 1,285 All trees—spruce slope type. This table is a combination of growth-diameter Table 11, height Table 4, and volume Table 41. Data collected by John Foley in 1903 in Greenbrier County. While similar data are not available for either Maine or New Hamp- shire, a comparison of the ‘‘Lower spruce and hardwood” and even of the ‘ Average-of-all-type”’ values of Maine (Table 9) with the ‘Average’ values of New York (Table 10) indicates a better average development in Maine than in New York. Adequate figures for New THE RED SPRUCE. 4] Hampshire would undoubtedly show somewhat better general de- velopment there than in Maine. The growth in volume of trees in even-aged stands may be deter- mined in a manner similar to that just described. In this case, how- ever, the diameter growth instead of being calculated by arbitrary periods, such as 10 or 20 years, would be expressed in terms of total age. If the rate of volume growth is to be determined for natural stands undisturbed by thinnings or other treatment which would tend to interfere with the process of elimination by natural competi- tion, the diameter growth should be based on the average growth of all green trees of the even-aged normal stands of different ages. If, however, thinnings are contemplated which will enable the trees com- posing a stand to grow at their maximum rate with the minumum of competition, the basis for growth should be the mean average of the dominant and intermediate (Table 12) or, under the most favor- able conditions, the dominant trees only of the even-aged normal stands of different ages. STANDS AND YIELDS. The yield of virgin or selection growth spruce, both present and future, varies widely from one type to the other and within the same type in different regions. It is not possible under the circumstances to discuss the subject in such detail as to cover the full range of conditions which local variations impose, nor are the data available for such discussion. Given certain fundamental data, the range of reliability of which is less restricted than would be yield tables based on the widely variable conditions existing in our present- virgin and cull spruce selection forests, the yield for any particular tract can be readily computed. Aside from that already presented for the various regions under the headings of growth in height, diameter, and volume, the only infor- mation needed is the enumeration of the stands‘ the yield of which is to be determined and their average composition as to size and species calculated and tabulated for use in the following convenient form: Deen | Average number of trees. Spruce eter, ee Baise Se ee left to a Spruce Other | Total (average oe | “P * | species. “| number). 1 2 3 it Sl aes Inches. 1 In the appendix (Tables 50-53, inclusive, on pp. 94-97), willbe found stand tables prepared from such enumerations in virgin forest growth of the spruce slope type. The associated species are included asa matter of comparison. Incidentally, these tables show in a broad general way the relative production per unit of area of the different regions which they represent. 1+ must not be understood, however, that any claim is made that they show exact average conditions throughout their respective regions. 49 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Having decided whether or not, durmg the period for which the future yield is to be forecasted, cutting will take place and in what amount, a volume growth table such as that outlined on page 41 would be prepared. If a cutting is contemplated, there should be indicated on the stand table, as column 5, the average number of spruce trees of the different diameters which will be left for future growth. The present yield per acre of the stand would then be determined by multiplying the values in column 2 of the stand table by those in column 4 of the volume growth table. The future yield would similarly be determined by multiplying the values in column 5 of the stand table by those in columns 8, 9, 10, etc., of the erowth table. The yield of second-growth stands may be arrived at in a manner similar to that just outlined. The more direct method, however, is to measure all the trees on sample areas in stands of typical devel- opment and known age. The height, diameter, volume, and all other data for each plot are determined separately; and these various data are finally combined into a table on the basis of the age of the trees and the site quality to which they belong. Such a table appears below for normally stocked second-growth stands measured in Maine, New Hampshire, and Vermont. This table is based on data col- lected in unthinned stands of spruce which have come up on formerly cleared lands. So far as concerns the production of cubic volume and correspondingly, of cordwood volume,‘ these values represent approximately the maximum for their respective ages and site classes. The table is thus suitable for use without modification in predicting the future yields of stands maintained for the production of pulpwood. THE RED SPRUCE. Taste 17.— Yield of red spruce in old-field stands. [Based on the yield of dominant, codominant, and intermediate trees only.j Age. Trees Years. | Number. 20 1, 294 25 1,076 30 887 35 756 40 668 45 603 50 558 55 527 60 506 65 490 70 478 75 467 80 457 85 447 90 437 95 427 100 417 20 1, 603 25 1, 316 30 1, 062 35 890 40 774 45 697 50 643 55 605 60 575 65 551 70 532 75 516 80 503 85 492 90 482 95 472 100 463 ~ 20 2, 134 25 1, 620 30 1, 304 35 1,074 40 924 45 827 50 755 55 703 60 664 65 634 70 609 75 588 80 569 85 551 90 533 95 516 100 | 499 QUALITY I. per acre. SSSSSOOOCOOM MIS AE OD RH O01 SO Om O10 OO ad SO SO SO SO 90.60/90 G0) G01 S252 Or CO CURNOOIANONEOWIWOOM Yield per acre.t Forest form factor. $0 00 G0 MINI MINI NID SS GG G9 9 BS PNOODDPNO WAH AIN AON 6, 200 2,330 15 8, 600 3, 000 22 10, 900 3, 500 28 13, 000 3, 860 32 14,900 4,150 36 16, 500 4,390 39 17, 800 4, 590 41 18, 900 4,760 43 19, 800 4,920 45 20, 600 5, 050 47 21, 300 5,170 48 21, 900 5, 260 49 22, 500 5, 340 50 1 Yield from suppressed and dead trees ignored. table is based. 2Based on 59 plots, in even-aged old pasture stands; area 13.1 acres, taken in Oxford and Penobscot See Table 53 for actual figures on which this yield Counties, Me.; Coos, Grafton, and Sullivan Counties, N. H.; Caledonia and Windsor Counties, Vt. _ 3 Trees 7 inches and over in diameter breast high; scaled by the New Hampshire Rule; top diameter inside bark, 6 inches, stump height, 1 foot. : i f 4 Trees 4 inches and over in diameter breast high; top diameter outside bark, 4 inches, stump height, 1 foot. foot. 5 Trees 6 inches and over in diameter breast high; top diameter outside bark, 5 inches, stump height, 1 44 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE 18.— Norway spruce ' (Picea excelsa). Normal yield table for northern and centrat Germany. QUALITY I. Diameter Yield Number —_ Forest Basal | Average of Age. of trees 3 ° r form peracre.| fea.” | height. gah sera) eacaee! Years. Sq. ft. Feet. Inches. Cu. ft. 40 1, 254 194.8 47.9 5.4 4,973 0. 531 50 799 216.1 61.4 (A? 7,067 . 533 60 557 231.5 72. 4 8.9 8, 798 02D 70 421 241.8 81.3 10. 4 10, 227 - 520 80 340 250. 7 88. 6 11.8 11, 425 -514 90 284 259. 2 94.8 13. 2 12, 457 - 507 100 247 266.7 1060.0 14.4 13, 367 «501 QUALITY TI. 40 1, 924 140.8 30. 2 aR 2,115 0. 495 50 1, 216 162.4 42.0 4.9 3, 673 . 534 60 840 178.9 52.2 6.2 5, 059 - 539 70 628 189. 2 61.0 7.4 6, 274 539 80 500 200. 0 67.9 8.5 7,317 534 90 424 209. 5 73.5 9.5 8, 217 528 100 380 PAW ES / 78.4 10.2 8,960 522 } a = QUALITY IIT. 40 | 3,587 95.5 17.6 2.3 638 0. 380 50 1,969 116.3 25.3 3.3 1, 410 -479 60 1, 270 131.3 33.3 4.5 2, 403 550 70 928 142.5 41.1 5.4 3, 344 571 80 750 152. 2 47.2 6.2 4,161 579 9 | 651 | 160.6 51.8 6.8 | 4,823 580 100 | 597 | «167.3 55.4 7.3 5, 352 577 | | 1 From ‘‘Wachstum und Ertrag normaler Fichtenbestande,” by Adam Schwappach, Berlin, 1890, as translated by H. S. Graves (pp. 417 and 418, Forest Mensuration, New York, 1906), revised on the basis of 3 instead of 5 quality classes. 2 At 1.3 meters (4.27 feet) from the ground. 2 Derbholz (top diameter of 2.76 inches outside the bark). A comparison ' of the values in Table 17 for red spruce with those of Table 18 for Norway spruce brings out the importance of good management in the development of stands. One of the first things to arrest the attention is the marked discrepancy between red spruce and Norway spruce in height and volume growth m Quality I. Even red spruce’s advantage in having only its best growing trees included is insufficient to overbalance the deficiency in height. One’s first impulse is to take this as confirming the widely accepted opinion that the growth qualities of red spruce are markedly inferior to those of Norway. Yet if that were so, the discrepancy would prevail throughout the three quality classes, which it does not do. It is considerably less marked in Quality IL and disappears almost alto- gether in Quality I1I. To explain this difference, one must take into consideration the intensity of management of Norway spruce in the different quality classes. Thus, in Quality III, where Norway — spruce was least intensively managed, thinnings began late, between 1 In making the comparison it should be continually borne in mind (1) that the red spruce table is based on the measurement only of dominant and intermediate trees in 59 volunteer stands, whereas the other includes all green trees in 400 managed stands, four-fifths of which were artificially regenerated, and (2) that the utilization is not so close for red spruce as for Norway either in the top or at the stump. THE RED SPRUCE. 45 the fortieth and forty-fifth year, and were light, about 2 trees in 7, or hardly more than the natural thinning which took place among the dominant and intermediate trees in the corresponding red spruce stands. The thinnings throughout, up to and including the one hundredth year, were in fact insufficient to make the number of trees the same in the Norway spruce stands as in the red spruce (dominant and intermediate trees) stands of corresponding age. Nevertheless, thinnings did accelerate the rate of growth somewhat, so that by the one hundredth year the whole Norway spruce stand, consisting of 98 more trees, very closely approximated the development attained by the red spruce dominant and intermediate trees. In the Quality iI stands the effect of thinnings is more marked. Thinnings began in the thirty-fifth year, with an intensity of 3 trees in 7 removed (42 per cent), and continued comparatively heavy till the eightieth year, when they were 1 in 5 (20 per cent). The acceleration in this case is everywhere apparent. Shorter by 10 feet in the for- _ tieth year, the whole Norway spruce stand had by the sixtieth year attained the same development as the dominant and. intermediate red spruce stand of that age, and, while still lacking nearly 2 inches im average diameter, showed 9 cubic feet greater volume. By the eightieth year the total stems in the Norway spruce stand had been reduced to 3 less than the number of dominant and intermediate trees in the red spruce stand; had practically the same average diameter and 7 feet. greater height; and being fuller boled, as indi- cated by the larger form factor, showed a very much accelerated vol- ume growth. In Quality I, thinnings began in the twenty-fifth year on a scale slightly more than 3 in 7; and the entire stand with 586 more trees, had by the fortieth year surpassed in average height the average dominant and intermediate development of the red spruce stand of corresponding age and quality. This, with the fuller bole development, gave the Norway stand a considerable advantage in volume development, whether or not it accounts for all of the 1,313 cubic feet excess volume at that age. From that time on the red spruce stagnated and languished; but the Norway spruce, under the stimulas of frequent thinnings, increased steadily in every respect. The conclusion to be drawn from the comparison seems to be that lack of management rather than any inherent deficiency in growing qualities was the factor most largely responsible for the less ravorable showing of red spruce. METHODS OF CUTTING. The methods of cutting to secure the natural regeneration of spruce depend in a large measure upon whether the stand to be perpetuated is of the selection, or many-aged form, as represented by the virgin and the cull forests, or of the even-aged form, such as those coming. in after fire or windfall, or on abandoned pastures. 46 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SELECTION CUTTINGS. On account of the tolerance of spruce, it is well adapted to a selec- tion system of management by which only the older trees of the main stand are removed and the necessary conditions thus estab- lished for the development of a new young growth. When this sys- tem is strictly carried out, the forest should be cut over annually, and only the very oldest and largest trees and those of least promising erowth removed. In forests constituted as ours are at present, such a procedure would be impossible of accomplishment under any other than State ownership, which might put other considerations above revenue. Cutting to a diameter limit, now quite generally practiced by lum- bermen in the spruce regions, is a modification of the selection system by which a sufficient yield to make the individual cutting operations profitable is secured periodically. The amount cut each period and the interval between the successive cuttings vary, of course, with the diameter limit used. In order to obtain satisfactory results under this system, a careful scrutiny is required of those trees immediately above and below the set diameter limit that their relations to others and to the best inter- ests of the stand to be left may be ascertained. A fixed diameter limit is used in making computations to forecast the yield; but its application by ‘“‘rule of thumb” in actual practice may defeat the purpose of the system. In the woods the diameter limit is best used simply as a guide. In general the largest trees should be cut, since their rate of growth is below that which would make their retention a profitable investment. They are likewise occupying space which would be more profitably used by younger and more rapidly growing trees. Approaching the diameter limit there are trees both above and below the established limit which should be cut because they have a poor crown, are stunted, or otherwsie defective, so that their present worth would be lost if they were to be left until the next cutting. On the other hand, trees above the prescribed diameter limit which give every indication of being in thrifty growing condition should unquestionably be left, since their worth will be materially enhanced by allowing them to remain until the next cut is made. Trees of inferior species, as balsam and most of the hardwoods, which are interfering with the best development of the spruce, should be cut whenever possible. Thus while the prescribed diameter limit may be 14 inches, the approximate minimum size to be taken may be 5 inches. Other things being equal, this minimum size will depend upon the market and the object of management. To insure a utilization of at least two-thirds of the stem height, no sound spruce tree should be cut for lumber smaller than 10 inches in diameter at breastheight and for 3 : pulp none smaller than 5 inches in diameter. These minima should j THE RED SPRUCE. AT be raised to 11 inches and 6 inches, respectively, for stands averaging from 65 to 85 feet tall and to 12 inches and 6 inches for all stands over 85 feet tall. It is not feasible to remove the defective trees which will not yield sufficient material to offset at least the cost of logging, except in localities where there is a high fire hazard or as a precaution against the spread of insects or fungous disease. In this case the logging operation may well be taken advantage of to improve fire protection or sanitary conditions by felling and swamping badly defective and dead trees and snags. Care must be taken to provide suitable conditions for reproducing ‘the stand. Where there is balsam in mixture with spruce, the com- petition of this species in the young growth should be reduced as far as possible by cutting the balsam in the main stand to as low a diameter limit as market conditions will warrant, thus reducing the number of balsam left for seed dispersal. Where the species in mix- ture are hardwoods, the same procedure will apply, although the elimination of the hardwoods need not be carried out so severely, for the reason that their effective range of seed dispersal is not so ereat as that of balsam. A more severe cutting of the hardwoods may be necessary, however, where there is much advanced young growth of spruce which requires to be released from shade to encour- age its more rapid development. Spruce should be favored in preference to balsam and most hard- woods for the reason that it is much less aggressive than the others and usually of the more value and desirability. Where conditions are favorable to the development of white pine and ash and possibly also basswood and red oak, they should be given the preference over spruce, since they are more valuable and less able to maintain them- selves in competition with spruce, being less tolerant of shade. It is impracticable to trust to the loggers to put the diameter limit into effect, and it is here that many spruce operators fail to secure the full benefit of the system’s application. The trees to be cut should be marked beforehand by a man competent to judge the needs and requirements of the stand from the standpoint of both the forester and the operator. The fact that some companies which have tried marking claim that the results attained under the one method and the other do not materially differ does not prove the impracticability of the method, but reflects rather on the lack of trained judgment of the men whom they have employed to do the marking. GROUPWISE CUTTINGS. For general use the selection system in one of its forms is undoubt- edly best suited to the management of spruce, particularly in lumber operations. Nevertheless it has its imitations. The degree of sever- ity with which a stand must be cut to make the operation profitable 48 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is important particularly inthe swamp type and on the more exposed slope situations where there is great danger from windfall. In such situations the cuttings should be very light, so that the main crown cover will continue relatively undisturbed, or everything merchant- able on a given area should be cut. This will virtually amount to clean cutting, for the nonmerchantable material left will almost iney- itably be blown down. If the individual cutting area is small, of only one or two acres in extent, and flanked by spruce growth either on its windward side or above it, reseeding from trees standing on the adjacent area will take place followmg clean cutting. Thus on a level, low-lying area groups or patches of timber may be selected for removal and the sur- rounding uncut areas depended upon to furnish the necessary seed for reproduction. In such a case subsequent cuttings would extend these areas gradually until the whole was cut over. The exact shape and size of the area to be clean cut, as well as the selection of the initial pomts of attack i starting a groupwise cut- ting, depend on circumstances and the object it is desired to attain. Areas of advanced young growth may occur under the old woods, which it is desirable to free from shading and allow to develop; advan- tage may be taken of groups of overmature or insect-infested trees which are stagnating or declning in growth and value and which require cutting to prevent loss; or it might be desired to replace groups of mixed spruce and hardwoods by pure spruce, or to make an opening to encourage pine, ash, or other more valuable species. The chief objection to this method im practice is that to imsure effective reproduction the cleared areas should not exceed from 100 to 150 feet across. These should be separated by a sufficient amount of uncut timber to protect the cleared area from too severe exposure to sun, and wind and insure the remaining stand against being blown down. For economical lumbering, however, a larger area would often be desirable. CLEAN CUTTING IN STRIPS. A better method for extensive cuttmgs in areas susceptible to windthrow is to distribute the clean cutting in strips in such a man- ner that the long way of the strip is at right angles, or nearly so, to ‘the direction of the prevailing storm winds. Reproduction of the cleared areas would be secured by seeds disseminated from the trees in the intervening uncut timber belts which should be left intact at the time of the first cutting, or only very lightly thinned by removing small, or overtopped and dying trees without disturbing the main crown cover. Whether it is advisable to thin or not depends upon the degree of liability to windthrow, and upon the depth of the strips in the direction of the prevailing high winds. Instead of the sides of the strips in the cutting area being straight, they may be undu- Bul. 544, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Fia. 1.—SEED TREES NEAR AT HAND. STOCKING DENSE IN CONSEQUENCE. Fic. 2.—SEED TREES AT A DISTANCE. STOCKING IN GROUPS AND AS WIDELY SCATTERED INDIVIDUALS. GENESIS OF OLD FIELD SPRUCE STANDS. Bul. 544, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. et ONE Dae at hw j ae NARA TOS A OTE EA ER ATR AT OS AMG EH tae (oh nn SET GEE INE CEN NE BA VE ORE Oe: ey " , aes emg oe SVM SS EE LS AP Et aaa aan smb ceselawesnin sine fe. 2" amy 9 naatedgy: tp / GoopD SPRUCE AND BALSAM REPRODUCTION UNDER THE LIGHT COVER OF SEEDLING HARDWOODS. Fic. 2.—THE SAME CUTTING (NOT THE SAME ALLEY) AFTER 7 YEARS. 88 PER CENT (13 CorRDS) OF THE VOLUME REMOVED. Fia. 1.—CLEAN CuT Strips 10 FEET WIDE AND RESERVE Strips 20 FEET WIDE (APPROXIMATELY) IN OLD FIELD SPRUCE. STRIP CUTTING THE RED SPRUCE. 49 lating or saw-toothed, like a series of wedges or triangles with their bases on line. This modification is rather commonly used with spruce abroad. Effectiveness in securing reproduction with the strip plan will depend upon the width of the strips employed. Satisfactory restock- ing of the cleared area can not be expected on a strip wider than twice the height of the trees in the adjacent stand; not because of inabil- ity to secure effective seed dispersal at even a great distance, but because of the effect upon seed germination and growth. ‘Too exten- sive cutting will expose the soil to drying influences detrimental to spruce reproduction and at the same time create a condition favor- able to the development of hardwoods, raspberry, and other peren- nials and weed growth in general. Satisfactory reproduction in the reserve strips must be secured as advanced growth from seed trees standing on those strips, or the cutting of the reserve strips must be delayed until the trees on the strips first cleared are large enough to supply the necessary seed. A spruce stand in which windfirmness has been especially developed by periodic thinning from early youth may be reproduced by the shelter- wood compartment method. Such stands, however, can hardly be said to exist in this country at the present time. Thinnings of the severity of shelter-wood cuttings are largely out of the question in the previously unthinned stands of either virgin or old-field spruce which it is desirable to manage under a system of clean cutting in strips. To insure an early second cut and prompt and effective regenera- tion, alternate cut and uncut strips not over 75 feet in width should be employed. By the adoption of strips of this width reproduction would not only be reasonably assured to the cleared strips but the side light and extra ventilation which would be let into the uncleared strips would be sufficient to create a condition favorable to satisfac- tory reproduction there also. For the dense, even-aged, old-field stands, strips as narrow as 10 feet with 20-foot reserve strips inter- vening have been recommended.’ The final clearing of the area under such a system should be possible-within 10 or 15 years after the first eut. This will enable the harvesting of a third or more of the crop at one cut. The cost will of course be somewhat more than if wider strips or clean cutting in a solid block were practiced. The yield and operating cost per unit of area should not, however, be materially different from that which would result from cutting to a diameter limit of 14 inches, except that slightly greater expense would attach to the handling and marketing of the smaller material which the clean euttings would yield. 1“ Forestry in New England,” by R. C. Hawley and A. F. Hawes, p. 226. 84949°—Bull. 544174 50 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The use of strips up to 300 feet wide or more will reduce the cost of logging but will delay the cutting of the second half of the area until the trees on the first half become large enough to furnish the neces- Twenty or twenty-five years after clear cutting and burning. Prevailing wind direction 300 4 sirip Old stand. Old stand. Over wood of aspen, fire cherry, birch, and the like which came in following burning. Under- Spruce stocking complete in first and second seed years near the old stand. Third and fourth seed years required to establish satisfactory reproduction near the center of the strip. Fig. 2a.—Method of wide strip cuttings in spruce. wood of spruce. sary seed for reproducing it when cutover. This will delay the sec- ond cut to between the sixtieth and seventy-fifth year and require arotation for each half of the stand of from 120 to 150 years. Com- plete stocking on the entire 300 feet of clearmg could hardly be expected short of 3 and possibly 4 seed years; that is, from 15 to 18 years. Birch, aspen, beech, maple, and other hardwoods, and rasp- berries and other perennials will almostsurely comein during thein- terval, whether the area is burned over or not. Spruce, however, will seed in beneath; and while that which comes in first where the cover crop is dense willbe retarded, that which comes in later will find conditions favorable toits rapid de- velopment, so that when the over- wood thins out, this understory of spruce will develop largely as an even-aged stand. (See Fig. 2a.) The most desirable of the hard- woods as a nurse tree for spruce is the aspen. It also reaches such a size as to enable it to be cut at a profit within from 40 to 50 years. Its coming in, therefore, should be encouraged. ‘This can best be ac- complished by the broadcast burn- ing of the brush in the early spring following the logging. The seed of fire cherry is dispersed in the summer and of beech, paper birch, and sugar maple in the fall and winter, while that of the aspen is dispersed in the early spring. Broadcast burning in the spring, there- fore, as soon as the brush is dried out enough to burn readily, will destroy the duff and the seeds and spring germinates of the other THE RED SPRUCE. 51 species and will expose mineral soil most opportunely for aspen seed to catch and take possession of the ground, followed by spruce in subsequent seed years. This method should prove satisfac- tory, particularly where spruce saw timber is desired. The early growth of the main stand under the cover crop would prevent the development of stout branches to such a height at least that one or more clear logs to each bole could be produced. The cover crop would reach merchantable size by about the fortieth or fiftieth year and could be harvested. (See Fig. 2b.) The main crop could be thinned at the same time to secure satisfactory distribution of the trees to be left. With the removal of the cover crop all spruce would be stimu- lated and rapid development follow. At the time of clean cutting the second area, in from the sixtieth to seventieth year, it would be profit- able to thin the stand again on the first area. (Fig. 2c.) The final thin- ning of the first area would take place between the one hundredth and one hundred and twentieth year, when the removal of the cover crop and first thinning of the second area was made, thus at least three thin- nings of the spruce would be pos- sible with little or no additional expense. The cost of bringmg the cut of spruce to maturity would be somewhat more under this length- ened rotation than under a shorter rotation, but this would be offset to a considerable extent by the in- termediate revenues from the har- vesting of the cover crop and the thinnings and by the better quality of timber yielded. The method could obviously only be employed Same stand, as shown in Fig. 2a, after forty or fifty years. Old stand. Old stand. Fia. 2b.—Cover crop of aspen, fire cherry, etc., harvested, and spruce young growth thinned. where there was an available market for the products yielded by the cover crop, namely, aspen pulp and excelsior stock, and maple 59 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and birch firewood, spools, novelties, and the like. A permanent market for spruce of the quality produced would also be necessary. IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS. With forests of the selection or many- aged form, thinnings, strictly speaking, merge to such an extent with the opera- tions of harvesting the mature crops as to lose their identity. Thinnings and like operations, therefore, are applied to such forests only as are even-aged throughout or are made up of even- aged groups. Improvement cuttings are divided successively into the following classes: cleanings, liberation cuttings, and thin- nings. Pruning is also an improvement operation, but in this country, and par- ticularly in the case of spruce, will be scantily employed. Pruning involves a direct investment of money from which only an indirect benefit is derrved. With a short rotation, pruning makes possible the securing of a larger percentage of clear logs capable of yieldmg upper grades of lumber. Aside from so-called ‘fiddle butts’’ for piano board and violin stock and clear logs for siding material, the difference in price at the present time between the various grades of spruce will not justify an investment for pruning. Cleanings.—Cleanings are particu- larly adapted to bring about favorable results in the mixed spruce and hard- wood growths which come in after clean cutting and burning. Such worthless material as fire cherry and the slow- growing beech and sugar maple may be removed from young stands, and the birch and popple thinned. The most advantageous time is about the fifth year after the spruce has come in under the hardwood cover, since at that age spruce has fully established its roots in the mineral soil and is ready to grow rapidly in height. Cleanings may also be resorted to in old-field Alternate strips clean cut and burned. A 2 gs 4 +4 Mi — = Lae | J Pp » | LIED Set i Ta Stand of seed bearing age by which means the alternate clean cut strips will be reproduced. Same stand, as shown in Fig. 2a, after sixty or seventy years. d thinning at time of clean cutting alternate strips. Alternate strips clean cut and burned .—Secon Fig. 2c THE RED SPRUCE. 53 spruce stands to eliminate spruce or balsam advance growth and to reduce the percentage of balsam in the stand. Cuttings of this sort are indirectly remunerative, in the sense that they operate to shorten the rotation and thus bring the final yield nearer at hand; but care must be taken to remove only what is necessary to accomplish the purpose of the operation, otherwise the cost will be too great. Liberation cuttings——in the mixed selection stands, it often hap- pens that a large spreading maple or other hardwood is retarding the development of a group of young spruce. The removal of such a tree for that reason would be a liberation cutting. It will generally happen, though, that immediate financial considera- tions as to whether or not the tree is worth cutting will govern, and that such a cutting will be made a part of the regular logging operation. Similarly the removal of this class of tree from second growth stands will form a part of the operation of thinning. Because such trees are larger than the others in the stand, their removal! may constitute a determining factor in making a thinning profitable. A liberation cutting will not often be made alone, although in cer- tain instances it will justify itself by making possible a large final yield. Thinnings.—Thinnings are particulariy desirable in the dense, even-aged stands resulting from natural seeding. Such stands not infrequently have upwards of 4,000 trees per acre, with an average growing space of about 10 square feet per tree at 30 years of age. As compared to this, a planted stand spaced 6 by 6 feet apart would have but 1,210 trees per acre, with a growing space per tree of 26 square feet. Hven where the aggregate number of trees in the natural stand is less than that indicated, the tendency of spruce to germi- nate in clumps about the more favorable seed bed spots gives rise to a crowding which is every bit as undesirable as though the area were uniformly congested. On account of the extreme tenacity with which spruce hangs on when once it has its roots established in the soil, it is not able to free itself m the struggle for supremacy with anything like the facility of the jess tolerant species. As a result, a long period of stagnation, m which both the height and diameter growth suffer, follows the closing of the crown cover: These stands, if allowed to continue in their overcrowded condition until they are from 50 to 60 years of age, will often contain as many dominant and intermediate trees to the acre as the planted stand would have to start with, and will be composed of small-topped, spindling trees, averaging not more than 6 or 7 inches in diameter; and not more than one-half of the total volume will be merchantable. Under such conditions, also, the stand can not be thinned profitably. The cost of getting out the amount of product to be secured from a first thinning in such a stand 54 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. would be prohibitive. The remaining trees would be particularly liable to windthrow, and the thinning would produce doubtful results in securing an accelerated growth. With the attainment of their principal height growth, the trees composing a crowded stand have adjusted themselves through the abnormal reduction of their crown surface to the restricted growing space, and the possibilities of stimu- lating the growth in such a stand are not promising, unless the stand is to ‘be left intact for upwards of 30 years afterward. The principle to be followed in making thinnings depends upon the object of management and the age when thinnings can be begun. If it be desired to secure the maximum volume production, which cul- minates, according to Table 14, between the thirty-fifth and seventieth year, depending on the unit of volume and the site quality, thinnings should be undertaken by the twenty-fifth or thirtieth year on the best sites and be confined to the dominant and imtermediate trees. If, however, quality production is the object desired, the first thin- nings may be delayed until the thirty-fifth or fortieth year, being confined to the lower and intermediate crown classes until the sixtieth or seventieth year. This would especially encourage the development of form and quality. Thereafter the stand would be thinned more heavily. The last third of the rotation, or approxi- mately after the cightieth or the one hundredth year, the cuttimgs would be in the form of accretion cuttings which would isolate a certain number of the best trees for the encouragement of a more rapid growth in volume. The object of thinnings for volume production should be to free the tallest trees and gradually reduce their numbers without removing the weakest, except where they have a dry top, since they assist natural pruning, cover and protect the soil, and add to the strength of a close canopy. In the early period, when the trees are only to a limited extent merchantable, the fewest number of trees possible should be removed. The greatest advantage, accordingly, can be derived by cutting only those trees which occupy a position in the upper crown level, but which are interfering with the development of the stronger growing individuals. This will relieve the mtense strug- gle taking place among those trees which are finally to form the mature stand and will allow them to develop with a minimum of hindrance from their neighbors. To be most effective, thinnings should be frequent and light in early life and heavier and less fre- quent in later years. Such early thinnings, however, involve a con- siderable expense, while the later ones may render the stand liable to windthrow, so that it will often be necessary to compromise. In judging of the need for thinning, the relation of the crown length to the total height of those trees which are to form the final cut should m ' THE RED SPRUCE, 55 be noted. This would ordinarily vary between 25 and 40 per cent, depending on whether maximum solid volume or board-foot volume was the desired object. However, the response to thinnings made in spruce having an average crown length of less than 25 per cent of the height will be exceedingly slow and for that reason of doubtful financial value. In Table 19 an attempt is made to predict the yield due to accel- erated growth to be obtained by thinnings made at different ages and with varying degrees of severity. TasLE 19.— Yield from stands of average quality thinned for maximum volume production of pulpwood (unpeeled cords) based on the cutting of dominani (including codominant) and intermediate irees only. Minimum merchantable size, 6 inches in diameter at breastheight and 5 inches in diameter outside bark in the top. 4 THINNINGS. Number of dominant and in- termediate trees. Mer- —— ————] Propor- Equiva- Ageof | 1 fully tion of [Chantable! Final | Total {lent mean stand. | stocked | Tobe | To bere- ees e oftrees | Yield. | yield. annul un- left after | moved in * | removed. er : thinned | thinning.) thinning. stands. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Years Cords. Cords. Cords Cords 2 1,316 1,097 220 fae ee 2m ela eed Rie aaa! Pee oe Gis 30 1,062 O14 183 z BQ i ecitenees Jah ro ete Soe) eee 35 890 762 152 3 Eine (eee a || ee nein at oe | [ee en 40 774 635 127 2 71g Hn 1S Sie ee al epee ree are nes Se 682 17.9 45 GOSH Pee ee eel ok eae RRS 2 ioe Soe ee 44 61.9 1.37 3 THINNINGS. | 25 1,316 1,054 263 OSE So core ene paeer el oe See ae Bee pacers 35 890 791 263 4 CSD eB SSR Bae EAR pt sesh 1 ae oa ae! 45 697 593, 198 2 SEG, He eee een mete 8 [eA Aeneas te 724 16.6 50 Ci i pepe ea os ard Nl || a 44 60.6 1.21 2 THINNINGS. | | 30 1,062 849 212 peo a eae ae ee eee sen Seeeer Shel me ene © 40 . 474 637 212 4 TU, OL | ees ose file tetera rhs ae 424 10.2 50 (FAG sais etl (ea allan Be ee’ 2 eo sees 44 | 54.2 | 1.10 The basic values are taken from Table 17, giving the yields for unthinned, fully stocked, old-field spruce stands of second quality. The volume production of these stands reaches a maximum in the fifty-fifth year and is 44 cords per acre. The assumption is made in Table 19 that 4 thinnings will reduce the natural rotation 10 years; 56 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. while for 3 and 2 thinnings 5 years will be saved in bringing the stand to maturity. The severity of each thinning is gauged so as to leave approximately the same number of trees as are shown by the yield table to be capable of growing under naturally competitive condi- tions at the end of the thinning period. ‘Thus, in the case of the series of 4 thinnings, the first one in the twenty-fifth year reduces the number of trees from 1,316 to 1,097, which not quite approxi- mates the condition which would be brought about by natural selection in the succeeding 5 years. The normal number of trees in unthinned stands (column 2) does not enter into the calculation but is included only for comparison to show how far each thinning will eliminate competition during the period. All first thinnings, according to the table, show no remunerative yield. They are accordingly made light to reduce as far as possible the expense involved in making them. The maintaining of a reason- able density is also a consideration in making the thinning light, thus improving the form and quality of the final yield. With four thinnings the number of trees is not sufficiently reduced in any one thinning so that a normal density will not be restored within 5 years. With the 3 thinnings the number of trees is reduced in each case somewhat below the normal for a fully stocked stand of 5 years greater age. For example, the first thinning at 25 years reduces the number of trees to 1,054, while the normal density for 30-year stands is 1,062. With 2 thinnings the cut is heavier still. In each case, however, there is little doubt that the crown cover will be reestablishd in 5 years. In calculating the volume of each thinning the volume of the aver- age tree in the yield table has been taken as a basis. The assump- tion introduces a plus error, since doubtless the average of the trees taken out will not in all cases be the same as the average of the stand. Yet any error which may arise from this cause will be more than offset by the fact that m addition to the indicated number of dominant and intermediate trees taken an unestimated amount will be yielded by suppressed and dead trees taken at the same time. The final yield also is based exclusively on that to be obtained from dom- inant and intermediate trees, while the suppressed and dead will doubtless yield several cords additional at the final cutting. In the absence of graded mill tallies for second-growth spruce it is not possible to determine the rotation yielding the highest quality increment. Table 20, however, attempts to show the intermediate and final yield in board feet for spruce which has started under a light hardwood cover and been managed under the wide strip system outlined elsewhere. | | | | 2 : THE RED SPRUCE. 57 TasLEe 20.— Yield from stands thinned for production of superior quality lumber, based on the cutting of dominant (including codominant) and intermediate trees only. Min- mum merchantable size, 7 inches in diameter at breastheight and 6 inches in diameter outside bark in the top. Number of dominant and interme- diate trees only. Propor- | Merchant- Equivalent eae ws ee Hort of jabievolume] Tinal Total mean stand. n fully rees of trees yield. yield. annual stocked To he left To be -_ |removed.} removed. growth. nmiitaariod after removedin stands. thinning. | thinning. 1 2 3 4 5 6 esas 8 9 Years Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Bd. ft Bd. jt. ae ae ee 1,316 1, 053 263 PA Sse peace sees| Sater as eoale cee seect leans: 4 arp e vay ease see SOO | Re rere ee 2 Rema cise iors Wet eat tebe em ese | oe looetos Iie SMe AE Sa Be Boer ce sees 697 514 129 | 4 Ca CSIC Ot I ape sata BA IR Ne ee Dane See GOD ge Setet Bo Ss alise si saace se ere eee SNE ee Se SSS Cee MORTAR el Re Sea arrester eee Se Bole Me os eo Ca Hs aca r= eel fie ieee | Siecsiteicd ea Sein (idl ee cde 8 ol RSL Dae aaa e SOG ere ea te errata | mee ever ogee Pa pec, ns a an eee oe | Danke Te tee de ee ee ee Wipeeioe sos 492 347 116 x ETON |e cre cree eae ne Re ea USO es aie See Ua) |e ore hs ail ero a peaen ae Bee 2 |e neta car | Da a te, Oe ee Ne apie 11, 645 17 Ves eae AGS ecascscaacalscncceeee ses [Se etopaeraeye lene etiarercre 25, 630 37, 275 310 It has been assumed in this case that at the time of removal of the hardwood cover, in the forty-fifth year, the understory of spruce would have a development parallel to that of a 25-year-old stand which had started in the open. Thus by adding 20 years to the dif- ferent ages given in Table 17 the equivalent yields in unthinned stands up to 120 years are obtained. The first thinning is indicated to be light and unremunerative, but there would doubtless be yielded at least a small amount of cord- wood, which would be the class of material chiefly yielded by the cover crop of aspen, birch, and other hardwoods taken out at this cutting. The cut, as a whole, should therefore’show a fair profit. This thin- ning would reduce the number of dominant and intermediate trees in the stand to a spacing of about 7 by 6 feet or that found in a nor- mal unthinned stand seven years older, although the cover would doubtless entirely close m five years or less. The relief from compe- tition should, however, occasion such an acceleration in growth for the 20-year period before the next thinning as to gain 5 years over the unthinned stand. Thus the stand at the next thmning, in the sixty-fifth year, would have the development shown for 70-year-old unthinned stands, or 643 dominant and intermediate trees to the acre. From the sixty-fifth year on to the one hundred and fifth year, when the third thinning would take place, the reduction in numbers in natural unthinned stands is very gradual, 54 between the seven- tieth and seventy-fifth years, and but 11 between the one hundredth and one hundred and fifth years. The removal of one tree in five from the dominant and intermediate crown classes at the sixty- fifth year would consequently reduce the number of stems to that 58 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. found im a fully stocked unthinned stand of 95 years. The means this thinning would afford for the enlargement of the crowns of the remaining trees should make it possible to sustam such a rate of erowth for the 40-year period as would bring the thinned stand at 105 years to a state of development equal to the unthinned 120- year-old stand. This would require a periocic mean annual growth of but 350 board feet, which should be easily possible, since in the unthinned stands it is 500 board feet per annum for the period from the seventieth to the seventy-fifth years and 360 board feet per annum from the eightieth to the eighty-fifth, with a mean for the 40-year period of 280 board feet per annum. The final thinning in the one hundred and fifth year would be increased in severity so as to take out 1 tree in every 4 in the dominant and intermediate crown classes, thus reducing the number of trees remaining in these classes to 347 and the volume to 23,300 board feet in round numbers. The calculation of the final yield is based on the assumption that the volume will increase at the same rate per cent in the final 15 years in the thinned stand as in the unthinned stand. ‘This gives an average volume for the 347 trees of 74 board feet per tree, corresponding to a tree 9.5 inches in diameter at breast height and 65 feet tall, which is well within the limits of reason. These calculations, like those on cord yields, leave out of consid- eration entirely all intermediate or final yields to be obtained in cutting suppressed and dead trees, which in the aggregate would be considerable, thus making the predictions amply conservative. Doubtless on the rotations after the first one, except in exposed situations, the final removal of the crop might be begun in the ninety- fifth or one hundredth year under the shelter-wood compartment method. This would render the two cutting areas suggested in the original plan independent of one another, so far as seeding was con- cerned; would eliminate the intermediate hardwood crop, and would enable the rotation to be materially shortened. In such a case it might be well to introduce another thinning about the eighty-fifth year. |Rovseeecea|soedes Sale lravstete ere pte 97.5 109.0 122.0 4 DANE chats eyarerevore | paereger ea ere ees oct ie 2 aM Se ae 118.5 BRAl) lebeecoasee Dow erate elect ee etal oleae | lsseeococse|>scecocose 127.5 144.5 2 i 246 Based on taper curves. Stump height, 1 foot; diameter outside bark of top, 4.5 inches. Data collected by KR. 8. Hosmer in Piscataquis County in 1902. 80 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 39.—Cubic-foot volume of red spruce, virgin and second growth,! in southern New Hampshire. MERCHANTABLE VOLUME—(UNPEELED). [CURVED.] Height of tree—feet. ' Basis. | Diameter | : iG 40 | 50 60°; 70 80 | 90 Second- igh. 5 2s ace all ee een 1 aq growth All trees. eae Volume—cubic feet. only. | Inches 5 1.9 2290.4)". FOL Sea eee Cee ees eee 29 29 6 3.9 402) hi oar S 2a] Pe Gee ee eee 98 98 7 5.0 G25) ees 7.0) Shee 9 Ole eee eee fee be eee 128 127 8 6.6 8.4) a0: 0) 4) LIES 7a ee I ee eae 165 163 9 8.5 LOL8..) yh Qa le) Sabi Nh ek eek Ree eee eee 161 155 TONE eee ee O20) 6 | NTS GY YP ct Be QIN ix eon Cee ee eee 113 103 The Bessectsree 35) )) LB Bi Une 2 aaa |e eres etree ae 78 64 Lea Reo saeetc SD} | MDDS NS es SAIN a ee see een tok cee 63 37 US ese ecee: |e esi] 2620) SIN SOE ian: sg er an mt ener 42 22 M4 syosboteedes[ho os Sec) e800) srt ye SaNON aly ac aO bo) 4ait semen eee 55 29 LD ofocce ce Sess] eee ect fel MP BATS y MP RS Boye | eet) ian eee 56 23 16 - esc. o 0 a s-|e Aee ee eS 89-0" 8A Sab 3 ols arnt EO aid sce ereede 49 18 7 | sane keel | ete ee 63.5 38 10 2 es ae tere ate Rane aS 70.0 — 44 9 19 77.0 30 6 20 83.5 ORS We? Ad es se iG eh aed PERE RG a ea te 8 90.5 Ta ee abe, Dire line eeiee aie | Saipan este eee eee 98.0 LG) Seek eS 2 Denice tgeorae te | Gece eoetel Ronen ees 105.0 1 IE) ee ean eps DA ee Pae be ois | ee crerate ictal ate eS 114.0 De eens Ps th ara eee | fee ee is S| FARA Se Te oe SA 123.0 DActe | Vote Se See po Yeged Pavan Opens be SE lf Wales pla jh a od eadbat Dt 2 131.5 et cl eme dee cee Dil are: Vers ia sete eo ne ate [Caer Ree Ree Eee 140.0 opr | Mie aie Sie QBh para Slaves Sa bearers late Bstell svete rs ieee key tems nee 148.5 Ses Se Se labs 1,226 893 1 Values within the black lines are a combination of old-growth and second-growth measurements which worked up separately gave practically identical results. NotTe.—Stumps varying from 3 foot to 1} feet high and tops above 4 inches outside bark excluded from volume. Bark=11 per cent of volume given. Data collected by Louis Margolin in 1906. THE RED SPRUCE. . 81 TABLE 40.—Cubic-fodt volume of red spruce in New Vork. [CURVED.] Total height of tree—feet. i Diameter breast 30 40 50 | 60 | 70 | 80 high. a : | Merchantable eae vachidine bark—cubic feet. Inches. (aes 3.6 4.5 5.4 G.'SF cilihs eee eR ees eel ee as ee Ti OES 4.8 6.0 7. 2 [oR ie See tS ET ee ae Se aaa 6. 2 7.8 9.3 10.9 RANI eis ate LN Ee a ee Cee at HONG 11.6 13.5 LON Dye neteeraeite ot meleyesic sis OM arse 9.5 12.0 14.3 16.8 19, 2 Zils Oo (Missi gare lpiteremrer ste arsenic so 34.4 17.2 20, 0 23.0 AO Ors TRE ae tae Mest sec Plas, tye 20.5 24.0 27.5 31.0 | SUS eerste inc Es 19.9 23.5 27.5 32.0 36. 0 12s Cae etal peter eens 23.0 21.5 32.0 37.0 41.5 enews gins in Aho Sa SS 31.5 37.0 42.0 47.5 We ees ha SA) FS BS el (So 35. 3. 41.5 48.0 54.0 [+P Tie eee Fe are Wes ay eae 49.0 47.0 54.0 61.0 Spree tee Wins Ce es a a 44.5 52.0 60.0 68.0 .0 67.0 75.0 0 74.0 83.0 } 6 81.0 §2.06 0 89.0 101.0 . 97.0 110, 6 106.0 119.0 byes ed | 114.0 120. 6 124.0 140.0 Stump height, 1 foot; top diameter outside bark, 4.5inches. Based on taper curves. Based in part ‘on measurements taken under the direction of the Superintendent of State Forests, New York, in Essex and Herkimer Counties, 1912. TasLe 41.—Cubic-foot volume of red spruce in West Virginia. [CURVED.] Is Height of tree—feet. i Diameter | | | | breast 50 | 60 70 89 | 90 100 | 110 Basis. high. ! | } Merchantable \ olume, including bark—cubic feet Inches. | | Trees Banc se Rs IESG odie ame Pega 2 oo HBS a Ea 0S Ie oD (SO uaa LDA Rea He, Nea Sy een Naas eet ba keel ge a ra pC ey PCL SO ny |e 1 TOPO: AB co Rael ET OR eeaeaees ees al Sree wan: 2 SHOns ee a ee IES aa ae gael A a er) I aL Tae 10 | 16.0 18.5 | JORGE Nake ennte || antonella | is as 19 5 22.5 PARE eel RE Va OES ya CR NE 49 | 5 26.5 29,5 SG od REC Pentie Melts 33 5 31.0 34.5 DONO Mas waa | Bake BON 49 0 36.0 40.0 44.5 PT Nall Pn eee eae 38 5 41,5 45.5 51.0 BGHOUAIA Nae We te 1 29 51 40 | 52.0 58.5 64.0 69.5 31 52.5 58.5 66. G 72.5 78.5 23 2G 3.0 81.0 88.0 24 3.0 90.0 $8.0 16 .0 160. 0 108. 5 22 5 110. 5 120.0 18 , 121.5 132.0 i8 132.5 144.5 15 144.0 157.5 6 156.5 171.0 8 169. 0 185.5 4 i820 | 200.5 5 195.0 216. 0 6 209. 0 232. 0 3 223.0 249. 0 1 237.5 265. 5 2 252.5 Z2RSN Raa cota 288. 5 302. 0 i 234.5 BBO) | Secanae 417 | Based on taper curves. Stump height, i feot: diameter outside bark of tap, 4.5 inches. Data collected by John Foley in Greenbrier Cou nity in 1903. $4949°—Bull. 544176 82 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 42.—Cordwood volume of red spruce (old-field) in New Hampshire, bark included. [CURVED.] Height of tree—Ieet. Diameter breast 40 } high, Inches. 6 0. 028 7 - 048 8 070 | 9 . 093 Bir Bit 0.155 10 115 ~137 . 160 185 TT gl Semele 164 190 217 12) Ae ee ~192 220 250 13. SIE aos Sane pera cae 252 282 1A WEE See He aes i (Pe ied) eee PE AGI RSET SNe Scene ae ey aang 348 T6RaeS ee IES Saas ioe e348 381 07 EES ee ee | 380 414 BLS iI c ae teem cue en eee | 411 447 1 Includes bark. 4 Top dame eutside bark, 5inches. Based on 711 trees, measured by T. S. Woolsey, jr., in Grafton ‘ounty 1m 1911. One cord of stacked wood equals 96 cubic feet of solid wood and bark. TaBLe 43.—Cordwood volume of red spruce (old-field) in New Hampshire, bark included. I é ms set Trees 40 feet high. Trees 50 feet high. Diameter Volume cutting Trees per cord, Volume cutting Trees per cord, | breast high. to— cutting to— to— cutting to— * 6 inches. | 4 inches. | 6 inches. | 4 inehes. | 6 inches. | 4 inehes. | 6 inches. | 4 inches. Inches. | Cord. Cord. Cord. Cord. Gb feesse ees 0: 689-5. s2coere 256) ludessomes Oi OFS ili cidineemterd 22.2 7 0.033 060 30.3 16.6 0.043 069 23. 2 14.5 8. dlvep eevee leica eee tert oetee nee rere 071 093 44.1 10.7 DO Were ecedlt eter eocalP eee eee eRICe en eL Cee 100 120 10.0 8.3 LY We edn ceca ceca nese cr aa Nee ae kaise 2) 144 7.7 6.9 WW: Neves pod A opehe baler mec eee lene nee -159 170 6.2 5.8 Trees 60 feet high. Trees 70 feet high. 6 eee ee CEOb2. tie xeee ee 1 Ap ae | ee RE oS moc omen eM ae 7 0.051 083 19.6 i 7 A | PIII AE a A no ye 5 lO SIE 8 - 088 112 11.3 (A) Rr A orig) ol Stach Ste irs| a arts 95 eee 9 ~120 139 8.3 7.2 0.150 0. 162 6.6 6.1 10 - 150 168 6.6 5.9 1 - 193 5.5 5.2 il 179 199 5.6 5.0 211 . 220 4.7 4.5 | 12 -212 . 230 4.7 4.3 243 - 256: 4.1 3.9 | 13 «245 . 263 4.1 3.8 - 266 . 289: 3.7 3.5 14 ~279 . 294 3.5 3.4 -310° 322 3. 2 3.1 | Basis, 711 trees measured by T. S. Woolsey, jr., in Grafton County in 1903, One cord of stacked wood equals 96. cubic feot'of solid wood and barir, THE RED SPRUCE. 33 TasLE 44,—Cordwood volume of red spruce (old-field) in New Hampshire, bark excluded. Trees 40 feet high. Trees 50 feet high. Diameter Volume cutting Trees per cord, Volume cutting Trees per cord, breast high. to— eutting to— to— cutting to— 6 inches. | 4 inches. | 6 inches. | 4 inches. | 6 inches. | 4 inches. | 6 inches. | 4 inches. Inches. 6 25.0 7 16.4 8 12.3 9 9.8 10 8.9 ii 6.6 NS ore Sete O804i aes 21.3 hen Die Sis Re Or tae ae 7 0,046 074 Dalat DOES Wall eor aie RST aeibs A se Pe Lone koa | eens 8 077 100 12.9 TED es i a te ete net ail ee aes ae cpa eit ah Se 9 -108 123 9.2 8.1 0.133 0.142 oe 7.0 10 . 136 146 er 6.8 162 ATL 6.2 5.8 11 161 173 6.2 5.7 190 -199 eee. 5.0 12 186 199 5.3 5.0 218 . 229 4.5 4.3 13 213 226 4.7 4.4 247 - 298 4.0 3.8 14 243 255 4.1 3.5 277 . 239 3.6 3.4 Basis, 711 trees measured by T. S. Woolsey, jr., in Grafton County in 1903. One cord of stacked wood equals 96 cuble feet of solid wood and bark, TAPER MEASUREMENTS. Changing economic conditions, due to invention, increasing demand, and decreasing supply, cause corresponding changes in logging prac- tice and mill utilization. it is essential that we have some means readily available by which volume and other tables may be revised or new ones made as these changes take place. Taper tables afford such a means by showing for each 10-foot height class and each 1-inch diameter class (breastheight diameter measured outside the bark), the diameter inside the bark at 1-foot intervals from the ground up to 4.5 feet (breastheight), and at 8.15-foot intervals above a 1-foot stump height. The allowance of 0.15 of a foot at each 8-foot section is for loss in trimming at the mill. The taper tables (Tables 45 to 49) for each of the four States are all for “old-growth” spruce, except Table 46, which is for “second-growth”’ or “old-field”’ spruce. [CURVED.] 74.35 |Basis. 66.2 | 45.9 | 58.05 m5 41.75 25.45 17.3 40-FOOT TREES. Diameter inside bark—inches. Height above ground—feet. 1 | 2 | 3 | 4.5 “os BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fee se ee oy OD SHH CO O P= GO OD MANOMDID HON HID GO OMOROrd mi DOD 00 O19 Carel C9 69 tS KO FS Co Gor 70-FOOT TREBS. rr DGSASHANAN ASS See rHPHAROMHAOMOMOMD SO ee Oe Oe OD oe Dh AHADOWMMAODOMNOD nhs RIO 6 a ee Od 6 Lee ee SAA AAS Sete et DMM HOIMOAHODWOM SSHANWISK OKA SAAS SRN ANN SAAS SordsnAss FARA AANA MAOSOMmMDONMINONO aANasissrascsaAgass ARAM ANANAANA ao AgswissrasasnaAwtisesr RS NNNANNAN SHU WSN Le OW MERE Wit e ce Neve) eee ee SNe hee CS Week cee Oh) ee ee ae seas SkySy vb WA es ie Wee eee oe af. Oe oe av 18ers THE RED SPRUCE. % OF Tasip 45.—Taper measurements (diameter inside bark) of red spruce in Maine—Contd. 80-FOOT TREES. [CURVED.] mS Tat | Height above ground—feet. Diameter | | | breast 1 “Pe 3 4.5 | 9.15 | 17.3 25.45| 33.6] 41.75] 49.9 | 58.05] 66.2 | 74.35 | Basis. high. | insta Diameter inside bark—inches. Inches. \ Trees. Ne eae 16.7 | 15.6 | 14.7 | 13.2 | 12.4 | 11.4] 10.6] 9.8 8.8 7.4 5.6 S5Ou eee. 3 USiercrre ono de lonon dso kngcd | toe seen at ONOsmoe | Wiel Ost Bai lesen 2 1 eee 19.0 | 17.8; 16.8 | 15.1 | 14.3 | 13.1 | 12.2} 11.2] 10.1 8.5 | 6.6 CE Ol | ee eae 4 Wi See 20.3 | 19.0] 17.8 | 16.0 | 15.1 |] 14.0] 13.1] 12.1 ]10.8) 9.1 7.0 4g 5a 5 NSeu sais 21.5} 20.2 | 18.9 | 17.0 | 16.1) 14.8] 13.8] 12.8) 11.5] 9.7 7.5 Se Shears 11 1M ees 22.8 | 21.3 | 20.0 | 18.0 | 17.2] 15.8] 14.6 | 13.5 | 12.2} 10.4 Ce55 (Uy teenage Hit eee Se 2 206 os = 24.1 | 22.5 | 21.1 | 18.9] 18.0] 16.6 | 15.4 | 14.2 | 12.9} 11.0 Sia ONE eae 2 2; es Doctiaorart one 2 L929 PAS TO Wie kG ai OLOM ono the 5 |e SoOule hk [eo ey: 3 PEN eee 2526) 1) 2443) 152353) 20:9 1195 9 Te Se eO lbon dip tet POU Oi 3 he 6o dees: 2 ees PON eOnO 24s Silo 2d O e20s Sa Oot oho a GAL ert LG Wa Oe 7 Wo Ge4: |e aje os 3 A as) POUL aio eo Oo oelokataeoeGat Ne Au nOn Lona Sede tel Die G.vgejecie a iui sce Diya ok) 30.6 | .28.5 |} 26.6 | 23.8 | 22.6 | 20.7 | 19.2 | 17.7 | 16.0 | 13.7 } 10.6 CaS Mii Peet ee 1 38 §90-FOOT TREES. i | | j UG eee Se) VIVO MONS 116: 8 ds. 0 7 1482 [1301 Pee a4 | 106 9.5 8.0] 6.2 4.1 | Sane Ht (eee 20.3 | 19.6 7.8 | 16.0 7] 15.1 | 14.0] 13.0] 12.3 | 11.4 | 10.2 8.6 6.5 ANa Aeon See Liteon 21.5 | 26.2 | 18.9 | 17.0; 16.1 | 14.9 | 13.9 } 13.0] 12.1 | 10.8] 9.0 7.0 4.6 1 10 )S eee 22.8} 21.3 | 20.0; 18.0} 17.1 | 15.8] 14.7 | 13.8) 12.7] 11.4] 9.6 7.4) 4.9 4 7 eerie 24.1 | 22.5 | 21.1 | 18.9] 18.1] 16.3] 15.6 | 14.6 | 13.4 | 12.0] 10.1 (era opal 3) 7 OSA open 25.3 | 23.6 | 22.21 19.9 | 19.0} 17.7} 16.5 | 15.4 | 14.2 | 12.7 | 10.6 SBD ae baka ae dee See 26.6 | 24.8 | 23.3 | 20.9 | 20.0 | 18.7] 17.3 | 16.1 | 14.9 | 13.2) 11.1 &.6 i. 7 il 7 eRe 27.9 | 26.0 | 24.4 | 21.9 | 21.0 | 19.5] 18.2] 17.0} 15.6 | 13.9} 11.8] 9.1 GhORleaeeee 21 Wee 29.3 | 27.2 | 25.5 | 22.8 | 22.0 | 20.5] 19.9 | 17.7 | 16.3 | 14.5 | 12.3 9.4 (ORs) [aa oe 7 30.6 |-28.5 | 26.6 | 23.8 | 22.9 | 21.4} 19.8 | 18.5 | 17.1 | 15.2] 12.9] 9.9 6.5 1 is j Data collected by R. S. Hosmer in Piscataquis County in 1902. BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 86 in New Tape 46,—Taper measurements (diameter inside bark) of red spruce (old-field) Hampshire. [CURVED.] 40-FOOT TREES. 4 mn oS eee Sr for) a =a uw re | = j |e Gr) es (co pasiarat Yee S Fo) es | | 38 Re fas gi | PRS Spa) o in z a ial ce gtd eee > on F Oo .| inn) Nn ] = Ae Bc 2 BS Sb A° 54 Diameter inside bark—inches. OMA MAO Nod Hig Oh OANOKN OHO OO HID OCOD CO AHO Oh O15 Ht SAS Ol ORS Pe OO19 HH HH HiISSr BBO i NSROAS HIN bs Ihe he coed HOM HOrMSASHA mae Om OOM cd HO NSrASHAC * i on he | Inches, 50-FOOT TREES. heey Ren iar OMONOHOS 060 Hi Hd 15S LINDA COIDAN Rs © sl « a we eh a ile) Sen uel ve. Ste Hid Ol SO trom mir ocoooonAANn WSrARSAA tt ot 09.69 H HIN OE o WOM ABSAR bs I ne | Or OOM HS 1D BS ri N09 St a 60-FOOT TREES. 7 OND 0 NI 0D 68 St St tr E Goer, Wage eats Man 09 00 63 HHS ID IND OOO HOIDS OA OAME NCO TTB OOr Er ODDAG bp iamye the Te) seriet vale) Te 09 OD SH aH 1919 CO CO De OOMON OID HOO HSS KD COL 00.00 CS HOOHONSONGS BSSRAKBSASSHA 5 oe eee hoe | MOMMA Or INO COMDHMWOCrNAMD OD Se A fe Sh MOOHHOOMON WWOSOM OHASHI mareict oe | = OwWAAIOOOGHAS 2 OMIWNCHronM| a 5 oh 9 ag bye laa cn ON ee rye ef eecnsdon\om: | Se eagasneds AHOMOMOMWAA a a eho te Stee rata se Ah Sa nene heehee erBeseusess oe | "easosaases (O19 SHH SHH SHH HH Fe LO SH SHH HH oH St cH Ht CMAASHADTIS = MSASHAGTASSR | Sees | ee | COMMANNAM 19 MRADSANG ISS Sesser Crs NN OM H19 00 DHSHAGAISSr wo Se Re Be Be Ee Boe Ee | SHH IND OD OMDONSD MOOSHNAMISOM Sea TINOMDAHONMINOS BHSSHAGSHSrBS Rees SS et St et et WDOmmMAoWoOMsS CAMAHSOMWOMDOOR AHOOCMOHOhMRONS | | ' NASHAGDH SONA SSHaic = Pet et es et est st et ON ie We ek as ea a Data collected by T. S. Woolsey, jr.,in Grafton County in 1903. 87 TasLe 47,—Taper measurements (diameter inside bark) of red spruce (old-growth) in New [(CURVED.] ~ 58,05 | 66.2 | Basis. Hampshire, Height above ground—feet. Diameter inside bark—inches. THE RED SPRUCH, 30-FOOT TREES, Diameter breast high, ip Lh he wh mene Or rH N09. 09 09 SH OH SH SHH 01 01 0 NOH IDOM OMORA AO HH H19 1919 ASSAAGAGKASSHAAGTIOSe Ses ASS SAG NNAN NANA SNASAANGAB SAS SHAN DIOSN wD SS NNANNNNNN ODAC HOmMMOMMMHIDONn DOM ASHriag tis Sada scrdidnwsen ds RASA ANANANAAN 80-FOOT TREES. SKNHHSSSHAANMASHSS Saas AMDOMOM HHWNANDOMHOMd NASSSHAKNHAHSSKRASS SSeS HARE MOMMA AMOOMOHr INN SSSSAAKNHNSHOKKRHSSH Seq sess SSM NN a COBHMOMMARKOOWOMAIAAOS SASSHADHHSSrASSHAG SAAS SSAA NANN ee HHAAMMMONANAHR SAHOO SSHANSA A SRASSHANDSS SSSA ASR NNNANANY HDOMAN MOH HOODIA SHAG SKrHDSSHAGTES Se AAS MANANANANA HID CO COA Ort NOD HH HH 19:19 1H ANNANAN Se Oe Br Oe te oe oe Oe oe MOM AOR AON HiQDOMm DOD * Giec) Goeit Gap) Sin) saat as a Se Tie ye Ot UP ye QO AY Oke eaas Ox rye Lac? gue tIear fe YTS Cee thesis ea Wrce AG Ge Ole a peau YUM) OT CR ona Yomi mn ea amy tie, ra. dc Us Oa tines foes eset aa BO TU NMG) A) ROLSe io fy rote sh de fet en heer te tose Stes i jam Ving © MeV ee), tant Qime tom IE Tag tags al Gp Ak ap Sma Ji, op Pe ee Sue eer eee em oe) ee ee mater) 1. Oe See See: seen rere eRe Cher ett Toe est a) cr Wee eee Tike be ae Yea bet 0s fone be ok ta eh we eee ay 8) Ce ee A) een fe ROE NY ee eg Wt ae i ee Data collected by T. S. Woolsey, jr., in Grafton County in 1903. 89 Basis. > OD CSO rt rH XH X00 SH GD [CURVED.] 82.5 Learetrartenricare Ceo ee ay fo en ised Togh eeek Wate cecate Tue eec enn Surry ean een vie Gy oy se 0 GN mee Reo oy cory (Pere LU uaa oO Ho Wn Corsten 8) Te SU SOs & SSG Uhl Cirgalinen LeaecL pak ay Lan nota ample bape a Gob Wy eb Sea i eno en EMO re Oe de ea noo Chelny See ue breed a) = ap att DEAR SEATS Oes PEDERI ero OD Ge oly OP Ge We oath” Ue! ott (Ue To GUST Ose Limp UmnittenOs. clppOmmen Oat oe pep lu Go Gb 9p a Tea AO) SO LC guerra Ce Se SMO i ee ie Cea) Oath St Geen ed A Regnier Tyee ones eit iy Oe Me haane eee AQ eneatk. Uo 0 eis le bark) of red spruce in New York. 33.6 | | 49.9 | 58.05) 66.2 | 74,35 diameter insta Height above ground—fect. THE RED SPRUCE. 30-FOOT TREES. Or Up Onno OS eee ten Cot onary aT) (Te Sosa (id 6 Dear sno Cie Lim COmOnaa Cig fattest tan ott Peet Cie treet ree Ch os Uae Cee Oe O. Wlionel ets a Oct iia art Os ted Po een oo Lerten awn nee (rlett> Aue akon Teng gl) bee (Oban ao etre tyro 5 Diu at GS ty (ethene enc eerie ste £0 (opel Us, Or D ps Um n0m Demin ADmcnUenn imc (ict te ae Sok Ost Op sue ero ee 1) ae STR ON, GSD ooh 0 te (Te US Ao ce oe mets 6 ork CR enor ester yet net oce et Paar) Die Ae ae eS eh be a ON (Rugs. {ue ep Wrath yA Oy Ap amano OF De Che Se eee hp pmo essay ete yer lak Jace eet ake eran Neo nk Ped UD) ee Gear ue pee 0) 6 0 ee GEG Uigel Wil Onn Cha. Oc RI SED et en mene) here reer Cement ae kt) Dente CO Oat de Se aa IY Of 2 Ce elt Siete 0) ei saeco 0 Geb taal Ooutlp ie Ue teat Oh) Oy 1) 200 1h Ue i Os She 9 an 0 OPTRA? mide Oho AN 69 0 69 OD SH Ht 11D FD LD 1D ret SO CO ONO eH CO CO rt CO OD SH SH 1 20) CO 6 P= P= 00 00 Gd OD CO 0D SH SHI 19 CO SOD OCOD POGOe mri HOO HOON 09 HHO Ors Pe 09 C1 O19 Si lis) Sin wey he) epi mae) slay lei me eek senmiay Sel weie Sessa Ge Doe We vlcwi ee einjei a) weno. CD SH LD LD CS b= b= CO 60 1D. 0019 40019 rH OOD O19 Hadid Sr rdaassia Seer MmMINODOMOM OOOO HON 0D WG SKK ASBBOAMAAA ob i dd wed reed ed red rd red dd BOD OD PA DO HH rt HIN Ol I~ OOO i] 40-FOOT TREES, 50-FOOT TREES. Diameter inside bark—inches. SHO) ON ra © 00 5 1 SH WOM OMHOMmN Tassie 48.—Taper measurements ( eylepa esta, onl oe 2 ee eo) re, auntie, SOW HAMANN 1D Ob OM Ori Oo AO HN OO Hrs COLD AN OD MoS HASSHAA SOS ees HOOD OY rH Sd 00.6010 CO GD 00 I Fe ee ed OOIDHAHAMMANNH OO ret eld eS St ts 09 OD NI ON NIN C8 OD XH Sy OROnN co tH CON AN Nod 09 HI co Or De ns Oe oe en en oD SODDOOOnN re OOO rica 10 WOOOMM ODD Bebe le) See ne apis) J 0) ue SHOWA RDORMN HID 00 Be FO eB rn he Ba OOOMr-OOMNAHE- Oc Torah Lge Uke ied Can ae Ie OVS COD Ht SD OO SH el Be cH 1 001 1 OO avira rdinyil ete a iole Aeaeeln ep ne cero « otal ale tek egare Be et re Fs ee 1 es | 10) SH OY ri G2 OD SD UD OY) rt SD De SH 1 © 0019) 1D SD P= 00 CO Od) © 4 CY OD OD HL CO Ds D~ 00 Sess Sseqneie OOiaHW WMMANN MI OOOD OO BSNAPS Acid dS SrGsIS PSS SSS srt el MOMNAA COD 69 HINO OM ODO OMORMOMN HDC ORSON Sess Ss sSNA DAAWOAWDDOANA HID 0COOO319N ~O INA AS Hed ASSN OG raed wi [Porat ON See SS a Sm Soe eH NR OOD OMAN HRY OOD iN [AASHA MBO ASHA HSS Oe eae etisalat OS ANN (ea onke SU sa the WE ede eae areas Gee mooe gO Basis. 70-FOOT TREES. Height above ground—Feet. Diameter inside bark—Tmehes. BULLETIN 544, U. S&S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 90 TabLy 48.— Taper measurements (diameter inside bark) of red spruce in New York—Contd. AMI OU AHO MOM AM~M HOW ON Br eB oe HONDONOHHE HH MOOMOO WBN AKBASHAN Me BidwWenn rir retest et rst rte WMASCHAHOOANDOSBOMmHHMmION WN paren ewe Cie Ne jee ere een y= Le Te ed et at rs DMmMIASMINSMINNOM Wei oco a ee IE CC HORE a Pe te EL es eg pec we ee Se ree Bn OO Oe Oe oe Be Dh OD) rt S00 109 019 OI OD CO 1) 01) © 09 19 0 1D RASIHS ANG GT iG Se OAGS Si Ser Oe Oo Me te Oo Bo et oS TO | INGHAM ONANHOOODOOMM- OD DDDHBOMAHONDOMMDOMOR BASHA SOASSKASHAB BOE OHH aaa DE OO A OH ODES rt 1 OD HO OY SGSHAANMSSMASHAA EH SHSAN St St NNN ONIN NO ae es se Guts tht), a ene Aloe Geet 80-FOOT TREES. DD 19 OF OV OD De 29 019 et OD De SC 1 OD HMOANANAOOCOMOODY™ OO 00 GS A AY tt) BS CO © 8929) CO © 1 CO OD PE RP a ee isk ee ee ee Noe ie ee ae PADOMAMONGD HN O1dg 00 ASH HSSSKKHHSASSSSAG Bs Oh oe I oe oe DADANHOMO HON MO KOOAD WESHMHASHSSS Hrinosed ts Be eB on Do on Dn I 0D DO 0 O10 41 00 SH SH HO Se Dt Do Dh SH OO O00 OP Hr COIN NA DON re Se et fn Bo Oo oe Dh oa DS H19 0%) © CO 19 6) G> CO SH CY OD De St eH Epp Cin ee ete gee rey yer eed Mad nt mak nek ee CUE OM eek e Rial y elven par, ere tg trl lea pe AE) BGISHAG BAO MAGDS ae TAS SSN AV 69 09 HD 6 6 DP CO GO NN SH COCO ODA HI OOD ei HOON ido daSriciswsHsia tr OR NNN NON NOD OD THE RED SPRUCE, 91 TasLE 48.—Taper measurements (diameter inside bark) of red sprucein New York—Contd. 90-FOOT TREES. —— - Height above ground—Feet. Diam- 2 i Ser 1 | 2 | 3 | 4,5 | 99 | 17.3 2549 33.6 475 49.9 )s805 06.2] 71.35 82.5 |Basis. high. Diameter inside bark—Inches. | Inches. Trees ee S79 13800) 0903) | Des 110.7 | 10:1 | 96) 90 | Saws 6.2) 4.9)! 34h -2 I. 13__.] 15:1 | 14.1 | 13.3 | 12.2) 11.5] 10.9] 10.4] 98! 89] 7.91 68| 5.41 3.7|...... 1 Hee Gaon aN toe Qe lta 4 | 13807) 1283.) 117 thee 105 | GG So eS be SeSel 4.0 oo]. 3 15) 17-4 P16: 4 15.5 | 14.21 13.9"! 12°5)| 12:0: 11.31 10:3) 921 79) 631 4.4 /...2-- 1 16_..| 18.7 | 17.5 | 16.6 | 15.1 | 14.0 | 13.3) 12.7] 12.0) 10.9] 9.8] 85] 68] 4.8]..__- 3 17__.| 20:0 | 18:7 | 17.6 | 16.0] 14.8 | 14.1 | 13.6 [12.7111.6]| 10.4] 9.0] 7.2) 5.11]...... ib Bl 212i 3 1958 | 18.7 | 17. 0°) 15.6 | 14.9) 14.3) 1S 4 S67) b4 el! 16 19: _.| 22:7 | 21.0} 19.8} 18.0] 16.5 | 15.7 | 15.1 | 14.2) 131] 41.7] 10.1! 84) 5.7 )....-- 15 20...| 24.1 | 22.3 | 20.9 | 18.9 | 17.2] 16.5] 15.8 | 14.9 | 13.7}12.3] 10.6] 8.5] 6.0].....- 8 M"...| 25.5 | 23.5 | 22.0 | 19.8 | 18.0] 17.3 | 16.6 | 15.6 | 14.4] 12.9111.2] 9.0] 6.4 ]___... 5 92. __| 26.9 | 24.8 | 23.1 | 20.8 | 18.8 | 18.2] 17-3 | 16.3 | 15.1 | 13.6] 11.71 9:4] 6.7 |._._.. 13 93__.| 28.4 | 26.0 | 24.2 | 21.7] 19.7 | 18.9] 18.1 | 17.1 | 15.9 | 14.2]12.3] 9.9] 7.0 ].___.- 2 24__.| 29.8 | 27.3 | 25.4 | 22.7 | 20.5 | 19.8) 18.9] 17:8] 16.5 | 14.8] 12.8] 10.4] 7.4 ].__... 1 pedal 21) 28u 6) 2616: 23) 6| Ot 4a | 2085, W1OnA | USLG Wea Daletsena | toeAnle MONS 77 Wa Wi een Sona 20001 O72 8 | 94.61) 22.2 | 21. 4) 19084) 19F3) | S60!) Test P1869) 1. 35) SiO ice ons 79 100-FOOT TREES. Aen Gell ta (ese 4 | 3N Oh 1S) atk 8) | dal. Sal dOn7 bY ON SA SUFI WAG le GES 48) Sle ak: ela Towds | Aes |e Sw | 26h) 12a | Wea 1049. 4nl soi 6.95] Bes | g27 [Lal DG 18h) VSN 166 | 15) 1) || 13.9 | 13) 45 | 12)8 | 12:2 | 119 400) 8s) 4) 5s) “aa illo. 17...) 20.0 | 18.7 | 17.6 | 16.0 | 14.7 | 14.2] 13.6] 12.81 11.9] 10.8) 9.5] 80] 63] 44] 12 18__.| 21.3 | 19.8 | 18.7 | 17.0] 15.5 | 15.0 | 14.3 | 13.6] 12.7] 11.5|10.3] 8.6] 6.8] 47] 2 19_..| 22.7 | 21.0] 19.8 | 18.0 | 16.4 | 15.8] 15.1 | 14.4] 13.4] 12.2] 10.9] 9.2] 7.3] 5.1] 1 20...| 24.1 | 22.3 | 20.9] 18.9 | 17.2 | 16.6 | 15.9 | 15.1] 14.1]12.9/] 11.5] 9.8] 7.8] 5.6] 2 21_..| 25.5 | 23.5 | 22.01 19.8 | 18.1 | 17.4 | 16.7] 15.9 | 14.8 | 13.6} 12.2] 10.4} 83) 5.9]....-. 22__.| 26.9 | 24.8 | 23.1 | 20.8] 19.0] 18.3 | 17.5 | 16.7] 15.6 | 14.3 | 12.3|/10.9] 38] 63]..--.. 23...| 28.4 | 26.0 | 24.2 | 21.7 | 19.9 | 19.1 | 18.3 | 17.41 16.31 75.0) 13.5/116| 931 67) 1 24___| 29.8 |°27.3 | 25.4 | 22.7] 20.8 | 20.0 | 19.1 | 18.2] 17.1 | 15.8] 14.2)12.2) 98] 7.1] 1 25...) 31.2 | 28.6 | 26.6 | 23.6 | 21.7 | 20.8 | 19.9] 18.91 17.8! 16.4] 14.9]12.9]10.4] 7.5] 1 26...| 32.7 | 29.9 | 27.8 | 24.6 | 22.6 | 21.6 | 20.7 | 19.7 | 18.5 | 17.2] 15.61 13.4 ]10.8] 7.91 2 10 Data coliected in part under the supervision of the Superintendent of State Forests in Essex and Her- kimer Counties in 1912, iginia. [CURVED.} aa $8.8 West Vi 90.95 Sanh Tks era, i a cd roe 4 oi eee eae ok Rep tha thay wee Ake A BS By (0s ee INP fe cral oti eae.) te fe lite oe” we a SI Phe Nts Cert p et he Pd| NO Piette ed het else ei ye ee ee eee Coat are Be a. ata (Patera te car 50-FOOT TREES. Height above ground—Feet. Diameter inside bark—Inches. agit eto piney 53 Pt a ete ent Ce cer reer OO sh st 19 SOc 09 O P= 0) © & xt 8 7 > 4 ' . ' . 10) OO O =H a! CF] rea ‘ . ie aa) MLE Ae SD Che heugt MPCbeiLs eC esate =D on ‘ Aen ei ane Nee ae oan (ee At O himtiete 1h arr Saha eee ' Ceecipery # Pe Pw Cres rao ‘ deni ' Pombo bin ce ert ‘ Cheats SCE oon essa? OS un een Th att tte es en Crear SeCl ao saben! ' th ete ys Ouest oe chee Dongs (Pay ate pee net Gane ie fiectie Oe See a (eno, Sheet aCeaiaeseett| hoe ee Cg eae Stentor Met Pina pt ste ee ek ere ' , ee a es ' Cee emt eet lease OS ce £5820 ‘ Die Re MCP Coe Micra . ‘ (oni. soe TG . NOD 09 OD SHS SHA 1D NIX OD HOO co Hg Or OW AMON DSO N O19 BED ADIOS E00 (O71 iy He OQ (9490 Sr HHS ae EES. i 60-FOOT TRE 3 | 4.5 °. 15/178 [b.so|29.6 1.75 4.0 58. 05 co. 2.25 50.5 Be 0 OUD 19 10 SH tH SH SHANSHSANS SrHRAASHAC Se es oo Ee | Nea Om oip st MOAASHANA Sseaaea MADSAAG HID tt a it 70-FOOT TR | 2 | BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1 high. breast Cr Aaoiad raid MHI NNAN OO rst se =) Lor~naoonan meer Tasie 4).—Taper measurements (diameter inside bark) of red spruce in 92 | Diarneter | OROnNAG ISS aes ID ID 1D 1D DOOD 0 ORISHA M td iva) SS) a's) SS oD > i S a2 e a 3 S S a > 8] od 2 19 “— oD = ¢ oa . o> 2 digs Se q 1 std A te) ' ‘so Pa aH 3 4 GD 1 = al o Oo -s 4 > ° bho a < S) aa) Ss 6 2 Dd) wea ie sar & iS ) oe) = 8 Oo 20 a “3 QD Oo es ee Ss as : SE K ~% 5 al iS 4 S ° S aos § 19 D =~ s aes 3 S < a) = a ieee S Se i) Bi ees | os es 1 tt o * Se B aad 4 ee = oa sl a fs Inches. DO DOM AOD N19 SOO MONG) B19 O & 00 NO SAN GG id 6 OAS ol Nod Gs DOG AHANAN Cea 1 SSeS Dt Eas mn eer amen pean yay Seno Abe Ltaea rae lien bee teagan eel ay Nie areata ean) Data collected by Jonn Foley in Greenbrier County, 1903. 94 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, STAND TABLES. Tables 50 to 53 are all stand tables for the spruce slope type and serve as a rough basis for comparison between the four States within which the red spruce principally occurs. The principal associates are balsam, yellow birch, beech, hemlock, sugar maple, and red maple, with incidental arborvite, white pine, and numerous hardwoods. These vary much from one place to another. Tasie 50.—Stand of spruce and associates on spruce slope type in Maine—Average stand for 20 acres, culled} [{ Data collected by R. S. Hosmer in Squaw Mountain Township in 1902.] Diameter breast high. Number of trees per acre. GARG Wicca e pocies, Spruce. spon Total. Inches. SER eae SE DRA is Seana Masa BT 67.90 26. 55 94, 45 PPS SUAS Eloy ae Pe CA ae ey a Ai eA a aN a 63. 65 27. 40 91. 05 PS ie | apee gies Satie acct baie AR yas Ee i 8 47. 25 20. 40 67. 65 AA Se OE Rea ae ne eee 31.05 13. 00 44, 05 laa ep eeee Ae PRE Eee ooo MS BL on 20. 40 9. 25. 29. 65 GE ee OR Sek ee See ae 16. 20 §. 95 235 GS Be RR Ss 2 ee 12. 65 4.35 17. 00 BE Sah US CRA Td he Oe es 9. 70 3. 85 13. 55 OF! SBR OS hs See Se 5.75 2.49 8.15 TOS, eSl8. ELIS ee SA BE 5.10 2.35 7.45 de ees ge Se UE a eee te 2. 55 1.95 4.50 j 7 Aes 2 pe ee 9 AR sem 9 BR |) ae CO NS SG 3. 05 1. 20 4,25 6 A Se ed OE A i Oe | 15 -95 3. 10 ph See: Be eet Pe 8 8 ee Ge 8 1.15 1.40 2. 55 Ff appa eae ee (3 BRA a Sk TE Oe ah 1. 40 . 90 2.30 VG ts 2 hs ae ee UB NE 1.35 . 65 2. 00. WGP A555. 1h OSE: We ES Te | . 85 .40 1, 25 1 bot eva e) ook 6 § Ded eae ff Say SEE aE ABT ae Y | . 60 . 40 1. 09 1D so. SELB BEI aE ek. Eee 70 . 40 1.10 De ote LCR ee a Oe TN ee 30 40 .70 DA AS UES IER ANE Sy oes ae oe puts: . 20 .35 7 Re sd | 8 WM wai ee Sas WER 5 ap le} u38 - 50 VA Re ie aha ae oh OB Seat Bh bee els is eS SAN f als .10 +20 DATS sok lhe MEE SUE: ES er te - 05 won - 30 pe aeRO UN MB ee Yea Me Oe NY Bid Ba eo BS 2 . 05 . 05 Soe ee RO Sr ey A ie en GU Aa Oo Ag Cee lh 05 . 05 DH i wadid de hhh Bodos oh ape ek NEA 8 SRP RT tre ete ote et eee | eee ASS Seer ae 6 Srp ais ee en oRege oe ie eS oles eas 2D asa stererararsreretiaiatsidpelavs. ooh else PRS ROU ERE eE ne - 05 . 05 Ua ae ener acters aMin eens er Siem Noa Ce) (6 [Die aoe - 05 . 05 5 5 a mee ene cma a Pn Pe aA Le Py OY SOE ee aa notecOsysaccaceds D2 inom ois obisiors os oeceins Some e sense hee aoe .05 -05 Borah aot ty Bob) ee ae Rae 294, 25 126. 30 420. 55 . Trees 10inches and over........-.... 19. 70 opal 31. 85 Trees 12inches and over...........- 12. 05 7, 85 19. 90 Sq. fi. Sq. fi. Sq.ft. | Per cent. Total Basaliarea.. 3/5. 2S et 41.5 23.6 - 65.1 36 Trees 10 inches and over...........-. 19.5 14.5 34.0 43, Trees 12 inches and over............- 15.0 11.9 26.9 44 1 Culled 30 years before, removing trees with a total basal area of 4.2 square feet; culled 5 years before removing trees with a total basal area of 33.3 square feet; culled 1 year before, removing trees with a total basal area of 16.5 square feet, TasiE 51.—Stand of spruce and associates on spruce slope type in New Hampshire— THE RED SPRUCE, Average stand for 65 acres. . [Data collected by A. K. Chittendenin Waterville Township in 1903.] Diameter breast high. UE Foy Fa Aa ge CN a HAC ee ee Brees 10inches and over...........- Frees 12inches and over.........._- Rota basalareg si. 2s se eae | Trees 10 inches and over............. Trees 12 inches and over..........-.-| Number of trees per acre. , Other Spruce. species. Total 22. 20 19. 96 42.1 45. 51 12. 01 27. 52 14, 28 12.08 26. 36 12. 94 10. 59 23. 53 il. 20 8. 21 19. 41 10. 48 6. 76 17. 24 10. 45 6. 83 17. 28 Ti. 14 5. 18 16. 32 il. 03 5. 39 16. 42 10. 29 3}, BY 13. 86 10. 38 3. 08 13. 46 9.12 2. 64 11. 76 9, 22 2. 44 11. 66 a 5e) 1.91 9. 43 7.89 1, 62 9. 51 5. 80 1.21 7. 01 5. 12 Siyalds 6. 23 3. 40 . 90 4.3) 2.48 - 95 3. 43. 2. 34 . 84 3.18 1.18 . 66 1.34 . 68 Bo . 99 45 . 28 aide .29 -18 47 ill - 23 ~ 34 Als) wl 27 09 - 04 13 as ee 05 . 05 ies . 05 2 95 EAN Neg) ud ae . 02 . 02 Bee SaaS >02 . 02 ps ape ee . 02 - 02 cet: SESS . G2 02 i — 195.74 | 109. 28 | 305. 02 87. 54 27. 86 45. 26 66. 22 18. 79 84, 92, Sq.ft Saft Sq. ft 122.4 45.3 167.4 104. 2 ai3)\7 137.9 91.4 28,4 119.3 86 BULLETIN 54, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste 52.—Siand of spruce and associates on spruce slope type in New York—Average stand for 37 acres. [Data collected by R. S. Hosmer in Township 40, Hamilton County, in 1900.] Number of trees per acre. eee Bere Se Other Diameter breast high. Hite species Spruce. species. Total Inches. Per cent. Laer Se era Stare ree oy ae ES I toes 12.35 0. 95 13. 30 1; G3 SO SS Sue Oe Utne ee emee aoe 9.55 .46 9. 81 5 Monciars asp Suis bee Mak meh ace ase eae 7. 86 - 22 8.08 3 a Tee Sa Me OR or Bn ea ep k 6.57 14 6. 71 2 Qo ah a ORE ED ae cee San ea 6. 24 - 22 6. 46 3 EG se Sie ee 2 le eats co RS rh 5. 05 -e2 5.37 6 Boia te Fel RR LEE Oe Se ACE le ie ees 4,57 .19 4.76 4 AE SRE RAN RCP AS SRE IRS eS Pe Oa e TS 2. 81 2. 23 6. 04 37 DBR ha SAW oe Wycelre Pe See Heres 3.41 1.53 4, 94 31 Te es SO ek BL eet gears aos nS S45 1.92 5. 27 3 Poses tes sotowc ein eetaiete me aan eo ereias 2.22 1.61 3. 83 42 1 seats Apap omnia ee bias AEM i 2. 03 1. 46 3. 49 42 Wi iced ae ape ke eee eae fo es 1.65 1, 20 2. 85 42 1: x ayo a SaaS eA Ems cept te ee La 1.19 1.65 2. 24 47 TU OS eek RN Rl Se It . 84 1:08' |) ele 87 55 87 1.57 55 89 4. 21 74 - 59 -78 75 70 .78 90 54) . 62 87 3 - AL $3 41 41 100 . 21 + 26 81 -16 -16 100 “2 2m 100 - 05 - 05 100 - 03 - 03 100 - 03 - 03 100 - 03 - 03 100 - 03 - 03 100 Motel’ Sk ee es coe 71. 94 19.67 | 91.61 21 Trees 10 inches and over...........- 29. 57 17. 68 47. 25 37 Trees 12 inches and cver...........- 19. 95 17.17 37. 12 46 Sq. fl. Sq. ft. Sq. fi. | Per cent. Totalspasalvanen kee acre se cman ie 41.6 31.3 72.9 43 Trees 10 inches and over............- 31.0 30.9 61.9 50 Trees 12 inches and over............. 2an2 30.6 55.8 55 THE RED SPRUCE. 97 Taste 53,—Stand of spruce and associates on spruce slope type in West Virginia—Avere age stand for 100 acres. [Data collected by John Foley in Greenbrier County in 1902] | | Number of trees per acre. OF oa at ee a ares EO a ae Other Diameter breast high. ee species. Spruce. species. Total. Sa ee py a Hie . eo Inches. Per cent. Bee CCE aE Cee Ee eee Eee 17. 65 11. 06 28. 11 3 Sey rea) Pasay Oh aire Nie Sela Siw care See 18. 92 12.19 31.11 39 Oe oa iwiniiaininve eisieeressionnee 20. 44 10. 95 31.39 35 cog ees C ES Soe See ere 14. 01 8. 22 22. 23 37 SEES e CBB OE BE SERIE ene eine taney steers 9. OL 6. 70 15. 71 43 eSB Oe AA OR OE Ee Ce aa ee rese 6. 03 4. 94 10. 97 45 Bg each oS is cbisievae us IOI 5.19 3. 87 9. 06 43 Sidon TSO SCRE eee emer eee 4, 24 3.17 7. 41 43 arte MEV S Ss Seka se cS eRe Se ES 2.95 2.36 5. 31 44 He Se ees Goa ES SOR AEE Eee 2.79 2.49 5. 28 47 ACaSESe SARE BC DSRS Ee Ee EEE: 1. 93 1.51 3. 44 44 Se hese Ee OE OTe ene Dee eee 5 7A 1. 59 3.30 48 Sodade Can se et Cee Sea Aeaee eee 1.56 1.35 2.91 46 Bs erate an eee Be tees eaten 1.55 1.36 2. 91 AT Be eaten Se RE 1.35 1. 27 2. 62 48 SSS oe ae Re SE ec aia 1. 20 - 95 2.15 44 Ne tere epav a ee eae raIse Die aw cioiets ain seh oe 1.10 99 2. 09 Ae Bd EHS GORA RIE PDE E BEE ee BOS ile ig 83 2. 00 41 Sets thar ES ean 5 aa Noa aE 84 | 84 1. 68 50 BES COPE EC Ee fete eae oie tae te ert 88 81 1. 69 48 RUNS a eAens PRG yoink ee yk dal ry . 85 . 76 1. 61 47 PNR A seis ES ahah ae Biome ke INR OR A RT ade 73 . 56 1.29 47 BEBO OS O COCR ECORI Eon ay maar ear 44 . 65 1.09 60 2 a oIIS ORS RAC CRE CR Ee een ees . 56 . 65 ie PAL 54 Ra octal se is te ayia elas BES - SIS 55 39 - 94 41 SS EBA OBOE CES COO SC RIOC CPE pre ers 33 37 - 70 53 Sa HES ERIS E Bi Scie ree eh aR re eee 38 36 . 74 49 Po pesee ee Sou EEE OR Bee 27 4q . 68 60 Seaton are ae eS as a 11 - 28 39 (2 Be do RE ABOS oS ott ALC te CARTERS ESS 23 578) . 46 50 See MS Pee ose le. Lae ee 12 . 24 OOurt 67 BPR Sa eran serena eR Mr ly APA 2 ES, 04 +28 neve 87 Bee eat ae ney a ae 16 09 -19 47 mi Re Ee SERS Cis oi ee oe eo ae tn 03 ON . 30 90 See eels eater ter Ser in tcl = iat s,s ise 03 1155 18 83 ti nctandes fo beb Se oaee Un ooe Eee oe 02 . 08 10 80 RT St im ted Se SUES OS ts) IN NS 03 - 03 100 3 OES SE Se ae res i IS I a oe am TEP ee A: CS 08 -08 100 Bete hs Pasi ana ree. SoSH. San ae eeeoe 01 .O1 100 eS ES SBOE SERS SIENA Ee ah AS a Ol 01 100 Fae ra NPS Seek ap coy yet apn \n aM hake Agee 01 01 100 5 SEE RU See eae Se AS ee Ga Re ta a 02 . 02 100 Movslistandes sane ees ee he ; 118. 71 83.38 202. 09 41 Trees 10 inches and over...........- 20. 87 19. 92 40. 79 49 Trees 12 inches and over...........- 16. 15 15. 92 32. 07 50 Sq. ft. Sq. ft. Sq.ft. | Per cent. MotalibaSsalwanes 85 32/5 jh ow asi csae 43.6 45.7 89.3 51 Trees 10 inches and over._.._..._. sal) oS 39.1 73.4 53 Trees 12inches and over............- 31.5 36.7 68. 2 54 84949°—Bull. 544—17——7 BULLETIN 544, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 98 P “HN (JOT Joyo) ARIS “HN “31818 ‘HN ‘Q0T AWN) UvlT 4saM "HN ‘(joy wed \ H004u0 q) MUNG a [N (aerW 488M HN ‘(oy weg yo0ju0g ) ee ani‘ (emnyseg [[equt quowis{140¢ AeAoTyO. ae ‘od ‘og 0d ‘ay ‘(Ui Iey UMOIg) jyueuey}e9 LeMOoTOSseyL “OW ‘(07 [[oMIBY 101107) TOUJOT ay ‘(JoFsioMOg WeUl -2aig) WXOOUNIN “F “OW *(10'T 1oyaoI1) ) MUL “Fh OW ‘oT UMoIg) Ujooury “aolyR00'T “(LE 92qQD7,) 2990} ppark ,,pjay-pjo,, wa yymoub-puoaas ay} wof sisng Dv sp pasn vjvop 2o)d ajd wns e[qey pers sonads ¢: aa Zz" a 20°0 “9910 F |'spsog “Realy 09 °S6T | OF6 ‘ tr Pigne J] OOL) (6) YsttIo | %° | 0°89} FOL"P | Ogs'9s | FG | G8 | 96 | 9° | 0'8 | 00-222 | goesT | OA-gea | OL"Goz | OGE | OSG | OLE | Gee | SeL Ts EO Oe aes G | GES) PhS | SELES | PS | LA | P'S | BA | SL | OLB) GP-OAT | OL 42a | OL'19S | O24 | O88 | OOF | 069 | S68 TL | 14 | ge UIQ 10) Peyaeld | 0° | 9:28 | Baby Qo9'et | Sk | 9'°9 | Fz | SL | 0°9 | OB TIS | OZ OST | OF TST | OZ-ccz | OZO‘T | O88 | OFG | OO | OZE'T| IE | 1S | $e od, ; §&° | 00S] Tg9S°¢| g4e‘6t! Tg | O24 192 | BL 1G°9 | 48°Shs | 00-96L | 4L°Gae | F4A'98a | OTS‘T| FOG | 419 | 22 | PEa‘T| FIL | 08 | ge "AN ‘Cited | urq 109) Peace GB" | 4°98 och ‘b | 996‘ZE | TE | 9°9 | 84 | 14 | 09 | 99°F6L] BI'GhL | 99°S9OT | Of'PGS | OIG‘T|0Z8 | Zer | 309 | OFT‘L| IIE | 29 | 2g Ht: ‘Go use )meyeID | ge | Beh | eo" | tee | 4b «| 92 | T'S | 4°4 | 89 | 80°00] ze 191 | OS g6T | 99F2z | OST | Osa | esr | OTD | 968 it Ge ane ‘od GB" | p'€9| TL8°9 | S90 | 29 | 9°6 | GOT] S6 | 6S | GL 166 | POET | 00286 | 9acrS | Pee | BPP | OEE | Org | dog Tr | 2 og 0d B° | G'e9 | 8289 | S162 | AG «| 18 1 8°8 | 18 | L°2 | 0OBPS | O8E6T | OE -GEs | ST-69G | G9E | G49 | Gor | OL | ges IT | #9 | 6 ae GS" | 4°98 | G48°E | OG‘ST | OF 1 FL |0°8 | GL | 69 | PO FLL] PO OPE | FA°6LT | Z6'P0Z| 89E | PSG | POP | FBG, | BBL TI | G2 | 86 “HN | todeiq) wmeyyurrp | Gz | 18g | Go4‘G | 9904S | 29 | 82 19°83 | AL | SL | S6R6T| OE LHL | Sa'eTS | Bs tes | FOL | ZG | e9g | sco | SEL iy 2) | Bee “HN ‘Go ueorp )meyjueID | G2 | ese | PPeih | OTE TE | 2h | #9 | 12 | 69 | 89 | 96°20G| 96°SPT | OGELT | Bards | G49 | 726 | go | 999 | 8OP'T| IL | eo | 9% ag. | GTP | 269°b | See‘ol | OF 189 |G | 174 | GO | OF Gas | OP T9T | S890 | Gor9Z | GGG | S06 | Ose | SPL | GOs‘t | TIL | 19 | ge "HN ‘(joerg asnow QMO) Md) 92° | BOF | 208 | SesPL| Ar | 99 | TL | OL | TO | g"9EG | CO'BLT | OZ 90g | BT'99G | 0D6 | FOOT | HPO | OLL | O6C'T | TIT | TL | 76 0d I’ | T74¢ | 966°9 | OG40 |! 0G |T2 | 82 | G2 | 9°9 | O6'FLS | 09 Y6L | OF 89S | OF FOE | Oc | 066 | 009 | OF6 | OLZT| IT |c9 | 8 “HN “(qoB1g, OXTd) gee I’ | ¥°8% | oleh | 01252 | OF |2°¢ |€9 |9°9 | BF | OG-SEt | OS'EZT | O9-ZFT | OG'sOS | O24 ‘a | OZE‘T | OFS | O29 | OTEZ} TIE | O¢ | ce HN (07 wunieyaes) ByOUH | Si | oe | 89G'F | LOL FT | 4h «| 89 | FL | SL | 49 | G6 °GET | L8°6GT | 28 °GeT | €e'39G | 490°T | 402 | OFF | OFO | Lee"T| IIE | 39 | 12 “0d et | 6°62 | 069% | OOL‘SE | SF «| 9°9 | FZ |eu4 aot e8"e1z | 28191 0 BS{ aoe a \ 188 | org | 299 A anes Ir |e | 02 “2A ‘(Q0'T eH) A011 GL | LS | soe“ | 992°%2 | 19 | 82 | FS | 8% | FL _| OF GSE | ON SOT | 24-208 | 02 Ezz | 008 \ £69 «| OFF «| 029 ng Ir | € | 61 “HN ‘GOT Sie ‘ ‘ : «a S| e108 ; : LL‘@81 | 16°C6L | OFT LPP | GF urreng ysen) yreigf| & | 8% ley Pan'0g pS | 18 v6 4 aye Dl L9°OLT | 28 el on -s/t | OB-28L | 214 J] OFF | £62 Ale 9c \ I |9F | 80 ‘od G0" | 2-4g | 989°¢ | 00024 | 99 106 |F6 | G'S | 92 | OF FOZ | 00'TET | 09'Es | 09°02 | O8L | O9F | OOF | 029 te Pg te ‘AON a a ks ‘ ‘ eee aaa ae . i OL S9T | $8°90% | Sag } CS G3 } | ‘Gort SMOpIM) sags] © | 88 | Gere | OST PE] TS | 9% | FB | LL | £9 | OC OPT | 08°40T)) og-For | oc-tog | ez f| SOF | 082 dave 0z8 Il | eg | 9t PARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 4, US DE ot BULLETIN AdOO Wad SLNWO Lv ‘0 ‘d ‘NOLONTHSV AL GOMIO ONILNIUd LNGNNUAAOD SEINTWOA00d AO INAGNTLNIYAIAS THL WOU GHAANOUd AA AVW NOIMVOITANd SIHL IO SHIdOO TIVNOILLIGGY “IOYING OY} YIIM Woryesoge][oo UT 44011019 *q “AA Aq TI6T Ul PoInseourer pues ddTAJOg 4Se10 7 oy Aq poyst{qeyse AtsnotAcid sqoxd otdures yuoaemaed ore sj0O[d g SuTMIeMIOIOyY, “1OqINVeyI puv 1oyoJeTq “Cd “A AQ OT6T Ul paj}oa][0d 910M Tg 0} [ sjoqd uo eyep oy, : *poayerno gOU SBA plo sivod OF WEY} Ssot S}OTd Jo pjotA oy,y, “— osed ‘27 ofqey, “¢ pue ‘“F “g soJOUJOO] UT payVoIPUL ASO} Sv OUIS OY} GIOA\ SJUOMMAINSvOMT 9S9T TOF S}TMMIT JoJUTeIp fore e Ps *passoiddns o10M [[@ JBU} WNSY JoDIe] 9} :pvop o19a\ payer OS Sde1} OY} [[B VY} SOUUINssB SoINSY OM} OG} JO Jo][eUIs OUT, “10430809 payye} A[JTo}.10A peut soo17 ,,pkop pue passoiddns,, Mou} eAey somMsy o[qnop oy} oaey YoU sjord oy < *poyljMept ATMO ULUTOD JSOUL SVAN JE YO WIT AqTenb 4eyy 07 pousisse AT]BuY jord sy} puke spioo tI pure 400} OIGNO UL “A90F PlvOd UL QUINOA JO PUG ‘1OJOWIVIP YSTY-Jsvoiq osVIOAR JO “VYSIOY 9sVloArw jo ‘Voie [BSeq [e104 JO Siseq oY} UO Ajo}viVdes PoltMJo}ep JsIy sBar AZTTeNb ozs oy, 1 | | { “Od &° | FSS | OFS ‘S | OFD ‘0G so | 69 | GL | SL | FO | 06 9FS | OT 0S | S082 | $9 69 0°6 GLL C6L ect‘T | Ir | ¢¢ ed's'd ‘Od 6° | 1 8P 6IT‘¢ SPS St | PS 162 1|G°2 | Gh | OL | $9 01S | Sh°S6T | 06 26E | Sc “STs cr. cro CEO SGA. Uh Bie 7h gS. OS d'S'd ‘Od T° |G 19 | G@I9 | O86 GE] 69 | TS 198 | SB | GL | OF 16S | OF ET | 0G Gz | OS TEs 029 OSF 039 | If |} 99 | S8td'S'd “od 1” | F'TS | O86 ‘F | OST ‘9z | 69 LIL | TIL! TIL | 6 OT | 02 O9T | OG'O9T | OZ “O9T | O9 TOT OFS OFG OSG Ir | ¢9 | ZU d'S'd ‘0d | G* | 8°88 | 2268 | 920‘°8T | 99 | 88 | 86 | 26 | S'S | PE TST | ST SPT | 82 LET | 9E "SCT Nita 90E PIP TET 3}.89) 9 *d'S'd ‘od Gc’ | 6 Pr | 299‘h | Zo 0S | FS «=| O'S | PR | P'S | LL | OLESTL | SELL | SL °FAT | 06 LST 0Z¢ GSP Peo -| ITE | 99 td 'Sid “Od G° | @°9¢ | €@8‘S | OTS ‘Fe | FS 62 138 | 68 | 92 | OL 986 | FL SIZ | CL FES | PO SHS 969 06S Z9L It | s9 G‘d'S'd ‘THN “Xieq wiqi09 G* 1 0°GS | 980°S | OFL'FS | 246 | F6 | 46 | 2°6 | 6S | 9810S | ST -96T | #8 °66T | 00°60 SIP GSE 98 II | $9 T'd'sd “0d G* | O'8S | Z82‘S | GI8 ‘se | 9¢ GS 24| es T'S | 674 | 06°16 | 09 °66E | OS PFS | 06 SSS 009 CLP } OFL Tit | &6 Tg Od | @° | 2°29} 169‘9 | O9¢‘1g | 0S | 68 |86 | 88 | 28 | 09-24% | Gc "E2e | O2GGs | 99 -89z TAS GLY Gt | IT .| $9 o¢ “0g 6° {8°99 | OTL ‘G | CoL "PS | Lg O08 | S98 | O08 | 972 | GOOG | ST LL | Sh 62% | G9 SHS srt) Oh egL TI | O24 GF “VA ‘SuIpeay &° | 68S LLL °G | 189°9% | 09 ¢8 |06 | P'S | O08 | Z8°O1S | ZT O8T | EL STS | 2E “SES | 98S SGP p49 | IE | 69 SF ‘Od €° | 6°69 | 186‘9 | 022 ‘Te | 19 c8 |&6 | 8 | 62 | OF Gre | Sh GEL | 60 BGs | £0 E2e OF9 LGP | OT8 I r9 LY “4A “YOOISPOOM | GI° | BLE | G9L°C | OFE2S | FS 66 |8 6 | €6 | 88 | 00°26 | 0000S | Zh ‘GSS | OZ GES | OY ; OSh | O8E eso | ID} 29 OF “HN } | | j | | | ‘(jo"T pooy{) oJOIH | GI 66 | G48 ‘F | FeS*ST | TS One Gres) tent | G9 | SL“66T | 246 SST | S21 °G8T | €2°616 | OOF 2b =| 20S | 096 Ir | 2g Ch ‘Sa P Splog| Ung |\790f Pgq\ jaag | “suzy | “sur | “suzy | “sup | Wag | cw bg | abs | cafes } 1 "SLX (BOR Se ee ate SE SDE ESS ieee Se Hp] el late Se ars eee : | } | oe | | : | ‘O}VIp enn } o}eIp - | “our | ot : pun “m9013 “ation “que ape “uo98I13 ad a “qUvUl pe “e015 [nao rot SeuoUT| owe [ur Due! thot | re aes eal in SCY es ted “UCUT | sayoUr =” | «(Apuo s90.4 o7erp pue ene WOT 9 LY | quem LO (T eX 9) TDN pue ; -WOo(T 9 IV Bk ; ; ate Be neg oaatiar Kote en eeweseoed UTC TTD : W901+) | }UWeUT TOA Teas tee mo1}R00'T [@aly | -ouUlloyuT pue yuu | JUeUL) yy Wat) | -ULO(T | WOd {teed ra) end wy “ON Ig | -1Wl0p wWoly) pperA | -mop! da | | | | | Inqstety|}—_ es fe shee eee eee = | ene | 3 Usrty ystva.tq | LOA | qo]OUIeIp OBVIO.AV | z ‘ColV [eseq | ;'0108 Jed seal, ‘panutjyuo,»—(77 9qQn7) 2190) prarh ., ppay=pj0 ,, 10 YRnosb-puooas ay) Lof sisvg Dv sp pasn wyop 707d aaduns aonsdsfo hupuUungy—FE ATA, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 545 \ Joint Contribution from the Forest Service, HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester, and the Bureau of Plant Industry, WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D.C. | PROFESSIONAL PAPER. October 8, 1917 IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS: THEIR LIFE HISTORY AND FORAGE VALUE. By ArtHur W. Sampson, Plant Ecologist, Forest Service. CONTENTS. Page. Page Object of the study...................-.-.--- 1 | Important species—Continued. Character of the range and forage studied... -- 2 Grasslike plants—Continued. General morphology OferaSSeSmeae ss aeeee ee: 4 Tallswamp sedge.............--...-. 32 Emiportamtispecies: =... ...22.22.--55..------- + Shee pised ges ema a Owe ae 33 (GEASSESM eee eer ce maeie wai eee cic 4 NOTA Se yar ate sh aie rw 34 Key to tribes and genera.........__- 5 BER UTS Ft eee eae AS eta a 35 Mountain bunch grass,.........-.-- 6 NV OG USH ee eas ee ee es 36 Porcupine grass...-. Aihara yA ae te Ppa ni 9 Nongrasslike plants-.........-.----.---- 37 Mountain timothy........--......-. 10 Mountain onion............--.-....- 38 Slender reed-grass........-.......--- 11 Halseshelleporeece ss +) se nes ee 39 Alpine redtop...-:--...---+-2:.----- 12 Wire: wallow sae osace en ears tena 40. Pine grass........- eae Mnce eAUR LY B= gic" 2 13 Wild buckwheat...................- 41 IBIMEFOMIG pe wees e oe Ses Oieiie cis se ete 15 Geraniume oe eee sane ane ce sa aeeeee 42 Tufted hair-grass.......-...-...--.-- 16 IRITe Wee asim Heaeaine een ane oe 43 Slender hair-grass................--- 17 Wil dicelenyaee soe eae snaeeeo ae nie 44 Spiked trisetum.............. aes 19 Skunkweed __..... 45 Mountain June grass......... é 20 High huckleberry . 46 Onion grass...........--- : 21 * Horsemint........ 46 Little bluegrass........-. é 22 Blue beardtongue- 47 Short-awned bromegrass. . - 5 23 Mountainiel densessnes ea eee eee 48 Nolieheatessae sn wseoteeece sacs bas 24 Wallerian eee tices sare nce Pate ae 49 Tall meadow-grass.........---....-- 25 Mountain dandelion................. 50 Bis ibuneh enrass- 2250222252222 252--- 26 iWioollyaweedinst sac ese ee 51 Mountain wheat grass ...-.......--- 28 @one lowers ees faa ea be eee 52 Smooth wildrye.................... 29 MVATRO We situs Musee eek ose 53 IWATE MO xball yess Ses uc OMe oa 30 IB IIL ter Wee dee aie oes el eas 54 Grasslikeyplamis 1:2. 2 ocean aloes eee SiS SUIMNIM Aaypaen ae ees RU saps ara 55 Distinctions between grasslike plants Ecological requirements. .........-:----- 55 EICET ASSES eae ee ee a BES cS 31 Witevhistony tase nie tas men 56 Sedges and rushes. ........-..-.--.-- 32 | Appendix: Plan ofstudy..-.....:.:..--.-.- 61 OBJECT OF THE STUDY. Although practically all types of grazing lands support a variety of plant species, only a certain proportion of the grasses and of the other plants are important from a grazing standpoint. Some species, owing to their wide distribution and abundance, as well as to the relish with which they are cropped, are valuable forage plants; others because of certain chemical contents either during the entire season or at some period of it are poisonous, and therefore seriously objectionable on the range; while still others, either through some peculiar physical structure or because they contain a superabundance 85154°—Bull. 54517 —1 2 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of tannic acid, which renders them unpalatable are of little or no value for forage.' In order to gain an intimate knowledge of the habits, requirements, and life history of the more important species, a study was initiated in 1907 by the Forest Service, in cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry, upon the Wallowa National Forest in northeastern Oregon. Data on the relative palatability of the different forage plants were gathered by following bands of sheep and observing their choice of feed as they grazed. Afterwards the relative value of the individual range plants was determined by studying (1) their abundance, distribution, time of flower-stalk production, aggressive- ness, reproduction (both vegetatively and by seed), and seed habits; and (2) their palatability and nutritiousness at various times during the grazing season and their ability to withstand trampling. The plan of study and the methods used are fully described at the end of the bulletin. While the results of the study are largely based upon observations in the high mountains in Oregon between elevations of 5,500 and 8,000 feet, they should nevertheless be helpful to stockmen through- out the West in revegetating the range, since many of the species described are widely distributed, and the genera represented are among those of first importance on most of the natural range lands of the West. A photograph of each important species in natural size accom- panies its description, but where the general characters of two or more species of the same genus are similar, a single photograph is used. With the exception of Plate XX XVIII all specimens selected for photographic purposes were either in flower or fruit, or both, and care was taken to show the general character of the root sys- tem, habit of growth, and external structure. Not only will these photographs make possible, in practically every instance, the recog- nition of the same species when met with in the field, but also other species of the same genus will be recognized as congeneric, although the specific name may not be known to the opienee CHARACTER OF THE RANGE AND FORAGE STUDIED. Between the lower and higher grazing lands of the mountains of northeastern Oregon is a difference in elevation of about 7,000 feet. Along with this wide altitudinal variation go widely different growth conditions. Thus, according to the character of the vegetation, the lands studied may be classified into four zones.? 1 The results of naturalrevegetation studies based upon observation of the plants described in this bulle- tin are presented by the writerin U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 34, ‘‘Range Improvement by Deferred and Rotation Grazing,’’ 1913, and in the Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. III, No. 2, “ Natural Revegetation of Range Lands Based upon Growth Requirements and Life History of the Vegetation,” 1914. 2 Merriam, C. Hart, ‘‘Life Zones and Crop Zones of the United States,” U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, Biological Survey Bul. No. 10, 1898. PLATE I. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. C19 ‘d *XIGNAddY SSS) “SLNAWSYINOAY YALVAA SHL ONININYALAC NI GAAO01ldNS SGOHLAIAI *sj001de). TTA sjur[d jo esvo oy} ur ArojoRjstyes ATjeroodsy + “poyjet WorIsod-[vinyeu oyL—'s “DIT vV-DI-d -0110g *S]001 Of} *poyjouL SIY} JO osvyUVApe Jory oy} SE AITO UIpUNOIIMS [IOS O42 No sSurAIp JO poyjoul yoyseq-oM—'T “PT Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. we Hosd0awPp GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF GRASSES. . Rhizome or rootstock. . Shoot from rootstock. Sheath. . Blade. . Culm. . Spikelike panicle of timothy. . Open panicle of bromegrass. . Glumes or scales— First glume. Second glume. (23 . Florets. . Natural size of complete brome spikelet. Plants one-third natural size. PLATE II. IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 3 1. A Transition zone or yellow-pine association occupying the country between 3,000 and 4,500 feet elevation. 2. A Canadian zone or lodgepole-pine association between 4,500 and 6,800 feet elevation. 3. A Hudsonian zone or white-bark pine association between 6,500 and 8,500 feet elevation. 4, An Arctic-alpmne zone or aipine-meadow association from 8,000 feet elevation up. Owing to the wide difference in the physical conditions in these zones, numerous rather distinct range types occur. The time during which each is grazed varies according to the location. The Transition zone (yellow-pine association), owing to the open character of the tree stand, supports a rather dense grass cover. Big bunchgrass (Agropyron spicatum) occurs in pure stands on the less elevated lands, and pine grass (Calamagrostis suksdorfir), blue bunchgrass (Festuca idahoensis), little bluegrass (Poa sandbergir), and mountain June grass (Koeleria cristata), named in the order of their importance, are the most valuable species at somewhat higher elevations. The majority of the important species are herbaceous. This zone is among the first to be grazed in the spring, the lower lands usually supporting stock early in March. By June 1 the forage in the higher adjoining lands is preferred because of its greater succulence. The Canadian zone (lodgepole-pine association) is more densely forested than the others. Also the forage, instead of being herbace- ous, is mainly shrubby or of the ‘‘chaparral” type. The most im- portant browse plants in this zone are fire willow (Salix nuttallw), black elder (Sambucus melanocarpa), high huckleberry (Vaccinwum membranaceum), and wax currant (Ribes cereum). Since the physical conditions in the Canadian zone are intermediate between those of the Transition zone below and the Hudsonian zone above, few plants are: wholly confined to this region, and many of the species of the transition zone are encountered here. The grazing period in the Canadian zone comes approximately between May 15 and July 15. The Hudsonian zone (white-bark pine association) is characterized by scattered small clumps of woodland and a preponderance of grassland. The most important forage species are mountain bunch- grass (Hestuca viridula), onion grass (Melica bella), porcupine grass (Stipa occidentalis), wild celery (Ligusticum oreganum), and butter- weed (Senecio triangularis). While this region is not suited for early grazing, because of the lateness of the growing season, it has as great an area and carries about as many stock as both of the lower zones together. It includes all the high summer sheep lands, except the few crests that are grazed above timber line. The grazing period begins approximately July 15 and continues through August and September. + BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The Arctic-alpme zone (alpime-meadow association), owing to its small carrying capacity and inaccessibility, has little or no value for grazing, and the character of its vegetation need not be discussed. On the Wallowa National Forest the vegetation which furnishes the greater part of the forage is distinctly herbaceous. It consists primarily of grasses, sedges, and rushes, with a fair representation of nongrasslike species commonly termed ‘‘weeds.’” While the species are numerous, about 50 furnish virtually all of the range forage. GENERAL MORPHOLOGY OF GRASSES. In the discussion of the individual species it will be necessary to refer to specific characters in a general way as a means of distin- guishing one species from another. It is essential, therefore, that the reader have a clear conception of what a true grass is. The stems or culms are usually hollow except at the joints (nodes). The leaves consist of two parts, the sheath, which surrounds the culm usually like a split tube, and the blade. The minute flowers are arranged in spikelets consisting of a shortened axis (the rachilla) and from two to many 2-ranked scales, the lower two of which (the glumes) are empty, while each of the others (the lemmas) bears in its axil a flower inclosed in a 2-nerved scale (the palea). Lemma, palea, and flower, together, are termed the floret. The spikelets may be sessile (without a footstalk) along a jointed axis (the rachis), as in wheat and rye, the whole constituting a spike, or on little stems (pedicels) and arranged in panicles, as in mountam bunchgrasss and smooth bromegrass. The head of timothy is a panicle with the branches and pedicels greatly shortened. This is called a spikelike panicle. Sometimes the lemmas or the glumes bear bristlelike appendages termed awns. The ‘‘beard”’ of barley consists of awns. Plate II has been prepared to illustrate characters which will fre- quently be alluded to in the following discussion. In this illustration cultivated timothy (Phlewm pratense) and smooth bromegrass (Bromus inermis) are used because they are well known to stockmen and because they represent the morphology of two distinct and important tribes of grasses. IMPORTANT SPECIES. GRASSES. The grass family (Poaceae) contains about 3,500 known species. They vary in size from small, mosslike individuals in the extreme Polar regions to treelike growths of a hundred feet or more in the Tropics. As a whole, no family of plants enjoys a wider distribu- tion or grows in a greater variety of soils, and no other family is as important economically. From a grazing viewpoint the grasses are more valuable, all localities considered, than all other plants put together. The general taxonomic characters of grasses are shown in Plate II. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. MOUNTAIN BUNCH GRASS (FESTUCA VIRIDULA). The specimen shown is in process of fertilization. A, glumes; B, lemma; C, palea; D, the caryopsis or grain. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agricuiture. PLATE IV. PORCUPINE GRASS OR NEEDLE GRASS (STIPA OCCIDENTALIS). The seedling shown is of about the average size attained at the end of the growing season. A. A. one A. A. 228 IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 5 Key To THE TRIBES AND GENERA. KEY TO THE TRIBES. Spikelets upon pedicels in open or spikelike panicles, not in rows. B. Spikelets with but 1 perfect flower (the rachilla prolonged behind the palea as aipristile im: Calamagrosiis and Cinna) ..2-..-.-.2-2-5.--2 Tribe Agrostideae. B. Spikelets with 2 or more perfect flowers. C. Glumes usually longer than the first floret; florets with bent awn on the back (excep RIM OMG CHO) so eo'5 2.0.22) eee ee a sae Tribe Aveneae. ©. Glumes much shorter than the first floret, unawned or with a straight awn IW i) VS OSD. yw la ci le Tribe Festuceae. . Spikelets sessile, in opposite rows along a zigzag jointed rachis forming a spike; leaf blades bearing a pair of earlike appendages at the base-.-.-- Tribe Hordeae. KEY TO THE GENERA. Agrostideae. . Lemmas hardened, having a needlelike point at base and a long, usually twice emieny Malet bessUmmmMnGee ss 28: a. oJ Loe Re gs es Genus Stipa. Lemmas thin and delicate, not needle-pointed at base, awnless or with a minute awn from the back. B. Spikelets in a dense spikelike head; glumes abruptly awn-tipped. Genus Phleum. B. Spikelets in open or narrow panicles; glumes not awn tipped. C. Floret raised on a little stalk; spikelets in a large nodding panicle. Genus Cinna. C. Floret sessile. D. Floret bearing at base copious white hairs sometimes as long as the lemma; rachilla extended behind the palea..... Genus Calamagrostis. D. Floret naked or nearly so; rachilla not extended behind the palea, the Hnitcr oftemawanting-.. 2.22 1 5in suas ae see Genus Agrostis. Aveneae. Lemmas awned. B. Panicles open; lemmas convex, irregularly toothed or 2-lobed, awns arising ion pelow, une mice e020 00 ee a Genus Deschampsia. B. Panicles narrow or spikelike; lemmas keeled, 2-toothed, the awn arising from BN KOS Tae) TaN KO CEE aoe mi ee Ll age Genus Trisetum. Lemmas not awned, panicles spikelike, culms pubescent below panicle. Genus Koeleria. Festuceae. Spikelets with upper florets usually sterile, broad and folding about each other, forming a club-shaped mass; glumes shining; lemmas papery, scarious margined. Genus Melica. Spikelets with upper florets not unlike lower ones in shape, but often reduced in size. B. Spikelets not over 5 mm. (4 of an inch) long; not awned. C. Lemmas keeled, acute, the nerves not prominent..............- Genus Poa. C. Lemmas convex, obtuse, the nerves prominent...-....- Genus Panicularia. B. Spikelets 1 cm. (2 of an inch) or more long, awned or awn-pointed. D. Lemmas 2-toothed, usually awned just below the apex. -.Genus Bromus. D. Lemmas entire, usually awned from the tip.....-..-..--- Genus Festuca. 6 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Flordeac. A. Spikelets solitary at each joint of the rachis........--..-.--...--- Genus Agropyron. A. Spikelets 2 or more at each joint of the rachis. B. Rachis continuous, awns erect, not over 2 cm. (¢ of an inch) long. Genus Elymus. B. Rachis readily separated into joints, awns spreading, 4 cm. (1% inches) or more long Sheet ied. eee eg Lee eee Genus Sitanion. Mountain Buncu GRASS. (Festuca viridula. ) The genus Festuca is well represented in the United States, about 30 native species being recognized.t. Most of them are abundant in the regions to which they are adapted, though three species have been collected but once, two others but twice, and another species, F’. ragescens, has been found but once in North America. Several North American species of Festuca are of great value for forage and hay. Among these, mountain bunch grass, while not as widely distributed as some others, for example, blue bunch grass (F. idahoensis), is nevertheless the most valuable for grazing pur- poses because of its greater palatability and nutritiousness. Next in forage value are blue bunch grass (F. idahoensis) and red fescue (F. rubra), of the West, and F’. aliaica, an important range plant in Alaska. A number of the annuals are valuable for grazing purposes in the semiarid regions, especially in the foothill areas of the South- west, where the seed germinates late in the fall and growth contin- ues through the winter. Under such conditions they often furnish a first-class palatable forage at a time when nothing else is available. While mountain bunch grass is usually abundant in the localities in which it occurs, it has not a very wide distribution. Its natural home is in the Hudsonian zone, where it occurs from the lower to the higher limits, reaching well up to timber line. Wherever found in the United States it is closely restricted to the higher elevations. On the Wallowa National Forest in northeastern Oregon, it is seldom found below 6,500 feet. Of all the specimens examined in the Na- tional Herbarium the lowest altitude reported was 5,000 feet. While stockmen usually recognize the species when they see it, and appreciate its forage value, it is sometimes confused with other grasses, perhaps most commonly with blue bunch grass (’.idahoensis) - The latter, however, is distinctly a plant of the Transition zone and is seldom found where mountain bunch grass abounds. The rather prominent awns and the ‘‘bloom”’ on the leaves, which gives the characteristic bluish tinge, readily distinguish blue bunch grass from F. viridula. 1 Piper, Contr. U. S. Nat. Herb., Vol. 10, p. 1, 1906. PLATE V. LITTLE NEEDLE GRASS (STIPA MINOR). F-5G Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. F-6Q MOUNTAIN TIMOTHY (PHLEUM ALPINUM). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. fi Mountain bunch grass (Plate III) forms densely tufted hummocks or bunches. It has coarse, deep, and spreading perennial roots; erect, slender, and smooth culms from 1 to 2 feet high, slightly thickened at the base; a preponderance of rather long inwardly rolled (involute), smooth or somewhat rough basal leaves; and open semi- nodding panicles, composed of rather compressed spikelets, often of a dark purple color, bearing 3 to 6 florets. As indicated by its usual habitat, mountain bunch grass stands near the head of the list in drought-resistant qualities. Well estab- lished plants subjected to the gradual drying process began wilting excessively when the water content was reduced to 9.5 per cent, and did not, as a rule, recover after the per cent of water dropped to 7. Such a low amount of water about the main roots would be very unusual, of course, on the high range, but it shows the possi- bilities of mountain bunch grass in dry situations. Observations during 1907, 1908, and 1909 showed that the flower stalks were sent up from July 5 to August 20, July 10 to August 25, and July 3 to August 15 in the respective years. The seed crop for these seasons began to ripen as early as August 5, and by September 5 practically the entire crop had matured. The seeds are dissemi- nated almost immediately upon reaching maturity. Flower-stalk production and seed maturity occur earlier upon coarser, less de- composed soils, where the soil water is readily reduced through evap- oration and where the temperature in the substratum is relatively high. Mountain bunch grass seed has a low viability. The average for all laboratory tests made during the three seasons was 12.2 per cent. Field tests in the natural habitat, with seed from the same source, gave a much higher percentage of germination. Upon the higher ranges mountain bunch grass is grazed ravenously by all classes of stock. It is most highly relished at the time of flower-stalk production, the entire aerial portion, including the succu- lent leaves and the flower stalks, often being removed at that time by asingle grazing. As the season advances, sheep discriminate be- tween the leaf blades and culms, and when the plant has matured its seeds the latter are rarely cropped. Ripening of the seed crop, how- ever, impairs the plant’s palatability and nutritiousness but little. As a rule, the leaf blades are not eaten so closely as earlier in the season, and the fibrous stems or seed stalks remain untouched. But little else of the forage is wasted. The nutritive value of mountain bunch grass is indicated in Table 1, which also presents an analysis of well cured timothy hay for com- parison. Si i i i i il i i a, 8 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 1.—Chemical analysis of mountain bunch grass and timothy hay. Protein Ether Material. (nitro- | extract prude gen). (fat). ue Mountain bunch grass: Matured plantics i so-ca kece See oo = eben a seas bb see ee eee ee Eee 13.18 2.83 22. 20 Growine plant. .5 22 3.\- 2b ioe sec neni eos tacea cece ese Seen see eee 12, 24 3. 60 21.15 Matured flowerstalks. 2.2.0 o42-e Se eee eee 4.18 1.30 38. 65 Timothy hays: 22 2s yes ose esc ae sea ae eee nee ae eee eee 6.78 2.87 33. 40 It will be seen that there is comparatively little difference in the nutritiousness of mountain bunch grass at the time the flower stalks are being produced and immediately after the seed crop has ripened. The greatest difference in the important constituents is found in the ether extract (fat), which is 27.21 per cent greater in the younger plants. This is partly offset by the fact that there is 7.68 per cent more protein (muscle making nutrients) in the matured plants. The latter also contain 4.96 per cent more crude fiber than the young plants, the most indigestible portion of the forage. In the matured flower stalks the protein (nitrogen) and the ether extract (fat) are very low, while the indigestible (crude fiber) material is very high. This fact explains in part why the flower stalks are not grazed at maturity. Investigations have shown that well-cured grasses yield as much nutriment as the same grasses when green.' There is this distinction, however, that ordinarily the cured forage is not as palatable as the green. But since about half of the basal leaf blades remain green until the end of the grazing season, the palatability and nutritive qualities of mountain bunch grass remain comparatively high after seed maturity. A plant closely related to the one discussed is blue bunch grass (F. idahoensis). Being confined almost entirely to lands of medium elevation, and the herbage having a distinctly bluish color and the awns on the culms and lemmas being about twice the length of those of mountain bunch grass, the two are readily distinguished even though both are distinctly bunch grasses. The flower stalks of blue bunch grass begin to show about the first week in June in the typical (yellow-pine) habitat and they continue to be produced untilabout August 1. The seed matures, for the most part, between June 25 and August 15. The seed tested for germina- — tion show a viability of from 11 to 21 per cent. Blue bunch grass furnishes excellent forage for all classes of stock from early spring until the early part of August, when it begins to mature and the leaf blades become somewhat tough and dry. Even at that time it is grazed to a greater or less extent by cattle and horses, but only to a limited extent by sheep. All stock, however, relish 1 Wolff, E., Farm Foods, 1896, English edition, p. 155. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. SLENDER REED-GRASS (CINNA LATIFOLIA). Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ALPINE REDTOP (AGROSTIS ROSSAE). PLATE VIII. F-8a IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 9 blue bunch grass in the autumn on account of the new growth result- ing from the autumn precipitation. As a whole, it is a palatable and nutritious grass, and, occuring as it does in abundance over well- drained lands of medium elevation, its economic value is high. PORCUPINE GRASS. (Stipa occidentalis. ) The genus Stipa includes a large number of perennial grasses dis- tributed throughout the world. Approximately 30 species are found in the United States, mainly in the West. Many are valuable for grazing purposes, while others are cut for hay. Porcupine grass (Plate IV) is a perennial bunchgrass with coarse, spreading, and deeply penetrating roots, capable of withstanding an unusual amount of abuse. The leaf blades are mainly basal, some- what involute (rolled inward), those of the culms shorter than the basal ones, all rather rough and somewhat rigid, the sheaths shorter than the internodes. The panicle is somewhat contracted, about 4 inches long; the spikelets one-flowered; the floret cylindrical, pubes- cent throughout, with a sharp-pointed bent callus at the base. The empty glumes are subequal, membranaceous, and the lemmas or flowering glumes, which completely inclose the palets, are brownish when mature and bear awns from 1 to 14 inches long, twice bent and _ strikingly plumose or densely pubescent to the second joint or knee. To judge from the tufted habit of growth and the involute leaf blades and their texture, it might be expected that the moisture requirements of porcupine grass would be about the minimum of the species studied. An average of all moisture tests, however, showed that pronounced wilting resulted in the characteristic soil type where the water content varied from 9.5 to 11.5 per cent. In a soil contain- ing 8 per cent of moisture a specimen failed to recover its form and subsequently died. Fearing that some error had crept into the results first obtained, several additional tests were conducted, but the later results agreed with the first. Porcupine grass inhabits only well-drained soils in open, exposed situations in association with mountain bunchgrass, alpine redtop, short-awned bromegrass, and other species. Its seedlings develop somewhat deeper roots than do the majority of the species, and be- cause of this fact they have thrived during dry periods in certain places where other species able to exist in soil of slightly lower water content have died. The flower stalks are all produced within a month or less after the _ first ones appear. They begin to show about July 15. The seeds are, aS a rule, well matured by September 10. In 1909, however, they had ripened and were disseminated by August 30. Dissemina- tion follows almost immediately upon maturity. 85154°—Bull. 545—17——2 10 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The seed crop has a fair viability, the average for the three years being 27 per cent. The highest germination, obtained in 1909, was 35 per cent. On the range this species is reproducing so abundantly that it is very probable that a much higher viability results when the seed is allowed to pass through the usual conditions after maturing. The seed, too, has an effective means of getting mto the ground through the boring action of the awn, and this may account largely for the plant’s rapid invasion of many situations. It is among the most promising species for restocking depleted ranges. Although not to be compared with mountain bunchgrass in pala- tability, porcupine grass is a good forage plant. It begins growth early in the season and continues growing until late in the summer, the leaf blades remaining green until September 1. Although their texture is somewhat harsh and their edges shghtly scabrous, the plant is grazed with considerable relish by sheep, cattle, and horses, though considered most desirable for sheep. Both cattle and horses eat the flower stalks, even when the seeds are approaching maturity, and the long, rather bristlelike awns are likely to make sore mouths or even to cause serious trouble in the throat, sometimes resulting in what is termed ‘“‘temporary lump jaw.’ Other grasses, however, may be more directly responsible for these bad effects. Sheep do not consume the flower or seed stalks, but. graze the leaf blades closely. A species closely allied to porcupine grass is little needle grass (S. minor). It is very similar in general characters, ecological requirements, and distribution, and for that reason will not be dis- cussed in detail here. While as widely distributed as S. occidentalis, it is not nearly so abundant. The plant is taller and may be dis- tinguished at a glance by observing the awns, which are less than half the length of those of S. occidentalis, and which, instead of being plumose, are very slightly pubescent or merely roughened. Because of its sparse growth, the plant is not especially valuable for grazing, though eaten with relish by most classes of stock. (See Plate V.) Mountain TimotHy. (Phleum alpinum.) The genus Phlewm contains about 10 annual and perennial species, most of which are confined to the Temperate and Arctic regions. Among them is the cultivated timothy, generally conceded to be the most valuable forage and hay plant in the United States. Mountain timothy is occasionally mistaken for the cultivated timothy. While the two plants have somewhat the same general appearance (compare Plates II and VI), the cultivated species, P. pratense, usually grows from 2 to 4 feet high, while mountain timothy as a rule attains less than half that height; also the spike of the latter, 7s ~ Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. F-9G VIEW SHOWING How CLOSELY SHEEP GRAZE PINE GRASS IN THE SPRING OF THE YEAR. The fibrous woody roots and the fact that it forms a turf renders it almost proof against trampling and close grazing. Pine grass is one of the hardiest and most prolific grazing plants in the Wallowa Mountains. 10 Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. PINE GRASS (CALAMAGROSTIS SUKSDORF!!). On the right is shown a pine-grass seedling of 2 months’ growth. IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 11 about 1 inch long, instead of being cylindrical and having short awns on the glumes like the cultivated species, is ellipsoid or ovate-oblong, the awns about the length of the glumes. Like the cultivated species, mountain timothy is a perennial plant and has the sheaths of the upper portion of the leafy culms loose as compared with the lower ones. The spikelike panicle is usually purple in color, and the glumes of the spikelets are slightly fringed on the back. Mountain timothy is confined to alpine and subalpine regions. In the region studied it is closely restricted to the Hudsonian zone. It is a plant of turfy habit, growing in moist meadows and swales, around springs, and along banks of streams. Often the stands are dense and pure. In some places, however, the keenest competition exists between the mountain timothy and certain sedges and rushes, the result being that one species predominates here and another there. Since it grows characteristically in boggy or nearly saturated soils, mountain timothy wilts beyond recovery even though there may be a rather high percentage of moisture in the substratum. The five specimens tested for drought resistance persisted only until the water content was decreased to an average of 14 per cent. The flower stalks are produced later than those of vegetation in drier situations, since the moister soils are slower in warming up in the spring. Usually the stalks begin to appear about July 15, and are all produced by the end of the first week in August. Mature seeds can generally be found after August 15, and continue to ripen until about the middle of September. The fertility of the seed crop is considerably above the average for a typical subalpine herbaceous plant. The average per cent for all tests was 69.5, the maximum germination of 76 being obtained in 1909 and the minimum of 58.2 in 1907. When compared with the average marsh or bog species, mountain timothy ranks high as a forage plant. Harly in the summer it is considered by stockmen to be a bit too succulent or “‘washy,”’ but since sheep naturally avoid its habitat, which is invariably moist at that season, there is little demand for it then. As the season ad- vances, however, the soil becomes drier, and the latter part of the summer this grass is grazed with relish. Mountain timothy remains ereen and tender unusually late in the fall, and, compared with other species grazed at that time of the year, it is eaten with unusual relish. SLENDER REED-GRASS. (Cinna latifolia.) The genus Cinna is represented by but three species in the United States. Of these, slender reed-grass (Cinna latifolia) is the most important in the localities studied. 12 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Slender reed-grass is a rank growing perennial from 14 to 4 feet tall. The culms, which are usually very brittle, are bent like a knee at the lower joints. Like the sheaths, the leaf blades are rough, and are especially broad and very flat (Plate VII). The panicle is long, often exceeding 8 inches, open, and usually drooping. The favorite habitat of slender reed-grass is in sparsely vegetated forests which admit enough light for the undergrowth to succeed. It is closely restricted to shaded situations with well-watered soils. The inherent tendency toward shade is shown by the unusually wide and flat leaf blades as well as the absence of basal leaves, while the high water requirements are shown, among other things, by the meager development of the root system, the absence of special con- trivances to retard transpiration, and the restriction of the species to wet soils. Growing in situations very similar to mountain timo- thy, it has virtually the same water requirements. Failure to re- cover from wilting took place in the mucky soil in which this species grows when the moisture content in the case of one specimen was 13.5 per cent and in another 16 per cent. The flower stalks were produced from July 5 to August 5, July 10 to August 15, and from July 5 to August 10 in 1907, 1908, and 1909, respectively. Compared with the earliest appearance of the flower stalks, the seed reached maturity at a relatively late date, the earliest being about the last week in August. The crop matured evenly, however, with approximately 15 days intervening between the time the earliest seed matured and the major portion ripened. The length of time required for a seed crop to ripen in nearly all cases seems to influence the vitality of the resulting crop. An even and comparatively short maturing period usually indicates, for a given locality, seed of higher vitality than that which ripens at wholly different dates. The average germination of the seed crop of slender reed-grass for the three seasons was 86.8, and the minimum yearly average, 79 per cent, obtained in 1907. Since slender reed-grass does not enjoy an especially wide zonal distribution, and is closely restricted to moist situations, it supplies but limited forage. So far as palatability is concerned, however, it ranks high, and since it remains green and tender throughout nearly the entire summer grazing season, the herbage is closely consumed. Owing to the moist condition of its habitat im the early part of the season, the plant is seldom grazed by sheep until August. ALPINE REDTOP. (Agrostis rossae.) The genus Agrostis is composed wf about 100 species, most of which are found in the North Temperate Zone.’' As indicated by its com- 1 Hackel, Edward, ‘‘The True Grasses,” p. 111, 1890. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. MARSH PINE GRASS (CALAMAGROSTIS CANADENSIS). A portion of the characteristic creeping rootstocks is shown. 12 PLATE XI. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII. TUFTED HAIR-GRASS (DESCHAMPSIA CAESPITOSA). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. ils: mon name, alpine redtop is typically a plant of the high grazing lands. On the Wallowa National Forest it is not found below about 6,500 feet. It grows well up to and even a little beyond timber line, having approximately the same distribution as mountain bunchgrass, with which it is commonly associated. This species, like a great many typical upland plants, is short, rarely exceeding 8 inches in height (Plate VIII). Unlike cultivated redtop, it is distinctly tufted instead of stoloniferous, and has a large number of narrow basal leaves from one-third to one-half the length of the culms. The panicle is rather contracted, about 2 inches long, and the spikelets are purple-green merging into red, one-flowered, with awnless glumes. Alpine redtop seems best adapted to a well disintegrated basaltic soul relatively rich in humus, characteristic of glades and open pla- teaus. It wilts beyond recovery in soils of this type having a water content of from 8.5 to as low as 7 per cent. Good stands have often been seen in rather moist habitats, but, as a rule, it succeeds best and is more commonly met with in well-drained soils. Being a bunchgrass, it never completely covers the ground, but in certain localities it is sometimes the main species. The average time during which the flower stalks were sent forth in 1907, 1908, and 1909 was four weeks. In 1907 they first showed on July 5 and continued to be sent forth until August 15. The seed crop was fairly well ripened at the end of the first week in September. The germination power of the seed in 1907 was 29 per cent; in 1908, 38 per cent; and in 1909, 41 per cent. For an upland peren- nial grass these figures are considerably above the average, and in favorable situations the reproduction was good. While not eaten with the same relish as are a number of its close relatives, alpine redtop is grazed by sheep to a considerable extent, particularly in the fore part of the season. After about August 15, when all the flower stalks have been sent up, the leaf blades become rather tough and unpalatable, and other plants are then preferred. The shortness of its leaf blades, its scattered growth, and the compara- tively short period during which it is eaten with relish affect its importance as a forage plant. PINE Grass. (Calamagrostis suksdor fii.) The genus Calamagrostis, to which pine grass belongs, contains about 130 species widely distributed throughout temperate and mountain regions. ‘Thirty-eight species, mostly native, occur in North America, mainly inthe West. Only three occur in the Southern States, and six of those States are without a single species. 14 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Botanically Calamagrostis is closely related to Agrostis, the genus to which redtop belongs, but may be distinguished from it by the long, soft, fine hairs on the callus or hardened base of the floret and by the prolongation of the axis of the spikelet behind the palea. Pine grass makes its most luxuriant growth in the Transition zone, where it grows mainly under the relatively open forest of western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa). It is also found in the Canadian zone, where it often ranks first in abundance and importance among the grass species. In the Hudsonian zone it is found only in the warmer situations of the lower altitudes. (See Plate IX.) Pine grass (Plate X) may be recognized by its perennial character and its abundant, well-developed, creeping rootstocks which produce a continuous, closely matted sod or turf. The culms, somewhat bunched, grow from 1 to 3 feet tall, and usually bear three short, smooth leaves; the rather numerous lower or basal leaves are somewhat involute, flexible, and smooth. The panicle, pale green until the plant is mature, is contracted and densely flowered, the spikelet bearing but one floret. One pronounced character by which the species may be recognized at a glance is the ring of stiff hairs at the junction of the sheath and blade. The fibrous, widely spreading and deep root system, make it possible for pine grass to grow in exposed situations where the soil is relatively dry during most of the growing season. (Tests for drought resistance show that this species usually fails to regain its form after wilting notably in a soil contaiming an average water content of 8.5 per cent. In the case of two specimens turgor was regained in a soil which contained but 5.5 per cent of moisture.) Owing to the warm and relatively dry situations generally inhabi- tated by pine grass, the flower stalks begin to appear about July 1. The number is comparatively small, and production continues until September 1. On the higher areas flower-stalk production is invaria- bly sparse, with the period of production extending from July 20 to the end of the season. The seed begins to ripen on the lower ranges in late July, and the period of maturity extends until the middle of September. On the higher ranges the first seed ripens by August 10, and the maturing period lasts until unfavorable weather condi- tions in September. Seed of the last flower stalks produced seldom ripen. In fertility, the seed of pine grass ' ranks about the highest of the native species studied. The lowest vitality observed occurred in 1907, when an average of 58.2 per cent was obtained. In 1908 and 1909 averages of 76 and 74.5 per cent, respectively, were secured. Sced collected at different times in the Transition zone yielded the highest 1 The seed used in these tests was collected in the upper Canadian zone in the latter part of August of each season. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 7 ‘SLENDER HAIR-GRASS (DESCHAMPSIA ELONGATA). PLATE XIII. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIV. SPIKED TRISETUM (TRISETUM SPICATUM). 15 IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 15 results in nearly every case, one germination test, the highest of all, giving 98.5 per cent. Among stockmen there is much diversity of opinion as to the forage value of pine grass. While it may not be included in the category of choice forage plants, except in the spring when it is young and tender, yet it plays a valuable part on the range. In the spring of the year the leaf blades are eaten with nearly as great relish as any of the native grasses, and judging from the condition of the stock feeding upon it, the species has high nutritive qualities. From early spring to about the middle of July, on the lower ranges, all classes of stock graze it closely and with considerable relish. In the latter part of July, however, the tissues of the leaf blades become fibrous and tough, the plant is not grazed with relish, and is then considered to have a much lower nutritive value. In the fall of the year, after the rains have started, it is again grazed to a limited extent, since the leaf blades are somewhat softened by the precipitation. BLueEJOINT. (Calamagrostis canadensis.) Bluejoint or marsh pine grass, because it is less abundant and less important than pine grass, is not so well known to stockmen as the latter. Though its distribution is about the same, it does not inhabit pine forests, but grows in marshes and swales and along moist stream banks. The local name is derived from its resemblance to typical pine grass, to which it is closely related. The two species may readily be distinguished by the panicle (com- pare Plates X and XI), which in pine grass is dense or contracted and pale green, while in bluejoint it is very loose and open and tinged with brown or pale purple. The latter does not have the character- istic ring of stiff hairs at the junction of the sheath and blade. The culms of marsh pine grass are erect, from 14 to 3 feet high; the leaves, smooth, long, wide, and distinctly flat. It has rather shallow, lateral roots. Reproduction by root stocks is prolific, and dense stands are common in favorable situations. The wide, flat leaves, shallow roots, and the situations in which marsh pine grass grows indicate its inability to withstand drought. The soul in which it occurs is well supplied with moisture, but is not especially rich in organic matter. In some of the tests the plants did not succumb until the water was reduced to nearly 11 per cent. In the case of two tests the specimens recuperated from the wilted condition when the soil contained an average of 14 per cent of moisture. The flower stalks begin to appear about June 25, and by July 20 are nearly all sent up. Mature seed can usually be found by August 16 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1, and by August 20 the main seed crop has ripened. The seed has a high power of germination. The average for all tests made was 71.5 per cent, with a minimum germination of 59.5 per cent. Owing to its rank growth bluejoint is better suited to cattle and horses than to sheep, yet the latter eat the leaf blades, though rarely the flower stalks even when young. Because of its restriction to moist situations, it is not very abundant, and consequently fur- nishes a comparatively small amount of forage. Turrep Harr-Grass. (Deschampsia caespitosa.) Tufted hair-grass (Deschampsia caespitosa) is a member of the same tribe as cultivated oats. Though from its general appearance this fact would not be recognized, yet botanically they are closely related. Tufted hair-grass is often mistaken for redtop, mainly because of its loose panicle, but morphologically it is very different. Redtop has but one flower in a spikelet, while tufted hair-grass has two perfect flowers. The genus Deschampsia is represented by about 20 species, adapted mainly to the cold and temperate regions. About 6 species are found in the western part of the United States. Tufted hair-grass is a perennial tufted species with rather deep and spreading fibrous roots. The culms are from 14 to 3 feet tall, erect, and smooth, or in some specimens slightly rough, the leaves mainly basal and very numerous, flat, and often ascending to half the length of the culms. The spikelets, bearing two perfect flowers, are small and shiny, and the panicle is open, the branches widely spreading. Both the empty and the flowering glumes are shiny in appearance (Plate XII). The latter are notched at the apex and bear a short awn on the back. This species is rarely found in dry situations, but grows abundantly in moist meadows, canyons, and bottom lands, where it frequently predominates. Concerning its density of stand and rankness of growth F. Lamson-Scribner ' states that is has a record of producing 10,209 pounds of green and 3,318 pounds of dry hay per acre. The minimum amount of soil water with which it will grow varies between 11.5 and 14.5 per cent. In soils containing less than this amount of moisture the wilted leaf blades failed to regain their turgidity. The first flower stalks appear about July 20, and their production continues until about August 15. As with most species in moist soils, the flower stalks are not produced as early as in the drier situations. The time required for the development of the seeds is rather prolonged, and well-matured seeds are rarely found until 1 Economie Grasses, U. 8. Dept. of Agr., Div. Agrost. Bul. 14, p. 32, 1900. | Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVI. F-16G a ONION GRASS OR MOUNTAIN BLUEGRASS (MELICA BELLA). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 1076 September 1. By about the middle of September the crop is usually well ripened, and, for the most part, disseminated. The germination per cent is about the average for an upland plant, the average for all tests conducted during the three years of study showing 26.4 per cent for the seed crop from the Hudsonian zone, where the revegetation studies were made. Seed collected in the Canadian zone germinated as high as 50 per cent. Some seed compa- nies handle sagt of this species grown in Europe, which as a rule has a fair germinative strength. It is sold for about $22 per 100 pounds. This species is an important forage plant because it occurs fre- quently throughout the Hudsonian zone, is often met in the Canadian zone, occurs in sufficiently dense stands to make it an appreciable factor in meadow crops, and is eaten with relish. So far as texture is concerned, it is always desirable for cattle and horses, but is often too rank and coarse to be of the highest value for sheep. Neverthe- less, as a rule, sheep graze it closely. Densely vegetated meadows of this species grazed by sheep comparatively early in the summer when the root leaves are tender may have the appearance of a newly-mown lawn of bluegrass, so closely is the forage removed. Up to about August 15 tufted hair-grass is highly relished, but after that date the leaf blades take on a fibrous or somewhat woody texture which ereatly lessens their palatability. In the latter part of the grazing ‘season it is not usually grazed closely unless it has been cropped earlier in the season, a condition which results in prolonging the ercwth of the vegetative parts. The aftermath is eagerly consumed by all classes of stock, and especially by sheep. Observations indi- cate that this species withstands trampling and close grazing better than any other valuable forage grass in the region studied. This fact is due both to the habit of growth of the plant and to the nature of the situations in which it grows. SLENDER Hatrr-GRass. (Deschampsia elongata.) Slender hair-grass, though closely related botanically to tufted hair-grass, differs widely from it in general appearance (Plate XIII). Like tufted hair-grass it is a perennial and grows in tussocks, though the latter seldom attain a diameter exceeding 4 inches, and more> often are only one-half that size. Slender hair-grass bears the appearance of an annual grass in that it is very shallow rooted and sends up a preponderance of slender naked seed stalks. The latter are erect and from 8 to 16 inches tall. At the base a prodigious number of narrow, rather smooth but very short root leaves are produced. The panicle is long, often fully one-third the length of the culm, and usually not widely branched. 85154°—Bull. 545—17——3 18 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In the region studied this species has a wide distribution. It occurs most abundantly and grows most luxuriantly in the Canadian zone, though it is met with in a variety of situations in both the upper and lower contiguous zones. In fact, the tendency of slender hair erass to adjust itself to various sites is a marked characteristic. In the well-aerated, finely disintegrated, basaltic soil of the plateaus in the Hudsonian zone this species does not wilt notably until the water content of the soil falls to between 8.5 and 10.0 per cent—a relatively low figure. On the other hand, simultaneous drought tests conducted in soils rich in organic matter, and where the plant had had access to a high per cent of soil water at all times, resulted in destructive wilting of the plant when the soil-water content was as high as 15 per cent. In moist situations a meager root system is developed, and on dry sites, while the root rarely penetrates deeply into the soil, it spreads over corsiderable surface. The flower stalks begin to appear about July 10 in the drier situa- tions, and a week or so later in moist places. By August 1 the majority have put in their appearance. Mature seeds are found as early as August 5, while the bulk of the seed crop is matured by August 25. The tests made for seed vitality were confined to the year 1909, and showed an average of 41.5 per cent. On lower ranges somewhat higher figures were obtained, 56.5 bemg the maximum. The grazing value of this plant is relatively low, and in this respect it does not compare favorably with tufted hair grass. Owing to its shallow roots the plant is frequently pulled up. Sheep grazing on this plant, especially early in the season when the soil contains a high per cent of moisture and the roots are readily pulled out, start masticating the leaf blades, but usually expel them when they find that roots and clinging dirt form the dessert to their diet. After a few experiences of this kind they crop it but little. Since the tussock is small, horses often pull up the entire tuft, and after eliminating the greater part of the clingirg dirt by shaking it vigorously and rubbing it upon the ground, sometimes devour the plant. After about August 15 the leaves become air dried, and slender hair grass is then disregarded as a forage plant by all classes of stock. Another species known as black hair-grass (D. atropurpurea) occurs in scattered stand in open situations throughout the Hudsonian zone. Being restricted to high elevations (it rarely occurs below 6,500 feet), the flower stalks are not seen until July 15 and they continue to be produced until about August 25. No seed is matured until about September 1 and very little fertile seed is developed even in most favorable seasons. Reproduction takes place vegetatively by means of offshoots arising from root stocks. PLATE XVII. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. F-17G LITTLE BLUEGRASS (POA SANDBERGII). 18 Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XVIII. F—18G SHORT-AWNED BROMEGRASS (BROMUS MARGINATUS). The sheath on the basal portion of the culm was accidentally removed before the photograph was taken. 19 IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 19 The plant, bemg late in maturimg and the herbage green and tender throughout the season, is grazed with much relish by all classes of stock from early spring until late autumn. It occurs in dense stands only in small isolated patches and conse- quently is not highly important as a range plant. SPIKED TRISETUM. ( Trisetum spicatum.) The genus Trisetum belongs to the oat tribe. and is represented by about 8 species in the western United States, most of which occur in the higher mountains. The zonal distribution of Trisetwm spicatum is typically Hudsonian, though it occurs commonly above timber line and is found to a limited extent on north and east slopes in the Canadian zone. The plant occurs irregularly in scattered stands throughout the upland ranges in exposed situations on well-drained soils. It is frequently asso- ciated with slender hair-grass, but is more deeply rooted. As its habi- tat indicates, spiked trisetum is not readily killed by drought. Most specimens tested were able to regain turgor and, of course, absorb water from the soil until its content was reduced to from 7.5 to 9.5 per cent. As a rule the plants died very gradually, probably owing to the highly developed contrivances for protection against rapid transpiration. The plant is a perennial of tufted habit with deep and widely spread- ing fibrous roots (Plate XIV). It may usually be recognized by the soft downy pubescence on the sheaths and culms, which has given it — the local name ‘‘wool grass,’ although this is a widely variable char- acter, some individuals appearing nearly smooth. Most specimens appear downy silvery white. The culms vary in height from 1 to 2 feet. From the crown arise a large number of short, flat, and rather wide basal leaves. The panicle is spikelike and cylindrical in char- acter, somewhat contracted and shiny. The lemma or flowering glume bears on the back a rather inconspicuous, slender, soft, divergent awn. The flower stalks appear about July 10, and a month later produc- tion is usually complete. The seeds do not begin to ripen before about August 25, and generally are not all matured by the time inclement weather comes in the fall and prevents further development. As a result, viable seed are produced only on the earliest flowering stalks. In 1907 the seed crop averaged 11 per cent germination, and in 1909, 28 per cent. No tests were made in 1908. While spiked trisetum occurs in scattered stands, it is widely dis- tributed and furnishes more forage than is ordinarily thought. The leaf blades are eaten in preference to many other species, so that little 20 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the herbage goes to waste. In addition, the plant begins to grow early in the spring and does not ripen until late in the fall, so that it remains fresh and palatable throughout the season. Though it with- stands trampling well, natural regeneration on protected ranges is scant as compared with that of other species whose seed crop has about the same or even lower viability. Mountain JUNE GRASS. (Koeleria cristata.) Koeleria, though a genus of only about 15 species, has wide geo- graphical distribution. In the United States mountain June grass is the only representative of common occurrence and much economic value. Mountain June grass is a tufted perennial species, 1 to 2 feet in height, the culms of which are usually pubescent just below the panicle. The leaves, which are mainly basal (Plate XV), are unu- sually numerous. They are flat or slightly inwardly rolled, vary in texture from smooth to rough, and are often hairy. The panicle, pale green in color, is spikelike when young, but during fertilization is rather widely expanded. The lemmas or flowermg glumes are glossy, and the plant can-nearly always be recognized off hand by the shiny character of the panicle. This plant often inhabits very dry situations, though on the lower ranges it matures comparatively early and so largely avoids the driest part of theseason. In the higher altitudes moisture is usually present afew inches below the surface. Most of the plants tested wilted strik- ingly, usually beyond recovery in a soil having from 10 to 13.5 per cent water content. Thus the soil-moisture requirements in the par- ticular soil type in which it grows are about the average. The flower stalks on the upland ranges were put forth in 1907 be- tween July 10 and 28; in 1908 between July 10 and 25; and in 1909 between July 5 and 25. The seeds begin to ripen about the latter part of the second week in August, but the entire crop is not matured. until about September 10. The germinative power of the seed is low. In 1907 an average of three tests gave 16 per cent and in 1908 14 per cent. No test was made in 1909. However, on the lower areas in the Transition zone, for example, the seed was somewhat more viable, though there was no marked contrast in the germinative power. Mountain June grass is of considerable importance as a forage plant in the region studied, and few species are more eagerly eaten. The long, soft, and numerous crowded basal leaves are consumed by sheep, cattle, and horses in preference to many more abundant forage plants when green, and, like mountain bunch grass, the leaf blades but not the flower stalks are eaten by sheep after the seeds have reached ma- Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. a SOFT CHEAT OR CHESS (BROMUS HORDEACEUS). PLATE XIX. F-19QG Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. TALL MEADOW-GRASS (PANICULARIA NERVATA), PLATE XX. F—20G IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. oi turity. It is found rather sparingly on the higher ranges, but is fairly abundant in glades and sparsely timbered areas of medium moisture in both the Canadian and Transition zones. ONION GRASS. (Melica bella.) The species of the genus Melica, over 50 of which have been de- seribed, are distributed throughout the temperate and subtropical regions. Several are of value for grazing, but the genus as a whole, contains few species of high economic importance. Onion grass enjoys a rather wide distribution, growing luxuriantly in the upper Canadian zone, but also succeeding well in the Hudson- ian zone. It rarely occurs as the predominating species in a plant formation, but appears in rather scattered stands in association with such species as mountain bunch grass and short-awned bromegrass, on well-drained soils. In its ability to exist in soils of low water con- tent it is very similar to mountain bunchgrass, the plant wilting be- yond recovery from this condition when the soil water is reduced to from 6.3 to 8.5 per cent. Onion grass is a perennial, bulbous at the base, fibrous rooted (Plate XVI). Culms 1 to 2 feet tall, sheaths and blades smooth or slightly rough to the touch. The panicle is sparsely branched, and the spike- lets usually bear 5 flowers. The lower or empty glumes are shorter than the scale of the floret, and both the glumes and the lemma, es- pecially the part of the letter naturally exposed, are dark purple when young, fading to light brown upon the approach of maturity. _ The flower stalks appeared from July 20 to August 10, in 1907, July 15 to August 15 in 1908, and July 10 to August 15 in 1909. In 1908 matured seeds were not found until August 20, and in the other two seasons the seed-maturing period was even later; in fact, this function was so much delayed in many situations, particularly where grazing had been carried on excessively, that a large amount of the seed failed to mature at all. Germination tests showed the seed to have a low vitality. In 1907 negative results were obtained, and in 1908 only 4 per cent germina- tion was secured. In 1909 no germination test was made. From these data and the fact that it is not regenerating on the range, the species would seem poorly adapted to the revegetation of depleted ranges. Notwithstanding the fact that onion grass has a wide distribution and ranks high in palatability, its scattered growth restricts its value as a forage plant. It starts growth early in the spring and, since it continues activities until late in the season, is relished through- out the summer by all classes of stock, and especially by sheep. 22 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A species of the same common name, closely resembling Melica bella and nearly as widely distributed and as important economically in the region studied, is Melica spectabilis. In habit of growth and general appearance the plants are very similar, both being bulbiferous and growing to practically the same height. In contrast with the rather dull spikelets of MZ. bella, however, those of M. spectabilis are bright in appearance and the glumes are membranaceous; the pedicels of the former are stiff and erect, whereas those of the latter are slender and flexuous. The period of flower-stalk production and seed maturity is virtually the same as in the case of JM. bella, and the viability of the seed crop is also very low. LitTtLeE BLUEGRASS. (Poa sandbergii.) The genus Poa is composed of about 150 species widely distributed in temperate and cold regions. In the western United States about 75 species have been reported. The value of the bluegrasses for hay and forage is well known. Cultivated Kentucky bluegrass is closely related to little bluegrass. Little bluegrass is distinctly a plant of the Transition zone, though through its ability to adjust itself to more or less adverse conditions it succeeds remarkably well on upland ranges and furnishes an abundance of forage. While at higher elevations it often grows luxuriantly in rich clay loam soils, usually it inhabits inferior shallow soils. On typical scablands and rocky areas it is the most common and characteristic species. Owing primarily to its ability to with- stand drought and wide variation in temperature, the range of dis- . tribution of little bluegrass in the region studied is unusually broad. It grows profusely in the lower limits of the Transition zone, about 2,000 feet, and is also common on ranges of 8,000 feet elevation. On such situations it is almost invariably confined to scablands and poorly disintegrated soils on the warmer south and west exposures. In the tests made to determine its drought resis- tance, little bluegrass did not show signs of complete wilting until the soil water was reduced to between 6.5 and 7.8 per cent. Little bluegrass is a perennial (Plate XVII) and grows in tussocks not usually exceeding 8 inches in diameter. It has coarse, deeply penetrating roots, which withstand trampling remarkably well; smooth culms, slightly decumbent at the base, 14 to 2 feet in height; close erect panicles composed of spikelets of 3 to 5 florets; and a superabundance of narrow, short, and rather flat, or sometimes slightly folded, blue-green basal leaves. The flower stalks of little blue grass are among the earliest to appear on the range. This is due, first, to the character of the situations in Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXII. F-21Q BiG BUNCH GRASS (AGROPYRON SPICATUM). 22 Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXII. MOUNTAIN WHEAT GRASS (AGROPYRON VIOLACEUM). 23 IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. | 23 which the species grows on the higher ranges, and second, to the inherent tendency of the species to complete its development at a very early date in its lower zone. The flower stalks on the upland ranges appeared from July 10 to August 1, July 10 to August 10, and July 5 to August 5, in 1907, 1908, and 1909, respectively. The seeds began to ripen in the latter part of July, and, except in 1907, the seed crop had matured by August 20. The seed crop developed in the high mountains has a low vitality, the average for all tests made for the Hudsonian zone for the three years being only 7 per cent. In contrast to this, seed grown in the Transition zone showed average germination of 38.4 per cent. As a forage for sheep, horses, and cattle early in the season, little bluegrass can hardly be surpassed. The entire plant is readily con- sumed until the seeds begin to reach full development. After the seeds have matured, however, which they do early in the summer, the plant is neglected for the more palatable tender species. In the fall of the year, when the bulk of the range plants are air-cured, little bluegrass again becomes one of the choice species. Other bluegrasses occur in the mountains, but as a rule are so scattered as not to merit special mention. The species most com- monly met with, in order of their abundance, are P. brachyglossa, P. paddensis, and P. ampla. SHORT-AWNED BROMEGRASS. (Bromus marginatus.) The genus Bromus is closely related botanically to Festuca, to which mountain bunchgrass belongs. In general, it differs in having larger spikelets and a toothed apex on the lemma, or flowering glume. Short-awned bromegrass (Plate XVIII) is a perennial species, and on favorable situations almost invariably forms a dense turf. The culms are erect and stout, from 3 to 4 feet in height, the sheaths are usually clothed with scattered, rather long, soft hairs; the panicle is erect and somewhat narrow, of a purple cast, and from 4 to 8 inches long, with seven to nine flowered spikelets, the florets coarsely pubescent, with two rather pointed hyaline teeth at the apex and the midrib extending into an awn one-fourth inch long. Short-awned bromegrass has rather a wide distribution in the region studied, but grows most luxuriantly between 4,000 and 7,500 feet elevation, where it generally inhabits the better soils of medium moisture content. It grows in dry situations on open plateaus, in friable loam soils, and in canyons, and often predominates on the banks of streams. The plant did not wilt destructively until the moisture in the soil was reduced to between 5.5 and 8 per cent. 24 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The flower stalks begin to show about July 25, and by August 10 are usually all produced. Matured seeds have been observed as early as August 10, and are usually pretty well ripened by Septem- ber 1. Dissemination takes place almost immediately upon maturity. Seeds of this species are above the average in germinating power. Seed vitality for the three years beginning with 1907 was 38, 47, and 58 per cent, respectively. On the lower ranges a germination as high as 85 per cent was obtained. The forage value of short-awned bromegrass 1s relative.y high. Because of its rank growth and the coarseness of the culms, however, it is more valuable for cattle and horses than for sheep, although if grazed when young the latter class of stock often entirely consume it. At a later period of growth the culms develop an abundance of crude fiber, and sheep then consume’ only the leaf blades and the panicle with its spikelets of developing grain. Horses are particularly fond of the grain both in the matured state and when green, and stockmen consider it equal to oats in nutritiousness. When this species is grazed off early in the summer it continues to grow luxuriantly, and at the close of the season has produced a second crop of leafy foliage equal in palatability to the early crop. Under such treatment, how- ever, no seed stalks are produced. On the Wallowa National Forest a variety of short-awned brome- grass, B. marginatus seminudus, and three other species, namely, rattlesnake grass (B. brizaeformis), B. richardsoni, and soft cheat (B. hordeaceus) have been collected. Because of the sparseness of all these forms except the last, this will be the only one discussed. Sorr CHEAT. (Bromus hordeaceus.) Soft cheat or chess, an annual native to southern Europe, has taken possession of deteriorated grazing lands in Washington, Oregon, and certain localities in California. On the lower ranges of the Wallowa National Forest, where germination occurs in the fall, it produces a first-class early spring feed when little else is available. Soft cheat (Plate XIX) has an erect growth. The culms, which are often very hairy at the nodes, attain a height of from 1 to 2 feet and are subtended by sheaths bearing long flexible hairs often of a silvery-white luster. The leaves are long and narrow, somewhat pubescent or smooth, and rather numerous for an annual species; the panicle is narrow, contracted, and erect, the spikelets from 5 to 13 flowered. Extending from the lemma or flowering glume is a stout, straight, or when old, slightly twisted awn, about 4 inch long, somewhat flattened near the base. Soft cheat is well adapted to the Transition zone, but grows luxuriantly in the Canadian zone, and is occasionally met with in Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIII. F—23G Bi RED BUNCH GRASS (AGROPYRON FLEXUOSUM). Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIV. F-24a SMOOTH WILD RYE (ELYMUS GLAUCUS), IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 25 the Hudsonian zone, though there it is of little forage value. It makes its best growth on shallow clay loam soils, where, notwith- standing its shallow roots, it remains green throughout the summer. External hairy contrivances protect the plant from transpiration. Wilting beyond recovery does not take place until the soil moisture falls to or shghtly below 5.5 per cent, a condition which very few herbaceous species can withstand. Owing to its ability to succeed in dry souls and to withstand long periods of drought, and because of its good seed habits and aggressiveness, soft cheat is valuable as a binder for exposed soils. On the higher ranges in the Canadian zone, and in those parts of the Hudsonian where it occurs, the flower stalks are mostly produced by July 15. The seeds are usually matured by August 10. In the Transition zone the seeds are ripened a month earlier. Seed col- lections made on the upland ranges at an altitude of 6,000 feet yielded an average germination of 48.2 per cent, while seed grown in the Transition zone during the same seasons averaged 78.5 per cent. This wide difference is doubtless due to the more favorable tempera- ture in the lower zone. Since the forage of soft cheat is produced exceptionally early, it is of special value at that season, and the leaf blades are then eagerly eaten. There is diversity of opinion among stockmen as to the nutritive qualities of this grass. Many claim that it is a valuable feed when supplemented with other species of grasses and weeds, but owing to its ‘‘washy,” succulent nature in the spring of the year, it is not conducive to putting. on solid fat. Miners say that their pack animals fatten quickly upon it when left at leisure, but when grazing upon it exclusively they are unable to work without excessive loss of flesh. After the seeds have ripened the plant is of very little forage value. Tart Meapow-Grass. (Panicularia nervata.) The genus Panicularia belongs to the same tribe as Kentucky bluegrass and mountain bunch grass. It contains about 20 species, most of which are found in North America. As its common name implies, tall meadow-grass usually attams a good height. The leaf blades are flat, smooth beneath, and rough above, and the sheaths are rather rough throughout. At maturity the somewhat purplish panicles with long flexible branches are usually drooping. This species is closely confined to moist situations, and is able to thrive in rather deep shade. It is almost invariably associated with slender reed-grass and various species of sedges and rushes of high water requirements. I+ occurs rather extensively in moist situa- tions in the Canadian zone, and is often the chief species in favorable spots in both the Hudsonian and Transition zones. 85154°—Bull. 545—17-—-4 26 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Since tall meadow-grass is entirely restricted to wet soils, the root system is not extensively developed, and it requires a relatively high amount of moisture to supply its needs. In its typical habitat it wilted beyond recovery when the soil water was reduced to from 12 to 14.5 per cent. The average period of flower-stalk production extends over about three weeks, beginning about July 10, while by August 1 most of the stalks have been sent forth. The seed begins to ripen about Au- gust 20, and by September 10 the crop is practically all matured and disseminated. Seeds are dropped immediately upon ripening. The germinative power of the seed crop, as tested in 1908, gave an average of 85 per cent, and since reproduction of this species seems to be generally good, it is probable that the seed has a high average vitality. Tall meadow-grass (Plate XX), hike a number of other species with a high-water requirement, supplies only a limited amount of forage. It is relished by all classes of stock, and is probably most valuable as forage during August, since it is then less succulent than earlier in the season. Up to August 1 the flower stalks are eaten nearly to the same extent as the leaf buds, but after that period they become somewhat tough and are not usually eaten by sheep. Horses and cattle, however, continue to consume the entire plant until much later in the season. Another species, P. pauciflora, very commonly associated with tall meadow-grass, has similar distribution and habits. P. pauciflora, however, does not occur as abundantly and, consequently, is not as valuable as a forage plant. It is readily distinguished by having 5 nerves on the lemma instead of 7, as in the case of tall meadow grass. Bie BuncH Grass. (Agropyron spicatum. ) The grass tribe, Hordeae, to which this and the following five species belong, is of high importance in the West. The genus Agropyron contains about 40 species, more than half of which are found in the United States. Of these, many are highly valuable for hay and forage. , Big bunch grass or blue bunch grass, as it is sometimes called because of the characteristic blue-colored culms or stems, is a peren- nial with deep fibrous roots. The culms, smooth and covered with “bloom,” attain a height of about 12 to 18 inches in dry situations where this grass characteristically occurs, while in deep rich soils of abundant moisture a height growth of about 30 inches is sometimes made. The leaf blades, about half the length of the culm, are mainly basal and produced in abundance. They are flat when green, but slightly rolled inwardly when the plant is air dry or suffering for lack Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXV. F—25Q@ a WHITE FOXTAIL (SITANION VELUTINUM). Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXVI. TALL SWAMP SEDGE (CAREX EXSICCATA). 27 IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. ide of water. The spikes are somewhat compressed, slender, 2 to 4 inches long. The spikelets are flattened, and as shown in Plate XXI, are long, narrow, erect or spreading, 3 to 6 flowered, 4 to 12 in number. The glumes (empty lowermost two scales) are sharp- pointed but awnless; lemmas (upper flowering scales) are usually provided with stout, somewhat twisted awns 1% to 1 inch long. The distribution and abundance of this grass are unusual. It constitutes the controlling type of plant growth below the yellow- pine zone, where itis depended upon to furnish the major portion of the fall, winter, and spring forage. In a few localities in Montana and Wyoming it grows so dense that it is of value for hay. It extends even into the Hudsonian zone (usually in scattered stand,’though in favorable situations nearly covering the ground with a rank growth), and even in this grazing type produces considerable herbage. This wide distribution is due to its remarkable capacity to endure drought. It is able to exist though for several days in a wilted condition, in the basaltic-soil type of the higher ranges when there is but 5.5 to 7.5 per cent water. This accounts for the prevalence of big bunch erass on scablands, benchlands, and gritty, poorly disintegrated soils of. low water content. Flower stalks first show about August 1, appearing very irregularly until perhaps September 1. Both the beginning and completion of production are thus unusually late, and the delay in the appearance of the flower stalks is reflected both in the time of seed maturity and in the fertility of the seed. Fully ripened seeds are rarely found before August 20. The seed crop continues to ripen irregularly as long as the weather permits, but the bulk of the seeds do not reach maturity. The seed that does mature germinates rather poorly. The average for 1907, 1908, and 1909 was 16, 30, and 26.5, respec- tively. On the lower ranges, however, seed is matured early and evenly, and a germination of 80+ per cent is often obtained. The large amount of herbage afforded by big bunch grass on the lower ranges, and even in the upland grazing areas, places it well toward the top of the lst of important forage plants. No other grass or forage plant is so abundant on the lower areas, nor supplies so much feed. As a fall, spring, and winter feed it is preeminent. When the fall rains come on, usually in September, big bunch grass is awakened to growth, and for two months or more, depending upon the altitude and physiography, continues its activities. This tender and succulent herbage is ravenously consumed by all classes of stock in the fall as well as during the winter and spring. About the middle of June on the lower areas, however, the foliage becomes somewhat tough and unpalatable and ceases to be of high value for forage. On the higher ranges, owing to the delay in the growing period and the absence of growth in the fall, the plant is grazed 28 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. throughout the season, though it does not seem to be consumed with the same eagerness as many other species. MountTAIn WHEAT GRASS. (Agropyron violaceum.) Mountain wheat grass resembles in general appearance cultivated wheat, though the two are not closely related botanically. Like big bunch grass, this species is a densely tufted perennial with deep and spreading roots. It is readily distinguishable from the former species, however, by its awnless spikelets or the presence of a slight rudimentary awn onthelemma. ‘The leaves are unusually numerous, basal, flat, and somewhat rough, about half the length of the culms, the latter attaining a height of from 1 to 2 feet. The spikes are slender and short, the lower (empty) glumes being conspicuously three-nerved (Pl. XXII). Though common in both the Canadian and Arctic-alpine zones, this species reaches its best development in the Hudsonian zone. As would be expected from the extensive development of the root system, it is best adapted to soils of medium moisture content. It inhabits open exposed situations, and is usually associated with big bunch grass, mountain bunch grass, and little bluegrass. In ecologi- cal requirements it resembles these species closely. In the drought tests it did not wilt beyond rocoveny until the soil water dropped to between 6 and 7.5 per cent. The flower stalks begin to show during the last week of July or first days of August, and production is for the most part complete within 3 weeks after their first appearance. As a rule the seeds are ripened from about August 20 to September 1. Dissemination takes place almost immediately after maturity. As a rule, the vitality of the seed of most of the species growing in the Staeonian and Arctic-alpine zones reaching maturity on or before September 1 is high, and in this respect mountain wheat grass is no exception. In 1907, a very poor seed year for mountain wheat grass, there was an average germination of 78 and in 1908 and 1909, respectively, an average of 96 and 82.5 per cent. From these figures it would be expected that this species is regenerating in favorable localities. Observations show that this is true where the seed crop is worked into the soil through grazing or otherwise, but where the surface layer is undisturbed the seeds, which are large and have no awns on the flowering scales to bore them into the ground, do not germinate. Mountain wheat grass is greatly relished by all classes of stock. Growth starts promptly in the spring, and the plant remains green and palatable until late in the fall. It is eaten with the greatest relish Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXVIII. F—27Q@ TALL SWAMP SEDGE IN A SATURATED SOIL ON MINAM MEADOWS, WHERE IT FINDS AN IDEAL HABITAT. 28 PLATE XXVIII. J. 3 4 a 4 a a {PP aha S “tid . % ip. Eg Sent oie hie ag me ey! 4 ARNG Wis A A AANA F-28Q IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 29 up to about August 15, but considerably later in the season, even in September, the basal leaf blades, though not the flower stalks, are eaten close to the ground by sheep and cattle. Mountain wheat grass is cropped in preference to a large number of species. It is preferred in the latter part of the season, if not earlier in the year, to big bunch grass, though its scattered growth and narrow zonal distribution make it less important than the latter. A species closely allied botanically to mountain wheat grass is red bunch grass (A. flerwosum), so named on account of its reddish- purple panicles and bunched habit of growth (Pl. XXIII). Its prominent awns and loose spikes, however, give a very different appearance from the former. It is sometimes mistaken for smooth wild rye (Pl. XXIV), though very different in structure. In its range - of distribution, ecological requirements, period of flower stalk pro- duction and seed maturity, and in its forage value, red bunch grass is very similar to mountain wheat grass, though in most situations it does not remain palatable as late in the season. SmootH Wixtp Rye. (Elymus glaucus.) The species belonging to this genus are generally known as rye grasses because of their resemblance to the ordinary cultivated rye. There are about 25 species of Elymus, distributed mainly throughout the north temperate regions. Smooth wild rye is a perennial bunch grass with a strong root system capable of withstanding more than the average trampling by stock. It grows from 1 to 3 feet in height, the sheaths enveloping the culms usually being smooth, the leaves abundant, smooth beneath, some- times rough above. The spike, 2 to 5 inches long, is narrow and slender, bearing numerous spikelets of three to six flowers. The glumes (lowermost empty two scales) are narrow, sharp pointed and rigid. ‘The lemmas (upper flowering scales) smooth or slightly rough, each bearing a straight rough awn one-fourth to one-half inch in length. This grass is distributed over a wide altitudinal range. It is most abundant in the upper Canadian zone, is fairly common in the lower Hudsonian zone, and is found to a limited extent in the Arctic- alpine zone. As a rule, its growth is not dense, but affords an abun- dance of forage because of its wide distribution. In most cases it is merged with mountain bunch grass, short-awned bromegrass, and other species characteristically associated with the latter in glades and parks. Smooth wild rye seems to be somewhat better able to succeed in moister habitats than many of the plants associated with it in exposed situations, and yet it withstands drought remarkably well. In the drought tests it did not wilt beyond recovery in some 30 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. instances until the soil moisture was reduced to 7.5 per cent, though two species died when there was a water content of 9.8 per cent. Flower stalks begin to appear during the first week in July and continue until about the first week in August. The seed crop begins to ripen as early as August 1 and continues throughout the month, few immature seeds being found in September. The vitality of the seed crop is about the average for upland grazing plants. The aver- age germination for the three years of study was 21.2 per cent. From this it would seem that many other species, such as moun- tain wheat grass, which shows an average germination of 64 per cent, would reproduce much more abundantly. Smooth wild rye, however, is one of the most aggressive species on the high grazing lands. The seedlings develop deep root systems, and a large per- centage of the young plants succeed in rather adverse situations. The grazing value of smooth wild rye is high. By many stockmen the plant is considered rather too coarse for sheep, though it is probable that its forage value in this respect is underestimated, since observations show that sheep readily graze it. Sheep rarely crop the flower stalks, because these are produced exceptionally early, and their rapid height growth soon puts the best part of them out of reach of the animals, and because the stalks are somewhat coarser than sheep relish and become unpalatable early in the sea- son. All things considered, however, this plant furnishes good forage by the time the upper ranges are grazed, and the herbage is consumed ravenously throughout the season. Horses are fond of the flower stalks, and° until the seeds are matured and disseminated the spikes or flower heads also furnish choice feed. Cattle graze the forage closely even after the seed has been disseminated. Waite Foxratin. (Sitanion velutinum.) White foxtail, often called wild barley, to which it is closely related, is undesirable on the range because of its low forage value and its ageressiveness on overgrazed areas. The plant derives its name from the prominent awns, which, with the entire spike, turn a light-straw color upon reaching maturity. It is a tufted perennial grass from 1 to 2 feet tall, the culms rather conspicuously spreading on the ground, the leaf blades mainly basal, somewhat involute and rough, the upper surface pubescent. The glumes are provided with long stiff awns, which, at maturity, are strikingly divergent (Plate XXV). White foxtail is most abundant in the Hudsonian zone. It is also found on the lower grazing types, though not to the same extent as on upland ranges. The situations most favorable to it are open glades of rather poorly disintegrated soils with moisture content Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXIX, F—29Q a MARSH OR WATER SEDGE (CAREX FESTIVA). * Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXX. F-30Q Z MARSH SEDGE (CAREX VULGARIS BRACTEOSA),. IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 31 below the average. In the drought tests the individual plants wilted excessively in soil varying in moisture from 6 to 8.5 per cent. The flower stalks of white foxtail are among the earliest to appear, and are practically all produced by August 1. Matured seeds are found as early as August 15, and are practically all ripened by the end of the first week in September. Unlke most species, the seeds are not disseminated immediately upon reaching maturity, but per- sist for some time unless they are brushed off by direct contact or shaken off by some vigorous mechanical means. Wind is ineffective in bringing about a wide distribution of the seed, but stock, especially sheep, when they come in contact with matured plants, distribute the seed crop broadcast, the awns attaching themselves to the wool. Germination tests as well as observations on the reproduction of this plant on the range indicate a high viability. In 1907 and the two succeeding seasons an average of 43, 77, and 82.5 per cent of the seed germinated under controlled conditions. The best repro- duction is taking place on sparsely vegetated soils where the seed are worked well beneath the surface and where competition with other species is not severe. | The forage value of white foxtail is always low. In the spring, shortly after growth has started, the leaf blades are eaten by stock of all kinds, but this period is so short as to be negligible. Even before the majority of the flower stalks are produced the herbage becomes tough and harsh, and stockmen claim that the mouths of sheep become sore and tender if they graze it to any extent. As soon as the seeds begin to ripen white foxtail is almost wholly dis- regarded. If stock should consume any quantity, however, the awns may cause sore mouths and big throats, and the barbs even get into the eyes. Thus the plant is practically worthless, and the range would be better off by its absence. GRASSLIKE PLANTS. DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN GRASSLIKE PLANTS AND GRASSES. Stockmen, as a rule, do not distinguish between true grasses and erasslike plants such as sedges and rushes. The latter, because of their frequent occurrence in marshes, swales, along creek banks, and in other moist situations, are commonly referred to as ‘‘ water grass,”’ ‘““wire grass,” ‘‘swamp grass,” etc., but the three distinct groups of grasses, sedges, and rushes are almost invariably spoken of collec- tively as ‘‘grasses.”’ Sedges, Carex, may readily be distinguished from grasses in the following simple ways: 1. The stems of sedges are triangular, jointless and solid, the leaves 3-ranked, and the leaf sheaths closed. # 32 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2. The stems of grasses are generally hollow, cylindrical, and jointed, the leaves 2-ranked, and the leaf sheaths usually split. Rushes (Juncus and Juncoides) are readily distinguished from grasses and sedges by: 1. The flowers of rushes are regular and, though diminutive, simi- lar in form to those of a lily, having a perianth composed of six bractlike scales, and with three to many small seeds borne in a capsule or small pod. 2. The flowers of grasses and sedges are not symmetrical, the perianth being irregular and inconspicuous or obsolete, and are sub- tended by husklike scales, each flower producing but a single seed. SEDGES AND RUSHES. It is the general opinion among ranchers that, as compared with grasses, sedges and rushes are of low nutritive value. This idea is generally true, but when a grass species occupying a typical marshy bog is compared with sedges and rushes from a similar situation chemical analysis has shown that the food value differs but little. Practically all species of moist habitats are somewhat too succulent or ‘‘washy,” notably in the spring of the year, and while they are eaten with relish at that time they are doubtless more nutritious later in the season. A thousand or more species of sedges (Carex) have been described. They are widely distributed and are most abundant in temperate regions. In the United States approximately 500 species are found, about half of which occur in the Western States. The rush genus (Juncus) contains over 200 species. TaLtL Swamp SEDGE. (Carex exsiccata.) Because of its abundance, density of stand, and height growth, this species is one of the best-known sedges on the Wallowa National Forest. It ranges from 14 to 3 feet in height, has coarse leafy culms, and broad, thick, flat leaves of a light-green color. The spikes, developed sometimes as much as 4 inches below the staminate flower clusters, are very short-stalked (Plate XXVI). The root system is somewhat meager, and new growth takes place abundantly through stolons and rootstocks. The drought tests showed that this plant wilted destructively when the rich organic soil in which it grows contained, in the one case, 22.5 per cent of moisture and in the other 24 per cent. Ob- viously, therefore, the species is distinctly of the marsh type. In most perennial bogs, preferably in saturated soils, it grows pure, to the exclusion of other species (Plate X XVII). Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXII. F=31Q as MARSH SEDGE (CAREX TOLMIEI SUBSESSILIS). PLATE XXXII. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. F-32G ELK GRAss (CAREX GEYERI). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 33 In somewhat drier situations, such as over-irrigated meadows, it often produces a conspicuous growth, and when associated with some cultivated grass such as redtop, is cut for hay. Tall swamp sedge is most common in the Canadian zone, but also occurs along the border of the Hudsonian zone. The flower stocks begin to push forth about June 20, and are all out by the last week in July. The seed are comparatively slow to mature, practically none being found until the last week in August, while the entire crop is not ripened until September 15. In viability the seed ranks low. The average germination obtained from the tests made in 1908 and 1909 (no tests made in 1907) was 15.2 per cent. Low vitality in the seed of this plant, however, is of little significance, since the species propagates profusely by rootstocks. Compared with many other species of its class, the forage value of tall swamp sedge is high, and early in the season the herbage is eaten with relish by sheep. Owing to the sheep’s dislike for bogs, how- ever, many areas densely covered with this species are not visited until the soil becomes fairly dry. In the latter part of the summer the leaf blades become tough and harsh, and sheep do not consume them with the same eagerness as in the forepart of theseason. Horses are particularly fond of this plant. They graze it throughout the season and seem to do well upon it for short periods, but, if left free, withdraw to better-drained soils which afford a wholly different type of herbage. Miners and campers state that their pack animals eat tall swamp sedge readily, but are unable to do the usual amount of work when grazed exclusively upon it. It is probable, therefore, that its nutritive value is low. SHEEP SEDGE. (Carex illota.) Of the bog forage plants of the genus Carex, sheep sedge is possibly the most important. It is astoloniferous perennial or densely matted species about 1 foot tall, with culms usually exceeding by one-third the numerous grasslike leaves. The latter are narrow and smooth, and soft even when the plant is mature. Inconspicuous small spikes crowded into small dark brown heads distinguish it from cer- tain other associated species (Plate XXVIII). Sheep sedge is confined to mountain meadows, and rather closely to moist situations, though it persists in some which become com- paratively dry later in-the season. Conditions in the Hudsonian zone are well adapted to its highest development. The leaf blades wilted but recovered their Soci | in eae rich loam soil containing 14 per cent of moisture. The flower stalks begin to appear about the middle of July and are practically all sent forth during the following three weeks. Matured 85154°—Bull. 545—17——5 34 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. seeds are found about August 20, and by the end of the first week in September the whole seed crop has ripened. Data on the vitality of the seeds were obtained only in 1909, when an average from three tests gave 27.5 per cent germination. As its common name implies, sheep sedge is a highly relished sheep forage. The leaves are tender and juicy throughout the sum- mer, and the plant seems to be consumed with about the same eager- ness at all times during the growing season. Horses, too, graze this sedge with unusual eagerness, consuming flower stalks with the same avidity as the leaf blades. Since sheep sedge is restricted to moist habitats it is, of course, not very abundant, but in favorable situa- tions it holds its own remarkably well, and it is not uncommon to find it predominating over other sedges and more fastidious species almost to their entire exclusion. j Three other species, usually called marsh or water sedges, C. fes- tiva, C. vulgaris bracteosa, and C. tolmier subsessilis, are, on account of their general appearance, forage value, and distribution, often con- fused with sheep sedge. Of these, Carex festiva resembles it most, but differs in many minute characters (compare Plates XXVIII and XXIX). The leaves of Carex festiwa are much broader and coarser, and are rough on the edge, and the color of the plant is light green. The other two species, C. tolmier subsessilis and C. vulgaris bracteosa (Plates XXX and XXXI) have much more elongated spikes, of a brown-black color, which alone should eliminate confusion. The latter attains about twice the height of the former, and its culms are more acutely angular. The forage value of all three species is prac- tically the same, though C. vulgaris bracteosa is relatively less abund- ant than the other two. C. tolmiei subsessilis remains palatable to stock for a longer period than either of the others, but is more abund- ant in the alpine or upper subalpine regions, and therefore matures later, being of little importance as ies when the other species are of highest She ELK Grass. (Carex geyeri.) Of the dry-land sedges, elk grass is by far the most abundant. It occurs in the Canadian and Hudsonian zones, often as the predomi- nating species on exposed hillsides, and is among the earliest of the herbs to send forth its leaf blades. Many hillsides have been almost wholly vegetated by this species. Since elk grass produces new plants by stolons the growth is dense and segments of a tuft are almost inseparable (Plate XXXII). The signer angled, rough culms, about 1 foot high, exceed but slightly the harsh and rough-edged leaf blades. The spikes are slender, borne at the summit of the culm, the staminate flowers usually appearing above, and the pistillate (1 or 2 in number) below. PLATE XXXIII. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXIV. F-34Q WooD RUSH (JUNCOIDES PARVIFLORUM). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 85 The very nature of the habitat in which elk grass succeeds indi- cates its unusual ability to withstand low moisture conditions. The soil in which it grows is a coarse gravelly one, which liberates the water more readily than finer soils. Drought tests resulted in the extensive wilting of all leaf blades of the plant only when the water content was reduced to 6.5 per cent, and in some instances slightly lower. This places elk grass very near the head of the list in its ability to exist under adverse moisture conditions. Flower stalks begin appear during the last week in June, and by July 20 practi- cally all are out. About the time that the last flower stalks are sent up matured seeds are found. By August 15 the seed crop is almost entirely ripened and disseminated. The seed has about average viability, the tests in 1907 and in the two subsequent seasons showing germinations of 6, 26, and 32 per cent, respectively. In the forepart, of the season elk grass is grazed with a certain amount of avidity, though practically every other grass species is preferred to it. It is only eaten by sheep up to about August 1, unless the stock are starved. After that date the leaves become so tough, hard, and fibrous that even horses will not graze it if other forage is available. Sheep always scatter widely when feeding upon it, doubtless searching for more palatable food. Rusu. (Juncus parryi.) Among the several species of rushes found on the highland ranges Juncus parryi is commonly met with, and in value is typical of other species which are abundant in the region studied. Like most rushes of the drier situations, Juncus parryi is tufted, and has woody, fibrous, deep-spreading roots capable of withstanding an unusual amount of abusive grazing. The stems are thin and wiry, from 4 to 10 inches long, and the cylindrical leaves are about half the length of the flower stems (Plate XXXIII); the inflorescence, usually 2 or 3 flowered, is surpassed by a bract similar to the leaves. Juncus parryi is confined to the high ranges. In the Hudsonian zone it occurs extensively in open, exposed situations on well-drained, often poorly disintegrated soils. It is usually associated with elk grass (Carex geyeri) and is just about as drought resistant, the specimens studied not wilting beyond recovery until the soil-moisture content was reduced to from 5.5 to 7 per cent. Above timber line it is found in considerable abundance in association with typical alpine species. On the lowest areas on which the plant occurs the flower stalks begin to show about July 10, and by August 5 nearly all have been sent up. Matured seeds are usually not found before August 25. 36 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The viability of the seed crop has not been determined. Other species of the same genus growing in similar habitats have given results that are comparatively low. (See Table 2, p. 58.) The forage value of Juncus parry? is not especially high, resembling that of elk grass more than any of the other species described. Like the latter, this rush is eaten to some extent early in the season, but soon becomes extremely tough and unpalatable. For this reason, if other forage is available, it remains untouched by horses and sheep. Since it is grazed to such a limited extent, practically nothing is known of its nutritive qualities. A number of other rushes of minor importance occur throughout the mountains, the majority in moist soils. Woop Rusu. (Juncoides parviflorum.) This genus is closely related to the rushes and resembles them in general character. It may be distinguished from the latter, how- ever, by the leaf sheaths, which in this genus are closed and in the rushes open. Further, the seed vessel or capsule of Juncoides bears | 3 seeds while in Juncus the capsule is many-seeded. About 60 species are on record and they are widely distributed. Wood rush is a tufted, hardy, perennial plant, the stems, com- monly 2 to 3 in a tuft, 1 to2 feet high. Asshown in Plate XXXIV, the grasslike flat leaves, usually about one-third the length of the flower stems, are wide and sharp-pointed; inflorescence a loose panicle, commonly 24 to 4 inches long, its lowest bract foliaceous, usually less than } the length of the panicle; flowers borne singly or 2 to 3 together on the branches of the panicle on slender pedicels or stalks. Wood rush is strictly a high-range plant, and while found to a limited extent in the warmer situations of the Arctic-alpine zone it is almost entirely confined to the Hudsonian zone. The densest and most luxuriant growth occurs in the semihumid soils of exposed situations, though it is often found in considerable abundance both in well-drained soils and on forested areas. Its most common associate is tufted hair-grass (Deschampsia caespitosa) and black hair-grass (D. atropurpurea). In water requirements it is similar to the two species of hair-grasses, neither of which may be classed as highly drought resistant. It is usually unable to recover from a wilted con- dition in its natural habitat when the water content of the soil drops to between about 10 and 12.5 per cent. Since the plant grows only on the higher and relatively moist soils, the flower stalks seldom begin to show until July 20. Three weeks later practically all have been produced. Matured seeds are found about the time that the last flower stalks are sent forth, though the i 4 i Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 36 MOUNTAIN ONION (ALLIUM VALIDUM). PLATE XXXV. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXVI. SMALL WILD ONION (ALLIUM COLLINUM). 37 IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 37 main seed crop is not ripened until about September 1. The vitality of the seed, according to tests made in 1908-1909, is low, an average for the two seasons giving only 7.5 per cent. The plant regenerates vegetatively to a marked degree. No local species of the family to which wood rush belongs compares with it in forage value, in which respect it is of much more importance than certain species of grasses. It is relished by all classes of stock, but because of being restricted to high mountain lands not usually accessible to cattle and horses it is grazed almost entirely by sheep. The relatively moist and cool soil which it characteristically occupies tends to prevent rapid early spring growth, such as is made by plants in the better-drained and warmer habitats. Wood rush is therefore eaten with avidity when other species of high repute, as forage plants, are well along towards maturity and eaten with little gusto. Both sheep and horses have been observed to graze the leaf blades with eagerness, in preference to certain grasses and forage weeds, late in September. Wood rush is able to withstand an unusual amount of trampling and abuse in favorable habitats because of its density of growth. This-is due not to a particularly deep-root system, but rather to the density of the roots which ramify through the superficial soil layer, binding it so firmly as to prevent exposure of the roots by trampling. NONGRASSLIKE PLANTS. Besides the grasslike plants included in the preceding discussion, there are a number of other plants which furnish a large amount of the most valuable forage on the upland ranges. All classes of stock prefer a variety of feed, and sheep probably utilize a greater number of species than any other class. During certain periods of the year and under certain conditions, even where there is an abundance of comparatively palatable grasses, their choice forage is made up almost wholly of weeds and browse. A band of sheep when passing somewhat hastily over a range which supports an admixture of grasses, sedges, rushes, weeds, willows, elders, and the like, first eat the tender weeds and leaves of shrubs, while the grasses are not grazed, except to a limited extent, until the other kinds of forage have been largely consumed. On many of the upland ranges on the Wallowa National Forest there is a superabundance of weeds and here and there a number of shrubs, and since these ranges are accessible in the main only to sheep, the areas supporting these nongrasslike species are very closely cropped. Owing to the great variety of this class of feed and the large number of species grazed by sheep, only the species of first importance are discussed. These have been arranged in families and according to their botanical relationships. 38 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Liliaceae: - .. co. oat See wiele sicis s o's iclefelnneis anle sso Siete ated Lily. Allium validum. Allium platyphyllum. Allium fibrillum. Molantnacese. 2.2.20 le oe hc Boo cosh aa tees one eRe ee Bunchflower. Veratrum viride. Salieaceae-o.- sss nak oie 0 25 2s 2S el eee Willow. Salix scouleriana. Polyponacese x: 22.52.52 2255.20. S25 ons oat ce ae eee Buckwheat. Polygonum phytolaccaefolium. Geraniaceae <2. oe oes 2 te ee eee Geranium. Geranium viscosissimum. Onagracese. 242.2005. bs ee See Evening primrose. Chamaenerion angustifolium. Apiaceae... . 525. <2. 2-c- ese s- ate ss dee eee eee Parsnip. Tngusticum oreganum. Polemoniaceae. .. . 2... 22. tlade Se - sen se Oa oe Phlox. Polemonium pulcherrimum. Vacciniaceae- (22.2. 255-35 22. Ee eee Bee ee Blueberry. Vaccinium membranaceum. Menthacease 222-2 5622 5 2s Sa SO SS Mint. Agastache urticifolia. Scrophulariacese~.. 2.22. 220 see 2 oe eee Beardtongue. Pentstemon procerus. Caprifoliacese 2202. S25). 22 is 2 A oo Honeysuckle. Sambucus melanocar pa. Sambucus glauca. Valerianaceae.i3. 0.5 ahs oe a Ot Valerian. Valeriana sitchensis. Cichoriacese= .. 2.222.255.) eS SS eee Chicory. Meracium cynoglossoides. Agoseris glauca. Asteraceae... .. 0. . 25 s.c ootene dene bees eben ae eee eee Aster. Rudbeckia occidentalis. Achillea lanulosa. Senecio triangularis. Senecio columbianus. : ‘ MountTAIN ONION. (Allium validum.) Onions belong to the lily family. About 275 species have been described, and 40 or more are found in the western United States. Mountain onion, an account of its abundance, size, and the relish with which it is eaten, is one of the most valuable of these plants. It usually attains a height of 1 to 2 feet. The bulbs differ from those of other local species in being narrow and much elongated. They are provided with a rose-white, delicate covering. The rootstocks are unusually stout, and the plant makes a bunched growth, producing a heavy, dense rose-colored or nearly white flower cluster (Plate XXXYV). Mountain onion is restricted to the Hudsonian and timber- line regions. It belongs to the group of plants which require a moist or even wet soil throughout the year and occurs in wet meadows aod springy places within the altitudinal limits of its range. The Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXVII. PANICLE )i', Bed Buri aee PY Secmenr INFLOWER jj ; AEA BA OOF PrTHy AnofRuir pt Ve.) ge idiweg STEM FALSE HELLEBORE (VERATUM VIRIDE). 39 Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. FIRE WILLOW (SALIX NUTTALLII). One leaf is turned so as to show the venation and character of the under surface, F-38G 7 stone IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 39 minimum soil moisture content capable of maintaining it was found to be between 14 and 16 per cent. As a usual thing this plant grows in close association with marsh sedges and rushes, though it fre- quently produces a dense growth that crowds out other species. The flowers begin to unfold during the first week in July, and nearly all are out by the end of the first week in August. Unlike grasses, whose pollen is carried to the flower by the wind, flowers of this and other onions obtain their interchange of pollen mainly through the visits of insects. The seeds are comparatively late in maturing, seldom beginning to ripen before the last week in August, and unfav- orable weather conditions often prevent ripening. The average ger- mination of the seed crop in 1908 and 1909 was 37 per cent. Con- sidering the lateness of the maturing period, these figures are above the average. The palatability of the mountain onion as compared with that of other plants growing with it is pronounced. When sheep first visit an area containing this particular onion in association with sedges, rushes, and the usual plants of such habitats, the majority of the other species are almost wholly disregarded until the onions have been grazed off. Few, if any, of the marsh plants are eaten with more eagerness than mountain onion. The flowers are usually cropped first, but the long flat tender leaves are apparently consumed with about the same relish. ‘Several species of onion occur on the upland ranges, but they fur- nish only a small amount of the range forage, though eaten greedily by nearly all classes of stock. Of these species the small wild onion (A. fibrillum) is the mostimportant. This is the earliest of the species, doubtless from the fact that it is almost entirely confined to scablands. Itis asmall plant (Plate XXXVI), usually not over 6 inches in height, and has a cluster of white flowers which are expanded shortly after the disappearance of the snow. It is valuable only as an early range plant, and by August 1, like most other onions in similar situations, completes its growing period, dries up, and disappears. Wild onion (A. platyphyllum) is another important high mountain form, very similar economically and ecologically to A. fibrillum. One objection to grazing sheep upon onion is that the mutton is flavored by it. This objection is not serious, however, since the plants are usually grazed early in the spring when there is little or no output of mutton, and the flavor is soon lost when sheep are put upon other forage. FatszE HELLEBORE. (Veratrum viride.) False hellebore, sometimes known erroneously as skunk cabbage, is a close relative of the lilies. In appearance it resembles the true hellebore (Veratrum album), from which it derives its common name. es eo ee ot, . 4 40 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. False hellebore is a perennial herb, 14 to 6 feet tall. Just beneath the ground the stalk becomes fleshy and much expanded, and from this protrudes a number of rootstocks and from 35 to 40 coarse, “‘ropy,”’ tough roots, the latter penetrating the soil to a depth of about 20 inches. The stem is very stout and has an abundance of short-petioled or sessile, acute and broad leaves; the panicle is elon- gated, drooping, and provided with a profusion of green flowers (Plate XXXVI). False hellebore flourishes best in a comparatively wet soil. It grows densely in marshy basins, along creek banks, and in swales of nearly all kinds in the upland ranges of the Hudsonian zone. It wilts notably, in most cases beyond recovery, when the soil water content is reduced to from 11 to 14.5 per cent. The flower stalks rarely put in their appearance until about August 5, and in certain places the flowers do not unfold until September 1. The lower flowers expand first, and the lower part of the panicle is the first to mature the seed. Dissemination takes place shortly after maturity, and since the seeds are flat, broad, and winged, they are well scattered. ; The earliest seeds to ripen in 1909 (about August 25) showed an } average germination of 24 per cent. Those which matured after September 5 had practically no viability. The forage value of false hellebore varies with the time of year, though in a way opposite from that of most grazing plants. Except very early in the spring, prior to the expansion of the leaves, when the young shoots are grazed by sheep to a certain extent, it is seldom eaten until after one or two rather severe frosts. Usually not until after August 15 is any considerable portion of the plant grazed with much relish on upland ranges, but later in the fall sheep eat it. In many instances only 3 or 4 inches of the coarse stalk is left. The leaves and pithy portion of the stalk are the parts relished. Stockmen generally hold that this plant is poisonous if eaten before it has been frosted. To what extent false hellebore has a toxic effect on stock early in the season is not known, but no authentic cases are on record where sheep have been poisoned by it. The short rootstocks are no doubt poisonous, but late in the season, at the time when the plant is generally grazed, the roots are rarely pulled up. Frre WILLow. (Salix scouleriana.) In the region studied the willow family, including poplars or aspens, furnish more first-class browse than any other group. Fire willow, or Nuttall’s willow as it is sometimes called, is a common invader of burned-over lands, where it is the most important species. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XXXIX. F-39Q i WILD BUCKWHEAT (POLYGONUM PHYTOLACCAEFOLIUM). Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XL. F-—40G GERANIUM (GERANIUM VISCOSISSIMUM). A portion of the coarse root is shown on the left, IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 4] Fire willow rarely develops into tree form in the region studied, though elsewhere it often attains a height of from 15 to 25 feet and a diameter of 8 inches. The leaves are of alight shade beneath, smooth, and free from hairs on the upper surface. The midrib is prominent and yellow (Plate XX XVIII). This willow grows along mountain streams, in canyons, and on gentle slopes in damp leaf litter or rather poorly disintegrated soils. While it is sometimes sparsely scattered it more often grows in dense clumps. On burned-over areas in canyons and on gentle slopes where the soil has not been rendered sterile, it often produces dense low thickets. On the Wallowa National Forest where it grows in close association with snow bush or buck brush (Ceanothus velutinus) in the Canadian zone, it forms what is known as chaparral. In the Hudsonian zone it occurs more sparingly. Male and female flowers are borne on different bushes, the seed production, of course, being confined to the female ones. The seeds ripen in the spring about the time the leaves have reached full development. The little pods open up soon after maturity and liberate the silky hairy seeds, which are widely distributed. No tests were made of the viability of the seed of this species. It produces an abundance of seed, but reproduction is mainly vegetative. In the Wallowa Mountains fire willow is the preeminent browsing plant. The low and spreading habit of growth adds greatly to its value as a sheep forage, and the time at which the leaves are developed renders it valuable as an early browsing plant. As high as sheep can reach, the branches are stripped of their leaves, though the bark is seldom eaten. Since this plant makes a comparatively rapid growth, a portion of the branches are soon beyond the reach of sheep and injury from severe grazing is unusual. In fact, the more sheep browse on the willow the denser becomes the growth. This is due to the vigorous and persistent sprouting of new branches as a result of the trimming back of the young shoots through grazing. Even when a bush is cut to the ground a number of young shoots are produced. Witp BuCKWHEAT. (Polygonum phytolaccaefolium. ) This plant belongs to the well-known buckwheat family; the genus is represented by some 70 species in the United States. Wild buckwheat is a perennial with a coarse, fleshy, sparsely branched but deep root. It attains a height of about 2 feet; the stem is well supplied with comparatively large, oval-shaped leaves, and panicles of rather small greenish white flowers (Plate XX XIX). The species is mainly confined to exposed situations in the Hud- sonian zone, though it occurs to a limited extent in both of the bordering zones. It attains its best development on mountain 85154°—Bull. 545—17——6 42 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. slopes in a soil with the average amount of moisture.t While it seldom grows pure, it is common enough in mixture with grasses of — various kinds to give character to the range. Flower stalks appear from about the latter part of the second week in July until August 5. Matured seeds are found as early as August 1, while the major part of the crop is matured by about August 25. Though the seed crop is ripened early the vitality is not high. The average germination obtained in 1908 and 1909 was 3 and 13.5 per cent, respectively. Since wild buckwheat inhabits comparatively dry situations, it resumes growth early in the spring and by July 15 has produced an abundance of leafy herbage which is greedily eaten by sheep. After about the last 10 days in August, when the leaves begin to dry up, the plant is no longer relished. In many places where the natural reseeding experiments are being conducted good reproduction of this species has been secured. It withstands trampling remarkably well, and is promising as a plant for the revegetation of depleted ranges under a system of deferred grazing. The nutritive qualities of wild buckwheat are generally considered to be high. GERANIUM. (Geranium viscosissimum. ) Geranium belongs to the same family as the well-known alfileria or ‘‘filaree,’’ which is so valuable for grazing in certain sections of the country. It is a coarse, much branched, and leafy species (Plate XL), from 1 to 2 feet high. Both the branches and the upper side of the leaves are covered with fine hairs; the leaves are long petioled, large and thick, deeply three-parted; the petals pink or purple, sometimes fading to barely white. The root is very coarse and tough, and rather deep, but not branching. in the Transition zone this plant is sufficiently abundant to be of considerable value for grazing, and is nearly as common in the Canadian zone, occupying open glades and parks and canyon bot- toms and hillsides, in medium moist, preferably gravelly, loam soils rather rich in humus. It rarely grows in dense stand, but in fayor- able situations is often conspicuous, especially during the flowering period. It is usually associated with Indian paint brush (Castilleja) and yarrow (Achillea). The flowering period extends over approximately one month. On the lower ranges it is among the first of the perennial plants to bloom. 1 In determining the water requirenents of this species, it was almost impossible to obtain reliable data by the methods used because of the deep “‘taproot”’ which, if only slightly injured, would result in death to the plant within a few hours. An average of all tests attempted showed that it was unable to absorb water at a rate sufficient to reestablish turgidity from the soil in which it grows when the content was reduced to between 8and 10 percent. Judging from the species with which it is associated and the habitat in which it grows, these figures appear to be somewhat high. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLI. F—-41G é FIREWEED (CHAMAENERION ANGUSTIFOLIUM). Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLII. F-42Q las WILD CELERY (LINGUSTICUM OREGANUM). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 43 In the Canadian zone the flowers begin to unfold about June 20, and by July 20 most of them have expanded. The seed matures from about July 25 to August 15. In 1909 the seed crop from the Canadian zone germinated 29.5 per cent. Reproduction on the range in general is taking place slowly. Geranium is one of the choice forage plants for cattle and sheep. Since it grows in abundance on the cattle and sheep allotments, it is equally valuable to both classes. of stock. When it is young all but the lower portion of the coarse stem is eaten, but later only the flowers, immature fruits, and leaves are grazed. About the time that the seed crop has matured the leaves dry up and the plant loses much of its forage value. FIREWEED. (Chamaenerion angustifolium.) Chamaenerion angustifolium is given its name, fireweed, because of its prevalence on burned-over forest lands. This species is the most valuable perennial grazing plant of the evening primrose family. It attains a height of 2 to 5 feet, depending on the situation. The cylindrical stem bears an abundance of long, slender, nearly entire, thin leaves, and the inflorescence consists of a raceme of delicately pink or nearly white, or sometimes purple, flowers developed at the apex of the stem (Plate XLI). The long, slender capsules split into four divisions at maturity, liberating the numerous minute seeds provided with a tuft of long silky hairs, by means of which they are carried great distances by the wind. In the Wallowa National Forest fireweed is most abundant on burned-over areas in rather dry, often coarse, gravelly and even sterile soils in the Canadian zone. It also occurs in both of the con- tiguous zones, though never in pure stand. It is one of the first species to invade heavily burned lodgepole-pine forests. Fireweed is drought resistant, comparing in this respect with some of the grasses which grow both in moist and in dry situations. The plants were found not to wilt excessively until the soil moisture was reduced to between 8.2 and 11.5 per cent, depending upon the par- ticular soil type. In the moister places, where decayed vegetable matter is more abundant, the moisture requirement figures are higher. The production of flower stalks, like the seed-maturing period, continues for an unusual time. In the warmer situations flowers begin to unfold as early as June 20, and in a few places buds are found at the apex of the raceme as late as the early part of August. The lower flowers are first displayed, and as the season advances there is a gradual sequence or succession in the flowering toward the 44 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. apex of the raceme. Accordingly, while the upper part of the raceme is in full flower the lower portion often has well-developed seed pods. In some cases the seed reaches maturity on the lower parts of the raceme while buds are still forming on the upper portion. The seed- maturing period begins about August 1 and continues until inclement weather sets in. While the viability of the seed is not high, the average for that collected in 1908 and 1909 being 21.5 per cent, the earlier maturing seed runs from 10 to 12 per cent higher than that maturing later. The amount of seed produced is unusually large and reproduction is very abundant. When young, fireweed is eaten with great avidity. As the season advances, however, the stem become fibrous and unpalatable, and after August 1 only the flowers and leaves are grazed, the stem being left quite naked. Few if any ‘‘weeds” are more relished by sheep than fireweed. Horses, too, eat it to a limited extent, and cattle eraze it ravenously. Since it begins growth early in the sprmg and is late in reaching maturity, it furnishes a much relished feed durmg the greater part of the summer grazing period. Witp CELERY. (Ligusticum oreganum.) Ligusticum oreganum, sometimes called wild parsnip, belongs to the same family as cultivated celery, parsnip, and carrot, and in the region studied is called both wild celery and wild parsnip. It has the characteristic parsnip aroma, and resembles the parsnip somewhat in the appearance of the leaf (Plate XLID). It should not be con- fused with the poisonous water hemlock, which is found in wet soils and is sometimes called ‘‘wild parsnip.” Wild celery is a smooth perennial with large aromatic, sparsely branched roots. The leaves are numerous, nearly all basal, and com- pound, being ternately (in three) then pinnately divided; the umbel is made up of numerous rays with many narrow pointed bracts sur- rounding the flower cluster. The plant is distinctly one of the Hudsonian zone. It occurs on all exposures and slopes, but prefers deep, loose, porous and friable, well-drained soils of medium moisture content. Since it does not regenerate by offshoots from running rootstocks, it probably is not capable of forming, even under most favorable conditions, pure or nearly pure stands. It is most commonly associated with mountain bunchgrass, short-awned bromegrass, and other species inhabiting the better soils or glades. Its water requirements are higher than those of its associates. The plant wilts usually beyond recovery in a soil whose water content varies from 8 to 9.5 per cent. ay. ata eee a, ae. oe oe Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLIII. F=43a SKUNK WEED (POLEMONIUM PULCHERRIMUM). FF Only a portion of the creeping rootstock is shown. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLIV. HIGH HUCKLEBERRY (VACCINIUM MEMBRANACEUM). Showing edible mature berries, 45 IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 45 The leafless flower stalks begin to show about the second week in July, and are nearly all developed during the succeeding four weeks. The seed crop matures, on the average, from about August 15 to September 10, and is disseminated immediately afterward. The seed has low viability. In 1907 and in the two succeeding seasons a germination of 2, 6, and 11.5 per cent was obtained. The plant, especially the fruiting parts, is very sensitive to frost, which may account in part for the low viability of the seed, since after August 15 frosts are frequent in the situations where it grows. Reproduction is taking place sparingly on the range in general, and even on the allotments that are in process of reseeding under deferred grazing. Wild celery may be utilized quite as early for grazing purposes as the majority of the grasses, and furnishes ideal feed for sheep from July 20 to August 25. Horses sometimes eat it, though only to a limited extent. Unlhke most plants, it is eaten with quite as much relish late in the season as early in the summer. After about August 25 it is not valuable for forage, the leaves being killed by frost, leaving only the naked flower stalk. SKUNKWEED. (Polemonium pulcherrimum. ) Skunkweed, so called because the plant has an odor somewhat suggestive of a skunk, is a fine hairy plant from 4 to 8 inches in height, with sparingly branched slender stems. The leaves are basal and compound, the oblong leaflets numbering from 7 to 15 or even more. The corolla of the clustered flowers is blue, turning very pale or nearly white before dropping. The root system is exception- ally superficial and spreading (Plate XLIII). The plant grows in tufthke patches of shoots arising from creeping rootstocks. If a single plant is pulled from the ground in a loose soil most of the lateral roots, as well as the main root, come up with it. Skunkweed is confined almost exclusively to the Hudsonian zone. While it often produces a conspicuous and luxuriant growth in the open, it prefers the somewhat diffuse light of open forest lands. In exposed situations, where the soil type is relatively coarse in texture, the plant does not succumb from excessive transpiration until the soil-water content is reduced to 7 per cent, and in protected situa- tions, where the soil texture is rather fine, death due to wilting comes when the water content is reduced to 10 per cent. The flowers begin to open during the second week in July and bloom throughout August, though after the middle of the month most have expanded. About August 20 the seeds begin to ripen, and this continues as long as the season is favorable. The seed crop 46 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is comparatively fertile. In 1908 and 1909 an average germination of 41.5 and 32.5 per cent was obtained. Since skunkweed grows above the range ordinarily grazed by cattle, it furnishes only sheep forage. It is eaten ordinarily with about the average amount of relish, and at times ravenously. It is best for grazing purposes from about July 20 to the last week in August. At the latter end of the season the foliage is frequently frostbitten and dry. ~ HicH HuckLEBERRY. ( Vaccinium membranaceum.) High huckleberry is the most valuable grazing species of its family in the region studied. Itis a much branched and leafy shrub from 1 to 4 feet tall (Plate XLIV), the twigs shghtly angled, leaves thin, not shining, short-petioled. The flowers are inconspicuous and soli- tary, and the corolla, usually five-toothed, is greenish or purplish in color. The berry, when mature, is purplish black. It is slightly acid and is highly valued as food. High huckleberry is confined to the Transition and Canadian zones, being most abundant in the latter. It is commonly found under yellow pine, fire willow, and lodgepole pine, and accordingly endures a considerable amount of shade. It is characteristic of strongly acid or sour soils, and is rarely, if ever, found on limestone or even neutral soils. On the lower elevations the flowers begin to appear about June 1, and by July 1 most of them have expanded. The berry begins to develop dark pigment as early as July 15, and the ripening period continues until about the first week in September, at which time most of the berries are clinging. Since the berries are palatable to both birds and animals, they are almost entirely consumed, and seed distribution is thorough. Sheep browse this plant with avidity, and it is grazed from about June 15 to late in the autumn, though it is most palatable early in the season. : Throughout the Canadian and Hudsonian zones and up to the limits of tree growth another species, known as red huckleberry (Vaccinium scoparvum), occurs in even greater abundance than the high huckleberry. As a forage plant, however, it does not compare with the latter, though it is grazed to a limited extent. This species also is confined to acid soils. HORSEMINT. (Agastache urticifolia.) Horsemint is the most widely distributed representative of the mint family in the Wallowa Mountains, and is of the highest value for grazing. Bul. 545, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLV. ip ; | % os ¢ g Pe 4 ; F-450 ‘is HORSEMINT (AGASTACHE URTICIFOLIA). a oe Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. BLUE BEARDTONGUE (PENTSTEMON PROCERUS). ee A portion of the running rootstocks is shown, PLATE XLVI. F-46G IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 47 It is an erect smooth perennial plant from 1 to 3 feet tall, with square stems and opposite, petioled leaves, the margins coarsely and irregularly toothed. The flowers are clustered in a dense terminal spike, the corolla pink-white or sometimes light purple. The root is coarse, fibrous, woody, and rather spreading (Plate XLV). Horsemint is widely distributed, It is met with occasionally in the Transition zone, and is abundant in the Canadian and Hudsonian zones. Though occurring but sparingly in the upper altitudes of the latter zone, it is of considerable value for forage up to 8,000 feet. The best development and densest stands are found in loose soils of medium moisture on the glades in the upper Canadian and lower Hudsonian. While it often predominates over associated species in the better and moister soiis, it almost always grows in scattered stands, especially in shallow, coarse, gravelly clays. The flowers begin to form about July 10, but all are not expanded as a rule until August 20. Fertilization is largely effected through insects, mainly bees. The two-lipped corollas drop soon after fertilization. Matured seeds are usually found by the last week in August though the entire crop is rarely ripened until about September 10. The matured, brownish-black, plump, hard-coated, oval seed-like nutlets are not disseminated at once, but are readily expelled when the seed cluster is vigorously shaken, shooting out some distance from the parent plant. For a high-range plant the germination power of the seed is about the average. In 1908 and 1909 representative samples gave an average of 16 and 28.5 per cent, respectively. Where this species is given a chance to reproduce, i. e., on ranges where the seed crop is allowed to mature prior to grazing, reproduction is taking place, though sparingly. The actual amount of seed produced per - plant is relatively small, and since only about one-fourth is fertile the species is succeeding as well as might be expected. Horsemint begins growth early in the season and matures late and consequently is relished by stock at all times during the summer. Both sheep and cattle eat it with much relish, though sheep graze it with greater avidity. Horses eat it only to a limited extent, and it can not be considered of value for this class of stock. Until the flowering parts begin to drop the entire cluster is consumed, so that early in the season the whole plant is eaten. After about August 10 only the leaves are grazed. Since younger leaves remain green some little time after seed maturity, horsemint is preferred in the fall of the year to some of the more valuable grasses and forage plants. BLuE BEARDTONGUE. (Pentstemon procerus.) About 100 species of Pentstemon are found in the United States and Mexico, many of them of value for grazing. Blue beardtongue 48 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is the most highly relished as well as the most abundant of the various species on the high range lands of the Wallowa National Forest. . Blue beardtongue is a perennial with conspicuous lateral running rootstocks which send out a number of shoots reaching a height of 4 to 12 inches. The whole plant is smooth and somewhat shiny; the lower leaves are long petioled, smaller than those arising from the middle of the stem; the upper leaves are small and without leaf stalks (Plate XLVI). Thee flowers, usually 5 in a cluster, are arranged in whorls. The bright blue corolla is lipped, the lower lip bearded within. As in all beardtongues, one of the five stamens is sterile, and in this species it is distinctly bearded also. This plant is conspicuous in the Hudsonian zone, though it grows in varying abundance at lower altitudes. Open parks and medium moist meadows of deep, loose, but well-drained soils are the favorite habitats. In moisture requirement it resembles wild celery (Ligus- ticum oreganum), with which it is commonly associated. In the characteristic soil type in which blue beardtongue grows, wilting beyond recovery does not occur until the soil-water content is reduced to from 10 to as low as 8 per cent. The flowers begin to open about July 10, and all are out by August 15. About the time the last flowers expand the first matured seeds are found, though, of course, on different plants. The seed tested in 1909 showed a viability of 18.5 per cent. In previous years no germination studies were made. Under favorable conditions on protected ranges, however, reproduction is excellent, and it is appar- ent that this plant will increase in abundance under the deferred- erazing system. Blue beardtongue seems to be eaten by sheep with more eagerness than any of its allied species. Since its growth begins promptly in the spring, it furnishes a fair portion of the valuable early forage. The leaves, but not the stems, are eaten even after the seeds have matured, though they are not as palatable as.earlier in the summer. The plant is of highest value for grazing between about July 15 and August 20. Besides the blue beardtongue three species of Pentstemon, P. deus- tus, P. fruticosus, and P. venustus, all grazed at certain times in the season, are common in the Wallowa Mountains. MounTAIN ELDER. (Sambucus melanocar pa.) Mountain elder is a shrub with stems 3 to 6 feet high rising in profusion from a common crown; twigs of one year old growth smooth, shiny green-brown and slightly angled, the pith yellow- brown; bark of the older branches rather thick, rough, dark yellow- t a 7. ee ae —" Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLVII. F-47a MOUNTAIN ELDER (SAMBUCUS MELANOCARPA). Observe the smooth bark of the young twig in contrast to the coarse bark of the older branch. 48 Bul, 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XLVIII. MOUNTAIN ELDER (SAMBUCUS MELANOCARPA). ‘ eee ee of the palatability of mountain elder, sheep usually leave the lower branches quite bare of oliage. Dead clumps of mountain elder are often found on the range, Since the species is comparatively short lived this condition may be due, in part at least, to age. 49 IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 49 brown; leaflets 5 to 9, smooth or slightly hairy, light green on the lower side. As shown in Plate XLVII, the flower clusters are convex, as broad as high, the flowers white, fruit shiny black, without bloom. In the lower elevations this species is associated with blue elder (S. glauca), which is readily distinguished by the white pith in the year-old stems, the treelike form of the older plants, the flat-topped flower clusters and the chalky bloom on the black berries which gives them a bluish appearance—thus the name blue elder. Mountain elder is most abundant on hillsides, in the bottom of mountain canyons, in ravines, and along brooks and mountain streams in fertile, friable, gravelly soils of varying degrees of mois- ture. It occurs in the Transition and Hudsonian zones, but is more abundant in the Canadian, often in association with ninebark (Opulaster pauciflorus), western larch, Douglas fir, and open stands of lodgepole pme. It prefers open situations, though partial shade does not prevent luxuriant growth. The attractive white-flower clusters begin to show about July 15 on the higher ranges, and earlier on the lower ones. About Sep- tember 1 most of the inerdies have reached full development. These are eaten by birds and a few mammals, a wide dissemination of the seeds being thus insured. No germination tests were made of this species, but observations on the range show that it is reproducing well. As a browse it is as valuable, though not nearly so abundant, as willow. In localities where the two are associated elder is browsed first. Because of its low branching habits and the unusual relish with which it is browsed there is danger of mountain elder being eaten too closely. A common example of such a condition is shown in Plate XLVIII. Mountain elder is also highly relished by sheep and is grazed with relish at times by cattle. It occurs mainly in the Transition zone, but never in great abundance, and therefore is not highly important as a browsing plant. VALERIAN. (Valeriana sitchensis.) Valerian is one of the most characteristic plants on old burns in the Hudsonian and upper Canadian zones where the soil has not been rendered sterile and the moisture conditions are about average. It is a perennial and attains a height of from 1 to 2 feet; the stem is slender with usually three pairs of pmnately compound leaves, the lower long-petioled (Plate XLIX). The flower cluster is dense and contracted, the corolla tubular and pinkish white; from the woody, 85154°—Bull. 545—17——_7 50 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. horizontal, creeping rootstocks long fibrous roots are developed. The rootstock is peculiarly aromatic. Valerian prefers a rather porous, somewhat gravelly, and com- paratively deep fertile soil, but does not require a large amount of moisture, as it made average development in such soil where the minimum water content was only 9 per cent. Destructive wilting came, however, when the water content was reduced to between 7 and 8.5 per cent. The plant begins to flower profusely about July 15, and by August 15 nearly all the flowers have expanded. The seed crop matures from August 20 to the close of the season, some individual plants never reaching maturity. The early-maturing seed in 1908 and 1909 germinated 21.5 and 26 per cent, respectively. On protected ranges reproduction is taking place sparingly. Both cattle and sheep are very fond of valerian at nearly any time during the summer, but it grows in greatest abundance on the sheep ranges. On burns covered with dead and down timber sheep search for it and graze it quite as readily as the fireweed, with which it is commonly associated. Early in the season the flowers, leaves, and lower portion of the stem are consumed; later in the summer only the flowers and leaves are eaten. Mountain DANDELION. (Agoseris glauca.) Mountain dandelion, so called because of its abundance on the upland ranges and similarity in appearance to the ordinary dande- lion, is a milky-juiced perennial from 4 to 8 inches high. In loose soils it has a sparsely branched taproot, which penetrates to a.depth of 1 to 2 feet, but in rocky soils the root is usually branched. The oblong basal leaves, generally tapering to the apex, are smooth and somewhat shiny, while the flower stalk, about a third longer than the leaves, is covered sparsely with coarse hair (Plate L). ‘The solitary head of yellow flowers is borne at the summit of a naked stalk; the mature seeds bear a crown of copious, slender, simple, white, bristle- like hairs. While this species occurs to a limited extent on the lower ranges, it is much more abundant on the grazing lands in the Hudsonian zone. On open plateaus and well-drained glades of loose, gravelly, deep, clay loam it grows most luxuriantly. It is fairly drought — resistant, not wilting excessively in the finely disintegrated soil in which it naturally occurs until the soil-water content is reduced to from 8 to 10 per cent. In favorable situations the stand is compara- tively heavy, but ordinarily it is rather scattered. The flower stalks begin to appear in the latter part of July, and by August 15 nearly all are in evidence. This is somewhat later than the 7 PLATE XLIX. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. F—49G VALERIAN (VALERIANA SITCHENSIS) 50 Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE L. F-—60G 51 ¥ t MOUNTAIN DANDELION (AGOSERIS GLAUCA). Showing expanded flower and matured fruit not yet disseminated. IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 51 average. The seed crop, too, is produced late. A few matured seed heads are seen about August 10, but most of the seed reaches maturity in September, often in the latter part of the month. Fortunately this plant is very resistant to frost, and consequently the seed con- tinues to develop after many other species, such as wild celery, have been killed. The vitality of the seed crop, taking into account that produced both early and late in the Hudsonian zone, gave an average of 29, 38, and 41 per cent, respectively, in the three years of test. Mountain dandelion is reproducing comparatively well on the range, and promises to respond favorably to any system of protection which will allow the seed crop to mature. Sheep seek the plant in preference to many grasses and weedy species. Each season it is eaten down to the ground, leaving only the coarse base. In the early part of the summer, and even until the seeds are nearly mature, the young, tender, juicy flower stalks, leaves, and even the flowers, are eaten with avidity. Few other species enjoy as long a growing season. In 1909 the leaves were still green and highly palatable to sheep on October 1. The seeds are usually not disseminated for a considerable time after maturity, but the hairy appendages which are the means of affecting their dispersal by the wind are not objectionable to stock. Woo.ty WEED. (Meracium cynoglossoides.) To see this peculiarly woolly plant, sometimes referred to as woolly hieracium, one would hardly think of it as valuable for forage. Sheep- men state, however, that the only objection is that it does not occur more abundantly. It is from 1 to 2 feet in height with numerous leaves arising from the crown of the perennial, coarse and much-branched root, and an abundance of leaves on the stem. The dense covering of fine soft hairs on the stem and leaves gives it a very distinctive character (Plate LI). It is unusual to find a dense ground covering of woolly weed. It grows almost invariably with other weedy perennials, such as moun- tain dandelion, blue beardtongue, and numerous grass species, among which it seldom predominates. In soil and moisture requirements it is almost identical with mountain dandelion. Individual plants wilted beyond recovery in soil varying in water content from 8 to 10.5 per cent. These figures are similar to those obtained in the case of certain bunch grasses with which woolly weed is associated. The flower stalks are produced between July 15 and August 20, the greatest number being sent up after August 1. The seeds begin 52 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to ripen about August 25, but owing to the late date of the flower- stalk production only a small seed crop is matured. In 1908 and 1909 only 9.3 and 12.5 per cent, respectively, of the seed showed fer- tility. From these figures and from observations on the range, it does not seem likely that a marked increase in the species can be effected by range protection and improved methods of handling. If palatability and not abundance and distribution were taken into account, woolly weed would rank among the most important range plants. It is so closely grazed early in the summer that nothing but the root remains. The coarse and comparatively deep root system protects it from actual killing and under ordinary conservative hand- ling of stock it may at least be expected to hold its own. CONEFLOWER. (Rudbeckia occidentalis. ) Of the several valuable nongrasslike forage plants, coneflower, sometimes called ‘‘nigger head,” is one whose actual grazing qualities are often underrated. It is a conspicuous plant, attaining a height of 2 to 5 feet, and having numerous marginally toothed, somewhat rough, ovate leaves, those lowest on the stem being petioled, and the upper ones sessile. Numerous shoots are sent out from the coarse, woody, fibrous perennial root, and the older plants have a bunched growth. ‘This plant, as shown in Plate LII, is usually not branched, and the dense, rayless, oblong, brown head of flowers, resembling a cone, is borne at the apex of the stem. The most common and favorable habitats of coneflower are the somewhat shaded banks, mountain swales, and hillsides where the soil is moist but not saturated. One of its most common associates is false hellebore, whose moisture requirements are almost identical. Coneflower is occasionally met with on open, well-drained glades, but never in abundance. In such habitats, in the characteristic basaltic clay loam soil of the region, wilting of all leaves did not take place until the soil moisture was reduced, on the average, to 14 per cent. In the richer soils, those which are heavily impregnated with organic matter, pronounced and long periods of wilting, usually followed by death of the plant, were recorded when the soil con- tained from 16 to 18.5 per cent water content. Early in the season the ‘‘button”’ or flower head begins to develop and by August 15 has virtually attained full growth. The seeds, however, do not begin to ripen until about the last week in August the ripening period extending well into September, and the seeds remaining in the head until late in the autumn. The germinative strength of the seed crop in the three years of test was 16, 24.5, and 11, respectively. Even in the most favorable situations the seed- lings stand is rather sparse, but reproduction from roots is abundant. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE LI. F-51Q = WOOLLY WEED (HIERACIUM CYNOGLOSSOIDES). | Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE LII. ii CONEFLOWER (RUDBECKIA OCCIDENTALIS). IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 53 Coneflower furnishes a large supply of forage. The stems are rather tough even when young, and only the flower heads and leaves are eaten. As the plant attains its full height the seed heads are generally above the reach of sheep. While in some localities the stems are quite bare after the lands have been grazed, this is rather the exception. In mixture with other palatable plants it is grazed with relish, but when it furnishes the bulk of the feed, stock are apt to scatter widely in search of more desirable forage. YARROW. (Achillea lanulosa.) Yarrow is one of the most widely distributed plants in the region studied. It is found from the lower Transition to the upper Hud- sonian zone, on intermediate ranges in such abundance as to be of considerable grazing value throughout the mountains. Wild tansy, as yarrow is sometimes called because of its resemblance and close relationship to the tansy cultivated in gardens, is a peren- nial with stems densely woolly, 12 to 24 inches high, terminating in conspicuous flower clusters, convex in shape, and with white ray flowers. The silky leaves, finely divided or dissected (Plate LIII), are produced in abundance, as are also the leaves which originate from the horizontal rootstocks. This species while succeeding best in a comparatively light, well- drained clay loam, does well in a variety of soils and situations. It inhabits glades and open parks, however, where it gets the benefit of full sunlight. In the lower situations it is scattered, and it does not anywhere form a pure stand. On the upland ranges, however, it usually forms great bunches or tussocks, as shown in Plate LIV. It is comparatively drought resistant. Individual plants tested did not wilt to a point causing death until the moisture content was reduced to 12.3 in one case and 10 per cent in another. The flowering period is unusually prolonged. On the lower ranges the flower heads begin to show early in June, but in the Hudsonian zone not until about July 20. In the mountain lands flowers which were just beginning to open have been observed as late as September 15. Asaresult, a large percentage of the seed crop in the high range never reaches maturity. The earliest fully ripened seeds are found about August 20. In 1908 and 1909 the germination tests averaged 16.5 and 39.2 per cent, respectively. Over 90 per cent of the seed crop of 1909 from the lower ranges was fertile. On protected range areas reproduction is very promising. Both cattle and sheep seek out yarrow from among its associated Species and eat it with avidity. As arule the unpalatable stems are 54 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. deprived of their attractive flower heads and leaves early in the season. Sheep prefer the plant to many abundant grasses, even during the period when the latter are most palatable. BUTTERWEED. (Senecio triangularis.) Senecio triangularis is not only the largest and most abundant of the butterweeds in the region studied, but also the most palatable. It grows from 2 to 5 feet tall, and has a leafy stem which terminates in dense clusters of 20 or 30 bright yellow flowers. The leaves are all petioled and toothed. Shoots are sent up in abundance from the lateral running rootstocks (Plate LY). Butterweed is closely confined to the higher ranges, being abundant in the upper Canadian zone and throughout the Hudsonian zone. It is distinctly a marsh plant and is closely restricted to situations with wet or saturated soils. On creek banks, in the vicinity of springs, and in swales of various kinds, it is often the chief plant. It was found to wilt beyond recovery in a soil whose moisture content varied from 11.5 to 14 per cent. Usually the flowers do not begin to appear until about the last week in July, and the blooming period continues until the last week in August. The seed crop begins to reach maturity when the late flowers are unfolding. The ripening period continues until inclement weather, the latest flowers failing to mature seeds. The seed which had ripened by September 5 germinated, in 1908 and 1909, 18 and 26 per cent, respectively. The later maturing seed has a notably lower viability. Early in the year butterweed is eaten with such avidity that almost nothing is left. Until August 1 the lower part of the stem is the only portion not consumed. As the season advances, however, only the flower clusters, the upper rapidly growing terminal part of the stem, and the leaves are grazed. Among late forage plants, butterweed is one of the most highly relished. Since it is found only in moist situa- tions, however, its amount is limited. Another butterweed much relished by sheep is S. columbianus, often called small butterweed. In the Wallowa National Forest this species occurs in scattered stand on well-drained soils throughout the Cana- dian and Hudsonian zones. It begins growth early and is of value for grazing only in the spring. Sheep prefer it to grasses, and eat it with such ravenousness that it has little opportunity to reseed under the usual grazing practice. Its relatively small size (Plate LVI), different habitats, and earlier flowering period, easily distinguish it from Senecio triangularis. Bul. 545, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE LIII. F-—53G ee Y ARROW (ACHILLEA LANULOSA). "SSDONVY GNVid~f) NO MOYYVA JO HLMOYS) GAHONNG OILSIYALOVYVHD PLATE LIV 3) = 3 a =| oO = oD < * o ra a. o QO Y =) Bul. 545 IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 55 SUMMARY. ECOLOGICAL REQUIREMENTS. _ The figures given in Table 2 represent the relative water require- ments of the different important forage plants studied. Owing to the importance of having the plants advanced to as nearly the same point of development as possible when the drought tests were made aerial conditions were slightly different. The error due to this fact, however, is very largely offset by the duplication of the tests in the case of virtually all species. It is a well-established fact that the amount of moisture remaining in the soil when the plant wilts beyond recovery is determined by the physical structure of the substratum. The object in making the wilting coefficient determinations, then, is principally to show (1) that certain species occupy quite different soil types, and (2) that the soil types (textures) are widely contrasted as shown by the notable difference in the wilting coefficients for the various species. For example, mountain bunch grass (Festuca viridula) does not wilt seriously in the soil in which it characteristically grows until the water content is reduced to between 7 and 9.5 per cent. This plant is adapted to coarser and less rich soils than is mountain onion (Allium validum), for example, which is confined to exceptionally black, mealy soils, end which wilts beyond recovery when the soil moisture content drops to between 14 and 16 per cent. Owing to the relatively small amount of moist soil found in mountain range lands, it is evident that a species like mountain onion would not occur nearly as abundantly as mountain bunch grass. As a means of comparing habitat requirements, the species are grouped in three classes as follows: Class A, plants of high moisture requirement—those inhabiting saturated sols, such as open marshes, wet meadows and bogs; des B, plants of coed moisture equinenen'—hose inhabiting rela- tively heavy soils which are saturated during the early part of the season, but later contam a medium amount of moisture; and class C, plants of low moisture requirement—those occurring in well- drained lands, open glades, and exposed situations. It will be observed that practically three-fourths of the most valuable forage species are dry-land plants. This fact is of high economic importance, since the major portion of the range lands are well drained and afford conditions favorable only to plants which are comparatively drought resistant. It is noted that a few species fall under more than one head so far as concerns their habitat requirements—that is, they are not strictly 1A resumé of the potent climatic factors under which these tests were conducted was published in the Journal of Agricultural Research, Vol. TII, No. 2, 1914, “‘Natural Revegetation of Range Lands Based upon Growth Requirements and Life History of the Vegetation,” pp. 95-102. a 56 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. confined to any one soil type. Such plants, however, do not afford nearly the amount of forage those do which are found generally in the more open habitat (usually referred to as drought-resistant plants), where the soil is not finely disintegrated, is less well supplied with organic material, and has a wilting coefficient notably lower. A relatively small proportion of the range lands are wet throughout the growing season; while bogs, marshes, and the lke almost invari- ably support a more luxuriant stand of vegetation than any other, the herbage usually lacks in two essentials—palatability and nutri- tiousness. Those who have observed stock as to their choice of forage have noticed that sheep avoid marshes and wet habitats to a marked degree; that cattle drift to the better drained lands for most of their feed; and horses, if unaccustomed to marsh vegetation, such, for example, as sedges and rushes, graze it eagerly for a couple of days, after which they will not remain on the succulent feed if any other is available. Campers and mountain workers have found that their pack and saddle animals can not do the work when feeding on marsh and bog vegetation that they can on drier feed. Also, stockmen have found that fat made on succulent feeds is not of a solid char- acter and in the case of long drives to market or of shipment shrinkage is abnormally heavy. LIFE HISTORY. To aid the reader in comparing the different phases of growth, the time of seed maturity, and the viability of the seed crop produced by the various forage species discussed, the results are summarized in Table 3. It will be seen that the time of the flowering period varies more widely than that of seed maturity. This is due primarily to the greater contrast between the moisture and temperature of the soil during spring than in late summer and autumn seasons. Growth, of course, starts more promptly and vigorously in the better drained and consequently warmer soils than in the moister and cooler situations. Owing to the more uniform physical condi- tions in a given life zone as the season advances, the seed maturing period is much more uniform and is completed in less time than that of flower-stalk production. All species and situations considered, the flower stalks are mainly produced between July 5 and August 10, and the seed matured between August 15 and September 1. While the time of flower-stalk production and period of seed maturity are influenced by the physical factors, even greater contrast is brought about by weakening of the vegetation due to overgrazing. Plants seriously weakened through abusive grazing are late in producing flower stalks and in maturing the seed. In extreme cases no flower stalks are produced, and, in general, such seed as is produced has little or no germinative power. Plants less seriously weakened pro- Bul, 545, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. es BUTTERWEED (SENECIO TRIANGULARIS). PLATE LV. F—55G Bul. 545, U.S. 57 Dept. of Agriculture. Mi UN AS SMALL BUTTERWEED (SENECIO COLUMBIANUS). PLATE LVI. F-56G ee, ee ee ee oe ee IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. Mall duce a small amount of viable seed, while those which have not been injured send up their flower stalks early, mature the seed crop before kalling frosts occur in the autumn, and produce fertile seed. The data compiled relative to the life-history performances of the different forage species have made possible the adoption of what is known as the ‘‘deferred or rotation grazing system.’’ This system provides for the deferment of grazing on an allotment until the seed crop has matured—the size of the area to be protected depending, of course, upon the time at which the bulk of the seed crop ripens. Subsequent to complete revegetation, the area is grazed relatively early, thereby providing for the protection of a similar area elsewhere on the allotment without in any way jeopardizmg the grazing inter- ests or by wasting any part of the annual forage crop during the time required for revegetation. When the entire allotment has been thoroughly restocked, each portion, subdivision or camp is restricted from grazing but once in every three or four years, thus allowing the plants to mamtain a maximum vigor and to provide an occasional seed crop, which is essential to the maintenance of a permanent stand. The details essential to revegetation by means of deferred and rotation grazing have been given in previous publications. 85154°—Bull. 545—17——8 - 58 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe 2.—Soil moisture requirements of native forage plants. Name of plant. Soil-water content at time of Class. ts excessive Local. Scientific. wilting. Per cent. High huckleberrys.c.esc=-= ee o- Vacciniim me mbronaceumnaac sae sees | eee ee eee Mountainioniona. 5 eee eee Allium valium. - stan. ---hoe eee 14. 0-16. 0 Slender reed-grass.........---.---.- CinN@LatfOlids sss Sa4s oot oe eee 13. 5-16. 0 A. ‘Tall meadow-grass.......----------- Paoniculanie nenvald sense eos eee saa ee 12. 0-14. 5 Talliswamp'sedge.csssesesn ee asec Carex CXSICCONW..a.5s seni ce Sloe ee ee 22. 5-24. 0 iBlackshair-erass = s--ese ena See eee Deschampsia atropurpured..-....--.-.----- 12. 5-14.7 Palseihellepore:: -s.--acc5-e 5s aceee Veratrum viride: oo.54- coon eee eae 11. 0-14. 5 Mireweed ! 2-2) 2s: oso secs saset eee Chamaencrion angustifolium ..........--.-. 8. 2-11.5 ITO WIlOWeee ses eee ee eee eee Salix scouleriana....------------ sk Sabi ueim cs Sete eee oes POLCHPING!STASS-.aci-- ee ee ee NiLPCOCCIMeNtalis a> son cee eee a eee 9. 5-11. 5 MRUISH Bey Ses ees eas Seapeee Rege SUNCUS METLENSIONUS)=\ or aca eee eee eee RUSH Sees caaecnc cote ae eae auc eee JUNCUS OTLNODRYLUUS = ne eet ee eee | eee eee eee B. Smalliwildionion sos: ase=seee es AT UTULDT LUT te ae eee seg de mntera ties eee Smoothiwild rye-s.c.-.sc-< se ees ee Elymus glawcus ...-- w Sie Ciclo ata pare etree eserctate 7.5= 9.8 Mufted Nair-CTass ws. se scence coe Deschampsia caespitosa...-..------.------- 11. 5-14. 5 Wildicolory so: ee tena cite cee es Ligusticum oreganum..---------------.---- 8.0- 9.5 WaldOmlon Ss see ee ee ee ae Allium: platy/phylapny == ap a= eee ee | eee ee eee Wioodlnush# scene es ace shoo serene Juncoides parviflorum ..-.---.-------- nao 10. 0-12. 5 BiliLenWeCdeetes = est sEe ree te Senecio triangularis....--.----------------- 11. 5-14.0 Conetlowens nt se ne ee ees Rudbeckia occidentalis.......-----..-------- 16. 0-18. 5 A Marshipinelenassssseceee ase se eneaee Calamagrostis canadensis......---..--.---.- 11. 0-14. 0 and Mountainiiimotbiy-seecose eee oe eee PieuNal pinnae soe eee 14.0 B. Dheepised ges sas sees ce tee eee Caret UWota =: cee. coosscss eee eee 14.0 IBigipunch! erasss = soe oe eee noe Agropyron spicatum..........-.-.---.----- 5.5- 7.5 Blue bunch grass...-.....---+--+--: Mestitca 70GhOensts ae see ae ee eee (Kor ass 2 oes eee ree Caren:géy ert sO Ras Se eee 6.5 Geranium ss 52 eeeiaeee see eee Geranium viscosissuMUM: ....._-----.------}ausee-- scene HMorsemint.2 22s 22422 see ee eee ee Algastache wrticifoltds-ssc 42 eee ee | See ee Witileiblierrasst ss soon lee eee Poa sandbergiiacs se a eee ee 6.5- 7.8 Little needle grass...............--- Stipa MINOT sso see ee ae ees eae 9.211.5 Mountain bunch grass...........--- Trestunca yin dul eee ne eee ee eee 9.5 -7.0 Mountain dandelion..............-- “A GOSETIS QLAUCD a ea oe ee 8. 0-10. 0 Mountain June grass.........-..-.-- ROCIETUM CTISLOLO seen ene 10. 0-13. 5 Mountain wheat grass..-..........-- Agropyron violaccum..-....---.--.------.. 6.0- 7.5 Qnionigrass-fens eee ee eee Melica bella Jeac2 eee eee eee 6.3- 8.5 C. Dine erassee eo eas hee Calamagrostis suksdorfii 5.5— 8.5 Redibunchyerassiesa eee eee ee ence AGTODYNOM [LEDUOSUNTUS eae eee ee | eee ees IRISH aoe ae eee eee. Os ee JUNCUS CONFUSUS: Jo. = s2.525e Cee ee Se eee eee ee [RAIS SSS 82 eared eee eer: eaten JUNCUS DOTTYI 2 ey te = alan een ee eee 5.5- 7.0 Soliicheates Les soe sl ae ee (BT OMS LON CEO CEUS eee ee 5.5 Spikeditrise hums: he ee eee Prisetiu Dy SPiC CHUM asses ee eee re 7.5- 9.5 Short-awned bromegrass ....--.---- Bromus marginatus.......-.--.----.+<----- 5.5- 8.0 Tall plueerasse ase se cece ae eee Pow brachyglossas 25 ee eee see oe ae | eee eee White toxtailes a2> 2s ese aoe seme Sitanion velutinum......----------------.«- 6.0- 8.5 Woolly: weed:5.2 2... 2 So ese ae Heracium cynoglossoides ...-.-...---.------ 8. 0-10. 5 WATTOW 2 ston acon eee alae ce eee ie Achillea lanulostin seo 2 eee nee 10. 0-12. 3 Alpine redtopi sc ees sees ae soe A\QTOStIS TOSSOES oe oo 2s ccs eee 7.0- 8.5 Blue beardtongue......-...--------- IPCntstemonprocenuss eae aa eee 8. 0-10. 0 B Sun kweedsseep eee oe oe eee Polemonium pulcherrimum.....--..-.--.-. 7. 0-10. 0 and Slenderinairerasss.5 eee ene eee Deschampsia elongata. .....-..--.---------- 8.5-15.0 Ce Wild buckwheate2 -- els ee Polygonum phytolaccaefolium.........---.- 8. 0-10. 0 Waloriatte oso tececnh cece cose one Valerio ni sileRCONSis ease ete eee 7.0- 8.5 | 59 IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS, -yuaurdojeaep [ny poyover JeAou doo peas oy} JO JopUreUer ey pus ‘payroeds eum} oy} 48 PeInyeur sposs Moy e ATUO yey} soyorpUT AFLINIVUT Poss JO o}VP O44 SUTMOTIOY HULL Vz “AYLINYVUL TN Peyoved spoos ow AT[eorjoVrg 7 G'e1-0'e “eT “Sny—cz Aye |- “eg “sny-T “sny (1) “og Ajme-ct Ajne |--Te Ajoe-et Arar |--¢ -sny-oz Arne SE SGRO ROS ED) aaa (i) () “" GT eunp-] oun |--¢yT ounr—g ounr |-- Og ounl—T ouns OOS '1e = |-eT adeg-cz-sny |--- Ui RIS) Bececsces T ‘4deg |--T ydeg-cz Aine |--Te “‘sny-g -3ny |--"[ -4deg-¢ “sny ee eee Se. ALG eae eed Op-""~" ote ee onenia( 0) Oe ee Soe EOD sss --@eT Ang-g oun “--7T Ajng-g oung j-" °°" " "op - ees Boue PoE BeR “OT “Sny-ct Aqne |--og Ammp-ot Ame |--or “Sn y-1 “Sny |--° Gg Ayoe-T oung |--¢z ounr—j oung |--¢z ounr—7 ounr oe |--¢-adeg-02 "8nV |-01 adeg-egsny |-----7 >>" eg ‘8ny |", ‘sny-¢ Ane |---¢T ‘sn y—g Ame |----¢ -sny—-T Aor Gil -0¢ ‘Sny-01 “Sny |-0g sny-CT “Sny |--1-4deg-zT “‘Sny |--sT sn y-0c AToe |" eT “sn y—cz Aqne |--o1 “sny—cz Aqne ROU a “01 qdeg-cz ‘Sny |--¢-4deg-cz -sny |-0L 3deg-cz ny |°°-"¢-sny-¢ A[ne |--01 sn y-01 Ame |---¢ -sny-01 Aor 0°Ze-0°9 “9g ‘Sny-T “sny |°--¢ sn y-cT Aqne |--¢T “‘8ny-T “sny |--0¢ Atnc-oz ounr |- oT Atmr-0zeunr |: -¢y Ajnf-0z oun CZ ‘eSevIoA’ ‘OT dequreideg 03 0g Jsnsny ‘eseioAe ‘c isnsny-cT Ajne zcr |-et-adeg-oz 3ny |-¢t ‘ydeg-1 -adeg |--¢ -ydeg-ez -3ny |--oz Ammr-ozeunr |--oT Atmc-ogoune |°-¢t Ajme-0g oune e'zs-0'sF | OL 3des-ct Sny {-¢T 3deg-0¢ sny | -- 0g ‘Sny | “1 8ny-0geune |--¢-sny—-0geune | “1 sny-ccounr Ziz | og Sny-¢ ‘sny | -0¢ “sn y-T Sny |-0g Sny-cT “s8ny |"---¢-sny-T Arne |" --¢“sny—¢ Ayne |"---, sn y-¢G Ane pd ae ee “01 ydeg-czg “8ny |"-""" ~~ "OT 4dog (1) "0g 8ny-cz¢ Ane | 18-30 V-01 “‘SsNy | -°°- 7 Ops e-eg «|r 3deg-0¢ Sny |" 1:4de9-0¢ sny (1) “Gy ‘sny-cz Ayn |" "0% “sn y—-G"sny | --- oe QO 29% |013deg-cT sny |---- 77 0g sny | 1 4deg |- “1 4deg-¢ez Aine |" "1 4deg-OT'sny | -0¢ ‘sny-T “sny 0-68 |-01 3des-0¢ ‘Sny |-o01 3deg-cz Sny |----pepsoser JON |--"T sn y-O0T Aqne | "1'3sny-o1 Ame |" - Tt sny-st Ane €°E9 ‘9sei0Ae ‘OT ysnsny Ag ‘gseioAe ‘ct Ane Aq 0-sc-0'8¢ |-0T-adeg-oT ‘Sny |-¢t ydes-ct -Sny |-o1 3deg-cT Sny |-"or Sn y-0z Aine |-o1 sny-se Aine | 01 smy—ce ATO SC eer --eg ‘Sny-] ‘Sny |--0¢ ‘SNy-1 ‘3ny |--02 8ny-G-sny |--“¢T Alne-Teung |--“oT Ang¢-peune | ~~~, Ajne-Toune F'8e-0°2 --0¢ ‘Sn y-0e Ane |--0¢ Sn y-et Aqne |" 1 4deg-01 Sny |----¢-sny-¢ Aqne |- 01 sn y-O1 Ale | -- 1 sn y-01 Arne Seo --e-4dag—cT ‘Sny |-01 3deg-0¢ 8ny |--°-"----eg “SnVy |--O1 sn y-OT Arne |--¢T'sny-01 AToer | --2- -op- OF “OT ydeg-cz “sny |-¢T 4des-0¢ sny |7--"" "> 2¢¢ ‘Sny |--¢, sny-0r Aine |-"¢t sn y-— OL Sny |-08 -Sny-ct “sny |--T-“sny-o0zounc |---¢TAjne-goune |- cg Ajn¢-preunr ZL | --¢4deg-¢ Sny |--¢-4deg-cr“Sny |--¢4deg-gr Bny |--¢T ‘Sny-g Ame |-¢g ‘sny-01 Aque | -0¢ -sny-¢ Aine quad Lag -paos 6061 806T 1061 6061 8061 | LO6T. jo u0T} -euTuLIes) *poonpoid sy[eqS 1eMo[q, “peinyeul spessg “Un -yofanoanjojhyd wnuobhio gq Sr eS RUSS DUDLLAINOIS LDF eee eS ap1lie WN.LyDlad oe TURE wmnyhydhwwid wn Bag deee ae wngnigy wna ye cat erooues UN pda WN) eens wnLoyiasod saprosunr SSE ee thsiod snaun pr SRCOR SSOP a Sue eS wahab ran) SACRE BOREAS 110772 LALDD Seg See ee DIDINSLA LALDD BeeeeSe UNULINIIA WOLDS SOME OOo TRE snonni6 snumhpy peat wmnsonzay WoLido.b Re wmnaanjo1 woLhdorb 25 er wmnjonds woLido1b 7 See Sic SNadDIPLOY SNULOLT BeOS SNIDUIDLDUL SNUWLOL Se Sedeae sats DSSO[HAYIDIG DOT Sse Sioa eae UBLIQDUDS DOT Bie ae ee siqnjoads Dayayy Boe eee ee 01129 DIA Boor ey DIDISIL DILIJIOM Beir: WN{DIAS WNIISLL TF, -pindindo.n pisdupyasaq Pegs DIDbUO)a DIsdULDYIsSaqy Pe Ee PROT MONG PLM pea poe eae AAOTITAS OTT IT eS es ea OIOGETIOY OSTeT Ret eae nan aie pe ysny Be OOS Sseis ALA Ee OE Ree espes deoys’ eae ae espes CUBS [IRL ee tae De eae [FC] X0F OFT MA Sees eA PTIM WooTIS sseis YOUNG pert ssvis Jeet UIeJUNO_|, sseis young sig Sze eee Sseis MOPBOTL [TRL Rae ee oes yeoyo 4Jog “*“SstIseTOIg PeuUMe-JI0YG Rees Care sseisenyq [121 77a oss ss 5 = sseisen[q 914417 eae SSvIs MOTUO Ue JUNO, SESS Ge eG ssvis UOTUC pEeOS Sstis oun UIeyUNO "oo 75> mONyesty pexidg "ot 77= >= = -SSRIs-IlBY Joel BECP RU Eee ssvis-ITey Jopue[s ----psojidsapa nisduunyasag |" ~ =~" ---* sseis-ITey poyuy, ---sisuappuDoSusoLbDULD]DQ |\7-~" 777° 7 ssvis ound ysieyy ---nfsopsyns sysosBnuDjng |---7 7777 SsBis Ould beets aDssou SySOLb y |\"-"-~~--~>----doypereurdyy fo nec sce ec es Di0f0) DUWID. |" -- - “ SS@IS-Poed TopueTs Sara secoSs wnurdyp wna | ~*~ ~ ~*~ AyjOWT} UTePUNO | seis RS ee Louru ndyg |" --"*-----Sse1s e[peeu e[1917T Passat syppuapioo0 ndyg |------ ~~ ~~ sseas eurdno10 7 Bobced9s sisuaoyppr ponjsag |-------~** sseas youn ent gq By pesos DInpLua ponIsag | ~--~ sseis YOUNG UTe;UNOPy ‘OyIUEINS “[T800'T jue] Jo ouleN, ‘squnjd abpsof avyou aya fo hyyiqnia peas pun ‘Aqunqou. paas fo amy ‘uoyonpoud ypnjs-sanoy fo auayy—'¢ ATAV, ea [ata] p ot - ~*~ "7777 =" TAAMOPEUO) ~--saprossopboula wnwondaryAy |-*7 7777777" = "PROM AT[OO A oheeee were ~ponnpb silasobp |---"-"--“woTjepuep ure_yUno_ BRT SUES EL LNA TA LY UE VTP eal eae tis hel = UBNOTR A tse es= "= T9p]e ULBIUNOW “-- pd In0uDjaW sNAaNQuung “77 777>>-9nSuOTpPIvEq ON] _ s=s""=-9n.l900Ld WOULAIS}UIT “-gT ‘sny-ct Aqnge |---0g ‘sny-g Aqng |--0g ‘SN y-OT Ane |---7-*- w2jofesain ayoopsphy |--*- >>" > +" >>> ~~ Qurutess0 Fy --op Atne-G oung |-- 7 Ajme-o7 oun |--¢z ounr-g vung | wnaopvuniquiaw wrruvaDA |--*>*-*> >> ArTEgepPjoNY YSrL “GT “Sn y-Zt Ajne |-0% “sn y-O1 Ayne |" -"poepszooar JON juwnaurtiayoynd unpwouwajog |-~~~~~-~-~-"" >>> peoMyuUNys “OL ‘Sny-O1 Arne |--¢ “Bn y-Zt Aye |--¢ “smy-02 Aime [>>> "uenwobato uvnoysnbyy |--* >> 7777777 >> >> ATOTAO PTEAL “UN “OT ‘Sny-—cz ounr |--, ‘Sny-0z oune |------*"** ops **"*} -20fsndun worauanuoyd : “pao MOI --gz Ayng-0z oun |--¢z Atne-ez ounr |----popsooed JON |->-wvnewessisooszr Wheudlap |r77 77777 T TT TTT TANTURIeD 606T | 8061 L061 ‘OUTUOPOS ‘TR00'T *poonpoid syTBIS JOMOT YT “yueyd yo ourey ‘ponunuog—sjunjd abnsof aarjou ayy fo fyyrgnra paas pun ‘hpungou pros fo away ‘woronpoud yjpjs-danoy fo emi, —"§ AAV], IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 61 APPENDIX: PLAN OF STUDY. Tn obtaining information on the individual forage species, consid- eration was given as far as possible to the following points: 1. Name of plant, both Latin and common. 2. Distribution. a. Characteristic zone. b. Most typical habitat; abundance and density of stand. 3. Usual plant associations and communities. 4. Habit of growth. a. Annual or perennial. 6. Tufted growth, height growth, and character of herbage. 5. Character of root system. a. Spreading fibrous root, or taproot with lateral rhizomes. 6. Depth of roots in soil. 6. Ecological requirements. a. Soil and moisture preferences. b. Drought resistance. 7. How flower stalks are sent up. 8. How fertilized. 9. When seeds are matured. 0. How and when seeds are disseminated. 11. Seed habits, strong or weak. Viability tests. 12. Period of germination. 13. Classes of stock which graze it. 14. Suitability for early or late grazing. 15. Palatability when green and when matured. 16. Time at which it is usually grazed. 17. Relative forage value. Information on the points in the above outline was secured through investigation extending over four successive years. The actual eco- logical requirements of the various species could be determined only through physical-factor measurements. An important factor affecting the distribution, and more particu- larly the succession of vegetation, is available soil moisture. Experi- ments showed that the greatest physiological activity is manifested at the time fertilization is taking place or immediately after the completion of the flower-stalk production but prior to a pronounced ~ development of the seed. The comparative ability of the various species to withstand drought was determined by ascertaining for each species the amount of moisture remaining in the soil when the plant had wilted to a point from which it could not recover. Unless pronounced wilting was actually in progress as a result of aerial and soil conditions, it was necessary to bring it about by cutting off the water supply from the plant. In making determinations in the field one of the methods used was as follows: The plants to be tested were dug up, with the roots undisturbed in their own soil, particular care being taken to prune off as little of the root system as possible. The block of soil 62 BULLETIN 545, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. held together by the intertwining of the roots was wrapped in burlap for purposes of transfer and immediately placed upon suitably cut wire screen (see Plate I), which, when fitted and fastened together around the soil body in the form of a basket, was placed in the hole created by the digging of the plant. In this manner the plant was not subjected to too rapid drying and its normal functions were unimpaired. After the plant had fully recovered from any slight disturbance due to digging, it was elevated slightly in order to increase the rapidity of the drying process. The wire-basket method made the plant portable, a very desirable feature in field work since the plant could easily be removed from the field during showers and when in a wilted condition prior to soil sampling and piaced under shelter—in this case in a carefully-placed 14-ounce canvas tent—and thus protected from direct effects of wind and sun when the specimen might recover its turgor if not wilted excessively. The other method of ascertaining the water requirements was to dig away the soil on all sides of the plant, leaving in place the central core of soil supporting the roots, the size of which would depend upon the spreading habit of the root system (see Plate I, fig. 2). This method was used especially for certain species with deeply pene- trating taproots, such as wild celery (Ligusticum oreganum) and wild buckwheat (Polygonum phytolaccaefolum). These, it was found, would not respond normally to the wire-basket method of treatment. The drying process brought about in this way, owing to the fact that the water supply was not wholly cut off from below, was slightly more gradual than in the case of the wire-basket method, but the results of the tests for species which did not have a distinct taproot, such as grasses, proved to be virtually the same as those secured for the same species by the wire-basket method. When the plant reached a con- dition of pronounced wilting and turgor could not be recovered, two representative soil samples were taken, weighed immediately to avoid possible discrepancy due to evaporation, placed in a soil-drying oven and subjected to a temperature not exceeding 212° F. for several hours until they were drv, then reweighed. The difference between the dry weight of the samples and the weight when taken at the time the plant was in a wilted condition represents the amount of moisture remaining in the soil at a time when the root hairs were unable, under the conditions, to absorb moisture rapidly enough to maintain the form of the plant and finally to recover its turgidity. The depth and location at which soil samples were taken were regulated by the depth of penetration and position of the roots. This operation was followed by protecting the specimen from the direct effect of sun and wind by placing a small tent shelter over it. In all cases the soil moisture figures given are based upon specimens which failed to recover their turgor, unless otherwise stated. All moisture require- IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS. 63 ment determinations of species were made from two to four weeks after the flower stalks began to show. Since the character of the soil and the nature of the habitat play an important role in the amount of water the substratum may yield to the plant, the wilting of species was tested as nearly simultaneously and under as nearly the same topographic features as possible. The results therefore are comparable. ‘ To ascertain the germination per cent of the seed crop, matured seeds were collected in the fall of each year for three years from typical situations, and germination tests were made in the seed- testing laboratory of the United States Department of Agriculture. O ote Chee ey ps. a rab UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER June 27, 1917 EFFECT OF FALL IRRIGATION ON CROP YIELDS AT BELLE FOURCHE, S. DAK. By F. D. Farretn, Agriculturist in Charge of Demonstrations on Reclamation Projects, and Breyer Aunr, Farm Superintendent, Western Irrigation Agriculture. CONTENTS. Page Page TIT ROCUC TOM a teyespsiepsre side ate ete = nie ntatesais inl Sele 1 | Results of the experiments—Continued. Rainfall... .. PAM aI Nees) eps ieee eniai< sateen lets 2 CWropiyaeldoyy see) see ali sieved eo ela 6 SOE ASI Ae Bie at ae Se eee ae ee ee eS 3 Sollmroisturemys sa Sakks CELE AES ee seas 8 Methods used in the experiments.....-......-- 4 | Character of soil the determining factor....-..- 10 Results of the experiments....-.--..-.--....-- yu SCMMNTTENAY oo 5 Soceo dosh sacséncbddoscounsossdobs 12 INTRODUCTION. One of the conspicuous features of the climate of the Great Plains area is the light precipitation received during the winter months. Throughout most of the Plains region, about three-fourths of the annual precipitation occurs during the six months from April to September, inclusive,' so that the winter months are, comparatively, very dry. As a result, it is commonly found that after producing a crop the land remains dry from harvest time until the rainy season of the following year. The soil on such land during this period may be deficient in moisture not only near the surface but throughout the zone of action of the roots of crop plants. It has been assumed that this soil-moisture deficiency might have an unfavorable influence on the growth of crops, both by hindering the germination of spring- sown seed and by retarding or preventing the desired movement of the water received as precipitation or applied in irrigation during the growing season. The practice of fall irrigation—the application of water to the land in the fall of the year—has been advocated as a corrective of this condition in irrigated regions. Various writers on irrigation have suggested the desirability of fall irrigation, and a few investi- 1 Briggs, L. J., and Belz, J.O. Dry farming in relation to rainfall and evaporation. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 188, 71 p., 23 fig., 1 pl. 1910. 85963°—Bull. 546—17 a 2 BULLETIN 546, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, gators have made field studies ¢f the subject.. Knorr,’ experimenting for three years on the North Platte Reclamation Project in western Nebraska with wheat, oats, barley, potatoes, sugar beets, and corn, found that the fall irrigation of the land on which these crops were to be grown increased the yield an average of 16 per cent. The yield increases secured in these experiments were ascribed to the fact that fall irrigation resulted in more moisture in the surface soil at seeding time in the spring and also in a better absorption of moisture by the soul to a depth of 6 feet durmg summer irrigation. These experiments were conducted on a sandy loam soil at the Scottsbluff Experiment Farm, a field station of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The favorable results secured at Scottsbluff suggested the advis- ability of repeating the experiments at another point in the Great Plains area where the soil conditions are different from those at Scottsbluff. Accordingly, in the autumn of 1913 a series of fall- irrigation experiments involving oats, sugar beets, flax, potatoes, barley, corn, and wheat was inaugurated at the Belle Fourche Experi- ment Farm on the Belle Fourche Reclamation Project in western South Dakota. The experiments with these seven spring-planted crops were continued through 1914, 1915, and 1916. The results secured are reported in this bulletin,’ RAINFALL. During the nine years, 1908 to 1916, inclusive, the annual rainfall at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm ranged from 6.64 inches, in 1911, to 21.02 inches, in 1915, the mean for the 9-year period being 14.05 inches. In connection with the problem of fall irrigation it is important to consider the distribution of the rainfall with reference to the fall period—the period between the beginning of harvest and the time of fall irrigation—and to the winter period. The mean rain- fall of these periods during the nine years of record and the actual rainfall during the time in which the fall-irrigation experiments were conducted are shown in Table I. Tanie I.—Precipitation at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, 1908 to 1916, inclusive. Mean, Period of experiment. A nine Period covered. years 0 1916 1913 1914 1915 1916 Atay Wesahayh el eae cena ia SSE See eae ce aoe soe 14.05 | 12.53 11.70 21.02 13.95 Fall period (August to October, inclusive)......------------- 3.75 4.50 3. 24 2.95 | p Beate Winter period (November to March, inclusive)....-.-------- 2.15 1.84 | 2. 52 1.99 1Knorr, Fritz. Experiments with crops under fall irrigation at the Scottsbluff Reclamation Project Experiment Farm. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 133, 17 p., 5 fig. 1914. 2The writers desire to acknowledge their indebtedness to Mr. O. R. Mathews, Assistant, Dry-Land Agriculture Investigations, for assistance in the conduct of these experiments. EFFECT OF FALL IRRIGATION ON CROP YIELDS. 3 The table shows the light precipitation which occurs during the winter months, from November to March, inclusive. During two of the three winters included in the period of experiment there was somewhat less than the mean winter rainfall for the period of record, 2.15 inches, and during the other there was slightly more than the mean. Likewise, two of the three fall periods affecting the experi- ments were drier and one was wetter than the mean for this fall period, 3.75 inches. From this it would appear that if fall irrigation were desirable at Belle Fourche, its benefits would have been empha- sized during the period of these experiments. SOIL. The soil on which these experiments were conducted is an extremely heavy clay of the class popularly known as ‘‘gumbo.” Soils of this general character cover wide areas in the northern Great Plains. This particular soil has been classified by the Bureau of Soils as Pierre clay, of which the average mechanical composition is reported! as follows: Per cent. PR ERITVCRALANE lesekv od <5 2 VBicvorerctcravartoule = 2 Soest ene i= Poth eesgerenaonorah 0. 2 (COIS Sten ae EE Beare IRE EEN Te CIR ely eatery ct dl LA'S 1c ea et ne vege a eal Mile clini series Fee Nh TN Ben Cs A A gaa Boy 1.4 VEPTTENS) SeaN Ta LS SP oy Ane Dan ’p pa a) Le ea i, SABIE TENIWES SEO LAR etl ae At gc A ee ed Yc ne a 13.0 Soltis oo Ses Geile ee OE eee eg 2 NE Ne so Bh CHERYo Soe ed SOS oo i cmmeetty ye kae cnen es RMU Res ponerse Wack DOL Zi RP ME Tata 35. 0 According to the same authority, the Pierre clay covers about one- third of the area of the Belle Fourche Reclamation Project and occurs on this area to a uniform depth of about 6 feet. It has been formed through the weathering of the underlymg beds of Pierre shale. According to a report? of a reconnoissance soil survey made by the Bureau of Soils, the Pierre clay covers an area of nearly eight million acres in the western half of South Dakota. Important characteristics of this soil are its great water-carrying capacity, its high water retentivity, and the extreme changes of volume which accompany changes in its moisture content. Mathews? found that this soil will carry about 30 per cent of water and that about half of this is available to crops. The latter do not begin to suffer from lack of water unless the soil moisture content approaches 17 per cent, which is approximately the wilting coefficient of this soil. The importance in fall irrigation of the extreme changes of volume accompanying changes in moisture content of Urs soul will be discussed later. 1§trahorn, A. T., and Mann, C. W. Soil survey of the Belle Fourche area, South Dakota. In U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils, Field Oper. 1907 [9th Rpt.], p. 898. 1909. 2Coffey, G. N., and others. Reconnoissance soil survey of western South Dakota. In U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Soils, Field Oper. 1909 [11th Rpt.], p. 1401-1476, illus., pl. 9-15. 1912. 3Mathews, O. R. Water penetration in the gumbo coils of the Belle Fourche Reclamation Project. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 447, 12 p.,4 fig. 1916. * he), "7 a, A 4 BULLETIN 546, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, METHODS USED IN THE EXPERIMENTS. The experiments were conducted in field P, Series I, II, III, and IV, seven tenth-acre plats being used in each series. A diagram of these plats is shown in figure 1. The land was first broken in August, 1911, and it produced oats in 1912 and again in 1913. It is uniform in topography and soil. The crops of 1912 and 1913 were harvested from the field as a whole, no record haying been secured of the production of the different series of plats. . Series II and IV were irrigated on November 11, 1913, November 11, 1914, and November 10, 1915. Except for this fall irrigation, the treat- ; Ee Ee ho Be i / ~ 8 Fic. 1.—Diagram of a part of field P, Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, showing the location of the plats used in the fall-irrigation experiments. The arrows indicate the direction of the flow of the water in the irrigation laterals supplying these plats, ments applied to Series II and IV were uniform with those applied to Series I and III. The fall irrigation was applied each year after the plats were plowed, except that in the autumn of 1914 the plats which that year had produced intertilled crops were not plowed. Low earth dikes were thrown up at the lower side of the plats to impound the water sufficiently to insure a complete covering of the land. The water was then applied by flooding and allowed to run on each plat from three to four hours. The summer irrigation of each crop was uni- form on all four series as to both time and method of application. No attempt was made to measure the water applied, but the meth- ods of irrigation recognized in the locality as good-farming methods were followed. The sugar beets and potatoes were irrigated by the furrow method and the other crops by field flooding. EFFECT OF FALL IRRIGATION ON CROP YIELDS. 5 The experiments were conducted in duplicate each year, the seven plats in Series I duplicating those in Series III, while the plats in Series II and IV were duplicates. The following crop varieties were used: Oats, Great Dane in 1914 and Swedish Select in 1915 and 1916; sugar beets, South Dakota No. 40 in 1914 and Kleinwanzleben in 1915 and 1916; flax, Minnesota No. 25; potatoes, Eureka in 1914 and 1915 and U.S. No. 4452 in 1916; barley, Minnesota No. 6 in 1914, Himalaya (Guy Mayle) in 1915, and Chevalier in 1916; corn, Payne White Dent in 1914 and 1916 and Martens White Dent in 1915; and wheat, Defiance in 1914, Pringle Champlain in 1915, and Marquis in 1916. The positions occupied by the crops on each of the four series each year, the crop sequence on each plat during the 3-year period, and the number of summer irrigations applied are shown in Table II. TasE IT.—Sequence of crops and number of irrigations applied to each in the fall-irrigation experiments at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1914, 1915, and 1916. 1914 "1915 1916 Plat. Nur Nun Num- er of " er of ber of Crop. irriga- Crop. irriga- Crop. irriga- tions. tions. tions. SGA dees eet ae Oatse sae 8: 3 | Beets aa.0: Shae ae RRO ai Seie ee ee sa 1 INOS Sosa ee Se oie). IBCCtS)-/eme ed Fon: Cle ebeeens eee Sen eS 2| Potatoes.........- 1 BRIGG Eases Sa eae adh LON ip cel RR hie ul aRObALOsSeeenertaee il COTS NR Ne LE 2 INOS LO tees Bee ee IEOpaTOeS sa eee eae Ai Barleyees ep aceee Ta With eaitayeee 28 eee 1 NOU TAS eve e iBanley =o. 2Ha6F 6. 2) Corniwe. 22 lk aoe Wy Barleys a2 oo os sy 1 INO Osea Sees Corners ease Su eh eaten sone eee Qa Wonmigh see 1! INO ha A ener reerae Wiheat eee sees DelHOatsenseniaras see 0) er) esxcoleeeiealidainia plies 1) i As shown in Table II, an intertilled crop followed a close-planted| crop on each plat except No. 13 in 1915 and 1916 and No. 10in 1916.| More irrigation was necessary in 1914 than in either 1915 or 1916, as) the growing season of 1914 received somewhat less rainfall than either, of the others. The variations in both crop sequence and summer, irrigation were the same on all four series. All cultural operations on the four series were uniform as to both character and time of performance throughout the period of experi- ment. These included the ordinary operations incident to the pro- duction of the seven field crops involved. The land was manured from October 6 to 10, 1915, when 12 tons per acre of well-rotted barnyard manure were applied uniformly to ail the plats. RESULTS OF THE EXPERIMENTS. In the conduct of these experiments attention was directed chiefly to the crop yields secured on fall-irrigated land as compared with those of land not so irrigated and to the soil-moisture conditions on the two groups of plats, particularly before the first summer irri- gation each season. It was to be expected that any important 6 BULLETIN 546, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. differences in the yields of the crops on the several plats would be associable with soil-moisture differences in the spring, as the only variation in the treatment of the land was the irrigation applied to half the plats in the fall of each year. CROP YIELDS. Two plats of each of the seven crops were grown each year on the fall-irrigated land, and the same number were grown on check series, the latter receiving no fall irrigation. The yields are reported in detail in Table ITI. Tas ie III.— Yields of crops in the fall-irrigation experiments at the Belle Fourche Experi- ment Farm in 1914, 1915, and 1916. Mah Soe ha Ghat ul n>) oo ae Plats and year. Series. | Wheat. Oats. Barley. Flax. Corn. Beets. | Potatoes. Fall-irrigated plats: Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels. | Bushels.| Tons. | Bushels. 1914 II 31.5 47.8 29.1 17.0 53. 4 8.9 172 Be bate haa Se IV 28.5 39.0 26.8 10.5 45.8 7.3 127 1915 { II 24.0 70.9 35.7 18.8 29.3 5.1 108 Fe ae aaa IV 19.3 60. 6 34.8 16.3 29.0 3.6 V7 1916 Il 15.5 80. 6 39. 2 10. 4 50. 4 13. 2 267 Fe ra eae IV 13.8 72.2 38.3 9.1 45.4 12.2 254 Average, three ie UR nee 22.1 61.9 33.9 13.7 42.2 8.4 167 Check plats i { I 24.6 40.0 28.7 17.4 47.2 9.5 173 RO See a Til 19.3 47.8 26.0 14.8 51.4 7.1 158 1915 { I BP 80.0 43.2 16.3 29.3 5.9 105 oe SARIS Til 24.5 80.3 33.5 19.1 33. 7 5.7 100 1916 I 14.3 73.9 41.8 12.1 47.9 13.5 225 Seer ire Pie eles ris Til 15.3 84.7 43.6 11.8 53. 9 13.9 272 Average, three VOSS. s.52 FEES Ae 20.1 67.8 36.1 15.2 43.9 9.2 172 In order to facilitate comparisons of the yields shown in Table III, the figures have been calculated in percentages, and the relative sie are shown in Table IV, in which the yields of the check plats are repre- sented as 100 per cent. The yield shown for each crop is the average of duplicate plats. (Passe 1V.—Relative yields (expressed in percentages) of crops in the fall-irrigation experi- ments at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1914, 1915, and 1916. 1914 1915 1916 3-year average. ; 8, A = ‘ ao , eo rs OF bo) &.| 3 oH J i>) Crop. = ‘z = 8) = sii 8 ia & baa) & BB | ® 834| bag Bog | cel) soot a, (tren) lesan ie BE Ho Uo ga page= = & (SPs! a & |28] a a | Pel S $ q bs =] ro Ge) a Ee (pe! a | o |6 Be) OS [a ol ce leoptes & 16 |S WVIGAL SS Setatn tot obs. Soe 137 100 | +37 92} 100} —8 98 100} — 2] 110} 100; +10 OF: Ce ae ee re ae 99 100 | — 1 82 100 | —18 96 100} — 4 1 100 —9 Baleysi seers Re Lie 102 100 | + 2 92} 100] — 8 gl 100} — 9 94} 100} —6 1 ee Cae aon. 85} 100 |] —15 99 100} — 1 88} 100} —12 90 | 100} —10 Cor 7s: te ss Hb BR 101 100 | + 1 94 100 | — 6 94 100 | — 6 96} 100]| —4 CCS: ee ee ke ise sic caters s 98 100 | — 2 741 100) —26 93 100 | — 7 91) 100}; —9 WOrmtoese lie wk). 22 ae 90 100 } —10 $0 100 | —10 105 100 | + 5 97 100 —3 = Q “— i=) sc a _ S we - > <=) ae to eo © E I _ = © ao s | ao © oa = | a EFFECT OF FALL IRRIGATION ON CROP YIELDS. x The figures in Table IV show that in 1914 the yields of wheat, barley, and corn were higher on the fall-irrigated plats than on the check plats, the increases being 37, 2, and 1 per cent, respectively, while the yields of the four other crops were lower on the fall-irrigated land, and that the average yield increase of the seven crops in that year was 2 per cent in favor of fall irrigation. In 1915 the yields of all the crops were lower on the fall-irrigated land, the average decrease being 11 per cent. In 1916 all the crops yielded less on the fall- irrigated plats than on the checks, except potatoes, which yielded 5 per centmore. In the 3-year average, wheat on fall-irrigated land showed an increase of 10 per cent, while all the other crops showed decreases ranging from 3 to 10 per cent, the average yield decrease of the seven crops on fall-irrigated land for the 3-year period being 4 per cent of the average yield of the check plats. - The fact that of the 42 duplicate plat averages secured in the 3-year period only four were in favor of fall irrigation would support a pre- sumption that fall irrigation on this soil was detrimental. However, since not all the yields were against fall irrigation, it is possible that the yield variations were accidental. In order to determine whether these differences were significant, the probable errors of the average yields have been calculated. The results are shown in Table V, in which the yields secured during the 3-year period are summarized. Taste V.—Summary of the yields secured in the fall-irrigation experiments at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm in 1914, 1915, and 1916, showing the probable errors of the averages. Fall-irrigated plats. Check plats. Difference Or Unit of | Num- Num- in favor oP: yield. | berof| Average | berof| Average of fall plats yield per plats yield per irrigation. aver- acre. aver- acre. aged. aged. ANTON GFEN is cg ea les ea a ahh Bushels 6 22.14 2.2 6 20.14 1-4 +2.0+ 2.6 (OVE ESIS ect e m e ices er ae RRR ngs, Pal stat Cla seree 6 61.9+ 5.0 6 67.8+ 6.0 —5.9+ 7.8 TBETAIGRNE A DO ia lela COsdeo ds 6 33.9+ 1.5 6 36.14 2.5 —2.2+ 2.9 eles oe tie eam aah a Ae eee Sen doses 6 13.74 1.4 6 15.24 .9 —1.5+ 1.7 (COPRT SN HCA NE C c M COsenscs 6 42.24 3.3 6 43.94 3.1 —1.74 4.5 ISYACUIS Ze ey Ge alan goa hese yO Ae Monsaese oe 6 8.44 1.1 6 9.24+ 1.1 — .8+ 1.5 TOLL OOS rer ais 8 He ahi es Bushels... 6] 167 +23.0 6| 172 +19.0 —5.0+30.0 The figures in the last column in Table V show for each of the seven crops the difference between the average yield of the fall-irrigated plats and that of the check plats during the 3-year period. None of the differences was as great as the probable error, so that all must be regarded as insignificant. A similar tabulation of the yields of straw and stover (which are not shown here) produces a like result, there being no significant differences in the average yields of these products. The explanation of the somewhat lower average yields secured on the fall-irrigated land lies in the relatively low productivity of Series « 8 BULLETIN 546, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. IV, one of the two fall-irrigated series. The 3-year average yield of the crops on Series IV was 16 per cent lower than the corresponding average of Series II, while the 3-year averages of the two check series, I and III, were identical. The relatively low productivity of Series IV may have been associated with a heavy infestation of gumbo weed (Iva azillaris). This weed was more abundant on Series IV than on any of the other series throughout the period of experiment. At any rate, there is nothing in the data to indicate that fall irrigation influenced the crop yields. SOIL MOISTURE. When the experiments were planned, it was the intention to make soil-moisture determinations shortly after the fall irrigation each year and also during the early part of the growing season. It was found, however, that because of cold weather the soil remained wet so long after the fall irrigation that fall sampling was impracticable. All the soil-moisture data available, therefore, were secured during the spring and early summer of each of the three years of the period of the experiment. In each sampling two cores were taken on each plat and composited to a single sample for each foot section. Soil moisture in 1914.—Three samplings were made in 1914, on May 5, June 18, and June 27. The samples secured on May 5 were taken from the plats seeded to oats, barley, and wheat, two plats of each crop on the fall-irrigated land and the same number of check plats, a total of six plats representing each fall treatment. These samples were taken 34 days before the first irrigation. The second set of samples, taken June 18, was from the same plats as the May 5 samples and from the two flax plats, a total of eight plats representing each fall treatment. This sampling was done 10 days after the first irrigation of the oats, wheat, and barley and one day after the flax was irrigated. The samples secured on June 27 were from the same plats as those taken on June 18, and no irrigation water was applied between the two sampling dates. These moisture determinations were made to a depth of 4 feet. A summary of the results is given in Table VI, which also shows the probable errors of the averages of moisture content. Table VI shows that on May 5 the average moisture content of the upper 3 feet of soil on the fall-irrigated plats was higher than that of the corresponding depths on the check plats, the greatest difference being in the second foot, where it amounted to 8.3+0.5 per cent. The soil of all the plats, however, contained an abundance of mois- ture, the moisture content being well above the wilting coefficient, which is approximately 17 per cent. The difference in the moisture content of the fourth foot on the same date, 2.2+1.2 per cent, was insignificant. On June 18, after the plats had been irrigated, the only significant differences were found in the second and third feet, where the soil of the fall-irrigated plats contained about 5 per cent more EFFECT OF FALL IRRIGATION ON CROP YIELDS. 9 moisture than that of the check plats. On June 27 there were no significant differences in moisture content, all differences being less than their probable errors. It will be noted that the moisture con- tent of the fourth foot was practically the same on each of the three sampling dates. The results of the moisture determinations made in 1914 showed that while the soil of the fall-irrigated plats contained more moisture than that of the check plats early in the season, when all the plats had abundant moisture, the differences decreased as the season advanced and disappeared before the end of June. Taste VI.—Summary of the results of soil-moisture determinations made in 1914 in the fall-irrigation experiments at the Belle Fourche Expervment Farm. Fall-irrigated plats. Check plats. ot a Dilerence um- um- in favor HERS es bet oe Moisture ber ot Moisture of ce pla plats irrigation. ani: content. aii content. aged. aged. Feet. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. DEMON cc yaa cee cone Heels oe 1 6 28.7+0.4 6 25.1+40.6 +3.640.7 - IDO 22 DRAPE oe ere ee 2 6 28.8+ .4 6 20.54 .3 +8.3+4 .5 DO): ERE en ee eee’ 3 6 26.6+ .3 6 21.0+ .3 +5.64 .4 BI) eRe ea eS IRAE SR Dc 4 6 21.7+1.0 6 19.54 .7 +2.24+1.2 ARETE) FS 5 8 a ee 1 8 23.14 .6 8 21.5+ .7 +1.64 .9 Bs 2 522 Sep RU ane ARIS ARIE Sar 2 8 Pees 3 7 8 20.34 .9 +5.0+1.1 ID YO AC SEN ee a a an aap 3 8 26.5+ .6 8 20.9+ .5 +5.64+ .8 (0) 2 6 SORE OES IES SES Re ohio 4 8 21.54 .8 8 20.2+ .9 +1.341.2 PAI Be YS\'9217/,3,"S (he SS gla ange ne il 8 22.34 .6 8 22.14 .7 + .24 .9 D0)S Oe Gia aS estes Sine oo Oe 2 8 25.84 .4 8 25.0+ .7 + .8+ .8 DOS aa em eae OM LES Bap 3 8 26.44 .6 8 26.3+ .9 + .141.1 DOs pacts 2 Saar Seem ApPlenpe eee 4 8 20.8+ .8 8 20.7+ .9 + .141.2 Soil moisture in 1915.—The sampling in 1915 was done on May 24 and June 10. All the plats in Series I and II were sampled on the first date and those in Series III and IV on the second. No irriga- tion water was applied to any of the plats in 1915 until July 14, so that the moisture determinations were made five and seven weeks, respectively, before the first irrigation. The samples were taken to a depth of 3 feet. Table VII gives a summary of the results of the moisture determinations, together with the probable errors of the averages of moisture content. . TasLe VII.—Summary of the results of soil-moisture determinations made in 1915 in the fall-irrigation experiments at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm. Fall-irrigated plats. Check plats. re i Difference um- Num- in favor pate ce ber of | Moisture | P2808} Moisture yet plats i plats irrigation. ae content. iis content. aged. aged. Z Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. 1 7 29.2+0.3 7 30. 440.2 —1.2+0.3 2 fd 29.44 .4 7 29.44 .4 \ 3 7 28.14 .2 7 26.04 .9 42.14 .9 1 7 30.0+ .3 7 30.34 .6 = ooce of 2 7 29.84 .2 i 29.44 .6 + .44 .6 3 if 27.9+ .3 a 27.64 .7 + .3+ .8 10 BULLETIN 546, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Except for a very slightly lower average moisture content in the first foot of the fall-irrigated plats sampled May 24, the moisture determinations made in 1915 disclosed no differences large enough to be considered significant between the fall-irrigated plats and the checks. Asin the spring of 1914, the soil on all the plats sampled con- tained an abundant supply of moisture. As the moisture content of all the plats before the first irrigation was found to be substantially the same, no further moisture determinations were made during the season. Soil moisture m 1916.—The first irrigation in 1916 was applied July 6. Soil-moisture determinations were made to.a depth of 2 feet on all the plats in oats, wheat, and barley on June 10, and the plats in potatoes, beets, corn, and flax were sampled to the same depth on June 30. The results of the two samplings are summarized in Table VIII, which also shows the probable errors of the averages of mois- ture content. TasLe VIII.—Summary of the resulis of soil-moisture determinations made in 1916 in. the fall-irrigation experiments at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm. Fall-irrigated plats. Check plats. = ie Didemace um- um- in favor Pate. pepe pen a Moisture Bey a Moisture _ of sae plats plats irrigation. awane content. aan content. aged. aged Feet. Per cent. Per cent. Per cent. Upne 10s fe... see Se cei hs oon cele 1 6 27.7+40.6 6 27.441.0 +0.3+1.2 TD Ye ek sue Aaa ei ae a rey 2 6 29.2+ .8 6 29.24 .9 0 +1.2 Afshar eee ON er a oie re Meare ee 1 8 29.74 .6 8 29.9+1.2 — .241.3 (OLep eR is aN | iS hed Mba Bi 2 8 30.2+ .3 8 30.14 .4 + .14 .5 The results of the soil-moisture determinations made in 1916 were practically the same as those secured in 1915. The soil on all the plats contained an abundance of moisture at the time of sampling, and there was no significant difference between the moisture content of the fall-irrigated plats and that of the checks. The results of the determinations made during the three years may be summarized by the statement that any higher soil-moisture con- tent resulting from fall irrigation was found only at times when the soil on both the fall-irrigated plats and the check plats was well sup- plied with water and that all significant differences in soil moisture disappeared early in the growing season, so that the crops showed no effects of fall irrigation. CHARACTER OF SOIL THE DETERMINING FACTOR. The fact that fall irrigation produced no effect on crop yields at Belle Fourche while it resulted in decidedly higher yields at Scotts- bluff makes it desirable to compare the rainfall and the soil con- ditions at the two places. The comparison is shown in Table IX. EFFECT OF FALL IRRIGATION ON CROP YIELDS. Tt: Taste IX.—Rainfall and soil conditions of the Scottsbluff and Belle Fourche Experiment Farms. ° Items of comparison. Scottsbluff. |BelleFourche. Mean precipitation (inches): RTA BE IMAI BARE re NEA ee HO cr RE 0) eg 14. 47 14. 05 Fall period (August to October, inclusive)..............--.-- ew eae 4, 96 Byes Winter period (November to March, TNCLUSIVG) e's spsaeetae sees sales Hials 1.35 2, 15: a MoralCAusust toMarch inclusive) see. seeec. -sseseeetaceser eee ase 6.31 5. 90: oil: TDG cia bap COMO OSE EOE ee Sa oat ern ree OU nee Sandy loam.-} Pierre clay. Field moisture-carrying capacity............--2...-.-------- per cent !.. 13 27 WALI ST COO MICIONIO 2 jcjcs i vizc sais a - clinic = [ae sss slelapereeieisie sieeie do}... 6 17 1 These figures, which represent average conditions at the two field stations, were obtained from the. Office of Dry-Land Agriculture. It will be noted that the precipitation at Scottsbluff does not differ materially from that at Belle Fourche, either as to the total quantity or as to the quantities received during the fall and winter periods. The soils represent the essential difference between the two places in relation to fall irrigation. The figures showimg moisture-carrying capacity and wilting coefficient indicate something of the wide dissimilarity of the two types of soil. The sandy loam, being coarse. srained, has a low moisture-carrying capacity and a low wilting co- efficient. On the other hand, the extremely fine-grained Pierre clay has more than double the moisture-carrying capacity of the sandy loam and its wilting coefficient is nearly three times as high. The soil at Scottsbluff is readily pervious to water to a depth of at least 6 feet, and its permeability is higher when the soil is moist than when it is dry. Knorr! found with this soil that water applied during the regular irrigation season percolated deeper on the plats on which the moisture content was relatively high as a result of fall irrigation than on the check plats where the soil moisture content was comparatively low. This fact, together with the greater quan- tity of moisture available in the fall-irrigated plats at planting time, is believed to explain the beneficial effects of fall irrigation at Scotts- bluff. The moisture relationships of the soil at Belle Fourche are very different from those at Scottsbluff. At Belle Fourche the soil is practically impervious except when it is dry, and the depth of water percolation depends chiefly upon the extent to which the soil is cracked as a result of dryness. The addition of moisture causes the soil to expand rapidly, and as expansion increases permeability de- creases. After making an extensive study of water penetration in these soils, Mathews? states that “‘On a dry soil, penetration takes place rapidly to a depth of about 2 feet because of the cracked con- 1 Knorr, Fritz. Experiments with crops under fall irrigation at the Scottsbluff Reclamation Project. Experiment Farm. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 133,17 p.,5 fig. 1914. 2 Mathews, O.R. Water penetration in the gumbo soils of the Belle Fourche Reclamation Project. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 447, p.11. 1916. 12 BULLETIN 546, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. dition of the soil near the surface. After the layer of easily pene- trated soil becomes wet, it becomes so swollen and compact that it is nearly impervious, and further water movement is very slow.” The results secured in the fall-irrigation experiments at Belle Fourche are in accord with these observations. The application of irrigation water in the autumn filled the surface soil to its moisture- carrying capacity, but apparently had no effect beyond the third foot. Irrigation water applied uniformly to all plats during the growing season, together with the natural precipitation, equalized the moisture content of the soil in these plats, irrespective of their treatment the previous fall. It is important to note also that an abundance of moisture was present in all the plats at the time of sampling in the spring and early summer and that after this time moisture was supplied by urigation. These facts account for the absence of significant differences be- tween the average yields of crops on the fallirrigated plats and those secured on the check plats. It is possible that if an adequate supply of moisture had not been maintained by irrigation during the growing season the soil-moisture content of the fall-irrigated land would have been higher in the spring than that of the check plats. It seems certain, however, that where crops are properly irrigated during the growing season fall irrigation on this soil will have no material effect. SUMMARY. The light precipitation received during the winter months in the Great Plains area commonly causes soil to remain dry from the time crops are harvested until the rainy season the following year. In some soils this deficiency of moisture may have an unfavorable in- fluence on the growth of crops, both by hindering the germination of spring-sown seed and by retarding or preventing the desired movement of the water received as precipitation or applied in irri- gation during the growing season. Fall irrigation has been advocated as a corrective of this condi- tion in irrigated regions. It has been found efficacious on sandy loam soil in western Nebraska, where it resulted in increased soil moisture in the spring and in greater moisture absorption by the soul throughout the irrigation season. In order to test the practice of fall irrigation on a heavy clay soil, experiments were conducted at the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm, in western South Dakota, in 1914, 1915, and 1916. These experiments included wheat, oats, barley, flax, potatoes, sugar beets, and corn, each crop being grown each year in duplicate tenth- acre plats both on fall-irrigated land and on land which received no fall irrigation. EFFECT OF FALL IRRIGATION ON CROP YIELDS. 13 There were no significant differences between the average yields secured on the fall-irrigated plats and those on the check plats. Soil-moisture determinations were made in the spring and early summer each year. In 1914 they disclosed no significant differ- ences in the moisture content of the soil resulting from fall irriga- tion except that in the first two of the three samplings more moisture was found in the first 3 feet of the fall-irrigated plats than in the cor- responding depths of the check plats. No effect was noted beyond the third foot. The difference found in the upper 3 feet existed at a time when all the plats contained abundant moisture, and it disappeared before the end of June. No significant differences were found in 1915 or 1916. The failure of fall irrigation to increase crop yields in these ex- periments seems to be attributable to the character of the soil at Belle Fourche. This soil is a heavy clay, which will absorb water only when dry and which expands rapidly when moisture is added to it. This expansion so compacts the soil as to make it imper- vious, so that the storage of water in the lower depths for the use of crops is not practicable. vi By G PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ON RELATED SUBJECTS. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Experiments With Crops Under Fall Irrigation at the Scottsbluff Reclamation Project Experiment Farm. (Department Bulletin 133.) Sugar-beet Growing Under Irrigation. (Farmers’ Bulletin 567.) Trrigated Pastures for Northern Reclamation Projects. (Bureau of Plant Industry, D. R. P.-2.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Progress Report of Cooperative Irrigation Experiments at California University Farm, Davis, Cal., 1909-1912. (Department Bulletin 10.) Price, 5 cents. The Flow of Water in Irrigation Channels. (Department Bulletin 194.) Price, 25 cents. The Drainage of Irrigated Land. (Department Bulletin 190.) Price, 10 cents. Drainage of Irrigated Lands. (Farmers’ Bulletin 371.) Price, 5 cents. Potato Culture on Irrigated Farms of the West. (Farmers’ Bulletin 386.) Price, 5 cents. Trrigation of Sugar Beets. (Farmers’ Bulletin 392.) Price, 5 cents. The Use of Windmills in Irrigation in the Semiarid West. (Farmers’ Bulletin 394.) Price, 5 cents. Irrigation of Grain. (Farmers’ Bulletin 399.) Price, 5 cents. Trrigation of Orchards. (Farmers’ Bulletin 404.) Price, 5 cents. Timothy Production on Irrigated Land in the Northwestern States. (Farmers’ Bul- letin 502.) Price, 5 cents. Suggestions to Potato Growers on Irrigated Lands. (Bureau of Plant Industry Cir- cular 90.) Price, 5 cents. Trrigation in South Dakota. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 210.) Price, 10 cents. Storage of Water for Irrigation Purposes: Part I. Earth-fill Dams and Hydraulic-fill Dams. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 249, Part I.) Price, 30 cents. 15 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY A WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1917 od Lee. tintin esac bcs putt snes te eesti ar mio Tambanaly OMIT MIT CaN ETO areal ' , ? Pd | ve . fia t vtiavo'cin’ buried ia sini aloes arising aii okt 4.08 a iehliet trot 4 Or OTST. CBOE accindlaned I shack otek: p pacirncck’Y 4 — a ; wie) AC oot CORL earaitont rbertioctt) ‘eltions @hantetl °C {Ne oo SB pret. (O88 rite ‘eronmat).. ov | ‘ads Go, aot: ¢ RE | ae CAOE atfollistl tmroieie YY Jeol bea ten & oor BP ' elite 2 ttt, (Rs le ith teoneiat): Bvtate wcoteowhieh Ha a yiiaghal jirall 1s wor! ey: abe 5 ened 4 Ols wtfoilath anol Devers a Hitter: Lo has hae A dtance Oa bee Of, aie {0 tad ORS noite et | ! rer Cones Apt, nee CA BOR MANY IOWe de ATM OO. oy “rep hear ce ibs {cement ime ren TAMeRTOO : hGRD NAY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from Office of Markets and Rural Organization CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv September 19, 1917 COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING OR- GANIZATIONS AMONG FARMERS IN THE UNITED STATES. By O. B. Jesness, Assistant in Cooperative Organization, and W.H. Kerr, Ivesti- gator in Market Business Practice. ¥ CONTENTS. f Page. Page. Early history and growth of cooperative Agencies which assist cooperation........... 59 QUEATMIZ AIO West a2 =e 2 esse nein siseaee I Cooperativiellaws=aeeesse-eeee sees eles 61 Present forms and tendencies........-.------ 3 | Cooperative law summations...............- 62 DiAtISHIESOLCOOPETALION: ==... -5 -e\-----5--4- 11 | Digest of State cooperative laws.........---- 67 Cooperation in representative States......--. 37 | The Clayton Amendment to the United Representative types of cooperative organiza- Staresranionirusitalanysa-cos- asec eee ee eee 77 WIGS). 6 nes Soe SECEDE See ER AAR Ee Cee eae 41 | Selected list of publications on cooperative Financing and business practices........--.- 50 purchasing and marketing...............-. 78 EARLY HISTORY AND GROWTH OF COOPERATIVE ORGANIZATION. FOUNDATION. While cooperative organization among the farmers of the United States usually is regarded as a movement of recent origin, farmers’ organizations existed in this country as early as the latter part of the eighteenth century. The need for organized effort, however, did not become very apparent until about the middle of the nine- teenth century. The first half of the nineteenth century was a period of rapid development in agriculture as well as in other indus- tries, but in so far as the farmer was concerned it was largely a period of individual development. The need felt by the farmer for organized effort about 1850 gave rise to a number of attempts at cooperative purchasing and also brought about the promotion of a number of cooperative stores. Coincident with this movement among farmers, a similar movement was inaugurated in certain of the cities. The establishment of cooperative stores among the fac- tory employees in England had proved so successful that employees, especially in New England cities, profiting by the experience of the 85964°—Bull. 547—17—1 2 BULLETIN 547, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, English workers, formed similar associations. A number of organi- zations were formed, but before any extensive efforts of this kind could be carried out the plans for organization were disrupted by the Civil War. TREND. After the close of the Civil War there began a general movement of population toward the virgin lands of the Middle West. The con- ditions resulting from the rapid development in the Middle West led to a widespread demand for cooperative organization among the farmers of that region. The need of organization was not felt so keenly in the Eastern States, where the population was more dense and business was established on a firmer basis. Affairs in the South were badly disorganized as a result of the Civil War. Extensive changes were necessary in the industrial system, and the readjust- ment took a considerable length of time. Conditions for organiza- tion, therefore, were not as favorable as in the Middle West, where the cooperative movement spread with greatest rapidity after it once had started. TYPES OF ORGANIZATION. The history of cooperative organization among farmers since the Civil War consists of the growth and decline of a number of organiza- tions. Many of these organizations were of a local nature, while others were State-wide or national in their scope. Among the latter, the Patrons of Husbandry, or The Grange, as the organization is commonly known, is illustrative of the movement during the late sixties and seventies! The Grange is a farmers’ fraternal order es- tablished in 1867 for educational and social purposes. The National Grange, which is the central organization, was first formed. Later a large number of local granges were organized and in many of the States these formed State Granges. On account of the demand among farmers, the scope of The Grange was soon enlarged to include such activities as cooperative buying and selling. This movement proved to be very popular among the farmers and resulted in the extension of the organization over a large territory in a comparatively short period. The early growth of The Grange was confined mainly to the North Central States, as conditions in this section were favorable. The rapid growth of the organization brought it to the notice of the rest of the country, so that the movement soon spread to all parts of the United States. The activities entered upon by The Grange included not only purchasing and marketing ventures but also manu- facturing enterprises. Some of the undertakings met with success, 1 For a more complete history of The Grange see: Aiken, D. W., The Grange: its origin, progress, and educational purposes, U. 8. Department of Agriculture Special Report 55, 1883; Atkeson, T. C., Semi- Centennial History of the Patrons of Husbandry, 1916; Buck, S. J., The Granger Movement, Harvard Historical Studies, vol. 19, 1913 (this book contains a comprehensive bibliography relative to this subject). COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS. 3 but a number of difficulties were soon encountered and failure re- sulted in many instances. This brought about a decline in the movement, so that by 1880 The Grange was practically extinct. Since then, however, it has been revived gradually, so that at present there are a large number of Granges in existence. Other organizations of farmers were established about the same time as The Grange, or during its decline. Among the organizations which were established during this period were the National Farmers’ Alliance and Industrial Union, the Northwestern National Farmers’ Alliance, the National Agricultural Wheel, and the Brothers of Freedom. PRESENT FORMS AND TENDENCIES. The farmers’ purchasing and marketing organizations of the present time may be divided into noncooperative capital stock com- panies and cooperative organizations. The term ‘‘noncooperative capital stock company” is used because an organization may be formed with capital stock and still be cooperative. The noncooper- ative capital stock company is an organization which distributes its profits according to the capital invested, by means of dividends on capital stock. In a company of this kind there is no limit to the proportion of the capital stock one person may own and the stock- holders have as many votes as the number of shares they hold. This makes the capital stock the ruling factor in the organization. In a truly cooperative organization the financial interest of each member is limited, each member has the same voting power, and the savings ' are distributed by paying a fair rate of interest on the capital invested, and by distributing any further savings in the form of a patronage dividend, proportioned on the amount of business transacted with the organization. Many of the truly cooperative organizations of this country are formed on the capital stock plan, — but unlike the ordinary capital stock company there is a limit to the number of shares each may own, the voting powers of all the members are the same, and the stock dividend is limited to a fair rate of interest. Nonstock organizations needing capital usually charge a membership fee or else borrow the necessary money. It is important to distinguish between stock and nonstock forms of organization because of the bearing which section 6 of the Clayton Act, amending the United States antitrust laws, has on this point.? | It is unfortunate that so many of our farmers’ organizations are not formed on a strictly cooperative basis, as this fact undoubtedly has hindered the growth and development of the work of such associations. Among the reasons that can be given for the present 1 Jn a strictly cooperative organization the gains made in the business are referred to as sayings rather than profits. ' 2 See page 77. 4 BULLETIN 547, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, - Co condition of affairs is the fact that only within the last few years have the laws of the various States made specific provision for the organization of truly cooperative associations, and even at the present time a large number of States do not have special laws for this purpose. The present cooperative laws of some of the States are so general in nature that organizations formed in accordance with them do not necessarily embody the underlying principles of coop- . eration. Therefore a large number of farmers’ organizations have been formed under general corporation laws. Many organizations that have been formed under general corporation laws might be re- organized under cooperative laws, where such laws have been passed, with benefit to the members. Among the general public there is not a clear conception of the differences between the cooperative and noncooperative forms of organization, with the result that noncooperative organizations frequently are called cooperative. Many of these associations have been started by a few persons and are operated for their profit. In support of the practice of paying large stock dividends it usually is stated that, since the stockholders are the ones who are taking the risk and will have to stand any losses that may be encountered, they are entitled to all the profits. Organizations which set aside an adequate reserve to cover any reverses that are likely to be en- countered, protect its stockholders. Such organizations are in a position to distribute the profits on a patronage basis after paying the stockholders a stock dividend that represents a fair rate of inter- est on the money invested. In a noncooperative capital-stock com- pany there is always danger of the ownership of capital stock be- coming centered in one or a few individuals. The men in control may not be farmers, or if they are, they may retire from business or move to some other locality, with the result that the men who patronize the organization have no hand in its management. The incentive to buy up a large amount of the capital stock is removed by limiting the stock dividend to a fair rate of interest on capital invested, while the limitation of the number of shares a member may own effectively provides against the possibility of the stock coming into the hands of a few. Some organizations also place restrictions on the transfer of stock in order to keep the shares in the possession of patrons of the association. The separation of farmers’ organizations in the United States into cooperative and noncooperative groups is by no means a simple task. Some authorities on cooperation insist that an organization must meet all the requirements laid down for cooperative organiza- tions before it can be classed as such; on the other hand, there are persons who class all farmers’ organizations as cooperative. If the former method is followed, a large number of the farmers’ organiza- COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS. 5 tions in the United States will be excluded from the cooperative class because they fail to live up to cooperative rules in every detail. After all, the main point to be considered is the extent to which the organization works for the benefit of the farmer. An organization may never declare a patronage dividend and still be of profit to all its patrons. A number of the grain elevators, organized on the capital-stock plan, may be cited as examples. They have paid out the profits in the form of stock dividends, yet in many cases have been of benefit to all the patrons because they have paid a higher price for the grain than the farmers had previously received. The farmers of the United States have engaged in business along a number of different lines. Although the underlying reasons for or- ganizing have been quite similar for the various lines of organiza- tion, the histories of their growth are different and present some very instructive facts. ELEVATORS. The growth of the farmers’ elevator movement was very slow at first but it gradually gained in stability and prominence and began to attract more attention and to receive more favorable treatment from the commission men and railroads. Since 1900 a number oi very successful farmers’ elevators have been established in the erain-crowing States of the Middle West. As they became firmly established they began to assume a wider range of activity than that of handling grain. In some sections it is usual for elevators to ship live stock as well as grain, making a separate live-stock shipping association unnecessary. Marked success also has been achieved by many farmers’ elevators in handling such commodities as coal, lumber, brick, flour, feed, salt, twine, oils, and similar supplies needed by the farmers. The cooperative elevators have frequently met with opposition from other dealers in these products. Nevertheless they have been able to carry these side lines with a resultant saving to the farmer. Various estimates have been made of the amount saved by farm- ers’ elevators, but it is difficult to arrive at any definite results be- cause of the far-reaching effects of this form of organization. In many instances the farmers’ elevators have increased the price paid the farmer for his grain; when side lines are carried there has often been an additional direct saving; and the dividends paid to the farmers by many of the elevators should also be considered. The increase in returns on products of the farm through the operation’ of these elevators has had a direct tendency to increase the value of the land in sections where such elevators are located. Practically all of the important Middle West grain States now have State associations of farmers’ elevators. These State associations make it possible for the local companies to keep in touch with one 6 BULLETIN 547, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. another and form an effective means of promoting the interests of the farmers’ companies. A number of the State associations have formed the National Council of Farmers’ Cooperative Associations. This organization is the representative of the farmers’ elevator companies in matters of interstate and national importance. One unfortunate feature of the organization of the farmers’ elevator companies is that so many of them fail to live up to cooperative principles. At first the organization of a farmers’ elevator was considered a hazardous undertaking and it was asserted that the people who put money into such an undertaking ought ‘to receive its profits in accordance with the amount of their investment. Now that the farmers’ elevators are well established, all such organiza- tions that are not cooperative should, wherever possible, adopt the cooperative plan of organization. Some elevators were organized with the assistance of local business men who subscribed for shares of stock, and many of them have experienced difficulty in reorgan- izing, because the members who are not farmers oppose such a move, as it would reduce the size of their dividends. Some of the farmer members also make this objection. These members should be made to see that the profit has been produced by the handling of the grain and should be distributed accordingly, allowing the stock- holders only a fair rate of interest on their investment, if their organization is to be truly cooperative. CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. There are approximately 5,500 creameries and 3,500 cheese fac- tories in the United States at the present time. The greater number are located in the territory east of the western boundary of Minnesota and Jowa. The organization of factories for making cheese dates from about the middle of the last century; creameries for the manufacture of butter were started a few years later. The early factories were usually cooperative in form. A number of cooperative creameries were established in New England, in New York, and the surrounding States. Creameries and cheese factories were not established in the North Central States until later, when the country became settled and there was a general change from a system of grain farming to that of diversified crop production. The first cooperative creamery in Minnesota was established in 1889. At the present time there are over 600 enterprises of this kind in that State. The cooperative creamery has not encountered as well-organized opposition as that which the farmers’ elevators have met. At first all creameries were local in character so that competition came principally from privately owned local plants. Simce the advent of the hand separator large centralizing plants which receive shipments of cream from an extensive territory have been established. In COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS, q some localities these plants have been able to compete successfully with the farmers’ organizations, with the result that some coopera- tive creameries have been forced to discontinue operations. While the farmers’ creameries have not had as systematic compe- tition as the farmers’ elevators, there have been other handicaps to their success. In some cases factories have been established before the supply of raw material was large enough to make their operation economical. The farmers have in some instances been the victims of professional promoters. The benefits of a creamery to a commu- nity were set forth in such a way that the farmers were led to expect success when it was impossible. Often the promoters received a contract for the creamery equipment for which the farmers paid an exorbitant price. Many creameries have been established in this manner in communities where the number of cows was far too small to make their operation profitable. When such conditions have existed it is not surprising that the cooperative spirit in some of these communities has waned, and that many of the plants which were established have failed. The farmers’ creameries as a general rule are operated in accord- ance with cooperative principles to a greater extent than are the farmers’ elevators. This is accounted for by the differences in the two lines of business. In the grain business the production is sea- sonal and the market is fluctuating; the farmers also are accus- tomed to receive their money at the time of delivery of the grain. The production of dairy products is not as seasonal as grain pro- duction, and the changes in the market are usually less evident. Patrons of creameries in many places are accustomed to receiving the money for milk or cream oncea month. Itis therefore a common practice among cooperative creameries to deduct the expenses of operation, set aside whatever is needed as a reserve, and divide the net proceeds of the business among the patrons each month in accordance with the amount of butter fat delivered by each. Many of the farmers’ creameries, therefore, are truly cooperative in every sense of the word. Some cooperative creameries set aside a sufhi- cient amount to pay interest on capital invested, while others pay no interest on the capital. Many of the creameries are nonstock organizations; the necessary capital for building and equipping the plant is borrowed, and the money is paid back by a small monthly assessment on the business transacted. In a few cases a creamery has retired its capital stock by purchasing it from the holders with the surplus funds obtained by levying a small monthly assessment on the raw material delivered to the factory. Not all the farmers’ creameries are as near a strictly inane type as those described. Some farmers’ creameries pay cash for the raw material as it is delivered. Such plants are not able to operate 8 BULLETIN 547, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. on a strictly nonprofit basis, as it is necessary for them to buy the butter fat on a safe margin. The surplus funds thus obtained may be prorated quarterly or annually among the patrons, according to the amount of raw material each delivers; or it may be paid to the shareholders in the form of a dividend on capital stock. In some instances large stock dividends have been paid to creamery stock- holders, but they are not nearly as common as they are among farmers’ elevators. Privately owned plants generally pay for the milk and cream as it is delivered. This practice has made it necessary for some coopera- tive creameries to do likewise, especially in districts where the cooperative spirit is not strongly developed and the farmers are not accustomed to the cooperative method of distributing the net returns monthly. A few creameries have undertaken the marketing of eggs. In such cases an effort usually is made to supply only high-class trade. In order to guarantee the eggs, they are graded and each patron is held responsible for the quality. As the eggs are sold on a quality basis it is possible to obtain higher prices than would be received by the farmers for ordinary ungraded eggs of varying quality. At a few cooperative creameries a cooperative laundry is operated in connection with the creamery. The creamery patrons may bring their family washing at the same time that they deliver the milk or cream, and as the work is done at cost the expense is not prohibitive. The activities of the farmers’ creameries and cheese factories for the most part have been local in character. A few cooperative dairy organizations have been formed to market the output of a number of creameries and cheese factories, but as yet this movement has not become very general. Butter makers, cheese makers, creamery officials, and dairymen have formed a number of State and National associations, which compare with similar associations among opera- tors of elevators. These organizations are primarily for educational and protective purposes and also form a msdium for holding contests and exhibits of the various dairy products. STORES. The cooperative store is an older form of organization than either the farmers’ elevator or the creamery. A number of such stores were in existence about the middle of the last century, especially in the New England States. The Lowell Cooperative Association, which was established in 1876, is an example of a store that has been in operation for a long period. The seventy-seventh semiannual report of this store for the six months’ period ending June 30, 1914, shows the distribution of about $5,000 as patronage dividends, indicating that the organization is cooperative. Bul. 547, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Fic. 1.—A Busy DAY—FARMERS’ GRAIN ELEVATOR. Fic. 2.—SHIPPING DAY—FARMERS’ LIVE STOCK SHIPPING ASSOCIATION. Bul. 547, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il. Fia. 1.—FARMERS’ COOPERATIVE CREAMERY AND CHEESE FACTORY. Fic. 2.—COoLD-STORAGE PLANT—COOPERATIVE FRUIT MARKETING ASSOCIATION. COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS. 9 For various reasons a large number of failures have occurred among the farmers’ cooperative stores. This line of business is not as well understood by the farmer as is the elevator or creamery business and he frequently fails to take into consideration the problems con- nected with the management of a store. The member of a creamery or an elevator association is in a better position to keep in touch with the business, while the members of a cooperative store association usually leave the supervision of its affairs entirely in the hands of the manager. Although this is a satisfactory arrangement in some cases, the manager is not always capable, and in some cases the store has even suffered through willful mismanagement. Another factor which sometimes causes failure is the fact that the farmers have been led to expect greater returns than it is possible to secure, so that the members are disappointed with the results obtained and cease to support the enterprise. The failure of some cooperative stores is accounted for'by the fact that they have not been operated in accordance with the’ underlying principles of cooperation. The English stores, based on the Roch- dale plan of organization, are often cited as examples of successful cooperative stores. These stores embody the true principles of cooperation in that the voting power and financial interests of the members are limited, and the profits are distributed according to patronage. FRUIT AND PRODUCE ASSOCIATIONS. The method of marketing the fruit crop is very complex because of the perishability of the commodities handled and because a large proportion of the fruit is produced in certain restricted localities from which it must be distributed to all parts of the United States and foreign countries. The fruit growers of the United States have been attracted by the possibilities of cooperative fruit marketing, and during the last 25 years a large number of associations have been formed which have been very successful. The most successful fruit-marketing associations are found in the Pacific Coast States, among the citrus fruit growers of California and the apple growers of the North Pacific States. These organizations owe a large part of their success to the fact that they do more than merely attend to the actual selling of the fruit. The fruit crop varies in quality; therefore the associations have assisted in standardizing the growing of the fruit, and in many instances have taken charge of the sortmg and packing. Thus a large quantity of fruit of the same gerade and quality is assured, and it is possible to establish trade- marked brands which become known to the trade. By conducting advertising campaigns on an extensive scale consumers are reached in _ large numbers, the consumption of the fruit is increased, a demand is insured, and brands are established on the market. A single grower 10 BULLETIN 547, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. or even a number of growers can not accomplish very much in this manner, but when a number of local organizations of growers form a central organization, the volume of business is sufficiently large to render it practicable to conduct such work on an extensive scale. The local fruit-marketing associations have had greater need for central organizations than the local elevator and creamery associations, consequently such organizations have played a more important part in the case of fruit associations. While the most extensive organizations for the marketing of fruit are found in the Western States, there are a number of such associa- tions in other parts of the United States. Most of them are found in regions where fruit growing is an important industry, but some are found in places where this industry is only a side line. Fruit-market- ing organizations formed in regions where the members are not dependent on the fruit crop for a living frequently are not very successful. In some of the truck-growing districts there are extensive organi- zations for the marketing of truck crops. Like some of the fruit associations, they have been instrumental im establishing uniform grades and in selling them under trade-marked brands. In addition, a number of local organizations formed for the purpose of marketing truck or vegetable crops are scattered over the country. A number of such associations have been organized for the sole purpose of marketing potatoes, while others which began with potatoes now handle a variety of commodities. COTTON ORGANIZATIONS. The cotton growers of the South have a number of cooperative organizations, but the cotton grower is not as well organized as the fruit grower, the grain farmer, or the dairy farmer. Because of the common custom of securing advances on their growing crop from merchants and others, the marketing of the cotton crop, to a large extent, has been taken out of the farmers’ hands. This practice has stood in the way of any extensive organization among the growers for marketing purposes. While the movement is not yet general, there are a number of selling associations, warehouses, cotton gins, and oil mills that are controlled by growers. COOPERATIVE PURCHASING. The cooperative purchase of supplies has been carried on among the © farmers of the United States for a long time. In some cases the farmers have associations organized for this special purpose, but in a great number of instances it is carried on in an informal way, without a definite organization. The selling associations of farmers frequently serve as mediums for the cooperative purchase of supplies. Thus the fruit associations often buy supplies needed by the fruit growers, and the same custom is followed by other cooperative organizations. COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS, il STATISTICS OF COOPERATION. METHOD USED IN SECURING INFORMATION. In January, 1914, the Office of Markets and Rural Organization undertook a survey of cooperative marketing in the United States. The first step necessary in a study of this kind was to secure a list of the names of the cooperative marketing organizations of the United States. A nucleus for such a list was secured from the mailing list of the department and to this were added names received from various other sources. Through the Bureau of Crop Estimates of the Department of Agriculture a letter was sent to the voluntary crop correspondents scattered throughout the United States. This letter requested the correspondent to furnish the department with the names and addresses of all the cooperative marketing organiza- tions in his territory. Through the States Relations Service of the department additional names were secured from the county agents. In addition, some of the agricultural colleges, secretaries of state, and State departments of agriculture furnished such lists of organizations in their States as were available. From these various sources approximately 12,500 names of farmers’ purchasing and marketing organizations were secured. Questionnaires which called for information relating to the plan of organization, the number of members, the kind and volume of busi- ness, the method of distributing profits, and other items were sent to the organizations on the list compiled by the Department of Agri- culture. Many were returned with the information that the organi- zations had discontinued business. On account of imaccuracies in the names of some of the organizations reported, there were some duplicates on the list. In some instances the names proved to be those of private concerns, not farmers’ or cooperative organizations in any sense. These corrections reduced the number on the list to about 12,300. In all, 5,424 organizations have been included in the fnnal summations (see Table I). This means that more than 6,000 organizations have failed to report. It is believed that many of these are not actively engaged in business, because they have failed to reply to repeated requests for information. It is also probable that some of this number failed to reply because they are private concerns and therefore do not come within the scope of this survey. All of the strictly private concerns and the stock companies in which a few stockholders appear to operate the business principally for their own benefit have been eliminated, in order to make the survey include as nearly as possible only farmers’ cooperative mar- keting organizations. While no hard and fast rules of classification have been laid down, an attempt has been made to include all of those organizations which are composed of a number of farmers and are operated primarily for the benefit of the patrons. While a num- _ ber of these organizations would not be classed as cooperative under 12 BULLETIN 547, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a strict interpretation of the definition of cooperation, it has been thought best to include all of those in which the benefits of the busi- ness to some extent accrue to the farmer patrons, which benefits would not have been secured from a private company, owned and operated for the sole purpose of making money in the business. There are undoubtedly a number of organizations whose names and addresses have not yet been secured, and probably some of those that failed to reply are actively engaged in business; consequently this survey does not cover all of the organizations. It is believed, how- ever, that those included represent most of the going concerns, and that the information secured is fairly complete. Many cooperative associations reach the point of organization only, as is shown by the large number of letters received by the Department of Agriculture from farmers, stating that an association had been formed in their community, but as yet had failed to do business to any considerable extent. DESCRIPTION OF TABLES. The information secured from the survey has been summarized and is presented in Tables I to ILI, mclusive. In Table I the total number of farmers’ organizations reporting to the Office of Markets and Rural Organization, for each class of business, is shown by States as well as for the United States asa whole. (See also Charts 2 and 3.) The column headed “Grain elevators and warehouses’”’ includes the grain warehouses common in the North Pacific States as well as the regular grain elevators. Creameries and cheese factories have been grouped together because in a number of instances one plant makes both butter and cheese. As many associations handle both fruit and produce, these two forms have been grouped in the same manner. The miscellaneous class includes the enterprises that could not be grouped in any of the other classes. Of the 5,424 organizations in- cluded in this report, 1,637 are grain elevators and warehouses, 1,708 creameries and cheese factories, 871 fruit and produce, 213 cotton, 275 store, 43 tobacco, 96 live stock, and 581 miscellaneous associations. TasiLe I.—Total number of farmers’ organizations reporting for each class of business, by States. Kind of business. Total State. member Gran Cream- < report- =; A Tuit . 3 dies ole ene and _ | Cotton.) Stores. | Tobacco. as pe warehouse. |factories.| Produce Alapamayss os es: of ea 2 ae feces ae Sa 26 19 1 We ES ey a 2 1 4 AVivOna os Solo caren (Hie. See he eae 3 Ll ecu tel ecme ele cece leone 3 Axiansas S22 53.2 RO et Seehke os 1 63 15 S {ee cet Teh eee 7 Califorms.. cus... a. pk ri ie — Sees 26 124 2 oy a SR ee 3 34 Colorady: 22ers: nt 53 3 13 72 Spt IR ee ASS, Ue eee eats 8 Connecticut......... P14 ie ee 14 8 | oie onic ew | phe] ae eee eee 3 Delaware... <2. 2.22 5 LR ox AE 3 1.2852 a a ae eee 1 Wiorila. 322 2256 ae id a ee IY Ay BL 55 2 \\a wi euseal puree tee nel eerie 12 Gers. ae 2 BST ae See er ces eee 5 44 Die. save Se eee 4 RADNOL sco ase oe 59 9 6 7 Nice aeeee Ll osase coal ee eee 26 . Tihigiss= |. S20 Se 263 192 34 UL Went 2 Ne eee oeel ee eae 24 CHART 1. Bul. 547, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. gee CHART 2. Bul. 547, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. SIYOLG ot SSE ad (alg) Wise ONY LInHy WAGED ISIFHZ ONY SI/wIHVIVD =" BHOLYAITZ ONIIDI7 "SNOISIAIG 1VOIHdVYOHOSS) NI SSV1D Ad SNOILVZINVDYO SAILVYSd0OD 4JO YSEWNN Tete ELC) TWHLNID HLYON iSYZ ulture. Bul. 547, U. S. Dept. of Agric eee NAN ae ia : Slee led aes) e ee a basal = ch ee eae — Josue See eae ae eee 2 ES ae -] |] RRR 2 HEE AE ki Pa ieee 2a FEEL Heats = a cars soepeant te ee one [eae ie come PETIT CHART 4. Bul. 547, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. oooveg! ooov2! "SNOILVZINVSYO SAILVYsdOOD 11V JO dIHSYSEW3a ooooo! ooooes oooos ooo0+ easier ae SNOANYTTIZISIW WIOLSIAIT ase aa ISIFHT ONY S3/IYIWYIYT sia taper eo SYOLVAITZ COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS. 13 Taste I.—Total number of farmers’ organizations reporting for each class of business, by States—Continued. Kind of business. Total | State. number/ Grain | Cream- report-| ejevator |eries and| Eruit Live | Miscel- ing. il Ghness and | Cotton.) Stores. | Tobacco. | tock. | laneous. preduce. warehouse. |factories. HOWAR a sesoeesecce.s- IRGINISA Sees ee ns ase < ASONGUCAY/ 5 oe ise= soo) Louisiana.........-. Maryland..:.......-- Mississippi....------- MISSOUME Meio caiscces New Hampshire. aay New Jersey.......-.- New Mexico.......-- North Carolina...... North Dakota.....-- (O1tit0)) A Ae Uae eee eee Oklahoma........-.-- Orneroniavcnacseas- s+ Pennsylvania.......- Rhode Island......-. Warsi aren acne sk aoe Washington.......-- West Virginia.....-- SWHISCONMSING 522252 225 Wiyoming = .2.2222-.2 United States..| 5,424 1, 637 1,708 871 213 275 43 96 581 Table IL shows the type of organization, the annual volume of business, and membership for the organizations reporting on these points, arranged according to classes for each State, with a similar arrangement for all classes for the entire United States. (See also Charts 4 and 8.) So far as possible, the type of organization has been indicated. Those that conduct their business as an ordinary stock company have been placed in one class and those that operate on a more truly cooperative basis have been placed in the other class. This does not mean that all the associations in the last-named class are organizations without capital stock; on the contrary, a large number of them have capital stock because this is the common form of organization among farmers’ companies. An association can be truly cooperative even though it is formed on the stock-company plan. As has been stated, an effort was made to exclude all organi- zations owned and operated for the benefit of a few stockholders. Those with a large number of stockholders which appear to operate principally for the benefit of the patrons have been included, even though they are not strictly cooperative in nature. _———$—$——— : SIT sao ‘er | 9 Dis PST, 919 apse os ara 2855 Be = | 61 | 991 | 9T8‘060‘8} 9 ti ieaes -s-=| gep'gag — [-so--*="| eres SSS SS = 26 622% | 08 3 020 08 | 94 86 ‘6ST ‘08 | ZOT are 0 POCRIRIOAG) RICIOR COPS RSG oAo}— IOS IOC LeI $60 ‘T 000 cS ose ‘T6P ‘ ' eee | 991 09 96 | 82 #6 96 \r--e Bese S SAG's Ses es ee S's) aera Bi 0& 0g 4 Lee ee il ctw ale Praelee. © a 699 ‘190 ‘¢ ST 000 ‘er6 ‘T See de: sbocdaes oe ee ee eee an ee 228 ‘EI | 601 3777] 900009, | 2 SQ0Q0h. yA Wma t y saa a Rtg ae ee ee rat TOL P ere‘t | st Bo 4 S20 a TT Te Seat alee er t : Pier 5 GoL‘s | 91 162 “ets! 99T ‘289 ‘bz Seok Sears Sara a eal ee sl PF 61 000 ‘O9T 6S 69 CE OTH ten aA al he “San? seeee= TOT a8 5 99 $00'9 ee a ee ee |[ ee q ot POMBE Se oo-0000+-opnpoud pus an 5 ¢ |o |troes |e I i ail eal ac i, Re PoE ae ee a a hdd c inapab ee BBE) 68 £09 ‘F20‘% | OF PBITLIOJI BO “ivy raat: see necieeicconias ‘it [oa [roetvn‘s [ow ewe fee fer = erat =s97I0JOR] BSeoyO PUB S9TIOWIVOIO sisiginipicsisictninisinis/sisiais Social ni = io nna See ONS A TTD ISBSUBIL Bae SUN e SRS pie era aS Sins) 42 0 rin ener keep BIO Nat, -yo0}S GATT sonece fotetreteretsss rss 229-910 wees reeee eee SSIES OT AISI 2 15) gy OOK (GI VERGARA NT | “7="="===s9TIOJoRy eSdeyO PUB SETIETIBEID secre neces cnet cece e eee eet ects ee eet ete = CIO BACT BALOT ReScle ss ps Iss ease Ga ea sss aes ccc eS Oa BION: rok sieabar sk Tite eS ee = ee eee SICTOTS Rca. por cicissinsaisiaca-iein male mesinias SsSnOSUMT GOST PRESS AS CEOS FS sce “-->->-gonpoid pus JIN -- SeI10JOBJ esveyD PUL SeTIOUIveID Ageia Sr ORS ISRON NING) (GI :evuUvIPUT cosas ec ccecsccscescees $o10}g eonpoid pue Imi tote sec e tes eee esses SOT10JNEJ OSeVTD PUB SoTETIBELD Seranyetein tea L9g‘90¢'S | 3€ OLE HOF S SSI 090‘ | &I 000 I 000‘T6s, | 8 060 ‘£66 , 899 cre'L | 11 o00‘OST | T | cOr‘stz‘T | 6 687 (089 ‘T est me. |S: piaeesee 2 [=== =2-|- 000,26 v 000 “92 6L €20‘T | &T 79626 | 6 00L TOF £9 a 900'8 r 006 ‘e% &8 $8 I 000 ‘SeT i 000 “O0T iT ieee ee UU NOD eae ee a "| #8 ‘SOT. gIt L0L°GZ | 12% | €80‘089E} 8 668 F98 ‘TZ | 6ST —_|- 149 “E68 “ET pI | HI | Te 00¢ ‘sre | 4 ESE CCT F | FB £08 ‘Tee “e Sst |} 048 «18 PHaee “IES “"""} 000‘L6 i 286 “TAT eae £8 ‘6Ee OLF ‘610 ‘T 000 ‘896 OF ‘TS LZ 000 ‘0sz ‘T ¢ : 000 ‘0Sz ‘T 626 ‘10S el ¢ 000 “¢2, 9 it 616 ‘9¢7 ie eyb eee 8ZI_ | 966 ‘TO "9 91 000 ‘ozs Z G86 “TIT 000 ‘0ez ‘T G6F ‘Sel ~*-SOOTR[[OOSITAL Seno "=" S9I099 sonpoid pus 4iniWy ~ *saT10}0R] ESO PUB SOTIOUIVOIOD 2S) J9SNYSesseyL en ee ea SS ORS R IS GI SIR Se EN Sins Rea OR BLOAT Bret ay He eee Da Wem ie Ree en eee year (AKO), Sak FASO Ny kee bel e oan ae ert] OO LUG TOS HAL SPE Pa ee ak EE a oe ----gonpoid pus MDa aru fl A ete a "77>" Serlojoey eseeto PUB SeTIOTUBAID spuelLAIByL ett ee ee eee SBD SST TS Ee Sects Bas OS ClO AGy: Eee ne even, >> g$97079 --eonpoid pue ym1y7 “~~ S9r10jOR] OSedTO PUB SETIBTIIBIIO veteteetesteceente tees =-SIOBAQTOT POUICTL Sees Sao: “> -93RIOAV TeIOL - = "SnoeUe][eostW SRS EAL PS OEE BEET SRE A ee *77109409 eonpoid pue yma, seUISINOT "-eseIOAY “rs 7BIOT Pei en ag ee “7" "5" **SnosUe][Sostjl area 00080], Siro Suet $e1049 SATIRE CR as re “eonpoid pure yma ~* “S9TlOJOv] EsedT[O PUT SeTLIOULeEID Were steceeetetree a SIONBAQTH : AONE ST “esvIOAY "TRO, > * “SnNOOUET[OOSI. “y[00]S OATT == 85964°—Bull. 547. Zr zoe‘e ; 28 |; 008% 1% 209 ‘8+0'T | & 8S ‘T6T‘T | 96 000 ‘0s I 9% eee (reer ee creeps oes ae eonpoid pue ymig &P OLF II | 000 4 T 006 PSs Or LIE 867 II 0&8 IST g 9 (3 nee pamceedd RS SpE er ste Se ee S9TIOJOV] sseeyo PUB SeTIOMIVOID SIT 68h T | I ; 000 08 Sz 606 269 8 128 726 Pet | Were ORR oS RR Gide |e oa as ane ae eae see casa keass saeoeens aie S1IOJVAO[T a STMOSSTPY ae Saeed © ARPS © Sige ROLE Circe geet [eGeeee oe aseeAy 8S 861% | 88 osg ‘9h. | ¢ T6z ‘98S Preece EO cis AG acl eeenecacan sn wecaegaGRCkt eval OL a ledesas.8eea>cehhessssecsseesenbaanee gees een 1e30 ( iat U SOs apse it bed an a irs ed porsiac Zi tesla Sa RGR Ry ale esti iL Bo jae fe PS EINEN TT) ovolge. fe... |.oe‘ea SISSSESSEESELESISSEaRSIESSEEREESRRRESSERAT oT 5 9% co, | 8 oce‘ce | + PUdpaetah ol O ca | OEE Oal a Stas ese ayessuyoulvergrcvs| © p< | WE, fora Geccestagndcsossaceunsor elec eehecee manga mono 5 g9 889 T | 9% 00s T T 982 $96 &1 | eonpoid pue ami I ‘ddisstss17y ar ree tee ares PIG PO. fp 225322: PPE AO... [222235 >: 806,19. [02252327 MEO nis |b gene de p See SE PE Rens Pepe reece ORR roe ee esei0A y << &6 Z08 “6L | 698 G21 “261 ‘L) LTT Ste ‘She BE | 62S S68 “SZt ‘Ob | 89 | GEL“LOS “TT | 0% | 602 ECRRORN SiS eee eee Se 1P10.L ’ ea pe ae ee EERE Toes cans eee al ae | , [ae nereeete aa| GET ace Co Se | a. & GOS | 8G =~ [OSS TRE fren zeros | at zoe ‘ST ‘I | 2 zeg ‘eek «=| gt "277 SNOSTIE|TOOSTIT Mas e89 ‘8 | SZ 000‘62I | € FF SPL T | 2 096 ‘16 4! go9‘TIT. | T e% DUTT Tetra ttt 009s eArT ei =: 08 P8L% | LZ 000‘08 1% 06 ‘868 81 892 ‘STL pL OOT ‘20% ar 61 se101g i oh 108‘T | ¥@ 000‘0F | T 829 ‘SST | OL Jit eae crmealtars 669 "ere | OT 81 : sonpoid pue ymig py «CC £82 ‘Gh | 96S OT ‘ThE *E| 08 £22 ‘FL0 ‘ZI | SIs 668 (868 02 | Ler 168 86'S | OPI Les 89110158} eseayo PUB SeLJOUIvEID sl SBE ‘9S | BIZ 620 “209 “€| TE T¥S “868 “OT | GFT #90 ‘862 ‘9T | OST Soh er6E | 98 76 ppb ers ee ger iLiad EB Se a ee een See ee eee , >BLOSOUUITT a pets eebeees ee reee (4) | a GGG BL 2 - = /2 4552552 PIG-19. =~ -|2237323: PPL Gy-s6-=|t227225-leacecs oa B89" [Glo co aces a tececac ep seasontanvenepecse osRI0Ay A (St T1g‘LT | SIT Ose ‘919 | 6 969 ‘928 ‘S | SL 486 ‘920°S | 28 | 009°St9 ia’ 6S Og |. SeTSTS SIS Ti TST TLR URC genes Boe we 1240. Bs [so |e [ser |t... Jom |r jamie je foment Efe) CII cnitit ~-snoouejeostyy . =< , PE je al OEE, | tn [Mn gel CEM SIGE GSES FA aie eee eet ye eet e ee care rete} ene 3904S AT a Oo 798° | + g prog ss appr 920 °620°T | 9 1¥9 ‘219 I 002 “621 I g peeerma Bigeir cr kee co ee ee ee s0101g 891 169% | 8% 000‘ost | T 696 (901 T | $I O9‘81L, | AT 000 ‘r I rat QRS Py iisissiaa sige As aonpoid pue ymiy 5 PIL OE 2 | ¥9 SéI QTE | 9 Gr9 180 6 | SP ScT SHES | SS 007 ‘F0FS II Sg CGp ees)a Bede eso e i sso SOT10OBI OSs PUB SOLIBUIBEID ya zest | 8 000 “osTs | T OOL ‘EFS ‘TS | L (7 3) al alfa me lc é sagen Ee eae RR AIR Bais oa S1OJVAITT PS sUBSTyOIL = | ate *surq10d ‘3utjI0d “sutj10d “Surj10d *3u1}.10d z “OAV ‘[ejOy | 81 1eq | “9UIMjOA |-1doq | ‘ouMjOA | -91Jeq | ‘“emMMjOA |-9110q | ‘oUMJOA | -01 J0q oral Ky “WN “Wn NT “WIny -UIN NT -TInN eee Satan fe eestor it past oie (Path acene laa Maree ab 8 I Nee B S16 PLO SI6I eI6l photon a 4 “drysioquiey + “MOTIEZTUBS.IO sseuisnq jo sumo A yo oda, 18 “‘panurjm0j—ssauisng fo spury pun saqnig) hq ‘Bburquodas suoynzrunb.o fo suaquau fo uaqunu pun ‘ssauisng fo auin}oa ‘uornzunb.o fo adh, — {J ATAV I, 19 COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS. 899 ‘oz | 992 e6z‘e | LE LIg‘g | ¥ €9F P To. | 9 a i 2ST ‘LT | S20 192‘¢ | OF eh % SCI z 687 9 e99, | 2 SIPS | & er1‘9 | 99 8ST “Tse 092 ‘600 °G PST OPT 996 ‘SLT “T OST ‘289 OOS*2T |" * "=" -*| 62a Fe OPI ‘I2T 000 ‘g 000 ‘8 SoS red |e ee gos ‘eo | |-7**" "| p6e ‘Ser. 000 “02% ‘T| 82 £66 ‘290 “0 000‘se9 | + Cre ‘968 ‘8 (4 Sena. lie ocala foe tos es a ltecege 000“ezp | 6T 696 ‘OPP “FT LOT‘$@E | °°" *" "| SST SOFT 000 “StL | 9 ¥99 “FOS “e Bene. | e...| OER o00‘or | Tt ___ _| 000‘6e pee ae te Cel ee 000 "Se. | ¢ 208 ‘SFP SG ero igt "| BOL ile 008 ‘6zt | 2 L9L ‘904% >“ snosuey] [east py Se ee Z “= ~s81039 pay AS ah ig a he ah ae are sonpoid pus ymM17 gi ar eee a Daan SOI10JOVJ OS9BYO PUZ SOLIOMIBAID :AQS10f MONT 252 2 RITES Te ORR ION Soe RS S$8110}08] 9s99T) PUB SelIOMIBOID sulysdurex] MONT Mayr oi Sie ie pcierae serene sorcsesoses os" OBB IDA Bo PS (CNN F eee) 00,210 1c) 9 (21919) 971 Soler corse ~"- =" s9110108] eseeyO PUB SeTIETAOID, TePCAONT 1210.L --§91019 sonpoid pus ym ~SOTJ0JOR] OSeeT[O PUB SaTeUreeID giS7RES etna CONUCI.N=) IC § SeYSeIGON Tost st ss §91099 “sonpoid pue qmiy [e101 “4004S BATT "77-27" "591099 mee "1109309 Se OS I (es tas aaa pe ‘ust |" """"| 809 ‘SIT. ee OTS ‘P2T hes | SLOSLPT &L OLE “EI | 29% ZST‘IIP‘OT| 99 860 ‘806 ‘9T | ST $20 ‘eat ‘02 | ZOE |: 668 “SLT ‘TT 08 ove |e 000‘eze | z o00‘0z9 | & 92111 apres aaeigune Aspe eee (1 Pecaaoagy F Capamnes| Saami eee cea See snooupaostpy . 6 9ST z 000‘sL | Z 882 ‘€1 I ; PEAR ESI Bs nn (RRO on Se A 9 oo a Dineen **+*-yo048 OATT : ae 61S l 000‘0F =| I @IT ‘98 P $80 ‘211 P= ors HOG SOS ell elma ede Giews sso NOT Gad S aes yeee esas Soi sgohe see erase eee | pe oF 86 | 02 00028 | & 59G ‘FES | «OT 120228 | OT | P PL 168 ‘LT | P&Z LS1‘$800T| 8¢ PEP ‘FOG ST | OZT G90 “919 “6T | SET a el ee ee eS SW OUOMOG EP Tee ‘est | “Sgeeteat = ee D 981 ¢20‘8 | 6S 002 ‘IF | 3 009 “6F0 ‘9 | gE GEL ‘G66 ‘F | OF Be so joer fee oot |r| oog‘re, et [setae et. ; a 000 ‘¢z2 if 000 ‘ezz, I T g fe OoF ‘oes | 6 “| p88‘60e | TT g T Oo 000 ‘0z9‘F | F 000 ‘222° | 9 T / Rpreeais Sa IO FOSS NOS OC a ie gore u01100 000 “PST 9 008 “601 L were tee] Oe 5 Sey rd gonpoid pue quit = 000 ‘02T i 000 °€Z T 000 ‘OOT T € T SOIIOJOVJ VseoyO PUB SOTIOUIGEID 7 A a ie ae | gee 4 te aes | 2BUT]OIBD YON ee ee Lee el cg F8 ‘SES $3 166 ‘62 L PES ‘086 ‘F [ej0, S ne wee q 000 ‘0ST | T Pee ue ne a g nd ‘g *SHOOTIB][OOSTIY Ay Geral PGs | Ome eS pete | eee F626 SP g 0 ‘2 $210} Saat OF9%e | 000 ‘00s ‘T] T PIO “692% | PT ZbR ‘FES ‘6 | ST BIG ‘oh |G gT 1 aaa] Nee ERR PERT Es Cen eN SEE: eonpoid pue md G. Gr 6LL°G | 2S 9F8‘Z8T | 2 Gog ‘Fe6‘T | LP 991 ‘6S0‘% | SP G19 ‘81g Or gg pr Sietae | aat ere ner STEEN S0110}0B] Bseeyo PUB SoLIOMIBA,) q TYIO A AON Qo ae | tt Ve le WO WUE fe awe le TPS ‘SZ, 5 822 IL 000 ‘O0T | T TSz ‘Cer i) L9P ‘ISP or (OG 809 8 ad Se age he “""! 00S ‘98% g 296 ‘ETP P BLS 2806 = | Qessesi gee" sion snooue][eost py OF OZT £ 000 ‘OOTS | T 193 ‘9EIS € 00g “23 Ged Capt Steet cree z dsonpoid pue yMi7 , TOOIXOPY AON vA —_—— ———————— ES eee ee | __ Ce ———— ay -a8v “3uqy10d “Burjaod Surjiod “SuryJ0d “surja0d a JOA [eo | P41 10q | ‘eumMjo, |~14eq | “ouUINJOA |-A1 Jeg | “oumMpOA | -1Jeq | “eUNJOA | -01 10q -=+snoette Nisin iei='-'= se 0 BEDE OSORIO a aah Pk 2 sen, SMO AMOR fS eee ee Mines ==--! ee leu, fo poernntnsa i ‘PURIST SpOy see 4 _| 000 ose ee Fag tue nae tees ae i: is crotrtttst eBer0Ay . oo Sabie aa: ee ae “"oost Hele ae) ae og Ee Emer ¢ G apie heh ee ee vey 5 < II 000‘T9 | ¢ eee lee 000 ‘98 | 7808008 : ao See iS ee es 782 ‘OST, |-""777"*| SOFFIT. : = ogo‘et | per =| ges ‘use‘s| 92 621 ‘ETS ‘ZT | Oo ger Zier | 6 ooo‘es |r | 118‘96p * a 19 Pst & Layette lint: (cae : bh Roe ali 000{02 | 1 000 ‘03 | «88 gus‘T | 12 968 ‘82 | 9 £99 ‘PIS Ss 86 6FL ‘IL | OZ | 000 ‘90z ‘8! 6I GSI ‘226 ‘TT H aa lige as i a 298 {08 x (39 z6s‘T | 82 $10 ‘909 | 2 OOT ‘869 5 eit 206 | 8 osc‘ez | € OOF “6ze a se : aisiasierel Giaiaaed Baseaiaaa a 8 cd a Pcp (amen a1 19 Is¢ | 6 ; 008 ‘262 - 1g “og. L ge6 ‘92g | 002 {21 P 9¢ 9g I oos‘ss | T 00g ‘S$ = =H Ww ‘o8e “sury10d “3ur410d Zi sory | 1820 | 4 40q | “ouNJOA | 21 Jaq | “ouNjOA a se “Un -WnN = , 3 SI6I FIGL aa) “dyqsieq ue yy en en a EEEEEEEEE=nEEEESEEE SEE Opec ~ [tp 886698 | OT Ooliye.g. | 6t0.... 000 ‘8 I 000 ‘Ts z 868 '286 | OT 000 ‘82 i Dvdsibtn cies |p 5a 988 “S98 ‘OT | SOT 919989 | 8 1808;0%0r 5 | Gee... LOT ‘909. | ST 9IT 896 | 08 OBA ODor » T4957" ** GG ‘06L ‘| ET he 818-8 ace 009‘ I MB 2) 2c “3uTq10d ‘eaInjOA | Al 10q “UN N S161 “ssoutsnq Jo oTIMjO A Fou‘ eee | eit ipa bieiaag 000% I ee lat eS) a a eb SS 0 sai asad aa z 000 ‘z I at g OUINJO A | -ad 10q oT6L Giese (4 ‘ 6&8 ‘S90 | ST 8g eat "Heed Tor etal a pec L POI ‘Th T g I { eee. Wevee-[erteesen[etetenes| 7 950‘00. | 8 LI 6 689 ‘FISTS | 6 63 SOT “suTqI0d -wnn [oayeie| “ted -doo -urt0d 9 | yo03g “MOT}CZTURSIO Jo ody, - ier nes titel gaa | pais cee [B10 ee ee | eae eee * $0101 -2==="'=1799907 Be ria a eos Oe ee ea ee aS -gonpoid pues yin S8t1090B] OSDYD PUB SOTIOUIvEL,) soassouuey, i weer “OSRIOAV ee ee ee ee ee eee WuSeterete fw STRONG $9.1039 By Ee SRS Ee * SCS eS Sees sonpoid pue aMig SO110J9Bj OS9OYO PUB SeriOUIBEID BPS bo So A tS ASL Sos SES ote aI Sete SIOVBAQTT Bae ee a peer ae ae nes gree te ea a oo0Rqo,L RE os 0}}0) FSS Te ee See oa ema eonpoid pur M17 SOT10JOB] OSsoyD PUL SOTIOUIVIAID “0781S ‘ponurywo9—ssawisng fo spury pun saqnig hq ‘burjsodas suoynzvunb.0 fo suaquaw fo aqunu pun ‘ssaursng fo auinjor “worn unbuo fo ad’ f-——T] AAV J, :BjoyB YInog reUT[OIBD TINS 25 COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS. eS ed 008 ‘Z8T sete eee 65S €2T ‘TE | Set 000 “828 ‘tT! OT 8 LIP c pee ee 8c6 Z6P ‘TT | OI 000‘S08 | 2 18 PLL ‘ST | SP SoS cage pene 96 S&T | SL 000%s2 | I 06 1026 | LP 000 ‘SFF ‘T} 2 ee 099 ‘ez eee eeeee 0% Sis ‘6 | SF 009‘98% | OT $1% sie‘s | Sz 0096 19 cP cP T ager gteisc ines =*i* <9 08 Z0F g 000‘0ST | T eg Sc g 000 “¢ T FOF 6g9‘E 16 000 ‘2¢ g TS 96% ¢ eee | ea eee ==] ggg seg lt 68 SI 000 ‘IIT OST OST I pe 7 669 LT 000‘TIT Sd a | aaa | hina ad PE DLE 6&T 0FL‘E | 22 000 “S6T 81 916 Loh LSP SLT SS ‘T 82 929 SP €61 cespereclertcesesiecbiocces| Sigiiy Zl 282 ‘FL | ZIT 00F ‘SOT SOT STL‘T | #1 002 ‘69 rane €14°9 | 09 000 ‘cr 00 Z19‘S | 8% 002 ‘12 SF LIZ g 00s ‘0g SOT cag ¢ eer ere 898 608, 162 ‘P69 “OT 000 ‘T9T 192 ‘908 ‘T TOL ‘281 ‘8 SPE ‘226 826 ‘120 ‘9 £28 ‘02 608 “¢9g 189 ‘1% 6ST £08 GOL “298 “T 008 ‘TFT 009 ‘g 68 ‘CEs 602 ‘99% 000 “STT 02g ‘Tk Gos ‘oss *F 188 ‘I6T Cor ‘919% O02 ‘612 626 ‘28% 000 ‘S16 +9 4 9§ &T 9 g as | ——--—-- — - fe - ff G6z ‘O6T Sans onal PHL LOSe, TF ‘288 ‘FT | 82 288 ‘ect F 000 ‘E9T g 000 ‘00z ge ‘099 9 ninleseeealuscenis PSL ‘9908 | 22 188 ‘seg ‘% 16 ‘982 Or 00S ‘FI TF GI@‘G | Ze 000 ‘00F ‘T 102 ‘S68 se ="=") 00S ‘FOL 009 ‘c86“G | ST 000 ‘222 ‘“F AU OA = ial |e ea lee? Whe lle. 2 Ue 000918‘ |Z 000 ‘S6t ‘F 00¢ “SOT i 000 ‘OT 868 ‘Sr sreseeos! ece OF GLP ‘889 GT OF6 ‘PYG GLP ‘389 oI 0F6 ‘69S | ez¢ ‘18 srr) 589 RT Z91 ‘cos ‘Tt | OT $06 ‘gg AUS SS | Gemener| ack eae 6er‘s00'T | 8 206 ‘s¢ £01, “62% c serscarenscs 000 ‘2 T 182 ‘611 | cele bi S88 ‘SSF 1%6 60‘ | 9F 000 ‘216 ‘% 688 ‘G22 =| Sz SAE ERE P| POT ‘78S ‘Z| FT 000 ‘009 ‘e £00 ‘281 2 000 ‘28 000 “Oz g 000 “422 G 4 a9 ““OSB10AW sd "78400; FESS CRESS Wel no gules RT “Snoeuey[eost py ies eee "-"""s9r039 eonpoid pue 4in1,7 ">= -S9T10JOB] OS9OYO PUB SOLIOUIBEID Saree eacicciaie cae arerialeam sane: 82.2 2 sie's = Sig.c ssivie.s SIOVEAOT A 210}. 3UIYSe A oP ae “OSB10AV ae TSS SS SCION Fy “>> =="SnoeUel [eos "777" "=" 990098 OATT “==> 7===="Q90BqOT, Pose ers" "891099 ~eonpoid pue 4ina7, “Toes assess ==S9T10JO8J OSeOYO PUB SoTIOULBEIO SBIUTSITA 34000110 A. BO Ia ee IC ta aaa "777" 98RI0AW $egecep oases Geanaor eo ne oo sDOSCnTe “*"""1BIOT, eters 2 a) 001-100) | 21319197 ss gsis sPstuneeh Gc FS CERER RINE C868 tot essssse == S9 109g oS PE ici SCPE eonpoid pue yma wt ootssrsssss5""*-=-s9TIOjOB] eSeoyD PUB SOLIOUIBOID nesses SR iS oe ee at ROI) icy Bsa) Poamattes bys pba ibe aitkisiomie) = Cevcmsac cs ots “R10L, Seo ere soe ---"snoeue][oost yy Se eae ei === ="===1109100 se Gere ---gonpoid pue ying Trornsttsstsssss95 =" sarIo1oey ESeoYO PUB SOTLOUIBEIC, a eee a eer eS ae tee ear “"SIOJCAOTH ISCXOg, al 3: ome |e app |. 0s | aamaca) 180 Se cea 27 el i (ee <1 0) ene (Seed ee WF ete | Sale tae ee epee wrtencces ss *@3BIBAW pee onal gis OLD eare E 136 992 °8) 9LT C60 °S0T 9F | £96 SST ‘TOL “6S | Z8T‘T | 60L‘29F ZT | BLE iad ee aide i gp ae Shige WR re aT TP at ee “-""Te1OT, : : é ; ees 3 i —SOT10}9B} OSaeTD PUB SOLIOMIVEID - oberg 01 | y shee 09F SEG |g s LOE SPT eee S66 SET oo eect T16 6ST 2, aah | 22 eee eat | Sister ae ich ee Spek nig henge rae hie ea gh fm ny eSVIOAY 4 aes S19 GFT) TAFT | TE8°Z8T‘9e) O8T O&F “G99 ‘ZET] E16 12 “E99 ‘O8T] 096 FOL FTF ‘Gh | $82 96F WAU) Wn Pare See toate SRS siconeesrnspe coerce frets [810.,, . : —SIOJVAOT & 2 | $0919 pou P Fea Sages ora Ba FE Belge) a ge ee fmmmmnnen| mene igg em fapens foeeeeneccnsesseesecencon ee = Emo yi 9 areas aenannetgy jl eeaiaerane)|| i 0) | RIED: | SR Ge AYE a Re TE a Ste Seria | 1®30.L 5 | etme! caesar easel | ee creer ravenna [Seta 5 iy a c Bo «al eee 062 ‘82 z Bea + Sel cepa |Cene me ee Sea (eee t RES obese SER UDINESE ASS **SnosUel[oosIpy Bis TR ee we[onenetterces|eteeeeee[ereeeeeececs[eceeeeseleeeeeeeeeces|ereeeeee] T Sree nd eee eeee a eee wore sotesee=9 93100] QAT Q g¢ 8¢ iE kaa Seip || pate ie 000 ‘OF I pea eae etl | ae rane i a eet ct ee | > = arene Grae SIC ee SS 3S ee ee ns Sgone Fogg OL 4 000‘09T | T BIE ‘9ST z 000 ‘8T I Soka bapa schcate ~5h F Bo cpa ancinsinnn tans SdTIOJOVI OSaay]d PUL SOLIEMIvAID, o OL -| 6¢¢ (eae | Bet nie | ecetas “| 00S “G0E g 000 ‘OFF z "ap eaiiceew sel iar paren. |) Tes |e ee ee ene “"*"SIOIBASTAL :BuraI0A ca wee eee waleeene al 1 oo ee as \eunuseees ¢ sete eee [7 es es ee ees ee ee es S9T ¢8 868 6F 829 “9F €12 1S a SoS ip ein ee pee ck, picts a one See aba ae nig’ OSBIDAY . 68 T6r ‘Te | Soe 126 “EO ‘Z| ¥% FOL ‘S92 ‘OT | STZ ec “ges ZT | 92% 112 ‘StTF | 16 L0G (il iates «|| ER ESR oot GSS eet Sa NTC Eo, [8301 e 7 FBI 094'% | ST o00%0g | z Zsa ‘FOr | ET ove ‘oz 61 8 ooo‘zor «=| ¢ 8 G2 [patent Gees 2 SNOoTeTPPOSTHY f 9st €60'T | 2 000%0¢ | I FOP “PLZ g 89% ‘OIL achabatatael (eee ai See ieee “19 | earetetl ee Sav aoa ine RES Hoey aa * 9004S ATT / Ss OFT T8 ae XG 000 OIT | & TOT 10S €T GEE 69 LT 009 ‘06 G 4 Dar ileal oe) SE Ak a a eee “= se1019 4 &8 908 T | & Seatac S6T 228 91 806 ‘$82 Hilt ea Ste - aeaa | Page ar Glide eal | a ekg eta gatr Se fy Sy Grek onary Te eonpoid pus 4IMiy ra em oe eI rid ON pe T gi any a & per Ter ‘CST ‘OL 91S 119 ‘G68 ‘es | 18 TAT ET eetee a ieee, tea ae SOT0JOB] OSaOl]D PUB SAOMIBOID ~ = : 0 ‘9G0 ‘T FOT ‘SPL as rea Seals igippegic tail | <2) Sy bees geaateaRe te Rr OR SO eo S10} BAOT HT z= SUISMOOST AA & oS OE OES EEE ES Eee EES OSS EES Eee OS SSS =) eagemet a Coney Se ea OSG “FT ae here £88 8 ies “-| 000 6 RO CES f saa och tas al |S aa SOE Pa |e | aac te ee at oe aa OSBI0AY - OFT oro t | It 000 2¢ ¥ 000 “SZ. € 000 ‘6 I Peso ger trate "3 [Bib Semaine HCG) {se tarp || Seats CS ai eae name sere en ar pina ruta Ss Sra eae TeIO.L mM ee Te ieee ee IE rite Ee Ie le ra more | a eee | | ae | OLT e20'T | 9 00046 18 000 “ses g 000 “6s | Serato sees puss sisal gh =. 7. |Racogdais Racrisin ys asinine nies tsasincasiss “SNOOUBT[OOSTFY SAI MRE 1a ea a0 coe al Se ana aa ace eer mipete ec Nts | ane | Oper ee pe ater aaa aN eta ec “01038 £6 OLE ¥ T eonpoid pue qin = SBIULBITA 9S9,44 yy base “suTj10d “Sury10d “3ury10d “Burq10d *sur410d a eroay | TIL | 1 10q | oumyo, | -orJeq | “eUINJOA | ~1Jeq | “oUMJOA | -~O1 seq | “oCUMJOA | C1 Joq cued H ~WIn NY “WON -TInN “Un NT “WINN "OAT R10 Shoo = E -doog 009g 5 GIGI FIGL eI6r Fay "2184S a “drysieq mre oe “sseuysnq Jo ounjo A panies we 24 ‘ponurynoj—ssauisng fo spury pun sajnqg fq ‘Buruodas suoynzruvb.io fo suaquaw fo saqunu pun ‘ssousng fo aunjor ‘wornzunvbio fo adh —* [J AAV I, CHaRT 5. Bul. 547, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "NOILVZINVDYO JO SSV19D HOV YOs SYSEW3|] JO YSEWNN JOVYESAV - “SGNOILYZINVIYQ 77h “"“SNOINVITIISWY es GHYOLIVY ISIIHT ONY S3IHIWVIYT cubes) Galledeclellibe be | | ele da Rg ~~" “SYOLVAFTTFZ CHART 6. Bul. 547, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ooovg) ooob+! oo0o002! "SSV1D Ad NOILVZINVDYO Yad SSANISNG BDVUSsAY 1ZOvSII¢ | ““SNOILVZINVDYG 771 fsg6203 | SNOINVY 17FI9SIV Ros ISIFNT ONY SIIPINYIYT [cpa ai ae aaa SFIYOLS 2 Lae a ae YIOLSAA!7) SYOLVAITZ O22"E0, B----JINGONG ONY LINnKy SS i aS Oe SSS See EEE . NOLLOFD oooba! oooDeg ooo09 oooDvYy oooo02 a CHART 7. Bul. 547, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. "NOILVZINVDYO JO SSV1D HOV YOs YSEWA|] Yad SSANISNG SJDVYSAY “SNGILYZINVIYQ Ty a Ex 6l ae SNOINVT1ZISIN Win wee eA LG, cian 5/0 )o)'7=/5)) SFIIYOLIVY ISIFHD lL ONY Sa/IYINvIYD woo HTIOLE FAST Peocie) | 2I9NGOUY ONY LINH oog! oo! god! ago! 2525 - -GHOIVAITZ pi Sena ty een OLA SD, CHART 8. Bul. 547, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘SASSV1D Ad SNOILVZINVOYO 11V JO SSANISNG JO SAWNIOA te eee ie ete cae | OZ COLO misma ays Mi OJIYvEgoL eee CESCSVE ss MIOLSFIAIT ——} G2LAGSVl eo S2FYOLG ee as GS'2e2GCY Cumnerte sant carom NOLLOTF ee ero ee Reo eee Se aos ee ee 91Z62S7E2$ SY OLVAITZ mimmeess col me et te ete ooobodos2 ooocbo0s2z oooboooo2 oooboos 21 oocoocos! oo0000621 oooboobo! ooooo0kz ooooo00s ooobo0t2 $ 999912847 ~"--" SNOINY T7FISIW . [SI/¥OLIVY ISIINT evavacte { 25 COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS. Got 960 ‘296] ¢89 F Te. L61 FIT] FOF OFT 488 ‘IT | $8 oee Br. OL: | Be 023 , SIL ‘TS | 8G 9 B $89 ‘ZI | SPI iva 908 ‘96 | SLZ TLE‘ 168°cr | PSs 686 ‘8 PSP ‘OF 902 ‘LF *Z 00F ‘8g 000F8S | OL 000 ‘OST 000008 | @ ogg ‘OF Tos ‘egs “1 G16 ‘2 OSS ‘EFL | ST G82 ‘TIT G98 “PSF “9| 8S 182 ‘S6 912 ‘OFT ‘FL2| 118% QgT {Cg Lsy L¥e ‘82 | 962 £88 “64 092 ‘FI6 ‘E SEF ‘TST Tor F80‘S | 21 BLL ‘99 GIL ‘TTS “6 G20 ‘L0T TIS ‘980 “LT | 207 616 ‘00T 068 FL ‘SE | P88 67 POT 66F ‘CET S18 ‘E19 ‘OTF! 660‘S 09068 899 ‘O84 ‘12 | FFE 929 ‘60T 685 ‘828 “F 896 “TFT Oar ‘eggs | ST 90F ‘eg "TL ‘86 “¢ ZIT ‘T6T PPS ‘160 ‘ST | 62 #66 ‘EST 188 ‘TZz ‘02 | 9SF tP Tit 009 ‘ser £10 ‘STS “E21 SPE ZIT, BIL “2e9 °¢ 99 “6ST. ; 150 “Gee °% 000 ‘zz 000 ‘2 892 FF £60 “E92 “T 000 ‘ST 000 ‘ST 106 ‘88 164 “FLT “TS ay ee Se as OLS SA ue Rs OS RTO NB DUBID 688 TIL % OIF Gee |e eats ee hee ee ee sae | COLORED UBL) —snoosury[eostyy ge eee SR et a ge es Coe Gor OER GFL eyiN ip IM settee eee eeeceeceeeeeeeeeeeeeeeseeeses ss orRIOg, —y00)8 oary rd PPS SMS Oe SR OSES en eae — COLORADO (NONSTOCK). Scope and purpose: Production, preserving, drying, canning, shipping, or market- ing of agricultural, viticultural, horticultural, dairy, or apiarian products. Number who may organize: Three or more. Filing of articles of incorporation: With secretary of state and recorder of deeds in county in which the principal place of business is located. Filing fee: $15 to secretary of state. Filing of amendments: With secretary of state and with clerk of county. Capital stock: Nonstock. Transfer of memberships: May be transferred with the consent of the board of directors. Voting: Each member one vote. Voting by mail and by proxy: No proxy voting. By-laws may provide ior vote by mail. Dissolution: Upon written request of two-thirds of the members. COLORADO (CAPITAL STOCK). Scope and purpose: Any lawful business. Number who may organize: 10 or more. Filing of articles of incorporation: With secretary of state. Filing fee: Same as for general corporations. ~ Stock ownership: May be limited by by-laws. Distribution of earnings: According to by-laws. CONNECTICUT. Scope and purpose: Purpose of trade, or any lawful mercantile, mechanical, manu- facturing, or agricultural business. Number who may organize: Seven or more. Filing of articles of incorporation: With town clerk in town in which business is conducted. Management: President, treasurer, and board of not less than five directors. Capital stock: Not to exceed $50,000. Issuance of stock: When paid for in full. Stock ownership: Limited to $1,000. Purchasing of business of other associations: Two or more associations formed under this act may consolidate. Voting: Each member one vote. Distribution of earnings: According to by-laws, provided that 10 per cent of net profits will be appropriated for contingent fund until this fund equals 20 per cent of capital stock. Dissolution: Upon written request of two-thirds of the members. Annual reports: To be made to the secretary of state. FLORIDA. Scope and purpose: Production, preserving, drying, packing, shipping, or mar- keting of horticultural and agricultural products. Number who may organize: Three or more. Filing of articles of incorporation: Same as for other corporations. Management: Not less than three directors. Capital stock: Nonstock. Transfer of memberships: By permission of the board of directors. Voting: As provided in the articles of incorporation. Proxy voting: May be provided in by-laws. Dissolution: Upon written request of two-thirds of votes. COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS. 69 ILLINOIS. Scope and purpose: General mercantile, manufacturing, or producing business, Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of articles of incorporation: With secretary of state. Filing of amendment: With secretary of state and recorder of deeds in county in which principal place of business is located. Management: Not less than five directors. Officers shall be president, vice presi- dert, secretary, and treasurer. The last two may be combined. - Capital stock: Shares not less than $5 or more than $100 in value. _ Stock ownership: Limited to five shares. Transfer of stock: By-laws may provide that corporations shall have first right to purchase any stock for sale. _Purchasing business of other associations: By a two-thirds vote of at least two- thirds of the members, the corporation may invest its surplus to the extent of 25 per cent of its paid-up capital in the capital stock of other cooperative associations; the board of directors may invest not to exceed 10 per cent of the paid-up capital in the same manner. Voting by mail and proxy: Vote by mail to count if voter has been notified in writing and copy of question is attached to vote. Written proxies are permitted. Distribution of earnings: According to by-laws. Annual reports: Made to secretary of state before March 1. Provisions for existing organizations: May come under this act by filing sworn statement that members have so decided by at least two-thirds majority. Use of word ‘‘cooperative”: No corporation formed after passage of act permitted to use the name ‘‘cooperative” unless complying with this act. INDIANA. Scope and purpose: Any lawful business. Number who may organize: Twenty-five or more. Filing of articles of incorporation: With secretary of state. Filing fee: Same as for other corporations. Stock ownership: May be limited by by-laws. Transfer of stock: May be regulated by by-laws. Distribution of earnings: According to by-laws. Provisions for existing organizations: May come under act by filing declaration with secretary of state. IOWA. Scope and purpose: Agricultural, dairy, mercantile, manufacturing, or mechanical business. Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of articles of incorporation and amendments: With secretary of state and the recorder of deeds of the county in which the principal place of business is located. Filing fee: Ten dollars to secretary of state for filing articles, and $5 for amend- ments, provided that if capital stock is less than $500 the fee shall be $1. Recorder of deeds to receive the usual recording fee. Management: Not less than five directors. Officers shall be president, one or more vice presidents, secretary, and treasurer. The last two may be combined. Issuance of stock: When paid for in full. Stock ownership: Not to exceed $1,000. Purchasing of business of other associations: By a majority vote may invest not to exceed 25 per cent of its capital. Voting: Kach member one voie. 70 BULLETIN 547, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Voting by mail: Vote by mail to count if member has been notified in writing and copy of question is attached to vote. Distribution of earnings: Subject to revision by associations, not to exceed 10 per cent dividend on stock, not less than 10 per cent of net profits until 50 per cent of paid- up capital is accumulated for a reserve fund, 5 per cent of net profits for an qducaniqnal fund, patronage dividends to members and employes. Dissolution: If no dividends are paid for five consecutive years, five members may petition district court. Annual reports: To secretary of state before March 1. Provisions for existing organizations: Filing sworn statement with secretary of state that this has been decided by a majority vote. Use of word ‘‘cooperative:” No corporation formed after passage of this act shall use the name ‘‘cooperative” unless this act is complied with. KANSAS. Scope and purpose: Any agricultural, mercantile, dairy, mining, manufacturing, or mechanical business. Number who may organize: 20 or more. Filing of articles of incorporation: With secretary of state. Management: Not less than five directors. Officers shall be president, one or more vice presidents, secretary, and treasurer. The last two may be combined. Stock ownership: Not over 10 per cent of capital stock. Voting: Each member one vote. Distribution of earnings: According to by-laws. Annual reports: Made to secretary of state. Provisions for existing organizations: Filing sworn statement showing that associa- tion has decided by majority vote to come under this act and paying fees. Use of word ‘‘cooperative”: Organizations must not use title “‘cooperative” unless act is complied with. MASSACHUSETTS. Scope and purpose: Any agricultural, dairy, or mercantile business. Number who may organize: Seven or more. Japital stock: Not to exceed $10,000. Stock ownership: Not to exceed $400. Investing reserve: May invest surplus in buildings of association or lend to mem- bers on real estate mortgages. Voting: Each member one vote. Distribution of earnings: Capital stock dividends not to exceed 5 per cent; not less than 10 per cent of net profits for reserve fund until at least 30 per cent of paid-up capital is accumulated; not to exceed 5 per cent of net profits for an educational fund; patronage dividends paid to stockholders and may be credited to nonstockholders as payment on share of stock at one-half the rate to stockholders. Provisions for existing organizations: By filing sworn statement thet association has by a majority vote decided to come under this act and paying fee of $1. MICHIGAN (NONSTOCK). Scope and purpose: Any lawful purpose other than pecuniary profit. Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of articles of association: With secretary of state and the clerk of the county in which principal business is conducted. Capital stock: Nonstock. Provisions for existing organizations: Any corporation not for pecuniary profit may reincorporate under this act. COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS. 17] 8 MICHIGAN (CAPITAL STOCK). Scope and purpose: Merchandise, agricultural, or manufacturing business. Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of articles of incorporation and amendments: With secretary of state and clerk of county in which principal place of business is located. Filing fee: Same as other corporations. Management: Not less than five directors. Officers shall be president, vice presi- dent, secretary, and treasurer. The last two may be combined. Issuance of stock: When paid for in full. Stock ownership: Not over $1,000. Voting: Each member one vote. Voting by mail: Vote by mail to count if voter has been notified in writing and copy of question is attached to vote. Distribution of earnings: Subject to revision by the association, 6 per cent stock dividends, 10 per cent of net profits for reserve fund until 30 per cent of paid-up capital _isaccumulated, patronage dividends may be paid to nonmembers at one-half the rate to members. Annual reports: Made to secretary of state. Provisions for existing organizations: May come under act by complying with its provision and filing sworn statement with secretary of state. MINNESOTA. Scope and purpose: Any lawful mercantile, manufacturing, or agricultural business. Viling of articles of incorporation: With register of deeds of the county in which the principal place of business is located. Management: President, treasurer, and not less than three directors. Capital stock: Not to exceed $100,000. For creameries not to exceed $25,000. Issuance of stock: When paid for in full. Stock ownership: Not over $1,000. Voting: Each member one vote. Distribution of earnings: According to by-laws. Dissolution: If no dividends are paid for five consecutive years five or more mem- bers may apply to district court. Annual report: Creameries report to dairy and food department. MONTANA. Scope and purpose: Trade or any branch of industry, purchase or distribution of commodities for consumption, borrowing or lending money. Number who may organize: Not less than three nor more than seven incorporators. Filing of articles of incorporation: Secretary of state. Filing fee: $5. Capital stock: Shares not less than $10 or more than $5,000 each. Stock ownership: One share each. Voting: Each member one vote. NEBRASKA. Scope and purpose: Any lawful business. Number who may organize: Not less than 25. Filing of articles of incorporation: With secretary of state. Filing fee: Same as for other corporations. Stock ownership: According to by-laws. Transfer of stock: According to by-laws. Distribution of earnings: According to by-laws. Provision for existing organizations: May come under act by filing sworn state- ment with secretary of state. 72 BULLETIN 547, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ~~ ¢ NEVADA. Scope and purpose: Any lawful business. Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of articles of incorporation: With secretary of state and clerk of county in which principal place of business is located. Management: According to by-laws. Capital stock: Nonstock. Transfer of memberships: Memberships may be transfered by permission of the board of directors. Voting: Each member one vote. Voting by mail may be provided for in by-laws. Distribution of earnings: According to by-laws. — Dissolution: By written request of two-thirds of the members. NEW JERSEY... Scope and purpose: Any lawful mechanical, mining, manufacturing, or trading business. Number who may organize: Seven or more. Filing of articles of association: Approved by chief of bureau of statistics of labor and industries. Filed with clerk of county in which principal place of business is located. Management: Not less than five directors. Officers shall be president, treasurer, and secretary. Capital stock: Share value not to exceed $50. Issuance of stock: When paid for in full. Transfer of stock: According to by-laws. Purchasing of business of other associations: May have interest in apeace society to the extent of one-third of its paid-up capital. Voting: Each member one vote. Distribution of earnings: According to by-laws. Dissolution: Same as any other corporation. Annual reports: Made to clerk of county and chief of bureau of statistics of labor and industries. NEW MEXICO. Scope and purpose: Production, preserving, drying, packing, shipping, or marketing of agricultural, viticultural, or horticultural products. Number who may organize: Three or more. Filing of articles of incorporation: As provided by State law. Management: According to by-laws. Capital stock: Nonstock. Transfer of memberships: Not to be transferred without consent of board of directors. Purchasing of business of other associations: Associations formed under this act may consolidate upon two-thirds vote of msmbers. Two or more associations may make use of the same agencies. Voting: According to articles of incorporation. Voting by mail: According to by-laws. Dissolution: Upon request of members representing two-thirds of total vote. NEW YORK. Scope and purpose: General producing, manufacturing, and merchandising busi- ness. Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of articles of incorporation: Same as provided for other corporations. Management: Not less than five directors. Officers shall be president, one or more vice presidents, secretary, and treasurer. The last two may be combined. a COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS. 73 Capital stock: Shares of $5 each. Issuance of stock: When paid for in full. Stock ownership: Not over $5,000. Transfer of stock: By written consent of corporation. Purchasing of business of other associations: Not to exceed 25 per cent of its capital. Voting: Each member one vote. Voting by mail: Permitted if member has been notified of question and a copy is attached to vote. Distribution of earnings: Stock dividends not to exceed 6 per cent, not less than 10 per cent of net earnings for reserve fund until 30 per cent of paid-up capital is accumulated, 5 per cent of net earnings for an educational fund, patronage dividends to members and employees and at one-half rate to nonmembers. Dissolution: If no dividends are paid for five consecutive years, five or more members may petition supreme court of county. Annual reports: Made to secretary of state. Provision for existing preamizrtons Filing sworn statement with secretary of state. Use of word ‘‘cooperative”’: Not to be used in name of any corporation formed after passage of this act unless act fs complied with. NORTH CAROLINA. Scope and purpose: Any agricultural, dairy, mercantile, mining, manufacturing, or mechanical business. Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of articles ot incorporation and amendments: With secretary of state and clerk oI superior court in county in which principal place oz business is located. _Filing fee: $10 and fee allowed by law to secretary of state, $2 when capital stock is less than $1,000. Fifty cents to clerk of court. For filing amendments, $5, or $2 if capital stock is less than $1,000. Management: Not less than five directors. Officers shall be president, one or more vice presidents, secretary, and treasurer. The last two may be combined. - Stock ownership: Limited to 20 per cent of paid-up capital stock. Transfer of stock: According to by-laws. Voting: Each member one vote. Voting by mail and proxy: Vote by mail to count if accompanied by a copy of the question. Proxies must be in writing. Distribution of earnings: Subject to revision by association, stock dividends not to exceed 6 per cent, not less than 10 per cent of net profits to reserve fund until 30 per cent of paid-up capital is accumulated, not less than 2 per cent of net profits for an educational fund, patronage dividends to members and employees and to nonmembers at one-half rate. Annual report: Made to secretary of state and division of markets and rural organ- ization. Provision for existing organizations: Filing sworn statement with secretary of state. Use of word ‘‘cooperative’’: Not to be used in name of any organization hereafter fcrmed unless this act is complied with. NORTH DAKOTA. Scope and purpose: Any lawful mercantile, manufacturing, agricultural, or indus- trial business. te Filing of articles of incorporation: With secretary of state. Filing fee: $10 Management: President, secretary, treasurer, and not less than three directors. Capital stock: Not to feel $50,000. Issuance of stock: When paid tor in full. 74 BULLETIN 547, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, ° Stock ownership: Not over $1,000. Voting: Each member one vote. Distribution of earnings: According to by-laws. Dissolution: If no dividends are paid in five years, five or more MS Be may petition. Annual reports: Creameries report to dairy commissioner. OHIO. Scope and purpose: Trade associations. Distribution of earnings: According to by-laws. OREGON. Scope and purpose: Any lawful business. Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of articles of incorporation and amendments: With secretary of state, clerk of county, and Oregon Agricultural College. - Filing fee: $10 to secretary of state, 25 cents per 100 words to clerk of county. For amendments, $5 to secretary of state and 25 cents.per 100 words to clerk. - Management: President and four other directors. Issuance of stock: When paid for in full. Stock ownership: Not over one-fifth. Purchasing of business of other associations: Not to exceed 20 per cent of i capital and reserve fund. Voting: Each member one vote. Voting by mail and proxy: May vote by mail. No proxy. Distribution of earnings: Stock dividends not to exceed 6 per cent, not less than 5 or more than 25 per cent of net earnings for reserve fund, patronage dividends to non- | members one-half the rate to members. Dissolution: By written request of two-thirds of its members. Annual reports: Made to secretary of state and Oregon Agricultural College. Provisions for existing organizations: By filing sworn statement with the secretary of state. Use of word ‘‘cooperative”: Not to be used unless this act is complied with. PENNSYLVANIA. Scope and purpose: Productive or distributive business. Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of articles of incorporation and amendments: With secretary of state and recorder of deeds of county in which principal place of business is located. Filing fees: 10 cents for each 100 words to secretary of state and recorder of deeds. Capital stock: Shares $5 to $25. Stock ownership: $1,000. May be increased by vote of members. Purchasing of business of other associations: By majority vote of members. Voting: Each member one vote. Voting by proxy: No proxy voting. Distribution of earnings: Stock dividends 5 or 6 per cent (see law), not less than 24 per cent of net profits for educational fund, patronage dividends to members and employees and to nonmembers at one-half rate. Dissolution: By majority vote of the members. teports: Monthly reports to be posted in principal office. Provision for existing organizations: May come under act by a majority vote. COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS. 15 SOUTH CAROLINA. Scope and purpose: Agricultural, dairy, mercantile, mining, mechanical, or manu- facturing business. Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of articles of incorporation: With secretary of state. Management: Not less than five nor more than nine directors. Officers shall be president, secretary, and treasurer. Last two may be combined. Capital stock: Not less than $100. Stock ownership: Not over one-fifth. Purchasing of business of other associations: By a majority vote, reserve may be’ invested in capital stock of other associations not to exceed 25 per cent of its capital. Voting: Each member one vote. Distribution of earnings: May be revised by association, stock dividends not to exceed 6 per cent, not less than 10 per cent of net profits to reserve fund until at least 30 per cent of paid-up capital stock is accumulated, 5 per cent of net profits to educa- cational fund, patronage dividends to shareholders, employees, and nonmembers at one-half the rate and may be credited on share of stock. Annual reports: To commissioner of agriculture. Provisions for existing organizations: Filing sworn statement with secretary of state. Use of word ‘‘cooperative”: Not to be used as part of name by any organization formed after passage of act unless act is complied with. SOUTH DAKOTA. Scope and purpose: Any agricultural, dairy, mercantile, mining, manufacturing, or mechanical business. Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of amendments: With secretary of state. Management: Not less than five directors. Officers shall be president, one or more vice presidents, secretary, and treasurer. The last two may be combined. Stock ownership: Not more than $1,000. Purchasing of business of other associations: By a majority vote, not to exceed 25 per cent of its capital Voting: Each member one vote. Voting by mail: Permitted if vote is accompanied by a written copy of the question. Distribution of earnings: May be revised by association, dividends on capital stock not to exceed 10 per cent, not less than 10 per cent of net profits to reserve fund until 30 per cent of paid-up capital is accumulated, not to exceed 5 per cent of net profits for educational fund, patronage dividend to shareholders. Provisions for existing organizations: Filing sworn statement with secretary of state. TENNESSEE. Scope and purpose: Buying and selling any agricultural products and dealing in merchandise. Number who may organize: Seven or more. VIRGINIA. Scope and purpose: Any agricultural, dairy, mercantile, manufacturing, or mechan- ical business. Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of articles of incorporation: With judge of circuit court, State corporation commissioner, secretary of the commonwealth, and clerk of circuit or chancery court. Filing fee: To secretary of commonwealth and clerk of court. Management: Not less than three directors. Officers shall be president, one or more vice presidents, secretary, and treasurer. The last two may be combined. 76 BULLETIN 547, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. — Stock ownership: Not to exceed $1,000. Purchasing of business of other organizations: By majority vote, not to exceed 25 per cent of its capital. Voting: Each member one vote. Voting by mail: Permitted if vote is accompanied by a copy of the question. © Distribution of earnings: May be revised by association, stock dividends not to exceed 6 per cent, not less than 10 per cent of net profits to reserve until 30 per cent of paid-up capital stock is accumulated, 5 per cent of net profits for educational fund, patronage dividends to shareholders and employees and to nonshareholders at one- half rate. Dissolution: If no stock dividends are paid for three successive years, five or more may apply to circuit court. ’ Use of word ‘“‘cooperative”: Not to be used as part of name by any organization formed after the passage of this act unless it complies with act. WASHINGTON (NONSTOCK). Scope and purpose: Any lawful purpose except carrying on of a busniess, trade avocation, or profession for profit. Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of articles of incorporation: With secretary of state and county auditor of county in which principal place of business is located. ‘ Filing fee: Same as for stock corporations. Management: According to by-laws. Capital stock: Nonstock. Voting: All members have equal power. Dissolution: Upon written request of two-thirds of the members. Provisions for existing organizations: So deciding by a majority vote and filing state- ment with secretary of state and county auditor. WASHINGTON (CAPITAL STOCK). Scope and purpose: Any lawful business. Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of articles of incorporation and amendments: With secretary of state and county auditor of county in which principal place of business is located. Filing fee: $25 to secretary of state and 15 cents per 100 words to auditor. For amendments, $10 to secretary of state and 15 cents per 100 words to auditor. Management: Not less than three directors. Officers shall be president, one or more vice presidents, secretary, and treasurer. Issuance of stock: When paid for in full. Stock ownership: Not more than one-fifth of stock. Purchasing of business of other associations: By a majority vote of a majority of the stockholders. Voting: Each member one vote. Voting by mail: Permitted if accompanied by a written copy of the question. Distribution of earnings: Capital stock dividends not to exceed 8 per cent, 10 to 25 per cent of remainder of net profits to reserve fund, patronage dividends to members, to nonmembers at one-half the rate to members. Annual report: To secretary of state. Provisions for existing organizations: Filing sworn statement with secretary of state. Use of word “‘cooperative”: Not to be used as part of name by any corporation not complying with this act. COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS. ist WISCONSIN. Scope and purpose: Any agricultural, dairy, mercantile, mining, manufacturing, or mechanical business. Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of articles of incorporation and amendments: With secretary of state and the register of deeds of the county in which the principal place of business is located. Filing fee: $10 to secretary of state and 25 cents to register of deeds. For amend- ments, $5 to secretary of state. Management: Not less than five directors. Officers shall be president, one or more vice presidents, secretary,-and treasurer. The last two may be combined. Stock ownership: Not more than $1,000. Purchasing of business of other associations: By a majority vote, not to exceed 25 per cent of capital may be thus invested. . Voting: Each member one vote. Voting by mail: Permitted if copy of question accompanies vote. Distribution of earnings: Stock dividends not to exceed 6 per cent of net earnings to reserve fund until 30 per cent of paid-up capital stock is accumulated, 5 per cent of net profits to educational fund, patronage dividends to stockholders and employed: and. to-nonstockholders at one- “half rate. Dissolution: If no profits are paid for five or more years, five or more stockholders may apply to circuit court. Annual reports: To secretary of state. Provisions for existing organizations: Filing sworn statement with secretary of state. Use of word ‘“‘cooperative”: Not to be used as part of name by any corporation organized after passage of this act unless it complies with act. WYOMING. Scope and purpose: Agricultural, dairy, live stock, irrigation, horticultural, mer- cantile, manufacturing, or industrial business. Number who may organize: Five or more. Filing of articles of incorporation and amendments: With secretary of state and clerk of counties in which business is carried on. Filing fee: Same as for general corporations. Management: Not less than three directors. _ Issuance of stock: When paid for in full. Stock ownership: Not more than $1,000 or one-third of outstanding stock. Voting: Each member one vote. Voting by mail or proxy: Not permitted unless provided in by-laws. Distribution of earnings: May be revised by stockholders, not to exceed 8 per cent capital stock dividends, not less than 10 per cent of net earnings to reserve fund until 30 per cent of paid-up capital stock is accumulated, patronage dividends to non- members may be provided in by-laws. Annual reports: Statement to be kept on file with the secretary of the association. Use of the word ‘‘cooperative”’: Not to be used as part of the name unless this act is complied with. THE CLAYTON AMENDMENT TO wer UNITED STATES ANTITRUST LAWS. In preparing State laws authorizing cooperative organizations, consideration should be given.to the United States antitrust laws, especially the amendment thereto commonly known as the Clayton amendment, which was passed by the Sixty-third Congress. Section 78 BULLETIN 547, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 6 of this amendment has an important bearmg on farmers’ organiza- tions because it exempts from the operation of the United States antitrust laws certain types of agricultural and horticultural organi- zations. Section 6 reads as follows: That the labor of a human being is not a commodity or article of commerce. Nothing contained in the antitrust laws shall be construed to forbid the existence and operation of labor, agricultural, or horticultural organizations, instituted for the pur- poses of mutual help, and not having capital stock or conducted for profit, or to forbid or restrain individual members of such organizations from lawfully carrying out the legitimate objects thereof; nor shall such organizations, or the members thereof, be held or construed to be illegal combinations or conspiracies in restraint of trade, under the antitrust laws. It is important that State laws authorizing cooperative corpora- tions should be so framed or amended as to confer ample authority upon such organizations to comply with the provisions of the Federal statute. Investigation shows that many farmers’ organizations operate on the capital stock plan because the laws of the State under which they exist require capital stock, although a majority of them choose the capital stock plan because it is thought that such a plan is best adapted to securing the necessary capital for financing them. The legal difficulties under existing State laws for noncapital stock organizations should be eliminated as their presence influences the creation of capital stock organizations which as a matter of law can never possess the benefits and privileges conferred by section 6. The sentiment in the public mind that capital stock is essential for the procurement of necessary capital, while widespread, is not well founded, as is’demonstrated by the success and great borrowing capacity of various noncapital stock cooperative organizations im existence in the United States at the present time. SELECTED LIST OF PUBLICATIONS ON COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING. Adams, E. F. Cooperation among farmers. The Forum, vol. 20, p. 364-376. No- vember, 1895. Agricultural cooperation and organisation in the United States. International insti- tute of agriculture. Bulletin of the Bureau of economic and social intelligence, ist year, no. 1, p. 211-238. September, 1910. Aiken, D. W. The Grange: its origin, progress and educational purposes. U. S. Department of agriculture. Special report 55. 1883. Alvord, H. E. Dairy development in the United States. U.S. Department of agriculture. Yearbook, 1899. American academy of political and social science. The cost of living. Jts Annals, vol. 48, Whole no. 137. 1913. American academy of political and social science. Reducing the cost of food distri- bution. Jts Annals, vol. 50, whole no. 139. 1913. a | COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS. 79 American commission to investigate and study agricultural credit and cooperation. Agricultural cooperation and rural credit in Europe. Information and evidence secured by the American commission and the United States commission. U. S. 63d Congress, Ist session. Senate. Doc. 214, parts 1-3. 1913-1914. American commission to investigate and study agricultural credit and cooperation. Agricultural cooperation and rural credit in Europe. Report of the American com- mission. U.S. 63d Congress, Ist session. Senate. Doc. 261, parts 1-2. 1914. American commission to investigate and study agricultural credit and cooperation. New York state delegates. Special report of the New York state delegates on the American commission for the study of agricultural codperation in Europe, compiled by Frederick H. Allen and Charles G. Mitchell. New York (State). Department of agriculture. Bulletin 56. 1914. American commission to investigate and study agricultural credit and cooperation. Washington delegates. Rural credit, cooperation and agricultural organization in Europe. Report of Ralph Metcalf and Clark G. Black, Washington members of the American commission which studied European conditions in 1913. Olympia, 1915. Atkeson, J.C. Semi-centennial history of the Patrons of husbandry. New York, 1916. Austin, C. B. and Wehrwein, G.S. Co-operation in agriculture, marketing and rural credit. University of Texas. Bulletin, general series 355. 1914. Bassett, C. E. The cooperative purchase of farm supplies. U. S. Department of agriculture. Yearbook, 1915. Bassett, C. E. and Kerr, W. H. The community egg circle. U.S. Department of agriculture. Farmers’ bulletin 656. 1915. Bassett, C. E., Moomaw,C. W., and Kerr, W.H. Cooperative marketing and financing of marketing associations. U.S. Department of agriculture. Yearbook, 1914. Bemis, E.W. Cooperative distribution. U.S. Department of labor. Bulletin 6, p. 610-644. “1896. Bexell, J. A., and Kerr, W.H. Business practice and accounts for cooperative stores. U.S. Department of agriculture. Bulletin 381. 1916. Bexell, J. A., MacPherson, Hector, and Kerr, W.H. A survey of typical cooperative stores in the United States. U.S. Department of agriculture. Bulletin 394. 1916. Brand, C.J. Improved methods of handling and marketing cotton. U.S. Depart- ment of agriculture. Yearbook, 1912. Brooks, T. J: Markets and rural economics. New York, 1914. Buck, 8. J. The Granger movement. Harvard historical studies, vol. 19. 1913. Camp, W. R. How shall farmers organize? North Carolina. Agricultural experi- ment station. Bulletin 225. 1914. Cance,A.E. The farmers’ cooperative exchange. Massachusetts agricultural college. Extension service. 1914. Cance, A. E. and Jefferson, L. P. Farmers’ cooperative corporations. Vermont. Department of agriculture. Bulletin 24. 1915. Carver, T.N. The organization of rural interests. U.S. Department of agriculture. Yearbook, 1913. Carver, T.N. The organization of a rural community. U.S. Department of agri- culture. Yearbook, 1914. Carver, T. N. Principles of rural economics. New York, 1911. Chandler, W.H. Co-operation among fruit growers. Missouri. Agricultural experi- ment station. Bulletin 97. 1911. Cooperation in Kansas. Kansas. State board of agriculture. 19th biennial report, ~p. 154-246. 1915. Cooperative marketing in fruits. Jn Bailey, L. H. Cyclopedia of American agri- culture. Vol. 4, p. 265-267. New York, 1912. 80 BULLETIN 547, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The cooperative marketing of cotton. U.S. Department of agriculture. Farmers’ bulletin 641 (Agricultural outlook), p. 14-16. 1914. Corbett, L.C. A successful method of marketing vegetable products. U.S. Depart- ment of Agriculture. Yearbook, 1912. Coulter, J. L. Co-operation among farmers, the keystone of rural prosperity. New York, 1911. Coulter, J. L. The coéperative farmer. World’s work, vol. 23, no. 1, p. 59-63. November, 1911. Coulter, J. L. Organization among the farmers of the United States. Yale review reprints, no. 10. 1909. (From the Yale review, November, 1909.) Crissey, Forrest. Codperation close to the soil. Everybody’s magazine, vol. 21, p. 406-416. September, 1909. Cross, I. B. The co-operative store in the United States. Wisconsin. Bureau of labor and industrial statistics. 12th biennial report, part 1, p. 1-69. 1906. Doty, S. W. and Hall, L. D. Cooperative live stock ipoune associations. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Farmers’ bulletin 718. 1916. Durand, E. D. Coéperative live stock shipping associations in Minnesota. Minne- sota agricultural experiment station. Bulletin 156. 1916. Farrington, E. H. and Benkendorf, G. H. W. Organization and construction of creameries and cheese factories. Wisconsin. Agricultural experiment station. Bulletin 244. 1915. Fay, C. R. Co-operation at home and abroad. New York, 1908. i Filley, H. C. .Cooperation. Nebraska. Agricultural experiment station. Exten- sion bulletin 31. 1915. Ford, James. Co-operation in New England, urban and rural. Russell Sage founda- tion publications. New York, 1913. Galloway, B. T. Cooperation in agriculture and the factors that make for success. New York State college of agriculture. Extension circular 10. 1915. Hibbard, B. H. Cooperation in the grain-elevator business: Jn Bailey, L. H. Cyclopedia of American agriculture. Vol. 4, p. 267-269. New York, 1912. Hibbard, B. H. and Hobson, Asher. Markets and prices of Wisconsin cheese. Wis- consin. Agricultural experiment station. Bulletin 251. 1915. History of coéperation in the United States. Johns Hopkins university studies in historial and political science. 6th series. 1888. Huebner, G. G. Agricultural commerce. New York, 1915. Humphrey, J. R. and Kerr, W. H. Lumber accounting and opening the books in primary grain elevators. U.S. Department of agriculture. Office of markets and rural organization. Document 2. 1916. Humphrey, J. R. and Kerr, W. H. Patronage dividends in cooperative grain com- panies. U.S. Department of agriculture. Bulletin 371. 1916. Humphrey, J. R. and Kerr, W. H. A system of accounts for cooperative live- stock shipping associations. U.S. Department of agriculture. Bulletin 403. 1916. Humphrey, J. R. and Kerr, W. H. A system of accounts for farmers’ cooperative elevators. U.S. Department of agriculture. Bulletin 236. 1915. Jesness, O. B. Coédperative marketing of potatoes in Minnesota. University of Minnesota. Studies in the social sciences, no. 4, p. 39-56. 1915. Jones, R. C. Creamery organization and management. Montana. Agricultural experiment station. Circular 23. 1913. Kerr, W. H. and Nahstoll, G. A. Cooperative organization business methods. U. 8. Department of agriculture. Bulletin 178. 1915. Lewis, C. I. The apple from orchard to market. Oregon. Agricultural experiment station. Bulletin 94, 1907. McNeil, A. Cooperation and fruit growing. Canada. Department of agriculture. Dairy and cold storage commissioner’s branch. Bulletin 38. 1913. COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS. 81 - Mathews, J. L. The Farmers’ union and the tobacco pool. Atlantic, vol. 102, p. 482-491. October, 1908. Michell, H. The co-operative store in Canada. Queen’s quarterly, vol. 23, no. 3, p. 317-838. January-March, 1916. Queen’s university, Kingston, Canada. Minnesota farmers’ institute annual. Co-operation number. St. Paul, 1913. Moorhouse, H. W. A reorganization of farming. Oklahoma. Agricultural and mechanical college. Bulletin 74. 1914. Morman, J. B. Business codperative organizations in agriculture. Jn Bailey, L. H. Cyclopedia of American agriculture. Vol. 4, p. 255-264. New York, 1912. Myrick, Herbert. How to codperate. New York, 1891. Mortensen, Martin and Davidson, J. B. Creamery organization and construction. I.—Creamery organization and construction. II.—Building plans. Iowa. Agri- cultural experiment station. Bulletin 139, partsland 2. 1913. Nahstoll, G. A. and Kerr, W. H. A system of accounting for cooperative fruit asso- ciations. U.S. Department of agriculture. Bulletin 225. 1915. National conference on marketing and farm credits. Proceedings of the first National conference on marketing and farm credits, in Chicago, April 8, 9 and 10, 1913. 1913. National conference on marketing and farm credits. A collection of papers read at the third annual sessions of the National conference on marketing and farm credits in joint program with the National council of farmers’ codperative associations, in Chicago, November 29-30 and December 1-2, 1915. Madison, 1916. New York (State). Department of agriculture. Manual on cooperation. Jts Cir- cular 94. 1914. New York (State). Department of agriculture. Proceedings of the first annual conference of cooperative associations. Jis Bulletin 63. 1914. The order of Patrons of husbandry (‘‘The Grange’’). International institute of agri- culture. Monthly bulletin of economic and social intelligence. 6th year, no. 6, p. 1-16; and no. 10, p. 1-11. June and Qctober, 1915. Pearson, R. A. Agricultural organizations in European countries. New York (State). Department of agriculture. Bulletin 66. 1914. Poe, Clarence. How farmers co-operate and double profits. New York, 1915. Powell, G. H. Codperation in agriculture. New York, 1913. Powell, G. H. Cooperation in the handling and marketing of fruit. U.S. Depart- ment of agriculture. Yearbook, 1910. Ray, R. J. The co-operative Grangers of Johnson County, Tes 1909. Refsell, O. N. The farmers’ elevator movement. Journal of political economy, vol. 22, no. 9, p. 872-895; and no. 10, p. 969-992. November and December, 1914. Sanborn, A. W. Cooperation among farmers, especially in marketing. Wisconsin. State board of agriculture. Bulletin 2. 1913. Sinclair, J. F. Agricultural co-operation. Wisconsin. State board of public affairs. Report upon co-operation and marketing, part 1. 1912. Sinclair, J. F. Distributive or store co-operation. Wisconsin. State board of pub- lic affairs. Report upon co-operation and marketing, part 4. 1912. Stockbridge, F. P. The coéperator’s big dollar. World’s work, vol. 24, no. 5, p. 534-540. September; 1912. Systems of marketing farm products and demand for such products at trade centers. U.S. Department of agriculture. Office of the Secretary. Report 98. 1913. Taeusch, C. F. Rural cooperation and cooperative marketing in Ohio, 1913. Ohio. Agricultural experiment station. Circular 141. 1913. Taylor, H. C. The marketing of Wisconsin potatoes. Wisconsin. Agricultural experiment station. Bulletin 256. 1915. 85964°—Bull. 547—17——6 i a Tis Fd. Potion wt fart to. Pinter, 4). Be. Lot ini Re ten raviow OF ta ey, c} iptetiennce) p.. Ae 1. ad . P haecs Sie Maw Toa : A We ; me a af y ott of gree 1 eee a) ‘tat ty! hy fi isak Heb Cree mth ‘ es : : 13 ’ Parmer wh ; f ¥ “as Ek ‘« ? ; ) es fy) ‘x } ae me. , , tee 7 . 7 ‘J — 45 ‘ ss & : . . S ‘ * = UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 548 Office of the Secretary Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W.J. SPILLMAN, Chief Washington, D. C. v May 24, 1917 THE BUSINESS OF TEN DAIRY FARMS IN THE BLUEGRASS REGION OF KENTUCKY. By J. H. ARNoLD, Agriculturist. CONTENTS. Page. Page. General description of the region from the Seven successful dairy farms analyzed and point of view of dairying. ...........-----. 1 COWIPATed ease eee eelee see se ee ese eee 6 Receipts from dairy products, together with The farms that failed......................-. 10. labor incomes, on each of 10 farms.......-. 2 | Comparison of the 7 more successful dairy Other sources of income. ....-.-------------- 3 farms with the average of 10.-............. 11 MU OStHO tele Oars eteiee slaista nec lelelnlacsia otelsiarciayeretalaie 4 To what extent dairying may be developed in the bluegrass region........-.---.-.-.-- 4 The purpose of this bulletin is to present a brief analysis of the business of 10 dairy farms which were found among 187 farms! selected and studied during 1914 in Mason, Scott, and Madison Counties, in the bluegrass region of Kentucky. This analysis will show how these farms were organized and will point out the factors which made some of them profitable. From so few records it would not be possible to analyze thoroughly the economic situation relative to dairying in this locality, but the analysis should be of some prac- tical interest to the bluegrass farmer who already is running a dairy farm or who is about to organize one. GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF THE REGION FROM THE POINT OF VIEW OF DAIRYING. The fact that this locality is famous for bluegrass would suggest a favorable locality for dairying. The adaptation of the soil to blue- grass pasture is the distinctive natural advantage which this locality has for this type of farming. The climatic factors, however, partly 1 An analysis of these farms, including the 10 dairy farms, is given in U.S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 482; Farming in the Bluegrass Region. 86323°—Bull. 548—17 2 BULLETIN 548, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. offset this advantage, especially for the production of cheese and butter. The long summer months are warm, with a lower rainfall than the winter months, while in the extensive dairy sections of Wisconsin and New York the highest rainfall is during the summer months, which average 7 to 8 degrees cooler than in Kentucky. These adverse conditions have not interfered with the increased production of market milk where there is a demand at good prices, but they are a handicap especially in the production of cheese, which is produced to best advantage in a climate that is relatively cool, Most of the dairy farms in the region have developed near such large cities as Cincinnati and Louisville, where large quantities of milk and cream may be marketed. Lexington, a city of about 40,000 inhabitants, and several other towns of 5,000 to 15,000, furnish a market for a few dairy farms in the central part of the bluegrass region. RECEIPTS FROM DAIRY PRODUCTS, TOGETHER WITH LABOR INCOMES, ON EACH OF TEN FARMS. The business of each of the 10 farms studied may be summarized briefly, as follows: . TaBLE I.—Size of farms, with number of cows and with receipts from labor income and dairy products. ry Size | Num-| yapor Gross | Receipts | Receipts | Gross Farm No. of ber of Sarees. receipts from from receipts farm. | cows. from milk.| cream. butter. | per cow. Gs Upere Re Ae pb ts late 400 75 | $1,466 | $5,315 | $2,101 |...-..-.- $98. 88 5 EONS SSeS aires ae (ide ay | 990.1 “°307) 654] “AV Sno iemee Geren eat! 150. 00 ee Eee A Ee EE 247 19} 1,739 | 3,066 PSOAIMER. eve 199. 78 BD BS B28 BS oo ore rete hemes 150 50} 6,408 | 6,768 | 1,128 $25 | 158.00 yr e st eS ih aeaboee eee 51 15} 3,201 |) 2,920 225 260 | 227.00 Grprmers sherk P22 are 86 De liba, UE aad TO HR OOGR sapere 230. 00 Tt BOs SO ee 82.| 30) 1,509) 2/966 ASO a cease 114. 86 Sear pier oe eb ils 70 | 4 10. Bee ZUSi ene eee 52.00 Qe Mel we earache ord BARNS 134 | 12 28 Ten Soe e rs G24). ee eeh 52.00 1 RMEN A S rte ae p ete 120 12 a | Ya PSI 104 780 73. 60 Average of all......... 163 | Qh Leelee too 689 106 | 126.16 1 This farm fell $139 short of paying expenses, including interest on investment. 2 This farm fell $1,521 short of paying expenses, including interest on investment. Thus it will be seen that these ten dairy farms depend mostly on market milk for income. Cream is next in importance. Very little butter is marketed. The one dairyman depending mostly on butter for income failed to make expenses, counting interest on investment among the expenses. The market price of milk distributed to cus- tomers ranged from 7 to 10 cents per quart, and cream 60 cents to $1 per gallon, depending on market opportunities and quality of TEN DAIRY FARMS IN BLUEGRASS REGION OF KENTUCKY. 3 product. Near the smaller towns the milk is mostly bottled and is marketed at the door of the customer. In the vicinity of larger cities it is mostly shipped in and retailed through local distributors. When this was done the farmer received 15 to 20 cents per gallon for milk and paid 14 to 2 cents per gallon to ship it 30 to 50 miles. The labor incomes ' on most of the farms were large, as compared with those of successful farms of other types in this region. The average labor income on 187 farms was $750, while the average of these ten dairy farms was $1,773. Table I shows plainly that of the ten Png studied those which ‘sold market milk and which had high net receipts per cow made the most money. OTHER SOURCES OF INCOME. While ate products furnished the main source of income on these farms, the farmers found it profitable to diversify to some extent. Other common sources of income were tobacco and wheat. In some cases a few steers were kept. There was some income from the sale of dairy cows, young stock, and calves. In some cases also there was a substantial income from swine and poultry. ‘The percentage receipts from dairy quod tens and tobacco on these farms were as follows: TaBLe I1.—Percentage receipts from dairy products and tobacco. \ Receipts | Receipts Receipts | Receipts Farm No. from from Farm. No. from from dairy. tobacco. dairy. tobacco. Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. Oe ep SNS Fa, a 80 AIC] de BORE RIN AU ol Nie | Han nT 90 Bis 3 Sh SNe Re Se 67 TaN corned Sea team oni 55 0 3) Ree IN SU ERB ara at eae 82 AE) Uses Meee es SS PrN eos 49 15 ZAIN See ADR es eat Ube 72 5 Wig MO RSs uO i a ie dl 0 £5 ESO ES Ne OR Aa 85 9 Fg A Pam enero 80 9 Average........- 71 5.8 Tobacco is a crop specially adapted to the region, and on many farms it is the main source of income. The percentage receipts from dairying on the ten farms in question, as shown in Table II, included net receipts from dairy stock and from calves. During the past two years (1915 and 1916) Farm No. 4 has found hemp a profitable crop, not only because of recent increase in price of this product, but because during its growing season hemp requires no attention, while the harvesting is done in a few days by machinery and the other operations in preparation for marketing may be let out to negroes who are experienced hemp workers. 1 Labor income is what the farmer makes above expenses, which include current interest on the money he has tied up in his business. 4 BULLETIN 548, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. | COST OF FEED. As previously suggested, the adaptation of soil to bluegrass graz- ing is a distinct advantage for the dairy business in this section. During the grazing period, from May to November, most of these dairymen have not fed concentrates, except when the season hap- pened to be drier than usual and the pasture short. Milk usually is reduced in price during the summer because of the plentifulness of grazing, which increases the general supply of milk. Cows graze to a considerable extent on bluegrass during the winter months, and occasionally on rye or wheat fields. Thus the quantity of feed that needs to be bought is small, compared with that bought on the Northern dairy farm. On account of recent advance in price of con- centrated feeds, one of the ten dairymen has filled his old silo with clover and has built a new one for corn and cane silage. Clover is thus used as a substitute for the more expensive concentrated feeds, such as cottonseed meal, bran, and shorts. In 1914, the year the business records of these farms were taken, the average cost of concentrated feeds bought was about $14 per cow, which in terms of concentrated feed at $35 per ton (about the average price in 1914) would mean that the average cow got about 4.4 pounds of this feed daily for 180 days. Other purchased feeds, mostly hay and corn fodder, amounted on the average to about $4.50 per cow. The bluegrass dairyman pastures more intensively than the aver- age live-stock farmer. The latter allows about 4 acres for each animal unit,! while the average for the ten dairy farms was found to be about 1.6 acres for each animal unit on the farm. Dairy farms are relatively small, the manure is exceptionally rich in plant food, and a large part of it is scattered on the pastures. According to figures obtained, $40 to $50 would be a liberal estimate for the average cost of feed for each dairy cow kept on the farms studied. TO WHAT EXTENT DAIRYING MAY BE DEVELOPED IN THE BLUEGRASS REGION. While a study of these ten dairy farms would indicate that market milk production was profitable where markets have developed, dairy farming is not the type that can be as generally recommended as some other types until it has been demonstrated that butter and cheese, the least perishable of dairy products, and those which have a wide demand in the general market, can be profitably produced here. The production of milk and butter in the three counties (Madison, Scott, and Mason) in which these ten dairy farms are located remained practically stationary between 1890 and 1910. On 1 Animal unit—the equivalent of 1 cow, horse, or beef animal. Two heifers, 4 calves, 7 sheep, 5 hogs, 14 pigs, or 100 chickens are counted as equivalent to an animal unit. TEN DAIRY FARMS IN BLUEGRASS REGION OF KENTUCKY. 5 the other hand, the production of tobacco, hemp, hay, beef cattle, and sheep, characteristic of the more general profitable types, had a marked increase during the same period. In 1890 the census enumer- ators found 5,357 pounds of cheese produced in Madison County and 2,025 pounds in Mason County. In the census years of 1900 and 1910, practically none was reported for these counties. In Jefferson County, bordering on the bluegrass region, 10,120 pounds was reported in 1890 and 13,817 pounds in 1900. None, however, was _ reported in the census of 1910. Three counties bordering Jefferson produced about 15,000 pounds during the period covered by the census of 1890 and 1900, but none was reported for these counties in 1910. Between 1900 and 1910, however, there was a large increase in the production of market milk for the Louisville market in these counties. ‘The cheese production that still persists in Kentucky is confined largely to the low mountains and hills bordering the _blue- grass region, known as ‘‘The Rim,’ where there is some bluegrass land, though rather unfavorable for general farming and low in price. In this region spring water is abundant and the climate is somewhat cooler than in the more level bluegrass country. On the hilly, cheaper land along the Ohio River a small quantity of cheese was still being produced in 1910. These facts relative to dairying in Kentucky emphasize the truth that farm enterprises once started in a locality will develop only to the extent that they find a favorable environment and are found to be profitable by practical farmers. The production of butter and cheese would no doubt be profitable in the bluegrass region and pos- sibly at the present time would be a thriving industry if other enter- | prises such as tobacco, hemp, wheat, beef cattle, swine, and sheep had not proved to be more generaliy profitable. The fact, however, that the production of butter and cheese has not yet developed into a profitable and extensive business here is not conclusive evidence that _ it would not be profitable on many farms favorably situated for these enterprises. Even on many general diversified farms in this region _ profits could be increased by keeping better dairy cows and producing - butter and even some cheese as a side line. Many farms in the bluegrass region have excellent springs which may be used to advan- tage in connection with such enterprises. An important factor in retarding the development of the dairy industry even under favorable conditions is the general reluctance of bluegrass farmers to engage init. While negro laborers as a rule are experts in growing and handling tobacco, they are not familiar with the processes of dairying and share the common objection to it. In some sections, however, where dairying has become profitable and ‘where it has been practiced a long time, this dislike is being gradually overcome. | 6 BULLETIN 548, U. §S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SEVEN SUCCESSFUL DAIRY FARMS ANALYZED AND COMPARED. FARM NO. 1. Size of Farm ce Wey cls 2 pel cS le cuca acres. . 400 Number of cows.) ).- 6.2 .-86 2.200202 30) See ee 75 Muntber of other animal units th250 0220) 2 ee 37 Motalicapital =. Pesci 2 SIC e SEs aa eee ea $50, 097 Working capital?) s..23 i. 2212 J2assne es ee ee 7, 874 WopalTeeeiptss fie, - css iid ei ap) eibrepere bh OR ed TAO ea 11, 824 Receipts: irom dairy. 22/3 .i.04 2, a an Ge AERO re 7,416 1 Dpig 0121 21:| 2): hee ae eee een ees cole a RN MI 7, 854 Panmiincome ny... te. sp ee eed beRene aha © DIATE) tl 3, 970 Laboriineome ©2200)... 22. eA As ee 1, 466 This is the largest farm of the ten in question and is valued at $125 per acre. It is well situated near a market pot. While it is some- what rolling, the soil is of good quality and about all of it tillable. If properly organized, this farm should have made the largest labor income of the group. Instead, it is among the lowest, those which were only fairly successful. In the first place, the dairy business shows up poor in quality, receipts per cow being low as compared with those of the more successful farms. The operator has 75 cows, about as many as he can give proper attention to. Half his acreage easily could be made to support this herd. Thus, this area of land (400 acres) might be supporting two successful dairy farms instead of one (see farm No. 4). If there were an additional farm superin- tendent, however, the farm might be so organized that the dairy business could be conducted as one department, while the greater part of the land could be cropped in accordance with the best practice in the section. With a higher degree of diversity and by handling other live stock, the gross income of this farm, even with its present management, should be increased considerably without much more expense. The average expenses of the ten farms are about 45 per cent of receipts, while on this farm they are about 75 per cent, showing that the business was too expensive for the income received. This farmer housed his cows in a $7,000 dairy barn, an invest- ment of nearly $100 per cow, while his nearest competitor, one of the most successful farmers of the group, had but one-third of this amount invested. Although this was a large farm and showed a relatively small proportion of its receipts from other sources than dairying, it failed to produce as much feed for dairy stock as the average farm ($18) and expended for purchased feeds $20 per cow. 1See footnote, p. 4. 2 Total capital includes investment in land, buildings, machinery, live stock, feed, supplies, and cash to run the business. y 8 Working capital includes all items of capital except land, buildings, and other improvements usually’ included in real estate. 4 Expenses include a charge for unpaid family labor, depreciation, and 5 per cent interest on total capital besides money actually paid out in conducting the farm business. 5 Farm income is the total receipts less expenses. 6 Labor income is farm income less 5 per cent interest on invested capital. TEN DAIRY FARMS IN BLUEGRASS REGION OF KENTUCKY. i : FARM NO. 2. BIZELOR TANI Meee e eo Pe eo Paar ays acres. . 290 PPI DER IOR GOS tere)e -fevevetat clea l= ages « V\ewnagete tthe dat Lhe tN 30 Number‘of other animal units. . 2). 2.2 eee oe ee 28 “TSG COP ONTUE A Se ei oN ARS U ene S eSL NBNS EN $26, 890 ORAL CATO UA Vs cI eis ey Se NS di ae 6, 881 DUEL] TA BCCLETT OUTS ESN SPREE UN a RS NK 8, 383 SSE SIG EUOTIN LAL Vi Myvi yrs Ye nye aa ean eI lets ital 4, 500 LO ROCLNSESIS SUS Sa Ie Sa Le Ree ee 3, 385 EVs prey TOC CYST AB As I lp A 4,998 (Spy Sete tra Gh aa SAO USAGE Senge AE EG I a 3, 654 Of the larger sized farms among the ten studied this one is the most efficiently organized. The diversity is much greater than that of ' farm No. 1. About 46 per cent of receipts were from sources other than dairying, mainly wheat and tobacco. Sales of live stock amounted to $1,200 above purchases. The operator owned 132 acres and rented 158 additional, for which he paid $800 a year. All the feed except concentrates was raised on the farm. Only one man was hired, the operator and his family doing most of the dairy work. The manure from the dairy was applied to his own land. This made his crop yields much higher than the average. Eleven acres of to- bacco and 10 acres of corn were raised by a cropper. Thirty-three acres of corn for grain, 12 acres of silage corn, 50 acres of wheat, 25 acres of meadow hay, and 5 acres of tobacco were raised by his own and hired labor. The owner had been in the dairy business about 40 years and is about 60 years of age. A large family had been raised and educated. FARM NO. 3. DPZGIOR arma err Wei ey te eo amy seul gn ie aye acres 247 INIMEMD eG COWSES eee tise ce eun At a Seem egcin youn Ce eke 19 Nimber ob otheranimal umits. 2)... 28h 2s ok) 16 Pikoraltenpiutal Moses Oo ee ul AMR cal ap $15, 396 Nvorkamarcapitalss i) ee oo ea 2) FRSA SAAN Caius Mg 3, 046 TROVE TieGreve ORS aa Aes BSN AOU ES 2 YU ged aU GGA ee em ge CLA TG i 8 ecCempismnomuedaimy issn een eh dame ily etl Bae 3, 796 EDN CTASCS NA Ue ane renee i 2 MG ah Ge [eT 4, 438 [Damen Tha Vevey a el UNE A LOU A ns Re 0 ANN ea ie a 2, 509 Manor WT COMICL ease mathe a ssi eN Nn Bea Ta Ivey) This farm had 10 acres of corn for grain, 8 acres for silage, 10 acres ‘in rye which was grazed, and 20 acresin hay. There were 153 acres in pasture, 2 acres in garden and orchard, and the remainder, 44 acres, was considered waste land. The topography was hilly and not well adapted to cultivated crops. The land was valued at $40 per acre, though the more level land in the community was valued at $100 to $150 per acre. Three year-hands were employed on this farm and seven head of work stock were kept. Both man-labor and horse-labor were poorly utilized. A better utilization could have been achieved and the income considerably increased if a few acres of \ 8 BULLETIN 548, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tobacco had been raised. There were no receipts from crops and diversity was low. FARM NO. 4. RIZGGr dar eo ah eR ee acres 150 Maniver of Cows. 22226 seve. t. fen. otc eee 50 Normber of other‘animal units: 255500... 22252 25eseeeeeeeee 48 Metahcapitak nw cs .c tte s te de ee eee $33, 081 Worn eaprbal.. <2. .:2 5 tote sees ee LI, 354 Totabirecempts-..o2 so f2.0 26 22 PSSA ee 12, 500 Receipts trond dairy: 3: 60.02.2225: $4. 2h ee ee 7,921 Pixpensesi cent scl-2 222 2sc82 322 ti 3.22 Secs ee 2, 818 Farm Income! 2. 2.42 es d6 sis ja. a. 52 Sc ores eee Bee ee 8, 062 Toalboramcome ss yes cee aa a 6, 408 This farm well may be classed as the best dairy farm of the ten. While the receipts per cow were considerably above the average, others had higher receipts per cow, but in the expenses this farm showed high efficiency in the economy of labor and feed, two most important factors in expenses. Operating expenses were only about 35 per cent of receipts, as compared with 45 per cent, the average for the ten farms. The land area (150 acres) was small as compared with the number of stock units kept on the farm. These number about 98, or about 1.9 acres for each animal unit. Of this number of animal units, 50 were dairy cows. [Every part of the farm, including pasture area, received frequent applications of stable manure. There is practically no waste land on this farm. But a small acreage is occupied by fences, buildings, and roadway. Bluegrass grows even in small lots and about the buildings. The feed purchased amounted to about $10 per cow. About 50 per cent of the farm area is in blue- grass pasture, which in a normal season furnishes all the feed for dairy stock during the summer. A considerable amount of grazing also is done during the winter. Fields that are to be pastured in winter are allowed to accumulate a good growth of grass in the fall. About $1,000 of the total receipts represented breeding fees. Usually a few acres of tobacco are raised. During the last two years (1915- 1916), however, hemp has been substituted for tobacco. It was esti- mated that the hemp for 1916 would yield about 1,700 pounds per acre, which, at 10 cents per pound (about the price of the previous year), would be $170 per acre. The expense of growing an acre of hemp is about the same as that of tobacco ($50 to $60, exclusive of rent), and the average rent for the land is figured at $30 to $50 per acre. This farm has been organized as a dairy farm for about 12 years and has been exceptionally successful. It sets the standard for quality and prices for milk in the locality and is rated among the best dairy farms in the State. The operator is a graduate of an agri- cultural college. He does the work of milking, bottling, and distrib- uting with the help of a man and a boy. TEN DAIRY FARMS IN BLUEGRASS REGION OF KENTUCKY. 9 FARM NO. 5. ova, Cove reamed Ae A Se Ne ANCA NO Be BR a OD ee wl acres. . 51 PNPM ETN OL CO wisest rey = ee Ncich japanese Oe Sk ia Ua a 15 Nmmberonotherianimal waits. cee 11 otalcapital ye P eco el El he IN Na 2 hs ON see $8, 843 ROR EN OTCA DIG eee eee ee ae 2, 786 "OGT! TAXCTS yO Sf ae aa SUSIE aR i gS a 5, 449 Ty S/C@ OTHE) 1 aya) beta za ey a a A ae CS a VN 3, 405 OES] OBLOISERICCH IS IS emer la Uses 2 ee, eM) BARE Te aCe eta Pa 1, 811 LER) TOC CL0) OE WS Mea Mo Al se ST SUN NS 3, 638 Labor income.......-- EE ine Se ee NG Cis ey MATE Aare NESTON AR 3, 196 This farm shows the possibility of profitable dairymg on a small farm with a small amount of capital invested, and on which about. all the labor is done by the operator and his family. Here, again, high business efficiency was shown in that operating expenses were but 33 per cent of receipts and the labor income was among the highest of the group. This farmer has to buy more than the usual. quantity of feed, which cost him about $25 per cow. The receipts per cow were unusually high. ‘This was due, no doubt, to high quality of cows kept and to the fact that he milked the cows himself. The milk was retailed at 8 to 10 cents per quart and the cream at. $1 per gallon. This farmer raised 34 acres of tobacco, which he sold. for about $500. He sold 5 cows for $55 per head and bought better: ones for $65 per head. Sales from poultry were $80, and a colt was raised which increased in value $115. This farmer has been a. farm laborer 7 years, a tenant 10 years, and an owner 8 years. He is now 40 years old. He owns 40 acres and rents 11 acres additional . for hay. Twenty-five acres were devoted to permanent bluegrass pasture; the remainder, besides 2 acres counted as waste, were in. crops. FARM NO. 6. SE a® Ope gine AN CO ee Ma ene Cs acres. - 86 ANPP RO COWS Mise een ec AY Sema eR Noe 9 Number of other ifcaal UBOUNASLAS ep SD UU pO NR RN UA 33 ‘alien ioe wetieM A NES iis an aed ate eve a Mas Re ae EL ea $16, 800 proulsmeycapttal Diehl ee cb ie aye ay Mine at oe ha 2, 675 TOG TS rat oy PSI aes Nes icin A ga VAC a val HA 2, 982 PREC CHO LS EON Calyie my eyelets seminal SIMmpoy My 2,072 ee LISe Se iran vate coo). Aue A Ue UCTS a 2 1, 021 Lesage rayGx0y coe Ma > A Re ee J a A 1, 961 IE Ao IAA COMIC Ik Lek erty AEE i ac UN AMS NRIIAE (yu Lh Yee 1,121 This farm was only moderately successful. Profits could have been. increased greatly if the business had been made larger by increasing the income from cows. If the operator had hired a man he could have increased his herd to 20 or 25 cows and besides could have raised 5 to 6 acres of tobacco instead of 2. There were no receipts from hogs, although there must have been a large quantity of skim milk which should have been fed on the farm. Only $75 worth of 10 BULLETIN 548, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. skim milk was sold, showing that much of it must have gone practi- cally to waste. FARM NO. 7. Been PANT io «<2 asc creek cals ea er acres. . 82 Nagmiberiof COWS... \-(. 210-22 ais'-6 So = es ek 30 Number of other animal units. .).)..% (22 22 ee ee 30 Total capital, owner and.tenant.. ...-..£ 202-222 22 ee $138, 661 Working capital, owner and tenant............-...-...-- 3, 396 Menamb SGapltall si: oc. ood ee ly oe Cee ye Se ee 1, 698 Total FEGeUp ts f. ooo a te dk YES 5, 134 Recerpie trom dairy . 25. 235.3 ee ee 3, 446 Bixpensess 3) ki). Lae Pad Se VU eS 2, 032 Farm.income), owner and tenant: 44/5/14. ese ee ee 3, 102’ Tenant’s farmiincome: 2: M22) Ne ee eee 1, 594 Tenant’s labor incomes): ! 2.36.4. Bin ee 1, 509 Owner’s profit on investment......--2--1-2-.--- per cent. . 12.6 This farm was operated by a tenant who had a half interest in the working capital of the farm, which included the investment in machinery, live stock, feed, and supplies, and cash to run the business. Business expenses were shared equally, as were also receipts. The tenant with the help of two year-hands and some extra labor per- formed the work. There were three work horses. Forty-five acres of the farm were in corn for silage, 33 acres in pasture, 2 acres waste, and 1 acre for garden. Receipts from other sources than dairy cows were mainly from young stock. There were no receipts from crops. THE FARMS THAT FAILED. The three unprofitable farms of the ten were inefficiently organized and operated. Apparently these farmers depended mainly on dairy products for an income; but as they did not stock their farms with enough cows to make it worth while to spend their time at dairying, there could be no other result than failure. This is strikingly true of farm No. 8, which could not be classed as a dairy farm except on the ground that the four cows kept were the main source of income. These farms kept no regular hired laborers and a very small amount of extra labor was hired. About the only comment that can be made upon these farms is that the operators were wasting their opportunities. They had fair-sized farms, but each was operating a small-sized business. The quality of the cows was poor, as shown by receipts, and no doubt much of the milk was wasted. The usual bluegrass farm in this section keeps from two to eight cows to supply milk to the family and laborers. . It does not pay a farmer to give special attention to the dairy business unless there are a sufficient number of cows to warrant special equipment and the application of most of his time. He must develop and maintain a profitable market. If cream or TEN DAIRY FARMS IN BLUEGRASS REGION OF KENTUCKY. 11 butter is sold, the skim milk and buttermilk, if not sold, should be utilized profitably by feeding it to hogs. COMPARISON OF THE SEVEN MORE SUCCESSFUL DAIRY FARMS WITH THE AVERAGE OF TEN. It may be helpful to compare the average of the seven successful dairy farms with the average of the whole group of ten, with respect to the more essential factors, as shown below: Average of Average of | the seven ten farms. successful farms. Distribution of crops: PMUEMACeISIZ COL Man aes ae cate koe) ACTER. |. 163 187 TBs CERRO TONS RA LE ee Reg) A A eR ne A A doesn: 66 70 1003, TBE YSH STING, AA el gs Seg) UCI UU AL a ee raloys yan 76 100 PERC OMMOT OTANI. 2: cca ay ie ce ahaa co danas 15 10 rman ionsuares: PU sey Us Se a ee do 13 16 LUD GENE 20 TPR OA ea ee dovee: 13 15 LE, THD BEG O17 Ae Aa ca Rg dower 16 20 150, REDACTION dosace 5) 6 emote manegis 2.00 ered eis Mee Laws 1h dole 4 3 Distribution of live stock: LD SAUPS? (COMETS ee es SR i ee ane oer number. . 27 40 Peon Oeke Peers ose SSN ces oa). faa oom dower 21 16 "ASSIS — Ls Ges OE CR a COsaae 29 25 S PIOTUINTSY =e 2005 sc hs a es it ce doe. 184 183 Distribution of capital: MoraWcapitallmyvested 522% sags eine koe Suan Lo BID 55D $23, 622 Ronalanoukam Capital! ooo ke ie Nd ae cy AA Saas 4,764 5, 286 IMeemIMNanyp een en Ie. Ch tie Li a a 7il 771 immenhmentun ive stock: = 0 Mee Ne 3, 291 3, 699 -Chaysi 6. 1a) Taw W218 CAN ae a a ce a DR MOO 405 420 VBE. BYE. (SUT 0) WSIS A ee a apna a eet et aoe 355 366 Distribution of receipts: He See Ka POGUMCise sem Gee a LOG Nal 3, 504 4,610 itive-stock inveutoryand sales. 32.20.2002 ee 1, 048 1, 035 CHOTO) HELGE OURS is 2 a) Aes hie EN aR al 589 813 Miscellaneous...... EL SALUT 120 235 DUCHESS Te aR) Ae 5, 301 6, 693 Profits: BUDE SH SUS) OSTA CON MN oe en et een tae Be Ar NOL ATE I 126 164 PEVCTAGe amimiiNCOme saeco. ill tak ou A iE, ale) 3, 149 4, 266 PCr Am eu aMOnIMEOMOWN. 05 Us Ole aT ema os 1,773 2, 954 Per cent net earnings on investment +. 1... .J2).22226.4 22. 10 14 1 Per cent net earnings is obtained by dividing the farm income (less the value of operator’s labor and Management) by the total farm investment. The average of operator’s labor and management on the ten farms as estimated by the farmer was $766; on the seven most successful, $866. These comparisons illustrate many of the points discussed in the foregoing pages relative to the successful dairy farms. For instance, the average successful farm had the largest business, as shown by the 12 BULLETIN 548, U.'S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, size of farm, the number of dairy cows, and the working capital. On the average successful farm there were more receipts from crops and miscellaneous sources than were shown for the average of the ten farms. This indicates the greater degree of diversity on the suc- cessful farms. The most important comparison is that shown for the receipts per cow. It will be noticed that the average successful farm had much higher receipts per cow—$164, as compared with $126 on the average of the ten. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 OF CAL ny UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ¥, BULLETIN No. 519 ¥y Contribution from the Forest Service x HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D.C. Vv May 5, 1917 CROSSTIES PURCHASED AND TREATED IN 1915. By Artuur M. McCreicut, Office of Industrial Investigations. CONTENTS. Crossties purchased, 1915........----.-------- 1 | IBT@SCRyatiON ee. sacimecsar sesee ea eees oe oe CROSSTIES PURCHASED, 1915. Purchases of crossties were smaller in 1915 than in other years. The total number bought by all classes of purchasers was approxi- mately 121,402,611. The inquiry covered steam railroads, electric railways, and light, heat, and power companies. No attempt was made to determine the prices paid for crossties, or the number of ties laid in new track, or to show separately the number of hewed and sawed ties purchased. The information was obtained by the Forest Service entirely by means of correspondence; and the total number of ties reported by the purchasers of all classes who sent the information requested was 97,106,651. The estimated total of all purchases was obtained in the following manner: The actual number reported by steam rail- roads was 88,498,655. The mileage of roads so reporting amounted to 78.46 per cent of the total mileage of the country. Assuming that the nonreporting roads made purchases in proportion to their mileage, or 24,295,960 ties, the total for all steam railroads amounted to 112,794,615. To this is added the number purchased by electric railways and light, heat, and power companies, or 8,607,996, and the grand total for 1915 is estimated to be 121,402,611. Table 1 shows the number of crossties purchased each year from 1907 to 1911, and for the year 1915, classified according to kinds of wood and arranged in the order of number purchased during 1915. The smallest number of ties reported purchased for any year. since 1907 was in 1915. The figures in the table for 1911 and previous years were taken from reports prepared in cooperation with the Bureau of the Census. Statistics were not obtained for the years 1912, 1913, and 1914. 88010°—Bull, 54917 ’ | 2 BULLETIN 549,.U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Five kinds of wood supplied over 81 per cent of the total number of ties reported purchased in 1915. These were the oaks, southern pine, Douglas fir, cedar, and chestnut. While there seems to be no trend toward the use of any one species, more oak was reported than any other kind of wood. This is doubt- less due to the fact that oak has the requisite strength and hardness for ties and is available in many localities in large quantities. White oak is also desirable because of its durability, and red oak because satisfactory preservative treatment can be given it. Oak, including both red and white, supplied 49,333,881 ties, or 50.8 per cent of the total number Perce purchased. Yellow pine was second in importance, Suh cier 14,115,681 ties, or 13.43 per cent of the total number reported: This species is largely used because of its availability and cheapness, and, in the case of longleaf pine, its durability; the strength of longleaf pine adds to its desirability. Shortleaf and loblolly pine do not. make altogether satisfactory ties, but are used largely because they are relatively cheap and take a satisfactory preservative treatment. TaBLE 1.—Numober of crossties reported purchased, 1907 to 1911 and 1915, by kinds of wood. Kind of wood. 1915 1911 1910 1909 1908 | 1907 CASING SS ee sey aa's = 197,106,651 | 135,053,000 | 148, 231,000 | 123,751,000 | 112, 466,000 | 153, 703, 000 Ghats sa Ce EE 49,333,881 | 59,508,000 | 68,382,000 | 57,132,000] 48,110,000 | 61,757,000 Southern pine..---------- 14, 115, 681 | 24,265,000 | 26,264,000 | 21,385,000 | 21,530,000 | 34,215,000 Dopplastirese os mse : 6, 950, 910 | 11,253,000 | 11,629,000 9, 067, 000 7,988,000 | 14,525,000 Godan Seee-Peeeeasee aio 5, 122, 103 8,015, 000 7, 305, 000 6, 777, 000 8, 172, 000 8,954,000 @hestnilineeces ees aes 4, 548, 352 7, 542, 000 7, 760, 000 6, 629, 000 8,074, 000 7, 851, 000 Gyprass Moth ea 4,478,612 | 5,857,000] 5,396,000 | 4,589,000] 3,457,000] 6, 780, 000 Eastern tamarack........ 2,606,794 | 4'138,000 |} 5,163,000 | 3,311,000] 4,025,000] 4/562) 000 Western yellow pine..... 1, 402,836 | 2)696,000| 4,612,000] 6,797,000] 3,093,000 | 5,019,000 Lodgepole pine.......---- 1,316,819 ech 2 oN aa aS a ae ee eae Ss a oH Western larch! 552.522 22. D250, B04 foe 8 eek SCRE ek aU AR La AR SOs ire ar op at eee a IBGECRYEE D2 ce msieeee ee cae 1, 173, 490 1, 109, 000 798, 000 195, 000 192, 000 52,000 Wapleneteae sae = sees 1, 069, 547 1, 189, 000 773, 000 158, 000 L51F 000 eres Gk! Henilogie. osteo kh) 859,662} 3,686,000] 3,468,000] 2,642,000] 3,120,000] 2,367,000 iGdav 000 2) a ete ck 563, 685 1, 820, 000 2, 165, 000 2,088, 000 871, 000 2; 032, 000 MUTE oe stoned cieieis 485,466 ris 293, 000 if 621) 000 378, 000 262, 000 000 IDINCRSeee Se eet eee ee 465, £23 I (ee | ON ees te Ce eS elon ase cecisa i loses eene eae AT GRheE s -o8- fled ee cs 1,361,694 | 2,682,000 | 2,895,000} 2,603,000] 3,421,000] 5,574,000 1 Mileage of railroads reporting ties represent 78.46 per cent of total mileage. Mileage represented for former years not obtainable. Individual quantities were not given for the number of western larch, lodgepole pine, and birch ties reported prior to 1915. It is probable that the figures for western yellow pine included those of lodgepole pine in former years. Larch might also have been tabu- lated with the tamarack statistics. In 1915 the number of lodgepole pine and western larch ties purchased was over a million each. Table 2 shows the number of crossties reported purchased by the steam railroads, electric railways, and light, heat, and power compa- nies. The total number of crossties reported purchased during 1915 by the steam railroads was 88,498,655, or 91.13 per cent of the total reported by all classes of purchasers. White and red oak and south- Pret nagul rt 4 CROSSTIES PURCHASED AND TREATED IN 1915. 3 ern pine furnished the greater part of these, although Douglas fir and cedar were reported in large quantities. The number of ties purchased by the electric railways and light, heat, and power companies amounted to 8.87 per cent of the total, a decrease of 281,000 ties in comparison with the number purchased by these companies in 1911. The greater part of those reported were white oak, cedar, and chestnut. Southern pine and red-oak ties were purchased in nearly the same quantities, while fewer birch ties than any other were separately reported. TaBLE 2.—Number of crossties reported purchased in 1915, oy classes of purchasers and kinds of wood. Steam rail- roads rep- | Electric resenting | railways, 78.46 per jand light, Kind of wood. Total. cent of en- /heat, and tire mileage] power in the compa- United nies. States. NII Tecra 6 aha Sb SN eae ee a ys 97, 106,651 | 88, 498,655 | 8, 607,996 Whi O28 53. 33 Sb c G8 SEE Bee SoS ee Ee ICE Ce aC Se at enema Ee eo 32, 461, 555 | 30, 160,316 | 2,301, 239 TRG OBI atc els Sei SEE Ae Oe aoe MR Coe rst bg A ae eee saeieae 16, 872, 326 | 15,989, 605 882,721 DLOUPMORMG DINO M see Hates ya en teem ane aata mens. oleic eae 14,115, 681 | 13, 226, 654 889, 027 IDCWEIAS TP oe SHS S HOSE SSE Se IIE Sete RIE et ae EEE ere eA 6,950,910 | 6,308, 685 642, 225 BUS che ee ee ee as REN ie Lea eat ae oie near nla aye aja ayare SRI 5, 122,103 | 4,121,570 | 1,000, 533 (CHENIRG)- 633.05 SORE SES ESO SRA ae ae eta an ae eam ry ees 4,548,352 | 2,666,402 | 1,881,950 COAVIOHOSS 5 3 Sc ie eo RAR ea Se) sa A Aad Se 4,478,612 | 4,375,012 103, 600 PASEO TMAbAIMATA Clee pays sea se dalsaea\ mun felsetein sie sstelata ainie = olnle = ate ein Sls a Semele 2,606,794 | 2,520,475 86, 319 RVeEStenmpye llowppine ss Olek ws) Asean Woe cy atins ok ale Sep osemasiels 1,402,836 | 1,183,535 219, 301 MWOdSe POLE MINCE see. -\osceeencl- cee aecenacescetse Je dece cece see cel LE S16%819) P1254 490 62,399 AWWie Ste rmblanc ibsers ap cies 2 isl een ars = sesoeyon jee aie iaiaie = wa oS wea ote rate aan 1,251,304 | 1,196,415 54,889 1, 139, 457 34, 033 1, 062, 086 7,461 3,353 1,235,477 | 126, 217 Table 3 shows the number of crossties reported purchased by the steam railroads, representing 78.46 per cent of the total mileage of the country, classified by regions which are the same as those used by the Interstate Commerce Commission. The eastern region comprises that portion of the United States bounded on the west by the northern and western shores of Lake Michigan to Chicago, thence by a line to Peoria, thence to East St. Louis, and down the Mississippi River to the mouth of the Ohio River. It is bounded on the south by the Ohio River from its mouth to Parkersburg, W. Va.; thence down the Potomac River to its mouth. _ This region is second in size of the three regions and has a total of 64,491 miles of railroad. The actual mileage of the report- ing railroads is 43,018 miles, or 66 per cent of the total mileage of the region. The southern region is that portion of the United States bounded on the north by the eastern region and on the west by the Mississippi River. It is the smallest of the three regions and has a total of jf | 4 BULLETIN 549, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 49,670 miles of railroads. ‘The mileage of the reporting railroads was 35,830 miles, or 72 per cent of the total mileage of the region. The western region, which is the largest, is the remainder of the United States and has a total of 141,936 miles of railroads. The mileage of the reporting railroads is 122,432 miles, or 86 per cent of the total of the region. White oak is the predominating wood in all regions. It is very evenly distributed throughout them all; and the southern and eastern regions reported practically the same quantities. Practically all of the red-oak ties were reported in the western and eastern regions, the southern region reporting only 512,054. Southern pine is rather evenly distributed through all the different regions. Oak, Douglas fir, and southern pine meet the greater part of the demand in the western region, although cypress, cedar, tamarack, western yellow pine, and lodgepole pine are well represented. The eastern region draws largely upon oak, southern pine, cedar, and chestnut for its crossties. These four species supplied 27,681,334, or 92 per cent of the total number of ties purchased im this region. Douglas fir was purchased in small quantities, the total being 2,491 ties. In the southern region, white oak, southern pine, and cypress con- tributed 16,096,815 ties, or 90 per cent of the total purchased in the region. There were reported 432 hemlock crossties and only 27 cedar ties. Beech and maple were reported in nearly equal quantities. TABLE 3.—Numeber of crossties reported purchased in 1915 by steam railroads, representing 78.46 per cent of total mileage, by regions and kinds of wood. Western Eastern Southern Kind of wood. Daval region. region. region. AIM GndS'.. 355 aeaos oa. Peek ee Soe es eee 88, 498, 655 | 40,650, 424 | 30,007,583 | 17,840, 648 WiHItO 08K «os 72 Se ejects cals einige Sisla kels «eS Sees 30,160,316 | 11,227,462 | 9,336,366 9, 596, 488 ReMtOnk eos oo skcacese saree ences ose Saabs eae aecee 15,989,605 | 5,630,237 | 9,797,314 512, 054 HoUphern pine. 2.2 25-2 eee es oe AUS AAANEE one pe sare 13, 226,654 | 4,692,350 | 3,922,080 4,612, 224 Douglas fir se). seeded decane Seger ee erect ete 6,308,685 | 6,306, 194 DEAT craic CYHPROSS sya cae Seccls aan ts he Ha ee ree a ee aS 4,375,012 | 2,467, 158 19,751 1,888, 103 Cedar) fececcece tateecs seapee ene eee e eRe ee eee ee 4,121,570 | 2,004,822 | 2,116,721 27 Chestnut: 22522 s.nte oS eee tee Beso sates eee 2, 666, 402 96,443 | 2,508,853 61, 103 MAS LOMIN PATI AL ACK 2 oe arerafe eiaicls aso wi3 Nt =teicleiaet=iis glia eee 2,520,475 | 2,408, 642 UIE Sb aes er ILodpepole pineta. <-seetescel- serie eet sae eee os aeeace 1, 254,420) 1,254,420 |... 222-2 25.-|2 2-22 eee. ee IWiGSTORT LAT Chis oor nes yea tela sera te ays varets eater oleae eta 1,196, 405 uli Wd OG SAT on Seep ees | eerercsine\aietcle Westernvyellow pine..5 ter ear. si eis eens austen 1,183,535 | 1,145,371 3, 364 34, 800 BeGCh . Fo seeeae naatde cant access dane antiecaeancme cee. 1, 139, 457 118, 363 648, 774 372, 320 Mamle sec ocet assem e ae eae ces Sep ek teat 1, 062, 086 111, 400 578, 373 372,313 Hemlock. . Sa 839, 9) 811, 822 27, 670 432 Gum.... 485, 466 275, 741 208, 550 1,175 Birch... 462, 462 194, 801 QETODL Me sce duke Redwood. - 270, 694 PAV OLED Soe eben | Pea + ATM ODN OTE eyo em ter mecis = ete eee ict wise pele ainas eres ictalayae 1, 235, 477 388, 089 457, 782 389, 606 Table 4 indicates the number of crossties purchased by the various classes of railroads. Class I roads are those whose annual operating revenues are over $1,000,000; Class II, from $100,000 to $1,000,000; and Class III, under $100,000. The railroads in Class I represent 183,493 miles; those in Class II and Class III represent 9,587 miles CROSSTIES PURCHASED AND TREATED IN 1915, 5 and 8,200 miles respectively. The total mileage of the reporting. railroads in these three classes is 201,280 miles, or 78.46 per cent of the total mileage of the steam railroads in the United States. The mileage of the reporting railroads in Class I constitutes over 71 per cent of the entire mileage of the country. It is also over 80 per cent of the mileage of Class I roads. TaBLE 4.— Number of crossties reported purchased in 1915 by steam railroads, representing 78.46 per cent of total mileage in all regions by classes and kinds of wood. Class I.— | Class IT.— | Class IIT.— Operating | Operating | Operating Kind of wood. Total. revenues, | revenues, | revenues, over $100,000— under $1,000,000. | $1,000,000. | $100,000. JN Tate Ole) poe eee oodeacoes seccepbencnssoeececdoee 88, 498, 655 | 81,362,505 | 3,641,978 3,494,172 SVP OD sone os a aiming on wo ee wis = =lnlieinis = mina n= = = 30, 160,316 | 27,557,928 | 1,321, 443 1, 280, 945: G0) OAS see Gas SoS e econo seneBeea cae SESS 60>b aera nscale 15, 989, 605 | 15, 495, 614 166, 023 327, 968 “STAG jee: 43) Sb oso serene] boceer Uae socsscneadcce 13, 226, 654 | 11, 697, 745 877, 836 651, 073_ Douglas fir....----------------------------------------- 6,308, 685 | 5,964, 527 212,991 131, 167 OWIDFESS2 co ne pee Jelso See deeesoeee steer sekesdesosesonsc. 4,375,012 | 3,934, 789 256, 282 183, 941 Case. (26 SLUR eee: ORS eee eee 4,121,570 | 3,672,564 202, 126 246, 880 Cingsiitiialll. on eS5encesbcedeceunesocasoecs se eacssaeceseacs 2,666,402 | 2,323,586 117, 722 225, 094 IDesiina Ue TAOS (Fe ARBs eee eee coca seco sdeee seeeeeeeoe 2,520,475 | 2,390,333 91, 799 38, 343 Lodgepole pine.....--.-------- Socteece ce soasoessseeser 1, 254,420 | 1,201,347 23,340 29, 733 \W@stiaien Ibmi@tn d= oo 556 seedeberes scoaseceosacossconsases 1,196,415 | 1,136, 944 36, 874 22, 597 Western yellow pine. ..-....-....---------------------- 1,183,535 | 1,057, 841 10, 010 115, 684 «URGE Den bees osbdseeSsene oh sees sce seeseeseucosasesonee 1,139,457 | 1,096, 095 15, 884 27,478 LESTE. 0 5. LONGUS 2 Glee oe ne ee eee 1,062,086 | 1,021, 603 13,719 26, 764 FET CrrilGc lament pe Ah ti eae UT 839, 924 650, 774 128, 475 60, 675 Cima oh) Se SE Ie Rae eI ie aot 3 ona a 485, 466 475, 263 904 9, 299 TENA. | a RT OSU ae Sa ese a en et 462, 462 455, 881 Gr 5870 Re. 2. Mees TRG ATO Le ae Og Ue Oe BOE” UE Be eee peereie Pama 270, 694 162, 184 67, 212 41, 298 JNU CHEER. cocaeonecosnnenceceubes scouce be ssccUssuasesesE 1, 235,477 | 1,067,487 92,757 75, 233 Tables 5, 6, and 7 show the number of crossties purchased by the steam railroads in the western, eastern, and southern regions of the country. They are tabulated according to the three classes of roads and the species are arranged in the order of number of ties purchased. TaBLE 5.— Number of crossties reported purchased in 1915 by steam railroads representing 86.54 per cent of the mileage in the western region, by classes of railroads and kinds of wood. Class I.— | Class II.— | Class T11.— Operating | Operating | Operating Kind of wood. Total. revenues, | revenues, | revenues, over $100,000- under $1,000,000. | $1,000,000. | $100,000. ANID RIK ECS h boaodeseebee s+ Seeeboe ae pebedaosononde 40, 650, 424 | 37,425,087 | 1,775,397 1,449, 940 \VIOaS ON Ite a See ae ASR AC CREDA ben oaiete 11, 227, 462 | 10,027,038 602, 737 597, 687 TRGTOl ONE WS ara ET OES 2 nae aa Sate AE 5, 680, 237 | 5,516,065 62, 178 101, 994 TD VOTE) TREES eae Oe aa ee 2 re EI Le oe ila oe 6,306,194 | 5,964,527 210, 500 131, 167 MouUuherm pine wens foots el. Bee eee no eeiseeee 4,692,350 | 4,345,555 176, 836 169, 959 ON DRESS ME eee Pas kanes ete he mei 2,467,158 | 2,303,909 148, 352 14, 897 ASCE Iba AraC Oke. ae Key ited Ba Ds AR e Lea 2,408,642 | 2,334, 141 46,346 28, 155 COOP OE ASS Jae oe ees a ie Sane ere RSE aC HE aie 2,004,822 | 1,716,987 191, 099 96, 736 MOS OMOLENP IMO! Ss fees seek we Sa EEE aS 1, 254,420 | 1,201,347 23,340 29, 733 iWiestermlanchy sss son ee See lm oo ek 1,196,415 | 1,136,944 36, 874 22, 597 Western yellow pine. ...-. Fee ene oa SE oe Scrape ----| 1,145,371 | 1,057,841 10, 010 77, 520 TS eran yeh ec Ss SS Sate RN pe LE ee 811, 822 633, 277 121, 686 56, 859 CHOI sO 6 BABS EE SARS RCS AOE aCe et Ma 275, 741 267, 563 704 7, 474 PELE OO Gye ee Nae aa et ey Oe aed a ee a 270, 694 162, 184 67, 212 41, 298 TREITGL Ds ge aE ee aE Pa na 194, 801 LOAN SOS, | isco ae AS Ae IBeechiseetene ce cpracacee wees Sole cota iets oi 118, 363 OPER eoeasaeacoes 6, 000 TUTTO ede RS la CAC kat 111, 400 103, 417 1,137 6, 846 RO EES UATE eee Nessie Melee BURL D oH, Vengh SN vg Dee a 96, 443 poe ih Sea eh 3, 499 AGAR HE MANET SES NE 8 COE REC Se nan COE 388,089 | 354,184 76, 386 57,519 6 BULLETIN 549, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 6.—Number of crossties reported purchased in 1915 by steam railroads representing 66.24 per cent of the mileage in the eastern region, by classes of railroads and kinds of wood, eee I— yes II.— | Class ITI.— : perating perating | Operatin Kind of wood. Total. revenues, | revenues, Caan! over $100,000- under $1,000,000. | $1,000,000. | $100,000. ATMS .aicdeseeke eine: taba nese wlaqscete et 30, 007, 583 | 28,365, 491 615, 807 1, 026, 285 (HGR Get eice a 54154506 SUee Sasa Samu aanensepasase5A- 9,797,314 | 9,511,011 77, 926 208, 377 White oak.....- Sad adeceppis Sameitecserciectenseeh ieee tee 9, 336, 366 | 8, 810, 429 308, 817 221, 120 BoUthernlp me! nace sabe lc aeee want ec omer Ske 3,922,080 | 3,727,961 22,315 171, 804 GGG) 0i Canoe Aas opin ABS EOuAD Oe HEADS ay aoea ee Ieee 2,508,853 | 2, 201, 641 102, 198 205, 014 Godan: Saihs2e5 O10 a. RESUS Re eae ie ee oe 2,116,721 | 1,955,577 11,000 150, 144 IBGGGEn. Sees. Sato SVU Neen CRE Nn Ye cette 648, 774 613, 016 15,780 19, 978 Ma GIS: toes th gna ee ola eee Ree Ren neat eee 578,373 |* 547,471 12, 582 18, 320 IBIEG Be Sees 32 A este mee eiatet oer tle oe ee eae eee eons 267, 661 261, 080 Grou Case lS Gin> . Bs 5 oSte es sse cee su cee csemne pees eeneeeouse sees 208, 550 20s (00 Beene tee 850 IDS ich (Gin edicten sone ss dOSsoesceaeeonsac spose cc 111, 833 56, 192 45, 453 10, 188 Herlocke. 22228 tea eee peti eee Oe eae eee eee 27,670 17, 497 6, 789 3, 384 O57 UNS... Saotigsades sboSeeal assoevo gia soaadcbemaseosb sar 19, 751 TES 108) Neceeccooande 4, 988 Western yellow pine. ..-.-- 22-2 - = fone ene nae By Bapesaasecobl ts soca sce 3, 364 DMonclasihir.2 essa sas Rees See a ee QAO seins eee s ree ee ee WMO GHErEE 22 tet enss eee ene ae ease ee ete eee eatin 457, 782 441, 153 7,875 8, 754 TaBLE 7.—Number of crossties reported purchased in 1915 by steam railroads representing 72.13 per cent of the mileage in the southern region, by classes of railroads and kinds of wood. Class I.— | Class IT.— | Class III.— Operating | Operating | Operating Kind of wood. Total. revenues, | revenues, | revenues, Over $100,000- under $1,000,000. | $1,000,000. | $100,000. IN cin dS = eet ec ee etme eS ee 17,840, 648 | 15,571,927 | 1,250,774 | 1,017,947 \MD Cees cosa se cSsad sone ee osoedatercasboscseedosc 9,596,488 | 8, 720, 461 413, 889 462, 138 SOUPHErH pine see ee aes eee oe eee eee eee ere 4,612,224 | 3,624,229 678, 685 309, 310 CADE Aes es osdeen SSS o Sh doeebe oe ssbeceeebscesese- 1,888,103 | 1,616,117 107, 930 164, 056 BURR oe SB oerecpeseecs seu geas shotbac sb o A-as 20 609 16, 443 2, 866 17.43 11, 635 70. 76 cde ena s Since a onhea rae eee 20 570 15, 960 565 3.41 1,339 8.43 A io Pe ms oe ee 20 638 19,778 597 3.02 835 4, 22 CheckiB: oo eis en 8s coca 20 623 15, 575 2,129 13.61 11, 706 75.16 wis ENR Eee Cee enn ete ane ee 20 585 14, 625 1,364 9.32 4,966 33.95 DV sae ee ea eames 20 584 16, 936 995 5. 87 3,242 19.13 Check iGeo-22 5 sob Se scsecaan ae 20 608 15, 200 1, 073 7.06 9, 963 65. 65 The final counts in this vineyard showed that the grape-berry moth had been controlled in the plat where two applications with “‘trailers”’ had been made, using arsenate of lead (powder) at the rate of 2% pounds to 50 gallons with an hag ahs adhesive (PlatJI). This was in the face of a very heavy in- festation in the checks. In contrast to the results in all other vineyards, in the plat in which 14 pounds of arsen- ate of lead (powder) was used the final count was distinctly SOUT less satisfactory (Plat’ I). Fic. 8.—Diagram showing arrangement of experimental This difference was conspic- plats in the vineyard of Mr. J. M. Moorhead, Moorhead- yoy only at the north end of ville, Pa., 1916. (Original.) e m the vineyard, where the in- festation in the checks was practically total and where several eggs had been deposited on a majority of the berries. It should be noted that the contrast was not apparent until the second-brood counts were made, and the first-brood infestation was about the same in both plats. An unusually large percentage of second-brood larve found in Plat I were very late, indicating that the early second brood had failed to enter the berries. This would indicate that the two amounts of poison were equally effective for some time, but that the higher amount withstood the weathering better. Two applications (1) with ‘set nozzles” and (2) with “trailers” (Plat IV) were partially effective, though not satisfactory. A single application with “trailers” when the berries were just touching (Plat IIL) was entirely unsatisfactory. - CONTROL OF THE GRAPE-BERRY MOTH. 25 EXPERIMENT IN THE MOORHEAD VINEYARD, MOORHEADVILLE, Ae 1916. An experimental plat of 48 rows, 8 rows per acre, was chosen in this vineyard. It was divided into 6 plats of 8 rows each. During the season of 1915 the infestation was heavy, 30 to 35 per cent of the berries being ‘“‘wormy,’”’ with a tendency for heaviest infestation at, the west side. Accordingly a transverse check of seven unsprayed vines at the end of each row was left. The arrangement of plats is shown by the diagram (fig. 8). TABLE 16.—Spray mixture used and methods and dates of application, Moorhead vine- yard, Moorheadville, Pa., 1916. \ Bordeaux mixture. Arsenate Potash , Method Plat No. aa aes ae Y| fish-oik Eau Water. | of appli- “| Ger.) Lime. | Copper > soap. i ation sulphate. Pounds. | Pounds. } Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Gallons. TNS ‘ycandia iflagte July 8,19 14 3 3 dsl ee Seman deren A ee ae 50 | Trail- enesred TE i.2 ie ena can do.... 23 3 3 IT ek ree mel ee teen oes 50 Do lites: Bayes July 8,20 14 3 Sh lee ee ce ZO Patiad meee pew 50 Do. Vem alt do.... 13 3 3 TINA [OI aoe ee (Ene RZ ae aad 50 | “Set noz- - zles” . first appli- cation ; “trail- ers” second. VS Esmee nso eee Goren 1g 3 Gay ued hen Be A Goes 1 50 | “Trail- ; ers.” Wala ts at July 20. 1 3 3 SUED sp eS Bi aU 50 Do. TABLE 17.—Percentage of infestation in experimental plats, Moorhead vineyard, Moor- headville, Pa., 1916. { First brood. Second brood. Number | Number Plat No. of _ of race vines. | clusters. - | Tnfested | Infesta- | Infested | Infesta- berries. tion. berries. tion. ; Per cent. Per cent. 20 850 29, 750 243, 0.81 1, 75 5.88 6 253 9,108 406 4.45 3, 812 41.85 20 675 23, 625 154 65 949 4.02 6 226 8, 136 297 3.65 2,997 36. 83 20 709 23, 397 152 . 64 806 Bp 115) 6 195 7, 410 340 4.57 2, 848 38.43 20 638 19,778 163 - 82 1,307 6.61 6 235 8, 930 345 3.86 2,443 Wi 33 20 703 23, 902 190 .79 4, 605 19. 60 6 224 8, 064 S74: 2.15 2, 741 33.99 20 709 20, 561 333 1.61 1,079 5.25 6 154 4,312 86 1.99 1, 010 23.39 The final counts showed satisfactory results in plats where two applications ‘with ‘‘trailers’’ were made with poison and laundry or fish-oil soaps (Plats I, II, 111). Fish-oil soap without resin as well as laundry soap was an effective adhesive, fish-oil soap having the advantage. A ‘‘soft soap’’ was also used (Plat V), but proved a 26 BULLETIN 550, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. very poor adhesive. Arsenate of lead at the rate of 24 pounds (powder) to 50 gallons of liquid (Plat II) appeared to be little more effective at the increased strength than when used at the rate of 14 pounds to 50 gallons (Plat I). Plats where the first application was made with “‘set nozzles”’ (Plat ITV) and where it was omitted altogether (Plat V) showed a fairly satisfactory reduction of infestation. It should be noted that the infestation in the checks in these two plats was not as heavy as that in the checks adjacent to COO Plats I, I, and III. EXPERIMENT IN THE PHILLIPS VINEYARD, NORTH EAST, PA., 1916. LAST This vineyard consisted of Ni- agara grapes, whereas in all other vineyards in which experimental i eae ce spraying was done the grapes were Fic. 9.—Diagram, showing the arrangement of ex- (Concords. It covered about two perimental plats in the vineyard of Mr. M. D. : . Phillips, North East,Pa.,1916. Thesprayedplats acres, irregular in shape, and was are marked with Roman numeralsand thecheck djyided into two plats. To guard plats with letters. (Original.) : Ae ake against natural irregularities of infestation unsprayed checks were left in each of the three cornets. The arrangement of plats is shown in the diagram (fig. 9). TABLE 18.—Spray mixtures used and methods and dates of application, Phillips vine- yard, North East, Pa., 1916. Bordeaux mixture. Arsenate Plat No. Dates sprayed.| oflead nae Water. See (paste). Tanie Copper ‘ ; Y sulphate. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Gallons. Tapes eee cose July 5-and 22.. 5 3 3 1 50 | “ Trailers.’” Ue Ae oe cas onc oe | July 5 and 22.. 3 3 3 1 50 Do. | TaBLe 19.—Percentage of infestation in experimental plats, Phillips vineyard, North East, Pa., 1916. First brood. Second brood. Reaper Total: | == 5s eee Plat No. (0) : clusters. berries. Infested | Infesta- | Infested | Infesta- berries. tion. berries. tion. Per cent. Per cent. hi debtadas da ealdate Cull a OU eee anee = eee set 400 15, 200 436 2.87 479 mil Do a te so Prete sons = ee a se Se 400 16, 000 107 67]. 142 -89 Check) Bare a aicaws cheneet TE eee 200 7, 200 423 5. 88 5, 135 71.32 Check: Be ss ee enh ark an ke bo wees ont 200 7, 600 1, 186 15. 61 6,114 80. 45 Cheek Chia Selig Sree ae 200 8, 000 289 3.11 4,034 50. 43 CONTROL OF THE GRAPE-BERRY MOTH. 27 Results in this vineyard showed that spraying will control the erape-berry moth fully as well in the very compact clusters of the Niagara grapes as in the less compact Concord. The test was thor- ough, as shown by the heavy infestation in the checks. Arsenate of lead used at the rate of 5 pounds (paste) to 50 gallons of liquid (Plat I) did not appear to have any advantage over 3 pounds to 50 gallons (Plat IT). Tue Spray MiIxtTuRE. ARSENATE OF LEAD, AMOUNT NECESSARY. Arsenate of lead, either as paste or as powder, was the insecticide used in all field experiments. In all instances but one, when used at the rate of 3 pounds, paste, or 14 pounds, powder, to 50 gallons of liquid, the amount was sufficient to reduce the grape-berry moth satisfactorily. During the seasons of 1915 and 1916 at least one plat was sprayed with poison at the above rate, and one other plat was sprayed under conditions as nearly the same as possible except that the amount of poison was increased to 5 pounds of paste or 24 pounds of powder to 50 gallons of liquid. In all instances except the one referred to no distinct advantage was shown in favor of the higher amount, while in two of the vineyards the plats sprayed with the higher amount were actually the more heavily infested. The differ- ences in results that did appear were usually slheht and could be accounted for largely by variation of infestation. The comparative value of the two amounts of poison as it appeared in the different vineyards is summarized in Table 20. TABLE 20.—Relative efficiency of arsenate of lead at the rate of 3 pounds and 5 pounds (paste) to 50 gallons of liquid. Infested grape berries. Num- Treatments um- Amount of arse- Years | ber of u Aver- nate of lead. Poaceae all tried. vine- bop of Best Adja- | Poor- | Adja- oe oe age of Prats. yards. | P Tat, | cent | est | cent ofall all ad- plat. | check. plat. | check. jacent plats checks . Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. 3 pounds paste | Laundry soap,| 1915, 1916 7 7} 0.89 | 50.43] 8.43 | 75.16 4.12] 50.03 or 14 pounds 1 pound, powder to 50 B or deaux gallons of water. mixture (3-3 formula). The same _ as | 50 gallons ap- | 1915, 1916 6 Oe akes tel seal Beene eyes ether 3.41 | 49.17 above. Poor- plied twice + est plat elimi- with ‘‘trail- nated. ers.” 5 pounds paste or |..........--..-- 1915, 1916 6 16} 3.15] 75.16 | 5.06 | 94.83] 3.34] 54.90 23 pounds pow- : j der to 50 gal- lons of water. 1 Plat IT, Miller and Carlburg vineyard, is not included in this average because the results were prejudiced by rain. Table 20 indicates that as a rule there is practically no difference in effectiveness between the two amounts of poison. However, in 28 BULLETIN 550, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the Southwick vineyard, 1916 (Plats I and II), the results in the plat sprayed with the higher amount appeared so much better in the final counts that the result could hardly be accounted for by variable infestation. Moreover, checks on either side showed that very little variation existed. In this vineyard at one end, although not through- out the vineyard, the checks showed an infestation very near to total, and probably enough moths had emerged to have totally infested a crop several times as heavy. Under such conditions of extremely heavy infestation the higher amount of poison was more effective. As previously stated in the discussion of results in the Southwick vineyard, the two amounts of poison were apparently equally effective when the first counts were made, but the higher amount withstood the weathering better and was more effectivea gainst the late second brood. ADHESIVES. The necessity of adding adhesives to the spray mixture became apparent to the writer in the experiments in 1914. It was readily observed that the spray solutions from which an adhesive was absent did not adhere to the waxy skin of the grape berries, and this was undoubtedly one of the chief reasons for the failure to control the grape-berry moth during that season. The solutions to which soap was added appeared to adhere much better, but since this was used only in the last application a definite contrast in the final count was not shown. The counts in plats where soap had been added to the spray solution and applied with “ trailers,’ however, when compared with counts in the nearest checks are consistently better than the others. The effect of applying a spray mixture without adhesives was specifically demonstrated in 1915 by a comparison of the results in Plats V and IX in the Miller and Carlburg vineyard, pages 18-19. TaBLe 21.—Relative effectiveness of spray mixtures with various adhesives and without adhesive. (Treatments common to all plats: Arsenate of lead, 3 pounds of paste or 14 pounds of powder; Bordeaux mixture (3-3-50 formula) applied twice with “‘trailers.’’) Infested grape berries. Num- ‘fave Kind of adhesive used. Years ber of nigh Ast Aver- . tried. vine- isis) Rest Adja- | Poor- | Adja- oars age of yards. ein: cent est cent of ol all ad- check. | plat. | check 1 jacent plats checks Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. Resin fish-oil soap........ 1916 1 | AIAG Bemmeree sare cmcicliccc. ae a6 2.14 55. 53 Fish-oil soap (without | 1916 only. 2 2 | oc es celeron csl ede seen eee 1.97 31.29 resin). DOs ween ta ceae es sie soc 1915, 1916 3 3 0.47 | 25.76 7.91 | 65.94 3.95 42. 84 Laundry soap. -.......... 1916 only. 4 4 |. ccsccablawsecace] sone ene eee 4.14 61.79 WOE cess seat ok 1915, 1916 7 7 89 | 50. 43 8.43 | 75.16 4.12 50.03 Sditsoapesie ss. sos 1916 1 Wii O2 oo. | bug. sees eee | eae 19. 60 33.99 MIONE DABLOS: os. Sato s sec k 1915 1 De foo Seta | area bt | aye erate ee 18. 89 28. 80 No adhesive.............. 1915 1 Us}. 6350 24..| SEE EE ORE eee 21.05 28. 80 PLATE VI. Bul. 550, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ([eurstio) *(¢ 8) deos [l0-Ysy Ulsel B pus (T “3y) deos Arpuney v jo enyxrux Avads ur seryryenb Surpveids eatyeredur0g "HLO|N| AHUSG-adVvVuH AHL LSNIVOY DNIAVYdS CONTROL OF THE GRAPE-BERRY MOTH. ee) From Table 21 it may be seen that fish-oil and laundry soaps used in the seasons of 1915 and 1916 were both effective as adhesives and that soft soap and flour paste were unsatisfactory. (See Pl. VI.) The advantage of one soap over another, as shown in the final counts, was usually so slight that it can not be considered significant. At the time of application resin fish-oil soap appeared at best advantage. It was a better spreader than any of the others and consequently made the work faster and easier. It was used only in the Bartlett vineyard during the season of 1916. The potash fish-oil soap without resin also spread better than laundry soap. Potash fish-oil soap was used in 1915 in the Miller and Carlburg vineyard and in 1916 in the Moorhead and Bartlett.vineyards. The following analysis of the resin fish-oil soap used was made by. the Bureau of Chemistry: Water, 25.7 per cent. Fatty and resin anhydrides, 68 per cent. Sodium oxide, Na,O, 4.3 per cent. Undetermined, 2 per cent. Laundry soap if carefully used is practically as effective and adhe- sive as the fish-oil soaps, but it has two distinct disadvantages, (1) it is a slower and a poorer spreader than fish-oil soaps, and (2) different makes of soap and even different lots of soap of the same make vary. In the experimental work each brand of soap was tried on a few vines with a hand sprayer before it was used in commercial experi- ments. If the vineyardist finds it necessary to rely on laundry soaps for an adhesive, this precaution would be advisable. All of the laundry soaps that proved satisfactory were yellow resin soaps. Some of the so-called white soaps containing no resin were tried with a hand sprayer but lacked adhesive qualities and were not used in any field experiments. Cutting the laundry soap and allowing it to dry out before using it in the spray mixture seemed to impair its sticking as well as its spread- ing qualities seriously. A soft soap from a rendering factory also was tried, but gave nega- tive results both as an adhesive and asaspreader. This was observed readily at the time of application, and the result is shown clearly in the final counts. (Moorhead vineyard, Plat V, 1916.) Flour paste although a good spreader was an unsatisfactory adhe- sive, because it washed off with the first ram. (Miller and Carlburg vineyard, Plat VIII, 1915.) When soap in the spray mixture is not dissolved thoroughly, clogging of the spray apparatus is likely to follow. Hot water was found necessary for quickest results. If the sprayer engine is water cooled, hot water from the water jacket can be used satisfactorily for this purpose. 30 . BULLETIN 550, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE: Amount of adhesive necessary.—Resin fish-oil soap or laundry soap used at the rate of 1 pound to 50 gallons of liquid gave good results as a ‘‘sticker” and spreader. Potash fish-oil soap without resin was used at the rate of 2 pounds to 50 gallons of liquid. ‘ NICOTINE SULPHATE. Forty per cent nicotine sulphate was utilized in sprays every year in some of the vineyards against the grape leafhopper. This sub- stance was used at the rate of 1 part to 1,600 parts of liquid in the last grape-berry moth spray. In 1915 it was used in both of the applications against the berry moth. In none of the plats on which it was used was there any: indication that nicotine sulphate added to or detracted from the value of the spray mixture, so far as grape- berry moth control was concerned. RELATION OF FUNGICIDES. Bordeaux mixture had no insecticidal or repellent value, so far as the grape-berry moth was concerned. (Miller and Carlburg vine- yard, Plat VII, 1915.) However, the addition of this fungicide seemed to be advantageous. Besides reducing the danger of burning by the arsenate of lead and soap combination it gave to the spray mixture physical qualities which lessened the tendency to collect on the lower surface of the berry. The relation of neutral acetate of copper to arsenate of lead and soap was tried in an experiment on a small scale. It was thought that this nonstaining fungicide might be substituted for Bordeaux mixture if an August spray were adopted. One pound of neutral acetate of copper and 1 pound of soap to 50 gallons of water were mixed and applied to a few vines. The result was unsatisfactory. No injury to the foliage resulted, but the soap and neutral copper acetate in combination stained the grapes fully as objectionably as the soap and Bordeaux combination. It had been demonstrated previously that the Burgundy mixture should not be used in combination with an arsenical, and it was not tried. LIME. When for any reason it was desired to omit Bordeaux mixture from the spray combination of arsenate of lead and soap, lime was added at the rate of 1 pound to 50 gallons of liquid. INJURY DUE TO SPRAYING. Combinations of arsenate of lead and soap with Bordeaux mixture or lime caused no injury to foliage in any of the three seasons of experimental work. If ‘nicotine sulphate 40 per cent” at the rate of 1 part to 1,600 parts of liquid was added to this solution it also was CONTROL OF THE GRAPE-BERRY MOTH. 31 applied safely. However, the combination of arsenate of lead and soap alone produced slight burning of foliage in 1916. (Bartlett vineyard, Plat VIT.) No serious staiming of fruit occurred except when the second- brood spray was applied in August in 1916. This was much reduced by using the arsenate of lead and soap with lime instead of with Bordeaux mixture. MeEtTHOD OF APPLICATION. The first season’s experiments clearly demonstrated the difficulty im covering grape clusters by the “set-nozzles” applications. This was particularly inadequate at the last application, at which time the foliage is very heavy, and pressure up to 250 pounds was not effective. The use of “trailers” on a few plats for the last appli- cation suggested the complete change of method which followed the next season. A specific demonstration of the inadvisability of depending on “set nozzles” as a means of applying spray was shown in 1915 by the contrast between Plats I and X in the Miller and Carlburg vine- yard. The necessity of using “trailers” was so satisfactorily established in the first two seasons that during 1916 “set nozzles” were not used in both applications in any plats. However, in the Moorhead vine- yard, Plat IV, and in the Southwick vineyard, Plat IV, “set nozzles”’ were tried for the first application. In the former, at the time of the first application, the results were reasonably satisfactory, although not the best. In the latter vineyard the foliage was very heavy when “set nozzles’ were used, and the failure to cover the clusters with spray was obvious. The reduction of infestation that resulted should be credited largely to the last application, which was made with “ trailers.”’ The relative efficiency of “set nozzle’ and “ trailer’? methods of application and a combination of these methods is shown in Table 22. TABLE 22.—Relative efficiency of ‘‘trailer” and ‘‘set nozzle” methods of application. (Treatments common to all plats: Arsenate of lead, 3 pounds paste or 14 pounds powder; laundry soap, 1 pound; Bordeaux mixture (3-3-50) applied after falling of blossoms and when grape berries were just touching.) Infested grape berries. Num- Nu Method of application. nome ber of ber of ine- Adjs- | Poor- | Adja- yards. plats. | Best cent est cent Been Bea ot check. | plat. | check. plats. |checks pee: ?? 2 applica- Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. aoe ohloscbeetsscirys oe 1915, 1916 7 7 0.89 | 50.43 8.43 | 75.16 4.12 50. 03 Sot nozzles,” 1 appli- cation; ‘‘trailers,” 1 application Bee cee chee 1916 2 2 6.61 | 38.43 | 19.13 | 65.65] 12.87 52. 04 “Set norzles; (674 applica- MONS Ease nsec eects 1915 1 1} 20.41 | 28.80] 20.41} 28.80] 20.41 28. 80 82 BULLETIN 550, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Usually when ‘‘trailer’’ applications were made the sprayer was driven only in every other alley between the grape rows, each rod- man spraying both sides of his row on the same trip. During the season of 1915, in the Moorhead vineyard, Plats II and IV, the sprayer was driven in every alley, each rodman spraying only one side of a row on each trip. While it was easier to cover the foliage by this method, it was slower and it showed no distinct advantage over the usual method, in controlling the berry moth. It was given no further trial. Which of the two methods is best is probably a matter of individual preference. Careful work was an absolute necessity for successful ‘ trailer’’ applications. While the responsibility rested chiefly with the rod- men, unless the driver was careful about gathering up the hose and at the same time allowing the rodmen time to finish spraying each vine the work was handicapped greatly. It was necessary also that the rodmen should make an effort to cover each cluster or the advan- tage of ‘‘trailers’’ over the strictly mechanical method was lost. | TimE AND NUMBER OF APPLICATIONS. The most satisfactory spray schedule was as follows: The first application to be made immediately after the falling of the bloom; and the second application abgut two weeks later, at the time when the berries are just touching. This proved effective both in 1915 and in 1916, and was the schedule used in the majority of plats. A single application at the time the berries were just touching reduced the infestation greatly, but hardly offered satisfactory results. It was tried only in the season of 1916. This spray is intended for late first-brood larve, and enough of the poison will remain on the berries, at the time of the hatching of eggs of the second brood, greatly to reduce this brood as well. The effect of this spray against the second brood is shown by referring to the counts in Bartlett (dower) vineyard, Plat I, in comparison with the adjacent Check Plat A. Plat I was naturally more heavily infested than was Check Plat A, as the first-brood count showed that it had about 50 per cent more infested berries than did ‘‘A.”’ On the other hand the final count showed the percentage of infestation in Check Plat A to be three times as heavy as that in Plat I. Similar final results are shown in Southwick vineyard, Plat IV. The results in the Moorhead vineyard, Plat VI, would indicate that in case of light infestation this one application might control the berry moth satis- factorily. In 1916 a single application, made on August 12 and aimed directly against the second brood, also reduced the infestation considerably, as shown in Bartlett vineyard Plat II, although the counts did not appear as fayorable as the single earlier application previously men- CONTROL OF THE GRAPE-BERRY MOTH. au tioned as being made when the berries were just touching. This was probably due to the fact that the absence of the early application permitted all of the first brood to enter the berries and heavier ovi- position later resulted. Furthermore, dependence upon an applica- tion as late as August 12, alone, is open to objection even if the second- brood control was very good, because infestation by the first brood will usually seriously thin out the clusters, and too, the spray remains longer on the berries, leaving them seriously stained at harvest time. This application is harder to make than is the earlier one because the foliage at the later date is much heavier. The value of the applica- tion is largely that of an emergency measure, at a time when the first brood has not been controlled. A three-spray schedule was tried in Plat IV of the Bartlett (lower) vineyard. The infestation was less than in Plats III and V, which had been sprayed twice. However, in this instance the difference was not of commercial importance and would not pay for the extra appli- cation, and the fruit was stained so badly by the last application as to reduce materially its value on the basket market. This third application could be of value in this region only under extraordinary conditions, when faulty work or lack of spray materials and labor or unfavorable weather had prevented the control of the first brood. A comparison of the results of different spray schedules is given in Table 23. The average infestation of plats where two applications were made was distinctly heavier than was the infestation in the one plat where three applications were made. It should be noted, how- ever, that where the plats sprayed two and three times were adjacent in the same vineyard, the. difference in infestation was very slight. Tt also shows that the single application may produce fair control if the infestation is light, but that on the whole dependence on a single application is unsatisfactory. A spray application before the grapes blossomed, followed by the usual two applications after the falling of the blossoms, was tried in one plat in each vineyard in 1914. No beneficial results of this spray could be noted when the final counts were made. The importance of this spray was brought into question soon after its application, for very few larvee were found in the clusters before the next was applied. Hven had they been numerous at that time, the ‘‘preblossom spray”’ could hardly have been effective, as practically all of the poison that did adhere to the clusters when applied fell off a few days later with the flower caps. This early spray was applied again in 1915 in all three vineyards, but since practically no larvz were found until the blossoms fell, these plats were discarded. EEE 34 BULLETIN 550, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE 23.—Relative efficiency of different times and numbers of applications. Infested grape berries. Timeandnumber | Treatments | years oa saa We Aver- of applications. common, £0 tried. | vine- | P&t,° Adja- | Poor- | Adja- | *Y®"| age of = all plats. ards. plats. ee sont est tent ofl all ad- plat. | check.| plat. | check Jats, | Jacent plats. |checks, Phch PGE ARE Chan Abstr Pee. NOP. Two applications | Arsenate oflead,| 1915, 7 7| 0.89 | 50.48 | 8.43 | 75.16] 4.12] 50.03 after blossoms 3 pounds paste} 1916 have fallen and or 14 pounds when grape ber- powder; laun- ries are touch- dry soap, 1 ing. pound; Bor- deaux mix- ture (3-3-50), applied with “trailers.” Two applications, |....- GOs sep -eee 1916 1 DP) L572) 79h72 0) Aco7 i oe | deor |) 19. 72 same as above, including only plat adjacent to that sprayed 3 times. Three applica- |..... Gh ares ae 1916 1 1 -68 | 67.52 -68 | 67.52 -68 | 67.52 tions, 2 same as above; third 5 weeks after first. One application |..... dO. 3572-5 1916 3 | 5.25 | 23.39 | 33.95 | 75.16 | 18.71 | 51.29 when grape ber- Ties are touch- ing. One application 5 | (1)--..--.......- 1916 1 1 | 19.97 | 55.53 | 19.97 | 55.53 | 19.97 | 55.53 weeks after fall- ing of blossoms. 1 Same as above, except arsenate of lead, 24 pounds, and resin fish-oil soap instead of laundry soap. FACTORS DETERMINING THE TIME AND NUMBER OF APPLICATIONS. The time and number of applications are determined not only by the seasonal history and habits of the grape-berry moth, but also by the development of the grape itself. Fortunately the times for spraying, most favorable in relation to the pest and also in relation to the crop, are nearly coincident. It is probable, therefore, that the vineyardist will find it most convenient to time his operations entirely by the development of the fruit. The first spraying probably destroys the largest number of first- brood larve, for it is applied just before they begin hatching in num- bers. Besides these, it also destroys some larve which hatch before the blossoms fall and are feeding in the cluster, but have not entered a grape berry. Following this application the grapes grow very rap- idly and the larger part of the berry surface does not long remain covered. But as at this time the majority of the larve enter the berry at the stem end, where the spray always collects, compara- tively few escape. The second application is made after first-brood hatching begins to decline, but it is effective against the second brood also. As soon as the berries begin to touch, the majority of larve begin entering at the points of contact instead of at the stem ends. Spray which is CONTROL OF THE GRAPE-BERRY MOTH, 35 applied at this time is especially apt to collect at these places again, at which point it may be most effective later. It also covers the berry, and since there is comparatively little growth following this, it remains over the larger part of the surface until it is weathered off, or for about two months. Thus it remains effective during the period when the greater part of the second-brood larve hatch. As shown by the single-spray applications in 1916, this second spraying is prac- tically as effective against the second-brood larve as is one applied three weeks later, just as they are beginning to hatch. Larvze which succeed in entering the first berry may be poisoned upon moving to a second. Larger larve seldom consume enough poison to prevent their entering the grape berry, but may be found dead in the berry a day or two later, whereas those that have reached the fourth stage are seldom susceptible to poison in the amounts in which it is to be found, after weathering, on sprayed grapes. If this schedule is followed closely, the places on the grape berry at which the majority of the larvee would normally enter should be well covered with poison, and the surface of the berry as a whole will be covered for a longer time than by two sprayings applied at any other time. If the first application were made earlier, before the falling of the grape blossoms, most of the poison would be lost with the shedding of the floral parts, and the application would be com- paratively ineffective. If the second application were made earlier, while the berries were still growing rapidly, it could not cover the surface of the berries permanently nor could it collect at the points where the berries would touch, and while it might destroy more of the first brood, it would be almost entirely ineffective against the second. Hence no variation in the time of these two applications is advisable. RELATION OF DIFFERENT GRAPEVINE TRAINING SYSTEMS TO SPRAYING. The system of pruning and traming a vineyard must be largely determined by horticultural considerations. Nevertheless the dif- ferent systems greatly affect the facility with which the grapes may be sprayed and in other ways are related directly to the control of insect pests. To determine the relation to grape-berry moth con- trol of five of the more important systems, a small block in Mr. A. P. Bartlett’s vineyard was used in 1916. In all of the other spraying experiments the vines had been trained according to the Chautauqua system. This block was trained by the owner especially for this experiment according to the Four-cane Kniffin, Munson, Umbrella, High-renewal, and Chautauqua systems. As there may be many who are not familiar with all of these vine- training systems the following brief descriptions have been compiled from the papers of Husmann (15) and Gladwin (14). 86 BULLETIN 550, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Chautauqua system.—This is the system used most frequently in the Erie-Chautauqua grape belt. The stem reaches only to the lowest wire from which permanent arms to suppport the canes are carried right and left along the lower wire. The canes, usually about 4, are carried upward and tied to the upper wire or wires. High-renewal system.—-The head of the vine reaches only the lowest wire of the trellis, and the canes are tied right and left along this wire. The fruiting shoots growing from these canes are trained upright and fastened to the wires overhead. . Four-cane Kniffin system.—The stem is carried directly to the top wire of a two-wire trellis. Two canes about the level of each wire are tied right and left along each wire. Umbrella system.—This system differs chiefly from the Kniffin in that two canes are left instead of four. They are started at the upper wire and the extremities are tied down to the lower wire. Four-cane Munson system.—This system differs from the others mentioned in that it requires an overhead trellis. Across the top of each post a crossbar 20 inches long is fastened and outer wires are fastened at the ends of these crossbars, while an inner wire is fas- tened to the post about 6 inches lower down. A single stem is carried to the inner wire and four canes are left, one carried in each direction along each wire. Two regular first-brood applications with ‘‘trailers” were made. Vines trained according to any of these systems could be sprayed thoroughly and the difference in final counts is not significant, but the ease with which the applications were made is of considerable importance. The Kniffin and Munson systems were much the easier to spray. The time required was about 15 per cent less than that required for the Chautauqua system. ‘These systems had the advantage of having no upright shoots or canes to interfere with a free action of the spray rod. The fruit, although well protected by leaves above at the time of spraying, was well exposed below. The bunches hung,-in the Kniffin system in two layers, one below each wire, and in the Munson system just below the trellis, and consequently were easy to find. -The Munson system had the disadvantage of producing a dense shade, and consequently favoring grape-berry moth infestation. : In contrast to this, the Chautauqua system presented the disad- vantage of upright canes, which interfered with free action of the spray rod and with fruit arising from anywhere up and down these canes. The clusters were well protected by leaves and often isolated, and greater care was necessary in finding them and covering them with spray. CONTROL OF THE GRAPE-BERRY MOTH. Bid The umbrella system with the canes bent down from the upper wire to the lower presented a difficulty in spraying similar to that of the Chautauqua system, although it seemed slightly easier to spray. The high-renewal system was much more difficult to spray owing to the tendency of the rods to catch in the numerous upright shoots. SUMMARY OF IMPORTANT FACTORS IN SPRAYING PRACTICE. The most important factors in spray practice to control the grape- berry moth, shown by the final counts in 28 of the 49 experimental plats of three years, are summarized briefly in Table 24. Factors of minor importance such as a complete comparison of adhesives and value of nicotine sulphate are omitted. In addition, the plats in the experiment in the Phillips vineyard, 1914, because of the erratic infestation, and the plats in the Miller and Carlburg vineyard, 1915, which were affected by rain, are excluded. TaBLE 24.—Relative efficiency of spraying measures tried. Infested fruit. iS) mixt thod of licati d hedule fol We DT ai A pray ure, method of application, and spray schedule fol- ears (0) Average fae tried. sprayed Helge in adja- : plats. cent un- oes, sprayed checks. I. Arsenate oflead, paste, 3 pounds, or powder, 14 pounds; laundry soap 1 pound; Bordeaux mixture, 3-3-50. Ap- plied with ¢ trailers” immediately alter blossoms had fajlen and again when grape berries were just touch- Per cent. | Per cent. ing (or about 2 weeks later).........-.--..-:---------- 1915, 1916 7 4.12 50. 038 IJ. Same asI except arsenate of lead omitted............... 1915 1 33. 31 28. 80 III. Same asI except adhesive omitted ...................-- 1915 1 21.05 28. 80 IV. Same asI except Bordeaux mixture omitted ........... 1916 1 4.01 88. 74 V. Sameas I except arsenate oflead increased to 5 pounds (paste) or 24 pounds (powder). ...........--.-.-.----- 1915, 1916 6 3. 34 54. 90 VI. Sameas I except resin fish-oilsoap used instead of laun- AUyISOADs Wy WOUN Gif coy ones ee cies wie lala ae are wcletsin late 1916 1 2.14 55. 53 VII. Same as I except fish-oil soap (without resin) used in- stead oflaundry soap, 2 pounds....... Bese ab cate oe oe 1915, 1916 3 3.95 42. 84 VIII. Same as I with addition of a third application 5 weeks PNGEGMILS teeta ee tas cist cum Meee ewstecemcsccc ses 1916 1 . 68 67.52 IX. Same as I (including only the plat adjacent to VI) ..-.. 1916 1 1.57 79.72 X. Same asI except first application omitted..........-.-. 1916 3 18.71 51. 29 XI. Same as IT except “set nozzles” used in first application : instead on stratlers ye seo eee coves cictetereie cinerea ci meets © 1916 2 12. 87 52. 04 XII. Same as I except “set nozzles”? used in both applica- tions instead of “trailers” ...-..-....--...2...-2------ 1915, 1 20. 41 28. 80 XIII. Same as I except adhesive omitted and “‘set nozzles” used in both applications instead of ‘‘trailers”........ 1914 1 26.70 31.80 This table shows that both arsenate of lead and soap are essential factors in the spray mixture, while Bordeaux mixture is of little importance. An increase in the amount of arsenate of lead is usually of little value, and variation among the three kinds of soap used is not an essential consideration. Two applications effect a practically satisfactory control so that the advantage of a third application is insignificant. The omission of the first application, or making !t 38 BULLETIN 550, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. with ‘‘set nozzles’ instead of with ‘‘trailers,” furnishes on the aver- age only a partially satisfactory measure, while complete substitution of ‘‘set nozzles’”’ for ‘‘trailers’’ is entirely unsatisfactory. Spray COMBINATIONS A combination of sprays may be made, to control, besides the berry moth, practically all other important enemies of the grape in this region—the grape rootworm, the grape leafhopper, and the powdery mildew. These spraying recommendations for the control of enemies of the grape other than the grape-berry moth are based on recommen- dations of other investigators,! and were employed incidentally in connection with the berry-moth experiments. The time of the first spray application for berry. moth, just after the grape blossoms fall, during the seasons of 1914, 1915, and 1916, has been from 2 to 4 days before the appearance of the rootworm beetles. Without change of time or mixture this application is effective against the rootworm also. If this application is intended as rootworm control also, care should be taken to cover the upper surface of the foliage, for unless extra attention is given to this it _is apt to be done less effectively with “trailers” than with “set nozzles.” In exceptional instances an extra application for root- worm control may be necessary. This combination must not be attempted if it is desired to add molasses or sugar to the rootworm spray, aS mixtures containing sugar are very soluble and wash off the vines readily. Furthermore, a combination of sugar with Bor- deaux mixture is apt to burn foliage. The second berry-moth spray, applied when the berries are just touching, may be made effective also against the grape leafhopper by the addition of nicotine sulphate (40 per cent) at the rate of 1-1,600 (+ pint to 50 gallons.) By the addition of Bordeaux mixture in these two applications, powdery mildew also can be controlled. These two applications of Bordeaux will be useful against black rot and downy mildew also, where these occur, although an additional earlier spray will be necessary for the control of these diseases. Cost. The cost of spraying material and labor required to control the grape-berry moth, if applied to contro! the berry moth alone, is about $5 per acre. In computing this cost it is assumed that an average of 6 acres are sprayed per day and that 150 gallons of liquid are applied per acre. This average may not be maintained if the water supply is inconveniently situated and the spraying machinery is not kept in condition, but delays due to these sources are not nor- 1 See Quaintance and Sh sar (12), Johnson and Hammar (13), Johnson (17), and Hartzell (18). CONTROL OF THE GRAPE-BERRY MOTH. 39 mally necessary. These figures do not include interest on money invested in the spraying machine, depreciation, breakage, or inci- dental costs of operation, such as gasoline and oil, since these vary greatly. The details of cost for a single application are as follows: Materials for 150 gallons of spray mixture: Arsenate of lead (paste), 9 pounds, 8 cents per pound..................-. $0. 72 Lime, 3 pounds, 4 cent per pound............-.. mh tae) een ole ae) e Bye 01 Resin fish-oil soap, 3 pounds, 64 cents per pound.....-.-.....---.------ .19 Praveen. 1 0ayat: ©2 DOr ORY sce joe 2 a sm. s'- pe ae Bene een alge 2 1. 00 2 RST, Ge GEES ARE ENG MIC) ta Ph eS a et ea ee ee ee . 50 2. 42 For the two applications the cost would be $4.84 per acre. The entire cost, however, need not be charged to berry-moth con- trol if a combination spray is used. These two spray applications are necessary in the majority of vineyards to secure the greatest possible profits, even if the berry moth is not present. In a vineyard where control measures are already employed against the rootworm, leafhopper, and powdery mildew, the additional cost per acre in controlling the berry moth would be as follows: Extra cost of labor for using ‘“‘trailers’’ instead of ‘‘set nozzles’’ in the first application. Labor cost with ‘‘trailers” (see above).:......---------------- $1. 50 Labor cost with ‘‘set nozzles,’ 1 man and team 4 day at $5 per CENT Be hela eae oe ies aos eg AA a Pd NS a 675 $0. 825 Arsenate of lead (paste), 9 pounds for second application, at 8 cents per PEGE GL: 2G ie Nea i Se a ge tee ie ee ee 72 Soap, 6 pounds (2 applications), at 64 cents per pounds..........---.-.-.-- 375 LSD BL ws cE pees eR Sn ee a A ge ge 1. 920 Thus, if spraying for rootworm, leafhopper, and mildew is properly done the extra cost of spraying for the grape-berry moth is only $1.92 per acre. SUMMARY AND RECOMMENDATIONS. The grape-berry moth can be controlled by spraying. Other methods will reduce berry-moth infestation, and some of them can be employed profitably to increase the efficiency of spraying, but none offers a dependable control in commercial vineyards. Gathering and destroying grape leaves in the fall is of little use in berry-moth control. Bagging grape clusters immediately after the setting of the fruit will exclude the berry moth and prevent infestation, but the expense is prohibitive in commercial vineyards in this region and may be used advantageously only in garden vineyards. Hand picking of grape berries infested by first-brood larve, if done by competent labor, will reduce berry-moth infestation, but except in extraordinary cases 40 BULLETIN 550, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. will not control it. When spraying can be employed these measures are unnecessary. A number of other measures reduce infestation and generally may be employed as a part of vineyard practice without additional expense. When commercial vineyards are infested, the worst areas should be harvested as early as possible and the ‘trimmings’’ moved, to secure the largest weight for the crop and to remove as many larve as possible from the vineyard. Clearing away brush in the neighborhood of a vineyard will destroy the protection for hibernating pup with an ultimate reduction in infestation. When it is in keeping with cultural practice, pupz hibernating under the vines should be covered with earth in the spring by plowing, and this covering should remain until the period of blossoming of the grapes, when it should be removed with a horse hoe. This plowing should not be allowed to interfere with spraying. These practices, it must be remembered, while reducing infesta- tion, will not control it, and they should not be expected in any way to take the place of spraying. The following spraying practice has been found most satisfactory: The spray mixture— Arsenate of lead— Paste. 2 5o socio. 2h Scere eee Rees tee es pounds.. 3 Or powder...) win) nie ac nin et ee ge donee Resin fish-oil soap... .. 2.5 42-5 be oe oe doves ih Bordeaux mixture— Copper sulphates. 2.022 00a 2c 2 a Se ee dos <5, 3 Lime): 02. 25,- eats sees acid: ob 2) oe ee dOse ns ay Water... 22 So. jen sae eels 5 aie ope er ie an gallons.. 50 Method of application, with ‘‘trailers”: Spray schedule— First application, immediately after falling of grape blossoms. Second application, when grape berries are just touching (or about two weeks later). Under some conditions it may be desirable to modify the spraying practice outlined above. In case of extremely heavy infestation the amount of arsenate of lead should be increased to 5 pounds (paste) or 24 pounds (powder), at least in the last application. If resin fish-oil soap is not Saailaiile, a laundry soap containing resin may be substituted in its place. Laundry soaps, however, vary greatly in their sticking and spreading qualities, and great care should be used in selecting those best suited to this purpose. What- ever soap is used, care must be taken to have it thoroughly dissolved before adding it to the spray mixture to prevent clogging of the spraying machinery. The use of Bordeaux mixture, while not having a direct effect upon the berry moth, is recommended, to prevent burning of the grape = CONTROL OF THE GRAPE-BERRY MOTH. 4] foliage by the combination of arsenate of lead and soap. Lime at the rate of 1 pound to 50 gallons may be substituted instead. Since it is very rarely that the fungicidal spray can be omitted with profit, the use of Bordeaux mixture is preferred. This spraying combination should control any infestation of the grape-berry moth, such as the writer has observed during three sea- sons in the Erie-Chautauqua grape belt, and has been applied suc- cessfully under very unfavorable weather conditions. If, however, through faulty spray materials or work, or adverse weather at the time of spraying, these applications fail to control the first-brood larve, they may be supplemented by a third application five or six weeks after the first, with the understanding that the fruit is likely to show heavy staining at time of harvest. This staining may be reduced by omitting Bordeaux mixture from the solution applied and using instead 1 pound of lime in 50 gallons of water. In case the foliage is very light at the time of the first application, expenses may be reduced somewhat by using “‘set nozzles” at this time and using ‘‘trailers’’ only for the second application. Single spray applications, either at the time the grape berries are just touch- ing or about three weeks later, will reduce the infestation and in some instances control it. Such measures to reduce expenses of spraying, however, are dangerously likely to fail in reducing the infestation satisfactorily, and should be adopted with great caution. Spraying operations will be facilitated greatly by training Te vines so that the clusters may be reached most quickly and covered with spray. Ina limited experiment the Kniffin system seemed most satisfactory for this purpose. The applications required for the control of the grape-berry moth are so timed that they may be combined with applications to control the grape rootworm, grape leafhopper, and powdery mildew, and some of the applications for downy mildew and black rot also may be combined with them. Nothing need be added to the spray solu- tion for rootworm control; nicotine sulphate (40 per cent) at the rate of 1 to 1,600 should be added to the second application for leaf- hopper control; and Bordeaux mixture should be used in both appli- cations for fungous diseases. The cost of spraying to control the grape-berry moth need not exceed $5 per acre. If the applications are made to control other pests as well, the charge against the berry-moth control should be ~ considerably less. It should be borne in mind that unless the proper spray mixture is applied at the right time and the clusters are thoroughly covered, the work is of little value. 42 (4) (5) (6) (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) (15) (16) (17) (18) (19) BULLETIN 550, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1869. 1885. 1896. 1899. 1899. 1900. 1903. 1904. 1904. 1906. 1906. 1907. 1910. 1911. 1911. 1912. 1914. 1915. 1916. LITERATURE CITED. WatsH, B.D., anp Ritey,C.V. Grape-berry moth. Jn American En- tomologist, v. 1, no. 7, p. 148. Lintner, J. A. Second report on the injurious and other insects of the State of New York. 365 p., 68 fig. Albany. Budemis botrana, p. 33. MarziatTr, C. L. The principal insect enemies of the grape. U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook for 1895, p. 385-404, fig. 94-105. Eudemis botrana, p. 402-404. Beacu, S. A., Lows, V. H., anp Stewart, F.C. Common diseases and insects injurious to fruits. N.Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 170, p. 381-445. Eudemis botrana, p. 415. WesstTEeR, F, M. Report of committee on entomology. Jn Thirty- second Ann. Rpt. Ohio State Hort. Soc. for the year 1898, p. 70-81, 6 fig. E. botrana, p. 71-72. : Bocugr, E. E. Insects affecting the grape. Okla. Agr.and Mech. Col. Rpt. 1899-1900, p. 108-112. Grape-berry moth (Polychrosis botrana), p. 112. Feit, E. P. Grapevine rootworm. N. Y. State Mus. Bul. 72. 55 p., 13 pl. Polychrosis botrana, p. 31-32. Kearrotr, W.D. North American areas In Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc., v. 30, p. 287-299, pl. 19-20. P. viteana, p. 292-293. SLINGERLAND,M.V. Thegrape-berry moth. N.Y. (Cornell) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 223; p. 43-60, fig. 12-25. Brooks, Frep E. The grape curculio. W. Va. Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 100, p. 211-249, 8 pl. GossarD, H.A., anD Houser, J.S8. The grapeberry worm. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Cire. 63. 16 p., fig. QuAINTANCE, A. L., and SHear, ©. L. Insect and fungous enemies of the grape east of the Rocky Mountains. U. 8. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 284. 48 p., 35 fig. P. viteana, p. 12-15, fig. 2. JoHNSON, Frep, and Hammar, A. G. The grape root-worm. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Bul. 89. 100 p., 31 fig., 10 pl. Guapwin, F. E. Pruning and training the grape. N.Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. 16. 8 p., 3 pl. Husmann, G. C. Grape propagation, pruning and training. U. 8. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 471. 29 p., 30 fig. JOHNSON, FreD, and Hammar, A. G. The grape-berry moth. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Bul. 116, Part II, p. 15-71, fig. 4-22, pl. 4-8. JOHNSON, FreD. The grape leafhopper in the Lake Erie Valley. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 19. 47 p., 13 fig. Harrzeti, F.Z. The grape root-worm. N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. 41. 6p., 4 fig., 2 pl. Goopwin, W.H. The grape-berry worm. Polychrosis viteana Clemens. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 293. p. 259-307 (20 pl. on p. 288-307). PUBLICATIONS OF THE U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO INSECTS INJURIOUS TO DECIDUOUS FRUITS. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Important Insecticides. (Farmers’ Bulletin 127.) Spraying Peaches for the Control of Brown Rot, Scab, and Curculio. (Farmers’ Bulletin 440.) Danger of General Spread of the Gipsy and Brown-tail Moths Through Imported Nursery Stock. (Farmers’ Bulletin 453.) The More Important Insect and Fungous Enemies of the Fruit and Foliage of the Apple. (Farmers’ Bulletin 492.) The San Jose Scale and Its Control. (Farmers’ Bulletin 650.) The Apple-Tree Caterpillar. (Farmers’ Bulletin 662.) The Round-headed Apple-tree Borer. (Farmers’ Bulletin 675.). The Rose Chafer: A Destructive Garden and Vineyard Pest. (Farmers’ Bulletin 721.) The Leaf Blister Mite of Pear and Apple. (Farmers’ Bulletin 722.) | Oyster-shell Scale and Scurfy Scale. (Farmers’ Bulletin 723.) Orchard Barkbeetles and Pinhole Borers, and how to Control Them. (Farmers’ Bulletin 763.) Aphids Injurious to Orchard Fruits, Currant, Gooseberry, and Grape. (Farmers’ Bulletin 804.) Control of Codling Moth in Pecos Valley, N. Mex. (Department Bulletin 88.) Walnut Aphides in California. (Department Bulletin 100.) ' The Life History and Habits of the Pear Thrips in California. (Department Bulletin ia) 5 Studies of the Codling Moth in the Central Appalachian Region. (Department Bulletin 189.) Appie Maggot or Railroad Worm. (Entomology Circular 101.) How to Control the Pear Thrips. (Entomology Circular 131.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Grape Leafhopper in Lake Erie Valley. (Department Bulletin 19.) Price, 10 cents. The Lesser Bud-moth. (Department Bulletin 113.) Price, 5 cents. Homemade Lime-sulphur Concentrate. (Department Bulletin 197.) 1915. Price, 5 cents. Food Plants of the Gipsy Moth in America. (Department Bulletin 250.) 1915. Price, 10 cents. Life History of the Codling Moth in Maine. (Department Bulletin 252.) 1915. Price, 10 cents. American Plum Borer. (Department Bulletin 261.) 1915. Price, 5 cents. The Parandra Borer. (Department Bulletin 262.) 1915. Price, 5 cents. The Dock False-worm: An Apple Pest. (Department Bulletin 265.) Price, 10 cents. Dispersion of Gipsy Moth Larve by the Wind. (Department Bulletin 273.) 1915. Price, 15 cents. Miscellaneous Insecticide Investigations. (Department Bulletin 278.) 1915. Price, 10 cents. . The Terrapin Scale: An Important Insect Enemy of Peach Orchards. (Department Bulletin 351.) Price, 15 cents. The Cherry Leaf-beetle: A Periodically Important Enemy of Cherries. (Department Bulletin 352.) Price, 10 cents. The Grape Leaf-folder. (Department Bulletin 419.) Price, 5 cents. The Pear Leai-worm. (Department Bulletin 438.) Price, 5 cents. Pear-tree Psylla. (Entomology Circular 7.) 1895. Price, 5 cents. Canker-worms. (Entomology Circular 9.) 1895. Price, 5 cents. Woolly Aphis of Apple. (Entomology Circular 20.) 1897. Price, 5 cents. Buffalo Tree-hopper. (Entomology Circular 23.) Price, 5 cenus. Pear-Slug. (Entomology Circular 26.) 1897. Price, 5 cents. The Apple Leaf-sewer. (Department Bulletin 435.) Price, 5 cents. 43 Boxelder Plant-bug. (Entomology Circular 28.) Price, 5 cents. Fruit-tree Bark-beetle. (Entomology Circular 29.) 1898. Price, 5 cents. Larger Apple-tree Borers. (Entomology Circular 32.) 1898. Price, 5 cents. Peach-tree Borer. (Entomology Circular 54.) 1903. Price, 5 cents. Plum Curculio. (Entomology Circular 73.) 1906. Price, 5 cents. Aphides Affecting Apple. (Entomology Circular 81.) 1907. Price, 5 cents. Nut Weevils. (Entomology Circular 99.) 1908. Price, 5 cents. Two Destructive Texas Ants. (Entomology Circular 148.) 1912. Price, 5 cents. Mediterranean Fruit Fly. (Entomology Circular 160.) 1912. Price, 5 cents. San Jose or Chinese Scale. (Entomology Bulletin 62.) 1906. Price, 25 cents. Pecan Cigar Case-bearer. (Entomology Bulletin 64, Pt. X.) 1910. Price, 5 cenis. Spring Canker-worm. (Entomology Bulletin 68, Pt. II.) 1907. Price, 5 cents. Trumpet Leaf-miner of Apple. (Entomology Bulletin 68, Pt. III.) 1907. Price, 5 cents. Lesser Peach Borer. (Entomology Bulletin 68, Pt. IV.) 1907. Price, 5 cents. Lesser Apple Worm. (Entomology Bulletin 68, Pt. V) 1908. Price, 5 cents. Demonstration Spraying for Codling Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 68, Pt. VII.) 1908. Price, 5 cents. Grape-leaf Skeletonizer. (Entomology Bulletin 68, Pt. VIII.) Price, 5 cents. Peach-tree Barkbeetle. (Entomology Bulletin 68, Pt. IX.) 1909. Price, 5 cents. Periodical Cicada. (Entomology Bulletin 71.) 1907. Price, 40 cents. Codling Moth in the Ozarks. (Entomology Bulletin 80, Pt. I.) 1909. Price, 01 cents. Cigar Case-bearer. (Entomology Bulletin 80, Pt. IJ.) 1909. Price, 10 cents. Additional Observations on the Lesser Apple Worm. (Entomology Bulletin 80, Pt. III.) 1909. Price, 5 cents. On Nut-feeding Habits of Codling Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 80, Pt. V.) 1910. Price, 5 cents. Life History of Codling Moth in Northwestern Pennsylvania. (Entomology Bulletin 80, Pt. VI.) 1910. Price, 10 cents. Fumigation of Apples for San Jose Scale. (Entomology Bulletin 84.) 1909. Price, 20 cents. Grape Root-worm, with Especial Reference to Investigations in Erie Grape Belt, 1907-1909. (Entomology Bulletin 89.) 1910. Price, 20 cents. Life History of Codling Moth and Its Control on Pears in California. (Entomology Bulletin 97, Pt. II.) 1911. Price, 10 cents. Vineyard Spraying Experiments Against Rose-chafer in Lake Erie Valley. (Ento- mology Bulletin 97, Pt. III.) 1911. Price, 5 cents. California Peach Borer. (Entomology Bulletin 97, Pt. IV.) 1911. Price, 10 cents. Noteson Peachand Plum Slug. (Entomology Bulletin 97, Pt.V.) 1911. Price, 5cents. Notes on Peach Bud Mite. Enemy of Peach Nursery Stock. (Entomology Bulletin 97, Pt. VI.) 1912. Price, 10 cents. Grape Scale. (Entomology Bulletin 97, Pt. VII.) 1912. Price, 5 cents. Plum Curculio. (Entomology Bulletin 103.) 1912. Price, 50 cents. Life-history Studies on Codling Moth in Michigan. (Entomology Bulletin 115, Pt. J.) 1912. Price, 15 cents. One-spray Method in Control of Codling Moth and Plum Curculio. (Entomology Bulletin 115, Pt. II.) 1912. Price, 5 cents. Life History of Codling Moth in Santa Clara Valley of California. (Entomology Bulletin 115, Pt. III.) 1913. Price, 10 cents. Grape-berry Moth. (Entomology Bulletin 116, Pt. II.) 1912. Price, 15 cents. Cherry Fruit Sawfly. (Entomology Bulletin 116, Pt. III.) 1913. Price, 5 cents. Lime-sulphur as Stomach Poison for Insects. (Entomology Bulletin 116, Pt. IV.) 1913. Price, 5 cents. Fruit-tree Leaf-roller. (Entomology Bulletin 116, Pt. V.) 1913. Price, 10 cents. Insects Injurious in Cranberry Culture. (Farmers’ Bulletin 178.) 1903. Price, 5 cents. Spraying for Apple Diseases and Codling Moth in the Ozarks. (Farmers’ Bulletin 283.) 1907. Price, 5 cents. 44 4 a UP RINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS © GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE "WASHINGTON, D. C. % hae 10 CENTS PER COPY ee a tae jo beaks ie Tonite. if y See er aoe b gle ae. ied wep Canale 5A $n ere , j 2. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 526 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER August 28, 1918 \ EXPERIMENTS WITH SINGLE-STALK COTTON CULTURE IN LOUISIANA, ARKANSAS AND NORTH CAROLINA By P. V. CARDON, Assistant Agronomist CONTENTS Yield and Quality of Lint. . .. - Methods of Procedure Lint Percentages Selection of Cooperators Relative Abundance of Lint . . Plan of the Experiments Grade and Length of Lint. . . - Thinning Single-Stalk Rows .. . Summary Recording the Yields WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918 {ghreaneee HE RESULTS presented in this report were obtained in 1915 under an informal cooperative agreement between the Office of Acclimatization and Adaptation of Crop Plants, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, and the Office of Extension Work in the South, of the States Rela- tions Service. The writer wishes to acknowledge the cordial cooperation of the various State, district, and county agents of the last-named office and the assistance rendered by the many farmers who were interested in the experiments. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 527 " Contribution from the States Relations Service A. C. TRUE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER July 26, 1917 SOME EXERCISES IN FARM HANDI- CRAFT FOR RURAL SCHOOLS By H. O. SAMPSON, Assistant in Agricultural Education CONTENTS Introduction . . . .. +. ses Exercise XII. Stamper for Crushing Tools and Their Uses : Lumps of Fertilizer . . Terms Usedin Woodworking. . . . XII. Feed Hopper for Poultry . Use of Drawings ..... - XIV. Trap Nest Exercise I. NailBox . .... - - XV. Brood Coop II. Sawhorse .... XVI. Poultry House. ... . Ill. Bird House . XVII. Wooden Troughs for Swine IV. Seed Germinator . 2 XVIII. Hurdles for Use in Stock V. Seed-Corn Drying Rack . Judging .. VI. Seed Sample Case . . XIX. Hog Houses. . VII. Hotbed and Cold Frame . . XX. Milking Stool . Vill. Flats XXI. Calf Stanchions 1X. Forcing Box XXII. Farm Gate .. X. Sorting Table for Vegetables XXIII. Rope Work andFruits ...... XXIV. Concrete Work .... XI. Planting Board ..... XXV. The Painting of Woodwork WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; 1917 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 528 OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief ; April 13, 1917 Washington, D.C. SEASONAL DISTRIBUTION OF FARM LABOR IN CHESTER COUNTY, PA. By GEORGE A. BILLINGS, Agriculturist CONTENTS Part I-CHESTER COUNTY (PA.) DATA Page : Page Territory Surveyed and Method Used . 2 | Period of Performing Field Operations . 9 Labor Efficiency as Affected by Soil, 'To- Succession of Operations . .... . 4) pography, and Field Arrangement . . 3 | Crews and Machinery ....... 11 ; Typesof Farming . ........ 4 | Summary of Labor Requirements of Y Available Time for Field Operations . . 8 GropSe sac ono oe atone aime men hee 17 B pare Part 1—HOW TO USE THE FOREGOING DATA. 7 Description of Farm Selected. . ... 20 | Comparative Labor Requirements . . . 28 5) Determining Labor Requirements of Old Comparative Returns. ..... .. 28 : MRtEMM PS see oe een wil ace LIDS WA Concluslons: (ich oi eace atk Ore ne ee cate Replanning Croppimg System. . . . . 25 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 TSO LETAES } y ui i, f, ik t UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 530 Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural Organization CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv May 8, 1917 THE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGE- MENT OF A FARMERS’ MUTUAL FIRE INSURANCE COMPANY ! at Vv. N. VALGREN, Investigator in Agricultural Insurance CONTENTS Introduction . Liability of the Company and of the In- Purpose of the Company sured Business Territory ; Reduction and Cancellation of Insurance Membership and Voting Privilege . . . _Fees and Assessments Board of Directors : Classification of Risks Officers and Committees Settlement of Losses Applications for Insurance Inspection of Risks Amendment of By-laws and Articles of Form and Term of Policy Incorporation Limiting the Size of Individual Risks . . Suggestive Organization and Business Evils of Blanket Insurance . WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 532 - Contribution from the Office of Public Roads and Rural Engineering LOGAN WALLER PAGE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 13, 1917 THE EXPANSION AND CONTRACTION “OF CONCRETE AND CONCRETE ROADS By. A. T. GOLDBECK, Engineer of Tests, and F. H. JACKSON, JR. Assisiant Testing Engineer CONTENTS Page Page Laboratory Measurements of Expansion Results of Measurements at Chevy Chase, and Contraction Md. Results of Expansion and Contraction Expansion and Contraction of Ohio Post Measurements Measuring the Contraction and Expansion General Discussion of Concrete Roads Conclusions . s WASHINGTON ‘GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 ‘UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 536 Contribution from Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 26, 1918 THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY IN HAWAII By E. A. BACK, Entomologist, and C. E. PEMBERTON, Assistant Entomologist, Mediterranean and other Fruit-Fly Investigations CONTENTS Introduction . .— EMJNE Vs ie kas ovo otro oot oils Common Names . Methods of Spread Host) Bruits! 235) ecc lene cer iver ate Distribution ~ Fruits Erroneously Listed as Hoste . Source of Hawaiian Infestation. . . Proven Hosts in Hawaii Conditions Favorable to Establishment in Life History and Description. ... . the Hawaiian Islands Seasenal History < Climatic Conditions Natural Control . Host Conditions Artificial Control Economic Importance Sisters Summary ... «2 « 2» «e » ce © @ 116 / WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 540. Contribution from the States Relations Service A. C, TRUE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER July 27, 1917 A FIRST YEAR COURSE IN HOME ECONOMICS FOR SOUTHERN AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS By LOUISE STANLEY, Professor of Home Economics University of Missouri CONTENTS ; Page 9 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 Eee toLtoK 40 TH, bis by * aateek arcoftatas® yajase. éP 8 a waisoriet MRF bs s. o/ HALAL LAVOE oe hes Oe aia egret negenettienetn edd a that Bl elt incerta Son 2 : : tos $ r i bs Y a allay ION ee UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE “BULLETIN No. 544 Contribution from the Forest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 31, 1917 THE RED SPRUCE: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT By LOUIS S. MURPHY, Forest Examiner CONTENTS. “Page Introduction . .. . +... « « « %4d/| Reproduction. ....... UsesofSpruce . . ... «ee «© + « Lj Form... ew ew wt ew ww Amount and Value cf Spruce Cut and Im- Length of Life and Maximum Size ported . . « « ec 0 © « Susceptibility to Injury ... . Present Stand of Spruce. . Growth Value of Spruce and Spruce Stumpage . Stands and Yields ... Range and Distribution Methods of Cutting Forest Type Brush Disposal .. . Second Growth Stands of Spruce Sowing and Planting Soil and Moisture Requirements Rotation. . « « « + » Light Requirements ... . . Appendix . . .«. 2» + «© « « « Windfirmness . « « « 2 «0 « WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 OMRRALANY SE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 545 Joint Contribution from the Forest Service, HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester and the Bureau of Plant Industry, WM. A, TAYLOR, Chief - Washington, D. C. || IMPORTANT RANGE PLANTS: THEIR. LIFE HISTORY AND FORAGE VALUE By ARTHUR W. SAMPSON, Plant Ecologist, Forest Service CONTENTS Page : Object of the Study 1 | Important Species Character of the Range and Forage Summary Studied 2 | Appendix: Plan of Study re : ; General Morphology of Grasses WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 PREFATORY NOTE. Early in its administration of the National Forests the Forest Service was confronted with the problem of restoring the vegetation on many areas on which the natural ground cover had been com- pletely or partially wiped out by destructive overgrazing before the areas were included in National Forests. In order to secure the fundamental information on which beneficial changes in the prac- tice of grazing on such areas might be based the Forest Service joined the Bureau of Plant Industry in 1907 in a cooperative project of grazing investigations. Several important reports have been pub- lished, embodying the results of these various field studies, and the changes that have been made in the administration of grazing on the National Forests in accordance with the results of the investiga- — tions have brought about conspicuous improvement in the ground ~ cover, great advance in the protection of watersheds, and important . — increase in the number and quality of stock grazed. A. part of tho original plan of investigation was to make a detailed study of thé life history of each important grazing plant for the special purpose of determining its reproductive season, from the sending up of the flower _ stalk to the maturing of the seed, and the period necessary toenable _ the new seedlings to reach a size and vigor sufficient to withstand _ moderate trampling by stock. In the course of these studies a very large amount of detailed information about the important grazing - plants was acquired which could not be used in the more general — reports already published. In the paper now presented for publica- tion a portion of this detailed information is given, in a form suited to the needs of forest officers and of stock owners who desire to familiarize themselves with the habits and requirements of the plants upon which their animals subsist. Such knowledge is neces- sary to the highest success in their business just as a knowledge of the habits and requirements of cultivated plants is necessary to the . highest success in the business of the farmer. For the first time in the history of grazing-plant literature the information needed to accomplish this result has been acquired and presented for public use. FREDERICK V. CovILyeE, | Botanist, Bureau of Plant Industry. UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 547 Contribution from the Office of Markets and Rural Organization CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief Washington, D. C. September 19, 1917 COOPERATIVE PURCHASING AND MARKETING ORGANIZATIONS AMONG FARMERS IN THE UNITED STATES By O. B. JESNESS, Assistant in Cooperative Organization, and - W. H. KERR, Investigator in Market Business Practice CONTENTS t Page Early History and Growth of Ccoperative Agencies Which Assist Cooperation . . Organization Cooperative Laws eh ets Present Forms and Tendencies . . is Cooperative Law Summations ... . Statistics of Cooperation Digest of State Cooperative Laws .. . Cooperation in Representative States . . The Clayton Amendment to the United Representative Types of Cooperative States Antitrust Laws Organizations. . Selected List of Publications on Cooper- Financing and Business Practices . . . ative Purchasing and Marketing. . . WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 Nba Post Le ‘ . Sea o Pu PA ENOL eH a ha 7h UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ‘BULLETIN No. 550 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. © August 9, 1917 || CONTROL OF THE GRAPE-BERRY MOTH |! : IN THE ERIE-CHAUTAUQUA GRAPE BELT 7 Be By DWIGHT ISELY, Scientific Assistant, Deciduous Fruit Insect Investigations CONTENTS Introduction History of Control Methods Food Plant 2 | Contrel Experiments at North East, Pa. Distribution 2 | Summary and Recommendations .. . Economic Status 2 | Literature Cited Summary of Seasonal Histery and Habits 4 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1917 My)