ye g-< ©, © OG Oe Pe s i Paani rir a te Sliatetse ree. : - ass : 3 Tt eed sessse ae cone panei preesS ; er eeeres ces = peeeese St = : asd ae A a” fee tiessata Talasaieasst He 4 Fh ul ereeetere eT SS: ” ia SR ES aie ot amen ee SBPA a C2 ho — HS DD bel 4 DEPARTMENT QF: AGRICULTURE BULS. 601—625, DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 606.—RELATIVE RESISTANCE or Farm Harp- woops To INJECTION WITH CREOSOTE—Continued. Page. PID DARAULG neces eA eat tae id, = eS ye ee meee ae oe 4 IVES TELUS UBGOL <2 55 acest yd, at arcx a d:5'4 dens

-n2 ee eee ee eee ie eee 11 Relation of grouping to commercial treatment.......................-... 16 (OMG IISIONS!) ta7.620% o2e.ce oes $8 +- - ooh e ee apenas ages eee 17 PON CING, 2 oe Seaialacraiscinc Rottsiie ge at= eee sate a a see a 18 Characteristics of the various species and results of treatment... .. 18 MOD ADIN sy sales cme ee wate dieu a's + = -'apeerse cine. eae doe ee 34 DEPARTMENT Butietin No. 607.—Tests OF THE ABSORPTION AND PENE- TRATION OF CoAL TAR AND CREOSOTE IN LONGLEAF PINE: PATO UC LO Me oe oe vce Seed sss. 5 See re ate ea eet cel 1 Mavi erin Is 1sed./cA5 920. bs Sea eee cates T's + ee Bernice arse es ek eee 2 Effect on penetration of differences in the preservative, especially the Gilet, Ol IreeiCAlb ON ncn eet occ: +e eee eee eee oe 5 Tests of the effect of varying time, pressure, and temperature............ 1 SCLIN SUNY SPN setae ps 1S SE kc eS «o, 2.33 Sen ee ee ee 21 PP CUCINA easel ont cceech Suctcss se ~~ dees aa eed 23 DEPARTMENT BuutuetTiIn No. 608.—VARIETIES OF CHEESE: DESCRIPTIONS AND ANALYSES: IMTROCHIGH OMe thee eee eee = ehe e..2 see 2 il Description of varieties of cheese..........-1 2.222.252: eee ee eee eee 3 SATIS VGES OL CUCCEOs i cite wicca coos anv ceeee ees oe sae Do eee ee eee eee 62 Sources of snalviacal:data 2-7... <4. ~~- see et weasels ea ee 7A Index to descriptions and analyses of cheese.........-....--.-...-----205 77 DEPARTMENT BuLietin No. 609.—THE SwWEET-POTATO LEAF-FOLDER: TNGOCUGLLON water ts uae Ss eet cartes =~ Ge arene yee ae 1 History, disizibution, and synonymy\....2222.. 232 aa eee ee eee 2 WORCHIPtOn, Ol SACS ~.uiso eee nf: ---- cece ees ales See eee eee 3 MGOd) PlaIVis 255. eae Mesa Stiele no's « . oeading teins ee eee ee 5 measonal history and ADIs coc .qs%-.+ ~emecuady ee aon eee a 5 Nitra) Ghemiess 2 6cec2ss vase a ass: a'o + fee eee rena ae 9 The sweet-potato leaf-folder in Southern Texas........--.-----.--2.----- i) DUIMIMNAGY. ook ee seme Mm alse. Jie «+ dead Jee ee ae 11 nitera tine cited 2 ose ec seek en oe a2 ss, seen ee a 12 DEPARTMENT BuLLetin No. 610.—FisH Miran as A FrED FoR SWINE: lintrodction 2 *2e-ee 2 So) es. eee it iWse.of fish mealin: the United States. .-mecass.-2. see eee 2 Poeding expeniments With Pigs.........Ges0s2seeomete seat eee ee 3 1. Comparison of fish meal and tankage as supplementary feeds....... 3 2. Fish meal as a supplement to dried Potato. 3-22-4025 eee 5 Coy oie fost cane bo ct ee ele 8 CON GIISIONS eros hic ee eased. oe os es oe Oi Ae ee 9 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 611.—Wa.tnut BuicHT IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES: Mriportanes of the disease.css 50 c2 24. See eee eee eee ee history OL walmatbloht:. 2322 452. ..5 ee The disease in the Eastern States............--..-----2--eee cece eee ee eeee Rim ecO Me ChiON 2a. seca ee oc. ee ee ee Gonimolwos walnut Wolpe se a - =. 5 ee ee ee UMM AP hcs5<.- eset oe. oS. oa ns ae 2 ey DEPARTMENT BuLietin No. 612.—THE DicEstrBiniry or THE DASHEEN: Introd GON .%.s22.24 Ses eke aoe ee =< 2. eee ee ee Nature of the diet durimg the test period... 22... 222.206... iss esas UD JeGls aera: a5 Shc aes - en eae nc ee ees: eee, ie ee Relation between maturity and digestability............--.2:s..--2282-: Detatlsioithe:experimentes. 222. 22. eee se eee. oe ee eee DAISCUSNON. OL TESUILE, «~~. soeevis cures es oe eee e ean Sch eee eee AVOTIGIUSIONS Eee < crervis Se a:2 a2 eeewiertie ste «= Ee eee eee ae eee = ] Dow»rknre SohRWWNH CONTENTS. O DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 613.—DiGEstisimiry or CERTAIN MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL Farts: Page. lIMNTROCINCHOINS soso dseesees ees oe SDSS De PRT) Sy Me eae Sa SRE Methods; Oleprocedre sean se ccr: ho jeen mimetics, cake ans en spoie 3,5 St Seioe ea clgeeie Subjects Beam ICR SSeS Sareea pa Sonat) ap Ae ec Sp PRN ee Goat’ SLO UUN EET es eH Se a Ti CS Ra A DE a cA 1 2 a3 3 6 Hard owalate iatemeneer tans 752i: - Se aeeMe Ae SE ETS ERE Re ctr eS vee 8 HIOUSeH ates ee eee ie): - SO REM Eee iN rr SMA A Seen ee 10 Oleooiwlen ese RNa RRO. Sint t, <=) AUR pepe pememin str Pe ONE, 1 NRE ROMAN B MAR ISIC Lede Rt 12 (Oileevay senecee eri th SN Ae Pi al aR CE aA a ars a MMA leaner ie aa 15 (Q)sseeia ania KON ys NEY Eee estes ace ede eh ele Rt 17 (Ose eat rants ee are a ec emer ee ee AN ie at sree ne a Aan Reras E 19 sihmntlenta tees seen es hee sc lee Ss SR RS © Seen Se See vrais NO boeee 22 SUMMA ARVs She Te Ie pee eS cit old la PMMA Searec cee rk Ele, POI ERTL, SO, 24 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 614.—-Cosr or PropucING APPLES IN YAKIMA Wa LEY, WASH.: u t 2 MbiremVeakamar district): sos cnet sc. 3 Mae hae oo hk a Seon eM SS 2 Enstomgand development,of the industhy... "1.02202 e ee 4 Me THOdmOlapresentatlonuwtrs .arc 5...) ees ce se oho ee NaN aes 8 EIMROES AEA A LIONEL Sere ke woe At | SMM a as ee 6 oye Aaa ter eet ew 8 SIZCLOMTANC sso ae rhs SS. SMM is Peet re erate cee Sea eee 9 si peskoteran chen s 940 o Saueoo >. ee Sao sehen ee eee 10 IMiVestments reste h yy Se E ee Ss. SRM er. CPE ECS ene 11 14 19 40 Pfarrallnm este ncro pier sae sisias, 5 cic, == - SPR ei seas Gees ha nia, Se he SD PNG GalmlaDOGNCOS Ge irs ssn os yen cers ~ < - eye olav oy on x sae Set SION BE OL 61 Expenses;otmer than, labor. cic x... ae oe EOL IRI? ODT Ms noe 65 MNotalom al Costs net Oo ie a 5; so! «Papeete gay open bot alc Bnew hos eran one ow od ee ered nS ee 72 DEPARTMENT Buuuetin No. 615.—TuHe EconomicaL WINTER FEEDING OF BrrEr Cows IN THE CORN Ber: The need for more economic feeding of breeding cows. A Breeding herds must get most of their living from farm. by- products. ER es Avoid feeding EXCOSSIVEMMAtTONS 1p. 2 Aare cree ere nuntee SRR anne SU ee ere Avoid costly TAELOMS: Sie soso <7 Ok MUNN BLS OCGY OE BUILT DEE GOD Wsemmeorercheap toushagess 2s 4 252 2 ee Sao oe a sy eevee Cae wee a Use available feeds most economically.............----.-.---- eA eSB ad eae Scudveotratronston'selectedsiarms=... emma 255 tout. tee sy Meniene i te Vali nar Coneliisions ree eee ee ese) AURA RN ri ROLE R LIAL solo NOMIC aE 1 SANE DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 616.—The Cirrus THRIPs: NOTELOCNUIC TIO Mee ds a Ne ee ae. | arene sea ne Seed ee eng ee APRA nena eR Nome i Histonygandrdistrbitlonask sce c o> ae AS Ad ee ne ries er mat hao 2 INGinineranGsextentiohanjUry: 22>... ce or ee eee nee ee 3 di 8 Re CH OAM ROH WrSseminmatlonee ees etn me ee ater” ee OMY i o/h eels oe = Re ek eS ee ee EGO lamits ep eit ms see te. Ue er Met cer eure e ene lhuieyhistonysand! ha butsuseh st ces. 2 “beeps aeons aloe = it eames ee 10 Seacsonmalehistonmyeesass tes Ate) > See ely i es nas Tee re 22 Naiiralcheckaiens sass need: - Maem dines Vie ns Sas A ee ea 24 Montrolkexperimentes=eh ees Asn Ve ne oS he RR Shoe bes CEN 29 Biloliograph yieeesecc sk cshe goto. Lapeer ne nes NAN SS. ees 4] DEPARTMENT BuLiEeTIn No. 617.—AUSTRALIAN SALTBUSH: Harlyatestsionthe Australian saltbush jeer sc yeccis oeeee ee Weserptionsotthe: plant essen. -eeeeeas ee oct sees eee. DAS cra UtION ere Seen | Te ar Geass AC eg ON aes ae Chmaticreqmkements sas eso 7) as eB an 4 arin ee oe eee Soilfreq mem entsve tes Sree. eee tg es on eee ne sr Wrowelitpresis tances secs ese ypc: RRs Pete ts et REEL Se AR RRIE ERAN er NTO NSIS CONES OVENN SEN CANS Segre SM) you iment equ) dry ey earn Aiea Walltvestor pastures ietiee cys ae et). Nemesia © Sa, ee cs ais I Seeding onyrangenands: ye eer). ame ntl teen Sieereyen tet one neonate Seedinowundenculltivationes se see ; .-Maeemewen aes orn Siete Reape Mai eee tintee Harvesting forsoiling a4 sa asa: > NAM St te eee, ee oe eevee EIST OS tin OvfOn SCCU meres ct at -nr. Jnana + 2 Unites Cea pone eee SOVoMmoannawhr ee 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 601—625, DEPARTMENT BuLueTIN No. 617.—AUSTRALIAN SaLTBusH—Continued. Page. Waluievforhay =< sa sacasc oteae Sa. oh as ee eee ee eee ee 10 IDISCAS CS oo om 5.8 Se pee Sie S chee tein se is 2h 5c St a Sr 19 SUMIMABY, 2 oc okt Ae ears 2 Ne ene es ere = bins ee ers aera See oe ere ee 1 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 618.—EXPERIMENTS WITH DuruM WHEAT: WaTEROCUGHLON eee ee eters ore ec avec kc Seer ener ee eee 1 SSOUECES OLGA GA es - 6 aoe tet ce cress. aoa, 2 arc at ee eh te ee ee i ELAS CON ere oe rs agape eee 2 Se Se Se eS ee 3 Agronomic adaptation and production... 222.2.....02..02.462.22-2secee 5 MeseripionmanG Key hee ee. 22. si. 5 eee ee 9 Worletalvex perimien tSie- ets = =< <5. oc ree ete ee 1183 SUM IN akyygOL Tests = eee eee 52 5.:s 5 ee ee ee 57 BiphOstaphy 4.6 e358 2 ee See oe =... «aie Meee eee tees Oe ete a ee 61 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 619.—Foop Hasrrs or THE Swattows: A Famity oF VALUABLE NatTIvE Brrps: Hood habitsiobthe swallows. —22 -=- - i. .geesiece saeco ses ose 1 Purpednertitis coe 2. see dass. . --. sees Bee ee eee ee 3 GhillonawesiswallOwin ssc ssa. . = Seeger 6 Batre wallow esse sass et eee =e. 2... See eee ee hee 11 Tree, or White-bellied swallow.....:...2922.s22 25. 225- cts sees ueee eee 15 Nioletzorecn swallowe<2s- 9-2 s2.2-- . Sees =e oa sae see. eee 19 Bankes wallow2ose.6 eee goes. o>. s See ete oa ee eee 21 Rouch=wainced swalloweeesss-s- = 2... 2. Semen Smee cues eee ees 25 AMM aibatcheseyvbesnesh-h\'ch mee = Ae eR 5 eee rein eye Ss eeteeene 28 DepaRTMENT BuLieTiIn No. 620.—Errect or VARYING CERTAIN COOKING CONDITIONS IN THE PRopUCTION OF SULPHITE PuLP FROM SPRUCE: Purpose-ot the experimen tsi. 5.22... .2ee 2s 2n2- on see ee eee i Pu phite: PrOCess .- sae eo ees =|. < Bee See Soe Se 2 Karras of Wood Used eee Se See, 32 - con Beem Gute sauce ee methods and pe Bitter Rootand Blue Moun- tain section . SHS Aas ee ROS 5 3) SEEING oaks Ais OM eM Club cheese, nature, varieties, and preparations jsjecls\s cle. 2c he Coal tar, absorption and penetration in longleaf pine, tests end of creosote), bulletin by Clyde H. Teesdale and J. D. MacLean. . Cocobola, quantity used in manufacture of wooden products. ..-..-- Codling moth, control in apple orchards, methods. ............---- Cotz, LEON Te citation on destruction of chickens by; Crows=2- a4 Colocasia esculenta. See Dasheen. Colorado, wheat-growing experiments..........-.-..-.------------ Cooked cheese, nature, ‘method of making, and local names........ Cooking— GEE NOON . GEESE A CBOE BEA E See PES. 6 SESE ACS Cee tee spruce, for sulphite pulp production, effect of varying condi- tions, bulletin by 8S. E. Lunak. svulfolaite pulp, temperature v. ariations, experiments and results. Corn fodder, use in winter feeding of breeding cows, cost per cow. HGSSES PUTO TY CLOW See gay pee Sale) 1) RMP AS Tie pa AN ay Sale Corvus spp., forms Ame teds States e220. aaa cs cays, weet ere las Cottage cheese, nature, and method of making. ..................- Cotton— PALMS MMNCOMe, SOULCCS 2/5 scien) -. te pean ee nee al eS J. S., and Epmunp H. Tuompson, bulletin op ‘‘The economi- cal winter feeding of beef cows in the corn belt”.........-.- Cotton-mill— operatives, food production on gerden plots, study, bulletin by \Wo Gio. TENG Seer Bo carne RR 5 a ro village, type, rental cherges, gardens, poultry raising, etc...... Cottontail; destruction by Crows: -....-.....- - «-fljsise2 025 <2 tise = Js 2 ee Cottonwood, quantity used in manufacture of wooden products. . ows— beef, winter feeding in corn belt, economical, bulletin by J. S. Cotton and Edmund H. Thompson < «Bae ticle Sect Sm a ~ osiciz breeding— need for more economical feeding, factors governing, etc. Pamons Or Winter feed ess... MARRS So bea se hee varying rations, wintering costhetenikerm nce. sce obs es dairy, relation of br eeding to profits gH ee te ee eee keeping by cotton-mill operatives, costs and returns. 5 er ee Granerizess destruction by crows...) 00... dee esse see Crates, woods and quantities used4 ec... eats: ree See ee Crawfish, destnuchionsbyeclowee tas: |. peer ie yea st Cream cheese, nature, varieties, and methods of making. ........-- Creosote— absorption and penetration in longleaf pine, tests (and of coal tar), bulletin by Clyde H. Teesdale and J. D. MacLean...... and tar mixtures as wood preservatives, analyses and tests: preservation of woods, resistance of hardwoods to BONE ca bulletin by Clyde H. Teesdale and JD Macibeanks 55s. a8 @ricketaydestructuoniby CrowSe 2210) 2... eee ss eles Se se Se 5 Bulletin No Page. 618 1-64 625 46 625 n 625 ra 625 6-8 608 -:14,45 607 1-43 605 17 614 42 621 37 618 33-35 608. 14-45 612 4 620 1-24 620 19-21 615 9-10 42, 43, 44 of 47, 67, 84 621 34 608 15 603 9-16 615 1-16 602 1-10 602 2-3 621 38-39, 66 605 10 615 1-16 615 1-2 615 4-15 615 4-5,6-9 603. 13-44 602 9-10 621 24,62 605 8-17 621 26, 62, 89 60S 15-16 607 143 ere 6074 12, 26-43 606 1-36 621 21 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 601-625. Bulletin Crop yields— No. Page. Bitter Root and Blue Mountain sections, factors influencing.--. 625 1-12 relation to profits, 246 farms, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho.. 625 2-4 Cropping systems, Bitter Root and Blue “Mountain regions of W ash- ‘ ington, Oregon, and Idaho, bulletin by Lee W. F luharty eae eee 625 1-12 rops— dairy farms, kinds, area and percentage, Wisconsin and [linois, BUUCIOS. Seats eee ine os Ae Sh ea Me han oe 603 10-11 farm, growing in moister portions of Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, methods, bulletin by Lee W. Fluharty omens ae 625 1-12 protection against CIOWS? fans ooas si. once eeaecee sa eee 621 73-80 Crossties, incense cedar, use value and price........ Rats Se eeee os 604 4-5 Crow— description, habits, and relation to man, bulletin by E. R. Warlmbachics.2 i: ous teot mache: «+ See ee che eee eee 621 1-93 food items, monthly percentages. + gee ead 2 ete age ata 621 43 Crows— classification amd distribution. ....:.cs8e.9.2.+.42s252.2dn aes 621 2-4 Gontrol legislations 2s sono... . name ie ee ee 621 80-81 GOMUTOE MEAS UY CS ter: eae enemy ts ce <=: Sonate Senet ears See 621 38, 73-80 distribution, life history, and habits...-:.......-.-.-.-........ 621 4-85 economic status, habits beneficial and injurious............ eee, 202K 9-71 enemies, birds and diseases........----.--222+2------.2.02e 621 71-73 ROO Ce MELONS Sx. ca stg ae tee ag: wees = v5 ee ee oie ee ee 21 eee nestling food, animal and vegetable..................22.+---- 621 55-68 FOGREUNO ih DU Tie ate ars hoa ae oc) ss ese ei heee on eee ee 603 1-15 Wisconsin and Illinois, share-renting, pr Ofits, etee 22 s25.4 603 2-4, 5-6 products, kinds sold, influence on profits, Wisconsin and Illinois. 603 12-13 Dairying, farm practices, relation to profits...-....-..-.-..+..------ 603 12-13 Danish export cheese, nature and method of making............-.-.- 608 16 Dasheen— COM posiOne 24000425. eet oa. 2 Ree ee eee eee eee ee eee 613 5, Oar GookimommethOdess=.-2o225.55° 80 oo 2. Meee ee ae 612 4 description and food value, comparison with potato..........-- 612 1-2, 11 digestibility— bulletin by ©. F. Lanegworthy and A. D. Holmes.........-. 612 1 tests, nature of diet, subjects, and rations.............----- 612 2-3, 9-11 food use in tropics....--- ws a crea oral ore epee: 3 MONE 1-2 maturity, relation to digestil bility. on SE eee ee ee 612 3-8 Derbyshire cheese, nature and method of TO ees) Oe anes 608 16-17 Devonshire cream cheese ,nature and method of making.......-.... 608 17 Dietary, experiments with miscellaneous animal fats.............-- 613 1-27 Diseases— fruit, Yakima Valley, Wash., and control studies............. 614 6-7 live ae Boread bit crowev<.c... es sscls cise nee cise 61.6 10 19-21, Grasshoppers, destruction. by. crows_<:.-. 2. 50222252..5.220.505%- ca} 42, 43, 59-40, 82 Gray cheese, nature and method of making...............-.--....-- 608 26 Grazing. harm{ulness to incense cedar SrOW ile 5 Gs. Sande ae 604 31 Great Plains, wheat-growing experiments In semiarid area......-.--. 618 27-57 13, 14, Gribsrawhitestdestruction by crows....--Seeeen 2 50s. 2 SS 6214 25, 42, 43, a7, 82 Gruvere cheese, nature and extent of industry.........----.-------- 608 26 Gudiidae destruction by Crows=-;.--..-< deem 2222262225 snee= 621 21 Gum— ; sins 21,22, 24 preservation characteristics, and results of treatment.........-- 6064 93 98 33 red, quantity used in manufacture of wooden products.....---- * 605 Soursseed distribution by Crows: =. --24825!2--2252-5-222 222555 621 54, 69, 70 Gymnos porangium blasdaleanum, cause of rust fungus of incense cedar ERC CS Meret sts iteraiaferaicis eisialalsicievevsies sie s aplereisiars tei crapegeesieiy Tae Sears 604 29 Hackberry— preservation, characteristics, and results of treatment.....-.--- 606{ . a ae quantity use in manufacture of weoden products.-.-..-..------ 605 15 HatLock, CHARLES, citation on crows’ food habits..............--. 621 27 Hand cheese, nature, method of making and local names..........-- 608 2 iHandles; woodsand quantities used-...--eee2---..222-2+52------- 605 8-17 Hardwoods— echaraetenstics and treatment results 292.-- 222-22 4222-22 55---" 606 18-34 penetrations and absorpiuons:.--...+Aeess-. shes sso. othe. 606 11-16, 17 resistance to creosote injections, bulletin by Clyde H. ‘leesdale ance Way Maclean. s2sasese. .. mee eee tae ee ane 606 1-36 species treated in experiments with creosote injections......... 606 6-7 Stkucruness detinition ol terms: etc. . eno. kee eel ee ee ie GO0G 2-4 HARLAN, Harry V., bulletin on ‘‘The identification of varieties of ancy age ier em ts a SU... Rep lee Lesion saree aii S 622 1-32 ie saltbush for soiling and for seed...............-...--.- 617 10 Haws, ENEMIES OMCLOW Seen see ema. - SS eee ne arent oe 621 71 ay — ahaa mature: audimethod of making #em- 5425422322 4--- 2 608 27 value of Saltbusheaers tA mere... Mees 2 ker ors noe is oe 617 10 Heart-rot, injury to celery:, description, and control studies.......- 601 23-24 Memiptera; destruction bDy ? 4 Oak— quantity used in manufacture of wooden products. ........---.. 605 Sppeupreservation, results of treatment. < 42442. J.2.- 22 5he--0i5- 606} °8.°53 ae Oats, losses from crows...-.-.-------- RHEE 2 oo Caches cme abioe as 621 Tels Oil, oleo, digestibility, dietary experiments..... pineemnseoanoiuaob 613 12-15. Oleo, oil and stearin, digestibility, dietary experiments............ 613 12-17 Mlinvevereammcheese, nature; note.2: 225... ss ees lel Se a 608 40 Orange— riper OMN StU ely! etme klar 97. Sagan gan IGaELE ulate OTN 624 120 navel— ; bud variation, studies in California, bulletin by A. D. Shame sBYScott,,and ©. §.-Pomeroys: 4224124) 4i2 0: 623 1-146 strains of Washington variety, descriptions and records.... 623 14-140 orchards, spraying for citrus thrips, experiments.............-. 616 29-40 propacation-sbud- wood selection): memory) eh tee Soi aie oe 623{ nea H 4 trees— ium oy; Clorusthrips. <2... - 208 Bee maki cities 616 i performance records, methods of keeping..........-.-.---- 623 9-13 Sprayins for e1trus thrips, experiments. 2.202022) 28 aa. 616 29-40: . —1A45 topworking to eliminate undesirable strains............... { a eis Wellencinwhistomy? toe taco fet | Laem aR h Se NEE I 624 2 Washington navel— history, distribution, and development................---- 623 228 OMIAMmMeIStOLy and, Valuers. 2 | VARs ys tN Rae 623 2-3. Oranges— Asconumon methods and apparatus:.... yoke. 2. geben se dan { oi tgs injury by citrus thrips, nature and extent. ................... 616 3-7, 9, 20 navel, strains of the Washington Navel, description and records.. 623 14-140 Valencia— bud variation, studiesin California, bulletin by A. D. Shamel, i escouwand Ors: hOmMeroy_-yeemeen 2 hots. 22 LO 624 1-120 strains, descriptions and comparisons.............-...---- 624 12-115 yields of different varieties, records and studies. .......... 624 7-106 Washington Navel— Productionuimicanloadsec ceca. . Meme oes foe ae eee ce { a ; yields, studies and records in California................-.- 623 12-140 Orchard management, Yakima Valley, Wasch., methods and cost, IQS 6 cop ocean Me eae al LS LGR... LM NIG SL ae ie 614 1-75 Orchording, apple, cost in Yakima Valley Washington, bulletin by CopbeeMillerand SMe homson ss...’ > aes is ysis 92005 0.3 614 1-75. Orchards, citrus, spraying for citrus thrips. ...........2-.2..2-.--- 616 40 Oregon, wheat-growing experiments in semiarid area.............. 618 54-55: 19-22, Orthoptera, destruction by crows / 20’. o. .v eee eee CeO ee ca 42, 43, 59-60, 88 Osage orange, quantity used in manufacture of wooden products.... 605 16 Oe menWemives Of CTOWS so etch rete ois no iy | 621 All 14 Ox-marrow fat, digestibility, dietary experiments.-_.......-.....-- Ox-tail fat, digestibility, dietary experiments............-.--..--- Padonk tree, quantity used in manufacture of wooden products. . ... Paper pulp, ‘sulphite, from spruces, effect of varying cooking condi- tions, billetiniby Ss Bs Lanek... 2.00. .¢eeeereees sec. ose ease arenes cheese, NOtecsas se. 2 acai savin A eke ee Parmesan cheese, nature, varieties, and method of making. . ... Pasthire wale Of salthushieer. >... acc aenee eer esos econ ee Payving— blocks, treatment with tar-creosote mixtures, tests...........-- materials, woods and quantities used...............-.--------- Peanuts, destruction Diy; GCrowS@-s2=- 2: .- see eee ee eee Peart, Raymonp, citation on destruction of chickens by crows. Pencil ‘stock, incense cedar, use, value and price..........-.-.----- Pennsylvania, dairy farming, sources of income..............-.-.- Persian walnut. See Walnut, Enelish. Persimmon, quantity used in manufacture of wooden products....-. Petrochelidon lunifrons, occurrence, nesting habits and food........- Phalaena tripunctata. See Leat folder, sweet- -potato. Philadelphia cream cheese, nature, note...222.-2...6.5.2..22-5-5s5 Philoeosinus, insect enemy of incense cedar trees, control, etc...... Phoradendron juniperinum libocedri, cause of mistletoe disease of cedar trees. Pigs— feeding with fish meal and tankage, comparisons........----.- raising by mill operatives, cost and returns. ......-..-.------- Pilocrocis tripunctata. See Leaf folder, sweet-potato. Pimiento cheese, nature and preparation. . Pine— consumption for sulphite-process pulp, 1900-1916... .......... longleaf, tests of absorption and penetration of coal tar and creo- sote, bulletin by Clyde H. Teesdale and ‘Jie D. MacLean. ..--. ee ee ee Net i Pe a, eae eC eae Sa eee ee ar a Pine tobacco, manufacture, woods and quantities used............-. woods and QUanUtOs Used... .-.. +. .casooen sete ems ere Planing mill, use of various woods, quantity, etc......-.-----.---- Plant bug, enemy of citrus and flower poitak ol: 2 eee ee See Plumbers’ woodwork, woods and quantities used...........------- Poison— Dai Tor des tructions Ol GrO Wes cscs: <-. = meee acer tie Seca es Poles, incense cedar, use, size, and price........-.--.-------------- Polyporus amarus, cause of dry-rot fungus of incense cedar, descrip- TOD PRC Coe ts a, red. ol gee rae ee Pomerranatesanjury by Giirusithrips. .....2s9sse-4eseeea. nos see- oe Pomeroy, C.8., A. D. Saamet, and L. B. Scorr, bulletin on— “Citrus-fruit improvement: A study of bud variation in the Valencia orange” ‘“‘Citrus-fruit improvement: A study of bud variation on the Washington navel orange” Poplar— consumption for sulphite-process pulp, 1900-1916............--. yellow, quantity used in manufacture of wooden products. . Populus grandidentata, preservation, characteristics, and results et CREATMONU se as. os oe Gov ck eee oe -.< - >. . Seer Seale. Sua introduction, distribution, and value for pasture. .....-..-- seeding on range land and under cultivation..................- 16 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 601-625, Bulletin No. Page. Saskatchewan, wheat-growing experiments.......-....-.---+------ 618 49 Sassafrass tree, quantity used in manulacture of wooden products. . 605 16 Satinwood, quantity used in manufacture of wooden products... . - 605 17 Scales, injurious to apples in Yakima Valley, control studies. ...... 614 7 Heatabacidace, Gcsprie non: DY CLOWS 26 1 <2 eas ae ose Sine a go stereos 621 ans Scarecrows, use in deterring crows, effects........---...------.---- 621 74 SCHEFFER, Tuno. H., citation on seed protection against crows..... §21 74-75 Sclerotinia libertiana, "fungous enemy of lettuce, symptoms, sels | eo1{ 1-18, investigations in lorie, eo Aenea ee Nag ea 27-28 Scorr, L. B., A. D. Saamet, and ©. S. Pomeroy, bulletin on— “ Oitrus-truit improvement; A study of bud variation in the Wallemicia OYA O62? 2 aera Mee ar 2.00 een Me eee ee eee 624 1-120 “Citrus-fruit improvement: A study of -bud variation in the Washington navel orange?’ ....:-:-sjueses25-Sseds oc es -ens 62 1-146 Seed— clover, production in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, methods GUL CL TOON US tore ia eye Sheet atocste ce isc, 0/8 Mpa ies elect elses 625 11 Salbolishs harvests oh occ Skye RNeIe oi Seoul or een ee ore 617 10 treatment to prevent crows from eating..............-.------- 621 74-77 Seeding, saltbush on range land and under cultivation. Sats oe ot ME ONlh 9 42, 48, Seeds, weed and other, eaten by crows...-..-..------------------- 621 53-54, 68-71, 85 Servian butter, nature and method of making. .....-.-...-------- 608 29 phakes; cedanm earley lise; NOtes= 2.2... cceeeeeenie --e Sees oe ne 604 8 Suame., A. D., L. B. Scott, and C. 8. Pomeroy, bulletin on— ‘‘Citrus-fruit improvement: A study of bud variation in the Valencia, oFanee 8h ecceeec osc eeee toons sane coke 624 1-120 “‘Citrus-fruit improvement: A study of bud variation in the Washington riavel Orange’... . sce eesewee ssc cegeoeee eoeee 623 1-146 SHARPLES, RoBeErRT P., citation on destruction of birds by crows... 621 35 3, 4, 6, a 10, 21, 22,30), 31,'32;,.33) Sheep, milk use im cheese makino-* . ..c.ctitececc. sseccece sence 6089 35, 37, 40, 41, 42-43, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 54, 57, 58, 59 eee : 26-27 Shellfish, destruction by Growse.s--s. =.= $402 soe eke oe wee ee 621 63. 89 Shingles, cedar, use, price per cord, etc.-.-----------...-1------- 604 8 Shipbuilding, use of various woods and quantity, etc........--..-- 605 8-17 phaaiine. crows, TUTE and DIACHCES: »... eee eee ee eee eee 616 22-24 6-sootted, Gnemy of ertrus thrips... ....JJgac.ce.00c4 aden sctesceen 616 26 dibet cheese, nature, NOten=-- 52.22. : 7) eee aa ek re See ee 608 57 TIBBETS, Mrs. L. C. , work in development of naval orange industry. 623 3 Ties, incense cedar, ‘use, VautIes OELCCy, CLC aumenae ae a8 ae epee re 604 4-5 TILGHMAN, BENJAMIN C., inventor of sulphite process of paper pulp PIV LSIT Ose evagsre ete che ait Os <= «ce ye Sinn eg ee 620 2 Tilia Americana, preservation, characteristics and results of treat- \ { 18, 25. 606 024 dl iaetien pene Ste gs es ee, mr ane ened > Sey we a 28, 31 Timber, preservation, list of publications.................---.---- 607 43 TinkuHaM, H. W., citation on crows’ food habits. .........-....--- 621 14 . : 28-29, Moads> destrichoniby Crowses ee <== ees eae ee eee 621 63-64, 89 Top-workine, Orante trees a) 21 2 oss oe Hee Pe ee { oe ane Toys, woods and quantities used....-.-...-.-.---:-.-------------- 605 7-16 SEND PINE CROW oe om Seta kata as hos +s satire ress een a aes ears ee 621 78 Trappist cheese, nature and method of making. ..........-.....--- 608 57-58 Tree swallows, occurrence, nesting habits, and food...............- 619 3, 15-19, Trees— incense cedar— description, size, height, longevity, form, foliage, ete...... 604 12-27 silvical requirements, moisture, light, soil, etc............. 604 21-22 orange, marking for production record...........-------------- oF Pain rinks, woods and quantities Used... secede ccc o2 tances oes 605 8-13. Turts, LE Roy M., citation on destruction of birds by crows...-.-- 621 33 Tumblebugs, destruction by Grows'..-..2522-.-.- +2222. sees eee 621 16, 58 Tuna cheese, nature and method of making...-...........-......- 608 59. Tupelo, quantity used in manufacture of wooden products..-....-.- 605 11 Turtle— fat, digestibility, dietary experiments.....................--. 613 22-24 green, use as food and digestibility of fat...............--..--. 613 22 aur hlesacdestrie ton ysClO Wie: - 94-22 ee eee eee 6 coe 621 28, 89 . +s 22, 20 Ulmus, spp. preservation, characteristics and results of treatment. . 6064 28, 30, 33 Utah, wheat-growing experiments... ...----..-------------.----- 618 52-53. Vegetables— growing on small lots by cotton-mill operatives.........-...-.-... 602 4-7 production by mill operatives in garden plots, study, bulletin By Wes eR 22 2525. Se he: se ee 602 1-10 Vehicles, manufacture, woods and quantity used.........--.......- 605 8-17 Violet-green swallows, occurrence, nesting habits, and food........ 6194 = 28 INDEX. 19 Bulletin Walnut— No. Page. black, quantity used in manufacture of wooden products. ..... 605 12 blight, Eastern United States, bulletin by S. M. McMurran . 611 1-7 Circassian, quantity used in manufacture of wooden products... 605 15 English— blight diseases, history and distribution. ...............-- 611 2-5. plight i in eastern United States, bulletin by S.M.McMurran. 611 1-7 MGUStVAINSWMited Statess ns). Meee te Se lh 611 1-2, Walnuts, Persian, value on farms in Eastern States.........-.....- 611 7 WARREN: B:H:, citation on crows’ food habitss#-2-2.-2. 2.22.22. 2. 621 22 Washington— apple-growing region, soil, climate, and topography............ 614 6-8 apples, cost of production i in Yakima Valley, bulletin by G. H. Millerandist Me Dhomsone ty. |). RE Oe ae 614 1-75 eastern, cropping systems, and for eastern Oregon and northern idahowouwlletinsby Icee,W. Bluharty.: 4s: 22 OS en 625 1-12 Yakima County, apple industry, importance and magnitude... 614 3-6 Waspsmaesiiietion py/CrOWS! 2.2.26 222... cee eS 621 25 Weavers’ implements, woods and quantities used.........--------- 605 8-17 WeBsTER, F. M., citation on crows’ food habits................---- 621 19 Niecevilcsedestnuction: by, crows, notes’=.:-_.. 2:feese 22225. ee 621 18, 58 Weighing apparatus, manufacture, woods and quantities used.....- 605 rene West Friesian cheese, nature and method of making............... 608 61 Westphalia sour-milk cheese, nature and method of making........ 608 61 Wheat— durum— f agronomic adaptation and production..-...........-.----- 618 5-39 description and key to groups and varieties...........--.-- 618 9-13 experiments -— bulletin by Carelton R. Ball and J. Allen Clark......- 618 1-64 GENE RO UIRO ES Pata aos Spee 6 de Ge SEO ae mn ae 618 1-3 history, and introduction into Unitedi@tates........ 5... 618 3-5. NGSSESMVACKOWS icici s.L cic nonce cal. NU SE ee 621 48-49 production, Minnesota, North and South Dakota, 1909-1916, anCepencentomdurum: wheat. o2..-: spe e oe eee 618 6-9 Mb lCatIOnsiOnMvylis tees es cyl tats) nun: BepaMeey Us ster ie emt ae 618 61-64 Wheats, durum, varietal experiments, various stations, annual and AVCTACCRVMeldSSeLCh sae ae oo... Ae oe ee 618 13-60 White fir, consumption for sulphite-process pulp, 1900-1916......-- 620 2-4 White-bellied swallows, occurrence, nesting habits and food........- 619} 3, 15- oe Witcox. lL. E., citation on food habits of crows..............-.----- 621 47 Willow— preservation, characteristics, and results of treatment..........- quantity used in manufacture of wooden articles............-. Wintering, cows, economical feeding in corn belt, bulletin by J. S. Cotton and Edmund H. Thompson law 9 Sees Sle cc kG teas OO Mirewormetdestriction by crows. 2... -. eee Wisconsin— dairy farms, study in Green County and in Kane County, IIL, bulletin by SPAS AB OG Ot Ma Une 2 I Me alin EN COM hee eed Green County, share-rented dairy farms, regions studied..-..... mleat-orowinovexperiments ee oe. ee Wood— consumption— by wood-manufacturing industry, by kinds and by indus- (GAGS A Sato) Sees ea DAR Bl ao aR RMR nae ews a UM in States by wood-manufacturing industries............... penetrability with preservatives, factors Qiee ting ears cane preserv ation— bilbltooraphy nice sn lcone Ste. een SAC tah a ee. 2 experiments, methods, apparatus, etc -..... HeughodaenEceue fomlica trons silts een rsp wone is |. emma Ui rey Heyes Wee resistance of hardwoods to creosote penetration, bulletin by Clyde H. Teesdale ad Jee Maciteanes. 22) sek ie aca 606 27, 28, 33 605 13 615 1-16 621 19 603 1-15 603 2, 4-5 23-94, 618} 34-37 605 4-17 605 4-7 606 9, 16-17 606 34-36 606 « 1-2)4=7 606 34-36 606 1-36 20 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 601-625, Wood—Continued. preservation—continued. tests of absorption and penetration of coal tar and creosote Nays KolatedKsehe | 0Nbs\ eee eee eee Ge Geen eer e Seae pulp— production by different processes..............---2------- sulphite— cooking, operation, test plans, and apparatus..........- from spruce, effect of varying cooking conditions, pulley se Heelies process of manufacture, discovery and growth of in- GUIs trys 1S 6710] Goan 22 See ere ele oe ee eee PU Ac phe ear ee SS, 5 ae ye esi eee Woodenware, woods and quantities used.......--..--------------- Woods— kinds used for sulphite-process pulp, and consumption, 1900- > ELON G Screws Sees a ee eer ere ns So 21, SY a ay Se ee varieties used in manufacture of wooden products....-.-..---- biOCTINMCHECSEMNAtUTE. MOLGms cease a... as eee ete se cee Sateen Yorkshire-stilton cheese, nature, note.............---------.----- Zelus renardii, enemy of citrus thrips.....-......-...---...-.-.6--- ZIMMER, J. T., citation on crows’ food habits....-...-.- Soe eee © Bulletin No. 607 620 4-6 1-24 2 TEAS), 1 Jas 8-17 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE WM.A. TAYLOR, Chief, and the Bureau of Markets, CHARLES ag ‘BRAND, Chief. Washington, D. C. v December 21, 1917. THE HANDLING AND PRECOOLING OF FLORIDA LETTUCE AND CELERY. By H. J. Ramsey, pomialog: st in Charge of Fruit and Vegetable Handling and Storag Investigations, and E. L. MarKetn, Scientific Assistant, Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations. CONTENTS Page. e Preventing decay in lettuce and celery..---- 1 | Celery-handling irvestigations—Continued. Lettuce-handling investigations....-.--...-- 2. | Outline of celery-precooling experiments. 19 Nature of the problem.._......-.-..----- 2 | Transit temperature records-.....-.--.-- 20 Outline of experiments in 1913-14....-_.- 3 | Cost of precooling and initial icing com- Results of experiments in 1913-14._..___. 6 | pared with regular icing--...-....-..-- 23 Outline of experiments in 1914-15...._.-_- 13 | Outline of celery-storage experiments... 23 Results of experiments in 1914-15_.._.__. 14 | Stora ce trOuUDlesr-s eee = eee eee eee 23 Celery-handling investigations..............- 18 } Results of storage experiments---.._._--- 24 Nature of the problem..-.-..........:.-. 18) | sSumimarysee = oo ss seas nee seas sae ee 27 PREVENTING DECAY IN LETTUCE AND CELERY. The lettuce and celery crops of Florida contribute annually about one and one-half million dollars to the incomes of the truck growers in that State. About 4,000 acres now are devoted to the culture of these crops, and this area is being increased constantly. The expansion of the celery industry has been especially rapid. Starting practically within the last decade, Florida is now one of the leading celery- producing States of the Union. The census of 1909 shows that Florida had then only 825 acres of celery. By 1913 the plantings had increased to 1,280 acres,! an increase of 55 per cent in four years. The diseases and insect enemies to which most cultivated plants are susceptible quickly appear in new localities where the plants are introduced. Though they may not be apparent at first, when climatic and other conditions are favorable these enemies may so 1 Agricultural statistics for the years 1913-14. In 13th Bien. Rpt. Dept. Agr. Fla., Div. Agr. and Immigr., 1913-14, p. 276. [1915.] 10911°—17—Bull. 601——1 2 BULLETIN 601, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. increase from year to year that the crops can not be grown suc- cessfully. Oftentimes the problems that have confronted the lettuce and celery growers during the past few years have been due to such conditions. Heavy losses have resulted from decay not only in the field, but in apparently sound produce while in transit. This con- dition made it seem desirable to undertake a series of investigations with a view to determining whether some practical commercial method could be devised for reducing the losses that occur from the time the products leave the field until they reach the consumer. The Bureau of Plant Industry has conducted handling and _ pre- cooling investigations with several crops in other sections of the country, and similar investigations were begun with lettuce and celery in Florida in the autumn of 1913. During the season of 1913-14 particular attention was paid to the lettuce crop, and therefore this— will be discussed first. LETTUCE-HANDLING INVESTIGATIONS. NATURE OF THE PROBLEM. The experimental work was done in the vicinity of Palmetto, in Manatee County, the center of one of the largest lettuce-producing sections of Florida. Lettuce has been grown, there on a commercial scale for 15 years or more. In a great many cases it was found that lettuce had been grown year after year on the same land. As a result, practically all the cultivated fields in this section are infected with disease-producing organisms. Probably the most danger ous enemy of the lettuce crop is a fungus disease (Sclerotinia libertiana),| commonly known as lettuce dha. which causes tremendous losses yearly. Under conditions favor- able to the growth of the fungus, whole fields sometimes are destroyed within a short period of time. The first indication of the presence of the disease is a slightly wilted appearance of the lower leaves. The drop produces a discolored or watery area on the under sides of the infected leaves, and this is followed quickly by the appearance of white threadlike masses. The disease spreads rapidly throughout the head, causing it to collapse into a slimy mass. Infected leaves often may be found on heads that appear to be perfectly healthy, and sometimes it is impossible to find in a field a single plant that does not show some signs of infection. Figure 1 shows a field in which practically all the plants are affected with the drop. The wilted appearance of these plants as compared with those in the disease-free field shown in figure 2 is very marked. The general practice of most growers in preparing the lettuce for market is to cut off all plants close to the ground. The worst of the 1 Burger, O. F. Lettuce drop. Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 116, p. 27-32, 3 fig. [1913.] ; ' HANDLING LETTUCE AND CELERY. 3 bottom leaves are then trimmed off, and the head is placed in the hamper or crate. The sole purpose of the trimming is to improve the appearance of the head, and often little or no attention is given to the presence of signs of disease. The hampers are packed tightly, the lettuce heads forming a compact mass that cools rather slowly. In addition, the hampers are loaded in the cars in such a manner as greatly to interfere with the natural air circulation. Figure 3 illus- trates the usual arrangement of the load. The hampers are placed horizontally, with the tops and bottoms alternating. By this arrange- ment the hampers are fitted tightly together and the pressure is so distributed that they do not break readily. As usually loaded into Fig. 1.—A lettuce field badly infested with the drop disease, from which no lettuce heads have been a, : harvested. the cars the hampers are four layers high. This leaves ample air space above the load, but the hampers are so close together that the circulation of air between them is very slow, and those in the center of the car retain the field heat for a long time. Most plant diseases develop rapidly at the higher temperatures, and this is particularly _ the case with lettuce drop. As a result, a great deal of lettuce has arrived on the market in unsound condition. OUTLINE OF EXPERIMENTS IN 1913-14. CAREFUL CUTTING. In order to determine the effect of greater care in preparing lettuce - for shipment, various methods of cutting were tested in these investi- gations. It seemed evident from the start that the infection occurred - : : | 4 BULLETIN 601, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mainly through the lower leaves, which rest on the ground. There- fore the lettuce was cut at a point just above these leaves. This method left the three or four under leaves untouched on the ground. If one or two of the leaves on the head showed signs of decay they were pulled off. If a large number of leaves were diseased or if the main stalk showed signs of disease, the head was discarded. Only lettuce that appeared entirely free from disease was included in these carefully cut lots. Figure 4 is a fair representation of the appear- ance of the lettuce when cut by either method. The commercially cut lettuce is dirty and shows diseased areas on the lower leaves, Fig. 2.—A field ofhealthy lettuce, showing the condition ofthe plants at harvest time. whereas that carefully cut is clean, attractive, and free from disease. The carefully cut lettuce was packed in accordance with com- mercial methods, and a similar lot, cut and handled throughout commercially, was obtained from the same field at the same time for purposes of comparison. PRECOOLING. The lots obtained each day were divided into two parts: Half of the carefully cut lettuce and half of that commercially cut were pre- cooled, and comparable lots were placed under regular refrigeration. The precooling was done by means of the portable precooling plant of the Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations. This HANDLING LETTUCE AND CELERY. 5 plant consists of a complete 12-ton refrigerating outfit installed in a freight car. Ammonia expansion coils in a well-insulated compart- ment at one end of the car furnished as low a temperature as was desired, and a 45-inch fan forced the necessary circulation of air. Refrigerator cars were loaded. with lettuce in the usual manner and brought to the precooling plant, where cold air was then blown through the car, entering at one of the bunkers and going out at the other. Twelve electrical thermometers were distributed through the load. One thermometer was placed in the lettuce near the outside of the head end of the package and one in the center in each of six Fic. 3.—Hampers of lettuce loaded in a refrigerator car with very little space between the hampers for circulation of air. hampers, which were located as follows: Two hampers at each end of the car, next to the bunkers, placed midway between. the side walls, one at the top and one at the bottom of the load. The other two hampers were located as near the center of the car as possible, one at the top and one at the bottom of the load. The thermometers were connected with a main cable, which extended through the side ventilators to the outside of the car and provided a means of accu- rately determining the temperature at any time without opening the doors. The precooling was commenced as soon as possible after the cars were loaded and continued until the average temperature of all 6 BULLETIN 601, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the thermometers was about 40° F. It has been determined that this point is about as low as the ice in the bunkers will hold the load. TREATMENT OF EXPERIMENTAL LOTS. As has been stated, the precooled car contained an experimental lot consisting of an equal number of hampers of lettuce carefully cut and commercially cut from the same field at the same time. An exactly similar lot was shipped at the same time in a refrigerator car that was not precooled. The two cars went to the same market, in most cases to New York City, where a representative of the Depart- ment of Agriculture inspected them upon their arrival and again three days later. | Comparable lots, both precooled and nonprecooled, were held at Palmetto in an iced refrigerator car and kept under approximate Fig. 4.—Two heads of lettuce, showing the difference in methods of cutting: A, Commercially cut B, carefully cut. transit temperature conditions. It was possible to keep the tempera- tures in this holding car under close control, so that these lots give a good index of the effect of temperature on the development of decay. Six days after cutting—the average length of time required for the cars to reach the principal northern markets—the lettuce was removed from the holding car and inspected. It was then held at ordinary temperatures for three days and again inspected. Accurate records were Kept as to the general condition of the lettuce and the amount of decay at each inspection. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN 1913-14. SHIPPING LOTS. During the season of 1913-14 nine full comparable experimental lots were shipped to northern markets and 16 lots were held in Palmetto. The following tables and diagrams give a summary of HANDLING LETTUCE AND CELERY. 7 SES the results obtained as regards the general market condition and the amount of decay in lettuce treated in the different ways described. The results of the inspections of experimental lots shipped to northern markets are shown in Table I. The results recorded in Table I are represented graphically in figure 5. The open line in figure 5 represents the percentage of prime or first-class lettuce, the shaded line the percentage of mar- ketable lettuce, and the solid line the percentage of worthless lettuce. The most striking point brought out by this diagram is the effect of careful cutting on the market condition of the lettuce. In the non- PRECOOLED UPON ARRIVAL NON PRECOOLED PERCENTAGE ,CAREF ULLY CUM: PERCENTAGE 400 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 10 20 30 40 S50 60 70 686 90 100 PRIME 99.6 eee) 100 WORTHLESS 0.0 | COMMERCIAL [Sessemen sane) 3)3:7, PRIME hy | aI | Too 99.6 MARKETABLE 96.5 Coo 104 WORTHLESS 3.58 THREE DAYS AFTER ARRIVAL CAREFULLY CUT [Serene 58:5 PRIME 46:4 bee ‘Oo 100.0 MARKETABLE 99.2 0M | 100 WORTHLESS 0.8 § COMMERCIAL faa) 2213 PRIME 17:3 ome) COTO 98.4 MARKETABLE 91.8 COTO 616 WORTHLESS 8.2 i Fic. 5.—Diagram illustrating the percentages of prime, marketable, and worthless lettuce upon arrival at the market and three days later in precocled and in nonprecooled commercially cut and carefully cut lettuce shipped from Palmetto, Fla., season of 1913-14. precooled series the carefully cut lettuce showed an average of 59.6 per cent in prime condition upon its arrival at the market, as com- pared with 25.7 per cent in the case of that commercially cut. The precooled series showed just as marked results: 71.5 per cent prime in the carefully cut, and only 33.7 per cent prime in the commercially cut lettuce. After holding for three days, the amount of first-class lettuce was considerably decreased, but in all cases the carefully cut Jettuce showed over twice as much first-class lettuce as that com- mercially cut. The beneficial effects of precooling are well illus- trated in this diagram, but are shown more strikingly in Table IT. 8 BULLETIN 601, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE I.—Average market conditions of nine experimental lots of carefully cut and com- mercially cut lettuce shipped to northern markets during the season of 1913-14. ate Three days after At withdrawal. withdrawal. Treatment. Carefully | Commer-} Carefully | Commer- cut. jciallycut.| cut. |cially cut. Nonprecooled: Prime Heads? «2.225. ccaee ee ee eee ----per cent... 59. 6 25. 7 46.4 GS} Marketable? heads. s23.5..0 ss.ofe one soneecsanc coeeeendO-bc- 100 96. 5 99. 2 91.8 Precooled: Brim eshesdS es eccedcess Mowe ereemene meee = oaceee Ghose 71.5 33.7 58 22.8 Marketable heads: 2.252 eeeee acne sees sce 3c sere 2eeOO0e == 100 99.6 100 98. 4 1 The term ‘‘marketable”’ as used here includes all heads with sound hearts, even though the outer leaves were in some cases more or less decayed. ; Figure 6 shows the very striking results of careful cutting. Where the nonprecooled commercially handled lettuce on the first inspec- tion shows a total decay of 44.5 per cent, the nonprecooled carefully cut lettuce shows only 8.8 per cent of decay, or, in other words, the method of cutting that keeps the infected lower leaves out of the PRECOOLED NON PRECOOLED UPON ARRIVAL -PER CENT DECAY PER CENT DECAY BH5.) CAREFUL 8&8 MONT 272 COMMERCIAL 4450 THREE DAYS AFTER ARRIVAL 7399 CAREFUL 153 Ea COTTA) 36.7 COMMERCIAL 55.8 am Fia. 6.—Diagram illustrating the percentages of drop decay found upon arrival at the market and three days later in precooled and in nonprecooled commercially cut and carefully cut lettuce shipped from Palmetto, Fla., in the season of 1913-14. hamper reduces the decay four-fifths. A single glance at the dia- sram (fig. 6) shows the great difference between the carefully cut and commercially cut lettuce both upon arrival at the market and three days later, the short line in each case representing the decay in the carefully cut and the long line the decay in the commercially cut lots. The column on the left shows the average total decay in the precooled lots, and the column on the right the decay in the non- precooled lots. Precooling had the greatest effect on the commere- cially cut lots. For example, the precooled commercially cut lettuce showed an average of 27.2 per cent decay upon arrival, in contrast to 44.5 per cent in the case of the nonprecooled. Precooling used in connection with careful cutting gives the best results, as the figures HANDLING LETTUCE AND CELERY. 9 indicate, i. e., a total decay of 5.1 per cent in the precooled carefully cut lot, as against 44.5 per cent in the nonprecooled commercially cut lettuce. As the latter is the common method of cutting and shipping lettuce, it is obvious that careful cutting and precooling eliminate a very large part of the decay that usually develops in transit. i TasiE I1.—Average percentages of decay in nine experimental lots of carefully cut and com- mercially cut lettuce shipped to northern markets during the season of 1915-14." : Three days after At withdrawal. a acl Treatment. Carefully | Commer-| Carefully | Commer- cut. |ciallycut.| cut. cially cut. Nonprecooled: Heads.showing slight drop rot 7.9 24. 2 ils 7 30.3 Heads showing medium drop rot.-.-...- 5 -9 16.9 eh8) 19.6 Heads showing complete drop rot..--..-.-.-.-.--.---d0..-- 0 3.4 Ae) 5.9 PNOTAIGROPMOUese reece cele laeieioeeiminteieieinini= = sis -lrar= doses: 8.8 44.5 15.3 55. 8 Precooled: Heads showing slight drop rot........--------------- dossc= 4G, 20.6 8.5 26.8 Heads showing medium. drop rot.-......------------ doss-= -4 6.3 1.4 8.3 Heads showing complete drop rot..-...--..--------- done: ‘0 -3 0 1.6 Total ChiO)o) ROG ss SanedeoodoncoosoSoodctoadecesds down. 5. 1 27.2 9.9 36.7 1 No record of bacterial decay was obtained in these lots. In addition to the factors recorded above, the difference in appear- ance of the various lots was a point of great importance in determining their market value. Figure 7 shows the general appearance of the different lots at the first inspection. In almost every case the carefully cut lots were far more attrac- tive, not only because less decayed: but also because the heads were cleaner owing to the removal of the dirty lower leaves. The lettuce in the precooled hampers Fig. 7.—Appearance at the firstinspection oflettuce handled in the f following ways: Top hampers, marked ‘‘14,”’ precooled; lower two, was also in mueh marked ‘13,’ not precooled; the hampers on the left, marked “CD,” were commercially handled and the two on the right, better condition than marked ‘‘AB,’’ were carefully cut. that in the nonpre- cooled hampers. Less shriveling, crisper, brighter leaves, and a general freshness of appearance, aside from any question of decay, 10911°—17—Bull. 601—2 Oe 10 BULLETIN 601, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. usually made it easy to distinguish the precooled from the non- precooled lots. The heads in the precooled hampers were usually level with the top of the hampers upon arrival at the market, while those in comparable nonprecooled hampers, because of shriveling and general decay, usually had sunk several inches below the top. HOLDING LOTS. The results of the inspection of sixteen experimental lots held in the refrigerator car at Palmetto are given in Tables III and IV and are shown in figures 8 and 9, respectively. PRECOOLED NON PRECOOLED AFTER SIX DAYS IN ICED CAR ne we we (PERCENTAGE CAREFULLY CUT PERCENTAGE 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 g0 90 100 0.0 WORTHLESS 0.0 COMMERCIAL ee eed 0.4 PRIME 2 | Saar 995 MARKETABLE 93.3 MUD 14.5 WORTHLESS 6.708 THREE DAYS AFTER WITHDRAWAL (repackep LoTs) CAREFULLY CUT Se 6516 PRIME 322] COO $0.0 =MARKETABLE 8730000) (az 10.0 WORTHLESS 12.7 Ea COMMERCIAL c—i5.8 PRIME 340 COT 75.6 MARKETABLE S5!.30000MMMMMMM e244 WORTHLESS 45.7 Fic. 8.—Diagram illustrating the percentages of prime, marketable, and worthless lettuce upon with- drawalfrom the car and three days later in precooled and in nonprecooled commercially cut and carefully cut lettuce held at Palmetto, Fla., season of 1913-14. At the first mspection of the experimental lots held in Palmetto, one half of the lettuce in each basket was removed and inspected, the lower half being left undisturbed, The mspected half was then repacked and the whole basket held until three days later, when the two halves were inspected and recorded separately under the headings ‘‘Repacked”’ and ‘‘Undisturbed.’’ This was done in order to learn what effect removal from the basket and handling while on the market had upon the lettuce. As is brought out in Table — III, there is very little difference in the effect of the two methods, such difference as there is favoring the lettuce that was removed and repacked. Apparently moderate handling has little or no HANDLING LETTUCE AND CELERY. 11 harmful effect on lettuce, and, in fact the exclusion of air from the center of the packages may result in a more rapid deterioration than is the case when the heads are removed from the hampers and exposed to the air. TaBs_eE [I11.—Average market condition of sixteen experimental lots of carefully cut and com- mercially cut lettuce held six days in an iced car at Palmetto, Fla., during the season of 1913-14. At withdrawal. Three days after withdrawal. Treatment. pil Repacked. Undisturbed. Carefully | Commer- |: cut. — |eially cut.) Carefully | Commer-| Carefully | Commer- cut. |cially cut.| cut. {cially cut. Nonprecooled: i IPyHbaas) INCRCSS Sans ae Aaenicee per cent...) 90 40.1 32. 2 3.4 31.8 4.1 Marketable heads. --.-..--.----- doze 100 93.3 87.3 51.3 81.5 49.5 Precooled: BrimeyneadSseeanecce csc ae. - Gdoszere 98. 4 70.9 65.6 15.8 53.8 9.4 Marketable heads........--...-- do 100 99.5 Os a] 75.6 | 94.3 63. 4 The summary of the holding experiments shown in Table III is even more striking than the summary of the shipping lots shown in Table I. The-effect on the carrying quality of the lettuce of the different methods of handling employed was relatively the same in PRECOOLED _ NON PRECOOLED AFTER SIX DAYS IN ICED CAR PER CENT DECAY PER CENT DECAY foo 390 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 Ct) ‘ ® 116 20 30 40 50 ¢€0 70 go 90 100 (16 CAREFUL 10.0 cm COMM. 285 COMMERCIAL 567 TIM THREE DAYS AFTER WITHDRAWAL (repacken Lots) MES 25.7 CAREFUL 52.6 SS TTT 78.3 COMMERCIAL 4.8 Ite. 9.—Diagram illustrating the percentages of drop decay upon withdrawal from the car and three days later im precooled and in nonprecooled commercially cut and carefully cut lettuce held at Palmetto, Fla., season of 1913-14. both lots, but there was considerably more deterioration in the Tots held at Palmetto, owing to the prevailing higher temperature. Here, again, the effect of careful cutting is shown most markedly. Over 98 per cent of the carefully cut precooled lettuce was in prime con- dition at the end of six days, as compared with less than 71 per cent in that commercially cut. In the nonprecooled lots the care- fully cut lettuce showed an average of 90 per cent of prime heads 12 BULLETIN 601, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. at the end of the 6-day holding period, while that commercially cut showed a little over 40 per cent—less than half as much. The effect of precooling is shown best in the commercially cut lettuce. In the precooled lots practically all the lettuce was in marketable condition at the end of the 6-day holding period, and 70.9 per cent was prime, while the nonprecooled lots showed an average of 6.7 per cent of worthless lettuce and only 40.1 per cent prime. The high temperature at which the lettuce was held after its withdrawal from the refrigerator car caused it to decay very rapidly, as the lower part of figure 8 plamly indicates. The amount of worthless lettuce in the various lots three days after their with- drawal from the car is particularly worth noting. Contrasting one extreme of handling with the other, as shown in figure 8, the pre- cooled carefully handled lettuce showed 10 per cent worthless and 65.6 per cent prime, whereas the nonprecooled commercially handled lettuce showed 48.7.per cent worthless and 3.4 per cent prime. TABLE I1V.—Average percentages of decay in sixteen experimental lots of carefully cut and commercially cut lettuce held six days in an iced car at Palmetto, Fla., during the season of 1913-14. At withdrawal. Three days after witddrawal. Treatment. Repacked. Undisturbed. | Carefully | Commer- — | cut. — |cially cut.| Garefutly | Commer-| Carefully | Commer- | cut. cially cut.) cut. {cially cut. Nonprecooled: Heads showing slight drop-roi, OL CONG 2c eb ae ese ea eee see miceeise 8.6 36.2 27.1 25.6 22.9 19.8 Heads showing bad drop-rot.per cent. . 1.4 22.5 25.5 69.2 30 73.8 Total dropsnott Seaasseeee eee do.. 10 58.7 -§2.6 94.8 52.9 93.6 Heads showing bacterial rot...... do.. 0 2.4 7.5 5.8 7.8 9.2 Precooled: | Heads showing = slight drop-rot, PerGentsos.2 josie ew Se eee ee 1.6 24 14.6 36.5 22.6 25 Heads showing bad drop-rot.per cent. - 0 4.5 alia 41.8 13.7 57.3 Total drop-rot-..! ..-..-.-5-< do. . 1.6 28.5 25.7 78.3 36.3 82.3 Heads showing bacterial rot... -- - do... 0 | ot | 2.6 3.4 6.4 8.5 1 In some cases both drop and bacterial decay were found on the same head. As these diseases were recorded separately, the total of all forms of decay may appear to amount to more than 100 per cent 1n some instances. A glance at Table IV and the diagram shown in figure 9 gives a | convincing impression of the effect of precooling and of careful cut- ting upon the development of decay. In the carefully cut non- precooled lots only 10 per cent showed serious signs of drop-rot at the first inspection, at which time the comparable commercially handled lots showed 58.7 per cent. In the carefully cut precooled lots, the drop-rot was so slight as to be of almost no commercial im- portance, whereas in the commercially cut nonprecooled lots more HANDLING LETTUCE AND CELERY. 103) than half of the heads showed drop decay. Three days after with- drawal from the car the precooled carefully handled lettuce showed only 25.7 per cent of drop-rot, whereas the precooled commercially handled lots showed 78.3 per cent. The nonprecooled commercially handled lettuce showed an average of 94.8 per cent of drop decay or, in other words, at the final inspection of these lots practically every head was decayed more or less seriously. COMPARISON OF HOLDING AND SHIPPING LOTS. The differences in the amount of decay found in the experimental shipments of lettuce inspected at the northern markets and in cor- responding lots held in Palmetto are shown in Table V. TaBLe V.—Comparison of the total percentages of decay in precooled and nonprecooled lots of carefully cut and commercially cut lettuce shipped to northern markets and in comparable lots held at Palmetto, Fla., during the season of 1913-14. At withdrawal. | Three daysafter withdrawal. Treatment. Carefully | Commer- | Carefully | Commer- cut. j|ciallycut.}| cut. |cially cut Nonprecooled: Wgholdiin olotsmeee ens yote e tet Ho cc ae cee eye aces per cent. - 28. 1 55.9 78.9 96.2 Mmeomparapleshipments. a= 82 jase cee 2) eok ese doses) 20.1 39.9 30.6 53.2 Precooled: eno loin CglOtSeeee pss ica yom: Sak meets, Stearn a doxere 2 9.6 2252, 50.6 Ac OMlpataplesmIpMenUtS ss. 2-2. hee ec ae. eee sea dot.-2 4.9 7.2 10. 4 15.5 Table V shows that even at the first inspection the average decay was greater in the lettuce held in Florida than that in the lettuce shipped to northern markets, in spite of the fact that inspections at _ the North were made nearly two days later than those at Palmetto. At the second inspection the decay, as might be expected, was much greater in the lettuce held in Florida than in that held in the northern markets. This is undoubtedly accounted for by the difference in temperature between the two parts of the country during January and February, the months in which the experiments were carried on. OUTLINE OF EXPERIMENTS IN 1914-15. The experiments with lettuce, as outlined in 1913-14, were con- tinued throughout the season of 1914-15. The weather conditions during this season were generally unfavorable, resulting in a poor quality of lettuce and very light shipments. The lettuce as a rule failed to make solid heads, and that shipped from the Palmetto sec- tion was chiefly of the leaf type. For this reason it was impossible to conduct the experiments on as large a scale as was desired. How- ever, a number of cars were precooled, and experimental lots were again shipped to New York. , 14 BULLETIN 601, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RESULTS OF EXPERIMENTS IN 1914-15. The results obtained, which are summarized in Tables VI and VII, corroborated the oie of the Bee season’s work recorded in Tables I and II. TABLE VI.—Average market condition of eighteen experimental lots of carefully cut and commercially cut lettuce shipped to New York City during the season of 1914-15. . ae Three days after At withdrawal. Ser aera Treatment, ; ; Carefully |Commer-} Carefully | Commer- cut. j|ciallycut.| cut. jcially cut. Nonprecooled: Primevheads oo. 2228 ise cel ee cherneent.- ss eee per cent. - 94 79.8 76.9 55.6 Manketableheadsoeacte seco eae. 7.5 eens adore 99.5 98.8 95.6 87.2 Precooled: | Brim enhead Stee s ere see ee ees 2 d0:-22 95.3 84.8 89 71.3 Marketable:ncadst: 32. cae" ss6 merece acc 2 Seen Gol. — 99.6 99.2 99.7 97.3 The results shown in figure 10 are essentially the same as those obtained the previous year, but the figures are less striking, especially in the case of the precooling experiments. The weather conditions PRECOOLED UPON ARRIVAL NON PRECOOLED sé po ee es de ag {CAREFULLY CUT, (2S ee Se ee eee] 9513 PRIME 94:0 ee ee] COO 29.6 MARKETABLE 99.5 Moo 104 WORTHLESS 0.5 | COMMERCIAL Se ee 048 PRIME Y fc «| Re Tao | CTT 29.2 MARKETABLE 98.8 (OOo) 0.8 WORTHLESS |.2 @ THREE DAYS AFTER ARRIVAL CAREFULLY CUT 0 PRIME © 9690S eee COO 99.7 MARKETABLE 95.6 (OO) 82.3 WORTHLESS 448 | COMMERCIAL eS a ene fA 3 PRIME Lf) Too 97.3 MARKETABLE 372 TO @ 2.7 WORTHLESS 12.8 Ea Fia. 10.—Diagram illustrating the percentages of prime, marketable, and worthless lettuce upon arrival at the market and three days later in precooled and in nonprecooled commercially cut and carefully cut lots shipped from Palmetto, Fla., season of 1914-15. during the season were exceptional, and the temperature at the time of shipping was in most cases not high enough to render precooling imperative. In spite of this, it will be noted that all of the advantage is on the side of the precooled lettuce. HANDLING LETTUCE AND CELERY. 15 -Table VII and figure 11 show the amount of decay found in the experimental lots of lettuce shipped during the season of 1914-15. TaBLe VII.—Average percentages of decay in eighteen experimental lots of carefully cut and commercially cut lettuce shipped to New York City during the season of 1914-15. sg i Three days after At withdrawal. Si TRe ETE Treatment. Carefully | Commer-| Carefully Commer- cut. |ciallycut.) cut. eee cut. Nonprecooled: | Heads showing slight drop-rot......--.-.-------- per cent. - 4.9 15.6 17 27.4 Heads showing bad drop-rot..--.....-----.---------- Gors-t 4 2.8 5.9 | 14.8 sROGALGTOD-TObaes aoe one ees hie see os Sess ure ae dor | 5.3 18.4 | 22.9 | 42.2 Heads showing bacterial rot....-....-----.-..--.---- do-.-- -| 9 | 3.6 | 2.9 | 5.3 Precooled: Heads showing slight drop-rot.....-..--.----.--.-.-- domes 2.9 10.3 aes 18.7 Heads showing bad drop-rot.......-.---------------- Gores: 1 ea] 2.6 7.9 MROLALATOD=LOt toe sea eens ice ioe nisiole s wee seeiee doz 3.9 12.3 9.9) | 26.6 Headsishowine bacterial Tot. -2-2------2---2:--s-ce do....| 1.4 3.5 1.9 4.4 Figure 11 shows graphically the amount of decay in the lettuce upon its arrival on the market and again three days later. In both PRECOOLED NON PRECOOLED UPON ARRIVAL a PER CENT DECAY PER CENT DECAY a) @3.9 CAREFUL 5.38 (0012.3 COMMERCIAL 184000000 THREE DAYS LATER G@99 CAREFUL 22.9 Ee COMTI 266.6 COMME RCIAL42.2 (OT Fie. 11.—Diagram illustrating the percentages of drop decay upon arrival at the market and three days laterin precooled and in nonprecooled commercially cut and carefully cut lettuce shipped from Palmetto, Fla., season of 1914-15. precooled and nonprecooled lots the amount of decay in the care- fully cut lettuce on arrival is less than one-third that in the com- mercially cut lots. Three days later the carefully cut precooled lettuce showed less than one-half as much decay as that commercially cut. —- It is noticeable in Table VII that considerably more bacterial rot occurred in the commercially handled than in the carefully cut lettuce. From what is known of the nature of this disease it is not likely that this form of decay can be spread as readily by bad harvest- ing methods as the drop or that it will spread from head to head during transit or holding periods, as does the organism that causes drop. The smaller amount of bacterial rot shown in Table VII is probably due primarily to greater care in grading out diseased heads at the 16 BULLETIN 601, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. time of harvesting. Only a slight difference is recorded between the amount of bacterial rot in the precooled and nonprecooled shipments made in 1914-15, although the holding lots shown in Table IV indi- cated considerably less bacterial rot in the precooled series for the season of 1913-14. Whenever bacterial rot was present it was found to increase greatly after the lettuce was withdrawn from the car and held at a warm temperature. PRECOOLED ; NON PRECOOLED AFTER SIX DAYS IN ICED CAR PERCENTAGE PERCENTAGE d00 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 oCAREFULLY CUT. 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 ee Se ee ee ee ce ee ee | ee SSS). 788 PRIME 464 Saas] DOT 99.2 MARKETABLE 98.0 108 WORTHLESS 2.08 CoO OTT : COMMERCIAL erences | PRIME sco 82.0 WORTHLESS 19.4 Gamma THREE DAYS AFTER WITHDRAWAL (reracked LoTs) CAREFULLY CUT [ operas |* AY PRIME 0.705 ‘ Moon 95.5 MARKETABLE 89.7 TO @4.5 WORTHLESS (0.3 Ga \ LUGRUCCORTOUDERUREIDLUDEE OURS COMMERCIAL 6.4 PRIME 0.0 MMM 92.9 MARKETABLE 61.1 Comm 99.1 WORTHLESS 38.9 EES Fic. 12.—Diagram illustrating the percentages of prime, marketable, and worthless lettuce upon withdrawal from the car and three days later in precooled and in nonprecooled commercially cut and carefully cut lettuce held at Palmetto, Fla., season of 1914-15. HOLDING LOTS. In 1914-15 the holding lots were limited to seven complete series. Because of the shortness of the crop it was not always possible to secure enough carefully handled lettuce to provide for both holding and shipping lots. When this was the case, the holding lots were omitted. Table VIII and figure 12 give a record of the market condition of the holding lots for 1914-15. A comparison of these results with those of the previous season, as shown in Table III and figure 8, gives a fairly good idea of the relative quatity of the lettuce shipped during the two seasons. These two tables are comparable, because the lettuce in the holding lots was handled in the same manner during both seasons. The percentages of prime heads in all cases were greater in the 1913-14 lots. To some extent this may be due HANDLING LETTUCE AND CELERY. 17 to the fact that really first-class lettuce was very scarce in 1914-15 and that it was hard to classify small leafy heads as prime even though they showed no signs of decay. However, the inspections were made on as nearly the same basis as possible during both seasons. The percentages of marketable heads in the 1914-15 holding lots were - fully as large, in general, as in the previous season. The effect of careful handling is clearly shown in Table VIII and figure 12. For the first inspection of the nonprecooled lots the average percentage of prime heads was 46.4 in the carefully handled lots and only 11.5 in the commercially handled lots, a fourfold difference in favor of careful handling. At the second inspection of the same lettuce PRECOOLED NON PRECOOLED AFTER SIX DAYS_IN_ICED CAR. 100 90 60 BER eENICDECAY.. 20 10 © foro = aga Decay 80 90 106 UD Zz 7 aS 19.8 CAREFUL 49.3 ED TO 53.5 COMMERCIAL 872 00MM THREE DAYS AFTER WITHDRAWAL (repacken Lots) Cea 67.4 CAREFUL 37.9 (ae ees TTT 933 COMMERCIAL 93.5 TTT Fig. 13.—Diagram illustrating the percentages of drop decay upon withdrawal from the car and three days later in precooled and in nonprecooled commercially cut and carefully cut lettuce held at Pal- metto, Fla., season of 1914-15. made three days later, the carefully handled lots showed an average of 10.7 per cent of prime heads, whereas none of the commercially handled lots were of this grade. The effect of precooling is also very strikingly shown in these figures. Tasie VIIT.—Average market condition of seven experimental lots of carefully cut and commercially cut lettuce held six days in an iced car at Palmetto, Fla., during the season of 1914-15. At withdrawal. - Yhree days after withdrawal. Mreattent: Repacked. Undisturbed. Carefully | Commer- ; cut. [cially cut. Carefully | Commer-| Carefully |] Commer- cut. cially cut.) cut. |cially cut. Nonprecooled: Prime heads.........-..---- per cent... 46.4 |: 11.5 10. 7 0 15.9 gal Marketable heads..._......-- sO sene 98 80. 6 89.7 61.1 84. 4 56.9 Precooled: primveheads! 2 sekess sae ese dousae 78. 8 45 31 6.4 23.3 3.9 Marketable heads. ....._...._.-. do.... 99. 2 98 95.5 92.9 96. 2 85 , Table IX and figure 13 show the percentages of decay found in the lettuce held at Palmetto during the season of 1914-15. It is inter- ES" BULLETIN 601, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. esting to compare Table IX with Table IV, which records a con- siderably lower percentage of decay for the season of 1913-14. In some cases the average percentages of decay in 1914-15 were several times greater than in 1913-14. For example, the nonprecooled care- fully handled lettuce showed only 1.4 per cent of heads with bad drop-rot in 1913-14, whereas the followmg year the comparable lot showed, 12.3 per cent. TABLE IX.—Average percentages of decay in seven experimental lots of carefully cut and commercially cut lettuce held six days in an iced car at Palivetto, Fla., during the season of 1914-15. “At withdrawal. Three days after withdrawal. Mivsotharcme.. Repacked. Undisturbed. Carefully | Commer- se cut. — |eially cut.) Garefutly | Commer- |Carefully (Commer- cut. cially cut.; cut. [cially cut. Nonprecooled: Heads showing slight drop-rot, per COMU se rites ce tee tee ae we ee 37.5 45. 2 47.6 22. 2 40.3 19. 4 Heads showing bad drop-rot.per cent. _| 12.3 42 40. 3 71. 2 40.9 80 Total drop-rot}.........-... dozen 49. 8 87. 2 87.9 93. 4 81. 2 99. 4 Heads showing bacterial rot... .do... | .4 5.1 10.8 15.8 15 21.1 Precooled: Heads showing slight drop-rot..do-.... 17.8 40. 7 60 7 44.3 64. 4 35. 6 Heads showing bad drop-rot....do..._| 2 12.8 Grrl 47 8.3 45. 2 Total drop-rot !...........-. do....| 19.8| | 53.5 67.4 91.3 72.7 80. 8 Heads showing bacterial rot ....do..._! 1.2 0 5. 2 13.6 13. 8 22. 6 1 In some cases both drop and bacterial decay were found on the same head. As these diseases were ec Cea separately the total of all forms of decay may appear to amount to more than 100 per cent in some In spite of the naturally inferior quality of the lettuce in 1914-15, the results of both the precooling and the handling work are very marked. The tables and diagrams will bear very close analysis, as they contain much more information than can be given in this brief - discussion. CELERY-HANDLING INVESTIGATIONS. NATURE OF THE PROBLEM. The celery-handling investigations were conducted at Manatee and Palmetto, Fla., mainly during the spring of 1915. At this season of the year high temperatures usually prevail in Florida and frequently occur throughout the North. When the celery is hauled from the fields to the car to be loaded, a temperature as high as 80° to 85° F. is by.no means uncommon. The cars are loaded rapidly and the doors closed, confining allthe heat within. It is manifestly impossible for the ice in the bunkers at either end of the car to reduce the heat to a safe temperature in as short a time as is desirable. As a matter of fact, the cooling that takes place in such a car is necessarily uneven HANDLING LETTUCE AND CELERY. 19 ‘as wellasslow. The crates generally are spaced an inch or two apart in. order to facilitate the circulation of air, but even greater spacing would be by no means sufficient to equalize the rate of cooling throughout the car. The heavier cold air settles in the lower part of the car, and the entire lower layer therefore cools off rather quickly, though not as rapidly in the center as near the ice bunkers in each end. The upper layers, especially the top tier, cool off more slowly. ‘This fact is particularly noticeable in cars that have been closed for only a few hours after being loaded. When the doors in these cars are opened the air near the floor feels cold, but that near the ceiling is often unbearably hot. This heat sometimes causes serious damage. The leaves turn light yellow, and as this injures the appearance of the celery and is recognized on the market as an indication of lessened vitality, crates containing celery with yellow tops are discounted accordingly. In general practice, when the car is unloaded the crates from the top of the load are purposely mixed with the more attractive crates of the lower tiers, in order to make them sell at a fair price. If the celery in the top crate is very yellow, however, the entire ship- | ment is discounted 25 to 50 cents per crate below the price which it would have brought had there been no ‘‘yellow tops.” Celery from the Manatee section of Florida is shipped largely in crates 12 inches in depth. This is regarded as the standard crate in that section. In other localities, notably around Sanford, the 10-inch crate is the standard. The minimum freight rate is quoted on 350 crates regardless of size, and when the larger crate is used this number makes a load that reaches within 8 or 10. inches of the top of the car. Naturally, it is more difficult to lower the tempera- ture in this car than in a car loaded with the 10-inch crates, where more space is left between the top of the crates and the roof of the car. In both cases, however, there is often serious damage due to slow cooling. In this connection, attention should be called to the desirability of the adoption, by the growers of a standard-sized crate for all sections of the State. OUTLINE OF CELERY-PRECOOLING EXPERIMENTS. In order to determine the effect of precooling upon the temperature of the celery while in transit, two experimental cars were procured in March. Twelve electric thermometers were placed in various parts of the load in each car as in the case of the lettuce cars, and one of the cars was precooled. The bunkers of the precooled car then were topped off. sufficiently to replace the ice that was lost, by melting during the time it was being loaded and precooled, but no more ice was added during its entire trip. The other car was shipped in the usual manner, i. e., under full refrigeration. In 20 BULLETIN 601, U. S§. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. other words, this check car was topped off with ice after loading, and reiced in transit at the regular icing stations. A representative of the Department of Agriculture accompanied these cars and took accurate temperature records from time to time. The average temperature of the load in each car was computed from the 12 readings taken at each recording point. TRANSIT TEMPERATURE RECORDS. Figure 14 shows the average temperature of the celery in each car from the time it was loaded until it reached the market. The tem- perature of the outside air during the entire trip is shown also. The divisions at the left indicate degrees of temperature. The bottom divisions indicate the time in days. The small circles on each of the /R i Ss WTSIDE A a. Pe o e PS — J a “PRECOOLED Con 7 (pes PERATURE \ 4ED CAR WNITIAL ICING jh Avera THe — Co | =a) t | NS PRECOOLING PEP?/OD H rea 20— bac me ANG STATIONS | i i MAL?CH 3 MARCH 4 | MARCH 5 MARCH 6 MARCH 7 | MARCH 8 hance g Se | Fig. 14.—Diagram illustrating the average temperatures (° F.) of carloads of precooled and nonprecooled celery in transit from Florida to New York, season of 1915. curves are placed at the intersection marking the time that the read- ing was made and the temperature at that time. The lower curve represents the temperature of the precooled car and the upper curve _ that of the nonprecooled car. The irregular curve running through the chart marks the outside air temperature. The precooled car was loaded about noon on March 3, but was not cooled until the following morning, at which time the temperature of the car was only about 50° F. The first part of the curve illustrates this precooling period and shows the length of time required to pre- cool the car and the temperature of the car at the time it was shipped. This point, about 37° F., was known to be lower than the ice would hold it, but as this was the first car shipped under initial icing it seemed desirable to be on the safe side by starting with a low tem- perature. The diagram shows very clearly how the temperature HANDLING LETTUCE AND CELERY. 21 crept slowly up to 41° F., and also how it remained at.that point for almost two days in spite of large fluctuations in the outside tempera- ture. It then began to drop below 40° F. again, owing to the cold outside temperature that the car encountered in the North. The nonprecooled car was loaded on March 4 and started with a temperature of 62.5° F. It is interesting to note how very slowly the temperature of the celery in this car was lowered under the influence of ice alone. It was almost four days after leaving its starting point before it had reached as low a point as the. precooled car maintained for the entire trip. It is during the first few days, as previously explained, that the damage by high temperatures is done. Subsequent cooling may prevent only further deterioration. Figure 15 indicates the average temperature in the top and bottom tiers in both cars. It should be noted that during the entire trip the i AVERAGE TEMPERATURE OF CELERY TOP TIER NON-PRECOOLED CAR REGULAR ICING BO7TO/1 TIEP NON-PRECOOLED CAP REGULAR ICING —75 TOP Tif PRECOOLED CARP INITIAL ICING BOTTOM TIER PRECOOLED CARP INITIAL ICING 70 65 60 fokor Avewe srarions A A A A MARCH 3 | MARCH 4 | MARCH 5 | MARCH 6 | MARCH 7 ‘Fig. 15.—Diagram illustrating the average temperatures (° F.) of celery in the top and in the bottom layers of crates in carloads in transit from Florida to New York, season of 1915. temperature of the top tier in the nonprecooled car was 10 degrees or more higher than the bottom tier. For a large part of the trip, the differences amounted to about 18 degrees. The precooled car, on - the other hand, had only a difference of 5 or 6 degrees between the top and bottom tiers during the whole trip. The temperature in ‘the bottom of the nonprecooled car went slightly below that of the precooled car after the third day, owing, no doubt, to the several reicings that it received in transit. The important point, however, is the fact that the temperature of the top tier in the nonprecooled car was far above that of the precooled car for the entire trip and even upon its arrival at its destination was still 5 degrees higher than the top tier of the precooled car. This seems to indicate that even after 22 BULLETIN 601, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. five days in transit the field heat had not been removed from the upper part of the fully refrigerated car to the extent that it was re- moved from the precooled car at the time it left its starting point. Figure 16 shows the maximum and minimum temperatures in both cars. Each point is the average of two thermometers placed in the same crate. One was inserted in the center of the crate and the other in the mass of leaves at the top. The minimum tempera- tures were obtained on the bottom tier next to the ice bunkers and the maximum temperatures were obtained on the top tier. The maximum temperature in the nonprecooled car started at about 66° F. and rose during the first 18 hours to about 70° F. It then dropped slowly to a final temperature of 48° F. During the early part of the trip the difference between the highest and the T | TEMP f | al TEMP 85 — pail | ! | | | "85 I | AA HIGHEST TEMPERATURE OF CELERY NON-PRECOOLED CAP GO t T 3 B& LOWEST on 2 ae a Be se | \. 0 CC AVGHEST - ~ - PRECOOLED CAF 75 T I OD LOWEST ‘i - - - a Lo ge ee _ aa : 70 65 4 if | | ep | —|— 65 aos ts } i i Oe | 60 aa Fs : —— 60 Ce ay ee a st Tie 55: 1 ‘s | é aie 50 % 50 S : = eZ Se a On a a el ae ae = oe | ! _ e ae 6 rn o e | | & | = Es | 2O 20 l| i /5 - { _| —. ie eal ee, Alews STATIONS A A MAPCHI _3 MARCH # MARCH S MARCH 6 MARCH 7” MARCH 8 MARCH 9 Fig. 16.—Diagram illustrating the highest and the lowest temperatures (° F.) of celery in carloads precooled and nonprecooled in transit from Florida to New York, season of 1915. lowest temperature in the nonprecooled car was over 30 degrees, whereas in the precooled car the greatest difference was only about 10 degrees. If the precooled car had been iced in transit to make it comparable with the nonprecooled car, the difference in temperature between the top and bottom tiers would have been still less. As it was, the highest temperature in the precooled car was over 6 degrees lower than that of the nonprecooled car when it reached its destina- tion. The celery in the precooled car arrived on the market in fine condi- tion. The leaves in the top crates were nearly as green as those in the bottom crates, and the receiver pronounced this car the best he had seen that season. The nonprecooled car arrived on the market showing the characteristic yellow leaves on the celery on the top tier. HANDLING LETTUCE AND CELERY. 23 “COST OF PRECOOLING AND INITIAL ICING COMPARED WITH REGULAR ICING. Attention must be called to the fact previously mentioned that the precooled car was handled under initial icing only. The charges on this car, aside from the regular transportation rate, were about $22 for ice, $7.50 special charge for the use of the car, ice tanks, etc., and $2 switching charges,' amounting to $31.50. In addition, the actual cost of precooling a car of celery is estimated at not more than $20.2 This gives a total of $51.50 refrigeration charges on the precooled car. The full icing charge ordinarily paid amounts to $65. The experiment indicated, therefore, that by precooling and initial icing during the cooler weather not only better refrigeration could. be obtained but also at a lower cost than by regular icing alone. The precooled car referred to arrived at its destination with the ice bunkers about one-third full. Two-thirds of the ice had melted, therefore, even during the comparatively cool weather in which it was shipped. Later shipments arrived on the market with very little ice remaining in the bunkers. To insure the best results in the warmest weather, it would seem advisable to reice the cars once while in transit. OUTLINE OF CELERY-STORAGE EXPERIMENTS. It was thought desirable to determine the effect of precooling not only upon the condition of the celery on its arrival at the market but also upon its storage qualities. Eight shipments therefore were made during the months of April and May, which mark the latter part of the celery-shipping season in Florida. Forty-eight experi- mental crates were included in each shipment. Half of these were in the precooled car and half in the nonprecooled car. Each lot was again divided, half bemg placed in the center of the car and° half in the bunker end. Six crates from each of these lots were placed on the floor and six in the top layer. Thus the experimental crates in each shipment were exposed to the extremes of temperature in various parts of the car. All were shipped to New York City and upon arrival were placed in cold storage and held at a tempera- ture of 32°F. An inspection of one-half of each shipment was made at the end of two weeks and of the remaining half at the end of four weeks. STORAGE TROUBLES. It was found that two serious diseases developed in the stored celery from Florida. These were designated as soft-rot and heart- rot. The soft-rot is somewhat similar in its development to the 1 Precooling Tariff I. C. C. No. A3460. 2 This estimate might be too low in the case of a small plant that is only run fora short time. In other cases probably it would be too high, as much depends upon the size of the precooling plant and the number of cars cooled. 24 BULLETIN 601, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lettuce drop and is said to be due to the same organism. Signs of it in storage are often first found on the leaves. It causes a soft, slimy decay that may consume the leaves entirely before seriously injuring the celery stalks. The disease causes the stalks to become discolored and watery and renders them unfit for consumption. Forms of this disease are encountered frequently in the field. The common foot-rot is said to be due to the same or a closely related organism. ae Heart-rot is a term used to describe the darkening of the leaves and stalks forming the central bud or heart of the plant. This part first turns brown and later black, as the trouble develops. Heart-rot is found very often in the celery fields, especially late in the season. It appears to originate in the field, although some plants may have merely a predisposition to the disease at the time PRECOOLED ‘NON PRECOOLED PER CENT DECAY PER CENT DECAY 25 20 1s 10 5 0 0 § 10 1S 20 25 30 35 40 45 SS SS Se _—————— SOFT-ROT Ml 7.0) 9= STORED TWO WEEKS COOMA 15.3 STORED FOUR WEEKS HEART-ROT as 4.7 STORED TWO WEEKS 6.5 as MOUNT 8.5 STORED FOURWEEKS 13400000 TOTAL DECAY GREE 10.8 «STORED TWO WEEKS «2.4.0 SEE EEE COMM 22.7 STORED FOUR WEEKS 43,7 (DOO BEOOUOUUEU. OOD nud Fic. 17.—Diagram illustrating the percentages of soft-rot, heart-rot, and total decay at the end of two weeks and at the end of four weeksin storage at 32° F. in both precooled and nonprecooled celery shipped from Manatee, Fla., to New York, season of 1915. they are cut and show no signs of it. It does not appear to spread to adjoining bunches in storage, but its development seems to bear some relation to the temperature to which it is exposed. Leaf-spot also is a serious trouble, especially if celery is affected before being harvested. It frequently develops to an injurious ex- tent in storage and is sometimes the cause of serious losses. Every effort should be made to control the leaf-spot and other diseases in the field through proper spraying and cultural practices. Celery entering storage in a diseased condition can not be held satisfactorily, even under the most favorable temperature and storage conditions. RESULTS OF STORAGE EXPERIMENTS. Summaries of the average results of the inspection of all the experi- mental lots of celery are given in the following tables and diagrams. Table X and figure 17 show a comparison of the decay in the pre- cooled and nonprecooled celery. The principal point brought out HANDLING LETTUCE AND CELERY. 25 by the diagram is the much smaller amount of soft-rot in the pre- cooled than in the nonprecooléd lot. In the celery stored for two weeks there was an average of 7 per cent of soft-rot in the precooled and 19.6 per cent in the nonprecooled, nearly three times as much in the latter case. At the end of four weeks the soft-rot in the pre- cooled had more than doubled, but there was still twice as much in the nonprecooled celery. The amount of heart-rot also showed a consistent difference in favor of the precooled. The increase of PRECOOLED NON PRECOOLED PER CERT DECAY . PER CENT DECAY 48 19 5 0 0 5 10 15 20 SLIGHT SOFT-ROT Ca 5.9 STORED TWO WEEKS |6.2 [ED COO 13.3. STORED FOUR WEEKS BAD SOFT-ROT B04 STORED TWO WEEKS 2.2 as 1.2 STORED FOUR WEEKS 5.9 COO COMPLETE SOFT-ROT Hos STORED TWO WEEKS 1.0 i 00.2 STORED FOUR WEEKS 4.8 COMM Fic. 18.—Diagram illustrating the percentages of slight, bad, and complete soft-rot at the end of two weeks and at the end of four weeks in storage at 32° F.in both precooled and nonprecooled celery shipped from Manatee, Fla., to New York, season of 1915. heart-rot in the nonprecooled lots from 6.5 per cent at the end of two weeks to 13.4 per cent at the end of four weeks clearly shows that the trouble will develop in storage. TABLE X.—Average percentages of decay in storage of precooled and nonprecooled celery shipped from Florida, 1915. Stored two weeks. | Stored four weeks. Disease. = iPre- Nonpre- Pre- Nonpre- cooled. | cooled. | cooled. | cooled. SOttrotsesascee eee a SiS Dhar ats a ee ene ees Be eae per cent... 7 19.6 15.3 33.4 TEIGEIPUSTO pod Se SE EE Se Oe oe ere eel re area domes 4.7 6.5 8.5 13.4 PRO LAI e Calva lees ete et ec a Fen SEES El ei es do 10.8 24 22h 43.7 1 In some cases both soft-rot and heart-rot were found in the same plant, but were recorded separately. Total decay refers to plants showing either or both forms. Table XI and figure 18 show the various degrees of soft-rot at the different inspections. Celery was classified as having slight soft- rot 1f the decay was confined to not more than two or three stalks and bad soft-rot if the bunch showed considerable decay but still had a marketable “heart.’’ ‘‘Complete soft-rot’’ was the term applied to the celery that was so badly decayed as to be rendered worthless. The diagram (fig. 18) shows that practically all the bad and complete soft-rot in the precooled celery was so slight as to 26 BULLETIN 601, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cause but little serious loss. The nonprecooled celery, on the other hand, showed considerable bad soft-rot and complete soft-rot. At the end of a 2-weeks’ storage period the precooled showed less than one-half of 1 per cent of bad soft-rot in contrast to 2.2 per cent in the nonprecooled celery. Two weeks later there was still five times as much bad soft-rot in the nonprecooled as in the precooled. At the end of two weeks in storage the precooled celery showed 0.5 per cent and the nonprecooled 1.0 per cent of complete decay. At the last inspection the precooled celery showed 0.2 per cent and the non- precooled 4.8 per cent, or at the end of the storage periods there was twenty times as much worthless celery in the nonprecooled as in the precooled lots. The slight inconsistency between the amount of complete decay at the end of two and four weeks is doubtless due to the comparatively small number of crates used in the experiment. The celery was discarded after the first inspection and a different lot of crates used in the final inspection. TaBLe XI.—Percentages of slight, bad, and complete soft-rot in the storage of precooled and nonprecooled celery shipped from Florida, 1915. | Stored two weeks. | Stored four weeks. Disease. ne Pre- Nonpre- Pre- Nonpre- cooled. cooled. cooled. cooled. SITENUSOL TOU se= 2 sep ace oe ee aa ory! 2. aib2 = eee per cent... 5.9 16.2 13s3 21.2 Badisolter Oban ae ok fee ee eee oe Sr 2 oe See oo (skopeeee t 2:2 T2 5.9 Completesolt-rOtensssaJecee see mee tec a Lec ts do ) 1 2 4.8 The percentages in figure 18 clearly show the possibility of storing late Florida celery on the market from two to four weeks, especially if it has been precooled. Nonprecooled celery may reach the market in salable condition, but at this season of the year its storage is likely to be attended by serious loss, due to decay and to its decreased attractiveness. The practical applications of this may be found in storing celery at periods when prices are low or the market is tem- porarily overstocked. Celery then may be stored and held for a better price. A glance at the market reports will show how celery fluctuates at this season of the year, owing to weather conditions and the shipments from other sections. Toward the end of the shipping season, the storage of celery may help to bridge the interval between the close of the Florida shipping season and the opening of the season in the northern fields. However, this is done largely by ship- ments of celery from Bermuda. Figure 19 shows the difference in the amount of decay that develops in celery carried on the floor of the car and that carried on the top tier. This is due, as previously suggested, to the much higher tem- perature in the top of the car. The difference applies to the pre- HANDLING LETTUCE AND CELERY. On cooled car as well as the nonprecooled, as the figures in Table XII prove, but it is much more marked in the nonprecooled car. In the precooled car, three times as much decay developed by the end of two weeks in the celery from the top tier as had developed in that from the bottom tier. In the nonprecooled car there was five times as much decay in the celery from the top tier as in that shipped on the floor. The decay in the celery shipped on the floor of the nonpre- cooled car was less than the average for the precooled car. This fact -PRECOOLED NON PRECOOLED PER CENT DECAY PER CENT DECAY €0c___50 40 30 20 10 0 t)) 10 20 30 40 50 60 —S——— so - OO OS TOTAL DECAY STORED TWO WEEKS eS | | Fram TOP TIER of CAR 90 | REE Rr RESET mm 56 FromBOTTOM TIER of CAR 78 CO TOTAL DECAY STORED FOUR WEEKS SE 32 3 From TOP TIER of CAR C67 RED RSE FESS ESS MPA TER CR PE COM 13.4 «= From BOTTOM TIERGFCAR 20,7 DIM Fig. 19.—Diagram illustrating the percentages of decay at the end of two weeks and at the end of four weeks in storage at 32° F. in crates of celery from the top and from the bottom tiers in cars of both pre- cooled and nonprecooled celery shipped from Manatee, Fla., to New York, season of 1915. indicates that celery from the lower part of a nonprecooled car could be stored for this period with small loss. However, the upper tiers should be placed on the market as promptly as possible, to avoid excessive losses from decay. TABLE XII.—Percentages of decay in celery shipped in the top tier and the bottom tier in precooled and non precooled cars. Stored two weeks. | Stored four weeks. Treatment. j * Bottom ° Bottom Top tier. nied Top tier. ier: TR CCOOl CU EAE E Ane ue etre ues ena su NUSIEU ISS 1 7 per cent.. 16.1 5.6 32.3 | 1351 IN|@Ta OOO) Cl enc tabodsedanoeeeR SSH SeeoedsteoeosUseSeas dome: 40.1 7.8 66.7 20.7 SUMMARY. During the seasons of 1913-14 and 1914-15 investigations were conducted by the Bureau of Plant Industry for the purpose of ascer- taining the causes of losses by decay in lettuce and celery shipped from Florida and to determine practicable means of reducing the same. Decay in lettuce in transit was found to be due largely to lettuce drop, a disease which appears to enter the head mainly through the lower leaves. 28 BULLETIN 601, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Experimental heads of lettuce were cut just above the two or three lower leaves, and all diseased leaves were removed. This carefully cut lettuce developed far less decay in transit than the commercially cut lettuce. Lettuce in cars that were precooled at the shipping point to a temperature of about 40° F. developed considerably less decay in transit than that shipped in nonprecooled cars. The combination of careful cutting and precooling enabled the lettuce to reach its destination in almost perfect condition and to hold up much better on the market than lettuce handled in the usual manner. Celery often is injured in transit because it is loaded too high in the cars to permit proper air circulation and rapid cooling. Smaller crates or a smaller number of crates in the load would help to insure more rapid cooling. Temperature records taken in transit in a precooled, ninety iced, and in a nonprecooled, fully iced celery car, showed that the non- precooled took about four days to reach as low an average temperature as the precooled car maintained from the start. During the entire trip from Florida to destination the temperature was never more than 5 or 6 degrees higher in the top tier than in the bottom tier of the precooled car, whereas in the nonprecooled car the difference amounted to 18 degrees for a considerable period. The cost of precooling and initial icing of a car of celery was less than the usual charge for full refrigeration. In warm weather one icing in transit may be required, but probably this would not increase the cost above the usual full refrigeration charges. Precooled celery arrived on the market in a uniformly fresh con- dition, with the leaves on the top tier nearly as green as those on the bottom. Nonprecooled celery showed very yellow leaves in the top tier. Such crates discount the value of the entire load. During the latter part of the Florida celery-shipping season it appears that celery could be disposed of sometimes to better advan- tage if held in storage for a short period. Precooled celery was stored successfully for four weeks with little decay, but stored nonprecooled celery developed considerable decay during the same period. Celery from the lower part of a nonprecooled car can be stored for a short period, but during warm weather that on the top tier should be disposed of as soon as it reaches the market. PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL- TURE RELATING TO SHIPPING AND STORAGE. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. The Refrigeration of Dressed Poultry in Transit. (Department Bulletin 17.) The Application of Refrigeration to the Handling of Milk. (Department Bulletin 98.) Strawberry Supply and Distribution in 1914. (Department Bulletin 237.) Outlets and Methods of Sale for Shippers of Fruits and Vegetables. (Department Bulletin 266.) Methods of Wholesale Distribution of Fruits and Vegetables on Large Markets. (Department Bulletin 267.) ; Factors Governing the Successful Shipment of Red Raspberries from the Puyallup Valley. (Department Bulletin 274.) A Study of the Soft Resins in Sulphured and Unsulphured Hops in Cold and in Open Storage. (Department Bulletin 282.) Peach Supply and Distribution in 1914. (Department Bulletin 298.) Apple Market Investigations, 1914-15. (Department Bulletin 302.) The Handling and Shipping of Fresh Cherries and Prunes from the Willamette Valley. (Department Bulletin 331.) Marketing and Distribution of Strawberries in 1915. -(Department Bulletin 477.) Celery Storage Experiments. (Department Bulletin 579.) The Handling and Storage of Apples in the Pacific Northwest. (Department Bulletin 587.) ae Ice Houses. (Farmers’ Bulletin 475.) Storing and Marketing Sweet Potatoes. (Farmers’ Bulletin 548.) Handling and Shipping Citrus Fruits in the Gulf States. (Farmers’ Bulletin 696.) Suggestions for Parcels Post Marketing. (Farmers’ Bulletin 703.) Potato Storage and Storage Houses. (Farmers’ Bulletin 847.) How Hawaii Helps Her Farmers to Market Their Produce. (Separate 663 from the Yearbook of 1915.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Factors Governing the Successful Storage of California Table Grapes. (Department Bulletin 35.) Price, 10 cents. Factors Governing the Successful Shipment of Oranges from Florida. (Department Bulletin 63.) Price, 20 cents. Demurrage Information for Farmers. (Department Bulletin 191.) Price, 5 cents. Celery. (Farmers’ Bulletin 282.) Price, 5 cents. i The Cold Storage of Small Fruits. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 108.) Price, 15 cents. The Decay of Oranges while in Transit from California. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 123.) Price, 20 cents. 29 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY ‘UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 602 Contribution from the Office of Farm Management WSS W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief SS ez “4 Wyn OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY | Washington, D.C. Vv March 5, 1918 VALUE OF A SMALL PLOT OF GROUND TO THE LABORING MAN. A STUDY OF THE FOOD RAISED BY OPERATIVES IN SOUTHERN COTTON-MILL TOWNS. By W. C. Funk, Scientific Assistant. CONTENTS. Page. Page. IProfitand pleasures. —= 2 Po he re eard ene au eee ie aN 4 The cotton-mill village__________-_ 2 she: ep oud tyes ey ew kee he oan eee 8 Quantity and value of food raised Ds 2S se Ge EN A Ue i a Ss A 8 by cotton-mill operatives___-___~ Fajr ed BY a ey ees Mn aD by ar a Sapte pea ee a alas a aa ceo 9 A large acreage of land in the United States can be used for agri- cultural purposes which is not generally classed as farm land. This area includes the numberless backyards and small holdings of less than 3 acres within and close by cities and villages. Much of this land already is being used for raising food for home consumption, but more is lying idle. The importance of utilizing this land is obvious. The family raising its food gets it at cost, which, as will be shown later, represents only actual cash expenditures. Thousands of dollars worth of vegetables are raised in cities and villages at very small cost. The work is done by members of the consumer’s family, with no cash expenditures except for seed and fertilizer. The last census reported over one million cows not on farms. Many of these are family cows kept by town dwellers to fur- nish milk and butter. With cheap pasture available a cow may be _kept at a profit. The census reports over one million hogs not on farms, which indicates that much pork is produced by village and city families for home consumption. The number of poultry flocks not on farms is not reported, but probably more families keep chickens than keep cows or swine. These data show that the idea of utilizing small plots of ground for raising food is not a new one and emphasize the possibilities yet unrealized. (See pl. 1.) 11191°—18—Bull. 602 2 BULLETIN 602, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This ‘bulletin sets forth results obtained from small plots of ground by over 500 families living in Southern cotton-mill villages. The facts and figures gathered in the study of the utilization of these plots for producing food are presented as suggestive of what the industrial establishment can do for the welfare of its employees by locating where the cost of living may be kept down by the home production of food. They may also serve to give the village or city dweller information as to the possibilities of raising food on small plots of suitable available ground. - It refers particularly to the small plots of ground which may be used by village or city dwellers for raising vegetables, fruit, poultry, and even hogs and milk. The ground should be located conveniently so that the family may do most of the work. It is difficult to con- ceive of a laboring man’s family using its spare time to better ad- vantage than in cultivating the home garden or caring for a small flock of poultry or the family cow. The most productive garden or the most profitable flock of poultry, however, is the result of good management and intelligent care. If pride is taken in the garden and study devoted to its management, it will be a pleasure to plan for it during the winter and care for it during the summer. The man who finds recreation in fishing knows just what bait is best for each kind of fish; knows just where the best fishing places are, and the season when he is most likely to make a big catch. The success- ful home gardener or poultryman makes a study of this form of recreation with the same kind of enthusiasm that animates the keen fisherman. The local retail prices used in this study were considerably lower than the prices current in large cities and towns at the time the study was made, and only one-third to one-fourth of the present prices (1917). The comparative cheapness of produce in these villages may be attributed to the fact that most families raise enough for their own use and a little over, so that in season the “store prices” of most vegetables or fruits are influenced greatly by the prices at which the consumer can buy them from a neighbor. THE COTTON-MILL VILLAGE. Southern textile companies furnish houses for the cotton-mill em- ployees. The mill buildings, surrounded by the operatives’ houses and the few necessary stores and shop buildings constitute the mill 1United States Department of Agriculture bulletins, State experiment station bulle- tins, and farm papers give information pertaining to garden culture, the amount of land needed for a small flock of poultry or a family cow, and the kinds of feed to use. A talk with a neighbor who has had success with his garden or his poultry is suggested. He may be able to give some good information. Good seed catalogues also give certain information on garden vegetables. VALUE OF A SMALL PLOT OF GROUND. 3 village. (See pl. II.) The operatives pay a nominal rent for the use of the dwellings, rarely exceeding $1 a month per room. The average size of house is three to four rooms per family. The houses are built on separate lots, which vary considerably in size in the dif- ferent villages. One-fourth of an acre is a fair average size. This extra space on the house lot is intended especially for garden or poultry uses. This organization of an industrial community is pe- culiar to cotton-mill villages. In addition to the land around the houses provided for gardens the company often sets apart a pasture immediately adioining the mill village for the free pasturage of the operatives’ cows. Some mill owners offer other inducements to the operatives. One company has a demonstration garden of half an acre. An expert is employed to grow a great variety of vegetables, showing the best cultural methods for each variety. The plot is intended as a model in planning a garden and creates much local interest in gardening. Another mill owner has a pure-bred dairy bull, whose services are free to the operatives owning cows. In a number of villages interest in gardening is stimulated by offering prizes for the best gardens. The scoring is based on general appearances. This has the general effect of cleaning up the village and encourages the growing of flowers as well as vegetables. The front yard is beautified along with the back yard (see Pl. III). In no village visited, however, were prizes offered on the quantity of vegetables raised in the garden. This logically might be the next step. The family raising the most vegetables naturally will tend to keep the surroundings of the home in good order and at the same time to be better off financially. QUANTITY AND VALUE OF FOOD RAISED BY COTTON-MILL OPERATIVES. A large number of families were visited in nine different mill vil- lages in the western parts of North Carolina and South Carolina to gain an idea of the economies of the vegetable garden, the small poultry flock, and the family cow under village conditions. The survey method was used in collecting the information. Effort was made to avoid the unusual and to study plots representing average conditions. Records were taken of 548 gardens, 165 poultry flocks, 74 cows, and 62 hogs. It is felt that the number of records of each enterprise is sufficient to arrive at a fair average of actual conditions. Some of the families fed their stock at a loss and others had poor returns from their gardens. The data thus represent the result of poor management as well as of good. 4 BULLETIN 602, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The operatives are almost exclusively native people of the South. Many of them were formerly farmers in western North Carolina and South Carolina who were drawn to the mills by the steady occupa- tion they offered to the whole family. Their farming experience naturally aids them in the village gardening and in the proper feed- ing and care of the live stock. THE GARDEN. The most important of the small enterprises conducted on the lots is the garden. It furnishes throughout the summer a great variety of food which can be gathered fresh each day. With proper care and planning, a garden of average size in the regions studied will PeEKNS *, (Green) | TOMATOES CORN | swEET POTATO GREENS CUCUMBERS | IRISH POTATOES ONIONS | CABBAGE | COLLARDS PEAS OKRA | PEPPERS TURNIPS | BEETS MISCELLANEOUS! Fic. 1.—Comparison of the average value of vegetables raised on 548 gardens. The average size of these gardens is 723 square yards, or about one-seventh of an acre. furnish fresh vegetables for six months during the year, and even longer if winter gardens are planted. The average value of vegetables raised on the gardens visited was $29.87 (see fig. 1). This includes returns from some very poor gardens and some very good ones. In one of the villages, for in- stance, where a large number of families were visited, one-third of the gardens produced vegetables to the average value of $48, and VALUE OF A SMALL PLOT OF GROUND. 5 the other two-thirds produced on the average only $16 worth. The average good garden was only one-tenth larger in area and cost only one dollar more for labor, fertilizer, and seed than the average poor one. SIZE OF GARDENS. The average area devoted to gardens by all families visited is 723 square yards, or 0.15 of an acre. This area varies considerably, even in the same village, the size being dependent both on the area avail- able and on the inclinations of the family. Some families do not begin their work in time to utilize all the land available, some care to raise only a few varieties of vegetables, and others think the re- turns are not worth the attention necessary. “We do not bother with much of a garden” is a common expression. A small poultry yard may take up a large part of the lot. As would be expected, the value of vegetables raised is greater on the larger gardens, though the value of vegetables raised per square yard is less. The amount expended on the gardens and the variety of vegetables raised increase with the increase in area of garden. The fact that the large gardens show the larger returns should not be taken to indicate that the small gardens all give low returns. It is found, for instance, that of the 144 families who have gardens of sizes between 300 and 499 square yards, 35 raise on an average nearly $50 worth of vegetables, which is considerably more than they pay for rent per year. The value of vegetables sold is greater for the larger gardens, but at most the amount sold is comparatively small. The surplus vege- tables raised generally find a ready market. It is a common practice in some villages for one to give to neighbors the small surplus raised or exchange it for other vegetables. A very small quantity of the vegetables raised is canned for future use. It was found than on an average only 28 quarts were canned from the largest gardens, while the average number of quart cans of vegetables “put up” for all the families was but 22. The average number of those who canned was 37. A little more than one-third of the families did no canning. Beans and tomatoes often are raised in larger quantities than can be utilized for family purposes during the season and might be canned for use during the winter when fresh vegetables must be bought. . SIZE OF FAMILIES HAVING GARDENS. The average number of persons per family, for all the families vis- ited, in terms of adults, was 4.5,‘ boarders being included as members of the family. Arranging the records according to the size of the 1Jn giving the size of family in terms of adults, children 12 years of age and less are counted as one-half of an adult, and all persons older as adults. 6 BULLETIN 602, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. family, it is found that the familhes of five persons and less averaged $26 worth of vegetables raised, and those of over five persons aver- aged $39 worth. The large families, however, have gardens one- third larger than the small families. The fact that only a small part of the vegetables raised are sold indicates that the vegetables are raised for home consumption. Thus the larger the family the greater the quantity of vegetables that must be raised. Hence it was found that the larger families either had larger gardens than the smaller families or cultivated their land more intensively, VARIETY OF VEGETABLES GROWN. Twenty-two kinds of vegetables were grown on these gardens, though no one garden was found which grew them all. An average of 9.5 kinds were grown per garden. The vegetables grown most commonly are those returning the most money, as shown in Plate I. Beans, tomatoes, and sweet corn are grown on nearly all the gar- dens. Peppers, cucumbers, beets, and greens' are grown on over three-fourths, and okra, onions, and peas on over half the gardens. In one village a man with a garden 544 square yards in area planted 20 kinds of vegetables and raised $115 worth. In the same village another man had a garden of 650 square yards, planted 17 kinds, but raised only $21 worth. The former simply raised a much bigger crop per square yard than the other. In order to see whether the variety of vegetables raised. had any effect on the returns from the gardens, all the records of gardens, the sizes of which were over 500 square yards but less than 700, were clas- sified by the number of kinds of vegetables grown. Those having 10 or more kinds were put in one group, and those having fewer in an- other group. The former group had on an average, for 71 gardens, averaging 577 square yards, 12 kinds of vegetables, the value of which was $33. In the other group were 64 gardens, averaging 591 square yards, raising 7 kinds to the value of $20. Thus the best gardens in this region grow more than 10 different vegetables. The best success on a limited area, however, involves careful planning, so as to have as much space as possible for each class of vegetables. The proper succession of vegetables must be known. Late vegetables may be planted between the rows of earlier vegetables, allowing the late crop to grow while the earlier ones are maturing. Thus succes- sive crops may be obtained. Often three crops are taken from the same ground. Individual attention and knowledge of gardening are essential. = =e +Greens include mustard, lettuce, and turnip greens. VALUE OF A SMALL PLOT OF GROUND. i CASH EXPENDITURES ON GARDENS. The average cash cost per garden was $3.54, distributed as follows: TU Pa OO Ss Sse a A We EG Spa aa sles RS ab EG Cee ya Ure RON ey Sane ere paper PCE Kiss peatnsarsoi lene: Je eve CASTE os ee Ge ee i Be eT ES RULE gaia sein eraD yc aue ey 52 SIN (eae ee ee EE pls RSE AR Ee eR NEES OLS GV This includes only the cash for hired labor, seed, and fertilizer. The labor expenditure is limited practically to the cost of having the garden plowed and harrowed for planting. Little or no labor is hired during the season, the planting and care of the garden being done by the family. The use of the land is not charged against the garden, as the rent paid for the use of the house includes the use of the lot, whether it is used for garden or other purposes. [or gardens of the same size the returns are greatest where the expendi- tures are greatest. On these, however, the range of vegetables grown is also greater, indicating that those who spend more for labor, seed, and fertilizer also utilize their opportunities in other directions. The best gardeners have the seed-bed well prepared, purchase good seed, and apply fertilizer intelligently. WINTER GARDENS. Collards, a variety of kale, are grown in the fall and winter on about one-fourth of the gardens visited. This crop is mentioned here particularly because it does not compete with any other crop. In one village where 42 gardens grew collards and 45 did not the former averaged $9 worth of collards, and the average total value of vegetables raised was $34. The latter group grew no collards and the vegetables raised were valued at $24. The gardens were a little smaller in the first group. Families who relish this vegetable for greens will find it a profitable crop. Turnips, sown after the other vegetables are taken off, are often grown in the winter for greens. FRUITS. The average value of fruits raised for all the families visited was only $0.72, but the average for those who raised fruit was $3.20. Three-fourths of the families visited did not raise fruit of any kind. The fruit most commonly raised was the peach, with an occasional family having berries or apples. More fruit could be raised to ad- vantage. The continual changing of tenants probably accounts for the small amount of fruit raised. Peaches, and even small fruit, must be set out a few years before returns are realized, and the tenant who has doubts of his remaining on his place for more than two years will not set out fruit for the benefit of some one else. The initiative 8 BULLETIN 602, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the mill owners probably would be required to bring about the more general growing of peaches and small fruits in the villages. POULTRY. A jarge number of the families 1n these villages keep small flocks of poultry. Very little pure-bred stock was found, most of the flocks consisting of mixed breeds. The poultry houses were of a very tem- porary type, and inexpensive. The average size of the 165 flocks from which records were taken was 13.2 fowls. The number of eggs used and sold averaged 86 dozen, valued at $19.35, and the number of fowls used and sold was 36, valued at $11.07, giving a total income of $30.42 per flock. The average expenditure for eggs, fowls, and wire bought was $1.16, and that for feed was $15.06, making a total expenditure of $16.22. The net return for these flocks thus was $14.20, or $1.08 per fowl. Labor cost and interest on investment in buildings and fowls are not charged against the flock. The labor was performed by the family, and the interest on the investment is negligible. The feed bought consists largely of cracked corn and other cereals. It is bought ready mixed, in peck and bushel lots. Table scraps are generally fed to the poultry, which reduces the feed bill. The value of the family table scraps is not included in the feed cost. Feeding to the poultry is a very economical way of disposing of the table wastes. Twelve flocks were fed wholly on table.and gar- den wastes. The flocks are penned the greater part of the year to keep them from.running on the gardens. Thus, unlike the average farm flock, they are not able to find any of their feéd. The family in these villages which keeps a small flock of good fowls, feeds them carefully, and keeps them fenced in finds them profitable. PIGS. In most of the mill towns pigs are not allowed within the village proper for sanitary reasons. Some families have the pen located just outside the village and the necessity of carrying the feed a long dis- tance is a discouraging factor. Records were fen A 62 hogs that had been fattened. The aver- age purchase price of the pigs was $6.34, and the average live weight at killing time 270 pounds—worth $24.30 at $0.09 a pound. The cost of feed amounted to $12.12, leaving a net return of $5.84 after deducting the purchase price. The feed bought consisted largely of shorts, corn, mill feed, kitchen scraps bought from neighbors, and a little buttermilk. The money Bul. 602, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. "daLSVULNOO 107 G3LSVAA SHL ONY G3aZINLA SHL Bul. 602, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. GENERAL VIEWS OF VILLAGES, SHOWING SPACE AVAILABLE FOR EACH FAMILY. Bul. 602, U. S: Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. THE FRONT YARD IS BEAUTIFUL AS WELL AS THE BACK YARD. VALUE OF A SMALL PLOT OF GROUND. 9 paid for purchased kitchen scraps was $2.57 per hog. The value of the home kitchen wastes fed was not included in the feed cost. The feeding. period extended over an average of ten months. These data indicate that it is profitable for the mill operative to fatten a pig when all feed does not have to be bought. Some of the families fatten only one hog and buy little feed, depending largely on their kitchen wastes. Other families fatten two or more pigs and rely more on materials bought for feed. THE FAMILY COW. In most of the cotton-mill villages the operative is encouraged to keep a family cow. Pastures adjoining the village proper are available for the free use of the families having cows. These pas- tures are fully utilized. In some instances the mill company has put up substantial stalls for housing the cows, and in other villages the operatives build cheap, temporary structures for this purpose. The cows invariably are bought in the immediate neighborhood from farmers or neighbors. The quality of the cows is good. It is not uncommon for the operative to buy his cow on the basis of actual production at the beginning of the lactation period. The cow is bought as a “two, three, or four gallon ” cow. The practice in making butter in this regon is to churn the whole milk. The buttermilk, of which there is a quantity nearly equal to the quantity of whole milk produced, is used for drinking purposes. The large families use all the buttermilk produced, and the smaller families sell their surplus to neighbors. It commonly sells at 10 cents a. gallon. Records of the cost of feeding and of the value of buttermilk and butter produced were obtained from 74 cows. The data are given in the following table: Record of 74 family cows owned by operatives in cotton-mill villages of the western parts of North Carolina and South Carolina. [Value per cow, $46.] Feed and yield per cow. Quantity. Value. Feed: Pounds. Roughage pee vine nay, alfalfa hay, |COrm StOVeCL)!-:-1--nleascln cs ne\n= eee 1,000 $9. 88 Cottonseedthulis sess esctecieccslarciete se sialon ie Gicie ataliclalate tee alm oem cae alae 4,535 33. 60 Cottoniseedsrrical eis. se te sa aes sets cee eta Meat este lctaimapaiaeeicicinisinisns Salemi taalets 1,700 32. 04 FS SOT hes ecclesia per et 140 2. 20 MUD ay aya Us Sees Ate a ieee ae i ene Ce el ete ee i rate ad es 170 OE FD ELPA eet Ne Aer AYA RSE IR By, hs RORURONNS we he techaym cree pete eee bia aero BNE Oratae ciate 80. 49 Yield: Bit tormil knew Wee aye as hee se aatelo violist ssn e N= oe elawceemeiiee se gallons. - 605 60. 50 BS UG LOLA ise ae ane win ete Se ee cle ee eeiscclsla Secs see isreimitecmeicie se pounds. . 270 59. 40 BTR Cp tia a Ses Es Re aE TNS Darya aR a ga eee rad Ren UNE a Mike yale 119. 90 The records are for the year 1915. The cows have the run of free, common pasture all summer, but the pastures are kept closely cropped. 10 BULLETIN 602, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The average value of the cows as estimated by the families was $46. The average cost of feed per cow was $80.49 a year. The aver- age returns were $119.90. These comparatively high returns are at- tributable to the high value of the buttermilk, which is worth a little more than the butter. The butter alone would not pay for the feed. It is evident that where the families in these villages do all the work, and the use of the pasture and stable is free, it may be more pre diable for large families to have ne own cow than to buy milk and butter for family use. PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELAT- ING TO THE SUBJECT OF THIS BULLETIN. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Standard Varieties of Chickens. (Farmers’ Bulletin 51.) Home Fruit Garden. (Farmers’ Bulletin 154.) Pig Management. (Farmers’ Bulletin 205.) Okra: Its Culture and Uses. (Farmers’ Bulletin 282, Cucumbers. (Farmers’ Bulletin 254.) Home Vegetable Garden. (Farmers’ Bulletin 255.) Poultry Management. (Farmers’ Bulletin 287.) Beans. (Farmers’ Bulletin 289.) Onion Culture. (Farmers’ Bulletin 354.) Hog Cholera. (Farmers’ Bulletin 379.) Feeding Hogs in the South. (Farmers’ Bulletin 411.) Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home. (Farmers’ Bulletin 413.) Cabbage. (Farmers’ Bulletin 438.) Hog Houses. (Farmers’ Bulletin 488. ) Grape Propagation, Pruning, and Training. (Farmers’ Bulletin 471.) Hints to Poultry Raisers. (Farmers’ Bulletin 528.) Important Poultry Diseases. (Farmers’ Bulletin 530.) Farm Buttermaking. (Farmers’ Bulletin 541.) Boys’ and Girls’ Poultry Clubs. (Farmers’ Bulletin 562.) Boys’ Pig Clubs. (Farmers’ Bulletin 566.) Poultry House Construction. (Farmers’ Bulletin 574.) Natural and Artificial Incubation of Hens’ Eggs. (Farmers’ Bulletin 585.) Clean Milk: Production and Handling. (Farmers’ Bulletin 602.) Natural and Artificial Brooding of Chickens. (Farmers’ Bulletin 624.) Home Garden in the South. (Farmers’ Bulletin 647.) Duck Raising. (Farmers’ Bulletin 697.) Goose Raising. (Farmers’ Bulletin 767.) Plant a Garden. (States Relations Service, N. R. 1.) Seeds and Plants for the Home Garden. (States Relations Service, N. R. 2.) Vegetables to Grow and How to Grow Them. (States Relations Service, IN Re By) Conveniences for Handling the Farm Cow and Her Products. (Secretary’s Special, 1914.) Do You Keep a Cow? (Secretary’s Special, 1914.) The Feeding and Care of Dairy Calves. (Secretary’s Special, 1914.) Feeding the Farm Cow in the South. (Secretary’s Special, 1914.) Making Farm Butter in the South. (Secretary’s Special, 1914.) The Production and Care of Milk and Cream. (Secretary’s Special, 1914.) How Southern Farmers May Get a Start in Pig Raising. (Secretary’s Spe- cial, 1914.) 11 12 BULLETIN 602, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. Asparagus Culture. (Farmers’ Bulletin 61.) Price, 5 cents. Strawberries. (Farmers’ Bulletin 198.) Price, 5 cents. Raspberries. (Farmers’ Bulletin 218.) Price, 5 cents. Tomatoes. (Farmers’ Bulletin 220.) Price, 5 cents. Celery. (Farmers’ Bulletin 282.) Price, 5 cents. Suggestions on Poultry Raising for the Southern Farmer. (Secretary’s Spe- cial.) Price, 5 cents. Hog Raising in the South. (Secretary’s Circular 30.) Price, 5 cents. A Study in the Cost of Producing Milk on Four Dairy Farms, Located in Wis- consin, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina. (Department Bulle- tin 501.) Price, 5 cents. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1918 OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY ; Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 10, 1918 A STUDY OF SHARE-RENTED DAIRY FARMS IN GREEN COUNTY, WIS., AND KANE COUNTY, ILL. By E. A. Borcer, Agriculturist. CONTENTS. Page. | Page. Systems of share-renting..................-. 2 | Variation in duty of landlord and of tenant. . 6 DUMMaAarysOk LESUIUS-A3- 2+ 2se acess shee. 3u|mHactorsiofemiciencys 24... s... as BOO; |se cae coe nee 5.000 |).. ee ares 5880.) soso aes el Soee oe eee | 10, 817 aan 171, 200 [222.222.2222] "80,000 |)" 25,004. "161, 200 | 30,203,068} 430; 000)|aen.ccenneee 91, 878 100, 000 271, 659 127, 000 301, 700 LUMBER USED IN MANUFACTURE OF WOODEN PRODUCTS. in the manufacture of wooden products—Continued. 13 Kind of wood—Continued. Cherry. Feet b. m. 12, 047, 210 1, 674, 235 170, 500 1, 965.570 622, 530 39, 650 62, 350 300 56, 000 617, 500 334, 180 10, 000 7,500 White fir. Feet b. m. 11, 338, 580 8, 162, 250 3, 142, 080 Willow. | Dogwood. Noble fir. | Magnolia. Feet b.m.| Feet b.m. 10, 664,770 | 7,518,177 266, 000 6, 000 10,004,600 j.......-.-- iri40s 000s etek: 128, 000 34 ““""19,000 | 190, 230° FE MIM OOO Mat tec e eee 1505000) (Sas) guess Feet b.m. 6, 653, 500 Feet b.m, 6, 156, 500 116, 900 5, 449, 000 9, 500 Persim- Buckeye. moni Cucumber. Feet b.m.| Feet b.m. 5, 486, 047 | 3,571, 760 694, 400 3,174, 028 63, 419 “10, 000 Feet b.m. 2, 660, 700 1, 100 I 14 BULLETIN 605, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 1.—Quantity of each kind of wood used annually Industry. Albindustriés 2.226. =-- acca ester ys ee Planing-mill products, sash, doors, blinds, and general mulworkh 3. Sscassccee cee c tet es ees IBORESIADCCLALES sass secceewtoseniane sine semen sae Car constructions 322c22s2e ses set celse nae ae nse UTI sie oe as So ocete concen iseee cece cece Vehicles and vehicle parts. ..522.2--s--eee- sees Woodenware, novelties,and dairymen’s, poulter- €1s?; and aplarists’ supplies. =. 2-3-2. -2-.5----- Agricultural implements Chairs and chair stock Handles Mankstand:silosissecemt ce scncre scree eeeee eames Shipmand postibuld ine see. aces nese es See 106 bq bh dc oPme eee ee Net Ue See ee Oke 6 ae Casketsiand cofins’ | sac <2osck asec n ss cesses Refrigerators and kitchen cabinets......-.-..----. Matches and toothpicks Laundry appliances........-.-.--- Shade and map.rollers...:-+-2.-:.5-.--- Paving material and conduits sae haundry appliances. ‘=! (2) n oO Hw [o} a Ss fas] uw B mH fav} | a sha a3 uy Ru o a6 a coe Za Zs e6 Ee =| ES 38 aa, ho EO no one Sue Sr B oD RI —" a, n Q& val : ‘a = 3 3 a fas} p3 A Bul. 606, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘ AORN eee See ee ee eR LS pirbbhhs Sibieene ehatES : Guam IMM a SITs 2 PLATE III. Bul. 606, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. RED OAK (RADIAL SECTION, MAGNIFIED 50 DIAMETERS). xX, wood prosen- ssels; ; V, pores or ve chyma (fibers, etc.). summerwood; MRF, medullary ray; es ? springwood; SW ? SP Bul. 606, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Post Oak, A WHITE OAK (RADIAL SECTION, MAGNIFIED 50 DIAMETERS). SP, springwood; SW,summerwood; WR, medullary ray; V, pores or vessels; X, wood pros- enchyma (fibers, etc.); 7’, tyloses. RESISTANCE OF HARDWOODS TO CREOSOTE, Fic. 1.—Apparatus for making penetrance tests. 6 BULLETIN 606, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mirror D, placed at the back of the oven, it was possible to observe both ends of the specimen during the test. The impregnation tests were made in a cylinder 13 feet in diameter and 4 feet long. Temperature and pressure were controlled by means of steam coils and a pressure pump. The specimens were separated from each other during treatment, so that all parts of the wood were in contact with the preservative. MATERIALS USED. CREOSOTE. The creosote used was a coal-tar product with a specific gravity of 1.071 at 140° F. (60° C.) and a viscosity, determined by the Engler viscosimeter, of 1.2 at 160° F. (71° C.). The distillation’ was as follows: ' Temperature. Distil- lation ° Per cent. | O29 0 bw 2 ak ac ee eee 20n=28be cece eet ee Tope DeO- 24S fe ae ee Tif PAG—2I De 2 ss 5 =. 9.9 DEO De ae ee ol es) 205-3602 2. osc ek 27.6 Residtie.. 22.2.6 - 20.9 OSS ie sie As Hota aaeee see ' 100. 0 The creosote was obtained by distilling a by-product coke oven tar (Semet Solvay) to a very hard pitch. The indices of refraction at 60° C. and sulphonation tests are rather low for a pure coal-tar creosote, probably because the tar was produced in comparatively low-temperature ovens. The residue was a soft, sticky pitch, indi- cating the presence of a small amount of undistilled tar (probably less than 5 per cent). WOOD. The wood used in the experiments was selected from 25 species of hardwoods. In order to make the results comparable, all of the specimens for the different experiments on a given species were taken from the same log and matched as closely as possible. Most of the specimens used in the tests were heartwood, as sapwood speci- mens of sufficient size were available from only four of the species used. . 1 For method of analyses see Forest Service Circular 188, p. 36. RESISTANCE OF HARDWOODS TO CREOSOTE. 7 Three pieces of heartwood were selected from each species for the penetrance tests. Similarly, three specimens of sapwood were used of those species from which sapwood was available. The pieces were approximately 23 inches by 14 inches by 48 inches. Each specimen was surfaced on 4 sides, and a hole ? of an inch deep bored in the center of a 24 inch by 48 inch face. All specimens were first thoroughly air-seasoned, and then dried for 48 hours at a tempera- ture of 150° F. before treatment. The oven-dry weight and moisture content were determined at the time of treatment. Specimens used in the impregnation tests were cut approximately 91 inches by 14 inches by 24 inches. Seven selected specimens of heartwood from each species were treated. The same number of sapwood pieces of the species from which sapwood could be obtained were also treated. The following species were tested: a tae Locality from which Common name. Botanical name. obtained: INEM, | 5 Oe Naa ee ee rr Fraxinus lanceolata Borkh. ...| Missouri. FAS WiMGOuee. 22 2 ses - Fraxinus americana L . -| New York. Aspen, largetooth ....-...| Populus grandidentata Michx .| Wisconsin. BARSOOM eres S-ii-)- =~ - 4 Tilia americana L.. Do. ECCI Meret css s-s-- Fagus atr opunicea( Marsh, )Lud. Pennsylvania. inizeheermversgred) == -....| Betula nigra lic 5.222 .). 226 (?) Birch; sweet. =..----.---- Bet leer ta eee oss. eas Pennsylvania. incheeyelOws-s- 7.42... Betula lites, Miciwx. TS. Do. Cherry, wild red. ......-- Prunus pennsylvuanica L....-- Tennessee. (Whestniiteeeetem a: 6-5 22 == Castanea dentata(Marsh.)Borkh. Do. Kilm)corkjor rock. .--.-- . | Ulmus racemosa Thomas... . . Pennsylvania. Him, slippery... --.--.-- Ulmus pubescens Walt...-..-- Wisconsin. ima witttess-5------.-.| Ulmus americana Ws.....--...- | Pennsylvania. Git; fediy. 520s. . 5-28 e+: Liquidambar styranfilua L..-.. Missouri. Gum. tupeld. .. 2... 2.) INyssan apiece ey: fight. 2 | Louisiana. EIDe Deming 58 - | = ' «51-3 Celtis occidentalis L...........| Wisconsin. Hickory, mockernut. Hicoria alba (1.) Brité....-..- | (2) IMaplemsilivie® secee = =.= ass Acer saccharium LL. Bid eat | WAESConSine Maple, sugar..........-.| Acer saccharum Marah. =... 2... Pennsylvania. Othe pits ero Set SE Quercus macrocarpa Michx ...| Wisconsin. Oakvenesimut:o.-.-.-.--|) Quercus priovus UW. 2 -. 2252...) Tennessee: (Orie si(0 |e ha re ene ae DONG TGs eke Sea noccdes Pennsylvania. Waku eee ee 1 | WET CUSh) QLOGY Linas sack eae alen- Arkansas. WV CADIOLC Phe oso o/s Platanus occidentalis L.....-- Tennessee. Witlowpblack=? 22-3) Salia nigra Marsh. 225. 202 5: Wisconsin. 1 Red and white heart beech are botanically the same species. 2 Obtained by purchase in the market. Locality of growth not known. METHOD OF APPLYING THE CREOSOTE. PENETRANCE TESTS. In the penetrance tests a pressure of 120 pounds per square inch and a temperature of from 175° to 180° F. were employed. Read- ings of temperature and pressure were made every 15 minutes, and 8 BULLETIN 606,.U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, the time was recorded at which the preservative first penetrated a surface. The periods of treatment were one-half hour, one hour, and two hours, respectively, for the three pieces from each species. After treatment the specimens were sawed longitudinally and transversely along the center lines. (Fig. 2.) Immediately after sawing, the fresh surface was painted with water glass (sodium silicate solution) to prevent the creosote from staining the untreated surface. The longitudinal penetrations were measured on the sur- face obtained by sawing the specimens through the longitudinal center line. The average was obtained by measuring the area of the treated zone on this surface and dividing by the width of the pene- tration. The maximum and average radial and tangential penetra- Fic. 2.—The general shape of the test pieces treated in the penetrance apparatus. tions were measured with a steel scale on the surface obtained by sawing the specimens transversely through the center line. These Innes are indicated in figure 2; and Plates V to XII show specimens after being sawed. Radial and longitudinal penetrations were neasured to the nearest 0.01 inch. Photographs were taken of each specimen after treatment, IMPREGNATIGN THSTS. ‘The’ impregnation tests comprised a series of seven treatments in which the pressure was varied and other conditions kept as nearly constant as possible. Each treatment was made on a heartwood specimen from each species. A sapwood specimen was also included from species having both sapwood and heartwoced available. The conditions of treatment are shown in Table 1. TABLE 1—The pressure, period, and temperature at which treatinents acere made. A Tempera- : AT . i ressure ture of Run No. | Pressure. period. preserva- tive. Pounds per | | sguare inch. Hours. pales BN eure ae Soe aN LOS, Sree on te ay es rane enc ene Sh ETE rch ‘Atmospheric. 1 180-185 DE agama t Setaa ete ta di Spe TSIS a ets Slee oia ls lead Soe See NeRRS OD aS OIE eG SIE EEE 25 1 180-185 a are re eS Saas oe SMe terete a race Soe Ble aie eiora SNS oie ie ie | 50 1 180-185 Air be oe Srcsnsaloloolnloite Meno ee eye Gaia a Oe Pereaieenie Meee Se tae eet eee 75 1 180-185 Dye Siena joa Steals ety estaba ci RPE TS dic laae wei aie ercee ste ate wie ae ice eed me ee mie ee 100 1 180-185 Gee SS GSFt Fo Sosa ccs SoaE Oe eee en eke Sete Bee Se eM aaene eee eey 125 1 180-185 Ye oes eae e eee ee eer tree re eer ie res: 150 1 180-185 | Bul. 606, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V PENETRATION iN WHITE ASH—HEARTWOOD (FRAXINUS LANCEOLATA). 1, piece No. 66 treated 30 minutes; 2, piece No. 67 treated 60 minutes; 3, piece No. 68 treated 120 minutes. The thin-walled tyloses allowed the creosote to penetrate the vessels to some extent in addition to the penetration obtained in the wood prosenchyma. Spots on the untreated areas are points to which the creosote penetrated through the vessels. Bul. 606, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. PENETRATION IN BASSWOOD—HEARTWOOD (TILIA AMERICANA). 1, piece No. 39 treated 80 minutes; 2, piece No. 40 treated 60 minutes; 3, piece No. 41 treated | 120 minutes. Note the penetration of creosote in the summerwood first, in the piece on the | left. Penetration took place readily in the summerwood because the wood prosenchyma is easily treated in this species, | Bul. 606, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. | | secneuaninsititith ome NN SSS emnNe NNN ee a — eo PENETRATION IN WHITE-HEART BEECH—HEARTWOOD (FAGUS ATROPUNICEA). 1, piece No. 86 treated 30 minutes; 2, piece No. 87 treated 60 minutes; 3, piece No. 88 treated 120 minutes. Compare the penetration of white-heart beech with that of red-heart beach, Plate XII. Bul. 606, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTeE VIII. PENETRATION IN HICKORY HEARTWOOD (HICORIA ALBA). | 1, piece No. 69 treated 30 minutes; 2, piece No. 70 treated 60 minutes; 3, piece No. 71 treated 120 minutes. Note the uniform penetration in wood even at a considerable distance from the part where creosote was applied. PLATE IX. The numerous tyloses and tes. inu tes; 3, treated 120 m the infiltrating substances in the cell walls greatly retarded penetration. minu PENETRATION IN RED GUM—HEARTWOOD. i=) x eo} o bo} 5 8 a= 3 S| ) 20 5 i) ~ ' xt Nn ° g ; a) 1H 3 2 | (=) FI % 8 =) Z ‘0 » oO S 3 Bs & 3 & a rt Bul. 606, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. PENETRATION iN LARGETOOTH ASPEN—HEARTWOOD (POPULUS GRANDIDENTATA). 1, piece No. 45 treated 30 minutes; 2, piece No. 46 treated 60 minutes; 3, piece No. 47 treated 120 minutes. Largetooth aspen showed very erratic penetration, which is well illustrated in the three specimens shown, PLATE XI. Bul. 606, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. HEARTWOOD (QUERCUS ALBA) 78 treated 60 minutes; PENETRATION IN WHITE OAK— . 79 treated 3, piece No 120 minutes. 77 treated 30 minutes; 2, piece No. 1, piece No. , Bul. 606, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII. PENETRATION IN RED-HEART BEECH (FAGUS ATROPUNICEA). 1, piece No. 89 treated 30 minutes; 2, piece No. 90 treated 60 minutes; 3, piece No. 91 treated 120 minutes. Compare the penetration in this wood with that shown in Plate VII, show- ing the penetration in white-heart beech. oer RESISTAN NCE OF HARDWOODS TO CREOSOTE. 9 FACTORS AFFECTING PENETRATION. The penetrability of wood is greatly influenced by many factors not studied in these tests. Trees of the same species grown in differ- ent localities may differ greatly in their properties, hence the natural variability of the wood may largely influence Penetration: The char- acter of the penetration is an important factor. So also is the mois- ture content of the wood. Timber which has just been cut and which is, therefore, in the green condition is, as a rule, very much more resistant to treatment than that which has had the moisture removed. The method of seasoning the timber may also have an important bearing on the resulting penetration and absorption of preservative. Thus, wood which has been air seasoned may give quite different results from that which has been artificially seasoned either by steam- ing, boiling in oil, or by other processes. In order to eliminate, so far as possible, variations arising from differences in moisture, the specimens used in the tests were dried to a low moisture content, although it is recognized that this is not done in commercial work where the methods of seasoning may vary greatly with different species of wood. Furthermore, sapweod and Rens rtwood specimens were treated separately, although in commer- cial work timber under treatment may contain both heartwood and sapwood in widely varying proportions. It was not within the scope of this work to study such species separately under the conditions most suitable for its treatment. The study was confined to one tree of each species. The trees were selected to be as nearly representative as possible, and all specimens used were closely matched. Since identical treatments were given to each species, it 1s possible to compare the penetrations and absorp- tions in the various species when tested under the same conditions. EFFECT OF STRUCTURE ON PENETRANCE. PGRES OR VESSEL The pores or vessels, which serve te furnish a channel for the passage of sap from the roots of the tree to the leaves, are a very important factor in penetration with wood preservatives, especially when they are open passages through the wood. 1. Pores open.—In red oak, Plates IT and ITI, the pores or vessels (V) are open passages. It is even possible to blow air through sticks of red oak several feet long. In a diffuse-porous wood they are more numerous but of smaller diameter. When the pores are open as in red oak or basswood, they are the main factor in the initial pene- trance of the wood. | 11961°—18—Bull. 606——2 10 BULLETIN 606, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2. Pores closed by tyloses or gums.—When the pores or vessels are closed with tyloses, as in the post oak,t Plate IV, or with gummy substances, the relations are more complicated. Tyloses, if strongly developed, grow together and practically fill the vessel cavities, thus stopping the penetration through these elements. Creosote may be absorbed and stain the walls for a very short distance, but the main lines for liquid transfer are blocked. Various effects are produced by tyloses and gums according as these are more or less developed in different species. If the tyloses which grow out from different points on the walls of the pores or vessels do not meet and grow together, or if they are weak and readily broken down, they do not effectively check penetrance, as, for example, in chestnut and green ash. If they do not occur in all the vessels but only here and there, as in some diffuse-porous woods, their effect is, in general, proportional to their occurrence. ARRANGEMENT OF THE PORES—RING-POROUS AND DIFFUSE-POROUS WOODS. A much greater variation in penetration was found in the diffuse- porous than in the ring-porous species. In diffuse-porous woods tyloses were not so uniformly distributed, which resulted in erratic or irregular penetrations. Diffuse-porous woods also showed consid- erable variation, due to gums, infiltrating substances, and cross- grained structure. Examples of species exhibiting these variable characteristics are silver maple, sycamore, sugar maple, largetooth aspen, and red gum. . WOOD PROSENCHYMA (FIBERS AND TRACHHIDS). When the pores or vessels of a wood are closed by tyloses or guins, penetration of the wood prosenchyma may become of primary im- portance. The cells of this tissue have closed ends. Liquids in pass- ing from cell to cell must then filter through the wall itself or through the thin places or pits in the cell wall. The pits are poorly developed or practically lacking in some hardwood prosenchyma. It is there- fore apparent that penetrance in this tissue can not take place so rapidly nor extend so easily for long distances as it can in the pores or vessels. (In Plates I, II, III, and IV this tissue is indicated by “X.”) Nevertheless, the wood prosenchyma is of considerable im- portance in relation to the penetrance and absorption obtained for certain woods. Hickory is a particularly good example of a wood where penetrance takes place chiefly in the wood prosenchyma. THE MEDULLARY RAYS AND WOOD PARENCHYMA. The medullary rays and other parenchyma cells appeared to be of little practical importance in the penetration of the hardwoods with 1 This species is similar in structure to white oak. - RESISTANCE OF HARDWOODS TO CREOSOTE. 11 eréosote. In oak, hickory, and sycamore, for example, the rays were conspicuous because of their resistance to penetration in marked con- trast to the surrounding treated tissue. SPRINGWOOD AND SUMMERWOOD. In the hardwoods the effect of springwood or summerwood on treatment was not so important as the effect of the peculiarities of the different types of structure and the arrangement of the elements, such as vessels, fibers, rays, etc. In very heavy treatments the creo- sote not only passed through the cavities or lumena of the cells in both spring and summer wood, but sometimes penetrated the walls. CONDITION OF GRAIN. More or less difficulty was experienced in treating the woods in which the fibers were interlaced or cross-grained. DENSITY. The ease or difficulty of securing a satisfactory penetration does not appear to depend upon the density. Woods having high specific gravities were sometimes treated with greater ease than species of much lower specific gravity, and vice versa. RADIAL, TANGENTIAL, AND LONGITUDINAL PENETRATION. In most of the species tested the radial and tangential penetrations were very much less than the longitudinal penetration. In general, the species that were difficult to treat showed less difference than those which were easy to treat. GROUPING OF SPECIES. GROUPING WITH RESPECT TO PENETRATIONS AND ABSORPTIONS. Table 2 (see Appendix) gives the average longitudinal and radial penetrations obtained in the penetrance tests, and the average ab- sorptions of the specimens treated in the cylinder. In this table and in the diagram, figure 3, the species are arranged in order of increasing absorptions in the impregnation test. In figure 3 are also shown the corresponding average longitudinal and radial penetra- tions. While the longitudinal penetrations show a general tendency to increase as the absorptions increase, there is nevertheless a con- siderable variation. ‘The radial penetrations were very small in most of the woods treated and do not seem to bear an important relation to the absorptions. In some cases it is possible that the longitudinal penetrations would have shown a closer relation to the absorptions if the average had been based on the same number of specimens in both series of tests. The penetrations represent the 12 BULLETIN 606, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. average of three specimens of each species treated in the penetrance apparatus, and the absorptions are the average of seven specimens treated in the cylinder. However, a close relation between penetra- tion and absorption could not be expected in many of the species. For example, species such as red oak and chestnut oak have large open pores or vessels which allow the preservative to pass easily from one end of the stick to the other. The wood prosenchyma of these species is very difficult to penetrate and treatment results nainly in coating the vessel walls with the preservative and not in AVERAGE ABSORPTION AVERAGE LOWGITUDINAL — ; AVERAGE RADIAL LBS. PERCU. FT. PENETRATION——IMCHES ~* SB RRRET RATION. INCHES $ 2 § § = os ee BP OAR es 2 ee ww we eee ~ on aamnroen te aoSBR RP op paovontenabs, RS w S a CJ Ree i henrosetoel Str ate nl i WHITE OAK _______. ___ NGS RED NEART SEECH__ BUR OAK. ROCK ELM CHESTNUT SYCAMORE_.____ HACKBERRY____ HICKCRY__ SUGAR MAPLE _____BSS KACKBERRY____ CHESTNUT O4K __ RED OAK WHITE HEART BEECH YELLOW BIRCH__ SS ogo S SSSh H SQ no______{SSNSGSSS = CEES BLACK WILLOW__ __ _ SSSR Tt SQs~77“ 3 S LARGE TOOTH ASPEW WHITE ELM__-___ SS A qoomavs GERRY Goom.uyZH TONY GREEN ASK NSS "SLIPPERY ELR SILVER MAPLE_____S SWEET SIRCH REC GUM WHITE ASH __ ‘ SILVER MAPLE____ ube See BAssweoD TUPELO Gum WILD RED CHERAY_ — KOSS SSSA TuPz.o Gum HE — Vie, 5.—Comparative absorpticns and penctratious. a complete impregnation of the wood substance. Slppery elm has large open vessels similar to those of red oak and chestnut oak, but in this case the wood prosenchyma readily absorbs the preservative. ft was therefore possible to secure both a complete penetration and a fairly heavy absorption in this wood. In hickory, the large vessels are almost completely closed by tyloses, but a fairly good penetration was obtained on account of the comparative ease with which the wood prosenchyma absorbed creosote. Species in which the tyloses are more or less irregularly distributed, such as black willow and large- RESISTANCE OF HARDWOODS TO CREOSOTE. iS tooth aspen, naturally show less uniformity in the relation between penetration and absorption. A more constant relation between these factors is evident in species, such as basswood and tupelo gum, which take treatment beth in vessels and in the wood substance. Detailed results of the tests and data on each species are given in the Appendix. GRGUPING OF BARDWCODS FGR TREATMENT. A classification of the species studied in this investigation into three groups according to the ease or difficulty of penetration has been attempted. ‘This classification is based on the results obtained in the penetrance and cylinder tests and upon the structural char- acteristics as determined by a microscopic examination, and is in- tended only as an aid in the commercial grouping of such woods for treatment. The heartwood and sapwood are here considered sepa- rately, but in commercial treating plant cperations the same stick often contains both; so the groups which are given may not be the ones which must be used in practice. For example, tupelo gum and red oak ties, both classed as easily treatable species, are not grouped together during treatment because the tupelo gum usually contains more sapwood. Any grouping of species for preservative treatment must be a some- what arbitrary classification. It is difficult to determine where the line should be drawn separating species of one group from those of another. However, when the classifications are taken as a whole there is a very distinct difference in the ease or difficulty with which the species of one group took treatment as compared with those of another group. Furthermore, the results obtained in the penetrance and absorption experiments correspond quite well in mest cases with what would be expected from the structure of the various species. The grouping effected may be useful in giving an idea of what to expect of species unfamiliar to the reader, in comparison with species with which he is familiar. GROUP I. (Woods which treated easily in the tests.) Ring-porous woods: Tyloses generally lacking— NUTPF 0 OY SNE eo Lats a te ak ea Ulmus pubescens, heartwood. Red oak___ ENE ORE SS a eae Quercus rubra, heartwood. (HOON CON OIG: Cake ee eas a sialic 7 sis hs gal Quercus prinus, heartwood. Tyloses scatteringly developed or thin walled— NAVA GUE ECS aU NR a ela AR Fraxinus americana, heartwood. ESC TANS EN Sia EE SN INU in a Frasinus lanceolata, heartwood. NYA TTA GS) Ce Hie a a eS Ulmus anericana, heartwood. FET ACK CT ys aa aaa NS a IS Celtis occidentalis, sapwood. 14 BULLETIN 606, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Diffuse-porous woods: Tyloses generally lacking— ‘RupeloseU nih 2s. Se ee ee Nyssa sp., sapwood. Wild@red? chercy 2s. 2552 eee Prunus pennsylvanica, heartwood. Pup ClOWSs WIN eee a eee Nyssa sp., heartwood. BUSS W000! 22.2 = ee ee Tilia americana, heartwood. Silver maple________ __-.-_-_.-Acer saccharinun, sapwood. Tyloses scatteringly developed— FRC GOs Is ee Se ee Liquidambar styraciflua, sapwood. Tyloses not present— WelloOws-Dineh= 22222 ese Betula lutea, heartwocd. Sweéet.Dinche 2 ss - eee ee Betula lenia, heartwocd. Red. binGh 882 2 a Betula nigra, heartwood. White-heart beech_______________- Fagus atropunicea, heartwood. GROUP Ii. (Woods which were moderately difficult te treat in the tests.) Ring-porous woods: Tyloses present— Mockernut > hickoryo2 222 2222 Hicoria aida, heartwood. ALC GSR IV Ses oie eee Ee teitis occidentalis, heartwood. TO GMGlME Soe ae ee SA ENS Ubhnus racemosa, heartwood. CHESTNU te as 2 oe eee Castanea dentaia, heartwood. Diffuse-porous woods: Tyloses present— Black * willow___________________ Salix nigra, heartwood. Largetooth aspen_____~-_____ ___Populus grandidentaia, heartwood. SV CHIMORGs 2) ta ee Platanus occidentalis, heartwood. Tyloses not present— Sugar maple_____________________Acer saccharum, heartwood. Silver maple___ BE ae at ea Acer saccharinuimn, heartwood. GRCUP III. (Woods which were very difficult to treat in the tests.) Ring-porous woods: Tvloses present— Burtoaks 25 eee Pe ae ee Bae Quercus macrocarpa, heartwood. Wibites Calle = sae ae ee @uercus aiba, heartwood. Diffuse-porous woods: Tvloses present— Red-heart beech ___~______ Fagus atropunicea, heartwood. Regi Oui 222 Se) 2 ee Liquidambar styracifiua, heartwood. Group I—AIl the specimens of Group I treated in the cylinder experiments were completely penetrated at 100 pounds pressure per square inch. An average absorption of more than 12 pounds per cubic foot was obtained in the cylinder treatment, and an average lon- gitudinal penetration of over 8 inches was obtained in the penetrance experiments, with the exception of two species, hackberry, which re- ceived slightly less than 12 pounds of oil, and sweet birch, which re- ceived only 3.85 inches of longitudinal penetration. The low longi- tudinal penetration in sweet birch was due to crooked grain, the oil 1 Hickory might be placed in Group I, as it showed good penetrations. The reason for placing it in Group if was that the absorptions were not so heavy as those obtained in the species given in Group I. 2 Black willow specimens treated in the cylinder showed good absorptions and pene- trations. Specimens treated in the penetrance apparatus did pot show very extensive longitudinal penetration. This species is put in Group IT rather than in Group I, as it is known to respond to treatment in a manner similar to large-tooth aspen, which in many cases is quite yariable, partly on account of the irregular distribution of tyloses. RESISTANCE OF HARDWOODS TO CREOSOTE. 1 coming out at the side of the specimens instead of passing through to the end. The pressure and time of treatment are not comparable to com- mercial treating-plant conditions because of the size and dry condi- tion of the specimens. The woods included in Group I were all comparatively free from tyloses and other obstructions in the vessels. Wood gums were pres- ent to only a slight extent; for example, in birch and maple. All of the species included in this group therefore treated very easily. Ex- amples of species which exhibit very clearly the characteristic open structure are red oak, chestnut oak, and slippery elm. The wood prosenchyma, or fibrous part of the wood substance, was also usually well treated in woeds of this group. The medullary rays and other parenchyma cells received, as a rule, little treatment, although ex- ceptions were noted in woods like ash and birch where creosote also penetrated this part of the wood structure. While numerous tyloses were found in the ashes, their influence on penetration of these species was not so important as in most of the other species in which tyloses were present. This was due to the fact that the tyloses were not fully developed in the vessels, and that they were also very often thin-walled and somewhat variable. Group IT.—W ith the exception of hickory, the species in Group Ii showed incomplete and variable penetrations in all of the cylinder treatments. The average absorptions obtained in these treatments were between 7 and 10 pounds per cubic foot in all of the species except silver maple, black willow, and largetooth aspen. In these three woods the absorptions were somewhat higher, but in the indi- vidual specimens they were extremely variabie and the penetrations were very irregular on account of the uneven distribution of gummy substances in the maple and tyloses in the other two species. In all of the species of this group the average longitudinal penetrations obtained in the penetrance tests were between 4 and 8 inches. Tyloses were present in all the species in this group except the two maples, but with few exceptions they did not completely close the vessels. Hickory was one of the few cases in which it was possible to obtain a fairly good penetration, although the pores were completely blocked with tyloses. In this species the treatment took place through the wood prosenchyma, which was quite permeable. Group II1I.—The average absorptions in the cylinder experiments were less than 6 pounds per cubic foot, and the average longitudinal penetrations obtained in the penetrance tests were less than 24 inches in all of the species classed in Group III. In most of these species the vessels were, as a rule, completely closed by an abundant growth of tyloses, which effectively retarded the entrance of creosote. The wood prosenchyma of these species was also very difficult to treat, 16 BULLETIN 606, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. possibly because of the presence of infiltrated substances. The medullary rays were practically unpenetrated. Heartwood speci- mens treated in the cylinder rarely showed any more than a very slight end penetration. RELATION OF GROUPING TC COMMERCIAL TREATMENT. The form in which a timber is treated determines to a large extent the relative importance of securing a penetration in the sapwood or in the heartwood. Penetration of the sapwood is of principal im- portance in the treatment of material in round forms, such as posts and telephone poles, as in this case it is the sapwood that is exposed to the attack of fungi. Although tests could not be made on sap- wood from each of the species used, the sapwood of practically all of these woods is known to be fairly easy to penetrate in both longi- tudinal and radial directions. Even those species which were most difficult to penetrate in the heartwoed took treatment comparatively well in the sapwood. | In the treatment of sawed or split timbers, which generally have little er no sapwood, the penetration of the heartwood becomes of chief importance. The results of the experiments indicate that woods in Group I are well adapted for treatment in dimension form, since the heartwood as well as the sapwood of the species was penetrated with comparative ease. Where radial penetration of the heartwood is of special importance, as in the open-tank treatment of split tim- bers for fence posts, particular attention should be given to the ease or difficulty with which the wood prosenchyma can be penetrated. The heartwood of some of the woods in Group Ii would probably be somewhat dificult to penetrate thoroughly and evenly in pressure treatments. This difficulty would be more apparent in the timbers of larger size, such as railroad ties, mine timbers, etc. With one or two exceptions, hickory, for example, radial penetration was small in species of this group. The heartwood of the species given in Group TIT would appear to be difficult to treat. Specimens of this group treated in the penetrance apparatus and in the cylinder showed no appreciable radial penetration, and only a slight longitudinal pene- tration at the ends. CONCLUSIONS. There are several very important factors other than the wood struc- ture which, in commercial work, influence the absorption and pene- tration of preservative. Some of these are the natural variability of the wood, even in the same species, the moisture content when treated, the method of seasoning and treatment adopted, and the character of the preservative used. In order to study the true effects of the RESISTANCE OF HARDWOODS TO CREOSOTE. IY various elements of wood structure on the penetration of creosote, it was necessary, so far as possible, to eliminate these other factors. The following conclusions, which are based only on structural con- _ siderations, should not be applied to commercial practice, such as the grouping of timber for treatment,’ without considering the other factors that are involved. 1. The most important of the structural factors affecting the pene- tration of the hardwoods is the condition of the vessels in the wood. When the vessels are open, it is comparatively easy to secure a good penetration. Ii the vessels are closed by tyloses or gummy substances, they are usually rendered more or less impermeable to creosote. 2. Next in importance is the ability of the wood prosenchyma (fibers, etc.) to absorb creosote. In some species having numerous and well-developed tyloses in the pores (hickory, for example), it was found possible to obtain a deep penetration on account of the comparative ease with which the wood prosenchyma could be treated. The penetrability of this part of the woed structure is therefore of great importance in species having the vessels closed by tyloses or other material. The wood prosenchyma in the sapwood took treat- ment much more easily than that in the heartwood, probably because the heartwood contained infiltrating substances in the cell walls which tended to make the wood substance less permeable. Woods which were penetrated in both the vessels and wood prosenchyma generally showed the heavier absorption and deeper penetration. Those species which took very irregular absorptions in the cylinder tests were found to possess unusual structural characteristics, such as an irregular distribution of tyloses, interlaced fibers, or cross-grained structure. The experiments indicate that even in species of very similar structure the manner of taking treatment may vary widely. This is illustrated in the treatment of hickory and white oak. Both of these woods are ring-porous and the vessels are closed by abundant tyloses. Hickory, however, took a fairly good treatment, whereas white oak was practically impermeable. The variation in the permeability of red heart and white heart beech is also an example of the different manner in which woods of similar structure may take treatment. 3. Penetration and absorption of the preservative is much less uniform in woods of the diffuse-porous group than in the ring- porous, probably because the tyloses in the vessels, and the gums and infiltrating substances are less uniformly distributed in diffuse-porous woods. In most of the species treated little or no penetration of the preservative occurred in the medullary rays and other paren- chyma cells. 1Some of the other factors affecting the treatment of wood are taken up in Forest Service Bulletin 118, “ Prolonging the Life of Crossties.”’ 11961°—18—Bull. 606 9 vo = 7 Me APPENDIX. CHARACTERISTICS OF THE VARIOUS SPECIES AND RESULTS OF TREATMENT.1 Ash, green (Fraxinus lanceolata)—heartwood.—Thin- walled tyleses were present in both sapwood and heartwood of green ash. Very little difficulty was experienced in obtaining a fairly good penetration in both the penetrance and cylinder treatments, Com- plete penetration resulted in the cylinder treatments when pressures of 75 pounds or more were employed. The wood prosenchyma was penetrated, and also the vessels and tyloses to some extent. Ash, white (Fraxinus americana)—heartwood.—Thin-walled tyloses are scattered through both sapwood and heartwood of white ash. The wood took treatment fairly easily, good penetrations being obtained both in the penetrance and impregnation tests. Both the vessels containing tyloses and the wood prosenchyma were penetrated to some extent. Creosote was found distributed chiefly throughout the wood prosenchyma. Although this species has numerous tyloses, they are thin-walled. In all probability many of the vessels are not entirely closed by them, which allows the creosote to enter the pores and give fairly good penetrations. | Aspen, largetooth (Populus grandidentata)—heartwood.—Large- tooth aspen is a close-grained, diffuse-porous wood with small pores. Both heartwood and sapwood contain scattered tyloses. Specimens treated in beth the penetrance apparatus and in the cylinder showed quite variable penetrations. In all tests the penetrations were largely in streaks and in most cases entered the wood but a short distance. Some of the specimens were fairly well treated throughout their volume and others were only slightly penetrated. This variable penetration was very likely due to an unequal distribution of tyloses throughout the specimens, for the tyloses were found to be more numerous in the untreated portions. The preservative was found mainly in the vessels of the wood and to some extent in the prosenchyma. Basswood (Tilia americana) —heartwood.—Basswood contains no tyloses in either the heartwood or sapwood. The specimens were easily treated in the penetrance apparatus and in the cylinder. Both the vessels and wood prosenchyma were quite thoroughly penetrated. Good penetrations were secured in the cylinder treatments, even at low pressures. has Beech, white-heart (Faqus atropunicea).—Tyloses are rarely found in either the heartwood or sapwood of white-heart beech. Creosote 1In some cases general remarks on the characteristics of the species were supplemented from the descriptions given in Snow’s ‘‘ Principal Species of Woods.” 15 RESISTANCE OF HARDWOODS TO CREOSOTE. 19 WHITE Hane AEC if pee aaa ‘EINE! wv ABSORPTION =- LBS. PER CUBIC FOOT ABSORPTION — LBS. PER CUBIC FooT S FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY) BADISOH, WIS. OCT,191S{ 5 9 25 59 75 1c0 125 1530 8 25 75 125 150 PRESSURE—LBS. PER SQ. IN. PRESSURE £58. PER. Se. ik. Fie. 4.—Absorption in the heartwood of white ash and green ash. Tr BESS SPEER Sloe) Se DOs SORE Eee eae see DDLSG Dee eee ee eee els sks) staf ees ee aa PEPEREEEE EERE ERE EEE SECURE BEEGR see se CI CLL | DGGE Bee ee o wees cess it. sycamore [1H Pet LARGETOOTH ASPEN 11+ h AEE RS ESI! ae a | aan Be 4 Seed BE EERE CED PEEECEECEEEEEEEEES eREB ABSORPTION—LBS. PER CUBIC FOOT ABSORPTION =LBS., PER CUBIC FOOT nf ea AT HERES ES HHH (GO Ceo Eee ooee [ Peet T | aeaEe pt oat | Fe ea a ef | BREA DRRRBEae HoRa HEE +++ +H a Sa eee Hegag SBME Re SEGSEEEEES take 2 tes 139 Qo 25 125 50. PRESSURE—LaS. PER 30. tH. = PRESSURE—LES. PER sa. (ht. Fic. 5.—Absorption in the heartwood of sycamore and largetooth aspen. 20 BULLETIN 606, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. penetrated the wood very readily both in the penetrance and cylinder treatments. The penetrance was especially uniform in this species and the oi] apparently reached all parts of the wood structure. Beech, red-heart (Fagus atropunicea).—Red-heart beech contains numerous tyloses in the heartwood and few in the sapwood. This’ wood was found to be very difficult to penetrate. Specimens treated in the cylinder showed only a very limited end penetration. A very small amount of creosote was found in the vessels and little or none in the wood prosenchyma. The difficulty of penetration seems to have been caused by the abundant tyloses found in the pores of the wood and by the infiltrating substances in the fiber walls of the “ red heart” portion, which apparently prevented penetration in these elements. Birch, sweet (Betula lenta)—heartwood.—The fibers in sweet birch are thick-walled, and gummy substances are frequently found in the wood. Tyloses are not found in either sapwood or heartwood. Specimens treated in the cylinder were well penetrated even at low pressures. Penetration was found to be well distributed throughout the wood structure. The wood prosenchyma was fairly well pene- trated, but creosote was present to a greater extent in the vessels. Birch, yellow (Betula lutea) —heartwood—yYellow birch contains no tyloses in either sapwood or heartwood. The pores were very easily penetrated in all of the tests. 1In the penetrance tests the pre- servative penetrated to the ends of the sticks almost immediately after pressure was applied. In the cylinder treatments the vessels were easily penetrated when the wood was merely immersed in the preservative for an hour. When pressure was applied both the ves- sels and wood prosenchyma were thoroughly treated. Birch, red (Betula nigra)—heartwood.—The pores in red birch are somewhat larger than those in sweet birch. The wood fibers are fairly thin-walled and there are no tyloses in sapwood or heartwood. As in yellow birch, the vessels were rather easily penetrated at low pressures. At pressures of 50 pounds or more both the vessels and wood prosenchyma were well penetrated. Cherry, wild red (Prunus pennsylvanica) —heartwood.—Wuld red cherry does not contain tyloses. The wood was treated very easily and was found to be fairly well penetrated when merely immersed in the preservative for an hour. Penetration was complete in prac- tically all of the treatments made. Chestnut (Castanea dentata)—heartwood.—The pores in chestnut "are numerous and are more or less filled with tyloses in both sapwood and heartwood. This species was very difficult to penetrate both in the penetrance apparatus and in the cylinder. Specimens treated in the cylinder showed very little radial or tangential penetration. The tyloses appeared to close the vessels, so that only a very limited pene- RESISTANCE OF HARDWOODS TO CREOSOTE. oi (SS O00 See Se aeons ee See JU SUODeE Bene Soe eee Boao Beets ; Co BEER al a Hatta IE pa gee a 324 paps BEET OESEERT chr _ EEUU RpSRGpSGReGeeRe GReno See r & S ° S B = g BE = 5 | 2 ) u = ' g ttd foe | Aa Be a a a ’ of : ge z I FS HEH S Ss Se = & Ho & 3 lz at on 3 2 PEE a pSEEEDE e a any as EEC Anne Oo | i) 25 50 75 1090 125 150 t) 25 56 75, i306 i25 150 PRESSURE— LBS. PER SQ. IW. PRESSURE—LBS. PER SQ. ik. Tic. 6.—Absorption in the heartwood of hickory and white-heart beech. 2 EEEEEEEEEE A A * [| aa [TI a= PEEEEEH| Reo aun EE : BESS 36 RED HEART BEECH Bae wap eb a 32 32 So geceaegee fp HEE ! BIREEEES! esata es [TI & Cs) seetstatientee BEER 2 Boeeeeeeee iN is} ABSORPTION = LBS. PER CUBIC FOOT ABSORPTION =—LBS. PER CUBIC FOOT | | | | AfSapweep | |] | || a 16 $e) eft | fs [| ‘6 BEV GSE seae || 12 ie st | wo fn Te as [Fs fat EARTWOOD ef na] aoe 8 | Seana e j 4 E i jee fia] ; t Ros Seal | OY | | FGREST PRODUCTS, LABORATORY) <3 SHeiinein aes ra io] Ran SADISON, WIS. ocr.1315| ® 25 50 75 160 125 {56 a 25 50 75 [0G 125 i590 PRESSURE —L&S. PER SQ. in. PRESSURE—LGS. PER SQ. ih. Fic. 7.—Absorption in the heartwood of red gum and red-heart beech and the sapwood of red gum. 22 BULLETIN 606, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, tration could be obtained at any of the pressures used. Creosote was found chiefly in the vessels and very little in the wood prosenchyma or medullary rays. Elm, rock (Ulnus racemosa)—heartwood.—Rock elm is a ring- porous wood with interlaced fibers. Tyloses were generally few and scattered in the specimens treated. All of the specimens tested in both the penetrance apparatus and in the cylinder showed erratic penetrations. In most cases penetration teok place in streaks, some of the wood being well penetrated and other parts entirely untouched. Specimens treated in the cylinder at the iower pressures showed a better absorption and penetration than specimens treated at the higher pressures. This may have been due to an irregular distribu- tion of tyloses in the specimens. The difficulty with which this wood takes treatment seems te indicate that the interlaced condition of the wood fibers may vary throughout the stick, thereby causing irregular penetrations. Most of the preservative was found to be in the vessels. There was very slight penetration in the wood prosen- chyma and medullary rays. Elm, slippery (Ulmus pubescens) —heartwood.—There are practi- cally no tyloses present in either sapwood or heartwood of slippery elm. On account of the open condition of the large and numerous pores, i# was not possible to make any tests in the penetrance ap- paratus. The creosote penetrated the wood largely through the ves- sels, but also to some-extent in the wood prosenchyma. Good pene- trations were easily secured on account of the large open pores. Elm, white (Ulmus americana)—heartwood.—Tyloses were few and scattered in the specimens of white elm tested, and the penetra- tion was chiefly in the vessels. The medullary rays and wood pro- senchyma had only a slight penetration. Specimens treated in the cylinder showed good penetrations with most of the pressures em- ployed. Fairly good penetrations were also secured in the pene- trance apparatus. Gum, red (Liquidambar styraciflua)—heartwood and sapwood. Red gum is rather heavy, moderately hard, and cross-grained. The fibers generally have thick walls and are arranged in definite radial rows. The species is diffuse-porous with pores numerous and uni- formly distributed. Tyloses are usually present and scattered in both heartwood and sapwood. Infiltrating substances are present to a large extent in the cell walls. It was difficult to secure an appreci- able penetration of the heartwood in any of the treatments. Speci- mens treated in the cylinder showed practically no radial or tangen- tial penetration. The difficulty in treating this wood was very likely due in a large degree to the infiltrating substances in the cell walls, as well as tyloses, which prevented the preservative from entering the vessels in which they were well developed. The cross-grained struc- ture and thick walls of the fibers may also have been factors influenc- RESISTANCE OF HARDWOODS TO CREOSOTE. 28 40 36 SWEET BIRCH 32) ? SORE BREE EE 28) LOBE EL ee eRe Aee ee 28 2" DOR BGS EES Seee ee o ° ERBEaS BEB ° = Sei S a a S24 my i a 3 3 i iaatatale = a | | agg ee a 2 Bawa a | S L iG | { i r=) | = = HEARTWOOD 1 { | : ; Ho | 3 @ t2 3 : anne a a < rt 71 8 ial 178 Reese ! 1 | tI 4 ST TREE EEE a A | Ct SESS Soe eee aen aaa | DBE SE Bika FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY sm | a | a] | | T | ROISOM, WIS. OCT.,1835] «5 © 25 50 75 Ge 125 150 ct] 25 59 7s 105 125 1590 { PRESSURZE=LBS. PER SQ. IK. PRESSURE—LBS. PER SQ. IN, ’ Fic. 8.—Absorption in the heartwood of red birch and sweet birch. 40 4b 3 See : YELLOW BIRCH — is BASSWOOD | {+ | uw ww hy Rw o > B&D co rt) a i) eS H & 2 ii iEART WOOD & oy a | EARTWOOD -_ iY) = Ls) ABSORPTION=LBS. PER CUBIC FOOT ABSORPTION—LBS. PER CUBIC FOOT FOREST PRODUCTS LABIRATAB HADISON, WIS. OLT., 1913) IB 25 SO 7S ico i] 25 S36 75 100 125 i59 PRESSURE —LBS. PER SQ. IK. PRESSURE=LBS. PER SQ. If. Fic. 9.—Absorption in the heartwood of yellow birch and basswood. 25 150 9 24 BULLETIN 606, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ing the absorption and penetration to some extent. The sapwood was very easily treated even at low pressures. Gum, tupelo (Nyssa, sp.)—heartwood and sapwood.—tIn tupelo gum the pores are numerous, of medium size, and usually evenly dis- tributed. No tyloses were found in the species treated. On account of the numerous vessels and penetrable structure of the fiber walls, good penetrations were obtained. Both the heartwocd and sapwood treated very easily even at low pressure. Sapwood specimens were well penetrated when immersed for an hour in the preservative with- out pressure. : Hackberry (Celtis occidentalis)\—heartwood and sapwood.— Tyloses oecurred irregularly in both heartwood and sapwood of hackberry. The penetration occurred mainly in the vessels and wood prosenchyma, ae to a small extent in the medullary rays. The sapwood was fairly easily penetrated even at low fe Canes, par- ticularly in the summerwood. With the higher pressures used in the cylinder treatments, both springwood and summerwood were well penetrated. The heartwood showed an irregular penetration in all of the cylinder treatments, due, in part, to the abundant tyloses in the vessels of the untreated portions. The springwood was found to be much more difficult to treat than the summerwood because many well developed tyloses closed the large springwocd vessels. Hickory, mockernut (Hicoria alba)—heartwood—Hickory is a ring ee OPOUS TY ood, in-which the fibers are relatively thick-walled and ee es are gener oe abundant in both sapwood and heartwood. All the specimens showed a fairly uniform penetration, and those treated in the cylinder were well penetrated when pressures of 50 pounds or more were employed. Creosote was found to have penetrated mainly in the wood prosenchyma, and there was little or no pene- tration in the vessels or in the medullary rays. It is probable that the abundance of tyloses in the vessels effectively closed them against the entrance of the preservative. Penetration in this species would, therefore, seem to be dependent on the ease with which the Saad prosenchyma can be treated. In even the most thor oughly penetrated specimens the tyloses remain uncolored, indicating that in this wood these growths were practically Ue Denote to creosote. M ae silver (Acer saccharinum) —heartwood and sapwood.—s}- ver maple is a diffuse-porous wood. No tyloses were present in the specimens treated. Both the sapwood and heartwood were found to be fairly easy to treat, but more variation in penetration was found in the heartwood specimens. At low pressures the heartwood showed a mottled or streaked appearance, probably due to the presence of gums. A good penetration was secured in the sapwood at pressures over 25 pounds per square inch. Penetration took place mainly in the vessels and wood prosenchyma and was very slight in the medullary rays. RESISTANCE OF HARDWOODS TO CREOSOTE. 20 a een daagaed | ) clea He a ne gaggace estar see] ie ii TUPELO GUM aa WILD RED CHERRY LH -+-4 i | L EERE EERE EEE 7 | Be EGE | & 28 rach ii © SAPWOO = i) © So B24 S24 ) oO oe Pa & | Bs 1 a : & 29 2? : wo S s 1 ol i] ; z 16;— | S = [ = & iEART WOOD - [I 5 2 S fo ees teeta | an ra SESnenaaae < ae | —~ 6 i] Hf | [FOREST PRODUCTS LASORATCRY| ae Wis. OCT.,1S1S} ap C9) 25 50 7s 180 125 150 [s) 25 #25 150 PRESSURE=LB5. PER SQ. iN. PRESSURE—LoS. PER R. iH. Fig. 10.—Absorption in the heartwood of wild red cherry and in the heartwood and sap- wood of tupelo gum, gS Doe ee 40 BEES SSee {I Be 36 36 . CHESTNUT ema ime 32 32 | 28 ” je 29 e 3 3 5 HAH B24 24 3 3 & ra - 20 & 2¢ ae z a 2 a a ps 16 z 16 CT 2 S = - & + o i2 {| a [| e % a= 9 CI gia Ye 1H Ba ENE porare aH et NEE os Hl : FEL 4 C 4 Be [eile ) “FEE BReSG FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATOR an +t MADISOR, WIS. OCT.,1915;55. 6 125 150 i) i125 1560 25 50 0G PRESSURE—LBS. PER SQ. ER. 7° PRESSURE — LBs. PER Sa. the Fic. 11.—Absorption in the heartwood of rock elm and chestuut. 26 BULLETIN 606, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Maple, sugar (Acer saccharum)—heartwood.—Sugar maple is a diffuse-porous wood. In the specimens tested tyloses were not pres- ent in either sapwood or heartwood, but gums and infiltrating sub- stances were present. The specimens showed a more or less variable penetration. In the cylinder treatments some of the pieces were well penetrated and others were penetrated but a short distance or in streaks. Creosote penetrated chiefly in the wood prosenchyma, although it was also present to some extent in the vessels. The pres- ence of gums seems to be responsible for the variable penetrations secured in the tests. Oak, bur (Quercus macrocarpa).—Tyloses are numerous in both sapwood and heartwood of bur oak. The effect of tyloses on pene- tration is very marked in this species, and it was found to be almost impossible to penetrate the heartwood to an appreciable extent. Very little creosote was found in the vessels, which seemed to be effectively blocked by tyloses. Two or three of the specimens treated in the cylinder showed a fairly good penetration in part of the wood. The distinct demarcation of the treated and untreated areas seemed to indicate that the wood which was penetrated might have been sap- wood not clearly distinguishable before treatment. The medullary rays were practically untreated in all of the tests. Oak, chestnut (Quercus prinus)—heartwood.—The structure of chestnut oak is very similar to that of red oak, being ring-porous and generally without tyloses, although botanically chestnut oak is classed as a white oak. Penetrance tests could not be made‘on this species on account of the open condition of the vessels. Penetration took place mainly in the vessels or pores. The cell walls were prac- tically unpenetrated by the preservative. Railroads have frequently classed this species with the white caks and installed chestnut oak ties in the track without treatment. Since the wood takes treatment easily and the pores generally are without tyloses, chestnut oak ties should evidently be treated with a preservative. Oak, red (Quercus rubra)—heartwood.—There are practically no tyloses in the vessels of red oak. On account of the very porous con- dition of the wood, penetrance tests could not be made. Specimens treated in the cylinder were penetrated largely im the vessels, but very little in the heartwood prosenchyma. The sapwood prosenchyma, however, is known to take treatment very easily. Oak, white (Q@uercus alba)—heartwood.—The pores in both sap- wood and heartwood of white oak are filled with tyloses. These tyloses and the character of the wood prosenchyma were an important factor in making it difficult to secure more than a very slight pene- tration in the specimens tested. Very little creosote was found in either the vessels or wood prosenchyma. The tyloses were found to be unpenetrated even in those portions of the wood which had been treated. RESISTANCE OF HARDWOODS TO CREOSOTE. Ze (40 4c ; | ) : 36) 36 WHITE ELM SLIPPERY ELM ' | : 32 32 } : zi] ' 28 528 5 a 3 2 | | G24) 2 ' = =) = z a i | (s) & ial j i e ss fa i jee u20 © 2 mr i a A ‘ - es a | | t a ! zi HERREWOGD 7 BEART WOOD 16 z , ! S 16) ; ' =] is — sagan me | i Ge 12 @ 12 AB a | q a | 8 totaal 8 A E BI : | | | FOREST PRODUCTS LABORATORY] MADISON, WIS. OCT,.191S} dB ts) 25 50 75 100 125 150 () 25 50 75 109 25 PRESSURE=LBS. PER SQ. IN, PRESSURE=LBS. PER S@. 1m ste Wig. 12.—Absorption in the heartwood of white elm and slippery elm. 40, 40 eat | t | [ f 36 36 HACKBERRY BLACK WILLOW im [| 32 32 { - 3 < | ia Le 8 V24 24) 3 ns fi f Qa wi 20 wae cE & S a t 116 z ié * z c=) o SAPWOO = _| EARTWOOO | | E z a co} 3" TI 2 12 ; 9 a HEART WOOL" | 8 8 4 4 | 5 5 FOREST PROSUCTS LABORATORY ' AADISON, WIS. OCT.,1915|

4 MADISON, WIS. OCT.,1915}) 4p Ce=a25 50 75 en) 0 25 50 75 100. '25 4150 PRESSURE—LBS. PER SQ. IN. PRESSURE—LBS. PER SQ. It. Fig. 15.—Absorption in the heartwood of white oak and bur oak. 30 40 36 e i BR @ i) Es BULLETIN 606, U. CHESTNUT OAK ABSORPTION = 5S. PER CUSIE FOOT ABSORPTION=LBS. PER CUBIC FOOT S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2 Ct Fa a a 2 re Gay aga Be EVER Ng el a al el | ahae ee i2 Zit EARTWOO | § 4 cs) 25 50 75 109 125 159 PRESSURE=—LEBS, PER SQ. IK. Fic. 16.—Absorption in the heartwood of chestnut oak and red oak, TABLE 3.—Results of penetrance tests on individual pieces. ROCK ELM—HEARTWOOD. Time required F to penetrate Penetrations. ae ve Oven 24 inches.! dry . = : + Mois- | RUM | weight eat Piece No. | ture, pe of per treat- Aver- Radial. Tangential. ings | ceupie ment. 5 pet | feet. First |Second| Pe? : end. | end. | gitu- | Aver- | Maxi- | Aver- | Maxi- dinal.| age. | mum./ age. | mum, i Perce. Pounds.) Hours.) Min. Min. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. 4G cnegcacee. 6.1 14 38. 40 2 3 .83! 9.20 0.30 0. 25 0.30 AO Lo oRiseate Sate 2.0 16 | 37.20 1 4 1 11. 65 32 - 50 30 .60 OOe ees Seales seotecl 14 39. 80 2 2 5 5.5 - 50 40 | «60 NV OTAGO: | as areca al| tow ieors atels cteverarars: 4| Scat fide e/e!| rereioteryess |laciers lets 7.66 | -3 43 | 32 | 50 RED BIRCH—HEARTWOOD. 1 a 7 i | = il > Taeiabe OL Mere crersearsiare 12.0 18 | 39.60 & |p eoadee =|eaenm ees 8.50 | 0.30 0.35 0.30 0.49 2 ee toas at 9.7 | 14} 39.30 1 Bild Beene | 8.17 ~25 - 30 | .20 .30 OO se Sate etes 6.5 13 | 38.50 2 7 ti eee | 8.43 | -25 35 | 3 -40 Average.|........ REA A NAD ren Fe raion) Perey | 8.37 po} [33.8 37 i SWEET BIRCH 2—HEARTWOOD. i epee acre ee oe Be Qe TOUR A oni daled Bs 68) testeealed 4.17] 0.! 0.35 | 0.23; 0.30 §8 ... cee eee eee ees 21 47.12 We Nees cated | ecto ots 3. 83 .40 -50 | 40 | -50 DO's Mrtarscred 12.2 18 44.62 2 (Wis sha cela ects tee a 3.56 20 25 25 | 30 i | ] ; =| = AV OLAS G | shoots Mecca ali sesiereeeterel| ts occ ere wl ee iabeus fe Oreille Sores 3.85 32 87 | 30 | 37 | 1 These periods are not comparable to those obtained in commercial treating plants. _ > Specimens were crooked grain. Oil passed out at side instead of following to end,as it would have done in straight-grained wood. RESISTANCE OF HARDWOODS TO CREOSOTE. St Taste 3.—Resulis of penetrance tests on individual pieces—Continued. CHESTNUT—HEARTWOOD. Time required : to penetrate Penetrations. Aver- Oven 24 inches. ais - ois. | Bam weignt | Time of Piece No. ture. peo per treat Aver- Radial. Tangential. per cane First |Second| 28° ineb | CP end end lon- | x G gitu- | Aver- | Maxi- | Aver- | Maxi- dinal. | age. | mum,j; age. | mum. | as val | | | | cece i Per ct. | Pounds.| Hours.| Min. | Min. | Inches.| Inches. | Inches. Inches. | Inches. i 0:15 | 6.201! 0.20:> | (0:20 . 20 . 30 20 30 . 20 225 215 - 20 BISi ke 525%, _ 23 : sea 6.35.|). 0:50), 0.25 0.30 5 . 69 50 . 60 52. | . 69 | 45 -50 46 | S27 ade 47 0.25} 0.30:] 0.30 0.40 .30 40) 25 .30 . 60 SE AGO 3% 38.1548) seh 47 | | | YELLOW BIRCH—HEARTWOOD. = = = 1 3 SN Eas ae 2.4 12! 46.00 4 | Immediately. $17 || 0:30] 0.30) 6.35 0.40 Sips nme Raa te 14| 44.50 1 Do. 10. 83 . 30 35 30 .40 Gay Eee Nes 7.0 16| 42.30 2 Do. AON 0825 i30°| 830 45 PAG CTA Seem Meirs |e asertiel hel =slia.c| Baie 5 ceinia| ames aianiclerice 10.39 28 | 32 | 32 | 42 SILVER MAPLE—HEARTWOOD. E | Emon AK eed 12| 36.24 stl hay eae ee ae 3.50] 0.20! 0.3 0.30 0.49 2 ies a sorbent 13 | 35.70 13 es ores ee 2 3.56 | .30 | 40 | .40 69 Sees MEL LC Cie | i1| 36.20 Py eee alle aaa 3.50 40 | 50| .40 60 Pv trer aser eee ID. ued bs. laa ctivcen|ien-tewers| ss Bo D2 0 40 37 | 53 | SILVER MAPLE—SAPWOOD. 5th ay eae 44 10| 32.40 SIH BP 2 align Conipletes 6242 e | Biele au aa Gore Oe a aie ae 10 | 33.17 1 30) es TE ea ae meet [Ear ieee oe Meee ee Di ase oe Gia |e, ea 19°50) ee Gok ee sceee | ed AWERYO.|S255sc00)|be0S5enqlsauseoag|soobodse Ss acaaulbosaooce Ileal esobdoos | baccesoc | SaSs0E | S6h0000 | BASSWOOD—HEARTWOOD. Seats alen eal eee ae 22 | 39.30 1 | BS AONE eben | 7.00} 0.30] 0.45 | 0.30 0.50 ASME SGN asad 12.3 20.| 29.60 1 12 12| 14.84 .20 20 25 .30 aS eee eee feedLindcw | 18 | 31.90 2 7 | 7| 14.50 «45 50 40 | .40 PASO UACC | eee aero E n= oeeor : | - 1 Complete radial penetration was at least three-fourths inch. Where part of specimens showed complete radial penetration they were not included in the average. o2 BULLETIN 606, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TPaple 3.—Results of penetrance tests on individual pieces—Continued. SYCAMORE—HEARTWOOD. | | Time required 2 to penetrate Penetrations. an ee (Onan 24 inches. § ary my zs ee Moise: | joes weight.) 4 oo of Piece No. | ture. Dero per La Wecers Radial. Tangential. 5 cubic ae ps A age . per fect. First |Second| g inch. x end, | end. el ; gitu- | Aver- | Maxi- | Aver- | Maxi- dinal age mum. | age. | mum Per ct. Pounds.| Hours.| Min Min. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. WD te eictee as 5.2 32 | 35.60 Beal lexedege es tetera ei es 3. 83 0.20 0. 30 0. 20 0.30 43 Scenes ORE 32 | 34.40 gy ee ee oars eee 2.94 - 30 -40 - 30 30 BAR toe naeris L230 30 | 35.50 Dh [sik isiseisistel|ioes oe hois Sis 5.75 - 20 da . 20 30 Meret aee | tek terse Aloe oe Meher alias wee a dea |) tos | isaqemnees £30 LARGETOOTH ASPEN—HEARTWOCD. aa | 45 Moise castes) ane sieriee | Seieistecions 27.63 a ee leeeeeune 5. 21 0.30 0. 40 0. 50 0.70 AG are os Sota ot a ee 27.15 1 4 il iocremicr LY. 83; || sCompletet.3% ol tase | eee BY ate sence Sa POM hase oa 28. 460 7 | Bec CeCe 1. 64 - 20 30 .25 40 IASG CREE OM| Se tee vem et | econ std egies 2 | Rae ce ee crore tes esc cee 6. 23 «25 25 | .38 55 WHITE ELM—HEARTWOOD. 1 bat See a 1.8 16 29.58 Be See eee ee 8.17 0. 56 0.70 0. 60 0.70 Oe ho sec 10.5 13 30. 61 TOS, | Siegeta race ererontts spa 4.17 40 a0) . 50 - 60 Danie atone cens 4.8 12 30.71 7 Age le reece ee ase 14.18 - 40 60 - 60 60 Neds | a xed sone ie cheek ns 2 ieee cea 8. 84 | 43 | <2. 60 | 57 | 63 | GREEN ASH—HEARTWOOD. Oba Seclsue 11.2 12] 39.206 i | Immediately..| 8.84 0. 40 0. 45 0. 40 0. 50 AQ:2 sccceied Aes. 11.0 14] 36.50 ts ee (6a ore 8. 50 . 50 - 60 . 50 - 60 3 eee ee ees 9 13} 40.10 Bir, | seteice EO secssecine 13:;50.|| Complete ty 2a Sas eae eeee cone = | (Acverage ©| Gis. titel tls ual aie Ue gaine fal Mera 2s Sd 10.61; .45 | 52 145 | 55 | EACKBERRY—HEARTWOOD. LO eters alataiel| ciaieiorareies 8 | 36.70 He letemijaeis |e wrelcicerwres 6. 16 0. 30 0. 40 0. 40 0. 50 13 te Shi Secorncs 10] 36.38 ee ey ta erie See ee 14. 84 - 40 . 50 . 40 . 50 1h ee SARA ss ae 10 | 41.70 later ee lerteel= ote 11. 50 80 - 40 - 30 - 40 iArverage sss etmek Suellen alk coke | eer | Mea 10. 88 EY 43 | 37 47 | HACKBERRY—SAPWOOD AG eae eerste 1.5 8} 35.20 ABS | Sizmase eieimie | eieiersiarerece 6. 16 0. 50 0. 70 0. 60 0. 70 DT atarois'siz ic cin,0 6.0 10 | 36.40 2 Dl oe asinrelars 10. 16 40 - 00 - 40 - 50 MA erate! \-pee soa chun ete taeda, Me eee Sire 8.16 | 45 60 50 | 60 | BUR OAK—HEARTWOOD Lice tense 8.3 15} 40.70 Be onocacclocdonace 0. &3 0. 05 OLObs|Eeeeeis |e oececne 19. es 8.1 15 | 41.56 1 Dg ee eee ee a - 50 -05 05) es cece | as eee 20 .0ccccesets 12.3 16 | 41.10 PAN ey aera eta ter maetes 50 05 a OSM see tlerge eieiicaras Average ecoran eee kc eee ee eee 61 05 oi OOM Steeteetaretn mrevatsichetere 1 Complete radial penetration was at least three-fourths inch. Where parts of specimens showed com- plete radial penetration they were not included in the average. RESISTANCE OF HARDWOODS TO CREOSOTE. 33 TABLE 3.—Results of penetrance tests on individual pieces—Continued. TUPELO GUM—HEARTWOOD. Time required p to penetrate Penetrations. Aver- Oven 24 inches. age dry P = Time of} SaaS . Mois- | Rum weight Piece No. | ¢ire. | ber of per treat- ever Radial. Tangential. rings | oubic ment. ; Ae oer feet. First |Second| jo). ine end. | end. | gsitu- | Aver- | Maxi- | Aver- | Maxi- | dinal age. | mum.| age. | Mum. | Per ct Pounds.| Hours.| Min Min. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. DEA Male sic ote Zion 11 | 36.45 Oo GES leer or 1ONS3) KComplete ts. 5. sos ae capeeeeeee ¥ Dee ee teak 19.5 10 | 32.20 a UBies bare tes eS ee SOS ESL e- eSB Aesae eee Sarees Bemecce S Fi oneal ee 12:3 07\e 2 20; (te ak uss AON Sa eee pu eee Average.|.......- | ain al ee ae ee aoe tee Seen are ONO Ts |Reeeneee | See See eee a bee TUPELO GUM—SAPWOOD. DAT pecan Raat 3.0 15 | 31.40 4 20 22 8.17 | Completel..... | SARE | Beniseene Zo Rose a tigas 0.5 14} 32.53 1 22 20 L67508 25s do. edicte eee | Seaeee ae | SESOTBCH AUVEIRES) |e 5555566500 6605] DOboso04||saeeeure| booscocc | sebaneoe IP5eRy | Baqneune aaoesons | sboaoess | elsicteare 5 LACK WILLOW—HEARTWOOD. (Ales ae 0.6 4 29. 05 Bhs Soe | SS aeeGas 4, 83 | 0. 25 0. 30 0. 30 | 0. 40 TDs 1.8 4} 29.09 in aes ae BeEeaAee 6. 28 | Complete1....- eee es a [oes 7 Smee pera ttt. 41 28.62 i ean al eS 3h 508 |e dors ie sea | BORE So JORG | ee ng d8)| Sbn goed eooooecd lsobdocce Seccbocd bucEodce 4. 87 | sssoceod| Heababosieseseeas eae ae | SUGAR MAPLE—HEARTWOOD Tf a eee era Dae 22 | 43.75 1 Sec ces ste | bis Set 3. 83 0.15 | 0. 20 0. 20 0. 30 A Discs oSesels 8.5 18 43.15 1 | Be oreystais | SER OHBS 6, 84 »25 | . 30 . 20 Kaze Peronicectet elie i. |o.c eee eee wees Jeaesene- 5.33 | 20 | 325; Niara20) eras WHITE OAK—HEARTWOOD. TGA ES Sea ae 1G: |sasticeee Si Sie eee Seca are pace 1.50 0. 07 6.1 | Weise aces tee eees Ode DBS See 4 Se cobeoe Ua eee nee Do Ses sidecases 2. 62 07 OSs | esate eos 7s Gsec eons a Bomcerre ify eae poes Diet ete BS Sey See se 2. 83 .10 ORI eset Tae Fees PAB OTA CORI Moce Mere |U ks te Woces eles tom eal ots e eee ek 2.32 98 OND a cmeee | saldeeaie | | | RED GUM—HEARTWOOD SOURR aS ose 8.0 | Wa ehaieie ots 40.12 Bel eR acet | me a 1, 28 0.07; 0.10 0. 10 0. 20 EO SE BB ee OA DCOSE aes Beacons 38. 63 dF aos eee Pere ee aed eae 1. 50 all x02) - 08 215 Boe raacre sce 15. 2 | ee eee 38. 32 Dilip | Savsrareoee | Soseysce 1. 28 - 05 05 . 10 -10 eee anenapac Scape ae ee |=--ceee-|-s2---- | goocagede 1.35 - 09 | -12 .09 aby } : RED GUM—SAPWOOD. A ae ee Sod vice 14 | 38.58 4 3 8 16. 16 0.35 | 0. 40 0. 40 0. 50 One see ae awe 1.8 14} 35.70 1 1 3 AONZT Complete set ea lepton aaa e een DO Nea sene Cel som ec os 16 | 35.70 2 2 10 12. 50 - 30 50 40 - 60 Meveragel lis <. Jiclisesose: cesposae sxe vocee peocee ees 12. 96 | 32 245 . 40 55 1 Complete radial penetration was at least three-fourths inch. plete radial penetration they were not included in the average. Where part of specimens showed com- 84 BULLETIN 606, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 3.—Results of penetrance tests on individual pieces—Continued. WHITE HEART BEECH. Time required to penetrate Penetrations. vba Oven 24 inches. ag dry . Mois- | 2U™ | weight | Time of Piece No. | ture. ee of er | treat- Aver- Radial. Tangential. 8S: | cubic ment. He Der! test. First |Second| 28° ears end. end. gitu- | Avere | Maxi- | Aver- | Maxi- dinal. | age. | mum.j| age. | mum. Perce; Pounds.| Hours.;| Min. | Min. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. | Inches. SGicidece fone 6.7 8} 43.20 By le widts ctaratetl a\araiatete n 14.8 0. 3 0. 25 0. 20 0. 30 Siaivccise sas 7.6 7 | 42.80 Nel wea cniaratahorall alwranaie eats 18. 1 . 40 . 30 - 40 BR ie care | nravenerae | een ae De Cseeniaea| cece meat 23. 5 omnadnts eee ee er ara SASVICTA POM IS cesrens avant lio oroqars revere siarersie lates [ete etetalale | areia:s,ctavavall sisia oistevere 18.8 24 | 32 25 . 30 RED HEART BEECH SOA SE cache 9.0 17 | 41.00 $e llsneio cosa lees eset s 0. 50 0. 05 OnOG1h 22 See ee eee OO Rae sees » . ~? 4 t-° a oe ’ ‘ © fp’ oe . : mh , fe + : * _# * da". a cs eagle a ene 4: Ce Tn thy ¢ ’ . ce oe . » > - ty ty | —_h on s é es Oa ey J ‘\. & s - 4 { ‘dy * 4 ag + ane oe. ¢ 4 Ss oy, . Pa ~~ - * ~ " ‘ f : . wee a 44 A *; ie eg 2 & « % Se Gg, Sete af hey ks *%. . 4 ’ at y , > os > a“ P ? ‘ 7 ” thy ay ¢ 1 ties a e,? ®:, - f -- J +f Hh 4g. ne U8 es ¢ ‘he, me 7 ES Yel, 6 Oe bie“ 9’. ? ad nome >. ey ae Ss ¢. >, a yon . a * " .<: V2 -* ’ i = § e. | ae ae & . ‘ . <7 9. ya th, m * +4 “4 Oe i p poe 2 s M2 a . ‘ > 4 ey o of. Se: wh 2 Ok. . ° ey 4 . 4 aa oe e ** ; 7 - * , # Gos > mt Ee Pa ae Ce ‘+ : Sess vy ‘ re > ~~ ‘ 4 % f@ L . i “3 — a4 Shs as” i : a8 8 - L _# z, easy +4 - . » s, .* at “ i ;: ® 2% a mn * i . » é * i ane * > . «a ¥ pat “ F » ~ , . i, vs = i. # & ad Z “ . . wr <- ae Gg é ad ra c al 4 ve & % ~ at >» . Ba e Pid ss? 4 .@ ¢ eo” . &<, a ad a é ‘ ® ~ , 4 h * =f g b% sey . : . * w* z > 4 P ‘ f£ Ee je tala ee a oh ee 2 *. A THIN FILM OF A MIXTURE OF EQUAL PARTS, BY VOLUME, OF CREOSOTE AND NORMAL By-PRODUCT COKE-OVEN TAR No. 1 (NORMAL AMOUNT OF FREE CAR- BON IN TAR, 6 PER CENT, BY WEIGHT). Magnification, about 400 diameters. Bul. 607, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. A THIN FILM OF A MIXTURE OF EQUAL PARTS, BY VOLUME, OF CREOSOTE AND NormMaAL By-PRODUCT COKE-OVEN TAR No. 2 (NORMAL AMOUNT OF FREE CAR- BON IN TAR, 16 PER CENT, BY WEIGHT). Magnification, about 400 diameters. Bul. 607, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. A THIN FILM OF A MIXTURE OF EQUAL PARTS, BY VOLUME, OF CREOSOTE AND A NORMAL GAS-HouseE TAR No. 3 (NORMAL AMOUNT OF FREE CARBON IN TAR, 30 PER CENT, BY WEIGHT). Magnification, about 400 diameters, PLATE IV. Bul. 607, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. IVWYON) § ON ¥VL asnoH “ZT .09T “ornqeredure, ‘your arenbs red spunod ¢» ‘arnssord ‘sinoy z% ‘yweurjeerj JO ou, Cop ‘d ‘VW ATaVL AN ‘6g ‘d ‘€ 3TSVL NI VLVG) “(LHDISM Ad ‘NSO Y3d OF ‘YVL NI NOSYVD 3aYu4 JO LNNOWY Sv agy4 NOSuVO Vv ONY + ON 3LOSOSYD JO SSYNLXII, HLIM GSLVEYL ANIq S4VATONO7] JO SNSWIOSdS GSHOLVIA ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. 5 EFFECT ON PENETRATION OF DIFFERENCES IN THE PRESERVATIVE, ESPECIALLY THE EFFECT OF FREE CARBON. Experiments with various mixtures of creosote and tars from which the free carbon had been removed were first made in the penetrance apparatus, the temperature, pressure, and time of treatment being kept constant. These tests were followed by cylinder treatments on paving blocks, with the same mixtures but with the time of treatment and the pressure varied to obtain an absorption of 16 pounds of pre- servative per cubic foot of wood. A similar series of penetrance and impregnation tests were made, using tar and creosote mixtures con- taining varying amounts of free carbon. Further tests were then made in the penetrance apparatus with five commercial coal-tar preservatives. In the series of tests to determine the effect of differences in the preservative on penetration, the optrative features were always the same A pressure of 75 pounds per square inch and a treating period of two hours were used. The temperature of the preservative and of the penetrance oven, in which the specimens were treated, was 160° F. The treatments were made on two sets of specimens, each set con- taining from four to six matched specimens. Thus, each point on the curves of figure 4 represents the average of the results obtained on two specimens. ‘The sets of specimens were not, however, matched with each other. For example (see Table 1, appendix), specimens 19a and 35 were not matched, but specimens 19a, 28, 32, 29, and 30, and specimen 35, 23a, 22a, 24a, and 20a were matched with each other. MIXTURES OF CARBON-FREE TAR AND CREOSOTE. Penetrance tests..—(Tables 1 to 4, inclusive, and figs. 1 and 2.) In these experiments, made with mixtures of tars Nos. 1, 2, and 3 with creosote No. 4, it is evident that as the proportion of the carbon- free tar in the mixture was increased the specific gravity and vis- cosity of the mixture increased and the absorptions and penetrations decreased. Hach point on the absorption and penetration curves of figure 1 represents the results obtained with one tar and creosote mixture. A comparison of these tars and their relative effect upon absorp- tion and penetration is given in Table 4 and figure 2. These treat- ments were made with mixtures of equal parts by volume of creosote and each of the three carbon-free tars. Hach point on the curves of figure 2 represents the average of the results obtained on two speci- mens, as in figure 1. Figure 2 also shows the results obtained with similar mixtures of the same tar, except that the free carbon was not removed, and hence 1 The data are given in Tables 1 to 4 of the Appendix. 6 BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. gives a direct comparison for studying the effect of the free carbon on absorption and penetration. The results of the tests indicate that smaller penetrations and absorptions were obtained with the mixtures of those tars which had contained the larger amounts of free carbon, whether the free carbon was present or had been removed. Variations in absorption and penetration of the different tar mixtures, therefore, appeared to be PENETRANCE TESTS. (Data in Tables 1, 2, and 3.) Si. : : ee EEE) PEE ed ae See ae ae ane re eons ee Ae eee od et he? 2gees See Zee ee aes g wool ber ETT | ee er as el Df a a a fo a 1 =r Of J a ND Sere staal Ser (et leat hace ee ae Ree eRe Hi ogee a a 0 is PF, a A ik Za A aS PE g° “CORE eet TT] Peeper Ty Geer eae ee he eee cei SANE S| 9 |e a2 FRE CCC RSE Ee Cee r eo Ty | Ss BS! Ce G2 go a SSS) INS ee i Pl i + Rees Bese eee Oe eS eee ri Ol es eS 2) Gh Gees) Rees eae Ce Ae Se eee oe oe ee ee Seale PA Gi OP IL eC SOE) ECR a eisai a Da Of, FOS SS WP WES eee Te ee ie ee See cL Zool TTP Pr Pst Po ee 0 Bo 81000 100 Oo 20 40 60 80 100 eee of TAR oy Pevdne Tar No. 1, Tar No. 2. Ter No. 3. a. b. c Fic. 1.—The relative absorptions and penetrations into longleaf pine of mixtures of creosote No. 4 and car- bon-free tars Nos. 1, 2,and 3. Time of treatment, 2 hours; pressure, 75 pounds per square inch; tempera- ture of preservative, 160° F. caused by a difference in the composition of the bitumens in the three tars, as well as by the amount and character of the free carbon present. Impregnation tests.—(Tables 5 to 7 and fig. 3.) The paving block specimens were treated in a small cast-iron cylinder, inclosed in the penetrance oven, and with air pressure and vacuum connections. Two blocks were employed for each test, and the results averaged for each piont on the curves shown in figure 3. ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. i Inasmuch as there were two variables in these tests, namely, time of treatmentand the pressure, it was necessary to consider both of these factors ; hence, the product of pressure and time has been used in the data presented. The tests were madeat a higher temperature and pressure than were the pene- trance tests but the mixtures were the same. In making the tests the temperature was kept con- stant. The addition of tar made neces- sary the use of increased pressure or time of treatment or both to obtain the same absorption of preservative as was obtained with creosote. After the tests, the blocks were split to determine the penetration and in most cases they were found to be fairly well penetrated when given an absorption of 16 pounds per cubic foot. However, a tend- ency to variation in penetration was greater in the blocks treated with the heavier and more viscous tarmixtures. Unpenetratedareas were found near the centers of some of the blocks which had been treated with preservatives containing 75 per cent and 100 per cent of tar. MIXTURES OF CREOSOTE AND TAR WITH VARYING AMOUNTS OF FREE CARBON. Penetrance tests.—(Tables 4, 8, 9, and 10 and figs. 2 and 4.) The curves shown in figure 4 in- dicate that the influence of free carbon on penetration and absorp- tion was greatest in the mixture made from tar No. 1, which con- tamed normally 6 per cent of free carbon. The curves also indicate that withan increase in the percentage 11917°—18—Bull. 607 OD) a PENETRANCE TESTS. (Data in Table 4.) SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 140° F. (60°C.) w & VISCOSITY AT 160 F, ° Ch) = t=) = w uw a w AVERAGE iJ LONGITUDINAL PENETRATION — iN. AVERAGE ABSORPTION — LBS. 9 5 10 5 NORMAL PERCENT OF FREE CARBON IN MIXTURE BY WEIGHT Fic. 2.—The relative absorptions and penetrations into longleaf pine of mixtures of equal propor- tions of creosote (No. 4) and three different tars (Nos. 1, 2,and 3). Two mixtures were made of each tar. Thefree carbon wasremoved from the tar in one mixture and the other contained the normal amount of free carbon. Time of treat- ment, 2 hours; pressure, 75 pounds per square inch; temperature of preservative, 160° F, 7 BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of free carbon in the mixture there was a decrease in the absorption However, in the case of mixtures with tar No. 3 (fig. 4,¢) after a certain point was reached there was a rise in the and penetration. penetration and absorption curves upon the addition of larger per- IMPREGNATION TESTS. (Data in Tables 5, 6, and 7.) na Aa “LA°NS Wad *SET NOILduOSaY “SAY icd TTT TTA TTT) a HOCH NNEC EPH eee TET TE AAT CPEPEEEPEEEECEEECEEEEEEECEEE NPE PELLET TT RITUATAVANIGHAHGUUIUE TEA GoERRSaERE qa BATT Lo] © SWIL x sunssawa 900 cis al 206 PERCENT OF aan BY VOLUME .—The variation in time of treatment and pre secure a given absorption in paving ssure necessary to Fia. 3 blocks using mixtures of creosote No. 4 and carbon-free tars Nos. 1, 2, and 3. It is probable that this was centages of free carbon to the mixture. caused by the character of the free carbon mats formed on the sur- face of the wood as the mixture was forced into the interior of the The free carbon particles in tar No. 3 were very much specimens. PLATE V. Bul. 607, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “A .O9T ‘orngvsoduie, Syour o1enbs 19d spunod ¢y ‘ormssoad ‘stnoy z “uowy vor} JO OUT, (Sb "d ‘@ 3JTaVL ANY ‘OE ‘d ‘p ATVI NI VLVG) “€ OL | “SON ‘SHV. NOSYVO 33Y4-IVWHON ONY 33u4-NoauVO ANSH3S4IQ 3AYHL ONV p ‘ON ALOSOSYD JO SNOILYOdOYd TWNDA 4O SSYNLXIIA, HLIM GSLVSYL SNiq SVATONO7 4O SN3WIOSdS GSHOLVIN PLaTe VI. Bul. 607, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “7 .O9T ‘ommjyesedutey ‘your erenbs sed spunod ¢y ‘emssaid ‘simoy Z% “yUeUT}VeT] JO PTTL, Cop 'd ‘Oo atav anv ‘66 ‘dq ‘6 ATaVL NI VivG) ‘(LHDISM, Ad ‘LNA Y3d QO ‘UV NI NOSYVOD 33Y4 JO LNNMOWY TVWHON) NOSYVD 33u4 SO SLNNOWY LN3H344I ONINIVLNOD G ‘ON BVL NSAQ-3N0D LONGOYY-Ag V ANY + ‘ON 3LOSOSYD JO SLYVd INDY JO SAYNLXIA HLIM G3LVEYL SNid SVSTONO] JO SNAWIOSdS ASHOLV Saas eset, eas ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. 9 larger than those in tars 1 and 2, and formed a less impervious mat. It seems probable that the mat formed with this tar containing its normal amount of free carbon contained openings as large and as easily penetrated as those formed when part of the carbon was removed. PENETRANCE TESTS. (Data in Tables 8, 9, and 10.) IRE SESRS eer] Emme Pee Pace ee wiaree| EEE eal ete ial SeOiora on ea es eee letcal | all ee alelict aa w \I5 Pie Pe D, ied ee) ie 2 tes ae oe Es la raat BAI | ne Zee ee ee ae a al aa donee 2 eee igi sll aan USS Ege ve SS ee 5 dl et | ical z a0 Base al Ee ESE IN Ta 5S ry fice (ey feiaiedele (eles a || |_| Pil | | a H BE EMRE Sei eee eee VISCOSITY AT 160°F. flee Ee | 4 fe See Saclg SES See ee ee VelIsE) ERIS) 22a See AVE. LONGITUDINAL o PENETRATION—INS. Aan aa Sas [aera 9012345012345 6-e7801¢2384 «567 8 9 1011 12 13 1415 PERCENT OF FREE CARBON BY WEIGHT Tar No.1. Tar No. 2. Tar No. 3. a. b. c. Fig. 4.—The relative absorptions and penetrations into longleaf pine using mixtures of equal parts of creosote No. 4and tars containing different amounts offree carbon. Time of treatment, 2 hours; pressure, 75 pounds per square inch; temperature of preservative, 160° F. AVE. ABS. — LBS. ° r=) @ Impregnation tests.—(Tables 11 to 13 and fig. 5). Impregnation tests were made on paving blocks, using the same mixtures, with varying amounts of free carbon, that were used in the penetrance tests. As in the impregnation treatments with carbon-free tar and creosote, two blocks were used for each test, and the time of treatment and 10 BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pressure were varied so as to obtain approximately 16 pounds absorp- tion per cubic foot. Figure 5 indicates that when the amount of free carbon in the mixtures was increased, the difficulty of securing a given absorption IMPREGNATION TESTS. (Data in Tables 11, 12, and 13.) ze ae EE eT ee ed Ok SRE a a Se ee ed > ae GS 2% et SIE 9 & eo =, Be Be Se (en On i Ga Ee a ss es < a Bk Be we a ea Se Se 2 ae en ee Ie Se es a 1090 5 Es == aa as far] Se ae Oe a len ea Se RN ay fa Be ea] =I ar Se (ea Re FS eae As RR RE (sd af Sd [ey Gt Ve eo! ee Se ee es Pa ER ST iG et a Ee [aS ee ee ee ed es eae ae ee ae ee si eos aes eae Fr a i ee ee es = |_| | -TNTAR NO.2 os Fe PA GM OA SW re mee a a i oe ee a a Ee ee ed pes ES 2 ee a ee ee ee ee ee ee & ies i a a el ss a ae pr a OB a 8 7 CS = a’ al MI (RE WER WG WA! A (De a ME a ea as a ee ee ee ed ee a Oe) (en a a ee a a ee Per ee ee A my meme (eh ty Le Po (ees ae et ea ee (aye ee (oa Ee Se ee Bd a i) Gees aa SG eas ea eed eed Se Se A Se BB Sa a ee oot dee eles Wap alle epee [ore] pean ee ae |e ee Pa | Ree SRE We a CE) ND TS Se ee ee se | Pr ee (ene a (tas am aX eae (| Na CRMC! AS MA fa PE es a SS Se en a es ee ace f= or) |e sear foes mealies ce Pe | he fn aan aes es ia FRR (a a ee ee es ee ed Ps eS A SE Se ee ee 0123 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ti 12 13 {4 15 16 17 18 19 20 PERCENT FREE CARBON IN MIXTURE Fig. 5.—Variation in time of treatment and pressure necessary to secure a given absorption in paving blocks using mixtures of equal parts creosote No. 4 and tars having different amounts of free carbon. was increased. As in the penetrance tests, however, the effect of free carbon was variable in the mixtures containing tar No. 3. The retarding efféct of free carbon apparently decreased when the amount in the mixtures was increased beyond a certain point. This was ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. 11 probably due, as noted in the case of the penetrance tests, to the character of the carbon mat which formed when this tar was used. Blocks treated with the mixtures containing varying amounts of free carbon were found to be fairly well penetrated. By using a sufficient treating period and pressure, and a temperature of 200° F., it was possible to obtain 16 pounds absorption per cubic foot in all of the treatments on paving blocks. The experiments taken in conjunction with the penetrance tests, indicate that three factors influenced absorption and penetration, namely, (1) the composition or per cent of bitumens contained in the tar, (2) the amount of free carbon contained in the mixture, and (3) the condition of the carbon or size of the free carbon agglom- erations. INFLUENCE OF COMPOSITION OF THE TARS. The influence of the composition or per cent of bitumens contained in the tar is shown by the fact that the addition of high-carbon tars to creosote retarded penetration more than similar additions of low- carbon tars, even though the carbon had been removed. The amount of carbon in tar depends to a considerable extent upon the tempera- ture at which it is produced, the higher temperatures producing tars with greater carbon content. It is concluded that tars produced at high temperatures may have a greater effect in retarding penetration than those produced at lower temperatures, whether or not the carbon is removed. Experience has shown that tars having a high carbon content also usually have a high bitumen content. The condition of the free carbon apparently had a greater influence on absorption and penetration than the amount contained in the mixture. Since the free-carbon agglomerations were largest in the tar containing the highest percentage of free carbon (tar No. 3), this probably accounts for the relatively slight retarding influence of the free carbon in this tar, on absorption and penetration. In the mixtures containing smaller amounts of free carbon, the free carbon particles would come in closer contact with the vessels in the wood, thereby decreasing the absorption and penetration. PENETRATION OF FREE CARBON INTO WOOD. In order to determine whether any of the free carbon had pene- trated the wood, sections were taken of specimens of heart longleaf pine treated with mixtures of equal parts of creosote and tars Nos. 1, 2, and 3, containing the normal amounts of free carbon. These sections were taken just below the surface through which the preservative entered. A microscopic examination was made at a magnification of 400 diameters but no free carbon could be observed in the wood ‘cells. Some of the preservative was squeezed out of the wood sections in small globules and examined under the microscope. In this case 12 BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. no free carbon could be detected at the magnification used. The sections were further treated with chloroform and xylol separately to remove the treating oils. Examination with the microscope, of these resulting solutions, also failed to show the presence of free carbon. Dr. Irving W. Bailey ' has shown that extremely finely divided carbon particles in certain India inks will penetrate wood, but such carbon particles can not be compared with the much larger ones occurring in coal tars. TESTS WITH MISCELLANEOUS COMMERCIAL CREOSOTES. Penetrance tests.—(Table 14 and fig. 6.) Creosotes Nos. 1 to 5 were used in experiments to determine the penetrations and absorptions of miscellaneous commercial creosotes, the specific gravities varied from 1.0475 to 1.105 at 60° C., thus covering a wide range of oils. The method of treatment was the same for each oil. Creosotes Nos. 1 and 4 contained some tar, while creosotes 2 and 3 were free from tar. Figure 6 shows how the tar tended to retard the penetration. It will also be noted that creosotes Nos. 1 and 5, both oils being free from tar, had similar absorptions and penetrations, although the specific gravity of No. 1 was 1.05 while No. 5 was 1.12. This shows the wide variation that can exist in the specific gravity of oils free from tar, with but little difference in the penetrating properties. INFLUENCE OF VISCOSITY. The viscosities of mixtures of a given tar and creosote in general increased (1) as the per cent of tar was increased, (2) as the per cent of free carbon was increased, (3) or as the temperature was lowered and in these mixtures the absorptions and penetrations generally decreased as the viscosity increased. When different tars were used in the mixtures, there did not appear to be a definite relation between viscosity and the absorptions or penetrations obtained. Thus in figure 2, the viscosities of the three mixtures of carbon-free tars and creosotes were about the same, although both penetrations and absorptions vary greatly. A comparison of the viscosities of the creosote-tar mixtures in Tables 4, 5, and 6, also indicates no apparent relation to the absorptions and penetrations when different tars are used. TESTS OF THE EFFECT OF VARYING TIME, PRESSURE, AND TEMPERATURE. The results of the experiments described on page 7 indicate that in general the absorption and penetration of a tar and creosote mix- ture decreases as the amount of tar or free carbon in the mixture is 1 Forestry Quarterly, March, 1913. Bul. 607, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. wearers ee PLATE VII. MATCHED SPECIMENS OF LONGLEAF PINE TREATED WITH VARIOUS COMMERCIAL CREOSOTES. (DATA IN TABLE 14, P. 36, AND TABLE D, P. 42.) ature, 160° F. d h; temper ine = « ) pounds per square pressure, 7 , Time of treatment, 2 hours “A .O8T ‘o.myetedurey :your orenbs sad spunod 0g ‘oanssaad ‘SINOY Z “JUOULLVOI] JO OULLT, “GT O[YRY, UT WOATS sv JUOUL}VAT] JO Topto UT pesuvire suowttoedg "2080010 YILA poyvory T “ON dnory “Iv Jud Jed fee ‘eJOso010 ytte0 aod £99 YIM poeyval} g “ON dnoiy re} yuVa Jed (—Z “4 0800.10 yuvd lod O8 YIM pozvery Z “ON dno.) “SNAWIOSdS FONVYLSANAd PLATE VIII. iE Se, Gee Bul. 607, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. [ARTE OT is ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. 13 increased, the conditions of treatment being constant. Experiments were made to determine the effect on the absorptions and penetra- tions of tar and creosote mixtures of an increase in the time of treat- ment, the intensity of the pressure, or the temperature of the pre- AVERAGE LONGITUDINAL PENETRATION—INCHES AVERAGE ABSORPTION ~ POUNDS PENETRANCE TESTS. (Data in Table 14.} MEARE Loy, BREE BES ays ESE Maka ae Sa ee cota | eae a al ee Fd ee id i i Wel EE 1.06 1.08 1.10 1.12 SPECIFIC GRAVITY AT 140 F. (60C) Fic. 6.—The relative absorptions and penetrations into longleaf pine of various commercial creosotes. Point | Creosote No No. Kind of creosote. Oe Oh Oe whe Creosote containing tar (estimated at about 10 per cent). Creosote. Pure coal-tar creosote. Creosote containing tar (estimated at less than 5 per cent). High-boiling ¢ Teosote. Time of treatment, 2 hours; pressure, 75 pounds per square inch; temperature, 160° F. 14 BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. servative. Two series of tests were made with the temperature and pressure of the preservative constant and the time of treatment varied to obtain the same absorption, with the mixture as was obtained with the creosote unmixed with tar. Another seriesof tests was run, in which the pressure of the preservative was varied but the tempera- ture and the time of treatment kept constant, and a comparison made of the pressures required to obtain the same absorption with various tar mixtures as was obtained with creosote unmixed with tar. A further series of tests was made in which the time of treatment, pressure of the preservative, and absorption were constant, but the temperature was varied. For comparison a test was made of the absorptions and penetrations obtained using the same time of treat- ment, temperature, and pressure of preservative for both the creosote unmixed with tar and for the tar mixtures. The system of matching the penetrance specimens used in the experiments described on pages 4 to 20 was the same as that described on page 2, except that in one test four specimens were used and in other tests three specimens were used instead of two, as in the previous experiments. All of the blocks used in the impregnation tests were cut from the same stick and are, therefore, considered matched with each other. PENETRANCE TESTS WITH COAL-TAR CREOSOTE NO. 6 AND BY-PRODUCT COKE-OVEN TAR NO. 4. Time of treatment, temperature of preservative, and pressure con- stant.—(Tabie 15 and fig. 7.) The first series of tests was made to study the relative absorptions and penetrations obtained with the creosote unmixed with tar; with mixtures of 80 per cent creosote and 20 per cent tar; and with 662 per cent creosote and 334 per cent tar. The pressure, the time of treatment, and the temperature of the preservative were the same for every preservative. These tests were made for comparison with those on the same mixtures where the pressure, time, etc., were varied. Details of the treatment are given in Table 15. The average absorption and the average longitudinal penetration obtained with the 80 per cent creosote and 20 per cent tar mixture were each about 73 per cent of that obtained with the creosote. In the case of the 663 per cent creosote and 334 per cent tar mixture the absorption was about 66 per cent and the average longitudinal penetration about 69 per cent of that secured with creosote. ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. 15 Temperature of preservative and pressure constant and the time of - treatment varied.—(Tables 16 and 17 and fig. 8.) With the mixture containing 20 per cent tar and 80 per cent creosote it was necessary to increase the treating period from two PENETRANCE TESTS. (Data in Table 15.) AVE .LONGITUDINAL PENETRATION=INS, 0.8 CS eee es vise Eile) AVE.ABSORPTION= BS. PERCENT OF TAR BY VOLUME #1G. 7.—The relative absorptions and penetrations into longleaf pine using mixtures of creosote No. 6 and tar No.4. Time of treatment, 2 hours; pressure, 80 pounds per square inch; temperature of preservative, 180° F. hours to four hours to obtaim the same absorption as when the creosote unmixed with tar was used. A reduction in the average 11917°—18—Bull. 6073 | 16 BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. longitudinal penetration of about 17 per cent resulted from the increase in the proportion of tar. When the mixture containing 334 per cent of tar was used, it was noted that after the specimens had been treated for a certain length of time (see Table 15, footnote) no increase in the absorption was obtained. Hence it was not possible in this test (where the tem- perature of the preservative was 160° F. and the pressure 80 pounds per square inch) to obtain an absorption with the mixture equal to that obtained with the creosote, even when the time of treatment was increased to eight hours. The average longitudinal penetration was about 33 per cent less than obtained with the creosote. PENETRANCE TESTS. (Data in Tables 16 and 17.) ate Lo eae canons — OF TREATMENT — MRS. 27s p 3 LL aif TAR LLU. $e ¥1T WAS NOT POSSIBLE TO OBTAIN THE REQUIRED ABSORPTION WITH THIS MIXTURE &S 4 FURTHER INCREASE IM THE TIME OF TREATMENT DID HOT MRCAEASE THE ABSORPTION TIME OF TREATMENT VARIED AVE. ts ee ae AVE. Ree: LBS.PER SQ.1WN, AVE. ABSORPTION —LBS. R {_2_3 ia a 3 9 $9 $20 60 —0:02 __ 2-08 _ 06 2: cama 0.' 1a ; ace CREO. WY 20% TAR RT 66.7 $ CREO. SG 32:35 TAR PRESSURE VARIED Fic. 8.—The relative effect of varying (1) time of treatment and (2) pressure in order to secure approxi- mately the same absorption in longleaf pine using mixtures of tar No. 4 and creosote No. 6. With time varied the treating temperature was 160° F. and the pressure 80 pounds per square inch. With pressure varied the time of treatment was 2 hours and the temperature 160° F. Time of treatment and temperature of preservative constant and pres- sure varied.—(Tables 16 and 17 and fig. 8.) The specimens used in these tests were matched with those just pre- ceding, and hence the results are directly comparable. The pressure required to obtain a given absorption in the test in which the tempera- ture of the preservative and the time were constart was approximately proportional to the amount of the tarin themixture. With almost the same absorption of preservative the penetrations of the two tar and creosote mixtures were from 27 to 29 per cent less than those obtained Bul. 607, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE |X. PENETRANCE SPECIMENS. Specimens arranged in order of treatment as givenin Table 16. Group No. 1 treated with creosote. Time of treatment, 2 hours; pressure, 75 pounds per square inch; temperature, 180° F. Group No. 2 treated with 80 per cent creosote, 20 per cent tar. Time of treatment varied; temperature, 180° F. Group No. 3 treated with 662 per cent creosote, 334 per cent tar. Time of treatment varied; temperature, 180° F. Group No. 4 treated with 80 per cent creosote, 20 per cent tar. Pressure varied; temperature, 180° F. Group No. 5 treated with 662 per cent creosote, 334 per cent tar. Pressure varied; temperature, 180° F. ) Bul. €07, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. PENETRATION IN PAVING BLOCKS. No. 1 blocks treated with creosote No. 4. No. 2 blocks treated with 75 per cent creosote No. 4 and 25 per cent tar No. 5. No. 3 blocks treated with 50 per cent creosote No. 4 and 50 per cent tar No. 5. No. 4 blocks treated wit 25 per cent creosote No. 4 and 75 per cent tar No. 5. ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. 17 with the creosote. Comparing these results with those in which the time of treatment was varied, it is noted that when the 20 per cent tar mixture was used better penetrations were obtained by length- ening the time of treatment than by increasing the pressure, the ab- sorption being the same in both cases. This comparison can not properly be made with the mixture containing 334 per cent tar, because the desired absorption was not obtained in this case when only the time of treatment was increased. (See note on fig. 8.) IMPREGNATION TESTS. (Data in Table 18.) H. TIME OF TREATMENT— MINUTES VISCOSITY AT 220°F. SP.GRAVITY AT 60°C. pmatin 204 ONEN60 BOL 100 298 br ioe ee Oe gS SS TELL E BREET: = — AS ees — aleabe oe WILL. JERS ZZy + ed ae VM, EE. | WLLL a ee TAR AND CREOSOTE MIXTURES TREATING TEMP.220°F, PRES. 200 LBS.PER SQ. IN. eA Ds CR as cel a tate slecethle DT : e (fee VISCOSITY SP. GRAVITY AT 60°C. PAEESSET Co Sr 1.10 eat ee ee RRR eres zones SSA wy aa keg HN in TEMP. 220° F. SSN Bal | eels INV Neue toote KDW WO AGT ETT INNS Sea ee nae PRES. & TEMP.VARIED Fia. 9.—The time of treatment required to secure a given absorption in paving blocks using mixtures of creosote No. 4 and tar No. 5; also the increase in time of treatment required to secure a given absorption of creosote when the treating pressure and temperature were decreased. IMPREGNATION TESTS WITH COAL-TAR CREOSOTE NO. 4 AND COAL-TAR NO. 5. Temperature of preservative and pressure constant and time of treatment varied.—(Tables 19 and 20 and figs. 9 and 10.) Tests to determine the effect of varying the time were made on matched paving-block specimens with mixtures containing 25 per cent tar and 75 per cent creosote, 50 per cent tar and 50 per cent creosote, and 75 per cent tar and 25 per cent creosote. Similar tests were made on penetrance specimens. (Fig. 10.) The creosote un- mixed with tar was used for comparison. In these tests the time of treatment required to obtain a given absorption increased rapidly as the amount of tar in the mixture was increased, especially when 50 per cent and 75 per cent of tar were used. The desired absorption was obtained in the shortest time with creosote. In order to secure 18 BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. approximately a corresponding absorption with the tar mixtures, the time of treatment was increased above that required for creosote by about 17' per cent for the mixture containing 25 per cent tar, about 60 per cent for the mixture with 50 per cent tar, and 200 per cent for the mixture containing 75 per cent tar. After treatment the blocks were split to determine the penetration. Those treated with creosote were completely penetrated, and those treated with the mixture containing 25 per cent tar were fairly well penetrated. A small area at the center of the blocks treated with mixtures having 50 and 75 per cent tar was unpenetrated. Plate X is a photograph of a set of these blocks when split. PENETRANCE TESTS. (Data in Table 19.) ABSORPTION=LBS. AVE.LONGITUDINAL PENETR‘N —IN TIME OF TREATMENT— MINUTES 0.04 0.08 0.1 D i 2 3 4 40 6 o peed a | ZA ||] Jeneosore QMHUUAN E : i7 MM GLA | CG ae a TAR ats lier a See . aS ~~\50% CREOSOTE SASSO SRSoGl YUN | __/s0% Tar GG, WHA, | | G v, - 25% CREOSOT Yi He ]HNw WHEE EKEEZU eer ae AND. cheteore MOCTURES TING TEMP. 2 PRES. "200 LBS.PER Sa. IN. a ae QYPRES.75 LBS. TEMP. 160°F, — PRES. & TEMP.VARIED: Fic. 10.—The relation between absorption, penetration, and time of treatment using mixtures of creosote No. 4 and tar No. 5; also the comparative effect of varying the pressure and time of treatment. PENETRANCE TESTS WITH CREOSOTE NO. 4 AND TAR NOS. 1 AND 5. Time of treatment and pressure constant and temperature varied.— (Tables 18 and 21 and figs. 11 and 12). Two series of tests on the effect of varying the temperature were made, both on the penetrance apparatus. In the first series a mixture of 50 per cent creosote No. 4 and 50 per cent tar No. 1 was used. In the second, 75 per cent of tar No. 5 and 25 per cent of creosote No. 4 was used. Both the absorption and penetration were materially increased as the treating temperature was increased. The tests indicated that temperature is an important factor in absorption and 1 Absorptions in these cases were about 9 per cent higher than with the creosote. ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. 19 PENETRANCE TESTS. (Data in Table 20.) Fe a FB ec et ed (ee Ee ee eee ee Cee Ey dle aT cd fine ffi al sss eee VISCOSITY rs o— 30 6140 «#4150 160 170 18060 190 200 210 220 et ee ae CS ED Zl ci Teaes oe aaa ee Oe a ee ean oo AVERAGE LONGITUDINAL PENETRATION IN. 140 150 160 170 {80 190 200 210 220 a a | ae vt tt Re ee eee vl lea Ue i? al LTE FTE a el a all ee ede el al ce sl a eS se a Be A ae ae PO 9 130 140 150 160 170 180 i90 200 2160 220 TEMPERATURE=— DEGREES FAR. Fic. 11.—The relative absorptions and penetrations into longleaf pine of a mixture of equal parts of creosote No. 4 and a normal by-product coke-oven tar No. 1 at different temperatures (normal amount of free carbon in tar, 6 per cent, by weight). Time of treatment, 2 hours; pressure, 75 pounds per square inch. n AVERAGE ABSORPTION — LBS. e ° e © 20 BULLETIN 607, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. penetration. Thus, in figure 11, the penetration at 210° F. was about two and one-half times that at 160° F., while the absorption PENETRANCE TESTS. (Data i in Table 21.) / ANE? LONGITUDINAL PENETRATION — INS. ERPS ER eae eee mi pe a - PRE EY sf leae | e | do eletheele| JEceEEr EEE EEE eee soe restosesdectatee US fae ioe Ode ce ie dela | EEE Relea lente | 160 170 160 {90 200 “210 220 TEMPERATURE—DEGREES FAR. AVE. ABSORPTION=LBS. Fic. 12.—The relation between absorptions and penetrations into longleaf pine using a mixture of 25 per cent creosote No. 4 and 75 per cent tar No. 5at different treating temperatures. Time of treatment, 1 hour; pressure, 200 pounds per square inch. was 1.6 greater. In figure 12, with a mixture containing 75 per cent of tar, the penetration at 220° F. was also two and one-half times that at 160° F., while the absorption was twice as great. Bul. 607, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI. E No. 4 AND A NoRMAL By-PRODUCT IN Tar, 6 PER CENT, BY WEIGHT). MATCHED SPECIMENS OF LONGLEAF PINE TREATED WITH A MIXTURE OF EQUAL PARTS OF CREOSOT 1 at DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES (NORMAL AMOUNT OF FREE CARBON P, 42, AND TABLE E, P. 42.) COKE-OVEN TAR No. (DATA IN TABLE 20, h. S per Square Inc Time of treatment, 2 hours; pressure, 75 pound ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. 21 SUMMARY. The results of this investigation may be briefly summarized as fol- lows: The addition of coal tar to coal-tar creosote increased materially the difficulty of injection into heart longleaf pme. The resistance to impregnation was increased as the amount of tar was increased. Resistance to impregnation was greater to coal tars of high than to those of low free-carbon content. This was the case even when the free carbon was removed from these tars, indicating that the character of the bitumens as well as the free carbon influenced impregnation. The tests indicate that coal tars produced at relatively low tempera- tures penetrate better than those produced at relatively high tem- peratures. The size of the free-carbon particles was also found to be a factor in penetration, as those tars in which a large proportion of the particles were relatively small produced mats which were more nearly impervious to the passage of the preservative than those tars in which these particles were larger. The relative viscosities of mixtures of coal tar creosote and coal tars from different sources are not necessarily a true index of their ability to penetrate wood. In these tests the viscosities of mixtures containing different tars did not appear to have any definite relation to the ease or difficulty of penetration. For a mixture of a given tar and creosote the following three factors appear to be important in their relation to penetrations and absorp- tions: 1. The composition and character of the bitumens. 2. The amount of the free carbon in the tar. 3. The condition or size of the free carbon particles. In the treatment of paving blocks the most general practice at present is to inject about 16 pounds of the preservative per cubic foot of wood. This absorption is not usually difficult to obtain in air-seasoned longleaf pine with coal tar creosote at relatively moderate pressures and temperatures, on account of the short length of the blocks (usually not over 4 inches). In these tests it was found that when coal tar was added te coal tar creosote, it was possible to obtain an absorption of 16 pounds per cubic foot by increasing the pressure, the temperature, and the time of treatment, the amount of the in- crease required depending upon the kind and amount of tar added. There was, however, a tendency to obtain less uniform penetrations with those mixtures containing the higher amounts of tar. Increasing the intensity of pressure was of greater importance in obtaining the desired absorption than increasing the time of treatment, while with a given absorption lengthening the time of treatment and using a 29, BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lower pressure gave better penetrations than shortening the time of treatment and increasing the pressure. The temperature of the preservative was found to be very impor- tant. In the case of a mixture of tar and creosote containing 50 per cent of by-product coke-oven tar an increase in the temperature from 160° to 200° F. increased the absorption two and one-half times and penetration one and two-thirds times. A nearly similar result was obtained with another tar and creosote mixture containing 75 per cent of by-product coke-oven tar, Since the tests were necessarily limited to a comparatively small number of tar and creosote mixtures and also to a small number of tests on each preservative, using only one species of wood, the rela- tions brought out can not be considered as definitely established. The results may prove of value, however, in indicating some of the factors that bear an important relation to the injection of preservatives into wood. In general, it might be expected from these results that if tar, either alone or in mixture with creosote, were used in the preserva- tion of wood the difficulty of injection would increase as the percent- age of tar and free carbon in the mixture was increased. The prac- tice of filtering free carbon from tar and creosote mixtures, which is sometimes resorted to, would seem to offer a means of improving the penetrating properties of the preservative. In these experiments those tars which contained normally the lower amounts of free carbon appeared to have better penetrating prop- erties than those containing the higher amounts, even after the free carbon was removed. This suggests that mixtures contaming low- carbon tars should prove easier to inject into the wood. The results of the experiments in which the time of treatment, intensity of pressure, and temperature of the preservative were varied indicate that the pressure period should be as long as possible, the intensity of pressure being regulated to obtam the desired absorp- tion, while the preservative should be at as high a temperature as it is practicable to work without injuring the wood. From 190° to 220° F’, may be satisfactorily used in treating longleaf pine paving blocks. The viscosity measurements made on the tar and creosote mixtures containing tar from different sources indicate that the viscosity may not always be a true index of the penetrating properties of the mix- ture and should probably not be relied upon for this purpose. The quality of the wood used has a marked influence on the absorp- tion and penetration. It has very frequently been observed that the springwood of rapid-growth southern pine is hard to penetrate. In general, better treatments may be obtained in wood which has narrow annual rings. ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. 238 APPENDIX. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF TESTS. Penetrance tests.—Wach specimen before test was placed on a shelf in the oven of the penetrance apparatus and the temperature main- tained at 160° F. for 24 hours. A hole 1 inch in diameter and either ? or 1 inch deep was bored in the specimen. The piece was weighed to 0.001 of a pound imme- diately before and after treatment. The absorption of preservative by each specimen was determined from the difference in weights. About 24 hours after treatment each specimen was sawed longitudi- nally and transversely through the center of the hole on the limes indicated in figure 13. The treated areas shown on the surface thus exposed were measured by means of a planimeter and the average longitudinal penetrations determined from these measurements. Impregnation tests.—The blocks were air-dried in the laboratory for several months; consequently they had a very small moisture con- tent. Before treatment each block was weighed to 0.01 of a pouad and the dimensions measured to 0.01 of an inch. The volume was Fic. 13.—Appearance of test pieces. determined from these measurements. After treatment each block was again weighed and the absorption in pounds per cubic foot computed. APPARATUS. The “penetrance apparatus,” illustrated in figure 14, was designed for the penetrance tests. The wood under test, which had a 1-inch hole bored in it, figure 13, was clamped against the open end of the pipe A leading to the bottom of a pressure tank B. The pipe and lower portion of the tank were filled with the preservative. Pipe C, opening into the top of the tank, was connected with an air reservoir. When desired, air under pressure was turned into tank B, which thus placed the preservative under pressure. The apparatus was sur- rounded by a wooden oven R, with double glass windows in the front and back. Steam coils J in the bottom of the oven heated the speci- mens and preservatives to a uniform temperature, which duplicated as nearly as possible the temperature conditions of the treating cylin- der. The pressure was determined from the gauge G and the tem- perature from thermometer H. A safety valve K aided in maintain- ing a uniform pressure. Shelves were provided and specimens were 24 BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 9 =i Wee) ARS N 7 NOUOUGOO0N0 h i \ Ne \ | \ S WN — \ AS N \ L | » PN S is a in 7 \ O === io SAL i \ i} Un all Y = VO f I no t Fic. 14.—Apparatus for making penetrance tests. - ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. 25 placed in the apparatus previous to testing in order to heat them uniformly to the required temperature. By the aid of mirror D, placed at the back of the oven, both ends of the specimens were made visible. In making the impregnation treatments on the paving-block speci- mens, small treating cylinders were used. The tests of the effect on penetration of differences in the preservative were made in a cylinder 6 inches in diameter and 12 inches deep which was substituted for the clamping device in the penetrance apparatus. Other impreg- nation tests were made in a 14-foot by 4-foot treating cylinder. METHOD OF OBTAINING CARBON-FREE TAR. The free carbon was removed from a portion of tars Nos. 1, 2, and 3, as follows: The tar was first dissolved in chloroform and the mixture then passed through a single thickness of fine quantitative filter paper. This process of filtration was repeated on the mixture using fresh filter papers each time, until no residue was deposited on the paper after the final filtering. The residue left on the papers was boiled in chloroform to dissolve any of the soluble tar constituents that might be deposited with the free carbon. This mixture was also filtered a number of times until no appreciable residue was left on the filter papers. The chloroform was then distilled off from the two mixtures which were combined and considered to be carbon-free tar. Analyses and coking tests were made which indicated that the material extracted was nearly all free carbon. DETERMINATION OF FREE CARBON IN TARS. The percentage of free carbon in each of the tars was determined to the nearest one-half of 1 per cent by careful quantitative filtering, employing a heavily matted Gooch crucible. After filtration was practically completed, the residue in the crucible was washed with chloroform until there was no further coloration of the liquid. SPECIFIC GRAVITIES. Specific gravities were determined by means of a Westphal bal- ance. These determinations were accurate to one in the third deci- mal place for creosote and most of the mixtures of tar and creosote, and to two or three in the third decimal place for the heaviest tars. VISCOSITIES. The viscosities were determined by means of an Engler viscosi- meter, which was standardized with water at 20° C. 26 BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Analyses of creosotes used in the experiments. Oreosote No. 1.—The distillation is as follows: Temperature. Distillation. oC: Per cent. QOD Sees Sete 11.6 D513 SN A ee ee 28:3 OA Dt weet Sener byeal DEN mt OLE fe Se ye 97 |} S() Dieeaeekc w ene Oe ie ) ue SQOR a ace eae 6.9 Residue......-.-- 25.8 | TOSS oo e ne OL 0.1 | Motel: settee. 100.0 Specific gravity, 1.0483 at 60° C. The index of refraction values are low for coal-tar ereosote, and the water content is high, being 8.4 per cent of the original oil. The residue indicates the presence of undistilled tar, probably about 10 per cent. Creosote No. 2.—The distillation is as follows: Temperature. Distillation. BOE Per cent. 2 () E> See eee ae 6.8 23D a et eee 40.0 DA yee cyan ys eee 4.5 PhS ee een pee 13.4 SOD ae eee ee 11.0 Residues. .5 see ee Dae TLOSGe en en ees 0.2 Mota lesa ee | 100.0 Specific gravity, 1.0475 at 60° C. The distillation curve and the index of refraction values for the most part fall within the range ascribed to a pure coal-tar creosote, but there is a decided tendency in the index of refraction values for the higher fractions, which indicates the presence of petroleum-like substances. Creosote No. 8.—The distillation is as follows: Temperature. Distillation. 2G: Per cent. QOD Rear. ce ie DSO ea Cpe aeh Se oe "4 DAD abort cre Sete Tioss2i2. Fee ee wo S ot ae) SE See ee ON Ste oO] WONRWHEAD SI ° =s < — ‘Ss ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. Poel Specific gravity, 1.0576 at 60° C. The index of refraction values and the distillation curve indicate that the oil is a pure coal-tar creosote. Creosote No. 4.—The distillation is as follows: Temperature. Distillation. 2G: Per cent. DO Ean a Sicce Fe Nag eh DR ye inate 80 Faas 221 DAD Rede G Aare ope (3) Uf Dla e eee a. a eae 9.9 SOD ae eee IL) ay eRe avs Sha 27.6 Residues 2 ae 20.9 TE ORSEs reo ete 0.5 Ro tale ae 100.0 Specific gravity, 1.071 at 60° C. The indices of refraction at 60° C. are very low for a pure coal-tar creosote. The sulphonation values are low, yet are an indication of the presence of petroleum oils. The residue is a soft sticky pitch and indicates the presence of undistilled tar probably less than 5 per cent. From the appearance and physical properties of the fractions the creosote behaves very much like a mixed creosote. Creosote No. 5.—The distillation is as follows: Temperature. Distillation. Ge Per cent. Os astra seroma es ra 1.3 ete oy teats pea rk 2-2 ES Se ae as 1.8 Di Tied ie eeiees eooe meats Poe eal. BOD cies cet uel 14.2 OG Osa FER edi 40.4 Residue ees 32.8 WOBS slo ss eee eos 0.2 Total: saaswan wa 100.0 28 BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Specific gravity, 1.105 at 60° C. The index of refraction values are almost entirely in the range for mixed creosotes. The sulphonation residues do not indicate the presence of paraffine oils. The nature of the residue is not such as to show the presence of undistilled tar. The appearance and physical properties of the fractions indicate a high boiling creosote oil. Creosote No. 6.—The distillation is as follows: Temperature. Distillation. eG: .| Per cent. sl aaron sere ts 2.0 D3 Dr Mee eae tyes om | Olet DAD eee Oem. Sa e ip DAG errata 9.5 BODE See eae An e7 SOO er ee 8.6 eSIdtGt=2252 ee 25.0 VOSS ese eseee 0:3 otal ees aes 100.0 Specific gravity, 1.047 at 60° C. The index of refraction values lie mostly in the range for mixed creosotes. The sulphonation residues are too high for a straight coal-tar creosote and their character is much like that of petroleum oils. The amount of residue above 330° is rather large, but there is no sign of undistilled tar in it. TaBLe 1.—Data upon the relative absorptions and penetrations into longleaf pine of mixtures of creosote No. 4 and carbon-free by-product coke-oven tar No. 1 (normal amount of free carbon in tar, 6 per cent, by weight). rene Character of preservative. i i Weight eee l ofspeci-| Pre gine ber Specific| Viscos-|_men_| serva- | joi5i. Specimen No. annual| 1, Creo- ee gravity eae Ceedy ea tial rings |/acc7s.|| soto. |oorooe |e at a| Deore | ops | pene= No.1. | in mix- ° (Engler) treat- | sorbed. : per No. 4. ae 140° F. acer ete oer tration. inch. * 1(60°C.) meter) s APACE s Nl techs by vol- | by vol- | P.ct.by | ume. | ume. | weight. | 6082. lie Lbs: Ins. LOA eee eee A eee eee 13.0 0 100 | Trace 1.071 1.2} 4.970] 0.250 7.00 DO LSet Nona ee eae nee 17.5 0 100 | Trace 1.071 We 2a 4027 .195 6.05 ACVCTASO™ kee Sasa) USS Oe | Sage e oer aeloacies lee sions [tee cees | Sa aei <1 . 223 6.53 CAS Se Nea Rea aes ictal 12.0 25 75 | Trace. | 1.102 1.4 | 4,783 . 168 5. 00 7/8 ee Se oT SE 14.5 25 75 | Trace. 1.102 1.4 4.800 - 266 7. 64 INV OTS PO oct oc viaje onierare LSE Sh| Sam esee lpemceee Reco esos lseteceeeleoneaees! eacease 2217 6. 32 ———— Oat amici s cases katte sence 15.0 50 50 | Trace 1.127 1.6 | 4.458 122 4.34 TAN EE Ee SE 15.0 50 50 | Trace 1,127 1.6 | 4.825 107 4. 44 a Nak) 214: ee T5OU ee a fos|qauasc: | Saccteten |pecteeae (ses ceas| Sa eceee 115 4. 39 7 ae eee ee a 11.5 75 25 | Trace 1.150 2.3 | 4.504 . 090 Su25 QO eee eee nee eae eae 13.0 75 25 | Trace 1.150 2.3 | 4.677 .119 4.05 AVOTAZC ss aacee sos cc toes a DPA Sh [eee rt |e Renee KAGREeeeceaar y(n apes ae eee eee ee 105 3. 65 0 Nees eee te rele ereeieet 13.5 100 0 | Trace. | 1.182 8.6 | 4.566 069 4.19 DOA eee eee Moe aan ee aces 16.5 100 0 | Trace. | 1.182 3.6 | 4.463 055 2.76 ANVClASC Ss 2c ccc tosces 153 O8 | Be saeece| sect cel ceecae sieuee eee | tons cee| eeeeee 062 3. 48 Average moisture in specimens about 2 per cent. ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. 29 Tapie 2.—Data upon the relative absorptions and penetrations into longleaf pine of mixtures of creosote No. 4 and carbon-free by-product coke-oven tar No. 2 (normal - amount of free carbon in tar, 16 per cent, by weight). $$ i Character of preservative. Weight | Viscos-|°! Speci num- | . iscos : ber Free | Specific ity at rect Specimen No. annual| Tar | Ct | carbon gravy 160° F. Gert y rings »| No.2. | 0 Jin mix-| ,,27 5 |(Engler| 210re No. 4. 140° F.|\-_ = | treat- per ture. (60° C.) ViSCOSI-| Font inch -/) meter). IDE Chay \ebes Cle by vol- | by vol- | P.ct.by ume. | ume. | weight Ibs. Ce ae Bae aies ae eee ee 13.0 0 100 | Trace 1.071 1.2] 4.059 OF eet epee Gee ibe cela sinloieee oss 15.0 0 100 | Trace 1.071 | 1.2| 4.506 Ss CTA CEE eee tn Ne TACSS(OY| Pc eae pe eee (GS IRL HSA RAIN [ROS a CE DEES A aan a 13.0 25 75 | Trace 1.105 1.4 | 4.132 Ot ame emate ok ea 2S 14.0 25 75 | Trace 1.105 Tell CE EY S VeT Ager oso tot LOMA [eee tera eso 2 xl Rann ee de Paes Sal ee Roy kre ots ae (CER ae oS ees 14.5 50 50 | Trace. | 1.132 1.7| 4.109 TRIER SEE 2 20 a eae a ea 14.0 50 50 | Trace. 1. 132 1.7 | 4.220 VAVETA POMEL wis 2/6) Fs. 3), D4 B ets oe ole as Gal ee eee eee ieee este allio le aoe ate CE ene noes cs eesti 11.0 75 25 | Trace 1.163 2.2) 4.175 IBS Se Bs Ol eee | 13.0 75 25 | Trace 1.163 2.2 | 4.185 PAV OPAGE Se eis. a3 sacl [gene sat sal Nae aaNet CoN nara | es rr eens | eS CLO) ee [arsfoko 100 0|Trace.| 1.215| 3.1] 4.216 1H docs BRS Rees eee 16.0 100 0 | Trace 1, 215 3.1 3.070 | IAVECTASC Sones ese ce. ae 12.5 | Ae ete tas Pee esol beer sacl cel ISSA EE [seeceeee Average moisture in specimens about 4.5 per cent. sorbed. . 190 - 103 . 135 - 111 . 100 - 037 - 035 - 028 Lbs. 0. 241 . 139 . 167 . 089 - 041 - 033 - 021 longi- tudinal pene- tration. 1. ~ ee fir] erie] ome] aol of ane mw oF 34 Taste 3.—Data upon the relative absorptions and penetrations into longleaf pine of mixtures of creosote No. 4 and carbon-free gas-house tar No. 3 (normal amount of free carbon in tar, 30 per cent, by weight). Character of preservative. Free Tar Pa carbon No. 3 Gwe in mix- : ture. Per Pe Per cent by | cent by | cent by volume.| volume. weight. 0 100 | Trace. 0 100 ; Trace. 25 75 | Trace 25 75 | Trace 50 50 | Trace 50 50 | Trace 75 25 | Trace 75 25 | Trace Taal ON RIN ea en 20.0 100 0 | Trace ARETE TS cs AE Ne 22.0 100 0 | Trace PAS OPAL O ee ectene ese STH Saf PANN) ee eS [RN at a] [Se Specific Viscos- Ieeseece gravity ity at directly at ~ | 160° F.| petore 140° F, |Ensler! treat ° te (60° C.) meter). ment. Lbs. 1.071 1,2°|\ 4.272 1.071 1.2) 4.124 1.097 1.4] 4.219 1.097 1.4] 4.026 1127, 1.6] 3.855 1.127 1.6 | 3.750 1.148 2.3 | 2.063 1.148 2.3 | 2.096 1.179 3.8] 1.697 1.179 3.8} 1.990 lwetent | Pre- serva- tive ab- sorbed. Average moisture in specimens about 9 per cent. 30 BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie 4.—Data upon the relative absorptions and penetrations into longleaf pine of mixtures of equal parts of creosote No. 4 and three different carbon-free and normal free- carbon tars. | | Aver- | age num- Specimen No. pee rings per inch. We Bieret eoascen sess = 24.0 Wee eases toes 18.0 Average...-.-. 21.0 WES See eeete se ascaine 17.0 TS ieee ee eacioe 20.0 AVeLAge: <2. 18.5 110 eG eeee Seleee eee 22.0 dG Ee? ne ene ee 17.0 PASVCLHO Cas semt s 19.5 De) a: eee ae 18.0 BE eee een 24.0 Average:... ==. 21.0 WIRTH Are secon sane 22.0 TM G=B ese estore - 15.0 Average....-.- 18.5 1 ee aoe 21.0 de. 18.0 Average....... 19.5 Character of preservative. Tar Nos. 1, 2, and 3. Free ‘sote. | carbon B Free | No. 4, in mix aoe carbon ture. nie normal to tar Per Per Per Per | cent by | cent by cent. cent. |volume.| weight 50 6 50 | Trace 50 6 50 | Trace 40 16 50 | Trace 50 16 50 | Trace 50 30 50 | Trace 50 30 50 | Trace 50 6 50 3.0 50 6 50 3.0 50 16 50 8.0 50 16 50 8.0 50 30 50 =) 50 30 50 15.0 Average moisture in specimens about 8 per cent. Specific gravity at 140° F. (60° C.) — Weight ofspeci- Viscos-| men ees ity at [directly] tive ab- 160° F.| before | -\ hed (Engler| treat- ; vicosi- | ment. meter). Lbs. Lbs. 1.6; 1.443 | 0.127 156/222 826) - 200 OE oe eee 164 1.7] 3.450 - 130 Let |) (32185) - 080 soSateceleee eee 105 1.6 | 3.010 - 053 1.6.| 25660 . 076 | See See |p eee - 065 oe e420) - 038 1.7 1.386 . 054 na ceeee se Sooseee . 046 2.6| 1.410] -.043. 2.6 1. 452 . 029 Ser a eee - 036 2.5 1. 466 - 027 2.5 1.318 - 017 bet suts {2 | oc eae .022 pene- tration, Fae Veet ladisee ft eS AS fet h PaS tsetil Peodhs ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. 31 TaBLE 5.—Treatment of paving blocks with mixtures of creosote No. 4 and carbon-free tar No. 1. : Prod- Weight | p : - . reserv- : Time | uct of ee Pimensions of belare ate Epeseative Pressure. of treat-| pres- tag No. ES che absorbed. eee ment. | sure by ea time. Pounds Pounds ae per cubic square Inches. Pounds. | foot. inch. i uae ie 1 ci a 7.65 by 3.82 by 4.0... 2. 685 16.8 { Goya aaa 8.10 by 3.65 by 4.0...| 2.715 15.4 \creosote pacer aaa es 80 3 220 PAST OTA Obey Meee ayes cs cients ccl| Sacre ciel TG S815, | Beye ess ayes ae ene Meee | ears Na Sistas a 180 TUE As Sees 7.75 by 3.80 by 4.0... 2. 826 ie Ve per cent creosote, 80 24 180 Gi Loe eeeees 8.10 by 3.50 by 4.2...| 2.820 13.5 |f 25 per cent tar. 80 3h 260 INSYOHEYS@. 5| bo SSCS HOCOOBS EEE OO SE SE Ree eoraee VORG%) 82 oe ees Saas cle ainccie sie (eae s wets 220 OA a reese 7.95 by 3.62 by 4.0.. 2. 560 14.3 |\50 per cent creosote, { 80 6 460 ee ek 7.75 by 3.55 by 4.0..| 2.665 19.1 |f 50 per cent tar. 80 4 300 PAW OL AD Oy eter erst etnias cfalatoreiaillo stain Sieiate LOrq(hi ts oa ok MeO yateinia a) aiei sie nic ieinia | aisciata ete 380 AS eee eh 7.65 by 3.80 by 4.0.. 2. 680 14.8. ee per cent creosote, { (1) 54 490 DRS Sbaceaee 8. 20 by 3.55 by 4. 15- 2. 850 13.7 75 per cent tar. () 6 565 PANT OTAL Ome | Be eeiniat teiccicteteiesateteicte ellces odiecins o Das oe Ne pay rath ct UN Miura ake 527 Ail oan ee 7.67 by 3.05 by 4.03. 2.170 16.7 \ (*) 6 565 Learnt 8.10 by 3.60 by 4.0..| 2.670 14.1 |s100 per cent tar..-... (3) 6} 640 INVOTAD ORY Ryan Sara ihis seoystice See oe Eke ee 1 Us Par: Ss) Peg a gg aN A (ae 602 - 1 Four hours at 80 pounds; 1 hour to obtain pressure up to 150 pounds; 4 hour at 150 pounds. 2 Four hours at 80 pounds; 1 hour to obtain pressure up to 150 pounds; 1 hour at 150 pounds. 3 Four hours at 80 pounds; 1 hour to obtain pressure up to 150 pounds; 14 hours at 150 pounds. Tn all tests 4 hour was taken to obtain pressure up to 80 pounds. TaBLe 6.—Treatment of paving blocks with mixtures of creosote No. 4 and carbon-free tar No. 2. ; Prod- Weight P . A . reserv- : Time | uct of oe paeeasions et petore ative Preset verlve Pressure. jof treat-| pres- BNO : s absorbed. ment. |sureby ment. ; time. Pounds Pounds Be per cubic square | Inches. Pounds. foot. inch. Hours. FANS cle pega aes 7.65 by 3.80 by 4.0. 2. 880 17.4 We per cent creosote, { 80 3 220 GDS 6 Sea 8.05 by 3.62 by 4.0.. 2. 655 13.7 25 per cent tar. 80 43 340 PAS OLAS OP IME oe iseics coi citewrestace | Honede seat TOR ea sie are ek er eee eco Stays we facial Slater ie 280 ORs art ae ae a 7.75 by 4.0 by 4.0-.- 2. 970 17.6 ee per cent creosote, { 80 54 420 Gomes 8.00 by 4.2 by 3.5..| 2.780 14.7 |f 50 per cent tar. (4) 6 565 PAW OTOP Obra Mbertnce sas cun mae ciacd asl) Sic Se csie Ste NOAA eeeie S DOSE SSeE ONO Sees ROSSEMAnbS senor 492 CH ese Sess Se 7.75 by 3.90 by 4.0-. 3. 090 14.5 per cent creosote, { () 5 415 C1 ee See ae 8.15 by 3.60 by 4. 0.- 2. 720 13. 2 75 per cent tar. (@) 63 640 PAR OLAS Obra Marais te) ss ciseniaicc cae ne[Saiswiee ciate IRON acta GaAs SBReEEa Aces SeSe pater eoaabose 527 Bema e-. --ealu7. 70 byi3:.95 by. 4:0.-|) -. 2.955 19.4. (3) 53 527 uke 8.20 by 3.58 by 4.0..| 2.880 eT ‘100 per cent tar.--... { (4) 7 715 J IGUETO) 46||5 do cee SOE Ee CUCESCeOSEH HEeA Camas LONSr ere ein. cc Sees Oe ee a Borcioeararcie ails orelsi einer 621 1 Four hours at 80 pounds; 1 hour to obtain pressure up to 150 pounds; 1 hour at 150 pounds. 2 Four hours at 80 pounds; 1 hour to obtain pressure up to 150 pounds; 13 hours at 150 pounds. 3 Four hours at 80 pounds; 1 hour to obtain pressure up to 150 pounds; 3 hour at 150 pounds. 4 Four hours at 80 pounds; 1 hour to obtain pressure up to 150 pounds; 2 hours at 150 pounds. Tn all tests 4 hour was taken to obtain pressure up to 80 pounds. 82 BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TabLe 7.—Treatment of paving blocks with mixtures of creosote No. 4 and carbon-free gas-house tar No. 8. ane Weight | Preserv- : Mime | uate a pens of pete ative Pr eer valive Pressure.|of treat-| pres- oe F ment, |@bsorbed. : ment. | sure by : time. Pounds Pounds ae per cubic square Inches. Pounds. Soot. inch Hours. Brey es: Ja 7.71 by 3.77 by 4.0... 2.770 16.1 es per cent creosote, { 80 33 260 DATS sae ee 8.15 by 3.62 by 4.15. . 2. 820 12.4 |f. 25 per cent tar. 80 43 340 AVGI2o Gos | Secececceeee ame aa emms meee ee Die ec aiera aera a oleic valeteis wya's!| i tee leee are aero eee 300 Disecsecesns 7.75 by 3.45 by 4.0... 2. 580 19. 0 |e per cent creosote, { () 64 640 HY Epa as 8.15 by 3.55 by 4.2... 2. 880 12, 2 50 per cent tar. (*) i 715 AAVGTA SO Sd ge en) a Ivy uU9d IOd OZ 00°T OTT GL‘9 G'PT SIT De er eed (ARC SiS CRS SC a aba 0}0S0010 409 od 08 86°C BH doNsoUUS| too duc Coad |\cbdanonpes| ae Souoesadce Gao Don one eanCon Gun iooncencemaespecsss 86° 0°8T 69°8 OP STE i eee ibe 00°T “Cy 0G°¢ ial 08 EQ teers sere ce eRe tee eee tees eee aai oes 00°T 0°OT CLS CO) ake game’ | (aes. aoe Bis {91 Sateen pu spunea tae: 75s OLOSOOTO GUL: TAC BQ9 OP *L ppapaoconG oge ono dnadllaysovenons jpdsobdasgaesccnasspagsusnodonnasdcecEeaccuquaeT Se 00°T 0°ST CL'8 ¢°ST Eres used Wat Cates ae ee Doers tomes Gee Tees Ie} 7u99 9d 0Z 00°T 0°ST Go'L G ‘CT 08 g | § 01080010 JU9d od 0S Z0°T 0°01 189 O'FI settee eee] ER lessees ete ees seer es ete eee ee sects sete eet eee ees z0°6 Jacedsonsdlanases aces euewa Baetols beta arise Places owis Mein oe eee Saemees JReaees seuss 00°T 0's 098 O'ST 00°T 0°ST 0% ‘OT PIG 00°T 0°OT Gg°8 L°LT “ur bs “SUNOET dad *SqT +99 *MOTRI} : go | jS2aH, | “ound | -porey ae 10 yo [eurp -ouod =| "ormssor yo *posn OATPBAIOSOIT qyidoq “NYLSTHOT BOL te OsBIOAV owhL va “ONT un} fo saungaru burhiune uayn uordsosqn u “mor} -diosq vy OPPS 0ST LO8'% 09 'T G68 "6 SPT 008 °% GFT 808% GPT EL8°% OFT LEP S 09 °T 066° GPT PIO GPT OTZ°% 0ST S66 °S GPT 098 °@ OFT 18'S 0ST O13 0G °T 9€0°€ 0S *T “sayouy *yu0Ur -yeory |, exojoq | “Wdea STO AA ZI 0097 fo aungniad way D 1D pasn alv G “OAT aZOSOaLI PUD 0b v ainoas 07 havssovaw aunssaid (g) pun ‘quawzned, fo away, (7) -we uoynra ay? bumoyg—'9T IAVL, “JUOUI}VOL) SINOY FG JOG’ UL POUre}qo svm OATS WOTdIosqB OU, + “OSBIOA Vy ore LOTUS Tap ae eae etn) Gp'e OG RCs |i Senta! Greg OCs CO | eames Ova sole SI-icicto) oie sierra COS BION, 0¢'e EIS, IPSS PSPS OPO) cre 06 'F% GPre 0% “FS cPp'e 08 06 cre CL PS Cpe 08 'F% steeceeeecleeeoeseoee OIA cre GB Uils — | POPOSCO ESR) GR ‘e OCF [77a CFE OG Fone al menu tan SaaVs cieiseiewcinicinsnimnlecimim mina SOS BIOALT Fe WU He | Rae PE) OFS OGiP Cie n|tamenmen hee Gre OCC a |e Can V ‘sayouy | “sayouy “ON “WIpBeIg | “IST9T | pomroadg 38 BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 17.—Summary of data contained in Table 16. Average Average 7 pe yates time of | AV@T88¢ | Average | longitu- Preservative. Arent /aeOSGEb= || eneseiire dinal wate tion. |P “| penetra- es tion. Pounds Hours. | Pounds, | per sq. in. CTEOSOLES ec stents 2 0.165 80 9. 02 80 per cent creosote; 20 per cent tar....-. 4.05 - 164 80 7.46 66% per cent creosote; 33% per cent tar....- 6.33 2.133 80 5. 98 80 per cent creosote; 20 per cent tar....-- 2 2156 128 6. 57 662 per cent creosote; 334 per cent tar..... 2 156 155 6.38 1 Time varied. Absorp- | Penetra-| Increase | Increase tion tion in i obtained.| obtained.) pressure.| time. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. 0 In 100 100 10 99 83 0 1102 81 66 0 1217 95 73 60 30 95 71 94 30 2 This absorption was obtained with an average of about 5} hours’ treatment. The further increase in the time of treatment failed to increase the absorption. 3 Pressure varied. See Note 1, Table 16. Tasie 18.—Data upon the relative absorptions and penetrations into longleaf pine of a mixture of equal parts of creosote No. 4 and a normal by-product coke-oven tar No. 1 at different temperatures (normal amount of free carbon in tar 6 per cent, by weight). Average Weight of Neer number -,. | Specimen | Preserva- | 17 nied Specimen No. annual | Tempera- | directly tive a at rings per ture. before | absorbed. ae aaa inch. treatment. PENBIean Ores Pounds. Pounds. Inches. MeN = Qursjei cee doe aids aeek eee sab eens sateen 12.0 160 2.570 0. 046 2.98 Vo Ma Th rae a eee ee ct ele Ads cee 8.0 160 2. 630 0. 039 2. 92 ASVOFAS@ cued oe Secieks ee cic cerasecsecies LOY | penne eters eee a eee 0. 042 2.95 DX Sete wienen eee seserees oe ae ee eee 9.0 180 2. 605 0.045 3.00 WETS Senate wa erneins ioe eerie eee eae 11.0 180 2. 635 0. 075 4.23 AVOTRE Onsen cess tacee te ee aos See LOGO} ee ek oe lates oarane 0. 060 3. 62 XS oe ee Son os aticte rsd sete Secteceee sce 11.0 190 2. 728 0. 038 3.18 VAT = (iS ots More cine Sic tena ce fice seaniee aie 9.0 190 2. 473 0. 092 233 45 IAN OLAS Opie cee ears Cee eee TOY OU) ereey ee Re see coe 0.065 Bay Uo hias oe oo sneer acces a Ses eceeeeence eae 10.0 200 2. 578 0. 067 3.97 Wille eccaesssetecacee ocean wearer 8.0 200 2.615 0. 103 4.76 Nyprnod sue ca: tsetse edeneeteueee. oh eee eae | 0.085 4.36 EX Oe cscs ene eect Seen aeecoe eee 10.0 210 2. 480 0.094 4.76 ANA EY pen poy ed 8 ee Re er ee a ay 9.0 210 2. 454 0.115 5. 42 IAVOLAP Od cece ere eee emcee eee OE 5) | aaa eerie een 0. 104 5.09 Average moisture in specimens about 10 per cent. 39 ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. fT 002 023 0g O@T OT 0% a Utero Leora ase “your aunnbs wad spunog ‘ornyered -Ule} SUT ~VB9L} 1B AqIsoost A, -91nye "aIMSST | _ sodraey, peciear Ie} 3Usd Jed ¢ T LT “(6FT'L ‘0 .09 98 AqtAvas oytoods) oIMIXTH | 91 GOT tetteesssss+=--g90s0070 Juao dod e 8 ‘FL “7"7"(980'T “0 009 98 AjIAvIS OYToods) ory XT 77601" TO .09 3% AYIARIS oytoads) orny XT py weer Iv} quad Jed 0¢ 040S09J0 490 Jed ~G PORES SOOO ISO OSI OIA i HhUns (cya )e Yoh er 4 Page eaten es ites sO) OSOOTN (UO) 10d.G Brssialeie a wlaleicinia sie ela nie elon ecco oe eae 2 = gq Qg0aTr) 9ioT eS 8&1 8°21 6°ST co re + re | coats 1d 1S - 5 re mo io a) ve) Son ~Or~eo 19.19 O15 6 oe Bo oe Doe Sal 16 et (anal “oof aqna wad spunod PATJBAIOSol “doTZ -diosq vy 96 °F Ins 00°¢ G Foo 08 °¢ LLY 8h '¢ 86°P S0'T G9" FOF T4°& OLS F6 PF 09° 99°¢ S0'F €0°¢ ‘spunog | ‘s S od Hod “UOT -1B01} Joye SINOY FZ JUSTO AV 080 °0 ¥30 0 680 °0 F800 0800 T80°0 080 °0 680 °0 ¢80°0 G80 0 080 °0 680 "0 180 °0 “goal 29ND “QUINOA sete cap SZ reece reese CZ" aes Lf esse sraetep ot eqiers Kats ae hep hen ion! ) 06.00 06 VP AGC GPAGTS “----¢p Aq CO A T'S """ "esp Aq CTF Aq GO'8 “Tip seeeeeeeee UG EF AG 18 cee Sur ad ons ous: FAQs: pines TY AO “sayouy bab - a b “SUOTSUSMIT(T --9SBIOAW ee “9 soteesecesceg “-93BI0A Vy “95RlOAV es eve eee ei 14! cise eecOF ~"9seIIA Vy rec ceteeeece seg ON MOOT “SALNJXVUL 70S80I19 pud Lv} YUM syI07q Buravd uo sjsaz woruduosqn UO DIDE— GT TTAV I, & BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 40 006 002 006 002 006 006 006 006 006 006 006 006 OOT OOT Oot OOT “your alonbs Jad spunod *9INSSd1{ *9IN} -e1odur of, “san “qmouryveI1 JO OUILY, C6 °% ¢10°0 £3 °C $20 °0 09 % 080 °0 LT % 090 °0 LT'y G80 °0 ( OT € £90 0 0G °% Zo0 0 €8 "€ #F0 “0 0S °% $90 0 €8 ° 40) ae) 69°€ G80 0 LEG 6¢0°0 0S °€ #90 0 0S °% &F0 0 00°9 FOTO 08 *€ 80 °0 LT % £100 £0 °% L10°0 0° °G cto 0 0g °9 LOT “0 16 °E FOTO LV § O0T ‘0 Lei TO 0 0G "e ¢s0°0 €8 °9 O61 0 GL T C6100 0¢ ‘T 610 ‘0 0€ 'T S100 €@ “T £00 ‘0 £8 °S 9€0 °O “sayouy “spunod -ouad you | Paquose ae -AIOSOLg *qU9T} B91} a10joq, AT}OoITp uourtoeds JO JUSTO AA 09 'T GPT eT OL'T LT ‘oimy -e1odulo} Bul1vdT} 1B AYISODST A 6FTT 60T T 980 ‘T T20‘T TL0°T TL0°T 6 ‘OT 9°§ “qybiam fq uaa Lag 0g wd ~ OOT OOT OOT “auLnjoa fq quad Lag G7 0g eee cee eee ee! | “aunjoa fiq quad Lag @ ‘OT o Ve) $6 a a CO 009) “Z oOFT 48 AyAris oytoodg ‘oany XTUL UT UWOqIed 991 \f “91080019 GON JBL “OATIBAIOSOIC JO JoyOVIeYO *(OSBIDAT) ‘yu9009 rod dINYSTOJL ‘yout rod “SBULI [enuue roquinu IBVIOAY ON uauitsadg ‘ON 27080019 pun G ‘ON Ln} fo saungruu ym aud foa)buo) uo $789} aouds}aUI_— OZ ATAV I, 41 ABSORPTION AND PENETRATION OF COAL TAR AND CREOSOTE. 006 002 006 002 006 002 00z 002 002 “your avonbds dad spunog “OINSSOI YT OFT 920 °0 O9T 09 OST ¢z0 "0 OOT 09 OL'T ¢E0 ‘0 Oot 09 Lileks L10°0 Gh SF0'0 O6T 09 19°T 0¢0°0 O6T 09 LT% 6&0 °0 O6T 09 0S'°s 290 °0 CLS $900 02% 09 LI CFO °O 026 09 LVS 080 °0 026 09 €3°% 990 °O i “Hier “SagnUyy *SaYyouy “Sspunog “WONBI} . ‘9Imy “‘queul}vel} | -oued oe Ene -e 10d U0], Jo omy, -IPNYISUOT | | cat SBIOA Vy BAIOSOL G06 °€ 082 °€ 00°S £hS °F OLE “> 062° 0S°% 888° C68 °§ GOT Ss 09°T O16 °E “spunog ein} “VUOTAIVET} | -vIOd 04 910JOq Bur} vol} 4B Ayp}OeITp AYISOOST A, weur1oeds JO 1YSTO MM OTs 4 eal tga, GFL 'T 6 ‘OL G GL b°9 SES 7S see 6-9 02 ae ee o-g LT ene Ready GFT 6°OT GS GL 0°9 OT ees wee 6-9 61 Re tee &-¢ She Ss = Sleciegries FL GFL °T 6°OT GS GL 0°G or pdoskase nes “qybram “2unjoa “awnjoa *qUI9 LOI fiq qua dag | fiqquao tag | fig quad wag Ge say) OINYXTUL UL “OOF : XI b ¢ "ae — 4B eas WOdIvd 991.7 Srosoex a ON 78h ey eatane ‘ON oppoeds “OIMYSIOW | re goquina | weuroedg = esvIOAY “OATPVAIOSOId JO IoJoVIVYO ‘(qybram hig quad sod $7 10} ayn wr woguno vauf fo yUNoWD PoUsoU) srunquodwuay Buryvas quaioef{ip yo G ‘ONT 10) 199 Lad GL pud + “ONT 22080019 uaa wad GZ fo aunjarvu Dv fo aud foajbuo) our Wodusosqn puv Uoynéauad arugnjas ay2 Uodn DIDE—T TZ ATAV], 42 BULLETIN 607, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe A.—Showing composition of treating oil. (See penetrance specimens on Pl. IV.) repeats Tar No.3, aaa) Piece No. | per cent of | PO cent of -17.,| total oil total oil by b fl volume. y volume. g 0 100 2 25 15 3 50 50 ue 75 25 5 100 0 Free carbon, per cent of total oil by weight. Trace. Trace. Trace. Trace. Trace. TABLE B.—Showing composition of treating oil. (See penetrance specimens on Pl. V.) Tar. oe ave Amount of Free =i per CATGT carbon earbon, iece No. COraToil Percent | normal to | percent of} Tar No. by of totaloil | the tar, ‘ total oil aes: by per cent of | by weight. volume. | volume. total weight of tar. 1 50 50 6 Trace. 1 2 50 50 16 Trace. 2 3 50 50 30 Trace. 3 4 50 50 6 3 1 5 50 50 16 8 2 6 50 50 30 15 3 TaBLe C.—Showing composition of treating oil. (See penetrance specimens on P]. VI.) TaBLe E.—Showing tempera- ture of treatment. (See penetrance specimens on Pl]. XT. Creosote Tempera- No. 4, neta a Carbon Piece No. ture of Piece No. Soegety f) “totaloil | per cent treatment. by by by weight. volume. volume. 1 160 so! 2 180 3 190 iL 50 50 Trace. 4 200 2 50 50 3 5 210 3 50 50 5 4 50 50 6.5 5 50 50 8 Taste D.—Treating oil. (See penetrance specimens on Pl. VIT.) Piece No. cee Treating oil. 1 1 | Creosote containing tar (estimated at about 10 per cent). 2 2 | Creosote. : 3 3 | Pure coal-tar creosote. ' 4 4 | Creosote containing tar (estimated at less than 5 per cent). 5 5 | High-boiling creosote. PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELAT- ING TO THE PRESERVATION OF TIMBER. PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Relative Resistance of Various Conifers to Injection with Cresote. (Department Bulletin No. 101.) The Toxicity to Fungi of Various Oils and Salts Particularly Those Used In Wood Preservation. (Department Bulletin No. 227.) Strength Tests of Structural Timbers Treated by Commercial Wood-Preserving Processes. (Department Bulletin No. 286.) The Theory of Drying and Its Application to the New Humidity-Regulated and Recirculating Dry Kiln. (Department Bulletin No. 509.) Timber Storage Conditions in the Eastern and Southern States With Reference to Decay Problems. (Department Bulletin No. 510.) Prolonging the Life of Crossties. (Forestry Bulletin No. 118.) Experiments on the Strength of Treated Timber. (Forestry Circular No. 39.) Preservation of Piling Against Marine Wood Borers. (Forestry Circular No. 128.) Consumption of Wood Preservatives and Quantity of Wood Treated in the United Statesin 1910. (Forestry Circular No. 186.) Volatilization of Various Fractions of Creosote After Their Injection into Wood. (Forestry Circular No. 188.) The Absorption of Creosote by the Cell Walls of Wood. (Forestry Circular No. 200.) PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Preservative Treatment of Farm Timbers. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 387.) Price, 5 cents. Eph Preservative Treatment of Farm Timbers. (Iarmers’ Bulletin No. 744.) Price, 5 cents, Tests of Wood Preservatives. (Department Bulletin No. 145.) Price, 10 cents. Seasoning of Wood. (Department Bulletin No. 552.) Price, 10 cents. Timber Physics. (Forestry Bulletin No. 6, Part 1.) Price, 20 cents. Timber Physics: Progress Report, Results of Investigations on Long leaf Pine. (Forestry Bulletin No. 8, Part 2.) Price, 25 cents. . Wood Preservation in the United States. (Forestry Bulletin No. 78.) Price, 10 cents. Principles of Drying Lumber at Atmospheric Pressure and Humidity Diagram, 1912. (Forestry Bulletin No. 104.) Price, 5 cents. Specific Heat of Wood. (Forestry Bulletin No. 110.) Price, 5 cents. Quantity and Character of Creosote in Well-Preserved Timbers, 1917. (Forestry Circular No. 98.) Price, 5 cents. A Visual Method for Determining Penetration of Inorganic Salts in Treated Wood. (Forestry Circular No. 190.) Price, 5 cents. 43 \ ADDITIONAL COPIES CF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS | GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY A BULLETIN No. 608 { Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry ‘N ; A. D. MELVIN, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv March 6, 1918 VARIETIES OF CHEESE: DESCRIPTIONS AND ANALYSES.* By C. F. Doanz, Dairy Manufacturing Specialist, Dairy Division, and H. W. LAWSON, formerly of the Office of Experiment Stations. CONTENTS. Page. Page Imtroduetione see 32 NO Le. osha 1 | Sources of analytical data....-.........---.-- 7 Description of varieties of cheese......--.-.-- 3 | Index to descriptions and analysis of cheese. . 77 PATIATYSES(Ol CHEESES <7. ba-2-o22ee-ee seco = 62 INTRODUCTION. In the fiscal year 1901 the importations of cheese into the United States were valued at $1,946,033, and since then have increased very greatly, as shown in the table below: TABLE I.—I mportations of cheese into the United States. OVD oe Ae GSS EEN TS AAG oy ROME ce va TES bo $1, 946, 038 HOO wal Avrora t JAN ire) Abigail yh We yk Mem nel beler 3, 875, 161 TOTO ES TI UI RE RMN eR Vi ae ie Sear ON 7, 053, 570 FIGS: ACA Si USE SS Ra 2 ES Nh Pe 7, 920, 244 FSAI Aci an a is ee Bg ea Oca 8, 807, 249 rege eee rR HIRO eat NPT SNe OPN ads A NLA ie Meroe Non 9, 185, 184 AQT AM MELATONIN se Oy URL SCN eta 11, 010, 693 A number of varieties are included in these importations, and nearly all are among the highest priced cheeses made, such as Em- mental from Switzerland, Parmesan and Gorgonzola from Italy, Roquefort, Camembert, and Brie from France, and Edam from Holland. 1This bulletin is a revision of Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 146, which was issued in 1911, and which in turn was a revision of Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 105, issued in 1908. Dr. Lawson was a joint author of the original work, but is not responsible for the changes embodied in the present edition. Acknowledgment is made of suggestions and information received from the Bureau of Chemistry. 13113°—18—Bull. 608 1 2. BULLETIN 608, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The attempt to make Emmental and Limburg cheese in this coun- try has been very successful,-as is proved by the statement that in Wisconsin alone 500 factories are making these varieties; also, some factories in Ohio, New York, and northern Illinois are making them. Investigation by this department in cooperation with the experiment station at Storrs, Conn., has demonstrated that Camembert, and also a cheese of the same general nature as Roquefort or Stilton, can be made successfully in this country. There is no reason to believe that any variety of cheese imported can not be made here, although with present knowledge it would not be advisable to try to make many kinds. Probably scientific investigation would show how to im- prove on the average quality of the cheese made in the old countries, for it must be remembered that only the very best is shipped by the European makers, the rest, or poorer grades, being consumed at home. Unfortunately, a feeling is prevalent in the United States that cheese equal to the best of the European product can not be produced here. This feeling is based upon a lack of knowledge of actual con- ditions in Europe and of the conditions affecting the qualities of cheese. Certain parts of Europe probably are better favored by de- sirable climatic conditions and by more general dissemination of the bacteria or molds necessary to the characteristic ripening of different varieties, but even the best average natural conditions can be im- proved on by artificial means, since necessary molds or bacteria can be grown in pure cultures and utilized anywhere. ee the cost may render it impracticable. It is an unfortunate fact that the sale of homemade varieties of European cheese is seriously handicapped by the partiality of con- sumers for foreign labels. The prejudice against American-made cheese has been intensified to a great degree by the practice of dealers who sell the better grades of homemade cheese as imported, and the poorer grades as domestic. It is probable that this practice continues in the sale of domestic Swiss or Emmental, as there is at present no means of detecting fraud in the sale of that type of cheese. The demand for information concerning the different varieties of cheese has become general, and the information is not very accessible to those unable to read other languages than English. The apparent need of some work of reference in connection with both the importa- tion and the home production of cheese has therefore led to the prepartion of the descriptive notes and the compilation of the analytical data in this bulletin. The descriptions are for the most part based upon data found in treatises on dairying and in articles in foreign periodicals. While in many instances they are very incomplete and possibly in some cases inaccurate, they nevertheless contain in condensed form practically all the important information that it has been possible to obtain VARIETIES OF CHEESE: DESCRIPTIONS AND ANALYSES. 3 in an extended search through the literature relating in any way to the subject. Owing to the large number of publications consulted, it has seemed impracticable to give references to the descriptive matter. | As will be noted, names and descriptions have been arranged alpha- betically, and no attempt has been made to classify the varieties. All such attempts made by others have been unsatisfactory and are open to serious criticism. There are probably about 18 distinct varieties of cheese. All the rest, consisting of more than 400 names given, are of local origin, usually named after towns or communities. A list of the best known names applied to each of these distinct varieties or groups is given: Brick, Caciocavallo, Camembert, Cheddar, Cot- tage, Dry, Edam, Emmental, Gouda, Hand, Holstein, Limburg, Neufchatel, Parmesan, Roquefort, Sapsago, Scanno, and Trappist. As stated, many of the names in the body of the bulletin are duplicates. It is the practice in most European countries to give local names to cheese; it is said that in France more than 250 names are applied to cheese, while in fact probably not more than a dozen distinct kinds of cheese are made there. This naturally leads to much confusion, and especially is it true, as often happens, when a local name is given to more than one variety. It would certainly appear to be more rational to retain or employ variety names and give the names of the localities where manufactured. It is possible for a local name to mean much, but when it is used alone to apply to a number of varieties of the same product it means nothing. In most instances in this bulletin the analyses have been compiled from the original publications. In all cases, however, the sources of the data have been given in the list of references which follows the table of analyses. No effort has been made to collect the numerous analyses of filled cheese, and in the case of American Cheddar cheese only a part of the available data has been included in the compilation. DESCRIPTION OF VARIETIES OF CHEESE. ABERTAM. This is a hard, rennet cheese made from sheep’s milk in the region of Carlsbad, Bohemia. ALEMTEJO. This name is applied to rather soft cheeses made in the Province of Alemtejo, Portugal. They are cylindrical in shape and are made in three sizes, averaging about 2 ounces, 1 pound, and 4 pounds, respectively. They are made for the most part from the milk of sheep, though goats’ milk is often added, especially for the smaller sizes. The milk is warmed and curdled usually with an extract prepared from the flowers of a kind of thistle. The cheeses are ripened for several weeks. 4 BULLETIN 608, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ALPIN. This is a kind of Mont d’Or cneese made in the Alpine regions of France. It is also known as Clérimbert. The milk is coagulated with rennet at 80° F. in two hours. The curd is dipped into molds 3 or 4 inches in diameter and 24 inches in height. The cheese is allowed to drain and is turned several times during one day, after which it is salted and ripened for from 8 to 15 days. ALTENBURG. This is a goats’-milk cheese made in Germany, where it is known as Alten- burger Ziegenkise. A cheese is 8 inches in diameter, 1 or 2 inches in thickness, and weighs about 2 pounds. AMBERT. This cheese, known as Fourme d’Ambert, is a cylinder-shaped imitation Roquefort cheese made from cows’ milk. ft is said to differ from other forms of blue or imitation Roquefort cheese made in the southeastern part of France in that the salt is mixed with the curd rather than rubbed on the surface of the cheese. ANCIEN IMPERIAL. In this cheese the,curd is prepared in the same manner as for Neufchatel. It is also known as Petit Carré and, when ripened, as Carré Affiné. The cheese is about 2 inches square and one-half inch thick, and is sold and consumed both while fresh and after ripening. The ripening process is not essentially different from that of Neufchatel. APPENZELL. This cheese, which is very similar to Emmental, is made of cows’ milk in the Canton of Appenzell, Switzerland, and also in Bavaria and Baden. It is usually made of skim milk, but sometimes of whole milk. ARMAVIR. Armavir cheese is made in the western Caucasus from the whole milk of sheep. It is made of sour milk, resembles hand cheese, and is produced by pouring sour buttermilk or whey into the heated milk, The cheese is pressed into forms and allowed to ripen in a warm place. BACKSTEIN. Backstein, meaning brick, is so called from its shape, but it is not identical with the Brick cheese made in the United States. The process of manufacture is similar to that of Limburg. BANBURY. This was a soft, rich cheese, very popular in England in the early part of the nineteenth century. It was a cylindrical cheese about 1 inch thick. BARBEREY. This is a soft, rennet cheese resembling Camembert and deriving its name from the village of Barberey, near Troyes, France. It is also commonly known as Fromage de Troyes. The milk while still fresh and warm is coagu- lated with rennet, the time allowed being usually about four hours. The uncut curd is put into a wooden mold having a perforated bottom. After draining VARIETIES OF CHEESE: DESCRIPTIONS AND ANALYSES. 5 for three hours the cheese is turned into an earthenware mold, the wooden one being removed after 24 hours. The cheeses are salted, dried in a well-venti- lated room, and ripened for about three weeks, usually in a subterranean curing room. In summer the cheese is often sold without ripening. A cheese is 5 or 6 inches in diameter and 14 inches in thickuess. BATTLEMAT. This is an Emmental cheese made in the Canton of Tessin, Switzerland, in the western part of Austria, and in the northern part of Italy. It is recom- mended for localities where a great quantity of milk can not be obtained. The cheese is circular in form, about 16 inches in diameter and 4 inches high, and weighs from 40 to 80 pounds. It is cooked at a slightly lower temperature than the Emmental and is a little softer when ripened. It ripens more rapidly than the Emmental, being ready for market in about four months. BAUDEN. Baudenkise is a sour-milk cheese made in the herders’ huts in the mountains between Bohemia and Silesia in essentially the same manner as Harzkise. It is made up in two forms, one conical with a diameter and a height of 3% inches, and the other cylindrical, with a diameter of 5 inches and a height of 4 inches. It is also known locally as Koppenkiase. BELGIAN COOKED. The milk, which has been allowed to curdle spontaneously, is skimmed and the curd heated to 135° or 140° F. and then placed in a cloth and allowed to drain. When dry it is thoroughly kneaded by hand and is allowed to undergo fermentation, which takes ordinarily from 10 to 14 days in winter and six to eight days in summer. When the fermentation is complete, cream and salt are added and the mixture is heated gently and stirred until homogeneous, when it is put into molds and allowed to ripen for eight days longer. A cheese ordi- narily weighs about 33 pounds. It is not essentially different from other forms of cooked cheese. BELLELAY. This is a soft, rennet cheese made from whole milk and sometimes called Téte de Moine, or Monk’s Head. This cheese originated with the monks of the Canton of Bern, Switzerland, in the fifteenth century, and at the present time is made exclusively in that locality. The sweet milk is set at about 90° F. with sufficient rennet to coagulate it in 20 or 30 minutes. The curd is cut comparatively fine and is stirred while being heated slowly to a temperature of 110° F. It is cooked much firmer than Lim- burg and not so firm as Emmental. When cooked the curd is dipped into wooden hoops lined with cloth. The cheeses are pressed in rotation for a few minutes at a time, one press being used for a number of cheeses. After pressing, the cheeses are wrapped in bark for two weeks, or until they are firm enough to require no support. They aro cured in a moist cellar at a comparatively low temperature, as it is not de- sired to have eyes develop. The cheese when ready for market has a diameter of 7 inches and weighs from 9 to 15 pounds. It ripens in about 12 months and will keep for three or four years. It has a soft, buttery consistency and can be spread on bread for eating. Shes 6 BULLETIN 608, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BERGQUARA. This is a Swedish cheese resembling Gouda. It was known in Sweden in the eighteenth century. BGUG-PANIR. This cheese, sometimes called Daralag, is made in Armenia from sheep’s milk, partially or entirely skimmed. Rennet is used for coagulation and the curd is put into a rack for draining, after which it is broken up and salt and herbs added. After pressing again, the cheese is put into a salt bath, usually for two days, but sometimes for two months. ‘ BITTO. This is a cheese of the Emmental group, made in northern Italy. It is some- times eaten fresh and sometimes ripened for two years, when it is very hard and has small eyes. BLEU. The names Paté Bleu and Fromage Bleu are applied to several kinds of hard, rennet cheese made from cows’ milk in imitation of Roquefort cheese in the southeastern part of France. Owing to the mottled, marbled, or veined appear- ance they are also designated Fromage Persillé. Among these are Gex, Sas- sehage, and Septmoncel. This name is also applied locally to several more or less distinct kinds made in the regions of the Auvergne and Aubrac Mountains and designated Bleu d’Auvergne, Cantal, Guiole or Laguiole, and St. Flour. Other cheeses of this order mentioned as made in France are Queyras, Cham- poléon, Sarraz, and Journiac. BOUDANNE. This is a French cheese made from cows’ milk. The milk, either whole or skimmed, is heated to about 85° F., sufficient rennet is added to coagulate it in one hour, and the curd is cut to the size of peas, stirred, and heated to 100° F. or above. After standing for 10 or 15 minutes the curd is pressed by hand and put into molds 8 inches in diameter and 8 inches in height. The cheeses are drained, turned frequently, salted, and ripened for two or three months. BOX (FIRM). This cheese, known in different localities where made as Hohenburg, Mondsee, and Weilbenstephan, is made from cows’ milk, whole, and is a rather firm rennet cheese. The flavor is said to be mild but piquant. The milk is heated to 90° or 93° F. in a kettle, colored with saffron, and set with sufficient rennet to cur- dle it in 20 or 25 minutes. The curd is cut up as fine as peas, and the contents of the kettle are heated very slowly to a temperature of 105° F., being stirred meanwhile. The fire is then removed and the curd allowed to settle for five min- utes, when the whey is dipped off. The curd is then dipped into a cloth, whence - it is scooped into hoops. Light pressure is applied, in 15 minutes the cheese is turned, and the turning is repeated frequently for several hours. The cheese is kept in a well-ventilated room at 60° F. for from three to five days, after which it is taken to the cellar. It is salted by rubbing or sprinkling salt on the surface. Ripening requires from two to three months. The cheese weighs from 1 to 4 pounds, and is undoubtedly similar to the Brick cheese of the United States. VARIETIES OF CHEESE: DESCRIPTIONS AND ANALYSES. 7 BOX (SOFT). This is a rennet cheese made from cows’ milk, partially skimmed, and known locally as Schachtelkise. It is a rather unimportant variety produced in Wiirt- temberg in a small locality called Hohenheim, a name which the cheese often takes. In making this cheese the evening’s milk, skimmed, is mixed with the whole milk drawn that morning, or a part of the milk is skimmed with a centrifuge and is mixed with an equal volume of whole milk. The cheese is made in a copper kettle. The milk is warmed to 110° F., colored with saffron, and rennet added. It is allowed to stand for one or one and one-half hours before cutting. The curd is cut into rather coarse particles, after which it is allowed to stand for a few minutes, when the whey is dipped off, and for every 200 pounds of milk used a small handful of caraway seed is added. The curd is then dipped into hoops 64 inches in height and the same in diameter. It remains in these hoops for 10 hours and is frequently turned, after which it is transferred to a wooden hoop only one-half as high, where it remains for 12 hours. The cheese is then sprinkled with salt and put into the ripening cellar, where it remains about three months. A soft, rennet cheese known as Fromage de Boite is made in the fall in the mountains of Doubs, France, and resembles Pont l’Evéque. BRA. This cheese is made by nomads in the region of Bra in Piedmont, Italy. It is a hard, rennet cheese weighing about 12 pounds. The milk, which is partly skimmed, is heated to about 90° F., and sufficient rennet is added to coagulate it in 80 or 40 minutes. The curd is cut to the size of rice grains and the whey removed after about half an hour. It is then put into a form about 12 inches in diameter and 3 inches in height and subjected to pressure for from 12 to 24 hours. The cheese is salted by immersion in brine and also by sprinkling salt on the surface, after which it is ripened. BRAND. This is a German hand cheese weighing about one-third of a pound, made from sour-milk curd cooked at a little higher temperature than ordinarily practiced. The curd is salted and allowed to ferment one day. It is then mixed with butter, pressed into shape and dried, and finally placed in kegs to ripen, during which process it is moistened occasionally with beer. BRICK. The exact derivation of this name is not known. It may have been adopted because of the shape, or because of the fact that bricks are used almost exclu- Sively for weighting down the press. Brick cheese is a rennet cheese made from cows’ milk, unskimmed, and is purely an American product. In charac- teristics it is about halfway between Limburg and Emmental. It has a strong, sweetish taste, a sort of elastic texture, and many small, round eyes or holes. It is made about 10 by 6 by 8 inches in size. Many factories, especially in southern Wisconsin, make this product. Perfectly sweet milk is set in a vat at 86° F. with sufficient rennet to coagu- late it in 20 or 30 minutes. The curd is cut with Cheddar curd knives, is then heated to 110° or 120° F., and is stirred constantly. The cooking is con- tinued until the curd has become so firm that a handful squeezed together will 8 BULLETIN 608, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fall apart when released. The curd is then dipped into the mold, which is a heavy rectangular box without a bottom and with slits sawed in the sides to allow drainage. The mold is set on the draining table, a follower is put on the eurd, and one or two bricks are used on each cheese for pressure. The cheeses are allowed to remain in the molds for 24 hours, when they are removed, rubbed all over with salt, and piled three deep. The salting is done each day for three days, after which the cheese is taken to the ripening cellar, which should be comparatively moist and have a temperature of from 60° to 65° F. Ripening requires two months. BRICKBAT. This is a rennet cheese made as early as the eighteenth century in Wiltshire, England. It is made from fresh milk to which a small portion of cream has been added. The milk is set at about 90° F. and allowed to stand two hours before the curd is disturbed. The curd is cut coarse, dipped into wooden forms, and light pressure applied. The cheese is said to be fit for consumption for one year after being made. BRIE. This is a soft, rennet cheese made from cows’ milk, varying in size and aiso in quality, depending on whether whole or partly skimmed milk is used. The method of manufacture resembles closely that of Camembert. This cheese has been made in France for several centuries, having been mentioned as long ago as 1407. It is made throughout France, but more ex- tensively in the Department of Seine et Marne, in which it doubtless origi- nated. This department contains Meaux, Coulommiers, and Melun, places noted for their manufacture of Brie cheese, though often under local names. More or less successful imitations of this cheese are made in other countries. It was estimated that 7,000,000 pounds of Brie cheese was sold in Paris during 1900. The export trade is also very important. The milk used is usually perfectly fresh. It is not uncommon, however, to mix the evening’s milk, when kept cool overnight, with the morning’s milk. Some artificial coloring matter is added to the milk, which is then set with rennet at a temperature of 80° or 85° F. After standing undisturbed for about two hours, the curd is dipped into forms or hoops, of which there are three sizes in common use. The largest size is about 15 inches in diameter, the medium size about 12 inches in diameter, and the smallest size about 6 inches in diameter, all varying in height from 2 to 3 inches. After drainage for 24 hours without pressure being applied, the hoops are removed, and the surface of the cheese is sprinkled with salt. Charcoal is sometimes mixed with the salt used. The cheese is then transferred to the first curing room, which is kept dry and well ventilated. After remaining in this room for about eight days the cheese becomes covered with mold. It is then transferred to the second curing room or cellar, which is usually very dark, imperfectly ventilated, and has a temperature of about 60° F. The cheese remains there for from two to four weeks, or until the consistency and odor indicate that it is sufficiently ripened. The red coloration which the surface of the cheese finally acquires has been attributed to an organism designated Bacillus firmaticus. The ripening is due to one or more species of molds which occur on the surface and produce enzyms, which in turn cause a gradual and progressive breaking down of the casein from the exterior toward the center. The interior of a ripened cheese varies in consistency from waxy to semiliquid and has a very pronounced odor and a sharp, characteristic taste. VARIETIES OF CHEESE: DESCRIPTIONS AND ANALYSES. 9 BRINSEN OR BRINZA. This cheese, known locally as Landoch, Zips, Liptau, Siebenbtirgen, Neusohl, Altsohl, and: Klencz, is made in the Carpathian Mountains of Hungary from sheep’s milk, or a mixture of sheep’s and goats’ milk. The cheese is made in small lots, from 2 to 4 gallons of milk being used at one time. This is put into a kettle when fresh, and sufficient rennet is added with the milk at a temperature of from 75° to 85° F. to secure coagulation in 15 minutes. ‘The curd is broken up and the whey dipped, and the curd is placed in a linen sack and allowed to drain for 24 hours. It is then cut into pieces and placed on a board, where with frequent turnings it is allowed to _remair until it commences to get smeary, which requires about eight days. The pieces are then laid one on top of another in a vessel holding from 40 to 60 pounds, where they remain for 24 hours, after which they are removed, the rind cut away, and the curd or partially cured cheese broken up in another vessel. After 10 hours salt is stirred in and the curd run through a mill, which cuts it very fine, when it is packed in a tub with beech shavings. 1 BROCCIO. This is a sour-milk cheese made from sheen’s milk in Corsica. It is some- times mixed with sugar and rum and made into small cakes. It is similar to “Aiger. BURGUNDY. This cheese, known in France as Fromage de Bourgogne, is described as a soft, white, loaf-shaped cheese weighing about 4 pounds. BUTTERMILK. This cheese, made from the curd of buttermilk, is of Somewhat finer grain than skimmed-milk cottage cheese, which it closely resembles. Buttermilk of 0.5 or 0.6 per cent acidity is run into a steam-heated vat or starter can, or placed in a pail which can be heated in a tub of hot water. The buttermilk is stirred and heated to 75° or 78° F., then covered and left for one and one-half or two hours. The temperature is then raised to 140° F., and in about one hour the curd settles to the bottom. The whey is removed and the curd transferred to a draining cloth or bag for about 10 hours. It should be stirred occasionally while draining. When dry the curd is salted, put up in small packages, and wrapped in parchment paper. CACIOCAVALLO. This is a somewhat peculiar kind of cheese made from either whole or partly skimmed milk of cows. Various explanations have been made as to the origin of the name, which means literally horse cheese. One explanation offered is that the cheese was originally made in the region of Monte Cavallo, and another is that the imprint of a horse’s head was made in each cheese as the trade-mark of the original manufacturer. The original home of this cheese was southern Italy, but it is now made extensively in northern Italy as well. The history of the cheese dates back several centuries. The temperature of the coagulation of the milk with rennet varies greatly but is usually from 90° to 95° F. The time allowed for coagulation is also variable, being usually about one-half hour. The curd is cut very fine and sometimes allowed to ferment for 24 hours, when it is heated by means of very hot water, or more commonly hot whey, and subsequently worked by hand until all the whey is expressed and the curd becomes homogeneous and capable 10 BULLETIN 608, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of being drawn out into long threads. It is then molded into any desired shape and salted by immersion in brine for about two days. The cheeses are sus- pended in pairs from the ceiling and lightly smoked. The surface may be rubbed with olive oil or butter. They are kept in a cool, dry room until sold. As seen on the market they vary much in size and shape, and weigh about 38 pounds. The most common shape is that resembling a beet, a constriction near the top being due to the string which is tied around the cheese for the purpose cf hanging it up. This cheese is sometimes eaten while comparatively fresh, but is more frequently kept for months, then grated and used for flavoring soups and as an addition to macaroni and- similar foods. A small quantity is imported into the United States. CACIO FIORE. This is a soft, rennet cheese made in Italy from sheep’s milk. Throughout the process comparatively low temperatures are maintained. The soft curd is put into square forms capable of holding about 4 pounds of cheese. The cheese has a consistency like butter, has a Sweetish taste, and is eaten fresh. CAERPHILLY. This is a hard, rennet cheese made in Wales from cows’ milk, unskimmed. The milk is set very sweet at a temperature of 85° F. with rennet enough to co- agulate it in one hour. The curd is cut in 4-inch cubes and stirred for one hour without further heating. It is then put into cloths and subjected to light pres- sure for an hour and is again broken up fine and put to press, where it remains, with daily changing, for three days. During this time one-half ounce salt to each pound of curd is rubbed on the surface. Each cheese weighs about 8 pounds and requires about three weeks for ripening, at a temperature of 65° or 70° F. CAMBRIDGE. This is a soft, rennet English cheese made from cows’ milk set at 90° F. and rennet added. At the end of one hour the curd is dipped into molds without cutting and allowed to stand for 80 hours, when it is ready for eating. CAMEMBERT. This is a soft, rennet cheese made from cows’ milk. i hi oS Average...... : i E Butea of Chemis- so Maxim i : : y- Minimum d i : Average..:... A “ 5 Emmental........... Benecke.....:---- 72Maximum : i ; Minimum bi 5 b lel@ialty Svermeceerids TSS ce meds i ; . Von Klenze...... SASS ae 3 i : Average...... ; ; lOmin Sesescdeeeds 5;Maximum.... : 5 ‘ : Minimum... .| 24.17 | 28.54 | 30.34 TIP ATIC INO see ees | | as GOR ea ener ss eal bnil se Specs year 47.30 ! 11.40 | 36.34 13113°—18—Bull. 608 1 Green cheese. 5 2 Sugar, ash, etc. Total ash. 65 Salt in ash. 66 BULLETIN 608, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Analyses of cheese—Continued. Milk Number of aie sugar, | Total | Salt in 5 . ; : Variety. Authority. analyses. Water.) Fat. amids, eve acreleaehi SS etc. ete. : | Percis|\Percta Perch. en Chea| Ech Chen| ence Malina fol. ; oe laeetectens Z 9 Formaggini di Lecco-|} Cornalba.......---. Die daec eases {$8 a re ae af ages = a aie Average....-- 49°93 1)25).930 19.45 4|loeeeee 426255 eee Friihstiicks Kaschen.} Bureau of Chemis- of asim 59.95 | 33.88 | 24.82 |....... F474 Socee try. Minimum. ...| 39.40 | 16.96 | 15.63 |....... Oxo alee see Gammelost........--- VWoelckervss e522: 1 eee EA 49 44" 8.86.) 42.128) (O° 85 lo 22222|eeeeeee Average.....- 45.34 | 4.20 | 49.14 |......- M49! | cesar Bureau of Chemis- of Moximui. 46.25 |. 8.07 | 50:91 |-.2..-. Ay (a pee try. Minimum....| 43.50 | 2.31 | 44.08 J....... Sees A-verage...:.. 51.58 | 31.98 | 11.30 | 4.29 260) leeeccice Gervalsh 24 se ssen ise ipalland'so 2 2.fss4: «Masini. 58.00 | 40.47 | 19.94 7.09 GAD oo cee Minimum 44.70 | 26.85 | 7.20] 2.13 254 | hs see Konig 2. h. esosese icc eee tee 52.94 | 29.75 | 11.80 | 2.58 | 2.93 |...--.. Richmond.....-.-. Loess 30: 80) O06:197| 2090 |eo ences 150 3 /2eh eee Stutzer ses. .ae es Le Aen ee ees 44.84 | 36.73 | 15.48 |....... 2.95 .76 pai of Chemis=)| tse ses See eee 30.22 | Ol. 21) 11. 9380s: ane PRY A Ky eee ry s 31.50 | 28.85 | 29.96 | 5.51] 4.18 |....--- Gorter testes Ballandesv nas sce. Qed see Sacer oe {39 10 | 32°20 | 29.86 34| 5.50 GisleVicemtis -4scocee5 > Boge disses seen 1 as ere --| 49.22 ‘ Gloucester. .-..2--.-:: BOWE. sais Sass siccie 1 eee eee 35.75 : IB Ly the ese ee 1 Pees ee ee ee a a : pil : Chattaway Speeder dee ointen ease eae {37 40 ; Griththsieva5. sess 1 a eS 34.10 3 (Hassalleess. 3 ease ds See ee 32.52 b JONES ceeceseoe= cs Woes ateeleaes 2 35. 81 : > ; Average......| 34.80 | 28.02 | 27.96 | 4.37] 4.53 1.34 Vioeleker anc 3che2 +|Maximi.. 40.88 | 33.68 | 31.75 | 7.44} 5.70 2.04 Minimum....| 28.10 | 22.70 | 24.50 1,22) 3.56 85 Goats’-milk—French.| Balland.........-. eh SEE are ea 20.80 | 25.90 | 33.60 | 15.30 | 4.40 |.-..--- TANG et 2 2 4- seece Piece send naa 64.:80"| 9.205) 17.10) 2.2- 2-6 5.80 4.90 Patrick (2)......-. 1 ere ate 17..73 | 46..64.|:27.90 |--....- ALTA | ezousee Average...... 20.90 | 19.86} 7.62. 46.81 | 6.06 |...-.-- Goats’-milk — Nor- | Werenskiold..-... &Maximum....|} 26.53 | 32.68 | 10.63 | 58.07 | 6.57 |...-.-- wegian. Minimum....| 15.53 | 10.98 | 4.43 | 39.04 | 5.14 |....-.. Gorgonzola........... Belles ven Geeks ce LE oh coher ota ee 31. 85 | 27.88 Be) 34] 1.35 z Bs 2.11 9 40.30 | 26.10 | 27.70 |.-....- WOO cleeee eee Chattaway...2--.: dee Deietet sae 33.90 | 26.70 | 25.80 |-.2-- 4.60 | 42.80 |. 29.70 | 28.14 |--....- 6 2.21 erase aires Coe eae (38.69 | 34007 | 22:78 [occ 4.46 | 2.64 1g oinatkss sem ee ina [esses sence s 36.72 | 33.69 | 25.67 soils Sh /lel peers Von Klenze...... 5 ee ae 26.81 | 35.29 | 33.80 |--..... 40 she eee TANG CG ca 5. esoces- 2 Le tise, Seer 41.50°| 29.00") 19:70! }-.2.5.. 4.80 2.60 34.40 B12) |°20575i|saes ene 4.08 133 Maggiora.........- Lehner sates 82.43 | 34.08 | 25.94 |....... 1 6.77 99 37.63 | 36.19 | 26.94 |....-.. 110. 46 92 Average...... 37.30 | 34.67 | 25.16 | 1.62] 3.82 |....... MUSSOSs.<-fjo 3 | Conclusion..... Sielaisicelsaisiesls Seccinacecnceecies 9 INTRODUCTION. Heretofore feeds and labor have been so abundant and have been available at such moderate prices that close calculation in their use has been unnecessary. The present war has caused the American farmer to make a closer study of the economics of the national feed situation than ever before. Ifa large part of the corn, wheat, barley, and similar carbonaceous grains must be saved for human consump- tion, then farmers who raise and fatten live stock will have to prac- tice stricter economy in their feeding operations. The hog is a heavy and promiscuous feeder. He is not a ranger and does not thrive on pasture alone. The grain fed to swine, how- ever, can be reduced greatly by making wider use of nitrogenous feeds. Since the feeding stuffs of high protein content are already in great demand, now is the time to call upon the reserve supply of protein furnished by waste fish and by the waste from fish-canning industries. Many years ago attention was called to the possibilities of fish meal as a feeding stuff, both in this country and abroad, and it is indeed surprising that its use as a feed for stock has not been fostered in this country. 1The fish meal used in these experiments was made under the direction of Dr. F. C. Weber, Chemist in Charge, Animal Physiological Chemical Laboratory, Bureau of Chem- {stry. Acknowledgment is here made for his interest and cooperation, which made the experiments with fish meal possible. 13186°—Bull. 610—17 2 __ BULLETIN 610, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fish meal and fish scrap, or “ pomace,” are similar in composition, the former, however, being prepared for use as a feeding stuff and the latter as a fertilizer. In the manufacture of fertilizer the object is merely to produce a material that contains one or more of the follow- ing necessary constituents: Nitrogen, phosphate, or potash. In the case of fish meal, being a feed stuff, the material from which it is made must be fresh, wholesome, and nutritious, and greater care must be taken in the manufacture. The Norwegian Government in 1892 conducted a series of feeding experiments with fish meal and obtained very favorable results. Since then the merits of fish meal have been more and more appreci- ated in Germany, especially as a feeding stuff for pigs. For some years prior to the present war Germany not only used up all it could produce, but took all that England and Norway had to offer. In the United States fish meal as a feeding stuff has been neglected in spite of the proof of its value. USE OF FISH MEAL IN THE UNITED STATES. The amount of fish meal used for feeding purposes in this country is so small compared with other materials. used as feeding stuff that it is hardly worth mentioning. Although of great use as a fertilizer, the product is clearly of more value to the country as a feeding stuff. English experiments have shown that the oil, which in many samples of fish meal ranges from 7 to 10 per cent, is distinctly disadvantageous in preventing the manure from rotting in the soil and yielding up its nitrogen to the crop. The oil itself contributes nothing to the value of the manure and is simply wasted when applied to the land. There is every reason to favor the view that fish meal should not be spread on the land until it has been passed through the digestive apparatus of farm stock. Very little has been done to bring the value of fish meal before the agriculturist in this country. It is to be regretted that the American farmer has not been brought to appreciate the true value of fish meal. Probably one of the reasons for fish meal having been thus neg- lected is the impression that if it is used in the feeding of animals, their flesh will become tainted. This belief is entirely unwarranted, as shown by German, English, and American experiments, and will be pointed out later in connection with our own experiments. If, as reported, some farmers who have tried it have not found fish meal satisfactory as a feeding stuff, it is because they have not used it with understanding. Fish meal is very similar to packing-house tankage in composition and can be fed in exactly the same propor- tions. If moderate proportions are fed in combination with carbo- naceous feeds, its efficiency as a feeding stuff soon will become apparent. ' FISH MEAL AS A FEED FOR SWINE. 3 FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH PIGS. Two feeding trials were conducted at the Bureau of Animal Indus- ‘try Experimental Farm, Beltsville, Md., to determine the value of fish meal as a feed for pigs. '_ 1. COMPARISON OF FISH MEAL AND TANKAGE AS SUPPLEMENTARY FEEDS. - The first experiment was conducted to determine the comparative values of fish meal and tankage as supplements in a ration for grow- ing and fattening pigs. The pigs used in this work were grade Berk- shires, averaging 52.3 pounds per head when the experiment started. They were as uniform in size, age, and breeding as it was possible to obtain. The guaranteed analysis of the tankage was: Per cent. BGO Vel ee ee 60 Bet Pea ees ae ere eA ee a 8 Phosphoric elds os a ee 8 rune gnber we. ee wool _ See oe eS. The analysis of fish meal was: RUN ASE a a ae 6. 36 DE yak ce Se Nl os 15. 34 Protein: (Ni 26:25) eo ee a eee 57. 31 US TBE ER ILS ESE SU PI Re eR a 16. 52 Wndeterminediiss Veit ee So eS ee A ee et 4, 47 The feeding period was divided into two parts: First, a growing period of 112 days from weaning up to fattening age, starting Janu- ary 19, 1915, and ending May 11, 1915; second, a fattening period of ‘about one month, starting May 11, 1915, and ending June 8, 1915. The pigs at this date averaged a little more than 250 pounds and ‘were sold. During the first period the pigs were divided into two lots of 8 and 4; during the second, or fattening, period they were divided into three lots of 4. Details and results of the feeding are given below. RESULTS DURING THE GROWING PERIOD. The pigs, which were all in good, thrifty, growing condition, were about 3 months of age at the beginning of the experiment, and in order to accustom them to their surroundings they were fed in dry lot from the time they were weaned until the experiment was begun. The pigs in both lots were so fed that all the feed, which was in the form of a thin slop, was cleaned up at each feeding, thereby insuring a sharp appetite at the next feeding time. There was no trouble whatever in getting the pigs to eat the ration contain- ‘ing fish meal. 4 BULLETIN 610, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Summary of results during growing period, Jan. 19, 1915, to May 11, 1915 (112 days). Lot 1. Ration: 4 parts corn meal, 4 parts middlings, 1 part tankage: Durations.of experiment 228 See bee Soe eee eee 2s days_- 112 A OS ee eee hs Fe se ee ees number__ 8 Avera gestirst Wwelgh te che 2 9. ee ee ee pounds__ 51. 87 PAV OTA Lee TiN ag | ey ClO bes ee ee eee rcs ee don 191850 PAVELASO SAM APE yl lye soa See ee eee eh ae eee do] =140s13 Daily) cain, per plein. 2 oe te Be a a ee ee dos222 25 Totaly grain’ Led 222 8— se ee ene do_-__ 4, 06025 Average grain eaten per pig daily _-----______-_-_-- dos 4. 53 Graingper 100 pounds: caine 22 ae es ee eee 6 (oye 362 Lot 2. Ration: 4 parts corn meal, 4 parts middlings, 1 part fish meal: es Duration, of experiment-1220 22% Se OL se oes ke ee ee days_- 112 Big Smee ee 2S Se ee eee ee number__ 4 AVerace! first welght= 222-825 Se Se ee ee pounds__ 54. 25 AVeCTASE TNA Welln tse =e oe =o eee eee 2 ae eee do_.-= 201.50 PAVeL AGEL SAMs DCE Dl Lie se ae eee ee do___. _ 147. 25 Dailycain Per Pik. oo eee ee eee dos = 1.31 Total crain Ted 22-2 oe an eee we kn ee See do__.. 2, 152. 5 Average grain eaten per pig daily_________________-_-____ do___- 4. 80 Grains per JOO MOUS soe yyy eee ee eee ee ee do= == 365 During the growing period Lot 2, fed corn meal, middlings, and fish meal, made a greater daily gain than Lot 1, receiving the tankage supplement. The lot receiving the fish-meal supplement consumed 122.38 pounds more feed and gained a total of 28.5 pounds more in weight than did an equal number of Lot 1 receiving tankage. At the close of the growing period the average weight of the pigs fed fish — meal was 201.5 pounds and that for the pigs getting the tankage supplement was 191.5 pounds, a difference of 10 pounds. From ob- servation no difference could be noted between the two lots with re- spect to growth or general development. This would indicate that one ration was not particularly superior to the other in meeting re- quirements for growth in pigs. RESULTS DURING THE FINISHING PERIOD. The same 12 pigs were used for the second period and were divided into three lots and fed as follows: Lot 3, composed of the same 4 pigs as Lot 2 in the growing period, was continued on the same ration, namely, 4 parts of corn meal, 4 parts of middlings, and 1 part of fish meal. Lot 4, composed of 4 pigs from Lot 1, was fed a ration of 9 parts of corn meal and 1 part of fish meal. Lot 5, composed of the remaining 4 pigs from Lot 1, was fed a ration of 9 parts of corn meal and 1 part of tankage. Many farmers feed the same ration for both the growing and fattening periods, and the intention was to carry out this scheme FISH MEAL AS A FEED FOR SWINE. 5 with this lot of hogs in order to determine the advisability of the practice. Summary of results during fattening period, May 11, 1915, to June 8, 1915 (28 days). Lot 3. Ration: 4 parts corn meal, 4 parts middlings, 1 part fish meal. Durationsof experiment=22222" 2) _ tae eee aE a ee days__ 28 PRLS pee a eat oath ors on CERN seis eis ee OS a number__ 4 VOL AGE irs Were tas Si Nee i ed ee pounds__ 201.5 Averscesutinalawelontee. 5 AsO) ree ys eet te 28 d0222- 1255325 AVOLACCE CAM Wer Pls. see IS ee a ee ee do_--= 538. 75 Danby oN PCIe pice i ke Fe tly ea Se ee doe a. OF RO Lora eC ee Ses. ENN SUN es eee Oe sy Ys oiten e do____ 903. 00 Average grain eaten per pig daily_______.__________________ do___- 8.06 Grameperc 100; pounds gains 2 0 ee ee do___. 421. 00 Lot 4. Ration: 9 parts corn meal, 1 part fish meal. Duration Of experiments hi 2: eee Pe Ee days__ 28 I Ts apne en A se 5 I tea humber__ 4 AVEC ACe MNES i Wele hte eae Tae er pounds__ 191.5 AVericeRinalewelent= = ue nel eee eee do=2= 25 1aie AVeragceecain “Per: Plo ss Sts ee Oa IIE ESS SE dons. 60225 Danlygeniaper pickin ell Upsets vss ee Oe BPE ety ay ie Goet eo i216 Rotalearainyted 6 3on ever tee ia | ain sue AAT See ale do___— 956. 00 Average grain eaten per pig daily__________________________ Oona + Grvinepers OO pounds, Sai 2.5. ee do___. 393. 00 Lot 5. Ration: 9 parts corn meal, 1 part tankage. Durationsor experiment. 2232 22h ee ee days__ 28 LEANER) yee (ECE 0 tS Ae Rees De MRF 2 Fe number__ 4 AVGESCCRRESCEWEl2 NG! se Saloon ee pounds__ 192. 00 AW CEAZCprN als Wel Sibir 6 Ba a ieee CHANG do____ 248. 00 AV CLAS OE SAIN DEE spl 2a aa ey ses ae a do___. 54.00 DD) Nya Olga ee ena i REM dee alae Ee ae MS) dole SHOE OO TCO AL: feariee aly eG esse ace do_._- 910. 00 Average, erain eaten per pig daily. 2222 ee OSS] sae owl} Grain per 100 pounds gain: 2)! ii ei ee Pee do____ 462. 00 The lot fed corn meal, middlings, and fish meal during the finish- ing period did not consume as much feed as the lot fed corn meal and fish meal or the lot fed corn meal and tankage. The lot fed 9 parts of corn meal and 1 part of fish meal made a better showing than either of the other lots in the rate of gain and pounds of feed fed per 100 pounds gain. 2. FISH MEAL AS A SUPPLEMENT TO DRIED POTATO. The second experiment was conducted primarily to determine the value of dried pressed potato in a ration for fattening hogs when supplemented by feeds rich in protein. The results show con- clusively that fish meal is an outstanding protein supplement to feed along with potatoes. 6 BULLETIN 610, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. This experiment was started September 12, 1916, and continued 56 days, ending November 7, 1916. Twelve high-grade Berkshire pigs between 5 and 6 months of age, averaging approximately 150 pounds in weight, were used in this work. Those selected were very uniform in age, quality, breeding, and weight. ‘The pigs were taken off pas- ture and put in the dry lot a week before the experiment proper began. They were confined in a permanent hog house and arranged into 4 lots of 3 pigs each. The pens used for each lot measure 6 feet by 73 feet, and have cork-brick-floors. Attached to these pens are outside runs of concrete 7 feet by 39 feet. Prior to the experi- ment the pigs were fed a ration of 5 parts corn meal, 4 parts middlings, and 1 part tankage. The experimental rations were as follows: : Lot 1 (check lot), 6 parts corn meal, 1 part tankage. Lot 2, 6 parts dried pressed potato, 1 part tankage. Lot 3, 6 parts dried pressed potato, 1 part linseed oil meal (old process). Lot 4, 6 parts dried pressed potato, 1 part fish meal. Following are the analyses of the dried pressed potato rations as made by the Bureau of Chemistry, Department of Agriculture: Analyses of dried pressed potato ration. : Nitrogene Ration. Moisture.| Ash. geet Protein. age free iz : extract. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 11.83 3.04 0.80 2.29 Dried pressed potato and tankage........- 6 11.03 71.01 Dried pressed potato and oil meal........-. 11.91 1.65 67 5. 96 2.98 76. 83. Dried pressed potato and fish meal........ 10. 96 4.04 2. 87 13. 09 1.85 67. 19 The lots were fed three times daily (7 a. m., 11.30 a. m., and 4.30: p. m.). For each meal the feed for each lot was weighed and put into a bucket with enough water to make a thick slop. The feed was mixed with water one-half hour before feeding, so as to allow it to soak. Just after the feed was mixed live steam was turned into’ each bucket of feed for a few minutes to facilitate soaking. A fresh supply of water was given to the pigs about the middle of the forenoon. The hogs were weighed on the scales located inside the permanent hog house; the weighing was done about 9.30 a.m. Indi- vidual weights were taken for three consecutive days (one day pre- vious to the beginning of the experiment and each of the first two. days of the experiment). The average of the three weights was’ taken as the weight of the second day or the beginning of the experi-: ment. Individual weights were taken every Tuesday thereafter until the conclusion of the experiment. FISH MEAL AS A FEED FOR SWINE. aS. "i RESULTS OF THE FEEDING. The pigs in all the lots ate well and regularly and not one of them went off feed during the test. Small quantities of feed were left in the troughs after feeding time, but this was due to the fact that the pigs were required to eat a little more than they conveniently could handle. Dried pressed potato is rather bulky, and it is diffi- cult to determine the amount that will be cleaned up by the pigs at one feed. All the pigs in the experiment were fed 2 pounds of feed per head per day at the beginning of the test. This, of course, was a very small quantity for 150-pound pigs, but they were given this small portion at first because by gradually starting pigs on a feed the appetite is kept keen and the chances of going off feed are very much lessened. The pigs also are better enabled to cultivate an appetite for a new feed. Summary oh results, fattening period, September 12 to November 7, 1916 (56 days). Lot 2, Lot 3, Lot 4, Lot 1, 6 parts 6 parts 6 parts 6 parts | dried dried dried corn meal,| pressed pressed pressed 1 part potato, potato potato, tankage. 1 part 1 part 1 part tankage. | oil meal. | fish meal. IT EATIEMC TION DIPS ste ielaoiciselsioiele oyeiee ciefeiein'eimieici= mie in = ee 3 3 Sigal 3 Averace first weight i: 2. 2s 2... e eee ste e esa e pout 153.33 153. 33 150. 00 | 154. 33 AVETAPC INA WEIPDE. 5. < occc recon ce soccer ses. - 242 198. 33 206. 33 228. 66 Average fain per Pig..-...-..------2-0--0-------- ae ide 87.77 45.00 51.33 74. 33 Average daily gain.-..........--.-.-------------- do. -22 1.57 . 80 91 1.32 Motalisrainsed= so. a4). 262 See sae 2. Sei e . 2) do...-| 1,072 939 900. 5 956. 5 Pounds fed per 100 pounds gain..-...-.-....--.-- do. 22 403 695 584 428 Daily feed per 100 pounds, live weight.. E.-= -d02288 3. 23 3.16 2.93 2.91 AV ETA COM Ally TORE ccs ace cnecie cso scecccneceecers- doit 6.4 5.5 5.3 Si All the pigs were in good, thrifty, growing condition at the begin- ning, and were maintained in good condition and health during the progress of the experiment. A study of the table will show that Lot 1 (check) excelled all the other lots with respect to rate of gains, amount of feed consumed to produce 100 pounds of gain, and the average final weight. This lot of pigs was the largest and growthiest in the experiment. They were heavy feeders and re- turned good gains for the amount of feed consumed. The lot receiving dried pressed potato and fish meal (Lot 4) Was a very close second to the check lot. The figures, however, show greater advantages in favor of the check lot than one could detect with the eye. Both these lots maintained good condition throughout the experiment and carried a very high degree of finish. There was a difference of 13 pounds per hog in favor of the check lot at the close of the test. The pigs in Lot 4 were evidently as heavy feeders as those in the check lot, but it is impossible for pigs to consume 8 BULLETIN 610, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. very large amounts of the dried pressed potato on account of the bulkiness of this feed. The pigs receiving dried pressed potato and fish meal consumed a daily ration of 5.7 pounds, made a daily gain of 1.82 pounds, and required 428 pounds of feed to produce 100 pounds of gain. The pigs in Lot 3, receiving dried pressed potato and oil meal, consumed less feed than any other lot in the experiment. From this, one might infer that the ration was the least palatable and least efficient of any of the rations fed. This, however, is not true, because the pigs in Lot 2, receiving dried pressed potato and tank- age, ate more feed than Lot 3, although they made smaller gains. This tends to prove that the potato ration containing oil meal is more efficient in producing gains than the potato ration containing tank- age, although the pigs ate less of the potato and oil-meal feed. The pigs in Lot 3 had a higher degree of finish than the potato and tankage pigs (Lot 2), but they were not equal to the potato and fish- meal pigs in this respect. The pigs in Lot 3 consumed a daily ration of 5.8 pounds, made a daily gain of 0.91 pound, and required 584 pounds of feed to produce 100 pounds of gain. The pigs in lot 2, which were fed dried pressed potato and tankage, consumed enough feed to put them in higher condition than they had at the close of the feeding test. The showing that these pigs made can not be called poor, but it is evident that tankage is not as efficient as a protein supplement to use with dried pressed potato as fish meal or even old-process linseed-oil meal. The pigs in lot 2 returned a smaller amount of gain for the amount of feed consumed than any other lot in the experiment. These pigs consumed an aver- age daily ration of 5.5 pounds, made an average daily gain of 0.80 of a pound, and required 695 pounds of feed to put on 100 pounds of gain. CARCASS TEST. At the close of both these experiments the heaviest hog was se- lected from each lot and slaughtered on the farm to determine the quality of flesh and fat and the degree of finish. The carcasses were divided into regular meat cuts in as nearly uniform a manner as possible. The fresh pork from each hog was eaten by individuals who were ignorant of the feed that the hogs received, in order to test the flavor and cooking qualities of the meat. The lard fat was cut from the trimmings and rendered, as was also the fat from the carcass, and observations upon them were made. In no case was the meat reported as having a fishy odor or taste. If the carcass had been tainted from feeding fish meal, it would most certainly have been evident in the rendering of the lard, but such was not the case. FISH MEAL AS A FEED FOR SWINE. 9 The results of this work, and also the successful use of fish meal as a feeding stuff in Germany, show that the belief that the consump- tion of this product taints the meat is unwarranted. CONCLUSION. Fish meal is a very effective supplement to a grain ration for pigs. The animals relish it and are extremely fond of it. Fish meal was superior to tankage in all comparisons, although the daily gains in all cases were exceptionally good. The pigs maintained a thrifty growth and were never off their feed during the entire feeding period. Fish meal does not impart a fishy flavor to the meat or lard in any way if fed in proper proportions with other feeds. Where fish meal can be obtained conveniently at a reasonable price and in suitable quantity, it has a very considerable value m pig feeding. When given a fair trial and used in proper proportions it should become one of the most popular as well as most remunerative protein sup- plements for pig feeding. 10 BULLETIN 610, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRI- CULTURE RELATING TO HOGS. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Feeding Hogs in the South. (Farmers’ Bulletin 411.) Hog Houses. (Farmers’ Bulletin 488.) Boys’ Pig Clubs. (I'armers’ Bulletin 566.) Breeds of Swine. (Farmers’ Bulletin 765.) Castration of Pigs. (Iarmers’ Bulletin 780.) Tuberculosis of Hogs. (I‘armers’ Bulletin 781.) Live Stock Classification at County Fairs. (Iarmers’ Bulletin 822 Hog Cholera: Prevention and Treatment. (Farmers’ Bulletin 834.) Utilization of Farm Wastes in Feeding Live Stock. (Farmers’ Bulletin §73.) Swine Management. (I*armers’ Bulletin 874.) Feeding of Dried Pressed Potatoes to Swine. (Department Bulletin 596.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF Et a GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. Feeding Farm Animals. (Farmers’ Bulletin 22.) Price, 5 cents. Pig Management. (Farmers’ Bulletin 205.) Price, 5 cents. Hog Cholera. (Farmers’ Bulletin 379.) Price, 5 cents. Pasture and Grain Crops for Hogs in the Pacific Northwest. (Farmers’ Bul- letin 599.) Price, 5 cents. Hog Industry. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 47.) Price, 30 cents. Etiology of Hog Cholera. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 72.) Price, 25 cents. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 6 CENTS PER COPY v/ WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 191% Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry j WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER December 10, 1917 WALNUT BLIGHT IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. By S. M. McMurran, Assistant Pathologist, Office of Fruit-Disease Investigations. CONTENTS. Page, | Page. Importance of the disease....... OA Aataccoe i elimeomniechont. 2170 sce soc ce esse ooee lee 5 History of walnut blight.............2.-ess02 2 | Control of walnut blight.........cccccccccece 5 The disease in the Eastern States........c.0- 4 | Summary....-..-. SEO COSEC REIS Aor 6 IMPORTANCE OF THE DISEASE. The growing of the Persian (English) walnut in the eastern half of the United States is receiving increasing attention and arousing the interest of many. Persian walnut trees, mainly seedlings, either isolated or in small groups or orchards, are by no means uncommon in the States east of Lake Michigan and the Wabash River below the latitude of New England. An indication of the number of such trees now growing in this part of the country was contained in an address by Prof. F. N. Fagan, of State College, Pa., delivered before the Northern Nut Growers’ Association in 1915, in which the statement was made that as the result of a recent survey by that college the “location of some 1,500 or 2,000 bearing trees” had been ascertained in that State. While there has been no effort to make a similar survey in other Eastern States, so far as the writer is informed: his personal knowledge and that of associates in the Bureau of Plant Industry indicates practically the same proportion of Persian walnut trees in the States of New York, Delaware, New Jersey, and Mary- land. Isolated trees are known in lower Connecticut, southern Michi- gan, Ohio, and Virginia. Several eastern nurseries are now. spe- Note.—This bulletin is intended particuiarly for all engaged in propagating Persian _walnuts in those portions of the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. It is also of scientific interest to plant pathologists, 13187°—37—Bull. G11 2 BULLETIN 611, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cializing in the growing of young trees for general planting. These facts, together with the increasing volume of correspondence re- ceived by the Department of Agriculture relative to walnut diseases and the known occurrence of the walnut blight, or bacteriosis, in the eastern United States, make it desirable to publish at this time a résumé of the history of this disease and its present status in the section specified, to the end that difficulties and disappointments may be avoided. Commercial walnut growing in the United States may be said to have had its origin on the Pacific coast. At present the principal production of Persian walnuts in this country is from a few counties in southern California, although within recent years there has been extensive planting in the San Joaquin Valley, the Sacra- mento Valiey and adjacent valleys of northern California, and in the Willamette Valley of western Oregon. To a considerable extent this walnut is now being planted by amateurs and experimenters in other States, especially Arizona and New Mexico. As a result of this situation, systematic studies of the species and its varieties, its enitural requirements, diseases, and insect pests have largely been confined to the West, and except as analogies can be drawn there is little in agricultural literature that will be of assistance to a prospec- tive grower in the eastern United States. During the seasons of 1910, 1911, and 1914 specimens of diseased nuts were received by the Bureau of Plant Industry from points in Maryland, Louisiana, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Delaware and determined by Mr. M. B. Waite, Pathologist in charge of the Office of Fruit-Disease Investigations, to be affected with the so-called walnut blight, or bacteriosis. During the summer of 1916 an effort was made by the writer to determine the extent of the occur- rence and the seriousness of this trouble in the eastern United States. as it appeared to be the most serious disease with which the industry now has to contend in this part of the country. Blighted nuts were found at practically all points at which bearing walnut trees were examined, and reports from other sections indicate that the presence of this disease is more or less general in the entire eastern district. HISTORY OF WALNUT BLIGHT. In 1901 Pierce * reported a walnut disease due to a bacterium which had at that time become established in the seedling orchards of southern California. He stated that it was highly pathogenic on young nuts, leaves, and tender twigs and frequently caused serious 1 Pierce, N. B. Walnut bacteriosis. fn Bot. Gaz, vy. 31, no. 4, p. 272-245. 1901. WALNUT BLIGHT IN THE EASTERN UNITED STATES. 3 loss of young nuts. His paper gives a number of the characteristics of the organism in pure culture, and his work has subsequently been corroborated by Clayton O. Smith, of the Whittier Station in Cali- fornia, and the writer, in the eastern United States. Pierce pro- posed the term “bacteriosis” as being a suggestive name for the disease, though by growers the malady is commonly known and spoken of as walnut blight, which may be considered its common name. The disease-producing organism is now known as Bacterium juglandis (Pierce) Erw. Smith.2 Since the publication of Pierce’s paper reports by other writers have appeared from time to time, the most valuable contribution being Bulletin No. 231 of the Cal- ifornia Agricultural Experiment Station.? The work reported in this paper, which extended over a period of some years, largely con- firmed Pierce’s studies and greatly augmented the existing knowl- edge of the disease-producing organism and its relation to its host. A brief quotation will serve to indicate the seriousness with which this disease is regarded on the Pacific coast and the gravity with which it should be considered by present and prospective growers _ elsewhere. This is by far the most important trouble affecting the walnut in California. So serious has been this disease that the loss of a iarge portion of the crop has in some cases been charged to this source, Jegislatures have made special ap- propriations for its investigation, and the growers have offered a large reward for a practical remedy. At the same time the losses directly attributable to blight have been extremely large. One significant fact in this connection is that while the walnut acreage in southern California has multiplied many times during the past decade (1502-1912), the total walnut crop has increased very little during this time. This loss or failure of the crop to increase has not been entirely attributable to blight, yet it has certainly been due to the disease much more than to any other one factor.’ Until a few years ago walnut bacteriosis had been definitely known to occur only on the Pacific coast and in New Zealand. In 1913 Waite* reported the disease as occurring in the Eastern States. He stated: The California walnut bacteriosis has turned up at various points in the East. The twig-blight form of this disease is also prevalent in various States. The walnut blight, or bacteriosis, is therefore to be figured with in planting the Persian walnut in the East.... It occurs in Texas and Louisiana, and I think we have it in or near Buffalo, N. Y., and in New Jersey, so if I were 1Smith, E. F. Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases, v. 1, p. 171. Washington, DB. C. (Carnegie Inst., Washington, Pub. 27.) - 2$mith, R. E., Smith, C. O., and Ramsey, H. J. Walnut culture in California. Walnut blight. Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 231, p. 113-398, 96 fig. 1912. 8 Smith, R. E., Smith, C. O., and Ramsey, H. J. Op. cit. 4 Waite, M. B. The diseases of nut trees. In Rept. Proc. 4th Ann. Meeting, Northern Nut.Growers’, Asgoc.,.1913, p. 56. 1914, 4 BULLETIN 611, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. planting extensively I should expect that disease to be serious. That would be my forecast of the matter. The humidity and cloudy weather in the East ought to be more favorable to the disease than the climate of California. There is no reason to suppose that blight will not appear wherever Persian walnuts are grown. THE DISEASE IN THE EASTERN STATES. During the first week in June, 1916, a trip was made by the writer to various points in Delaware, New Jersey, and Pennsylvania where bearing walnut trees were known to-be located. On practically every tree that had a crop the nuts were found to be spotted in a manner very characteristic of bacteriosis (Pl. I). The lesions at this time were small and superficial in character, rarely extending more than 2 to 3 millimeters (about one-tenth of an inch) into the husk. A number of specimens were collected and cultures obtained. The technique used consisted in washing the nuts with soap and water, sterilizing the surface with an alcoholic solution of mercury bichlorid for five minutes, and then washing in distilled water. After this treatment the epidermis of the diseased spots was removed carefully with a sterile scalpel and bits of subepidermal tissue trans- ferred to tubes of melted beef agar, agitated, further diluted in a second and third tube of the same media, and poured into Petri dishes. About 15 attempts were made, in practically all of which bacteriai colonies of a similar type appeared on the plates in from two to four days, and the plates from the third dilutions usually contained colonies which were so few as to allow transfers to be ~ made to tubes without difficulty. During the first week in August a series of inoculations was made on the nuts and twigs of a certain mature tree at Lancaster, Pa., which was said to be a seedling of Rush. The husks of 24 young nuts entirely free from any trace of the disease were inoculated (1) by spraying with a suspension of the germs in rain water, (2) by smearing on the culture, and (38) by puncturing with an infected needle. Several untreated nuts were tagged as controls. At the same time five young, tender, growing twigs 5 to 10 millimeters in diameter were inoculated with the germs about 6 inches from the tips by making several punctures in each with an infected needle; one twig was punctured with a sterile needle as a control. The organisms used in these experiments were all from pure cultures on beef agar and obtained as previously described. A month later (Sept. 5, 1916) it was found that 21 of the 24 nuts inoculated had developed: the disease and 3 showed no.trace of it; . the untreated nuts were perfectly clean. Of the five twigs inocu-. lated, all had developed cankers from 5 to 10 mm. in length and from_. 2 to 5 mm. in width. Plate II shows one of the nuts 30 days after PLATE I. Bul. 611, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. (‘azIs [vanyeN) “OTeL ‘ounr “eg ‘1eqsvoue’y 18 peqdo][oN “WIT ‘Wf UIMIG (edI0TT) sepunjbnl wndap~ng Aq posnvd ore s}ods ors “SLANIVAA NVISHYSd SNNOA JO SISOINSLOVG ayovIeYO OUT, PLATE II. Bul. 611, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. DISEASED AND HEALTHY PERSIAN WALNUT TWIGS AND A Nut AFFECTED WITH WALNUT BLIGHT. a diseased nut one ile; dle puncture. ’ y needle punctures from sin one month’s time b d with a sterile needle; D lture by a nee o c=) ated from a pure cu pure culture; C,a control twig puncture A ond B, typical eankers produced on twi month after being inocul WALNUT BLIGHT IN THE EASTEBN UNITED STATES. 5 inoculation by needle puncture and two inoculated twigs having characteristic cankers. The control, which was punctured with a sterile needle, is shown at the right. The needle punctures in the con- trol barely showed at this time, 30 days after inoculation. Subsequently the organism was reisolated from a number of these inoculated nuts, and the cultural studies so far made from these isolations coincide with those made by Smith? and by Pierce.? TIME OF INFECTION. During the season of 1916 infection apparently took place about the last of May in the cases under observation. At this time the nuts were very well developed, approximately three-fourths to 1 inch in diameter, and although there was a slow increase in the area of the infection points through July and some coalescing of these spots to form larger ones, the disease did not begin to work deeply into the tissues until about the middle of August, by which time the shell had formed and hardened. By the end of the season the husks had become black, watery, and rotten, staining the shells and clinging to them when allowed to dry. The develop- ment of the nuts did not seem to be affected materially, if at all. The growers interviewed were unanimous in stating that infection was usually late and that no material shortage of crop resulted there- from. However, the former part of this statement probably could be applied only to the time at which the infection became so evident as to attract the attention of ordinary observers. In the California orchards the greatest loss from infection occurs at or near blooming time. Infection is serious in proportion as the weather is moist at that time. A dry, clear spring means little, if any, blight, whereas serious infection is associated with moist, fog spring weather. The disease as observed in 1916 in Pennsy deans Delaware, and the District of Columbia resembled closely the severe late infections described by Smith. 3 CONTROL OF WALNUT BLIGHT. | Various attempts to control this disease by spraying and by soil applications have been made in California, and although some suc- cess has attended the spraying experiments it has not been of such degree as to extend any material encouragement to the commercial orchardist. That spraying will be of no. value under eastern condi- tions can not be assumed from this fact, however, owing to the dif- ference in the infection periods. previously referred to. Neverthe- less, spraying to contro] diseases. of bacterial origin has never been 2 Smith, R. E., Smith, C. O., ‘anal Ramsey, H, J, ‘Op. cit. 2 Pierce, N B. Op. cit. 6. BULLETIN 611, U.S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. so successful as in the control of those due to fungi; until the efficacy of spraying may have become established, too. much should not be expected from this method of control. A logical and seemingly practicable method of avoiding losses inci- dent to bactericsis isin the possible development of immune or highly resistant varieties. Work along this line is now under way on the Pacific coast, but it is not known that any varieties altogether re- sistant to blight or even practically immune to it have thus far been brought to ight. However, among the many thousands of seedling trees on the Pacific coast and the. hundreds in the eastern United States, it would not seem too much to presume that for general orchard planting blight-resistant and otherwise desirable varieties will yet be found. Whenever such varieties are discovered, arrange- ments may be made with the Department of Agriculture for testing their susceptibility to this disease by means of inoculation experi- ments. Meanwhile, it is to be hoped that the planting of small com- mercial orchards and of trees for home use will be continued, as small groups of bearing trees over a wide range of territory will furnish © valuable suggestions as to future commercial plantings. SUMMARY. Walnut blight, or bacteriosis, is distributed very generally through- out the eastern half of the country. Investigations by Mr. M. B. Waite and the writer have demonstrated its occurrence in Louisiana, the District of Columbia, Maryland, Delaware, Pennsylvania, and New York, and there seems to be no reason to suppose that it will not occur wherever Persian walnuts are grown in the United States. During the summer of 1916 pure cultures of the causal organism were obtained from naturally infected nuts; inoculation experiments were conducted in healthy nuts and twigs, and these inoculations were uniformly successful in producing the disease. Cultural studies. were conducted in the laboratory, and the results obtained corresponded with those reported by Pierce? and by Smith.’ The writer’s observations of this disease have covered one season only, and therefore definite conclusions as to its behavior under vary- ing seasonal conditions are not possible. It may be stated, however, that late infections were the rule during the season of 1916, and if this condition holds generally true from season to season it will con- stitute a striking difference between the behavior of the disease in the Middle Atlantic States and on the Pacific coast. Extensive experiments to control this disease by spraying have been conducted from time to time in California, but the results ob- tained have never been entirely satisfactory. Here, again, the differ- 2 Pierce, N. B. Op. eit. *%Smith, R. B., Smith, C. O., and Ramsey, H. Tt Op. cit. : a WALNUT BLIGHT IN THE BASTERN UNITED STATES. ff ence in infection periods may alter results, but from the best infor- mation at present available it appears that the solution of the problem _ of the control of this disease rests in the development of immune or highly resistant varieties. Nurserymen and growers should be on the watch for such sorts as combine a high resistance to this disease with the other qualities necessary in a good commercial nut, and whenever such varieties are found they should be propagated. The wide planting of small lots of trees will furnish in the course of a few years valuable suggestions as to the requirements and range of the Persian walnut in the Eastern States, and should not be dis- couraged on account of blight. Although it is not possible at this time to say that this nut has large commercial possibilities in the section east of the Rocky Mountains, it is equally impossible to state the contrary as the fact. It is well established, however, that there are now hundreds of seedling trees in New York, Pennsylvania, New Jersey, Delaware, and Maryland bearing nuts of more or less merit despite the presence of this disease, and apparently there is no reason why every farm and country home in this district should not have a small] planting of these productive as well as highly ornamental trees. PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRI- CULTURE RELATING TO THE SUBJECT OF THIS BULLETIN. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. The San Jose Seale and Its Control. (Farmers’ Bulletin 650.) The Apple-Tree Tent Caterpillar. (Farmers’ Bulletin 662.) Pecan Culture; with Special Reference to Propagation and Varieties, (Ifarmers’ Bulletin 700.) The Bagworm, an Injurious Shade-Tree Insect. (Farmers’ Bulletin 701.) The Leopard Moth: A Dangerous Imported Insect Enemy of Shade Trees. (Farmers’ Bulletin 708.) The Leaf Blister Mite of Pear and Apple. (Farmers’ Bulletin 122.) The Oyster-Shell Scale and the Scurfy Seale. (Farmers’ Bulletin 423.) The White-Pine Blister Rust. (Farmers’ Bulletin 742.) Orchard Barkbeetles and Pinhole Borers, and How to Control Them. (Farmers’ Bulletin 763.) The Death of Chestnuts and Oaks Due to Armillaria Mellea. (Department Bulletin 89.) Walnut Aphides in California. (Department Bulletin 100.) Endothia Parasitica and Related Species. (Department Bulletin 380.)_ The Chestnut Bark Disease. (Separate 598 from the Yearbook of 1912.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Scale Insects and Mites on Citrus Trees. (Farmers’ Bulletin 172.) Price 5 cents. The Control of the Chestnut Bark Disease. (Farmers’ Bulletin 467.) Price 5 cents. : The Anthracnose of the Mango in Fiorida. (Department Bulletin 52.) Price 10 cents. A Disease of Pines Caused by Cronertium Pyriforme. (Department Bulletin 247.) Price 5 cents. Apple Leaf-Spot Caused by Sphaeropsis Malorum. (In Bureau of Plant Indus- try Bulietin 121.) Price 5 cents. The Present Status of the Chestnut-Bark Disease. (in Bureau of Plant Indus- try Bulletin 141.) Price 5 cents. The Persian Walnut Indusiry of the United States. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 254.) Price 20 cents. Cultural Characters of the Chestnut-Blight Fungus and Its Near Relatives. (In Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 131.) Price 5 cents. Diseases of Ornamental Trees. (Separate 463 from the Yearbook of 1907.) Price 5 cents. 8 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C, AT 6 CENTS PER COPY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the States Relations Service A. C. TRUE, Director. Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER November 8, 1917 THE DIGESTIBILITY OF THE DASHEEN. By C. F. Lanewortuy, Chief, and A. D. Houmes, Specialist in Charge of Digestion Hxperiments, Office of Home Economics. CONTENTS. Page. | Page Brairaducimmene.. 20s. eS oh. 0 8s 1 | Details‘of the experiments.............-.---- 4 Nature of the diet during the test periods... . 2)|\ Diseussiomok results. 252. 526 beck Ee Sk 9 SPOTS ESSE SHG SE Re DS pee me sess ey me Mi a 3ii)|\, COUCIUSIONS eeicie sentra ajee ok eat terdeeiejeha sepa ate 10 Relation between maturity and digestibility - 3 INTRODUCTION. The dasheen, with other varieties of the taro (Colocasia esculenta), is a staple article of food for millions of people in tropical countries, the large, starchy tubers being ground and used like flour, cooked like potatoes, or prepared in a special way like the Hawaiian poi. Until recently these roots have been little known in this country, but of late the Department of Agriculture has given considerable attention to the selection of varieties suited to the warm localities where white potatoes do not grow well! As a result, it has been found that the dasheen may be profitably grown, and attempts are being made to include it in the dietary as a starchy vegetable. Be- cause its flavor and uses are so similar to those of the white potato, the dasheen will no doubt serve as a crop to supplement the potato supply, especially in regions where it will thrive and the potato can not be successfully grown. 1U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. 1110 (1914). 13112°—17—Bull. 612 ys BULLETIN 612, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The tuber system of the dasheen consists of a large rootstock, or corm, and a considerable number of smaller cormels, or tubers, which branch out from the corm on all sides. The central corm may weigh from 1 to 5 or even 6 pounds. The tubers resemble sweet potatoes in shape and range of size. Inasmuch as both the corms and the tubers are edible and both are included in the harvested crop, throughout this discussion the term dasheen may be understood to refer to both. Many tests of the culinary possibilities of the dasheen have been made by the Department of Agriculture, by home-economics workers and teachers, and by housekeepers. The general conclusion drawn from this work was very favorable to the dasheen. In general it may be said that the dasheen, which in flavor and starch is like the white potato, can be cooked in much the same way as this well- known vegetable. The fiesh of the dasheen, when cooked, varies from a white or gray to a light-violet color and has a nutty flavor, which is very generally relished by those who are accustomed to it. It seems drier than white potato and many seem to feel the need for a liberal amount of butter when eating it, either baked or boiled. A review of the literature furnished no information in regard to the digestibility of this vegetable, and so it seemed desirable to de- termine to what extent it is utilized by the human body.. A supply of dasheens of uniform quality, grown under known soil and climatic conditions, was secured for this purpose through the ccoperation of the Bureau of Plant Industrv from one of its experimental fields in Florida. NATURE OF THE DIET DURING THE TEST PERIODS. Since carbohydrates would be the chief nutrient introduced into the diet by the dasheen, in this study attention has centered on the digestibility of this constituent, though data are also reported for protein, fat, and ash. Accordingly, in selecting the basal ration, foods were chosen which contained a minimum amount of carbohy- drates, a simple basal diet consisting of milk, fruit, butter, and tea or coffee, if any liquid other than water was desired, being served in conjunction with the dasheen. The object was to have a diet simple in character and meeting the experimental requirements, yet sufficiently palatable to be eaten for three days (the length of the experimental periods) without being monotonous, and also varied enough to be comparable with an ordinary mixed diet. That experimental rations thus planned give satisfactory results has been the experience of this office. To insure the consumption of fairly large amounts of dasheen the subjects were urged to eat freely of it, and at the same time they THE DIGESTIBILITY OF THE DASHEEN, 3 were not restricted with respect to the amounts of the accessary foods eaten. As a result the amounts of food eaten during the different test periods varied quite materially. SUBJECTS. The subjects who assisted in this investigation were strong, healthy men, with normal appetites and digestive functions, whose ages varied from 20 to 40 years. With one exception they were all stu- dents in local institutions. Since all had more or less muscular ex- ercise, it seems fair to regard them as engaged in light muscular work rather than as of sedentary occupation. Their normal dietary was simple and, except that it contained meat, was not materially different from that of the experimental periods and, accordingly, the change from one type of diet to the other was not accompanied by any noticeable physiological disturbances. The subjects were in- structed to submit a report of their physical condition during the experimental period and in every instance they stated that they were in normal condition. Inasmuch as this study of the dasheen was primarily concerned with the coefficients of digestibility, no attempt was made to maintain a uniform body weight and no record was kept of the weight of the subjects. The ration for each subject was prepared and weighed in advance. They were instructed to reserve any uneaten portions of the diet for analysis, ciate how to collect feces resulting from the experimental diet. RELATION BETWEEN MATURITY AND DIGESTIBILITY. In addition to considering the general question of digestibility it seemed desirable also to determine whether or not maturity of the dasheen influenced their digestibility. Obviously, for this purpose dasheens were needed which were as nearly alike as possible except in respect to maturity at the time of harvesting. The Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction of the Bureau of Plant Indus- try, accordingly provided representative samples of immature and mature dasheens grown under controlled conditions at the plant introduction field station, Brooksville, Fla. Rows which were ad- judged to be typical of the field were chosen, and about six weeks before the usual harvesting time the alternate plants were harvested and their entire root systems forwarded to this laboratory as were also the tubers of the remaining plants when later they were con- sidered to be mature. The tubers in both cases were eaten less than a week after being removed from the ground. 4 BULLETIN 612, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Experiments Nos. 513, 514, and 519 to 522 report results obtained with the immature dasheen, while the remaining four experiments (Nos. 543 to 546) are concerned with the digestibility of the mature tubers. All experimental conditions were maintained as nearly iden- tical as possible in both sets of experiments, and, accordingly, the results reported should be directly comparable. DETAILS OF THE EXPERIMENTS. In general, the methods employed in this investigation were the same as those for similar experiments reported in recent publica- tions? of this office. Considerable care was exercised in preparing and serving the experimental diet so that all the foods eaten by the different subjects at the different meals should be of uniform com- position. The accessory foods (milk, fruit, butter) were so chosen and prepared as to be quite uniform in composition; they were eaten as purchased and were not cooked in any way. The dasheen, in sufficient quantities to supply all the subjects for the entire period of each experiment, was prepared at the beginning of the test period. In every case it was parboiled until the outer por- tion could be pierced with a fork, and then baked until the center of the tubers was thoroughly softened, a method of preparation which experience has shown to be satisfactory as regards quality and economy of time and which is in accord with a common practice. The entire tuberous structure of the plants was used in every case. As was to be expected, it was found that the time required for- baking the large corms was considerably greater than that necessary for the smaller cormels or tubers. When thoroughly baked, the thick skin was removed at once and the dasheens were passed through a potato ricer while still hot, since they do not “ rice” well when cool. They were then thoroughly mixed to insure uniformity and for each test a representative sample was reserved for analysis. The 10 experi- ments here reported occurred at three intervals—two experiments (Nos. 513 and 514), beginning September 28; four experiments (Nos. 519 to 522), beginning October 10; and four experiments (Nos. 543 to 546), beginning November 22. The subjects were permitted to warm the dasheen before eating it 1f they so desired, but when they did so they were required to leave none uneaten. Butter was eaten with the dasheen, each man using, on an average, approximately 110 grams of butter daily, equivalent to 90 grams or more of butter fat. The separation of the feces resulting from the diet was accom- plished by means of lampblack taken in gelatin capsules with the first 1See list on p. 12. THE DIGESTIBILITY OF THE DASHEEN. 5 meal of the experimental period and with the first meal succeeding the test period; the resulting dark coloration of a portion of the feces makes it possible, generally, to separate very accurately the feces from the experimental diet from the remainder voided at the same time. The feces for each experiment were deposited in tared glass containers and were dried in an electric oven regulated to main- tain a temperature of 95° C. When dry, the total amount of feces for each subject was finely ground and thoroughly mixed for analysis. Samples of both food and feces, the latter reported on “ water-free ” basis, were analyzed to determine the percentages of protein, fat, and carbohydrates, according to the methods outlined by the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, and from a comparison of the re- sults it was determined how much was actually digested. The data essential for the interpretation of the results of the digestion experiments are given in the tables below, and include the total amount of food eaten, the amounts of protein, fat, and carbohydrates supplied, the weights of the feces and their constit- uents, and the coefficients of digestibility of the protein, fat, and car- bohydrates of the diet. EXPERIMENTS WITH IMMATURE DASHEENS. Six experiments were made with immature dasheens and, while these were not all carried on at the same time, the subjects and all experimental conditions were the same throughout. The results are given in the following table: Data of digestion experiments with immature dasheens in a simple mixed diet. Carbo- ‘| Pro- Food. Total. | Water. : Fat. hy- Ash. tein. drates. Experiment No. 513, subject A. J. H.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams.| Grams.| Grams.| Grams. TD EVEN SNA aN oa eT ea A a ee 1, 430.0 983.1 24.2 2.3 | 406.4 14.0 TUL ep a ae PG SA REEVE RNNG Sey 0 5 SSMU R LC 2,530.0) 2,201.1 75.9 101.2 126.5 25.3 BESTS UM Tapert eee eta ste eee ee ES NS Seas SL 131.0 113.8 20) 0.3 15.2 0.7 FETE RT dO a GUE Se ae Mae EA Oe) ee ee a oe 482.0 53.0 ASH 409M Tine ance 14.5 Motalifood: consumed bss eee 4,573.0 | 3,351.0 | 105.9 | 513.5] 548.1 54.5 CEOS yl ce ct) 721 PY Pl 33.4 30.6 17.7 16.3 FATT QUTIGAUIUTIIZOG eee aie ate ele cee eoate ess eee ares) MRM eS TEA ey SMa a 72.5 | 482.9 | 530.4 38.2 RCT CONEIIGII ZC Ce eer a eee. | Seppe pate Bacar er 68.5 94.0 96.8 70.1 Experiment No. 514, subject P. K.: TDM Ve raral eS Fe Rte Nab aa eo a 1,599.0 | 1,099.3 27.0 2.6] 454.4 1aHY/ TMD eh i a Se A a ea a ean Ais SDR Seen 2,363.0 | 2,055.8 70.9 | 94.5 | 118.2 23.6 TOO se NE) a RAL prea lei MaMa a 741.0 643.9 5.9 1.5 86.0 3.7 TSEUR SE hehe Ae eH Bs A oO at ee tl ag 340.0 37.4 3.4 289 ON see 10.2 hotalifoodiconsumeds 22 see Res 5, 043.0 "3,836 4} 107.2] 387.6] 658.6 53.2 GOES Ss Sb BSH E SEES CRMRMAE GG SEES Eee Sele eic: ean YT Oe ey es le 10.0 8.2 10.6 5.2 FASTIN OUITUGHULUTIT ZG CL zits eos eons peste eee INL ETAT TASS 6 "| pepe GEIS 22 To 97.2 | 379.4 648.0 48.0 BOTCON ULI ZG n ase eee eae e erates mci e ete ialals | Semmes area rot aay eal 90.7 97.9 98.4 90.2 1U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Bul. 107 (1912), rev. ed. a i 1i| ; | | 6 BULLETIN 612, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1} i] oe ere i Data of digestion experiments with immature dasheens in a simple mixed diet— I Continued. Hi | f i fs iene Carbo- iit ood. Total. | Water. fain Fat. hy- Ash. 7 drates | Experiment No. 519, neublocy A: ReiGes Grams. | Grams. | Grams.| Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Dasheen.. 40.5 2.7 | 546.2 19.6 kee Pa As eae sees 78.7 105.0}. 132.3 26.2 pobre ne a re en re era a eee re 3.0 0.7 43.3 1.9 BUGLE cetoutcaeke tence diecestece eelemicclutgeeicase 1 eon ees) 630) Ga See ne 4.6 Motal food consumed: 3.2.2: 2. 222255222256 5,051.0 | 3,915.7 | 123.7) 238.5 |: 720.8 52.3 HMGCES! sss cmenicent = a bbe skeeie Seems ERS wines Se 271. O))|scatsonees 30.9 10.6 18.0 UES, AMOUNT Uti zed ett aes eects come eee eae ieee cece Sees 92.8 | 227.9 | 702.8 40.8 Pericentiitilizeds tesco sees tse ea sa A oe leseagces 75.0) |< 95.64] 7 59725 78.0 Experiment No. 520, subject A. J. H.: Washeemans csc fo 5cet ce eee occumclswirsc cma cteniess 1,335.0 907.1 28.4 1.9 | 383.8 13.8 IMG oe vectors tose ctes Sante agenbs seeeet ene 2,702.0 | 2,350.7 81.1 108.1} 135.1 27.0 SM Gan eee yee ee nae eate oe sec Soeece emer 68.0 59.1 0.6 0.1 7.9 0.3 B Uber ericcn cal eease cise cestiecbsecetes eee ose 356.0 39.2 3nd 5) SSOZIGs [ecin. ae 10.7 Potal‘food consumed =5.:22-<.2-22-5-- se. 4,461.0 | 3,356.1 | 118.6 | 412.7] 526.8 51.8 GCOS ecient eo ate eel creo icte tot o tere eta 65¢ Oy cee 22.8 10.0 20.5 11.7 ATM OUTIE UHI Zed. 22 a akc eack Hoe cee os aces Bl eekmaosas toca ns 90.8 | 402.7} 506.3 40.1 Per, cent utilized <4 ).6- seco -oeee See «nese eeteee| a2 bee aes 79.9 | 97.6} 96.1 77.4 41.8 2. | 563.5 20.2 | 78.3 104.4 130.5 26.1 } G47 17 9753 4.2 4.6) 389.3 |20.--2.5 13.7 131.4 498.1 791.3 64.2 19.4 18.0 12.2 11.4 ' 112.0 | 480.1 779.1 52.8 Ber comb iilized's jes. cess o- estc ee tia ree ee Meee Peas ariel 85.2 96. 4 98.5 82.2 Experiment No. 522, subject C. J. W.: DASheC Nice set soe ee eee om aioas aoe ee cores 2,194.0 | 1,490.8 46.7 3.1] 630.8 22.6 VET gee 5 eas sant ees vere ara cytes tore aetere be taracers he 2,549.0 | 2,217.6 76.5 102.0 127.4 25.5 UT tio emacs oh ye, ee ito acres Cnet 966.0 839.5 de 1.9 112.1 4.8 Butter cs cic cnsroe ccc smc is see cianceencisie ce abe oa 164.0 1 Sex: 1.6 139.4 ji. 53222 4.9 oval food consumed: cee iece-cnecene oosee 5,873.0 | 4,566.0 | 132.5 | 246.4 | 870.3 57.8 ' WOGOS}EE ie scat = 2c eee op als oe eS ae oes oe 68203 sce acne 26.5 10.2 19.0 12.3 EATNOUNGUUINIZERt cect sacccseaceeemsdsee cas eeweslen aoadeec sa eee eee 106.0 | 236.2 | 851.3 45.5 Ber ecutrutilizedes js... 2252255 e eee eae een 2 ele eee 80.0 95.9 | 97.8 78.7 Average food consumed per subject per day..-.-..-- 1,714.9 | 1,300.4 39.7) 127261) 2285.7 18.5 Summary of digestion experiments with immature dasheens in a simple mixed diet. | | | | Experiment No. Subject. aiceea Fat. Perec Ash. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 68.5 94. 0 96. 8 70.1 90.7 97.9 98. 4 90. 2 75.0 95. 6 2159 78.0 79.9 97.6 96. 1 77.4 85, 2 96. 4 98.5 82. 2 80.0 95. 9 97.8 78.7 79.9 96. 2 97.5 79.4 THE DIGESTIBILITY OF THE DASHEEN. vi The variations which occurred in the results obtained in the two sets of experiments were immaterial. Furthermore, the results of the individual experiments agree quite closely with one another with respect to the figures commonly reported for the carbohydrates. During these six tests the subjects ate on an average 40 grams of protein, 128 grams of fat, and 229 grams of carbohydrates, which were 79.9 per cent, 96.2 per cent, and 97.5 per cent digested, respec- tively. These values indicate a very complete utilization of this diet by the human body. EXPERIMENTS WITH MATURE DASHEENS. The results of four experiments with mature dasheens are given in the following table: % Data of digestion experiments with mature dashcenrs in a siinple mixed diet. poe Carbo- Food. Total. | Water. Cain Fat. hy- | Ash. r drates. Experiment No. 543, subject H. R. G.: Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. Gr. TD FASS GRA ie Be ce aS RITE IE A ae ee 1, 128.0 TAQTGH | 27.0 eene | OOlee: ll hLOSO IRD eee SOC ete ss a A a” 2,604.0 | 2,265.5 78.1 | 104.2 130.2 | 26.0 TOSI eae a AR SR RR a 462.0 401.5 3.7 “ 53856. |p 2e0 UIP Siac Se see eG SOUR EO aE ADE SPIES aoe eS 3 143.0 ey 7 DEA DADO Sete eh: 4.3 Movalfoodyconswmed se suse nee. eh. ae 4,337.0 | 3,402.3 | 110.7 | 229.5 | 551.0 | 43.5 EO CES ee en nie naomi cie Siam oe ome OU ae OVO epee ds witeke 22.4} 10.4 15 oe ON, PATTLOUTUTATIUALL Ze may yt Se aye do) il ls IRR pea AI gp a) 88.3 | 219.1 |. 535.5 | 32.8 TERETE (Guay) (UMA ASG NES EM ATR RE Wr SoS Pa rs ea ee 20 lek ES oe | 79.8] 95.5 97. 2 | 75.4 Experiment No. 544, subject A. J. H.: TOE ASH SLES ay oh IN al 1, 247.0 795.5 | 30.4 3.1 405.9 | 12.1 IU DUNE SS os i DS eae 8 re Ane ee 2,897.0 | 2,520.4 86.9 | 115.9 144.8 | 29.0 ESTE Gree ee see mie thafam ND Oe OR Se 95. 0 82.5 | .8 2 11.0 Us STIG UCT mae Ma eT NE mika aN a oo el 436.0 48.0 Ayo! :| FonON On| eee nrsee 13.1 hotalsfoodsconsumeds--25244- 48) pe 4, 675.0 | 3,446.4 | 122.4 | 489.8 | 561.7 | 54.7 VOCE 5 Hb Rak ek Ce ST SSE GPO ee ae ate lypnloue 24.4 373: 8.9 FAUT OU TULETITZ OCR Ree ee yh ae ON), OLS 8 2 RE |..-------| 107.0 | 465.4 | 558.4 | 45.8 TetSje GevaLE WNBUNY ALY e sare Me taee pear a > RU ee Me. ||". cele Aa | 87.4] 95.0] 99.4 | 83.7 Experiment No. 545, subject P. K.: asheen cl 4.6] 601.5 | 17.9 Meee abe aoe pect amere ert ha Bey | fl lary 147.1 | 29.4 Fruit .8 is? 98.5 | 4.2 Butter SOS |GET Louie ae | 14.7 -f | 540.5 | 847.1 | 66.2 Feces 2 16.5 12.5 | 10.8 Amount utilized .9 | 524.0 | 834.6 | 55.4 IRERCEMUATEUZEG a eydi. Unit iil lee Oully |!) ARMM EN ee anon lbTe GAnLY A | 88.1 | 96.9 98.5 | 83.7 Experiment No. 546, subject C. J. W.: Dasheen Ce eR ES SEU gl 90 a 1,763.0 | 1,124.6] 43.0 4.4 57329) |) LE Milk ae A 5.0 | 2,562.1 88.4 | 117.8 147.2 | 29.5 Fruit 8.0} 910.7 8.4 Qh TAT IG) Mba Butter 36.0 | 26.0 2H Sy ZOO SG Bea c Cord: 5,992.0 | 4,623.4 | 142.1 | 324.9 | 842.7 | 58.9 Re CESE eet eee ee UI i NS | ae UO ROY ane 38.2] 13.9] 37.1) 20.8 PATTON NTbII Zed sph dA SRNL OTN ae MOS aN al Oe! [Sea ALAS 103.9 | 311.0] 805.6 | 38.1 ers Centy bili zedry4:) Mosse teeters ese ee tS OP OAS (ERIN ed 7 95.6 | 64.7 Average food consumed per subject per day..........---- 1,761.1 | 1,333.5 | 43.4 | 132.1 | 233.5 | 18.6 | i EE ee ee 8 BULLETIN 612, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Summary of digestion experiments with mature dasheen in a simple mixed diet. pate . . | p F 7 Carbohy- Experiment No. Subject. | Protein.; Fat. aratese |, tees Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. DEB itsleta ics tctayn em meyee ert ee ata eter a oe er na emai eee ees .RaG,. = 79. 8 95, 5 97.2 75, 4 Bi eee ee ae eT ee ee Re ey CoRR tAvedis ERC GIS 87.4 95. 0 99. 4 | 83.7 DEO sore apctate cat ees ane ete no Rea eee ee eee eee ear 88. 1 96.9 98. 5 83.7 . 2 RT aa ve Rete KD pe a Niel A a2 C.J. W 73.1 95.7 95. 6 | 64.7 I Ner(ot Pace i Oe Re 6 eRe 22) || See 82.1 95.8.1 0 (197.7 76.9 In the experiments with mature dasheens the subjects ate, on an average, 41 grams of protein, 129 grams of fat, and 231 grams of carbohydrates, of which 82.1 per cent, 95.8 per cent, and 97.7 per cent, respectively, were retained in the body. These values, except for protein, agree quite closely with those reported for an ordinary mixed diet,| which are, for protein, 92 per cent; for fat, 95 per cent; and for carbohydrates, 97 per cent. Perhaps the low coefficient of digestibility of the protein obtained may be due to the fact that only 41 grams were taken per man per day; it has long been recog- nized that the feces contain nitrogen aside from that derived from the diet, and this becomes proportionately larger as the nitrogen intake decreases. The coefficient of digestibility obtained for the carbohydrates of the mature dasheen, 97.7 per cent, would indicate . that they are very well assimilated. SUMMARY OF ALL EXPERIMENTS. The following table summarizes the results of all the experiments reported : Summary of all digestion experiments with dashecns in a simple mixed diet. Experiment No. Subject. | Protein. Fat. tend Ash, | | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Yt JERR ape is ee SS a ce ee NR EAC. lis ERR 68. 5 94.0 96.8 70.1 DIGS eee e eel ets te ie te Se ee ee a ae NCR Clee ae 90. 7 97.9 98. 4 90. 2 Oe pe Oke ew en fee 2 Ue ne Bal eae Leeman sa! 2 ae da Fem Reen G con 75.0 95.6 97.5 78.0 19110 ilk Seon a a Ete ee a PEE ROR mca. GA, ies El gee 79.9 97.6 96.1 77.4 Bc Nee ea Srnsee ges ane cee lnc Er 5 ec Rie tester cys I oe ac = GaN Gee a 85. 2 96. 4 98.5 82.2 Deo ee pale eats e ete ine Se ae ts) coe a eeeneyetete soit. hams re Ds Wee 80. 0 95.9 97.8 78.7 Eee ee a a ree te SR ee eA LS VES Gree 79.8 95.5 97.2 75.4 Bea eae ahaa as eee kOe 3 tee aac ee os cy ee 87.4 95. 0 99. 4 83.7 DO ere Se eee Sok ae eee eye: Sele wee DS. . ae dn ee &8.1 96.9 98. 5 Saat A Geta nce eee GV Reh eal ee Ayn ei De eee. eee Cd. W. tee 95.7 95. 6 64.7 ENS O PH OOM seni eee, 0 0 et ae thins Joe ees Se She Dard 80. 8 | 96. 1 97.6 78. 4 The average amount of food consumed per subject per day in all experiments was 1,733.4 grams, furnishing 1,313.6 grams of water, 41.2 grams of protein, 129.4 grams of fat, 230.6 grams of carbohy- drates, and 18.6 grams of ash. 1 Connecticut Storrs Sta. Rpt..1901, p. 245. THE DIGESTIBILITY OF THE DASHEEN. 9 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. The amount of dasheen eaten during the test periods varies from an average of 376 grams per man per day in experiment No. 543 to an average of 731 grams per man per day in experiment No. 522, the general average for the 10 experiments being 547 grams per man per day. Considering the 10 experiments with both the immature and ma- ture dasheen together (see p. 8), it will be seen that, on an average, 41 grams of protein, 129 grams of fat, and 231 grams of carbohydrates were eaten per man per day, of which 80.8 per cent of the’ protein, 96.1 per cent of the fat, and 97.6 per cent of the carbohydrates sup- plied by the total diet were digested. The coefficient of digestibility of the fat (99 per cent of which was butter fat) furnished by the diet is not without interest. The reported value, 96.1 per cent, approximates the value (97 per cent) obtained in a study of the digestibility’ of butter, in which the diet was of an entirely different nature, namely, blancmange (containing large amounts of butter), wheat biscuit, fruit, and tea or coffee with sugar. In a later investigation,’ in which butter supplied the greater proportion of the fat of a diet of still different nature (hard palates of cattle served in the form of a meat loaf, containing butter, potato, crackers, and sugar), butter fat was found to be 95 per cent digested. The amounts of butter fat eaten per subject per day in the exper- iments with dasheen, with butter, and with hard palates were 128 grams, 97 grams, and 106 grams, respectively. This agreement be- tween the values determined for the digestibility of butter, when eaten with different types of diets and under identical experimental conditions, furnishes additional basis for the belief that a fat includ- -ed in a mixed diet is digested equally well regardless of the nature of the other constituents of the diet. As regards the amounts of nutrients supplied by dasheens of dif- ferent maturity, it will be seen that in the six experiments with the immature dasheen an average of 40 grams of protein, 128 grams of fat, and 229 grams of carbohydrates was eaten per man per day, while in the four experiments with the mature dasheen the average amounts were for all practical purposes identical, being 43 grams of protein, 1382 grams of fat, and 234 grams of carbohydrates daily. The average coefficient of digestibility of the carbohydrates of im- mature and of mature dasheens was 97.5 per cent and 97.7 per cent, respectively. Apparently in so far as the thoroughness of digestion 1U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 310 (1915), p. 21. 2U. S. Dept. Agr., Jour, Agr. Research, 6 (1916), No. 17, p. 647. 10 BULLETIN 612, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the dasheen carbohydrates is concerned, it would seem immaterial whether the well-grown dasheen is mature or immature when harvested. The difference in the amounts of carbohydrates supplied by the total diet eaten per subject per day in the various tests was quite large, varying from a minimum of 176 grams in experiment No. 520 to a maximum of 290 grams in experiment No. 522, with an average daily consumption of 231 grams. On the whole, the differences in the values obtained for the digestibility of the carbohydrates with the different, subjects in the different tests is small, and such variations as were found in the digestibiity of the carbohydrates did not corre- spond to observed variations in the amounts of carbohydrates eaten. Comparing the average value found for the digestibility of the carbohydrates of the dasheen, 97.6 per cent, with that reported for the carbohydrates of the potato, no significant difference is found. Bryant and Milner? on the basis of three experiments report the digestibility of potato carbohydrates to be 99.0 per cent; in an ex- periment reported by Rubner? the coefficient of digestibility was 92.4 per cent; while Constantinidi® found that an average of 99.6 per cent of the potato carbohydrates was utilized by the human body. CONCLUSIONS. Tn 10 digestion experiments with men, mature and immature dasheens were eaten in conjunction with common food materials in a simple mixed diet. The average coefficients of digestibility for the total diet were: Protein, 80.8 per cent; fat, 96.1 per cent; and carbohy- drates, 97.6 per cent. | The value obtained for the digestibility of the carbohydrates, 97.6 per cent, which for all practical purposes represents the digestibility of the dasheen carbohydrates, compares very favorably with that of potatoes, the common vegetable most resembling the dasheen. The subjects of their own volition ate on an average approximately 14 pounds of dasheen daily without any observed physiological dis- turbances, which would indicate that considerable amounts of dasheens may be safely used in the dietary and that they are palatable. The results here reported were obtained from dasheens cooked by one method only; in the absence of data to the contrary it may be 1 Amer. Jour. Physiol, 10 (1903), No. 2, p. 96. 2Ztschr. Biol., 15 (1879), No. 1, p. 148. ®Ztschr. Biol., 23 (1887), p. 449. THE DIGESTIBILITY OF THE DASHEEN. DE very well assumed that the dasheen is equally well digested when prepared by other methods similar to those employed with potatoes. The data obtained in this investigation give evidence to justify the belief that the dasheen is a valuable addition to the dietary, that it can replace the potato in those regions where the potato can not be successfully grown or easily obtained, and that it is also valuable for more general use to give greater variety to the diet in other ~ localities. PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO FOOD AND NUTRITION. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Meats: Composition and Cooking. By Chas. D. Woods. Pp. 31, figs. 4. 1904. (Farmers’ Bulletin 34.) The Use of Milk as Food. By R. D. Milner. Pp. 44. 1911. (Farmers’ Bulletin 363. ) Care of Food in the Home. By Mrs. Mary Hinman Abel. Pp. 46, figs. 2. 1910. (Farmers’ Bulletin 375.) ; Economical Use of Meat in the Home. By C. F. Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt. Pp. 30. 1910. (Farmers’ Bulletin 391.) Cheese and Its Economical Uses in the Diet. By C. F. Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt. Pp. 40. 1912. (Farmers’ Bulletin 487.) Mutton and Its Value in the Diet. By C. F. Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt. Pp. 32, figs. 2. 1918. (Farmers’ Bulletin 526.) . The Detection of Phytosterol in Mixtures of Animal and Vegetable Fats. By R. H. Kerr. Pp. 4. 1913. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 212.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C: Experiments on Losses in Cooking Meat, 1900-1903. By H. S. Grindley, D. Se, and Timothy Mojonnier, M. 8. Pp. 95, tables 82. 1904. (Office of Experi- ment Stations Bulletin 141.) Price, 5 cents. Studies on the Influence of Cooking upon the Nutritive Value of Meats at the University of Illinois, 1903-1904. By H. 8S. Grindley, D. Se, and A. D. Em- mett, A. M. Pp. 280, tables 186. 1905. (Office of Experiment Stations Bul- letin 162) Price, 20 cents. Studies of the Effect of Different Methods of Cooking upon the Thoroughness and Ease of Digestion of Meats at the University of Illinois. H. S.. Grindley, D. Se, Timothy Mojonnier, M. 8., and Horace C. Porter, Ph. D. Pp. 100, tables 88. 1907. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 193.) Price, 15 cents. Digestibility of Some Animal Fats. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 23. 1915. (Department Bulletin 310.) Price, 5 cents. Digestibility of Very Young Veal. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 577-588. 1916. (Journal of Agricultural Research, 6 (1916), No. 16.) Price, 5 cents. Digestibility of Hard Palates of Cattle. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 641-648. 1916. (Journal of Agricultural Research, 6 (1916), No. 17.) Price, 5 cents. Studies on the Digestibility of the Grain Sorghums. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 30. 1916. (Department Bulletin 470. Price, 5 cents. Fats and their Hconomical Use in the Home. By A. D. Holmes and. H. L. Lang. Pp. 26. 1916. (Department Bulletin 469.) Price, 5 cents. Digestibility of Some Vegetable Fats. By C. fF. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 20. 1917. (Department Bulletin 505.) Price, 5 cents. Studies on the Digestibility of Some Animal Fats. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Hoimes. Pp. 20. 1917. (Department Bulletin 507.) Price, 5 cents. Experiments in the Determination of the Digestibility of Millets. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 11. 191%. (Department Bulletin 525.) Price, 5 cents. 12 OQ Contribution from the States Relations Service A. C. TRUE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 25, 1919 DIGESTIBILITY OF CERTAIN MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL FATS.’ By ArgtHur D. Hoimss, Specialist in Charge of Digestion Experiments, Office of Home Hconomics. CONTENTS. Page Page art TOMUCHIONM ease aeak hase cteeecicemniace Dy | ROTC OT OU Risa eae oe oct ciate a mac eee uiciael 12 Methods of procedure.........-......-..----- 23) SOWOSLEATIN ese cosce cone sce e ee eee se 15 Sibi Pets eee tse Soe eee E A COOLED EL 3) P:-OX=SMArrO Wel atioeele ace ee ee ee WI 17 OAL SIDIIGLED a eee eee cs esc ks onesies 3:| Ometailttap se tes Caos oS sume koma eee nee za 19 TICHGL TENE ce pe po St Ra ee A ee ay Go|! Aube nia fe seee Mee Cee ect aeons ene ae 22 Hard-palatevataa- ate ae- ose ce ceese se sae bee 8: | cSummaryascise cases seek season ee ce ceeee 24 HETOTSGr aL ea enee rea ncine asso ce cic ceisneteau cis 10 INTRODUCTION. Earlier papers? of this series have reported the coefficients of digestibility of lard, beef and mutton fats, and butter; cream, chicken, goose, egg-yolk, brisket and fish fats; olive, cottonseed, peanut, coconut and sesame oils and cocoa butter; almond, black- walnut, Brazil nut, butternut, English walnut, hickory nut, and pecan oils; corn, soy-bean, sunflower-seed, Japanese mustard-seed, rapeseed and charlock-seed oils. The present paper deals with the digestibility of goat’s butter, kid fat, hard-palate fat, horse fat, oleo oil, oleo stearin, ox-marrow, ox-tail, and turtle fats. Though oleo oil and oleo stearin are of much importance commercially, the fats dis- cussed in this bulletin, as a whole, are not commonly known in American homes. However, they are, for one reason or another, of interest in considering culinary and table fats as well as in the con- sideration of general problems related to the use of fats as food. A few of these fats were purchased in the open market and the re- mainder were secured through the cooperation of Government and commercial activities. The hard-palate, horse, kid, and turtle fats were rendered in the laboratory by cutting the unrendered fat very fine, heating in a double boiler until the fat was completely melted, and then straining through rather thick cloth. The oleo oil, oleo 1 Prepared under the direction of C. F. Langworthy, Chief, Office of Home Economics. 2See list of bulletins on page 26. 95191°—19—Bull. 613 1 = re BULLETIN 613, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stearin, ox-marrow, and ox-tail fats were obtained already rendered from commercial concerns. In order to insure uniform composition a sufficient quantity of each of the fats for the purpose of the study was thoroughly mixed before it was incorporated in the blancmange, which served as a medium for supplying the fat to the diet. METHODS OF PROCEDURE. The regimen followed was the same as that in previous experi- ments, foods containing a minimum amount of fat being chosen as a basal diet, i. e., wheat biscuits, oranges, and sugar. The fat to be studied was incorporated in a cornstarch pudding, a caramel solution being added to conceal any pronounced flavor. =_—_E————— Average food consumed per subject per day... 780. 6 402. 6 18.0 68. 0 281.8 4.6 Summary of digestion experiments with oleo siearin in a simple mixed diet. Digestibility of entire ration. Esti- mated digesti- Experiment No. Subject. eee ey of - : larbohy: oleo Protein. Fat. are es Ash. sfieaniia alone. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent, B20 e Ae e a ate ciea tie o Heel 4 Cree 40.7 69.9 94.9 8.3 76.6 S2ireere Sat sata bas a Ge eee... cane 36.3 79.0 94.9 24.7 89.8 FDA CS I Fie ees re Se Ee arte Oe) N Leal 5 det eee eh ae 44.4 66. 4 94.4 16.6 73.9 BACT AO OL oe Sal chet hs Doe eek lo te ee 40.5 71.8 94.7 16.5 80.1 = On an average the daily diet supplied 18 grams protein, 68 grams fat, and 281.8 grams carbohydrate, the energy value being 1,811 calories. Considering the digestibility of the ration as a whole on an average the subjects digested 40.5 per cent of the protein, 71.8 per cent of the fat, and 94.7 per cent of the carbohydrate. The estimated digesti- bility of the oleo stearin alone is 80.1 per cent. The figure, as would naturally be expected, is considerably lower than that of oleo oil, DIGESTIBILITY OF MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL FATS. 17 96.7 per cent, and also lower than 93 per cent, the digestibility of beef tallow, which consists of both oleo oil and oleo stearin. In their reports of their physical condition during the test period, the subjects noted no unusual physiological conditions, OX-MARROW FAT. It is believed by many people that bone marrow possesses proper- ties which make it of particular value for food purposes and of especial value in the dietary of invalids and convalescents. That there is a scientific basis for such belief is shown by a review of the literature. In discussing the value of fat in the diet Friedenwald and Ruhrah? say that bone marrow, which is rich in fat, is used in the treatment of tuberculosis and pernicious anemia. The marrow of young animals is preferred, and the glycerin extract of bone marrow is utilized. Zink? states: “ Yellow marrow contains chiefly fat which consists of olein, palmitin, and stearin, and which differs from the fat of the other parts of the body in having a higher acetyl equiv- alent.” In a study of red marrow Forrest® obtained two proteins, one a globulin coagulating at 47-50° C., which contained no phos- phorus, and a second a nucleo-albumin which was found to contain phosphorus in its molecule. Glikin‘ reports that iron occurs regu- larly in beef marrow, the marrow of young animals containing larger amounts than that of old animals. According to Halliburton ® the most important protein of red marrow “is a nucleo-protein which contains 1.6 per cent of phosphorus.” In considering the dietary value of marrow, however, it must be remembered that it contains a large amount of marrow fat and that this, like all other fats, is a valuable source of energy in addition to the special therapeutic value attributed to it. Marrow is well known as food. Common examples are marrow bones, an old-fashioned dish, and marrow balls, which are served in soup. The preparation of marrow fat is confined very largely to the pack- ing houses, where it is obtained from the leg bones of beef animals. The process, according to information obtained from the Bureau: of Animal Industry, is as follows: Marrow fat is prepared from jong or shank bones, they being first heated in water at a temperature of from 160° to 170° Fahrenheit. Both ends of the bones are sawed off and the marrow removed by blowing with compressed air. ~ 1 Diet in Health and Disease. Philadelphia and London: W. B, Saunders Co., 1913, 4. ed., p. 144. 2Chem. Zentbl., 68 (1897), No. 5, p. 296. 8 Jour. Physiol., 17 (1894-5), p. 175. “Ber. Deut. Chem. Gesell., 41 (1908), No. 5, p. 910. 5 Jour. Physiol., 18 (1895), No. 4, pp. 306-318. 18 BULLETIN 613, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is placed in cans, being processed in the usual manner for processing canned meat products. When prepared in this manner it is put out in the trade as “ox marrow.” For the purpose of this study a supply of this fat, packed in 1- pound tins labeled “ Ox-Marrow Fat,” was obtained from commercial sources. In appearance it was of a yellow color, solid at room tem- perature, and without a characteristic odor. The fat was melted, thoroughly mixed, and a sample analyzed by R. H. Kerr, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, was found to have an iodin number of 48.48, refractive index of 47°, with a Zeiss butyro-refractometer at 40°, and 0.56 per cent of free acid. The marrow fat was incorporated in a blancmange and eaten as a constituent of the usual simple mixed diet by four subjects. The results of the experiments are reported in the following tables: Data of digestion experiments with ox-marrow fat in a simple mixed diet. Constituents of foods. Experiments, subjects, and diet. My sight c ‘ : F var bohy- Water. | Protein.| Fat. arate: Ash, Experiment No. 692, subject P. K.: Grams, | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blancmange containing ox-marrow fat ....| 1,700.0 710.1 30.8 294.8 651.1 13.2 WiheatDISGUIL: Saen.c ieee emcees sce eee 305. 0 27.4 32.3 4.6 235.8 4.9 a DUG DI RAR ae ne Mee Sy RR Tet Dan rad oer ee em 418.0 363. 2 3.4 0.8 48 5 al DUPAL eer cecmece a ecki ae cavemen cert seers TBGLOW a> ccs sieiw de eeseirecins eects 136510) |Saceecr Total food consumed...-.............-.- 2,559.0 | 1,100.7 66. 5 300. 2 1,071.4 20. 2 HG CBSs cet oe Spee eee se See oe et TOSOR Sac seein ne PARAL 26.0 23. 2 ey ATM OUING UG ZOO Se occ cmisics ees bonne es aetiee |ne- ae Sewer lees wecaeee 45.4 274.2 | 1,048.2 14.5 POT CONG ULLIZE oe snc cea Seecceesess. .eslose Beets | eee. 68.3 91.3 97.8 71.8 Experiment No. 693, subject J. C. M.: Blancmange containing ox-marrow fat ....| 1,928.0 805.3 34.9 334.3 738.4 15.1 Wheat: biscuits sekecccsec soso oceeec fase 371.0 33.4 39.3 5.6 286.8 5.9 APU eee eee ss Shee ee ASL ee 796.0 691.7 6.4 1.6 92.3 4.0 BS AL sepa etn ects oat nd eect aes LQOEO) eer tej.c | oe cee ee los eee TODS Oil ce. scent, Total food consumed...................- 3,217.0} 1,530.4 80.6 3841.5] 1,239.5 25.0 GCOS ie fami s aa tas Sarit eases oe oe SSqORE Sp-caes 24.8 22.9 27.5 7.8 PAI O UG LUIEe Ot awe oun oe aeee a ain eee See oe = ee cian eens 55.8 318.6 | 1,212.0 17.2 Bory Gent utilized samen ss cece xu cidies-o1loeees cece ee 69. 2 93.3 97.8 68.8 Experiment No. 694, subject A. A. R.: hee Blanemange containing ox-marrow fat ....| 1,793.0 748.9 32.5 310.9 686. 7 14.0 WiNEa G DISCUIE cei a ecciseme nis nee hewn ence. 118.0 10.6 12.5 1.8 91.2 1.9 BRUTE akg ayaa (a, stats fe Ns, ree apes Col aie 1,246.0] 1,082.8 10.0 2.5 144.5 6.2 RUC AP eee coe aha mecie eiceraeetars ei telelaae eta aie LOD Ohligse eee aces | seers pasecceee L220 siento Total food consumed........././.:.-.-+- 3,279.0] 1,842.3 55.0 315.2} 1,044.4 22.1 IHG CESH 6 Ota tame cel aetags Shea ac eels a oye 108: ONfeceae- =< -- 37.7 28. 31.9 9.7 Amountiatilizediisscca.. o2ack ssc bee c(h o cnn eles 17.3 286.5 | 1,012.5 12.4 Percent Whilizedies.: eoscccke sec encase ee ees || Setaaiie 31.5 90.9 96.9 56.1 Experiment No. 695, subject W. E. T.: ie Blancmange containing ox-marrow fat .... 588. 0 245. 6 10.6 102.0 225. 2 4.6 WenhGa taDISCUIbsetiett 2. seat Jee eerie 313.0 28.2 33. 2 4.7 241.9 5-0 DF UN | aaa ag of Sic eae er eee Roe 989.0 859. 4 ae 2.0 114.7 5.0 SUP AE Asem ane tee eee eeuecnas cere TSSh ON Be catiees ol atte as ae jemocne ane VISIT) eee ser Total food consumed. 2.2.52 c..sesseneus 2,028.0] 1,183.2 S17 108.7 719.8 14.6 SEG CAG Para eh en Se se ea ce sama 56; ON eccecoectc 16.6 11.6 20.5 7.3 ATMO UNG UT TIZE Ue aos eicicts ois eaia ota declan teks Seats cele iemiacee 35; 1 97.1 699. 3 7.3 b BGP CON Ut Zed 2s co) gues one ase ae est eee eee ene eeee ae 67.9 89.3 97.2 50.0 Average food consumed per subject per day. *< 923.6 467.2 21.2 88.8 339. 6 6.8 DIGESTIBILITY OF MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL FATS. 19 Summary of digestion experiments with ox-marrow fat in a simple mixed diet. Digestibility of entire ration. Esti- Experiment No. Subject. pility of i : Protein. Fat. Carbohy; Ash. ox-mar- Aas les 2 hh aly 375 oe eee PK eee 91 GOS eee heen ee ea Se La JCM Si 5) chee 69. 2 93.3 97.8 68. 8 95.6 Ce ei Sis cas ck pan eer ea (AG Ae EES OSS Tae 31.5 90.9 96.9 56.1 91.6 GOS ie ee eral ree mulliare cle LS aC BW) DS 22s 67.9 89.3 97.2 50.0 93. 1 PANVETAS Chine mene seine at mate) Nas a ee 59.2 91.2 97.4 61.7 93.5 In the experiments reported above the subjects ate on an average 21 grams of protein, 89 grams of fat (of which 87 grams were mar- row fat), and 340 grams of carbohydrate. This diet furnished ap- proximately 2,245 calories of energy daily. It will be noted that in experiment No. 695 the subject W. E. 'T., who did not possess a very © vigorous appetite, ate only 109 grams of fat during the three-day period. The other subjects averaged 104 grams of fat daily. The protein supplied by the diet was 59.2 per cent digested, the fat 91.2 per cent, and the carbohydrate 97.4 per cent. The figure 91.2 per cent for the digestibility of the total fat of the diet becomes 93.5 per cent for the digestibility of marrow fat alone when correction is applied for the metabolic products and undigested basal-ration fat which occurs in the ether extract of the feces. The consumption of 100 grams of marrow fat daily for a period of three days or more evidently caused digestive disturbances since in experiment No. 692, subject P. K. reported: “ Health was normal when entering on the diet. During the period experienced a slight headache and a sickish feeling.” In experiment No. 693, subject J. C. M. reported: “ Felt a severe weakness accompanied by cold perspiration.” In experiment No. 694, subject A. A. R. reported: “ Pains in head and abdomen, general feeling of weakness.” In ex- periment No. 695, subject W. E. T. reported: “ Health normal at start of diet, during diet headache with general weak feeling.” On the basis of these experiments alone, it would appear that the continued consumption of 100 grams of marrow fat daily is likely to be attended with physiological disturbances. The results of the ex- periments indicate, however, that this fat is as completely digested as the common animal and vegetable fats. OX-TAIL FAT. Ox-tail fat is separated and marketed as an edible fat to a small extent at least in this country. In reply to an inquiry regarding its commercial production, one food-packing concern states: “ This fat 20 BULLETIN 613, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is not a by-preduct with us, but is used in the preparation of our ox- tail soup. We have absolutely no means of estimating the quantities of this fat produced in this country.” A second concern reports: “We produce considerable quantities ourselves, some of which we use and some of which we sell. It is more liquid than other beef fats, con- taining less stearin, and for this reason would be better adapted to the manufacture of oleo oil. We sell it as an edible fat, and so far as we know, it is pee with other ie fats as a shortening or for other food purposes.” Even if little of the fat is ane for food purposes, it is evident that it is not uncommonly so used when one recalls that it is a con- stituent of freshly made and canned ox-tail soup. For the purpose of this study a sufficient quantity of ox-tail fat was secured from a concern which did not include the ox-tail fat in the ox-tail soup which it packed.- In appearance the fat was a cream white solid when chilled. At ordinary room temperature the fat separated into two layers, about four-fifths being a pale yellow solid and about one-fifth a hght yellow oil. The fat possessed no pronounced odor or flavor. An examination’ showed it to have the following characteristics: Index of refraction at 40° C., 49.0°; iodin number, 56.58; and melting point 37.0° to 36.8°. Three subjects assisted in the study of the digestibility of ox-tail fat and the data obtained are reported in the tables which follow: Data of digestion experiments with oa-tail fat in a simple mixed _diet. Constituents of foods. Experiments, subjects, and diet. wi eee | ds. . ‘ arbohy-| 4. Water. | Protein.| Fat. cate Ash, Experiment No, 704, subject P. K.: Grams. Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blancmange containing ox-tail fat -....-.-. 1,814.0 824.3 35.9 227.1 711.8 14.9 Wheat biscuit...........-- Ree a ee 302.0 2752 32.0 4.5 233.5 4.8 DRE es Sen een ne no eteie is So ae eee ne nce 545.0 473.6 4.4 teak 63. 2 2at USAT ie creme sta ee Ss oeteacin cicsatcte ess cee eee DODO eemocssccs (acces seer seeise mee 25120 |}. ese Totalitood Consumed -. 22.02 --)-<) 2.32 2-2 ee 2 - 49 Method of presentation-.--......------------ 8 Total labor cost.-...-..--..--.------, seis 61 WAEHUOFOAMIZAMOU: © 2-2-2522. 2222 zens -- 8 | Expenses other than labor... --..-...--.----.- 65 SIZ OREANCH = sees ete aloe. Skee els 9! ;: Totabol albeosts!s 2s2s2 25-38 esses sas en ss- 7 Biusses Oe AnlCners 328 -- 22 2- hoses ssc esee 10 INTRODUCTION. This bulletin presents the results of a study of apple orcharding in Yakima Valley (Washington) made by the Office of Farm Manage- ment during the summer of 1915. As with previous surveys con- ducted in the apple-growing districts of the Northwest, the object of the study was to determine the cost factors involved in apple produc- tion, and to gather such information as to the different methods of orchard management practiced by the growers of the valley as might have a bearing upon cost of production. Data were obtained by the same method used in Wenatchee Valley in 1914. A sufficient number of orchardists were visited to give a reliable average, and complete and detailed information was gathered regarding the usual methods of procedure in orchard management, ? This is the fourth of a series of bulletins on the cost ofapple production. Department Bulletin No. 446, “The Cost of Producing Apples in Wenatchee Valley, Washington,” Department Bulletin No. 500, “The Cost of Producing Applesin Western Colorado,” and Department Bulletin No. 518, “The Cost of Producing Applesin Hood River Valley,” have already been published. Note.—Acknowledgment is due to the Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry for material assistance in the preparation of this bulletin; also to Mr. J. Clifford Folger, who aided in securing the necessary data, and Mr. F. E. De Sellem, Horticultural Inspector at Large, North Yakima, for helpful suggestions. 13116°—17—BulL. 614—_1 2 BULLETIN 614, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. including data on labor necessary for the annual upkeep of the orchard, on the care and harvesting of the crop, tatal investment, insurance, taxes, and all other expenses connected either directly or indirectly with production. One hundred and twenty records were taken. Conditions prevailing in the Yakima Valley differ in some respects ' from those in any other of the important apple-producing regions ot the Northwest. Two more or less distinct types of fruit farming are found. In the vicinity ot the city of North Yakima is a highly specialized orcharding similar to that about Wenatchee, while in the lower valley, about the town of Zillah, there is a more diversified type of farming, with the growing of apples as one of several farm enter- prises. In this bulletin the acre is used as a basis of comparison. If the box were used as a unit, the figure for different districts might be misleading, since there might be a considerable variation in yield on orchards of the same size and age in different districts. FACTS BROUGHT OUT. Following is a brief summary of the more important facts brought out in this study of 120 bearing orchards in the Yakima Valley: Average size of ranch: + = 2 _ {North Yakima district (64 ranches), 10.79 acres. All records, 15.82 acr e={7itlah district (56 ranches), 21.57 acres. Average size of bearing orchard: North Yakima district, 5.18. All records, 6.39 acres) ath district, 7.77. Average investment: All records, per ranch, $14,504.32, of which $6,071.38 represents the bearing apple orchard. All records, per acre of bearing apples {North Yakima district, $1,531.25. $1,079.87 ce district, $063.57. Average annual yield: Per acre, 432 boxes. All records pe, tree, 5.87 boxes. Average net cost per box: Net labor cost, $0.3449. All records, 30.8002} 4 other than labor, $0.4553. Average interest on investment: All records, $0.1999 per box (75.9 per cent of fixed cost and 24.98 per cent of total net cost of production). THE YAKIMA DISTRICT. Yakima County is located in the south-central part of the State of Washington (see fig. 1). It is bounded on the west by the main range of the Cascade Mountains, which separates it from the counties of Pierce, Lewis, and Slcmanie on the south by Klickitat Count on the east by Benton County and the Columbia River; and on Le north by Kittitas County. i The word “‘ranch”’ is a locai term for any farm, and the word ‘‘rancher’’ is used in the sense of farmer, COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN YAKIMA VALLEY. 3 The county contains a total of 2,622,760 acres, of which 742,082 are deeded. Of the latter acreage 187,084 are irrigable. . In 1914 there were 47,829 acres in fruit, of which 41,955 acres, or 88 per cent, were in apples.!. (See Table I.) Approximately the following acreages are in other fruits: Peach and apricot, 2,054; pear, 1,623; prune and plum, 279; cherry, 78; and mixed fruits, 1,840. Za SS ZA) > » . a Many Coreg NORTH YAKIMA ® oN. tm Tiina PARKER GN “S 0 x d ied 4 ax Ez, Zs T110 WG RANGER YAKIMA : a Oe BtGuAL RESERVATION SE Zaire BANS ZS AIS Fic. 1.—Outline map of Washington State and Yakima County, showing locations in the valley where the investigation was made. TABLE I.—Apple acreage at different ages in Yakima County. Age of trees. Acreage. {| Age of trees. Acreage. Ms Caren ase DES sh OU 2 he QUST WING meansMes enna snc A crete Vc coat Rac i ae ae 5, 280 2) SCPE So cote OVE a ae DO OPSE pearance me ote a. OMe aieic yA ee 8, 528 SB, PENS i Se Ee aE a cop 8,.000 A. yet 9 ee as Se eee 6460) | aaeRatal-neee! 2 anos, 41, 955 OMV CAT SRC ee wey es yh a UE 6, 152 | ‘Fruit is grown throughout the entire valley. Extensive plantings of young orchards are found in the Tieton, Cowiche, Selah, and Naches areas, which lie north and west of North Yakima. (See Table II.) Older commercial plantings are found in the vicinity of North 1 From the county assessor’s report of the classification of lands in Yakima County, June, 1914. Since the report, about 2,000 acres of apple trees have been removed. 4 BULLETIN 614, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Yakima, Parker, Sawyer, Zillah, and Granger. Less intensive and somewhat younger plantings are found in Ane lower valley beyond Granger and as far down as Grandview. This investigation was made principally in the vicinity of North Yakima and Zillah, where the older orchards are located. The apple-producing areas visited near North Yakima are known locally as the Nob Hill, Broadway, and Fruitvale areas. The Zillah district lies in the lower valley about 20 miles southeast of North Yakima. This area extends from Buena to Boone and is most intensive in the vicinity of Cutler and Zillah. IMPORTANCE OF THE APPLE IN YAKIMA COUNTY. Yakima County has a larger acreage in fruit than any other county in the State. In 1914 there were 47,829 acres in fruit, of which 41,955 acres were in apples. Twenty per cent of this apple acreage was in bearing. More than 4,000 cars of apples were shipped from the county in 1912; 1,995 cars were shipped in 1913; 6,243 cars in 1914; 3,150 cars in 1915; and more than 7,000 cars in 1916. The bulk of fruit now produced comes from the vicinities of Nob Hill, Zillah, Reservation, Selah, Grandview, and Sunnyside, and in the near future the Selah, Cowiche, Tieton, Grandview, Wenas, and Naches areas bid fair to show a much greater production, these areas in 1914 containing 49 per cent of the total acreage of apples not yet in bearing in the county. In some sections in the valley apple orchards are being eliminated and the lands put in other crops. The apple, however, is by far the most important commercial fruit in the county, 88 per cent of the total fruit acreage being in apples. TaBLe II.—The ae ea fruit-producing areas of Yakima County, Washington, with the number of acres of different fruits in each} Total acreage for— County and areas. Bearine Peaches Plums | Mixed Fruits. | Apples. ee and Pears. and Cherries.} _ or- PPICS- | apricots.| prunes. chards. | | Yakima County.........-.-} 47,829 | 41,955; 8,528] 2,054] 1,623 279 | 78 | 1,840 INODEHIME Ss aee a sae cucecescnele 4, 820 3,977 ile 476 254 P09 ere 7 =:315 Pillai ecat secaeseenngee| ayes | "Splat |, “1310 162 212 44 | 4 124 BelAMe oceania x se saam sete 5,880 | 5, 683 "615 21 73 17. (See reese 86 Parkers seen she et ea 3,250} 1,898 268 789 319 189 12 43 Grandyiewiesscccsesscslee. 4,412 | 3,934 55 | 84], 239 Olas 5 141 Cowiche and Tieton.........- 8,973 | 3,845 76 | 27 28) 5 canjesnee 4 69 NUM YVR ex oneal emoeceaoace 1,578 | 1,402 496 | 67 77 | Doses ces 31 Upper and Lower Naches...-| 3,532 | 3,305 432 37 Clo Western cae fee eee 113 IVESCL VATION “cece eee cecse 3,486 | 3,304 817 150 WW osc @es Alpememee as 21 1 From the county iecameera report of the classification of lands in Yakima County, June, 1914. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE INDUSTRY. A few white settlers came to Yakima Valley in the early sixties. The unlimited range encouraged stock raising; until the late eighties commercial fruit plantings were unknown to the valley. In the COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN YAKIMA VALLEY. 5 seventies farmers began in a small way to practice irrigation, taking water from rivers and creeks to irrigate small tracts in the adjacent ° lowlands. Probably the first irrigating ditch of any size was the Konewoc, which was built about 1878. This ditch, some 9 miles long, tapped the Yakima River at a point about 10 miles below the present site of the city of North Yakima. The irrigated land was used for growing alfalfa and wheat hay, but only upon a very limited scale. A few hopyards were found in the Ahtanum Valley as early as 1880. By 1888 there were a few family orchards in the district, mostly prunes and apples. Probably the first commercial planting of fruit trees was made about this time by H. J. Bicknell in what is known as Parker Bottom. This planting consisted of 3 acres, principally prunes and peaches. In the spring of 1889 Fred Thomson set out, also in the Parker Bottom district, the next commercial planting, including probably the first commercial apple orchard in the valley. His whole planting consisted of 10 acres, including 3 acres of prunes, 3 acres of peaches, 3 acres of Ben Davis apples, and 1 acre of pears. _At this time a few express shipments of fruit were being sent to the coast cities from the small home orchards. The fine quality of the fruit and its freedom from insect injury and diseases were incentives to commercial planting, and following the early plantings in Parker Bottom other orchards were set near Zillah, a few miles below, and also in Naches, at Selah, and on Nob Hill in the upper valley. In 1888 and 1889 two important irrigation companies were orga- nized; one under John A. Stone to undertake the Selah project and the other under Paul Schulze to develop what is now known as the Sunnyside Government ditch. Land with water rights at this time was selling from $30 to $50 per acre. Paul Schulze was the Northern Pacific land agent and had purchased from this railroad a considerable acreage which it had received as a part of the alternate sections given under Government land grants. ‘The other sections of land were open to homestead. Both the above companies went into the hands of receivers in 1893 and emerged as private corporations again about three years later. The Government purchased the Sunnyside Canal in 1906 and about 1911 the Selah project was taken over by the growers in the form of a water users’ association. About 1896 the Government built a canal to the Indian reservation and in 1909 began the Tieton and other reservation canals. Following the Selah and Sunnyside projects came the Congdon or Yakima Valley Canal and also the Selah-Moxee Canal. Up to about 1897 the prune-growing industry occupied a position of chief importance; about this time the prices for prunes became so low that many orchards were pulled out. 6 BULLETIN 614, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In 1894 the total apple output shipped from the valley probably amounted to about 25 carloads and was assembled from small home orchards. The fruit was layer packed but not wrapped. The old 60-pound box, 12 by 12 by 21 inches was in common use at that time. The apples were marketed chiefly in coast cities and netted the growers about $1.50 per box. In 1896 Mr. Fred Thompson shipped from the Yakima Valley what was probably its first car of fruit to be sold east of the Mississippi River. This car consisted chiefly of peaches and pears. It was about 1894 that the apple-planting period really began. | Reliable estimates place the total acreage of all orchard land at about 3,000 acres in 1900 and the total apple crop for that year at about 200 carloads. This output was nearly doubled in the next two years, during which time the early commercial plantings were coming into bearing. With this development of the fruit industry had come the growing of alfalfa, potatoes, and hops upon a fairly large scale. Growers received in the neighborhood of $1.50 per box for apples during these times, and this high price brought on a very extensive planting of apples, which reached a climax about 1907 and 1908. The first varieties to be planted were princiaplly Ben Davis, Winesap, Jonathan, Baldwin, and White Pearmain. SOIL. Yakima sandy loam occupies not only the principal portion of the Ahtanum Valley, where the investigations about North Yakima were made, but also the district in which Buena, Zillah, and Boone are located. This soil is typically a fine gray sandy loam, light and friable, and varies in depth from a few inches to 60 feet or more. It lends itself easily to cultivation and is well adapted to the crops which may be grown in this climate. DISEASES AND PESTS. Fire blight, both on the pear and apple, is a serious menace to the fruit industry of the valley. Many of the orchards suffered from the prevalence of this disease in 1912 and 1914. Considerable damage has been done each year and but for the efficient work of the county inspector and the organizations of the growers them- selves a greater loss would have resulted. Apple powdery-mildew has been found in all parts of the valley, affecting the Jonathan more than any other variety; but on the whole it has done little damage. Both iron sulphide and atomic sulphur have been used for its control. It is only within the last two years that it has caused valley-wide infection. Collar-rot, as it is locally known, has been found in some shee the orchards of the valley and many apple trees have been affected seriously. Methods of control of this disease are being studied. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN YAKIMA VALLEY. 7 The codling moth is perhaps the worst pest of the valley, but with thorough spraying at the correct periods it is believed that it may be controlled. The other insect pests of economic importance now known to be in the valley are San Jose scale, oyster-shell scale, Lecanium scale, woolly aphis, green aphis, and rosy-apple aphis. Apple and pear scab are now found to a limited extent, but thus far have caused but little damage. CLIMATE. The climate of Yakima Valley is decidedly arid, and without irrigation the growing of agricultural crops would be impossible. The temperature during the summer often reaches 100° F., but be- cause of the relatively low humidity it is not oppressive. The winters are generally mild with but light snowfall. There was an annual average of 187.4 growing days at Yakima in the five years 1910-1914, inclusive. The Ahtanum Valley itself is well protected from severe winds; but in the lower valley, where the country is more open, winds often cause crop damage. _ The mean annual precipitation for the five years 1910-1914, ‘inclusive, at an altitude of 1,070 feet, North Yakima was 6.64 inches; in the Moxee Valley at an altitude of 1,000 feet it was 7.47 inches. For the 22 years 1893-1914, inclusive, the mean annual precipitation of the Moxee Valley was 8.36 inches. The greatest precipitation takes place in the months of November, December, and January, and the least occurs in the months of April, July, and August. For the most part the climate of Yakima Valley may be said to be very pleasing and healthful. TOPOGRAPHY. Yakima County receives its water for irrigation purposes from the Yakima River and its tributaries. This river has its source on the eastern slope of the Cascade Mountains, taking an easterly and southeasterly course, entering the northern part of Yakima County and flowing into the Selah Valley, a plain about 4 miles in length. At the end of this valley it passes through a narrow gap into the upper Yakima Valley. From here it pursues its southerly course east of the city of North Yakima and about 6 miles south passes through what is known as Union Gap and enters its lower valley, in which are located Parker, Zillah, and Sunnyside. The upper valley is bounded on the north by Selah Ridge and Cowiche Ridge, and on the south by Yakima Ridge and Ahtanum Creek. The valley ‘between the Yakima and Selah Ridges east of Yakima River is known as the Moxee Valley and that between Yakima and Cowiche Ridges west of Yakima River is known as the Ahtanum Valley. The total length of this valley is from 75 to 80 miles and the width is not greater than from 5 to 6 miles. The slopes of the 8 BULLETIN 614, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ridges of the valley are steep and rocky, but the valley itself is nearly level, with a gentle slope toward the Yakima River. (Pls. I, I, II, and IV.) METHOD OF PRESENTATION. In analyzing the cost of production in the Yakima Valley it is deemed advisable to give the results of the management under the two more common methods of handling the soil, namely, clean cultivation and the mulch-crop system. The former refers to orchards which are annually cultivated and in which no cover or mulch crop is sown. The latter refers to orchards in which the growing of alfalfa, clover, and vetch is the practice. Alfalfa is grown in prac- tically all the mulch-crop orchards considered in this study. The method of management is fully discussed under the subject Mulch. Crop. The cost of production of apples in orchards under each method of management will be given separately for North Yakima and Zillah. These will then be combined to show a cost of production of each method of management for the valley, and finally the cost of production will be given in all orchards considered in this study: regardless of the method of orchard management. Four kinds of costs are considered in arriving at the total annual cost of production—(1) maintenance, (2) handling, (3) material, and (4) fixed, which are subdivided as follows: Labor costs. Costs other than labor. Maintenance. Handling. Material. Fixed. Manuring. | Hauling shooks. Manure. Interest. Pruning. Hauling boxes to and | Spray material. Apple-building charge. Disposal of brush. from orchard. Seed. Equipment charge. Cultivating. Picking. Gasoline and oil. Sprayer hire. TIrrigating. Packing-house labor. Made-up boxes. Taxes. Thinning. Hauling packed boxes. Insurance. Propping. Picking up and hauling Water rent. Spraying. culls. Miscellaneous. Sowing mulch crop. Harvesting mulch crop. FARM ORGANIZATION. The most intensive type of specialized agriculture of the entire valley is found in the vicinity of North Yakima. The apple is the most extensively grown fruit, although the pear, peach, plum, and some of the smaller fruits are common. The ranches are small, with usually a tract of commercial orchard. However, most ranchers produce enough garden truck for their own families. Many of the owners do much of their own work. Not all ranches are fully equip- ped with the necessary implements for orchard work, though the owners are generally able to exchange, borrow, or hire them at their PLATE I. Bul. 614, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “LOINLSIGQ VWINVA SHL NI SSSY] BNILLAS OL AYOLVYVdSYd GNV] DNINVAIO PLATE Il. Bul. 614, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘NOILOSS «TIH 9ON,, 3HL JO NOISNSLXA NV SI SIH] “ASTIVA VWINVA JO NOILOSS LINN ONIATLNO SHL JO MAlA Vv PLATE III. Bul. 614, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. *jasiojur sayoved pu soptdde Jo ouo st punoIs0I0J OY} UT PAvYoIO OUT, “LOIULSIQ VAINVA SHL OL AYVLASINL SASTIVA DNIMOYD-LINYY LNVLYOdW| S3HL SO 3NO ‘ASTIVA SSHOVN YSMO7 SHL JO MAA ‘SpuUvT, YsNAGeses Ul} IvI[d 0) sATsUId x9 O.10M Yon oie Ao, ‘*sAOT[eA Joddn pure suosSer JOYSty oY} UI puNoj oie spurl duinjg "daYV319 ONISG JO SS300Y¥q 3HL NI ONV7] dWNLS PLATE IV. Bul. 614, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN YAKIMA VALLEY. 9 convenience. Some keep but one horse, with which most of the light work may be done. For heavy work arrangements sometimes are made for the use of a neighbor’s horse for short periods. The rancher usually keeps a cow, a few pigs, and a small flock of poultry. Where the orchards are under mulch-crop management there is a ' tendency to keep a somewhat greater number of such animals. Ranches in the Zillah district are comparatively large and more of an attempt is made at diversification than in the upper valley, where the orchards occupy a larger percentage of the farm acreage. Even so the type of farming remains highly specialized and fruit is the principal crop. Here is found a greater acreage of pears, cherries, and. other fruits, and until recent years peaches were grown to a con- siderable extent. The Zillah ranches have a larger acreage in young fruit than those in the North Yakima district and more land is devoted to the growing of other crops, particularly alfalfa. The typical ranch is of such size that the operator devotes most of his time to the work on his own place. In this region there is a growing tendency to raise alfalfa in the orchards to be used for hog pasture. SIZE OF RANCH. The ranches of the North Yakima district are usually small. Of the 64 considered in this investigation, extreme acreages are 2 and 40. Most of the ranches range between 2 and 20 acres in size. The average ranch contains 10.79 acres, with 5.18 acres of apples in bearing. Nearly every ranch has a few pear, cherry, and plum trees and a small acreage of young apple trees. Nonbearing apples average 3.34 acres per ranch. On the average less than one-half acre is devoted to the growing of other crops. (See Table IIT.) The apple orchard is usually of such size that one man can com- fortably do all pruning and look after the necessary operations with but little extra help except during the thinning, spraying, and har- vesting periods. TaBe IIl.—Average size of ranch and of areas in crops for 64 ranches in the North Yakima district. Method of culture. Item. Clean Mulch-crop (43records).|(21 records). Lx STRESS) EY LRENS) ay Sie al ne: as AEP AAR aL eR A SC Aa ee 11.96 8. 40 AV GIRE® (iby J ergies any pili Ae oo aaceddncosabansesensoee Mee pete Wma ek Be 11.77 8. 28 Average acreage in bearing apple orchard................-.-52-2-0-2-02 eee eee 5. 49 4.52 Average acreage in young apples and other fruit................-.-.--.---------- 5. 90 3. 46 AV erAPeACLeaee IM ObMeHICLOPSE ce se cca ee seek os doce e eee Soke ls See eu -38 .30 Tillable acres per horse.......... SAS pas Heats mea HSH ocSrtane tem este GHEE eee bees 6) 4, 81 The 56 ranches in the Zillah district considered in this investigation are somewhat larger than those in North Yakima, ranging from 8 to 60 acres. The average size is 21.57 acres, with 7.77 acres in bearing 10 BULLETIN 614, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. apples. There is an average per ranch of 6.28 acres in nonbearing — apple orchard and 1.79 acres in other fruits. As already indicated, a greater acreage is devoted to other crops here than elsewhere in the district, there being an average of 4.17 acres of such crops per farm, 3.23 acres of which are in alfalfa. On account of the size of farm perhaps the rancher is not able to put in as much time on the bearing apple orchard as is the usual case in the North Yakima district. (See Table IV.) TaBLe 1V.—Average size of ranch and of areas in crops for 56 ranches in the Zillah district. Method of culture. Item. Clean Mulch-crop (32 records).|/(24 records). Average acres in ranch..............-.. ees. cS se ie oe geeemanes aes ee ae Nee 22. 26 20. 66 Averare tillableacresim ranch ro. ne ate nem ce Sere eer ee rere 21.56 19.98 Average acreage in bearing‘apple orchard .:....2...--.-222-2-- Si sense ncttee ect 7.70 7.85 Average acreage in young apples and other fruit...:....---.--...2...-..2..------ 9. 33 6. 40 Average acreage in other crops, including pasture.......-...........:.--------+- 4.53 GET Pillableacres: per horse: <= asese2 sels sce te cases enins tase see eeeneneaee eases 8.04 7.92 TYPES OF RANCHERS. Two distinct types of ranchers are found in the valley. In the North Yakima district are found men engaged in ranching who were formerly professional men and tradesmen in different parts of the United States. Many of these men are at present interested in some other business besides ranching. The orchard is more or less inci- dental to the welfare of such men. However, there are several men who came to this section unacquainted with the business of apple erowing, expecting soon to acquaint themselves with it and make a comfortable living and at the same time have all the privileges of the near-by city. Many of the owners of these small tracts are inter- ested in the development of orchards farther away from town. In the Zillah district are found ranchers of asomewhat different type. Many of these men were engaged in other lines of farming before com- ing to this region to settle. Some came at an early date, when the price of land was between $30 and $50 an acre, but there are many who came during the boom period and paid high prices for their land. A number of the ranchers were eastern and central-western farmers. This type of rancher as a rule is acquainted with general farming and usually is found growing other crops than fruit and raising some stock besides. The ranchers of both districts are generally well educated. Up-to- date schoolhouses are found in many parts of the valley. (See fig. 2.) A few men in the Zillah district own property farther down the lower valley and devote it somewhat to hay growing and cattle raising, but this is not the general rule. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN YAKIMA VALLEY. Ek INVESTMENT. The average investment per ranch of the 120 ranches studied in the Yakima Valley was $14,504.32, or $1,235.70 per acre. The areas in proximity to North Yakima have the advantages of the city. In the Nob Hill section, nearness to North Yakima, beautiful location, and the numerous incidental advantages of such an ideal situation make this acreage almost a prohibitive investment to one who must depend solely upon the income from the apple business, for at the time of this investigation merely the interest on such an investment amounted to a large proportion of the total annual cost of apple production. How- ever, Many men with independent incomes, wishing to establish beau- tiful homes under ideal conditions, bought small tracts of orchard and Fic. 2.—A community district school in the Tieton district, many miles from railroad. Such schools are a product of progressive ranches and progressive ideas. They are a measure of rural social condi- tions of the region. retired from active business life, expecting that the apple business would give them fair incomes. Many did not then consider the inter- est on their investment. Furthermore, prices then received for apples were high and in many instances seemed to warrant the prices asked for land. As far as location and climate are concerned, it would be difficult to find in the Northwest apple-producing areas a region surpassing Yakima Valley. Considering separately the 64 ranches in the North Yakima dis- trict, the average investment per ranch of 10.79 acres is $15,639.29, of which $7,525.78 is the estimated value of the bearing apple orchard per ranch. This estimated value of the average apple orchard is 12 BULLETIN 614, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 52.57 per cent of the total investment. A greater valuation per acre was reported for ranches on which orchards are under mulch-crop than for those under clean-culture management. This is due prima- rily to location, land values being as a rule higher in the Nob Hill sec- tion, where more of the orchards are in a mulch crop, than in the Fruit- vale or Broadway localities, where clean cultivation is practiced by nearly all orchardists from whom data were obtained. (See Table V.) TABLE V.—Average size of ranch and bearing orchard and average investment per ranch aud per acre for 64 ranches in North Yakima district. Method of culture. Item. Clean. |Mulch-crop.) Combined. Numbetoirecords 3:02. -ssckheedeeer tes sete stohaee ce aaeeete eo akanee 43 21 64 Average acreage per ranch: TOA 2%.ccieke wale ate tee Se baher hosed teehee ac beetiaeees 11. 96 8. 40 10. 79 in Deanin gap PLeiOLChDARG vec sete oes se ee ee ee eee 5. 49 4,52 5.18 Average investment per ranch: MOUAL. osscjacisee' ts Paes ce sialees Beare ee ee ee ee eee See $16, 329. 71 | $14,225.57 | $15, 639. 29 han dignd tm PrOvementcns-eeesees jae esse eee seme eee $15, 695. 12 | $13,532.00 | $14, 985. 34 im bearingiapple.orchard.:<2<..e2s 2. sceee ns eet eee ee $7,708.14 | $7.152. 38 $7, 525. 78 IE) GUT ITL OTC pai mist erences eters tetra oes 2 citer ap aneterere ee mee tacts $335. 88 $357. 48 $342, 97 Average investment per acre apple orchard: TOA... cc ce Peewee SEAN ca ainda edema Gdaies Helter eae seed see $1,469.77 | $1,657.14 $1, 531. 25 IE lip mente tr) ais acs. ie Sele de siete eine See os ME ease $33. 11 $39. 12 $35. 08 Per cent value apple orchard is of totalinvestment per ranch }...... 51. 00 55. 79. 52. 57 1 Average of percentage figures for the individual ranches. The Zillah district presents a somewhat different aspect. It is located in the lower valley, which is not quite as highly specialized an apple-producing area as the North Yakima district. The ranches are larger, and, although more diversified, the raising of the apple is the chief ranch enterprise. The homes of the ranchers here are not so pretentious as those of the Nob Hill section, but the people enjoy all the advantages of an up-to-date rural community and have good train service to the city of North Yakima. For the 56 ranches studied in the Zillah district the average invest- ment per ranch of 21.57 acres is $13,207.21, of which $4,409.20 is the estimated value of 7.77 acres of bearing apple orchard per ranch. The value of the bearing apple orchard is 37.23 per cent of the total invest- ment. (See Table VI.) These investments are high in comparison with many of the farms in the Eastern apple-producing regions, but they are not exorbitant as compared with those of other Western and Northwestern apple- producing regions. (See Table VIL.) COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN YAKIMA VALLEY. 1S Taste VI.—Average size of ranch and bearing orchard and average investment per ranch and per acre for 56 ranches in Zillah district. Method of culture. Item. Clean. | Mulch-crop | Combined. nie PELOUNECOLAS ee wees ease ee obec NG APE! Se. PE aE) Fe | 32 24 - 56 Average acreage per ranch: solal peer ee hee. ree tha a okt Met ost es S| 22.26 | 20. 66 21.57 ampeanin op pleyorchard ease essa: oo. sa ane es 7.70 | 7.85 717 Average investment per ranch: | Ry fea ee es se hes ete arama aaiaia 2 win see em eR eres tion | $13, 487.83 | $12,833.06 | $13, 207.21 NEAT Gran adem pPLOVEMCN G2 oe ee ates ea = alte a See ee ie = een 12, 334.06 | 11, 787.29 12, 699. 73 imi bennincvap pleorch ard). see hectare = 4,338.75 | 4,503.13 4,409.20 BLOP IME Tiere Nee e we beeches se cee deen Jone see mete Sen = 486.25 | 464.46 476.91 Average investment per acre apple orchard: ST are yess Se LS eR VEST EIS. Del deosansesectaseere ses Joes 564.38 | 562.50 563.57 Equipment...... Fg BREESE SEC RAC ES EEE Get Bee ac BA CAG aCee ee 25.62 | 26.62 26.09 Per cent value apple orchard is of total investment per ranch 1...... | 35. 42 | 39. 64 37.23 1 Average of percentage figures for the individual ranches. The interest on the apple-orchard investment in these districts is very high, averaging 24.98 per cent of the total annual net cost of production on the 120 farms studied. The investment in equipment is heavy, totaling $342.97 per ranch, or $35.08 per acre, in the North Yakima district; $476.91 per ranch, or $26.09 per acre, in the Zillah district; and $405.48 per ranch, or $30.88 per acre, for the 120 ranches studied. The equipment investment usually includes all necessary equip- ment for orchard work, such as spray outfit, spring and spike tooth harrows, plows, cultivators, wagons, pruning tools, ladders, and mis- cellaneous orchard tools. The average investment per ranch for the 120 considered. in this study was $14,504.32, of which $6,071.38 was in bearing apple or- chards. (Ranches averaged 15.82 acres and orchards 6.39 acres.) This apple-orchard investment is 45.41 per cent of the total invest- ment. Taste VII.—Comparative investments of four commercial apple-producing regions. ; : Hood + Yakima P Wenatchee} Western Item. Valley. Valley. Valley. | Colorado. Average investment per ranch....................-2..-- $14, 504.32 | $23,487.36 | $20,974.00 | $16,366.87 Average land and improvement investment per ranch..| $13, 638.73 | $22,503.70 | $20,097.00 | $15,340.14 Investment in bearing apple orchard per ranch......... $6,071.38 | $12,257.87 | $12, 250.00 $6, 657.34 Investment in bearing apple orchard per acre....--..-.. $1, 079. 67 $990.74 | $1,925.00 $653.49 Equipment investment per ranch...-......-.-.-------- $405. 48 $491.87 $444.00 $708. 51 Equipment investment of bearing apple orchard per ACTORS. sess s SpOBEES SAORI ES EEE ADE DESC ROR pao ar $30. 88 $22.67 $44.65 $29. 56 Per cent value of total ranch investment the bearing Orehardsrepresenisee. ar asses se se eee ee eee 45.41 54.03 58.00 40.70 AV ChASeIACT CS Pel TallChsta= Any asec uo ge as ny hoeseen 15. 82 39.49 11.40 38.24 Average acres in bearing apples per ranch..........._.- 6.39 12.45 6.50 10.81 14 BULLETIN 614, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ORCHARDS. SIZE. The largest orchard considered in the North Yakima district was * 20 acres, the smallest 1 acre. The orchards from which records were obtained under mulch-crop management averaged 4.52 acres, a little smaller than the clean-cultivated, which average 5.49 acres. The bearing apple orchard occupies about the same proportion of the ranch under either system of management. ‘There is an average of 5.18 acres of bearing apple orchard’ out of 10.79 acres per ranch on the farms studied in the North Yakima district. In the Zillah district the orchards under mulch-crop management average 7.85 acres, and clean-cultivated orchards average 7.70 acres. The bearing apple orchard occupies about the same propor- tion of the ranch under either method of management. Consider- ing all bearing orchards in the Zillah district, regardless of the method of soil management, the average size is 7.77 acres out of an average of 21.57 acres per ranch. The average bearing apple orchard of t'he valley, when all records are considered, is 6.39 acres out of the average of 15.82 acres per ranch. AGE. The average age of all orchards considered in this investigation was 12.6 years. The clean-culture orchards average 12.73 years and the mulch-crop orchards average 12.37. The average age of orchards in the Zillah district was 12.54 years, while in the Yakima district the average was 12.66. Trees in these districts, as in other North- western apple-producing sections, may be considered as bearing at 7 years of age, and only orchards this old or older were considered in this investigation. Practically all varieties will bear on an average a box or more of marketable apples per year between the ages of 6 and 9. There were not yet in bearing 1,827 acres, or 58.24 per cent of the total apple acreage in the Zillah district; in the Nob Hill area there were 2,501 acres, or 62.89 per cent. The age of bearing orchards in the Zillah district varies from 8 to 22 years, though generally there seem to be two groups, those 8 to 12 years and those 18 to 22 years. The younger orchards appear to be the best cared for and the most profitable. Q VARIETIES. Between 50 and 60 varieties are grown by the orchardists from whom records were taken. The older orchards of the valley contain such varieties as Monmouth, York Imperial, Twenty Ounce, Missouri, and Ben Davis. As in other Northwest regions, earlier plantings were made of varieties well known to the ranchers in their home States. The small family orchards were the beginning of the COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN YAKIMA VALLEY. 15) industry and contained many of the above mentioned varieties. With the development of the industry came the knowledge of the varieties better adapted to the region. The principal commercial varieties now grown in Yakima County are Winesap, Jonathan, Ben Davis, Esopus, Missouri, etc. (See Table VIII.) TaBLeE VIII.— Ten varieties of apples having the largest acreage in. Yakima County. Per cent Variety. Acres. of total acreage. NAVMOOSEID ceo Hicks este Soe SI ant ete oe ay I oe 6, 201 15. 52 J Oe ae ea naw Ree eye ru) GU eam mR OR ANCA ae 5,916 14.81 BenyD avisteeproee ey eee ty ae Sp Cea A aT PURE an ae Rae k a ed eee 5, 103 12.77 Esopus | (sptezenbere) pa eg erence seeds erecta St CU IE 8 ue Wee au menpR eeu ne Mn iopia ike sks 2, 654 6. 64 Sods co ce SOU mee Bakes We eh la Se Re ae alee Hae aN AEs on ne Oe ie ee 2,578 6. 45 Yellow} INHER NG eed od aA nat S a 2,366 5. 92 OTE PE Call try ene eT eee Nes Re SA Eee ee OLS) LATE) FEEL eee eee eee oS 2, 203 5.51 NI a IE Sets SE tI), eR as ats Sues 1, 339 3.40 Arkansas (Black Twig) ........-..-------- tac MERNEMR ame en Ns ban Wis Seis i a ae 1,.075 2. 69 Seaman WIRES GS Soe 8 see Se Ce IEEE aoe ee ees te arenas ge a aang ee 991 2. 48 ] METHOD OF ORCHARD PLANTING. Many of the older orchards of the valley are set as close as 15 by 15 or 20 by 20 on the square. However, in many instances the orchard- ists are removing part of the trees so as to get sufficient space for the growth and development of those remaining. Among the younger orchards the distances set vary from 20 by 20 to 30 by 30, trees being set on different plans. As might be expected, there is little difference in the plan of setting between the clean-cultivated and the mulch-crop orchards, since most of these orchards were set before any considera- tion was taken of an orchard mulch crop. Considering all orchards in the Zillah district, regardless of the plan of setting, there was an average of 68.2 trees per acre. In the North Yakima district there was an average of 78.2 trees per acre. Considering all records taken in the valley, there was an average of 73.6 trees per acre. YIELDS. Records of yields were obtained from each orchardist covering as long a period as possible. (See Table IX.) The plan was to get rec- ords covering at least a 5-year period, so that any abnormality in one year or another might be minimized inthe average. The belief was that fair results could not be counted on from the consideration of _ any one year’s yield, since many conditions, such as the weather, in- sect pests, and fungus diseases, often make the yield for a given season entirely unreliable as a measure of the business of a district. In 1911 a severe frost affected the yield of many of the orchards of the valley. _ Two ranchers considered in this investigation lost their entire crops that year. _ 13116°—17—Bull. 614——2 16 BULLETIN 614, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE [X.—Average yield per acre, 1910-1914, inclusive, for 120 orchards in Yakima Valley. : eae a North Yakima and Ota ae Zillah district. Zillah districts com- ° | bined. Year. ry - fi | Average -verage es Average uaa ver yield 1 in DIUEORER vield in Number yield aa ord packe ae packe bese packed. records. | ‘boxes. records. — hoxee! records. pores TGQ te ee one ae ae anaes Bere 20° | 617.1 24 464.7 44 534.0 ASTI Ree ee een eet eM cs She, eee oka 30 | PANE) 33 || 216.8 63 246.0 WOLDS. € sytee ae ae Bete 8 ele ae masee 51 | 61750 48 | 591.3 99 604. 7 EL OTS Re ere aE Rene renege She ae ees 62 354. 6 54 | 328. 6 116 342.5 NO Oe ese SNe, he Sas ee 64 590.5 56 | 452.3 120 526.0 There is a difference in the number of estimates considered in - different years, yet the figures presented reflect the tendency to alternate bearing, as well as the effects of weather conditions. The age of the trees has a marked bearing on the yield for these districts. Some varieties of apples in the Yakima Valley bear a few apples at the age of 5 years. However, in arriving at the average yield for the valley only the yields from orchards aged 7 years and over are considered. The majority of orchards from which records were taken were between the ages of 9 and 15 years at the time of this study. Each orchard is given the same weight and the acre is used as a basis of comparison. All yields were taken from orchards representitive of the district, so as to make the data comparable. There is a gradual increase in the yields of trees from the time they are 6 years of age. (See Table X.) It will be noted that the yield per tree increases rapidly with the age until the tree reaches 9 years of age and that thenceforward the in- crease is more gradual. There were not enough records of orchards over 12 years of age to furnish reliable figures. TaBLe X.— Yield per acre from trees of different ages in the Yakima Valley. _ Yieldain-4| a 5 t, Number of estimates. ee o f Hae? aici aera UO I RRA ec NCSI Oc ae! EARL RUN eT a pee ert A tel 6 175 75. 66 2532 Rel ray Pek eh a ieee eT ON im a): & ce eee Sete coer ay Se Re 7 311 73. 50 4,23 1 ES VARESE RSA rie SE ne Pa Ua eee eon Ie er 8 350 73. 82 4.74 YAO see RP Ges nee yo ee Sere eS EIR AF arene eae ie ae 9 453 onl 6.14 DOME cee wes iy Greta cos eh nt ea ae gee ne Sai 10 | 454 74, 32 6.10 £5) A cee Se a aot raphe et Nee 2 oper es lee ae Ra es Be 11 469 M2eL2 6. 51 Ba Nak SRE Ree SE Na See tere oe Pee A NO eee atte 12 505 73.97 6. 83 AST OTAS CLTOUE LO GA sarees se = etapa acts eects aie SESE rene ete letras erate | Secs cee | 73. 81 The size of the orchard appears to have considerable influence on the yield throughout the districts. (See Table XI.) Small orchards have more trees per acre than the larger ones, and as a rule the ranch COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN YAKIMA VALLEY. iy is proportionately small. The trees in the small orchard usually get more care and individual attention than those in the big orchard. The average yield of the orchards studied is here presented regard- less of the size of orchard, variety of apple, and the age of the trees, 7 years and over, without consideration of the year. The average yield per acre in the North Yakima district in orchards under clean-culture management was 475 packed boxes, or 6 packed boxes per tree. In the orchards considered 79 trees per acre was the average. The average yield per acre in orchards under the same method of management in the Zillah district, with an average of 69 trees per acre, was 421 packed boxes, or 6.1 boxes per tree. The average yield per acre in the orchards of the North Yakima district under mulch-crop management was 434 packed boxes per acre, or 5.7 boxes per tree. These orchards averaged 76 trees per acre. The average yield per acre in the Zillah district for orchards under the same system of management was 367 packed boxes, or 5.5 boxes per tree. These orchards averaged 67 trees per acre. TaBLE XI.— Yields of 120 orchards of varying acreages and different cultural methods in Yakima Valley. Clean-cultural management. Mulch-crop management. Acresin orchard. | Num- Aver. Packed Trees | Boxes Num-| aver- |. acked Trees} Boxes ber of boxes ber of boxes ae age per per per eon age per per per ore. age. eons acre. tree. Gael age. NG. acre. tree. Io Gee ea 44 12.8] 496.8 Wee 6. 43 22 1255 | 435.2 73.8 5.90 Gibopl OR are ast 19 12.9 | 414.3 74.2 5. 58 19 12 375 66.6 5. 63 LECOZO ee 12 1253 348.3 67.1 5.19 4 13.8 304. 2 80. 4 3. 78 otal eesti 75 IDEA ERED) 74.9 6. 04 45 12.4] 398.1 71.3 5.58 4 Combined management. Acres in orchard. \ Number : Packed Trees Boxes of rec- iveTage boxes per| per per ords Or acre. acre. tree. THO) Ba i SS a ea em 66 L207. 476.3 76.2 6. 25 BTHo) AUC ia a Saas a es ie A 38 5) 394.7 70. 4 5. 61 Til POP. SS SEES Ae kB Se aa ae ee ie ec PAS 16 1 DE 7 337.3 70.3 4.80 ANOLE ES 3 Sees Ne ee Us i te ce gt yA 120 12.6 431.9 73.6 5. 86 The orchards under clean cultivation show a slightly larger yield than those under mulch-crop management. The difference is not large, however, when considered. on a comparable basis. There is an average yield of 0.3 box more per tree under clean-cultural than under mulch-crop management in the Yakima district and 0.6 box more per tree in the Zillah district. Assuming. that there are the same number of trees per acre—for example, 70—there would be 18 BULLETIN 614, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. an average yield of only 21 boxes more per acre under clean-cultural than under mulch-crop management in the Yakima district, while in the Zillah district there would be an average yield of 42.1 boxes more per acre under clean-cultural management. A few years ago all men in the valley practiced clean cultivation. Of late years many of the orchards have been sown to alfalfa or clover. (See fig. 3.) In many cases the orchards which were clean cultivated showed the effect of too intensive cultivation and the need of humus. There seems to be a tendency on the part of some growers, after orchards have been sown to a mulch crop, to neglect the orchard in different ways. These seemingly small oversights have their effect on the physical condition of the trees, and thus Fic. 3.—An 8-year old Esopus and Winesap orchard in the Zillah section. The Esopus trees are badly affected by blight. Note the dense mulch crop of alfalfa. upon the yield. This is especially noticeable in the Zillah district, where men are using their mulch-crop orchards for pasturing hogs. On the whole, these orchards are not managed so carefully and thor- oughly as those under clean cultivation. Great care must be taken with the Yakima Valley orchards in a mulch crop until the practice has been in vogue for a sufficient time to enable the growers to become familiar with the details and results of mulch-crop management. Not alone in the Northwest does there seem to be this tendency to neglect orchards in mulch crop, but in some of the larger commercial apple-producing sections of the East a similar tendency is apparent, especially when the price of apples does not seem to warrant scru- pulous care. COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN YAKIMA VALLEY. 19 Since the mulch crop has not been used generally in this district for any length of time, the true effects, as far as yields are concerned, do not seem yet to be in evidence. It is a recognized fact, however, that the orchards are in need of humus, and perhaps in many cases the mulch-crop system, with proper management, would bring good results. However, whatever the system of management, if the orchards are to be kept in good physical condition and are to bear the average crop or more, due care must be taken in the management. Considering the valley as a whole, regardless of whether the orchards are under clean-cultural or mulch-crop management, there is an average yield of 432 packed boxes per acre, or 5.87 boxes per tree, the orchards ranging from 7 to 22 years of age and averaging 73.6 _trees per acre. ORCHARD MAINTENANCE. Under orchard maintenance are included those practices which at the time of this study usually were followed by 120 orchardists of the Yakima Valley in the upkeep of their bearing apple orchards. Among these are manuring, pruning, disposal of brush, soil manage- ment, thinning, propping, spraying, and any miscellaneous labor previous to handling the crop. MANURING. Manuring is the annual practice of 77 per cent of all orchardists considered in this investigation. It is obvious from the small number of work horses and other stock on the average ranch that the amount of manure annually produced is small, yet few of the ranchers buy any manure in town or have it shipped in from other points. Most of the manure produced is usually applied on the bearing apple orchard, except for the small amount which is often used on the garden. Often, however, growers are found who make a practice of applying a considerable amount on the younger orchards. As a rule, there is not enough produced on the average ranch to manure the entire bearing apple orchard each year. (See Table XII.) Kighty per cent of the ranchers visited in North Yakima and 73 per cent in Zillah made a practice of manuring all or a portion of their orchards each year.. The former apply an average of 4.78 tons and the latter 7.72 tons per acre. TABLE XII.—Average time, tons, and cost per acre when a crew of one man and two horses as used for manuring orchards in Yakima Valley. g / Num- Hours. Acres Mate- District. ber of. |——————] in 10 vapor Tons. | rial | Total records.| Man. | Horse.| hours. | © cost. | Cost Under clean-cultural management: Nonna Vakim arias esac ieee sees 25 85510 |) 17502 1.17 | $4.68 5.52 | $8.28] $12.96 7A on Sacco BBS Hen SSCRSES Soe 21 10.88 | 21.76 - 92 5. 99 Se DONE 75, 18. 74 North Yakima and Zillah._..___- 46 9.59 | 19.18 1,04 5. 28 6.88 |} 10.32 15. 60 Under mulch-crop management: INoruhevalkaimea) seis Ore 14 7.49 | 14.98 1.34 4.12 4.14 6. 21 10. 34 Zillah ...-. eco sconeboodbasasoaee 14 9. 05 18. 10 1.10 4.98 5. 62 8. 43 13. 41 North Yakima and Zillah._._.__- 28 8.27 | 16.54 121 4,55 4. 88 7. 32 11. 87 20) BULLETIN 614, U. S. DEPARTMENT: OF AGRICULTURE. Considering the orchardists in the North Yakima district who actually apply manure, regardless of method or crew used, it requires 7.70 man hours and 13.93 horse hours to apply 4.78 tons per acre, at a cost of $11.20 for both material and labor, while in the Zillah district it requires 12.06 man hours and 20.73 horse hours to apply 7.72 tons per acre at a cost of $17.71 for both material and labor. Considering only those orchardists in both districts who actually manure, it requires 9.65 man hours and 16.96 horse hours to apply 6.09 tons per acre at a cost of $14.10 for material andlabor. Seventy- six per cent of all orchardists under mulch-crop management and 77 per cent under clean-cultural management manure each year. However, considering the small amount of manure produced on the average ranch and the small acreage covered each year, much more was actually applied on the latter than on the former, the latter applying 6.74 tons and the former 4.99 tons per acre. Different methods are used in applying manure, some men using a sled and others a wagon for hauling purposes. 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As will be seen, the net cost per acre for all labor for North Yakima is $148.56, or $0.3216 per box, making 38.13 per cent of the total of all net costs, and in the case of Zillah $149.52 per acre, or $0.3757 per box, making 50.60 per cent of the total of all net costs. The net labor costs for Zillah constitute a much greater pro- portion of the total annual net cost than do the net labor costs of the North Yakima district. EXPENSES OTHER THAN LABOR. The expenses other than labor consist of material and fixed costs, The material costs include manure, all spray materials, seed, gasoline, oil, made-up boxes, paper, nails, etc. The fixed costs include interest on apple orchard, the apple-building charge, equipment, depreciation and upkeep, hired equipment, land taxes, water rent, and insurance. The material costs for the North Yakima ranches made up 21.59 per cent of the total net annual cost. The fixed costs made up 40.28 per cent of the total net annual cost. Thus the material and fixed costs for North Yakima made up 61.87 per cent of the total net annual cost. (See Table XLVI.) The material costs for the Zillah ranches made up 27.62 per cent of the total net annual cost, while the fixed costs made up 21.78 per cent of the total net annual cost. Material and fixed expenses made up 49.40 per cent of the total net annual cost. (See Table XLVII.) In the case of all records for the Yakima Valley, including the North Yakima and Zillah districts, the material cost made up 42.17 per cent of the expense other than labor, while the fixed cost made up 57.83 per cent. Together they made up 56.89 per cent of the total annual net cost of production. (See Table XLVIII.) BULLETIN 614, U. S. 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As will be seen, the clean-cultural orchards applied the more manure. This is as would be expected, as the mulch-crop adds humus to the soil and manure usually is not needed so badly on those orchards as on the others. On the clean-cultural orchards 4 tons were applied per acre in North Yakima and 6.8 tons in Zillah, or 5.21 tons for the 75 clean-cultural orchards studied in the entire valley. On the mulch-crop orchards 3.38 tons were applied in North Yakima and 4.11 tons in Zillah, making an average of 3.77 tons per acre for the 45 mulch-crop orchards studied in the valley. If the mulch-crop and clean-cultural orchards are combined (120 records), there is found to be an average of 4.67 tons applied per acre. This manure is charged at the rate of $1.50 per ton for the entire district. There was, then, a cost of $7.01 per acre for manure for the entire Yakima Valley, or $0.0162 per box. The cost for the clean-cultural orchards was $7.82 and for the mulch crop $5.66 per acre. 4 The spray material is one of the principal items of material costs. This includes the lime-sulphur, arsenate of lead, and any other spray materials which are used. For all records, ime-sulphur, figured at the rate of $0.15 per gallon, cost $6.03 per acre, while other spray materials amounted to $6.18 per acre; thus all spray materials amounted to $12.21 per acre, or $0.0283 per box, making up 6.21 per cent of the material and fixed costs. The spray-material cost for the districts of North Yakima and Zillah is shown in Tables XLVI and XLVI. Arsenate of lead paste had been charged at the rate of $0.09 per pound. Another item of material cost, amounting to very little in the total and appearing only on the mulch-crop orchards, is the seed used for mulch-crop. Usually this is clover, alfalfa, or sweet-clover seed, and is sown only occasionally. The annual charge for this amounts to but $0.33 per acre for the 45 mulch-crop records in the valley, or when distributed over the 120 orchards, including the clean- culture records, it amounts to but $0.12 per acre. The gasoline and oil charge is used here in addition to the regular upkeep of the spray rig. This gasoline charge for all records in the valley amounted to $0.83 per acre, or $0.0019 per box. It is arrived at by allowing one pint per horsepower for each hour that the spray _ rig is used in the bearing orchard. The cost of made-up box is $0.1453. This includes the shook, paper, nails, and the work of making it up, divided as follows: SLIVOO) aS re cas OE SCL oo TRE RC Ses ESR Eo a ad $0. 1050 Metkan Capper g- ese ee A Ss Toe ue eae the eS . 0065 IN cial Serres ets eps erin ape pictey ah CR ate GER tal ea ara ae 0056 Paper, includine lining and wrapping. 2-22-2202. 2.2.2.6." 0282 Ota yee ea ee L Saat Ler aet Wy Siok He Su le RQ TARS 70 BULLETIN 614, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The made-up box cost is 31.92 per cent of the material and fixed costs. The total of all material and fixed costs is $82.94 per acre, or $0.1920 per box. For the 75 clean-cultural records it is $86.50 per acre, or $0.1914 per box, while for the mulch-crop it is $76.94 per acre, or $0.1933 per box. It is thus seen that the material cost per box varies but $0.0019 between the clean-cultural and mulch-crop systems of management. FIXED COSTS. The largest single item of fixed costs is the interest on apple-orchard investment. This charge is often a determining factor in the apple business. In the case of Zillah this cost amounts to $45.09 per acre, or $0.1133 per box, for the ranches studied, while in the case of North Yakima it amounts to $122.50 per acre, or $0.2652 per box. This difference is due to the difference in the bearing apple land valuation, which in Zillah is $563.57 per acre, while in North Yakima it is $1,513.25. For Zillah this interest charge makes 15.26 per cent of the total annual net cost of production, while in North Yakima it makes 31.44 per cent. Tables XLVI and XLVII show the difference in this cost between the mulch-crop and clean-cultural orchards. In Table XLVIII, where North Yakima and Zillah records are shown combined, there is found to be an acre cost of $86.37 or practically $0.20 per box for this interest charge, thus making up 24.98 per cent of the total annual net cost of production. Interest in this region is figured at the rate of 8 per cent. Several growers have buildings devoted especially to apples, the charge for which appears in the ‘‘apple-building charge.” Usually these are inexpensive packing houses or sheds. The investment varies greatly, and in many cases where expensive packing houses or barns are on the place they are used for other purposes when not needed in handling the apple crop. It is therefore difficult to arrive at a proper investment charge for the apple orchard for such buildings. Such data and annual costs for this item as were secured were found to amount to practically $0.01 per box per year. In order that this figure might be comparable, the arbitrary figure of $0.01 per box for apple-building charge is used for records for the entire valley. This charge amounts to $4.32 per acre. In arriving at the equipment charge, the average investment in equipment is determined and the amount chargeable to the apple orchard is arrived at by finding the percentage value that the apple orchard represents of the total land and improvement investment. This percentage value is figured on the equipment. That is, if the apple orchard represents 50 per cent of the land and improvement investment, 50 per cent of the equipment is charged to the apple orchard. 7 j COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN YAKIMA VALLEY. Wal The equipment charge for the Zillah ranches was $6.52 per acre, while for those of North Yakima it was $9.07. The relatively higher costfor North Yakima is attributable to the fact that the farms there are small, necessitating a comparatively heavy equipment per acre. A 25 per cent annual charge was used for equipment in this region. This charge is divided as follows: 11 per cent, depreciation; 8 per cent, interest; 5 per cent, upkeep; 1 per cent, taxes. This equipment charge is naturally more or less an arbitrary figure. Tt is impossible to tell just how much equipment is used on the orchard and just what percentage should be the equipment charge; also the equipment of many growers depreciates much more rapidly than that of others. Available data from this and other western apple-growing regions indicate that there is an average charge of fully 25 per cent for the equipment found on the average apple farm. In addition to the regular equipment charge, there is another charge of like nature, namely, the spray rig hire. In many orchards of the valley those growers who do not have a rig have to hire their spraying done. This cost, when prorated over all records, amounted to $1.94 per acre for the North Yakima ranches and $0.64 per acre for those of Zillah, the difference reflecting the fact that a greater proportion of growers in North Yakima hired their spraying done than in Zillah. This charge is included under fixed costs, as it merely goes to make up the lack of equipment charge on those orchards which do not have aspray rig. Thus, for the 120 records, there is a spray rig hire of $1.33 per acre, or $0.0031 per box. If this regular equipment charge and spray rig hire are added together, forming what might be termed a total equipment charge, there is found to be an acre cost for all records of $9.21, or $0.0214 per box. The land tax rate, as in many other Northwestern districts, is very high as compared to Eastern farming districts. For the farms studied in the North Yakima district it was $14.60 per acre, or $0.0316 per box, while for the Zillah district it was $6.84 per acre or $0.0172 per box. The high tax rate tor North Yakima is due largely to the locality, much of the fruit being located on Nob Hill, where land has a high valuation due to its residential advantages. The cost of all taxes amounts to $10.98 per acre, or $0.0254 per box. The water tax or rent is much higher in North Yakima than in Zillah, since many of the Zillah orchards are on the Konowak ditch and have free water right. The water rent amounted to $3.10 per acre for the North Yakima farms and $0.86 per acre for Zillah. The water rent for the 120 orchards was $2.06, or nearly $0.005 per box. As will be seen from Tables XLVI, XLVII and XLVIII, the water rent was higher in all cases in the mulch-crop orchards. This is not due to the orchards being in mulch crop, but to the fact that they happened to be situated in the more expensive irrigation districts. 72 BULLETIN 614, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. There is an annual fire insurance on farm buildings, of which the apple orchard bears a part. This charge amounts to very little— $1.12 per acre for North Yakima, $0.42 per acre for Zillah, and $0.79 per acre, or $0.0018 per box, for all records. All fixed costs amounted to $156.95 per acre for North Yakima and $64.35 per acre for Zillah, the great difference being due almost entirely to the high land valuation in North Yakima. As will be seen in Tables XLVI, XLVII, and XLVIII, the difference in this total fixed cost does not vary greatly with the system of soil management. For the 120 orchards considered in the valley the fixed costs per acre were $113.73, or $0.2633 per box. The total material and fixed costs for all orchards amounted to $241.08 per acre, or $0.5218 per box, for North Yakima, and $145.98 per acre, or $0.3668 per box, for Zillah. In the former case they make up 61.87 per cent of the total annual net cost of production, while in the latter case they make up 49.40 per cent. For the 120 orchards studied in the valley there was a cost of $196.67 for material and fixed costs or expenses other than labor, or $0.4553 per box. This made up 56.89 per cent of the total annual net cost of production. It is evident that the crop determines the material cost to a certain degree, especially as regards the cost of made-up boxes, which depends directly on the yield. In the case of the fixed costs, though size of crop has no influence on the acre cost, there is a great saving in cost per box as the yield increases. That is, the fixed cost for a yield of 200 boxes is no less per acre than in the case of a yield of 400 boxes, but is twice the amount per box in the former as compared with the latter. TOTAL OF ALL COSTS. When the total of all costs for the 120 farms studied in the Yakima Valley is considered, there is found to be an annual acre cost of $345.68 per acre, or $0.8002 per box. ‘This is figured on an average annual yield of 432 boxes per acre. The two groups of costs which go to make this up are the total net labor cost and the total material and fixed cost, or costs other than labor. The net labor cost is $0.3449 per box, or 43.11 per cent of the total net cost of production, the net maintenance making up 17.71 per cent, and the net handling cost 25.40 per cent. Material and fixed costs were $0.4553 per box, or 56.89 per cent of the total net cost, 23.99 per cent being material cost and 32.90 per cent fixed cost. The greatest item of fixed cost is the interest on investment, which made up 43.91 per cent of the cost other than labor and 24.98 per cent of the total net annual cost. If the 120 orchards are separated into groups according to soil management, 75 under the clean-cultural system and 45 under the mulch-crop system, there is found to be a cost of $0.8041 per box for | COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN YAKIMA VALLEY. iis | those under clean-cultural and $0.7939 per box for those under the mulch-crop system. Thus, in the case of these ranches, there appears to be little difference in the cost per box under the different systems. This is attributable to the yield being 54 boxes per acre higher in the case of the 75 orchards under the clean-cultural system than in the case of the 45 under the mulch-crop system. The net labor cost for the orchards studied under the clean-cultural system is $0.0434 more per box than those under the mulch-crop system. This differ- ence is due in part to credit received from hay on orchards under mulch-crop management, and in part to the smaller cost of tillage in the mulched orchards. The material and fixed cost is more per box in the case of the mulch-crop orchards, as might be expected from the lower yield. Table XLIX is a summary of all costs considered in the cost of producing apples on 120 farms in the Yakima Valley. For the 64 records in the North Yakima district there was a total net cost of $0.8434 per box, while for the 56 records in Zillah it was $0.7425 per box. The fixed cost for the North Yakima district was $156.95 per acre, or $0.3397 per box, or 40.28 per cent of the total of all net costs, while for Zillah the total fixed cost was $64.35 per acre, or $0.1617 per box, or 21.78 per cent of the total net cost. Thus the item of fixed costs is practically twice as great on the farms studied in the North Yakima region as on those about Zillah. This higher total net cost in the North Yakima district is due directly to the relatively higher land valuation. If interest on investment is not taken into account there is found to be an average annual net cost per acre of $259.31, or $0.6003 per box, for the 120 farms studied in the valley. In the case of North Yakima the net cost, minus interest, is $0.5782 per box, while in Zillah it is $0.6292 per box. In consider- ing the correct total cost of production this interest should not be deducted, but included, as in the first part of the discussion. It is a legitimate charge necessary to present real cost. Often, however, the interest charge is not taken into consideration in presenting the cost of production, though it is one of the greatest factors bearing upon success or failure in the fruit industry. Counting interest on investment, the average annual net cost of production on these 120 farms representative of the Yakima Valley is $345.68 per acre, or $0.8002 per box. In Table L this total cost is subdivided to show the cost of the apples on the tree and the handling cost. fi! BULLETIN 614, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE XLIX.—Summary of all costs for Yakima Valley (120 records). Clean - cultural man- | Mulch - crop manage- | Combined manage- agement (43 records; ment (21 records; 434 ment (64 records; 462 475 boxes). boxes). | boxes). District and character of cost. Cost. Per Cost. Per | Cost. Per ————_——_] cent-of |-———_————| cent of |—-—— cent of Per | Per a Per | Per vole Per | Per ee acre. | box eae acre. | box. Cet acre. | box. soe North Yakima: Total net maintenance cost. |$66. 67 |$0.1404 | 16.83 |$44.22 |$0.1019 11.76 |$59. 30 |$0. 1284 15222 Total net handling cost..... 92. 41 . 1945 23.33 | 82.77 . 1907 22.01 | 89.26 - 1932 22.91 Total net labor cost.-....- 159. 08 . 9349 40.16 |126. 99 . 2926 33.77 |148. 56 - 3216 38.13 Total material cost........- 85. 93 . 1809 21.69 | 80. 25 . 1849 21.34 | 84.13 . 1821 21.59 Totalfixed COSt-..22222--2-- 151.15 -3182 | 38.15 |168. 80 . 3889 44.89 |156.95 . 3397 40. 28 Total material and fixed COSUS ee es acc. ce nose c 237.08 - 4991 59. 84 |249.05 . 5738 66. 23 |241.08 . 5218 61.87 Total net cost of produc- OM tastes. re secs 396. 16 . 8340 | 100.00 (376.04 . 8664 | 100. 00 |389. 64 . 8434 100. 00 (32 records; 421 boxes.)| (24 records; 367 boxes.)| (56 records; 398 boxes.) Zillah: | | Total net maintenance cost..|$74.58 |$0.1772 | 23.34 |848.49 $0.1321 | 18.41 |$63.40 |$0. 1593 21.46 Total net handling cost..... 93.14 . 2212 29.16 | 76.76 . 2092 29.13 | 86.12 . 2164 29.14 Total net labor cost......-. 167. 72 . 3984 52.50 |125. 25 - 3413 47.54 |149. 52 ZOlOt 50. 60 Total material cost........- 87. 22 . 2072 27.31 | 74.11 . 2019 28.13 | 81.63 . 2051 27.62 Total fixed cost-...-.------- 64.50 | .1532 | 20.19 | 64.12 | .1747 | 24.33 | 64.35 | .1617 21.78 Total material and fixed (COSTS See eee eee Tl 72 . 3604 47.50 ;138. 23 . 3766 52.46 |145. 98 . 3668 49. 40 Total net cost of produc- ClOM See seme anes eae 319. 44 . 7588 | 100.00 |263.48 | .7179 | 100.00 |295.50 | .7425 |} 100.00 (75 records; 452 boxes.) | (45 records; 398 boxes.) |(120 records; 432 boxes.) Yakima Valley: Total net maintenance cost .|$70. 03 |$0.1549 | 19.27 /$46.49 /$0.1168 | 14.71 |$61.22 |$0.1417 4 17.71 2 Total net handling cost..... 92.7 . 2052 25.51 | 79.56 . 1999 25.18 | 87.79 . 2032 25. 40 Total net labor cost....... 162. 75 | . 3601 44.78 |126. 05 . 3167 39. 89 |149. 01 . 3449 43.11 Total material cost......... 86.50 | .1914 |} 23.80] 76.94] .19383 | 24.35 | 82.94] .1920 23.99 Total Hxedicost.2... 22-2. : - 114.19 - 2526 | 31.42 1112.97 | .2839 | 35.76 |113.73 | . 2633 32. 90 Total material and fixed COSTSSe eee eee neue 200.69 | .4440 55. 22 |189. 91 .4772 60.11 |196. 67 . 4553 56. 89 Total net cost of produc- LON repose ie cic i eae 363.44 | .8041 | 100.00 |315.96 | .7939 | 100.00 |345.68 | .8002) 100.00 TasLe L.—Total cost of apples on the tree, handling cost, and the total cost per acre and per box. a al ee aint ze | North Yakima and North Yakima dis- | Zillah district (56 | VATMlei Guta atete trict (64 records;| records; 398 (120 records; 432 462 boxes). | boxes). : Character of cost. babozes) | ones) boxes). Per acre. | Per box. | Per acre. | Per box. | Per acre. | Per box. INGTON AIM AN COtCOSi aa a=- Saami mee $59.30 | $0.1284 | $63.40 | $0. 1593 $61. 22 $0. 1417 Material and fixed costs1................. 169. 33 . 3665 84.17 S215 129. 58 - 3000 Net cost on the tree................. 228. 63 . 4949 147. 57 . 3708 199. 80 -4417 Netihanidlimp\cost 2-220 7 eee cee 161. 01 -3485 | 147.93 3717 154. 88 | 3585 MOotakNeGh COStaasye eestor seer 389. 64 . 8434 | 295.50 . 7425 345. 68 - 8002 1 In this table the cost of made-up box and the apple-building charge are included in ‘‘net handling cost.” PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO THE PRODUCTION OF APPLES. PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Apple Powdery Mildew and Its Control in Pajaro Valley. (Department Bulletin No. 120.) Soils of Massachusetts and Connecticut, with Especial Reference to Apples and Peaches. (Department Bulletin No. 140.) Horticultural Experiments at San Antonio Field Station, Texas. (Department Bulletin No. 162.) Life History and Habits of Pear Thrips in California. (Department Bulletin No. 173.) Peach Supply and Distribution in 1914. (Department Bulletin No. 298.) Apple Market Investigations 1914-1915. (Department Bulletin No. 302.) Cost of Producing Apples in Wenatchee Valley, Washington. (Department Bulletin No. 446.) Cost of Producing Apples in Western Colorado, Detailed Study Made in 1914-1915. (Department Bulletin No. 500.) Cost of Producing Apples in Hood River Valley, Detailed Study. Made in 1915. (Department Bulletin No. 518.) The Handling and Storage of Apples in the Pacific Northwest. (Department Bulletin No. 587.) The Pear and How to Grow lt. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 482). Growing Fruit for Home Use in the Great Plains Area. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 727.) Management of Common-Storage Houses for Apples in the Pacific Northwest. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 852.) PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Operating Costs of Well Established New York Apple Orchard. (Department Bulle- tin No. 130.) Price, 5 cents. Apples, Production Estimates and Important Commercial Districts and Varieties. (Department Bulletin No. 485.) Price, 10 cents. The Apple and How to Grow It. (Farmer’s Bulletin No. 113.) Price, 5 cents. Home Fruit Garden, Preparation and Care. (Farmer’s Bulletin No. 154.) Price, 5 cents. Profitable Management of Small Apple Orchard on General Farm. (Farmers’ Bulle- tin No. 491.) Price, 5 cents. More Important Insect and Fungous Enemies of Fruit and Foliage of Apple. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 492.) Price, 5 cents. Growing Peaches, Sites, Propagation, Planting, Tillage and Maintenance of Soil Fertility. (Farmers’ Bulletin 632.) Price, 5 cents. Growing Peaches, Pruning, Renewal of Tops, Thinning, Interplanted Crops, and Special Practices. (Framers’ Bulletin No. 632.) Price, 5 cents. Growing Peaches, Varieties and Classification. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 633. Price, 5 cents. Apple Blotch, a Serious Disease of Southern Orchards. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin No. 144.) Price, 15 cents. Field Studies of the Crown Gall and Hairy Root of the Apple Tree. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin No. 186.) Price, 20 cents. Summer Apples in the Middle Atlantic States. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin No. 194.) Price, 15 cents. Apples and Peaches in the Ozark Region. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin No. 275.) Price, 15 cents. The Rough-Bark Disease of the Yellow Newtown Apple. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin No. 280.) Price, 5 cents. Woolly Apple Aphis. (Report of the Secretary 101.) Price, 20 cents. 75 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY rN UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE %y BULLETIN No. 615 Vso Joint Contribution from the Office of Farm Management, STD). W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief, and the Bureau of SOS - Animal Industry, A. D. MELVIN, Chief. Washington, D. C. W November 15, 1917 THE ECONOMICAL WINTER FEEDING OF BEEF COWS IN THE CORN BELT. | By J. S. Corton, Office of Farm Management, and EymMunp H. THOMPSON, Scientific Assistant, Bureau of Animal Indusiry. CONTENTS. Page. Page. The need for more economic feeding of breed- AV OIGICOStly rations ss eee eee ee as 6 TW OTCOW Seeee ree ie een one ae ea Selection 1 | WWseimoreicheaproughage)cs2 22-52 6 Breeding herds must get most of their living Use available feeds most economically ._..__- 8 fromiuarm: by-products ---2 22222222 .-ceee- 2 | Study of rations on selected farms........._. ii Avoid feeding excessive rations.............- 4 j THE NEED FOR MORE ECONOMICAL FEEDING OF BREEDING COWS. A; great many farmers in the corn-belt States keep cows of the beef or the dual purpose type for the production of feeder calves. On the smaller farms, having twenty cows or less, the custom is to milk the cows and to sell milk products, usually cream. The calves from some of these farms are sold to other farmers, who make a practice of purchasing such animals and of feeding them out in carload lots. Some farmers, however, make a practice of finishing their own calves and enough more calves bought from their neighbors to enable them to fill out a carload. On the larger farms, twenty cows or more usually are kept only for the production of feeder calves, which usually are fed out on the same farm as baby beef, or as two-year- olds, or three-year-olds. On some of the farms of the above-described types calves are produced at a substantial profit, and on others, calves are produced at a heavy loss. Although there are a number of factors that govern the profitable- ness of the calf-growing enterprise, an investigation carried on by the United States Department of Agriculture in the corn-belt States 13117°—17 2 BULLETIN 615, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. during the last three years show that losses on calves usually are due ‘to excessive maintenance costs of the breeding cews.t Much study has been devoted to selecting for dairy cows, and also. for fattening cattle, rations that will give the best and most economi- cal results. There seems, however, to be but little information on the best rations for beef-breeding cows, although the data at hand clearly indicate that these animals must be wintered at as low a cost as is consistent with their welfare. When a cow is kept only for the pro- duction of calves, she should be fed a ration that will enable her to produce and raise a good strong calf and still keep in good bodily condition. To feed in excess of this amount merely for the sake of | having a fine appearing cow, as is frequently done, is a waste of feed. This waste increases the maintenance cost, often to the point of wiping out profits, for when the business is conducted on as close a margin as at present it is impossible to raise calves at a profit unless the strictest economy is practiced in feeding the cows. BREEDING HERDS MUST GET MOST OF THERIR LIVING FROM FARM BY-PRODUCTS. The information at hand shows that where cows are kept exclu- sively for the production of feeder animals there must be a sufficient area of pasture, most economically utilized, to support the animals for at least six months of the year. Not only must they get fully one-half of their living from cheap grazing but they must be so handled during the remainder of the year that the greater portion of their winter feed is made up of those unsalable rough feeds, such as stalks, stover, and straw, which are abundant on corn-belt farms. The data obtained also show that on corn-belt farms the size of the herds usually should be limited to the number that can be supported on such cheap feeds. In other words, with the prices prevailing during recent years, the breeding herds must be made to utilize the farm by-products and convert them into beef and manure, while the more valuable products are sold or are fed to fattening animals. Every year there are large quantities of corn stover which are not utilized to their fullest extent. Every year also a vast quantity of straw is wasted by letting cattle run to the stack and trample under foot more straw than they eat. An excellent illustration of this is shown in figure 1, where straw piles for three successive years are shown. Most of the straw on this farm is allowed to rot in piles and is not even hauled out as manure. In some parts of the country large quantities of straw are destroyed by burning. Much of the 1 This investigation is being conducted cooperatively by the Office of Farm Manage- ment and the Bureau of Animal Industry. The results of the first two years’ work have been published in Report 111, Office of the Secretary, ‘‘ Methods and Cost of Growing Beef Cattle in the Corn Belt States.” FEEDING OF BEEF COWS IN THE CORN BELT. 3 straw so wasted might be used to replace some of the more valuable feeds that beef cows receive. It is true that in many parts of the country in times past it has been better farm economy to allow these products to be destroyed rather than to try to use them. However, under present conditions, not only is it necessary that cattle should be handled in such a-manner as to use as much of these by-products as possible, but also, if possible, the farm business should be arranged so that enough stock is kept to consume fully these cheap roughages. These cheaper rough feeds can be utilized more fully than is cus- tomary and much less grain and hay need be fed to breeding herds. This is demonstrated by the results of the investigation upon which this bulletin is based. In this investigation approximately 1,000 farms were visited, and detailed information was obtained on the cost of maintaining the breeding herds on these farms as well as on Fig. 1.—Here the straw is fed in the winter feed lot, where the cattle run to the stack and trample under foot the straw they do not eat. In this particular case the straw is not even saved for manure. . the cost of producing the feeder cattle. In addition to the cost accounting figures, a study also was made of the methods used in caring for the cattle. This study is based on records from 478 of these farms, upon which the breeding herds were kept solely for the production of calves to be fed out as baby beef, two-year-olds, or three-year-olds. On these farms the average cost of a calf at wean- lig time, figuring all expenses and deducting all credits, was $37. There was, however, a very wide range in the cost of these calves, depending somewhat on the locality in which the calves were raised and very largely on the methods followed in producing them. On some farms this cost was as low as $25 per calf, while on others it exceeded $50. . On the farms visited there was a very wide range both in the quantity and the kind of rations fed. Some farmers were feeding a ration that was hardly adequate, while others were giving their 4 BULLETIN 615, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cows more feed than they could possibly eat. Some were carrying their cows through the winter in fairly good condition at a very iow cost, while others were using large quantities of expensive hay and grain, with a resultant heavy winter feed bill. Many of the latter could have greatly reduced the cost of their rations by a judicious substitution of cheaper feeds for some of the more expen- sive ones, AVOID FEEDING EXCESSIVE RATIONS. That the various rations, which differed widely in kinds of feeds used as well as in quantity given, might be made comparable, all the feeds for these 478 farms were reduced to the “ feed unit” basis, in which 1 pound of corn is equivalent to one feed unit.t. In this system 1 pound of alfalfa equals one-half feed unit, and 1 pound of cottonseed meal makes one and one-quarter feed units. Taste I.—Hffect of varying quantities of winter feed on the economic produc- tion of calves. | | . Cost of Cost of Average Cost of , Se - Peek 3 oe ers Number 5 _ z keeping a calf at Feed units per animal (165 days). aieraTS, ee aan cow ond weaning year. ime. Um eras 7 50R ees cs ne a. eer cea 13 1,550 $10.70 $29.00 $30. 00 V(50 GOD 240 eee ate aot ee eee eehesce 142 2,000 13.50 33. 50 35.00 D250 CODNTAQ A Bae soe eee ee one 83 2,350 18. 50 37. 20 41.00 2.450 ANGOVEL =. 22-2525 -- oc ee cara cents 122 3, 200 21.00 39. 60 43.00 UAH faTIMSs seen saree ee ce ee 478 2, 280 15. 50 34. 50 37.00 On the basis of the average quantity of feed given to a cow, the records from these 478 farms were divided into four groups. That they might be comparable they also were standardized to a winter feeding period of 165 days, this being the average for all the farms. In the first group, 181 farms (see Table I), the cows were given an average of 1,550 feed units per head during the winter feeding period. The cows in the second group, 142 farms, received an average of 2,000 feed units, while those in the third group were fed an average ‘of 2,350 feed units. In the fourth group, 122 farms, an average of 3,200 feed units per head was fed during the winter, this being double the amount fed to the cows in the first group. On 30 of the farms in the last group the cows were fed more than 4,300 feed units per head, or nearly three times as much as those in the first group. This great variation in the quantity of feed given in the different groups was not due to any especial difference in the kinds of feeds, as the average ration in the four groups contained the same propor- 1 See “‘ Feeds and Feeding,” 16th edition, Henry and Morrison, pp. 126-128, Cyr FEEDING OF BEEF COWS IN THE CORN BELT. tion each of cheap roughages, hay, fodder, silage, and grain. This being the case it is evident that if the farms in the first two groups, which comprise approximately two-thirds of all the farms, were feeding their cows enough, the rest were feeding their cows a great deal more than they needed. Much of this excess feed undoubtedly was trampled under foot and wasted. The records in the first two groups were analyzed to determine whether the cows in these groups were receiving a ration that was adequate for the maintenance of a cow in calf. The analyses showed that although the rations on a few of the farms in the first group were hardly adequate, nevertheless the majority of the cows were getting enough feed to carry them through the winter in fair con- dition. It also showed that the cows in the second group were receiyv- ing ample feed; in some cases even more than was absolutely necessary. The cows in the first group were wintered at an average cost for feed of $10.70 and those in the second at $13.50 per head.t. The winter feed bill for the cows in the third and fourth groups was $18.50 and $21, respectively. Thus on nearly one-half of these farms the cost of wintering the cows could have been reduced materially, and many of the calves that were produced at a loss could have been grown at a profit. In fact, 800 of the calves produced on the farms in the first group were sold at weaning time for an average profit of $4.60 per head, while 700 from farms of the last group sold at the same time showed a loss of $8.90 per head. As the number of calves sold at weaning time is hardly large enough to constitute a fair index, the average value of the remaining calves, inventoried when turned on pasture at an average age of 13 months, may be cited. The inventoried value of the calves in all four groups was approxi- mately $38 per head. The 2,200 calves inventoried in the first group showed a loss of but $5 at that time, while the 1,600 inventoried in the last group showed an average loss of nearly $20 a head.? An effort was made to determine whether the varying rations had any effect on the number of calves produced and on their quality. This study showed that the percentage of calves was approximately the same in each of the four groups. 1Jn determining the cost of the winter feed for the cew, the various feeds were, so far as possible, priced at their sale value on the farm—that is, the market value less cost of hauling. The price for fodder was based on the value of the corn it contained plus a charge for the cutting and the value of the stalks or stover. Silage was figured in much the same manner. 2The calves were inventoried when they were turned on pasture, May 1. As they still had to maintain all expenses of the breeding herd as well as an expensive winter feed bill, they were inventoried at relatively the most expensive point in their history. Had the calves been carried on pasture until the following November and then in- ventoried, those in the first group would have given a substantial profit, while the loss on the others would have been much less. 6 BULLETIN 615, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. AVOID COSTLY RATIONS. Not only were some of the farmers giving their cows too much feed, but many cf the feeds used were altogether too high priced. The farms were again divided into four groups, the grouping based on the average daily feed cost per cow. The average daily feed cost per cow in each of these groups was as follows: 5.8 cents on 98 farms, 8.4 cents on 162 farms, 10.3 cents on 131 farms, and 13.7 cents on 87 farms. The average winter feed cost for the cows in the first group was $10. In spite of the fact that the cows in the fourth group were carried for a 10-day shorter winter feeding period, and were given nearly one-fifth less feed than those of the first group, they cost $12 a head more to winter, or $22. This great difference in the cost of wintering the cows in these two groups was due largely to the kinds of feed used. The farmers in the first group were carrying their cows through the winter on a ration 62 per cent of which was made up of cheap roughages, such as stalks, stover (cut corn from which the ears have been removed), oat and wheat straw, and some winter pasture. The remainder of the ration consisted of 30 per cent hay, 4 per cent fodder (cut corn containing the ears), and 2 per cent each of silage and grain. The cows in the fourth group, which were fed at a cost of 13.7 cents a head per day, were, on the other hand, receiving a ration that contained only 24 per cent cheap roughage as against 40 per cent hay, 12 per cent fodder, 14 per cent silage, and 10 per cent grain. USE MORE CHEAP ROUGHAGE. The figures cited above indicate that there is an opportunity for many of the corn-belt farmers to reduce considerably their winter feed bill by the greater utilization of the farm by-products, such as straw and corn stover. MNMAA 7 je z#¥ |, / Fig. 8.—The adult female citrus thrips. Highly magnified. (Original.) orange-yellow; the male is somewhat paler than the female. The head is small, about one-half as long as wide, and a considerable por- tion of it is occupied by the large compound eyes, which are dark purple to black. Three transparent ocelli, or simple eyes, bordered _ by reddish brown crescents, occupy the space between the compound eyes on the upper surface of the head. The antenne are 8-jointed; some of the segments are furnished with transparent sense organs. 18 BULLETIN 616, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The rostrum, or mouth-cone, is short and blunt, not quite reaching across the prothorax, and is tipped with black. The prothorax is slightly wider than the head, slightly narrower than the mesothorax. The female is broadest through the middle segments of the abdomen, tapering gradually both ways; tip of the abdomen conical, fitted with a sawlike ovipositor. The abdomen of the male tapers gradually from the second segment to the tip, which is bluntly rounded; a pair of reddish brown testes is visible through the body wall at the sixth and seventh segments. More or less conspicuous spines occur on the wings and near the hind angles and at the tip of the abdomen. Under high magnification the abdomen is seen to be regularly beset with minute hairlike processes. DURATION OF ADULT LIFE, Owing to their extreme activity, minuteness, and delicacy, many of the adult thrips under observation were killed accidentally and others probably injured in changing their food. For this reason only the data upon specimens which lived 20 days or longer are con- sidered in discussing the length of adult life. In only a small per- centage of the cases considered did the length of life run as low as 20 days. The maximum duration was 49 days, which is also prob- ably exceptional. The variation of 29 days occurring between the accepted minimum of 20 and the maximum of 49 days is probably as great as ever occurs in the field among specimens not affected by accident, disease, or enemies. In nearly 70 per cent of the cases con- sidered the insects lived 25 days or more, and in 85 per cent they lived 35 days or less. The average age attained by the shortest-lived specimens may therefore be set safely at 25 days, and that of the longest lived at 35 days, the mean between the two being 30, which corresponds closely with the general average from all which lived over 20 days. The insects lived only from 3 to 6 days without food. INFLUENCE OF THE WEATHER ON GROWTH AND BEHAVIOR. The citrus thrips is purely a product of the arid Southwest and flourishes only in a hot sunny climate. The fact that it does not thrive in coastal sections nor in any part of the humid belt of the Lower Austral life zone shows its sensitiveness to conditions of tem- perature and moisture. The insect flourishes best on sunny hill slopes. It appears to enjoy the direct rays of the sun, and by pret- erence seeks the more exposed leaves and fruits in the upper and southerly expansion of the trees. On bright warm days of summer the adults exhibit marked restlessness and increased reproductive activity. The duration of the immature stages is shortened, molting is accelerated, and the rate of emergence is increased greatly. The THE CITRUS THRIPS. ig number of generations is greater in exceptionally long hot summers than in more moderate ones. Cool, cloudy, or rainy weather, on the other hand, at once markedly diminishes the various activities of the insects. They then seek shelter in groups in the pits or curls and on the underside of the leaves, about the stem ends of the fruit, and in the crotches and angles of the stems. Growth, molting, and emergence are retarded. With temperatures ranging between 40° and 50° F., in November and December, larve and pupz often live fully a month without change, scarcely feeding at all, and as the weather continues to grow colder both they and the adults die off, leaving only unhatched eggs to produce the succeeding spring generation. \ PECULIARITIES OF INFESTATION DUE TO FEEDING HABITS OF THE ADULT THRIPS. Feeding only upon the newer tissues, the adult citrus thrips are active in selecting young and healthy trees and often suddenly mi- grate from one set of trees to another or from one orchard to another. In localities where, owing to favorable cultural conditions and large plantings of young trees, an abundance of new shoots occurs in a close succession of growths, adults will congregate in immense num- bers and remain throughout the season. The resultant damage in: such localities is often entirely out of proportion to that occurring in other parts of the same district. The explanation of excess in- festations in certain orchards and in certain localities is simply food preference. Areas of this sort occur typically along the foothill slopes, both in the San Joaquin Valley and near Riverside and Redlands. Tn older orchards, where some of the trees have been cut back and rebudded, thrips will congregate on the watershoots and buds from every part of the orchard and in such numbers as greatly to retard the growth of the buds. The damage done in old orchards sur- rounded by young trees is often very slight for the reason that the thrips confine themselves almost exclusively to the latter. In sea- sons like 1911, when the climatic conditions are such as to minimize growth, the insects are compelled to feed to a greater extent upon the fruit with consequent greater damage. OVIPOSITION. DESCRIPTION OF PROCESS. The following is a description of oviposition under natural con- ditions as observed in a single specimen at night during cool weather, the observations being made with the aid of an electric pocket lamp and a hand lens. Attention was first attracted to the specimen by its indifference to the light. For a half hour it remained in a space 20 BULLETIN 616, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. about an inch square and went through the following antics: Fre- quently it would elevate the abdomen, spreading the wings as in preparation for flight. Then it would crouch flat to the leaf, twisting the abdomen about with a rotary motion, at times leaning far over to one side and often moving backward, slowly turning about in a complete circle. At one time the insect turned completely over and lay on its back for a short space, the abdomen continuously moving as described. At the end of a half hour the ovipositor was slightly exserted from a point very near the tip of the abdomen, which was then arched and its tip brought into contact with the leaf surface. The ovipositor was then inserted in the leaf in a single movement from an almost vertical position to about two-thirds its length. The insect then relaxed slightly and remained quiet in this position for four minutes, when it moved away and rested. Only one egg was deposited. PORTION OF PLANT SELECTED FOR OVIPOSITION. The citrus thrips oviposits only in those tender tissues which are suitable for food, 1. e., the new growth and the young fruit. Eggs are deposited largely in the leaves and fruit in summer and in the stems in fall, more particularly the large tender stems of the orange tree. In summer large numbers of eggs are thrust into the new leaves, leaf stems, fruit and fruit stems, and when the petals have fallen the fruit receptacles become a favorite place of oviposition, which is accomplished under the protection of the sepals. Eggs are never deposited in the blossoms. RELATION OF QUALITY AND AMOUNT OF FOOD TO OVIPOSITION. Eges are never deposited in the older leaves and stems and but rarely in the fruit after it is two-thirds grown. The number of eggs deposited in a particular tree will depend exclusively upon the amount of new growth produced by that tree. It is impossible to induce the insects to oviposit in the tough leaves of potted orange trees, though hundreds have been confined upon such plants for many days. Eggs were deposited readily in the same kind of plants when one or more new leaves occurred there, even though only 20 to 25 insects were confined through one night only. Oviposition does not occur in the minor food plants (including the Valencia orange, pomelo, lemon, pepper tree, Chinese umbrella tree, and grape), regardless of growth, in as great proportion to the number of infesting insects as in the Washington and Thompson’s navel oranges. RATE OF OVIPOSITION AND NUMBER OF EGGS DEPOSITED. The preoviposition period in midsummer, when metabolism is rapid, is three or four days. The highest average daily rate of egg THE CITRUS THRIPS. 21 deposition was secured in two experiments, in which the insects . oviposited at the rate of 0.7 egg each per day. This is probably below the normal rate in the field in summer. The largest number of eggs occurring in the ovisac at one time and developed sufli- ciently to be observable with the ordinary powers of the microscope is five, and it is improbable that more than this number would develop and be deposited in one day. In 1911, of 1,050 female thrips collected monthly from April to October, inclusive, developed eggs were absent from 644, which may have oviposited just before captivity and were therefore not taken into account. In the remain- ing 406 insects there were 493 eggs, an average of 1.2 each. The percentage of thrips with only one egg visible was 80.7 per cent; with two eggs present, 17.1 per cent; and with more than two, but 2 per cent. It may be inferred from these data that on an average a single specimen will not deposit more than one egg per day, though the number will vary slightly with the character of the season and the quality and amount of food. Rarely as many as five may be deposited. It would seem that in cool seasons such as 1911 the citrus thrips will deposit, on an average, only from 26 to 70 eggs in the course of her life, and this is believed to be one of the chief reasons for the relatively light infestation of thrips in that season as compared with such seasons as 1908 and 1909. In such exceptionally favorable seasons as the last mentioned it is possible that a large proportion of the insects might live the maximum of 49 days and deposit the maximum of 5 eggs each per day, making a total of 245 eggs for the individual. DURATION OF THE LIFE CYCLE. The duration of the life cycle was determined by two methods, viz, by the complete rearing of individual specimens through all the stages and by adding together the number of days in the egg, larval, and pupal stages. Owing to difficulties in handling only a comparatively small number of insects (13 to be exact) were carried through all the stages. From this record, obtained in May and early June, 1911, a maximum life cycle of 31 days, minimum of 28 days, and average of 29.8 days were secured. From the abundant data assembled in determining the duration of the separate immature stages the life cycle was found to be 33.9 days in May and early June and 29.1 days in September, months in which the weather was moderately cool; and in the period from June to September, during the hot weather, it was 15.2 days. The data are given in detail in Table VI. The figures do not take into account the three or four days between emergence and the first oviposition, which should be added for the complete life cycle. 22 BULLETIN 616, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste VI.—Duration of the life cycle of the citrus thrips, Lindsay, Cal., 1911. | Average Average , Average Average Mean Period covered. length of eneebat ae duration of| daily tem- egg stage. stage. stage. life-cycle. | perature. Days. Days. Days. Days. a Ma yiSitOl NG ,9 ttsoe store Oak 2 ieee 18.8 8.2 6.9 33.9 62.67 JUNC 2 tOSepisiO sa. osee see see eeeee sess ee 7.3 4.4 3.5 15.2 76.03 AUS AS 1sbOo OM be 20 eseee eee eae ese eee ae | 17.0 6.8 5.3 29.1 68.12 SEASONAL HISTORY. About the middle of October the thrips begin to diminish notice- ably and as the temperature goes lower, through November and December, they gradually disappear. Occasionally adult thrips will be found on the trees as late as December, from which it has been inferred that the winter is passed in this stage. As a matter of fact none of them lives through the month of January, and even the most painstaking search has never revealed a single specimen of larva, pupa, or adult later than January 5. Dead adults occur in increasing numbers on the leaves in October and November, corresponding with the period in which the living insects disappear most rapidly. It was determined by experiment, verifying field observations, that the winter is passed successfully in the egg stage only. Large numbers of adults and larvee confined in the fall on orange plants, practically exposed to the prevailing weather except for being sheltered from rain, began to die early in November, very few larvee pupating and these few dying as pup. All specimens were dead by December 26, but the eggs deposited produced larve the following spring. The earliest time at which the citrus thrips have been found in the spring was March 25. There is, therefore, a period of from 8 to 11 weeks in January, February, and March in which feeding, ovi- position, and all other activities of the insect cease, but which can not be called a hibernating period in the strict sense. The late issuing larvee, as well as the pupe and adults found in November and De- cember, feed during the warm part of the day until the first severe frost kills them. The date of issuance of the first spring larvee will depend upon the character of the season, coming early when the mean temperature for February and March is high and being delayed by a late cold spring. MOVEMENTS OF THE THRIPS IN RELATION TO THE BLOSSOM AND GROWTH PERIODS OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. As the stems from which the first spring larve issue harden, the insects wander in search of better food and are soon found working up onto the new spring growth, which is usually 8 or 10 inches long by the time the larve have attained considerable numbers. Orange THE CITRUS THRIPS. ey growth and the appearance of thrips larve occur about 10 days _ earlier on the foothill slopes than on the valley level. Adult thrips begin to appear rapidly about the time the Washington navel trees are in full bloom, and the growth from 1 to 3 feet long, usually about the middle of April, and the resultant oviposition and feeding on the spring growth soon bring their injury into prominence. About the time one-third or more of the petals have fallen the first growth of foliage begins to harden and the thrips transfer to the little fruits. This period of transfer usually will fall between April 15 and May 30, depending upon conditions of growth and bloom. The first injury to the fruit is caused largely by a comparatively few of the first larvee which issue from it, feeding deeply in a circle about the stem, the injury so made eventually developing into the ring scars typical of citrus-thrips injury. Severe injury to the fruit begins as soon as the petals drop, increasing from that time until the oranges average about the size of a tennis ball. The more serious damage usually is done between the middle of April and the early part of July. Adult thrips then begin to leave the oranges, which become tough and distasteful to them, and transfer to the second growth of foliage. A few thrips feed and oviposit on the fruit prac- tically throughout the season, however, and slight injury may often occur until the last of September. In 1911, the leaf growth was sparse and the amount of late injury to the fruit was unusual, being considerably greater than had been expected from the relative scarcity of thrips. MIGRATION OF THRIPS TO SECONDARY FOOD PLANTS DUE TO SCARCITY OF ORANGE GROWTH. The transfer of thrips from oranges to the secondary food plants takes place every season in greater or less degree, depending upon food conditions. The scarcity of suitable citrus food in 1911, ap- proximately from June 30 to August 30, led to an unusual increase of the insects on certain other plants during that period. Grapes are especially subject to infestation at such times, and one case was reported to the writer in which both leaves and berries of a small vineyard were severely injured. During this period in which the thrips are scattered widely over their various food plants—roughly, during June, July, and August—reproductive activity is at its min- imum. CONGREGATION OF THRIPS ON LATE SUMMER GROWTH OF CITRUS. Washington navel and Valencia orange trees in the San Joaquin Valley make from three to six successive new growths during the summer, depending on weather conditions, care of the grove, and age and health of the trees. In exceptionally favorable seasons there is 24. BULLETIN 616, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. some new growth on the trees throughout the summer, but ordinarily there are two periods in which the growths are most attractive +o thrips, one occurring in May and June, the other in August and Sep- tember. During the August-September period the tissues of most of the deciduous food plants and the rind of the oranges are tough and distasteful, and there is a steady, often sudden, infiux of thrips from scattered locations to the new foliage of the orange and some other citrus. The insects apparently become more numerous than ever, being more closely concentrated than at any other time of year. In this period of the season, therefore, the following conditions favorable to the thrips progeny of the ensuing spring usually occur: The food supply is abundant and concentrated. The proportion of male thrips is increased, and mating and oviposition occur to a much greater extent than at any other time. This most favorable circum- stance of abundant food in comparatively small space at just the time when the insect must produce the eggs for the next summer’s gen- eration is a principal factor in the rise of the species as a pest. It has been brought about by the occurrence in recent years of large numbers of vigorous young orange trees which the thrips was able to substitute for the miscellaneous weeds previously constituting its food supply. GENERATIONS. It is impossible to distinguish between generations of the citrus thrips, except perhaps the first and second summer generations, when growth is slow. Throughout the middle of the summer the life cycle occupies from 15 to 16 days, while oviposition covers from 25 to 30 days. Thus the complete life cycle may be passed by any given lot of individuals and eggs deposited by them to begin another generation while their progenitors are still ovipositing. This causes an overlapping of broods, such that it is impossible to distinguish between them. The number of generations will depend, of course, upon the character of the season. An early, warm spring followed by a prolonged, hot summer may result in the production of eight or more generations. In seasons such as 1911, six full generations may be expected between the middle of April and the first of November. NATURAL CHECKS. FREEZES. Practically all sections of California where oranges are grown are subject to occasional freezes of varying severity, which always occur between November 15 and March 1, when the citrus thrips are prac- tically all in the egg stage in the leaves and stems. The shoots most severely injured by freezes are those in which a majority of the eggs THE CITRUS THRIPS. 25 are deposited, and thus it occasionally happens that a considerable _ number of the eggs are frozen. In the winter of 1911-12 more or less severe freezing occurred throughout the citrus-growing sections of the State. The leaves and stems of the principal summer’s growth were browned and withered, and the thrips suffered a considerable reduc- tion in numbers in many orchards. For example, an orchard which had been severely infested by thrips during the three years from 1909 to 1911, inclusive, and particularly in 1911, when the entire crop was rejected because of thrips scabbing, was frosted so badly during the winter of 1911-12 that the tender leaves and stems were wilted and blackened well down into the leaf expanse of the trees. In August, 1912, examination of the fruit from this orchard showed only 13 per cent of it to be marked by thrips, the degree of injury being noted at the time as mostly very slight stem-end rings. Thrips were very scarce and the leaves showed little injury except in scattered spots. RAINS. From the fact that rains are supposed to be a powerful agency in the natural control of some species of thrips, it has been argued that a season of unusually heavy rainfall would reduce greatly the number of citrus thrips. Whatever merit rainfall may have in checking thrips of other species, its effect on the citrus thrips under the con- ditions prevailing in the San Joaquin Valley and in Arizona could not be of the least importance, since the heavier rains do not begin there until October at the earliest, and usually not before November or December, by which time almost all the overwintering eggs have been deposited. In spring the rains cease before the thrips emerge in any considerable number. The season of 1909, following the heaviest rainfall in the three-year period from 1909 to 1911, inclusive, in the San. Joaquin Valley, was the worst season for thrips injury on record. NATURAL ENEMIES. INSECTS. The most important insect enemy of the citrus thrips is the larva of the common lacewing fly of California (Chrysopa californica Coq.).t In its early stages this larva feeds largely upon larve of the citrus thrips. In October, 1911, an examination of 10 one-year-old orange trees on which thrips were numerous disclosed an average of 25 eggs of this Chrysopa per tree. A number of the sickle-jawed larvee were also present in the trees, and several of the smaller ones were engaged busily in feeding upon thrips. The thrips were indeed almost the only food available to the lacewings in quantity on these 1Jdentified by Nathan Banks. 26 BULLETIN 616, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. trees. Adult thrips suffer from the lacewings only when the weather has become so cool as to make the thrips sluggish. In its early larval stage, the lady beetle (Hippodomia convergens Guér.) feeds upon the citrus thrips. Although this Coccinellid is extremely numerous throughout the Tulare County citrus belt, it feeds mostly upon aphids and other larger insects which occur on orange trees and more particularly on truck crops, and is of no great importance in destroying the thrips. A thysanopteron enemy of the citrus thrips which seemed to be increasingly important in 1912 was the 6-spotted thrips (Scolothrips sexmaculatus Perg.). The principal food of the 6-spotted thrips, however, appears to be mites which occur mainly on plants other than citrus in Tulare County and which are not numerous enough on orange to attract large numbers of the predatory thrips. This thrips is apparently just learning the possibilities of abundant food offered by the citrus thrips, and perhaps will feed more extensively upon it as time goes on. It is apparently unable to catch the adults and therefore feeds only upon the larvee. The younger nymphs of one of the assassin bugs (Zelus renardii Kolen)? are fairly common upon orange trees in Tulare County and have several times been seen feeding upon larvee of the citrus thrips. The more advanced assassin bugs, however, feed principally upon larger, and often harmless, insects and it is only in their first and early second instars that they attack thrips. The small reddish nymph of the plant bug (7riphleps insidiosus Say) has occasionally been seen feeding upon flower thrips in orange and several other blossoms. When imprisoned with Scirtothrips citri it flourished very well upon the latter, but when the flower thrips (Frankliniella tritict Fitch.) was also placed in the bottle the latter proved more attractive to the insect, doubtless because of its larger size and greater sluggishness of movement. TZ vriphleps in- sidiosus has not been seen upon orange trees after the blossom period, when the flower thrips, upon which they mostly feed, have left the trees. INTERNAL PARASITES. Thus far no internal parasites have been found attacking the citrus thrips. Although the Chalcid parasite of Thysanoptera (Thripoctenus russelli Crawf.)* has been found by the writer in the San Joaquin Valley affecting the bean thrips (Heliothrips fasciatus Perg.) and the flower thrips (Frankliniella tritici Fitch.), for some 1Tdentified by Otto Heideman. 2This parasite was first reared from Heliothrips fasciatus Perg. by H. M. Russell (see U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Tech. Ser. Bul. 28, pt. 2, Apr. 27, 1912). It was described as a new genus and species by J. C. Crawford in 1911 (see Proce, Hnt. Soc. Wash., vol. 138, p. 283; 1911). THE CITRUS THRIPS. AAT reason it does not attack the citrus thrips, although the close asso- ciation of this thrips with the bean thrips on orange trees seems to be a good reason why it should do so, and it is quite possible, seem- ingly, that the citrus thrips may in the future become one of its hosts. SPIDERS. A large number of spiders, representing three or four families, capture the citrus thrips as a part of their food. The most im- portant of these in the matter of destroying citrus thrips is a small gray spider belonging to the family Dictynidae, genus Dictynus.* The Dictynide are tubeweavers, and this particular species commonly spins a thin sheet of web irregularly across an orange leaf, in a single one of which adult and larval citrus thrips have often been counted to the number of 50 or more. It is rare to find a web of one of these young spiders with less than from 5 to 10 thrips entangled in its meshes. The little spiders have several times been seen with the thrips in their jaws. The second most important Arachnid enemy of the citrus thrips is one of the jumping spiders (Fam. Salticidae), known as Thiodina puerperis. This spider is very active in seizing its prey, which it pounces “(2 u6 sp nich preys upon cat fashion. From 4 to 10 or more upon the citrus thrips. thrips will be eaten in succession by one of — ‘7#/"#1) these young spiders. The spider drains the juice from the body of its victim and casts the skeleton aside. Another spider (fig. 9), belonging to the genus Misumessus, has often been taken in its immature stages with the citrus thrips in its possession. This spider is a yellowish, very active creature belong- ing to the family of so-called crab spiders (Thomisidae). It is com- monly found, solitary, upon orange leaves. It does not spin a web. A small black spider (/'rigone sp.), less common on orange trees than any of the foregoing, is sometimes seen with adult citrus thrips in its possession. As is the case with all the foregoing thrips enemies, insects and spiders alike, except the 6-spotted thrips, this spider feeds upon thrips when it is young, but confines itself mostly to larger insects after it has become mature. The young, actually about one- twentieth inch long, is shown greatly magnified in figure 10. FUNGUS GROWTH ATTACKING THRIPS. The spores of an unidentified fungus have occasionally been seen about the bodies of citrus thrips which have died in captivity, but it seems probable that either this fungus attached the insects after 1 All spiders referred to herein have been identified by Nathan Banks. 28 BULLETIN 616, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. death or the attack resulted from the excessive moisture formed in the rearing jar by the orange leaves. It results only from abnormal conditions and is plainly unimportant in the field. IMPORTANCE OF NATURAL AGENCIES IN CONTROLLING THE THRIPS. The citrus thrips appears to be subject to controlling influences the nature of which is difficult to determine completely. The most severe infestation recorded against the insect occurred in Tulare County in 1909, when 90 per cent of the entire crop of navel oranges of that county was thrips marked, and close to 20 per cent of it was so badly scarred and distorted that it was unsalable at a profitable price. In 1910 the insects failed to appear in anything like their numbers of 1909 and the injury was less than 50 per cent of what it had been during that season. This naturally affected the results due to spraying by the growers in 1910, even where the work was done thoroughly, as In Many cases unsprayed fruit was in- jured so slightly that the difference in returns between sprayed and unsprayed fruit was so small that very little profit was derived from the operation. In 1911, thrips were still less numerous and more scattered early in the season and it looked as though the injury would be very slight. } Owing, however, to an unusually back- Fig. 10.—Immature spider, F ‘ Brigone sp. which preys Ward season, in which the trees made but ree the citrus thrips. slow and scanty growth, the insects were forced to depend to a greater extent than usual on the fruit for fo0d: on which they concentrated in the lat- ter part of the season. The marking was late in appearing, but at the end of the season proved to be somewhat more extensive than in 1910. This illustrates the fact that the abundance of thrips is not always a reliable index of the extent of expected damage to the fruit. The chief factors influencing the decrease of thrips subsequent to 1909 are undoubtedly the climatic changes and relative inadequacy of the food supply. In 1910 and 1911 the late, cold spring was the cause of the slowness with which the insects increased during April, May, and June; while the same climatic condition, in retarding the growth of the trees, further checked the increase of the insects by reducing their food. Furthermore, it forced the insects to scatter widely over many food plants, thus hindering reproduction and greatly retarding oviposition by causing dearth of suitable plant tissue. THE CITRUS THRIPS. 29 CONTROL EXPERIMENTS. PLAN OF SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS IN 1911. The principal experiments in 1911 were conducted in an orange orchard about 2 miles east of Lindsay, Cal., and about the same dis- tance from the nearest foothills, lying between the latter and the town. A supplementary set of experiments was conducted in an orchard situated on the slope of the foothills about 2 miles from the first orchard, the object being to test out practically the same sprays under different conditions. The trees of the latter orchard were younger than those of the former, and, as is true of most foot- hill groves, worse thrips infested. The insecticides used in the two sets of experiments are listed below, Series I referring to the valley orchard and Series II to the foothills orchard. A further experi- ment, in which 2,550 Valencia and Joppa and a number of navel nursery trees were sprayed, was conducted in a third orchard about 2 miles from the foothills. Series I: Valley ranch. Plat No. 1. Unsprayed, check. 2. Lime-sulphur solution (36° Baumé), 1-28. 8. Lime-sulphur solution (36° Baumé), 1-56. 4. Unsprayed, check. 5. Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-800. 6. Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1—1,600. 7. Unsprayed, check 8. Lime-sulphur solution (36° Baumé), 1-86, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-800. 9. Lime-sulphur solution (36° Baumé), 1-86, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-1,600. 10. Lime-sulphur solution (36° Baumé), 1-86, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1—2,400. 11. Cresol soap, 1-500, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-800. 12. Cresol soap, 1-500, and tobaecce extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1—1,600. 13. Unsprayed, check. 14. Fish-oil soap, 1-250, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-800. 15. Fish-oil soap, 1-250, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1—1,600. 16. Sulphur-soda solution,’ 1-25. 1 The sulphur-soda solution (plats 16 and 17) was prepared as follows: TEL op OCS rex 0 WHOM 0 01 bb aggead glee ASA PL aps IS SA aa pounds__ 30 Powdered: caustic) soda($8! per cent) Ne dose eit 1 Wiarter’ toma ale: | ee NC gi URS TUE See ES CE A ee gallons__ 30 The sulphur was made into a paste with water and the soda added, while the mixture was constantly stirred, in sufficient quantity to cause boiling, a little water being added occasionally to retard the cooking. When all the sulphur was dissolved, enough cold water was added to make a stock solution of 30 gallons. A clear, amber liquid, much resembling good lime-sulphur, was the result. 30 BULLETIN 616, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Plat No. 17. Sulphur-soda solution, 2-25. 18. Resin wash,! 1-3. 19. Resin wash, 1-5. 20. Resin wash, 1-10. 21. Plain water. 22. Unsprayed, check. Each of the foregoing plats of Series I consisted of two rows of 25 trees each, or 50 trees to the plat. The trees were 18-year-old Wash- ington navels, and the entire experimental block was bordered on two sides by trees of the same kind and planting, and on the remain- ing sides by Valencias and a road, respectively. Series If: Foothills ranch. Plat No.1. Lime-sulphur solution (33° Baumé), 1-75, and tobacco extract (22 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-150. . Lime-sulphur solution (33° Baumé), 1-75, and tobacco extract 22 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-100. 3. Tobacco extract (2% per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-100. 4. Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-1,600. 5 6 bo 5. Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1—2,400. . Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-1,600, and cresol soap, 1-400. 7. Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate). 1-2,400, and cresol soap, 1-400. 8. Plain water. 9. Unsprayed, check. 10. Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-800. 11. Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-1.600, and fish- oil soap, 1-200. : 12. Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate). 1-2,400, and fish- oil soap, 1-200. Plats 1 to 8 of Series IT consisted of 4 rows of 28 trees each; plat 9, of 5 rows of 28 trees; the remaining plats, of 2 rows of 28 trees each. All trees were 4-year-old Washington navels. The only lme- sulphur available for use unmixed in Series IT was a quantity which had been exposed to the air fora year. It was used, with misgivings, and the results, which are omitted as of no value, proved conclusively that it had lost most of its insecticidal power. 1 The stock resin wash (plats 18, 19, and 20) was made fresh for each application, as follows: DER SS We eae Be ea a Ooh Bee eae ere ne ce ee pounds__ 20.0 Caustic sodas (9S Derecen fae ee ee ee en eee (byes Ke SVE SST 8 ON eae ee ag ee eee a eee ee pints=— 7320 Waterienough tormake ss os ae ee eee ee gallons__ 50.0 All the ingredients were placed in a 60-gallon iron kettle with 10 or 15 gallons of water and brought to boiling. Melting was aided by constant stirring. Hot water was added occasionally until the mixture had boiled constantly for about 14 hours and had reached 50 gallons. THE CITRUS THRIPS. 31 NURSERY-SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. Plat No. 1. 2,550 Valencia and Joppa orange trees, sprayed with lime-sulphur, 1-50. 2. Several thousand Washington navel orange trees, sprayed with lime-sulphur, 1-75, and tobacco extract .(2% per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-150. Time and number of applications—Three applications of the in- secticides were made at the valley ranch, Series I, with the object of saving the fruit from injury. Owing to a very cold and backward season and the age of the trees, growth was scant and the first appli- cation was not necessary until June 2. The second application was timed principally to catch adult thrips which had transferred to the fruit and larve which had issued from it since the first application and was started June 17. The third application was timed solely by the abundance of thrips on the fruit and was begun July 8. The first application at the foothills ranch, Series I1, was started May 15, and the second June 6, both about a week later than was intended, owing to failure of the ranch foreman to produce sprayer, teams, and labor promptly when requested, the writer being depend- ent upon the grower for these items by agreement. The difference in the time of the first application between the valley ranch, Series I, and the foothills ranch, Series II, indicates approximately the differ- ence between the two localities in the time when the petals dropped and the thrips began to feed on the fruit. The nursery trees were sprayed June 7, July 15, and August 31; the sprayings were timed solely by the abundance of thrips. RESULTS FROM SPRAYING. The determination of the relative value of the different insecticides and of spraying is based solely upon the effectiveness of the work in raising the commercial grade of the fruit. These grades repre- sent money values, and their improvement, which was the primary object of the investigation, thus effects a tangible saving. The qualities determining the grading of oranges were studied out at the various packing houses, and in this work the writer received the willing cooperation of the managers of most of the packing houses at Lindsay, Cal. As the fruit from the experiments of Series I was graded under a different system from that of Series II, it will be necessary to state the results of each series of experiments in terms of the commercial grading of the fruit from that series. RESULTS IN SERIES I. The results of the spraying experiments at the valley ranch are summarized in Tables VII and VIII. The comparatively slight in- festation in this orchard in 1911 is evident from the figures for the unsprayed plats, Nos. 1, 4, 7, 18, and 22, in Table VII. The varia- tion in the percentage of fruit injured sufficiently to reduce the grade 32 BULLETIN 616, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the different check plats shows the uncertainty of the infestation and the necessity, in order to obtain reliable comparison, of several interspersed lots of unsprayed trees. The comparisons would be still more accurate if it had been feasible to leave single untreated trees interspersed among the sprayed trees of each plat, but the work of keeping the fruit from a large number of scattered trees in 17 plats separate for examination would involve too much time and expense, and there would be much risk of the pickers, paid by the box, mixing the fruit. Taste VII.—Comparison of fruit sprayed for the citrus thrips with that un- sprayed, Series I, Lindsay, Cal., 1911. Se Commercial grading of fruit. No. a Treatment of trees. Num- Nae Number | Number | Per cent | Per cent ghee ber of hearior of first- | ofsecond-| — first- second- bees oranges. grade grade grade grade xes. oranges. | oranges. | oranges. | oranges. ApWPUntrested esarre tee eae ee ete 20 | 2,386 1,981 405 83.1 16.8 -2 | Lime-sulphur (36° Baumé), 1-28. ....-. 20 | 2,308 2, 285 23 98.9 1 3 | Lime-sulphur (36° Baumé), 1-562 ra-h 20 | 2,248 2, 225 18 99.1 -8 A. | Wmtreated.-\se0- saese ae eeccceeeees pee 20 | 2,180 1, 734 446 79.4 20.4 5 | Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine Sulphate) 1-800 5 sock cc saceec seas. 20 | 2,300 2, 247 53 97.5 2.3 6 | Tobacco extract (40 pee cent nicotine sulphate), 1-1,600. . 20 | 2,281 2,160 121 94.6 5. 72 | AULT CALE ees aoee eect hah eee Bare ne 20 | 2,442 2,188 254 89.5 10. 4 8 | Lime-sulphur (36° Baumé), 1-86, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine SUIpPHate)s 4 =800 Sees rece ae 20.) 2,337 2,272 65 97.1 2:7 9 Lime-sulphur (36° Baumé), 1-86, and tobaeco extract (40 per cent nicotine Sulphate) il G00s.222 acces eee 20 | 2,420 2,321 99 95.8 4 10 | Lime-sulphur (36° Baumé), 1-86, and - tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-2°40022 02222 -cencceeea se 20 | 2,387 2,174 213 91 8.8 11 nee ree 500, and tobacco extract, het ou See nk he an aad ees aE 20 | 2,345 2,071 274 88.2 11.6 12 Grae ee 1-500, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 125400 ve Sordi sicec bis tcoomtnniss hoes 20} 2,126 1,740 386 81.8 18.1 4941 Unitranted coc--2ecee ote 20 | 2,648 1,878 770 70.8 29 14 | Fish-oil soap, 1-250, and tobacco ex- tract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), TSO0 Som eh oa eet cmern nee ae eee 20] 2,555 2, 299 256 89.8 10 15 | Fish-oil soap, 1-250, and tobacco ex- tract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 118 G00 2a eae ec ees ete teen aes 20 | 2,444 2,041 403 83.4 16.4 16 | Sulphur-soda, 1-25..............-...--- 20'|) 2,563 2, 294 269 89.4 10.4 To Sulphur-sOda,62-2ooe eee ee ne ee 2 20 | 2,622 2,510 112 95.7 4.1 18) | Resiniwashi loin... oho eek tee eee 20 | 2,700 (1) (1) Q) (1) 19)| GResin wash. 1=bs.22.4 22.005 teceecce 2 20 | 2,760 (*) (2) (2) (2) 20) |) Resimewash, 110s 2c.22 2 2. sa dkcesiccwsite ce 20} 2,596 (3) (3) (3) 3 21 |p Blain watets. sos 250 cc. erase so maccee 20 | 2,639 2,191 448 82.9 16.9 221 SUMLLCALEO =. Sos aecanmn acces case oe aoe 20 | 2,650 2,176 474 82 17.8 1 83.6 per cent of fruit injured by spray. 2 69.6 per cent of fruit injured by spray. 3 43.7 per cent of fruit injured by spray. The fruit from plats 1 and 4 was considered as one unsprayed lot for comparison with the sprayed fruit from plats 2 and 3; that from plats 4 and 7 as a check on the same from plats 5 and 6, etc., in order to get unsprayed fruit as nearly as possible representative of what sprayed fruit would have been without treatment. More than THE CITRUS THRIPS. 33 95 per cent of the grade reduction occurring in the orchard was eaused by thrips injury. The efficacy of the various insecticides in raising the grade of the fruit is shown in Table VIII. TasLe VIII.—EHfficacy of the spray mixtures in Series I. Unsprayed fruit. Sprayed fruit. Grade-rais- | | ing efficacy Number of Number of Number of | Number of of the Plat No. boxes first- boxes low- Plat No. boxes first- | boxes low- sprays. grade fruit. grade fruit. grade fruit. | grade fruit. | Per cent. land 4. 81 19 2 99 1 95 ‘ 3 99 1 95 4and 7. 85 15 5 98 2 87 6 95 5 67 7and 13. 80 20 8 97 3 85 9 96 4 80 10 91 9 55 11 88 12 40 12 82 18 10 13 and 22. 79 21 14 90 10 52 15 84 16 24 16 90 10 52 17 96 4 81 21 83 17 19 The relative worth of the spray mixtures in Series I, as indicated in Tables VIT and VIII, may be summarized as follows: 1. From 80 to 90 per cent grade-reducing injury prevented by— Lime-sulphur (36° Baumé), 1-28. Lime-sulphur (36° Baumé), 1-56. Tobacco extract (nicotine sulphate 40 per cent), 1-800. Lime-sulphur (36° Baumé), 1-86, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-800 and 1—1,600. Sulphur-soda solution, 2-25. 2. Between 60 and 80 per cent of injury prevented by— Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1—1,600. 3. From 50 to 60 per cent of injury prevented by— Lime-sulphur (36° Baumé), 1-86, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1—2,400. Fish-oil soap, 1-250, and tobacce extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-800. 5 Sulphur-soda solution, 1-25. 4, Less than 50 per cent of injury prevented by— Cresol soap, 1-500, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-1,600. ‘ Fish-oil soap, 1-500, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 12,400. Fish oil soap, 1-250, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-1,600. Plain water. 5. Fruit and leaves severely injured by— Resin wash, 1-8; 1-5; and 1-10. Contrary to expectation, the addition of soaps to tobacco solutions did not appear to increase their efficacy, but, on the contrary, seemed to lower it. Straight tobacco extract with 40 per cent nicotine sulphate, 34 BULLETIN 616, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. diluted 1-800 and 1-1,600, respectively, gave better results than at the same strengths with the addition of soaps. This fact is difficult to account for, but may be due partly to more severe infestation of the trees on which the soap was used than on those sprayed with the unmodified tobacco extracts. The soap plats were located two on either side of check plat 13, in which there was 29 per cent of low- grade fruit; but the comparison is made with the average between plats 13 and 22, in which there was 21 per cent low-grade fruit. The infestation may have been as severe in the soap plats as in check plat 18. The plats treated with straight tobacco extracts lay be- tween check plats 4 and 7, with only 20 and 5 per cent low-grade fruit, respectively. The foregoing explanation does not hold, how- ever, for the similar results from soap and tobacco extracts, under different conditions, in Series IT, and the latter experiments seem to lend further weight to the probability that but little benefit will re- sult from adding soaps to tobacco extracts as sprays for the citrus thrips. Experiments under very heavy and uniform thrips infesta- tion, however, might result somewhat differently. RESULTS IN SERIES II. The fruit from the experimental plats in Series IT was packed in three commercial grades instead of two, as was that of Series I. The results from spraying are given in percentage of fruit of each of the three grades, from all the separate plats, in Table TX. TasLE IX.—Comparison of fruit sprayed for the citrus thrips with that Uun- sprayed, Series II, Lindsay, Cal., 1911. Amount of fruit examined: Commercial grading of fruit. Plat , No. Treatment of trees. Num- | Number | Per cent Per cent Per cent ber of of first- second- third- boxes. | oranges. | grade fruit. | grade fruit. | grade fruit. 1 | Lime-sulphur (33° Baumé), 1-75, and tobacco extract (22 per cent nicotine SUlphate) yl —1 50 ees cesar See aie sere 20 2, 492 40.3 51.8 7.8 2 | Lime-sulphur (33° Baumé), 1-75, and tobacco extract (2% per cent nicotine sulphate) $1100 8 222.2 2. ae eee 20 2,504 46 44.4 9.4 3 | Tobacco extract (23 per cent nicotine sulphate) 110052222 eee cece ee 20 2,371 25.7 53.1 21 4 | Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate) 1600 ease ae eee eee 20 2,502 33 46.6 20. 2 5 | Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine Sulphate), 1-2: 4002 se teem ene ceeoes 20 2,711 19.2 54 26.7 6 | Cresol soap, 1-400, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-1,600. 20 2,336 30. 2 48.3 21.3 7 | Cresol soap, 1-400, and tobacco extract, 1a 2 400 RE SE ee ete reece nes teice= 20 2, 403 22.2 52.8 24.7 8 | Plain water....................-......--. 20 2,582 7.4 46.7 45.4 Gn Untreated =e Sees ce se eee ee ee 20 2,271 6.7 52 41.1 10 | Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate) 18005 5 emere eases ees oer 20 2,176 42 47.6 10.2 11 | Fish-oil soap, 1-200, and tobacco extract, (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-1,600- - 20 2,147 30 51-3 18.6 12 | Fish-oil soap, 1-200, and tobacco extract, (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-2,400- . 20 2,049 27.4 50.7 21.8 THE CITRUS THRIPS. 35 The relative worth of the spray mixtures in this series may be divided roughly into four groups, according to their relative merits, as follows: 1. Sprays raising about three-fourths of the injured fruit from third to first grade: Lime-sulphur (33° Baumé), 1-75, and tobacco extract (2% per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-150. Lime-sulphur (33° Baumé), 1-75, and tobacco extract (2% per cent nicotine «™Inhate), 1-100. Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate, 1-800. 2. Sprays raising about one-haif the injured fruit from third to first grade: Tobacco extract (2% per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-100. Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1—1,600.- Cresol soap, 1-400, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-1,600. Fish-oil soap, 1-200, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1—1,600. Fish-oil soap, 1-200, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-2,400. 8. Sprays raising about one-third of the injured fruit from third to first grade: Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1—2,400. Cresol soap, 1-400, and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate), 1-2,400. 4, Without insecticidal value: Plain water at high pressure. As indicated by the figures in Table LX, insecticides in the first of the foregoing groups raised from 31 to 33 per cent out of a probable 41 per cent of third-grade fruit to first grade; i. e., over three- fourths of it; those in the second group, only about 20 per cent, or about half of it; and those in the third group prevented only about one-third of the injury. The results from the more effective sprays in Series II may be stated in terms of the gross receipts of the fruit. The difference in price per box between the grades for this particular fruit was as follows: First-grade fruit brought 67 cents more per box than third- grade and 29 cents more than second grade, which brought 38 cents more than third-grade fruit. The differences in receipts per hundred boxes between sprayed plats 1, 2, and 10 and the check plat are given below: Plat 1.—33.8 boxes raised from third grade to first grade, at 67 cents__ $22. 31 0.2 boxes raised from second grade to first grade, at 29 cents__ . 06 Amount received per 100 boxes sprayed fruit in excess of thes unis prary celia sey sexe Moria Newey Miskin cei PPR Plat 2.—31.7 boxes raised from third grade to first grade, at 67 cents__ 21. 23 7.6 boxes raised from second grade to first grade, at 29 cents__ 2.2 Amount received per 100 boxes sprayed fruit in excess OFAUMSP RAVE Mee sees er ae ie Tee pasha stars SPL eRe 23. 48 86 BULLETIN 616, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Plat 10.—30.9 boxes raised from third grade to first grade, at 67 cents__ $20. 70 4.4 boxes raised from second grade to first grade, at 29 cents DOR (DO X2. 222 ee ee ee ee a ee 127 Amount received per 100 boxes sprayed fruit in excess Of UNSPrayed === ee ee ee eee 21. 97 Taking into consideration the fact that only two early applica- tions were made in Series IJ, at the foothills ranch, it will be seen that in seasons like 1911, when the infestations are light, reasonably successful commercial spraying may be depended upon to insure an increase of at least 25 cents for every box of sprayed fruit over the unsprayed fruit. RESULTS IN NURSERY SPRAYING EXPERIMENTS. That portion of the nursery designated as Plat 1 was sprayed thoroughly with a gasoline-power outfit used in orchard work. The trees in Plat 2 were given equally careful treatment, being well drenched each time, but the spraying was done with a small, hand- power outfit, fitted with a nozzle of the Vermorel type. The results from the use of the gasoline-power outfit were greatly superior to those from the hand-power outfit, demonstrating the greater efli- ciency of the former. In October the trees sprayed with the gas- engine outfit looked so remarkably clean and vigorous that they attracted attention; at this time they had a good growth of about 3 feet, without curled leaves and with but little of the whitish dis- coloration characteristic of thrips injury to leaves. On the trees sprayed with the hand-power outfit the proportionate growth was somewhat less and thrips marking was noticeably more severe. CONCLUSIONS FROM SPRAYING TESTS. In the foregoing two sets of tests the following insecticides and combinations gave the best results. Any of these mixtures may be relied upon to give satisfactory control when properly applied. 1. Lime-sulphur solution —If the lime-sulphur is of a density of 36° Baumé, dilute 1 gallon with 56 gallons of water; if of a density of 33° Baumé, dilute 1 gallon with 50 gallons of water. 2. Sulphur-soda solution——TIwo gallons of the stock solution, prepared as described on page 29, diluted with 25 gallons of water. 3. Lime-sulphur and tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate).—Dilute 1 part of the lime-sulphur, if 34 to 36° Baumé, with 86 parts of water; if 30 to 33° Baumé, with 75 parts of water. Then add 1 part of the tobacco extract to 1,000 parts of the lime-sulphur as diluted above. 4. Tobacco extract (40 per cent nicotine sulphate)—Dilute 1 part with 800 parts of water. Lime-sulphur and soda-sulphur solutions are more effective against the citrus thrips than any other mixture thus far tested, and par- ticularly the lime-sulphur at the strength stated above. A large per- THE CITRUS THRIPS. 37 centage of the thrips can be killed by spraying with this solution, and there is a further effectiveness due to its decomposition for a long period after deposition on the leaves. In orchards sprayed with a: good lime-sulphur the sulphurous odor is often strong for two months or more after the applications. The decomposition products repel the thrips, which are slower to reinfest orchards so sprayed than those sprayed with solutions that soon evaporate and leave no trace. Tobacco extracts when used at the proper strengths are also very effective. Both tobacco extract and lime-sulphur, when mixed to- gether, are effective in weaker solutions than when diluted with water alone. Contrary to expectation, the addition of soaps to tobacco extract did not give increased value to the tobacco in these tests. Soap solutions used alone appear to be worthless at the dilutions tested. Resin wash at any strength practicable for use on the orange trees in this section is worthless. At the greatest strength used in these experiments it failed to reduce thrips injury to an extent worthy of attention. It is, furthermore, very injurious to fruit and foliage. Plain water spraying was utterly ineffective, demonstrating that merely striking the thrips with a liquid at high pressure to wash them from the trees has no appreciable effect in diminishing their numbers. A few hours after spraying with water there remained on the trees as many living, active thrips as before spraying. INJURIES TO CITRUS RESULTING FROM SPRAYING. INJURY FROM DISTILLATE-OIL EMULSION. In experiments conducted in 1910, emulsions containing 2 per cent of distillate oil caused severe staining to ripe oranges. Dark streaks were formed on the rind where the liquid had collected in drops and run down. A patent spray emulsion caused more staining than the home product at the same strength. INJURY FROM RESIN WASH. On July 20, 1911, about two weeks after the final spray applica- tion, injury appeared from the resin wash in plat 18, Series I. About 3 per cent of the leaves had turned brown and fallen and most of the oranges had become spotted with the varnish. In some cases the varnish had collected in drops and run down over the surface, finally drying to a hard, gummy substance. By September 25 the injury apparently had reached its highest degree and was serious in all three plats, though noticeably decreasing with the greater dilution of the wash. The epidermal cells of fruit protected from the direct rays of the sun were killed and a shallow, brown scab was formed. This scab often peeled off, leaving a film of light gray-green tissue 38 BULLETIN 616, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. beneath. Where the liquid collected in large drops it formed a thick amber to black scab which did not slough off readily. The in- jury was most severe in places previously injured by thrips. INJURY FROM LIME-SULPHER, A small percentage of the fruit sprayed with lime-sulphur mixture diluted 1-28 (Series I, plat 2) developed in the rind shght hardened depressions resembling burns or scalds. Such injury occurred largely in spots previously injured by thrips, and in one case in a katydid sear. Less than 2 per cent of the fruit was spray-injured even by this strength of solution. In plat 3 (lime-sulphur 1-56) not more than one-half of 1 per cent of the exposed fruit was slightly injured in similar fashion. In a special test on four orange trees, using lime-sulphur at the rate of 1 gallon to 15 gallons water and making the applications on the hottest days of the summer, very severe injury developed. By the first of June some of the fruit developed severe blisters, or hard, puffy, excrescences of the rind, and a small amount of the fruit fell to the ground. Unlike the injury from resin wash, that from the strong lime-sulphur soon attained its severest degree and was always most severe on oranges exposed to the direct rays of the sun, particularly the afternoon sun. It was also particularly severe in places where the fruit had been bruised or where it had been injured by insects. By fall, from 18 to 25 per cent of the fruit had developed spray injury, the average for all four trees being 21 per cent. Lime-sulphur is harmless to fruit or leaves when used weaker than 1 part to 28 parts water. It has a remarkably stimulating effect upon the leaf growth of orange trees. In all plats where lime-sulphur was used, no matter what the dilution, the trees sprayed with it pro- duced a growth of foliage much in excess of that produced by their unsprayed neighbors. SUMMARY OF RECOMMENDATIONS FOR CONTROLLING THE CITRUS THRIPS. SPRAY MIXTURE AND TIME OF APPLICATION. Plain lime-sulphur solution, 1 to 56 of the 36° Baumé density or 1 to 50 of the 33° Baumé, is recommended as the most reliable of the four best mixtures resulting from the tests. The thrips first occur in injurious numbers at the same time that the navel orange blossoms drop most of their petals; they transfer from the leaves to the fruit gradually as the petals fall. The first spray application therefore should be made when four-fifths or more of the petals have fallen. This will check the thrips at a time when the orange is most susceptible of deep injury. The exact date for the application can not be given, as the period when the petals fall and the thrips transfer to the fruit will be as much as 30 days later in some seasons than in others, depending on the spring weather. THE CITRUS THRIPS. 39 The second application should be timed to prevent injury both from larve issuing from the very young fruits and from adults emerging from the pupal stage existent at the time of the first appli- cation. This renewed attack may be expected to reach the danger point in from 10 to 14 days after the first spraying. The second spraying should not be delayed too long, as comparatively few larve may, by constantly feeding in a circle about the base of the fruit, cause deep ring scarring. Special effort should be made to drench only the fruit and the remaining tender leaves. The third application may be delayed longer if the first two have been thorough and well timed. It generally takes the insects from three to four weeks to become dangerously numerous again, as they reinfest the sprayed trees much more slowly after the second spraying. All three applications should be completed by the time the fruit is half grown, after which it rapidly loses its attractiveness for the insects, which then find it necessary to spread out over the compara- tively scant tender orange growth and miscellaneous food plants. During the latter part of August and early in September there is usually another abundant growth of orange shoots, and upon this the thrips congregate in large numbers. A fourth application during this period is advisable in some seasons to prevent severe injury to this growth, which is often the most abundant of the season. The first spray application to nursery stock should be made when thrips become numerous on the spring growth and before their in- jury becomes very evident, usually between April 15 and May 15. In the case of trees budded in the fall the shoots springing from the original stock should be cut back the following spring as soon as the bud has attained a good growth. AJ] the prunings should be burned to destroy contained eggs and larvee. In Tulare County this pruning and burning usually can be accomplished during April. The grow- ing scions must then be watched closely and as soon as thrips occur in numbers spraying should begin. From two to four further ap- plications should follow the first spraying, depending upon the num- ber of growths and the degree of infestation. SUGGESTIONS FOR SPRAYING. The gasoline-power outfit, by reason of its large nozzle capacity, reliability, and comparatively low cost of operation, is recommended for spraying bearing orchards, young orchards in excess of 10 acres, and large nurseries. Hand-power outfits, when of a type capable of maintaining a pressure of not less than 125 pounds, are suitable for spraying seed-bed and nursery stock and young orchards of small acreage. The spraying outfit should be in perfect running order not later than April 1, with the insecticide materials at hand and conveniently 40 BULLETIN 616, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. located near the water supply and as near as possible to the trees to be sprayed. Supplies should be ordered not later than the January or February preceding the spraying operations. HOW TO SPRAY BEARING ORCHARDS. Tt is best to use only two 50-foot leads of hose on a power outfit, with 10-foot rods each fitted with a Y which is angled to handle two nozzles. The latter should be of the larger chamber type, with disks bored to one-sixteenth inch. -Each rodman should begin at about the middle of a tree, on the side away from the sprayer, and work around the tree until he reaches the starting point; he should then switch to the same point on the next tree without shutting off the nozzles and with as much economy of movement as possible. The nozzles should be held about 2 feet from the tree so that the broad portion of the stream plays upon fruit and leaves. The trees should be swept from tip to base, special attention being given to the fruit and the tender growth, where the insects congregate. The pres- sure, if maintained at 150 to 200 pounds, will turn the leaves and — whirl the little fruits so that all sides will be sprayed. No attempt should be made to spray too many trees with a single outfit, and an application once commenced should be completed within 10 days. Nursery and young orchard trees will require from 4 gallon to 2 gallons of the dilute spray each; those from 5 to 10 years old should be given not less than 5 gallons each; and those from 12 to 18 years old not less than 8 gallons each. HOW TO SPRAY NURSERIES AND YOUNG TREES. For large nurseries the gas-engine outfit, where it can be advan- tageously used, is preferable to the hand outfit. Two 25-foct or even 15-foot leads of hose and 12-foot spray rods are generally most con- venient for this work, though the equipment of hose and rods recom- mended for orchard work will answer very well. The excess hose length should be coiled over a peg fastened to the spray tank or engine hood, so that the young trees will not be injured by the ‘dragging hose. In setting out a nursery it is preferable to leave driveways wide enough to accommodate sprayer and team at inter- vals of eight rows (where the rows are 4 feet apart) throughout the length of the bed; for example, one between the fourth and fifth rows, and again between the twelfth and thirteenth, etc. Eight rows of trees, four either side of the driveway, may then be reached each trip, using 12-foot spray rods; eight more rows may be taken on the return trip, etc. Either the large chamber type or the single Bor- deaux nozzles may be used to good advantage, but the delivery of the spray need not be so rapid as for orchard work. The trees will need attention only when the growth is tender. (1) (4) (5) (6 — (7) (8) (9) (10) (11) BIBLIOGRAPHY. Cort, J. EH. 1908. Citrus culture in the arid Southwest. Jn Univ. Ariz. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 58, p. 289-828, 9 fig. Pages 319-320: Huthrips occidentalis. MOULTON, DUDLEY. 1909. The orange thrips. U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Tech. Ser. 12, pt. 7, p. 119-122, pl. 8. Morrityi, A. W. 1909. Arizona citrus pests and the importance of the horticultural law. Ariz. Hort. Com. Cire. 2, 1 p. Mentions citrus thrips. 1910. Report of the Entomologist of the Arizona Horticultural Com- mission for the year ending June 29, 1910. In Ariz. Hort. Com. 2d Ann. Rept., p. 8-15. Page 11: Orange thrips. JONES, P. R. and Horton, J. R. 1911. The orange thrips. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Bul. 99, pt. 1, p. 1-16, 2 fig., 3 pl. Morrityt, A. W. . 1911. Entomology. In Univ. Ariz. Agr. Exp. Sta. 22d Ann. Rpt., p 551-556. Pages 552-554: Note on thrips spraying. 191la. Report of the Entomologist of the Arizona Horticultural Com- mission for the year ending June 28, 1911. Jn Arizona Hort. Com. 3rd Ann. Rpt., p. 10-33, 13 fig. Page 24: Citrus fruit insects. QUAYLE, H. J. 1911. Citrus fruit insects. Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 214, p. 448-512, 74 fig. Pages 490-493, figs. 48-51: Thrips. Morrity, A. W. 1912. The citrus thrips, with reference to other species affecting citrus. In Cal. State Com. Hort. Mo. Bul., v. 1, no. 5, p. 162-171, fig. 56-62. 1912. Report of the entomologist of the Arizona Horticultural Com- mission for the year ending June 30, 1912. Jn Ariz. Hort. Com. 4th Ann. Rpt., p. 15-48, fig. 2-12, 1 pl. Page 32: Note on extent of injury in Arizona in 1912. JONES, P. R. 1912. Some new California and Georgia Thysanoptera. In U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Tech. Ser. 23, pt. 1, p. 1-24, (ace Pages 10-14: Huthrips. 41 42 BULLETIN 616, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (12) Morritu, A. W. 1913. Report of the entomologist of the Arizona Commission of Agri- culture and Horticulture for the year ending June 380, 1913. In Ariz. Hort. Com. 5th Ann. Rpt., p. 11-48, 11 fig. Page 35: Citrus pests. (13) = — ‘ 1914. Report of the entomologist of the Arizona Commission of Agri- culture and Horticulture. Jn Ariz. Hort. Com. 6th Ann. Rpt., p. 9-47, 11 fig. Page 31: Note on injury in Arizona by citrus pests. (14) Hoop, J. D. 1914. On the proper generic names for certain Thysanoptera of econo- mic importance. Jn Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash., v. 16, no. 1, p. 34-44. Page 40: Scirtothrips citri. (15) Horton, J. R. 1915. Control of the citrus thrips in California and Arizona. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 674, 15 p., 7 fig. (16) Morrity, A. W. 1915. Report of the entomologist of the Arizona Commission of Agricul- ture and Horticulture for the year ending June 80, 1915. Jn Ariz. Hort. Com. 7th Ann. Rpt., p. 9-50, 18 fig. Page 35: Note on injury for 1915. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY Vv UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 23, 1919 AUSTRALIAN SALTBUSH. By Rotanp McKeEz, Assistant Agrostologist, Office of Forage-Crop Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page Early tests of the Australian saltbush. .....- JE aseedinevonirangevlandssecaes see seme see 9 Mescripnonomthe plants 2. = 2. ae 2 | Seeding under cultivation................... 9 IDIStUPUUIONE se eee a -ss so! os oie 3ileElarvestineyforsoling see eee eee eee 10 ClimaticrequinementsS 2 ss <2. =. 5222 eee ee dn wblanvestinewtorseedsasen seers. ert eo sere 10 SOUMMmequITementS ose ce 2-8 ais se eee eee CA NEMO ye EN eres aso ndone see cuaeeaeseecade 10 MrowesMbiTesistance ssn .cc cs. sce soe lee eee Tes AD) ISCAS ESM seme ney vious eee aaah mit encom 10 Amnalysesofthe plantcccs-c. <2 05--. sesso snes Syalpops\bh nab ase) Ry ee tse ieee a ek ia ae oes ab eae eal 11 ValisewOrePAaSbuLessces ccc cs csc os cence 8 EARLY TESTS OF THE AUSTRALIAN SALTBUSH. The Australian saltbush (Atriplex semibaccata) was introduced into the United States some 25 years ago and was distributed more or less generally throughout the arid and semiarid regions. The very high hopes held at that time regarding its prospective value have not been realized. Except in California and Arizona the plantings resulted in failure, and in those States under cultivation it is unable to compete with more productive crops, like alfalfa and beans. In early trials in California it did quite well and was so reported by the State experiment station writers and others. The early plantings in Arizona resulted in failure and only with the development of irriga- tion has it become well established in that State. For a number of years, and especially between the years 1900 and 1910, Australian saltbush seed was grown by the California experimental substation, located at Tulare, and by Mr. Guy E. Heaton, of Paso Robles, Calif. The seed grown at these places was distributed gratis or sold through commercial channels, and the larger part was probably planted on the arid range lands of the Southwest. Except in California, plantings made on the range lands were failures, and in general the use of this saltbush for range purposes was not considered a success. However, some of the plantings along the 122921°—19—Bull. 617 2 BULLETIN 617, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. coastal region about Los Angeles and San Diego seem to have done exceptionally well, and from these plantings it promptly escaped, spreading over range lands and waste places throughout the coastal area and islands from the Mexican border on the south to the Salinas Valley on the north. There it constitutes a real asset, providing pasturage at a season when most other forage plants are dormant. While the actual outcome of the introduction of Australian saltbush is very different from early high hopes and predictions, the facts justify the conclusion that its introduction has proved a benefit to those areas where it has become naturalized. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT.! The Australian saltbush is a semiwoody, prostrate perennial, forming a dense mass 6 to 12 inches thick. (Fig. i.) The leaves are Fia. 1.—A plant of Austrahan saltbush (Atriplex semibaccata) grown in a grass gardon. linear, 1 inch long, and coarsely toothed along the margins. The seed is small and inclosed in a pair of fleshy foliaceous bracts which become red as the fruit matures. ‘The plants are perhaps long-lived 1—In newspapers and popular magazines, the Rosy saltbush (Atripler rosea) has been confused with the Australian saltbush (Atriplex semibaccata). Rosy saltbush isan annual, native to Europe, and much resem- bles in appearance and habits the common tumbleweed. In the last 15 years it has spread with great ra- pidity over nearly all of the semiarid States. It prefers alkaline soil, but spreads as a weed on all farm lands, much as does the Russian thistle. In the East it is a rather rare weed in waste places and appeared in New York and New Jersey as early as 1879. In the West it was found in Wyoming in 1897 and in Oregon and Washingtonin 1901. Since thenit has spread over most of the area west of the one hundredth meridian and in many places is found in such great abundance as to be a troublesome weed. While this plant is usually considered as a weed only, it has some merit, as have most weeds. Sheep and other stock will browse it when other and better feed is not available, but it isno better than tumbleweed or Russian thistle in this respect. While it has some value as forage, it probably does not possess sufficient merit to justify any one in purposely planting it on his farm. AUSTRALIAN SALTBUSH. 3 perennials, but under some conditions they live but two or three years. Near Paso Robles, Calif., where they have been grown under cultivation, the growth is strong and vigorous the first year, becomes much weakened in the second year, and after that the plants soon succumb. (Fig. 2.) In this particular locality this saltbush has not become aggressive, and while a few plants have escaped from cultiva- tion, they are weak and spindling and do not show the usual vigor of plants under cultivation the first year. While there are no definite Fig. 2.—The Australian saltbush grown under cultivation in a young apple orchard at Paso Robles, Calif. records as to the length of life of these plants in favorable regions, such as Los Angeles and San Diego, from general appearances it would seem that they live for a number of years. DISTRIBUTION. The Australian saltbush has become naturalized, that is, fully established, only in California and Arizona. In California it is con- fined to the coastal region south of San Francisco and to the irrigated districts of the Imperial Valley and the upper San Joaquin Valley, centermg about Tulare and Bakersfield. In Arizona it is found in the agricultural areas of the Salt River Valley about Phoenix, in the Santa Cruz Valley about Tucson, and in the Yuma Valley near Yuma. The northern limit where this saltbush has been observed is Hollister, Calif., about 100 miles south of San Francisco. In this _ district it occurs in small quantity, and while it makes a very luxu- riant growth it does not develop seed in such abundance as farther south. In the Salinas Valley, Calif., it is found all the way from Salinas to some distance beyond Soledad. It is not abundant in this valley, but the plants make a vigorous growth and develop a heavy Sa 4 BULLETIN 617, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. crop of seed. It is probable that this saltbush has been but recently introduced into the Salinas Valley, which may account for its lack of abundance at present. The climatic and other conditions in the coastal region in California seem to be especially favorable to the Australian saltbush, and it is found almost everywhere from Santa Barbara toSan Diego. (Fig. 3.) It generally extends inland a distance of 10 to 15 miles, but is found in small quantities at much greater distances. At Highlands, which is about 45 miles from the coast and due east of Los Angeles, it occurs in considerable quantity and is doing well. At Corona, which is about 25 miles from the coast, it is found in abundance. From general observations it would seem that the Australian salt- bush is confined to areas with somewhat favorable soil-moisture conditions. On the extremely dry areas, on the lower levels as well Fig. 3.—The Australian saitbush growing along a roadside fence near San Diego, Calif. as at higher elevations, it is not found. Along the immediate coast in the fog belt it does extremely well, which apparently is due to the fact that the fog supplies the moisture essential to its growth. While the present distribution of this saltbush is confined almost exclusively to the lower altitudes, it occurs in small quantity at an altitude of 1,800 feet near Alpine, Calif., and at 1,400 feet near Ramona, Calif. It is probable that temperature and moisture condi- tions rather than altitude determine the limits of growth of this plant; however, observations on this point are very limited. In the upper San Joaquin Valley the Australian saltbush occurs in abundance, but its distribution in this region is confined to irrigated or semi-irrigated lands. For some miles west of Bakersfield and extend- ing northwest of Wasco and east to Famosa it is found in practically AUSTRALIAN SALTBUSH. 5 all cultivated fields and along roadsides, and it grows luxuriantly in irrigated alfalfa fields both on the levees or ridges and in the borders or checks throughout the fields. About Tulare it does not do so well as in the Bakersfield-Wasco area. However, it appears in consider- able quantity on the higher ground along fences and on well-raised ridges in irrigated fields. The lands about Tulare are low, poorly drained, and quite wet during the winter. Apparently this wet con- dition is the factor that limited the spread of this saltbush in this area. ; 3 In Arizona the Australian salt- _f bo bush is largely confined to the iri- ae | gated areas, where it is found grow- ing along ditch banks, roadsides, | and in neglected fields. EXPLANATION: ——— LVL A /0-INCH FAIMALL owes LITKIEUTION OF AUSTHALIAN DIALT BUSY7 = SANTA BARBARA VENTURA---~ ~~ SZ SAN FERNANDO ~~ ==" 105 ANGELES ~~~ ---" POMONA- IS SANTA ANA-- ESCOND/LOREE ae: RAIMIONA-" ALPINE- Fig. 4.—Outline map of California, showing the distribution of the Australian saltbush. LOMPOC ~~ aang = a = CEVIRO VO DESTCANSO The accompanying map shows the present distribution of the Australian saltbush in California, as far as known. (Fig. 4.) CLIMATIC REQUIREMENTS. The climatological record of various places in the Australian salt- bush area of California and Arizona is given in Table I. The maxi- mum temperature recorded is 118° F., at Yuma, Ariz. At Bakers- field, Calif., and at Phoenix and Tucson, Ariz., where high tempera- 6 BULLETIN 617, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tures are recorded, this saltbush grows luxuriantly. Along the coast, where high temperatures are seldom recorded, it does equally well. The minimum temperature recorded at any place in California or Arizona where it is known to be growing at the present time is 10° F., at Tucson, Ariz. The mean annual precipitation at places in California where the Australian saltbush is growing well without irrigation ranges from 9 to 19 inches. This saltbush thrives about San Diego, where the mean annual precipitation is about 9 inches. Here, however, fogs make the conditions favorable, and plants no doubt do well with much less precipitation than would be the case inland. At Santa Barbara, where the mean annual precipitation is 16.6 inches, this saltbush grows luxuriantly, but it does not occur in as great abundance as about San Diego and Los Angeles. At Santa Cruz, where the mean annual precipitation is 27 inches, and about San Francisco Bay, where the mean annual precipitation is 22.5 inches, itis not found. Whether or not this is due to the heavier precipitation is not certain. It may be partly due to generally cooler weather, as the mean annual temperature at these places is lower than at points farther south where this salt- bush does well. The mean annual temperature in regions where it is more abundant is about 60°. However, at Salinas, where it is growing quite vigorously, the mean annual temperature is about 56° F., which is the same as at San Francisco and 2 degrees lower than at Santa Cruz. TasLe I.—Climatological record for various places in the saltbush area of Arizona and California. : [Data from Bulletins Q and L, Weather Bureau, U. 8. Department of Agriculture.] Temperature (° F.). : ( ) vice State and place of observation. annua! is Mean Maxi- Mini- | ee. annual. | mum. mum. elakehet, California: Inches. Shai DiC .0 rene ae Mea eer ee SNe enn Sate moans 61 101 32 9.4 TMOSLAM 9 COS Sse tsrae cin Se sp eeemstne aarti meee seme arse tare 62 109 28 15.6 Santa ‘Barbara wecccitie 4 aceinc iste Se iars Steroieve resale lejare-e rere rerere eters 60 100 28 16.6 San: Euis:Obis pols. -ncnces a: eetecc ce ne scee seca sseete eee 59 106 22 19.2 Sanita Cruze cons hn caja steers eo eee ees 58 108 22 27.0 SATE ANICISC Ona ece =, cyesdnc crs ale ctecterne, vial etaiete co eu ener See ore emlajene 56 100 29 22.5 TEV OUILSC ORs ss ae ie Sc etinctlane acess site cele. See ieee 59 105 19 12.3 Daly JOS: - 2c eocasns esa sesw ti seececs. bones ae Scleseis aes 58 | 104 18 14.8 SBI A Soe. Seavert i pt ae oe Sey peer 56 | 95 20 14.12 Soledad. 22. s2sc4 Pade scahaecseereees seen snSte Sia He pehnsaye a apeisie|| Stiove se erareyail av atetereverese: oral areiietee eee 8.97 (KEMP CUCL Tien Beene ths See ce oe eee Se ees eae 58 114 15 10.8 Redlands. 2556 noes e ce tesa nee nie se een eecnc cee 64 113 25 | 14.7 UIC SLCC eee ae =, NRE ee he aed eet ea prs pe eo 62:04) secs ol eee 10. OL MEOSTIO SS Soot sixcte oe es esis ais ore aE a hearse i ctepeeer> sseeeeeyeisiece 63 114 20 | 9.2 FUEL AT Goss Sea Ba teeth et yescce ret a al cera ec, ole BY taeetele, apetal| etetare ree ere eel | oie tere edetenete|| eee eee 7.65 IBAkersheld. | kyccecce Soot oon ete pe oa See oe aaa See eae 66 114 19 4.8 MIO | RIN. © os eaters tayaccre nic en ee ete eae oer Genrer nee 65:5 1i4 6} 4.79 Arizona: eVeU IMA = a AAO. SSO ee oe atte Ee ee. «ee ee 7250 118 22 2.7 RNOeIIEsE + Sesaeeee ae EA we ace ae ee ene saree 70.0 116 22 6.8 ETM IGSOM f= see ayaa, Store = incase of eee ae a ene ree 68.0 112 10 9.8 | AUSTRALIAN SALTBUSH. i SOIL REQUIREMENTS. While the Australian saltbush has been noted as growing on prac- tically all types of soil, it occurs in but few regions where the soil does ‘not contain a greater or less amount of alkali. Table II presents the analysis of various soils in which it was found growing. It is to be noted that the salt content ranges from nothing to 2.61 per cent of the dry weight. This saltbush is quite tolerant of alkal, and will thrive in soils that will grow but very few ordinary crops. DROUGHT RESISTANCE. The Australian saltbush is quite drought resistant, but apparently not to the extent of some other species of Atriplex and many desert plants. Table 1I gives the moisture content for the summer or rainless season of various soils at San Diego, Calif., in which salt- bushes were well established. The minimum moisture content was 1.51 per cent for the first 6 inches of soil and 1.75 per cent for the first 12 inches. In soils with such low moisture content the plant apparently can make no growth, but the fact that it exists under such conditions and resumes growth when favorable conditions pre- vail entitles it to be designated as drought resistant. TasiE I1.—Sodium-chlorid content of the Australian saltbush and of the soil in California in which it was found growing. [Analyses made by J. F. Breazeale; soil samples taken at San Diego, Calif., Aug. 23 and Sept. 4, 1918. ] ¥ NaCl content Soil sample. zt Soil (per cent). mois- Weight (gramr). Ge F . Dry nt). No. Location. cent) Soil. mia Initial. | Dry. gl OOMeetiromphiohividess. saaeeereene ones acer lo-= se Fs eras recess pe weeaease| ESL Sage eS 0. 104 7.01 2 | 120 feet from edge of salt flat.-..........-..-..------- BASE BOE Soceecmaa Seresecac - 035 8.17 3 | Salt flat, at edge of seepage. .-....---.---------++-----|--+-2-5--|----+--2-|--------- - 435 8.17 4 | Edge of ay, moistened at high tide......-.-...------ BUSH SONS EEA Serene rere Csee 1.710 16. 34 5 | Mesa, near Sweetwater dam (first 6 inches of soil)..-.| 269.0 265.0 1.51 - 030 8. 40 Gululeveessitectiabove water levelemens he. ai cece ee a nalemyeise cis =| Selec cinioielel| nim ateiajeyerete 047 13. 05 Depression by levee, moist and alkaline: 7 TNO RIO | So bedaen a eeeesoc-o.dbe suber erener a depaee eevee eee aihs| Seen 1.110} 15.66 3 SUNDSOL Meee co a eer eat Sepa ope ree RS erSPy aes S| (eae ete (a a gat, Beas soaS ORpoalilatealittleabove: watemlevelece 2.7. saeb oe alee eeceise=| as eien-el ease 2. 610 23. 20 10 | Dry soil, MeaTHRamMOna? {sae sacs ee asew eeenisek = sae 267.1 262. 5 1.75 020. 4. 64 Dry gravelly ridge, at Chula Vista: 1i PITS Lat OO Ge ee aie RENT a cae EEE See 250. 7 237.3 5. 65 0 8. 70 12 Secon ditootpec. si science ene eco ne see oes 297.1 DIZ OF 19) S-Feis eal eae eee 13 [Third foot! (Sinches) <2 -ssesee esse ee co ee 191.5 176.0 SSS08 Moe sesaonleesaauee Dry level spot not cultivated for 3 years: 14 First foot... .- 6 is 4 15 Second foot. 3 5 6 16 Third foot. . 8 } 8. Paso Robles........ In the extremely dry areas where the annual precipitation is low and the surface soils usually dry, as in the Bakersfield and Mojave regions, the Australian saltbush does not occur. However, in these regions 8 BULLETIN 617, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a number of other desert plants, including other species of Atriplex, are found in abundance. The absence of this saltbush in these regions 1s perhaps due in part to the fact that considerable humidity and surface soil moisture are essential for the germination of the seed and growth of the young plant, and such conditions seldom exist at any period of the year in the regions mentioned. ANALYSES OF THE PLANT. In Tables II and III are given analyses of the tops or stems and leaves of Australian saltbush plants. In Table II only the sodium- chlorid content is shown. An attempt has been made to correlate the sodium-chlorid content of the plant with the sodium-chlorid con- tent of the soil in which it was growing. It will be noted that the plants containing the greatest percentage of sodium chlorid were grown in the soil having the greatest percentage of this substance. This relation, however, does not always hold true, for some of the soils with low sodium-chlorid content produce plants high in this substance; but in general there seems to be a positive correlation between soils with high sodium-chlorid content and plants high in this compound. The analyses given in Table III show that saltbush forage has a comparatively high content of protein and of nitrogen-free extract and crude fat. These data, however, are not indicative of its feeding value, as the high sodium-chlorid content has to be taken into consideration. TasLe IIl.—Composition of the Australian saltbush compared with that of alfalfa. [From Farmers’ Bulletin 108, p. 15.] Constituents (per cent). Material. | | | Nitrogen- 5 Crude Crude | Crude | Moisture.| Ash. ae ~ |. free | protein. fiber. eataACTs fat. Green stems and leaves: Australiansaltbush: <<-. 324 222 2h.<5. 78.03 4.58 2710) 3.75, | 10. 41 0.48 At Ta Hiaietcns Seis ware os NN otcnee ees Be 75. 04 1.80 4.91 6.34 11.09 . 86 Hay samples: : Australiamsaltbush. <2c25.20-2 2222-2 7.05 1OSot 11.64 15. 88 44.05 2.01 AV fa fare k emcees eke cee ene 10. 95 | 6.43 17.60 | 22. 63 39.31 3.08 VALUE FOR PASTURE. In regions to which it is adapted the Australian saltbush is quite ageressive and this characteristic makes it more valuable for pasture purposes. It grows readily from seed and is distributed by the seed being carried in various ways from place to place. The intro- duction of this saltbush into new localities has followed the traveled highways, railroads, and overland trails. AUSTRALIAN SALTBUSH. 9 On account of its high salt content the Australian saltbush is not as palatable as most ordinary forage, but it is eaten readily by sheep, goats, cattle, and horses when other forage is scarce. By reason of its nonpalatability it 1s avoided early in the season when other forage is plentiful, and thus is available in a green state later in the summer when most other plants have become entirely dry. Its ability to furnish succulent feed which serves as a reserve supply in late summer seems to constitute the real value of this plant. It is not sufficiently drought resistant to grow in areas where other and better forage plants will not succeed, and for this reason its use must be confined to the more favorable regions where it will serve as a reserve supply in late summer, as already indicated. To be of the greatest value the Australian saltbush must be sup- plemented with other feeds. If fed alone stock will eat it only in limited quantities on account of its high salt content, and for the same reason when eaten in large quantity it is more or less injurious to animals. SEEDING ON RANGE LANDS. There is but little information regarding the best practice in seeding the Australian saltbush on pasture and range lands. However, in view of the fact that under natural conditions the seed ripens in the fall and drops to the ground soon afterward, it would seem that fall seeding may well be practiced. It is possible that spring seeding may give good results under conditions where weeds or competing plants are not abundant, but where winter-growing annuals have already made a good growth and summer annuals are beginning erowth it is not likely that this saltbush will have much chance to establish itself. The only thing that can be done economically is to scatter the seed broadcast in favorable locations and allow it to take care of itself. If it will not grow and reseed itself under such conditions it can not be used profitably for range purposes. SEEDING UNDER CULTIVATION. In growing the Australian saltbush under cultivation the best time for seeding is in the spring, about the time that corn ordinarily would be planted. The land should be well prepared, as for any other small-seeded crop, by plowmg and subsequent harrowings. Care should be taken to cover the seed very shallow. Seed planted deep will not germinate, and for this reason it is necessary to have good moisture conditions at the surface, so that shallow-planted seed will receive enough moisture to insure germination. The planting should be made in rows about 34 feet apart, and culti- vation should be given as for any ordinary field crop planted in rows. 10 BULLETIN 617, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. HARVESTING FOR SOILING. The Australian saltbush makes a fair soiling crop, and for this purpose it can be cut at any time after the plants have made sufh- cient growth to warrant handling. The plants remain green and hold their leaves late in the season, and consequently it can be used in the fall as well as early. The saltbush handled in this way is eaten quite readily by stock, but for the best results it should be fed with other forage and, if possible, supplemented with grain feed. On account of the plants being very prostrate they can not be cut with an ordinary mowing machine unless some device is attached for lifting the stems. However, it is probable that one would want to feed saltbush in this way only in very limited quantities or for very short periods, and under such conditions it could be cut with an ordinary scythe. HARVESTING FOR SEED. The seed of the Australian saltbush drops from the plant very readily as soon as it is ripe, and for this reason it can not be cut and handled for seed like most other crops. The best method of procedure in harvesting the seed is to place a piece of canvas about 6 by 3 feet in dimensions under the plants and then knock the seed off with a stick or flail, This method is somewhat slow, but there seems to be no easier way of harvesting this seed. After the seed has been knocked from the plants it should be spread on a large canvas to dry. On account of the moisture contained in the pulpy bracts inclosing the seed it can not be put immediately in sacks or in large piles without heating. After it has been dried it can be sacked and stored like any other seed. The seed of this saltbush ripens in the latter part of August and through September. It does not ripen all at once, so that one must determine when a maximum of seed is ready to harvest. Under favorable conditions about 300 pounds of seed can be secured from an acre. VALUE FOR HAY. The Australian saltbush possesses but little value for hay. The stems are too woody for this purpose, and on account of the plants being very prostrate the handling at best would be quite expensive. DISEASES. A diseased condition of plants of Atriplex semibaccata was noted as occurring quite commonly in the Los Angeles and San Diego region. These diseased plants presented a blackened or sooty appearance, with the tops or upper stems and leaves most severely affected. Specimens collected at Chula Vista, Calif., on September 4, 1918, were presented to Miss Vera K. Charles, who has identified AUSTRALIAN SALTBUSH. 11 the organisms causing this condition as Macrosporium commune Rabh. and Cladosporium herbarum (Pers.) Link. These, she states, are not known to occur except as saprophytes. As the plants on which these fungi were found are not in a dead or abnormal con- dition except in the parts where these fungi occur, it seems probable that insect injury, sun scald, or some other destructive agency pre- ceded the fungi. SUMMARY. The Australian saltbush was introduced throughout the semiarid regions of the United States some 25 years ago. In practically all cases the plantings resulted in failure, and only along the coast and in the San Joaquin and Imperial Valleys of California and in the Salt River, Yuma, and Santa Cruz Valleys of Arizona has it become well established. The plant is perennial and prostrate, forming a dense mass from 6 to 12 inches thick. The minimum temperature of any region in which it is naturalized is 19° F. The mean annual precipitation of regions in which it is growing successfully without irrigation ranges from 9 to 16 inches. While the Australian saltbush has been noted as growing on prac- tically all types of soil, it is found in but few regions where the soil does not contain an appreciable amount of alkali. It is quite drought resistant, but apparently not to the extent of some other species of Atriplex and other desert plants. Chemical analyses of the leaves and stems of the Australian salt- bush show that they have an unusually high content of common salt and comparatively large percentages of protein, nitrogen-free extract, and crude fat. In regions to which it is adapted the Australian saltbush is quite aggressive, and this characteristic adds to its value as a range plant. On account of its high salt content, it is not as palatable as most ordinary forages, but it is eaten readily by sheep, goats, cattle, and horses when other feed is scarce. 'To be of greatest value it must be supplemented with other feeds. The greatest value of the plant is to supply succulent feed in late summer and to furnish a reserve supply. It can be used as a soiling crop, but has little value as hay. Seed is produced freely, but harvesting is expensive. For range purposes Australian saltbush seed should be sown in the fall. The only thing that can be done economically is to scatter the seed broad- cast in favorable locations and allow it to take care of itself. In seeding for growing under cultivation, care should be taken to cover the seed only enough to insure moisture conditions favorable for germination. PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO GRASS AND FORAGE. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Cowpeas. (Farmers’ Bulletin 318.) ‘ Alfalfa, (Farmers’ Bulletin 339.) : Lespedeza, or Japan Clover. (Farmers’ Bulletin 441.) Red Clover. (Farmers’ Bulletin 455.) Market Hay. (Farmers’ Bulletin 508.) Forage Crops for the Cotton Region. (Farmers’ Bulletin 509.) Vetches. (Farmers’ Bulletin 515.) Vetch Growing in the South Atlantic States. (Farmers’ Bulletin 529.) Crimson Clover: Growing the Crop. (Farmers’ Bulletin 550.) The Making and Feeding of Silage. (Farmers’ Bulletin 578.) Crimson Clover: Utilization. (Farmers’ Bulletin 579.) Sudan Grass as a Forage Crop. (Farmers’ Bulletin 605.) Crimson Clover: Seed Production. (Farmers’ Bulletin 646.) Growing Hay in the South for Market. (Farmers’ Bulletin 677.) The Field Pea as a Forage Crop. (Farmers’ Bulletin 690.) Bur Clover. (Farmers’ Bulletin 693.) Wireworms Destructive to Cereal and Forage Crops. (Farmers’ Bulletin 725.) Natal Grass: A Southern Perennial Hay Crop. (Farmers’ Bulletin 726.) Button Clover. (Farmers’ Bulletin 730.) The Clover Leafhopper and Its Control in the Central States. (Farmers’ Bulletin eles) Commercial Varieties of Alfalfa. (Farmers’ Bulletin 757.) Sweet Clover: Growing the Crop. (Farmers’ Bulletin 797.) Bermuda Grass. (Farmers’ Bulletin 814.) Sweet Clover: Utilization. (Farmers’ Bulletin 820.) Sweet Clover: Harvesting and Thrashing the Seed Crop. (Farmers’ Bulletin 836.) Harvesting Hay with the Sweep Rake. (Farmers’ Bulletin 838.) Irrigation of Alfalfa. (Farmers’ Bulletin 865.) Harvesting Soy-Bean Seed. (Farmers’ Bulletin 886.) Haymaking. (Farmers’ Bulletin 943.) Hog Pastures for the Southern States. (Farmers’ Bulletin 951.) Curing Hay on Trucks. (Farmers’ Bulletin 956.) Velvet Beans. (Farmers’ Bulletin 962.) Purple Vetch. (Farmers’ Bulletin 967.) The Soy Bean: Its Culture and Uses. (Farmers’ Bulletin 973.) Hay Caps. (Farmers’ Bulletin 977.) Labor-Saving Practicesin Haymaking. (Farmers’ Bulletin 987.) Timothy. (Farmers’ Bulletin 990.) Sweet Clover on Corn Belt Farms. (Farmers’ Bulletin 1005.) Hay Stackers. (Farmers’ Bulletin 1009.) Rhodes Grass. (Farmers’ Bulletin 1048.) Certain Desert Plants as Emergency Stock Feed. (Department Bulletin 728.) 12 WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1919 BULLETIN No. 618 iD Ae : GSK Se ze ts) Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 13, 1918 EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. By Carteton R. Batt, Agronomist in Charge, and J. AuLEN CLARK, Scientific Assistant, Western Wheat Investigations, Office of Cereal Investigations. CONTENTS. : Page. | pean Page. EN GROUUCHION eee ere: oa os cle nk eee ee in| eDescription andikeyee sss semen sun ae 9 Sourcesiolidatamess4 35.226 5220.2 Saas 1 BViarietal experiments y2s- 5 sss see ea 13 EASE OM epee oe cee sks a aia in eee 3 Geographicscopess ea eae a ene 13 Agronomic adaptation and production....... 5 Resultsiobtained: 222222 2-32-42 16 PNG AD LAL ONSse sae saan ssc: eee oe Oya ROUEN Any ZOMLeSUUTS a= se ee meee ee ee 57 IPTOGUCHONG esse. esse + <= ce cseeeeese Gol Bibliograp hye eaenenn sess esses tee ee ce 61 INTRODUCTION. Extensive experiments with the durum wheats have been con- ducted in this country for the last 10 to 15 years. During this period their commercial importance has increased steadily. At first they were regarded commercially with indifference, then with hostility, and finally with approval. Numerous bulletins have discussed their introduction and adaptation and also their value under more or less limited conditions. These publications are listed alphabetically by authors at the end of this bulletin. The purpose of the present bulletin is to assemble the principal accumulated experimental data on yields of durum wheat in the United States. Many of these data are here published for the first time. Some of them, however, have been published previously in . the bulletins cited. The bibliography also includes citations of bulletins containing some results obtained with durum wheat which are not presented here. This bulletin discusses the history of durum wheat in the United States, the statistics of production, the charac- ters and relationships of the important varieties, and the results of experiments conducted at 30 field stations. SOURCES OF DATA. The experimental data have been derived from three chief sources, namely, experiments conducted cooperatively by the Bureau of Plant Industry and State agricultural experiment stations, experi- 14644°—18—Bull. 618——1 9 BULLETIN 618, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ments conducted independently by the Bureau of Plant Industry, and, finally, to make the record more complete, experiments con- ducted independently by various States.+ For convenience of discussion the stations from which the data published herein have been obtained are arranged, in the list which follows, in three groups located, respectively, in the subhumid Prairie States, in the semiarid Plains States, and in the arid basins and valleys of the Far West. Of the data from stations in the-subhumid Prairie States, those from McPherson, Kans.; Ames, lowa; Brookings, S. Dak.; and Fargo, N. Dak., were obtained cooperatively, and those from Manhattan, Kans.; Lincoln, Nebr.; Ashland, Wis.; and St. Paul and Crookston, Minn., were obtained independently by the State experiment stations. In the Great Plains area data from the following stations were obtained in cooperation with the State experiment stations: Hays, Kans.; Highmore, Eureka, and Newell, S. Dak.; Dickinson and Williston, N. Dak.; and Moccasin, Mont. At Archer, Wyo., the coop- eration is with the Wyoming State Board of Farm Commissioners. At Amarillo, Tex., and Akron, Colo., the data were obtained inde- pendently by the Bureau of Plant Industry. At Amarillo the Office of Cereal Investigations conducts the station in cooperation with the Amarillo Chamber of Commerce. At Akron the Office of Dry-Land Agriculture conducts the station, and the Office of Cereal Investi- gations cooperates in the experiments with cereals. At North Platte, Nebr.; Edgeley and Langdon, N. Dak.; Brandon, Maniteba; and Indian Head, Saskatchewan, the data were obtained independently by the State experiment stations or the Canadian Department of Agriculture. Of the six stations in the basin and valley areas of the Far West, five were conducted cooperatively, namely, Nephi, Utah; Aberdeen, Idaho; Burns and Moro, Oreg.; and Modesto, Cal. The sixth, at Chico, Cal.,is conducted by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Intro- duction of the Bureau of Plant Industry, with which the Office of Cereal Investigations cooperates in the cereal experiments. 1 The sources of the data from the stations conducted independently by the various States are indicated at the proper points in the text. The men who have been in charge of the cereal experiments during part or all of the years cited, at stations where experiments have been conducted either independently or cooper- atively by the Office of Cereal Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry, are listed as follows: California.— Chico, E. L. Adams; Modesto, H. F. Blanchard. Colorado.—Akron, W. G. Shelley, Clyde McKee, C. H. Clark, and George A. McMurdo. Jdaho.—Aberdeen, L. C. Aicher. Jowa.—Ames, L. C. Burnett. Kan- sas.—Hays, J. G. Haney, O. H. Elling, A. M. Ten Eyck, C. C. Cunningham, and F. A. Kiene, jr.; MePher- son, V. L. Cory. Montana.—Moccasin, E. L. Adams and N. C. Donaldson. North Dakota.—Dickinson, L. R. Waldron, C. H. Clark, J. A. Clark, and R. W. Smith; Fargo, J. H. Shepperd and O. O. Churchill; Williston, F. R. Babcock. Oregon.—Burns, L. R. Breithaupt; Moro, H. J. C. Umberger and D. E. Stephens. South Dakota.—Brookings, J. S. Cole, Clifford Willis, and M. J. Champlin; Eureka, M. J. Champlin; Highmore, M. J. Champlin and J. D. Morrison; Newell, Cecil Salmon and J. H. Martin. Teras.—Ama- rillo, A. H. Leidigh and J. F. Ross. Ufah.—Nephi, F. D. Farrell, P. V. Cardon, A. D. Ellison, and J. W. Jones. Wyoming.—Archer, J. W. Jones and V. H. Florell. EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. 3 The writers gladly acknowledge here the effective cooperation of the several State experiment stations in the conduct of experiments and the courtesy of the directors and their associates, who have fur- nished data obtained independently by their stations. HISTORY. Durum wheat, though a comparatively recent immigrant in the United States, has long been grown extensively in other parts of the world. Southern Russia is the principal producing area. Large quantities are grown also in the Mediterranean region, especially in Italy, France, and Algeria. Smaller quantities are produced in India and in South America, particularly in Argentina and Chile. In Russia the crop is spring sown, but in most of the Mediterranean region, with its mild climate, the crop is sown in autumn. The first official introduction of durum wheat varieties occurred apparently in 1853. In that year a durum variety, called Algerian Flint (Browne, 1855),! was obtained from the Province of Oran in Algeria, and another, called Turkish Flint (Browne, 1855, 1856), from near Mount Olympus, in Asia. The Mount Olympus of modern maps is in European Turkey, not far from Saloniki. The Turkish Flint was described as a black-glumed variety. It was grown to some extent in various parts of the eastern United States and later became known as Mount Olympus and as Olympia wheat (Klippart, 1858). In 1854 a durum variety distributed as Syrian Spring was obtained in Palestine (Browne, 1855), supposedly near Mount Carmel. It appears not to have become cultivated to any appre- ciable extent. In 1864 an introduction of Arnautka (Reid, 1866) was made, presumably from Russia, and grown in 1865 with other varieties on what are now the grounds of the Department of Agri- culture near Fourteenth Street, Washington, D. C. None of these introductions became established as a farm crop. The next recorded official introduction was made in 1899 (Carle- ton, 1900, p. 11), followed by still others in the next two or three years. These last-named introductions, from which the crop was really established, were made by Mr. M. A. Carleton, Cerealist of the United States Department of. Agriculture. In 1898-1899 and again in 1900 he went to Russia and Siberia for the purpose of obtain- ing adapted cereal crops. Chief among these introductions was durum wheat, of several varieties, particularly Kubanka. Introductions of durum wheat had been made by Russian settlers in several States of the Great Plains area and its culture established locally. Additional introductions have also been made by other representatives of the Department of Agriculture and the State 1 Reference is made to name and date in the ‘‘Bibliography,”’ p. 61-64. 4 BULLETIN 618, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. experiment stations. However, a strenuous campaign of educa- tion led by Mr. Carleton was necessary to fix the commercial status of durum wheat, after which it soon became a staple American crop. In the meantime deficiencies in the supply of European durum wheat and the activities of Duluth wheat exporters enabled the macaroni manufacturers of the Mediterranean countries to become acquainted with American durum wheat. An export outlet was obtained in this way, which aided greatly in giving the crop some standing among farmers while its commercial status in this country was being established. Several difficulties were met in the process of establishing the growing of durum wheats on a commercial basis in this country. Chief of these was the fact that there was no market demand for these wheats in America. Macaroni, spaghetti, and other manu- factured forms of durum wheat were not generally used, and durum flour was unknown. ‘The durum wheats were an unknown quantity to the grain trade, the milling industry, and the eaters of bread. The kernels were different in size, color, and hardness from those of other wheats grown here and so could not be thrown into the estab- lished grades or mixed in granaries, cars, or elevators. They were so hard that mills could not grind them with the equipment and methods then in use, and few millers thought they could afford to spend the time and money.for necessary experiments. Much oppo- sition arose, therefore, and the price of durum wheat was depressed below that of common wheat. For the first few years almost no market existed. Figure 1 shows graphically the comparative market value of No 1 Durum and No. 1 Northern wheat at Duluth, Minn., in the 15 years from 1902 to 1916, inclusive. The value given is the closing price on the first business day of each month during that period. From this diagram it will be noted that the average spread in price in the nine years from 1902 to 1910, inclusive, was about 15 cents per bushel in favor of common wheat. At the country ele- vators the discrimination against durum, especially in small lots, frequently was as much as 25 cents per bushel. Under these market conditions much durum wheat was fed to stock on the farms where it was grown. During 1911 the spread in price gradually decreased, and in the last five years, 1912 to 1916, inclusive, the average price has been about the same. During part of this period the price of durum has been appreciably above that of common wheat. It must be recalled that the figures for market value at Duluth are always more favorable to durum wheat than those from any other point. Durum wheat which has arrived at Duluth not only is in commercial channels, but often is already en route to an export mar- EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. 5 ket; presumably in response to a definite demand. At other termi- nals, and especially back at the primary markets, as noted above, conditions were much less favorable to this wheat. AGRONOMIC ADAPTATION AND PRODUCTION. Durum wheat owes its importance in this country to certain char- acters which adapt it to the conditions prevailing in parts of the spring-wheat belt. 3 anni HE mee Fe KGHIEL. (CLNVIGS 200 a 790 eo UL | ABN iG 70075 7 Wz GAIL CHHOUAD B COE NAE iO \ aso SSrUPEL LL PENAL LL NSRP TY ELE Fic. 1.—Diagram showing the prices of No.1 Durum wheat and No. 1 Northern wheat at Duluth, Minn., on the first day of each month in the 15 years from 1902 to 1916, inclusive. ADAPTATION. The characters which have given the durum wheats their outstand- ing agricultural value are resistance to, or evasion of, drought and rust. Some of the factors involved are rapid and vigorous growth, fairly early maturity, and some measure of actual resistance to drought and the attacks of rust. Under certain climatic conditions the combination results in a uniformly higher yield than that of any varieties of common wheat. The durum varieties certainly tolerate or withstand drought to a much greater degree than common wheats. This has given them their widespread popularity in the western half of the northern Great e ac 6 BULLETIN 618, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Plains. An apparent exception to this high-yielding power under drought conditions was noted at several stations in the two very dry years, 1910 and 1911. In these years the durum wheats produced relatively low yields. This was found to be due, however, not to lack of drought resistance, but to sterility caused by a combination of climatic conditions, including drought and hot winds coincident with the flowering period of durum wheat. The floral organs were injured, and the kernels did not develop, much reducing the yields. On some of the same stations durum. wheat which was sown later in the spring and had not reached the flowering stage at the time hot winds occurred was not injured, although exposed to all the other drought conditions. Many varieties of durum wheat are somewhat resistant, and cer- tain varieties very resistant, to attacks of stem rust (Puccinia gram- ims Pers.). The varieties now grown commercially are subject to more or less infection on the sheaths and leaves, while the peduncle, or neck, often remains fairly free from such infection. This allows the development of a fairly plump kernel under rust conditions which cause serious Injury to the common wheats. The durum wheats also are less subject to smut than the spring common wheats. Bunt, or stinking smut ( Tilletia foetens (B. and C.) Trel. and 7. tritici (Beij.) Wint.), rarely affects durum wheat, al- though the loose smut (Ustilago tritica (Pers.) Rost.) occurs about as frequently on durum as on common wheats. There are some objections to the growing of durum wheat, wholly apart from market considerations. The long stiff beards are such a source of discomfort in handling the crop that many farmers object to growing it on that account. However, the increasing use of ma- chinery in harvesting and thrashing is gradually removing this objec- tion. The spike or head in the durum wheats is so compact that it dries very slowly after rains or heavy dews. This makes the durum varieties susceptible to the attacks of scab (Fusarium culmorum (W. Sm.) Sacc.) and other imperfect fungi. These fungi sometimes affect durum wheat rather seriously. The durum wheats have come from countries of low rainfall and fairly high summer temperatures, where loss of moisture by evapo- ration is rapid. The results of many experiments show them to be valuable under similar conditions in the northern Great Plains in this country. On account of their ability to produce well in the presence of rust infection, they also are valuable and widely grown in the subhumid portions of the Dakotas and western Minnesota. PRODUCTION. The varieties of durum wheat introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture in the years 1898 to 1900 were distributed to farmers as well as to experiment stations. The new introductions soon became popular among farmers of the northern Great Plains. EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. A Among the varieties distributed, the Kubanka and Arnautka proved to be well adapted. Production increased rapidly during the early years. It rose from 60,000 or 70,000 bushels in 1901 to about 6,000,000 or 7,000,000 bushels in 1903, and probably about 50,000,000 bushels by 1906. ' As noted in the discussion of its history, the development of the market did not keep pace with the increased production. For this reason the price, which had always been less than that of common wheat, dropped to even lower levels, the difference sometimes amounting to 20 or 25 cents a bushel. This low price so discouraged the growers that the production in 1909 was slightly less than 40,000,000 bushels. The census figures, taken for the crop year 1909, show that 873 per cent of the durum wheat produced in the United States that Fic. 2.—Outline map of the northwestern United States, showing the acreage of durum wheat in 1909. Each dot represents 5,000. acres. (Data from the Thirteenth U.S. Census.) year was grown in North Dakota and South Dakota. Minnesota ranked third in production, with about 7 per cent of the total crop, and practically all of the remaiming 5 or 6 per cent Was grown in Nebraska, Kansas, Colorado, Wyoming, and Montana. Figure 2 is an outline map of the northwestern United States, illustrating the production of durum wheat in 1909. Since 1909 the Bureau of Crop Estimates of the United States Department of Agriculture has gathered annual data upon the acreage and production of durum wheat in the three States of Min- nesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota. In 1915 Montana was added. Table I shows the estimated annual production of durum wheat and of all other wheats and the percentage of durum in the total wheat production in the three States named during the eight years from 1909 to 1916, inclusive. 8 BULLETIN 618, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe I.—Estimated annual production of durum and of all other wheats and the percent- age of durum in the total wheat production in Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota in the eight years from 1909 to 1916, inclusive.! [Production expressed in thousands of bushelss(000 omitted).] | | | 8-year State and kind of wheat. 1909 1910 1911 1912 1913 | 1914 1915 1916 aver- | age. Minnesota: Durum wheat.....-.---- 2,810 | 2,624 | 1,494 | 2,334] 1,692 990 | 1,400 613 1,745 Other wheat.. 2.2: s2<<5.- 54, 284 | 61,376 | 42,441 | 64,704 | 66,348 | 41,985 | 72,020 | 26,942 | 53,763 Percentage of durum in | Lotalusoseeeee eee eas 4.9 4.1 3.4 3.5 2.5 2.3 Lg 2.6 Bfeal North Dakota: DirinT wheats se s-s ei 19,176 | 6,276 | 11,126 | 17,884 | 10,302 | 10,389 | 22,000 | 7,275 13,054 Other wheat.:.-2-.--2<.-: 97,606 | 32,224 | 62,074 125, 936 | 68,553 | 71,203 |129,970 | 32,050 | 77,452 Percentage of durum TT O be rere eras ate 16.4 16.3 15.2 12.4 13.1 12.7 14.5 18.5 14.4 South Dakota: | | Durum wheat <..\.5--is-2: 15,845 | 15, 231 3,404 | 14,343 | 9,535 | 6,724 | 14,500 | 2,999} 10,323 Other. wheat. 2..25.-22< 31,215 | 31,489 | 11,396 | 37,842 | 24,440 | 24,842 | 49,262 | 21,826 | 29,039 Percentage of durum | TMMLO Lae see eee | 33.7 32.6 23.0, |°5 27.5 28.1) 21.3 22.8 12.1 26. 2 Total of all three States: | Durum wheat....-...--- 37,831 | 24,131 | 16,024 | 34,561 | 21,529 | 18,103 | 37,900 | 10,887 | 25,121 Other wheat....--.-.---- 183,105 |125,089 |115,911 228, 482 |159, 341 |188,040 |251, 252 | 80,818 | 160, 225 * Percentage of durum | IM GOLAIE sess seer 17.1 16.2 Le 13.1 aah) | 11.6 13.1 11.9 13.6 | 1 These figures are estimates made in the Bureau of Crop Estimates of the United States Department of Agricuiture, except for 1909, for which year they are taken from the Thirteenth Census. In 1909 the total production was 39,958,947 bushels. In 1910 and 1911 the production was reduced by severe drought to about 24,000,000 and 16,000,000 bushels, respectively. With a short crop Fia.3.—Outline map showing the acreage of durum wheat in 1915 in the States of Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, and Montana. Each dot represents 5,000 acres. (Data from the Bureau of Crop Esti- mates, United States Department of Agriculture.) and increasing demand, durum prices became about equal to those of common wheat. In 1912 the production was again increased to slightly less than 40,000,000 bushels, the price remaining equal to that EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. 9 of other wheats. Production was reduced again during the years 1913 and 1914. This smaller production was responsible in part for the higher price which was obtained for the crop during these years. In 1915 production increased sharply in response to the stimulus of good prices and increasing demand. Since the fall of 1911, as noted previously, the price of durum wheat usually has been equal to or slightly better than that obtamed for common spring wheats. (See fig. 1.) Several causes have contributed to this. Among them are (1) better facilities for milling these hard wheats, (2) increasing use for making macaroni in this country, and (3) increasing export de- mand. Figure 3 is a map showing the production of durum wheat in Minnesota, South Dakota, North Dakota, and Montana in 1915, according to the figures of the Bureau of Crop Estimates. DESCRIPTION AND KEY. In the genus Triticum, durum wheat has been regarded as one of the seven or eight species or subspecies. The writers are not concerned with its taxonomic status at this time, but merely with those char- acters which mark the durum wheats as distinct from the common wheats. DESCRIPTION. Durum wheat differs from common wheat in the characters of both plant and kernel. The durum plant usually is taller (fig. 4) and more vigorous than that of common wheat varieties; the culms are thicker and the leaves broader. The spikes average broader and shorter (see fig. 9) than those of common wheat and are much more compact. In ‘some varieties they are so short and broad as to be veritable club wheats. The crowding of the spikelets on the rachis, together with the large size of the kernel, results in a characteristic outcurving or expansion of the spikelet which widens the spike on both sides of the rachis. As a result, the spike is flattened transversely to the plane of the rachis or to the plane of the face of the spikelets (fig. 5) instead of parallel with it, as in the case of common wheat. The awns of durum wheat are much longer than those of any variety of common wheat. They vary in length from 1 to 24 decimeters or more. The long, stiff awns and the compact head give the plant much the appearance of barley, for which it is often mistaken by those not familiar with the crop. The kernels of durum wheat are larger than those of common wheat (fig. 6), varying from about 7 to 10 mm. in length, with an average lengta of 8 to 8} mm. As the name indicates, the kernels are very hard, the endosperm being entirely corneous. The seed coats are unpigmented. The effect of the completely corneous endosperm and unpigmented seed coats.is a kernel of a clear amber appearance, 14644°—18—Bull. 618 2 10 BULLETIN 618, U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. \ j } | t i i Fig. 4.—Plants of four hard spring wheats, representing durum wheat and three groups of common wheat a, Kubanka (durum); 0, Fife (Rysting); c, Preston; d, Bluestem (Haynes). EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT, Fic. 5.—Heads of durum ana common wheat in two-positions: A, Face view of spikelets; B, edge view of spikelets. 1, Kubanka (durum); 2, Bluestem; 3, Preston. 12 BULLETIN 618, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. somewhat translucent or vitreous. Some varieties of durum wheat have red kernels. Only one of these, D5,1 has become commercially grown in the United States, and this at so recent a date that it is not discussed elsewhere in this bulletin. es ay | 4 A iG j J ‘ i “ : ae PRES f Fic. 6.—Kernels of two varieties of durum wheat and four varieties of common wheat, each variety repre- senting a different group: A, Kubanka; B, Pelissier; C, Marquis (Fife); D, Haynes (Bluestem); £, Pres- ton; F, Turkey (Crimean). KEY TO GROUPS AND VARIETIES. Below is given a key to the groups and varieties of durum wheat discussed in this bulletin. Heads of varieties representing the four chief groups are shown in figure 7. 1 This variety originated from a selection made by Prof. H. L. Bolley, of the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, in a field of durum wheat in Russia. It was tested, increased, and distributed by him as D5. It is an exceptionally rust-resistant variety, but of poor bread-making quality. This is the red durum on which is based the subclass “‘Red Durum” of the United States Grain Standards Act. (Houston, 1917.) EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHRAT. 13 Key to the groups and varieties of durum wheat. : Group. Spike awned, flattened transversely to the plane of the rachis; kernel white (amber), vitreous (hard). Glumes glabrous. Glumes white to light brown. Aqyas white to ligltsonowl (= oa fee 1aee en = j= 2 Kubanka. Spike oblong to broadly oblong. Beaks 1-2 mm. long. Plant tall. (Argentine, Beloturka, Bu- ford, Gharnovka, Kubanka, Pererodka, Taganrog, Yellow Gharnovka.) Plant midtall; spike narrower. (Monad.) Beaks 1-10 mm. long. (Marouani, Saragolla.') Spike narrowly oblong, strongly nodding, beaks 1-3-0 mm. long. (Arnautka.) A\Qitls) ORY G) eerie 55 a ee ee pe i ene aR ee oe Pelissier. Beaks 1-2 mm. long. (Medeah.) Beaks 1-10 mm. long. (Pelissier.) Glumes thinly to densely pubescent. Cinmesswhite:— (VielvjetsWon. 22sec oars) = see ee cone = Velvet Don. Glumes brown to black, beak 1-2 mm. long. (Black Don, heahlassburple:))< saeeece seca 2. ose. eee eee eee oe eee Kahla. VARIETAL EXPERIMENTS. This bulletin is believed to contain the results of all the important varietal experiments with durum wheats which have been conducted in the United States. The results of two experiments in Canada are included also. As early as 1892 the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station had a durum variety (Wild Goose) in its varietal experiments, and in 1893 it was included by the South Dakota Agri- cultural Experiment Station also. Experiments with durum wheat were begun in 1895 by the Canadian Department of Agriculture. From 1899 to 1903 stations in a number of different States began experiments with a series of durum wheat varieties. The seed of the varieties tested by the Canadian stations was obtained by them. The varieties under experiment by the various stations in the United States were mostly those introduced by the United States Department of Agriculture from Russia and elsewhere, and the accession numbers they bear in the tabulated data are those of the Office of Cereal Investigations. Geographic Scope. Seventeen different States and Provinces are covered by the varietal experiments presented in this bulletin. They extend from Iowa and Wisconsin on the east to California and Oregon on the west, and from Texas on the south to Manitoba and Saskatchewan on the north. All 1 A black-awned strain also is grown. 14 BULLETIN 618, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the intervening States are included except Oklahoma, New Mexico, Arizona, and Washington. The adaptation and value of durum wheat vary with the environ- ment. There is naturally a wide variation in soil and climate within this great expanse of territory. The eastern portion is distinctly humid, and the soil consists of glacial drift and alluvium. Farther west, in the Great Plains area, the precipitation decreases, the altitude increases, and the growing season becomes shorter. The soils are mostly heavy clay loams, varying to heavy clays or gumbo on the one hand and to sandy loams and sands on the other. Fig. 7.—Heads of four different groups of durum wheat. A, Kubanka; B, Pelissier; C, Velvet Don; D, Kahla. (About half natural size. ) West of the Rocky Mountains new sets of conditions present them- selyes. The precipitation usually is low, and sometimes very low. The altitude in the great interior basins is high, except in the Columbia Basin, where it seldom exceeds 2,000 feet. In the California valleys the altitude is low. The soils throughout are mostly light in texture. For convenience in presenting and interpreting results the terri- tory under discussion is separated into three different divisions, according to the environmental conditions. These three divisions are called (1) the Prairie States, or subhumid area; (2) the Great Plains, or semiarid area; (3) the basin and coast or arid area, includ- ing the Salt Lake Basin, Snake River Basin, Humboldt Basin, Harney Valley, Columbia Basin, and the California valleys. EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. 15) The locations of the stations, together with their altitude above sea level, are shown in Table II. The normal or average rainfall, ‘in inches, with the number of years on which such average is based, also is given. The United States Weather Bureau establishes normals for their independent stations on 33-year records. At all other points the rainfall recorded is the average for the years during which observations have been made. Finally, the table shows the general soil type on which each station is located. Taste I1.—Altitude, normal and average precipitation, and soil type at 30 experiment stations at which experiments with durum wheat have been conducted. Precipitation. Area and station Alti- | Normal Type of soil rea and station. tude. ar Leg yp 0 0 aver- age. record. Feet. | Inches.| Years Prairie (Subhumid) area: McPherson Kans: os5c.-25-+25--26 1,495 | 31.22 26 | Deep sandy loam. Manhattan’ Kanscces2.e--2..250 eee 1,014 | 32.59 56 | Dark-brown silt loam. Mincoln Nebrise.ss225=-0-<< >= seer 1,189} 27.51 33 | Alluvial clay loam. PMIMOS OW Oe ec ceic seSic scccn ce cise 922 | 32.64 40 | Black silt loam. IBTOOKINGSHSe Dak sso. 2 ccc gcce ce 1,636 | 20.51 27 | Glacial sandy loam. PAISINATIGERWASIeioe ee c-ninnc osama cece 615 | 28.43 16 | Red clay. SteppanleyMainnnmys cee. sees ke oe bee 837 | 28.68 33 | Light clay loam. CrookstomseManm ye = = scn sss -- cece 863 | 21.76 26 | Heavy clay loam. An COMNER DakGahen onal. | ae 935 | 24.92 33 | Heavy black clay loam. Great Plains (semiarid) area: PAC aril omMexcene. noes 2 2 ky eee 3,676 | 21.21 24 | Chocolate clay loam. TEVA Sse ANS emasicicinca ss cccns - = cscs 2,000 | 23.16 48 | Silty clay loam. Microw @oloseteta. sass seas nes ase 4,560 | 19.72 11 | Sandy loam. NorihePlatiemNebro:2s.-....s22see 3,000 | 18.86 33 | Loess. PAT. CHOTAWSY O}Olectoee w= cio soa emaeeee 6,027 | 14.23 33 | Medium sandy loam with some gravel. FEM SHINGLES yD AKss oss c2-- nos eeee 1,890 | 16.75 22 | Glacial clay loam. Mirekarse Dake. Lois. css2 25-5 54aee 1,884 | 16.43 7 | Glacial sandy loam, stony portion of old moraine. NewellaS Dake oa.2 25.0... (ee | 2,900} 14.06 8 | Clay (gumbo), shale subsoil. MdgelevneNe Dake oe cces- 2 =. ceeee ds 468:|/--18505 15 | Light sandy loam, shale subsoil. hangdonyNeDake2 fs. 222.22 52aee| 1,615 | 17.88 4 | Black clay loam. IDickinsonmNEMD akon. - 2 -- 5.5 sc eee 2,453 | 15.70 24 | Sandy loam to clay loam. WallistomgNeDakoisis..-2..-\sseee | 1,875 | 14.90 33 | Fine sandy loam. MoccasineyMiontiee sac s} N. DAK. RN, ae “MINN. |\Coorks7or7 LEGEND OB EVE | ZS SGN -O. 2 | S.DAK.\ BVA) Bu : SIZisry SS7/Q/7. CRIMEA BAR Pts, LGOE-1/ CHIMES) : : : = (O39 Excenred) AE H Ot FA, = LVOOKIAGS W1S. Are iC BORIE | 41s, /YG/IE f 2 — ) FP? FESTONM See v N BLUESTENA \ NEBR. 90 eh \ AVTICS \ Bl. |} SVs, (90610 j! 7O LIVCOl? »—n oe —n o — $ — - /t, (902. *. (SCALE o> \ NY “ } a | c Offs, KGOF-O6 | SVLPESO? ¢ 6 Wis AZ0E-O9 | a Fic. 8.—Diagram showing the location of nine stations in the Prairie States and the average yield of the leading variety of durum and the leading variety of each of several different groups of common wheat at each station during the periods of years indicated: 1, Average of only four years (Preston at Fargo); 2, average of only three years (Crimean at St. Paul and Crimean and Preston at Ashland); 3, average of only ten years (Crimean at Brookings); 4, average of only two years (Fife, Bluestem, and Preston at Manhattan). stations, their altitude, normal or average annual rainfall for a period of years, and the general soil type on which they are located have already been given in Table II. Experiments with durum wheat have been conducted at some other stations adjacent to the subhumid section on the east and 14644°—18—Bull. 618——3 ail i 18 BULLETIN 618, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. also at stations in some of the Eastern and Southern States. These tests have all been of short duration. The principal ones were con- ducted at Madison, Wis.; DeKalb, Ill.; Artington Farm, at Rosslyn, Va.; Statesville, N. C.; and Athens, Ashburn, and Quitman, Ga. At Madison, Wis., and De Kalb, Ul., durum varieties were found not adapted and were discarded because of poor quality of grain or low yields. At the stations in the Eastern and Southern States the durum varieties were grown with the winter wheats adapted to those sections. Fair yields were obtained from durum varieties when fall sown, but all were low in comparison with the yields of the common. wheats. In general, the altitude in the Prairie States increases and the precipitation decreases from east to west. The altitude varies from 600 to 1,600 feet, in round numbers. The average annual rainfall at these stations varies from 32.6 to 20.5 inches. The three stations having the lowest rainfall are located in the valleys of the Sioux and Red Rivers near the Minnesota-Dakota boundary. Properly speaking, these valleys are the only portions of this section that can be called subhumid. Most of the remainder would be better desig- nated as humid, although the eastern portions of Nebraska and Kansas might easily be placed as either subhumid or humid territory. The annual rainfall usuaily is sufficient for normal crop produc- tion. Nearly half of it falls during the four summer months, from May to August, inclusive. The growing season is fairly long, Le Pu from phous 130 to more than 150 days. Figure 8 shows, by means of graduated columns, the average yield of the best durum-wheat variety and of the leading variety in each of several groups of common wheat in varying periods of years at the nine stations. The same data will be found in tabulated form in Tables III to XI, inclusive. Figure 9 shows heads of five varieties of wheat, one durum and four common, each representative of a group important in the prairie section and in the Great Plains area. RESULTS AT M’PHERSON, KANS., As shown in Table II (page 15), McPherson is located on a deep sandy loam at an altitude of almost 1,500 feet. The average precipi- tation has been 31.2 inches in a 26-year period. The experiments at McPherson were conducted in cooperation with the Kansas Agri- cultural Experiment Station. The results are shown in Table III and graphically in figure 8. Durum varieties were under experiment for six years, though in one year, 1908, the records of the yields of all varieties but one were lost. Since McPherson is located outside of the spring-wheat belt, ho spring varieties of common wheat were grown. Hard red winter wheats of the Crimean group, such as Crimean, Kharkof, and Turkey, EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. 19 are the standard varieties in that district. The durum varieties are compared, therefore, with Kharkof (C. I. No. 1442), one of the best yielders in the Crimean group. Tasie IIT.—Annual and average yields of five varieties of durum wheat and one variety of common wheat grown at the McPherson (Kans.) substation during periods of varying length in the six years from 1904 to 1909, inclusive. [Data obtained in cooperation with the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.] Yield per acre (bushels). C1 Average. Class, group, and variety Nove 1904 | 1905 | 1906 | 1907 | 1908 | 1909 5 years, | 6 years, | 1904-1907 | 1904 to }and 1909.| 1909. Durum: | Kubanka— Kebankateyeys<5 sbi 22558 2246 | 16.3 | 14.2] 24.0] 0 (b) | 13.8 1B 70) BSocoaeeee IDO 55 See Sean eee ee Seae 2094 | 12.7 | 11.3 | 25.6 0 13.5 | 12.6 12.4 | 12.6 Kahla—Black Don........-...-- | 2100} 11.7 | 14.5 | 24.5 O | () | 18.4 2ES) epee o> Pelissier— IRCliSSiCh a eta t eos ee 2086 ; 11.0 | 11.7] 21.7] 0 | (6) | 11.6 aL 23 | ee mas Daracolla awe ss! eo ee 2228 | 10.3 | 9.8 | 16.7 0 (0) | 10.9 Chines éeconnes Common: | | | Crimean (winter)—Kharkof. -..-.. 1442 | 25.9 | 18.4 | 35.1 | 20.9 | 19.5 | 19.5 24.0 | 23.2 | | | a Cereal Investigations number. b Record of yields lost. Reference to Table III and figure 8 shows that the Kharkof winter wheat outyields the best durum variety in the ratio of nearly 2 to 1. Among the durum varieties a Kubanka leads. Since this district is Fic. 9.—Heads of representative varieties of five groups of wheat: a, Turkey, a hard red winter wheat; b, Fife; c, Preston; d, Bluestem; e, Kubanka (durum; edge view). not suited to the growing of spring-sown varieties of wheat, it is not surprising that the Crimean wheat so far surpasses the durum. In 1906, however, the yields of the durum varieties ranged from 16.7 20 BULLETIN 618, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to 25.6 bushels, while the 5-year average yields of four varieties ranged from 11.2 to 13.7 bushels. This shows that in the event of ereat damage to the winter-wheat crop in autumn or winter the loss might be retrieved in a large measure by sowing durum wheat the following spring. . RESULTS AT MANHATTAN, KANS. Manhattan is located, according to Table II (p. 15), on a dark- brown sut-loam soil at an altitude of 1,014 feet. The normal annual rainfall, based on a 56-year record, is 32.6 inches. The experiments were conducted independently by the Kansas Agricultural Experi- ment Station, and the results are copied from Bulletin 144 (Ten Eyck and Shoesmith, 1907) of that station. The results are shown in full in Table IV and graphically in figure 8. Taste LV.—Annual and average yields of two varieties of durum wheat and four varieties of common wheat grown at the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Manhattan, Kans., during periods of varying length in the four years from 1903 to 1906, inclusive. Yield per acre (bushels). | Average. Class, group, and variety. 1903 | 1004 | 1905 | 1906 | o years | 3 years 1903 and) 1904 to | 1904. 1906. Durum: | | | Kubanka—Gharnovka....--....-.----..-...-- 13.3 WS E- [ceeeas abe ae 1252) || Eee aes Velvet Don—Velvet Don..........-- po Sees 1230 7.0 18.0 1208 | 9.5 12.6 Common: | r Crimean—Turkey-(No0s4) 2:2 si... 22 es2es2s22\acne see 34.9 38. 6 A6.:9) | 27 oes 40.1 ife—Glyndon:< 5252 4 o22.0e. van eae 9.6 es bal eae Pal secrete pluestem—Haynes- 2. 22./:22-eses. ce sseetes ate 7.0 GS1G| 2. Seeee a eee 6:64\es. essen Preston=-Preston. .-- “uses .2cc-Jeccl.nseece set Pon ee 0 :., aces see | PA eee H | Since Manhattan, like McPherson, les in the heart of the Crimean winter-wheat belt, the experiments are of brief duration, as not much could reasonably be expected of spring-wheat varieties. Table IV shows the comparative yields in the years 1903 and. 1904 of two durum varieties and of three spring common wheats belonging to three different groups. It is seen that both durums exceed any of the spring common varieties in yield. The Turkey variety of the Crimean winter group, however, outyields the best durum grown in a ratio of 3 to 1. In the favorable year 1905, in which one of the durum varieties was still under experiment, its high yield of 18 bushels was less than half that of Turkey, 38.6 bushels per acre. RESULTS AT LINCOLN, NEBR. The Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station is located on an alluvial clay-loam soil at an altitude of 1,189 feet above sea level. The normal precipitation is 27.5 inches. The experiments at Lincoln were conducted independently by the Nebraska Agricultural Experi- EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. Pa ment Station, and the data given in Table V are taken from publi- cations of that station (Lyon, 1903; Lyon and Keyser, 1905). The principal data are shown also graphically in figure 8. Taste V.— Yields of seven varieties of durum wheat and three varieties of common wheat grown at the Nebraska Agricultural Experiment Station, Lincoln, Nebr., in 1902. Yield per | Yield per Class, group, and variety. acre | Class, group, and variety. acre : (bushels). || (bushels). | Durum: | Durum—Continued. Kubanka— | Kean a —— Kah eee One oe 7683 Ghamoyka. 25 so2 2 -5022--262 16.5 || Yellow Gharnovka...-.------- 14.5 || Common: , IPEreroG Kawneer a! ae ae 14.0 || Crimean (winter)— Reacts ee ee 12.5 | key te ee e 33.2 Velvet Don—Velvet Don_....-.--- 10.5 || Crim Cane ts nee ae 29.2 Pelissier—Pelissier.........------- 7.5 || nd 0) tay eR Seah ere ae 22.3 | t As shown in Table V, the durum wheats were tested at Lincoln in but a single year, 1902. Lincoln lies in the heart of the hard winter- wheat belt, and spring-sown wheat can not compete with the varie- ties of the Crimean group. The average yield of the seven durum varieties is only 11.8 bushels, whereas the average yield of the three Crimean varieties is 26.2 bushels per acre. The yield of the best durum, Gharnovka, in the Kubanka group, is 16.5 bushels, whereas the yield of the best Crimean, Turkey, is 33.2 bushels per acre, or exactly double the yield of the Gharnovka. On the basis of known facts, there was no economic reason for continuing further a varietal experiment with durum wheat at Lincoln. RESULTS AT AMES, IOWA. Ames, Iowa, as seen from Table II, is located on the Marshall silt- loam soil at an altitude of 922 feet. The average annual rainfall for a 40-year period is 32.6 inches. The experiments cited were con- ducted cooperatively by the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station and the Office of Cereal Investigations. Experiments including durum wheat cover the 5-year period from 1906 to 1910, inclusive. The results are given in Table VI, and the principal ones are shown graphically in figure 8. Among the durums only Kubanka was tried, and the results are unfavorable when compared with those from the other varieties. None of the spring wheats does well, but all three of the spring com- mon varieties are better than Kubanka. As might be expected in central Iowa, winter wheat is much more productive than any spring wheat. The 5-year average yield of Turkey, of the Crimean group, is nearly 10 bushels higher than that of the best spring com- mon wheat. Durum wheats have no place in so humid a climate as that of central Iowa. 29 BULLETIN 618, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie VI.—Annual and average yields of one variety of durum wheat and four varie- ties of common wheat grown at the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station, Ames, Iowa, during periods of varying length in the five years from 1906 to 1910, inclusive. [Data obtained in cooperation with the Iowa Agricultural Experiment Station.] Yield per acre (bushels). ; Average. Class, group, and variety. 1906 1907 1908 1909 1910 3 years, | 5 years, 1908 to | 1906 to 1910. 1910. Durum: Kubanka—Kubanka....-.-.-.-.--.-- 21.4 22.5 14.3 14.5 34.5 paiaal 21.5 Common: Crimean (winter)—Turkey......-..-- | 39.7 37.4 37.6 Dhl 30.0 31.8 3425 Preston—Early Java.......---------- 25.1 20.5 15.7 26.5 36.7 26.3 24.9 Fife—Glyndon (Minn. No. 163).......'...--..-|.------- d yee 218 41.6 T6581. | sae Bluestem—Haynes (Minn. No, 169)...| 24.1 19.6 8.7 23.0 38.3 2300 22.7 RESULTS AT BROOKINGS, S. DAK. According to Table II (p. 15), Brookings is situated on a glacial sandy loam at an altitude of 1,636 feet, the greatest elevation of any station in the prairie section. The average rainfall, based on a 27- year period, is 20.5 inches. The experiments were conducted coop- eratively by the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station and the Office of Cereal Investigations. . The experiments were begun in 1904 and have continued until the present time. Results during periods of varying length in the 13 years from 1904 to 1916, inclusive, are shown in Table VII and graphically in figure 8. Brookings lies in the hard spring-wheat belt, and the durum wheats should be adapted to the conditions of that locality, though the rainfall is a little too high for the development of the highest quality. The annual and average yields of five varieties, two durums and three representative common wheats, are recorded for a 12-year period. The two durums, Arnautka and Kubanka, both in the Kubanka group, excel all three common wheats. One of the durums, Arnaut- ka, outyields the common varieties by a significant average yield of 3.5 bushels per acre. Among the common wheats, Preston out- yields Fife and Bluestem by 3.5 and 4.1 bushels, respectively. The Marquis variety was grown only during the last four years of the experiment. In those years, however, it outyielded all other varie- ties of common and durum wheat. The yields of winter wheat of the Crimean group have not been obtained consecutively throughout this period. In the 10 years, however, in which it was grown it has exceeded the Arnautka in yield by an average of 1.8 bushels. Eight varieties of durum wheat, all in the Kubanka group, have been tested for periods of 5, 9, or 12 years. The Arnautka variety has proved best adapted, outyielding the Kubanka in each of the EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. 23 three periods of years mentioned. During the last five years of the test, however, the Kubanka has the advantage. The results show that durum wheats of the Kubanka group are profitable varieties for the Big Sioux Valley. They have outyielded all spring common wheats except Marquis. Taste VII.—Annual and average yields of eight varieties of durum wheat and five varieties of common wheat grown at the Souih Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Brook- ings, S. Dak., during periods of varying length in the thirteen years from 1904 to 1916, inclusive. {Data obtained in cooperation with the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.] Yield per acre (bushels). Average. Class, group, and | C. I. variety. No. 5 9 19 years, years,| years, 1904 | 1904 | 1905 \1904/1905 1906 1907,1908 1909 1910, 1911, 1912 1913 |1914 1915) 1916 | to to to | 1908. | 1912. | 1916. Durum: Kubanka— Arnautka. | 1494 26. 0/25. 0.35.8 20. 8'25. 8/16. 5)12.0 4.0) 26.1) 25.8/11.222.5\a11.1) 26.7) 21.3) 19.7 Do. 1493/23. 5/25. 0,36. 4/17. 5/23. 1)17.3/11.0, 0 | 31.0]....- epee | ernie Qrelize 2085 (pes. ae Kubanka. .| 1440/18. 8)16.3)28. 6/14. 5/16. 1/11.8/12. 7) 1. 2|. 28.0) 28.3)15.017.0) 11.6) 18.9 16.4) 16.8 Do. 1541/18. 6/16. 5/30. 4/12. 7/15. 3/18. 0} 9. 2) 3.8) 21.6)... .- CE eel eee 1858) 2416.3) 2-02 Do. 1516/19. 3/20. 8/30. 3} 6.2.12. 8/15. 7] 5.5) 2.8] 28.6]... _. eee eee a9 Pel 5uS |e oe Do. 1354121. 0/18. 81382 5)1516/1650) 2-5 aos s 15 - -.oleenseeo: = i ciel age 2230 asiee tesco Gharnovka} 1546)16. 1/22. 2/32. 5/13.8/20. 1)... .|..-.|.--|-.---].---- pea err eee PAYS) sa ll ea Kubanka. -| 1490/22. 5!18 5'!28 4!11.1:12.6)....1.--.|...-1.----/...-- Aneel eae e HG | ease eee Common: | Preston—Pres- GOmee epee see 8081|_. : .|18:3 22.310: 9:15. 0/21..8)19. 0) 2.8) 18:5) 27.612. 7)18.3) 7.5)..22..)2222 2. 16.2 Fife— | Marauis SOM er - | sars laodollpseql Sasa sacelsetal Secs lanere 2973 58)26:/ eee (ees aae| seeeee |e. cays Rysting..-.| 3022 ....|15.8 23.4) 7.314. 9/15. 5/16. 9; 3.0) 16.8) 20.0)69.2)67.5) 62.6)......|....-- 12.7 Bluestem— Haynes... .-.- 2874)... .|16.3)21 8] 8.4 11. 6)16. 9/15. 7) 2.8) c15.8)c20. 2) 2.5)12.5) .6)......]....-- 12.1 Crimean (win- | | ter)—Turkey| 3055 21.0 22.0) 8.0) 9.4, (@) |14. 4) (@) | (€) | 29.3) 34. 2/30.8/43.3) 26.1)......)/...2../..2... | } a Not grown; yield of Arnautka (C. I. No. 4064), a pure line selection from C. I. No. 1494, substituted. b Not grown; yield of Glyndon (C. I. No. 2873) substituted. ¢ Not grown; yield of Haynes (Minn. No. 185) substituted. d Winter wheats not grown. RESULTS AT ASHLAND, WIS. Ashland, as seen in Table II (p. 15), lies on the Superior red clay at the low altitude of 615 feet above sea level. The average annual rainfall is 28.4 inches in a 16-year period. The experiments pre- sented in Table VIII and shown graphically in figure 8 were con- ducted by the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. The data have been taken from Bulletin 233 of that station (Delwiche and Leith, 1913). The experiments continued during the four years from 1908 to 1911, inclusive. The yields of one durum, Kubanka, and three common varieties, representing three leading groups of hard spring common wheat, are presented. One winter wheat, Kharkof, of the Crimean group, also was grown. Since Ashland is near the northern edge of the winter-wheat belt, it is not surprising that the Kharkof does not excel ali the spring varieties. 94 BULLETIN 618, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Kubanka durum excels Preston and Fife by yields that are fairly significant. It nearly ties with Kharkof for second place, but is outyielded by Bluestem to a degree that is fairly significant. Whether it would pay to grow a durum variety under these conditions would depend in part upon the average quality of the grain of the different varieties and in part on the frequency of rust attack. TasLe VIIT.—Annual and average yields of one variety of durum wheat and four varieties of common wheat grown at the Ashland (Wis.) branch station during periods of varying length in the four years from 1908 to 1911, inclusive. Yield per acre (bushels). Average. Class, group, and variety. 1908 1909 1910 1911 ec acre evecare 2 ’ 2 , 1908, 1910,| 1908 to and 1911. 1911. Durum: Ken pankea—Kitbanka. so. eececseseeceese ee cee 22.1 22.0 26.0 22.1 23.4 23.0 Common: Bluestem—Haynes (Minn. No. 169).....------ | 27.7 18.2 27.3 26. 4 27.1 | 24.9 Crimean (winter)—Kharkof..............-----) 15.0 (a) 22:9 33.0 23460 | eee eee Fife—Glyndon (Minn. No. 163)....---..---.---- 18.7 16.8 26.0 18.8 21.2 20.0 Preston—‘“‘ Selected Bearded”’............-.--- LEON oeee as: 205771 175.0 18522 2e sages a Excessive rainfall (more than 12 inches in 3 days) in July, 1909, so affected the yields of winter wheat that they were not considered of value for comparative purposes. RESULTS AT ST. PAUL, MINN. The Agricultural Experiment Station at University Farm, St. Paul, Minn., is situated in a light sandy loam soil at an altitude of 837 feet. The normal annual rainfall is 28.7 inches. The experi- ments have been conducted independently by the Minnesota Agricul- tural Experiment Station, and the results are presented here by the courtesy of the director and his associates. The yields presented include those of five varieties of wheat, namely, Kubanka durum and a leading representative each of the Crimean group of hard red winter wheats and the Fife, Preston, and Bluestem groups of hard spring wheat. The data are given in Table LX and are shown graphically in figure 8. It will be noted that in the 3-year period, 1914 to 1916, inclusive, the Turkey winter wheat outyields all the others by 11 to 15 bushels per acre. Marquis, in the Fife group, outyields all the other spring wheats by about 1 bushel per acre, Kubanka durum standing second. In 1913 the Turkey wheat was not grown, while the yield of Kubanka was comparatively low. In the four years from 1913 to 1916, inclusive, the Kubanka is outyielded by Marquis, Glyndon, and Preston in quan- tities that are significant, while it outyields Haynes by only 0.7 bushel. From the showing made in these years the growing of durum wheats in the vicinity of St. Paul would be justified only by their superior rust resistance in comparison with common wheats. EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. 25 Tasie TX.—Annual and average yields of one variety of durum wheat and five varieties of common wheat grown at the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, University Farm, St. Paut, Minn., during periods of varying length vn the four years from 1913 to 1916, inclusive. [Data presented by courtesy of the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station.] Yield per acre (bushels). . Average. Class,-group,gand variety. Hea 1913 1914 1915 1916 3 years, | 4 years, 1914 to 1913 to 1916. 1916. Durum: : Kubanka—Kubanka...........------ 990 25.7 30.3 46.7 23.8 33.6 31.6 Common: Crimean (winter)—Turkey..........-- S40) eee ee 47.8 57.0 33.3 AGSONReecne ss << Fife: IMG TOUS Maceo asc = 2h cs 1239 41.9 207, 50.0 26.3 34.7 36.5 Giliym Gone ee Seo... =. 2 eee CBee 285 38.6 27.0 49.2 23.2 33.1 34.5 Preston—Preston...............------ 924 43.5 26.5 46.7 225; 32.0 34.9 Bluestem—Haynes.............---.-- 169 33.8 26.7 39.9 23.3 30.0 30.9 RESULTS AT CROOKSTON, MINN. The Northwest Experiment Station at Crookston, Minn., is located on a heavy clay loam at an altitude of 863 feet. It has an average annual rainfall of 21.8 inches in a 26-year period. The experiments there have been conducted independently by the Minnesota Agricul- tural Experiment Station and are presented here through the courtesy of the director and his associates. The data cover the period of five years from 1912 to 1916, inclusive, as shown in Table X and figure 8. Yields are given of three durum wheats of two different groups and of four common wheats, repre- senting the three leading spring groups. The three durum varieties excel Glyndon, Haynes, and Preston by from 2 to 5 bushels per acre. Only the two durums in the Kubanka group outyield Marquis, however, and then by only 0.6 bushel in one case and 1.9 bushels in the other. Taste X.—Annual and average yields of three varieties of durum wheat and four varieties of common wheat grown at the Northwest Agricultural Experiment Station, Crookston, Minn., during the five years from 1912 to 1916, inclusive. [Data presented by courtesy of the Minnesota Agriculturai Experiment Station.] Yield per acre (bushels). Class, group, and variety. | 5-year 1912 1913 1914 1915 1916 average. Durum: Kubanka— Mindumy (Minn: No. 951) seer es. 22222 ees Ee - 33.4 21.6 22.3 34.5 16.6 PIT} IX(IS EN SL Bar eB 5 6 CoS eS ete ee eaeeess 32:2 27.8 14.6 38.0 9.6 24.4 WelvetsDon—Vielviet Don: 325 ¢heen 2. - 5-2. 28. 2 25.3 13.4 32.6 11.6 22.2 Common: Fife— Marquisiaiss-2-.s22- 208 27.8 21.4 23.9 40.0 5.8 23.8 Glyndon (Minn. No. 163 26.5 20.4 17.8 30.9 Shall 19.7 RTestOn—ETeston yee. ac See eck eye epee 33.4 18.2 ie 28.1 4.9 20.5 Bluestem—Haynes (Minn. No. 169)...---.------ 38.5 17.4 19.2 2353 222 20.1 a Average of the yields of two plats. 14644°—18—Bull. 618 4 26 BULLETIN 618, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. On the average, the durum varieties are the better at Crookston. Winter wheat can not be grown successfully in this locality, and only the Marquis approaches closely the best durums in yield. Among the three durum varieties under test, the Kubanka and a pure-line selec- tion (Minn. No. 951) closely resembling Arnautka are better adapted than the Velvet Don. The Arnautka selection, which has been named Mindum by the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, outyielded Kubanka in the 5-year test by 1.3 bushels per acre. Here, as at Brookings, 8. Dak., Arnautka has proved to be slightly better adapted than Kubanka. The close agreement in yield between the Glyndon, Haynes, and Preston varieties is remarkable, showing that here all three groups of hard spring common wheat are at home. Farther east only the Bluestem group does well, but farther west it is decidedly inferior to the other two. RESULTS AT FARGO, N. DAK. Fargo is located on a heavy black clay loam at an altitude of 935 feet above sea level. Its normal annual rainfall is 24.9 inches. These data, in comparison with those from all the other stations, will be found in Table II (p. 15). The experiments here were conducted cooperatively by the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station and the Office of Cereal Investigations. The results obtained are pre- sented in Table XI. The principal data are shown graphically also in figure 8. The experiments cover seven years, 1901 to 1904, inclusive, and 1906 to 1908, inclusive. Eleven varieties of durum wheat are included, of which 10 belong to the Kubanka group. It is striking that among the 7-year average yields of these 10 there is a range of only 2.9 bushels. This difference is scarcely significant when the lowest and highest yields are, respectively, 33 and 35.9 bushels per acre. The difference in yield between the now commonly grown varieties, Arnautka and Kubanka, is not significant, although the slight difference is in favor of Kubanka. Here again the durums all outyield the best representatives of the standard spring common wheats by quantities that usually are significant. Winter wheat can not be grown successfully in this locality. The Bluestem slightly excels Fife, and that in turn outyields Preston. In 1904, the year of a severe rust epidemic, the durums yielded better than common wheats. In 1906, however, the Blue- stem outyielded all durums except Arnautka. A summary of the results shows that durum wheat yielded better than common wheat in the Red River Valley in the 7-year period, a conclusion fully in accord with farm yields in that district. Since 1908 the experi- ments have been conducted independently by the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, but the results are not yet avail- able. EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. PAE Taste XI.—Annual and average yields of twelve varieties of durum wheat and three varieties of common wheat grown at the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station, Fargo, N. Dak., during periods of varying length in the seven years from 1901 to 1904 and 1906 to 1908, inclusive. [Data obtained in cooperation with the North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station.] Yield per acre (bushels). Average. CG. eee lee Class, group, and variety. Now Pak years, 2 0. 4 1901 1901 | 1902 | 1903 | 1904 | 1906 | 1907 | 1908 years,| to 1901 | 1904 to | and 1904. | 1906 to 1908. Durum: Kubanka— : : Ghamovwkaeeis.- oe. 225. 1447 917 | 32.4 | 30.3 | 46.5 | 23.6 | 24.0 | 47.8 | 47.0 | 33.2 | 35.9 PRAGATINO PED eee 2s) + == 1570 911 | 29.7 | 31.7 | 46.7 | 18.5 | 25.3 | 55.6 | 38.2 | 31.7 | 35.1 iBenenrodkapeennee sec sce. 1350 328 | 34.7 | 25.7 | 47.0 | 17.8 | 24.3 | 54.6 | 39.2 | 31.3] 34.8 (Ketibanikay sons 1349 329 | 32.4 | 28.7 | 44.0 | 17.6 ; 22.0 | 50.0 ; 46.7 | 30.7] 34.5 Yellow Gharnovka...--- 1444 914 | 30.8 | 33.0 | 41.7 | 24.7 | 25.0 | 49.5 | 36.4 | 32.6 34.4 Keibanikameric ss ee2 2... 1440 929 | 32.4 | 28.7 | 44.0 | 21.9 | 24.3 | 50.0 | 38.5 | 31.8] 34.3 Belomunkaree sete case 1513 919 | 32.6 | 29.9 | 46.3 | 17.8 | 22.3 | 53.1 | 36.7 | 31.7] 34.1 ATMAUbKaeen 2. cos... 22 1494 778 | 34.0 | 28.7 | 43.4 | 20.5 | 27.3 | 49.6 | 33.2 | 31.7 33.8 PAT POTIUINC Malem setae csi 1569 910 | 28.4 | 29.5 | 44.6 | 24.0 | 23.5 | 52.5 | 29.2 | 31.6] 33.1 Gharmowvkaeses.see5----- 1443 915 | 31.4 | 25.8 | 44.5 | 20.8 | 24.6 | 48.0 | 36.0 | 30.6] 33.0 Velvet Don—Velvet Don...-} 1445 930 | 29.6 | 32.5 | 42.6 | 18.5 | 24.0 | 48.1 | 35.5 | 30.8 33.0 Common: Bluestem—Haynes...---..-- 1505 779 | 29.7 | 21.2 | 39.3 | 15.2 | 26.3 j032.2 | 34.0 | 26.4 28.3 Mife—ROWeres. =. 2 se.as8 dene 1506 920 | 27.0 | 23.1 | 38.5 | 15.2 | 18.3 | 24.6 |c26.2 | 26.0 24.7 Preston—Preston........--- 2958 210 | 24.9 | 25.0 | 38.7 fad alte eral estes |e ees Be) eee a The crop of 1905 could not be harvested, owing to rain. b Yield of a selection (C. I. No. 3083, N. Dak. No. 316) from Haynes, C. I. No. 1505, substituted. c Yield of a selection (C. I. No. 3697, N. Dak. No. 313) from Power, C. I. No. 1506, substituted. RESULTS IN THE SEMIARID GREAT PLAINS AREA. The Great Plains area includes parts of all the States and Provinces from Texas on the south to Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and Alberta on the north. Roughly speaking, it extends from the line of 30-inch rainfall westward to the Rocky Mountains. Under this definition it includes part. of the territory just discussed as in the subhumid section. The separation made in this paper between semiarid and subhumid is not exactly the one commonly used and is made here only in order to permit a better interpretation of the behavior of durum wheat. In altitude, this division rises from 1,000 or 1,500 feet on its east- ern border to 2,000 or 3,000 feet through its central portion, and to maximum altitudes in the west of 6,000 feet in eastern Wyoming and of 6,500 feet in east-central Colorado. Figure 10 is a contour map of the Great Plains area in the United States on which the altitudes are indicated by lines drawn on the contours of 1,000, 1,500, 2,000, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, and 6,000 feet. The drainage is to the southeast in the southern portion, to the east in the central portion, and to the northeast in the northern portion. 28 BULLETIN 618, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. & ° ZA A Fic. 10.—Map of the Great Plains area, showing the altitudes above sea level by means of lines follow- ing the contours at 1,000, 1,500, 2,900, 3,000, 4,000, 5,000, and 6,000 feet, EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. 99 -The climate is classed generally as semiarid. The average annual precipitation over most of this area varies from 14 to 20 inches. Only in the extreme southern part and along the eastern border is this quantity exceeded. In general, the annual rainfall decreases from east to west across the Great Plains with the increase in alti- tude. Figure 11 shows the distribution of precipitation in the Great; Plains area of the United States by means of lines drawn through points having the same average precipitation. Crop production is governed largely by the quantity and distri- bution of the annual rainfall. Half to two-thirds of it comes during the growing season, the four months from April to July, inclusive. Wind movement is fairly constant, and summer temperatures are rather high. These factors cause rapid loss of water by evaporation. Both hot winds and hail sometimes occur, though hot winds are not known at the higher altitudes. Wet weather in midsummer is con- ducive to rust infection, which frequently occurs locally and some- times extends to a general epidemic throughout the area. The length of the growing season varies with the altitude and latitude. The frost-free period decreases from about 130 days in the lower portions to about 90 days at the higher altitudes. In general, early varieties have an advantage in escaping hot winds, drought, and frost. A brief popular classification and description _ of the important groups of hard spring wheat and the leading varie- ties in each group is already available (Ball and Clark, 1915 5d). Plants, spikes, and kernels of representative varieties of the chief groups of wheat grown in this area are shown in figures 4, 5, 6, 7, and 9. Experiments conducted at 15 stations in the Great Plains area are discussed in the following pages. The name of each station, the altitude in feet above sea level, the normal or average rainfall, and the period of years on which it is based, together with the soil type on which each is located, are all shown in Table II (p. 15). Figure 12 is an outline map of this area, showing the location of each sta- tion and, by means of graduated columns, the average yield of the best variety of durum wheat and of the best variety of each group of common wheat during the years indicated. Thirteen of these stations are in the United States and two are in the Dominion of Canada. Durum wheat has been under test at the two Canadian stations since 1895. None of the experiments in the United States began earlier than 1902, as most of the stations were established later than that date. For the most part they are substations of the State agricultural experiment station or independent field stations of the United States Department of Agriculture. 380 BULLETIN 618, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 113° ne joge 107° 105° 103° 10° 39° 97° "199° 1072 105° 103° 1010 og 27° Fic. 11.—Map of the Great Plains area, showing the average yearly rainfall in inches by means of lines drawn through places having about the same rainfall. EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. 31 toadar -read 23 Wes, (895-07 L9OCCASW/7 7 frs, KOBE z 12 Excluded) 1 a AE LULCKa : GUKs, KGOI VE 4 CLUTEAN WINTER) ake 8-16 ELUESTE/A = 30 Worth Plarle HC EAA EX Sos AKT OL7 BUSHELS Is, >» KSOT V6 Fic. 12.—Diagram showing the location of fifteen stations in the Great Plains area and the average yield of the leading variety of durum wheat and the leading variety of each of several different groups of common wheat at each station during the periods of years indicated: 1, Average of only four years (Blue- stem at Moccasin, Crimean at Dickinson, Preston at Langdon); 2, average of only six years (Preston at Dickinson and Edgeley); 3, average of only seven years (Preston at Newell); 4, average of only five years (Crimean at Highmore). on BULLETIN 618, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RESULTS AT AMARILLO, TEX. The Amarillo Cereal Field Station is located in the center of the Texas Panhandle on a chocolate clay loam soil at an altitude of 3,676 feet. The average annual precipitation for the past 24 years is 21.2 inches. The experiments are conducted by the Office of Cereal Investigations in cooperation with the Amarillo Chamber of Commerce. The data presented in Table XII and shown graphically in figure 12 cover the 11-year period from 1906, when the station was estab- lished, to 1916, inclusive. ‘Three varieties of durum wheat belong- ing to two different groups have been grown throughout this period. TasLe XIT.—Annual and average yields of three varieties of durum wheat and four varieties of common wheat grown at the Cereal Field Station, Amarillo, Tex., during the eleven years from 1906 to 1916, inclusive. {Data obtained in cocperation with the Amarillo Chamber of Commerce.] ‘Yield per acre (bushels). Class, group, and Gel: phe variety. No. Se; 1906 | 1907 | 1908 | 1909} 1910] 1911 | 1912 | 1913} 1914 | 1915 | 1916 Yyone to 1916. Durum: Kubanka— Saragolla......-- 2228-1. | 7.6 | 8:5) 1523)| 625] 227 | Wet | 14200) 825 (12.7 | Ties) 555. 9.5 Marouani.....-..- 2235-I |~5.3 |10.4 | 16.8 | 5.7 | 2.8 | 11.6 | 11.0 | 3.9 | 15.5] 14.3 | 4.2 9.2 Kubanka-.-..-.- 1440 | 8&0) 4.3 | 16.8)5.9)/3.1] 9.3) 14.5) 4.9]12.5) 7.3-+4 3.9 8.2 Common: Crimean (winter)— TuTkeyj2--s22s-eecs 1558 |25.8 | 3.3 | 23.2 0 (10.2) 1.6] 16.0} 6.5 | 26.8 | 19.2] 4.3 12.4 Mediterranean (win- ter )—Diehl- Medi- terranean........-- 1395-2 {18.5 | 1.4 | 25.8 0 /10.4 of | 14.3) )458 12350 1) 180 Gh 7a |p tee Preston—Fretes..... 1596) Gs! O87 1905/5805) S65) 950 | tas F4ae ete 5 On bales a4 9.1 Galgalos—Galgalos. - 2398 | 4.9 |10.6 | 18.0 | 7.5} 3.9 | 11.0] 18.7) 4.8) 87] 7.8] 1.6 8.4 The yields of one representative of each of the hard red and the soft red groups of winter wheat and of each of two groups of spring wheat are tabulated for comparison. Climatic conditions are severe, and no yields are high. Winter varieties are better adapted and yield better than any spring wheat. Among the groups of spring wheat there is little choice from the standpoint of yield. The little difference that exists is in favor of the durum varieties, but it is in no way significant, nor is there any marked difference in the per- formance of the durum varieties. Saragolla and Marouani have a slight advantage over Kubanka, the variety which is best adapted at many of the northern stations. The two former varieties came from the Mediterranean district, but the latter is of Russian origin. EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. 33 RESULTS AT HAYS, KANS. The Fort Hays Branch Experiment Station, as shown in Table IT (p. 15), is located on a silty clay loam soil at an altitude of 2,000 feet abovesealevel. During a 48-year period the normal annual rainfall has been 23.2 inches. The experiments there have been conducted cooperatively by the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station and the Office of Cereal Investigations. The data discussed in this paper are presented in Table XIIT and are seen in graphic form in figure 12. They cover a period of 14 years, 1903 to 1916, inclusive. TaBLeE XIII.—Annual and average yields of two varieties of durum wheat and one variety of common wheat grown at the Fort Hays (Kans.) Branch Experiment Station during periods of varying length in the fourteen years from 1903 to 1916, inclusive. [Data obtained in cooperation with the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.] Yield per acre (bushels). Average. Class, group, and Cer: — variety. No. 5 14 1903) 1904/1905}1906 1907) 1908 1909) 1910) 1911)1912/1913 1914 1915/1916 years,| years, 1912 | 1903 to to 1916. | 1916 Durum: Kubanka— Marouani.....- Pa ANE ree 5 - Little Club — Little Cqmmon: : | Clits eee 4066 | 7.2) 8.3 7.8 Crimean (winter)— Bluestem—Haynes..| 2874 | 5.4| 8.0 6.7 eharkofeeessectee. 1442 | 21.1 3.9 12°37) | | The 2-year average yield of the Crimean variety Kharkof also is low, although its 12.3 bushels is the highest average of all. This is lower than observation and experience show may reasonably be expected from these wheats in this section. 54 BULLETIN 618, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RESULTS AT BURNS, OREG, The Harney Branch Experiment Station is located near the town of Burns in the bed of an ancient lake now known as the Harney Valley. The sou varies from a silt loam to a very fine sandy loam. The altitude of the station is 4,100 feet, which is about that of the valley floor and lower than that of the plateau of south-central Oregon. The average annual precipitation during the past 12 years has been 11.7 inches. The station is conducted cooperatively by the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station and the Office of Cereal Investigations. The station was established in 1912, and the first crop was grown in 1913. Data covering the experiments of four years are given in Table XXIX. The principal facts are illustrated in figure 13. Four durum varieties were grown during the first three years, but only one of these, Kubanka, C. I. No. 1354, was continued in 1916. In the 3-year period, Kubanka, C. I. No. 1354, was outyielded by ail three of the other durums, the lead of Marouani being 3.7 bushels. In the same period Marouani was exceeded by all five varieties of common wheat in quantities ranging from 5 to 10 bushels per acre. The same fact holds true in the 4-year average, where Kubanka is the only durum and the yields of the common wheat exceed that of Kubanka by 8 to 11.5 bushels per acre. TaBLe XXIX.—Annual and average yields of four varieties of durum wheat and seven varieties of common wheat grown at the Harney Branch Experiment Station, Burns, Oreg., during periods of varying length in the four years from 1913 to 1916, inclusive. [Data obtained in cooperation with the Oregon Agricultural Experiment Station.] Yield per acre (bushels). . | ae | | Average. Class, group, and variety. | Nox | | | | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | 1916 Savoata (i years, 1913 to | 1913 to | 1915. | 1516. | Durum: | Kubanka— | MYT AT bse cee en eee ee ee eee 1593) | 29) 7a 724 A1GH0 |ILese UGRSo ae ee VellowsGharnovicn.. 2c -co8 ee eee 14d | OOO QH eB A0N i S1Be Onl cs sane 14.0 pees RT) Dane oe ee So ee ce teh fe eo, | LTO) |teacte On| basis ase a BE eeciao ae Z DOr dete: Prec hehe nore ee 1354)) 1352 6.0 | 15.7 Cente 11.6 | 10.7 Common: | Baari—Barly, Baart is ss.cee cee 2235-2)... 2... asesies 26.3 | B48) |S Ql a (ellos ciate | OO ele ere 5 on | eee Average of all durums.........|...- - 11.8: |-3-8 | 25.7, | 31.6}33.6 | 18-0] 211 | 23.7 Common: ie Baart—Early Baart............. 1697 | 39.3 | 90.6 | 27.5 | 45.7°| 30.2 | 19. 2°} 27.5 65.0 40.0 White Australian—White Aus- | 3019 | 28.0 | 65.5 |631.5 |¢44.7 634.7 | 18.6 | 32.0 46.8 36.4 tralian’ 22-05 fe cseeee. oeaae cee a Average of two plats. b Average of six plats. c Average of seven plats. All varieties are fall sown at Chico, and all are grown on summer- fallowed land. No less than 10 different durum varieties have been tested during the seven years, but none of them for more than three years consecutively. For this reason it is almost impossible to arrive at comparable average yields. However, only a glance is needed to show that the durums are all greatly outyielded by the two representative varieties of common wheat. This is true, in spite of the fact that some good yields were obtained from the durum varieties. In the comparison made between yields of durum and varieties of two groups of common wheat in figure 13, the average yield of all varieties of durum wheat grown is used. RESULTS AT MODESTO, CAL. The Modesto substation was located in the lower San Joaquin Valley at an altitude of 90 feet. The soil is the sandy loam charac- teristic of the valley. The average annual precipitation is 10.5 EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHREAT. 57 inches on the basis of 44-year records. The substation was estab- lished to conduct experiments with cereals and was maintained cooperatively by the California Agricultural Experiment Station and the Office of Cereal Investigations. Taste XXXII.—Annual and average yields of six varieties of durum wheat and four varieties of common wheat grown at the Modesto (Cal.) substation during periods of varying length in the three years from 1907 to 1909, inclusive. [Data obtained in cooperation with the California Agricultural Experiment Station.] Yield per acre (bushels). | Average. Class, group, and variety. fe z maliang ia a 1807 | 1908 | 1909 | 2 ye 3 years, “. saecsn ee 8), 200. SlSsbestec b 84.2 54.6 AG HS: | Us Sees | eee NewellS; Dak-22 2 -f2525.-.-2 9 100 151.1 16.2)" 7.8153 69.8 |e es. ooee aes Edgeley, N. Dak.:......- ep ecks 18 LOO 21 P22 Sores 69.3 | 9 83.7 69.:8.) cosh ee ee tees Langdon,,N: Dak... -.s-0-.2-2 Os |) 100%) ol eee 73.5 | €77.0 T2sQ ii) yahseraltrat nate apres Dickinson tN. Dak. =.25..-.25-: 10 | 100 d 35.6 79.:2; |. 9 84.9 68.2 |S ceee alee eee Walllistong Ni sD aise sees eee 8 100 50.6 94.3 88. 0 89046 (S58 2 Sac: ee cece MoccasinaMont = cececueoeeen =< 7{ 100 al lresal 88. 0 90. 7.| 27536) |. aose cule aoeeees Brandon, Manitoba...........- De): LOO! ait reererstos 3 81.0 [eB il stisrsicraisa| ecw cee teers Indian Head, Saskatchewan.... 13 LOOM cuillcisicereitere e 95.3 O55 On| Zeca c | s everdiediotee hetbeneaen Western basin and coast (arid area): | Nephi, U tahicis ooec2ecexmcecs 8} 100 Obs Sale oe:- siete eee Trea a Sarerstecs ol are eave seers Aberdeen, Idaho.......-.....-- 2} 100 157.7 | 112.8] 132.1 85.9 137.2 110. 2 BUENS OTe. sate oe se weac eee 4 100 186.3: 17408: D1 75u8 So ocesce 205.5 207.3 Moro; Orie 2 sine eee eee 6 100 13985120. Wed b0N oi eee ce 118.7 135.8 Chicos Cala .2 co: sx.cheeet acon ene TWP OOS Bl eteeeeers apa | stele wo sictal|'e ,cicstente | Sion ot |. +153..6 168.7 Modesto; Cal. ..-2 22 .253.-5222 Silay LOO es So eeeeisre | tsi etal | ed ato poo} Partie ee | 123.2 151.6 a Average for 2 years only. b Average for 3 years only. ce Average for 10 years only. d Average for 4 years only. e Average for 5 years only. f Avera efor 7 years only. g Average for 6 years only. h Average of all durum varieties grown. EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. 59 Section 1 of Table XX XIII shows the actual average acre yields obtained from each wheat. Section 2 shows the same data expressed in percentages. The yield of the best durum variety is taken as 100 per cent in each case. The data in this table are the same as those shown graphically in figures 8, 12, and 13. The actual performance is seen more readily in the first section of the table, where yields are given in bushels per acre. The compara- tive performance, which indicates in large measure the comparative value, is seen much more readily in the second section of the table, where the resulis are expressed in percentages. After the detailed presentation of these data in Tables III to XXXII, inclusive, only a brief summary seems necessary. THE SUBHUMID PRAIRIE AREA. In studying the summarized results from the nine stations in the subhumid prairie area, certain facts stand out plainly, as will be seen in Table XX XIII. (1) In general, the durum wheats are not adapted to the humid conditions often obtaining in the eastern part of this area, but they do comparatively well in the subhumid northwestern part. (2) In the southern part of the prairie area, which includes the eastern portions of Kansas and Nebraska, neither durum nor common spring wheats do well. (3) Wherever the hard red winter wheats of the Crimean group can be grown they greatly outyield any spring wheat. (4) In the northeastern portion of this area, under the conditions obtaining at Ashland, Wis., and St. Paul, Minn., winter wheat is reaching the northern limits of its present culture and is not so out- standingly superior. The durum wheats are equal in yield to some of the common wheats and poorer than others. The value of the durums will depend on the quality of their grain and the need which exists for their rust resistance. (5) In the northwestern portion of this area, including the western part of Minnesota and the eastern parts of the Dakotas, the durum wheats have a much higher comparative value. They largely out- yield the spring common wheats and nearly equal winter wheat in the districts where it can be grown at all. (6) Of the varieties of durum wheat tested Arnautka is best adapted for growing in western Minnesota and the eastern portions of the Dakotas. THE GREAT PLAINS AREA. A study of the summarized results from 15 stations in the Great Plains area, shown in part in Table XX XIII, supports the following conclusions: (1) Durum wheats produce very well in all but the southern part of this large area. 50 BULLETIN 618, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (2) No spring wheats do well in the southern part of the Great Plains. (3) Wherever the hard red winter wheats of the Crimean group can be grown commercially they are better yielders than any spring wheat. In the higher and drier parts of the plains of Colorado and Wyoming and in central South Dakota their advantage is very small. (4) In the central and northern -parts of this area, wherever spring wheat is commercially important, durum exceeds spring common wheat in yield almost without exception. Usually this is by a large margin, of 10 to 30 per cent, but occasionally by as little as 5 per cent. (5) Of all the varieties of durum wheat tested in this area, the Kubanka is best adapted to all the varying conditions. It is most suitable for central and western North and South Dakota and eastern Montana, at altitudes ranging from 1,800 to 4,000 feet. The Arnautka is slightly better adapted to the more humid eastern part of the Northern Plains with altitudes ranging from 1,000 to 1,800 feet. The Pelissier is a better yielder in the western and drier sections at altitudes of 4,000 to 6,000 feet. (6) A number of pure-line selections of durum wheat are proving better adapted to the local conditions where they were developed than are the older standard varieties. Three which differ appre- clably from the standard varieties from which they were selected have been named. Five of these races appear to be of sufficient value to be tested under a wide range of conditions. They are as follows: Acme (C. I. No. 5284), a selection from Kubanka (C. I. No. 1516) made at Highmore, 8S. Dak.; Arnautka (C. I. No. 4064) a selec- tion from Arnautka (C. I. No. 1494) made at Akron, Colo.; Monad (C. I. No. 3320), a selection made from a field in Russia but tested at Dickinson, N. Dak.; Buford (C. I. No. 5295), a selection from Taganrog (C. I. No. 1570) made at Williston, N. Dak.; Kubanka No. 8 (C. I. No. 4063), a selection from Kubanka (C. I. No. 1440) made at Dickinson, N. Dak. Of these five, Acme and Monad are very rust resistant. THE ARID BASIN AND COASTAL AREAS. A study of the data from the six stations located in these western areas, as summarized in Table X XXIII, shows two facts definitely. (1) Except for the Crimean group of winter wheats, the standard varieties of the western areas differ from those of the Great Plains and Prairie States. (2) In these areas the better yields have been obtained from hard red winter wheats of the Crimean group or from some variety of soft white wheat. BIBLIOGRAPHY. Arxinson, ALFRED, and Donaupson, N. C. 1916. 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Bul. 114, p. 273-297, 9 fig. 1916b. North Dakota wheat for 1916. N. Dak, Nor, Exp. Sta. Bul. 119, p. 52-55. 7 EXPERIMENTS WITH DURUM WHEAT. 63 Lapp, E. F., and Battery, C. H. 1910. Wheat investigations, milling, baking, and chemical tests. N. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 89, p. 49-79. Le Cuerc, J. A. 1907. The effect of climatic conditions on the composition of durum wheat. Jn U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1906, p. 199-212, pl. 10-11. and Leavitt, SHERMAN. : 1910 Tri-local experiments on the mfluence of environment on the composition of wheat. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Bul. 128, 18 p. Lyon, T. L. 1903. Macaroni wheats. Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 78, 24 p., 1 fig. and Kryser, ALVIN. 1905. Winter wheat. Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 89, 52 p., illus. McMurpo, G. A. 1916. Cereal experiments at the Akron field station, Akron, Colo. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 402, p. 19-24. Martin, J. H. - 1916. Grain variety tests. In U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus., West. Irrig. Agr. [Circ.] 9, p. 18-22. MINNESOTA AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION. 1903. Review of the work of the Northeast experiment farm, since its organization in May, 1896. Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 81, p. 189-190. Rei, GEORGE. 1866. Report of the superintendent of the experimental farm. Jn U. 8. Comr. Agr. Rpt. 1865, p. 27. Ross, J. F. 1916. Cereal crops in the Panhandle of Texas. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. (ste), io. Ae and eee HAVE ET: 1913. Cereal experiments in the Texas Panhandle. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 283, 79 p., 13 fig. SALMON, CECIL. 1910. Dry-land grains for western North and South Dakota. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cire. 59, p. 8-15. 1914. Sterile florets in wheat and other cereals. Jn Jour. Amer. Soc. Agron., v. 6, no. 1, p. 24-30, 2 pl. 1915. Cereal investigations on the Belle Fourche Experiment Farm. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 297, p. 14-21. and CLARK, J. A. 1913. Durum wheat. U.S. Dept. Agr. Farmers’ Bul. 534, 16 p., 4 fig. ScHOLLANDER, E. G. 1909-[14]. Annual report of the Williston subexperiment station. Ist—6th, 1908-13. ScoFretp, C. S. 1902. The Algerian durum wheats: A classified list, with descriptions. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 7, 48 p., 18 pl. ScuppEr, H. D. 1914. A report of the experimental and demonstration work on the substation farms at ae Burns, Redmond, and Metolius. Oreg. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 119, p. 83-87. - SHAw, G. W. : 1907. Report of progress in cereal investigations. Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 185, p. 265-310, 4 fig. SHEPARD, J. H. 1903. Macaroni wheat; its milling and chemical characteristics. S. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 82; 45 p., 6 pl. 1904. Macaroni wheat. Jn U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1903, p. 329-336. 1905. Macaroni wheat; its milling and chemical characteristics and its adapta- tion for ee bread and macaroni. S. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 92, 39 p., 4 pl. 1906. Macaroni or durum wheats. S. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 99, p. 105-115. Continuation of bulletin 92. SHEPPERD, J. H. 1896. Grain and forage crops. N. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 23, p. 33. and CHurRcHILL, O. O. 1907. Cereal crop experiments. N. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 75, p. 283-302. 64 BULLETIN 618, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SEINNER, R. P. 1902. Manufacture of semolina and macaroni. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul, 20, 31 p., 6 fig., 5 pl. Snyper, W. P., and Burr, W. W. 1909. Crop production in western Nebraska. Principles of cultivation. Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 109, p. 9-21. 1911. Growing cropsin western Nebraska. Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 118, p. 17-19. 1913. Growing cropsin western Nebraska. Nebr. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 135, p. 14-15. Sranron, T. R. 1916, Cereal experiments in Maryland and Virginia. U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bul. 836, p. 12. Sternens, D. ne 1915, Report of the eastern Oregon dry-farming branch experiment station, Moro, Oregon, 1913-14, p. 18-19. 1917. Experiments with spring cereals at the eastern Oregon dry-farming sub- station, Moro, Oreg. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 498, p. 15-18. STEWART, E. D. [1910-14.] Annual report of the Langdon subexperiment station. Ist-5th, 1909-13. Srewart, Ropert, and Hirst, T: 1913. The chemical milling and baking value of U tah wheats. Utah Agr. Exp. rit Bul., 125,p. 118-128. Tren Eyck, A. 1914. Wheat, 'p. 25-26. Lincoln, Nebr. and SHorsmitrH, V. M. 1904. Crop experiments in 1903. Kans. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 123, p. 182-185. 1907. Small grain crops. Kans. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 144, p. 169-171. ‘Tuompson, O. A. [1904-14.] Annual report of the Edgeley subexperiment station. 1st-11th, 1903-13. Watpron, L. R. 1908. Rate of sowing durum wheat. In U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 130, p. "59-60. 1909-14. | Annual report of the Dickinson subexperiment station. 1st—6th, 8-13. 1910. Delayed germination of durum wheat. Jn Proc. Amer. Soc. Agron., v. 1, 1907/09, p. 135-144, 3 fig. 1912. Some principles of dry farming. N. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 96, p. 451. Wrptsog, J. A., and Merritt, L. A. 1905. Arid farming in Utah. Utah Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 91, p. 94-95. Wiis, CLIFFORD. 1909. Report of work for 1907 and 1908 at Highmore substation. S. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 115, p. 563. and Buritson, W. L. 1911. Progress in wheat investigations. S. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 128, p. 123-142, illus. and CHAMPLIN, MANLEY. 1910. Progress of grain investigations, 1903-1910. S. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 124, p. 31-38. YOuNGBLOOD, B. 1913. Summary of results, Denton substation, season 1912, Jn Texas Agr. Exp. Sta., 25th Ann. Rpt. [1911]/12, p. 60. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT if CENTS PER COPY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey, E. W. NELSON, Chief. Washington, D. C. - PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 8, 1918 FOOD HABITS OF THE SWALLOWS, A FAMILY OF VALUABLE NATIVE BIRDS. By F. E. L. Beat, Assistant Biologist. CONTENTS. Page. Page Food habits of the swallows...........-.---- 1 | Violet-green swallow. ..........--cee--eee-e- 19 Unp) CpMancinoaesseeseac eee see ss os casee 3/|panks swallow ctsseco. cee menenensice seeienee ce 21 Cliff, or eaves, swallow. ...........-...------ 6 | Rough-winged swallow.......-.....-.....--- 25 BALmswallows-mrastcicecces uote wiekwcecee se 11 Tabularsimmarysaes cess enet seancsecceeaene 28 Tree, or white-bellied, swallow...........-.. 15 FOOD HABITS OF THE SWALLOWS The swallows are the light cavalry of the atmy of birds, ever on the move, always on the skirmish line, their wings tireless. From early dawn until night they forage the fields of air, constantly on the alert to cut off stragglers from insect camps and missing no op- portunity to destroy these enemies of the farmer. From time im- memorial these birds have been the friends and companions of man. Whenever he has had a literature it has recorded the praise of the swallow. Ever since the human race has had a history “ the swallow twittering from the straw-built shed” has roused the peasant at break of day to resume his labors, and he has returned to his cabin to rest “ when the swallows homeward fly.” All the species are more or less gregarious and appear to tike not only the companfonship of their kind but also that of man, to whom many have attached themselves, not as parasites but as cheerful com- panions and helpful friends. Probably no group of birds has made such a change in nesting sites as have some species of swallows, which persistently use the structures of man as a shelter and foundation for their nests instead of those provided by nature. 1Prof. Beal, the most experienced economic ornithologist in the country, died on October 1, 1916, shortly after the preparation of this paper.—EDITorR. Notr.—This bulletin is a technical study of the food habits of the seven North American forms of the swallow family. It is for distribution in all sections of the United States. , 14684°—18—Bull. 6i9—_1 2 BULLETIN 619, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In their relations to man the swallows, as a group, are as harmiess as any family in the bird kingdom, and yet they are more closely re- lated to him socially than any other birds except domestic fowls. No complaint has ever been made that these birds harm either wild or cultivated fruit or seed or that they injure other birds. Although practically altogether insectivorous, they do not disturb domestic bees, and in a region where the silk-worm industry flourishes they would not harm the silkworms, for they do not eat Lepidoptera (caterpillars, moths, etc.) extensively, either larval or adult. The esteem in which swallows have always been held is well deserved. It is doubtful if there is a more useful family of birds in the world. Every provision should be made to induce them to stay about the farm or homestead. Swallows are pronounced flycatchers in the sense that they catch their prey upon the wing. Their mouths are specially adapted to act as scoops and take in insects in the air. Probably no other family of land birds spends so many of the daylight hours upon the wing as the swallows. It would follow, therefore, that their food would be taken mostly in mid-air and that it would be limited to insects that fly or jump. This would eliminate from their dietary such forms as caterpillars and beetle larvee and, in short, larve in gen- eral; also such creatures as millepeds, sowbugs, snails, and, to some extent, spiders, although these are able to fly under certain conditions by means of their webs. That insects which spend most of their time in flight constitute the principal items of the swallow’s food is verified by the examina- tion of 2,030 stomachs. This shows that Hymenoptera (bees, wasps, and ants) and Diptera (flies) constitute more than 50 per cent of the average food of the seven North American species here treated (see tabular summary, p. 28). Hemiptera (bugs, cicades, tree hop- pers, etc.) stand next in importance, although the species in general are not such good flyers and do not spend so much time on the wing as the Hymenoptera. The three insect orders, Hymenoptera, Hemip- tera, and Diptera, constitute nearly 70 per cent of the average food of the swallows of the United States. Coleoptera (beetles) are less given to flying, and consequently are not so often taken, the small dung beetles (Aphodius) that fly over cow droppings in the evening being, most commonly eaten. As all swallows apparently prefer to forage over the surface of still water, they take in their food such insects as aquatic Hemiptera and dragonflies, with other aquatic forms. The swallow’s habit of taking its prey upon the wing and its re- luctance to alight upon the ground tend to exclude from its food all vegetable matter as well as nonflying insects. Stomach examination, while confirming this as a general rule, shows some exceptions. The FOOD HABITS OF THE SWALLOWS. 3: tree swallow, for instance, eats a notable quantity of vegetable food, and nearly all the species contrive to get a few caterpillars or other wingless prey, and take at least a taste of Orthoptera (grasshoppers, crickets, etc.). There are within the limits of the United States 13 species of swallows, of which.the following seven are of such wide distribution as to render their food habits a subject of economic interest: Purple martin (Progne subis) ; cliff, or eaves, swallow (Petrochelidon luni- frons); barn swallow (Hirundo erythrogastra) ; tree, or white-bel- lied, swallow (/ridoprocne bicolor); violet-green swallow (Tachy- cineta thalassina); bank swallow (Riparia riparia); and rough- winged swallow (Stelgidopteryx serripennis). The food of these seven species is discussed in the following pages. PURPLE MARTIN. Progné subi. The purple martin (PI. I, upper figure) occurs in nearly all parts of the United States where suitable nesting sites are found. As its nest is usually in a cranny of a building or in a house put up for its express use, it follows that the bird breeds chiefly in settled portions of the country. Probably at one time it nested in holes in cliffs, but that time is long past, and now, showing the greatest confidence in its human neighbors, the bird builds its nest as readily in the midst of a noisy city as about a country cottage or on a quiet farm. For the determination of the food of the martin 205 stomachs were available, collected throughout the United States with a few from Canada. They represent the months from February to September, inclusive, and are fairly well distributed through that period. Exam- ination shows that the food consists entirely of animal matter, insects with a few spiders and other allied creatures, with no trace of vege- table food. The largest item consists of Hymenoptera (23 per cent). These were found in 129 stomachs, of which 7 contained no other food. Ants (3.52 per cent) were found in 30 of these and formed the sole contents of 2. As many ants have no wings, they are probably snapped from the tops of weeds as the martin darts past. Occasion- ally, however, the bird had evidently met a swarm of winged ants and made nearly a full meal of them. Among the Hymenoptera were some useful parasitic species. Ants, on the contrary, are annoying if not harmful, so that while the bird’s consumption of Hymenoptera is on the whole not a decidedly good function, it certainly results in little or no harm. Five stomachs contained remains of honey bees (Apis mellifera) with an oe of 11 individuals, all of them males, or drones. 4 BULLETIN 619, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Diptera, found in 50 stomachs and forming the sole contents of 7, stand next in the food of the martin. Eaten in every month in which stomachs were taken, they amount to 16.09 per cent of the food. They consisted largely of the long-legged tipulids, better known as daddy longlegs, whose larve are destructive to the roots of grass. Besides these, many of the Muscide, the family of the common house fly, were eaten, and a few specimens of robberflies (Asilidz) were found. The latter are predacious insects and are said to be very de- structive to bees. Hemiptera, found in 70 stomachs, amount to 14.58 per cent of the food. They belong to several families, among the most abundant of which are the Pentatomide (stinkbugs), the Membracide (tree hoppers), and the Thyreocoride (negro bugs). The notorious squash bug (Anasa tristis) was found in 1 stomach. One stomach contained 26 specimens of NVezara hilaris, a pentatomid; others con- tained, respectively, 27, 25, 11, and 8 individuals of Myodocha ser- vipes; and several others a less number. This shows how freely these bugs are eaten by the martin. Leptoglossus oppositus and Metapo- dius femoratus, large bugs that do much damage to plants and fruit, were found in two stomachs. ; Coleoptera, the insects next in order of abundance, amount to 12.53 per cent of the food. Of these, 1.28 per cent were useful beetles, mostly Carabide, or ground beetles, with a few tiger beetles. The remainder belong to more or less harmful species. The Scarabeeide, or May-beetle family (5.21 per cent), were found in 47 stomachs and are apparently the favorites. Many of them were small dung beetles (Aphodius), which hover over cow droppings in the early evening and so are easily captured by martins. One stomach contained 75 individuals of a single species, and another 35. Some of the larger flower beetles (“’uphoria) also were taken, one form of which £. inda, often destructive to fruit, was found in 6 stomachs. One stomach contained 100 individuals of another small species of this family (Strigoderma pygmea). Among the most interesting beetles found in the stomachs were the Rhynchophora, or snout beetles. This group, commonly known as weevils, includes some of the most destructive species known. The cotton boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis) was found in two stomachs. The clover weevil (Hypera punctata) was found in nine stomachs, one of which contained 20, and others 17, 12, and 9 of these destructive insects. Insects of the genus Balaninus, which bore into and destroy nuts and large seeds, were found in 14 stomachs. The genus Sétona in several of its species is destructive to clover and allied plants; in one martin’s stomach were found 53 individuals of the species S. hispidula and in another 16; in a third stomach were 27 specimens of S. flavescens, also a pest. The strawberry PLATE I. Bul. 619, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. \\\ IN RUNNY A LZ ZZ QW \ \ i} Wy ; Uy yy yy y | WYyy Wy fii | i Up Y, YY Yi yf, YU yy YW “iy Y A \ att \ \ \ ‘ \ \ PURPLE MARTIN (UPPER), BARN SWALLOW (MIDDLE), AND CLIFF SWALLOW (LOWER). FOOD HABITS OF THE SWALLOWS. 5 weevil (Otiorhynchus ovatus) occurred in one stomach. Tomicus calligraphus, one of the engraver beetles that work under the bark of trees, also was found in one stomach. In all, weevils of different species were found in 48 stomachs. Sundry other beetles, of more or less economic interest, made up 3.41 per cent of the food. Lepidoptera usually appear in the stomachs of birds in the larval form—that is, as caterpillars—but as birds that take their prey upon the wing are not likely to capture caterpillars, this item of food with the swallows is usually composed of remains of adult insects. It amounts to 9.389 per cent of the food of the martin, and is mostly taken at the end of the season; that is, in August and September. None were taken in February and March, and for some unknown reason none were eaten in June. Small moths were found in 39 stomachs, and a butterfly (Vanessa atalanta) in 1. It is possible that there were more butterflies which could not be identified. Moths formed the sole contents of 11 stomachs, and in one 12 heads were counted. The distribution of this item of food through the season 1s very curious and not readily explainable. Over 93 per cent of it is eaten in August and September, with but little in any other month. | Orthoptera are eaten sparingly by the martin. Their total in the yearly food of the martin is only 1.09 per cent. Dragonflies appear to be a favorite food of the martin. They were eaten every month except February and were contained in 65 stom- achs, of which 7 held nothing else. Many were of the larger species, seemingly rather large morsels for the bird. The total for the season is 15.1 per. cent of the food, a percentage unusually large for these insects and indicating that the martin hunts especially for them. The bank swallow is the only other species that eats enough dragon- flies to warrant a separate record. Adult dragonflies live by killing other insects and thus are usually reckoned as useful creatures, but the young feed to some extent upon small fishes and do some harm in this way. Their destruction, therefore, may be regarded as having a neutral effect. Aquatic in their larval stage, dragonflies naturally stay about water or wet places, and as martins are likely to nest at a distance from water, to get them the birds must go to the haunts of the insects. A few other insects, mostly Ephemeride, with a few spiders and sowbugs (8.09 per cent), complete the food. A bit of mollusk shell and a vertebra of a fish are among the curiosities noted. -Summary—wWhile in its food habits the martin does not inflict the direct injury upon man that the bird that preys upon his fruit does, yet it must be admitted that in its animal food in theory: it does some harm. Among the Hymenoptera eaten are many parasitic species, all reckoned as useful insects, and the whole order are cer- 6 BULLETIN 619, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tainly useful in fertilizing flowers of plants. In many cases this func- tion is essential, and without this intervention of insects many species of plants would become extinct. On the other hand, there is no evi- dence that plants suffer in any way from lack of insect service, and it is probable that in this one respect the balance in nature is nearly perfect and not likely to be disturbed by any increase of birds or corresponding decrease of insects. The martin may safely be pro- tected and encouraged. Following is a list of the insects identified in stomachs of purple martins and number of stomachs in which found: continued, ODONATA, COLEOPTERA THOeMULG-Spensi ek oe eS 1 | Aphodius fimetarius _~._-____ 20 anaes Aphodius ingvinaius..-__--- 4 4 19 rior ~ | Aphodius stercorosus __________-_--- dl! QUE ISP aan nn ona ses yo S et eos * Aphodius sp2 ls 22 2h oe Mee Sear eAe I 3 HEMIPTERA, Dichelonycha. sp_=__ == 2 a ee BS I ler >, oo) Gtad pci 2 hae 9 | 80 igoderma DYGMNCU. = eee eee 2 Huphoria ‘nda 2 22a ee 6 Telamona Sp----------------------- 1 Criocephalu ") 1 Hiatgeotie’ sp- 2 Tees Oe LE ORGae Aiba Lat re ee : Micrutatis scalva. 2+ —=122-t nia ee 1 YE Lbs CANIN 2 ena em : : Oolaspis oriunneas =. Pe ae 2 Podisus swubspinosus _~___----------- Ly] on labris pyesunte i BrLeIGs = Euschistus tnflatus--_._------__----_- 1 y v Dp POMC) aaa Serropalpus barbatus _-_____________ il NOLUUCO OUGNCCl = ae ae ee 1 ? u ge Otiorhynchus ovatus__.___--_-_______ aL EMCO UVLO Sete 1 3 eee ; 9 |ySitone hispidula —_-2 2 22 oo 3 Leptoglossus oppositus__-_____-----~ 2 ailona’tiniescens 9 Metapodius femoratus _------------- 1 Wer GG a aaa ae NULONG" Spi 22 eee eee 4 Anasa tristis a Sey a Pea Bes Le 1 Hy nera net ata 9 Myodocha serripes_____-----___----- 9 DENG | PUN CHO ae Sere rit Soe cee ae Gerris sp 2 Eindalus @ratus _.._-_-.-__--_-_--__ ft So Soke Pa OSI ESN AGI OImD, Be 8 Anthonomus grandis___._______---_-_.__ 2 LEPIDOPTERA. Nylopterus Daliadus ___ 22 2S aS 1 Se EE TE TD Ae eer ec are ieee 1 Balaninus NOSiCUS See 1 BOLNINWS: SD) 26 Ao ss ee 13 COLEOPTERA. Sphenophorus pontederie@_________--~ 1 Gicindela. spite 2 1 | Sphenophorus callosus ____.-----_--- ill GDI US Dre ee en Pe ee 4:1 Sphenophorus sp--- 22 Se Se i! Anisodactylus baltimorensis ___~----- 4\ Platypus. flavicornis__-_ 2 = a 2 Rhantus bistriatus _.___.___--------- 1 | Ayleborus impressus___------------- 1 Tropisternus sp-._-__-------------- 1 | Tomicus catligraphus --_-_~-_-__-__— al Cercyon iocellatus (22 ee sc Nr ieee 1 Chramesus: icori@ 2.22 3-2) eee 1 Creophilus .villosus:_—____ _=_=.. = 2 PAMONMENUG) SOs Se i HYMUNOPTERS. Hister abbreviatus_____ =2__-_-____-__- tii Apis melliferdse: 24) 57 see ee 5 TLASL CR ACUUIUES Ne ee See PANGOnrysisispes == = eee al Glischrochilus fasciatus__-____-_-----_ 9 |e Liplia “nornatase._ 3 eee at Trogosita’ viresceng_=_2_---1--i LL 1S cambus spect se 228 sae eee 1 Bunnestis, .uneatas 1 | Ichneumon irritator_______.-------~ 1 GONTNON Sie ee Ae Cnalcis spat sas. oe ee eee 1 Onthopnaqus Spa 2] ]2 5 ==52 ea a 1h -POgOnomyrmen Sps2=2-2——— == eee 1 CLIFF, OR EAVES, SWALLOW. Petrochelidon lunifrons. The cliff, or eaves, swallow (Pl. I, lower figure) is found locally throughout the United States. Its former and natural nesting site was under an overhanging bank of earth, as along a stream or under a cliff. Now the favorite spot for its nest is under the eaves of a building or occasionally under a roof if there is free FOOD HABITS OF THE SWALLOWS. q -aecess to it, as in an open shed; for the eaves swallow does not like to go through a small hole to get to its nest as does the barn swallow. In the far West it may still be found nesting in the old-fashioned way, but where suitable buildings have been put up, this species has not been slow to avail itself of the safer and more sheltered site. Unfortunately, some people consider the nests of this swallow a disfigurement to the building on which they are placed. Were the nests attached to the front of a handsomely finished house, some complaint might justly be made, but smoothly finished and painted buildings are not what the bird requires. A roughly finished barn or other outbuilding or a brick structure to which the mud used in building will adhere, is more satisfactory and is usually chosen. Nests on an outside location are usually bottle-shaped and made of mud worked into pellets in the mouths of the builders. Probably these birds, like the swifts, are able to add to this mud some adhesive substance from their mouths which makes it adhere more firmly to the wall on which it is placed. For the study of the food of the eaves swallow 375 stomachs were available, taken in every month from March to September and giv- ing a fair representation of the food in each of these months, except March, in which only one stomach was taken. While the food con- sisted almost entirely of animal matter, a small portion (0.66 per cent) of vegetable matter was found in several stomachs, much of it being mere rubbish, but some recognizable as food material. As it has very little interest, either economic or academic, it may as well be disposed of forthwith. None was found in March or September, but scattering along through the other months were pieces of seeds and rubbish mostly taken accidentally with other food. Two stom- achs, taken in May in Texas, were entirely filled with fruit of Juniperus monosperma, which was undoubtedly taken intentionally as food. This seems to show that the bird can at times subsist upon vegetable matter. The animal food consists of insects, with a few spiders. Beetles are the largest item but one, and amount to 26.88 per cent. Of these 2.67 per cent are useful species, mostly ladybirds (Coccinellide), which are good fliers and so fall in the swallow’s way. The preda- cious ground beetles, eaten by so many birds, do not form an im-_ portant part of the swallow’s food, as they are not generally much on the wing. Members of the May-beetle family (Scarabzide) amount to 4.97 per cent. They consist mostly of the small dung beetles (Aphodius and Atwnius) which are easily taken on the wing as they fly in swarms near the ground. Pee TAL OTS) sen te e e Phytonomus posticus_______-----~~ Anthonomus grandis________-__~ me Anthonomus eugenii____________ at Rhinoncews “pyrrhopus—_= 2 Ss BORMSU CONS == ee BOLONUNVUS) SP eee ee ee 1 Sphenophorus placidus_____-_-----~ Sphenophorus parvulus_____-_-_---~ SURCNODILOTUS. SD 2a eee Calandra 07yZe222 ea eases Platypus avicornis—— 2) ee NOMA SD WU ae ee Fiylastes Spies ie Ss eee Brachytarsus variegatus_______-_---~ (oT ee RBPRR RF oRFeR rR ORM RrRPAWwWeR RP RH lo DR rR PRP oONWMhwRPN ROR DORN Ree DIPTERA, UCL SD) = 2 ae = ee ee ee OIL, CONACUL NTS ee ee ee ke bo HYMENOPTERA, VAS TIVE LUC CF Cie Satna coe Oey oe Se Ee 1 TaD NASD soe tee ees be ok ove Ee ee HOLmica Spaa2— = = eS eS Ponera coarctata pennsylvanica____— ROPINOMG JSESsile2= nat 2 eee POSUS MOUIENUS = a a ee RO SULS SD re ee en ee KERMCUMONLSP == ea i ee SB Se baosgalpiisssp==s— ee PAIN CT ECLES S Dat NE BRR ORR DBR oo BARN SWALLOW. Hirundo erythrogastra. The barn swallow (PI. I, middle figure) occurs in nearly the whole country where suitable buildings for its occupancy can be found, but on the Pacific side of the continent it still largely frequents its original nesting sites in caves and holes in cliffs. That it is ready at 12 BULLETIN 619, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. any time to give up the old-fashioned homestead for one provided by man is shown, however, in all well-settled localities of the far West. There it avails itself of barns, sheds, and bridges, as it has long done in the East, where its right to a nesting place among the rafters is so well established that when new barns are built a hole is frequently made up near the peak of the gable for the birds to pass easily in and out. ji The food of the barn swallow, like that of its allies, consists almost wholly of insects, with an occasional. spider or snail. A few bits of vegetable matter are taken accidentally—that is, snatched from the top of a weed or shrub with an insect taken as the bird dashes past. Occasionally a berry or seed is eaten intentionally. Ordinarily all food is taken on the wing, but snails have been picked up, probably when the bird was getting mud for its nest. For the investigation of the food of this swallow 467 stomachs were available, collected in the months from March to October, in 27 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada. The first analysis shows that the food is made up of 99.82 per cent animal matter to 0.18 vegetable. The latter is considerably less than that eaten by the cliff swallow. All the vegetable matter found was contained in six stomachs, but it was real food in only four. One of these revealed séeds of the elderberry (Sambucus) and of Cornus sericea. Vegetable food in this stomach made up 75 per cent of the contents. The second stomach held a single kernel of buckwheat, the third a root or bulb, and the fourth two seeds of Croton tewensis. Having taken so little vegetable food, it seems curious that the bird should have eaten any at all. Of the animal food beetles of various families amount to 13.63 per cent. Useful species, that is, those that prey upon other insects, as the predacious ground beetlés (Carabidee) and the ladybirds (Coc- cinellidze), amount to 3.4 per cent. The May-beetle family (Scara- beeidee), apparently the most palatable, are eaten t6 the extent of 6.2 per cent. These are mostly small dung beetles of various species of the genus Aphodius. One stomach was noted as containing 50 or more, and another, several hundred. Snout beetles, or weevils (1.96 per cent) include a variety of species. First in interest is the cotton boll weevil (Anthonomus grandis), found in 12 stomachs, with an average of somewhat more than 6 individuals each. Next in interest is the rice weevil (Calandra oryza), which was identified in 8 stomachs, with 153 individuals in one, 50 in another, and from 15 to 20 in a third. Two species of the genus Sitona were found, S. flavescens and S. hispidula, both very destructive to forage crops. Among other weevils were two of the destructive engraver beetles that do so much damage to timber. In all, about 80 species of beetles FOOD HABITS OF THE SWALLOWS. 13 were identified in the stomachs, most of them harmful and some ex- ceedingly so. Ants are eaten by the barn swallow to the extent of 9.89 per cent of the food, some stomachs being entirely filled with wingless species. These were found in 124 stomachs, and in 14 there was no other food. Most of them were of rather large size as compared with those taken by the flicker and other ground-feeding birds. One stomach, how- ever, contained approximately 1,000 small individuals. Another con- tained between 300 and 400 of the ant Solenopsis molesta, a small species. Hymenoptera other than ants (12.82 per cent) were found in 254 stomachs and are evidently a favorite food of this swallow. Besides the common bees and wasps were many parasitic forms. One male, or drone, honey bee was found. Hemiptera formed 15.1 per cent and from the regularity with which they occur in the food are evidently very palatable. They were found in 192 stomachs, and 16 families were identified. Of these the most important are the Pentatomide, or stinkbugs; Jasside, or leaf hoppers, of which one stomach was estimated to contain at least 1,000; Capside, or leaf bugs, contained in 48 stomachs; Aphidide, or plant lice; and Lygzide, which are represented by the notorious chinch bug (Blissus leucopterus), found in 7 stomachs. This last pest is too well known to require comment. It is well to know its enemies, Diptera are evidently the choice food of the barn swallow. They average 39.49 per cent of the food, or more than twice that of any other order of insect, and nearly two-fifths of the whole. They were contained in 338 stomachs, or nearly three-fourths of all, and 33 con- tained no other food. In March they constitute 82 per cent of the food, and in September, the month of least consumption, nearly 18 per cent. These insects are mostly allied to the common house fly, and were identified in 110 stomachs, but several other families are represented. Among them are the long-legged craneflies (Tipulide), a number of horseflies (Tabanidz), and several robberflies (Asilide), which prey upon other insects and are said to be very destructive to honey bees. The consumption of flies by the barn swallow is, to say — the least, interesting. It is greater than that of any of the flycatchers (Tyrannide) except one and is exceeded by only two other species of swallows. Only such birds as are very active on the wing can catch many flies. Thrushes and blackbirds get a few, but as a rule these are only the craneflies, which move sluggishly and breed in colonies where birds can easily reach them. Lepidoptera are evidently not greatly relished by the barn swallow. The adult insects can hardly be considered a favorite food for any species of bird, as most of the lepidopterous food is eaten in the larval 14 BULLETIN 619, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. state. Swallows can not easily avail themselves of this food, for cater- pillars are not readily taken on the wing. All but one of the lepi- dopterans eaten by the barn swallow were taken in the adult state and amount to only 2.39 per cent of the food. Nearly all were secured in October, and in no other month did they form as much as 1 per cent. Grasshoppers and crickets are a favorite food for many insectivo- rous birds and in many instances are evidently carefully sought after, but they form only 0.51 per cent of the food of this swallow. Grasshoppers are frequently upon the wing and will rise in front of one walking through grassy fields and often fly several rods. While not a general rule, some species are capable of making long- sustained flights. Flycatchers probably capture them in mid-air, and swallows might take them in the same way if they cared for them. The greatest consumption by this swallow (2.54 per cent) occurs in August. Other itisects of more or less importance serve to a certain extent as food for the barn swallow. These are dragonflies (4 per cent), found in 26 stomachs, May flies (Ephemerida) found in 18, spiders in 9, and snails in 9. Dragonflies, though large and conspicuous in- sects, are not taken by many birds, as they are very agile, but fly- catchers and swallows seem to capture them easily. Sunvmary.—There seems to be little reason for criticizing the food of the barn swallow, as the bird eats neither fruit nor grain and does not injure the farmer’s crops in any way. It feeds upon many injurious insects and destroys some of the worst of the farmer’s pests. It is cheerful and companionable and a pleasant adjunct to rural life. Following is 4 list of insects identified in stomachs of barn swal- lows and the number of stomachs in which found: ORTHOPTERA,. COLEOPTERA—continued. bo Spheridium scarab@oides____________ Cryptopleurum minutum____.-__ Conocephalus SDa6 a ae eee HEMIPTERA. Heterocerus: tristis. 2... = Oeresd: DUD CUS =e eee A | AOhGte Spi ee ee Lntylia sinugtale 222 ee eee ae 1 | -Phitonthus hepaticus.2 2 ___- Stictocephala Wwied. = == eee ee 1 | Philonthus siegwaldi_______.________ Campylenchia curvata __-------~---- LY | Philonthus spss. ee Ophidernna spe sr ase eee ee 1 | Boletobius sp_______— ppm Renita nes £10i,8 Thyreocoris pulicaria____.---____---- L | Olophrum obtectum_.__._____________ Amnestus pusillus__--.-----_-_-_---- 1 | Phatacrus penicillatus._______----__-— GeCOLomnus* SPs 22a Sas eee eee 1 Hippodamia convergens —__-_-------— PONG CUSHS) == =n ae ee ee 1 | Scymnus loewii _.._._-_-_______ =e Blissus leucopterus __-_-_---~---- aot 7 | Scymnus sp___-_____ eer ee Myodocha serripes____---------~+--+-- 3 | Aulonium spl. = = 4 aise eid Sine@ \diadema*— = 22 = 2s ee 1 | Dermestes fasciata_._.___.__-______- Derntestes Spas ee Hister abbreviatusi= = oo. et Hister bimaculatus______.._..__-_-_---= Hister aqmericanus-a == = Sees Hister subrotundus2—=—.-—_. 2 Le Dendrophilus punctulatus____- ~~ ----- Saprinus pennsylvanicus —_-_.-------~ SOPTINUS ASSUNINS = 22 ee COLEQPTERA. Higpnrus: ruscarius:+_.-2 4 a2 = Bembidium variegatum___-_---~-----~- ATNOGONSD ase SE es ee eel Cnemidotus 12-punctatus _------~-- = Onemidotus sp-—~._.= pin oath ahs Sees Helophorus lineatus_____-___.--..--.- DPHEPNNYNNR RE R ENP HERR Ree Re RR RD ee FOOD HABITS OF THE SWALLOWS. COLEOPTERA—continued. pot On COLEOPTERA—continued. Saprinus eneicollis ____----_-~---__- yd ly SU LOTUS ete ela aie als a he 8 Saprinus lwbricus_—-—-__________—___ 1 | Anthonomus grandis_______-_--_____ 12 Saprinus fimbriatus __-___----__------ (CVO RROUR MAGA fea ape SS es iL NaDrinus: spheroides=.—-- 2) 2-2 22s 8 BOY US AS aoe ei Ean hse Oa 8 SE 1 Carpophilus dimidiatus_—___--------- Trepovaris .elongatusa 2 =. es es ees 1 Stelidota geminata_____-____-_------- Trichovaris tecand, — 2 se se ee omni Glischrochilus fasciatus________-__-- 1 Centrinus picumnus__2 2 Drone sce ee Limnobaris. deplanata —---_ al Oryptohypnus obliquatus ___--------- Balaninus! parvidens 22. 2s) te ee 1 ALOTPUROS | 0a ee BALIN Ss! Spa eee ee 4 Onthophagus hecate_______-__-_------ Sphenophorus parvulus_______-______ 1 Onthophagus tuberculifrons____------ Sphenophorus placidus _--_--------~~- 1 Onthophagus pennsylwanicus_—_------ 3 Sphenophorus. spou-—-) 2 ee 1 Onthophagus spr2 222 22 see 1 CONOR EN ROB) UAT SSC 8 8 AEnWUS COgnatus 228) ok ba Tomicus cacographus—_____-_-_----__ 1 Aphodius fimetarius____--_-__=-----_ 4 TO MLUCUS UTE ae rea ie alias Wallin a a, iii Aphodius vittatus —~-_ ~~ _______-_ EL AJUCLS EE SIA SY eae trees eI de 10 Aphodius inquinatus______---------- 2 Brachytarsus variegatus_________-____ i Aphodius prodromus_____-_-------~- LN OOHS | SC SAE Se DIPTERA, iv) NOR wWNR EHR REP HEP NDHFP HE WNP WN RF OP NWWHFRONNONRRPOHR HR RH Dichelonycha sp_-------—-~--------- Chrysonsisp == See eie bao eee 3 Strigoderma pygm@a__—-—-~---__--_-- Paneonyananumilis. = eee ae iL Hemonia nigricornis_________------~-~ 1 UCU ONCE SET Smad 2 AN ee 2 Oryptocephalus trivittatus_____-_----- UAL CULO SP) eet een Mn A DELANO ARE AD 3 Cryptocephalus sp____--~--_-----_-- Calliphora vomitoria_______-_-------- 8 Cerotoma trifurcata _______________- Stomogys calcitrans___________-_---- 1 /DKAOROCOGIN SOOT = OE j TENG COMOULELCTOLO ee HYMENOPTERA. Orepidodera helwenes________________- JNDIS OGG RORY So SS 1 Crenidodeng spss LU eee Tiphia inornata __-_---__--------_-- 2 EDU G CUCUMeTIS =. 2 ee STANT COLES DD ee a a ee 1 Hovtria porvula 2 ~~~ Solenopsis) molestan—- 2. see eee 1 Chetocnema pulicaria______________— Myrmica scabrinodis ______--___------ 1 Odontota dorsalis ______________-__-- Aphenogaster fulva_____-_----------- 3 Mylabris proesopis (Bruchus) ~~~ -_~-___ FSS OTIS) 0) RE Ne aa OE eC ak INOCOLUS VOLOMER BS 4 Saas A OEE Formica fusca var. neoclara____-~ ~~~ 1 ENO LOL USES) = sea = nS it a Colnognathus.sp 232 ae a eee 1 PALIVEILCUS (SP eee OpRio ns sp ee se A 4 Sitona hispidulal o_o i Spilochalcis fiavipes______-___---__- Asie oh Sitona flavescens_______-_-- ORAUCIS GSD tS I SO ee a 1 TREE, OR WHITE-BELLIED, SWALLOW. TIridoprocne bicolor. _ The tree, or white-bellied, swallow (Pl. II, upper figure), as it is variously called, is found all over the United States except in some desert or extensive treeless areas. In a state of nature this bird builds its nests in hollow branches or dead trunks of trees, and to-day may occasionally be seen occupying one of its original haunts. Boxes put up for wrens and bluebirds seem to suit the tree swallow exactly, and when available these are taken in preference to the hollow branch. In its food habits this species differs somewhat from other Ameri- can swallows in that it eats an appreciable quantity of vegetable food, frequently filling its stomach completely with berries or seeds. To determine the extent of this difference, 343 stomachs were exam- ined, collected in every month of the year in 22 States, British 16 BULLETIN 619, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Columbia, Ontario, and New Brunswick, and fairly well represent- ing the region from Maine to California and from Canada to Florida. Of these 80 contained vegetable food and 35 contained nothing else. In the first analysis the food divided into 80.54 per cent animal matter to 19.46 per cent vegetable. The vegetable food is made up of a few varieties of seeds and berries, but more than nine-tenths of it consists of the fruit of a single shrub, the bayberry, or waxberry (Myrica carolinensis). The fruit of this plant consists of small, dry, hard seeds overlaid with a cov- ering of small, irregular black granules, like old-fashioned gun- powder, over which is spread a coating of white wax, probably the — nutritious part of the fruit. This was found in 70 stomachs, 30 of which contained no other food. The berries, as well as the whole plant, are highly aromatic and are eaten by many species of birds, but not by any so exclusively as by the tree swallow. They comprise 16.9 per cent of the food; and as they are eaten all the summer, a time when insects are abundant, it is evident that they form a stand- ard article of diet and are not a makeshift for lack of better food. Of other fruits red-cedar berries (Juniperus virginiana) were found in 3 stomachs, rough-leaved cornel (Cornus asperifolia) in 4, and Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) in1. Seeds (2.56 per cent) complete the vegetable food, a grass seed (Zizaniopsis mili- acea), one of the smartweeds (Persicaria persicaria), and an unknown seed each being found in a single stomach. Beetles collectively total 14.39 per cent, of which the useful species amount to 0.97 per cent. Scarabeide, the favorites, were-eaten to the extent of 5.86 per cent. They were mostly of the genus Aphodius, small dung beetles, which, much given to flying about early in the evening, are easily, captured by the swallows. They were found in 76 stomachs, one of which contained nearly 100. Weevils, or snout beetles, were eaten to the extent of only 1.9 per cent. The species selected, however, are important. Cotton boll weevils (Anthonomus grandis), 45 in number, were found in 6 stomachs; Hypera punctata, the clover weevil, was found in 1 stomach; Sitona hispi- dula, a weevil that does great damage at times, in 10; and S. flaves- cens, another destructive species, in 2 stomachs. Others of the genus Sitona, not specifically identified, were found in 30 stomachs. Zomi- cus pint, an engraver beetle most destructive to pine trees, was found in 11 stomachs. Altogether weevils were found in 61 stomachs, one of which contained 68 individuals, another 40, and a third 30. Among other beetles are several forms commonly known as flea beetles. One of these, Hpitrix cucumeris, very destructive to cucum- bers, potatoes, and other vegetables, was found in 19 stomachs. Other species of similar habits, found in stomachs of tree swallows, are Haltica foliacea and Phyllotreta sinuata. In all, 48 species of PLaTeE Il. Bul. 619, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. dé ee WOOK Caw 6 \ A UF \N ee \ \ a~ Yi WY /} "i ith , SS. hi My Yj V) Yip Yh Mh y BAK 4 Y Mi) Sy Y, y) Sr WS SS WSQ \ y, e s 4 TREE SWALLOW (UPPER), ROUGH-WINGED SWALLOW (MIDDLE), AND VIOLET-GREEN SWALLOW (LOWER). FOOD HABITS OF THE SWALLOWS. 1E 7K beetles were identified, of which the majority are injurious to plant life in some form. Ants (6.37 per cent), many of which are winged forms, seem to be well relished by tree swallows. Most of them are eaten from May to October. February is the month of maximum consumption (25 per cent) ; but as only 4 stomachs were taken in this month, the record can not be considered representative. The great bulk of this food was taken from May to October. Hymenoptera other than ants (7.58 per cent) were taken in every month but two, March and December; and as but few stomachs were secured in these months, the omission is probably accidental. This item of food is made up of wild bees and wasps, with a large proportion of parasitic species. No domestic bees were observed. Hemiptera, the order including widely different insects, from the little plant louse (aphid) to the large harvest fly (cicada), do not appear repugnant to birds because of their odor; in fact, the family Pentatomide, generally known as stinkbugs, forms a staple article of diet of most insectivorous birds. They were found in 5 stomachs of the tree swallow. Tree hoppers (Membracide) were found in 6 stomachs, leaf hoppers (Jassidz) in 9, and plant lice (Aphidide) in 11. Probably more of the last were present, but these fragile creatures are so easily reduced to a pulp that the action of the stomach soon renders them unrecognizable. The most interesting family of the Hemiptera in this connection are the Lygeide, found in only 3 stomachs, but in one represented by the remains of 80 chinch bugs (Blissus leucopterus). The bird had evidently encountered a swarm of these insects in flight and had filled up on them, an indication that they are palatable and will be taken whenever found. Diptera form the largest item of the tree swallow’s food (40.54 per cent). They were eaten all through the year, but mostly in the colder months. The greatest quantity (89.5 per cent) was taken in November and the least (6.98 per cent) in August, which is prover- bially the month of flies. While numerous, they represent but few families, and only 5 were identified in the stomachs: Craneflies (Tipulide), horseflies (Tabanidz), robberflies (Asilidee), flower flies (Syrphide), and house flies (Muscidee), the last of which were by far the most numerous. The syrphus flies, found in 10 stomachs, are usually considered useful insects, as many when in the larval state feed upon plant lice and others act as scavengers. Lepidoptera were eaten only in the months from April to Septem- ber, the greatest quantity in August (5.02 per cent). They were found in 20 stomachs, 15 of which contained the adult moths and 5 the larve, or caterpillars; an indication that the bird takes the adult insect probably because of its method of feeding—upon the wing. ‘The average for the year is only 1.07 per cent. 18 BULLETIN 619, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Grasshoppers, found in 13 stomachs collected in the two months August and September, amount to a little more than 2 per cent in each, an average of only 0.37 per cent for the year. This indicates that the tree swallow does not seek grasshoppers, for 112 stomachs were taken in August (the grasshopper month), and even a moderate appetite for these insects would have been revealed by that number of stomachs. Among-various other orders represented in the tree swallow’s food, remains of dragonflies (Odonata) were found in 25 stomachs, one of which contained fragments of 10 individuals. It has been suggested that grasshoppers are too large to be managed by such small birds as swallows, but a bird that can successfully dispose of dragonflies should have little trouble with grasshoppers. Both of these insects have harsh, crisp wings and stiff legs, while the body wall is hard and not easily crushed. Both have hard, stout jaws, which, remain- ing in the bird’s stomach, serve to show what kind of food has been eaten. May flies (Ephemerida) were found in 11 stomachs. Spiders (Arachnida) were found in 3 stomachs. In one a swarm of minute young ones, evidently newly hatched, constituted 99 per cent of the food. This may indicate that spiders are not distasteful, but hard to get. In one stomach was found a small piece of fishbone, an unaccountable item in the food of the tree swallow. These various items together amount to 4.64 per cent and close the food account. Summary.—tIn the food of the tree, or white-bellied, swallow one point is prominent—in its vegetable food it has no relation to man. Every item is wild and of no use. In its insect diet it destroys some parasitic Hymenoptera, some carnivorous Diptera, and a few other useful insects, but this fault it has in common with most other in- sectivorous birds, and in common with them it is engaged in reducing the great flood of insect life to a lower level. Let it be protected and encouraged. Following is a list of the insects identified in stomachs of tree swallows and the number of stomachs in which found: ODONATA, COLEOPTERA—continued. TCSCOS sS [yet et = et a aa are 8.| Platynus yariolatus________-____--__- Casnonia pennsylvanica _~_--_______~ Agonoderus californicus___--__-_____ Tettin sp2——-—-- — === 1 | Discoderus robustus _--_-___________ OCnemidotus 12-punctatus_____________ HEMIPTERA, : : : IBICOSSUS Cis te ee Stictocepnalus sp----= =" === 4 eee VEU GrOpOTUS Sp === =e = Blissus ‘leucopterus's2=—-— 5 3 1 |) Berosus. striatus 2 2 ee PB OQWCT DGS = asa ee ee 1 | Helophorus lacustris__.._ -__-___-__ LVNNOLrecnus (Sp 2222222. 222-2275 LSP elophovius. Spies Hydrobins mathewsit 2-2 -_--t eke COLEOPTERA. Spheridium scarabevides______-___-__ CUMING: SDse = 2224 ee eee en i SE | = @ercvon spo 2 ae eee PLOLOSHIGHUS: SPi= soo ese ee 1 | Cryptopleurum minutum —~----------- PRE OR BE RB Ree RP eee AMO SD ia a2 2 ou Se es ee 3 | Aleochara bimaculata________-_____—+ FOOD HABITS OF THE SWALLOWS. COLEOPTHRA—continued. IPRLOnENUSh Spee 2s eee ee eee SiGROS St ee MOGODWUGUSESD 2 oe eee ae ee COLEOPTHRA—continued. Cerotoma trifurcata ___---_-------__~ TERRE JOUER) = ee Eitri CUCUINEr(s = 22s eS eee a We} Phytlotreta sinuata.____-_____----_-- INOLODUS MH GUCMER Ga a ee INO COGUS NSD ee AORN eS Be PAE TAGUS ISS errs He ye SA a eI ISULOM GN EUS DL GALL i ee Sitonan jlavescens= 222 ae SCEOM CG) SP 2 SUA ae a ee AUDIO VO RUT ea TEL ARO A DOW SEO RNG pa Sas a BL PRY CONOIMNWS Spe 2a eae Anthonomus grandis_____-_--------_ Onchestes: vittatase = See eee CEntminwus, Sp Las 2a ise See ey Te ay ee TU CHAUSSSD se 2 es a eee ELA UES EC SIS TO es ee ee a a LL ee Rhinoncus pyrrhopws 22205352 ee se sae ‘BOLGNINUS SD ise ee ee TOT UCU SD UTC Oi ae eee etapa et une ne ROMICUSH SD 222 ew een ee ee 3 1 1 Hister subrotundus —-—-—---__--—=-=-_ 2 USHER SaaS ee eee 1 Saprinus pennsylvanicus_—----------- 1 COMOCAES SOME Lae AU ol EN aes 2 SHAME S05 4 OPOSHUD: GOODS Sa eS eee 3 Glischrochilus fasciatus_____-------~ 3 Monotoma picipes____----------- wells 1 Heterocerus undatus_—~__-___-______~ 1 TNCUCTLOCELUSHSD == ea = ee es eee 1 Drasterius elegans____-_-___--_--_--__ 2 1 1 3 4 3 1 1 7 4 2 2 a ies) DEPNEFPRPRB BE QGEPRPNENNUTUNKRHP ORE Chauliognathus marginatus___----~-~ Onthophagus hecate=__-------------- Onthophagus pennsylvanicus_—------- Onthopnagus,sp = =-- = eee Aphodius fimetarius ____--_--___---__- Aphodius ruricola __-----_-_______-_ Aphodius vittatus 99 Aphodius inquinatus_______--------- ADWOCUS: SDI nana === ae ee Eb 09 a IGHELOTUUC NGS De a as le Seria Anomala varians ._---=-~_~ ~~~ HST QUis Sten a Se Se eee eee 1 Strigoderma pygme@a___________-____ 11 | Syrphus sp—----------~------------- 10 Hemonia nigricornis_______-------_- 27 j MRA Hzema@ conspersa —~--_-~-_____ == 1 iatamt ad hes DDUGO ROR GD SG Sa Li iwAugochloraypurG 222s eee 1 Cryptocephalus venustus______------- DL MERGUICEUSS Spee 2 Se AS SU 1 EGCRYDLACKYS SD) es SS 1 | hashes spokes Wiehe ea ee 1 DACChws CUrOtwsse ess oe eee LAR hs Spy te en ee ee Se 2 COLOSDTS Sra wae ee os ee ee L Op nto spi Se eel Se ROT 2 Sina a 1 VIOLET-GREEN SWALLOW. Tachycineta thalassina. The violet-green swallow (PI. II, lower figure) is found only on the Pacific side of the continent from the eastern slope of the Rockies to the coast. It extends as far north as Alaska in the summer, but in winter retires south beyond our borders. Its original nesting place was a hollow branch or tree trunk, but holes in cliffs and abandoned woodpecker nests also were used. ‘The big oaks of California almost always furnish sites of this kind in exposed hollows of older branches that have died and broken off. This species has not as yet abandoned its natural nesting site for one of man’s construction, although it does not avoid human society and has been known to build in a nook in a building. Also, on sunny afternoons late in summer, when the young have left the nest, hundreds of them may be seen sitting in long rows on telegraph wires preening their feathers and twittering with an air of perfects comfort. For a study of the food of this swallow 110 stomachs were avail- able, collected in Arizona, California, Oregon, Colorado, Wyoming, and Alaska, and in all the months from March to September. The violet-green swallow is strictly insectivorous, but bits of vegetable 20 BULLETIN 619, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. matter were found in two stomachs; in one a bit of a kernel of oats, in the other a single seed of carrot. Both stomachs were taken in Cali- fornia in August. At that time certain species of ants may be seen harvesting the seeds of grass and other plants. It may be that a swal- low picked up an ant carrying a seed and so got a bit of vegetable food, especially as these birds eat a great many ants. In any cas» the vegetable matter must be recorded as a mere trace, and the whole food rated as practically 100 per cent animal matter. Beetles constitute 10.57 per cent of the food, 1.46 per cent being of useful species. The others were more or less harmful, but none have attracted attention by their depredations, although several have at times done much damage in isolated cases. In all, 24 species were identified, but none of them are familiar. The violet-green swallow has not yet come sufficiently in contact with agriculture to feed much upon the insects that destroy the farmers’ crops. Ants (9.42 per cent) were eaten from May to September. Most of them were taken in the first three months, nearly two-thirds of them in July. All of a series of six stomachs collected at Sunol, Cal, in July were completely filled with ants. Wasps and bees (17.48 per cent) are eaten in every month of the season except April. A number of parasitic species were observed, as well as a few gallflies (Cy- nipidee), but no honey bees. Hemiptera constitute the largest item of food (35.96 per cent). They are eaten in every month of the bird’s stay in the North, the fewest in March, the most in September (68.36 per cent). They were selected from 12 different families, of which the Jasside, or leaf hoppers, were the favorites, having been found in 25 stomachs. The Capsidee, or leaf bugs, were found in 23 stomachs, the other families in a less number. No other species of swallow has eaten so large a percentage of Hemiptera, and the value of this work can hardly be overestimated. Of the 12 families of bugs eaten by the violet-green swallow, all but 1 are plant eaters, and some, like the Jasside, do a great deal of damage every year; those like the Psyilide, the Mem- bracidee, and the Aphidide are small insects but wonderfully prolific and do an immense amount of mischief without attracting attention until the harm is done. Birds that destroy these creatures are cer- tainly doing good work. Diptera are apparently a favorite food of the violet-green, as of cther swallows. They are eaten in every month of the season, especially in the spring months, when they constitute nearly half the food. From May they gradually dwindle to less than 2 per cent in September. The total for the season is 19.36 per cent. The great mass of it was of such soft-bodied insects that in many cases it was impossible to make identifications more definitely than as to order. Craneflies (Tipulidie) were identified in two stomachs. FOOD HABITS OF THE SWALLOWS. 91 No Orthoptera were found in this investigation of te food of the violet-green swallows. Lepidoptera are eaten by this swallow to a small extent (3.12 per cent). They were taken in five months, but in only three of these do they attain even a fair percentage. Remains of small moths were found in seven stomachs and caterpillars in three. A small mass (4.09 per cent), mostly of unidentifiable matter, was found in three or four stomachs. In two it was made out to be com- posed partly of Ephemeride, which are easily crushed. Summary.—tittle can be said of the food of the violet-green swallow. The mischief that birds do is usually through the vegetable portion of their diet. With this bird that element is eliminated at once. Whatever harm it does must be through the insects it eats. Of these the parasitic Hymenoptera are probably the most im- portant, and only less so are the few predatory beetles and bugs it destroys. On the other hand it devours an immense number of harmful and annoying insects. Following is a list of insects identified in stomachs of violet-green swallows, and the number of stomachs in which found: HEMIPTERA. COLEOPTHRA—-continued. MGOCERUS CUE aa ee 1 | Aphodius granarius —________________ aft REWIODUNS 3) LASS ee 1 | Aphodius vittatus_____- 7 Peritrechus fraternus_______________ LA PARI O C/2b SaaS) ete = sre ceenseee SM eases 3 COLEOPTERA eC SP ia a Unetaye lly eri La Gne OTs are u ; Hemonia nigricornis________________ 1 Hlaphrus. ruscariug_-- __-_.__-------- Le Diachwsauratus. = Lo ee ea 1 Agonoderus pallipes _-___-__________ PRN rd FUGA AAOR sis) O espe pe aaa ss ey Te AL URL a 1 Bradycellus ruprestis___________-_--~ aE DUE RUR ED OTUs en Ue EES ye 33 IOMECODNS CHO ea ee Lin PE DAC LIE MSD ais ee Se Le A ae) ante 1 Hydrobius fuscipes__-________~_ Bet Sel TAN OCOD USATS Pe EIT a EN ee 3 Aleochara bimacutata______ patblel eh de Lil 1 | Anthicus punctulatus_______________ 1 AUGO AMR |) ST a OS ae ea DBA G ENT CUS is ana ae ea UE Ween ate Nhl ae 1 (Dea XO CNGD, SH Op Se BU OMAK ABSCESS EA a SSR SE A ee ee 1 ALO TUCIL SES) ee ee a ee LIB ClLONINWS Spee a ews Se eae a 1 Platystethus americanus___.___-----~- 1 | Dendroctonus englemanni___-.------- 3 VALUES ESD se ee a ae 1 BANK SWALLOW. Riparia riparia. The bank swallow inhabits practically the whole world, and in the United States it is more or less local, depending in the breeding sea- son much on suitable places for nesting burrows. The nests are made by boring a nearly horizontal hole in the face of a bank of earth. In a state of nature suitable bluffs occur for the most part along the banks of streams, and it is probable that even now nine- tenths of the bank swallows in the country nest along watercourses. This species still adheres to its primitive nesting habits and does not use the structures of man, except to occupy the banks of earth ex- posed by his engineering operations. 22 BULLETIN 619, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The following discussion of the food of the bank swallow is based upon examination of 394 stomachs collected in the months from April to September from 21 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada. The food consisted practically of animal matter alone, but 3 small seeds were found in as many stomachs, probably taken accidentally, and these in the final analysis amounted to only 0.02 per cent of the total. The real food is made up of various insects and a few spiders. Of insects, Coleoptera amount to 17.9 per cent, and of these 0.66 are useful species; that is, predacious ground beetles (Carabide) and a few ladybirds (Coccinellide), which devour plant lice. May beetles (Scarabzeidee) amount to 5.48 per cent. These were mostly tumblebugs or the smaller dung beetles, which, while they do no marked harm, do no special good. Fifty individuals of one species (Aphodius inquinatus) were found in one stomach. Snout beetles, or weevils (Rhyncophora), were eaten by the bank swallow to the extent of 5.78 per cent of its food. They occurred in 91 stomachs, in one of which 48 individuals were found, and nearly as many in sev- eral others. The rice weevil (Calandra oryza), so destructive to all kinds of stored grain, was found in 9 stomachs, one of which con- tained 40 individuals, two others 20 each, and others a less number. Cotton boll weevils (Anthonomus grandis), 80 in number, were found in 11 stomaclis. One stomach taken in Utah contained two alfalfa weevils (Phytonomus posticus), insects which have done great dam- age in that region. One individual of the plum curculio (Conotra- chelus nenuphar) was found in a stomach taken in New York. The genus Sttona contains a number of very harmful species, many of which were found in 45 stomachs. One stomach contained 26 indi- viduals. Other beetles of a more or less harmful character amount to 5.98 per cent. Among them are several species of the well-known flea beetles, so injurious to garden truck. One of these, Epitrix cucumeris, was found in 10 stomachs. ; Ants, most of which were winged forms, were eaten by the bank swallow to the extent of 13.39 per cent of their food. None were taken in April, but in the other months they form a large percentage of the diet. They appear to be a favorite food, having been found in 121 stomachs and forming the total contents of 11. Other Hy- menoptera were found in 207 stomachs, and 6 contained no other food. As with all birds that capture their prey on the wing, the swallows take many useful parasitic Hymenoptera with the others. No honey bees were identified. The bank swallow does not exhibit that fondness for Hemiptera shown by several other members of the swallow family. These insects aggregate for the year only 7.96 per cent, the least eaten by any of the family except the tree swallow. They were taken in every month of the season, but in rather moderate quantities, the most FOOD HABITS OF THE SWALLOWS. ae in August (17.69 per cent). Leaf hoppers (Jasside), plant lice (Aphididze), and tree hoppers (Membracide) were found in 22, 13, and 10 stomachs, respectively. These are all small insects, but they often do an immense amount of harm. Six other families of Hemip- tera were identified in the stomachs, but in less quantities than the above. No special pest was discovered, but nearly all terrestrial Hemiptera are harmful. Diptera constitute the largest element of the food of 4 of the 7 species herein discussed. With the bank swallow they form 26.63 per cent of the diet. Most of them belong to the family of the house- fly (Muscide) and the family of the craneflies (Tipulide). The last are slow-flying creatures and can be easily captured by swal- lows, and although made up largely of wings and legs, they seem to be very acceptable food for many species of birds. Representa- tives of two other families were found in the stomachs. Lepidoptera, eaten in only four months, and aggregating for the year only 1.21 per cent, are most certainly not a favorite food of the bank swallow. They were found in only five stomachs, of which three contained moths and two caterpillars. One stomach was entirely filled with caterpillars, which were probably snatched from the tops of plants as the bird dashed past. Orthoptera were identified in the food of the bank swallow by two _ jaws of a grasshopper in one stomach and one jaw of a cricket in another. This low record is interesting, in view of the fact that so many birds subsist largely upon grasshoppers and allied insects. Dragonflies (Odonata), being rather large, swift-flying insects, are not preyed upon by many species of birds; but, usually found about water, they naturally fall in the way of bank swallows and form 2.11 per cent of their food. This is not a high percentage, but is notable, as so few birds eat these insects at all. The purple martin (Progne subis) is the only swallow that greatly exceeds this record. A few other insects amount to 10.53 per cent. The great bulk of these consist of May flies (Ephemerida), which are eaten freely, especially in the first of the season. They begin at 43.43 per cent in April and decrease until they finally disappear in August. A few spiders and one snail amount to 0.14 per cent. Besides the foregoing, which may be considered as food, there were found in the stomachs bits of mother of pearl (nacre), bits of eggshell, and pieces of stone, all of which must have been picked from the ground. Included among the stomachs whose contents have been discussed were those of 28 nestlings all taken from the same colony and at approximately the same time. The food did not differ in any im- portant respect from that of the adults, but 10 stomachs contained angular fragments of stone—not pebbles or gravel stones but broken fragments—taken from a quarry or where macadam was being 24 BULLETIN 619, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. manufactured. The.number in each stomach ranged from 1 to 4 or 5. For what purpose these stones were given to the nestling birds and why angular fragments were selected can only be conjectured. The food contained in the same stomachs was entirely of insects of a soft nature and did not appear to require the aid of gravel for tritu- ration. Moreover, the parent birds, whose food was certainly as hard as that of the nestlings, did not take anything of the kind into their stomachs. Following is a list of insects identified in stomachs of bank swal- lows and the number of stomachs in which found: ISOPTERA, MevineS Spi se as aa wee ee ee 1 HEMIPTERA. LNCYMG CONCISO2. = eae ee MiCrultaus: COlvO 22 oe Bee ee Micrutalis: narva-_ 2 ee AIG GULF GS Dare eee oe Tetigonia. hieroglyphica________-___— Cicadula 6-punctata__________---____ TULOPGLLG ULC S == a ee LSU UL STiS [0 eee ere ee oe = tl Oe a on) COLEOPTERA. Bembidium versicolor_________----_- Bemoldiwm. Spa ae ae eee ea ae Clivina impressifrons.__-_____-__--_- Tachys tripunctata_._._._._.___--_—__-_- ALOU SAS we ee se alt Agonoderus pallipes....___~-_ =— AGONOCCrUS: (Spee = a ee HOUDULS SD] 22 oe eee Se eee ae (BI OCSSUSHOIUN Sse ae ee ee Helophorus inquinatus______-__-_--_- Hydrochus subcupreus______________ Oercyon fulvipennis._..__._______--_____ Cercyon melanocephalum_—_______-__— OChCYON SDs =a eae one eee Cryptopleurum minutum—_ ____-_-__- Oolon pusillume nase ee AGUAS) aaa See ee Cyrtusa blandissima ___--_ HGMOALOTCSD == ak = ae en ore wee ee AlLCOCKOKG (Spi Heterothops fasculus________________ PILONMTIUS (Se eee Xantholinus obsidianus___.---___-_-__- Cilea stliphoidies—— os a ee WTAE S CLUDES PO(0LC UL1S = ees os ee Phalacrus politus._._.-.-____~=-_ = Scymnus tloewtt_.___--_--__-__ Atomaria ephippiata......__________ Typhoea fumata______2____________ Thaumatoglossa americana__________ HAStEG OMmericaonus.. 3s De a Hister subrotundus_._.______________ Hister sp——__-— Serpe eae ee ce NODTINUS SCISSULSE == 2 aes Seen aL aoe Saprinus lubricus___-_-- $$ $e Saprinus spheroides________________ SQprinus sp2—= 2222. 8 ren eee eae ce Oe Oe ss Ce ry COLEOPTERA—continued. Carpophilus dimidiatus____.__-_-______ Conotelus stenoides._._____-. = Epuread, helwoldja2 2 8 ee Cryptarcha strigata____-_._-___.~-2_-___ Cryptarcha: Sploue 2 2 ee eae Glischrochilus fasciatus__.1..--_.___._ Melanophthalma sp__--____-_-_ DYA8terus. COvSOUS 22 = eee HYPCrV01deS” GROTIS2 22 ee eee Drapetes geminatus____+—_~_-. Throscus sericeus=—- == | 2 Eee ak Cis [USCINGS= es 2 es = eee Atenius cognatus 2 = 222 se ALTCNIUS: SPo2 ll eee Onthophagus hecate_______-_.___-_-__-_ Onthophagus pennsylvanicus_________ Onthoohaguse Sp-—=_ = = 2 3 il Ozyomus poreatus_____~-__-____---__~_ Aphodius jimetoarws 2-2 = ee Aphodius ruricola —____-~ 2 Aphodius granarius__.._.._._________ Aphodius vittatus.2___2- = 2 Aphodius punctatus_—________-~-..__— Aphodius inquinatus________________ 2 Aphodius stercorosusi__.-.---___--_ Aphodius (sps2- 2 2 oe See al Strigoderma pygme@a —2-2-- =. 2 Hemonia nigricornis.______._------__- 3 DIGehus GUrGtus2= 2.2 = eee eee Graphops pubescens_____._--_._=___._ Metachroma eneicolle __.-.____=____ Cerotoma. trifurcata 22-2 Epitrie cucumeris___..._._...-2_-— = u Crepidodera helwines 22 Le Se Glyptina atriventris__.__._.____...._~- Chetocnema pulicaria __-____________— Onhetocnema Sp = 2-22) 22 Mylabris prosopis (Bruchus) ~~~ ~_~ NOtODUS, SP. <2 S25 aS aa eee Anthicus punctulatus __________2___ = Anthicus floralis.___...__._-_i--= Anthicus nitidulus....-_______._._____-_ Anthicus Sp-— 2 == eee Thecesternus humeralis____.......-.. Sitona. hispidula_...--_.- 2. Sitona flavescens2==— — 1 ee SSL OFLC See ee ee oem pe aes Sea Apion metaliicum___—_—-~—~_~--- Li = ANION “Sa ao er ee es es PRYTONOMUS, NOSTICUS. = -2=_—_ = ee YN pe Hb G WNRFRONFHHORN EP BH HEHEHE OQHWNH REP HEN Pee pa bo BPR DPDOWHNHONHHRaAWRH ey FOOD HABITS OF THE SWALLOWS. 25 COLEOPTERA—continued. COLEOPTERA—continued. CROP Sys SO ee Ss ds Se is sys ee AMA Lastes TENnuis=== ssi es eee 1 CUE IIESESD = es ee DBE EUS TERY Sy eis I ae 2 Anthonomus grandis___-------~--~---~ 120 IWHGLESUILUS (SD 2s = et a ee ee ee al Conotrachelus nenuphar___--------~- 1 | Brachytarsus plumbeus___----------- 1 Cryptorhynchus bisignatus___-------- 2 j Y Hypoceliodes wickhami____-_----~-~~- 1 DIPTERA, Celiodes acephalus______-~----~--_--- Otten sp Mesh iie Ont ng T iad Seatibiy is aA 1 Perigaster cretura ---------_-_-____~ ty WORD hora: Spe ca nen ee ea AON 2 Limnobaris blandita_____---~--__---- AD SROLILOM SD oko eee ts head geen pe 4 Baris confinis.------------------~--- 1 BUNS. CAG 22S ee 2 HYMENOPTERA. Rhinoncus pyrrhopus—_—_—------------- A | GIF Lp yee ee eas ce tee en 1 Rhinoneus longulus—-—-------~---__- 1 | wyrmica scabrinodis______--__-_____ 4 Centrinus picumnus_—_—_------~---_- 2. | Pen TOANS pee toe to paiatim ete ail a +] COLMAR MOR ZO re Ve OF OM TLO TNE SI) me aie ote ia abnae nee ewar aan 1 Pityophthorus minutissimus_—_--—_-_~ 1) BUSS US Spee Let Cae rine RNA Ire et 1 Tomicus calligraphicus____________-- 1 | PROMELESNS De one NG BIA yw 1 OMICS ASD ee Sos ee ee 1 ROUGH-WINGED SWALLOW. Stelgidopteryx serripennis. The rough-winged swallow (Pl. II, middle figure) occupies the United States from ocean to ocean and from the Gulf of Mexico to the latitude of southern New England in the East and of southern Canada in the West. It is not abundant except locally and is found much more frequently in the more southern parts of the country. Its nesting sites are very often like those of the bank swallow; in fact, they may be the old abandoned burrows of that species; but in general they are holes in cliffs, ledges, banks, of earth, or crannies in bridges, and other structures of man. As a rule, rough-winged swallows do not dig holes for themselves. They do not live so much in large colonies as do the other species of swallows, and a pair may frequently be found breeding by themselves, though a colony of five or Six pairs is more common. In migration, however, they collect in large flocks. The following study of the food of the rough-winged swallow is based upon examination of the contents of 136 stomachs, collected in 15 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, and in the months from April to September. The food was practically all animal matter, except that in one stomach were a lot of woody granules of uncertain origin, in another a piece of root, and in a third two seeds of currant (/ibes). In the final analysis these amount to 0.21 per cent and so may be dismissed without further comment, The real food is made up of insects, a few spiders, and a snail. Of the insects, 14.83 per cent are beetles, only 0.5 per cent of which are of useful species. The May-beetle family (Scarabeide) (2.69 per cent) were mostly the small dung beetles (Aphodius), with a few larger forms. Weevils or snout beetles (4.93 per cent) embrace a few inter- esting species, as the alfalfa weevil, found in 11 stomachs; the cotton 26 BULLETIN 619, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. boll weevil, in 4 stomachs; the rice weevil, and two species of en- graver beetle. Among the beetles other than weevils were a num- ber of species of the group commonly known as flea beetles. Some of these are very destructive to garden vegetables and the leaves of fruit trees. Ants were eaten in every month, but rather irregularly. In July they amount to 35.5 per cent and in September to 22.89 per cent, which together are about four-fifths of this kind of food for the whole season. The total for the year is 11.99 per cent.. Other Hy- menoptera (18.91 per cent) are eaten regularly and abundantly in every month. They contain the usual admixture of parasitic species, which being abundant are always to be found. Hemiptera constitute 14.9 per cent of the food and are eaten regu- larly from May to September. None were found in stomachs taken in April, and more than four-fifths of them were taken in August and September. Ten different families are represented, but stink- bugs, tree hoppers, leaf hoppers, and negro bugs were the most numerous. AI] of these are more or less harmful. Diptera are the favorite food of the rough-wing. as they are of most other swallows. They amount to 32.89 per cent, a record that is exceeded only by the tree and barn swallows. They were found in 93 stomachs, 9 of which were entirely filled with them. Flies are such soft-bodied creatures that it is not easy to determine species from the remains found in the stomachs. Five families, however, were identified. In 5 stomachs were recognized members of the family Tachinide, composed of parasitic species that live-in and destroy caterpillars or other insects, and therefore are useful. Of the remaining four, one family is of no importance, and the others are harmful or at least annoying. Lepidoptera are eaten sparingly by the rough-wing. The total for the year is 1.11 per cent. Ail were contained in 5 stomachs, 1 of which was'taken in April, 2 in May, and 2 in September. Three of the 5 contained moths, and 2 caterpillars. Orthoptera are represented in the food of the rough-wing by the fragments of one grasshopper found in a stomach taken in Arkansas on July 5. This made up 16 per cent of the contents of the stomach (0.12 per cent of the food of the year). Insects belonging to other orders are taken occasionally by the birds. Of these, dragonflies were found in 3 stomachs and May flies in 5. In 5 other stomachs was material so finely mashed as to defy identification beyond the fact that it had once been insects.- Frag- ments of spiders were found in 6 stomachs and a snail in 1. Alto- gether they amount to 5.04 per cent and close the account of animal food. FOOD HABITS OF THE SWALLOWS. - 27 Summary.—tIn the food of the rough-winged swallow the useful elements are as usual in the minority. In this case they consist chiefly of parasitic Hymenoptera, the destruction of which is not a matter of great importance. Following is a list of insects identified in stomachs of rough- winged swallows and the number of stomachs in which found: MECOPTERA. e EUNOGDONSD === =—=—2=-——- = ——-———— HEMIPTERA. intyua concisa—_————~—_-__---------___- Thyreocoris nitiduloides________--_---~- Thyreocoris pulicaria_____--_------_- Opnidennay spe === 2" 22h. Oncometopia uwndata____----------~-_ Home oo COLEOPTERA. Golosomuucaudwum === = 22 eee Bembidium versicolor____-______---~ Hydroporus: modestus____---------__- Helopnorus ineatus_—______-—________ COCUOMES DE === ee FLOM ALO LORS) eres See Ee Aleochara bimaculata____-----~----- IPIVMONGNUSESD = a ee Cryplobulimnge sp === 5-2 a OLULCUUSHIUGOSUS === UTI S02 Olophrum obtectum_____------_----_ BRUACLUSLDOUITUS= ee ee Hippodamia 13-punctata____-_-_------ Scymnus loewu__ Lis poe ae UE RU DOCU ANGLO Se eee GSteORlauunegiuiaiwe—=—— Hister subrotundus____-~ pa sey es Sp Ne aE EID? GO OUT ee ee Saprinus rotundatus____-_------__=_ SODTINUSISD ae Se es Carpophilus dimidiatus _____________— imran. WG Oe Cryptarcha strigata________~-_______ OU IDLOKCILORSD ee a Glischrochilus fasciatus GUIS CHO CHLAVS TS Dm ee Limnnichus nitidulus—--_-_---- 2 HUELETOCENUS SD oie Lk eee Cregyawoculata ans an ae eee REE Eee Rw REE EERE ERP ORE EPR DRE = RPeERporF COLEOPTERA—continued. Onthophagus pennsylvanicus____---~~ Onfhopnigus: sp] ee eee Aphodius inquinatus=——_——---~______ AVI TUO CUES ESP) 22a Soe IDEKG OHS COG eee ee INODONMOLONUTISUIS 2 ee ee OGroroma, CaMmimede DLLs Se See ae OG UTICIRO e Galerucella sagittarie_______________ EDULE R ILS CULL = eee Crepidodera velutinus____~___-______ Chetocnema denticulata _-_-________ Chetocnema pulicaria_-————_— = CHELOCH EMC. Spe ae ee aie Antinenscbiguttulus= 2 == ees NAA EN UCLUS ISP es aoe ioe Oe MN eat Sle TEE ME Rhipiphorus dimidiatus___--_--______ Phytonomus posticus_________-______ Anthonomus grandis__—_______--—___ O7nGhestesruittate= === RINONCUS DYTTROPUSz2 22 ee ee Ceutorhynchus rap@_—--—~ SPLCHODIVOTUWS ESD eee eee ee eee Platypus fLavicornise 22a eee ERTVUILCILOVUL Si SP ees ene i es oe Tomicus calligraphus_______-___-__- Tomicus cacographus._2—2--- =e IF MSTA COL eS SEU KAT Aga SS a Brachytarsus sp DIPTERA. UD EXT N AY "Aa 0) pak Ree age ee ev WIOPQGULE LGU ie se ROC HANGS Pies Lae ETE ONES EE LEY EE aE HYMENOPTERA Andrena sp ROG SUU SNS) SASS Ne 2 Ba ROR Si i LO EIIUUC CA sf SCO) wo oe a et i OY EF 00 CO 00 Or i BREE HORP RYDER OPP E ROR Re oH Bb 28 BULLETIN 619, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABULAR SUMMARY. The following table shows the relative proportions of the most im- portant elements of the food of the seven species of swallows: Aver- : op_| age for Purple| Cliff | Barn | Tree vie Bank Hough ane Food items. Bred i swal- | swal- | swal- | cya). | Swal- | ovaj. | seven ‘| low low low iG low toe ~ | species * | of swal- lows. J2day Per ‘Per Per Per Per Per Per cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. cent. IWeCVIIS fice w dese sconces cteteesea at 2. 63 8. 38 1.96 1.92 4,12 5. 78 4.93 4,25 Other beetles. - . . oe 9.90 | 18.50} 18.66 12. 50 6.45 12.12 9.90 11. 86 PATE S eae lotr ea ee eee 3. 52 8. 24 9. 89 6.37 4.42 | 13.39 11.99 8.97 Other Hymenoptera 19.47 | 20.51 | 12.82 7.58 | 17.48 | 20.10} 18.91 16.70 HLCM LCL Acetic nae oes ese eee 14.58 | 26.32 15. 10 5.59 | 35.96) 7.96] 14.90 17, 20 DA 0 5) re ee 16.09 | 13.25 | 39.49 | 40.54 | 19.36 26.63] 32.89 26. 89 Lepidoptera: -icec-cec-eesceccee ees 9. 39 -46| 2.39 1.07 3.12} 1.21 1.11 2. 68 OrpboOpteraed tence ced osccee ene kee | 1.09 Ail 51 S SONS ser seger - OL .12 . 40 Other insectSi..2.< 22 222 Ss cdcese eee: 22. 87 2. 56 3. 72 4, 25 4,09 | 12.64 4.48 7.80 Opheranimal Toodees ats sce eee ii . 46 41 | . 28 By eee 14 . 56 .3l Wegetable foodies esta2 cca et alla ere | Sep See gen ea all | (z) (s) | 06°09 | 22h] L26E | 08° | FL) 867) e9 | ste |z2 | eer | 66 J"d | SLU | *S7U10gT SOT | SMD_\ SHLD | SHOT) SDT | *P°d | “Pd | Pd Pd | SL Pd \20'°d\ Did “SQT SHH |S | O o cs) wn” ee wm wa = ey ee) Q Ee) w i BR x is) bg a ‘x BH} Q}] bw HB) eB} & |] Oo Se \cgiegg| fl ele lele (gtel@| #l @ | geile! 2 lelzgl|elele| sel els Ss | oe] om 5 ® vi i : : a = = o oy = | o Do P @ | boca 6 B ee alae et : 5 B | to E- ga | = ij EP SS I) eae hes iS Suey leesh ale eal < g ob =a a ° o> ® = ® S fo) a=! S 2 a @ 08 BS iS = 3 td = oR o B rol ey . Ss © | at fel 5 . Ry o a as ae a g 5 39 We ©. ° : : 2B] o |Ss| gs oq be er, Oo teres | tes : 4 QD e Nha ee n PB] Be 18a} 6 S SIE Cee ih alee a g E & Ee | 8 2 me /SPl eB) & ie) os is) . — B | ee | 8 5 Ss a Fig ala e|82/ 8/3 =: | : B/"als|& *S780} Yysueg “SSUIPBOT 10}OTIOJUL J, di “siseq AIp-ou0q—spyol x 2 E ; a “OS CHNIGNOO 1O LNQOOWV DNIAUVA "sz]Nsau pun suo puos buriyoo7—'e ATA, | 18 BULLETIN 620, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EFFECT OF VARYING TOTAL SULPHUR DIOXIDE. Cooks were made varying the amount of total SO, from 3.02 to 6.98 per cent, but in each case the ratio of free to isms SO, was kept at 4 to 1 and the temperature at 135°C. Figure 9 gives the curves he 4 dt DER RRnE ig eee eee EERE SARE AR ee DER Gee REE ee SSRaRees eo RERB PERE ERR Se DRA RRR ee ps See TP petnfetn am fl ia sakes tpn iy GREE Re ee Be) 1 eee aes yy BE sake rae PEEEEEEHEEEH EEE poppet Se Seta stole alata Hh Be ERR Oe Di MERE EEE Bae eRe erable ere Eve (ey lO eet aisielals| yo ee ee eee es el eee eee Baie Pe wo | at | Bee Se he? PeREe Ree te 77 EGR See Bee ee ie ee ee i Ree ees 7 BER SSe ee nee tH pe eH ope ABE | | SSN a ets ne ee BRERA! | a Ras Gee ee oe Ree PARR es Bee eee: DRE See RSE Rk Bee PP eee ase tH be nee oe Pe ees BRE Be UREN sens BER RAYE Re ee DE ERR eee Be eee Sees BERR ESA TAR Ee Be RP Bee Be BAe eres ERR DDN RED OS eee SES Sy Bee Bees RERS Ss oeeE SS ee ae ey BEERS SERS EERE Ree ES Eee Sri chs) a) Paice te 120 160 200.0 }°®#ƚ 20 30 44 46 48 “$0 PARTS BLACK DURATION OF CCOK — HOURS YIELD OF UNSCREENED PULP — PERCENT \ BB a ToTaL SO, i {ECE EEC TEAL Te Bene 42a ae 2 46 a) 1 2 3 YIELD oF SCREENED PULP — PERCENT SCREENINGS—PERCENT BLEACH ~ PERCENT © Fic. 9.—Effect of varying the amount of total SO» in the cooking liquor. showing the effect on the different factors studied, parts black, dura- tion of cook, yields, and bleach consumed. While these cooks were made with ine ratio of free to combined SO, of 4 to 1, the actual amount of combined sulphur dioxide in the cooking Liquor decreased with the total, as shown in Table 3. _ PRODUCTION OF SULPHITE PULP FROM SPRUCE. 19 The curve for parts black shows that after a total of 5 per cent is reached, any increase in the total SO, does not produce a lighter pulp, but below that point there is a rapid darkening. An increase in the total SO, causes a shortening in the cooking time, as would be expected. The yield of unscreened pulp and screenings shows a decrease as the total SO, is increased, which becomes only slight as a total SO, of 5 per cent isreached. ‘The yield of screened pulp remains practically constant, because even if the amount of unscreened pulp is increased as the total SO, is decreased, the amount of screenings increases in almost the same amount. An increase in the total SO, causes a decrease in the amount of bleaching powder necessary to bleach the pulp to a standard white. Below 4 per cent there is a rapid increase, while above that point there is a gradual decrease in the bleaching powder necessary. The strength tests in this series” as in the previous one, were unfortunately very irregular and no con- clusions could be arrived at from them. A study of the curves shows that below 5 per cent total SO, there is a decided effect on some of the factors studied. At 5 per cent total SO, the liquor had a combined SO, of 1.01 per cent; and at the 4 and 5 per cent total SO,, a combined SO, of 0.80 and 0.61 per cent, showing again that as we go below 1 per cent in combined sulphur dioxide, the parts black, the amount of screenings, and the bleach consumed rapidly increase, for the reason that there is less cooking action. Photomicrographs of the pulps obtained in cooks 81, 86, 87, and 89 are shown on Plates V, VI, VII, and VIII. Cook 81, which was made with a high total SO,, is more thoroughly cooked than cook 89, which was made with a low total. The latter contains much lignified fiber, the result of having the low percentage of lime in the liquor. EFFECT OF VARYING THE TEMPERATURE OF COOKING. To study the effect of variations in temperature, cooks were made using an acid of the same composition in each case, but varying the temperature from 110° to 146° C. Figure 10 shows the effect on parts black or color of the pulp, on duration of cook, on yields of pulp and screenings, and on amount of bleaching powder necessary to bleach the pulp to a standard white. ‘Varying the temperature has little or no effect on the color of pulp produced. The duration of cooking rapidly increases as the temper- ature is lowered, and apparently there would be very little cooking action under 110°C. At 146° C. the cook finished in a little over 5 hours, while at 110° it took almost 25 hours. The yields of screended and unscreened pulp both increase as the temperature is lowered, especially between 120° and 110°, where there is an increase of almost 3 per cent. In the other 10-degree periods the increase amounts to 20 BULLETIN 620, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, only about 0.5. per cent. This probably is due to a decrease in the amount of hydrolysis of the cellulose occurring under 120°C. The screenings decreased with the temperature. The explanation for this is that with the higher temperature the cooks are finished before the = w& i=] 120 TEMPERATURE °C rt) TEMPERATURE C 10 20 DURATION OF COOK — HOURS } Bae eee Bed eerty] (LETHE i FCHIEEEECEH EHEEEEEE rt Co Bae meen BA BG FEEHEEEEEH FEE if en |e | S Bia Hee 4s Peds] BeBSia | | br AEA A EEE Ee auauit z ane Pinal i me seen aee inne VIELD OF UNSCREENED PULP — PERCENT YIELD OF SCREENED PULP — PERCENT SCREENINGS — PERCENT BRS RBA) lea Er seeeegae es PEOPEHT PEE EFFEFESEH] EEE FcEEEEECE ECHYEEEEE Ee ESE) EES REECE ECAREEEEE Sssabteost Ml sssdfonis o fr 2 BLEACH — P Fia. 10.—Effect of varying the temperature of cooking. 30 40 50 ERCENT inner portions of some of the larger chips are thoroughly cooked, while the smaller ones are probably overcooked. The lower temperatures with their longer cooks insure a more even cooking and therefore Decrease in the temperature produced a produce less screenings. Bul. 620, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. F—5335M PULP PRODUCED IN COOK 81. Bul. 620, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. F—5837M PuLp PRODUCED IN CooK 86. PLaTE VII. é. of Agriculture. U. S. Dep ¥18) LU, Bul. 6 PULP PRODUCED IN Cook 87. Bul. 620, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. PULP PRODUCED IN Cook 89. PLATE IX. Bul. 620, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. F—5832M PULP PRODUCED IN Cook 90. PLATE X. U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 620, Bul. F—5842M PuLp PRODUCED IN COOK 92. PLATE XI. Bul. 620, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. F—5830M PULP PRODUCED IN Cook 97. Bul. 620, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII. teehee LI YM ee ae ‘ ; | F—5836M PuLp PRODUCED IN COOK 100. PRODUCTION OF SULPHITE PULP FROM SPRUCE. Dil: decrease in the amount of bleach consumed, as indicated by the curve. This is rather surprising when one considers that the yield of screened pulp increased almost 5 per cent, while the bleach decreased from 22 to 11 percent. This must be due to the more uniform cooking occurring at the lower temperatures so that broken up, uncooked shives did not consume bleach. The values for strength are fairly regular (Table 3), probably as a result of the use of an improved style of beater in this series. As would be expected, they show an increase in strength with decrease in temperature. Photomicrographs of the pulps produced in cooks 90, 92, 97, and 100 are shown on Plates [X, X, XI, and XII. Cook 90, which was made with a high temperature, contains much lignified fiber and is not very uniform; while cook 100, which was made at a low tempera- ture, seems to be well cooked and has fibers nearly all of the same length. SUMMARY OF RESULTS. 1. These experiments have demonstrated that a standard color can be used with which to match the color of the liquor in the digester to determine when a cook is finished. A cook can be duplicated at any time by comparison with this standard. 2. The limit to which the combined SO, can be decreased to obtain good cooking seems to be about 1 per cent. Below this there is a rapid darkening of the pulp produced, and an increase in the screen- ings and bleach consumed. 3. When the temperature and total SO, are kept constant, the yield of screened pulp increases somewhat with increase in the combined SO,, because of the more thorough cooking. Consequently, less screenings are obtained. 4. When the temperature and total SO, are kept constant, a de- crease in the amount of combined SO, causes quicker cooking action, so that a cook can be finished in less time. 5. An increase in the total SO, causes a decrease in the cooking period, other factors remaining constant. 6. The screenings and color of the pulp remain constant as the total SO, is decreased to about 5 per cent, after which there is a rapid increase in both of these factors. 7. The higher the total SO,, the easier it is to bleach the pulp, other factors being the same. 8. The amount of screenings decreases as the temperature is lowered, because of the more even cooking obtained at the lower tempera- tures. 9. The bleach is reduced as the temperature is decreased, while the yield of pulp increases. 22 BULLETIN 620, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. METHODS OF ANALYSIS AND OTHER TESTS. BONE-DRY WEIGHT. The bone-dry weight was determined by taking a sample of the wood, pulp, or screenings and drying to constant weight in an oven at 104°C. The ratio of the weight after drying to that before drying then became the factor by which the bone-dry weight of the entire amount was calculated. All yields and similar calculations are made on the basis of bone-dry weight. COLOR. The color of the pulp was determined by means of the Ives tint photometer. By means of this apparatus the color of the paper is reduced into parts of the three primary colors, red, green, and blue. When these three add up to 300, as in the case of the magnesia standard used for comparison, then pure white is obtained. The sum of the three primary colors subtracted from 300 gives the ‘‘narts black” of the paper in question and is a measure of its color, the higher the parts black, the darker the pulp. BLEACH REQUIRED. The bleaching solution was made by mixing bleaching powder with water, allowing the sediment to settle and drawing off the clear solution. Its strength was determined by titrating 10 ce with a solution of sodium arsenite using starch iodide paper as an outside indicator. The number of cubic centimeters necessary to complete the titration gives the gram per liter of 35 per cent bleach. Twenty- five grams (bone-dry) of the pulp were put in enameled jars with 2,000 ce of water and thoroughly mixed. The calculated amount of bleach liquor was then added and jars placed in a water bath heated with an electric coil which kept it a temperature of 110° F. The contents of the jar were kept in motion by means of a stirring apparatus until all the bleach was exhausted. The pulp was then thoroughly washed, made into hand sheets, and its color compared with a standard to which the addition of more bleach would not make it any whiter. The per cent of bleach necessary to give a standard white is expressed in per cent of the bone-dry weight of the pulp. ANALYSIS OF COOKING LIQUOR. N PREPARATION OF 7 IODINE. The iodine solution is made by diluting from a concentrated solu- tion. This was made by dissolving 156.7 grams of iodine and 217 grams of potassium iodide in about 250 cc of water and diluting to 1 - PRODUCTION OF SULPHITE PULP FROM SPRUCE. 23 liter. Two hundred cc of this solution make 4 liters of approximately - iodine. This is then standardized againsty¢ sodium thiosulphate solution. PREPARATION OF os SODIUM THIOSULPHATE. Weigh out 24.7 grams of sodium thiosulphate, dissolve in water, and dilute to 1,000 cc. This is standardized according to any of the standard methods. DETERMINATION OF TOTAL SO. A 300 ce Erlenmeyer flask is filled with about 150 cc distilled water and enough = iodine solution added so that only about 2 ce of the iodine solution will complete the titration. Two cc of the liquor to be analyzed are then added to this and the titration completed, using starch solution as an indicator. This gives the total SO, present and every cc on the burette reads to one-tenth of 1 per cent. DETERMINATION OF FREE SO). A 300 cc Erlenmeyer flask is filled with about 150 cc of distilled water and enough 7 sodium hydrate added so that only about 2 cc will complete the titration.. Two cc of the liquor to be analyzed are then added and the titration completed using phenolpthalein as an indicator. Each cubic centimeter is equal to one-tenth of 1 per cent of free SO,. The difference between the free and total gives the SO, present combined with lime, and multiplying the amount of combined SO, by 0.875 gives the amount of lime (CaO) in combination. 24 BULLETIN 620, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PUBLICATIONS ON PULP AND PAPER. Paper Pulp from Various Woods. Forest Service Bulletin (unnumbered), by Henry E. Surface. (Out of print.) Experiments with Jack Pine and ‘Hemlock for Mechanical Pulp. Forest Service Bulletin (unnumbered), by J. H. Thickens. (Out of print.) *Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries. Forest Service Bulletin 123, by Henry E. Surface. Price 10 cents. *The Grinding of Spruce for Mechanical Pulp. Forest Service Bulletin 127, by J. H. Thickens. Price 15 cents. *Suitability of Longleaf Pine for Paper Pulp. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 72, by Henry E. Surface and Robert E. Cooper. Price 5 cents. *Effects of Varying Certain Cooking Conditions in Producing Soda Pulp from Aspen. Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 80, by Henry E. Surface. Price 15 cents. *Ground Wood Pulp. Part I, Grinding of Cooked and Uncooked Spruce; Part 2, Substitutes for Spruce in the Manufacture of Ground Wood Pulp. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 348, by J. H. Thickens and G. C. McNaughton. Price 50¢ cents. * No copies available, for free distribution. For sale by Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, at the price indicated. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY V Bulletin 621, U.S. Department of Agriculture. E.ReAKALTISS THE COMMON CROW (CORVUS BRACHYRHYNCHOS). PLATE |. ay BULLETIN No. 621 Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey E. W. NELSON, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. February 16, 1918 THE CROW AND ITS RELATION TO MAN. By E. R. KatmpBacnu, Assistant Biologist. CONTENTS. Page Page. BEER OMe OME ay seers Seiten a tea 1 Food habits—Continued. Systematic position and distribution of the Nestling crows—Continued. (GROW aie sick 8s stark Pipe Et iG SAM SD Tf a Rc 2 Wegetablefoodieiiss tek thee See 67 ME MOSS EON gay ae Ree oe es ieee 4 Distribution of live-stock diseases.--.-....-.-- 68 PH TOOSLMIeyN A De em ee es 6 DISHED UP OMORSCe Seas sean eee eee ee 68 Information from correspondents. -.........- 9 Naturalenemieseers 2 22535 aay, ee 71 Hoodshab uss eee a ee. sess eo eral 4) ProvectionsOf, Cropsice)--\- -- sas- es sae 1 re elo JAG VTL CHO TS 555 SUAS SUSE COE Ree ee 11 HSC RISI ATOM ae se es arin einen 80 eAMITM A TOOM =e ase ees) tid seek 11 Summarys tetera Seek ee ee eee oe 81 Mezetainle food ee ey tei 42 @onehisTon sya ee seo ae a ee 85 NGS tINGICrOWStse= 222 ee eos e tues 55 List of items identified in stomachs.......... 86 Animal foodie 40 )52) see Ey Tndexeee thee ER Seo aes eee Ree 91 INTRODUCTION. Since the publication in 1895 of “The Common Crow of the United States ”+ no comprehensive treatise on the economic status of the crow has appeared. The edition of that bulletin has long since been exhausted, and the only recent publications available for inquirers have been short articles on the crow appearing in papers dealing with a number of birds.* In response to the many urgent requests for in- formation for a number of years a complete investigation of the food habits of the crow was undertaken, and this paper is the result. As the former bulletin was based on an examination of the food of only 909 crows, collected mainly in eastern States, it was apparent that the number would have to be supplemented by material from other 1 Barrows, W. B., and Schwarz, E. A., Bull. No. 6, Div. of Ornithology and Mammalogy, U. S. Dept. Agr., 1895. 2 Notably Farmers’ Bulletins 54, pp. 15-17, 1897 (revised edition pp. 22-23, 1904) ; 630, pp. 17-19, 1915; and 755, pp. 17-19, 1916. Noty.—This bulletin discusses in detail the beneficial and harmful food habits of the crow ; gives a general account of its life history and geographic distribution ; and shows how it may be controlled where necessary. It is for general distribution. 14653°—18—Bull, 621 1 2 BULLETIN 621, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. parts, especially the Middle West, before fair judgment could be passed. A campaign with this object in view was inaugurated, with the result that 2,118 stomachs of crows, both old and young, became available for this investigation. Effort was made also, by means of over 3,000 letters of inquiry, to secure reliable information as to the good or harm done by the crow, based on actual field observation. The data obtained have made it possible to present considerable trust- worthy testimony which distinctly reflects present conditions. The | quantity and character of the combined evidence thus secured seems sufficient to justify a final conclusion as to the economic status of the crow in this country.’ Tt is doubtful whether a study of the food habits of any other North American bird involves as many intricate problems as that of the crow. Practically omnivorous, the bird is capable of surviving in widely diversified environments. In its diet may be found every- thing from the choicest poultry and the tenderest shoots of sprouting grain to carrion and weed seeds, many of which at best offer but a morsel of nourishment. The fact that no less than 656 specifically different items have been identified in the stomachs examined gives some idea of the bird’s resourcefulness, its potentialities for good or harm, and the complexity of the problem of determining its worth. Popular opinion also, often based on years of intimate experience, is by no means uniform. Many complaints against the bird are well- nigh traditional, while some of its beneficial habits have been matters of common knowledge for generations. Thus irreconcilable differ- ences of opinion may exist among residents of even the same com- munity. And by no means of one mind are those persons who have studied the bird from a strictly scientific standpoint. The writer, however, feels that the abundant evidence before him has been care- fully and impartially weighed and asks indulgence of those who may discover that the process of reasoning from these data is at variance with their own. SYSTEMATIC POSITION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE CROW. Notwithstanding the fact that to the average farmer in eastern United States the crow (Pi. I) is the most familiar of birds, and one would hardly suppose that there could be any ambiguity in the use of 1 Much of the information and material upon which this bulletin is based was acquired through the kind assistance of persons who volunteered their services. As they are too numerous to mention individually, the writer is compelled to express his appreciation for their help collectively. Without their aid very little information would have been available on the extent of damage to crops and the efficiency of protective measures. Further, without the assistance of specialists in various fields, to whom also the writer is greatly indebted, many problems arising in the examination of stomachs would have remained unsolved. THE CROW AND ITS RELATION TO MAN, 3) _ the term “crow,” there is considerable uncertainty as to identification in regions where the bird is scarce or where its range overlaps that of closely related species. Ordinarily little distinction is made by residents of the South Atlantic coast between the common crow and the fish crow, a bird of quite different habits; and similar confusion exists among nonornithologists of the northwestern coast, where the other maritime form, the northwestern crow, ntingles with the com- mon species. In the Southwest the small white-necked raven fre- quently passes under the appellation of crow, and in some other parts of the West even the larger ravens have been misnamed. Inasmuch as it is contemplated eventually to issue reports on the economic status of all members of the genus Corvus, which includes both crows and ravens, it seems well to define clearly the systematic position and range of the common crow, the one of which this bul- letin treats. Eleven subspecifically different forms of the genus Corvus have been recorded from North America and Greenland. The ranges of nine of these come within the borders of the United States. The other two forms are the rook (Corvus frugilegus Linneus) and the hooded crow (Corvus corniz Linneus), both of which have oc- curred in Greenland. Of the ravens three are found in the United States. The northern raven (Corvus corax principalis Ridgway), a more or less arctic race, occurs along the northern border and at the higher altitudes, while the common raven (C’. c. sinuatus Wagler) is a more abundant form in the Western States. The white-necked raven (C’. cryptoleucus Couch) occupies part of the southwestern desert regions. By far the most numerous species of this genus in the United States is the common crow (Corvus brachyrhynchos brachyrhynchos Brehm), which, with the three closely related sub- species, the Florida crow (C. b. pascuus Coues), the southern crow (C. b. paulus Howell),t and the western crow ((. b. hesperis Ridg- way), gives practically a transcontinental range to the species. Corvus b. brachyrhynchos Brehm extends its breeding range north- ward nearly to the mouth of the Mackenzie River, northern Mani- toba, central Quebec, and Newfoundland. It may be found from the Atlantic coast westward to Montana, Wyoming, central Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas. The limit of its range on the west, however, can not be stated satisfactorily, as in the western part of the Plains the crow is merely a rare and erratic breeder. The western crow (C. b. hesperis Ridgway) is found in the Pacific Coast States and eastward to eastern British Columbia, Montana, and Texas. The southern crow (C. 6. paulus Howell) has a range extending through- out the Gulf States east of central Texas and northward as far as the 1Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington, XXVI, pp. 199-202, Oct. 23, 1913. 4 BULLETIN 621, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. District of Columbia and southern Thnois. The Florida crow (C. 6. pascuus Coues) has a limited range throughout. peninsular Florida. The two remaining species of the genus Corvus are the maritime forms, the fish crow (Corvus ossifragus Wilson) and the northwestern crow (Corvus caurinus Baird). The former is restricted to the At- lantic seacoast from Long: Island south to Florida and westward along the Gulf coast to Texas; while the latter occupies the northwest coastal region from Puget Sound to southern Alaska. In this bulletin the name “ crow” has*been used to cover the four subspecifically different forms recognized under Corvus brachy- rhynchos. The food habits of these subspecies are essentially the same, varying only to the extent naturally occasioned by the varying character of the food supply in the different parts of an area as great as that covered by their combined ranges. In some of the Western States where the crow appears only as an occasional breeder it has but little economic significance. Among such areas may be men- tioned all of Nevada, the greater parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, Wyoming, Utah, and Idaho, and eastern Washington and Oregon. The bird is only locally abundant in California. The western parts of Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, and Nebraska support very few crows, while Montana, North Dakota, and South Dakota, as well as the Gulf States of Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, and Louisiana, embrace large areas where crows are not common. A consideration of the economic value of the crow in the United States, judging from the average yearly abundance, may therefore be confined principally to the States along the Atlantic slope of the Appalachians and those in the central and upper Mississippi Valley. Jn the former area the States south of Virginia are less abundantly supplied with these birds during the breeding season than those to the north, while in winter the States of North Dakota, South Dakota, Minnesota, and the northern parts of Wisconsin, Michigan, and Maine harbor but few. LIFE HISTORY. A brief statement of the hfe history of the crow is necessary if its varied activities at different seasons of the year are to be appre- clated and if the significance of its change of food habits from- month to month is to be understood. A clear understanding of the breeding habits of the crow is essential also to a correct interpreta- tion of the food habits of the young; and scarcely less important in this connection is the problem of the bird’s migration and roosting habits in the colder months, when the normal crow population of certain sections is swelled manyfold by countless hordes from the north. THE CROW AND ITS RELATION TO MAN. 5 In presenting part of this information the writer can do no better than quote from Bendire:+ Nest building in the more southern States begins sometimes by February 20, and correspondingly later northward. In the vicinity of Washington, District of Columbia, fresh eggs may be occasionally found in the last week in March, but more frequently during the first two weeks in April. Along our northern border they nest generally about the beginning of May; and even in the most northern portions of their range they have been known to breed equally early, but most frequently nidification here is protracted well into June. In Idaho, Washington, and Oregon it is at its height between April 15 and May 20. The nests are bulky, usually well constructed, and placed in the forks of branches, generally well up and hard to reach. Occasionally one is placed near the main trunk, this being mostly the case where bushy cedars or junipers are used. Any sort of tree may be chosen for a nesting site, providing it is one of dense foliage, which will hide the nest well. In some localities pine trees seem to be preferred, while in others oaks are often selected. In the West cottonwoods, junipers, and willows are most frequently used. Nests are usually placed at heights varying from 20 to 60 feet; but I have found some barely 6 feet from the ground, and in many localities in the West they are rarely placed over 20 feet up. Here also they are said to occasionally nest on the ground, but I have never observed this personally. Crows rarely nest in deep forests, the borders of woods and the river bottoms being preferred for such purposes. The nests are composed outwardly of sticks, weed stalks, corn husks, and other coarse material, and lined with grapevine bark, fine roots, dry grass, leaves, straw, moss, rags, wool, and hair, ‘the lining varying in different localities. Where cattle are plenty the nests are often found lined with more or less of their hair. These finer materials are well quilted together. The outer diameter of the nest is usually about 24 inches by 9 inches in depth. The inner cup is from 4 to 6 inches deep and from 12 to 15 inches in diameter. This prevents the eggs from being thrown out of the nest during high winds when placed in slender branches in the extreme tops of trees. The number of eggs to a set varies from four to eight. Sets of five are most commonly found, while those of seven are rare, and those of eight quite unusual. Mr. A. C. Kempton, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, writes me that he found a set of ten eggs in the spring of 1890, which he believes were laid by the same bird. In the Western States usually from three to five eggs constitute a set, and those of six, according to my observations, are much rarer than in the Hast. Incubation lasts about eighteen days, and both parents assist in this duty. The young are born blind and naked, and remain in the nest about three weeks. While crows steal many of the eggs of other birds, they apparently do not molest any of their own kind, but if several pairs nest close together they will steal nesting material from each other whenever an opportunity occurs. The old nests are resorted to for several seasons in succession where not molested. Only one brood is raised in a season; if the first eggs are taken, they usually lay a second set, but rarely in the same nest. When the young are nearly fledged, they may often be seen sitting on the rim of the nest or on branches close by, watching for the return of the parents with food, and keeping up an incessant clamor. 1 Bendire, Charles, Life Histories of Nerth American Birds, II, pp. 411-412; Specizl Bulletin, U. S. Nat. Mus., 1895. 6 BULLETIN 621, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE ROOSTING HABIT. While crows, even in the nesting season, are more or less clannish, their gregarious habit is most highly developed during the colder months. Soon after the nesting season one may expect to see evi- dences of it, but in the latitude of Washington, D. C., roosts are not well established until the end of September. At this time their migratory habits have brought together in a comparatively small area the bulk of the crow population of North America, so that the area lying between the thirty-seventh and forty-second parallels of latitude—that is, from Connecticut to Virginia—and extending west- ward from the Atlantic coast to beyond the Mississippi River har- bors these birds in extremely large numbers. Their roosts are occu- pied with considerable fluctuation in population until the advent of milder weather in March, when the numbers rapidly decrease. A variety of situations, differing widely in the character of vege- tation, are acceptable as sites for crow roosts. Pine and other ever- greens are most frequently chosen, though records of crows passing the night in groves of deciduous trees, as oaks and maples, are com- mon. 74 ease ee Zeal mone LON | ee Alea eet G() hl Bese) utah ess ara IN NCO GS Sa el Teel Sige |e Lalo Oa Aa LON Sale Balaton 1240 ee ASG Ol North Carolina... agit Pe |e3 se |SaNYN eee PASE Ty ei aes be Ome |G SAE TA Dash ELM REO) leas eee NorchyDakotae-o 5: 4| oo cslsec|este- 2 2 1 2 BN aoa eae ; Bi: Maveal eas Dace os aera Charta ses ye cls ae | ekg pe ae A Lente eh a (Hilbess = Dil sa 4 Of eo sel ee mallee {aie Okiahoniaeeer ene eels. ile ease Bye Del Seat | CaN eee BA Sl aise pees Bee Ui) Benes see ey ae Oreron sees ess: £59) (ey ee a 1 Qe ees ee oe eee| eas a ase | aa ASU EAS ap te Peo Re Pennsylvania...--.- 5| 8 FH Nad a ean 16 Wea Wer2h erie eas | eee Base) lanes | ones [aaee 4 4 TER GroG Ks) Uj ienavol ea ey ee eee Hs Fe I a ee EEE Ae Svea oe! ad 5 Tal Sea eso 2 ae SouthwWakotas{e 22 |2 52a \l eae oe Is | Peso eee eee See nie a eal eae CE ees ea zie PRETITICSSCO Pas eee oc] serene | Saye SEE 1 1 as Fe 3 leary Ga) eee SL Se Sa [Le CAE oe PROKAS eee ce = Spee 2 I | SS | ee ae | eae ey eal Rear | Ae PHAh Pah (oy tee Salle tseta leeic s WMermn ontipsys: = S25: 248 et relhs Oa) eee PH] ss fal (eae & Sasl ee 1 Ons 24 1 25 WAURITIA Ey aio es 20 4 1 3 3 1 5 Ae [Seesere 2 6 cys esl esl levee S WAST Somer ESI 6 el erpenl eens CRN eis US SEAR IE BE eA see The [Bee seh Raa Sa ue WHSCONSIN sae2 2: 4 1 Cita 9g 2 3 eel, 5 3 1 64 |- 8 8 Vaya neg hs ea es te || es 117 eseaeas | | eae ed el tale | a oD ESE aa ee eS 3 EB: Totals by months_| 127 | 69.| 132 | 89 | 197 | 203 | 100 | 42 | 75 | 177 | 57 | 72 |1,340 | 48 | 657 | 73 | 778 Totaladults, 1,340. Total nestlings, 778. Grand total, 2,118. FOOD OF ADULT CROWS. ANIMAL FE oop. Animal food forms only 28.14 per cent of the yearly sustenance of the adult crow, but economically it exceeds in importance the vege- table portion. The assumption that the crow is primarily carnivorous and that the vegetable matter eaten is taken more from necessity than choice appears to be correct. Much of the vegetable food is of no economic importance. while there is little of the animal portion that is not intimately connected with the interests of man. The greatest proportion of animal food is consumed in May (52.44 per AD BULLETIN 621, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cent). In the three months following a very uniform decrease is noted (46.98, 44.28, and 39.40), but even as late as September the animal portion constitutes nearly a third (82.32 per cent) of the food. Lower percentages from October to March, inclusive (14.29, 18.74, 13.18, 14.94, 10.97, and 16.05), reflect the struggle for existence which is the lot of the crow during the colder months. With April, however, comes relief, and the animal food again becomes conspicuous (84.09 per cent). INSECTS. In passing judgment on the economic value of most birds, nothing is of greater importance than a thorough understanding of their in- sect food. By this it is not meant merely that one should know the noxious forms eaten, the destruction of which is a benefit to man, but cognizance must also be taken of the complex relations between the various beneficial (predacious and parasitic) insects destroyed and the injurious ones upon which the bird commonly feeds. Some of this information is as yet unavailable, owing to the lack of knowledge of the interrelations between insect forms. Enough has been learned of the crow, however, by examination of 2,118 stomachs, 1,340 of which were of adults, and by reliable field observations to make possible the assertion that, for all practical purposes, sound judg- ment on the merits of the insect-feeding habits of the crow can be given. The series of stomachs available is sufficiently large and was collected under the varying environments of so many localities that the results obtained are probably close to a true average for the area in which the crow is common. Insect food was taken by adult crows in every month of the year, though in January it amounted to only 1.29 per cent. February was represented by 4.85 per cent; March, 4.58; April, 14.72; May, 39.77; June, 35.95; July, 33.85; August, 35.07; September, 27.64; October, 11.51; November, 14.16; and December, 4.49. The insects identified belong to 12 orders, embracing no less than 455 specifically distinct forms. A discussion of this part of the crow’s food will be taken up, order by order—Coleoptera (beetles), the order best represented in the crow’s diet (7.58 per cent of the yearly food), being treated first. Coleoptera (beetles). The crow is primarily a terrestrial feeder. Its quota of beetles, therefore, is made up almost exclusively of species found on or near the ground, or those which, by the turning over of sticks, clods of earth, or dung, are secured from beneath the surface. The latter is a common method of feeding employed diligently by the crow from early spring to the beginning of autumn, when the usual crop of grasshoppers furnishes a more accessible supply of food. THE CROW AND ITS RELATION TO MAN. 13 _ Scarapaipm (May beetles, white grubs, June “bugs,” rose chaf- ers, tumblebugs, etc.)—Of the beetles, the Scarabeide are most important, forming 4.28 per cent of the annual food. Of these, May beetles (Phyllophaga) and their larve, white grubs, constitute by far the largest portion. Reference to the chart on page 42 will show that the area representing the amount of scarabeeid beetles eaten practically coincides with the period of abundance of adult May beetles. These beetles, which at times entirely defoliate trees and shrubs and as larve extensively injure grass lands, corn, and other crops, are a particularly favorite food of the crow. ‘Twenty-one species were identified in the material from crow’s stomachs, a fact which in itself is indicative of the persistence with which these birds hunt. The percentages amount to little during the first three months of the year, but an indication of the year’s brood is seen in April, when nearly 5 per cent is recorded. Then come May (the height of the May beetle season) with nearly 21 per cent; June with 10.06; and July and August with about half that amount. One hun- dred and fifty-six of the 197 adult crows collected in May had fed on these insects. Two birds had eaten nothing else, while several stomachs contained over 90 per cent of this food. In many cases the remains of these beetles were in advanced stages of digestion and formed but a small proportion of the stomach contents, but neverthe- less they furnish striking evidence of the number of May beetles that crows are capable of destroying. Of course, such insect frag- ments are frequently the accumulated débris of several previous meals, but, when it is remembered that birds fill and empty their stomachs several times a day, the work the crow does upon May beetles is of the greatest importance. A female collected April 23 in Dallas County, Mo., had picked up 85 of these beetles, which, together with two otlier scarabeids, formed 42 per cent of the food. Two birds taken in the middle of May at Onaga, Kans., had eaten 29 and 28 respectively. One secured in Kentucky as early as March 31 had devoured 27 of these pests, while no fewer than 22 other adult crows had eaten 10 or more apiece. Though crows are generally recognized as one of the important enemies of the white grub, the larva of the May beetle, it happens that the nestlings consume many more than the adult birds (see page 57), a circumstance logically accounted for, as the parent birds feed the more succulent food to their offspring. Of a total of 1,340 adult birds only 55, or 1 out of every 24, had fed on the larve of scarabeid beetles. These may not all have been of the genus Phyl- lophaga, as the identification of the remains of these grubs is often difficult owing to the rapidity with which they are digested. An adult crow collected in Manitoba in May had eaten 45 grubs along with fragments of adult Phyllophaga, the whole forming 70 per 14 BULLETIN 621, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE cent of the food. One from Kansas secured at the end of April had made away with 17 grubs and 38 adults; and another, collected in North Carolina in January, gave evidence that in warmer climates where they do not burrow deeply in winter, these larve are preyed on the year round. This bird had eaten 17. The stomachs examined show conclusively that the crow is a most effective enemy of the May beetle, especially in the adult form. Field observations have verified this conclusion repeatedly and have furnished many striking instances of the value of this bird during outbreaks of the insects. Norman Criddle, of Aweme, Manitoba, who has observed the habits of these birds for many years %n the Northwest, stated in a letter to the Biological Survey that crows— have also been observed here to collect practically every white grub [Phyllo- phaga sp.] thrown up by the plow on fields covering many acres. (1911.) Benj. F. Gault, of Glenellyn, Tll., reports: Grass plots, both lawn and timothy, infested by these pests, I have known, on two marked oceasions, to have been gone at most rigorously by them, the sod being torn up yards square in extent as thoroughly almost as though a pack of hogs had undertaken to do the work instead. (1912.) H. W. Tinkham, of Fall River, Mass., in reporting his observa- tions, presents evidence to show a source of supply of which the crow may take advantage: One crow picked up 47 May beetles on Sunday morning in the street in front of my house, and, as I had a powerful glass on him, I was much interested in his method. He would break the wing covers off, and, I think, the head, then gather a few, say four to six, into a pile, take two or three into the back part of the mouth and run his bill like a skewer through the balance. He made several trips to gather the 47—I think 8. (1901.) Many species of these beetles are attracted at night to lights along roadways, fall to the hard pavements, and are unable to hide at the approach of daylight. Others may drop to the ground from the foliage of overhanging trees where they had been feeding during the night.. Many also fall into the water of lakes and streams, where they are drowned, washed ashore, and there picked up by the crow: and still others, having bred, die from one cause or other, and may be found almost anywhere. Some of the May beetles in the stomachs of crows doubtless were dead when picked up, and in feeding on them no particular service was rendered, but enough is known of the meth- ods pursued by these birds in their search for food to demonstrate that it is the living beetle, hid under sticks, stones, and clods of earth for which they search. In view of the fact that white grubs frequently inflict serious damage on crops in spite of most vigorous efforts to control them, it is important that all their natural enemies be permitted to continue THE CROW AND ITS RELATION TO MAN. 15 their work unmolested. Among the most important of these is the crow. Before condemning these birds when found feeding in corn- fields and grass lands, especially during the breeding season, it will be well to investigate the reason for their presence. The “ corn- pulling” crow frequently has his gizzard filled with the insect ere- raies of this grain, a fact learned, often with considerable surprise, by many a farmer who, though skeptical, has been induced to open and observe the stomach of one of these birds shot in the cornfield. The carrot beetle (Ligyrus gibbosus) and others of the same genus are eaten in considerable numbers. In contrast to May beetles, these insects inflict the greatest damage when in the adult stage, their larve feeding merely on decaying vegetation. Four crows collected in Dallas County, Mo., had secured 22, 21, 18, and 15 carrot beetles, respectively, and in several other cases these insects constituted over half the stomach contents. A closely related beetle (Dyseinetus irachypygus), found in wet situations, was eaten on several occa- sions. A particularly interesting case was that of a crow shot near the surf on Wallops Island, Va., which had eaten 36 of thesé beetles. Apparently the insects were present in great numbers (possibly dead ones washed in by the surf), as this bird, ignoring the harder parts, satisfied his appetite by merely snipping off the soft abdomens. No heads, thoraces, nor front legs, and only one wing cover, and a few raiddle legs were found. The hind legs and abdomens present fur- nished the evidence of the number eaten. When opportunity presents itself, June bugs (Cotinis nitida) are taken freely by the adult crow, though the number of actual records of such work is not large. At least 20 were found in the stomach of one crow collected in Virginia in July. Another had eaten 19, and a third, 17. Euphorias, destructive beetles with habits similar to those of June bugs, are captured more frequently. The Indian euphoria (Luphoria inda) occasionally injurious to ripening fruits, especially peaches and pears, was fed to nestlings on numerous occa- sions, but the most noteworthy record among adult birds was that of one collected in Massachusetts in May, which had eaten 9. Two other species, 1’. fulgida and FE’. sepulchralis, also were identified. Vine- chafers, members of the genus Anoma/a, occurred in a number of stomachs, 20 individuals being found in one. Other phytophagous scarabeeids were found, but in no case were insects of economic im- portance eaten in large numbers. Among these may be mentioned the goldsmith beetle (Cotalpa lanigera), the spotted vine-chafer (Pelidnota punctata), and the hermit flower-beetle (Osmoderma eremicola). The dung-inhabiting scarabeeids (Laparosticti) are common items of the crow’s diet. The bird’s habit of turning over and searching under cow dung brings him in intimate contact with small dung 16 BULLETIN 621, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. beetles of the genus Aphodius, so abundant in spring and fall. The function. of most of these beetles is that of scavengers, though one species, A. granarius, has been known to feed on and injure corn. A. crow collected in California in February had eaten 50 of these. In view of their abundance, it is not surprising that upward of a score of these small beetles were frequently found in single stomachs. Members of the genus Ate@nius, which live in rich earth, appeared less frequently than Aphodius. Tumblebugs (Canthon and Geotrupes) often form a considerable portion of the stomach contents, and asso- clated with them frequently are the remains of other scavengers, Copris, Onthophagus, or the brilliantly colored Phanwus carnifex. While it can not bé said that the crow is aiding man by consuming the scavenger scarabeids, unless it be in case of some species possessing herbivorous habits, as Aphodius granarius, it is doubtful whether it is doing serious harm. T[eeding on these beetles may well be consid- ered to have a neutral effect. CaraBipz® (ground beetles).—Only recently has anything like a fair value of predacious beetles been recognized, and economic en- tomologists are depending more and more on them in battling with insect pests. A most striking example of the effective work of predacious carabids is found in the activities of the larva of the im- ported Calosoma sycophanta, a foe of the gipsy moth in New Eng- land. When it is considered that carabid beetles, including members of such a highly beneficial genus as Calosoma; are frequently eaten by crows, a study of this portion of the food becomes of the utmost importance. Jt must be borne in mind, however, that certain ground beetles, as Agonoderus patlipes and a few members of the genera Amara and Anisodactylus, to some extent are herbivorous and have been known to do appreciable damage. Ground beetles constituted 1.56 per cent of the yearly food of the adult crows examined, the bulk of these insects being taken in the months from April to September. May, with 5.54 per cent, was the month of greatest consumption, and June, with 3.24, stands next. In the fall and winter months these beetles did not form so much as 1 per cent of the food. Reference to the tabulation on page 43 will show that the monthly percentages of these insects eaten well represent their relative abundance at different seasons of the year. While fragments of carabids were found in a great number of stom- achs, only rarely did they occur in numbers or constitute a large pro- portion of the food, the exceptional stomachs coming mainly from the West, where many of the smaller and apparently herbivorous species are extremely common. The caterpillar hunters (Calosoma spp.) are probably the most conspicuous and valuable carabids eaten by the crow. Both adults THE CROW AND ITS RELATION TO MAN. 17 and larve are inveterate enemies of caterpillars, some species even climbing trees in search of their prey. The offensive odor and sup- posed warning coloration, especially of C. scrutator, C. willcoai, and C. calidum, appear to have no deterring effect upon the crow, the nestlings of which ate even greater numbers than the parent birds. The brilliantly colored C. scrutator was identified in 16 stomachs of adults, six being the largest number found in any one stomach. The fiery hunter (C. calidum) was eaten more frequently, being present in 53 of the 1,840 stomachs. In one stomach, that of a bird collected in New York in June, were the remains of at least 15 of these beetles, forming half the bird’s food. Another crow from New York had taken 10, and one from Manitoba, 5. Four other species of Calosoma were identified, but in none of the stomachs did they occur in large numbers. Beetles of the less common genera Carabus and Cychrus were found in correspondingly fewer stomachs. The large, broad ground beetle Pasimachus, so common in some of the prairie regions of the West, was a regular article of food of crows collected in Kansas. One of these taken in May had eaten 16, while another secured in Ilinois in November had. devoured no less than 80 of the larve. Of the 1,340 adult crows, 57 had fed on Pasimachus. Both the larger and smaller Scarites (S. substriatus and S. subterraneus) were found, though _ seldom more than one to a stomach. Of the smaller active ground beetles with predacious habits those of the genus Péterostichus ap- peared most frequently, but never in large numbers. E'varthrus ap- peared in numerous stomachs from Kansas. Various species of Harpalus also were well represented, especially the large H. caligi- nosus, and H. pennsylvanicus, one of the commonest of the genus. The extreme abundance of members of the genus Amara in some sections of the West would seem to indicate that they are more her- bivorous than is generally supposed. A crow collected -at Aweme, Manitoba, in May had eaten no less than 176, along with several Ifarpalus; another taken in April made away with 131 Amara, 6 Platynus, and fragments of a few other ground beetles; and a third had its stomach nearly half filled with the remains of 91 | Amara, 57 Harpalus, and 2 Calosoma calidum. Several other stom- achs collected in the Northwest contained upward of a score of these small beetles. Ground beetles of the genus Chlwnius, insects which frequent damp situations, occurred in a number of the stomachs of Kansas crows. Agonoderus pallipes, which is at times destructive to seed corn, was present in only a few. In the destruction of predacious ground beetles, especially the larger ones, as Calosoma and Pasimachus, the crow is doing man indirect harm. Fortunately the quantity of such food is small, only 14653°—18—Bull. 621 2 18 BULLETIN 621, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1.56 per cent of the yearly food. This is somewhat atoned for by the presence in the diet of certain apparently herbivorous carabids. Ruyncnornora (weevils, billbugs)——In the control of weevil pests as a whole, the crow can not be considered an important factor. These insects form only 0.59 per cent of its food and on only two species does the bird feed to an extent sufficient for it to be con- sidered even a moderate check on the increase of the insects. ‘These are the clover-leaf weevil (Hypera punctata) and the imbricated snout-beetle (Z'picerus imbricatus). “The former, introduced from Europe many years ago, has gradually extended its range until it is now reported doing serious damage as far west as Idaho.t Of the stomachs examined, 107 contained remains of the clover-leaf weevil, an average of about 1 for every 124 stomachs. Eleven was the largest number recorded in any one stomach, that being of a crow collected in New Jersey in March. The imbricated snout-beetle which is known to injure a variety of crops, was found in fewer stomachs (68), but in several instances in considerable numbers. A series of four stomachs secured at Sandy Spring, Md., in May contained 27, 25, 14, and 11, respectively. Clover-root curculios (Sitona), rhubarb curcuhos (Livus concavus), and other species of Livus occurred in a limited number of stomachs. Members of the genus Vhecesternus were taken frequently by crows collected in the central and southern parts of the Mississippi Valley. Billbugs, in- cluding pests which feed to an injurious extent upon corn, _ small grains, and grasses, also entered into the crow’s diet. Orrer Consorrera.—Other miscellaneous beetles comprised nearly 1 per cent of the crow’s annual food. Common among these were the necrophagous and coprophagous forms, Silphidee, Staphylinide, and Histeride. These beetles were taken about as frequently as scara- beeids of similar habits and often appeared in the same stomachs. Their presence in the crow’s diet is indicative of the bird’s scavenger habits, and it would appear that on occasions the crow will search through carrion merely for these insects, leaving the offal as con- venient bait for more. The larve of these beetles are taken as well. A crow secured in Alabama in May had fed on at least 29 larve of a Silpha. Another from New York had eaten 18. One shot in Dallas County, Mo., in June had devoured no less than 21 adults of the large staphylinid Creophilus villosus, as well as 8 of a species of Necrophorus and 9 of Silpha surinamensis, which together, forming 55 per cent of the food, lent strong circumstantial evidence as to the nature of the remains of a chicken and turtle found in the same stomach. Of larder beetles (Dermestide) the crow eats few. His- 1 Parks, T. H., Journ. Econ. Entom., VII, No. 3, p. 297, 1914. THE CROW AND ITS RELATION TO MAN. 19 teride, small, shiny, hard-shelled beetles that live in carrion and probably feed on other insects found there, were present in a number of stomachs, though never forming a large part of the food. Click beetles (Elateride) or their larve, wireworms, were present in 105 stomachs. In no month of the year, however, did these de- structive insects form as much as 1 per cent of the crow’s food. A bird taken at Aweme, Manitoba, in May had destroyed 72 wireworms and 1 click beetle. Mr. Stuart Criddle, who collected this bird, noted at the time it was shot that “ wireworm beetles were all over the fields, and that the crows could be seen turning up cow dung, sods, and bits of sticks hunting for them.” (1912.) The late Prof. F. M. Webster, in writing of the natural enemies of wireworms, made the following statement: + Among the natural enemies the crow is doubtless the most useful, and what testimony we have on the subiect goes to show that elaters and their larve con- stitute a large portion of its food. B. F. Aston, of White Creek, N. Y., on break- ing up a crow’s nest containing the unfledged young, found the crops of each of these to contain 70 or 80 snapping beetles. A more recent observation is recorded by Prof. Theo. G. Lemmon, of Westport, Mo., in a paper read before the State Horticultural Society at its twenty-ninth annual meeting. The professor shot and examined the contents of the crops of a number of crows about Lexington, Mo., where the ravages of wireworms had been very severe, and found that they contained a sufficient number of these insects to warrant the assurance that the crow is the untiring enemy of the wireworm. From such reports it would appear that the crow is a more effec- tive enemy of the wireworm than stomach examination indicates. It doubtless does good work during outbreaks of these insects, and were it possible to collect material under such circumstances much positive evidence of this trait could be secured. A few long-horned and metallic wood-boring beetles (Cerambycidez and Buprestidve), stag beetles (Lucanidee), leaf beetles (Chryso- melid), aquatic beetles (Dytiscidee and Hydrophilide), and dark- ling beetles (Tenebrionidz) also enter into the crow’s diet, but in no case is their destruction of great importance. Beetles of small size are practically immune to the attack of crows. A single ladybird (Afegilla maculata), for instance, is the only one of this fairly abun- — dant family found in the entire series of 2,118 stomachs. The smaller species of leaf beetles also were lacking, though abundant and avail- able in many of the situations in which the crow habitually feeds. Orthoptera (grasshoppers, locusts, and crickets). In many respects Orthoptera constitute the most important insect food of the crow. In bulk they are exceeded by beetles by only a fraction of 1 per cent, while the damage they inflict far exceeds that 1Qhio Agr. Hxp. Sta., Bull. 46, p. 228, 1893, 20 BULLETIN 621, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. done by the heterogeneous assortment of beetles eaten. The most serious insect plagues of history have been of grasshoopers and crick- ets, and in some of the Western States the ravages of the migratory species are matters of but yesterday. While the extremely serious outbreaks of early pioneer days may not be repeated, owing to man’s encroachment and modification of the breeding range of these insects, the annual losses due to them throughout the country are nevertheless great. The crow’s yearly consumption of Orthoptera (most of which are Acridide, the short-horned grasshoppers) amounts to 7.34 per cent of the food, the bulk of which is taken during the latter half of the year. It is not until May that these insects enter strongly into the diet (4.29 per cent). June follows with 5.83 per cent, and then, in the increased amount of this food for July (14.04 per cent), is seen the arrival of the regular summer crop of these pests. August and Sep- tember are represented with even greater quantities (19.14 and 19.24), and the decrease of the insects in October, November, and December is recorded rather irregularly by the percentages of 8.68, 10.73, and 2.07, respectively. Acripip (short-horned grasshoppers, locusts).—The short-horned grasshoppers, or locusts as they are more familiarly known in those sections where, as migratory hordes, they inflict severe damage, con- stitute by far the greater part of the Orthoptera eaten by the crow. The percentages quoted above for the whole order may well be con- sidered representative of this particular family. Of the 1,340 adult crows, 589 had partaken of grasshoppers. Some stomachs contained only a jaw or leg fragment, estimated as merely a “trace,” while others were filled exclusively with the insects, in some cases over a hundred individuals being counted. Inasmuch asa bird’s stomach frequently contains the indigestible parts of several previous meals, the large numbers obtained by counting grasshopper jaws is not so surprising. At the same time, when it is considered that an adult crow will eat enough in the course of a day to fill its stomach com- pletely several times, the extent of its destruction of grasshoppers becomes apparent. The nestlings, which require still larger quantities of food for their rapidly growing bodies, are of even greater value in regions where these insects are plentiful (see p. 59). An adult crow, secured in Indiana in August, had eaten no less than 123 grasshoppers, these forming over two-thirds of the food. One taken in Maine in May had picked up 108 of a little “ grouse locust” (Tettigidea sp.). These chunky little grasshoppers pass the winter in the imago or adult stage and early in spring are often found abroad in considerable numbers. ie 37 |69.35 |65.15 |82.00 |59. 89 |44. 33. |21.00 [35.23 |52.00 77.40 |85.96 | 86.11 61.49 It will be seen by comparison with Table II (p. 48) that, with the exception of April, the story of the corn-eating habits of the crow, as determined by the frequency of feeding, is almost identical with that revealed by the bulk of corn taken. July is the month represented by the lowest percentage. The ratio then increases uni- formly until the last of December, after which a regular decrease is noted, except for April, as previously cited, when an unusually large proportion of the birds had fed on corn in small quantities. Individual stomachs in which very high percentages of corn were recorded were found frequently in the material examined. Fifty of the 1,340 stomachs of adults were filled with this grain exclusively, 97 contained from 95 to 99 per cent, and 59 contained over 90 per cent. Most of these large percentages were recorded in October, when 56 of 177 crows had subsisted on corn to the extent of more than 90 per cent of their food. Tabulation of the results of stomach analysis under the separate States in which the material was collected revealed little of special interest. ‘The frequency of the corn-eating habit could be satisfac- torily determined in only a few States because of insufficient material. Of the 198 adult crows collected in Maryland 147 had fed on corn; from New Jersey, 184 out of 161 had eaten such food; and from New York, 41 out of 122. An example of the unsatisfactory results ob- tained from a few stomachs collected at the same time and in identi- cally the same environment is shown by a series of 48 crows collected in North Carolina in January. Forty-five of these had fed on corn, which comprised nearly 65 per cent of the food. As this constituted all the material from this State, it would be manifestly wrong to let this evidence stand as the sole basis for determining the relation of the crow to the corn crop in North Carolina. 46 BULLETIN 621, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A perusal of many replies to inquiries sent to various parts of the country in 1911 and 1912 shows some diversity of opinion even in restricted localities, but by a tabulation of the data under the various States a very good idea of opinions in the different parts of the country has been obtained. By far the severest criticism of the corn-eating proclivities of the crow comes from the Northeastern States, including Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland, Vir- ginia, and West Virginia. These States, according to the statistics of 1912, devoted about one twenty-fifth of their total area to the cultivation of corn. On the other hand, comparatively little com- plaint was heard from the farmers of the upper Mississippi Valley, in the States of Ohio, Indiana, Hlinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Iowa, Missour1, Nebraska, and Kansas. Of these States Ohio, Indiana, and Wisconsin appear to have the greatest grievance against the crow, though even here, with the possible exception of Indiana, the consensus of opinion was that damage was not serious. In this part of the upper Mississippi River valley nearly one-sixth of the total area (or four times the ratio for the Northeastern States) was de- voted to corn. Along with these seemingly irreconcilable figures comes the fact that, notwithstanding the drains which the crow is supposed to make on the corn crop, the farmer of the Northeast produced nearly as many bushels to the acre as his western competitor. As the crow is practically as numerous over much of this western area during spring and summer as in the Eastern States, one is compelled to look further for the cause of its being so much more unwelcome to the corn raisers of the East. A comparison of conditions preva- lent about the average cornfield of the East and the West may suggest the solution. The very fact that the ratio of the corn acre- age to the total area of the West is approximately four times that of the East indicates the existence of much larger fields. The com- parative scarcity of timber suitable for nesting sites in some sec- tions of this western country confines the crows during sprouting time to the vicinity of the limited wooded areas, leaving extensive corn lands wholly free from their attack, while in the East the smaller fields with the intervening wood lots produce conditions admirably adapted to the needs of these birds. Then, too, the exist- ence of more intensive farm operations on the smaller fields of the East accounts in large measure for the increased yield per acre, and at the same time gives reasons for the unfavorable opinion regard- ing this bird. Losses, though even slight, are likely to attract the attention of the assiduous cultivator of a small crop, while damage, oftentimes extensive, frequently will be overlooked by the owner of THE CROW AND ITS RELATION TO MAN. 47 large fields, especially when the actual cause of the injury has es- eaped notice. Dr. S. D. Judd, relating his personal experience with corn-pull- ing crows, has said :? The crow is by all odds the worst pilferer of the cornfield. * * * In 1899 the replanting was more extensive than usual, requiring on the 39-acre field 1 bushel 24 pecks, 46 per cent of the 34 bushels originally planted. This unusual ratio was probably caused by the failure of the cherry crop. L. E. Wilcox, of Butterfield, Ark., complains that— in this immediate neighborhood we have been overrun with crows. They have destroyed fully 10 per cent of the corn crop by picking into the ears during the roasting-ear stage, eating some ears nearly up; and rains afterwards rotted the rest of the ear.- (1912.) From New Jersey comes this account submitted by Justus von Lengerke : The damage done by crows to the little mountain farmer by pulling seed aud sprouting corn is considerable, and total crops have been ruined thereby, while others are badly damaged, necessitating a partial replanting, when the corn will mature at different periods. They also do some damage to corn when in the shock. (1911.) E. P. Robinson, of Packer, Conn., states that the crow does great damage by pulling corn when it first appears above ground and until it is 10 inches high, and again in August and September before cut- ting. He also says that it damages corn fully $5 an acre in eastern Connecticut each year, and that some fields are wholly destroyed. Drawing conclusions, then, from both stomach analysis and field observations, it 1s evident that the crow is accountable for consider- able direct damage to the corn crop. While careful interpretation of the results of laboratory investigation reveals the fact that this grain, taken when sprouting, when in the “roasting-ear” stage, or before harvest, forms a relatively small portion of the crow’s annual supply of corn, such circumstances can not mitigate the evil done. Much may be done, however, by treating the seed grain with deter- rents to make the sprouting crop largely immune to attack; fright- ening devices help some while the grain is ripening (see p. 74); and prompt harvesting and proper housing of the grain will prevent much of the loss at present suffered, especially in some of the Southern States where corn in shocks frequently is left standing all winter, tempting provender for roving bands of underfed crows. OTHER GRAIN. Grain other than corn formed 12.70 per cent of the food of adult crows. Wheat, oats, and buckwheat constituted practically all of 1 Judd, S. D., Birds of a Maryland Farm: Bull. 17, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 65, 1902. 48 BULLETIN 621, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. this, the first being most often eaten. Tabulation of the monthly percentages of these grains reveals two periods of great consumption. The high tide of one is reached in March, when they formed over a third (34.22 per cent) of the diet. From this point a decrease through April (20.90 per cent) to May (8.43 per cent) was noted, after which the monthly averages again increase. In June small grains formed 10.20 per cent of the food; in July, 20.22; and in August, 22.80, the second period of great consumption. A marked decrease occurs In September (8.33 per cent) ; October is represented by 7.08; November, 2.67; and December, 0.89, the minimum monthly quantity recorded. In January and February these grains formed 7.00 and 9.74 per cent, respectively, of the food. Inasmuch as wheat predominated among the smaller grains, it is possible that the two maximum periods (March-April and July-August) are indicative of the sowing and sprouting season in spring, and of the harvest of the crop late in summer. Wheat. Wheat was present in 227 of the 1,340 stomachs of adult crows, an average of about 1 in every 6. Local influences, especially the absence of corn, appear to determine the extent of the crow’s depre- dations on this crop. Stomachs collected in the Northwest illustrate this point. Four crows collected at Corvallis, Oreg., in January, had fed on wheat exclusively, over 237 kernels being counted in their stomachs. Three of five stomachs secured in Saskatchewan in April were practically filled with this grain. All of a series of 10 crows from Manitoba, also taken in April, had fed on wheat, which com- prised over two-thirds (68.9 per cent) of their food. In the stomachs of six others, secured in Manitoba in the month following, it formed over 40 per cent of the contents. When attacks upon wheat are made in sowing or sprouting time, the depredations of even a single crow, limited only by a most ample gizzard, may be of considerable consequence. Two birds collected in Manitoba in April had eaten 140 and 133 kernels, respectively. Another taken in the same place in May had devoured 86, while one collected in British Columbia, in March, had made away with 54 kernels of wheat. and 7 of oats. At harvest time and after, a large part of the wheat eaten by crows may well be classed as waste, in- volving no loss to the farmer. Birds collected in wheat-raising areas at this time of year usually were well fed. Six stomachs contained 135, 120, 91, 90, 65, and 60 kernels respectively, and in several others over 25 kernels were noted. Evidence of the wheat-eating habits of the crow revealed by stomach analysis has been corroborated by field observation. Dr. THE CROW AND ITS RELATION TO MAN. 49 H. A. Surface, former State Economic Zoologist of Pennsylvania, reported the following: IT note for example that crows have done a great deal of damage on ad- joining wheat fields during the winter time by eating almost every leaf of the wheat that was above the ground or snow. One wheat field on our place, which should be quite green, is now about bare. (1912.) Henry W. Marsden, of San Diego, Cal., complains of the destruc- tion of wheat when in the shock (1912). Edwin Loreman, of Morri- son, Il., reports damage to both wheat and oats, which are scratched out at sprouting time (1912); and H. Martyn Micklem, of Shipman, Va., writes that “crows eat quantities of seed wheat and seed oats when the grain is imperfectly covered. Most writers appear to over- look this.” Oats. Oats occurred in 114 of the 1,340 stomachs of adult crows, an average of about 1 in every 12, or half the number in which wheat was found. When it is considered that oats are readily available at all times of year in horse droppings, from which also the birds may secure coprophagous insects, the quantity of this grain in their diet need not greatly concern the farmer. Only occasional reports of crows attacking the sprouting crop have come to hand. The habit must be considered one of the minor offenses of the crow, from which individual farmers here and there suffer. Other small grains. Buckwheat was found in 107 stomachs, but if a larger proportion of the birds had been collected in areas where this grain is exten- sively grown, it probably would have been found in a far greater number of stomachs. The seeds of Polygonaces are a favorite food of birds generally, so it would not be surprising to find that the large meaty kernels of buckwheat are an even greater attraction to crows than stomach analysis seems to indicate. That buckwheat is eagerly eaten was noted especially in a series of 45 crows collected in New Jersey in March; this was prior to the sowing time, so that the buckwheat eaten must have been either waste from the preceding year’s crop or from volunteer plants along roadsides. Thirty-eight of these birds had eaten buckwheat, which formed 66 per cent of their food, and 11 of them had subsisted exclusively upon it. Another series of 100 birds collected at the same place during October revealed but little consumption of buckwheat. This grain, eaten by only 23 of these birds, constituted 6.15 per cent of their diet. The only report of damage to this crop is from D. W. Southard, who complains that 14653°—18—Bull. 621——4 50 BULLETIN 621, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. crows inflict considerable injury to buckwheat in the vicinity of Gilboa, N. Y. Injury to kafir corn (sorghum) in autumn has been reported from Kansas and Oklahoma. These depredations usually have been in the vicinity of roosts, where, during the roosting period, many thousands of crows are congregated and day after day feed over a comparatively small area. Stomach analysis sheds little ight on this habit, as only 5 stomachs contained the grain, but an idea of the severity of the attacks may be gained from the following communication from George W. Seigel, of Chetopa, Kans. : As to kafir corn, which is to become a staple crop here, they [crows] simply eat all the grain. The kafir fodder, which is a fine stover feed, is of such a juicy nature that it will not stand stacking. When the crows were taking ours so persistently in the shock we hauled it in and stacked it in the barn. This molded so badly that the fodder was not fit to use and what was stacked out- doors rotted. j Fr. F. Crevecoeur, of Onaga, Kans., reports that crows damaged about 50 bushels of kafir corn on one farm near a crow roost. Rye was found in six stomachs. MISCELLANEOUS CROPS. The crow is guilty of damage to many crops which, from the nature of their vegetable composition, can not be detected or accu- rately separated from other items of the stomach contents. Among these may be mentioned numerous fleshy fruits, as apples, pears, and prunes; the rind and pulp of melons; the meat of nuts which have been partly digested and fail to have fragments of the shell asso- ciated; and the fragmentary remains of some tubers. Though many of these have been satisfactorily identified in stomachs, the presence of small quantities intimately mixed with other material is probably many times overlooked. Here again conclusions must be based to a certain extent on the evidence furnished by field observers. Though 186 of the 1,340 adult crows had fed on what appeared to be cultivated fruit, 47 of these records were made from the Ist of November to the end of May, when the fruit eaten must necessarily have been waste. Frozen apples or inferior pumpkins left in the fields after harvest are highly prized by foraging crows late in winter and apparently are sources from which some of the birds examined had secured food. The seeds of certain cultivated fruits, as blackberries, mulberries, grapes, and strawberries, are so similar in appearance to wild varieties growing in the same areas and ripen- ing at the same time, that it was impossible satisfactorily to classify many of them. It is highly probable that many of the fruits sup- posed to have been pilfered from the farmer’s crop really were secured from nature’s ample supply. Evidence furnished by stomach analy- THE CROW AND ITS RELATION TO MAN, 51 sis indicates that grapes, strawberries, blackberries, raspberries, and apples are the fruits most often eaten. But probably next in im- portance to the destruction of corn and other grain by crows is the dlamage to melons, and upon this stomach analysis sheds practically no light. Complaints of this kind have come from practically all of the Southern States, as well as from a few points in the North. The crow’s work on a melon patch is of a most annoying and destruc- tive character, the damage being in the form of holes pecked into the melons. Most of the punctures are small, and after eating a little of the pulp and seeds of one melon the bird proceeds to another, where it inflicts like injury. In this way a comparatively few birds may do extensive damage. The following account by Dr. 8S. D. Judd‘ will give some idea of the extent and nature of the losses suffered : The only fruit grown for market that suffered from the depredations of the native birds was the melon, and it was attacked by one species only—the crow. In numbers from three to four to a dozen at a time, crows began to injure melons about August 1 and continued for three weeks, attacking both watermelons and canteloupes, but preferring the former. Each crow would peck at a melon a dozen times or so and then pass on to another. If no pro- tective measures had been taken, the crop would often have been a total loss, and, in spite of all efforts, from 5 to 20 per cent of the melons grown at all distant from buildings were punctured. (1895-1902. ) The injury to ripening apples is at times considerable and of a nature not easy to prevent, especially in large orchards. This fruit was identified in 10 stomachs. A letter from T. A. Farrand, of Eaton Rapids, Mich., in this connection, reads: The newest thing that I know about the crow and how destructive it can be in a short time was in an apple orchard of which I have control near Ann Arbor, Mich. A year ago last fall, when harvesting the apples in one end of the orchard, we noticed large numbers of crows in the other end when we came to work in the morning. After the second occurrence my curiosity was aroused and I went to investigate. I found bushels of very fine apples ruined by their pecking into them. One variety, “ Jonathan,” was their choice. It was the first instance that I ever heard of. It did not occur this year. (1912.) Maj. Allan Brooks, of Okanogan Landing, British Columbia, adds the corroborative evidence that “ crows at the coast (both species) also do great damage to ripe apples on the trees” (1912), and H. L. Felter, of Washta, Iowa, has written that “ crows pick off apples apparently just to see them fall to the ground. One man thinks they picked off 100 bushels.” (1911.) Reports from time to time have been made of injury to potatoes, especially when sprouting. One instance was recorded a few years ago at Cape Ann, Mass., where a potato patch, newly planted, was attacked by crows. One side of the field had been ravaged by them, 1 Birds of a Maryland Farm: Bull. 17, Biological Survey, U. S. Dept. Agr., p. 57, 1902. 52 BULLETIN 621, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the potatoes being left on the ground after they were dug up. The other side of the patch was “ lined” with cotton string and two crows were shot and hung up there, but a week later all but a few of the seeds that were in hills beneath the string had been dug up. Complaints that the crow damages crops other than those men- tioned have occasionally come to attention. Among these are pea- nuts, beans, peas, figs, oranges, grapes, cherries, and such marketable nuts as almonds, pecans, and chestnuts. Among these the most extensive damage appears to have been done to peanuts, pecans, and almonds. One observer in South Carolina asserts that it was almost impos- sible to grow peanuts in his locality. George A. Blair, of Mulvane, Kans., while making certain inoculation experiments with peanuts, suffered severely from crows. He said: I could not call this a test, as the crows practically ate up the crop. We were busy picking up apples and they took advantage of us and practically ruined the crop so that we could not dig the nuts. (1906.) W.S. Cruzan, of Sulphur Springs, Tex., has said that they [crows] gather the pecan nuts and eat them, also storing them for future use. They will often fly from a pecan tree with nuts to a place on the prairie near some bushes or weeds, and deposit a little pile of nuts, often as much as a pint or more.’ D. D. Stone, of Oswego, N. Y., states that— crows are great lovers of chestnuts and do lots of mischief in chestnut groves. stealing the nuts from the burrs that are open. They prefer to take them from the burrs, but sometimes alight on the ground for the fallen ones, A few miles south of here are many chestnut groves, and in fall the crows are more numerous there than here. (1911.) At Davis, Cal., B. S. Brown reports that— the greatest damage is done to the almonds. They [crows] pick the nuts off the trees and beat them against a rock or tree until they break open. At this time of the year (January) they are in the old orchards picking up the waste nuts. (1912.) Concerning their depredations on peas, John H. McCluer, of Franklinville, N. Y., submitted the following: The crows first begin on peas when the new pea in the pod is fairly well formed, say one-quarter grown, and continue until ripe enough for canning purposes. They eat pods and all in the young growths, but shell the pea as soon as the pod toughens a little. To my personal knowledge they have so attacked three fields lying on different farms, but so near together that it is possible if not probable the work was done by the same flock of crows. (1901.) William L. Finley reports from Oregon that— in the Willamette Valley the crow does considerable damage to the cherry crop, but the birds are easily frightened from the trees. If unmolested they will soon strip a tree. (1911.) 1¥orest and Stream, LVITI, p. 285, April 12, 1902. 2 Bull. Wilson Orn. Chap. Agassiz Association, II, No. 5, p. 12, Mar. 15, 1895. THE CROW AND ITS RELATION TO MAN. 53 From Orlando, Fla., comes information contributed by D. J: Nicholson that “ crows at times do immense damage to the oranges. This occurs in the winter when they congregate in bands of 50 to 1CO7- (1911) Injury to these various crops is not so serious or extensive as that inflicted upon corn and other grain. Nevertheless damage is liable to occur at most unexpected times and upon crops difficult to protect. Such raids are most frequently made by a number of birds upon single exposed fields or orchards, and result in heavy losses to indi- vidual farmers. From their particularly annoying nature, . these activities should be charged against the crow in a consideration of his economic worth, even though the aggregate damage throughout the country may not be great. WILD FRUITS. Under primeval conditions wild fruits doubtless formed over half the annual food of the crow. But the advent of man with his intro- duction of corn so greatly altered the relative availability of this natural food supply that at present it constitutes less than 14 per cent (13.96) of the bird’s yearly sustenance. May is the month of least consumption, when it formed only 3.49 per cent of the food. From this point a gradual increase was noted until September, when over a fourth (25.82 per cent) of the bird’s food was secured from natural sources. October was also well represented (20.50 per cent), but in November and December considerably less was eaten (12.94 and 14.75, respectively). In January and February apparently the diminution in the available supply of corn again compels the crow to resort to wild fruit. In each of these months it totaled nearly a fifth of the food (19.76 and 19.57 per cent, respectively). The reduction recorded in March (10.65) and April (5.06) is due to an increased supply of animal food which becomes available with the advent of warmer weather. Of the 1,840 adult crows examined 576 had fed on wild fruits. Stomach analysis reveals the fact that mast, from a variety of sources, but mainly acorns and chestnuts, furnishes the main supply of vegetable food secured from natural sources. Such food was recorded in 293 stomachs. Various sumacs, both poisonous and non- poisonous, are especially favorite items and constitute an important part of the crow’s limited rations late in winter, when the supply of many other wild fruits has been exhausted. Seeds of nonpoisonous sumacs were found in 246 stomachs. Among these, those of smooth and dwarf sumac (hus glabra and 2. copallina) seeined most popu- lar. Poison ivy (Rhus radicans) occurred in 66 stomachs and poison oak (Rhus vernix) in 18. The consumption of the latter two noxious plants involves the crow rather unfavorably in the problem 54 BULLETIN 621, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of seed distribution, a discussion of which is presented on pages 68 to 71. The bayberry (M/yrica carolinensis) and the wax myr- tle (df. cerifera) furnish subsistence for many crows along the Atlan- tic coast, and in the southern part of this region the greenbrier (Smilax spp.), grapes (Vitis spp.), the Virginia creeper (Partheno- cissus quinquefolia), sour gum (Nyssa sylwatica), and dogwoods (especially Cornus florida) ave important food items. Wild cherries (especially Prunus serotina and P. virginiana) and plums present in 62 stomachs, strawberries in 50, and mulberries, blackberries, and raspberries in a fewer number were eaten during the rather brief fruiting seasons of these plants. The Juneberry (Amelanchierspp.) is a favorite food of the crows inhabiting parts of the northwest coast, though there are numerous records of such feeding in other regions as well. Blueberries (Vaccinium spp.) and elderberries (Sambucus spp.) must also be classed among the more important wild fruits upon which crows feed. Seeds of the following trees and shrubs also were taken from stomachs: Red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), beech (Fagus americana), hackberry (Celtis sp.), bar- berry (Lerberis sp.), currants (bes sp.), haw (Crategus sp.), holly (Llex opaca), supple-jack (Berchemia scandens), buffaloberry (Lep- argyrea spp.), and huckleberry (G@dylussacia sp.). The mere consumption of wild fruit by the crow involves nothing of economic importance, since practically none of the embryos of the seeds are thus destroyed; but the fact that the crow, for that very reason, becomes an important distributor of certain noxious plants, necessitates a careful consideration of the bird’s capabilities in this respect. (See pp. 68-71.) GRASS AND WEED SEEDS. Plants popularly classed as weeds are affected in no appreciable way by the seed-eating habits of the crow. Weed seeds formed only 1.36 per cent of the annual food of the 1,340 adult crows examined. That the percentage is even this high is explained by the fact that in February, when only 69 stomachs were available, several were practically filled with vegetable débris associated with a few weed seeds, all of which was classed under this head. This material would probably have been better designated as rubbish picked up unin- tentionally with carrion upon which also these birds were feeding. Thus interpreted, the weed seeds eaten would scarcely exceed half of 1 per cent of the yearly food. Various knot weeds (Polygonum spp.) occur most frequently, and the seeds of the two foxtail grasses (Chwtochloa glauca and C. viridis) scarcely less so. Seeds of ragweed (Ambrosia arte- misiwfolia) are liable to be picked up at any time. The minute seeds of pigweed (Amaranthus and Chenopodium), so abundant in waste places, are so small that it is doubtful whether they are ever taken THE CROW AND ITS RELATION TO MAN. 55 intentionally. Pokeweed (Phytolacca decandra) was present in only 8 stomachs, but from the débris found at roosts in the vicinity of Washington, D. C., it is apparent that the seeds of this plant form an important part of the winter food of the crows of that region. Such noxious plants as poison ivy and poison oak are discussed under the heading “ Wild Fruits,” on page 53. FOOD OF NESTLING CROWS. For several reasons a correct understanding of the food habits of nestling crows is essential to a complete consideration of the economic status of the species. These young birds, which average approximately four to a brood, remain in the nest for about three weeks, during which time they consume an immense quantity of food. According to Forbush,1 fully fledged young crows will eat daily a quantity equal 1o at least half their own weight, and doubtless in the earlier days of their existence this ratio is greatly exceeded. When a normal number of young are raised they will outnumber the adults nearly 2 to 1 throughout most of the United States during the month of May. This fact is especially important, inasmuch as the height of abundance occurs at the time of appearance of some of the most destructive insects, which, if unchecked, would lay heavy toll on the season’s crops. Then, too, the nestling life of the young crow coincides with or slightly precedes that of many small insectivorous birds, upon the eggs and young of which it is sometimes fed. Poultry raisers can attribute most of their losses in eggs and young chicks to the zeal of parent crows in providing food for hungry young rather than to a desire to satisfy their own appetites, since this could be done more safely at a greater distance from the farmhouse. Growing crops, also, especially sprouting corn, are at a critical stage of development at this time, and, should these be selected as food for nestling crows, the damage would be of a most serious nature. Fortunately an excellent series of stomachs, 778, is available for a consideration of the food of nestling crows. Of these, 47 were se- cured late in April, 653 in May, and 78 early in June. They were collected in 14 States, the District of Columbia, and Canada, the largest numbers being taken in Kansas, Missouri, Maryland, and the District of Columbia. The birds ranged in age from the blind and naked young of a day or two to the fully fledged bird weighing almost as much as its parents and capable of consuming considerably more food. The elements of the diet of nestlings are essentially the same as those of adults, though the relative percentages differ considerably. The food habits of the nestlings themselves also vary from the period when, a day or two old, their tender-walled stomachs require such soft, 1 Forbush, E. H., Useful Birds and Their Protection, p. 47, 1907. 56 BULLETIN 621, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. digestible food as spiders and caterpillars, to the time when, fully fledged, they relish hard-shelled beetles, crustaceans, small mammals, and grain, a diet differing but shghtly from that of the parents. The series of stomachs examined includes young of all ages, and, as the various stages of growth are about equally represented numerically, the percentages derived may be considered as approximately a true average for the nestling. A diagrammatic representation of the food of these young birds is presented in figure 3 and a tabular statement showing percentages is given in Table IV, below. ' Fic. 3.—Food of nestling crows. The proportions of the various elements are represented by the relative sizes of the different sectors. Table IV presents the same information in percentages. TABLE 1V.—Percentages of the principal food items of the nestling crow. d a“ a no |\o, Nee a vesni eon irs jou | ne 4 uy . 3 fo) [mS I | | =i Be lees 3 S ge es ag eI aa |a|8 | E | 2 se | i) 3 A ee | Q ° aa | . 2 a, 8 | | om | ° =| 8 jog) 2 | Se |S8ie8| 2 (2/62) o\>8) 2 )"s} a] |ss8 2 |as}n | & . a Sal sa| a |ag|¢ o/HS! 8 ing|/.6 | . Bae Pie |2)2/8 | 8 "S816 |e |ge 83/8 |3i8 /8| & Bea a > | & js! a 4 \"a,8 AZ] f=] ed (=) ° i) | a | oo 4 4.1/6 j°O-) 6 | A | Oe ja | Oo lm] Fla | 16. ho fo) le = | —-— ; ——-— SS | See ea | ———. | | | | 17.44) 3.90) 2.59) 14.60) 2.61} 5.34) 1.88) 9.68 1.78) 0.68) 7.04) 1.57, 1.60) 6.22) 2.61) 3 95 11.91) 4 58 | } | ! THE CROW AND ITS RELATION TO MAN. 57 ANIMAL Foop. INSECTS. Animal food comprised 83.49 per cent of the diet of the nestling crows examined, insects forming the major portion, 48.36 per cent. Nearly half of this, 23.93 per cent, was composed of beetles, slightly less than the corresponding percentage in the diet of adults during May. Coleoptera. ScaRABHIDE.—Scarabeid beetles, most of which were May beetles (Phyllophaga) were the most important coleopterous remains found in the nestlings’ stomachs. In bulk these beetles and their larvae, - white grubs, formed 17.44 per cent of the food, about 3 per cent less than in the diet of the adults during the same period. While both in percentage of food and number of individuals eaten the adult crow consumes more May ‘beetles than its young, the impor- tance of such food eaten by the latter must not be overlooked. For instance, each one of a brood of three nestlings collected in Wis- consin had been fed entirely on these insects. Five young taken in the District of Columbia had subsisted to the extent of nearly three- fourths of their food on adult May beetles, an aggregate of about 70 individuals being consumed by the brood. Another hatch of three secured in Maryland had fed on them to an extent of 84, 98, and 80 per cent, respectively, of their food. Stomachs collected at Onaga, Kans., in May of 1918 and 1914, revealed the remains of these beetles and their larvee in remarkably large numbers. A series (three broods) of 12 nestlings, three-fourths grown, had eaten a total of 301, an average of over 25 apiece, along with several Euphoria, Phaneus, Canthon, Geotrupes, and other scarabeeids. One of these had eaten 53, the highest number of May beetles re- corded for a young crow. Another group of 17 (four broods) had destroyed 844, an average of over 20 apiece. Six others (two broods) had made away with 135 beetles. Of a total of 359 stomachs of nestling crows collected at Onaga, Kans., in 1918 and 1914, 285 contained remains of May beetles or their larvae. The 64 beetles eaten by a brood of three secured in Dallas County, Mo., are inter- esting in that they include no less than nine distinct species. Of the larve (white grubs), young crows eat a much larger proportion than do the parent birds, but in no case did the numbers eaten equal those of the adult beetles consumed. A brood of three partly feathered ‘young secured in Kansas had eaten 34, 28, and 23 white grubs, respectively, two others had taken more than 20 apiece and six others more than 10 apiece. Other phytophagous scarabeids similar to those eaten by the adults are also fed to the young (see p. 13). Euphorias were found 58 BULLETIN 621, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in numerous stomachs, in each of two instances 10 individuals being eaten. The carrot beetle (Ligyrus gibbosus) and others of the same genus occurred frequently in stomachs from Kansas and Missouri, though in no case in large numbers. June bugs (Cotinis nitida), vine chafers (Anomala spp.), goldsmith beetles (Cotalpa lanigera), and other related forms were found now and then in the nestling stomachs. The dung-inhabiting scarabeeids (Laparosticti), are eaten by young crows frequently, though the small size of some, as Apho- dius, prevents their forming an appreciable portion of the food: Tumblebugs (Canthon and Geotrupes) occurred very regularly in material from Kansas, in some instances as many as a dozen of these large beetles being present in a single stomach. Copris, Onthopha- gus, and Phanewus carnifex also were found. Carapip#.—Ground beetles formed 3.90 per cent of the food of nestlings compared with 5.54 per cent for the adults during approxi- mately the same period. Of the caterpillar hunters, Calosoma calidum was most often fed to the young, 46 of the 778 nestlings having eaten one or more individuals. Calosoma externum, a still larger form, was found in numerous stomachs from Kansas, while the brightly colored and malodorous C. serutator was present in 24 stomachs. Of the large ground beetles, the broad Pasimachus was most commonly fed to nestlings. This is especially the case in young secured in Missouri and Kansas. A brood of four, partly feathered, taken at Onaga, Kans., had eaten 17 of these large beetles, along with 8 Calosoma externum, 7 Chlenius, 2 Scarites, and one other ground beetle. They were present in about two- fifths of the stomachs taken in this locality, while of the total num- ber of 778 nestlings 139 had subsisted upon them. Various other ground beetles, Scarites, Harpalus, Hvarthrus, Pterostichus, and Amara, were present in approximately the same proportions as in stomachs of adult crows. At times, when the young were fed on members of several genera, the total number eaten was considerable. One partly feathered young had eaten no less than 60 individuals of the genera Chlenius, Anisodactylus, Cratacanthus, and Scarites. Ruyncnopnora.—Nestling crows eat very few weevils. As in the case of the adults (see p. 18) the clover-leaf weevil (Hypera punctata) and the imbricated snout-beetle (Z'picwrus imbricatus) are the only ones worthy of note. The former was present in 32 of the 778 stomachs. One collected in Maryland contained 18 of these weevils along with 8 Z’picerus,; and another, secured in New York, had made away with 11. Imbricated snout-beetles were present in 126 stomachs, in two instances as many as 32 individuals being recorded. One of the latter two was collected in Maryland and the other was of a hatch of five secured in the District of Columbia, each ~ THE CROW AND ITS RELATION TO MAN. 59 one of which had fed on these insects, a total of 62 weevils having been eaten by the brood. OrHER BEETLES.—Other beetles fed to nestling crows belong mainly to the necrophagous and coprophagous families Silphidee, Staphylinide, and Histeride. The proportion of these insects eaten is essentially the same as in the food of adults. No instance of ex- tremely large numbers eaten wasrecorded. Click beetles (Hlateride) and their larve, wireworms, form only a small portion of.the nest- ling’s food, about a third of 1 per cent, and in no stomach were re- markable numbers noted, an odd circumstance in view of the fav- orable reports made by competent field observers regarding the crow’s effectiveness as an enemy of these pests. Orthoptera. In the destruction of grasshoppers, nestling crows render man a most important service. Although the birds are reared prior to the season when these insects are most abundant a vast number of the nymphal forms fall as their prey. More than 14.5 per cent of the food of those examined consisted of orthopterous remains—a re- markable proportion when it is considered that adult crows at the height of the grasshopper season in August and September take only a little over 19 per cent, and during the nestling period (May) only 4.29 per cent. It is highly probable, though, that this percentage for nestling crows is somewhat exaggerated because of the large numbers collected in Kansas and Missouri. On the other hand, no nestling material is available from the extreme Northwest, an area in. which adult crows feed extensively upon these insects. Nestling crows in that region no doubt are fed largely upon Orthoptera. By far the largest porticn of orthopterous food of young crows consists of short-horned grasshoppers (Acridide). These were pres- ent in 528 of the 778 stomachs examined, and in many exceedingly large numbers were recorded. When it is considered, however, that the number of grasshoppers eaten is determined by counting the jaws present, and that these undigested parts are in many cases accu- mulated from past meals, the large numbers recorded are partially explained. The most noteworthy work of grasshopper destruction revealed in the examination of stomachs of nestling crows was that of a brood of four secured at Onaga, Kans. These had eaten 133, 106, 105, and 74, respectively, a total of 418, which constituted three-fourths of the food. Another brood of seven had consumed a still greater number, 585, but they averaged only about 834 for each bird and formed a little less than 70 per cent of the stomach contents. One of these nestlings had eaten 148, the highest number recorded for a single 60 BULLETIN 621, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. crow, young or old. Four partly feathered young, also from Kansas, had devoured 259 grasshoppers; another brood of four made away with 222; and a series of nine, made up of probably two broods, averaged 50 apiece. Seven other individual nestlings had eaten 50 or more; 31 had taken from 25 to 49; and 44, 10 to 24 apiece. Fre- quently grasshoppers were associated with locustid or cricket remains, the combined bulk often forming the major portion of the food. In one stomach orthopterous insects formed the entire contents, in 35 they constituted from 75 to 99 per cent, and in 49 others they com- posed from 50 to 74 per cent. Two series of young crows from Onaga, Kans., one of 157 taken in 1913 and another of 164 secured in 1914, revealed interesting data regarding the relation of these birds to grasshoppers in years when the insects are abundant. In working up this material, it was noticed that in the former year grasshoppers were by far the most important item of the diet, forming 42 per cent of the food and occurring in 151 of the 157 stomachs. In 1914 these insects. constituted less than 12 per cent of the food and were present in 123 of the 164 stomachs, in many of which merely a “trace” was recorded. It was in the material taken in 1913 also that all the phenomenal records men- tioned above were noted. In 1914, only 7 of the entire lot of young crows examined subsisted on grasshoppers to the extent of more than half their diet. Facts which can be correlated with this wide difference in the food of crows in the same locality in two suc- cessive years have been obtained from W. R. Walton, of the Bureau of Entomology, who has stated that, although 1913 was not a year of extraordinary abundance of grasshoppers in Kansas, 1914 was a season of uncommon scarcity, especially in spring and early summer. Exceedingly heavy rainfall is the reason assigned for lack of normal numbers. The importance of young crows as a factor in grasshopper control during an outbreak of the insects is a matter of interesting conjecture. Lepidoptera. Caterpillars occurred in more than a third of the stomachs of nestling crows and formed 5.34 per cent of their food. These soft, easily digested larve are among the first items fed to newly hatched young, but as the birds grow older other insect forms soon displace them in the diet. Birds which had been fed most extensively on them were, as a rule, less than 4 days old. = 31. sublazum. ROR E] SUI) a Chasen me rer a een ee en one a ey Rs 32. gymnospermum. The 32 varieties described above are thought to constitute the major variations in barley. It is possible that a group of Abys- sinian barleys may later be added to the intermediate forms, but it is hoped that this may be avoided. In the list of subvarieties which follows there have been no additions, although many new sorts are available. It is thought best not to add to this lst of named sorts, as the large number of names is already confusing, The list of sub- varieties is made up entirely of forms that have been published as varieties, but which are little more than variations of an established type. As these names have been used and as the distinctions have some foundation, even though often a fragiie one, it is necessary to indicate the group each was intended to describe. It can not be too strongly recommended, however, that additions be made to the list of subvarieties only when the value of the addition is above question. At the present time the writer has in his possession blue, -purple, and smooth-awned variations in a large number of new combina- tions. A dense form of tonswm has been received recently from Japan. Many dense forms of deficient barleys have been isolated from Abyssinian barley, with a complete series of colors. The addi- tion of these to the named subvarieties seems to offer no advantages, and when they are described it will be only in a list of agronomic varieties which is expected to supplement the present publication. 16 BULLETIN 622, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. e KEY TO THE SUBVARIETIES. 1. Hordeum vulgare pallidum Seringe (1841, p. 346). Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax; noddine= 22222) _ == see typica. Spike wide, dense, the edges parallel; awns not widely spread- ING. oS se esse parallelum Kornicke (as var., 1882, p. 166). Spike wide, very dense, pyramidal, awns widely spreading. pyramidatum Koérnicke (as var., 1882, p. 164). Awns smooth. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. rikotense Regel (as.var., 1908, p. 74). Kernels bluish. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. coerulescens Seringe (as var., 1841, p. 347). Kernels purple. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. subviolaceum Kornicke (as var., 1895, p. 9). Outer glumes wide. Kernels white. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. latiglumatum Kornicke (as var., 1895, p. 9). Spike wide, dense, erect. eurylepis, Ké6rnicke (as var., 1882, p. 167). 2. Hordeum vulgare nigrum Willdenow (as sp., 1809, p. 1087). Outer glumes narrow. Awns rough. Spikesnanrow, lax. Modding ==. ses Se ee ty pica. Spike wide, dense, erect. , sehimperianum Kornicke (as var., 1882, p. 165). Awns smooth. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. leiorrhynchum Kornicke (as var., 1882, p. 178). Outer glumes wide. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. atrospicatum Kornicke (as var., 1895, p. 9). Spike wide, dense, erect___platylepis Kérnicke (as var., 1895, p. 9). 3. Hordeum vulgare horsfordianum Wittmack (1884). Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. Spike narrow; lax, nodding: <25- 20252 = shee eee typica. Spike wide, dense, erect. hexasticofurcatum K. H. in Beaven (as var., 1902, p. 577). 4, Hordeum vulgare atrum Kornicke (1895, p. 9). Outer glumes narrow. Spike marrow, lax, NOCQiiSo = sso typica. Spike wide, dense, erect. densifurcatum K. H. in Beaven (as var., 1902, p. 577). “THE IDENTIFICATION OF VARIETIES OF BARLEY. 1 A ea 5. Hordeum vulgare coeleste Linnzeus (as sp., 1753, p. 85). Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. Awns rough. Spike marrow, lax, noddingia i teeon awe aden oe typica. Spike wide, dense, the edges parallel, awns not widely spreading ______ revellatum WKornicke (as var., 1882, p. 167). Spike wide, very dense, pyramidal, awns widely spreading. nudipyramidatum Koérnicke (as var., 1895, p. 9). Kernels blue. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. himalayense Rittig (as var., 1822, according to Roemer and Schultes, 1824, p. 481). Kernels purple. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. violaceum Kornicke (as var., 1882, p. 183). Outer glumes wide. ; Kernels white. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. sublatiglumatum Kornicke (as var., 1908, Dp. 425). 6. Hordeum vulgare duplinigrum Kornicke (1895, p. 9; modified, 1908, p. 424). Outer glumes narrow. Awns rough. Spikes narrows Vax. MO Cie ee Se ee ee typica. 7. Hordeum vulgare trifurcatum Schlechtendehl (1837, p. 543). Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. ae Spikemnarrowsglasen mod Cilio eaten see ee typica. 8. Hordeum vulgare aethiops Kornicke (1895, p. 10). Outer glumes narrow. SoUke, natEnowe a la xe eMOC Ci pcs 2 aes ery ee a Sey IC. 9. Hordeum intermedium haxtoni Kornicke (1882, p. 185). Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. Awnts rough. Spike marrow, axe Nod Cine s ee ee ee typica. Spike wide, dense, the edges parallel; awns not widely spread- AM Owen Vie transiens Kornicke (as var., 1882, p. 185). Spikes wide, very dense, pyramidal, awns widely spreading. pavoninum Kornicke (as var., 1908, p. 429). Lemma of central floret awnless. tonsum Kornicke (as var., 1908, p. 426). 10. Hordeum intermedium mortow Kornicke (1908, p. 429). Outer glumes narrow. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding__-__~_ SARA ol WSO YE SE Neeson OREM SY AY RET Ts Lemma of central floret awnless. nigritonsum Kornicke (as var., 1908, p. 426). 18 BULLETIN 622, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 11. Hordeum intermedium subcornutum Kcrnicke (1908, p. 425). Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. Spike marrow, lax, nodding =... 9 Neu) We ey pied, Spike wide, dense, erect. anomalum Kornicke (as var., 1895, p. 10; and 1908, p. 430). 12. Hordeum intermedium atricornutum Kérnicke (1908, p. 425). Outer glumes narrow. Spike marrow, Vax, eNO imo isshs ee ty pica. 13. Hordeum intermedium nudihaxrtoni Kornicke (1908, p. 429). Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding___________-_-_ 6 typica, Spike wide, dense, erect. nuditransiens Kornicke (as var., 1908, p. 430). Lemma of central floret awnless. nuditonsum Wkornicke (as var., 1908, p. 426). 14. Hordeum intermedium nudimortoni var. novo. This variety was selected from the progeny of a hybrid of hartoni and nigrinudum. It is constant, and with the other new forms described later is included here in order that the list of principal varieties may be complete. It is a variety of intermedium with black, naked kernels, lemmas of the central florets awned, outer glumes narrow, and spike lax and nodding. 15. Hordeum intermedium cornutum Schrader (1888, p. 471). Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. Spike narrow, lax, nod ging: es a eee ty pica. Spike wide, dense, erect. : gymnanomalum WKornicke (as var., 1908, p. 480). 16. Hordeum intermedium subaethiops Kornicke (1908, p. 425) Outer glumes narrow. SDIkesnarTrow, lax, NOdGiN Ses oe Se ee ee ee ty pica. 17. Hordeum distichon palmella var. novo. In the common 2-rowed barleys there has apparently been no name used in recent years to include zeocriton, erectuwm, and nutans. Each of these has such a definite and specific use as a subvarietal name that it can hardly be used to include the others. Jean des Moulins in 1615, in the French edition of the work of Dalechamps (p. 383), divided the barleys into two species, polystichon and distichon. The latter he ealled pomole. Olivier de Serres, writing the same year (p. 99), used the terms paumes and paumoules for the same barleys. The pomole of that date was nearly identical with the group here designated palmella. Pomole, with various spellings, as paumoule, pamelie, etc., is still applied popularly to the common 2-rowed barleys in France. The name palmella is here used in preference, as the Latin equivalent of palm, or little palm, doubtless referring to the appearance of the spike. Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. nutans Schuebler (as var., 1818, p. 36). Spike wide, dense, the edges parallel; awns not widely spreading_~________ erectum Schuebler (as var., 1818, p. 36). Spikes wide, very dense, awns widely spreading. zeocriton Linneus (as sp., 1758, p. 85). THE IDENTIFICATION OF VARIETIES OF BARLEY. 19 17. Hordeum distichon palmella—Continued. Outer glimes narrow—Continued. Kernels white—Continued. Awns smooth. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. y rigens IK. H. in Beaven (as var., 1902, p. 578). INV ADS - \yyanan sa eeL ae inerme Kornicke (as var., 1895, p. 8). Kernels bluish. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. canescens K. H. in Beaven (as var., 1902, p. 578). Awns smooth. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. medicum Kornicke (as var., 1882, p. 195). Kernels purple. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. hypianthinum ‘Kornicke (as var., 1895, p. 10). Outer glumes wide. Kernels white. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. ° dubium Kornicke (as var., 1908, p. 481). Spike wide, dense, erect: macrolysis K. H. in Beaven (as var., 1902, p. 578). 18. Hordeum distichon nigricans Seringe (1842, p. 357). Outer glumes narrow. Awns rough. SUM Men O Waal axe all OG Onan Oak aes a ee ty pica. Spike wide, dense, the edges parallel, awns not widely spreading. contractum Kornicke (as var., 1882, p. 198). Spike wide, dense, erect, awns widely spreading. melanocrithum Kornicke (as var., 1882, p. 200). Awns smooth. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. persicum WKornicke (as var., 1882, p. 196). Awns wanting. decussatum K6rnicke (as var., 1895, p. 8). Outer glumes wide. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. braunti Kornicke (as var., 1882, p. 202). Spike wide, dense, erect. : miztum K. H. in Beaven (as var., 1902, p. 578). 19. Hordeum distichon angustispicatum Kornicke (1895, p. 11). Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. Spike marrow7 Wax mod dings See ais See A eee typica. Spike wide, dense, the edges parallel, awns not widely spreading. latispicatum Kornicke (as var., 1895, p. 11). Spikes wide, very dense, awns widely spreading. furcatozeocriton Ik. H. in Beaven (as var., 1902, p. 578). 20 BULLETIN 622, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 19. Hordeum distichon angustispicatwm—Continued. Outer glumes narrow—Continued. Kernels purple. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. | koernicket K. H. in Beaven (as var., 1902, p. 579). or 20. Hordeum distichon rimpaui Wittm. (Kornicke, 1895, p. 11). i Outer glumes narrow. Spike: marrow, lax, nodding. --_ 2.2 22-2223 eee typicd. 21. Hordeum distichon nudum Linneeus (1758, p. 85). Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. Awns rough. Spike. narrow, lax, nodding <0 9 ne typica. Spike wide, dense, the edges parallel; awns not widely spread- NO ae peers see neogenes Kornicke (as var., 1895, p. 10). Spike wide, very dense, awns widely spreading. gymnocrithum Kornicke (as var., 1895, p. 10). Awns wanting--2---=s= duploalbum Koérnicke (as var., 1895, p. 8). _ Kernels bluish. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. - rossi Kornicke (as var., 1895, p. 1¢). Kernels purple. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. ianthinum Kornicke (as var., 1895, p. 10). Outer glumes wide. Kernels white. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. : 5 nudidubium Kornicke (as var., 1908, p. 481). 22. Hordeum distichon nigrinudum var. novo. This form was isolated in i909 from an importation of Abyssinian barleys. Two naked seeds were found, - which were so black that they appeared to have been charred. They proved viable, however, and have since produced coal-black seeds. In other respects the variety corresponds to nudwm. Outer glumes narrow. Awns rough. Spike narrow; lax, nodding. 2-2. 2258 so ee ee ty pica, PASWANS Wt G1) eee ee duploatrum Wornicke (as var., 1895, p. 8). 23. Hordeum distichon lawum Kornicke (1895, p. 7). Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. Spike narrow, lax, nodding i222 3 2 Se ee eee eee ty pica. Spike wide, dense, erect__.densum Kornicke (as var., 1895, p.11). 24, Hordeum distichon nigrilarum var, hovo. This variety was produced from a cross of horsfordianum and nigrinudum. It is a 2-rowed, hooded barley of the species distichon, with naked black seeds, outer glumes narrow, spike narrow, lax, nodding. 25. Hordeum deficiens deficiens Steudel (1854, p. 351). Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. Awns rough. Spike narrow; lax, nodding... 222224 eee typica. THE IDENTIFICATION OF VARIETIES OF BARLEY. Dil: 25. Hordeum deficiens deficiens—Continued. ' Outer glumes wide. Kernels white. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. rehmiui Wornicke (as var., 1895, p. 10). Spike wide, dense, erect___abyssinicum Seringe (as var., 1842, p. 194; modified, K6rnicke, 1882, p. 202). Awns wanting____-_-_____subinerme Kornicke (as var., 1895, p. 8). Kernels bluish. Awnhs rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. pseudoabyssinicum Kornicke (as var., 1908, p. 432). 26. Hordeum. deficiens steudeliti Kornicke CiSe2 p. 206). Outer glumes narrow. Awns rough. Spike: narrow,.lax; nod dings. 2320 aia ees ee ty pica. Awns smooth. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. subglabrum KK. H. in Beaven (as var., 1902, p. 579). Awns wanting_____-_____ subdecussatum WKornicke (as var., 1895, p. 8). Outer glumes wide. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. -macrolepis A. Br., (as var., 1848, according to Ké6rnicke, 1885, Bags ps8) Awns smooth. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. leiomacrolepis Regel (as var., 1908, p. 78). 27. Hordeum deficiens tricolor Kornicke (1895, p. 11.) Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. Spikes narrows laxe7 NOUN ates en a Ee ie emi nicd. 28. Hordeum deficiens tridar Kornicke (1895, p. 11). Outer glumes narrow. Sprke sm arr Ow. La X00 CCN es Bees es NO as Aare i typica. 29. Hordeum deficiens nudideficiens Kornicke (1895, p. 11). Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. Awns rough. SURE m1 eT Weel aes wT OCU GATT esse ee typica. Awns wanting_____ subduplialbum Kornicke (as var., 1908, p. 434). Kernels purple. Awns rough. Spike narrow, lax, nodding. viviscens K. H. in Beaven (as var., 1902, p. 579). 30. Hordeum deficiens decorticatum WKornicke (1895, p. 11). Outer glumes narrow. Awns rough. SPIKE SNAG Oye esl en 11 O Cl CUNT ee eee a typica. Awns wanting _________ subdupliatrum Kornicke (as var., 1908, p. 484). 22 - BULLETIN 622, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. \ 31. Hordeum deficiens sublarum IWornicke (1908, p. 483). Outer glumes narrow. Kernels white. Spike narrow, tax, nodding= == os) = he See Elec ty pica. 32. Hordeum deficiens gymnospermum Kornicke (1895, p. 11). : Outer glumes narrow. SpIKe Narrow; lax NO Cin gaa se ee eee typica, REJECTED SPECIES, SUBSPECIES, AND VARIETIES. In the analysis of the relative value of the variable characters. of barley, a number of variations were regarded as of too minor a nature to be used even in the description of named subvarieties. ‘These in- cluded the elevation of the hood on a short awn, awns produced on the hood itself, malformed awns, short awns, the nature of the hairs on the rachilla, the toothing of the nerves of the lemma, and the widening of only the two outermost glumes at a node. Varieties established upon these characters are not recognized in the key. Inas- much as the names: often appear in papers on barley, a statement of the nature of the variation is necessary for reference use. For this reason an alphabetical list of discarded species and varieties has been prepared. A few groups founded on other bases have been included. The most important of these is probably that of compound spikes. The inclusion of compound spikes as a recognized character would simply double the number of varieties. In barley, proliferation of spikes is common, but in most strains it is not inherited. In others, while the tendency is transmitted, it is inherited imperfectly. Even if it were perfectly heritable its use would offer little of advantage. The list also contains various synonyms which have been published from time to time. In a few instances names occur both in the key and in the list of rejected forms. In these cases the names have been used in two or more ways and in the misapplied use appear here. Where the form is compared with one in the key, it bears the key number of the recognized variety. ALPHABETICAL LIST OF REJECTED SPECIES, SUBSPECIES, AND VARIETIES. abyssinicum Seringe (1842, p. 194, as. var.), as originally described equal to the species deficiens. aegiceras Royle (1839, p. 418), synonym for H. v. trifurcatum (7). aethiopicum Alefeld (1866, p. 348), synonym for H. distichon nigricans (18). albidum WKornicke (1873, p. 4), synonym for H. v. pallidwm (1). angustissimum Kornicke (1908, p. 482, as var.), synonym for H. distichon laxrum (28). atratum I. H. in Beaven (1902, p. 597, as var.), svnonym for H. deficiens steudelii (26). s atterbergianum Regel (1908, p. 77, as var.), synonym for H. deficiens steudelii subglabrum (26). THE IDENTIFICATION OF VARIETIES OF BARLEY. E83 atterbergii Kornicke (1895, p. 10, as var.), H. distichon palmella nutans (17), '_-with lateral florets enlarged and pointed. brachytherum Kornicke (1882, p. 164, as var.), short-awned form of H. v. pallidum pyramidatum (1). brachyura Alefeld (1866, p. 340), very dense form of H. v. pallidum pyramida- tum (1). beijerinckii Kornicke (1908, p. 431, as var.), H. distichon palmella macrolysis (17), with only the two outermost glumes expanded. coelestoides Seringe (1841, p. 358), synonym for H. distichon nudum (21). commune Atterberg (1899, p. 7), used as a subspecies to designate all barleys with narrow glumes and awned central florets. compactum Kornicke (1908, p. 424, as var.), synonym for H. v. horsfordianum hexasticofurcatum (3). complanatum K. H. in Beaven (1902, p. 577, as var.), synonym for H. 7. sub- cornutum anomalum (11). : compositum Kérnicke (1882, p. 206, as var.), compound form of H. distichon paimella nutans (17). crispicapillum Kornicke (1895, p. 10, as var.), compound form of H. v. coeleste (5). crispum Kornicke (1895, p. 4, as var.), compound form of H. v. pallidum (1). cucullatum Kornicke (1882, p. 179, as var.), a malformation of H. v. horsfordi- anum (3). densum Seringe (1841, p. 345 and 357), used for subvarieties under both hez- astichon and distichon. densum Voss (1885, p. 280), used to include all dense, narrow-glumed, deficient barleys. eingens K. H. in Beaven (1902, p. 579, as var.), synonym for H. distichon rim- paui (20). erectonudum i. H. in Beaven (1902, p. 578, as var.), synonym for H. distichon nudum neogenes (21). falsum Atterberg (1899, p. 11), used to designate all varieties with horseshoe- shaped depression at base of grain. flaccidum Voss (1885, p. 279, as var.), included lax forms of H. v. coeleste (5). furcatum Atterberg (1899, p. 7), used as subspecies, including all hooded forms with linear outer glumes. genuinum Alefeld (1866, p. 340), synonym for H. vulgare, used as H. v. genu- num. genuinum Eriksson (1899, p. 2), a lax subdivision of H. distichon palmella erectum (17). — gracilius Kornicke (1882, p. 167, as var.), synonym for H. v. nigrum schimperi- anum (2). heterolepis Ko6rnicke (1882, p. 202, as var.), H. distichon palmella macrolysis (17), with only the two outermost glumes expanded. heuzei Kornicke (1882, p. 170, as var.), H. v. pallidum (1), with malformed awns approaching hoods. hexastichum Linneus (1758, p. 85, as sp.), all dense forms of H. vulgare. hibernum Heuzé (1872, p. 454), winter forms of H. v. pallidum pyramidatum. imberbe Lamarck and Candolle (1815, p. 93), a form of H. distichon palmella erectum (17) with deciduous awns. 24 BULLETIN 622, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. inaequale Voss (1885, p. 278), group term to include all lax vulgare. inerme Atterberg (1899, p. 7), used as subspecies including all awnless varieties. krausianum Wittmack (1885, p. 1), compound form of H. distichon palmeila erectum (17), with some naked grains. laxifurcatum K. H. in Beaven (1902, p. 578, as var.), synonym for H. v, atrum (25) hs laxum Seringe (1841, p. 344 and 356), used to designate lax varieties under both hezastichon and distichon. lazum Voss (1885, p. 281), including all lax deficient barleys with narrow glumes. : macrolepis Atterberg (1899, p. 7), used as subspecies, including varieties with wide outer glumes on the central spikelet. macroteron Alefeld (1866, p. 340), less dense forms of H. v. pallidum pyrami- datum (1). ; monstrosum K. H. in Beaven (1902, p. 579, as var.), synonym for H. deficiens gymnospermum (82). muticum Hoffmann (1877, p. 272), probably deciduous H. distichon palmella (LO muticum Atterberg (1899, p. 8), as subspecies, including all varieties with large flowering glumes in lateral spikelets, whether fertile or infertile. nigrescens Kornicke (1882, p. 195, as var.), a brown form of H. distichon nigri- cans (18). nudiramosum K. H. in Beaven (1902, p. 578, as var.), compound form of H. v. coeleste (5). y parvihamatum K. H. in Beaven (1902, p. 579, as var.), short-awned form of H. distichon angustispicatum (19). patens Eriksson (1889, p. 2), dense subdivision of H. distichon. paimella erectum (17). platylepis Voss (1885, p. 281), included all dense, wide-glumed deficiens barleys. polystichon Haller (1776, p. 5), synonym for tetrastichum Wornicke, all lax vulgare. polystichon Doll (1857, p. 119), all 6-rowed barleys. pseudotrifurcatum Langsdorff (1860, p. 9). a form of H. v. trifureatum (7) carrying a short awn. ramosum Seringe (1841, p. 358), a compound distichon. ramosum Hochstetter (1848, p. 147), a compound form of H. deficiens (25). ramulosum Kk. H. in Beaven (1902, p. 579, as var.), a compound form of A. distichon nudum (21). recens Isérnicke (1882, p. 167, as var.), only two outermost glumes expanded, otherwise as H. v. pallidum eurylepis (1). rectum Voss (1885, p. 278), dense forms of H. v. coeleste (5). rostratum Atterberg (1899, p. 9), as muticum, except that the awnless spikelets of the former bear hairlike awns. é sativum Jessen (1855), used as a single species to include all cultivated barleys. schweinfurthii Kornicke (1908, p. 420, as var.), synonym for :H. distichon nigricans (18). serratum K. H. in Beaven (1902, p. 579, as var.), synonym for H. deficiens sublazum (81). PLATE Ill. Bul. 622, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “Sous 10JNO OPI (J pur ‘soTUNyS 10yNo MOdIvU OAL D pur ‘_ ‘PV SpeTTNy Td puro ‘poyeu ole g pur P {ssopume 9 pure ‘poume g pure g “pepooy st ‘stloy 9SOT} JO ‘sidajhiana wnpyjyod duvbjna wnapsoxy ‘Ge “ULnswoz YWORLDY WNIPIULLI}UL Wd PLOL] ‘9 unaonj01a a989j900 awvbyna wnap.oy ‘gq “wngwoinfiy atpbjna wnapsoyy ‘WV “SHSLOVYUVHO NOWWOO IVHSARS DNIMOHS ‘A3ZTYVG SO SWHO4 HNO AO SAMIdS a” *SOTJOLIVA 4oo1d 9} JO VSvq OT} 7B SULIANII0 ATTeNSN esve19 at} 18 WoIssoidop pedvys-soysesi0y oy} SMOYS F *porst} Ore SAOPIV PIAMOI-g 9 JO (T puv J) SpPIuIY [v.10V] OL "SAB 1YNVG ASNAG GNV Xv7] JO STSNYSY—'S “DI "SAaTuvg (g aNv ‘9 ‘g) GSMOY-9 GN (VW) G3MOU-g 3O STSNYSY—' | ‘OI PLATE IV. Bul. 622, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. THE IDENTIFICATION OF VARIETIES OF BARLEY. 25 seringei Kornicke (1882, p. 206, as var.), a brown form of H. deficiens steudelii (26). subatterbergii Kornicke (1908, p. 480, as var.), synonym for H. i. nudihaxrtoni nuditransiens (13). subcompositum Kornicke (1908, p. 434, as var.), a compound form of H. distichon nudum (21). subhaxtomi Kornicke (1908, p. 429, as var.), an indefinite variation of AH. i. nudihaxstoni (138). spurium Atterberg (1899, p. 11), varieties with neither crease nor depression at base of grain. tetrastichum Kornicke (1822, p. 125), all lax vulgare. tortile Seringe (1841, p. 349), a 6-rowed barley with malformed awns ap- proaching hoods. tortile Robert (1832, according to Seringe, 1841, p. 849), probably as above. lortilis Heuzé (1872, p. 457), probably as tortile Ser. triangulare Kornicke (1908, p. 482, as var.), synonym for H. distichon angus- tispicatum furcatozeocriton (19). utriculatum K. H. in Beaven (1902, p. 579, as var.), synonym for H. distichon lazum (28). verum Atterberg (1899, p. 11), all varieties with transverse crease at base of grain. violascens, IK. H. in Beaven (1902, p. 578, as var.), synonym for H. distichon palmella canescens (17). walpersii Kornicke (1882, p. 182, as var.), synonym for H. v. coeleste (5). LINES FOR FURTHER STUDY. The various characters upon which varieties have been founded have been discussed in connection with the keys and lists of varieties. Between most of the characters retained in the keys, the distinctions are quite sharp. There are a few, however, which are not exactly clear and which offer attractive fel for study. The question of color is not on an entirely satisfactory basis. Colors are apparently the results of minor phases of metabolism, but have been utilized in taxonomic work because of the fact that they are conspicuous. Doubtless many more important features of metab- olism are ignored in the grouping of varieties. Being a question of metabolism, and usually one of the altered metabolism of ap- proaching maturity, it is questioned whether environment may or may not affect the production of pigment. This is particularly worthy of study in the blue and purple colors. The variations of density are equally suggestive. There is no ap- parent reason why a strain of any given density can not exist, and in the grouping of varieties it would be worth while to know if there is even a narrow gap between the dense and lax forms. Possibly density, which has here been reduced to a subvarietal distinction, may have to be eliminated altogether. The separation of deficiens and distichon also presents possible difficulties. Hybrids of deficiens 26 BULLETIN 622, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and distichon do not fall clearly into the two groups of their parents. How much the heterozygous character is responsible for the confusion remains to be determined. How broad the interpretation of inter- medium should be is also a matter of doubt. It may be that it should include forms in which the lateral florets are sterile but pointed. This would explain such forms as atterbergii Keke., which most prob- ably are genetically nearer intermedium than distichon, even though the pointing of the glume is a glume character and not one of fertility. IDENTIFICATION OF THRASHED MATERIAL. Of necessity the keys have been based on spike characters. Fre- quently, however, it is necessary to identify a barley from thrashed kernels alone. This is not always possible, but ordinarily the chance of error is negligible, owing to the fact that only one of the series of possibilities may with any likelihood occur under a given set of conditions. The observations to be made are taken up in the order in which they occur in the key. By means of fertility only the first three species can be identified. Deficiens can not be separated from distichon with certainty on the basis of the grain alone. It may well be ignored, however, because varieties of deficiens are rare. They occur naturally only in Abys- sinia and Asia Minor. In the United States they are found on few of our experimental stations and are almost unknown on farms. The first determination is usually as to whether the sample is 2 rowed or 6 rowed. This can be ascertained readily by the presence or absence of the lateral kernels in the sample. If it is 2 rowed, of course there will be no lateral kernels. As shown in Plate IV, figure 1, these lateral kernels can be identified by the twisted character. On the spike their bases lie almost in the same plane as that of the central kernel. Toward the tip, however, they gradually turn in- ward until the planes of the furrows approach a right angle. When the kernel is laid upon the dorsal side, this twist of the furrow is quite conspicuous. The species intermedium usually can be dis- regarded, because of the fact that it occurs very rarely. However, it is separated easily from vulgare. The lateral kernels are not only smaller than those of vulgare, but the tips are either rounded or (somewhat rarely) pointed, showing that neither awn nor hood had been present in the spike. The adherence of the flowering ae is, of course, more appar- ent in the thrashed grain than in the spike itself, as the hulled and naked barleys are most easily identified by thrashing. The determi- nation can be made, however, without injury to herbarium material, for the fine cross wrinkling never occurs on the lemmas of the naked forms, and the freedom of the glumes is itself apparent at the Junc- ture of the lemma and palet. THE IDENTIFICATION OF VARIETIES OF BARLEY. OKT The color of the grain is also as apparent in thrashed material as in the spike. 'The determination of the awned or hooded character is next to impossible if the sample has been thrashed clean. Ordi- narily enough kernels still bear fragments of awns or hoods, as the case may be, to make this determination certain. If the barley has been clipped, the determination may be impossible. Naked varie- ties are more difficult to determine than hulled, and the identification must depend upon the fragments of awns and hoods which are likely to be present. Short, relatively thick kernels may be suspected of being the Nepal, which is the hooded, white, 6-rowed naked barley, but positive identification can not be made on this basis alone. These characters carry the identification as far as the variety. If it is desired to determine the subvariety, it is necessary to establish the minor variations. This is not always possible, but fortunately the most common variations are the easier to determine. The more rare variations may be ignored with safety in 99 per cent of the samples. The varieties with wide outer glumes can not be sepa- rated from those with narrow glumes unless internodes from the rachis are present with the outer glumes attached. This is usially the case; but even if it were not, there is small chance of a wide- glumed variety being present. Any difficulty encountered in the determination of color is usually confined to the separation of blue and white. As the blue color in hulled barleys is located in the aleurone layer, it is best to strip the lemmas from two or three grains, for weathering often so discolors them that it is impossible to see the blue color beneath. Purple color in these varieties is found in the glumes. In naked varieties - the color is more readily seen, but is difficult of determination in immature specimens. Until well ripened, some white varieties have a greenish cast which might easily be confused with the blue. The blue and purple do not develop until near maturity. In blue barleys especially the color may be very pale. In well-matured specimens, however, there is little difficulty in making the determination. The smoothness or roughness of the awns can be told if fragments of awns persist on any of the kernels. If the lateral nerves of the lemma are very scabrous, it may be taken for granted that the awns were rough. Smooth-awned varieties are so rare, however, that this may be disregarded. Density usually can be determined from thrashed specimens, al- though not with absolute certainty. In extreme cases the identifica- tion is made easily. As shown in Plate IV, figure 2, there is a transverse crease at the base of the lemma in the dense varieties. In the lax ones there is a small horseshoe-shaped depression. The dense varieties of 6-rowed barley usually have the base of the lemma elon- gated, especially in the lateral florets. In most varieties of inter- 28 BULLETIN 622, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. medium this extension is characteristic of the lateral florets of lax varieties as well. In barleys with awnless lateral kernels the obser- vation should be made upon the central kernel. In the naked varie- ties density can not be determined with certainty from thrashed specimens. VARIETIES GROWN IN FIELD CULTURE IN THE UNITED STATES. Students and experimenters usually are interested in the variation that occurs in a crop as a whole, but there are also times when they are concerned only with local forms. For this reason it has been thought advisable to include a short list of the varieties and sub- varieties which are grown in field culture in the United States. Although a very small percentage of the total number of forms is to be found, they are distributed through the groups in such a way as to be quite representative. The only forms which are entirely lack- ing are the deficient, wide-glumed, and smooth-awned varieties and subvarieties. The wide-glumed forms are not found in pure culture even at our experiment stations. Deficient barleys are grown at but few stations, and smooth-awned varieties at even a less number. The writer has a considerable number of smooth-awned selections in field. tests in cooperation with the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station and elsewhere. Hordeum vulgare pallidum and H. distichon palmella include most of the agronomic varieties grown. The greater proportion of varieties in each case is found in the lax subdivisions. The following key includes a few well-known agronomic: varieties in each of the more common subvarieties. KEY TO COMMERCIAL VARIETIES. Spikelets all fertile (G-rowed barleys). Lateral florets awned or hooded (sp. vulgare). Kernels hulled. Lemmas awned. Kernels white, blue, or purple (var. pallidum). Kernels white. Spike narrow, lax, nodding___________ subvar. typica. Represented by the agricultural varieties Man- churia, Oderbrucker, Tennessee Winter, and white strains of Coast (Bay Brewing), ete. Spike wide, very dense, pyramidal, awns widely SDrea Ging en ee ee subvar. pyramidatum. Represented by the agricultural varieties Win- ter Club (White Winter or Utah Winter), Tapps Winter, and Mariout. Kernels blues 2 ae ae ee ee subvar. coerulescens. Represented by blue-gray strains of Coast and several pedigreed selections of Manchuria. Kernels" black: = 3-2 eS ee var. nigrum. Represented by the agricultural variety Gatami. - THE IDENTIFICATION OF VARIETIES OF BARLEY. 29 Spikelets all fertile (6-rowed barleys )—Continued. ' Lateral florets awned or hooded (sp. vulgare )—Continued. Kernels hulled—Continued. AL STUVETT ASF ET OC Cs es eG a mre var. horsfordianum. Represented by the agricultural variety Hors- ford Beardless (Success Beardless). Kernels naked. Lemmas awned. ; Kernels white, blue, or purple (var. coeleste). Fer lS WA EC Been aie oe A a subvar. typica. Represented by Jerusalem barley and other naked varieties, usually not named. BERETA TVG) Sia UT ee Ee ines ee subvar. himalayense. Represented by the agricultural variety Hima- laya Hull-less (Guy Mayle). EET STO ULTS|o] Case a eae Ve es subvar. violaceum., Represented by the agricultural variety Black Hull-less. GEM INAS BN OOMe MPa tas ese se Cas hy ee ae ioe el aa var. trifurcatum. Represented by the agricultural variety Nepal (White Hull-less). Lateral florets rounded or pointed, neither awned nor hooded (sp. tnter- medium). Kernels hulled. Lemma of central floret awned or awnless (var. haxtoni). Lemma of central floret awnless______________ subvar. fonsum, Represented by the agricultural varieties Ar- lington Awnless, Famesh, and in the dense form by Nakano Wase. Central spikelets only fertile, lateral sterile or wanting (2-rowed barley). Lateral florets present (sp. distichon). Kernels hulled. Lemmas awneil. Kernels white, blue, or purple (var. palmella). Kernels white. Spike narrow, lax. nodding__..________ subvar. nutans. Represented by the agricultural varieties Hanna, Hannehen, Moravian, Princess, Chev- alier, ete. : Spike wide, dense, erect_____________ subvar. erectum. Represented by the agricultural varieties Svan- hals, Primus, Goldthorpe, ete. KMernelspblacksass257 3 eee pa ratid aves PCE Try var. wigricans. Represented by the agricultural varieties Black Smyrna and Black Arabian. Kernels naked. Lemmas awned. s f LEG es ch oVed Kier Shree ys hg sn AA pee steed oe a var. nudum. Represented by the agricultural variety Mc- Ewans, ete. No attempt has been made in the above key to distinguish between the agronomic varieties within a subvariety. It is hoped to make 30 BULLETIN 622, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. these separations in a later publication. In the varieties at present grown in America, separations are most difficult in the lax forms of the common 6-rowed barleys. In general, there are two groups. the Manchuria-Oderbrucker and the Coast. These groups are sepa- rated by the longer, heavier grain and the more tenacious awn of the latter. Within a group such as the Manchuria, identifications must be based on combinations of minor characters, such as the density of the spike, the nature of the hairs on the rachilla, the length of grain, and, if necessary, distinctive-culm characters and the length of the growing season. SUMMARY. The variations that occur in barley are of importance to the student, agronomist, plant breeder, and pathologist. They offer a wide opportunity for selection, breeding, and studies of disease resistance. In barley the forms are unusually numerous and clearly defined. The number and character of the types existing are more concisely indicated by a classification of variations than in any other way. The groups of barley have been arranged upon the basis of species, varieties, and subvarieties. Only major characters have been used in describing species and varieties; less important characters have been utilized in describing subvarieties. Under each subvariety there may be an unlimited number of agronomic varieties. Four species and 32 varieties are recognized. All groups have been made to conform with previous usage as far as possible. One of the principal aims of the writer of this bulletin has been to state clearly the form or group intended to be described by each published name. Except for their historical significance, the subvarieties would not have been continued, and no forms have been added to them. Tour varieties have been added. Lists of rejected terms and varieties are included. The keys can be adapted to the identification of thrashed grain by a number of characters. In the common agronomic varieties the chance of error in the identification of thrashed grain is slight. LITERATURE CITED. ALEFELD, F. G. C. = 1866. Landwirthschaftliche Flora... 3638 p. Berlin. ATTERBERG, ALBERT, 1889. Die Erkennung der Haupt-Varietiten der Gerste in den nordeuro- paischen Saat- und Malzgersten. Jn Landw. Vers. Stat., Bd. 36, p. 23-27. 1891. Die Klassifikation der Saatgersten Nord-Europas. Jn Landw. Vers. Stat., Bd. 39, p. 77-80. 1899. Die Varietiten und Formen, der Gerste. Jn Jour. Landw., Bd. 47, Heft 1, p. 1-44. BEAVEN, Hi. S. 1902. Varieties of barley. Jn Jour. Fed. Inst. Brewing, v. 8, no. 5, p. 542- 598, 12 fig. Discussion, p. 594-600. CARLETON, M. A. 1916. The Smail Grains. 699 p., illus. New York. Bibliography, p. 639-685. DALECHAMPS, JACQUES. 1615. De Histoire Genérale des Plantes... faite francgoise par Iean des Moulins. 2 v., illus. Lyon. Doxt, J. C. 1857. Flora des Grossherzogthums Baden. Bd. 1. Carlsruhe. ERIKSSON, JAKOB. 1889. Collectio Cerealis. Varietates Crealium in Suecia Maturescentes continens. Fasc. 1, 10 p., 2 fig. Stockholm. HALLER, ALBERTI DE. : 1776. Genera, species et varietates cerealium. Sermo II. Hordeum, secale, avena. In Novi Comm. Soc.. Reg. Sci. Gott., t. 6, p. 1-22, pl. 2-4 (fold). HARLAN, H. V. 1914. Some distinctions in our cultivated barleys with reference to their use in plant breeding. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 137, 88 p., 16 fig. Literature cited, p. 37-88. HEUZE, GUSTAVE. [1872.] Les Plantes Alimentaires. 2 v., illus. Paris. 1896-97. Les Plantes Céréales. ed. 2, 2 v., illus. Paris. HOcHSTETTER, C. F. 1848. Nachtraglicher Commentar zu meiner Abhandlung: “Aufbau der Graspflanze, ete.” ... In Flora, Jahrg. 31 (n. R., Jahrg. 6), No. 7, p. 105-118; No. 8, p. 121-185; No. 9, p. 140-152; No. 10, p. 154-167; No. 11, p. 171-188. HoFFMANN, H. 1877. Culturversuche. Jn Bot. Ztg., Jahrg. 35, No. 17, p. 265-279; No. 18, p. 281-295; No. 19, p. 297-805. pl. 3. JESSEN, C. 1855. Samenkatalog des Hidenaer Botanischen Garten. (Not seen.) KORNICKE,.F. A. 1873. Systematische Uebersicht der Cerealien und Monocarpischen Legu- minosen ... 55 p., 1 tab. Bonn. 1882. Die saatgerste. Hordeum vulgare L. sensu latiore. Jn Ztschr. Gesamm. Brauw., v. 5, p. 113-128, 161-172, 177-186, 1938-203, 205- 208, 304-311, 329-836, 3938-413, pl. 5-14. eas 1895. Die hauptsichlichsten Formen der Saatgerste...15 p. Bonn. 1908. Die Entstehung und das Verhalten neuer Getreidevarietiten. Hrsg. vor M. Kornicke. Jn Arch. Biontologie, Bd. 2, Heft 2, p. 8389-487. and WERNER, Hueco. 1885. Handbuch des Getreidebaues. 2 Bd. Berlin. LAMARCK, J. B. P. A. DE M. DE, and CANDOLLE, A. P. DE. 1815. Flore Francaise ... ed. 3, t. 3. Paris. LANGSDORFF. 1860. Landwirtschaftliche-Botanische Gartens der Gartenbauschule in Karlsruhe Kulturpflanzen. (Not seen.) a1 32 BULLETIN 622, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Linné (Linnzeus), CARL VON. 1748. Hortus Upsaliensis ... t. 1, 306 p., 8 fold. pl. Stockholmie. 1753. Species Plantarum ...t.1. Holmie. REGEL, ROBERT. 1906. Les Orges Cultivées de l’Empire Russe. 389 p. Milan. 1908. fachmeni s glatskimi ostfami. (Glattgrannige Gersten.) Jn Bul. Bur. Angew. Bot., Jahrg. 1, No. 1/2, p. 5-64, 84-85. (German trans- lation, p. 64485.) FLAKSBERGER, CONSTANTIN, AND MALzEw, A. I. 1910. Bazhnreéishifa formy pshenits fachmenei i sornykh rastenii Rossii. > (The most important forms of wheat, barley, and weed plants of Russia.) Jn Bul. Bur. Angew. Bot., Jahrg. 3, No. 6, p. 209-282, illus. Also reprinted. 7 RoeMeEr, J. J., and ScHuttss, J. A. 1824. Mantissa ... Sytematis Vegetabilium ...v. 2. Stuttgardtiae. ROVE es Hy. 1889. Illustrations of the Botany and other Branches of the Natural His- tory of the Himalayan Mountains, and of the Flora of Cashmere. 472 p. (and atlas of 100 col. pl.). London. SCHLECHTENDAHL, D. F. L. von. 1837. Hordeum coeleste trifurcatum H. Monsp. Jn Linnea, Bd. 11, Heft 4, p. 948-544. ScHRADER, H. A. 1838. Gramineae. Jn Linnea, Bd. 12, Heft 4, p. 428-476. SCHUEBLER, GUSTAV. 1818. Dissertatio Inauguralis Bonen sistens Characteristicen et Descrip- tiones Cerealium in’Horto Academico Tubingensi et in Wiirtem- bergia... 47 p., pl. Tubinges. Inaugural dissertation. SERINGE, N. C.. 1819. Monographie des Céréales de la Suisse... Jn his Mélanges Botan- iques, no. 2, p. 65-244, pl. Berne. 1841-42. Descriptions et figures des céréales Européennes. Jn Ann. Soe. Roy. Agr. Lyon, t. 4, p. 321-384, pl. 1-9, 1841; t. 5, p. 103-196, pl. 2-10, 1842. SERRES, OLIVIER DE. b 1615. Le Théatre d’Agriculture et Mésnage des Champs, 907 p., illus., ,_ fold. pl. Paris. STEUDEL, E. G. 1855 [1854]. Synopsis Plantarum Glumacearum, Pars. a. Gramineae, 474 p. Stuttgartiae. Voss, A. 1885. Versuch einer neuen Systematik der Saatgerste. In Jour. Landw., Jahrg. 33, Heft 3, p. 271-282. WILLDENOW, K. L. 1809. Enumeratio Plantarum Hortii Regii Botanici Berolinensis ... 1099 p., and sup. 70 p. (in 2 v.). Berolini. WITTMACE, L. 1884. Ueber eine neue Gerstenvarietait. (Abstract.) Jn Ber. Deut. Bot. Gesell., Bd. 2, p. lxi. 1885. [Ueber eine Astige Gersten-Aehre.| (Abstract.) Jn Sitzber. Gesell, Naturf. Freunde Berlin, 1885, p. 1-3. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FL.OM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY Vv , BULLETIN No. 623 § Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry ww le WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Piremereerenienae ee Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER July 22, 1918 CITRUS-FRUIT IMPROVEMENT: A STUDY OF BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE By A. D. SHamet, Physiologist in Charge, L. B. Scorr, Pomologist, and C.S. Pommroy, Assistant Pomologist, Fruit-Improvement Investigations, Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations. CONTENTS. Page Page PM EDOM CEIOM faye te oe cieciale = 2 <2 = = iri cain 9-1-2 1 | Minor variations of fruits.........--..-.-+--- 27 History of the Washington Navel variety...- 2 | Lessons taught by these investigations....... 27 Variability within the variety ...........--.- Srigeresentariomomdatasee spams am aeee eee aerate 29 Occurrence and frequency of bud variations. 5 | Comparative value of the strains..........-- 140 Objects of the investigations............---.- 7 | The unintentional propagation of undesirable Plan of the investigations........-....------- 7 Strains sees Sa ee a a ae Sa a soos 141 Methods of keeping performance records..... 9 | The isolation of strains through bud selection. 142 Descriptions of some of the important strains. 14 | Top-working undesirable trees...........-..- 144 Individual fruit variations..........-..--.-.. DAG eSummManyeeenere escent cincleiecion cic leiclereleice 145 INTRODUCTION. The Washington Navel orange is the most important citrus variety grown in California. The total orange crop of the State, based upon the shipments of a normal year, is about 39,500 carloads, of which approximately 27,000 cars are of the Washington Navel variety. In the report of the general manager of the California Fruit Growers’ Exchange for the year ended August 31, 1916, it is stated that a total of 37,229 cars of oranges and grapefruit was shipped from California during that period. The grapefruit crop amounted to about 300 cars. It is also stated in this report that the California Valencia orange crop of the year under discussion would amount to between 13,000 and 14,000 carloads. No mention is made of the size of the crops of the Mission Sweet Seedling, Mediterranean Sweet, St. Michaels, Bloods, and other varieties, which are now grown to only a very limited extent in California, probably not to exceed 1,500 1 Wallschlaeger, F. O. The world’s production and commerce in citrus fruits and their by-products. Citrus Prot. League, Cal., Bul. 11, p. 70. 1914. 14575°—17—Bull. 623 ——1 2 BULLETIN 623, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. carloads annually. From these figures it can be seen that the Wash- ington Navel orange crop for the year 1916 was probably between 21,500 and 22,500 carloads. In northern and central California, the Washington Navel variety is shipped largely during the months of November, December, and January, while in southern California the crop is mostly shipped from January to June, inclusive. Owing to large plantings of this variety in northern and central California which have not yet come into full bearing, it seems likely that its production in the State will be increased in the near future. The Washington Navel orange besides contributing such an important part to the citrus industry of California is extensively cultivated in the region of its nativity, Bahia, Brazil, and is grown commercially in Australia, South Africa, Japan, and some other citrus- growing regions. This remarkable development has occurred well within the past century and most of it during the last 25 years. HISTORY OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL VARIETY. The Washington Navel orange (Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck) origi- nated at Bahia, Brazil, apparently as a bud variation from the Portu- guese orange variety, laranja Selecta. This variety, commonly called the Selecta orange, probably introduced into Brazil by the early Portuguese explorers and settlers, is supposed to have come from India. In Brazil the Selecta orange produces fruits bearing seeds and is one of the important citrus varieties grown in the vicinity of Rio de Janeiro at the present time. The occurrence of navel fruit variations in many trees in these orchards is corroborative evidence of the origin of the navel variety as a bud variation from the laranja Selecta. As nearly as can be ascertained, the navel orange variation was first propagated about 1820 at Bahiat by a Portuguese gardener, who is said to have been the first person in Brazil to propagate plants by budding. The superior value of the seedless navel oranges in comparison with the seed-bearing Selecta fruits was soon recognized by the Bahians, and at the present time the navel orange has almost entirely supplanted the parent variety in the orchards at Bahia. In 1914 about a thousand acres of navel-orange trees were being cultivated within the municipality of Bahia,? while only afew indiyid- ual Selecta trees were to be found in that vies In 1868 the late William Saunders, Horticulturist of the United _ States Department of Agriculture, learned through a correspondent then in Bahia, Brazil, that the oranges grown there were seedless 1 Interview with Dr. V. A. Argollo Ferrao, agricultural inspector of the Eleventh District, Bahia, Brazil, November, 1913. 2 Estimate of the Brazilian agricultural exploring expedition of the United States Department of Agri- culture, 1913-14. BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE, 3 and of a superior character. Arrangements were made for the importation of several of the trees for trial in the United States. When inspected at Washington all the trees in this shipment were found to be dead. From a second shipment, made in 1870, twelve living trees were received. Buds from these trees were propagated In one of the department greenhouses on orange stocks grown for this purpose and were distributed to growers in Florida and California. In the distribution of these young budded trees, two of them were sent to Mrs. L. C. Tibbets, at Riverside, Cal., and were received and. planted by her in 1873. One of these trees, shown in Plate I, was transplanted in 1903 from the Tibbets homestead to its present location in the courtyard of the Glenwood Mission Inn at Riverside. When the two trees sent to Mrs. Tibbets came into bearing, about 1875, their fruits attracted much attention and aroused deep interest among many California citrus growers and propagators. ‘The fine quality of the fruits, the absence of seeds, the distinctive navel mark, and many other striking characteristics led California citrus growers and nurserymen to propagate the variety very extensively. The commercial success of the fruit in the markets confirmed the judg- ment of the early propagators and growers as to the value of the variety. The propagation and planting of the navel orange in Cali- fornia have been carried on extensively during recent years, until now it is by far the most widely grown citrus variety in the State. During the early stages of the development of this variety in California the name Bahia was proposed for it by Mr. Saunders. _ Other names were used locally, such as the Riverside Navel orange in the Riverside district. Because the two navel orange trees origi- nally sent to California had been received from Washington, D.C., the name Washington was used frequently at first to designate the variety. After the trees fruited, this name was changed to Wash- ington Navel. Gradually other names were abandoned and this name has since been used universally by citrus growers and others imterested in the citrus industry. In the selection of performance-record plats for these investiga- tions, every possible care was taken to determine that the trees in the plats were the direct descendants of the two Tibbets trees. There is every reasonable assurance that all of the navel-orange trees used in these investigations are descendants of those trees and for the most _ part but two or three bud generations removed from the parent trees. VARIABILITY WITHIN THE VARIETY. A study of individual trees in several Washington Navel orange orchards in southern California begun by the senior writer in 1909 revealed the presence of several strains of trees and fruits showing 4 BULLETIN 623, U.|S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. marked and important characteristic differences. The term ‘‘strain’’ as here used designates a group of individuals of a horticultural variety differmg from all other individuals of the variety in one or more constant and recognizable characteristics and capable of per- petuation through vegetative propagation. One of the theories most frequently advanced to account for the tree and fruit variations observed in the orchards was the possibility that the roots of such trees, or some of them, might be in so-called ‘“‘soul pockets,”’ or be influenced by other local soil conditions. The orchards in which the investigational performance record plats are located are situated on narrow mesas between low hills and a deep arroyo. The soil of these mesas is decomposed granite which has been washed down from the hills. A great number of soil analyses were made of samples secured within the areas covered by the root systems of trees of all the strains under observation, and such areas were found to be very uniform in character and composition. The influence of the stocks upon the scions was suggested as an- other possible cause of the frequent variability observed, but this idea was proved to be erroneous by the discovery of numerous cases where some of the most distinct strains were found in the same tree grown from a single bud and therefore upon the same individual stock. Later it was discovered that in the case of these diverse bud variations occurring in the same tree grown from a single bud, it was possible to isolate each of the important strains through bud selection in propagation, proving that the differences observed were true cases of bud variation. This variability of the trees and fruits of the Washington Navel orange is of fundamental significance from the standpoint of the fruit grower and in any study of the conservation and the stabiliza- tion of the variety as a whole. In the product of some groves, many oranges are found to be so poor as to be wholly unfit for the market. This condition frequently has been due to the presence of trees of inferior strains in the groves. These inferior trees reduce the returns from the grove in some cases to a point where from this cause alone it is maintained at a loss. Many of the existing trees of the variable strains show unusually strong vegetative growth but a low produc- tion of fruit, which is of inferior commercial value. ‘The poor com- mercial quality of this fruit is due in part to the following causes: Irregular and peculiar shapes not adapted to a proper arrangement in the ordinary commercial packages; undesirable and unattractive color; rough, ridged, corrugated, or ugly and uneven surfaces of the rinds; very thick peel; a large amount of coarse rag; a small amount of juice or juice of a sour and bitter flavor; or other fundamental inferior fruit characteristics. Trees of some of the strains were found to bear extremely large fruits, and in other instances very small fruits, BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 5 - both conditions being usually undesirable and unprofitable from the grower’s standpoint. Considerable differences in the time of ripen- ing of the fruits borne by the trees of some of the diverse strains in the same orchard were observed. This condition is objectionable in commercial orange growing, from the fact that frequently the dif- ferences in the ripeness of the fruits are not readily noticed by the pickers or packers. On account of the presence of trees of inferior strains in the orchards, it frequently happens that fruit from them is shipped together with fruits of superior quality borne by trees of the best strain. Sooner or later the results of this condition are felt by the grower, and his fruit is sold with difficulty and at a low price. In order to maintain the reputation of a brand the grower must furnish. regular and uni- form supplies of good fruit to the consumer. In most cases in Cali- fornia brands are made up of the consolidated crops from many orchards. In order to standardize as much as possible the pack under such brands, it is necessary to use extreme care in assorting the oranges from the several groves from which the fruit is produced. From the standpoint of community endeavor this condition offers an additional reason for standardizing the fruit so far as practicable by the standardization of the trees in the groves through bud selec- tion. The growing of inferior strains and the shipment of the fruits of these strains will sooner or later result in a loss of the reputation and prestige held by this variety. The success of the Washington Navel orange is the foundation upon which the citrus industry of California has been developed. The “importance of conserving the variety and maintaining it, now that its reputation has become established, must therefore be apparent to every thinking person. OCCURRENCE AND FREQUENCY OF BUD VARIATIONS, The total number of strains existing in the Washington Navel orange variety is unknown. Constant additions to the list are being made as knowledge of the variety grows and the extent of the investi- gations widens so as to include observations in a larger number of orchards and with a greater number of trees. Thirteen important strains have been found in the investigational performance-record plats. Many other less marked departures from the Washington strain have been found from time to time, but are, so far as is now known, of little significance or importance in the consideration of methods for the stabilization of the variety by means of bud selection. These infrequent and less important variations therefore have not been included in the list of strains; but with a wider knowledge of these variations gained from actual experience 6 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. it is possible that some of them may be found to be more important than they are thought to be at the present time. The great amount of variability within the Washington Navel orange variety has been thought by some to be coordinate with the abnormal conditions of its flowers and fruits. Subsequent investiga- tions of varieties of citrus fruits other than the Washington Navel orange have proved that all citrus varieties thus far studied are subject to the variability arising from bud variations in about the same degree as is the navel orange. Naturally many differences in fruits and trees are the direct result of the effect of environmental conditions. These seasonal fluctua- tions probably are of no importance from the standpoint of heredity and the stabilization of the variety, as apparently they are not trans- mitted by budding. Performance records showing these differences are, however, important from the standpoint of an investigation of cultural practices, in that they offer direct and valuable evidences of the effect of cultural treatment or other environmental factors upon tree behavior. These investigations have shown clearly that in cultural experiments, such as those in fertilization, irrigation, or other soil treatments, and in pruning or other methods of tree care, the effects of these treatments can well be measured by means of individual-tree records both before and during the experimental period. Individual-tree performance records afford exact data from which to draw conclusions as to the results of such experimental work. The extent of the occurrence of diverse strains of the Washington Navel variety in established bearing orchards was found in subse- quent investigations to be much greater than was apparent in the preliminary study of this subject. The lowest percentage of off- type trees, i. e., marked variations from the best or Washington strain, found in commercial orchards, has been about 10 per cent, and the highest about 75 per cent, of the total number of trees in the orchard. These figures do not refer to the many variations in fruits observed in the trees of the Washington or best strain, many of which are probably different enough from the Washington fruits to be classed as true strains, but owing to our incomplete knowledge of the subject they are of necessity for the present included with the Washington strain fruits. The name Washington has been adopted for the typical strain of the variety because it represents that type of tree and fruits which was originally intended for propagation by the growers. It is the strain upon which has been founded the reputation of the variety and which under present conditions is the most desirable from commer- cial and other standpoints for cultivation in California. BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 7 _ Tree-census observations in navel-orange orchards in California show a general average of about 25 per cent of trees of diverse strains, most of which are inferior to the Washington as regards both the amount and the commercial quality of the fruit. As a rule, the younger orchards show a larger proportion of trees bearing inferior fruits than the older orchards. This condition indicates that the prevailing methods used for the propagation of the Washington Navel orange variety are causing the deterioration or ‘running out” of the variety as a whole through the perpetuation of an in- creasingly large proportion of undesirables OBJECTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS. The objects of these investigations are (1) to ascertain the varia- tion which has taken place in the Washington Navel orange through bud variation; (2) to determine the extent to which undesirable variations have been propagated, as shown by the percentage of such undesirable trees existing in the present bearing groves; and (3) through improved methods of propagation to control the extent to which undesirable variations shall enter into the population of future commercial Washington Navel orange groves. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATIONS. These investigations have been carried on by means of individual- tree performance records and observations. The term ‘‘ performance record” is used here to mean the record of the number and the commercial quality of fruits borne by indi- vidual trees during a period of years. The term “ performance-record plat,’’ as used in connection with these investigations, means a group of trees grown under comparable conditions, selected for the purpose of determining the relative behavior of the trees by means of individual-tree records of pro- duction, observations, and descriptive notes and records. The individual-tree performance records made during these investi- gations were secured by giving each tree a number, by marking the trees annually with cloth streamers to prevent their accidental pick- ing by the regular ranch picking crew, by picking each tree sepa- rately and assorting its fruits according to grade and size, by weigh- ing each lot of fruit of each size and grade, by counting the fruits of each lot, and by recording these data on forms arranged especially for this purpose. In preparation for the work of assorting the fruits the season of 1909 was largely spent in citrus packing houses study- ing the grading standards in use in such houses at that time. Pre- liminary to each season’s work since then, similar studies have been made in order to true up and improve the judgment of the observer when securing the investigational performance records. 8 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In order that the data might be secured from trees located in orchards where the conditions were suitable for carrying out this work, a careful study was made in 1909 of many orchards in those districts of California where Washington Navel oranges were most successfully grown. Some of the conditions considered most desir- able in the location of the performance-record plats of navel-orange trees for use in these investigations were (1) the production of success- ful and profitable crops; (2) location on virgin land in order to elimi- nate any influence of previous cultural treatments; (3) the absence of any radical pruning or other tree treatments or cultural practices; (4) the absence or effective control of diseases or insect pests; (5) the location of plats on uniform soils where little or no fertilizer or manure had been used and where uniform irrigation and other cul- tural practices had been continuously followed during the entire his- tory of the orchards; (6) a knowledge of the history of the buds used in the propagation of the orchards and the character or kind of stocks used; (7) protection from cold, high winds, or other ‘climatic causes of tree injuries; (8) the prospect of a continuous ownership of the orchard for a series of years; and (9) as little as possible apparent variability of strain, so that the results obtained would be conserva- tive and fairly representative of the behavior of the individual trees from the standpoint of the variety as a whole. The preliminary survey of the Washington Navel orange districts made possible the selection of plats where these conditions were unusually uniform and particularly suitable for securing reliable and valuable data concerning individual-tree behavior. The ranches on which these plats were located are bounded on one or more sides by deep arroyos, thus providing good air drainage. In all cases these ranches are in the foothills and no other ranches are located above them, so that there was no possible influence on the perform- ance-record trees from higher lying orchards or cultivated lands. All possible precautions were taken to provide against causes of indi- vidual-tree differences other than those resulting from individual- tree variability. in the beginning it was considered most important to study the individual-tree variability within the Washington or best strain of the variety rather than to compare the behavior of the individual trees of the different strains. Later it was found to be equally impor- tant to consider the differences between strains arising from bud variations; therefore, plats selected subsequently were located mainly for the purpose of comparing the behavior of various strains of the variety. Inasmuch as the individual-tree performance-record work with the Washington Navel orange was, so far as known, the first investigation of this character with any citrus variety, the location of the plats was made without the knowledge which has since been Bul. 623, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. P930A—HP ONE OF THE TWO WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE TREES AT RIVERSIDE, CAL., GROWN FROM BUDS FROM TREES IMPORTED FROM BAHIA, BRAZIL, IN 1870. From this tree and its companion the navel-orange industry of California has been developed within the past 45 years. Photographed in March, 1916. e PLATE Il. PI104A—HP AND PI05A—HP Saath GaAs eee xe ty, i ETT I oe TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE WASHINGTON STRAIN OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. Bul. 623, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. SS Se Se eS PLATE III. Bul. 623, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. P1030A—HP RANGE, TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE THOMSON STRAIN OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL O Bul. 623, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. P1069A—HP TYPICAL WRINKLED FRUITS OF THE AUSTRALIAN STRAIN OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. BUD VARIATION IN THE°- WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 9 available for consideration in the location of similar plats of other fruits. The performance-record plats of the Washington Navel orange trees usually have included 100 or more trees. In some cases a smaller number, varying from 5 to 50 trees in a plat, has been used. All the plats on which detailed performance records have been ob- - tained are situated in two adjoining orchards, and in their selection all known interfering environmental factors in individual-tree com- parisons were avoided as far as possible. By the selection of these plats in uniform soil areas and in sections with the same elevation, like exposure, and comparable drainage conditions, it is believed that the results presented are less affected by fluctuations due to variations in soil fertility, moisture, or other environmental factors than would be the case were the records of all the trees in the orchards used for comparison. Records of a total of 743 Washington Navel orange trees are now being kept in this work. METHODS OF KEEPING PERFORMANCE RECORDS. In describing the methods developed in the course of these investi- gations for recording the behavior of individual trees in the perform- ance-record plats, the methods of procedure are discussed in the order in which they are carried out. This arrangement will be of interest in planning similar work in other locations or with other fruits, in order that the performance-record work may be done in the most natural and logical manner. TREE NUMBERS. The individual trees in the performance-record plats were given numbers, so that the data secured from the study of each tree and its fruit could readily be kept separate during the entire period of observation. In the beginning, the trees were given consecutive numbers. These numbers were stamped in metal tags which were attached by wires to the limbs of the trees. This method of num- bering soon became cumbersome and impracticable. As a result of a careful study of this matter, a method of tree num- bering was evolved which has proved to be satisfactory and has been adopted extensively in individual-tree performance-record and, re- lated work. By this method each tree is given a number consisting of three parts: (1) The number of the block or division of the orchard; (2) the number of the row in the block; and (3) the position of the tree in the row, always counting from some fixed point, as, for in- stance, the irrigation head. A tree located in block 5, row 6, and the seventh tree in the row has the number 5-6-7. Where several different orchards are under observation, the tree number in the performance-record notes is preceded by the number or name of 10 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the orchard or its abbreviation. This system can be adapted to the conditions in any orchard and to any method of orchard manage- ment. For instance, in one of the orchards where investigational performance-record plats are located it was found desirable by the owner to subdivide certain plats rather than to give each such sub- division a separate plat number. This explains the use of the num- bers 7:1, 7: 2, etc., as plat deen ene in tree numbers in some of the folate fables. In the case of bearing trees, this number can be painted on the tree trunk or on one of the main limbs, arranging the number in a vertical column in the form shown in figure 1. A common lettering brush and pure white- lead paint are _ best adapted for this purpose. Very young trees on which space is not avail- - able for painting the number may be num- bered by stamping or painting the number ona metal or other tag and attaching it to the tree. The tree numbers are always placed in thesame relative position on all of the trees in the orchard, for convenience in find- AN Se Roe act Ve. We ing them. Large, dis- tinct figures are made, Fic. 1.—Arrangement of the individual tree number on the trunk SO tee they are easily of a tree. legible. TREE MARKERS. Each individual tree in the performance-record plats is marked several weeks before picking with streamers of white cotton cloth (see figs. 3, 4, and 6), in order that the regular orchard crew will under- stand that they are not to be picked. Several streamers, about 1 inch wide and 8 feet long, «re tied to projecting limbs on all sides of the trees as high as can be reached conveniently. These markers are renewed every season. PICKING. The picking of the performance-record trees is done by trained men, and, so far as possible, the same men are used year after year BUD. VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 1G E in order to avoid possible errors which might be made by inexperi- enced pickers. Each tree is picked separately and its crop assembled at its base until needed for examination (see fig. 4). ASSORTING. All of the oranges picked during the day usually are examined that day, so as to avoid all possible injury to or changes in the fruit due to exposure. The fruits from each tree are assorted into three — grades: An Orchard (or first) grade including all merchantable oranges which show no marked blemishes or other conditions de- tracting from their commercial value; a Standard (or second) grade, P564A—HP lic. 2.—Apparatus used in obtaining investigational performance-record data from individual orange trees. including blemished and misshapen fruits and those of inferior appearance but of sufficient value for shipment; and Culls, or such fruits as are wholly unfit for the market. In addition to these grades a record is kept of all of the strikingly variable fruits, particularly those resembling the various strains of the Washington Navel orange and others showing marked characteristics apparently due to bud variability. The orchard and standard grades are assorted into the 10 sizes most commonly used commercially. This work is done mechanically by means of a small specially constructed rope and roller sizing machine, as shown in figure 2. It is similar in operation to the regular packing- house machines used for this purpose, but adapted for orchard use. Ayes BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The culls are not assorted in any way, but an explanation of the presence of any unusual number of them is noted. All of the fruits, including the drops on the ground under the trees, are secured by the pickers, those showing decay being kept in a separate box in order to avoid the spread of diseases to the sound fruits. WEIGHING. The fruits of each size in both the orchard and standard grades are weighed on ordinary small platform scales adapted for this purpose (fig. 2). Great care is used to secure accurate weights, inasmuch as under orchard conditions unusual precautions must be taken to avoid errors through the variable weights of fruit con- tainers, frequent changes in the location of the scales, and other causes. The culls are weighed and counted collectively. COUNTING. After weighing, the fruits of each size in the orchard and standard grades are counted carefully and the numbers recorded in the proper places in the field performance-record forms. During the counting the fruits of variable strains and others of special interest are set: aside for later classification and study. RECORDING DATA. The forms used in the orchard for recording the individual-tree performance-record data are shown in Table I. These forms are printed on both sides of sheets 64 by 4 inches in size, which are bound 50 in a book, a size convenient for field use. As soon as possible these records are transferred to annual sheets (see first part of Tables VII to TX), on which the data are summarized to show the total crop of each tree for the year. These summaries are in turn trans-. ferred to period forms (see Tables VIII and XII), on which the records for six years can be assembled for comparison and study. These two last-mentioned forms are printed on sheets 8 by 104 inches in size, arranged for binding in loose-leaf covers. The value of all performance-record data depends upon the accuracy with which it is secured and recorded. Too much emphasis can not be placed on the necessity for the adoption of all possible safeguards to insure the reliability of the data. A regular method of procedure in weighing and counting the fruits and recording the data has been adopted and adhered to in all the investigational work. Freedom from interruption is of primary importance, because any distraction from this work is likely to cause errors. It is also desirable that as far as possible the same person should secure the records on all the trees in any given plat for the entire season, and preferably for the entire period of the investigations. As soon as the fruit is examined and the necessary records secured it is hauled BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 13 to the packing house, except such samples as may be needed for further study. In view of the fact that during the performance- record work each orange must be handled several times, the greatest possible care is used in picking and handling in order to avoid as far as possible all mechanical injuries. Methods for securing commercial Sag igittnollanes performance records as a part of the regular fruit-picking operation are described and illustrated in United States Department of Agriculture Farmers’ Bulletin No. 794, entitled ‘‘Citrus-Fruit Improvement: How to Secure and Use Tree-Performance Records.” Taste 1.—Forms-used in investigational work for individual Washington Navel orange- tree performance records, showing the data from tree No. 3-14-27, Vivienda ranch, for the year 1914. {Horticultural and Pomological Investigations, B. P. I. form 264-1. The weights are expressed in pounds and ounces. ] se tig utvaantaig ode teifartbodie | 2 Bask ofsbat, showing he form for eon Grove, Vivienda. Plat 3. Row 14. Tree 27. | q Variety, Washington Navel. Strain, Washington. EBOUUS Orchard grade. Standard grade. Wienke eee ah | HALLOW Gis ses eee si ae at ees eens Size.|Welent.| hen || Stze.|Weight.| “Der || Protading 0c 8 ess | SE tle | oe a | eta ea | EVOL OW Saree eS oe oe Oe Ret eee ee eee PAM es Ol ed 250| 6-6] 19) 250| 0-15 pl Geen eee a6| 1914] 69) 216| 2-10 Ta ronsedee ernie EE: eMeerecy aie 200) 218 7 Gomennueest aoe arr i7e| cute | ie | sptenavel 20 iC ees 0) 0) ol eearcene Pe ey Pine) eg) oe me re | gg ee Slee i7|| 96| 0-0 ONS tou bicon enn 80 0-13 |- 1 80 0- 0 0 Date, February 24, 1914. Number of boxes, 1/3. | Culls, 38; weight, 17-4. Note.— Fine quality fruit. DESCRIPTIVE NOTES. In addition to the performance-record notes, detailed descriptions are made of representative trees and fruits of the different strains and variations in the orchard. Specially prepared forms are used in securing these data, so that all the records obtained will be com- parable and arranged in the same sequence for the purpose of intelli- gent study. These systematic notes are particularly valuable in interpreting the behavior of the individual trees and in obtaining information concerning the correlations of production and the physical characteristics of the individual trees and fruits. 14 BULLETIN 623,.U.’S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME OF THE IMPORTANT STRAINS. WASHINGTON STRAIN. The trees of the Washington strain, illustrated in figures 3 and 4 ‘before and after the crop was picked, are productive and tend to bear regular and successive crops of fruit. They have an open and somewhat drooping habit of growth and dense foliage with large P731A—HP Fic. 3.—A typical Washington strain orange tree of the Washington Navel variety located in one of the investigational performance-record plats. Note the white cloth streamers used to mark the tree. This tree after the crop was picked is shown in figure 4. The performance record of this tree for four seasons is given in rank §2in Table IV. dark-green leaves. The trees of this strain produce but few suckers, i. e., branches showing abnormally vigorous vegetative growth in contrast with the large amount of such growth produced by trees of some other strains of the Washington Navel orange. Fruit varia- tions are less commonly found in the trees of this strain than in the BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 15 trees of the other strains of this variety (see fig. 14). So far as observed no. flowers of this strain have been found in which the anthers develop pollen. The fruits, illustrations of which are shown in Plate II, are obovoid and of medium to large size. The rind is of medium thickness P 732A—H P Fic. 4.—A typical Washington strain orange tree of the Washington Naval variety in the investigational performance-record plat with its crop picked and assembled and ready for inspection. This tree is shown before picking in figure 3. The performance record of this tree for four seasons is shown in rank 82 in Table IV. and the texture is smooth and grained. The color of the fruit is bright orange; the rag is tender and of comparatively small amount; the juice is abundant and of superior quality, having a pleasing and sprightly subacid flavor. The fruits are seedless and the navel 16 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. usually is small, frequently rudimentary, with no development except in the rind. The Washington is the most valuable of all the Washington Navel orange strains on account of the high productiveness of the trees and the superior commercial quality of the fruit. The com- mercial characteristics of the oranges of this strain are not equalled in value by those of any other navel orange grown in California at the present time. THOMSON STRAIN. The Thomson strain, frequently called the Washington Improved or the Thomson Improved, has been extensively propagated com- mercially and is generally recognized in California as an established P545A—Hr Fic. 5.—A typical tree of the Australian strain of the Washington Navel orange (at the left) in comparison with a typical tree of the Washington strain (at the right). variety! Trees, individual fruits, and limbs bearing several fruits of this strain frequently are found in orchards of trees of the Wash- ington strain, showing that it is a common bud variation. The trees show an unusual degree of variability in the character of their fruits, one tree frequently bearing several distinct strains. The established orchards of this strain show tree and fruit variations to such an extent that this condition is recognized as distinctly detrimental to its commercial value. Most of the Thomson trees in the investiga- tional performance-record plats have produced one or more fruits. 1 In the Yearbook of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for 1911, pp. 436-438, the history and a com- plete description of this strain are presented by Dr. Wm. A. Taylor. At the time of the preparation of this. paper it was thought by most growers that the Thomson orange was an established variety of independent. origin from the Washington Navel orange. These investigations have shown that it is but a strain of the. Washington Navel orange. Bul. 623, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. TYPICAL COARSE FRUITS OF THE AUSTRALIAN STRAIN OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL i ORANGE. PLATE V. SA Sa P5I6A—HP Bul. 623, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. PII6A—HP TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE GOLDEN NUGGET STRAIN OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. - Bul. 623, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. Pie. 5 E i t PIOOA—HP AND PIOLA+HP TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE YELLOW STRAIN OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. Bul. 623, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. P1058A—HP Fia. 1.—STEM ENDS. P1060A—HP Fic. 2.—SIDES OF THE SAME FRUITS. P1I059A—HP Fic. 3.—AXIAL SECTIONS OF THE SAME FRUITS. TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE RIBBED STRAIN OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. LZ of the Washington strain every season during the period of observa- tion. From the standpoint of the study of the behavior of citrus- fruit variations, this strain is one of the most interesting of those under consideration. The trees of the Thomson strain are heavy and regular bearers, have an open and drooping habit of growth, dense foliage, and large dark-green leaves. As a rule, the trees of this strain are not as vigorous growers as those of the Washington strain under similar conditions. The fruits, illustrations of which are shown in Plate III, are similar in shape and size to those of the Washington strain. They differ from them mainly in having a very smooth rind of a bright reddish orange color. The rind of the Thomson fruits is thinner and the rag is more abundant and coarser than that of the fruits of the Wash- ington strain. The smooth texture, bright reddish color, and hand- some appearance of the fruits is of distinct value from the market standpoint. The juice usually is less acid than that of oranges of the Washington strain and is lacking somewhat in flavor. The undesirable characteristics of the rag and the inferior quality of the juice are detrimental to the reputation of the fruits of this strain. The fruits are seedless and the navels variable in size and arrange- ment, usually medium to small, occasionally rudimentary. Among the interesting fruit variations observed in the Thomson trees are those having the Thomson rind characteristics and the Washington rag and juice qualities, a Thomson-Washington strain; and the reverse of this condition, a Washington-Thomson strain. AUSTRALIAN STRAIN. The name Australian seems to have been used frequently on account of the resemblance of the trees of this strain to those grown in California from certain Australian importations. It has gradually been adopted by citrus growers to indicate the rank-growing, unpro- ductive Washington Navel trees which bear coarse, inferior fruits. As a matter of fact, the name is used frequently to include several distinctly inferior variations of the variety and it is here used in this collective sense.! The trees, an illustration of which is shown in figure 5, are either regularly unproductive or produce crops at irregular intervals. The typical trees have a peculiar upright habit of growth and usually show more than ordinary vegetative vigor. Many trees of this strain produce a very large number of suckers, which until recently have been highly prized for bud wood for use in propagation. The foliage normally is sparse and the leaves are comparatively small, narrow, 1Tm Bulletin 1, Division of Pomology, U. S. Department of Agriculture, on p. 67, under the head of “Navel (Australian),” the following statement concerning the origin of this strain occurs: “ Originally from Bahia, Brazil, by way of Australia and California. Tree shy bearer.” 14575°—18—Bull. 623 2 18 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and sharply pointed. The trees usually can be picked out in estab- lished orchards by the fact that unless freshly pruned they stand several feet above neighboring trees of other strains. ‘Efforts to induce fruitfulness in the trees of this strain by severe pruning or other similar tree treatments have been unsuccessful, the effect of pruning being to induce increased vegetative growth. The fruits from trees of the Australian strain fall into three groups: Those resembling Washington fruits except as to size and quality; those having a flattened shape with a peculiar wrinkled or ribbed appearance about the stem end, as shown in Plate [V; and those of large size and globular shape, with a very coarse, rough texture of rind, which is frequently correlated with an unusually thick rind and inferior quality of juice, as shown by its low sugar content. Illustrations of this last group are shown in Plate V. The Australian fruits are usually yellowish orange in color and are inferior in com- mercial value to those of the Washington and Thomson strains. The rag generally is abundant and coarse. The juice usually is small in quantity, of poor flavor and inferior quality. The fruits normally are seedless and have large navels, which, in some cases, form large protuberances. These detract from the appearance and market value of the fruits and are likely to be injured in handling. Under the operation of a sugar and acid ratio standard in commercial picking, the fruits of the Australian strain usually do not come up to the maturity standard during the regular picking season and there- fore must be left on the trees or discarded, making their production almost or wholly a total loss to the growers. Several trees of the Australian strain in the performance-record plats have been top-worked by using bud wood from Washington trees. The buds of the Washington strain in the Australian trees have made very satisfactory growth and have produced Washington strain foliage and fruits. As a rule, it has required from three to five years to bring the rebudded Australian trees up to the normal produc- tion of neighboring Washington trees. GOLDEN NUGGET STRAIN. The Golden Nugget strain,! like the Thomson, has been propagated commercially in California and is accepted as a distinct variety by many nurserymen and growers, having been introduced by the San Dimas Nursery Co., of San Dimas, Cal.,2 and by Mr. J. P. Engelhart, of Glendora, Cal. Its commercial cultivation is limited, being confined for the most part to a few small experimental plantings. In most navel-orange groves trees of this strain are of frequent 1 Sometimes called the Golden Buckeye. 2 Nursery catalogue of the San Dimas Nursery Co., 1903-4. In this publication the Golden Buckeye and Golden Nugget navel oranges are listed separately. ’ Personal interview with Mr. Engelhart, May 17, 1910. BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 19 occurrence. Some trees of the Washington, many of the Thomson, and a few of the other strains in the investigational performance- record plats have been found to bear individual fruits of this strain. Occasional limbs have been found in such trees producing typical Golden Nugget fruits consistently from year to year during the entire period of observation. This strain, as in the case of the Australian, is really made up of several groups, differing in some minor respects but having certain general ‘points of common resemblance. In the further study of this strain the characteristics of trees and fruits of these groups are being given careful consideration. In this discussion, however, the various groups constituting the strain will be treated collectively as belonging to the same strain, because at the present time the fruits of all are considered as belonging to one class from the commercial standpoint. The trees of the Golden Nugget strain are, as a rule, less vigorous growers than Washington trees, the habit of growth is drooping, and the foliage dense. The leaves frequently are of hghter color than com- parable ones of the Washington strain, and in many cases the trees are easily distinguished in the orchard by reason of the light-colored foliage and the characteristic dwarf and drooping habit of growth. In some instances the habit of growth, foliage, and other tree charac- teristics are almost indistinguishable from those of the Washington or Thomson strains. The fruits borne by such trees differ in some respects from those produced by the dwarf-growing Golden Nugget trees, but not enough to warrant a separate classification and descrip- tion at this time. The Golden Nugget fruits, illustrations of which are shown in Plate VI, usually are somewhat pyriform in shape and of medium to large sizes. The rind is thin and of smooth texture. The color of the fruit is light yellowish orange, the rag is coarse and abundant, and the juice is fairly abundant and frequently of distinctive quality. The fruit is seedless and has very small and usually only rudimentary nayels in which the opening is nearly or entirely closed. The fruits have a peculiar and unmistakable appearance, due in part to the presence of comparatively few oil cells, the ight yellowish color of the rind, and the pyriform shape of the oranges. In some cases the fruits bear narrow red stripes or characteristic red ridges or knoblike projections. _ As a whole, this strain is not a valuable one for commercial planting, and the presence of such trees in established navel-orange orchards is detrimental to the commercial value of the crops produced by these orchards. At the same time the striking characteristics of the fruits of this strain and their frequent and easily recognized occurrence in trees of other strains make it important from the 20 BULLETIN 623, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. standpoint of the study of the origin and behavior of Washington Navel orange strains arising from bud variations. YELLOW WASHINGTON STRAIN. The trees of the Yellow Washington strain usually are less produc- ‘tive than true Washington Navel trees. The habit of growth is somewhat erect and the foliage rather sparse. The leaves are likely to be small, slightly pointed, and light green in color. The fruits, illustrations of which are shown in Plate VII, are simi- lar in shape, size, and thickness and texture of rind to those of the Washington strain, but the color is markedly different, being a light yellow, which in some cases becomes orange yellow late in the season. The characteristics of the rag and juice are somewhat similar to those of the Washington strain, except that as a rule the fruits ripen a little earlier and the flesh is markedly lighter in color. The fruits are seedless and the navel is usually small to medium in size. In many cases the fruits bear characteristic small red stripes, or blotches, similar in appearance to those found on many Golden Nugget fruits. It is believed by some growers that this strain may prove to be of commercial value under certain soil and climatic conditions, and a few small orchards of these trees have been planted. The fruits occur as infrequent bud variations in some Washington strain trees in the performance-record plats. YELLOW THOMSON STRAIN. The trees of the Yellow Thomson strain under observation are similar in production, habit of growth, and foliage characteristics to the Thomson trees. The fruits resemble typical Thomson fruits with the exception of their color and some characteristics of minor importance. The color of the fruits of this strain is yellow to yellowish orange, and they frequently show small red markings. As a rule, the fruits seem to ripen somewhat earlier than those of the Thomson strain under com- parable conditions. This strain holds about the same relation to the Thomson that the Yellow Washington holds to the true Wash- ington strain. It is of little commercial value and is of interest mainly from the standpoint of the study of the variability existing in the Washington Navel variety. Individual fruit variations of this strain occur frequently in Thomson trees, and occasionally Yellow Thom- _ son limb sports have been found. RIBBED STRAIN. The habit of erowth of the trees of the Ribbed strain resembles that of the Washington trees except that usually they are more finely branched. As a rule, they are not as productive as Washing Bul. 623, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |X. P1072A—HP TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE PEAR-SHAPE STRAIN OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. P1037A—HP PLATE X. TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE PROTRUDING NAVEL STRAIN OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ~~ i eacae van cee ORANGE. Bul. 623, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI. Bul. 623, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. “~ P9343HP AND P9344HP TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE LONG STRAIN OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. P1028A—HP PLATE XII. TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE CORRUGATED STRAIN OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. Bul. 623, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. eres Se ee a ton trees. The habit of growth is open and drooping and the foliage semidense, in some cases the leaves being rather small and sharply pointed. The fruits, fliuermtions of which are shown in Plate VIII, figures ie wand 13), chewed are globular in shape and of small to nag trae size. The rind is thin and has a ribbed appearance, but is fairly smooth. The color usually is dull orange. The rag is tender and small in quantity, and the juice is abundant and of good flavor and quality. The fruit is seedless and the navel small and _ incon- spicuous. The principal objections to this strain from the commer- cial standpoint are the small size of the fruits and their fluted appear- ance. The fruits of this strain have been found to occur as occasional individual fruit sports in trees of Washington and other strains, and infrequently as limb sports in Washington and Thomson trees. BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. Dale PEAR-SHAPE STRAIN. The trees of the Pear-Shape strain usually are low producers, are finely branched, and have an upright habit of growth and rather sparse foliage of small, sharply pointed leaves. The fruits, ‘ihneimn fone of which are shown in Plate IX, are pyri- form in slomme. usually having a rather large collar or neck at the stem end, and are small to medium in size. The rind is rather coarse in texture and usually very thic« and is yellowish orange in color. The rag is abundant and frequently coarse and the juice is small in quantity and inferior in quality. The fruits are seedless and the navels usually small. This strain is of inferior commercial value, but of interest from the standpoint of its occurrence as individual fruit and limb variations in trees of the Washington and other strains. PROTRUDING-NAVEL STRAIN. One of the interesting strains of the Washington Navel orange is that in which the fruits develop large, secondary oranges, or navels, and large navel openings. The navel formations may be entirely, inclosed within the rind of the primary oranges, in which cases the fruits are usually elongated and abnormal in shape, or the secondary fruits may entirely protrude through the navel openings. Fruits with large interior navels are objectionable because they can not be eaten conveniently with a spoon. Fruits with protruding navels are subject to injuries in handling, which frequently lead to decay. The trees of this strain usually show more than ordinarily vigorous vegetative growth and have very large leaves. The fruits, illustrations of which are shown in Plate X, frequently are irregular in shape and large in size. The coarse, thick rinds are deep orange in color. The rag is coarse and the juice abundant and of fair quality. The fruit is seedless, and the navels very large and 22 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. objectionable. Because the character of the development of the navel inside the fruit can not always be determined by outside inspection, and for other reasons, these fruits often are overlooked by graders in the packing house and may be included in the regular pack. This strain is a frequent variation in Washington and Thom- son trees, LONG STRAIN. The trees of the Long strain are similar in appearance to those of the Washington strain and have about the same characteristics of erowth, foliage, and production. The fruits, illustrations of which are shown in Plate XI, are mainly distinguished from those of the Washington strain by their peculiar long and cylindrical shape, which makes them poorly adapted for packing in the present commercial package. The fruits usually are of small to medium size and in color, texture, and other characteristics of the rind are similar to the Washington strain. The rag is small in quantity and tender, and the juice is abundant and of good quality. The fruits are seedless, and the navels usually are small to medium in size. Fruits of this strain are found frequently as individual fruit or limb sports in Washington and Thomson trees. CORRUGATED STRAIN. The trees of the Corrugated strain resemble the Thomson, closely in production, habit of growth, and foliage characteristics. The fruits are very different from those of the other Washington Navel orange strains, being prominently ridged or corrugated, as shown in Plate XII. They usually are globose in shape and of large size. The rind is of medium thickness and the color deep orange. The rag is tender and small in quantity, and the juice is abundant and of good quality. The fruits are seedless and the navels small to medium in size. Fruits of this strain occur as individual fruit or limb variations in trees of the Washington and Thomson strains. On account of the peculiar and prominent marking of the fruits, this strain is one of the most interesting and important of those resulting from the bud variations of the Washington Navel orange. Its rather frequent occurrence and the successful transmission of its charac- teristics in propagation experiments furnish strong arguments for care in bud selection in the propagation of the citrus varieties. UNPRODUCTIVE STRAIN. The trees of the Unproductive strain, an illustration of which is shown in figure 6, have a very low production, are finely branched, and have a spreading habit of growth with sparse foliage. The leaves usually are small, narrow, and sharply pointed. The trees BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 23 frequently produce an excessive amount of bloom, nearly all of which drops early in the season, so that only a few fruits develop and reach maturity. The fruits usually are globose in shape and are either very small or very large in size. The rinds are coarse and thick, of a yellowish orange color. The rag is abundant and coarse, and the juice is scant and of inferior quality. The fruits are seedless and have medium to large navels, many of which protrude. The fruits of the Unproduc- P752A—HP Fic. 6.—A typical tree of the Unproductive strain of the Washington Navel orange. The performance record of this tree for four seasons is given in rank 475 in Tables IV and V, and its performance record for six seasons is shown in rank 150 in Tables IT and III. tive strain are almost worthless commercially and where they occur detract seriously from the value of the general crop of the grove. FLATTENED STRAIN. The trees of the Flattened strain are similar in appearance, habit of growth, and foliage characteristics to those of the Washington strain. The fruits, illustrations of which are shown in Plate XIII, are of medium size and are flattened at the stem and blossom ends. The rind is bright orange in color, thick, and of a coarse texture. The 94 BULLETIN 623, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. rag is of medium quantity and the juice fairly abundant and of fair quality. The fruits are seedless and have navels of ordinary size. The flattened shape of these fruits makes them poorly adapted for packing under prevailing conditions; otherwise, this strain is equally as good as the Washington strain m commercial quality. It occurs as single fruit and limb variations im Washington, Thomson, and other trees and as individual trees. DRY STRAIN. In addition to the 13 strains described above, one other, the Dry strain, might be added to this ist. The trees show a finely branched arrangement, somewhat resembling that of the Unproductive strain. The habit of growth of the trees is erect and the folage is dense, with small sharply pointed leaves. The fruits, ulustrations of which are shown in Plate XIV, usually are globular or oblong and of small to medium size; the rinds are very thick and very coarse in texture and usually are yellowish orange in color. The rag is abundant and coarse, and the juice is very scant, often hardly enough to measure, and of very inferior quality. The fruits are seedless and the navels usually medium to large. This strain has been found to occur in some orchards as individual fruit and limb sports in trees of the Washington strain. In some few cases under observation a considerable proportion of the trees in the orchards are of this strain, making the crop as a whole of very inferior commercial value. INDIVIDUAL FRUIT VARIATIONS, The individual fruit variations found in the trees of the Wash- ington or other strains are of fundamental importance in consider- ing the origin of the various strains under prevailing conditions. In the first performance-record work with Washington strain trees, it was found during the process of assorting the fruits that occasion- ally one or more fruits, very distinct and different from the Washing- ton strain, such as those of the Golden Nugget, Australian, or Thom- son strain, occurred in the crop. This condition led to a careful study of the occurrence of these fruit variations in trees of the Wash- ington and other strains before picking. It was soon found that these individual fruit variations, such as a Golden Nugget in a Wash- ington strain tree, corresponded in all particulars to the fruits borne by Golden Nugget trees in the orchards in which the performance- record plats were located. One of the first and most important individual fruit variations observed in Washington strain trees in 1910 in one of the performance- record plats was an Australian fruit. Shortly after the discovery of this single variation in the crop of a Washington performance- record tree, a limb in a near-by Washington tree was found to bear Bul. 623, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIII. P93I9HP TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE FLATTENED STRAIN OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. P9326HP PLATE XIV. TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE Dry STRAIN OF THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. Bul. 623, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XV. Bul. 623, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “NOSWOH_L MOTTSA HLYNO4-3NO GNV NOSWOH | SHLYNO4 -33YH1 ‘OL !LSOONN N3Q105 SQYIHL-OML GNV NOSWOH| GHIHL-3NO ‘G3SVau9O ‘6 {NOILOaS aasivy ‘8 ‘dagaly ‘2 :GSLVONHYOD ‘9 'dSN3LLV14 ‘G !ONO7 Sp ‘NOLONIHSVM ‘€ {LSO9NN N307045 ‘g !NOSWOH | ‘} ?GNg ATONIS V WOYS NMOYDH 3341 JONVYO TSAVN NOLONIHSVMM V Ad SNYOG SNIVYLS ASYSAIG 4O SLINUY dH-VLb0ld ‘aNg 3TONIS V WOUS NMOS 33YL V NI SLYOdS SWI] AB SNYOG SONVYO TSAVN NOLONIHSVMA SHL JO SNIVHLG G38SIY (G) GNV ‘GALVONYYOD (+) ‘NOLONIHSVM (€) ‘NOSWOHL (Z) ‘MOTTA (1) 3HL 4O SNSWIOSdS TVOIdAL dH-VEe90Id PLATE XVI. Bul. 623, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE, 95 a large number of these typical Australian fruits. A further study of this orchard revealed several trees bearing all or nearly all Austra- han fruits and having the peculiar upright habit of erowth so charac- teristic of the trees of that strain. P530A-HP Fie. 7.—A Wiesnpneton strain orange tree with a large limb sport of the Unproductive strain (shown at the right). An investigation of the occurrence of the single-fruit variations found in the Washington trees, as illustrated in Plate XV, revealed their occurrence in other trees as limb sports and in other cases as individual trees. A limb sport of the Unproductive strain occurring -— 26 BULLETIN 623, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in a Washington strain tree is shown in figures 7 and 8. Typical fruits of the limb sports borne by one tree grown from a single bud are shown in Plate XVI. This condition is conclusive evidence P541A-HP Fic. 8,—Trunk and main limbs of the tree shown in figure 7. The branch marked with the band of cloth is the Unproductive strain sport. that the origin of the diverse strains of trees in Washington Navel orange orchards is due to the accidental propagation of limb sports, and it is an important reason for obtaining performance records for use in the selection of bud wood for propagation. BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 27 MINOR VARIATIONS OF FRUITS. In addition to the widely different strains of the Washington Navel orange discovered in these investigations, many other less striking variations have been observed. The full significance and importance of these minor variations are not fully understood as yet, so that no extended discussion of their occurrence will be given at this time. Among these variations are those similar to fruit chimeras, an example of which is shown in Plate XVII, figures 1 and 2. In some cases fruits show clearly marked sections of two or more distinct strains. For instance, examples have been found of oranges show- ing unmistakable Washington sections, with the remainder of the fruits showing the Thomson strain; again, a section possesses Golden Nugget characteristics, while the remainder is the Washington strain to all appearances. In a few cases parts of individual fruits have been observed which are unlike any known strains of the variety, an example of which is shown in Plate XVIII. Asa rule, however, in the chimeralike forms studied so far, the variable individual fruit sections have been found to resemble some of the important strains previously described. . In the course of these investigations, many fruits having decidedly abnormal shapes or structures have been observed. For instance, twin oranges or those made up of two almost complete fruits with but a single calyx have been found. Other fruits have been seen which have resembled lemons externally to such an extent that persons not knowing of their occurrence on orange trees have thought them to be lemons. In a few fruits the navel has been found to be devel- oped as a complete secondary orange outside of the primary fruit. Some fruits have been found with a loose rind, like that of the tan- gerine. A number of oranges have been observed without any apparent navel development but otherwise similar to Washington Navel fruits. 1-69-10 128.6 | 364 82.0 1.10 (ee oa 10:1-32-11 | 217.4] 451 86. 4 ROAM UT SEs see 7:1-67-11 127.3: | 365 84.0 - 36 ore 10:1-382- 5) 216.1] 433 85:45 242) |( 119. 7:1-66-15 126.4 | 333 82.2 - 84 Udine See 10:1-32—- 8} 215.9 | 449 S8H One 2a 52) ||| PL 20 Rae 7:1-66-14 122.6 | 349 79.4 72 (i eee 431-2) 214.4] 454 78.6 SEN pad es ee *7:1-66— 6 119.4 | 325 76.4 -92 Tiers a 10:1-31- 3.| 214.1 438 SoHOMT ASO 1O2e ee 721-6914 118.7 312 79.6 -48 Ose Se 10:1-31— 8)) 211..0'| 433 83. 8 pists} pa asaaee 7:1-68-11 118.6 | 328 76.8 85 ees 3-14- 3) 211.0} 434 85.6 280nl| L244 eee 7:1-69- 7 116.3 | 329 72.6} 1.15 Bsa Bes *10:1-28- 1! 209.5} 451 82.0 DS a 2oe oe 7:1-67-14 113.0 | - 317 82.3 57 (WO see aoe 4-23-28 | 209.4] 465 79.6 380 || 26 2e nee 7:1-65-11 112.0 | 307 80.0 -81 B02e ss. 10:1-31-11 208.3 | 479 S2HON | el OOR! La iee ee 7:1-69- 9 LTT 6)| 213271 (522) 1) 1538 SLE EE oe 7:1-65-21 | 207.6 | 548 80.0 309) || 128522 - 7:1-66— 7 117.5 | 291 79.8 - 69 S22 eae 10:1-32— 2; 207.1 | 425 83.9 EUS IPSs be 7:1-67-10 | 111.4] 317 79.0 -41 Bose. 6:1-70- 9} 205.6} 476 86.0 SAL WIR ee ce *7 21-67-15 110.1) 318 78.8 ~12 BA a) ee 10:1-28-11 | 204.4 | 458 CERO alesse ce *+7:1-68- 7 108.0 | 319 73.4 -63 Bose ee ae 10:1-29- 5 | 202.4! 430 Soaa Ge Ate || lose ee 7:1-66-— 8 | 106.4} 308 76.3 42 Oecesse 7:1-65-22 | 201.9 | 560 80.4 x09) || Vooseae 7:1-65-12 105.6) 293 81.6 - 85 NPS cists 4-30-5 | 201.3] 393 80. 6 BPH fail aay reese 7:1-68-15 | 105.2] 284 78.3 ow S85 22/5. *10:1-32- 1 201.2 | 435 82.2 64 |/°1385....- 7:1-68- 6 104.4 | 297 (ASG) eel BOE ee 10:1-29- 1 197.0 | 427 S356n1 36) eos *7: 1-68-13 100.8 | 284 78.2 - 46 908 re 10:2— 7-13 195.5 | 419}, 78.6] .36 || 137..--- *+7:1-67-12 100.2 | 272 71.8 i Qe sese 4-3-6 193.0] 344 822641) 2 S44 NT B8e se +7:1-68- 9 100.2 | 308 74.8} 1.47 Oigapee 10:1-30- 4 192.7 | 388 S330F 2 64 1 139 sees: +7:1-67- 8 99.6 | 292 78.6 ADL 93.2... *10:1-29- 9 | 188.0} .379 85. 0 -40 || 140...-- hez1-67— 7 98.2 | 278 77.4 -90 4a ssa 4-31- 3 187.3 | 402 had 169) (p14 *+7: 1-68-10 92.5] 267 75.8 15 CO AGRE 10:1-30- 6 | 186.3 |. 369 83.6 -81 | 1 eto: 77: 1-67- 9 85.5 | 252 69.6 | 3.37 eases 4-17-16 | 183.6) 348 79. 2 SOM la oeeeee +7:1-67- 6 84.3] 243 80.8 | 1.44 fs: Bese *4-18- 1 176.7 | 316 to 451 ll ga be [to ee 77:1-68-14 | © 83.1 | 239 73.0 - 63 08 eee 7:1-65- 8 | 173.7] 468 84.8 -43 |) 145. -..- *+7:1-68- 8 Uso i> Aly 72.6 «ol OOPS: 10:1-28- 7 173.7 | 339 SSx6H elas AG eee +7: 1-68-12 76.5 | 224 74.0 -58 LOOSE =a *7:1-65-10 | 172.8, 431 SUG TAG)! 147 7: 1-66-12 72.6) 198 6552) |, 9252 OL 7:1-69 6| 164.4] 450 76.6 SA0H| Agee ss *+7 21-67 -13 69.5 198 76.3 - 40 ODM eee 7: 1-65-13 162.6 | 442 78.6 -45 || 149..... +7: 1-66-10 68. 6 180 73.6 le LOSES == *7:1-69-11 161.3 | 442 81.8 102) ||PLOOEze 2 *+7: 1-65-23 62.7 178 79.2 1.40 MOD ao 25: 10:1-30-11 153.8 | 344 84.2 1.98-|) 15! 2... | *f721-52= 3 55.8 | 119 63.0] 1.68 OBES 7: 1-69-13 152.1 | 405 | 84.8 «20 Table I shows not only the great variations in the average quan- tity of fruit produced by different individual trees, but also the per- centages of the Orchard grade, or first-grade, fruit. The number of variable fruits shows the variations in the uniformity of the fruit. To indicate more fully and accurately the real variations between the different trees and their true relative values to the investigator and the orchardist, it is necessary to consider the yearly record of each tree. The complete performance records of 35 representative trees of the 151 on which data have been secured for six years are given in Table III. This list was made by selecting within each strain those trees whose average total crops were nearest the multiples of 10 pounds. This basis was adopted in order to remove all chance for any personal bias in the selection of the trees. } 1 ' ’ ae = ! = i ' ne I aa ieee el baa G2QSS |i Ses ey *°QSBIDAV Saad Beas esseuoulbeaes lec ase ee see CT6I pele ieoameen lay talk Pickle cP eee eh Ok ica] ed aes | oes wl | hee os oe | as GISCOLs|h aa as Hee ae ST6T (ae Mipelesets pas Seas hae, Ieee ae Soul Pr 2 aGLGr =) ceuee cess Eas een era Pi=6G.5 sae pie ae earns TI6T Hw ariel Naam age end cana | Ose O ical Foe a are res OT6T Wl | | sy TIN B cael 5 Vd L oF 6 Fg | TE | O98 6L | ¥'6 GL | SF L 9% 9 7G & 60 t Lo 89 S268 seo Se 7" osBIIAV = a es pence rel phe 4 S29 ST “| -KISTE | 9G" |. 9 SST | G8") G.-6L |'Se 8-9 | st | eo) 9 PesGen | eli G-o 1% 6-0 |% ¢-O | TST | ct-82 CI6T = Se OF 205-0) 110) 0-0 &G y-T |8 8b |6 6 =p |} OL |-ct59 | 2. |) 6be- 12 OI-e | & ST-0 | 9 T-L | 89 «| 4-96 FI6T oes |-0. 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SS reer qa so|o jo @ |r |& |or |9-| ee | a | Gor | gs | OT | 92 | SOT | 2a | ee | 63) 68 | SF | O'OT | SGT | G69 | **Q5tIOAV | Se a ee ere et eC loi re fiat resend | iar | Rees [Si NAS, Pie sea S| See RS | Rave 2a crea Ces a) °. i G 0 0-0 |0 0-0 |0 0-0 |? 9-6 | OT PI-Z Re ROS Ste ROG hGis2 96 | PI-8 9 OI-T € II-0 | SIT “ST6T 5 ~ ; 0 0 0-0 |0 OPFOR sO) 0-0 |0 0-0 |? 6-3 |G -- < A va fe) H ies) A — i 1) < = ic ea ica A = A eo) > aH < eS (aay a 5 ~Q COOr-ONE~ £6 69 69 LIT T&T 88 —d0.10 [810.L, 68 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The following notes regarding some of the methods of compiling Table HII may assist the reader in understanding it. . During the season of 1910 when these investigations were begun, the fruit of the several sizes was not separated into the Orchard and Standard grades and no record of the fruit of the Cull grade was made in securing the data, but in determining the average annual produc- tion of cull fruit the 6-year period was used as a basis, so that the results would be comparable with the averages for the other grades and the total crop. Variable fruits were first recorded during the season of 1912. In succeeding years the observers gradually became familiar with an increasing number of forms of such variations and recorded them as they were observed. This accounts for the general increase from year to year in the number of such fruits recorded in these ‘lists. This increase in the number of variable forms observed and recorded results in a lower average than would have been the case if all the forms had been recognized and recorded for the entire period of the investigation. In expressing the averages of weights in these tables it was found impracticable to retain more than one decimal. The exact decimal expression of ounces as a fractional part of a pound extends to four places, but only one decimal place has been retained. In expressing the averages for the number of fruits occurring in different groups, no decimal has been retained except when the average number is less than unity. Hence, it will be found that the totals of averages will sometimes vary slightly from the average of the totals of the corre- sponding numbers. The fruits of the Cull grade are not assorted into sizes, and on this account the total figures for the weights and numbers of fruits of the various sizes represent only the commercial crops of the trees. A very heavy freeze occurred over most of the citrus sections of southern California in the winter of 1912-13, resulting in more or less injury to the foliage or trees in many groves. In nearly ali localities many mature fruits on the trees were frozen, so that they became partly dry and hollow. Where it was possible to distinguish the frozen fruits from the sound ones they were assorted into the Cull grade, which accounts for the large number of cull fruits in the rec- ords of many of the trees for the year 1913. In order to show the method of interpreting these individual-tree performance records and of applying the knowledge gained from them, the following discussion is presented of the data recorded from repre- sentative high and low producing trees of the Washington strain. The records of tree No. 7: 2-37-1, listed in rank 11 in Tables II and III, show it to have produced an annual crop during the 6-year period averaging 298.8 pounds, and except for the reduced yield in the year of the freeze it produced a fairly uniform quantity each BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 69 season after the increase in 1911. Contrasted with this record is the annual average yield of 100.8 pounds produced by tree 7: 1-68-13, listed in rank 136 in the same tables. This tree also shows a fairly uniform crop throughout the periods, but with a reduced yield during the last two seasons. It will be noticed that while the weight of the average crop of the tree ranked No. 11 is practically three times that of the other tree, the average number of fruits produced is only slightly more than twice as many. A determination of the average weight per fruit gives comparative results of 0.5 and 0.35 pound. The most desirable commercial sizes of the Washington Navel oranges are those which pack 126, 150, 176, and 200 to the box, the highest prices usually ' being received for the-126 and 150sizes. A fruit weighing 0.5 pound is generally of the 150 size, while one weighing 0.35 pound is about size 200. An inspection of the number of fruits of the various sizes borne by the two trees shows that the tree ranked No. 11 had more of the 150 size than of any other, while the other tree. produced the largest number of the 200 size. Comparing the number of fruits of the 126, 150, 176, and 200 sizes produced by the two trees, we find that the highest producing tree bore approximately 63 per cent of these desirable sizes, while the other tree had only 45 per cent of the same Sizes. A comparison of the relative proportions of high-grade fruit pro- duced by these trees shows again the superior value of the high- producing tree, for it had 82.6 per cent of the Orchard grade, or first- erade, fruit, while the other tree had only 78.2 per cent of this grade. The number of variable fruits found on these trees was very small, being only 0.43 per cent of the total number of fruits in the case of the high-producing tree and 0.42 per cent on the other tree. It will be seen that this and similar high-producing trees are of superior value, not only on account of their high production, but also because of their large proportion of fruit of the most desirable sizes and their high percentage of first-grade fruit. These conditions also make such trees of special value to the propagator as sources of bud wood for nursery propagation or for rebudding older trees of undesirable strains. In Table IV are given the average total crops of the 481 trees in the record plats on which data have been secured for four successive years, and in Table V are presented the annual detailed performance records of 64 representative trees from this list. These tables are similar in character to Tables II and III, but they present data for a 4-year instead of a 6-year period. The trees listed in Table V were chosen on the same basis as those in Table III, but in order to reduce the length of the table it was necessary to omit some of the trees of the Thomson, Golden Nugget, and Yellow Washington strains. 70 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie LV.—Summarized statement of the average annual production of 481 Washington Navel orange trees for which detailed performance records were obtained for four years, 1912 to 1915, inclusive. [Detailed performance records of the trees marked with an asterisk (*) are shown in Table V. The strain to which each tree belongs is shown by abbreviations, as follows: A= Australian, GN= Golden Nugget, ST=Sporting Thomson, SW=Sporting Washington, T=Thomson, TW =Thomson-Washington, U= Unproductive, W= Washington, Wr= Wrinkled, WrA= Wrinkled Australian, W T= Washington-Thom- son, YT= Yellow Thomson, YW= Yellow Washington. ] / E Annual crop produc- | & Annual crop produc- = tion, 4-year average. = tion, 4-year average. | dq z zs ls|tel2. FH ,|glzsls a| 8 © 3 Be Obs eee an tee = 2 s H len es S| 8 Has Pe = HE sc hes o B t= ee Si Be] ae | H a A Ogee = a iS Fie | AO e aie | Lbs. P. ci:| P-ct.\ Lbs P.ct.|P. ct. 1 He *3-14-27 | 412.5 | 850 | 77.7 | 0.51 || 67 | W.. 4-26-13 | 263.8 | 603 | 78.5] 1.08 2 Wies = *3-12-28 | 410.9 |1,036| 76.0] .72 68 | W...| SM- 3-25-12 | 262.9 | 704 | 77.4] .71 CaavVve as 11-52-13 | 406.7 | 945 | 84.1] .67 69 | W.. 9- 3- 4 | 262.8 | 566 | 80.5 | 1.06 aT Wiese *11-52-15 | 388.5 | 905 | 83.4] .55 HOo\) Dee 5-38- 4 | 262.2 | 741 | 80.6 | 2.74 ee Wese = *3-13-29 | 369.9 | 815 | 76.5 | 1.14 WL | Wi 10: 1-31- 4 | 260.4 | 577 | 79.5 57 GO Wee. *3-13-28 | 361.6 | 861 | 76.6] .70 (PRAYER 9- 6- 4 | 260.2 | 601 | 79.6] .58 @ | Were *3-23-27 | 349.8 | 874°] 77.9 | .77 odes *10: 1-31-10 | 260.1 | 597 | 75.9] .83 8) W... 3-12-29 | 348.3 | 788 | 77.8] .80 14 meee 5-37- 7 | 259.4 | 714} 84.7] .49 9 | Wi... 11-52-14 | 346.0 | 795 | 83.3 | .88 || 75] W-. 4-19-33 | 259.4 | 585 | 69.8] .94 10 | W... *3-12-30 | 338.5 | 721 | 73.1 . 87 76 | W. 10: 1-29-10 | 258.9 | 604 | 81-7] .41 BL Wie 3-14-26 | 336.3 | 744 | 81.7 | 1.08 hte Wie 7: 1-52-22 | 258.1 | 618 | 80.4] .61 12 | GN.. *8-16-20 | 333.7 | 784 | 60.0 | 4. 7 hata Aa he 10: 1-28- 6 | 256.6 | 562 | 83.1] .98 13 | W.. *7:2-34- 2 | 326.7 | 742 | 75.1] .65 || 79) W.. 10: 1-29- 3 | 256.6 | 584 | 80.9] .68 14 Wise 3-22-27 | 323.2 | 762 | 80.3 | .7 80 | W.. 10: 1-29-12 | 255.9 | 577 | 80.0 | 1.04 ye Ae 11-52-12 | 321.8} 784 | 84.1] 1.15 |} 81) W..-| 10: 1-28-12 | 255.8 | 614 | 83.3] .73 16°) Wi. *4-27-16 | 320.3 | 681 | 76.3 7 825| Wis. 7: 1-57-10 | 254.9 | 644 | 82.9] .36 Lh Wes 7: 2-37- 1 | 312.4 | 647 | 78.8 43 i( 83°) Des. 5-41- 3 | 254.5 | 679 | 86.6) .44 18 | W... *7: 2-25- 1 | 309.2 | 686} 80.6 | .7 845 AW 4-18-19 | 254.3 | 604 | 71.3] .30 LOW ae, 10: 1-28- 9 | 307.7 | 852 | 80.9]. .41 85) | Wise 7: 2-30- 3 | 254.2 | 584 | 82.8] .65 20 | W...- 3-13-25 | 304.8 | 661 | 77.8] .53 86 | W...| SM- 3-30-17 | 253.6 | 713 | 81.0 | 1.26 21 | W...| 3-14-23 | 303.3 | 622] 81.3] .56 87 | W.. 4-23- 2 | 253.2 | 525} 840] .48 22 | TW .} *5-41- 7 | 303.1 | 820 | 82.8} .46 88)/ Ws: 6: 1-58- 1 | 253.2 | 662 | 83.0] .38 23.) W:2.| 103, 1-29- 2').301..9'} 768°) 76.4 | .59 89 | TW. 5-39- 6 | 252.9 | 666 | 85.0 | 1.05 24) W:.:! *7: 2-30- 1} 301.8 | 688 | 78.2] .65 }/ 90} W...| 10: 1-28- 5 | 252.8] 565 | 84.7] .94 25; W...| *7: 2-32- 3 | 289-5-| 676-| 73.1 -41 OC Wass 7: 1-52-16 | 252.5 | 669 | 85.0] .19 PA a ee *5-36— 1 | 287.6 | 754 | 75.7 | 3.25 92 | W.s: 4-23- 4 | 252.2 | 517 | 75.6] .68 21| Wise. 10: 1-29- 8 | 287.4 | 614 | 76.6) .98 sn | Were 10: 1-82- 3 | 251.2 | 550 | 81.5] .42 28 | W... 3-14-25 | 287.0 | 590 | 80.2} .98 OAS ibe 5-42— 7 | 251.2 | 572 | 88.5 | 1.57 29 | W... 5-40- 4 | 286.6 | 825 | 84.9 | 1.61 Saya feed Nes *5-41-17 | 251.1 | 743 | 84.3 | 1.18 30; TW. 5-41- 6 | 285.6 | 900 | 83.6 | 2.48 96 | W.. 10: 1-30- 7 | 250.5 | 545 | 75.8] .79 31) W...| 10: 1-82- 6 | 285.0 | 652 | 81.9]. .35 || 97) W-. *Q- 4~ 3 | 249.7 | 608 | 75.6 | 1.04 32 | To. 5-40- 5 | 284.5 | 765 | 87.7] .78 ||- 98 | T-... 5-39 4 | 249.3 | 780 | 87.2 | 1.22 33 | W.. 4-23— 3 | 281.4 | 602 | 78.8] .80 99°) W.- 3-17- 4 | 249.0 | 576 | 75.7 | .57 Saal aWie *9- 2- 5 | 280.7 | 631 | 84.5] .63 || 100 | W.. 7: 1-52-15 | 248.6 | 675 | 83.6] .19 35 | W.. 7: 2- 8 1) 279.1 | 591 | 82.0) .30/| 101) W.. 10: 1-30- 2 | 248.3 | 576 | 81.8 | 1.79 36 | W.- 7: 2-17- 2 | 279.0 | 684 | 83.0] .56 || 102) W.. 3-13- 4 | 247.3 | 582 | 77.8] .62 Ditewy Les 5-38- 6 | 278.2 | 762 | 82.8 | 1.02 |} 103 | W:. 10; 1-29- 7 | 246.5 | 587 | 81.3] .82 38 | W.. 7: 1-59-11 | 277.6 | 693 | 83.5) 226 || 104) W.. 4-28-15 | 246.5 | 611 | 76.6] .38 39 | iVie 7: 2-25- 3 | 277.2 | 628 | 80.2 | .29 || 105 | W-...| SM-— 3-28-14 | 246.4 | 634 | 74.9 | 1.50 40 | W.. 10: 1-30- 9 | 275.8 | 582 | 80.9 | 2.23 || 106 | T... 5-36- 7 | 246.1 | 661 | 82.8] .53 Ca ae 5-42- 5 | 274.4 | 787 | 87.7 | 1.14 || 107 | W.. 10: 1-28-10 | 246.0 | 593 | 81.6] .59 42 | W.. 10: 1-30- 3 | 273.5 | 630 | 84.7] .31 || 108) ST. *5-40- 2 | 245.0 | 730 | 76.9 | 7.30 43] W.. 10: 1-28- 8 | 273.5 | 672 | 79.2 | .45 || 109 | W.. 10; 1-82- 7 | 244.9 | 553 | 77.5 | .87 Es AN? 5-37= 3 | 273.4 | 766 | 82.2 | 1.24 || 110} T... 5-32- 5 | 244.9 | 698 | 70.9 | 1.19 45 | W.. 7: 2- 2-1 | 273:1 | 625 } 80.3} .37 || 111 | W.. 10: 1-28- 4 | 244.7 | 556 | 81.4] .95 46) W.. 7: 2-31- 1 | 273.1 | 638 | 77.8 | .28 || 112) W...| SM- 3-24-15 | 244.6 | 692 | 72.3] .29 47 |-W.. 7: 2-32- 1 | 272.9 | 593 | 84.8) .51 || 113] T... 5-41- 5 | 244.1] 711 | 84.3] .49 48 | W.: 10: 1-31- 5 | 272.5 | 575 | 80.5 | .52 || 114] T... 5-36- 6 | 243.2 | 680 | 79.3 | .51 49 | W.. 10: 1-31— 7 | 272.5 | 641 | 7623) 67 | 115) We: 7; 2-82- 4 | 242.0 | 508 | 77.8 | 1.14 50 | W.. 3-13-27 | 272.0 | 757 | 74.2 | .58 || 116} W.. 10; 1-32-11 | 242.0 | 530 | 84.5] .72 51 | W.. 10: 1-32-10 | 271.9 | 615 | 79.3} .41 || 117 | W-.- 10; 1-31--1 | 241.8 | 558 | 81.4] .68 Lyte tad ae 5-42- 2 | 271.6 | 800 | 81.2 | 5.63 || 118 | W...| SM-— 3-29-12 | 241.4 ; 645 | 77.0] .78 53 | W.. 9- 2-2 | 271.5 | 605 | 81.3] .96 BOR eal ae 5-36- 4 | 241.3 | 697 | 82.1] .86 ry 4g id be *5-42— 3 | 271.5.| 779 | 83.8 | 1.22 || 120] W-.. 7: 1-57-15 | 240.7 | 620 | 84.3 | .85 55 | W.. 7: 2-31- 2 | 271.1 | 625 | 83.1 .96 |} 121 | W.. 10: 1-31- 6 | 240.4 | 529 | 81.8] .81 56 | W.. 10: 1-32- 9 | 270.3 | 637 | 80.5 | .16 || 122) W.. 9 4-6 | 240.4 | 529 | 80.4 | 1.38 57 | W.. *9— 3- 6 | 269.9 | 648 | 83.8 46 || 123 | W-- *Q- 5- 5 | 240.1 | 519 | 77.0] .64 58 | W.. 4-28-14 | 269.7 | 634 | 78.1] .60 || 124) W.. 10: 1-29-11 | 240.1 | 646 | 84.0] .46 59 | W...| SM-— 3-26-14 | 269.2 | 668 | 78.6] .37 || 125} T... 5-40- 7 | 239.9 | 657 | 81.0] .81 60 W.. 11-52-16 | 269.1 | 665 84.8] .49 |} 126.) W-.. 7: 2-30- 2 | 239.1 | 546 | 82.9] .27 61 | W. 7: 1-52-20 | 265.8 | 700 | 80.3] .04 || 127] T... 5-39- 3 | 239.0 | 689 | 83.6 | 4. 76 62 | W.. 10: 1-32- 4 | 265.4] 580 | 79.5] .60 |} 128) W.. 7: 2-17- 1 | 238.9 | 563 | 79.5 | .36 63 | T 5-38- 2 | 264.6 | 749 83.9] .53 || 129) W-.. Q- 2- 4 | 237:8 | 550 | 83.5] .91 64. W SM- 3-27-13 | 264.5 | 749 | 79.1 - 47] 1300) ee 5-36- 5 | 237.7 | 673 | 81.6 | 3.31 65 | W 3-20-27 | 264:3 | 578 | 80.9]. .78 || 1381 | W-. 10: 1-32-12 | 237.4 | 526 | 76.3] .38 66! YT *5-29- 2! 264.3 | 913 | 65.8} 1.57 I! 132) W-.. 9Q- 2- 6 | 237.4 | 590 | 80.7 | .76 BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 71 Tasie 1V.—Summarized statement of the average annual production of 481 Washington Navel orange trees for which detailed performance records were obtained for four years, 1912 to 1915, inclusive—Continued. 5 Annual crop produc- Za tion, 4-year average. a Sale ee : o = ao |22 4/4 S & |@ ley |se a| 8 2 OF] 3 aa) ae | nw = ea NS) ae Lbs. P.ct.| P.ct. 133 | W...| SM- 3-28-15 | 237.4 | 635 | 73.3 | 0.24 Teel ane es 5-36-11 | 237.3 | 650 | 80.1 | 1.05 125 | W-..| 10: 1-29- 6 | 237.3 ; 502 | 77.2; .50 126 | W-.- 9- 5- 3 | 225.2 | 553 | 83.3 | 1.14 Te {ate 5-29- 2 | 234.7 | 633 | 85.0] .71 138 | W...| SM- 3-24-12 | 234.4 | 647 | 77.6] .93 129 || (Wile 4-92- 3 | 234.3 | 496 | 81.9] .77 140 | W..- 7: 2-18- 1 | 234.0 | 549 |-77.1] .51 141 | W..-| SM— 3-28-13 | 234.0] 612 | 76.2] .25 142 | W-2-| 10: 1-31- 2 | 233.5 | 502 | 78.7| .56 143 | W-..| SM— 3-26-12 | 233.5 | 563 | 76.7| .27 144 | W..-| 10: 1-29- 4 | 233.4 | 477 | 77.7 | 1.53 145 | W.--.| SM-— 3-27-12 | 233.4 | 603 | 73.7] .5 146) | eee 5-36- 3 | 232.9] 676 | 77.4| .71 147 | W-=.| 10: 1-28- 2 | 232.8 | 516! 79.7 |. .39 148 | W... 7: 1-56-14 | 232.7 | 574 | 83.4 | .49 1493) eRe 5-37- 5 | 232.6 | 664 | 82.8] .35 159 | W...| SM-— 3-28-20 | 232.4 | 575 | 82.1] .70 151 | W..- 7: 2-31— 3 | 231.8 | 525 | 77.0] .82 152 | W..-| SM-— 3-29-15 | 231.5} 617] 78.5| .81 153 | W...| SM-— 3-31-13 | 230.9 | 624 | 76.5] .08 154 | W..-| 10: 1-28- 3 | 230.8 | 533 | 77.7] .66 1550 | eee *5-41- 4 | 230.6 | 645 | 85.6] .31 156 | W..- *4-18-18 | 229.6 | 520 | 75.7] .87 157 | W..-| 10: 1-28-11 | 229.5] 548 | 84.4 | 1.24 1580) Dees 5-43- 4 | 228.9] 666 | 86.2 | 1.05 159 | W.-.| 10: 1-28- 1 | 228.7] 517 | 78.7| .97 160 | W..- 9 5-2 | 228.7] 566 | 80.1 | 1.02 161 | TW. 5-42- 6 | 227.4 | 688 | 84.8] .73 162 | W... 3-14— 4 | 227.0} 470 | 82.2 | 2.09 163 | W..- 4-19-32 | 227.0] 551 | 72.3 | .51 164| W..-| 10: 1-30- 8 | 226.7] 507 | 79.7 | 1.35 165 | W...| SM-— 3-27-14 | 226.4 | 633 | 77.2| .87 1667 | ee 5-40- 3 | 226.3 | 657 | 85.8] .65 Io) Wess 7: 1-53- 1 | 226.0 | 540 | 79.5.| .7 168 | W..-| 10: 1-30- 5 | 225.9 | 433 | 83.6 | 1.15 169 | W-...| 10: 1-30- 1 | 225.9 | 534] 81.1] .34 170 | We: 4-29-13 | 225.1 | 545 | 75.2) .59 171 | W...| SM-— 3-28-12 | 224.8 | 604 | 74.4| .83 172 | W... 7: 1-52-17 | 224.7] 540 | 81.3] .09 173 | W..- 7: 2-95- 5 | 224.4] 499 | 78.3] .5 74a eT ee 5-43- 3 | 224.4 | 625 | 81.4 | 4.77 175.| W.-- 7: 2-1-2 | 293.9] 542 | 78.6) 1.11 TB |e ae 5-38- 7 | 223.9 | 628 | 76.5 | 3.55 Nie| eee 5-38- 5 | 223.8] 660 | 84.5] 1.18 178 | W..- 4-32— 4 | 993.2 | 537 | 74.2 | 1.03 179 | W... 7: 2-32- 5 | 992.71 474] 81.8] .5 180 | W-.- 9- 3— 2 | 222.3 | 547 | 80.8] .42 181 | W...| SM-— 3-29-14 | 222.0] 612 | 79.3] .65 1996) ees 5-41— 2 | 222.0] 618 | 86.1] .86 183 | W.--| 10: 1-31-11 | 221.5 | 527] 78.3| .91 184 | W..-| SM-— 3-31-17 | 220.7 | 542 | 76.5 | 1.29 185 | W..-| ¥*10: 1-73- 3 | 220.2 | 554 | 75.0] .14 186 | W.-- 7: 2-31- 4 | 219.6 | 466 | 78.6 | .64 187 | W..-| 10: 1-32- 2 | 219.6] 479 | 80.4] .69 188} W..-| 10: 1-32- 1] 219.6] 502 | 79.3| .56 189 | W..-| SM- 3-30-18 | 219.3 | 527 | 77.3) .57 190 | W.. 7:2-26- 5) 219.1] 519{ 90.2] .73 191 | W.. 7: 2-1-1] 219.0} 489 | 79.5} .71 192 | W.. 7: 2-7-2 | 218.4 | 545 | 84.7); .42 193 | W...- g- 4 2) 218.3 | 523 | 76.5.) .57 194 | W.-- 3-21-28 | 218.1 |' 453 | 80.0 | 2.20 195| ST... 5-32— 4 | 218.0 | 667 | 63.8 |13. 01 196 | W...| 10: 1-31- 9 | 217.7] 452 | 78.8 | 1.24 197) Wis)! 7: 2- 7 1 | 217.0 | 536) 77.2) .47 198 | W..- 7: 1-53-15 | 216.9 | 526 | 86.7] .48 199 | W... 3-17- 3 | 216.5 | 497 | 77.3) .91 200 | W..-| 10: 1-31-12 | 216.3 | 482] 80.8] . AVL | WWiaee 4-21-30 | 216.3 | 481 | 74.6 | .27 202.| G.N- *8-17-21 | 216.1 | 467 | 62.9 | 7.18 203 | W.- 7:1-60-11 | 216.0 | 562 | 84.2| .45 204 | T_.. 5-43— 6 | 216.0 | 601 | 80.7!) 4.68 gapgdaaaadaaaagaaaa g43422 Ze 42787 3523 Tree designation. 7: 2-2-3 SM-_ 3-29-17 SM- 3-27-19 7: 2-1-3 SM-3-27-16 SM-3-26-19 4-22-29 Annual crop produc- tion, 4-year average. PBS MALS ese = | Oo |2n = | a |23 |32 2 | 3 |58|ee Fee [bien hme Nie Lbs. P.ct. P.ct. 215.8 | 457 | 82.0 | 0.39 215.1 469 | 82.0 | 58 214.9 | 488 | 79.71) .61 214.7 | 558 | 77.3 | 1.08 214.5 |. 425 | 62.7 | 9.88 214.5 | 516 | 78.2) .87 213.9 | 594 | 84.9] .59 213.7 | 475 | 75.7) .48 213.2 | 451 | 77.5 | 2.39 212.4 | 474 | 79.0 | 2.38 212.4 | 562 | 81.3 | 1.47 212.1 | 607 | 78.3] .25 212.0] 452 | 81.3] .76 212.0 | 484 | 81.7 | 1.20 211.6 | 475 | 80.8] “.70 211.2 | 544 | 86.34 .42 211.1 | 544 | 78.7] .28 210.7 | 454 | 82.3] .77 210.2 | 551 | 75.3] .54 210.0 | 511 | 81.7] .45 209.5 | 453 | 79.6] .84 208.9 | 552 | 66.6 | 2.05 208.6 | 648 | 86.7] .93 207.6 | 584 | 75.9] .51 207.1 | 509 | 77.9} .59 206.7 | 555 | 82.0] .18 206.4 | 574 | 73.6] .84 205.9 | 476 | 83.9 | .38 205.9 | 496 | 86.6] .81 205.2 | 618 | 75.2] .53 204.6 | 426 | 74.1 | 1.64 204.1 | 437 |-78.8 | .57 204.1 | 446 | 78.1] .34 203.7 | 446 | 82.4] .78 203.2 | 505 | 77.7] .68 202.5 | 509 | 79.8 | .42 202.5 | 640 | 69.0 | 1.95 202.3 | 454 | 80.2] .18 202.2 | 496 | 75.1 | 1.21 202.0 | 523 | 82.7] .29 200.9 | 434 | 68.4] .57 200.4 | 472 | 78.7 | 1.27 199.9 | 611 | 83.7] .57 199.8 | 545 | 82.0 |- .24 199.4 | 514 | 68.3 | 1.85 199.3 | 403 | 80.8] .74 198.5 | 530 | 80.1} .25 198.3 | 499 | 80.6] .56 198.1 | 449 | 69.8] .78 198.0 | 490 | 80.5] .73 197.2 | 437 | 72.9] .57 196.5 | 402 | 78.4] .95 195.6 | 488 | 74.6] .21 195.2 | 520 | 78.8 | 3.08 195.1 | 446 | 78.0] .96 194.8 | 428 | 85.9] .42 194.2 | 507 | 77.7| .61 194.1 | 554 | 82.7] .23 193.1 | 410 | 79.3 | .75 193.0 | 426! 77.5 .77 192.4 | 505 | 80.7) .18 192.2 | 539 | 68.4 11.28 192.0 | 481 | 80.5} .21 190.8 | 426 | 81.3 | .47 190.7 | 489 | 81.0] .71 189.2 | 401 | 58.2 | 5.74 188.8 | 524 | 68.6] .19 188.5 | 492 | 77.3 | 1.12 188.5 | 613 | 79.0 | 5.84 188.4 | 468 | 79.7] .64 188.4 | 518 | 82.3 | 6.04 187.7 | 394] 81.4] .38 187.5} 431! 70.1! .93 12 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste IV.—Summarized statement of the average annual production of 481 Washington Navel orange trees for which detailed performance records were obtained for four years, 1912 to 1915, inclusive—Continued. Strain. Tree designation. 7: 2-26- 3 3-16- 3 9- 5- 6 6: 1-71- 9 10: 1-28- 7 4-17-34 7: 2-2-5 4-17-33 SM- 3-29-19 V- 3-14 3 SM- 3-31-21 SM- 3-30-13 SM- 8-29-18 7: 1-55-11 SM-— 3-24-14 #7: 2-26- 4 4-16- 4 4-22- 4 10: 2- 7-138 3-18- 3 4-30- 5 7: 1-56-12 3-16- 4 3-13- 3 SM- 3-25-19 V- 3-21- 1 6: 1-70-10 V-—- 3-18- 4 SM- 3-26-18 SM- 3-26-21 SM- 3-24-20 5-43- 5 5-43- 8 7: 1-56- 4 SM- 3-24-18 5-41-16 3-21-29 7: 1-65-10 7: 1-69-11 SM- 3-28-21 "|| &SM-~ 3-32-14 SM- 3-26-20 7: 1-65-13 7: 2-26- 2 7: 1-65- 8 SM- 3-28-18 9- 2-3 4-31- 4 SM- 3-26-16 5-37- 2 7: 1-53-13 SM- 3-28-16 6: 1-69- 9 5-387- 4 7: 2-30- 5 10: 1-30-11 6: 1-43- 5 7: 1-69-17 5-34— 2 V- 3-15- 4 SM- 3-26-13 *7; 1-56-10 4-17-16 7: 1-69- 6 *5-43- 7 7: 1-51-18 #4-20-33 SM- 3-24-13 7: 1-50-18 | *8M-— 3-27-20 5-15-21 4-20-32 Variable fruits ae san S PR Asta SX I rs Annual crop produc- || 8 Annual crop produc- tion, 4-year average. 3 tion, 4-year average. q ; faerie || 2 pie re pate) ~~ oO H a) Qn - ‘; oO a» o H 3 > |e leslss] 4] 4 = = |'s | ay Datel oe Ores bes s D a ge a ; 5 Ho | oF S & = S =] H fp er | 4 |o > | mA i = Z—|-O Lbs. iP. chi! Pca =. | Lbs. Picts 186.2 | 411 | 79.3 | 0.80 || 350 | W.. 7: 2-25— 4 | 158.7 | 345 | 77.3 T8651 424 | 7 tose)" 50) ||, ook.) Wee 7: 2-£6- 1 | 157.9 , 351 | 74.5 185.8 | 452 | 76.4 | .66 || 352 | YW.) SM-— 3-28-19 | 157.7 | 384 | 73.4 185.5 | 480 | 88.9 |. .21 || 353 | W... 9- 6- 6 | 157.4 | 347 | 76.7 184.9 | 384 | 79.8 | 1.51 || 354 | W...| SM-— 3-31-15 | 155.2 | 416 | 72.2 184.3 | 388 | 70.1 | - .99||-855 | W.- 7: 1-69-12 | 155.2 | 491 | 77.4 184.3 | 422 | 86.1 | '.59 || 356 | W~... 7: 1-51-17 | 154.4 | 389 | 84.9 184.2 | 394 | 74.3-| .38 || 357 | W...] SM-— 3-26-15 | 154.2 | 371 | 77.8 184.-2 | 520 |'83.9'} ..19 |; 858 | W-.. 7: 1-69- 8 | 154.0 | 481 | 77.4 182.9 | 397 | 81.5 | 9.32 || 359 | W-.. 7: 2- 2- 4 | 153.9 | 397 | 80.9 181.9 | 455 | 82.5] .66 | 360 | W...| SM-— 3-27-18 | 153.6 | 401 | 76.6 181.5 | 458 | 74.3] .52 || 361 | W-... 7: 1-65- 6 | 153.6 | 480 | 74.7 181.5 | 544 | 80.71. .09 || 362 | W-... 7: 1-53-14 | 153.5 | 381 | 84.0 180.7 | 405 | 80.9 | .32 || 368 | W...| SM— 3-32-13 | 153.4 | 388 | 73.7 180.6 | 498 | 78.3 .40 || 364 | W... 6: 1-70- 8 | 152.2 | 388 | 79.2 180.3 | 425 | 83.4] .35 || 365 | YW.| SM- 3-26-17 | 152.0 | 377'| 78.8 179.7 | 428 | 72.0} .42 || 366 | W... 7: 1-57-11 | 150.9 | 367 | 83.5 179.6 | 350 | 79.8] .71 || 367 | W. 7: 1-65- 7 | 150.7 | 420 | 76.8. 178.4 | 427 |.71.3 | .35 | 368 | W..-. 7: 1-69-13 | 150.7 | 434 | 81.4 178.2 | 423 | 79.5 | .66 || 369 | W... 4— 3— 6 | 150. 4 | 288 | 72.3 Dag Se|e326:\( (220 |i Ledoal| 370n) Vie: 4-31- 3 | 150. 4 | 355 | 65.8 176.4 | 486 | 76.6 | 1.39 || 371 | WT. *5-38- 3 | 150.4 | 424 | 85.6 176.3°'| 389 | 79.6) .39 || 372°] W... *7: 1-52-19 | 150.0 | 362 | 76.7 175.9 | 419 | 77.9] .48 || 373.) W... 4— 3-5 | 149.1 | 321 | 74.4 175.9 | 437 | 74.4 | .80 || 374) W... 4-32- 3 | 148.8 | 376 | 73.1 75:7 |: 402-4) 76.2" | 162) 1/375 |) Wek: 10: 2— 7-14 | 148.0 | 343 | 77.8 175.6 | 464 | 77.6 |.1.47 || 376 | W... 7: 1-66-11 | 147.0 | 423 | 72.0 175.3 | 411 | 76.0 (1.58 || 377 | W-.-- 4-18- 1 | 146.7 } 288 | 73.5 174.8 | 446 | 79.6 f-..45 || 378 | W... 9- 3- 5 | 146.7 | 300 | 81.9 174.3 | 399 | 78.0 | 1.13 |} 379 | W... 7: 1-65-14 | 146.6 | 395 | 79.1 173. 7_| 466 | 78.5 | .64 |} 8380 | W...| SM-—-3-25-20 | 145.4 | 403 | 77.6 173.3 | 500 | 75.7 | 3.36 || 381 | W...| SM-— 3-25-15 | 145.0 | 433 | 76.7 173.1 | 473 | 81.9 | 3.-17 || 382°) W... 7: 1-65-15 | 144.2 | 398 | .78.9 172.:9' | 423° | 87..5° | 231 |) 383: | Wz. 6: 1-64— 4 | 144.1 | 368 | 84.7 172.8 | 400 | .76.6 | .62 || 384 | W...] SM— 3-29-13 | 144.1 | 368 | 75.0 172.5 | 477 |:88.8 |” .42 || 385.) W-.. 7: 2-31- 5 | 143.8 | 325 | 78.7 172.4 | 360 | 71.3 | 1.89 || 386 | W...| SM- 3-33-17 | 143.4 | 321 | 74.4 172.3 | 457 | 75.6 | 1.09 || 8387 | W...| SM-— 3-82-12 | 148.3 | 344] 70:1 272.2 1 504 | 81.8) .45 || 388 | GN.. 5-16-19 | 142.4 | 827 | 71.2 171.5 | 455 | 79.9] .44 |) 889 | W-e.. 7: 1-66-13 | 142.2 | 384 | 75.9 170.3 | 486 | 72.9} .92 || 390} W... 4-22-28 | 141.6 | 323 | 65.5 169.7 | 429 | 82.0] .47 || 391 | GN. *5-17-23 | 140.7 | 427 | 60.6 169.7 | 484 | 74.2 | .41 || 392 | SW *10: 1-73- 2 | 140.0 | 351 | 36.8 169.6 | 388 ! 81.8] .46 || 393 | W... *9— 6— 5 | 139.8 | 312 | 81.9 169.5 | 490 | 80.3 | .41 || 394] T.... 5-42— 4 | 137.7 | 429 | 77.3 169.2 | 441 | 73.9] .45 || 395 | W...| SM-— 3-27-21 | 136.8 | 350 | 80.3 169.1 | 372 | 86.0} .94 || 396 | W... 7: 1-66- 9 | 136.1 | 398 | 70.8 169.0.) 372 | 77.0.) =375:|| 897 |. W..: 7: 1-69-10 | 136.1 | 416 | 79.2 167.1 | 402 | 78.7 | .12 |) 398) W...| SM-— 3-24-16 | 135.6 | 388 | 76.4 166.4 | 457 | 80.8] .51 || 399 | W...| SM-— 3-24-21 | 135.3 | 344 | 75.2 166.1 | 394 | 85.6 | .38 |) 400 | YW. *3-31-19 | 135.1 | 312 | 77.1 166.1 | 431 | 77.7 | 1.04 || 401 | W... 7: 1-69-14 | 134.5 | 378 | 75.8 165.7 | 434 | 76.6 | .18 || 402 | YW.! SM-— 3-31-16 | 134.3 | 314 | 73.2 165.6 | 490 | 82.9] .82 |) 403 | W...4 6: 1-70- 7 | 134.3 | 356 | 80.7 165.1 | 356 | 80.0 | .65 || 404 | T.._! *5-44— 8 | 133.8 | 460 | 80.6 164.7 | 399 | 81.1 | 1.70 || 405 | W.. 7: 1-65-11 |/13128 e366)! 7728 163.5 | 458 | 85.1 | .50 || 406 | W.. 72 169516 | 1317 |esbonl eae: 163.3 | 449 | 75.3 | .74 || 407 | W. 7: 1-65- 9 | 130.9 | 381 | 78.3 162.9 | 617 | 68.7 | 1.35 || 408 | W. *7: 1-69-15 | 130.0 | 373 | 75.4 162.5 | 382 | 79.4 | .47 || 409 | W. 7: 1-66-15 | 127.4 | 348 | 79.7 162.4 | 439 | 81.0] .34 || 410 | W... 7: 1-65-12 | 127.1 | 360 | 80.5 162.1 | 471 | 29.4 55.90 || 411 | W... . 8-15- 3 | 127.0 | 293 | 81.1 161.5 |:323 (71.5 | .62 || 412) WrAé *7: 1-56— 5 | 126.0 | 373 | 29.4 161.5 | 489 | 72.1] .37 || 413 | W...| SM-— 3-30-12 | 122.0 | 341 | 76.6 161.4 | 604 | 77.8 | 1.21 || 414 | W_-. T= 1-66=14. || 12127, | 3699077: 161.3 | 449 | 78.0 | 1.34 || 415 | W... 7: 1-69- 9 | 121.7 | 387 | 71.5 160.1 | 336 | 69.1 | .74 || 416) W... 732-872) | 21 OF 2b AaeiGeS 159.9 | 409 | 77.2 .24 || 417 | W_..; SM-— 3-24-17 | 120.6 | 279 | 74.3 159.8 | 394 | 82.7 | .25 || 418 | YW-.| *SM-— 3-29-21 | 119.8 | 281 78.7 159.6 | 894 | 77.4 | .63 || 419 | W...| *7: 1-69- 7 | 119.7 | 370 68.7 159.5 | 401 | 73.9 | 1.12 || 420] U...| 6: 1-54- 2] 119.4 | 309 74.8 159.2 ! 417 ' 72.4! .48 || 421) W...! SM-— 3-33-16 |! 119.0! 281 80.1 BUD. VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 73 TasBLe 1V.—Summarized statement of the average annual production of 481 Washington ‘Navel orange trees for which detailed performance records were obtained for four years, 1912 to 1915, inclusive—Continued. g Annual crop produc- g Annual crop produc- om tion, 4-year average. = tion, 4-year average. 3 C & eae & Masse te Z Shells lt Ceecallcaes eis 8 Petes lice 4| 4 ‘s @ |g (a3 Sei 4) 8 S &® |‘ | as lise d| 3 3 Ss 26\ sec sul 2 2 2 | 2 128|52 | a a i ZaOm Peer Il pain leueo = rae | Ope ls Lbs. Pct.| Pct. Lbs. P.ct.|P.ct. 422 | W...| SM-— 3-31-20 | 118.3 | 342 | 81.0 | 0.88 || 452 | U...| SM-— 3-33-13 | 93.6 | 210 | 76.6 | 0 423 |W... 7: 1-66— 7 | 117.6 | 329 | 77.0} .61 || 453 | U..- 10: 2-612] 93.1 | 210 | 72.7) .62 424 | W...| SM-— 3-25-21 | 117.2 | 293 | 77.1 | 1.88 |) 454 | U...| SM-— 3-33-14 | 93.1 | 226 | 73.4 22 425 | W. 7: 1-67-11 | 117.2 | 359 | 80.7] .36 || 455 | YW.| SM-— 3-25-16 | 92.2 | 238 | 73.2 84 426 | W... 7: 1-66- 6 | 116.3 | 346 | 69.3 | .87 || 456) U...| *7: 167-8 | 91.5 | 294 | 73.0 51 427 | W... 7: 1-68-11 | 116.1 | 350 | 71.5] .80 || 457 | YW.| *SM-— 3-32-17 | 89.2 | 203 | 66.3] .98 428 | W.. 7: 1-68-15 | 114.8 | 320 | 77.2 | 1.34 || 458 | U-... 10: 2 814] 87.8 | 232 | 70.6 13 429 | W.. 7: 1-52-18 | 114.2 | 308 | 83.9 .81 |} 459 | U... 7: 147-9 | 87.8 | 279 | 66.2 | 3.05 430 | W.. 7: 1-67-14 | 111.9 | 338 | 79.4 53 || 460 | U.. 10: 2- 6-13 | 87.5 | 211 | 64.3 | 1.33 431 | W_- 7: 1-67-15 | 111.8 |-338-| 75.3 68 || 461 | U_.. 7: 1-51-20 | 87.2 | 202 | 79.2] .25 432) Wie se 7: 1-67-10 | 111.4 | 350 | 74.7 37 || 462-| Ue . 7: 1-67- 6 | 85.8 | 273 | 79.5 | 1.28 433 | W.:.| *10- 2- 8 6 | 110.4 | 267 | 75.9 11 |) 463 | U...| SM— 3-33-12 | 84.6 | 200 | 75.6 | 1.25 434 | YW.| SM-— 3-31-18 | 108.5 | 267 | 73.1 | 2.62 || 464 | U-. 7: 1-68- 8 | 81.1 | 241 | 67.7 33 435 | W... 6: 1-71— 8 | 107.1 | 289 | 81.1 62 || 465 | U.. *6: 1-64- 3 | 80.3 | 169 | 80.4 59 436 | U... *7: 1-68- 7 | 107.1 | 351 | 69.1 57 || 466 | U. SM- 3-33-15 | 78.4 | 201 | 73.5 95 437 | W.. 4-32— 2 | 106.5 | 278 | 71.0 36 || 467 | U.. 7: 1-68-14 76.9 | 247 | 67.1 61 438 | W.. 7: 1-66- 8 | 106.4 | 344 | 70.1 38 || 468 | U... 6: 1-71- 7} 76.8 | 197 | 75.5 | 1.67 439 | YW.| SM- 3-30-16 | 105.2 | 252 | 74.7 20 || 469 | U... 7: 1-68-12 | 76.4 | 245 | 71.3 53 440 | W... 6: 1-69-10 | 105.0 | 255 | 81.9 | 3.84 || 470 | U... 7: 1-66-10 | 76.0 | 214 | 67.5 14 441 | YW_.| *SM-— 3-25-18 | 104.7 | 262 | 77.3 95 || 471 | YW.| SM-— 3-32-20 | 75.7 | 157 | 74.8 | 1.27 442 | W.. 7: 1-68-13 | 102.8 | 313 | 75.0 41 || 472 | U_...| SM-— 3-29-16 | 75.3 | 130 | 68.9 77 443 | W...| SM-— 3-30-15 | 101.9 | 300 | 78.6 | 1.66 || 473 | U_. 6: 1-71-10 | 75.2 | 229 | 66.6 13 444) W.. *7: 1-68- 6 | 101.2 | 321 | 69.4 | 1.03 || 474 | U_.. 7: 1-66-12 | 74.6 | 215 | 58.6 | 2.33 445 | U.. SM- 3-31-14 | 100.7 | 270 | 76.3 56 || 475 | U... *7: 1-65-23 | 73.3 | 213 | 72.2 | 1.17 446} U...| *7: 1-68- 9 | 100.0 | 343 | 68.8 | 1.31 || 476 | U_.. 7: 1-67-13 | 61.4 | 196 | 76.9 41 447| O.. 7: 1-67—- 7} 96.2 | 293 | 72.4 85 || 477 | U_.. *7: 1-53-11 59.8 | 127 | 74.2 | 1.18 448) U.. 7: 1-53-12 | 95.7 | 235 | 70.8 13 || 478 | YW .| *SM-— 3-32-15 | 56.7 | 136 | 66.3 37 449 | U... 7: 1-68-10 | 94.8 | 300 | 71.3 67 || 479 | U... 7: 1-52- 3} 52.9 | 125 | 53.9 | 1.60 450 | U... 7: 1-67-12 | 94.2 | 274 | 76.5 11 || 480] U.. 10: 2- 7-17 | 52.8} 117 | 68.2 68 451 | U.. 10: 2- 8-15 | 93.9 | 251 | 64.3 | 3.59 || 481 | U.. *§: 1-55- 5 | 48.3 | 118 | 73.7 | 1.27 ~H I~ BULLETIN 623, U. §. DEPARTMENT. 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I é or 9 oF oT | 66 6L | OIL | Gk | SOL | 8 | HEE | TS | #8 Sl | &F 8 93% L LT 69 | £08 T 9 GT-h | It | FI-2 | OF | OT-OT | 88 | ¢ -2e | 2 |e -It | ZT | et-2 | ¢ 1-2 |T G-0 | 0 0-0 | 0 0-0 | T8&l | @ -FL £ 0 0-0 |0 0-0 1% 4-T | & | -PL | GE | OL-8T | 98 | 2-27) ST | 9-9 | ¢ ert | T G-0 1% 9-0 | Fer | G-e9 0 0 0-0 |T TI-0 | 0 0-0 |¢ FI-@ | et |@-9 | 98 ,| FI-ST | oo | €T-6 | S8 | 9-21] Fe [2-2 | 8% 16-¢ ZT | 2-89 0 0 0-0 | @t | 0-01 | 9F | TI-2e@]8 8-F | 24g | 8 -6e | 98 | 24-91} 248 | 8 -ST} OL | OI-8 | 8 €1-e | & €I-0 | Ska | & -I2T Bibs aoceeea Gapoe Spl eieise | een | eine line Bou Ganbeus 91 9°¢ ¢ {er |F [or |/s jor jo {er jos | ror Oie Ol=Obs) Tee |-S:s0) 110, 10,-0)| 10) 0) <0, 6, NSr-0 0 0-0 |F Onales ee ¢-0 |6 9-0 | 9T £-9 (6 or-0 | OL | OL-E | TL |b -€ | 8ST | 9-+ | LF 8 -FI Tl | Orr |G ot-0 | T 9-0 1% 8-0 | 66 @I-er “|B fer je {ce [st | ee jst | sor | ss [esr jes jeer jer |re [6 jos |¢ jon |s | #0 | zen | 9°89 ened cI-F | 8 ei-¢ | ST | 0-OL | 28 | oI-12 | 8l | 2-6 | FT | 8-9 |g T-% | 0 0-0 10 0-0 |0 0-0 | 8OT | € -09 Ty |O-0 |O ;o-0 |e (2-1 '1 ee |e rr] ee | orst| ee |t-or}st }9-9 |t |9-0 |o |o-0 |o |0-0 | gor | 2 -#9 mae | 0 0-0 |T IL-0 | 0 0-0 |¢ FI-G@ | Or | 2-9 |.0€ | 9-81] & |) 1-6 | Ge | ot-8 | St | I-€ | ¢ €-T | FIT | SI-Sb 0 0-0 |@t | 0-00] & | s1-cs | 8 8 -F | Fo | 0 -8@ | 6G | & -EL 1} 9% | FI-OT | 8 bI-@ | L £-@ |T G-O | 88T | @ -86 z OL | 19 | 6r | oor | 8s | ret jos | ver [ee joer [iz joe |s js |e | eo | gos L w% |1-o1| Fe | 2-61] oF |G -ec| wr | 9-02} Te |s-er joc |rt-9 |e |2-1 |e [9-0 | ere 0 8 bI-F | Fo | 9-81 | &F | F-12 | 89 | 8 -Ge | Fo | b -1G | SF | PI-FT | 02 | 0-9 | ¢ T-T. | 89% 0 BOS A a Os ee Se es eee i OOS Or Oey Hy Osdelteae aca 0 T |6-0 |r | ete | ze |¢-orj oe |2-er jer |e@-st}oz |e-9 |s |1-2 |* |oro | get | ¢-99 1 88 | OST Siaee e1-6 epee Glee! Gian ey 8 -FE “ae 0-81 I6T oot eeseeessseesssoreT alee SO aes eee RC LOT —do.0 [8101 daeoaC “++->-98RI00y “@I6T Spy [TNO Nctaaaige poeta ce “O3BI0A WY “GST6T CREE re aE ~~" “@16T —opris prspueyg pada feisic tasks -- OSBIOAV eae a pees “**°GT6T EVier sep eee ~**PI6T Saeeeacces +++ 8167 Bae ree “"* “@I6T —opeis preyoio DUTB.IYS OATIONPOAdUY "OF “**"PI6T Teepe Ses GL TE e eae one “* “G16 —do.0 [8}0], erate arte ote ~- O8BIOAV eS aes ct *"PI6I SER as ee “** O16 Spay TNO G ¢0| £0 8°0 | G0 80) FO L Ls cl | v9 62 | 9CL | 18 | SE | F8 | OUT | SS | LOOT | 8B | 68 STEAM Ss bien meewen wel ie odvIOAY 0 G ies € cI-T G Gia: 03 OT-OT | & PLOT A ieS: sno: oS sl SP. 2 sLT 361 8 -9 II ots ih oI-T 961 [opin Uete bad aeteia ia eae te s “CT6T v 0 0-0 0 0-0 0 (0) a8) (4 Cum ial Gh ls 9% 6 -IT | 8@ 0 -IT | vé T -GT | 06 io) 81 Litsay, ELT Gi eO Gs S| Gai

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CY +] n. *IOBIV] ag *JoT[BUuIs F TESS AL SASL UF Ate aoe tl ee ere 96 Zit oat Ost OLI 002 91Z 092 tae [R101 1) o is eae pi goe =e 7 e “SoZIg ‘ponulyuo0j—Jf J a7qny, we pazunwuns sv ‘aaisngour ‘ET6T 02 ZT6L ‘supa na inof sof paiw}go asian spsova4 yryn sof sa4. abuvso powpy Uopburysy 44 aanynzuasasd au 19 fo auvwuiofiad qonuun ay} fo Juawajnjs papwpag— A ATA, 22 123 BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE, SO LOO AO c0/50 |r |90 |F |e [zk jos |e [os |e lon {tr |ro [tt | so -jez | sor A AOSD 0 410 OD: Oe |) OO GE SG: ee Pe 8 dita ey Ie ei) ais A eet Gps Ore (20) 0 ee Obes Os Obe! Tee OTTO |e Teaen|Or=O) 5 [oles |-6 202 [Pel PEL 8.1 y sd| 2 |.0 e189) 1ST-Ob| 6) | OL-0) 1nceae4|e1-6 SOO SOO OSD AO ORD HG 8 Se OORT RDN Ce Sas OR IO) SID IR tao SOS TOS Oe USD 0, OSD ENE HSE ae oc (ye eS DT see MWS eau) 4) Grae | a a es = =—— == === —z— | —=—=—== =— —=>S/§$ -———— —_—————— “| s0|so [8 [St |F | rs |e jor jor jee jer jas jer ise jim i|ss |r |r |t | so | 98 | oe Sees Me GTO Om eiecy OR CLeE Gee |S =o [eae pelt | Se Oise | Se. |9s8 | Ss OeT 10m 10-0 0 10-0 oo ies SO. 0-0 | rs tte |e | oer 1 0-9 | oe | eter ze | 0-91 | 2 | 8-01 | Te |'et-o1 er | sis |e@ | eat leer | er ie) Obes sO) Ser lates Che Clete Gm Sislea|ice (0120) | OM | 00! | Om 10/50) | Le |950 0h /0/00| 0% 1/00" ere, 601-0 Sen HOON lon MOTO 'G) teats GT GI PPh «| 2-00 Te. | 0-81 | 92. | 6-655) OL |S Be |e 12-00. 10.0» |, 66-101 LT | jet |e jos jar jee jst jez jes |ost |r fom jm fer jor {re {se jor [¢ {re | esr | 69 Oreo | SievalipenOl-e lsicesliaI-er | 6G= || prea Ie | “0008s | OE 6 | 8-8 419 ieee 1 |'F -0- 110) 1.0-0 een |/ee-76 Ce Ot OO |kO ees HORTON eee) KOT Obs |e OVS py eNO eal ici-O SYR TOF Ge TCL Or Te | SO eee OTe se -0s eh) «STL=Ol DO POSOr Of Oso. 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PL lPesSs (86 CS QU Stet ate ha te ae S16 0g maces 120) O05 20 0702220 OFS0 eS Cll |Rz, STSE PER a FS) 1g TGiad| i Ale Sree |e CeO |b Pie |eGs T-pe Pea|y aakee eat mae ne rat ie —opeis piepurys 2 "10 0 @O0| 0 G ST 9 SE FL | O28 OG | G6 Io | #8 Ir | 8°s 9 oT if 0 18 Orage Viegas OsvIOAY ra mae (00 0-0: | 0 0-0 0 O50) 106) FI-OL | 92 T -€T | 2 FI-6 | 02 idlicwé y Peak 0 OF=0%7/-0 0-0 16 REG Pua ka RAE ieee eles “*CI6T Pp Sihal) 0-0 |0 Os=0F 3-0 0-0 |G PAE 8 | a cE | SI-FT | 66 0 -2T | 61 GI-9 | ZL VaaG T #50: 1286 SUS Tihs = St eae FI6BL iS) aib0 OS) 40 O50 0 0;=0: -10 ORO MES: Sieh g ¥-Z FI 6 -¢ 91 8 -¢G | CL CEs P ST-0 | #¢ TSO Te “isis rien ree eae €16T = a0) OO FIG GI-T 8 sor = \E¢) OSI 81 9-6 | 8 0 -OT | 02 ¢ -8 g FI-1 & OFF 0 0-0 18 Opec OGs css «iguanas = ae ane CI6L oe —opeis pivyovioQ = TUTBIYS VATJONPOIdU) “TSF a £0) £0) oO € ST F 2G Or | FS 0% | 66 96 | TIL | 9% | 66 or} oe 18 FI G GO OST | EOS lige cee + 52 OSB.IVAY 4 T SimOse|ac € -% 9 Glacial 0! 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(Ce Seca a Sas FI6L A 0 0 0.50'= 8 Sleak € GEE 7° IT-@ 4 ¢T-0 T Li=0) fF Sik Tey OieO 2,0 0-0 0 Of0F 1529 S516, Ni ee ete ee E161 aa 0 0 0-0 {i OI-0 |Z Tk ial Bk cI ST-9 PP OAH E CATE OS CO) Gt fl hea f BeSve {kG JEU) OS0 9ST Sis OO ie ee = aha ater rats 2 | —doJd [810], e = = = fant Bass |puae aloes ek Pe aa ea ewe eee Tete sei ea eee eretinag ers sairle sire By Brey ar ono Jajeses |= Seale 2 |e dicta [aietetee a ='['5: 00 a5) a jace sig las, 9% 6'°8 eisintatatateieva!=cate: asVIOAWy Revo yap mececcanDan CI6I B) “sede bodsalices a0 4laacca| ooaoee hodne pad seGalecoca|bassbent docd|saccers BSinop|seccnee| te eae eerste | re aon) Cte ercterctall een micrey cha al Cierra ere cers Or wee ce -FIGI Q craveletai|wccimin} sis ie'|\cresa'eta:|\wseleteser=e:||a,ake.e1a||\oleleie leis a [lecelevev=,||ele evseinys'|(>.eezeje||= 61 elafeiaia!|(eie\aeue.[aie,e/a.9:6:s:| e.ace/micila ie pie (aiale)|'S\6'@\8'5||\o/0.0 crelo.a\ 0 {6ie:ess'| eis le:aveiels SF 0 -SI cee sees aesscosees EI6L Cotte feceec|eeeeeee/e eee eeee eee efee eee feee sec fes eee feees ee efes ee efes esses] eens ee eeee nee e|eee eee cleceeeleee sees eteeelece tees lereeelereeees ze OL-Ol ccc ZI6L mM —sImy [NO - | *ponurju09j—urel}s Pp | | UOPSUTYSe M AMOTJOA “SLP a Al wz Z | 2 7 IZ A | a |z iz lla late Z / oS e|¢ = E An | ia 4 5 an | #2 4.) 2 5 A s | & Se ae ee 2 = 5 | Ss B oe] B oq B a a B oa B aa 5 oa B oa B i) B oa 5 mi 4 re |S Nay eo oa Gre = lg eae = a i ae — Med eee (eA Sal td Peon = ag Dade 8 es ss — a ia mas ia 5 : 5 4 a] . at : 5 ia ia . 5 . = OF)|-a¥ : Sead | ne " - ¥ : eee me ‘rv0h pue ‘apis a a ‘UTBIYS “AT QR, UL YUBy 4 5. *“IIBIL] *IoT[eus 4 B] pue os 96 agi 921 OST 9LT 002 91% 0ez pu gz TROL vt a aa = = . “SaZzIg a ee 2 *ponulyuoj—Yf J aqny, Ur pariupwmwuns sp ‘acisnpour ‘ET 6T 02 ZIG ‘sapah inof Lof paurnzqgo aian spsova. yoryn sof saat) abunso yaanNT Uopburysy yy aaynjuasaidas $9 fo aoudmsofiad yonuup ay} fo JUaUagn)s papwyd— A AAV], ~~ N = 125 IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. BUD VARIATION | G 0 0 80 | 90 G 1. | 8 oF LT | #8 96 | BIT | & | o6 FL | SF 6 Qs 9 ST SIT | &°8F 0 0 0-0 T IL-0 I (0) Gat) (6 6 -@T | €&& 9 -9T | && OL-FI | &@ ST-8 6 FI-ZG (4 8 -0 0 0-0 9ET Fb -19 0 0 0-0 | 0 0-0 | 0 0-0 |32 ¥-T |8 b=h | 88 | §-ST | 66.) 0-2) 0G | e-2 16 FI-S | € @I-0 | SIT 0 0 0-0 |0 0-0 | 0 9-0 | 0 OFSOR sks 8-1 |9 TI-o@ | PE |6-G | 24T | PI-G | 6T | 2-G (8ST | &-F | 26 9 0 0-0 |4 sI-I | 8 Tess |29 9-€ | S@ '¢-IL| ge | F -ST 1 Se | 9 -O1-) 6 OS. 5P SEAL st AE y-O0 | SOL | | eMOECORd Seer Ssh AGos| eo beoeayoocal poate ou mobos Sob oto lo oon becuse leaned secu 0d Gears lees Ccon o odo) Snine aaa Memon leescsallcmaalicoac aca eI rors doce Stans easocsalenbra||Souccccqlesos ole dacod eo oou Accu ons lboboalodas G4 6 Namoeleoconea| tesoe seem geon| bauer Uoeonea aoa laemende Top SOcaes Misia) |heio ie ol fo GOOG os bore staves aiefetet tel etatecctal letarclereret=)|(afateler=)| (erciereteets 0-1 Ecdoleogsoliges occas tocolsaoncaallsegd olbrocon Sollancsn SoudocollacSoollooon ocd lscucd lobe obod Isao sqonceolsoooual Ueeceuel Soced ones 9 -¢ Scisaocouclsorc etre | ade ce] iece Pe tetre ape | ctermratey eye evo ater st (stare ated | eteretciearerel teres ail'ct ave tarccecwulapre ayer (lore) srermcretl tenets ts | scene eyercier| cetaretell ate eyeteietel | cicie Stl creieieces CI-F ea) 0 $0) 70 6°0 Ld Ue & FG 68 OOD Ie in SO) IO | OY RS iat 0 -0 90 0-0 01-0 32 8-0 '9 ST-I GI6T —d0190 [240], rroccsssto* -98RIOAW —sHnay [TAD Paice eer -- 9sBIOAV 126 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table IV includes all the trees listed in Table IT, and it is interesting to note the relative position of these trees when they are listed accord- ing to their rank for the two periods. Tables VI and VII show these comparisons for some of the ees and some of the lowest pro- ducing trees. TaBLE VI.—Comparative rank of the 19 of the 40 highest producing and of the 17 of the 40 lowest producing Washington Navel orange trees in the 4-year performance record plats on which data were also obtained for the 6-year period. [Trees marked with an asterisk (*) are not included in the 6-year record plat.] | Highest producing trees. Lowest producing trees. | Rank for the 4-year ‘| Rank for the 4-year period. period. | rod The 19 Rank for mee The 17 Rank for designation. | ‘The 40 | tees for etna | designation. | ‘The 40 | ‘eps for pee: highest records lowest records producing | have been producing | have been trees. obtained Vast obtained for 6 years. for 6 years. 3-14-27 *6§:1-55- 5 3-12-28 *10:2— 7-17 ¥*1 1-52-13 7:1-52- 3 *11-52-15 *S M-3-32-15 3-13-29 *7:1-53-11 3-13-28 7:1-67-13 4*3-23-27 7:1-65-23 3-12-29 | 7:1-66-1 *11-52-14 || *6:1-71-10 3-12-30 *S M-3-29-16 3-14-26 *5 M-3-32-20 *8-16-20 7:1-66-10 *7:2-34— 2 7:1-68-12 ¥*3—-22-27 *6:1-71- 7 *11-52-12 _ 7:1-68-14 4-27-16 *SM-3-33-15 7:2-37- 1 *6:1-64- 3 7:2-25- 1 7:1-68- 8 10:1-28- 9 *SM-3-33-12 *3-13-25 7:1-67- 6 *3-14-23 *7 1-51-20 *5-41- 7 | *10:2- 6-13 10:1-29- 2 7:1-67- 9 *7:2-30- 1 *10:2— 8-14 7:2-32- 3 *SM-3-32-17 *5-36- 1 7:1-67- 8 10:1-29- 8 _ *SM-3-25-16 3-14-2 *S M-3-33- 14 *5-40- 4 *10:2- 6-12 *5-41- 6 *SM-3-33-13 10:1-32- 6 *10:2— 8-15 *5-40- 5 7:1-67-12 4-23- 3 7:1-68-10 ¥*Q- 2- § *7 21-53-12 *7:2— 8- 1 7:1-67-. 7 ¥*7:2-17- 2 7:1-68- 9 *5-38- 6 Dilig | sites ees stern evapes heen eine *SM-3-31-14 *7:1-59-11 Bs ih ee ae een, eel Se eee 7:1-68- 6 7:2-25- 3 39 18 21 *SM-3-30-15 10:1-30- 9 40 19 30 7:1-68-13 | 1 Ranked as shown,in Table IV. 2 Ranked as shown in Table II. Table VI shows the comparative rank of 19 trees on which records have been secured for six years, which are among the 40 highest producing trees in the 2-year plat. Column 3 in this table shows the 4-year rank in which the trees would be listed if only those were BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 127 recorded on which data had also been secured for six years, and column 4 shows the rank secured by the same trees on the basis of their 6-year performance records as shown in Table II. The facts that the same trees appear in the first three ranks in both summaries and that the other trees represented are so nearly identical in their rank for the two periods show that for all practical purposes per- formance records of full-bearing. trees for four years are as satisfac- tory as those for six years. This is additional evidence in support of the general proposition that the variation in the amount of the annual crops produced by a given series of individual Washington Navel orange trees is relatively uniform throughout the series each year; that is, the highest produc- _ ing trees in any one year are in general the highest producing ones - each year, and the lowest producing ones remain at the bottom of the list continually. ‘Table VI also offers additional support of the general proposition that individual trees are relatively very stable over aseries of years in the character and the amount of their fruit production. Table VI also shows the relative ranks of the lowest producing trees recorded for both the 4-year and 6-year periods. The indi- vidual trees listed here are even more nearly identical in their rank for the two periods than were those in the highest producing ranks, giving additional evidence in support of the truths just stated.. Table VII shows the annual performance record of a tree of the Pro- ductive Washington strain for the season of 1914 and also the 6-year period performance record of the same tree. This table is presented for the purpose of comparison with Table VIII, showing the annual and period performance records of a tree of the Unproductive strain, _and with Table IX, showing the annual and period performance records of a tree of the Wrinkled Australian strain. These tables illustrate the form in which the data have been recorded during all the investigational work on which this publication is based, except that in order to economize space the form for recording the detailed data for 1914 has been rearranged. These records show the comparative behavior of typical examples of three Washington Navel orange strains which are of great importance in the study of the origin of varieties by bud selection. The marked variations in the quantity and commercial quality of the fruit borne by these trees illustrate the relative value of these strains and are typical of the differences in production that exist in other strains of this variety. 128 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe VII.—Performance record of the Washington Navel orange tree No. 3-14-27, Productive Washington strain, showing the weight and number of the fruits ofeach grade and size and the variable fruits produced, detailed for the season of 1914 and summarized for a period of six seasons, 1910 to 1915, inclusive. [The summarized record illustrates the method of assembling the data of successive seasons for careful com- arison and study. In practice, the variable fruits produced by the tree each season are listed on the _back of the form. The weights are given in pounds and ounces, except that the 6-vear totals and the averages are expressed decimally in pounds. This tree is listed in rank 1 in Tables IT, ITI, IV, and V.] DETAILED RECORD FOR THE SEASON OF 1914.1 — Orchard grade. | Standard grade. Total. Cull fruits. Grand total. Sizes of fruits. ie a N ‘ = Ae ma um-| y;,; um- ‘ um- . um- . um- Weight. ber Weight. an Weight. rock Weight. Hew Weight. hori 288 and smaller...... 1-10 8 | 1-1 6 2-11 ISS) 2552235 28 ones at | aoe soceee | eee D5) See acehnae ase ees 5- 6 19 0-15 3 6- 5 22 lead smcincc| stieesine lecsaceeen |aoerioee PAN Eee aoa ee ie 19-14 59 2-10 7 22- 8 66: | Fo secs se| Sse ocala woee cme secs 2 gen ee oe See miata 51-15 133 2-12 7 54-11 140) 25 225-5 .e|e access eecionauies | come Ges Saas bee a osae- 126-10 PER 6-12 16 | 133-6 293 | c's :cinis:sic.s| ssc: salne | crete s ee | Seeeee POO eessomee cece sae 125-12 238 4— 9) 9} 130-5 247 [cee cccs-|sccinae aloes cece lemons 1 re ies Ne 99- 6 167 48 8 | 103-14 175 | soe e acs | seats llSeetnesee | eee 18 DAP eae eee ae | 21-14 33 1- 4 2 23- 2 BB" | bewteincts =a | aoe Stee [oemeees ee | serra OG Bisse sent ae ose oe 8- 4} 11 O- 0 07 & 4 WF notes. Se lenciotec| seese eel eee 80 and larger........ 0-13 J 0- 0 0 0-13 Vl ssmisctecier lene Gzis| fae stlccteis eee otal 23. 461-8 | 946| 24-7 58 | 485-15 | 1,004 | 17-4 38| 503-3| 1,042 } i SUMMARIZED RECORD FOR SIX SEASONS. Grades and sizes. 1910 | 1911 | 1912 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | Total. er Weight of fruits: @rchardieradevsscteecctee- ee 382- 7 | 271-14 | 315- 0 | 152-14 | 461- 8 | 352- 2 |1,935.8 322.6 Standard grade ze <2). 2s. cello 7-10 | 27-15 | 23-11) 34-7] 24-7] 78-12] 196.9 32.8 Cullsi22 seca cant: Ase meee 0-0} 23-14] 16-3] 103-12! 17-4] 6913] 230.9 38.5 Grand total222.c.24-- soe eos 390- 1 | 323-11 | 354-14 | 291- 1 | 563- 3 | 500-11 |2, 363.6 393.9 Sizes— { 288 and smaller.............. 2-9 0- 4 3- 5 0-7 2-11 0-5 9.6 1.6 BO a iats roses Re Basie A owisia cajeraceih 11-12 0-0 42 1-13 6- 5 1-2 25.1 4.2 2163e- Seana. Woe a dese 15- 8 0-12 7-0| 11-1] 22-8 7-1 63.9 10.6 D0 Sais ccssiec cee lems cee 48-11 2-8) 32-11| 15-1). 5411] 18-8] 172.7 28. 8 (Gs8e. Sentosa shes see 66-10 6-1] 382-11] 32-6) 133-6] 41-7] 312.6 52.1 DDO Fs cece sree ea eee 98-0] 35-7] 90-1 47- 6 | 130- 5 79% 5 480.5 80.1 AZG Ror hosts se eee eee 28-14 87} 30-2) 45-1 | 103-14 139-11] 356.1 59.3 i ee een Smee eee ee 70-11 | 62-2] 79-13) 15-13) 23-2] 73-3] 324.8 54.1 UGS SS mo eeoce ses see et eeae ses 28- 7| 98-12| 41-0] 10-0 8 4)| 46-3] 232.6 38.8 SO'andlarger-< 2. 522 55.5--* = 18-15 | 85-8] 17-14 7-12 0-13 | 24-1] 154.9 25.8 TNOtals Sretcrere coe Se cides ee ners 390- 1 | 299-13 | 338-11 | 187- 5 | 485-15 430-14 |2, 132.7 355. 4 Number of fruits: Orehard- grade va.ccce sce sci naes 738 385 | 581 310 946 661! 3,621 603.5 Standard ‘erade... 3-22 22-25-2-2 19 45 | 57 80 58 151 410 68.3 Cullsi2tad 3 as Se ews Son nee 0 38 41 311 38 | 165 593 98.8 Grand otal: asc2 06s sieccasee: 757 468 679 701 | 1,042 977 | 4,624 770. 6 Sizes— 288 and smaller./...:.......- 10 1 14 2 14 2 43 7.2 D0 Aken conan aoe eae aeeeee 36 0 13 6) 22 | 4 81 13.5 QL Ge ceeraz dct aisle Soaisicacenies 41) 2 | 19 34 | 66 | 21 183 30.5 Q008% 2 2h zach ese ssrekea sects] 117 6 80 43 . 140 49 435 72.5 DGS ae aS os fes.en cee e waeee ete 141 13 | 72 77 | 293 98 694 115.7 LOU Re aa ae Nena Sete 189 66 174 | 98 247 | 165 939 156.5 L2G hoes crac eee eee 49 15 54 80 | 175 | 252 625 104.2 Te ecdceite acces seac areas 111 98 131 M25 35 | 120 520 86.7 tt OS ee meg geet he er eee ee | 40 135 | 59 15 11 69 329 54.8 S0and largers 52... 5--2-252.5-- 23 94 22 10 1 32 182 30. 2 Total Si seccae soccemoee ess) 757 430 638 390 =—-1, 004 812 | 4,031 671.8 | 1 Fine quality fruit; 114 boxes. Variable fruits: Australian appt navel, 7, split side, 3. ,1; protruding, 3; ridged, 3; abnormal shape, ‘he excessive number of culls occurring in 1913 was largely caused by the severe freeze of that season. BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 129 TaBLe VIII.—Performance record of the Washington Navel orange tree No. 7:1-66-12, Unproductive strain, showing the number and weight of the fruits of each grade and size ae the variable fruits produced, detailed for the season of 1914 and summarized for a period of siz seasons, 1910 to 1915, inclusive. (The summarized record illustrates the method of assembling the data of successive seasons for careful comparison and study. In practice the variable fruits produced by the tree each season are listed on the back of the form. The weights are given in pounds and ounces, except that the 6-year totals and the averages are expressed decimally in pounds. ‘This tree is listed in rank 147 in Table II and in rank 474 in Table IV.] DETAILED RECORD FOR THE SEASON OF 1914.1 Orchard grade. |Standard grade. Total. | Cull fruits. Grand total. Sizes of fruits. | | Weight. | NU™-| weight.| NU™- | weight. | NU™| weight.) NU™"| weignt. | Num 288 and smaller....-.- 0-12 3 4-7 21 5- 3 DAG Sree mrois | aesiats tal eee eee | Sasa ee 250 0-14 3 O- 0 0 0-14 & bededccad lbodccod |sascnobedliessooda 14 2-9 7 7-9 PAL eRecdadd|DeEseCd beascsded seacane 9 0-0 0 3-9 ist Seoadsd se peeod baSseaeasd leassees 14 0-14 2 7- 6 IG eceseecodllooseoed bedeedeed|eagende 3 0- 0 0 19) i. lbésceosad |sceccad bosecease||sesceds 3 -O 0 0 2-0 Silesso5uccd |SosonpE obsocetan basesac 1 O- 0 0 0-11 [el pea oooed sooseed lpaeensosa laseacas 0 0- 0 0 0- 0 aiibessudead Secoess leeeasader Bestese 0 0- 0 0 0- 0 Wee Assesedlncsmabeloassecwsalseeccac 50] 7-14)" 30) 28-18.) 80} 2-2) 14). 30-15 94 SUMMARIZED RECORD FOR SIX SEASONS. Grades and sizes. 1910 1911 1912 1913 1914 1915 | Total. | Average. Weight of fruits: Orchardverade:---s:--22----22-2 60-7) 48-4] 74 1] 46-13] 20-15} 33-3] 283.7 47.3 Standard¥srade: 2-2. --- 2222-24. 12-7 12-10 13-1 18-15 7-14 | 49-0 113.9 19.0 CUMS eee ae ob ak 0-0 3-0 811} 19-3 2-2 4-11 BYGTE 6.3 Granditotaltry ec s.csee esa 72-14 | 63-14] 95-13] 8415] 30-15] 86-14] 435.3 72.6 Sizes— | 288 and smaller............- D=e 7a eit —=13))| 31 2p ee 6-159 | 25 =235 |e oe) | 50KG 8. DoW Nea facie Ses aie cee see ceils 5- 1 92) 27-1 9- 9 0-14 0-0 ile 7/ 8. PW Gee emcioc «ans cee sects 7-7 5-14 14-4 12-12 7-9 4-10 52.5 8. UD Re satao soe si5 = nice cee ee 13- 6 15-13 11-11 9-1 3- 9 4-6 57.9 9. WG seme ee sisi = cin 2 = einer 15-11 10-8 2-8 | 10-2 7- 6 6-10 52.8 8. WoO Seee cece ve fac cise eee 18— 7 11-10 0- 8 | 9-4 1-9 15-10 57.0 9. 2G ee ne Goa. eee) ese 3-7 3- 4 0- 0 7- 6 2-0 15-13 31.9 5. Es Saas See ee ae 4-6 2-14 0- 0 0- 0 0-11 9-14 17.8 3. Geet ese Ss ot ha 2D o- 0 0- 0 0-11 O- 0 & 5 11.6 ie B0landilargens=.- 225-2525 es0 | 00 0- 0 0- 0 O08 0 ON S13, 13.8 2. BDO Gap leeee operas icra, LS rah 72-14 | 60-14] 87-2] 65-12] 28-13] 82-3] 397.6 66 —I ——— Number of fruits: Orchardgerade ae sens sence 145 116 243 127 50 68 74 124.8 Spandardberades.-- 2... -s22- ee 29 30 54 52 30 94 289 48.2 0 U 53 60 14 15 149 24.8 174 153 350 239 94 177 1,187 197.8 9 7 132 29 24 16 217 36. 2 16 28 87 34 3 0 168 28.0 22 16 41 37 21 14 151 D9) 35 38 30 24 9 12 148 24.7 36 23 6 23 16 16 120 20.0 39 23 il 18 3 32 116 19.3 6 6 0 13 3 28 56 9.3 7 5 0 0 1 16 29 4.8 4 0 0 1 0 12 17 2.8 0 0 0 0 0 16 16 2h 174 146 297 179 80 162 1,038 173.0 1 Total crop, one-half box. Variable fruits: Protruding, 3; split navel, 3, 14575°—18—Bull. 623 9 WL wnuowunnrinnap, 130 BULLETIN 623, U: S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste 1X.—Performance record of the Washington Navel orange tree No. ¥:1-56-5, Wrinkled Australian strain, showing the number and weight of the fruits of each grade and size and the variable fruits produced, detailed for the season of 1914 and summarized for a period of four seasons, 1912 to 1915, inclusive. [The summarized record illustrates the method of assembling the data of successive seasons for careful comparison and study. In practice the variable fruits produced by the tree each season are listed on the back of the form. The weights are given in pounds and ounces, except that the 4-year totals and the averages are expressed decimally in pounds. This tree is listed in rank 412 in Tables TV and V.] DETAILED RECORD FOR THE SEASON OF 1914.1 Orchard grade. Standard grade. Total. Cull fruits. Grand total. Hi | | Sizes of fruits. é H weight. | NU" | weight. | NU | weight. | NU™"| weight.) NU" | weight. | Num I 288 and smaller.....- 0-12 5] 3- 0 16 3-12 bi iO ee ae ae 0-10 2 5- 0 16 5-10 wii D1 ie ee ane 1-12 5| 19-2 53. | 20-14 i] Fite Oe See 4-5 12a |p eats 98) 15-8 i W7bobse tone ale iste p= BP a7 4 61] 29-6 Heit 5 OME eaten c emai 0- 0 0| 21-4 AD |) (Bie A i LOR NSA ARE Seen ae 0-0 0| 2412 27 | 24-12 t Dine Se eS 0-0 0 a0 5 3- 0 nee ee cae 0-0 0 0-11 1 0-11 f 80/and larger. .-.....4- 0O- 0 0 0- 0 0 0- 0 ) Total.......-- 9 | 27 | 15-4| 249| 124-13 i t SUMMARIZED RECORD FOR FOUR SEASONS. t | Grades and sizes. 1912 1913 1914 1915 | Total. | Average. VI | Hit Weight of fruits: } Orchard grade 41- 2 9-9 s- 148.2 37. 1 f Standard grade... 78-0} 115-4] 5915] 311.2 leno | Soe see ee eae Se ee eee eee 23-2]. 5-15 | 4-99) eae aie a Grandilotalos css easmeesaceeiete ates eee 158- 8 | 142- 4 | 130-12 | 72-7] 503.9 126. 0 Sizes— QSS ance sm alent. scan tae eee ae eee 13-5 | 37-6 3-12 1- 4 ney 13. 9 Bb Saaas sie haiacscints oe See aoieisis Sa oe Se 25-12 26- 4 5-10 1-12 59.4 14. 9 BAN GRE rs ie eee et Sete re ee Oe a 26-15 28-14 20-14 6-10 83.3 20. 8 PERS Re Soe ese gee eee nee ---| 40-1] 1415] 15-8] 10-8 81.0 20. 3 L(G ise tseeicioesins seisseulsieececeaost oleces too 24-15 7-0} 29-6! 14-2 75.4 18. -9 GOs ease esa ee eee eee eee 13-14 a 21-4] 22-3 61.5 15. 4 D6 ae ee neat la oe ee 1-11 0-8 | 2412 7-9 34.5 8. 6 1 Pe he eee eer eG ae Om ae an ne eee 0-10 O- 0 3- 0 1-11 5.3 Lege OG s.aaiseiecitesisi se scecs eteecdrecesceee ee2eeee 0- 0 0- 0 0-11 2-10 3.3 0. 8 S0land lareérssasotecas sc coanecan soaeoee es o- 0 0-0 0- 0 0- 0 0.0 -0 PO talc :s:s eycinie cesses ttnceewds cases eee s 147- 3 | 119- 2] 124-13 | 68 5| 459.4 114. 9 Number of fruits: Orchard verade se see cec sac clears sssee ete casi sciene 237 126 27 18 408 102. 0 tan a rdRorad Gee mee reer aoe eek 196 310 249 145 900 225. O CUS Sere Sa cete sce eas eee eee aes eee 46 96 29 12 183 45. 8 Grand total oc. jccecccetnce sce stecantectcestsee 479 532 305 175, 1,491 372. 8 92 181 19 6 298 74, 5 78 100 18 6 202 50. 5 74 88 58 20 240 60. O 101 40 40 28 209 52.25 56 17 66 35 174 43. 5 28 9 42 47 126 31. 5 3 1 27 14 45 11.25 1 0 5 3 9 2325 0 0 al 4 5]... 1.25 0 0 0 0 0 0 DP Otalee Sacco oe a sete oe eee 433 436 276 163 | 1,308 B20 1 Total crop, 24 boxes, Variable fruits: Wrinkled, 256; split side, 1, BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. Ua Taste X.—Performance record of the Washington Navel orange tree No. 11-52-15, Pro- ductive Washington strain, showing the number and weight of the fruits of each grade and size produced, summarized for a period of five seasons, 1911 to 1915, inclusive. [This table shows a steady increase in production. The weights are given in pounds and ounces, except that the 5-year totals and the averages are expressed decimally in pounds. This tree is listed in rank 3in Tables IV and V.]} Grades and sizes. - i911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | Total. | Ayer Weight of fruits: OncHardserad Cree naa) alee aie =< 267- 5 | 334-12 | 250- 0 | 392-15 | 390- 4 /1, 635.3 327.1 Standardiorades = 22 -))-2s2s> 422-222 -22--- 12-11 | :31- 7) 72-7) 18-1) 92-0) 221.6 44.3 (Gilles. ,osteccdbachucndecesecesseee see Bbee 5-2) 10-6)] 24 4 3-12] 11-8 55.0 11.0 INDIE, A on cadunbbcenseesees sass eSseeeeeee 285- 2 | 376- 9 | 346-11 | 409-12 | 493-12 |1,911.9 382.4 Sizes— ' ASSeanlGusMAller ee Se ceceeei steers - 0- 6 5-9} 13-10] 13-12 6- 8 39.8 7.96 Zi) = soediabtoseseepe aces dusueEeedeen ads |} 0-15} 14-10 | 32-1) 21-12 2 8 7taty) 14.38 Mil). = spars scdadaauEbesbers soseenosoaee TE |e ZU AL ek) 8 8} 172.1 34.42 Wc nbec ests pbOoBBERpeEe oc zeacaressods 6-12| 66-12) 62-6] 92-3] 17-11]! 245.8 49.16 Wis cccqtteebcotoeechorene secine sudeere 13-12 | 67-0 | 75-7) 118-1) .65-10'| 339.9 67.98 UN) sec caodtadssescsrdadcoanee asbsGenes 43-14 | 104- 8] 50-11} 58-2) 109-9] 366.7 73.34 WD. cgavsecasb stags sondaon secer or eeee 10-0] 17-11] 23-2) 16-2) 157-15} 224.9 44.98 IM = - -ceoocdasdsasouasdsesbecesesdscas 56- 9 | 53-13 aie 3-6] 61-13] 178.8 35. 76 We cnoora en SsdocenelE sac ch hcoraaaoseree | 88-6] 15-11 0- 0 2-4] 3410] 140.9 28. 18 SOAUCMATZ Chas tom eee eee eine =e | 57-14 O05 0-0 O=125 738 76.1 15. 22 Wen cdasenocodaesasaccensbusessss 280- 0 | 366— 3 | 322- 7 | 406— 0 | 482- 4 |1,856.9 | 371.38 ' Number of fruits: Orchardierade esc ner st eee | 416 726 629 942 782 | 3,495 699 Stand andlerade: Soceecc =e eeecme een nies 25 77 204 54 206 566 113 ~ Cll. ,cdcceuasecceceesensedeseedeEaeesee 26 30 79 13 38 186 37 ANG EI co cos ASE SERA Se OE SCOS Spee DAEaSEe | 467 833 912] 1,009} 1,026 | 4,247 849 Sizes— 22 58 73 35 190 38 45 111 73 9 241 48 58 181 198 26 467 93 169 160 235 48 628 126 148 173 264 155 770 154 210 103 116 233 745 149 33 42 28 299 420 84 94 5 5 105 300 60 24 0 3 54 206 41 0 0 1 24 94 19 803 833 996 988 | 4,061 812 1 The large number of culls occurring in 1913 were caused by the severe freeze o1 that season. _ The seasonal variation in production within a strain is illustrated in Tables X, XI, and XII. Table X shows the period performance record for five seasons of the tree of the Productive Washington strain which is listed in rank 3 in Tables IV and V. This record shows a regular increase in production from year to year, a condition which is most desirable from the standpoint of profitable orange growing. Table XI shows the period performance record for five seasons of the tree of the Productive Washington strain which is listed in rank 262 in Tables TV and V. This record is comparable with that in Table X, but shows a gradual decrease in production, a condition which is undesirable. Table XII shows the period performance record of the tree of the Productive Washington strain which is listed in rank 50 in Table II and in rank 87 in Table IV. This record illustrates the alternate-bearing habit of many of the trees under observation. A heavy crop is followed by a lighter one the next sea- son, but the production gradually increases during a period of several - 132 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. years. The freeze of 1913 reduced the yield of that season below normal, which explains the apparent exception to this rule shown in the production of that year in this table. The trees having a habit of regular production are more desirable than those haying a habit of alternate production, but the alternate-bearing trees may not be un- profitable to the grower. In propagation work, buds should be selected _ only from trees which show a regular and increasing production. The desirability of top-working alternate-bearing trees will depend upon the profitableness of their yield during several seasons, pref- erably for an even number of years. The trees showing a regular decrease in yield should be top-worked when their production is no longer profitable, using buds from trees producing heavy and regular crops. Table XIII shows the variation in average yields for a 4-year per- formance-record period of all the trees under observation, arranged in groups illustrating the comparative behavior of different strains and of select trees within some of these strains. TABLE XI.—Performance record of the Washington Navel orange tree No. 7:1-51-16, Productive Washington strain, showing the number and weight of the fruits of each grade and size produced, summarized for a period of five seasons, 1911 to 1915, inclusive. [This table plainly shows a gradual decrease in production. The weights are given in pounds and ounces, except that the 5-year totals and the averages are expressed decimally in pounds. This tree is listed in rank 262in Tables IV and V.] Grades and sizes. 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | Total. Aver: ge. Weight of fruits: Orchard 2rade@s. sic: sos sieees 22 sneosseeee 276-15 | 258- 8 | 128- 5 | 149- 7 | 106- 6 |. 919.6 | 183.92 Standard grades... - i522. 2c secaces sess 21-10} 14-13] 22-3] 20-7 (All 86.7 17.34 (Cri S eee eee eae ee ae 2-0} 18-4] 35-0 2 & 8 70.9 14.18 Motaliearsisecsis as sscccieaesisls qe egos = 300- 9 | 291- 9 | 185- 8 | 177— 0 | 122- 9 |1,077.2 | 215.44 Sizes— ————|— Dee anidisimallor sess: eee oes eee 1-165) 27 ON 24= 7] 7143) e210) | mero onra emelon5e 250 Sine eee a nee ee see 7-2) 48-57) 39°72 | 990-73)! 92798105" 0n|smore00 216...----------- wet eeeteeee we eeeecees 11-0; 40-6] 39-5; 35-1] 12-8; 138.3] 27.66 DOD Eee eee ee eee 37- 0 | 76-14 | 23-7] 40-7] 17-4] 195.0] 39.00 Urb teciats Sed care ceadt ise Gee coerce 39-10 | 42-15} 21-15] 55-1) 27-11] 187.3 37.46 DO Sees oe eee ae ree 101-0} 32-4 6- 6 6— 1 | 24-97) 170.2 34.04 DQG Se Swisleisicrer ia sla cictefetaie ciaisieteteie = estan see 14-11 5 5 2-5 =a) lOO 46.5 9.30 1 OScsermmcor eres yon omer enaesS 5 Diao 5- 2 0-9 0- 0 5-10 68.6 13.72 OO Sem eeemee rere. aes eee 20-15 0-0 0- 0 0-0 3- 5 24.2 4.84 Sand larperie sce. ccc eee ess see ese | 8&8 0-0 O- 0 0- 0 O- 0 8.5 Shed Rotel ecetasecosasseecee aes eae ece 298- 9 | 273- 5 | 150- 8 |} 169-14 | 114- 1 /1,006.3 | 201.26 Number of fruits: = Orchard'grade..222 22-252 52e52 eae sce no 519 696 389 376 240 | 2,220 444 Standard erade 7 2 22-- sce eee ees 48 54 84 66 24 276 55 GUIS T eee ereeese = emcees eee ee | 4 73 150 34 29 290 58 Motels ececewasscces setae eases 571 823 623 476 293 | 2,786 557 Sizes— 288 and smallers =o asses 20 cee akon see 6 108 107 35 10 266 53.2 AO Ujste sees jest Salen srsiara\etercla(a sais o geen os cre 22 140 114 66 7 349 69. 8 A216 facts eee ce eae Seek ee ee eee aa 29 117 121 98 37 402 80.4 VUE COR aattarSieeaemas Joes Daeeeeedce soe 88 200 62 100 46 496 99.2 URE eae nas Sao se Ay ee Bers 84 99 51 122 65 421 84.2 TOO Som iepemicwistoneee cc's een 2st ewes 180 67 13 12 51 323 64.6 C6 ree ee ee eee 25 10 4 9 34 82 16.4 WD oaks Face Sowne Scie aces ewsiae sols 5 5'e) 92 9 1 0 9 111 22.2 D6 ssn e sesame soe celiac ee eeeee ee 30 0 0 0 5 35 7.0 S0land areer. 2s. ..cgceenascees eee 11 0 0 0 0 11 2.2 Motels oesectcs sete. tecneee se aes 567 750 473 442 264 2,496 499. 2 1 The large number of culls occurring in 1913 were caused by the severe freeze of that season, BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 133 Taste XII.—Performance record of the Washington Navel orange tree No. 4-25-2, Pro- ductive Washington strain, showing the number and weight of the fruits of each grade and size produced, summarized for a period of six seasons, 1910 to 1915, inclusive. [This table plainly shows the tendency of this tree to bear heavier crops in alternate seasons. The weights are given in pounds and ounces, except that the 6-year totals and the averages are expressed decimially inpounds. This tree is listed in rank 50 in Table II and in rank 87 in Table IV.} Grades and sizes. 1910 | 1911 | 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | Total. ae Weight of fruits: Orehardioradelees- sine. ss c™h EV 7 725 é:9 Mics? /2 “Ee BSG GE 2g8 177° co 4O% GAAOLS SR ee AO ORO C3 / Eee GELS. 9 SHN0A00 £20 GE GRBOS CUZL AIO Fic. 12.—Diagram showing the production by commercial sizes and grades of the crops of the 10 highest and 10 lowest producing trees, irrespective of strain, in the investigational performance-record plats of the Washington Navel orange. The figures indicate the proportion of each size or grade to the total crop, calculated from the number of fruits produced during a 4-year period, 1912 to 1915, inclusive. Figure 11 shows similar comparisons based on the weight of the crop. Figure 12 shows the same comparisons as figure 11, but in this case the percentages are based upon the number of fruits instead of their weights. This diagram brings out even more forcibly than does figure 11 the fact that the heaviest producing trees bear the largest proportion of the most desirable sizes and best grade of fruits. This correlation of heavy yield and superior commercial grade in the production of Washington Navel orange trees‘ of the Washington strain is very important from the standpoint of the standardization of the variety through bud selection based on performance records. i} 138 BULLETIN 623, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. For this reason the propagation of the highest yielding trees means both larger and better crops of fruit. In order to present more clearly the importance of the production of the more desirable commercial sizes of fruits by the heavy-yielding trees, figure 13 shows graphically, in terms of packed boxes, the proportions of the various sizes produced by the 10 highest and the 10 lowest yielding trees. This diagram emphasizes the large propor- tion of the most valuable commercial sizes (200, 176, 150, and 126) borne by the heavy-producing trees in comparison with the small number of fruits of these sizes borne by the low-yielding trees SIZES TEN HIGHEST /YRODUCIVG TKELS | JEN LOWEST PRODUCING TALES LLP? CLINI OF A AACKED BOK LEP (REL Y FE? CENT OF AA AACKELOD BOK PLR TREE HB/OC 288 _ 77 ERE c/ 25006 «66.68 Pn. a ere | 59.7200 9 CO S/O 00-50 // 5 RRR 7/25 7S mE 97/2 CS mum 2S SO / GMCS SO 264 pause? TOTAL CROP \ 47S PACKED BOXES 5 OLR TIRLE j O.7€ PACKED BOKES 2.27 PICKED BGOKES OP ( THE /7OS7 DESVAALLE SIZES \ OF LAACKED BOKES OP 69./ FER CLNV7T OF THE COP \ 200, 176, 420 AND 128 \$5 BO ALR CLNT GF 7AIE CHOP B7EC PACKED BOXES Wes aa cat ste fs ar SAGE \exo PACKED BOKES (ACTUAL VALUE PER ACRE \ : BE5C.05 \ DE NERED AT PACKING HOUSE | 8/0004 Fia. 13.—Diagram showing the average number of fruits of the various commercial sizes produced annually during a 4-year period by the 10 highest and 10 lowest yielding trees, irrespective of strain, in the investi- gational performance-record plats of the Washington Navel orange. This production is expressed as percentages of a packed box, calculated from the number of fruits of the different sizes. The percentage of most desirable sizes is also stated, and the production and value are calculated on the acre basis. The highest producing trees bore an average of 4.73 packed boxes per tree, as compared with a yield of 0.76 of a packed box by the lowest producing trees. On an acre basis at the rate of planting in the performance-record plat, this yield amounted to 378.6 packed boxes per acre for the best trees, as compared with 61 packed boxes per acre for the lowest producing trees. The value of this produc- tion, figured on the basis of the actual prices obtained for the crops during the period of observation, was $636.05 per acre annually for the high-producing trees, as compared with $100.04 for the low- producing trees. The higher value of the crops from the high- producing trees is partially due to the fact that 69.1 per cent of their crops was of the most desirable sizes and 78.7 per cent was first-grade BUD VARIATION: IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 139 fruit, as compared with only 53 per cent of the most desirable sizes and 68 per cent of first-grade fruit produced by the low-yielding trees. The production of variable fruits by trees of some of the important strains 1s shown graphically in figure 14. The low production of these inferior fruits by trees of the Washington strain, amounting to 0.66 per cent, as compared with the large production of such fruits borne by the Thomson, Golden Nugget, Sporting Thomson, Sporting Washington, and Wrinkled Australian strains, shows the superior quality of the Washington strain in this respect. The comparative freedom from variable fruits of many trees of the Washington strain and other characteristics of these trees indicate the possibility of controlling the amount of bud variability in commercial orchards by bud selection based on performance records. In counting the vari- : LRP CENT OF VARIABLE FRUITS GES WASHINGTOW STRAIN 066 l % . 10 * GHEST PRODUSING (ALL WASHINGTON STRAIN) O7EN 7 WASHINGTON-THOMTSOW STR agoN ‘YO LOWEST PRODUCING UASHUNETON STRAIN 0.304" BS GNORCOLCTWVE STAIN 2.931 43° YELLOW WASHINGTON S724 age 10 LOWEST PRODUCING (RRESECTIVE OF STHHIN) 2ag3t @ TAOVASONW -VASAINGTON STRAMIV 4248 4 YELLOW THOVISOW STRAIN 4578 SI THSPISOV STRAIN 49/6 G CGOLLEWV WUGGET STAM 74/9 TE 2 SPORTWC THOSISOW STRA/V 70.03 7 1 SPORTING WASHINGTON STRAIN AGS 2 2 WAINMALELD AUSTRALIAN STARA SEO A RETAIL a OE ON OE Fic. 14.—Diagram showing the average percentage of variable fruits found on the trees of the different strains of the Washington Navel orange in the investigational performance-record plats during a 4-year period, 1912 to 1915, inclusive. The proportions are based on the total number of fruits produced. able fruits on a tree, only those showing some marked variation from the general type of the fruits produced by that tree have been recorded; for instance, in the case of trees of the Yellow strain, only those fruits showing some marked variation from the Yellow strain have been listed as variable fruits. On the Sporting Washington and ‘Thomson trees all fruits other than those typical of the Wash- ington or Thomson strains have been listed as variable fruits. In trees of the Wrinkled Australian strain the fruits do not all show the characteristic coarse or wrinkled appearance, so that on these trees all fruits other than those of the Washington strain have been counted as variable fruits. In figure 15 is shown the average weight per fruit of the total com- mercial crops of all the trees of the different strains in the performance- record plats. Aside from the factor of size, the amount of juice and ——— 140 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF .AGRICULTURE. the thickness. of the rind are of importance in determining the weight of the individual fruits. This condition is illustrated by the low average weight of the Australian fruits in this diagram. These fruits usually have very thick rinds and a comparatively small quantity of juice. Therefore, although they are usually as large as the fruits of the other strains, they are lighter in weight and inferior in quality. Other less important contrasting characteristics of the various strains of the Washington Navel orange have been studied in the course of these investigations. All-of these studies have added fur- ther evidence of the importance of these strains in their relation to commercial orange growing. All the data show that it is very im- portant to isolate the strains of this variety and, for commercial pur- poses, to propagate only the best of them. AVERAGE WEIGHT PLR RUT (POUNDS) 10 HIGHEST PRODUCIVG (ALL WASHINGTON STRAIN) O53 8 GOLDEN NUGGET STRAIN 13 YELLOW WASHINGTON STRAIN BEF WASHINGTON STRAIV 4 SPORTING WASMNGTON STAN 0. OC JO LOWEST PRODUCING (URESLCTIVE CF STRAIN) 0,29 nee BS WNOEROOUCTIVE STAFV/IV 0.3 7 eG S/ THOVASON STUN 0.35 ee SF TAONTISOV -~WASHINVGTON STAAUN 0.35 CS 4 WASHINGTON -7AD7 SOW STKE JO LOWEST PRODUCING WASHINVGTQM STORUN 0.35 es 2WRINAZLLD AUSTAAILIIN STAPUN 0.37 ER 4 YELLOW FADVISOV S7APUV/V OS za aw aan 2 SORTING FAVISOV STAN 0.29 SE ee Fig. 15.—Diagram showing the average weight per fruit for the total commercial crops of the trees of the various strains of the Washington Navel orange found in the investigational performance-record plats. These weights are expressed as decimal parts of a pound and are based on data for a 4-year period, 1912 to 1915, inclusive. COMPARATIVE VALUE OF THE STRAINS. Any statement as to the comparative value of the various strains of the Washington Navel orange must be understood as applying only to present conditions. What the future of these strains may be under different cultural and market conditions no one can foretell. Under existing conditions, 2 of the 14 strains are valuable and 3 others are of possible value to orange growers, while 9 are of little or no commercial value. In some cases the inferior strains are not only unproductive, but the poor fruits produced by them are actually detrimental to the general crop of the grove in which they occur, in that it is expensive and sometimes practically impossible to eliminate them during the packing process, and if some are left in the regular BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE, 141 pack the crop in which they are found is likely to be discounted in value when marketed. ~ The Washington strain, so far as production and the commercial quality of the fruits are concerned, is superior to any other known navel-orange strain. The Thomson, as a rule, produces fruits having a smoother texture and better color of rind than the Washington. This improved appearance results in a higher price per box for Thomson than that paid for similar boxes of Washington fruits in some markets. It is generally conceded that Washington strain oranges are of higher quality than those of the Thomson strain. However, the very smooth texture and deep reddish orange color of the Thomson fruits outweigh other considerations in certain markets. In other important markets the Washington fruits command the high- est prices, on account of their superior flavor and the texture of their flesh. A combination of the valuable characteristics of both the Washington and Thomson strains is desired. As mentioned previously, this con- dition has been found to exist in the fruits produced by trees of the Thomson-Washington strain. This strain is therefore deserving of a thorough test by orange growers. The Golden Nugget, Yellow Thomson, and Yellow Washington strains possess some characteristics of value, and their fruits are in some respects, under favorable conditions, considered to be of good quality... Small commercial orchards of these strains have been planted by a few citrus growers in California, and the results of these tests will do much toward deciding their ultimate commercial value. The remaining strains are more or less undesirable and unprofitable in every respect. The causes for this condition are apparent from their descriptions and their comparative performance records, or from both. Inasmuch as commercial orange orcharding is conducted by the growers in order to make a profit on their investment and labor, the propagation of these inferior strains or their continued culture in established plantings should be discouraged. As a whole, these investigations have shown that the Washington is the most valuable of all the strains, with the Thomson of secondary commercial importance for special conditions of soil, climate, and market, while the others are of little or doubtful commercial value. THE UNINTENTIONAL PROPAGATION OF UNDESIRABLE STRAINS. The prevailing methods of securmg bud wood of the Washington Navel orange variety have been to cut this wood either from bear- ing trees in established orchards or, to a limited extent, from young nursery or nonbearing trees. Where the buds have been cut from bear- ing trees, little or, usually, no selection of parent trees has been practiced. Suckers, or unusually vigorous nonbearing branches, 142 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. have been used almost universally for this purpose. This practice has led to the propagation of a continually increasing proportion of trees of those strains producing the largest amount of sucker growth. Inasmuch as such trees are usually hght bearers and produce inferior fruits, this practice has been unfortunate and is the direct cause of the presence of the large proportion of unproductive trees found in many orchards. In cases where fruit wood has been used for propagation, such bud wood has been cut without any fruits attached, so that in many instances buds from sporting limbs have been used, resulting in the development of diverse strains of trees, as shown by the presence of such trees in the established orchards. The well-known condition of frequent mixture of varieties in deciduous orchards, resulting from the use of bud wood cut from young nursery trees, where buds from different varieties are likely to be mixed or misplaced during propagation, caused the California citrus nurserymen largely to avoid this practice. For this reason only a limited amount of nursery growth has been used for propa- gation, and consequently but little mixture of varieties has been found in Washington Navel orange orchards. The presence in established orchards of trees of diverse strains is the direct result of propagating either from individual trees of these strains or from limb variations in trees of the Washington strain. Because this condition of bud variation and strain diversity was practically unknown until established through these investigations, the nurserymen who used bud wood accidentally cut from the sporting branches of trees of the Washington strain (see figs. 7 and 8) or even bud wood from trees of inferior strains are not to blame for the propa- gation of these diverse and frequently undesirable strains. However, now that the condition of bud variability in the trees of this variety has been established beyond question, any propagator who does not utilize this information and practice the improved methods for securing bud wood from select trees of the best strains will not be able to excuse the poor results of his propagations on the ground of the lack of definite information on this subject. THE ISOLATION OF STRAINS THROUGH BUD SELECTION. Fruit-bearing bud wood has been selected from limb variations occurring in trees of the Washington or other strains, and in several hundred cases where the growth from these buds has fruited every selection has come true. In the beginning of this work, the con- spicuous bud variations were top-worked in bearing trees in order to get them in fruiting quickly. Later, as opportunity has per- mitted, the bud variations have been propagated on nursery stocks. Naturally, the results of these progeny tests require considerable time in order to secure reliable’ performance-record data, In so BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 143 far as such trees have fruited, the results have confirmed in every respect those secured by top-working bearing trees. Enough eyi- dence has been secured in these investigations to warrant the state- ment that in all probability all the strains of the Washington Navel orange can be isolated through bud selection. The isolation of the straims described in this bulletin can be effected either through the selection of bud wood from typical trees in established orchards or from limb variations occurring in bearing trees of the Washington or other strains. In all cases only fruit-bearing bud wood should be used, and one or more typical fruits of the strain desired should be cut off with each bud stick as an indication or label of the characteristics of the bud wood. Figure 16 shows a bud stick of fruit-bearing wood with a typical fruit of the Washington strain attached. The fruits on the bud stick are an indication of the inherent characteristic of the buds from such bud wood and show the probable character of fruit that will be produced by those buds. The small size of the fruit-bearing bud wood, particularly that growth immediately back of the orange, in comparison with sucker wood growth, has been urged as an objection to its use, particularly if it is necessary to hold the bud wood in storage for some time. These investigations have proved that under proper conditions of storage, viz, sterilized and prop- erly moistened moss and a cool temperature, fruit-bearing bud wood keeps its vitality as well as any other kind of wood. Experience has shown that the use of small bud sticks is as successful in securing a stand of living | buds and is as practicable as the use of the “(nif ine wood with larger ones. Washington strain fruit at- The discovery of the practicability Aa erty desirability of the use of fruit-bearing bud wood for propagation purposes came about through a study of methods for isolating the navel-orange strains. Experiments with fruit-bearing bud wood proved that the buds from such wood grew equally well and in most cases better than the buds cut from nonfruit-bearing wood. The growth of the young trees from buds taken from fruit-bearing wood has been equally good in all cases and better in most instances than that of trees propagated from sucker or nonfruit-bearing wood, 144 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The isolation of the valuable strains through bud selection is of vital commercial importance to the entire Washington Navel orange industry. The isolation of the inferior strains is of interest only from the experimental standpoint. The propagation of trees of the valuable strains will result not only in increased production but, what is equally important, in a uniform, improved production of improved crops of fruit of greater commercial value. From this standpoint, the isola- tion of the best strains is of importance, not only to the grower but to the consumer as well. TOP-WORKING UNDESIRABLE TREES. The elimination from established orchards of trees of undesirable strains has been effected by top-working these trees with select buds from trees of the Washington strain. The selection of trees to be top-worked was made before the fruits borne by these trees were picked. While trees of some of the inferior strains can be recognized from their habit of growth or other vegeta-" tive characteristics, it is desirable wherever possible to base the final selection on performance records and the characteristics of the fruits. The selection of bud wood for top-working purposes was based on individual-tree. performance records, associated with an intimate ‘knowledge of tree characteristics secured from careful observations of the trees. Only fruit-bearmg wood was used, and for the most part only that growth immediately back of the oranges. In the trees to be top-worked two or three of the main limbs were selected for budding and two buds were inserted in each limb, one on each side, from 12 to 24 inches above the fork of the trunk. After the buds united with the limbs the wraps were removed, the limbs cut off about 6 inches above the buds, and the freshly cut surfaces covered with grafting wax. The trunks and the remainder of the limbs were covered with a heavy coating of whitewash immediately after the tops were removed, in order to prevent injuries from exposure. The sprouts from the limbs and trunk were removed from time to time, in order that the new tops should be made up of the growth from the inserted buds alone. As the buds developed, their growth was con- trolled by pruning, so as to form a well-branched top capable of bear- ing full crops of fruit. After a year’s growth, the stubs of the original limbs were cut off just above the bud union, making the cuts oblique in order to facili- tate their healing. All cut surfaces were coated with grafting wax or some other suitable covering, in order to prevent decay and to promote the healing processes. Careful attention should be given these trees for the first year or two, to protect the new growth and to guard against undesirable conditions. Afterwards these trees require BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE. 145 no other attention or care than that given the other trees in the orchard. _ As a result of these investigations, more than 40,000 undesirable citrus trees in California orchards have been top-worked with buds selected from the most desirable trees in the investigational perform- _ ance-record plats. The oldest tops grown from these buds are now more than 5 years of age. So far, not a single failure has been ob- served in transmitting the characteristics of the parent trees by means of the selected buds. The large amount of positive evidence as to the possibility of improving undesirable trees by top-working them with selected buds has resulted in the almost universal adoption of this practice by California citrus growers. SUMMARY. The Washington Navel orange is the most important and most extensively grown citrus variety in California. It was introduced into the United States from Bahia, Brazil, in 1870, by the United States Department of Agriculture. Two trees propa- gated from this introduction were sent to. Mrs. L. C. Tibbets, at Riverside, Cal:, in 1873. From this beginning the Washington Navel orange industry has been developed, for the most part within the past 25 years. There are great variations in the trees and fruit of this variety in California. At least 13 strains possessing very distinct character- istics have been discovered up to the present time. The objects of these investigations are to determine the comparative behavior of the different strains of the Washington Navel orange variety, to originate and demonstrate methods for their isolation and propagation, to eliminate undesirable trees in established orchards, and to conserve, standardize, and stabilize the variety through bud selection based on individual-tree performance records. The plan of the investigations is to secure reliable information regarding individual-tree behavior and fruit characteristics by means of systematic performance records. Individual-tree performance records include a history of the tree, a record of its production, and a description of its fruits and habits of growth. Bud variations are of frequent occurrence and of great commercial importance in this variety. Individual] fruit variations, such as chimeralike developments and other interesting similar phenomena, are found frequently. Many minor fruit variations have been discovered, and their relation to more important variations is being investigated. 14575°—18—Bull. 623——10 146 BULLETIN 623, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The Washington strain is the most important and valuable one. The Thomson strain is also of value, and the Golden Nugget, Yellow Washington, and Yellow Thomson strains are of possible value for commercial orcharding. The other eight strains described are probably of little commercial value, and their presence in established orchards is one of the principal causes of the low and poor production of many of them. The undesirable strains usually have been propagated uninten- tionally by reason of a lack of knowledge of their existence and importance. All of the strains described can be isolated through bud selection based on individual-tree performance records. Fruit-bearing bud wood, with representative fruits attached, should be used for propaga- tion purposes. Established trees of unproductive and undesirable strains have been top-worked successfully with buds selected from the best trees of the Washington strain. A practical method for locating such trees and a discussion of their treatment in commercial orchards is presented in Farmers’ Bulletin 794 of the United States Department of Agri- culture, entitled ‘‘Citrus-Fruit Improvement: How to Secure and Use Tree-Performance Records.” O Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER July 25, 1918 CITRUS-FRUIT IMPROVEMENT: A STUDY OF BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE! By A. D. Samet, Physiologist in Charge, L. B. Scorr, Pomologist, and C. S. Pomeroy, Assistant Pomologist, Fruit-Improvement Investigations, Office of Hor- ticultural and Pomological Investigations. CONTENTS. Page Page California citrus varieties.........----2-.---- 15 | ein or variationsiOfiruitsiess senses een 13 History of the Valencia variety.......--..-.- 2 | Lessons taught by these investigations. ....- 13 Variability within the variety .............-. 3) peresentation Omdatdacmsesceteec seat eee 14 Occurrence and frequency of bud variations - 4 | Comparative value of the strains.....-...... 114 Objects of the investigations......--.--.... 5 | The unintentional propagation of undesirable MPlaniotatheunvestications......----.2.2.25 +. 6 SErainsee ee oa tee Soe en eHeN PHN SUS AIRE ae 115 Methods of keeping performance records..... 7 | The isolation of strains through bud selection 116 Descriptions of some of the important strains 8 | Top-working undesirable trees.............- 118 Individual variations of fruits -............-- HUH EfSyo cata akey eh ea a ASN ia ae ga la 119 CALIFORNIA CITRUS VARIETIES, The commercially important varieties of citrus fruits grown in California are the Washington Navel, the Valencia, and the Mediter- ranean (Mediterranean Sweet) oranges; the Dancy tangerine; the Eureka and Lisbon lemons; and the Marsh (Marsh Seedless) grape- fruit. Other less important varieties grown only to a limited extent include the St. Michael, Navelencia, Ruby blood, and Malta blood oranges, and the Villafranca lemon. Of the two leading orange varieties the Washington Navel is by far the most widely cultivated, producing an annual crop of about 27,000 carloads of fruit.2 This variety ripens its fruit from November to June, inclusive. The Valencia ripens its fruit from June to October, inclusive, and produces 1 This is the second in a series of publications summarizing the citrus-fruit improvement investigations of the Department of Agriculture. The first report of this character was presented in the following publica- tion: Shamel, A. D., Scott, L. B., and Pomeroy, C.S. Citrus-fruit improvement: A study of bud varia- tion in the Washington Navel orange. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 623, 146 p.,16figs.,19pl. 1918. In that bulletin the methods of conducting the investigational work are described more in detail than in the pres- ent publication. 2Wallschlaeger, F. O. The world’s production and commerce in citrus fruits and their by-products. Citrus Prot. League, Cal., Bul. 11, p. 70. 1914. 14648°—18—Bull. 624——1 2 BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. an annual crop of about 8,500 carloads. Ail other varieties of oranges grown in California produce annually about 4,500 carloads of fruit, ripening their crops mostly in the spring and early summer months. At the present time the increase in the plantings of the Valencia orange in California is greater than that of any other orange variety. For this reason studies of the characteristics of the variety and methods of improving and increasing its production through bud selection during propagation are of special interest. HISTORY OF THE VALENCIA VARIETY, The Valencia orange (Citrus aurantium sinensis L.) was intro- duced into California from at least three sources at about the same time. According to William Wood, horticultural commissioner of Los Angeles County, A. B. Chapman and George H. Smith, of that county, received an unlabeled package of orange trees from Thomas Rivers, of London, England, in 1876. Mr. Chapman planted these trees in the nursery on his ranch at San Gabriel, Cal. Buds were propagated from all of these trees and grown until they came into bearing. The only variety which proved to be of value was one which Mr. Chapman called Rivers Late. Col. J. H. Dobbins, of San Gabriel, secured buds of this variety, and when the trees propagated from these buds came into bearing a shipment of the fruit was sent to eastern markets. These oranges brought $4 per box. As a result of this experience the variety became very popular and was widely planted by citrus growers. At that time a citrus grower from Va- lencia, Spain, was shown the fruit and identified it as the variety called in Spain ‘‘La Naranga Tarde de Valencia.” Mr. Chapman adopted this name, and it has since been called the Valencia Late, or, more commonly, the Valencia orange. The other sources of trees of this variety were introductions into California from Florida by several southern California nurserymen, particularly Frost and Burgess? and Twogood and Cutter, located at Riverside. The variety had been introduced into Florida by two different persons. About 1870 General Sanford, of Palatka, Fla., obtained a variety of orange from the Rivers nurseries... This variety was labeled Brown.’ Shortly after the Sanford introduction Mr. E. H. Hart, of Federal Point, Fla., introduced the variety into Florida from the Parsons nursery of Flushing, N. Y.t. The Parsons nurseries had received the trees from the Rivers nurseries. In shipping the trees to Florida the label was lost. When these trees fruited Mr. Hart exhibited samples of the fruit at a meeting of the Florida State 1 Letter from Mr. William Wood, Los Angeles, Cal., Jan. 5, 1916. 2 Letter from Mr. George Frost, Riverside, Cal., Jan. 20, 1916. 3 Statement received from Mr. Daniel Houston, Zellwood, Fla., May 9,1916. Mr. Houston was formerly manager of General Sanford’s properties. 4 Letter of Mr, E, H. Hart to Prof, E, H, Van Deman, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Apr. 25, 1888. BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. 3 Horticultural Society and the nomenclature committee of that so- ciety gave them the name Hart’s Tardiff, which was successively changed to Hart’s Tardy and Hart’s Late. The American Pomo- logical Society has adopted the name Hart for this variety, but the names mentioned above are still in common use by nurserymen and growers in Florida. On comparison, the fruits of the Hart introduc- tion were found to be identical with those grown by General Sanford under the name Brown.'' Budded trees of both the Sanford and Hart introductions were included in the earlier shipments of trees from Florida to California.2, It was soon found, however, that the Brown, Hart, and Valencia were the same variety, and as it seemed probable that the California Valencia Late and the Florida intro- ductions were nearly related and came from the same original source, the name Valencia is used in California to designate all trees which have descended from these different introductions. Orchards grown from trees or buds received from these sources show only minor differences, if any, and when present these are of such a character as may be due to local soil and climatic conditions rather than to inher- ent varietal differences. As a rule, the Chapman introduction of Valencia orange has a more ellen shape than the Florida strains and is said to ripen somewhat earlier. The Chapman trees usually are more upright in habit of growth than those of the Florida Valencia, but not enough reliable information is available regarding this or other comparative varietal tree and fruit characters of these introductions for’ any final conclusions as to inherent differences between them. The performance records of individual trees and the observations, illustrations, and notes of trees and fruits contained in this bulletin have all been obtained from trees which trace back to the Florida introductions now commonly known in California as the Valencia orange. ‘These records and observations have been made in the orchards of southern California and for the most part in those located in Riverside County. VARIABILITY WITHIN THE VARIETY. Previous to this study it had been generally supposed that one Valencia tree was as good as another and that for a series of years they would produce practically equivalent crops. Contrary to this, these investigations have proved that instead of the Valencia vari- ety being stable and constant, it is composed of several distinct strains which differ from each other in many characters of fruit and tree. The term “strain” is used here to designate a group of in- dividuals of a horticultural variety which differ from all other indi- 1 Letter of Mr. E. H. Hart to Prof. E. H. Van Deman, U.S. Department of Agriculture, June 10, 1887. * Statement received from Mr. Daniel Houston, Zellwood, Fla., May 9, 1916. 4 BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. viduals of the variety in one or more constant and recognizable characteristics and which are capable of perpetuation through vege- tative propagation. Within the various strains there are variations in the amount and commercial quality of the fruits produced by the individual trees. The variability of individual-tree production in the orchard as regards quantity, commercial quality, time of ripening, and other characteristics is of the highest importance to growers of fruit varieties. The variability of the trees and fruits within the variety is of fundamental significance from the standpoint of the grower and in any study of the conservation and stabilization of the variety as a whole. The Valencia strains are distinguished by differences in habits of erowth, time of ripening fruits, quantity and quality of crops, and other definite and marked characteristics. The trees of certain strains were found to have upright habits of growth, while those of other strains are drooping or spreading. The trees of some of the strains produce, as a rule, full crops of the best-grade fruit, while those of other strains produce light crops of low-grade fruit. The trees of at least one of the strains produce early-ripening crops, while those of other strains produce later ripening fruits. The leaves of the trees of some of the strains are large, broad, and bluntly rounded in shape, while trees of other strains have small, narrow, and sharply pointed leaves. In many cases, fruits of two or more of the different strains have been found on the same tree grown from a single bud and therefore upon the same individual stock. Such instances have shown the fallacy of the theory that the different strains are variations due to climatic or soil conditions or the influence of different stock. Later, it was found that the different strains occurring in a single tree could be isolated through bud selection in propagation, thus proving that the differences observed were true inherent cases of bud variation. The mixture of strains in the Valencia orchards under observation was found to be so marked and frequent as to warrant careful inves- tigations of their relative value. The results of these investigations, which have covered more than four years, together with suggestions for the isolation of the best strains of this variety through bud selection and for the stabilization of the variety through the propagation of only the most desirable strains, are set forth in the following pages. OCCURRENCE AND FREQUENCY OF BUD VARIATIONS. A casual observation of the Valencia orange trees selected for these investigations will reveal little of the startling condition of bud variability existing in the trees and their fruits. Several Valencia orange growers, with many years of experience in the culture of this BUD VARIATION IN. THE VALENCIA ORANGE. 5 variety, have expressed genuine surprise when some of the bud variations of foliage and fruits occurring on their trees have been pointed out to them. As a matter of fact, while bud variations have been known to exist in trees of this variety for some time, their frequency and importance have not been fully realized until very recently and as a result of these investigations. Twelve important strains of the Valencia variety have been found and described during these investigations. Several other minor and less frequent variations have been found from time to time, but, so far as is now known, they are of little significance or importance in commercial orchard practice or in the present studies. The total number of strains existing in the Valencia variety is not known. Additions are continually being made to the list, as knowl- edge of the variety grows and the extent of the investigations widens to include observations of a larger number of trees. The extent of the occurrence of diverse strains of the Valencia variety in established bearing orchards has been found to be even greater than the occurrence of similar variations in Washington Navel groves. The percentage of off-type trees, 1. e., marked varia- tions from the best or Valencia strain, found in individual com- mercial orchards is practically the same as was found in Washington Navel orange orchards (from about 10 to approximately 75 per cent),! but a larger proportion of the Valencia orchards have shown the higher percentages of trees of variable strains. The name Valencia has been applied to the best strain of the variety, because, as nearly as can be determined, it is similar in type ~of tree and of fruit to the original Valencia introductions into Cal- ifornia which were propagated on account of their superior quality and productiveness. This strain bears the heaviest crops and the most desirable fruits of any of the strains of this variety under ob- servation. It is the strain upon which the reputation of the variety has been founded and which under present conditions is the most desirable for cultivation in California. As a rule, the younger Valencia orchards show a larger proportion of trees bearing inferior fruits than the older orchards. This con- dition indicates that the prevailing methods used in propagating this variety have resulted in the perpetuation of an increasingly large proportion of trees of undesirable strains. 7 OBJECTS OF THE INVESTIGATIONS. The objects of the investigations reported in this bulletin are (1) to ascertain the variations which have taken place in the Valencia orange through bud variation and to learn the comparative value of 1Shamel, A. D., Scott, L. B., and Pomeroy, C.S. Citrus-fruit improvement: A study of bud variation in the Washington Navel orange. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 623, 146 p., 16 fig., 19 pl. 1918. 6 BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the different strains for commercial fruit production; (2) to determine the extent to which undesirable variations have been propagated, as shown by the percentage of such inferior trees in the present bearing groves; and (3) through improved methods of propagation to control the extent to which undesirable variations in the future shall enter into the population of commercial Valencia orange groves. Briefly stated, these investigations have been undertaken for the purpose of discovering practical methods for conserving and stabil- izing the Valencia orange variety. PLAN OF THE INVESTIGATIONS. The investigations have been carried on by means of individual- tree performance records and observations. The term ‘performance record” is here used to designate the record of the quantity and the commercial quality of the fruits borne by an individual tree during one or more years. The term ‘performance-record plat’? as used in these investiga- tions means a group of trees grown under comparable conditions— and selected for the purpose of determining the relative behavior of the trees by means of individual-tree records of production, observa- tions, and descriptive notes. The primary conditions considered in the location of the perform- ance-record plats of Valencia oranges in which the investigational work was conducted were (1) full-bearing trees planted on virgin land, so as to eliminate all possible influence of previous soil or cultural conditions; (2) uniform soil where little or no fertilizers of any kind had been applied and where uniform cultural treatments ~ had been practiced from year to year; (3) the absence of any radical pruning or other tree treatment; (4) the absence or effective control of insect enemies and diseases; (5) trees in a normal, healthy condi- tion, showing satisfactory vegetative growth; (6) a knowledge of the character of the stocks and the sources of the buds used in propaga- tion; (7) sufficient elevation to assure natural protection from frost and other unfavorable conditions; and (8) the prospect of the control of the orchard by the same owners for a series of years. These conditions, particularly those of soil and culture, are not conducive to large yields, but are favorable to the study of inherent individual-tree variability and behavior. As the object of these inves- tigations is not the measurement of the highest possible yield or the study of the influence of cultural conditions on the production of large crops, but rather the behavior of trees under conditions as nearly natural as it is possible to secure in commercial citrus orchards in California, it was deemed wise in this selection to eliminate so far as practicable all local environmental influences and abnormal condi- tions. BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. fh The principal plats of Valencia oranges finally selected for indi- vidual-tree performance-record work are located in a citrus orchard of approximately 750 acres about equally divided between Valencia oranges, Washington Navel oranges, and Eureka lemons. A study of all the Valencia trees on this ranch was made before the plats of trees for detailed observation were finally selected. This selection was made with the idea of securing a representative lot of trees which would include typical trees of some of the most important strains of the variety. Trees to the number of 115 which had been planted in the fall of 1903 were selected. Actual performance- record work was begun in 1912. Complete annual records secured from 105 of these trees for four successive years are available for study. Later in 1912 a plat of 9 trees of the Valencia strain was. selected in another Valencia orchard several miles distant, where soil conditions are markedly different. In 1914 an additional plat of 55 trees was chosen in the same orchard where the first plat was located, mainly for the purpose of studying the individual-tree behavior of the Valencia or best strain of the Valencia variety. In this publication the discussion of results will be confined to those secured from the records obtained from the plat first selected. METHODS OF KEEPING PERFORMANCE RECORDS. Jn securing the individual-tree performance records for investi- gational purposes! each tree is given a number, and the trees in the plats are marked annually with cloth streamers to prevent their being picked accidentally by the regular picking crew of the ranch. Each tree is picked separately, and all notes concerning the quantity and quality of fruit borne by that tree are recorded before the picking of the next tree is begun. The fruits are assorted into three grades: (1) An Orchard grade, including all of the valuable first-class commercial fruits; (2) a Stand- ard grade, including marked, misshapen, unevenly colored, or other blemished fruits which are distinctly of a second class in commercial quality, but still worthy of marketing; and (3) a Cull grade, con- sisting of fruits of such inferior quality as to be wholly unfit for the market. By means of a small mechanical sizer, similar to those in actual use in orange-packing houses, the fruits in the Orchard and Standard grades are sized into the commercial sizes varying from 288 to 80. The fruits of each size in each grade are counted and weighed and the notes recorded on forms arranged especially for this 1 For a complete description of the methods followed in securing the investigational performance records see the following publication: Shamel, A. D., Scott, L.B.,and Pomeroy, C.S. Citrus-fruit improvement: A study of bud variation in the Washington Navel orange. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 623, 146 p., 16 fig., 19 pl. 1918. Directions for securing performance records as a part of commercial orchard picking operations are pre- sented in the following publication: Shamel, A. D. Citrus-fruit improvement: How to secure and use tree-performance records. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 794, 16 p., 4 fig. 1917. 8 BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. purpose.'. The culls are not sized, but their number and weight are recorded. The field notes are transferred to annual record sheets, illustrations of their use being shown in the upper part of section A of Table III, and these notes in turn are transferred to period record sheets, illustrations of the use of which are shown in other parts of the same table. Thus the record of each tree is assembled in one place for comparative study. DESCRIPTIONS OF SOME OF -THE IMPORTANT STRAINS. In addition to the performance records, as opportunity permits descriptive notes are secured of typical trees and fruits of the differ- ent strains. Inasmuch as the greatest commercial importance lies in the character of the fruits, the main emphasis in these records is placed upon the characteristics of the fruits of the important strains and their relative commercial value. Brief descriptions of some of the important Valencia strains aris- ing from bud variations which have been found in the investigational performance-record plats are here given. VALENCIA STRAIN. The trees of the Valencia strain vary considerably in regularity of production and as a whole may be divided into three general classes: (1) Regular producers, (2) alternate-season producers, and (3) irregu- lar producers, bearing full crops only at infrequent intervals. This condition indicates that the Valencia strain as here considered is probably made up of several minor strains, which upon further inves- tigation may be classed among the major strains. The trees, as a rule, have an erect and spreading habit of growth, developing open heads with large rounded leaves. The typical fruits of this strain, illustrations of which are shown in Plate I, are globular, with a tendency to flattened blossom ends; size medium; texture of skin smooth; color bright orange; rind thin; rag tender; juice abundant and sweet; seeds from none to 10, aver- aging in these observations about 3 per fruit. The fully ripened fruits have a good quality, inferior only to that of the Washington Navel orange among California citrus fruits. Under certain climatic conditions the ripe fruits on the trees are likely to start a new growth, . resulting in the fruits turning green in color. This second develop- ment of green color is likely to disappear after picking, and its loss can be hastened by increasing the temperature and humidity condi- tions of the stored fruits. 1Shamel, A. D. Citrus-fruit improvement: How to secure and use tree-performance records. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 794, tab. 1, pp. 10-11. 1917. Bul. 624, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. P13639HP Fila. 1.—SIDE VIEWS SHOWING THE CHARACTERISTIC TEXTURE OF THE RIND. P1I3640HP Fic. 2.—AXIAL AND CROSS SECTIONS OF THE SAME FRUITS. TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE VALENCIA STRAIN OF THE VALENCIA ORANGE. (About three-fourths natural size.) PLATE II. Bul. 624, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. P240A—HP AND P241A—HP THE CORRUGATED STRAIN OF THE VALENCIA ORANGE. TWO TYPICAL FRUITS OF VIEWS ARE SHOWN OF THREE FRUITS. ) 1ze About two-thirds natural s @: Bul. 624, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE lil. P9I3THP Fic. 1.—SIDE VIEW OF THE FRUITS, SHOWING THEIR CHARACTERISTIC CYLINDRICAL SHAPE. P9I38HP Fia. 2.—CROSS AND AXIAL SECTIONS OF THE SAME FRUITS. TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE LONG STRAIN OF THE VALENCIA ORANGE. (About four-fifths natural size.) Bul. 624, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. P9122HP Fic. 1.—SIDE VIEW, SHOWING THE SHAPE OF THE FRUIT AND ITS CHARACTERISTIC RIBBED SURFACE. P9I2IHP P9123HP Fila. 3.—CROssS SECTIONS OF THE SAME Fruits. TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE RIBBED STRAIN OF THE VALENCIA ORANGE. (About nine-tenths natural size.) BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. 9 CORRUGATED STRAIN. The trees of the Corrugated strain are not so productive, as a rule, as those of the Valencia strain. They have a drooping habit of growth, and the leaves are usually smaller than those of the Valencia strain and are sharply pointed. The typical fruits, as shown in Plate I, are oblong or cylindrical; size usually large; texture of skin very rough, corrugated; rind thick; color greenish; rag tough; juice scant, of poor quality and flavor; seeds averaging 2 or 3 per fruit; in fact, these fruits are not worth shipping to eastern markets, but in these investigations they have been included in the standard grade for this variety. This strain, however, is one of the most interesting in the variety for purposes of studying the behavior of bud mutations in citrus fruits. LONG STRAIN. The habit of growth and foliage characteristics of the Long strain are similar to those of the Valencia strain, but the trees are less productive. The fruits, as shown in Plate III, are cylindrical and much longer than those of other strains; size, as measured by cross diameter, small to medium; texture smooth; color bright orange; rag tender; juice abundant, sweet, of good quality; seeds averaging 1 or 2 per fruit. The peculiar shape of these fruits makes them unsuitable for packing and marketing under prevailing conditions. This strain frequently occurs as limb sports in trees of the Valencia strain. RIBBED STRAIN. The trees of the Ribbed strain are usually very irregular in produc- tion, bearing full crops some seasons, followed by several seasons of very light production. The habit of growth is usually drooping, and the foliage is sparse, the leaves being small and sharply pointed. The typical fruits, as shown in Plate IV, are globular, sometimes somewhat flattened on both stem and blossom ends; size small; texture coarse; color pale yellow; rind thin to medium; rag tender; juice abundant, inferior in quality and flavor to that of the fruits of the Valencia strain; seeds averaging 2 per fruit. The ribbed char- acter of the rind gives the fruits a striking appearance, but it detracts from their commercial value under prevailing market conditions. YELLOW STRAIN. The productiveness of the trees of the Yellow strain is about the same as those of the Ribbed strain, except that they show a tendency to more regularity of annual production. The habit of growth is spreading and drooping. The foliage is of medium density, the leaves being medium in size and sharply pointed. hil 10 BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The typical fruits, as shown in Plate V, are globular; size small; texture very smooth; color deep yellow; rind very thin; rag very tender; juice abundant, very sweet; seeds averaging 1 per fruit. Frequently the skins of these fruits have small spots or streaks of red, as is the case with the fruits of the Yellow strain of the Wash- ington Navel orange. On account of the small size and yellow color of the fruits, they are inferior to fruits of the Valencia strain for commercial purposes’ under prevailing conditions. These fruits usually ripen about one month earlier than those of the Valencia strain, and for this reason may prove to be of value for some climatic and soil conditions. They are very frequently found as limb sports in trees of the Valencia or other strains. SMOOTH STRAIN. The trees of the Smooth strain are much less productive than those of the Valencia strain, and have an upright, spreading habit of growth. The foliage and other tree characteristics are similar to those of trees of the Valencia strain. The fruits, illustrations of which are shown in Plate VI, are usually somewhat smaller than the fruits of the Valencia strain, but have about the same shape; texture of skin very smooth, resembling in appearance that of fruits of the Smooth strain of the Washington Navel orange; color reddish orange; rind very thin; rag tender; juice abundant, sweet; seeds averaging 2 or 3 per fruit. This strain is promising as a valuable addition to the orange strains in Cali- fornia when isolated and improved by bud selection. - It is fre- quently found as a limb sport in trees of the Valencia strain. BARREN STRAIN. The trees of the Barren strain show more than ordinary vegetative vigor, are very unproductive, and have a drooping habit of growth and very finely branched, dense foliage. The leaves are usually small, narrow, and very sharply pointed. One interesting condition of tree behavior in this strain is the tendency to produce an unusually large number of flowers during the blooming period. The typical fruits occasionally produced by some trees of this strain, as shown in Plate VII, are flattened in shape, usually with a wrinkled appearance around the stem; size small; texture coarse; color yellowish orange; rind very thick; rag excessive, tough; juice scant, of very inferior quality; seeds averaging 1 or 2 per fruit. On account of its low production and the inferior commercial quality of its fruits, this strain is absolutely worthless. It is occasionally found as a limb sport in trees of the Valencia strain. ’ BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. Teal ROUGH STRAIN. The trees of the Rough strain show more than ordinarily vigorous vegetative growth, with a tendency toward the production of a large number of suckers or abnormal branches, and bear smaller crops than trees of the Valencia strain. The habit of growth is usually upright and the foliage dense with large leaves. The large proportion of trees of this strain found in some Valencia or- chards is probably due to the use of sucker growth in propagating the trees. ; The typical fruits, as shown in Plate VIII, are globular; size large; texture coarse and rough; color yellowish orange; rind thick; rag tough; juice medium in quantity and quality; seeds averaging 2 or 3 per fruit. On account of the inferior appearance of these fruits they are of much less commercial value than those of the Valencia strain. They are occasionally found as hmb sports in trees of the Valencia strain. SPORTING STRAIN. The trees of the Sporting strain are very variable in habit of growth and production, are usually of more than ordinarily vigorous vege- tative growth, and have rather dense foliage. The leaves are ex- tremely variable in size and shape. The fruits, examples of which are shown in Plate IX, vary in a manner similar to the tree characteristics and frequently include examples of all of the observed strains of the variety and an unusual number of other forms, such as those showing raised or sunken sections, or both, sections of different strains of the Valencia oranges, peculiar ridges or depressions, and abnormal shapes. Usually but few fruits of the Valencia strain are borne by these trees, and on the whole, their crops are of very inferior value from a commercial standpoint. FLAT STRAIN. The trees of the Flat strain are comparatively unproductive, with an erect habit of growth and sparse foliage. The leaves are usually small and sharply pointed. The typical fruits of this strain, as shown in Plate X, are distinctly flattened at both the stem and blossom ends, giving them a very characteristic appearance; size medium; texture coarse; color yellow- ish orange; rind thick; juice scant, of inferior quality; seeds averag- ing about 3 per fruit. On account of their shape, these fruits are not suitable for packing under prevailing conditions of marketing. This strain is frequently found as limb sports in trees of the Valencia strain. LD BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ’ NAVEL STRAIN. The trees of the Navel strain have habits of growth and produc- tion similar to those of the Valencia strain. The foliage is usually rather dense; the leaves are small and rather pointed in shape. The typical fruits, as shown in Plate XI, resemble the fruits of the Valencia strain in shape, size, and color, but differ from them in having a smoother texture of skin, thinner rind, more acid juice, fewer seeds, and a small, often rudimentary navel. This strain occurs occasionally as individual fruit and limb sports in trees of the Valencia strain. It has been isolated in commercial propagation and is grown to a limited extent under the name Navelencia orange. This strain is especially interesting from the fact that there is a possibility of isolating from it by bud selection a seedless strain of the Valencia variety. WILLOW-LEAF STRAIN. The trees of the Willow-Leaf strain have spreading and drooping habits of growth, very narrow, willowlike leaves, and produce infre- quent, light crops of fruit. The typical fruits, as shown in Plate XII, are somewhat flattened; size usually small; color yellowish; texture of skin very coarse; rind thick, ridged, and uneven; rag coarse; juice scant, of poor quality; seeds averaging about 2 per fruit. This strain, while one of the most interesting bud variations found in this variety, is absolutely worth- less for commercial purposes. INDIVIDUAL VARIATIONS OF FRUITS. The individual fruit variations found in trees of many of the Valencia orange strains are of fundamental importance in considering the origin of the various strains and their widespread distribution in young orchards. Under normal conditions a twig originating as a bud variation and bearing only a single variable fruit will in a few years develop into a large branch bearing the same character of fruit. In securing bud wood for propagation according to the methods which have prevailed in the past, no thought has been given to the possible occurrence in the trees of branches bearing fruits of variable strains, and as a result among trees so propagated there is usually found a considerable proportion of variable ones. On account of this previous lack of knowledge of the existence of variable strains, the percentage of such variable-strain trees in the population of any locality has been ereatly increased with each bud generation. This fact is one of the most important reasons for securing individual-tree performance rec- ords and using such records as guides in the selection of trees from which to obtain bud wood for propagation. Bul. 624, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Yi, ey Es a Les tule oe = a ST Se PLATE V. P9379HP TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE YELLOW STRAIN OF THE VALENCIA ORANGE, SHOWING ITS SHAPE, THE THICKNESS AND TEXTURE OF THE RIND, AND OTHER CHARACTERISTICS. (About three-fourths natural size.) PLATE VI. Bul. 624, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Pr eee ot < et? PIOI8A—HP AND P9295HP TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE SMOOTH STRAIN OF THE VALENCIA ORANGE, (About four-fifths natural size.) PLATE VII, Bul. 624, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Cozrs PVANAVU SYYY-001y} Jnoqy) “LiNd4 JIGVINVA ANO GNV GNIY SHL JO FYNLXAL ASUVOD OILSIYALOVYVHO SHL ONIMOHS ‘ADNVYO VIONAIVA AHL JO NIVULG NAYYVG AHL AO SLINYA TWOIdAL dH8blid ¢ Oe. Ps aa (ozis [RinyeUu SU}JY-901q} qnoqy ) "AONVHO VIONAIVA SHI 40 NIVULS HONOY AHL JO SLINYA WOIdAL dH9Le6d PLaTte VIII. Bul. 624, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |X. Bul. 624, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. pos dH=V1iid PRY c 6 ‘ COZIS [BINYVU J[VY-eUQ) “wWoTjoes TUIBIIS Poqqry ‘g fuoTjoes posTey ‘2 ‘uOTJOVS UoYUNY ‘9 fuTeAyS SuO'T ‘¢ {payeSn1I109 ‘UTelys VL ‘Ff Suresys yep ‘e ures ySnoy ‘z furedys v ang SFIONIS V WO’s NMOYS 3Su4] S3NO NO ANHOG TIV ‘ZONVYO VIONSIVA SHL 4O NIVYLS SNILYOdS AHL 4O SLINYY 9 Tous[VA ‘T PLATE X. Bul. 624, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. AND PII99A—HP HP, PII96A—HP, P238A— TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE FLAT STRAIN OF THE VALENCIA ORANGE. ) -fifths natural size (About four Bul. 624, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 1 | ; PI34A—HP TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE NAVEL STRAIN OF THE VALENCIA ORANGE. (About four-fifths natural size.) i Bul. 624, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII. P214A—HP Fic. 1.—SIDE VIEWS, SHOWING THE COARSE, ROUGH TEXTURE OF THE RIND. P213A—HP P215A—HP Fia. 3.—Cross SECTIONS OF THE SAME FRUITS. i H TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE WILLOW-LEAF STRAIN OF .THE VALENCIA } ORANGE. | (About two-thirds natural size.) Bul. 624, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XIll. PII74A—HP TYPICAL FRUITS OF THE VALENCIA AND ROUGH STRAINS OF THE VALENCIA ORANGE BORNE ON ONE TREE GROWN FROM A SINGLE BUD. hree-fifths natural size.) oy mb, the remainder of the fruits on the tree being typical (About t roduced on a sporting li Valencia strain in character. fruits were p The Rough-strain Bul. 624, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTe XIV. P458A—HP MINOR VARIATIONS OF FRUITS BORNE ON A TREE OF THE VALENCIA STRAIN GROWN FROM A SINGLE BUD. land 2, Valencia strain; 3, Raised section; 4, Sunken section; 5, Raised and Sunken sections; 6, Rough strain. (About seven-tenths natural size.) BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. 1135 Fruits arising from bud variations may occur as individual fruits, or collectively on a single branch, or on several branches of a single tree. Plate XIII shows fruits of the Rough strain which were borne on a sporting limb in a Valencia strain tree. The degree of fruit variability considered in this connection, while often of importance commercially, is usually not sufficient for varietal distinction. It may be illustrated by the variability of fruits in the Washington Navel orange where the variations under observation are well marked and commercially distinct but all of the fruits possess the character- istic navel. ‘These strains possess characteristics which have been found to be capable of isolation through bud selection in propagation. The differences in the characteristics of the fruit variations in some of the different strains are of an importance from the commercial standpoint almost equal to those which differentiate the horticultural varieties of the citrus fruits. The number of major fruit variations borne by individual Valencia trees in the performance-record plats differs greatly. A few trees have been found in the performance-record plats without any appar- ent or marked variations in fruits other than the usual modifications of size, shape, texture of rind, color, or quality which-are probably due to the influence of environmental conditions. In some trees one or only afew variable fruits have been found. In others, several fruits of each of the 12 distinct strains have been found borne by one tree grown fromasingle bud. Insome trees one of the main branches occasionally is found to bear fruit of several distinct strains, but as a rule single large off-type branches bear fruits of the same general character. MINOR VARIATIONS OF FRUITS. A great many minor variations have been found from year to year in some of the performance-record trees. A single fruit often shows sections or segments characteristic of two or more distinct strains of the variety. Others show large raised or sunken sections, or both, in the same fruit, examples of which are shown in Plate XIV. Many abnormai fruits, particularily in shape, have been found and described. Twin fruits, and those showing several divi- sions, each a complete orange in itself, have been found occasionally. A careful study of these differences arising from bud variations is being made with the hope that the results will throw some light upon the problems of heredity in citrus varieties. LESSONS TAUGHT BY THESE INVESTIGATIONS. The tables and diagrams presented herewith are all prepared from records covering the 4-year period, 1912 to 1915, inclusive, secured from 105 trees in a grove which was planted in the fall of 1903. In 14 BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. this plat there are typical trees of 8 of the 12 most important strains of the Valencia variety and 3 of the minor strains, as follows: 75 Valencia strain trees; 8 Unproductive; 7 Corrugated; 3 Sporting; 3 Coarse; 2 Rough; 2 Smooth; 2 Barren; 1 Long; 1 Yellow; and 1 Small Yellow. Examples of the other 4 important strains and_ several minor variations occur as bud and limb sports in many of the trees. Although this plat is not an example of extreme variation of strain in established orchards, it is interesting to note that only 71 per cent of the trees in it are of the Valencia strain. Groves have been ob- served which were found to contain as large a percentage, and in some extreme cases more than this proportion, of trees other than those of the Valencia strain. The accompanying performance records, descriptions, and iilus- trations only partially present the characteristics of the various strains. The real differences of the trees and fruits must be seen and studied personally before they can be fully appreciated and their importance in commercial fruit growing understood. For this same reason, the selection of trees from which to secure bud wood for prop- agation should not be made on the basis of the performance records of the trees alone. It is most desirable that the final choice be made in the orchards with the performance records in hand by someone who through close study and observation of the trees themselves has gained an intimate knowledge of the interrelation of tree charac- teristics and crop production. PRESENTATION OF DATA. The complete 4-year performance records of the 105 trees on which comparable data have been secured are presented in Table I. This shows the production by weight and number of fruit of each grade and size for each year and the annual average production for the 4- year period. The basis of ranking the trees in this table is the average annual total crop of each tree, expressed in pounds and ounces, with- out regard to the grade, quality, or uniformity of the fruit. Hence, the position of any particular tree in this table is not necessarily a true index of what its relative position would be if the classification were made on the basis of the commercial value of its fruit. The impos- sibility of making an accurate classification of a large number of trees on the basis of the comparative quality of the fruits and the desira- bility of the individual trees is the reason for the adoption of the weight of the average annual crop as a basis in preparing this table. BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. Heya EO). Io) Os HO) Os We 1 12— jptek ars T |0L0O (6 | GELP | 02) OF) & | 9 62) SOL | OL Ih | cSt | Fb FS) 000) € So | SPS SARE F 68°T | 0 0 0 OF O0= 220. 0 0 OS ORO, g LRG Z G6 §& cP FL LT | SP IT ST} Z2PL | OL SF | 82 0 S9 | S8¢ LG II 00°T | 0 0 0 g Ce the AMEN Ale (6) € (a= Ib #8 | Pb SPF | 26| Ol Sh | SFI | Sr 09 | 6S ST T@ | 19 T 02 | 61 € ¢ | 80¢ ZI6L : j —dol0 [vJOY, ==: 26 | nc PSlpsssuceeacieesesr aro gisoop aoc Jbecalisononer BORO eg pon oe Beton ae Hees Soins) tarot hesctsis Sralleaeoc plbocenolisscan Sons ten fa. 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On NOL 0) s OM ON OS Ont OOe ONO, Owl nig Or cr orzo l oe |G ep her | On 6s s\Or On lss ere (pat eo Shole cs oe PI6L AL VOM TO 10 OO 10 O 1M 10 WO 10 © O10 0 10 TO Whe ee I Pir Oty aa ae ie | xan ee fas aa san ray, peeee es Ba acces S161 De OO KCa CO Os O SOS Oe OR RORO ON NOO Or yr Zeer ie 8 oc) |e) gO te | er |e (8 \oaea\ oon |t op) “crer —d019 [810], BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 98 ZI6B1 —opevls plvlypoio PUIBIYS UdLIVE “YZ-SE-LE ‘ON 0014 ‘GOT IITVIOA VY “""CT6I Papin nati nae eae PIGI ~“OI6r —d01l0 [v1O, OSTIOAV Poa. 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TT} UT SIMA OTT} JO 19} WOD Pos OTf} OUTUIIOJOP 07 OPVUT SVA\ YUN0D ON ocooo!]s cooo 80 0 So conor BUD VARIATION IN coco coco eooce coooe “-O16T —do.d0 [e}0L sage seicias OsVIOA V me aN oer ieeslolonk spy [TNO Rese --OSRIOAV ““SI6T ee: ee EEA CLO.: —opvis prepueyg 100 BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In each succeeding year of these investigations, the workers be- came familiar with an increasing number of variable forms of fruits and recorded their occurrence as they were observed. This accounts for the general increase from year to year in the number of such fruits recorded. Because of this increase in the number of variable forms observed, the figures given here as the average annual pro- duction of such fruits are too low, especially for those trees which have borne a large number of such variable fruits. When securing performance records, late-bloom fruit and split fruit have been re- corded, but such fruits have not been included with the variable fruits. In expressing the average of weights in Table I, it was found impracticable to retain more than one decimal place. The more exact expression of ounces as a fractional part of a pound extends to four decimal places, but only one place has been retained. - In expressing the averages for the number of fruits occurring in differ- ent groups, no decimal has been retained except when the average number is less than unity. Hence, it will be found that the totals of averages sometimes will vary slightly from the average of the totals of the corresponding number. In recording the tree-performance data the fruits of the Cull grade are not assorted into sizes, and on this account the total figures for the weights and numbers of fruits of the various sizes represent only the eral crops of the trees. In determining the average number of seeds per fruit on the differ- ent trees counts are made when possible from a small, -a medium, and a large fruit in each of the three grades. In this way a record is usually secured of the actual number of seeds in 9 fruits from each tree, and it is thought that this system gives a fairly accurate indica- tion of the relative seediness of the fruits of the different trees. To determine the annual average number of seeds per fruit, the total number of seeds found is divided by the total number of fruits examined during the entire period. In the case of trees from which less than 9 fruits have been examined during any season the average obtained in this way gives equal weight to each fruit and is fairer and more accurate than to average the yearly averages. In counting the variable fruits occurring on individual trees, the strain of each tree is considered the standard for that tree, and all deviations from it are considered as variable fruits. For example, on a tree of the Valencia strain all fruits other than those of the Va- lencia strain are considered to be variable for that tree, while on a tree of the Corrugated strain all fruits other than those of the Corrugated strain are counted as variable. With the trees of the Sporting strain, however, the fruit of the Valencia strain is considered to be normal, and all variable fruits are counted as off type for those trees. The BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. 101 relatively large number of variable fruits recorded on a few of the Productive trees of the Valencia strain, such as those listed in ranks 1, 2, 6, 7, 10, ete., are almost entirely composed of those described briefly under the heading “Minor variations of fruits.” Occasionally op one of these trees a small branch has been found bearing a few fruits of one. of the major strains, but usually the variable fruits found on Productive trees of the Valencia strain are not of a character to lessen the commercial value of the crop. The working out of methods of interpreting these individual- tree performance records and of applying the knowledge gained from their study is essential. It is a simple matter to choose be- tween healthy trees of the same age grown under identical cultural conditions when they have such widely different records as those presented for the trees listed in ranks 2 and 88 in Table I. But to make a choice between similarly grown trees with such performance records as those listed in ranks 2 and 3 is quite a different problem. The average annual production of these two trees for the four years was practically identical, 178.2 pounds and 178 pounds, but the actual yields each year varied considerably. The tree listed in rank 2 bore a gradually increasing amount of fruit during the 4-year period, while the one recorded in rank 3 bore heavily the first year, produced a lighter crop the next season, and an increasingly heavy one each succeeding year. The large number of variable fruits occurring on the tree in rank 2 is partly explained by the presence in the tree of a limb which produces fruits of the Ribbed strain. Both these trees appear to be of relatively high commercial value as crop producers and as sources of desirable bud wood for use in nursery propagation _ or for top-working trees of undesirable strains, and before any intel- ligent choice could be made between the two it would be necessary _ to know their performance records for one or two years more. The annual-production records by fruit sizes for these two trees for the year 1912 when compared with the records for the succeeding years show a great variation in the proportion of fruit of the various commercial sizes in the crops of the individual trees. This variation was not due to the quantity of fruit on the individual trees, for it is equally marked on both these trees, although there is a considerable difference in the weight and number of fruit borne by them that season. The general production of oranges of large sizes during some years is well recognized by citrus growers and is thought to be the result of seasonal climatic conditions. Aninspectionof the annual performance records of the other trees presented herewith lends weight to this theory, for it will be found that, without exception, all the trees produced a relatively small number of small-sized fruit during the season of 1912 in comparison with the season of 1913, irrespective of whether or not the total yield during that season was larger or smaller i 4 i i ial eg e Heel a ot Han a leat Mi tie He ne Huy rita d ai iid Heh ‘3 Hone a sth ie Hi ie i) «€ nt i S } ; Sara ae Ree ae — eS — Sea: Se ines —— =< Ses a ne 102 BULLETIN 624, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. than in 1913. The 1915 records of many of the trees show this same tendency in a lesser degree, indicated by a relative decrease in pro- duction of fruits of the very smallest sizes, even where, as was the case with the tree listed in rank 3, the total crop for that year was larger than during the previous year. Table IT shows the percentage of fruit of the first or Orchard grade produced by each tree and the proportion of variable fruits recorded from each during the 4-year period. These percentages are calcu- lated from the records of actual yields shown in Table I, and they are an aid in interpreting those data and in judging the relative commer- cial value of the individual trees both from the standpoint of crop production and as sources of desirable bud wood. TaBLeE I1.—Performance records of 105 Valencia orange trees, showing the percentages of Jruits of Orchard grade and of variable fruits borne by each tree, 1912 to 1915, inclusive. Percentage of fruits. | Percentage of fruits. | | Percentage of fruits. Rank in Rank in | Rank in Table I. | Orchard |} Variable Table I. Orchard | Variable Table I. Orchard | Variable grade (by) (by num- | grade (by| (by num- grade (by) (by num- weight). ber)... *| weight). ber). weight). ber). ea 78.6 RED TI Giuee eee 62.0 QNON | Tilia eee 70.6 0.6 Die OS eae 67.7 hd |b aniee eater 59.0 QE hae eee TPRal 7] Se aoe. 67.9 Rapa |leats: 72.0 Aue (Sesienak one 1G ED, an eee 68.9 S00 || oes 81.3 Dr ||) eae ween ace 62.0 6.1 Doe oes 74.4 ia} 29.2 42.8 Sessa See 78.8 3.8 Gee React 68.4 9.2 | Liao: 25.0 i Gigees ae eee 23.9 38.0 isrecsercniee hae 5.3 62.8 12) 1 Wes seeks 18.8 38.1 Be cetera 2 76.8 .6 | re Sy I)? 78 meee eae 14.8 26.4 QE aay ees 80.2 -4 | 46.1 26.1 A! cee 24.4 37.9 TOP ee 73.4 Dalat 50.7 13.5 B0ie bah 52.5 7.5 | eae ae 71.9 4.8 | 67.2 2.6 Slices oven 2.5 LOM Res 64.3 6.3 | 22.9 33:5 Il (82.2 soe eee -79.8 3.9 [Bie ens 77.6 8 | 68.1 4.4 Soe We? 3) 1 ae 75.6 9 | 60.5 4.8 84 L ee 68.1 6.5 Loe eo eee: 75.2 -6 | 73.8 8 SO cee 72.4 pL | Gis spat Seema 69.5 9 | 79.2 ee S652 o eee ee 65.6 hae i ly (GR eee ene 13.2 eye 62.0 6.2 Shiisseccsee 76.2 1.0 LS ere aes 72.3 1.6 Ghro 4.4 So scsee see 71.4 4.1 iD Neg ee ae 76.5 135. 72.1 1.6 Shee sce ied 5.8 Pree eee (Bes aya ae Geli 90 sea = ee 52.2 4.9 Bis: 68.3 5.8 81.3 253 ))\| OU seteeccied 64.9 6.3 DD sini o earns 59.3 6.5 67.7 DAN VOD ss Se cae 67.4 2:4 Ds Mjergeietele.e 72.8 ad 71.9 Fy Dit O35 ad sce AEY) 18.5 D4iee castes 70.8 4.0 73.4 Dao Od ate. * are 64.5 5.6 QD tess 70.8 les 51.7 he ODE te derercats 55.1 7.8 20) emiaee cae 65.5 4.2 59.3 423 || "96 see sere ote 45.6 13.0 Bho ces stelcs 63.3 9.1 65.8 -6 Oa craesiee 59.8 6.3 Do ee Re ie 72.6 8.1 70.2 3.6 OR Re aca 50.6 30.8 DO yee en laicte 63.8 5.0 72.3 a) OO ie 2 eens 57.4 13.1 Die ants Sener 61.0 6.4 67.2 TEA AUC ee 60.6 5nd 2b Re ieee ae Hose 8 | 76.5 2A) LOLS seen eee 57.6 6.7 Dae n esac (pt) 1.0 | 39.5 CH Sal M02 ae ea 62.0 8.1 pao Fest ere ome tice 2.0 82.6 Soul Ud cee eee 72.0 12s: BA eecraociae tO 4.5 67.7 eels epee ee 19.3 40.9 DDietesmeesevers 79.8 1.2 77.4 6:6) WO een cce 70 68.8 Table [Tf shows in its first section (sec. A) the performance record of an orange tree of the Valencia strain for the season of 1915, as entered cn the annual record form, and also the 4-year period performance record of the same tree. The detailed annual record is copied from the field notebook and shows the data therein recorded: for each individual tree. The summary of this annual record is copied on the period form, as shown by the second - BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. 103 part of section A of the table. In order to economize space in publication, the detailed record form as shown here has been rear- ranged from that actually used in the investigations, but the sum- mary records presented are in substantially the same form in which they were recorded. By means of this summary record form it is possible not only to compare the total crops for successive seasons, but also to study the relative amount of fruit in the different grades and sizes. Sections B and C of Table III, showing both annual and 4-year period performance records for individual trees of the Corrugated and Barren strains, are given for comparison with section A of the same’ table. Considered as a series, these tabular statements show some of the great variations between trees of different strains, especially with respect to the amount of their total crops and the quality of the crops as indicated by the relative proportions of fruit of the different grades. These variations illustrate the relative value of these strains and are typical of the differences in production that exist in other strains of this variety. Considered as a record of individual trees, this table shows in detail the character of successive crops and their variations in quality and quantity. TasiLE I11.—Performance record of individual Valencia orange trees of different strains. showing the weight and number of the fruits of each grade and size and the variable fruits produced, detailed for the season of 1915, and also summarized for four seasons, 1912 to 1915, wncluswe. [This summarized record illustrates the method of assembling the data of successive seasons for careful comparison and study. In practice, the variable fruits produced by the tree each season and the record of the number of seeds found in representative fruits are listed on the back of the forms. The weights are givenin pounds and ounces, except that the fractional averages are expressed decimally in pounds.] Section A.— TREE No. 23-85-10, VALENCIA STRAIN, LISTED IN RANK 32 IN TABLES. I AND II. DETAILED RECORD FOR THE SEASON OF 1915.1 Orchard grade. | Standard grade. Total. | Cull fruits: Grand total. Sizes of fruits. < | ec um- | yas, Num- ab Num- | y7,;,, Num- | 4,,: Num- Weight. rage. Weight. Bar Weight. perl Weight. ber, | Weight. | ar Lbs. 02. Lbs. 02 Lbs. 02 288 and smaller...... 1 10 6 10 10 41 12 4 DOOR EEE Ce ete aes 5 14 20 24 0 75 29 14 2G eee ae Saami 18 12 57 13 2 37 31 14 PANE parce eee ee nah: 58 5 155 ASisal 33 71 6 TEPID es et a 25 1 59 2 10 6 27 11 5 Ob Aetee eenrccee 9 9 21 1 8 3 beat 2 Ge reeereiosicia eee soc 0 8 1 0 0 0 0 8 1 as eee 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Gate ese ehanixe css = 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 0 80 and larger-....... OO ae © 0 0 0 0 0 | — WNW Sasouses 119 11 319 64 15 | 195 184 10 Seeds found: | Smaalsinuittsse as | 52-22 oe Lele eas Baleea eta Medium fruits...)......... CO eS eeanaae Case eee eet Wargennuitse.-)|k25 see ee ds} Sees ees LES RES see 1 NotEs.—Total crop, 43 boxes. Variable fruits: Australian, 1; Ridged, 2; Creased, 1; Raised section, 3; Abnormal section, 1; Split side, 1; Off bloom, 2. 104 BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie IIl.—Performance record of individual Valencia orange trees of different strains, showing the weightand number of the fruits of each grade and size and the variable fruits produced, detailed for the season of 1915, and also summarized for four seasons, 1912 to 1915, inclusive—Continued. SECTION A.—TREE No. 23-85-10, VALENCIA STRAIN, LISTED IN RANK 32 IN TABLES I AND II—Continued. SUMMARIZED RECORD FOR FOUR SEASONS. | HI Grades and sizes. 1912 | 1918 | 1914 | 1915 | Total. | Aver i ove il Weight of fruits: Lbs. 0z.| Lbs. oz.| Lbs. oz.| Lbs. 0z.| Lbs. 02. i} Orchard. srad6.: sss .cdecnce 5 Bee de ooeee se seas 91 5] 96 9] 111 4/119 11 | 41813] 104.7 ih) Standard erad@ 2222.2. hc teases ceetee asco seeees 19 1 19 1 16 11 64 15 | 119 12 29.9 i @ulls+ xf oscse ee eS 5 ee eet eee ae eee te 7 20 oo) 2 8 012) 17.13 4.5 i Grand tO tales... 2¢ Seca ec eee sec ee eee ee 17 6 |. 123. -3>) 180° 7.) 1855 62556. 16-1 sor Sizes— SS Ht gee andssmallen sass -eAeene ae ae she eee 5. 4): 36 J] 36 1) 42-45) 28910 22.4 i D500 bie Gene ee eee Scheer ee rarer ee iene | 8 3] 22 1] 4410] 2914 | 104 12 26. 2 1G SEs ee SER ee es 2 Be Nore nee er ieee 8 3 14 0t2|* 26.150) Sl a aalees iat e 20. 4 200 S2 oe chose Oacse ae bs oceaeeoetceeoe ce esoees 30 9 21° 9 75: | eG a OSES 85. 2 LEG 2c bie eas oho aais Semin Necinse aeiatee one ae sees 20 14 9 5 30 | 27 11 60 14 15.2 15 Ais ee Sete SRM Eh ie ae lee aaa aimee 25 14 (tal 0 0} 11 1] 4410 11.1 ADO Soc tee 2 oa ey ER le ese, Stee ee ese 4 7 2 15: 0 0 0 8 7 14 2.0 ill ae een Deer eee Basa ae ome | 4 4 1 4 0 0 0 0 5 8 1.4 OG Sees et er ee We ine ete ee cy eee eee 2 0 0.0 0 0 0 0 2-0 #3) S0sandlarcenr. 2222-62228 essen aes eee 0 12 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 12 2 i} Ota Shee ec eee eee ee oe eee 110. 6 | 115.10 | 127.15 | 184 10 | 538 9 134.6 Number of fruits: | Orchardisrade sees. sset ake eee eee sete Sacer 204 295 302 319 | 1,120 | 280.0 HlAnGard’ orad@as sa. ects s- 22a gan. eeaeie teeta Al 46 77 53 195 371 92.8 Gulls ee nae Ma aaa che tenn ae eens see eee mer eee | 17 78 13 4 112 28.0 i! {5 ef2) 06 lit f0) 2 eee ree Bree a ereen ore aa 267 450 | 368 518°| 1,603 | 400.8 Sizes— | eee } PSA ATIOESIN El Ola ees cn ee catette Se eet ee a LZ, 161 | 119 47 344 86.0 DOQe 22 5245 ce aca dyem Sai aon oe ete een = atate sce eens 24 73 124 95 316 79.0 Fe BL oc rm ee ra ie aed at ce, See See Serena tse | 22 42 67 ~ 94 225 56. 25 ZOO acters ee Scere ae Sy en ee eee or 73 54 39 188 354 88.5 U7 Gir. Roe octet tsle acl oie gece ae oe Ss ee 45 20 6 65 136 34.0 AO) ets te Se Be etree tae, eae ee 50 15 0 24 89 22. 25 VIG Sees Sees cess ok Soe OE ee ee ee ee 8 5 0 1 14 3.5 as Ae Rak Bere See ht See heen Sees ‘a 2 | 0 0 9 220) Oe 2 a ciettee aie che epee ei re eee EHS crt vehicle 3 0 0 0 3) avi SONG larson. oo. seces os see ee be Meee See cee 1 (0) 0 0 | 1 | 220 ETS ELE = pir ee ee ae ale en 250 372 | 355 514 | 1,491 | 372.75 SECTION B.—TREE No. 23-85-7, CORRUGATED STRAIN, LISTED IN RANK 47 IN TABLES I AND-II. {In 1912 and 1913 the fruits of this tree were nct assorted according to size.] DETAILED RECORD FOR THE SEASON OF 1915.1 Orchard grade. | Standard grade. Total. Cull fruits. Grand total. Sizes of fruits. 7 ee | = = i Toroht | NUM-| vraig Num-} qwrseny | NUM-} y-235 Num-| wos Num- | Weight. aed Weight. | Der Weight. nee Weight. pene Weight. SE: | Lbs. 02. Lbs. 0z Ibs. 02. Lbs. 02. WOS=0z: 288 and smaller-..--: 0 0 | 0 4 1 15 4 1 5 9o) eee Meet ried Eel eescc atic QH0e mand sears cas St 2 0 a § 10 26 10 10 88) looted 9: 22 |! 8 eee oe eee eeal ee ees Dl Gtac: te tsasence ses 2 4 7 10 12 29 13 0 OO: Wend coke Cel te to Se ee eee eee 200i 2) eee fa soaad 15 3 39 14 6 36 29 9 15 Noes See | ee es eee |e 1/0 pee eee | § 13 20 18 2 40 26 15 GO: |e se 2 sub |i Seoears [Soe eres seeenen HOSS oss OS e a | 8 14 18 4 15 10 13 13 DBI ld oe cle e Wetec ee ee ee eee VG iio chiro ees | 6026 12 2 5 4 8 il 1G: \en ct Sac e5sdeen||e eee meee eee | | PLD ee ecic au ate see ee 0 0 0 0 11 1 0 11 Vee cahed- 4 Gb sees eee eee sence { OG. ess cewaitech estes Qee0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Qos Sis-c ots cll cg eres! |) eee atetel | (ose ene 80 and larger........ 0 0 0 0 0 0 | 0 0 O! ect. goes oot. atl see cess Totals eae) =e= 43 8] 103|° 6814] 161] 107 6| 264 0 10 3|-108 0 267 Seeds found: | | chee eyed sW BU big bk Howe earae eal Peerage a al Seton ae | Diet aa ey oa ae oh (eee es ON has 2 9 Medium fruits.-.|......... Fe ee ee 2 oe Gane eee ngs es ae 7 Wee e Se UnitSe ee tle | pees See | Cha eee a dD \nsaeeecee 2 eee 14 1 Notes.—Total crop, 24 boxes. Corrugated fruits tend to be long and pear shaped, greenish yellow in color. Sports: Wrinkled, 1; Corrugated, 132; Ridged, 7; Creased, 4; Sunken section, 1; Yellow section, 1; Long, 2; Green section, 1; Ridged and Creased, 3; Granular, 11; Half Corrugated, Half Standard, 1. 105 BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. / : : - Tasue IIl.—Performance record of individual Valencia See trees of different strains, showing the weight and number of the fruits of each grade and size and the variable fruits produced, detailed for the season of 1915, and also summarized for four seasons, 1912 to 1915, inclusive—Continued. SECTION B.—TREE No. 23-85-7, CORRUGATED STRAIN, LISTED IN RANK 47 IN TABLES q I AND II—Continued. SUMMARIZED RECORD FOR FOUR SEASONS. Grades and sizes. 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | Total ae _ Weight of fruits: Lbs. 0z.| Lbs. oz.) Lbs. oz.| Lbs. 0z.| Lbs. oz | Orchardborademe eee shee. ee Ae tee ee ol eae ae 18 1) 31 1) 2014] 43 8] 113 8 28. 4 PAN andveraAdeey se cee eet ane Bee Sle, 119 9) 76 2) 114 4] 63 14 | 373 13 93.5 Culls 5 Grand total Sizes— 288 and smaller 250 216 200 176. 150. 126 ‘ 112 96 80 and larger Number of fruits: Onchardionalemee sates ie we Mme ey cael a 39 89 61 103 292 | 73.0 LAMGaAndserad cma nie Seace shee See OU oy 266 216 339 161 982 245. 5 (GUUS = So cS SE SUE ey Heeger ete lies apcearean es eee eT oa 9 36 12 3 60 15.0 Graco Callie siete ee site Se Meebo ele Sd 314 341 412 267 1, 334 333. 5 Sizes— | SPACES IM Al Oem ce aati. Su leiee ore Ee Ua ig feed a 198 LO: ligehees se See aes PIB) S 5 Gi 8 Sto Se CSE Rae ee mere ap ee JSG 115 Boe haere pie pas POS 2 BSS BS Ge eee ee ep gs ea eps hr (ec ae nr 38 | Bion aes Beale a Ds io Sos 35 Sa Oe ee Feo ae ate ae re St [ee Oped Be a ae 38 AOE ee ees Fears “WG. abee | ae 55 Nee ee mee aS eee lee outs Jeena 7 GO ee eee Perens HD Me reer ett pea Oa NEUES Usk a aT ohne epee ct ee epee 4 Pete Wears case sp a Ma eats TB. cle Ye A CL Gay ce ee ea a ee ea 0 Sa Cent ee earae UDP si Sin Sic ae ea Gee rt eee ae ER ee |e ead het 0 I LN t ae oes A least eee, Dae 1G ssi ca ea SNe a a a [See hoeete 0 KO Rss aoe SOA GMAT Sei eset seven en ew) ue esol eis ee ior jee as 0 CO les es slags = ee | | SEO ae ote ae pee en eae 305 | 305 400 26SEC 274: Reta SECTION C.—TREE No. 37-58-23, BARREN STRAIN, LISTED IN RANK 105 IN TABLES I AND II. DETAILED RECORD FOR THE SEASON OF 1915.1 Orchard grade. Standard grade.) Total. | Cull fruits. Grand total. Sizes of fruits. | = = | z Num- | y7,- Num-| 47,; Num- c Num-| 7.; Num- Weight. yas Weight. Bert Weight. wen Weight. rye Weight. Ta. Lbs. 02. Lbs. 02. Lbs. 02. Lbs. 02. 0 0 0 1 0 4 1 0 Abr pete Stomp yee 0 0 0 9 0 0 0 0 OB eee reyeer eters 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Opes aes eee 0 0 0 0 6 1 056 BR ar else eet 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 OF eee ete 0 0 0 0 8 1 0 8 ss Os eee ae 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 WrlesSaecce 0 0 0 0 O 0 0 0 Oil eee 0 0 0 0 0 0 | 0 0 OS eet @ 0 0 OO. 0 Oli 00 (01H [sie ape aol ane ree ae ee Ansel (eetalosall Wer iuae 6 114 6 015 4 2 13 | 10 Seeds found: : | Sucaizilll hab Ge leak (CS Bere eee Di ae es Ean DAA IR Sate Be ts | S85 eee 3 Medimayinuigsi. (5) 5 oes lc (2) ied cei Pa ae oa Delia retest: Dulac ere | 4 ILENE RUT S oeealsqeoeeee. (Cilio eee ae Dito essa BPR ee Bale eee mae | 8 1 No sports. 2 Seeds in fruits of the Orchard grade were not counted. 106 BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe ITI.—Performance record of individual Valencia orange trees of different strains, showing the weight and number of the fruits of each grade and size and the variable Jruits produced, deiailed for the season of 1915 and also summarized for four seasons, 1912 to 1915, inclusive—Continued. SECTION C.—TREE No. 37-58-26, BARREN STRAIN, LISTED IN RANK 105 IN TABLES IT AND II—Continued. SUMMARIZED RECORD FOR FOUR SEASONS. Grades and sizes. 1912 | 1913 | 1914 | 1915 | Total. gee Weight of fruits: Lbs. 0z.| Lbs. 0z.| Lbs. 0z.| Lbs. 0z.| Lbs. oz. Orcharderade: aes 2 oO See hee ce eee ee 0 0 0 8 0.0 0 0 0 8 0.13 can Gardeorad eye os se teen te ecet oe alb Sozcal 1 @ 0 0 1 i4 5 6 1.34 AS LIS Siac yet evecs pee = oS ee Lee eee | 718 0 2 0 0; 015 8 14 2. 22 Grandoe tal .nc.8s sce ees See eee 9 14 ae th 0 0 2-13 42 1412 3. 69 Sizes— ; ZRSand small eves sess sees eee en eee 0 9 Last ee Ole) Tie) 3.0 205) DO oe eink nae ce se ses Re a de ee ee ae ees 0 0 00", 20-0 0 0 OURO) | aes Oia eee eee et ea ine Wane Ni, emer ene re 1 21) -0°0)|; 0.0] #0 10; | ae leno . 28 ZOOS arcrarars cepa evausteavctd 2c Sei aiacie sare ee eee ae eee 0 0 0 8 0 0 OS6 0 14 +22) V7 @isie, sey opers atu ale crept cet Mielec ache ees weeps tee 0 6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 6 : 15) 01S Seen ee re Lea Oe Aci et eee eS Ee teat et Ger 0 Q 0 0 0 0 0 8 0 8 Pais) 11s 2 iE SRE SNS iS TET MEARS: 6 0 O06 .0)| (10. 0s 00) Ono 0 V2 sc mis eo absense sees ccew cc eamameaeecensee 0 0 0 407) 0210 0:30 0 0 0 OG tert Hee erent teas Sena: eecets Sais cecne es See 0 0 O07), 0280 0 0 0 0 0 SO:and larger 2. so oc. oc ciradce Mee daetseinc oem ase 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Ryo) 2 lpia eat ae es i ce ee tne ere = 7 tem i 115 0 0 114 5 14 1.47 Number of fruits: : Orchard ‘grade sess saciec oo8 soso nese seit ee See 0 1 0 0 1 3 Standardisrade es acetate atte ctsenes ase naeming ee 6 6 0 6 18 4.5 QUIS 2oerete eee om tsseemeae ee Jedec eee eke eae 40 2 0 4 46 11.5 Granite alse aeeni ems see oe ee ee ee oe 46 9 0 10 65 16.3 Sizes— : 28S anGcSMAlleneaczce yeiee essere se oye ee see are 2 6 0 4 12 3 2 os Soe Bat ates Be eee aT ees eee eee 0 0 0 On| ac eee Re Sees PAGS SoS se mees act BORE nee aaa se tence 3 0 0 0 3 75 ZU) re se rere eee te eee 0 al 0 1 2 25 TG coy tata cle ee eae ae es ee 1 0 0 0 1 25 TOO. 2 sae cc afsiee Se sketercimne eee nee Smee eee ee 0 0 0 1 1 25 WG cra peee cheats Se rerepepes Se eae ca eee aey ote onan enerafenes ee 0 0 0 0 0 0 DTD Ys Bea Secrets Sarthay aiskada sel aimoceae Sy nares See energie ce oe 0 0 0 0 0 0 ay ae ee a ie Cenc bcm Pm eee oy nae 0 0 | 0 0 0 0 SOlaN GM anp ors ao ee see see eee ere 0 0 | 0 0 0 0 ENG balliewee ce seen See eee neh eee ee 6 7 0 6 19 4.75 A comparison of the records of the trees listed in ranks 45, 51, and 54 of Tables I and I will bring out further the variations in production that may occur within a strain as that term is here employed. These three trees produced practically the same average yields for the 4-year period, but their crops for each year have varied considerably and in very different ratios. . The tree listed in rank 45 is representative of a small class which shows a gradual decrease in production each year. This is, of course, an undesirable condition, and in commercial practice such trees should be top-worked as soon as their production falls below the point of profitableness. The tree listed in rank 51 is representative of the most desirable group of any commercially valuable strain, namely, that one in which the crop production is gradually increased from year to year. The trees recorded in ranks 2, 5, 9, 16, 17, 21, 27, and 37 BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. 107 _are also typical of this group, and many others in the list are classified with these, though they are not as representative as those mentioned. The tree listed in rank 54 is typical of the group conimonly called alternate bearers or biennial bearers ; that is, a season of normal or high S /O 15 20 25 3O G5 FO F5 5O 55 60 65 FO FS INODNVIDLUAL FREES Fig. 1.—Diagram showing the average annual production of the 75 individual trees of the Valencia strain in the investigational performance-record plat for the 4-year period, 1912 to 1915, inclusive. The trees are here ranked in the order of their average total crop, expressed in pounds. The weight of the fruit of the three commercial grades is also shown for each tree. production is followed by a small crop the next year, with the return of anormal crop the succeeding season. Usually these treesshow a gen- eral increase in production during a period of years. This tree (rank 54) produced its small crops in the even years. The tree listed in rank 35 is also of this alternate-bearing character but bears its small 108 BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. crops in the odd years. This group of trees may not be unprofitable to the grower, but they are not as desirable as those with a regular bearing habit. The variation in the crop production of the individual trees of the Valencia strain in the performance-record plat is shown graphically in figure 1. The average annual crops of these 75 trees, which are planted in a single orchard block, vary from 574 pounds to 1932 pounds, but 64 of them, or 85 per cent of the total number, averaged between 100 and 160 pounds annually. This diagram also shows the variations in the amount of Orchard, Standard, and Cull grade fruit borne by trees producing practically the same total crops. Section A of Table IV shows the average annual crop of all the Valencia orange trees occurring in the investigational performance- record plat in groups of strains and of select trees within some of these % ORCHARD GRADE % STANDARD GRADE YECULL GRADE 2 D007 STHAIV 60.0 EEE ee (5S Ea 448 JO Bia ect ao ees de 73.37 EEE OS / 368 Md. VELA «S 7S VALENCIA STAAUNV 70,4 OE eed 27 EEE 426 LOWEST PRODUCING 10 YWALEVCLE STRAIN 673 EEE ed 27a 7./e @ WNLPOQDUCTIVE STRAIN 643 Ee ee S78 3B SPORTING STRAIV 63 7 ES SE 62 10 LOWEST IN 455, See o/ C SRPESIECTVUWE OF STAA4 3 COARSE STRAIN 63 7 ESSE eee 6.3 a 4 YELLOW STAAAINV 50 6 =e ; 4 SMALL YELLOW STUN FS 7 SEES 4 LONG S7TFAAIV ROUGH STRUM CORRPUGATED STRAY 2/ 8 EES NY NN CAFFIEN STA Fic. 2.—Diagram showing the percentages of fruit of the different commercial grades in the average annual production of the trees of the various strains found in the investigational performance-record plat of Valencia oranges for the 4-year period, 1912 to 1915, inclusive. The strains are listed in the order of their relative production by weight of fruit of the Orchard grade. strains. The groups are arranged according to the weight of the average annual crop of each individual tree. The presence of Barren- strain trees will probably be a surprise to many Valencia growers. Trees of this strain and other low-producing strains when noticed in the orchards have usually been considered to be biennial bearers, in their off year. Records, such as those here reported, show that in some instances, at least, this theory is baseless, Here are shown the records of two trees of the Barren strain which have borne practically uniform crops for the past four years, with an average yearly crop of 6 pounds per tree, only 3.7 pounds being commercial fruit suitable for the market. It will be seen that nearly all the other sporting strains produced much less than is ordinarily expected from the average orchard tree and all of them averaged less than was produced by the trees of the Valencia strain. BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. 109 Section B of Table IV shows the groups of trees of the different strains ranked according to the average annual crop of first, or Orchard, grade fruit produced. This change alters the relative position of several of the strains, but the Valencia strain is still at the head and the Barren strain at the foot of the list. TaBLeE IV.—Average anual crop of groups of trees of the variable strains of the Valencia orange occurring in the investigational performance-record plat, showing production by commercial grades for the 4-year period, 1912 to 1915, inclusive. Average annual production per tree Trees. (pounds). Le ah Ae Num- | Orchard |Standard] Cull | Total Description. ber. | grade. | grade. | fruits. | crop. Section A.—Ranked according to their average total crops: Highest producing Velen cials trains: cscs aeons 10 125.9 39.6 6.1 171.6 Wall nner) Sienna Sr See won ak aone SUnee Sem ioesumenas 75 92.8 33.6 5.5 131.8 SPOS SMI Roo) Wd Saobus dee bone peBpeeEeoeMenases 3 80.7 39.0 7.9 127.6 Wormigated Strate copy eile oso eis niall cle zen 7 24.7 87.4 1.4 113.5 IDOE Ripe yials s aaae CO a ne eR a een ey nse 1 66.5 35.8 4.9 107.2 (WOATSOS LATIMES epee acolo ees anne Wann ere rete ema 3 53. 1 40. 4 6.2 99.7 HEVGU CNS Ural eyeretre yoy oe ays cra lo Na cian tee eee sme 2 27.6 69. 2 aback 98.5 Lowest producing Valencia strain 5 10 61.6 25.8 3.7 91.1 SmiallpVellowsstrainy 222 seo es see race 1 36. 1 36.8 6.2 79.1 Unproductive strains 22. 4-2 oss - =: 8 50. 0 22.8 4.4 Ute? SMOOLUISURAIN ee eet stein cee cic oe ee cere ae 2 60. 6 11.8 3.4 75.8 WellowsS trains. tee. Sesser il 36.5 28.4 ted fa Lowest producing trees.-......-...------ sists ae 10 28. 2 18.2 4.0 50.4 TBEIB REO) SpA oo co costo 7 oR anos nape eee Sep EE doamAnacee | 2 | 9 2.8 2.3 6.0 Genera liavenag cppyesrme nels a 2) Saahulers emp te eiavellloiafoye chalets | 78.6 36.4 al 120 Section B.—Ranked according to the weight of fruit of | | Orchard grade produced: Highest Deane Wallencialstraimep ees paee eee 10 125.9 39.6 6.1 171.6 WAL ETICIONS GRAM ete See see tees ate ae ay aed 2 | 75 92.8 33.6 5.5 Is Spore Straimeneeermee yene wee oe 3 80.7 39.0 7.9 127.6 ILO Ks SVN 6543 Sea kos eect Sas Nec Ee ane aE BAaRe Seabee 1 66.5 35. 8 4.9 107.2 Lowest producing Valencia strain............-......... | 10 61.6 25.8 Bi 7/ 91.1 WMIOOUMISUIATN ere pert en itn Nn nae ius ae ie Ein | 2 60. 6 11.8 3.4 75.8 COaES CIS Uralnne ec Ey eae acne 3 53. 1 40.4 6.2 99.7 WmpnowuGhive Strain eee ese eee fe see a see e essen 8 50. 0 22.8 4.4 HEP SYCElLOWAS LNAI eee eee ee | lotsa ons seine sepa pads | 1 36.5 28. 4 Ue?) 72.1 MTalIPYellowASGRAaIM se cero se pasate esis) eae | 1 386.1 36.8 6.2 79.1 GOW eS pPLOCUCIN ENCES <2 ko cence are ee see ee | 10 - 28.2 18. 2 4.0 50.4 VO USNS Cram eee mitaee cess seisn ae ae Saas Semana | 2 27.6 69. 2 ey) 98.5 Cormigated strain’ 23.52 ass - se $A 2202S sue Se 7 24.7 87.4 1.4 113.5 DAUECING Era Ses ere ee Skene sae | 2 5) 2.8 2E3 6.0 Generales verde Ore rsa ae yee ety etal Metnrniceis Scie cise ene Glelnemaicis 78.6 | 36.4 ial 120 It should be noted that the 10 highest producing trees of the Valencia strain are also the 10 highest producing trees in the plat, irrespective of strain. Table I shows that the highest producing tree of a strain other than the Valencia is twenty-eighth in rank. Figure 2 shows graphically the percentages of Orchard, Standard, and Cull grade fruits in the average annual production of groups of trees of the various strains represented in the investigational per- formance-record plat. This diagram can best be interpreted by com- paring it with Table IV, which shows the actual average crops of these groups of trees of the different strains. Although the trees of the Smooth strain head the list in figure 2, their actual average pro- duction was only 60.6 pounds of Orchard-grade fruit, with a total production of 75.8 pounds, so that in value to the grower they are 110 BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. far below the trees of the Valencia strain. The trees of the Barren strain are again found at the foot of the list. The percentages of the two grades making up the commercial crops in the various strains are shown graphically in figure 3. These data are based on the weight of the average production per tree for the 4-year period, and the strains are arranged in the order of the per- centage of first, or Orchard, grade fruit produced. This diagram, like figure 2, can be interpreted rightly only by comparison with the data of actual yield as shown in Table IV. Figure 4 shows the average weight of fruit of the different commer- cial sizes and grades which was produced during the 4-year period on the 10 highest producing trees in the investigational performance- record plat in comparison with the corresponding yields of the 10 PER CENT ORCHARD GVILE FER CLIT STANAARO GRADE a LP7 OD SOOTY STUN /o.3? =a LE a CUBE ST FROOUONG 239° @EE—EEES ALL VALENCIA STRAIN Eien es 7 VALENCIA STPRU/IV 26.6 RE 707 (OLONEST PRODUCING = 29. 6 CEE VALENCY STRAIV ERE OS 7 SUNIROQCWVE STRAW $=? EEE EE O72 PS SOORTING STHPIUIV 726 GEES EERE ee 65.0 “LONG STHAVV 35 0 EEE SEE SOS OLOWEST 290DUCNG «639 (RPRESPLCTWWE OF STAZVM) EE SOS PS CONRSL STHOIIV 43 2 EERE SOD YELLOW STRAW ISEB EE Ee SSeS MOS / STILL YELLOW STRYUN 50.7 (aE EEN OS SP ROUGY STOVIV ° S CES ee ey GEE 220 PHP LARA STRAVV 7 OSE eee Pee BEBE 220 7 ORRUGITED STRAIN «75. 0 ATT renemeerreraas Fic. 3.—Diagram showing the percentages of Orchard and Standard grade fruit per tree in the average annual commercial crops of the trees of the various strains found in the investigational performance- record plat of Valencia oranges for the 4-year period, 1912 to 1915, inclusive. The strains are listed according to their proportion by weight of Orchard (or first) grade fruit. lowest producing trees of the plat. This diagram illustrates graph- ically the fact that the heaviest bearing trees produce a larger pro- portion of the most desirable and valuable sizes of fruits than the lowest producing trees. The most productive trees also bear the largest proportion of fruit of first, or Orchard, grade, so that they are more profitable from the standpoint of quality and size of fruits, in addition to being high producers. On the other hand, the lowest producing trees bear a much larger proportion of extremely small fruits and fruits of the Standard (or second) grade. Figure 5 is similar to figure 4, in that it shows the percentages of fruit of the different commercial sizes which were produced by the 10 highest and the 10 lowest yielding trees in the performance- record plat, but in this diagram the figures are based on the number BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. 111 of fruits produced instead of on the weight of the fruits. This serves to emphasize the small-sized fruits and the Cull grades. Figure 6, like figures 4 and 5, shows the average number of fruits produced by the 10 highest and 10 lowest yielding trees, but the yields of fruit of the different sizes are expressed as percentages of a packed box. The highest producing trees bore an annual average of 2.15 packed boxes per tree, as compared with a yield of 0.63 of a packed box from the lowest yielding trees. This difference indicates some- thing of the value and desirability of growing only trees of the best strain in commercial orchards. ‘These yields are very low, especially those from the best trees, but it should be remembered in this con- TEN HEAWIEST PERO- TEN LOWEST AHRO- DUCING TFAELES SIZES DUCING TAFES. PEP CENT OF CROP BY WEIGHT LER CEIVT OF COP BY WEIGHT, Po ere) 288 757 Eee Po Ee 250 20 Ha me 72 Zoe 23 Ems /s2 200 vos ma 74 170 ZS Fai S50 4/ es /26 AG | @ 2s VE=2 lede || | 2eaisy 9S Of | (exe) 8O0 0.0 /00.O0 700.0 / GRADES SS OOO SS So Eee GMS 2 S/ STAWV0O9%) SO —__z_z! BB SS6é CULL S/ Fic. 4.—Diagram showing the variations in the commercial sizes and grades of fruit on the 10 heaviest producing trees in comparison with the 10 lowest producing trees in the experimental performance-record plat of Valencia oranges. The percentages are based on the weight of the average crop per tree for a 4-year period. Figure 5 shows similar variations based on the number of fruits produced. nection that several of the conditions which were considered essential for the location of the performance-record plats were prohibitive to ine production of large crops. It is also interesting and important, especially from the standpoint of dollars and cents, to note that the highest producing trees bore 33 per cent of their crop in the most desirable and valuable sizes, while the low-yielding trees had only 18.7 per cent of their crop in these sizes. Figuring the productions here shown on the acre basis at the rate of planting in the performance- record plat, it is found that the high producing trees bore 172 packed boxes as compared with 50.4 packed boxes per acre from the lowest producing trees. The values, delivered at the packing house, of 112 BULLETIN 624, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. these calculated crops figured on the basis of the actual prices obtained during the investigational period, and considering the variations in grades and sizes produced per acre by the two groups of trees, would be $311.32 and $84.17, respectively. This correlation of. heavy yield and superior commercial grade in the production of trees of the Valencia strain is very important from the standpoint of the stabilization of the variety through bud selection based on performance records. Figures 4, 5, and 6 indicate that the propagation from the highest yielding trees means not only heavier production, but also improvement in the grade and size of fruit. TEN HEAVIEST PRODUCING TREES FEN LOWEST” PYPODUCING TREES FER CENT OF OOP FLEPR CLT OF CYOP Mz We oe Fic. 5.—Diagram showing the variations in the commercial sizes and grades of fruit on the 10 heaviest producing trees in comparison with the 10 lowest producing ones in the investigational performance- record plat of Valencia oranges. The percentages are calculated from the number of fruits in the average crop per tree for a 4-year period: Figure 4 shows similar variations based on the weight of the crop. Figure 7 shows graphically the relative number of variable fruits in the total crops of trees of the various strains of the Valencia orange occurring in the investigational performance-record plat. The dia- gram illustrates very well the comparative freedom from such fruits which characterizes the trees of the Valencia strain of this variety and the larger proportions of variable fruits which occur in the poorer and more undesirable strains. It is interesting to note that on the trees of the Barren strain, in addition to the almost entire lack of a crop of any sort, 84.3 per cent of what was produced was made up of sporting fruits. In counting the variable fruits on a tree only those showing some variation from the general type of the fruits BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. ks produced by that tree were recorded. For instance, in the case of the trees of the Valencia strain all other than Valencia fruits were considered as variable ones, while for the trees of the Corrugated strain all other than Corrugated fruits were recorded. For the trees of the Sporting strain all other than typical Valencia-strain fruits were counted as variable ones. The comparative freedom of many trees of the Valencia strain from variable fruits indicates the possibility of controlling bud variability in propagation in commercial orchards by bud selection based on performance records. TEN HUGHEST FFPOOUIOV ING TFELS. TEN LOWEST PRODUOING TILL AER OLY TS Hee CREEL oon GVZES FER BNELE LE ENED BEG eee 5 / 288 1/-—_————z: ae Sr 250 Ve __| Eee 570 LIE 72 ee SY 200 65 /! a 5. > /76 278 Ge «5.7 150 28 §20 126 O4| Macy MP O&l | | Vs 9S QA\ Go GO 20 PACKED GOXES 2/5 AVERAGE TOA O63 PACKED GOXES OROP FER TREE 4 71 PACKED BOXES OR \THE/IOST DESIRABLE SIZES| JIE PACKED GOXES OP 320 FER CLNV7 OF THE CROP | 200, 176, (50 AND 126 IE7 PLR CENT OF THE CRQP PRODUCTION ON é (720 PACKED BOXES THE ACRE LASS | 50 F PACKED FOXES OF SO 7KLES ACTUAL VALUE (ER ACRE PIP eee ee BOATZ Fic. 6.—Diagram showing the average number of fruits of the various commercial sizes produced annually during the 4-year period, 1912 to 1915, inclusive, by the 10 highest yielding and the 10 lowest yielding trees in the investigational performance-record plat of Valencia oranges. This production is expressed as percentages of a packed box calculated from the average numer of fruits of the different sizes. The ne percentage of most desirable sizes is also stated, and the production on the acre basis is shown and its i ; value calculated from the actualreturns during the four years. ie The average number of seeds per fruit produced by trees of some of the various strains of the Valencia orange is shown in figure 8. i: This diagram, in comparison with Table IV, shows a very close corre- | lation between the number of seeds per fruit and the comparative . amount of Orchard-grade fruit produced by trees of the different strains here listed. It appears that the presence of three or four itt seeds per fruit is characteristic of the Valencia strain. © d Many other interesting characteristics of the various strains of the . Valencia orange have been studied during the progress of these ie Investigations, but those presented here are among the most marked 14648°—18—Bull. 624-8 114 BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and important. All the data show that it is very important to isolate the strains of this variety and, for commercial purposes, to propagate only the best of them. COMPARATIVE VALUE OF THE STRAINS. Any statement of the comparative value of the various strains of the Valencia orange must be understood as applying only to present conditions. What the future of some of these strains may be under different cultural and market conditions no one can now say. AER CLT OF TOTAL. OROP Under existing con- occuRKiVG AS ARIAGLE Aitions, only one of FRUITS. : the twelve strains here YO WOE ST PPRODUAVG SAB - : (ALL VALENCIA STREAM) described is of com- 75 VALENCE S7AAMUV 378 mercial value, though 2 SOOTY STRAIN 37478 three others are of 1O LOWES? PRODUCING BEG possible value to or- VWALLIVGL”Y STRAM/V ange growers. In 6./ : CLAM OLTEY some cases the infe- PF COIRSEE STPPUIV ones | rior strains are not 8 UNDRODUCTIVE STRAU/V 72 only unproductive, but the fruits pro- 3 S2OR7IVG STRAV 25 a duced by them are A DPAILL YELLOW S7HPAW/V (29 Ba poor in quality or un- YO LOWEST ROO OG 16.) attractive in appear- (TE SELECINE OF S772 1) — ance. J XELLOW STRAY - 506 BSS - From a commercial standpoint the Valen- cia strain is the most valuable found so far in these investiga- VCOPRUCHVED STFU 345 5 2 ROL STKAMV F7SE 2 LAVIEW STAPV/N Fic. 7.—Diagram showing the relative number of variable fruits found é in the average total cropsof trees of dierent strains of the Valencia tlons. Some others, ae sa pacona peerancercrt lt avn. conor Che Suaamay Yellow, and Navel strains or selections from them, may prove desirable additions to the present varieties of summer-ripening oranges. After the value of any new strain has been determined, considerable time is required for.its introduction and trial in sections having different climatic and soil conditions. This work of necessity is of a careful, experimental nature, requiring several years to obtain reliable results. The remaining strains described in this bulletin are undesirable in nearly every respect, as will be readily apparent from the records and descriptions of them already presented. Since commercial orange growing is conducted for the profit to be obtained thereby, the further propagation of these inferior strains or their culture in BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. 115 established plantings should be discouraged. For these reasons it seems wise for the present to concentrate effort upon the stabiliza- tion of the Valencia strain by means of bud selection based on per- formance records and intimate knowledge of the individual tree. THE UNINTENTIONAL PROPAGATION OF UNDESIRABLE STRAINS. The prevailing method of securing bud wood of the Valencia variety has been to cut it either from bearing trees in established orchards, or, to a limited extent, from young nursery or nonbearing s. Where the buds pace o MWEFPIGL VIELE OF have been cut from SLEDS -LEP FFA To bearing trees little or, jow@MesT A20DLONG 37 usually, noselection of §—§ “44 “44ver7 sven parent trees has been LEAL ED HAN AMAA, 7° EEE ea practiced. FP SPORTING STRAMV 2 ae Bud variations have Pa py ee ag a oe : 7 / See been propagated unin- “~ Zynga Ay tentionally by nursery- §CW2°02LCNE STRINV 29 men because the exist- ; 2. So aaa ence and importance sie iene ROM oe ofsuch variations have 3QQ4e5£ S7TRIYV 26 ESE been unknown until CKOWG STFA/V 27 EEE very recently. The occurrence of individ- 7 OP@QGIZZ0 SAV 25 == ual trees in the per- 70 LOWEST ARPODUCHNG <3 zm formance-record plats (KE SFECTNE OF STK) bearing mainly fruit /942 ezzaws7Rav §=/9 7 identical with the fruit es /LONG STRAUNV ‘5 variations occurring : individually or as limb 2A4k4EW STRAW 15 sports in other trees Pe pune | ELLOW STRUM (OE and the. existence of Fic. 8.—Diagram showing the average number of seeds found in similar limb sports IN fruits from the trees of the various strains of the Valencia orange the p arent trees from in the investigational performance-record plat during the 4-year 3 period, 1912 to 1915, inclusive. A large, a medium, and a small which the performance- fruit from each of the three grades, that is, nine fruits from each record trees were prop- tree, were cut each season and the seeds from each fruit carefully : counted. agated are evidences of the propagation of these diverse strains from bud variations. From the fact that the most variable trees are usually the most vigorous in vegetative growth and that the most vigorous-growing, nonfruit- bearing wood has been usually selected for propagation, the propor- tion of trees of the variable strains in established orchards has been increasing continually in the later plantings as compared with the early propagations of this variety. Because of the lack of knowl- edge in the past of the existence of bud variations, no one can ; 7) 116 BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. be blamed for the unfortunate and undesirable propagations of poor strains which have been so generally made. However, now that bud variability in trees of this variety has been established defi- nitely, any propagator who does not carefully select his bud wood from trees of the best strain on the basis of their performance records will not be able to excuse the poor results of his propagations on the ground of the lack of information on this subject. THE ISOLATION OF STRAINS THROUGH BUD SELECTION. In the beginning of these investigations fruit-bearing bud wood was selected from limb variations in trees of the Valencia and other strains and top-worked in bearing trees in order to get them into fruiting quickly. About 100 such propagations have come into bearing, and as far as can be judged from trees of their age they have in every instance reproduced the strains which were propagated. Later, as opportunity has permitted, the bud variations have been propagated on nursery stocks. These progeny tests will require several years to secure reliable performance-record data, but in so far as such trees have fruited the results have confirmed those - secured by top-working bearing trees. Enough evidence has been secured in these investigations to war- rant the assertion that all of the 12 strains described in this bulletin can be isolated through bud selection. It seems probable that other strains also can be isolated in the same manner. This conclusion does not include the idea that bud variation within - these strains can be entirely eliminated. On the contrary, the in- vestigations have shown that variation will likely continue as long as the strains are propagated. What has been demonstrated is that variation can be controlled by bud selection to such an extent that the individuals of a strain can be brought to a. condition of practical uniformity as regards crop production and_ other characteristics. Bud selection should be based on definite knowledge of the in- dividual tree, which can be secured most satisfactorily by means of performance records and careful study. A thorough investigation of most of the established Valencia orchards in the light of individual- tree records will reveal the necessity for greater care in selecting buds for use in propagation. The bud wood found most satisfactory in these investigations 1s that bearing typical fruits of the strain desired and of the one or two periods of growth preceding the production of the fruits. One or more fruits of the desired strain should be cut off with each bud stick as an indication or label showing the probable character of fruit that will be produced by the buds immediately back of the fruit. Figure 9 shows a bud stick cut in this manner with typical fruits of BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. I 7 ‘the Valencia strain attached. When such bud wood is used, a larger number of desirable buds can be secured from heavy bearing See i i i Lt SSSA sees SS a ers od a SSE eS cee essays Fic. 9.—A Valencia orange bud stick of fruit-bearing wood cut with typical fruits of the Valencia straia attached. (About one-half natural size.) eos 3 | \ } | nh hs He trees than from less productive ones. When bud wood of this character was first recommended for use, nurserymen and propagators were almost unanimous in their objections to it on account of its 118 BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. small size. Since that time this prejudice has gradually disappeared and thousands of buds from such wood have been used successfully in both experimental and commercial propagations. If bud wood is desired at times when the fruits are unripe or when the bud wood is not in condition for use, it should be cut when the ripe fruits are available for inspection and stored in sterilized moss until needed. The identification of a valuable strain is of vital commercial im- portance to the entire orange industry. The segregation of the in- ferior strains is of interest only from an experimental standpoint. The propagation of valuable strains will result not only in an in- creased production, but what is equally important, in a uniform pro- duction of crops of greater commercial value. TOP-WORKING UNDESIRABLE TREES. Healthy Valencia orange trees of inferior or undesirable strains can be successfully top-worked, using the kind of bud wood de- scribed in the preceding paragraphs. This bud wood can be used either as grafts or, as is the usual practice, for budding directly into some of the main limbs. The selection of trees to be top-worked should be made before their fruits are picked. While trees of some inferior strains are easily recognized from their habits of growth or foliage characteristics, it is desirable wherever possible to base the selection of trees to be top- worked on their performance records and fruit characteristics. The selection of bud wood for top-working purposes should also be based on individual-tree performance records associated with an intimate knowledge of tree and fruit characteristics secured from careful observations in the orchards. In top-working established trees, two or three of the main limbs should be selected for the foundation of the new heads. Two buds should be inserted in each of these limbs, from 12 to 24 inches above the fork of the trunk. After the buds have united with the older limbs, these limbs should be cut off about 6 inches above the point of insertion of the buds, and the cut surfaces covered with grafting wax or some pruning compound. The trunks and remaining portions of the limbs should be heavily whitewashed or otherwise protected, in order to prevent injuries from exposure. About a year later the stubs of the original limbs should be cut back close to the young buds, making the cuts oblique in order to facilitate their healing, and the cut surfaces should be again waxed or painted. In every case great care must be exercised in removing all sprouts from the trunk and old limbs in order to develop the new heads entirely from the inserted buds. BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE. 119 It is essential that the rebudded trees be inspected from time to time for the first year or ¢wo, in order that they may be cared for intelligently. The growth from the rebuds must be thinned occa- sionally, so that strong, open, and well-arranged tops will be secured. Insect enemies attacking the tender growth of the rebuds must be destroyed. ‘Ten-year- Bid trees of imienior strains of the Valencia orange rebudded to the Valencia strain by the usé of fruit-bearing bud wood usually will begin bearing in two or three years, reaching normal production in about four or five years. As a result of these investigations, more than 5,000 undesirable Valencia orange trees in California orchards have been top-worked with buds selected from the most desirable trees in the investigational performance-record plats. The oldest tops grown from such buds are now more than four years old. So far not a single failure has been observed in transmitting the characteristics of the parent trees by means of the selected buds. Several thousand trees of undesir- able strains of the Washington Navel orange and Marsh grapefruit also have been top-worked with selected buds of those varieties in the same manner during the past five years with equal success. This positive evidence as to the possibility of improving undesirable trees by top-working has resulted in the widespread adoption of this practice by California citrus growers. SUMMARY. In proportion to the area of the established Valencia orange orchards in California, the Valencia orange is being planted more extensively in that State than any other variety. It is now the lead- ing summer-bearing orange variety grown in the State. The object of these investigations is to discover methods of prac- tice for the conservation and stabilization of the variety. The plan of the investigation is a careful, detailed, and intimate study of the individual tree, the results of which are called individual- tree performance records. The Valencia trees in these investigations were propagated from the variety originally introduced into California from Florida under the name of Hart (Hart's Tardif). In the performance-record plats considered in these investigations there are trees of 12 important strains and of many minor strains which have originated from bud mutations. The frequent occurrence of bud variations in trees of this variety is of definite importance in the consideration of means for the improve- ment of the production of established orchards, the isolation of the best strains, and the control, as far as possible, of bud variation through bud selection based on performance records. wee Se ee aT Rn eg Sas Sees See 120 BULLETIN 624, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The most valuable strain of this variety is the Valencia. Some other strains may be of value under certain conditions. Trees of the Valencia strain are most productive and bear the largest quantities of the best-grade fruit and the most valuable sizes for commercial purposes. Trees of the Valencia strain produce fewer variable fruits than those of other strains. All the strains described can be isolated through bud selection based on individual-tree performance records. Healthy trees of undesirable strains in established orchards can be top-worked and their value improved thereby when fruit-bearmg bud wood from selected trees of the Valencia strain is used for this purpose. A practical method for locating such trees and bud wood and a discussion of their treatment in commercial orchards are pre- sented in Farmers’ Bulletin 794 of the United States Department of Agriculture, ‘‘Citrus-Fruit Improvement: How to Secure and Use Tree-Performance Records.” ADDITIONAL COPIES OF TEIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 25 CENTS PER COPY Vv ae ae UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Office of the Secretary Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W.J. SPILLMAN, Chief Washington, D. C. v April 8, 1918 CROPPING SYSTEMS FOR THE MOISTER PORTION OF EAST- ERN WASHINGTON AND OREGON AND NORTHERN IDAHO. By Lee W. Fiunarry, Assistant Agriculturist. CONTENTS. 5 Page. Page. Ciover in the rotation to eliminate summer | Methods of increasing farm profits..........- 4 (BNO conc aeGae GGe DE aOR te Se eee 1 | Seeding clover with a nurse crop..........--- 6 Factors influencing farm profits............- 2 | Rotation for increasing profits..............-. 9 CLOVER IN THE ROTATION TO ELIMINATE SUMMER FALLOW. ITHIN the region adjacent to the Bitter Root and Blue Moun- tains in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho live more than 12,800 farmers who operate approximately 1,875,000 acres of improved farm land. ‘The farms on which these farmers live have an annual rainfall of 20 inches or more, and have a black silt loam soil underlaid by a clay-like subsoil which is very retentive of moisture. The land has been devoted to the growing of wheat, oats, and barley, by the summer-fallow system, for more than 30 years. A farm survey made in 1915 on 246 farms in a representative por- tion of the above described area showed that 30.2 per cent of the rotation area was idle each season as summer fallow. It is generally conceded that the yields of grain are now smaller than when the land was first brought into cultivation and that the soil is growing more compact and harder to work with each succeeding year. It is gen- erally believed that the practice of summer fallowing is largely responsible for this condition. The amount of land idle as summer fallow and the per acre yield of crops were found to be the most potent factors influencing farm profits. Farms having the most summer fallow made the least profit, vhile those having the largest per acre yield of crops made the larg- est profits. Any cropping system, therefore, which will increase the er acre yield of crops or do away with summer fallow without ecreasing yields should materially increase farm profits. 15532°—18 2 BULLETIN 625, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. On the silt loam soils of ithe Willamette Valley, Oregon, where cli- matic conditions are very similar to those of the Bitter Root and Blue Mountain regions, summer fallowing has been discontinued, without a decrease in yields. This result was accomplished through the use of legumes, principally clover, in the rotation. Recent stud- ies show that the same result may be accomplished by the use of clover in that portion of eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, and northern Idaho having an annual precipitation in excess of 20 inches. The fact that farmers in this section do not use more clover in the crop rotation is due, in large measure, to the prevailing idea that it can not be seeded in a nurse crop. In a study of this method of seeding clover the author found that in 100 trials, covering a period of 11 years, 1,507 acres of land in this region were seeded to clover with wheat, oats, or barley. A good stand of clover was secured on 1,408 acres, or 93.8 per cent of the total acreage seeded. It was found that for successfully seeding clover with a nurse crop the following rules must be followed: (1) Use good seed; (2) the land must be free from weeds, especially wild oats; (3) the seed bed must be well prepared; (4) but about two-thirds as much grain (nurse crop) should be sown per acre as when no clover is sown; (5) seed early in the spring; and (6) inoculate the soil with nitrogen gather- ing bacteria, which will grow on the clover plant. The per acre crop yields on farms where clover has been grown in the crop rotation is from 15 to 25 per cent larger than on farms where the summer-fallow method of growing wheat, oats, or barley is practiced. ‘Three- and four-year rotations with clover are being carried on successfully in different sections of the above-described territory. FACTORS INFLUENCING FARM PROFITS. All farm-management studies show that there are certain factors within the control of the farmer which largely determine the profita- bleness of his business. As stated above, the most potent factors influencing profits on the farms studied in eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, and northern Idaho, as shown by the 1915 survey, were the amount of idle land in summer fallow and the per-acre yield of crops. The greater the percentage of rotation area in summer fallow, the smaller were the profits; the larger the crop yields per acre, the greater the profits. The effect of these factors on farm profits is shown in Tables I and II, which were taken from the 1915 survey of the above-described territory. It will be seen from Table I that the group of farms having an average of 6.4 per cent of their rotation area devoted to summer fallow had an average of $490 labor income after deducting 8 per cent on capital invested.t| On the other hand, the group of farms ‘Eight per cent was the current rate on farm loans in this region in 1915. CROPPING SYSTEMS—WASHINGTON, OREGON, IDAHO. 3 which had an average of 46.5 per cent of their rotation area in summer fallow lacked $200 per farm of making 8 per cent on invest- ment. Those farms with only 6.4 per cent of the rotation area in summer fallow made an average of 8.3 per cent interest on capital invested as compared with 5.9 per cent on farms having 46.5 per cent of the rotation area in summer fallow. It is evident from the crop yields of the different farm groups (see ‘‘ Crop index,” Table I) that the variation in profits in this case is not due to crop yield. The same 246 farms are grouped, however, on a basis of crop yields in Table II and the influence of this factor on farm profits brought out. TasiE I.—Percentage of rotation area in summer fallow in relation to profits on 246 farms in eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, and northern Idaho. Average a percentage Number!| Labor nterest Cro Percentage of rotation area in summer fallow. rotation Sac | esac on invest-| ..T°P 8 area in | Of farms. | income.a|"" 00 ¢""| index.d fallow. er cent. WURrderpZOpeMeentne Meares ethos see es TS 6.4 65 $490 8.3 98.2 POMOMUMMeICONta piensa suey e ck Nem eS 25.6 62 302 7.5 101.0 30 OAD FOG? Catal CRE ors nei amen rnae 34.8 70 — 20 6.3 102. 4 (ONG 20) Tobie Cathe ae en See eee aaa ane 46.5 49 —200 5.9 96. 8 «Labor income.—What the farmer has left after all expenses have been charged, including interest on the money he has tied up in his farm business. é b Crop index.—Crop yields as compared with the average of all farms, which is taken as 100 per cent. Tase I1.—Crop yields in relation to profits on 246 farms in eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, and northern Idaho. K : ; Percentage = verage aa ercentage| rotation Farm group. Aes crop eee _maceon | area in ‘| index. * |investment.! summer failow. CROP INDEX. Winter 0) ace ase oe ee ae eee es a ete 65 79 —$220 5.5 28.7 LOLS pesto etteee omits nc ois ines Sis etee sinicicis o Meee 62 94 105 6.6 29.6 TOOK OP ORR eee ere es oe cet aenoe wale Vode 54 104 297 et) By | OREEP I) Fe a a er i a ere 65 122 480 8.2 30.6 It will be observed from Table II that the farms with an average crop yield of but 79 per cent of the average of all farms lacked $220 of returning an interest of 8 per cent on tne investment (minus $220 in ‘Labor income’ column). As the per-acre yield of crops increases in the succeeding farm groups, the profits also increase until those farms having an average crop index of 122 made a labor income of $480 after deducting 8 per cent interest on capital invested. Tne interest made on capital for the farm group having the smallest crop index was 5.5 per cent compared with 8.2 per cent for the farm group having the highest yields per acre. The farms with an average crop index of 122 made a 27 per cent larger return on capital invested than. did the farms with an average crop index of only 79. Tne table 4 BULLETIN 625, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. also shows that in this case the variation in profits for the farm groups was not due to the difference in the percentage of rotation area in summer fallow. It will be seen from the two foregoing tables that any cropping system which either will increase yields or reduce the amount of land devoted to summer fallow without decreasing the crop yields will materially increase farm profits on these farms. It will, therefore, be the purpose of the following pages to present methods of crop improvement through the use of proper cropping systems, and also to show how the percentage of rotation area in summer fallow may be reduced without materially affecting the yields. METHODS OF INCREASING FARM PROFITS. The effect on crop yields of eliminating summer fallow from the rotation was shown in a farm survey on the silt loam soil farms of the Willamette Valley, Oregon. For more than 40 years this section grew wheat and oats by the summer fallow system. The farm prac- tice followed during this period was almost identical with that of eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, and northern Idaho at the present time. The crop yields gradually decreased from year to year until farming became so unprofitable that a change had to be made in the cropping systems. Legumes were introduced into the crop rotation and the amount of land devoted to summer fallow was decreased until in 1912 only 2.7 per cent of the rotation area was idle. TaBLeE II1.—Relation of summer fallow to crop yields on 144 silt loam soil farms in the Willamette Valley, Oreq. Farms Farms Tien without with i summer summer fallow. | fallow. _ a : = a - : im = | Nam pero fila imniss cic 2 eee ees eee eye reer Se ea ene oer ree ara | 127 17 Average yields per acre: | POUT OCS AUIS TCLS ig oterecesc acy aes sherry ota poate cee ve, 2 vee teeny yaya oe ere | 155.9 98. 4 Wh eGarts (bushels) 2 eae ee aie eres Cesc rio estamos eaten eae te se lee ee | 21.9 2385 BUST GIN UES ENG ISS) oa ec oles a nen wee pare Se ere ree eet Olea! | 36.5 Hay (tOMS)|. 322.0222 --% Fe ne eC eo Ona En AE see a ered 1.94 1.76 @LOP INGO a se = Sissete res sereraia a= meee SEs peyavta shone ate bina le aie eS are asevancralaucle tare AS | 101 | 96 In Table [ff is given a comparison of per-acre yields between farms having summer fallow and those having none in the Willa- mette Valley. It will be seen that farmers on the silt loam soil in the Willamette Valley eliminated summer fallow from their rotation without reducing the average crep yield. Wheat was the only crop which produced more per acre on farms with summer fallow than on those without. These results were accomplished through the intro- duction of legumes, principally clover, into the rotation. CROPPING SYSTE EMS—WASHINGTON, OREGON, IDAHO. =) Bee yy = Relation of field crop area wn legumes to crop yields per acre on 144 silt loam soil farms in the Willamette Valley, Oreg. (Farms grouped according to percentage of field crop area in legumes. 2] { fr Under 18} 18t023 | Over 33 ee use None: per cent. | per cent. | per cent. Allfarms. ——— —— wu 2 Average percentage crop area in legumes......-.-.--- None.... 12.0 26.0 44.8 20.4 Nimmipermottanmsyee-eeeepe ncn - 2222-222 o-oo eee 35 37 37 35 144 Average yields per acre: Botatoesi(bushels))-2:-& --66-5 fs 23.02 hs ee | 132.8 145.5 172.0 183.5 150.2 iWineati(bushels) =... 22.220...2.--.-- Se a ae 18.8 21.5 23.8 23.57, 22.0 Oatsidoushels) \epens sa ssn esac ncte serosa ee 28.5 38.3 40.9 44.5 S77 Istany (KOS) Soa dodphSeasosbae suossegsus seaaesosace 1. 82 2.00 1.86 2.07 1.94 @ropnndexes sense. 2 -er---6)-/ -- -- Sea Hae BRASH ACE 82.8 100.4 105.0 111.4 100.0 aClover occupied 58 per cent of the area in legumes. -Tasie V.—Percentage of field crop area in clover in relation to farm profits and yields on 144 silt loam soil farms in the Willamette Valley, Oreg. {Farms grouped according to percentage of field crop area in clover.]} . Less than | More than Item. None. 20 percent. | 20 percent. Allfarms. Average percentage of field crop area in clover........-----| | None. 152 32.7 U7 Nunabenonitaninsnerry.- a-\ss5-- 2-225 2 2-1 nr 12-12 64 42 38 144 Average Capital........---.-:---+----- $20,547 $22, 920 $21,372 $21, 457 Average farm income....-..------.-------- $1,098 $1, 546 31, 834 $1, 425 AV CLAP CN ADOL INCOME) 2c < cence nininie ose eine es = 26 —$1235 $171 $560 $138 Average per cent made on investment @.-.-.-...-.--------- 5.34 6.75 8.63 6.64 (CROWD WNGOK soe ocd sods scessee sade eA sea aaaredeseseeeeaseane 95.8 102.7 110.7 100.0 @ Per cent made on investment in this table means per cent eens income is of capital. The relation of field crop area in legumes to crop yields is shown in Table IV. The per acre yields of the four principal crops, potatoes, wheat, oats, and hay showed a marked increase on farms devoting more than 33 per cent of their rotation area to legumes over the per acre yield of those growing no legumes. The increases in yields in a comparison of the two groups of farms were as follows: Potatoes, 8.2 per cent; wheat, 26.1 per cent; oats, 56.2 per cent; hay, 13.7 per cent. The average increase in yields due to the use of legumes, for all crops, as shown by the crop index, was 34.5 per cent. The largest increase in crop yields occurred in comparing the group hay- ing an average of 12 per cent of the crop area devoted to these crops and the group of farms having no legumes. The increase in crop ylelds as between these two groups amounts to 21.3 per cent, while the increases as between the second and third and the third and fourth groups are 4.7 per cent and 6.1 per cent, respectively. (See Table V.) The crop index indicates that those farms having more than 20 per cent of their field-crop area in clover had 15.5 per cent larger yields than farms without clover. The group of farms which grew - no clover made a minus labor income of $135; that is, the net farm profits lacked $135 of amounting to 6 per cent of the capital invested.’ 1Six per cent was the current rate on farm loans in this region in 1912. 6° BULLETIN 625, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The groups of farms which devoted less than 20 per cent of their field-crop area to clover made an average of $171 after deducting 6 per cent interest on capital invested, and the group which devoted more than 20 per cent of their field-crop area to clover made an aver- age of $560 each. The increase in profits was due (1) to the increase in yields and (2) to the profitableness of clover-seed production in comparison with other farm crops for the year in which these records were taken (1912). It will also be seen from the interest made on investment that those farms devoting more than 20 per cent of their field crop area to clover used the capital invested in land and equip- ment 54.2 per cent more efficiently than the farms growing no clover. The beneficial effect of clover in the rotation is quite generally recognized among the farmers of the moister sections of eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, and northern Idaho. The importance of this crop, however, as a means of maintainise a profitable system of farming and of improving the soil fertility is very much under- estimated. The roots and stubble of a good clover crop are said to contain fertilizing elements equivalent per acre to from 3 to 5 tons of barnyard manure. Its value to the soil in supplying organic matter and thus improving the physical condition can not be estimated. A study of Tables III, IV, and V should convince the most skeptical farmers that clover is one of the biggest factors in building up a profitable farm business. The maintenance of soil fertility in the section above described is as much dependent on legumes, especially clover, as are the silt loam soil farms in the Willamette Valley, Oreg. A recent study by the author of a few farms in different parts of this region on which clover is being used in the rotation showed that they were returning from 15 to 25 per cent larger yields than farms not growing this crop. SEEDING CLOVER WITH A NURSE CROP. The small acreage devoted to clover in the moister section of eastern Washington, eastern Oregon, and northern Idaho is due in large measure to the prevailing idea that in order to secure a stand this crop must be seeded alone. The labor of preparing the soil and of seeding the crop by this method is practically the same as for small grain. The use of the land is also lost for one year except for the small amount of pasture that can sometimes be obtained. A few farmers in different localities, however, have broken away from this practice and are seeding clover with a grain crop. This method of seeding requires but little more labor than is necessary for seeding grain alone, and the nurse crop returns a profit while the clover is becoming established. The methods used by a number of farmers and their success in seeding clover with a nurse crop was studied during the past four years with the view of determining the feasi- bility of this method of seeding in this region. CROPPING SYSTEMS—-WASHINGTON, OREGON, IDAHO. i! TaBLE VI.—Results of seeding clover with a nurse crop in that portion of eastern Wash- ington, eastern Oregon, and northern Idaho having an annual precipitation of 20 inches or more. Number Acres Acres | Per cent Nurse crop. of trials. | tried. | success. | success. Wanterwheat.8226.2-2ee ote Bao waee oot re, ee we OS 3 17 | 141 107 75.9 Polimpawheataeesene tee my AEN eee a. eee ee 18 | 294 284 96.5 (ORD. So hb EAS SOR ES SEBS Cee FECES Eee aoe Enea See ress eae 33 388 348 89.7 IBENUGS.2 46 ece a Goa an aoe SB AB ABS os eee ae See Stee seas | 32 684 669 97.8 ROTA EREN ey 2. 11, SR ET res. | 100-| "1)507)). 1,408,|" 93.4 It will be seen from Table VI that the number of trials and the total number of acres seeded to clover were sufficient for drawing definite conclusions. The trials covered a period of 11 years (from 1904 to 1916, inclusive, with no trials in 1905 or 1908), which is a sufficient length of time to eliminate the question of variation in climatic conditions from season to season. In the 100 trials reported there were 1,507 acres of clover seeded, with four different nurse crops. 4 .s'si 0 eres eile tie Geographic Scope Agronomic Adaptation and Preduction . Results Obtained . ROA SCALIDYG el silver e 6 neriiel oie! 6 Summary of Results .. -Preduction . « 2 © 0 ee we « o Bibliography . 0 « 2» 2» » 2» » © se WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1978 PE AAR ~ Oboe ett te), ! i Withee bly UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE : BULLETIN No. 619 Cortribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey E. W. NELSON, Chief ~ Washington, D. C. . March 8, 1918 | £ PROFESSIONAL PAPER FOOD HABITS OF THE SWALLOWS A FAMILY OF VALUABLE NATIVE BIRDS By F. E. L. BEAL, Assistant Biologist Food Habits of the Swallows. .... 1 | Violet-Green Swallow » - - « «+ - 19 Purple Martin. . . 2... «.-%. #3 | Bank Swallow. ... . oie dep aiee vou ered Cliff, or Eaves, Swallow . .-. » » « « 6 | Rough-Winged Swallow . . . ..- - 25 Barn Swallow . . 2 1 0 © © © + « 11 | Tabular Summary . . «161222 2 28 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918 SESS LZ SOS — DA eee UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE — BULLETIN No. 620 Contribution from the Forest Service _ HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester - Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 14, 1918 EFFECT OF VARYING CERTAIN COOKING CONDITIONS IN THE PRODUCTION OF SULPHITE PULP FROM SPRUCE By S. E. LUNAK, Chemist in Forest Products CONTENTS Purpose of the Experiments Effect of Varying: the Ratio of Free to The Sulphite Process p Combined SO, or the Amount of Lime Kinds of Wood Used -| in the Cooking Liquor Present Methods of Operation . . . . Effect of Varying Total Sulphur Dioxide . Plan of Tests Bo Effect of Varying the Temperature of _ Cooking Summary of Results ’ Metheds of Analysis and Other Tests Analysis of Cooking Liquor Apparatus . Method of Conducting Experiments . . GOVEENMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918 CUM HEIL SN | AAC UR CINIINBAIE loot ee i FOREST SERVICE. ; Henry &. Graves; Forester. Aubert F. Porter, Associate Forester. : BRANCH OF RESEARCH. Earte UW. Crary, Assistant Forester in charge. — Forrsts Propucts LaBorarTory. Cariite P. Winsiow, Director. Ovip M. Butter, Assistant Director, 3 SECTION OF PULP AND PAPER, Orro Kress, In charge. : -UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 621. Coniribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey E. W. NELSON, Chief Washington, D. C. _ PROFESSIONAL PAPER. February 16, 1918 THE CROW AND ITS RELATION TO MAN By E. R. KALMBACH, Assistant Biologist CONTENTS Introduction Natural Enemies Systematic Position and Disiribution of Protection of Crops the Crow . Legislation Life History Summary Information from Correspondents .. . Conclusion .. . 5 Food Habits List of Items Identified in Stounehe ois Distribution of Live-Stock Diseases nue WnNdeX yon 55 ein ies oiettes 6: 0) ote ssiie Distribution of Seeds . . ». » « « WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 622 Contribution from the Bureau of Piant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER February 2, 1918 THE IDENTIFICATION OF VARIETIES OF BARLEY By HARRY V. HARLAN, Agronomist in Charge of Barley Investigations, Office of Cereal Investigations CONTENTS Varieties of Barley Varieties Grown in Field Culture in the Review of the Literature Uniied States . Variable Factors in Cultivated Barley. . Key to Commerxciai Varieties Scheme of Classification Summary Lines for Further Study Literature Cited Identification of Thrashed Material WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 623 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D.C. - PROFESSIONAL PAPER July 22, 1918 CITRUS-FRUIT IMPROVEMENT A STUDY OF BUD VARIATION IN THE WASHINGTON NAVEL ORANGE By A. D. SHAMEL, Physiologist in Charge, L. B. SCOTT, Pomologist, and C.S. POMEROY, Assistant Pomologist, Fruit-Improvement Investigations, Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations CONTENTS Introduction History of the Washington Navel Variety Variability within the Variety. . . . . Occurrence and Frequency of Bud Varia- tions eeeee Objects of the Investigations Plan of the Investigations Methods of Keeping Performance Records . Descriptions of Some of the Important Individual Fruit Variations. . » « Minor Variations of Fruits Lessons Taught by These Investigations Presentation of Data Comparative Value of the Strains . . . The Unintentional Propagation of Unde- sirable Strains The Isolation of Strains through Bud Selection Top-Working Undesirable Trees DSELAMISeiieiiol oiiielied © else) etievic Summary -. . » « « © © © © © © « 145 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918 CE ISSUE ate RO OP lS a ee Ae A oe | as eee Shoe ENY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 624 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Le as Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER July 25, 1918 CITRUS-FRUIT IMPROVEMENT A STUDY OF BUD VARIATION IN THE VALENCIA ORANGE By A. D. SHAMEL, Physiologist in Charge, L. B. SCOTT, Pomologist, and C. S. _ POMEROY, Assistant Pemologist, Fruit-Improvement Investigations Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations CONTENTS Page California Citrus Varieties . . » o « » 1 | Individual Variations of Fruits .... 12 History of the Valencia Variety . .. . 2 | Minor Variations of Fruits. 2. . »« « » 13 Variability within the Variety .... 3 | Lessons Taught by These Investigations 13 Occurrence and Frequency of Bud Varia- Presentation of Data. . « « « = « e 14 PTOI EMSRS eS 51) 6) 3! Sees) voll witetite 4 | Comparative Value ofthe Strains . .. 114 Objects of the Investigations . . . . « 5 | The Unintentional Propagation of Unde- Plan of the Investigations . . .... 6 sirable Strains .......o. .« J15 S Methods of Keeping Performance Rec- The Jsolation of Strains through Bud ra OHNE (SiG. Gh Os CCH RO NELIMON: © ley be eae fi Selection, . 2. . 2 s+ « © « - « « 116 ca Descriptions of Some.of the Important Top-working Undesirable Trees. . . - 118 B DOMAIN ete iat el eiaiivel elven 5S) Mi SSUMMMMLALY o.oiie fe) Ha eZee lo veWneliien | MED WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918 ; i y i Hap: iccalge aA CRE, BN a i) Alot sill tal ty AMNH LIBRARY |—l Eo