eee sere ert ee35225: aS * ne ae a oe aye teee Foe agse ait Wy Ape at big Abed ‘aa nue 1A oF ce " iil it peas Hath ) iit Yiu ai Hae ant 4 ti i} Havin eats ae ha ages i} sideiay aad 4th, pat yeu oor > wh a \" HG 9 re ‘ nat =:--= x: wiaee Seskane ee it fla | Hh ah it it it ii ii a hs ce naa i“ Viel! hie tis a i wit My nit He a TTLEL| ‘y a \ Hi HHH ek a Poe ad ' jules alsiitlth ‘ Hill Heh ML beatae is ih Cra et on { Wil Ay itt 4 eviett { iin iss Ha Wahine ath ty i a nae itt i i Hi aa tht HA int u rH ttn Hal . tee Hi ena " an a it = 2 = Tete tSiSeek s2e = : — - = a n il 1 Es sets 44 ae) ed Sei et eee eat te hh uy si Nt al th i ie oe 4 ‘ ene diva - aahtsttt gps RYH oo ite ' Bhi ae Bid'sccagte aie ea =e a i eee rs So RSS S see ats Mati iit H 4 FH aH coed oe: a a in ili ong he beg wie ") ise \ Pith BYTE ae itt rasta () i Meemlalt itaa + eat | si tite +f Hy in tit tie it ue oe at be ist ana ‘ip vet: ney i itt ttt Wiener tent reat cory ht we i ett 4h 4 aun " bias i orcn Nae alte ryan) EY eet a Berane it} se ee a Weayeess eal ii i. FOR THE PEOPLE FOR, EDVEATION RORY THE AMERICA MUSEUM NATURAL | HISTORY Y f Wifes NWaiate 2 = U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Department Bulletins Nos. 626-650, oo Cy WITH CONTENTS AND INDEX. Prepared in the Division of Publications. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIC™ 1920 CONTENTS. al j Page. > £ODerartMent Buitetin No. 626.—PastureE LAND ON FARMS IN THE oa Unitep STATES: SSIOTLIRCS) OL CIES ihe aa Sa hee MS | Re if = AITO eTMEM iy OtMaatemalen Ae. seule! MM AO NE a A ae al 2 :. Farm pasture Jand in the United States as a whole....................--. 2 a Geographic distributionvor farm pastumemye 15-500... 2 8) aoe Scie te 3 i Pasture land by geographic divisions and States (table)..................- 14 a Pasture land by counties (table).............-....-. OR ees ee re ee 16 a DEPARTMENT BuuLeTiIn No. 627.—Cost or HARVESTING WHEAT BY DirFERENT ‘ METHODS: 5 - Development of wheat-harvesting methods...............-.--------++--- 1 a Whos losnayekerd) a Oe Ce... 3 Sak CeO pe ena TES SR 85 4 IS to Chalten oa HER ei peters ics oy) MMO IS NEES OOS as a at Nyomi 11 ( Comparison of costs—old methods v. new..-.-..-----------+---- ++ eee eee il 4 PSIUY CIS aves US eI eS A Cd IME LS aR ire ST I ea EN an er 13. a Cer SNM eB ie ee re 0, Wa yO Saha) ef ey iS ie 15 ; Otopiritl optra Vers} a seins CUA rae SUR SD” EE Ra ois aes en eee 18 DEPARTMENT Butietin No. 628.—WINTERING AND FatTrENING Breer CATTLE IN NortH CAROLINA: I: Tho ergoyo heat Voy ns 5 sais cela Cee Ariat peewee ls Aha RM elm Na Ua hele Dea I & Wintering steers preparatory to grazing on pasture.....--.....-.--------- + Be Witt Fersonazim er OL SESCNA Ge voc aici. = < Rate PVG DIES Lp SRY ass naa eed 14 : SUMMettabemin srOMsteens! OMsCTass taper sie re oes es Ey eyed 19 Summary of three years’ work, winter and summer..............-...--..-- 27 Nimnibertatfermimeroh StECETS ies 5.20. Cpe fr eve rete nes, Soo yeteen MC 38 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 629.—GREENHOUSE EXPERIMENTS ON THE Rust RESISTANCE OF OAT VARIETIES: IDOECOCHUVCITOT AS Si hae ea Ae MN. EO OP DE RA Coal Rae RAY LEB Ohh Gea mne if The culture of cereal rusts in the greenhouse......-....------------------ 2 oxperime»ntalemetnOdsice aerate sk. | MMB eon Caan) a Ree lbs, yee eee shee 2 Souneestommaterialeers . Mask 0). CMM Tee a ei aa ml 5 Bridences on rust resistance cereal aman... - 5 se a pn 2 eee eeereiet eee D Aissarre Tauren tall Chea tetas met 5 eee a Ae ta eee ek a ae eee Ne 8 IDISCUBSTONNOLMESUIIT SMES |: SC wa rc AURia 5 (Ns hilt aoupiae rm ievee | UPaor ant rho svyod Nis peal sel NS 13 StmmmarnyeaMOnCOMCHUISIONS. “2 lic 2-1 Heme pee ie Se eeu Noted oo) celia ath ts 14 NetberaGOmereLce Ce neee ee elo Sac 2/5. A AMeMtihe MMRR as= eet capa Ble grasa 16 DEPARTMENT BuLLEtTIN No. 630.—Stupies oF THE DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME Nut Ors: Hat Ro chuictlO merengue ape ee cat cv.” Uh pene aerator ny aCh MT whe aura oma Ne 1 Methodsrotgprocedumgenac: fc. <2 .a.-.- ~ «ane ere ech cna eet erect op 2 SIU OEXGLES) i BAL lel ea A See 2, He a eRe Se PRS oe 3 EMO GO ays ee ae a eles eS 2 LUI More Te ec ean pe eg 4 Bila ckewabinonironl seers eccrine ay aa aly | 6 | Brazallematrolllivawesneteae ween caries. (10 0 SURE SAU aap See) Ly eer eta ieee 8 IB UNGbeTMUG Olu ee ee aula Lc ea EMRE CT sates klar seep PEE NU ost 9 ag lish=wrallautyoilleecctts sas. cys... "Mey Sammemee pocnicicies LW ena UAE Per iat MET KO Tay ea UU ROL Le ce eget ie ep br wan Rn «RNS es ees ma Pie as rie ag Peon ofan 13 Recalls nemo te ie tetera. ce ee OER Nuk Ue sa cmt CA Mor wt 15 (Choral UENOVEp Selle ic Oa Ss ah IDS, os ak GDRs Be a Stade ey SUR gat 17 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 626—650. ‘ Page. DeparTMeENT Buuietin No. 631.—Frvp Yrars’ CALF-FEEDING WORK IN ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI: I. Winter fattening of calves in Alahama on cotton-seed meal, cotton- seed hulls, corn-and-cob meal, and alfalfa hay, 1911-12............ IJ. Fattening beef calves in Alabama on. cottonseed meal, cottonseed nnlls; corm’ choy, andy conniatla ve gluse ae ee eee een resunes 14 III. Fattening calves in Mississippi on cottonseed meal, corn, cotton- seed hulls, corn silage, and alfalfa hay, 1914-15.................... 21 IV. Fattening calves in Mississippi on cottonseed meal, corn, corn silage, and, alfalia, TOG. 22200... GREE se = sae eee eee 29 V. Fattening late (short-age) calves for market.....................----- 39 VI. General discussion of the five years’ experiments...............------ 48 DrPARTMENT BuutietiIn No. 632.—Tue UrmizaTion or Waste Tomato SEEDS AND SKINS: Introduction... 2 sees) eee eee re ss ee ae ee al: Commercial products from tomato refuse..........--------------- fe ie ib Accumulation and disposal of tomato waste..2...1..2222022 222 sees +See 3 JDpcreeKOrAOial Gye iHopenreyHa=ctereyo! Cul. NR a dace et eudodkesons 5 Tomatozseed Seals eee a 2 AN Se ae te ree ee ieee 11 DepaARTMENT Butuetin No. 633.—Factors or SuccessFuL FARMING NEAR Monert, Mo. The area in. which the survey was made: s.2:.2:-2.2.02.2-22-2:4e-ee-9ee eee if The local-acmeulturess assessed 2: sce eee eee eee eee eee 2 Farms classified according to type of farming.............----++--+--+------ 4 Sources of réecetpts.2.2 ee tec e 2A aoe ee ee es b) Percentage of areaan dutierent crops... act sheceen) oe eee ee eee i) Kands'of fruit and their local importamce@s- = ee see eee eee 6 Relation of type of farming fosize jot iarmipe eo eee ener Sees 7 Investment... 222 ej 5 2. TSR. es ee eae 7 Profitableness of the various types. ....222-25-5-.-oneeeer By ST ere ne rae 8 The proper status of the strawberry industry in southwest Missouri.......- 10 The speculative nature of iruitenterprisest: a ates. apes ene see 10 Maintenance of soil fertility 700)... . . {see nea ee eee eee 12 Organization ol some typicalaarmse ... . Ween rape a eee eae 14 Organization.of dainy farms). 222%)... . ee See aren eee LG A well-organized: two-man larmo.... .. .. Sages eee a eee eee ae ee 19 festimled esse ee sb Su teidsa seed oro wach a aso « Dates ART eee ae 22 DEPARTMENT BuxLetiIn No. 634.—A PuystcaAL AND CHEMICAL STUDY OF THE Karin KEerne.: Commercial importance of nonsaccharine sorghums.......-.------------- Characteristics ol latin kernel ice 29.5 = as 2 eee ee aa ae ae Comparison:ot kati wath corm: 25. 2 oe See — ee ee eae ae ESoy DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 635.—THE COMMERCIAL FREEZING AND STOR- ING OF FisH: Freezing as a means of conserving the fish supply. ...-.....------------- Preparation of fish for freezing.../.2..2. 22.082: sepee oe ee) aoe eee IsOCAtTON-OFTCCZETS 2 52s het) > Sa ee eee eee ate Cleanine: fisht..) i) sis) Saoeee eo 2) no ee Se eee ee Hreezine fel 222: Fo) ere ene ae: oh ee 8 ai en ee eee Cold-stotage of fish: 247" 2 fo 2Rete: .. 32 Res 2 ee ere Hood value oliirozen fish! 2". 25: 5. See a ee ee ee and linc Gt frozen fish atter Borage. \ - peer = ae ene ree Summarys: fc es eke ees See ee eee Oornrowwwnwr DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 636.—Cost or PRropuUCcTION oF APPLES IN THE PAYETTE VALLEY, IDAHO: Summary olresulige:2: 212k ret oor > PR re ee ocaionu andsextent ot GIstrcts studied. -sae see e ee He eee eee eee eee History and development. <2 s...2c5-: .: BAR eee eee eee Conditions: Aa eweses eee. Bale... Se ee eee ees AOwwre CONTENTS. DeparRTMENT BULLETIN No. 636.—Cost or PRopUCTION OF APPLES IN THE Pavrerte VALLEY, [pAHo—Continued. Ef aNGIMm OE OA raMiy cL OT SSG emer ts eyiarace <5 AONRe oe eaays A en) Tek cape oe ean AIM ITIVE STIMTOTLSIeen Gene es OS” 2 RGR a nes eee ner ahaee es ah Late Manlcetsiam digoricesits) See: 6.5050) 15. 0 SRR ae yuan ie hadi dau ee ta Onckardgmamae ements ve heise 2.2 ee en ae SD BS cea tamelllie oC KEK OO At meena as Ali. NR ee I Aa SY odes IR ACkameehouseyla Ores: cee ste e ee aL, 5 MRR OMe Np ye ear ence ener Cullistancwerderapplesicc Mo sce 2. cre sis... seer ae see ene ae ee Nbaucdowed-ratkroadsess s42 yoo.) eee ins Soccer eee eee ce AN loner sina ein OT joey MEADOWS... ced oooneoese cou nbcuceccacocnus Suggestions for a rational timberland policy...-..:-....-::::.-+-:----:-- Need for a different system of handling forest lands. ..............-- Imandvelassiteatdoms + 255.07.) 2 seers oe an ae ee ee ee Contimuousitorestaproduction... .ee ssn ase e eee ee ne ere Stalonliltvpot wolves... \-ee 5 See eee ere a pate sea a eee ne ak sist Palblicrcontroland ownership: . ae eeee eee seo © eae eee Communityibeneiits:... 5.2 ose eee ey ene ae seem aoe DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 639.—THE Market Mitk Business or Dztroit, Mic#., rn 1915: Economic phases of the market milk business.........--.....----------- Morketademands anc sources) Of Sup phy seeeeeereeeree aceecrer eect aere see Buy mogmilll siromltariMiershesas. .\:. 2 A-ee eee eee moa een eect oee Collectinetandehandline millem the couminyeess sss soe cee aes Hransporhationk@isnal likato;Gue city... eee erie: eee ara tere ar Costroipmulllidelivened#tortlrercity.. .. Seer e eee crete ete elmer ee iradedemandsiim, Detroit... 2.2. : .. / eee aren ee ee Preparneymal ketor ciby; distr bution: seeeeeene esses see eae es eee Oita Chistaalomtetorawon milllich OS ARNE ORMED no Goueueouaboreeause suocsboleos Summary of comparative costs of handling and distributing milk.......-- COMCIUISIOMS ees te ers ee 3) SiR eam ELS IR CLE EDR AEC 1) Una sy Se 5 Page. 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 626—650. DEPARTMENT BuLieTIn No. 640.—THE MepITERRANEAN Fruit FLiy: Distribution throughout the world . ae eese- =. Se Establishment and spread in Hawail...-.............--......----------- How the fruitaly cot into Bawall... ees. Se eee Losses incurred through the trait fly. -2455--ee = ee ee What the Mediterranean frait fly 1s likele ess. Se eee Fruits, nuts, and vegetables attacked Spee =. eee eee Host fruits of commerctalyvalue!>:. - ee ee ee Artificial methods of control not satisfactory under Hawaiian conditions. - The campaign against the fruit fly in Hawali......................-.-.--- Natural control of the fruit fly........... Se 5s Se ee eee Quarantine measures to prevent introduction..................---.....--- SUMMATY 32223-55022 Ss see cee = 2 eee DEPARTMENT Butietin No. 641.—Farm PRAcTICE IN THE PRODUCTION OF Hay IN STEUBEN County, N. Y., AND WASHINGTON CounNTY, Pa.: Object. and scope. sie! wees fo: . . SRR Te a eee ee ee acts brouchitzoity sears eee 2 Seen ere So a he eta tens 3 Description of areas studied s-2..: -.. . SReE a eee eee eee Labor’ charges'for different operations. 82>: 2-2 ee ere Fee Machinery: charpess 242 Sentosa... . SEL See eee eee Total cost ‘of prodweimnp hayetens. |... BRIE ees eee ee DEPARTMENT Butuetin No. 642.—TuHe Four Essentiat Factors IN THE PropuctTion oF Mitk or Low Bactertau CONTENT: Factors influencing the sanitary quality of milk................--------- Objects of theanvestigatione:ee 4. =... Be 22 ens a ee ee ee Description of barn and methods used in the production of the milk....--. Method of sampling and making the bacterial count.................----- The-experimental works! ao 2205 be 2 ie ee ee ae ee Contamination of milk by unsterilized utensils...................-------- Contamination of milk by manurevand dime. 5. kee ee The three most essential factors in the production of milk of low bacterial COMETS aeee a eMies Ste Shs Dniester. - 2 Ee saee Saenggecaty e e A practical demonstration ‘on-six farms!e 2 See eee eee Bacterial counts of fresh milk on the average farm....-........------..-- The effect of temperature on the growth of bacteria in milk.............-- Sumibary eee 2. Sas eee Wine arenes ees to ee eae Contcliisioris! S22 Fee ee etek. . SR a ee eee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 643.—THE MELON Fty: What the melon fly is tikes 5655. <-> at Sn ot ee eee Origin and. distribution... one le... - eee. ee ee eee Establishment.and-spread in Hawaii. ... 2. st): ..da6- > spas eee Methods obspréad,.-2 > 22/2... ees oe ok, - ee ee ee Hiconomic importance... .2....-. . 2... . Sele pee eee eee Nature of injury caused by the melon fly.............-.-..-------------- Hood: or host. plants 4.5. 2-2. 2 ue. - . . Ae eee eee Interesting facts concerning the adult fly 5... -..20---22----<-e2 ee scat ee Why the melon fly 1s.a serious pest. | 2 ots. be 1 eee eee ae ee Coutrol: measurés. ..seu--0s 2 - c-Si ee oe eee Measures taken to keep fruit flies of Hawaii from gaining a foothold in Continental ‘United “States. ~. 725 2 eee). seo eee eee SUMMALY a2: et a sae ee a oe EE ee DEPARTMENT ButuetiIn No. 644.—Lint PERCENTAGES AND Lint INDEX OF Cotton AND MeTHops oF DETERMINATION: Relation of lint percentages to lint indexes................--------------- Lint: pereentaces. 25... 2c ek... - ee oe eres Lint indexes: se2 204} Se 3 ots ee ee ee eee Illustrations of the relation between lint percentage and lint index........ Lint index determines the number of bolls to the pound of fiber.........-- Relation of the lint index to the cost of picking...............-.--.-.---- CrOTW NH CONTENTS. DeprarRTMENT Buiietin No. 644.—Lint PERCENTAGES AND Lint INDEX oF Corron AND Metuops or DETERMINATION—Continued. Increasing the lint percentage does not alter the cost of production if the lint mide xqremalnsiconstalnte: |<... 0). . Wee re ee UL Improved methods for obtaining lint percentages...................-.--- ‘Advantages of using samples of ‘standard WEES Hash inca op a eR Methods of calculating lint indexes and seed - RWeTP TSS eae os cee See oe Number of seeds in a standard sample an indication of their size........- iPlantersrcauestimate taeint mdex.. NEP see cence. snl. oes en SOMMMNGIAY, ES ISae SEE See Me. 25 ie EN ie a DEPARTMENT BuLuEetin No. 645.—Somr REASONS FOR SPRAYING TO CONTROL Insect AnD Mite Enemies or Citrus TreEs In Fiona: Gradueladoptiononsprayine. —.. oshic 2s sc8. aes. ce es Spraying scheme for controlling CLETUS SaestSm ee a pee eer ee os Wostioivs tandem ese Oe el... ae a PLOMtspamagbenertice:: Ss ktases o/...... . seen) 2. Shee se a Sy eel Contclisionmers= ace raion. <. - S cs eee ten. Seettes os DEPARTMENT BuLLeTIN No. 646.—LEssons ON Pork PRopUCcTION FOR ELE- MENTARY RuRAL SCHOOLS: JEDCROSKOKC ELON SOS oe Le gs remem! MiP Aa A ane teeing ete ge enue ihessonuls elbypestanGbreed ses ss oe... Mmmm 22 oe Oe Soe oe Wessone GISHOUSES Sore eee ee. RN ere ea! SoS ci ayike a oles JD SSStCLO ITS AS yrs Vets Ub (ah a¥et ees ete Be Pree eden eee ae an Stee pa essonaliWerHatvenimo meat ios ein - | ate iaipr are we), xeon tere cise ape ee ae MessonaVesclectinesbreedine stock. .& Wer. - Pages doen. cbiee see end -niee aoe essons Vale Dressinevandcummnepm eat oseee 2 eee oe eerie oes eee esson phe sow andgplesmanarementaer-..0-5-2-6e 2-2 522242 see ese = c kessoum Vliet oracercro pay ay inh 0... Soe Sao Geldawe aa tle Seok. bee eles HeSSOneiex ‘Sanitation angdiseases.... Meee ses 5-25 2-2 ee See eis CLL MWOD KN. see a Sees Sees. RM A elas ke ks Soe cee Aa ae DEPARTMENT BuLuETIN No. 647.—THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO Cirrus GRovES: rT PrOCUIC HOM nee Sanat ine A. SERRE tai is or as ee aise General beliefias to\damage to,orange trees... ........--22---5--2---5---- General account of orange culture in Lowisiana.................-.-.------ Distribution of the ant in the orange groves of the United States........-. Heedinesaabitsorimerant: s0<820 42. U gee. c ecm oie Sas eee cece bees Relations with insects injurious to citrus trees. .-.----.----------------- Relations with insect enemies of scales and aphids..............---.--.--- Nests and protective structures of the ant_......--.----------.---+------ Cultural conditions in ant-invaded v. ant-free orange groves in Louisiana. - Demonstration in improvement of ant-invaded groves in Louisiana ......- Experiments in controlling the Argentine ant......-...-...------------- Summanyeandeconclusions 22... 2)... gee Peas eerie 2 SMe cies DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 648.—A FARM-MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS County, GA: DWescripHonorarcasurveyeus:\—.. .. [ae eeeeenes sane cee oe een oe ee Methodsand scopeiolimvestication . .. ee Reena semes ns. sae see). <= 1 TES OVS Das NST Ss Pa EI ee eae enurevand landlord ’siprofits... -..:. . Saeeee ae tc hoe a. 2 eh aborsyshemsrs soso l sos. 2... See Sees Sees ae Ga eas ab NIZGrOMbUSINeSs esas eee eS: . . ae ton ote sete 2. 22 Qualityeortarmybusiness 20 So... . . Heron cis os sere steaie sie ce oi = (OMEMIP ISOs os ans sede Saooe eames > 22 ->2=-ousacncsesassaes se ereone i Page. 8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 626-650. Page. DEPARTMENT BuLietiIn No. 649.—EXPERIMENTS ON THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FisH: Introduction 2.222) 22 230502 ese: - See ee eee ee ee ik Digestiomexpenments: withamcur ~~ . : Seer reee se eee een eee 3 Preparatiom Olah eh itt Eee eee eee: epee cae oe eee nnn reer 4 INatureior the;diets 22s: {2222 ae... ene. ee ee Se eee 5 Boston mackerel oe re 2. Se ee. ee ere ie ees 6 Rulttertishtte-cse assoc cere cee. - eee eee ee Tees Be Pere A 8 Gray fish. Soe e e252 See ha 1 2. ee ee eee 9 Salmon. Stee ee he So a een re ee 12 SUL RIN eee eee i el one Soe cena saa sson a> 2 14 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 650.—LEASE CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES: Ditierent systems: = 222562 255222. - - See eee eee A hencth of tease period: 2255525212: :. Bees ee 3 Methods of sharing crops and stock products: 22> = 2 "= 4 Methods of shanmue: pasttire: 22275 2::- 2 see oe ee eee 15 Contractsiturclearnmn™ landis 52 - >: Sa ee 15 Ownership of equipnients .s:i2- 22. Bee eee = ee eee 15 Methods: of shanmietexpansest 22: :: SSRs S222 = 2 oe ee ee ee a7, Unexhausted-valire of fertilizers: =... . Rae eae =. 52 ee ee 20 Wepzlrs andunmiprovementer.-- 2°: : >. Saeeeares ease nee 4 ese ee 21 Privileces and perquistiess—.-..-...-aaepeere cs pee ee eee ee 21 Restrictions. £29.10 2300 3 O's. c.. . < SR as: 3 ae AI ee eee 22 Supervision by the landlord........... cesar 22 Good: Husbandry sc220cc2555250 2.4: -- - See Se oe ee eee ee 22 Advances. to -tenan ts -25 2 dso ccs... 3s ese ee ee eee 23 General systems of share leasing. -. ..co-2..-52 2 oe 2 ee ee ee 23 Salmple stock-share- lease.<- 2: 25is2.. s 2. sd sooo ast eee ee ee eee 24 Assumption underlying lease contracts<..-.422:22t222--252552222.-2.. 528 28 Suggestions toward a rational lease contract........:....----..-----+---: 33 Status-of the tenant =: =. 5225<,225—5. = - a ee Eee eee eee 36 INDEX. Abandoned— farm syreci#l tO foresh depletion). -..\... eee meses. 41-6 45. <1 LOWMS Brest on torest depletion. ./.... Saeeesee ates, sae asoe Alabama— calf-feeding experiments (and in Mississippi), five years’ work, bullemmibyaw. Be Ward and S..'S.. Jerdamees..8-- see). babioe CASeS, PrOVASIONS.NOLES= ee. . Saeco oe pasturedand! on farmeby, Counties... i ageaeer ne. - ees =. - Alcohol, production from nonsaccharine sorghums, note........... Alfalia— neyppusepunucaliteedine sos... 5... . Aer oe apse asc aes OmpVinss oumlslarnn Sis: aes rei elo: 5S eee kc cap Almond oil, digestion experiments, food weights and constituents. Atmy, Luoyp H., and Ernest D. Crark, bulletin on ‘‘The com- MICE ClalMreeZINe NG SuOLINO.O fish: ._ eee eae oe Lee ee ee Animals, farm, number of various kinds in United States, Janu- sing 11, OTOP bos aie emai Shai MMM... y oan uaa \ae hol See also Calves; Cattle; Hogs; Live stock; Sows; Steers; Stock. Ant, Argentine— controlawork experimen tS. 1:2 a >=. eee ope ieee oie distribution in orange groves of the United States.........-.- LecdMoMAALiSTAMG HOOM SE ees e ce = - 2) Me cece a a lead UMITOCUEtIOM AMC SPLeAd scr. Nese: Ate ieee sree mestine and alivamosha bite (See) eb pr eel as ae cele stac.- relation to citrus groves, bulletin by J. H. Horton.....-..... relations with insect enemies of scales and aphids, studies..-. Apmds sorosecwion by, Arsentine amt. a. ..3252-:- 286 se -ce> oacto cle Apple— orcharding, costs in Payette Valley, Idaho..............----- trees, pruning, etc., practices in Payette Valley, Idaho....... Apples— cull, utilization, prices, etc., Payette Valley, Idaho. ........ handling the crop in Payette Valley, Idaho............-.---- marketing, preparation, etc., operations and costs, Payette Walken Udlalin wae acces stele eke osc Seer la cto se Staten rors Massounmtacreage,,and, yield) 1914. 2). . =: pape ees 20 eee picking whayette Valley, Idahoe- 2: . oie 22-2 .csh aa 2 production cost in Payette Valley, Idaho, bulletin by S. M. “homsonvand: Gormless. i). eee © 222. aoe eee SPrayimonny Payette Walley idaho.” - compat. =2.-j-ce i: Sor a thinning from tree, Payette Valley, Idaho................---- yields and prices in Payette Valley, Idaho..............----- varieties important in Payette Valley, Idaho................- Argentine ant— relation to citrus groves, bulletin by J. H. Horton......-.-... See also Ant, Argentine. . Arid regions, apple growing in Payette Valley, Idaho, costs, TURP TR VRE. GUC. coanoounboeus bob acdoesoscsuscuosoaDeuE ae Arizona— ema leasess PLOVvASIONS, NOtCs=2.. = - -,-. eee ees ia.s slael= pasture land on farms, by counties. ....-.-.....-...-..- as Arkansas— Lanmn—leases*|PLOVASIONS. NOLELn...<\- . -- see eee elias eae pasture land on farms, by counties. ...-------5--<-.------- Pe Avocados, value in Hawaii, immunity from Mediterranean fruit- Thy AUER bo Geek: Ghee bon Se ee eee. oS 35> Gees relrmiai Avers, S. Henry, Lez B. Coox, and Paut W. CLemmer, bulletin on ‘‘The four essential factors in the production of milk of low bacterialicontent; see se iect.. + - Seo eeeee etree = 13324—20——2 638 Bulletin No. Page. 2-36 12 Weyl Uf 16, 18, 19 16-18 1-63 2 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 626—650. Back, E. A.— gu C. E. Pemberton, bulletin on ‘‘The Mediterranean fruit and C. E. PEMBERTON, bulletin on ‘‘The melon fly’”*. .--..-- Bacteria— count in fresh milk on average farm..........-.------------- growth— in clean and dirty milk, studies and comparisons... 5 in milk, relation of temperature.....--....-..-------------- Bait, poison, lise AcaiaIsE miclousily..°--. ees ee Saline hay, Cost... oo ee - -<- ee ee = ee Batt, J. S., and E. A. GompENWEISER, bulletin on ‘‘ Pasture land ontarms in the United States. --.2 2. ae ee oe eee ee Bananas, Hawaii, varieties immune from Mediterranean fruit fly. Barnacle scale, occurrence in citrus groves......---...----------- Beans, injury by melon fly im Bawa... - sees tee Beef cattle, wintering and fattening in North Carolina, bulletin by Wet Ward Si Cartisvand be. Pedene-+ 2225. oe eee Beet farms, share renting, practices... -.-- 222-022-2222 525 3222 Berkshire hog, origin and deseription-.. -- 22222 ---22e eee fee crops, sharing methods under lease contracts, various fALESS: Ste eee ee eee oie > = See eee eee ee BIpweEtt, Georce L., bulletin on “A physical and chemical study Onjhe katie Keriiel’4"> 52" sssnee ss... . ees Son eee Binders— TC PANE ICORIE AN UCR a2 eee = ~~ - eee ee ae re wheat, labor cost, prices, acreage, life, repairs, etc........--. Black scale— GCCOTICHCE 4 CILTOS PTOVER! cea. - - > ae a nee ee occurrence in citrus groves, relation of Argentine ant....-...- Brazil-nut oil, digestion experiments, food weight, and con- Brinenta: 2 close pene coos Saree. a ae ee eee ee ee Brown scale, occurrence in citrus groves, parasitic enemies, etc. - Butterfish, food v alue, digestion experiments = RN pie Arm Butternut ‘oil, digestion experiments, food weight and constituents. California— Argentine ant, occurrence in citrus groves.........-.-.---.-. citrus groves, occurrence of scales, relation of Argentine ant, BbUCTER eo oo Ses Aaa Ee pasture land on farms, by counties. ......-...---.-------.-- Calves— fattening— experiments in Alabama and Mississippi. ......-------. With Cottonseed: and ‘Cornscs::. . Saeeeeea ee. eee with cotton-seed. corn, and aiislia = 2 ee ee feeding experiments in Alabama and Mississippi, five years’ work, bulletin by W. F. Ward and S. S. Jerdan.........-.-. FAMONS, CXPerisients... 22.452. 6: - --,- Bape es shelter and. lois Sonthe ....... ois. taper eee eee ee eee young, iaptenine jor atarkebss 2... > een eee Canada, canning factories, use of tomato waste. .....-.-.-.-...-. Cane, sugar, growing, cost and yield in Brooks County, Ga.....-- Canneries, tomato refuse, utilization bode Js ee ee ee Cantaloupes, injury by melon fly in Hawaiise---- Carbohy drate feeds, protein deficiency per “pound ‘in “specified SMMC AVE TOS. . 555s 78 os eee: - . : 3 ne cee Carbohydrates, cost per pound in feeds, determination.......... Bulletin No. Page. 640 1-44 643 1-32 642 43-45 642 3-58 642 45-58 643 27 641 15 626 1-94 640 18-19 647 20 643 21 628 1-53 650 8 646 3 650 12 634 1-6 627 9 627 3-6 647 21 647: 35-36 630 8-9,17 647 20, 36-38 649 8-9, 14 630 9-11,17 647 8 647 8, 24-34 631 1-53 631 1-20 631 21-39 631 1-54 6, 8, 10, 14-15, 16, 6312 17, 23, 24, 25, 31, 32, 33, 44, 50 631 631 48 632 1-3 648. 46, 47, 55 632 1-3,5-13 643 8-20 637 4 637 14-13 rs a oe a ds 2 rae. ee Ai aii i eT Sc adl INDEX. ~ Cattle— beei— fattening, summary of experiments, and financial state- NGM s 6 oS VOSS a a... 5 San en Sua Sa wintering and fattening in North Carolina, bulletin by WeetpaWardekhn Sa Gurbis. and bviaeedentmes=.—- se. - pasture— cost, summary and conclusions, three years’ work....... requirements, cost, etc., experiments in North Carolina, ICIS IQS sake eros Se: . 3 eS eee raising in Georgia, Brooks County, and cost of feeding. ...__. See also Caives; Cows; Steers. Cereals, rust resistance, evidences and authorities, cited........- ~ Ceroplastes, BPs OCClEenCe jn) CiLTUs OrOV CS! epemerer 4-5. Chaif scale, occurrence in citrus groves. ...........--.-----.---- Chester White hog, origin and description Be ee oh Sees Chionaspis citri, occurrence in citrus groves...........--.------- _ Cholera, hog— prevention by isolation and vaccination of sick animal....... symptoms, control, etc., school studies. ..................-- Cuurcu, L. M., and Arnotp P. YERKES, bulletin on “Cost of harvesting wheat by different methods”...............-...-- Citrus— fruits— and subtropical, department publications, list........... and subtropical fruits, publications of pocerunent, list... erading relation to insect injury and to spraying. es Hawaiian, injury from Mediterranean fruit fly.-......... publications Ol-depantiment, WS. — ees oases. See groves— ant-invaded, cultural conditions in Louisiana. ».......... relation of Argentine ant, bulletin by J. H. Horton..... insects, armored scale, occurrence and damage in Louisiana. . orchards, damage from storms, Louisiana, instances.........- pests, list, and description of injury to trees and fruit.....--- Sicilian seedlings, resistance to armored scales. ........----- trees— insect and mite enemies in Florida, control by spraying, reasons, bulletin by W. W. Voter rete spraying scheme, cosisandsresullts wena 2 eee white fly, occurrence and destruction by Argentine ant, RUDUIS Wes iS sees Ci cle Bes iy Sekai Semin: = _ usta oa ei aera: a aes CLARK, Ernest D., and Luoyp H. Atmy, bulletin on ‘‘The com- merceiavineezing and storing ol fish”. ...- Sees.) >... -a-- 2.2. Clearing, land, contracts on leased farms.................------- CLEMENT, CLARENCE E., and Gustav P. Warser, bulletin on “The market milk business of Detroit, Mich., in 1915”........ CLEMMER, Paut W., S. Henry Ayers, and LEE B. Coox, bulle- tin on “The four essential factors in the production of milk of FOWaDACtCMmMACONLeMtL Eee... cess ee er ee in ee Coccus hesperidum, occurrence in citrus groves. .....-.........-- Coffee, Hawaii, injury from Mediterranean fruit fly...........-... Cold storage— effect on Mediterranean fruit fly in Hawali_....-.........-- fish, packing, reglazing, and storage perlod..-..-....-.------ Colorado— TALENT eASeS.) PLOVISIONS, MOLES! 9... .- ..- jo eee oe pasture land on farms, by counties... . 224525252522, -- 25546 ““Combines,’’ wheat harvesting, use of term, advantages, etc..... peaaty development, relation of forestry, bulletin by Samuel a IE eee Seis Sas DSS Se ae Me 2 2, 2 eI ee ae ae Connecticut, pasture land on farms, by counties..............--. Containers, farm products, expense sharing on tenant farms. ....- pedicle, lease, used in renting farms on shares, bulletin by E. V. TCG Cy ie as tg RMS a Cele ear Bulletin No. Page. 628 27-37 628 1-23 628 Wa) 628 NY 648 10, 56 629 5-8 647 20 647 16 646 4 647 16 646 * 24 646 22-24 627 1-22 643 32 647 74 645 4-15 640 21-24 640 44 647 56-60 647 1-74 647 16-20 647 5 645 2-4 647 17 645 1-19 645 15-18 647 38-42 635 1-10 650 15 639 1-28 642 1-63 647 20 640 19-21 640 36 635 95-7,8,9 5, 6, 650; 8, 10, 11, 12, 20, 28 626 16, 21-22 627 18-21 638 1-35 626 14, 23 650 18 650 1-36 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 626-600. Coox, Lee B., S. Henry Ayers, and Pau W. Cremer, bul- Bulletin No. letin on ‘‘ The four essential factors in the production of miik of lowsbacterta!l contenu’ =. - 62.02 = eee eee. eee Corn— belt, farm leases, provisious-~ - ... - -oaeaeeeeeee = = - ee eee firms, sifare rentine, practices... - ._- aaa eee feeding’ to. calves, experiments. ... . . Sees. ee growing in Georgia, Brooks County, methods, yields, cost) AN PLOMts ch 28 We see. - - ee eee Missouri crops, and yield per acre; 1914__-___..-.-.._.---_. Corn-and-cob meal, use in calf feeding. . - Cotton— farms— share leases, general provisions, notes. ..-.-.-....-.---- share renting, ‘Practices.c-- --. -) See eee growing in Georgia, Brooks County, methods, yields, ae and profits22.925 32 32 alk... eee Be ee lint— imdexes: calemahon methods: _ ae ne see eee ee percentage and lint index, and methods of determina- fone pulletins by G5: Meloy See ee eee percentages, improved methods for obtaining. .....-.---- picking, cost, relation of lint index, comparisons. -....-..-.-- seed— number in standard sample, indication of size........._- weichts. calematiom methods: > [see eee ee a ee Cononseed meal nse mvecali teeding. . See see eee Cottony cushion scale, occurrence in citrus groves....-..-------- Cowpeas— growing in Georgia, Brooks County, methods, yields, ie And Prouisess 92200. 2 hee. ae. - - eee eee injury by, melon tly in Hawane_.. peepee eee ee use on Missouri farms as legume, methods.......-----..---- Cows, dairy, care in production of clean milk, experiments. - ---- Cropping systems, Georgia, Brooks County, costs and profits... .-- Crops— Feld, sharing methods under lease contracts, various States. -. production, costs per acre and per unit, Georgia, Brooks County. 2) 223 2 ee. . 2. eee eee yields and cost, Georgia, Brooks County..-.----------------- Crown-rust, oats, occurrence, greenhouse experiments, etc....-.-- Cucurbits, injury by melon fly in Hawaii... _..-------.---=---- Curtis, R. 8., W. F. Warp, and F. T. PepEn, bulletin on ‘‘ Win- tering and fattening beef cattle in North Carolina”..-......... Cut-over lands, speculation in, practices. ........-.------------ Dairy farms— organization and income, Monett, Mo. .....--.------------- share leasing systems 52.0 <.* S . =. 5 ee eee 2 Dairying, department publications on, list...........---------- Dana, Samuet T., bulletin on ‘Forestry and community de- WelOpPMeNiei..2 -so2a2eee feos. ee eee eee Delaware— farm: leases, provisions, totes. —.. . eae eee pasture land on farms, by counties. ............------------ Detroit— : market milk business in 1915, bulletin by Clarence E. Cle- ment.and Gustav P. Warber.-> ...° eee ee eee Page. 642 1-63 650 3.4-5 659 4-5 631 1-53 22, 29, 37, 648138, 46, 47, | 50, 52-53 633 2,3,5-6 631 1-29 > 2, 5. ils 650/ 18, 23, 35 650 7-8 22, 27, 28, 648129. 37. 46, 47, 50, 5I 644. —=«'10, 12 644 1-12 644 8-9 644 45-812 644 10-11,12° 644 +«+10.12 631 1-29 647 34 22, 23, 37, 648{ 39, 48. 54 643 22 633. 22-23 642 39-45 648 36-41 650 4-9 648 47-55 16-17, 648) 20-30, fa base 629 reais 643. ~—«17-20 628 1-53 638 12-16 633. «17-18 650 313 642 «62-63 638 1-35: Spree I 650113, 15.16, 17,19. 28 626 | :15,23 639 1-28 639 2-3, 14-16 INDEX. epeteurodes citri, occurrence and destruction by Argentine ant, BRM Cy ean ey Ea cB ee eee ak Diet, mixed, nature and use in digestion experiments with fish. . Digestibility— fish, experiments, bulletin by A. D. Holmes... nut ‘oils, studies, bulletin by A. D. Holmes.. Digestion experiments, nut oils, methods and subjects... “ Diseases, hog, descriptions and control: >. ae er Tee District of Columbia, pastune landron fac seep ea ae = Drainage, citrus groves in Louisiana, practices...--..------------ Duroc-Jersey hog, origin and description.......-.--..------------ _ Engines, auxiliary binder, use, cost, fuel, and repairs...........-.. Equipment, farm, ownership under lease contracts.....---.------- Farm— expenses, sharing, methods under lease contracts, various SUDUDS SSR SR As CSO ONES ee ene... > rae inn Seer investments, .dano, Payette Valley... Seece-sc----1----++- lease on half-and-half system, business analysis........----.- leases, length of period in various localities...............--- mMAMACe ments Use OL LOLMNS:..4.--- 0 --- See ese soc Seema oe organization, idaho, Payette Valley... 2622 ....--22:2---% products— costs of production, Georgia, Brooks County.....-- sharing methods under lease contracts, various States. . HE CEIpLS SOURCES) MOneLis MO... 2... seepee i oe ceteie rc o se tenure, Missouri farm survey, relation to profits, incomes, etc. two-man, organization and advantages, Monett, Mo-.....---.. Farmers, milk prices from city dealers and from creameries....-.- Farming— diversified, Brooks County, Ga., management survey, bul- tetinubyalr ns wblaskell se waeeee: chee. See oe cee Missouri, near Monett, factors, bulletin by W. J. Spillman.... profitableness Olvatiousihyjpes) Moneti. Mos - = 55 42-2 eee e- publications of Department, [aa - _ seca Sabie poli successful, Agricultural Department publications.........-. types, relation to farm sizes and investments, Missouri-..-.-.- Farms— abandoned, relation to lumbering practices...........-.----- dairy, Missouri, average products, Income, labor cost, etc-- expenses, Georgia, Brooks COU 1.2. eee ose Sears grain— and live stock, Missouri, organization, etc....--.-------- and live stock, organization and operation, Monett, Mo.. lands in pasture and relation to lands not in farms.....-..... management, survey of Brooks County, Ga., bulletin by SEL AS ROLE go tse. o crale chara = GRAS a Sopa emery ae areal Missouri labor incomes and profitableness..............---.--- organization, Georgia, Brooks County........-.-..----------- pasture land, area in United States, bulletin by E. A. Golden- Ecce d Ce Dalle he co) ager mamma te rented— privileges and perquisites of landlord and tenant.-.-...--. estnChions on tenants! 22229422 <5 Le sae sree oe renting on shares, lease contracts........---.---------------- size, relation to receipts, expenses, and net income, Georgia. - tenure, Georgia, Brooks County, and landlord’s profits Le yale two-man, stock equipment, crop schedule, and management. pee beef cattle in North Carolina (and wintering), bulletin seby Wak, Ward, R.S. Curtis, and F.'T. Pedeno. 2-202: 225... Feed— calves, experiments with alfalfa, com, and cotton seed in Ja Oh 1s mene 2 EM a ee Shia cattle, character and prices for fattening steers, experiments im! North Garolinay 1913-191 6262. .22eee SSG e eee ae Se Bulletin No. 647 649 649 630 630 646 626 647 646 627 650 Hy) Page. 38-42 Or ~I 00 CO o> CO OTH CE OT 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 626-650. Feed—Continued. economical balanced rations, method of calculating, bulletin bya CRundlest...252-2o:se0 - . eee eee eee: 2 eee ee tomato by-products, value, comparison with other feeds-.... Feeding— calves, five years’ work in Alabama and Mississippi, bulletin DyAWake Wardland Si. ulerd2.n sapere me = ore eee cattle— cost, in Georgia, Brooks County-.--.-.---.-------------- wintering and fattening in North Carolina, bulletin by W. F. Ward, R. 8S. Curtis, and F. T. Peden. Sen eee hog, cost, Georgia, Brooks County... Ee SAME SIR Ee Feeds— calf price andicharactetss. =... - 24 4ce- ee ae ee protein and carbohydrate, protein excess and deficiency...-.-- Fertilizer, value of tomato waste, note...........--...---------- Fertilizers— relation to yields, costs, and profits on farms, Georgia.....-.--- sharing expensesion tenant arms... See es ee niber, cotton, determination-.- 5) .. -. . sae. eee eee Fig trees, mealybug infestation, relation to Argentine ant.....--- ish— digestibility, experiments, bulletin by A. D. Holmes.. freezing— commercial mathodae...... eae ey eeenens natural and artificial, effect on flavor, and comparison. - frozen, handling, Gib tign ss... Tae See enin tee eae glazing, purpose and methodss-. . 5. ees sche eee eee eeee preparation for digestion experiments, nature of diet, etc. .- -- Preparation fOr weecING =. - +. 205-02 2. ae eee eee eee storing and freezing, commercial methods, Ernest D> Clark-and Wloyd' HiagAdmiy. =: ase 52) eee supply, conservation, freezing as means......-.------------- use and value in food and meat conservation....-.-.-------- varieties, conservation by freezing and storing, list... Flax farms, share renting, practices...-....-.......---------=--= Flies, fruit, quarantine measures in Hawall.......---.-.-------- Florida— citrus trees, spraying for control of insect and mite enemies, reasons for, bulletin by W. W. Yothers......-. is an ae ee land on farms, by cee ues. Pirie gal tel 9h 2p. By ee Fluted s 2 citrus white, relation of Argentine ant, studies.. SO Se fruit, control methods in Hawaii.. eee ee an eee oe Mediterranean fruit— bulletin by E. A. Back and C. E. Pemberton. clean culture campaign in Havvaii, collection of infested frit and GStes =o. 2. apo. o.com eae eee description, habits, and increase in Hawali_......-.--.-- disibuitionsaind! history = 422. -\. ee see eee eee economic amportance: = ceo. |. J eee ee ee oe eee establishment and spread in Hawaii.......-.--..-------- host trees in Honolulu and Hilo, and control campaign. - TOSSES ALOIS epee eee es. oc a a ete nae eee quarantine for prevention of introduction... . bec Nee enter melon— bulletin by E. A. Back and C. E. Pemberton...........- control, natural and artific fal MCASMRE Sa seee aee introduction, danger in fruits from Hawaii--...-...-.--- life history, longevity and reproduction..............---- Food— frozenwtish, Value: <7. es. 2 ke A eee ee publications of Department, list....... 8Ge3 22. shies 8-2 use and nutrition, publications of Department.............-- utilization of nonsaccharine sorghums, note...-....---------- Bulletin No. Page. 637 1-19 632 11-12, 13 631 153 648 56 628 1-53 648 18-20 631 5, 22, 30, 40 637 34 632 2 648 28-30 650 17, 20 644 5, 12 647 23 649 1-15 635 3-4 635 2-3 635 8-9 635 45,9 649 45 635 2-3 635 1-10 635 12 635 2 635 12 650 9 643 29-30 645 1-19 626 15, 23-24 647 21, 34 647 38-48 640 34-36 640 1-44 640 28-29 640 7-11 640 2 640 5-1 640 3-5 - 26-27, 640 34-36 640 7 640 41-42, 43 643 1-32 643-2529 643 2,7, 29-30 643” 22-95 635 7-8 649 1b 630° 18-19 634 1 INDEX. Forage crops, kinds and value for hog pasturage..................- Forest lands, management, suggestions...............-...---.---- Forestry— publications of Department, list... relation to community development, bulletin by Samuel T. LORY cree Cie ieee eal ol RRS... : = Sieh oeen aR ee Forests— devastation, and results.....-.... private ownership, relation to destructive lumbering......... Freezers, fish, location, and operation methods....-...........--- Freezing fish— and storing. commercial methods, bulletin by Ernest D. Clark ang Gy .G abl ev At nay: y= eS.” Mm SG SRI commercialenrethodawer etn... Leen OL ee. Fruit— flies, Hawaii, quarantine measures against.................- fly— control in Hawaii, climatic checks and parasites.......-. Mediterranean. See also Fly, Mediterranean fruit. Missouri, speculative MAbure of mdusthyaeeee ses see Fruits— citrus— and pubic list of Thee aes et atons eats ra eee Hawaiian, injury from Mediterranean fruit fly........... injury from insects and mites in Florida, reasons for con- trol by spraying, bulletin by W. W. Yothers........... raising grade by spraying areas Hawailan— protection from fruit fly, methods and coverings......... subject to attack by Mediterranean fruit fly, list-......-. ~ infected with melon flies, destruction as control measure..... Massourtkandsand local importance: 2 eee... see s45 seo orchard, sharing methods under lease contracts, various States. protection from melon flies, spraying and covering...-------- Resistant to; maclon flys S25 Shee: wet. SMM occ. SION ee subtropical— insects injurious, publications of Department, list........ insects, publications list. ...-. Gasoline, use in engines attached to wheat harvesting machinery. Georgia— Brooks County— description, farming types, and labor.....-..-.-.--.----- farm-management survey, bulletin by E. 8. Haskell... -. historical notes and census returns 1860-1919........-... ianMVledses PLowmsstons: Mote -/..0 1: eee ee ee ee Paskite lands onbearmne iby; COUNTIES? suman == sen = oe te Ginning, cotton, share-rented farms, division of expense.......-- GOLDEN WEISER, E. A., and J. S. Batu, bulletin on ‘‘ Pasture land on farms in the United States’’....-- Grading, citrus fruits, relation to insect injury and to spraying. ..- Grain, farms, share renting, PEACtICES*= 2 Tee eee ey eee ee Grains, value per bushel and per hundred pounds 5 Sousa aten Grapefruit— grading in Florida, conditions, and relation to insect aay size, reduction by insect injury, and increase by spraying. Grayfish, food value, digestion experiments......-..2.-.--------- Grazing— lands, publications of Department, list......-....-.--------- steers i in winter, experiments in North Carolina........--.--- Guava, occurrence in Hawaii, and host Hampshire hog, origin and description for Mediterranean fruit fly . 7 Bulletin No. Page. 646 638: 638 18-21 21-33 34-35 8 DEPARTMENT GCF AGRICULTURE BULS. 626—650. Harvesting— Sharing expenses, on tenant farms. ....-.-.---.-.+---------- wheat— cost by different methods, bulletin by Arnold P. Yerkes ang Ee Me Church. os0- -.. - . eee eee eee methods, equipment, cost of operation, etc.....---..... use of combined harvester, acreage and costs......-..--. Hasxe.., E. S., bulletin on ‘‘A farm-management survey in Brooks County, ee Be 2... Se ee Hauling, apples, Payette Valley, Idaho...:-.-.-.......---...--- Hawaii fruit growing, clean-culture campaign against fruit flies, fail- fires ANG Causes ar ere eee .& ~/ 52 eee nore Aa ee fruits, quarantine of fruit flies, and exceptions..........----. : injury to fruit industry by Mediterranean fruit and melon flies. Mediterranean fruit fly, introduction and spread_....-......-. melon fly, establishment, spread and economic importance... pasture lands on farms. by counties... 222). sc ae Hay— farms, share Tentine, Practices... ... Sawa: - Aer aah eee eee loading, hauling and istoring, methods and cost.. ae machinery, evotle and COME... ae ees Missouri, crop area, and yield per acre, 1914...............-- production— costuiotalsand relaitonldonvaeld . 2a tee see farm practices in Steuben County, N. Y., and Washington ... Uotnty, Pa. bulletin by H. -B..Me@hirs’ 2 Haymaking— labor— Cost per hour, per acre and: per tone. . > asnscen es oe eee time and costs for various operations.-.--..---=.-------- practices in Steuben County, N. Y., and in Washington County, Pa: bulletin by-* BaiicClurch sa Headers, wheat-harvesting, advantages, disadvantages, and costs. Hickory-nut oil, digestion experiments, food weights and con- BitGUEN(S feos. pcr ene Gees: 2 = >= ae eee eee ee eee Hog— houses, location, kinds, and description. .--.-.-.-.-.------- judging, various parts of animal, score-card blanks, etc...... Hoz-cholera serum, use in cholera control, methods. ............ Hoes— breeding, requirements, relation to quality of pigs........--- cholera— Serum Se MeCtiOGs: sees eee 2... ee a. See eee Sy MpPLonis and Weahment en... seers eee oe oe PAT enInoeMeLNOOs, ANG teed serm ere 4. 2 aera ae ee ee feedine: while following calvess ok soem ce. ae eee kolling, dressing, and meat curing..-..-----------+--------- number in United States January in 1917, and comparison with other farm animals a See te Se he Se survey, for school exercise, suggested blank form...-......-- types and breeds, origin, description, etc...-..--..--------- Homes, A. D., bulletin on— ‘‘Experiments on the digestibility of fish’’....-....-..-.---- ‘‘ Studies on the digestibility of some nut oils’’. Home supphes, production on farms, Georgia, Brooks ‘County. Higuey dew; iood of Arrentine Ant. 5-..- .... epee cere Seen s Hops, farms, share renting * PEACLICES. - 22. . SEC 2 oe ree Horton, J. H., bulletin on “The Argentine ant in relation to CUTS PTOMES: 2 Reeeee coe ee ees 4cc > - A SO en eee Bulletin No. Page. 659 18 1-22, | 18-2] 1-69 26-27 3-5 4-95 15, 28 6-7 8-9 12-14 3, 4, 5, 6 14-15 1-15 10-12 4-12 1-16 15-18 13-15, 17 6-7 Sal 24 ’ INDEX. Idaho— apple production in Payette Valley, cost, bulletin by S. M. ‘Thomson and G. H. Miller. -. imate ty ap ple-oro wall oeIsbniCt.- -- 4 fees eae eee pasture lands on farms, by counties. . Payette Valley, history and development..............-.---- Iilinois— TMI CAS CA eOOWASIONS PUOLESE ===. 5 eee orale cs ae ae pasture landsyonsiarms byacounbies: - eee sses- sees o-5 sees Income, farm— relation to size of farm and color of operators...........----- Sounees mm. Georria. Brooks!Coumty,.. : Sesssees.2--2-- 22-2 2s Indiana— cA LCASM O PLOVISIONG: MOLES: ..- 2 Seeeeee se ae esses oes pasture lands on farms, by counties. . Insects— citrus— and other subtropical fruits, publications, list......-.... spraying in Florida, and for mite enemies, bulletin by WER SEYCO Ler Stee eres 2. 2 Speer Says a ees food of Argentine ant. - . injurious to— citrus and subtropical fruits, list of department pub- J BKC WOW OS)’ Se asa tM =» 5 5) 2/5 Se ade Hee aed subtropical fruits, publications of department........--- means of defense against predatory enemies, studies of citrus TA Auta Beene Uae eee OUST SoS ¢ oo ree ene aes eee farm leasing, provisions, notes. . Pasture and on farms, by-coumties.\\ 28. 5.25222 .- 555... Tridomyrmez humilis. See Ant, Argentine. Irrigation, apple orchards, Payette Valley, Idaho.........---...- Italy, canning factories, use of tomato waste...........------.--- JERDAN, S. S., and W. F. Warp, bulletin on ‘Five years’ calf- - feeding work in Alabama and Mississippi’’....--...----------- Kafir— kernel— comparison of parts with corn kernels.......--..-------- description, measurement, and composition. - physical and chemical studies, bulletin by George te dss awe Ue eee ee Gs Si cs ca. 2 Mina Secon ran ye sorghums, publications of Department, lists. .........-...-- Kansas — farmeleases: provisions. NOteS! 0... aa eee cc ce Sess pasharelandyoniarmeby counties. 2-sesee see sees fe Kentucky— jarmbleasesd-sprOvasiONS. NOLES... -\- - = emia «jae s saests ese = pasturellandlon arms. by.counties. ose sees setae toss eee Labor— apple-packene slid Hoe eee = 2 -- ee ee eee eee charges against Eons MER Sai io ida 51 5: Poe SEE oie ete conditions— and systems, Georgia, Brooks County...............-.... iidthosbayettemValley..:.-..--- seperti scnseeea as oe costs, apple-growing, Payette Valley, Idaho..........-.-.-- cropper system, comparison with wage system, Brooks Sle haymaking, hours and cost for various operations... ......... shanne expense, on tenant farms. ..-22eh----2-------5---5 = 9 Bulletin No. Page. 636 1-36 636 7-8 626 15, 29 636 Bug 626 14, 29-31 648 18-20 648 11-13 4, 6,9,10, 6504 14, 15,17 18, 19, 28 626 14, 32-34 643 32 645 1-19 647 «12-15 640 44 647 74 647 48-52 enf 4,10,14, 650} 17, 19, 28 626 14, 34°36 636 21-22 632 13 631 1-54 634 45 A TALE 634 me 634 6 [ Se. 650) 12 18, 28 626 15, 37-39 650 6,9, 19 626 15, 29-42 636 27 648 43 14417, 244 648} 97, 43-45 636 6 636 30-31 14-17, 648) “47-50 641 4-12 650 19-20 10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 626-650. Labor—Continued. systems, diversified farming in Georgla..........----------- wage system, comparison with cropper system, Brooks Po j work stock, utilization and cost, Georgia, Brooks County... - - Lacewings, means of defence against predatory insects, studies. . . Lady-beetles, means of defense against predatory enemies, studies. andaacreasennotamyhanm Sess See). | = een eres ers et eee Lease— TATMMIS IS COStTONS neta cys aces ls 62. < Sama me sey ae pn stock-share, sample dorms. 075... 72: eee oe eee ee Leases— contracts used in renting farms on shares, bulletin by E. V. Wil COxP cea. Sa sc kee ee ec. . 2 Re eee eee ee lesalpreqmmmement sien Obes s—mse cee. < - eee ere ae eee Legumes, growing on Missouri farms, practices and suggestions. - . Lepidosaphes, spp., occurrence in citrus groves....-.-------------- ihiceshooscontrolawathvollyemulsion=..- -.-2eeeee eee eee eee Lime sulphur, use in control of hog mange.-...-.-..----------- Lime-sulphur solution, use in spraying citrus pests..-.-....------ Lint— cotton— estimation by planters, methods. S2me---5.--20s--ss5-.- percentage, and lint index, and methods of determina- iion, pullehimbyeG- Ss wleloy . -..3aerer cone cere mes TRelkeneKoyal Troy biions rhave lene, SHUOhVes me. YL SRE SSS Oks , ‘percentages of cotton; use of term... 20-2 -e eee Live stock— ae feeding, publications of department, lists...............---- Georgia, Brooks County, value, income, ete..............-.- fo) a2, products, sharing methods under lease contracts, various Stateso).. £. aoe ee cae... Se ee en 9 rations, economical balanced, method of calculating, bulle- ii) by Ji. Cungles asec: . . oe ee ee ee ae sharing methods under lease contracts, various States.......- See also Animals, farm; Cattle; Cows; Hogs; Sows; Steers; Stock. Loading, hay, hauling and storing, methods and cost...........-. Long scales, occurrence in citrus groves. ..........-.22-2--.--- ~ Louisiana— pasture landsioniianms! by Counties: : 335-5 =e oeee = -eeeeee Lumber industry, movement and practices, economic and social CHE CISS AA se fon ee See ee es ANNE ok 5 eR Ree Ee ere Machinery shayswork and Costs sa) as... ee eee eee oe Mackerel— Boston, occurrence, food value and digestion experiments... - cauch New. Hnelan disses 8255: See ee eee Maine, pasture land on farms, by counties. ..................--- Mange, hog, description, symptoms, and control treatment... ..-- Manuring, apple orchards, practices in Payette Valley, Idaho. . -- Marketing— i apples; Payette Valley, Idaho... ..¢ See eaaett . sacee ee Eanlic (ECONOMIC phases-s holo... eee oe oe eee Maryland— farm leases, prowisighs, motes: 22>. UMass es Pee pasture land on farms: by counties. 2) 0Reee nes oe ee Bulletin No. Page. 648 «14-17 14-17, 648{ 47-50 24-97, 648 32, 44-45 647 49 647 49-51 626 8-11 650 33-36 650 «24-27 650 1-36 650 4 633 22-94 647 16 646 22 dG 1 Nee 645 «15-16 644 311,12 644 1-12 1-2, 644 3-5, 12 644° 211-12 637 19 (10-11, 40— 648} 41, 56-59 650. ol dbeas 637 1-19 a 12-15 650 93 94-97 641 8-9 647 16 647 7-19 650 7,12, 19 647 7 626 15, 42-43 638 9-91 641 12-14 G400F G27, 14 649 626 14,44 646 22 636 «14-15 636: 27-29 639 1-2 4,8, 10, 650) 11,12. 14, 16, 19 626 15, 44-45 INDEX. Massachusetts— fan leases WOLOvEs ODS sMOUES:<22 0. | ER eee ce pasture land on farms, by counties OTIS pa IRI SUSE yao McCuure, H. B., balletin on ‘Farm practice in the production of hay in Steuben County, N. Y., and Washington County, Pa.” . Meadows, hay, average life in New York and Pennsylaynia ‘Sse Meals, calf-feed, use in fattening calves, experiments..........-. Mealybug, citrus, occurrence, “relation of Argentine ant, etc., SUICMCS ateme tne eis Qeyames SUAS |” ea a OT Mealybugs, predatory enemies in citrus groves........-.-...---- Mediterranean frvit fly— bulletin by E. A. Taek ands. Hi: Pemipertome 2: -2 35-525 22 : See also Fly, Mediterranean fruit. Melon fly, bulletin by E. A. Back and C. HK. Pemberton......... Melos), aay renee loa imarsihornl sihyrbal lee hyehihee ey Cee Metoy, G. S., bulletin on “Lint pereena and lint index of cotton and methods of determination” ..........-...---+--+-- Michigan— Detroit, market milk business in 1915, bulletin by Clarence He Olementands Gustave: Ps Warbengeeeses.2-.0.-5.-.-.0- jarm leases, provisions, motes....... 29g se 5s. Ss SU Meredith and McKinley towns, rise and decline, relation to ittimberinewpracticess a. 98.0 2) {ce eh a milk collecting, handling, and transportation to city, costs. . pasture land on farms, by Coumbles WM ete eeeyuiah ga Mee Milk— bacterial content— comparison of dirty with clean.. four essential factors in production, bulletin by. S. Henry Ayers, Lee B. Cook, and Paul W. Clemmer.....-..-..- summary and Comclusionsio: 32) One ON business, relation of retail to wholesale, Detroit. ............ buying from farmers, and prices paid, Detroit vitiche: wale! city distribution, Detroit, equipment and costs.............- collecting and handling i in country, Michigan, conditions and OS ES at sete te gpl sense Oana NEN) NEE). SSRN ar RE ESN ELE Oi contamination, sonrces, effect on bacteria content, etc ....-- delivery in Detroit, Coste) One EE dirty, bacterial content, comparison with clean milk.......- distribution, systems imaD Strout; RMS) 2 hoc eee market— business of Detroit. Mich,, in 1915, bulletin by Clarence Be Clementiamd: Gusta be Wan iene cece y=) velast=t Ceomonaleypnasesa s. jee == user ioe Nc) adel eval pasteurization, law in Detroit, management, etc.-.-.....--- prices to farmers by dealers and creameries, Detroit, 1915... Pulieationslor Oe pamimven tists ewer ee er nts refrigeration in transit, Eight aoa. Ime Godse mee mere. = Nee: transportation to city, Laine and Costs Malchicamiaaeie 22. Wesselen bacterial: orowithein ans. -': 22s wee eres 6 selves ere MILLER— K. A., bulletin on ‘‘Lessons on pork production for element- ARYA WSCMOOISY: eee eee. 5 SiR UR eae lean oon isc G. H., and S. M. Taompeson, bulletin on ‘‘Cost of production of apples i in ‘lve Payette Valley, Toda ogee sy tee vetien oie Minnesota— Tarmaleasss! PTOVASIONS NOLES $s... 5s eerie sees - aaa pasture land on farms, by counties. .......... Slits eon eters Mississippi— calf-feeding experiments (and in Alabama), five years’ work, bulletin ‘by W. F. Ward and 8. 8, Hexdamie semen ett fauna deasessuprovisvougemote. -_. -. sue MeyMen sts Sahn ecra sneer MastireW Andon takins.s Wye COUN LLCS ase ee beieee ace oie ila Bulletin No. Page. 650 626 641 641 631 647 647 640 643 643 644 631 650 626 10, 11, 19 14, 45 1-16 5 1-29 20-34 Doe 1-44 1-32 8-20 1-12 1-54 15, 50-52 1D DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 626—650. Missouri— jar leases, provisions, notes. -.----- 20-23 eee - epee farming near Monett, factors in, bulletin by W. J. Spillman... pasture land on farms, by coumties.................--..-..- Mites, citrus. spraying in Florida, and insect enemies, bulletin by WES We others. 20. 5 oe ee, ee ere. eee ee Montana— farm leases: Provisions; NOLe..--.-- -..- gies ee o-oo ee pasture lands idalianis: by countics. “See --- 6 eee Mowing, hay, practices and cost. New York and Pennsylvania... Muteivcrops, apple orchard, Wdatio "-)-- Saee 2 eee Nebraska— farey leases’ “provisions, Notes). -..: | ae So Ee eee ees Parasite, melon fly, establishment in Hawail_-....-...--..-..---- Parasites, use and value in Hawaii in fruit-fly control...........- Parker, JoHNn H., bulletin on , Greenhouse experiments on the rust resistance of DVURVATICUICS eet... °c Memmi ceap ee ae Se eee Parlatoria pergandei, occurrence in citrus groves.......--.------- Pasture land, area on farms in United States, bulletin by E. A. Goidenwelser an wisps Dallas at eteee sy: - Seeeenmeee ae Herma Mee Meath ters Pasture lands— improved, United States, by counties...........--.--------- publications of Department, Ste: Soe oe ee eee ee unimproved, United States, by counties.............-.-.---- Pastures— AN, GEOL AO MO Chisel NUNN soosesoocs-cosecueoueosaoudesc winter— esta blishine experiments ea = -aeeeea 7a ee a ne steer-feeding experiments in North Carolina. ..-.-.-..---- Peanuts, growing in Georgia, Brooks county, yields, costs, and ANOVGL JOIROT ESI es See nese eee ees oer at =) ee eS Cae Pecan oil, digestion experiments, food weights and constituents. . Pepen, F. T., R. S. Curtis and W. F. Warp, bulletin on ‘‘ Win- tering and fattening beei cattle in North Carolina”-........-.- Pemberton, C. E., and E. A. Back— bulletin on ‘‘The Mediterranean UTR ya eee Se eet bulletin. bne.Mielon: fly.” ....+.<.o). 08 fase oe ee Pennsylvania— Cross Forks, rise and decline, relation of lumbering practices. larmcleases, provisions Noles: ..2 5. 5. Sse) eee ene hay making, pratices in Washington County, and in Steuben Countys)NewY., bulletim by, He BMce@lunesta eos: 2s pasturelandion tarms, by counties... 2.2. eee eee) anaes Pests, citrus, list, and description of injury to trees and fruit... .. control methods, reasons forsprayineice es 6-25 5 iRie-elub, work, school studies. 22:22: 2 oeeee ae sek ame oe Be Pineapples, Hawaiian, immunity to Mediterranean fruit-fly at- (EXC) Cee 5 5 RE neh bo ee eee ER Se, > eae emer | ap Poisoned bait, sprays, use against melon fly.-........-.-.-.-...- Poland-China ‘hog, Orieimand (description: saseeeer 25 2a nace fe Pork— cost of production, Brooks County, Ga--..--.--............- production, lessons for elementary rural schools, bulletin by Ee ASO er? seer tec mi. .-~.- RE eat Lei ee « Poronotus triacanthus, food value and digestibility experiments. . Eotate,-tarms. share renting, practices... sseesees--saa- scone. see 13 Bulletin No. Page. 649 12-13, 14 643 26 647 2-73 647 2-4 645 4-13 645 8-15 650 9 636 =: 11-29 647 1-74 636: 27-29 635 6 640) 15-16 US. SBP 647 23 643 26 640 38, 39-40 629 1-16 647 16 626 1-94 626 5 626 94 626 627 626 3-9 628 15-16 628 17,19 22, 29, 648/46, 48, 50, 50, 52, 53 630°) 15-17 628 153 640 1-44 643 1-32 638 5 : 4,8 650{ 10, 16, 19 641 1-16 626 14, 71-72 645 2-4 645 L18 646 25 640 15 643 27 646 3 648 57-59 646 1-26 649 8, 9-14 650 14 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 626—650. Potatoes— Bulletin No. Page. growing in Georgia, Brooks County, costs and yields.......... 648 48,55 sweet. See Sweet potatoes. Protein, cost per pound in feeds, determination..-............... 637 9-13 Pruning, apple trees, Payette Valley, Idaho---.-- NEE Nana ate ache 636 15-16 Pseudococcus citri, occurrence in citrus STOVES ees aeays Paes ee ee 647 20 Puccinia spp. See Rusts, cereal. Purple scale, occurrence 1m citrus proves. --j322e525--= +--+ - - 22-425 . §47 16 Quarantine— Prt yaiTOMist AWTS oe 643 29-30 Hawaii fruits, use and value in iruit-fly control...........-. 640 41-42, 43 RaABAK, FRANK, bulletin on “The utilization of waste tomato seeds AiG SKINSG SY. ae ee. n- - - ee aed 632 1-15 Railways, milk transportation, electric and steam rates, compari- BOMB ao ie oa Oe ee Se... ee ees 639 12 Rakaue. hay methodsiands costa. =< =. - - -- 2eeee =: =a oes 641 7 Rations— Beci-eanle. \ chee. . Seen oe S...- Bee ee eee eee 628 6 6, 8, 10, 14-15, 16, Cane. Saree a eens s... . SE ns oe ee 631<¢ 17, 23, 24, 20) oleae 33, 44, 50 economical balanced, method of calculating, bulletin by J.C. Ravndiless= 3225 oe ee... ee er es ee 637 1-19 pasture and cottonseed meal, steer fattening...........---- 628 21-22 Refrigeration— milk, in transit, Michigan methods.............-.---------- 639 12 publications of Department, list.............-..-...---+---- 635 10 Rent. charge arainst Crops. - a4). 2. Say ase 648 43 Renting, farms on shares, lease contracts, bulletin by E. V. Wil- CO. Se a SS RSE: . 2 Ps: eer 650 1-36 Rhode Island, pasture land on farms, by counties......-.......-- 626 14, 72 Rice, farms; share renting) practices:. = -- . --2Seeae 22 ee ae 650 5-6 Runo es, J. C., bulletin on ‘“‘A method of calculating economical Ppalanced TAhHONS 2 ooo. eek ee... . . ee eee 637 1-19 Rust, resistance in cereals, evidences and authorities cited.....- 629 5-8 Rusts— cereal— euliute 1m preewhotises-seese2— =. - toe a ee 629 2-5 resistance of oat varieties, greenhouse experiments, bul- letin by JohnH: -Parkerts =. . 2.2656. es. 4a eee 629 1-16 oTAIn, ECOHOMIC 1MPOrL AN Ces ee. -. Assess a es eee 629 12 resistance of oats experiments and results........-.--..----- 629 8-16 Saissetia oleae, occurrence in citrus groves. ....-..-..----------- - 647 21 Salmon, food value, digestion experiments...........----------- 649 12-13,14 Sanitation, importance in hog production, and methods. ..-.-..-... 646 21-22 Scale— brown, occurrence m citrus groves.............--.--------- 647 20, 36-38 chaff, occurrence in citrus groves..........-.---.---------- 647 16 fluted, Occurrence im clirus groves--..\..J)-c2-32- 24-8242 22. - 647 34 purple, oceurrence in citrus groves... - 2422/22 sas sie 75 22a 647 16 white, occurrence Im ¢itrus groves: _. 2 -S2d28 56. cSeeeeieeh-b 647 16 Scales— armored, in citrus groves, status, parasites, damage, etc.-....- 647 16-20 citrus fruit in Louisiana, varieties, occurrence, relation of BRIO CUMME: 210L CLC 3 2 Pee em 32> - ee eras 647 16-38 long, occurrence in citrus groves. beiounae ae 637 16 soit, occurrence in citrus groves, relation of “Argentine ant, etc. 647 20-30 Schools, rural elementary, lessons in pork production, bulletin by ta Mile ce ee RS a... ee ee 5 a 646 1-26 Scomber scombrus, occurrence, food value and digestion experi- VILE > 5 MES RN SES ee Sais so > OO ee eas 648 6-7, 14 INDEX. Seed— sharing expense on tenant farms......:..........--...------ tomato— separation from tomato waste, methods in Italy and Wiitedt States a... =o. - -..5. eee sate en S utilization (and skins), bulletin by Frank Rabak......- Seeding, hay crops, practices, cost, etc., New York and Pennsyl- SORE eee eel ee She DS ie Ss... SE Sar cee sets Shares, renting of farms, general systems, various kinds of farms. . pHockino wheat, acreaceand Costs. =.=... =. seems. oseene-- =e il seeMCee ni OEeAL VEN ses Kaine 82 - aoc . | 2222 eee ees Tomatoes— injury By mMclon Ay: 02... ti.) I Be seeds and skins, utilization, bulletin by Frank Rabak....... Tomato-seed, meal, feed value, etc.. notes............---------- Towns, abandoned, effect of forest devastation. ...............-- Transportation— frvit in Payette Valley, Idaho, disadvantages.............-.- milk, to city, methods and cost, Michigan 26:0 52 2. Bisse. Truck— crops, sharing methods under lease contracts, various States. . farms, slate rentine, practices... .! 22) aes ep eee Se ee Trucks, Use in transporting milk from country to city, cost......- Utah, pasture land on farms, by counties............------.---- Vegetables. resistance to melon fly Vermin, hog lice, control with oil-emulsion................----- Bulletin No. Page. 629 2-15 $2 11-12,13 24-27, 35, 6481 44-45, 640 36 635 1-10 633° -3,4.516 633. «10-Tz 648 46, 47,55 [% ‘04,99, 30, 46, 47, 648)" Agha 646 4 646 1-26 641 6-7 650 2-33 650 1-3 650 36 650 4,9 626 15, 75-77 633 24-26 650 «5, 67 626 15, 78-83 627 16 627 «18-91 636 1-36 648 27-28 638 «10-21 638 3-10 638 21-33. 650 8-9 632 5 632 3-5, 12-13 632 5 632 1-3 643 20 632 1-15 632 2,3, 11-12: 638 4-6 636 6-7 639 «11-13 650 3,7, 10-12 650 10-12 639 12-13 626 «15, 84 643 22° 646 22° INDEX. Vermont— farm leases; provisions, Note. . 22.4... 22s e eee cece eee pasture land on farms) byt counties | teres. - Ese 2 Qe ee Virginia— PALhAgLeASeS. DFOVASIONS MOLES) ve Peers de ela 2 pasture land on farms, by counties.......................-- Walnut— black, digestibility of oil from, studies..........-.....-.----- English, digestibility of oil from, experiments.............. oils, digestion experiments, food weights and constituents... WARBER, GusTAV P., and CLARENCE E. CLEMENT, bulletin on ‘“‘The market milk business of Detroit, Michigan in, 1915”. Warp, W. F.— and S. S. JerpAN, bulletin on ‘Five years’ calf-feeding woe in Alabama and Mississippi” - R. 8S. Curtis and F. T. PEDEN, bulletin on ‘‘Wintering and fattening beef cattle in North Carolina”.........2.-..--.- Washington—_ faumileases, provisions Note: +. 2... 4s aeeees s+. s aoe Soe: pasture land on Fans yy aCOUNTLOS --- weep neocon sea Waste, tomato seed and ‘skins, utilization, bulletin by Frank ING TOP esas Gat Wats ey AN te rr re Watermelons— growing in Georgia, Brooks County, methods, yields, cost, UGE TOLGS sees oer nce ees ck; ae ea nk ee ers MURA yaa LONC tye ase sy A. ee Se Wax scale, Florida, occurrence in citrus groves........--...-.---- West Virginia— farm | Leases DEO VAS IOTISMeM OLS «eee oo een pasture land on Lahn st bya COUNtICs aaeerpaa oe: fo -r emee ee a Wheat— acreage cut by binders and labor cost per acre...........-.-- binders, prices, labor cost, acreage, life, repairs, etc. .......- cutting, costs, comparison of old and new methods. ......... harvesting, cost by different methods, bulletin by Arnold P. Vegas ennGl IN Ly Ciinireln. ocoo ue toca c+ oodeeonesseueeesoes headers, advantages, disadvantages and costs......---------- Missouri, crops, and wileldaperacre. UONSSIA Sa Se Ses Dele publications of depantmentsone. .-eeeeeene yy mere stacking, methods and costs per acre and per bushel......-.--- thrashing, use of combined harvester, acreage and costs... -- Wheats, types, growing, etc. publications ‘of department, list . White scale, OCCUTTeNncemIn clinus/eroves=ae oe 5. erase a ae Witcox, E. a, bulletin on ‘‘Lease contracts used in renting farms Gin GINA: Ae. - | LIE eso OR Saas Winter grazing—_ experiments in cattle feeding, North Carolina, conclusions. - steers, experiments in Worth’ Carolina =eee ee eee Wisconsin— tarry leases provisloleunotes.....-. 2+ seeue sss eee ees 2 sce ee landyomiarmeyby counties soapeee a= 2) ee Woodland, pastures, GUSTTIDULION...... <0. eee weee aieec ‘Wyoming, pasture land on farms, by counties. .............---- YERKES, ARNOLD P., and L. M. CHURCH, bulletin on ‘‘Cost of harvesting wheat by different methods” Yorkshire hog, origin and description. - YOTHERS, W. W., “bulletin on “‘Some reasons for spraying to con- trol insect and mite enemies of citrus trees in Florida” 13324—20-—3 O Bulletin No. 17 Page. 650 16 626 14, 85 650 16,19 626 15, 85-88 630 6-8 630) iets 6st 630{ 13, 17 639 1-28 631 a 628 1-53 650 17 626 15, 88-89 632 15; [538 30, 37, 46, 48 | "47, 54 643 8-20 647 20 650 4 626 15, 89-90 627 3-6 627 3-11 627 «11-13 627 1-29 627 15-18 633 2-3, 4, 5, 6 627 D2 627 13-15, 18 627 18-21 627 22 647 16 650 1-36 628 18-19 628 14-19 3, 4, 12, 6502 13, 16, 18, 19 626 14, 91-92 626 5-6 626 «+15, 93 627 1-22 646 5 645 1-19 sae: eis ayy Ess Ae Pinaled 2 wands 8 Ou: ate SABRE Agee: 2. Gee 3 fen ice WA b abinclanl wie soak ae Aime yrcibarstiles aE aes i ae : aelbia Boe ae PAE. BR Oy Ae RE Oe Ee Sh ae cap ere PORES 5 aa eee Ag fiwe it otiteeioe Ly ana uitolek: 16g votsicd 7 eg s ca aa had Alpers ciate maa; oe a Argel taht uA eas te SET PRLS aie |: SM Ke) plortl dieu at a . fotod ehh olaen te St Aipxaeee “ shy PS pny: ai Seven a abba bie, : \ ae : = : ° dial . ee $4 Basi, 300 Anainin auf. a ay ne Kae nesta si ‘ara vids =a" % —-P PSs ms ‘: Roath ote ul OREISR "390 * sacal geen Se iio “a aa ; Les) POLES S11 i ba Bieter aedtrac GiEO? arear Bee cx eo “S Ghoierts valet: alent aise Peet a oe ste ) F . 3 $anl¥ias Oe woe Paine moose e cores « div aipeh Raieladds ratte > fe ape tor, eee wg a apt ee hae 2 ee : A Mee (re. one ated De i ¥2 Fe Swi ve ts V4 ‘ i] tsa ) amoadandhdy G\ai5 puitaroas a . a Ss begs : SPT OTS age ES (1 SSH IH ae a, —fenrtes Buys mars is | “nb oPBiaR” * ics e2ols YA); a ” - a a oy oe ae 7 et t a y eMPnsilogo> aah Taaay TeMdes o peer as ere SS gee Seana Hin, lines Boe Re AY a _ RL bre =e eee ciedate eT a) at . ot sais oes, eae ie re - hee a irk! OF tari targige ats ; "so Rbetie ih Og oP A eA meter. f pe ce Ke selena ove os Te al e ~ : to fu ye a UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 626 OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief _ Washington, D. C. Vv May 9, 1918 PASTURE LAND ON FARMS IN THE UNITED STATES. By E. A. GoLDENWEISER, Statistician, and J. S. Bau, Assistant in Farm Accounting. CONTENTS. Page. Page. HOuUnCe Ol datase sate maes -otecenseeeer ae: 1 | Pasture land, by geographical divisions and Arrangement of material.................-.- 2 Statesi@lable) x: 48sec sees: 2 csc aeleretere 14 Pasture land in the United States as a whole. 2 | Pasture land by counties (Table)..........-.. 16 Geographical distribution of farm pasture... . 3 SOURCE OF DATA. The figures on pasture land on farms in the United States presented in this bulletin were obtained from a tabulation of the agricultural schedules collected by the Bureau of the Census in 1910. Owing to the fact that the census period is limited to three years, the Bureau of the Census was unable to tabulate this item. When, however, the necessity of increasing food production in the United States made it particularly important to ascertain the amount and location of agri- cultural land not at present utilized for raising crops the Bureau of the Census granted permission to the Office of Farm Management to undertake the tabulation of pasture land. Although the schedules were collected seven years ago, it was thought that no great changes in distribution of pasture land had occurred since 1910 and that in any case these data were of great value as the first enumeration ever tabulated of the amount and distribution of pasture land on farms in the United States. (See note on page 11.) The census inquiry on which this tabulation is based is as follows: Pasture Lanp: Acres in this farm used exclusively for pasture in 1909: Actes. Woodland pasture, covered with pasture grasses, but contain- ing more or less scattered timber...-...-------------+--+---- Improved land in pasture, but which can be plowed or mowed. All other pasture land......-..-+--+-+--+-+ 2-222 eect r erect 14576°—18—Bull. 626 1 Zs BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The tables in this bulletin show the returns for each of the three types of pasture for the United States as a whole, for geographic divisions, for States, for counties, and for the Territory of Hawaii. No data on pasture were collected for Alaska or Porto Rico. ARRANGEMENT OF MATERIAL. Tables I and II present, respectively, the acreage of farm pasture land by geographic divisions and States, and by counties. For com- parative purposes certain other items are included in these tables. The total land in farms is taken from the census reports. The land in crops also is taken from the census reports but includes estimates for the acreage of fruit crops, which are not reported in the census. These estimates were obtained by dividing the number of trees given in the census by the average number of trees per acre as estimated by the Bureau of Plant Industry. The figures for the item ‘All other farm land” are obtained by subtracting those for the crop and pasture land from those for the total farm land. This item includes woods not pastured, yards and barnyards, roads, fallow and waste land. (See note 2, page 12.) Table I also shows the percentage distribution of farm land into its various classes, and Table II, the percentages for crop land and pasture land by counties. A column showing the number of acres in pasture per 100 acres in crops also is included in Tables I and II. FARM PASTURE LAND IN THE UNITED STATES AS A WHOLE. Of the total farm land, which comprised about 879,000,000 acres in 1909, somewhat more than one-third was in crops, about one-third was in pasture, and somewhat less than one-third comprised all other kinds of farm land. The fact that there was nine-tenths as much pasture land as crop land is enormously significant in connection with the possibilities of expanding crop production. It must be noted, however, that a large part of the pasture land is unimproved, about 99,000,000 acres being in “woodland pasture”’ and 108,000,000 acres “other unimproved pasture’’; but even the improved pasture alone represented over 84,000,000 acres, or nearly one-tenth of the total land in farms. This improved pasture doubtless consists largely of land that is pastured in rotation with crop production in interme- diate years. It may be used for crops three years out of four, two years out of three, or one year out of two, but most of it undoubt- edly is arable land; in fact the definition of this type of pasture is “Improved land in pasture but which can be plowed or mowed.” Of the unused farm land, that is, land not in crops or pasture, which comprised about 269,000,000 acres, or 30.6 per cent of the total land PASTURE LAND ON FARMS. 8 in farms, about one-third, 10.4 per cent, was in woodlots, and two- thirds, 20.2 per cent, comprised fallow land, waste land, land in farmstead, roads, etc. GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF FARM PASTURE. Figure 1 shows the geographic distribution of the total pasture land on farms, each dot representing 20,000 acres. The map includes only the portion of the United States east of longitude 99° W., since TOTAL PASTURE LAND ON FARMS 1909 EACH DOT REPRESENTS 20.000 ACRES climatic conditions, the extent to which the public land has actually or nominally been transformed into farms, and other factors are so diverse in the Western States that comparison of the statistics of pasture land in the East with those for the West is impossible. It will be seen that the greatest concentration of farm pasture is In Texas, Kansas, Nebraska, Missouri, and Iowa. Pasture is also impor- 4 BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tant in the Lake States, the Ohio Valley, New York, and New Eng- land. The Southern States have comparatively little pasture. Figure 2 shows the relative importance of pasture as compared with total farm land. Only six counties east of the 99th meridian have 90 per cent of the farm land in pasture and only a small number of counties have over 50 per cent. In much of the area PASTURE LAND | PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL LAND !N FARMS LEGEND Bas unper'spercent [___] ey sto9rencent [- -] 7 me ei 10 TO14 PER CENT Ey a. fax Well Pere re - Zs ap 20 TO 24 PER CENT —ZZ a poe Be 25To29PERcENT [777 S N) R Lae 30 TO 39 PER CENT Ze es 20 TO 49 PER CENT SO TO S93 PER CENT 60 TO 69 PER CENT 70 10 79 PER CENT %, 20 TO 69 PER CENT BRS Ae 90 PER CENT ANDOVER where corn and winter wheat are grown, pasture comprises from one-fifth to one-half of the total farm land. In many of these areas pasture occupies a regular place in a three-year or four-year system .of rotation. Figure 3 shows that it is in the great agricultural States that im- proved pasture is mostly concentrated. The most important areas are in eastern Ohio and northern West Virginia, Kentucky, lowa, PASTURE LAND ON FARMS. 5 and northern Missouri. Improved pasture is unimportant in the Cotton States. The dense area shown in southern Texas is probably due to defective classification. Woodland pasture (shown in figure 4) is, on the other hand, markedly concentrated in Texas, and is dis- tributed fairly evenly throughout the eastern half of the country. This Texas woodland pasture is, in the main, brush-land, largely IMPROVED PASTURE LAND ON FARMS 2) (9) ©) EACH DOT REPRESENTS 10,600 ACRES mesquite. In the Southern States there are vast tracts of forest land; nevertheless woodland pasture is not as dense as in the North- ern States, and in part of the South it is practically nonexistent. This is due partly to the lack of species of grass well adapted to pasture, and partly to economic conditions which make unprofitable any utilization of poor pastures. There is a noticeable belt of wood- land pasture in Minnesota and western Wisconsin, owing in part, to the rolling or hilly topography. 6 BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Unimproyed pasture other than woodland pasture (fig. 5) is dis- tributed more densely through the Great Plains region largely be- cause much improved range land is included in the pasture figures. In the East unimproved pasture is distributed somewhat more densely through the Northern than through the Southern States and is most dense in Vermont and parts of northern New York. WOODLAND PASTURE ON: FARMS 1909 EACH DOT REPRESENTS 10,000 ACRES The pasture reported as unimproved by the enumerators in the East is largely land that is too rough for cultivation, and in the West is largely grazing land where the rainfall is too low for the production of staple crops. Figure 6 shows the distribution of farm land that is in neither crops nor pasture. As explained above, this type of farm land com- prises woodland, waste, and fallow land, as well as yards, barnyards, PASTURE LAND ON FARMS. 7 roads, etc.; in short, all farm land that is not utilized directly for agricultural production. In New England, in the South Atlantic and East South Central States, as well as in Arkansas and Louisiana, a large proportion of this land is in forests and marshes. On the other hand, in parts of North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas, as well as in the Western States, an appreciable pro- UNIMPROVED PASTURE LAND ON FARMS (OTHER THAN WOODLAND PASTURE ) 1909 EACH DOT REPRESENTS 10.000. ACRES portion of the cultivated area remains idle every year because of the practice of summer fallowing. It therefore can not be con- sidered as waste land. The regions of sparsest distribution of land not in crops or pasture are at the two extremes of agricultural conditions. On the hand, there is little unused farm land in places where’ few farms, as in northern Maine and the Adirondack 8 BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. other hand, there is little unused farm land in the most fertile agri- cultural regions where nearly all the land in farms is utilized, as in Illinois and Iowa. Land not in farms.—In this connection it is interesting to consider the amount and distribution of land not in farms. These figures LAND IN FARMS OTHER THAN LAND IN CROPS AND IN PASTURE 1SO09 EACH BOT REPRESENTS _ ZOOCO ACRES are derived by subtracting the land in farms as reported by the Bureau of the Census from the total land area of counties as reported by the same authority. The following table presents the results by geographic divisions and States, and figure 7 shows the distribution of land not in farms by counties: ee ee PASTURE LAND ON FARMS. S3ydv 000'07 { GLN3S3y¥day Lod HOva 10 Lands not in farms: 1910. BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Per cent of Per cent of Division or State. Acreage. total land Division or State. Acreage. | total land area. area. United States ...... 1, 024, 491, 275 53.8 Geographic Divisions: South Atlantic: ~ ew England ......-. 19, 949, 709 50-3 Delaware ........... 218, 734 17.4 Middle Atlantic .....: 20, 808, 944 32.5 Maryland=- =). 25. 1,305, 100 20.5 East North Central ..| 39,281, 812 25.0 District of Columbia -| 32,337 84.2 West North Central ..| 94, 266, 439 28.8 Vir: Vesceresooucce! 6, 272, 044 24.3 South Atlantic ......- 68, 423, 185 39.7 West Virginia ....... | 5,347,638 34.8 East South Central...| 33,365,131 29.0 North Carolina ...... 8, 754, 471 28.1 West South Central ..| 105, 887, 464 38.5 South Carolina ...... 6, 004, 772 30.8 Mountain ........._.- 490, 306, 580 89.2 Georgia en ee 10, 630, 587 28.3 PaciiG a ee ees eee 152, 252,011 74.8 Mlorida es 265 29, 857, 502 85.0 New England: East South Central: Maine e23=5-S582/52 eee: 12, 835, 941 67.1 Kentiekcey sess esses 3, 526, 713 13.7 New Hampshire ...-- 2, 530, 382 43.8 Tennessee .........-- 6, 638, 023 24.9 Vermont .........-..- 1, 175, 783 20.1 Alabama fe5- 72> 12, 086, 248 36.8 Massachusetts ......-. 2,269, 019 44.1 Mississippi -.......-. 11, 114, 147 37.5 Rhode Island ........ 239, 572 35.1 || West South Central: _ Connecticut .......-.. 899, 012 29.1 JATEANSAS = 2 seen 16, 199, 925 48.2 Middle Atlantic: OuIS1aT1a Seen 18, 622,279 64.1 New: York'=2. 222s) 8, 468, 193 27.8 Oklahoma .........- | 15, 565, 607 35.0 iNew Jersey a2 =so eee 2,235, 103 46.5 ILEKAS aoe eee eeee 55, 499, 653 33.0 Pennsylvania ........ 10, 105, 648 35.2 || Mountain: East North Central: MOR tana =e eee 80, 023, 037 85.5 iO eee r=» eeePeer ee 1, 967, 892 7.5 idahoye: 52 ose eae 48, 062, 956 90.1 Indiana - 225 eeeeeee- 1, 768, 977 ere Wyoming 222 esse ee 53, 917, 150 86.3 TMHOIS =o 52a 3,344, 583 9.3 Colorado 7 -seee 52, 809, 007 79.6 Michigan)-= 2-2 4esisss: 17, 846, 586 48.5 New Mexico .......- 67, 131, 899 85.6 Wisconsin |=: 14, 303, 774 40.4 Arizona See 71, 591, 787 98.3 West North Central: Utah. eee 49,200, 061 93.5 Minnesota -:.-s-eeeeee 24, 073, 297 46.5 Nevada = 22225-0555 67, 570, 683 96.1 NOWa)- 2 noose nee 1, 644, 352 4.6 || Pacific: | Missouri ............. 9, 394, 032 21.4 Washington -........ 31, 062, 805 72.6 North Dakota ......-. 16, 490, 470 36.7 Oregons seek eee 49, 503, 370 80.9 South Dakota........ 23, 178, 628 47.1 Californias ese. ee 71, 685, 836 72.0 Ne braskayen5. 25.200 10, 535, 099 21.4 Kansas eonecemecnocss 8, 950, 561 iyi The total acreage not in farms in the United States in 1909 was 1,024,491,275, or 53.8 per cent of the total land area. The greater part of this unused land was in the western half of the United States. It will be noted that in some counties in Texas there was no land not in farms reported. In fact, in these counties there was more land reported in farms than the entire land area of the counties. The reason for this discrepancy is that the farm acreage is assigned in tabulation to the county where the farmstead is located, and in these Texas counties there were many farms with farmsteads in one county and large acreages in adjoining counties. The map in general indicates the regions where little expansion of farm acreage is possible. This is the case throughout the corn belt, in most of the spring-wheat region, and in central New York. The uncleared areas along the northern border andin Arkansas and Oklahoma appear clearly on the map, as well as the forested and marshy regions along the Gulf and South Atlantic coasts. The wheat-producing areas of eastern Washington, the Willamette Valley of western Oregon, and the valleys of California, are regions of the greatest expansion of agriculture in the West. In these localities there was comparatively little land not in farms in 1909. PASTURE LAND ON FARMS, 11 In the eleven Rocky Mountain and Pacific States over 85 per cent of the land area was not in farms in 1909, and a great deal of this land is destined to remain permanently non-agricultural. Where the land is too rough for agriculture and the rainfall sufficient for the growth of trees, the land is included in the national forests, which are shown as solid black areas in figure 7. Desert areas and several Indian reservations, which had not been opened for settlement in 1909, are also shown in black. Nort 1.—The schedules from which the material was tabulated had been moved to a storage room and some of the schedules were lost or mislaid. The following table shows the number of the missing records and the States and counties affected: Missing records. Missing records. State and county. Nan ber of : 7 NCTE Per cent of total. TRILECUSEALES) toi ase a cia tela cine ati = Bo emieiinin ci eeing eke pe ciem cle laees sees) Geel ew 11,877 0.19 MIA DANN pi teses: Sapte Gases ek dee = echo ec Rengdeee ea seks 262, 901 1,894 7 DY ALTARS Reema are bi ee ey Pee eb el Re MRS, oasS1 oe Win ine lens 8, 182 1,231 15.0 IB AWTEN COM ale nae fo aces Uae ne ee one oes eee aes eee cee eeseess 4,003 663 16.6 California eee eee cin eaen es san tases ee seem e es sees an sees eeeasseeee | 88, 197 329 4 MATIN OSA Laka a Shae e/a dae eae qa re eerie eet oleae See ere 330 329 99.7 Colorad OMeneneme cect oe cesoan ace Oras eeoeos at cnced ceceeeccereceteese 46,170 338 ad Gus be eee oes apres eee ee ee ames oot gs ebs eerste cadence 249 247 99. 2 UME be eee to een ate ee tee eo bieie n nie ao eeeeeeicnciteccess 96 91 94.8 Coon p ieee un UN Oa MEE Oi mens ee NS ley ee te: 291, 027 1,303 4 | 972 50.5 331 22.7 824 .4 824 20.9 897 -6 404 15.4 493 11.6 481 2 481 4.5 753 -3 753 19.5 55 2.0 HAN Cr Meee ee eee ee ae nee eee ce came eae eee Bemeeine ae 55 55 100.0 Ome OO a tean re Ramo WN Sin ee usa) Wamea ees 272, 045 868 8 UTM I ees Se ee cere ie ces ota dca heeaneeotems otinisle sre 3, 469 868 25.0 BRETINOSSCO Reed et eee alae ee bee east Se ck oars oN aura eh oe 246, 012 1,635 .6 TOUS COMER eee econo e ere oe intee ne seine foe ae cseeeees ae 773 772 99.8 TUR oe jcc e ean SSR MCE Sek aE NS RN Me APE a 866 863 99.6 TUR EG ae cena oye SSIS ES HHS SE te ae i ta 417,770 83 .02 IB. CtOr es sees eee Ses eee eee Sno es Saw see sass eS See ee 83 98.8 WRITES at sccm isel tape area Sheet Gaur yds Neekene A AU ema 184,018 93 -05 IN Gy Gh lp ye ee eee tae a Ne Seman pease

Fy; ©49 |9'8r |o% | 82T | 8% | 9% | eer | ree | T'6F | Ac0‘ses > DP 62o joer | rrr | Fz jos Jue | 26 bee | SFP | LOb‘ZI0‘9 OS Poe | 0°02 | 6'Or | 608 JTF joe | 8B | sor | EOF | 89666, pe 868 | TOT | 26 | 89s | 06 Jol | Tt | 1H | 90h | sEr‘6L9°9 Se cen (TOD ren OR Bec een le e218 | 9% | 922 ‘262 VeIPE | 1s | 8s | 9°09 | 99 | oer | 06 | 06z | 9°02 | T8o%eze Fi S08T | Les | 90s | Beh | FOL | or jee | sze | 9S | Teh ‘Ore ‘T SO seer |e | ser | Ss | 0s | pos | 1:8 | ser | 2°98 | She ‘opr T py, 4. 06T | OT | T's | Teh | LOT | TF | o-% ue | 9°6L | $28 ‘Zor ‘T b Sit | OPE | 18s | Teh | 9% Jor | Te | 2°08 | B22 | S82 ‘oro Pp WRN AW [Pe oroa cui ila ae tps POF | 8°%S | FZ ‘ZoR “oT SB eee |eos |---| ore | ore jee lotr |e | est | tee'ten‘sr Fi T6T 69s | Te | Oe | 62T 6:08 | 99 oh | £86 | Ss ‘sz ‘ze Bi oso | Sur | E18 | 88h (TS [es (og | esr | 82s | srr ’TOL ‘oe a, «6 SR OFT | FOF | 099 16 T [8:9 | 1:9 | Bsr | G'0E | 268/280 129 a To | Ter |r |r | oer | 69 | Fer | gts | 26h | Oro R00'sr q 892 |For 1o'8 | Or | FS | Bt |owt | see | 819 | L96'TH ‘ze 6199 | S2r [OI | 16s | OL (96 |S Ir | F'8e | eh | OTS THe ‘er yy «PT | GOT | Se | eue | 2 er | oer | 89 OLE | 28S | O8T ‘Soh “L P 216 | 2-02 |For | os | Fst | st | 9°6 Zee | 298 1e8 a a A ‘Pury pom) IOYIO ‘reyyo | -sed : “PO AA! poaoad a pap sat jou ‘TRIO Lee ‘T8190.L H : Spoo A\ } ‘sdoac *pue a Grea poaoidur ) e ak 3 9n} —— eyo ka ae ‘sosodimd 10410 *OIN4SB TL ily 14 —0} poJOAOP puUv] WIV] [G}0} JO oseyUODIO,T 108 ‘£98 GLP PSL T O82 “629 ‘T 898 ‘406 ‘T 820 ‘OFS “T 892 ‘400 ‘T 990 ‘OTL 698 ‘ZT T F68 ‘886 ETL ‘COT G20 ‘G86 ‘T 210 ‘99% #60 ‘62 968 {008 GPP ‘OF6 969 ‘6S 288 ‘809 G28 ‘299 ‘OT GOL ‘688 ‘0% #60 ‘POT ‘08 BES ‘SOL ‘T OZT ‘820 ‘% P89 ‘ZhP ‘Te 619 ‘E28 ‘9 289 ‘620 ‘8 B86 ‘POP ‘S O8G ‘F8E “F | PEO ‘FER ‘eg 200 (089 °% | LOT'T22 ‘9 699 ‘G06 ‘% | OST ‘900 ‘% LIOTTLI'G | 220669 'T O86 ‘PEP ‘S | SPL ‘ZOE T Z8L ‘OSG ‘% | 90S ‘180 ‘“F GPO'RTH GZ | TLL ‘199 ‘% 628 ‘P82 ‘% | P29 ‘OES F 608 {219 “T | £26 (862 “T SOL TOT | OL2 ‘ze £89 ‘LTP | 286 ‘860 ‘E TS0‘LL8 | O80 ‘SAT 91869 | - PEL ‘68 016 ‘G2 — | G68 ‘OST T68‘1S6 | 828 ‘OLE AEE 6P6 “62 22 ‘200‘T | 296 “ze #90 ‘640 ‘6 | 028 ‘020 ‘F £02 (E88 'F | 998 TES "9 126 ‘12h ‘of OG2 ‘986 ‘OT 660 ‘9S2 “9 | TTS ‘868 ‘9 062 ‘820 '2 | SST “68a ‘9 £08 “8h9 ‘8T] SCO ‘T66 ‘8z 008 ‘OSS ‘S1] TL2 ‘Te ‘PT LPO ‘TEL | 920 “€aT ‘G 162 ‘PS9 ‘E | S68 ‘SPL ‘T O19 ‘T8L ‘0 919 ‘S99 0 68h “16S ‘9 G09 ‘G22 ‘2 Tez ‘eee ‘¢ OFS ‘989 6) 69F ‘989 6G BES ‘E26 ‘2, gz ‘ose ‘F RET ‘88 OF9 ‘TOS ‘2 EST ‘OTS FOL ‘821 892 ‘926 TOT ‘P22 ‘2 CLL ‘TTS ‘T SUI ‘S86 ‘T T I GFL ‘OGL ‘8% PEs ‘G92 ‘Z $ GOL ‘Z09 ‘92 GES ‘LTP ‘GS i G90 ‘98S ‘ST GPS ‘110 ‘FL O6T ‘90F ‘FE PSG “PRG ‘Z TL9 ‘262 ‘2 I TLP ‘902 (PFT SET ‘BES 602 288 ‘SLL ‘FI ZFS §L19 ‘8 668 ‘689 ‘8 826 ‘829 ‘02 £78 ‘908 ‘TT 692 ‘8hS ‘TT 66 {P26 ‘8 TOL (061 ‘T 269 “6F6 ‘8 60F ‘21g £20 ‘16 ZOL ‘SOL , 120 ‘PFS ‘T ZOE ‘ck9 eo ‘STL ‘T 162 ‘612 ‘TT GO8 ‘960 ‘6 696 ‘120 ‘OF CHG ‘THE ‘9% 862 ‘898 TS 986 ‘199 ‘OTT T00 ‘T80 ‘T9 269 ‘P98 ‘ST 080 §296 ‘F £68 “6E8 ‘89Z] EPO ‘SOL ‘SOT! SOT ‘SHR ‘86! FOS “92% ‘FS CTS ‘68h ‘T 66 . “purl 191O -poo A, *poAordmy *poaorduryu ) ‘T8IOL *puvy ornyseg *sdoio Ul pueyT Sz ‘T69 ‘FS 880 ‘086 ‘88 £78 “G19 “22 990 ‘090 ‘Tz P19 ‘OV6 ‘ST L86 ‘B29 ‘BE £28 ‘66 ‘1% 80L ‘SOI ‘FE ZES ‘989 ‘RT 198 ‘$19 ‘Z 198 ‘080 ‘ez 882 ‘SST 'Z 808 ‘SPP 1¥6 ‘928 LLG ‘899 ‘F SOF ‘6s ‘Ef 698 ‘962 ‘9 68z ‘8ze ‘TS OzP ‘Ess ‘69 926 ‘6PT ‘691 629 ‘029 ‘TS O92 ‘282 ‘801 T2T ‘8h9 ‘28% SPT ‘626 S211 990 ‘T6T ‘8b 186 ‘PTL ‘6T L16 ‘STS ‘8T8] Sze ‘Set ‘8Z8 “SUIIV] UT purl [8}OL, --LMOSSTWY mates “*"BMOT soteseeeeeess-ROSOTUTA +18.1}U0() UION 9890 4 PNae **°""TTSUOOST AA solace “= "=" UBSTUOTPL "77" "MIO X MON *OTVURTY VY OTPPIAL seetesesss sang o0UU0D sooo 55"> = DURIST OPO “s}gosnnyoRsse py RSS NTA N teres gaTysd St Ouse iy :puBlsUG MON TORE of oaee ewe OUND UEL moreeerssesss TTB) UNO PL "=" ]BIVUOD TINO 4S AA 77> TRA} Ua) “TNOS ASBiy oust y Wnog “= *"7RI}UOD YON 980 AA ~*]BIVUOD UO NY ISBOL ooo sou Vy SIPPY mores ss" DURI SUG, ANON SUOISTATP OTYdBId00 “***"s09099 PopTUy) ‘9]8]G PUB UOISTAIC *(snsuad OT6T) saM7g pun suorsrerp oydnuboab fg ‘sajnpg payugQ ay) Ur suf UO pun?) ainjsoDg—J AAV, 1 ia g oe | (34 seo. (a ‘GCS 9°¢ : aI ace 1st JOP ASR Fy 9'F. ¢°ce 6° ri ae 9° Lg 6° CZ 0° a CL L i 98 8 9° I G i £0 0° >) eae oN ee POF Baa 61 BO 6°F ¢: hae ie G&S 8'T ia) @ Seasick 7 16 1% Fe Ae! aes Zi “QL ae Ba lea Z's ‘OT 8g < a ae ait epee ies ee anes 85 4 "GSE qe peor Sas oF PG 76 Bg Me 0 + ‘st I ¢: ay 0 T ae oat | 9: --| 52 a Z¢ 9¥€ ae 902 120) 26 64 ae He & '82 98 gis 0'8 re 8°08 4) SBI‘ aa ae. Bee ae Solas RS auilioe “18 NES Lv sess ogzé a 0:79 si en 6 02 i | 9-9 us oH Let Hae cae ang FP . 4 Nt /4) a ‘ on Em im lig 0% |e on £70 mt S18 ert ar or 8 oat 62 -| O°ST 9° LoL ST an G G: (4 6 Te ‘699 ¢ 1 ‘88 T 6 G12 16‘ 110‘ 6 TL ‘Té 0° OL 9° ec 0° cc's g gge ‘ 8 cg teed 0F AL € LE Ce I a) 6 9 6 of 98 ‘ Lb ‘E pee aes ¢ ‘cog 60 ‘068 EER S 68‘T 8° Dae ‘8h 0° eel ae | Gis “Tb 79 S98 aa 1 | és ee P TE Gt $ 9 Q° 9¢ ‘6 (4 £0¢ ‘ rage 8 ie GPL CT 786 ‘ LG 0's 6 G 9°% F Ds 162 ‘ Te ‘Z G ne ta pee £16‘ Cee $9 916 ane GFL G Ger FL 6° 6% ae 9°91 ll? F Or oo if POF‘ OT ees e18‘ 82 ‘ ; : € c g g (as 02 rae c/o | om (Le ae var ott gaye! cam ie 90" ae dy 195 i 08 on9 oe ‘89 gi ‘Th g 8 as ve e 08 ‘% ST 8G Pi 060‘ g d ‘g 0 ‘186 ( oe T's L FI 6°68 lL’ 9 Aa j (on (43 Why C1 69 9 IPG 62 0 T LLg ‘ gg ‘ 6¢ IL ¢ LZ O60 jaa ara t TU $G aad 9 68 aigl TF Aly’ Ir ‘2 FI0 “ LE 19 Lee" LT (Lo T Cl ‘F6 CEz ‘ 89 ‘T Lepen Sey P 6: 0g 0% ‘ e: ré ¢: 06 g e196 68 ‘G 66 1‘¢ i 0‘0 982‘ g ZIL‘ T |r: aoe 82 SI GZ ¥ G 0'T 8° LI e: I ee £0 ‘ ace 8 QFE’ icf) ecg‘ FG 8 16. I tie i oe ‘GV 1 Koo v? ra L 8 ee Or srg‘ G I G9 ‘9 9 10‘ 2, ron! qT |-== Peete’ a 6 (0) z ‘69 ; ‘ST G c ¥ PL ‘ 6S 6 6 9g ‘ 96 GL 50 ae Tre. : is 08 a6 Lt i ay 01 20 |e a cco 16 (8 188 181 ist 369 ‘oe ae ve cx‘ tae ; meee “og Peli ¢" eae Zz 01 eae 3 | ee eae Oe re ved 08 er # paren sate 1 8% eine 2.8 i I oa 1801180 Hr EE? Oreb We arg aeody | ao roa eel. Pega ain cit PL @ eiel O000D aor GG ee ie GST ae is £0 ‘T Dep RsaG 102 ‘ fe F ‘T69 ad a visteaticaees ay A bie LI bP 9% : ue GGG ae G98 ore‘ or 89 ‘20 eg & aa Oe ZL {ZB T 010‘ eg ‘8 FOboS oes 6 @)" . z (6 6 ia $F zge ‘ P z 920 86 Ch ‘g 9 8‘ r gee aaa Bpead dL 1G aaa eae Sea lees bse! enoee ues wale ‘£10 ¢ T BO Ree prseace -- ein L'8 ov v (6 ig v 09 BW g g OTL 6 9'8 OT 98‘ £0 ‘683: : ERO. eu 4 {6 ye T G: 81 De 96 GPG‘ Gg * g 12 F I 61‘ 086 ‘ PES 9 egg ‘ 9‘G ¢ | oo CRS 02Z 0} rat 6° T 8°6 (46 9:0 0 Te Jt 76 619 ‘ 9‘ 96 Z88 Bid LPS 8T FS nee OTXOWT Wy 9° 12 : v 06 18‘ 02 19 S11 9‘8 I 6‘ Bt rad ‘260 eq |-- it ara 0 M 16 Ry ‘ i) 08 (ae v LGP ‘ 8 2 88‘ ZG (vag 9¢ G ‘gs ral 190‘ Fear ke e, ON 1°83 1@ 6°€ 0°2 ge" (6 BL yp PLE‘ 9% G I GGG GT‘ FSi ‘819 * € cep ‘ ateie sss 7 TOTO} td 8h ae at 0g 66 cele 8 ‘6L 91‘ POC‘ Fale lore 268 0 ‘0s & 68 6 ad! Dene ee eae cs Pa 181 Or 1°68 oat Ronty 08 ‘F I Beste gz‘ a eae cg ‘G 19F 03‘ {kooe Oe oa Dele rit De yeee or po toee 9 Be ele 8 oP 700 Za0§ i) ease Ikon sees GeERe Ca IL Gg: i £09 161 9 9 80 £ I eo ae en 9 8Iz! 0‘9 or | Seen puByU T T BT 6E P ‘16 SI ‘8 ¢ Ae GO Alsi Res 02 F & 9 1‘ ate So OY OW Pane COP oq 89 ‘0 1% ral OF #8 FOL‘ Ie eT G GLI‘ 08 ‘2 eeg ! Testis ned Qo0r con un e: OF OF gg ‘ IT ZGP ‘ € GPL 4 ggg ‘ G as AS e sex OW ‘Te 8° 192 FI PIL Ze gS SL 10‘ G9 ral sg! Sado _ Bulo OL EES cre stn ve ca ne ieee en ae te | se “ag TOP ‘S06 ‘¥ Gs 6 ‘SE HE ee SIP‘ ZT $9 ‘0e8 * T ‘68 03 ae eae TeN SOUT Wey. TLS ‘829 T 9 Bye GLP ‘G 6 OOT ‘G88 aD 7 6 ‘098 at 1 ‘8 coeseataes Ouse IV ‘BbL ig 18 ‘ 6 IT ee nm 0 FOP‘ LT 8 ‘6 ges ' areas a Iss 489 fe leca 990 coe’ oes Ty SCP F Ne ae eoderees eu isi 06 ‘889 1% e179 ° OF 2, 14 Tre‘ pF B08; Fe6 8 v “E06 ¢ |r i ** 7008 eqe “66 ‘v GL, 9 T 9 60. as 99 G (40) ‘9% F Seed -Ky eet hi 8% HF wan't te reo i oor (ete 1 pare Son 3t eee 180‘ ipo ‘g e0T Bree v at a Dil € 9T9 Gene a Beg ‘ £0 ‘900 29 ‘ eeu OL aoe --2U 2 epHOLT Boe 89 Ne OUP ea FG Sao ‘ Pia ree re iE ee mt ee ‘ oe -- Pp 090 its 6 Tie |eioce Brquanyo “B 4so $62 ‘£6 at oon ‘E98 ¢ nano neg ‘068 ‘ a reece (a foot: oe Due Ae Cee ae 6a |: ee ‘9g |-- seosinon0F vu 2one0 ae 2 sore aa N BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 16 P6r o'PS 679‘ (808 LLT ig G8 ‘1 o"6L 8°36 26 ‘VST TIs‘ 3 OPP ‘88 PLS 0°62 682 ‘SpL LGL¢ T 961 ‘al 0'8Z T 28 SEP ‘68% 604 ‘8 OLL ‘OL oP LoLt OlP ‘Sor £99 Pls ‘g BGS SG LL Lb tray ‘g 816 118 6 oP I 668 ‘O@L GPS a OPE BE G°8S y | OPE ‘PST L8L°9 GT9 al £°9 ; 682 SPT £16, 26/9 8 '0P L T88 “891 CCT i TO9,LT nee I v4 *e 996 ‘98 ‘TS ; 29 & ple ‘8a poe re 609 ‘BL O20 ‘1 LSU 08 P £96 ‘ZL 80b ‘9 162 ‘68 G68 6 968 ‘908 00% % G89 ‘Sa &6L g 188.601 | 90°00 BOE "0G 9°18 8 S82 ‘OPT £26 ‘P oss ‘O8 pop p G26 (VST BPG ‘9 GPL ‘08 PLE 0 TOT (S&T 2066 GIS ITE 968 6 899 ‘L0T igs B69 ‘ep TPs } 960 '8P1 Gad “6 OS: vs SLT 9 Sep ‘eo 898. 869 ‘al ° 8 ZS ‘821 ONG ‘T ps9; 11 0'98 g BPO “OST L981 060‘ e iP 8 oye * ea PEs T PSE ‘2 8 LP z P88 TPT 619 '9 100 ‘1% ore 8 pe cee ee ‘e “Ty ( GBP 80% 6 8 606 g 908 ‘091 TL '8 8°18 b 11g ‘S01 LbL : bse i 189°S gel €g0 ‘Ol 608 62 O'bP z B69 ‘BEL GL6'¥ T3828 é IZ (i i O10 '8 £90 ‘61 Ge 6° y 08‘ GL ‘al 0°09 9 #1 I O08 a “62 9°08 1'8 9 6be ‘STL GCE ‘ol 208 Tet g TPO ‘EST LLG 9 LET ‘98 G°8h POT 8 804 ‘GOT 861 rt £60 (81 Te 9'8 I 198 ‘SST lbh 089 ‘LT ‘sdoro | “MSBa | “SdoID “IOT0 UT SOIOB —— es ay rod “puvy Wey oanysed —0} pojoa TOMO TLV ul Ssoloy -op purl ULIR] [8}0) Jo osByMODI0g, *pUvTPOO AA 922 a 8&T 4 OOP ‘6 062 ‘99 ag) Vv tie ‘ST G60‘ mo! peo (bs £80‘ C OOF TAI‘ av GPS 8 Ooh ‘or pre “29 LOL‘8 6OT ‘28 £28 ToL ‘h ISI ‘9 186 ‘9% P92 8 B80 (bb ggg 2, G09 8&8 GEG 6S 9 Gh £16 ‘9 898 ‘eI CoP ‘6D tT ‘Ol > ast ‘al OLE ‘OF 994 9 109 ly 808 - 119 ‘WY Sol ‘6 ral! “eo yh % 68L ‘ST Loe ‘9 008 ‘6l gee “2, GSS ‘89 L9G Cee “6T 066 ‘OT 918 ‘98 BCL id SPO PE OIL ‘8 OG6T Of 064 ‘g 168 21 9LL 9 tly Ve 29911 626 ‘0S laa 'P PIS ‘og pOd LL9 ‘9G OTE 8 668 ‘86 TA8 Ut ou‘ Gas (f 9&2 PL S16 ‘at G19 8 epg PLO GT S&L % SOT TS ‘VAVEVT *poaoiduy [RIOT *pury orngseg, SIs ‘SIT eLe' (th eee f (39 £22 ‘| Oat aeL‘ (vst Pop ‘Oar COP ‘Sel 090‘ elt OPt ‘zal 600 ‘99 Be 39 SLE ‘Sh 01 ge 689 ‘O1T GSS ell Z80 ‘ZIG R61 col 899 SOT S&T ‘Lat TL6 ‘ait Obs ‘Td G09 108 sigs 066 UPI SOL ib 020 ‘2 Lop: “i 698 ‘BL 062 ‘88 I ‘e8 19¢ "2ST 180 (88 (aati er 169 ‘SLI G0h ‘98 Bal ‘8h 128181 108 ‘be 902 ‘16 V *sdoio UT pue’y Z0S ‘ope G90 Rats 028‘ (18 682 ‘ehh 809 ‘Va ty 690. ‘908 SOL ‘Soe Gg‘ (OLB 909 “S2% LER ‘OSG 610 ‘96% 898" (OG Peo wid Pol ‘966 Teg bot CPL ‘208 Pls a le 800 a & 988 “608 OF 7% OT ; P96 ele LL ‘69% 888 “O0e 38 ‘G92, 9g ) ss ‘ge 8 PRE L6G L68 ‘L6G S1Z_ Ist 18 ; rey 86. (esl 899 ‘She *SUTIV] UT pury [CIO “== ***-9replopne’y Se eo cove ssicsessses "TORO TOL ween ecee es Srssines sists ss OETOGL eros ~> > WO9snoyy “=== AlUO}T mide) So oueeTy) “=== == RAGTION) wate e see ee eee e eee eee tees “ULPUWCT =S/siiasteies OV, 0AB IT eaigelee “YRMOFOT “Dots VIC UTvOSHT OB AMBYSUOID Sloianieieia(ete cere iaretoinie aici Mee ae emer enises sso 25 == ==-110]SUT AOD JROS SE Gpocorin dade anutpe daa sees Gos noaagaodaeocdenoaasensa 8000) ynoouog Poqloo “90 T}09 emINgeyO “Sse “ABIO: > OAVTO: ABIOOYO: WHoYyyey) Jong SORGEe ROS SoS eaacoopooActconABese ee ho erounee OTN Xo) jhara| yOMoT gy "qatar ~ > Moqiug SOP cen cotiat do Solon coMDE Oo qaoridoundcc apce besos conan. UTADPTCG vsneqny “Aqunoy *(snsuao OT6T) sayunod fg ‘seIn719 panug ay? UW suuvf uo pun? aingsDg—TT ATA, 17 PASTURE LAND ON FARMS. “poyeunrysy 9°88 gle LST 816 ‘28S 98G‘ 18% 882 ‘ZOL ege ‘LL 119 ‘L99 810 ‘96T (Si) Cia 1S ee ae sree DeEGin Sages Seer ee Te} OL, G “LOT 0°22 F'0Z 192 ‘81 820 ‘T 006 “¢ 1B‘ GFT SL 69 ‘9 age ‘ze Pan Conga oe Ener Re Abe e ABU ay Cr Gog e BOCAS aOrRoSD eum x ¢‘eI1 Lh 9°9 009 96 620 °96 L16 ‘ST 698 “y TIS ‘EIT £20 (OT ida7 OR Pes redvae x 0FI8 G eh 0°6 790 ‘6 ESL ‘PE 891 '8 GES, 9ZI ‘SE 789 °F VS TALS eee tea ae eee go as ea Ge ae we Ee ang oC MA) BUS 1°96 Z 08 ole 169 ‘OT SPF ‘9 ¥29 956 '€ 820 ‘ET P19 ‘81 OG es ta [Pear onP Rass “= Teuy L889 72S 6'8 OF8 ‘LB 66°21 SIL 16 282 ‘T 769 (LE £07 *9 186 ‘TL ae 8 62S oN OL POE 18 LLE “OT 129‘ 822, 126 ‘91 798 ‘2 CS Gp CO ara inca 1°99 BS Ger (C1) oie eet eee Sas "1 089. 00F 026 9G 060 “F 119 "8% P88 OPL ‘+6 126 ‘1 869 °IT 622 (88 97 ‘8S 612 ‘6 TLZ ‘8h o1e ¥ ‘Or bes 116 (OF ZBI ‘F O19 {I 6821 189 °2 896 ‘FB 09L ‘BL 9 "Eh 1°88 6 °ST 166 ‘6 £66 (& 88h ‘€ Tg0°T PIG '8 SOF 'e 900 °2% © OLP 13g LIL 689 ‘OT 900 (2 629 '9 Org T CPL ‘ST 022‘ $90 62 T 8 S96 1 ‘0F 27 808 ‘ZL1 126 ‘28 088 ‘86 666 ‘LT 908 ‘P21 118 ‘21 86 ‘608 asTya09 Poh 0°Sz GL 120 ‘TL 8F0 ‘2S G1¢ ‘T £19 ‘% 9S ‘9% 96S ‘2 698 ‘FOT ayoud y “VNOZIUV 6 FE ral 6°48 909 “228 ‘OT | B18 ‘S2z BEL ‘OIL ‘T | 966 ‘FSS 001 ‘osc ‘z | 902“F08"2 | ete‘een ‘0% |--7 ite apie eee SRE RR AG eRe HARE AOR SAAR? [240], 9 Ie ge o's 086 ‘£61 G89. GoT (01 eZ F 686 ‘FL TST (14 VOGEGECN “angus si mee oe snes => tau eheed Pes Phe saan Sane SURE DANES UO4SUT MA 8°68 £9 OTP L10‘T9T 260 ‘¢ 6ST LE €h9 61 PL8 ‘19 682 ‘SST OGTESUSE UR see on cere ase nas oak o oe ssicec ener ema XOOTTM. 0 ‘FIT 9°6 78 GLL'C8e €h9 ‘1 918 “6G Zor T 16 °2E P06 ‘8% OBO RIVCE Glenna ss tag vec~ aoe sae type eta aan: os eae eae WO,SUTYSe MA 0'S¢ 18 Med OG ‘TAT 6PS ‘% 908 ‘TT LE8 ‘9 ZOE ‘0B T6L ‘S$ £00 £0SZ 77757 -dOsTR AA Pe? 0°21 Gz S88 “CLE 6LT'L CBP ‘98 LST ‘OT Teg (¢S G90 ‘Fer WILCWOGhae | eee sce. ss se ane pana cae a ghee seamen meee esooeVasn T, (aan € 81 8 "ee 198 ‘T6T £98 ‘OT 898 ‘OF Lyy ST SOT ‘eh SGT SET SOTMOCP: alse saya 0s caeeatna ss ase amd rae ack en nnone esoodey]®@ I, 8 FS OIL Go bP 6£0 ‘921 OF6 ° COT FS SIL F go Te 688 (S21 $80 ‘£86 “77 exopeyyeL, 82g @ 61 £98 EhF SOT 6108 POP ‘LE 699 °SZ Sells STL VET 160 TLE 777 -gequINg su [Sa Jone RS HR fat [SES INE | tt | Stes ea tt : " 9 °F 9h ‘8h 9 ‘9 (6 909 9 (Lee TepD yuresg 63 2ST 9 ‘Ig 819 ‘88 £28 (9 908 ‘8% 908 ‘S Sep ‘OF TEL LET WSUAOOCL © Whee tayecas Waa a ane bye aye aemncu en aaah cea cine ene TTessnyy 8°68 L°eI v'PE L¥6 ‘9ST £9912 ToL IZ 109 ‘21 Gge ‘Tp G26 ‘COT PSG Z0E ydjopuvy, be [LG [28h Aer Jame [ino fore [SSS] a PARR (SoS md : ; q QL 9 P 9 G9 ‘c9 98 BNERAIG Secale? EE SE BERS ASR Re RER aa Bb Ry Ras era EBA CORO RS SUeOT G 66 eral 607 O19 ‘LOT p9S 'L CPL Ve 692 ‘OT 890 ‘eh 290 ‘OPT OVUNOGER. “IRE veadncn cant 13> naka anaa a amietne ied kaka eames AlI0g pe [ER (0 (2G [igs VRE [aera Meus | atete | soci oun : ; q £ 9 8 9% 88 ‘83 989 “E8E JoT105} 00 W 8°18 86 1°92 GLP ‘186 669 ‘1 68h ‘ee 980 ‘8 PLZ Sh €pS “PIL OSCRGCUR ol. rae a oh cho nek ek minh ea es a ke ee *- QOIUO PL T'¢9 eo 6 IT 119 ‘81 Se6 iT 16h SOT £66 ‘T 612 ‘801 DES PUTRE | OOrARIe Nae sata sa tne peas sal anne mane Mee ce foe PSE PINE] OSE |e st | Sha ; %6 “ik 866 ‘216 z 80 “T P90 ‘88 990 (29 8ae ‘BIE 61S 0°61 9 98 LYL ‘102 £58 8 A ‘vs 699 ‘Zo 89T ‘98 $20 ‘991 688 \eSp pie [EN ost )Gbae THT] [age ]aear SE | Reine : ; ; a 8912 oLb ‘6 QL‘ LE GIT AC ORIG See erty akteenee Uatni es Spy nae es AST RE EGOS © Lot G8 9 "tS FIO! (SIL 08% % gee ‘OL 89L ih #86 ‘96 167 ‘891 688 108 Se ERR ERR RD uae oiesternner ae erro 0'8T cae SOF TOL (SST O0L‘T 0¢8 “eT 816 ‘9 861 12 HEB “OBL SO CRS GUAR | cht tae st cdelaig Sa adie ie ae tececpahes ce tig AIRES I Vv 98 0°ST. TTP TOL ‘GEL 992 ‘TL Ley ‘9% 096 ‘6 Zh9 ‘Lb 988 ‘OST TOE SNS) Sana aipaeeted Ueepe rel cosa” pte nent ea TREN To" *- 007 118 S'IT 0°98 166 ‘29 690'S TL3 ‘86 0 Ter ‘OL? POL ‘GED OGL ‘CIT Sth CMees lite ae oaae oe me QOUOIMN GT 14576°—18—Bull, 626——2 S96 6'2 e'Te P98 0'FT j V0 26 c6E 799 ‘ G 79 Z°% get DEOEDE Fee eh lessee ecoTT | och uy =p esecTeE poss ZOL e'L 2 ‘GF LOT 0% GIP 01 ‘9 (ol P8S_ 2 1G), ‘88 196‘ Ry Sead Sones ee odoanscaboonostcde 88 9° Gat sf WRGGRIGE 7 are, Foret | eon OP casi a ao toa ta as ce Bins abate Seaoraaneerch cae : : Lik L¥é #68 ‘G Fe 1 108 ‘8 Ze), ‘OL GST L2¥ ‘96 092 ‘e1z pret Skea © scnobsoobosnuoboodbaonasouDboaned “dosmyor ey, O48 LOT 6°28 pOeeL Pade £09 ‘eT 807 ‘8 944 08 189 ‘69 BE hS— bnonoarnama ance ne Pa geeS SSRIS IO S2 diaaHasade 5 Tosioyor a =i. 0% 67 GFZ ert LEg Off ‘ST ‘ LPG & $26 ‘SOL BAGS Tlidas wesc, meyers tess Sosonqqco" detiihd isha ne el - wosyovr FB | SOL ‘Gor £99 £9 ‘ LU IU ekteree aed ctoc ol aN OMRON rt reset ue Poo | fas [Gor | Seecen ws, [aes |onb‘e | ana" ezroo femme foro 2ST saapuedpa say) ie na €-9% © S01 eI Z TOL ‘8 ‘ £06 ‘88 €1S ‘121 ABET ale eee ee eect a teicscccpameerceriante -7* prvAMO : ; 070 ‘€8 ; 6LF 9 69 ‘ (Let + | SEE FOE s+20+>-Zund bp oe 69 G81 18% ‘Gi 06$ , GE8 “E 224 °Z (al ELE 28 COP ‘FOZ NCS JOH D ve G6 aed SP Scr 62% $06 ‘9 309 196 9 LEL‘S Fer proysdu10 7 S 48:6r 9°81 i 0sz‘OLT | $998 989‘ 08 2 102 ‘TI P61 ‘TE pect "77>" 9U@OTL) A LLB z" vide 889 STT 990 ‘¢ ae 608 9 669 ‘FZ ‘ ceeay | [tcccecccccececeteccteceteeeseeeeeeeeseeeeeeesee seep quel ib) G'Te ‘OT L°9§ Gee ‘6ST ge ‘ GLE (96 OL ‘LT T10 ‘6r £80 os ZQBWSCS., eults esas sets oii Smiaiesei eS :"-pue a 4 0% bs 8°96 6LE ‘00% Bel $82 (ST ZO1 ‘TT 10% LLE 86 ELS eaten eres meen mace aso 2 sepa e ee "*puBlrey, q 9° ¥ 12 Tug ‘ Sah g 969 mat 69h ‘OL i7 (08 216 60T CE ASS petacieeereesc sare te ee SNS Locou nan | ey ete 0% 961 (Aet — | 668 882 i? 819 V6 PST ‘SL ea ie ee oer eee sce OYPWOIT fo) 0°8T Pp 6 Ze LOL (SOL LYZ L2zF iG 166 109 ‘8h GOT ‘ US Gis tes bac «Cate an acess © Peete ramen ice RR LOUyLOBT 8° £'% : 08& (64 £26 908 ‘¢ 1s & G2g ‘9 R08 ‘Ze 39T At Bans caster arte Sa RRA ASS E 5:5) SUS BONUS RNR ars MOI, H 0 °&% 62 9°19 289 67 SOT ‘ 80 T 168.‘ Eko Opdeyo le 9 ||pssesercrseae saree scaiss seepnaybabsberinsecsrir at aaae eyse 9°68 ‘ é 099° 16? ‘ GP (TP HE) OL ate ae Annies isc MARE BAES 9S, a i = -L'62 Z 21 z: 96 SET 1g8°% 606‘ ‘ 613 616 ‘$8 AV QUIN Sots ast hteaclal oad ceeacl ahaa oe a2 SUIIBC . i If 697 6 06 TT 20 ‘F ye | se0), Tishaa | pocoboer ec PBebeuaere SeCeUeS ERG SceROACEEEREOS oe os ical ¥ 06 16 G: 8 069 ‘ t 882 81 TOL PUBL. [.|Pges tates tess i ir Fae Pe ee er See eae ssolp : : bP gge ‘ T9T OT £09 ‘9 ‘ (18 SES afte =. PSBSHHEAR LRM MESNOEOOSEEABBCOSUECtcsmns oe Ss o'er Ly 60 OTT 080 “T ZH9 ‘ PSP 280 ‘6 BOEG: pepo caakear ey Seer Ae Rene err eens ney Seeetice wopue}}NO r : 4 € 629 ‘822 #9 OT OFO ‘TT Zz), (Oh Patri We lordeucet gests nese veaneceusecent ante amen - : H v Ko9 2 6'1Z ‘ TEP 110 ‘ST gag ‘ OL (06 COP TIT AMG Robial (Sescescucceescnaresess see cneas ue egeeeseeeanes PIOJ ABI fae 8 °0% 9'F 612 966 (O81 066 TS1 ‘9 06 mo £08 mu! 890 ‘L0T 086 “OF coeeceeeeceeeeeeeseresececereciceteeeseceecesotes pBoysTelp > 9uTes slouelg 4¢ Rep r ee baie Bana O 2 De aT Sac Urn On pOonsnre --ydjopuey, BESS RST eisinit io Sie ei a iaisse eieusicl> aie nie esti ie Sicilia eee gleaiote Oleg, iris eo nani dn ohn tied ete ioncicde looper cs sag ota ns cl eaters “--+---9dog. ae Lae ees Se a eT Ee eee OTIC) Sb ie ee OE a con as Pa RCN EE CM ae tS cae ae BO POSSE Md copsoodece Sg SSSR ona Sosee9nsdasuaceDSASHSaDBSSNSaR0RS aap Sbeoag oo desosdosoossescassabEsSoEdccscuRSc 77>" >-BqTTOeNO cnet e eee eee eee eee ee ee eee -7757"""-TOIMON, Benner eee oo ere secee ec eeee Soog099a0000005 --SPBAON, pooacnocaSsoussanoBceDsdoGaNSea00G0 g9a999000 --- AIOUIOZMOPT peaiedigeaes wets eee cee eee eee BEG ACI OUO GOOEY 1 0(0) 13] sovocanesscdesadns tose cece eee egccone sooressess* = Td dIssIsstpl ween eee eee eee eee eee oe seeisci iS SOT NN Saspadaaae Sosacdnasascades000 tecteeee SOR IOI IFO 0 (OY 24 if Sd 8605 eqp0G0qcHoSBaodEdde0o5eDe0Es05 sororsstss ss TOSTpBYL Sid Soe Rete SAS ter PESPRASIASSOISIINASISSOSO CGS (oyna Serena Jo0 905009 90999 00sad ood eps aRdsacrosoaadasooR8 iE sd edocodundsaceccedscaues sonecsss glee richie "77" TOATY, O[99TT. o DnOGQDAGAdS SSS OGRaagSGCeDCBaN0090000 Jansds9s9900 > - Upooury ween eee eee c eee teeter ete e eee eee eter eee es gary ee ieiaeanie Tae Se lee aiaendn ach eee on etoe en a shee ek eee OOUL OM ABM & BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 20 G°GLS 2 9LP BOLT 6 082 69g Ger b STP 1°96 0 FOP 0°S8T p89 0022 G TGs 8°88 G°8oL L088 PSPs *sdo1o Ul so10B 00r s0d oinysed. Ul Solow mOnNOMNINS AN NT OOM NOON rs Sri OO XH AaAN aN THN MANOA MHC rt SH 1910 st SH SH SHE 19 1 OD SH Oo = HOOT ODM MOM AH rae DOODAPrAHODMOMOSCAANADAHOOMHAOCOONMOMR HOD Hr OID OD F191 OH 1919 HH ID HOW OHAHOMAAANRDOOCHMOMMOD oD ‘omnyseg | “sdorp —0} pojoa -ep pur, Wary 1830 JO ose yM80I10g 682 ‘LOT 19) ‘821 G26 ‘es P86 ‘12 $90 ‘6ch 9TS ‘391 618 ‘FEL onsen syrrttsstssss- BIBS BURG GOT 2 PPE 06GB 618 SPE 880 &2 19% 6&9 SOT PET GUPROGTRIC lsazakeessecs Gans ees cs oS coe oS ere “> BIBqIe BIUBG 998 {Gp 969 ‘8% EGP ST 198 ‘88 926 ‘BL €BE (2b GG9'09T | ote TTI -0egeyy weg TOO'SLh «=| 9BB‘9RE =| TOT‘e0G ~=— |: GOS“ 28 fsa OYA IARSI) Meise OW)SIIg SY [PPS “Tit ttrodsiqo sir] ueg el Htc ZG8 “OP 103 ‘O1T ne OUZe ~ [SOQGRGGEy iPSPORCONR” liens cccuessuaiienceencesasecs 5 sstottttrts = umbevor weg SPO GOT OTT IP 9T LOL 160 3% ----QOSTOURIA UBS OFF ae on ‘LPP SA eee 2p 9cg | SOC TFET =|: 9GP FES “777770801 ULg OP 8 1g9_ IT 16S GéL GG 996 66 QBS SO Ces = il linekce clin so sicins aati a eeese Ak Sines ~-- ==" OUTpPIvUIEg Weg G6p OIL | 066/9ST | 9ST 'Ten | 822/49 PE6'CPE | B88 ‘F8 TOE ‘FPS Sarno gs ass copa RUM oeocave | osu‘os — uer‘er —gretar | annscar | sex‘set | dow‘0ee sooo UOpISTOAT 80 ‘12 602 ‘26 G18 ‘FI GPL ‘6 ges ‘22 aeces GGSPET 0 [tcc ccc cts tcecc et eccecete et eee eee ee weteeceee Se atr on : ne le a QOL ‘ZIT S&L (TP STL ‘99T 296 ‘LP OSORGHGES {lt Sciuecckn saat cluns tak a paceeiamaraah saace Scr ce pea 103 '2OT | GPS “SIT 708 ‘T 829 ‘TT PLL‘98T LIL‘ZhT | 869 “TLE ~- > BRIO L08 (2% O28 ‘OT TPO PoE | £899 89S ‘TFT | €20°TT 868 CLT 77777 BPBAON ay He Frey oR Sars Gee ue 069 fe 268 ‘T9 ORGRUQGNE Lease sae Sean poe elaine heats sorte Rd UN 9F6 1S Goh TTh =| OL 2 GOT(LE8 | OFE“ORG «=| OTP LAPT 'T -* > O10 UO Z0 ‘PT PIG 'Sé EST '€% GPL SE 681 'F6 TSe 2 6L9 ‘CTT -- > QUO PLE TP 096 PZT | STL "LOT 869 ‘68 ELZ'CLZ |: ASP “96 PEL OTP, "77 90pojt 620 S88 | COP 61S ~—| BET 'LE GIS ALG es RSCGp TLE ss RCR DCU 5 AG ITs 2b easter nena ane *- poos0 093 ‘911 908 ‘8&% 80g ‘86z 016 ‘62 PSL ‘TOS 162 ‘Sh CE TSL --- QUTDOPUOT (q) Pel ‘Geo ZOP ‘9ST | CLE ‘ceo 116 ‘9610 | ShT ‘6 (STO) el ee eal |g pS SRI OCe BOC r on cuc ben bodabecmoonagns Rsoduryy PLS (EZT | GET (89 OTL TT OFO ‘08 C68 (611 €19 ‘61 Che cucpe | hes cect e tines waka ob penis eR OE IES THR] ZBL ‘606 | P26 '9P oP ‘ga FCOMMC Ts GRIeeGe “EEERCU Ten PECONGRO) | \ (fences cirne co Reine eheaiimemi (oseamioas os Me BIOPCN GRE CSE | GPS OE 962 (SB 882 ‘FI £98 ‘OL 188 ‘862 | $86 (252 "sojosuy SOT 69% oo 6LE ‘28 C98 “62 GOP ‘SE 908 0ST 182 ‘82 1) al Sepa See OEY Ped pPG Na See soe ore au Re ERS TEES UOSSU'T 829 ES L6P 62 269 ‘SL 068 ‘2 606‘09T | 226 ‘2% POU HICEM | |Rcbierr ey abe texte aun migeias Snow ene enor oneal OAV] 98 18 982 ‘66 G19 ‘OT 290 ‘29 QUGsA4te = |kCam Gin |FCORVALEEs (fo se Secs seatee "77 SSUINT AIT (669 | 860/618 | O8T°20G | LP G9 po, 16S «=| GAP ZIT =| OSE GOR T |” pent "77 WON] OBE ‘98 6EL SE 162 G6 ‘PL 8OP ‘TS PSE (2G GRIM | fae ee ae ee --*-oAUT POG E8 990 ‘T 161, EST (8S O&b ‘6% 809 “OTT COS R ECCI 7 Raketinuaiae sonia use hcg: one nee hae Reaabin le [enodwy OST (€8S | ODE SLT =| OGL "OT —|- 480 'T6 LET ‘OLE — | OPS ‘68 geo 29 | qploquan yy Guo PZT | GES 8h GOL ‘26 196 ‘86 8oS9% «=| THE TOL §=| 861 16h, | wUuey) 8c 'S08 | GPS FST GeavenGe |FGeeeGale FO MGCOR |ucee TGs KORO GODT |p eee OUSOL J G2 °2S 619 '8 S86 (201 P29 ‘S QLP ‘TPT — | OST “27 REA OUCE = “fai 2pm Gey vs wate poner s nee diag Opesopl el 89°) GPO ‘TL ggg ik £28 '¢ OZ8 ‘FS PSP 'é LPG °CE ey 777) OHMON 18d 266 “28 O29 “16 961 ‘bE P68 ‘CG 092 ‘TST T89 “TFT eer ‘ooh =| "77" BYSOD BIIWO) “panuyjw09—VINUYOALTVO > “10710 “puelpoo AA | *peAoidmy “[BIOT, *pury WIey *sdoi10 “SUB UT . ; 10M} TLV Ul puey | purl [ejo, AVNOH *pury omyseg “ponurjw0j—(snsuao O76) sauunos fig ‘sanig panugQ ay? wr susunf wo pun) ainjIsvg— TJ AAV, 21 P 661 ; ‘eT o8ed uo ‘a G°26P ae 1-ze anjsed ut o8eore AIS 6‘S0L : G LIL O9T ‘F 108 Issooxo Ue Zury10d POL Tire 9°82 086 ‘6F os‘e2r | $88 110dax soryunod Jo £268 ae ya Be) nes aero ree JO o1C@. 003 4 OL : q ST 8% 8g9 T eee. ¢-63 602 | T6802 £98 er ae i Z00 eb wer‘ey sye‘o0e sesame 0 TSS q £°9% § ZOT S 0z¢ ‘21 T¢ 39)! ZeG ‘T PES LOL B € SEL 8109 aval POT (SL I i e 869 ‘FP PEL ‘9 92 (66 zee ‘Ze gep‘¢ eee Ssace T S82 L 192 GOL vP6 “0g ante PLT ‘6 621 7 81% (09 819 VASVG ‘09 ee ah we aee rid s 5 = 666 2 &% ‘ ocere ayeis\arwtatoreleis TOSyoe. 2 'F01 heer OL 631 (86 oes 899 ‘8z 60L (9 ‘ 619‘ Mere Pse° “0 f . 4 ‘ S 5 PSP ‘0 I ‘ ose: ii ee OURTIONEL 0°869 10S Zee TS9 G8 6 LSE $8 ‘OT av. v ZOT 78 ‘ET Rae mare “07 6 TL A 802 ‘ ZE9 6S zoe ‘ PIT ‘86 157 cS ae een hee [@psuryL 5 8-296 : € ‘OL 02 gon ‘¢ 6 TIT ‘ 808 {2 ZL OST See ee a Oa nae a oe en Trost wa Sang ELE Pe GPs ‘09 800 ST 810 ‘ZZ SPS “seg SOT‘ I 998 ‘OF Sey ee ss eer cee het “ WOsTUUTs) = 0'6P LO as 769 ‘Z FOS COG VGC a GST ‘Eze T 92 GPP‘ T cies eeaeeeeceteesereneverecececececeseseceees be “purely : ; 3 og nc org ‘ ao € ges < Cpr IL 831 coeeeeeeeteeteeeeecerececesececececec td 2 «9. 8G 6741 G98 610 T qT G6P ‘OL IZ Gag‘ SEY RN ee arene ae 77 urdyt) One pa ae a ere‘ere‘z | eer Ex T96r‘Z g°¢9 Z'8 068 ‘TST 919 91 POL ‘ Sep G80 ‘ST poss ¢ T 261 a aed LbP ‘FE BF eat oe). i 680 28 ae 9g 2on'e | ppp tee ‘ze |---77- 4 ‘ eee ge ge, [ee jee [eS Be oe pont [ote \ry [en (| usuiae | a a a im Joie, auras |. 4 Z‘Z9 6 6P 9 "8% 8&0 ‘TET OT FG ZGT ‘ 4 8Z8 ‘SOT 9FL ELS 196‘ a1 661 ‘OSS : 906 ‘98 U Lb P86‘ 96 ‘OL (gg fecseeceseseeseseseeeececeececs 8 "16 8:29 | BT BIO) Olea Ob smalppeens Bee ee Wee 92 | 1€2‘Sh0‘T aa 6 SSZ e-1s 89% LGL ‘SPT 94 8 919‘ 688 ‘FL GGG CEL L Ae OTS ‘16 ‘ : : 671 ‘G6 9 GZ ‘ 619‘ 16 ‘TS nes ree ee 9 09% € "8p 1°81 GSI ‘POT ecg! Z0¢ ‘06 LLU ‘LG (O81 czg ‘ 172‘e16 ‘ £289 9°99 9:92 098 ‘6FT $9 001 FOL! z 801 ‘TS 9g¢ TST 9 (06 UO i PIT ‘0Z 2 98 ‘ cee | er 11% ‘ Bee G‘SIL $708 ST 082 ‘¢ ‘ IT 089 ‘ 18% 90T LOF zg ‘ Z6E ‘6F9 Fs 8°28 i OFS‘ 189 ‘28 (9 rd O02 ‘EFS G ‘821 es P'8 66 10‘ 0&2 ‘9T GE G IPO ‘22 $9 PPL : atehe GPL ‘T9 G GST 169‘ €88 ‘9 8Z0 08% 88 ( I 998 ‘F S Pee 8 LY : ats seane 10 ZOT ‘ET 603 pee OgF ‘oz OOT ‘9¢ Boe 3s aretcad a --+-=-=-sniyis ay3ng £€9 ‘8 yer‘eTe | 66‘ ee ees geg ‘TS 6 Sh 81z! “-euLOMOg 929 ‘bp Big peices canon 2a AGOSSHOGHO0G0 “nOATYSIS Stine eeu. 5 ao Malai Reet >> BIIOIG Ss teas pe eee CSE znip Siaed BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 22 9 "E16 bFo 661 Teo ‘ezr‘e | eoc‘ore ‘> | oce‘sso‘r | pez‘zEs‘t | eco‘o9e‘z | G06‘TED‘c | SIL ‘oeG ‘et |--~ TTT nn TRIO 9 F0Z LTS G9 166 ‘TST £98 ‘IST PLP ‘SE G22 ‘0ZT GIL ‘OFS GTZ ‘99T Sie ‘89 sie cross iamaeiesiaitageceitls nes Tceivscncasisisiasincsen sms SBUInut 18 0°86 0% ZOB‘S9E | FL*LOZ | OST ‘0B ZEE ‘82 QURNOge- Nein cea o OCeEpIOY. IRS asareawces bes cus. oer enan ao eee Cu b°82o 9°99 4 Osh (OZT | SL8 "FE | OSL, G0 ‘FT 0s9‘T98 | _ 860 ‘69 8ST (TSS “+ =>" TO SUTYSE AA 6216 TLL *'8 989 ‘TT E&I 8 GLO ‘Ch 080 (TT G88 ‘19 SPL (9 ETE (08 Peper: pa CR DONE ee AR eee Se € OL TGP 9°93 010 ‘8 €80 (9 @ 098 “2 £25 TD 99F ‘01> | - 898 ‘9 FHS FG PLR eegeebner sc a eine Sa Sheu als VE SS NO 0 Se ae i Se Re a beer gerne ree III aeasspeg SAO Iee nee RORUG an eaIES 0 | 8O0"8T | BOLE | £22 ; : PSP ‘6 I1'8 QUDIGSH.S. *Seexe pasos ee oie si seermmanse ace? OF "soot ]ONSTY Weg i ; is Ce ae We ges Mama | (P=. oe ea Pee oi an (0 gee ies aGe 2 52 eR SR RES Fe a Ct re rae Cee me CT IaH scsi eee eecereeseereeeeeeresrercteceec miprermrrt ; ig 18 9 ‘S21 T99 (SL GEAIOSE I 23 GSR Cs sseee aes 34: aaARONICOES Baaihic ans cee oe ON a ra eS - te Opie: | FROG | FO art cea eegeuanbaes cc 02022 72. SDUMIOIONE ; 10 ob PT LL “09 S68 ‘9% 988 ‘FOT ASS pane anya ya sss COURT 8:9rP T =| $06 z'9 802 (0% TPG (Poh | TLL (96 963 ‘SP 800‘0L9 | 868 ‘68 PIT ‘089 cesteseeteretissesececsssees = orgone . ‘ ¢ ¢ ‘ ¢ ‘ T¢ d IE SS Sa OVS 8 MR ETA PCIe ES a a ian eee oe f 61 02 ‘21 983 ‘Sb ce feo fave au | ive [ioe | ee HRY | be | art ‘ : 8 62% P9G ‘F8 110 ‘68 661 ‘TST st" 80S7 Tees eee anss- eae UT Ee (eC 4 m0 cm caer Cau seanientesceesiueeacaaieuaaamig ‘ SF 1p G89 ‘eh : poss ogy Saige ose eae 0 EI G88 4°93 226 '96 829 ‘09 TL0‘1 109 ‘9T OeT 1 16 ‘88 607 bee 110 rin fee few [ees RT [aio E/E | Rt| oset : IL 98 (ST Ty 82 ‘TE 99 ‘0% FOG ‘6ST BUINZ0} UO, & 862 8S 1°81 886 ‘P 0&2 ‘8 OLE 'F id 26 ‘OT 98h ‘f 21/8) 1g Le elie ie dk Go Sera RE ns eg Be "777 [R10UTL 1'¥6 o'PE 1°98 22 (09 SOT (LF 868 ‘OT LIL £82 ‘09 620 ‘F9 PSS PLT |” Eres aar lay aa ee wagers pH A EC) MAK 9°64 0°02 OLF (Far 295 961 020 ‘T SPF GS S80 802 GO ‘28 ERE GOP || aaer heen een Vee Links 6Apg ASR RE aime aR IE) 6 ZES 99 POL ZLO‘OFL | GLO'FOT —|: £96 “6S 680 ‘21 PSL ‘98% | OLE EP SETS Cig || PEM ehiors eye Sor SSSR 8 SIRES? SYRUT COUT €°209 T T'6L e°¢ OFF (69 Sgo‘eor | ZOOTOE =| ZT8 122 PLP‘ZCE —|- PSE LE Seaary hes Ree ee ers SS UA TARNO SS SPRANG SOL VAR ET 8 261 0°29 0°22 O&Z‘90T | Oz'ZOE =| E20 “L2 603 ‘8% 186 ‘29% | L98 ‘98T Poupuunies i iasem oe ee SSO ERR Seen “OW C'T add T'8P 91% 816 ‘oF 028 ‘61 916 ‘TS 6ST G86 ‘CL 908 ‘28 CO NTo Dens (vena SNARES NES ie oreo Rae 8°26 £63 662 PFS ‘8 094° Stak 756. Ze ‘9 G22 ‘9 8F6 (06 aes Sr eed P'82E 0°89 i! S61 (SLT | O86'FLT | EL £26 ‘P21 FEO ‘008 | 098 ‘16 189 ‘999 RPM SeceI ee awee CLEC ON ee rece ; s &69 & Sa coat "=" °°"! 926 168 182 ‘Z2T LEL FI 099613 |” D OLL “TL F19'8 98F ‘OST P20 ‘Ze 989°F2S | “penuyya0p9—Od VULOTOD “sdozo | 07488d *sdoip “10790 *pue[poo AA | *poaoidwy [RIOT Chae “pUvy WIR] ‘sdoro | ‘suravy Uy Seanoy oinysed —0} pojoa | 20490 ITV Uy puvy | PUvlIeIOL urseioy | -9P Puy Urey “pus oinyseg [8}01 Jo 0387 M0010g ‘ponuryu0j—(snsuao OT6T) sawnoo fig ‘sapag panuQ ayi ur suinf Uo pun) aLnjsoJ— JI AIAV, 23 "peyeurysy a ‘eT ‘d uo ‘ornjsed Ur o8voei0e OATSSODXO UL BUT}1OdeI So1}UNOd Jo e[qe4 909 v 6 I L'8 GLE OTF ‘681 809 82 ‘FI 926 ‘€ G98 ‘8T 89T “6S CER Giee 4 pairs ota So ne rae ene ner sae eon he eae "=" Tepspey Sg Fo | Seana (Dad 820 ‘ZI crag tg aaa) Peay at Seaa| Re coe awe Ie ere mea» 161 ‘ZT ooo Ope Be, OF, PST ne aa ao 08 ‘% L50 ‘81 G28 ‘OL 7777" RIQUIvOsS a q 9% €°8¢ % ‘89 8 IPT ‘98 £9F ‘9 106 ‘OTT eMC ALGH T ‘188 6 "IF 8 01 862 ‘EL ST Gee ‘G9 LL8 ‘OT LOS OG Tessa |e SC ear ees eee ee roan 7777770708 OG Z°9 91 0 °S% J8T ‘TE GOs 699 129 ‘OL LOV ‘GF roots -9ped ‘ ‘ ¢ ¢ ‘ 0 ‘81 & € "88 POE ‘CEL 116% P65 (6 TAT “GL 688 ‘91Z 77777 BIqQumMjod su 46=« [gue «deer—‘| 98 ‘Or ee Bonds eae idee = |beboeccencocecd. eo. Snneeboee ena useebo ebuoe eens ’ : : 9g8 ; : LOT ‘8% jana v@) PG 67 P61 POT 29 612 6£0 ‘F 006 ‘ST £0T ‘28 mm '1400)" 110) 9°8 91 8 ‘ST GE ‘0G 9 STP. PIS 'F FOGG Gea) | Solera eel ese = cine ei Ca ees cence cass pivAoig Z 08 801 1°98 9CT “CL e9¢e PLS ‘FT FSI ‘8h ae ae een ae a eames Cea Ree eee POLIO LPO ROO SOLE) MUO OCS 6° za! CPE BES ‘CS O61 Gre epe@oogaenal| (erp PPO ‘ET 11g ‘6g Saco ssneclse sc as.5'° STO wm oss 6°81 0 "68 198 “€8T T6L P68 ‘OF 196 ‘8 @ST ‘0g Té8 ‘06 ORSEPLCR =. Weesioiremnus ns ean a cceemtnar saan seeneonee SOS SINICA I\y = ei ‘VaCINOTL ea a L‘0F G0 €'0¢ PLL ‘T rat 621 OT ‘T IFS ‘T 8F0‘E €90 ‘9 Gas Bee QoD ROD aoe 2229999980222 29555562} (0 aad) (YO) LOMO) As) (aT i= ‘VICNN'TOO JO LOIMLSIG >|: BBE. éI TOT. Gad “P Z08 “2 TL0 ‘81 TF PIO (06 00g *€ ee a oe a es Te 99T 789 ‘T SIG ‘ST epee er "y Weve L SGP ‘9 89 ‘¢ foie ye ete le eT eee COKE 888 OEE (6% L508 £96 ‘26 029 ‘99 SIP ‘T L688 eh 806 ‘OF BIS ‘21 se 889 ‘F 60 “2 899 ‘C1 TFG ‘88 ia Ooh 21 0g OLP (AT G6 8 : Boh 1 £86 ‘T SLL FT LEL ‘8% 269‘ OEE “IZ @SI ST ‘08 86F ‘69 SEaay ett | OLGES eeu Gl Glues Org *2 Z19 | 206 ‘81 LLT 966 ‘ET 6A ‘LT ae ef | oeeaL TPL 99F % €L ‘TZ ware [oer fie eat | ah ‘ ¢ ‘ ‘ 98 OOF ‘OT cog ‘T 116 ‘TL £06 ‘28 8&6 £06 ‘9 89% OIL ‘8 068 ‘16 9GT 820% ate 86h % GIT ‘9 810 ‘T $9621 988 ‘T 898 “02 119 ‘2g ‘penurwopo—V aIuo Ta “10710 *puvl[pOO A | *peaoidmy [BIOL *pury oinyseg *sdo10 Ur pueyT gee “ecz “G 8L¢ ‘TFT al ¢ C16 “CL €F0 ‘G9 086 "826 619 (92 SP ‘66 616 ‘ST 688 ‘6F €F8 ‘OL O84 ‘EST SoP ST FOL ‘26 G9 ‘Zor va ISS ‘STZ SPP ‘29 G6b 19% He ‘ PRG ‘L6L GOT “FS POL ‘ZIT 280 ‘ZOT Sar ‘COT 098 ‘08 186 ‘E11 29S “GG 602 ‘F9T “SUIIV] UT purl [B}O, Bie ep Nae A Aa ate a ea ta SI a Sabha asae ALTON elges susie pe oY U0}[B AA "772 OMB AL Tien ee ClSLLLOy CRORE See gee pe TRTO TAGS -="=""990BALNG ene Gnosis “--"esoy BIUeS HP ee aps Aptis page mas SSOP OCS Con oo ae elon’y yuIeg ~" "ayo JULES Se ode ghs p Bi etl. ie eelLodl FS eae ae Sr OOS f Stele bias “yovod Weg anne | OOS) +77>>> esUeIO +o 555 *""TBsSseny 775 ** = QOIMOTT een CLOLEG 1A! SS **90)CUR fl “ORT -----9990AR]U'T -- mosI0yo¢ Sra TOS ORT Eeisicicieis BOSD R RCAC OOS HOSE soos" " "==" 3NOI10OQS|ITEL sricleisic(sie/s= --"--QpuBaio FL SSSI OSS oof jaa k:} 8 | “Ajuno0D ‘penulyuoj—(snswao OF6T) sauunod fig ‘samig panuQ ey? wr suntof UO pun) ainisog— TI ATAV, 25 ¢ "69 1 6E 06 ; T 7 ZS 1°81 6 IZ L PGP 6 8 ‘80 ce I eniin 072 Ee ee 91z A 106 ‘ 6LI ‘6 PIL ‘e 6°GE GE $6 PER (O31 CZ I LIL ie OLL‘T 368 ‘OT ons zat ovo} f gots 8 oh ae 4005 } 6IL% 786 ‘08 182 ‘2 Bur bas o-OF Sade eS | Onn 23 veo | Sa ue eave. paz LT 1°9 es 909 ‘99 z00‘T 616‘ 092 819 ‘T 699 $8 PES SBE ieee eee ee 0'er T's 0 in O8F ‘co C&Z T82 ‘6 £68 ‘T ogg ‘% 899 9% 998 661 ceeeeceeees qcciaccoeaa a ope eat ZIP SZ ‘EIT 190 ‘T 968 ‘F TI¢‘T 080 ‘9 Ga rl gle Bee cote ae es ae ses aaa oh Wate ie 8 °SZ PLP ‘6S 000 ‘T 687 IT ELF P66 (ZI Bape eee FORD SROR IPSEC ROTA 9 98 % 20 FG), “OSC 188 °Z 6FS ‘ST £66 ‘T PES '¢ Pe LE € 161 iene jee a 9rL pace 19099 cog ‘T 189 LT PL 0g8 ‘ET [60 ‘29 IS ee eee one on aOGTE: s 8s r% 0 199‘ 9 906 upyduny S| ais nn 6'TS oento P98 ‘T azo po ‘T cents 991 ‘66 12 182 >*-SopUM Ory 5 G'S q G18 1F6 ‘ 6ST ‘T 2 02 gee “F ol 260 ‘681 9 est >>" -gyoour LOT 9°6 6 “ZS 6 (66 9% 90P 9 L61. 816 (9% She ‘F8 PLL OIF FEsesVeT ANT mm S 2 ae 6 "IT Gobi ee GPT ‘T auye 18 oe 962 ‘PL ea (91g eee si re at 0'8 : PIS ‘881 6 ZIT 12 ‘ 999 ‘T ‘ G6T ‘PPT oe 90'T cna 4 ote 8°29 OF‘ eh ‘ $96 @ ‘ 918 ‘09 ‘ staime @® 8'lF qT ¢ "Eg OF (02 969 919 & 621 Te ($0 862 ‘SET 6Te Zor ~++* = 8900 Peet) 4 6 raged Ho (58 1eL‘F a ail LOT % per TIT ‘61 GOP (19% s Anais 191 a 8°09 Fe a 9 10,08 699 ‘F GeP (PT G16 6 Oa eosea cre ceeues a SUp(UO ie PPS o'8 63S 8e (86 022 '% 129 (Ol 660 ‘T COP (8e G69 ‘98 £18 (641 >>> W008) t Oo 8% Bee once ipeeenaeey 228) 606 (6 poe! ace Ree | eee SEaurien : SUL a8 988 ‘92, us £08 ‘ET 96 EhS FL oo &P tuplope, |essceneeeetter secure ieee sce 7 SGC Bor lel PIG G" 6 1G 99 ie tera G 9 Qf £89 (ya 8P9 OLT 270 £ “109ase a 0°99 8 8 68 997 oo 992 ‘¢ a (el P80 ‘9 ese al ZIP ‘TO 829 066 amos f A 9-08 0°02 Fe 262 ‘92T oes ‘¢ £88 ‘6 ree £98 ‘1G E90 ia 600 ‘Z6T baie SxOCL ‘ 898 6 ‘eT BGP 682 €2 eh8 ‘90 €9T €T LOT ‘F esp 91 OGF ‘cy siete beset cr e csice -woysn a = 8 SL OIL 0°08 88T £01 996 ‘F 290 ST? PPG ‘PD 998 0G 90F {26 he apaeneeeeeetenese a maeeecaetT aS arate tr oH EP once as 9°61 TOS {ThE | Shh SE OOP ie | 28279 GPS ‘66> | PIG ‘ep Pog Ve -+++- pawl ms 128 get 1 0b 986 (98 168 ‘T 928 (LT $12‘ BIG Se LOLS C98 (SPL soe eaneet a 6 ‘OL 5 ‘eT ZIP ane EET 6202 Tad ot 189 ‘1 Bho (9% TS0 808 (£86 pest rc, peal CAS Ro 3 GE nae (26 060 ‘E nas (ae 129 ‘¢ the ol 181 °G% ae (OG ss “WOSTBIB a e889 4 1 € "Te aN ‘er | GEG ae Al pen G oe ie FOG “BIT 9Gh TEI oS HOR aad Te 0°9 ‘IL | 962 T Gd O&P 6L (9% p9E ‘G8 SPS (G8e spESbaalye ag OR LIL 90'S Ge9 ‘29 66T P98 ‘PT 6e9 ‘ PST ‘8 G18 22 ‘Z0% a arene H . c 6" x 62e! . Gon‘ 99 88 ‘ 18 $2 ¢ 0 (ao me Ysioq ev £08 Or POT 2 686° mh I rah 8G (£6 #60 ‘ZO bg (CEC VOUT - 9°83 g ‘01 8°82 bee etst | Te 819 2 Ost ‘T ao0 IST '€ 886 (861 = SuaOID PD Ze g'yr 60S aa oe oh OPS AT 91g ‘e G18 (b Lee ‘Ze BBL 29 erpes pei = hat [awe | orp ‘ig | 8h9¢ re 809 eeb TG | GLE FG Gee 09 + MOpIot © 0° 8 "eI I PP ‘EL POPS ZI ‘PT 189! 012 ‘9 ‘ 6EI ‘261 secee 3) Pon] 16 ze €8 LBZ ‘ce PP 908 o 89% OOF ‘ £0OT LT 6IPS umd,» So) T 9 SF wet | SOLIT Bo8 Ul 882 ‘G Ae OOT ‘GL (82 “= jooasseyt 88L ‘GF za6 ‘ LEL ‘8% 366‘ 809 ‘ST ‘ Beau ease geereerececee rere ceesncaere eet 9) 86 F 96‘ 66 F 1e8 | Lab PS Gate ieee oe ese err ei eee RG)eetitey a 9 Aya 4 62L 2 290 ‘sg bl oe 5 haa U0}, a I8h ‘bg BA *ulpyUBs 2 866 ‘TIT : -NYASIO : : *ponutyu 200 Sean eect 5 ee oinysvg | *sdorp HueO—~VIDNOUD op 0A0y s - *10T10 e = fer) OOT 10d ; puvlpoo | ° E ornysed 3 puey urrey | M|*poaosdury| —*pejoy, ulsoloy | “OP puvy eee OC LORLL A 18907 Jo 3B] M00I0 *sdoio ‘ cD “pue SULIey UT a MN uy puwy | PULL [EOL ; Aqunop 26 t 0) ( . . . 27 “poJeUTIS i o PLE ; aa TST ‘ ZS ee €0F Q°LT veel 8°LT La Z0rZ é 9 °S6 0°ZI €'8E 91 (98 C66‘ 6h. (OL 19a‘ epg “GZ ea hey nizos | ep e090 | iu Oe Ee a im 9° “ST C6 “CG eP6 ‘FP a] Cc) QLL ‘ST (36 L6F ‘ SacpboRSGodapropOS £'0 3 C'8 cP 626 ‘21 ‘ 199 ‘Z CPT cea eLearn eR eo pe Aas SIG ‘FT 818 ______| 2an'8 609‘¢ Bde Ieee CLE VOLT BPS I Se Nip te SUIS as EECA a oe 1°9 as 088 det 680‘ ay ee GL9°2, GepEO ee “7 nosd a *'8 ¢ "99 q IST bL PST‘ oI 1 ees ae "77 worm 4 $2 : 298 ‘ZG 4 SR 69 ‘ 916‘ TERteGee on seracestesteceeoecec ans CRI} G LT 9° Z ‘8% ‘ ger‘ 58 8 ‘ 168 ‘€ 6h fgg, [ececececcececeeeecececeeeeceeeee. soon eet NG x i 9°¢ ; £20 ‘PRT ob rd GOL S é FILS Ce eee O00 uy aa : 8 SE ‘ OP OP POL L LE Jy aes os eek co 2) oun, mM 3 z 4 £19 ‘LET aid g1¢ IT OILS ea ae --q T&T 5 ZUG F z9 1&¥ Est! IT 26 ag ern pe eens LCE So: 9°¢ E 189 ‘Zo g ‘ IPL L bard £99 ‘GGZ ae . 5 £S : 6 SP 1d (C4 tPF LI¢'8 ‘ 918 F % SIL Te camel eee aerate “*suMog, fe 6c € 61 P* £66 ‘TS Cg 689 ‘ 698 ‘8¢ Fee sche emcee eee ena S¢{U100 a s P'S eto 91818 CLD ‘ eh 899 IT 810! WON: Pecos eee TOOT, Tee ‘ 0°89 ? cge‘ 986 bP SLL 10 89 ee ee ee SPE ocres — d Il ; ZCL ‘90 g& ‘ 1892 GER S 6G8 ‘20% e ! LFS IL LTP (201 TZ‘ PST 9% é 669 ‘¢ B GL Pl ete ee _ semouy . ial : 919 ‘ZOT 4 BRS G1Z°¢ a? zee se 868 “SE ** yor y, L ‘61 6 ‘OL 6°96 OFS SLE fey 2 080 ‘ 1&6 FE ( P 0z0 ‘0 3 107, 6°98 3 Tee ne G IPE ‘IT aL! CZ ¢ GF6 9 ‘ T as INCA TL, coo) : 02 : CTs ‘6e 96 ‘ 16 ‘2 ¢ 6 au 689 ‘O8T 2 6 FS : G28 Of 062 G19 TT 098‘ 189 09T ‘ ee, : 9 ‘01 ws OT ‘OST LT Tez ‘ 996 (06 990 ‘ FE8 926 Ie QQ 0% e" 9 'GF ‘ eT G% 8 ‘ G09 ‘E 0 88 ‘ snaaiaep Wea . Or q LIT ‘OF Teg 699 % el 918 Z0¢‘FI@ [tt : OL10Je ie Sel OF 8 ‘OF a 260 ‘T G88 002 ‘ZT FZ BOY IS SE ee secsccecice -: LOCC, . 3 9 ‘TE 190‘ 9E€ ‘ QQP ‘Ff pie ee ae 40 za GALT Zc 028 GF‘ GCL 3 cee 086 ‘Se Aa) Ue Ge AEE e] 6 ‘9ST g° 6 ‘OF 9 8 1ST Gi sg ¢ LL al SPP ‘OL £09 oO ers eel ae ee Ce Joy ua Nng ¥-ST AT | Gc Och 601 — | 09‘ 683 F oe e39‘L aeoiy | Ler 86. Seer Then g eZ 6°¢ F'8e O10 ‘F8 cee! 802 ‘2 oor T 9Pe ‘9 TPS ‘FE 6 ¥ 86 suoydeyg a «69S 2°6 ts ee 9ST ‘ZT 6r9 Z 666‘ 629 29 ee _ smpreds iS 1G oe face — | Sou‘oe ele ot S| Cis ne eee A q T8 ¢ OFT £90 16 és 9G ‘8 patel iS] eeeecasi ae L'se 961 96 ¢ OF TT : ZP6< CTP ‘ST (800 775°" £otgog ca) L1G 66 ¢: 9F0 ‘92 1g 826 G 88% SG Al 986 ‘TE 8LP SIL “-a[Bpx00 a ig 9°8 ‘Ps 969 ‘29 ooh ‘ 199 816 (OF ‘ [62 ‘€8 opp atin €°¢ A ‘ G16 °¢ ¢ Toe “29 ** puouryor Zee [em [ist roost fie, | Be a | tees wing |ewciter | a de ener Sc ITs : 88 ‘ BPs‘ LE LI “ 108 ‘2 9 (8a ‘ ace pee : L$ 4 P98 ‘88 g ‘ 19% I ZIL‘ 18 ST ueur 5 € ‘91 ; 1 FF é Ber! FE 9 ‘ Z61 ‘0 L 16 ‘ ymM® ; 16 q 6EE ‘96 iy OSL‘ 8&0 ‘T (06 £96‘ GTZ 621 ara , 6°99 99%‘ 82ST ‘ 928 vg ‘ : 19 5 peL ‘Oe ef ‘ 908 ‘F a 66T‘ 9GL E&Z 58h 169 ; iI‘ TI8 (82 ‘ PLL‘ TSG ( : 9 ‘OT Q 198 ‘8¢ I pec‘ £02 ‘F (PG cg FG ‘6IT £68 : TPE ; 66 ‘T 89 °9 O82! 082 ‘TS a 968 ‘ cr 6'L Z-02 QLL ‘2S een 16e ‘2 BLT SF 214 ‘O01 Sor ; 16 ; 102 ‘Z 1% 06! ogg ‘T 6 166 ‘ Tee ‘82s 0 . 8 '8g IL PLT‘ 196 21 ¢ FST ‘0 G 8g ¢ 3 2 0'T : 6EF ‘8g I ‘ 26S ‘% LU 102‘ 618 FOL soaoeec sue 9 "Gh 0 Tee ‘ 6FI‘T 90 2 TST‘ LL ‘LT 68 9Iz‘ reeeseguee 68 OT | Ce Ea OUT ‘er au BOF ¢ TP (98 a suossccodoqe RO f 6'e i GPL Z OL T ‘ ose ‘% oT. Tog‘ $96 90T - 7 eds0yyoI3 888 : 8 Sh IL Lop! 002 °T GF9< 9¢ Te ‘ 8 EOL EXO) : oe ; 609 ‘¢ b 6 ‘ LLY oT TLL OLT “9ST aaeemas ou S11 2 6°68 SPT 0¢ 096 ‘92 6 900‘ T LOT 7 & Fag Ae eoUOOO. : re ‘ 020 ‘8 € ‘ 088 ‘8 3 zcg‘ CGS ‘281 area oD 109M 2 T 91 D 1°08 ¢ te £69 ‘T 6LP 6 LLZ‘SP 8 86 161 ‘ EOE ON von L'8 woe | gre tL | oat 229 ‘9 yo8) ue isr | SF (90E | 09 (366 aaSoosny 12 T9 6 FE 8E6 (36 160 ‘2 ole ie Aue £20 ‘TT TOL (121 ee i “Avimy 2°81 Let e-0¢ 226 ‘601 C62 108 ‘ST OSG - ZPL‘e 009 ‘ze ° T 822 seisieieine ini iy uesI0y, Sige 1°6 Z'ec P16 Lg 8 & 108 ‘¢ 699 090‘ er ‘ee Pg 18 beens OULCAIUOTY €°08 é e972 ‘EL at 6z¢ 018 ‘I (06 19%‘ 0c0 60T 2 ee OLEC) 16 160 “61 ad O1z ia 880 ‘% nee aban 996 (99% : oe TTOqOTETN wate 912 ‘9 pea ipa PIL ‘82 ay et Sea Si ecas cane eee gT9 V- iecsasicrescsbancouasese Fabig ): ees agree $99 6 ogg iol 999 ‘861 eee eres ToUpoi OW OFS TE Bebe rH San Jooasoooa5daqa0GonG 7 WOLe cocci cece cecceereesecesces go weet eee eee ee ee “1008 Gio BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 28 9 "C9 8 "Eo 48 19626 818 ‘FS8 G86 ‘Z6P P16 ‘OF LIO‘F6E‘T | BE6 ‘OTS 009 {069°C |= peed ad eed US aaa abe ro Rae 7" "1890, P '888 5 °€9 Ts 180 ‘FST 060 ‘9° L¥8 ‘99 SST ‘8 G60 ‘TEs 196 °L8 OP AGEey A\;cereceRene lea Boer aenane CR ey Roos 77 o 70 oe BNE co cay Aceh Be Ler oie ‘PE SZI ‘TOT 608 ‘9 P89 ‘GPT PEL “8b VLO AGO 6. SU Geapeanicntie page eats Tanto batt a EE ee 7 *TeUB ST "68 i : OF ‘9 ae ie amare" a ROOT AD ‘4 TOPROM (= Slang iare bcntece va ae bed Rene PREM ESE PERS ICT ope “OBMETB ST £ 01g 20g £ ‘OL TZL ‘P8 OFZ ‘T9 &09 ‘OF OST ‘8% 866 ‘621 G06 ‘Tr PROROCG's. lated rhc oe ney da nea eae RARE ae hen ae ~ nyHOuo 9162 FOS 9°9 102 ‘E19 8&8 “96F TIL “£86 F616 EFS “ESL 210 ‘66 ROO BODE UM lccien Vn Ane ae ke Reo Re ve char LIER ATTE FSSA ATES ABEL TIVMVH 9 "SZ 56 "98 0s0 ‘ceo “FT | 198 ‘29% ££ ‘996 ‘T | GOs ‘ETE BOERZES KG al AoONOoS) Gog Behymeso, OCH ncn ease na Gace Se eae “7 "[RI0L ian 9° I Lp GIT ‘90T Tg GPT 'T 00T £68 ‘T GPL ‘C6 LPT ‘£08 77°" 0M 9 ‘OT £8 Ze L6G" €F1 €8h ‘1 9c9'¢ £60 5% BEG ‘L ESE ‘89 GLI ‘61 *-WOSUryTEAA as Y a 4 a fe a | 2988 PFS ‘83 L0G % BEE FE LGC CNL I RELORC GG e> AI coe ae ogee ae eee aa 7SOSTEAA re i " i 3 EOWOY Wie a5" 999 °9 ELE "EL SEMSRIS') aloe ty cee gees bee Teme gee oe ee aR ee “777 XOOTTAN 6 “0S Pe P92 GEL (16 G08 T 6F9 “ST 196 ‘9 808 ‘12 OF8 ‘GP tS TAO ie (Gee em opcee 2 pea ei cal com apa 77 POUT pg G01 £81 cos (OL z89 CFL'8 188 ‘T pre “IT GIL ‘61 EU ese | Saco eet pene cone eee ee 2 7777" OUT M b'ST L°8 WAZ O61 ‘LP 806 ‘T 891'9 88 ‘T P98 “6 G08 ‘0¢ 698 ‘201 "7740980. AA 9 “PET 6 '€T £01 02S (GFZ (be PIE ‘bP Ibs ‘Pb 886 ‘Ze ite) DIRS |e sere ones arte oor cepd e SAN ARES Bel BRO BARES. 7oukR 0'ST 0'8 £789 OvP CET 960‘¢ £96 °2S 899 ‘T LEE ‘LE 6LT 2ST G6 ‘IPE "77 "Woy suTYse AA G "ee 9°91 16h GLI ‘eS 912 ‘¢ 999 ‘8T 196 ‘T 6PE 96 SPL ‘SL POG ‘SCT 2°08 GOL 0°81 £80 (961 SOL. SST LT cI £98 ‘LT £68 ‘16 HD, TAUIGONC., |S2s es ae ee ane A eee eR ce oem 9°81 & ‘01 Lvs #25 ‘OL gE ‘¢ £29 “EI 66d ‘I 618 ‘0G 902 “601 (0) (00S a | aie aR ena NIE ERE amtane Sep 2 22° F 98 g°8 F°& 686 ‘OFT 01g pop 9 8S ‘TI GLZ‘8T BEG ‘0S £62 “FIZ ‘penur}wo9—VIDUWOAD “sdoz | O2D18ta *sdo1p “10710 *purlpoo A | *poAoiduy [B10], cuatend “purl WIRY *sdoao *SUIIB] UT *4yun09 eim4ysed —0} pojoa 101}0 [LV urpueyT | puel [e}OL uUrlso1oy | -9P PuUe[ UIey *puvy om4seq 1&}0 Jo ose medI0g “ponutju0V—(snsuao QT6T) sauwnos hg ‘sawig panugQ ay? ur suupf UO pun) ainIsvg_— JT TIAV, 29 P . 6 Ore 8° G é 8 a hee py £6 6 ie ae 68¢ c uy I "8o 19 sae “LP 3: z 9° I 9° 891 98 pean £09‘ 0 6 ¢: yh erenee ii li 2° (4 $ eH ee 0°39 cies L Ae poe 0-09 Liste ae nee eng oe eiciue ier wi a8 ce "18 at ea oe ‘ST rd 8 9 ag 8 Gze ‘ 9 FPS T 6S“ SI rae Gate 0 ¢ 8 T g 9 ¢ : ; 67 8 9% 9 ae TS ee 89 G2 961 al a ree eve POF 1 cec:t £00 26 8 Pa 9¢ ; 62 8 a bie ee ore oA ai re Bee 0 ae Bee nace soo) Lar Se Face ; ale ee a a ae . ¢ Ye, ¢ : = © : ee Ae 020 & 00 (SG aU BS a L 17 196 z aude Te (ot I0F (36 ¢00 (19 = ze vg ser ae 629 & ecg (ol 188 ov 162 hh gg‘ a 7 ge ee vee ‘ ae 109 re We ie as ee ee wel 4 886 aL‘Ld er £206 eae tre'89 cF0 20 ¢ 9°9 LF pee oe Hien Bear Our 016 om a CF Zz ae ae ane 26 rol CO ee ze! IZ SFT‘ 0% fa c ae 19% Of SF OT ae ie GAs a ues cs ve asl 509 pee P ree: ae Ove inp ‘t2 Be au 8 c00 2 si e ra 6° 5 z 0‘9 3 ¢ 66 o6¢ I PP 08 7p) 18 Sale TL 6 175 aE (1G 00 (06 €8 Au! 68 08 2 #99 6 tee coe ‘ere'e OL ae One ash: J8F ESP G08 ra 19 ELT ead 6TE tee 8 6 ‘88 F008 S18: 108 gerne 9% Aus Fon z 8 QT ever T OF I ic ech ae race 62 OF II 8e oF’ eer ee! OT TES GP g ‘TST 9 ‘ST PF 6% oe at 868'sc9 €9 760 os P8L (28 200 309 08k He vel 6 68 Z Mende. eras eters s § baad eg! OF 66 L (4 8 12 8 LT Gs 86 CL 8 0F 088 Ace corte gooey SIF‘ 2 ‘0S Te! se) e © "C6 9 ‘OF ; "83 ce ‘£08 186 if CLE I He a ae au Sonn Z 18 FOL Fp ag TIO eT 080‘ CIF‘ | : oe Ce ae ast ee Pp 89 2% re oD cn 699% Aap seus SIO 898 ee 8 ueyd pera aoe ia sus 6 ci 56 On &8 zee NITI os (eee 3 Be **PIO]AMCA) = 9° 1é Gs I pate eee pa 8g al eae $09‘ I ace ee ee Med “OL ae 8 6 8 9'e 0 9 6F i eae “30 fe) Hee eae LSI i es OF eos ‘28 aA : lz cue iT . eee “233109 668 rte 622 sso cane Hae ee doe ror! cesen UI 9 ‘9g 6°9 0 ‘Or Teg 26 C6 (COL C68 a T@L OL 290 a ee T69 2c05 Soeeene sre 9°¢ 9 Té 88' OIL €L JP 660 (oh 666 (it GP & Leg ‘ I ome ae ‘a3 ES BIO, ee L ne eae eee eee aa not ¥ 0s sireduiet z 8% ore Seen a e005 s10/8 30 ‘9 G6 | 9 “09 '680'¢ core ++: emg 10 02 oat is ee ce F aes Te gn‘ 9 nae £82‘ eee oe pate) ore oes jG aaeule Deh T oFeo 682 281 oe 800 ‘ Giles Bet tet “tout oes Te‘ OT 812 (6 Whe L9F‘ oa ie Fees ae eee toes Sag pmen ““unoute Ge O10 one 0 raat) 6 Ose race cane Feeeat aoe mee ens "hall ps6 ue ae ue a y 686 {4 pe TO LPS a 8Z¢ (ol Seen anes eee soee ore ee cot S20 Fe2‘0 oe ce pu Bo suse seats ae “oU00 gf 9 ato c8 6001 S22 01 rors £60 0h aeeeeee — aoe oe oa 6g‘ IT LP‘ 8 gy,‘ PT LPL‘ = pe a E86 oe POP‘ PLP ll ele 7 96F ag 9&2 (POL ee ee The ie 286 & GLB (06 691 (OE SEF = Vv 100 ‘¢ 612 ‘ € cso (a6 CPE BiG 208 (OPE ee £80 ‘F a ur 086 Ge FOF mB)! T&8 (_2=s= fra 198 ig Eevee ae eee nee rene pee are eae aeee : [B10 668‘ I aay eae Bae sees oe L ia anodes TEL (OL 892 (bh eee 043 rae eae Saree Sos SC See --- Bicea: GOF 28 ¢80 28 80 (CLG aCe 996) ci ase MA. 1% er eee Soa uO TA aie CBE OL es Besa ae “9 nee 8 8h 912 eee sees Tou SE ufo 2Ee 19 a -- “WjOourT 10 Is - O : IU al fc Ae san eluue 18 stat ave © 110034 ercceee 40 yep sta “9 roe) T eres row esas! wooo aR aes See Rae ‘Jo kates sfc hieane eee =e) 10 Bepee es be ae cee ae ad oo ea rica £68 P93 T'¥9 690 (28 £04 ‘OT 119 98 B19 ‘8h 9F6 £68 TLL ‘926 | OLL ‘E98 “*s*ysnouo gow 2'ST FT 2°6L 61P 122 900 '% 969 ‘VT 6B ‘88 008 ‘og 698 “808 SL 188 ae aero £1 P01 9'¥8 GbE “es SPL 'P £90 21 108 {09 666 ‘99 O12 ‘OFS 199 ‘9b9 “= MOySBUyAVT, 88 B83 TOL 629 (8% 100 166 GP6 PT TSI ‘09 110 ‘OT SOT TTS — | PIS ‘ehP metre bu ar Jem feo | ouoer | tenty | ateog | Sewer | gogagr | ety oo Song eT : 88 ‘08ST G06 ‘98h 991 (000 “OTTBS 8" Soom fie fem [irr fonar flees |RO Jot [Brae | ha cue 694 ‘OBI LOT $9 88 ‘F2h "SS COU 5 61% P08 0°82 P86 ‘21 POLY GOL ‘eT TO ‘2G 206 ‘68 £86 Gil PLL (SOT --tpepuost Soe UR [68 [ene [Ree [ate ore REGG |S | ae if POT ‘06 899 OL PSB ‘608 beh Srey P 8h ar 128 996 a 681 P 99h TS BLT 6G 89 FS POL PL 88h ‘10% -+--nosuyor OS 0°86 8h 0% ORL ‘TS £0Z ‘96 GL9 P9 G08 ‘09 189 ‘T9T 699 ‘6ST OST (898 “-"*ssoranq of SS ee a “sou a 0°88 raat a) 861129 £90 ‘T G63 BI GPL ‘8h L6¥ ‘19 030 191 O28 ‘06% ~=ssyodsep L'L8 9°21 8 '9P 989 ‘SOT BHO (9 BLT ‘08 SPL ‘ST 696 ‘89 POT ‘SPL 694 ‘C08 “* oOsyowe Fe ae 2 a x 08 es ie ues te ue re 168‘ 6 6ST ‘SOT 996 “PPS 988 ‘629 “sjonboay ; ; 79 ‘88 Ka % 196 | PSE ‘681 O86 ‘98 £26 ‘F098 ~*** Samo ey eee oe T'89 888 ‘13 969 (2 BBL ‘8B OLP ‘63 288 ‘99 G69 ‘T2I OGRE OR SAE GS Same gees Ue rier cs ieee a Re Os cont uossopuolt £901 118 & 62 OTL ‘OF 620'T 61S (OT 818 ‘ST 116 ‘18 966 ‘62 DILGROOU, coe silico cada wens ctr Saat a a ene eee RR “UIpAvA A 82a 9°08 £'89 £69 ‘89 £84 (81 169 ‘89 O88 ‘8, 698 OFT 198612 | 616 ‘6LP ** yooouv Hy fe -onTg 9°98 Q°19 829 PS 086 '9 GbE eT LLb va 6PL ‘99 aig (2 966 ‘2% “U0 [ fore Goa |e oor faut |S EN |e S| SR |B aie : ‘ve t Bg i G2 ‘O0T S¢6 ‘901 629 ‘808 “ouO0JE) I L'% g°oT & 09 G09 ‘68 BOL ‘T L00'6 E8b PT BIG (9% 926 (26 £69 (ZOT “UPFBLLBD) il O'Lg o18 £99 009 ‘99 PLG 108 919 ‘06 199 (68 LPS (691 fd ‘08% GG ‘908 OL eee ee ec we A 09% L¥% Leg L81 ‘06 10919 aby OF 868 (29 Te ‘801 voe Ve GES ‘LTP “oodeq . . ‘ ‘ ‘ Cane DEE, 1'¥3 L'¥9 GFP 69 928 POS LG VEG ‘08 £98 °29 800 ‘PST UES Laie ole aoe are Sa ba ta Wey su QD s8'bh $83 9°29 083 ‘98 PIP T 820 ‘8 GL6 ‘FS PIO ‘PE POT LPT SPIBADGL Naas 12 £°0L £99 (88 606 ‘8 G18 ‘VG £16 bo 998 8 OST T88 “IBID OT b P88 9% 9°99 GOP (0 808 ‘OT SPL SL OPP ‘2% O16 PP OGRE) Dog Siemnyae Mem npM eee Heo < ASCE ETS aS osedng 6 ‘02 POT b's. PLY ‘Sl 992 °% 069 ‘OT LOT ‘6 £20 (Gh is ‘00% BLP 99% "* *sepsnod Ss 0°28 $02 6 "SL 128 ‘8 68P 12 $29 (61 £06 (22 280 ‘08 SeT “S81 166 ‘8h3 “ATMO QQ 866 9°16 O'PL 986.91 EOF “OT 828 ‘TI PSL ‘99 690 P8 PPS “182 BREGSRG GVRSERCMe Sane terrrrrererse sehr entre Cea rea “QO. i e Ee ponuy}to9—STONIT TIL a Se ae 4 “sdoro | OLMIS *sdorp “10T.0 *pueppoo AA | *poaoiduy [BIO 3 aca *puvy Urey = *sdo10 *SUIIG] UT *“ z 61 Or 8 u 14 og ay iu Pe a On se ae ¢ © ‘ -- ts) Si! 9 CT OF: “ag 180‘ (4 Te ‘¢ L 8 6 29 P Tel euiiy ane res Lise is deh a a Ea cn ae tae er ‘ ee een ae eet 16000 01 1 copa ue ie 9. 569 (B91 Bee oe es ‘ risen peat 18) ae oy Cee eee an ud at ‘082 ieee ves on Tou‘ Ov0 Te dn ui to 066 aoe fue - a4 186 ae WA 5) 0h 130 98 - £003 nO cea no Sten ‘3 202004 anid “D 0.10 ceo eee . SB “1eusieN Basta 0 ao onan cs - 4 b S re o < Fy fo) H A a a a ea < Ay es A a) b oO fm] Ne) A = a 4 4 = a 32 10S 1°83 9S PGI ‘26 68 °9 OL8 ‘G8 818 ‘9% L0T ‘89 962 PET NOCRHGGE aTaaee ae Tea eres eesee eh Seer erat ee TORT OOn 168 19 09 L8P 8 A181 F G86 °66 £98 £66 $02 °89 196 “6PT OPT PES Torrpetiptrintsst ss woysanmo yy L08 PT 9°69 829 ‘91 092 *T £99 ‘OT 126 ‘08 PPE (68 SPT ‘821 020 ‘PST bE JER BRE [aie Jame [aes faethe [atone jag foscsrscccecce ‘Sut Lg 0°86 P'Se 696 PIT 920° 01 920 19% SLT ‘86 L6E°E9 608 OTT COP (886 7727 WOSHIe L'T8 9°16 0°89 TOP ‘61 683‘ 092 ‘81 BLT ‘0G LOT ‘OF G69 ‘9GT OGT ‘98T *==*= yoooue yy Ee 5 ee Y Cy Es a re ie £80 ‘66 agg ie 2g fag 896 ‘£91 GLE EG 77> worTare 3 : { ; : Giga 183 ‘99 PIP ‘POT TPP ‘221 £10‘STe euler) g aig at 1°09 P92 ‘66 666 *€ GLI ‘9G 690 (28 £4 ‘19 088 ‘OFT 198 ‘946 “77 qUeID oy fide [Eee /RRe es [iat fomce [tives icant | ei Ht 9°98 Pee 9°88 6hE ‘29 8h8 ‘ST P86 ‘62 GOP ‘ee 18° 08 96828. ze Ove ea oth B'9% aera) ISP ‘2% 288 ‘G LLE 08 Gh8 2G 209 ‘89 201 Gor CPS Ore : ayeaTo. P ‘8h BST 0°88 SLT Ge GOL 'S 862 ‘9 6h ‘9 Z08 ‘PI 612 ‘08 6Gn ‘OR. BS irc 0-29 8°96 9°I¢ 100 {62 eh0'P 698 “¢ ‘ 900° 69 ZF ered i : : ; ; 298 ‘GT OOT‘9F 90098 LST ‘69 006 FET "OV 04 BAT 0-19 aac jee |sooos leear |ornse [eepse |oeose | teoror | sueeoe aoe 0°LF 9°82 8°09 Seb {9a 8a‘ 208 “FG 989 {OP GPL ‘89 eeg‘ort | esp ‘ore “==-9atiKGlOCL 8°Lp 6'9% 6°99 PHO ‘LE OLT‘G ¢00 ‘TE 629 ‘82 20169 MetreE | GOBITGR| [teesecttesteteenscccsoeweessescoccnenmaceennunexas Greed T¥9 Toe |soo |err'ze | oze‘or est'zz | aua “te T9029 | zte‘eet | TAT ‘eee “77 ssanyRooq, P'89 008 8 "eh Z69 ‘Sb Gee ‘ST 096 {CT TZ ‘12 ggg ‘ag 12018 COP = WO yUT[ g'eG 09 { ays ne DUY | we a (Gd oy Ag 2A Ga Soe rae ‘eg G°9G & 6F 892 (18 989 °F 826 (96 869 ‘96 602 ‘98 PRP “POL 19b ‘ZIG "77 AtI9, oP one - |o09 |eorue |eeo's |ocve |eone |reeto |tor‘tcr | sen‘ore Srapone Tg & "& &P9 089 ‘86 POS 'P G99 “VG GPE «ES SLL (09 GLI OPT 0891206 72257 TO1T8O COT Z 9% 0°93 69h ‘82 P18 ‘8 OFS ‘ET. SOL FS ST ‘Gh LS ‘OP 862 ‘09T ~- UMOIg, £788 LC £89 POL *ES LEO 'T 610 TE GOo ‘26 89T £09 POUR eed SSR GL GMe 4 enum pants eee gc can be eae * 9u00 G'1g 6°66 0°89 Th6 ‘TT eh T G06 ‘OT P28 ‘OT BLE ‘6S 090 {28 SUGISBMS lgncce eo Seta ee ee ee ere toe renee pAlOjYOUy O°LT LPT LGB Se ‘8 10‘P G16‘ OTS £26 P6P ‘98 POS ‘80B IGT ELS ssor ss *>sOn TO gp Aes 0 ‘6 899 01a {68 999 °F 026 ‘08 19916 LLG "OF SIT (681 006 ‘PFS SS ae ae a gee eo Uda OURS EL GZ 8°69 ThE 129 LLP TT 12689 266 ‘G8 968 ‘TOL G19 £98G ale ‘S68 UOTLV 9 ‘OF 8 °SS 9°89 100 °%% OPP P 012 ‘2% 062 “9% 086 8 G98 “ZET CORBRU CMe Wie os emetic cs ose a ware ana hr soeeeres SUBD VY “VNVICNI ‘sdorg | OLMIS “sdoiy “10T1.0 *purlpoo AA | *poAordury *[BIOT, UT So10R es 5 | ae a eee OT qod pury UNIV sdoio SULTRy ur * LOIN & "FS 0°F% 002 66012 00 ‘16 668 1 £58 ‘86 GEL ‘es pope | ose ‘ore 7777 TRISEA BUEN 8 70S 0°38 69 BPR “LT SPT ‘86 SIL ‘F% EST (09 PPP ‘CIT GIZIZZ | SGP TSE as weusyong : " : : i; Sava, | | PSoRPE SOMO SaEe TS jeioo eceecOon nn ura weOnChS|gmce ee ee ee ne ee ee eee eee letra pee aia 6°86 1°99 GLE (06 GOT (ST 186 ‘2% P06 (29 OSE 86 BLE ‘126 | OT S0FE TACUPLOV L Gr PG 779 199 (98 CGP (61 LFT 08 LP9 (8 BEGREGI> = |@niackGee. HCGURGnbR. tet ono nd wpa. sure yr Ska ieee Aude ee tae Wo}UO a4 1 “08 899 TG8 ‘OT OLF iP G01 8 847 TL 699 8 6PO'OST —_|-6Z9 ‘TZ "7 woqnpny 0°SOT OOF aad GLP 1G 18 (o G88 (LP BOL ‘68 SGP ‘EFT 199 ‘98T TLS “208 osoourddy 3 LOT LOT 4°Th E29 (0G OLL FB 991 ‘26 088 PF gos 091 | re 'ScT | E£0 els ooyeUeT] V 8 UL 168 2°89 £99 (ST e6g ie $c0 91 982 ‘8 PRpRGOD, —-|mccunOnD = |{0 0p toame, ics: jacscco) cus 1+ a acho tne mean ieee "ory suepVy &°F9 6°S8 6°99 £20 “62 S106 P20 FT GereGOTe “| POceemte! “/MCeReCOD. | OC .C0tme:.'|fo- aaa me temencs c's ihe Sanne aA ane qepV “VMOI PGP 1°98 0S Te0‘L0T‘F | 990°9TL GRORGTPLS | TAAMLSGE, || GAneORO a) |SPCeROOGMET \GRNGbaMIG |\irsa=*s=2etttsr sm sss areas ser eae er sare Tatts [GOL Seg 1°66 9"pS 860 ‘88 Ts9‘€ OOT £62 EIT 9% P96 ‘89 182 “OIL g92 ‘205 | ~AOTITLAL 1°68 8 FG 929 869 '68 ATLL 660'96 G8 FP OPT (Sh 6&8 “96T fee | Tor TT OvTLAL Fe leee fare «= eerge «= faces =f eeecee = fbeptee | doe'z | guntoer | eco‘uie poserorysoeucess2cites7 3052 aes ea : 3 3 er! c6" 26 “68 QGP GE LO8 “TL 609 “681 £20 ‘266 “OUAT AL iLL 36 118 ggg /c0T | GOL TT 199116 GPL iTS PLS ‘06 626 ‘OTT 690 ‘OTS WOJSUTYSE AL 9°€8 F'sT ‘87S 888 ‘29 6IL‘F 900°8 886 ‘TE £96 ‘eh £86 ‘SCT RECRMGCME [8c 5-s> 2c beret bare TPE SE CRE TTS RSSRI Es Aas Aap s caes OMIBA\, “penuy}u0p—V NVIGNI “sdoio | OM4sed *sdoip “1940 *puev[poo A | *poAord uy *[BIOL aed “purl WIvy 3 | ‘sdoio “SUI UT “yum09 oanjsed —o, pojoa | 1009 ITV Uy puvy | puLyTe}OL ; Ursoioy | ~°P Purl UTey *puryl omyseg 3 1804 Jo osvqUODIOg ponuru0j—(snsuaa QTGI) sauunod fig ‘samwrg panuQ ays UL siuunf UO pun) ainjsog—'JJ LAV, 35 SRG Hes AAHADBION 62 00 > MIO 00 00 WOIwwtoiwwowo TH LD) > CN 00 CO B= SH SH OD SH 4 SH 10 00 OD FARMS. ASHNISGSKGSAS BGADIGSN SHAS MHAOM DAK MOSOSIGIODNSSOONHISD HH OH HHS mo HS 69 6D SH OD CD 1 0 C9 SH SH CO MH OD OD SO O19 P= OP OOD 0 Seal BHAA SHADSIDDSHSSOAHORE OK GMDAHKRDSOMODHOKANSCHOEN DS PASTURE LAND ON IWABGSAAABHNKANSSORIGHANSSSONMIONA mADMIIDNDWD ANOS OCMOOCONHDHAANWIWM OME MAA MIDWMOMHHRHOROW AMO ANCOANNANANONANANNMO ANNO HOO HOD HOO HOOD HN HOON log) DOMAMMIOAOMDM~ODOO On le NH O19 O19 WH OID DOM HID OOM OD HOO-MMOr« RH 19 OOD SH 19 er HNO OO 1D NOM DID MI DI OMNAIMANANMODOMOMWOWDDOOMD SSSFSRSBCHSSSSRESSSSHSSRSEGSHASSSSUSSBIRGSBS NAN SH HOD OD T80 ‘06 896 ‘FE nt $62 ‘8 8F8 ‘62 Ore, TS0‘98 ue Loh ‘FG 199 ‘G8 G06 ‘LT L740 ‘88 a G8 ‘CT 819 ‘GS 866 ‘ES 186 CF ZT ‘98 616 ‘68 8F0 ‘18 969 ‘28 BGG ‘ST 6FT ‘LG Oct ‘eg OFL ‘2% S19 ‘LT 089 “62 108 ‘62 69 ‘TS Z0S ‘F% 029 ‘8g CLL ‘FT ZOF ‘SE OST {22 81 ‘SF é ! G93 ‘8% ‘ey osed uo ‘oinjsed Ul osveI0’ OAISSOOXE UB SUTZIOdOL SaT}JUNOD JO 9I1((v} Bag v 990 §¢ O10 ‘OTT 168 (GT. Lh 'h TZL ‘IT 06S °% PES ‘OT ee Gos (GP ae 86S ‘6T é 828 ‘06 666 (9F 200 FE £6F (86 988 iL S16 ‘IF £80 LE Ges ‘es 08). [68 (OF OS. TF 028 ‘SF £26 ‘FE 9B ‘68 92 ‘08 POLS £e8 ‘7 60L ‘I ZF Se £98 GB G0 (8 9LL ‘OT oe 8G2 (ST a 919 ‘ST eo 256 ‘GE 010 ‘SF GT ‘cg 68 92 ey 4 G28 ‘ST 896 ‘9F ae GeL ‘19 908 ‘F9 166 ‘88 G06 ‘FF é 668 ‘FF L¥9 ‘OL 869 (89 TiS ‘el 0F6 ‘€8 SOF ‘6F ggg "2S G69 ‘€8 198 ‘€8 102 ‘OF 09 ‘82, 89 ‘8h 818 ‘08 POT (08 646 ‘SF 266 ‘FOT PGL TL 189 ‘18 ETL (2g 80P TF St TF 186 ‘$9 98h ‘2 SEF ‘LG 9¢2, ‘0G 026 ‘¢9 gg ‘eg 220 ‘8S TP9 “eG 6PI ‘OF £68 ‘SF 890 ‘€8 IIT ‘98 PSE ‘FS B99 ‘CE G89 ‘Ee GOL ‘E9 ‘ SST ‘OL S18 ‘GL P08 (PF 29 ‘16 719 79 se Lee ‘6L 628 ‘T2T 898 ‘F0T Ost £29 G10 ‘SL IPF ‘66 BES ‘62T. 919 ‘SIT “‘ E91 ‘CPT €89 TL nr €88 ‘GOT 890 “281 oze ‘eI 929 ‘81 GOF ‘SET GZ9 ‘TST SBF ‘LOT 806 ‘2ST. 198 ‘GBT 61F ‘ZO GOP ‘T9 GE ‘E9 S6I ‘62 Shs “F6 682 ‘TIT T6L ‘S6 62 ‘08 863 ‘88 629 ‘SIT 8a¢ ‘62 FIG ‘86 £80 ‘62 6£8 ‘88 oss “62 TPS ‘6ST geo ‘9g G08 ‘CFT OF0 ‘FS 0z¢ ‘18 26S ‘OTT 888 ‘EST 62 ‘SEL SIP ‘S8 ¢ LIG ‘LET 698 ‘COT We OLT ‘SOT 0z8 ‘601 LIG ‘12S 906 ‘S6T. 99% ‘GOT i? LOE ‘88S 6F8 “6LT oF CLT 9ST ‘GLE TO ‘TST 768 ‘O&I BOL “6S TSS ‘LFT TFG ‘e98 ELT ‘106 TIS ‘821 ZF0 ‘FIZ GE9 ‘BET 9F6 ‘39S $66 ‘LL 196 ‘16 GFL ‘S6L OFT ‘OST 906 ‘SLT 962 ‘LET TLL ‘89 018 “61 008 ‘613 LCP ‘BES G18 ‘06 gs ‘eee CFG “LES SSF ‘FST. FSS ‘GES ISP ‘102 88S ‘8S G19 ‘LET 620 ‘20 612 ‘621 £0 O8T 968 ‘816 foe ‘CFT OLE ‘ES me 696 ‘88a 90F (986 ie ‘6g £OF (996 TS6 ‘L6G ine 8F9 ‘096 696 ‘26 66 ‘EFS Tg¢ ‘o¢E IPS ‘OE ‘ af {% PE6 (9G 009 Ore FOF ‘99 TL¢ ‘268 eer ‘Tre PSE ‘LE 09% ‘9% 60eQ] 106 (ch a0 60 ‘0L 9IT ‘69% ZOF ‘G8% GPL E93 160 ‘80% PSL ‘TSE 866 ‘OFS €08 ‘298 002 ‘FSE 082 ‘STE 906 ‘L¢8 ‘ 116 ‘966 6SF ‘LFF FS0 ‘$26 é 068 ‘998 ae 2S OSE 690 ‘61S CGP ‘TTS IST ‘9¢¢ é IGF ‘6&F “wold .O as ease --OUTYVOSNL ~~ KTOULOZY MOY, ~7= ==>" Q0ITOT eae 10 (0) 0 (0) 1) eee STINN OLIV nme) 14 | 75>" eBSmMoT noettses gary “7 -""U4ynssoy, 722 B00 So ee SOLLO(y -wosuyor sbogosoonLauSocoDn[de =" -osIeper => >" ==" redser "7" >“ TOSTIIV ET Savoie Soe “****- UrIple py nen yoooue HL > woqTUAe FT eeeeee Cuca 9) See: -Apuniy 77" 5" "* 901+) See JUOULEL SPE SSS ON Sa RE SESS Serie gm eee UlYUCL YT emma 90) (CE ers ereesrs --7979048,7 Sree “7 -qOQUlUL ARES SESE DERE onbnqng ice uosuypord -* SOULOJ, SOM. --- -9I@MBlOq --7-""- m4B00C, Faas tae tc gM ab npn ek eg Ce g STAB “> serlreqd ca E 6°TS al . : Le a : : GPL‘ a) L Ls pee 1719 é CLP SL ‘T dents ; © seers Ve rare 066 ‘Te ; eo'e | 2er‘T22! =) once 9° G9 zoe’ 99g T ‘122 ‘9 ; Se F 1 oS 0°89 anne penne ost ‘9 9 | 919 %¢¢9 ‘OT ‘ S Tee 08 o108 eee ne re iB 629 9 990 (Sh zen! SEL GES “0 | 889 ‘086 ‘Es z “4 5 6°06 al ’ 760! 866 ‘ 81°28 | x ay — Saat ees anion ey >*>"1890 1°62 8°68 Re FER IZ 016 ‘L AGB! 86 £08 ¢ 616 ‘29 paninee leans L ey WR 8 '0F GF 219 ‘¢ GOL ‘TT G06 2 08 (LF 668! SLL‘ L16 ‘S2P Leah 9°01 fee cliees eae a ea Gilg (oe ae BoeRICE | plaka a “182 ee Se 198 A34 id TL6 ‘2 81g (68 296 TL ee ou 812 ‘82 HE ee "7 YQIO AL : 21S SP ¢ z194 SOT ‘16 £9 SIT 21 Niners enc Ce Am Be Se ee ale pee yt euce cea B19/0h . | Bag ug Be) Benen ee Fe H “G8 . €°19 8 98 (FT 691 ‘TZ £96 ‘SF CTT ‘90 AT OLT a46 (888 ---oseqa A we | (CL 9°F3 289 C08 2% IPS oo ae ere ‘cc 662 ‘F2T 211 ‘PEST ELT GbE Sie a 88 P06 Z°4 PLP ‘8% TL8 ‘20 10 66 Beaten OFS “T6 SEF 221 i eee = 104SqO.M a LZ T'92 “GL 862! 01g ‘6 I2z ‘9% ¢ t6 #86! Ske “6Z CTe ‘00k OUAT AA BS “£8 62g nee ereine alteas ae | ote al Ere ea ‘tet | 208 ra wOWUTUSTAL 8°6L ; (6 aC 16P ‘G 98 6 val oe Sat #0e ‘9 IT OLS L0G Se it eee yee fire re Ze GOL (er rene 52808 Sapte a litee ‘OPP CN ui «988 1 v8 Oe anne eee EST (@L | 800/98 God ace 8 188 Lae 5 9°GF a +“ eLL‘ 9 ‘ PLL 208 “8S sb GLP 7 wom Soe Bae Cie |e or: rye Eee 3 oa eee Paige ilkeee ‘ESI 218 (028 Pe mys : 0°89 GL SLE g ie) i) Boa Sree Z08 ‘CET aS ‘BES be 228 SAAN], ~ 4:0 9° ; zee! 686 ‘8 F6 FG 0 48 26 066 FZ TGR ‘C° 629 {098 wort ry 7 Arogs g oom [ret td | 10‘ side repos” oar too‘ret | cuosite | hy ee | ane 4 ait a " ov 4 yee 918 ZL COL oe Wars 2a Is PRG 889. ‘bb ah (26 OLF 9 PPO ‘eg 9OT 06 AH LE ge i 4 “y400g i; 120 ‘8% ane e1e 118698 LiT 8 Tee Te a ee a een 008 7 9 9°! 902 §@ G98 ‘12 iL 88 BR El plctctaretaerstann “p Ss H 980 LT Hee VAGaE LV Ab 0 Baer - APIO L ¥8 Ltise ee Wn [Ccomccccrco OTYSOAN E GSE ‘SOT oie eal Stela nikfarure anes “OPUIL}FBALGY ta 4 ‘sdoro | 2" Gi kdg [Peeps SOOT ty “"MlOd p UT So10B 4sed *sdoip 4 aa Gee sane z ee ued “TOYO “pu ales —— ; V MOT pogo ea tetre pope) Vv 0 ne ur ised “6 —0} PojJOA *puvy UIvy purypoor, | *poaoidwmy| * i ~ "esq PBeuOyy seb. DUG] s Ute) 1011} TLV TPO, *pue *sdoio ; pury oinyseg urpuey |p a) ul By [BIOL “£yuM09 [@}0} Jo oseqMooI0g 36 ‘ponurzUo, TJUOH—(snsUa OTGT) sar auyunods fig ‘8a; Ig pau; wy ay) Ur suf WO pun) ad nISvg— I] I1avL 37 PASTURE LAND ON FARMS. “eT o8ed uo ‘oungsed UT oSvor0v OATSSOOKO UL BUT}IOdoI S91ZUNOD Jo 9[(B4 99g q “po euIsT ov avid & LZ 8°69 Tor 98 80% ‘eI OST (0% G16 (oF £03 (92 098 ‘891 P18 18% ee OSMHOL) 7 ‘0S £82 grog BST (G8 £22 £9 £39 (18 890 ‘89 PLOSSE | STELTE | TB 199 TleMor 8°89 9°62 6 V8 BST (eG OSF (FI 112 ‘68 608 (19 OLF £66 OS8 ‘78 | BLF 988 “+77 OsIEyOL 3 °6r £62 G 6S 808 ‘FF TTL “68 G8 21 Gob £9 Seis | EES Coe eee L‘Clh 6'8L 1°61 LT ‘8 799793 | P18 “6S PET ; ; “uet g°L 8° Z ‘IL €89 (LL OGL Cac ast al seaaiaes ecualpcee 098 6 822 (88 77 YASH 0°98 ¥'8% 1°99 668 (28 669 (LT LYL'S Bel (vs 820 (92 HU ING. = IRTCORCC Gee dlmenacis sy <8 ce niane Lemmy cate tad agenn eel 9°SF Z 8G 8°19 628 (LP 262 (29 PFT ‘ZT £68 (8 GSC ‘PET | OLF FES =| _ 799 OLP 7777 godre Hy € "998 8 "8h chon 89 (89 926 (GS O10 ‘1 760 ‘ST 602 (SL £98 (82 08 {TAT 7) wore @ “LPL 62S 698 88E is 826/198 | SOL‘FT | 6F8 (99 SE LI | Mi Aa | es eee 1 “1st : 7 Ble 96629 ist “8. 089 ‘OT COLT 616 {10T | 888 (F9 GORVCRCE Ase cin coke can cre on eget a a Sone EINES) & “696 1°88 L°8 POT IT GLO iLL 0F0 °F 969 ‘TF BFE ‘ECT 098 (GT Ze (LPT qUeIy &°L9 028 GoL¥ Le‘L0T | BIS 2k =|: ZEST P68 ‘86 6ELiL91 | 86F 6FS =| POL ES 8 “ar 08h 0°98 989°60L | OTL !TST 996 , VLT 19 GFE 81S =| GOS TELT =| 009 967 mica 1s L'ly 709 (LT £29 ‘66 992 £29 ‘1 ZIP ‘SIT | B18 °26 80d (82% 769 L788 9 °8F 969 ‘19 166 ‘82 LEP '9Z one ee os ae 028 £68 9 °0F Gep‘shI | TOO ‘BIT =| 6F6 ‘T a1 y ¥ 861 T 98 9°81 Zo TPE | ogg Ge 18 18 OLL (SZ LLO"CIT | OLB (8S GLY (21g G8 0°0F ¢ 8h 9&2 (6F Ore FT | F196 08S ‘6¢ OSc'exT | £8 "01S =| ELE SbF oe Le). 718 0°68 LPP 119 (G8 TLT‘62r | 960 °F 169 ‘TL 896 'F06 | 6h 'PEs —| SUT. (978 lich T “LST 91g 1-18 GG 168 LLGIECT | SOS *TS GeS ‘GF POC‘O6T | GER "SET —|- BF /89E Hg 21S G16 €e9 G26 (19 O16 {TE 820 ‘9 92968 799 16 962/881 | S82 PSE peesne que [owe [eo face favor |r | tence [Seette | oim‘ver | Sra‘ter “andro &°6e 9 "8 & 09 G96 118 $80 ‘7 aL Ling L108 1-99 199/29 G96 ‘89 089 ‘FI £04 178 892 ‘8ST | 806686 | L0T ‘STS wOsUTyOTG, 8 ‘9 4 ‘60 1 ‘Gh BLL esl | OBL 6ZE |: 160 7 919 112 ees ‘26T | O18 "6EZ_— | T2P TTeS “ "any Boo 8 °6P ¥ 26 6 FS 826 ‘69 98I ‘08 G29 ‘ST 696 ‘EF 029 '26 PSO pH Ieama RCRCRBCt on ulEtacns7 seem a Scent ets acetal eee poe eRe 1 ‘SOT 6°17 GSP OST ‘eh ZBS 01S =| 029 108 £89 TL Ge‘ate | s9¢"26% =| OLF £99 ete 8) £ 6P 1°08 8°21 886 (8 AGL (886 | €9F 12 909 (82 98 ‘gee | 90h GL OLT (80h ee pra fy [due fou rr femee [emits (Se a Jomate | aay ements 7 Sh Lle 609 Ir 67 CiCnele U GINCCh CTs = | IMOCIECES | IBTOUSGIIN mlNOGR COC MuIRGIIVEC iH: uul\RentOte te aiiniemendstl tie ME leah once aeakn See 42 ¥ "86 £49 188 ‘8% 796 ‘Th BSL ‘21 P6P (8S 008 ‘€1T LTP ‘98% HOGRSOce: “bes eay haat aes hare e MRS ts AC A race rere AeIO at [ese [Fu Jasotdx fsbcet met |SITE |SiGer | et Soustei3 L°STT £98 ve 816 (28 | 69F (62 eee jin |e [aee |fivme [fiir [Mice | Bivor fepstie | wit |S ou acs L PLT 0°29 9% 699 (88 €86 TT | 9LL 8 8 PIS T “OL £2 910 (98 £99 cos | 298 ‘2s 989 (29 190‘Tze —-|- 996 (TOT 8h0 68h 8 “801 0°08 £"0P 193 68 PIL‘201 | ¥P8'8Z 790‘Zeo =| -GZT ‘Ssh | EROTSPE §=— | G90 108 9 PE Z "8 1729 99S ‘€e GIT (OL 668 (£2 GOP ‘LP 986 (08 LGL ‘eee | 690 (BPE % 29 T “08 € 8h 110 (08 SHO ‘TE CLP ‘8S £20 ‘Ze OPS TIT | SSE "6LT | S16 OLE £58 8 ¥2 0°69 962 ‘S€ G99 ‘FF QLL LT ST6 ‘99 pe‘ser | 90'P9E —|-90L “208 LTB 8°19 626 910 ‘L9 16 ‘TPE | 00L (OT 180 ‘2h 8L9‘00F | S0L‘O8T | BOF '8F9 saa cuneeueeees @ th ¥ Se T ‘09 801 ‘98 VOL Fy L6L ‘9G 6SL ‘Ts 0&8 ‘89 116 ‘6FT Gas iS Re abe Ee rian be Siedad aie te Trott ts dost} V 9°59 0 "FS 8°19 686 ‘(LF 626 ‘LF LO¥ ‘ST 686 ‘09 G26 FIT 616 PAT (VAP AOSD (gate kN mete el ada Nc eS Geman See See ta = UoR anus 61S 0°82 6°69 829 “Eg £26 ST 089 ‘OT 608 “8 298 “C8 £88 6ST | £28 ‘962 ; UOTLV “SVSNVOL ojenl s- = e 8°99 Les ¢‘0¢ Teg ‘G8 989 ‘FIT 869 ‘ET OFS ‘eo 28 ‘IST. £02 ‘GL 6FS “6ES >** "500 8 ‘SIT 0°87 I oP Ter ‘28 888 “OST TST ‘0 189 ‘0g 920 ‘181 620 ‘6ST 919 “118 Pets AOE I 68 ¥ SS 0°¢9 G08 'aF 820 ‘6¢ £20 ‘2 822 ‘OF 682 ‘ZIT CoP ‘88Z OLP ‘Shr “ESS PSeS SSSR Od yy 0°98 6 "8 99 6S OF Ber SP G29 (06 19S 66 899‘S0T | O82 %e6s =|: 808 ‘THF “-onandory 0°28 0° 8 49 GPL ‘eB GOS ‘9 80S ‘0g TLe ‘18 TSE ‘OLT | GeLfoxr | -Sg8 ‘cen a SO UOeT o. SARL 2 °6P 3°98 £30 118 618661 | _ SSP ‘ee BEL ‘e9 990{286 | 9r'80G | SLE "LLG TTT SUA Bo 128 G "8 £29 SIS (89 Tes (ce 89 ‘¢ CIP 69 189 6 GSP (SSS | GLE FIP genni NNN 2 SOT 9 °9F 0% LS ‘8h T246°STE | 808 ‘re £20 8 £88 (FES | BLT '22S_— | STP ‘G09 *OTTHOFBALIVOT z ¥ 8g 2°08 199 680 (29 8ST (82 T6P ‘LT Osh £06 CHL | ACE NOW | [LETS 1ST hon po cca dp on nc see RRA “sda at 0s & 8 6 29 S@g 19 GOT 86 916 'T £29 ‘£9 (HOEY HG Loa |) CHUL i an eee ad gt ted ay a ain ite OOUME 108 BP 6 LP 80S ‘Lh 808 ‘Ter | GOL"G 116 ‘Th TOS"6AT | Bgeis0e =| A88 Ser vALTIO P 36 mag Z 8h 260 (Sh SOL ‘SFE | 902 ‘ge TOA COREG. ulVevareop.” ||;Rusedge © (l|PHecete esate esse ser eee gee saree here et nt ae ous DGD eb 0°28 6 "Lh $26 G9 906 ‘S9 PIE ‘96 686 (02 697 ‘ZT PST ‘OTS L148) AS15 Pla |lpe eames an nie eh eee NO) pa 86 0 ‘98 P88 hE OST 868 6ST 180 '8 Tee ‘TE 912 “T6T 698 “0% CHIANG, Ie | Se ab aber mz eben acpan 2 =. Reh aE EE 7777" TOWON 68% 9°89 0° GBT 106 G92 208 | B10 “eT 186 ‘28 869 ‘868 | 698 ‘28T i15 TdRe aeetepipmeahieagce wince sega ey eo Shp gee abe Rg pel a 6°89 5°82 a T OLT ‘Ear 018 ‘¢ £08 | T 169 GE 682 ‘TF 969 ‘ G LAE ibe | SBEBERERERASABEsDSpgdapNES Io RNUSCOSSAIMasadetss -“9: mee | ae AS EE a LE ee ee es ibaa ¢ Beara ie ee aa ee ee Tas B 0-18 ae oa T8Z ‘TIT | 6£8 3 £008 3 Tog ‘ee 602 ‘G2 Taae i OLS Bill seesBesacceawaee Grice Son aster uasescasaseed seat » SL g°Ig 8°81 Tee on ae ZF ‘9 Sah ates L08 ‘G6 Ace | CR Sea Ase - uosuoM pg - 3°99 Gap ‘TL ‘ 29 ‘68 99‘ Na esearch eR py RENN oon y HuieE Ww : FOL Z 61 ys 182 ‘T gee ‘e ? G99 §¢ 112°99 SWE sso L186 : ZreTLL | £19 ezp‘tt _‘| 00g‘ 1, 880 ‘916 --pueprequine ee icy OA eee ee oie ae Ber WM eroiay | Gage al eaaeee rae nine 5 Fe “98 ere ust | LEB b ‘SG £62 ‘09 6Ie! 88 (OF Sel] Tal BAR gpeaSe RB co Lcen bac: ee nee Co usee SereCer eee tec: Pusu : 8°ST 81% bs b 998 ‘TT ‘ Té 68 82 ‘68 Ze NG seer beees oe Sele a 1O9UT a L ToL 9°SZ 0° GLE 6ET OOF FP COS ‘F ST 6S 826 92 C66 F c&6 na! re sh SOOO HO So) 2gGH PSP Ie 900 ‘62. LIP ‘9 16z¢ 6h 9G PIS ‘G8 IT at SOL LTP eae aS a G°LZ ETP 61 é Gist ESI ‘OF 168‘ LT9 SY epleeg | [tic “Se cepeeee 919" 02 SL EZT 58 19 FS8 0S ceo bauees eesonceebepeeeer anes eecseeree ee Uelysuyo ZI ‘TS 1F6 ‘8 col Z L Tv ae oe torres Koop, a GG 61S ‘08 Pere 350) A SE edoney) io] *ponurqwuojO—A MOOUNAS Beer 4 ‘sdoro | ommysea | “Sdorp 6 d iS) Ul so10e 1YO | pur~poop, | *poaorduy| - a 00T sod “prey waz TROL einysed —0} payor | 2030 IY. uiseroy | “oP pULy wey *sdo10 *SULIB UT [b107 Jo oseqyMe0I0g “purl omngseg WeqyyeneraL |] JONeNE| LENNY * DOD OOM ABA MAIDO BOND MAAN DIDO WD RWWOWNDOMNOOMMORAMAOWNOADNONAN~- ADO BRIER ra SVE SS Ser Sar han ED SO Cet NS RS Sn OS BO ES a aS eine) Ga ssh Ge) sy See Does an) (en (en) MAMA MANANN ANANNNRNNON OR 6SF ‘ZS 178 ‘ES 8cz ‘9S 90S ‘ST £00 ‘ZOT 60 ‘F6 929 ‘90T 119 ‘OT 189 ‘10 Z1g ‘9 CIP ‘298 200 ‘621 1h ‘FS 182 ‘89 16 ‘29 06 ‘SE OSI ‘69T G20 ‘SZ 08g ‘06 296 ‘OFT T92 ‘901 £68 ‘ST 968 ‘61T 688 ‘26 829 ‘TS G82 ‘6F PSF ‘OL G88 ‘G% 880 ‘29 000 ‘OTT 60S ‘F8 SSF ‘PET p08 ‘TF LZz ‘09 P80 ‘ES 166 ‘1S SPP ‘LPL $28 ‘Z8 220 ‘LL 68F ‘6EI 818 ‘601 828 ‘CFL C6L ‘LE 0S¢ ‘2ST 299 ‘OIL TSF ‘99 602 ‘IIT 602 ‘6ST 89 {0G 692 ‘98 1s ‘2 ee €19 ITI ‘ar at zi 68h ‘9 990 ‘9 628 ‘E SEI ‘06 or er 166 ‘ST SS‘ G68 '€ Ser ‘ZL on 089 ‘ST 968 ‘1 13 ‘6 G96 ‘6 696 ‘61 i mi 8 eo. L, 19g °Z 188 ‘TL £99 ‘2 0e8 6 we og9 ‘9 DEED, 182% Toe SLP ‘LT ogg‘ G69 are 68S ‘F 90¢ ‘g S10 ‘¢ 862 ¢ £08 “F 608 ‘6 ELE “EL G98 “98 ee (7 109 ‘OL 619 ‘8 G9 2 £20 ‘91 20 ‘Ee 800 “6 E98 ‘FZ on ‘ G9¢ ‘ST GLE ‘SL P68 ‘ST 978 ‘OF 868 ‘98 GOS ‘8 120 ‘16 196 ‘GP 126 ‘L¥ ZLE 6 G30 ‘61 Fy ZL 79S ‘LE TIz ‘6¢ 88o $86 ‘ZT veh £96 ‘86 SLF ‘1S GSe ‘LT 299 ‘FL SS ‘IF 692 ‘78 893 ‘88 GH ‘6G 800 ‘ET 08 ‘9 SIZ ‘L SPT ‘8¢ 12S ‘61 19S ‘86 ii é 188 ‘2% 86 ‘LZ LZ “FB L9p “6S 098 ‘G8 £89 ‘TOT P16 ‘20T 190 ‘8T 29 ‘FT 68 ‘9G G9 ‘8S OLT ‘19 692 ‘ZE 9% ‘Gg 90T ‘8% G18 ‘29 nie 108 ‘88 OFz ‘SZ £98 “9S SIT ‘e2 OOT ‘TF BLE (oS ae ZIL ‘08 02 ‘FL woe 682 ‘69 180 ‘2 Teh ‘SS FIP ‘09 L19 ‘10 819 ‘FL SOI ‘6% G06 ‘SZ LTE ‘06 208 FP Tze ‘e¢ 898 ‘09 £98 ‘2S 9£0 ‘8 SIP ‘TS POP ‘SL 028 ‘Sz P0S ‘98 669 ‘28 828 ‘02 969 ‘28 IOI ‘TF OFT ‘GF 69F ‘FE POT “69 P6F ‘08 810 ‘09 SCL ‘TF 6FF ‘61 186 ‘18 £02 ‘ST £83 ‘66 sa 189 ‘F% O16 ‘LF 918 Oe Gos ‘TS Gee ‘86 929 ‘TE 200 ‘¢9 8F8 ‘E9 SSF ‘SP T6L ‘TE L0L ‘6S OSL ‘GF 166 ‘S¢ 696 ‘ST 676 ‘8h 68h ‘2g ta PSI ‘TS 621 ‘SE 029 ‘8L 182 ‘€¢ OT ‘eS 166 ‘TE 10¢ ‘FTL st 8 928 99F ‘bP a ¢ GIG LT T&G ‘¢ 912 ‘TS 098 ‘os OSI ‘EF TS8 ‘2 PPP ‘8S GOL ‘SE 62 ‘0S G88 ‘OTT ae ‘ S&F ‘OST 88 ‘TOT o68 OLT Gs ‘09 OFT ‘898 961 ‘ZIT OL FLL 6FF ‘691 808 ‘OTL 982 ‘81% 13 ‘90T 11 ‘8&8 G90 ‘EIT 09 ‘826 are é G99 ‘OTT GLE ‘£0 €e8 ‘SOT oe pS é LEP ‘LL1 E19 ‘LT ee LOT ‘961 £08 ‘261 ZS9 ‘09% 7 919 ‘CFT 9OT ‘ZT G08 ‘OIL ZB ‘SE 182 ‘E81 PLZ ‘O6T £28 ‘FHS QOL ‘FST PSG ‘691 eer ‘00 SFG ‘S81 STE ‘EST c 069 ‘28T SEP ‘20S 80F ‘98 GE9 ‘SOT 188 ‘66 DRE CEE EERE OD OO GOs Gali Glsts) a -uosdulig eens Tri 4qpug -*"TTassny, 7-7" *°TTBMO “--- aTSsvoyI0Y Siaatslelerelel[gtooe toot 2" **-TIQS9 TIAGO PROSE ORO DOCCO Oa 10h | **"][oMog iterators) ec sdoirts ete tetrer caer Bisigeisteini elo sineel omy See( felsiviclele icicle lo ATO ">TO, 9[pUeg BOBO SIORESASHOIOOSFO EVN) : DECISIS OEOK ney) “WeyPlO [epee UE LO nip Nee Sas RUO A ene eae ae Ree ne ts O)I0KO) onion OU OUOTNT Bi2 ** MOSTON, Cem RWEh Bee REP Sen aOOe Soa eS oneedePaeaseo “*-Z1equeryny, ra ae De ep Oo SR oC "77>" "Tes I0Kl 777+ > AIoWI03{ UO PROB SC 8S BRD DORA S OOP SSI e BO SAS Oo 8 Cons eee (0)1 0 (0) "755" OF[807 0, SSIES PRE R AO RS BPE One IO Bons °° 19010 STOO OE OO OE AO A ON POOL OT ORT ANS “77 "°* 99TTURAL Be eee eee ar ei ee ecieneiebehehe=) O12) 1\p ose SEG BREE PASSO B 9 OCP SOS EPP OSPR Reena eens eee 0 (23) ee eae ae eee ae “777° *TTeysIeypy pac SE ees ea aaa sean ee Vie aaa Des ea ee O LIC LY PEC aRp oedas ROCKO POLLO ARO OR, Cae eee eres "77579 "" °° TOs yy ROBISSE DOSS OROR HAC ISR AO ROD AAR SF OGAIE RE ROR OO° “7***"TOSIpey, Torro TBarTTORL Sel cele gene aie sarees es “-"" “WeyoBIOO NW Sears pare ee matan a Care NTRS N PRAT an ry Ghar AE EEO seed “7 "OAT re a at Fae Sea EE SSS Seen ee ee oe “77° e807 “777 WO4ssUTATT -ujooury Hor eres Se asian Res ae * 19Y0J9T, epost oT[soT > *yomey 7079" oneryT ene 0)! D: | 77 yous [Sees CLOVLON | Selgin cee aah ~""*"tdosuyot Sie Saeko “"-9uTulessot BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 42 Tg 9°%% 9°68 POL ‘82 OTL *2 £92 SOT 999 “0% P80 "bP GOT TLL 816 ‘F6T : woes sess" RUBIOTLOM FSB OL SPL QP £08 61106 £88, 920 5% £E2 ‘8 961 °9 £18 “TP S8T ‘RET ; 77228 TOMI 4SBOT 9°PS PST see 986 ‘88 Lbo'S 180 ‘ST PEL ‘ST 808 PE L189 OTT ‘981 J ~-OSNOY, WOPBET FSVOT o6F @'ST 1°08 006 ‘661 GES é 618 ‘28 126 “06 Gar (08 299 ‘SIT GPO ‘698 ‘ ees Sesees MG LUSTIOL ( ; i 188 6 rae TOL ‘221 ¢ ‘ pepece -ouI0 ad 9°¢ 8° a bh pe, 802 % G08 i! Lue (9 909 ie en Hor : pisnieros gue 8 661 1°92 L's BET PO 192 ‘2% S16 916 *8 G89 52% 808 ‘81 Go ‘COT : sot tttsss ==" TO TOUTBD o°89 8° LPL 100 ‘96 869 902 *¢ 668 E ee ‘6 » 8G ‘ST a0" PZT 3 “775s *TTOANPTBO (aa i 8°88 108 $66 ‘OAT G08 *2F TP9 ‘bg 2102 ‘89 11d (991 068 PT P69 ‘06h y > “NOIsvo[VO 0°88 0°01 Q'eh G08 “PST OP ‘1 261 ‘81 Ose ‘81 BGI “ee 808 ‘PPT 99 ‘Tee BEE ors Sea oe gantni tes Ek Rae Saasemumet’)212):19) 0°62 GOT 198 sso “eel 669% G2 °GT 820 §8 BE0 69% pzZs ‘68 P16 ‘ShZ ; v7 tress TOTSSO ET 9°08 1°8 6°22 802 ‘S61 OPS LoL yo 8LG ‘8 188 ‘OT 168 ‘28 O86 ‘16% : >> OTT TAUOT Ey 1°83 $11 0 °6F 009 £28 198 °% OF ‘2r TTP '8 PIS '8% 698 “TOT 886202 |” Head S 1°01 19 8 "98 993 198 186 re é LbpIL 808 £9 690 9 SPT ‘G6 ; aioe “mor durnss y 9°OT B'9 b°TP 918 hg 96. 128 908° 854 19 POT '8h £96 FOL : {iaraaas ~*UOTSIOOS V 0"PP 81% 96h GIL 82 910% 61h Sr OLT “SP 029 “6g 089 ‘GET BE6 “ELS SRS oe oe ee DE SOS GONE NS “VNVISTONOT 6°26 293 B'8S 089 “oar ‘or | age *e6g GLOMBER TemlapocRecS) Qual kCRONOTSn CHa |NeTORECE. OUM | AeTMGS Di Cc |lanuemmenwwieemm mina wimaimmric cucicin oimin manos Se TeROn 6 "PL 8*Ee oop 809 fo, 888 5% 90T ‘OT rad 180 ‘TP O82 ‘P¢ 0&8 ‘Tal ; PLOJPOO AL Pay 0°92 Cale BPO She OL STS ‘TT 188 ‘0% 608 PE 991 ‘6% 809 (281 ’ ON 1°69 9°o1 L'8B ST ‘EST Sl ‘b 082 ‘6 G68 “bS 198 ‘8e Sh2 ‘99: age ‘Sha : 77 SOTHUAL T°¢8 1°62 oP TOT ‘G4 910° SOP ‘ST 886 ‘ce GLb “6S 198 ‘69 OSP ‘bO% : “7 TOISQOAL, g°o) oe PLT PEP ‘0Ze 18 '% G09 ‘OT TOP ‘8% GIL ‘TP Ga ‘Go G18 “118 : “77 OUR AY O°TOT OL G62 ITT ‘bP goo eT 663 ‘ZT 199 ‘9S CGP ‘LE GTS ‘PS SPS ‘SST PAIRS SA COR MAMNA SAAR CONE UE wh GCacevones + te “UO SUTYSB AL 9°99 Pk 198 099 ‘EST. ore ‘s BPG PT 086 ‘TS BPS ‘GL P20 ‘SIT OUOMLGG. Bi Ne anne Wa Sim MMRMRMANUN CR DOCKORCCC TL Come cccce ae 7 WOR A SbF 8°96 8°29 GhO ‘ee SOL F p08 ‘OT G90 ‘28 90 ‘2g poe ‘OLL Teh ‘10% a “777s UO TU) L’OPT 08h z'08 199 ‘bZ $66 ‘8 ST ‘ST 993 ‘CI peh ‘68 B92 £89 ‘16 OQ UaTAL, $0 €°Or oS OLL ‘SST 198 ‘8 664 ‘OT G96 ‘2% 190 ‘pb 688 ‘69 029 ‘29% er) CU O°SP bot 8°98 8h9 “GOT 618 ‘T GOL ‘8 T19 ‘b% G89 ‘PS Goh ‘08 oe) Fee “**""pPoL tanga 6°02 0°62 Sh9 ‘62 698 ‘6 990° £06 ‘OT gee “es SST ‘OP TATROE: © piiRWie ec Selo T ecco e ahaa cae en a ~**JOTARL *ponurjuoo—A MONLNAM *sdoro | “OdNSVL ‘sdoap “1010 ~— | "pUBlpoo A, | *poaordwuay [BIOL Urso108 | ————_—________ , 4 | 5 ‘onrra oor sod puvy We *sdo0 SUIIBy ur “) 129 °9 06 ‘PF 819 (16 92S (ZL 99F TIT 628 COT cee aa 1°69 68S 6°BE bog (el 698 SIL ’s £96 °% S402 £0 (OF ZOL (08 sons GOS 60F 9°8 8°06 TOL‘pSE | 669 P18 ‘6 6S ‘C GIT (OL ITh (68 169 ‘681 eee 9% €'1 609 190 (08 eo) 126, FOP. 888 (1 £16 (89 86 (FOL Ti TTT 7 TATeqy L°8 o-8I &'L9 090 (0g TOL ‘6 S66 (9 080 (2 QLT 18% Se (46 UCT IAI dE SS AO ra PCO VE ee A aes, EE €°29 8°31 ZS BEF 82 489 290 81 668 & 826 9T GPS LE G99 Ze1 que) 8°38¢ LOL PLZ FOL ‘OL 1ZL C93 ‘FT 61F ‘FP 6270 ‘0% Z20 ‘FE EGON A eee era eae DUS obs Ea aa ena ea POKING B BULLETIN 626 é SUS. DEPART ° TMENT OF AGRICULTUR mM 44 Bac ig ‘08 0°&Z eq9‘ 9S 6 'o1 0°89 19 fer #2 ‘OT : Z “er Cou @08 SPS (£6 $19 EI 98h (eh 62022 Be Wee lee ere lie lie sie [ome [one | Ri 102 : 909 ‘ 9109 ; Pes ‘08 OF 208 ‘T 99 PLE eee Leh Or a Oeeis | Gre oe eS Tee = rele pay ace Srevhoo See ene €°L01 : 8°21 ror 926 ‘T ‘a 909 ‘ST B33 SPL ‘16 && (GEC *- "= HOLIO 5 P16 vee 8°88 ae eh eu ‘g 108 (; TOS ‘eT aang OzP ‘291 ue 26 ee TOE 9 vty Ty 18L‘ gi 819 “LT ; 9£9 ‘£8 g “92 -Sg1r ee ge ote perce Ey ya Ee gis‘og | 918"T 818 (981 vesesesbaceseseeses stores: veveee ese DGD 0°06 €16 ‘98 8Té € $16‘ 661 9T 99) ‘ OFS (vel teeter ee tee eee en ==>" T10I78 08¢ e & 622 OT 8 (ce Ges ‘eel 80P aS sisis\e\sieie Se OL 0 896 ‘TZ CBI‘ 129 ‘8% 409‘ ea eee sees _oeaycie) T 802 ‘EF 9 89 eg | cc soepe eo snsnosascecsaeros +k JOATBD oF9 ‘Ze feces sdahisiasinaareginn nga MER ERETERTRE ; é Steerer enon 8 “orl 2°08 ere oe, GNVTAUVN m===*fvsoILV 6 Gaul 0°18 on 82 ‘979‘% | ese‘s09 | 922 ‘200 T ‘ : ae 1°63 6 ue 68 (FST 082 ‘LF £96 cE | _ Ser ‘eee ‘1 | eg ‘ors 8° 2°08 L° O18 S21 zap PCP ‘bS ¢ ESE a Be al a 6c3‘96e'9 |777 oer 1°62 tie G96 ‘ZCI ah (82 GOL 28 Or (12 898% PEED ULES eapsoocinces Meanie nt 0°S&T 8°6E TFG 81% ‘61% 186 (LP G08 9 €08 2 092 ‘ ST TE¢ “COL ge ‘ 5 gi abt ween = ee 2 Be |e ee ti [i |B, | a a ; ‘ ‘ g 6 Tier [ore | ae fees glee | Fer en ce eae er cro oaOR aval ro fe 6 Te 19F ‘S61 ree 4 118 ae pep IST eo) Hy GPE Ise a ree dla eterna ne eteaeaes “uO BUTYSE MA ci |i Jose | | su fies] Sto se i uuidoe | ost i eeiaerclee ties = -sa8r04I05 8 °L61 ue 0°s8 ‘ 0¢8 ‘OT ‘ 6L1¢ (206 Lbe ‘PL BE9 619 ->*-90yepes : 12 6° LL8 ‘Ob1 ge! IGT ‘9% Be SLT ‘92 oil 026 ‘SES Seco eee rin [ee |i [saan toe'00 | ficcbe | te | 1 bn Hee appease sjnbevoos 6°SE : 21g ore 698 ‘Gh ‘ 910 ‘¢ (O91 Lg ‘FST LgT Ses Fea ployx Garr COloms | eee Ogg Ger | 8088 geo (eg | cSt (et wees | saree — | oP GBp [eccssctnecsenceecetes sesesaeetesesecses ‘PIONCO 88 raves Ble |e 61 18 (89 089 ‘61 LBo‘4TT | 980%c8 or LENG AOE are fuer eg “LL #80 ‘TF 116 (LE ope “6G 88h LUT 966 ‘0 Be ea tare ey res ee na Sas DiI Ov8 ‘OF 002 T 908 ‘2T1 66 (02T —| PEL (AR paper i) u 629 ‘86 OLL 966 OSF “F98 ee | 869 &8 O92 “6c% 2) UTP UBT EY | an coonrcnndon shonanncanaeennbORaaRaS Oy puvyioquing : "77 H004s8001 usdo10 ‘oinyseg | *sdorp aHNIVN misgo0so1pay 180 ‘ P 00T ad : JOO | *PURTPooA | *poao.d eimysed —o} po puvyl Wey Wy} = "[BI0y, ursoroy | -°P purty POAT | PRRCOTING 18301 Jo o3'ey 100. ae a oad corny iecsntreray Texte Se cl urpuey | puryyeyoy, : Ayuno09 *ponurju0j—(s1 _ iT LJWOH—(snsuao OL6L) sauyunoo hg ‘sajn7 9 p y payug ay wi Panug ay? w susmf uo pun) ansvpg— TI aTay, 1d : 6 Sse Se [oe | ae 0°9F is Ng ae aa 120 ‘82 L°9GT 1 OF 1°02 28 96 G19 ‘0Z 786 ‘86 110 161 ‘CE OgL Wig Oe eeare | ble ee ce | Sued are‘ee | sg x ‘ GSE ‘ CHT SL 4 ELF ‘F' 9 TOT mi L‘8¥ ¥ 82 T FZ 200 19 itd 669 ‘48 T¥g CTs‘ 8 19 ‘Gg GGG EI a FFG 0-0¢ C68 ‘OL Tes Sgt‘ 206 ‘g Te € sabigat 7 Woes ‘gee soemecesnene : Z" ‘ fy Te ‘8 SG Paar 6eL ‘ jo L, aida URGE aera ea fee ex [arte wis [ius | fin | Se oe | eer SEF eecconcecoecon0 A 002 “9 GGG 66 800 ‘8g $96 TF 929 ‘ i O&t ‘CF ee FOP ‘82 6, 108 9g ‘SIT Cae 916 DFT uecsesteneaae | 816 ‘TT Trot CoS ‘T eae ‘982 | 80L cae coapeec piety G00 «| £204 69 ‘6 seoes maT uy ¥G SEL ‘FOL Deeb Mica ons eRe Nd Rertrete ol 8 08T Z SE 9"Fz ee coe UOT = 9091 revo | 068 iene “ett0o{¥ me 6 rise | | 07% 968 "008 | 026 ‘e2e BUCO: = 1°69 k 66 179 Og 182 BSI ‘88 GeETOsT | 892 '9% ¥ 68 gar | 810% HIG , Bie L6L ‘QUT 8821906 | 20L"80L z Ow Lee lees Se a ft |e ‘sea ee eS see fe) 8 8°Z €°0Z aaa L6G 7 76 8 t 866 S8¢ LPT Se ese a ee eeeeee ¢ Z : cee ‘T ‘ T00 ‘2 ‘ gt‘stg ft eA sesh ela ros ey ct 2-08 eae 088 “02 Sey ee Ga Se | ay a ee PRP Oe 2 lw ay |oce | sesso och scorer | 488 it eee gece csoonane cased acces “10480010 AA . ¥ 08 : 661‘ Z A gas ‘ L ‘ A ee -] L GOP ; Z PE it T6r ‘S FOE HF ol 190‘ 940 16 & 50 y[OpNS 818 oy © 0 O82 09 8/0‘ Y 988 ‘61 829 (ST FL (OT 802 ‘9 $89 ‘GFE --yynourd : 5 z ‘68 9 70‘ : mee Id ical T eT r6r 1 ‘82 S08 6 082 al FFL LZ 696 ‘6 OFFS 8% ‘LE Ree leeeeroe rt cesceeieee eens OJIO NT oe cr I '¥8 9°62 aidan | eae £60 ‘T GIT (OT Srey eae 89 SU eee BE "-qoyonjue 5 8°16 6°11 999 ‘9ST 9 (ol Ce OT 101 ‘S : © 68 6LL ‘8S 002 ‘Fe 777" Xese cree ‘a £66 ‘6G CE 6E Fle! G99‘), 6 016‘ £68 ‘TL = Se zi 161% ee es ae mas, | aes 1. 5 “dopdure ff g aA 0F 061 em 410 e198‘ 66 isch eens Tue Ay zo40) 186 ‘8 ae dS eins es Soe ae moss 8 CP 02 67 Sigal OI eed ace nae eign eke ea Hae ee “AE L “OLLGA scapersenseces evsek PRS ae -- sug 6 6E a ge £98 “T6L & TS 6 SEE aon leeaet 6 LT 8 It f'08 ee eee 180 Got C76 ‘EZ 19 e7Su1e gq FS 3 ‘9 a £06 ‘SET 9916 £e096F | 6026 962 par Z'19 ze6 SIL 106 ‘Z 892 (8 ; s8__| 820‘900%e ‘ ‘ “GG g i 6 8P oe tae gece ‘Z 12% BS Mt LGL ‘12 Orr YeMtg Pozceceseocs “i 3 : 2 979‘ egg‘ wore PUR CRE 0 ue raat ee 28 °26 oe & ae dt TES (0G ae iL nO 99 ogee Roe ee ESoe ae FOL : aM 0'SF oe ‘201 rae ¢ 1282 ee ‘or eee ae 188 ‘TF 18 ‘261 “7210.L . Q ¢ ‘ oa ite |O i [ere [te og aor ery S01 aor ma Sn a beso | ato? | Oop | Bee cezve | eret0 78) ZO ee 9°&3 pi 62 {2 T1P € ‘ Lge‘ £98 If ‘ T ZL0 ‘ EPs tricistigg Zz Ly Lg ‘ 0€8 iad 69F 616 pei ee OoTg a ee me [ei | eB eg ‘ 0 é VA Bec . ree TSF ‘OF bee ate ceaeee £28 Ch sence se -souury Wand 8g O1F “66 260 ‘6FI Gen Leeann OPTRe. Aes se ee 17111) Aveuros yuo py sonecosonasosenenna sistbect fuga Se Nor piojiey BULIETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 46 900 ‘69 G20 ‘OL 682 ‘TE 18s ‘g O18 ‘TL GG8 G80 ‘8% PES (08 686 ‘OT G62. OLL ‘ES 868 22 Hiss P29 ‘T TOL (28 Ber 8. 118, ane 9 POT ‘8Z £08 ‘9 06 “9% oer G18 69 118, 189 ‘8% 86h ‘8 BOG 'L ese '¢ osT £99 ‘F% £29 ‘88 961 ‘OL 890 ‘61 GLP (SEL PSL ‘Gh 692 ‘08T 892 ‘8% 069 OOF ‘8ST SET TZ TL ‘69 O16 ‘TOT L218 TOT 806% GPE (oh Tee <8 780 ‘CRT OPP GI OVP ‘COL We Le 909 F G69 ‘GF GLI ‘6 Ou 88 8 8,201 120! 9 112 ‘P8 O68 ‘LT ae 889 (86 O18 ‘ge 119 ‘68 616 ‘09 S10 v OT 096 'F8 PST ‘TO 102 ‘29% GO ‘9g GbE FOL $99 ‘6 809 IGP ‘88% £66 £22 080 ‘ re 163 °G 910 fet 996 ‘9 109 ‘9% pes TEL (291 Lee CES LIS ‘8% P19 ‘T6L SST ILL B68 ‘SL, 180‘ PSP ‘FS 028 ‘166 Goh PS 040 ‘081 P16 ‘S $80 “oe 169 ‘2 O89 ‘PST L928 118 ‘09 196 ‘GE eho ‘Se 381 LPT 986 ‘80G 192 (191 GOP ‘PGT G80 ‘Cor £08 ‘OST GSP ‘00P 0828 182 ‘% £h0 ‘O8F 108 {08 Ine 660 ‘86% oe ne OLL ‘21T COS ‘Top C60 ‘eee G66 “TLF 298 86 SIT eke 199 ‘OLT GIT 81 869 ‘aT OLP ‘888 616 ‘Fal £68 “OPE Tis C11 019 ‘OF OPO ‘TS8 £06 “P91 L8G ‘OLT niga cer ‘86a 108 ‘TIP 68h (908 928 “ESS *ponulyjwojy—NVYTLOIN at £63 899 G98 69 169 ‘8% OLL ‘ag 808 1°86 G "98 L6G ‘99 0609 Z6S ‘6G pO, (EM [tae |aibot SIS? | a) G81 bee fee | ee T OOF fe 8°29 938 0'8F LPT ‘V6 099 ‘08 C98 ‘99 o"92 £06 88 G28 ‘TE 806 ‘9 BLE ‘TT TOF 016 8°68 £69 ‘88 969 ‘TG 1£9 ‘61 P08 1 FG 6°Lh O08 (SIT | 989 (OF 909 ‘08 ice ee Pea ; 13 ; 6G are . {O21 GOP 9°83 092 ‘OF G68 ‘2G O83 {61 e'8 Bre ag ieee Bu FG regs Gg 16 86 32 899 98 (o& oe Le oe Heo Tg 1Or | $88 48 con't ie 8 ; é a ay G26 719 01081 8h 110 19 ‘Se bag Gee pug 6H8 ‘99 19°68 889 ‘oF a6 ‘ € “TPS 8 16 G6 8 all T's ot Geb - is " zr‘ 6 '8a1 Ges 8°96 ooh ‘19 086 {91 088 ‘08 ae gre ne IS GL 809 76 896 IT gig G LTL ‘0S OST ‘8 LPS ‘9G ee BGs Ve B58 00 aby (48 aor % a" G 16 99% 9°16 #08 11 co ‘eb £06 “L SLY 0G 0 °S8% £88 £ OT £91 TG GOS 18h OT L'Gh 0'P% 9°29 as PIP (8s 183 (88 97198 8°19 861 OP8 {9F £29 (92 44899 Ree 6°16 o's Bee (LL 636 *€ L6L ‘LG SOT 1 ‘86 89% 163 ‘FS 099 ‘OT 268 °21 Saar O18 £708 GOP ‘6F GOP ‘eT 998 ‘61 6°19 ce | ¥ Gh £00 FOL rae ee 008 ie Pes 728 g"19 GRP PO 809 ‘68 ISP ‘Ge G18 PST £'89 SBA ‘LL TOL ‘I COE ‘8% *sdoro “OINYSB *sdoa) "IOYLO “pueypoo A UT SO108 OOT od orngsed UT SOLOW *puvy UnIey —0} pojoa 1090 TLV “Op puVy Wavy 1809 JO osByTODI0g *porod *puRy omngseg duy [BIOL *sdouo ul puv'y *suavy UT puyy [eo “AquMoy *ponurju0yj—(srswao OFGT) sayjunoo fig ‘sappy panugQ ay? Ui sunnf wo pun) enjsDg— ]] WIAVY, ~** OOMVUO'T ~-1RUBLOOTT, “rood ery moo Mery “A BUOOMO XT ~*}UOXT * BYSUY[VIL “OOZBUURTRST ~**uosyour rivvisiginie ~* = RTTOQ UST OI], *OOSOT, ~-UTUOT, wey suy So RUONTLET : “UO WY SNOW “OL8PST TEL “JOTVBIH OSLOABLT, PULIY Meee SS O1qosoNy "UTA pULy *-e0S0T0y) OUT “OPV _ Bd ~-"PLOP ABAD “UOVUTID alv]O vaoddyy 9 ~uvsLoqouy Sr ese Sts: XIOAOWTVD "S500 unoyVo > Youur, ~* "UOLLIog 47 AMON SoD FARMS. PASTURE LAND ON “18 Z EZ €°29 606 ‘F9 998 ‘62 28g ‘Se GLE 68 €Te ‘FOL £99 ‘61 C88 ‘SEF egegeor|soQotihiael GAl (sl 61 6°21 1°49 SEs ‘E9 Ihe ‘ZI 6FL‘S OIF ‘TZ 00S ‘98 12 ‘E8T 696 ‘ZS ~* 9U0}SAI ET. “62, 6°Se o Sh £86 ‘98 G16 ‘ET 692 ‘1S GLE ‘F 60T ‘02 GPT ‘88 LST ‘S6T ~~ 10} ET “082 6°SZ Z'6 G82 ‘GFT 6£8 ‘G £62 ‘0S SLL ‘T T16 ‘29 029 ‘0Z POL ‘6S TUBIY[O 08 ards € OF 08S ‘96 L¥6 ‘61 £10 ‘08 068 ‘ST OTF SSTT G00 ‘EFT GEG MC Ghetal ece oa ae Ge er eRe oe SEV Cn Sere Nie Ween Rae *-1oyoog oF 2 : a : fe a v0 ae a a ay ue i 160 ‘$9 ZG ‘TL GOMEOC eens lk acne ake ses aaa staea A AES aR Pe RL SN EMM STN as “vyouy : , : z ; OF‘ 250 “ G86 ‘SL TPO ‘02 OGG) Tanaeah | esses eects eens ci tris coe gi) Ca ea a ee SSS HBV. “V LOSANNIW FOBLOTOSG ESLOLOPGIE TI ROCGGE GTA CHa NGHLCO SelM AT OLRCCCRCMS INGGSHOSSES) «| PLOROORSI: |nmm aeienn neni as ols seit un Onaan inet nian nin 1840 181 ‘0S LSL ‘TT GEE “6% CLE ‘8 9G ‘Cr $82 ‘1S GSS ‘LET PlOFXOM £62 ‘29 $88 ‘TT G9G ‘FE 08S ‘Ze 620 ‘62 P68 ‘FLT OIA ON Gt ms|| tie anes las tines pasha Uns eer eg un ae eee leas UAT MA SLT ‘86 €82 ‘TS OIL ‘Ce LIT ‘tr O19 ‘601 88S ‘b2Z Olds eaeal han ae ree any nies Sonne Meee may Pete nse ACO YSt MA 869 ‘E01 68 ‘FT 199 ‘FE 190 ‘8% £09 ‘22, 892 ‘G8T 02g ‘T9E “Wong WA ZOE ‘F6 E8F “6% 798 ‘89 126 ‘98 FLG ‘GET SCF ‘0ZZ GL GROG Re Se a eS FS aes mae RRS vjoosny, ¥ 8S 688 ‘99 $29 ‘€% SLS ‘LZ 198 ‘SZ £96 ‘92, 219 ‘EST $90 ‘228 DOSSBACIYS! 9°6 GGL ‘08 06¢ 168 ‘% 298 6FS ‘F 198 ‘OT GG ‘GP qyBro[OOYOS' Z 66 216 ‘26 992 ‘EF 640599 820 ‘19 206 ‘09T CPF ‘16% 128 ‘TSS “Ov |LURY £61 PLS ‘98 I6T ‘61 688 ‘FT TSE ‘FZ 196 ‘1S $60 ‘9ST PGOBOOGES geese scan cytes bain gis cg oo) huey a nee peg A ydosor -49' cle 628 ‘FE 199 ‘62 817 ‘78 €0F ‘TF SSP ‘SST LGL “FU PILGAPP elec aile seco CT cele ama ITVIO “49! £8 ELE “86 £E2 ‘08 680 ‘69 S16 ‘GZ OFL ‘TT LIT ‘SIZ OSCROGPES Wate cae eter entre Sees pains aca eante on enna 77 MBUTSBS! ee OO | eae ee lee Vleitete | eats --oIS] onbsou ‘ G CLP ‘86 6 if “> >" 9ST onbsorg 8 °6z 899 ‘6¢ 1F6 ‘92 S61 ‘68 628 ‘08 COP ‘96 966 ‘29T 621 ‘FE 6 FS 189 ‘9% 008 669 ‘ZT 188 ‘T 928 ‘FT 910 ‘ST 699 “6G SERS 682 ‘FE 10g ‘¢ 689 ‘ZT $16 £96 ‘9T IAT ‘8 $26 ‘66 “7777 >7"BpodsoO PLE 179 PL £08 ‘OF 869 ‘07 $86 ‘TT O88 °26 96 ‘08 DRAG. eel ie oie eee Se ia 2k on eA SE 77 7 RT000SO 1% €F6 ‘IZ 698 '€ 996 °€ 6GE £61 ‘8 286 ‘2 CHOPS Sirs © | cia oe iy eee a CL cian a tn “WOsvUOZUO: o @ a wv a0 ‘0% soni ou 9 062 ie 088 ‘FE 829 ‘FEL AVCUIOSO : 6S ‘OL 9T 966 ‘2 ‘ST 8S ‘89 91S ‘86 G69 ‘8h *BUvd0O 61% OFZ ‘E9T 20 ‘08 899 ‘bP 610 ‘FF 629 ‘STT 198 09% BES ‘GES 77 puvpyeo Z 98 Lav ‘90 ZLL ‘08 G6I ‘CL 80 ‘ZT 290 ‘SIT PS ‘TOT TMCS ES Sage ee Cais Sie see ci ie ne ea ea O3ABMON SFE T8Z ‘0G OST ‘GT gos “68 98 ‘6 168 ‘F9 88 ‘69 ORORGS Tae REE Rees ae ce nore gs pe sue eek 1 Rouen ee aaa ~ WOsOySn IN, L'9% 863 ‘0€ 1819 919°9 £0 % 268 ‘FT £2 ‘OL STL (Gg ~ AOWOIOUT} MOP iat me ime Ge eee (dees |iitue [Sees [ce ee nto . ¢ ‘ ¢ ‘ ‘ q ¢ AKO ‘ ef eee een W 8 Fe 086 FS T¥8 1G O18 ‘96 166 °8 SFE TS LLO TF oe (171 ooyNVSSTPL TOF L¥T ‘OF £69 (88 LFS 83 1928 168 ‘01 889 "6S 929 ‘OLT “spurl pI Ge Z'9% £91 ‘0S 809 ‘02 O18 ‘eh OFS ‘6 892 CL G86 ‘eh (ip OE aaa ee aiertce geet ree Ppa ees emt *--9dUTTO MO 1°98 9 "Se LST (28 £2 (0S 695 “FE PST (LT 910 ‘ZOT 809 ‘TOT Re Giohe hl SRE PRE CR S Sraiy ad oiee d aae aes 77775 7B] SOD90] L&E £ Oh PIL TP GIS FZ $09'96 91972 61119 888 GL COZPTUTipe | Speiall Ae ec smi cesses oh CONE leis 9 Mely tehieded dose 6 08 cI 190 ‘68 916 7 GFP ET 08 18 CHG ‘0% ¥08 ‘2 Casey OA) 7 Sia i ee Se SR eee ae eck ome i pac eee orice ~ayjonbieyl L'88 € 98 80F ‘ch 086 ‘eT OG ‘62 981 °9 926 ‘8h 66S ‘ZS SGC uP lie ellie sce ds aS oe ERR A a red ena ge “77> 904STUCIL £8 $69 6LS ‘67 GZE ‘ST OLL TE G99 ‘61 092 ‘99 FOL ‘OLT COCK OSA ol hess ies os saat age ay Pape RF ae = Sse See pm te ey “>> - quIooRy, 0‘er 8 "8% Ose (28 Z19 Loe iV 620% 806 19 TL8 (EL 6ST (89 “17 ) oeuppoeN c ‘Or T'S 098 “eT t6F se ‘T Tse CLT L161 ‘G ZEL ‘0G 3D yt CONG ZLZ SOF 166 ‘16 660 ‘ce FIG ‘ee 92 ‘9% 698 ‘F6 606 ‘Z9T GLO “6FE 77>" TOISSULATT ane 67% j “QF £09 1°66 est z's FOI ‘FF ; g “eg y i 8 i SOF ‘76 ae 28 Geez See aiee 1:99 Sai dD eee 066 ¢ PLE “0G se 8 3 6% €°9 eae ae el 696 ‘T 928 ‘h STF FL ‘ 5 “LUE ‘or 1°89 1S9 ‘8 F162 866‘ £02‘): 860 ‘EL PPP ‘OST =e peee ou + 602 ‘8 ee saeeee se6 FL 096 ‘8% ereceee | Gre ‘10F ee ie ee an a a ae |e “COT ; 9° T ‘26 : ‘ 806 ‘ 12 ‘21 mas ; 5 o"08 buy nee CTE ‘56 22021 anys ues £86 “66 ZIP T G¥6 (196 cone O 6-998 ‘81 : 81S‘ PP6 ‘CE ‘26 ‘ ge ‘ O16 ‘818 RE p Posen rm «£06 Gee. Tea hikers ae ee mee PS con vor es . ty ‘ to Z ete [ce ay mbes mie ee me woiiae | outs Ee : ; 14 ; ‘ ( : Beige T-2S TOF g ‘9 ZIg (69 669 ‘ST 6&9 €@ &F6 JS Ree aa €¢0 ee GPE EOP Tew) oFBT ay oR L C6e ¢9 ( 0c0 6 96F ‘1 8°92 8&8 oe’ "> eeg INH o cee ihe Ge jee ee ae tee | ei oon ae ene 812 & 9 OtP nd 208 ‘ST 200 ‘6TT GL '& Bae (bh 60¢ ‘8 eee -- M0S}T S. oie Bas ous Nae 08 | GeL8 Geo ‘oe, | SOE ‘zt is mmc ee ons ee a . ; ‘ ¢ A on & “00 = By Sceee al Bite Z1z‘1¢ 163 2% ie. ‘8 790 as ZeL ‘TS Ee ‘621 nso ee Ter = “89 G “61 1 *E9 069 ‘SST 6hP (oP 18S (OE 188 "Re €19 ‘CP PSL OST gL (26 peri ee 1% BOS’ Se iat eae ake €°0S 982 "82 polnO feeeee SCT ‘LP Bee ‘oor | ais "Gre ee “Hues See: G95 | 8°08 oe gio're | £40 (ez | Beh ee oat It eee zocor | coo ete eteeeeeteneeteees “pIBAGTT | OZ ‘Th? 809 ‘FSZD | 1615188 CEC O asa ESC eS Te pee rn en eee ee "7 suLIe949 aad g°%9 G82 ‘OF OLL‘8E 616 ‘0 6PS ‘2% FF0 ‘18 OEP ‘82S (SLOG et eater | series Sense Soe oe aera eee eee “7 AOTQTS £8 0° F2E ‘SE | 6SL.‘9 0F9 ‘F9 £68 ‘9 G8z ‘82 | $26 “18 LES ‘F0% *-etmq.10yg #9 9° G2 Z68 ‘8% GP9 ‘OL G08 ‘SF 86F ‘2 8F6 ‘69 | $F0 ‘601 $88 ‘102 “09% Z 8S 8 ‘01 O19 ‘99T G6 ‘2, 029 ‘99 $86 ‘3 668 ‘92, OS8F ‘6% G66 ‘CLS ‘T8 & SZ 6°08 Z80 ‘SI LGS ‘6% 6S ‘OF 868 ‘6 6FS ‘62 GLE ‘L6 QT ‘eTE “LB G61 6°02 019 ‘LZ 006 ‘OT LLO‘% 819 ‘CF GSz ‘9G | 9tF FO TSE ‘88 CF £79 T 09 98S ‘EF Z86 ‘6% 0F6 ‘TZ ESE ‘€% GLE ‘SL €80 ‘6LT $P6 ‘166 “8% TST T $9 620 ‘E21 026 “ee 988 ‘OT 686 ‘FF Ch6 ‘88 $28 ‘LLE 862 ‘68¢ 2 “63 TL Lg TRL ‘CET LUZ ‘LE 926 ‘2 LLG ‘SF OF ‘06 008 ‘FOE IOI C.G sng |S I Eg nee ea “poom poy Ch TUS €'8h LOT ‘LE 12S ‘8 188 ‘TT eGL ‘2 199 ‘2% 88S ‘09 ZOF ‘SST “OYR'T poy Th US 04S 862 ‘FT €68 ‘T CUP ‘8 #62 ‘€ GL ‘ET €19 ‘ZS ORG (1G bene I SRE Nae ge A ae eae ee 7 >> Aosmae yy ‘TS 8°11 SLE 921 ‘86 OF ‘LE G6S ‘OT €S9 ‘ST 88 ‘99 089 ‘E12 TCO ete 2 Se Porras Re Rech Ane Ra ae te cee uel acy sot 0d0d e& “98 £02 T9¢ #66 ‘602 191 ‘OF 618 ‘08 6F ‘6S GFS ‘OST E18 ‘86F ZE8 ‘888 eit feret SS) 62 v6 199 GPL ‘8S 8&2 ‘TT Tze‘ 100 ‘28 990 ‘2¢ IST ‘221 (BRC ee a | FF See Bo es eee NE ete re tei peste Sa euojsedid ~~, “LIZ 8 OF C1 996 ‘ZL, 862 ‘GZ PE9 ‘LL 129 ‘F 840 ‘SOT C89 ‘67 CSTD Ua eee || PSs eo ane Sa eS emer aes Paine “ould ‘TS G°% L-& 88ST ‘28 98ST ‘2% GG ‘CZ LOT ‘OT L¥8 ‘LE OSF ‘ZIT G8h6LGS | Se ee uo aoe de "8g 0°8% 0 ‘8? TZ ‘68% O18 ‘gc 998 ‘SZT €19 ‘OF 6FE ‘612 C96 ‘LLP GES ‘966 Bai dese eee ee eee er he ieee eet 178110330 FQ UF 8'FS LS CLS ‘OL, 682 ‘0Z Tar ‘ce 908 ‘TF OTL ‘16 ZEE ‘61S OZOUCE Cie os See a ten tes tere ori t eeennants “77 peysmaqo | 9X6 FOL Z ‘09 006 ‘26 TT ‘ST 080 ‘Tz GLE ‘6S 999 ‘89 896 ‘TSz PES ‘IF see EEE SENS A tS fe ga ONG CO CE vs G99 G98 ‘TS GLL ‘LT G69 ‘% 256 ‘89 CCF ‘68 S16 ‘91Z 002 ‘SIF RoR et thes oo AEDES ENE AY SO a eS Mee, Reeve 777 SeTdON Nl ve VIZ 9°29 820 ‘CF 028 ‘TZ POL ‘EL GTS ‘0% 650 ‘9S GIT ‘F9T VCC O Cire: od eee es SCR ee ee ee ih ee eee aoe cre lOORNES “€8 8°61 ¥ 6S OLP ‘8 266 ‘ST 298 ‘e S8T ‘09 FS ‘6L GE0 ‘SEZ AO) [AO eee vas ee ne ts oe ae heat See eee tae be 177 ABLIN & LB TL1 ¥'19 290 ‘26 986 ‘TT 628 ‘ET £90 ‘8% 828 ‘EL 820 “292 SCP ‘Str Gee es ae ee gla aters eI SSO pe ay ans eae esee JOROW ts “EL G08 GTP 962 ‘FOL 068 ‘TED 9ST “FLD £08 ‘8 0 GPE ‘FITD | E8G‘ecT CORA ASME Re a aie Re ee See i teaignen Aoehee satu ewer naenereet Sore UOSHHMONG ‘SEI Le? LTs 6CF ‘08 BPS ‘TS 296 ‘8% $28 ‘8 820 ‘FS O9T ‘68 Lb9 ‘EZ Satoh ERE he Oye el Ral ee tae ts 7 (2 SORIeIN "88 v8 6 ‘09 760 ‘9¢ 116 ‘8% ZL0 ‘08 186 ‘6% 980 ‘68 £62 ‘81% €tF ‘8S ia oats ni lah an ae eee ache nen oe aebes Fe CREM 08 G61 €°29 L16 ‘b2 ZLP ‘8% PPL ‘G C6L ‘LP 800 ‘28 Z08 ‘OLZ 1GL ‘LP Boe et aerege etn a pyaeee ea ee een UAT ioe T 02 TI 18S ‘E9T FEI ‘Gs PCP ‘ZG LbP ‘9% GE0 ‘FIT &bS ‘06 G98 ‘19S eae = Te USE, 801 $68 FF8 ‘06 81 ‘T 0g8 ‘T 60S ‘T are 609 ‘91 66 ‘IP SA oe ange Gs er ES wresssss* = TOTOUye yA, BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ‘ vooeses ss adura yy : ‘Bh 1 go 19°C P18 ‘OL GORGE _ jeesstsntnagdsn = ranyansteraentens tadsaaieenateas “set *0C Be Der Oca Oe Ber Leg ; ete O08 4 292 PT T88 ‘F2S ‘Souos” 02 0% ee Ours» | 28 olo‘2r | 9608 GL ‘ST 88°20 LAC, WOSIaYe rn eee | oe = YOLzor | Ola‘ OFL'92 | 868‘ST | 818 “GF £60 426 SUE gesiopat ey) 81 188 GLO‘FOT | 298°9 688 ‘8 £89 ‘ST 681 ‘6 PMR CiRe «pases cette sie siue sgn Sela eens og "7 aedsup 1102 8°99 16 ZIP ‘02 £08 °% CTT ‘eg O18 B09 ‘19 CAC il era seer ie: ame eR al OC ee os gee ee SG eee goes | erage gt ee ee SaaS te eT 6 EF eee cer | 692 ‘OT GIL ‘Le G02 ‘OT T89 ‘9g ZOE “TSE ~-" SoUNOH Lib 9°02 L'9F cheer | ORF ‘6 OOF ‘OF FOL 08 £2008 O89 ‘see =" me eee lee We lee eee | Oty mie NE Nt 9 | Sitieticb kensiben tcc, cs ceeam ce mete Spon ie 1% eee 80g Ts cL 8 020 te 209 "TT Ger ba ane Seige dup Sooo snes nacrsiegl eek GR neni ascosancanee Seer = . . torn ‘ inde) Co) ‘ Nee linge 8 =6] eee eee ee € 6 OP at Gib eee yee ae as aa ath PEO EI [ersesomecceisaianenenmmserroin ee Oirinenns oases ~eaioED Se i a 9 ao el Oe 000 ‘9 269 ‘ST 61G PT Ile 6g Zh UIPTUBayy ee ee ete ene Ge. CT OLg'¢ FOL LTL‘g 060 ‘ST OLT +> |S010g, aha zg eep 806 “OL 829 “LT 198 ‘68 PCP ‘ST 616 ‘GL 029 ‘OT Lge Sooo COROT or SP 02% 699 ‘GOT Le 6FS'C £16 668 ‘9 960 ‘8h £99 Sees see gaeeaecae! WO}TUEAOD 0°9T zit o fesiay eas g See pancce Santen BRO Eo oo acct ceasisoachpansmoneicp Noceyyeeeeeeee se terdon er s = [609 J orz'eg' | Sor 191 eter | goo'Rer | 288 >= “OUTOTGOD. a Be et Ne (29 We Graces eatie oe Gage (pects eee : meus D ; 6 ‘89 a ag! PES age 8 amie ne ¢ ee wee (Che 160 1701 ze ee 628 OST OULOGIRTD LOL 6°83 ols G8 “00T 4692 Aaaean eae aes i oes Tea oe ns O18 08. ze u eh F YT 7) 98 CLOGH Ca? vee Sete ey en ns oe aie ae Ames ee > ASU £05 bee nes 18 TPT T6801 £22, OF e1e ‘ST 126 69 822 98h Somnbber ec cees ore ere aaa Oey 5 -80r Tee Z 8 TIS Ch 70 ‘CT ISS ‘Tf LES ‘ST ZL, OL Tee ‘C9 F608 ae mnouTeD 29 09 ep Z Bp Ly TPe'8 FIL‘G0z | S80'Sze TRAT 1p 06 16% TS8 ‘002 Ze ST COS ‘GP 099 ‘ST 190611 10f “= TRV phe bee F08 spo‘ecr | Tre PPE TP 096 ‘CT COP ‘09 CaS. am elect AMM ee mia see aay o> vy 1 pp aia a aebeaetele oroqrary 08 re 8 1G op‘eit | 219‘ Gao ‘08 P1601 CRO iy) OCU GGhe | CERN Gn WP nee ene oe 5. cc enue cceees aac ee 1D SP ON HHO 19 09 09 OS OP EH ODD OP HOO NINN HO Relive) 1 A *sdo10 UI So10B 0OT 10d einysed Ul Soldy Td Z "99 G8E ‘SF LLL 'T 269 '8 386‘ 708 ‘ZI HORACTI. jMOGPERML~ Tfemasaacc oe ue Wa eeas tee as aye sees eee techs eeu TONG, 6 ‘ST & ‘SZ SP ‘106 800 ‘Z 686 ‘08 BS "TS GPS ‘Fo 260 ‘98 GUORGLG “ flaoans ean senate ane ya TAT eeioe te Skene pe aRS ~==-se[sn0 Orel $°96 269 ‘SLT 026 ‘T SOT ‘TZ 069 ‘ST £92 ‘88 B98 'L MUG RGRG Aisne sae ate Pees Fe Seas ee has Ps ee OmT 98 29 GSP 9G 90K 69696 9BP ‘G9 106 (26 SEL'PPL — | 69F £96 188 8 PP 009 ‘g¢ 1009 48°89 C28 ‘TL £09 ‘08T | 228 ‘EST 08S ‘GFE € Te 1°88 119 ‘26 items OLE ‘8F LPL ‘08 G18 128 SPE.68 TE8 "P96 8°98 2 °9F TS ‘6h SIP ST 150 ‘88 6GL ‘18 POL ‘TIT OFT ‘TPT 160 ‘208 POS ER SANA aes SSIS TS 8 See ae as € '02 9 "SZ 068 ‘2ST 210 ‘TT 666 “66 690 (9T $80 (2S L61 GL 609 ‘18% eget Let SAC SN see ree eve lense |eocor [tener |aieer yj use'er | recive | oer eee 3 6 ‘Ih O"Ig 896 ‘ST 060 'S 894 1LT 286 ‘88 SZS‘TIT | SZB'GET —| GOL 1996 2 3 “ob 108 ‘FG girs 87968 20 ‘£9 £20 ‘90T €9P ‘201 £69 ‘Lz 128 I bP 09% ‘28 880 ‘9 009 ‘9g G06 ‘TS £66 ‘EIT 690 ‘SET SIUECUG mginbemenre sas Some eer e meat enpaae eee eer eee Se € "8% 6 98 208 ‘06 TOF 6 TS9 ‘GG 928 ‘88 828 ‘EL 169 ‘6 962 ‘66% Tors tsuBysyo So 6M [fs emer [teen [fet Secor | Mitee | Set em 8° ‘Tr PIP ‘sg oF F ; Pes Z ‘9g 60T ‘FF T08 ‘8 L8G ‘PS 900 ‘66 760 ‘GPT GZ6‘8ES_—| SBI “SSP niSesna tees SURSBRED) 8 86 FCG 996 ‘Sh T6T ‘2 L68 ‘LT 99T‘T POL ‘GG £66 ‘61 CSO eAmme | ete Mi be ane eg ERE tet Sava cgce ag coc : JoqIe) (anes T "2g hPL PP 06 ‘ST B9S "9B GZ "86 686 (SET BSL 'LES VUE EAI ia ae ea SE aot mb Cmte es- 4 ier wt nr aes : [0118p 161 I GF 0Z6‘2ZT | SFG ‘8 198 ‘23 OFS 'ZE 6&6 ‘29 G66 ‘SET 198 ‘668 “7777 neepsrerty dep € 08 9'T% 106 ‘SPT 983 °S C89 'GL OGP (ST 182 ‘16 821 ‘9 919 ‘TOE pene **WepureD 8 "SP 0 0F Shh 18 Shr ‘ST 6LP €6 SPT ‘OOT G10 ‘218 LTL ‘S61 OFZ ‘68P TTT rer ABM BTTEO T ‘OF 9°09 690 ‘G2 TAL 2 986 °86 126 ‘28 20 ‘SOT 160 ‘981 EST ‘696 rippers sont Aa L‘IL 1°26 GOT ‘SIT L5G PLP LT 062 ‘F 120 ‘2% 980 ‘TS 693 ‘S81 ee te ee ee ane T3e ogg SCT ‘66 CLP 'P 96968 800 ‘38 110 (92 GOL ‘TST P&6 ‘96S spa mernegie pons oe 7") ueueyong 1 '88 GOP 989 ‘91 G00 ‘IT 808 ‘94 16 (02 6ST ‘8ST TpP (S21 DECOR ta inl ont mee eens Senor ater tone OTS poe See eeu gi ids &'8G 090 ‘TAT SPL 9 92 ‘OT 299 ‘61 89h ‘BF 008 ‘€8 VARIA GOR IES aide eye a we clyrenl cco aaa vrrrre osu g PGP 9°68 821 ‘86 SSP ‘ST £28 ‘TOT 998 ‘6F LET ‘99T OLL ‘TST [£9 ‘16s Torr rT moqdog p08 8 "eg P18 ‘18 08 ‘IT OLG ‘LE TSP ‘S01 990 ‘2ST 160 ‘822 AD |p whence ee eine lat en = Aare, tte a Bet EMMA 0°S3 9°18 SPL ‘gS PGS ‘9 TPG (ST 810 ‘29 £80 (8 PS6 ‘S61 (YA AMR S lFycer eek egies noite nade he = tmnt Se ig aan tele ee P16 0°68 098 ‘211 892 '9 960 ‘LF PLB ‘GP 808 “96 L8G ‘981 SOT ‘GFE ccc tan eg 6 SE 0°6¢ 108 ‘FE 18h Z 690 °98 689 ‘ZOT 682 OFT POS 1S UST IT Fea | ie atre mcmcatanigt Ah ek ich ec allel elec 777 ureipny 0°92 £ P9 PPE EE 969 ‘% POL TT 069 ‘49 O6P ‘82 601 (206 CL ESR | ono aon wie a eel apie ela ae ek "77 wOsTYOTY ee | 87s | BPG IO | 68 F | a 1 cg a Fone Rake ucerenememnamanmneneniratie: 0°SP 0°GP LOT ‘8F TIL? Lee ‘Fo G90 6 I ‘TN NOSSIW ‘ommyseg | “sdoio “19710 *purppoo A | *peAoiduy [810.1 “purl Wey *sdoio *SUlIR] UT “£yun09 —o4 poyoa | 10090 TV uypuey | purl [eo -Op puel Wey *pury ainyseg [}07 JO oseyMADI10g *ponuljw0j—(siisuas OFGL) sajunoa liq ‘samig ‘payvwgQ ey, Up suumf uo pun) aingsDg—' JT] ATAV]L, “poyeulyysa v ¢ e PYx) €°F8 : F 99 Live ZT é aon 0'TE 0°6¢ 998 88 ors‘ € “101 Meee 9 FP zoe Aas Tore, 028 (09 CPT‘ 8°29 ue 6 FZ oes 192 8 ee 866 ZT 96e ‘SET G ot Lor | ove ie [ee er Stee, | Ze ‘od gee eee : : "98 ; 090 ‘¢ UF OOF‘ LST ‘9ST Tee BL nGn 1°99 IS 0°09 O&2 OFT 9a‘ 861 ‘68 Wy (aS 668 ‘ GOP (SLT een #08 € "eI : OSL ‘TF & TIL‘ O8F (06 Oe 002 § ONY see 08 Q'0g . | 9e8 ost OF aes Ce nie ane ere‘ere | ove ‘JoF ee “oe a : 9 °8z (Jol £60 ‘2 006 ‘9% ay 9Z0‘T ELT 96 LOR Bales sees onemnse ema Z0¢ Z ‘Gh e-1¢ 069 ‘6ST oer T 50 ‘OF G82 8 620‘ OST ‘F9 990 796 - uns Cbilyel ©-OL L°&% Z ‘LP 080 ‘SE 1 Vv SLE ‘OL 8E ET At 166 ‘9S 986 901 Se BO 755 “sdjou : 9°9 x TPL‘ €8 Lo ‘ 880 ‘ OPP 62 ‘ Z9E ‘G8 Saas a 796 : 1°69 88 986‘ 660 ‘Th or Z96‘ 628 86 ee ee cesses stadt See e Fe L¥S ‘OF 6S 628 ‘SL ¥G 906‘ OE tee | cagos.ipacnaecanccnsdasco5ee seine eae ee lee |e ati | gue sete” |e” worse | Spoes 2 See fom] ¥ 09 9°8 L by FZ £9 Zep ‘9 8EL°6S g a 08% ‘OT 889 EFT #6 (GES ocatrs B 2 a eee ee < -°9 I: SG Z ‘LP 60 FF ges “ OSL ‘LF LT TE 910‘ 919 ‘66 b POE ie en aoe SEO) 0% ¢ E 1¢6 ‘09 06 ‘ GLI'SP 96 0F9 ‘ €0F 9ST See rapa ag et quay, mH Stor leer 908 | 668 0g £918 ores | 6F6 (IT 1ee Zor 07068 | a8 (612 2 So Z" ; 6 ‘ Ze ‘ Pg 0 esa aets Sha gae not, seen 2 tt ee 6 OF ist hh dp) ve Ce 1 0te See 800611 eSL‘oTy ae a 5 eg ‘ LG Z6P< 4 SS ie seueegmen te seen uted e tu |e exe | Ses'cer | 164 figre |eue'es | e1.ce crieo, | sepccee ee =e 4 roa : : 68 ‘ C8 “6 C66‘ ce Sp eae Sa Ce A RE Sere wy Ea ** 9010 S a Sa ae | cee i, uD ee | Glee eis se a Been en nen “-noOgtOR S ie jeg [te jit iiover | aunts | on gorge fame | ores ae ee ie ae ie [etree | Boh i SL 860 ¢ Te Zeh ‘61 38/8 002 geo FI zr‘coe | 88‘ PSP (BET pages fm leu Se ate CsI ‘El oL‘er | aa" FPL ‘9G Tioe | &82 scott mony 01g z Z18 8966 (OL ‘ £6F (99 oa ; ee 48 6 FS Vag 189‘ 190 '8 ef c10‘ 808 Pol ‘ 68T | sees pager “SOHO tf bb ; 6 ‘8h 46 980‘ SOT ‘FF LET e9r! C82 ‘SET (L1G posesosscc00 Eee EAA ia ; G°GZ : POPS 80 8T ‘ 186‘ OT PEL G 860 8 : : Re eee tee 2e a 0°86 Z" 81g (£6 9z¢ ‘ 91% Z¢ 09 LOT ‘ 16€ €9T « Tg SEL EAN Tiare 3 acs Se = cccconsone ascii Z" 6% d £99 ‘T9 z ‘ Tre ‘LL SIL | 251 GRENOLG = lene unease Sconce tances ae A Bae Gace) St6e) | AOE THE 9cF ‘8 GSN as aaa EF LL PAO | GUC ee ee ee niet ae Case es Seem eee “pyeuoqony ro |gie | 071g Th sh Core Bee A 22 OF sol em Ne le ee ones Sen BF ; : 7 ‘69 020‘ (a9 022‘ oe pees oaee sppanisecmnaosaend0cecrrqose3595 neo ee ie ie ates | 2 oioae Jpreee | gaat ae Ga ne or ; ; ‘ T yA AG = sis sie sicisinisisieici=isisieiciels Sa ; Bane ¢ ‘OT ee Cee Bn vE Seed 96e Se ong a Pee aaats Rope ore eG eS “=~ gousdterT eS ZZ Oe 198 °TL ay 7 03g ‘ce LIS ‘ee 61 CEL 919 ‘TI £29 ‘88h | cies teececieeeeceeteecentisececes pec hoaeis 8:08 Lig | 9-05 829 961 oeaee 720 ‘2 eft Kor Tre acace rebetittesneeneenee See 8 FET : 8 °9¢ (99 PPG SSL ‘FS ey 178 60 ‘891 eee ee siete eres 2 eed LS 9 TP 608 G08 ‘9g ie PPS ‘SP 169 96 Bae 661 62 69 (Ie Senate pee gE ceosecessecetesess HOSIOHOE £66 91g pews 189 ‘29 GL a 198 ‘91 PIL (eh eee OOT ‘66 Sty oir SE EESEEED oy) 016 Gey G'sh G10 09 Saas ee ‘19 One ae ae Bide | Goin “eee £26 9 66 8 ‘SF C18 ‘oF #89 Lt 689 ‘49 TLP (68 616 ;F6 6ce ‘OL £06 (ASG Soo00cCooRS ee 9 Gp 3 188 ‘28 reo 808 ‘Ze Peadiae — | adolaen Ce Oe MeRaeSs © tlecteneere: essa eas 8 °EL GFE Z ‘8G ZIP ‘FE v 869 ‘6 £9 ‘99 (O81 PCL ‘16 688 OEP abe ea ae gare We ea wes ee Mee BIGNO 8°12 i 926 ‘0 66F L ‘ i Pes ‘6 969 601 ‘ I £69 ‘68 oO : hs Sy Ba ame Py caeawenen Hn 9°18 pe II ge! 618 TF (68 182‘ GEO eT 7 Oey eae. Natoma te pe ee -eesses+++- COMO Z0 “cot ‘9 80P! Tog ‘22 (Pr 961 ‘881 pandaiye =P erere SRE Seen RE pases 1079 $29 ‘81 08 162‘ 611 ‘621 881 Pre‘ Gaocpconrege ee ae ae: --+ +7 RIOR 196 2ST é 016 ‘6E eregen vis steteteeeeeeee _ ons Lguuvabes eae 2 1¥2 ‘bb Beacor Pasa Tia Ss pce ee ar gae wae ee er cmt [peer ee. =. [Lue 206 Sect Seas Meee aes spesoecnesaaeates eee GR ‘OLF BS ean ee hres ear aes Batre eee re ee NEED) Paleo! tp rte aa eat Pik one -£1,Ue4) mate cd ee UI AD) Lens pinenen , U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ETIN 626 BULLE 54 € ‘82 ZI GSP 29% ‘E016 | 10% ‘E98 0sz‘pse‘r | peo‘PEs‘s | ST¢‘TSZ ‘OT | TL ‘902 ‘FT | 8hz ‘TES ‘FE |7-- See lens HRI SIC lob lee ScR ethers ren On 0 ‘06 ard 0 ‘8% POS IST | SGh'S 196 ‘&P 699 ‘PS 880 ‘28 T61 ‘16 CAEN a | eae Sepa eee pera aS he eg ena ben sar pe an OTIAN 6 6 0 '&h 6 bb 162 61 G89 6 Gre 61 Lo (IP BOS ‘02 609 ‘SL GOB SOT | ese S ee See aon 0 ‘86 0°88 188 PIO‘OOL «=| Ba 'S 899 2S S61 (IP £08 °66 1) ane es eR nea an a es Sayers eae UvATTINS 9 “SL L461 0 9% T9L ‘OT Gog @ 6F8 (ET PEL 0G 808 ‘28 T6I (6h O9T ‘681 Se euole ee Jose ES) [ace [Bee akieh EOE JSR, ROE] 2 ES 8 "GP 9°6 aes 800 ‘61 ToL‘ TLL 6 L¥9"y OLS TOP ‘gh. She ‘Osi pesrrcl nouueyg 0°6 99 gel 990 ‘68 G80 'T 89% 6 GL9°S 616 ‘1 808 ‘PrT =| 988 ‘96T See SS Ga OOS, 8°18 88 8 ‘OF 663 ‘OF 189% G26 ‘88 SEI °29 Heepcure | GevooTe: ||) RRRNOLGs | pens ner Raranene sss Seer aie “TTT TTT puepooag 6 “LIT O°LP 0 ‘@b 818 ‘06 P89 ‘6 P18 BS 826 ‘9S ORF “68 986 ‘62 OBER OBI «l|Mepzoen eaenerc ro. san mae “rr rit gepAnqog e1g 0°62 G99 618 ‘19 OLS 6 896 ‘6% GEL ‘PS POupoeie we alLOke eG: || ULD Lay | “(SS ee RSS Sas ey ee oe ROR UES 90 FOL @ ¢20.S ---" A491) smO'T “49 o'1e 9 °Or 289 098 ‘02 PIP SG OIG (02 Tg ‘8 G6L ‘TS BNOMGEN (ROTMEpe:, = [neseaeroroeanneeesretienenncie since se pemepeemas Nes L'89 6 6L 6 ‘83 GL £6 88h 1 899 £3 G61 IT 888 ‘98 O88 ‘ZS 026 ‘28ST Tore sess sroouedy “49 8 “SOT 1 '&h 2 ‘0F 129 ‘09 PL ‘OT O9T '98 GOL (89 809‘T9T | Z69'ZST =| LBB ‘PLE * TE Ge eae ® TO "4S 18 8 ‘81 P09 ZOE ‘96 828 'P 699 ‘8% GEL ‘08 9£9'8¢ pLg LoL | STE ‘STE Sena hese == "ST SO TeU Oana Teak peore —-|'deaee, “eke cae cones |iSnere Coe Ure cacuceanevannaceacnananscdeteccar Seed meee { 8 i 89P ST 190 TF 199 SPT 5 PSSST SI OOI GOA 0} (VOUS | 8 "GL £18 & ‘6h 186 (8h Sle .F P83 ‘OF GPS ‘LL 906 ‘GEE | FOG TOT TpGpugee lpeconas sha prceataensare ease srenses eo eae 8 ‘OTT 9 '9F 6 "68 P6S ‘88 L0L (9 £19 89 19°29 L68‘ZET | OBL “EIT TRUCE. eh | een Rare wey teenie Won et nec "111 TrTadjopue y 6°28 . TOF € 8h 626 ‘TS G18 ‘9 086 ‘8h 6IT ‘6S 126 ‘601 | T6s ‘cer | _Thh‘PLe CaaS Bante peace INAS a ae Be ae ae eae Baad Tee OH 1WG2GY AST idles ASSN Rca pe es aac a eg TTT vureuyng { i ; ¢ p Ip 18 “61 bP ‘99 SLL ‘0S STE0219 9116 Nc ea a amen a eR Der ee ES) TAT *ponuy}HoO—TUNOSsIW ‘sdozg | OUISed *sdoig "1oT10 *puvlpoo AA | *poAorduy [BIOL ULS010B OOT 10d Ua “soso “SuLIB} UY “£4009 omysed —0} pojoa 99 TLV Uy puvy | purl[BoL urso1oy | OP puBy UlIvy *puvl ornysed [8904 Jo 038} W0010q *ponurjuoj—(snsuaa OL6L) sayunos hg ‘saggy payugQ ay? we sunwnf Uo pun) ainjsog— TI TTAVL, 55 ‘eT osed uo ‘on 4sed Ur I osvor ‘OB OAISS . 3 C oxe UB BUIjIOdeI Ser 1yUN0d J 0 9Iqe 4 999 D 1°S8 Ceteinod Bea leee 0G ‘62 : Digs a8) 6°19 £06 ‘61 6 ‘008 6 "Ee PPG 892 ‘SP SI ‘OL ¢ ‘OF 8 "EL 9 "TS 889 “SIT PSI “LOL LOF '6 ze 19 L $1 O83 (oF Ish ‘cee LEE ‘GS PIL “6F a 8S 5 (6 . GG9 FH L6F ‘ 669 * C92 ¢ 61e “ 729 81g 0°99 929 Js ‘61 Ab ‘69 Sead 0"Te 9°98 @°ST GOF “0S 682 ‘LEZ 862 “TZ O9T ‘8% G82 ‘TILT 8& ‘FET 0°S% e18 681 6FI F6 189 (19 OGT , 000 £0 988 ‘SLE a6 ‘oge 609 fE86 8 ‘81 P19 , (v) U8 el ey gLOco oe al eee 6 "PL Is ‘cg ZE ‘OFZ G 6F ‘8S 26 ‘E0F 9 ‘OST FE ‘STS eB 982 TZ 6F9 ‘GL O9F ‘¢ 008 ‘IF 189 OIL €89 ‘08 PPP ‘6G s 168 ‘BE ale ‘9G 808 (IE ae 291 We 216 gs { 69 ‘9 196 ‘G¢ 80 ‘S2@ BP iLG OFG (FTF 5 9G “Gz 828 ‘FST 190 ‘FF 9GF ‘PIE *8$ G OF aap “ITS 6° 89T “9 seeceeee A ¥ CLT I x I I6z ¢ OPE Mie SORE RY Coe Dee, nee Sb tec 069 | 68 nts | pre‘tsr'> | f10! VUSVUGAIN Se Seg tee oe ges aq 2888 9°12 P61 P98 ‘F08 ig ee eee +s gouueg BP abe 26) o°6 VeeenOe | Wy Sbes ee Si eit Ge) ee > edopoyay Blige LLL G6 Gee | os ‘08 Z16 ‘FF 180 ‘TS2 ‘2 surepy Sq 616 ice bveae Ish Ts eee ae? 2g0't | 209: L | seu‘ess‘t | e09‘ 280 Ely cer 2964 corer 08648 91068 1s9‘ge8 | 80 TL | 0 ele pserere= B b-ee9 Lise | 9°98 118 26> reer | anak TEL ‘98 ore | due‘o, seas [eae Sim [te on | Res ironr | lee Bie Ha Hew | ee. | Bl tae Hae Bees ceetrat Seta Meg Gs | Wi os eee ed aloe Be cee ee PTE [e1OL A 6-201 Fee eke pee U8 ie eae ee ie Os ae Cane Pennie a cee ul 0 fe i. > 6 a vaved ©, 60'8 ‘G ee te B) Bee gus Gs Bee ea | ue Be ee oe: (08 | 688 we | 989 Ee (oe | ~Aolte + 06e y 1S $6 186 88 FOE ‘SOT SS] 8b 901 ‘ET £00 “F98 I1Z ‘FS Gippitey es ere ee W010, 8 191 0°89 Z 61 ST (68 6918 668 ‘68 O8P ‘ZIZ ie ‘6g gs ‘1G fee i fostiicncickncunns 3 Bi 12088 ca ceose | 501 isis | $88 Ona | ea0-0D siapues z 7 4 1a) P g a age enero ererer S050 SB e1F ere oe ieee asa see io Poca re eee «| GEO 0 (eee ees on 4 9 (Oo 5Q ‘ Wa ne} re) G8z ‘8 6 Te ABC EBGaG aaa e Ie gory sass oe er. (1056, og | 208 sale | 00 ‘See | 888 9h ee [loaoct 6 CSP 8°19 L'81 69 ‘CT BCT ‘86% 9gT 19 SF bP 8aT (82 pOOEe ns Ei tceecssesse: -+ gn pica 8°20 O°LF 92 9ZL ‘L0G 662 ‘26 SLT ‘86 289 '€1 G0 ‘6% 16 ‘92 eee el 9 . cen 690‘ OLE‘ i C6! 99 108 “ ayse £‘98T PSL, ia)! €L ‘G8 0 ‘ST et @‘OLT L 96 1 6&1 He [oe ee -oe-g OW 018% "ge PSI 106 ‘S&P ZL ‘coe 198 '8 602 ‘IT OL8 ‘S6F £00 ‘¢2 co6Tes fio OREO SE ROR OSIPRL 6 “SET Z9¢ 1 "82 LOL ‘ZT Z88 ‘6PE 180‘ 901 oe ‘LPL ae ‘og oe ae Ai [peccessoccnscense ec) pupenon 9°8F 0°02 682 (96 PE6 86S 6ar ($1 99 ‘£01 66 686 ae “61 ree ig, fsisianiicicnansonsncic ) Pua eal 8°98 C8L $F 921 08 998 '88 OGP ‘LOT BEE 'GLS 90 ‘OTT ree fey | SS i eee eg eee 180 ‘GL 506 ‘OL ie ‘BI G8 LST 19 ‘OLF POS “OL 10:09 [ececsceseeeees coeeseeeeecteteresececeeeceteees Se) IST ‘EIT 88°71 Eh ‘LT GO9 PSL £96 G01 189 ‘186 _ eieansnonactaactene eee LLL T. 108 ‘8T 089 ‘601 COT ‘FST Oe _ PeOm eel €06 ‘601 628 ‘E01 OSPF ‘08 eee 50g NS107 L&s ‘FS 911 ‘98 ee = pol199q, 266 ‘F9T Oy ee wosaeql Deities aa r04sno ERE Mea cpa eas ah Gertie tre jp) heemoyg sede ctsedueess eoseaanee "epwoseD -- 0} pUONET peoyIoaA vag ID CO i~ A 1919 e) el a BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 56 G&G ‘GSE 6G ‘PY 6% 99S OES OSS = ID Noo oO ND HSnSoreanrss Dane a iS CON 208 TE O85 080 ‘% I c BLP 8 ‘E 161, 068 ‘26 989 ‘01 818 ‘IT 896 ‘ST TAs “¢ 86F 990 ‘OT 902 ‘SF OF6 §2 162 ‘F PST POP G08 £08 O86 'G £06 ‘FT G00 ‘8% 0¢9 OT *PUBLpOO \\. 826 126 G96 '9 918 ‘TAT 682 ‘o8 940 ‘29 826 ‘OT G18 ‘08 CLL ‘SE 966 ‘Gb eee 11 988 "b OFE % 89g ‘TZ 9GP “89 OLE ‘2% 620 ‘6% O86 ‘TF GPE “TP 969 ‘88 iy Geo Go 616 ‘PF SOT ‘SF GL3 ESP ‘99 ae 668 GOT PIP ‘FL 608 “D8 TS2 ‘8% 899 ‘LP SbF ‘ROT TPS ‘LP O16 “19 TGL ‘28 698 OF *ponur *porold uy *puUvy oANgSB,] OL8 ‘PIT 600 (PST 968 809 ne a is 10 902 ‘80T 268 (9S iis £99 ‘TSE GOT “901 Gai ‘Oct iG A > C86 ‘60T PPO ‘OPT 706 ‘801 ggg “6s sees £09 ‘89 } he 626‘ 26 “908 6PS TPO POL 088 Sh6 6% 982 84g 291 2g9 Sif C96 ‘[RIOL £09 ‘061 G09 PE GPS ‘ob SIT ‘ee P26 (66 869 “S6T 860 ‘29% B08 ‘Sse LLL ‘OS BOE LEG B86 ‘O6T O89 'B8Z 260 ‘SOT lah ‘Ea 898 ‘61 £98 “AST 128 ‘08 I6P ‘PSG 82 ‘28 219 ‘06 QGL ‘S28 160 “PSS 808 ‘821 ¢ ‘122 G18 ‘OL O86 “TP O1% ‘F6 B62 ‘L8% 5 18S NGF ‘ELE MOOV SS V Ue N *sdodo ul pu] *PIVMOFT SEMIOSIO UGS Ob (ele Bi oeteeteneeeesereress = RIOR = sis sisieie'ainiaie ws'c'e'sie <7 QOOOILET woes |” TLE ‘69K , 696{9FLT | guy one |" gga ‘908 | eas += -soARTT G19 ppE | > URLIBET Ito‘see =| uo} [TMB Ey 1p9 ‘618 pees ioe 1.31 LEP ‘OBE 3 win shstuie etnias G eisteretrare shee OT IEE) €89 ‘6b wraidiw sinieiaieis|aieteiaiw See ~-quBTy 008 ‘E82 Pee Se OM Se -- 1000) CROMIAC IDS ay Shosi ee amn samen ay prime uyr cane ake toss == DTOABH, £26 ‘999 siete ts ---UaprRy) PLZ ‘OLE Siejerelutetn =>=**"9980) (eh Teh Sue | RR Sin eS Scie Sie PN aye Sea se aay Shae ama BORRLGGs blancs c eee aes Gane aA ene eRe tear sees = TOF} COAT UB ROBE oR | oon ree eT Ee NEE Data “UTPUBAT NBS ‘PSE > = CLOTHE G68 ‘6LF -kpung O98 “OLT “supsnod £69 ‘O18 ~- > -ospod GTS ‘08% >> OXI 189 ‘OST Se a eeseece eee eet eee tee secre eessesesesee jonod OLE “FLG > TOSMR(T 6ST ‘TOL => -SOARCT OPO SFL Ss 5 : “" == B107BC, ji 10) (ef 0,010) age aoe ole eee Se UC ee a Se A elie er 109snO QUOGD mtagn rear et NC Se ee oe ae suring R68 “OhZ : >" = XRITOO Papago malcsncienel-a sehen e mes. inp Sse as a see aaa Keo 188 ‘CPE >> oumoxoyO gee ‘Th0 % --**" €1T0YO ‘CCh -====958q0 ‘Shp SEIS SOUT IDEA IO sil eI ea tS oe IBpop VERNUCR aR Seemue yes eR eee eh eee oe ee 0ze ‘008 uiatdin Stale. me pininialem o's eG) as une ice heiniuie DS IONE *SULIG] UL “= MOVUILLOPY 120% 8°88 o61 GLP SOT G63 ‘Ob LPS "86 69 ‘6 PES ‘OPT S&T PL LPP OSE ~==>>>"-OLOCSTIEEL 6 °S8T 1°98 8 '6T OLL'PhS O19 “FS God FST €89 ‘OT 916 ‘S0Z POL ‘OTT OERIOOE Teka sassa sas abil siscis scion sisson satis eas * MOURID L SLT 8°28 BIG 669 “811 692 ‘PP PG6 Lb 998 ‘6 80 ‘Z0T £60 ‘So QUO NAY RES: apes niysiaiis aise sisiss/5 siais sasinin.9 5 sieisi sci iei aa aaGiaee == *S00) 6 108 128 6 OT Ooh “891 610 ‘88 661 G9 129 °¢ 688 ‘OT 6eh ‘TS LL ‘828 eee) 2°(5:)1 (0) § 061 8°28 PPT The “SOT GOL “LT 186 ‘3S L16°¢ 619 OL Bhs ‘OP OTRO Re Tel eS ee ae aes ata? Team ae [LorreD 6 11% 9 TP 9°6T GPS ‘64 688 ‘SZ BLL‘ 068 °8 TOP ‘PS P98 ‘6S 199 ‘80% woes esd eunypog. cS NS a ee “UUINSdNVH MAAN CAL P°g8 OPT | 126 ‘GG ShT ‘690‘T | age ‘eoe $26 686 149 9% ‘% | 6ST POE DOP Te. pane see ee Rbisistst tates EES Pee hi SSO INO) 9°STT vor 0°81 OSP ‘82 982 ‘OT | 062 , 918 ‘9 206 ‘91 OPS PT T89 ‘601 pea SSE ea Sapphire mao nS cet ~> > OUT ONT AL i cc ae BiG i (») Dans ae LET seas 808 ‘06 SOT ‘88 986 ‘S6T ~>==-OOUSBAL “Le " 98 z I 8 TPL Tro. S6P ‘T “755 * £01098 0 “18% O'8P Tar £99 “8 196° OPP T 189 Ga0‘g 282 ‘T GLP ‘OT “ss AqsuO G pbp 4°09 1-8 POG ‘PS TPG ‘PS 168 T 00% “TS SEP ‘29 G06 ‘CL PLO ‘PG SAR EOn Ny L°THT B88 1°22 PIS ‘98 290 ‘28 888 ‘% 61S ‘OL pLb ‘OP PLC ‘8% G99 ‘GOT SPS LOW 2 Oro »* ron yy, , & ay f »é vr to sO he setae r L"OSp 9°19 6°ST 116 ‘821 T8¢ ‘G98 £69 SS 880 2 608 ‘OSP L0G ‘26 089 ‘999 ~~ 9ploquan yy 8 'age 4°69 6 °9T £36 AT GIT 26 72 490 °9T OOF ST 969 82 72 BOING 2008 8°19 9°06 OFS “S PRP ‘6 120 ‘8 180 ‘8 08s ‘9 rl ~* UP[BAOUIS | T*P80'T 9°98 GT ___ (v) TS 1bP CSh PL LOG “OFL Gh6 CLT O88 ‘986 + ROT OT 619% o'19 0°82 SITS G26 ‘OF 888 "2 689 '8 Bod “TS PSE ‘OL POLES “ss esepsnog, LLP 99% S221 828 ‘TL 019% PSP ‘T 602 °T 06g ‘8 ToL ‘02 Sete) (8) GO PPL 9°93 L°LT 683 “FO 862 °%S 609 'S £29 'S S10 ‘0% ST SIT "Troan | “V@VAUN ‘sdoro | OfNgSa *sdodp “1OULO *puBlpoo AX | *porvord way [RIOT Ul So.1OB ——— -- 3 areal “puURy ULL *sdo.1o SURE Up “* coe eeeeeeeeeeeeseeeceeeceeeecereeeeeseeeeceeey Amn) 966 GT pLL TIL inser elie nae “= XBITOD a — See, SOAGUD 2 mee “OT[LB By ee 8°O a OOIXANW MAN uecrs| nee et ‘ | gray ee ee ae STL ‘GOT G02 ‘TOT OLL ‘0% fea] Tse Tree OP 008 ‘68 Resor heer ain ee OS ‘eh 102 ‘061 ‘ ; pO SET ea ie 8h6 0. ae 8 810 '8 ete TOL“0GI'T | As ‘eeg'@ | : haa 3 “Ne Ke g is U6 G age ‘o re a Q f3) Been = ae ae Cente liane 099 (9 soo ‘or | 600% eg -< oae OP 6 a 5 6PE SS AG 898 T PASE 7 ) 63 IRC Sry 4 fg an shore nace wen aa eee ate ee ae aoa cea M A gue lou eae crest [ashe | the mee | ae ‘be fuisas | bon sor eames SS "| GE CLP ‘GL eye BPS ‘T £28 '¢ € It 809 ‘OT HNIC Peeeaoato.c xi cuoncoo.ondcermens carenecneereono eee 1 (Spr a G'6P £60 ‘T8 G86/6 199 ‘CT ] 7 & £0 a Fe EM I lcaaedaondaeaarioncbiogcdsdpandoocadammanéiouoa aur peanee oR ; . 9 S 906 PLO ‘6B 6 ST Li) Mmmatnrenae me ornerbnreertn nanan ranao°5 £2 re [eae | 968 se 006 699 ‘P 962 2 £220 ‘09 pte -o= = grag 1°63 ¥9 dso | go6'ne | ez0'e P90 ae Zoe‘cor | ous ‘007 vee HHO Ou a T p°9¢ BIZ ‘96 &10 ‘¢ 119 ‘¢ id ; 99890¢ [rttccttcct cc ; “Uv000 : p : 16 99 862 ‘8 a (8 98h ‘2 bLL 09 0 il ee oe Or eka nen ee ratteng 606 129 «© | 6 88 628‘ ,! EO ag | Sodeeeer-ooocdgddprcncepraauconnedacdocascosiace amines 188 Tir | o:e9 Gera eae Been 88661 | 860: 0p ype | Ola ea oe weeeeeeeees Tunereon i ‘ot PL 5 ue 866 ‘2 an q eh % POP ‘8 oe e 900 ‘T ae alee eee rage Spee a ‘88 : Oke 196 ‘Pd ; £9 '% ¢ et ‘ fs om n 61 Bur | 6g | G88 2 Wag 099% ea (¢ Wa a Um ees epee ee ee meee o OSDTLEE 88 9 | ThO‘e 80 ‘T U1 ¢! vss +s gons9on OTS OW Oot | Fo De Gite ae a) amen es aver | GOL‘e. coef OSB 6 : ale ‘ Me scene cece econ cee sleeete a: sd gee 9ST 186 °% ech 8 2 et dinnies eeaneseten ane cea 1¢9 028 ‘T at I 92 ‘z¢ 770 wopme) PG 196 ‘GL "777 Wogsuyfan gf See ae me “Uod.10g7 “oRueyy "AGUSUAL AN RE. , U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURB BULLETIN 626 60 oT 6°9T . SF T00 ‘88 108 ‘FT Ter ‘ST 80 ‘OT Z10 ‘6F PLT ‘LST 181 ‘682 Se py cea oasis sacle.) OOsOUas) 8-001 9°28 8°28 99 ‘BL PHO ‘2G POT ‘TE 19d ‘8L 616 ‘99 OLE ‘99 GPS ‘S0z "*" moy MY, 9 Pel 8°0F £08 £68 “VOT 193 “b8 PTO “6S Ser ‘Te £00°S2T 68T ‘0ST LEP ‘68k os UTP UBL Se) fides oer SU NEmiin IL Baio Seta Gyo | daidive le Corea all yes cca al) Gee) G1 scence oerer cbr ic cu eriertertcnscnenenean ct Taoeane ; ; G09 ‘ y Z86 ‘G9 =| SOE ‘RSS| ORE ‘TLE pees) L°€8 £88 9°88 Q6T ‘SET | 610 '8% GL ‘08 180 ‘16 G18 ‘OFT LeT GAT — | 20¢ ‘F9F ae -ssoyoqnat 89ST oy $98 198 ‘9FZ | 008/89 GGT °6L AGT ‘OLT | GI9'STE =| SOT “80% |: TET “Boz ***-9rBANefod, 8 '6IT 8'PP PLE TTS ‘€9 PSS TE BSG ‘OF £62 ‘29 662 ‘PST 160 ‘21 102 ‘662 “-*> = pueyy09 6°1g 18% 9° LP PPG “COT TOI ‘ST 6LT “F% $60 ‘S¢ #68 ‘26 120 ‘811 CO) GS TAD) aad pogo akaiay abl ieee aap ae Sec ete AOE > - BIquINToO ee We amy Wrevce Vetey gene VGeees Pee I See ec : } bo gg ‘¢ 196 ‘GET 8.896 | OGL ‘O8T P80°689 "*--osuvuoy 8°09 PPS & ‘OP G96 ‘08 816 ‘f 6S ‘OT 022 ‘9 Age ‘Gg OG ‘16 CLL ‘922 esd s Su ceu rhe daw edes Simard yaee ey a eae -Sunuo9 2°81 £°SP 9°98 go (01 | OTE v9 OBZ ‘66 969 ETT | OBLTLLG | SPITS] | OOO /ETO =|" “iy yenboeyned) 368 82 ange GOL ‘86 690 ‘81 086 ‘8 TTP ‘2b OPP ‘68 610 ‘S2e | OLT' TTP wande) 8 OST 9'8h 0-18 GB6‘98T | L298 892 ‘SOT | 890°TFT Cuvadcum alncacnLOnse «|KCOOnGUD Ie "lleactcn tai eet sans vacwane ore Pune emene es aac | "7777 sngne1e948O & 601 2°88 poe L99 ‘90. | B16 ‘82 GG ‘PE 610 ‘96 OT 6ST =| SOL "CPT =| GLP TTP Stet s.SSZ OMOo TET € 201 & 68 £°88 O92 ‘TET | 668 69 OG ‘PS PEE “CL SHVAGCE. NUE PeGs WOLOLUR. SIDS hake wee ee gaa vanx heme Nes oan eal sooo oes £UBSOTTV BS8 3°81 81S 201 ‘28 968 “OT pO9E “OT 690 “26 6PL “BS BUGNO REO =| BOSNBRG SRSA SSeS Saran ren Se a ANS sams Pere scl y'y “MUOA MAN £°090'T | 9°T9 6S 226 ‘6098 | 9th ‘Oza‘S | POR‘EsE‘T | 221 ‘OG0‘T | 210‘0PG‘9 | 282 ‘099 TEOMOUE Te ott simone eet TAREE ES Tenet TRIO, 0 P98 ‘T T'€8 19 96P (2% 896 ‘981 980 ‘Gz 862 ‘TT Z6I 'ELT 269 ‘21 G8E ‘808 19% PLT mg TPT (689 868 ‘621 69T , 290 ‘21 629 “TPT TPS (88 T10 ‘PIS y Ore : es $ ee ny Be ue ee renee a ie 886‘00T | She Sz PLL ‘608 . é 989 : ane 5 Sho suse nih sean ete MGerennttia cet maraborh eats cham SGAE 0-'268‘8 =| 969 LT OE ‘TIS TT ‘Oee c10 901 600 ‘80 aL or | 608 1 000 ‘929 Leer tabeeon ce ee ee “Geeta tees ere ne peice “01000 8890108 | 8°16 g: £90 ‘GP 202 108 998 ‘TI 11@ ‘0ST PLG ‘EOF 608 *% QROHLOGEE |, [as ease RN evepann ws cook pe scep ae he aa BLIOLS G“1Sh Lh 0'9 POL iLh 208 *2L 828 ‘09 699 ‘BP P09 ‘921 126 ‘TI GLE OBC bens nena Eee pine anvewds went) Whay npn be tan Ou BIUBS £63‘ | 998 0% 106 ‘611 Z0L ‘ObL L¥0 ‘881 P20 ‘08 £12806 | OPO TZ CEUMPEOST. «|(sewumerore we pk Aye ae ep ars er jonsTy ues b'SLT 6°62 8°91 963 ‘09 908 ‘OT PEO 'S P28 ‘T POT ‘8% 628 ‘OT GeqOUT: “|peeawensunpaes pact ha cea cae Sc uent uBg “penuyyuoo—OOIXAW AON ‘sdory | OLNISBaL *sdoip "IOT10O *puvlpoo AA | “~poaoiduy [BIOL UL Sd10B — = = b *puvy] Urey ‘sdolo *SULIvy UT 5 Toi ; ee —o} pojon | U0 TIV uy puvry | pury [e}OJ, sett) upsoloy | Pp puel UNvy 1810} Jo 038}110010,7 *puvy o1nyse 7 ‘ponuryjuoyj—(snswao OLG6L) sayunoo hg ‘saynjg penugQ ay, ur sum uo pun) 2ungsvg—'T] XIAV YL, 61 PASTURE LAND ON FARMS. 74 ~ Hg oD OOH OMOME HOMMAAHAOWO AMMO O mH =LIAHAIOGBASNAMHAAMMMOMMEIDOWID fo) ss Se oO mist IDO AN OD © rt COONMHAONS nm re Sa Od B= 19 02 69 CD NI OO C200 CO P= 1 Pe HOP OO HE- OW ONO oO OO SH XS SOMA AA HAN Ost OOH 9°OF Gag T'hP 9° LE 0°09 T8& 0°61 1°66 8°8P PLE 1°26 p98 GPP 9°T9 T 67 6°TF 8°3S PPE T&& 9°9€ 0°24 L’bP p18 0°86 9°LE Te 8°29 0°6¢ Pig 01g 9°SE G°eL 6 °3e €°09 9°29 £°89 L GP 0'6F T 8% 6°18 0°9F g'ge 9°8T GLE GET ‘619 ¢ 0z8 ‘TS 918 ‘08 £08 ‘GF 919 ‘SL TT ‘GET SLT ‘IIT T0S ‘62% 186 ‘SL 826 ‘FOL 198 ‘G0 E61 98 $80 ‘SS G60 ‘FF P12 (09 2122 ‘001 022 ‘08 280 ‘TST £68 ‘IST GG ‘FS 190‘ GPS ‘TS p08 ‘Z BPG ‘FS 610 ‘OFT £8 ‘O0T TST ‘Se 68 ‘OOT &BP ‘S6 899 ‘S6 Gee ‘BFL ZSP ‘OE 066 €88 ‘LT 861 ‘IF 9SP ‘89 689 ‘LP G18 ‘08 129 ‘T2T. TST 206 ‘FL 798 ‘99 £19 ‘FB 290 ‘98 GZ0 ‘G86 ‘T SII ‘S 69T ‘98 €16 ‘FI LBG ‘ST PEE‘SS OLF ‘LT 996 ‘ZE OZ ‘ZT 032 ‘IT £90 ‘98 926 ‘E GIS ‘98 008 ‘e SIL ‘¢ 168 ‘9 81S ‘F ETE ‘FS £68 ‘09 050‘ 826 ‘TIT 118 ‘18 C16 ‘Pb 992 “SP $89 ‘LIF ‘S 160 ‘&I 98 ‘SE 069 ‘ET 9&8 ‘FT ISP ‘&F G09 ‘09 20 ‘0S £80 ‘ST 618 ‘ST OTE ‘69 SOP ‘FT TZ ‘OL SIS ‘TT PES 6 LEI ‘Es 86 ‘860 ‘S €19 ‘OT Q9T ‘89 981 ‘06 ie 98s ‘ST BOL ‘98 O6T ‘98 982 ‘TS ewe 298 ‘8 082 ‘26 meade LE ‘TS ee 82 ‘2 PIL ‘98 BESET G3 ‘S GIG GOL ‘TF £62 68Z ‘ET 086 ‘GPT lar é 09209 £82 SE TP6 ‘99 662 681 ‘3 £68 ‘€& 9ET ‘08 me ‘ an 02 $00 ‘LTT ee TT9 ‘6% OF9 ‘TOS ‘2 88 ‘FE 168 °L0T 6S ‘SF PSP ‘OL 900 ‘TFT Ha F689 G88 ‘TS 6 ‘SEL pe sf 66 ‘FIT 800 ‘GOT 988 ‘829 692 ‘8 POS ua tas IP GOL ‘PE £69 ‘66 ne Th S81 £99 ‘69 £P9 ‘SIT 960 ‘G62 IPP ‘0S 8Z8 692 ‘F £66 ‘2 £02 °€9 oes ITT é pe 612 998 ‘IZE ore ta. é P10 ‘SOT 6G “6F6 ‘8 IS ‘LIT TEL ‘POL G6L ‘FS 088 ‘FIZ Le8 ‘OLT 09¢ ‘LF 16F ‘LFT 160 ‘EeT 009 ‘TIT G16 ‘66 P16 ‘F9 BEE ‘F9E 862 ‘211 628 ‘86 oie aa IL ‘9 Or0 Cer LEG ‘TSE $60 ‘61 Ge0 ‘e GOS ‘E91 P18 ‘IT 9&2 ‘08 998 ‘62% 608 ‘29T 8F8 ‘LST. 028 ‘6FT B88 ‘6S 998 ‘803 0F0 ‘9% 106 ‘F&S 19 829 ‘ES 0&8 ‘PET LET ‘89% P18 ‘ZOT 6 ‘O61 Shh ‘kT 692 ‘T £62 ‘988 890 ‘Ze £09 ‘OT 8F0 ‘SIT 198 ‘080 ‘2% FIZ ‘F0% PPP ELE 183 ‘GPL 098 ‘298 OSF ‘OFF 6FE ‘0SZ G02 ‘96% G20 ‘ELS SOP ‘86 912 ‘ISb €90 ‘SAT E18 ‘S18 GOL ‘I6T 220 ‘O61 920 ‘TLE 192 ‘90T GSI ‘S68 9TS ‘190 ‘T LIT ‘GS 0ze ‘S ZPS “SOE 88 ‘FI €02 ‘60T TES ‘26S 866 ‘16h B68 ‘BES GPT ‘P8E 696 ‘188 899 ‘Ler T&P ‘069 008 ‘S08 096 ‘T OLL ‘SS TFO ‘F8% 962 ‘¢88 beh ‘18S ge ‘68g £80 ‘CLP err ‘T 198 ‘282 696 ‘TLE 18h ‘9S FI ‘608 st S998 “7 > BUTULOA (A “77> **199S90104S0AA_ “9m he My “""""TO4sUTYSe A ae eee ea "Tole “19481 “-"suryduoy, ieeeneooll uBATNg ~B00U0g “-->- je,Anyog “> eTeyoyog - Apejyoousyog “77> >= B9098IBg pueppoory. “stent oo uIeO Ng Peo -* 030510 wee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee eee “*"" 039MSO wt eee eee eee eee eee “"" suRvelIO eee ys10(:1(@) “"""""* O11840O ““esepuoum "7" ""11BSSBNT - AIOWIOS HOP, sober rUDOSCODDODedSddDE SUaooDddaDO b55qncHaaccanEn -*=- 9000 “*""TOSIpeyL Toye 9°92 0°0T T°68 TOL ‘TOT 662 ‘% Leg ‘1 COT ‘F 100 ‘0z 6FS ‘8 196 ‘661 vee eee nerereee=s HGASGED 192 62 P08 1ST ‘6ST #98 ‘€ taal! 182 ‘% 908 ‘02 €9F ‘82, OZI ‘892 “OTP Ueay, 2°Se 6 ‘OT 0-18 E88 ‘8ZL 826 °% 616 ‘OT 198 ‘F R61 ‘FZ PEL ‘89 G08 ‘12S ~= "Yq AsO uF 1&8 €6 107 L@L ‘ET 086 ‘T 628 ‘22 O26 ‘T 612 ‘9% €99 ‘EIT 690 ‘E8z siesoretctaretataite >>> gqu10o0spaT - 3°69 9°FT 112 TPS ‘88 £86 GOT ‘LT 120% €90 ‘08 €16 ‘8% LLG LET >> wen, fH 9's C% LST 890 608 G61 ‘T Eh F ace ‘F 186 ‘6 98¢ ‘€2, CE9 ‘268 -mydnq MS 9% 9°0L rad 199 ‘88 EFS 600 ‘TT 920 ‘E OF ‘OT T9¢ ‘0S 629 ‘SCT ==" OTB iz 168 LI 0°08 £26 ‘C61 90g‘ ____| OL ‘gz RSF ‘8 968 ‘SE OFF ‘66 BOM wf [eee see ice omnia isictele Ise fosie gia seresiar aac -- UOSPIAR(, GIL BX 61 £99 ‘¢ Baca €I1 6P 291 90F ‘T TEC [Pao SESE ates mnie Sis oe sitinls ain Tei eietoee Se ae aI 88 9°% 6°82 TFS ‘6S eal 06F ‘T 209 P&S 816 ‘GS 698 18 ouuieniyey =) 8) CT 2 210 ‘OTS 80C SII ‘g LPL _ | $60 ‘9 TGF ‘16 989 ‘20F “= puepiequang So 0% LT 1°81 626 ‘O9T SFT 8&6 ‘Z 91g 668 ‘e 006 ‘2g SOCREO R= HIS So eae amen eel airtel Saisie TINS ae “WOABIQ fe OL 61 ZS 968 99% 189 ‘T 192 ‘F 188 12 ‘9 LF, ‘09 OTP See “snquanyog ay it 6 “CI 0'TF #82 TCL 660 ‘2 866 ‘6% 188 ‘€ E86 ‘Ee 129 ‘201 SRORZOZ isos paseo rear Siclacist selec Gris eich EG entar ees "> PURTOARTO qj 6°& Saal! 0°02 Gog ‘eg 116 LGF‘8 6LL‘S €1Z ‘21 L2G ‘OT GOORZR |) Mpee eae e oo Rei erry asians Sie BECO Se KejQp 9% 8° 8°38 LLY 6h G 2g ab ZE9 PSP FS 99 ‘FL, fk O-LF TL 1ST 961° 9ST 198 TLP TL 686 ‘T 108 ‘FT 20S ‘08 G29 ‘10Z QD ORiz 6°01 62 296,196 Eco ‘8 FOG ‘RZ GLL‘b PEE TP 9£0 ‘28 £9 ‘GLE a) RG 201 Z98 666,621 700° £92 ‘ET 282 ‘9 OSS ‘FZ SST ‘18 1€0 ‘TFS Eee 9°8 PLT 98 S61 &F0% 80 ‘FT 66S ‘9 G2L ‘2 618 ‘Sh OL8 ‘£9Z Bel 8% S°LT 699‘T9 802 ‘T 968 SP 2ST ‘Z 098 ‘ET TST ‘22 19 1% 6 "PP GIF 12 cam ELS 186 89 ‘T 296 ‘92 €10 ‘09 = 600s 6 IT 6°02 OF9‘ OPT 1g0‘¢ 969 ‘FT £12 '8 920 ‘9% COL ‘Gh ILE ‘812 HH 1:08 PIL 8°L8 TZP ‘SOL 626 ‘Z GL9 ‘GT 1Z0‘¢ 229 ‘EZ ERE ‘82 OZR ILOG* ||| POPE ESbicasensriine Gaceessls aos eases rine aos snaqeqe): me gE 18 €°& 098 ‘2ST. 109 ‘T 68T ‘TT 802 ‘¢ 866 ‘LT P20 ‘2G COOUCCCe Mises tease eeee Sear aet eee baa eee ep eae Gna ---OyINg, <6 9°1Z 1°91 680° 692 696 ‘OL TPS ‘GF 660 “62 609 ‘06 PIT ‘OL Z8L ‘61F oqurooun gg. eS 8°S0Z ¢ “CT CL 68F ‘902 ETL ‘88 ZL8 ‘T 918 TOP ‘TP 2ST ‘02 ZOT ‘89% YOIMSUMIg, SB Oe Po 191 900‘ 0%@ O88 'T SEP LT 208 % CTE ‘IZ ZSF ‘OF GL) 182 ““uopelg cw 1% ZLZ TL ‘661 8399'S 168 ‘2 POP €20 ‘9 116 ‘92, TOR AC RCIA tea ke sae eae aT Ete EES ae ee “orog, a eal ara €°& 228 ‘FST 908 #80 ‘¢ €19 £02 ‘9 G10 ‘89 OOT ‘6FZ oyna g, SLL, 1°98 8°02 PLP OTT 861% 128 FT C6T (62 022 ‘96 TEL ‘FS Opava een | SEIS PE UE COE OO Sa A EROS eins ead te 4 SERA SS “ousy’ 5 Pe SL ree 819 ‘OLT 8&8 'T G19 ‘LT Thins 019 ‘26 Zr 96 066 ‘682 “-*"TOsuW 5 86st 9°88 £08 09919 | 9F9°9 129% OLS ‘SF GFR ‘Lg £99 ‘OE CUOMO TI eee cee ae eas aS ea ee ros ~- AUCYSOTV Oia C-SI 0°82 963 {66 686 ‘F 0&6 ‘8 209 1&6 ‘61 LIL ‘fF BPOLOGIo =m Aiisiee akees coe ene ee eee 7 Jopuexepy cS 6 0°SI 8°92 662 ‘EST OFFS TLL ‘61 ZS‘) BFL ‘Ze 1g¢ ‘99 SUCRIC Ce Gm ceca pence cnet rece acess or Se Cee qouULUIe [Ty eo} a ‘VNITOUVO HLUON i=] > IS ‘sdoip | OMMISvaq | *sdosp ‘10Oq1Q =| ‘puvppooA, | *pesoiduy [BIOL eS aap ad = all spUtY UnTey “sdodo *SuLIGy UT “£ym09 ica) omised —o} pojoa | 10440 ITV Ul puey | purl [e}OL, Ul selo'V seb ; Pa *puvy oingseg 18307, Jo 090107 ‘ponuryu0j—(snsuad OT6T) savunoa fig ‘saqwzg paynugQ ay? ur suntpf uo pun) aunjsog— JT] ATAV |, 62 63 19 F £°%9 8 OFT OF 6og 02g 0 8 0 FT ez ‘86 FST ‘T 9¢0°¢ 8°ZE 9 ‘6 (Qn x6 €9) J 0€9 G/T & Z80 ‘ 208 G 691 2 28% reek 08 196 G Saha 96 °9 ‘ FFL CT 72 139 08 h 681 £26 ‘F 98 AI aan) 660 IT £0821 OT6 ‘LOT Uae TT ZF TOL (EFL | 601 Bs GL ZeLe 690 (12 181 ‘22 SET (LET e-T¢ LG LF 0c 79 FLT oF9 6 1e¢T 8£6 02 668 “£9 &10 (208 eats €°€L 6-oz zgs‘gce | 608 {T Bee, iia 286 {TT eae 602 ‘FL ates 8 OL 61e 258 LOT PALS PPS ‘8 asad 168 ‘I ese 69L ‘12Z ee eg 22a TEI SPL 290 ‘e PLS ES Te F TOS ‘ET 908 ‘T2E E18 FET ZS Bal SES Eas hy G16 (EZ | 908 F 62g 198 | 898 {TL 699 (16P PUG 6 '9 $ "8% £90693 | FOL ‘T &F0 ST OLL‘S OSeR Te Sanca ree Rocrices ~7 DESO oe ey te | ola | sue ee a y ro nT EGE dg nS vl a ee 61 SE | Ag ve 116 ‘oF Hee £60 ‘2 a ee pb seer ate Sg ae z°9 ee OF ‘C12 66 STS (2 aie 026 ‘eS eae! Be Bge “CIT aman Ow. (a= Lp G% Zee PLG LLT Z6L 686 ¢ 12¢ LEE 6 010 ‘ZZ OFO ‘S&P sisicivinici = --- gee a < CF Go eI 126 ‘69 Ie £09 ‘IT STP Se £09 %9 IGF IZ 209 “TIT ---puout poet ey i 0% : 0ze ‘SEZ 201 ‘ 718 FI es ee za a SES : 8:2 : 0 FF or < Fg 120‘ 008 % 6e¢‘ 66 CF aA See. jopuey FC £6 L6Z OF PP ECG 60 1 1g¢ eo & E19 ‘ee Ts9dee 0 [cccccccceeeeeseeesececeseeeeeeseseees === OG. eee ee eee 5 eens le 260 (1 ose orp ee vealed omen: 1% ear 608 ‘TFT Foe £36 ‘T ag TE9‘T fea SUG Coe ee uid. a eee 0@ Tze TL8 802 106 ‘T oe a C6F ‘ES 710 é ZL “9B eG eS BPE PpResporrne sRESSSEpEeSSN6 “suena so PYG Ga €0Z GZT'Z8T | 026 LLE 2 OF0‘T seg (16 Z8F LF ee pay ; 18 Q £20 8% 10¢£ £866 ez PLES IFS 1 nae eee es yue10 Ee aa Dae seer elec €89 g LEG 8 (IF SMe eee ee jonbseg. =) 9°LL oF Z OL #20 ‘89 260.6 898 ‘0Z €SG SFP ‘CG 9€8 88 CBP “1g woes esececeeeeeeeeeceeececeseeeeeeneecceceeceeees oopme dg. 0°16 JA 8 °ST Sor 190% pty c09 AP 192‘ oe eee avueO EE] 6°26 £1 612 £86 (SEL eco 208 F6 62'S OLE FE €T9 00T A a - === Mops ima} 0°” 16 Z GF IS 66 OFL F 61h 2 162 5G 08S “8% Z66 ‘22 PES “78S --- "> moydurey3 pe 5 0 COT 0°S F'8Z LEG SST 308 ‘g [TSS 9¢8 ‘OL T&L ‘6a 062 ‘Qe 968 (PES JOAOUR ET oe BH 1-2 9°61 L'6L 998 Pr O8F 69 (06 928 ‘9 S61 LE cece Qe COLO ale nc canbasaaies Bee nana eee ene Se 79) 6F0 6 GI 9‘ST Shp LCT Tze ‘9 067 @ LZ1 ‘T ELL 0E Z8e ‘FST 668 PLT voc ecipeieeceeeceececeescereseseese-- gape < F nc} T 0 ‘OL G CL 618 “OFT G99 aa 0€@ ‘ST ecg ‘°C SOT y GPL ‘3G CSG ‘SIS Sse ees caer mes [eenraeienn yg ng 66 SFE £20 ‘061 exe ‘e 6EL ‘C1 acl 6 90F ‘0S FFG ‘SE TIZ ‘L0G sean eee napa ene Teues AL aan 0°9 ze 962 ‘66 098 ‘T 989 ‘61 Ce “F OFS ‘96 801 ‘Ze Ne anaTaeart OF 679 6° Le0‘eet | OL ‘T 969 ‘01 cee F 798 ‘26 cctae L9F ‘S06 po ES Sage Ee aa onioant 6:91 T'8 C°0Z T¥6 €8 91Z FE OL OFS ‘T 160 “21 61z {09 eer HAC ©-06 Ls c-es 10¢ ‘FEI OT ave L Z0e £96 ‘20 10 69 9OT ‘€2 a6 a 9°8¢ 9°ST ELT 24 (LG 999 ‘T G69 : 089 £96 ‘8 FGF LZ FL0 RING Spuooocneoece ate LL 8-28 Tsé 601 ZL F EP 2S IGP ‘T - G86 ‘T C16 FE 899 ‘6IT ae Z's 28 992 ‘T6r | ss0‘9 108 ‘OT 156-01 96F ‘SZ gecigees (bee ‘OLT 9°26 TT Z-6Z O6T ‘TS LZ PFS ‘08 cz9 O6F “SZ 62z ‘82 GEL OFF : Bares 80ST €or 9°LL PST Sol SZ 808 T ZeQ 199 bV LFF ‘GIT ee eh Sate Aa Re ee ec Pee TIL Ll] Z Iz 966 (Sel 181) F 61S T Ogg T&L ‘% 092 Te POL ele eee wos ft: 0-02 (ats G-9z 98T ‘66 319 G00 ‘ST 169 ‘OT 20 16) ‘ES eee eee --- GoSee Z8¢ GL 3-Ge LET Sol I6L ere xa GOT ‘Gg Ost ‘0 008 ‘Ze ee eae Tapa. f Gs aa Boao ech 00g | 1881 P92 ‘9 18 TOL (69 760 ‘TF ee ep os OpAET OFF oP CF L1G ‘016 689 ‘F 190 ‘Zz 118 ‘T 208 ‘2 16002 Ce ee ---- proyiayy ¢-cc 92 TL1 88 £9 LL 168 FP C86 ‘2 BFS ‘GS #80 OBL Ug ee = ~- OST ae Lik 6°E1 TOF 9&6 Z8L‘T 661 7 619 Toe (18 062 ‘86 Oe epee eS none OT ied GFS 19 6ST ITF sl 9z8 ‘9 G6F ‘GS CHL ‘ZO 3 REO ee eee ee na eaten O8T ‘OOT 8) 960% ecg ‘¢ 610 ‘FZ Ze9 ‘¢6 GCI ‘GET m= =Xey aes $26 co 020‘9 Ore: 60 ‘F1E -=-=-pi0 Wise m iG 908 ‘T 76 (01 298 ‘8/ LS 9G SE SFL‘ a ne ak ameol) 9&T Bombe simu. euiceescce oor) Be oi eee >soyey Z's 66T ‘62 Lob ‘08 698 G06 ‘21 9°99 826 ‘SPT GOL ‘SEL gLT g 862 ‘99 091 £9 ‘STL 219 (21 BATS 008 ‘PI 9'TL £28 (60% 998 ‘29 RES ‘ST 898 “8G » - aPtet SGP ‘BT £96 ‘9 Bee FEET 8 fl 922 Gob ‘SPT 829 ‘80 966 , 282 (18 6°02 698 ‘S6T G28 ‘BE 80 ‘ST OL ‘09 rant) O8b ALT gOP 21 20 ‘81 TST (2p ol Bae epee |G! aoeor 4 9 ‘PT 160 “90% ; Dp 868 008 ‘291 699 ‘p Meee ATLON GT Oo 9st LTP ‘bbe SOL ‘OF 169 ‘2% 099 ‘8h ti 468 TPL'P&S | STOTPS 118 ‘6 TL0 ‘18 Pee wneeIG aeo ‘est | ove ‘Zp | OO “T BOP 28 = «(ONT 1B ‘81% £00 ‘68 OL0 ‘ar 968 ‘BE OPE 919 ‘TST 968 ‘28 raat O88 fy et alt | =) a 4 — g 8 "ps 26 P02 094 ‘299 ‘PT | 20% “P6% 629 PET ‘T | seg ‘Zog A ¢ ST 0°6T 9p0 ‘S01 Oba °% “Tor ‘6 206 ‘81 e g ‘01 Be | Ue uer | WoL EhE “PT 166 ‘f A, og gop Bet ‘k 920 °T 198 ‘6 P68, fd 6°01 1°61 phe ‘ose egg 69 LEP ‘8G GPL ‘TT ras 09 9'88 BOP ‘TST 408 601 (81 B19 0% 8" 683 ‘SPT 06 ‘P 319 ‘8 O86 ‘08 a 901 118 908 ‘6p The ‘3 008 'b z°6 9°28 068 “PST 80g 690 ‘TT : 9'8 1'8% O44 'POS | RETO 098 ‘18 p 80 0'P% L0b ‘801 1691 TL8 “2 = 26 1'Te 28r 18 184 ‘8 § 09 T 83 866 ‘68 ia co 2 ee ee as ese cedimenios eee ee S| eee = 4 *ponuyr) uo; A . Pre) « . r . 4 ‘sdor0 OINISUT sdoig INYO puvypoo A | *poaordwuy 5) uy So.toe ene a == co — eee pUv] UNITY TOC fq Ot ot —0} POJOA 1OT}O TLV / uy soy “op UA] PUL] ON YSE 1B)04 JO OSBPMODA0¢7 64 *ponurjuos)- —(snsuao 883 ‘68 982 ‘96T a G60 ‘PI O98 ‘96 60 (GOL 29 sO 22 689 ‘OP 022 ‘0% Gal ‘SIT 906 “PUL GIS ‘98 889 ‘PS £26 SE OOT f91e P09 ‘86% P96 ‘IST 29S ‘P21 £29 ‘OTT SIS ‘OPE 80F 889 LOE ‘STS PLO 126 POL e08 99% &96 196 LOMVA WLMON ty STF ‘990% “ye (oe 868 ‘Th Tes ‘OL G06 bP 806 ‘91 pgg og SPS ‘8 Lop ‘61 096 ‘OF Ol ‘Ol 696 528 ogee ‘THIOL 189 Pee 819 ‘Zho GOL ‘628 120 ‘8th 81 ‘28% O80 169 098 ‘Pag Lb9 ‘810 ‘T GOL (S6F OTP ‘poo 168 ‘8 s+e8 488" I9]800f OULU GT “* APPOT “und ~OpTATd ~-- KOMI OTTBABHD! = Ssty)) “Ys oping “OLIN, “UBT M Og, “neouTy og SHUTTIE UOSstOgT “SOI, "Sup y 906 ‘b oO g Oae ‘TE G06 ‘Ne 09% ‘68 106 “08 909 bal 108 be OBL ‘9% PPO ‘gg O8e ‘ORT 028 B08 ‘TIT S10 ‘ET Y—VNITOUVO HEMON *sdo.0 uy pu] oT “68 bom OG OG 5 F9I 108 80% ‘Gok erg G8S PS ras OBE bt 68 ¢ OLE oa “SULTO] UT Pury [VIO aaa “= TBVO, meres = COOMA POSE AeH OLY O LY ~** WOSTTAL SOSTTTAA “OUAR AL “UANBIE AL TOP TUTYSt AL OLR AA OYA OUT A “uoTdy) See Touady, “Aqunopy OLGL) sarjunoo hg ‘saris payugQ ay? Ur suf wo pun) adngspg— TT WAV, 65 PASTURE LAND ON FARMS. “eT osed uo ‘oinjsed ur e8v0108 GAISSeOXe UB 3UT}IOdOI SOT}UNOD JO VIqB} 99g v £62 068 ‘ST 106 ‘ar GLO LT LOb ‘FG E18 (28 G88 ‘69 266 ‘99 990% LOT ‘ST 290001 | 686 Gar 8b ‘99 GLb OT OLS ‘8G 680 ‘LOT TET ‘ST ae a a a 806 PG 996 9% Geb 99 39 Ti 30 O10 ‘OF 818 ‘26 G86 PFO ‘69 G26 (8h TOL ‘99 999 (28 GPE’ 1209 908 6 986 126 862 ‘TE 0F0 “6: OLL 128 OF 69 T£0 ‘08 186 ‘TE 899 (99 G19 66 0L8 ‘Té 862 “€6 98h 8 POT ‘8G ‘OIHO PST 6°99 149 6PT ‘8 | 706 ‘668‘S | 866 ‘OSE P8E‘GE9'T | 982 ‘O88 “b &'8 8°98 O18 OFF 996 f€9 SOF 19% ‘OT 889 ‘b9 6 "IT z'b9 Z09 ‘291 TLY (Sp S67. BET Ge POT ‘TS 6 EI & bo T6S (£62 | ZO9 TL GPL 9 LL (6b 620 (LET POL € 19 921 (691 | S68 (61 Z06 ‘£8 LLG'SG PLB (8h 94 BTL 99 (TIL 18h 9 TL “TL 894 (2G 068 ‘OF i 9°9 ¥ 99 Tos FST | 868 21 GET, BOP (FS O28 ‘98 vor = fos = fom, fuss evo'ee «fours Leste | Sone a D . ¢ mye a6 Ta cin Gree pat Bee pee ZCO'LZT | 096 Z61 ‘16 402 ‘612 i i ‘ 8B 62E | BLP Seb gel oT £80 ‘09 008 P61 9°69 688 (LL G86 (99 pe 1 Oct sf 620 ‘16 908 L°ST ¥ 1S 090 ‘SPT £89 ‘6L 029 ‘6F ERT (08 982 169 ee f at s 18 PO PAL | Obi 86 828 PL 19% (08 G89 126 : i € ‘98k | $06 11% 896 99h 618 ‘SP 9° 6 ‘ST 9:29 690 {GL TOL PS £62 ‘OL BE ‘8G BOLL ext © far fam |aasorr Jowae = [tr | eorcar | guu'ta P02 £81 0°99 P83 (O81 GR (EL bL8 Ch TS8 (68 OTL (62 be ar es imeret [iw [oe [ite | : ; i 16 ‘LP 06 569 ‘TE SOT (8 £16 £81 9°18 (0) 288 ‘99 186 PIS <8 829 ‘P6 626 , | 8 "IP £61 B6E E89 | 196 FE | _TSL “9 663 (220 | TI6 ‘Ege fiz Jem 0 | eiie femora [Suter | foo é : ; 9g f IGE G08 (bb P68 ‘SIT 6 08 6 OL boo $60 ‘601 £08 (21 218 6 012'8 888 ‘08 ae lie fae abe [She [ott [tn | 2 £69 £28 0'9F Te0'80L | G98 "Lh cee 9 66 (93 6PT OIL 0°18 aa 8°89 TLE ‘VOL L1G 18 StL ‘8 696 ‘6h 102 ‘06 aay pat ih OGG en | Venere 298 , ZBL 116 898 (99 ; { i Gb PEST | 831 (06 996 (8 £83 (1 196 ‘08 PLT 111 £19 ZBI (G8 ZOP PE 920 F 069 (8 819 (Lb 8 °€L 301 9 °€L PLO “EEL | HEL “HS $89 ‘81 929 “OF S¥6 “€8 £98 ‘826 >=" Ong LEP G0E --" UMOlE, 81 STE *** quounogy 609 LEG ~ozrepsny CORO SC ammmm sean ek ce Se gear Un a eR anne ce aaa --suoqy Vy L8T 66€ j ~ernqeyysy Grdatsers | i |PSCRCe Geen eC Eb Seca ies renee OPiS Ce Sonor puerysy CLA OR CHM Nae eel ie Se eae ie a asa a Se one a pa aaa “TOIL CORAL Git | EEE EMR Se Sens CR MOSSE MRSS Sine RE lice eRe es “surepy (01s) (9649 ct dal PRR Sle gO EC COBE PR CAO ORIG =="= "1890, £86 ‘982 “SUUeTTEM, 1S6 189 “* STIOAA, 186 916 “* ple AA, P16 892 YSI@M, 66L 86S eee (hen 102 Gog Be rotting PUPRPOS °\|icss <5 oempunteeaca a ary Smee ele ce sua one --ueuIsynyg AUS(45)) Gaal | dalpaianeineay tows oa Soe es ae ~"="9]9049 119 ‘Ong BORE "yey STOLE gi NS cer ens ikon nto ere ni enn, : “ueploUs GG s ES Piss | inicio are a aes quodieg LLY ‘TPP ---999 010] £26 9 “puelyory 183 86P * O[TATOY, OG OO bite lhenraris eh ack aa Te esr tee ae ce ar --WOSUe YT GTP ee : AoE OI8 p9¢ rag Td £08 ‘009 - -BUIQUIOd LORRI, = Se eerie er meteor a yt etn aad Sem ““JOATIO FOURV LOM clas ae RepUeN ES SOUL fe has oy pated ee ees eee “ UOSTON 800 (208 “[reyunoyy OS F 06 Cal ,|igenwipnsls Bae sO NETS hh te Ak WA ROCESS ele empha ied oe UOLIOW. GLL ‘98S =" 1ODI0], OGCpL EBM, [Deere v enters «sc aes ras ene cued OR A Nanny tng ate ueoTOW 198 LL6 “*OVZUO OW sq LOP 77> YysoquyoK £86 918 AIUO FLOW 618 SOP | a ad -ued0'T GPE P29 sortt eset sss Oo MOUIeT COTeN Here. Ultaeengwotaee yh sian ahaa e bare veh Uae ends Se aie JOPPIM. 268 268 PHOPREOR GEORG A RHEE ASSES aC GSO eGR CR Adu! a5 BARE -- 19d U1} 0LL prL ‘90h =” AEE RECE ~--sdd Td) 006 ‘E28 |” “= "syJ0\, Putas) 14576°—18—Bull. 626——5 : OF AGRICULTURE. LETIN @26, U. 5. DEPARTMED B 66 T'sOT 4°08 gro GPP 8768 8 'P T OPT was & "666 8 FE 6°09 6°99 9't9 () GP & 68 g'G8 0 'P6 6 EP 846 L's) 2 Tet 1°18 4 6p PRG 0°68 00) 8 GY wa 6 '69T GLP 1 VET 1 Gr 6 PP BP p ae "0p 0°89 Pr 4'BE 169 Fh 81g 0 OP 0°19 ne 004 BRD) 6 OP BG 100 B TT 18 2 FD) 1 OF BOF 0/00 F Ok 9 ‘OF 4 '0F 200 oT? PO! 4001 8 OE ‘adoda “OTB T ‘HOt ) tt buoy ~ : Te oinied OF} Payor uyeatoy | SYP prey witty [807 Jo oF Hy MeO tO aie a Bee ¢ N08 BP £90 (0p iin 00 (08 O18 TE G00 FE EPO 'PP OP [OF At a if ae hk a] 2 OTe ‘ay GOO "Fs 11s TP ne HOB 'P OLE 09 B60 06 RE NE Oe "OB ORG ‘OR POG EP B64 ‘Gb G8g Ds 1) ‘08 Phe PAB LG H60 6 Rid ‘GR pou G8 ‘puey my Hoyo TV ponuryuo;) BGT OT oer Tso (PT 6 fer TG 109 ‘11 AN al ape Sy fee 'B OGL ST G06 |B OOF ‘01 601 a) OR ‘OT Lee '01 GER TE BPO 'FT REE 'O Ort 't RET ‘EB 100 "4 Gro ‘01 pre") BE or PA's HOE LE RB 'G re te 216 FG BOER REG ‘FT GLB RT OPT OT REE 'OT uo (nneuan OF6L) seuUnoD Lg 880 ‘OT FEY ‘OT 400 ‘88 O20 TP ea6 ‘08 POP ‘Ne £18 ‘GT Ops LES 8G G88 LE f1E ‘PI OLE "0B as peAd BIG ULE LOB ‘98 OPT ‘G6 198 ‘GB GER ‘OT NOT 26 RES ‘08 LPE ET BBL PT por ‘ol FOL NE Poe OR BPP OR GER PE O80 "LE (ite ie a TLL ‘96 Geral ddd OT GER RT PRE ‘BG LED 'SL *PUHppOo \\ TP ‘ge GL8 ‘OT Ge ‘G6 660,89 10086 fOT BB 119 "86 080 "20 O1G ‘EIT 48001 EPL ‘TOL PRGA ENG 'RE GEO TE OP BEI LORE RO ‘RE One PO ORL NE G08 "29 NRE "NO Rog N08 BT T1860 BLT TG RE 'OR Tip TOL 06 peo "ATT REO ‘OP GRO EY dae ge dey ‘CR BP OR G08 ‘HE porary puRy one Gap 29 GP ob G16 Yer OOP ‘O01 168 ‘PET Od) 68 GER AD HOO “16 608 BFL GOL LP OLE ‘BET sip Ts BRE "DL OPE ‘ge G09 ‘ROT 6g) ‘OL PLR 26 OOP ‘PET peo ‘ep Hg "OR 1608S NW Gnd 8B 1d oP ‘OL Ord RL (BL TAN ORT 'ED O00 RPI oro ‘od ORL 44 HURON PeO TRO GPR SND ais ‘Pol poruyyue,) ‘woIDIg peu) aya ua gulps wo pun) adnaEDd ‘THIOT GeO ‘60 Pes 29 NEO ‘OPT HOS "Pd, 268 ‘89 O29 ‘BOT 008 ‘S81 Ong ‘29 Gog 101 166 ‘PAI Gge (2d 099 “BOT Ope BOT G1. ‘POL TOL ‘66 oon OPT Oe ot B08 ‘OL Tin ‘TPl RAB ‘CAT Tia ‘oe 11d ‘ROT ROR OR OPE EPI OGG RPI oon "ENG 260 "201 108 "LPI NUO'PEL er ‘ORT BEd 291 O8G 261 Bon oPl Onn Pel ere "od OO ‘edod) uy puey OG (908 RPL OBT OTs PER GOP OEE PIO'LRG BEG O6R £OP "SOG REG ‘CRE OGO'OPE (88 "PLE GEb SOPe COU OLE GLP GLE O22 7261 8k TLE RAD "ROE 608 ORE GPG BLE 086 ‘OPE TG “HOR OPT OPE 200 °TO8 GLE PPT ERO ‘OLE Eso ORE ONT ‘B48 OBL TATE BLP ORs LOS BPR OOT ETE POP ODE OTE PLE TBO TRE OPE “NCE "ARE ‘ery Uy pueyp oT, yan) ‘TY wiv, OOTOIAVET “OUT Sas SS SOUUST HOsOyo Lr noRyorr bee veo wea Shs CATOMEL Sy eyes Mae " SONT]ORL pig taht ih) i “** Hupyooyy Mi 7p as See pues oe AOR uOs WELL Poa wene pane 1 yc Woooukyy “WOg URE] se YORUMONE) ; ‘ondary “GHA RO) HTT vag UO} PNT ree ess SPLOT oes oot tay mee ™* POUT terse ses SQnraT OTR EATOG OSLO TLL G | OLR “ronda POP We) HOPWOOD) ere urAyayy uO vu WOULD ** TD used ***TLOsETR) PASTURE LAND ON FARMS. *poyedy yay o £49 Tee 1 GF 220 ese | aoe ‘egr‘T | aes ‘tse’e | peo ‘oRg F B16") 1 '8F T "8% 4°49 O66 PE £14 ‘8 PIG ‘OT 691 ‘EF a nid g'AT eo) 060 TP L16'6 LOP SPB £69 ‘RT 116 (a9 ORF PLG 209 APE ‘GP £P6 ‘21 PTA (68 POG ‘08 ie 1 8°28 dd 0°69 O80 ‘89 epg ‘ST T4498 601 ‘08 ng) 261 9°68 18 684 ‘201 LOP ‘LG ROL | B14 (a8 i OPT G09 G'TE 8 '99 OTL ‘TE 290 '8T 2n6 OTL ‘88 nd, 0 GPE 2°19 £16 GTP ‘ag P8 (FT LOL! 008 (29 a 6°68 1°08 0'60 OLL (9G GOR 'G PLO (08 168 ‘ee 1g BT &'68 &'99 BPO ‘OT one's ge | O10 "he 169 ‘901 6'18 &'€8 60F Tae ‘08 PrP TL POE 664 ‘8 OPE OTT, 1 081 PP 3 'Fe BET 08 ROG (C8 or 408 ‘0g 998 TOT 6's 1°96 8 "OP 1OP {60 p8e AT O66 £98 “OT ALP ‘Rg 628 ele 6°09 iT : ae 649 ‘GG O06" 080 nko GOO Ve 1'o& 1'ee Lr 600 TR 971019 BOP GES NG 666 (09 6 'PE g'16 0°80 P1089 BOG ‘GT LER" O16 86 O89 Gd, 6°66 P'8e P'8e 608 ‘OL 989 ‘BT TOL ‘68 WPL 1G PRE ‘RL L'ae 618 0°90 Peo PE Ops ‘OL £00 ‘8 PRO “2T O1P 69 O'8, Tie 0°GP GGL O01 GLP ‘el OT OST 1, aad 96 0'0P 6°8E L'@9 tq) GOO ‘OT 902 ‘6 GOL (MG 689 GL T's 0'9G G90) 104 ‘88 B09 'G p G00 BE OOP BR» 110'@4 9 OP 6 '96 4°10 O08 PE 80 ‘OT Bre BOE RE BOE Bt6 L'08 6'RE FRO ‘GL LO (9p OP Pine 8 LOP 0°68 106 Wile GL ROT GIG ‘Ol OLp! RPP PE O8t! L bP 4 010 O10 RE 110 "p OPg G08 Np G69 ‘98 1 08t BbP 6'68 LTP ‘OP £80 ‘C1 186‘ 160 80 ron ‘66 ‘86 0°08 004 GOP 108 08 | IPG B09 TE Pre ‘TY gg 6108 g's) #89 ‘OT ore 'o £66 G8h ‘01 10 (08 1008 8°69 6°68 O81 OG O19 ') 090 ‘OT 008 (B61 O68 PPT 9 ONT a] 8 'GE 900 ‘Tg LOT ‘98 606 TE (iV O08 O16 088 0'8B 2 °0P phe {08 Pee Tl P90 ‘08 NOL! 160 N16 8 908 109 B28 ideatay £68 ‘81 ROB TE gg" B08 60 L'08 0/08 Hah) TIP ‘88 109 ‘6 gps 'G 800 "RE LTP ‘og O'P8T gf 6/18 B49 64 18] it G04 ‘WT O09 "08 O08 ETT 0°86 6°01 Q'B4, PGS "RE BRB Pes Pl O46 ARL TP £'RE 1 PG 8'6D ON NB 186 (6 G11 ‘oR OLB 08 04°00) 8 BLT PRP 848 BAB ‘OD 618 "1 O18 OT O1L 68 G08 ‘BET 1°90 9" 88 609 Ops 08 P08 08 Oar (Be B06 1G OP6 (Os O°LP TRG 6°69 VHT 06 ORY f 1p '21 PHO ‘OP ORT 8) r'e6 £68 9 'Gh AB) (GP 1 I8 OGP ILE RG ph 66 2°6F OTR aa) 4010 Ol Pel P R60 ‘TG Hi) RY {SR 618 606 B'gO POG 2 O22 10 BEPC] a OOP RE fan BUrB 109 Rae ee LLG {LT ORY 06 Bib ‘BP O18 ‘08 ong 168 R99 904 8 120 01 BGM 2B 806 ‘OP GOP ‘08 0°86 PP OOP 060 ‘DY Pegs 61008 Pre EET 100 TAT 692 ‘EPS ‘TT | 804 ‘GOT Pe O84 ‘68T iM GOL ‘861 00 "PLT 1G (Or 119 O06 "G21 TEP ‘SPL 916 28 3 'OF 124 ‘001 GOT T6T ( i poe ‘ONT B80 (Be LOP ‘RY 680 (001 G87 Gal it pan” O60 PNT LEE ET 166 ‘04 hag OL BOG BAT JAY 001 GLB BL 610/087 HOB SOLT ONE pig #OD oP O16 fog! O18 O80 REG 08, RO “VOL 640. ‘ehT Tes ‘091 G89 ‘ORT BOT ‘BPE 800 ‘008 G98 ‘O08 408 ‘OBE 206 808 GRY ‘OPE Le ‘01 GaP ‘082 10 ‘606 neg ‘Bee 698 ‘908 GOP 266 BRE 88 960 “4 apy! fob NG EPL ‘Lhe 11 POP 9R0 BOR B09 ‘B68 618 ‘One agg (906 O66 ‘GIG bor ‘OV OR) ‘ORG G00 996 188 ‘OFT OEE ERG GPP ‘nu 86 (OPE LOP ae GOP 8G 119 TLE DBF ave 900 1426 OPH ‘neg HOG P9E Male G60 ERG ORG ‘ORE Lf ONT OGL ONG 20 (eG N08 PEP retrtrrereretesterates CODD OR DDE Up kacuib ttc US UGCICE I ela VY FreUORERR EK TENTS N TERRE RT RRS EEE REE ERE pe er eR aTUT TAA aieixiaiviain UDO CCH IOM SLI Y Aide TCU CU IT IC ILIAD TS ja Wc VN fe latatave erate SOUS OU ea tL to a ta ICICICD a CoHhsh 09 00(:, CPN Seas 8 "TOG AA AAS TOV A, “HOM UA “HOTU LY BEAT EORT TL, aaa alsiae a Pe ypaqarnay, Dereeerrreretersrsrecrerrereterererrrrrersres =) PCOCCOT : : 7 3p 189 py “ACO " eo0TIOR meso 016) 13) 3] Raise ouaininis AY SI pUeE craeresererrteressersatereratsrsrerrrster riser esmtienes "HORT itis “An ** puelyoryy copsarevargeuraseeenenenaeeensiryas rerinrines TROD Perernneenaenasenerenerrrssreerseetnsreaeeye ees ee OTC ated eteyacatatsunin oi istaixiiaialsinjs bs stabe sits crzaeta nue reeeeres se" OBOVIO cf She saanane tae Se a OU zajngse is peeree rss KUM AMO resreserrrennee Jee I SS IGT AN era) AOL pl a sterstenesres ze rauziereess dae 741108) PRR RERREVESDEVeWs rex eSulerrsveterseseses dhe NS dap oily ae PRES ERLE ET RENEE TTA An Wy = MOTO TA, THEA IO A, A 1onTOA OW, 729)" GOTO [A Se iiaia initiates nts trtetrererssrstrrste? : " PCOre AL BSc cree rrerrteset erste t erste rtutrteuee m2 “LODO, te eee a aa aatheNe ois ote ie earn ke fe ET ” “HALO, Sere Pras ae aia rainie ine em iniuiats eieies rereen ATED OTAL st etat ciBh Seah cs nie Seimei berets DT ITT (0) 84141) sesdemenesnyraeeanaen ys venue prssnrenne TUTTO UHI, eh aes peeneeeeerereesussrarerrsrererrsrererensa ss | SORTA Se sie Sian a s xjelsiainiavecrin/s-acaeia) aie PT tal" [3) 41a f sae iaiaiub tates ete sesreeaenaenrea® TIFT Fay ih (oft [iam b Dane eon ceeeeeerseeseereneeseasers ss ees TSOPT ceeuneeueeuesesxasteskeereresrssreseserseenssesasss 8 OOTOIFT $°9F 2°18 16S 166 ‘b 265 ‘06 Gee ‘ST bg8 ‘Gg e09'r9r =| Tab‘sce =| Te0 ‘6g ecdeteieioe 5°) & 61 6 "bP 8 °PS 890 ‘0g GTP LP G18 (99 892 (9 890 {TIT | 886/68 HUper Caer Ieee tere cae a cuentas ea ~*="uoysuyor 2611 8 ‘OF T “68 896 (LP GLL (04 128 (PS 160 ‘TS OrL (9ST *| £98 (OST TS8 “PEE “uosIogor 8°82 G98 POF PPE (OL B19 (92 899 ‘ST 288 (99 £20 {19T G86 FO | OSL ‘Orb LOsyoRe 2 og & "G6 O*bP 661 LL p19 ‘OL Rhs ‘TP FOS ‘TT 988 °89 616 ‘OIL 866 ‘19% *- sous A FZ GPT ars) 82g ‘ZS 00 ‘9 POG “TT 998 ‘¢ OST “8% 16P ‘F8 COMOUIE NE ooo eae rene sc oc a eee eae ae *[ONSVHL PA 6°68 9 "FS £28 PEL ‘99% 988 £06 SOF ‘T TST ‘68 £16 ‘OST SOL ‘SPT Io GG ordeal a ae le i aaa aia eI Jodie P0001 9°98 o98 180 (£6 1P8 (06 018% P89 (08 O29 SIL 229 (SIT GEP 0GE *-UOULIe SS ee E WW : ay £9 29 920 (88 Tae 116 BEG 182 66 (LET EQUA ANAS: es cea ee “ie re apa ais sa “**"10011) E ‘ ¢ LLG 68 SGT ‘26 968 19 OOP &9 OGP ‘99T Sho i198 | OFS "LTO quBay) > 9°69 Z'18 € oe G93 (98 PST (Ze O18 (68 GOP (02 998 ‘T9T Geb LS =| S49 STS "7 APRA) O88 G'S 6 '2e 108 ‘62 OTS ‘ST LEE (29 969 ‘9T G86 (8 260 ‘TST WUE TASS Sills Se Rae ania Par Sikes eae ala ai “UTAIBD) AO“ 8°96 9°69 L0€ ‘96 688 (06 916 2 80% £69 £99 (LOT ORES ORAM + KOCHACLUM |icane crue uel ar ie ecm ee orang pregsey yO G68 8°98 eGh 1ST | OTS (OST PLL (OT 609 ‘08 BETES | _ 698 BIS TS8 ‘219 “Sos STU < «16h 8 ‘OF PTS O6P (PIT GIS ‘STL £68 {TL CTE 89 OGT ‘Shs | GOP ‘POT S60 (VEE LOMO 6 P% "IL &9F OTL “8 166 ‘% GIG ‘TL 996 '8 69P 2G CST “06 OPS ‘COT OARAEIOCT a r sou 2 un 9 ae 6 el ABT au 968 ‘61 O86 (GL ehe ‘08: COP (08% FOL ‘Zo "7 yoysn) { ; o's 198 (Sb G06 18 £99 £99 801 {F 99T fg 029 ‘OL £90 ‘108 ae = 9" 1000) ae ace 1°28 & 09 G26 (62 $80 (SP POP “ST G19 (88 P12 ‘66 OONeMEs. 2 /CGUNtbre lire ce cose ogee spa eveine, arr) gears aa Ted, i, 4 26 9°18 SOF 884 ‘10% GUT POT PST (2g 919 OST £16 ‘OPE 968 PLE COUpRGON! oll cack cer om. toe es Ree ee ee otPOUBUIO:) |S SOT 8'F8 0°88 6H ‘GP P82 01 88P (9G £02 16 G16 (SP 899 ‘Eh GSIPCUIR. ois case ec cd Cala eee oan ae eae “ROD Sea &'0F 9°Gb E86 (bo 116 (2G 886 ‘28 108 ‘OT GG ‘LET 882 ‘PET £66 ‘OTE “777777 Puvpoagyp 3 5 aes 9 i) a i 980 22 O18 BY 189 26 O16 ‘18 119 ‘2 619 189 966 ‘866 UOATBUTE) 2 ; 9" £98 ‘89 9c8 ‘6 BBE “GG OPT SG Poe ‘OF £66 ‘59 OWIPEOIOS Alice ae altos erie eo ke oes ee cmeene Goa ance ANR}OOTK Be G88 card 0°38 Pe aC bs % &16 ‘€1 881 ‘8 Pe (0% £69 0 “9x 01019 AW Gale 9°28 O°Sh £66 ‘99 998 (2% GST TP 080‘ gog ‘29 VU GOV AEN (163-0) SAN pe a aaaiaaaaranaal nat eb edaadna pagent eaate JO}IE) mC 9 0°88 £29 196 ‘LL G82 19 028 ‘08 O16 S82 GOL ‘PLT 610 (126 TSL “68 ““UBTPBUB) 9°62 0°18 g'9P 199 ‘9ST p26 ‘SOT 190 (TEE G96 <9) e96 ‘90g | Seeibss | 846 (948 “Oppey ats 8°21 arcs T8b ‘101 1659 GLL 88 189 ‘6T £96 ‘68 266 {G21 Gat ‘9EE “UBAIgT ry guna 0°68 aay GOP ‘TOT G18 (92 TOL “Gd OLL (6b Ob8 GOT ChO 11% ROMS Rea nec tee t Reiee eee Eyer NL cy ne ee OUrwEEL 1°86 9°98 0°28 GPPOIT — | OZR “O0T p18 668 (69 680 ‘SOT 666 (LOT 968 ‘Toh WEY Og GS L°0P Tg PIE‘88% | FO °G06 199 ‘TT God ‘O8T QURMHERNe BAROs Guede |RLGURCGMBe AiBsc cts. ye i chee oo ie ec cececcceedll “IOABOET ita 0°Sh £26 FOG “eg £8 PG SOT ‘99 £86 (9 P66 "98 = | TL92S GOT ‘861 “BOF V eS ae ae 3°89 GOT (TL £28 89 . G68 9 Ob8 “69 G86 ‘PET 099 ‘98% 069 ‘26h “OIIBITV © 999 g 1°28 $29 "TL G19 % 98h “GT 996 P10 “6I 1898 OL POT “IePV iN co ca eee — A ‘VWOHV TIO a : HB ~ a — ae a 4 ‘ ‘omyseg | “sdor9 10yY1O | ‘puezypoo AA | “‘poaoaduay 1RIOL Sy sdo.1a I I UT SOLO (ir + |b =I5 — z ; ‘ 3 4 =) oot 10d purxy WIE sdo1o SUITE) Ur “ -e0UOPIAOIg OTT 'é POE 8 STL iL 826 ‘FT gee ‘6T ORGplibee Bolles osu cranes cen Sohne are seme rc eGriscee >==--=-q10d MON 621 ‘G £12 1 619 ‘9 120 ‘F% SPL ‘6 996 ‘89 Tees eS ZNO StS P92 ‘T G98 199 OLL‘S 19S 6 727s "ToOISTIg ‘GNVISI IGOHY 6% P&S GPP LOF ‘310 ‘9 | #68 ‘886 608219 ‘T | e26‘S6z‘T | 9ar‘OSe’b | 66a‘Fes‘8 | ceg*ose ‘ST |------------- >> ie asthenia rneg So [e10], 68 one ras) FOP TLL 06 ‘2 209 '8 899 ‘eT O8P ‘6 SIT ‘Tee CTR RR oe CAAUBSVET ARREARS satses oy yearn “IO 0°26 0°18 0°28 89 29 L611 SIé €L 899 26 SPP eo oso Ag 1&0 ‘69T ik cea ee Ses Say EEL REE sooo Buru04 Ay 2°99 8°28 (ard 096 ‘LFT L8F ‘08 199 ‘98 066 ‘62 PFO ‘LET L6F ‘802 T6P ‘86F PUL[IIOUISO A, ¢ GOT ¥ OP BFS O88 ‘ZET L6T ‘68 OG ‘oP 616 ‘LT TG. 1ST 009 ‘T6 Leg ‘GLE -22 "OAR AL € 911 Gh €'88 196 ‘98 188 ‘OT 069 ‘88 OFT ‘PLT LST ‘F6G 682 ‘ZOE £26 ‘80S ~-WOSUTYS A 1 6F1 8°88 0°92 89F ‘68 098 ‘TE OLP ‘OF 98 £08 299 ‘86 I6T ‘99 TZEGEGGS =| nae PLR Veaeeesa SESS CaNEES TT SNE SET UERDEeRERw LTTE > HOLBY £°6L Ke Le 890 ‘£6 662 ‘ST G88 “88 960 ‘ST O8L ‘29 BIS ‘68 7777 oBURO A i ; ‘ ‘OP GES “F9 TO8 ‘€¢ GEL ‘8ST 966 ‘2LT : vsOlL 8 SIT LL8 118 CSP ‘PFT 086 ‘FS 009 ‘oF BLS OL POT ‘SLT 688 ‘6FT SGP CLP suuntonbsng 9 821 0°88 9 °6z GT “TE G80 ‘ST OTS ‘FT STL ‘é O19 ‘98 TLP ‘82 918 ‘96 UBATIINS @ 66 618 128 TOT ‘TLE L6G ‘86 G80 ‘92 QT ‘GF GSP “TST OL ‘2ST 896 ‘GLP ">=" qoS10U0g G81 601 G98 OF8 ‘0G 861 °% 6GF * 760 6 TSL ‘ST TEE ‘G8 GOOWIGT. . Fi /SSSSES ESE SASS ORT TESS STONE IS UG te kveneecsaes pect 7 TRU JopAug 9°81 8°9 6 6h £08 “86 98° 186 ‘9 gig ‘¢ 099 ‘FT C88 “201 RBONDTG « 1uiltSSSc ieee ines Raeel eet sata WERE S SES ETS RT SITET WeTAnyos 2681 9°28 0°62 862 ‘06 TOP ‘TE OLT ‘PS 686 ‘OT 048 “TOT 6S ‘SL L1G ‘12% ~10}}0q 6 OST 1°81 L'8 OTS ‘FET 190 ‘9 GOP I 996 ‘¢ 66L ‘86 GLI ‘ST ISP ‘SLT Old 9°16 8 ZI € 6S O8F ‘8 G18 | 520 ‘T 910% S16 ‘8 180 ‘ST SBP ‘OE iismaabarewemar os cas ee GLUGIODEl Teh 9° FOL GP I6P ‘SIT G16‘ 6SP ‘ZT TFS 6 616 ‘Ge G29 ‘GOT BUMROUG. ailins Sera sgeataraseectersssectgessssezay ress: ncueGe 7 AMO £6 9°¢ 009 9LL ‘CL eS OFT ‘F 610°¢ 292 ‘TI SPO ‘221 £86 ‘TIS ~*> == pure] 10q wan tq}.10 N *ponuljuooO—VINVATASNNGd -sdoz0 ‘omyseg | ‘sdoig “10T]0 *puvlpoo AA | ‘poao.iduy BS ACHUON ance *puvy IRs *sdo.0 “SUUIVy UL “" suexol “sinqesuelo, emns=)9 (09 @) SIDI OL SSIES eA Dc TALS AID fe) See ~---£179qQ. MON “77> -OLOgT IVI “MHOLIV IY "**W04SUTxXe’T weir aeiaisie eiSmiceic hectares oS * +? gary “-“suemne’y RIEL Cs aad aap Seat ~Joysvoue’T “MBYSIOY ~~ >" AIO iets SSE toner eininoeie ae pines lets cee -u0y dure yt aera 9 “--poomuea.s+) “77° eT [TAeeI) piri eteico pie piric loan io sic anne rare UA10}93.1005) “- >> - 9010, 7 Sarees * PleyAre oT "7" ppeyes pa Ota Stes TOYSUTp ARC, 1) | (8) ““Mopuaiv[O ** Plegaesey) Pe ERGE CEL YER EE ESSER Sew bare gee --Je]SOYO “eayOl0yO “MO4sopIVyD soo 5 = >=" TNOYTBO 3 Agjox10 gq °° 4r1ojneeg SPE SA ion dae aap crace “"TTOAWIe | “B10QUIC BoB “7.57 *** TosIapay corres ss" dOxTy ~** “oTTrFAegq y ‘VNITOUVO HLNOS BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. “29 z 98 2-e¢ G GOL PSP COP G98 Tha 0°99 £908 $8 F8G 0 S&P 219 L211 88 6°82 8°S9 £99 Lae Pp Sp 08% GL FOL 0°62 b'9E 0 OF 1 Sa 6 °9T GrLs 0'YP G'9G C68 gaye T24P 9°8 ¥'8a 618 Fg 10” 98% 0°69 0001 ‘809 F] 1°69 00 #68 6°91 G09 vig G61 129 bhp 0°29 jute 9 0P6 PLP 09 9°86 £91 0°89 L108 8°02 229 ¥ 8G 16 1°29 (tiv 6 'F% 9°09 8'8é GPP 6 bP 2°81 G8 18% 8 bP 6°SP 2°91 GIL CLT 6°09. 1°93 2°89 ST O'LT 128 ass) I @é 9 “eo 6 TT oF ‘ongseg | ‘sdoro ul (yu (oy: je | OO, aod eingsed —0} poqor ursoloy | “PP PuUBl UTTey [@ 109 JO o8BLUOD10g £62 ‘8G var ‘eo Ger ‘08 299 ce G26 ‘67 IPL ‘89 480 ‘2 619 ‘89 GOT 8 18% ee B00 (66 088 °9 bry TEL £06 109 819 1Y Ges “IT 290 ‘88 GIG “211 P89 69 EST ‘98 8 2) 820 ‘96 iN out si ‘EFT 290 ‘69 TAL ‘6Y GGT oF BIG ‘08 GLE ‘OF 060 ‘92 REL ‘80L | 800 ‘8% 864 ‘SLL GFL ‘PS 926 ‘SE £29 “86 aer ‘0g 9F6 ‘09T LOS ‘LPG 096 ETT 10@ ‘89 G0 ‘Sz GOT (92 861 ‘62 ogh “CO 689 ‘26 BPS ‘86 LSP ‘66 gee ‘Ze GPO ‘SP 069 99 Le 699 F66 28 698 “211 OPE ‘ZOL GBS ‘82 SIT ‘Le Oro ‘98 Lap ‘FL 192 ‘9 186 ‘Ser STG ‘SP 61h 19 688 ‘68 206 “CFT 808 ‘ST “LIOULO *puRy UIIey TOYO [LV *pury orngse, 828 FOF ‘6P 902 ‘ZOT 92 ‘2ST Sor ‘e 168 ‘Ee 90T ‘26 029 ‘68 660 ‘F 809 ‘eo SPL “CBT 98 “O88 GES “8 G10 PE E91 ‘96 628 “OF OLLF OLT 6 108 ‘081 B19 22 189 ‘8 889 “61 689 ‘89 86 ‘SOT LPG ‘9 186 ‘SPT 180 (918 BLE ‘Be POL 'T 820 ‘GE PIO ‘op 6ST °208 192 ‘OL Tee ‘eh POE TLL 9LL ‘91% P99 ‘6 L86 ‘ST PPL “F9 fp ‘80% SPP ‘T 969 £98 61 ‘FIT GOP ‘69 828 “1 198 “62 LUT U8 | STB PE 286 “11 6G (Ld LEZ (SET | OLE (98% 008 . 096 ‘0 626 19 EhS “EST 98% “F 988 ‘6 291 ‘06 z 910 ‘T ers ‘9% G92 ‘69 616 ‘99T 128 “r T19 ‘89 180 ‘B21 928 ‘068 LTP oT LG9 ‘R8 299 *89 696 ‘8ST 886 ‘FT 000 ‘FI PSG “681 619 ‘GP £98 PLS 281 LOL SIPS PPO ‘6G G18 ‘6 RAE ‘8G 916 ‘29 OL8 ‘SLB a 966 ‘88 OLS ‘09 OFS ‘COT 68 ‘T 299 §99 O6F ‘OT O88 ‘OLE G1Z ‘TT $29 “FS 216 ‘9ET O18 ‘ee 699 '% PPO ‘TS 888 ‘TST ¥P6 ‘E21 TOF ‘F #98 8 08 ‘201 ESE ‘Le 18 Dia C86 sh 928 ‘TS Ob ‘9 689 ‘6LL GOL ‘BST 122 ‘L8T 189 £9 800 ‘26 929 ‘291 198 ‘869 PLL 2 880 ‘29 G80 ‘E8 28%, 18h ‘ST GOP 28 OFS ‘68 628 066 088 | S20 ‘OL 692 ‘91 P99 ‘ST GNG SG PIG ILE PIL ‘880 P20 ‘G98 1P9‘T Sho “Ke 819 PIT 118 ‘16L colt OST ‘T £62 ‘0% 196 “2 ‘VLOMVd HLOOS *puRlpoo Ay | *poraord wy ‘TRIO *sdo.o ur puvy G89 “88% 808 ‘G16 gag “109 as EST ‘98% PPG ‘99G 868 ‘ZL9 OLb F6% CHL ILE I88 G88 GFO ‘8h ,) ; L0G (208 P10 “PE LLL ‘69 92¥ ‘O8T GIS ‘OSE GOS ‘829 aiish Gre ‘ese 869 ‘80S 186 ‘OOP oa) aT Cay eae 926 ‘SIS 892 ‘168 Leo ‘See Ore “RIT 026 ‘L0F G69 ‘826 OLS ‘BLP £68 ‘ShE O28 ‘601 at e 4 . te , 299 PLI “Suey UT pugl [BIOL wt esteeteeeeederesesseeseeeeenmoror Lcullss Rees be Mah eae ae EO LO) ** MOSUTYOIN EL “= * =Sousn EL “* 9" S UTP’ AT me taravetetetnna ale ate oeetstefetelote fytetet ols} rata stat (ete (andieraa stort esses TOSUR ET Lieateystesen ate) a'si stot eteieratunat fo taie er oyes crarcietaye st eteteseseeeeesss ss epUET mie oaate) seis el slate entatotat sinks ctsterayei cunt aaramsincnaete Hootstes ss CHOTA *- AOSV que) “NBT “TOATYT [TRL Saas SpUnWUp TL ~“sursnog ~> = AOMOCT UE 2 *joneqy be ak .82) | ~- "OSTA R(T Snr sseconenin) “= * "TOS IO es WO}SUTPOD “SSS SAG) see) 4) 18) XTW souet) ~*yroqdure) BEAR Set anne] “SHUT OOIS] OULULOYUO gy 7" "Q), 00 FY mein Craiateeie A aia “== Orpeog SOREN SY hope gyi *-Suo1 say * pxoypaeT a, ae ¥ C9 SS ay | PLS GHP ¢ UoOSsIopuy ' 8 FG e+) Teo ‘TE a Dados ¢ See 919 ‘990‘e | Ize ‘sPr‘ Vv a oe z-8g oor ‘F9 i G68 OFF Zoe “ee gor! zt | 26g ‘9to‘9g |v o, TAT I'l 289 ‘OF ooh 0g P19 OT F8 See GGG e" EPS ‘18 988 (v8 ZO 062 ‘1 SIT OF PLS “e il car} C'g 69 1z9 ‘ze ogg 2 a) 606 ‘ 0628 °T el re re 4 i ae 6 OT i ee ZG ‘98 120 2 60 on 168 ‘201 CU Oot ta ea g t ea fo ¢ BRRy a ee Ey 6 ‘2S 0 °F ee 0S ‘ZOT eee 11g be BOL ‘SF 260 (E81 Rl | A faery 0°& 6 "tt e9L ‘OP TT0 ‘8 Lol 9 260 OI 866 28 G98 (Ost LOT ‘19% +2 +--+ +--+ ----- ROTOR ¢ “08 yee See! cram | Red C16 S05 CT. ORG Ses See | 00 Geereseenneacninenr ae ee E 9-21 A °86 ae er 091 NG 6F8 ‘Sz FLL 6 Lae 760 ‘ecr TORREAN a _.|LE es oe ee Where ‘99F een OF9 we OLT Laas eat Soe | bes, cont 1 ; "" 77 7UOr Ay eat ee 28 Tor | 6 a 169 ve “61 Faaneor \late % Ore ee voUlin ns 6 “SI 8196 6cP oe AOS Melacosa)p lie Ze ae 926 ‘OST Cer Sir ae |psaee - ae Lee Gag ae ae‘oit | eee és ZIP Gh “621 HUT AS | ceeetearee eee ora eae 9°16 6 “80 re 268 ‘61 oe #68 ‘T PG ‘CE ege BG aoe 166 ‘8h ; BSE eR Tet L 03 g a C61 ae we €98 ihe 968 ‘62 ree es OFE ae ¢80 ‘S81 os ee Sear 777 Aoyueig 98 . ¥ 69 91 #20 ‘9 8201 Be SIT 0 Z09 ‘888 a6 “t auids C "Fe 3°81 add SEE ILE (206 Fe (Cg 868 F gee! 61 908 ‘FST 092 “625 “77 uoUUeYS eros few | by ae lanier | ot08 rit [eve | big Sas Ste & : 69 PIF‘ 8 ‘ 602 ‘ dal ee rer : g q F 6 2g De a +a yee | eae | gee Umma 69 oes Bae 88088 aes AU SS Se Seen eae : : G 9°8 ZIG § 69 CRO. ~ | Paremcounnreraneeme cru esse ie ate | 89 aise | ise ie norte | | istne | ee fe ier ha eae eee eee eee g « 8S 6 196 1518 met carata of Rage Si Sto te L ge yu ou see lease | ea lige |e et | Ge 9 groves foo “yop q = ¢ g ‘ i} RE TG brs Pega we aa eee ete settee eee a pie [oor | Bs Gris [ine | i true [ssecoy | aL se ey | eee ee Sesser e 3ST , pee‘ Ty LP ‘ FPL FP 9€ ‘EOF Ros £98 ‘LE p2tent onanacn o-19 (19 996 ¢ 89F CL ZOF 4 LSY “FFG 9G (Ibe 777 epeayy 988 €8 oI G89 “ 066 °¢ £2 99z ‘¢ GPE 206 = [reys.ie 8ST ‘OP a is C88 ‘88 eae ‘s9 oe ane 661 098 fee psta ity wre ie “uostotTOW LIL ‘C8 18 Rel 688 “Tee (eter tee eceeteeereear se 22575 MOOD 0h OFT ‘ose Bl acess geseciceey eee ere ie ee “uvulA’T 280 “68h so een OM Sie "ros st 2577 eDUOLANGTT steers ee eee ee eee pens»: ic} Amassurs 61 Z8¢ ce £16 01% 2°eh Fen £°8h 0°16 198 cere ) rons oiee ie Reel |e % pos Gok ru [ete | to | Beet er Ne Shemils 6E 0°9 ote 110 ‘eg pee 'L 60g ‘8 Tro ‘oe Cog 5) 70 T" C'ez 886 ‘9 L18 Tre ‘Pb 092 ‘0 906 ‘6 20% ‘F is a & i 9°02 909 er 1909 C16 ‘F SeP ioe 60 i CTO he 60F ‘89 a +h 6°01 amas ir ‘8g £26 + | ¥68 ‘8a £6 ‘g | gTe ANS o8P 28 PPS (GS Seeeeee > sala FOr £ °63 bgp BAT pee 818 9 86 (8 £99 6 163 (2 Woe ‘ort 5 9°96 6 C1 Petter 69 (108 ae aa eee ree reas eins ba ‘FSI pyissagenatganees' Fe 91% 1S (aa) £96 °G0Z Log 0 19 POS if” 69 (81 cee aioe Geir es aa Seeriets 3 Z IL ge 6°9% a ‘28 ved g Tor st G88 IT 399 ‘gp Orr ‘eg 08 “IST : ae "2+ -OHBT x #88 0°6I 8°92 880 ‘THI fee ; LIS 'T@ eo2 ST 920 ‘SI 228 ‘OT ELF ‘926 c oe XOUyT @°8¢ 2°08 1 '9% cree 926 OT Gree ae aerace re cous NEG ‘wosuog fk *.99 | v6 9 °F pec aet a ay 9 per God TE Tey 00 20 Oe : "777377 dosr0egor ro) 6°21 0°9¢ Tee 96 lL 208 6 920 (TT LG6 8¢ CTL 68 O81 ‘Th go‘gpe | ftctt "Tr itr os souree 819 ZG £68 £99 (02 nee, G88 £8 se Teh (92 Bod (Ler tigfgoe | |-2220222"7 Sc areeeeee BH 128 ZG Lut GOT Le 88 GES S Nake G66 (ST 96°62 fgg Sook Sormacant yw Ie PS 0°98 ¥02% os S10 696 P ep 21 T08 °¢9 LEO "PL EP ‘162 scatters +" *UO}SNOH] a ng 0°82 16 POL “LPT £66 | ogP'e PSP 9 816 ‘9% P6E 26 Va ces "os URULSpOT Ss a88 6 °6L £88 VOL ‘G8 peoee aes BS zz a oe ‘Be ce fe aoe SUH «(698 € Ur PSP LL OGL thy 2G OT S18 | £8 (26 99 (OF opr Tet |” ats oasepyoHl Eye ea Ley 8°98 662 ‘SOT 080 ‘PT 1868 C19 199 129 “T £66 TP 6oB Get |777 poouiert | OsLT 10a LT G01 ‘SIT 119 ‘9 GBP ‘Nz 060 (P8 £88 (82 IST GI 286 settee sees La ee SI 9h POL 9°Ph OST €11 Tye 1 B69 LE aes Dae O88 LET NAN omen inant Gee eri 948 TI Ly hs BPE 9BI pea aves ard 660 {001 ree “Fg er 2 Ey dl a ad Ac Hee Q £8 9°22 6 FG He ‘P9 yeu ‘6 fae v ao ‘6L eine Hee ‘9ST ve akin COTTE eee 9 9 °8e 61S (631 can 868/08 g8h ¢ 996 26 T ‘SOT gonige |: secuutes m Ate 8°88 bee G88 (82 eee 860 (or ae ee eee ae secasageaess Ses WMA Aki 6'F 8 ‘PS 196 (S21 AT 2 note Rea roe Me ‘GI a ec eee cars espunE® See Zel PST G6 ‘06 dod GL ‘62 99@ (21 66 ‘02 GS ‘6S So es seecnee 6719 6°91 6 FS 6FS '€6 CLL eso ig 089 ‘LT 189 '12 986 ‘OTT ee “77s cos UTAH, a “08 €'SI 1°66 O8h ‘OF 0g SPT OL PLS LLG p9 OFT (29 | 77" *SOTTD 9G, T'8 $63 G68 TOT 968 1 erg F VES (1G 188 6 00g ‘F9 Ee a ae ee 1 6I 1°06 G6 ‘S01 000 ($ OV6 ‘OT 161 iT LoL “16 260 (68 fe UY NUCL 5 €°Cz 968 JOT SLF‘G OTF ‘eI 6FL‘9 PSL °C 922 ‘O0T ih eee ee {SSO1}UOLT A | GPS ‘62 LET LLG ‘8 199 ‘eT C12 ‘61 SEL ‘ST Mibakobisbiaret ols era OH OAVIT rat ~— 0ge 6 29 ‘G £60 ‘b2 196 ‘Te ef 2 mate: wos pea ; — ° C68 “6 816 '¢ SPI ‘se £8 ‘98 : TS aOsorg a woe [seer | ase eae ra -sdo aaa = Se — 6) FF 688 ‘CE ; SOG = ul ce MIYSVT | “SGO.L ——— at eco Bag eseee SS Oo ie a Lot.) es ‘po JRE go Juoquing ate > oOnUT} UO = VO, Ry ai i UO O—AT TS = _ HoeNooI ermused ite LTO “pur = Y—-tLULSSUNNO 2 Z arias tsoroy | -°P ey pojor \ ee ULIUy BIPOO AA | ‘poroad : ohh : Se =* 93190) aa Se Ne 0) oxoadmy | sees ee K ek osu UODLD I x | E | THIOL, l ; a estichiy « | steer? i pur] omngsed ieee - T purr SULIG] UT [ | purl [RIOG Ce bs | ‘qun09 “ponury 4 vi - uo;) ( 0 SNSWIAD (0) 61) SOvJUNOD i) ‘ *$a7D7.) /: i Pen Q a au} Ur u u SUL if” WO PUY) alNysp i 4 d- “TI ou ata Xu 76 “poyeulnsy v | ges €°ST | 838 | T80‘TT8‘6 | F89‘L0F GTZ ‘Fe9'T | see‘ce9‘T | Igp‘r99‘e | ext ‘99¢"9 | 269‘TO‘OS |-T ieee Ses ice ware ates appa C TON, ance CoCr Cac sSLOGNCS P16 ‘SI £26 ‘CTT £62 ‘16 OFS ‘OST 102 ‘T2T Gr ‘PSE 7777" TOSTEM, Q 1 f : is : ia E le ee us « BH @ TOT ‘8% ¢89 ‘00T GLE FET BOT ‘88 | WOSUTCNTTM : : 128 ‘ST 16 ‘98 690 ‘FS CFG ‘SLT 7r2t 2-7 eFLA, 6 °&& OFer 0 ‘OF SLE FST 608 *8 179 ‘ST GE0 (86 GST 'Gh OFG ‘EET 608 EE 7771 Aepree 196 0°9 LEO 886 ‘9LT 98h 898° S10 ‘6 618 ‘ET 626 ‘86 980 ‘626 sores souk My 9 ec 61% 6 ‘OF 60T ‘29 Ter 'g L10‘S 200 ‘TS COS ‘68 OGL ‘EL PEE ‘OST “Uo JSUTYSE M 0 '9F 6 °€I Z ‘08 P19 ‘PEL £61 ‘1 POL “CT 166 ‘ST 89P ‘SE £6L (6 C18 ‘OFS "7° WOLTG MA $91 T'é 161 808 “68 £10 'T gce | TAI 669 ‘T 80L 6 CTS ‘0g TTI gemma wea £88 8 'F 1 '8 PF6 (69 OF6 ‘F 096 °¢ 126 (SG LE8 ‘98 169 ‘TP 1012 101A ei | PERM SS or RULE W Stee or BE crate ren, coca ee 50 HeL9 6 FI 0° £0¢ ‘TE 089 LEGG 18h SIriL £96 ‘OL 918 ‘6F 777° Toor), Ons 8 FE 0 °0F Pep LT 866 € G82 (21 P6011 LE0 ‘FG 169 ‘26 GOT “69 ““9[epsnory, 800 ‘9F Le “FS €10 GIT 862 ‘TIT 060 ‘cee 777 doug iS 6 91 £9 6 CE SPL (G6 T10‘¢ GIL IT &G0 ‘eh SLL‘LS TST (GL P19 ‘826 7 | uealms Se 8 8°8 GSC OFT ‘TET 118 ‘I SPL S 190 ‘OT €19 (LT L18 (0S 669 ‘661 777 }1BM0}9 G96 9°18 6°88 8rd LF COL '8 C90 ‘LP TEP ‘06 806 (92 C16 ‘8h 826 (ZZ "LIT aus i, 8 oe 9°61 0"s¢ TS (18 £619 PLE 68 909 1% ETL (19 9GP ‘6ST 019 ‘Fre “riritr Aqreys oO 5°87 6°81 ¢°82 676 ‘FOL £18 ¥ LEL'S £96 ‘28 £98 ‘68 866 (18 OLE ‘986 7777" TOLAOS ¥ OF 6 01 g "9% G06 ‘SE Ter 'T 101 'Z 6PL 126 ‘¢ LIS 21 OSL “FS orgoyenbeg ey 1'9 ae! GET ‘POT 16S £68 1& 910 °F 000 ‘8 976 ‘6L TSO, CEES \ Ip ogo ate meee ape Deka an a ~"-94008 ey AOS 9 FE VTP 110 ‘28 896 {OT VEG ‘18 OFS ‘ee GPO ‘92T OLL ‘OST £68 ‘ESE 7777 Paoyrogy ny 2) (Bits a! 68 LTS (9ST TL8‘¢ 188 ‘01 060 ‘9% 8hE (OF 982 ‘911 TS9 ‘66z 7777) Wosy10qou ey ees £01 & ‘9% SPT 621 G29 'T 120 ‘9 688 (EI Z86 ‘06 198/89 LO¥ ‘£0 ee ey eOUeOR 9°26 6'8 BE ZS ‘ZL, L10'T 096 ‘€ P19 9 1¥6 ‘OT 169 ‘68 OS8 ‘Gal Pies anata CONC. fy 90s L eI 0°26 190 ‘O8T 706 ‘& 6&2 (EI G06 ‘ZT C0 ‘08 1¥E (69 ESP 612 “ean 86907 0-0L 9 FG P26 ‘C9 SFE T 780 ‘9 OFS 716 ‘6 6S FG S61 ‘66 eee) D 0&7 66 0 "8% SLL ‘TS G8 888° 61h 'é 629 ‘2 TOL (LT BOT ‘LL 77777 0x1 B a oes eo a8 (eh Be saa 19816 eo y G86 “66 885 (S8T viii" hued w ; F cZE (6 : 6S ‘6 BLL ‘OT Z8E FG 760 ‘TS TOR ‘FIZ 107.1040 Ss a ee a i : : ¢ : PL Il me 0G UOLeAL 199 6 06 E18 OFL ‘821 POL TT V6S ‘68 SIP ‘ST 179 ‘19 928 ‘STI 189 ‘808 "7 MOsIpeN cog 9 "FL ¥ ‘86 Gor SOT 600 *% 008 “TT 16S ‘eI 080 ‘26 SL 12S £96 ‘FST RoE Ue aC go ys Se eee Gr 66 £8 98 ‘O8T G19 “F 6F9 ‘LT Z8e'o £F9 ‘16 G8z ‘69 PSL “6LZ ile eed eee ne eet ae ENON 8°) 61% 6 "8% OTF ‘621 G86 (OT C86 ‘8T B18 (SG ZBL ‘LS 696 ‘OL TOP (£96 "UUW, 0°29 ¥ 02 ¥ 08 GLE (69 eel iT StF '9 TG ‘1G G08 ‘82 £96 ‘eF OFT ‘THT 7; uopnory 1°88 1'¥8 G88 683 (88 GLP ‘6 PFT 6S 609 ‘TF SCG ‘OTT 666 F2T S18 (CE cue ee ieege armbar Perea eee OUT 2 61 ats 6 91 694 ‘ES STP, £89 180 ‘T IST '@ 796 TI ve (19 : PS ea ie eS ped ONIN nce RC gE ee EINE TLy L6 9°02 POE ‘FOL 696 ‘2 OCT ‘TT 862 '8 088 ‘2% 909 ‘SF O6L (SES | SEEN LI Lh 8 FF £66 ‘TOL GOT “€ BOE “TT ISG 828 ‘OT TEE ‘96 GOL FIG | o[eprepne Ty BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 78 iamssid @ 889 *sdo10 UL Sso.1oe 00T 10d aimysed Ul Sol0W ¢ ‘To anal! 698 SF Ses “SF 83h 9°01 £80 ‘SP 860 608 LPT ATES 611 (602 9&9 21 % 99 €'8 P82 ‘991 160 ‘aPT 9 ‘Te oeP TO8 (9¢ 960° 8° Guc PPE STS Ole. 0°69 g LT 986 °29 eS 611 87S) ara OST ‘TL 269 ‘OF eee eos G20 TP QUP SL ede a 966 '8¢ 668 LL 1-88 9°08 198 ‘Tal ece G ¢ ‘09 6°02 PST TOL 920 (22 0°36 6h 298 (FL GG6 T9e 9 16 ye 68h 221 626 (956 6 OF 8 "8g 86S ‘89 PTL 6 °LP Z91 L1G 68 BIL 29 LZ SPS St LLL org 's 6 69 Bk GGT (86 Ol Tet we og REGO) tems P06 9°S 918 (LT E86 (SP LIS 9 ‘ST 619 P&Z BES “OS g°9g 9°39 099 °S9 0@8 (29 167 are SLE “E91 pLe 21 2 °9F ira 980 'G0% OPT 26 6 68 LSS 889 ‘R01 PIs ih 8°99 8'F 009 ‘281 O82 (98 8 “G8 PT 094 9F 000 £01 8 8h 1°66 868 EL Q0b ‘PS GLP 86 60P £808 aaa T ‘88 ¢'9 68h TP 802 ‘899 0°98 1°8 LESS £0 ‘681 0°66 OT &) 68S ‘Th $82 @ ST GLL “8 O82 ‘T 8 9 i 0&& 02T 096 ‘12% $ 9% 1°28 G82 ‘CLT GEE OT ‘omyseg | “sdoig “IOy1O *pUrRy WIR] —0} pojoa coyyo TLV -Op purl WIvy [109 Jo osvy W000 gq ee ae ae Gz ‘OT 068 “SF £86 ‘OTT rte 99S CST “suequreyD 03. SGP. ‘T eps ‘01 G69 0€ 89T ‘Nz 019889 ase “GE T@9 ‘01 609 ‘8S P00 “OST BEL L68 = ="=S88) So¢ G9¢ ‘Oat 02 ‘ (£96 TL8 ‘88 GLE‘ v1 Acer || Shae bain et LBA Sine Gb Wan aig Sa cect i WOSIVg 6&T 43 226 9 LST FS 160 (LF CVA IN a | aaa a Reo eee ce ie Gea eee gee « ~dmep PSG FL 696° I 9 ST Lets (ol ¥00 ‘gps WOIOTURD 628 ‘P61 P06 (2 GOT ‘28 OPP “18 GBP 99F *-URyBI[BD TST 621 FG G06 ‘GL 661 °2T 18% ‘96 > uNoYTeD LES “8 16058 OPE “G6 £10 ‘OST SLE “98% *TIOMPI8O 196 (698 P90 ‘ET 099 6FF 90°02 [AA I lies aie Tan ieee Cape eee ee ee ae -“,OUIN 9F9 ‘00T POP 6 GOP STT 902 ‘POL ODOR Ga = {| Sear ye RES ee eI Pee ee tol) Ravel 626 SLE P90 9% GSE ‘RSE O28 (811 88 GPS 77 UM OL, 06 £29 “62 SOS ThR | S996 820 ‘O8F “e0ostigy LEL PLE 260 7 890 (See"T | 6FL, QO CHR GPa [Pees 4G sai vee oee et Soe Saas “JO}SMOIE, GEL °16 Se (ST £20 (ST QOL ‘@IT LCD SRS | atest ets SO eh Bie ae Se CREE SOZBICE 98h LE 099 “eI SOT ‘611 L81 ‘OF MICHRROG > -onbsog. Woe alee es 029, 961 '8 ORTEMTAR: Fs) 3o Sar vente so PRO eRe eae eee ane, weplog, L16 SPE LLL ‘OT LL6 OP TLE 'SG P96 (Lbh ***-OOURLET £26 °¢ 6L1 ‘ST a8 29 ‘TOP TPE Tel SLA | aR be GLA alii WU Debs “ata pelea scti. “IVNOET CFS Fel £98 ‘91 8GL (£06 S16 (862 OL CS han Rie aC GROIN, Achat, oo eke a aatenh yee ANT 19¢ PST OF OT 8&0 21 £98 ‘9S O88 ‘B&F eeecuel 68 ITT O6F (ST GES (966 GPS ‘29 812 16h "7 doy ACE S6P OFT Sao 6 $68 (LST GLE (621 8S ‘S68 doxysvg OTS LIZ G02 ra SOF (022 OES ‘Bz 306 (SLP 7 BlOPUET Pie leecerede LEG (els T80 (9 SGI ‘Soe 7 AOTC, €20 e¢ ObP 38 C28 ‘SOT 818 (00T 120 (0Fe ulysny 616 Sd, £92 °8 069 922 L08 ‘OF SLOG OYA Ziad | aria eee ed CaN eed Bead det See NE FRY BSLV JSS. 62P ‘69 POL (SEL 962 ‘FS RGUWCaN |e weer: pes aneae ehet ses ones petinerneer nae bert ee Sto1sul1y Oss ey BLL ‘01 GOL (188 £99 ‘SE O16 EHP Lae Uma! Biel SPE Joy 6SP LS) '6 Gee igs ST9 DERNCSS, RR Dageeee thee Sy Cee r eer er ea temen ennai UNTO & sesuely 629 ‘OF Seg ‘Z P96 FP 106 ‘8% CN) UN RSR |e aetredatch AY en, ke beh Sil ee ead vuTposty ciao” Pil sone Osby ide 922 , QGP ‘APE testes 72 SAReIDULY 16S ‘OL &e9 ‘ZT 199 “66 £60 ‘FOT BRGRCU Ry Bir eee keane ree te ery ES) uosiepuLy ‘SVXUL *pur[poo A\ | ‘poaordtmy [RIOT 7 *sdo10 *SUIR] UT “f urpuey | pur, [eo Nees) *puvy omyseg “ponutyw0j—(snsuao OLGL) sauyunoa hg ‘samig payuyQ ay? wi suuvf wo pun) aunjsvg— JI ATAV, for) Kr 0" ¢ . g 08 2 1°88 : poyeuUysa ¢ 6 1986 te, aalliaees oh i 8 26 : oy : 608, | £86 0% ueetgoe fase eT od uo “oan z'8 tas £16 $62 ena 818 ‘G oss qsed Uy os'8010 SOE 069 ce Be oll aa Slt 890 F 188 {S08 Se as su € SIT ee cee 9GF he OOL'T a8 é oe ‘09g oa ue Oz ‘9¢e 110d a1 SoryUN09d Jo oC G-0€1 ws fe ore‘ Ber‘eg | rep‘ ween | BEET ser | 608‘s. UG" ge | eae cee By 8890 1 692 LSP aan 6eT ‘ee 620 ‘L Pep (6ce BT ....| P08 el zZ 8 8 689 ggg fccccctccecececeeeeeeeee Z1Ze V GP Ss 1638 & LPO ‘DL OPP ‘36 828 ‘6 9¢P LSh 90 ST 9I nadg HE O PORE E Cit AG, F ge 8ST ‘6S t SIL‘ 16g Gor 8 I ‘Tg OCIS Hono eae [0 | I eile | tol swig der | ar Se |i |e SELLE SD w 8°62 &°09 6° G 6e1‘ ‘1 PEL ‘SIL S31 ‘oI 866 ‘OF T ‘98 96 (ell 900 te a ee SFC sell) . 6°6L Tg chal 798‘ 689 P9E ‘9 66E ‘THT PLY BE [sonia pee) s 8 96 J 8g CFE ‘OF 98 08 ll & QF gce L¥8 ‘Th w04soA 3 © F6L 812 ‘99 1g 0&6 G1 ‘FG POS * mall ‘801 I OSS (9) fase 5 L'6 8 “€9 eg VSL L Lees EE ‘G 99‘ ‘608 sou 6 ere 'Z 81S ‘6 oS 119 pgs al! 6IT av SEU) ° ¢ i oa A ther | 0-8 oe | aoe | au weiter ue |Our |B ee ~pacnsea A, Greet 9:06 9°9 x08 ‘901 G ea we $03 ‘SFT OFT ‘EF 80 ‘29% FES aq “ean ‘S78 TSE | Sopec||ee VE 66 ) (86 02 ¢20 £0. 218 ‘G6 BE OFS "777 Aoyao 178 *- ra 6Se 6 ‘F8 LT er a piece Reece a Uke | ee eT 19922 aoe (8e1 Peon ra uu rote 0 °€9T 6°88 L Beate Pers ‘68F LIT‘), GG ‘896 I & wri ae oer’ i seeeeeee PORN ht Ord 6 FIT Laie iH FIL! 186 B99 FS ‘ GLO (SP 89 (66 88 | 88 ee eee A : ee $Z QI 0 ZT SL 9&9 u CLL GS 8 ‘26h weeeeee ee) 1119 6 “OF ; Ist‘ 719 £9 ‘68 SLL'STh gt | aie! 16 ed SECA ; . 8 ‘OF oh ok | goatee | otros _.| PAT GIG él Na ee eae - B40 meal G eh 6: Zee‘ Tp ‘eh B09 (8FG ; lh sls | 909 peg [oonicicnanicicioncions umm Jeo 1 ‘6ST 6 6F oye Sic Gre! ‘CT 6£9 ‘0Z OTT 68 OF 908 1z &, vereece eee nae eee a . rc} IT (4 ae see 1g8 4 ‘£96 | WOSM®B G 08S Sst sae SPL ‘e Lbp’ ‘19 PL) 6 Blo Zz O0F €6E G9E ‘OT “7-88 a 8 “POS G'LS a 8200 192 (69 E88 (806 Bus 26 62e | I us 6 ‘0 : - = -THeleeL LT Gees AIRC NG uve | 968; BoP ‘W0e | $8 oe ea ee coe | 99909 uu R 3 L$l 10 ‘69 ish z 89z zc¢ CLT ‘FO ‘909 "*"“ Aqsod 9 "708 6 21 Gc ZH6! 769 (98 196 (eI Z 6 68 | 6 z | Gel 5 9 : q oF 918‘ 870 “0 OL (8S ‘00S = 7490319039 Lawt | Fu8 ae O18 0d 990 (296 L89 "TIT & AU ae Gee ‘geo “our ¢ 897 ‘Gg ves ue 908 ee _ | B8hiaT 96 GT 1S 98 (£9 02 (S81 GLb T n= =-g140) G -0¢z 9°66 8 #09! ip TOT 166 ‘98 109 ‘ZF 70g ‘ 616 G lp 129° tg aa 11499 i : & ‘Ont aks ea! €0F The (6 G8 £S¢ "7 > 119As0 0-112 foe |e iF 892 Ger ‘El @ (ot (£08 61 Dan) a : 8 6 ‘vol g ¢ 0 008 ‘0 6 €8 bs ee Ch £6 2 88 aie p6P £61 PPL ‘68h £86 ‘EE wee Kos ah sy 8S cee G78 | ae Re go “oqouoo (6 6 ‘PE 9Ee ‘£9 801 281 ¢ Be leat as gt SLI a IST ‘991 ggg‘ 10S syoueulo pee 82 a bTO 18 siLiye | 6866 meee aa ay vanes itaes sees 2 gees srr tung o% 998 89 pean eg),‘T9e 288 , eee ogg nets ween aes opa0jop Z9T ‘02 986 {09T 180 (91 Gas aUOy parece Ce ea Oss ‘TL B12 (92 ae ‘6lL re ullgo ees‘ber | Hs" eG “77s ae1yo0 conit scraatty MONGIANC HE DOODHONS = co Sr SoNDOMH rt ‘OIMYSV, BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Uy SOLO 9°28 BRo'L2T | “TS STL P08 OPE 'L8 PIs 'S h OrO TT Sb O19 & PT 000 ‘82 OF Pe 620 (64 120 (ZIP tral’ 68Z LOT OLL 86 GG GG8 °8 899 19 0p BIL 89 GEL ‘88% £99 PSP (6p LOb ST oP BLP 692 896 '9% e'1e Spl er 604 4 9 IP LGT'LS pps ‘TP v02 880 PS GIT 89 Le 909 °8 G6S TAT 6°89 G86 69 B99 LE a G98 'OL8 £29 69 8 62 p98 ‘Tel G02 '6 a4 LV8 ‘08 629 402 0% 94 (8 TS8 “62 1 "8% 908 “SRT 618 ‘8% Z'8 (v) PY GOP y'Ts VLo S03 229 “9 1'l@ GeL ‘OLT 318 “TL 6 Gog ist 897 09% L86 ‘601 G99 (82 eh 886 GP 190 '86 1 'b2 BLL (86 688 al v6 96408 O81 'S8e 9b LBP (SVS L18 ‘06 8 GP vel oh 968 F ae 186 169 60 ‘GS 98 802 5% TAg 9 "89 Z40 08 £00 ‘OF 6ST 918 8P 66F 962 9 6% 8P9 LTT Ve ST Lai 899 PSS 996 “OF ‘sdorp “1IOT.O —v} POJOA WIV] [B}07 JO osvIMODIOg 80 *puUvy WIRY IOYIO TLV 186 ‘6g PPLO O16 ‘TOT ate) 888 (LT 12 0. O0T, ¥88 (8h LG) (8B p68 (99 8G ‘OTT Li6 “th £99 ‘TOT 9L8 ‘69 TOO ‘212 G02 ‘S11 080°% LVL ‘L9 690 ‘08 ogg ‘T L10 ‘9% Z6P ‘S 1p9 ‘401 C6 ‘PZ L681 Gob GET Zb0 ‘OTT T19 ‘8 QOT ‘82 OLT. GOT 862 G06 “ZT *puUR] poo A, *pury orngseg 666 “T9T P2a ‘EC 989 ‘288 gga 8 BPE ‘9L8 OIp Tas P96 (OPI GG ‘88% G20 “LOL 682 °99 TL6 ‘¢8 L86 ‘00% 168 ‘SEI G69 ‘TLI TA 82 88 122 Tee ene SP6 OFZ p82 ‘201 ego p99 $44 ibaa 680 : C6 B68 ar eS 882 ‘OZT 099 E21 Gpg ‘Lb% LIS ‘BPs GIs ‘86 868 , na Lae os I 08% “PT 688 ‘6ET » Relea Ae 98 (0a8 00% 82 129 ‘68T 08% ‘19 966 (88 0864 £80 (ST iat OTT 981 P86 ‘EST £99 ‘Rp 182 ‘T 160 ‘2Pe OPT'6 e207 TIT {22 STULL TL0 ‘ae oe Ze 989 P8 661 'P STL S08 TLO ‘21 619 ‘S01 SEB RR Oby ‘9G Sgp ‘TOT 162 ‘O01 €96 ‘LP 909 BE 910 ‘29 L8G (PRT 006 “09 G0G ‘6Gr Petes 016 ‘001 199 (686 tt OL6 “TLE na o8e ‘COp Gi ¢ »' 80 ‘bP 886 (LEZ cep 18 682 ‘GPS BBE ‘989 612 ‘098 si Jae ‘ aI . 199 ‘69% b0G‘9TS L&S ‘sep 6P9 ‘OOP > OF Bee COT goa ‘eee Z10 OCP GVO x Jat 086 ‘Sop 6L9 BLE LOU LL 6LE as ea eaG LS (eed GEE 698 808 (229 SOL ‘8RE *poaordmy {RIOT *ponuyuoj—s V XL *sdo.ao ul purry *“SULIG] UT pury 180, jierarelnta wisfa(syutmbrerarere(ereiura(s (a n/are mie falele ararave erate aim tresessssssTOsmOL BEA aCe SUSU COE UCU DOC coe uTO SRG OU GeCne “+= *tosaoyof ap RPO ORC ee (SSIs ieee erasers BOOCIUC EO onoCaueoCeeC STAR OL treteeerest rode p “== TOS soe ae ae ove Ah cae Uuohy UNE >" PIBMOT, -*" U09SNO TT ---sundopy ===" poo a a | - ~ KOPOO HT Ieee Gait rem ciele eco (cis caarels eerie EH Sree aan pon OS|@PI HT TORRE ~TPUaUe Fy i i i a i i i a i a as “SAU H Siem cine SSIS SSSR TISSUES SSS apa So a yy NIST SURG ike ee a TR CMRI RIO Ne SMITE OA See Ne Caio ele AE AOR ** TOSLLIG EL Sa CP UC) 8 | *UIPABET “UBWEpIV AT we case Steere eeeseeeeeeeceeaecneeeeeeersecrese= = DIO SIGH "WOT TUB yy eae ect aaa Oey -odnyepeny SOULE) Sica tata Sei A CGSyR RUB OAn ts Ae BRUNO at eT oTR IE ei Rel ceeR $804) “--"u0sAGIs) PPS ae ABIN) "=" SOTBZUOe) Ae Se PRITOY) “ponurwoyj—(snsuao O67) sauunoo hq ‘sainig panuQ ay? we siutnof UO pun) anIsvDT— TI ATAV, ‘eT osted uo ‘ormysed wT o8vo10e OATSSOOXS UV ZUT{IOdOI SOTYUNOD JO oq} 99g D 6 "TEL ‘e 9°99 8°T OLE ‘TES OST ‘OF 661 ‘O88 982 ‘0% GETTPL‘T | 826 ‘08 ae eee “-So00TLNT ‘L98 1°19 8‘9T G26 ‘28 868 ‘GST "| 998 “be TL8 ‘282 B82 ‘b9 SLE “CRE 7-" UBION, Z°9L 0°11 OFT 199 ‘¢L G09 G18 816 IT STL ‘PT BOO MLO gar te sce nies CO ere ner SE Ree tenn Ce Seas see WOYMON 90S G 6% £°8¢ 69S ‘89 198 ‘LF 19P (ee STZ ‘GOT 86 LEE GTS ‘T9g ppguOOD Onno "=" =>-QIBABN p ae Br pe Beara le 616 ee fie ‘16 le One “sof BOBOSEN % L008 8 4 8 ‘E11 926 ‘22 P66 “FS, GOT ‘PS BE OWC OS Mette Be corn oe Sa ee eee ee ee ee eee oTOW 199 & 9% L'88 1S ‘OP PLE ‘8 196 ‘8% 188 ‘EP GPC PeDineeta Se SS a ES es Briain Os Bis Sas Seine peer cs “7 > STOW 8 828 8 e's GEG 810 ‘Ge L608 Qe iG Ren walle cee nar ar Serge acne elelslb eleie nl ner erga | “9100 88 6 18% PLP PG £96 “T G89 ‘Ge LPP ‘OP 909 ‘OLT ~> > SrouL05 00, LIST 0 € ‘Pe 828 ‘22, G99 ‘68 GST (928 0 ‘28ST COMICON gt pee caren Cm Gage ae ate ok ou ee as a RET onse yuo 1 P89 I € TL EST ‘29 96 ‘Og LES ‘VPP P86 “b9 £69 ‘929 “> "TOYOTA @ SIS 0 9ST LIS ‘ET £99 ‘61 169 “638 L6S ‘89 GOL ‘90F >" STA Loo 8 6 '6F GLP ‘98 189 ‘POT POP “0S SGP ‘10S “WIR T + G'CIPh‘s 0 G'T GIS ‘18% 008 (28% £96 °9 Nay oro -aa | ORES Ce PRC ace Cape aE aan aR ORO Sue RABE GeRc pueclpi 0'249'¢ i 9°% 609 ‘31 169 ‘O19 186 ST T80 ‘269 *- paeuo ea iexsod) |e Br | 806 ‘68 Fosse | oar‘og | aastrc0 “-"vUTpall FO PLE ‘SG | 6 eo" 619 ‘6 540 ‘ST 098 TSO ShOWe = “Wgcices te .sinrmea yates ~-OrIOAR = LIST | L Z 9B GF ‘06 68 G COT TOb ‘69 STE RCOGR. Ng Sa 5 tis ae ea tees Same ne NT ea gn *-eplosey ey Q G8 1 f £°9 (v) i (618 pLG 98 L08 (£89 “--uOse HL iS G "882 ‘8 g CT 191 ‘PIT £89 “CGT 840 °F OL ‘128 ULI pal (9) I 8% LES ‘EL, 819 {9% OLS ‘68 GBP CET - UOTIeW Ss BES 4 9°16 BER ‘ST C0 O86 “LPT PPE ‘e9 OD BOLG gli cys =. cant us ois ene ig mallee ai ae eas WOSTpRI Q 9 6r'se | 9 ae CLP ‘89 ; G88 ‘ERE OPL'T COO En Papen pale sree alee EROS ERE ENCORE SS ~ UOT INOW «88 L 0 986 ‘8 G98 “6 G88 AI 698 “1hT COS “OLE P96 169 ~-*-uBuUoTTOW eee eh 8 g (v) GL6 ‘SLE 8p TS £08 ‘S6P £26 ‘98 169199 "7" WOOT OOM, ee oRCUOnD, 9 8 2S GI SPL ‘PST £69 'P GUL ‘098 g °629 (b Ae RL or IGG ‘866 L189 696 ‘LLB f= 81S S22 "T| T I oe "| pd 681 ie 61S 661 pj 9092 'T p g T0L ‘PE PSE “GCP P26 ‘¢ O88 GLP P T8191 L 0 09L ‘LP 808 f 199 ‘768 P08 ‘81 GZ OO Saami I keed-s eaters Se gb kk a pec ata ee rcs ea err ea “ACO OAVT P “S00 °T g I G00 ‘Ph reyes Ob6 ‘PPE 808 PE (OG A47" la PE aReee eeO UT PTR SL ANGERS ENOL Ureny So 41 < qutoosdr'T mM Peg 0 E0 ‘OPT L169 ‘E23 090 ‘98h ** >" 004 SOTUT'T 1,802 9 I OGL ‘PE £89 ‘OT OE LO ie Peseta ae eteely apcone eis nbee irene are ros “AQIOUT PY 2 “68T 6 i 199 ‘GGT 600 ‘88 Si) CHS San Deemer ten tere eee et cag geuee ot Mem eae area = 100, 916 g 9 869 ‘91 999 ‘SL GBE FSS Sy eesia 9 908 , i 9 G69 ‘208 LEP ‘OVI £16 ‘PC “COVABT £09 6 3° 08% ‘808 STE '8 ES ‘966 ***=-9rrese'T Tis), g £°ET OPL I 196 (G68 608 “09 906 ‘0h ““susedwe'T 8 902 ‘6 g 2° j 618 C69 SOT 9 COp ‘698 ~-quae’y OPP t el IPT‘SI1 199 ‘89% 919 ‘89P % ‘99% 9 £°8T 698 ‘CLT , 920 ‘8S 190 ‘¢6 GOP ‘068 OUCH CC) || tao rem ze (v) LET LST BOE ‘999 L3v'B V9 OG “777 AOU %09¢ °¢ alg ¢'T LPT ‘9g 68 “E18 O8b P96 ree £20 ‘LTP ; ah i au 1 968 ‘2 ts 8ST ‘COs 198 ‘62 GG ‘£08 BOE ‘6LE PER SC PSE “00L Sete I 6 891 °% p's GE (FG OLb ‘ZBI 198 ‘O1P GS ‘899 ICL ‘8G GTS TOL DTS Se ALOT 9081‘ 0% GP IST 029 ‘9G 106 ‘99% PGS ‘SE 189 ‘098 OPE IT | | ObP egs ii SiO € 809 “T yD AIT GT £26 °26 SLL ‘68S SIT, 618 ‘BEE £89 “66 COS ‘TLE emer?) 21 Tes 9°08 899 “9g OE "88 631 ‘GOT OL ‘G3 PPG ‘LOT 188 ‘60% O88 ‘PGP 777" URN Sy £ Gh 9°92 60S ‘Lb 861 ‘ZT POL ‘ZbS GOTT L00 ‘98% 626 “FO1 888 ‘20P 77 rT ot “SoUIe yy L910 (outs 99% “621 60 TE 026 ‘BLT. T9L‘¢ O&2 “G6T. 6ST ‘69 | PST ‘PGP 77" =" sou10 f 14576°—18 Bull. 626——6 BULLETIN 626, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 82 en SS ee ee eS eee 8°69 8°18 tg STL ‘80T O28 ‘9 TIT 82 116 ‘8T BOE ‘26 890 ‘TST ‘paceibeha seid bcs] 20 lentes pO nine Sane haere ag NLS g°L16 6 BL 62 P96 ‘8h 12609 80F fs PET PET 'O8T ONG ‘08 focal to aeha rete aersney re Boar te AE ee a Og TGr T's Tie O52 ‘89T 6Ib £89 ‘8% 269 °8 689 “68 008 ‘P6 SSP USEE Sane Rang ye Me rae ne tee teS EY seer esas PAG Taue g “089 'T 9°88 £9 GGL “68 6L1'96 OTL ‘86 £20 ‘28 816 ‘T8h GOL ‘9 “*** proyjosjowyg T'eo9 oe tent (v) O18 ‘HOT GOT (£96 PEL TET — | GTZ '6PS ELP 66 nrertes"* Amog 0 ‘898 “2 0°96 I OL8 ‘08 POE ‘COT 8h9 ‘P09 OBS °8I GES “OSL B19 ‘Or “sss -roparaTyog & G98 1°88 6 G66 ‘08 RhL Th STP ‘69F GOP ‘T ‘abe 122 ‘29 “oes seu ung b 018 6°29 ‘9 P89 “CBT 009°§ PLL ‘6ST a) 610 ‘POT OFS ‘08 “OTOL Weg 0°18 8" "8% GG ‘PS 99 800 °S 809 GL9'¢ GhO ‘2G ~-oqupoR fue 9 BE 0°6 “28 G99 ‘L8 SOP 901 '8 168 ‘6 BEE “ST PLL LE “oupSNaMy UBg T ‘68 9'°8 "8S 908 ‘t2 PLP GOP ig 66L'8 820°6 Ob '6S ~-ouTqeg 0 "89 9°61 “Te ObE Bee £28 “9 612 ‘9 LL0 ‘28 619 ‘88 299 50VT ~-ySNyy 9 ‘881 1 ‘OF ats 666 ‘POT | O8T'Z8 POT 26 690 ‘OF CEP (08S PST ‘GLT 77> sfoUUN yy, POT PIT pL 166 BT GOL I 988 P 890 & 969 6 PP 29 “TBA YOO YT Br29 8°28 ‘Sh 168 “PS 206 §8 REE ‘BS 998 ‘8 119 ‘66 298 "ELT CLL ‘198 "=== HOS]10qOY DUETS 1 ase | Gi ) BPE G09 | abo 'G6 618 GT ZIG‘RT9 —| OS ‘OT "oes 891007 g Ose & ‘96 % SPT 408 (1 POT OPT 069 "SL j = “OTsnyoy L°8hL"9 8 ‘8% : BNL 'R68 O19 '8 POE ‘EST 99 see 55" " *SA003T pep Gut ‘OF £90 GAT 66L F 110 02 Le “77S OAT POI THO "2 LB : GOINGS: Simwages oot 089, 9BT‘SOT : “Tots 1BIBOY. 6 ‘98P &°99 oT 9G ‘PE £60 “PIT 869 “TST 099 ‘GP os ]epUeA, 6°69 128 8 ‘88 Ogg ‘98 ggg “T G0 ‘8B 681 ‘OP : anys) T2810 1% 191 868 ‘LL 668 “€ 1P9 ‘16 LET '08 BT ‘SEI to AT, 6 FL § ‘81 VS 99T ‘69 £61, 4 900 ‘2% O0F ‘6% GLG ‘OBI 07 AQraraL, 6 901 6 ‘OF OP 916 ‘G8 P08 ‘1G 880 (L81 180%. 616 ‘STG 180 ‘20 918 ‘609 TTT STAeay, 0416 b 29 8°9 | PPS 682 61L ‘86 612 '89F LE9 ‘62 G10 ‘189 020 'F9 CEOs OPOE clin ceeiaeemwans Geka cea inwwe is tones een amn ee "77 Woods) WOT, B06 1°88 g 98 898 “19 89 ‘9 L1G ‘SP LLE ‘PT 98 “69 G06 ‘Gd 616 ‘208 eee Sn beTeT 9°98 TL L68 ‘EE OTE ‘2B 109 ‘TLE 91g ‘T 6h G6E GOS 'ZE G86 ‘19F Wo} YOOIY L 9°PSE IT tity | Cale es 929 (cp ror: gee "=| 9¢G ‘Gp 6E8 “BI LEL ‘G88 gant IE ee eT 000903 =| 0°% iE **| 068 ‘809 G19 °L 089 ‘F Chae 09€ ‘21 09 ORCRIC OWES Boia tet Cun ce icy eras ia eee 717) Te HeL 9°L91 38g 81s P60 ‘OL 890 ‘T6 OfT ‘TFT Tg (LT 60S ‘6S PPS ‘SPT LLE ‘899 77 dopART, L191 9°SP 6 08 199 ‘601 106 ‘99 G6P ‘8 096 ‘T9 OLE ‘EIB LP PPL ITh ‘L9p {UB ITB TL 6 “98 | anes GFT OPE °96 IIT ‘8ST OPT. GTZ 99P ‘8ST | G08 Sb LIT ‘86 ate Tae ae Mee OSE B'EL8 LE | 9°26 0 SEL (LT Santaars 1. (pSS7s 004 OTT. G9¢ (992 $0 °% TASAC SI ARO Be GEN 2 See REN AEP EES SORE TETE OS Gn aC Tie? 777" 044g 9 "892, 2°99 9°8 OGL °00T 802 “G8 TE “681 LEL “68 9LT (G96 10 ‘Ps 168 ‘00P 777777 TT TTeaou09g & “e249 ‘G 1°16 LT TIT 26 | (alu JOS OFT. OF9 ‘208 01g ‘¢ TGE (GEE cirri rts) Buyers 0 P18 8°92, £6 883 ‘69 990 ‘9F OTF ‘16% PEG ‘ST 900 “1g¢ OGT ‘Eh P98 ‘COP suoydoig B98 901 1% OZh “98g OLT 198 ‘OL GEL CLS ‘Td, 6P ‘ST ASTM) ees Re aT Oe a EON Ire SOE ENO ieee ICIS 6 861 bg £°98 £66 ‘61 196 ‘8 1&8 ‘EP 023 ‘1 £0 ‘6P 6P9 ‘FS OO CG jets liao es se So PPE Mae iar eat cae Ree, SRT ToAtoM0g 84 *ponuruo; ca (a ; ; ‘ | eee 5 Q'OLT o0F £°82 280 ‘THS‘T | OGT ‘Res 176 “998 CFG ‘TL2 ote ‘coe ‘T | 98% ‘162 GGQRARS Se tl ements Sa POOBIOOISS ORO Ti H ne A aa. ( ra (= mK — ys 600% 8°89 8°08 GIG "28 196 ‘98 00 “2 4 ‘6 498 ‘8 e LFS Le 89% are ros Oe ase“) ene. Hoe. cosas B 60rz nie BOT ae one Bente Ave 3 at) 18 miale el Sceietatete Paraterave is avetas cPSIKTRC sina ata ebaie === OAR AL SS) eT 1°08 Q°LT 929 °F8 Ze ‘e O86 ‘LP REL tie ened ee HN Sey) 112 L'be Og8 {68 182‘ ‘i O1g “29 oe “Ts Hd yee SS yay OG 2 80r 8°66 Z'8z 106 ‘be 1Sh ‘& ‘G $00 ‘Fe 1G1 ‘ee 210 88 CHOTA ~ ) Aa) 10 my, ¢ inn a od nee - | See Gale nae oy ee Be ae O86 Tat OT 026 (1 229 “991 pres <{ 6 “PPT g 6S p ‘0% ‘ Te) AA in 167 é Or a ooh I ye VG “ou a i 9° P06 886 “Po g08 “G 108 ‘4 O89 ‘6T PPT Ze POS ‘SOT --qenp See ip 601 ZO8 ‘Ad Sit O28 eee Cul) BeOleR: [pees aoa tas tite yaaa “WOT q 1269 GP TL LL0 ‘216 618 ‘VT ovo ‘91 eee B69 ‘08 Gita) Anti | BEpCoR GaSe onp ShSpoiceriperepnt or Bobet Osan pea 1868 Beg 8°21 186 ‘LT R19 ‘be 169 ‘8 166% 908 TE 9 16 ‘69 io plone ‘ Gt 108 ‘TE 089 ‘OL £26 {66 vi 886 giog = ipiee, © ezarea, © | //e00 84047 OLb‘c Ti {03 P19 TC 0296 PROG _ 8°66 G°66 9°63 gbg ‘ZO 189 FL] % Gog ore GOP ‘LE 786 2a STAN pb fat 1°61 ad OFS ‘88 £01 ear BGG ‘T L¥8 ‘O01 996 ‘9 SLO SI ee NS Se aR ce ee EIA EA “STAR : Aa Al 4 996 9 €99 9g N 6-801 i ¥ vias O8P ‘COT ZLP 8998 TL8 ‘PT G06 ‘28 BTR(ROT. pIMOGTRRHe. ||SASMES SSA aMaNonnsasysrstcrreess ss sete sce eqD « 8g TP 50% 908 ‘OTT ZT 180° LES ‘ET 066 ‘et 586 ‘68 BEGHE |rcevenscrseeesenteneneecesnseesessnseesnaseeseeneee reprecors as Bk L 5 9 6 (OT DET £0 "88S 16 GPT 686 68 ORT TIG” ool eee Araceae nanine mRGRtenin marl? Smo oS ee Sneed Lapyoxo al 08 6'L 6°S% SPP ‘08 898 GFE BG ‘I 889 ‘8 006 ‘TI CI mm Puce Otic sr OnE SRECO Crane nhre Panes noenete ta mach reaeen : : si re etl tea a ivan sal rn = nore weed Sa ee 4 ssdoro | OMMSRaL ‘sdorp “OYTO | 7purxyppoo 4A | *poaordury RIOD BR iyeoent >|*pusy ure | sae 7 ore ‘sdo.o “SUNIR] UT oanysud —o} poyoa | 40490 TV uy pury | pusy BIOL Bates si0) UT So.10'V ce ae WIV] *pUR] NSC 409 JO OSB] U0D.A0T —(snsuao O61) sauunoo fig ‘sammig paw) ey) UL Siudpf UO pun) eBANIsHg—"]] AAV] . My Ven) oo) LOFT 7eee rasa aS 122 ten op é 8°68 Lee 861 tee oes % wai : poywunysy » 1°86 Oe 4 IFT ‘12 OF 996 ‘T 182 (89 ZIT ‘e8 ‘ 6 GL ee per ee | Soe gue 910 {9 bby (at) | 16a 0c 80/69 | 286 112 0'Te : Al L0G ‘81 mat T2E ‘2% a POS ‘68 ala GZ ‘68 ver ove | ee ee ERP eee BUR Pe OF ee ed Nora “rododqng res cat ak 268 ‘9eI | E28 "8 aa 180% ee ee 808 “Ch ime (ee +7 BIBI) st 0°81 Tes wl tecees C69 ‘¢ CO oe TSL ‘LL Bet 968 ‘21 Lee | Boe ace Wee seuss Y . ! G 5 oe BOC Va Ue ‘ £29 on Tal SS | ad 186 66 eee or BPS ‘6F Seas Pa eee cveceeeeppSSSRRREEEESS “910 aoe I “96T ZI evr 9F8 ‘TOL ae 066 ‘9% ar a TFS ‘6P 086 ‘9¢ 66 808 reais Risen aiee eemiere Oe eephiowe 0 Le) SOLU) Bo e.i5 sce «| Fe vere | Hoe‘ ou ore TI 193 Th | P08 {Gh eo <7" “TOUT = 6 LOT 0°S% Z FG 866 ‘FOL CL, & TPL ‘68 189% $20 PT 808 ‘Zz 218 (£86 ty 9) ee aad o'sT 7G (28 716 & 666 ‘GT Eee OTL ‘6G ony Signe |Peeeenean cero -reqdure9 " VrOUuL Wy a 8 ete Ms Ne lee eee ee ---- AawtpsOILV ¢ S81 : Poi: >" CLIpuBxe = Sere A “ [BULIOGLY m 8 ost Q “VINIDUIA dBUL0D0 V Ay es P-ZG or eee 9F6 Tee ‘TS6 Bre (ole ea : = ; : OLE OFS % : “G0 Se ole onan eee 866 ‘LET enna a G_| 120 'FFe | pasa tengliy, |peeeccscsnnecseccane: POLL Z-0¢ £ '& Se Need ZeL ‘stk ‘| 286 ‘ET GPE ‘TSS | 808 {221 EE eager race cet mena nile ‘ Tees 6°08 i BG 929 ‘6 108 ne PoP 2G G06 (22 ae ‘181 Pe! ‘G8 Gu oe aON chee 2°09 6 °SZ Be ue 11298 ale PEL ‘98 eae ‘C8 CORNERS Ws sccmehe veseeseseeseeee*=*JOSpUT 9° 0'E¢ 6 FZ 96 Ava 610 ‘821 we (v9 889 ‘OF aaa 088 ‘eZ GS 73 ART eee SS eee an pUrM : “6L P'S Q Tel LF 980 O% P96 06 ES 9g 68 (161 16h ‘TOL a PP (Passes Goo ‘CUPUr MM 61st : £8? 129 ‘9 hoe 60 ‘G9 if G08 ‘GES its 608 {218 “7 WO} BUTYSE AL "TS ui pec ¢ ‘ PS6 0 ‘ 690 ‘SOT FEL ‘C ue g Ae 6° TP 8 if o8P 89 180 ‘26 i o egg ‘6 abt ‘ett GPO ‘ES SF Oe oggoDnoD's pee : 6° 3 F609 8G ‘ I 69 ‘ T 120 ‘ WA Rect a "1 savefto 8 212 aaa eS eae eg a _|neb, Be Ee al ee re fe Wie oe ee gS ES I0:100) 8 °LST | E19 6 “GG 139 ‘90T OF6 oS 198 '%G OL ‘ee e1Z ‘09 766 62 LLL (198 re oyloumey $121 6 L°86 Tz ‘10 An OgP ‘82 ‘ T9F ‘681 ‘ 161 ‘EPL ++ 7" 9S] puBIDH 6°68 : TOT P68 € ‘ 618 ‘TE “ PLP ‘C6 al 2) vee e16 ‘ 6 901 ‘Gh ‘ 689 ‘I8T OLS ‘L6G apes FOL Gs : GL9 ; OLS ‘G8 GC a|eNuegt oe cee eee A aE EE IZ¢ “9S IG Se Oe eoceenc reo cee hee cucascec 610 €9 QLP ‘Eg G19 (26 $68 ‘19 : (oLe Rok com eke eames ee ERP Cae Oe, SL eS a beet XOSSH] 990‘SLT | GPO “OFT 08 096 cop (Tri TTT mepueyq1g 129 ‘OPP a moaiiceea eee ESE m eI eIMOpeTeo Ar eS ECO eee ene tec mae MOJSUTUUO |, --""-TOSIPP V [oes a eS | ee ee ee “LNOWUAA BULLETIN 626 , U. S. DEPARTM ENT OF AGRICU LTURE. 6 62 y's i haat) 6 ‘IT (6 86 OF9 SP 6eF Tel tb eee 1629s | G08‘ a epp il 926‘ ‘ aa 9°72 Bee PRE bat alteeens Ise 9 O36 ‘ZF Tee L68°02 : 6ST PLL YEO SOF FS ¢ nob 026 q I 29 \} 2z9 ‘zoe Pee ain debe “TEL ae 8°81 aeeteee ailteee al 630 ‘ee LPF (6h GEG ‘89 ees G08 ‘eh SINE See IDPH 6 FE o'6 ewe | ove tir | ues coor | gee po0fes | 698 ‘FP pyete aang 21 a m3 928 ‘G a ce“tt — | ont! 698 (FP OLE ‘82 eal ch [ex koe [ato a |e, [tne =| sore butsex | abo | 18108 “imquat'y Sse ; : at SSF ‘T VANS : 98g ‘G_ : poe *>*> > asmor pis fem et ome |i tis Jim Sie Lue | COSMO Ago) i¢ : a0 OL ‘6 ABER Loh ST I19 ‘Oe é OFZ sean CAE Et oe eae eee +5 ¥ Sh 2°ZI GST 189 ‘TF ; G29 ‘ET eg)! 19 08 ZOF ‘NZ Pelee | [iciscveeeseesetetepesereeeesteseeaeesaaes Meee 90'T . : €°96 50) ‘RB Shh 620% BF ZIT ‘8% atts bor cReceTeece Seet Jojsvoue gue ote fae | teat | Loe Be ey ieee (Be ee food eee nS ‘Sp : ; 200 '22 ate a 0F9 ‘6 , ite cree a una ES ae reat ae att eal 999 ‘b pane 200 ‘GI a8 10 ba He 066 Ti TiTi Ty ueenh paw Sula a “OT pa hs ‘T SAS 8 202 (0% 4G 868 ppeoeese sss ANTO Boma 1°99 ee 6 86 cea ‘err | TAe 816 ‘8 8F6 ‘9 06 28 O18 ‘OF SERCH acres 9-081 Oe (ON a Sse a8 s 6IT‘8e | 9ZT‘0 90L'9T | SAG 18% pesee ges Haan itie ahi ae 6°83 180 ‘69 0688 100 ‘2b Heart 999 ‘08 OFF ‘ag sees eeeees beast pause KS Ss t 6FS ; LES ST 8e1 6 VV oa ore WOT] 9°GOT ovee ca O86 ‘83 129 POL 28 eRe ‘G fe (69 819 “FOL enetdes sta 9°) be 21 608 ‘ET let & el TT DOF eh 996 ‘88 002 +s 722222 OONUO TT P T fi YEE 19 fe ; é F18 ‘1% SOT OOe, | dbLReL [trterteccctettesseeteeteeeeeeereeee 19Aouv 8°98 ¥0 161 TOL ‘68 se S 128 ‘% 4G . | 801 28 gps >> BIqUIN[oD 8p £8 GoE (29 O8F (GP 882 (88 GES 990 ‘18 889 (&F 626 ‘98T eeID 0% ¥ 91 QCL ILE OF (G 69F (9 eld ie 826 FT POT ‘OT SFG 29 777 WRTTBIO 9°88 G "LG PS 1S 880 ‘26 L988 989 iF Te9 ‘6S Sep TF £19 (2ST uepPyo "98 7ST £€8 (07 eh (11 £96 “PT TI8 ‘¢ 80S “0g 900 ‘eT Lye 8 steyoy p01 T Lg peo ‘981 Tes “¥6 LOF LEL'T £80 (22 GLY ‘96 PHO ‘09% woyUeEg at TI 60 ‘SF £98 (28 £96 ‘TS 808 ‘T P16 “OT 960 ‘OF L866 uTQOSV 1°02 6°28 PSS'F0h =| S84 "86T | OST 193 ‘F PIZ'G0G | ABOTLE =| - SSH 616 suepy ‘NOLONTINSVM LC & "ke 66T ‘ESS “OT OME ce Die MUGEACS cy Ciel MUCHAS Cartan m2. COMPL Gy Tal KO OWCD iG jem meen tne) histatins aisicniannimies “= "1890, £62 698 ogg Kg Sar LOP cos GOL 126‘ "777727 qOqsotpOUT AA P 6I L0F EiGMeese . | aaa 3 ei 8 Sh 9¢ POT SIZ geo “7777 Ban qsuae rTM oO 1°08 OO pot eas gip saaaehs ss Be Gis Tol (6 LAO, a rl MU Da ae a cea aS gee ka ce SO AN ae Sir iain ee » el ce I I 1g 6. puOUAYOT 122 6 '8P #9Z PIP OFL Lest **“plOyPVA CASA titi SSSI Na tos pay See oP aca |G ee aa inc or oR ea As ar *““YANouls}10 q 6'T LA) Sem ASST op acca Gi emer nena (*) = 2 eae en cman 9 Tél Poe “== 5" "BINGSIO}Oq he Mee ie 1k RR BAR | Se ee Rea Un no Ram |= | 2m ane ZOL 6e1 Cbs eae hee Sek BARE aed Atal pace bade ee ae eee Tae Y[OJLON *ponurjm0o—ALIO l ss — “ponuy}“09—VINIDUIA ‘omyseg | “sdorg “IOy1O *puerlpoo A | ‘poaordty ‘[eq1OL : *pury WAIey . .. Saar 3 *sdo.10 *SUIIR] UT “e —o1 pojoa | UO TLV ul puey | pury (BIO, yet) -Op puel UIT *pury omyseg [210 Jo ose} M0010 g *ponurju0y—(snsua OT6I) sayunoa fg ‘sajnig papwugQ ay) wr suinf Uo pun) aunjsDq—JJI ATAV], 89 PASTURE LAND ON FARMS. 3 3 308 SH 08 NOT recor mo HSOSH NAG moO HSMOtHGHsose TBS SRSarg Stee oo re OWAMNANTMHr-DONHOHDORDONNY N 9 “6 8 69 LY 9 “Let € 09 (nan!) G USE Gest 6 FIL ¥ e6r & ‘0GF € 66 6 “LEE 0 SES 0°€LP T 061 6 S9E 8 OL 6 ‘09T 9 908 8 LOT € 681 SLT 696 ‘eIT 6F8 SFB 12 008 ‘0@ ¥66 ‘28 668 ‘FF G98 ‘T6T 409 STL (LS IST ‘OF 9F8 FT C08 ‘26 GES “LPT 906 ‘28 EST ‘EFS es L6G £6 ‘FIT L19 ‘TI 609 ‘LT P18 ‘cr 0F0 ‘G2 607 ‘29 ZOF ‘9% “77 ByAeuRy 162 PSF ‘61 096 £89 ‘9 £9F ‘26 960 ‘GE 906 ‘99 982 ‘OCI "7777 Wosteper 0 FF 290 ‘06 89S {LT P8¢ ‘81 POT ‘68 OTE ‘GT 898 ‘69 OPL ‘P86 7 uosxoet Z°89 826 ‘GE PEE FS 186 ‘OT TéL ‘LOL G00 ‘69T 806 ‘er a) JALGiA Selle ene ce pies sae a ees brad nam eee WOSTIIC TT 161 [* S86 ‘99T £96 “F LIF ‘0G G08 ‘26 GLF ‘Lh 6SF ‘Fe 698 ‘SFZ ieee ane eee, Apiey 9 Ts 16 ‘ST 86 181 £9F 6 869 FT LUL ‘ST (dita? ea tl ec wore ns pee ee eae aN ener ar eee yoooue yy 0% 162 ‘908 SF6 ‘IT OFT ‘22 SEG ‘FF 02E ‘8 099 (4g TLI (78 “omrysdure yy 12s FOL FOL 118 ‘06 886 ‘08 860 ‘FS £96 ‘SOT G8 ‘6S 68F ‘OEE “JOLIqUseLH ZFS PSL ‘OIL €6I ‘61 SFO “GT P10 “LE 6G ‘TL €80 ‘9% 6IT ‘802 tsa on UTD) 8 GF £06 ‘OL ell ‘6 GOS ‘8 BLS F9 998 ‘28 6F8 ‘Ee GOO SCG Tears |e coupe sate Seek mai aso tN een "777 TOUTED 8°06 LL9 ‘1S 8g¢ % GPS‘) £02 ‘FL EOL ‘Gz G98 ‘26 GPT OIL 7 01) 048 6°99 620 ‘eS 092 ‘ST 600 ‘AT Try (SL 002 ‘OTT £06 ‘FE ZE6 L6L "iit 717 Tespuppog ¢°cT G16 ‘¢ III ‘T G86 's 087 ‘8 918 ‘ZI COE “LT SOO SSB fel| Seas Ws Se oe aa Sei cia ee ie AvID ¢ 66 16 £08 “GL SFG ‘TT GLE ‘F 6FE ‘87 696 ‘8k GPS ‘TE LEONG II |e 2c 2a a ee ae ie ea Snel ULI O) FFG 4S £96 ‘FL oL8 688 6 98L ‘6 0g¢ ‘og 666 ‘28 GIS ‘6FT "777 711eG80 8 °F gee OFS "TG 98 °% 188'8 £18 ‘9 90 ‘EI 169 ‘AT COPE CGee. ier tS Me ve oe ed ee ie sm a ayoorg Tg 6 61 FSG ‘O8T ars 001 ‘F 780 ‘92 G99 ‘¢8 GPS ‘TS (CLC ead Racine aerr co nciss Sareen ict esc yey Wo} xe1g G9 O21 $26 ‘19 9 BES | S86 F £62 ‘¢ £60 ‘ST 008 ‘88 oes ee as Ger Tee ‘FS 910 ‘9 290 ‘8 £65 ‘16 199 ‘ce ue 69 ae ean : ee ges GTZ LT8 GS G90 ‘FI €F0 ‘FT PST “LL 696 ‘SOT FE0 ‘eh 0 yer ‘VINIOUIA LSA 8°86 gLe‘eeL ‘> | Ser‘gto'% | Tee'S96 | 860‘06e 798 e1e‘e | 966 f09's | Seo‘ZIL “TE | 12}0.L 6 66 FE ‘18 689 GL Lor ol 00L (01 608 *S6 826 (LEI TCO BOC Ee ge eae tees crn idea Sey aera le mee naan euIye A a GLE OPH | SFL GFT 1Z0 ‘91 669 ‘2S 898 SIZ 616 (2S OOS W RT Lea) 5 ns ics eose evens Re pe maaan apni ean areas * URTATY AA 16 Tée 29 069 ‘CT GOT ‘8% Le a ZIE (8h PIT ‘Se LyL Sot "777" ULOozey AA 0°lZ 8 "$8 820 ‘228 189 (SL ZOL (SE G8 (SF 186 ‘SST OS} ‘152 CODEC CNS ele ceteris ap ce ae eee SIEM BITE M € °F L°9 IIS ‘FT 996 ‘9 180 °G 890‘ f 899 ‘ZI 196 ‘T COTSOI Ghee eee Se Se SR aS tate ea ex ey es SUED AN 6 “FF 9 “eI LL9 "9 168 (18 999 (TE 916 F 626 (29 189 ‘08 €0 (IST UojsINyL 7°96 aaa 668 (808 PLL ‘ES 810 ‘26 £99 (9 pp LEl 906 (FL 696 ‘TeS ponchos 0°68 08 680 F81 066 8S 786 CLT Gbo OF OPP (99% 61 ‘18% | OSE 289 CuuIOeS 9 8s PLT 196 (LS V5E OT 769 (11 108 °S G6L ‘62 99 £0¢ SCENTED Se eee es cea oar coeamins a ern Eae WENO (OLAS 8 %S 9 BI G18 ‘8 028 ‘6 02S € S69 Ge ‘eT 12 (8 CONGUE eee ee Saran eeu LSE 0°98 POV EE GLa il 668 (9% Z0F '8 QLL “eh SLF CF CHINE Al hes | [ep hose ce Sheree ">" yseg Lh €°éI B59 8G LLL L466 61 068 (I POT (66 918 8 CLO BOON locale ate esa see amen 2 MERE es) 698 LST SIT 7b 81S ‘€% FIG (SS 790 6 98 (18 919 'F6 OBS RO GTS 9 Ie eae 5 5 pdb anraereree gata ba rye OE Sass 0°0¢ 9 ‘01 EGS ‘ST STO%L 966 IT 809 °F 695 °€% 186 (F COOpL ae epee :tenaeueed 0 ‘98 6 ‘ST 69T STAT £EL (88 978 (TE SIT ‘or 169 ‘91 006 (TL SOURCE (agli oa aig sa vata pt sae es a EOE) oly 11 Z6E ‘06 LOLS Tg0 (IT Tp 1 669 ‘LE Les ih SCOWGI) lS see oa coats oie 9 ip epeiek an eh Sa RR one UCRENY G86 L 8 61L ‘00h | 90E ‘SFE ~—-|- 009 (84 166 ‘eT 168 ‘068 HOCESOV <2 MOTOROUG I SI oA oS ina cet make oh gre an i ReneS saeco "1g @ ‘61 $96 ‘901 002 *96 999 ‘Fe 180 'G 699 ‘99 poe TP C18 ¢ ae 3 aod shen pert ate Pavel Os AP 100 ‘86% 110 LET G19 SE 6&2 (ST 896 ‘881 916 £6 LOC OCG Re eR acd hie thy ey ksiny Bnei anata eee eI belon 1°88 0 "€% 469 ‘001 6L0 ‘CL BFS ‘SS 61> GG ‘TOL 687 09 G09 (696 sey £9 PL 976 G2 289 'F 16¢°¢ 679 G0L ‘OL 799°¢ 38s ‘Gr ea CESUISL ‘a Pa ree ee ee =e” eL,mDLUhCC 9891 Shs 90% PEL ‘Gh ‘P | 009 ‘9TS P89 ‘PIL 928 ‘292% | 090 P8F‘S 8°89 9°6 OFT GOT ‘TST 688 ‘Z 86F ‘9 LLe‘9 £9 ‘OT 0°01 L'bF 9°98 ogg ‘09 801 6 126 ‘61 88h 19 299 ‘06 gy 8 “081 ogg 9°8e 820 ‘29 err Gg P68 ‘2 100 ‘Te 880 ‘bP pg A POT 1°88 B08 She ‘SZ 98% °¢ 282 ‘8 G19 ‘8F GPS ‘29 P86 0'9T $9 O88 ‘82 699 980 ‘8 PES ‘8 68h ‘ZT E 6 'P8l 1°62 0° BBE ‘OUT pag (6 SOF ‘61 L6p ‘Sh Goh TL ny oP OI O'lF L's OG8 ‘LL 608 ‘0% 818 'P LP 189 SPT 16d 5 2 ue 0‘9F LI 9@2 ‘08 1186 £29 69 TAG 149 908 'B2 & 9 28T 1°88 G91 BIL ‘99 126 ‘8 B18 0 88,07 161 18 me FP6e lara) 81% 980 ‘GT S18 ‘8 920'9 OOF ‘29 P60 ‘TS A = T'OPT 9°28 6'8T 290 ‘SOT SST ‘2 926 °21 186 ‘22 190 ‘89 g 6'11é L ‘bP 112 682 ‘86 O19 ‘OT oth B 286 Z0T 106 (eer 19 Z19 6°21 009 ‘PL P20 ‘61 884 ‘Pb 968 HPO 8G g&, © P82 & 68 8's GLL ‘OST. 128 ‘81 826 ‘69 699 ‘68 STP ‘811 Oo. ott oy £1 698 ‘92 O22 1 882° SES ‘8% EO) ee Q'STT L°8% 6 PS 90% ‘08 FILS G86 ‘81 OTS PS 608 89 a 6°TPT 9'ae 0'8% G98 ‘TET Pet ‘IT O89 ‘82 86P 19 B16 ‘06 WAX 0°28 0st 109 ‘821 888 ‘2S Leg ‘Te LEP ‘0% G26 ‘FL RB] § SOT 8°68 Lhe 028 {9% $16 ‘P o8b'p 606 ‘61 POS “63 Ss L198 TL 801 188 FOL OPP ‘08 G28 ‘08 GE 86 804 F8 P86 Z OP 0" 266 ‘6 812 ‘9 GOP 'G LES ‘21 S16 ‘8% a p90 ‘E lbh 6 SST 18% 10% 89908 1626 OEE SST ‘bP Fs 8201 8°82 Zk 920 ‘29 &10 ‘Gl S10 ‘TT Th9 ‘9G A, 2 21% ow 6°81 G19 °S6 O16 LT O84 8s PUo “69 POT ‘O01 f) 69% P19 18% 139 ‘88 098 6 046 °6 BBP '88 GGL “LOT Q 66IT 691 ia G99 'P9 G8 ‘ET 098 GOL‘ 162 ‘ST . & 091 B98 891 LPP ‘68 102 ‘% 102 ‘6T 193 ‘61 GPL TP au 96ST Tig G6 169 ‘16 SP 2, SEL PT £98 ‘Ge PSp ‘Lg 1201 6°68 0 PB BEE ‘06 QoL ‘TI POS ‘GB 192 ‘80 098 “TOT 5 67211 9°18 6°18 118 ‘29 ZIg'8 698 ‘OT O8P ‘2g LOG TL L’ShS G49 8'3S 899 Le 612 ‘9 £88 TI BES ‘SL PPE ‘96 < Ob eh 6'8 062 ‘TIT 268 609 '% 926 'T LLP ‘9 mae Lae 9°g 9°81 gee ‘08 OLP 616 ‘T pOL'e ggg ‘g co — b 4 *ponuryuo, | A he whl a :s [eal at cae ae Oe —F z 5 " ee | a8 =e S ‘sdowo “OINYSET ‘sdorp ‘LOqIO *puxglpoo *porordwmy | ‘TRIAL =) Peeaned “pURy TARY i TG pa anieed —0} pojor TOY}O TLV “Op puBl TWArey “purl orn ysed UL SO.LOV [B07 JO OSB) WO. *ponuTyuoy—(sn $WI0 OTL) sar qunos lq 8F9 ‘990 % PSI ‘2% GPS ‘PS 890 ‘82% 906 ‘6F SIL ‘LT 616 (39 G90 ‘98 IOI ‘FS POP ‘ST. 9T8 ‘0% L18 ‘98 269 ‘09 PIL ‘SP 488 ‘68 ) ‘6% SLT ‘OP ZE8 ‘20 GE ‘08 Gee ‘21 goo "88 869 “9 619 ‘Ze SEG FS 909 ‘GF eho ‘Th OLT SI Gee ‘9% 120 ‘98 829 ‘29 6PS ‘09 129 ‘68 219 ‘TT 829 ‘SI SPP ‘90 ‘OT Pee ee ras pene aan ak ea Ree Sey S19 ‘891 99F ‘S0% PET PSL L6P ‘O61 eF0 ‘60T "GL ‘OFS $20 ‘S61 G80 “LST PIE ‘86 GPL ‘26 O@F ‘Z6T BSG ‘18% 6 ORS O80 ‘682 PET ‘GET LPL “SS 682 ‘G62 TL8 ‘88% Ogg ‘82 £69 ‘218 809 ‘69 GLE ‘LST 699 ‘LOT ‘THE “LST “86 ‘OCT ‘OS "ESS ‘OST 629 ‘SLT PSL ‘S21 Tah 66 *sdoao ul puv'y suraT0.k A -* DOO AL sey tot eaveeseseseet eee eserseeeene esses sergang ay SOQ AMO SOCSRSnANaC SSE ER ERIE NSOESON Gea ago oa ACOH OOM Ratatat --OUABAL nysd( 22 ore *=* ON I, SDS BORO SOO SDAIN OR OOSMORE TIC (oy iir1 4), as Se ee sees STOUIONG ~- 9UvOyY ~* OFOUAT ydjopuvy “7 YSLOTBY meets TUN settee TOVSOT eT ~*** "sey UOYRood > s]URSRO] ===" T1O] OT PUT owwes eee ee oro sees = SRIOUOIN sreeses = TrURLO PY ipalekeseis pais 00,100 [usuoUO P|, ~ OUT ** | CLOULW emer tere Tee LODO Fata a Se EE Og NEC Cua >> TOStp -]7RYSIUTY ~-UOLe PY TOMO OW sss" TrBs0rT “SULIB] UT puxy [VOT ‘sayDI) Paul ay) Ur suf wo pun) aNsVJ—' TT ATAV GY, ro > as oes 168 a |e |e 9T 0 6 2 sit De -ee GIy 88 8 ‘SIT Us 1 6r Bieaee 891‘ 262 aan Ea Pate BOR. ¢ SOT I ‘OF 6 FE fe (29 069 ¢ 029 f¢8 Pool | Flo sag OP9 ‘98 Saue Ie pee sae ve Ge me a a ‘ZI ay Be poyeurnysg 69 Sc 98 ao vel pr 'G BSP g 9 506 aN 0°90 POP 8 °F ian! 28 aeP AS tet SI ‘6 I LET a 6-0 ae 0G Oa ates 1eh‘S g08 ce nh 208 Co 8 8° LF 929 £€¢ a 8T 819! go 4 if cane 62 im 9 69 ret RAG L¥6‘ T 19 §€ L PIL 190 ¢ 6L1 ‘2 Sl IT 9"e 61 9g), ‘ OT 99 ‘TE 02 xa! 08z< Tp 8L 68 LL L¥S make | CLL ‘FLT OPL “28p PES FBO ERO SABES Se eae ayo resistence srbris Sco Ue. 9°08 lari 696 ‘L0T 906 £22 ITP ‘98 082 ‘68 LOI SST 296 ‘681 TOL ‘TSP 3 BOO ~*neoyeod uo, 0 61 6 “61 888 ‘OP G84 ‘0B 979 ‘98 LOLS CZb “6S SET (26 Top OkT | Peta e ian: wore IO ART, z19 +! 0°09 Bue “6S BhO “8B G09 ‘1% L09 ‘Sh POL ‘86 OST ‘EET 912% ‘908 2 A COREE ES -->-- ues doqoug 9 POT o 18 020 ‘S81 ObP ‘hg 910 “29 102 ‘2 LST “FST 669 ‘S11 926 ‘O88 : CELE SE == -oURAVRTS C101 LOT Opp 66% 8 ‘T O99 *p OIF i) 092 £9 6h0 “eh : See ee sso8 "9K MBO 0°68 L0G ‘211 PIT ‘28 190‘ TIT POE “ER 699 ‘IST 860 “102 PLT “809 : cues boas aaa) att 6°19 TLT ‘08 O02 6% S98 £02 $22 ‘68 O86 BE% G68 ‘LTP CLUE COU S ES SER PEE KEGe ERDES EERE TEE EE Stee REE TOO MTS L8G PPT LEL SSG PO) ‘OT Z9G ‘RT ie POP ‘OT 8¢9 CTT SOOO ROR CUO COCR OOO RO SOD OO CCE OS ODOC CCIOUOIAFSG DUC ysnyy 1 '6P B 8G OFO ‘RS ‘oe £79 “ee 192 °6S pag ‘coz, Lbb S68b SOE CORSO SCE O SOS SOS SOOO CO TOSS IAO ION O93: )9) A carat 8's ogy {19 h 6% 16h ‘66 £08 ‘OF LE SSLT 898 ‘ZaT O80 ‘298 SS atau’ ick cch oa arate ieee eieeec cee por, vee se eIpUBlOORe 9°08 T 9°29 908 ‘9% 692 ‘LT O6T f8% SLT SLT 821 ‘89 822 ‘PTT GTP 861 PO EE CT 29 Co SRS OS OS Sa ISOM 00% 18s 8°81 991 £89 660 ‘ST 122 ‘22 p90 62 LIP ‘68 GSP ‘OT 600 “611 EA eM SRE ECR T ETNA RE EON OEE Cad OnE Ee PEO OTE T'88 8°88 pss ZO8 FIT £60 ‘1% 619 ‘68 608 6% T80 ‘681 POR S20T L¥S “TTP ESR SS I ae ar eee re Cae OP OPT 12g 88 Or 19 G86 “LP TST “O8T B62 ‘SI G28 “961 220 ‘0@T BIORGLO | aceeekan Pe aye ae Pee eye me eee yes ova ee eR ORT ; *ponuryu09— “sor ‘ommgseg | “sdoag “DYIO *puvlpoo AA | *poaorduy [BIOL UL Soon |— — —_——_— — —— : i 5 : “puvyl WILY : sdo.10 suaiey ut cauno bor ged —0} poqoa 1Oy}O TLV urpuey | purl [ejo7, 4 J Upso1oy | “OP PUBL UWLoy *pury o1ngsey [8}0} JO 05BIMODIO *ponurywog—(snswao OF6L) sayunoo fig ‘sajnig panugQ ay? Ur suniwf wo pun) asngspg— ]] ATAV], 93 PASTURE LAND ON FARMS, "ET ested uo ‘omysed ur efeeioe SAISSeOXe TB SUI4ICAdOI seTjuNOD JO eTGe1 989 q “peyUAsy v ; 6 °919 G29 26 928 “21P‘% | cor ‘oot ‘F | 226 ‘Ese LOT ‘EG¢ 6Fs ‘2e8'G | cep ‘SRL (SOS SOs) al eee eae Ou coer cage Sopp pom um aucao ">>" [B90q, € 866 9°39 €°9 LLP ‘OTT 6L1 ‘CFT 80 ‘LP ST ‘BE £98 ‘12% PBS ‘2S cog “FGg ~* = "0489 AA G18 € Eg 1 &% LS ‘SET £02 ‘OFZ G86 ‘FT 86L ‘FF Ser ‘90 SPS ‘ZET 82g “PLE SSS SINGLY BUH POSS Besest coeg fa) LpL STP QGP (8% TES (Ge PLL LLY LEL ‘9 OGUs COU ops | ae eae eae ae SoU reyeaqoomg 6 “S0g 1S 8 FT 89€ ‘th O&E 188 666 ‘TT PEL (06 £09 ‘918 B89 ‘29 EFS eb eee Se sea a uEpHoUg L“98P | "LL 8°ST 986 /ST £18 (E91 1£6 “6 0 (16 P80 ‘S6T PLO ‘OF HORT EOC iNeS |, OM ead ee tag eae, = eum red GUS ‘T 6°82 LP 81 ‘Gg 899 ‘821 0g6 fg egg 2 ILI ‘261 OPL ‘CT GyOeO0G) mn eeeen mee ta: wees 777 RUOTeN €°802 9 "Lg Z's GEL ‘SLg GOP ‘F99 L61 ‘12% 906 ‘28 896 ‘896 Go ‘LET CEOS COS eee ane oe ah oe ge ae ge eee / oyurere'T 9 ShS > 09 III LP8 ‘16 CTL ‘ELT oss 6 086 ‘CT CLP FOL GLL SE 760) 668 se | aie “777 uosuyor G08 & Sh Te £26 ‘681 £€0 ‘SIT SSI ‘F 68h ‘OT 069 ‘SET 66 ‘Th GOS ‘OZE "775" quoured)[ OOS 0°CL 801 10S “TIT LET “PTG 182 (S21 PIS “621 BES ‘LOF TOT ‘02 WEB: S10 na Vo BRC ee, oes OL ee ei pone gaa yoorg 9 “901 ‘T TL 89 Z6L “66 606 ‘E68 680 “6% &18 ‘19 PST PLP POY (LE OLE (TSG) “OSIOATOD 9 '6&F ‘T L1g 9°g TSL ‘E91, 198 “P92 899 ‘ag 899 ‘cg £88 ‘C88 LBE “19 196 (202 T woqiBD G “106 bop 612 86 ‘28 LOT ‘56 £16 ‘6 880 ‘TT SOT ‘SIT OSF ‘Gg QUE RC eR ete Wi 2 cee Rag cee Oe eee 8 aan RCC) C2 6919 LWP 89 90r ‘TS¢ GLI ‘STS 16S “LT 16S ‘OTT £68 “OFF E98 “ZL, COU NCO MIEN eo air eee ape gee Cargo ste re sera cts Aueqry DNIWOA AM PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO GRAZING AND PASTURE LANDS. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Range Improvement for Deferred and Rotation Grazing. (Department Bulletin 34.) Carrying Capacity of Grazing Ranges in Southern Arizona. (Department Bulletin 367.) Status and Value of Farm Woodilots in Eastern United States. (Department Bulletin 481.) Pasture Land on Farms in the United States. (Department Bulletin 626.) Eradication of Ferns from Pasture Lands in Eastern United States. (Farmers’ Bul- letin 687.) The Farmer’s Income. (Farmers’ Bulletin 746.) A System of Pasturing Alfalfa in Salt River Valley, Arizona. (Secretary’s Circular 54.) Improvement of Pastures in Eastern New York and New England States. (Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 49.) Improvement and Management of Native Pastures in the West. (Separate 678 from Year Book 1915.) Graphic Summary of American Agriculture. (Separate 681 from Year Book 1915.) Agriculture on Government Reclamation Projects. (Separate 690 from Year Book 1916.) PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Reseeding of Depleted Grazing Lands to Cultivated Forage Plants. (Department Bulletin No. 4.) Price, 10 cents. Study of Tenant Systems of Farming in Yazoo-Mississippi Delta. (Department Bul- letin No. 337.) Price, 5 cents. Grazing Industry of Blue-grass Region. (Department Bulletin No. 397.) Price, @ cents. Replanning a Farm for Profit. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 370.) Price, 5 cents. Utilization of Logged-off Land for Pasture in Western Oregon and Western Washing- ton. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 462.) Price, 5 cents. Agricultural Outlook. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 560.) Price, 5 cents. Agricultural Outlook. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 598.) Price, 5 cents. Pasture and Grain Crops for Hogs in Pacific Northwest. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 599.) Price, 5 cents. Pasture, Meadow, and Forage Crops in Nebraska. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bul- letin No. 59.) Price, 10 cents. Range Investigation in Arizona. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin No. 67.) Price, 15 cents. Protected Stock Range in Arizona. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin No. 177.) Price, 15 cents. Irrigated Pastures for Northern Reclamation Projects. (Bureau of Plant Industry Miscellaneous.) Price, 5 cents. 94 a we ae ce . en ee ee ee ee ee eee ay eee ye Ae ee eh ee, Se ee ee ee ee SS eee ee tp ie IS tt sie ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY N; BULLETIN No. 627 { ve Contribution from Office of Farm Management W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief Washington, D. C. WV February 13,.1918 COST OF HARVESTING WHEAT BY DIFFERENT METHODS. By Arnoxip P. YERKES, Assistant Agriculiurist, and L. M. Caurcu, Assistant in Farm Accounting. CONTENTS. 4 Page. | Page. Development of wheat-harvesting methods. OE AFIS) GLC MSTA OG ees ve MTN GH UO a ee 13 AIvine plural Gree serena azine ech a ue ee ha yt Gh UOACIORS Me ea Ie ee ye IN oy Ge Layee Al pan eee 15 FSVoV ye kerb alers ee fe BL hs Ue aes ae Ls a 1i Combines tise tryik er ay Shs Sune Di gleam ei 18 Comparison of costs—old methods vs. new. ATS DEVELOPMENT OF WHEAT-HARVESTING METHODS. Within the memory of men now living, the entire wheat crop of this country was cut with cradles, bound by hand, and thrashed with flails, crude thrashing machines, or tramped out by animals drawing spiked rollers. The cost of harvesting and thrashing wheat by such means was naturally high, usually consuming one-fifth of the value of the crop.t But the time required to do the work when such methods were used was even more important than the expense in volved, as it increased the danger of loss from storms to a great e - tent, and demanded a large number of hands to harvest even a limit_d acreage within the season available. It was necessary to start cuttiag at the earliest possible moment, selecting those parts of the ‘ield where the grain ripened first, in order to insure completing the harvest betes heavy losses goareneal from shattering the over-ripe grain. ‘Two acres was considered a fair day’s sade for # man in cradling wheat, and another hand would be kept busy bind- ing and shocking the wheat cut by one cradler. It is obvious that the acreage of wheat that could be raised per farm under such con- ditions was very limited because of the large amount of hand-labor involved. 1Tenth Census of the U. 8. (1880), Vol. III, p. 529. 15472°—18-—Bull. 627 1 2 BULLETIN 627, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. At the time these crude methods were used, wages for both man- and horse-labor were much lower than at present. To-day, with the unprecedented high wages for hired help for farm work, and its cor- responding scarcity, together with the increased cost of maintaining horses, the necessity for using the most improved methods and ma- chinery in order to reduce the amount of man-labor to a minimum is obvious. During the last century there has been remarkable progress in the development of harvesting equipment. The mower, the reaper, the header, the binder, and the combined harvester have followed each other in rapid succession, substituting at first horse-labor for man- labor, and later introducing mechanical power in the form of steam and internal-combustion engines for horse-labor. The cost of harvesting wheat at the present time varies widely i in different sections of the country largely because of the different methods employed in these operations. In most cases the particular manner in which the crop is handled is influenced by climatic con- ditions and the requirements of the cropping system followed, as well as by the character of the wheat itself. The various methods followed throughout the country, therefore, generally are those which have been found to be well adapted to the particular conditions exist- ing where they are used, although local custom has in some places operated to continue systems that are more expensive than others which would be entirely practicable. The purpose of this bulletin is to point out, so far as possible, the comparative cost of the different methods employed in harvesting wheat and to outline the points which must be considered in calcu- lating this cost in such a way that farmers readily may insert the figures which apply to their particular conditions, and thus be able to compare their present costs with those of others. By so doing, those who are not now doing the work in the most economical man- ner may be led to consider the adoption of some other practicable system which will result in a saving of time and money. A careful study of the cost of harvesting wheat has shown that the greater items of expense are for man- and horse-labor and depre- ciation of machine, and in endeavoring to cut down harvesting expenses the farmer should give careful attention to the most important items. The large machines show the smallest cost per acre, and, other things being equal, the farmer therefore should use the largest machine practicable under his conditions in order to reduce the man- and horse-labor required. If he can make his machines last longer by a little inexpensive care, such as better housing, more careful overhauling during the winter months, etc., it may result in material savings in total harvesting expense. In the following pages are shown some figures which, though they may not be directly COST OF HARVESTING WHEAT, 3 applicable to many particular cases, should be of considerable value to farmers who are interested in cutting down their harvesting expenses, by showing them where the greatest expenses commonly are incurred. THE BINDER. By far the largest percentage of the wheat crop of the country is to-day harvested with the binder, the use of this machine being almost universal. Although headers are used in large numbers and over a wide area through the Middle West and West, binders also are used throughout the same area, it being quite common to find both machines on one farm. In some seasons only the binder will be used, in others only the header, while often both will be used, de- pending upon conditions which will be referred to later. The only wheat-growing sections where the binder is not used on the greater part of the crop are in the States of Washington, Oregon, and Cali- fornia, and parts of Idaho, Utah, Wyoming, and Montana, where much of the wheat is cut and thrashed with combined harvesters (see pp. 18 to 22), although even where these outfits are commonly used binders also are employed to some extent. (See Pl. I, fig. 1.) The cost of harvesting may be somewhat greater where the binder is used than where the work is done with headers or combined har- vesters. The binder, however, has a distinct advantage over these machines in that the work of harvesting may be begun from one to two weeks earlier with the binder than with either the header or combine, since wheat can be cut with a binder while in the early dough stage and placed in shocks to complete ripening; at the same time it is comparatively safe from destruction by storms. This fea- ture is a very valuable one in many cases, not only for the reason just given but also because it permits the work of harvesting to be ex- tended over a much longer period than with the other machines men- tioned, thus requiring fewer horses and men to harvest a given acreage. DUTY. The cost of harvesting wheat with a binder varies considerably, being influenced by the several factors mentioned below. Data have been collected showing the daily duty of six-, seven-, and eight-foot binders, and the results of the tabulation of these data are shown in Table I. By this it will be seen that the six-foot binder is most com- monly drawn by three horses, while on the seven-foot cut four horses ‘are generally used. On the eight-foot binder, the use of four horses is practically universal. On the six-foot binder, the extra horse appears to make but a little over an acre’s difference in the quantity of work done per day. The six-foot binder apparently does not over- load three horses except where the yield is exceptionally heavy, or 4 BULLETIN 627, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. where hilly or soft ground is encountered, and three horses, therefore, under most conditions, do a fair day’s work for a machine of this size. The extra horse on a seven-foot binder adds slightly over 24 acres per day to the work accomplished, which would seem to indicate that three horses are somewhat overloaded with such a machine. Tasty I,—Average acres cut by 6-, 7-, and 8-foot binders in a 10-hour day. (235 reports.) Acres cut. Width of cut and number of horses. Per binder.| Per horse. Ror ones | ; 6-feot;,. Shorses-Oes_ 22257. 5255015. TE: RAS Gee) aE 8 Be’ eee 6g 068 | Lees oe. 10.90 | 3. 63 1.82 G-fo0t,, 4: NODES os 3. os. asses ose se esas Sh saps See = aes) Seas 12. 10 | -3. 03 2. 02 PAOOUS BNOLSES: sti- age Width Total per Aver mated. | acres of Interest age | life in | cut a: swath. | motel. | Depre- | oninvest- Repairs| j cost. | years AE * | ciation. | ment at Seca | Bushel | to date \6 per cent Day.? | Acre.? | (30-bushel | yield) .? | | | | | i He as i be i ec Feet. : 7 | $172.49 | $106.49 $33.00 $33.00 | $9.10 | $0. 734 $0.0244 | $1,100 10. 33 235 9| 184.04 112.04 36.00 26.00 9.30 684 - 0228 1, 200 10.71 269 12} 233.26 115. 41 50. 55 67. 40 8.95 450 0150 1, 685 14. 60 519 14} 233.31 114. 59 50. 88 67.84 9.73 472 - 0157 1, 695 14. 80 494 16} 209.05 87.95 51.90 69. 20 6.58 244 - 0031 1, 730 19. 67 858 18 | 269.37 127.06 60.99 81.32 8.35 269 . 0090 2,033 16. 00 1,000 20 | 310.05 146. 25 70. 20 93. 60 7. 93 233 - 0078 2,3°0 16. 00 1,330 24 | 425.00 250. 00 75. 00 100. 00 8.92 213 - 0071 2, 500 10.00 2,000 1 Exclusive of overhead charges for shelter, taxes, and insurance. 2 St 7 3 per cent of first cost for seven- and nine-foot sizes, and 4 per cent of first cost ofalllarger — sizes. (See text. 3 Based on figures shown in or derived from Table IX. TABLE XI.—Labor costs per day, per acre, and per bushel for different sized combines and crews, man-labor being considered as worth $2 and horse-labor $1.20 per day of 10 hours (65 reports). Labor cost per day. Labor cost per acre! | Total | Inan- and Width of cut and ere moe commonly hore, with each outfit. or Man- | Horse- Man- | Horse- | Total. | jabor. | labor. | Tl | jabor. | Iabor. | COS Per | : 7 feet; DINO SINOSES 22 2. soo at a. $13.60} #400] $9.60] 31.10} 30.32} $0.78 $0. 0365 Dieeis Damen AO NOmes ss sees es cee eee } 16.00 4.00} 12.00 1.18 -30 .88 - 0392 12 feet; 4 men, 22 horses.................... | 34.40| 8.00] 26.40| 1.73 40] 1.33 .0576 aeieete omens 24 NGTSESS- osc. ooo eee acces ; 38.80] 10.00] 28.80 1.88 -48 1.40 . 0623 aGieet; Saneén, 28 horsesia- 52255 -2- 22255, 43.60 | 10.00} 33.60 1.61 +37 1.24 0533 RSHOGE iP MCT E SMO MOISES tee sera = eon eae 46.00 | 10.00} 36.00 1.48 +32 1.16 0495 20 feet; 5.men, 30 horses... -----22--s---2s- 46.00} 10.00} 36.00 1.35 .29 1.06 -0451 24 feet; 6 men, 36 horses....... Bap Bae 55. 20 12.00 | 43.20 1.32 -29 1.03 + 0433 i 1 1 Based on acres and bushels per day as shown in Table IX. ‘ COST OF HARVESTING WHEAT. 21 a ai “TABLE XII.—Average labor and overhead expenses per day, per acre, and per \ bushel. Average labor and overhead expenses. Width of combine. Per day. | | Per acre. ; Per bushel. Over- | Labor and Labor head. | overhead. + st edecotecssecsoses soscocsdecseds soccotebae 268s $13. 60 $9.10 $22.70 | $1.83 $0. 061 sccconkeedcoe sbece ssa deccoguecene spchedeceeicdded 16.00 9.30 25.30 1.86 062 sé Sone aae 34. 40 8.95 43.35 2.18 073 Besioss 38. 80 9.73 48.53 2.36 079 soooecescedercc 43. 60 6.58 50.18 1.86 062 sosedguonsons CAbeS a aacSmODeE Supe cosacabe saorras 46. 00 8.35 54.35 1.75 058 > pd ecbaoed bbape see Ca abe ca cenoShacLbeoesaseeeeee 46.00 7.93 53. 93 1.59 053 = od coped otcosede ss secescsssesnscosco tee sose 55. 20 8.92 64.12 1.53 051 ‘ Based on data in Tables IX, X, and X1. Table X shows the annual overhead expenses based on the average first. cost as shown in the ninth column, and annual repairs based on 3 per cent of the first cost for the seven- and nine-foot sizes and 4 per cent for the larger sizes. In this connection it may be pertinent to state that the seven- and nine-foot outfits are, for the most part, individually owned and are used only on the farm of the owner, while the larger rigs are in many cases used more or less for custom work and therefore cover a considerably greater acreage each year. The repairs on the small machines are consequently somewhat less annually, but for the acreage covered and bushels thrashed are shghtly higher. From the last column in Table XII it will be seen that the total cost of cutting and thrashing a bushel of grain with a combine varies from about 5.1 cents for the large outfits to a fraction under 8 cents for the fourteen-foot size. The expense for labor for the small out- fits is lower in proportion to the amount of work done per day than for the larger ones, but the overhead charges are slightly greater for the reason that the small outfits are not used as many days an- nually because of the fact, as previously mentioned, that they are largely owned by individual farmers and do very little custom work. Six cents per bushel is probably a fair general average cost for cut- ting and thrashing wheat with a combine where the yield is in the neighborhood of 30 bushels. At this rate the cost of harvesting and thrashing wheat is between one-third and one-fourth of the cost in sections where the wheat is cut and thrashed at two separate opera- tions with a consequent increase in man- and horse-labor. mae 22 BULLETIN 627, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PUBLICATIONS OF THE DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELAT ING TO WHEAT. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Spring Wheat in the Great Plains Area. (Department Bulletin 214.) Improvement of Ghirka Spring Wheat in Yield and Quality. (Department Bulletin 450.) Culture of Winter Wheat in the Eastern United States. (Farmers’ Bulleti 596. ) Winter Wheat Varieties for the Eastern United States. (Farmers’ Bulletin 616.) Growing Hard Spring Wheat. (Farmers’ Bulletin 678.) Varieties of Hard Spring Wheat. (Farmers’ Bulletin 680.) Shallu, or Egyptian Wheat. (Farmers’ Bulletin 827.) Wheat Growing in the Southeastern States. (Farmers’ Bulletin 885.) Hard Wheats Winning Their Way. (Yearbook Separate 649.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Experiments with Marquis Wheat. (Department Bulletin 400.) Price 10 cents. Durum Wheat. (Farmers’ Bulletin 534.) Price 5 cents. | Marquis Wheat. (Farmers’ Bulletin 732.) Price 5 cents. Handling Wheat from Field to Mill. (Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 68.) Price 5 cents. Improving Quality of Wheat. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 78.) Price 10 cents. Syllabus of Lecture on Wheat Culture, 1910. (Farmers’ Institute Lecture 11.) Price 5 cents. Improvements in Wheat Culture. (Agriculture Yearbook 1896, pp. 489-498.) Cloth. Price 50 cents. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY Vv Contribution from Bureau of Animal Industry A. D. MELVIN, Chief Washington, D.C. , vV January 28, 1918 WINTERING AND FATTENING BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. By W. F. Warp, Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry, and R. S. Curtis and F. T. PEDEN, of the North Carolina Agricultural Hxperi- ment Station. CONTENTS. ; Page. Page. Orel orexoys DU ett Koy a era a es Se ee 1 Summer fattening of steers on grass_ 19 Wintering steers preparatory to graz- Summary of three years’ work, Une? CVn FOS DOR So 4 Walter) and) (summer 2s. 22s sees 27 Winter grazing of steers_________- 14] Winter fattening of steers________ 38 INTRODUCTION. In the fall of 1913 the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agriculture, in cooperation with the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station, began a series of extensive beef- cattle experiments on the farm of T. L. Gwyn, in Haywood County, N.C. The work was located in the western part of the State because of the wide range of adaptation, applying not only to North Caro- lina, but also to a number of surrounding States. The western part of North Carolina is extremely mountainous and rough, presenting a problem of peculiar importance to the farmer or cattle grower. The extremely rough character of the region makes good grazing ample when the land is properly cleared and seeded. The area available for the growing of crops for winter maintenance is re- stricted, however, because of the mountainous condition, and this makes the first three divisions of the experiments reported herein of unusual importance to the stock grower. The subject discussed, comprising three years’ experimental work, consists of : (2) Wintering steers in barns and on pasture preparatory to grazing on pasture either alone or in combination with cotton- seed cake; (0) wintering steers on pasture preparatory to summer ~ -:15888°—18—Bull. 628——1 1 2 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. grazing; (c) the summer fattening of steers on grass and cotton- seed cake; and (d) the winter fattening of beef cattle. The significance of these problems to the stock grower under the conditions mentioned will be brought out clearly in the discussions which follow. It is strikingly illustrated in the division dealing with the wintering of steers on grass. When there is not enough feed available for wintering as many cattle as can be grazed during the summer, the farmer is losing money, for all his grass can not be utilized during the grazing season. The experiments have proved beyond a doubt that steers can be wintered most satisfactorily on specially prepared winter pastures, and at a cost from 30 to 50 per cent less than upon the common farm roughages. This indicates the importance of improved methods of handling cattle and the possi- ' pilities of the mountains for cattle raising. The importance more particularly of the pasture work in the mountainous part of North Carolina and of surrounding States can not be overemphasized, considering the possibilities of winter and summer pasture development. The large areas of cut-over timber lands, such as those used for the winter pastures in this experimental work, would accommodate large herds of beef cattleif properly seeded. Winter pastures and corn silage for winter maintenance will solve many of the difficulties of the cattle grower. The mountainous con- dition of the region makes the production of stockers and feeders especially practicable because of the larger amounts of pasture that can be utilized and the minimum of winter feeds necessary for the maintenance and growth of such cattle. This may be appreciated by those not acquainted with local conditions by stating that In many of the mountain counties but 5 to 10 per cent of the land can. be cultivated, and much of this is hillsides or steep land that should be in grass. The fattening of cattle is less practicable because of the greater amounts of feeds necessary. Where feeds have to be shipped in by rail, as is usually the case with the concentrates, the distance from the railroad stations makes this practice prohibitive for many farmers. These statements in the main illustrate the conditions under which the work was carried on and why certain parts of it were so outlined and emphasized. Although much of this work will be of value to stock growers in the Piedmont or lower mountain sections, its value is more pertinent to the mountain areas of the section shown in the outline map. (See fig. 1.) KIND OF STEERS USED. The steers used in this work were all native cattle raised in western North Carolina. They were a good uniform lot of grade Shorthorn. Aberdeen Angus, and Hereford breeding with a little Devon blood BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 3 showing. The cattle were mostly 2-year-old steers, averaging about S00 pounds in weight in the fall. Most of them had been dehorned previous to their purchase and the remainder were dehorned before being placed in the feed lot. The cattle are charged in all tables and statements at the actual cost per hundredweight. \ NaS MO \ \ \ \ ~ ‘\\ B\ ARK. OFZ WORTH LA. ¥ AE WSONVILLE, Ow ORLEAMM iS FLA. @ 7AMIFA _ Fic. 1.—Map showing location of experimental work (heavy black dot) and area (shaded) suitable for similar cattle-feeding operations ; also principal cattle markets. CHARACTER AND PRICES OF FEED USED. Local conditions will determine to a large extent the prices of feeds. In the financial statements for each year the feeds are figured at actual cost, but in all the comparative tables the feeds are figured at an average price for the three years, which is as follows: | Pasture. a = Cottonseed cake foe eee SIMOONper Steer per 2s days: w= Bt0) CY jareie oso Corn silage_ Ess eae a0. >) 3. 00 per tou: Hay (alone) __ =e _ 15.00 per ton. Hay, stover, and straw mixed_______. 10. 00 per ton. Hay and stover mixed______________. 10. 00 per ton. YET COTM eet See Se oe ae ie’. oe 0. 838 per bushel. The feeds used were all of very good quality. The cottonseed cake was cracked on the farm. The only difference between cottonseed cake and cottonseed meal is that the cake is unground. The cake is 4 «BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. much better than meal to feed in the open for several reasons: A sudden rain will not injure cake to such an extent that the steers” will not eat it; wind will not blow it away; and it is hard enough so that the steers must chew it, thus preventing greedy ones from eating more than their share, which they could do if meal were fed. The winter pasture consisted of orchard grass, blue grass, herd’s grass, and clover, which had grown up during the summer without being grazed. Fic. 2.—Character of grazing lands ana pasture. I. WINTERING STEERS PREPARATORY TO GRAZING ON PASTURE. OBJECT OF THE WORK. Most of the cattle in the mountainous section of North Carolina are roughed through the winter, that is, carried on very light ra- tions, and then finished on pasture for feeders the following sum- mer. The experimental work was undertaken in order to determine, first, just how much it costs to carry stock cattle through the winter ; second, if it is advisable to allow steers to lose in weight during the winter months; third, to determine not only the best and most eco- nomical method of wintering cattle, but also the effect the different methods of wintering cattle have on the way they Boa in weight on pasture the following summer. PLAN OF WORK. This particular work was planned to cover a pericd of three years in order to get an average of season, feed, cattle, and condition tend- ing to produce variation. The steers were divided into four lots, using a carload in each lot, and those in each corresponding lot were BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 5 fed the same ration each year. The plan was not to make the cattle in the various lots gain in weight, but rather to winter them econom- ically, using light rations even though they lost some weight during the winter, the fattening to be done on grass the following summer. With the amounts of feed used the steers were wintered as well if not better than the average stock cattle are wintered in the mountains. An outline of the work is given in Table 1 in order to present a clear idea of the nature of the tests conducted. TaslLeE 1—General plan of the three years’ experiments. Average ; Lot | 2umber of | 2 : aire No Steers per | Winter feeding.1 Summer feeding.? * | lot for the | 3 years. 1 240 Ear corn, corn stover, hay, and straw 3. ...-- One-half on grass, one-half on grass and cottonseed cake. 2 24 | Corn silage, corn stover, hay, and straw 2 Do. 3 Soalbesee (8 (Oe ee ioe Soe e Sela Seer eae Grass 4 19 | Winter-grazed, feeding during snows.......-- Co) | 1 From time cattle were taken off pasture in December until turned on pasture about Apr. 15. CUHAS ono Su Ee ELON The cattle in Lot 1 were fed during the winter each year on ear corn and a light ration of corn stover, hay, and straw. These cattle were divided in the spring into Division A, finished on grass alone, and Division B, fed on grass with a small ration of cottonseed cake in addition. The cattle in Lot 2 were fed during the winter each year on corn silage, corn stover, hay, and straw. In the spring the cattle were divided and fed the same as Lot 1. 7 The steers in Lot 3 were wintered the same as those in Lot 2._ The following summer they were all finished on grass. The steers in Lot 4 were wintered on pasture, getting no feed or shelter except during snows, when they were brought to the barn and fed a small ration of dry roughage or dry roughage and ear corn combined. The pasture on which these cattle were grazed and finished is described on page 15. METHOD OF FEEDING AND HANDLING THE STEERS. The steers in Lots 1, 2, and 3 were fed about 8 a. m. and 4 p. m. The steers of Lots 2 and 3 were fed silage alone in the morning and corn stover, hay, and straw in the afternoon. The steers in Lot 1 were given one-half of the corn stover, hay, and straw in the morning and the other half in the afternoon. The ear corn was chopped and given at one feed in the morning. The corn stover and hay were mixed together in equal quantities and run through a feed cutter before being fed. Where stover. hay, and straw were used, these feeds were mixed, one-third each, and 6 ~ BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. run through the feed cutter. The steers in Lot 4, on winter pasture, — were fed only during snows, when they were brought to the barn — and given a small ration of ear corn, corn stover, and hay. As soon ~ as the snow melted they were taken back to pasture. These steers ‘had no shelter at all, other than the natural shelter furnished by trees, thickets, coves, etc. The cattle in the barns were turned out into lots around the barn in the afternoon, and left about three hours if the weather was clear; if the weather was bad, they were left out, only long enough to get water. The steers were weighed every four weeks, early in the morning, before being fed and watered. AMOUNT OF FEED CONSUMED. In considering the amount of feed consumed, it should be noted that these cattle were getting only maintenance rations sufficient to keep them in good, strong, thrifty condition. Table 2 shows the total amount of feed consumed and the average daily ration per steer during each of three winters. TABLE 2.—Average daily rations (three winters). 1913-14. Lot! Number | Number Ration Total feed | Daily feed No.| of steers. | of days. ei 34 | per steer. | per steer. | | Pounds. Pounds. 1 25 WS il WAT CORN E orn eet yea so ee ee eee 276 2.15 Corn'stoveriand hay! 22 525.3 secon soe ae ene | 1, 250 9.76 2 25 1287 ComilSiaret 2205 feel ye beeen eee ae eee ee eh eae 2,041 15.95 Corn stoverjand hay.45 22. Messen cee ee as eecees 665 5.19 3 35 123'|)'Corm:Silares 2. 220. cet aM. et Fe eee ee | 2, 006 16. 31 Comstover and Way. ot saaas aces oe eels ee 605 4.92 4 17 112.) Wanter DaSture 22.2605 on 2 Seine. Sap oolet> oe Aen oe es ee | 1914-15 1 24 131! ||| Mar corns: 2.2 - 3-5. =\ ses ee ee tee eee eae ee| 391 2.99 Corn’ stover, hay, and Straw 3... -.2--<-.22--2-2552--5=2 1, 434 10.95 2 * 24 131, Corn:stover, hay, and straw 2-.- -.= 4-5---coeea eee ee 789 6. 03 Compilage4: Ss - 252 2 Aloe de paises ee eee ee eer 1,807 13. 80 3 31 131 |\Corn'stover, hay, 200 Straws 2s on eeneeeeeeee aa 791 6. 04 | Cormsilave's isos sees. eee ne eee See ee eee eee 1,717 13.11 4 | 26 131..|. Wanter pasture'®) 22-355). Sako seca ences Seeder ae ee Soe eee 1915-16 1 24 119 i} \Maricorn st art soe See eee eee eee 374 3.14 Corn)stover, hay, and Straw. 2. -2<2220))-2<5 -s-(9- i528 1,358 11. 41 2 24 119) | "Corn: Silage seep ne ease eee ane eee ear e ree 2,142 18. 00 | Corn'Stover, hay, and Straw. 22-2 --- 2-2. -2=-2--42= sm 714 6. 00 3 33 119 || Commsilagess 5 s22 ee a erence ee Sq oupecebacne 2,142 18. 00 | GComn'stover, Nay. Ana Sila Woo mee — aneeee aaie ee ae 714 6. 00 4| 16 119") Wauteripastore Bice) 75. 5) e2 AIRS el. ee peeeincis eee lade sane ee eel eee ee eae 1 Fed 2.43 pounds cottonseed cake daily to each steer of Lots land 2 during the last 16 days of experiment. 2 Each steer of Lot 4 was fed an average of 5.86 pounds of hay for each of 15 days of the winter when the grass was covered with snow. This was charged in cost of wintering. — 3 An average of 1.65 pounds of cottonseed meal was fed to each steer daily for the last 16 days. 4 Silage was not fed to the steers of Lots 2 and 3 for the last 16 days of the experiment. Stover was fed as gue sole roughage with a grain ration of 2.44 pounds of corn and 1.91 pounds of cottonseed meal per head daily. 5 The steers had to be fed on 24 stormy days, when the grass was covered with snow. During this time each steer consumed a total of 183 pounds of stover and 58.5 pounds of ear corn, which is charged against the cost of wintering. 6 The steers had to be fed 14 days on accouat of bad weather. They consumed about 2 pounds of ear corn and 8 pounds of roughage per head per day during that time, which was charged in cost of wintering. ~ BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 7 The first section of Table 2 presents the results for 1913-14, when all the cattle were given a very light ration. In the winter of 1913-14 the “dry-fed” cattle (Lot 1) were given a total of 276 pounds of ear corn and 1,250 pounds of corn stover and hay per steer, or a daily ration of 2.15 pounds of ear corn and 9.76 pounds of corn stover and hay. The “silage-fed” cattle in Lot 2 received a total of 2,041 pounds corn silage and 665 pounds corn stover and hay per steer, or a daily feed of 15.95 pounds silage and 5.19 pounds of corn stover and hay. The cattle in Lot 3, fed like those in Lot 2, were given a total of 2,006 pounds of corn silage and 605 pounds corn stover and hay Fie. 38.—Character of winter pasture and eattle (Lot 4, 1913-14). per steer, or a daily feed of 16.31 pounds of corn silage and 4.92 pounds of corn stover and hay. During 15 days of the winter when the grass was entirely covered with snow it was necessary to feed the steers of Lot 4 some dry feed. They were given 88 pounds of hay per steer during this time. This was the only feed these cattle received other than the pasture during the entire winter. The second section of Table 2 shows the average daily. ration and the total feed consumed per steer during the winter of 1914-15, the second year of the experiments. The cattle in Lot 1 consumed 391 pounds of ear corn and 1.434 pounds of corn stover, hay, and straw per steer, or a daily ration of 2.99 pounds of ear corn, and 10.95 pounds of corn stover, hay, and straw. 8 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The cattle in Lot 2 were given a total of 1,807 pounds of corn silage and 789 pounds of corn stover, hay, and straw per steer, or a daily ration of 6.03 pounds of corn stover, hay, and straw, and 13.8 pounds of corn silage per steer. The cattle in Lot 3 were given practically the same amounts of feed as those in Lot 2. The daily ration consisted of 6.04 pounds of corn stover, hay, and straw, and 18.11 pounds of corn silage per steer. The winter-grazed cattle in Lot 4 were fed a total of 183 pounds of corn stover, hay, and straw, and 58.5 pounds of ear corn per steer. The weather during this winter was very severe at times and the steers in this lot were fed 24 days on account of snows. Fic. 4.—Steers after wintering on pasture (Lot. 4, 1914-15). The third section of Table 2 shows the average daily ration and total amount of feed consumed for the winter of 1915-16. During this year the steers in Lot 1-got an average daily ration of 3.14 pounds of ear corn and 11.41 pounds of corn stover, hay, and straw. The steers in Lots 2 and 3 got the same amounts of feed or a daily vation of 18 pounds of corn silage and 6 pounds of corn stover, hay, and straw per steer. The winter-grazed cattle (Lot 4) were fed 29 pounds of ear corn and 128 pounds of corn stover, hay, and straw per steer during the bad weather, which extended over a period of 14 days during the winter. TOTAL AND DAILY GAINS DURING WINTER. Table 3 shows the average total gains and the daily gains made per steer during each of the three winters, 1913-14, 1914-15, and 1915-16. 4 BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 9 TABLE 3.—Total and daily gains during three winters. 1913-14. Total Daily : Num- | Num- Average | Average : Lot| ber | “ber Ration inal | Bal | ac? [eG No.| of of : weight | weight | joss (—) | loss (—) steers. | days. per steer. | per steer. | 567 steer. | per steer. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. 1 25 128 | Earcorn, corn stover, and hay.....-.-- 769 741 —28 —0. 22 2 25 128 | Corn silage, corn stover, and hay....-- 770 688 —82 — .64 3 35 1235 |-se se GOES aise ons «pee aera 676 592 —84 — .68 4 17 iD MWanter srazed-en-.s502--- meee ose eee 515 532 +17 + .15 1914-15. 1 24 131 | Ear corn, corn stover, hay,and straw... 757 725 —32 —0. 24 2 24 131 | Cornsilage, corn stover,hay,and straw- 738 710 —28 — .21 3 31 IBD eee Ol) ais ae COR ACROSS CRRMe so Sacateaee 677 645 —32 — .24 4 26 1S La aWantererazed...2ss225-.5 seen eect 705 722 +17 + .13 1915-16. 1 24 119 | Earcorn, cornstover,hay,andstraw. . 814 779 —35 —0. 29 2 24 119 | Cornsilage, corn stover, hay, and straw- 806 764 —42 — .35 3 33 T19 iS OO eee Tee ie cc cee ees 770 730 —40 34 4 16 19) PWintererazeds.. 22s ai2. Letecol css. = a 62 788 +26 i 122 The table shows that in 1913-14 the cattle in Lot 1, fed on ear corn, corn stover, and hay, lost during the winter a total of 28 pounds per steer, equal to a daily loss of 0.22 pound per steer: These steers made the smallest loss of any of the cattle in the barns. The cattle in Let 2, fed corn silage, corn stover, and hay, lost 82 pounds per head, or a daily loss per steer of 0.64 pound during the winter. The cattle in Lot 3, which were “short-aged” and lighter in weight, were wintered on the same kinds of feed as those in Lot 2. They lost practically the same per steer, showing a total loss of 84 pounds for the winter and a daily loss of 0.68 pound. The winter-grazed cattle (Lot 4) did not lose weight, but gained 17 pounds per steer, equal to a daily gain of 0.15 pound. In com- paring these cattle with those in the other lots there seemed to be a greater difference in their condition than the gains and losses indi- cated. The steers in Lot 4 were in splendid ccndition when spring came, whereas those in Lots 2 and 3 were very thin, though still strong and thrifty. However, they were thinner than many buyers of stock cattle would prefer if purchasing for shipment, as the losses in transit probably would have been greater. During 1914-15 the cattle in Lot 1, which were fed the same as those in Lot 1 the previous year, made a total Icss for 131 days during 15333°—18—Bull. 628—2 10 . BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1 the winter of 32 pounds per steer or a daily loss of 0.24 pound. These cattle in Lot 1 lost more than any of the cattle in the barn during — this winter’s work. The silage cattle in Lot 2 lost 28 pounds per ~ steers, equal to a daily loss of 0.21 pound. The silage cattle in Lot 3 lost practically the same per steer for tne — winter as those in Lot 1. The cattle in Lot 3 made a total loss per © steer of 32 pounds for the winter. There was very little difference in the losses on these three lots of cattle in the barns. The steers in Lot 4 gained 17 pounds per head instead of ean weight as did ~ those wintered in the barns. During 1915-16 the cattle in Lot 1 were fed the same as ee of Lot 1 for the two previous winters. These steers lost a total of 35 pounds per animal for the winter, representing a daily loss of 0.29 pound. The silage cattle in Lot 2 lost 42 pounds per steer, while those in © Lot 3 on the same kind of feed, lost 40 pounds per steer. The dry- — fed cattle in Lot 1 this year made the smallest loss of any of the © cattle in the barns. The silage cattle in Lot 2 made the largest loss. The winter-grazed cattle in Lot 4 made a gain during the winter of 26 pounds per head. These cattle were in good condition in- the spring, after going through the winter on pasture. Although the cattle in Lots 1, 2, and 3 lost some weight each year, they came through the winter in good, strong, thrifty condition, or in such condition that when put on pasture they would improve from the start and make good gains in weight during the grazing season. COST OF WINTERING. Stockmen are interested in the cost of wintering the cattle and their cost per hundredweight in the spring resulting from the winter feeding. This is ascertained by taking the initial cost in the fall, adding the cost of wintering, and dividing this sum by the weight in the spring. This cost in spring per hundred pounds is important to stockmen who want to graze cattle during the summer and do not know whether it would be cheaper to buy cattle in the fall and winter them or whether it would be cheaper to buy them in the spring. Table 4 shows the number of steers, rations, number of days win- tered, fall prices per hundredweight, cost to feed each steer through the winter, and spring cost per hundredweight for each of the three years. BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. i TABLE 4.—Cost of wintering; fall and spring prices. 1913-14. . | Cost to : Lot | Number) Number pall feed each Spee No of of days Ration. ar steer oF *| steers. | wintered. : pee through eee 4 winter 7 1 25 128 | Ear.corn, cornstover,andhay...............--.----- $5. 50 $10. 10 $7. 07 2 25 128 | Cornsilage, corn stover,and hay...........---.-.-.-- 5.50 6.97 Ua Uf 3 35, IPB esas GON ae Cee o_O eI ete a ee Rc ci 5.00 6. 06 6. 73 4 17 12 )|t Pasture tasacs2etias: weer ee Iya ce eon 4.50 4. 66 5.23 1914-15. il 24 131 | Ear corn, corn stover, haya dS tra wWeesee eee eee $6. 00 $12. 20 $7. 96 ® 24 131 | Cornsilage, cornstover, hay,andstraw.:-........---- 6. 00 7.58 7.30 3 31 SIG eee OO ori GREE AS ORE PME 3G & SAC SES See yee treet 6. 00 7.45 7.43 4 26 Se | MEASLUITC trace eats) x = See ao oS tees aero SS Sees 6. 00 6. 29 6:70 1915-16. i 119 | Ear corn, corn stover, hay, and straw...-.....--...-- $6. 00 $11. 08 $7. 69 2 24 119 | Cornsilage, corn stover, hay, and straw......-..----- 6. 00 6.78 7. 22 3 33 I eeece COM ee at ase otto eee e ee ere been enemas 6. 00 6.78 Te20 4 GE heel OF MP as tune sas seh omeciscied = cee sock oom cn ee Soeeec ene 6.00 5. 23 6. 60 Feeds were charged for the three years at the following average prices: WaT COME Seas se NS Ee LA $0. 83 per bushel. Cottonseed cakesers sa ars sree CSNaNT a. 30. 00 per ton. (ORTEGA eee te Ae a Se 3. 00 per ton. aya ie a ee eee DOO DCr LOS Corn stover and hay_________ a . 10. 00 per ton. Corn stover, hay, and straw_______________ 10. 00 per ton. Past ue meee nee —--______________. 1.00 per head per 28-day veriod. In 1913-14 the cattle in Lot 1 cost $5.50 per hundredweight in the fall. It cost $10.10 per steer to winter on ear corn, corn stover, and hay, making the cattle cost $7.07 per hundredweight in the spring. The silage cattle in Lot 2 cost $5.50 per hundredweight in the fall and it cost $6.97 per steer to winter them, or $3.13 per steer less than Lot 1, but the cattle in Lot 2 lost heavily during the winter. The cost per hundredweight for Lot 2 in the spring was $7.17, or 10 cents per hundredweight more than those in Lot 1. The cattle in Lot 3, wintered on the same kind of feeds as those in Lot 2, cost $6.06 per steer to winter, the cost in the spring being $6.73 per hundredweight. The initial cost of these cattle was 50 cents per hundredweight less than those in Lots 1 and 2, as they were lighter cattle. There was very little difference in the spring prices per hundredweight in the cattle in Lots 2 and 3. The winter-grazed cattle (Lot 4) made a gain during the winter, while all the cattle in the barns lost weight. It cost $4.66 to winter 7 a 12 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ; these steers, while it cost $10.10 per steer to winter those in Lot 1, or more than twice as much. Comparison of the spring prices shows _ that the steers in Lot 4 cost $0.73 per hundredweight more in the spring than they did in the fall, while those in Lot 1 cost $1.57 more, in Lot 2 $1.67 more, and in Lot 3 $1.73 more. It cost more than twice as much in every case to winter the cattle in the barns as it did to winter those on pasture when the cost of feed and the gain or loss in weight of the cattle are considered. In 1914-15 it cost $12.20 to winter each steer of Lot 1. The fall cost per hundredweight was $6 and spring cost $7.96. The silage cattle in Lot 2 cost $7.58 per head to winter; the fall cost per hundred pounds was $6 and the spring cost $7.30. The silage-fed cattle in Lot 3 gave practically the same results. The cost of wintering them was $7.45 per hundredweight. It cost $6.29 per steer to winter the cattle in Lot 4. The spring price per hundredweight was $6.70, or an advance of $0.70 per hundredweight over the intial cost in the fall. The advance in the spring price per hundredweight on Lot 1 was $1.96; on Lot 2, $1.30, and on Lot 3, $1.43. The winter-grazed cattle gained in weight while those in the barns lost weight. During the winter of 1915-16 the dry-fed cattle (Lot 1) cost $11.08 per steer to winter. The spring price of this lot was $7.69, an advance of $1.69 over the fall cost. The cost of wintering the silage cattle in Lots 2 and 3 was $6.78 per steer, and the increased cost in spring was $1.22 and $1.25, respectively, per hundredweight. The winter-grazed cattle (Lot 4), as in previous years, cost less to winter than the cattle in the barns, and at the end of the winter they were heavier than they were the previous fall. It cost $5.23 per steer to winter them, or an advance of only $0.60 per hundredweight over the initial cost. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. Table 5 is a general summary of the three years’ work. TaBle 5—Summary of the three winters’ work. Gain (+) | qnitiay | Costto | Costin ene Lot Ration. Year. | Aless(—)] cost per | Witter | spring | over initial No.| for winter ai per per Contin per steer. : steer. cwt. eee Pounds 1 | Ear corn, corn stover, hay, and | 1913-14 —28 $5.50 $10.10 $7.07 $1.57 straw. 1914-15 —32 6. 00 12. 20 7. 96 1.96 1915-16 —35 6.00 11. 08 7.69 1.69 IN VGEACO Bee eee eee eo ae RN —32 5.83 | 11.13 TEST 1.74 2 | Corn silage, corn stover, hay, and | 1913-14 —82 5. 50 6.97 Cite 1.67 | straw. 1914-15 —28 6. 00 7.58 7.30 1.30 1915-16 —42 0 6. 00 | 6.78 7.22 | 1, 22 Avetape sistas seta eee coe i 5. 83 7.11 7.23 | 1.40 BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 13 TABLE 5.—Summary of the three winters’ work—Continued. A _, |Advance in ” (3329, | tation | Coptt0 | Costin spring cost Ration. Year. : cost per Pring | over initial No. for winter anit er per Gash Te per steer. steer. ewt. pee Pounds 3 | Corn silaee corn stover, pee and | 1913-14 —84 5.00 6. 06 6.73 1.73 straw 1914-15 —32 6. 00 7.45 7.43 1.43 1915-16 —40 6.00 6.78 7.25 1.25 BACVCT AD Geyser eee ae tin eerleesinicerels = —52 5. 67 6.76 7.14 1.47 Ae AVVANILOT PASLUTOs=ssseee sa. s ese cee 1913-14 +17 4.50 4.66 5. 23 13 : ; 1914-15 +17 6. 00 6. 29 6. 70 -70 1915-16 +26 6. 00 5. 23 6. 60 . 60 HAN CLAS Olen ae ers rae ne ea See ee ake « % +20 5.50 5.39 6.18 . 68 Some important facts brought out by the work and conclusions drawn from it are as follows: 1. The steers in Lots 1, 2, and 3 lost weight each winter, the aver- _ age loss for the three years being 32,51, and 52 pounds, respectively ; while the steers in Lot 4, which were winter-grazed, gained in weight ~ every year, making an average gain of 20 pounds per head for each of the three winters. 2. The average cost of wintering the steers on dry feeds was $11.13 per head, while the silage-fed steers (Lots 2 and 3) cost $7.11 and - $6.76, respectively, and the steers in Lot 4 had a charge of but $5.39 per Head against them. - 3. There was a saving of over $4 per head by using a combination of silage and dry feeds instead of using the common North Carolina ration of dry roughage with a little ear corn. This emphasizes the importance of silage as a winter feed for stocker cattle. 4, A saving of almost $6 per head was made by using meadows for winter grazing over the method of feeding used for Lot 1. 5. It cost less than one-half as much to winter the steers of Lot 4 as it did those of Lot 1, and the steers of Lot 4 gained in weight while those of Lot 1 lost weight. 6. The average increased cost per 100 pounds of the steers in the spring over the fall cost, due to the different methods of wintering, was $1.74 for Lot 1, $1.40 for Lot 2, $1.47 for Lot 3, and $0.68 for Lot 4. In other words, the farmer who carries steers through the winter under conditions similar to those in western North Carolina can fig- ure that steers wintered on dry feed cost about 13 cents a pound more by their spring weight than they did in the fall. Similarly, steers wintered on a light silage ration cost about 14 cents more, whereas those wintered on prepared winter pastures cost less than ? cent more per pound. 14 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The actual increased “ worth” or value in the spring of one lot of steers over another depends on how they put on gains the follow- ing summer. This will be discussed in Part III of this bulletin. The value of silage as a winter feed for stocker cattle in moun- tainous sections is shown by these experiments. A very limited — portion of the land can be used for raising crops, and as silage crops make a large tonnage of good feed per acre they will be especially valuable under such conditions. The results show most conclusively the great importance of pre- pared meadows or winter pastures for wintering beef cattle. A smaller acreage of pasture was required for wintering a steer than for summer grazing the same steer. In all these experiments, during no winter was more than 2 acres required to winter a steer, and the average amount for the three years was about 1.8 acres. During the summer from 2 to 3 acres were required per steer. The enormous areas of cut-over mountain lands and. lands on which there is timber of practically no value, but which are adapted for cattle grazing can be made a source of a large income and profit without undue or unjustifiable expenditure of money if put into good, permanent pasture. These lands not only furnish excellent winter grazing, but make pastures that are equaled by few in any other part of the United States for fattening cattle during the sum- mer moriths. This will be presented in Part III of this bulletin, which deals with summer fattening of cattle. The farmer who owns mountain land that has been cut over or is partly covered with timber of little value is overlooking a good opportunity to make money by not converting such lands into good permanent pastures. Il. WINTER GRAZING OF STEERS. The chief problem in most of the grazing counties in the moun- tainous areas is the furnishing of sufficient feed to winter stock cattle in a satisfactory manner. Most stock raisers can graze more cattle in summer than they can winter in good condition. One object of this work, therefore, was to determine some method of wintering cattle that would make possible the maintenance of a greater number dur- | ing the winter months. : The winter-grazing work proved so profitable and satisfactory from every viewpoint that it is given special consideration. The pos- sibilities of using mountain land for winter pasture, the methods of establishing the pastures, and the results obtained from them are discussed below. The report of the results includes the total and daily gains of all the winter-grazed cattle during the three years, the cost of wintering, fall and spring values, and a summary of the whole work. By grouping these facts a more significant idea can be BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 15 obtained by the reader regarding the possibilities of this winter- grazing method under his own farm conditions. ESTABLISHING WINTER PASTURES. The principal method used in getting the wooded motu land seeded to grass was as follows: The coves and flats, which were comparatively free from rocks, were cleared first. a contract was made with the mountaineers, giving them the free use of the land for two years if they would deaden all the large trees, clear out the small brush, and put the land in cultivation, planting corn each year. The land was unfitted for any purpose other than pasture development, some of the moun- tainous parts being so steep that horses or other work animals could not be led straight up the sides but had to be taken up by a circuitous route. The rows were run around the side of the mountain, follow- ‘ing the contour of the land. The land was not plowed deep, as the enormous amount of humus in the soil prevented washing and leach- ing. From this land from 40 to 60 bushels of corn per acre were produced. The second year, at the last cultivation of the corn, a mixture of 15 pounds of orchard grass, 4 pounds of blue grass, and 7 pounds of timothy and clover per acre, furnished by the owner of the land, were seeded broadcast through the corn. The grass seed soon produced a sod sufficiently firm to prevent any heavy erosion. The erchard grass, which proved to be the best for winter purposes, grew knee high or higher on this land by the fall of the year. Although this method of cultivating the land in corn before seed- ing has proved very satisfactory, it is not necessary, as grass seed sown on burnt-over land makes good pasture if the land be dragged and harrowed after seeding. After the pastures were seeded the grass was permitted to grow through the following summer before being used for winter pasture. During this time the grasses grew up and fell over, thus protecting the roots during the winter. Young blades or shoots continued to come out during the early winter and early spring months, furnishing considerable green feed along with © _ the cured forage. Each year, after seeding, any undergrowth or sprouts that had come up were cut down, but the cost of this was comparatively small. However, it is not advisable to use new land for winter pasture for more than two years in succession before using it for summer pasture. Summer grazing will assist in. keeping down sprouts and brush, giv- ing the grasses a better opportunity to form a heavy sod, which is very important under mountainous conditions. Hach succeeding year some new woodland was put in cultivation on this farm in order to have new land for winter pasture and to accom- modate the increased number of cattle which it was planned to put on 16 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. winter-grazing experiments. By this method the actual cash ex- penditures for converting the raw woodland into good permanent pasture was the cost of the small amount of seed used, plus the small cost of “sprouting” each year for two or three years. This plan can be used to advantage in nearly all parts of the mountain counties. =e Lee aS San § - The pasture was charged at the rate of $1 per steer for each 28 days. OBJECT OF THE WORK. The object of the winter-grazing work was: (1) To determine the practicability of carrying stock cattle through the winter on grass alone. (2) To determine a method of wintering that would equalize the © number of cattle that could be maintained profitably through both summer and winter. PLAN OF THE WORK. This work covered a period of three years. The steers in each lot were kept throughout one year, or until the end of the summer grazing season, when they were sold as feeders. The cattle were bought in the fall and put on winter pasture in late fall, usually some time in December, when the summer grass gave out, which was about the same time the other cattle in the experiment were taken to the barns to be wintered. No shelter was provided during the winter, as the coves in the mountains furnished ample protection. The cattle were given no feed except during stormy weather, when they were driven to the barn and fed a light feed of hay or ear corn, corn stover, hay, and straw. As soon as the snow melted they were taken back to pasture. In the three years’ work it was found that usually there is a period of 10 days to 3 weeks that the cattle will have to be fed. In the spring the cattle in this winter-grazing work were put on summer pasture as soon as it would carry them, usually at the same time the barn-wintered cattle were taken to summer pasture. KIND OF STEERS USED. The cattle used in this work were all grade native steers of Short- horn, Hereford, and Angus breeding with a slight amount of Devon blood in most of them. During the first year’s work, 1913-14, the steers used were not as large or as uniform as those used the two fol- lowing years. The steers of the first year were mostly “ short 2-year- olds”; those of the last two years were mostly 2-year-olds. All were the same in quality and condition as the cattle used in the barn win- tering, with the exception of those of the first year, which were some- what lighter in weight than the barn-wintered cattle. BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. _ 17 AMOUNT OF PASTURE ALLOWED PER STEER. The average amount of pasture allowed per steer for winter graz- ing was 2 acres, but in the summer about 38 acres were required to graze a steer to good advantage. No set rule can be given as to the number of acres required to graze a steer either in winter or summer, as the condtioins, such as the slope or exposure of the land, the kind of soil, and its fertility, are so variable in the different sections. The point which the writers wish to emphasize is that less acreage is required to winter graze a stocker for maintenance than to summer graze the same steer to be furnished as a feeder or for butcher pur- poses. It should be remembered, however, that the object of the win- ter grazing is simply to maintain or rough a steer through, whereas _the summer grazing is for finishing the animal, which requires from 300 to 400 pounds gain to put it in marketable condition. GAINS DURING WINTER. Table 6 shows the total and daily gains of the steers on winter pasture. TABLE 6.—Total and daily gains of steers on winter pasture. Average | Average initial | final | Total weight | weight per head. | per head. Num- Days Year. | ber of win- Ration. steers. | tered Average gain {daily gain per head.| per head. d j Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. 1913-14 17 LEZ VWANIGe LAS TUNe sss ese ee 515 532 7 0.15 1914-15 26 NSS |e eye GO See eee De. MUR IE HS hap 705 722 oll 18 1915-16 16 HG) |iecosc coo) Se I eS SE nS 762 788 26 22 During the first winter, 1913-14, as shown in Table 6, the 17 steers made an average total gain of 17 pounds, or a daily gain of 0.15 pound. The second year, 1914-15, the steers made a total gain of 17 pounds per head during the winter, or an average daily gain of 0:13 pound. This shows that there was very little difference in the gains the first two winters. The last winter, 1915-16, the steers did unusu- ally well, making a total gain per head of 26 pounds and an average daily gain of 0.22 pound. When grass came in the spring all these cattle were in good fleshy condition, but the cattle that were win- tered in the barn were much thinner in flesh than they were in the fall. COST OF WINTERING. The cost of wintering these cattle is one of the most interesting and important factors to consider. This will vary in different localities because of the difference in pastures and cost of feeds used during snowy or stormy weather. The cost of steers per hundred 15333° 18 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pounds in the spring, after they have been charged with the pur- ~ chase price in the fall plus the cost of pasture to carry them through the winter, should be of great interest to farmers and stock raisers. This is the deciding factor as to whether it will be cheaper to pur- chase cattle in the fall or in the spring for grazing the following summer. TABLE 7.—Oost of wintering; fall and spring prices. Advance Mapes | cgaGS iis Initial’ |; Cost to «|/s Costans \\inisprine Year. ea ataors Sees cos winter spring | over initial ; inter per cwt. pasture. per cwt. cost per ewt. 1913-1 Ae eee sae gtecebicoo ssc 17 17 $4. 50 $4. 66 "$5. 23 1 $0. 73 OMAN Oa eeae cee oeeene ee caer 26 17 6.00 6. 29 6. 70 1.70 TSH) ooo coeneasoscscdssos 16 26 6.00 5. 23 6. 60 1.60 1 Average, $0.68. Table 7 shows that there was no great difference in the cost of win- tering these cattle during the three years’ work. The cattle used the first year were smaller and it did not cost as much per head to winter them, yet the advance in cost per 100 pounds in the spring over the cost in the fall was more than in the following two years’ work. The average advance in cost in the spring over that in the fall was 68 cents per hundred pounds, whereas in all the winter cattle work in the barns, as shown in Part I of this bulletin, there was an advance - in cost of from $1.40 to $1.70, or an average of $1.55 per hundred pounds. This shows clearly the economy of providing winter pasture. SUMMARY OF THREE YEARS’ WINTER PASTURE WORK. The steers during the winter of 1913-14 made a total gain of 17 pounds per head at an average cost of $4.66. The next winter the average gain was the same, but the cost per steer was $6.29. During 1915-16 the steers made the largest gains of any in the three years’ work, namely, 26 pounds per head, at a cost of $6.60. In this third winter the advance in cost per 100 pounds in the spring over the cost in the fall was $0.60. The average for the three years was $0.68. CONCLUSIONS FROM WINTER-GRAZING WORK. Much of the rough mountainous land in western North Carolina should be utilized for winter-grazing purposes. It is practically unfit for any other purpose after the merchantable timber is cut. Winter grazing and the use of the silo will enable stockmen of the mountains to handle more cattle to better advantages through both summer and winter than by the old method of wintering on dry- harvested feeds. BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 19 In the experimental work the steers gained an average of 17 pounds per head the first winter, 17 pounds the second, and 26 pounds the third, the average gain being 19 pounds per head for the three years. On the other hand, the dry-fed cattle, wintered in the barns, lost an average of 32.5 pounds per head and the silage- wintered cattle lost an average of 46 pounds during the three years. These steers required an average of about 2 acres per head for grazing in winter, but in summer stock cattle of similar kind require about 3 acres per head to make proper gains. | The cost per steer to carry the cattle through the first winter was. $4.66, the second winter $6.29, and the third winter .$5.23, making for the three years an average of $5.39 per head, or approximately half what it cost to dry-feed cattle in the barns. Besides, the last- named steers lost weight. This work shows that dry-wintered cattle must sell for an average of $1.55 more per hundredweight in the spring than in the previous fall to compensate for the loss in weight and the cost to carry them through the winter. Instead of buying dry-wintered cattle in the spring, it would be much better for stockmen to purchase the steers in the fall if they can furnish winter pasture to carry them through to summer grass. This would mean not only cheaper but also better finished cattle the following fall. As this work was done under average conditions and covered a period of three years, giving similar results each year, any farmer or stock raiser can expect to get the same results if proper pasture plans are made. This work is entirely practical for any stockman having rough land for pasture purposes. These cattle were fed only during snows or stormy weather. The first winter they were fed thus 15 days, the second year 28 days, and the third year 14 days, making for the three years an average of a little less than three weeks. Winter grazing having been found to be the best and most eco- nomical method of wintering stock cattle. On the farm where this work was done sufficient winter pasture eventually will be arranged te handle all the stock cattle in this way during the winter. III. SUMMER FATTENING OF STEERS. OBJECT OF WORK.. Most of the cattle in this section of North Carolina are finished on grass and sold as feeders when 2 years old. It was thought that the extra finish acquired by feeding cottonseed cake with the grass would make the cattle more readily marketable on butcher markets, making greater discrimination in the quality and finish of cattle than ordi- narily is made by buyers. By making a comparison of the two 20 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. methods of finishing, the gains of the cattle and the finish acquired could be studied also in relation to the different methods by which the cattle had been wintered. The object of the summer fattening work was to determine which was the more profitable plan, viz, to finish steers on grass alone or to finish them on grass and cottonseed cake. The steers used had been wintered on various rations, consisting of (1) ear corn, corn stover, and hay; (2) corn stover and corn silage; and (3) winter grass. PLAN OF WORK. Table 8 gives a clear idea of how the work was planned. ’ TABLE 8.—General plan of summer fattening of steers. AvraEe - number o = ‘ Lot | steers for | Method of wintering Dec. 16 to Apr. 15. | Summer feeding, approximately from °- | the three 1980 1H) IRD 1812) 9No Ah years. 1 24 | Ear corn, stover, hay, and straw...-.- ...| Lot divided, 12 steers on grass, and 12 on grass and cake. 2 24 |= oe 3 (RR er ee epee one ae Do. 3 33 | Corn silage, stover, hay, and straw-.-.-- Grass. 4 19 | Winter grazed (fed only during snows). - Do. The work covered a period of three years. After the steers had been wintered on the different rations as shown, they were carried through the summer on grass, or on grass with cottonseed cake. The first year all the steers in Lots 1 and 2 were fed cake with pasture. The second and third years these lots were subdivided in the spring, half in each lot being allowed grass alone, and the others a small feed of cottonseed cake in the pasture. The steers in Lots 3 and 4 were grazed without feed each summer. The steers in each lot were numbered the same during the summer as in the previous winter’s work, so that the records of each lot could be followed from one fall until the next. KIND OF STEERS USED. The steers were the same ones used in the wintering experiments. They were mostly 2-year-old grade Shorthorns, Herefords, and An- gus, with a small amount of Devon blood. The different lots were as nearly uniform in weight and quality as possible. CHARACTER AND PRICE OF PASTURE AND COTTONSEED CAKE. Most of the pastures used had been established for some time; they consisted of a mixture of blue grass, clover, orchard grass, timothy, BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. Dili and herd’s grass, which is a characteristic mixture for this part of the State. The land was rolling and hilly, some of it being very rough and steep, having some of the old dead trees standing. The pastures were charged at the rate of $1 per steer for 28 days. _ The cottonseed cake fed was high grade and was used because it is not injured in quality by the rain, the wind will not blow it about, and as the steers must chew the cake they are more likely to get an equal share of it than with cottonseed meal. The difference between the cake and meal is that the cake is unground. The cake was cracked on the farm by running it through a corn-and-cob mill. In the financial statements it is charged at actual cost for each year, but in-all the comparative tables it is charged at an average cost of $30 per ton for the three years’ work. METHOD OF FEEDING AND HANDLING STEERS. | The steers were turned on pastures in the spring as soon as the grass would carry them without injury to its subsequent growth. They were given salt once a week, and every four weeks they were driven to the scales and weighed early in the morning. As soon as weighed they were driven back to pasture, never being out more than an hour at a time. Troughs were provided in the pasture for feeding the cottonseed cake, which was given late in the afternoon. Each steer was num- bered by means of an ear tag so that individual records could be kept and the steers of each lot identified. AMOUNT OF PASTURE AND COTTONSEED CAKE CONSUMED. The steers were given an average of about 3 acres of pasture per steer during the summer. Table 9 shows the amount of cottonseed cake consumed in each year’s work, giving the lot numbers, number of steers, number of days on feed, ration, tctal amount of cake eaten per steer, and daily feed per steer. TasLE 9.—Average total and daily rations, three swmmers. 1914. Cottonseed cake. Number ~ Lot) Number i No. ofsteers. ofdays Heino Total con- | Average on feed. i sumed by |daily ration each steer. | persteer. Pounds Pounds 1 25 126 | Pasture and cottonseed cake....-.-...----..---------- aod 3.47 2 25 WD Nsesoo (COST Ee i eRe as ee a oe eae ae 440 3.49 3 35 GS || IPAS ARS OMIbY 3. 6 ogasebepe~- Sse sosecbodsesosebcscdasesd |ecsossosectellpscsaossbese a 17 Ty (peel asa GOP RS, Le aes ASE eek eae eae APSA ER EE oa ee eee 22 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 9.—Average total and daily rations, three summers—Continued. 1915. Cottonseed cake. Number Lot) Number 3 No.| of steers. | Of days ee Total con-| Average on feed. sumed by | daily ration each steer. | persteer. ) Pounds. Pounds 1-a 12 140) PastureOnly 22 2 Snes ia -eeee seams Bee ae Soe ae ee oe |e eee ee ee 1-b 12 127 | Pasture and cottonseed cake...............-..--2.--.- 530 4.17 2a 12 140)|" Pasttire only-2o.n02 225 = ss eet tb - pe eee oe See ee |e ee eee 2b 12 127 | Pasture and cottonseed cake...........----..----...- 530 4.17 3 31 140:) Pasture Only a c5 otic 3. os see ions soe Sees soe oe e | tee See: ee 4 26 1404 22 GO) Fee ees Sepa: Epes 2 32 ol Fa eky eae ae Fe ee ees ps 5 | idee 1916. 1a 11 140 3|\MPAsture.on byes ace cee a Se ee oe ee ee Bee eee ae lis coe 1-b 12 140 | Pasture and cottonseed cake............-....-----.--- | 525 | 3.75 2-a 12 140:)\ Pasture Only. sc. 243s 22 eee oe ee See eee 1. £ soc dee Aa eae 2b 12 140 | Pasture and cottonseed cake..............-.---------- | 525 | 3.75 3 33 1404 -Pastuvre only . cts. 232 Jot SSS. toe ae ate oe en ae eee Loa sce 4 16 140 |..... Oe Sod coh soo ee Bae see e teenis oe eae cee ee Pe ER Peer lee nee The first section of Table 9, giving the results of the 1914 work, shows that Lot 1 consisted of 25 steers, which were fed 126 days, getting a daily ration of 3.47 pounds of cottonseed cake per steer in addition to the grass. Not 2 contained 25 steers, which were fed almost the same quantity of feed, or a daily ration per steer of 3.49 pounds cottonseed cake for 126 days. Lot 3 contained 35 steers, which were on pasture for 165 days without any cottonseed cake. Lot 4 contained the 17 winter-grazed steers, which were on summer pasture for 177 days without any cottonseed cake. The second section, giving the results of the 1915 work, shows that the cattle in oat a” of Lots 1 and 2 were on pasture alone for 140 days. The cattle of division “b” of these lots were fed for 127 days with a daily ration of 4.17 pounds of cottonseed cake per steer in addition to the grass. Lots 3 and 4 (Lot 4 being the winter- grazed cattle) were on pasture 140 days without any cottonseed cake. The third section, giving the results of the 1916 work, shows that all the steers were on pasture 140 days. The steers in division “ b” of Lots 1 and 2 were given a daily ration per steer of 3.75 pounds cottonseed cake, or a total of 525 pounds for the season. The re- mainder of the cattle were given grass only. TOTAL AND DAILY GAINS. Table 10 shows the average initial and final weights per head for the steers of each lot, and the total and average daily gains per steer for the three summers. BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. TS TABLE 10.—Total and daily gains, three summers. 1914, Average | Average| Total | Average Lot umber Dayson Ration initial final average daily No. sacri feed - : weight | weight gain gain i per steer. | per steer. | per steer. | per steer. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds, | Pounds. 1 25 126 | Pasture and cottonseed cake..........-. 741 1, 087 346 2.75 2 25 12632 2e- LO 5 RRR Ie oh = ee oI Race 688 1, 054 366 2.90 3 35 165+: Pastureronlyeecnees.-- = epee eee 592 972 380 2.30 4 17 | Wid Nooeee GO. ee eee ae S52 Se ear 532 860 328 1.85 1915, la 12 140 | Pasture only.....----...-- 3s 708 1, 137 429 | 3. 06 1-b 12 127 | Pasture and cottonseed cak ne 742 1,086 344 2.71 2-a, 12 140 | Pasture only............-. 705 1,073 368 2. 63 2-b 12 127 | Pasture and cottonseed cak 715 1,116 401 | 3.15 3 31 140 | Pasture only.....----.---. Be 646 1,013 367 | 2.62 4 26 1405 eaters GOs). SEEM Sees 1 tie Seip mena oe 722 1, 067 345 | 2.46 1916 1-a its eee IRAs EUTGIOT iva eee ee eee 772 1,099 327 2.34 1-b 1 ecueoee Pasture and cottonseed cake....-...---- 739 1,136 347 2.48 2-2 2b eee ae IPasturejonlyateescetees: ose eee 759 1,105 346 2.47 2-b V2) 2 Sakec ce Pasture and cottonseed cake....-.....-.- 768 1,138 370 2. 64 3 eailledeatoec IPAS EURO ec eceoe eso acid eee aaases | 730 1, 064 334 2.39 4 1K) eceeedesleonad eon GENE AS REG Oe Renn han cepa an 788 1,104 316 2.26 Section 1 of Table 10, giving the results of the 1914 work, shows the initial weight of the cattle in Lot 1 to be 741 pounds, and the final weight after 126 days to be 1,087 pounds, making a total gain per steer of 346 pounds, or a daily gain of 2.75 pounds. The steers © in Lot 2 made a total gain of 366 pounds, or an average daily gain of 2.90 pounds. The grass-finished cattle in Lot 3 made an average gain of 380 pounds, or an average daily gain of 2.30 pounds. The winter-grazed cattle (Lot 4), which were much lighter cattle, made a total gain of 328 pounds per steer, or an average daily gain of 1.85 pounds for a period of 177 days. It must be remembered that the cattle in Lots 1, 2, and 3 lost heavily during the previous winter and the unusual gains on these steers were due partly to getting back the flesh lost during the previous winter, and that those in Lot 4 gained in weight during the winter. As will be shown later, the total gain on the cattle in Lot 4 from fall to fall is larger than the gain on any of the other lots of steers. This is an interesting fact in connec- tion with winter grazing and the possibility of adapting it to all mountainous counties of North Carolina and of adjoining States. » The second section, giving the results of the 1915 work, shows that: Lot 1, division “a,” contained 12 steers, which made a total gain of 429 pounds, or an average daily gain of 3.06 pounds. These cattle made an unusually large gain this year. The only way to account for 24 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. it was that the pasture probably was better than that provided for the others. Division “b” of Lot 1, the cake-finished cattle, in 127 days made a total gain of 344 pounds, or an average daily gain of 2.71 pounds. Lot 2, division “a,” containing the grass steers, made a Fic. 5.—Cattle at beginning of summer fattening on pasture and cottonseed cake, 1914. made a total gain of 367 pounds per steer, or ana total gain of 368 pounds per steer, or an average daily gain of 2.63 pounds. Lot 2, division “b,” containing the grass and cake fed steers, made a total gain per steer of 401 pounds, or an aver- age daily gain of 3.15 pounds. Lot 3, containing the grass-fed steers, verage daily gain of 2.62 pounds. Lot 4, containing the winter-grazed steers, made, on grass alone during the summer, a total gain of 345 pounds per steer, or an average daily gain of 2.46 pounds. These steers, as in previous Fic. 6.—The same steers (shown in fig. 5) when finished in August, 1914. years, made larger gains from fall to fall than any of the other cattle. However, all the steers in the four lots made good gains during the summer. The third section gives the total and daily gains on the 1916 work. This was an unusually good year from the standpoint of the gains ee Pe ee Te? 8s =: a_i BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 25 made. The steers in Lot 1, division “ a,” made a total gain of 327 pounds per steer, or an average daily gain of 2.34 pounds during the 140 days they were on experiment. Lot 1, division “b,” con- taining the grass and cake finished steers, made a total gain of 347 pounds, or an average daily gain of 2.48 pounds per steer in the same length of time. Lot 2, division “a,” containing the grass-fed steers, made a total gain of 346 pounds, or an average daily gain of 2.47 pounds per stéer. Lot 2, division “b,” containing the grass and cake finished steers, made a total gain of 370 pounds, or an average daily gain of 2.64 pounds per steer. Lot 3, containing the grass cattle, made a total gain of 334 pounds, or an average daily gain of 2.39 pounds per steer. Lot 4, containing the winter-grazed cattle, made a total gain of 316 pounds, or 2.26 pounds daily per steer for the summer. As in the two previous years’ trials, steers in Fic. 7.—Condition of steers in spring before placing on pasture and cottonseed cake (Lot 1, 1916). Lot 4 made the largest gain from fall to fall. The cake-fed steers made larger gains, however, than any of the steers that received pasture alone. QUANTITY AND COST OF FEED REQUIRED TO MAKE 100 POUNDS GAIN. The cost of 100 pounds of gain will vary in different sections owing to the difference in the cost of feed. When the farmer knows how many pounds of feed are required to make 100 pounds gain he can figure easily the cost under his own conditions.: The principal thing stock raisers and farmers want to know is how many pounds of gain they can expect to put on a 92-year-old steer with grass alone or with grass supplemented with cottonseed cake and the cost to make 100 pounds of gain in each case. Table 11 shows the quantity and cost of feed required to make 100 pounds of gain. 15333°—18—Bull. 628——4 26 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . TABLE 11.—Quantity and cost* of feed required for 100 pownds gain. 1914. Pounds of Lot; Number | Days on Ravion Bi res pares No.| ofsteers.| feed. : Y pounds of pounds of ral gain aoe 1 25 126 | Pasture and cottonseed cake............:..._....--..- 126 $3. 20 2 25 ZG Eee C6 To iret enn Tg Bd Aenea. UN Sieg ae ee ES eine ILL te 120 3. 03 3 35 165s) Pasture only sate oe ty ie aoe ts DERE ole a) et ea 1.55 4 17 Tf Ie Soe COW So Se PRA, ER ee = a Be Ie A ewe ot a 1.93 1915 1-2 12 TAO: |) Pastire only eee Ree ee: eee ocan:exom cee oats $1.16 ~ 1-b 12 127 | Pasture and cottonseed cake..................-...--.- 154 3. 63 2-a 12 140,|"Pastoreionlyasseesee se eee Bi oe ee ee Dain kaa pees 1. 36 2-b 12 127 | Pasture and cottonseed cake.............4....--.-.---- 132 aintal 3 31 140") sPastureronly eee oS Saeko See ee SE 1.36 4 26 140i) Bee Ose ee as ce a nes mee aN 7 a ocka Saab b 1. 45 1916 1-2 DUE che sone PAS HUROrOM Uy aspen tas eo aio eared con Sine 2 re ea Seer $1. 53 1-b 1122S ae cane Pasture and cottonseed cake................-.-----.-- 147 3. 65 2-a, PAA ees at ae Pasture Only cote en cca ee eon eo oe al aS ea ae 1. 45 2-b 110} [ee Eee Pasture and cottonseed cake.....-......--- Be ere Zeer : 142 3. 48 3 Gat |ewses- eos Pasturgionly 32 3552 8s 2e cee wee Se Oe crs = See ee 1.50 4 Tues & Set] tas Be Ry AINA eas one eee 1.58 1 Price of feed and pasture: Cottonseed cake, $30 per ton; pasture, $1 per head per 28-day period. The first section of Table 11, giving the results of the 1914 work, shows it required 126 pounds of cottonseed cake in addition to the grass the steers in Lot 1 received to make 100 pounds gain, which cost $3.20 per hundredweight. The cattle in Lot 2 required 120 pounds cottonseed cake fed with grass to make 100 pounds gain at a cost of $3.03 per hundred pounds gain. The gains on the cattle in Lot 3, fed for a period of 165 days, cost $1.55 per 100 pounds, or just about one-half as much as where cottonseed cake was fed. The winter-grazed cattle (Lot 4), which were grazed during the summer for 177 days, made 100 pounds gain at a cost of $1.93. The gains were made much cheaper where no cottonseed cake was fed, there being very little difference in the cost of the gains in Lots 1 and 2, where cake was fed to both lots. The second section gives the quantity and cost of feed required to make 100 pounds gain in the 1915 test. It cost $1,16 to put 100 pounds gain on the grass-finished cattle of Lot 1, division “a,” these cattle making the cheapest gain of any of the grass-fed cattle. The cattle in Lot 1, division “b,” made 100 pounds gain at a cost of. $3.63, which were the most expensive gains made. The grass-finished cattle in Lot 2, division “a,” made 100 pounds gain at a cost of BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 27 $1.36. The grass and cake finished cattle in Lot 2, division “b,” made 100 pounds gain at a cost of $3.11. The grass-finished steers in Lot 3 made 100 pounds gain for the same cost as those in Lot 2, divi- sion “a,” which was $1.86 per hundred pounds. The winter and summer grazed steers made 100 pounds gain at a cost of $1.45. This was a very cheap gain when it is considered that these steers were 17 pounds heavier in the spring than in the previous fall, whereas all the cattle in the other lots were from 28 to 32 pounds lighter in the spring than in the fall previous. The third section gives the quantity and cost of feed required to make 100 pounds gain in the 1916 trial. The grass-finished cattle in Lot 1, division “a,” made 100 pounds gain at a cost of $1.53. The grass and cake finished steers in Lot 1, division “b,” made 100 pounds gain at a cost of $3.65, 147 pounds of cottonseed cake being fed with ‘the grass to make this gain. The grass-finished steers in Lot 2, division “a,” made 100 pounds gain at a cost of $1.45, which was the cheapest gain made by any of the cattle during this summer’s work. The grass and cake finished steers in Lot 2, division “b,” required somewhat less cake to make 100 pounds gain than those in Lot 1, di- vision “b,” only 142 pounds of cake being fed to make 100 pounds gain at a cost of $3.48. The grass-finished. steers in Lot 3 made 100 pounds gain at a cost of $1.50. The winter and summer grazed steers (Lot 4) made 100 pounds gain during the summer at a cost ~ of $1.58. This was a very cheap gain when it is considered that these cattle were 26 pounds heavier in the spring than in the fall previous, and that steers in the other lots had lost 30 to 40 pounds per head during the winter and would consequently make more rapid gains | during the summer season. SUMMARY OF THE THREE YEARS’ WORK, INCLUDING WINTER AND SUMMER. In order to make the combined winter and summer work for the three years clear, a general summary (Table 12) has been prepared, - giving the rations, gain or loss for the winter per steer, gain for the summer per steer, total gain for the year, total cost per pound gain, total cost per steer both winter and summer; and total profit per steer, including manure. In Lot 4, where the cattle were on pasture all. winter, the manure was not included in figuring the profit per steer. The feeds in Table 12 were figured at the average cost for the three years. 28 BULLETIN 628, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 12.—Summary of three years’ work, winter and summer. | { ‘Gain (+) Total | | Total | or loss | Gain for |gain over Cost per Total | profit per Lot - pound of | No Ration. Year. (—)for|summer| fall “yearly! | COSE Ber _ Steer, Aer | winter |persteer.| weight | 3°40 Y | steer. | including \per steer. per steer. pane | manure. wae rreet : Pounds. | Pounds.| Pound. | 1-a | Winter: Ear corn, stover, and | 1913-14| (1) |_.---.--:|-----:--- [eeace nee |= toa hee hay. Summer: Grass. | 1914-15 —32 429 397 | $0.043 | $17.20 | - $20.62 1915-16 —3d 327 | 292 -055 | 16.08 16. 84 Average: / 225 ea ew aden —33 378| 344| 048] 16.64 | 18.73 1-b | Winter: Ear corn, stover, and | 1913-14 | —28 346 | 318 | -066 | 21.16 22. 75 | hay. Summer: Grass and | 1914-15 —32 344 | 312 -079 | 24.70 14. 36 cake. 1915-16 —35 347 312 .096 | 30.13 12. 45 |. eAwpragee hiat 3 te Niet | 32]. 345] 314| 074 | 25.33 19. 85 2-a | Winter: Silage, stover,and hay.| 1913-14| (4) |......... Ls) baie ebs t ihe set cua: woe | Summer: Grass. | 1914-15 —28 368 340 037 | 12.58 20. 30 | 1915-16 —42 346 302 039 | 11.78 21. 83 Avveragposs #2-- ios isl: lipid: shew. =35 357. | 321]. .038.|- 12,18 21. 06 2b | Winter: Silage, stover,and hay. | 1912-14 —82 366 284 -064 | 18.07 23.23 Summer: Grass and cake. | 1914-15 |, —28) 401 373 -054 | 20.07 24. 10 1915-16 | —42 370 | 328 -078 ! 25. 83 16. 31 | syrah verape sere ih oiwhs 28h Fete Seer il. 1 379 328) 065 | 21.32 21.54 3 | Winter: Silage, stover,and hay. | 1913 14 | —84 380 296 -040 | 11.94 | 24. 31 Summer: Grass. | 1914-15°} —32 367 335 .037 | -12. 45 | 19. 87 | 1915-16 | —40 334 294 -040 | 11.78 21.12 Apepaoprs, Bere oe gett Nell ass by 52]... 360 308} .030| 12.06| 21.77 4 | Winter: Pasture. Summer: | 1913-14 | 17f! 328 345 .032 | 10.98| 221.75 PASE Css @ 0 en: ers eke ----| 1914-15 17 345 362 -031 | 11229 221.18 1915-16 26 316 | 342 - 030 | . 10. 23 224.16 ly < «See be el eee ee ee 1, 554. 40 By sale of 25 steers,* 27,170 pounds, at $7.75 = 2, 105. 67 By value of 25 tons manure, at $2 per ton____ Ae ete Se NTRS 50. 00 Total receipts__________ ores deni OS ois 2h b: 6 Total profit, including manure__ pace Oot! ol = ex 601. 27 Total profit, not including manure_________ Se ape 551. 27 Average profit per steer, including manure SEE Eee eee a 24. 05 Average profit per steer, not including manure_________-_______ 22.05 1This lot was sold in Asheville, N. C., at home weights. No slaughter or shrinkage data secured. 32 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Lot 2. Wintered 128 days on corn silage, corn stover, and hay. Fat- tened on pasture and cottonseed cake 126 days: To 25 steers, ° 19250) pounds,wat $5.50 perccwt..- ee ee $1, 058. T5 To wintering 25 steers, at $6.96 per cwt_______-_----_- 174. 00 To pasture of 25 steers, 126 days, at $1 per 28 days____________ 112. 50 To 11,004 pounds cottonseed cake, at $30 per ton_______________ 65. OG TNotal-expenditures 2-2) 22> Jae as Sas ee 1, 510. 31 By sale of 25 steers, 26,340 pounds, at $7.75____________-__-_-__ 2, 041. 35 By value of 25 tons manure, at $2 per ton______---_-_- =e 50. 00 Total: TeceiptSt = o- 58s. 2. ee ES eee 2, 091. 35 Total profit, including manure__________=-_______ JU PD Saeee Total, protit; notincludins manure.) 2s se eee ee 531. 04 Average profit per head, including manure__________________+__ 23. 24 Average profit per head, not including manure__________________ 21. 24 Lot 8. Wintered 123 days on corn silage, corn stover, and hay. Fin- ished on pasture alone, 165 days: We, 35 Steers: 23,66) pounds at $5 per @wie = ee 1, 183. 25 To wintering -35. steers At $6.05 Per, Cwiee = Pe ee ZAMS Mo pastire, 165 days’at $i per 2S-days= ht ea eee 206. 25 Potalrexpenaitures 2.752220 2h eet Oe a ek I 95601425 By sale of 35 steers,’ 34,030 pounds at $7_--___--_-/»_____-|__ 2,382:10 i By value of 35 tons manure at $2 per ton__-__-___ 70. 00 —EEE q Total receipts __—..__- _- 2 ASS BUN) DT ee Total protit including manures -s |. = Se Habit dia 3 Os 850. 85 Total profit not including manure_____ oie ee See Ae 780. 85 Average profit per head including manure_____—~________-______ 24,31. Average profit per head not including manure_________________ DO AS| ; E Lot 4. Wintered on range 112 days. Finished on pasture only, 177 | days: Toll steers, 8.765. pounds AL. f.DU: pela 2 eee 394.42 4 To wintering 47 ‘steers, at SL66 per Neag= os eee 79. 22 To summer pasture, 177 days at $1 per 28 days_________________ 107. 44 otal expendifnres 322 22s” _- ae ee ee ee 581. 08 7 By sale of 17 steers.” 14,630 pounds at Fog emer alge he 950. 95 2 NOLAL MCCOMDUS S22 == eee. =. San ee Le Sees fs eh 950. 95 etal profit, 14 steers:=. 2 =e. See eee 369. 87 . Average profit per head=_- ==. sre wave 21.75 Prices charged for feeds in 1913-14: . Har Corn se _ ee per bushel__ . 50 ; Cottonseed ‘cakes. -.--_- 22s) _ See ants 3 I I per ton__ 30. 00 Corn silave-sh == ite &) ee eral be ORAS BINS do=i® 3. 00 Gorm steveraind hay" 22-2 So as a at) Sl peers 10. 00 Hay (alone) 2.3) ee _ ae a ane dose-= 15. 00 1This lot was sold in Asheville at home weights. No shrinkage or slaughter data” secured. 2 This lot sold as feeders, BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA, TABLE 14.—Financial statement, 1914-15. - Lot 1—a. Wintered on ear corn, stover, and hay; finished on pasture: To 12 steers, 8;750 pounds, at $6 per Cwt-_=2_________-»_ = To wintering 12 steers, 131 days, at $12.75 each________________ To pasture charges, 140 days, at $1 per 28 days________________ Total expen 1tURES ee — SU eae eS is Byasaleont2rsteers) 13.640) poundsSieaity ote ee By value of 12 tons manure, at $2 per ton_____--__-_-_ Octal TECCIPUS Ae eek ot. 5 I CL tn as ec ae Morea -jornxorai Re, MmaVelhoo hayes aaa Eee ee ee es TROCATE PLONE 51 OG IN SLT Ta THUD @ eae ee ee Average profit per head, including manure____________________ Average profit per head, not including manure_________ 2 Lot 1—-b. Wintered on ear corn, corn stover, and hay. Summer fat- tened on grass and cottonseed cake: Norl2 steers, 9'420) pounds, at $6 per ¢wt-_ = ee ’ To wintering 12 steers, 131 days, at $12.75 each______=§ To pasture charges, 127 days, at $1 per 28 days Sean To 6,360 pounds cottonseed cake, at $25 per ton________ ease TotalmexMendifunTresi ssa a> ou SS ee Wes x By sale of 12 steers, 13,080 pounds, at $7.75______ als 0, By value of 12 tons of manure, at $2 per ton________ ten aoe MotalmreceiptS 22-222 se . Se Ey wie Bait sree otal profit. meluding manures: —— see o asl Total profit, not including manure___ a 8 Scie SER aa na Average profit per head, including manure_______- Average profit per head, not including manure ress soya Lot 2—a. Wintered on corn silage, stover, and hay. Fattened on pas- ture alone: - To 12 steers, 8,850 pounds, at $6 per ewt_______ ELI WE I Sapien To wintering 12 steers, 131 days, at $7.58 each_________________ oupastures 140daysvat sii per 2s daysseosse eee Total expenditures ______-____1_ cs ee Pa a hat eae By sale of 12 steers, 12,880 pounds, at $7__________________-____ By value of 12 tons of manure, at $2 per ton___________*______ MOEA EECEUD ES Sa a el ees tye eae ee Shaan! joonir, iavclhohiaey ingyen IMOTANL foo WN, sHevelloolinys TiiehbbRe Average profit per head, including manure__________________ a Average profit per head, not including manure_________________ 33 $525. 00 153. 00 60. 00 738. 00 954. 80 24. 00 978. 80 240. 80 216. 80 34 Lot BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2-b. Wintered on silage, stover, and hay. Finished on pasture and cottonseed cake: PostZ-steers, §,860 pounds, at $6 per Gwe Lot To wintering 12 steers, 131 days, at $7.58 each_______.___ To pasture for 12 steers, 127 days, at $1 per 28 days___________ To 6,360 pounds cottonseed cake, at $25 per ton_______________ EGEATROX PEN GIT DTCs re 5 Seine 2 OES ee ee eee ly By sale of 12 steers, 13,390 pounds, at $7.75_____________-_____ E's By value of 12 tons manure, at $2 per ton__.___—_ === PP OLAU ET CCENDES se ee ees ee ae eens eee De a Total profit, including THOTT ET: ReaD bales Racal sens oie i Total profit, not including manure_______ af ii tle Average profit per head, including manure____________________ Average profit per head, not including manure___________.____ 3. Wintered on silage, stover, and hay. Finished on Sets alone: Lot To 31 steers, 21,000 pounds at $6 per 2 mare td ee To wintering, 131 days at $7.45 each_____________ 202 te to pasture; 440 days at SL per 28 days=<. 5 2 see Total TES PenCitieCS: = Ss ee Se ee ee By sale of 31 steers, 31,430 pounds at $7 per cwt______________ By value of 31 tons manure, at $2 per ton____---- PObAl TECCID LS = ee ee are eee Retalsepront: including manure.-—. See eee eee Total profit: nop meluding“manure.2.. = oe eee Average profit per head, including manure___________________- Average profit per head, not including manure_______________- 4. Winter grazed. Finished on pasture alone: To.26 steers, 18.330 pounds at: $6 per Cwt_ 2 ee To WET INS 26 aan 431 days:-at S640 cach.) ss ee Potal profit Jon, Zo/Steerst = aes: ae Se ee eee “Average “profit Der: Steer. 2 A en eee ee Prices of feeds charged in 1914-15: An CORN: Aa et eee. eee eee per bushel__ Cottonseed cake________ ones ee eo OL tee Gorn-Siever nay; AG Straw._ 2 eee es eee do-—* BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 35 TABLE 15.—Financial statement, 1915-16. Lot 1-a. Wintered on ear corn, stover, hay, and straw. Finished on pasture: To linsteers:” 8,940 pounds-at $6 pervewt-—2 4-2-8 $536. 40 To wintering 11 steers, 119 days at $12.13 each_________________ 1338. 43 To pasture, 140 days at $1 per 28 days.______--____-__-_ 55. 00 Total expenditures____-_______-___ = = spcteente 724. 83 By sale of 11 steers, 12,090 pounds at $7.25_______________ 876. 52 Bysvalue of 44. tons: manure at, $224 ee eas 1 tees he Th Pt ya 22. 00 *LOLAIS ECE DiS et aay ere ye tees ER tga 898. 52 Totals profit including wanuTe =e Re 178. 69 TNotaleproht nor including manure ses = 22. ee eee 151. 69 Average profit per head including manure____-___-_- 15. 79 Average profit per head not including manure________________ 13. 79 Lot 1-b. Wintered on ear corn, stover, hay, and straw. Finished on "pasture and cottonseed cake: To 12 steers, 9,730 pounds at $6 per ewt_=--___________________ 583. 80 To wintering 12 steers, 119 days at $12.13 each_______-- 145. 56 To pasture, 140 days! at $1. per 28 days---- =. = 60. 00 To cottonseed cake, 6,540 pounds at $35 per ton_____________ 114. 45 Freight, Clyde Kiiyegl St2 HK eh 4\0) x= eee Ne An ae ere Ae eM Ueey hue ae nee a 46. 68 Heed inetransit: to, Spencer: oN; Ces ee ee ee ils 1 Feed and insurance in yards at Baltimore_____________________ 12. 05 Commission: charges 2220 2 ic is eae ee 10. 00 Total expenditures__________ fa cee Sede Bs pial ia St Smet ree hc) 974. 29 By sale of 12 steers, 13,100 pounds at $8.25______-._t—sé—s«i2:S OT. TS Byavalue of 12 tonsimanure: at’ $2022) ses ee ee eee 24. 00 FE OE AUAT ECORV ES a ee Nae TE OG a oa el a 1, 094. 75 Potaleprofitsincludine.manwuTre=2— es Se Sa ee eee 120. 46 Hotal prot not including manures. seh ae ee ee 96. 46 Average profit per steer including -manure_____________________ 10. 03 Average profit per steer not including manure______________ 8. 03 Lot 2—a. Wintered on corn silage, corn stover, hay and straw. Fin- ished on grass: To 12 steers, 9,700 pounds at $6 per ewt______________________ 582. 00 To wintering 12 steers, 119 days at $6.78 each_________________ 81. 36 To pasture, 140 days at $1 per 28 days___________-____________ 60. 00 LotalexpendituTves Sass. toe me ee ee eee 723. 36 By sale of 12 steers, 13,260 pounds at $7.25 per ewt____________ 961. 31 By value of 12 tons manure at $2 per ton_______-____________-_ 24. 00 MOA BECCEID tCS= sae eae a. ey a enh en ee ee ae TE eh 985. 31 1This lot was started with 12 steers, but one of them died, so only 11 were used. 36 Lot 2—~a—Continued. BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ‘Total. prohi- including manure] _. _. ae ee ee ee Total prot nov. Mcloaing Manure = sees Ss ee ees eee 237. 95 Average profit per head including manure_____________________ 21. 83 Average profit per head not including manure_____-_ >= 19. 83 Lot 2-b. Wintered on corn Silage, corn stover, hay, and straw. Finished on grass and cottonseed cake: To-A2- steers, 9,640 pounds at $6 per ewt___.-_ 578. 40 To wintering 12 steers, 119 days at $6.78 each__________ 81. 36 To pasture, 140 days at $1 per 28 days=___-- 60. 00 To cottonseed cake, 6,540 pounds at $35 per ton_______________ 114, 45 HEHE Aly Ger LO obsaleHnOl Gree. ee or ee 46. 68 Heed: in=transit tocSpeneer! No C2222. a ee eee ae (5 Feed and insurance in yards, Baltimore_____-__-.. + 12. 05 Commission CHAare eS sos eis 5 EE 2 ee es hs BE 10. 00 Lotal expenditures: 226226. 5 yess Bee diet ote ee 904. 69 By sale of 12 steers, 12,850 pounds at $8.25____________________ 1, 060. 12 Byvalnueor 12 tons of manures at $2 ee ee eee 24. 00 gi W067 Bg EP) | 0] es a leer in es en hee ae ape ene to a Lal as Hope oe 2 1, 084. 12 Potal- profit- including “mariuress..22 Spy Ueu ee ae See, 179. 48 Total: profit not-including:- manures: > #2... Ue We a 155. 43 Average profit per head including manure____________________ 14, 95 Average profit per head not including manure_______-___________ 12, 95 Lot 3. Wintered on corn silage, stover, hay, and straw. Finished on pasture: To 33 steers, 25,415 pounds at $6 per cwt____-___-_-_____________ 1, 524. 90 To wintering 33 steers, 119 days at $6.78 each_____._ 223. T4 To-pasture, 140 days at $i per 26 days" = a eee — 165. 00 otal Pex pendipuress se. A Ree tee aes Sar ae eee 1, 913. 64 By sale 33 steers, 35,100 pounds at $7.25. 225-2) 2 ee 2, 544. 75 By value of 33 tons of manure at $2 per ton___________________ 66. 00 AL OLAL TECEIDES es ee ee ee ee 2, 610. 75 Lotal=profits including Manure! eee a ee 697. 11 otal profit, net including manure 2s ee ee 631. 11 Average profit per steer, including manure____________________ 21, 12 Average profit per steer, not including manure_________________ 19.12 Lot 4. Winter grazed and summer grazed: No 16-steers,-12,195 pounds at $6 per Gwi--_— = eee 730. 80 To winter pasture, 119 days at $1 per 28 days___--_---_-__-____ 68. 00 Wo feed: during snows at. $05.per. head eee 16. 80 To summer pasture, 140 days at $1 per 28 days______-_________ 80. 00 Total: expenditures) ==.) 22-2 895. 60 By sale of 16 steers, 17,670 pounds at $7.25 per cwt__-_--------- 1, 281. 07 Total receipts_________ 5 eek eA ee 1, 281. 07 BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 37 Lot 4—Continued. Pot akemsotite On 1G) Steers —— =. Ea ee ee $385. 47 Average profit per steer.______!__- -§ Sip ae pa a ao 24. 09 Prices of feeds charged in 1915-16: RE COLNS ee cae ew einen, eee fee ener bushels 1. 00 Cottonseed: Cake == === _- ae SE epee ee OT LOM 35. 00 Corniesilager 2s ites hes Bo ee S _do 3. 00 Hay, Stover;sand) Straw = Vie as ne pe | Oye new 10. 00 SLAUGHTER DATA. At the close of the first year’s work the cake-fed steers in Lots 1 and 2 were sold to local butchers in Asheville. They were killed at different times, so the slaughter data were not obtainable. The same applies to these lots in the second year’s work, 1914-15. They were sold to a prominent North Carolina resort owner, who continued to feed them during the winter to supply, the hotels, a few being killed at a time. The cake-fed steers in Lots 1 and 2 in 1916 were shipped direct to market and the shipping and slaughter data are given in Table 16. TABLE 16.—Shipping and slaughter data, 1915-16. Item. Lot 1-b. Lot 2-b. IMaTMD enOnSt@OnS Ser asec oe eae neces ose = ee eema llaeee setae yemmicincaate 12 12 imalweight oniiarm: Sept: 02-2 --:---------225---=-- Me Boa ae ace pounds..} 1,149 1, 158 Weight at railroad station Sept. 5......--...-.------------ Bees eeee seas Gores pee LOS 1,099 shrinkese AMGrIv Inet OTAUTOAd s secs eas (ogee ees See meer = Pee see ee dose 41 59 BER SA SEOS ORR E ae Ss See ee a ar ee eh Sr ana a per cent. 3.57 5.1 Selling ViMGH le Re ceraae ees Be ed eel ee ee een Serene Bee uaa pounds..| 1,092 1,071 Pocalmenshrinkacein transit sss seesq ee eme see see oe se eae ae ee eee ee doses 57 87 DO toe oe Spas aOR ee oa ae 2 ea ece REEDS: +e tse eee eR aezeeee s per cent.. 4.96 7.51 Dressinepercentageonitarm! weight.-sse-s2-4--2--s.6562 ose eee eee doeee: 52. 24 52.59 Dressing percentage on market weight..........-.---.----------+----++---- doves 54.99 56. 97 These cattle were driven 15 miles to the railroad station, where _ they were watered and then loaded on cars. They were shipped September 5. They arrived in Baltimore September 8 and-were sold on the market September 11. All the cattle summered on grass were sold as feeders, so that only a very small number of slaughter data were obtained from the summer work. Table 16 shows that the steers in Lot 1—-b, wintered on dry feed. lost 57 pounds in transit, and the steers in Lot 2—b, wintered on corn silage, lost 87 pounds in transit. This difference is accounted for by the fact that the winter dry-fed cattle took a greater fill of water than those in Lot 2. The steers in Lot 1 had been accustomed to adrinking out of water troughs at the farm, and when they reached Baltimore they took more water than Lot 2, which had drunk out of the branch both winter and summer. Although the silage-fed cat- tle lost more in transit, it will be noticed that their dressing per- centage was higher on both market and home weights than that of the steers in Lot 1. 38 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. IV. WINTER FATTENING OF STEERS. In the mountain districts of western North Carolina and adjacent sections of other States it has been the custom for farmers and stock- men to sell their steers in the fall of the year as feeders. When it is taken into consideration that some of these farmers raise considerable feed, such as corn, hay, and straw, which is often not used most ad- | vantageously, and that the cattle handled under the usual methods furnish little manure for the cultivated fields, the feasibility of profitably finishing out a large number of these steers for the block is a question that at once presents itself. Many farmers of this sec- tion have desired information concerning the values of home-grown feeds, especially silage and other roughages, as well as the use of cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls for fattening steers. The following-described experiments were carried out to furnish dependable information of this sort and to illustrate methods of feeding and handling steers on feed in the dry lot, besides affording a comparison between selling steers as finished beeves and as feeders. EXPERIMENTS OF 1913-14. These experiments were conducted for the purpose of determining whether steers in this region could be fattened profitably during winter months for the market, and of comparing this method of dis- posing of the steers with the usual practice of selling them as feeders in the fall. It was desired also to obtain information as to what feeds usually would prove most efficient and profitable in finishing mature steers under farm conditions in these mountain regions. These objects involve a consideration of the methods best adapted for handling the steers, the use of native feeds ordinarily available, as well as the use of cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls, which must be shipped in, and a study of the problems connected with marketing the finished cattle. PLAN OF THE WORK. The work was carried out under average farm conditions for the section, and the care and attention given it were such as any good farmer should employ in doing similar work for himself. The cattle were divided into two lots of 12 steers each and were given the same care and management. The steers in Lot 1 were fed a ration of cottonseed meal, cottonseed hulls, and a mixture of corn stover and hay, while those of Lot 2 were fed cottonseed meal, ear corn, and cottonseed hulls, with corn stover and hay. The steers were fed from November 17, 1913, to March 9, 1914, a total of 113 days. BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 39 KIND OF STEERS USED. All the steers were representative native cattle of western North - Carolina, averaging 2 years old, and had been secured from Hay- wood, Madison, and Buncombe Counties. None of them was a pure bred. Most of them were Shorthorn, Hereford, and Angus grades; some were grade Devons; and a few showed traces of dairy breed- ing. They were uniform in size and were divided into two lots as equally as possible according to weight, quality, and condition. CHARACTER AND PRICES OF FEEDS USED. All the feeds used were valued at standard market prices. The - cottonseed meal was of good quality, analyzing about 38.6 per cent crude protein, and cost $30 per ton delivered at the farm. The cot- tonseed hulls were bought and delivered in car lots for $7.50 per ton and were a good grade,of loose hulls. The ear corn used was not of good quality, as it had been frosted before maturing and was soft. Its market value was very low, but it was charged against the steers at 50 cents per bushel of 70 pounds. The corn stover was of average grade and had been frosted before it was cut. It was valued’ at $5 per ton. — The hay used was good bright hay made from a mixture of timothy, herd’s grass, clover, and orchard grass, and was valued at $15 per ton. The hay and corn stover were mixed in equal quan- tities and run through a feed cutter before being fed. This mixture was charged against the cattle at $10 per ton. METHOD OF FEEDING AND HANDLING. During the fattening period the steers were kept in barns, and for about 30 minutes twice each day were allowed to run in open lots, where they had access to water. They were fed at 8 o’clock in the morn- ing and at 5o’clock in theafternoon. The cottonseed meal and cotton- seed hulls were mixed thoroughly in the troughs before the steers were turned to the feed. The ear corn was mixed with the hulls. and meal. The mixture of corn stover and hay was fed after the meal and hulls had been eaten and after the steers had taken their fill of water. Comparatively small quantities of cottonseed meal - and corn were fed to the steers at the start of the test, so as not to get any of them “ off feed.” The cattle were weighed every 28 days, early in the morning before feed or water was given. The initial and final weights were aver- aged from the weights obtained for three consecutive days. 40 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table 17 shows the total amount of feed eaten by each steer and the average daily ration per head by periods and for the total period. AMOUNTS OF FEED CONSUMED AND AVERAGE DAILY RATIONS. TABLE 17.—Feeds consumed and average daily rations, Nov. 17, 1913, to Mar. 9, © 1914, 113 days. Total Average daily rating by periods. | Average Num- feed daily Lot TEGi Days Ration con- 2 é ration No.| steers, | fed. ; sumed.} First | Second | Third | Fourth] for 5 per period, | period, | period, | period, | entire steer. | 29 days. | 28 days. | 28 days. | 28 days. | period. Pounds.| Pounds.|\ Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds 1 12 113 | Cottonseed meal........- 744 4.02 6. 96 7.50 7.95 5 Cottonseed hulls.--....-.- 1, 881 16. 04 17.00 | 16.57 17.00 16.65 Corn stover and hay...-- 458 5.00 3.33 3.33 4.52 4.05 % 12 113 | Cottonseed meal......-- 535 3.25 4.91 5.00 5. 84 4.73 Pan COmM=-Asossce sane tee 710 4.32 6. 87 7.00 7.00 6.28 Cottonseed hulls..-.-.-.-- 1, 828 16.04 16. 61 15.61 16. 46 16.17 Corn stover and hay....- 338 4.77 2.62 2.06 2.47 2.99 During the first period of 29 days each steer in Lot 1 ate an aver- age of 4.02 pounds of cottonseed meal, 16.04 pounds of hulls, and 5-_ pounds of corn stover and hay. The allowance of cottonseed meal was gradually increased until the last period, when they consumed 7.95 pounds of cottonseed meal per head daily. The roughage was supplied in such quantities as the cattle would eat, and it can be seen from the table that there was little variation from month to month. The average daily ration per head for the entire period of 113 days was 6.85 pounds cottonseed meal, 16.65 pounds of hulls, and 4.05 pounds of stover and hay. Each steer in Lot 2 during the first 29 days ate an average daily ration of 3.25 pounds of cottonseed meal, 4.32 pounds of ear corn, 16.04 pounds of cottonseed hulls, and 4.77 pounds of hay and stover. The cottonseed meal and corn were gradually increased and the roughages slightly decreased, until during the last period each steer ate an average daily ration of 5.84 pounds of cottonseed meal, 7 pounds of ear corn, 16.46 pounds of hulls, and 2.47 pounds of hay and corn stover. The average daily ration per head for the 113 days the steers were on feed was 4.73 pounds of cottonseed meal, 6.28 pounds of ear corn, 16.17 pounds of cottonseed hulls, and 2.99 pounds of hay and stover. ; It will be noted that heavy rations of roughages were fed, but that when the concentrate allowances were increased the steers would not eat as much of the hay and stover. Each lot consumed practically the same amount of cottonseed hulls, but Lot 2 used less of the hay and stover. It would appear that Lot 2 had a much heavier allow- ance of concentrates, but it will be recalled that the corn was light and soft and was fed in the ear. ‘BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 41 TOTAL AND DAILY GAINS. Table 18 shows the average initial and final weights per head for the steers in each lot, and the total and daily gains made by each steer. TABLE 18.—Total and daily gains, Nov. 17, 1913, to Mar. 9, 1914, 113 days. Average | Average | Average | Average Lot| Num- F initial final total daily N ber of Ration. weight | weight gains gains steers. : per per per per steer. steer. steer. steer. 1 12 | Cottonseed meal, cottonseed hulls, corn stover, | Pounds. , Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. GHG lWEN/e c GseconebedcseouoNAaneeseeococnecodes 819 973 154 1.36 2 12 | Cottonseed meal, ear corn, cottonseed hulls, corn SUOV.GE an GuN ayer ceets aise -Wisanceeeieee ioe 823 983 160 42 The steers in Lot 1 made an average total gain of 154 pounds per head during the 113 days of the fattening period, while those of Lot 2 averaged 160 pounds. The average daily gains per head were 1.36 pounds for Lot 1 and 1.42 pounds for Lot 2. Considering that the steers were in good condition when the feeding began, and noting the rations fed, it can be seen that these gains, though not large, were very satisfactory. The lot of steers fed cottonseed meal and ear corn made slightly larger gains. QUANTITY AND COST OF FEED REQUIRED FOR 100 POUNDS GAINED. The quantity and cost of feeds required to produce 100 pounds of gain for each lot is shown in Table 19. Taste 19.—Quantity and cost* of feed required to make 100 pounds of gain. Pounds of feed re- | Cost of feed Lot | Number quired to for 100 Ration. No. | of steers, . make 100 | pounds of pounds of gain. : gain. 1 i2"\"Cottonseedimeales 2 vere ti. . 2 eee sce Sea ene aaa 483, Wottonseedihullsty eee 2235-3. 2 eee eo eee eee ees 1, 222 $13. 32 Cornstoverandthay. es. co. 5. n Seen e tee eae eons 297 2 12visCottonscedomedlee sss. eisek epost Renee nee eee ene aecck 334 IDB PGOnt \cocdsongusossnouoaeHpemeslecc satieornoeeTaonseasunoed 443 13.92 Cottonscedhulls® gana seo otal nee eee seem isatieaet eee 1, 247 " Com stoverandihayereer cee- == ace nee ee eee ce nisms 211 1 Prices of feeds used: : Cottonseed! meal: saan risa eis es sees l= ee ole Sie Ee ters etree ee ee eisieset $30. 00 per ton. Cottonseed hulls.....-.-.------- eevecdeooscssdssecccccesqoccanceseecedades 7.50 per ton. HE AB COLIN oes See oie stn ee eye NS ENS as ane are o foe No ee seeeicen .50 per bushel. Comistovenandsh availed serene \-\ ee eeeee reise eet eee eee 10.00 per ton. It required 483 pounds of cottonseed meal, 1,222 pounds of cotton- seed hulls, and 297 pounds of hay and corn stover, valued at $13.32, to produce 100 pounds of gain for the steers in Lot 1, and for those in Lot 2, 384 pounds of cottonseed meal, 443 pounds of ear corn, 1,247 42 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pounds of cottonseed hulls, and 211 pounds of hay and stover, valued at $13.92. Thus it is seen that considerably more concentrates were required to produce 100 pounds of gain in Lot 2, while the amount of roughage, including the cobs in the ear corn fed to Lot 2, was nearly — the same for both lots. Apparently this would indicate clearly that corn was not efficient in producing gains; but it should be remem- bered that the corn was of poor quality. Although the steers in Lot 2 gained more, the gains cost 60 cents per hundredweight more than in Lot 1. The amount and cost of feed required to make 100 pounds of gain are factors of great interest to the feeder. As the prices of feeds fluctuate from year to year, the farmer, knowing the quantity and cost of feed needed to produce 100 pounds of gain, can calculate safely what gains he may expect from certain rations, and determine the appreximate cost of putting the gains on his cattle under the different conditions. Table 20 shows the average final farm and market weights per head, the shrinkage in transit to market, the carcass weights, and dressing percentages of the steers. TaBLE 20.—Slaughter data, winter fattening of 1913-1}. Peere Pyanee aver Average Agee Eencenie pres age Lot Ration. weight | weight SuEMLEAEE eS of | shrink dressed | pees No.| per steer, | perstecr, pee CAaTCass.y "20 by farm | y ot Mar. 10. | Mar. A ee. | weights. | 7 | Malate fr 3 J 1 | Cottonseed meal, cotton- seed hulls, corn stover, | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. and hay~---------------- 973 | 892 81 485 | 8.35 9.9 | 54.4 2 | Cottonseed meal. ear corn. cottonseed hulls, corn stover,and hay.....-... 983 898 85 513 8. 66 | 52.2 | 57.2 = er ‘In transit the steers in Lot 1 sustained a shrinkage of 81 pounds | per head, while those of Lot 2 lost 85 pounds per head, so there was little difference in the shrinkage of the two lots. This excessive shrinkage is accounted for by the fact that the cattle left the farm at Springdale on March 10, 1914, were driven 10 miles over bad roads to a loading point, loaded the following morning, and shipped to Balti- more, where they arrived after a three days’ trip. In addition to — these disadvantages when the steers arrived at the market the weather was very cold and disagreeable, which prevented their taking a aormal fill of water. It will be noted that the carcasses of the steers of Lot 2 weighed heavier than those of Lot 1, and also dressed out better. Those in Lot 1 dressed out 54.4 per cent and those of Lot 2, 57.2 per cent by market weights. This difference in the killing conditions of the steers was detected very easily in the carcasses, as those of Lot 2 5 soa BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 43 carried a greater quantity of fat, which was well distributed. The butchers estimated the steers of Lot 2 should have sold for 10 cents per hundredweight more than those of Lot 1, although it is shown in the financial statement that all the cattle brought the same price per hundredweight. The superior finish which the steers of Lot 2 had taken on must be considered as a point in favor of the ration which they were fed. Even though it cost 60 cents more to put on 100 pounds of gain on the cattle of Lot 2, a difference of only 10 cents per hundredweight in the selling price of the steers would offset to a large extent this ‘difference. The degree of finish, then, must be considered in plan- ning rations for cattle, because the highly finished steers bring better prices. Table 21 gives the financial statement of the two lots of steers. This is given merely to throw light on the financial outcome of a typical feeding operation during the season of 1913-14. The finan- cial statement for a similar group of steers fed the same rations might be entirely different for any other year, as there are so many factors which affect it. Among these may be mentioned the initial cost of the steers, cost of various feeds, cost of gains, distance from market, and the market prices. All these factors vary a great deal in dif- ferent years or even during the same year. The manure which fattening steers produce is an important item in the business of feeding and by all means should be credited to the steers. In this work the manure was weighed and valued at $2 per ton, which is a very conservative valuation. The value of the fertiliz- ing constituents in a ton of this manure undoubtedly would cost much more than $2 if they were purchased in the form of commercial fertilizers. TABLE 21.—Financial statement, winter fattening, November 17, 1913, to March 9, 1914, 113 days. Lot 1. Cottonseed meal, cottonseed hulls, corn stover, and hay: To 12 steers, 9,880 pounds at $5.50 per ewt____~_--____________ $540. 65 To 8,930 pounds cottonseed meal at $30 per ton______________ 133. 95 To 22,575 pounds cottonseed hulls at $7.50 per ton___________ 84. 66 To 5,498 pounds corn stover and hay at $10 per ton____________ 27. 49 EDO CAI COS Tit 0 Test e ele Sa a RS or sa BE ee 246. 10 Cosiorimarketin 28s eta eens 2 ee eee 46. 50 ROTHIMEXPeNndtIESes ss = se 2 ee ae eee ee Oh eee 833. 25 By sale of 12 steers, 10,700 pounds at $7.60 per ewt____________ 813. 20 By value of 48 tons manure at $2 per ton_________.__ 96. 00 OtAle reCCIDLSe een: MT Oe cata en oe 909. 20 44 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Lot 1—Continued. Lotal sprontcinelndine smanure. + eee Se See ee eee Porvloess NO ineludins Manite a 2 eee Average profit per steer including manure_____________________ Average loss per steer not including manure___________________ ‘Lot 2. Cottonseed meal, ear corn, cottonseed hulls, corn stover, and hay: To 12 steers, 9,880 pounds at $5.50 per cwt___-________________ To 6,422 pounds cottonseed meal at $30 per ton_____--______-__ 96.33 To 8,516 pounds ear corn at 50 cents per bushel_______________ 60. 82 4 To 21,938 pounds cottonseed hulls at $7.50 per ton_____________ 82. 27 & To 4,060 pounds corn stover and hay at $10 per ton____________ 20. 30 POtal COst GF feeds ee 2 Se Se 259. 12 — PoOvCOSt (Gf marketing: 24228) 2) a ee ee ee 46. 50 Totalhexpenditures= =>. >> 2 ae ee eee 849.62 — By sale of 12 steers, 10,775 pounds at $7.60 per cwt____________ 818. 90 By value of 48 tons manure at $2 per ton______________________ 96. 00 Total receipts vist i ieweep lamer: sal E sane Wilts 2 eee 914, 90 Total proesui including manure: 2-2 ee eee eee 65. 28 fotalioss mot including mannre?) 232 2 eee 30. 72 Average profit per steer including manure____________________ 5. 44 Average loss per steer not including manure___________________ 2. 56 Note.—Steers of Lot 1 valued at market at $7.55 per cwt.; steers of Lot 2 valued at market at $7.65 per cwt.; all were sold in one lot at $7.60 per ewt. Comparing the financial statements of the two lots, it is seen that when the value of the manure is credited to the feeding, Lot 1 re- turned a profit of $75.95, or an average profit per steer of $6.33;_ while Lot 2 returned a profit of $65.28, or an average profit of $5.44 per steer. If no credit is allowed for manure produced, both lots were sold at a loss. Thus, notwithstanding the fact that the steers of Lot 1 made smaller gains, the gains were produced more eco- nomically. EXPERIMENTS OF 1914-15. The experiments conducted during the winter of 1914-15 were carried out with the same objects in view as the previous winter’s fattening tests. PLAN OF WORK. The same general plans followed in the previous winter were ad- hered to. Four lots of steers were fed as follows: Lot 1, 10 steers, fed cottonseed meal, cottonseed hulls, and ear corn. Lot 2, 100 steers. fed cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls. Lot 3, 21 steers, fed cottonseed meal and corn silage. Lot 4, 26 steers, fed cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls. The steers in the first three lots were fed for 96 days, and those in Lot 4 for 111 days. BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 45 KIND OF STEERS USED. The steers used in the experiments of 1914-15 were native grades, 2 and 3 years of age. The 41 head making up the first three lots were better steers than those used the previous year, but those of Lot 4 were “short” 2-year-olds of about the same quality as the 24 head which were fed in 1913-14. CHARACTER AND PRICES OF FEEDS USED. The cottonseed meal and hulls used were of the same grade as in 1913-14 and analyzed about 38.6 per cent crude protein. The corn was good, sound, white corn, and the silage was of good average quality, made from corn that would have yielded about 40 bushels per acre. The cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls were bought and deliv- ered for $25 and $5.50 per ton, respectively. The corn was charged against the steers at $1 per bushel, and the corn silage was valued at $3 per acre. METHOD OF FEEDING AND HANDLING THE CATTLE. _ The same system was followed.as in 1913-14, all the feeds being mixed before feeding and the steers brought gradually to a full feed. The initial and final weights were obtained from weighings made on three consecutive days, and weights were taken every 28 days during the progress of the experiment. QUANTITY OF FEED CONSUMED AND AVERAGE DAILY RATIONS. The average total quantities of feeds consumed by each steer in the various lots, and the average daily rations per head by 28-day periods, also for the total feeding period, are summarized in Table 22. TABLE 22.—Total and average daily rations, Oct. 21, 1914, to Jan. 24, 1915, 96 days. Average daily ration by periods. ‘Aver- : Total are Lot Number | Days feed con- daily No. of steers.) fed. Ration. sumed | First | Second | Third | Fourth See persteer.| period, | period, | period, | period, ene 28 days. | 28 days. | 28 days. | 12 days. | f period. Pounds.| Pounds., Pounds.) Pounds.| Pounds.| Pounds 1 10 | 96] Cottonseed meal...........- 527 3.38 6. 00 6. 44 6. 82 5. 49° Cottonseed hulls..........-- 2,308 21.84 25.00 25.00 25.00 24.64 (At COMen © osaso-seiseiie S 2 500 3.38 6. 00 6. 00 6. 00 5. 21 2 10 96 | Cottonseed meal...........- 711 by 17/ 8.00 8. 64 8.68 7.41 Cottonseed hulls.........--- 2,308 21.84 25.00 25.00 25.00 24.04 3 21 96 | Cottonseed meal...........- 711 5.17 8.00 8. 64 8.68 7.41 | Comnisila cet aae oee eees | 3,875 38. 45 45.00 45.00 10.91 40. 36 Cottonseed hulls!_.......-- eeeee cos | Reetteyn ns bea ner ene |S cree TAS 00) | Seeeces 4 26 | 111 | Cottonseed meal.........--.- | 694 4.61 6. 43 7.00 7.00 6.25 Cottonseed hulls...........- 2, 212 18. 66 21.07 20.00 | 220.00 19. 92 1 Cottonseed hulls were fed only the last 12 days of the feeding period. 2 Lot 4 was fed 111 days, or 27 days during the fourth period, 46 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Each steer in Lot 1 ate 3.38 pounds each of cottonseed meal and ear corn and 21.84 pounds of cottonseed hulls daily during the first 28 days. These amounts were increased until in the last period of 12 days each steer consumed daily an average of 6.82 pounds of cotton- seed meal, 6 pounds of ear corn, and 25 pounds of cottonseed hulls. The average daily ration per head for the entire 96 days was 5.49 pounds of cottonseed meal, 5.21 pounds of ear corn, and 24.04 pounds of cottonseed hulls. 4 i 3 ay ‘2 The average daily ration per head of the steers in Lot 2 was 5.17 pounds of cottonseed meal and 21.84 pounds of cottonseed hulls for the first 28-day period. During the last 12 days each steer ate on the ~ average 8.68 pounds of cottonseed meal and 25 pounds of cottonseed Fic. 8.—Steers finished on cottonseed meal and corn silage (Lot 3, winter of 1914-15). hulls per day. The average daily ration per head for the 96-day fat- tening period was 7.41 pounds of cottonseed meal and 24.04 pounds of cottonseed hulls. The 21 steers in Lot 3 consumed an average daily ration per head of 5.17 pounds of cottonseed meal and 38.45 pounds of corn silage during the first 28 days. The quantities were increased to 8.64 pounds of cottonseed meal and 45 pounds of silage during the third period. The supply of silage ran short, so the average daily allowance was decreased to 10.91 pounds per head during the last 12 days, and 14.09 pounds of cottonseed hulls per head were substituted, while the cot- tonseed meal averaged 8.68 pounds per head. The average daily ration per head for the 96 days was 7.41 pounds of cottonseed meal and 40.36 pounds of corn silage. BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. . 47 Each of the 26 steers of Lot 4 was fed an average of 4.61 pounds of cottonseed meal and 18.66 pounds of cottonseed hulls per day during the first 28-day period. These amounts were increased to 7 pounds of cottonseed meal and 20 pounds of cottonseed hulls for the fourth period of 27 days. The average daily ration per head for the entire period of 111 days was 6.25 pounds of cottonseed meal and 19.92 pounds of cottonseed hulls. Table 23 gives the average initial and final weights per head, the total gains, and the average daily gain per steer. TABLE 23.—Total and daily gains, 1914-15. Average Average Average Average initial final total daily weight per | weight per| gain per gain per steer. steer. steer. steer. Lot) Number] Days No.| ofsteers.| fed. Ration. ° 1 10 96 | Cottonseed meal, ear corn, and | Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. cottonseed hulls. ............--- 941 1, 096 155 1.61 2 10 96 | Cottonseed meal and cottonseed Hapa Se ya ee ea eS 2s MRE: 967 1,103 136 1.42 3 21 96 | Cottonseed meal and.corn silage... 911 1,110 199 2.07 4 26 | 111 | Cottonseed meal and cottonseed LEG Regs a 5 es ER Aes ect miners 736 893 157 1.43 It will be seen that the average total gain per head for the steers in Lots 1 and 2 was 155 pounds and 136 pounds, respectively, which was equivalent to 1.61 pounds and 1.42 pounds per head daily. Com- paring the results with those of the 1913-14 tests, it is seen that the addition of corn to the ration produced larger gains in both tests. The steers in Lot 3 made an average daily gain per head of 2.07 pounds, or a total gain of 199 pounds for the 96 days, which is the best showing of any of the cattle. This shows rather forcibly the great value of corn silage in a fattening ration for steers, and, as will be seen later, these gains were the most economical. _. The smaller steers of Lot 4, which were fed the same ration as those in Lot 2, made practically the same average daily gains, but over a longer period, gaining 157 pounds per head in the 111 days. QUANTITIES AND COST OF FEEDS TO PRODUCE 100 POUNDS GAIN. Table 24 shows the amount of feed that was required to produce 100 pounds of gain on the steers of the four lots, and the cost of this teed in each case. 48 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. “Taste 24.—Quantity and cost* of feeds required to produce 100 pounds of gain, _ 1914-15. . Quantity : BAe ee es ois ; mee of F ot) Number Days F require eed for 100 No.| ofsteers.| fed. Ration. i 100 pounds : pounds gain. | gain. 1 10 96; Cottonsecdimeal 2 S22 2e, 25 22-3 eee ne oe aa eee 340 War Cory. 26 3-e saad 5 i os 5 ee aes eae 322 12. 96 Cotiousced itis [222 oe 7 2 Se ee ee ee ee 1, 489 : 2 10 96'|Cottouseed aneal Sec S ==... a eee es he eee hee eee 523 11.21 Cobtonseed hills 232855. 2:2. 22e Peon: ee eee 1, 687 } ; 3 21 96 | ‘Cottonseed mealous 22223... 2t been eee 2 rae nee ee | 357 \ 7.60 Cormsilapes. 2 son re oe = 545 ee ete aoe Pete ee ere aes 2,055 2 4 265) ULI" (Cottonsesd neal ea: oo. Seas eee seis foe ee eee 442 } 9. 40 | Cobtonseed nigis 2 ee oe aS eee 2 ee eee eeee apes 1, 409 5 1 Prices of feed used: : Cottonseed:meal =~ 255s sacs ae Bae = + Soe $25.00 per ton. Gottonseed hauls: .5 3223 4 Sens. VS se. 3 ee ae ee eee 5.50 per ton. Cor silage ci'322 52-5 2 Sos a Stee Seo ne Ss Oe ne ne et 3.00 per ton. WAY CONN 52 a. 2 8 eS aaa ds eee Seas oe ae ee an ae ee ee ee 1.00 per bushel. This table reveals some interesting figures on the efficiency of the feeds used. Comparing Lots 1 and 2 it can be seen that the 322 pounds of corn fed to Lot 1 produced as much gain as 183 pounds of cottonseed meal and 198 pounds of cottonseed hulls. As the cost of these gains are shown in the last column to be $12.96 and $11.21 for Lots.1 and 2, respectively, it is evident that it would have been more economical to omit the corn. The cattle in Lot 3 required only 357 pounds of cottonseed meal and 2,055 pounds of corn silage, costing $7.60 to produce 100 pounds of gain. The efficiency of this ration and its low cost are the most striking facts illustrated in the table. The smaller steers of Lot 4 made larger gains on the cottonseed meal and cottonseed hull rations than did the steers in Lot 2. This accounts for the smaller quantities of feed, and consequently smaller cost to produce 100 pounds of gain. It will be noticed that the gains on all the cattle were produced much cheaper than in 1913-14. This was due chiefly to the lower cost of the cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls for 1914-15, and the fact that expensive hay was not used in the rations. SHIPPING AND SLAUGHTER DATA. Table 25 shows the average final farm weight per head, the market weight, the shrinkage in transit, the average weights of carcasses, and the dressing percentages. BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 49 TABLE 25.—Shipping and slaughter data, 1913-147 Aver- ne Aver- Aver- mal [Market] oorink-| Per | werent | centage| centage Lot| Numbcr| Days Ration farm eo age Ape of |dressed| dressed No.| ofsteers.| fed. : weight aie at| Pe | shrink-| C@z¢ass by y per |"Rich- | Steel |” ace. |at New| farm | market stccr, mond in) Bee York, |weight. | weight. Jan. 25. em 30 transit. Feb. 1. 1 10 | 96) Cottonseed meal, ear Cor and cottonseed |Pounds.| Pownds.| Pounds.| Per ct. Eounas: Per ct. ee WSs sence oe esees ae 1,096 | 1,042 54 4.92 5 53.43 56. 2 10 96 | Cottonseed meal and ; cottonseed hulls....... 1,103 |} . 1,055 48 4.35 597 54.17 | 56.6L 3 21 96 | Cottonseed meal and | cCormsilagessse- ee eee 1,110} 1,057 53 4.77 603 | 54.32} 57.05 1 The steers in Lots 1, 2, and 3 were shipped to Richmond, Va., and after they had taken a fill were then sold to New York buyers; no live weights were secured at the New York market. Lot 4 was sold to local. butchers, but the slaughter data are not available, as the steers were not marketed at the same time. The steers were driven 15 miles to Clyde, N. C., and held till the following morning, January 26, when they were watered and fed and then loaded on the cars. They arrived in Richmond, Va., on -the night of January 28. The shrinkage was 54, 48, and 53 pounds per head for Lots 1, 2, and 3, respectively, which shows very little difference for the various lots. The steers were sold to buyers in Richmond on January 30 and shipped to New York, where they were slaughtered on February 1. The slaughter data are calculated on the market weights taken in Richmond, as no weights were se- cured before killing at New York. The cattle of Lot 1 dressed 56.23 per cent; Lot 2, 56.61 per cent; and Lot 3, 57.05 per cent. This in- dicates that the ration of cottonseed meal and corn silage will pro- duce as desirable carcasses as the ones fed to the other steers. No differences were assigned by the packers to the carcasses from the different lots. The cattle in Lot 4 were sold locally, and the slaughter data are not available. ei FINANCIAL STATEMENT. The financial statement of the feeding and marketing of the four lots of steers is given in Table 26. TABLE 26.—Financial statement, 1914-15. ' Lot 1, 10 steers, fattened on cottonseed meal, ear corn, and cottonseed art hulls: To 10 steers, 9,410 pounds at $6.75 per ewt__________________ $635. 17 To 5,270 pounds cottonseed meal at $25 per ton___ TESA, a 65. 87 To 23,085 pounds cottonseed hulls at $5.50 per ton_______- as 63. 48 To 5,000 pounds ear corn at $1 per bushel_____.___________-___ 71. 438 inimered ni Clhyvokes ING (GL, 1O Laine ee ES 25. 60 Heed ates Pen COr IN © tesa Se. 5 eo ee ean NEE Pe 2. 00 50 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Lot 1—Continued. Heed2 at (Richmond = AV ees a=” Ee eee ee Commission charges ee Rm: 2A ot teen a eee aon eee Be: oo PoraleespendiLTes === 2: - a es eee eee By sale of 10 steers, 10,960.pounds at $7.75____________________ By value of 40 tons of manure at $2 per ton_______-__________ ER OLAU (TECHIES ne se SL ee a ey eee Totals pront: incnidineaManiwee = = CM ee ead ee es ‘Total Jossimot pmclu dine =mManuTre = oe os aya t Pee ee Average profit per steer including manure Spee ee pea Average loss per steer not including manure________ Lot 2, 10 steers, fattened on cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls: to 10 "steers 9:6io POUNGS At.o6.15 Pel. Gwe == ee ee To 7,115 pounds cottonseed meal at $25 per ton________________ To 23,085 pounds cottonseed hulls at $5.50 per ton______________ Freight to Richmond from Clyde, N. C2__________ cas Heed ai (Spencers NAW 22s ae neers beat his 0 Heed: at Michmond? Vals. s 5. 22 - Bee Pe Sraty Wee 5) FLEAS F4 Commission. chances: 2542 2-2. ae = pt ae LE ie Total expenditures 2.22 See eee eee eee 839. 98 By sale of 10 steers, 11,030 pounds at $7.75__.-____________ * 854,824 By value of 40 tons of manure at $2 per ton-_________. 80. 00 OTA ECEL PIS aE Ss ee Ea ia ee eee ‘3 934. 82 Total SpLonpminChOiIne .MmanwTe = Sa Ss Se ee ee eee 94. 84 RCD LOVE G ELON, LEACL UI CLLELS: EX ALM ULN Cre wg ora es ee 14. 84 Average profit per head including manure____________________ 9. 48 Average profit per head not including manure______ pe Sh 1. 48% Lot 3, 21 steers, fattened on cottonseed meal and corn silage: To. 21. steers, 19,131 pounds at $6:75 per cwt___-__-=-_ = = 1, 291. 34 To 14,942 pounds cottonseed meal at $25 per ton________________ 186. 77 To 3.255 pounds cottonseed hulls at $5.50 per ton___________ 8. 95 To 81,375 pounds corn silage at $3 per ton_____ z alae 122. 06 te eee oe eee 8. 75 Commission /chages'= 2. a. i eae ee ee de 21. 00° ‘Totalsexpenditures= 222 So. 2 A a ee 1, 694. 68 By sale of 21 steers, 23,310 pounds at $7.75 per cwt_________-__ 1, 806. 53 By value of 84 tons of manure at $2 per ton_____-__- 168. 00 Total receipts: 26. Sa7. a Se okey Pan i ae IE ae 1, 974. 53 Potal*pront inewudine manure. > ~ ey ee e ee 279. 85 Total protit. OL AnGludin= Man Ur Cs a eee 111. 85 Average profit per head including manure—_..___________________ 13. 33 BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 51 Lot 4, 26 steers, fattened on cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls: Mop2Geusteers) 1.9130; pounds, at $6) PemeGwiee ===. >. See $1, 147. 80 To 18,054 pounds cottonseed meal at $25 per ton______________-_ 225. 67 To 57,525 pounds cottonseed hulls at $5.50 per ton___-_-_ 158. 19 otal expendi WLes) = seas a a ae ee ee ea 2 te BIGGS By sale of 26 steers, 23,230 pounds at $7 per cwt______________ 1, 626. 10 By value of 104 tons of manure at $2 per ton_________________-__ _ 208. 00 Total receipts — deat ot MUIR Ne 21 oe eg Sek Lo, 1, 848. 10 Total profit including manure_____*+—___-____ eis re 802. 44 MNO ore OINne IMO: MAG CKIOS seeNMNe = ee 94. 44 Average profit per steer including manure_____________ es ARGS Average profit per steer not including manure_________________ 3. 63 When the cattle are credited with $2 per ton for the manure pro- duced, the steers in Lot 1 returned a profit of $5.17 per head; those in Lot 2, 9.48 per head; Lot 3, $13.33 per head; and Lot 4, $11.63 per head. It will be seen that the steers in the first three lots cost the same per hundredweight and were sold for the same price per hun- _dredweight. This allows direct comparison of the profits shown to the gains made and the cost of same. The silage-fed steers of Lot 3 made the largest and cheapest gains and returned the largest profit. Those in Lot 1 made the next largest gains, but these gains cost more than on the cattle in Lot 2, so the profit on them was the smallest of the three. Although the steers of Lot 4 made gains at the same rate as those of Lot 2 and were fed the same ration, their gains were made more cheaply, as shown in Table 24. They also returned a larger profit, even though they sold for 75 cents less per hundredweight. SUMMARY STATEMENTS OF THE WINTER FATTENING TESTS. WORK OF 1913-14. 1. The cattle used in this test were all native grade cattle, aver- aging 2 years of age. 2. The 24 steers were divided into two lots of 12 each and fed as follows: Lot 1. Cottonseed meal, cottonseed hulls, corn stover, and hay. Lot 2. Cottonseed meal, ear corn, cottonseed hulls, corn stover, and hay. 3. At the beginning of the test the steers in Lot 1 had an average weight of 819 pounds, and after 113 days on feed weighed on the average 973 pounds, showing a gain of 154 pounds per head, or an average daily gain per steer of 1.36 pounds. The average initial weight of the steers in Lot 2 was 823 pounds and the final weight 983 pounds, which shows a gain of 160 pounds per head, equal to 1.42 pounds per head daily. 52 BULLETIN 628, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 4. The cost of producing 100 pounds gain in Lot 1 was $13.32; and in Lot 2, $13.92. 5. The cattle as feeders cost $5.50 per hundredweight in the fall. A margin of $2.10 per hundredweight was realized when they were sold on the Baltimore market the following spring at $7.60 per hundredweight for both lots. 6. The average profit per steer, including the value of the manure produced, was $6.33 and $5.44 for Lots 1 and 2, respectively. When the manure was not included there was a loss of $1.67 per head in Lot— 1 and $2.56 per head in Lot 2. WORK OF 1914-15. 1. The cattle used in Lots 1, 2, and 3 were good grade native 2 — and 3 year old steers. Those composing Lot + were native grades averaging a little short of 2 years old and were classed as plain ~ steers. 2. The steers were divided into four lots and fed as follows: Lot 1, 10 steers, fed cottonseed meal, ear corn, and cottonseed hulls. Lot 2, 10 steers, fed cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls. Lot 3, 21 steers, fed cottonseed meal and corn silage. Lot 4, 26 steers, fed cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls. 3. At the beginning of the experiment the average weights per head were: Lot 1, 941 pounds; Lot 2, 967 pounds; Lot 3, 911 pounds; and Lot 4,736 pounds. After feeding 96 days the final weights for the steers average 1,096 pounds, 1,103 pounds and 1,110 pounds, respec- tively, for Lots 1,2, and 3. These steers in Lot 4 were fed 111 days and weighed 893 pounds per head at the conclusion of the experiment. Thus the total gains per head were 155 pounds for Lot 1, 135 pounds for Lot 2, 199 pounds for Lot 3, and 157 pounds for Lot 4, making an average daily gain per head of 1.61 pounds, 1.42 pounds, 2.07 pounds, and 1.43 pounds for Lots 1, 2, 3, and 4, respectively. 4. It cost $12.96 to produce 100 pounds of gain in Lot 1; in Lot 2, $11.21; in Lot 3, $7.60; and in Lot 4, $9.40. 5. The cattle in Lots 1, 2, and 3 cost $6.75 per hundredweight in the fall as feeders, and all sold for $7.75 per hundredweight at Rich- mond the following spring. The steers in Lot 4 cost $6 per hundred- weight in the fall and sold for $7 per hundredweight on the local market. 6. After crediting the steers with the manure produced, the aver- age profit per head was as follows: Lot 1, $5.17; Lot 2, $9.48; Lot 3, $13.33: and Lot 4, $11.63. When the manure is excluded there was a loss on Lot 1 of $2.83 per head, a profit on Lot 2 of $1.48 per head, a profit on Lot 3 of $5.33 per head; and a profit on Lot 4 of $3.63 per head. ba BEEF CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA. 53 CONCLUSIONS FROM THE TWO YEARS’ FATTENING EXPERIMENTS. It must be understood that these conclusions should be interpreted by the reader to apply to feeding operations affected by conditions such as surrounded the tests just reported. 1. The use of hay valued at $15 or more per ton for fattening steers increases the cost of gains very materially, as is shown by the first year’s work. Cheaper roughages should be used if possible. 2. Cottonseed meal, even in moderate amounts, is very efficient in fattening steers, and the feeder usually can afford to buy it for this purpose if the other conditions are favorable. 3. The addition of ear corn to the ration increases the gains and the finish of steers, but unless it can be raised or purchased for con- siderably less per ton than cottonseed meal, its use in quantities is not advisable. If a farmer grows his own corn and is feeding steers, its use in the steers’ ration as at least a part of the concentrate allow- ance is desirable if market price will permit. 4. Cottonseed meal and cottonseed hulls produce very satisfactory and economical gains when purchased at reasonable prices, such as was the case in these tests. 5. The remarkable efficiency and economy of corn silage in the ration of fattening steers is the most striking conclusion shown by the tests. Much more feeding could be done profitably in the region under discussion if more farmers would put their corn crops in silos and feed it in this form with cottonseed meal. 6..The heavy shrinkage in transit by the finished steers shows that the farmers in these sections must market their fat cattle under this disadvantage. 7. A study of the financial statements and costs of gains reveals many of the factors which affect the outcome of feeding operations. In calculating the profit or loss from feeding steers, the farmer should not overlook the value of the manure produced. 8. Farmers who can raise some surplus feed, especially roughages, should feel safe in feeding steers in the winter, provided they can buy feeders and cottonseed meal right and are not too far from a shipping point. If they can raise corn, it can be utilized with best results by feeding it as silage with or without other available rough- ages, cottonseed meal furnishing the chief concentrate to be fed with it. By so doing and using the manure on the land the productive eapacity of the soil will be greatly increased. ~~ ee ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY i — UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 629 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER February 11, 1918 GREENHOUSE EXPERIMENTS ON THE RUST | RESISTANCE OF OAT VARIETIES.’ By JoHn H. Parker, formerly Scientific Assistant, Office of Cereal Investigations. CONTENTS. Page Page ImiGroduction= sei. ee pe aeiadie eile Sameera 1 | Evidences of rust resistance in cereals..-...-- 5 The culture of cereal rusts in the green- e the United States. ©The stem rust probably causes the greater loss in the Northern States and the crown rust in the Southern States. THE CULTURE OF CEREAL RUSTS IN THE GREENHOUSE. Obligate parasitism is a well-known characteristic of the rust fungi, and all attempts to grow them in artificial media have failed. They are easily cultured on the living host, however, and, as pointed ~ out by Carleton (2), it is possible to make many interesting studies ~ by this method. Carleton described the method of inoculation used — by him and gave suggestions concerning work with rusts. Evans (4) has tested the rust resistance of oat varieties in the greenhouse and concludes that the Indian varieties are far more sus- ceptible to the crown rust than to the stem rust. Melhus (8) has described and illustrated the apparatus used and has given his methods in culturing parasitic fungi on the living host, including notes on culture work with the crown rust of oats. Fromme (5) has published a comprehensive paper dealing with — the culture of cereal rusts in the greenhouse, in which he briefly — reviews the work of previous writers and describes in some detail © his own methods, particularly the results obtained with the crown ~ rust of oats. . Stakman (12) briefly describes culture methods used in his green- house studies of biologic forms of the cereal rusts and calls attention to the effects of temperature, humidity, and light on the incubation period. In a second paper (13) he has briefly described similar methods used in the additional study of cereal rusts on plants grown in the greenhouse. Melchers (7) has suggested the use of galvanized-iron tubs with window-glass covers as moist chambers. He also advocates wetting the leaves to be inoculated by the “finger-rubbing” method instead of with an atomizer and keeping the pots bearing the rusted leaves in shallow pans of water, to avoid the necessity of overhead watering. EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. In the greenhouse experiments of the writer, methods similar to those above cited were employed. For the infection studies on seed- ling oat plants 4-inch pots were used, and 5-inch pots for the plants inoculated at heading time. Greenhouse potting soil of approx- — imately the same make-up was used throughout the work. For the studies of plants at heading time four seeds of a variety were sown — in each pot. When the plants were 6 to 8 inches high they were thinned to two in a pot, the number usually reserved for subsequent inoculation. 1The serial numbers in parentheses refer to “‘ Literature cited,” p. 16, ee Bul. 629, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. cH ans et EA PLATE lI. Fig. 2.—CROWN RUST OF OATS: UREDINIA ON LEAVES, TELIA ON STEM. Bul. 629, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture "iy i @ | MBSO\AT PLATE II. Fic. 1.—SEEDLING OAT PLANTS INOCULATED WITH CROWN RUST. = x= 2 c i SS AT PLANTS INOCULATED WITH STEM RUST. 'SMO3T14 ANVIN LN@ SAINLSAd TIVWS M34 V AINO ONIMOHS ‘LSNY NMOKD HLIM GSLOSAN] SLYO LYNG JO SNIVYLS OM JO SSAVAT ONIIGaAS PLATE III. 2 =) SS 3 oO < oD ad _ ro) a a. o aQ i} =) fay rs Vo) 3 a RUST RESISTANCE OF OAT VARIETIES. 3 About 15 seeds per pot were sown for the seedling work, and the plants were thinned later, so that on an average about 8 plants per pot were inoculated. Plantings were made every few days from November, 1915, to April, 1916. Thus, there was always a series of plants coming on; as soon as one series had been inoculated another was about ready. The cultures were kept in a cool greenhouse (night temperature, 50° to 55° F.; day temperature, 60° to 65° F.) and watered not less often than every alternate day. The inoculations on the seedling Fig. 1.—Glags-topped galvanized-iron moist chamber used for seedling plants. plants were always made when the first (seedling) leaf was still vigorous and of a normal green color; that is, when the plants were only 8 to 5 inches high. This first leaf was always the only one inoculated. All others, with the “shoot,” were kept trimmed off. Spore material of both the oat rusts was obtained from the Min- nesota Agricultural Experiment Station and increased for use as needed on stock cultures of the White Tartarian oat, the variety used as a check. About ten varieties usually constituted the series treated on any one day, one set being inoculated with stem rust and the other with crown rust. No plants were left uninoculated, but one pot of White Tartarian serving as a check on the other varieties was always sc sown and inoculated with each series. The inoculations were made by removing urediniospores with a flattened needle from a leaf bearing a heavy infection and placing 4 BULLETIN 629, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. them on the previously moistened leaf to be inoculated. When all leaves in a pot were inoculated they were sprayed at once with an atomizer and placed in the moist chamber shown in figure 1, where } they were allowed to remain 48 hours. These moist chambers, which will hold about forty 4-inch pots, cost less than $10 for four. No trouble was experienced from the leaves burning or turning yellow, and almost 100 per cent of the inoculations were successful. Inoculations of older plants were made in the order of heading of the varieties, beginning on April 10 and continuing to May 9, 1916. There were 12 to 18 plants in each series. The stem-rust — spores were always placed on the sheath inclosing the — emerging panicle, while theinoculations with crown rust were made on the uppermost leaf blade. As with the seedlings, the imoculated plants were sprayed with an atomizer to insure the presence of a film of water and then kept in the moist chamber — for two-days. A special large glass-topped galvan- ized-iron moist chamber was made, holding eight- een 5-inch pots and allow- ing the tallest plants to re- main upright (fig. 2). The incubation period for the two rusts was ap- proximately the same. Fic. 2.—Glass-topped galvanized-iron moist cham- Generally, though not al- ber used for mature plants. ways, the uredinia of the stem rust appeared first. Cool temperatures seemed to lengthen the incubation period, for during November the house was cooler than during the succeeding months and the uredinia during this time were noticeably slower in appearing. Other factors, such as light, also may have affected the results. Notes on the appearance of flecks usually were made in 7 to 9 days, and those on the formation of uredinia after a period of not longer than 12 days. Further notes usually were taken on the quantity and character of infection. No counts of uredinia were made; nor should too much emphasis be placed on whether or not all the leaves inocu- lated were equally infected, for it is obviously impossible to be cer- RUST RESISTANCE OF OAT VARIETIES. 5 tain that the same number of spores was applied in each case. The time of appearance, size of uredinia, and character of infection are deemed of greater importance. The seedling plants were discarded as soon as final notes were ob- tained. Those in the series inoculated at the time of heading were allowed to mature in order to obtain herbarium specimens and seed for further work. SOURCES OF MATERIAL. The seed of all the varieties tested except Early Ripe? was ob- tained from the 1915 crop grown in rod rows in the rust nursery at Ames, Iowa. Most of these varieties were secured from Mr. C. W. Warburton, of the Office of Cereal Investigations, Bureau of Plant Industry; others were obtained from the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. The forms listed under the Latin (specific) names (greenhouse Nos. 265 to 303) were obtained from Director Bubak, of the botanic garden at Tabor, Bohemia, through Prof. G. M. Reed, of the University of Missouri. None of these varieties may properly be called a pure line, although some of these rows are traceable (several seasons back) to single plants. Others. represent bulk material from rod rows, field piats, or commercial seed stocks. Some of the foreign material is in great need of more careful classification. Mixtures in the previous han- dling of both the domestic and foreign material sometimes have occurred, but it may be said safely that a majority of the varieties were true to name and for the most part pure, so that where eight or more seedlings were studied most of them really represented the true type of the variety under the name of which they were grown. In the trials on older plants, however, where only two individuals were studied, slight mixtures of the seed sample were more serious.? EVIDENCES OF RUST RESISTANCE IN CEREALS. Before proceeding to a detailed description and consideration of the observations made and conclusions drawn it will be well to refer to the observations of earlier wurkers on rust resistance in cereals. Cobb (8) described certain wheat varieties which were resistant and mentioned the occurrence of dead areas of host tissue. Marryat (6) also observed these dead areas in immune varieties, and Biffen (1) mentions unopened pustules which shed no spores. Stakman (12) observed similar indications of real resistance on (a) seedling leaves of certain wheat varieties and on (0) leaves of a wheat sus- ceptible to the stem rust of wheat but inoculated with the stem rust of oats. He states that the more resistant a form proved, the more pronounced was the tendency of the rust to kill small areas of the 1Seed of this variety was obtained from Dr. H. H. Love. It is very similar to Burt and perhaps identical with that variety. Wvidence tends to show that the origin of the two varieties was the same. 2 All such instances are indicated in Table I. 6 BULLETIN 629, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. leaf and that the pustules developed in these areas were always very small. A further indication of immunity is-said to be the fact that in the immune forms the incubation period is longer than in sus-— ceptible ones. | f In a second paper (13) Stakman reports additional studies of the relation between Puccinia graminis and plants highly resistant to its attack. The occurrence of the same characteristic flecks or areas of killed tissue is again reported, but a new term, “ hypersensitiveness,” is used to describe the phenomenon. : Although no histologic studies have yet been made of the oat material, the external macroscopic evidence is in such close agree- ment with the observed conditions in wheat that there can be little doubt that a struggle between host and parasite of a very similar nature takes place within the tissues of the resistant oat varieties. Concerning the indications or signs of resistance which were ob- served in the present study, it may be well to repeat that they are : very similar to those in wheat. They are— : 1. The prolonged incubation period. 2. The formation of flecks (yellow areas of dead host tissue). | 3. The formation of larger blotches of dead tissue and, in extreme cases, the premature death of the whole seedling leaf. 4. Small uredinia, sometimes not completely or promptly rupturing the epidermis, and in Puccinia graminis avenae the formation of purple blotches adjacent to the uredinia. 5. The small number of uredinia (relatively unimportant). 6. The production of normal telia of the crown rust on seedling leaves of varieties which these other criteria indicate are resistant. | So far as known to the writer, the occurrence of télia on young seedling leaves of cereals grown in the greenhouse has not been re- corced in literature. Melhus (8) states that in his cultures, which appear to have been on older plants, “ teleutospores developed in two to three weeks.” It is certain that in the hundreds of seedlings described as very susceptible in the present experiments telia were not produced on a single one following a normal and abundant production of uredinia. The fungus on these leaves seems to have finished its life cycle under these conditions by producing the uredinia. After having remained a normal green color for some time after the formation of uredinia, the leaf finally dries up. That part of the life cycle so common to the rust fungus when on ripening grain plants in the field is not completed. On the other hand, quite early in the work it was observed that in a comparatively short time telia were present on the leaves of seedlings which gave other evidences of being resistant and on which no normal uredinia had been produced. The spores from these sori appear in every way normal, so far as determined by micro- scopic observation. RUST RESISTANCE OF OAT VARIETIES. 7 On the upper leaf blades of the plants inoculated at the time of heading, where one would normally expect the ultimate production of telia, the resistant plants seemed to produce them at a remarkably early stage. These early telia were produced, in all cases observed, only. on leaves infected with the crown rust. It is the belief of the writer that such a hastening in the completion of the life cycle of the fungus is entirely comparable to the well-known instances in the seed plants of the influence of unfavorable conditions, such as drought, poor soil, and injury, in hastening the period of blooming and the maturing of seed. The teliospores are to be considered necessarily as the final stage in the year’s life cycle of the rust. These spores do not serve to spread the infection during the current season, but provide a means for the reproduction of the disease another season or when conditions are again favorable. ~ Tt may be argued that the ability which the fungus in these par- ticular varieties possesses to produce this final spore form is the best possible indication of extreme susceptibility. Nevertheless, it is certainly true that if a variety is able to prevent the formation of the summer-spore stage of the rust, the spread of the disease will be checked in localities where only such varieties are grown. This unusual occurrence of telia on seedling leaves is thought to be an additional evidence of resistance. It has been used sometimes in making the distinction’ between resistant and susceptible individual plants. Whether this interpretation is accepted or not, the presence of telia on seedling plants of some and their absence on other strains grown under identical conditions is very good evidence of real dif- ferences in the protoplasmic reaction of the two hosts, for the prog- ress of the rust fungus following infection is quite different in the two instances. The same stimuli, whether they are chemical, enzymic, or osmotic, which cause the formation of flecks in some varieties and not in others may exercise a rather direct influence on the ability of the parasite to produce a particular spore form at any given time. Norton (10) reports the abundant occurrence of aecia of the asparagus rust on plants which were resistant to the uredinial stage of the rust. Smith (11), in studies of the water relations of asparagus rust, has found that “a very direct relation exists between atmospheric mois- ture and the prevalence of the several spore forms of the rust,” and that “the teleuto stage may occur in asparagus beds little affected by the rust, and apparently not preceded by any trace of the other spore stages.” He concludes that “the teleuto stage is then to be regarded as a provision for surviving any condition unfavorable to the fungus, whether of food supply, moisture, temperature, or resist- ance by the host, without regard to season.” 8 BULLETIN 629, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Morgenthaler (9) conducted experiments to determine the effect of various influencing factors on the production of teliospores and found that “the time of appearance of the teleutospore stage is not dependent alone on the season of the year, but may be hastened or retarded by many other influences.” He also states— It is also true that the chemical constitution of the host may provide condi- tions either favorable or unfavorable for the nourishment of a particular para- site. There are cases known in which the same rust will produce uredospores z copiously on one host and only sparingly on another. There may be in certain host plants substances toxic to the fungus, as tannin, which further influence the nourishment of the parasite, and with it its spore production. This ability of various conditions to influence teleutospore production may also be regarded as a method of protection which the rusts have against — influences which are unfavorable for the normal development of the fungus. EXPERIMENTAL DATA. Table I presents the results of all the varietal tests, including inocu- lations of both rusts made on seedling plants and on the plants at time of heading. The inoculations made were as follows: Stem rust: Needing gs 3:22.) 8st See See ee 1, 256 Ieaded~ plantss 2) 2a) eos. ae ie DEN ae 260 Crown rust: Seedlings woth. eae ee ee eee 1, 480 ‘Headed “plants = 22 oe 05 is Sd Ore ARE). Cee 260 EDO filiest ae 8 at oh Bh ee ine eS 3, 256 The varieties are arranged alphabetically by name in Table I, except that those bearing the Latin names under which they were received are placed in a separate list, as are also the varieties of red oats which are derivatives of Avena sterilis. The greenhouse number (column 2), the classification list number (column 3), the Cereal Investigations number (column 4), the Seed and Plant Introduction number (column 5), and the Minnesota Ag- ricultural Experiment Station number (column 6) are included in Table I in order that identification may be more certain. It is thus quite possible to compare the record of any variety in this list with statements made in literature regarding it or with field records. In columns 7 to 10 of Table I the letter S indicates the undoubted and complete susceptibility of that variety under the conditions of the experiment. A question mark (7), S?, or R? indicates some doubt and the need of further tests, while R-+ S indicates that both resistant and susceptible plants were observed. The letter R has been used only where normal infection did not occur. In these instances the evidence seemed convincing that plants of the variety when tested in the manner here described prevented the formation of normal uredinia and may therefore be regarded as resistant. In a great a f F ‘ RUST RESISTANCE OF OAT VARIETIES. 9 majority of cases all leaves or culms inoculated showed infection (normal uredinia) except in certain varieties where there were very evident signs of resistance and to which attention is directed in the footnotes to Table I. TABLE I.—Summary of notes on the rust resistance of oat varieties tested in the greenhouse at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., 1915-16. [R.= resistant; S.= susceptible.] Identification numbers. Crown rust. Stem rust. co o Oo. 3 o oO Variety. 2 ae E 4 aa a a | a oe | Remarks. Slaszlas| .| < cb as wm | 3:5 a esa peiee |e gx» | 5 | 2e Slo 6 an | & n ey nN a \ 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Common (sativa) varieties: Abundance.......-.---- 7 eters | te ee eee 272 Ss. Ss. S. S. SA ett eters oem tee Qa Wi Oi Se ee eee seer Ss. Ss. S. 1§8,? American Banner.....-- tO eaecae ssore | ee 275 Ss. Ss. Ss. Ss. INKOT NOE ogee acodedosos 1 Ness ee Er yeiceal MAS 280 S. Ss. s. Ss. Archangel x Early Goth- J Pee Los a ea ener OBS Se ruetne Ie (eae 305 Ss. s. Ss. Ss. IBANN OG Sse eeepc eacles. BO a age yes 348 Ss. Ss. Ss. Ss. Bicknell sews esos ssa. Gill, ene 206) eae lee oe S. 8. Ss. 2R.? IB1gsHOUTeee ee eeoer cee ee LON Nii ae ppeeelleseee 354 Ss. s. Ss. s. Black Anthony......-- NO 2g SOA eer |Sele se ee Ss. Ss. Ss. s. Black Beauty..........- Fiabe lite |ibplyameen oat 252 342 Ss. Ss. S. Ss. Black Diamond......... LOS) y S14 eee Ses: oleae Sey eee se a Shite Black Tartarian.-.....-- AE) ee dbs Oe tee ea Ss. Ss. Ss. Ss. Bumper Crop..-...-...- 91 ULSI eee es ee Ss. Seelleas: Ss. Challenge........-...-.. Sree eel bend 273 S. s. Ss. Ss. Clydesdale............-- SOP e120! eine eyes eae oe S. Ss. Ss. 38? Colorado No. 9.....-...- Beye oma Seale ae 336 Ss. Ss. Ss. S. Conqueror........--.---- SG 1798 | Sees eee Ese Ss. Ss. Ss. Ss. Culberson selection... .- GS cee 2 Goll eae eee eee Ss. S. Ss. S. DanishyGianteseeseeses 69s QP4|sandaleassoe Ss. Ss. Ss. 8. Early Champion.-.-.-..-. A Serene | eet ovell erecta Ss. STR S. |5R.+S8.| Mixed seed. Early Gothland......... Dee ee er eoeine . 26 Ss. 6S.? Ss. 7R.? English Wonder. ...-..-.- HOY) MOlescsdletcsclesoace Ss. Ss. Ss. Ss. GartontNo5==--- 2-2-5 - = Sores Oe epee I Sates Ss. Ss. Ss. Ss. Garton No. 396.......-.. AG Se shelley ee jee 405 S. Ss. Ss. S. Goldminese sess eee 103) 1805'- 2-2 - besee jseeeoe Ss. s. Ss. S. Green Mountain. . ..- OTe OO ees A Ses = ances S. Ss. Ss. Ss. Green Russian........-. Atari 8) Ss ces 350 S. S. Ss. |8R.+S. Do. JOHNSONEEE ae eee eee =e TOG)! es eee odeescclscesse Ss. S. Ss. Ss. JMS ais eee ee Oey | MED ee eoolbctec|sosecs S. Ss. S. Ss. Kane Oscare eee ieee Shey Se se ed 341 Ss. Ss. Ss. Ss. WUISOWON gece ee eceee ae 1 Sees levee eames 6 S. Ss. S. Ss. Hin colmeeeens eres sees ot Roel mececs | ASSee 340 Ss. Ss. Ss. Ss. IBICKebtieeeee pene oes canoe fate|| el (ts) eee eee eee Ss. Ss. Ss. S. Roosevelt .......-------- 43 | uaeee era ls steal aa 8 2 391 e Ss. Ss. e 10 13 9 74 e 11 12 ? P Ruakura Rustproof....| 79)....-- (UN eoeeal wecens (+8.) \ R.+ }28.2 { +8. \ Do. 1 Normal infection on one plant; on the other, only a few uredinia surrounded by purple blotches. 2 Only a few abnormally small uredinia in 14 days after inoculation. 3 No uredinia in 10 days after inoculation, and finally only one on each culm, accompanied by purple color of host tissue. 4 Only a few tiny uredinia on each leaf. 5 Normal] uredinia on one culm; only a few on the other. 6 Infection only fairly vigorous. j 7 Unusually small uredinia first appeared 14 days after inoculation. 8 Normal infection on one culm; no uredinia on the other. 9 The results with this variety probably were more interesting and valuable than those from any other included in the test, for there were signs of resistance to both rusts at both stages of growth. This variety is of undoubted value as a source of the character of rust resistance, the more so because of its resemblance to yellow and white oat varieties of the Avena sativa group. : 10 Six leaves severely rusted; on four only extremely small uredinia. In two pots of seedlings later inoculated no normal infection resulted. 1 Flecks only; no uredinia. Within two weeks the small dark telia, characteristic of resistant varieties, were formed. Uredinia moderately abundant, somewhat small and surrounded by yellow flecks. 13 On one plant uredinia were abundant and of normal size. On the other plant they were small and tardy in breaking through the epidermis. 10 Tasre 1—Summary of notes on the rust resistance of oat varieties tested in the greenhouse at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., 1915—16—Continued. 14 Normal uredinia in the usual time on one plant; on the other culm subepidermal uredinia, at first small and surrounded by spots of purple color, but later rupturing the epidermis and attaining normal 6 Uredinia usually numerous, but small. Epidermis not always ruptured early; on some plants only [R.= resistant; S.= susceptible] flecks with tiny uredinia were formed. _16 Few uredinia, normal in size similar in appearance to those commonly present on so: : S oiten observed adjacent to stem-rust uredinia and may indicate an unusual disturbance in the physiologi¢ activities of the host cells, whether or not they are directly related to the question of resistance. ~ but accompanied by blotches of purple color, probably an anthocyani n, rghum and maize plants. These blotches w Mi Light infection; uredinia few and of small size. 18 Light infection; uredinia tardy-in a is Normal infection on five leaves; li Teint Fe % Normalinfection on six leaves, medium on two, and only a light infection on two. BULLETIN 629, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. u ~ {R(T ta tn tn ta tM CAB Mm A ta to ta tn tH ED LAN 21 Only a very few tiny uredinia, formed 14 days after inoculation. = No uredinia on leaves of first seedlings inoculated; the leaves appeared dry and dead within a few days afterinoculation. In the second series inoculated, only one leaf was severely infected. Eight showed medium infection. and on one no uredinia app 2% Normal infection on one plant; no indication of infection on the other. eared. ive] pais yarn gan gan ta a tn ata pag ta gn Pp at earing and never reaching normal size. t infection on two leaves. { | Identification numbers. | Crown rust. Stem rust. | f= | os, - | | : J { DpSteae ae (anes oem Variety. A | ee al Bar 2 (pe! ge eee ee: as Remarks, =1 8. aE efail z = co) 28 Bleel"2|,|/4] 2 | 23 | B | ss Blelssl.|q] 3 > dad lace fe ede cae eo (od Pa es es ae ie |e SO JO) a | aan 9 | Ps loam | & ————— ————— ——_ | 1 | | 1 | 3 | 4 sje| 7 | s 924 ibe} | | | Common (sativa) varieties— | | | | Continued. | | { Scottish Chief..........- 72 Bes S| Bae a Lea s. 8. Sm tee Sy, Sensation. _*__--.--=--:] 107|” 381i)-__-_ 4 S31 WSS Ses: Shadeland Challenge..--| 71)------ } 680}... __ 8. Se Lit S ee Shadeland Climax...___- yy) Sone | 681) Ss. Se a eis 8. plareds Se ee: Se ee 2 2 ee | Pees ert Ss. S:. -| 8 Ss. Siberia. 252 222 (eee ease ea 8. S.41 98.258; Sixty-Day (Minn.)_..__- a bees eet Ae) Ss. Sg Saal Sixty-Day (parent). ---- epee eee Ee BS ete 7 Si) 5) est | CSP es! Storm King............- rr bots 2 eas Bape Be Ss. 8) | 8. vassal Stalie ose ae aes: 87) 17262 1: ae es | SM | Shisigeed Swedish Select....--_--- a oe | sores 8: Seo: gs. oh Seggeaaly White Bonanza --..--.-- | presale we Ean (Ek )- A038) 2, BE ee ieee White Russian......_..- faz ke IR oe ; 304 8S. SD | [etsy s. Winte Partarian (cheek){| bien 2 hee ee ee Sees 15 $8.2 R. White Tartarian._._..- | 101) 1803,-.__- ee (eae eet So oleae 16S? White Wonder... .-.... ee eae Nice aery 299) 8. 8. S.-|-- S24 Unnamed. 22232 5 igs 2 i © L iceees (Pe dS, ee Pai Gi2" pore a 8.9 FESaN LIE Ae Oe eae AOR Wiki (cece 609|25259)....-- s. 18 S.? 5. | S- Avena sativa (botanical | | / : 1 races): | Avena sativa........--.- 1220s e Se 125356}. - - = - 1S. s. | S. s. | 265 s. SOE is | s. s. s. §.--] Ss: Ss. s. 8. | 9§.? 8. s. »§$.? &. 8. Ss. [ESS S: s. lames} s. s. s. Ss. | s. s. | s. b Sioa Ss. Ss. d s. B s. s. s. | s. 2R.? Sti Ss. Ss. s. s. s. ES) s. s S. 8. 8. bs) R. s. i a RUST RESISTANCE OF OAT VARIETIES. Ut TABLE 1.—Sunvmary of notes on the rust resistance of oat varieties tested in the greenhouse at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., 1915—16—Continued. [R.= resistant; S.= susceptible.] *Identification numbers. Crown rust. Stem rust. Variety. Bale | Sc ie : as : ao Remarks. = ous qa ° n 42 S| n ~ | S nm |. 5 < op Gey op Cie a & =} || = [onl 5 a DQ op | n Wy Be (eae | og) BN eel eee shee ia apf E SP te 4a Vs NS nan | & nD a Dn ae 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 OH | Avena sativa (botanical | races)—Continued. aul A.S. trisperma._....-..- ZANE Sia sale SS citi iP stems 24R.? 25 R.? Ss. Ss. ACS DOUNNC Ame =a eee PAL aie mea eee eee bas oe iS) Ss. Ss. S. JN. Ss WANN ee ee ocec dese DOS PAR ss|| See SN oon ae pa aatese S) Ss. S. Ss. A.S. praegravis......._. 290 EI eee es Wscstsbicts Ss Ss. Ss. Ss. Mixed seed. YA Sh AINE eas 6be cee SO, Se alleoeaeleoeee eee iS) Ss. S. Ss. DORs Sees S02 Rees sae ry Oi a iS) S. S. Ss. DORE ee a 303 |Hesaa|e seals oacelsaece iS) 26R.? Ss. Ss. Miscellaneous species of Avena: Avena barbata 278.2? |?8R.?+S.| S. S. DEG VASM eee tees iS) Ss. s. S. Does fs Ces! 29 §.? 30 R.? Ss. Ss. INTE TO Beha Ser AS Se ese at 02) | ag ee [nee | er i ee eS a me Sees ses S. Do. A. f. glabrata... Ss. Ss. Ss. S. A. ludoviciana Ss. S. Ss. Ss. SING 1910 (0 Gee oe atte a Ss. Ss. Ss. Ss. IDO Sette ace as ieee 1a) secede 16894}. _.... Ss. 8. S. | 1 R.? Do. ANS OniEN ITS jQUrCe pe. ll Ai Soo cllegeosllaceacdicoa-os Ss. 8. s. Ss. BAM ONDTISHISs= = eee OL Sarees eeeitel Bemen beese= Ss. Ss. Ss. Ss: AP ONUAL AL CA eee eae QO geese salecec nl certeere Ss. S. Ss. Ss. VAT OMA CAe aes ene Till eae ee eee eae a es te Ss. Ss. S. | 3 R.? ING CRUE Eos eee eee FeO IE pyar eerie len 2 ea eaeeee ack Ss. Ss. Ss. S. Avon Obtusatal ease ee FUG SA ENEl Wee esas GESere S. 33 R.? Ss. Ss. AG PULPULCA ste se ane 12 ee ea AEM socss Ss. s. S. | 34R.? Do. Avena sterilis and varieties: Avena sterilis..........- | 116 MEPS ae = S. 35 $.? S. Ss. 1 DY) ere Ea es Sei S206 lees seen ee reeta lbeoeae Ss. Ss. S. Ss. Algerian Red. -.-....._.. AFT brave eRe he era AES Sa S. Ss. Ss. Ss. RAO RACS Set nce nee see (Al eae G95 (oe oleae | 36 R.? Ie o> alse Ss. BURG eee aera store ee) [Me 4 ena eerie in ye Reyes 37 §.? Rl SH S. 24 Tn the first series inoculated, small uredinia on two out of nine leaves, flecks only on seven. Allleaves soon dry and dead. In the second series inoculated, heavy infection occurred on five and light infection on five. 25 Hlecks: only 10 days after inoculation; later a few tiny uredinia, accompanied and surrounded by many flecks. at No uredinia 10 days after inoculation; later a few tiny ones on each leaf, surrounded by flecked areas of host tissue. 27 In the first series fairly heavy infections were obtained on all leaves inoculated, but uredinia were small. In the second series normal infection on two leaves, medium on eight, and light on two. 28 Heavy infection on only one leaf; only a few tiny uredinia on the other two. 29 Tn the first series of inoculations fairly vigorous infections were obtained on some of the leaves. On other leaves only a few small uredinia appeared, the leaf soon drying and turning brown. In a second series, normal infection occurred on all leaves inoculated. qi pata ae only 10 days after inoculation. A few small uredinia appeared later, accompanied by distinct ecks. 31 On one plant, uredinia nearly normal in size, but accompanied by purple blotches; no uredinia were produced on the other plant. 32 Uredinia few and small; infection not heavy. 33 No evidence of infection in 10 days after inoculation; the few uredinia finally produced were small. 34 Uredinia normal on one plant; on the other small and surrounded by purple blotches. 35 Flecks only on one of the two leaves inoculated. The leafsoon dried up. A large number of normal uredinia appeared on the tip of the other leaf. On most of the leaf surface, however, there were very few uredinia but many flecks. : 36 Of the first series of 11 leaves inoculated 5 were heavily infected, while on 6 only flecks were evident. Tn the second series inoculated uredinia were produced on all leaves but were accompanied by many yel- lowish flecks, and larger blotches of dead host tissue surrounded each uredinium. 37 In the first series of leaves inoculated 6 out of 10 leaves were rather heavily rusted, 1 showed light infec- tion, and on 3 only flecks appeared. In the second series nearly normal infections were secured on all the 8 leaves inoculated. In the third series medium to good infection resulted on all 11 leaves inocu- lated. Many of the uredinia were of normal size, but surrounded by light yellowish green flecks. . 38 Ho uredinia. Rather indistinct light-green flecks were observed, indicative of the presence of rust yphe. 1 BULLETIN 629, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie L.—Summary of notes on the rust resistance of oat varieties tested in the greenhouse at Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., 1915-16—Continued. [R.= resistant; S.= susceptible.] Identification numbers. Crown rust. Stem rust. se ca % 7g 3 o|5 Fs + ra] og 26 Variety. ai/3.|/8¢2 : of 2g ; te Remarks. Silas] Ss < Be as ae ee alael/selai - = Be |B | Ze eS See | iiee sce lore aad SHOT Om) a fs A & a | & 1 2)| Ss ea lis (ieeuaaey SS) oe aie | |__| Avena sterilis and varie- | ties—Continued. | 1377 ea eae eee! NAY (eiieee! [emma t,!, i) Sule eae 29R.7 | OR. Soin aos 1 ae ene Ie EO) Near | me WT pT) ahs RE RS | 2.7 Sa al 8! arly Ripe s-sseee p25 se ooo Pe ea ee 2 Re ioe Rese 3R.(+S) #R. eee | ligstese Cook. 2. 2 se eee TSE AES MOOT. Ss sae 6R.? | 4R, eee ||) ae) ilo ina 2 ees ee ieee O04 Sh alee ne AT SAP ASRS Sr iew se Golden’ Rustproot--2 5. -) (Ghee! er Taney. alee eeee 49S.? 30 R.? Ss. Ss. < Ds ee eee eee ieee A! | WC) earl (nel Eras Ss. Ss. 8. s. Ttalian Rustproof.-..-.-|| S4)..--..| 388).2.-}2--.-- s. Ss. Ss. |1S.278 ae re reel sel acy Pee Ss PhS 3) 7) [iam [ee Ss. s. 8. s. Italian Rustproof selec- 5 SE eae 52 R. 53R s. s. tion. Red Rustproof.......... DAV AT ears Jie | 309 S. s. s. s. Red Rustproof selection| 52 _..__. pS oy ieee ea ae * 54$.? Ss. S. |5R.+S. Ao. oat ee ees gr py eae RISSt |e foal ee oe 56R.? | 57 R. Ss. Ss. DO es ee ae (fae TOO Fo 58 §.? s. 8. |_ 5S. Siberian Red........-.-- rt eee ASTLs te Ss. Ss. S. |59R.? Turkish Rustproof se-| 53)......356-19)....'...--- s. Ss. Ser | S82 lection. | | | Do. ee eee ee Gitta: i | ee OR? | aR. s. S 89 Three series of inoculations were made. Ineachsome leaves wererather heavily rusted, others lightly, and on some no uredinia (only flecks) were formed. Telia were freely produced on leaves where no normal uredinia had previously ruptured the epidermis. 40 Norma] uredinia on one leaf; flecks only on the other. 4. Tn the three series of inoculations made no leaf was heavily rusted. Only a few had even a slight infec- tion, while most of them very quickly showed large reddish brown blotches of dead tissue and smaller yellowish green flecks and no uredinia (see PI. III). 42 Normal infection at the base of each leaf, the upper portion heavily flecked and soon turning brown in color, with no normal uredinia. : 43 In the seven series inoculated, there were both susceptible and resistant plants, the former with many normal uredinia, the latter with few and small uredinia or flecks only. On many leaves, large blotches of host tissue were killed soon after inoculation. On some ofthese, telia were later developed. 44 Of five leaves inoculated, on only one were normal uredinia produced and these only at the base. On one leaf a few tiny uredinia were formed, and on three flecks only appeared. _ 45 In the first series of 6 leaves inoculated, a few light-green flecks furnished the only evidences of infec- tion. In two later series of 6 and 10 leaves inoculated, normal infections occurred on 8 of the 16, while the other 8 had only small uredinia or flecks. 46 No uredinia appeared in three weeks after inoculation; then only tiny ones on one leaf. Distinct flecks were evident. 47 Of 9 leaves in the first series inoculated, 1 was heavily rusted, 6 medium, and on 2 only flecks appeared. Of 14 leaves in a second series, fairly normal infection occurred on all, though some uredinia were rather small. No sharp indications of resistance. 48 Two leaves inoculated; on neither were any normal uredinia produced. Uredinia small and accom- panied by flecks. d 43 In the first series of 8 leaves, normal infection occurred on 5, light on 2, flecks only on 1. In the second series of 9 leaves, 4 were heavily rusted and 5 lightly. 6 No uredinia in 11 days after inoculation, then only 1 or 2 small ones on each leaf. There were also blotches of dead host tissue. 51 No uredinia normal in size or vigor: after 21 days they were still small. 5 52 Of 6 inoculated leaves in the first series, normal infection was produced on 3 and very small uredinia and flecks on 3. No normalintfection occurred on 9 leaves inoculated in the second series. There were only a few tiny uredinia with many flecks. 53 No signs of infection except dead leaf tips. f 54In the first series of 9 leaves inoculated, normal infection was secured on 6, while only flecks ap- — peared on 3in the time characteristic for uredinia. Telia were formed later. In the second series, the © 2 leaves inoculated were rusted heavily. 53 Normal (very heavy) infection on one culm; only a very few small uredinia on the other. _ 56 No evidences of infection on the leaves of the first series inoculated. Only a few tiny uredinia were formed on the 9 leaves in the second series inoculated. 57 Only afew very small uredinia; many flecks. 88 Of 10 leaves in the first series inoculated, 6 were heavily rusted and a light infection on 4. Of 11 leaves in the second series, 6 were heavily rusted, on 4 only a few very small uredinia developed, and on 1 only flecks appeared in the time usual for uredinia formation. An abundance of telia later occurred. 8 No uredinia of normal! size and vigor; only a few tiny ones on each leaf. é ‘ © Of the first’ series of five leaves inoculated, one was very heavily rusted, three had only a light infec- tion, and on one only flecks were produced. All leaves of the second series inoculated were rather heavily rusted, but numerous flecks were observed, also indicating some degree of resistance. 6 Infection not heavy; uredinia on each leaf few and small. RUST RESISTANCE OF OAT VARIETIES. 13 DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. The notes in Table I on the varieties which showed resistance to one or both rusts indicate that rust resistance is very specific and that a particular variety may be entirely susceptible to one rust and somewhat resistant to the attacks of another.t Of the 122 strains tested, 80 unquestionably were susceptible to both rusts in both stages of growth. This does not imply that these varieties are not of great commercial value in other respects and is not sufficient reason for discarding them from cultivation, for at present there are no suitable varieties to substitute for the best of them. It probably does remove them, however, from the list which is to afford promise of rust-resistant varieties. Heavy infections were obtained on practically all of these, and at least some normal -uredinia were formed on all. While such greenhouse tests do not represent field conditions accurately, the optimum conditions for infection provided should make the evidences of resistance which appeared in some varieties all the more valuable. Some of these varieties may show some resistance under field conditions and some of them have properly been recommended as rust-escaping because of their early-ripening habit, as, for instance, the Sixty-Day and Kherson varieties. In 80 out of the 122 cases the results at two distinct periods in the life of the host plant have led to identical conclusions as to the sus- ceptibility of the variety. In some of the resistant varieties, also, both seedlings and mature plants gave the same evidences of re- sistance, though the results are not always in agreement. These susceptible varieties need not be discussed in further detail, but the list includes the following commonly grown sorts: American Ban- ner, Big Four, Ligowo, Lincoln, Siberian, Sixty-Day, Swedish Select, and White Russian. In this list are included also most of the botanical species represented and nearly all of the recently intro- duced foreign varieties. In the Avena sterilis group also, where most of the resistance to crown rust is found, several strains are very susceptible to the crown rust, as, for instance, Greenhouse No. 296, Red Algerian, and one strain each of Golden Rustproof, Italian Rustproof, Red Rustproof, and Turkish Rustproof. Not all varieties of the Avena sterilis group show perceptible re- sistance to either rust, and great care should be exercised in recom- mending to farmers these or other varieties as rust resistant. Still greater care is necessary in choosing a strain to use as a parent 1The studies of these varieties indicate the necessity for selecting and working from individual plants, for certainly within the same variety, and even within a line supposed to be pure for other characters, differences of a major degree in rust resistance exist. 14 BULLETIN 629, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. variety with the purpose of obtaining a resistant variety through hybridization. : None of the seedlings of the 23 varieties belonging to the Avena — sterilis group showed any resistance to the stem rust, and in only three of the varieties did the plants inoculated at heading time give any evidence of resistance to this rust. It is entirely safe to conclude ~ that all of these varieties are quite susceptible to stem rust, and the — Avena sterilis group probably will offer little in the way of resistance : to stem rust that is of value to the plant breeder. Of these 23 varieties 16 show some degree of resistance to crown — rust, Certain strains were strikingly resistant in both the seedling — stage and at heading time, and from the clear-cut evidences of re- — sistance there can be no doubt of the presence of resistance to crown — rust in varieties of this group. These varieties which are actually resistant to crown rust, if found — to be high in yield, should replace some of the “rustproof” types now being grown in the Southern States. They may be of use also in the breeding of rust-resistant varieties for culture in other sections of the country. | Table I shows that there are many more cases of resistance to the ~ crown rust than to the stem rust. This is especially true of the work on seedlings, where none of the varieties tested except White Tar- tarian and Ruakura Rustproof showed any resistance to stem rust. In the studies of both rusts, more apparent cases of resistance are recorded from the inoculations made on the plants at the time of heading. This may be due to the fact that plants are more susceptible as seedlings than when more mature. It is more likely, however, that some of the failures to get normal or heavy infection were due to the fact that it was more difficult to wet thoroughly, and hence inoculate heavily, the upper leaf blades and sheaths than the young seedling leaves. The use of the word “ immune” is avoided, for in the forms studied — none were observed in which very distinct evidences of infection did — not appear. The words “resistant” and “resistance” are used only in a relative sense and refer to that condition in which normal urediniospore production by the fungus was either prevented or seriously interfered with. As Stakman (13) has pointed out, the quality which is called resistance may actually be, in the extreme sense, susceptibility or hypersensitiveness. It amounts to “ commer- cial resistance,” using that expression to describe a variety which will suffer less severe damage in the field than some others. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. (1) Two distinct rusts of oats are common in the United States: (a) Stem rust, Puccinia graminis avenae Erikss. and Henn., and (2) RUST RESISTANCE OF OAT VARIETIES. 15 crown or leaf rust, Puccinia lolit avenae McAlpine. The stem rust is more common in the North, while the crown rust, though practically always present, seems to be most abundant and serious in the South. (2) Greenhouse studies are of value in determining varietal re- sistance under optimum conditions for infection. These studies, how- ever, should always be supplemented by rust nursery and field trials. (3) Plants of more than 120 strains of oats were inoculated at two different periods of growth (the seedling stage and the heading stage) and their reaction to both rusts determined. (4) The inoculations made on these varieties were as follows: Stem rust.—Seedlings, 1,256; headed plants, 260. Crown rust.—Seedlings, 1,480; headed plants, 260. Total, 3,256. (5) Of more than 120 strains tested, 80 were found to be entirely susceptible to both rusts at both stages of growth. Unquestionable resistance to stem rust was present in only two varieties, White Tar- tarian and Ruakura Rustproof. Several varieties of the red-oat group (Avena sterilis), including certain strains of Burt, Cook, Appler, Italian Rustproof, Red Rustproof, and Turkish Rustproof, are very resistant to the crown rust. Ruakura Rustproof and certain recently introduced species of Avena also gave indications of resist- ance to crown rust. (6) Rust resistance is shown to be specific, for many of the varie- ties which are resistant to crown rust are thoroughly susceptible to the stem rust under identical conditions. The evidences of resistance described for wheat are shown to apply also to resistant oat varie- ties. In addition, the early production of telia on seedling leaves has been observed and is believed to be an indication of resistance. (7) Further search must be made for varieties resistant to stem rust. (8) Varieties of the Avena sterilis group which are really resistant to the crown rust, if found to be high in yield, should replace other “rustproof” varieties now being grown in the Southern States. None of the varieties of this group which have been tested will with- stand the attacks of stem rust. (9) A basis is now offered for making selections and crosses to produce improved oat varieties resistant to crown rust and suitable for culture in the several oat-growing areas of the United States. (1) | (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7) | (8) (9) | (10) (11) (12) (13) LITERATURE CITED. BIrFen, R. H. 1907. Studies in the inheritance of disease resistance. In Jour. Agi Sci., v. 2, p. 109-128. CABLETON, M. A. 1903. Culture methods with Uredineze. In Jour. Appl. Micros. and: Lab. Methods, v. 6, no. 1, p. 2109-2114. Coss, N. A. 1890-94. Contributions to an economic knowledge of the Australian rusts (Uredineae). In Agr. Gaz. N. S. Wales, v. 1, p. 185- 214, illus., 1890; v. 3, p. 44-68, 181-212, illus., 1892; v. 4, p. 431-470, 503-515, illus., 1893; v. 5, p. 239-253, illus., 1894. ~ Evans, I. B. P. ; 1908. Report of the acting botanist and plant pathologist. In Rpt. Transvaal Dept. Agr., 1906/07, p. 155-172. ; FRoMME, F. D. 1913. The culture of cereal rusts in the greenhouse. Jn Bul. Torrey Bot. Chub. v. 40, no. 9, p. 501-521. Literature, p. 519-521. Marryat, DorotHEA C. E. 1907. Notes on the infection and histology of two wheats immune to the attacks of Puccinia glumarum, yellow rust. Jn Jour. Agr. Sci., v. 2, pt. 2, p. 129-138, pl. 2. MELcHERS, L. E. 1915. A way of obtaining an abundance of large uredinia from arti- ficial culture. Jn Phytopathology, v. 5, no. 4, p. 236-237. MELHws, I. E. 1912. Culturing of parasitic fungi on the living host. In Phyto- pathology, v. 2, no. 5, p. 197-208, 2 fig., pl. 20. MorGENTHALER, OTTO. 1910. Uber die Bedingungen der Teleutosporenbildung bei den Ure- } dineen. Jn Centbl. Bakt. (etc.), Abt. 2, Bd. 27, No. 1/3, Dp. 73-92, 18 fig. Literatur, p. 91-92. Norton, J. B. 1913. Methods used in breeding asparagus for rust resistance. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 263, 60 p., 4 fig., 18 pl. SmirH, R. E. 1904. The water-relation of Puccinia asparagi. . . Im Bot. Gaz., v. 38, no. 1, p. 19-48, 21 fig. . STAKMAN, E. C. , 1914. atette lt; | Buttermutlollee cease sass see ose 9 Methods of procedure.............--.--..--.- 43 WAAC, Ol codsaccoosnseoocooeouec 11 SILO ICIS: cogepeese anne Ese eRe Caer siete Bai! Jenlai aaauis Ol oooesecodassossasuscouseass 13 PREMON GOI. (oss jecle2 scceidlanes Sosnee ele ss Arms Becarvoil-as mass seo oh ees oe SERED tees 15 Black-walnut Oil... 2... +-o-te-s-e0-05- GUIMConcluslons Preece seacenernere aes eeeeiee 17 SESEAZ TCT OL oy .fere ferr eleictei ~ 7 BULLETIN 630, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. not be purchased in any considerable quantities and are little used in this country as such, very considerable quantities are consumed annually as a constitutent of the nuts in which they occur. Inasmuch as sufficient quantities of these nut oils could not be procured in the open market, a supply of good grade nuts of the varieties to be studied was procured and the oils were expressed under laboratory conditions with a hydraulic press having a capacity of 35 tons pressure on a 6-inch plunger. All of the oils were “cold pressed ” and were of excellent quality, being in such good condition that no refining wasnecessary. They were allowed to stand some hours in order that any suspended matter might settle and then they were fil- tered through one thickness of ordinary filter paper. In all instances the oils were of good color, without odor, and possessed a bland flavor; in one or two instances more or less of the characteristic flavor of the nuts from which the oils were derived could be detected. Since they were used within a short time after they were expressed, little information was obtained in regard to the keeping quality of the oils. The press cake remaining after the oils had been expressed from ~ the nuts was quite palatable though not as “rich” as the nuts, and rather dry if eaten alone. The characteristic flavor of the nuts was retained by it and was in many cases intensified. Since the press cake was derived from a good grade of cleaned nuts it had consider- able interest as a possible food material, especially in view of its high protein content. That obtained from several varieties of nuts was accordingly studied in this office from a dietetic standpoint, and various recipes for its use were developed. The value and possible uses of such press cake will be discussed in a later publication. In the studies of the digestibility of the 16 animal or vegetable fats, reported in previous bulletins, an average of eight tests was made with each fat; in only one case were there less than five experiments. Because of the limited available supply of the oils considered in this paper only three or four tests could be made with the oils studied. METHODS OF PROCEDURE. The digestion experiments with the nut oils were conducted by the same methods as those with the animal and vegetable fats already reported, the object being to maintain identical experimental condi- tions for each fat studied and thus to make the values obtained for the digestibility of the different- fats directly comparable with one another. As in the earlier experiments, a blanemange, or cornstarch pud- dmg, served as the medium for introducing the fat under considera- tion, The blancmange was prepared by the method outlined in a DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME NUT OILS. 3 previous paper* and in amounts sufficient to supply all the subjects for the entire experimental veriod. In order to mask the presence of the large quantity of fat and to secure a blancmange which would be of uniform color and flavor for all experiments, thus avoiding as far as possible any psychic effects, a caramel solution was added to the blancmange during its preparation.’ The accessory foods which the diet contained in addition to the blancmange and which were selected because they supplied a mini- mum of fat, were wheat biscuit, oranges, and sugar. In case the subjects so desired, they were permitted to take tea or coffee, without milk or cream, with their meals. AJl constituents of the diet ex- cept the tea or coffee were eaten cold. The feces resulting from the diet under consideration were identi- fied by means of charcoal taken in gelatin capsules with the first meal of the test period and with the first meal following the test period. The feces were collected in weighed glass containers and dried in an electric oven regulated to maintain a temperature of 95° C., pulverized and analyzed. The urine was not collected or analyzed, and no attempt was made to maintain a nitrogen equi- librium, since in this investigation attention was centered on the digestibility of the fats. The customary three-day or nine-meal test period was judged to be of sufficient duration to permit of satisfactory analytical results and still not so long as to become monotonous. No record of the body weights of the subjects was kept, but the men were expected to submit a report of their physical condition during the interdiet periods as well as during the experimental periods. As they re- ported being in normal physical condition throughout the investiga- tion their reports will not be referred to in detail. SUBJECTS. Men between 20 and 40 years of age, of normal health and appetite, served as subjects for this investigation. With one exception, they were all students and, while they were mainly engaged in mental activities, their exercise was enough to make their energy require- ments considerably in excess of those persons with sedentary occu- pations. They had all had previous experience in such experimental work and fully appreciated the necessity for accuracy in carrying out the directions given, saving uneaten portions of food, collecting 10. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 310 (1915). 2Recently Plaisance and Monsch (Jour. Home Econ., 9 (1917), No. 4, p. 167) have reported that when caramel is prepared by heating sugar at temperatures of 180° C. and 200° C. from 0.02 per cent to 0.09 per cent of furfurol is formed. The authors further: state that if the-caramel is subsequently cooked in the presence of water the furfurol is, removed, which perhaps may explain the absence of any toxic effects resulting from the. use of caramel in the preparation of the blancmange. 7 4 BULLETIN 630, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. feces, etc. While there were no prescribed hours for eating, the subjects were informed that regularity was desired and they were requested to follow their normal daily routine as far as possible. ALMOND OIL. Commercial almond oil is obtained by subjecting the seeds of Prunus amygdalus to hydraulic pressure. Almond oil, of which considerable quantities appear in commerce, is principally used in the preparation of ointments, emulsions, and toilet soaps. It pos- sesses, however, all the essentials characteristic of an edible oil, and hence the question of its value as human food is an interesting one. The literature shows no investigations of the digestibility of almond oil as such. In a series of digestion experiments conducted to determine the relative digestibility of fruits and nuts Jaffa+ studied the digesti- bility of almonds eaten in conjunction with bananas, apples, dates, clives, and oranges combined in different ways. The total fat of the diet was found to be 84 per cent digested. Inasmuch as 83 per cent, or approximately 97 grams of the 117 grams of fat eaten daily, was derived from the almonds, this value should very nearly repre- sent the digestibility of almond oil when eaten as a constituent of almonds. The almond oil studied in this investigation was prepared by ex- pression from a supply of first quality sweet almond nuts purchased in the open market. The oil which was obtained had no marked flavor or odor and, judged by household tests, was a very satisfac- tory table oil. It was incorporated in the usual cornstarch blanc- mange and eaten by the four subjects who assisted in this study. The results of the four experiments are included in the following table: Data of digestion experiments with almond oil in a simple mized diet. | | Constituents of foods. Experiment, subject, and diet. weg j Be ; r A arbo- | Water. Protein.| Fat. hydrates. Ash. Experiment No. 555, subject H. R. G.: Grams. | Grams. Grams. | Grams.| Grams. | Grams. Blanemange containing almond oil.-...-..- 1, 463.0 672.0 27.4 170.9 580.0 12.7 Wihlest DiScuits 42) ta. 25) es. See cee 306.0 27.6 32. 4 4.6 236.5 4.9 13 gt See ees See mee nie = = See 458.0 398.0 3.7 0.9 53.1 2.3 SHB. . oscio scans scososseec seco seecctosae 60) |boueecogas soosece a-|b=s265e05 17.0) |---2 eee Totalfood consumed..........-...-.---- 2,244.0 | 1,097.6 63.5 176.4 886.6 19.9 TR OCES See eo ee ns TL eee aeri 24.6 6.7 40.0 5.7 JReTITs er ia D720 Le ee eme mes nesparees| Mecce dese bocteroees 38.9 169.7 846.6 14.2 Percentwitilizedees sae) pene ees ele. eee [eee eee 61.3 96.2 95.5 71.4 1U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Bul. 132 (1903). DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME NUT OILS. 5 Data of digestion experiments with almond oil in a simple mixed diet—Contd. Constituents of foods. Experiment, subject, and diet. Weight i $ . arbo- Water. | Protein.| Fat. hydrates. Ash. Experiment No. 556, subject A. J. H.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blancmange containing almond oil..-....-.. 1,671.0 767.5 31.2 195.2 662.6 14.5 Wyse ti biscuit heen tne Seer sacs sega ccc jaisemeser lec ne ep el eats onal nec aeerel [Erect noo | aioe ore JOT: oosGoaheaSeneEnpoaHeeranasenceuaee ts 324.0 281.6 2.6 0.6 37.6 1.6 SULT we leosyorstt ete aeye re dia ite Sralctelaje mere eo eretete = 42:1 OU [raph exch year arsietees eterefall ari ckesieiee ADNO) | Peesaece Total food consumed......-.-.-.-------- 2,037.0} 1,049.1 33.8 195.8 742. 2 16.1 GCI5 56 dashes anedsSr ene S BSA Be aaie ace me eG Dal os seretatsey 27.1 26.9 21.4 9.6 Avan @\buayH Bh ALY AROS Coe onadcocee coda soseeeets Sects cada. lpSsocecone 6.7] 168.9 720. 8 | 6.5 IB ERCOMtUttlI Zed ee eas eases ce one co EERE Cette 19.8 86.3 97.1 40.4 Experiment No. 557; subject P. K.: Blancmange containing almond oil-....--. 2, 069. 0 950.3 38.7 241.7 820.3 18.0 Whea tip iscuit app a oS: BSS nearest 320.0 28.8 33.9 4.8 247.4 5.1 IMAGES oss Ge NBEE SOE C EOE eE EEC eee ae Sener 638.0 554.4 5.1 1,83 74.0 3.2 SUS e meme ee acietrn toads aeinewe tae ae fee GSU Psasssonas seeds once seas esar GEO llsaaasace Totalfood consumed............-.-.---- 3,094.0 | 1,533.5 Ute tl 247.8 | 1,208.7 26.3 EGOS s pp bssedeescase eeeeteeesaes muse sees SOs Osi penaGoenee 28. 4 13.7 38.7 8.2 BASTIV OVINE AG ULTZO Cag opt rcya tas Seayate eye te iVobs paket om ov OSS lea re oe 49.3 234.1 | 1,170.0 18.1 Rencentauitilizedeymie casa ea heee reacties cee ce ceeeeeee 63.4 94.5 96.8 68.8 Experiment No. 558, subject C. J. W.: Blancmange containing almond oil......-. 1,945.0 893.3 36.4 227.2 771.2 16.9 WANS tibiscuitmem: 2 hss. 8 ee ee eee 287.0 25.8 30. 4 4.3 221.9 4.6 IDTUNIE. 5w/s abo nes CREE aeE as oee Soe eaeanE 975.0 847.3 7.8 1.9 113.1 4.9 SIP AT SS Pee Sek atcraert. tines Sais tie mitre scree oe 24 ON in eoneisc 4|actrioaeelles cites 7A) |e s5eecon Totalfood consumed.........-.-.------- 3,236.0 | 1,766.4 74.6 233.4 | 1,135.2 26.4 IO COS Brreperanriceeterem ic nie laiee ore crnizie si etaliniecsyeeiais VOQNOS eee secre 32.8 10.7 50. 2 8.3 ANmin yore TAU l SE ee secede ee care Hb ae ce oneal Benen cecdalsodeeeneee 41.8 222.7 | 1,085.0 18.1 JERSE Levan hae UU Ase | A 9 Sere eee aes earner aT el eee | | ACN 56.0 95.4 95.6 68.6 Average food consumed per subject per day... 884.3 453.9 20.8 71.1 331.1 7.4 Summary of digestion experiments with almond oil in a simple mixed diet. { Carbo- hydrates. Ash. Experiment No. Subject. Protein. Fat. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. 453. SER SRA S Res Ue Res 18 Tul Ra G uae Aaa Saeamietnet nt yan ete 61.3 96. 2 95.5 71.4 EEO oh SOO ERE ne coer ae 2 Need) a Dee eee et re ee Ono ora 19.8 86.3 97.1 40 4 DY. 6 BEB SEBO A RS Sup eerie ER Ke se ia ais /e amas os oe SOE 63.4 94.5 96.8 68.8 PIS eyed Aint oir cere cise see CAI Weee aks cecicows 2s Bee 56.0 95.4 95.6 68.6 MASVCFALO cn /sis Sao Ree ee 50.1 93.1 96.3 62.3 In the four experiments made with the almond oil an average of 21 grams of protein, 71 grams of fat (of which 70 grams was almond oil), and 331 grams of carbohydrates was eaten per man per day, and of these amounts 50.1 per cent of the protein, 93.1 per cent of the fat, and 96.3 per cent of the carbohydrates was digested. The value, 93.1 per cent obtained for the digestibility of fat, applies to the digesti- bility of the total fat of the diet and is increased to 97.1 when allow- ance is made for the undigested residue resulting from the basal ration and occurring in the ether extract of the feces. 6 BULLETIN 630, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The coefficient of digestibility of almond oil as determined by these — experiments is, for all practical purposes, identical with the coeffi-— cient of digestibility, 97 per cent, reported in an earlier paper’ of this — series for the most widely used animal fats, butter, and lard. : wr. ee BLACK-WALNUT OIL. Black-walnut oil, which is obtained from the nuts of Juglans nigra, is commercially classified as a drying oil. When free from fatty acid, it is said to be preferred to any other oil for making artists’ white paints, since it makes them less liable to crack than if prepared — with linseed oil. Black walnuts are rich in oil,? 56 per cent being contained in the edible portion, and when subjected to pressure yield — a yellow oil possessing the characteristic odor and flavor of the nuts. Although this flavor is esteemed by many, it is somewhat too pro- nounced to make this oil as generally adaptable for cooking or salad purposes as the others here considered. A supply of first quality nuts was obtained from a local dealer. The kernels were ground in a common household meat chopper, after which the oil was extracted by hydraulic pressure without heating; approximately a 50 per cent yield resulting. In all other determinations of the coefficients of digestibility of the many fats included in this series, the basal ration served in conjunc- tion with the blancmange, which contained the fat under considera- tion, consisted of wheat biscuit, fruit, sugar, and tea or coffee if de- sired. The basal ration served in the experiments with the black- walnut oil was of a slightly different composition, because, owing to the exhaustion of the available supply of the wheat biscuit, it be- came necessary to replace them by crackers. However, since the com- position of the crackers was quite similar to that of the wheat biscuit, it is not thought that this change in the basal ration has in any way vitiated the values obtained in these experiments for comparison with values obtained for the digestibility of other oils studied. Four young men of normal health and activity served as subjects for the tests made with the black-walnut oil; the following tables contain the essential data for interpreting the results obtained. Be ee 1U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 310 (1915). 2U. 8. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Bul. 28 (1906), rey. ed. DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME NUT OILS. 7 Data of digestion experiments with black-walnut oil in a simple mixed diet. Experiment, subject, and diet. Experiment No. 565, subject H. R. G.: Blancmange containing black-walnut oil .. GRO RS Son so cess scac oases as SuBSENaEOEe Total food consumed..-.-...-..........-- HC CES Hee eer sae Seiee Cie cee siiese laces cee eien Amount Utilized = 2 5-25. scc5 seh. ons er CentuUyNized Sec mee & ences sete ae cin Experiment No. 566, subject A. J. H.: Blancmange containing black-walnut oil .. Wrackerseosee see alee Hae as Si cietaicie wsieistow ase WU Gemeeteeeepneis oes seiseisinnicise wee anne + ‘SIRT. G5 Sader dose 0 OCS Rane SESS aoe ee beeone Total food consumed......--.....-...--- ECES eee eon sence eee eee meee PATNIOUMEUT TIM ZO aa no a= sere acs inte re, eee IRETICENG NGI ZEd as sae micas oe oe minke Serer ea Experiment No. 567, subject P. K.: Blancmange containing black-walnut oil .. @rackers--2--<---+-------3-----5----------- Experiment No. 568, subject C. J. W.: Blancmange containing black-walnut oil -- Wrackers’=sheeree ste. Je- sae eee ericentiitilized soccc-<1)-seaSa0-5-5-ees 555 Average food consumed per subject per day... Constituents of foods. ot tosds of foods. . Carbo- Water. | Protein.| Fat. hydrates. Ash. Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams 1, 406. 0 685. 6 27.3 127.1 555. 2 10.8 288. 0 19.9 23.3 38. 6 203. 9 2.3 464.0 403. 2 3.7 1.0 53. 8 2.3 2,158.0 | 1,108.7 54.3 166. 7 812.9 15.4 STOW Beas see 19.5 6.5 20. 2 4.8 oe Se RAR el eeraees ibd 34.8 160. 2 792.7 10.6 a naseeeeen Secie cece 64.1 96.1 97.5 68. 8 1,800. 0 877.7 34.9 162.7 710. 8 13.9 132.0 9.1 10.7 Mera 93.5 1.0 145.0 126. 0 1.2 .3 16.8 St 85:0) aas52Aaacslowaseto ls |Sscteaknk ESC onaeese 2,162.0 1,012.8 46.8 180. 7 906.1 15.6 TUS ON peeeasecac 25.5 14.6 PIE “BP? os ea eeenee Eeeeciesaers 21.3 166.1 883. 4 8.4 ono Sees teens 45.5 91.9 97.5 53.8 2,115.0 | 1,031.3 41.0 191.2 835. 2 16.3 308. 0 2182, 24.9 41.3 218.1 2.5 788. 0 684. 8 6.3 1.6 91.4 3.9 1005 Ob Bac aase ss eeeeas salaeecieeeee LOO} On Kassces 3,311.0 | 1,737.3 72. 2 234.1 1,244.7 22.7 ATEO Nees sacs 17.4 7.8 17.0 4.8 ape 0 eR Eeioede see 54.8 226.3 1, 227.7 17.9 Le er 7519) Meroe 98.6| 78.9 2,125.0] 1,036.1 41.2] 192.1 839.2 16.4 293. 0 20. 2 23.7 39.3 207.5 2.3 792. 0 688. 2 6.3 1.6 91.9 4.0 TE OU Ree eee ccd | eke sete eceeibiee (450): Bests terse 3,284.0 | 1,744.5 71.2 | 233.0] 1,212.6 Dey, SION See 29.4 12.8 30.8 8.0 Ber eooce bosceaceds 41.8 220. 2 1, 181.8 14.7 5... Se | ees Bee 58.7 94.5 97.5 | 64.8 909. 6 466.9 20 67.9 6.4 Summary of digestion experiments with black-walnut oil in a simple mized diet. Experiment No. Subject. Protein. | Carbo- Fat. | hydrates. . | Per cent. 96. 1 Ash. Per cent. | Per cent. Tt will be noted from the above data of the digestion experiments with black-walnut oil that the total fat of the diet was 94.8 per cent digested. On an average 56 grams of black-walnut oil were eaten per man per day. If allowance is made for the ether-extracted material resulting from the nonfatty portion of the diet, the digestibility of 8 BULLETIN 630, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. black-walnut oil becomes 97.5 per cent. The protein and carbohy- drate portions of the diet were 61.1 per cent and 97.8 per cent digested, respectively, figures comparing favorably with those usually obtained - for these constituents in other tests of this series, and indicating “a this oil does not decrease the digestibility of other food materials consumed in conjunction with it. BRAZIL-NUT OIL. Brazil-nut oil is obtained from the seeds of Bertholletia excelsa, which is indigenous to tropical South America, and which occurs there in both the wild and the cultivated state. These nuts are espe- cially rich in oil, which, according to Lewkowitsch, may make up as much as 73 per cent of the dried nuts. The oil, obtained by cold pressing a quantity of fresh Brazil nuts, © was odorless and nearly colorless, and possessed a flavor similar to that of the nuts, though very much less pronounced. Jaffa? studied the digestibility of Brazil nuts when eaten as a part of diets containing such foods as apples, bananas, granose (a wheat preparation), grapes, honey, milk, olive oil, and tomatoes. In the three experiments an average of 106 grams of fat was eaten daily, with an average digestibility of 89 per cent (91.2 per cent, 84.3 per cent, 91.5 per cent) for the total fat, of which 92 per cent was Brazil- nut oil. The following experiments were made to determine the digestibility of Brazil-nut oil under conditions similar to those in the other experi- ments in the present series. a Data of digestion experiments with Brazil-nut oil in a simple mized diet. Constituents of foods. Experiment, subject, and diet. wert of foods. - : Carbo- Water. | Protein. Fat. hydrates. Ash. ] | Experiment No. 551, subject H. R. G.: | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blaacmange containing Brazil-nut oil..... 1,399. 657. 4 | 26.1| 168.9 534. 4 12.2 Wiheatibiscut.- 52-2}. tere e- ee cee 259. 0 23.3 | 27.5 | 3.9 200. 2 4.1 fp | ae ee ee eee ae ee ee 874.0 759. 5 | 7.0 1.7 101. 4 4.4 Sripdas ee ote ee eee oe er ntn ee ee io cee oe on oe acts 56.0 |:2-.20m Total jood consumed .<.- 3 soo 5-5-3 s5-< 7: 2,588.0 1, 440.2 60. 6 174.5 892.0 20.7 MeCes Swe Ses sens ee ose nee 7b) ees 24.3 7.4 36. 4 5.9 Amountatilized=. 2. 8cs8 = asi 2 se ae SS 36.3 167.1 855.6 14.8 Rericent miWlized = oon. «nob e ces enes se sos | pee el eee eee 59.9 95. 8 95.9 71.5 Experiment No. 553, subject P. K.: } Blancmange containing Brazil-nut oil ..../ 2,185.0} 1,026.7 | 263.7| 8347] 19.0 WiheaL Wiseiibs. = cn mese ees ee eae ako 452.0 | 40.7) 47.9 | 6.8 349.4 7.2 ONEIG E922 ot 2855. Ce Ak - a 866.0 752.6 | iy 100.5 4, HPA. ease eee nee coe ence ee eles SEM (See Seer! Pierre! (ae eee 37.0 |. .- eee Total food consumed..............-.---- 3,540.0 | 1,820.0] 95.7] 272.2| 1,321.6 5 Feces :. +--:- ereceet +220 2525225-52 2-22 ie Ee ae 26.1} 12.9 38. 8 7.2 AMONG HME Ko men ee sone e see omens ss ou) == see (Bese 69.6 259.3} 1,282.8 23.3 Per CeMtiMilized oso socs oma ae oe ae | = - Bee acer iP em CES 97.0 76.4 ———— ne 1 Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats, and Waxes. London: Macmillan & Co. (Ltd.), 1909, 4 ed., vol. 2, p. 188. 2Loc. cit. DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME NUT OILS. 9 Data of digestion experiments with Brazil-nut oil in a simple mized diet—Contd. Constituents of foods. Experiment, subject, and diet. queieht ays , : ‘arbo- Water. | Protein.| Fat. hydrates. Ash. Experiment No. 554, subject C. J. W.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blancmange containing Brazil-nut oil...... 2,477.0 | 1,163.9 46.3 299. 0 946. 2 21.6 WWheainDISCUlte a. s2-ece acces genes aoe = 332.0 29.9 35. 2 5.0 256. 6 5.3 JOM DHE S BAe ee eee eee ee ee 1,045.0 908.1 8.4 2.1 121.2 5e2 SS Bieter ese ioc a ie cee ein s sisisiclnjcitei= = =< 22 |s eee oes Seewae see Sema seer | soesiescme eeasen sed [eam tien as Total food consumed............-.-----. | 3,854.0] 2,101.9 89.9 306.1] 1,324.0 32.1 ECOSEE RE eas See tet e eke Steeda asa. 32 P28 Or sates 38. 8 23.6 14.5 PATIOUTI Pall UALIZO Wee one = = erecta poets oe = 5c See | aoe nee 51.1 282.5 | 1,272.9 17.6 RerniGent WiwHlizedass6 eee see se cee ace [hon nape aes | ee ere 56. 8 92.3 96.1 54.8 Average food consumed per subject per day - - s| 1,109.1 | 595. 8 | 27.4 | 83.6 393. 1 9.2 Summary of digestion experiments with Brazil-nut oil in a simple mized diet. Carbo- hydrates.| “Sh. Experiment No. Subject. Protein. Fat. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 59. 9 95.8 95.9 AEE) Go. ccoosaconessdeocccoenss EVR Ghar lsiinecis 22 - eee eaaeeee b PR's sossoosesccosgeconseces pe Ke seer eee > 5 \-s ees Oaser eee 72.7 95. 3 97.0 76. 4 284th oocecccvecsstoecouosees CEUs Whine ens so5 eee eee oe 56. 8 92.3 96. 1 54.8 IAVCTAgePSE ts sosseee eee eee 63. 1 94.5 96.3 67.6 As indicated by the above experiments the digestibility of the protein, fat, and carbohydrate portions of the diet was 63.1 per cent, 94.5 per cent, and 96.3 per cent, respectively. The value for the digestibility of the total fat of the diet, 94.5 per cent, is increased to 96.3 per cent for Brazil-nut oil alone when account is taken of the metabolic products and any undigested portion of the fat supplied by the basal ration. The high digestibility of Brazil-nut oil and the relatively high digestibility of Brazil nuts as a whole, as reported by Jaffa,' would indicate that from a dietetic standpoint these nuts are worthy the high place accorded them as food. BUTTERNUT OIL. The kernel of the butternut (Juglans cinerea) when subjected to pressure yields a light yellow oil which apparently has received little attention from investigators. No report was found in the literature of any study of its physical and chemical properties, its use for in- dustrial or edible purposes, or its nutritive value. In view of the high fat content of butternuts—it is reported ? that the kernels con- tain over 61 per cent of oil—and of the rather extensive use of butter- 1U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Bul. 132 (19038). 2U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Bul. 28 (1899), p. 74, rev. ed. 18030°—18—Bull. 630——2 10 BULLETIN 630, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. nuts in some localities, it appeared desirable to determine the digesti- bility of butternut oil for comparison with the values obtained for the digestibility of other nut oils. Since it was impossible to procure any butternut oil in the market, 2 bushels of nuts were secured in northern New England. When these had been thoroughly dried the kernels were removed and the oil expressed (cold pressed) with a hydraulic press. The freshly made oil possessed the qualities of a good salad oil and did not exhibit in any appreciable degree the characteristic butternut flavor. The chemical and physical properties of this oil were studied by R. H. Kerr, of the Bureau of Animal Industry, whose report describes it as: A clear, golden yellow oil of mild, pleasant odor, and agreeable taste. The refractive index at 40° was found to be 1.4710, and the iodin number 156.90. In this study of its digestibility, the butternut oil was, as usual, incorporated in a cornstarch blancmange and served in conjunction with the customary basal ration. Three subjects assisted in this study and the results which were obtained are reported in the table which follows: Data of digestion experiments with butternut oil in a simple mixed diet. Constituents of foods. Weight Experiment, subject, and diet . ot faa oods. P arbo- Water. | Protein. Fat. hydrates. Ash, Experiment No. 732, subject R. F. C.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blanemange containing butternut oil..) 1,205.0 589.3 27.5 109.3 473.1 5.8 Wihtat bischite-<: 28258 onus sae eno 400.0 36.0 42.4 6.0 309. 2 6.4 TENG es ee ee nee, eee Ls 1,381.0} 1,200.1 11.0 2.8 160. 2 6.9 Sigarcer se tte aoe ae eae eee seen ASd OMS: mc cee ee tace cee liao eereee 184.0}... Soe Total food consumed.................. 3,170.0 | 1,825.4 80.9 118.1} 1,126.5 19.1 Feces..... ae pea eet Be ee 8 8 eee ee VS OMEEES 2 44.1 17.4 42.9 13.6 AmolUuntutilized oso: 2 ee i eal oe ae ee ee ae 36.8 100.7} 1,083.6 5.5 Per Cenc mitilizedia <2. - cee anc eee a el Naor ec eee 45.5 85.3 96. 2 28.8 Experiment No. 733, subject P. K.: | Blanemange containing butternut oil....| 1,460.0 714.1 33.3 132.4 573. 2 7.0 iWihteat bisciit. 24. Ses 35 ee es | 307.0 27.6 32.6 4.6 237.3 4.9 Mruitz ee so. et Be ee Se 691.0 600.5 5.5 1.4 80. 2 3.4 DUSALAEE esteem acecezcac ete ceee Eee ZTE OM Mee. Sa at oe oe vin ee Sei sod eee 25720) |2: eee ‘otalfood:. consumed: 2. cape eee eee 2,715.0 | 1,342.2 71.4 138.4 | 1,147.7 15.3 CCOS Se ine eee te a ee ee SE ORES ee 27.7 19.1 28.9 8.3 PAM OUT E biz ee ee ae oe pale |e |e 43.7 119.3 | 1,118.8 7.0 Per cent utilized.........2-22--22-02-02- ee ae 61.2| 36.2 97.5| 45.8 Experiment No. 734, subject J. C. M.: | Blanemange containing butternut oil....} 1,612.0 788. 4 36. 8 146. 2 632.9 fo/t Wihestibisciit. ? cess. Be 3 387.0 34.8 41.0 5.8 299. 2 6.2 EUG ee ee se Tee ee 1,293.0} 1,123.6 10.3 2.6 150.0 6.5 SPATE St cceee nent Sek coke ee Peck e GIB) |e eaten meet a= leoscorsece 1613.0) )\-22 225 Total food consumed. -. -/..2)-2.2.2 2222 3,453.0 | 1,946.8 88.1 154.6 | 1,243.1 20.4 ReCese Ae: ees are eo eres ied Re ae T5On Reeees ees 24.1 8.2 35.3 7.4 AMOLNG ILE Zed ease eee wa aoe cerca lnc dee eee eee eee 64.0 146.4 | 1,207.8 13.0 Per Centiitilizedise eres: aa bart occ onl teats oee Soeeee eee 72.6 94.7 97.2 63.7 Average food consumed per subject per day.| 1,037.6 568. 3 26.7 45.7 390. 8 6.1 DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME NUT OILS. 11 Summary of digestion experiments with butternut oil in a simple mixed diet. Carbo- Ash Experiment No. Subject. Protein. Fat. hydrates Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 45.5 85.3 96. 2 3 Bm er et Sac ee ose ae RS We Cate ae OS) eee hee 28.8 732 ce Beep e RCE DE Doe 1 EK aE EES | suet iS 61.2 86.2 97.5 45.8 TTL eae eee ee See DR CUNS 2 F093. 550) 5 Sea eee 72.6 94.7 97.2 63.7 AVETa ges fs a. aes SE BE 59.8 88.7 97.0 46.1 The supply of butternut oil obtainable was small and so it was not possible to provide as large a quantity of it per day as was the case with the other oils studied, and the average daily consumption was only 46 grams per man. The butternut-oil blancmange was as palat- able as the similar dish used in the other tests, and there is every reason to believe that more of the oil would have been eaten had it been possible to supply a blancmange richer in it. The digestibility of the total fat in the diet was found to be 88.7 per cent. The calcu- lated digestibility of butternut oil alone, which represented the greater part of the total fat, when estimated in the usual manner, with corrections for metabolic products and undigested fat from the basal ration, is 95.4 per cent, a value which compares favorably with the digestibility of other food oils which have been studied. The protein and carbohydrates supplied by the ration were utilized as completely as in other experiments of this series, being 60 per cent and 97 per cent digested, respectively. Considering the results as a whole, it is apparent that butternut oil, expressed from fresh, sound butternuts, when eaten as a constituent of a simple mixed diet, is a well assimilated and palatable food oil. ENGLISH-WALNUT OIL. The English or Persian walnut tree (Juglans regia) is widely dis- tributed, and the nuts are very generally used for human food. Eng- lish-walnut oil is expressed for illuminating and for edible purposes in several parts of Europe. The cold-pressed oil is almost colorless and has a pleasant smell and agreeable taste, while, according to Lewkowitsch,' if hot pressed it has a greenish tinge and acrid taste and odor. A survey of the literature revealed little information as regards the digestibility of English-walnut oil. Jaffa’ made a series of 11 digestion experiments in which he studied the digestibilty of walnuts eaten in conjunction with other common food materials. On an aver- age the subjects ate 97 grams of fat per day, of which 86 grams was walnut oil. The digestibility of the total fat of the diet was 85 per cent. Since the fat derived from the other constituents of the 1 Loe. cit, 12 BULLETIN 630, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. diet (grapes, granose, pears, milk, apples, dried figs, bananas, oranges, dried prunes, dates) is believed to be very well utilized by the human body, the results of these experiments would indicate that the coefficient of digestibility of walnut oil eaten as a constituent | of the nuts would not be far from 85 per cent. | In the experiments here reported the walnut oil, which was cold pressed from a good grade of nuts, was fed in the usual manner to three healthy young men, and the data obtained are recorded in the following table: Data of digestion experiments with English-walnut oil in a simple mixed diet. Constituents of foods. Experiment, subject, and diet. oy eight | 5 F Carbohy- Waiter. | Protein.) Fat. EBs Ash. Experiment No. 355, subject D. G. G.: Grams. Grams. | Grams. Grams. Blancmange containing walnut oil.....--- 1, 736.0 209.7 566. 8 8.3 Wihealibiscuiba sa —-— - ee eee ee 402.0 6.0 310. 8 6.4 Mn ih fee seen meinst ao ose Sn SSeS cee 705.0 1.4 81.8 3.5 SaParst oop ape er serene Pe aaa eer ee LITA 1)| ee eel ee Be BSA oe 107.0 |-.- 2-258 Total food consumed........-...2--+---- 2, 950. 0 217.1} 1,066.4| 182 WGSSS 2 cope seresstesesecseeorsssoseesesee 86.0 |.- 9.5 39.4 8. Amount midlized 3-2 ccae-e eu... glee Bede ers ee I. 207.6 | 1,027.0 10 Por cent ubilizdds: 43. 2.025.264: b Ad. oe 95.6| 96.3| 56 Experiment No. 356, subject R. L. S.: | | y Blanemange containing wainut oil......... 2,081.0 251.4 679.4 10.0 Wheat sbisenitecc: af - nes paves. opel 2S , 339-0 | ese A pare 5.4 Lip 71 oe, ens irs Se eee astes Sac = 450.0 0.9 52. 2 2.3 Supansss4. - 22283: tee SsS-eiess eet S25 -- 2s LE Dy ee neers) (eo meet | bo ae 96.0.|: -2-258m Total food consumed.........-..-------- 2,966.0 257.4 1,089.7 17 Bere SoS LSE SE SE ee ee Se 60.0 12.4) 21.8 6. Arigemy ji tilivens Ss - 358 Ps ere oy hoe, Ste Sal aes see 245.0 1,067.9 il Percent utilized -2 = 222-52 seen 2. ee ee 74.7| 95.2) 98.0 66 Experiment No. 357, subject O. E.S.: | Blancmange containing walnut oil........ 2,026.0} 1,072.2 37.9 | 244.7 | 661.5 9.7 Wihedt biscuit 3-_2=---- 5 ee 310.0 27.9 32.9 4.6 | 239.6 5.0 ing tih open ae penn eee ape ee aera 1,341.0] 1,165.3 10.7 2.7 | 155.6 6.7 Sugar. f: 2. 2 fe asd -S eee TE OE MS oe ee | eee ee | ee %-2|' 229.0 |222eeaeee Total food consumed...........-..------ 3,906.0 | 2,265.4 81.5 252.0 | 1,285.7 21.4 BRS es ee eae eee eet ee eae Ae BeO4 24.3| 19.0 | 51) ii PAINOTRIG DLIZO0 =r See So oan oss Bao le aa 57.2 233.0 | 1,252.2 10. Wencent tialized® 7-2 2 So eee rice bos bo eeor eee 70. 2 92.5 | 97.4 47.7 Average food consumed per subject perday..-| 1,091.3 595.1 Summary of digestion experiments with English-walnut oil in a simple mixed diet. Experiment No. Subject. | Protein. Fat. Carpal; Ash. : | Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. POTD > Be A Dae Clee." {eens 63.9 95.6 96.3| 56.0) Sips ee a ese OOS iri eg ee RCMB 0) es | 7427] 95124 98.0 66.1 GO a Seto ie a Bee ge af = ae] OLEAS 62. eee eae 70.2 92.5 97.4 47.7 Averages... Bessie 69.6 94.4 | 97.2 56.6 DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME NUT OILS. 13 The average coeflicient of digestibility of the total fat of the diet is 94.4 per cent. If proper allowance is made for the metabolic products and the undigested fat remaining from the basal ration it becomes 97.6 per cent for English-walnut oil alone. The protein and carbohydrate of the diet are shown to be 69.6 per cent and 97.2 per cent digested, respectively. The difference between the coefficient of digestibility, 97.6 per cent, obtained in these experiments and the 85 per cent or less obtained by Jaffa‘ in his series of 11 digestion experiments, in which the whole nuts were eaten, is thought to be due in part to the form in which the oil was used and may be due in part to Jaffa’s considering the ether extract of whole nuts as fat whereas substances other than fat were doubtless extracted, and also may be due in part to no correc- tion being made for metabolic products occurring in the ether ex- tract of the feces. In the latter case it was taken as a constituent of the nut and was probably less readily and completely acted upon by the digestive juices than when it had been mechanically separated and was taken as a separated fat. The subjects consumed on an average 78 grams (69.9 grams, 83.8 grams, 81.6 grams) of English-walnut oil daily. All three of the subjects reported a laxative effect as a result of the diet; one experi- enced the effect at the beginning of the test period, one at the end, and one during the entire experimental period. Accordingly, it is believed that the limit of tolerance for this oil is not greatly in excess of 80 grams daily. HICKORY-NUT OIL. The oil of the hickory nut (Carya ovata) is not separated for edible purposes in this country. It is not without interest to note, however, that the American Indians used hickory-nut oil for food purposes. The oil, according to Carr,? was obtained by mixing the pounded nuts in boiling water, straining off the oily liquid, and skimming off the oil which floated on the water in which the nuts were boiled. “ [They] kept it in gourds or earthen pots, etc., using it as we do butter on their bread or to give body and flavor to their broth when meat was scarce.”? Carr also states that oil was obtained from acorns and used in a similar way. The digestibility of hickory-nut oil is of interest in view of the large quantities of hickory nuts eaten yearly and especially since the edible portion is reported * to contain 67 per cent of oil. 1Loe. cit. 2Proc. Amer. Antiquarian Soe., n. ser., 10 (1895), pp. 171, 172, 181. ‘“‘ The Food of Certain American Indians and their Methods of Preparing It.” 3U. S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Bul. 28 (1906), rev. ed., p. 75. 14 BULLETIN 630, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Since it was impossible to purchase edible hickory-nut oil, a quan-— tity sufficient for the purpose of this investigation was obtained by © cold pressing a good grade of nuts purchased in the open market. The resulting oil, which was taken to represent average hickory-nut oil, was of a pale yellow color, without odor, and had a flavor resem- _ bling somewhat the nuts from which it was obtained. The supply — of oil was very limited, and so no tests were made of its value for — table purposes. ; The oil, incorporated in the blancmange in the usual manner, was — considered only from the standpoint of digestibility, and no attempt — was made to determine how much of the oil can be used without pro- | during a laxative effect (limit of tolerance), though it may be assumed ~ that the amount is in excess of that taken in these experiments. The data obtained are given in the following table: Data of digestion experiments with hickory-nut oil in a simple mized diet. Constituents of foods. Experiment, subject, and diet. wy eleut a ; P arbo- Water. | Protein.| Fat. hydrates. Ash. ae peel No. 601, subject A. J. H.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams.| Grams.| Grams. | Grams. — Blancmange containing hickory-nut oil ...| 1,807.0 811.8 38. 4 253.0 696.9 6.9 Wheat biscuit. 190.0 17.1 20.1 2.9 146.9 3.0 — Fruit... See aA re ne rs a SN a ee Pemee Sass beetles ee| lace sees eee ees=-- - SUE soca can cte cence sSobeA ssa tec geae| booetce ies | eoeasseces| sasceseesilseccoscce eeecceces||b-52---- Boe food (consumed: 5°. 2h.v sae} - Aare 1,997.0 828.9 58.5 | 255.9) 843.8 9.9 Lge eet oe moees oboe oncuse tone ore eee 2150))\ 23. > os 7.6 4.1 6.8 2.5 Aeatie artalivedes See e eee eee. eee eon eee [eae S| 50.9 | 251.8 837.0 7.4 Ber centratilizedt et oe 958s sen) 8 St yan oe eee pee 87.0| 98.4] 99.2] 74.7 Experiment No. 602, subject P. K.: [ Blancmange containing hickory-nut oil ...} 2,327.0} 1,045.5 49.5 325. 8 897.4 8.8 iWikheat BiscuE 2~ 20s AE tf SAS 402.0 36.2 42.6 6.0 310.8 6.4 rats et i ee ee 770.0 669.1 6.2 1.5 89.3 3.9 BUPAD Ae 92s soe casa asses tee ios sed ea oe AGZIOF TE LSSSSe Sel eee eee 162.0 |.--: 35 Total food consumed..............------ 3,661.0 | ~1,750.8 98.3} 333.3) 1,459.5 19.1 MECES Sees esr ar eo ee ace ene ae G2'0)|--2-:.-25- 20.0 9.8 28. 6.2 Amount winlizeds - 322222 SA eS foc ceees 78.3 | 328.5 | 1,431.5 12.9 Per conirmalived 2323-8212 Ti asi aa sea © 79.7| 97.1| 98.1] 67.5 Experiment No. 603, aitaet J.C. M.: | Blancmange containing hickory-nut Oil | Witeat biscait=!¢255 . eu Tre ey 2 et VT eo sae aac Bs oe Sa ae ES experiment No. 604, subject C.J. W.: Blancmange containing hickory-nut oil -..; 2,213.0 Wheat biscuit 360. noe cot food consiHmed t2--e ae 3,230.0 SSE as eA ee io Sone .0 Averagefood consumed per subject per day. -- DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME NUT OILS. 15 Summary of digestion experiments with hickory-nut oil in a simple mixed diet. Carbo- ere Experiment No. Subject. Protein. | Fat. |nydrates. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 87.0 98.4 99.2 74 pee FONT Oars TK ois PKS Ak a ee 79.7 97.1 98.1 67.5 SNE awe, 5 CaN a ROR Se ae 64.2 96.5 96.4 39.7 1 oh aE ee ape COTPW ot ee 70.3 96.8 97.1 58.2 Average:'s..._ 1 eae 75.3 97.2 97.7 60.0 The average coefficient of digestibility of the fat eaten, of which over 98 per cent was hickory-nut oil, was 97.2 per cent, while 75.3 per cent of the protein and 97.7 per cent of the carbohydrates were retained in the body. The value for the digestibility of hickory-nut oil alone, obtained by making allowance for the metabolic products and the undigested fat resulting from the accessory foods of the diet, is 99.3 per cent. The subjects consumed an average of 95 grams of hickory-nut oil daily without any physiological disturbances. Thus it may be reasonably concluded that if hickory-nut oil were available in quantity it would prove very satisfactory for food purposes. PECAN OIL. This oil is obtained from the nuts of Carya pecan, which are native and also largely cultivated in North America. Pecan oil, although it possesses the characteristics of a salad oil, is not expressed for edible purposes on a commercial basis. However, since the wide use of the kernels as food entails a corresponding consumption of the oil, and since the expressed oil appears to be well suited for table pur- poses, it seemed desirable to include pecan oil among the nut oils to be studied. No reports of digestion experiments made with pecan oil were found in the literature. Jaffat reports four experiments made to study the relative digestibility of the nuts eaten with fruits. Of a total of 78 grams of fat eaten per man per day, 74 grams was derived from pecans, which were included in a simple diet containing com- mon fruits and nuts. The total fat of the diet was found to be 85 per cent digested, but since over 94 per cent of the entire fat eaten was supplied by the pecans this value should, so far as these results are concerned, approximate the coefficient of digestibility of the oil in pecans. The low value, 85 per cent, may be due partly to the subjects not masticating the nuts to such a degree of fineness that the body could completely assimilate the fat in them. Four experiments were made in the present series to determine the digestibility of pecan oil when eaten under conditions identical with 1 Loc. cit. 16 BULLETIN 630, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. those maintained for the test periods with other edible fats studied. The results obtained are included in the table which follows. . Data of digestion experiments with pecan oil in a simple mixed diet. Constituents of foods. Experiment, subject, and diet. Weenie 4 F Carbo- Water. | Protein. Fat. hydrates. Experiment No. 405, subject D. G. G.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Blancmange containing pecan oil ......-- 1, 857.0 864. 4 37.2 291.7 655. 9 Wiheatsbis@uitee ceases. eee 315.0 28. 4 33. 4 4.7 243.5 PULP e see ee seers ane eases ae oe ae 1,341.0} 1,165.3 10.7 2.7 155. 6 Sugar lie os os oes eo ee ae eee te 120 ese 5 5e| Paaeeeened scecsorcss 121.0 Total food consumed......-...-------- 3,634.0 | 2,058.1 81.3 299.1} 1,176.0 Weces ee ks ab eee het LOS ON eee = =e 34.3 19.0 39.5 Amount 1tilized ae -. 2. Scenes seaea || Gases pace eeceeee ee 47.0 280.1] 1,136.5 eriCent Ul Zed so. secs arioe sets occa at yee eee | eee ee 57.8 93.6 96. 6 eapetnent No. 406, subject A. J. H.: lancmange containing pecan\ol2s25- 2. 2,474.0 | 1,151.6 49.5 388. 7 873.8 Wiheat | biscii tase e eee eee 575.0 51.8 60.9 8.6 444.5 Bruit. oh ds hts score ee 1,413.0] 1,227.9 11.3 2.8 163.9 SUgaTE oes enes nossa soot nSacoosesssacoce (a5!) ESaaboooan acacooserd escobouads 66. 0 Total food consumed............------ 4,528.0 | 2,431.3 121.7 400.1 | 1,548.2 Meces) te tat et eee et thet eR QOS eee 42.3 19.6 51.1 Amount Utilized se sense ascsessace senso pee coon Eaeee nee oe 79. 4 380.5 | 1,497.1 Percent utilized |. 2 s.6- a= o> sesie's 1s o='- aa |B ee ees eae 65. 2 95.1 96.7 Experiment No. 407, subject R. L. S.: lies Blancmange containing pecan oil......-- 1, 730.0 828. 6 35. 6 279.6 628. 7 IWiheatibiscuit: 2-52 ss. see ese cece-- scl 294.0 26.4 31.2 4.4 227.3 EYEE oct ees sete ta bees eeeee a eeeee 969. 0 842.1 7.8 19 112. 4 Supanis os csectendaa: .cobs ayteces saece TTA Beeesoceso Seecne sumac |e asescoace 117.0 Total food consumed.........-.-.----- 3,160.0} 1,697.1 74.6 285.9 | 1,085. 4 Wecest 22 . 232-5. Moss sas cw dec dec seew econ AGRO) Each eee 12.8 8.9 18. 4 Amount utilized..............-- sonacosd| Eaosessoesl|sesocgeces 61.8 277.0 | 1,067.0 IRericentiitalized:.csacenee secee sso =e lhe eee |-----2--0- 82.8 96.9 98. 3 Experiment No. 408, subject O. E. S.: Blancmange containing pecan oil ....... 1, 834.0 853.7 36. 7 288.1 647. 8 ayneat DISCULG tesa eee ee eae eecnee 246.0 22.1 26.1 3.7 190. 2 MTU asians cc ccee aeoee oseaceocee ecsee 1,202.0 | 1,044.6 9.6 2.4 139. 4 ee gece sessed sdeadsca=sjoncesseeecs PANO! | tas ose < 2s seeeess|-oaeee ee 240.0 : Total food consumed........---+------ 3,522.0 1,920.4 72.4] 294.2] 1,217.4 * Oe eee Ie | Ba deeoacos 30. 8 29.0 36.3 oe Amount witlized 26-2 -2s2cc sce casas ce |soc- sare jposeece= ac 41.6 265.2 | 1,181.1 - Rar cori tilized ies ton eee oe J | Se ee Seo (Es PE Seo 1 Average food consumed per subject per day-| 1,237.0 675. 6 | 29. 2 | 106. 6 | 418.9 a Summary of digestion experiments with pecan oil in a simple mixed diet. . = P Carbo- E Experiment No. Subject. Protein.| Fat. hydrates. Ash. | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. CVT Sa 5 oo AOA mee i DF GAG a5 se ee eae 57.8 93. 6 96. 6 42. oe 211 SE eae a (Reel oe. aN ae oe 65.2 95.1 96.7 47.6 AO feeeee eee nee eee ae Reb. Beeps. s. See eeeee eee 82.8 96.9 98.3 65.3 AOS Pit em coat ae Po OVE. (S22... .- 2 epee cee 57.5 90. 1 97.0 38.1 Average! 5 Seer nn 65.9 93.9 97.2 48.4 The above data indicate that an average of 107 grams of fat, of — which 104 grams was pecan oil, was eaten per subject per day for iy DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME NUT OILS. 17 the four test periods which were made to determine the digestibility of pecan oil. The coefficients of digestibility for the constituents of the diet were for protein, 65.9 per cent; for fat, 93.9 per cent; and for carbohydrates, 97.2 per cent. Experiments made to determine the significance of the ether extract of the feces resulting from the basal ration without the addition of fat have been reported in an earlier paper;* making allowance for that portion of the ether extract of the feces which results from the basal ration, the value for the digestibility of the total fat, 93.9 per cent, becomes 96.8 per cent for the pecan oil alone. CONCLUSIONS. An average of 70 grams of almond, 56 grams of black-walnut, 81 grams of Brazil-nut, 43 grams of butternut, 78 grams of English- walnut, 95 grams of hickory-nut, and 104 grams of pecan oil was eaten per subject per day in the experiments, out of a total of 71 grams, 68 grams, 84 grams, 46 grams, 80 grams, 97 grams, and 107 grams of fat supplied by the respective diets. The oils studied in this investigation were found to be well di- gested, the coefficients of digestibility being 97.1 per cent for almond oil, 97.5 per cent for black-walnut oil, 96.3 per cent for Brazil-nut oil, 95.4 per cent for butternut oil, 97.6 per cent for English-walnut oil, $9.3 per cent for hickory-nut oil, and 96.8 per cent for pecan oil. The nut oils, which are liquid at ordinary temperatures, have prac- tically the same digestibility as the common vegetable oils (cotton- seed, peanut, olive, sesame, and coconut oils), which are also liquid at ordinary temperatures. While in these experiments as much as 81 grams of almond oil, 64 grams of black-walnut oil, 100 grams of Brazil-nut oil, 49 grams of butternut oil, 109 grams of hickory-nut oil, and 130 grams of pecan oil were eaten per day by one of the subjects for a 3-day test period, no laxative effect was noted; accordingly the limits of tolerance for these fats is in excess of these amounts. In the experiments with English-walnut oil the three subjects are 69.9 grams, 83.8 grams, and 81.6 grams per day and all reported a slight laxative effect. The values obtained for the digestibility of the protein and carbo- hydrates eaten in conjunction with the different nut oils are in agree- ment with those obtained in the earlier experiments of this series, indicating that the nut oils did not exert any unusual influence on the digestibility of the foods eaten with them. The results of this study of the digestibility of these nut oils indi- eate that they are very well assimilated by the human body, and that whenever available they could be used freely for food purposes. 1U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 310 (1915), p. 17. PUBLICATIONS OF UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICUL: TURE RELATING TO FOOD AND NUTRITION. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Meats: Composition and Cooking. By Chas. D. Woods. Pp. 31, figs. 4. 1904, (Farmers’ Bulletin 34.) The Use of Milk as Food. By R. D. Milner. Pp. 44. 1911. (Farmers’ Bulle- tin 363.) Care of Food in the Home. By Mrs. Mary Hinman Abel. Pp. 46, figs. 2. 1910. (Farmers’ Bulletin 375.) Economical Use of Meat in the Home. By C. F. Langworthy and Caroline L. — Hunt. Pp. 30. 1910. (Farmers’ Bulletin 391.) Cheese and Its Economical Uses in the Diet. By C. F. ee and Caro- es line L. Hunt. Pp. 40. 1912. (Farmers’ Bulletin 487.) Mutton and Its Value in the Diet. By C. F. Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt. " Pp. 32, figs. 2. 1913. (Farmers’ Bulletin 526.) The Detection of Phytosterol in Mixtures of Animal and Vegetable Fats. By é R. H. Kerr. Pp. 4. 1918. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 212.) Some American Vegetable Food Oils, Their Sources and Method of Production. By H. S. Bailey. U.S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook 1916. Pp. 159-176. FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING ~ OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Studies on the Infiuence of Cooking upon the Nutritive Value of Meats at the University of Illinois, 1903-4. By H. S. Grindley, D. Sc. and A. D. Emmett, A. M. Pp. 230, tables 136. 1905. (Office of Experiment Stations j Bulletin 162.) Price, 20 cents. Studies of the Effect of Different Methods of Cooking upon the Thoroughness © and Ease of Digestion of Meats at the University of Illinois. H. S. Grindley, D. Se., Timothy Mojonnier, M. S., and Horace C. Porter, Ph. D. Pp. 100, tables 38. 1907. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 193.) Price, 15 cents. Digestibility of Some Animal Fats. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 23. 1915. (Department Bulletin 310.) Price, 5 cents. Digestibility of Very Young Veal. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. — Pp. 577-588. 1916. (Journal of Agricultural Research, 6 (1916), No. 16.) — Price, 5 cents. Digestibility of Hard Palates of Cattle. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 641-648. 1916. (Journal of Agricultural Research, 6 (1916), No. 17.) Price, 5 cents. Fats and Their Economical Use in the Home. By A. D. Holmes and H. L. : i Lang. Pp. 26,1916. (Department Bulletin 469.) Price, 5 cents. Studies on the Digestibility of the Grain Sorghums. By C. F. Langworthy and — A. D. Holmes. Pp. 30. 1916. (Department Bulletin 470.) Price, 4 cents, 18 DIGESTIBILITY OF SOME NUT OILS. 19 Digestibility of Some Vegetable Fats. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 20. 1917. (Department Bulletin 505.) Price, 5 cents. Studies on the Digestibility of Some Animal Fats. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 20. 1917. (Department Bulletin 507.) Price, 5 cents. Experiments in the Determination of the Digestibility of Millets. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 11. 1917. (Department Bulletin 525.) Price, 5 cents. Digestibility of Dasheen. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 12. 1917. (Department Bulletin 612.) Price, 5 cents. Experiments on the Digestibility of Fish, By A. D. Holmes. Pp. 15, 1917. (Department Bulletin 649.) Price, 5 cents. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY WASHINGTON . GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ¢ 1918 i Se aaa a Pe a OR ee eee et . UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ¥ BULLETIN No. 631 Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv April 19, 1918 FIVE YEARS’ CALF-FEEDING WORK IN ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI.’ By W. F. Warp and S. S. JERDAN. Of the Animal Husbandry Division. CONTENTS. Page. Page. I. Winter fattening of calves in III. Fattening calves in Mississippi Alabama on cottonseed meal, ~ on cottonseed meal, corn, cot- cottonseed hulls, corn-and- tenseed hulls, corn silage, cob meal, and alfalfa hay, and alfalfa hay, 1914—-15____ 21 TSU er a 1 IV. Fattening calves in Mississippi II. Fattening calves in Alabama on on cottonseed meal, corn, cottonseed meal, - cottonseed corn silage, and _ alfalfa, hulls, corn chop, and corn DOV 1G ets Bek eee 29 Silage iot2— 3) ss 1+ VY. Fattening late (short-aged ) calvesirorsmarke === 39 VI. General discussion of five years’ experiments__________ 48 I. WINTER FATTENING OF CALVES ON COTTONSEED MEAL, COTTONSEED HULLS, CORN-AND-COB MEAL, AND ALFALFA HAY. PREVIOUS EXPERIMENTS. During the winter of 1910-11 (November 17 to March 17) this bureau, working in cooperation with the Alabama Experiment Sta- tion, carried on an experiment in fattening calves on various rations. These results are published in Bulletin 147 of the Bureau of Animal Industry and in Bulletin 158 of the Alabama Experiment Station. The first lot of calves was fattened on a ration of cottonseed meal, hulls, and alfalfa hay. The second lot was given a one-third ration of corn-and-cob meal in conjunction with the cottonseed meal, hulls, and hay. The third lot was given a liberal allowance of corn-and-cob meal and a rather small allowance of cottonseed meal, the corn-and- cob meal constituting two-thirds of the concentrated part of the ration. As the work reported in the present bulletin is really a dupli- 1This work was done in cooperation with the Alabama Experiment Station, J. F. Duggar, director, and the Mississippi Experiment Station, HE. R. Lloyd, director. G. A. Scott, of the Animal Husbandry Division, U. S. Department of Agriculture, assisted in preparing computations. 4 il 16709°—18—Bull. 681——1 9 BULLETIN 631, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cation of that previously reported, it will be of interest to introduce the discussion with a short extract from the above-mentioned publication, especially since the two years’ work do not agree in all particulars. In the discussion following the financial statement, it was stated that all the calves were fed at a profit (the calves were bought at $3.50 a hundred pounds and sold for $5.01, $5.11, and $5.26, respectively, in lots 1, 2, and 3), the lowest being $1.48 per calf in lot 3 and the high- est $2.25 per calf in lot 2. These profits meant that the corn and the hay raised on the farm were sold, through the calves, at 70 cents a bushel and $15 a ton, respectively; that the money expended for cot- tonseed meal and hulls was all returned to the owner; that the fer- tilizer value of these feeds was left on the farm, and, in addition, each calf returned the above additional profits. The monetary re- turns were satisfactory, as by means of the calves the farm feeds were sold for more than could have been secured for them on the market, and their fertilizing value was left on the farm in the shape of barnyard manure. The calves in lot 3, which received the heavy ration of corn-and- cob meal, returned the smallest profit, notwithstanding the fact that they sold for the highest price at Cincinnati. The increase in the price did not overcome the added expense of feeding a heavy ration of corn-and-cob meal. Although it did not pay to feed the heavy ration of corn-and-cob meal, it did pay to feed the small amount of corn-and- cob meal that was used in lot 2, as the calves in this lot proved to be the most profitable. This indicates that when fattening beef calves with cottonseed meal and corn-and-cob meal as the concentrates one- third of the concentrated part of the ration can consist profitably of corn-and-cob meal, but it is less profitable to have corn-and-cob meal constitute two-thirds of the concentrated part of the ration. However, there was one factor that had not been taken into consid- eration which, if considered, adds to the profits of lots 2 and 3, es- pecially the latter. Some undigested corn passed through the calves in these two lots; hogs following them would have derived no little benefit from the droppings. In fact, several hogs did follow the steers in lot 3, but no record was kept of their gains. These gains should be credited to the calves. In the present test, hogs followed those calves that were fed a par- tial ration of corn. OBJECTS OF WORK. As with the previous test, the main object in this calf-feeding work was to determine whether the farmer can afford to raise a good grade of beef calves and finish them for the market when they are about a year old. In the South the usual custom is to keep the offspring until they are from 2 to 4 years old before finishing them for the market. Many farmers, however, are now asking if it would not b CALF FREDING IN ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI. 3 more profitable to sell the calves while they are yet young, thus making it possible to increase the size of the breeding herd. As stated before, some results of calf-feeding work have been published; the present publication must be considered only a report of the progress of the work, as the experiments are being continued and new phases studied. The calves in this test were divided into three lots so that a com- parison of the value of certain feeds for fattening young calves could be made. The following problems were studied: 1. The calves were raised on the farm where they were fattened, and one object was to learn whether a farmer profitably can raise and fatten calves for the market by the time they are a year old. 2. To make a comparison of southern feeds and combinations of feeds that may be used for fattening calves during the winter months. This work was carried on upon the farm of O. E. Cobb, of Sumter- ville, Ala., with whom the bureau and the station have been in co- operation for a number of years. Mr. Cobb furnished the calves and the feed and the Bureau of Animai Industry and the Alabama Experiment Station provided a trained man to live on the farm and have personal supervision of the experimental work. In this way all the tests were made under average farm conditions and at the same time were executed in an unusually accurate and painstaking manner. The junior author of this bulletin was stationed upon the farm and had personal supervision of the work. KIND OF CALVES USED. The calves used in this work were all high-grade animals. They were not, however, uniform in breed and breeding, as Hereford, Shorthorn, Aberdeen-Angus, and Red Polled blood were all repre- sented. The calves, however, were far better than the average raised in the western part of Alabama, as they were from one-half to seven- eighths pure bred. The majority of the calves were raised on the farm where the feeding was done; however, there were not a sufli- cient number, so some were purchased from neighboring farmers in Sumter County. All had been born the preceding spring, so they were from 6 to 8 months of age when the fattening experiment began. During the summer they had run with their dams on good pasture, and during this time they demanded practically no attention from the owner, except to see that they were salted and dipped. Both the cows and the calves were dipped regularly all through the summer months to reduce the number of ticks. On November 19, 1911, when the fattening period began, the calves averaged 376 pounds in weight. GENERAL PLAN OF THE WORK. When fall arrived and the pastures were exhausted, the calves were taken from their dams and placed in this experiment. The 4 BULLETIN 631, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. original intention had been to begin the winter feeding work in the fall just as soon as the pastures were exhausted and the milk flow of the dams diminished, to avoid losing any part of the calf fat, but on account of a short unavoidable delay the feeding was not begun until the above-mentioned date. In the meantime the calves doubtless lost a few pounds in weight after the pastures became short. This, of course, was unfortunate. - The calves were weighed individually on November 16 and 17, and the average of the two weights taken to determine the initial weight. The test began, therefore, on November 17, but on the day previous the calves were tagged and numbered, dehorned, the males castrated, and the whole number divided into three lots as nearly equal in size, quality, and breeding as possible. Each lot of calves was fed from November 17, 1911, to March 3, 1912, a period of 107 days, on the following feeds: Lot 1. Cottonseed meal; cottonseed hulls; mixed alfalfa hay. Lot 2. Cottonseed meal, two-thirds; corn-and-cob meal, one-third; cottonseed hulls; mixed alfalfa hay. Lot 8. Cottonseed meal, one-third; corn-and-cob meal, two-thirds; cottonseed hulls; mixed alfalfa hay. SHELTER AND LOTS. The calves were young, so each lot was provided with shelter sufficiently good to turn the cold rains and break the cold north winds. Shelter would not have been necessary for mature steers, but the ex- perience of former work? thoroughly demonstrated that young calves will not do well, even this far south, without some protection from the cold winds and rains of the winter months. Each lot of calves was confined in a 4-acre paddock and the calves had the privilege of staying either in the open lots or under the sheds. The lots were not paved. The winter of 1911-12 was unusually wet, consequently the uncovered parts of the lots became excessively muddy at times. The ground floors of the sheds were always dry, however, so the calves had comfortable and convenient places in which to lie down. METHOD OF FEEDING AND HANDLING THE CALVES. The calves were fed twice each day; the first feed was given about 7 o’clock in the morning, and the second at 5 o’clock in the evening. The concentrated feeds were placed in troughs, each of which was about 12 feet long and 3 feet wide. When both cottonseed meal and corn-and-cob meal were used they were mixed thoroughly with the cottonseed hulls. The hay was fed in separate hay racks. The con- centrated feeds were fed in such amounts that the troughs were cleaned thoroughly within one hour after feeding, but hay was kept in the racks all the time. Both the troughs and the racks were under i1Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 147 and Alabama Experiment Station Bulle- tin 158. = Se Se CALF FEEDING IN ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI. 5 sheds, so that the feed never became wet and the calves had com- fortable quarters in which to eat. Salt was supplied regularly, and fresh water from a deep well was supplied in clean cement troughs. As stated above, at the beginning and end of the experiment indi- vidual weights were secured on two successive days. During the course of the test the total weight of each lot was secured every 28 days. CHARACTER AND PRICE OF FEEDS. Cottonseed meal, corn-and-cob meal, cottonseed hulls, and mixed alfalfa hay were used in this test. The cottonseed meal and the cottonseed hulls were purchased at a local market and hauled to the farm, a distance of 9 miles. The corn for the corn-and-cob meal and the mixed alfalfa hay were grown upon the farm where the test was made. The cottonseed meal was only fair in quality. The corn was of high quality. The whole ears of corn with the shucks were run through a grinder and made into corn-and-cob meal. The hay, made of a mixture of alfalfa and Johnson grass, was bright and had been well cured, but the Johnson grass was somewhat coarse. During a part of the test, from January 10 to February 8, Johnson- grass hay alone was fed, as it was not possible to secure a supply of the mixed hay during this short period. As stated in the first part of the bulletin, it is always unsatis- factory to render a financial statement in work of this character, as the price of the feeds, as well as of the cattle, varies considerably from time to time and from place to place. The really important data are those showing the daily gains and the amount of feed re- quired to make 100 pounds of gain. In this test the feeds were valued as follows: Cottonseed Meal aes ess Se oe ee ee per ton__ $26. 00 Cottonseed hull seat ta. ee eee Co 7, OW Corn-and-cobi, Meal se. 2 eee dos 20500 IN Wibeeerg le Geb ES), Laven Se eS ee One AOD As a matter of fact, the cottonseed meal cost only $24.50 a ton and the cottonseed hulls $7.50 a ton, but the above prices were adopted for the sake of uniformity. They represent fairly accurately the average prices of feeds in the State. The prices on the other two feeds represent exactly the market prices when the test was made. DAILY RATIONS. - The farmer who undertakes to fatten young animals should under- stand that the younger the animal the greater the skill required to care for and feed it. Young calves should not be cared for and fed in a careless manner. With animals of this class one case of careless- ness in overfeeding may retard very seriously the whole future de- velopment. Table 1 shows the average amount of feed eaten by each ealf daily: 6 BULLETIN 631, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 1.—Average daily rations (November 7, 1911, to March 3, 1912). Feed Lot; Number con- No. | of calves. Ration. sumed by each calf daily. Pounds. '{Cottonseed meal ; 35 <2 emi= hens Sees eee ees she Jaen e oe Pe an eS eer 2.16 1 167|, Cottonseed hulllS2 32s. 3 sece ce oe ecco eee ee te eee ee ee eee 10. 26 Mixed'alialia hay. 95.22 2:35 sce Poses gs 2 See. enh o-5 2 SP ER eee 4,31 Cottonseed meal two-thirds. sce n2.o- see eee eee meee ace eee eee ee eee eee 2.01 — 2 15 Corn-and-cob;meal’ one-thirdias 33s s- 2 sane eee eee 1.00 Cottonseed! halls 2753 Ses 5 A Jane ee ae tosses So aen - aes ee Dee ee 9. 89 Mixedialfalfa hay, ==: S2cece soccer esas: eee eee ee eee eee aes 4.16 Cottonseedmealsone-third!) 2°) 73g 223 .- see eee eee - eae bees euek eee 1.23 3 16 Corn-and-cobjmeal; two-thirds seo: eos. see seen ees ee eee eee 2.44 Cottonseednulls. 3. 5252-35. 2 Bosse 3 Eee ae Se eee 9. 56 Mixed alfalfa hay.....o3 cece enmerae oye eee aes Ce a ao ee eee 4.05 Each calf in lot 1 ate an average of 2.61 pounds of cottonseed meal, 10.26 pounds of cottonseed hulls, and 4.31 pounds of hay during the whole fattening period of 107 days. It should be understood, how- ever, that these calves were not started off suddenly with these amounts of feeds; they gradually were made accustomed to the feeds, especially cottonseed meal, by beginning with small amounts. For instance, on November 17, the day the test was begun, each calf in this lot was given only 1.5 pounds of cottonseed meal, and this amount was divided equally between two feeds; on this same day each calf ate 7 pounds of cottonseed hulls and 4 pounds of hay. On December 2, or 15 days after the test began, the daily feed of each calf in the test had been raised to 2 pounds of cottonseed meal, 9 pounds of cottonseed hulls, and 4 pounds of hay. By January 13 the daily feed for each calf had been raised to 3 pounds of cottonseed meal, 11 pounds of cottonseed hulls, and a fraction over 4 pounds of hay. The daily allowance of cottonseed meal was not increased after this date. The calves in lots 2 and 3 were fed somewhat more liberally on the concentrated part of the rations and more sparingly on the rough- age parts. This could be done because of the introduction of corn- and-cob meal. Changes in either the amount or the kind of feed should be made gradually, especially when dealing with young animals. WEIGHTS AND GAINS. When the first weights were secured, in November, the calves averaged from 6 to 8 months in age. On this date they averaged 376 pounds in weight. Though not large for their age, they were consid- erably larger than the average for this State. Their dams were large for Alabama cows, probably averaging 1,000 pounds in weight in normal breeding ‘condition, and they should have produced larger calves. In Department Bulletin 73 it is seen that calves averaging 460 pounds at 94 months of age were gotten from cows which aver- aged only 630 pounds in weight in their winter form, or about 850 a ee ee ee ee ae ee ee ee ee eee CALF FEEDING IN ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI. 7 ounds in the summer. The calves, however, had not been pampered n any way during the summer months; they simply had run with heir dams on a reasonably good pasture. Table 2 shows that exceedingly satisfactory gains were secured uring this winter test: ABLE 2.—Weights, total gains, and average,daily gains (November 17, 1911, to March 3, 1912). Average | Average Total Average i ot| Number . initial final + dail 0. | of calves. Ration. weight of | weight of boin of gain vf calves. calves. ‘| each calf. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Cottonseed meal..........-.-...------------0--- 16 |{Cottonseed hulls.................-------------- 376 584 208 1.94 Mixedialtalialibayaereeaeennsee ocean eee eens peuonser nee ergot lids CAM Am amass 842N Se orn-and-cob meal, one-third...............-... x re 15 Cottonseed hulls. 7A UY A CELTS 82! RS aR 375 562 187 1, 75 Mixedialfalfa hays. 2h oisentsc 2s seek eee aniaee pouenseed ea ; eue urd Bg dais orale nepal eee eee orn-and-cob meal, two-thirds...............-- | 2 16 Cottonseed hulls............................... 376 546 170 1.59 Mixed alfalfa hay.............--.-.---- PED ot The gains were all satisfactory, but an exact reverse of the results secured the previous winter. In the previous year’s test the calves that were fed corn-and-cob meal along with the cottonseed meal gained more rapidly than those that ate cottonseed meal as the sole concentrate, and the greater the amount of corn-and-cob meal eaten the more rapid the gains. The calves in lot 1, which ate cottonseed meal, gained at an average daily rate of 1.94 pounds, while the calves in lots 2 and 3, where the cottonseed meal was supplemented and partly replaced by corn-and-cob meal gained at the respective rates of 1.75 and 1.59 pounds daily. The only explanation that can be offered is that the calves of all lots were fed more concentrate per head daily during the winter of 1910-11 than they were during the winter of 1911-12, and the amount of concentrates fed for lots 2 and 3 in 1911-12 was too small to make large gains on fattening calves. When sold, March 38, 1912, these calves were, on the average, about 12 months old. Those in lot 1 had attained an average weight of 584 pounds, but those in lots 2 and 3 were somewhat lighter. Although not large, these calves were perhaps as large at 12 months as the average southern steer at twice the age. The increased size was due partly to the infusion of some good beef blood and partly to liberal feeding and good care. QUANTITY AND COST OF FEED REQUIRED TO MAKE 100 POUNDS OF GAIN. The finishing or fattening period continued from November 17, 1911, to March 3, 1912, a period of 107 days. During this time the calves were fed practically all they would eat, especially of the sonra He: et a RRO se betaine ee ieee wit Saenger ee eee 8 BULLETIN 631, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. roughages, hay and hulls. The grain part of the rations was limited in every case to a definite and rather small amount. But Table 2 shows that satisfactory gains were obtained, and Table 3 shows that the cost to make 100 pounds of gain was not excessive, although the feeds used were all expensive ones. In fact, the gains were made cheaply in every case, much more cheaply than can be made with older animals, the cost per hundred pounds ranging from $5.14 to $6.43. In the previous winter’s work it cost from $6.19 to $6.83 to make 100 pounds of increase in weight where the same kind of calves were used and the same kind of feeds employed, yet in refer- ring to the cheapness of gains of the calves the authors stated that— The gains were made cheaply. This was due to several factors. First, the calves were young and growing, and young animals of all kinds can be made to increase in weight more economically than old ones. Second, the calves were very thrifty, and so made good use of the feed that they ate. Third, all of the rations were extremely palatable, especially the two which had the corn-and-cob meal mixed with the cottonseed meal. A young animal of any kind will not make satisfactory gains on an unpalatable ration. Fourth, the calves had comfortable quarters and were fed and watered regularly. TABLE 3.—Quantity and cost of feed required to make 100 pounds of gain (Nov. 17, 1911, to Mar. 3, 1912, 107 days). Total ae Cost of Lot amount feed to Hs Ration. of feed | tO MaKe | make 100 No. 100 eaten by pounds pounds each cali. of gain. of gain. Pounds. | Pounds. | l\(Cottonseed an eal _ swe. 5 ast ace seers eet ee ee | 279 134 155 GotLonseed nWlsi = Pcs oe A ek oe Ween kst Soke. LUDA Se Se. (22 eS 1,098 528 $5.14 Mixed alfalfa liny 3 = . 2. pean) ee he eee ese Pee 462 222 Cottonseed meal, two-thirds: 22-322 J22i ise 2 AT eee 215 115 9) Corm-and-cobitileal one-third 22-22 -a25 2) 2 eee eee sates sees 107 58 5.72 Cottonseed hulls 52:5 st 282 S22 see = 2b. de eee ee ees Se nenin Se ace cee 1, 058 566 IMsxedialfalia hays. ss. ree bas epee ee Se ee: ee ep ae | 445 238 COULONSCEM INECAl OUEC-CHITG = roe ese asec satiny ers oer nciy ore aero 130 Tel 3 Corn-and-cob meal; two-thirds: -..-../.!_.1,) 122. 2.2. -a ess ass eee 1.95 Tf these calves had been sold March 3, or when the supply of silage gave out, the greatest profit would have been made on the calves in lot 1, and the smallest profit in lot 2, where both corn chop and corn silage were used. But they were not ready to be sold upon ag a os CALF FEEDING IN ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI. 19 that date. As a matter of fact 6 of the best heifers were taken out of the test on March 3 and kept on the farm for future breeding pur- poses, so only 40 calves were in the test from March 3 to April 29. SUBSEQUENT FINISHING PERIOD. During the short period of 58 days, from March 3 to April 29, 1913, each one of the calves ate 204 pounds of cottonseed meal, 52 pounds of corn chop, 346 pounds of cottonseed hulls, and 371 pounds of mixed hay. (The hay, in fact, more properly should be called Johnson-grass hay, as there was very little alfalfa in it; it was valued at $10 a ton.) During this period the calves did not make good gains—only 1.09 pounds daily. The cost to make the increase in live weight was more than normal, being $11.31 to make 100 pounds of gain. Notwithstanding the fact that the gains were rather small during this last period of 58 days, the calves were in reasonably good con- dition at the end and sold for satisfactory prices. They were sold to a buyer of Meridian, Miss., by farm weight less 3 per cent shrink- age. The 30 largest and best calves sold for 7 cents a pound. The 5 smallest ones sold for 6 cents a pound, and 5 others sold for 63 cents a pound. Table 10 shows the results of feeding the 40 calves during the last 58 days. The initial cost—$5.40 per hundred- weight—represents the value placed upon them at the close of the silage period, March 3. TABLE 10.—Financial statement for last period of 58 days. Lots 1, 2, and 3 combined. Cottonseed meal, corn chop, cottonseed hulls, mixed hay: To 40 calves—21,035 pounds, at $5.40 per cwt__________________ $1, 135. 89 To 8,156 pounds of cottonseed meal, at $26 a ton_______________ 106. 03 To 2,075 pounds of corn chop, at $20 a ton_____________________ 25. 94 To 138,848 pounds of cottonseed hulls, at $7 a tomn______________ 48. 47 To 14,847 pounds of hay, at $10 a ton_________________________ 74. 24 Total Expenditures’ <2 oO! Se eee ee eee ee 1, 390. 57 Byisalesot: 40. calwvese ne 2 ieee is SES ee ee Sey ees 1, 562. 92 Total profit on 40 calves for last 58 days__________________ 172. 35 Average profit on each calf for feeding period of last 58 days_ 4.31 Average profit on each calf for first 94 days__-_____________ 1. 96 TNotaleprofitvonseach calf 22... eee ee ae 6. 27 These calves sold for good prices and finally returned excellent profits, as a clear profit of $6.27 was realized on each animal. If they had been sold March 3, an average net profit of only $1.96 would have been made on each calf, so it paid well to hold them longer and finish them more. The most of the profit was made during the last 58 days. 20 BULLETIN 631, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUMMARY STATEMENT. 1. The objects of this test and the kinds of calves used were very similar to those of the previous test. 2. The whole number of 46 calves was divided into three lots and fed from November 29, 1912, to March 3, 1913, the following rations: Lot 1. Cottonseed meal; cottonseed hulls. . Lot 2. Cottonseed meal, two-thirds; corn chop, one-third; cottonseed hulls; corn silage. Lot 3. Cottonseed meal; cottonseed hulls; corn silage. The supply of corn silage was exhausted by March 3, but the calves _ were not ready for the market, so on this date they were all thrown together as one lot and continued on: Cottonseed meal; corn chop; cottonseed hulls; mixed hay. 3. During the silage period (November 29 to March 3) an average daily gain of 1.49, 1.23, and 1.49 pounds was secured in lots 1, 2, and 3, respectively. 4. During the silage period (November 29 to March 3) it cost $5.59, $6.09, and $5.13 to make 100 pounds of increase in live weight in lots 1, 2, and 3, respectively. | 5. In the fall of 1912 the calves cost 44 cents a pound. At the end of the silage period they were not ready to be sold and estimated values were placed upon each lot. The calves in lot 1 were valued at 54 cents a pound, and those in lots 2 and 3 at 54 cents a pound. 6. Each calf during the silage period netted a clear profit of $2.70, $1.19, and $1.95 in lots 1, 2, and 3, respectively. 7. By comparing lot 1 with lot 3 it is found that one ton of corn silage saved 1,161 pounds of cottonseed hulls. If cottonseed hulls cost $7 per ton, the corn silage, therefore, was worth $4.06 per ton for fattening these calves. 8. This test clearly demonstrates that if corn is to replace part of a cottonseed meal ration, more than one pound of corn should be used to take the place of one pound of cottonseed meal. In other words, cottonseed meal has a greater feeding value, pound for pound, than shelled corn. 9. After the supply of silage was exhausted the calves were all fed 58 days longer on a ration composed of cottonseed meal, corn chop, - cottonseed hulls, and mixed hay. They gained during this period | only 1.09 pounds daily, but their value increased very materially, and - at the end they sold for almost 7 cents a pound on the farm. 10. For the entire period November 29 to April 29 each calf re- turned a clear profit of $6.27. III. FATTENING CALVES ON COTTONSEED MEAL, CORN, ie aaaleaas HULLS, CORN SILAGE, AND ALFALFA TRANSFER OF WORK FROM ALABAMA TO MISSISSIPPI. The cattle-feeding work which was conducted in Alabama in co- operation with the Experiment Station from 1904 to 1913 was transferred to the tick-free sections of Mississippi in 1914. An ex- perimental farm was established near Canton, Miss., in the “brown loam” section of the State, and another at Abbott, Miss., near West Point, in the black-prairie section. The work which is reported herewith was conducted on the farm of Mr. Ben Walker at Abbott. That section of Mississippi has long been recognized as a splendid live-stock section, for the prairie soils have a large lime content which induces good growth in the various clovers and alfalfa, thus furnishing good pastures and an abundance of forage. Conditions are very similar to those in western Alabama, where the former work was conducted. The land in the Mississippi pastures was not so rolling as in Alabama, but there was little difference in the type of soil and its fertility. The object of this test was to get further information concerning the use of cottonseed meal and mixtures of cottonseed meal and corn for finishing calves for the market. This is a continuation of the work conducted in Alabama. CALVES USED. The calves used in the experiment were grade Shorthorn, Angus, and Red Polled, the Shorthorns predominating in numbers. They were out of grade beef cows and sired by registered bulls. All but one were raised upon the farm and ran with their dams in black- prairie pastures until just before the test was started. In size they were somewhat larger than the average Mississippi calves at wean- ing time, but they were of about the same size and quality as the grade beef calves found upon the good steck farms of the State. They represented the second or third cross of good beef bulls on the native Mississippi cows. They averaged 400 pounds each when taken from their dams on October 25, 1914, to be weaned, dehorned, and started on a preliminary feed. All calves were valued at 5 cents a pound on the farm without any deduction for shrinkage. FEED LOTS AND WATER SUPPLY. All the calves were fed in a large barn, which was open enough on the sides to permit thorough ventilation. About 50 square feet of space was allowed for each calf for lying down and exercising. 21 22 BULLETIN 631, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The plan of the barn was such that the calves could not have the run of the open lots. The pens were kept well bedded for the first six weeks, but there were so many steers on feed at the same time that but small amounts of bedding could be used after the sixth week. The pens were muddy and sloppy during the latter half of the feeding periods. A water trough was in each pen and water was furnished from a deep well. Feed throughs were used for feeding the silage and grain, and the alfalfa was fed in racks over the troughs. The shat- tered leaves from the racks fell into the feed trough, so there was no waste of feed. The feeding was done at 7 o’clock in the morning and 8 o’clock in the afternoon. CHARACTER AND PRICE OF THE FEEDS. As this experiment was for the comparison of grain rations the roughage for all lots was the same. The calves of all lots were fed about 54 pounds of cottonseed hulls and 84 pounds of alfalfa hay per head daily and given in addition all of the silage they would eat. The cottonseed meal was about the average in quality. Analysis showed an ammonia content equal to about 7.2 per cent nitrogen. The corn was not quite as good as the average of Mississippi corn. The cottonseed hulls were of average quality, the hulls used being good for the entire time except for a very short period when some hulls of an inferior grade were received. These were fed but a few days until good hulls could be obtained. The alfalfa hay was bright and of good quality, but contained a little Johnson grass. The corn silage contained very little grain this year and was not as good as usually is made on southern farms. Taken as a whole the feeds, with the exception of the silage, were just about the average of what are used on the stock farms of the South during average years. The following prices were used for the feeds: Cottonseed: meal osi~ ori. kOe Dey ene per ton__ $23.50 Cottonseed, ghulls ote see. Fe oh tl he, Da do____ 6.50 Corn-and-cobEmealle= 22 = a see wee eee per bushel__ . 70 (Olay OTe SH Gel ne eee per ton__ 3.00 ASIP AEA SIA y ie ees ee = et eee Eo Reece ree et eee do____ 15.00 The prices used for cottonseed hulls and meal were the actual cost, whereas the prices used for other feeds were those used in other ex- periments and represented a good price for the farm-grown feeds and a profit to the farm in the production of them. AVERAGE DAILY RATIONS BY PERIODS. The calves of all lots had a preliminary feeding period from Oc- tober 25 to November 13, during which time they were getting ac- customed to the feed lots, to eating their feeds, and were recovering CALF FEEDING IN ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI. ae; from dehorning. They were therefore in condition to take readily to their feeds when started in the regular feeding period beginning November 13. The feeds for all calves were increased gradually until the end of the second 28-day period, after which time the amount of concentrates was maintained at the same figures. The calves of each lot were given daily about the same amount of cottonseed hulls with which the concentrates were mixed and had in addition all the alfalfa hay and corn silage they would eat. The weighed hay was put in racks for the calves to eat at will and such an amount of silage was fed as the calves would clean up in one hour after feeding. It is seen that the calves receiving corn-and-cob meal did not eat quite as much alfalfa or corn silage as the calves of lot 1. TABLE 11.—Average daily rations by 28-day periods (Nov. 14, 1914, to Apr. 5, 1915). First Second Thir Fourth aut period. | period. | period. | period. A days. Lot} Number No. | of calves. Ration. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. B 4.0 4.0 Cottonseed meal..............---.--- 2.8 3.4 4.0 1 14 Cottonseed hulls...............------ 5.0 5.0 6.1 6.4 6.8 Cornisilages, 2. Jecsiceecmccee sevecces 11.3 11.4 13.8 14.2 14.8 Alfalfamhayenesassuocedecssesmecscees 3.6 3.9 3.4 2.7 3.9 Cottonseed meal........-.....------- 2.6 3.3 3.3 3.3 3.6 Corn-and-cob meal.......-...-.------ 1.3 1.6 1.6 1.6 1.8 2 12 | per Ole =e. oe ee 53. 32 To freight, yardage, commission, insurance, ete., 14 head, at $2.175 per "Hea ds. 22 ts te FPA es Ss A ee ee 30. 45 Rotaleexpendipures == 2 Se ee ee SoA. 26 By sale of 14 calves—8.740 pounds, at $7.25 per hundredweight____ 633.65 | Total pront onto i 2 Ss a eee ee eee ee 79. 39 Average (protit pericalfaveio io Bree Se MED ere ees 5. 67 Lot 2. Cottonseed meal two-thirds, cottonseed hulls, corn-and-cob meal one-third, corn silage, alfalfa hay: To 12 calves—5,124 pounds, at $5 per hundredweight_____________ 256. 20 To 5,529 pounds cottonseed meal, at $23.50 per ton__________ 64. 96 To 2,764 pounds corn-and-cob meal, at 70 cents per bushel_________ 27. 64 To 9,940 pounds cottonseed hulls, at $6.50 per ton_________________ 32. 30 To22185 pounds corn silage, at Sa «pecawon= = === eee 33. 28 ‘To Gi5> pounds alfalia hay, ateplo per ton === = ee 46. 16 Se ee ee eee ee CALF FEEDING IN ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI. 2 To freight, yardage, commission, insurance, etc., 12 calves, at SVAAUEED) “OXEID AEE 0 | Meeaiceweh Aa aed EN ae Ee ON ieee $26. 10 Totaly vexpenditunestlet isk: Cee way Bae ea ee he 486. 64 By sale of 10 calves—6,130 pounds, at $7.25 per hundredweight_____ 444. 42 By sale of 2 calves—1,200 pounds, at $6.50 per hundredweight_____ 78. 00 Wotalkby salevoneal? calves _ 22 aie a ee ee ee 522. 42 Rowall ROE OM NORM een) Seite: SE ee aT Ls OLS FAV CLAS er LOll by Pen Collies ee ares Se SUSE Sa ee ee eee 2. 98 Lot 38. Cottonseed meal one-third, corn-and-cob meal two-thirds, cotton- seed hulls, corn silage, alfalfa hay: To 14 calves—6,111 pounds, at $5 per hundredweight_____________ 305. 55 To 3,756 pounds cottonseed meal, at $23.50 per ton_______________ 44.13 To 7,141 pounds corn-and-cob meal, at 70 cents per bushel_________ 71. 41 To 10,512 pounds cottonseed hulls, at $6.50 per ton________________ 34. 16 Ror23:922, pounds corn: silages atipo pel tONe= = === =) ee eee 35. 88 OIG Sompoundsraltaltahaya ateplo per tones. ee =a se eee ee 51. 73 To freight, yardage, commission, insurance, ete. 14 calves, at $2575) per hea Gear e Sess Co eee BEN SET EG ea ge Tee oe 30. 45 ROCA ex) OT GU USCS ee ee pido) Sat St SA MAY Ue ot 3 DB. ail By sale of 12 calves—7,600 pounds, at $7.25 per hundredweight____ 551. 00 By sale of 2 calves—1,100 pounds, at $6.50 per hundredweight____~_ 72.15 Total by sale of 14 calves__-______ 22 Wee Speresvent ts 5 iLe ee Tee 623. 15 Total’ protit. OM LOty se 2 se Ts EE oe se ee ee 49, 84 Average profit per calf_ Sa i NE ee 3. 56 The calves of lot 1 were finished somewhat better and a little more uniformly than those of either of the other lots. The calves of lots 2 and 3 showed lack of finish due to the small grain ration fed. This was reflected in the selling price of the animals, for all calves of lot 1 sold for $7.25 per hundred straight through, whereas there were two calves in each of the other lots which brought but $6.50 per 100 pounds, and all the others brought $7.25 per hundredweight. Table 14 shows that no charge is made for the labor of feeding the calves, which was small, nor is any credit given the calves for the manure produced, nor for pork produced in lots 2 and 3. By this method the calves of lot 1 showed a net profit of $5.67 per head; those of lot 2, $2.98; and the ones of lot 3, $3.56 each. When no pork credit is allowed for lots 2 and 3, and it would have been small because of the light corn ration, it is seen that the calves of lot 1 were more profitable than those of the other lots. This is partly due to the very cheap price of cottonseed meal at that time (due to the outbreak of the war) and the comparatively high price of corn charged on the farm where it was grown. It was estimated that the corn was produced at a cost not to exceed 40 cents per bushel, and if it had been sold it would not have brought the farmer more 98 BULLETIN 631, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 4] than 50 cents per bushel net, because of the distance from a shipping : point, remoteness from market, and the bad condition of the roads — over which it would have to hha e been handled. When it is considered that by feeding the calves the corn, the corn silage and hay were sold through the calves at excellent prices, and more than that, a net cash profit was made, the results are considered very satisfactory. SLAUGHTER DATA. The calves were driven from the farm 6 miles to the loading pens. The shrinkage in transit was 36, 57, and 29 pounds for the calves of lots 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The heavier shrink of the calves of lot 2 is unaccounted for. The average shrinkage per head for all calves was 41 pounds. Although the calves of lot 2 made the largest daily gain, they had not fattened as well as either of the other lots, and this is reflected in the manner in which they dressed out. The calves of lot 1 sold for a little more per hundredweight, and dressed out slightly higher than either of the other lots. By farm weights the calves of lot 1 killed out nearly 23 per cent more than those of lot 2 and 0.4 per cent more than those of lot 3. By market weights the calves of all three lots killed out very uni- formly, lot 1 killing out a little better than either of the other two - lots. The purchaser reported that all the calves killed out well and produced nice carcasses. The calves as a whole dressed out slightly over 54 per cent by sale weights. TABLE 15.—Slaughter data. Average | Average Percent- farm | market | Average | Average Percent- age Lot| Ration weight | weight | shrink | weight Feces q | dressed No. mom ofeach | ofeach in of beeen by calf calf transit. | carcass. Y mata market 4-12-15. | 4-14-15. welgnts. | weights. poutonseed el Bat posse ebb sstndescee Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Per cent. | Per cent. Obtonseed@huliste se eoee eee aa & eo , 1 | fCorn SAD Oo ele ae ee 660 624 36 342 51. 88 54. 85 Mitalia Way ter ose cee c see ee eee Cottonseed meal, two-thirds......--- Corn-and-cob meal, one-third.....-.- | 2\b-Cottonseedshulls oe 2 pe - ce ese ese eee 668 611 57 330 49.40 54.05 Cor silape®..-4 seo eee secs ee Alia fa isy ee Sees) Bae See ee Cottonseed meal, one-third........-- Corn-and-cob meal, two-thirds.-.---.-- | 3) );Cottonseedinhullse se asea--. seeee eee 651 622 29 335 51.44 53.87 \ Cormisilage: tn. seen Sete ame oo 3 Alfalfa hayes. As. 22ee 2 = rate ee SUMMARY STATEMENT. 1. The object of this test was to get further information con- cerning the use of cottonseed meal and mixtures of cottonseed meal and corn for finishing calves for the market. 2. The average initial weights of the calves used in the test were as follows: Lot 1, 487; lot 2, 427; lot 3, 486 pounds. The final CALF FEEDING IN ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI. 29 weights were: Lot 1, 682; lot 2, 695; and lot 3, 663 pounds. The average daily gains per calf were: Lot 1, 1.71; lot 2, 1.87; and lot - 3, 1.59 pounds. 3. All lots received corn silage, alfalfa hay, and cottonseed hulls as roughage. Lot 1 consumed 214 pounds of cottonseed meal for each 100 pounds gain. Lot 2 consumed 172 pounds of cottonseed meal and 86 pounds of corn-and-cob meal per 100 pounds gain. Lot 8 consumed 112 pounds cottonseed meal and 225 pounds of corn-and- cob meal for the same amount of gain. 4, The costs per 100 pounds of gain were as follows: Lot 1, $6.34; lot 2, $6.34; and lot 3, $7.40. The calves of all lots made gains very cheaply. 5. The amount of roughage required to make 100 pounds of gain was greatest with lot 1 and the smallest with lot 2. 6. The average profits per head for each of the lots were as fol- lows: Lot 1, $5.67; lot 2, $2.98; and lot 3, $3.56. 7. The shrinkage of lots 1, 2, and 3 was 36, 57, and 29 pounds, respectively. The heavy shrinkage of lot 2 can not be explained. 8. By market weights the calves dressed out as follows: Lot 1, 54.85; lot 2, 54.05; lot 3, 53.87 per cent. 9. There were no pigs following the calves of lots 2 and 3. Under these conditions it did not pay as well to feed.a mixture of cotton- seed meal and corn-and-cob meal as it did to feed cottonseed meal as the sole concentrate. IV. FATTENING CALVES ON COTTONSEED MEAL, CORN, CORN SILAGE, AND ALFALFA. PLAN OF WORK. The calf-feeding work for the winter of 1915-16 was conducted on the farm of Mr. Ben Walker near West Point, Miss., in the black- prairie section of the State. As the lots, shelter, and watering facili- ties have been described in connection with the previous year’s work it is needless to repeat here. The only difference in conditions was that the calf pens were concreted during the summer months in order that the calves would not be forced to stand in the mud as they had during the latter part of the experiment of the previous year. The calves were of about the same grade as those of the previous year, as half of them were raised on the farm and the other half bought from a neighboring farmer for 5 cents per pound. The majority of the calves were Shorthorns and Herefords, but a few Angus calves also were included. All the calves had run with their dams until about two weeks before the experiment started, when the 30 BULLETIN 631, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. purchased calves were weaned, dehorned, marked, and turned into an alfalfa field until the experiment was started. The home-raised calves were weaned, dehorned, and marked just a few days before the experiment was to start. All the calves had been dropped in the spring and were from 7 to 8 months old when weaned. The calves were weighed individually on November 11, and again on the 12th, on which date they were divided into three similar lots and started on feed. OBJECTS OF THE WORK. In the Alabama experiments the calves were given small rations of grain for comparatively short periods. They made satisfactory gains and were in good killing order but were not well finished at the close of the tests. In this test it was decided to feed the calves for a longer period and to give them a heavier grain ration in order to have them well finished before they were sold. The objects of this test were: 1. To see if good grade calves such as can be raised easily in Mis- sissippi can be finished for the market economically and profitably. 2. To make a comparative study of the value of cottonseed meal alone, a combination of cottonseed meal and shelled corn, and shelled corn alone, as concentrated feeds to be used in finishing calves that were to be fed silage as the principal roughage, with a small amount of alfalfa hay. 3. To determine approximately how much manure could be saved by feeding calves on a concrete floor under shelter. CHARACTER AND PRICES OF THE FEEDS USED. As this test was a comparison of grain feeds, the same kind of roughage was fed to all three lots. Feeders generally have the im- pression that cattle which are being fattened will do somewhat better if they are given a small amount of some palatable hay when they are fed corn silage as the chief roughage. For this reason the calves of all lots were given about 44 pounds of alfalfa hay per day in addi- tion to all of the corn silage they would eat. The cottonseed meal used was bright and of good quality, analyz- ing from 74 to 8 per cent of ammonia. The corn was of good quality. being well matured and sound. The silage was of good quality, hav- ing been cut at the proper stage and carrying considerable grain. The corn probably would have yielded 45 bushels to the acre. The alfalfa was of rather low grade, as it had been damaged by heavy dews. CALF FEEDING IN ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI, él The feeds were charged at the following prices: Cottonseed meal____ a Pc ric ____per ton__ $27. 00 Sore Ae a Li 2 NT © EA RN AE 8 per bushel__ . 70 Cornasilaces 222s ns 5 ee Se ee AN ELALONE hr onOO PAC fre lrales Na eae ARS oe en eae doz== 15500 AVERAGH DAILY RATIONS. As all the calves were accustomed to alfalfa they were started on about 6 pounds of alfalfa hay and about 15 pounds of silage per day. The silage was increased rapidly as the calves became accus- tomed to it until at the end of two weeks they were given all they would clean up within one hour after feeding. As the calves were to be fed a long period they were started on a small amount of grain and this was very gradually increased until the fourth month after which they were given the maximum amount of grain until the close of the test. Tt is a well-known fact that cattle to be fed for a long period will make almost as large gains and much more economical gains if they are fed a medium grain ration with all the good roughage they will eat for first part of the feeding period, and then given a heavy grain ration during the latter part of the period. This method was followed. Table 16 shows the average amount of feed consumed daily by each of the calves in lots 1, 2, and 3 for each 28-day period they were fed. TABLE 16.—Average daily rations by 28-day periods, 1915-16. Bee pyerage Lot é First | Second | Third | Fourth | Fifth Es Ob No. Ration. period. | period. | period. | period. | period. Geaeeay ene days. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Cottonseed meal.......-.- Qe, PU 3.5 4.3 5.0 5.0 3.69 1 |,Corn silage.......--.------ 16.8 22.7 23.8 25.3 23.7 26.7 22. 87 AN fallfa hayes reece eeeee 5.9 5.8 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.65 Cottonseed meal........-- 1:00 1.2 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.0 1.49 » \JShelled corn....-.-..-.--- 4.1 4.8 5.4 6.6 8.0 8.0 6.01 ~ |\Corn silage.......------.--- 14.7 18.3 18.3 13.9 16.2 18.6 17. 43 mAlfalia hayes esece eceeseee 5.8 5.4 4.0 4.0 3.9 4.0 4.57 Shelled corn.......-.-..-- 6.0 7.1 8.1 9.7 11.1 IDLH) 8.78 3 |;Cormsilage.......---.---.- 13.6 13.7 15.6 14.3 12.1 13.3 13.80 Adfatlaihaymeeresee see co ee 5.5 5.6 4.0 4.0 3.6 4.0 4.49 During the first 28-day period each calf in lot 1 consumed 2.2 pounds of cottonseed meal, 2.7 pounds for the second period, and this amount was increased gradually as the feeding progressed until dur- ing the fifth and sixth periods the calves were on full feed, eating 5 pounds of cottonseed meal per head per day. The calves consumed 5.9 pounds of alfalfa and 16.8 pounds of corn silage per head per day the first period, but the hay was decreased after the second period to 32 BULLETIN 631, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 4 pounds per head daily, and all of the corn silage was given that the calves would eat. This increased as the amount of hay was reduced, until during the last three periods each calf ate about 25 pounds of — silage daily. The concentrated feeds of the other two lots were increased in about the same manner. When the calves of lot 2 were on full feed they consumed 2 pounds of cottonseed meal and 8 pounds of shelled corn per head daily, whereas each calf in lot 3 received 12 pounds of shelled corn each day. The amount of silage consumed by the calves of lot 2 was about 7 pounds less than that consumed by the calves of lot 1. The calves of lot 3, which were fed on shelled corn alone as the concentrate, consumed but about half as much silage each day during the last two periods as the calves which were fed cottonseed meal. The amount of alfalfa hay was the same for all of the lots. The last column of Table 16 shows the average amount of feed consumed daily by each calf for the entire feeding period of 156 days. Table 17 shows the average initial weight, the average final weight, the average gain per calf, and average daily gain per calf for the entire feeding period. TABLE 17.—Total and daily gains (Nov. 12, 1915, to Apr. 16, 1916, 156 days). | | Average | Average | Average | Average Lot Ration initial final total daily No. ‘ | weight | weight gains gains | per calf. | per calf. | per calf. | per calf. | 1 coe | Pounds. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. ’ pee meal =:c2sse esses: fea Son eee ] Es | PSU SUASC Se Seas eee ee ee oe eee eee ee 4 701 271 1.74 Mihir Ch Pern fe ek me { | patons Heal. - 225 S22 s22 tse 2s sieve 228222222 25522252 elled:corm: 5 fo-tege -! be seers, | Sheer Ltn ae = = 2 Corn silage Zh syed: i ak We et CREP NG BS 5 EDS ES Flees 3 430 695 265 | ira WAltihaling 6 cies be ee ed Sees Slieiled corm a ee ee Ee cee eee | 3 4 Cormsilages s 2. sass 2%- = Secs aee See = 2 2 SSeS 434 714 289 1.8 Wikiitathays —- eee! $F See. ees SS eee | The average weights of the calves of the three lots were very uni- form at the beginning of the test, being 430, 430, and 434 pounds for lots 1, 2, and 3, respectively. The average total gain per calf for the entire period was 271, 265, and 280 pounds, or a daily gain of 1.74, 1.70, and 1.80 pounds per head, respectively. These gains were very satisfactory for a long feeding period and they indicate that all the calves did well. The calves of lot 1 were inclined to grow and did not fatten as rapidly as the calves of either of the other two lots. The calves of lot 3 were the fattest of the three lots, although there was not a great deal of difference between the calves of lots 2 and 3. CALF FEEDING IN ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI. 33 QUANTITY AND COST OF FEED TO MAKE 100 POUNDS OF GAIN. The most important data in any feeding experiment are those re- lating to the daily ration, the rate of gain made by the animals, the amount of feed which is required to make 100 pounds of gain in weight, and the difference in selling price which results from the different methods of feeding. With these figures any prospective feeder can determine fairly accurately what feeds he had better use in fattening his cattle, how much he will need, and the gains he may expect; and knowing the cost of his cattle and feeds and about what the finished cattle will sell for he can approximate the profit or loss which may result from fattening his stock. In the past farmers and stockmen have paid too little attention to these figures and laid too much stress upon the financial outcome of the special test to get the most good out of the experimental work. Table 18 shows the amount of feed required to produce 100 pounds of gain in weight on the calves and also the comparative cost of 100 pounds of gain. TaBLE 18—Quantity and cost of feed required to make 100 pounds of gain, and selling price of calves (Nov. 12,1915, to Apr. 12, 1916, 156 days). Selling Feed to Cost : Lot , make 100] of 100 | Price of No. Ration. pounds | pounds tl i 9in.! of gain. gain. pounds. Pounds. I (Cottonscedhimealte): Byes ss ae eee ase ee eee Sob se eceecel 213 HM WOTMISI A eC brrten = San ars Spey aoa an ee abe Soave ata or eiylsel ee Ral 1,318 $6. 86 $8.17 PAN Fea Tepe aed ee Piles Saclcp eben RnR ee odo ee eee. clk 2 Mle ep Shee seers 268 conouseed TNC AN SMe isiarais eesti elo ae ie eee oe Wey ene seeen ee ee | a elledi Gorman car alee aussie he ee spe 2 PR RR eR See Scie be 2 Corn SUAS OP Stee ate 2) eet ea ara racine Sam elbis Je ae ASe ARRAS EER EeE 1,025 wee eed PAUL falianhayeasccn erie sed ary ret wes whe eee es oat ems 269 Shelled: Comme 228 soa 2 8 Poaceae ercn ses boc eto oad gemcie eiosteree cee ea | 489 EP COPMSIARG We ait cipro see a RES, WE cee oe 769 9.14 8. 66 AMA ta ayes cre eee eect oc eee elebiee Ce eee eae eer 250 é ict SA ee Cottonseed meal, $27 per ton; corn, 70 cents per bushel; corn silage, $3 per ton; The calves in all three lots received the same kind of roughage, but ate varying amounts, dependent upon their appetites after con- suming their grain. The daily gain of the calves in all lots was fairly uniform, but the amount of roughage consumed varied con- siderably. This variation is reflected in the amount of roughage required to make 100 pounds of gain. The amount of feed required to make 100 pounds of gain is seen to be 213 pounds of cottonseed meal, 1,318 pounds of silage, and 268 pounds of alfalfa hay for lot 1; 88 pounds of cottonseed meal, 353 pounds of shelled corn, 1,025 pounds of silage, and 269 pounds of alfalfa for lot 2; and 489 pounds of shelled corn, 769 pounds of silage, and 250 pounds of alfalfa for lot 3. 34 BULLETIN 631, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The comparative cost of 100 pounds of gain for lots 1, 2, and 3 are $6.86, $9.05, and $9.14, respectively. The calves of lot 1 are seen to have required a very small amount of cottonseed meal and a comparatively large amount of cheap roughage to make 100 pounds of gain, while the opposite is true of the calves of lot 3, which re- ceived shelled corn as a concentrate. The calves of lot 3 required more than twice as much grain to make 100 pounds of gain, some- what less alfalfa, and only a little more than half as much silage. This resulted in more expensive gains for the calves receiving corn. The amount of feed required to make 100 pounds of gain on the calves is considerably smaller than the amount required to put the same amount of gain on mature cattle. In fact it is seldom possible | to make gains on any class of cattle in the dry lot, except calves, at a smaller cost than the selling price of the animals. This was done with the calves of lot 1. The exclusive use of cottonseed meal as a concentrate for feeding calves has resulted invariably in good daily gains and very economi- cal gains, but at the same time there has been a tendency for such calves to grow more and fatten less than is desirable while fattening. This has resulted in such calves selling for somewhat less than corn- fed calves, as shown in Table 18. The difference in selling price is often great enough almost to overcome the difference in the cost of production. There was a difference of 49 cents per 100 pounds in the selling price of the calves of lots 1 and 3 and a difference of 41 cents per hundredweight in the selling price of the calves of lots 1 and 2. Strictly prime calves can not be made by feeding cottonseed meal as the sole concentrate, and though it is not always most profitable to put the maximum finish on calves it is usually more profitable to have them well finished than half fat. It is more frequently the case that extra finish on calves pays better than it does on steers of two years or older. FINANCIAL STATEMENT. Although any financial statement that is made is more or less un- satisfactory because there are so many variations from year to year in the prices of feeds, selling prices of animals, and margin of profit that the financial outcome may be reversed completely if any very radical change is made in any one of these factors, such a statement usually is desired by the reader and is of some value for compara- tive purposes. One-half the calves used in this experiment were purchased for 5 cents a pound, pasture weights, without any shrink, so all the calves are charged in at that price. At this price the farmers made a profit raising them, as the cows were worth but about $45 each and ae, hee ne ee ee a ee a ere! CALF FEEDING IN ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI. 35 the cost of wintering cows and pasturing them in that section of Mississippi is comparatively small. They were shipped to the St. Louis market, where they were sold. All the charges for shipping and selling are included in Table 19 with the other charges: Table 19.—Financial Statement (Nov. 12, 1915, to Apr. 16, 1916, 156 days). Lot 1. Cottonseed meal, corn silage, alfalfa hay: To 15 calves—6,450 pounds, at $5 per hundredweight_____________ $322. 50 To 8,6364 pounds cottonseed meal, at $27 per ton________ $116. 59 To 53,52. pounds corn silage, at $3 per ton______________ 80. 28 To 10,890 sounds alfalfa hay, at $15 per ton_____________ 81. 68 PSO CMR COS Ce O lief CC Us ie saa ace aE cpm eae 278. 55 PT REST Sel (ee ANTS GS se a sn aes alc re a Ses copa 29. 52 ROM COTMTADNTS ST OM eB eel a Sh SS 5 SD STN ea NLS 7. 03 MOV AKG ASCH WN ys OU Cot kee Ne ES a 4. 83 Total miscellaneous expenditures_____..______---_---------__ 41. 38 Md May eesil eis>:< aX ov OLIN HU a r= Yo yes ge pee ee ee eS OED AD Ma Se Al SS i $642. 43 By sale of 15 calves—9,790 pounds, at $8.168 per hundredweight__ 799. 65 MOA MSE LOM ELON), VO tes ess ee eT aR RT Lae Ae eee 157. 22 Average! net, profit) per. callie Bee eee 10. 48 Lot 2. Cottonseed meal, shelled corn, corn silage, alfalfa hay: To 14 calves—6,0174 pounds, at $5 per hundredweight___________ $300. 88 To 3,256 pounds cottonseed meal, at $27 per ton_________ $43. 96 To 13,116 pounds shelled corn, at 70 cents per bushel___. 163.95 To 388,076 pounds corn silage, at $3 per ton______________ 57. 11 To 9,986 pounds alfalfa hay, at $15 per ton_____________ 74. 90 Ota COSE Of hee Gs ses A ie sik ea at DLE ieee Ree ae a a 339. 92 A Day HSRC AN Gl VE EEN) ery eek WAAR a cigs ipo Me sao Oe al 27. 55 ARMS © O TAATNNTS SH Ty aN aS 6. 56 ROMVATGASSs Maven et Ce ss a ea ee es aes 4.51 Total miscellaneous expenditures_____________________-___--- 38. 62 MO tall VERE CGR E So eee BN ce ae . 679. 42 By sale of 14 calves—9,320 pounds, at $8.578 per hundredweight__ 799. 35 Yi Bay eral GaVSR Ah aNeCOMCN oh Copal ICO a -oPy aes ss SIN Le 119. 93 Averace: netiprotitiper calit .22) 52a ae Cae eS 8. 57 Lot 3. Shelled corn, corn silage, alfalfa hay: To 15 calves—6,505 pounds, at $5 per hundredweight____________ $325. 25 To 20,547 pounds shelled corn (366.9 bushels), at 70 cents OED ONUISL CYS) | ety OS eae oO ee en mnn Vege ets See do 1,318} 1,025 769 } AT ial fa haya ae oo eee do 9 2. | Cost per hundredweight gain................--.. $8. 55 $9.65 $11.13 Abbott, Miss., 1916-17: Ti Sumuiter 2. 5. Feed per hundredweight gain | Cottonsded cake... 55252 .22-582 222 pounds. - 247 126 A522 ee CORN a ee ee ee ats eps lara 250 Se - - oie a A ES ee Sees? O: 22 Aesest ice) ws eee Pee Cost per emictecig etal gain eee $5. 04 $6. 58 | wae 2 Winter.......--..... Feed per hundredweight gain: | Cottonseed neal?! = 225-222 pounds. . 299 | 199)'\s fas eee Shelled Corn. 22. 32522 oe asap ns: ‘i ees ee Sd I oe See = - Conmi siace=-. 22 ees ee? es do=:: 2, 460 1,900) |---5 .-28ee Cost per hundredweight gain.........-..-.------ $9.68 | $12.36 Saeeeccss: iu The calf-feeding work of 1916-17 shows most clearly the value of pasture supplemented with a grain ration for fattening calves. The cottonseed-meal-fed calves of lot 1 made 100 pounds of gain in the summer for $5.04, whereas in the winter the same gain in weight cost $9.68. When one-third cottonseed meal and two-thirds shelled corn were fed as the grain ration the calves of lot 2 made gains during the summer at $6.58 and during the winter at $12.86 per 100 pounds. In Table 30 no account is taken of the pork that would be produced behind the calves receiving corn, and this amount must be calculated and added to the profits for the corn-fed calves. There would be no pork credit for the calves of lot 1, fed cottonseed meal, and a smaller credit for those fed corn-and-cob meal than the ones fed shelled corn or broken ear corn. At the present prices of pork, it would be con- servative to add a pork credit of $2 to $3.50 per calf for the calves of lots 2 and 3 for the last three years, depending upon the amount of corn fed to each lot. This amount of profit should be added to the profit shown in the table. In Table 29 it is seen that in every year except 1912-13 where corn was fed the cost of the gains was more than where cottonseed meal was fed as the sole concentrate. CALF FEEDING IN ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI. 51 _ The profit per calf as shown in Table 30 is computed on the basis of a spread or margin of selling over purchase price of 14, 2, 24 and 91 cents per pound. TasLeE 30.—Profit realized per calf if ‘they sell for 14, 2, 24, and 2% cents above cost price of 64 cents per pound. | P calf. Sold at | rofit per calf Station and year. Inargin | =a Of ont Lot 2. | Lots. | Cents. PAM ALOU 1 2i cece ae nls os see 2 fcc ss oa ged Soe sce see Semen wee 13 $5. 80 $4.37 $2. 88 2 8.75 Feliy, 5. 48 22) 10:24 8.58 6.97 2 | 11.65 9. 98 8.33 SI a rr t Been O11 ee ES ST TA Oe Bae 13 | 2.99 4.52 5.50 54 || 5.52 7.06 7.97 23 | 6.78 8.33 9.21 2 | 8.04 9. 60 10. 45 88 ee | PeEIOUU MISS LOL 15 os oe eo Se ge ees eee 1Z | —3.89 —5.99 —4, 92 . 2 — 2576 —2.11 —1.81 23 | 79 —1.41 = oh 28 | 2.35 ll 1,29 Rebar it pMISSAuI915=16) 2255! ! 2) eek Le tes. Sans Lee 13 | 3.98 —2.90 —7.81 Z| 7.24 42 —4.43 22 | 8. 87 2.08 78 2k | 10:50 3.74; —1.4 _ Lat, HRB a ae na a eae Tel Gta |e 2 | 9. 33 7166 Ee. eee 24 | 10 94 IE (yftl eae ceases 28 12. 55 279)||\s- cae tHe 1 No credit has been given in the table for the pork produced. Table 30 shows that when the average price of feeds for the last two years is taken as a standard, the calves that were fed cottonseed meal as the sole concentrate would have made a nice profit every year, except one, on a margin of 14 cents per pound. During the years 1911-12 and 1912-13, when ear corn ground into corn-and-cob meal was fed in very small quantities a bigger profit was shown on a margin of 13 cents than where corn was fed in larger amounts daily. The work of each of the first two years is strictly comparable with each other, and the work of each of the last three years is also comparable, but as light corn rations were fed the first two years and heavy ones the last three years, the two groups of years are not comparable with each other. In the work of the last three years, where a medium to heavy grain ration was fed, there would be naturally a larger pork credit per calf, otherwise the heavy corn feeding would have been very unprofitable. The calves that were fed corn liberally made more rapid gains than calves fed on cottonseed meal alone and fattened much faster, as there was a tendency for the calves that were fed cottonseed meal as the sole concentrate to grow instead of fattening. The corn-fed 52 BULLETIN 631, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. calves also sold somewhat higher because they were fatter; but though prime calves could not be made when cottonseed meal was fed as the sole concentrate, it was usually more economical and more profitable to feed cottonseed meal alone than to feed a combination of cottonseed meal and corn or a ration of corn alone. This is owing to the comparative cheapness of cottonseed meal with corn when the feeding value of the two concentrates is considered. As long as cot- tonseed meal remains cheap and corn relatively high in price the re- sults probably will be the same. There are some exceptions to this, however. On farms where considerable corn is raised and can be marketed only at considerable expense, the farmer can get a good price for the corn by feeding it to his calves and hogs. The higher the quality of the calves the less danger of loss there is in feeding more expensive corn. Calves of high quality usually pay better re- turns for the feed consumed than scrub calves. : When corn was fed liberally the calves invariably finished out bet-- ter than the cottonseed-meal-fed calves and usually made larger daily gains. They usually sold for somewhat more per hundredweight and killed out a higher percentage of dressed meat. Although prime calves could not be made by feeding cottonseed meal as the sole concentrate, the calves became fat enough and made gains cheap enough to sell well and return a good profit year after year. While cottonseed meal continues relatively cheap, good profits can be made by feeding it to fattening calves. Corn silage proved a much more satisfactory roughage for fatten- ing calves than cottonseed hulls. The calves made a profit every year when feeds were charged in at cost; but in some cases the profit was small, as the value of the manure has not been considered in writing up these tests. GENERAL CONCLUSIONS FOR THE FIVE YEARS’ CALF FEEDING. The calf-feeding work reported in this bulletin covers a period of five years. The calves used in all of the experiments were very simi- lar in age, size, breeding, and quality. Those fed during the first four years of the experimental work reported in this bulletin were fed in a very similar manner, as the general conditions under which the feeding was done were very similar. The calves averaged from six to eight months of age in the fall when they were put on feed. In all five years’ work there has been a comparison of the value of cottonseed meal and a combination of cottonseed meal and corn for fattening calves for the market. In some cases the corn was fed as corn-and-cob meal, in others as corn chop, and in still others as shelled corn, but the comparison of cottonseed meal and corn has remained throughout. CALF FEEDING IN ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI, 53 The roughage used during one year was not the same as that used another year, but each year the roughage was exactly the same for the lots which were being compared. In the first two tests, where corn was substituted for cottonseed meal, the substitution was made pound for pound and the results were unsatisfactory, because a pound of corn has a much smaller feeding value than a pound of cottonseed meal; and the corn-fed calves therefore were getting a smaller amount of digestible nutrients and consequently did not do as well as the cottonseed-meal-fed calves. During the later experiments, where corn was substituted for cotton- seed meal, the substitution was made in about the proportion of 2 pounds of corn for 1 pound of cottonseed meal. The use of corn invariably increased the cost of the gains made, regardless of the kind and amount of roughage used. Where corn was fed very sparingly as a substitute for cottonseed meal, the amount or size of the daily gains of the calves was not increased: but where corn was fed liberally the calves made larger daily gains than the calves fed on cottonseed meal alone. The increased gains were not great enough, however, to overbalance or offset the increased cost of the gains, so the cottonseed-meal-fed calves were usually a little more profitable. Unless the calves that were fed corn were followed by shoats to utilize the waste grain, the feeding of corn was not as profitable as the use of cottonseed meal as the sole concentrate. In the South, during the last three years, there has often been a margin of 2 to 3 cents a pound between purchase price of calves at weaning time and selling price in the spring. Under such conditions, with the current prices of feedstuffs, the feeding of calves for the market has been very profitable. -The work of 1916-17 indicates that calves too young to wean and fatten for market in the fall can be made to pay a nice profit by letting them nurse the cows during the winter, feeding them grain on grass the following summer, and selling them in the fall, or by following the summer feeding with a short feeding in the dry lot and selling about Christmas or soon after. PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRI- CULTURE RELATED TO THE SUBJECT OF THIS BULLETIN. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Forage Crops for the Cotton Region. (Farmers’ Bulletin 509.) Texas or Tick Fever. (Farmers’ Bulletin 569.) Handling and Feeding of Silage. (Farmers’ Bulletin 578.) Beef Production in the South. (Farmers’ Bulletin 580.) Economical Cattle Feeding in the Corn Belt. (Farmers’ Bulletin 588.) Breeds of Beef Cattle. (Farmers’ Bulletin 612.) Cottonseed Meal for Feeding Beef Cattle. (Farmers’ Bulletin 655.) Production of Baby Beef. (Farmers’ Bulletin 811.) How Live Stock is Handled in the Bluegrass Region of Kentucky. (Farmers’ Bulletin 812.) Utilization of Farm Wastes in Feeding Live Stock. (Farmers’ Bulletin 873.) Raising and Fattening Beef Calves in Alabama. (Department Bulletin 73.) The Production of Beef in the South. (Yearbook Separate 627.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Feeding for Meat Production. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 108.) Price, 10 cents. Beef Production in Alabama: 1. Cost of Raising Cattle. 2. Wintering Steers Preparatory to Summer Fattening on Pasture. 3. Fattening Cattle on Pas- ture. (Bureau of Animal] Industry Buleltin 131.) Price, 10 cents. Nutritive Value of Nonprotein of Feeding Stuffs. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 139.) Price, 10 cents. Maintenance Rations of Farm Animals. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 148.) Price, 15 cents. Fattening Calves in Alabama. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 147.) Price, 10 cents. Feeding Beef Cattle in Alabama: 1. Winter Fattering on Cottonseed Meal, Cottonseed Hulls, Corn Silage, and Johnson Grass Hay. 2. Wintering Steers Followed by Summer Fattening on Pasture. 3. Value of Shelter for Fatten-— ing Cattle in Alabama. 4. Early Compared with Late Fattening of Steers on Pasture. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 159.) Price, 10 cents. Fattening Cattle in Alabama. (Department Bulletin 110.) Price, 5 cents. Use of Energy Values in the Computation of Rations for Farm Animals. (De partment Bulletin 459.) Price, 5 cents. A Method of Calculating Economical Balanced Rations. (Department Bulletin 627.) Price, 5 cents. Meat Situation in the United States. Part IV. Utilization and Efficiency of Available American Feed Stuffs. (Report 112.) Price, 5 cents. 54 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER November 30, 1917 THE UTILIZATION OF WASTE TOMATO SEEDS AND SKINS. By FRANK RABAK, Chemical Biologist, Drug-Plant and Poisonous-Plant Investi- ; gations, Bureau of Plant Industry. CONTENTS. Page. Page. fat ROCUCHOM s/c -ceeeise cise esos si lnaenee es te 1 | Extraction of tomato-seed oil—Continued. Commercial products from tomato refuse.... 1 Chemical examination of the oil......-.- 7 Accumulation and disposa! of tomato waste. . 3 Available quantity of the oil...........- 9 Percentages of seeds and skins...--....-. 3 Uses and value of the oil.......---....-- 10 Drying the waste material and separat- Tomato-seedomealtpesn sss see esse eee calastl= 11 dmg therSCedsa =. 4- cle we eens te otis oe 5 Utilization for stock feeding......-....-- 11 Extraction of tomato-seed oil..-.....-..-.-.- 5 Available quantity of the meal.....-.... 12 Physical and chemical properties of the Suminianye ee see eee ee eee eee een 12 crude and the refined oil-.......-.--.- Z|) Thien ere CMCC O65 So bodsaccuoseesccEconectec 14 INTRODUCTION. The manufacture of tomato products in the United States con- stitutes an industry of large and growing proportions and impor- tance. Tomatoes serve as the basis for two general classes of prod- ucts, in one of which the fresh whole tomatoes are used and in the other the pulp alone, as in the manufacture of catsups and soups. For this latter class large quantities of tomatoes are required, from which the seeds and skins at present are discarded as useless. The increased interest in the production of foodstuffs throughout the country will doubtless result in an extension of all canning and packing operations, including tomato products. In the following pages attention is directed to the possible utilization of the waste tomato material, not only from the standpoint of food conservation, but as a profitable adjunct to the tomato-canning industry. COMMERCIAL PRODUCTS FROM TOMATO REFUSE. By proper treatment, tomato refuse may be made to produce two important products, namely, fixed oil and meal, both of which 18025°—17 2 BULLETIN 632, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. possess considerable value. The seeds of the tomato contain a fatty oil of excellent quality, and the seed cake is valuable as a stock food, : Considerable work has already been done in foreign countries, especially in Italy, on the utilization of tomato waste. Battaglia (4)? in 1901 investigated tomato-seed oil and reported on its prop- erties. Later, Kochs (9), in an investigation of certain residues, mentioned tomato-seed oil and discussed its properties, stating that 17.3 per cent of oil having an agreeable taste and smell could ee ob- tained from the seeds. In the manufacture of tomato products, Italy perhaps leads all countries. ‘The industry there has assumed such proportions that the problem of the proper disposal of the residues has become an important consideration. Perciabosco and Semeraro (12) in 1910 investigated tomato residues with a view to extracting the fatty oil, determining also the industrial value of the oil and the fertilizer and feeding values of the residues after extraction. The oil ex- tracted by carbon bisulphid was found to have properties similar to those of the oil previously reported by Battaglia. The fat-free residues were found to be useful for fertilizing purposes. Harcourt (6) in 1907 called attention to the tomato refuse ac- cumulating in increasing quantities at the canning factories in Canada. It was reported that a large portion of the refuse was flushed into near-by rivers, but in some cases it was allowed to accumulate near the factories, thus becoming a nuisance. Some of the refuse was spread over the land as a fertilizer. The manurial value was tested and found to compare favorably with barnyard manure in the three important elements, potash, phosphoric acid, and nitrogen. Accomazzo (1) in 1910 stated that in the province of Parma, Italy, 850,000 quintals (83,660 tons) of tomatoes were used annually. This quantity would yield from 11,000 to 12,000 tons of skins and seeds, containing about 80 per cent moisture. After removing the greater portion of the moisture the residue would amount to about 3,000 to 4,000 tons, of which about two-thirds are seeds. It is stated that these seeds when extracted by pressure yield 18 per cent of oil and by solvents 20 per cent. It would therefore be possible to recover — from 500 to 600 tons of oil from the waste seeds. Tomato-seed oil — is stated to have a heat value about equal to that of olive oil. When treated with driers it acquires good drying properties and is also useful in soap making. The press cake is said to have excellent nutritive value. Fachini (5) also recommends the extraction of oil from the seeds, but instead of drying the residue, as proposed by Accomazzo, he —— = 3 The serial numbers in parentheses refer to “ Literature cited,’’ pp. 14—15. UTILIZATION OF WASTE TOMATO SEEDS AND SKINS. 33 uggests a method of separating the seeds from the skins by agitat- ng the material with water and allowing it to settle, whereupon the eeds fall to the bottom. The greater part of the water can then be emoved from the wet seeds by centrifugal machines, after which he seeds are dried easily and the oil can be removed by extraction r pressure. According to Consul Keena (8), Florence, Italy, the utilization of tomato waste and the extraction of the oil from the seeds was first attempted by a firm in Parma in 1910. The success of the mdertaking led to the establishment of two other factories the fol- lowing year. About 5,000 metric tons (1 metric ton=2,204 pounds) of wet tomato waste, corresponding to 1,500 metric tons of dry waste, were worked out for the extraction of the oil and manufacture of the meal. These operations yielded 150 tons of oil, 800 tons of oil eake, and 500 tons of tomato skins. Tomato-seed oi] has been utilized in the manufacture of soap, and the conversion of the crude oil into an edible oil is also receiving attention. The press cake is used in the manufacture of stock feed, while the skins are suggested as a fertilizer. The seeds-are sold at Parma for 14 cents per 100 pounds, while at Naples the wet residue is sold at 4 to 8 cents per 100 pounds. This When dry it sells at $1.75 to $2.20 per 100 pounds. More recently attention has been called by Shriver (14) to the vast quantities of tomato seeds and skins accumulating as waste products from the rapidly growing canned-tomato industry in Italy. The problem of the proper disposition of this waste has been receiving at- tention since 1908, at which time a manufacturing plant was estab- lished in Milan, with branch drying plants at Parma, Ceriale, Cervia, Piacenza, and Pilastro. The oil is sold in the crude state for $7 per 100 pounds, and the refined oi] for $8.75 per 100 pounds. The press cake is mixed with the skins and other ingredients and sold as stock feed. The yield of oil from the seeds is stated by Shriver to be about 20 per cent by pressure and 22 per cent by solvents. In 1913, from 100 ‘to 150 metric tons of oil and 1,000 metric tons of stock feed were manufactured in Milan from the press cake and skins. Bailey and Burnett (3), working with American tomato seeds, ex- tracted the oil by pressure and found that it could be refined and bleached easily and was apparently a satisfactory food oil. ACCUMULATION AND DISPOSAL OF TOMATO WASTE. PERCENTAGES OF SEEDS AND SKINS. For the preparation of tomato pulp, the fresh tomatoes, after being carefully sorted to remove the culls, are thoroughly washed by a residue, which ferments readily, must be collected and dried daily. - a Roney 4 BULLETIN 632, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. “ stream of water under pressure, then passed into receptacles where they are cooked with steam, and afterward are transferred to a cyclone machine, which removes the pulp. The seeds and skins pass out and are discarded. By the cold process the washed tomatoes pass directly to the cyclone machine. The total quantity of tomato waste which accumulates annually in the United States depends not only upon the pack of any particu- lar season but alse upon the percentage of seeds contained in the fresh tomatoes. The seed content varies with the variety of tomato. Eistimated from the figures given by Accomazzo (1), Italian-grown tomatoes contain 14.7 per cent of wet waste, of which about 80 per cent is water. After removing the greater portion of the water, the waste amounts to 4.8 per cent. Of this waste, which probably - still contains some moisture, 73 per cent is seeds. The dry waste as it occurs in Italy is stated to contain about 66 per cent by weight of seeds (15). These percentages are considerably higher than the results obtained from American-grown tomatoes. Two experiments in different localities were made with American- grown tomatoes which had been used for pulping purposes, to de- termine the percentage of seeds and skins. The quantity of fresh tomatoes used in the two experiments was 2,320 pounds and 5,344 pounds, respectively. The results were as follows: Wet waste, 5.43 and 5.44 per cent; dry waste, 1.11 and 0.95 per cent. The dry waste in these experiments contained 46.3 and 42.8 per cent seeds and 53.7 and 57.2 per cent skins, respectively. According to Street (16, p. 128-129), fresh tomatoes contain 1.35 per cent dry waste, consisting of 49.3 per cent seeds and 50.7 per cent skins. Using these figures as a basis for calculation, American- grown tomatoes contain on the average about 1.13 per cent dry waste, of which 46.1 per cent is seeds and 53.9 per cent skins. Fresh toma- toes therefore contain the equivalent of 0.52 per cent dry seeds and 0.61 per cent dry skins. In order to learn the approximate annual output of tomato refuse in the United States, the writer personally visited 21 of the largest tomato-pulping firms. These manufacturing concerns operate largely in Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, and Ohio in the Middle West, and New Jersey, Pennsylvania, New York, Delaware, and Maryland in the East. Detailed figures regarding the output of refuse were not available in each State. The extent of the industry, however, may be realized when it is learned that in Indiana alone 120,000 tons of tomatoes are pulped annually. Applying the percentages previously mentioned, the amount of dry waste in this one State would be about 1.356 tons, or 624 tons of seeds and 732 tons of skins. Not all the firms engaged in pulping tomatoes could be reached; therefore accurate information in regard to the total quantity used UTILIZATION OF WASTE TOMATO SEEDS AND SKINS. 5 annually could not be obtained. But from the figures given by the firms visited, supplemented by correspondence with other firms, it is estimated that 275,000 tons are pulped annually. Adding to this the tonnage of culls, from which also the seeds and skins could be sepa- rated, a conservative estimate would be about 300,000 tons. This tonnage, of course, would vary from year to year. However, owing to the increasing demand for tomato products, the tonnage will tend to increase each year. The quantity of wet waste resulting annually would be about 16,000 tons, which would yield approximately 3,000 tons of dry waste. This dry waste would yield about 1,500 tons of dry seeds and 1,800 tons of dry skins. DRYING THE WASTE MATERIAL AND SEPARATING THE SEEDS. An important problem in connection with the utilization of tomato waste is the drying of the mass and separating the seeds from the skins. According to Shriver (14, p. 21-22), this problem is handled in Italy in the following manner: . The wet seeds and skins are passed through a press to remove as much of the moisture as possible. They are then passed through a desiccator, or drier, in which the material is kept in constant motion by means of horizontal con- veyers, finally emerging from the machine in a dry condition. Heat is applied to the drier by means of steam pipes or by forced air. It is stated that about 10 tons of residue can be dried in 24 hours. The final operation consists in passing the dried material through a machine supplied with a series of sieves and fans, which results in the complete separation of the seeds from the skins. A number of types of desiccators, or driers, are manufactured in the United States which would be admirably suited for drying the wet waste. It has been suggested that a sugar-beet drier would handle the material efficiently. No great difficulty should be ex- perienced in constructing a separator consisting of sieves and fans for the separation of the seeds from the skins. EXTRACTION OF TOMATO-SEED OIL. Two methods of extraction are applicable for obtaining fatty oil from seeds. The pressure method is perhaps the simplest and most expeditious, being well adapted to seeds containing a fairly high per- centage of oil. The most careful manipulation of this process, how- ever, leaves a residual portion of the oil in the press cake. The ex- peller type of press is perhaps the best adapted for seeds having 4 comparatively low percentage of oil. Even with this type of ma- chine a small percentage of oi] remains in the press cake. This, how- ever, is not a total loss, since the value of the cake is enhanced by the presence of some fat. A distinct advantage of the pressure 6 BULLETIN 632, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. method is in the better quality of the product obtained. Pressed oils usually contain less impurities and consequently are more readily — and effectively refined. When the maximum percentage of oil is desired from certain ma-— terials the volatile-solvent method of extraction serves best. The principal solvents which may be employed are benzine, petroleunilla i ether, gasoline, and carbon tetrachlorid. A disadvantage of this — method is in the inflammability of many of the solvents, necessi- tating careful handling and operation. This trouble is largely over- _ come by the use of carbon tetrachlorid, which is noninflammable and — possesses a higher boiling point than any of the other solvents and — hence is capable of effecting more complete recovery. Oils obtained by the solvent extraction method are usually less pure than expressed oils, containing much coloring matter and other impurities extracted by the particular solvent employed. No great difficulty is experi- enced, however, in refining the oils thus obtained. Pressed oils also require refining. Apparatus of the continuous-extraction type is usually employed. This kind of apparatus minimizes the quantity of solvent used and prevents loss of the solvent during the operation. Practically all the solvent may be recovered from the oil and residue and thus be avail- able for further use. A practical example of the use of a volatile solvent for the extraction of fatty oil is the use of benzine in the ex- traction of soy-bean oil (11). The disadvantages of the solvent bs “& > Po method as compared with the advantages of the pressure method are largely offset by the lower cost of the apparatus, the smaller ex- pense of operation, and the higher yield of 011 obtainable. Continuous extractors and hydraulic presses are obtainable from American manufacturers of chemical and pharmaceutical machinery. Either of the two methods mentioned may be used effectively in the extraction of oil from tomato seeds. The solvent extraction method was used for obtaining the samples in the experiments de- scribed in this bulletin. The apparatus employed was the contin- uous-extraction type, the solvents used being ether and carbon tetra- chlorid. The yield of oil from the ground seeds with either solvent was practically the same, averaging 22 per cent. The crude oil was pale greenish yellow in color with a fatty, shghtly rancid odor and fatty, slightly bitter taste. In refining the crude oil the objectionable odor was removed by passing steam through the oil until little or no odor was perceptible. The deodorized 011 was then heated on a steam bath for about one hour with fuller’s earth (kaolin) and finally filtered while hot through filter paper. This procedure effected decolorization of the oil to a marked degree. The refined oil possessed a very pale yel- lowish color with bland fatty and agreeable nutlike taste and smell. UTILIZATION OF WASTE TOMATO SEEDS AND SKINS. 7 PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF THE CRUDE AND THE REFINED OILS. Some of the more common physical and chemical constants of the _ crude and the refined oils were determined, as shown in Table I. For purposes of comparison the properties of some of the tomato-seed oils of foreign origin are also included in the table. TaBLE I.—Physical and chemical constants® of tomato-seed oil from domestic and foreign tomatoes. Domestic oil. Foreign investigators. Physical ae and chemical nx niece Ae erciay constants. ¢eco- attaglia oscoand Crude. Refined. mazz0(1). (4). Kochs (9). oanicnina : (12). Color ..ca:.<--- yale greenish yel- | Very pale yellow..|..........|.........- Brownish red. ow. WOES teens Fatty, nutlike, | Fatty, bland, nut- |..........).........- Agreeable, to- slightly rancid. like. matolike. IE ASUO | ciciscccccas Fatty, slightly} Fatty, bland,nut- |.__.......|_.........|.--.. Gossee ces bitter. like; no bitter aftertaste. Specific gravity .| 0.9216 5........... OLOL SABE ens ee 0.920 c...| 0.922 ¢...| 0.920¢......... 0.9244.c Index of refrac- | 1.4694d¢............ MOA TAs Cee at. Suen Renee ame T4730 tal aes yseiccn cern tion. Congealing point} Turbid at 0° C.; | Turbid at 2° C.; |..........).....2.--- Thick liquid yellow gelati- solid, very pale at —9°C. nous mass at yellow mass at —7°C. —10°C. Acid value...... CLES ee ed See a D5. Sh es AP IR || eae 26iseue ee CBR Saas cases 1.823. Eavouification HOO Ae Aes eee oles HOSE GGHOCC EASES 5 18376 See 90 4 esl S36 eee 189.4. value. Iodin value..... TORS op Sade AVA es nee 2: Sha 17 aaa TOGO s- | AV7 Skee oe | 97.7. a Determined according to standard methods (17). b At 24° C. ¢ At 15°C. @ At 25° C, From Table I may be noted the general effect of the refining process upon the physical and chemical properties of the oil. The color, odor, and taste of the refined oil show much improvement over the same properties of the crude oil. The specific gravity and index of refraction show changes due to the removal of impurities by the refining process. The congealing point of the refined oil has hkewise changed. The acid value is materially lower than that of the crude oil, owing to the removal of the free fatty acids. The saponification and iodin values show similar differences due to the removal of im- purities. : Among the oils of foreign origin the properties reported by Bat- taglia correspond more nearly to those of the crude oil of domestic origin, while the remainder compare favorably in most cases with the - refined domestic oil. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE OIL. In addition to the chemical constants a further examination of the refined oil was made to determine its approximate composition. The determinations were made according to standard methods (17, p. 138-139). No soluble acids were found, but 96.2 per cent of insoluble 8 BULLETIN 632, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. acids were present. These insoluble acids were separated into the solid and liquid acids by means of the lead-ether method (17, p. 45). The mixed acids were found to consist of solid acids 17.54 per cent and liquid acids 75.84 per cent. The physical and chemical properties of the insoluble acids and the solid and liquid acids, were determined with the results shown in Table II. ; TABLE II.—Physical and chemical properties of insoluble, solid, and liquid acids of tomato-seed oil. Physical and chemical Insoluble acids. Solid acids. Liquid acids. properties. COMORES 2 tgtianiecis eewees see Pale golden yellow; | Snowy white, flaky..... Pale golden yellow. partly solid. Odor ee desenae pease toe. \eNatiy WU hLIK@ mee) el WRAL Venere ee ere eee Pleasant, nutlike. Taste. 2% Aa Pe Bee ose Sweetish, fatty..--....-. Fatty, tallowlike.....--- Sweetish, nutlike, be : coming slightly bitter. Specificigravaty abo Oe-| (05910055 sean ee eee ee ee 0.9013. gee Ofstretractiony at || is40o0 seo kes eee ee cee eee ee 1.4654. 25° C. Congealing point........--| +21.5° C. to +20.5° C...| Melting point, 53.5° C_.. Nietitralizationiyalies. |e 804. ee see ee nen eae DOA eee ee se sass: 192.3 Todin‘valiie:: 2222222 7!8°0: | GAS ene Seen Shee oe Sea eee eee ee eae ee es 130. The solid acids, comprising 17.54 per cent of the oil, probably consist largely of palmitic and stearic acids with neutralization values of 219.1 and 197.5, respectively. The neutralization value 204 would indicate a mixture of these two acids. Although the melt- ing point of crude solid acids is considerably lower than either palmitic or stearic acids, which melt when pure at 62° C. and 69° C., respectively, it is very probable that this is due to the presence of impurities. Calculating from the neutralization value 204, the mean molec- ular weight of the solid acids was found to be 275. This indicates the presence of palmitic and stearic acids, since the molecular weight of these acids are 256 and 284, respectively. In order to ascertain the approximate proportions of these two acids in the mixed solid acids, a calculation was made according to the method suggested by Lewkowitsch (10, v. 1, p..515), using as a basis 275, the mean molecular weight of these solid acids. By this method, the percentage of palmitic acid was found to be 67.8 and of stearic acid 32.2. Since 17.54 per cent of the original oil consists of solid acids, the oil therefore contains palmitic acid 11.88 per cent and stearic acid 5.64 per cent. Because the palmitic and stearic acids exist in the oil as palmitin and stearin, it is necessary to reduce the above figures to terms of these glycerids. The glycerid palmitin contains 95.29 per cent of palmitic acid, and the glycerid stearin contains 95.73 per cent of stearic acid. By calculation, therefore, it is found that ‘7 UTILIZATION OF WASTE TOMATO SEEDS AND SKINS. 9 tomato-seed oi] contains 12.47 per cent of palmitin and 5.89 per cent of stearin. The liquid acids, constituting 75.84 per cent of the oil, possess properties which indicate the presence of oleic acid and _ possibly some linoleic acid. The specific gravity of the liquid acids, 0.9013 at 25° C., would indicate a mixture of oleic and linoleic acids, since the specific gravity of pure oleic acid is 0.893 at 25° C. and linoleic acid 0.9206 at 14° C. The index of refraction corresponds closely with oleic ecid, which possesses an index of refraction of 1.4603 at 25° C. The neutralization value of 192.3 is somewhat lower than that of pure oleic acid, 198.9, and pure linoleic acid, 200.4. The iodin value, 130, possibly also indicates a mixture of oleic and linoleic acids with a preponderance of oleic acid. Some commercial oleic acids have idoin values as high as 100 to 110, while pure linoleic acid possesses an iodin value of 181.42. Using the method of Lewkowitsch (10, v. 1, p. 457), for calculating the approximate proportions of oleic and linoleic acids present from the iodin value as a basis, it was found that the liquid acids consist of 56.8 per cent of oleic acid and 438.2 per cent of linoleic acid. Reducing these percentages of oleic and linoleic acids to terms of the original oil, which consists of 75.84 per cent of liquid acids, it is found that the oil contains approximately 43.07 per cent of oleic acid and 32.76 per cent of linoleic acid. These acids are contained in the oil in the form of the glycerids olein and linolein, which contain 95.7 and 95.67 per cent, respectively, of oleic and linoleic acids. By calculation it is found, therefore, that the oil consists approximately of 45 per cent of olein and 34.2 per cent of linolein. A summary of the results of the chemical examination of tomato- seed oil indicates the following approximate composition: Olein, 45 per cent; linolein, 34.2 per cent; palmitin, 12.47 per cent; stearin, 5.89 per cent—the remaining portion consisting of free acids and unsaponifiable matter. AVAILABLE QUANTITY OF THE OIL. Estimating the annual output of dry tomato waste from the various pulping plants in the United States at 3,390 tons, there would result from this waste 1,560 tons of dry seeds. The quantity of oil capable of being extracted from these seeds is readily ascertained. Since by extracting with volatile solvents 22 per cent of the oil can be ob- tained, the total available quantity would be about 343 tons annually. This quantity would, however, increase each year with the increased output of tomato products. ; 10 BULLETIN 632, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ' USES AND VALUE OF THE OIL. Classifying fatty oils as drying, semidrying, and nondrying, to- mato-seed oil possibly falls into the semidrying class, bordering, however, very nearly on the nondrying class. In order that the na- ture of tomato-seed oil may be better understood, a comparison is given in Table III of some of the more important properties of a number of oils of commerce belonging in the same class with tomato- seed oil (10, v. 2). TaBleE III.—Physical and chemical properties of tomato-seed oil and several important oils of commerce. . F : 3 E Index of P | Specific gravity Congealing | Saponification « | - Oils. at 15° C. point (°C). | Th. Todin value. relragwu # a EE Tomato seed..........-.-| 0.9184 ¢.........| Turbid at —2; 188.6 114.2 61.4715 pale yellow } solid mass at —10. Cotton seed, Lewko- | 0.922 to 0.930...) 3 to 4.......... 191 0196.5} 100.9t0116.9 1. 4722 witsch (10, p. 149-150}. } gipeer he obi 0. 924 to 0.927 ...| +15 to + 8&...| 190.6t0192.9} 121 to0124 |..........-.. , Pp. 123). | Sesame, Lewkowitsch | 0.9203 to 0.9260... — 4to— 6...., 187.6t0194.6 | 103 to115 1. 4728 (10, p. 173). | Corn, Lewkowitsch (10, | 0.9213..........- —10 to —20..-| 188 1t0193.4| 112 0130.8) 1. 4768 p. 131-132). ) | a At 24°C. b At 25°C. ¢ At 15.5 °C. The similarity of tomato-seed oil to the commercial oils given in Table III indicates the classification of this oil. The oils mentioned in connection with: tomato-seed oil are applied commercially in a number of ways. As edible oils they are highly prized. On account of their drying properties some are employed extensively in the manufacture of paints and varnishes, while others find important application as soap stock. Tomato-seed oil, with properties similar to cottonseed, soy-bean, sesame, and corn oils, should be equally useful and applicable to the same purposes as these oils of commerce. Experiments conducted with tomato-seed oil by Dr. A. D. Holmes, of the Office of Home Economics, U. S. Department of Agriculture, to determine its digestibility, showed that the oil possesses a coeffi- cient of digestibility of 97, comparing favorably with olive, almond, cottonseed, peanut, coconut, sesame, walnut, and brazil-nut oils. Well-refined tomato-seed oil is therefore to be recommended for culinary purposes. As a salad oil it should prove very satisfactory. The edible quality of the oil suggests also its possible hydrogenation and application as a margarine oil. An experiment to determine its saponifying properties was con- ducted in order to obtain information regarding its possible use as soap stock. By cold saponification with caustic soda and subse- e UTILIZATION OF WASTE TOMATO SEEDS AND SKINS. Ved quent salting and pressing, a soap of good texture with excellent lathering qualities was produced. If combined with oils rich in palmitin or stearin, satisfactory toilet soap doubtless could be pre- pared. Owing to the present threatened shortage of oils for the manufacture of soaps and glycerine the utilization of tomato-seed oil as a soap stock asserts itself. Experiments to determine the drying properties of the oil showed that 16 days were required to form a soft, sticky film. The nature of the film as well as the time of drying could in all probability be improved and hastened by the addition of siccatives or driers to the oil. It appears, therefore, that the oil possesses a certain value as a paint or varnish oil. The value of the oil in eemmerce would necessarily depend upon the particular use to which it could be applied and to the demand in general for fatty oils. From the results of the investigation, it appears that it should prove a valuable addition to the edible or condimental oils now in use. Likewise it should find an important place among the much-needed soap oils of commerce. TOMATO-SEED MEAL. UTILIZATION FOR STOCK FEEDING. The residue remaining after extracting the oil from the seeds constitutes the meal. The utilization of this meal as stock feed is suggested. In order to ascertain the approximate composition of the meal, a careful analysis was made. The results are shown in Table IV, together with analyses of some commercial stock feeds as given by Henry and Morrison (7, p. 634-636). TasLe LV.—Composition of tomato-seed meal as campared with various commer- cial stock feeds. Constituents (per cent). Feeding stuff. Nitro gen- Moisture.| Ash. | Protein.| free | Fiber. | Ether extract. BENE, Tomato-seed meal.._........... Wed 4.64 37.0 29.10 DOU Aly siey eee Cottonseed meal..............-. 7.8 6.6 39.8 27.4 10.1 8.3 Sunflower seed (prime)......... 10.0 4.2 34.8 21.8 10.9 18.3 Besame-oll Cake se yen Soe ee 9.8 10.7 37.5 21.7 6.3 14.0 FZSUIMENM UG CAKO Me ete! acine lace aeoacwiee t 10.4 4.3 16.8 35.0 24.0 9.5 RET ORC OLR sea Hor enn ane a pacaEeeooanee 10.0 7.9 31.2 30.0 11.3 9.6 Linseed meal (new process)......-.------- 9.6 5.6 36.9 36.3 8.7 2.9 In moisture and ash content, the tomato-seed meal compares favor- ably with the other feed stuffs. In protein content, it ranks with sun- flower seedcake, cottonseed meal, sesame-oil cake, rape seedcake, and linseed meal, being considerably higher than palm-nut cake and some- 12 BULLETIN 632, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. what lower than cottonseed meal. Since the tomato-seed meal which — was subjected to analysis was from ether-extracted seeds, the ether extract does not enter into consideration. The meal from seed ex- pressed by hydraulic pressure would contain from 5 to 7 per cent ether extract, which represents the residual fat left in the cake. The crude-fiber content is relatively high as compared with the other feeds, being lower, however, than that of palm-nut cake.. The content of nitrogen-free extract, consisting largely of carbohydrates, is higher than in such meals as cottonseed, sunflower, and sesame, and lower than in palm-nut, rape-seed, and linseed cake. From the results of the analysis and the comparison with standard stock feeds it would appear that tomato-seed meal possesses proper- ties of considerable value for stock feeding. In this connection it may be stated that in Italy, where the utilization of tomato residues is in practical operation, experiments with the meal or cake have demonstrated its value as a feed for stock. Aguet (2) has reported « factory in operation at San Giovanni a Teduccio, near Naples, for the industrial manufacture of tomato seedeake. Feeding trials con- ducted at the Royal Higher School of Agriculture at Portici with milch cows showed tomato seedcake to be equal in food value to lin- seed cake. Later, Scarpitti (13) conducted extensive investigations with the seedcake as a feed for milch cows, stating that it is richer than flaxseed cake in protein and fat and is superior to it in its influence upon the weight and lacteal secretion of the cows. Shriver (14, p. 21-23) describes the manufacture of stock feed from the dried tomato waste after the extraction of the oil. A num- ber of grades of stock feed under the name “ Nutritivo” are manu- factured by a firm at Milan, Italy, from the dried skins mixed with molasses and the meal from the extracted seeds. This feed for cattle is sold at prices ranging, according to quality, from $1.32 to $1.49 per 100 pounds. The seedcake after the oil is expressed is sold at $1.32 per 100 pounds. AVAILABLE QUANTITY OF THE MEAL. After extracting the oil from the estimated quantity of tomato seeds which accumulate annually, there would remain as a by-product about 1,200 tons of the meal. In addition to this large quantity of meal there would also be available about 1,800 tons of tomato skins. In view of the use to which the dried skins are applied in Italy by incorporating them with the meal, this would increase the total available quantity to about 3,000 tons. SUMMARY. The foregoing investigation shows that the vast quantities of to- niato refuse accumulating each year at tomato-pulping factories can “UTILIZATION OF WASTE TOMATO SEEDS AND SKINS. 13 be reduced to two products, namely, fixed oil and meal, each of which may be made commercially useful. The oil from the seeds should find ready disposal as an edible oil or as a soap oil, as shown by the experiments made to determine its applicability to these purposes. By proper treatment it can be made useful as a drying oil for paint and varnish purposes. The meal has been shown by analysis and comparison with other meals to possess valuable qualities as stock feed, and the utility of the meal for this purpose should therefore be assured. The accumulation of tomato residues occurs principally in two sec- tions of the United States, namely, the North-Central States lying east of the Mississippi and north of the Ohio Rivers and the North Atlantic States. The reduction of this waste material to oil and meal could be handled most logically by establishing reducing plants at some central point in each of these sections, where the crude ma- terial could be collected with the least expense for transportation and handling. A cooperative plan of manufacture would perhaps be the most feasible and effective method for establishing the industry upon a practical basis. In view therefore of the threatened shortage of fatty oils and in the interest of food conservation, tomato refuse may be considered as an available source for the manufacture of oil and oil cake. As the demand for tomato products increases, the quantity of this waste material will also increase, and it is suggested as an economic measure of both agricultural and industrial importance that the utilization of this material be considered. LITERATURE CITED. (1) Accomazzo, PERICLE. 1910. Utilizzazione dei cascami della lavorazione del pomodoro. In Riv. Agr., anno 16, no. 24, p. 371-372, 561. (2) Ae6uET, JAMES. 1918. Un nuovo prodotto per Valimentazione del bestiame. Jn Bol. Quindic. Soc. Agr. Ital., anno 18, no. 4, p. 126-127. (3) BAtlEy, H. S., and BuRNETT, L. B. 1914. Tomato-seed oil. (Abstract.) Jn Science, n. s., v. 39, no. 1017, p. 953. (4) Barractia, L. 1901. Ricerche sull olio dei semi di pomodoro. In Ann. Soc. Chim. Milano, 1901, fase. 3/4, p. 127. (5) FacuHInt, S. 1911. By-products of some chemical industries. (Abstract.) Jn Chem. Abstracts, v. 5, no. 13, p. 2309-2310. (Original article in Indust. Chim., v. 11, p. 76-79, 1911. Not seen.) (6) Harcourt, P. 1908. Tomato refuse. Jn 33d Ann. Rpt., Ont. Agr. Col. and Hxpt. Farm, 1907, p. 69-70 (7) Henry W. A., and Morrison, F. B. 1915. Feeds and Feeding, ed. 15, 691 p. Madison, Wis. (8) KeEENa, L, J. 1913. Tomato-seed oil in Italy. In U. S. Dept. Com., Bur. Foreign and Dom. Com., Daily Consular and Trade Rpts., 16th year, no. 278, p. 954. (9) KocHs, JULIUS. 1908. Untersuchung verschiedener fetter Oele, welche aus Pressrtick- standen gewonnen wurden. /n Chem. Rey. Fett u. Harz Indus., Jahrg. 15, Heft 10, p. 256-257. (10) LEWkKowITscH, J. 1909. Chemical Technology and Analysis of Oils, Fats, and Waxes, ed. 4, 3 v., illus., fold. tab. London. (11) Pasruett, H. G. 1914. New bean-oil extracting mill at Dairen on the benzine system. ; In Bd. Trade Jour. (London), v. 86, no. 928, p. 385. (12) PrERcIABOSCO, F., and SEMERARO, F. 1910. Utilizzazione dei residui della lavorazione del pomodoro. Jn Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital., v. 438, p. 260-272. (18) ScARPITTI, GIOVANNI. 1914. Il panello di semi di pomodoro nell’alimentazione delle vacche da latte. Jn Indust. Latt. e Zootech., anno 12, no. 14, p. 213-214. (14) SHRiver, J. A. 1915. Canned-tomato industry in Italy. U. S. Dept. Com., Bur. Foreign and Dom. Com., Special Agents’ Ser. 93, 23 p. 14 w jee pet UTILIZATION OF WASTE TOMATO SEEDS AND SKINS. 15 (15) Sarr, J. A. 1912. Tomato-seed oil in Italy. In U. S. Dept. Com., Bur. Foreign and Dom. Com., Daily Consular and Trade Rpts., 15th year, no. 224, p. 1514. (16) STREET, J. P. 1911. Report on vegetables. In U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Bul. 137, p. 122-134. (17) Witey, H. W., ed. 1908. Official and provisional methods of analysis, Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. As compiled by the committee on revision of methods. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem: Bul. 107 (rev.). Reprinted 1912. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 6 CENTS PER COPY Vv WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1917 ee agin 20 mo) tot AT mT Har — OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief Washington, D.C. Vv February 25, 1918 FACTORS OF SUCCESSFUL FARMING NEAR MONETT, MO. By W. J. Sprx~MaAn, Chief, Office of Farm Management. CONTENTS. Page. Page. The area in the survey was made........... 1 | The proper status of the strawberry industry - hevocalagricultures....2525-2222-csceeene 2 in southwest Missouri.........=.---------- 10 Farms classified according to type of farming. 4 | The speculative nature of fruit enterprises... 10 BOUNCES ONTCCClPUS ceca soe sce eiee secs nine 5 | Maintenance of soil fertility.............-.--- 12 Percentage of area in different crops...--.-.-- 5 | Organization of some typical farms.....-.--- 14 Kinds of fruit and their local importance.... 6 | Organization of dairy farms...........-...-.. 17 Relation of type of farming to size of farm.... 7 | A well-organized two-man farm....-....-..- ~ 19 ESSER icp de copie cee ee 7M IPIGESTIITICS 9a nen coree co nener aan we eee 22 Profitableness of the various types......-..-- 82] PenuTre. cs Pee see wae ee Sa oo eee eee 24 THE AREA IN WHICH THE SURVEY WAS MADE. During the summer of 1915 an analysis was made of the business of 274 farms lying within a radius of about 5 miles of the town of Monett, in southwestern Missouri,' the center of the survey area lying in the line between Barry and Lawrence Counties, This locality is typical of a considerable area lying along the western margin of the Ozark area and the eastern margin of the western prairies. In gen- eral, the highest uplands were originally prairie and the slopes and bottom lands timbered. The surface would be described, for the most part, as gently roll- ing. A small stream flows from east to west through the town of Monett. The bottom lands bordering it form a tract from a quarter to a half mile wide, flanked on each side by a moderate rise of land hardly prominent enough to be described as bluffs. Beyond is gently rolling upland originally covered, for the most part, with blackjack timber (a species of oak) and extending back to the prairie areas covering the ridges between streams. +The farm analyses on which this pulletin is based were made by Messrs. Walter J. Tubbs, Ivan Allen, C. HE. Allred, and F. D. Crum, under the direction of Mr. F. H. Branch. Mr. R. D. Jennings has rendered material assistance in tabulating the data and computing the tables. Acknowledgment is also due to the many farmers who kindly furnished details concerning their farm business, thus making this study possible. 18027°—18—Bull. 683——1 2, BULLETIN 633, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The soil of this region was formed mostly from limestone in which §f was imbedded a considerable amount of flint, sometimes in rather §f large masses. The limestone itself was dissolved out by rain water carrying small quantities of carbonic-acid gas in solution, leaving § the impurities of the limestone (consisting mainly of small or large — particles of flint) to constitute the resulting soil. On the slopes, § where the finer particles of soil have been washed away, the land is rocky, the rocks consisting of angular fragments of flint, for the most — part from 1 to 3 or 4 inches in diameter. Elsewhere, especially § where the land was originally covered with blackjack timber, the soil is rather gravelly. The alluvial soil of the bottoms contains more — or less gravel. On the higher ridges, which were originally prairie, the soil is somewhat finer in texture and less inclined to be gravelly. These prairie soils were formed in part from shales. On the whole, the soil may be described as gravelly loam or gravelly silt loam. Like most medium to heavy soils, it is fairly fertile, especially when abundantly supplied with decaying organic matter such as manure and the refuse from crops. The first settlers who came into this region came mainly from wooded regions and took up land along the streams. Most of the stream bottoms have been in cultivation for about three-quarters of — a century. About 40 or 45 years ago farmers began to come into the region from prairie districts, especially from Lllinois. These settled on the prairies. The prairie lands have thus been in cultivation — somewhat less than half a century. The wooded slopes between the prairies and the bottom lands have been cleared and put into cultivation mainly during the last 30 years, © the amount of woodland left being scarcely sufficient to supply local farm needs. THE LOCAL AGRICULTURE. Wheat is decidedly the most important of the local crops at the present time, corn being second in importance. The percentage of — the crop area devoted to wheat for the crop year 1913-14 on the farms included in this survey was 48.8, or practically half of the entire area. Corn occupied 25.1 per cent. The position of these two crops, so far as acreage is concerned, has been practically reversed in the last 20 years. In 1890, according to the census for that year, corn occupied 46 per cent of the crop area in Barry County and 41 per cent in Lawrence County. In the same year wheat occu- pied 24 per cent of the crop area of Barry County and 33 per cent in Lawrence County. The reason for this change in the status of wheat and corn in this locality is not known definitely. The present high price of wheat is not responsible for it, for the crop to which this survey relates was FACTORS OF SUCCESSFUL FARMING NEAR MONETT, MO. 3 sown in the fall of 1913, when the price of wheat was still moderate. It is probable that the frequent occurrence of hog cholera in this region may be partly responsible for the decrease in the acreage of corn and the increase in the acreage of wheat, as the number of hogs kept on these farms has decreased considerably in recent years. The oat crop occupied 10.8 per cent of the crop area on these farms, which is about a normal acreage for this crop. A great many farmers here do not grow oats. In general, the crop is not satisfac- tory, it being too far north for winter oats and too far south for spring oats. Not infrequently the crop is an entire failure. The reason for the persistence of the oat crop under such unfavorable conditions is its value as feed for horses and the scarcity of other kinds of roughage. For the most part, the oats are cut and bound and fed in the sheaf. A portion of the crop may be thrashed and fed as grain. _ Various hay crops occupy about 9 per cent of the crop area of the farms surveyed, which is approximately the status occupied by such crops for the last quarter of a century. About two-thirds of the hay land is in timothy or timothy and clover, the rest being in millet, sorghum, oats, rye, etc. FRUITS. The town of Monett is the center of one of the most important strawberry-producing regions in this country. The acreage of berries is not large when compared with that of wheat and corn, or even hay, but it is very considerable when the intensity of the strawberry enter- prise is taken into consideration. Of the 244 farms? included in this bulletin, 1.5 per cent of the total crop area was in strawberries, two- thirds of which were in bearing. Other fruit crops also are more or less prominent. Apples occupy 2.6 per cent of the total crop area, and other fruits six-tenths of 1 per cent. While small areas of fruit are found on farms of all sizes, it is mainly the smaller farms that make fruit growing a specialty. YIELDS PER ACRE. The average yield of corn on these farms for the year 1914 was 25 bushels per acre, which is approximately normal. The yield of this crop in Barry County at the last three censuses was, respectively, 26, 25, and 17 bushels. In Lawrence County it was 26, 21, and 24 bushels. The average yield of oats for the year of this survey was 24 bushels, as compared with census figures of 21, 22, and 23 for Barry County, and 22, 25, and 26 for Lawrence County. This again is a normal yield. 1 Thirty farms operated by owners who rented out a part of their land are omitted in Most of the discussion which follows. 4 BULLETIN 633, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The yield of wheat for the year of the survey was somewhat above the normal, being 16 bushels as compared with Barry County yields of 13, 10, and 12 bushels at the last three censuses and Lawren County yields of 14, 12, and 14 bushels. This higher yield of wheat is believed to be ine as a recent marked increase in the use of com- mercial fertilizers rather than to climatic conditions for the year. — The yield of hay was about half a ton per acre. This is a little less than half the normal yield according to the census figures. But the minor place occupied by hay crops in the agriculture of this local renders this low yield of hay relatively unimportant. The average yield of strawberries the year of the farm survey was 74 crates per acre, as compared with Barry County yields of 62 and 50 crates for the last two census years, and Lawrence County yields of 90 and 56 crates. Considering the marked variability in the yields of this crop, the yield for the year of the survey may be con- sidered as practically normal. FARMS CLASSIFIED ACCORDING TO TYPE OF FARMING. The 244 farms included in this study may be divided into five groups according to type of farming carried on, though in most cases the line of division between the various types is more or less arbitrary. One hundred and sixteen of them may be classed as grain and live-stock farms. They consist of farms on which the principal income is from grain, in nearly all cases wheat, with more than 10 per cent of the total income from some one type of live stock, usually cattle or hogs. On 66 of the farms grain (wheat in most cases, corn in a few others) constituted the only source of income exceeding 10 per cent of the total receipts. These are classed as grain farms. Forty-one are classed as grain and fruit farms. They include farms on which both grain and fruit are important sources of income, with no other income from any one source exceeding 10 per cent of the total. Seventeen of the farms are classed as fruit farms. The average in- come from fruit on these farms is about 60 per cent of the total. About half of these fruit farms had 10 per cent or more of their in- come from cattle. . There were four farms which made the dairy business an impor- tant feature. On two of them dairying was the only important source of income; on the other two grain was about as important as dairying, but these four farms were grouped together because they were the only ones on which the dairy business was a principal feature of the farming. Because of the small number of dairy farms they are omitted from most of the tabulations for the reason that averages of only four items have little meaning. FACTORS OF SUCCESSFUL FARMING NEAR MONETT, MO. 5 SOURCES OF RECEIPTS. Table 1 shows the sources from which these 244 farms obtained TABLE 1.—Sources of receipts (244 farms near Monett, Mo.). [Figures represent percentage of total receipts. ] their income. | era Grain Iie Grain} and | Fruit Source. Sina farms | fruit | farms farms | (66). | farms] (17). (41). (116). Perct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. BOTT a soe osc ssi 4.3 8.0 1.6 232) OTS cisteisisn-cii= .8 1.0 .6 58 BRIO eines crciacieciae =i 48.2| 60.7] 34.9 is? Small fruits. ....---- 2.3 1.8] 30.1 50.3 Other fruits. ........ i583 Be wu 8.5 Other crops......--- Tell 1.6 2.2 2.6 PIGTOPS 4/2. 2222: 58.0} 73.4] 77.1 65.6 15.4 6.7 5.4 11.9 | CR ee ee Source. Groin _ | Grain live Grain; and | Fruit Rrocle farms | fruit | farms para (66). | farms] (17). (116). 5) Per ct.| Per ct.) Per ct.|Per ct. 6.5 i BO 3.5 te ee soso tet ee ccea Goi 2.0 3.6 2.7 5.0 4.9 4.5 4.2 4 a2 a2 aul 34.5 19.0 17.2 25.4 Uo 7.6 50 Tet) Tt will be seen that there is a considerable degree of diversity in the farming of this region. Wheat is decidedly the most important source of income on the grain and live-stock and on the grain farms, about equal to small fruits on the grain and fruit farms, while on the iruit farms there is no other important source of income from crops than small fruits, especially strawberries. Among the various classes of live stock, cattle lead as a source of income in all the groups. Poultry furnishes from 4 per cent to 5 per cent of income in each group. Hogs are unimportant, except on the grain and live-stock farms, where the income from them constitutes about 7 per cent of the total receipts. PERCENTAGE AREA IN DIFFERENT CROPS. Table 2 shows for the four principal types of farming the per- centage of land devoted to various crops. TABLE 2.—Relation of type of farming to percentage area in different crops (244 farms near Monett, Mo.). [Figures represent percentage of land devoted to crops specified. ] i Cagle an . : Grain Crop. live Sina farms. farms Per ct.| Per ct. (SOs Se ee ened 26.9 26. 0 WWiheat= (25. s.oscee: 48.5} 53.1 DENIS 55 Seen me irate aa 11.3] 11.3 la veeten 2 2 EA 5d 6.8 5.1 BeMallet i. L250 S.8. 1.0 .4 porghum.......-.--! af 3 Grain] Pruit pe farms. 19.6 3 Crop. Other forage.......-- Strawberries Other small fruits... Apples. .--- Other fruits - Other crops. Grain : and | Grain | CT") Pruit Sone farms fruit farms. farms farms Per ct.| Perct.| Per ct.| Per ct. iS /2 a OL 5.8 oO 4 5.1 9.3 eek | eee s 12 10.8 2.1 1.0 6.3 5.8 68) 50) 1-0 3.2 3) 4 1.2 1.6 6 BULLETIN 633, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. On the grain and live-stock farms and on the grain farms cor occupies about one-fourth of the total crop area, wheat about half oats about 11 per cent, hay 5 to 7 per cent, with no other crop occu- pying as much as 2 per cent of the area except in the case of apples on the grain and live-stock farms. On the grain and fruit farms the area of corn is smaller, and that of wheat is about the same as in the two preceding groups, while strawberries rise to 5 per cent and apples to 6 per cent of the entire crop area. On the fruit farms corn occupies one-third of the total crop area, wheat oats, and hay are about equally important, occupying from 7 per cent to 9 per cent, strawberries occupy 9.3 per cent, and other small fruits 10.8 per cent, while apples are nearly as important is in the preceding group. KINDS OF FRUIT AND THEIR LOCAL IMPORTANCE. Of the 17 farms here classed as fruit farms, strawberries were pro- duced on all but one, and on this one there was an acre of new plant- ing of strawberries. On three of these farms the area of bearing strawberries was 1 acre; on four it was 14 acres; on one it was 2 acres; on four 24 acres; on one 3 acres; on one 4 acres; and on two 6 acres. The total sales of strawberries on 16 of these farms amounted to $8,251, an average of $516 per farm. The next most important fruit is blackberries. They were grown on 12 of the 17 fruit farms. One of the farms with 6 acres of straw- berries had also 12 acres of blackberries. The other farm having 6 acres of strawberries had 10 acres of blackberries. Two farms had a quarter of an acre of blackberries each, 5 farms had from 1 to 13 acres, and the remaining 3 from 34 to 5 acres. The 2 farms having large acreages of both strawberries and blackberries also had large acre- ages of raspberries, one 10 acres and the other 7. Three other farms had from 1 to 24 acres of raspberries. There were 5 acres of dewberries on one farm and a quarter of an acre of grapes on each of 2 farms. Of the tree fruits, nearly all fruit farms had apples; but only five derived any income from this source, the largest amount being $250. Seven farms also had small acreages of peaches, in only two cases more than 14 acres, the area in these two cases being respectively 43 and 6 acres. The sales of peaches on the two farms last mentioned were respectively $300 and 600; on the other three farms $15 to $75 per farm. Two farms had small incomes from cherries, one from plums, and one from pears, in no case exceeding $100. One farm had three-quarters of an acre in nursery stock, from which sales amount- ing to $170 were made. The total acreage of blackberries on these farms was 41 acres and the total acreage of strawberries 43; but more than half the blackberries were on two farms, so that straw- berries may be considered by far the most general fruit crop of the region. FACTORS OF SUCCESSFUL FARMING NEAR MONETT, MO. i ° RELATION OF TYPE OF FARMING TO SIZE OF FARM. In Table 3 the 244 farms are divided into groups based on area in crops. The table shows for each of these size-groups the percentage of farms that follow the different types of farming. TABLE 3.—Percentage of farms in each of six size-groups, devoted to type of farming specified (data from 244 farms in the vicinity of Monett, Mo.). Acres in crops. Type. Number. 200 or 39 orless.| 40-79 80-119 120-159 | 160-199 aoret Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 19 43, 59 66 60 67 Grain and live stock...........- 116 (Gril 42 Be ee eee jie BER BOOB OES 66 19 34 24) ~ 23 20 33 mara tribes soe =: 2 oes ole 41 24 20 12 Chee P ee UNsSeaaase EP iUtlic 5 Ja 6H ASeseC AAAs SES HV 38 2 DAS sk ciowes|isisieteisiers= 5] =e coer DIETIAY o3 a Sones ESE Cee aan Ay sae 1 3 BH Reel as aS HRIUUTIN DOI tayo ial 22-62 «2h ha-- be nae deceidee es see , 26.8 16.1 $44.5 $33.0 PRE AUIS AL ITLS Mee one Co aes Ber eee ecemeoncsieeme ees see 23.1 16.7 55.5 40.3 Studies of methods of maintaining good yields have shown that the plowing under of sod crops is very important. Crops of this character are not much grown in this region, almost the only sod crop being a few acres of timothy, and usually this is left down for many years and pastured rather closely, so that even when it is plowed up not much effect results from the sod plowed under. In the absence of sod crops and of abundant manure the plowing under of crops especially sown for the purpose becomes important. But 14 BULLETIN 633, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. this is a practice very little followed in this region. This phase of — the problem of maintaining soil fertility will be referred to again in © discussing the organization of farms in this area. . To show how important from the standpoint of profit good crop — yields are, the data given in Table 7 will be of interest. In order to make the meaning of this table clear, it is necessary to tell what the crop index is. To say that the crop index of a particular farm is 90 means that the average yield of crops on this farm is 90 per cent of the average of the community. The farms included in this survey were divided into three groups, the first consisting of those on which the crop index was 90 or less, the second those having a crop index from 90 to 110, and the third oe with a crop index of more than 110. There were 88 farms in the first group, 86 in the second, and 70 in the third. The average size of farm was nearly the same in each group. The average of the crop indexes of the first group was 76, the second 100, and the third 129. The average labor income of the first group was $122, of the second $377, and of the third $676. These figures show the outstanding importance of keeping the land fertile. It is one of the most important problems confronting farmers in this region. TaBpie 7.—The effect of crop index on profits (244 farms near Monett, Mo..). Groups based on crop index. Item. 90and | 90.1to | 110.1and under. 110. over. ENT DOG OT TArINS Peseta eo ce ee ene nee ee ee ee re ence 88 86 70 INSTEAD Gi) GENS «= Sone casa oscsoccasnesodssss0scbmeesssecensesagnene 76 100 129 ISA ME CDI) PMN NS = = 52 soe ss oasaeoe sce eee noconosscen unc ese sere seed $122 $377 $676 ORGANIZATION OF SOME TYPICAL FARMS. The organization of three typical grain and live-stock farms is shown in Table 8. Each of these farms has from 1054 to 107 acres in crops. It happens also in each case that the operator owns part of the land and rents additional land. The first one rents 62 acres, the second one 40, and the third one 38. These farmers have recog- nized the fact that it is easier to make a satisfactory income on a large farm than on a small one, and have chosen a very satisfactory means of enlarging their business in the absence of sufficient capital to own all the land they can till. It will be noted that they have almost exactly the same amount of live stock, the investment in this item being about $1,100 in each case. On one of them the value of the buildings, other than the dwelling, is very low. This is due to the © fact that the buildings are very old and practically ready to be torn down. . FACTORS OF SUCCESSFUL FARMING NEAR MONETT, MO. 15 TaBLE 8.—Three successful grain and live-stock farms (designated I, II, and III) operated by owners renting additional land (Monett, Mo., area). THE FARM. Item Ie II. TI. PAT CAMITI CROP SEW eid erayeye x aiaielel si sie claihis sissy nalyeis SoM sicvassysisinin gs ave esa eee acres. . 1053 106 107 PACAP ASLUTE ses nafs tore) 2ye a tasoim cece wea felee cieicieleie a /nteeieie eee eceen io nee do.... 34 15 37 PATIGATO MILO MER en tee eo cess SN So 2 il Sea Cle 65 - 62 40 38 PIES UNMET ORO PCL ALOT 24) (iscsi siscecyoieie else = eran ce mae Sete we sees dollars. 9, 493 7, 568 10, 493 Waluootrealiestateperacre) 224 6se ses oc2 3.) eke cece ec ce oyes eens doseen 56 48 61 Wellies OWING Siiotelss 6 BE Se eee oe eee oe ae see enon red do....} 1,127 1,132 1,094 Value of implements and machinery ........--...--.--------------- do...- 215 305 168 leedyan distip plies) omyhat des. sep. ee eee) seen eee eteeelats do...- 111 101 191 CashMorneunnent) Oxpenses esas .5 oso sen eetic saiem aj) eebeas See iettois do...- 40 30 40 WelierOtiadwellingee se sts ss eg Re oes oe ak ere a doses 750 800 500 Waluerofothenibwildings: 32522 cesses oo. Nek eee soon see eee ete dosaee 75 400 500 CROPS. Acres. Yield per acre.1 Sales. Kind. I II Til. I II II. I. II. ii. Wonmgpy aS anesaesianateiawes a3 41 27 49 30 33 37 $340 $55 $589 NWA CAG seer soccuamaccecseese ss 59 64 58 16 14 22 700 623 874 OBS Soo erGapes eas cere see 5 NO! edonsass 15 Ai licen occas aoaseed |sabodeces||Ssocecas Strawberries, new....-....---.|-------- CW es ooueeH Sdnosded aobbeocclodobsbad |Gooedo ud leadeosddlosocosca Bilackberriesss es -ps5----52- Bl lac ena Ne BBeee HS Wonodboadlodseucae 07) Rea stood Bceoonae CGT AOS Hee ecm asisrysitave/= slaceietel|ior= aleieiniee Bl aooScasllonceobcu|loogduacdloccodecdleasabssdlsoucdede|l-ceoacce ANON! GROD KIER s see dsllosocaobs|lCpsaseaslbostoconisesodcadloosodoutllooseocss 1, 062 678 1, 463 1 Yields given are: For corn, wheat, and oats, bushels; for berries, crates; for grapes, baskets. LIVE STOCK. Number. Sales and increases in value. Kind. I TI. TIT. 16 Tl. Til. (COW Sho cb dpe aguS BOER E SORE Ete SE Sate Lanse rer Clie eecteaunates 5 4 5 $230 $260 $350 \FOUME Gains sodsodsddesadeasecoososs bo essedeooceHeees 34 2 85 70 10 ISLCOTS ease ceseyaiciiaie tere Be eS cL A Se i ae alle Wi Weddenacellecaoocse Shes Seely ase SNotalincome trom cattles sec e see cee seers ales a | serrate ate leleler=esiar= llevetetera=tar= 323 330 360 Including dairy products, amounting to........-.-.-.-|--------|--------]-------- 230 260 225 sHorses‘anadmulese fas. css scesesce kote s cee seen eel eee 4 5 8 25 103 —20 OMS S462 6 eB BRB SBA OGR Sas AS AUG Bh itl dat) s SES ae mB enn cree cy 2 3 lsoedaces 100 120 JBOSS: 3 bob a6 6 SHOE C HOU CU BBE ESB eee Bans esie aapiie es aa eetedies ll 12 13 95 175 112 IPOUIERY Soe cobb ato Dea Shoe ere BeBe te HOS Mea Te Sera ese soe. 65 65 100 66 59 96 MitiseaWRITGOWS.4 osccocecoducdcsaubodocoucaoadotaoquasud|loonscoodlodsonsas|assoccox 94 64 204 RECEIPTS, EXPENDITURES, AND PROFITS. Ttem. 4, TI. Til. ROHR Raa ONS ey a 8) I ee a EUS ome bean Gober Hoe $2,070 | $1,835 | $2,604 TR orang Ss a ae ET Re ee RMR 2 LN DOR CNT TR 406 322 294 WiitaMeExpPENSCSe epee ene seam we Ee ys Uo ageterere ier er cto ajcl= 380 582 433 INTE TTT COTTON SIE een eo ee ee ee ee ia Ss Oe aR eee tere alaras epee ovate 1, 285 931 1, 857 Interest on investment at 5 pet (CNA yee eRe ee Os bo UO ea ame 475 378 525 SIEM OTHITAC OIELOS a iate ete ele icrote iscsi Hee Se isle G oie Siete ic oe Cio aE ee ree eerste a 810 553 1,332 16 BULLETIN 633, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 8.—Three successful grain and live-stock farms (designated I, II, and III) operated by owners renting additional land (Monett, Mo., area) —Con. FACTORS AFFECTING PROFITS. Item. it T. Tho Income per cow from sale of dairy products.............2........--2--2--------- $46 865 $45 MECa MOU eee we Jie. fe eee sas 5 bs Ie owls opie sO Ce ee so epee eee 75 1050-22-52 WeriMiZerspOuUL Ne <2 a. 222. . cea AEB as hs ee een ah ma 10) ..|. esee8 20 Weateproiiamuiuly labore ees. - 52 Saoees cotee Cee oe eee ee oeen oe 30 6 54 Cosmanlabomhited. )--:25s:0... :. eestes oe aso) See ae ae eee Pa 45 182 -93 Meats Ollahoron thoviarnt-._<_ ee se see eee ee ne eee 14.5 18.6 17.2 Average crop yields in percentage of community average..............--.------- 111 103 140 The second section of the table shows the crops grown on these farms—first, the acreage of each crop; second, the yield per acre; and third, the sales of crop products. Each farm has approximately 60 acres of wheat. The second farm has only 27 acres of corn, but. the other two have between 40 and 50 acres. It will be seen later that the second farm is not as successful as the other two. Too much land is in wheat. This is shown by the yield of crops on these farms. On the second farm the yield of wheat is only 14 bushels, while on the third it is 22 bushels. Two of the farms have small acreages of oats, none of which is sold. The second farm has undertaken to increase its income by adding 4 acres of strawberries, which is probably wise in this case, though the acreage is a little large for the conditions. The first farm has a small patch of blackberries, from which there was an income of $22. The second farm has a small patch of grapes, but with no income from this source. A study of the results given later in this table leads to the con- clusion that the second farm is not so well organized and managed as the first and third. It has too much of its land in wheat, too little in corn, and too much in oats. The presence of grapes on the farm, a crop not well adapted to the region, confirms this conclusion. It will be noticed that the total income from the sale of crops on the second farm is only two-thirds to one-half as much as on the other two. The next section of the table shows the live stock on these farms. Each farm has from four to five cows and from two to six head of young cattle. One of the farms reports a steer, which was a calf raised on the farm. The total income from cattle on each farm was from $323 to $360, of which $225 to $260 was from the sale of cream. — These farmers were patrons of a creamery. The second farm raised two colts, and the third raised three. The third farm has too many horses for its size, but this defect is balanced by the raising of colts. The income from hogs varies from $95 to $175, and from poultry from $59 to $96. Both of these sources of income could be made more important with profit. The total receipts on these farms, shown in the next section of the table, vary from about $1,800 on the second to $2,600 on the third. FACTORS OF SUCCESSFUL FARMING NEAR MONETT, Mo. LG The amount of rent they pay runs from about $300 to $400. Other expenses run from about $400 to $600. The high expenses on the second farm are due to the large amount of labor hired, which comes to $182. On the other two farms this figure is less than $100. The net income, after deducting rent and other expenses, varies on these three farms from $931 to $1,857. This represents interest on the investment and wages for the labor and managing ability of the operator. Deducting interest on the investment, these three farms have labor incomes of from $500 to $1,300. These are con- siderably above the average for the region. Especially in the case of the first and third farms the labor incomes are very satisfactory. The last section of the table shows a few of the factors which affect the general results obtained on these farms. The most im- portant figures are those relating to the average yield of crops on these farms, given in the last line of the table. On the first farm the average yield of crops is 11 per cent above the average for the farms surveyed in the community, on the second 3 per cent above, while on the third farm it is 40 per cent above. It will be noticed that the labor income is approximately proportional to these ieites expressing the average yield of crops on these farms. Two of the farms obtained incomes from the sale of cream amount- ing to about $45 per cow. The other sold $65 worth of cream per cow. The amount of feed bought is small, the third farm, with its good yields, spending nothing for this purpose. The total amount of labor on these three farms was equivalent to from 14.5 to 18.6 months of labor for one man. In other words, these farms are intermediate between one-man and two-man farms. Undoubtedly it would be profitable to convert each of them into full two-man farms by the addition of a little more live stock, a small acreage of forage crops, and a small acreage of strawberries. The organization of the grain farms in this region differs from that of the grain and live stock farms mainly in the smaller amount of live stock kept, the greater acreage of land devoted to wheat, and the smaller acreage devoted to corn. On the grain and fruit farms the organization differs from that of the grain and live-stock farms by the introduction of a few acres of fruit, usually of strawberries, and by the smaller amount of live stock kept. ORGANIZATION OF DAIRY FARMS. As previously stated, four farms were found in this survey hav- ing considerable income from dairy products. The smallest number of cows on any of these four farms was 13 and the largest number 28. The income from the sale of dairy products on the four farms | 18 BULLETIN 633, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. was, respectively, $1,840 from 28 cows, $1,125 from 17 cows, $600 — from 20 cows, and $624 from 13 cows. The farm having 28 cows raised 12 acres of corn and 10 acres of sorghum fodder; also 4 acres of millet and 3 acres of rye for hay. It had only 52.5 acres of crops, there being only 14 acres of wheat. The other three farms had from 100 to 135 acres.of crops, including from 40 to 60 acres of wheat. One of these farms had 30 acres of corn, 15 of which was cut for silage. Because of the large number of cows on these farms it was necessary to supplement the corn by other kinds of forage. As al- ready stated, one of the farms did this by growing 10 acres of sorghum fodder, 4 acres of millet, and 3 acres of rye hay. An- other, which had 20 acres of corn, grew also 20 acres of sorghum fodder. The farm which had 15 acres of corn for grain and 15 acres of silage had 12 acres of clover for hay and 15 acres of rye pasture. The other farm had 40 acres of corn, 5 acres of cowpeas, and 25 acres of oats. Two of these farms sold all their milk at retail in the town of Monett, the retail price being 44 cents a quart. The income per cow for milk sold on these two farms was, in both cases, $67. A third farm obtained $200 for retail milk at 5 cents a quart and $400 from cream sold to the creamery at an average of 25 cents per pound for butter fat. The fourth farm sold only butter, the average price being 274 cents, and the income from this source being $624. The labor incomes on these farms were $1,691, $552, $663, and $1,299, re- spectively. A good dairy cow should produce 4,000 or 5,000 pounds of good milk a year. The average pounds of milk per cow on these four farms, not counting the milk consumed on the farm, was as follows: 3,188, 3,743, 2.030, and 2,268. On three of them the cows were all Jerseys, some of them pure bred and others grades. One of the farms had Jersey grade cows with a Hereford bull. It also had four pure-bred Hereford cows and was probably changing from the dairy business to the beef-cattle business. It would be a great mistake for a dairyman to use a bull of a beef breed if he wishes to continue in the dairy business. Judging by the experience of the majority of farmers here the proper status of dairying in this region, except for the few farms that are needed to supply milk to the town, is represented by the keeping of a few cows mainly as a means of converting roughage and other unsalable materials into a salable product, the cream being sold to creameries and the young stock being raised mainly on waste products of the farm. These cows should be either good dairy cows or good animals of a beef breed, the principal income from them in the latter case being from the sale of young stock, } FACTORS OF SUCCESSFUL FARMING NEAR MONETT, MO. 19 A WELL-ORGANIZED TWO-MAN FARM. These studies indicate that a satisfactory business can be conducted on a well-organized farm in this region. The most important diff- culty confronting the farmers here appears to lie in the fact that the system of farming which seems to be best adapted to local economic conditions does not provide satisfactory means of keeping up the fertility of the soil. The most important factors in maintaining fertility are sod crops, manure, and fertilizers. The area of sod crops grown on these farms or needed in the local farm economy is very small and has very little influence on the fertility of the soil. Par- ticularly is this the case when the sod, which usually is timothy, is kept for several years and pastured rather closely before being plowed up. The amount of live stock kept on these farms is not only small, but such animals as are maintained are kept out of doors a very large part of the time and a great deal of the manure is lost, so far as the field crops are concerned. Aside from the loss of manure from unconfined live stock, the prin- cipal wastage on these farms is in corn fodder and wheat straw. There is every reason to believe that if cowpeas were planted with all the corn at the time the corn is planted, using two cowpea seed for every grain or corn, and then cutting the corn for fodder, it would pay these farmers to keep enough live stock to consume these corn stalks with the cowpea vines on them. If the stock kept for this pur- pose are dairy cows it will be necessary, of course, to buy considerable quantities of mill products to feed with the roughage. Whether this will pay will depend on the dairy quality of the cows kept. Con- ditions are not highly favorable to the dairy industry here. They are rather favorable to the raising of beef cattle. A considerable herd of cows of a beef breed could be maintained on these farms largely on roughage in winter and pasture in summer, and as this roughage is now available it would seem that this business ought to add considerably to the farm income in this region. Particularly would this be true if the cows were such as to produce $45 to $60 worth of dairy products per year in addition to a good calf. In this connection it may be mentioned that in recent years quite a number of farmers in this general region have stocked their farms with pure-bred beef cattle, and the results are proving to be very satisfactory. This is a type of cattle farming that does not require a. great deal of labor and that provides an outlet for the wastes which now occur on these farms. At the same time it does not re- quire the purchase of large quantities of mill stuffs, for these ani- mals can be maintained very well on cornstalks and cowpea fodder of good quality, a little straw, and a little corn, with perhaps an ————— eee rODODWOWOOOO™ 20 BULLETIN 633, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. occasional feed of bran or shorts. If good pastures are provided for the summer season, the expense of keeping a mature herd of this kind will be rather small. 7 These studies indicate that a well-organized two-man farm in this region might be based upon the following crops: Corn and cowpeas, 40 acres; wheat, 60 acres; miscellaneous forage crops, such as soy home use. There might also be 3 acres of strawberries, 2 in bear- ; ing. This would give 117 acres of crops. . Two men, with four good horses, and with all the heavy work done ; with four-horse implements, could tend all these crops easily and © do all the work, except at harvest time, without additional help; and they would have time to spare. 3 A good complement of live stock for such a farm would be two — mules and four high-grade brood mares, these four mares doing the © full work of two horses, and when bred to a sound pure-bred stallion — or the same type or breed should raise two colts each year. These — two colts, when sold at a year old, should bring at least $100. Since — the two mares not at work could be maintained rather cheaply and | could help to consume some of the wastage on the farm, it is believed — that this $100 income from colts would more than justify the keep- — ing of the two additional mares. : Five cows, either of a dairy breed or of a beef breed, with five — young cattle constantly on hand, would, with the help of the horses, consume the larger part of the waste of the farm, together with the small areas of miscellaneous forage crops mentioned above. Two good brood sows, each raising two litters a year, amounting — to at least 20 pigs during the year, would be about the right com- — plement of swine, though if proper means were taken to guard — against cholera, and if the relative price of corn and hogs should jus- tify it, the number of brood sows kept might be larger than this. As- — suming that five hogs will be needed for home use, this would permit — a sale of fifteen 200-pound hogs a year. Such a farm could maintain 150 hens easily, with very little © cost. These hens, if handled with a little intelligent care, should — easily bring in a dollar apiece annually, in addition to poultry prod- ucts used on the farm. Such a complement of live stock as outlined would consume most — of the corn, all the corn and cowpea fodder, the miscellaneous forage crops, and a portion of the straw. The remainder of the straw should be used very liberally for bedding for the live stock. An organization such as this could be established on a farm of 160 acres, provided there is not over 10 acres of waste land, which, © in the nature of the case, must be devoted to the growing of timber. This would permit, in addition to the 117 acres of crops, 26 acres a, ea” Ds eee eee ie FACTORS OF SUCCESSFUL FARMING NEAR MONETT, MO. 21 of permanent pasture, 5 acres for roads and fences, 2 acres for yards _and lots, and 10 acres for woods. If much of the farm is rough land, the area would have to be proportionately larger. Such a farm would be particularly advantageous for a farmer with one or two growing boys large enough to take part in the farm work; also for the farmer who is growing old and is no longer able to make a full hand at the heavy work on the farm. With one dependable hand hired by the year and the use of four-horse implements as far as practicable, the hired man could do nearly all the field work of such a farm, leaving the owner to look after the live stock, the straw- berries, garden, and orchard, and to keep in repair the buildings, fences, implements, etc. The farm family could tend the poultry. Such a farm would have the equivalent of about eighteen 1,000- pound animals. These animals would produce approximately 180 tons of manure in a year. The bulk and value of this manure could be increased greatly by the liberal use of straw as bedding. By proper management 100 tons of mixed manure and straw could be distributed on the fields every year. This would give an average of 94 tons for every acre of corn on the farm. Such use of the manure should have a very important influence in keeping up the fertility of the soil. The wheat straw produced on this farm should be returned to the land in some way. As much of it as possible should be used as bed- ding for the farm animals, and in this way be put into the manure. This gives a chance to rot the straw before it is put back on the land, a very important matter, since partially rotted straw is much better for the land than fresh straw. Such of it as can not be used ‘in this way may be scattered directly on the fields. A very thin coat- ing of straw can be spread upon wheat during the winter. A better plan is to scatter straw in the fall of the year on land that is to be devoted to corn the next year and then disk it into the soil before winter sets in. Each field will be in wheat three times in succession, the first time following corn. After the third crop of wheat has been harvested from the field it would be a good plan to sow some crop immediately. It would not be necessary to plow for this crop, but it would be ad- visable to run a disk harrow over the land. The crop might consist of corn or sorghum sown thickly, or it might be cowpeas or soy beans. At some convenient time in the late summer or early winter this crop should be plowed under. It might be pastured for a while before plowing. By using all these means of adding humus-making material to the soil, and then by the use cf such fertilizers for wheat as local experience has proved to be most profitable, the yields of ‘corn and wheat might easily be raised considerably above the average for the region. * x | 22 BULLETIN 633, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LEGUMES. From the standpoint of the farmer the most important character- istic of the legume crops, like clover, alfalfa, cowpeas, soy beans, etc., is the fact that each of them has the power of supporting in their roots a kind of bacteria that gets nitrogen out of the air, and thus crops of this kind enrich the soil in nitrogen —one of the most im- portant elements of soil fertility. Clover has been grown more or less in southwestern Missouri since the country was settled. In some localities it is well established and holds a place in the cropping system. But, generally speaking, the experience of the farmers of this section with the clover crop has not been satisfactory. In those regions where clover is grown regularly the common practice is to sow it in the spring on winter wheat or with some spring grain crop. This method has been tried many times by the farmers of this region, sometimes with complete suecess but more often with more or less complete failure. The trouble is that in many years the moisture is not sufficient for both the grain crop and the young clover crop, and the clover dies either before the grain crop is harvested or immediately thereafter. A few farmers of this general region have been successful with clover by sowing it alone in the spring cn well-prepared land. It makes a small crop the first year and a good crop the second year: but this takes two years’ use of the land in order to get a crop of clover, which is not satisfactory to most farmers. If the farmer could depend upon securing a good stand of clover by sowing it in the spring on winter wheat, the clover crop undoubtedly would be stand- ard in this section; but since this method is not dependable, clover is of very small importance here. Most of these farmers have tried alfalfa. Generally speaking, the crop has failed, though a few farmers in these two counties have grown it with greater or less success. It can not be recommended generally as a field crop here, though it is probable that with a little special attention a few acres of it might be grown to advantage on almost any farm. In this region it should be sown only on the richest land, and the land should be thoroughly limed and thoroughly inoculated either with dirt from an alfalfa field or from a sweet clover patch or with pure cultures of the alfalfa bacteria. if then the land is well prepared and harrowed frequently enough to lil the weed seeds in the surface. and the alfalfa sown at a time when the land has proper moisture in it late in the summer or in very early fall, the chance for a good stand of alfalfa is fair. The only legume which is grown from time to time with success by practically all these farmers is the cowpea. All the land in this region appears to be inoculated for this crop; that is; it contains the FACTORS OF SUCCESSFUL FARMING NEAR MONETT, MO. 23 particular kind of bacteria that the cowpea crop requires in order to thrive. A few farmers grow a considerable acreage of cowpeas for -hay. Relatively few plant cowpeas in their cornfields. But in view of the fact that the system of farming which prevails in this region is one which does not maintain soil fertility, it is advisable for farmers generally te give more attention to the cowpea crop. It has already been suggested that it is a good plan to plant the cowpeas with the corn at the time the corn is planted. When this is done the roots of the cowpeas will leave considerable nitrogen in the soil, and the cowpea vines, which will be harvested with the corn fodder, will ulti- mately be converted into manure and returned to the soil. In case the corn is not to be cut for fodder, it is just as well to plant the cow- peas in the corn at the time of the last cultivation of the corn and then plow the vines under either early in the winter or the next spring. This, of course, is not practicable where wheat is to follow corn, but it can be done where corn or any other spring crop follows corn. The soy-bean crop deserves more attention than it has received from farmers in this region. It has been tried frequently here, but not always with satisfactory results, for the reason that some farmers do not understand its requirements. Cowpeas have been grown in America for 150 years, and the soil all over the eastern half of the United States appears to be thoroughly inoculated for this crop. Soy beans, on the other hand, were brought to this country rather recently from Japan and Manchuria. They will not thrive unless the soil has the proper kind of bacteria in it, and these bacteria are not yet generally spread over the country. Hence, in order to grow soy beans successfully the soil must be inoculated for them. There are several methods of inoculating the soil for soy beans. Soy-bean seed carry some of the inoculating material, but very little. If a small patch be planted to soy beans for two or three years in succession it will become well inoculated, and the soil from this patch may then be used for inoculating any other part of the farm where soy beans are to be planted. Another method is to moisten the soy-bean seed with water in which a little glue has been dissolved, sprinkle a little dirt from a soy-bean field over the seed, let it dry, and then plant the seed. Great care must be used in this method not to let the sun shine on the seed, for sunlight kills these bacteria very quickly. Another method is to use the pure cultures of the soy-bean bacteria such as those furnished by the United States Department of Agriculture. Soy beans have several very distinct advantages over cowpeas. The most important is that they ordinarily yield from half as much again to twice as much seed per acre as do cowpeas. They can be made into hay more easily than cowpeas, and this hay, if fed with a 24 BULLETIN 633, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. proper mixture of coarser material, such as corn fodder, is just as good as cowpea hay. Another very important point is that soy beans can be used for hog pasture at any time, for hogs will eat the leaves on soy beans greedily, while cowpeas are good hog pasture only when the seed is ripe. Soy beans are also excellent human food. The subject of legumes is discussed here somewhat in detail be- cause of the great need for means of building up soil fertility in this region. In view of the fact that clover is not satisfactory, it is believed that it would be very distinctly advantageous for these farmers to sow cowpeas or soy beans, or at least some crop that will make a growth that can be turned under after wheat that is to be followed by corn. TENURE. One hundred and thirty-two of the farms studied in this survey were operated by their owners; 88 were operated by owners renting additional land; 24 were operated by tenants. Of 30 of the larger farms, part was rented out, the owner having more land than he could operate satisfactorily. Of the 88 owners renting additional - land, 53 were in the group of grain and live-stock farmers and 18 in the group of grain farmers. Exactly half of the tenants were on grain farms, 9 on grain and live-stock farms, 2 on grain and fruit farms, and 1 on a fruit farm. Less than 10 per cent of the farms 1n — this region are operated by tenants. This is much lower than the general average of tenant farming in the Middle West, or for that matter in any large area in the country. This is due partly to the average small incomes made on farms in the region. A tenant farm ordinarily must contribute to the living of two families. Hence tenant farming is not common outside of the plantation system in- the South except where the farms are fairly large and productive. Table 10 gives some interesting facts about land tenure in this — region. : TasLe 10.—Relation of tenure to profits (132 farms near Monett, Mo.). Te! 5 3 | 4 | Owners, | Owners, ; | renting part : Item. Owners. | “sqqi- rented | lenant. |Landlord. tional. out. ‘ ; Number of farms.........2--2-----202eeeee-eceeeeee- Sate 30 24 24 Cropareas © . aa Kec eeee ee 8”. Se acTes. . 76.5 87. 89.2 83.4 83.4 5 Gapital Es fetes 255 eS oe eee dollars..| 9,130 6,519 | 10,370 1,061 7,149 (ARTIHCONG=. 2 en Pes Pare. te do. ._.| 765 748 603 477 232 5 Percentage on investment 1__.._.-...-....- per cent... 5.2 5.8 3.5 18.7 3.2 1 After deducting operator’s labor from farm income. Tenant farms, on the average, have a larger crop acreage than : owner farms. Tenants, with a capital only one-ninth that of the — . . . Ep owners, obtained an income more than half as large. By deducting — : FACTORS OF SUCCESSFUL FARMING NEAR MONETT, MO. Zo from the farm income the value of the farmer’s labor and converting the remainder into percentage of the investment of the operator, the results shown in the last line of this table are obtained. The average income on the investment of owners is 5.2 per cent. Farmers who own some land and rent other land have only about two-thirds as much capital as those who own all their land, but they make 5.8 per cent interest on their capital. Those farmers who have more land than they can till properly and rent part of it out make only 34 per cent on their investment. The tenant, whose capital is all in- vested in live stock, implements and machinery, and other working capital, makes, in addition to his wages, 18.7 per cent interest on his investment. ‘The owners of the tenant farms make 3.2 per cent net income after deducting their expenses. The facts in this table are of interest to the young man who is just starting out with a very small amount of capital. They indicate that his wisest course is to farm a few years as a tenant, for by so doing he can make more money than if he invested his small capital in land. TABLE 11.—Relation of a given amount of capital to farm income of owners and tenants (220 farms near Monett, Mo.). Owners. Tenants. Capital group. | = a arm Farm Farm Farm Number. | area. | income. Number.| ‘area. | income. SFO EAT CUI OSSirapraeiya Seen ens La ee De SS ae oo eee ieee 3 52 $337 re ile OO Ope meen is seston wisciselaicais aaivel nee mewince [asseemecealseceeewene 10 99 363 EOI S O00 Reason cscc cnc ac pc ace Seiaaise| isd enec acic|-ctaceeestal ame emer es 9 122 436 SOOO O 0 ae a eee a er eo 23 54 $337 2 317 1, 442 FeO SO O00 Sere seman eae cise Fatcneisecicseee 50 72 CEI Spa cr Ta eee [bs HE COIS (aaa ces cae sec BaesESceaeeeeee es 32 94 GUS HS ete Se [pe ais ee eee ERO Sl OOO Steen oi eeeis wines ne isis aicroe 38 131 Coal er ses ese alan tk Se SAND ODUCT MSS (O00 a og Sa a a 54 156 13.5) | Resets oe eas He ee ere OVGrSIAWIU0S 522 a See aS ne eee Eanes ears 23 250 Te ba Pe iis [Ese eras eel | Rie areeeaea DAMS AT TINGS Meyer ena e rel oe cae ate seen 220 123 834 24 120 447 This fact is brought out still more strikingly in Table 11. Con- sidering only owners and tenants, three farmers are found with $500 or less invested. These are all tenants farming an average area of 52 acres and making a net income of $337. In the next group are 10 farmers having a capital of $500 to $1,000, operating farms averaging 99 acres in area and making incomes of $363. These are all tenant farmers. In the next group 9 farmers, with capital of from one to two thousand, are operating farms of 122 acres and obtaining a net income of $4386. It is significant that these also are tenant farmers. In the next group, with $2,000 to $4,000. capital, are 25 farmers. All but two of them have bought small farms. Those who have bought farms are making incomes averaging $337. The two who 26 BULLETIN 633, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. have remained tenants are making incomes averaging $1,442. Be- yond this point the desire for economic independence and other ad vantages that accrue from the ownership of land becomes so strong that every farmer is an owner. It will be noticed that among the farms included in this study just as soon as the average income rises to a point which represents a satisfactory standard of living from owner operation tenantry ceases. Another factor is involved here. The two farmers in the fourth group who remained tenants are operating farms averaging 317 acres in size. These farms are almost too large for the managerial ability of the average man. Hence the man on these farms who has” more than $4,000 worth of capital finds it difficult to utilize all his” capital as a tenant and very naturally invests it inland. The lesson is clear, however, for the young man with a small capital. For a few years at least it will be distinctly to his financial advantage to rent a good farm as large as his capital will permit. When he has saved — enough to make a first payment on a farm large enough to permit a good standard: of living, he then may well contemplate becoming 2n owner, and it is desirable from the standpoint of the public wel- iare that. he do so. : PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO THE SUBJECT OF THIS BULLETIN AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION. Corn Cultivation. (Farmers’ Bulletin 414.) Gats: Growing the Crop. (Farmers’ Bulletin 424.) Barley: Growing the Crop. (Farmers’ Bulletin 443.) Good Seed Potatoes and How to Produce Them. (Farmers’ Bulletin 533.) System of Farm Cost Accounting. (Farmers’ Bulletin 572.) A Corn-Belt Farming System Which Saves Harvest Labor by Hogging Down Crops. (EFarmers’ Bulletin 614.) School Lessons on Corn. (Farmers’ Bulletin 617.) Growing Hard Spring Wheat. (Farmers’ Bulletin 678.) Management of Sandy Land Farms in Northern Indiana and Southern Michi- gan. (Farmers’ Bulletin 716.) Economie Study of Farm Tractor in Corn Belt. (Farmers’ Bulletin 719.) Corn Culture in Southeastern States. (Farmers’ Bulletin 729.) The Farmers’ Income. (Harmers’ Bulletin 746.) Increasing the Potato Crop by Spraying. (Farmers’ Bulletin 868.) An Example of Successful Farm Management in Southern New York. (Depart- ment Bulletin 32.) Farm-Management Survey of Three Representative Areas in Indiana, Illinois, and Iowa. (Department Bulletin 41.) Farm Management Practice of Chester County, Pennsylvania. (Department Bulletin 341.) ; Farming on Cut-Over Lands of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. (Depart- ment Bulletin 425.) Farming in Blue Grass Region, Study of Organization and Management of 178 Farms in Central Kentucky. (Department Bulletin 482.) What is Farm Management. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 259.) Some Outstanding Factors in Profitable Farming. (Separate 661. From Year- book, 1915.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. A Successful Hog and Seed-Corn Farm. (Farmers’ Bulletin 272.) Price 5 cents. Farm Practice in Columbia Basin Uplands. (Farmers’ Bulletin 294.) Price 5 cents. A Successful Alabama Diversification Farm. (Farmers’ Bulletin 310.) Price 5 cents. A Profitable Cotton Farm. (Farmers’ Bulletin 364.) Price 5 cents. Replanning a Farm for Profit. (Farmers’ Bulletin 370.) Price 5 cents. A More Profitable Corn-Planting Method. (Farmers’ Bulletin 400.) Price 5 cents. Soil Conservation. (Farmers’ Bulletin 406.) Price 5 cents. How a City Family Managed a Farm. (Farmers’ Bulletin 432.) Price 5 cents. A System of Farming in Central New Jersey. (Farmers’ Bulletin 472.) Price 5 cents. or al = he a , : . sees 14 LI) secogoocedecouadodESadadocensdooeQEnEsec 34 The cost studies upon which this bulletin is based were made during the year 1915 in an intensive commercial apple district in the vicinity of Payette, Idaho (see Fig. 1). The number of commercial apple orchards of bearing age in this region was very limited, so that but 38 detailed and accurate records could be obtained. These are typical of the region, however, and present data which fairly illustrate apple-growing conditions in this region. SUMMARY OF RESULTS. Following is a brief résumé of the more important averages brought. out by this study: Size of 38 farms studied, 53.39 acres. Size of bearing apple orchard, 11.33 acres. Investment per farm, $20,689.62. Investment per acre of bearing apples, $613.16. Trees per acre, 63.34. Annual yield per acre, 337 boxes. Net labor costs, $103.40 per acre, $0.3068 per box (43.14 per cent of total annual net cost of production). ‘All other costs, $136.25 per acre, $0.4043 per box (56.86 per cent of total annual net cost of production). Total annual net cost of production, $0.7111 per box. NotE.—Acknowledgment is due to the Office of Horticultural and Pomological Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry for material assistance in the preparation of this bulletin; also to Mr. J. Clifford Folger, who aided in securing the necessary data. 19461°—18—Bull. 636——1 2 BULLETIN 636, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In the light of the facts developed the following conclusions have — been drawn as to the business of the farms studied: — The stability of the agriculture of these farms is due to the fact that, in the main, they have been developed along more or less diversified lines. IDAHO SCALE STATUTE M/LES Fic. 1.—Map showing the State of Idaho and the location of the Payette fruit region. Although the specialized iruit ranches may be the more successful in some years, the general and more diversified farms are the more successful on the average of a series of years. Both average price and average cost of production for the region are kept below the level of those of many other apple-growing regions by the presence of a number of poorly cared for orchards producing iow-grade apples. COST OF PRODUCTION OF APPLES, PAYETTE VALLEY, IDAHO. 8 Proper soil, good drainage, and a site not subject to frost danger are essential to the success of the apple industry on these farms. Investment in land, yield, quality of fruit, soil, climate, and price received for fruit are all important limiting factors in the production of fruit and should be considered carefully by the present or prospective fruit grower. Though these conclusions are advanced as applying only to the 38 farms studied, it is believed that they will apply in large measure to the Payette fruit region as a whole. LOCATION AND EXTENT OF DISTRICT STUDIED. The Payette, apple-growing section is located near Snake River, in the extreme northwestern part of Canyon County, on the Oregon Short Line Railway. Canyon County is in western Idaho, about 150 miles north of the Nevada line. (See fig. 2.) The elevation at Payette is 2,159 feet. This is a very extensive region, the limits of which are not well defined, as fruit growing is scattered the length of the Payette Valley and also follows the Snake and Boise River valleys. The most intensive of the bearing-orchard sections, how- ever, is located in what is known as the Fruitland district, which is a triangular bench lying between the Payette and Snake Rivers, including about 25,000 acres of irrigated land. (See Pl. I.) Only a small portion of the bench land is devoted to fruit. Hay and grain farming is the prevailing type, and considerable live stock is raised. (See fig. 3.) The principal shipping stations are Fruit- land, a station about 5 miles south of Payette, and New Plymouth, a station 12 miles southeast of Payette. The elevation of Fruitland is about 2,200 feet. The entire bench is comparatively flat, rising from the rivers on either side and forming a broad, level table. From where the Payette River empties into the Snake River, fruit continues along the east bank of that river, in scattered areas, as far north as Weiser, a distance of about 18 miles from Payette. Other shipping stations are Emmett, Parma, and Woodspur. The estimated extent of orchard acreage in the Payette district is approximately 20,000 acres, of which 90 per cent is in apples. Prune plantings take up most of the remaining acreage. The greater part of the apple acreage has not yet come into bearing. Pears, cherries, peaches, and berries are grown only to a limited extent. As this region is located a long way from the centers of distribu- tion, the transportation problem is an important one. Thus the location has had much to do with the development of the type of agriculture, and many farmers have found it more profitable to feed their grain and hay to stock than to ship bulky products to distant markets. HISTORY AND DEVELOPMENT. The Payette Valley is an old settled region. A few ranches were taken up as early as 1849, but it was not until after 1884, when the railroad came in, that the development of the district was marked. BULLETIN 636, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. QWEISER La QWASHINGTON COUNTY BOISE COUNT Y Fic. 2.—Map of Canyon County, showing the most intensive fruit area of that section. COST OF PRODUCTION OF APPLES, PAYETTE VALLEY, IDAHO. 5 In 1881 the first irrigation project was started. (See Pl. II.) Prior to this time the farming industry -was confined largely to raising horses and cattle and growing grain for home consumption. The history of the orchard industry in the Payette region dates from the early eighties, but it was not until about 1895 that commer- cial plantings of prunes and apples were made. Most of the planting has been done since 1900. During the last four or five years the planting of apples has fallen off, but prunes still are being planted in commercial quantities. The early orchards were largely home orchards and were made up of many varieties, including Wolf River, Lawver, Ben Davis, Baldwin, and many other old varieties. The later orchards are made up largely of Jonathan and Winesap, which are the principal com- mercial varieties of the valley to-day. Mining towns, such as Butte Fic. 3.—A small ranch near Fruitland showing the type of diversified farming practiced. and Anaconda, together with the smaller settlements located nearer Payette, offered the best markets for the products of the valley in early years, but with a growth of the industry more distant markets were sought. | Many of the owners of the older bearing orchards are those who bought the land at comparatively low prices and developed it them- selves. Homesteads could have been taken up in the valley as late as 1895. Much of the younger acreage of apples and a few of the older tracts are held by a class of newcomers who have settled in the valley during the last few years. Owing to frosts and occasionel years of poor prices, many growers have been disappointed somc- what in the apple industry. Taking into consideration the agri- cultural experience of the region, it would seem that specialized fruit growing does not promise to become relatively as important as In some regions:which by virtue of their location, soil, and climate are better adapted to the production of high-grade apples. 6 BULLETIN 636, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CONDITIONS. -LABOR CONDITIONS. Labor conditions in the valley, generally speaking, are very good. Month help is often employed with an addition of day help during harvesting. The average labor rate is somewhat less than in the specialized northwest fruit districts, where labor is largely dependent on fruit, with little general farming to fill in the gaps between the busy seasons. Here labor can find employment for the entire year ~ on account of the great diversity and kinds of farming followed. | Grain, hay, stock, and fruit under both intensive and extensive types of unites are found. At the time of this survey the labor rate on the farms studied was $0.20 per hour for man labor and $0.15 per hour for horse labor. The horse-labor rate is figured on the basis of the value of team labor where one grower works for another and is perhaps higher than would be the actual cost of keeping a team. However, in the case of the fruit ranchers so many of the farms are specialized that profit-' able employment for these teams throughout the season can not be depended on, as on the large diversified farms. Thus $0.15 per hour, although apparently a rate comparatively higher than the man-hour rate, 1s really a fair rate, all things being considered. It is necessary to keep horses on these ranches. Man iebor is at all times present in the community, and its rate is determined by the community, while the rate of the horse labor is determined by the size and type of farm on which the orchards are located. SOCIAL CONDITIONS. The social conditions are all that could be desired. There are excellent schools and churches within easy access of most parts of the valley, and farmers’ social organizations flourish. The type of farm is generally extensive enough so that the children remain in the community and help build it up. The farmers as a class come very largely from the same walk of life and thus are able to understand and cooperate with each other more or less on a common basis. Such modern rural improvements as mail service, telephones, etc., are found throughout the region. TRANSPORTATION. This district is somewhat at a disadvantage in being a long way from the centers of distribution. This disadvantage is most marked in the case of the fruit industry, for fruit, especially soft fruit, is a highly perishable product. The Payette Valley Railway traverses the Payette Valley aoe connects with the Oregon Short Line Railway. The town of Payette is located on the main line of the Oregon Short Line. The shipping facilities from here are good, but some idea of the distance from the ; { . a eS > ee ee =. eee Ee ee a a a a COST OF PRODUCTION OF APPLES, PAYETTE VALLEY, IDAHO. 7 nearer large cities may be obtained from the fact that Payette is 462 miles from Salt Lake City, Utah, and 460 miles from Spokane, Wash. In early years much of the fruit was disposed of in the local markets, especially in the mining towns and the small cities of Idaho. How- ever, with the increased production in other parts of the State it was necessary to find an outlet into ‘the large trade channels of the country. , SOIL.! The soils in the parts of Payette Valley where fruit is grown are of various types. The prevailing type is a sandy loam varying greatly in texture and depth in different parts of the valley. Most of the soil along the Payette River is of an alluvial nature. The river bank is comparatively low, but the lands are not generally subject to over- flow. The sandy-loam type of soil, found on the bench and higher cultivated lands on which much of the best fruit is located, varies from 2 to 4 feet in depth, and the subsoil is permeable to water. Crops of all kinds apparently do well on this type of soil. There are some types found in which the surface soil is the sandy loam, a few inches in depth, shading into the clay loam at a depth of about 2 feet. Much of this loam area is underlain with hardpan. The sandy-loam type of soil found about Fruitland seems especially adapted to fruit culture. Much of this region is believed to have been formerly a large fresh-water lake, the soil being composed in many places of very thick sedimentary deposits. This region also is formed largely of volcanic material. Much of the soil contains a considerable percentage of soluble salts, and alkali often appears on une surface after irrigation. CLIMATE. Theclimate of the Payette and Snake River Valleys is arid tosemiarid. It is characterized by litle precipitation, a relatively low humidity, moderate temperature, abundance of sunshine, clear air, and slow wind movement. The annual precipitation is much greater in the moun- tains than upon the lower lands. This region is dependent upon the mountain snows formed during the winter for its supply of water for irrigation during the summer. Low water or a lack of water for suf- ficient irrigation is due to a relatively light snowfall the preceding winter. The mean anntal temperature for Payette is about 50° F. The maximum temperature during the past 15 years was 111° F. on July 23, 1905, and the minimum for the same period was — 26° F. on January 26, 1910. Table I shows these temperatures, together with the dates of the last killing frost in the spring and the first in the autumn. Late frosts are not uncommon throughout this region, and they often cause considerable damage and render the fruit crop un- certain. Hailstorms also sometimes occur. However, the damage from hail is usually much less than in fruit regions at higher altitudes. 1 Soil survey of the Boise area, Idaho (Field Operations, Bureau of Soils, 1901). 8 BULLETIN 636, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE I.—Dates of spring and fall frosts, annual rainfall, and mean annual temperature at Payette, Idaho. [Altitude, 2,159 feet.] Highest tempera- | Lowest tempera- Last First | Annual | Annual ture. | ture. Year. frost in | frost in | precipi- | temper- spring. fall. tation. | ature. Degrees.| Date. | Degrees.| Date. | 25 10. 60 53.7 104 July 30 10 Dec. 31 16 13. 50 53.3 106 July 23 5 Feb. 8 16 14. 04 51.2 102 June 23 —13 Jan. 28 “Oct. 16| 18 e521 | i070 Aue: 13) =13)7 \'dan os 8 8. 86 51.2 111 July 23 —2 Feb. 11 “Sept. A4 UCONN Mesias |). 10RR yl uAcie. IN|) 0.0 qis laren 26 7.52 50.7 108 July 31 5 Feb. 1 18 10 50.6 104 July 22 —2 Dec. 28 29 10.38 50.1 107 July 13 —26 Jan. 3 26 9.74 48.9 104 July 17 —3 Dec. 21 16 13.15 48. 4 101 Ba Osea —23 Jan. 8 18 14. 26 48.9 102 Aug. 24 — 7 Jan. 6 24 5. 90 50.3 103 Aug. 14 — 8 Dec. 8 14 9.67 50.9 103 July 22 — 5 Dec. 30 pe Pee ea May 10/| Sept. 28 | 11.11 | 50.8 104.6 | July 29 — 5.2} Jan. 10 2 Data incomplete. FARM ORGANIZATION. The Payette Valley is a comparatively old and established farm- ing section. It is one of general farming, although fruit occupies an Fic. 4.—A large alfalfa field near Payette at the time of harvesting the third crop. Alfalfa often yields 8 tons per acre in this region. important place in its agriculture. (See fig. 8.) The fruit areas are limited and for the most part are located near a few shipping stations. The average size of the farms included in this investigation PLATE |. Iture. 1cu . Dept. of Agri s U Bul. 636 ‘GNV7] GALVDINY] GNV Giu¥W HLOG JO SSHOLAYULS GvVOYUG AGNV NOILVWYO+4 GNV]-HON3G SHL SNIMOHS ‘ALLSAVd YVAN YSAIY SYVNS SHL Bul. 636, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘OPIS JOY ILE WO SULIOp10 Sparvyo1O OY} OJON "NOIDSY FLLIAVd SHL NI HOLIG NOILVOINY| NY t COST OF PRODUCTION OF APPLES, PAYETTE VALLEY, IDAHO. 9 is 53.39 acres, with 11.33 acres in bearing apples. This is a much higher percentage of orchard land than would be found by taking all the farms in the valley. The farms about Fruitland are very largely specialized fruit farms, and in many cases the acreage is made up wholly of fruit. In the somewhat outlying districts, which were settled more recently and irrigated, the type of agriculture is much more general. The community as a whole may be considered a staple farming community, as there are enough of various farming enterprises to insure the success of at least a portion of the ranchers each year. Dairy farms, of which there are a number in this region, are organ- ¢ Fic. 5.—A farmstead scene on one of the higher bench lands. Owing to difficulty in irrigating and the high cost of water, some of these settlers have had to economize in order to retain their land. ized on the basis of raising all the feed to be used on the place. On most of the dairy farms considerable hay and grain are sold. (See fig. 4.) Nearly all the fruit growers keep at least some stock, those with mulch-crop orchards keeping the greater number. Nearly every rancher raises hogs for home use and several for sale. The growers also raise garden truck, potatoes, etc., for home use, so that the farm contributes a very ines jareamnwe of the products used by the occupants. Tributary to this region are large stock-grazing areas. Much of the land recently irrigated is devoted to raising alfalfa. (See fig. 5.) Raising clover and alfalfa seed is also an important and profitable branch of farming found here. As might be expected, the more intensive type of farming is found near the towns, where the fruit 19461°—18—Bull. 636——2 10 BULLETIN 636, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE... is handled by local warehouses and associations without necessitat-_ ing any long haul. In speaking of Payette Valley and Canyon County area as aregion it may be considered as representing a very successful and diversi- fied type of agriculture. However, the farms studied are all fruit ranches, for the most part somewhat specialized. The orchards on those which are not specialized show more or less a lack of care. Especially is this true of the large ranches where cattle are kept. The men found on these ranches are for the most part farmers; that is to say, they are not men from other professions who have selected farming and apple growing as a means of retiring from © active life, as have so many residents of other fruit sections of the Northwest. These men did not. expect unusual prices or crops, and with land at a reasonable figure they have been able to build up a stable business. There are of course some ranchers who located on sections hard to irrigate, and who, caught in years of low prices with little working capital, have lost out. In general, the ranchers are intelligent and progressive and willing to adopt new ideas and to apply them to conditious. They are practical men of limited capital who tend to develop their farming along more conservative lines than one finds in certain regions where speculators have been responsible for the development. FARM INVESTMENTS. The average total investment per farm in thé case of the 38 ranches for which data were obtained is $20,689.62, the average size of farm is 53.39 acres, and the investment per acre of apple orchard averages $613.16.° © Table II shows the comparative investments on the clean-cultural and mulch-crop orchards. The machinery equipment investment on the farms studied ($542.63 per farm) represents present value of equipment. It may be stated, however, that the equipment on these farms is generally in fairly good condition, much of it being compara- tively new. As might be expected, the mulch-crop orchards show the greatest investment in stock other than horses. Hogs often are pastured on the alfalfa orchards. 1In all these investment figures each farm is given the same weighs cu 25 acre basis. COST OF PRODUCTION OF APPLES, PAYETTE VALLEY, IDAHO. 11 Tasxe II.—Size of farms and of imvestments for farms studied in the Payette region, Idaho. System of orchard man- agement on farm. Item. All records. Clean- Mulch- cultural. crop. Nimmipermomnecordsse see 22-2 iss Se ees see a tre lense siete ae 16 22 38 IASC AS eySiee ammnt(ACLES) faa ca10e oi, See = eee ee Scien Seer eee eee 60.05 48.55 53.39 Investment per farm: DOU UE re eee gin (Ni Os Beane OR bees $1.44 | $0.0043 $0.42 | $0.0013 $0. 85 $0. 0025 Other cuitivation 7.93 . C236 2.30 . 0068 4. 67 - 0139 AN Guilty ennor 5 s— kb bcosodosunndocaccadaaoee 9. 37 - 0279 2. 72 - 0081 5.52 . 0164 MULCH CROPS. The use of mulch crops has become general within the last few years. Only a few orchardists take off more than one crop of hay, and many use the crop entirely for pasture or leave it on the ground, although many others make three cuttings, which may be taken off or left on the ground as amulch. The most common method of hand- Img mulch crops in this region, however, is to allow hogs to pasture off the crop. In this way the soil is enriched and at the same time the wormy and inferior fruit on the ground is utilized for feed. Where mulch crops are grown, it is the practice to go on the land with a disk in the latter part of March or the first of April. The 20 BULLETIN 636, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. orchardists may follow this with some other cultivation tool, such as the spring or spike tooth harrow. Following this, however, there is no further treatment of the soil aside from the rilling for irrigation. A few men plow under their mulch crops as an annual practice, but most of them leave them in for several years, although the growers say it is the intention to turn under and resow the mulch crop at intervals of from three to four years. The kinds of mulch crops used vary somewhat from those in other regions. Alfalfa seems to be the most popular and is used largely for pasture. There are many orchards in bluegrass, which also is Fic. 8.—A large packing shed of a fruit grower near Boise. used as a pasture. This has been down in some cases 10 or 12 years. The older orchards, which show the greatest amount of neglect, are the ones which are in mulch crops, or, more properly speaking, which have been in sod for a number of years. Such an orchard really can not be said to be under the mulch-crop system. These mulch-crop orchards are often irrigated by means of flood- ing, although about half are irrigated by means of rills. Generally the pastured orchards are flooded, while the better-cared-for orchards are rilled. It is found that 7 of the 22 men who use some form of mulch crop have their orchards in clover, and 9 have them in alfalfa. Four pasture their orchards in addition to taking the hay off, while seven make a practice of pasturing the orchard and not taking off any hay. There is a net credit of $7.40 per acre for hay and pasture, or a credit per box of $0.022, for the 22 growers who use some kind of mulch crop. (See Table IX.) Cost OF PRODUCTION OF APPLES, PAYETTE VALLEY, IDAHO. 21 TaBLEe IX.—Credit derived from mulch crop on farms studied in Payette Valley, Idaho. Per acre. Net credit Number of records. cs : Cost of -,| Pasture Total -, | per box. harvesting. Hay Gout credit. credit. | Net credit. 772243 8 ec Vee 2 9 Bile AS $1.87 So. 21 $3.06 | $9.27 $7. 40 $0. 022 IRRIGATION. In the Fruitland district there are two important irrigation projects. One is the Noble ditch, watering about 6,000 acres, with an average maintenance fee of but little over $1 per acre per year. This was organized in 1894 and receives its water from the Payette River. The higher land in the south Payette district is watered by the Farmers’ Cooperative ditch, which is a large project embracing about 13,000 acres. It taps the Payette River at Emmett, farther up the stream than the opening of the Nobleditch. Themaintenancecharges for this ditch are from $1.50 to $2 per acre per year; the water from it is turned on about the first of May. In the region north of Payette, or the Woodspur “peninn: are found districts known, respectively, as the Lower Payette cioeeiet and Pay- -ette Heights. The former comprises the greater acreage. The Payette ditch furnishes water at a low maintenance cost which will average about $0.50 per acre per year. In order to water the Payette Heights, it has been necessary in many cases to install pumping plants to lift the water up to the higher lands. This makes the cost of irrigating very much higher than that on lands watered by a gravity flow. In many cases it is $6 to $7 per acre per year for the water delivered on the land. For the most part the water is conducted in open ditches or flumes, and piping systems are not common. [ft is neces- sary to irrigate all orchards in this region, as the annual rainfall is not sufficient to sustain the trees. On an average 4.7 irrigations are made annually on the 38 orchards studied in the valley, the ‘mulch-crop orchardists averaging 5.18 irrigations, while the clean cultural average 4.06. In the case of the clean-cultivated orchards, the first irrigation usually is made during the latter part of May or the first of June, and the last during the latter part of August. These irrigations are made at regular intervals during this period. (See Table X.) TaBLE X.—Average number of irrigations ane Practiess for farms studied in Payette Valley, | Average Total Number of | man hours | man hours irrigations.| per irriga- | for all irri- Cost per Cost per Cost per _acre per | acre forall | box for all irrigation. | irrigations. irrigations. tion. gations. Cléan cnltarales--< 2-6 = ae ee 4.06 2. 434 9.88 $0. 486 $1.98 $0. 0059 MICH CrOD esse ee seeere ec see 5.18 1.725 8.94 .345 1.79 we pCiar: PAN TOCOEAS coe Moccia tse oe 4:71 1. 983 9.34 -398 1. 87 “55 99 BULLETIN 636, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The rilling for the irrigation is done either by shovel cultivators, single plows, corrugators, or homemade rillers. In irrigating the mulch-crop orchards the system of flooding is used to a great extent. In flooding the time is considerably reduced, for this method aims to cover the whole orchard by allowing the water to follow its own course. The topography of the land and type of soil will determine the method of applying the water. Where mulch-crop orchards are rilled, a common tool used is a “‘corrugator,’’ consisting of two metal shovellike attachments with ‘a substantial iron frame. Six rills usually are made per tree row. As a rule, the date for the first irrigation is earlier on mulch crop than on the clean-cultivated orchards, the first watering usually being made during the first two weeks in May and seldom later than the last of this month. Ina few cases men flood their orchards in the fall. The average time for irrigating the mulch-crop orchards is 1.72 — man-hours, with an acre cost of $0.345, or for the 5.18 irrigations there is a charge of 8.94 man-hours and a cost of $1.79 per acre, or $0.0053 per box for labor. Considering all records, irrigation costs $1.87 per acre or $0.0055 per box. The average al water tax is $1.28 per acre, or $0.0038 per box, and the total for labor and water tax is $3.15 per acre, or $0.0093 per box. SPRAYING. The spraying program of the Payette district is comparatively uniform. All growers from whom records were taken make one dor- mant lme-sulphur spray and one calyx arsenate-of-lead spray. They average 2.09 other arsenate-of-lead sprays, making an aE of 4.09 sprays for the season. All the growers except’ three own their own spray rigs, which gen- erally are of standard make, although there are a few assembled rigs. When the spray outfit is hired, the usual price is $1 per hour for man, team, and outfit. The grower’s average investment in the spray outfit for those owning them is $360. The spray-rig engine varies from 2 to 34 horsepower, the majority being 24. The 200-gallon tank is the one most commonly used. There are very few men who use spray towers on their rigs, though in the older orchards spray towers are an advantage. It is found that the life of the average spray rig is approximately 94 years, and that the depreciation amounts to $37.80 annually. This, added to an annual upkeep of $16 and an annual interest charge of $28.80 on the original investment, makes an annual charge of $82.60 per spray rig. Approximately 20 acres of fruit are sprayed annually by each spray rig. This would then give an acre charge of $4.13-for depreciation, | 5 — os COST OF PRODUCTION OF APPLES, PAYETTE VALLEY, IDAHO. 23 upkeep, and interest, together with $0.74 for oil and gasoline, making a total annual charge of $4.87 per acre for the use of the spray rig and engine. ‘Those who hire their spraying done pay for the rig itself about $0.50 per hour, wages of man and team making up the remainder of the charge of $1 per hour. Allowing the same number of spray hours per acre for those who hire the spraying done, there would then be an annual charge of $5.73. In reality, however, there are usually fewer hours spent per acre for those who hire than for those who do their own spraying. There is an average of 10 spray-rig hours an acre for those who hire the spraying done, thus making the annual cost $5 per acre, or $0.13 more per acre than for those who own their spray rig. Most spray rigs have two leads of 50-feot rubber hose and use an 8 to 10 foot spray rod. The pressure varies from 125-to 275 pounds, but usually is about 200 pounds. There are many orchard pests and diseases which the grower finds it necessary to control. The most important pests are the San Jose scale and the codling moth. These made their appearance in the early years of the commercial apple industry in this region. There are others which require less attention and which the growers in this section have had little trouble in combating as yet, such as the green aphis, woolly aphis, oyster-shell bark louse, blister mite, ete. TABLE X1.—Payette spraying practices and costs (38 records). x Per acre. Per acre. = ae Acres} Gal- | gay Total i Kind of spray. num- | per | lons |‘jons | cost | Strength of ber of} Man- |Horse-,, 1° _| P& | per Labor pias Total) oy SPIANE sprays.| hours. hours. 3 | tree. | cost. | 2 | Lime - sulphur! 1.00] 8.24] 6.05 | 3.31 | 388.56 | 6.14 | $2.56 |$7.29 |$9.85 |$0.0292 | 1 to 9. dormant spray. | Calyx orfirstlead | 1.00} 7.51} 5.42 | 3.69 | 378.09 | 5.97 | 2.31] 2.00 | 4.31 .0128 | 2 Ibs. lead to arsenate spray. 50 gals. water. Other lead-arse- | 2.09 | 15.96 | 11.45 | 3.65 | 776.49 |12.27| 4.91 | 4.14 | 9.05 | .0265 | 2l1bs. lead to nate sprays. 50 gals.. water. Total allsprays.| 4.09 31.71 22.92 | 3.57 |1,543.14 |24.38 | 9.78 |13.43 |23.21 | .0689 The more important apple diseases are blight, mildew, and apple scab. Blight is by far the mest serious, and as yet there is no effective remedy other than cutting out the infected parts 6 or 7 inches below the infection, using great care to disinfect the tools with corrosive sublimate. -Mildew and scab are present and have caused considerable trouble. The apple scab made its first appearance in Idaho in Latah County, in 1897, being noticed at a much later date in Canyon County. The growers considered in these records, however, had not made a practice of spraying to prevent either of these diseases up to the time these data were taken. It was found that all growers thoroughly 94 BULLETIN 636, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. believe in the application of the first spray, made for the San Jose scale. Heavy losses have been suffered in the past from this pest, and now a great deal of attention is given to its control. When all growers spray with a dormant lime-sulphur spray of a strength vary- ing from 1 to 8 to 1 to 11, it apparently holds the scale in check, so that little damage to the fruit is experienced. Applicatiors of this dormant lime-sulphur spray are made every year, usually during the jatter part of March or the first of April, after the buds begin to swell. The usual spraying crew consists of three men and two horses, two men using the two leads of hose, and the third man driving the team. The average crew will spray 3.31 acres in 10 hours, applying 388.56 gallons per acre, or 6.14 gallons per tree. The labor cost is $2.56 per acre, and the material cost $7.29; making a total cost of $9.85 per acre, or $0.0292 per box. (See Table XI.) The first lead-arsenate spray of the season, known as the calyx spray, is made for the control of the coding moth. This application is made when about 80 per cent of the petals have fallen, which is usually the first or second week in May. It ordinarily consisis of lead arsenate and water, paste lead arsenate being used at the average strength of 8 pounds to a 200-gallon tank of water, or dry lead arsenate 4 pounds to a 200-gallon tank of water. Lime-sulphur or atomic sulphur, sometimes used in this spray for scab prevention, is not as yet used by any of these growers. In applying this spray the average crew will spray 3.69 acres in 10 hours, applying 378.09 gallons per acre, or 5.97 gallons per tree, with a labor cost of $2.31 and a material cost of $2.00, or a total cost of $4.31 per acre. The second spray for the control of the codling moth usually is — made about three weeks later than the first and is spoken of as the “three weeks’ spray.’’ In severe cases, however, a spray is made 10 days after the time the petals fall, using the same strength of lead as in the case of the calyx spray. The third, and usually the last, application is made during the last week of July. Where four appli- ‘cations are made, the second usually follows the calyx in about 10 days, the third about. the first of June, and the fourth the latter part of July. As a rule, however, either the second or fourth spray is omitted, making a total of only three applications of lead for the con- trol of the codling moth larve. For these lead sprays other than tne calyx spray, the average crew will spray 3.65 acres per day, applying about 1,350 gallons.n this time. Considering all sprays, the total labor cost for spraymg is $9.78, while the total material cost is $13.43, making a total of all costs for labor and material of $23.21 per acre, or $0.0689 per box. The cost of the spray rig itself, including the gasoline, upkeep, etc., is not included here, but is included under the annual equipment charge to be found under the fixed costs. COST OF PRODUCTION OF APPLES, PAYETTE VALLEY, IDAHO. 25 In 1915 and 1916 atomic sulphur was used in some other sprays, than the calyx and doubtless will be used more generally in the future for the control of apple diseases, particularly mildew. MISCELLANEOUS. There are some items which do not appear in the regular labor column. These are classed as miscellaneous items. The principal of these are cutting blight, cleaning laterals and waste ditches, mow- ing weeds, hoeing about the orchard, and doctoring trees, and there are many other small items which appear on but a few farm reports. In this district miscellaneous labor is made up entirely of man labor, the cost of which is $1.41 per acre, or $0.0042 per box. HANDLING THE CROP. The cost of handling the crop makes up 60.95 per cent of the total annual net labor cost of production, or 26.30 per cent of the total of all net costs. The items which go to make up this handling are: Picking, orchard foreman, all packing-house labor, including sorting, packing, nailing, stamping, waiting, etc., and any other labor about the packing house, such as packing foreman. The hauling, which is a part cf the handling costs, includes hauling shooks from the station, hauling empty boxes to and full boxes from the orchard, and hauling packed boxes to the association or station. Before discuss- ing these items it should be stated that a large number of men in this region pick their fruit and haul it to the association or ware- house where it is packed, the grower being charged a price which varies with different branch packing houses of the central association. At the time of this study, 14, or practically 37 per cent of the 38 erowers, did not pack their own fruit, but took it to these associa- tion packing houses, where it was sorted, sized, and packed. PICKING. Picking in this region is done very largely by day labor at the rate - of $2 per 10-hour day, although sometimes growers contract with men to pick at $0.04 per box. The picking season usually begins in early September and lasts until late in October. The first commer- cial variety picked in this region is the Jonathan. Growers ordinarily begin to pick these about September 10, or sometimes earlier where apples are intended for foreign trade. Two or more pickings often are made for such varieties as the Jonathan and Rome Beauty. These apples are picked for ‘color, and as all the apples on the tree” are not colored evenly at one time, it is desirable to make more than one picking. Other varieties usually are taken off at one pick- ing. On this account the grower can pick more boxes per day of such varieties as Ben Davis than he can of Jonathan. 26 ‘BULLETIN 636, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. All picking is done by hand. The ordiary stepladder, varying in length but usually light and easily handled, is commonly used. A canvas picking bag is used by nearly all growers. Some of the growers use orchard boxes, in which the apples are hauled from the orchard to the packing house. These boxes are larger and heavier than the ordinary apple box and are commonly called lug boxes. However, as in other Northwest sections, these growers usually handle their apples in the ordinary packing boxes which have been made up and hauled into the orchard at convenient places for the pickers. As these same boxes are used for packing, more care is taken in handling them than in handing the lug boxes. It is found that the average picker will pick 67 loose boxes per day, or enough to make 44 packed boxes. The average picking crew consists of from three to four men. On the farms studied, with a yield of 337 boxes per acre, it costs $15.53 per acre, or $0.0461 per box for picking. (See Table XIII.) The picking time and cost are affected by yield, size of orchard, variety of apple, weather conditions, uniformity of the fruit, and many other factors. Owing to the limit- ed number of orchards from which data were obtained, no definite conclusions could be reached as to the relative influence of these different factors on the cost. There are a few men with large orchards who employ an orchard foreman to superintend the pickers. On the total labor cost this foreman labor is combined with the picking labor, but influences it very little, the cost, including the foreman, being $0. 0465 per box. This is because there were only two orchards which used an orchard foreman who did not also act as a picker. The picking labor, including the orchard foreman, makes up 15.16 per cent of the total net labor cost and 6.54 per cent of the total annual net cost of production. HAULING. Hauling costs include hauling shooks, hauling the loose boxes to and from the orchard, and hauling to the station or association. Twenty-four men haul shooks, the others handling their fruit through an association from which they obtain their made-up boxes. In the case of these 24 orchardists, one man and team haul 471 shooks per load a distance of 1.24 miles at a cost of $0.87 per acre, or $0.0026 per box. (See Table XII.) After these shooks are hauled, they are made up on the ranch at an average cost of $0.85 per hun- dred. This cost is included under made-up box cost in material and fixed costs. All growers haul empty boxes to the orchard. Fourteen of these haul from the association packing house, while 24 haul from their own packing house on the ranch, The cost of hauling | a COST OF PRODUCTION OF APPLES, PAYETTE VALLEY, IDAHO. 27 these loose boxes to the orchard is $0.006 per box. There are 24 growers who haul full loose boxes into the packing house, the other 14 hauling direct to the warehouse or association. An orchard truck is generally used by the 24 who haul to their own packing houses, hauling a load of 53 boxes at a cost of $3.96 per acre, or $0.0121 per box. All growers haul full boxes of fruit from the ranch to the association or station. Twenty-four of these haul packed boxes, while 14 haul boxes to be packed at the association. The average cost is $5.16 per acre, or $0.0153 per box. TaBLE XII.—Average cost for hauling where a crew of one man and two horses is used. Cost. Number Boxes | Number | Bractic- | per joad. | of mil ing. Ios eENe | @ es P Per b Per box er acre.| Per box. per mile. Ebamlishooks'eceestiase eos sas ssc cee 24 471 1.24 $0.87 | $0. 0026 $0. 0021 Paulemp iyo wesc eon = hee eee 38 QO il snd aie Zier 2.01 AU eseacasancs Ferma lginper ee te eco ee ey eee 24 |: BON ie eee 3.96 ADM Nasi aauee cts Eamlebojstation--22-¢ sesa-% 5-2 - = + ee 38 72 Use?) 5.16 0153 - 0116 See When all hauling costs are considered they are found to amount to $0.0306 per box. This is relatively low, as compared to the cost in some regions, owing to the fact that most orchards here are in the immediate vicinity of the shipping stations and also to the fact that hauling the full boxes from the orchard to the rancher’s packing shed is done away with in the case of the 14 orchardists who haul their loose boxes direct to the association packing house. PACKING-HOUSE LABOR. The principal items of packing-house labor are the sorting and packing. As 14 of these men have their apples packed by the asso- ciation, this discussion applies only to the 24 growers who do their own packing. All these 24 growers have sorters for their fruit apart from the packers. SORTING. Sorting in this region is nearly all done by hand, women being largely employed for this work. As yet very few mechanical sizers have been brought into the valley, except for use in association packing-houses.. The apples are usually sorted into three grades; extra fancy, fancy, and C grade. The apples that are used for cider nearly all pass. the sorters;.that.is to say, these apples are taken out by the sorters from the boxes of picked fruit. The labor of sorting depends on,the variety, of: fruit and its relative freedom from insect or fungus injury. The sorters usually do not size the fruit, but only sort it into the grades, the packer sizing his own fruit, 28 BULLETIN. 636, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The average sorter when doing nothing else will sort from 75 to 80 packed boxes in 10 hours, or about 125 loose boxes. The sorting — cost when the 24 orchards are considered is $8.84 per acre, or $0.0266 per box. TaBLe XIII.—Average cost for handling other than hauling (38 records). Item. | py - Boxesin | Cost per Cost per | Number in’ ; | practicing. 0 hours. acre. 0. _erew. BICKING os. ton sep amare ee soe SEE ee 38 43.3; $15. 53 $0. 0461 3.21 Seren eSion by picking foreman........._. 2 a 6 2 oe - 0069 1.00 SOnhings ©. ase SS: bs eee ee es: 24 3. : - 0266 3. 54 Pacing eel ee bs 558 es RPA a etl ie: Base? 24 55.75 16. 62 0500 5. 63 a piling And Wallies 2. pecan nea Scene i Hi. oe S: BB ash 1.00 adling.s eee ee to: Wei se See es ea be : 25 64 1.00 Wiaiting 2: 32 ae = a ee Agessse es Se a 12 | 259. 74 2.39 - 0077 1.00 Supervision by packing foreman...-.......- : 11 | 338. 98 2.17 - 0059 1.09 Other packing labors. 22-- 5.2228 - eee 9 | 196. 08 | 3.58 0102 1,22 PACKING. The packing wage per box is ordinarily $0.05 for sorted apples. Much of the packing is done by young women. In a few cases packers are hited by the day. Provision for packing-house accommodations has been made by nearly every grower. (See fig. 8.) Sometimes barns or sheds are used for this purpose during the harvesting season. In a few cases complete and well-arranged packing sheds have been built at a cost of several hundred dollars. The average packing shed, however, doos not.represent a very great outlay of money. Often it is but a shed or barn temporarily converted to this purpose. The packers have the apples before them sorted into the three dif- ferent grades, which they size as they pack. The experienced packer can tell very readily by looking at the apple to what size it belongs. Thus the average packer has three or four boxes before him in which to put apples of the same grade but different sizes. The packer is usually required only to wrap and pack the apples. In some cases, however, the packer also lines the boxes, although this is often the work of a waiter or extra helper in the packing house. The average number of packed boxes per day in the case of these — 24 men is 55.7 per packer. NAILING, ETC. Seventeen of these 24 men make a practice of using one man for nailing alone, while seven combine nailing and waiting. For those who nail it was found that one man will do 312 boxes in 10 hours at a cost of $0.0064 per box, while for those who nail and wait it is found that the average man will do 171 boxes in 10 hours at a cost of $0).0117 per box. ) COST OF PRODUCTION OF APPLES, PAYETTE VALLEY, IDAHO. 29 Twelve of the packers have a waiter whose business it is to wait on the sorters and packers. This waiter will handle the boxes and wait on a crew putting out 260 boxes per day. The cost per box for this labor is $0.0077. Nearly half of the men who pack their own apples either employ a packing-house foreman, or the owner himself — acts in this capacity in addition to doing other packing-house labor. In these cases the packing-house foreman is employed separately from any packer or sorter. The cost per box for such men as have a foreman is $0.0059, figured at the regular labor rate of $0.20 per hour, although if the foreman is hired he is frequently paid at a higher rate. Many growers use still other packing-house labor. Such labor usually includes the man who helps truck the boxes and does various other things that are often done by waiters. The total packing-house labor cost, including those who have their packing done at the association, is $41.64 per acre, or $0.1236 per box. Both the associations an the growers generally use the Northwest diagonal pack. The extra ‘fancy and fancy grades and often the C grades’ are wrapped. C grades, and sometimes fancy apples, in poor-price years, are packed but not wrapped. The distributors make a practice of wrapping all three grades. The association charge in such cases includes not only labor, but the box, paper, nails, etc., also the cost of handling the box, together with an inspection fee and sinking fund. However, in this study of costs only the actual packing and box costs are considered. Inspection, sinking fund, overhead expenses, etc., are items which are not taken into consideration in any of this cost-production work, since they are factors which ordi- narily enter into the cost of marketing after lke apples are delivered at the station. _ All handling labor cost has now been discussed. If to the packing- house labor of $0.1236 per box is added the cost of made-up box, including paper, nails, etc. ($0.1585), there is a total material and labor cost per box of $0.2821 within the packing house. If to this are added all other handling labor costs, there is a total for handling, including labor and material, of $0.3612 per box, or after the culls are credited, it is reduced to $0.3455 per box as a net labor and material cost. CULLS AND CIDER APPLES. Many growers sell a few tons of cider or drier apples each year. These are known as the ‘‘cull apples,” and may come either from the _. packing shed or be picked up from the ground in the orchard. In the Payette region, however, very few growers pick up windfalls and sell them as cider apples. Most of the apples used for cider in this section 30 BULLETIN 636, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. are separated from the better grades by the sorters in the packing house, as the price received hardly would warrant the labor of picking up the apples in the orchard. The price per ton varies, but is usually from $5 to $6, delivered at the cider factory. At present there is not a large enough demand for cider apples to justify handling all those available in the valley. A great many growers do not sell] their cull apples, but feed them to hogs, valuing them at from $3 to $4 per ton as hog feed. The credit per acre derived from culls averages $5.40 for the or- chards under the clean-cultural system and $5.22 for those under the mulch-crop system. For all orchards there was a credit of $5.29 per acre, leaving a net credit of $4.61 after the labor cost of picking up and hauling culls is taken out. By crediting this, the cost of hand- ling labor is reduced from $0.2007 per box to $0.1870 per box. TOTAL LABOR COSTS. The total of all labor costs after crediting the maintenance labor with the hay or pasture credit and the handling labor with the cull credit, is $103.40 per acre, or $0.3068 per box. (See Table XIV.) This is 43.14 per cent of the total annual net cost of production. The net maintenance labor costs $40.38 per acre, or $0.1198 per box, making up 16.84 per cent of the total annual net cost, while the net handling labor amounts to $63.02 per acre, or $0.1870 per box, and makes up 26.30 per cent of the total annual net production cost. As may be seen from the labor table, the costs of thinning and pruning are the largest maintenance costs. They make up 18.32 per cent of the total net labor cost. These total labor costs are for an average of all the bearing orchards considered and are on the basis of a yield of 337 boxes per acre. The table is self-explanatory and shows the difference between the clean-cultural and mulch- ~ crop orchards, there being a difference in the net maintenance costs of $0.0229 per box, this cost being greater in the case of the clean- cultural orchards. However, for all net labor the cost per box is practically the same in both the clean-cultural and the mulch-crop orchards, being $0.3085 in the case of the former and $0.3054 in the case of the latter. COST OF PRODUCTION OF APPLES, PAYETTE VALLEY, IDAHO. 81 Taste XIV.—Summary table of all labor costs, 38 farms in Payette Valley, Idaho. | losers ceed manage-| Mulch-crop manage-~ ment (16 records; 336 | ment (22 records; 338 Combined management (38 records; 337 boxes perrecord). boxes per record). boxes per record). | ] Ttem.” Per Per | Per | Per ¥ Cost | Cost cent | Gost | Cost | C2’ | Cost | Cost [Combet] cent Deere pet total Doky [egaper total DEM pee Pee er total acre box net | acre box net | acre box iveap || aoe cost cost cost. | cost | Manuring BOOS SE EC CODOCEEEICEE $1.74 $0.0052 | 0.74 | $1.94 5 0057 | 0.79 | $1.85 |$0.0055 | 1.79 | 0.77 BRUT S Sae ee ease meas seek k 8.47 |" .0252 | 3.58 |.10.22 | .0302 | 4.22] 9.48 | .0281 | 9.16} 3.95 Disposal Of Drushisaces . <2 5. 3.59 | .0107] 1.52) 3.34] .0099]- 1.38} 3.45] .0103 | 3.36] 1.45 POWwilles- 0-22 ee Le STSS TiS 1.44 | .0043 - 61 -42} .0013 -18 -85 | .0025 - 81 5a Cultivating: = 22222225225... . 7.93 | .0236| 3.35] 2.30] .0068 -95} 4.67] .0139] 4.53] 1.96 iota prs eon eS el 1.98 | .0059 -84] 1.79] .0053 74} 1.87} .0055} 1.79 78 RUMI nese noes - - - 5 3. 9.16] 3. PLO DINE Jeena seeees ee = == 2.35 | 1. Miscellanecous'= saseeeeee ee - 1.37 c Lime-sulphur spray-..-..-.-- 2.48] 1. ead iSpIays.--A-2 5 se sae 6. 3. Sowing mulch crop........-- Harvesting mulch crop Total labor cost previous | id to handling........... 45.42 | .1352 | 19.22 - 1391 | 19.42 | 46.33 | .1375 | 44.82 | 19.33 Hayscreditee-s-s---=- 525.55 feo SE, Neen | he SEO) 9.27 | .027 3.82 | 5.37 | 20160 | 5222)| 2525- Widedicregitasas: 3 236. .2252 -69 | .0021 -30 -50.} -0015 21 -58 | .0017 6 aE . 24 silgualicrediteea-seccaae 69 0021 30 | 9.77} .0289; 4.03] 5.95 i OL77 | 5.77 ! 2.49 Total net labor cost pie, | | vious to handling.....| 44.73 | .1331 | 18.92 | 37.26 | .1102 | 15.39 | 40.38 | .1198 | 39.05 | 16.84 Hauling shooks.........--.. | .68] 10020] .28| .46| .0014/ .20| .55| .0016| .52| .23 Hauling loose boxes to and TrOMVOLGhardes san les 5i 2 leOlLoy | 2523 || VA ASE 01220 eg 4.61 | .0137| 4.46] 1.93 Picking and orchard foreman} 15.45 | .0460] 6.54 | 15.82 | .0468 | 6.54 | 15.67| .0465 | 15.16] 6.54 All packing-house labore=s = 37.39 | .1113 | 15.82 | 44.73 - 1323 | 18.47 | 41.64 | .1236 | 40.29 | 17.38 Hauling tostation or associa- SUION) Meat aes Ri 4.60] .0137] 1.95] 5.56] .0165} 2.30] 5.16] .0153] 4.99] 2.15 Picking upand haulingculls., .94] .0028 - 40 -50 | .0015 21 -68 | .0020 -65 - 28 Total labor cost for i Han Gliese ses soe 2 | 64.383 | .1915 | 27.22 | 71.20 | .2107 | 29.42 | 68.31 | .2027 | 66.07 | 28.51 Creditioncwlls see 2b es 2 | 5.40] .O161 2.29 | 5.22] .0155| 2.17), 5.29] .0157 | 5.12] 2.21 Total net labor cost for | - handling) 22 2. da.) S223 58.93 | .1754 | 24.93 | 65.98 | .1952 | 27.25 | 63.02 | .1870 | 60.95 | 26.30 Totalnet cost ofalllabor. 103.66 | .3085 | 43.85 |103. 24 | - 3054 | 42.64 |103. 40 | - 3068 [zee 00 | 43.14 MATERIAL AND FIXED COSTS. Costs other than labor, including the material and fixed cost, amount to $136.25 per acre, or 56.86 per cent of the total annual net cost of production. (See Table XV.) The material costs are made up of manure, spray materials (ncluding lme-sulphur, lead, and other spray materials used), seed, and the cost of made-up box, including paper and nails. This material cost amounts to $72.94 per acre, or .$0.2164 per box. It makes up 30.43 per cent of the total annual net - cost of production. There was no appreciable difference between the material costs of the clean-cultural and mulch-crop orchards, the cost being $0.2148 per box in the case of the clean-cultural and $0.2176 per box in the case of the mulch-crop orchards. The cost of made-up 32 BULLETIN 636, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. box is the largest single item of the material cost, amounting to~ $0.1585 per box. This cost is made up as follows: Osh OL POX: SHOOK. yaa neat ee Pe Ce. sj eae $0. 1100 COst 10 MAKCUPl2ae arose 2 see eee see = oe ae ee eee . 0085 Cost of wrapping paper. 222... Sa . LE RES eee . -0275 Natlst soi) ke. beep ete eee ee a 2k see ee . 0036 Cost of card board 2g. 2.24 stn epee oe: cette ee 0044 Costiof lnnitne paper 4ne 2 255. Jee eu: | SF ee oe ee 0045 Ma biasee x2 chore tes ih tose 2d RR eestor o 3 Ate ees . 1585 The spray material is the second largest material cost, the lime and sulphur costing $7.29 per acre and the lead amounting to $6.14 per acre, making a total spray-material cost of $13.43 per acre, or a box cost of $0.0398. This spray material makes up 9.84 per cent of the total material and fixed cost and 5.60 per cent of the total annual net cost of production. A commercial brand of lime and sulphur is used. The ordinary arsenate of lead paste is generally used, although a few growers use the dry lead. TaBsLte XV.—Summary table of material and fixed costs, 38 farms in Payette Valley, Idaho. Clean-cultural man- | Mulch-crop manage- . agement (16 rec- ment (22 records; Sombited per ee t oe ords; 336 boxes per 338 boxes per rec- record). Pere record). ord). 3 Item. Per wt : Per Per cent of} Per Charge) Charge |cent of |Charge} Charge |cent of |Charge| Charge Ore oy per per total | per per total | per per anil || Aajeul acre. | box. net | acre. | box. net | acre. | box. fan) | eet cost. cost. | 4ixed | cost. | cost. pe ae Ba ee ee oe 2 ae ee ee Manne =. nea eAaeee ese $6.17 '$0.0184 | 2.61 $5.92 |$0.0175 | 2.44 | $6. 4.43 | 2.51 Lime and sulphur...-...---. 6.98 | .0208| 2.96} 7.51] .0222] 3.10]: 7. 5.34 | 3.04 Arsenate of lead (firstspray).| 1.94 | .0058 -82| 2.04 | .0060 -84] 2. 1.46 - 83 Other spray material........ | 3-81) SOLIS) | 2 2-161) 54.39))| 1 01300), 1-81.11 42 3.04 | 1.73 oF pe Sea | | ee gee ee 4 -12}| .0004 - 06 : 05 - 03 Cost of made-up box....-.-- 53. 26 1585 | 22.53 | 53.57 1585 | 22.13 | 53. 39.20 | 22.29 Total material cost...-| 72.16 | - 2148 | 30.53 | 73.55 . 2176 | 30. 38 | 72. 53.52 | 30.43 Interest charge...........-.-- 46.50 | .1384 | 19.67 | 50.91 - 1506 l 21.03 | 49. 36.01 | 20.48 Apple-building charge.....-.| 2.87 | .0085 | 1.21 | 3.13] .0093} 1.30 | Br z 1.27 Equipment charge._........ 4.24) .0126/ 1.79| 5.55] .0164|] 2.29) 4. 3 2.08 SHEver lite...) Seen een Alek nec alae ener -70| .0021 29) « s eli? 3 be hae ee ee ee es 5 4.94 .0147| 2.09 | 3.82 . 0113 eS) |e 1.79 eusarance:2 3: 2-28 cae oe -26 0008 All 28 0008 11 x -11 Waterrent. 22... 22 a 1.78 0053 75 -91 0027 38 | 1. -53 Total fixed cost...-..- | 60.59 | .1803 | 25.62 | 65.30 | .1932 | 26.98 | 63 1879 | 46.48 | 26.43 Total material and fixed costs.....--.---|132.75 | .3951 | 56.15 |138.85 | .4108 | 57.36 (136. 25 .4043 100.00 | 56.86 | | : The third largest item of material cost is the manure. For all orchards an average of 4.02 tons per acre is applied annually, at a material cost of $6.03 and a box charge of $0.0179. This makes up COST OF PRODUCTION OF APPLES, PAYETTE VALLEY, IDAHO. 33 4.43 per cent of the total material and fixed cost and 2.51 per cent of the total annual net cost. - The other item of material cost is the seed, which amounts to but $0.07 annual charge per acre over all orchards and $0.12 per acre for those under mulch-crop orchards. This charge is for alfalfa, blue- grass, or clover seed, which is sown only occasionally. Under fixed costs are included such items as interest on apple orchard, the apple-building charge, equipment (including spray-rig hire), taxes, insurance,and water rent. The fixed costs amount to $63.31 per acre annually, or $0.1879 per box. They make up 46.48 per cent of the material and fixed cost and 26.43 per cent of the total annual net cost of production. . The interest charge ($49.05 per acre, or $0.1456 per box) is larger than all other items combined, being 20.48 per cent of the annual net cost of production. The equipment charge is figured at the rate of 25 per cent annual charge on equipment investment. ‘The greatest item of equipment investment is the spray rig, which practically all growers own and on which there is ordinarily a large depreciation. The fact that the depreciation charge appears low is due to the fact that all equipment is figured at present value, while under the dis- cussion of spray rigs the depreciation and upkeep is figured on the original investment. The annual equipment charge per acre is $5.40, or $0.0160 per box, being 3.96 per cent of the total material and fixed cost, or 2.25 per cent of the total annual net cost of production. The spray rig makes up over 75 per cent of this annual equipment charge. The material cost in the case of Payette is about the same per box as found in other Northwest apple regions. However, in the case of the fixed cost there is a much lower charge per acre and per box than in most other Northwest regions, due to the fact that the average in- vestment in land is much lower. ‘The equipment charge in the Payette region is also somewhat less than in more intensive and specialized regions, for the farms are larger and the tools, with the exception of the spray rig, are used for many other purposes than for orchard operations. ; The total material and fixed cost, amounting to $0.4043 per box, of which 53.52 per cent is for material and 46.48 per cent for fixed cost, represents all costs other than labor. SUMMARY OF ALL COSTS CONSIDERED. When all items entering into the annual net cost of production of apples on the 38 farms studied are considered, there is found to be a cost of $0.7111 per box for all records, for clean-cultural orchards $0.7036, and for mulch-crop orchards $0.7162. It is thus found that 34 BULLETIN 636, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. it costs slightly over 1 cent more per box for the mulch-crop than for the clean-cultural orchards. This difference in cost is princi- pally due to the greater fixed costs on the mulch-crop orchards. It © will be seen from Table XVI that the percentage of the various costs — which go to make up the total cost is nearly the same in both kinds of records. Taste XVI.—Summary of all costs for 38 farms in Payette Valley, Idaho. ; : Clean-cultural manage-| Mulch-crop manage- | Combined manage- ment (16records; 336 ment (22records; 338 | ment (38 records:337 boxes per record). boxes per record). boxes per record). Item. Per Per Per Cost | Cost pent Cost | Cost ce Cost | Cost Ge : De DEE total | Pe yes Fotall | pose per | total acre. pox. aa acre. box. “ai acre. box. mie cost. cost. ? cost. Total net cost of labor previous tohandline!s22vere eter 2 $44.73 |30.1331 | 1&92 | $37.26 |$0.1102 | 15.39 | $40.38 |$0.1198 | 16.84 Total net cost of labor for hand- ° lings ese) eres 2s. ee et eS 58.93 - 1754 | 24.93 | 65.98 . 1952 | 27.25 | 63.02 - 1870 | 26.30 Total net cost of all labor...---.- 103. 66 3085 | 43.85 | 103.24 3054 | 42.64 | 103.40 3068 | 43.14 Total material cost .-.-.-.----..- 72.16 - 2148 | 30.53 | 73.55 -2176 | 30.38 | 72.94 - 2164 | 30.43 ROE AER CONCOS Use ete se tae ee 60.59 - 1803 | 25.62 | 65.30 - 1932 | 26.98 | 63.31 - 1879 | 26.43 Total material and fixed costs. ..| 132.75 - 3951 | 56.15 | 138.85 - 4108 | 57.36 | 136. 25 - 4043 | 56.86 SRO RAMMC COS soca mee seman 236. 41 . 7036 |100.00 | 242.09 . 7162 |100.00 | 239.65 -7111 |100.00 Total net cost on the tree....-..- 121.35 . 3612 | 51.33 | 119.41 .d0a2 | 49.32 | 120.20 | .3566 | 50.16 Total net cost of handling @..__.. 115. 06 - 3424 | 48.67 | 122.68 - 3630 | 50.68 | 119.45 -3545 | 49.84 a Includes total net cost of labor for handling, cost of made-up boxes, and apple-building charge. If the material and fixed costs are combined, the cost of the clean- cultural orchards is 56.15 per cent and of the mulch-crop 57.36 per cent of the total annual net cost of production. It is thus apparent that the cost of production varies but little under the two systems of management. Seventy-one cents per box may be considered a fair figure for the cost of production in Payette Valley under normal prices for labor and material. FACTORS AFFECTING THE ANNUAL COST OF PRODUCTION. — The principal factors which affect the cost are the same for Payette Valley as for all other apple regions studied thus far. The one which has the greatest effect upon the cost per box is the yield per acre. Table XVII serves to show the cost of production per acre and per box. Orchards having various yields are divided into 10 groups ranging from 122 to 572 boxes per acre in yield. The maintenance cost is found to remain practically the same per acre in the case of the high yields as in the case of the low, but the maintenance cost per box very materially decreases as the yield per acre increases. The hand- ling and material box costs are little influenced by the yield, while the fixed cost, although remaining much the same per acre, COST OF PRODUCTION OF APPLES, PAYETTE VALLEY, IDAHO. 35 decreases very rapidly per box as the yield increases. This is as might be expected, since these fixed costs refer to those annual charges which have little or nothing to do with the upkeep of the orchard or the harvesting of the fruit. Other factors affecting the cost are the size of the orchard, the system of orchard management practiced, the amount of credit de- rived from hay, wood, culls, ete. In the case of the smaller yields the grower actually lacks consid- erable of making any interest on his investment. For instance, with a yield of 122 boxes per acre, and assuming that the grower gets $0.80 for all grades of apples, which is much higher than he gets some years, he would lose 11.4 per cent on his investment in bearing apple orchard. However, with the yield of 221 boxes he makes 3.94 per cent, and with the yield of 331 he makes 8.84 per cent. For those orchards that yield 419. he makes 16.64 per cent, and for those that yield 572 he makes 38 per cent. This, it should be remem- bered, is on the basis of the grower receiving $0.80 f. o. b. for all ae of box apples. It should be stated in this connection that with the yield as nh as 572 boxes, as is sometimes the case in heavy crop years, there is often a smaller profit per box than in years when the crop is light. This is due to the fact that most orchards have a full crop the same year. Thus, when the crop is light, apples are scarce, and the price is comm nen inellp high. When thereis a heavy crop, apples are oe and often bring a very low price to the grower. TaBLe X VII.—Summary table showing effect of yield upon cost (38 records). ] Groups. Item. & | 150 boxes 151 to 200 201 to 250 251t0300 301t0 350 orless. | boxes. | boxes. | boxes. | boxes. | - = } } Average yields (packed boxes) ...........-..-------- 122 177 221 271 331 Total net maintenance cost per acre...........-....- $42.73 | $39.84 $39.72 $25.63 $55.85 Total net maintenance cost per box...............-- - 3002 - 2251 -1797 - 0946 - 1687 _ Total net handling cost per acre ...............--.--- 19.29 37.76 42.95 49.46 68.7. Total net handling cost per box ........-.- Beoreonnan - 1581 2133 | 1943 1825 2076 Mobalmetlabor COSti Per ACre =~ sa9 sees eee eee 62.02 77.60 | 82.6 75.09 124.57 Rotalmemlaborcostiper boxe ae) mee wes eennn nn EO . 5084 SEIS || = SERVER aera .3763 Mptalmisterial costs meres . 0: Sewers 2 ees nee cee o- | 47.51 44.84 | 49.48 64.93 85.62 ponaWrixedlcost cc meme sete onsale ee eee ease | 75.74 o119 | 52572 59. 54 48.70 Total material and fixed cost per acre..-----.......- 123.25 96.03 102.20 +) 124.47 134.32 Total material and fixed cost per box...-....-...---- 1.0102 - 5425 | -4624 | - 4593 - 4058 Totalnet cost per acre............-..---------.------ | 185.27 | 173.63 | 184.87 | 199.56 | 258.89 Motalmeticost per DOxece ss. eeees. oo ose ect 1.5186 | -9810 | 8365 - 7364 - 7821 | } iw ll -_ "_ 36 BULLETIN 636, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tape XVII.—Summary table showing effect of yield upon cost (38 rccords)—Contd. — Groups. Item. | 351 to 400 | 401 to 450 | 451 to 500 | 501 to 550 | 551 to 60u boxes. boxes. | boxes. boxes. boxes. "Average yields (packed boxes) ......-...---2---22--+ 380 419 494. 539 572 Total net maintenance cost per acre....-.---.-----.- $43.25 $35.36 $34.80 $57.49 $45.09 Total net maintenance cost per box..-..--.......-.- - 1138 -0844 |. 0704 - 1067 -0788 Total net handling cost per acre .............--.--.-- 64.71 86.12 75.78 110.21 83.70 Rotal net Handline cost per Ox. ya. eee eee - 1703 - 2055 . 1534 - 2045 -1551 Motalnet laboricosh peracke=5- = pees eas eee sn eee 107.96 121.48 110.58 167.71 133.79 Total net labor cost per box: =. °..22 2-222 -2-2222--- - 2841 - 2899 2238 -3111 . 2339 Motalimtaterial caste. ysssteee eee PEE. See: eee 75.48 82.61 102.40 105.39 114.83 Roba fixed) COSE 2. a sass =e se ans ea eee 83. 58 74.16 57.01 82.35 59.73 Total material and fixed cost per acre...--.-..-_.... 159.06 156.77 159.41 187.74 174.56 Total material and fixed cost per box......-.----.-.- - 4186 - 3742 - 3227 - 3483 - 3052 Potalmeti cost pen acres... 2 see asa ae ae eee aoe 267.02 278.25 269.99 355. 44 308.35 Tolalmeticosp per box. 2233.25 005 Ses. hee hee - 1027 - 6641 - 5465 _ +6594 - 5391 The material and fixed charges, which make up all costs other than the labor costs, amount to $136.25 per acre, or $0.4043 per box. Material and fixed costs make up 56.86 per cent of the total annual net cost of production, which is $0.7111 per box. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY BULLETIN No. 637 3 Office of the Secretary Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv ; : January 14, 1918 A METHOD OF CALCULATING ECONOMICAL BAL- ANCED RATIONS. By J. C. Runpiss, Scientific Assistant. CONTENTS. Page. Page New method of balancing rations............ 2) |) How, tojusePablet Ves eases sence be. ae 12 How to use Tables I and II.._.....-......... 7 | Relative value of carbohydrate feeds when the Table of equivalent prices.....-- eh eee a 7 cheapest available feed is nitrogenous . ..-- 13 ow touse: LablewiL+ . s3996....-. 25539285 Spt Hows tomseeha blowVi-cesssss- ee eer eee ace 16 melative value of feeds... 92-2. .2- 2.2 sb 2 yi MeslOyyaanoy bis) UML) Wlees be ec cooos seaceocecon 17 Relative value of protein feeds........-...-- 8 Economy in feeding is of prime importance to the feeder. It in- volves judgment in the selection of feeds as well as skill in the mixing of rations. The feeder may know that he needs a concentrate rich in carbohydrates or one rich in protein, yet be at a loss to determine the cheapest form of the desired concentrate to buy. Again, he may have certain feeds available and be unable to determine the most economical proportion in which they should be fed to give a ration of a desired nutritive ratio. This bulletin suggests ways in which these problems may be solved by fixed rule as they arise. It is, of course, generally understood among students of nutrition that protein, carbohydrate, and fat content of a feeding stuff is not the only factor affecting its feed value. Proteins differ in their nutritive qualities, while some substances not included in the classes above mentioned are necessary to the proper maintenance of the bodily functions. The palatability and succulence of a feeding stuff has much to do with its value as a feed. Many feeding stuffs have physiological effects entirely apart from their nutritive qualities. Again, a ration may be perfectly balanced from the standpoint of relative content of protein and energy producers, and yet be quite impracticable because too bulky or too concentrated. It is there- ore understood that any consideration of a feeding stuff or a ration 18026°—18—Bull. 637 —1 } 2 BULLETIN 637, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. based only on chemical composition is to be taken merely as a guide, to be followed in the light of all the knowledge obtainable about animal nutrition. NEW METHOD OF BALANCING RATIONS. The method of balancing rations commonly used might well be called the “‘Cut and Try Method.” It is faulty for the reason that it usually necessitates several trials to secure the desired result. By using the method described in these pages, balancing a ration is a simple matter of multiplication and division. Table I gives the excess protein per pound for different protein feeds when used in rations of various nutritive ratios. To illustrate: A hundred pounds of dried brewer’s grains contains 21.5 pounds digestible protein and 44.2 pounds digestible carbohydrates. A ration with a nutritive ratio of 1:4, requires only 11.05 pounds pro- tein to balance 44.2 pounds of carbohydrates. Hence, in such a ration, 100 pounds of this feed contains 21.5—11.05, or 10.45 pounds of excess protein. The excess protein in a single pound is thus 0.1045 pound. (See Table I, column headed “Ratio 1 to 4,” oppo- site brewer’s grains, dried.) In rations having wider ratios the excess protein is proportionally greater. Some of the figures in Table I are printed in italics. These repre- sent deficiency instead of excess in protein. Thus, in a ration of ratio 1:4, a pound of rye is deficient in protein by 0.0798 pound, while in a ration of ratio 1:10, it has an excess of protein amounting to 0.0279 pound. In like manner Table Ii shows the protein deficiency per pound for various carbohydrate feeds as compared with rations of specified nutritive ratios. The italic figures in this table represent excess protein. Thus, in a ration of ratio 1:4, a pound of buckwheat is — deficient in protein by 0.0572 pound, while in a ration with ratio 1:10 it has an excess of 0.0257 pound of protein. : 1 The tables used in this bulletin are based upon Table III, Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constit- uents, in Henry’s ‘‘Feeds and Feeding.”” It was necessary to include the digestible fat, with its equivalent fuel value (21 xcarbohydrate) with the carbohydrate in order to prepare the tables. In proposing a mathe- matical method for balancing rations different from the one commonly employed, the same assumptions ~ are made as in the case of the usual method, viz, that fats have two and one-fourth times the feeding © value of the carbohydrates and that a pound of carbohydrates or protein has a Uniform value whateverits — source. The latter assumption is, of course, not strictly true. Proteins differ somewhat in their nutri-— tive value, and sugars have nutritive and physiological effects somewhat different from those of starches. — Nevertheless, the assumption of the-equality of value of these nutritive elements in various feed stufis introduces a no greater source of error in the method proposed in this bulletin than in the usual method of balancing rations. The method of balancing rations described in this bulletin is based on the principle (alligation) proposed by Prof. J. T. Willard in Kansas Experiment Station Bulletin 115, but the method of applying this — principle is different, and is believed to be simpler and more convenient, especially when several feeding * stufis are to be used in the ration. | CALCULATING ECONOMICAL BALANCED RATIONS. 3 Taste I.—The amount of excess protein per pound of given protein feeds when used in rations with the following speevfied nutritive ratios. Digestible— Pro-| Car- |Nutri- - : : A : : : = = : Ratio] Ratio} Ratio| Ratio| Ratio} Ratio! Ratio Protein feeds. tein, | bohy- | tive per | drate, |ratio 1. 1to4.|1t05.|1to06.|1to07.| 1to8.|1to09.|1 to 10 100 | per 100 Ibs. | pounds feed. | feed.t I. Concentrates: Brewers’ grains, dried........-..-- 21.5 44,2} 2.1 |0.1045)0. 1266)0. 1413/0. 1519)0. 1597|0. 1659)0. 1708 Cottonseed meal, choice....---- 37.0 41.2} 1.1 | . 2670) . 2876) .3013) .3111) .3185) .3242) .3288 Cottonseed meal, good......------ 31.6 43.2) 1.4 | . 2080) . 2296) . 2440} . 2543] . 2620) . 2680) . 2728 Cowpearseed==.2 5-25... see eet les 19. 4 57.0) 2.9 | .0515] .080 | .099 | .1126) .1227) . 1307) .1370 — Distillers’ grains, dry, corn.-..--- 22.4 66.5] 3.0 | .0578} .091 | .1132} .1290) . 1409] . 1501) . 1575 Distillers’ grains, dry, rye-.-.---- 13. 6 52.8] 3.9 | .004 | .0304] .088 | .0606/ .07 | .0773) .0832 Driedsploods sess... seem aeees 69.1 2.0 - 03} . 6360} . 6870] . 6876] . 6881] . 6885] . 6888} . 6890 Fish meal, high in fat........---- 37.8 26.1 .7 | .3128| .3258] .3345] .3407| .3454] .3490) .3519 Fish meal, low in fat... 40.9 5.0 .1 | .3965] .3990} . 4007} . 4019] . 4028) . 4034) . 4040 Germ oil meal, (H. G.) 16.5 GEO! aébO laasses - 033 | .055 | .0707} .0825] .0917} .099 Gilutenifeedi CEG?) eee. 21.6 59.1} 2.7 | .0682} .0978) .1175} .1316) .1421) .1503) . 1569 Giitenifeedi@anG.)- -eeeenseo-- i511 68.6} 4.5 | .0205| .0118} .0367| .053 | .0653) .0748) .0824 Linseed meal (N. P.).-..--.------ Bile 7 44,2) 1.4 | .2065) .2286) . 2433) . 2539] .2617| . 2679] . 2728 Linseed meal (O. P.).....-.-.---- 30. 2 47.7| 1.6 | .1828] . 2066) . 2225) . 2339} . 2424] . 2490) . 2543 Malis prOMUSH aes. - Sees ec 20.3 50.3] 2.5 | .0772) .1024) .1192) .1311| .1401) .1471) .1527 Meat and bone meal, 30-40 per Cenashesecan.... Awe t es 37.0 24.8 o@ | .8080} .3204| .3286) .3346) .3390) .3424) .3452 Meat and bone meal, over 40 per Combashives Saks 5. eee eece ees 30.9 22.1 .7 | . 2538] . 2648] . 2722) .2774| . 2814! .2844| . 2869 Peanuts with hulls....-.-....-.-- 18.4 88.7| 4.8 | .0378] .0066] .0362} .0573] .0731! .0854| .0953 Peanut cake from hulled nuts...-| 42.8 36. 6 -9 | .3365| .3548} .3670) .3757] .3823) .3873] .3914 VC ee ae ee te) | FN | ea 9.8 71.1) 7.2 | .0798) .0442| .0200| .0036| .01 | .02 | .0279 Ryemiddlings- 2... 428220..8 12.6 62.5} 5.0 | .0302] .001 | .0218} .0367| .0479) .0565) .0635 Soy-bean seed........-.-.--+----- 30. 7) 55.2} 1.8 | .1690] . 1966] . 2150} . 2281) . 2380) . 2457) . 2518 Tankage, 55-60 per cent...-..-.-- 54.0 28. 6 .5 | .4685] . 4828] . 4923] . 4991) . 5042) . 5082) .5112 Tankage, 45-55 per cent.-.--.---- 48.0 30.8 .6 | . 4030] . 4184] . 4287] . 4360) . 4415) . 4458) . 4492 Tankage, below 45 per cent ash. 37.6 37.6} 1.0 | . 2820} .3008) .3133} . 3223] .3290) .3342] .3384 Velvet-bean seed.....-....------- 18.1 62.7| 3.5 | .0242| .0556} .0765} .0914! . 1026) . 1113} . 1183 Wheat flour middlings.........-- 15.7 62.5} 4.0 | .0008) .032 | .0529| .0677| .0789) .0875| .0945 Wheat bran, winter......-.-.---- 12. 2 47.4) 3.9 | .0035) .0272) .043 | .0543] .0627] . 0693] .0746 Wheat shorts, standard, wheat md dlingsees Wes 5k Se 13.4 55.9] 4.2 | .0058) .0222) .041 | .0541] .0641] .0719} .0781 II. Roughage: VA tal fal siyeas ie 2.5. Smee ace 10. 6 41.0) 3.9 | .0035) .024 | .0376) .0474| .0547) . 0604). .065 VAlfalfanmeal® = 2255 eects. Sek 10. 2 40.5) 4.0 | .0008) .021 | .0345) .0441} .0514| .057 | .0615 Clover hay, alsike, allanalyses....| 7.9 39.4] 5.0 | .0195| .0002| .0133} .0227] .0298) . 0352] .0396 Clover hay, crimson......---.-.-- 9.7 39.0} 4.0 | .0005) .019 | .032 | .0413| .0482] .0537| .058 Clover hay, red, all analyses...-..- 7.6 43.3] 5.7 | .0322) .0106) .0038} .0141} .0219) .0279| .0327 Clover hay, sweet, yellow......-- 10.0) © 37.0} 3.7 | .0075) .026 | .0383} .0471) .0538) . 0588) .063 Clover hay, sweet, white. -..--.-- 10.9 39.8} 3.7] .0095) .0294) .0427) .0521| . 0592) .0648) . 0692 Cowpea hay, all analyses......--- 13.1 35.9] 2.7 | .0412) .0592| .0712) .0797| . 0861) .0911) .0951 Molasses alfalfa feeds. ......-.---- 8.5 42.1} 5.0} .0202) .0008| .0148] .0249} .0324) .0382) .0429 Peanut-vine hay with shells... .-.- 9.6 58.3} 6.1 | .0498) .0206) .0012| .0127| .0231| .0312| .0377 Peas and oat hay...2.:...-2:.---: 8.3 40.5) 4.9 | .0182| .002 | .0155) .0251) .0324] .038 | .0425 Skim milk, centrifugal........... 3.6 5.5] 1.5 | .0223] .025 | .0268) .0281| .0291) .0299] .0305 poy beanphay «js! Wael eta.) Gee 11.7 41.9} 3.6] .0122) .0332) .0471| .0571| .0646) .0704) .0751 Welvetibeanthay. nae 2 aes 12.0 43.5) 3.6 | .0112) .033_| .0475] .0579| .0656] .0717| .0765 \WASurfela\ oY) 50 es mele, 0 RO Ae 11.6 46-4) t= 450) | Rese oe - 0232} . 0387] .0497| .058 | .0644| . 0696 1 The carbohydrate includes the fat with its usual fuel value (2} times carbohydrate in Tables V Paneer Table III, Digestible nutrients and fertilizing constituents, Henry’s “‘Feeds and The use of Tables I and II in balancing rations is illustrated in the following examples: 1. How much cottonseed meal is required to balance a dairy ration consisting of 30 pounds corn silage, 10 pounds alfalfa hay, and 3 pounds corn meal, giving a nutritive ratio of 1:6? {if ni) 4 BULLETIN 637, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - Solution: Protein. Excess. | Deficiency. 30 pounds corn silage 10 pounds alfalfa hay So POLNGSeOrni Meal 57-2 2c hee 2 aaa See Eee eee = - eee eae ae ee eee = ee Subtracting =. secs s.- oo 223s sees ss ocee esses scee co besece eee eae ee 1 pound cottonseed meal, excess....-.-.-.--- fone nec e eee eee ee ee .3013 | - 3026 ‘Posnds rotlonseed imealrequired:. 225 52 ac: Soe sea asetes --2 22st 1.9] 42.6) 22.4). Millets German -c5s\33 22st Se 4.8) 53.5) 11.1 Molasses-alfalfa feeds. ......--.---- 8.5) 42.1 5.0 Ont Tiyan Sa eee 4.5] 41.9] 9.3 és ee sue S. jag wea lhe 1.0 Poa ae 6 orghum an a ee CII Te -9 . O} Sorghum dry fodder.........-...-- 2.8) 49.3; 17.6). Sweet sorghum, green........-.-.- of) 15.5) 22.1 Sweet-corn fodder... -.| 5.9} 50. 8.6 Soy beans and corn. .............- 1.7] 15.0) 88 Timothy hay, all analyses..-...-.- 3.0} 45.5) 15.2 Timothy and clover.---.....--..-- 4.0) 42.2) 10.6). Wiest hay Seas 2eess 225 4.0} 50.3) 12.6). Miheat strawee.25-veeersiece- <2 522 27| 36.2) 51.7]. CALCULATING ECONOMICAL BALANCED RATIONS. 5 The excess or deficiency in protein of each feeding stuff in the above example is found first for one pound, in Table I or II, in the column headed “Ratio 1 to 6.’ The figures given in the table are then multiplied by the number of pounds of the respective feeding stuffs in the ration. Thus, in a ration with a 1:6 ratio, a pound of corn silage is deficient in protein to the extent of 0.0167 pound. (See Table II, column headed “ Ratio 1 to 6,” line beginning “Corn silage, well matured.) There being 30 pounds of silage, the total protein deficiency in silage is 0.0167 X30=0.5010 pound. Subtracting the excess protein in 10 pounds of alfalfa (0.376 pound), the net deficit of protein is found to be 0.3026 pound. Dividing this by the excess protein in one pound of cottonseed meal, which is 0.3013 pound, we find that it takes almost 1 pound of the latter to balance the ration toa 1 to 6 ratio. After adding this pound of cottonseed meal, the balanced ration stands as follows: Protein. Excess. | Deficiency. 30 pounds corn silage. ....--.---- a Scie BE ae 2 STR ER Se eee ee Ee ee RPS. SAIS ee eee ees 0. 5010 HOlpoundsralialiaylisiy.. Rees... See mene oh aacice ccieiseeie ese eee sisisnase eine se OFS (607 | See -seeaee SyPOUndsicoEym call.) Bees = 2 eee eee eee: = sass tae fe aE ee ese etal) ais niece eee ee .1776 isp oundkcoptonseetom cally ois.52- eseieee anaes Sees Seine erie ces eeee ee ac Be Sees cdaee 6773 . 6786 Sometimes it may be desirable to balance a ration, not simply by adding a protein feeding stuff, but by substituting it for one less rich in protemm. Suppose, for instance, that we desire to substitute enough cottonseed meal for corn meal in the above ration to make the nutritive ratio 1to6. In this case the ration is worked out as follows: Protein. Excess. | Deficiency. BO pOUTASICORN sila geMerw 2 4s ame ae sib oa ae sas ce ye Be eee eee og scaee eee 0. 5010 lO;pouTIGSialfalita: hava 5-5 Sis sashes sas 94 oa een ae eee ee ck SOLSTGOEME Ss solace SAP OUNASICOPM Meal setae s)- inion ec wiclele einiete ate ain oslo sain ie He Se PER ee eee erence ec = ae . 1776 3760 . 6786 ae . 3760 INeftideficien cyamers ss 9... pce aes SSS eng he bes 3s Saar eee ee eee sae bess Se . 3026 Taking out 1 pound corn meal reduces deficiency..............-.----------- 0. 0592 Adding | pound cottonseed meal reduces deficiency.--....-..-----.--------- . 3013 Total reduction per pound substituted........--.-.-----...ceeeeeeeee- . 3605 Pounds to be substituted, 0. 3026-0. 3605=0.84. Corn meal remaining after substitution, 3.00—0.84=2.16. e \4 6 BULLETIN 637, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The resulting ration is therefore: Protein. Deficiency. Excess. sO poundsicornisilages:e) f £30: b. . Reps oss. gad bose t. 25 lds eee 22 lee Sees eae S HOTpound stalfalia Nayar sos. oc ener oh se 9 een eae oe eemee <4 aa 3/60) |. = eee 2416 pounds corm mealtes x. cp prsse 2) -cpia)- =. 73. 22 5--B sep tgs to ester ess tee | ea as beeen noe 3 O84 ponnd coutonseed aneal =e = sore. - a= aetiale ais = See) ee ae ree I= =e ae 22031" |- . 2-2-2 2. When a ratio of 1: 6 is desired, how much alfalfa meal is required — to balance a dairy ration of 35 pounds corn silage, 4 pounds corn meal, and 2 pounds cottonseed meal ? Solution: Protein. Excess. Deficiency. SI UHaGS COOW SUAZEL: be ceo yo kan ase on RO Eee ae eet eee. 0. 5845 PESTES CORRES CESS (CO) GIA TUS A a | - 2368 — PA POHNGS COULOHSCEO MEAL = secre = ae =e ame ae ene eee ae ee eae eee 056026) |/25- === see 6026 8213 excess profemm |) pound alfalfa meal == - 5s. -= -eece 2 520 cee ee |e eee 0.0345) . 2187 Pounds alfalfa meal required.--......-.--.---- eee oa a0-| See: = ote 6.3 | 3. In aration for hogs it is desired to feed alfalfa meal and tankage in equal parts along with sufficient corn meal to give a nutritive ratio of 1 to 7. In what proportion should the feeding stuffs be mixed? - Solution: Protein excess, _ Hl poutidatankacGee esse. cos sesrodosons Shee des ee. 0.4991 Hip One bilial fame eer mee aaa ae ae eae ee ee ee a eee: 2 = = ee - 0441 ispound cornmeal ; deficiency- 2. 225 2528052 tsp sae a= aes: - eee 0.0409) . 5432 Pounds cormancal required: 022245. 22s a8 2 Seosiig ts se dees oe eae eee = = See 13.3 The proportion in which to mix the feeds is, therefore, tankage 1 pound, alfalfa meal 1 pound, and corn meal 13.3 pounds. | 4. In order to secure a beef-feeding ration with a ratio 1 to 8, how much good cottonseed meal should be added to a ration con-— sisting of corn silage 21 pounds, shelled corn 14 pounds, corn, oat, barley feed 3 pounds, and alfalfa hay 3 pounds? . CALCULATING ECONOMICAL BALANCED RATIONS. a Solution: Protein. Excess. Deficiency. 21 pounds corn silage...............- CAN fatetetaicls 2.5 dS SESE aE eee ie Sele Ie lall Sietziajelerstenvere 0. 2058 lspoundsshelledicorn: | - . 25 9Fss ss ee eee see a= 2s Sead sone ene eaeee eee | oicisie le seetioe 3794 spoundsicormjoat, barley feediassss) ose 0 hs - 2-2 ase ss o-b ac aaee eens ee een oee OS014 eae. , eee ses 3 pounds alfalfa hay se « AMM See oh et Se comes ot Ae ee en eee ne PAGEL. =. Wieeeeene 1788 - 5852 Maite ae lene 1788 ipound\cottonseedsmeal excessthae ie see eeee = sees see se eee eee | eeieeesee ras 0.2620) .4064 iPoundsicottonseed mealirequired see - 2. - = 42) S26 = se eee eee eee bos aee ee eee 1555 HOW TO USE TABLES I AND II. Given the desired nutritive ratio and a ration, or certain feeds in bulk to balance, proceed as follows: (a) Turn to Table II. In the column representing the nutritive ratio desired find the protein deficiency for 1 pound of each of the carbohydrate feeds that are to be fed. (b) For each feed multiply the protein deficiency per pound by the total quantity of that feed, add the products, and the sum is the digestible protein deficiency, or quantity required to balance the carbohydrate feeds. (c) Turn to Table I. Note the amount of excess protein in 1 pound of each of the protein feeds to be fed given opposite the names of the feeds in the column representing the desired nutritive ratio. (dq) For each feed multiply the excess protein per pound by the total quantity of that feed, disregarding the one to be used for balancing the ration, and the sum of the products represents the tonal protein excess in the nitrogenous part of the feed or ration. (e) Subtract the total amount of excess digestible protein furnished by the known quantity of the protein feeds from the total amount of protein required by the carbohydrate feeds and divide the differ- ence by the excess amount of digestible protein furnished in 1 pound of the protei feed used for balancing the same. TABLE OF EQUIVALENT PRICES. It is often desirable in this connection to know what prices per bushel of grain correspond to hundred-weight values, and vice versa. For that reason Table III has been prepared. 8 BULLETIN 637, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE Til.— Various values of grain per bushel and corresponding values per 100 pounds. Value per 100 pounds. el. uck- Corn, Corn on Wheat | Rye. Oats Barley Se shelled. Paty: Potatoes. 7)" ae apes ore er ae $0. 62!) soe cable. 2. oat ee aae = - «Se ec ie ee [61i) | Ee ES re (04) | ote soe. eee [occ BW dies: sce AU | ee 5 ater |e 1.25 $0. 83 $0: S3Eco ry. Se. eee $0. 67 55a he $0. 89 1.56 1.04 1.04 $0. 89 $0. 73 83 . 60 $1. 00 1.07 1. 87 1.25 1.25 | 1.67 . 88 1.00 -70 1.17 1.25 2.19 1. 46 1.46 | 1.25 1.03 1.17 80 1.33 1.43 2.50 1.67 1.67 1.43 1.18 1.33 90 1.50 1.61 2.81 1. 87 1.87 1.61 1.32 1.50 1.00 1.67 1.7 3.12 2.08 2.08 | 1.79 1.47 1.67 1.10 1. 83 1.96 3.44 2.29 2.29 1.96 1.62 1.83 1. 20 2.00 2.14 375 2.50 2.50 2.14 1.76 2.00 1.30 2.17 2.32 4.06 2.71 2.71 2.32 1.91 2.17 1.40 2.33 2.50 4.37 2.92 2.92 2.50 2.06 2.33 1.50 2. 50 2.68 4.69 3.12 3.12 2. 68 2.21 2.50 1.60 2. 67 2. 86 5. 00 3.33 3.33 2. 86 2.35 2. 67 1.70 2.83 3.04 5.31 3.54 3.54 3. 04 2.50 2. 83 1. 80 3.00 3.21 5. 62 3.75 | 3.75 3.21 2.65 3.00 1.90 3.17 3.39 5.94 3.96 3.96 3.39 2.79 3.17 2.00 3.33 3.57 6.25 4.17 4.17 3.57 2.94 3.33 2.10 3.50 3.75 6.56 4.37 4.37 3.75 3.09 3.50 2. 20 3.67 3.93 6. 87 4.58 | 4,58 3.93 3.24 3.67 2.30 3.83 4.11 7.19 4.79 + 4.79 4.11 3.38 3. 83 2. 40 4.00 4,29 | 7.50 5.00 5.00 4.29 3.53 4.00 2. 50 4.17 4. 46 | 7. 81 5.21 5.21 4. 46 3. 68 4.17 Bushels Der | | 100 pounds 1. 667 1. 786 3.125 2. 083 2. 083 1. 786 |” 1.471 1. 667 Bushels per | | | ton O33 355 | 624 413 413 35% | 29%, 334 HOW TO USE TABLE III. The use of Table III can be well illustrated by examples. Given $2.50 as the value of 100 pounds of barley, what is the corresponding value per bushel? Look for $2.50 in column headed ‘‘ Value per 100 pounds, barley.’”” Opposite this value in column “‘ Value per bushel” is given the corresponding value of barley per bushel, which is $1.20. - RELATIVE VALUE OF FEEDS. The selling price of a feed is not a reliable guide to its relative — feeding value. The carbohydrate feeds (corn, oats, barley, kafir, and various others) and the protein feeds (cotton-seed meal, tank- age, and brewers’ grains) are found on the market at various prices. The feeder wants to know, with certain given prices, ‘‘What is the cheapest feed to buy—what is the true value of a bushel of oats, rye, or barley for feed when corn is worth 80 cents a bushel, or what is the value of a ton of brewers’ grains, linseed meal, or bran when cotton-seed meal is worth $30 per ton and corn a dollar a bushel?” In the following pages there are presented tables, by the use of which ~ these questions can be answered. RELATIVE VALUE OF PROTEIN FEEDS. In localities in which the cheapest and most available feeding ~ stuffs are deficient in protein and where, in consequence, it is neces- sary to buy nitrogenous concentrates as a means of balancing the ration, the feeder’s problem is to obtain the needed protein with the smallest possible outlay of money. The method here outlined shows how this may be done. . a hs as ee he oe ee Tee 89T OOT 892 SIT ‘Tt 96°62 | 28°82 | 94°02 | 9F°GT | SL°ST | 28°91 | 8S°ST | G2°FE | 86°eT | 89 ‘IT | 68°01 [°° "~~~ ““SSUTTPPTUL yeoyM Paepteys ‘108 yeoulM, 6ST. G8 PFS 876 A EGR lO Pee Mee Peco | Laer Poe Pt RE es ee Ae desaonece Jo}UIA ‘meAq Yeo AA. 206 rag PIs ocz‘t || zo-es | er'9% | Toe | 22°12 | Ze0S | 98ST | Sh'ZT | 26°ST | TS pr | OO-EL | LO TL -* SSUT[PPIUL MOG VoL, 67% SIL 9S sez‘ ll gies | Teo | [eee | eente | 6e102 | cost |Or 20 |.€0i0r |S pr | OL CL 9|OL VE |" o Seeese. 2 ester eeeeeer eel e us dot eee IES G89 19 CSL, oo OFT GUC. \-26c80e | OST ecccIae GRrIIes| SPOT | TOG. S278) | O842 = aNCGi0s aii re em bagless tue Jod Gf Moog ‘oseyuey, uw «206. Gg 396 | 9T9 Of FE | 28°2E | PPI | G4°0r | TOOT | 626 | 6S°8 | 482 | Sts USO) Seg oeeeees pee er **-"77** "41100 Jad g-Gp ‘oseyUe I, i 6c0'T | Ts 080‘L | 29. 82'SI | 96°1T | Z9°0L | 966 | 086 | £98 | 462 ESS #9°9 | 86°S 1g °g ~-s-7=""="a1790 rod 09-G¢ ‘asvyURy, So fis 66 P19 FOL‘T || g9:se | 20'e2 | OS0c | Se°6r | G6°2ZE | 99°9L | GEST | TEFL | G8°CT | HIE | 9OOT PO. rotet sss =ss"n99g ueaq-Aog = OFT raul 69 ocz‘t || zo: | et:9¢ | 12:e% | 22'Te | Ze0% | 98ST | SP°ZE | 26ST | TSPE | QOET | COTE PO toccrtssess= -SsuTTpprIUl oA HE 062 99 948 Cah oo'zr | ofet | T9o°et | Gz'et | OBTT | FOIE | ToOr | G86 | 098 |G92 | 189 | "75>" "sqnu perny TTA ‘oxvo ynuURog << 602 6ST 89 FLL‘T ll 6tip | g0:2e | s6°ce | 060g | ¢g'9z | 22°92 | 29°FS | 49°0@ | 6S°0T | SFBt | OGOT | ">> sy WyIM ‘synMREg PG OF 819 (ang 92°0L | #26 | 12'8 6U'L. | 29:9. | org |so¢ |ete | 9° | Ib |-777-~"Use yuo Jed Op 10A0 “Teour ouog Pue yeoyy Q 969 bP OrL 96P 6G IE | 28°OT | 12°6 90°8 | 82 1G) — WSO) OAS SIO ip ““""yse 7100 ted Op-0E ‘Teo auog pus vo, OTe 06 90P 900‘T || 98°% | €O'TS | 89°ST 92°91 | 8L°ST | ZO'PE | 98°C | SOIL | IS'OT | S86 | BMD SSG OCR OO IOS OSS eC STM ON GIS TTI Sait 98 +09 P96 GL°3o | PG°6L | C221 1S‘SE | OP PE | OS'EE | 6E'sE | OIL | 2466 |988 | Se essa == (ee -()) [G0Ul poesuiay iw «ase 6L £69 88 69°06 | SPSL | Gr9L Pearl le Peach weCerCl a OG lle |.9G Ol mln PClOWaleLGpGnoe |i teense eae eee eee “so **(*F ht) [BOUL PoosurT < 641 1 60 GLE‘T || 98'TS | 89°8S | 8h°s% Tee | 02:06 | 2t°6r | G°240 | S6°ST | pe PL | G2:ch | eee Se ross") ‘7 ) Pooy WO}NTH -) 988 901 aay ZBI ‘I |] GP26 | 144s | G61S | 69°0S | GET | PS AT | 8h 'OT (EH eB BERGHE ASW pe pa Sean "(4D “H) pooy ton) a 6ié SIL O€s Oze‘T |] 99°08 | 6G"2e | PS°7Z | 00'S | OPTS | G6°OT | OP'ST | 48°OT | GEST GUSTS RO CeCe |e gees -() *HL) Teout [10 wie ps9 Ist 00% ocr‘ || tgee | epoe | 202% | 989% | 29°e2 | 261% | 0€°0G | 19ST | OGOL | 2ST | ESE fT “77> = >= (*4) *7) [BOUL [IO WI0y) 808 OL 8s 001 oes «=| 60'S «| «O8'T LT 69 'T IGT | 68 | Ser | OL Tt yO'T | §6° ei a OE -"-"==98t OT MOT ‘[VOUL Sip | aw z uy Se es a BL | 16°01 ae CO Oye fae 8o°L Hee GOSOT Ae GPaGe IRS apie alias cee eee es "7 "" "Qe UL UST ‘[RouUl YS 8 6 PS” Ze ya? : 9" 9g" ¢ OP Gh pie cter ot |pcee ese Cee g aes -"="="=Ho00[q Port Oo ALT G6 (aK gc0'T || Go°FS | 20°%S | COG | 6"ST | AT AT | €6 A Peek AL MBDA WYS CAL SO STN = NSO, alee Se oAa ‘Aap ‘sureas ena S 628 611 SP O86'T |] 880 | 08-22 | B4-Fe | ATES | E91 | 40°06 Ae OO ee OBS || CBA [mete Eoenaes w100 ‘Arp ‘surVis S1OT[YSIG, BS 982 201 888 OFT ‘T || zp9z | ees | 201% | 98°6E | PSST | OS'AL | 68ST | 249°PL | oe | T61L | O'OT | Rca este ser mseresses=" 995 vod MO) paG 82 ZE9 p98 90°06 |-90°8T GOrst | GOL | pO'Sk | POSE | FOIE | €O0T | S06 | 08 | s---777>>= = No008 ‘Teo Poosu0}40) A 999 pL OFL 28 PL'GE | @o°21 cept | Opcet | ep:2t | GrIt | e701 | 2976 | 19° | 99°% |.772112 2717122717 0To dd “Tour poosu0y}0) 3 19& 61 Ok PSS 402% | SPSS | ZF°9TS | OF STS | ZE°FTS | PE"SIS | TESTS | OF TIS | 9Z°OTS | HOGS | Tose P wot tsssesessses == DOMp ‘SUIBId SIOMOIG 2° Spooj WI9j0.1d oVeIyMOOTOD “[ %! wh “aojoad pouor10doid pur soyeapAtog.rvo Jo SyUNOUTR IVT TUATS SuTaTeyW0d W109 Jo ‘104 10d ‘sonpeA A ; ne ite. = 3 5 wesseerrirrsree"*| Sek | 889° |] TAGe | VE'ce | 89°82 | 61°9% | 00'se | Te ‘ez | ep-tz | oer | 98°2E | 20°9T | 6a°PE 7°77 **7*STousnq 4¢¢ ‘patfoys “409 Jod 100 Jo onTeA _; | 00'T& | 06:08 | Og0% | Gz4:0$ | O2°0% | G9°0$ | 090% | GOS | OF'OS | GPO | OPO |” popoys ‘Toysnq tod w109 Jo onjeA =) * PB —_— ee SS a a ee er A 4 : “mon | OFCtP es) <4 woqord) ort | Aa oe © —-moqord al ts ~0q18O : | SSOOX TT yeuor} % -10d01d | —ojqnso8rp 2 eS 1109 ted spunog eet Sea a re ees ee SS ‘spaof urajoud ayy ur urajoud aqusabip fo punod auo fo 4809 aaignjas ay? aupulajzap OJ, — AT STA, L, —— ‘ wae 7s — T * — : «SUPPORT PUB SPoKT,, SAIMORL “S}UON|T}SUOS TuyZq[1}.A0J PUG squOPyNT o[q{SostC, "TEE Olde LoOMOIOJOY_ “A PUT AT SOTAURL OSTAOP 0} Jopso uy ‘SoPBAPAYOG.Vd OY} WITA (oPeAPAYOCAV souyy £Z) ONIVA JUOTBATMHo [VNsN S}T WIA yey OT} OPNpOUT 07 Aressooou svar 4[—"ALON, ET Tw GFT £8 GEG 826 cole | OF 61 LT OT 60 °ST 00° PE P6°@T 98°11 LL°-OT =| 04°6 &9'8 ce eee ee eee ae ee EBSA TT OO Al GOT 82 OS OL8 0G'0%@ | 8I-8T GT ST GLbt OLISL Lal GL IT OTOL | 60°6 80°8 Ss |. ee ake es == LUI UWBO-}OATOA 69ST GZ PES SER 9) 6L 69 LT. O09 PT SO°ST | GOO 89°TT TL01 82-6 9L°8 622 Ee: Ce BU uvoq-Aog 29 Or ra OUT 99°% | 62'S rai! } 9971 Tia en RG ee (CNC Lee | AO ess TRANG UOO [PUL UES 16 1@ SP OG 49.19 STP 69's 10° 6L°% 1g'% £2°% i a ~eees=" CRT GRO PUB SBT 18 GOL G6T 9OT ‘T 10°26 TE 02 O0°LT OG PL | PS°SL | BL'SE | SRO essary QT Avy OUTA-}UBOd, £6 92 OLT obs oo 6T Pog 99° FT OL EL 92°01 8L°6 O8°8 G82 a “**"spooj VITRILS Sossulopy 861 a) BG 104 L991 19°21 £8°0L S16 pss | O92 19°9 “7 oes 8084 [BUG [BABU vodo) CT 8 OG p86 6018 26°01 60 FT pOTL | GS8‘OT | 92°6 | 89°8 === OFTTTAL “OOS ‘Avy IOAOTD PET. 99 006 OrL SL 21 G8 °@l PCAN Ob '6 69°8 $2" 889 hs eee HOOKS ABU TAO) PZ 82 eGT 908 [1 0% 80°ST L0&1 LOOT SOOT ¢0°6 C0'8 “a. eo ‘Avy IAT) bar OL V6 O82 Il st OO OL OF PT 69ST LL 11 16°6 90°6 ST'8 ida im. “= *(fOSua yO ABH IOAOTO 48 Td 8ST ths O08 ST Lh Or iat etedt 68 TT LOOT ST'6 £26'8 GEL a ee oe. eet ee ae ~sss** omsye ‘Avy IOAOTOD Tél 4 10% O18 Ts st £6°OT Ae Me 66 GT os UT OP'6 1) ae} €9°2 Moke ae eee ae ae ck Se eh Meus ba Sel PL ras 0%8 p0°61 PL ZT LEVI temtale LE-Or Sh'Or 696 L49'8 69 4 Ta natal > ABY BILBILTV CS a “fea == 8s) z a :Spooy ujojoad osvYyRNoy, “LL We) i *upojord poor} zodord pus sa7eapAyod,.rao JO syUNOULG TELLUS SuTUTepUOD U09 JO ‘U07 Aod ‘sonyeA ———S : ee ee ES Be san | (0980p 4] “uo oad Shee AU 5 “uyo}oad eae eu DeABEO segonenr | 505! PQ SSOOX | Teuton | ALO Ody FP rerannsestp 10} 10d spunog = PONUTyUOH—spaaf WrajOLd ay? We WiAJOLE 2 1Qusobyp fo punod awo [0 7809 aarwpat ay} OULULODOP OF, — AT ATAVT, Mf \ CALCULATING ECONOMICAL BALANCED RATIONS. 1 As seen in Table IV, a ton of corn contains 1,538 pounds of carbo- hydrates and 138 pounds of protein, or 0.0897 pounds of protein for each pound of carbohydrates. Hereafter, m the discussion of this table, this 0.0897 pound of protein to each pound of carbohydrates is referred to as ‘‘proportional protein.’’ It is the proportion of protein agcompanying carbohydrates in corn. A ton of dried, brewers’ grains contains 884 pounds of carbohy- drates and 430 pounds of protein. Now, in corn, 884 pounds of carbohydrates would be accompanied by 79 pounds of protein (884 x 0.097=79). The nutrients in a ton of dried brewer’s grains may thus be classified as follows: Pounds. Carbohydrates, 884 pounds, proportional protein. ...-.............-....-...--- 79 EXCess Protelns pees sae ele 2 5 saci a es ee 351 Totaliproteta ey sissy gas ts ciel ae Se 430 The digestible carbohydrate content of a ton of each of the various protein feeds is given in Table IV, first column to the right of the double rule. The digestible protein per ton is given in the next column. ‘This is the sum of the proportional protein, given in next to the last column, and the excess proteim, given in the last column. The proportional protein in choice cottonseed meal, for instance, which is 74 pounds, merely represents the protein obtained in corn along with 824 pounds of carbohydrates, which is the amount of the latter contained in a ton of choice cotton seed meal. The method here outlined is based on the assumption that the carbohydrates and ‘‘proportional protein” in a ton of any expensive protein feed are worth just what they would cost in the cheap and standard carbohydrate feed used as a basis of comparison (corn in Table IV). The first 11 columns of figures in Table IV give the value of the carbohydrates and proportional protein in a ton of each of the various nitrogenous feeds when the price of corn is as shown in the column headings. When corn is worth more than a dollar a bushel, the value of the carbohydrate and proportional protein given in Table IV may be easily obtained by either combining the figures given in two columns or by adding to the values given in one column a proportional part of the values given in another. For example, when corn is worth $1.50 a bushel, double the amounts given in column headed ‘‘$0.75’’; when it is worth $1.15 a bushel add to the values given in column headed ‘‘$1.00” one-third the amount given in column headed “$0.45.” To illustrate the method of arriving at the cost of a pound of excess protein, let us assume that corn is 60 cents a bushel and peanut cake is $30 a ton. In the column headed ‘‘$0.60” we find ' % a2 BULLETIN 637, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that when corn is 60 cents per bushel the carbohydrates and propor- tional protein in a ton of peanut cake are worth $10.21. The excess protein in a ton of cake thus costs $30— $10.21=$19.79. Since there are 790 pounds of this excess protein, a single pound costs $19.79 + 790 = $0.025, or 2.5 cents. A few additional problems will show the facility with which com- putations may be made by use of this table. 1. Corn is available at 60 cents a bushel. Choice cottonseed meal can be bought at $32 a ton and high-grade gluten feed at $24. Which of the latter is the cheaper source of protein ? Solution: Cottonseed meal. Gluten feed. $32.00 $24. 00 171.49 116.48 2666) 20.51 220) lant. 86 0. 0308 0. 0232 Hence, gluten feed, under the conditions named, is the cheaper — source of protein. It furnishes this element at 2.32 cents per pound, as against 3.08 cents for cottonseed meal. In case the price of corn is not given exactly in the table, use the nearest price given. In this case the result will not be exact, but the inaccuracy will be of such nature that the result is never misleading. 2. With corn at 80 cents a bushel, choice cottonseed meal $45 per ton, and tankage (45-55 per cent) $50 per ton, which of the latter furnishes protein more cheaply ? Solution: Cottonseed meal. Tankage. $45. 00 $50. 00 15. 30 11.44 666) 29.70 907) 38.56 0. 0446 0. 0425 The $15.30 and $11.44 in the above solution are taken from Table IV, column headed ‘‘$0.80”; the 666 and 907 are taken from the last column. Tankage is seen to be the cheaper source of protein at the prices given. ‘ HOW TO USE TABLE IV. Given a certain number of protein feeds with the local selling prices per ton, to determine the relative cost of protein per pound, proceed as follows: 1. In columns headed ‘‘Value of corn per bushel” select the one corresponding most nearly to the local market price of that grain. 2. In that column take the amount found opposite the name of the feed in question and subtract it from the local selling price of that feed. The difference represents the value of the excess carbohydrate. protein in a ton of the feed in question. 2 From last column of TableIV. Pounds of excess protein in a ton of this feed. CALCULATING ECONOMICAL BALANCED RATIONS. 13 - 8. In the last column opposite the name of the feed is given the amount of excess protein in a ton. Divide the value obtained above by this amount and the result is the value of a pound of excess pro- tein, when bought in the feed considered. RELATIVE VALUE OF CARBOHYDRATE FEEDS WHEN THE CHEAPEST AVAILABLE FEED IS NITROGENOUS. In some sections of the country the most available feeding stuff is distinctly nitrogenous in character, and it is desirable to buy carbo- naceous feeding stuffs to balance the ration. Thus, in the South, - cottonseed meal is frequently the basic feeding stuff, while in many parts of the West alfalfa occupies this position. In such cases it becomes. desirable to know the cheapest available source of carbo- — hydrates. The method of procedure is given in the following pages. It is similar to that already given for evaluating protein ade. As seen in Table V a ton of choice cottonseed meal contains 740 pounds of digestible protein and 824 pounds of digestible carbohy- drate, or 1.113 pounds of carbohydrate for each pound of protein. Hereafter, in the discussion of this table, this 1.113 pounds of carbo- hydrate to each pound of protein is referred to as ‘‘proportional car- bohydrate.” It is the proportion of carbohydrates accompanying - protein in cottonseed meal. A ton of barley contains 180 pounds of protein and 1,408 pounds of carbohydrate. Now, in cottonseed meal, 180 pounds of protein would be accompanied by 200 pounds of carbohydrate (180 1.113 = 200). The nutrients in a ton of barley may thus be classified as follows: Pounds. Proteins 180 pounds, proportional carbohydrates. ......--.--.--...----.-20-- 200 excess carbohiydratess sate sae sea aero tae. | See ae 1, 208 Total carbohydrates. --:..-:....-.--:-- ASE, 1, 408 The digestible protein content of a ton of each of the various carbohydrate feeds is given in Table V, first column to the right of the double rule. The digestible carbohydrate per ton is given in the next column. This is the sum of the proportional carbohydrate, given in next ta the last column, and the excess carbohydrate, given in the last column. The proportional carbohydrate in dry beet pulp, for instance, which is 102 pounds, merely represents the carbohydrate obtained in cottonseed meal along with 92 pounds of protein, which is the amount of the latter contained in a ton of dry beet pulp. The method here outlined is the same as that for Table IV. It is based on the assumption that the protein and the proportional car- bohydrate in a ton of any expensive carbohydrate feed are worth just what they would cost in the cheap protein feed used as a basis of comparison (cottonseed meal in Table V). , U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AG: BULLETIN 637 14 ‘sovvrpAy -0q.eo SSOOXOL ‘so RIPATY, -0q,UB0 [BUT -10dodq, 8F6 PVG OG PLT ObP'T OST () 5 ort | 861 S98 T . | 6 CsP't | OT G60 T orl Bla ‘I SST PIG‘T P61 OPT T SPL SOL ‘T POT ier | Pap T PLT : 1, Or 'T | O8T beg it Yd | oq't | OFT St'T =| S&P Ose iT | O88 99b'T | 00% O8P iT | POT 826 1 SST et | gor‘t | 29 901 ¢ PLETE | 9OT Ost | &6 80h I O8T Pos OPL ‘soqverpayy | . -oqaeg | Utd —0141)S03Tp me UTE Tin nrnmn nner nnnnnn nT EnnEIEE ER DERESEESEEEEEEEREEEEET EUR 0} tod spunog ‘[BOU Po9stO}}00 oTOYO WO posed WoTIsodum0y x 61ST PS TL 68 6 F328 T9"9 6h 08's Be age ae ee ee ee MEE D oe coe ss LOLU TMM EGIC ESAN OF 6 £2'8 GOL 889 TL‘? ee"g GE's Serica eee ee =" OVUM “VOT AA Il'8 (0) ar 80°9 20°9 90°P PO's £0°% erie Se =" uread “TUN Ys.10g 96 °6 0L'8 OP L &6°9 86 °P €2°E 6F SG pe algal inna ese hale i ed RIO a Nef eleypa sya OL OL LE°6 G0'8 69°9 9€°S 10’? 149° ee ag ae Sow “pea Pe Tes Seo NT 80°S Ch 'P I8'€ 81's PSS 16 °T L6°T ps a : % “qsnod ‘oonyy G9'8 19°2 SP'9 OP'S LE 'h P2'k 9L'% Tine see er Neg Pome Maar ee ee = “ATCO “COLE 19°L ZL ‘9 91°C 08 ‘F i8°e 98°2 Z6°T Rasim sis: So coESh eM Bas abetes Gana eck mnt s ueiq ory 9T ‘OL 688 69 °L ¢ge"9 60°9 Ts '€ 9% PO ALT. Oe ee pee yo ees (opBis Ys) punoas ‘syVo 6P ‘OT 16 O8°L @¢"9 0% °C 66 °8 Z0°% MEMaan ase Sh maieeasisieraiehe mitre set et erate ben etna ee tetas sees es RO 00°8 00°2 00°9 00°S 10? 00°€ 00°% ate Ree ome sat Ag cee ee Ps, ~="quod 10d 67-01 ‘Spooy sossvyoyy 98°8 QL°2 999 rg ‘9 vr p GE'S 06'S 5 ~-4u90 od OT Mood ‘spooy Sosse[OW, 616 v0'8 68 °9 FL 9 09'F chs 08'S t soreness sss*Sp00] BITRE SOSSVLOW, 80°T 96° 18° 89° ro" OF" 13° = soe >" = OTR SOSSBION OF '6 £2'8 GOL 88°¢ TL‘? eos Ge '% i ee agate ae sy chit Ho} 943) £1°6 Ig'8 082 80°9 18°F go's eh 's . oS eee Tacs PSO Le co Oa 189 96°¢ Il'¢ 96°F Tre Got OL'T . “hee “ls S(ODULS mat poo} Aurmoyy L9°L 699 249°¢ €L'P 6L°E PSS 68 °T te aie, aaa TV a A, a a “-"(opurs YsTy) pooy AUTUTOTT GE "Ss €h 02 TG “LT 69 FL 69 °TT 92'8 P8"¢ c sses=s"""(Qpuds YsTY) Pooy UOINTH PS LT 19ST 8e "el 7 ta a £6°8 699 ODP 5 sees oo""(ODGIS eel) sew [to Te 18 OL 9F 6 I1l'8 92°9 IP '¢ 90h 01'S 5 "tags woot es eeeee sss ss*(OpVIs TSI) [BOUL [TO WI0}) 98°8 92°2 99 °9 ro bry GEE ang : Te ee she oe ee eae Me CEL 086 19'8 8E'L St'9 £6'P 69° OFS " OVUM “TRIG VOT AA, LL YT GE OL G8 6 T6'8 24g°9 66°F SCce alin a ee oe ae “= ""JOPUTM *7'BOU AA, PLOT 69 OT 6b 8 L0°L 99°¢ #6 'P COR SIT ae Ae ae RD ame “= -" ures ‘TIMYysIOg 69 ST 60ST Gh OL 89'8 66 '9 12'¢ ee aaa eyes ae cee al ~oreeoesss*"7g9ur OA Ts OL 10°FL 0 TT PE 6 LPL 09°S pS SOS SS SS OAN 90 °@I G0 ‘0T p0°8 02°9 98 °S 60°F SOLCSE al en mt Ory eee es “**"*-TreIg ‘eOTy 8¢ eT GeTT 90°6 Gc $0°9 gS"P Z0'8 ~**> poystjod ‘ooryy 86°2 g9°9 GES SP cc's 99°S nari Ra gee a ape a ere posses sissies“ anOmaoIty LV9T eels 860 ST*6 GE 2, 6h °S 99°C ier Se ae ee siege aisieissie)s ste hice eS eee RTT) 96 °ST T§ 1 $9 OT 28°83 (0) 74 (ao) OS" Sle. MP Tae rae je oe" “""( *EL) punoas ‘s72xoO Sh PT £0 OT 696 20°8 TP’9 Is 'P RG Sae SG Ree ae weer meee sne sss ss*Spooj BITRI[@ SOSSVlO Py L191 8h OL 8&°8 86°9 69°9 6L'P G28Se i oe “=="*"JOqy 4w0o Iod ST-OT SPooy Sossvfoyy 66 “ST TOIL 86 °6 PL °2 619 b9°P GORGE “hae ae ghee Joy 7W0d 10d OT MOOG Spooy SosselOPy OL °T GPT €L'T 6" GL: Lg° ChC > ime ae SR ag oe “Tvsysyou[q 10 owWvd SOsse]OP, LL'PL | BEVE | S8"6 1Z'8 18°9 26'F Cae Seale ORE es soos 29° TTB 13 OTT 83ST pL OL 6101 6h 8 61 °9 60°9 OP'S *" UIBIS IGVM 02 OL G6°8 tr $6 °S GLP L1g°§ 8% pooy AuTuO Fy 68 °1T 186 G6°L 09°9 82'S 96 °& 49'S poo AuTao GOSS 98 ES 89ST 99 ST Ch Or pe'6 €6'9 [sod [10 UIEy) 86 °9T OL PL 6s IT €P'6 GG'L 99° PESOS Sa a ae eee a *x) *H{) [ROU [10 UI0x) 26°8E | TOIL | 82°6 pL h 619 $9°P COSSRe I ee ea o> 22?“ ssstreid (eld GP ST 88°31 0 OT go's 18°9 SI's Caess b or Sa ke ** pooy Aopreq pus ‘70 ‘aI109 9€ OL $9°8 16°9 gL '¢ 09°F G's OSkTee ala a a Eee eB, “*[RoUl GOD Puw WI0D GL 11 116 T8°2 T¢°9 12'S 16S 09°% tors tsets-= == DoTTeys ‘MI0D OL FL SLIT OP *6 €8°2 16°9 OL *P Ch Sa RIP ek ee he te, a ie “-="""pa0s W100 TOOT 92 °€T LY IL 11°6 #9°2 IL'9 8o°P OOS Ge alt a ees oe ae ed aa “yvoT Ayong, ty TS°9 Tao Pe 'F LP's 09°% BTS lle ose tS eee ~->-ess9<7p ‘dind yoog 82°STS | PL°SIS | GL'OTS | 6h's$ 61°98 60 °S$ Oat || dei Se ea 4 Ra pisces oe AGTIR GT ‘soyerpAyq -oqivo yeuors0doid pue u10,01d Jo syuMoME avpUs SutuTeyu0o Avy VyTLITe JO 107 Jod sonje A. “GIS | 00218 | 00°OI$ | 00°8$ 00°9$ | OO'RE fry WO} aod Avy ByTEITR JO onTEA 00 08$ “oes 00°0Z$ | OO'STS | 00 ED Ss SE) ee ee ee ‘spoaf aynuphyoquns ur oqnuphyoquns apqusebyp fo punod auo fo 7809 avynjau ay) aUpmwjop OL — TA ITAV IL, PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATED TO THE SUBJECT OF THIS BULLETIN. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Raising and Fattening Beef Calves in Alabama. (Department Bulletin 73.) Economical Cattle Feeding in the Corn Belt. (Farmers’ Bulletin 588.) The Feeding of Dairy Cows. (Farmers’ Bulletin 743.) Feeding and Management of Dairy Calves and Young Dairy Stock. (Farmers’ Bulle- tin 777.) Equipment for Farm Sheep Raising. (Farmers’ Bulletin 810.) How Live Stock is Handled in the Bluegrass Region of Kentucky. (Farmers’ Bulle- tin 812.) Farm Sheep Raising for Beginners. (Farmers’ Bulletin 840.) Utilization of Farm Wastes in Feeding Live Stock. (Farmers’ Bulletin 873. Swine Management. (Farmers’ Bulletin 874.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Cost of Raising a Dairy Cow. (Department Bulletin 49.) Price, 5 cents. Fattening Cattle in Alabama. (Department Bulletin 110.) Price, 5 cents. Use of Energy Values in the Computation of Rations for Farm Animals. (Department Bulletin 459.) Price, 5 cents. Study in Cost of Producing Milk on Dairy Farms in Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsylva- nia, and North Carolina. (Department Bulletin 501.) Price, 5 cents. ‘ Feeding Farm Animals. (Farmers’ Bulletin 22.) Price, 5 cents. Principles of Horse Feeding. (Farmers’ Bulletin 170.) Price, 5 cents. Pig Management. (Farmers’ Bulletin 205.) Price, 5 cents. Crimson Clover, Utilization. (Farmers’ Bulletin 579.) Price, 5 cents. Feeding for Meat Production. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 108.) Price, 10 cents. Beef Production in Alabama, 1. Cost of Raising Cattle. 2. Wintering Steers Pre- paratory to Summer Fattening on Pasture. 3. Fattening Cattle on Pasture. (Bu- reau of Animal Industry Bulletin 131.) Price, 10 cents. Nutritive Value of Non-protein of Feeding Stuffs. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bul- tin 139.) Price, 10 cents. Maintenance Rations of Farm Animals. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 143.) Price, 15 cents. Feeding Beef Cattle in Alabama, 1. Winter Fattening on Cottonseed Meal, Cottonseed Hulls, Corn Silage, and Johnson Grass Hay. 2. Wintering Steers Followed by Summer Fattening on Pasture. 3. Value of Shelter for Fattening Cattle in Ala- bama. 4. Early Compared with Late Fattening of Steers on Pasture. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 159.) Price, 10 cents. Meat Situation in the United States. Part IV. Utilization and Efficiency of A vail- able American Feed Stuffs. (Report 112.) Price, 5 cents. 19 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT &CENTS PER COPY Vv ie TIE jaaih wesc oi 5 gs WAMGTEIG C “eR ' ? rete. , SUGARS 2H FAR TT i “th? Gad A ant ANCOR IQ. Tea Mie 23s Bae Si aeRO iicw st! «Og Webeaem esol =! Pete na 2s , “_* UNEP STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGLI TN Contribution from the Forest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D.C. Vv April 8, 1918 FORESTRY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT. By SAMUEL T. Dana, Assistant Chief of Forest Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Too little attention paid to some effects of Neglected evils, ete.—Continued. HOReSHGeVastablonesss seen sary ewes oe 1 A lower standard of population.......... 20 Why our forests have been devastated......- 2 Suggestions for a rational timberland policy.. yal Neglected evils of destructive lumbering..... 3 Need for a different system of handiing A roving lumber industry ......-.--...- 3 forestlands :eeasee gees ace heen cee aeee Abandoned towns........ 4 4 Land classification........-... Deserted farms.......... 6 Continuous forest production . Local shortages of timber 8 Stability of policy.............. SPeCUlatlOnen eee cace eee meer mas 10 Public control and ownership Community development iniscanniaal 16 Commu«unitygbenehtste ese) 2) eee Abandoned railroads..................-- 1 TOO LITTLE ATTENTION PAID TO SOME EFFECTS OF FOREST DEVASTATION. Nowadays the more obvious results of forest devastation, such as fires, increase in soil erosion, and irregularity of stream flow, are pretty generally recognized. But so far comparatively little atten- tion has been paid to certain economic and social effects of forest devastation, perhaps less apparent but scarcely less harmful. ‘These are at once an indictment of the system that has made them possible and a challenge to devise a better cne. In a very literal sense our civilization has been built on wood. From the forests that once stretched almost unbroken from Maine to Florida, from the immense timber stands of the Lake States, and from those of the Rocky Mountains and Pacific coast has come, in turn, the material needed for the development of farms and the building of homes as settlement pushed ever westward. Unquestion- ably, the remarkable progress of agriculture has been made possible in large measure by an easily accessible supply of timber. And along with the material for agricultural development the for- ests have given us also one of the greatest of our basic manufacturing industries. Of the 14 groups of industries recognized by the last census, the lumber industry stands third in number of wage earners and fourth in value of product. In its allied branches of logging, milling, and manufacture it employs 907,000 persons, or 13.7 per cent of all the wage earners in the country. The value of its annual 16940°—Bull. 63s—1s—1 2 BULLETIN 638, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. output of lumber and remanufactured products amounts to $1,582,-_ 000,000. From the crude mills and moderate cuts of early days has come the modern mill of enormous capacity and elaborate equipment. To-day the lumber industry produces an annual cut of some hundred — billion board feet of wood, furnishes a means of support for several millions of people, and in hundreds of ways is closely interwoven in the fabric of our economic life. But there is ancther side to the picture. Too often has forest utili- — zation been synonymous with forest destruction. Our forests, for the © most part, have been used not as a crop, a renewable resource, but as — a mine, which could yield its wealth but once and then must be aban- — doned. In many places when the forest “mine” became exhausted, the civilization and prosperity that forest exploitation brought about declined and disappeared. Other evils, inseparable from the system, also have followed in the wake of destructive lumbering. To point out some of the harmful economic and social effects and to suggest a remedy is the object of this bulletin. Before doing so, however, the reason for the destructiveness of ordinary lumbering operations in the United States will be touched upon briefly, since this offers a clue to the solution of the problem. WHY OUR FORESTS HAVE BEEN DEVASTATED. The chief reason why forest destruction rather than forest conser- vation has held sway in the United States is clearly the individu- alistic economic system under which the natural resources of the country have been utilized. The theory has been that individual ini- tiative and self-interest, stimulated by the desire for pecuniary gain, ~ could be trusted to secure the quickest and most nearly complete © utilization of these resources, and that in the long run private owner- ship and development would result in the greatest good to the entire ~ community. In line with this idea both the Federal and State ~ Governments, until a comparatively few years ago, almost uniformly ~ followed the policy of disposing of their forest lands as rapidly as possible. Enormous areas were sold, generally for a fraction of their real value, given away as railroad, highway, or other grants, and acquired—oiten for “ homestead ” purposes—under the various pub- lic-land laws. Within the last century several hundred million acres ot forest lands in the United States have passed from public to private ownership. Complete control over the bulk of the forests in the country has” been turned over to thousands of private owners, each of whom has followed his own individual interest in handling his property. There has been no uniformity either in point of view or in practice. Some owners have cut conservatively, others recklessly, and still FORESTRY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT. 3 others not at all. Probably the one idea which most owners have had in common was to adopt whatever course appeared to be the most profitable financially. Ordinarily, under the prevailing eco- nomic conditions, this meant cutting with entire disregard for the future. Enormous stands of apparently inexhaustible virgin timber were available, stumpage prices were low, and competition was keen. As a result the average lumberman was forced to conduct his busi- mess in the cheapest possible manner and very naturally felt no inclination to incur the additional expense necessary to secure closer utilization of timber, to provide for reforestation, or even to insure fire protection. This does not mean that the lumberman had less regard than other men for the needs of the future and for the rights of generations yet unborn, but merely that he was acting, in accord- ance with the necessities imposed by the accepted system, as his individual interests dictated. The net result has been that in the handling of our forest re- sources forestry has been conspicuous by its absence. Little attempt has been made to keep forest land productive, and still less to secure a continuous yield of wood. Speculation in timber has been rife almost from the very beginning. Stumpage has been aequired for little or nothing, and profits in the lumber industry have been de- rived very generally from this source rather than from the logging and milling end of the business. Comparatively little thought has been given te the future, which has been left to take care of itself. In the discussion that follows there is no desire to minimize the role that the lumber industry has played in opening up undeveloped regions and creating national wealth. It is not lumbering, but de- structive lumbering, that calls for a remedy. And the responsi- bility for destructive lumbering rests not with any individual or group of individuals, but with an economic system that tends to hinder rather than to help permanent community development. NEGLECTED EVILS OF DESTRUCTIVE LUMBERING. A ROVING LUMBER INDUSTRY. One of the most obvious economic effects of treating the forest as a mine rather than as a crop has been to make lumbering in the United States a roving industry, moving from one region to another as the timber resources of each in turn have been depleted. Not only have the States consisting chiefly of agricultural land, such as Ohio and Indiana, been largely cut out, but also those with large areas of land primarily valuable for forest production. New York State, for example, which in 1850 stood first in the amount of lumber produced, is now twenty-fourth. Pennsylvania, which was first in 1860, now stands eighteenth. Michigan, which held first place from 4 BULLETIN 638, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1870 to 1890, is now thirteenth. Wisconsin, which headed the list — from 1900 to 1904, has now dropped to tenth place. 3 And so the lumber industry has migrated from one region to an- — other as the center of production has shifted from the Northeast to the Lake States and then to the South, and is now shifting to the — Pacific Northwest. This movement has been due in part to the nor- mal clearing of land for agriculture and to the opening up and ~ development of hitherto comparatively unsettled and inaccessible | regions richly endowed with timber resources, but in part also to the — fact that on most of the cut-over areas no steps were taken to secure © a second crop to form the basis of another cut, and still less to pro- — vide for continuous forest production. The land to a large extent © has been rendered unproductive, towns and farms have been aban- ~ doned, timber supplies have been depleted, transportation facilities have been crippled, and the community generally has been rendered — poorer and less independent. From a social standpoint one of the most significant phases of this — lack of permanence in the lumber industry has been the influence that it has exerted on the movement of population and on the pros- perity of cities and towns. Only in those regions where agricultural lands strongly predominate have cities originally built up by the © lumber industry succeeded in maintaining an uninterrupted growth and prosperity as the lumber was cut out. Many cities less favorably | situated with respect to agricultural lands have also succeeded in © maintaining their existence as the timber has gone by the introduc- — tion of other industries, but often only after a more or less prolonged period of depression, and in any event with less prospect of attaining the development that would have been possible if the forest land © tributary to them had been kept productive. ABANDONED TOWNS. But the effects of forest devastation on community development are seen most clearly in the smaller towns in the regions primarily © adapted to timber production. Here deserted villages are signposts — that too often mark the trail of lumbering operations. As in the mining regions of the West, towns spring up almost overnight, fiourish for a few years until the adjacent timber is cut out, and then ~ sink rapidly to inactivity or even complete extinction. Unlike min-— ing towns, however, there is not the same necessity for their dis- appearance. Timber is a renewable resource, which can be so handled — as to insure continuity of cut and therefore of industry. In the mountain counties of Pennsylvania, particularly in the northern part of the State, one comes upon town after town that has declined with the passing of the forest. Run down and deserted houses still standing give an idea of the towns’ former prosperity. — FORESTRY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT. 5 ‘Six and eight room frame houses with up to half an acre of land can be bought for from $200 to $400. Most striking of all, perhaps, is the rise and fall of Cross Fork, in the hills of southeastern Potter County. In the fall of 1893, before lumbering operations started, perhaps five or six families were living on the site where two years later stood a busy town. For some 14 years Cross Fork led a feverish existence while the forest wealth was stripped from the surrounding hills. The life of the town was, of course, the big sawmill, which had a daily capacity of 230,000 board foce and was up to date in every respect. In 1897 a fone mill was established also, and various other minor wood-using industries existed at different times. In its prime Cross Fork had a population of 2,000 or more and was generally known as one of the liveliest, most hustling places in the State. A branch line of the Buffalo and Susquehanna Railroad was built to the town. Stores of all kinds flourished. There were seven hotels, four ‘churches, a Y. M. C. A. with baths and gymnasium, a large, up-to- date high school, two systems of waterworks, and two electric light systems. But the prosperity of the town was as short-lived as the timber supply. In the spring of 1909 the big sawmill shut down for good. From then on the population dwindled rapidly. Fires became so frequent that the insurance companies canceled their policies. Five- room frame houses with bath were offered for sale for from $25 to $35 without finding a buyer. In the winter of 1912-13 the stave mill also ceased operations, and the next fall railroad service, which for sometime had been limited to three trains a week, stopped altogether. To-day the total population consists of but 60 persons. It if had not been for the State, which bought up the cut-over lands and has under- taken in earnest the work of reconstruction, the town would be as desolate as the surrounding hills. As it is, Cross Fork is now a quiet little hamlet, the merest shadow of its former self and without hope for an industrial and useful future until the timber grows again. The cut-over lands of the Lake States tell the same story of tem- porary prosperity characterized by the rise and fall of mushroom towns. Immense tracts of little value for anything except timber production have been left dotted with deserted villages as the lumber industry devasted them and swept on. Meredith, for example, was once a prosperous town iii the northeastern corner or Clare County, Mich., for which one looks in vain on any modern map. To-day its hotels are in ruins, the town hall has been moved elsewhere, the rail- road which connected it with the outside world has been torn up, and ‘its population has dwindled from 500 to 3. 6 BULLETIN 638, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In Oscoda County, Mich., the town of McKinley has met a similar fate. Unlke many other woods towns it never had a large sawmill, but was rather a distributing center for the surrounding region. It had railroad and machine shops, a small sawmill and a shingle mill cutting material for local use, and served as headquarters for ad- jacent lumbering operations. The usual assortment eof schools, churches, stores, hotels, and saloons met the needs of the 500 or more people in the town itself, to say nothing of the 2,500 lumberjacks in the surrounding woods. To-day the town is nothing but a memory. A few deserted houses, the foundations of the old shops, and a popu- lation of three, one of whom is a county pauper, are all that is left of its former activity. Its prosperity departed with the forests that gave it birth. Farther west, in Wisconsin, the same trail of deserted villages has been left in the wake of the lumber industry. If it were not for the summer tourists who, in spite of the desolation of the cut-over lands, are attracted to the region by the beauty of its lakes the decline of many of the towns would be still more marked. Throughout the region desolation and decay have followed the pr we that lasted only as long as the timber. DESERTED FARMS. In some regions the practice of timber “mining” has actually tended to cause the abandonment of farms as well as of towns. Nearly everywhere the fullest use of the natural resources of the. country demands that both forestry and agriculture be practiced, each in its appropriate place, since most regions contain both farm land and forest land, although of course in widely varying propor- tions. Even in the best farming districts there are usually certain areas that should be devoted to woodlots, and patches suitable for cultivation are found in regions composed mainly of absolute forest land. Where the cultivable land is rather scattered, of only medium quality, or at some distance from a satisfactory market, it is often necessary for the region to have some other industry in order to make farming practicable. Profitable returns can not be secured from the farm alone. In such regions permanent wood-using industries afford additional opportunities for the farmer to secure employment. They not only help to tide him over the difficult period when he is clearing his land and getting a start, but they also furnish an extra source of income after he has become well established. Moreover, the presence of a population permanently employed in the wood-using industries creates a strong local market for farm products. This often enables the farmer to dispose profitably of material that could not be shipped to a more distant market. Additional industries also help to secure FORESTRY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT. 7. better transportation facilities. Not infrequently these various fac- tors, either singly or in combination, are just enough to make the difference between success and failure for the individual farmer. Certain it is that where large areas of forest lands are interspersed with smaller areas potentially valuable for agriculture, the manage- ment of the forest lands on the basis of a sustained annual yield may be absolutely necessary for the development of the agricultural lands, and in any event will make their utilization more profitable. Unfortunately, forest exploitation in the past has been such as to make this ideal conspicuous by its absence. Under the individualis- tic economic system of the past there has been an irresistible pres- sure on the majority of private owners to cut clear and then abandon their land. The result has been lack of permanence not only in wood-using industries but in many regions in farming also. How- ever desirable the clearing of the forest may have been in regions chiefly valuable for cultivation, in regions where forest lands pre- deminate it has in the long run hindered rather than helped agri- culture. I Pennsylvania, for example, during the decade from 1900 to 1910, a period of rising prices for farm products, the number of farms decreased nearly 5,000. At the same time the area of land in farms decreased more than 780,000 acres, and the area of improved land in farms more than 530,000 acres. While the total population of the State was increasing 21.6 per cent, the number of farms decreased 2.2 per cent and the acreage of total farm land 4.1 per cent. The lure of the city and the development of better lands elsewhere may par- tially explain these facts. It is significant, however, that deserted farms are a common sight in the once timbered mountains, and that their abandonment has Sel the departure of the lumber indus- try. Whith the passing of the local market and the opportunities for outside employment, their owners found farming a precarious busi- ness. Tt is entirely possible, furthermore, to go to an extreme in the deforestation of all lands that are suitable for agriculture and that eventually should be cleared and cultivated. There is no advantage in removing the forests and abandoning such lands before they actu- ally can be put to use. Under present conditions, however, this course is by no means uncommon. In Wisconsin, for instance, the State Agricultural College estimates that there are now 10,000,000 acres of cut-over lands, of which three-fourths may be agricultural. At the present rate of improvement, however—50,000 acres annu- _ aliy—it will be 150 years before this entire area is brought under cultivation. In other words, if the land had been maintained in forest it would be possible to raise from one to three timber crops en 8 BULLETIN 638, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. it before it could be utilized fully for agriculture. If forestry had been practiced on only three-fourths of this 10,000,000 acres, and if the annual growth had been only 300 board feet per acre, there would be an annual production of 24 billion board feet annually. This is almost exactly twice the present lumber cut of the State. The pro- duction of this amount of material would support a good-sized pop- ulation, stimulate business, provide a market for local agricultural preducts, and offer employment to the settler during slack times on the farm. Clearly nothing has been gained and much has been lost by abandoning forest production on the land before the time for its cultivation was ripe. There are large areas that once were used for farms, justifiably perhaps, but that under present conditions should be used for the production of timber crops. In New England and New York, for example, thousands of acres that were cultivated before the opening up of the more fertile lands farther west are now properly being allowed to revert to forest. This conversion is being permitted for the most part to take place in a haphazard fashion, and consequently is proceeding all too slowly and irregularly. Proper care of these areas would help greatly to increase their productiveness. A somewhat similar situation exists in northern Georgia, where approximately 10 per cent of the mountainous land now being acquired by the Government for National Forest purposes consists of abandoned farm lands. Practically the entire farming commu- nity that had settled there moved out in a body to raise cotton on the level, sandy lands of the coastal plain. In nearly all parts of the country are tracts that formerly were settled, cultivated for a while, and then abandoned either because the land was inherently unsuitable for permanent farming or because more valuable lands elsewhere became available for settlement. As a general rule, there is more danger that attempts will be made to cultivate land better suited for timber crops than that really good agricultural land will be retained in forest. LOCAL SHORTAGES OF TIMBER. Thanks to the successive opening up of fresh sources of supply as the lumber industry has moved south and west, the United States has not yet experienced a general shortage of timber. Sufficient wood still is cut each year to meet the needs of the country. This is being done, however, at the expense of the forest capital, and is possible only because the country has been so fortunate as to have available for immediate use the accumulation of many centuries of forest growth. The best available estimates indicate that for many years the annual cut of wood products of all kinds has greatly PLATE I. Bul. 638, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. re “ky mao ae! " Telos at Sara , 7 maw rr Pk oe ag ee re F—23139A A VIRGIN FOREST OF HEMLOCK AND WHITE PINE IN WESTERN PENNSYLVANIA. Stands of this kind are nowrare and in their place are denuded, fireswept areas. Bul. 638, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. F—23134A Fic. 1.—CUT-OVER AND BURNED-OVER LAND IN NORTHERN PENNSYLVANIA. This area was formerly covered with a heavy stand of conifers similar to that shown in Plate TI. Forests of this sort were the source of busy, prosperous communities while the timber was being cut. The region is now practically deserted and the area covered with worthless fire cherry, aspen, and sweet fern. F—23156A Fic. 2.—HOW PENNSYLVANIA IS BUILDING UP FOREST COMMUNITIES. Many of the devastated lands are now the property of the State, which is attempting to reforest them and to build up permanent forest communities. At Pine Grove Furnace, in the heart of one of the State forests, all of the buildings in the town as well as the surrounding forest lands are owned by the State. The building shown in the picture has been repaired and improved, and is now rented for use as a hotel. Bul. 638, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. F—24319A Fic. 1.—AN AREA CLEAR CUT FOR CHARCOAL FOR THE LEADVILLE, COLO., MINES. Note high stumps, lack of reproduction, and erosion in right foreground. F—23149A Fig. 2.—A HILLSIDE CLEAR CUT FOR AcID Woop IN NORTHERN PENNSYLVANIA. Theruts down which the logs are dragged afford excellent opportunity for the starting of erosion. Bul. 638, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. F—23119A Fic. 1.—GENERAL VIEW OF A PENNSYLVANIA TOWN, THE POPULATION OF WHICH FOR MANY YEARS WAS AsBouT 600, BuT IS NOW ONLY 40. The tannery, on which the prosperity of the town depended, is shown at the right of the picture. F—2311TA Fia. 2.—ANOTHER VIEW OF THE TANNERY, SHOWING MORE CLEARLY THE NUMBER OF DWELLINGS BY WHICH IT WAS SURROUNDED. All of these buildings, like many others in the town, are now abandoned. Property values have depreciated materially with the departure of the forests. FORESTRY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT. : 9 exceeded the-annual growth. Obviously, such a program can not be continued indefinitely. A few more decades will probably wit- ness the exhaustion of the bulk of the virgin forests of the country except in the more inaccessible portions of the western States. In the meantime in many parts of the country local shortages in standing timber have already occurred, with the consequent neces- sity of importing lumber from a distance and at correspondingly higher prices. Many regions which once were blessed with “inex- haustible” forest resources and from which vast quantities of lumber have been shipped now have to depend on other parts of the country for the bulk of their timber. Muskegon, Mich., formerly one of the largest.sawmill towns in the world, offers a good example of this. In 1887 the sawmills of the town had a cut of more than 665,000,000 feet of lumber and 520,000,000 shingies; and it is estimated that the entire output of the forests tributary to the Muskegon River has exceeded 25 billion board feet. To-day lumbering operations have practically ceased. One small mill cuts some 3 or 4 million feet a year of in- ferior material picked up here and there along the shore of the lake. What lumber is used comes mainly from the South and from Wis- consin and Minnesota. Depletion of local supplies has resulted very naturally 4 in more er less marked increases in the prices of wood products in general. In spite of the fact that cheap stumpage has been available in other parts of the country, transportation charges have added materially to the cost of the lumber at the point of consumption. In the Middle West, for example, 20 per cent or more of the present retail price of lumber represents freight charges. Western lumber paying freights of from $10 to $18 per thousand board feet is a considerable factor in the supply of the East. Obviously, if the center of lumber production is to be located thousands of miles from the center of population, retail prices are bound to rise and the consumer must either pay the bill or go without. The possibility of supplementing our own depleted forest re- sources from abroad has often been suggested optimistically but all too vaguely. Careful studies of foreign sources of supply seem to indicate that too much reliance should not be placed on this hope. Surplus supplies of timber still exist in Russia, Finland, and Swe- den, but the growing demands of other European countries are almost certain to render comparatively little of this available for use in the United States. The forest resources of Central and South America are still to a large extent unknown, but it is very doubtful whether they can be counted on to supply us with any considerable amount of timber suitable for ordinary construction purposes. Canada still has a surplus, but this, too, is being rapidly depleted, and it is reason- 16940° 10 BULLETIN 638, U. 5. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. able to suppose that in the not distant future practically the entire production of its forests will be needed for home consumption by the constantly increasing population. Importations from any of these sources, moreever, involve considerable charges for transportation, with a corresponding increase in price to the consumer. It seems certain that in the long run the United States must rely on its own resources to supply its needs for lumber, ties, paper, and other wood products, as well as for naval stores and wood distilla- tion preducts. Lt is equally certain, furthermore, that these supplies should be produced as near the point of consumption as possible through the full use of forest land wherever it occurs. Too little attention has so far been paid to these fundamental truths. As a result, lumber prices have increased in the cut-over regions, and the © pinch of inadequate supplies has already been felt in many localities. SPZCULATION. IN STANDING TIMBER. another serious evil that has attended the exploitation of the forests. The subject is so big a one, however, as to make it impossible in a bulletin such as this to do more than touch briefiy on a few of its more important aspects. Large bodies of mature timber have been acquired with no inten- tion of utilizing them immediately, but with the idea of trading them ~ off as soon as possible at a substantial profit or of holding them for a rise in price. As transportation facilities have been developed and — the country built up, there naturally has been a rapid rise in stump- — age values, particularly in the newer sections. In parts oi the Northwest, for example, the original price at which timber was acquired from the Government has been multiplied in subsequent — transfers anywhere from ten to twenty times within the short space — of ten or fifteen years. Millions of acres of the finest timberlands in the country passed every year from public to private ownership; — hundreds of fortunes were made merely by buying and selling stump- — age; and the entire tendency was to promote timber speculation at~ the expense of timber production. In a general way, although per- haps not in such acute form, this has been the history of timber ownership throughout the country. In fact, so rapidly have forest properties, originally acquired at little or no expense, increased in value that the lumber industry as a whole has looked for its profits to timber ownership rather than to logging and milling—that is, to the speculative rather than to the operative end of the business. Only too frequently have speculative returns conceaied actual losses ~ resulting from inefficiency of operation. Speculation, both in standing timber and in cut-over lands, is | FORESTRY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT. dl It has often been claimed that the incentive to make money by speculation has been one of the important factors in bringing about the development of many parts of the country, and particularly of the Western States. To what extent this is true depends on whether speculation is defined as a business venture involving considerable risk and therefore demanding a high interest return, or merely as an investment entailing no preductive operations and depending for its profit on an expected increase in value. In the former sense, specula- tion undoubtedly has dene much to open up previously unsettled portions of the country. In the latter sense, this may also be true of speculation in standing timber so far as such speculation has led to actual production as a means of realizing on the investment. Furthermore, it 1s obvious that the taxes paid by private owners of timberland, whether speculators or not, have aided materially in supporting local community improvements and governments. On the other hand, it may be open to question whether the development stimulated in these ways was always a normal and healthy one. In many parts of the country, but particularly i in the South and West, timber owners to-day find themselves in the position of having an overload of stumpage. Urged on by the belief that stumpage values were bound to rise indefinitely and that speculative profits are an inevitable consequence of timber oyyner hep, they acquired enor- mous areas of forest lands, far in excess of the present needs of the industry. Contrary to expectation, these now have become a burden instead of an asset. Carrying charges, such as interest on the invest- ment, taxation, and fire protection, in many cases are mounting up faster than the stumpage is Increasing in value. In California and the Pacific Northwest, for example, the capital- ized value of privately owned timberlands is estimated at approxi- mately $1,100,000,000. Much of this is bonded, and on all of it carry- ing charges are heavy, while in recent years stumpage values have risen little or not at all. Coneeeieae all except the strongest owners have been forced to cut, irrespective of the demand, in order to meet current expenses and to retire their investment. In times of depressed market conditions the natural result of this has been to bring about a greater cut than the market can absorb at prevailing prices, with con- sequent failure of the weaker owners and general instability of the lumber industry. From the standpoint of the manufacturer, overproduction begins when lumber prices do not return the cost of production plus a living profit. Curiously enough, this condition sometimes has accompanied a decrease in the total lumber cut. The explanation of this paradox lies in the fact that a decreasing demand for lumber, which is of course particularly marked in periods of general depression, means lower prices. In other words, the decreased demand that always ac- Eee 42 BULLETIN 638, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. companies poor markets may be more than sufficient to offset even a considerable decrease in supply. This was the case in western Wash- ington in 1915, when overproduction was very marked in spite of a lumber production approximately 13 per cent less than that of 1913. In addition to the losses to manufacturers brought about by such a condition, this reduced cut probably meant a decrease of from ~ $7,000,000 to $8,000,000 in wages paid to laborers, to say nothing of correspondingly decreased expenditures for supplies and equipment. ‘Moreover, logging at such times is accompanied by a waste of much — material in the woeds, since depressed market conditions make it — unprofitable to harvest the lower grades and inferior species. From the standpoint of the public, overproduction caused by timber specu- Jation means the premature and wasteful exploitation of an essential © resource, decreased opportunities for the employment of labor and investment of capital, and hard times generally for individuals and industries dependent on lumbering. IN CUT-OVER LANDS. Tying up agricultural lands—Perhaps even more important from a social standpoint than the holding of mature timber is speculation in cut-over lands. This does net mean that such speculation has been universal. On the contrary, many owners, actuated by real public spirit, have attempted to secure the seipiemens of their cut- over lands under the right conditions or to hold them for future forest production. In spite of such instances, however, speculation in cut-over lands has been much too frequent, and has acted in two opposite directions: to prevent the development of good agricultural lands, and to encourage the settlement of nonagricultural lands. Whether such lands are put on or kept off the market depends en- tirely on the speculator, who naturally follows whichever course ap- parently will be most profitable for him, 1 irrespective of its effect on the individual settler or on the community. In the case of lands which are really suitable for agriculture, ~ the tendency is for the speculator to hold them out of use in order to secure the benefit of the rise in land values that is sure to follow ~ increase of population. This is done more often by offering the lands — for sale at a price in excess of their true present value than by re- fusal to sell at any price. Examples of this practice, which generally — is looked upon as “ good business,” are so common as scarcely to ex- © cite comment. A single illustration of how it works out in actual — practice will therefore suffice. In western Washington some 700,000 acres were eliminated from i the Olympic National Forest in 1900 and in 1901 for the ostensible — reason that the area was good agricultural land and that its reten- FORESTRY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT. 13 tion under public ownership blocked development. The usual course ‘of events then took place. The bulk of the land, which was for the most part heavily timbered, was at once taken up under the different land laws by “homesteaders,” who immediately proceeded to dispose of it to various timber companies. Considerable areas were cut over by these companies, while other portions were held for speculation. Most of the cut-over lands have passed into the hands of land com- panies; a very small portion into the hands of bona fide settlers. Forty dollars and over per acre is asked for tracts that will require _at least $150 more per acre to clear. Fifteen years after the elimina- tion of the area from the National Forest only some 600 acres cut of the 700,000 had been put under cultivation. Timberland worth $30,000,000 has passed from public to private ownership, and the development of the bulk of the area that is fitted for agriculture has been postponed indefinitely. Té is estimated that on the west coast of Washington and Oregon there are now some 4,000,000 acres of cut-over Douglas fir lands, and that this area is peme added to at the rate of about 150,000 acres a year. Although a large part of this area consists of good agricultural soil, only a slp ratively small portion of it has been put under cul- tivation, and the agricultural development of the region is proceed- ing much more slowly than its resources warrant. This is due in part to the high cost of clearing the land of stumps and logging débris, to lack of transportation facilities, and to distance from mar- ket. But all these difficulties are intensified by the speculative value placed upon the land, which often adds just enough burden to make its cultivation unprofitable and so to keep it out of use. Selling sand barrens and swamps for farms.—in the case of non- agricultural cut-over lands there is little or no promise of a specula- tive rise in value, and the speculator usually disposes of them as rapidly as pessible. Misrepresentation very often plays an impor- tant part in this. Dreary, sterile sand barrens and water-soaked swamps are pictured as fertile, wonderfully productive farm lands, as extraordinarily fine grazing grounds, or as the most delightful lecations for summer resorts. Naturally, it is those who know least about such things who are ensnared most easily. Clerks, stenog- raphers, mill hands, day laborers, and others from the city, who would have difficulty in making a living off the most fertile farm in the country, not infrequently invest all they have in the hope of being able to establish themselves independently on a piece of land of their very own. In such cases it is only a few years before inevitable fail- ure forces them to abandon the land and return to their tasks with just a little less confidence in themselves, a little less hope for the future, and a great deal less faith in the honesty of their fellow man. 44 BULLETIN 638, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. : The sand plains of Michigan and Wisconsin are dotted with de- caying dwellings and abandoned fields that tell the tale of the spec- ulator in cut-over lands and his victims. Practically all these areas, which originaly were covered with timber, were at one time the prop- erty of the State. Gradually, however, the bulk of them passed into the hands of private owners who proceeded to strip them of their tim- ber. The cut-over lands were then sold to the so-called development companies or allowed to revert to the State for taxes. Large areas ot these delinquent tax lands also fell into the hands of speculators threugh subsequent sale by the State. What happened to them can best be made clear by citing a few instances. in Michigan, for example, until a few years ago the practice was for the State to sell, at an average price of approximately $i an acre, lands that had reverted to it through the nonpayment of taxes. A large proportion of these lands was acquired by speculators, many of whom were not even residents of the State, and who preceeded to use them as a means for exploiting the more creduious portion of the general public. It has been estimated officially that less than 5 per cent of the lands disposed of in this way were sold to actual settlers. The land sharks naturally proceeded to realize on their investment as secon and as handsomely as possible. One lot of lands purchased from the State for an average of 86 cents an acre was sold for $12 per acre, a profit of about 1,300 per cent. Still greater profits some- times were made by the.shrewd scheme of dividing the land into summer-resort lots consisting of from one-tenth to one-fourth acre, and selling these for from $10 to $15 a lot. Practiaily all these sales were made through misrepresentation. Full-page advertise- ments in the Chicago and Detroit papers and attractively illustrated pamphlets contained such statements as the following: We have a glorious climate, the best water on earth, and easily Geared land which produces as much money per acre as any in the United States or Canada. Come and be one of us. Roscommon County will grow more and better wheat, oats, rye, speltz, timothy hay, clover seed, beams, field peas, potatoes, cabbages, sugar beets, turnips, and rutabagas to the acre than any other county in the State, or in Illinois, Indiana, or Ghio. Lands with such wonderful posstbilities as these were to be had from the development companies for the nominal sum of $6 and up per acre. To some extent they were bought as an investment, usualiy by city dwellers of small means, in anticipation of the rapid rise m value that surely would take place in lands so full of promise. Con- siderable areas, however, were bought by bona fide settlers. One Jand company stated that during the period from 1901 to 1907 more land in Roscommon and Crawford Counties was sold to active FORESTRY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT. 15 farmers than in all the rest of the State together. These prospective settlers included both actual farmers who were attracted by the cheap price and ease of clearing, and clerks, stenographers, and other city workers who had no real knowledge of agriculture but were dazzled by the prospect of an easy and independent life. Needless to say, their expectations were not realized. As one of the State forest war- dens expressed it: A.man will have more fun for his money by throwing it in the lake and see ing the splash. When these poor fellows from the cities buy a section of this jand they expect to be able to grew something upon it. The result is that they eke out a miserable existence for a year or so, and then abandon the farm and are glad to get back to the city, whers the pay envelope is handed out each Saturday night. This does not mean that the entire region is nonagricultural; portions of it contain good land where farming is profitable. It does mean, however, that the lands which have reverted to the State for taxes and which form the principal stock m trade of the land companies have been classified naturally by a gradual culling process as the poorest in the region. They are chietly light sands of the type concerning which one of the old-timers once said: Of course you can farm those lands. -All you need is two things—a shower of rain every week day and a shower of fertilizer on Sunday. Not having sufficient control over the elements to bring about such a desirable combination, most of the would-be settlers sooner or later were forced to give up their attempts to cultivate land better suited for forest production than for farming. The result of the activities of the land speculators in forcing the settlement of nonagricultural lands m these regions has been described as follows by a man thor- oughly familiar with local conditions: IT spent five days around Harrison and I saw abandoned farms in great numbers. I will bet I saw i80 farmhouses boarded up and desolate, and in some of them were the cook stoves, rocking chairs, and a lot of other stuff left behind, for they evidently had no money to cart it away. A whole lot of life’s tragedy is written on the Michigan sand barrens. New settlers are going in right along to try the same old experiment of thrashing a living out of the sand and nothingness, and will meet with the same result. A similar fate met those who invested in summer-resort lots, whether for speculation or for actual residence. A few of these were desirable locations on lake fronts, but the great majority were on desolate sand barrens or in impassable sphagnum swamps. ‘These facts, of course, did not appear in the advertisements. Purchasers were led to believe that they were securing property of unusual attractiveness in a colony that was bound to be one of the most popu- lar summer resorts in the State. In order to get the thing started and to secure the right kind of peeple prices were reduced at the ee ————————————————————————————————ew 16- BULLETIN 638, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. outset (to a point where the profit to the speculator would be only a few hundred per cent), or one or two extra lots would be thrown in as a bonus. Not infrequently it happened that when an owner came to look up his lot on the ground he found it in an entirely dif- ferent location from that which he had been shown on the map. A particularly pitiful case is that of a laundress from Chicago who bought a lot in a proposed colony that was to be one of the jargest and most desirable in the State. As she thought the matter over, however, she became more and more convinced that one lot would not be sufficient to handle all of the business that she undoubt- edly would have. So she looked up the promoter to see whether it would still be possible to add another to it. Yes, he would be glad to accommodate her, although the rate at which the property had been selling would necessitate a small advance in price. The laun- dress, of course, was delighted at her good fortune. Some time later, when she came to look up her property, she found that her original lot, ike most of the others in the colony, was in the midst of a sphagnum swamp, and that the second one was a mile or more from it on the other side of a lake! The extent to which the colony actu- ally developed may be judged from the fact that in the spring of 1916, 1,678 lots in the original “park” and its three “additions” were advertised for taxes in the local newspaper. Statements made by land companies that 44,000 acres of land in the vicinity of certain lakes in Roscommon County changed owners between July 1, 1904, and June 1, 1905, and that up to February, 1908, about 40,000 people had bought lands and lots around Higgins Lake, may be true. Nevertheless, the fact that the population of the entire county in 1910, according to the census, was only 2,274 is suffi- cient proof that these activities did not result in really developing the region. As a matter of fact, permanent settlers have not been se- cured. Instead the land has been neglected and laid waste by fire, and little progress has been made in the production of the crop for which it is best suited—timber. Had the State adopted earlier its present policy of reserving for forest purposes all lands which revert to the State for nonpayment of taxes and which are nonagricultural, speculation in these lands would have been largely averted and a good start made toward restoring the forest and eventually building up permanent forest communities. COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT INTERRUPTED. TOO FEW OR TOO MANY IMPROVEMENTS. The amount of taxes contributed by the lumber industry in well- wooded regions has varied markedly from place to place. Instances are by no means unknown where receipts from taxes in lumber towns have been extraordinarily small in view of the amount of taxable FORESTRY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT. 17 _ property inthetown. Such property has belonged mainly to the large lumber companies, which were by far the best organized and the most powerful influence in the community. Seldom, under these circum- stances, did the township cfficials impose a heavy tax rate or assess the company property at a sufficiently high value. As a result, the community did not have sufficient funds to pay for the improvements that its resources fully justified. Schools were cheaply built, poorly equipped, and manned with inefficient teachers; roads were badly constructed and their maintenance neglected; proper sanitation was not provided; and water and lighting systems were inadequate or entirely lacking. On the other hand, imstances_ also are nosy where towns with very similar pees have gone to the other extreme m such mat- ters. Schools, roads, and other public works have been constructed that were almost too good for the community. When this has hap- pened, the bills have usually been paid, at least in part, not by in- creased taxation, but by issuing bonds or notes. Sometimes these have been made payable several years after the date of issue, sometimes on demand. In the latter case, however, it has been likely to happen that because of “ financial difficulties” or for other reasons payment of the notes has been postponed from year to year. In either event it has often come about that the obligations have remained outstand- ing until after the departure of the lumber company, which, having had the benefit of the improvements, left them to be paid for in large part by others. DEPRECIATION IN PROPERTY VALUES. In addition to the general demoralization caused by such practices as these, the community is impoverished through the destruction of its most valuable resource. Only too often this has been the means of practically bankrupting communities in regions where land is of little value for anything except forest production. Thriving manu- facturing towns have been succeeded by almost deserted villages. Taxable property has been reduced to a minimum. Not only this, but the value of the propery that remains is impaired seriously as a result of the decrease in population. In towns where values have depreciated in this way it is not uncommon to find houses and lots offered for sale for amounts which shortly before, when prosperity abounded, would have been insufficient to pay more than a few months’ rent. Even in regions where the land is well suited for agriculture and eventually should be cleared for cultivation, too rapid removal of the forest may be detrimental because of its effect in reducing taxable values. All farming communities require a certain length of time 16946°—Bull. 688—18——3 18 BULLETIN 638, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. -to become firmly established, and it is a great assistance if other in- dustries are present to help tide over this preparatory period. In regions where the land is primarily valuable for forest production, the maintenance of the forest property in a productive condition is of course essential for the continued prosperity of the inhabitants. It has been stated+ that “there are in Pennsylvania several coun- ties that were once prosperous, because rich in forest, but which are now reduced to an almost bankrupt condition because the timber is yone. The land is too poor and cold to encourage remunerative agri- culture.” Stewardson Township, in which is located the once busy sawmill town of Cross Fork, is in one of these counties. Assessed real estate values in this township dropped from $896,862 in 1904 to — $18,815 in 1914—a decrease of 98 per cent in 10 years.2. The precari- — cas financial condition of the town is emphasized by the fact that it is still carrying a debt of several thousand dollars in school and road bonds left over from the days of its prosperity. If it had not been for the State, which for some years has been buying up cut-over land in that region, on which it has paid the township annually 2 cents an acre for sehiaute and an equal amount for roads, bankruptey would have been inevitable. As it happens, the $1,645.60 paid to the town- ship each year by the State has been sufficient to save the situation. DELINQUENT TAX LANDS. Still another aspect of the matter is that concerned with delinquent tax lands. In some sections of the country timberland owners have indulged in the practice of allowing their taxes to lapse for several years rail they amounted to more than the value of the land, and then buying title from the State again for the nominal sum of $14 an acre or thereabouts. This cheap way of paying taxes has meant, of course, a loss to the community approximately equal to the gain to the indi- vidual, in addition to the cost of advertising. i Advertising of such delinquent tax lands has in itself been a hee expense to the State, though a material profit to the small country newspapers. In Michigan, for example, during the 10 years from 1896 to 1905, more than a eon and a half Spies was spent for ad- vertising delinquent tax lands and for extra clerical help in the auditor general’s office. In the supplement to the Roscommon Herald-News for March 30, 1916, were published no lesc than 4,131 descriptions of land and lots in Roscommon County alone on which taxes were delinquent. Three thousand one hundred and seventy- four of these were for village and “resort” lots. The advertisements covered more than four and a half pages and must have been the source of considerable profit to the paper. In all probability the 1“ Areas of Desolation in Pennsylvania,” by J. T. Rothrock, 1915. 2See reports of the State Secretary of Internal Affairs in Pennsylvania. FORESTRY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT. — - 19 expense incurred by the State in this advertising was almost a com- plete loss, since it is not likely that more than a very small per cent of the lands advertised, consisting for the most part of sand ener and swamps, actually were sold. Such conditions obviously tended to put a premium on fraudulent land dealing. Cut-over lands of little value except for forest pro- duction, for example, could be acquired cheaply by the speculator, divided into small lots, the smaller and more numerous the better, and sold as resort lots, fruit farms, or chicken ranches to persons unacquainted with local conditions. Almost any price would be sufficient to net a handsome profit. In addition the register of deeds would receive a tidy sum for recording transfers of title. Before long the purchasers would discover the true character of the land they had bought, taxes would be allowed to lapse, and the local news- papers would benefit substantially from the subsequent advertisement of delinquent tax lands by the State. Some years later the land again might be acquired by speculators and the same procedure repeated. Such transactions have proved highly profitable to spec- ulators, newspapers, and registers of deeds, and equally unprofitable to the individual investor and the general public. At the same time the land has been withheld from the use to which it was best suited. ABANDONED RAILROADS. _ The way in which the forest resources of a region are handled has an important influence on the development and permanence of its transportation facilities. To a very considerable extent the lum- ber industry has been instrumental in connecting remote regions with the rest of the country. In some parts of the country practi- cally every one of the main trunk lines of to-day started as a logging railroad. Lumbering was the only industry to‘ call people to the region in any considerable numbers, and wood products were the only freight to come out. Where the land was valuable for agricul- ture, farming to a large extent succeeded lumbering. Often, how- ever, there were no local markets for the farm crops raised on such lands, and it was only because transportation facilities, which had already been developed by the forest resources of the country, were available, that their successful utilization was possible. In other words, the forest by calling the railroads into existence made pos- sible agriculture, which in turn made the railroads permanent. _ In regions primarily adapted to forest production, destructive lum- bering has a very different ultimate effect on transportation facili- ties. Here logging railroads in abundance are constructed while the timber is being exploited, and the most remote points are made easy of access. With the removal of the timber, however, the railroads - 20 BULLETIN 638, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. go too. Business dwindles away to little or nothing, and it is not long before the rails are pulled up and the region left inaccessible and desolate. Hundreds of miles of abandoned railroad grades with rotting ties are to be seen where the history of the lumber industry has taken this course. In regions where large areas of absolute forest ad are inter- spersed with patches of eed agricultural land the same thing is true. Complete removal of the forest means a marked depreciation in the value of the farm land, if not its entire abandonment. With the tim- ber gone, the amount of freight to be handled is reduced to such an extent that it may be unprofitable for the railroad to continue oper- ation; and even if the railroad is maintained, the decreased business to be taken care of necessarily involves poorer service. If the forests were so handled as to insure continuous production, transportation facilities then could be maintained, agriculture developed wherever conditions were favorable, and the fullest possible utilization secured of all the resources of the region. In this connection it is worth while to note that on land of average quality the production, in weight, of wood material is fully as great as, if not greater than, that of farm crops. Suppose, for example, that an acre of land will produce 1,500 pounds a year, dry weight, of wheat or oats, including both grain and straw. The same land, even if given practically no attention, should produce at least half a cord of wood a year, with approximately the same dry weight. If the forest is properly handled, however, it should be possible to double this yield, giving an advantage of 1,500 pounds in favor of the wood. On poor land, scarcely fitted for agriculture at all, the comparison undoubtedly would be even more favorable to the wood. A LOWER STANDARD OF POPULATION. One of the unfortunate results of the failure of lumber operations, as usually conducted, to build up well-organized, stable communi- ties is seen both in the character of the population dependent on it and in that left on the cut-over lands after the industry has moved on. The average lumberjack is a hardy, picturesque figure; but, moving from place to place and from region to region as the timber is cut out, he necessarily leads a roving, restless existence. A permanent home and a normal family hfe are impossible. In western Washing- ton, for example, only 14 per cent of the employees in logging camps are married.*’ For these few the difficulties in the way of leading an orderly life, of maintaining a normal home, and of giving their chil- dren even a fair education are almost insuperable. A typical lumber 1“ Need of Working Plans on National Forests and the Policies Which Should Be Embodied in Them,” by B. P. Kirkland, in the Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters, Vol. KX, No. 4. FORESTRY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT. eta Zi camp, with its prevailingly rough, masculine population, its cheap buildings, and its frequent lack of Soni. is by no means the best place in wed to rear a family. Nor are conditions greatly superior in the rude sawmill towns which flourish for a few years while the timber is being cut, only to fade away with its disappearance. Here there may be more of the elementary conveniences and decencies of life, but there is the same atmosphere of unrest, of instability, and even of immorality. The life of such towns is likely to be abnormal and their prosperity only temporary. Permanent homes, strong characters, and good citizens ean not be built on so unstable a foundation. , As to the after effects of destructive lumbering, the scanty popu- jation left in the cut-over nonagricultural regions has little chance for development. Deserted villages and the barren lands by which they are surrounded not only offer little opportunity for employment but also exercise a depressing influence on the settler and his family. The men with most ambition, enterprise, and energy, the people who really accomplish things, move on to new fields, where they are not faced by the prospect of certain stagnation. It is usually the weaker ones who are left behind. Particularly serious is the effect of such deterioration on the coming generation. Destructive lumbering also has its effect on the well-being of the city dweiler by destroying his vacation ground. For the sportsman, the nature lover, and the recreationist, the conversion of a magnifi- cent virgin forest into an ugly, stump-covered, and fire-blackened waste represents a very real loss. Not only have the trees them- selves gone, but with them the flowers and ferns, the mosses and lichens, the birds and the deer, all that gave the woods their peculiar charm. Even springs may have gone dry and brooks become turbid and unlovely. From the mountains and the valleys, the streams and the lakes, man draws his inspiration and his strength; and to all of these the forest adds the final touch. Who cares to go fishing on a river or boating on a lake that has no trees? Withor ut them some- thing vital is lacking. A country once rich in forests can not allow them to be converted inte unsightly wastes without paying a penalty, however intangible, in weakening the character of its population. SUGGESTIONS FOR A RATIONAL TIMBERLAND POLICY. NEED FOR A BIFFERENT SYSTEM OF HANDLING FOREST LANDS. That, from a social standpoint, the system under which our forest resources have been handled in the past has not worked well is fairiy clear. Sufficient lumber has been supplied to meet the needs of the country as a whole, but this has been done in such a way as to cause much waste and in certain localities te bring about local shortages of 22 BULLETIN 638, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, timber. Forest regions have been well developed, provided with excellent transportation facilities, and made prosperous for a few years, only to be stripped of their timber and left desolate, poverty=_ stricken, and depopulated. Speculation and fraudulent land deal<— ing have been practiced extensively. Permanent homes and normal family life have been the exception rather than the rule, and the standard of citizenship has been lowered. i For all these results the economic system adopted by the country, — rather than the individual timber owner or operator, is of course primarily responsible. The individual was not only allowed, but actually encouraged, to follow whatever course would best advance his own interests; and if m doing so he brought about certain social and economic effects that were detrimental to the welfare of the com-_ munity as a whole, the public has only itself to blame for the result. The private owner very naturally did not feel that it was incum-_ bent upon him to provide for the needs of future generations, nor did the adoption of such measures as would place the forest on a per-— manent producing basis appeal to him as an attractive investment. — As a matter of fact, probably the great majority of private owners, — and indeed of the general public, hardly thought of such matters at all, or if they did, it was generally with the easy feeling that the future would take care of itself. How it has done so in a number of 7 important respects has been pointed out in the preceding pages. , It has often been ‘argued that these results, regrettable as they are, — could not have been avoided, because the country could have been — developed at a satisfactory rate only by the individualistic “ let-~ alone” system that was actually adopted. This statement is open to considerable question; but even if it is true, that is no reason why the system should still be continued. Economic conditions have changed completely within the last century, and, more important still, the general public now has an entirely different attitude toward problems that affect the community welfare. The tendency of the 4 times is clearly to emphasize the social rather than the purely in-" dividualistic point of view. A system that may have been suited to™ the needs of the country a century or even a few decades ago may be- distinctly unsuited to them now. ‘This is very evidently the case so_ far as the “let-alone” system of handling our forest lands is con-” cerned. From a community standpoint that system obviously has_ broken down. The problem now is to replace it by one that so far as possible will retain the good and eliminate the evil of the old system. Fundamentally this mvolves merely substituting the practice of forestry for timber “ mining,” but this in turn involves a number of different steps that deserve some further consideration. a, y Be FORESTRY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT. 23 LAND CLASSLFICATION. The first step is to determine what lands should be devoted to forest production. Asa basis for this, tt would be extremely desirable to have a thorough classification of lands throughout the country made by competent public authorities. This classification should aim to pomt out the use to which the land is best adapted. CObvi- ously it is an economic waste to grow trees on the best agricultural jJands or to attempt to farm the poorest forest lands—so obvious, in fact, that the mistake is seldom made. But between these two ex- remes are all sorts of cases in which the economic waste of putting the land to the wrong use is less obvious but none the less real. On such lands as these a classification is particularly needed. A great deal has already been accomplished in the way of soil and geological surveys. These are valuable so far as they go, but they do not go far enough. What is needed is not only information regard-" ing the origin, composition, and depth of the soil, and the topography and climate of the region, but an mterpretation of these factors in terms of their usefulness to man. The best present use of the land, furthermore, depends not onlv on the physical factors of soil and climate, but also on such economic factors as the availability and quality of agricultural lands elsewhere, the market for agricuitural crops, transportation facilities, and the like. In the last analysis the problem boils down to such specific questions as these: Should this piece of land under present economic conditions be devoted to oak or to alfalia? Should that piece be used for growing white pine er corn ? Such a classification as this, which of course should be conducted by representatives of the State or Nation, can not help invelving many difficulties. Years ago it probably would have been imprac- ticable; even to-day mistakes will be made. But that is no reason why the work should not be undertaken as promptly and pushed as rapidly as pessible. A small start has already been made in this direction. in the National Forests, for example, no land is opened for entry under the homestead laws until it has been examined care- fully to determine whether it really has agricultural possibilities. Tn the last few years surveys have been made of entire Forests, and on the basis of these surveys the land has been classified permanently as primarily valuable for agricultural or for forest purposes. In some of the State forest reserves agricultural settlement is not allowed at all or only after a thorough examination to determine the value of the particular tract of land for this purpose. Many areas in every region can be classified almost at once as either agricultural (including grazing) or forest land. Many others will have to be classified as intermediate, by which is meant that they 24 BULLETIN 638, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 4 may be devoted to either purpose as local conditions and the eco- — nomic development of the region make one or the other more profit- — able. Undoubtedly many of these intermediate lands, perhaps most of them, for the present can be used most advantageously for the pro- — duction of timber crops. 6 336 0163 ers Rebus lasses eee 150'to 250 gallons asc: Oe ee tie 35 5, 594 10. 46 569 10.17 25)':to:500 gallons: 225. =5 = eeeee=teene eae | 3,960 7.41 915 23.11 bOLItG 1,000 gallonst f-2 2 ee ee 5 | 3,365 6.29 1,195 35.51 More than 1,000 gallons.................... 11 | 40, 205 75.21 2, 165 5.38 Motalice.. 2. 2b cs tees ee eee 68 | 53,460 100. 00 | 4, 844 9.06 Sixty-eight dealers in Detroit bought milk from farmers direct and had plants for preparing it for market distribution, either © through their own or other dealers’ equipment. The grouping of the dealers in accordance with average quantities of milk handled daily shows that the greater portion of the business was handled by com- paratively few dealers. PRICES PAID TO FARMERS. Most of the larger dealers paid for milk on a butterfat basis, while the niajority of smaller ones bought their milk by weight or measure without allowing premiums or making deductions based on butterfat content, sediment test, bacterial content, or the score of the dairy farm on which it was produced. The larger companies usually based their monthly price quotations to farmers upon a butterfat test of 3.5 per cent. For each one-tenth of 1 per cent butterfat the milk tested below 3.5 per cent the price was reduced 2 cents a hun- MARKET MILK BUSINESS OF DETROIT, MICH., IN 1915. 5 dredweight. For milk testing more than 3.7 per cent a premium of 2 cents for each one-tenth of 1 per cent butterfat was paid. When compared upon a common basis the prices actually paid by the vari- ous dealers were found to vary considerably. Figure 2 shows the average prices (f. 0. b. Detroit) paid by milk dealers handling different quantities of milk during 1915, as well as the rather wide seasonal variations in prices paid to farmers. A fundamental reason for these variations is that at certain seasons the quantity of milk supplied by farmers is either above or below the city demands, because farmers generally can not regulate their daily and seasonal production in accordance with the varying de- mands of city consumers. As farmers generally did not utilize the 1915 NE Ju AVERAGE OF ALL DEALERS wooo AV. OF DEALERS OPERATING 1-5 WAGONS Paes " ” 6-29 2 3O-/5Q * Fic. 2.—Average prices paid farmers by all milk dealers, grouped according to number of delivery wagons operated by each. milk produced in excess of the demands for market milk, the dealers bought all the milk. That necessitated the manufacture of cheese, butter, or condensed milk, which seldom yield as much as market” milk. Some of the dealers who had no facilities for the economical disposal of skim milk actually dumped it into the sewers. The prices paid by the larger dealers fluctuated more than those paid by the smaller ones. The latter also usually paid the highest prices for their milk, which is explained in part by the fact that the former obtained their supplies from localities farther from the city, where competition for market milk was not so keen, and where in- ereased costs of transportation tended to reduce the prices paid to the farmer as is shown in Table Ii. 6 BULLETIN 639, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tapre I1—Transportation costs in relation to farmers’ prices. ae S Freight or Shi ta prices g a ranioe Shi tati ase prices T deal ipping station anes a iP ealer ipping station | cost per er number. 10-galion 10-ga eae £ 0. b. number. 10-ga, fon 10-gallon i 0. b. etroit. can t etroit. Detrort. Detroit. Detroit, | Detroit. ff HS BSE Sie s $0.15 $1.53 $1. 68 hee see Sats Sates Sone $0.20 $1.53 $1.73 OE AE 15 1.49 1.64 1 En ee Sone - 22 1.42 1.64 Dens saah. LE eee -15 1.53 1.68 pa a el 1.42 1.65 Za ee or .175 1.53 172050 AO! : ono ee pce ae 24 1.36 1.60 Bisset Jee Aki tied .175 1.42 w Lease) | fd ER a daca Fe a ad 28 1.28 1.56 Go oses Sa 28 oe ee =475 1.53 12705 | $2R 2 ee ee 1.23 1.53 This table shows that although there was a tendency to pay less for milk or cream as the distance and cost of transportation increased, “1315 PERE PERE SEG) Serer ele ae Pobre eNOS 77 FE Pele CNet er Fic. 3.—Comparisons of average prices paid by Detroit milk dealers with value of the milk if the cream had been delivered to local creameries and the skim milk fed to live stock on the farm. the prices actually paid to farmers depended upon other factors as well. In territory where farmers could sell to local creameries or cheese factories the prices for milk were influenced by the prevailing market prices of butter and cheese. Table III and figure 3 show the relation between average prices paid by the Detroit milk dealers in 1915 and the average monthly | wholesale butter quotations in Chicago. The table and figure also present the estimated possible returns which farmers might have obtained if they had marketed their cream at local cooperative cream- eries, whose product is generally sold in accordance with Chicago quotations. The estimated returns are based upon the assumption . aetyere MARKET MILK BUSINESS OF DETROIT, MICH., IN 1915. a ‘that skim milk has a value of 30 cents a hundredweight for feeding purposes. Ninety pounds of skim milk were allowed for each 100 of whole milk. TABLE II1I.—Average prices, by months, paid for 100 pounds of 3.7 per cent milk by all classes of milk dealers in Detroit; also estimated average returns for butterfat delivered to a local creamery. Average prices paid per hundredweight | Possible returns of milk. from creameries.? Average For but- Months. prices pel! Por but- |terfat plus pound for terfat per| 27 cents Small | Medium] Large All | butters | Py rdroal| for 90 dealers. | dealers. | dealers. | dealers. weight of | pounds of s Cents. $1. 91 $1. 884 $1. 836 $1. 876 31.7 $1. 321 $1. 591 1.91 1. 884 1. 823 1. 872 30. 437 1. 534 1.91 1. 864 1.77 1. 848 27. 204 1.119 1.389 1.68 1.678 1. 442 1.60 30. 375 1. 262 1. 532 1.68 1. 63 1. 180 1.73 27. 46 1.130 1. 400 1. 68 1. 588 1. 235 1. 501 27.175 1.118 1. 388 1.795 1.618 1.343 1.585 at) 1. 042 1.312 1.68 1.720 1. 523 1.641 24. 293 - 987 1. 257 SOMLeM ber onc s-eheccnsaaccecoss 1.68 1.760 1.616 1. 685 25. 016 1.020 1. 290 October san eek eee Ee ae 1.91 1. 851 1. 733 1. 831 27. 156 1.117 1. 387 November aetiee ss. kere acne 1.91 1. 864 1. 780 1. 851 30. 025 1. 246 1.516 Moacompertae Meese 2k 1.91 1. 942 1. 860 1.904 33. 208 1.390 1.660 Total average...........-- 1. 805 1.774 1. 595 1.744 28. 295 1. 168 1.438 1 Butter prices are the monthly averages of Chicago quotations on the basis of which most of the creameries of that section sell their butter. 2 These returns are computed on basis of 3.7 per cent butterfat in milk and on the basis of 22 per cent Overrun in butter manufacture, and a cost of 2.42 cents a pound for manufacture. The table and figure also show that there was no constant relation between the monthly average wholesale prices of butter in the Chi- cago market and monthly average prices paid for milk by Detroit dealers. Farmers in that territory generally received higher prices for milk than they would have obtained if they had delivered the cream to local creameries for the manufacture of butter and had fed the skim milk on the farm. Farmers have found that it requires great care and expense to produce and deliver daily a good grade of market milk, whereas three deliveries a week are usually sufficient for buttermaking purposes. At certain seasons of the year, however, some of the dealers bought milk for less than it would have yielded the farmers if it had been utilized in the manufacture of butter and the feeding of live stock, which may be explained by the fact that the companies which own and control country milk stations may obtain virtual buying monop- olies in certain localities. The prices paid to farmers for milk usually depend upon existing competition. Small dealers who do not own or control country milk stations are generally unable to buy milk in distant areas. In the abset.ce of market information and ac- tive competition of manufacturing plants it may also be possible to buy market milk -for less than it would yield for manufacturing purposes. 19462°—18—Bull. 6392 8 BULLETIN 639, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. = a COLLECTING AND HANDLING MILK IN THE COUNTRY. The milk dealers in Detroit obtained their supplies of milk and cream either from individual farmers direct or through country — receiving and cooling stations. The smaller dealers usually gathered their supplies near by, mainly because they could not afford the investments in country receiving stations, through which the larger dealers collect the most of their supplies from the more distant areas of production. (See fig. 1 and Table IV.) Most of the supply which came from neighboring territory was gathered from farms by means of wagons or motor trucks owned by the city dealers. Con- siderable quantities of both milk and cream were also shipped directly to the city by farmers who lived near railway stations or crossroads ~ milk-shipping platforms. There was keen competition for all-sup- plies of milk or cream directly accessible to the city. In order to obtain milk from many farmers who lived too far from railroad stations or shipping platforms to make direct shipping prac- ticable, it was necessary to establish facilities for collecting milk enough at one place to permit more economical transportation to the city plant. Farmers generally do not consider it advisable to make daily trips for delivering milk when the shipping station is more than 5 miles away. An additional advantage of the country receiving and cooling stations was that milk could be cooled to the proper tem- — perature before it was shipped to the city; furthermore, the inspec- tion and buying of milk according to quality was expedited. Whena farmer watches the sampling of his milk and the making of sediment — and butterfat tests he understands better the justice of paying differ- ent prices for different grades of milk. It often happens that dairy products can be manufactured more economically in the country than in the city, and for that reason the larger milk companies fre- quently operate country milk plants, where the surplus not required for market milk trade may be converted into other products. Table IV shows the quantities of market milk obtained through country stations during June, 1915. TABLE 1V.—WMilk obtained through country stations during June, 1915. l | Number Number of gallons fstations received monthly. race | N er om « Number of wagons operated by dealers. of goalors.| which Po soe milk was From From | stations received.| stations farms, ‘ AOS. te abcd ci ee pe ee mee acest ey Se ees BO ARES tien no | SEPP rr 291,600 |. -<---seeie 6 to 29...... 745 REET aie MES TS GT iecte 11 22 356,224 | 239, 005 59. 8 30 £0,150 5s sexe pS ir ecwe es: shade spec 2 51 1, 002, 606 153, 257 86.7 Nghe ince Sek moe Siig SE a | 68 73 | 1,358,830 | 683, 862 66.5 MARKET MILK BUSINESS OF DETROIT, MICH., IN 1915. 9 The total number of gallons handled by different groups of dealers, as shown in Tables I and IT, does not correspond to the total shown in Table IV, because large quantities of milk were bought from farmers by those dealers and not used for market milk purposes but manufactured into butter, cheese, condensed milk, powdered milk, and casein. * . The larger companies obtained the greater part of their supply through the country milk stations or “collecting depots,” which they usually owned. A few of the country stations were owned either by farmers’ cooperative associations or by individual farmers whose dairy houses were equipped to handle truck loads of milk pro- duced on neighboring farms. (See PI. I, fig. 1.) The typical milk-receiving station consisted of a wooden-framed building equipped with a small boiler, apparatus for washing and sterilizing milk utensils, scales for weighing milk, and a tank for holding the cans of milk in ice water until time to ship to the city. During the winter natural ice was usually stored in an adjoining building for use in the summer. Stations which skimmed or utilized surplus milk at certain seasons had additional and more expensive equipment, such as receiving tanks, mixing vats, cheese vats, sepa- rators, churns, pasteurizers, coolers, and equipment for condensing milk. (See Pl. I, fig. 2.) Table V shows the relation of the amounts invested in 16 country milk stations to the number of gallons handled daily. TABLE V.—Relation of investment in country stations to gallons of milk handled daily during June, 1915. SASS nesSe Gallons of milk han- Test- died daily. Investment | vont per Station number. ae arial gs See : andle Cooled. Skimmed.| ¢@uipment. daily. vioriss 22722 eSS SSeS Bee ee ee eee arene (ial SERRE Rese $380.00 $4.9: a Tb A Bete tee See 818.00 6. 61 ee ere A ANSI. SA oe Ue S72) ioe J see 440.00 2.5 brrtisscceyes oe SoS R Bee See eee ears ae eae 7740) eS ee ee 876.00 3h cmueaeppeeemerne his CUCL is TOL HES 1) B17 | Lae ea, 1,325.00 4.1 Fos sens ce bad os Sone a ee mE Sl ese eae are 1,675.00 4.3 peer ee th Dd A tal tlt 447, | SP 4o: atkese 609. 00 ie! popemererrmgee nee eke ES ee 8 AG5)| =. 22 ees 1,325.00 2.8 pre eat ents Te eA LICE Bee eee 3, 450. 00 4.4 Wh,» toeoe SOS SESE Se Sg eae aE 942k cle See 4, 553. 00 5.4 imme es eer PAPEL? Seek SP TLE SST OSL F009) | tS eee 2, 253. 00 Poe: bit cceres coo S osu Soe EERE ESE ES Bee ee eae Sees 760 720 1, 800.00 1.22 pe eee NE SEE, eh. Ree 738 830 1,952.00 1.24 ir a Be pe Pc oe teats 1F 9074 | Saree tee 4, 752. 00 2.49 aren eter Gi SUMMIY Ti) Pires eS 1, 404 1, 155 2,053.00 .80 Hpnnere cub IRS Telos 25662 {|Ee eee 5, 745. 00 2.16 PAS EPAU Gs nes meme ase Se Soe ee Te eae ose (KoDa Eeeecetese 2 2, 125.00 3.17 The investment in the stations does not bear a direct relation to the quantity of milk shipped. Some of the stations were creameries or cheese factories which had been converted into receiving stations, 10 BULLETIN 639, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and neither the buildings nor the equipment had been specially pro- vided for the milk-station business. In some cases the investment was larger than necessary when neither milk skimming nor dairy manufacturing was done. Table VI shows the daily expense of maintaining and operating the stations included in Table V. TABLE VI.—Average daily expense of collecting and handling milk at country stations during June, 1915. Gallons handled daily. | Deprecia- tion and Average . Labor and | Routecosts| Total Station number. oer suOr supplies | ofcollect- | station ees ng C Cooled. | Skimmed. | and equip- in plant. | ing milk. | expenses. handled. t $0.90) |. 5. <2. tae $1.07 $0. 013 iLO) | laseccee came 1.06 - 008 390] Same oe aoe 1.10 - 006 N23 Wetec 1.62 - 007 1560 eee cess 2.19 . 006 TEGOn)) ee ete SS hoe 2.34 . 006 AQT esiss ae cies oes 1.24 . 002 QEATA sack done 3.06 - 006 3.53 $4.50 9.56 -012 2.87 3.20 8.09 . 009 210 eke sae se cas 3.70 - 003 2.87 13.87 17. 54 -O11 3.53 10.08 14. 48 - 009 3.97 4.05 10.13 - 005 S290) eee eecice 4.81 001 Si63F TEs sashes _ 8.18 - 003 Average...- 2. 48 7.14 5.64 007 The average cost per gallon of milk for operating the stations varied greatly. When surplus quantities of milk and cream were manufactured into butter, cheese, etc., at country stations, the operat- ing expenses were increased. Some stations, however, show higher operating expenses than others, because the cost of collecting the milk in the country was included in the statement of expenses. COST OF COLLECTING MILK AT COUNTRY STATIONS. The prices paid for milk were usually based upon its delivery f. o. b. the city plant. The cost of transportation, therefore, must be deducted in order to obtain the farmers’ actual net returns. In order to get sufficiently large supplies at some stations the milk dealers had established “ milk-collecting routes” for collecting milk and cream from farmers living as far away as 10 miles. At 19 country milk stations there were 843 patrons, of whom 503 had their milk delivered by paid route men. The farmers’ share of the costs of country collecting averaged 124 cents a hundredweight and varied from 8 to 18 cents a 10-gallon can. In addition to the amount paid by the farmer, the milk dealers were sometimes obliged to pay the route men a bonus of from $2 to $3 a bl cl ay a i i “d eg MARKET MILK BUSINESS OF DETROIT, MICH., IN 1915. Wel trip, depending upon the length of the route. The varying costs on different routes at a single country station for country collecting are shown in Table VII. TaBLe VII.—Cost of collecting milk, by routes, June, 1915. Average Number . P total cost Pounds of | Paid by Paid by Number of route. of “a7. per patrons. milk. farmers. | company. mde weight. 1) a OCR EERE CES SEI naa sete. aU Si ere 6 29, 113 CPA STU So eee $0. 100 pee See we en Be ee wee saree eis ee ae sles Se 14 41, 380 60. 51 $75. 00 327 ee en ee as Semin Se AN es Oa 2 11 32, 402 32. 40 32. 40 199 EN as sie A oy ST Oe oy Pe Spe 13 35, 815 46.18 75. 00 338 By sd Ss6 Sou aoSs oo Bed Sate ae Ore OEE eee aecs 14 30, 242 45.96 87. 50 441 Deiat SlCr eC BE Sole CE aCe ae ee aay Sa rae ae 20 67,911 117.72 117. 72 346 Tee ae aT SS eaters nid Be ee sig a he eet se 23 60, 732 91.09 91.09 299 oD Sb DEORE EE obec cen CBet Se Gee Enbcone Hepes Es 16 48, 544 76. 76 76. 76 316 OE ae ir eee cies See eae eysce coe seers 11 43, 153 43.16 60. 00 239 Oe eee eetee octet ne cae crcpinm saan nocine 4 11, 629 14. 09 14.09 242 TRANSPORTATION OF MILK TO THE CITY. A large portion of the milk produced within a radius of 20 miles of Detroit was “ trucked ” to the city plants either by team or by au- tomobile, but the greater part of the total monthly receipts of milk and cream was shipped on either steam or electric railroads. Table VIII gives the total quantities of milk and cream (both sweet and sour) which were received in Detroit during the month of July, 1915. TABLE VIII.—Quantities of milk received in Detroit during July, 1915. 7 Per cent Means of transportation. Gallons. of total. SHOT ITR TOG ee Oe ee eae SHORE PHOS Ma ame aT Aeaied np Aas Reta a aatente tole Sad 630, 990 41.8 PENIS EET CE OAGS hay seca seat ae tpt nes laraiete Sct pecieece fo Cee Opens 2 Res vey 637, 860 42.3 Menms/Or automobile trucks: jis occ cscs sce on osncene be ne onae oes emo ecu n oes eae cee 239, 780 15.9 “ANCE ett A TH RES RS 74 a a A ae Ame er 1, 508, 630 100.0 The electric lines provided milk cars with side-extension decks which permitted two tiers of cans, while the shipments on steam roads were handled in ordinary baggage cars. The farmers delivered their milk to the shipping stations early in the morning, and most of it arrived in Detroit by noon of the same day. Very little milk was in transit more than 4 hours. In warm weather it was “precooled ” either on the farm or at the country milk stations before it was shipped, as refrigeration was not provided (except in one instance) by the roads. ; Table IX gives a comparison of the milk and cream tariffs (effec- tive August 1, 1915) for shipments of 10-gallon cans of milk or cream into Detroit on the various transportation lines. 12 BULLETIN 639, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE I[X.—Comparison of transportation rates on electric and steam railways in the Detroit market milk territory during the year 1915. Distance, in miles, for which rates apply. Rates per 10-gallon Detroit can. United Railways (electric). g & SBRNRERRENB: g 8 In order to transport bottled milk from a milk-bottling plant about 30 miles from Detroit, an insulated milk car on the electric line was equipped with brine pipes by means of which the car could be refrigerated. Refrigeration was obtained by connecting the brine coils under the ceiling of the car with the brine tanks in the country milk plant, and while the car was being loaded the cold brine was pumped through the coils, thus cooling or refrigerating the car. Milk containers made of fiber were used in place of glass bottles. (See Pl. IT, fig. 1.) The concrete roads which extend into the country surrounding Detroit make it possible to haul a considerable portion of the milk direct from the farms or country milk stations to the city milk plants. Both horse-drawn and motor trucks are used for the pur- pose, although, because of their greater speed, the latter are super- seding the former, especially on long hauls. From a number of country milk stations milk was trucked to the city plants by the same men who had charge of the receiving and cooling operations. The actual amounts paid by milk dealers to per- sons who hauled milk from country stations to the city, by either motor or horse truck, were ascertained at several stations. Table X presents a comparison of the trucking costs with the transportation rates for equal distances by rail. TaBLe X.—Costs of trucking milk compared with rail transportation rates. Average Comparative transportation number | Distance costs per can. Number of station. “4 Oa ay Mie ee ee e iles). eam ectric daily. Trucks. roads. roads. he Fore Soe Soe 6 opera Heo ee aa, Tone Pe ae een 30.7 12} $0.15 $0.20 $0.15 Ee Se ee ee ee a sa eter ee | 31.6 12 15 .20 45 5 a eet ts Oe eS ae ee CRS os woe Oe BEES ae es EL tt oe 46.5 12 15 } .20 15 4 Sotcee fn do Pe EE on as a See ee 40.5 15 eae .20 15 See) “TET FEE GUY Tee BIO Cs Bee Tey | 1125 15| 2175 | -20 15 OTS TE SG Pk SPATE, EE 49.4 Dib pghis Ol .20 15 (Re VOCS | Sa ae | 411 95 | 91475 | 7) 115 43.7 25 -175 . 20 15 _ | Bul. 639, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Fia. 1.—ONE OF THE NEWER COUNTRY STATIONS WHERE MILK WAS RECEIVED AND COOLED BEFORE BEING TRUCKED TO THE CITY OR TO THE RAILWAY SHIPPING POINT. Fia. 2.—A CONDENSARY FROM WHICH SHIPMENTS OF MARKET MILK WERE MADE IN SUCH QUANTITIES AS WERE REQUIRED FROM DAY TO DAY. Bul. 639, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il. Fic. 1.—INTERIOR VIEW OF A SPECIAL REFRIGERATOR CAR USED FOR TRANSPORTING MILK IN FIBER CONTAINERS FROM A COUNTRY MILK PLANT TO DETROIT. Fic. 2.—A City PASTEURIZING AND BOTTLING PLANT HANDLING APPROXIMATELY 145 GALLONS DAILY AND SUPPLYING TWO DELIVERY WAGONS. The total investment in plant and equipment was $4,274, which was an average of $29.48 per gallon handled daily. Bul. 639, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fic. 1.—ONE OF THE LARGEST CITY MILK PLANTS, WITH A CAPACITY FOR HANDLING APPROXIMATELY 15,000 GALLONS DAILY. The average per gallon investment for the group of largest plants in Detroit was approximately $30. Fia@. 2.—ATTRACTIVE BUT EXPENSIVE EQUIPMENT. The disproportionate per gallon investments in equipment between small and large dealers are caused mainly by the well-kept and attractive horses, barns, wagons, and wagon sheds. Such costly investments, however, together with other advertising expenses, are necessitated by competition, MARKET MILK BUSINESS OF DETROIT, MICH., IN 1915. 13 In most cases the cost of trucking was less than the cost of trans- portation by steam railroad and the same as by electric road. It should be explained that electric lines did not serve those stations where costs of trucking were higher than the rates for equal dis- tances on the electric railways. When the milk was shipped by either steam or electric roads, an additional cost of about 14 cents for each 10-gallon can was usually incurred in trucking the milk from the city terminal milk platform to the city milk plant. COST OF MILK DELIVERED TO THE CITY. Figure 2 and Table III show the average prices paid by small, medium, and large dealers for milk f. o. b. Detroit. As shown in Table IV, the smaller dealers did not receive their supplies through country milk stations. To show the total cost of milk f. o. b. Detroit when received through country stations, and the relation of the costs of collecting and handling at these stations, the records of certain typical stations were obtained from a few dealers and are presented in Table XI. TABLE XI.—Relation of daily handling and transportation expenses at country plants to prices paid farmers and total cost of milk f. 0. b. Detroit during June, 1915. Costs of collecting and Expenses of Motall cost of militio. b Paid farmers. handling at country | transporting to station. ; Detroit. Detroit. Station number. In per In per i ; Net ‘ x cent of Cost Cost cent of| Total mount| price |Amount jamoun amount} cost : per |Amount] per |Amount = per day. alia per day. paid) gallon. | per day.| gallon. | per day. paid, Eton ers. ers. $1.07 1.5 | $0.013 $1.13 | $0. 014 $9.20 | 131.3 | $0.119 1.06 8.8 - 008 1. 83 014 14.89 |} 124.0 120 1.10 6.4 - 006 4.73 027 22.83 | 134.2 132 1.62 7.3 - 007 3.37 014 26.99 | 122.6 119 2.19 7.3 - 006 2.57 008 34.76 | 115.8 109 2.34 5.3 - 006 5. 70 014 52.04 | 118.2 136 1.24 2.8 - 002 6. 70 014 51. 94 118.0 116 3. 06 5.6 - 006 6.97 014 64.03 | 118.5 137 9. 56 9.6 - 012 11. 67 014 120.23 | 121.4 154 8.09 9.5 - 009 2305K 027 | 116.66] 137.2 138 3.70 3.4 - 003 27. 23 026} 138.93] 128.6 137 17. 54 PAG - O11 17.47 O11} 118.01] 142.1 137 14.48 14.7 - 009 16. 23 010 | 128.71 | 131.3 167 10.13 83 7 - 005 51.47 026 | 328.60] 123.0 172 4.81 3.4 - 001 33. 67 013 179.48 | 127.2 128 8.18 2.8 - 003 71. 83 026 | 364.01 128.1 136 Average...| 87.00 113 5. 63 7.0 006 17.88 -017 | 110.70 | 126.3 - 134 The “net prices” paid farmers at different stations during the month of June, 1915, varied from 9.2 cents to 14.8 cents a gallon. These prices are not the same as those quoted in the schedule of prices for milk delivered f. o. b. Detroit, but are what the farmers actually received at the particular stations after transportation costs had been 14 BULLETIN 639, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. deducted. The average costs of collecting, handling, and transport- ing to city amount to approximately 25 per cent of the net price paid to the farmers. The last column of the table shows that the cost of milk delivered in Detroit varied considerably, depending upon where it was bought and the varying costs of collecting, handling at sta- tions, and transportation to the city. The dealers paid varying prices in different communities, in accordance with the local competi- tive conditions and the city demands for market milk. There was no fundamental cost basis for the prices which then prevailed in the Detroit territory. (See also Table I and fig. 2.) TRADE DEMANDS IN DETROIT. The business of milk dealers usually consisted of a combination of wholesale and retail trade. The wholesale trade required milk and cream in both cans and bottles; hotels, restaurants, ice-cream manu- facturers, and bakeries generally purchased bulk goods, while hospi- tals, sanitariums, saloons, and soda fountains required both bulk and bottled goods. Retail stores also bought bottled goods at wholesale prices. Prices paid by that class of trade varied greatly, depending largely upon the grade and quantity purchased, as well as upon changing market conditions. Wholesale prices for common milk generally fluctuated around 22 cents a gallon in bulk and 7 cents a quart in bottles. The retail trade of milk dealers consisted of sales to families and (for luncheon) to office and factory workers. The retail price for common milk in Detroit during June, July, and August, 1915 (the time covered by this study) was about 8 cents a quart. Table XII shows the variation of demand on retail milk routes. TaBLe XII.—Variable demands of retail customers for milk, cream, and other milk products, by different retail routes. Certified and Butter-| Average 3 Common milk special. Cream. milk. | daily mies S o - r= eee Slee lal ot ae Pins eels Teale lee | ae en 2, i213 |2i3 |2/8 |4/8 |a4/38 3 3 2/2 s Numberof |}5|5 |Z2/5 |S|5 |2/8 |Z 18 3 o |8]/° = =e 3 2! = B| Ee = ; 2 |3g customers | 3}, -|Z lee .| Slee |B lee | lee oe ee re | [ah ee ~ S. Aeaed onroute. | OISZ Sos SIOZ Tok SoZ Sujoz onic \og ¢ mB | ES S1,,9/S1,,5|/S].S/S1L, 8/518 Ble 2 so SIO 29 o 5 = Co BIBEls BEI EIEE) 5 Sele lBBle SIGE SElelsel = £ = eo) 2 \85/2 |83)2 etaiy fate Weal | S2|2/83| 5] 3/2 |a El, Slat aase | Pall E S o 5313 Isls ISIS |Sls [sis 5 5 |315 5 5 6 > Ala |Z |Z |2e lz & iz i BS ik |e] & | eo pe === mee ee 3 ead NE 3 en Lea 3 4 val 3 34) 9.6 6.8) 4 $24. 44'$0. 069/$247. 00/30. 703 74 Ee ee | 92'42.9 130\60.7| 5) 2.3)-.-).... - selene 7| 3.2) 5.6) 2 14. 50 : DAS 5 oacecce |156 45. 4 215/62. 6 4 5} 1.4) 4) 1.1) 43/12.5) 7.2) 8 27. . VA fs Tene re |109 39. 9 188/68. 3 4 14 5) 1.8} 30/10.9 12.8) 10 22. F 319... .......|130 40. 7207/64. 8 Ay Gh. 2s. ARS 8.7| 10 24. 3 ee oe |129)36. 2'239)67.1)..-|...-|---]..-- ee Bese 51/14.3 16.0) 6 26. : SPIES |134 39. 8 252/75. 0 Hh Bseiees. Le | Sae e 12} 3.5) 2) 13 22. . AR eee |183/53. 1 251/72. 9 1 | Wea Be | al Eee 8} 2.3 1.1) 10 26. MIE 28 |157|45. 9'250/73. 10 2 35) 2) 33) 9.6 TRAE 28. E Be See: | 70\56. 0) 70\56.0) 2 2| 1.6) 3 20)16. 0 9.6) 7 11. Average, 300. 128 42. 6 204 68. 03.7 2.3) 711.7 “526.6 8.8.22 y 7 47-6) 2.5] 22.90| .076) 296.00) .986 | MARKET MILK BUSINESS OF DETROIT, MICH., IN 1915. 15 The table shows also that the milk dealers of Detroit handled a variety of goods in various-sized containers, some of which were demanded by relatively few customers. This custom has developed because it was found advisable to supply the exact quantities in the kind and size of containers demanded. ‘To increase the demand for SUNE SHAS. CLUMPED ORHHALGLVALYENGY _, LESSSesoeS Sea a S <>; i a) | i bl a a N 20 es 23 24- 25 26 27 28 29 IO LJ |_| CONE ee Jee a SPER eln me SF | a La ee a es S 2 FS OP SS SSS5 QALY RECEIPTS | PER CENT OF SUPPLY RECEWWLD OUPING THE (IONTH QULKk SALLS IN PER CENT OF SALLS OF (01L4 OWING THE (7ONT1 Fic. 4.—Daily fluctuation in receipts and sales of milk in per cent of total supply and sales for the month. some special goods certain dealers often advertise them extensively, because it also tends to increase the sales of common milk and cream. The fluctuating daily demands in relation to the monthly sales of market milk are illustrated by figure 4. The daily sales of market PRouTe NOMAGROR Pl tne ss BL Oe. SO Lil te Se ale y ; asd do sizou $100 0 : Bee ene at S 755 is) a 100 sot t 1m) : . > > =) ° S °° ’ A ° 5 ‘S S : Ss & Noe ° & = X ° ° ph Me ro} o io 0° 4 ° = * ° oo ey i ° By : ° A a ° ° 4 bowey ° ¢ ° ° ° ° S ° ° Pe) © 000 S ge i i ° 0° o Ci 5 2 ° So ° ° ° of ° > © 09° 00 8 2 °o ° j ° Oo 2) o% o ° ° 0° ° = °o ° a = FP pETROIT ; SS ae Fic. 6.—Location of city milk plants in Detroit before compulsory pasteurization. quantities which were not needed by the trade, dealers utilized the surplus by manufacturing it into some less perishable product, such as butter, cheese, or condensed milk. The various demands of consumers for goods put up in different- sized containers are graphically illustrated in figure 5. Although there were approximately an equal number of customers on each of the 14 routes, and though the value of sales was approximately the same, the demands for goods in different-sized containers varied greatly. To supply the demands for market milk and its deriva- tives it was necessary for dealers to equip their plants properly for distributing in the city the milk received from various producers in the country. PREPARING MILK FOR CITY DISTRIBUTION. BEFORE COMPULSORY PASTEURIZATION. Prior to the enforcement of the milk-pasteurization ordinance there were 158 milk dealers in Detroit, and the “ plants” -were situ- ated in different parts of the city, as shown in figure 6. Twenty-four dealers used the “flash ” method of pasteurization and 19 the “ hold- ing” process. There were 91 dealers who bottled raw milk, each MARKET MILK BUSINESS OF DETROIT, MICH., IN 1915. 7 ® 3 5 g : ° Xe : X= > ee) x . e on ea Gere A BS < y c 5 . y ° O., 5 One ss r) [as rox e Me, O--------H-= eo

) oO) oO 4 (ae) > oO oO (x) oO N oO fs) Cost oF Gooos ANo Gross RECEIPTS FROM SALES —-—NUMBER OF BOTTLES RECEIPTS OR VALUE OF Gooos Cast oF Gaooos AND GELLING EXPENSES eae ey enw CosT of Gooos Fig. 9.—Average number of bottles delivered and value of sales in relation to cost of goods and expenses of delivery on 14 selected routes. SUMMARY OF COMPARATIVE COSTS OF HANDLING AND DIS- TRIBUTING MILK. In the foregoing tables and figures only such expenses were in- cluded as might be definitely allocated or fairly apportioned to either the expenses of handling milk in plants or of delivering in the city. Miscellaneous expenses, insurance, taxes, and charges for advertising, administrative, and office expenses were not included in any tables or graphs. In order to bring out some of the comparative advantages and disadvantages of small and large businesses, these items of ex- pense are included in Table XVII, which shows the average per gallon investments and expenses of 28 dealers grouped according to the number of gallons handled daily. 24 BULLETIN 639, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XVII. Comparative investments and costs per gallon of handling and distributing milk by 28 dealers grouped according to quantities handled. Dealers grouped a according to | #4 | number of gal- For handling. For delivery. For administration. ) = ee lons handled Zig daily. a | [StF | 2 ee g . | 48 |e a |e 43/2 [7 4) Sole i) Sl (eet il (2 me - tr) OIE IS 2, |2|82 8. sc is EAE |#/813] #8 me | | BS fed 28 fa Ss|Se | Fe ee elle | = Ho jes Ho |e aS} as = o |S = cz o 1 2% (23! & fe |23| a So/S2/5)-2-/58 1/2183 a @ | 8a les] 2 Es e=| 3 adl2S| 2) a | & 1a) eels os Si sq |$°| = 1 S94 12° =) Jef) 3°33 oid o ie S s = =) bk Ss is = om S =| = a a = eis 1 ae leo eile [aa |e Sy Se ie ees = St Sis tS a | 2 Se (2 a|2ise|s ey = = = m = 3 >) 28 ig =I a a2 15 s/i/8eisSis sic ° S 3 i) e 2|4° 8 ja|4|8" 8 |ajsla-|4 jalaja |e (ele | | ial a alae gee! ) Less than |Galls |Cts.| Cts. | Cts cts. c1s.| c1s. cr.| Cis. Lox. Cis. | Cts | ci. Cis.| Cts. 950 243 99 $23.725| 1.21.7 (3.20 $9. 117 \0. 48/1. 08/3. 36)-----| posses (0. 10 0.5 pry Wout Eee 11.72 ae cole ite teu athe [ 8 | 8.348 | I iy | oe 0. 489/0.02 | .09 Br ES) ees 08 [S252 8. 85 50 | \- gare 640 pee sel es 6.404 | .39) a 50} . 165) .007 | .10 1.30 |....- 2 OF |eoa22 9.90 1,001_ to [dal a ee 1,365) 32.485) 1.2/1.8 ie 10.039 | Tastee! - 516) -02. },.02.) .90-|. 7.52 -04 | .01 (10.20 - 501 Ieeayhe | cape 2. ....|1,800) 8.395 ‘ -9 ie 9.160 | .61, .83,2.54) .183 +01 102) .40:.1-28 2 -05 | .03 | 7.30 2,001 to | Pact a ..--|2, 119} 45.625) 1.0) .6 (2.2 |18.980 | . 43) 9213.69 - 730} .04 40 | .70 | .30 | .20 | .06 10.50 More than | | | 3,000... .|9, 706) 27.375 2| -7 (1.7 117.520 | .21/1. 294.01 6.570) = 29.))| -25 | .43) 05:41 20) 9.30 of all | | | Average| | | fo | Ses ies groups.. 2,292, 24.715, he 1421. 842/11.3666 .43) .98 Ba ces . 0645 “151 ! | | | 1See note below Table XIII, page 18. : 2 Supplies for delivery include charges for horse feed and shoeing, lanterns, automobile supplies, milk carriers, etc. Investment for administration include office furniture and appliances. 4Supplies for administration include office supplies, such as route books, accounting forms and books, tickets, stationery, electric lights, etc. 5 Salaries for administration include salaries of office clerks and administrative officers. In some plants only a part of a man’s salary was charged to the item, as some of the time was charged directly to labor for either handling or delivery. ’ Table XVII and figure 10 show that on the average the cost of handling milk is less in the larger-sized plants than in the smaller ones. The groups handling daily from 1,001 to 1,500 gallons and — COST OF AANOLING ANDO OLSTFIGUTION CENTS FER GALLON. ‘SLGOD OMITON YM Re, scs09 Avan770[__ | one sndvausiniaoy CLL Fic. 10.—Cost of handling and distributing a gallon of milk, MARKET MILK BUSINESS OF DETROIT, MICH., IN 1915. 25 from 2,001 to 3,000 gallons do not conform strictly to the general tendency, because the plants in these groups had large investments in buildings and equipment, and were not operated at full capacity in all cases. The delivery costs per gallon do not vary in accord- ance with the size of the business; the reasons are indicated in Table XVI and figure 9. . Figure 11 shows graphically the differences in per gallon in- vestments by dealers, grouped according to number of gallons handled daily. The ex- tremely disproportion- ate investments for both handling and de- livering are explained 65 in the discussion fol- lowing Tables XIII and XVI. The general tendency, however, was for the handling in- vestment to increase with the size of the plant to the point of a plant handling as high as 2,001 to 3,000 gal- lons. The group han- dling 1,501 to 2,000 gal- lons has a dispropor- tionately low invest- ment because in that group the dealers had equipped some old wooden -buildings for temporary use until thoroughly modern HANDLING (NUVESTITENT plants could be con- CO 2Lwvery WWESTIIENT structed and _ satisfac- Fig. 11.—Average investments per gallon for handling and distributing milk. QDALLRS GROUPLD ACCORDING TO NOIIBER OF GALLONS HAWOLED DAILY 150-500 200/-3000 LL5S THAN 150 GALS. SO/-/000 700/-1500 /80/-2000 AIORE THAN 3000 piv 18.298 10.0OF Y Ne DOLLARS ‘ao seit WAS 2 mW < torily equipped. Plants. handling less than 150 gallons present another exception to the gen- eral tendency which in part can be explained by the fact that they were not operated at full capacity. The figures would also indicate that unless a dealer can handle at least 150 gallons his plant invest- ment charge will be high. It will be noted that in general the larger dealers had greater investments in delivery equipment than the ‘smaller ones. That is in part explained by the fact that many of 26 BULLETIN 639, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the larger dealers maintained expensive barns and wagons, while — some of the smaller ones had much less costly delivery outfits. % The differences in costs of supplies and in the charges for interest — and depreciation are in the main the result of differences in the per gallon investments. Figure 12 shows radical differences in the cost of supplies in milk plants. As many of the dealers had operated Z their newly equipped plants for only a short time, and since some plants were not arranged efficiently or were not operated at full capacity, the most economical use of supplies was not possible. Aside from advantages of busi-— RIS PAIS EBLE) ness experience, however, and 7 HANOLEDO OA/LY f 5 . differences in the extent to which machinery was run at full ca-— pacity, the larger dealers were ~ _able to effect considerable econ- 3 omies by the purchase of sup-_ plies in large quantities. 4 Figure 13 shows that the larger — dealers have lower labor costs per gallon in plant operations than — the smaller plants, owing to the — EEA Eee economies effected through spe- — CO wreresravo oceeecurion alization of labor. The apparent — MM svcouies exception in the case of the two larger groups is to be explained — by the fact that a larger propor- — tion of their output consisted of © bottled goods than in the case of © the smaller plants. In delivering & milk, however, there appears to be no definite relation between — the size of the business and the — per gallon labor costs. | TORN GEE The figures of the comparative Fic. 12.—Variations in charges for in- costs in Table XVIT represent the terest and depreciation and cost of sup- expenses of handling at the city " Bina vor Sate plant and of delivering to the vas rious classes of trade. They do not include, however, such expenses $ as are imposed on the business by surplus milk, soured or spoiled — milk, shrinkage in handling, shortages on delivery routes, and bad — bills. These items of loss or expense of the business were not obtain- able from many dealers, because of a lack of efficient business organ- — ization or inadequacy of accounting systems to check such losses. © On account of the omission of those items of expense, Table XVII possibly does not bring out all the comparative economies of large — LESS THAN 150 50/-/000 /OO/-15. 00 SVORE THAN J000 $ z .b , - 3 MARKET MILK BUSINESS OF DETROIT, MICH., IN 1915. 27 and small businesses. (See fig. 10.) The losses from spoilage and temporary. surplus or shortage of a supply of milk were compara- tively less for the larger dealers. In the case of all dealers, regard- less of the size of their business, the losses from bad bills were small. Through the use of the ticket system a large part of the retail busi- ness was done on advance payments. It is noteworthy that only the larger fiealore had expenses listed Ender the item of advertising. Practically all the dealers had ex- penses which may have been properly listed under that item, but were listed under either administrative or miscellaneous expenses. Besides the readily recognized expenses of advertising, practically all the dealers made contributions ox gifts of various kinds to gain or CELLERS GROUPED ACCORDING TO, retain the good will of consumers. The comparatively expensive de- livery equipment of the larger dealers also has a certain advertis- ing value, although such expenses are not listed under that item. In this connection it is impor- tant to note the lack of uniformity 2 in provision made for the adminis- » 7 trative end of the business, but in x0 general the administrative ex- 32 penses, which included office ex- penses, tended to increase in pro- portion to the size of the business. The smallest dealers had _prac- tically no administrative invest- ments. See Table XVI 1.) Fig. oe eae ea in cost of labor per Though the larger dealers gener- on ally had better administrative organizations, the personal supervision which the smaller ones were able to give to the business was an impor- tant factor in lowering their expenses. 4501-2000" MORE THAN 2000 Be LSS THAN 150 IN OELIVERY CONCLUSIONS. 1. The demands for market milk in Detroit necessitated arrange- ments for obtaining a supply from farmers living too far from the city to effect an soonamieel distribution of their comparatively small production. (Fig. 1 and pp. 2-4.) 2. The prices paid to farmers by the various dealers competing with one another in the market milk business of the cit'y varied con- siderably. Milk dealers as well as the farmers were dissatisfied with conditions then existing. (Figs. 2 and 8 and pp. 4-7.) 28 MARKET MILK BUSINESS OF DETROIT, MICH., IN 1915. — 3. A lack of standardization in the construction and equipment O: country milk stations contributed largely to the varying costs o1 handling milk in the country. (PI. I and pp. 8-10.) a 4, Because they owned the country milk stations the larger dcalen were able to obtain milk more cheaply in relatively distant areas of production. (PI. I and pp. 12-14.) 5. Inconvenient train schedules, lack of satisfactory refrigeration facilities, and comparatively high transportation rates prevented some dealers from obtaining a supply of milk from certain areas of production. (Fig.1; Pl. I, fig. 1; Pl. U1, fig. 1, and pp. 3, 11-14.) 6. The fluctuating daily demands for market milk and its various derivatives in the city necessitate the use of proper equipment for handling and distributing milk and for the economical utilization of temporary surpluses (Fig. 4 and pp. 14-16.) 7. The variation in costs of preparing milk for city distribution was caused primarily by a Jack of standardization in plant construc- tion and equipment, and by the fact that some plants were not run efficiently or at full capacity. (Figs. 11 and 12; Pl. UW, fig. 2; PL. ITI, fig. 1, and pp. 18-19.) 8. The a cost of delivering milk in wholesale quantities to retail stores suggests possible economies by dealers if such a system of dis- tribution were practiced by all. (Fig. 9; Pl. ITI, fig. 2, and pp: 19-23.) 9. The cost of handling and dichabeenes in the city does not vary directly in proportion to the number of gallons handled, although the larger dealers do effect certain economies not possible to the smaller ones. (Figs. 11, 12, and 13 and pp. 23-27.) 10. In the case of many dealers there was evidence of administra-_ tive weaknesses which affected not only the internal economies of the business but also the relations of the business with producers and consumers. (P. 27.) O UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE , BULLETIN No. 640 , ~\ Contribution from the Bureau of Entomolegy L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. April 8, 1918 THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Distribution throughout the world..........-. 2 | Artificial methods of control not satisfactory Establishment and spread in Hawaii..-....-.-- 3 under Hawaiian conditions................. 24 How the fruit fly got into Hawaii............. 4 | The campaign against the fruit fly in Hawaii.. 26 Losses incurred through the fruit fly.....-..--. 5 | Natural control of the fruit fly................ 37 What the Mediterranean fruit fly is like...--.. 7 | Quarentine measures to prevent introduction. 41 TPES, TOMES, Bhatdl Vere OS EAR el 3525455 MUS bbe eiAy. = HP oo onoacodcscdsnmasboaoosasazoceee 42 Host fruits of commercial value.............-. 15 HE HORTICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT of the Hawaiian Islands has been almost stopped since 1910 by the activity of two fruit-fly pests—the Mediterranean fruit fly! and the melon fly.?3 These two pests are being intercepted continually by quarantine officials at our ports of entry and they are therefore feared by, and are of vital interest to, every fruit and-vegetable grower in the warmer por- tions of the Pacific and Gulf coast States. very possible barrier to the establishment of these pests on the mainland United States is being erected by the Federal Horticultural Board, working in cooperation with State officials. Quarantines now regulate the movement of horticultural products from infested countries; hence the greatest danger to California, Florida, and Mexican territory now lies in the unintentional spread of fruit-fly pests by uninformed travelers who may carry infested fruits upon their persons or in their baggage. The Mediterranean fruit fly (fig. 1) is one of the recently introduced pests of Hawau. It has found climatic and food conditions so favor- able that at present there is not a family unaffected by its ravages. Itis doubtful if there exist in any other place in the world conditions so favorable to the rapid spread and thorough establishment of this pest as those in the Hawaiian Islands. 1“The Mediterranean Fruit Fly in Hawaii,’ E. A. Back and C. E. Pemberton, Department of Agri- Culture Bulletin 536. ( Ceratitis capitata Wied.) 2“The Melon Fly in Hawaii,’ E. A. Back and C. E. Pemberton, Department of Agriculture Bulletin 491. (Bactrocera cucurbitae Coq.) 3 “The Melon Fly,” E. A. Back, C. E. Pemberton, Department of Agriculture Bulletin 643. Norr.—The manuscript of this paper was prepared for publication as a Farmers’ Bulletin, but owing to the fact that it deals with an insect which has not yet been introduced into the United States it was considered more appropriate to issue it in the series of Department Bulletins. 103876°—18—Bull. 640——1 4 : 2 BULLETIN 640, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DISTRIBUTION THROUGHOUT THE WORLD. The Mediterranean fruit fly is a cosmopolitan pest. It has been known to science for 100 years and during these years has spread throughout the world, until to-day the North American continent is the only large land area upon which it has not become established. It first attracted serious attention in London, where oranges arriying from the Azores were discovered to be badly decayed and wormy. (See fig. 2.) It was recorded as a pest in Spain in 1842, in Algeria in 1858, in Italy in 1863, in Sicily in 1878, and in Tunis in 1885. In 1889 it was first reported in South Africa. It became established in the western part of Australia in 1897 and in the eastern part in 4 y \ Fig. 1.—Adult male Mediterranean fruit fly. Greatly enlarged. (Howard.) 1898. In 1899 it was detected in Tasmania, in 1900 it was found attacking the apricot orchards near Paris, France, and during 1901 it was reported from New Zealand and Brazil. Compere, in 1904, found the pest in Egypt, and in Asiatic Turkey at Beirut and Jeru- salem. Argentina was reported infested in 1905. Between 1909 and 1914 it was found in the eastern and western parts of Africa, — and in 1915 it was first reported from the Island of Madagascar. During 1916 it caused serious damage to the orange, tangerine, — peach, pear, and apple crops of the Patras consular district of Greece. — it is claimed that this was the first time in 10 years or more that this — pest had been noticed in this district of Greece. The Bermuda — Islands became infested during 1865. THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY. 8 ESTABLISHMENT AND SPREAD IN HAWAII. The presence of the Mediterranean fruit fly in the Hawaiian Islands was first discovered at Honolulu on June 21, 1910, and by the fall of that year the pest was well established in the Punchbowl district of the city. By October, 1911, it was found on the Island of Kauai, and by January, 1912, on the Island of Molokai and in the Kohala district of the Island of Hawaii (see fig. 3). During March, 1912, Fic. 2.—Longitudinal section of grapefruit showing destruction of pulp caused by larve of Mediterranean fruit fly. (Original.) the Kona district was found infested, and by May of the same year the fruit fly was discovered for the first. time on the Island of Maui. The towns of Naalehu and Hilea of the Kau district of Hawaii were infested by March, 1913, and by the early months of 1914 infesta- tions were found in the Hilo and the Hammakua districts of the same island. By July, 1914, or four years after its first discovery at Hon- lulu, the pest had spread to every important island of the Territory of Hawaii and to-day is well established in every village and wild guava scrub. BULLETIN 640, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. HOW THE FRUIT FLY GOT INTO HAWAII. A number of popular accounts tell how the Mediterranean fruit— fly became established in Honolulu Na ZNYW 99h i Thee WY --viftwasay_| 47 eS siual Ci , but they are without foundation. SA(NVW ISI NVITVAVIE BSHL 40 AV IN OF ' ZA, “ Establishment came as a natural sequence of the development of rapid ocean travel and cold storage, aided by unusually favorable Hawali was in no Before that year ships touching shore conditions about the harbor of Honolulu. danger of infestation until 1898. THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY. 5 at Honolulu plied between countries not infested by this pest. East- ern Australia was not infested before 1898. With the development of rapid ocean transportation and cold storage on ships, the Medi- terranean countries were enabled profitably to export oranges to Australia, and it was in these shipments of fruits that the fruit fly reached Australian shores and became established about Perth and Sydney. Establishment in Hawaii at Honolulu followed naturally the com- mercial jump of the pest from the Mediterranean countries to Aus- tralia. Honolulu is a port of call for ships plying between eastern Australian ports and San Francisco and Vancouver, and the voyage of about two weeks required for passage from Australia to Honolulu is through a tropical climate permitting rapid development of the fruit fly. No one ever will know just how the pest reached Honolulu on these vessels from Australia, but in view of the rigid inspection service of the Hawaiian Board of Agriculture it seems probable that larvee falling from infested fruits in the ships’ stores—in those days often kept on deck—transformed to the winged adult stage by the time of arrival at Honolulu. From 7 to 10 years ago trees bearing fruits in which the fruit fly could develop grew in greater abundance within a stone’s throw of the docks than at the present time and offered an excellent breeding place for stray adults flying from the ships during the time these were in port. There is probably no port in the world where conditions were so favorable for the estab- lishment of this particular pest as was that of Honolulu 10 years ago. LOSSES INCURRED THROUGH THE FRUIT FLY. The economic importance of the Mediterranean fruit fiy as a pest of fruits varies with the climate of its natural abode, or habitat. Thus, in France, near Paris, where it has been known to attack apricots and peaches, it has not become a serious pest, because of climatic checks. Such checks to the severity of its attacks have been noted in portions of Australia, South Africa, and elsewhere, and would be operative in continental United States except in portions of California and the Southern States. On the other hand, in tropical and semitropical countries the fruit fly is capable of becoming a pest of first importance, and, as in the Hawaian Islands, may be classed as the most important insect pest to horticultural development. Practically every fruit crop of value to man is subject to attack by this fruit fly. Not only is it of importance as a destroyer of fruit, but it is the cause of numerous stringent quarantines which cost the State and Federal Governments much money to make effective and which rob countries of good or prospective markets for their fruit. Fortunately, it has been found that the Chinese banana and the pineapple, the two most valuable species of fresh fruits formerly 6 BULLETIN 640, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. exported from Hawaii, offer so little danger as carriers of the Med- iterranean fruit fly, when they are packed for shipment, that this part of Hawaii’s export trade in fresh fruits with the coast may still be carried on, provided the inspections of the Federal Horticultural Fic. 4.—Apples destroyed by larvz of Mediterranean fruit fly. Al- though an apple externally may appear normal aside from the dark spots where the female fly punctured the skin in laying her eggs, the pulp is often found badly decayed and eaten out by the maggots, as shown in the lower fruit. (Original.) Board now in force are continued. The hecessary quaran- tines against all other host fruits, however, particularly against such fruits as the avo- cado and mango, has had, and will continue to have, a serious ef- fect upon _horticul- tural pursuits and the development of the small farmer. At present the in- festation of edible fruits in the coastal regions of Hawaii is general and about as severe as could be ex- pected. The work of the Mediterranean fruit fly, with that of the melon fly, has put a most serious check upon the _ horticul- tural development of © the islands just at a time when this devel- — opment was gather- ing strength. In South Africa the Mediterranean fruit fly is regarded as one of the greatest draw- backs to the develop- ment of the fruit in-— dustry in Cape Colony, where, it isstated, during certain favorable sea- sons large areas of apricots, figs, pears, plums, apples (fig. 4), and — quinces are almost all affected. Many instances of damage to citrus — and other crops in southern Europe, South America, Africa, and Aus- THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY. 7 tralia might be added to impress one unfamiliar with the ravages of this pest that it is one that can not be trifled with. The amount of damage which would result through the introduction of this fruit fly is so great that every effort should be taken to prevent its estab- lishment in new terri- tory. WHAT THE MEDITERRA- NEAN FRUIT FLY IS LIKE. The adults.—The Mediterranean fruit fly is an insect that in the adult stage resembles in size and general shape the ordinary house fly, but differs greatly in the color pattern of the body and wings and in its habits. In figure 5 three adults may be seen attempting to lay eggs ianorange. The glis- ino bl Fig. 5.—Three adults of the Mediterranean fruit fly on a sweet tening b BEE BY ots Upon orange. About two-thirds naturalsize. (Authors’ illustration.) the insects’ back, the two white bands on the yellowish abdomen, and the yellow and black markings of the wings at once distinguish this fruit fly from all other insects in Hawaii. The colors, brown, yellow, black, and white, predominate and form a pattern that can be recognized easily after comparison with the drawing of the adult fly (fig. 1). The eggs.—The female fly is able to drill, with the sharp end of her body, small pinhole-like breaks or punctures in the skin of fruits, and through these punctures she lays her eggs. Naturally, these egg punc- tures are so small that they are not seen by the average person. Ordinarily the fly 1G. 6.—Cross section of a smallapricot lay s from one to six esses through these showing eggs laid through skinin five holes into a small cavity made for them places. (Authors? illustration.) jus i email Sea Glas p ulp ere. iad. Tin ome instances several hundred of the small white eggs, which are only about one-twenty-seventh of an inch long and shaped as hose illustrated in figures 6, 7, and 21, may accumulate in a single 103876°—18—Bull. 640: 2 8 BULLETIN 640, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. egg cavity as the result of repeated egg laying by many females through the same opening in the skin. The larve.—The eggs hatch into whitish larve, or maggots, that burrow or tunnel in all directions through the pulp, feeding as they — go and causing decays to start. When first hatched they are very difficult to detect, but when full grown they are very white and, although only four-sixteenths to five-sixteenths of an inch long, ~ are quite easily seen. Full-grown — maggots have the peculiar habit, if © taken out of the fruit and placed upon a smooth surface, of curling up and jumping from 1 to 6 inches. For the general appearance of the larve see figures 8 and9,a. Fic. 7.—Cross section of peach showing general Th € pupe.—After leaving the shriveling of walls of egg cavity and separation fruit upon which they have fed, of exes. Droving made oneand ori @835 the larvae either burrow into the | soil to depths varying up to 2 inches or seek shelter under any object upon the ground and there transform to the pupa or chrysalis stage. During this stage the insect is not able to move and re- sembles the seedlike object illustrated in figure 9, 6. Although outwardly appearing quite dead, inwardly the wonderful changes are taking place by means of which nature transforms the ugly maggot into the beautiful fly; and in the course of a few days the adult fly breaks forth from the pupa, pushes her way up through the soil, and, as the mother of a second gen- eration, flies back to the tree and searches for fruits in which to lay her eggs. INTERESTING FACTS ABOUT THE ADULT FLY. Incapable of inflicting bodily injury on man, the adult fly is, nevertheless, : - s Fic. 8.—Small mango fruit cut toshow white the fruit growers most persistent larve or maggots of Mediterranean fruit enemy in Hawaii, for she is contm- 9 and damage they fave couse 5 - - = ! (Severin.) uously searching for fruits in which ; to lay her eggs. Adults die within three to four days if they have ; 3 THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY. 9 no food; but if they can secure the juices of fruits or the honeydew of insects, which form the bulk of their food, they may live long periods. Two flies lived for 230 and 315 days, respectively. But asa tule life is much shorter, although many live to be four to six months old. Many die when they are very young, even if they have had food. In Honolulu females begin to lay eggs when 4 to 10 days old, and, like hens, only much more faithfully, continue to develop and lay eggs in fruits almost daily so long as they live. A female may lay on an average from 4 to 6 eggs a day, 22 eggs being the largest number known to have been laid by a fly during any one day. On 10 consecutive days one fly laid 8, 11, 9, 6, 8, 3, 3, 3, 3, and 9 eggs; another laid 0, 5, 14, 8, 13, 10, 6, 4, 4, and 0 eggs. The largest number of eggs laid during life by a single female kept in the labo- Fic 9.—Mediterranean fruit fly: a, Larve, m One on) 6, pup, or chrysalids. Twice naturalsize. riginal. ratory was 622. This fly lived only 153 days. It is probable that 800 eggs, or even more, may be laid by single hardy females under favorable conditions. It is also important, from the standpoint of control, to know that females deprived of a chance to lay eggs in fruits for a period of four to six months when certain crops are not in season have the power to begin depositing eggs as actively as younger flies when fruits sufficiently ripe become available for oviposition. Thus one female Kept m the laboratory for the first five months of her life without fruits m which to lay eggs laid 11, 4, 9, and 9 eggs during the first four days of the sixth month of her life when fruits were placed in the cage with her. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS FAVORING RAPID INCREASE IN HAWAII. The time required by the fly to pass through the egg, larva, and pupa stages depends very much upon the climate. The climate of Honolulu and of the coastwise regions of Hawaii in general is very 10 BULLETIN 640, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. favorable to fruit-fly increase. At Honolulu the temperature rarely drops as low as 58° F., and then only for a few hours during one or = two nights in the year. The daily range in temperature is small, averaging between 8 and 11 degrees, while the normal monthly mean _ temperatures range between 70.9° F. in the winter and 79° F. in the summer. Biological work has shown that even the lowest monthly means of localities up to 1,500 feet elevation have ht- tle effect upon the fruit fly other than to retard foe somewhat its develop- ial 4 ment. Itis never cold wa ae. SS See| 4 cnough throughout the “ean any "=| coastal regions of Ha- a \ ‘i 6 eciee| Wall to render either * aS, the adults or the larvee a inactive. There are no periods of the year at any Hawaiian port tions are unfavorable for fruit-fly increase. A continuous temper- ature of 58° to 62° F., or the lowest range of temperature usually experienced, does not increase the normal mortality among the larve. LENGTH OF TIME REQUIRED FOR DEVELOPMENT. During the warmest Fig. 10.—Three important ediblefruits subject to fruit-fly attack: ee . a, Strawberry guava; 5, loquat; c,starapple. These are grown also Hawaiian w eather, for their ornamental value. (Original.) when the mean tem- perature averages about 79.5° F., the Mediterranean fruit fly requires as few as 17 or as many as 33 days to pass throughits immature stages. when climatic condi- THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY. 11 At this season by far the larger number pass through these stages in 18 to 20 days. At an average mean temperature of 68° F., which is about the coolest temperature in Hawai where fruits are gener- ally grown, the immature stages require 40 to 69 days. Just what the length of the immature stages may be in cooler regions can not be definitely stated, but experiments indicate that it may be considerably increased. The egg stage has been increased from a normal of 2 days at Honolulu in summer to 25 days by the application for 22 days of a temperature of 48° to 53° F. A well- erown larva survived a temperature of 48° to 54° F. for 79 days. A newly-hatched larva remained practically dormant for 57 days at an out-of-door temperature ranging from 27° to 73° F. (mean 48° _F.), whereas in Honolulu during summer it would have remained in this stage only 2 days. The fruit fly has been held in the pupa stage for about two months at an out-of-door temperature ranging between 38° and 72° F. (mean, about 54° F.). Had the mean been about 79° F., it would have remained in the pupa stage only 9 to 11 days. Three larve in very firm apples required 28, 58, and 74 days _to become full grown and leave the fruit to pupate at Kealakekua, where the temperature ranged between 58° and 80° F. (mean, about 68° F.). Add to the 74 days required for larval maturity 4 days for the egg stage and 20 days for the pupa stage, and one has 98 days, or over three months, as the time required for the fly to pass through the immature stages under certain host conditions at a mean of 68° F. Thus while these stages may be completed in as few as 17 days, three to four months is a very conservative estimate for possible length under less favorable climatic conditions, or a period sufficiently long to outlast the coolest seasons of the semitropics. FRUITS, NUTS, AND VEGETABLES ATTACKED. The Mediterranean fruit fly is particularly injurious because it attacks so many more different kinds of fruits of value to man than does any other known fruit fly. In the Hawaiian Islands 72 kinds of fruits have been found infested. Fortunately, the pineapple is not infested, and the banana is free from attack when shipped under commercial conditions. The fruit fly has been reared from the following fruits: Fruits that are heavily or generally infested are marked (1), those that serve quite often as hosts or of which many escape infestation are marked (2), and those rarely infested are marked (3). 12 BULLETIN 640, U. 5S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, List of host frwits of the Mediterranean fruit fly. SCIENTIFIC NAME, COMMON NAME. ss Achras's0 pold'(3)> 225 2 = a a Sapodilla, 2. SACOTUULSD: (8) 222-9 eeee =. Acordia. a ANONOMUUTICOLa Qi eee) ee Sour sop. A VAr engi sacchariera (3) 2225-6. = ee Sugar palm. 5, Artocanpus mecisd (3). 422-2222 -=- eee bread iruit. O. Aligriion Cimimnaoilty (B= 2s52525555--- Carambola. 7. Calophyllum inophyllum (1).......-.- Ball kamani. SCO PSICLUNUISDH 2) = a= Se oe ate... ee Bell peppers (fig. 17, p. 19). SS Carica papaya?) pee a a Papaya. 10% Caicaiguercifolid (2) 5222 ean. =: ae Dwarf papaya. 1, \Carissmardwinta(2)\e22 5 oo ee Carissa (fig. 11, h). 12 Casimirea caulis (i) 55 po ee Sapota. Is. Ceshumusp: (8)iienn oe eee a. - ee Chinese inkberry. 14. Chrysophyllum cainito (1).......----- Star apple (fig. 10, c). 15. Chrysophyllum oliviforme (1)...-..---- Damson plum (fig. 11, d). 16. Chrysophyllumisp: (1)22- 2: --- 6. . Lae Chrysophyllum. Li. Citrus japonica (i) 2. 24-2) ae Chinese orange (fig. 18, p. 20). Ley Curis 7apOn ica Gl) ee ee et ee Kumquat. 19,. Crtrusaiobilis (U)i2 a-2 ae seen. ee Tangerine. 20> Citrus 100TIS\CL) 955.4. oe Date palm. 59. Psidium cattleyanum (1).---..---.---- Strawherry guava (fig. 10, a). D6. Esidnym iguayava (1). 22 seee =a ae Sweet red and white lemon guavas. 57. Psidium guayava pomiferum (1)-.--...- Common guava. 58. Psidium guayava pyriferum (3)... ....Waiawi. RDS JEUNE (aRUGD (aeseseess oes =< ee Peach (fig. 7, p. 8). 60. Prunus persica var. nectarina (1).....- Nectarine. GL Prunus anmeniacn() es =. . aeeee Apricot (fig. 6, p. 7). 62..Pruniusisp ps Cl) eeees ae 22 oe 2. ee Plum. 63. Punica granatum (3)...-.--...-.------Pomegranate. 640 Pyrus'sppaG)eeeeee een. s.r Apple (fig. 4, p. 6). 65: e2oris spp (ee are a Pear (fig. 12). 66. Solanum melongena (3).-....--------- Eggplant. 67> Spondias duleisi(8)e=eaee see - 2 Mee oe Wi. 68. Termimalia'catappa a)-= =... -.- Winged kamani or tropical almond. 69. Terminalia chebula (1). -.-.---- . . Sa Natal plum. 70) "Pheveiia nerijolia (1)__--:.-...- eee Bestill (fig. 11, a). Tl; Vitis labrusca (3)- --. 22... aa Grape (fig. 25, p. 26). 72. Santalum freycinetianum var. littorale (B)ree ce SIS ee eee Beach sandalwood. This list shows that practically all the ordmary useful and edible fruits in Hawai are infested heavily. Thus peaches can not be grown at present, for they are ruined before they become well grown; Chi- nese oranges (fig. 18), tangerines, figs, loquats (fig. 10, 6), rose apples (fig. 11, g), many varieties of mangoes (figs. 8, 24), certam avocados (fig. 13), guavas (fig. 10, a), coffee cherries (fig. 11, 6), star apples (fig. 10, -¢), sapotas, persimmons, apples (fig. 4), pears (fig. 12), plums, nectarines, and quinces—all these are badly infested. On the other hand, a large percentage of the ripening fruits of the tomato, prickly pear, mangosteens, mountain apples, and wampis are free from attack, although certain fruits may be at times heavily infested. When tomatoes are wormy, the melon fly, and not the Mediterra- nean fruit fly, is usually the insect doing the damage. Ordinarily, sweet bell peppers are not generally infested, and cotton bolls be- come infested only after they have been damaged by some other insect (figs. 17 and 11, e). The pomegranate, breadfruit, eggplant, wi, grape (fig. 25), date, certain seeds of palms, lichee nuts (fig. 11, c), and the Chinese ink- berry are very rarely infested, even in Honolulu. For practical pur- poses they may be said to be immune. Lichee nuts ripening on the tree become infested only when the outer shell breaks, thus exposing the white pulp to attack. Hawalian rruits, nuts, and vegetables not listed are free from attack. THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY. 15 ORNAMENTALS SERVING AS HOSTS. Not only does the Mediterranean fruit fly attack the ordinary cultivated fruits, but in Hawaii it has shown a preference for the fruits of many ornamental trees and shrubs. Thus the nuts of the winged kamani, tha ball kama- ni, the rose apple, dam- son plum, star apple, Brazilian plum or Span- ish cherry, the Surinam and French cherries, the berries of the mock orange and elengi tree, the fruits of the Natal plum, and the mature fruits of the bestill are allusually well infested. Even the fruits of cer- tain palms and the beach sandalwood may harbor the fly. Orna- mentals less subject to attack may be found in the foregoing complete list. HOST FRUITS OF COM- MERCIAL VALUE. PINEAPPLES. Many experiments have been carried on to determine whether the Mediterranean fruit fly can live in the pineap- ple. It has been found that even under forced laboratory conditions the fly can not live or Fig. 12.—Bartlett pear, the pulp of which has been entirely eaten out by the maggots of the Mediterranean fruit fly. The fruits often remain on the tree and shrivel up after they have been ruined. (Authors’ illustration.) mature in green or ripe pineapples. No person has ever found a pineapple infested by this pest in Hawai. PAPAYAS. The papaya is one of the commonest plants about Honolulu. Its fruit is the universal breakfast fruit. Probably not one person in a thousand in Honolulu, however, knows that papayas become infested. Unless the fruits are allowed to remain upon the trees until overripe, 103876°—18—Bull. 640——3 16 BULLETIN 640, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the fruit fly can not mature in them. The milky juice, which exudes copiously from breaks in the skin of the fruits up to the time when the fruits can be cut for ripening in the house, contains a di- gestive principle that is fatal to the eggs and larve of the fly. This juice protects the fruits from infes- tation when imma- ture. But as the fruits become over- ripe, and also unfit for the table, the juice flows less abundantly from breaks in the skin made by the fly when she attempts to lay her eggs, and the eggs which she then lays can mature. As many as 205 flies have been reared from sin- gle overripe fruits. So while the papaya is a host fruit, it is practically never in- fested until too ripe or otherwise unfit for the table. AVOCADOS. With the exception of one or two early varieties, the infesta- tion of the avocado is so obscure that the general belief prevails Fic. 13.—Avocado. This valuable fruit of California and Florida is 10 Honolulu that this subject to infestation in Hawaii. In this instance the maggots are fruit is free from at- working at the stem and blossomends. (Authors’ illustration.) tack. The Guate- mala, or nutmeg, variety is the only one free from attack when growing uninjured. Theskinofallother varieties, whether thin or of usual tough- ness, can be punctured by the adult fly, as proved by many examinations of fruits. The avocado, like the ordinary pear, is best when picked THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY. ag Fic. 14.—Cooking banana of the Popoulu variety taken from tree in an infested condition. Note small round holes in the skin through which maggots left the fruit when they became full grown. (Authors? illustration.) i ! i ; f i i 2 ‘ E : e ie Fig. 15.—Cooking banana of the Moa variety cut to show destruction of pulp by maggots of the Medi terranean fruit fly. (Authors? illustration.) 18 BULLETIN 640, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. while still hard, though mature, and allowed to soften in storage. With most varieties it is not until the fruits are mature enough for gathering or dropping that adults lay eggs in them. Many fruits upon the market are not in the least affected. While avocadoes are not usually a favorite host for the fly, they are sufficiently infested to warrant the quarantine prohibiting the shipment of them to the mainland. (See fig. 13.) BANANAS. Experimentation during the past four years in Hawaii has proved that the Chinese banana’ and the Bluefields banana? are prac- tically immune from attack if harvested and shipped to the coast in accordance with the demands of the trade and the Federal Horti- Fic. 16.—Loss to coffee-mill owners due to infestation of coffee cherries by Mediterranean fruit fiy. Coffee beans to left pulped from uninfested cherries; beans to right pulped from infested cherries. Cherries failing to pulp, because infested, appear as black; pulped beans are grayish white. (Orig- inal.) cultural Board. Persons wishing the results of careful experimental work used as a basis for these conclusions may obtain them in printed form by applying to the Bureau of Entomology. The immunity of commercial varieties of bananas has been shown to be due to the fact that neither the eggs nor the newly-hatched larve can survive in the tannin-laden peel of the green though mature fruit. Indeed, the copious and sudden flow of sap from egg punctures made by the female fly in unripe bananas renders the successful placing of eggs in such fruits difficult and rare. No fruits of the Chinese variety ripening prematurely on bunches in plantations have been found infested. But of the cooking bananas, flies have been reared from the ripe and yellowish fruits of the thin- skinned Popoulu variety (fig. 14) growing in the field, and from the 1 Musa cavendishii. 2 Musa sapientum, THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY. 19 well-crown though green-colored fruits of the Moa variety, the peel of which had become cracked, thus causing a break in nature’s normal protection to the pulp. Figure 15 is a cross section of a Moa banana, showing the tunnels made through the pulp by the larve, and the darkened decayed areas about the tunnels. Adults have been reared also from another variety of cooking bananas. Because flies have been reared from cooking bananas, it is not considered safe to permit their export to the coast, and they have been placed on the list of quarantined fruits by the Federal Horticultural Board. The Chinese and Blue- fields bananas may still be exported from Hawaii, provided they are grown and inspected before ship- ment in accordance with Federal regula- tions. So far as is known, the “apple”’ and the ‘‘ice-cream”’ bananas common in Hawaii are not in- fested. COFFEE. Coffee cherries as they ripen are favor- ite hosts of the Medi- terranean fruit fly. Fortunately, the larvee attack only the pulp surrounding the beans or s eeds, and Fie. 17.—Sweet bell pepperinfested by Mediterranean fruit-fly larve. ° Note that the upper right-hand portion of fruit has decayed as a im ho way affect the result of attack. This decay later extends to all parts of the fruit. value of thelatter (see —-(Otisinal-) fig. 11,6). Chemical analyses of beans from infested and uninfested cherries, tasting tests of coffee made from similar roasted beans, and weighings made of dried beans have failed to reveal any ill effect to the beans themselves due to fruit-fly attack. The unrestricted development of larvze within coffee cherries, however, does bring about certain losses to the grower and mill owner. Before parasites were introduced cherries became infested 20 BULLETIN 640, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. as soon as they began to turn white from green in the final ripening process, and the larve, numbering from 2 to 8, were able to become nearly full grown by the-time the cherries had turned red. The pulp surrounding the beans varies from two to seven fifteenths of an inch in thickness, or is scarcely thicker than the well-grown larva of the fruit fly (see fig. 30, p. 39). Therefore, by the time the cherry is ordi- narily ready for harvesting, the larve have devoured practically all the pulp, leaving the seeds hanging more or less loosely within a sack comprised of the thin skin of the cherry. If the weather happens to be dry, the skin shrivels and hardens about the beans and the cherry remains on the branch indefinitely and resembles those killed by disease. However, should the harvesting season be rainy, the skin decays rap- idly, and under the weight of the beans the cherry falls to the ground. Aslight jar may at such times cause many cherries to fall to the ground, where they are lost. This type of loss ne- cessitates extra pickings and greater cost for labor. Since the successful intro- Fic. 18.—Chinese orange sectioned to show damage by Medi- dyction of Pp arasites the terranean fruit fly. Chinese oranges, kumquats, tanger- ° ines, satsuma oranges, and many limes are easily and gen- fruit fly has been so re- erally infested because of their loose peeland lack ofathick @dyced in the coffee field ee Sa re _ that the infestation of cherries occurs so late in the ripening process that extra pickings are not necessary, and the cherries on reaching the pulping mills during the height of the harvesting season contain chiefly eggs or young larve which have not had an opportunity to reduce the pulp. Badly infested cherries do not pulp as readily when run through the pulping mill, and naturally weigh much less than sound cherries. (Fig. 16.) The loss in number of cherries in a given weight of badly infested fruit has been found to vary at times from 27 to 59 per cent. This loss in weight, which takes place only in the worthless pulp, and in no way affects the bean, which alone is of commercial value, brought about a financial loss to growers who sold their fruit by weight according to prices obtained before the fruit fly was intro- THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY. 21 duced. This has been appreciated and has caused a readjustment of prices paid for coffee ‘‘in the cherry” and has been responsible for the erection of many small pulping mills throughout the Kona coffee district. It seems reasonable to believe that the remarkable success of introduced parasites in checking the infestation of coffee will free the coffee grower from fur- ther worry so far as the Mediterranean fruit fly is concerned. CITRUS FRUITS. While all citrus fruits are favorite hosts of the Mediterranean fruit fly, certain of them are found to contain larvee more often than others. No citrus fruits are too acid for fruit-fly devel- opment. Larve have been reared from the sourest lemons. Adult flies are fond of laying eges in large numbers in all citrusfruits. Thus 13 punctures in one grapefruit contained 76, 153, 32, 25, 18, 8, 46, 113, and 9 eggs, re- sp ectively. Thir ty: -nine Frag. 19.—Lemons of commercial varieties have never been found oranges, either yellow with larvee of the Mediterranean fruit fly destroying the pulp . 1 unless they have had the rind cut or broken previous to attack. or orange In Color, con- The adult flies may puncture the skin and lay eggs, as indicated tained an average of 2) by the discolored spots, but the eggs and larvee die in the peel. ege punctures, with a eae: maximum of 108 and a minimum of 7 punctures. In 50 ripe lemons 1,422 eggs were laid in 185 punctures. Yet no adult flies developed from this grapefruit or from the oranges and lemons. On the other hand, well ripened Chinese oranges (fig. 18), thin-skinned limes, kum- quats, and tangerines are so generally infested with larve in the pulp before they become well ripened that they are always regarded with suspicion. Although many eggs are laid in lemons, it is rare that lemons are found with maggots in the pulp even when the fruits are so ripe 22 BULLETIN 640, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fic. 20.—Ripe grapefruit showing copious gummy secretions that may, though more often do not, follow attack by Mediterranean fruit fly. (Original.) nese oranges the peel is so thin that the fruit that they fall to the ground. Why, then, are Chinese oranges and tangerines easily infested with larve in the pulp whereas lemons, grapefruit, and oranges ward off fatal attack either entirely or until after they are overripe ? The reason is that a great mortality oc- curs among the eggs and newly hatched larve in citrus fruits haying a thick peel- ing or rind. In Chi- fly can lay her eggs through it into the pulp itself or between the pulp and the rind, so that the larve on hatching can at once begin to feed on the pulp. As a result the pulp of the Chinese orange (fig. 18) is almost always infested with larve. The case is different with lemons (fig. 19), grapefruit (fig. 20), and ordi- nary seedling oranges. In these fruits the peel is so thick that the fly must deposit her eggs in the outer part of the white rag as illustrated in figure 21. In making the puncture she often ruptures an oii cell in the rind, and the oil thus liberated kills the eggs. Butif the eggs are laid between oil cells, the young larve have difficulty in making their way through the rag to the pulp, and a very high percentage of them die in the attempt. Then, too, a gall-like hardening develops quite rapidly about the egg cavity in oranges, grape- fruit, and lemons, as indicated by the darkened area about the egg cavity in figure 21. This hardening often makes of the cavity a prison from which the young lary can not escape and in which they are literally starved to death. It thus happens that the larve that succeed in entering the rag of the peel from the egg cavity are able to reach the pulp of grapefruit Fic. 21.—Section of grapefruit rind, showing two egg cavi- ties, one in cross section. Drawing made one week af- ter fruit was picked. Note conical elevation about egg cavities left by withering of rind; also thickened walls of egg cavity and single larval channelintherag. ( Authors’ illustration.) |THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY. 23 and oranges in astonishingly small numbers because of the imper- viousness of the rag. It is the persistent attack of successive families of larve hatching from different batches of eggs laid in the same punctures that finally breaks down the barrier between the young larve and the pulp. A fuller discussion of the infestation of all citrus fruits may be had on application to the Bureau of Entomology. Regardless of what has just been stated concerning the great mortality that occurs among the eggs and young larve in the rind Fic. 22.—Cross section of grapefruit to indicate difficulty of always telling from exterior appearance of a _ fruit that maggots are eating out the pulp. (Authors’ illustration.) of grapefruit, oranges, and lemons, adult flies have been reared from them all. Lemons, however, have never been known to be infested in the pulp unless the rind has first become broken by thorn pricks, decays, or in some other mechanical manner. And in spite of the fact that oranges and grapefruit may become very wormy, as illus- trated in figures 2 and 22, they are usually uninfested in the pulp, and are fit for table use if they are gathered as soon as they ripen. But if citrus fruits were grown commercially in Hawaii in large 24 BULLETIN 640, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. orchards as they are in Florida and California, and were severely attacked as they are in Hawaii to-day, they could not be shipped profitably, for, although they might not contain larve within the pulp, the many breaks in the rind made by the flies while laying eggs would make possible the entry of various molds (see fig. 23) that Fic. 23.—Orange injured by Mediterranean fruit fy. Each black spot represents a place where the fruit fly has punctured the rind to lay eggs, but the maggots were not able to eat through the peel, and died. About the injured spot decays have started which at first affect only the peel. Blue mold growsrapidly in these injured spots. (Original.) would cause unprecedented decays while the shipments were en route to market. ARTIFICIAL METHODS OF CONTROL NOT SATISFACTORY UNDER HAWAIIAN CONDITIONS. It is unfortunate that the satisfactory methods of control used against the Mediterranean fruit fly in several other countries, par- ticularly in portions of South Africa and Australia, have failed in Hawaii. There are, however, several good reasons for such failures. The great money-making crops of Hawaii at present are sugar, pime- apples, rice, coffee, taro, bananas, and cattle. But sugar, pineapples, and taro are not attacked by this fruit fly, and, as already shown, coffee and bananas are not sufficiently attacked to injure their com- mercial value. With one exception, including a small number of ; THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY. 25 avocados, no commercial orchards exist in Hawaii. Still there is hardly a family, unless it be in the business section of Honolulu, that does not grow a number of fruit trees, such as oranges, lemons, papayas, peaches, avocados, limes, grapefruit, guavas, bananas, man- goes, etc., that bear prodigally under normal Hawaiian cultural con- ditions, and, until the advent of the fruit fly in 1910, formed a most welcome addition to the food supply. Much of the native-grown fruit that is sold in the local market is erown on trees scattered here and there in dooryards and is in excess of what the owner needs. Practi- cally no one depends on growing fruit for his living. No devel- oped fruit imdustry exists such as one finds on the main- land, andno moneyed interest concerns it- self with steps for fruit-fly eradication. In other words, there are no impelling in- centives to solidify public opinion for the consistent and coop- erative use of artificial remedial measures that could be made effective if their ap- plication would yield returns warranting the expenditure. ee ues : The situation also Fic. 24._Improved mangosectioned to show havoc caused by maggots = : of Mediterranean fruit fly. (Authors’ illustration.) ismade more difficult by reason of the large amount of vegetation, bearing fruits of little or no value to man, that grows throughout the islands and that can not be eradicated without the expenditure of prohibitive sums of money. But this great abundance of dooryard and wild host vegetation has had such a vital part in the undoing of artificial control measures and in the success of parasite introductions that it is worthy of fur- ther attention. Aided by a favorable climate, it has made of Hawaii a fruit-fly paradise that is not duplicated elsewhere on the earth. 26 BULLETIN 640, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE CAMPAIGN AGAINST THE FRUIT FLY IN HAWAII. HOST CONDITIONS IN HONOLULU AND HILO. The residents of Honolulu and Hilo are justly proud of their mag- nificent vegetation and have taken great pleasure in growing an Fic. 25.—This bunch of grapes, apparently perfect, con- tains one berry that is decayed and contains a larva of the Mediterranean fruit fly. The Isabella grapes in Hawaii are seldom attacked, even in Honolulu, yet they are likely to carry the fly to California. (Original) unusually large assortment of trees and shrubs on their properties. An inventory of such trees and shrubs in the portion of Honolulu bounded by Lilha, Punchbowl, Beretania, and School Streets gave a total of 4,610 that bore fete in which the fruit fly can develop. THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY. 27 Tasie I1.— Number and species of host trees of the Mediterranean fruit fly growing in that » portion of Honolulu bounded by Liliha, Punchbowl, Beretania, and School Streets. 2 2 ETE) ag | “Monteeteanep et thee < GS t EGS 8 28 Pemocado tse 222) seo Ae bd! | MangORmeRs er eh seitseyhises 7 1, 154 Maree inthe fst jews et eit feet 58 |. Maneosteeneaarnsicc5. bibs san +k 7 |< E21 50) eee eee 48 |, Moumtaimbappless - 2-2 ha. 4] Chineseinkberry. . .----.--:----- Gi Wieck OMG; 545scecsbedenccee5e 33 SOININESCLOTAN LE 522. 2-52 see < = 148" | Oranmeemswecten= = 2-50 5552-94. 5. 372 OTRE., 6 Gute ast Seine oem en tlaeemeseteoe 298; '| Payoenyaeeees seer cy Mat ee Mas 687 Wolice;, Mibetian!! i! 22). 2.25208... 8.°|) Reat@laaeer seer: )2! ERNEL AP SEPIA SINS O18 69 Cag Ee Ss Ee ee ee Se ile |) Pearaabartle tts ee 2 wees 2 ustardiapple.< 5.0 <<<. - 22% dh |) Pomrepranaiese Seon! vast ae 128 Drmson plums «52 Sok. A. |: POnmmaIOMRN ES eee Seo 7 os cea 15 TPO ce SG ee eee ane tite a 2.01." | ROSeReR DOC tee totes ee. on Re ee sce 25 Salva COMMON 228-2 Ue cee 94. | Sapenitlawe se sala ee Oe: 5 Guava. strawberry. . =... 22220225 73:| Sapeeeees se wer rest Perey parte easy ye | 30 Brava aplwanls )) Osis io chee Bee 80 :| .SOUMESO DS See A ti-ep yesiscerr 57 herman, balla. . he is5-3 > ao eon 4.\. Spamishteherty ¢ - oo... 2262... 1 Memant.winved 225 522-2 ns. 13) S tangenp ploerars eres byes os ee 4 ECCT O TUE i eg ae A | Sutiaamiecheniye. = 2-23.20 455 22 63 Leads ooo areas eee eer 22. | Wigs oe ce te 19 LIVEN Ge Se eee ee ee ea 40) | Wattaleerens ec) 2 5. 0) eee 60 LAGI ee ieee eee a 10 — APO uUneee ews Seca pss is Se eS 33 hited ers es Stays Get enn Se 4,610 In this area of 60 blocks of varying size, 712 dooryards, or estates, averaged 6.5 host trees or shrubs. In Hilo, island of Hawaii, host conditions are quite as favorable for fruit-fly increase as in Honolulu. Thus the following numbers of host trees and shrubs were found in certain yards during March, 1914. Yarp 1. Yarp 2—Continued. 2.050 2100) ee eae ae 1:-|, OFAMIRC Rae Roepe oe Gal dhs ae 2, BENITA CIEL a2 sacs vo ae eee 4” | Strawmbeusy eulavasae. 255 sees es 2 BEM ANESS PlUI=: Sos ot a ss 2:9) | COREE IER Fo Ya Be Be So al yet eee nN 14 Mieomtaim apples. 2-2. .s.25.- 25 tnen: 6 | Bananas. BueibeOIOL@s 5 foe hash Sooe ee ee at LS) Abyglea hom ee see sehen ene ae hee 2 mee trees. 8. ses Se ee BL 34 | Teather eon eect sae 1 Gommon Cuava ..... 2-22-02 l2..e- 20. | Higemeeae tue ses oe ctl hoes eee 3 erzlblanebanala-o.+2.-2-.2-2222-25% 15.) Mogunteim applets. Nees o scan ee ae 2 LIGO20 0.ce Coe ee eee ZEAL AUC 06/2) SUN Gti ee eee eee ee 2 RPE MIC OMe eee 2) Soin. eee SSS 33 Commmongouavaire = mae osc -2 neces 3 re Aa 2 See | PE so sce cade spe sec sss essose: °'| Roseyapple 2..22.. 2.2.2 ths Meera gH Peach......-.--+--+--+-+2-+2++-+-- I AISNE) 5 eeeenats er Mere eens Pei oe 2 Grape pee 4: ee gL Sy pee Sever oceichs RR oe en a 3 Stmnved kanvants.). 22. 2.220252 58 1 | ee Oe bee te. tele she 1 Mangosteen....-. iby Meee eee 1 Yarp 4 PONISGPShe ee es ss she Te ee Ty Heel. oo 202 ctecione eon esenss2conses 4 Miamie Geet siss ra Scre at encha aaron 6 Yarp 2. LoqUiataereess sree saan ee ote ct allt Surinam cherry....-...-- 2 | Waite edikam ami sas o.s 5. 5 Sec e Sicse 3 J LD LA ae 2) | Sunmambecheryaeccen-a-s2 os esciec see 62 LU NGHD ace eae ae 1, Strawioernyncuavaesss-s-5 oes = iL 28 BULLETIN 640, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The great variety of host vegetation which ripens its fruit at different seasons leaves no time in Hawaii when fruits are entirely. out of season. The fact that certain hosts, such as the Chinese orange, Surinam cherry, and mock orange, bear several crops a year and others, such as specimens of the ball and the winged kamanis and the bestill, appear to be seldom entirely free from ripening fruits, assure food for the fruit fly the year round. The succession of fruits also is increased by the individuality of trees of the same species, or _ even of certain branches of a single tree, which results in a very uneven ripening of the fruit. While the data in Table III do not indicate the seasonal abundance of host fruits, they have been sum- marized from the collections of clean-culture inspections during 1913 - to show the remarkable succession of host fruits ripening in greater or less abundance throughout the year in Honolulu. The presence of so much ripening fruit, much of it on tall trees such as those illustrated in figures 26, 27, and 28, has made it possible for the fruit fly to multiply with unprecedented rapidity and thwart artificial remedial measures. Taste III.—Data indicating the seasons of the year when inspectors of the clean-culture campaign collected various fruits infested by the Mediterranean fruit fly. Soiree ES is | AN Ss |All oS ~ Jo | co ra leaes|eRalty. | amet ay | se8c | STM ai (ety ce | ti eam Fruit. Mey CS =| eet] ebameSmtess) Steal che] Sa] 250] etiladics Se tal eae epee l¢dldlalesie (S/S iss] 8/818] 8 lke ek) eo] eee ISiISIS Se(/S (8/5 Bele |/a)a)e e< Surinam cherry---.....---.- DN) SX || EX OX OX XX OO Xa ieee ES RA ote) ST | |X IE | [OX 61S | SCR ti Grape sass sane sseeo noe Dal fe Sel ts <1 ISI || Pac (Sse Me (eecalT> Gelbee all eseealf > Cri tees S eI. HAVA eciascmener esee < |snaciloce =f 3< 1 bibteY: aap spine ee sites td ND N SG Fe) SEND SNP GY Ga escola lloscellacy lb os, {lone - OCUaAL aeons a ace co aea oe ae YSN PG Poe Na lees 1) OX, | eS RO Galler Clie Ceol Sl YC eae || 3: Mang O-. aspen aioe se sno DSA 1 <8 Gant CPI || Cal CDC > al D> Colla Mall eX |). 2< Mockorange= 52295 ease KX 1 KK KR | OK | KO OK KE, | OK KX al XS eae Mountain apple: - -......--=3|---2 Bear S| al |= -|| Gl al Be [Rel eae ooeliscaateexsellio< || 3< Oras gy eens 28 S29. Fe ore DG li Gl Weis ha am 1-7 a le lI allio Gall VEG Ve So linds ool eel meee eee lee ee-Gallios qlescolleos sees] O° Bestill: 3-22). tennessee >See lst ered bees oll || SIM GaN Te a he GO NT CSI GIES Gh ee |) 3 Soul Sop). 2 het - sae sees ee eee eee X | DORR 1 | DS || Kl eS aaa ae Mandarin oceeccnccacs eee | ON) ENS WS |) OK | SS NOS Oe leas] 2S KOS I] 26 |) IG) oes yeeseee Sse ee - | eee eeallece a! >< loccel heal Gulley Gall >< le >-Guliearllecaltiers ils Ih 2 Kamani, winged .........-.- KO KX | Oe XK EX OX ex ee Spanish cherry) =so-- see eee Dei h Xero CARR ot ISS SER ee Bartlettipéar =o .2- csc sons ee ee oe besdiedusl Bopetes 5 -|[s- 22 lssso|pSeeiBessloo- cease SG peel <1 | 1 This table is not intended to indicate the seasonal abundance of host fruits. a IGG NT || SOKO PN IUMOGEK AIK OCH BE OOOO ON Wo ocieg anal || SORA POO EC OOS CRO OG OO OR OOOO ee-81 “Buy | XXX 1XXXXXKK 1 IX XK | XK IXKXKKK | Hl peor ood | xxx Ix IX IXXK IXKKK IKK IXXK IX IKKKX | WEEN) SOO OOG OMSK OX DOK DOK COOOL OS | *pI-6 00g | XXX 1X 1XXXXX IXKKX IX IKK IXKKKKM | ‘ey ‘any | XXX :X 1X 1 XXXX 1X 1 XX 1X | XK XXX | EB CNG || OOK WX POO EROCOLE OK PEE PX DOCK | ora XXX 1X KKK 1K XK IXKK XK IXXKKKXX || -og-eg “aon DRO BS TNO ORE ESO CPE aes vognte Atmg | XXX 1X 1X bX IX IKE EXKK IKK DX IKK Meret aon | xx EX DO IKK IXKXKKKK EX EEK XX | PI ORK | Wea Atal | OOK BORK BD PX WOR KKEX IOK BOOS BH GT ON xx IK OX XK IXKKX IKK IX | BH AWE | 9S SEIS ORBLE ES BOK OK WORK PCOS | GT MOE || IOS RUE BECO OED FING OOS I x 2 Se Ra SI T “AON x x 4 RR ENS BES UNO OE INOS BOOK US 4 IE OOS | =1%-400 'ec-eg oun | Gs OG) SOO OT OOO OOK 86-06 “400 | SKK BC BRO OOK WEE WT RSOR EE OSS FI DT KO nO OX laren oat |e ex Hh x Ie oe see | ‘Te-oremmye |; ix | XK sreeunp | | | SGGaR BK BEER BX XK OX ORK CE Oe I-00) | Ox OCC "g Taa fic HAS OS POR OOOLK POOSOOEXK | DORR ORS | be xxx IX KKK | OOS IX I a lll cern idem le oe ox Oe ‘xXx Xx IXKKXKX | Soe seals Bild Oar oD jab wh) lating. 8. (pepton- izing). - 3916. C Per cent.| Per-cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. TPE Osos Soba oe ee eee soBeeeee 9 44.45 12. 96 25. 92 0 0 16. 67 DBL O18) a ica aN Se eer ee eyes 10 0 57.14 37.14 0 5. 72 0 So GEU RS TUG i re a | 11 47.62 4.76 14. 29 0 33.33 iCTD, TSS Se eee eet eee ee oe 12 0 17. 56 75. 68 0 6.76 0 WSR Bie ons Sec aes Rea eee 19 69. 40 10.39 14.75 0 0 5. 46 Nurses TYPE ee cee ee ee rae eae ae 66 63. 06 5.09 17.19 - 64 11.48 2.54 TUEDIRS OGL Sea a teeeee eae eee tet eo eee 91 7.00 85. 00 3.00 2.00 3.00 0 Petre Ae ae eS Ye Ba: 92 75. 30 10. 24 11.44 3.02 0 0 BAVC ACO R nme ama eee eetaer cee een 38. 36 25.39 24. 93 . G4 3.37 oP} BACTERIAL GROUPS IN MILK DIRECTLY FROM THE UDDER. Rea Acid ci coagu- Date. Copy coagu- | Acid. Inert. | Alkali. Hepige: lating lating 8 (pepton- izing). 1916. - | Per cent.| Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. D310, DU Soe Seve ee sen Bleeee neeeeee ea 2 19.00 39. 00 36. 00 1.00 5.00 0 FELD. 2D) a ee ee a ee 23 0 97. 81 0 0 2.19 0 UP3)0), CO SR See eS ees ees 26 82. 86 8.57 8.57 0 0 0 RiP, 0). ce 5 Seen eee aee eee 2, 28. 04 64. 02 3.27 0 4.67 0 Wn Bin, Det ia cere eee a eee een 23 5.11 87. 66 3.83 0 0 3.40 Li) A ces a er ae Be ee aes 26 85. 71 14.29 0 0 0 0 Witte GiSem pron eee es ahs 2 68. 34 12.08 5.00 0 0 14.58 A287 SS ee ore ee ae gam 23 2.94 88. 82 1.18 0 0 7..06 Rea Tee Gece eye en ee eS aS oe 26 77.09 0 2.08 0 2.08 18.75 WAT OA ees a isa scr ecm see tiene 23 5.78 72. 83 14. 46 1.73 1.73 3.47 LEER, GAH ea nh ee eae CL 26 64.58 16. 67 16. 67 0 2.08 0 BASVG RAO ar eee hee eer eon 39.95 45.61 8. 28 a7a5} 1.61 4.29 20 BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EXPERIMENT NO. 5. (COWS AND FLOOR DIRTY, MANURE REMOVED WEEKLY, UTENSILS STERILIZED.) This experiment was conducted under the same conditions as Ex- periment No. 2. Having determined the essential factors necessary for the production of Aan milk of low bacterial content, it was considered advisable to reproduce the original conditions in order to check the three factors again. Consequently, in the experiment the cows were allowed to get dirty and the manure was removed only once a week, but the other conditions of the barn were not changed. The object was to determine the factor of dirty cows; therefore, the utensils were sterilized in order not to add another factor. The con- dition of the barn and of the cows is illustrated in figures 11 and 12, respectively. Particular attention is directed to the extremely large quantity of filth on the fioor of the barn. During the experiment, which continued from April 11 to May 6, 1916, 41 samples of milk were examined from both small-top and open pails. The average count of samples from the former was 24.439, and from the latter 86,212 bacteria per cubic centimeter, as shown in Table 6. . | Fic, 11—Condition of barn during Experiment No, 5, PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 21 Fic. 12.—Condition of one of the cows during Experiment No. 5. TABLE 6.—Bacteria per cubic centimeter in dual samples of fresh milk produced under conditions described in Haperiment No. 5. Sample} Open | Small-top Sample| Open |Small-top Date: No. | pail. pail. Date: No. | pail. | pail. 1916 Arie THO 1 ee 1] 10,600 4,300 7,500 Ain TST) ae 2] 4,500 4,800 3, 500 Xpress acm:. sk: 3| 8,100 5,600 7,200 LD 1D oot 4 2, 406 2,500 1, 900 L\orr TRY Cas 11 a ae 5 | 13,900 10, 800 17,700 PAorst359. M1... ...-2.. 6 | 6,400 6, 100 1, 900 Agora a: mm ose... 7 | 165, 000 26, 900 31, 000 yore, 1G Os 1 8 | 360, 000 105, 000 3, 500 L\10its IGS Gls 0 9 | 240,000" 29, 800 7,300 pT 7, aM... 2... 10 | 83,000 14, 600. 6, 100 preg. miso). el. 11 | 112, 000 31, 300 | 2,80C Apr. 18,4.m........:. 12 | 65,000 19, 700 | 10, 200 Nor 18s p. M222... 13 | 58,000 18, 200 13, 100 prs 19s a. mis Le: 14 | 121, 000 78, 000 8, 400 Apr, 19, p.m.....--... 15 | 144, 000 21,100 3, 100 Aprs200 40m... .....-- 16 | 276,000 | 122,000 23,000 ADTEI0 pe ms... 2. 17 | 112,000 72,000 6, 600 Nore a.m: 2. 18 | 163, 000 79,000 -10, 900 Norso4ae m2. 2.6.2 19 | 940,000} 166,000 3, 700 J\y Oye EG Oy 01 20 | 158, 000 9,600 aaa aT i Alon, i pt er 21 | 16,500 3, 200 24,439 FAME 25; De Wes --. 22 22 4,800 2,100 | If the average bacterial counts in the experiment are compared with those in Table 2, a similar experiment, it will be seen that the average count from the small-top pail was 24,439 in one series and 17,027 in the other. The open pail showed a greater variation, being 86,212 in one case and 22,677 in the other. In the last series with the open pail (Table 6) there are a few high counts which | 22 BULLETIN’ 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 7 raise the average greatly. The figures are of interest because with similar barn conditions, dirty cows, and the manure removed weekly, practically the same average number of bacteria were intro- duced at periods of time which were about six months apart. The results again show that the number of bacteria introduced through manure was not so large as had been expected. An examination of Table 6 shows the value of the small-top pail, which is most strikingly shown in graphic form in figure 13. seagPPRPPRPPERE RES : : 8 eee ere eee 77, ine P(— § wees aw we SELE.RUtt Lees SUES EUS SEES Fie. 13.—Bacterial content of milk from sterilized small-top and open pails during Experiment No, 5. EXPERIMENT NO. 6. (COWS AND FLOORS DIRTY, MANURE REMOVED WEEKLY, UTENSILS NOT STERILIZED.) The conditions of this experiment were similar to those of Ex- periment No. 1. Table 7, covering the period from May 8 to 31, 1916, shows the average count of 36 samples of milk from the small-top pail to be 114,497, compared with 153,905 bacteria per cubic centimeter for the open pail. A comparison of the averages with those in Experiment No. 1, results of which are given in Table 1, shows that the counts in the latter experiment were considerably higher, which may be explained by the variable bacterial content of unsterilized utensils. PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 3 Taste 7.—Bacteria per cubic centimeter in dual samples of fresh milk pro- duced under conditions described in. Experiment No. 6. : Sample} Open | Small-top Sample} Open | Small-top Date. No. | pail. pail. — || Date. No. | pail. | pail. 1916, 1916 May 8; a. M.._.----.-- 1 | 149,000 55,000 || May 22, p. m_-.......- 20 | 168,000 125, 000 Lay a ee 2{ 53,000 12,200 || May 23,a.m-_.......-- 21 | 202,000 230, 000 May tOla. mi ...,:..-- 3 | 22,500 18,100 |} May 23, p. m_-.-..-..- 22 | 279,000 201, 000 Ty Oe 4] 39,000 19,500 || May 24,a.m_.._...... 23 | 332,000 265, 000 May 12,a.m-.-........ 5 6, 800 12,400 || May 24, p. m.--...-..- 24 | 227,000 148, 000 Lovie ae 6 | 36,300 6,100 || May 25,a.m_..._.__.. 25 | 215,000| 168, 000 LAB SP 7 | 108, 000 71,000 |) May 25, p. m_........- 26 | 198, 000 86, 000 Wry 13pm. =. =.=... 8 | 48,000 May:26, 2.am=_-.--.... 27 | 209, 000 157, 000 Mitty (5am .-.....-. 9 | 82,000} 193,000 || May 26, p.m.......... 28 | 181, 000 78, 000 May 15, p. m.......... 10 | 34,000 56,000 || May 27, a.m_......-.. 29 | 176, 000 186, 000 LSS AL 11 | 115,000 169, 00C || May 27, p. m_-..-.-.--| 30 | 196, 000 93, 000 Way 16:p.m.. --=.22.! 12 | 126,000 166,000 || May 29, a.m-_.._....-- 31 | 256, 000 128, 000 LLEVA SCs 13 | 207,000 210,000 || May 29, p. m_-_...--_- 32 | 240, 000 312, 000 Merve? pan. 2 =e P 14 | 151,000 42,000 || May 30,a.m___....__- 33 | 338,000} 161, 000 May 18, a.m _._.-.-... 15 | 154,000 68,000 || May 30, p. m.........- 34 | 191,000 94, MayaS p.m --......- 16 | 99,000 74,000 || May 31, a.m-_-.-....-- 35 | 99,000 74, 000 iMya19> asm 22 = WW. 17 | 167,000 | _ 94,000 || May 31, p. m.--.-.-..- | 36 | 94,000 | 63, 000 May Al; p..M-<225. 250. 18 | 126,000 87,600 SS SS May 22 aT 2 eos 19 | 216,000 159,000 | Average..--.-.-- Sere 153,905 | 114,497 In all the experiments the utensils were probably washed more earefully than on the average farm, and to show how many bacteria may be introduced into milk under dirty conditions when utensils are not washed until just before milking, figures from another series of experiments may be of interest. In the latter experiments milk produced with the use of the small-top -pails showed an ayerage count of 1,309,000 compared with 2,015,000 bacteria per cubic centi- meter in open pails. While in this experiment utensils were han- dled in an extremely careless manner, the results show that a large number of bacteria may be introduced from unsterilized utensils. - While the average count from the open pail was higher than from the small-top pail, the value of the latter can not be accurately deter- mined from the results, because the utensils were not sterilized. In a general way, howeyer, the small-top pail has some value even under the conditions described. The results obtained in Experiment No. 6 confirm those obtained in our first experiment and indicate that the greatest contamination of milk comes from the use of unsterilized utensils. EXPERIMENT NO. 7. (COWS AND FLOOR CLEAN, MANURE REMOVED DAILY, UDDERS AND TEATS OF COWS WASHED, UTENSILS STERILIZED.) ~ Experiment No. 7 was conducted under the same conditions as Experiment No. 4 except that the cows were not bedded. The gen- eral condition of the barn during the experiment is illustrated in figure 14 and that of the cows in figure 15. The floor of the stable was kept comparatively clean, the manure was removed daily, the utensils were sterilized, and at each milking the cows were cleaned and udders and teats were wiped with a damp cloth. Only a few samples of milk were taken during this experiment, which continued 4 BULLETIN 642, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from June 5 to 15, 1916. The average bacterial count of 15 samples from the small-top pail was 2,667 and from the open pail 4,947 bacteria per cubic centimeter, as shown in Table 8. In the previous series (Table 4) the average bacterial count was 2,154, compared with 2,667, the average count obtained in this series. The figures are par- ticularly interesting, as they represent average counts of milk pro- duced under similar conditions with periods of time about three months apart. The bacterial counts of milk from the small-top com- pared with open pails again show the value of the former type. TABLE 8.—Bacteria per cubic centimeter in dual samples of fresh milk pro- duced under conditions described in Experiment No. 7. Sample) Open | Small-top Sample} Open /|Small-top Date. No. | pail. | - pail. Date. No. | pail. | pail. . 1916. June 5, p.m. 1 4,900 1,300 3,100 2,300 June 6, a. m. 2| 21,300 1,200 8, 400 1,600 June 6, p. m.. 3] 3,700 6, 400 3, 800 5, 400 June 7, a. m. 4| 3,100 2,300 1,700 4,600 June 7, p.m 5| 4,900 2,200 1,500 2,100 June 8, a. m. 6| 3,700 1, 400 900 2,200 June 8, p.m 7 2,800 2,400 | —_—_——. June 9, a.m 8} 7,500 3,300 | 4,947 2,667 June 9, p.m 9 2,900 1,300 *) nee ot a Dee Fic. 14.—Condition of barn during Experiment No. 7. on PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 95 During this ex- periment the aver- age count of the middle milk taken directly from the udder of two cows was 1,172 bacteria per cubic centimeter, which, subtracted irom 2,66(, the count of the entire milking which was milked into small- top pails, leaves 1,495, or the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter intro- duced into the small- top parl by external contamination. _ Similarly the aver- age udder count of middle milk of the two cows milked into open pails was 1,557, which, when subtracted from the average of the open pail, 4,947, gives a difference of 8,390 bacteria per cubic centimeter to represent the number introduced by external contamination. In this final experiment we again used a few simple factors, namely, sterilized utensils, clean cows with clean udders and teats, and the small-top pail.. The figures confirm the previous results. Tie. 15.—Condition of the flank and udder of one of the cows during Experiment No. 7. CONTAMINATION OF MILK BY UNSTERILIZED UTENSILS. In this work the results have indicated that generally the greatest contamination of milk comes from the use of unsterilized utensils. Since that factor is so important in the production of low-count milk it deserves special consideration, and therefore additional data on the subject are presented. Table 9 shows the results of the bacterial examination of 60 sam- ples of milk from both sterilized and unsterilized small-top pails. — Each number represents two samples taken at the same milking, when two cows were milked into a sterilized pail and two into an un- sterilized one. All the cows were cleaned and bedded, but the udders were not washed. The 60 samples from the sterilized pail showed an average bacterial count of 6,306, compared with 73,308 for the un- sterilized pail, a difference of 67,002, which represents the average number of bacteria per cubic céntimeter introduced through unsteril- “18989°—18—Bull. 642-4 7 26 BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ized utensils. The results appear graphically in figure 16, which shows the remarkable difference between the bacterial content of milk from sterilized and unsterilized utensils. The highest bacterial count of all the samples from sterilized utensils was 21,500 and from un- sterilized utensils 284,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. TABLE 9.—Bacteria per cubic centimeter in dual samples of fresh milk when sterilized and unsterilized utensils were used. Small-top pail. Small-top pail. Sam- Fhe Sam- Date. p'e | Date. ple is No. Steril- | Unster- | No. Steril- | Unster- ized. ilized. | ized. ilized. 1916 Veins i), 76 We sect soon 1 3 700 17,500 || Feb. 8, 32 16,700 56, 000 ‘Terran 20 seer eee me ae 2 5,800 | 112,000 || Feb. 8, 33 2,900 | 37,000 Jari Z0 ip see eee 3 6,900 47,600 || Feb. 9, 34 6, 800 18,300 Tiana lateness ee 4 12,500 38, 200 || Feb. 9, 35 1,200 | 149,000 Jan, 21 pee ae eee 5 4,900 18,400 || Feb. 10 36 3,100 42,000 fans23 5p sme eens 6 8,100 | 126,000 || Feb. 10 37 1,500 | 42,500 HIGHS PUL Ei eile eo ores ae 7 3,300 68,000 || Feb. 11 38 5,400 37,100 Jan. 24, p.m....._.... 8 6,900 9,700 || Feb. 11 39 2,900 94, 000 Jan.25,a.m 9 3,800 | 66,000 || Feb. 12, a. =e 40 6,300 | 33,900 Jan. 25,p.m 10 4,200 16, £00 || Feb. 13, p.m 41 2,500 21, 200 Jan. 26,a.m 11 6,800 | 85,000 || Feb. 14, p.m 42 4,200 | 19,800 Jan. 26, p.m 12 6, GOO 18,600 || Feb.15,a. 43 12,500 55, 200 Jan. 27, a.m 13 | 21,500] 27,900 || Feb. 15, p.m 44 7,500 | 68,000 Jan. 27, p.m 14 4,500 3; 100 || eb. 16, a. m->-.----.-- 45 4,500) |. 22-44 Jan. 28,a.m 15 4,900 48, £00 || Feb. 16, p.m... --...- 46 1,500 | 117,000 Jan. 28, p.m 16 3,700 | 141,000 |} Feb. 17,a.m...--..... 47 6,300 | 195,000 Jan. 29,a.m 17 7,800 ; °54,000 |} Feb.17, p.m-.-..--.... 48 3, 100 65,000 Jan. 30, p. m 18 3,400 | 203,000 || Feb.18,a.m.......... 49 6,900 | 152,000 Jan.31,a.m 19 | 17,500} 98,000 || Feb. 18, p.m......... 50 8,900 | 103,000 Jans ols peMeesee es 20 2,€00 | 102,000 |} Feb.19,a.m.......... 51 8,500 | 106,000 HED anes e eee 21 15,800 64,700 || Feb. 20, p. m:.---.... 52]. 5,800 62,000 BRebrlipems=-cessce. 22 9,300 $2,000 || Feb. 22; p.m-...-.-.... 53 2,500 83, 000 Rebs 2) poi see eeeee 23 3,500 O7O0OM He De 2o5 dete eee 54 6, 200 39,700 Reps3) aginst eee cosee 24 5,100 32;200)|| Reb. 23, p.mi.2.--2..: 55 6, 200 97,000 Hebeseipalles eee -e ee 25 3,000 28,200) || Heb: 24;\a.me 2-22 o- 56 8, 900 97,000 Reb canard see aces see 26 9, 900 7,400 || Beb: 24,p-m-=...=-.-- 57 5,100 | 183,000 Heby4atip. mse soo. seen 27 2,700 Sie eO0N He bao anes ee ee eee 58 3,900 | 130,000 Heb. osdem-ee eee se 23) | eal F300) ett S00B| phe be 25 anomie meena 59 4,600 | 131,000 Heb264 ps Wise eee 29 2,600 | 284,000 || Feb. 26,a.m.......... 60 3,200 | 134,000 Bebidsasaneee oe ase 30 5,300 54, 000 ; ee HeDian(s pet se eee oe 31 2, 900 68, 000 AVCTARA eS Ler J. | soeeeeee « 6,306 73, 308 The diagram shows that in two cases, numbers 26 and 28, the milk from the sterilized utensils was slightly higher in bacterial content than that from the unsterilized. In both cases the counts were rela- tively low, which indicates that the unsterilized utensils in these par- ticular cases were thoroughly washed in very hot water. Throughout the series, as soon as the samples were taken the pails and cans were washed in hot water—54.4° C. (130° F.)—in which washing powder had been dissolved. The insides of the cans and pails were scrubbed with a brush. After washing, the cans were inverted and remained uncovered until the next milking. It is evident that they were washed better than they would have been on the average farm. By this method of handling it is apparent that the number of bacteria in the unsterilized cans would be smaller than in those in which milk had stood for # considerable time, for in the latter case there is an oppor- tunity for a great multiplication of bacteria. The higher the bac- PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 27 teria! count in the milk, the higher it would be in the can after the milk is poured out. The more milk there is left in the can before washing, the higher the count would probably be after washing, and consequently the greater the contamination of the fresh milk placed in the can. The method of handling utensils in the experiment ex- AICTE CEE CORE CLAVWI72 ADE Toa AP SEIN ay EN RY x 3 NN) ‘ Q 8 8 N' Q 9 0 \) = WV. of ssi || 2m ee ee Ei SS F ——o Sy iss] Riss] | Se BSSSS SESS SSS SS SS SEE PES SSG SSSSGSSSSER ESSE HESS HSSSS SSS ESSN ISS Si ie 3 Roos == 70 a | S| Lh / wey eee 12 Pe RR | a S| 7 AR | | fO® eek A. eR SSSSSI — ESSEC a ==] | at [ae ii oa ei so | aa 1 as Sass | cs ee ial VRE LALAVUBABRT RASS CARGO TESTER al sss ase ASS SS SSS SSS iS SSN z= = a — =a 326 Pe co) << SF RSs] | om KSSSSK > ese TIO SS TZ = Beas BE a JSS stot : Risssspass | “Sk Re) sS—Seset SM oe er FO RSANSESSSSESSSSESY m | | F/ ASSSYSTSSS SZ IASSTSSSS) = GS. SSS SSSS= SF Se GS SS ee ee cSSSI Sees [eeesolearesl Se Looe KSSSSy Sea DASA RASS SAY =< = sss ss Ss pS ss BSNS SSSA SSS ESS SY KSSSSESSSSSSSSS ISS SSS SSSI = ISSSSSASSSSESSSSY SS SSSYSSSSSSS SSSR SSS ESS il ce KANSSFLESSYSES SATE SSA SSSA SISSY SSSSISSSSS T PEAIZED | Fig. 16.—Bacterial contents of milk from sterilized (black) and unsterilized (white) utensils, 28 BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. plains, therefore, the relatively low count found in milk placed in the unsterilized utensils. The number of bacteria introduced into milk by unsterilized uten- sils is extremely variable because of the many different ways in which the utensils may be handled. To show the variation other experi- ments were conducted, the results of which are shown in Table 10. In these experiments the manure was removed only twice a week and the cows were dirty. Under the conditions the average count of 30 samples of milk from sterilized utensils was 31,040 bacteria per cubic centimeter, which represents the contamination of the milk, largely by manure, but does not include that from unsterilized uten- sils. Under the same conditions 50 samples of milk were taken, di- rectly after milking, from washed but not sterilized utensils. The average count of this series of samples was 666,520. Deducting 31,040, the average count from sterilized utensils, the remainder, 635,480, represents the average bacterial contamination per cubic centimeter of milk resulting from unsterilized utensils. Referring to the contamination by unsterilized utensils discussed in the previous experiment and shown in Table 9, it may be seen that the contamina- tion in the two experiments was very different, being in the former relatively low and in the latter very high. To show further the variability of the factor of unsterilized uten- sils, another series of samples was: examined under the same barn conditions but with utensils treated in a different manner. After milking, the milk was poured from the utensils, but the drainings were allowed to remain. The utensils were placed upright on the floor until the next milking, or about eight hours later, when they were washed in the same manner as in the previous experiments. The 20 samples of milk taken under these conditions averaged 1,667,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter, as shown in Table 10. The count was nearly three times that of the average of 50 samples in which the utensils were washed immediately after milking but not sterilized. By deducting the average figure of 31,040 bacteria obtained in the samples from sterilized utensils, the average number introduced from unsterilized ones held eight hours before washing was about 1,635,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. While that method of handling uten-— sils may not represent average conditions in practice, it is not unu-— sual. The results indicate that a very large number of bacteria may be introduced into milk from washed, unsterilized utensils. PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 29 TABLE 10.—Number of bacteria per cubic centimeter introduced into milk through unsterilized wtensils. Utensils Utensils Utensils Utensils Utensils | washed held 8 Utensils | washed held 8 Sample No. steril- directly _ hours Sample No. | steril- directly hours ized. after before ized. after before milking. | washing. | milking. | washing. 27,000 225, 000 CYA CO0) II) Boot oscasncosces 24, 500 Ui @ilO WOO |ossseccsses 58, 000 1, 140, 000 820, 000 HAV, OOO Wosacssacsee 54, 000 270,000 | 3,300,000 U0), CUO Nescascsacss 83. 000 620, 000 1, 800, 000 AGO} 0008 Pease c nese 28, 000 680, 000 1,170, 000 BAN; O00) Iescrsocesse 96, 000 1, 080, 000 1, 440, 000 AOS 000M as aeeeene 11, 800 490, 000 620, 000 TSO), 0) scastocescc 39, 000 850, 000 860, 000 AQ0PO00) Rae se seeen- 23, 600 840, 000 570, 000 cule} (O10) Woseeeeeccos 98, 000 1, 450, 000. 630, 000 LOY OW) |scastosscces 21,600 | 2,400, 000 1, 300, 000 bE (0) lesssseeeone a 12,400 1,950,000 | 2,720,000 440 000" oe so eane =a 10, 200 260, 000 1, 120, 000 USO WUO) Wosscecec sce £3 22, 000 610, 000 | 1,840, 000 POLO) |e siceeadsek AS 12, 100 340, 000 1, 080, 000 590, 000 |. -...---..- ue 42, 000 630, 000 1, 920, 000 SLONOOOR | Eeeeeeee ce ae 16, 400 179, 000 1, 160, 000 450500082. - 222225 Se 22, 800 366,000 | 3,820, 000 PAO C00) |osassecsood TORRES 3-15 Pot) 3). 24, 000 304, 000 | 2,200, 000 UGOR ON) escsscsesec PAU) Sosa 37, 000 460,000 | 4,300,000 _ PRY, WO |lssesssosses 2. Jae eR 13, 500 NoeyAIS WOO eccccndicase UV WOW || ssaatenSoc5 OF aia 3 a ae ST 57, 000 720,000 |oscecceesos S40 10008 Re eee 2S). o jae 14,200 | 1,600,000 |....---.... HOO O00) Beaeeeenen ete rote ie ha: _ 15, 500 PN, 00) Wosesccoseos GO} C00) Joacsecostes ONG LF es a A ee 8, 000 19405000) |Seeeessse ee : — PREECE AS a ce a are 7, 600 6900008 |E2aeeeeeeee Average... . 31, 040 666,520 | 1, 667,000 Several determinations of the total number of bacteria in washed cans and pails were made just before milking. They were obtained as follows: Four hundred cubic centimeters of sterile water was placed in each utensil and vigorously shaken, the contents were then poured into a sterile receptacle and the number of bacteria determined in the usual way. The results of some of the determinations are shown in Table 11. Five-gallon cans were washed, as has been described, with hot water at approximately 544° C. (130° F.) in which washing powder was dissolved. The interior of the utensils was scrubbed with a brush, then rinsed, inverted, and left uncovered in the milk house. The number of bacteria per can ranged from 292,000,000 to 5,520,- 000,000 and in the pails from 2,400 to 12,600,000. Table 11 also shows two counts of pails and cans which had been held eight hours before being washed, one can showing 15,600,000,000 and the other 16,800,000,000 bacteria, while the pails showed 44,000,000 and 700,- 000,000 bacteria, respectively. The results show the great variation that may occur in can and pail counts when held under different conditions, \ 30 BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe 11.—Total number of bacteria found in clean-washed but unsterilized utensils. Series No. | Washed can. Washed pail. |) Series No. Washed can. | Washed pail. | | Lj pee eoocenoce | 728, 000, 000 76; 400) | 282 nore ste es 292, 000, 000 4, 200, 000 7 ie pp A IE | 816, 000, 000 PEITND) ||| SO seeetceseecseer 1, 220, 000, 000 652, 000 Berets. saat att 860, 000, 000 2, AD0)|| 10 ee See eee es | 1,180, 000, 000 2, 200, 000 Meroe ee: ak eeee 5, 520, 000, 000 LTECO0L)| |e ceeee eee | 1,640, 000, 000 10, 400, 000 pied 3525 624, 000, 000 8; SOHN hake Bei Wee 3 r 116, 800,000,000 | 1700, 000, 000 Giro csan cer seeee 870, 000, 000 12, 600, 000 13) 52 ae ee | 115,600, 000, 000 44, 000, 000 UEP eee 1, 580, 000, 000 1, 380, 000 1 Held 8 hours before washing. During the work it was thought that one rinsmg of a can with sterile water probably did not remove all the bacteria from the in- terior. To determine the point several tests were made, the results” of which are shown in Table 12. In the first test the can was rinsed twice, with 400 cubic centimeters of sterile water each time. The first rinsing showed 860,000,000 bacteria and the second 478,800,000, or a total of 1,338,800,000 bacteria in the can. In a second test, in which the can was rinsed three times, each rinsing showed large numbers of bacteria, the count. being lower after each rinsing. In a third test, in which four rinsings were made, the last one still re- moved a large number of bacteria. It follows from these results that one rinsing removes only a portion of the bacteria from the can, and therefore is not a true measure of the number of bacteria present. The highest total count per 5-gallon can in that test was 8,876,000,000 bacteria. A simple calculation proves that if this can were filled with milk, 469,132 bacteria would be added to each cubic centimeter - through contamination from the can. This merely shows the possi- bility of great contamination from unsterilized utensils. TABLE 12.—Effect of several rinsings in determining the number of bacteria in Cans. Number of bac- Number of rinsing. teria per washed can. ee has Se ee ee 860, 000, 000 Bite SUE SERA. RE | 478, 800, 000 Poids. VAs ek 8 1,338, 800, 000 (ees Pee ee eee | 5,520,000, 000 PTO eR pad Sephora s, 27, riage | 2,640, 000, 000 See ye ae paar WRN See 716, 000, 000 Votal ss... oxe aes See ee eee 8, 876, 000, 000 | i. ee ee eer meme oe = 8 3b ae ee 624, 000, 000 eS Se ae eR on NOt SS Re 316, 000, 000 5 aaa Meni omam Fe 2 Tag DER 109, 000, 000 Ae p92 pe RAINS Sa SCE Aa ee eocephse 72, 000, GOO Totalicsd.. 2s isee eee ene eee 1, 121, 000, 000 PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 81 As a matter of additional interest, some experiments were con- ducted which show that bacteria grow in washed cans which are closed before they are thoroughly dried. To illustrate the point, two 5-gallon cans were sterilized, then one was filled with milk, which was immediately poured into the other, and that in turn immediately emptied. The operation was performed in order to introduce into each can approximately the same number of bacteria. Each can was then washed in exactly the same manner, the excess of water being shaken out and the cover replaced. A determination of the number of bacteria in one of the freshly washed cans was then made. © The other can, which it may be assumed contained approximately the same number of bacteria at that time, was allowed to stand at a warm temperature for 24 hours, when the number of bacteria was determined. An examination of the results in Table 13 shows that in each of the seven tests there was a great increase in the number of bacteria in the cans during the holding period of 24 hours. The importance of drying cans thoroughly after washing, particularly when they are immediately covered, is therefore evident. TABLE 13.—Bacterial growth in cans covered before being dried. Bacteria per can. Bacteria per can Series No. Series No. Freshly 24 hours after Freshly 24 hours after washed. washing. ‘| washed. washing. ! ll. J6335eSe Secon } 960, 000 847,000,000 || 5- - at ites abot eee 99, 600 320, 000, 000 2. dg eee eee 1 618, 000 2561200050005 Gnawa ram em ee an oe | 5, 570, 000 748, 000, 000 2s 6 SEE eee | 137, 000 336, 000,000 || 7......-: pp e532 305, 000 138, 000, 000 mesa = Nets a cients ES 91, 000 428, 000, 000 | Utensils that have not been sterilized, besides adding large num- bers of bacteria to milk, introduce types which greatly affect the re- lation of the various bacterial groups in it. This matter also was in- vestigated, determinations having been made of the bacterial groups in milk drawn directly from the udder, from sterilized utensils, from unsterilized utensils, and from washings of unsterilized cans. Table 14 summarizes the results of this work. Numerous samples from different sources have been averaged in the table. The bacterial groups were determined by the milk-tube method, which has been described. The bacterial groups in the samples of milk drawn directly from the udder compare very closely with those in the milk from sterilized utensils. It will be noted that in the milk from unsterilized utensils there was a great increase in the percentage of the alkali-forming and peptonizing groups. While the acid-coagulating peptonizing group was not found in milk from utensils not sterilized, it was pres- _for the reason that the bacterial count being so great such dilutions — 32 BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ent in the milk drawn directly from the udder. It was not found had to be used in plating that the small number of bacteria of that type did not appear on the plates. It is also of interest to note that — the washings from the unsterilized cans contained high percentages of the alkali-forming bacteria and particularly the peptonizing group. The addition of peptonizing bacteria in large numbers to milk is a matter of considerable importance, since they may be highly undesirable in that they produce putrefactive changes. North has frequently called attention to the importance of the use of sterilized utensils, which has been further emphasized by results obtained by Prucha, Harding, and Weeter (3). ‘The work of these investigators — and our own experiments indicate clearly that the use of sterilized” utensils is the greatest factor in the production of milk of low bac- terial count. TABLE 14.—Bacterial groups in milk directly from the udder, in fresh milk from sterilized and unsterilized utensils, and in washings from clean but unsteril- ized cans. Bacterial groups. | Number | Source of sample. [Sessa es eA : = | Acid co- averaged.| Acid co-| ,... -alf epto- | agulating ~ agulating Acid. Inert. Alkali. nizing. | (pepto- J nizing) Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. 1.36 5.09 Uidderit a... Ake et eee 47 46.21 37.25 9.41 0. 45 | i Milk from sterilized utensils. --- 19 25. 81 39. 22 25. 51 -71 3.26 5.49 Milk from unsterilized utensils. . 17 11.54 16.99 31.55 14.14 25.79 0 Washings from unsterilized cans. 2 -39 1.85 11. 64 19. 24 66. 87 9 The small dairyman often has difficulty in providing an inex- | pensive apparatus for sterilizing his utensils. Realizing this, a sim- ple steam sterilizer has been devised in the Dairy Division. The | sterilizer, fully described in Farmers’ Bulletin 748, entitled “A Sim-_ ple Staani Sterilizer for Farm Dairy Utensils,” is inexpensive to construct and operate and provides a practical method for sterilizing — dairy utensils on a small scale. The bulletin will be sent free to anyone on request to the Department of Agriculture. CONTAMINATION OF MILK BY MANURE AND DIRT. It has been shown that unsterilized utensils are a source of very © : great contamination of milk, but they are not the only means of con- tamination. Statements have been made, and possibly it has been the general belief, that the greatest contamination of milk comes from manure and other accumulations of dirt on the body of the cow. The results in these experiments indicate that while that is an im-_ portant source of contamination from the standpoint of the number a Bul. 642, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. pen pail, 144,000 112,900 122,000 166,900 COMPARISON OF SEDIMENT AND BACTERIAL COUNT OF MILK FROM SMALL-TOP AND OPEN Pai_s DuRIN@ EXPERIMENT No. 5. BACTERIA PER CuBiIC CENTIMETER AND SEDIMENT DISKS FROM ONE PINT OF MILK. Continued in Plates IT and II. Bul. 642, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. iy PLATE II. 69,000 are COMPARISON OF SEDIMENT AND BACTERIAL COUNT OF MILK FROM SMALL-TOP AND OPEN PAILS DURING EXPERIMENT No. 5. BACTERIA PER CUBIC CENTIMETER AND SEDIMENT DISKS FROM ONE PINT OF MILK. See also Plates I and I. Bul. 642, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. COMPARISON OF SEDIMENT AND BACTERIAL COUNT OF MILK FROM SMALL-TOP AND OPEN PAILS DURING EXPERIMENT No. 5. BACTERIA PER CUBIC CENTIMETER AND SEDIMENT DISKS FROM ONE PINT OF MILK. Continued from Plates I and IT. hil) wee Le Bul. 642, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. COMPARISON OF THE SEDIMENT AND BACTERIAL COUNT OF MILK FROM SMALL-T OP AND OPEN PaiLs DuRING EXPERIMENT No. 7. BACTERIA PER CuBIC CENTIMETER AND SEDIMENT DISKS FROM ONE PINT OF MILK. PLATE V. Bul. 642, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “MTNA SO LNId SNO WOUS SHXSIQ LNAWIGSS GNV YSALAWILNAD OIUND Ysd VINALOVG “LSA LNAWIGSS SHL OL LNNOD IWIYSLOVG AHL JO NOILVISY 00% ‘ST "W°d ~€2@ *390 “wid *9T °990 "n° ‘22 °4390 "nv ‘ez °990 “n'y “ST *300 0 “K'V t 00oss* Tz *390 v 000‘ 0st 060‘ 002 "md “6T "390 008 “wea SET *390 —— nv oz *390 — “nev S6T *3090 “new *2T °490 =) Bul. 642, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. SEDIMENT DiskKS SHOWING FROM 0.01 TO 0.5 GRAM OF FRESH MANURE. PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. Bo) of bacteria introduced, it is a factor of less importance than un- sterilized utensils. Nevertheless, dirt and manure should be kept out of milk, not only to help insure the production of milk of low bacterial count, but also to minimize the possibility of infection by disease-producing organisms, particularly that of bovine tubercu- losis. It has been shown by Shroeder (4) that cattle having tuber- culosis swallow their sputum, so that the tubercle bacilli in it pass through their bodies and into the manure. The small-top pail was designed for the purpose of helping to prevent the entrance of manure and, dirt into milk. Many investiga- tions, among which may be mentioned the work of Stocking (5), also Harding (6) and his associates, and Lamson (7), have shown it to be of great assistance in this connection. Throughout the experiments both the open and small-top pails were used, and attention is again called to the value of the small-top pail in the experiments whether the cows were clean or dirty. Table 15 gives a summary of the average bacterial counts from milk from the sterilized open and small-top pails. Discussion of the results is © unnecessary, as they confirm what has been recognized, namely, that lower bacterial counts can be obtained when a small-top pail is used. In all except the last figures in Table 15 the averages represent the counts at the same milking when two cows were milked into open and two into small-top pails. The most interesting point in connec- tion with the figures is the fact that even under extremely dirty conditions relatively low average bacterial counts were obtained. The original cost of a small-top pail is little more than that of an open pail; it is no more expensive to care for and is of distinct value in preventing the entrance of manure and dirt into milk; consequently it should always be used. TABLE 15.—Summary of bacterial counts of milk drawn under various conditions into sterilized open and small-top pails. Bacteria per cubic cen- timeter. i Number Condition of cows and barn floor. ofsamples averaged.| Open pail | Small-top (steril- pail (steril- ized). ized). Cows dirty, manure removed once a week.......--.-.-----2-0---+-+-- 36 22,677 17,027 Cows dirty, manure removed once a week (6 months later)......-.-.-- 41 86, 212 24, 439 Cows dirty, udders and teats clean, manure removed twice a week...- 23 6, 166 2, 886 Cows clean, udders and teats washed, manure removed daily .....-..- 15 4,947 2,667 Cows clean and bedded, udders not washed, manure removed daily... 32 8, 681 16,306 165 samples. The value of the small-top pail is well illustrated in Plates I, IT, and III, in which a series of sediment disks is shown. The cotton disks show the sediment from milk when a small-top and an open 1 34 BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pail were used at the same milking; in each case the bacterial count is shown above the disk. During the work the manure was removed from the stable only twice a week, and as a result the cows were extremely dirty. A study of the disks shows that in nearly every ~ case when the small-top pail was used there was less sediment in the | milk. The most striking difference is shown in sample 21. In some samples, however, there was apparently little or no difference, and — when the disks from both the small-top and open pails showed little ~ sediment there was, as a rule, less relative difference between the disks from the two types of pails. The average number of bacteria per cubic centimeter in the 30 samples from the small-top pail was 29,263 and in milk from the open ~ pail 87,380. The most striking difference in the bacterial count is — shown in sample 10, where samples from small-top and open pails contained a large quantity of,sediment. So far as could be judged, one kind of pail contained about as much as the other, but the bac- terial count of the milk from the small-top pail was 166,000 and from the open pail 940,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. It is inter- esting to note that in the majority of cases in which the sediment disks showed a large quantity of manure there was a relatively low bacterial count. Occasionally a sample showed a large quantity of | sediment and a high count, while other samples containing a similar amount had a low count. This is well illustrated in samples 10 andy 21, which represent sediment in milk from the open pail and may — be explained by the variation in the number of bacteria in samples of manure. When the cows were clean and the udders free from visible dirt | there was much less difference in the sediment in milk from the — small-top and open pails, as is well illustrated in Plate IV, which shows the sediment disks of milk drawn in small-top and open pails under those conditions. The cows were kept clean, the manure was removed daily from the stable, and the udders were wiped with a damp cloth just before milking. One of the cows and the interior of © the barn are shown in figures 14 and 15. It must be remembered ~ that the sediment disks represent the sediment in unstrained milk. Of the 10 samples examined, some showed practically no difference in the quantity of sediment in milk from the small-top and open pails, but as a rule the small-top pail contained less sediment and a slightly lower bacterial content. The average number of bacteria — per cubic centimeter from the small-top pail in the 10 samples was — 2.410 and from the open pail 5,740. It will be noted in sample 2 — that milk from the open pail showed 21,300 bacteria per cubic centi- meter, which raised the average of all the samples from the open — pails. | | ! . : - : PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 35 Throughout the work it was found that, in spite of the variation in the number of bacteria in manure, a fairly constant relation existed between the quantity of sediment and the bacterial count. The relation can be established only when fresh, unstrained milk, handled in sterilized utensils, is examined. Some attempts have been made by investigators to establish a relation between the sedi- ment test and bacterial count in market milk, which, of course, has proved impossible, because the history of the milk was not known. Campbell (8) draws the following conclusions: “ The quantity of sediment or visible dirt present on the disk is no criterion as to the kind or number of bacteria contained in the milk.” He made tests with samples of milk which were collected on the railroad station platform from cans as they arrived from various farmers. The conclusion is of course correct, but it should be qualified by a statement as to where the samples were taken. In such cases there are three unknown factors, namely, whether the milk was strained, whether it was han- dled in sterilized or unsterilized utensils, and what proportion of the bacterial count is due to contamination and what proportion due to growth. If the milk has been strained on the farm it is certain that there is no relation between the sediment and the bacterial count; neither will there be any if the milk has been handled in unsterilized utensils, which may introduce large numbers of bacteria. Neither can any relation be expected unless the comparison is made on fresh milk, since bacteria multiply rapidly unless the milk is held at a low temperature. The only way in which the relation can be established between sediment and the bacterial count is by a study of fresh, un- strained milk at the farm, and where sterilized utensils are used. Under such conditions there is a general relation between the sedi- ment and the bacterial count, as is shown in Plate V, which shows the sediment disks from a pint of milk together with the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter in it. At the beginning of the experi- ment the floor in the barn was clean, the cows were fairly clean, and for a period of nine days the manure was allowed to accumulate on the floor. During that time the cows were not cleaned; consequently they became dirtier each day. The experiment began on October 12 and continued to October 23, during which time samples of milk were examined from each morning’s and night’s milking. The first two rows in Plate V show the sediment test and bacterial count of samples of milk at each morning’s milking, the lower two rows the results from the night’s milking. At the beginning, when conditions were fairly clean, it will be noted that there was a little sediment: and that the bacterial count was low. On each successive day, as the cows and barn fioor became dirtier, the quantity of sediment gradually in- creased together with the bacterial count. There were slight fiuctu- 36 BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ations in the quantity of sediment as well as in the bacterial-count, but on the whole there was a strikingly close relation. Plate V shows — that after the morning milking on October 22 there was a decided — drop in the quantity of sediment as well as in the bacterial count. On that date the manure was removed from the stable in the after- noon. That night’s milk showed decidedly less sediment and a lower bacterial count, as did also both milkings of October 23. The results show that there is some direct relation between the sediment and ~ bacterial count which always may be influenced by the variable num- — ber of bacteria in the manure. It is therefore quite evident that the — sediment test is of value only under certain conditions. Bacterial counts shown in Plate V are particularly interesting since they show that a very large quantity of sediment, in other words, manure, is necessary to create high counts provided the princi- © pal source of contamination is manure. In the experiment in which ~ the manure was not removed nor the cows cleaned for nine days, the © highest count obtaimed was 1,550,000, and the next highest was 1,150,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. The other counts ranged from 6,600 to 450,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. After the manure was removed the experiment was repeated under similar con- ditions for 10 days. During the latter period the highest count ob- tained was 82,000 and the lowest 6,600. In both experiments steril- ized utensils were used; consequently, the contamination was due ~ principally to the introduction of manure into the milk. The figures indicate that counts above 200,000 per cubic centimeter in milk usu- ally should not be attributed entirely to contamination from manure. The number of bacteria in 57 samples of fresh cow manure was — determined, and the results are shown in Table 16. The range in © number of bacteria per gram was from 2,900,000 to 690,000,000, the average number per gram being 49,645,614. From these results it can — be assumed, therefore, that the average bacterial content of fresh manure is about 50,000,000 per gram. From that number it is possi- ble to calculate the number of bacteria added to each cubic centimeter — of a pint of milk through contamination by definite quantities of manure. Table 17 shows the number of bacteria that would be added ~ to each cubic centimeter of milk if fresh manure were added in quan- tities varying from 0.5 to 0.01 of a gram, assuming an average gram ~ sample to contain 50,000,000 bacteria. The figures show that 0.5 gram of fresh manure would add 52,854 bacteria to each cubic centi- meter of a pint of milk, while 0.01 of a gram of manure would add ~ 1,057. . PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. TABLE 16.—Number of bacteria in fresh cow manure. 37 Bacteria = Bacteria Bacteria Bacteria Sample No. per gram. Sample No. per gram. Sample No. per gram. Sample No. per gram. Nee. 14,500,000 | 16.......... 12, 000, 000 |) 31......-.--- 6, 200, 000 |} 46.......... 6, 800, 000 Rr EE eh 51,000, 000 || 17........-. 60, 000, 000 |) 32......---- 5, 800, 000 |} 47.....-..-- 9, 400, 000 2. ae SR SOOL WOO) Il UWS 22 ee ses ZY (00); COO) |I] Sc. csssse- 7, 800, 000 || 48...-.....- 71, 000, 000 (oS ee 12,009, 000 || 19........-- 15, 000, 000 |} 34..-...---- 6, 960, COO |} 49........-- 38, 700, 000 = 4000030008 20222222 - 120, 000; COO) || $522222 = 2--- 41,000, 000 |} 50.-..-.._-_- 17, 200, 000 Geese so. S000 1 COON) 21s ses ee 11, 000, 000 |] 36......-..- 88,000, 000 |} 51........2- 41,000, 000 eee 52; 000; 000 |) 22... 2 == 8,000, 000 || 37...-.----- 14, 500, 000 |] 52.-...-...- 60, 060, 000 Co: 23, 300, 000 || 23.......-.- 40, 000, 000 |] 38..---...-- 11, 000, 000 |} 53......---- 10, 400, 000 0.) ee 650, 000, 000 |] 24.........-. 9, 000, 000: |} 39...------- BonOUOCOOR |Roteee eres se 8, 700, 000 MWEse3.2..-2 5330005 000')) 2522 22_- 222: 7,500, 000 AQ ease shee 5, 000, 000 |} 55........-- 3, 200, 000 i 15, 000, 000 |} 26........-. 30, 000, COO |} 41...-..---- 32, 000, 000 |} 56.......... 2, 900, 0CO i eee ee 160, 000, 000 || 27.......--- 9, 500, 000 AD Ser eee aes 13,000, 000 || 57.........- 11, 500, 000 2) Soe 30; 000; 000) || 28..--_ 2. 27, 300, 000 |} 43...-....-- 40, 000, 000 a Ud. See oe 19; 700, 000 || 29...-...--- 5,100, 000 || 44.......--- 9, 500, COO Average..| 49, 645, 614 la Sea 690, 000, 000 || 380...._....- 6,000, 000 |} 45.........- 26, 300, 000 TABLE 17.—Theoretical nuniber of bacteria which may be added to milk by vary- ing quantities of manure. Quantity of wet Number of bac- teria added to spamuite pg oeS to! each cubic centi- 2 Pp ; meter of milk. Gram. 0.5 52, 854 14 42, 283 3 31, 712 ae, 21,141 a 10, 571 075 7,907 305 5, 285 025 2,642 -O1 1,057 In order to show how much manure would be added to the milk, on the basis shown in Table 17, Plate VI shows a number of sedi- ment disks.t It will be seen from the figure that 0.5 of a gram of wet manure represents a quantity far-in excess of that found in milk as produced on an average farm, and by referring again to Table 17 it is evident that this excessive quantity of manure would add only 52,854 bacteria per cubic-centimeter. If 0.1 of a gram of manure were added to a pint of milk, that quantity would add only 10,571 bacteria to each cubic caiveinnaten Tt is realized, of course, that these figures are only bce because of the variation in the bacterial content of manure, and, furthermore, that which does enter the milk is not necessarily fresh. The figures, however, confirm former conclusions that manure, though an im- portant source of contamination in general, is not so great a factor as unsterilized utensils in causing high bacterial counts. 1The authors are indebted to George B. Taylor, of the Dairy Division, for this series of disks showing definite quantities of fresh manure. a 38 BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE THREE MOST ESSENTIAL FACTORS IN THE PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. _In connection with the term “ production of milk” as used in this paper, it is evident that there are three essential factors which most influence the bacterial content. Named in the order of their im- portance they are, first, the use of sterilized utensils; second, clean cows, particularly the udders and teats; third, the use of the small- top pail. By the use of these factors it has been possible to produce milk of a low bacterial count and practically free from visible dirt in an experimental barh which represents a poor type found in this country. In fact, the counts obtained were so low that only 2,000 to 3,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter were introduced through external contamination. A large number of factors not considered in this paper are responsible for this contamination. Some of them have been extensively studied by Stocking (1), Harding (9), Ruehle (10), and Prucha (11). It is evident, therefore, that the three simple factors mentioned prevent most of the contamination of milk. It is possible, however, that under some circumstances low-count milk can not be produced by means of these few factors. It has been shown that they prevent most of the external contamination and that by their use it is possible to produce milk with a bacterial content very nearly as low as that drawn directly from the udder. If milk drawn directly from the udder is high in bacteria, it is impossible under any conditions to produce a low-count milk. Tt is well known that freshly drawn milk from some cows is some- times high in bacteria; if there are, therefore, a number of such cows in a herd, the bacterial content of the mixed milk will be relatively high. As an example it may be well to mention a case in which milk produced in a sanitary barn from clean cows and with sterilized utensils averaged 5,096 bacteria per cubic centimeter for 28 samples. In the herd there were cows whose milk occasionally was abnormal, in that it contained a few small clots and the last milk sometimes was slightly stringy. The milk from these cows was kept separate from the regular herd milk, with the result that 28 samples of it, produced at the same time as the other samples, averaged 137,786 bacteria per cubic centimeter. It is therefore evident that with cows of that type it would be impossible under any conditions to produce a low- count milk. It is not known how common such cows are in this country, and the point is mentioned merely to show why it is sometimes impossible, even with the three essential factors, to produce milk of low bac- terial count. The criticism may be raised that the value of the essential factors was determined under experimental conditions which do not repre- PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 39 sent practical conditions on the farm; therefore the following ex- periment was conducted under actual farm conditions to determine their value when used by the average dairyman. - A PRACTICAL DEMONSTRATION ON SIX FARMS. In order to demonstrate the practical value of the three essential factors previously mentioned they were applied on six farms in the vicinity of Grove City, Pa., with the voluntary coop- eration of the dairy- men. Five of the farms sent milk and one sent cream to the experimental cream- ery operated at Grove City by the Dairy Division. It seemed advisable to have one _ producér of cream, in order to determine whether these factors would - improve its quality. | The scores of the six farms, according to the dairy-farm score card used by the Dairy Division, ‘Wnited States Department of Agricul- ture, were as follows: 44.1, 49, 40.5, 41.1, 40.9, and 38.4 out of a possible 100. The in- teriors of the barns are shown in figures ton Zils simelusive: The plan was to de- termine, first, the bac- terial content of the fresh milk and cream on the farm under the existing conditions; then to place in opera- tion the three factors, namely, sterilized utensils, clean cows with clean udders and teats, and small-top pails. For the work small-top pails of the type shown in figure 2 were lent to the farmers, together with simple steam sterilizers which are described in Farmers’ Bulletin 748. The method of operating the Fie. 17.—Interior of barn at farm No. 1. Fre. 18.—Interior of barn at farm No. 20. 40 BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sterilizer was demonstrated to the farmers, who were then left to operate it without further assistance. As the work was carried on during the summer and the cows were in pasture most of the time, their udders were always practically free from visible dirt; therefore that factor received no further considera- tion. At each milking the milk was stirred by means of a long, sterile pipette, after which samples were taken from each can and a composite sample made, which was immediately placed in ice water and plated within an hour and a half. For a period of three weeks samples were taken at each farm under the usual conditions (open pails, not sterilized) and for the three weeks following, when small-top pails, sterilized, were in operation. Table 18 shows the bacterial count of each sample obtained from the night’s milk, fresh, on each farm during the entire six weeks, also ~ hi : - oe t 4 Fic. 19.—Interior of barn at farm No. 27. ga aes j Pot Pe ia et : Fic, 20.—Interior of barn at farm No, 43, PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. Al Fic. 21.—Interior of barn at farm No. 178. the average counts. Figure 22 shows graphically the summarized and average results of the series of samples from each farm before and after the three essential factors were introduced. It will be noted that among the six farms some produced milk of a relatively low bacterial content. Milk produced from farms 20 and 43 under the ordinary conditions showed, respectively, average counts of 15,050 and 34,861 bacteria per cubic centimeter, while after the introduction of the three essential factors the count was reduced to 4,656 and 2,050, respectively. The greatest average decrease due to the intro- SEES GE NMOUMIEEF? OF SACTEFVA FEF? C.C. -—= NUMBER? 20 FOSS AFTEP — 5 “ os LSPUPTI = MATES? £7 60S UTEP Xe ZZOLS = a UYT MEE 2S 4962 7 76K, 3 aerore| OEM SLS WOT STERILE SZEC/ OPV PUL a, @o~ TENSILE STERILE ATE ) ZGLLTOP PUL. VOB? GF 2 L500 ~ ZN ATL LEFTIRE 7 IT MBER P RO2S Crew z3 oN Fic. 22.—Average bacterial content of night’s milk, produced on farms near Grove City, Pa., before and after using the three most essential factors for the production of milk of low bacterial content. 42 BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. duction of the essential factors was noted on farm 27, where the average count was reduced from 186,995 to 3,606 bacteria per cubic centimeter. On farm 178 the average number of bacteria in the ‘cream was reduced from 49,181 to 3,025 per cubic centimeter; all the separator parts were sterilized in the simple steam sterilizer and held in it until ready for use. TABLE 18.—Bacteria per cubic centimeter in daily samples of milk (5 farms) and cream (1 farm), showing effect of using small-top pails and sterilized utensils. Open pails, uten- Small-top pails, Open pails, uten- Small-top pails Farm sils not sterilized utensils sterilized Farm sils not sterilized utensils steriliz No. (3 weeks, July 23 (3 weeks, Aug. 15 No. (3 weeks, July 23 (3 weeks, Aug. 15 to Aug. 12). to Sept. 2). to Aug. 12). to Sept. 2). * ‘ 1 233, 000 3.500 29 80, 000 1, 200 81, 000 2,700 109, 000 600 103, 000 51,300 65, 000 1,700 176, 000 8, 500 8, 000 1, 100 67, 000 3. 200 16, 200 900 220, 000 4,100 80, 000 3,150 17, 300 4, 500 8, 500 2, 800 139, 000 10. 000 25,300 1,300 15, 200 4,100 302, 000 1,7 16, 900 5,000 19, 000 1,750 28, 500 30, 000 400, 000 1,300 f 49, 000 10, 000 30, 000 2,200 | 212, 000 7, 600 44, 800 1,100 49,000 9,000 6, 000 7,000 | 88, 000 10, 800 140, 000 2,300 | 32,300 5, 900 11, 000 1,300 600, 000 | 100, 000 } 12, 600 | 10, 600 71, 000 9,400 , | Se ee Se ji a a | ee eee Average of 19sam- | Average of 16 sam- Average of 19sam- | Average of 16 sam- ples, 116,384. ples, 10, 637 ples, 77,095. ples,-1,962. , en’ | 20 10, 300 3, 100 43 4, 200 1, 100 143, 000 800 70, 000 900 7, 000 5,400 320. 000 2, 000 5, 800 2,900 64, 000 1,700 12,000 700 ; 6, 600 2,700 1, 200 3, 800 2,000 _ 5, 600 5, 300 3, 300 9,700 1, 700 17, 400 4, 500 2,600 5, 600 3,300 2,700 6, 000 2,550 3, 200 2, 550 6, 000 2,050 5, 400 2,050 16, 000 2, 200 6, 200 26, 100 30, 000 1, 700 20, 000 2, 800 64,000 1, 600 9; 700 2,700 11, 400 1,100 5, 000 800 3, 600 1, 000 6, 700 10,300 ~4,600 900 5, 200 4,000 4, 200 2,800 Average of 18sam- | Average of 16 sam- | Average of 18sam- | Average of 16 sam- ples, 15,050. ples, 4,656. | ples, 34,861. ples, 2,150. vex } Average of 93 sam- | Average of 80 sam- 27 | 420, 000 2,300 ples, 87,391. ples, 4,602. 134, 000 1, 600 91, 000 3, 100 178 12, 000 2,100 47,000 2,400 (cream). 6, 000 100 155, 000 1, 400 52, 000 2, 200 93, 000 4, 000 15, 000 1,300 77, 000 1, 900 2, 400 4, 200 188, 000 1, 800 15, 500 2,250 118, 000 1, 800 17, 400 3, 400 102, 000 24, 000 3, 200 3,700 44, 200 2,300 7, 200 10, 000 406, 000 1, 500 24, 700 750 140, 000 2, 800 35, 700 2,000 1, 140, 000 2, 500 94, 000 3, 600 92, 000 2,000 300, 000 2,600 34, 400 2,300 8, 000 2,400 13, 300 173, 000 3,300 ! 105, 000 20, 800 4, 500 153, 000 a SS Average of 16 sam- | Average of 16 sam- | Average of 19 sam- | Average of 16 sam- ples, 186,995. ples, 3,606. | ples, 49,181. ples, 3,025. PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 48 The average bacterial count of 93 samples of milk taken from the five farms under the ordinary conditions was 87,391 per cubic centi- meter, which was reduced to 4,602 after the introduction of the three essential factors. The highest average bacterial count in fresh milk after the introduction of these factors was 10,637 and the lowest 1,962 per cubic centimeter. It is believed that the results offer proof of the practical value of the three essential factors, namely, sterilized utensils, clean cows with clean udders and teats, and the use of small-top pails, for the production of milk of low bacterial count when fresh, on the average farm. The effect of holding the milk on the farm was not consid- ered in this work. BACTERIAL COUNTS OF FRESH MILK ON THE AVERAGE FARM. One of the interesting points noted throughout this work was the fact that very high bacterial counts were not obtained, even under extremely dirty barn conditions, with dirty cows, and unsterilized utensils. As a rule, samples of fresh milk taken directly after milk- ing, when produced under these conditions, contained less than 1,000,000 and usually below 500,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. It must be remembered that in this work fresh milk which had not been strained or cooled was examined. It is realized, of course, that strain- ing and cooling over unsterilized coolers would increase the bacterial count to some extent. This observation led to the belief that in all probability the bacterial count of fresh milk as produced on the average farm is not so high as has been generally believed. In order to obtain some information on this point, 249 samples of fresh milk from 12 different farms around Grove City, Pa., were examined during the summer of 1916. The milk was strained but not cooled. The condition of the barns and the methods of handling milk probably represent the average on uninspected farms in the North and North Central part of this country and would score on the average approximately 40 points out of a possible 100, based on the United States Department of Agriculture dairy-farm score card. The results of the examination of samples of morning’s and night’s milk are shown in Table 19. The night’s samples averaged 115,135, and the morning’s samples averaged 180,696 bacteria per cubic centi- meter, and the average for all was 135,146. ——— ses ee | SSSSESSSSSSE5 | EZSSESEEESE )g SSES8ES SSS SES SEE SSESELEE ny RON OR ROR NR RR RN oi a EO EL TECNICOS PROS RC a GY a RS SNSE SS Rao PSS IS S18 63 88 ARRAHCSAGARASVSHSSAAG AS Seas ia in These figures indicate that the presence of millions of bacter milk, which in the past have been considered to a large extent Bacteria per c.c $28 SSSS8S5 9589885 | SESEEESEEES SSS SS SESERSEESERESES sy domaeuinegaeses| sesvede gees | gee seskues sas sSeaeus rest ree AIS a 1 OO SHS © OI ON SN 0D 16 g wrt et re se met ee ae Coo ee! o . a E gov ees =] we Bs | 3 5 z oe ec We) ———————————————————————————__———————————————————— f=] | | fic pce eee SS55RSnsesssnesesenesesssessceses |ASSes 5 rs Se ROERETAQSSS | BES" Se" agaged@sreso ess gue SaaNSE | “ege" - ot a eis 5 1 | pane po Bs OA R =) = Te = ahh { \ \ | per ¢. ¢. ed et et et 20 23 27 1 Morning’s milk. , 249, taken on 12 farms was 135,146 bacteria per cubic centimeter. No. les of night’s milk taken on 12 farms was 11 Farm | Bacteria | ET SO ER Ct LS a Pa ES CS eS RC GH SRT EC LR Sa GG EE IG PG EG SRSRSSRCSSSHAZR SARTRE [RNSGANA "ASRS RARTSAN SAAT ST ISES bes Hn eel He AN tot mt aes i a as aa] aS aL RR La a Bacteria per ¢. ¢. noe et eee See” SEE SSE88 88S SESSSESESSSESESSSESEES | SESSEEEELE SSSS55S Se OST ET LES ON DAT GROOT EN ES Cen OSES Gn GTDC TED Danemicomeneolee CC PN NS PC ( RUERE RUE SENS SUN EARE WSS SAQANSE RSS | SESE ESRRS sehnaes SESSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSSS |SSSSSSSSSSSSSSSEES |SSSSESESESE 14 i) t nr Farm No ples BULLETIN 642, U. $. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Wotal. 2255. 2 je a ee ee ei) 73 samp Average of 76 samples of morning’s milk taken on 9 farms was 180,696 bacteria per cubic centimeter. mot Tet 50.000 or. below. 3 ae et 2 ae ee a) 100,001. £0,250:000 25 =. ee ee eS ee eee eee 50,001: f0'- 500,000.28 Ss 7 500,001"Eo 1,000,000. =) es See a te 250,001700(500/000! <2. eee 1: 000001 1 OF TOTS S26 Se shee Eley oa Be ce a et ee per ¢. ¢. The samples may be grouped according to the number of bacteria per cubic centimeter, as follows Farm Bacteria No. Average of all sam TasLe 19.—The bacterial content of 249 samples of fresh milk as produced on 12 farms Average of 1 ve. PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 4d evidence of great contamination, is evidently not due in most cases to original contamination. The results show that extremely high counts in milk are in general the result of bacterial growth rather than original contamination. THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE GROWTH OF BACTERIA IN MILK. The results shown in the previous discussion of the factors essen- tial for the production of milk of low bacterial count when fresh apply only to fresh milk. The dairyman must remember that when milk of that kind has been produced his responsibility has not ended, for the milk must be kept cold to prevent the growth of bacteria. The three factors discussed prevent to a large degree the contamina- tion of milk during production, as the term is used in this bulletin. - In the broad sense of the term “ production of milk,” the effect of temperature at which the milk is held on the farm must also be con- sidered. It is one of the greatest problems in the handling of milk on the farm, and extensive studies have been made to show the effect of holding milk at different temperatures-during varying lengths of time. Samples of milk produced under different conditions were held at 4.4°, 10°, and 15.5° C. (40°, 50°, and 60° F.) and examined when fresh and after each interval of 24 hours for 96 hours, or 4 days. The milk was produced in the experimental barn under three different sets of conditions, as follows: First. Cows were clean and bedded; the udders washed part of the time and left unwashed part of the time; the small-top pail used; and all utensils were sterilized. Second. Cows were dirty; the manure was removed twice a week; * both open and small-top pails used; and all utensils were sterilized. Third. Conditions same as second except that the utensils were not sterilized. Complete detailed results showing the growth of the bacteria in the milk produced under the different conditions mentioned are given. Twenty samples produced under condition 1 were studied ; 34 samples under condition 2, and 30 under condition 3. The bacterial development in milk having a low count, as described under the first condition, is shown in Table 20. The calculated ratio of the bacterial growth in each sample is shown in Table 21. The bacterial development in milk under the second condition mentioned is shown in Table 22 and the ratio of the bacterial development in Table 23. Tables 24 and 25 show similar results for milk produced . under the third condition. The summary of the averages of all the samples studied during this work is shown in Table 26. It will be noted that the milk produced under the three conditions when fresh showed somewhat different bacterial counts; that produced under condition 1 averaged 4,295 bacteria per cubic centimeter; under con- dition 2, 39,082; and under condition 3, 186,533. It will be seen, 46 BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. therefore, that three different grades of milk, based on their sites counts, were considered. The figures presented in the tables show that with two samples of approximately the same initial bacterial count the increase was not always at exactly the same rate. In some determinations there were occasional counts far above normal at given periods, which can be explained by the fact that there may have been a slight variation in bacterial types, although the initial count was approxi- mately the same. One type may have grown more rapidly at a certain temperature than the types in other samples. It is believed, however, that in this work the variations above the normal were due to inability to control absolutely the temperatures in the hold- ing boxes. In general, however, the variations had little or no effect upon the average counts for the entire series of samples studied. : In Table 26 the average results have been grouped in two differ- ent ways; first, to show the growth of bacteria in a series of sam- ples produced under the three conditions and having different initial counts, when held at 4.4°, 10°, and 15.5° C. (40°, 50°, and 60° F.), respectively; second, to show the growth of bacteria in each grade of milk when held at the same temperatures. In the lower part of the table are shown the average ratios of bacterial growth arranged to correspond to the counts in the upper portion. The ratios were obtained by dividing the count, after each succes- sive period of 24 hours, by the ag count. In the sample held at 4.4° (40° F.) there was a relative small growth of bacteria ees the period of 96 hours. A most in- teresting effect of temperature on the growth of bacteria is shown by the samples of milk produced under the third condition and held at 10° C. (50° F.). It will be seen that when milk with an average count of 4,295 was held for 72 hours, the average count was but little higher than that of milk with an original count of 136,553 per cubic centimeter held 24 hours at the same temperature. A similar condition was found also among samples of low-count milk held 48 hours at 15.5° C. (60° F.), which showed a count of ap- proximately 33,000,000 bacteria, while high-count milk reached ap- proximately 24,000,000 in 24 hours. At the end of 96 hours the bacterial growth reaches a point where the counts are so high as to be approximately the same for all grades cf milk. It is evident that the development of bacteria in different grades of milk at 10° C. (50° F.) has a direct practical bearing. For ex- ample, if milk were produced on a farm under conditionst which when fresh averaged approximately 4,000 bacteria per cubic centi- meter, when held at 10° C. (50° F.) for 48 hours it would contain” an average of appr Omemately 127,000. If pals were produced und 4 1 Morning's milk, - PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 47 condition 8, which when fresh averaged approximately 186,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter, when held for 48 hours at 10° C. (50° F.) its average count would be approximately 13,000,000. The difference in count would be of great importance if an attempt were being made to market a milk of low bacterial content. TABLE 20.—Growth of bacteria in milk produced under condition ‘1 when held at 4.4°, 10°, and 15.5° C. (40°, 50°, and 60° F.). Sample No. vem Fresh. 24 hours. 48 hours. 72 hours. 96 hours. 2,500 3, 300 14, 400 21, 100 7,700 7,300 8, 900 13, 100 3,700 3, 800 4 100 3, 400 7, 100 6, 200 4100 3,500 5,900 5,300 4,200 16, 000 3, 300 2; 900 TEAG00"|Os ees 5,300 ABE OO) |ecene e eee 8, 500 TES OOO! |e ee oe 3, 400 7, 600 ee ae 11, 400 11, 800 21; 000 4,100 3, 900 95400) Weecnccccesecece 7, 400 5, 300 10, 100 18, 200 3, 500 4,700 9, 300 22) 600 4300 4300 5, 200 6,500 2,300 2, 500 3, 800 23) 400 3,800 6, 900 40, 500 109, 000 2, 400 2,300 EON Wmetel oe ae ee 2; 600 CU ae eae 21, 000 D700 |Eeeeeamaetn =e 6, 100 18, 000 es tial SSE oie 1, 600 2,500 2, 200 2,700 | 2, 300 FSU Dies eae 4,138 4,566 8, 427 19, 693 6, 400 8, 200 4,500, 000 34, 800, 000 14, 400 55, 600 3, 760, 000 96, 000, 000 5, 800 26, 000 570, 000 13, 300, 000 8,900 35,000 260, 000 19, 300, 000 10, 800 33, 000 8,700,000 | ~ 43,500,000 6, 100 _ 510,000 6,400:000|-- 2522.0. ee 5, 100 22000 Sees saeeeene ees 6, 700, 000 ag AMOR eae 1908000) |) cee Po aie ae a 28, 000 90, 000 4, 100, 000 5, 900 18, 500 14404 000) eee eee 8, 100 7, 200 5, 100, 000 95, 000, 000 41, 200 900, 000 39, 000, 000 212, 000, 000 20, 200 205, 000 1, 260, 000 14, 200, 000 18, 200 71,000 1, 150,000 20, 200, 000 65,000 280, 000 31, 000, 000 55, 000, 000 5, 200 13,600 190:000';|.5.<2 eee 12,700 2 U0 Beeeeccopadsenos 12, 200, 000 (20 ee ae Sa 190, 000 1, 400, 000 eee ede 28, 000 95, 000 3, 600,000 6, 200 16, 000 170:000)|:. eee ere 13, 961 127,727 5,725,277 39, 490, 625 1,250,000 | 74,000,000 265,000,000 | 4, 240,000, 000 1,300,000 | 42,500, 000 1701, 0004000, |= oe eens 160,000 | 13, 200, 000 87, 000, 000 208, 000, 000 156,000 | 20, 600, 000 172; 000,000 | 1, 180,000, 000 10,200,000 | 31,800,000 | 1,550,000,000 | 2, 100,000, 000 1,010,000 | 28, 200, 000 242; 0005000). .c0.----c-ceet 3101000)|' 18,900,000 |:.-....-...-...- 149, 000, 000 Eis (CCT) eas ee 74, 000, 000 106, 000, 000 Pane SS ae 5, 800, 000 71, 000, 000 152, 000, 000 270,000 | 14,800,000 | ~ 248,000,000 |............... 1,220,000 | 63,000, 000 750,000,000 | 910,000, 000 1,580,000 | 85,000,000 | 1,640,000,000 |............... 240,000 | 23, 100, 000 112) 000, 000 276, 000, 000 74,000 | 17,300, 000 22) 000,000 | 1,490,000; 000 10,100,000 | 97, 100, 000 152,000,000 | 2/0407 000; 000- 102,000 | 24,900,000} 112,000,000 |............... TG COO) | 1445009000 sano 352.2. 2 << "270, 000, 000 TOSHOOON es eae 59, 000, 000 157,000, 000 0: see 7, 900, 000 64, 000, 000 201, 000; 000 330,000 | 11, 600, 000 AG MECN Bae abenadeses 1,587,833 33, 011, 111 326, 500, 000 962, 785,714 48 BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 21.—Ratio of bacterial growth in milk produced under condition 1 when held at 4.4°, 10°, and 15.5° C. (40°, 50°, and 60° F.). Sample No. Tempera- a, Fresh. | 24 hours. 1 Bacterial count less than initial count. 48 hours. | 72 hours. | 96 hours. { 5 | 1 10 “9 * | 4.11 6.02 1 1.11 1.05 1.28 1.39 1 1.08 | 1.09 1.20 1 1 0: fen} 0 0 0 1 1.25 1.12 0 3.40 1 0 0 2:18:|: ease 1 Diet | eek a sre 1.16 1 1.27 |.-.-------.- 1.03 2.30 — 11M |g sce 1.21 | 1.25 2.23 1 1.05 1 1/38, \.232.2 ee 1 1.39 135 2.58 4. 66 1 0 1.11 2.21 5.38 1 0 1.02 1.10 1.38 1 1.43 1.56 | 2.37 1.45 1 1.11 2.02 11.91 | 32.05 1 1.09 1.04 12 1 0 1. 10\\e eee | 7.24 1 jy) Ae ee ee 4.35 | 1.28 || 55 See ee | Oe 0 1 1.28 | 1.09 | 1/95 |-5: s2eeeeee 1.25 | 1221 2. 66 | 5.10 1.82 } 2.34 | 1,285.7 | 9,942.8 2.08 | 8.05 | 544.9 | 13,913 1.70 7. 64 | 167.6 | 3,911.7 1.20 4.72 | 35.1 | 2,608.1 2.29 7.02| 1,851 9, 255.3 1.15 | 96.20') 1,018.85 |2-.2 2m gy S| 3301 Wasco 917.8 i293 5 Sa e e 54.5 | 166.6 eee 2.97 | 9.5 436 1 1.51 | 4.74 | 360.2 i ae 2.07 1.84 1,307.6 24, 358.9 9. 80 214.20 | 9,285.7 50, 476.1 4.29 43.60 | 268 3,021.2 11.37 44. 39 | 718.7 12, 625 1.91 82.30! 9,117.6 16, 176.4 2.26 6.18 | 86:3 - |iviee ee 4.37 14. 40 Ne ene 2 22) ones ALGTA| te oo tos et 135.7 1,000 ata ae 8.23 27.9 1, 058.8 2.95 | 7.61 8)0.9- Joes eee 3.34 | 31.07; 1,464.7 9, 629.6 357.1 | 21,142.8 | 75,714.2 |1,211,428.5 188.4 6,159:4| 24, 687.6" |L-2 ee 07) OES S822 Stat 25s SRe ee 61, 176.4 21 | 2,783.7 | 23,243.2 | 159,459.4 2,170.2 | (6,765.9 | 329,787.2 | 446, 808.5 190.5 5,320.7 | 45,660:9. 22 eee 42.4 QEbRO i tsa Sataoeenes 20, 410.9 AGB ees oe 22,424. 2 32, 121.2 py ee nore 617 7, 553-1 16, 170.2 69.2 3,194.8) | 63; 589.7 nie ae 312.8 | 16,153:8 | 192,307.6 | 233,333.3 376.1 | 20,238 390,476. |.22- 2 ee 51 4,914.8 | 23,829.7 58, 723.4 46.2 | 10,812.5 | 13,750 | 931,250 2,970.5 | 28,558.8 | 44,705.8 | 600,000 46.3) | 11;318.1. "| 50,900: |= 37.9 5,000 ies ee 93, 103.4 7a) eo eee 42,142.8 | 112,142.8 bs ee 2,323.5 | 18,823.5 | 59,117.6 | 167.1 5,593.8 | 41,4985 |... 2 | 398.6 | 8,772.1 | 79,809.5 | 288,281.8 ' PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 49 TABLE 22.—Growth of bacteria in milk- produced under condition 2 when held ab 4, 10°, and, 15.5°.C. (40°, 50°, and 60° F.). Sample No. Temper-| Fresh. 24 hours. 48 hours. 72 hours. 96 hours. ature. 10,600 11,600 TOROOOH Ease oan ects 508, 000 8,100 14/500) teeber. eda 143001 |ESa Se eee 138000 Mice ace \ AAMTOORES o-oo Ne 35, 000 165, 000 763000! Baaeseee sae eee ee 254, 000 660, 000 YN: OO) |Lcucsoseccsace 370,000 540, 000 480,000 83,000 290000) Nae 1,560, 000 3,050,000 65,000 249,000 300, 000 410000) See eeeeee eee 121,000 890, 000 OOOO) || aes eee aS ees aie tia eae | 16,500 29, 800 20, 100 37,000 26,000 19, 600 39, 300 35, 600 OS4000W Mace eee 69, 000 65,000 AASEOOON Waele -caoc att 15,300, 000 66, 000 120003 | Baeaeer ater 98, 000 156, 000 Dds 000) |Bemee. 22 aeeece 199,000 470,000 620,000 8,900 11,500 17,700 24,000 29, 000 16,100 13, 400 34, 000 28; OOM crite cleeee nee 47100 7,900 BAHN ee ee ee 4,100 _..|| 4.4° C. 65, 000 8240001 eee eee fet 217; 000 1,800, 000 .--|((40° EF.) 4,300 4,400 SYS00E =< Sete Sues 38, 000 - 5,600 13700) ete oa tae SETS) | pee eae es LOFSOON Hes asa eeeee ONGOO! | Bsa tenses oaks 32,000 26, 900 295 5003/0. So. s ae 46,000 67,000 DOSSOOH Mee susie mienene 74, 000 FOLD: eee ese = 14, 600 111,000 371,000 355, 000 115,000 19, 700 79,000 141,000 TOG SOOOh Beene cers eee 78, 000 99, 000 TiC (O00) S aeaiee ek ee || (Tae Nae Si 3, 200 2,800 2,900 2,700 2,500 7, 500 14,800 22, 300 14500) estweee een t 7, 200 23,300 OGKOOOU 22 scttsce ken tes 220, 000 17, 700 45: 0001 | Was sess oe 58k OOD Kase sex coa eer E S1RO00N| Gee 2 sees 68; 000 37, 000 34,000 : 6, 100 20, 400 17,800 17, 500 13, 200 10,200} — ~—‘ 9,800 18, 600 194600: (Sonor eee eee 8, 400 10,100 TUWE2OO! | Ss oat Sec bceecmcee 4, 500 23,000 59" O00) Westen seen 49,000 58, 000 Ragan 39, 082 88, 028 121, 864 186, 245 1, 056, 922 10, 600 68, 000 DiON000) eee ae Higaewenes 8,100,000 8, 100 137000) eessseseeet ae 330000198. 2etsnce eee T349003 | eee a 2 = eas ee SoRO00u| Sse sash ececte ae 4, 400, 000 165,000 B82; (000"hs asses aates 2h 1, 700, 000 6, 800, 000 2405 0008 aa 910,000-| --. - 1,400,000} _ 2,800,000 83, 000 860, 000 3, 100, 000 5, 900, 000 24, 500, 000 (RWOU Needdosesesceds 380, 000 8505 0004'S. soc t ese 121,000 960, 000 Tee GOROO0# |e heen ee eee hers 16, 500 83, 000 389, 000 580, 000 ~ 20, 400, 000 19, 600 51,000 76, 000 GEOGOsOCOy Meee eene ene 69, 000 321, 000 OV SUOTUG A Bacsacosseueoasse 82, 000, 000 66, 000 1815 000; eee nes 800, 000 63, 000, 000 5380008 | Bosse eee 1,100, 000 2, 400, 000 5, 200, 000 8, 900 42,000 112,000 250, 000 8, 800, 000 16, 100 37,000 630, 000 3205000) saaeee Read 4,100 18,500 ZADFOODO IES. See etee eee ~ 2,900, 000 65, 000 1160008 Sees eee ae 9,100, 000 26, 700, 000 4,300 65,000 D5 ONOOOR Ree See ee nee 4, 700, 000 5, 600 53.000) Fea eee see D-GV(0), NUD) ||sSanesecdsesoase LOS 800) Re= eee ee SE O00) sae sete eeeecre 900, 000 26, 900 £23,000) beeeneeee an: 250, 000 1,100, 000 POW Beesesseusunec 130,000 350, 000 380,000 14,600 348, 000 1,080,000 4,600, 000 3, 900, 000 19, 700 176, 600 340, 000 SOLON Iesccscsoonsenesc 78, 000 172,000 ZAON OOO? |e Oy tan ce carina 3,200 5, 500 11,000 120,000 3, 600, 000 7, 500 43,000 167,000 tf 900; 000)|222222-254---25- 7, 200 78, 000 250000 eae nee 29,600,000 17, 700 WEOUD || oaceaccneeteses 570, 000 3, 900, 000 315000) |se222-b eee 210,000 430, 000 550, 000 6, 100 23,000 11,000 45, 000: 3, 200, 000 10, 200 47,000 42,000 120; 000 |. .2::ecsee2c2-: 8, 400 12,800 208 O00! | eseasa eee 220,000 23,000 272000) Sees eee 420, 000 1,300,000 Sage cates 39, 082 177, 437 831,615 1,761, 458 13,079, 166 Average.... “i 50 BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ~~ TABLE 22.—Growth of bacteria in milk produced under conditions 2 when held at 4.4°, 10°, and 15.5° C. (40°, 50°, and 60° F.)—Continued. Sample No. eam Fresh. 24 hours. 48 hours. 72 hours. 96 hours. 10,600 | — 1,100,000 35,300,000 $100 |... 2,100,000 fLc sae Bio eee 9, 600,000 165,000 | 4,900,000 |...............- eT | ane 126, 000, 000 $2000) |. ae 112/000, 000 65,000 | 7,200,000} 366,000,000 121,000 | 47400,000 | 339,000,000 16,500 | 3,080,000 53,200, 000 19,600 720,000 33,400,000 69,000 | 8,900,000} — 203/000,000 66,000 | 14,800,000|............__. 2S a OS 190,000; 000 8, 1,870,000 22, 800, 000 16,100 6, 400, 000 226, 000, 000 i 4,100 2, 400, 000 152, 000, 000 a 15.5° C. 65,000 | _ 4,500,000 !.......-...-._.- (60° F.) 4,300 | 1,200,000 | 11,600,000 5,600 | 17100 [000 $3. 22222 33552 TO5S00))| 5-222 8, 200, 000 - 26,500 | 3,600 008) |! 3. == = 522533322 295808) b. c2se 222 4e5—8 | 12, 600, 000 14,600 6, 100,000 22,000,000 — 19,700 17, 700,000 61,000,000 | 78,000 5, 200,000 34,600,000 — 3,200 140,000 9, 700,000 7,500 5,300, 000 19,300, 000 7,200 2,150,000 158, 000, 000 17,700 2,100; OOO: | 25-2 - 2-2 255- 5: yt aceon ee 84,000, 000 6,100 | 1,190,000 19,500,000 | 10,200 | 3,300,000 — 164,000,000 8,400} 3,300,000| 177,000,000 23,000 5, 100; 000; [53-22-55 338 3 Bt, i ee | 39,082] 4,461, 111 | 99,120,000 | 633,375,000 | 1,355,650, 000 TaBLe 23.—Ratio of bacterial groicth in milk produced under condition 2 when held at 4.4°, 10°, and 15.5° C. (40°, 50°, and 60° F.). - Sample No. seer Fresh. 24 hours. | 48 hours. 72 hours. | 96 hours. Ty RRR BRR RRR RH RR Re i) > wo oo » i PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 51 TABLE 23.—Ratio of bacterial growth in milk produced under condition 2 when held at 4.4°, 10°, and 15.5° C. (40°, 50°, and 60° F.)—Continued. Sample No. peteper Fresh. | 24hours.| 48hours. | 72hours. | 96 hours. 6.4 2024 aac see a= 764.1 LON SRS= ScSsees ADM Soceccresaes Sceseporne) Geil | beoncotsedse 316.5 2208), EDS TIOOSES 10.3 41.2 eeuiseasees | 3.8 58.3 116.6 10.3 37.3 71 295. 1 SaooRecoeT 5.8 Te GoSeencoeboe 7.9 | EES 5c Gocaoapsconl boccsoosoonT 5 23.5 35.1 1, 236.3 2.6 3.8 BOOT) | Ssoseee nee 4.6 Rea bie Set a 1,188.4 Bf) \nocedoosscos 12.1 954.5 Sons eG0es 20.7 45.2 98.1 4.7 12.5 28 988.7 2.2 39.1 19.8) oc soecewe ee 4.5 BS | Be Cee soocen 707.3 lis ff |bosecocessés 140 410.7 15.1 GE y| yt ae ae 1,093.5 Gp¢! jassotessogoe 530.3) |oosecenesass Sedat bonds (sa) |eSscdecossas 83.3 dot) Ssescos5scos 9.3 40.9 BASSE DOneO 4.3 11.7 12.7 23.8 73.9 315 267.1 8.9 17.2 A eo eaasaes 2.2 Ee ee cose Sosn becoetmocane 1% 3.4 37.5 1,125 5.7 22.2 2093.3) |sccesonscoce 10.8 S413 |oaeee eee 4,111.1 6.5 |--------.... 32.2 220.3 coavesaee 6.7 13.8 17.7 3.7 1.8 7.3 524.5 4.6 4.1 DN 7a reece oan 1:5 gubliseas-sccess 26. 2 Wing) |e Sooceoseas 18.2 56.5 6.7 24.3 86 612.3 103.7 3 330hlt |begeceaneeee 13, 396.2 POE | eee Dog sen 1 358) oul| acess ss Seer te GEDIG |betecseogosc|! Lae DH c(seagee secs. 2, 363.6 15, 818.1 ee eee. 525 7, 041.6 7, 583.3 eee 1,349.4 41, 807.2 27, 951.8 ees Tatees EP Seco scence | TRIE TEE: |e mee 6,691.4 49, 814.1 Paap ence 422.8 6,375.8 32, 550.3 417.8 1,506.8 , 287.6 25, 753.4 898. 4 3, 096. 4 AY she) | Seccenccecce 66.6 CU AEG) | boooscono6ed| SCeEeeeereee 43.7 3, 031.2 14, 062.5 215, 625 706.6 DES TF Sa lerlO9s38908 4 | seco ee eee 2ORGG ich 2b, 9444 |Sos. ce USE a ess HESSGh | oesece sas 10,196. 4 68, 361.5 eae aoe 2,709.6 10, 322.5 19, 354.8 195 3,196.7 | 22,950.8| 127,868.8 323.5 | 16,078.4| 48,039.2 |--........-- ROSS |e OTA yd lage eee ee 40, 476.2 PIALLT/ \\Soccneoshecc 28, 695.6 69, 130. 4 351 6,114.8 | 24,990.1| 73, 920.8 1 Bacterial count less than initial count. 52 BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 24.—Growth of bacteria in milk produced-under condition 3 when held ab 4.4°, - ~ 10°, and 15.5° C. (40°, 50° and 60° F-). Temper- ature. Sample No. Fresh. 24 hours. 48 hours. Ayverage:® £8 <0 5.8. p- = 136, 533 \( 149,000 9, 200 22,500 6,300 38, 000 6, 800 91, 000 8,200} 1,540,000 (iiss = oie omen eine RG 115,000} 3, 180, 000 Sages BE! ee eae ee 207, 000 1, 560, 000 Or 3 fe Rae 216,000 | 2,400,000 10: 438 Sy oc | Sh pe DS 202,000 | - 1,490,000 1h aD aam ey a= 5 Oo 332,000 4,200,000 i pa Oe eae 215, 000 930, 000 (byes, ee ae ee Be 209, 000 840, 000 je Re tas ms 4 17650005]: 9-5 eee 1D sone Na see TO ee A ||. 10°C. |} 256,000} 2,040,000 (50° F.) |) 55,000 47, 000 4,100 4,300 18, 100 43, 000 11, 400 52,000 12, 400 394, 000 DA ee Ee 193,000 | 1, 230,000 Do hame Sent ok AES Noe 169, 000 620, 000 Dy aires ie 5 210,000 560, 000 AED ine aeeg eee 159,000 | — 2, 700, 000 ee: a oe 230,000} 2,180,000 DBAS EE 5 eee FE 265,000} 1, 210,000 DEES SE A 168, 000 560, 000 OB ee og I 157, 000 240, 000 DY ee oe hos eh 18650003 -.22S58so-2e8 30 Sees 53 eed } 128,000 | 1, 060, 000 136, 533 1, 170, 546 3, 550, 000 910, 000 ~ 407,000 “4, 630, 000 17, 400, 000 a aes Bees Day 388 13,662,115 | 25,687,541 eee S22 8S BE BSSSe8 re ses S88 sees ‘EEE PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 53 TABLE 24. —Growth of bacteria in milk produced under condition 3 when held at 4.4°, 10°, and 15.5° C. (40°, 50°, and 60° F.)—Continued. Sample No. "Temper Fresh, | 24hours. | 48 hours. 149,000 | 17,800,000] 410,000,000 9,200 | 2’900,000} 218,000,000 22, 500 76, 000, 000 1, 060, 000, 000 6,300 | 4°700,000 | 255, 000, 000 65800)! 10; 3005000) bees =42-=ee ee 8200 | 32,300,000 | 125,000,000 115,000 | 22,600,000 | —_ 198,000; 000 307,000 | 16,200,000} 145,000,000 216,000 | 46,000,000 | 165,000, 000 202,000 | 11,300,000 — 128,000,000 332/000 | 19,400,000) 147,000,000 215,000 | 9,700,000} 126, 000, 000 209,000; 10; 200,000 |-----.--2------: ! IG WWD) Nessencsecooss 460, 000, 000 Se 15.5° C. |] 256,000 | 67,000,000 | 4, 200,000; 000 i), SSS gS ROGEEE See (60° F.). 55, 000 its 600, 000 | © 1, 440, 000, 000 ; 4’100| 510,000 | 1,050, 000, 000 18, 100 11, 600, 000 580, 000, 000 11,400 | 88,000,000 | 1, 8007 0007 000 12. 400 SD OUOSO00R Bereeeaeeeeerste 193, 000 72, 000, 000 411, 000, 000 169,000 | 11,900,000} — 373,000,000 210,000 | 117550/000} 310,000, 000 159,000 | 21/600,000! 344,000,000 230,000 | 28,400/000 | 362,000, 000 265,000 | 24,400,000 | 243/000, 000 168,000 | 7, 100, 000 87, 000, 000 157,000)| S$ 3004000)\esee meee eeal =. TS650000| 222s eee 730, 000, 000 128,000 | 52,000,000} 2, 270, 000, 000 136,533 | 24,673,571 | — 639,884,615 72 hours. - 2, 430, 000, 000 160, 000, 000 1,540,000, 000 1; 110, 000, 000 910, 000, 000 1, 650, 000, 000 1, 060, 000, 000 190, 000, 000 210, 000, 000 1, 160, 000, 000 1,720, 000, 000 6,900, 000, 000 1 280, 000, 000 3, 000, 000; 000 8, 400, 000, 000 4, 400, 000, 000 4, 990,000, 000 3, 140, 000, 000 790, 000, 000 730, 000, 000 340, 000, 000 1, 970, 000, 000 8, 400, 000, 000 1, 380, 000, 000 2, 407, 083, 333 96 hours. 10, 400, 000, 000 1, 640, 000; 000 2, 230, 000, 000 1, 590, 000, 000 1; 430, 000, 000 1, 260, 000, 000 8, 300, 000, 000 4, 400, 000, 000 9, 100, 000, 000 2, 190, 000, 000 L 750, 000, 000 5, 400, 000, 000 12, 500, 000, 000 21, 600, 000, 000 “3, 900, 000, 000 4, 600, 000, 000 2; 410; 000, 000 1, 540, 000, 000 5, 346, 666, 666 Taste 25.—Ratio of bacterial growth in milk produced under condition 3 when held at 4.4°, 10°, and 15.5° C., 40°, 50°, and 60° F. Sample No. Temper- | Fresh. 24 48 72 96 ature. hours. hours. hours. hours 1 il, 75) 2.37 2.59 4.16 1 10 1.69 6. 84 1.03 1 1.73 1. 82 2866 See eee 1 0 3580) Ease ee 21. 40 1 1 (Oi see sscecse 2 2.79 1 1.54 2.01 75. 60 118. 20 1 3.09 6. 86 Cys ht SE BG EE HS SHG 1 1. 40 2h ole ceekeeen| 2 aes ee Re 1 6. 66 2. 50 16. 40 17. 70 ,1 2.97 3. 56 4.50 13. 30 1 0 0 WI22i ee seen ce ree ‘Yq 1.04 a te laqeaanceneies 1. 16 everett ie Gaes wane acloa| eke ERNE 1.47 1 ei Seoe ees 0 1. 87 1.79 1 0 1.49 0 1.92 1 0 7. 80 5. 85 1. 26 1 2.04 1. 43 2H 26h ese sascseree 1 1.37 HEB). lsaancoscaees 4.64 1 2590) | Gkosesaccecs 2. 8: 5. 48 1 1.62 16. 2.79 3.08 1 1. 43 3. 01 By) eM Ceacomeceses 1 0 4 Soe cies Sciscia| fees seismic 1 4.08 24.50 26. 40 30. 10 1 4,21 6. 30 7.47 6.7 1 0 0 OS ee eee 1 0 (1) ees beicicss 1.16 1 Op eee Se cdl ce aes onal aceoceces iH | Sree |e Ber cine ec al ctor n Geico 1.09 a ee aeeoee 0 0 Ley EAI LET eS 2.47 4.62 10. 19 11.99 1 Bacterial count less than initial count. °°. 54 TABLE 25.—Ratio of bacterial growth in milk produced under condition 3 when held at 4.4°, 10°, and 15.5° C. (40°, 50°, and 60° F.)—Continued. Sample No. BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT. OF AGRICULTURE. 10° C. (50° F.) Fresh. 1 Dos 1 4 1 4.7 1 6 1 13.3 eh 87.8 1 27.6 1 (ha. 1 =A Boy | 1 7.3 1 12.6 1 4.3 1 4 : gS epee se 53.9 137.5 207.3 if 7.9 107.4 78.5 60.9 1 0 4.7 4 334.5 1 iBcl 0 13. 4 136. 1 2.3 ee = 1 Al. -§82,4 a5 1 Ai tS fe Bee ees 1 6.3 1 3.6 b eee 1 2.6 ot as oe 3-- -- 1 6.9 264.1 427.6 691. 1 9.4 107.3 146 15e 1 AGG... BSA 95 eee 1 3.3 eS Paes 245_ 1 ri! te eee er: 119.7 246. 1| 24.8 143.5 195. 1 135.9 177.3 205. a a ERG. Gl aaece eee es era 5, 550 2,613.6 9,772. 16,406.2| 26,953. 26,181.8| 23.272. 256,097.5 | 731, 707. 32,044.1 | 464,088. 157, SO dee eee eee 2,129. 2; 207. 1 AIGA love ce-ch el 2,163.5 4,968. 1,573.9 3,173. 916.9 1, 283 Pag Geass foe ie be oe Ee 3,924.7 | 45,161.2 | 406.2| 17,734.3]- 10,781.2 759.9 25,308 | 61,527.2| 160,873.6 PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 55 TABLE 26.—Summary of results shown in Tables 20 to 25 inclusive. AVERAGE NUMBER OF BACTERIA. _ Temperature. Condi-| Fresh. 24 hours. 48 hours. 72 hours. 96 hours, SECTION 1. 1 4,295 4,138 4,566 8,427 19, 693 Be hacer -e-.25 2 39, 082 88, 028 121, 864 186, 245 is 056, 922 3 136, 533 281; 646 538, 775 749, 030 "852? 835 1 4,295 13,961 127,727 5, 725, 277 39, 490, 625 22S See sect Berea 2 39, 082 177, 437 831, 615 x 761, 458 13; 079, 166 3 136, 533 1, 170, 546 13, 662, 115 25, 687, 5AL 41) 207, 272 | 1 4,295 1, 587,333 33,011,111 326, 500, 000 962,785, 714 ese She esp pi 2 39, 082 4 461, lll 99 120, 000 633, 375, 000 | 1, 355, 650, 000 3 136, 533 oy 673, 571 639, 884 615 | 2, 407, 083; 333 5, 346, 666, 666 SECTION 2 Perce coeet cee 4,295 | 4,138 4,566 8, 247 19, 693 Bes a Fe 1 4,295 | 13,961 127,727 5,725,277 39, 490, 625 Bees ce eecen sees 4,295 1, 587, 333 | 33,011,111 326, 500, 000 962, 785, 714 Be oe tno = Sen ate 39, 082 88, 028 121, 864 186, 245 1,056, 922 Re stable rt! 2 39, 082 177, 437 831, 615 1, 731, 875 13,097,166 RO oe Eee 39, 082 4, 461) lil 99, 120, 000 633,375,000 | 1, 355, 650, 000 Bas ee 136, 533 281, 646 538,775 749,030 852, 835 SS eer es | 3 136, 533 : 170, 546 13, 662, 115 25, 687, 541 41, 207, 272 een say eee 136, 533 24 673, 571 639, 884, 615 | 2, 407, 083; 333 | 5, 346, 666, 666 RATIO OF GROWTH. 1 1 1.25 1.21 2. 66 5.10 SpA Ts Hu th 2 | 2 1 2. 40 3. 80 4.40 22. 10 3 1 2.47 4. 62 10.19 11. 99 1 1 3.34 31.07 1,464. 70 9, 629. 60 = Sas secHace sees 2 1 6. 70 24. 30 86. 00 "612. 30 3 1 14. 68 137. 94 498. 06 1, 385. 06 1 1 398. 60 8,772.10 79, 809. 50 288, 231. 80 Sad Ge eae sae 2 1 351. 00 6,114. 80 24,990. 10 73, 920. 80 3 1 759. 90 25,308. 00 61, 527. 20 160, 873. 60 Se ee eee ile|| 1. 25 1.21 2. 66 5.10 Perio a= ttes Seek 1 1 3.34 31.07 1, 464. 70 9, 629. 60 Laas 1 398. 60 8,772.10 79, 809. 50 288, 231. 80 eae 2. S8S2 22h | 1 2. 40 3. 80 4. 40 . 22.10 3S BE o oe | 2 1 6. 70 24. 20 86. 00 612. 30 yD es ke. 1 351. 00 6,114. 80 24, 990. 10 73, 920. 80 oC ee ere | 1 2.47 4.62 10.19 11. 99 Bee Sak eS. 35 3 1 14. 68 137. 94 498. 06 1,385. (6 Ree hte et | 1 759. 90 25,308. 00 61, 527. 20 160; 873. 60 he grades of milk demands special attention. The effect of low temperature on the bacterial growth in any one of From section 2 of Table 26, it is evident that even if milk when fresh shows a low bacterial count the number of bacteria will be high if it is held at a high temperature. For example, milk with an average count of ap- proximately 4,000 when held 24 hours at 4.4° C. (40° F.) showed ap- proximately the same count. At 10° C. (50° F.) the count was about 3,000, while at 15.5° C. (60° F.) the average was about 1,500,000. he results show in every case the great value of holding milk at 10° - (50° F.) rather than 15.5° C, (60° F.) St i is realized that night’s milk is generally held on the farm for periods of from 12 to 15 hours before delivery; it is, therefore, im- portant to know what bacterial increase will occur jn milk held about that period of time. In order to obtain data on the subject, samples of milk produced under clean conditions in sterilized utensils and also 56 BULLETIN 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. samples of milk produced under dirty conditions were held at 15.5° C. (60° F.) and 21.1° C. (70° F.) and examined when fresh, and after 12, 24, and 48 hours. j . 4 From Table 27 it will be seen that 16 samples of milk pro- duced under clean conditions in sterilized utensils when fresh averaged 3,243 bacteria per cubic centimeter. After 12 hours at 15.5° C. (60°. F.) the average count was 4,056 and at 211° C. (70° F.) 19,312 bacteria per cubic centimeter. This shows an advantage of holding at the lower temperature which is more valuable when the milk is held for 24 hours, as the average count was then 123,562 when held at 15.5° C. (60° F.) and 10,006,875 when held at 21.1° C. (70° F.). After 48 hours the average count at both temper- | atures was high, but the milk held at 15.5° C. (60° F.) was much _lower. . | 7 The samples of milk produced under dirty conditions in unsteyilized utensils ranged from 10,900 to 2,210,000 when fresh and averaged 707,761 bacteria per cubic centimeter. This high initial average count increased to 3,376,961 after 12 hours at 15.5° C. (60° F.) and to 6,608,846 after 12 hours at 21.1° C. (70° F.). The counts were, of course, very high at later periods at both temperatures. . ~ -Oo TABLE 27.—Growth of bacteria in milk when held at 15.5 DTTC TO> FRC MILK PRODUCED UNDER CLEAN CONDITIONS IN STERILIZED UTENSILS. C. (60° F.) and™ =. Held at 15.5° C. (60° F.) for— Held at 21.1° C. (70° F.) for— SampleNo.| Fresh | 12 hours. 24 hours. 48 hours. 12 hours. 24 hours. 48 hours. ioe 1,300 2,300 48,000 13, 200, 000 8,100 | 4,100,000 | 1,290,000, 000 Dee S25 a: 1,00 2,000 56, 000 16, 500, 000 23,100 | 26,200,000 , 000, 000 Bree emo! 1,700 1,100 55,000 38, 000, 000 13,600 | 23,700,000 | 2, 410,000,000 / we sey SGT AE 3,100 1,300 541000) | ise eeee ees 29,100 | 12,400,000 |...-.........2 i eee 11,200 7,300 83,000 41,000, 000 14,700 | 4,700,000 | 1,340,000, 000 ae 7,900 8,700 51,000 57,000, 000 37,000 | 8,200,000 | 1,810,000, 000 (a ee 1,800 2,100 78, 000 12, 900, 000 2,300 510, 000 81,000,000 tek ty Nh 700 1, 700 28, 000 4, 800, 000 6,800 | 1,880,000 82,000, 000 Q. ssereeeet 5,600 1, $00 23,000 20, 100, 000 25,200 | 5,400,000 | 2,980,000, 000° OS ee 1,100 3,100 74, 000 42,000, 000 19,500 | 30,600,000 | 128,000,000 a. es 3,400 5,100 38,000 14, 100, 000 13,200 | 10,200,000 | 960,000,000 D225 Al 1,400 18,300 310; DOO fo cobs sk hee 58,000 |. 5, 700,000-|-.........22) AS)... SAE 3,100 2,200 | 60, 000 18, 100, 000 4,100 | 4,100,000 | 1,390,000, 000 CSS Ss ae 1,200 2,000 261, 000 46,000, 000 32,500 | 4,920,000 | 6,400,000, 000 15.4 3. 3, 800 3,000 | 112,000 16, 600, 000 5,800 | 6,000,000 | 6,460,000, 000 Tes Seas 2,200 2,300 | 146, 000-| Soc 2e3- Fe = ob 16,000 | 11,500,000 |..........222. Average.| 3, 243 4,056 123, 562 26, 176, 923 19,312 | 10,006,875 | 2,014, 692,307 MILK PRODUCED UNDER DIRTY CONDITIONS IN UNSTERILIZED UTENSILS. | i Meech coe ae 10, 900 15,500 | 182: 000% |=: fies Bee eatee 58,000 | 49,000,000 |.........-.... pa aed Feces | 1,520,000 | 8,600,000 | 148,000,000 | 169,000,000 12,800,000 | 460,000,000 | 1, 780,000,000 ps Ses Ne , 880,000 | 8,700,000 | 154,000,000 | 840,000,000 | 17,600,000 | 960,000,000 | 7,500,000, 000° i a ee 1,030,000 | 5,400,000 | 22,900,000 | 1,180,000,000 | 8,200,000 | 630,000,000 | ~ 460,000,000 Ey tae TE 2,210,000 | 11,700,000 | 81,000,000 28,000,009 | 13,700,000 | 149,000,008 | 620,000,000 Glee eee 1,810,000 | 1,930,000 | 68,000,000 | 164,000,000 | 6,100,000 | 75,000,000 | 540,000, 000” / Pane RRS 330,000 | 4,200,000 | 10,300,000 | 113,000,000 | 10,200,000 | 37,000,000 | 1,860,000, 000 85. sce 159,000 | 1,210,000 | 22,600,000} 110,000,000 | 2,830,000 |............- 350,000, 000° Cee gh 96,000 | 1,310,000 | 29,400,000 |............... 10, 400,000 | 114,000,000 |.............- ] er 37,000 |. 560,0000 | 43,800,000} 212,000,000 | 2,360,000} 26,000,000 | 1,840,000, 000 fers 18,000 180,000 | 47,200,000 | 100,000,000 | 1,370,000} 96,000,000 1’ 500; 000; 000. CS oe AZ 12,000 24,000 | 1,480,000 45,000,000 | 99,000 | 32,000,000 | 2,030,000, 000° ieee 28, 000 713000)|, 22-300" 000) | qr een es san | 198,000 | 35,000,000 |........---25 a Average.| 707,761 | 3,376,961 | 48,550,923 | 296,100,000 | 6,608,846 | 221,916,666 | 1, 853, 000, 000 PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 5Y The ratio of growth of bacteria in Table 28 shows an interesting point. The ratios were determined as previously explained in this publication (p. 46). It will be noted that there was a higher ratio of growth in milk produced under dirty conditions in unsterilized utensils than in samples of milk produced under clean conditions in sterilized utensils. This seemed to be true when milk was held at ma5° ©. (60° F.) for #2 and 24 hours.' At 21:1° C. (70° F.) the statement holds true only for the first 12 hours. From that and other observations it seems evident that the bacteria which are intro- duced from unsterilizea utensils grow faster at temperatures near 15.5° C. (60° F.) than those in a low-count mill produced in steril- ized utensils. : The results obtained by holding milk at 15.5° C. (60° F.) and 21.1° C. (70° F.) for various periods 0 time, show the advantage of the lower temperature and further give data on the bacterial increase which will take place at those temperatures when both low and high count milk are held for varying periods of time. - The effect of temperature on the growth of bacteria in milk during storage and transportation is a matter of very great importance. It is evident from the previous results that if a low-count milk is de- sired it must be cooled and held at 10° C. (50° F.) or lower on the farm, unless it is delivered immediately after each milking. There- fore, for the production, in a broad sense of the term, of milk of low bacterial content a fourth factor, proper Pei eraler: must be added to. the three factors previously diveusecd TABLE 28.—Ratio of growth of bacteria in milk when held at 15.5° C.°(60° F.) ‘a and 21.1° C. (70° F.). MILK PRODUCED UNDER CLEAN CONDITIONS IN STERILIZED UTENSILS. Held at 15.5° C. (60° F.) for—__ Held at 21.1° C. (70° F.) for— Sample No. es ; z | 12hours.| 24hours.’| 48hours. | 12hours.| 24 hours. 48 hours. | = : A 1.27 26.6 7, 333.3 4.5 2,277.7 716, 666. 6 1.05 29.4 8, 684 2 12.1 13, 789.4 452, 631.5 0 32.3 22, 352.9 8 13,941.1] 1,417,647 0 ie hal Pes ee ee 9.3 4000 [Pneece eee oO - 7.4 36, 607. 1 13 419.6 119, 642.8 1.07 6.4 7,215.1 4.6 1,037.9 229, 113.9 1.16 43.3 7, 166. 6 1.2 45, 000 2.43 40 6, 428.5 9.7 2, 685. 7 115, 714.2 0 4.1 3, 589. 2 4.5 964.2 532, 142.8 2.81 67.2 38, 181.8 17.7 27, 818.1 116, 363.6 1.50 11.1 4, 147 358 ; 282, 352.9 13.07 By. wos ee ee ee 41.4 SOM aaa aosaeceee n= 0 19.3 5, 838.7 1.3 1, 322.5 448, 387 - 1.66 217.5 38, 333.3 Ziad 4,100 §33, 333.3 0 29.4 4, 368. 4 1.5 1,578.9} 1,700,000 1.04 66:3" s[eesteeeeea ee fee EE ORGAO) || ee Be se 1.69 74.76 | 14, 634.3 | 9.7 | 5,407.3 | _885,307.3 58 —-« BULLETIN: 642, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 28.—Ratio of growth of bacteria in milk when held at 15. pe oh (60° F.) and 21.1° C. (70° F. ag ne. MILK PRODUCED UNDER DIRTY CONDITIONS IN UNSTERILIZED UTENSILS. Ageia ees eeedae am I 1.4 16 2 eee 5.3 4,495.4|-.2.-..2 ae Diee 25 eine tot pence 1 5.6 97.3 1,111.8 8.4 302. 6 11, 710.5 i Sea spite m date 0. 5 1 4.5 81.9 446.8 9.3 510.6 3, 989.3 AP) fled ae ot 1 4.9 21 1,082.5 7.5 577.9 422 ES i ag Bik abate) 5 1 5.3 36.6 12. 6.2: 67.4 280-5 ifier Ca es MT. Toy Ste, 1 1 37.5 90.6 3.4 41.4 298.3 Tees ee, ne ae 1 1.2 31.2 342.4 30.9 112.1 5,636.3 Sieun ty. 2scebe deepen 1 7.6 142.1 691.8 Aa epee a oe 2, 201.2 ep eee er ees oh 1 13.6 eT ey ae Ne 108.3 1,187.5 |_-..2.. 2s 10: tases ete dace ee 1 15.1 1, 183.7 5, 729.7 63.7 702.7 49, 729.7 10s eae eee eee 1 10 2, 622.2 5, 555.5 76.1 5, 333.3 $3, 333.3 1D, cae os: eee dace ee 1 2 123.3 3,750 8.2 2, 666.6 173, 333.3 In ee eee 1 | 2.5 Roa lee eran 7.1 A yes Eee ee aa Average. 222-222 |i 2S | 5.7 354.7 | 1,881.3 27 | 1,437.3 33, 093.4 SUMMARY. 1. Milk of low bacterial content and practically free from visible dirt, when fresh, was produced in an experimental barn under condi- tions similar to oe on the average low-grade farm. _ 2. Three simple factors were necessary for the production of milk with a low bacterial content, namely, sterilized utensils, clean cows with clean udders and teats, and the small-top pail. A fourth factor, holding the milk at a temperature near 10° C. (50° F.) or lower, is | necessary in order to keep the bacterial content low. al 3. The average count of 65 samples of fresh milk produced by the aid of the three factors, except that the udders and teats were not washed, was 4,524 bacteria per cubic centimeter. The average count - of mie areecly from the udder was 757 bacteria per cubic centi-— meter; the difference of 3,767 therefore represents the number intro- duced through external contamination. During the same period when the udder and teats of the cows were washed, the average of the 65 samples was 2,154 bacteria per cubic centimeter, and as the » average udder count was 739, the difference, 1,415 bacteria, repre-— sented those added through external contamination. ; Washing the udder and teats of the cows not only caused a decrease in the bacterial content of the milk but also more nearly uniform counts. A study of the bacterial groups in the low-count milk showed that they correspond closely to those in the milk drawn directly from the ae a 4. A practical demonstration of the value of the three essential factors was made on six farms. The results indicate that it is pos- | sible for the average farmer with inexpensive equipment to produce — milk of low bacterial content with little extra work. ; 5. The results indicate that in general the greatest contamination _ of milk comes from the use of unsterilized utensils. The simple steam PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 59 ‘sterilizer described in Farmers’ Bulletin 7481 was used very success- fully for the sterilization of utensils on the farms. _ 6. Small-top pails were found to lessen the quantity of manure which may gain entrance into milk and to assist in lowering the bacterial count. 7. The sediment test was found to bear asomewhat close relation to the number of bacteria in fresh, unstrained milk handled in sterilized utensils. 8. From an examination of a large number of samples of fresh milk produced under varying conditions in an experimental barn and of samples from a number of farms, it is believed that as a general rule the bacterial content is relatively low. It would seem that when the count is in the millions it is the result = bacterial growth i in the milk while being held. 9. To show the growth of bacteria in milk held at various tempera- tures for varying periods, a large number of samples were held at met. 110°;.15,5°,, and 21.1° C_ (402, 50°%.60°, and 702 F.). tis abso- lutely necessary, if milk is held on the farm, to keep it near 10° C. (50° F.) or lower, in order to restrain bacterial growth, if the dairy- man wishes to sant milk of low bacterial content. CONCLUSIONS. The results of the experiments indicate that it is possible for the average dairyman on the average farm, without expensive barns and equipment, to produce milk (practically free from visible dirt) which when fresh has a low bacterial count. By the use of the three simple factors, namely, sterilized utensils, clean cows with clean ud- ders and teats, and the small-top pail, it should be possible on the average farm to produce milk which corresponds closely to milk as it leaves the udder of the cow. A fourth factor of holding milk at as near 10° C. (50° F.) as possible is also absolutely necessary. To emphasize the value of the three simple factors, figure 23 shows the average bacterial counts of milk produced under ae various con- ditions described in this bulletin. The results will not be discussed in detail, but in a general way the figure gives a picture of the results of the experiments in the order in which they were conducted. The experiments were begun with dirty conditions and unsterilized utensils, and milk of high bacterial count was obtained. Next the factor of sterilized utensils was introduced, followed by the addi- tional factor of clean udder and teats. A Snibmeeen of the factors and the use of a small-top pail permitted the production of a low- count milk, which closely corresponded to that drawn directly from the udder. In order to check the value of the essential factors, they were again eliminated until a high-count milk was produced, then reintroduced until a low-count milk was again obtained. 1 Farmers’ Bulletin 748 will be sent free to any one on application to the department. The value of these ' BULLETIN 642, U. $. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 60 | ————— Teese) eae gle iret ert (ce ats oe Oy) SE ele me (Ce ie) a (eb) t oe nN i te iag 2 ‘ a bo, 2 — ei oh 0) 2) PESEREGS PELE GR ESES uP ees BPGenseer ev esos f= =e i om & oo 75 Pe te 6 ° So a yw ee Ss a fe B66 24 8 Ss a ae, Se ep Sbees SE Se POP wrt we 2 PESoaeSHa RE cad sg Se ope BEERS Bet Rae Ses TS Se ae S ee Ss = 2S a 8 womb Ceo Re Re ae = aig es ae earPaave yor ae S SP an QeA 3 4 bs : Sw Als i) 0) e e 2 OH © , ck eP ee SS oS @ Co Aaa 2 po HE Sleek eee 2 eo Sa. be oP aus e > poe Sees WER ES eae a eases h oo) Ree Ce EOS SAR PERO BET oy o , fos} ‘ ~ fy PORe a SSeS PSE Se ee eC See STAR ME Ree PB Go PwmY%5 Ao a as ab Be BS ORS Cae Be Ta oe TOP ig 8 es ee 2) eo os] HH wo =f = ~~ O56 Oo A S-a oo Cy so: © od go sr hm Sto he aeaaES ee eS o Sah 'S Pa a Sm Ss if wet, ee ee cas HKoetee eae s See See HEE R SSE BERES ER SEES FEELS ‘1oded S{q} UT Podtwosop SuoP{PUO SnopVA oY} AOpuN poonpoad yyUI JO FUoFMOD pepo, OVg OFVAOAT OY} SupMOYS s7[Nsor- Jo ArvMMINgG—EZ “PIT WKWKQ&CGK KG, , GG QQ 00D AQ XS ( = Wy RMSE A WT leer Slat ie \COMRY PYINCN) cy orstncan LOGE OPOT? | MPR? SHO? BE WELTER AY 1 SF TAMERS SO DASARS™ ya LINO 2O FUCA = LOLL// iii eee CIVEZ7IO LON GSOWAHI2 CV S777U MED Abie? hod deo CHWHLS LOM V7 DIDAS MW SVC6O OLA CP8IOS HW Vitty POL 77S SOW MED QL. GE GNOULDVASLGV OM MAME HINT CIN A MI MOCMM LAI NMOL Fb Wei HWL/IIOD ONY eOOZ/ GOON FAOPDY DFAS Att) Alli OMURI MRO ! AAMB| BE PY BZ OCAON GUO? “OS ‘ ‘ so PIENOKLD AYP) ISYY AMY SNOMIINA) T08INZD) DE SKFLIO 7 PLAS SK aM Lae GREE PS RTT A ae ee ae 2 OAV aes LYE BOS eae ANAMSRAF DD ARS WARTLWT AISAAN PUSIAY OSRMW OO LT of the cattle have not | PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 61 been studied, nor has the influence of general conditions of cleanliness surrounding the production of milk been given consideration. LITERATURE CITED. (1) Stock1ne, W. A., Jr. 1906. Quality of milk affected by common dairy practices. Conn. (Storrs) Agr..Exp. Sta. Bul. 42. (2) NortH, CHARLES E. 1908. A method of milk production. Jn Med. Rec. [N. Y.], v. 73, no. 7, p. 263-266. 1917. A survey of dairy score cards. In Amer. Jour. Pub. Health, v. 7, no. 1, p. 25-39. (3) Prucua, M. J., Harpine, H. A., and WEETER, H. M. 1915. Utensils as a source of bacterial contamination of milk. Jn Science, N. S., v. 42, no. 1080, p. 358. (4) ScHROEDER, E. C. 1910. The relation of the tuberculous cow to public health. Jn-U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Anim. indus. 25th Ann. Rpt., 1908, p. 109-153. (5) Strockine, W..A., Jr. 1907. Comparative studies with covered milk pails. Conn. (Storrs) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 48. (6) Harpine, H. A:, Witson, J. K., and SmirnH, G. A. 1910. The modern milk pail. N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 326. (7)- Lamson, R. W. His ; ae 1914. Inexpensive aids in producing sanitary milk. Md. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 181. (8) CAMPBELL, H. C. 1916. Comparison of the bacterial count of milk with the sediment or dirt test. U.S. Dept. Agr. Dept. Bul. 361. (9) Harpine, H. A., RUEHLE, G. L., Winson, J. K., and Smiru, G. A. 19138. The effect of certain dairy operations upon the germ content of milk. N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 365. (10) Ruente, G. L. A., and Kurp, W. L. 1915. Germ content of stable air and its effect upon the germ content of milk. N. Y¥. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 409. (11) Prucua, M. J., and WEETER, H. M. 1917. Univ. of Ill, Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 199, PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO MILK AND DAIRYING. PUBLICATIONS AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Use of Milk as Food. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 363.) Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 413.) Clean Milk: Production and Handling. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 602.) Plan for a Small Dairy House. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 689.) A Simple Steam Sterilizer for Farm Dairy Utensils. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 748.) Making Butter on the Farm. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 876.) Application of Refrigeration to Handling of Milk. (Department Bulletin No. 98.) # Present Status of Pasteurization of Milk. (Department Bulletin No. 342.) Comparison of Bacterial Count of Milk With Sediment or Dirt Test. (De- partment Bulletin No. 361.) Study in Cost of Producing Milk on Dairy Farms in Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsylvania, and North Carolina. (Department Bulletin No. 501.) Experiment in Community Dairying. (Yearbook Sep. No. 707.) PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERN- MENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Cream Separator on Western Farms. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 201.) Price, 5 cents. Bacteria in Milk. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 348.) Price, 5 cents. Bacteria in Milk. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 490.) Price, 5 cents. Farm Butter Making. (Farmers’ Bulletin No. 541.) Price, 5 cents. Medical Milk. Commissions and Certified Milk. (Department Bulletin No. 1.) Price, 10 cents. Alcohol Test in Relation to Milk. (Department Bulletin No. 202.) Price, 5 cents. Pasteurizing Milk in Bottles and Bottling Hot Milk Pasteurized in Bulk, (De- partment Bulletin No. 240.) Price, 5 cents. Milk and Cream Contests. (Department Bulletin No. 356.) Price, 5 cents. Cooling Hot-Bottled Pasteurized Milk by Forced Air. (Department Bulletin No. 420.) Price, 10 cents. Labor Requirements of Dairy Farms Influenced by Milking Machines. (De- partment Bulletin No. 423.) Price, 5 cents. Bacteria of Pasteurized and Unpasteurized Milk Under Laboratory Conditions. (Bureau Animal Industry Bulletin No. 73.) Price, 5 cents. Milk Supply of Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. (Bureau Animal In- dustry Bulletin No. 81.) Price, 5 cents. Milking Machine as Factor in Dairying, Preliminary Report I. Practical Studies of Milking Machine; II. Bacteriological Studies of Milking Machine. (Bureau Animal Industry Bulletin No. 92.) Price, 15 cents, Relation of Tuberculous Lesions to Mode of Infection, (Bureau Animal Indus- try Bulletin No. 98.) Price, 5 cents. Leucocytes in Milk, Methods of Determination and Effect of Heat upon Their Number. (Bureau Animal Industry Bulletin No, 117.) Price, 5 cents, 62 PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT. 63 ‘Bacteriology of Commercially Pasteurized and Raw Market Milk. (Bureau Animal Industry Bulletin No. 126.) Price, 15 cents. Milk Supply of Chicago and Washington, 1911. - (Bureau Animal Industry Bulletin No. 138.) Price, 15 cents. Study of Bacteria which Survive Pasteurization. (Bureau Animal Industry Bulletin No. 161.) Pricé, 10 cents. Some Important Factors in Production of Sanitary Milk. (Bureau Animal In- dustry Circular No. 142.) Price, 5 cents. Competitive Exhibitions of Milk and Cream, with Report of Exhibition Held at Pittsburgh, Pa., in Cooperation with Pittsburgh Chamber of Commerce. (Bureau Animal Industry Circular No. 151.) Price, 5 cents. Extra Cost of Producing Clean Milk. (Bureau Animal Industry Circular No. 170.) Price, 5 cents. Pasteurization of Milk. (Bureau Animal Industry Circular No. 184.) Price, 5 cents. Plan for Small Dairy House. (Bureau Animal Industry Circular No. 195.) Price, 5 cents. Directions for Home Pasteurization of Milk. (Bureau Animal Industry Circu- lar No. 197.) Price, 5 cents. Score-Card System of Dairy Inspection. (Bureau Animal Industry Circular No. 199.) Price, 5 cents. i Milk and Cream Contests, How to Conduct Them, and How to Prepare Samples for Competition. (Bureau Animal Industry Circular No. 205.) Price, 5 cents. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY V fis $F EE CSRS SITET ES PAT EIT a , BULLETIN No. 643 § Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D.C. Vv March 8, 1918 THE MELON FLY.’ By E. A. Back, Entomologist, and C. H. PEMBERTON, Assistant Entomologist, Mediterranean and Other Fruit Fly Investigations. CONTENTS. Page Page What the melon fly is like............-....-- 3 | Interesting facts concerning the adult fly..... 22 Origin and distribution................------ 4 | Why the melon fly is a serious pest.......... 24 Establishment and spread in Hawaii........ 4 (Controlimeasures,.c2-2+ 2+ ceceseeas ote seen 25 Methodsiof spread ss22¢. oS sseeten-ce eee cee: 7 | Measures taken to keep fruit flies of Hawaii Economic importance............--0.-+-+-- 7 from gaining a foothold in continental Nature of injury caused by the melon fly.... 8 WinibediS tatessijas-cceacecmees sceeceeees 29 Food or host plants..............0-s00------- 1G |S utammaranyeetcas cio see seeeeeasaecee see eciog 30 HE MELON FLY is a serious pest that never should have gained access to the Hawaiian Islands. Its establishment in Hawaii came naturally enough, as in the case of many of our worst insect enemies, along with the development of unrestricted modern commerce, and owing to the lack, in earlier days, of a knowledge of pests in other lands likely to be introduced into ours, or of any quickened public opinion which, at last thoroughly alive to the great financial losses that may be averted, is to-day heartily sup- porting Federal quarantines directed against just such pests as the melon fly. The melon fly is now established thoroughly throughout the coastal regions of the Hawaiian Islands and never will be eradi- eated. It attacks many vegetables that otherwise could be grown readily by the poorer people, who are least able to purchase them. Melons, pumpkins, squashes, cucumbers, and tomatoes, and some 1 Bactrocera cucurbitae Coq.; order Diptera, family Trypetidae. For a more extended account of the melon fly see Back, EH. A., and Pemberton, C. H. The melon fly in Hawaii. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 491. 64 p., 24 pl., 10 fig. 1917. This may be obtained from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., for 25 cents. Norre.—The manuscript of this paper was prepared for publication as a Farmers’ Bul- letin, but owing to the fact that it deals with an insect which has not yet been introduced into the continental United States it was considered more appropriate to issue it in the Series of Department Bulletins. qt 18314°—18—Bull. 6483———1 4 2 BULLETIN 643, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. other vegetables to-day can not be grown in many parts of the islands except with great effort; they must be imported from across the sea, as a result of melon-fly attack. The melon fly is capable of living and causing damage through- out the warmer portions of the mainland United States. As it is Fic. 1—Tip of watermelon vine, showing adult melon fly laying eggs in ovary of a flower still in bud, an unaffected male bloom, and withered and drooping growing tip of vine. A female melon fly has deposited eggs in the vine at base of leafstalk, and the young larye hatching have nearly severed the vine at this point. (Authors’ illustration.) being intercepted rather frequently by official inspectors at Cali- fornia ports on ships from Hawaii, the importance of cooperation by all in making the quarantine of the Federal Horticultural Board a success in keeping out this very serious pest will be readily appre- . ciated, THE MELON FLY. 3) WHAT THE MELON FLY IS LIKE. The melon fly, like other so-called “fruit flies,” is similar to the ordinary house fly in some respects; the adult lays small white eggs from which hatch larve, or maggots, which when full grown trans- form into pupe. Later the adult emerges from the pupa, as the butterfly does from the chryalis, and the cycle of life—adult, egg, larva, pupa—is repeated with each successive generation. Fig- ure 1 shows an adult melon fly about to lay eggs in the bud of a watermelon. Note the relative size of the fly and the bud. The adult female, greatly enlarged, is shown in figure 2. When it is remembered that the adult is from one-fourth to one-third of an ich long, that its body is of a yellowish to a yellowish-brown color, Fie. 2.—Adult female of the melon fly. Greatly enlarged. (Authors’ illustration.) and the markings between the wings, which appear white in the figure, are bright canary yellow in the living insect, and that the wings are banded with dark brown, it will not be difficult to recog- nize this pest. The female fly drills small, pinhole-like openings in the skin of vegetables with the sharp tip of her body, called the ovipositor. Through these punctures she lays her white eggs, which are about one twenty-fifth of an inch long. If a small squash flower be cut open after the female fly has laid her eggs, a small cavity containing the eggs, such as is illustrated by figure 3, is shown. The larve, or mag- gots, that hatch from the eggs feed in various parts of the host plant. They have two black hooklike processes in the head that serve as jaws in aiding them to break up their food and to force their way ee 4 BULLETIN 643, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. through the plant tissues. But as the larve, even when full grown, are only about two-fifths of an inch long, a detailed description of them is of little value. It is enough to know that they differ very little from the ordinary white maggots, of equal size, with which the reader is doubtless familiar. The larve when full grown leave the host to transform to the pupa stage just beneath the surface of the soil, or beneath any protecting object. They even may transform to the pupa within the host fruit, but this is a rare occurrence. Figure 4 shows larve and pupe about twice natural size. In figure 6 are shown well-grown larve feeding in the root of a young watermelon plant. Figure 5 represents an enlarged larva. As the melon fly usually first forces itself upon the attention of the market gardener by the dam- age it does, it ismore important to be able to recog- nize it by its work than by a mere description of the different stages. The reader, therefore, is directed particularly to the illustrations, for, be- sides showing types of injury, they make clear that it is in the larva stage that the melon fly causes its greatest damage. ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION. The original home of the melon fly is the Indo- Malayan region. At present it is known to occur in various parts of India, in’ Ceylon, Java, Macao, S Timor, northern Australia, about Singapore, in Fic. 3.—The melon southern China at Canton and Hongkong, in the tea eee Philippine Islands, in Formosa, and in the Ha- in young pumpkin wailan Islands. There-is some doubt at present lores 7s about its occurrence at Nagasaki, Japan. larged. (Authors’ It is believed that the melon fly was introduced pe into the Hawaiian Islands at Honolulu from Japan or China. It probably arrived in the larva stage in vege- tables brought along as food from Japan by Japanese coolies emi- grating as steerage passengers to work on the sugar plantations in Hawaii. ESTABLISHMENT AND SPREAD IN HAWAII. The melon fly was first observed in Hawai, so far as records show, by Mr. Byron O. Clark, who, during October to December, 1897, found it almost impossible to grow cucumbers, squashes, melons, and similar vegetables in the Kalihi district of Honolulu and about Pearl City. During August, 1898, the pest already was established at Lau-_ a | THE MELON FLY. ° i 5 pahoehoe, Island of Hawaii. Indications are that the melon fly was introduced as early as 1895. That the melon fly is an introduced pest is proved by the inter- esting fact that the gourd calabashes used by the Hawaiian natives during the past century, many of which are preserved in various (Original. ) Fic. 5—The melon fly: Third-instar larva. a, Lateral view of entire body; 6b, dorsal view of anterior end; c, d, lateral and ventral views of same. Much enlarged. (Authors’ illustration. ) museums and private collections, are free from evidences of melon- fly attack. Modern utensils largely have superseded calabashes dur- ing these later days, but the few that are grown show the surface defects due to the attack of the melon fly. Although no satisfactory record has been made of the spread of the melon fly to the various islands of Hawaii, it is now a well- Fic. 6.—1, Watermelon seedling destroyed by larve of melon fly feeding in taproot, crown, and leaf petioles; 2, work of larve in root, enlarged. (Authors’ illus- tration.) a THE MELON FLY. 7 established and serious pest throughout all the coastal regions. It has been known even to attack cucumbers and squash at altitudes ranging up to 4,000 or 4,500 feet. METHODS OF SPREAD. The melon fly probably is carried more often from one locality or country to another in the larva stage than in any other form. Quarantine officials at San Francisco have found living larve in host fruits arriving at San Francisco on ships from Honolulu, and records prove that the melon fly in the larva stage is able to bridge the six or seven days required by the slower vessels to cover the 2,000 miles between the Hawaiian Islands and California, since infested fruits have been intercepted and condemned at least once a year since 1912. Host fruits taken on board ships as ship’s stores are capable of carrying the melon fly as larve, or later as pupze, in the fruit containers, for voyages occupying a longer time than is re- quired to cross the Pacific Ocean, and thus may become a factor in spreading the pest through vessels plying between almost all coun- tries where climatic conditions are favorable for the establishment of the fly. The spread from one country to another at a considerable distance probably starts with the fly in the larva stage, but the spread from town to town, or over short distances, as between islands of the Hawaiian group, may occur in the adult or pupa stage. A female fly has been observed to alight on an automobile top and be carried 16 miles from the country into the city of Honolulu. On another occa- sion an adult was seen flying about an interisland boat en route from Honolulu to Hilo, on the island of Hawaii. This fly was not observed after the boat weighed anchor at the port of Lahaina, on the island of Maui, or 72 miles from Honolulu. These two instances will ex- plain the spread of the pest, in the adult stage, about the islands of Hawaii, even if it could not be transported in the larva stage. | When larve form their puparia on bare surfaces, and particularly on a cloth surface, the puparia may adhere sufficiently well to make it possible for them to be transported considerable distances under favorable circumstances. Although no definite instances are known where the melon fly has been spread thus, distribution in this fashion is quite feasible and to be expected. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE. The melon fly is the most important pest of varieties of melons, quashes, and curcurbits in general grown in the Hawaiian Islands, nd probably elsewhere. Its persistent attack has caused many per- ons to abandon the growing of the more susceptible host fruits. 8 BULLETIN 643, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Other fruits can be grown for the most part only under cover and at increased cost. The unrestricted cultivation of fruits and vegetables in Hawaii has been ruined by the melon fly and the Mediterranean fruit fly. Though the latter is probably the more to be feared, many Fic. 7.—Older squash vine with abnormal growths due to work of melon-fly larve. (Authors’ illustra- tion.) persons regard the melon fly as of greater im- portance from an Hawaiian standpoint, for it attacks with the greatest persistency such crops as squashes, pumpkins, vegetable marrows, to- matoes, and beans, all of which could furnish under the ideal Hawaiian climatic conditions an abundance of food for the poorer people. Such vegetables as muskmelons, watermelons, pumpkins, squashes, and tomatoes can not be grown to-day in many parts of the islands unless the plants are screened carefully. Cantaloupes and watermelons, instead of be- ing common and cheap delicacies, as in former years, are now a luxury for even the wealthy. Cantaloupes, once grown in large quantities about Honolulu, now are imported from Cali- fornia. It is no longer possible to grow pump- kins as stock food on idle land. Quarantines prohibit the export of early shipments of egg- plant, bell peppers, and tomatoes, thus shut- ting off an income formerly enjoyed by the small farmer. The loss to market gardeners in Hawaii as a result of melon-fly attack has been placed conservatively at three-fourths of a mil- lion dollars annually. It is not possible to exaggerate the importance of the melon fly as a serious pest under Hawaiian coastal con- ditions. NATURE OF INJURY CAUSED BY THE MELON FLY. The melon fly does not confine its attack to the fruits of its host or food plants. It may attack the young seedling, the flower, the root, the stem, or the fruit. INJURY TO SEEDLING PLANTS. The melon fly attacks with severity the young succulent seedling plants of watermelon and cantaloupe. The female fly lays her eggs in THE MELON FLY. 9 the crown of the plant, and the larvee, on hatching, feed there first. They later burrow down into the taproot and upward into the petioles of the leaves, and even into any young runners that are form- ing. The capacity of the melon fly for injuring a watermelon seedling is shown in figure 6 (p. 6). The enlarged figure of the root shows four full-grown larvee eating their way into the root. In the figure of the seedling the larvee have almost severed the leaf to the left, and have tunneled completely through one of the petioles and so destroyed it that the weight of the leaf has caused its stem to break over. Injury to a seedling runner is shown in figure 8. In cer- tain places in Hawaii where the melon fly is very abundant, entire Wig. 8.—Seedling watermelon showing runner killed back by burrowing melon-fly larve. (Authors’ illustration. ) fields of watermelons may be killed before the plants can develop runners. Squash, pumpkin, cucumber, tomato, and bean seedlings almost never are attacked. Larve never are found in the roots of older plants. INJURY TO THE STEM. As the plant becomes older, it is still subject to attack. The female fly lays her eggs in the rapidly growing pumpkin and squash vines, but the larve after hatching do very little damage, although they are able to mature. They often cause abnormal swellings or cancerlike spots where a colony of them are feeding, as illustrated by figure 7; but if the injury threatens the stem, the plant throws out roots on either side of the part affected to offset the damage. Such attacks upon the stem are not of importance, except in the case of watermelon and cantaloupe. 18314°—18—Bull, 643 —2 10 BULLETIN 643, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. But in the two plants last mentioned the injury resulting from attack upon the stems may be very serious, and in many cases cause a complete failure of the crop. Figure 9 shows a portion of a canta- Fic. 9.—Cantaloupe vine attacked by melon fly in eight places, including stalk, leaf petioles, and young fruit. (Authors’ illustration.) loupe vine that has been attacked in eight places. So persistent is” attack upon cantaloupe in Hawaii that the vine can not be grown satisfactorily except in isolated spots or under cover. ; : d, é THE MELON FLY. 11 Figures 1 and 10 show a common condition found in watermelon fields. The female fly usually chooses the growing tip of the runners in which to lay her eggs. In making a place in the vine for her eggs she practically severs the tip of the vine so that it may fail to grow ic. 10.—Succulent watermelon vine sectioned to expose five well-grown larve of the melon fly which have eaten out the interior, causing the vine to wither and die back to the point of original infestation. (Authors’ illustration.) beyond the point of injury. The growing end of the vine, however, usually is ruined, for, if the egg-laying process does not cause serious damage, the larve hatching, numbering from 2 to 10, begin to feed and bring about a hasty destruction. Figure 1 shows the drooping, 12 BULLETIN 643, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. withered, growing tip. In this case the eggs were laid just beyond the leaf and flower stalks. When the eggs are laid in the older though still very young and succulent watermelon vine, the larve, on hatching, tunnel their way Fig. 11.—Melon-fly eggs in blooms of pumpkin. Two buds of the male bloom sectioned to show the eggs deposited through the corolla. (Authors’ illustration.) 1 through the vine, eating out the center and causing it to wilt and die. Figure 10 shows a vine sectioned to expose the five well-grown larve which have killed it beyond the base of the leaf in the upper left- hand corner of the illustration. The serious setback to vine develop- THE MELON FLY. : 18 ment that this type of injury causes is readily apparent. Such prun- ing back of the vines, repeated over and again, may prevent the formation of sufficient growth for the development of fruits. INJURY TO THE BLOOM. Although injury to the seedling plant and to the growing stem is greatest in watermelon and can- taloupe and is of little importance among squashes, cucumbers, and pumpkins, the injury to the bloom is very serious among all these crops except that of the cu- cumber. Among pumpkins and squashes beth the male and fe- male blooms are affected; but among the watermelons, canta- loupes, chayotes, and Chinese marrows the male or staminate bloom escapes attack. It is not uncommon to examine luxuri- antly growing fields of squashes and pumpkins during the warm months and not find a single un- affected bloom. Uninformed growers often question why their vines set no fruits. The condi- tion of the blooms illustrated in figures 11 to 14 is the answer. The unfertilized ovaries of all cucurbit blooms are especially attractive to female melon flies. The flies lay eggs in the undeyvel- oped and unfertilized ovaries of the bloom before the blossom un- folds, and the larve, on hatch- ing, often so ruin the ovaries, as indicated by their burrows shown in figure 12, that the flower never unfolds. In those varieties having long, narrow fruits the ovaries are many times Fie. 12.—Work of melon-fiy larve in bring: ing about destruction of ovaries of pumpkin bloom even before the corolla has entirely withered. so eaten out and decayed that the weight of the upper part of the bud causes the ovary to break (see fig. 13). So complete is the destruction 14 BULLETIN 643, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the ovaries of watermelon bloom that in dry weather the remains of the bloom wither and become mummified, as shown in figure 15. An examination of the buds of the male bloom in any field through- out the coastal regions of the Island of Oahu, particularly during the months from March to November, will reveal the severity of Fic. 13.—Pistillate bloom of squash in which larve of the melon fiy have so de- voured the _ unferti- lized ovary that the bloom is destroyed be- fore the flower can unfold. (Authors’ illustration.) attack centered on this portion of the plant. Wherever the buds have been attacked, a whit- ish gumlike excretion exudes which hardens about the point of attack. On cutting the buds lengthwise, batches of eggs can be seen among the folds of the corolla, or in the stamens and receptacle, as shown in figure 11 (p. 12). As ~ the eggs are pure white and are in clusters of 2 to 10 or more, they are seen easily with- out the aid of a lens. If the eggs have been laid from 2 to 6 days, the inside of the bud may have been already eaten out by the rap- idly developing larve. Buds attacked before they are half grown usually are destroyed com- pletely before the blossom unfolds. Figure 14 shows three stages in the destruction of the staminate bloom. The bud a is a mass of decay within; the stamens have been devoured and the larve already have begun to burrow about the base; 6 shows a bud that has been severed by the feeding of the larve and unas fallen over under its own weight; and ¢ is the upright stem of the bud, after the essential parts of the bloom have been ruined and have fallen to the ground. Although attack may occur so late in the development of the male bloom that the corolla can unfold, it is more often than not that eggs, or even young larve, can be seen on the inside of the corolla when the flower isin full bloom. The melon fly never attacks the bloom after the corolla has unfolded. INJURY TO NEWLY SET FRUITS. The greatest destruction among fruits usu- ally occurs when they are very young, either before they are fertilized or just after they have set. At this stage of development the young fruits are expanding very rap- idly. Figure 16 shows the damage done to three young pumpkin fruits. About the damaged areas calluses are formed by the fruit ~ in an attempt to repair the damage, but this attempt seldom THE MELON FLY. 15 prevents secondary decays from starting, and these bring about the destruction of such portions as escape the larve. The sectioned pumpkin in figure 17 shows how a colony of larvee may eat into a young fruit, become full grown, and leave it without causing a com- plete destruction. It also shows how smaller, weaker colonies may develop in the outer portion of the pulp. INJURY TO OTHER FRUITS. Complete destruction of fruits by larve of the melon fly rarely occurs after they have become 4 to 5 inches in diameter, for then Fie. 14.—Buds of male flowers of pumpkin damaged by larvee of melon fly, a, b, and ¢ representing various stages in the destruction of the bloom. (Authors’ illustration.) the portion of the fruit containing the seeds, or the part preferred by the larvee, is well protected by the outer meaty pulp and by the rind. Such colonies of larve as are then able to become established in pumpkins and squashes usually develop in the outer portions of the fruit and do not penetrate to the center. In cantaloupes, water- melons, cucumbers, and marrows, however, the larve more easily may work their way down to the softer, central portions and there com- plete their development, while the outer portion of the fruit remains quite firm. Figure 19 (p. 20) shows the cross section of a water- ‘melon that had the general external appearance of being sound. 7 16 BULLETIN 643, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Yet, when cut open, it was found that its center had been eaten away entirely and the well-grown larve had made tunnels, shown some- what reduced, throughout the rind. Numerous similar examples of destruction might be described. But it is important to remember the fact that melon-fly attack upon the older fruits is far more likely, except in the case of the canta- loupe. cucumber, and tomato, to result in larval development in open surface wounds and in deformities. One of the squashes of figure 21, the cu- cumbers of figure 18, and the watermelon of figure 20 illustrate types of deformities very common in Ha- wali. Wherever the fruits have been only slightly damaged by melon-fly attack, de- formities result. It is seldom that a per- fectly formed cucur- bit is seen in the markets of Honolulu unless the fruit was grown under protec-— tive coverings. Al- though deformities do not completely ruin the fruit, they Fic. 15.—Section of watermelon vine, showing two fruits so devoured by larve of the melon fly that they have fs become mummified during dry weather following attack. restrict development Note that the remains of the blossom still persist. (Authors’ illustration.) and prevent the fruit F from reaching its normal size, as illustrated by the unaffected squash and the badly deformed squash of figure 21 (p. 22). Cucumbers and watermelons © so badly deformed as those shown in figures 18 and 20 are not salable, ~ even though they contain no larve. The purchaser of fruit has _ learned from experience that deformed cucumbers must be viewed | with suspicion, for, although they may be fit for the table, they may contain maggots. | The food or host plants of the melon fly may be divided into those preferred and those occasionally infested and may be listed as” follows: FOOD OR HOST PLANTS. THE MELON FLY. 17 - CULTIVATED. Preferred. 1. Cantaloupe. 6. Chinese cucumber 10. Tomato. 2. Watermelon. ‘(Momordica sp.). 11. String beans. 3. Pumpkin. 7. Chinese melon. 12. Cowpeas. 4, Squash. S. Chayote. 5. Gourds. 9. Cucumber. Occasionally infested. 1. Eggplant. 3. Orange. 6. Peach. 2. Water lemon (Passi- 4. Fig. 7. Mango. flora sp.). 5. Papaya. 8. Citrullus (Java). WILD. 1. Sycos sp. 2. Momordica sp. Erroneously recorded host fruits. 1. Kohlrabi. 2. Cabbage. 3. Peppers. CUCURBITACEOUS PLANTS. All the cucurbitaceous plants are subject to severe infestation, particularly of the young fruits: Cantaloupes are the most susceptible, since the vines as well as the fruit are attacked badly at all stages of growth, and the fruits do not appear to develop the resistance to attack found among the older watermelons, pump- kins, and squashes. Ordi- narily the cucumber is resistant to attack when very young, although it is rare that cucumbers of- fered for sale in Honolulu do not show some evidence of attack, even when very carefully collected. Cantaloupes and cucum- bers may be used success- fully by the female fly for egg laying up to the time Fic. 16.—Various deformities of very young pump- kins caused by infestations started before or just after fertilization of the ovary. These fruits per- sist for a time, owing to calluses developing about points of attack, but they never reach a much larger size and are ultimately destroyed by fungi and secondary attack. (Authors’ illustration.) ; 4 i i t a aed rm ERE— ES 18 BULLETIN 643, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. they are ready for market. Although cantaloupe growing has been abandoned practically in Hawaii since the advent of the melon fly, cucumbers are grown without protection of any sort. Practically all fruits reaching a size fit for salad use show evidences of attack at one Fic. 17.—Cross section of young pumpkin, showing work of larvz of melon fiy. Each affected area represents the location of a colony of larve. (Authors’ illus- tration.) or more spots, but the percentage of fruits rendered un- marketable is not large enough to force the oriental growers to cover. the young fruits, although it would appear disastrously large to American market gardeners, who place a high value on their time. During midwinter 150 out of 153 cu- cumbers, ready for the market at Moi- lili, were found in- fested variously. All cucurbits grow with such rapidity in Hawaii that the oriental is willing to permit the pest to destroy fully 50 per cent of the fruits rather than go to the expense of covering each fruit as soon as or before it sets. To prevent wholesale in- jury, all cucurbits except cucumbers must be covered be- fore or just after blooming. Aside from the fact that the seedlings and vines of all cucurbits except canta- loupe and watermelon are attacked but slightly, there is little differ- ence in the susceptibility to attack of the young fruits under Oe ee THE MELON FLY. 19 Hawaiian conditions. Inasmuch as the fly has been permitted to increase unchecked since its introduction, it has become so abundant that slight differences in inherent resistance to attack are not evident Fic. 18.—Damage to cucumbers by larve of melon fly. (Authors’ illustration.) among host fruits growing in the field. The infestation is ex- cessive in all unprotected fruits. If by chance pumpkins, squashes, and watermelons escape infestation until they are from 4 to 6 inches i. 20 BULLETIN 643, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in diameter they may reach maturity, although before they reach — maturity pumpkins and squashes may support numerous colonies of — larvee in open surface wounds and become badly deformed. Out of 254 nearly full-grown pumpkins growing at Kahuku during the winter months, 250 were found variously deformed. As many as 650 adults have been reared from a pumpkin not more than 4 inches long; the staminate bloom while still a bud may support as many as 387 well-grown larve. TOMATOES. Tomatoes are very susceptible to attack. All tomatoes offered for sale in Honolulu are likely to be infested, as shown by the reports of Fic. 19.—Cross section of young watermelon, showing destruction of interior by larve of melon fly. Reduced one-fourth. (Authors’ illustration.) the market fruit-fly inspector covering several months. Fifteen ripe or partly ripe fruits examined at Hauula on March 21, 1915, con- tained eggs or larve. Such severe infestation is so general during the warmer months that data are superfluous. Under climatic condi- tions less favorable for the increase of the melon fly the tomato probably would be found to be less susceptible to attack than cucur- bitaceous crops. The fruits of the small wild tomatoes and the spiny yellow-fruited Solanum, common in Hawaii, all are found growing about fields of cucurbitaceous crops, but never yet have been found infested. During January and February fields of tomatoes may pro- duce a large percentage of sound fruits, owing to the effect of the THE MELON FLY. 91 cooler weather upon the activities of the fly. Only the fruits of the tomato are subject to attack. STRING BEANS. The ordinary varieties of string beans grown on the mainland as a rule are not infested by the melon fly. Of the variety commonly known as the Yellow Wax bean, 375 pods sufficiently ripe to have turned color were ex- amined at Haleiwa and were found free from attack, although grow- ing close to a field of badly infested pump- kins, in March. Exami- nations of string beans in other localities, par- ticularly about Hono- lulu, indicate that seldom are any of the varieties infested ex- cept the more fleshy, long-podded Chinese variety. This variety may be attacked very badly when grown near other favored host fruits or on land recently cleared of such crops, as illus- trated by figure22. As many as 36 well-grown larvee have been found within a single pod. _Although the Chi- nese variety is the only one at times generally Fic. 20.—Deformed watermelon resulting from late in- and badly affected, festation by larve of melon fiy. (Authors’ illustra- beans of all varieties °°” except the Lima bean should be included in quarantine sts. The Lima bean never has been found infested. Only the pods of beans usually are infested. The larve prefer to feed upon the fleshy por- tions of the pod, but sometimes attack the seeds. In badly infested _ pods, attacked before the seeds are well grown, the larve may eat out the seeds and leave nothing but the outer portion untouched. This also is true of cowpeas. Ly BUI.LETIN 643, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COWPEAS. Although cowpeas are not grown to any great extent in Hawaii, — they are subject to melon-fly attack. Only the pods are affected. As _ many as 37 larvee have been taken from a single pod. When infesta-— tion occurs early the young seeds may be devoured, but attack is cen- tered more often upon the pod itself. Some varieties of cowpeas appear to be less lable than others to attack by the melon fly. | FRUITS AND VEGETABLES THAT ARE SELDOM OR NEVER ATTACKED. Several observers have stated that the melon fly attacks eggplant, bell peppers, cabbage, and kohlrabi. During a period of three years the representatives of the department have not found any of these vegetables af- fected. The Mediter- ranean fruit fly has been found attacking eggplant and bell peppers, but only in small numbers. Even in the laboratory egg- plant was found im- mune to melon-fly attack if the fruits were sound. Adult’ melon flies, however, were reared from fruits first weakened by decays. Adults have been Fic. 21.—Damage to squash by larve of melon fly. Of the reared from orange,. two fruits illustrated, the one to the right is normal, fi y = mango DApPaVva and the one to the left, the stunted and deformed fruit pga > I v yi ? caused by melon-fly attack. (Authors’ illustration.) peach, apple, and water lemon. These fruits, however, do not serve regularly as hosts of the melon fly. Only in rare instances does the melon fly attack them, and then only slightly. For practical purposes aside from quarantines all the fruits and vegetables listed under this subheading are free from attack by the melon fly. INTERESTING FACTS CONCERNING THE ADULT FLY. The most interesting facts about the adult melon fly center about the length of life and the capacity to lay eggs. No flies have been THE MELON FLY. a known to live longer than 44 days without food and water, or longer than 5 days with water but no food. But if they can feed upon plant juices, such as the sap that exudes from cut or broken surfaces of pumpkin vines, cucumber fruits, papayas, etc., or the sap exuding from the breaks made in host plants during egg laying, adults may live many months. One female lived from February 17, 1914, to April 4, 1915, or 134 months. The length of adult life is variable ee Fic. 22.—Destruction of green bean pods by larve of melon fly. In @ and b a por- tion of the pods has been removed to expose larye and their work. In @ are shown four well-grown larve. Pods in different stages of drying out after the larve have left them are shown in ec and d. (Authors’ illustration.) under like conditions. From the standpoint of longevity the chief interest centers about the fact that certain adults may live long periods and thus keep the pest alive during seasons when host fruits are not in season. Female flies may begin to lay eggs as soon as 14 days after they emerge from the pupa during the warmer months, when the mean temperatures range from 75° to 79° F. During the winter, at a mean 4 24 BULLETIN 643, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of about 71° F., many adults may not lay until 44 days after emer- © gence. The season of the year and the nature of their food have an influence upon the rapidity with which eggs are formed. But once the female fly begins to lay eggs, she may continue to do | so throughout life. The largest number of eggs laid by any female in confinement is 687, but 1,000 probably may be laid by vigorous long-lived flies. While 37 is the largest number of eggs laid by a single individual during any one day, the number varies, and may — be as few as 1. On many days no eggs are laid. Unlike the female of the Mediterranean fruit fly, which lays a few eggs almost daily, the female melon fly lays more eggs per day, but at greater intervals. Thus one fly deposited i4, 19, 13, 29, 16, 19, 16, 12, 17, 7, 9, 16, 7, 12, 37, 25, 24, 21, 28, 6, and 18 eggs, respectively, per day during the first three months (summer months) after depositing her first eggs; she laid no eggs in fruits until she was 51 days old, and, after she began laying, laid eggs on only 21 out of 90 days. During the seventh, eighth, and ninth months of her life (winter months) she deposited 10, 2, 18, 14, 15, 20, 13, 9, and 3 eggs. Female flies can resume normal egg laying after periods of scarcity of host fruits. Females that have not been given an opportunity to lay eggs within fruits for periods ranging from 3 to 9 months after emergence have begun to deposit eggs at a normal rate as soon as fruits were placed with them in the laboratory rearing cages. WHY THE MELON FLY IS A SERIOUS PEST. The melon fly is a serious pest in Hawaii because it finds in the — coastal areas a favorable climate and plenty of food. Regardless of © the great discouragement due to its ravages, the oriental market — gardeners, and others to a less extent, plant its host vegetation in — rotation on the same or neighboring plats of ground. No attempt is made to prevent the flies from maturing in infested fruits. The de- caying and infested fruits of the cucumber crop, for instance, are — left on the field that is to be planted to tomatoes, or the flies develop- — ing from the cucumbers migrate to attack the melons just coming . 5 q into bearing in the near-by field. No system of control, aside from — covering successfully a small portion of the fruit that sets, is prac- ticed. It thus happens that large numbers of adults mature, and, as the ~ climate is favorable, they multiply rapidly. During the warmest — Hawaiian weather, when the mean temperature averages about 79° — F., the egg, larva, and pupa stages may be passed in as few as 12 or as many as 29 days, according to the individual and its host. The complete life cycle is subject to great variation, according to the — THE MELON FLY. 25 longevity of the adult. Since one female fly has been known to live 431 days, it is evident that the complete life cycle from the laying of the egg to the death of the fly may be 443 to 460 days when the im- mature stages are passed during the warmer portions of the year. At an average mean temperature of about 68° F., which is the coolest temperature found in Hawaii where fruits are available in numbers for study, the immature stages are passed in 40 to 45 days. It is difficult to state just what the variation in the life cycle may be in colder climates, but it may range between 3 and 4 months. This rapidity of increase throughout the coastal regions permits from 8 to 11 generations of the melon fly a year, W hen a generation is considered to extend from the time the egg is laid until the female of the next generation begins to deposit eggs. As the females are capable of living many Gnomihe and of dle nostitine egos at frequent intervals ‘inorehamn life, the generations become hopelessly mixed. It is possible for a female ovipositing on January 1 to be still alive and laying eggs the following January along with the progeny of 11 generations of her descendants. It is, therefore, small wonder that the melon fly, under such favorable conditions, swarms through- out the market gardens of Hawaii and leaves little unaffected that is not protected by man. CONTROL MEASURES. NATURAL CONTROL. No agencies at present are working in the Hawaiian Islands to bring about, even periodically, a very large natural reduction in the abundance of melon flies. The mortality among the immature stages, or among the adults, is not sufficiently high to be of practical value, although sometimes 90 per cent of the larvee may be found dead 1 in certain decaying fruits. In climates colder than that of the Hawaiian coastal areas mor- tality due to cold temperatures will play a particularly active part in reducing the pest. While the cooler weather of the winter months does prolong the period of development throughout the coastal re- gions, the long life of the adult flies and the capacity of females for continued egg-laying make it difficult for market gardeners to benefit to any marked extent from the effects of cool weather if they allow their fruits to remain unprotected. The cooler weather in the more isolated gardens holds down the number of adults and limits their activity to a fewer hours during the day when it is warm enough for them to attack fruits, and in this way makes possible greater success in saving fruits by the use of various protective coverings than fol- lows the use of the same measures during the summer months. 26 BULLETIN 643, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PARASITES. Hawaii has no native parasites that attack the melon fly, but the Hawaiian Board of Agriculture and Forestry has introduced a para- site from India. This parasite * was introduced at Honolulu during the early part of 1916, and has been reared and distributed in large ~ numbers, but it is not known yet whether it will check the ravages of — the melon fly in a practical manner. It has become established, how- ever, and promises to be useful. ARTIFICIAL CONTROL. Individual growers of vegetables in Hawaii are likely to be dis- couraged in the application of remedial measures for the control of the melon fly. Host fruits are grown in rotation in the numerous garden spots and market-garden areas chiefly by uneducated orien- tals, who do not appreciate the necessity for a united fight against the fly. The usual custom among these laborers is to permit infested fruits to decay in the field. In certain uncultivated areas the wild — Sycos and Chinese cucumbers run wild and furnish fruits in which © the melon fiy can breed throughout the year, even though no culti- vated crops are grown. This abundance of cultivated and wild host fruits, coupled with a climate favorable for rapid multiplication, produces many adult flies which spread in all directions to render valueless all remedial measures except those that involve protective coverings for the fruits. It thus happens that no artificial control measures have been — applied successfully in controlling the melon fly under Hawaiian conditions. The only means now employed to safeguard fruits is that of protecting the young fruits with some type of covering until they are large enough to withstand attack. Trapping adults has proved a failure, and killing them by spraying thus far has given poor results. If all growers would cooperate systematically (1) in the destruction of the-eggs and larve by submerging infested fruits in water or by boiling and (2) in the destruction of the adults by © spraying, the value of spraying with a poisoned bait and of covering the young fruits would be enhanced to a point where either might be sufficiently effective to be recommended as satisfactory. But so long as the cultivation of host plants is largely in the hands of ~ orientals and others who do not appear to be amenable to instruc- tion as modified by western standards, no relief can be expected. SPRAYING. Since adult melon flies do not deposit eggs for 2 to 4 weeks after emergence during the summer, and only after relatively longer periods 1 Opius fletcheri Silv. THE MELON FLY. i during the winter, but feed continuously throughout this period, it is evident that any spray that will kill them before they begin to lay eggs is valuable. A poisoned-bait spray, containing 5 ounces of lead arsenate in paste form, 24 pounds of brown sugar, and 5 gallons of water, is very effective in killing adults. This spray, used at the rate of 30 gallons to the acre, was applied by means of a knapsack sprayer. About 2 acres of Chinese melons and cucumbers in a field fairly well isolated, from the Hawaiian standpoint, which means that ro host fruits were growing within 500 yards, were sprayed on May 21, 26, and 28, June 1, 4, 8, 14, and 23 during typical summer weather. Six hours after an application many adults were sluggish and flew with difficulty, but within 24 hours many dead adults could be found among the vines. Although the adults were lessened nu- merically by the spray, the young fruits were punctured as badly at the end of the experiment as at the beginning. Although negative results have followed the use of poisoned-bait sprays in Hawaii, failure has been due to the peculiar conditions sur- rounding the fields sprayed that permit an influx of female flies. Under commercial conditions, where cantaloupes, pumpkins, and watermelons are grown in large quantities in fairly dry climates, it is reasonable to believe that sufficiently good results will follow the use of poisoned sprays to make their application practicable as a method of control. DESTRUCTION OF INFESTED FRUITS. Larve and eggs may be killed by submerging the infested por- tions of the plant in water, or by burying, boiling, or burning. Choice of method will depend largely upon the amount of fruit to be handled and upon local conditions. There is no surer way to kill all immature stages than to boil or burn the fruits. Burning is often expensive, and, when trash in compost holes is depended upon to furnish the fuel, is likely to be unsatisfactory, particularly where, as in Honolulu, the quantity of infested material is so great. Bringing infested fruits to the boiling point will kill all forms. The sub- merging of fruits in ordinary tap water for five days will either Kill all larvee and eggs or stop further development. Burial in soil is a satisfactory method, provided the fruits are buried deep enough and cracks are prevented from developing in the earth above the fruits as the latter decay and settle. It must be remembered that just after transforming from the pupa the adults are so soft that they can force their way through very small openings. A crack in the soil extending down to the fruit, even though it be no wider than ordinary blotting paper, is still wide enough to allow the adults to reach the surface and thwart the pur- pose of fruit burial. Adults can not make their way through a foot 28 BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of well-tamped soil, but have been known to force their way through ~ 2 to 3 feet of dry loose sand beneath which their pupe had been — buried. Because burial and burning may be left to subordinates who may not have the interests of the owner so much at heart, boiling or sub- mergence in water is more highly recommended. The larve will not injure cattle if the fruits are used as feed, but many larve may escape before they are eaten; hence this method of destruction is not recommended unless the fruits have a real value as a food. PROTECTIVE COVERINGS. The protection of fruits and plants by covering with soil, paper, or cloth is a great labor-consuming operation, yet this is the only method that will protect under present Hawaiian conditions. Even Fic. 23.—Protecting cucurbits from attack by melon flies. Each fruit (in this case of Momordica sp.) is placed, immediately after it has been fertilized, within a long - envelope made of newspaper. (Authors’ illustration.) as practiced to-day, less than 25 per cent of all fruits covered, except certain Chinese marrows, are actually saved from attack. In a slightly cooler climate than that of coastal Hawaii a high percentage of the fruits could be saved. As it is, the great attraction of the un- fertilized ovaries of the bloom makes it difficult to put on coverings before the flowers are infested. During the warmer portions of the year the bloom of cucurbits, with the exception of the cucumber, should be protected at least three to four days before the flower unfolds. At present many fruits are covered, but rather indifferently and ineffectively. During April only 9 out of 48 fruits of the Chinese melon that had been covered were sound, while on the same date 119 7 THE MELON FLY. 29 out of 692 young protected watermelons were actually free from in- festation. Certain Japanese growers ward off attack by burying the young fruits in the soil or by surrounding them with straw or trash until they are sufficiently old to withstand fatal attack. In certain light soils cantaloupes are kept buried in the soil until they are ripe and they appear upon the market almost white in color. The most suc- cessful of protective coverings are those shown in figure 24. In this case the Momordica vines are grown over bushes, hence the young fruits can be found easily and inclosed in long cases made from newspapers and resembling envelopes cut across at both ends. These eases are left open at the lower end, but are never entered by the adult flies. MEASURES TAKEN TO KEEP THE FRUIT FLIES OF HAWAII FROM GAINING A FOOTHOLD IN CONTINENTAL UNITED STATES. The Federal Horticultural Board, by means of its Quarantine No. 18, entitled “ Mediterranean Fruit Fly and Melon Fly,” issued March 23, 1914, is doing all that man can do to prevent the two fruit-fly pests of Hawaii from becoming introduced into main- land United States. The regulations of the quarantine practically have put a stop to the movement of fruits and vegetables from Hawaii. Certain fruits and vegetables, however, such as bananas of the noncooking type, pineapples, taro, and coconuts, and others, when it can be shown to the satisfaction of the Department of Agri- culture that in the form in which they are to be shipped they are not and can not be a means of conveying either the Mediterranean fruit fly or the melon fly, may be moved or allowed to move from Hawaii into or through any other State, Territory, or District of the United States when they have been inspected by the United States Department of Agriculture, certified to be free from infesta- tation, and marked in compliance with the regulations. Pineapples, taro, and coconuts do not support the fruit flies of Hawaii, neither do bananas when shipped according to trade requirements. In prac- tice the quarantine eliminates all shipments of fruit except the four just mentioned, and of these pineapples and bananas only are regu- larly shipped. The enforcement of the quarantine is divided between the repre- sentative of the board in Hawaii and those at the ports of entry to the mainland, notably San Francisco, San Pedro, and Seattle. In Hawaii it is the duty of the inspector to see that the fruit is grown under conditions reasonably sanitary from a fruit-fly standpoint, that each package or bundle offered for shipment is inspected and bears a certificate to that effect, and that transporting companies do not re- 30 . BULLETIN 643, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ceive for shipment consignments of fruit unless they have received from the Federal Horticultural Board a permit for such action. These permits, which give data on the kind, amount, and origin of fruit, the name and address of consignor and consignee, and dates, are issued in triplicate; the duplicate and triplicate remain: in the files of the transporting company and the Federal Horticultural ‘Board, respectively. The original is attached to the bill of lading accompanying the shipment and no consignment of fruit is permitted to leave the ship at the port of destination unless this permit is pre- sented to the Federal inspector. The duty of the inspector at the mainland ports is to make certain that no express or freight consignments leave ships arriving from Hawaii unaccompanied by the permit above mentioned, and that no quarantined fruits or vegetables are present either in the ship’s lock- ers as ships’ stores or in the possession of passengers, for all such are contraband after the ship passes within the 3-mile limit of the main- land. The inspector of the port of entry also must receive from each passenger a statement that he has in his baggage no contraband fruits or vegetables. Inspectors also have the right to search the personal belongings of passengers and members of the crew. There seems little danger of fruit-fly pests reaching ihe mainland from Hawaii in commercial consignments of fruit since Quarantine No. 13 went into effect. The greatest danger at present lies in the careless introduction of the pests by uninformed travelers who, with- out appreciating the great financial losses the’ Government is attempt- ing to avert, persist in concealing about their persons and baggage contraband fruits, or in sending these by express or post in packages the contents of which are not stated truthfully. These are the ave- nues of introduction that no law can close thoroughly. To close them, honesty and cooperation with the Federal Horticultural Board on the part of all are necessary. SUMMARY. The melon fly, a native of the Indo-Malayan region, is one of a number of very destructive pests that are likely to be introduced into the mainland United States. The quarantine officers of the Federal Horticultural Board and of California are each year intercepting it in infested fruits at California ports on ships from the Hawaiian Islands. The melon fly was introduced into Hawaii about 1895 by Japanese immigrants in fruits which they brought with them as food from Japan. Before its arrival in Hawaii, cantaloupes, watermelons, toma- toes, and all kinds of cucurbitaceous crops, such as pumpkins, squashes, cucumbers, etc., were grown in large quantities and were THE MELON FLY. . 31 cheap. They could be grown in every dooryard. Because of the ravages of the pest, these crops can not be grown now by the average person, and only with great difficulty in market gardens. Many fruits must be imported, and the cost of all has been increased as a result of melon-fly attack. ven cowpeas and string beans may be infested. It is impossible to overstate the destructiveness of the melon fly to cucurbitaceous crops under Hawaiian coastal conditions, where none of these can be brought to maturity except with the exercise of the greatest care on the part of market gardeners. Since there are as many as 8 to 11 generations of the melon fly a year, and the female flies may live to be over a year old and lay eggs throughout life, the pest can multiply very rapidly. No agencies have been found to.be working at present in: Hawaii that bring about, even periodically, a great natural reduction in the abundance of melon flies. No native parasites are known to attack the melon fly, but it is hoped that the parasite introduced from India during 1916 may prove effective. In colder climates cold weather will prove a marked and valuable control factor. Predacious enemies and several forms of mortality recorded are of no practical value under Hawaiian conditions. No satisfactory artificial measures have been applied’ successfully in combating the melon fly under Hawaiian conditions. Poisoned- bait sprays promise to yield effective results under other cultural con- ditions. In Hawaii these sprays would be effective if they were used consistently and universally, but they are not. At present cucurbits can be grown only by the use’ of coverings of various sorts for the protection of the very young fruit. Killing the immature stages by submergence in water, by burial in soil, or by boiling are not applied as methods of control, although they are effective when intelligently applied. Artificial methods of control are not likely to prove satis- factory in Hawaii so long as the growing of the chief host plants remains in the hands of uneducated oriental laborers who do not practice clean cultural methods or cooperate in applying remedial measures. q PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS AND OTHER SUBTROPICAL FRUITS. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Control of the Citrus Thrips in California and Arizona. (Farmers’ Bulletin 674.) Carbon Disulphid as an Insecticide. (Farmers’ Bulletin 799.) Common Mealybug and its Control in California. (Farmers’ Bulletin 862.) Fumigation of Ornamental Greenhouse Plants with Hydrocyanic-acid Gas. (Farmers’ Bulletin 880. ) Fumigation of Citrus Trees. (Farmers’ Bulletin 923.) Control of the Argentine Ant in Orange Groves. (Farmers’ Bulletin 928.) Spraying for the Control of Insects and Mites Attacking Citrus Trees in Florida. (Farmers’ Bulletin 933.) Citrus Fruit Insects in Mediterranean Countries. (Department Bulletin 134.) The Mediterranean Fruit Fly in Berfnuda. (Department Bulletin 161.) Argentine Ant: Distribution and Control in the United States. (Department Bulletin 377.) The Citrus Thrips. (Department Bulletin 616.) The Mediterranean Fruit Fly. (Department Buleltin 640.) Some Reasons for Spraying to Control Insect and Mite Enemies of Citrus Trees in Florida. (Department Bulletin 645.) The Argentine Ant in Relation to Citrus Orchards. (Department Bulletin 647.) Preparations for Winter Fumigation for Citrus White Fly. (Entomology Circular 111.) Spraying for White Flies in Florida. (Entomology Circular 168.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF Eee ee GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. Katydids Injurious to Oranges in California. (Department Bulletin 256.) Price, 10 cents. The Melon Fly in Hawaii. (Department Bulletin 491.) Price, 25 cents. Fumigation of Ornamental Greenhouse Plants with Hydrocyanic-acid Gas. (Department Bulletin 513.) Price, 5 cents. Mango Weevil. (Entomology Circular 141.) 1911. Price, 5 cents. Fumigation for Citrus White Fly, as Adapted to Florida Conditions. (Ento- mology Bulletin 76.) 1908. Price, 15 cents. Fumigation Investigations in California. (Entomology Bulletin 79.) 1909. Price, 15 cents. Hydrocyanic-acid Gas Fumigation in California. (Entomology Bulletin 90, 3 pts.) 1913. Price, 20 cents. Fumigation of Citrus Trees. (Entomology Bulletin 90, pt. I.) 1913. Price, 20 cents. Value of Sodium Cyanid for Fumigation Purposes. (Entomology Bulletin 90, pt. II.) 1913. Price, 5 cents. Chemistry of Fumigation with Hydrocyanic-acid Gas. (Entomology Bulletin - 90, pt. TIL.) 1913: Price, 5 cents: White Flies Injurious to Citrus in Florida. (Entomology Bulletin 92.) 1911. Price, 25 cents. Orange Thrips, Report of Progress. (Entomology Bulletin 99, pt. I.) 1911. Price, 5 cents. Red-banded Thrips. (Entomology Bulletin 99, pt. II.) 1912. Price, 5 cents, Natural Control of White Flies in Florida. (Entomology Bulletin 102.) 1912. Price, 20 cents. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT i0 CENTS PER COPY Vv 32 BULLETIN No. 644 ¥ aN Contributien from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM.-A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 18, 1918 LINT PERCENTAGE AND LINT INDEX OF COT- TON AND METHODS OF DETERMINATION. By G. S. Metoy, Assistant, Crop Acclimatization and Cotton Breeding. CONTENTS. Pace. Page. Relation oflint percentagesto lint indexes. .-- 1 | Improved methods fer obtaining lint per- NEI OCSCOALISeSeESs ene sauine jocce os as eae 2 GEBUIS Sar yee Sere ey a Sain a ar ey cd BS 8 NRE OKES Mera eae leiseies vats sicrsleeieitietey= aie se 2 | Advantages of using samples cf standard Illustrations of the relation between lint per- WEIS Nj Boe ee C OA an ON ea keane 10 CeaLageanaelin tin dexter 5 ae eens 3 | Methods of calculating lint incexes and seed Lint index determines the number cf bolls to AWTS aU Sees eee yee Bae pea aerate eee A ae 10 Ene Moun dloMmipereseeneerer sce see eee ae 5 | Number of seeds in a standard sample én in- » Relation of the lint index to the cost of pick- GicatlOMOMiMellySise hee sates eee een 10 TIESTO ea ey Ain Si ag Wa 5 | Planters can estimate the lint index......-.- 11 Increasing the lint pezcentare dces nct alter SUMMA BY i ee Soe oet oo eee cee ee eee ees 11 the cost of producticn if the lint index re- TRRMOS COME TEN oee Se socecneacgeacasecooosar 8 | RELATION OF LINT PERCENTAGES TO LINT INDEXES. The danger of reducing the vitality and earliness of cotton vari- eties and of breeding varieties with undesirable characters by over- emphasizing the percentage of lint ‘as a measure of their compara- tive values was pointed out in 1908 by Mr. O. F. Cook.? It was sug- gested that the weight of the lint or fiber ginned from 100 seeds, in- stead of the lint percentage alone, be used as an additional standard for judging varieties. This standard of comparison was called the lint index. Subsequent experience has not only demonstrated the desirability of using this standard, but has led to the development of improved methods and devices for determining both the lint index and the lint percentage in experimental samples of seed cotton with which breeders have to work. 1Cook, O. F. Danger in judging cotton varieties by lint percentages. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Cir. 11, 16 p. 1908. 21683°—18—Bull, 644 2) BULLETIN 644, U.,\S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. That a clearer understanding may be had of the relations between lint percentages and lint indexes in cotton varieties, as discussed in this paper, a brief definition of each is included, together with a word as to the adoption of these measures of cotton values. LINT PERCENTAGES. The percentage of lint, or lint per cent, as it is generally termed, is the relation between the weight of the fiber and the weight of the seeds from which the fiber is obtained in the process of ginning and is expressed as a percentage of the unginned seed cotton. A decrease in the weight of the seeds without a corresponding decrease in the weight of the fiber would alter this relation in the direction of in- creasing the percentage of lint. Conversely, an increase in the weight of the seeds without change in the weight of the fiber would result in a reduction in the percentage of lint. The first commercial use of the percentage of lint was made by early operators of gins, who purchased cotton in the seed, ginned it, and resold the products. In those days, when the seed was consid- ered a waste product, it was of especial importance to these gin oper- ators to know the ultimate value of the seed cotton they purchased. The amount of fiber they might secure from a given weight of seed cotton, or the lint percentage, was the basis of such purchases. The emphasis laid upon the percentage of lint by these buyers of seed cotton naturally led to the belief among the growers that it was the chief factor or measure of value of varieties. To-day this relic of an admittedly bad method of selling cotton? is still accepted with- out question or apparent examination by planters and also by many of the breeders of cotton. The result is that inferior and unproduc- tive varieties frequently have been planted merely because their lint percentages are high, while varieties that are superior both in pro- ductiveness and in quality of fiber have been rejected because their percentages of lint are considered low. LINT INDEXES. The lint index is the weight in grams of the fiber produced by 100 seeds and may be said to be a measure of the abundance of the fiber rather than a measure of the relation between the weight of the fiber and the weight of the seed, as is the percentage of lint. Through years of association, the general cotton-growing public has come to consider a lint percentage of 334 a basis of credit for a variety of cotton. So, in time, breeders may determine a basic lint 1 Creswell. C. F. Disadvantages of selling cotton in the seed. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 375, 18 p. 1916. Losses from selling cotton in the seed. U. S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 775. 8 p. 1916. LINT PERCENTAGE AND LINT INDEX OF COTTON. 3 index, a departure from which will be considered an indication of either merit or demerit for a variety. The better varieties of Upland long-staple cottons have been found thus far to have a lint index of 5 to 6, and the better varieties of Upland short staples a lint index of 7to 8. Varieties have been examined which were found to have a lint index as low as 4, and one variety was seen with a lint index of 9.50. In order to facilitate the finding of lint indexes Table I has been prepared, in which the lint indexes, corresponding with various weights of seed and percentages of lint, are given. This table prob- ably covers the range of commercial varieties. In using it the per- centage of lint and the weight of 100 seeds of the variety or selection are first ascertained; then the lint index may be found in the column under the lint percentage, opposite the weight of the seeds. For example, a variety in which the seeds weigh 12 grams per hundred and which gins 35 per cent of lint will have a lint index of 6.46; that is, the lint ginned from 100 seeds will weigh 6.46 grams. TapLE 1.—Lint index of a sample of cotton when the weight of 100 seeds and the percentage of lint are known. [Formula: Weight of seed + percentage cf seed X percentage of lint = lint index.] Percentage of lint. ~ Weight of 100 ginned seeds. | | | | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 | 85 | 36 | 37 | 388 | 39 | 40 | 41 | 42 | In-| In- ie In-| In- | In-| In-\ In- | In-| In-| In- | In-| In-| In-| In- | In- | In- | In- lex. |dex.\dcx. dex.| dcx. \der.|dex.| dex. |dex.|dex.|dex. |\dex.|dex.|dex.| dex. | dex. | dex. det. eQloramis!2 se sesss5<- 2. 00/2. 10|2. 24 2. 33|2. 45)2. 57.2. 69|2. 82/2. 95/3. 09/3. 23/3. 37/3. 52/3. 68] 3.83] 4.00] 4.16] 4.34 FmOISTATISS Sse see Sens 2 2. 16)2. 28/2. 40 2. 53}2. 65/2. 78 2. 92/3. 06/3. 20)3. 35/3. 50/8. 65 3. 81/3. 98) 4. 15) 4.33) 4.51) 4. 71 MOWSTAMS.. 250050552 = 2. 33/2. 46)2. aly 72|2. 86|3. 003. 14/3. 29|3. 45)3. 61/3. 77/3. 94/4. 11/4. 29] 4.47) 4.67) 4.86] 5.07 BO STAIIS So Jae as == 5 2. 50|2. 63 2.77 2. 92/3. 06)3. 21 3. 36/3. 53|3. 69/3. 864. 02/4. 21'4. 40/4. 60} 4. 80) 5.00] 5. 2°] 5. 44 POjeTAMs. 222. .5500. 2 2. 66/2. 81 2. 96 3. 11,3. 27)3. 43 3. 59)3. 76 3. 94/4. 12 4. 31/4. 50 4. 69/4. 91) 5.11] 5.33] 5.56] 5.80 G20 TANS... .2.cece2-| 2. 83/2. 98 3. ak 30/3. 47/3. 64/3. 82/4. 00 4. 19/4. 38/4. 58/4. 78/4. 99|5. 21) 5.44) 5.67] 5.91] 6.15 9.0 grams........-...) 3. 00/3. 16 3. 32 3. 50'3. 67/3. 85/4. 04/4. 23 4. 43/4. 63/4. 85/5. 06/5. 28/5. 52) 5. 75] 6.00} 6. 25] 6.52 SP ISTAITIG HS) aera nee 3. 16'3. 33 3. 51 3. 69 3. 88}4. 07/4. 27/4. 47 4. 68/4. 90 5. 11|5. 34/5. 58/5. 82) 6.08] 6.34] 6.6L] 6.88 MOferamsts eT Sees |3. 33/3. 51 3. 69/3. 89)4. 08/4. 28/4. 49/4. 71 4. 92/5. 15/5. 39/5. 62/5. 87/6. 13) 6.39] 6.67] 6.95) 7. 24 10.5 grams.......-..-/3.50/3. 69 3. 88/4. 08/4. 28/4. 50/4. 71/4. 94 5. 18)5. 41/5. 65)5. 91/6. 17/6. 43} 6.71] 7.00) 7.3C] 7.60 EO Sram Sees see ecee 3. 67|3. 86 4. 07/4. 28/4. 49]4. 71/4. 95)5. 18 5. 4215. 67/5. 93/6. 18/6. 45/6. 75| 7.03] 7.35] 7.65| 7.98 MR OVSTAMIS: oe. a5 38. 83/4. 02,4. 25/4. 47/4. 69/4. 93/5. 17|5. 41 5. 67/5. 92/6. 19/6. 48/6. 76)7. 05) 7.36] 7.68] 8.0L} 8, 33 D2 Oleramse. 2225... 4, 00/4. 21/4. 4314. 67/4. 9015. 14/5. 3815. 64 5. 9116. 17/6. 4616. 75)7. 0517. 35| 7.67) 8.00) 8.341 8.68 IV) GNIS asode sono 4.16 4. 39 4. 62/4. 865. 11 5. 36/5. 62/5. 88 6. 16 6. 48)6. 74 7. 03/7. 33,7. 67) 8.00 8.34) 8. 63) 9.05 120 SRN So sceeocoe 4, 33 4. 58i4. 81/5. 05|5. ae 57|5. 84/6. 11 6. 41/6. 71/7. als 30|7. 63|7.97| 8.35, 8.66) 9.04 9.40 WSLONPLAINS Soe cc oe 4.50 4. 74/5. 0015. 23/5. 515. 77/6. un 35 6. 65/6. 95)7. 26/7. 59/7. adit 27| 8.62) 9.00] 9.37) 9.77 14.0 grams........... 4.68 4. 91/5. 17/5. 45 5. 71 6. 00/6. 29 6. 58/6. 89)7. 21/7. 54/7. 88/8. 22/8. 58) 8.94) 9.35] 9.73 10. 01 APOE TAINS So. cla lralasl 4, 83.5, 10/5. 36/5. 53/5. la 21/6, eis §2)7. 13/7. 47|7. 80)8. 15/8. 52/8. 89) 9.26) 9. 65/10. 06/10. 50 | 15.0: grams........... 5. 00 5. 27/5. 55:5. 83 6. 12'6. 43!6. 74 7. 06/7. 38/7. 72/8. 06/8. 43/8. 81/9. 19} 9. 58)10. 00/10. 16)10. 33 po STAM Sys. cers sce 5.17 5. 45 5. 73 6. 03 6. 33 6. 54/6. 97 7. 29/7. 63/7. 97|8. 35/8. 72/9. 10/9. 50) 9. 90)10. 33/10. 76)11. 22 16:0 grams..-.......- Ds 2° 62.5. 92 6. 22/6. eae 86|7. te 52/7. 88/8. 24/8. 61/9. 00/9. 380. 81/10. 22/10. 66)11. 11)11. 57 ILLUSTRATIONS OF THE RELATION BETWEEN LINT PERCENTAGE AND LINT INDEX. A few examples of possible combinations of characters that may be found in varieties, as shown in Table I, are here given to illustrate the relation between lint percentage and lint index. / ‘= rf The lint index given for a seed weight of 13 + 25 per cent is practi- cally identical with that given for a seed weight of 6 + 42 per cent. In each case practically the same quantity of fiber is obtainab‘e from a given number of seeds, although one variety has a lint percentage of 25 and the other 42. Thus it is seen that the larger percentage of lint is due entirely to a decrease in the weight of the seeds without change in the amount of fiber per seed, a striking illustration of the fallacy of basing an opinion as to the value of a variety of cotton on the percentage of lint alone. A high percentage of lint, therefore, does not necessarily mean an abundance of fiber. The fiber is actually less abundant when there is 492 per cent of lint in a variety the seeds of which weigh 8 grams per hundred than when there is 30 per cent of lint in a variety the seeds of which weigh 14 grams per hundred. That the percentage of lint will steadily increase as the size of the seed decreases without altering materially the actual amount of fiber obtainable may be seen if the lint index under a seed weight of 13 + 25 per cent be taken as a base. Approximately the same lint index may be traced diagonally across the table to the lint index under a seed weight of 6 + 42 percent. It can readily be appreciated that this trend represents the possible results of selection based on lint percentages alone. Conversely, an increase in the weight of the seed may reduce the percentage of lint without reducing the actual amount of lint; but unless the reduction in the percentage of lint is proportionate with the increase in the size of the seed the abundance of the lint is also increased, notwithstanding the reduction of the lint percentage. This is in accord with the results obtained by Mr. T. H. Kearney in his work in the acclimatization of Egyptian cotton,! in which he noted that the lint percentages of his best selections were steadily decreasing from year to year below that of the original imported strain, but on ascertaining the lint indexes of the selections and imported stock he found that there was no actual diminution in the quantity of fiber produced. The decrease in the lint percentage was due entirely to an increase in the weight of the seeds. Mr. Kearney concludes: The negative correlation between the characters lint percentage and weight of seeds is sufficiently pronounced to indicate that a high percentage of lint is in large measure associated with low weight of seeds. * * * It might be inferred from these facts that lint percentage can be used with greater safety as an index of productiveness in comparing individual plants of a fairly uniform variety than in comparing different varieties. 4 BULLETIN 644, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. That the percentage of lint of a selection or variety of cotton should be considered only in the light of the lint index is well illus- 1 Kearney, T. H. Lint index and lint percentage in cotton breeding. Jn Ann, Kpt. Amer. Breeders’ Assn., v. 7/8, p. 25-29. 1912. LINT PERCENTAGE AND LINT INDEX OF COTTON. - 5 trated by comparing the lint indexes given with a seed weight of 8.5 under lint percentages 32 and 42. An increase of 10 in the lint per- centage here results in an increase in the lint index or actual quantity of fiber of 4 to 6.15. Practically the same increase in the abundance of fiber would be obtained by increasing the weight of the seeds from 8.5 to 13 grams per hundred, while the percentage of lint remained at 32, or the same result might be secured if the weight of the seeds be ~ increased from 8.5 to 11 grams per hundred and at the same time the percentage of lint be also increased from 32 to 36. LINT INDEX DETERMINES THE NUMBER OF BOLLS TO THE POUND OF FIBER. The average Upland cotton boll usually contains eight or nine seeds per lock. Five-locked bolls will therefore contain 40 to 45 seeds per boll. The number of seeds yielding 1 pound of fiber may be found, after the lint index is known, by dividing the number of grams in 1 pound by the weight of the fiber on one seed, cr cone one- hundredth of the lint index. Roughly, 453 grams equal 1 pound. Therefore, all varieties of cotton that have a lint index of 4 will require 11,235 seeds to produce a pound of fiber. The number of seeds per sort of fiber is constant for every lint index, as indicated by the following formula: 453 = a = number of seeds producing 1 pound of fiber. The lnt index, therefore, determines the number of bolls to the pound of fiber. The number of seeds and of bolls to the pound of fiber computed for different lint indexes is given in Table II. That the differences in the lint indexes are coincident with the variation in the size of the seeds is shown by the weights of the seeds per hundred as given in the lest column, the weights in this ease being based on a percentage of lint of 33. RELATION OF THE LINT INDEX TO THE COST OF PICKING. The number of seeds that must be harvested so that a pound of fiber may be secured is an item of considerable importance in the cost of picking cotton. An indication of the possible reduction in the cost of harvesting resulting from an increase in the lint index may be had from the following examples, taken from Table IT. Tf the weight = the seeds be increased from 8.5 to 11.8 grams per hundred with a constant lint percentage of 33, the lint mice will have been increased from 4.20 to 5.60, an increase of 1.40 grams of fiber per hundred seeds, or 334 per cent. This increase in the amount of fiber will have been secured without changing the percentage of lint, and results in reducing the number of seeds required to produce 1 6 BULLETIN 644, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pound of fiber from 10,785 to 8,089. This reduction of 2,696 seeds is equal to 67 bolls of 40 seeds each, or 60 bolls of 45 seeds each, or an average of 64 bolls, which means a saving of 25 per cent in the number of bolls to be picked. TABLE I1.—Relation of the lint indez.to the number of seeds and of 5-locked bolis required to produce 1 pound of cotton fiber. | | Required to produce 1 pound of fiber. | Average ence in [Weight of aici 100 seeds, the lint of bolls for Number of bolls. Lint index. Number | each a bag ee oin ofseeds. | Rolls of | Bolls of | Average. | ye an being 33. 40 seeds. 2B 45 seeds. index. | | Grams. Ba Stes ets oes eee eee se iat es 11,325 223 251 267 8.1 ADs dds 2352 See ts Bea eae eS 10,785 269 239 254 | 8.5 LEA, RSE ep Ee OE oa pe See 10, 295 207 228 242 | 54 8.9 BG See AI Se Be eT IS Oe a | 9, 847 246 218 232 | 9.3 oa ae ee See ae bi eeu gent eee ), 437 235 209 222 | 9.7 DO S53 san: SEL ee ee eh 9,060 226 201 213 | 10.1 PAs ASR ET ara Be eR OP 2 8,711 217 193 205 | 10.5 SER Tes Sasa OE BSE Ee 8,388 209 , 186 197 | 10.9 ey. Meta eso ue aes tse sy Se Se ees 8, 089 202 | 179 190 36 11.3 iO te Siete i ae See ems as aces ss oie ees ete 7,810 195 173 184 11.8 O50 tenets sae yank ee eee Bh ee 7,500 188 167 177 | 1252) Osis Be ite Sates OES ara Beek ee aN 7,306 182 162 172 12.6 (ie: Ne A ae Ee ais ee 7,078 176 157 | 166 13.0 GiGi oe eh eek ce Jape ec ees ery 6, 864 171 152 161 | 25 13.4 Oprtvmesr cee sre ees Bee eee eee ne ee 6, 661 166 148 157 | 13.8 MOS isa eae Sat os oe Secs Jacob eee eee 6,472 161 143 152 14.2 drakdee sate seem ee et csts eee 6, 291 157 139 148 | 14.6 2 a RE Ay Se oe ae ae 6, 121 153 136 144 15.0 MG Sa eee seme SEES Nees aeeiaee scat 5, 969 149 132 140 19 15.4 i Eo Pe OE eee oe ee bree eee ae aes 5, 807 145 129 137 15.8 BO eee coccs Sota tc oan oe Sanne eee eae 5, 662 141 125 135 16.2 Total reductions due to an increase | of 4 grams in weight of 100 seeds... 5, 653 | 142 126 134 |2J Ae ioe 55! sods Bere | | Increasing the lint index from 4 to 5 reduces the number of seeds to be harvested to secure 1 pound of cotton fiber from 11,325 to 9,060, or from 267 bolls to 213 bolls. Expressed in terms of bolls to be picked, this is an average reduction of 54 bolls per pound of fiber. In other words, a variety with a lint index of 4 will run 25.3 per cent more bolls to the pound of fiber than a variety with a lint index of 5. In terms of labor employed, this means that if two men are picking at the same rate or number of bolls per hour, the one picking in a variety having a lint index of 5 will gather the same quantity of fiber in 8 hours that the other, working in a variety with a lint index of 4, will gather in 10 hours. If a variety having a lint index of 6 be compared with one having a lint index of 4, it will be seen that 90 bolls more, or 50.8 per cent, must be gathered in the smaller seeded variety than in the larger seeded in order to secure a pound of fiber. In the one case the laborer must pick 88,500 bolls, while in the other he must gather some 133,500 bolls to get a bale of lint cotton. We have seen from Table I that the same ', " ‘* LINT PERCENTAGE AND LINT INDEX OF COTTON. a lint index may be found in varieties differing greatly in their percent- ages of lint; in-other words, that the lint index is a measure of the abundance of the lint independent of the percentage of lint. There- fore, the number of bolls necessary to be picked to yield a baie of lint remains constant for each lint index regardless of the percentage of lint. Five-locked bolls to the number of 88,500 will yield a bale of cot- ton in all varieties having a lint index of 6, and 133,500 five-locked bolls will be required in all varieties having a lint index of 4. A variety of cotton which has a lint index of 4 and a lint per- centage of 33 will have seeds weighing 8.1 grams per hundred, or 12.1 grams per hundred unginned seeds. (Table II.) A variety with a lint index of 5 and the same lint percentage will have seeds weighing 10.1 grams per hundred, or 15.1 grams per hundred unginned seeds. Therefore, if the laborers pick at the rate of 1,500 bolls per hour and the average number of seeds is between 40 and 45 to the boll, 1,500 bolls of the variety with the lint index of 4 will weigh 7,713.7 grams, or 17 pounds and 0.09 ounce. Fifteen hundred bolls of the variety with the lint index of 5 will weigh 9,626.2 grams, or 21 pounds and 8.5 ounces, of seed cotton. Thus, there is a difference of 1,912.5 grams, or 4 pounds and 3.4 ounces, per hour, or 24.8 per cent in favor of the variety with the lint index of 5.- In other- words, the man picking in the variety with the lint index of 5 will gather the same quantity of cotton fiber in eight hours that the one working in the variety with the lint index of 4 will gather in 10 hours, and if both men work a full 10 hours, picking the same number of bolls per hour, the one in the variety with the lint index of 5 will have 24.8 per cent. more pounds of seed cotton at the end of the day than the man work- ing in the variety with the lint index of 4, This may account for the fact that pickers often gather more cotton in a day in one man’s field than in another’s, and may also suggest a reason for the other- wise unexplainable aversion which pickers have for some fields. TabLE I1i.—Comparison of two varieties of cotton grown in southern Georgia. lint. Comparison of 5-locked bolls. Number required Number to the to yield one ipOMIES 500-pound bale. Variety. Per Weight Esti- eent- | Index. |Length.| of 10 Per mated age. bolls. plant | percent- Of (at age. seed | Lint. Total. | 10,600 cotton. plants per acre) | Inches. | Grams. AL ekese eee are 36 8.7 ie 109 42 116 | 58,000 5.5} 40to0 45 2D 50 5USeS oR eee a etas 41 6.4 a 72 63 158 | 79,000 7.5| 20t025 8 BULLETIN 644, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. On a recent visit to southern Georgia the writer was asked to com- pare two varieties of cotton growing in the neighborhood, for the benefit of the local cotton farmers. Ten 5-locked bolls of each of the two varieties were secured and examined, with the results shown in Table 111. Variety B was the local favorite, since it had the higher’ percentage of lint. In this section of Georgia, although the smaller farmers pick their own cotton, they had not appreciated the disad- vantages of the variety they were growing, even from the standpoint of the labor of picking. . INCREASING THE LINT PERCENTAGE DOES NOT ALTER THE COST : OF PRODUCTION IF THE LINT INDEX REMAINS CONSTANT. In the case referred to, in which the same lint index was traced through all percentages of lint from 25 to 42, the labor of harvesting the crop and the efficiency of the laborers themselves are the same in each case. For, since the lint index, which determines the number of bolls to the pound of fiber, is constant, the number of seeds and of bolls producing a pound of fiber also remains constant. There is another relation of the lint index which has not been worked out as yet, but which may be suggested here as a possibility. Both Tables I and If show that the higher lint indexes are asso- ciated with the heavier seeds. Heavy seeds have a relatively larger percentage of kernels to hulls than smaller or lighter seeds, and the oil content may be found to be associated also with heavier seeds. IMPROVED METHODS FOR OBTAINING LINT PERCENTAGES. The usual method of obtaining the percentage of lint in cotton varieties is to weigh a random specimen of the seed cotton and gin it; then reweigh the seed, calculate the percentage of seed, and set down the difference as the percentage of lint. Few workers in cot- ton selections weigh the lint after ginning and calculate the per- centage of lint directly. These operations occasion considerable labor and care in making the various records, and, of course, the more numerous the calculations and entries in the records the greater ‘the liability to error. Owing to these and other considerations it has been found advantageous to begin with a standard sample of seed cotton of 100 grams in weight, a method which avoids the necessity for recording the original weight of the specimen. After this stand- ard sample has been ginned the seeds are weighed. Each gram of seed then represents 1 per cent of the original seed cotton. The difference between the weight of the seed and 100 grams is the weight of the lint removed in ginning and is also the percentage of lint. Thus, this method avoids the necessity for recording the net weight of the seed and of calculating the percentage of lint. Since this procedure for finding the percentage of lint has been in operation, a balance has been placed on the market equipped for the LINT PERCENTAGE AND LINT INDEX OF COTTON. 9 irect reading of the lint percentage. The beam is graduated to a naximum of 100 grams. A second graduaticn is placed on the lower dge of the beam at the right. Reading in the reverse direction, or o the left, this graduation shows the difference between 100 grams Fic. 1.—Torsion-balance beam, graduated for the direct reading of the lint per- centage of cotton. nd the weight indicated, as the rider is moved from the 100-gram ark toward zero. (Fig. 1.) By the use of this balance the per- entage of lint, which in this case is the difference between the net weight of the seed and the original weight of the specimen of seed otton, may be read at a glance without the trouble of subtraction. Fig. 2.—A balance for the direct reading of ihe lint percentage of cotton. Thus, if the seeds of a 100-gram sample of seed cotton are found after ginning to weigh 65 grams, the weight of the lint removed is 35 grams, which is 35 per cent of the original weight of the seed cotton, or the lint percentage. (Fig. 2. 10 BULLETIN 644, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ADVANTAGES OF USING SAMPLES OF STANDARD WEIGHT. By the use of a balance such as that just described, the sample is standardized and the work of ascertaining the lint percentage re- duced to two entries in the records, the name of the selection and the percentage of lint, and all calculations have been avoided. The use of the standard sample of seed cotton has other very mate- rial advantages. It will be shown that the adoption of the standard sample simplifies the methods of calculating lint indexes and the weights of seeds, that the number of seeds of a standard sample is a direct indication of their size, and that tables may now be prepared by which planters without special apparatus may ascertain the lint index of a variety. METHODS OF CALCULATING LINT INDEXES AND SEED WEIGHTS. Having used the standard sample of 100 grams of seed cotton and determined the percentage of lint, which, as has been seen, is the actual weight of the lint, the lint index and the weight of the seeds per hundred may be obtained from the data in hand by the use of the following formulas: Percentage of lint Number of seeds in specimen < 109 = lint index. Percentage of seed Number of seeds in specimen 100 = weight of 100 seeds. The lint index may also be determined in the following manner. If a sensitive balance is to be had, the weight of 100 fair average seeds fairly ginned should be secured by actual weighing, or, better, the average weight of two lots of 100 seeds should be secured. The following formula may then be used to determine the lint index: Weight of 100 seeds east, Meeenitané — Gat aaa Percentage of needs Eee ee NUMBER OF SEEDS IN A STANDARD SAMPLE AN INDICATION OF THEIR SIZE. In the absence of a balance sensitive to the hundredth of a gram, on which such small lots of seeds as 100 may be accurately weighed, the use of the standard specimen of seed cotton has another ad- vantage in that the number of seeds in the specimen may be taken as a direct indication of their size, and the weight of the seeds per hundred may be found by reference to Table IV. This table gives a list of the numbers of seeds in standard specimens of 100, grams of seed cotton, calculated for various percentages of lint and weights of seed per hundred. LINT PERCENTAGE AND LINT INDEX OF COTTON. er Having ascertained the weight of the seeds per hundred from Table IV and knowing the percentage of lint, the lint index may then be ascertained by reference to Table I. TasLeE 1V—Number of seeds in a standard sample of 100 grams of seed cotton at different lint percentages and weights of seed per hundred. Weight | Percentage of lint. of 100-| es ginned { | seeds. | 25 26 27 28 29 30 | 31 32 33 3 | 36 37 38 39 40 | 41 | 42 | ee Grams. \ Seeds | Seeds |Seeds )Seeds Seeds Seeds Seeds Seeds Seeds |Seeds Seeds es | Seeds Seeds | Seeds Seeds |Seeds Seeds 6.0 1, 250 1, 233.1, 216 1, 200 1, 183 1, 166 1, 150 1, 132 1, 116/1, 100 1, 083 1, 066.1, 0501, 033,1,016,1,000) 983 966 6.5 ree 1,138 ri 123 its 107,1, 092 1, 076 1, 0611, 046 i 030)1, 015 1, 000) ” 984 ” 969) 953 938) 923) 907) 892 7.0 ee 071 L 057) il 042)1; 028)1, 0141, 000 985) O71 "957 942) 998) 914; 900) 885} 871) 857] 842) 828 7.5 1,000} 986) 973) 960) 946) 933 920) 906) 893 880) 866) 853) 840} 826) 813) 800) 786) 773 8.0 | 937} 925) 912) 900} 887! 875 862) 850) 837| 825) 812) 800) 787) 775) 762) 750) 737) 725 8.5 | 882) 870} 858) 847 a 823! 811} 800) 788] 776) 764| 752) 741) 729) 717) 705) 694! 682 9.0 833} 822] 811! 800] 788! 777| 766} 755| 744 733) 722; 711; 700) 688) 677) 666, 655) 644 9.5 | 789) 778} 768) 757) 747) 736; 726) 715) 705} 694 684) 673, 663 652) 642) 631) 621) 610 10.0} 750) 740) 730; 720 oN) 700} 69C} 680} 670) 660) 650; 640 630) 620 610) 600, 590) 580 10.5 | 714, 704) 695) 685) 676 666, 657) 647) 638) 628) 619) 609) 600) 590 580) 571) 561) 552 11.0] 681) 672) 663) 654) 645 636) 627) 618) 609 600} 590} 581) 572| 563) 554) 545) 536) 527 11.5 652! 643) 634! 626] 617: 608) 600! 591) 582! 573) 565! 556) 547 idl 530} 521) 513) 504 12.0 | 625| 616| 608| 600| 501 583| 575| 566, 558) 550| 541| 533} 525] 516 508} 500) 491, 483 12.5 600} 592) 584) 576) 568) 560) 552) 544) 536) 528} 520) 512) 504) 496 488 480} 472 464 13.0 | 576, 569) 561) 553 pe6) 538) 530; 523) 515) 507) 500) 492) 484 476) 469} 461) 453 446 13.5 555) 548} 540) 533) 525) 518) 511) 503) 496; 488} 481) 474 466 459) 451} 444) 437, 429 14.0] 535) 528) 521) 514) 507| 500) 493) 485) 478) 471| 464) 457) 450) 442, 435) 428] 421) 414 14.5 | 517) 510) 503 a 489, 482) 475) 468) 462) 455) 448) 441) 434, 427 420) 413) 406, 400 | 15.0] 500) 493) 486) 480) 473) 466) 460) 453) 446]. 440) 433) 426) 420) 413 406) 400) 393) 386 15.5 | 483) 477; 470) 464) 458 451| 445) 438) 432). 425) 419 412) 406}, 400! 393) 387} 380) 374 15.0 ae ae 456) 450 | 437) 431) 425) 418 412) 406 400) 393| 387, 381) 375 368) 362 i i ! } PLANTERS CAN ESTIMATE THE LINT INDEX. Since 100 grams equal approximately 34 ounces, a grower may determine with fair accuracy the size of the seeds of the variety he plants by ascertaining the number of seeds in 34 ounces of seed cotton and referring to Table IV. He can then estimate the lint index of his variety by a reference to Table I. For example, if a grower finds 566 seeds in 34 ounces of his seed cotton and his cotton is ginning out 32 per cent of lint, by reference to Table IV the seed will be found to weigh 12 grams per hundred. Referring then to Table I, under a seed weight of 12 + 32 per cent, the lint index will be found to be 5.64. SUMMARY. (1) The percentage of lint is the relation between the weight of the fiber and the weight of the seeds from which the fiber is obtained in the process of ginning and is expressed as a percentage of the un- ginned seed cotton. The use of a lint percentage originated with _ buyers of seed cotton, and if used by breeders and growers as a meas- ure of the comparative value of varieties it should be employed with We BULLETIN 644, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . caution, since it is misleading if used except in connection with the lint index. (2) An increase in the percentage of lint may be due entirely to a reduction in the size of the seed without change in the quantity of fiber. (3) The lint mdex is a measure of the abundance of the fiber rather than a measure of the relation between the weight of the fiber and the weight of the seed, as is the percentage of lint. (4) The lint index geri the number of bolls yielding a pound of fiber. The number of seeds and of bolls required to produce 1 pound of fiber is constant for all varieties of cotton that have the same lint index, regardless of the percentage of lint. (5) An increase in the lint index is correlated with an increase in the weight of the seeds and reduces the number of bolts required to produce a pound of fiber. (6) The lint index is an important factor in the cost of cotton pro- duction. An increase of a single gram in the weight of the fiber per hundred seeds, without change in the percentage of lint, mate- rially reduces the labor of picking cotton. The efficiency of the pickers also is thereby increased. (7) It is essential that a planter know the lint index of a varietgl as well as the percentage of lint, in choosing a variety to be planted. (8) Simple methods for pecans che lint index, the lint per- centage, and the weight of seeds are described, and tables to simplify computation are given. (9) The importance is shown of using a standard specimen of 100 grams of seed cotton in making determinations of lint percent- ages, lint indexes, and the weights of seeds. (10) A method is described by which a planter, without special apparatus, may estimate the lint index and the size of the seed of a variety of cotton by counting the number of seeds in 34 ounces of seed cotton and referring to the tables in this bulletin. WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 191% BULLETIN No. 645 Wo} Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. : January 26, 1918 SOME REASONS FOR SPRAYING TO CONTROL INSECT AND MITE ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES IN FLORIDA. By W. W. YOTHERS, Entomological Assistant, Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Insect Investigations. CONTENTS. Page Page Gradual adoption of spraying .....-..-..---- 1 | Better grades offruit bring better prices. .... 13 Pests ofimportance.- 52... 222-22 0--- 25-28 2 | Spraying scheme for controlling citrus pests. 15 imjanyooureesand frit 32524 -225.4255-4-2- D || COM CHS DPW MONs & sosestbdecdosoacosesauaccer 16 mibeoradine Offrult...-.-25¢--.--2-es42-h <5 3 | Profitsand benefits.............-... seo 17 Reduction in size caused by insects.-......-. SolisgConclusions ss22f SALes. the Peete: aa 18 GRADUAL ADOPTION OF SPRAYING. Among Florida growers there have been developing during late years what may be called two schools for the control of citrus pests. One of these favors dependence upon natural enemies; the other, upon artificial methods, particularly spraying. The relative merits of these two general methods of contro] are not discussed here, since, as time passes, 1t becomes more and more evident that there is room for both under the widely varying conditions sur- rounding, Florida groves. Enthusiastic supporters of control by natural agencies such as entomogenous fungi do not believe that the lowering of the grade and the reduction in the size of the fruits and of the yield, if any, are of sufficient importance to demand attention. Or perhaps the case may be stated more fairly by saying that they believe that it is more profitable to use no measures for the control of pests, contending that it pays better to grow the lower grades of fruit without treatment than the better grades with treatment. It is interesting, however, and very encouraging to note the gradual adoption of a system of spraying for the improvement of orchard conditions by men who, only a few years before the Federal Bureau - of Entomology began its demonstration work, believed in, and de- pended upon, natural agencies as the best all-round method of con- trol. This change has come partly through a realization that fungi 21698°—18—Bull. 645——1 2 BULLETIN 645, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. parasitic on certain injurious insects, excellent as they are, have fallen short of what was expected of them, but more as a result of a spraying system developed by the writer, which, by taking all pests into consideration instead of merely the white flies, has proved the direct financial gain that will follow the intelligent application of spray mixtures. It is to certain advantages of this system of spray-_ ing that attention is called in this bulletin. Perhaps the best argu-— ment in favor of spraying is to be found in the difficulty experienced in securing the same grove for demonstration purposes two or three years in succession. Once the owner has seen with his own eyes the benefits resulting from careful and well-timed spraying, he refuses” to accept the losses that he knows will come to him or his company through the setting aside of blocks of trees to serve as checks in com- munity demonstration work. . PESTS OF IMPORTANCE. Of the total damage caused by insects and mites to citrus in Florida, more than 95 per cent may be attributed to six species. In the order of their destructiveness, these are the citrus white fly, the purple scale,? the rust mite,* the red scale,t the cloudy-winged white fly,> and the red spider. There are several other pests of secondary importance, such as the woolly white fly,’ the purple mite,® and the chaff scale.® The citrus white fly now infests nearly all the groves in the State. The purple scale is found in greater or less numbers on every citrus tree. INJURY TO TREES AND FRUIT. The presence of these pests on the trees and fruit produces blemishes which cause fruit to be placed in a much lower grade than would be the case if these blemishes were not present. While the excellent methods of washing the fruit remove nearly all the sooty mold which follows attacks of the white fly, usually some of it is left near the stem end. When this is present the fruit is placed in a grade lower than if it were absent. The presence of scale insects on the fruit lowers the grade, and, when these are abundant, makes the fruit practically unmarketable unless the scales are removed by hand wash- ing. Perhaps the greatest cause for lowering the grade of fruit is the blemish following rust-mite injury. All these pests devitalize the trees, and this type of injury is much more important than the low- ering of the grade of the fruit, because the yield is reduced. This 1 Dialeurodes citri Ashmead. 6 Tetranychus sermaculatus Riley. 2 Lepidosaphes beckii Newman. 7 Aleurothrizus howardi Quaintance. 3 Briaphyes oleivorus Ashmead. 8 Tetranychus citri McGregor. 4Chrysomphalus aonidum Lirneus. ® Parlatoria pergandii Comstock 5 Aleyrodes nubifera Berger, now known as Diateurodes citrifolii Morgan. SPRAYING TO CONTROL ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 3 devitalization is well known and admitted by the citrus growers, but few really appreciate the magnitude of this type of damage. Thousands of trees have been seen so injured by the purple scale that all the inside foliage and small limbs had been killed, and only a mere “shell” of foliage remained. In one small community in 1915 it was estimated that the damage amounted to $30,000. It cost four times as much to remove the dead wood resulting from insect attack as it would have cost to prevent the damage, and two crops of fruit were lost in addition. At least 75 per cent of the total damage could have been prevented for less than $2,000. Many citrus growers, realizing that this injury to the trees follows severe scale infestation, apply extra fertilizer so that the trees may have enough nourishment not only for the production of a good crop of fruit, but also to meet the demands made upon their vitality by the feeding scales. The be- lief is general that more fertilizer is required to get results in a grove heavily infested with scale insects and white flies than in one that is comparatively free from these pests. To express the extent of this devitalizing effect in a statistical way or on a percentage basis is very difficult. In the two instances given below the damage caused by insect pests and mites is most strikingly shown. Although it is only proper to admit that these two cases rep- resent extreme injury by pests, they indicate that the devitalizing effect which results in diminished yield is much greater, on an aver- age, than most growers have thought possible. In one instance a row of 16 trees was left unsprayed for three sea- sons, 1913, 1914, and 1915. The remainder of the grove was sprayed. The Ts sie fly was making its first appearance in the grove. During the year 1913 there was little or no difference in the yields of the sprayed trees and the unsprayed check trees. In 1914 the un- sprayed row had about 5 boxes of fruit, dnd the adjoining row of 16 sprayed trees about 60 boxes. All common species of fungi para- sitic on the white fly and scale insects were present in great abun- dance. In 1915 the difference was not so great; the unsprayed row had about 20 boxes of fruit, and the adjoming sprayed row about 50 boxes. As another instance, in a grapefruit grove at Safety Harbor 84 trees left without treatment during the summer of 1914 averaged two-thirds of a box per tree less than the trees adjoining which were sprayed. The reduction in the yield due to failure to spray was caused by the smaller size of the fruit resulting from rust-mite attack. There seems to be no evidence that the actual number of grapefruit on the unsprayed trees was less than on the sprayed trees. During the year 1915 the same trees received the same treatment as during 1914. The sprayed trees had at least a good half crop, or about four boxes per tree. The trees adjoining which were left ; : : 4 BULLETIN 645, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. unsprayed during both years yielded only from one-half to one box per tree. This difference was so marked that all the laborers in the grove noticed it as early as August 1. THE GRADING OF FRUIT. PRESENT STATUS. The percentage of first-grade fruit shipped out of Florida is not as great as it should be. To illustrate this point several tables have been prepared which give the percentages of the various grades shipped. These data have been obtained with difficulty. At first it was thought that information could be obtained from the growers. As a matter of fact the growers, as a class, do not know the percent- age of the fruit in the different grades or the price received for the respective grades, for the reason that a large percentage of the citrus crop is sold on the tree, and shipped by those commission firms own- ing groves. No information regarding the percentages of the various grades shipped could be obtained from the shipping companies. One im- portant firm wrote that such large quantities of their fruit had been sold at so much per box, regardless of grade and size, that they were unable to give any information about grades and prices. The reports of the New York auction and the Florida Citrus Exchange were available. The grading of fruit in Florida is in a most chaotic state. Certain grades marked “fancy” bring less money than third or fourth- grade brands. There are no standards for the various grades of fruit; the different grades vary as the season advances, and from year to year. It is very difficult to place each brand of fruit in its proper place. Attempt, however, was made to place it just as the shipper had intended. The Citrus Exchange key to the various brands was followed for all Exchange fruit. Wherever the word “fancy ” occurred, this was placed in the first grade, “ bright ” in the second, and so on. This was strictly adhered to. The follow- ing table will explain this more fully: First grade. | Second grade. Third grade. | Fourth grade. Fifth grade. } Hany. > ssecss ace ; Breit seyeees poe Golder: = & 222-256 °22: | uusseias secre Plain. Stripes No. 1......- Sinpes Be os ascc623 SLTIpes, Re oF ap es | (Stripes Yoo se. Big Cypress. IBitieey ee 2s eee edie: te eats se Yellow22-5-— 4 Plain. peel Lies Deerfiel ao phboae aoe Desrield Gee sos shes 5H eee ee ees J kee WW. Fancy... Jo We eae JERI WeGoidenas. seth ee Balls of.J cf sccc-- =i} Florida Sunshine SAGX a. eee e In order to arrive at the best estimate of the grades of fruit shipped from Florida at present. it seemed best to adopt two fairly distinct methods to determine this for New York City and compare the re- sults with those obtained from other sources. ; By the first method the records of fruit sold on four days of each month in New York City were taken into consideration. Usually the days selected were the 3d, 10th, 20th, and 28th or 30th of each month, but other days might have been chosen just as well. The per- centages of the various grades of fruit shipped, based upon the rec- ords for these representative days, are given in Table 1. SPRAYING TO CONTROL ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 5 TABLE 1.—Percentages of various grades of oranges and grapefruit shipped from Florida to New York City during the season of 1915-16. Oranges. Grapefruit. Month. ’ : | nee (2 = First | Second} Third | Fourth| Fifth | First |Second} Third | Fourth) Fifth grade. | grade. | grade. | grade. | grade. | grade. | grade. | grade. | grade. | grade. November. ----.----- 8.17 | 48.55 37.14 5. 63 0.5 13.85 | 55.6 26. 61 4.43 | 0.0 December. .--------- 13.93 | 43.7 40.18 1.87 -25 | 20.02} 33.68 | 39.55 6.73 -0 Tein sae See 12.26 | 38.30 | 40.89 7.58 -95 9.44 | 46.72) 35.31 Sadee| -0 Wapruany: - 25! )...!: | 2.60 | 32.28] 47.07| 14.66 2.38 2.58 | 21.46 | 48.90] 18.77 8.3 Matchen = 328 ec 25 e.- -25 | 25.89 | 52.64] 17.39 3.81 6 9.7 50.6 33.4 5. 65 Peprileeee . 2 oes a2 | 1.16 | 20.91 | 50.80] 25.51 1.60 -0 17.0 | 58.57 | 20.36 | 4.33 Entire ceaean| 6.68 | 34.82 | 45.07 | 11.80 | 1.62| 6.92 | 29. 86 | 44.74 | 15. 24 | 3. 25 | The data in Table 1 are based upon the sale of 128,487 boxes of oranges and 31,479 boxes of grapefruit. In the second method for determining the percentage of fruit shipped to New York City in the various grades, the fruit was placed in only three grades instead of five. The fruit was classified by the same method used for Table 1, except that fruit marked “fancy” and “ No. 1” was placed in the first grade, and all “plain,” fourth and fifth grade fruit was left ,out. The results, based upon a study of the auction sales, including 400,806 boxes of oranges and 126,193 boxes of grapefruit, showed that the percentages of fruit in the three grades were 35.56, 44.33, and 20.10 for oranges, and 34.43, 45.61, and 20 for grapefruit. These data and those of Table 1 show that the two methods for determining the grades shipped give about the same results: The better grades are shipped during November and December; the poorer grades, toward the close of the season. To a considerable extent this due to the demand of the holiday trade, which calls for the best fruit obtainable. This demand causes such a keen competi- - tion among packers that it is difficult for any but the better grades to find a market until after Christmas. Since the fruit sold in New York City grades much higher than that sold in other markets, and, in fact, better than the average fruit of the State, the percentages of the different grades of fruit of this market and those of other markets must be compared, in order to arrive at a just conclusion as to the amount of fruit in the different grades shipped from the entire State. Such a comparison of grades sold in New York City and other markets, including Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, Cleveland, Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, and St. Louis, is made in Table 2. 6 BULLETIN 645, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 9, Percentages of various grades of oranges and grapefruit shipped from Florida to New York City and other markets during the season of 1915-16. ; Oranges. | Grapefruit. Market. First |Second| Third | Total First |Second| Third | Total grade. | grade. | grade. | boxes. | grade. | grade. | grade. | boxes. INGWVOrK ity ..= 2. Sep eeere e 35.56 | 44.33 | 20:10] 868,541 | 34.43 | 45.61) 20.00 272, 621 Other markeis=- 2-5: So RUes: ) 830) 44.57 |) 47.13 |5,096, 817 8.85 | 36.2 54.9 | 1,544,929 Totals and weighted per- | CONLAC ES eee case ee 12.39 | 44.53 | 43.08 5,965,358 | 12.67 | 37.62) 49.69 1, 817, 550 } | | | Taking into consideration all sources of information regarding oranges and grapefruit shipped out of Florida, the conclusion is reached that for the purpose of this bulletin the percentages of fruit in the first, second, and third grades approximate 13, 41, and 46, respectively. RAISING THE GRADE OF FRUIT BY SPRAYING. Since by no means all Florida fruit is graded so well as that- shipped to New York, the problem of raising the standard is an im- portant one. Is it worth while? Will it pay? From the results of work in Florida it may be asserted confidently that it is worth while and that it will pay in a very large number of Florida groves. Table 3 gives the percentages of the grades of fruit shipped from the same grove during 1914, 1915, 1916 and during 1917, up to January 15. In 1914 the small amount of spraying done came too late to prevent blemishes caused by rust mites. In 1915 and 1917 the spraying was done at the proper time, but in 1916 the application was made a little too late to produce the best results. The data resulting from this experimental work are so striking that comment is unnecessary. TABLE 3.—Result of spraying upon the percentages of grapefruit in the various grades. | Year and treatment. | 1914 | 1915 1916 1917 Grade of fruit. Sprayed Not Well too late Weill sprayed. | sprayed. | for best | sprayed. results. IES Ese oe fae as coe Ss 2k tk eee ee eee 2.7 34.3 15.8 33.7 pecond! = 2s. sec). res neisieg ee eel. folie. Siew ere 15.8 51.5 51.6 46.3 AL Tis (Oa Se ee ee Se eS ees, Bee Serre ee 50.0 10.2 17.3 14.2 Rourtiny: 2): set bi ase . Sere: Reel iets ee Be ae ee. 31.5 3.7 15.3 5.9 In a second grapefruit grove during the season of 1913-14, when no spraying was done, the percentages of fruit in the four grades — ran 0, 13.8, 65.5, and 20.8, respectively. During the season of 1914-15 3 ' SPRAYING TO CONTROL ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 7 the fruit from the same trees after having been sprayed ran for the same grades 12.4, 73.1, 14.5 and 0 per cent, respectively. These data, presented by Mr. S. F. Poole before the Florida Horticultural So- ciety, show that spraying raised the percentages of fruit in the first two grades from about 14 to 85.5 per cent, while the same treat- ment lowered the percentage in the inferior third and fourth grades from 86.37 to 14.5 per cent and raised all fruit above the fourth grade. In a third grove the grapefruit of the season of 1913-14, which had developed without protection by spraying, gave 0.6, 24, 59, and 16.4 per cent, respectively, in the four grades. The same trees, properly sprayed during 1914, yielded fruits during the 1914-15 season which graded for the same grades 27.4, 67.5, 5, and 0 per cent, respectively. In other words, spraying increased the amount of fruit in the first two grades from 24.6 to 94.9 per cent and reduced that in the lower grades from 75.4 to 5 per cent; increased the first grade from 0.6 to 27.4 per cent and reduced the fourth grade from 16.4 per cent to zero. The fruit in the two groves upon which data have been given were graded by the Winter Haven Citrus Growers’ Association, and the spraying was done under the direction of Mr. S. F. Poole, a Winter Haven. The foregoing data, secured in the same grove two or more years in succession, may raise the question whether the relative abundance of pests, or more favorable climatic conditions, may not have been an important factor in the better crops secured after spraying. Without discussing this point at length the data secured in various groves are given below: | Grove 1.—During 1913, 900 boxes of fruit picked from unsprayed orange trees in the community graded 32.6 per cent “bright” and - 67.3 per cent “russet,” while 914 boxes picked from a sprayed grove and apparently equally well cared for in other respects graded 90.4 per cent “bright ” and 9.5 per cent “ russet.” Grove 2.—In the Hill grove at Winter Haven, which was sprayed during 1914, the oranges shipped 60 per cent first, 35 per cent second, and 5 per cent third grade; and the ee 30 per cent fa8h 67 per cent second, and 3 per cent third grade. The general run of fruit grown in the same vicinity, upon trees in the same general state of culture except that many had not been sprayed at all and others sprayed only indifferently, and packed by the same packing house, may be taken as a fairly good index to the grade of fruit produced during the same season. This fruit shipped 10 per cent first, 62 per cent second, and 28 per cent third. Grove 3.—In this grapefruit grove one block of trees was sprayed, a second block was left unsprayed after June, while a third block was kept as a check. Aside from spraying, the trees received practi- 1 Florida Horticultural Society Report, 1915, pp. 130-132. 8 BULLETIN 645, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ’ cally the same treatment as regards cultivation and fertilization. The fruit in the sprayed and unsprayed blocks grew on trees about 30 feet apart, or in adjoining rows, and was picked and ‘packed on the same day. The carload of sprayed fruit shipped 87.4 per cent first and second and 12.6 per cent third and fourth grades; the unsprayed carload shipped no first, 3.3 per cent second, and 96.6 per cent third and fourth grades. A more striking example of what a maximum infestation of rust mites will do and the benefits derived from spraying can scarcely be conceived. The carload of fruit left unsprayed after June shipped 80.3 per cent first and second and 19.6 per cent third and fourth grades, thus indicating that if rust mites are controlled thoroughly until the 1st of July on grapefruit little damage will result. In other groves russeting has been observed in January and February. Grove 4.—In this grapefruit grove, 1 mile distant from grove 3, sprayed and unsprayed fruit was grown during 1914 in adjoining rows. The fruit from the sprayed trees shipped 18.8, 58.1, 15.1, and 7:9 per cent, respectively, in the four grades known as “ fancy,” “bright,” “russet,” and “plain.” The fruits from the unsprayed trees shipped 6.6, 43.6, 49.7 and 6 per cent, respectively, in the same four grades. The percentage of second grade, or “bright,” fruit from the unsprayed trees is much greater than from unsprayed trees of grove 3, since the rust mites did not do so much damage in this grove. It will be noticed that 15.1 per cent of the fruit from sprayed trees was russeted, whereas 49.7 per cent. was russeted on the un- sprayed trees. In grove 4 the poorer results were due to the ineffi- ciency of the spray solution. . The foregoing data, under the general head of grades of fruit, should convince any grower that it is possible to raise the grade of fruit by killing pests so that the fruit will grade at least 35 per cent first, 50 per cent second, and 15 per cent third, instead of the present average for the State, which is 13 per cent first, 41 per cent second, and 46 per cent third. Fruit usually will grow to a remark- able state of perfection on healthy trees if only the insects and mites are controlled. One grove, the fruit of which was packed by an asso- ciation noted for its high-class work, produced 90 per cent “ Blue,” or A No. 1 grade. The writer has seen 120,000 boxes of grapefruit from sprayed trees that graded 60 per cent first and 25 per cent second. REDUCTION IN SIZE CAUSED BY INSECTS. Insects and mites*not only lower the grades of the fruit by the blemishes they cause, but reduce the size to a considerable extent. In raising the grades of the fruit by spraying, large benefits are obtained in preventing the pests from reducing the size. In com- mercial grading it is very difficult to show the difference in size of SPRAYING TO CONTROL ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 9 oranges that have been damaged by mites and those that have not, since in commercial houses all large, coarse fruits, as well as more or less fruit that is inferior, are always placed in the second or third grades with the “russets.” This reduction in size is so great, how- ever, that even in commercial grading the difference in size in the respective grades is considerable. Thus, in 941 boxes of oranges of the first grade, 7,111 boxes of the second, and 3,376 boxes of the third there were, on an average, 184.2, 197.9, and 200.4 oranges per box; a difference of 7 per cent in the number of fruits per box in the first and second grades, and of 8.8 per cent of those in the first and third grades. _ The difference in size of the fruit of the various grades ranges from 4 to 14 per cent. In one community the general run of “ bright ” fruit (unaffected by mites) averaged 203.8 oranges per box, and the russeted fruit 222.2, or a difference of 9.28 per cent in favor of un- affected fruit. In another near-by grove that was sprayed the “bright” fruit averaged 214 and the “russets” 228 fruits per box, which is a difference of 6.6 per cent. The number of grapefruit in 360 first, 970 second, and 279 third- grade boxes of fruit averaged 53.2, 57.5, and 51.9, respectively. In this instance the difference in number of fruits per box in the first -and second grades is 8.2 per cent. Undoubtedly so many large, coarse fruits were placed in the third grade that these made the average number of fruits per box less than even in the first grade. It is much better, however, to make comparison of fruit of the same variety from the same grove, and data are given here for this purpose. Table 4 shows the numbers of grapefruit per box for the various grades in a car of sprayed and of unsprayed fruit and of fruit which was not sprayed after June. These are the same car- loads of fruit referred to on page 7, grove 3. Tasre 4.—Nwmber of grapefruit per box from trees sprayed and unsprayed and from trees unsprayed after June. Number of grapefruit per box. Grade. Not 5 be spraye Not Sprayed. after sprayed. une. 1. PRTG no conceit cee ae R ae ee Bae 2 ele aid De once Scans ae canis SE eaeeeni es 42.2 46.6 0.0 2 BRE NESS Ee 10 1 Pe ee eS es Se ee eek eee eee 43.6 49.7 48.4 ENEISSE Leer ya eee eee ees ee eee EAN See Tae SRS ce tines Pree: bee 45.2 52.3 49.3 BB acc Ce ECR ocr eee oes te Nine or Ae Searels 6 Batre: fo ty ain, Soe ow 38.8 43.2 46.1 Generaltaverate.... sasee see aeteeeee thet: see lh. Sh eye ioeees 42.8 49.0 49.1 It will be seen that the sprayed fruit averaged 42.8 and the un- sprayed fruit 49.1 fruits per box. This difference may not appear to be very great at first sight, but if the unsprayed fruit had been as 21698°—18—Bull. 645—2. 10 BULLETIN 645, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. large as the sprayed, there would haye been 344.1 boxes of fruit in- stead of 300,or a gain of 14.7 percent. The “russet” grade is smaller in all cars than either the “fancy” or “bright.” All large, coarse fruits, were packed in the “ plain,” although they might be classed as “brights.” Table 4, although it contains the data given by a com- mercial concern, does not indicate as great a difference as really existed. On the unsprayed trees there were many fruits so small and of such poor quality that they were never sent through the packing house. Grapefruit grown about 1 mile from that discussed in Table 4 was sprayed with a different material, soda-sulphur. The sprayed and unsprayed fruit was picked on the same day. The number of fruits per box from the sprayed trees averaged, for the same grades given in — Table 4, 47.8, 51.7, 56, and 53.4 per box, respectively; from the un- — sprayed trees, 52.8, 56.7, 59.5, and 0, respectively. The “russet” fruit in both cases was much smaller than any of the other grades. — Taken as a whole, the fruit from the sprayed and unsprayed trees averaged 51.5 and 57.8 fruits per box, respectively, which gives a percentage difference of 12.3 in the number of fruits in favor of © spraying. In another instance grapefruit from sprayed trees aver- — aged 50.2 fruits per box as compared with 57.8 fruits from un- sprayed trees in adjoining rows; a difference of 15.2 per cent in favor of sprayed fruits. The reduction in size following rust-mite attack accounts, to a certain extent, for the small number of boxes produced in 1911, when practically all the unsprayed citrus fruit was “russet,” and about — half was “ black russet,” or about two sizes smaller than it would have — been had it not been affected by rust mites. One test shows that 66 — sprayed fruits filled the same box as 99 unsprayed fruits picked from ~ an adjoining row, ora difference of 334 per cent. From orange trees sprayed with lime-sulphur, 1-25, April 22, 1911, 338 fruits averaged 3.29 inches in diameter. The skin of this fruit was smooth and the texture good. From unsprayed adjoining orange trees 1,234 fruits averaged 2.58 inches. It would require 112 of the former to fill the average orange box and 226 of the latter, or twice as many. The reduction in size in also shown by the average weight of the fruit. In a miscellaneous lot of oranges, graded commercially, 575 “brights” weighed 241 pounds and 575 “russets” weighed 2254 pounds, which made a difference of 64 per cent. This fruit, of © course, had been picked at the same time and from the same grove and the collection represented all the different sizes. The fruit had ~ not received any spraying. In another lot, 75 “bright” grapefruit which had been sprayed thoroughly throughout the season weighed 99.75 pounds, and 75 fruits which had received no spraying through- out the year weighed 88 pounds, which makes a difference of 11.77 per cent. . | —_—— 2 A i SPRAYING TO CONTROL ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. cea § The foregoing data show that the loss resulting from the reduction in size of the fruit is close to 12.5 per cent, or about one size. About half the citrus crop of Florida suffers this loss. The data also con- firm the observations made on the size of “ brights” and “ russets” when packed. When fruit is graded in a packing house and then run through the sizer the full bin on the “ bright” side is invariably one size larger than the full bin on the “russet” side. These facts also substantiate the statement of Mr. S. O. Chase, of Sanford, Fla., who figured out more than 25 years ago that the increase in size which results from spraying pays for the cost of spraying. They also confirm the statements of Mr. F. D. Waite, of Palmetto, and Mr. A. B. Harrington, of Winter Haven, that rust mites reduce the size about 124 per cent. The belief is general in Florida that “russet” fruit will ship bet- ter, or with less decay, than “ bright” fruit. If this is the case it is possible that the supposedly superior shipping qualities of the “rus- set” fruit might outweigh any advantages which the “ bright” fruit might possess. While the data given in the following paragraphs may not be entirely conclusive, they certainly show that bright fruit, which retains its natural “waxy” coating for protection, ships equally as well or better than “russet” fruit, or fruit that has been injured by rust mites to the extent of losing its normal protection. Test 1: Grapefruit—On January 30, 24 brights and 24 russets were picked and placed in the laboratory. These were examined from time to time, and on April 7 462 per cent of the bright fruit had decayed and 584 per cent of the russets. Test 2: Fifty-one grapefruit each, of brights and russets, were picked on the same day as the preceding and placed in the laboratory. On April 7, 49 per cent of the brights had decayed and 754 per cent of the russets. Test 3: Oranges—One box of bright oranges and one box of russet oranges, each containing 200 fruits, were purchased at the packing house on March 9. These fruits were picked from the same grove. On April 7 the bright oranges showed 48} per cent decay and the russet oranges 59 per cent. Test 4: One box of brights and one box of russets containing 160 oranges each were set aside March 9. On April 7, 29.3 per cent of the bright fruit had rotted and 30.6 per cent of the russets. Test 5: One box each of brights and russets, containing 150 oranges each, were used on March 3. On April 7, 56 per cent of the bright fruit had decayed and 66 per cent of the russet. Test 6: One-half box each of brights and russets were put under observation on March 3. On April 7, 54 per cent of the brights had rotted and 74 per cent of the russets. 12 BULLETIN 645, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 7 In the spring of 1917 another series of experiments was conducted to determine the relative merits of bright and russet fruit with refer- ence to their carrying qualities. Twelve lots of oranges, each con- taining an equal number of brights and russets, were picked and carefully selected so as to avoid any mechanical injuries. So far as possible, the brights and russets from each lot were taken from the same tree. Examinations were usually made every seven days. Table 5 gives the percentage of decay for each period of all the lots. TABLE 5.—Percentage of decay of “ brights” and “ russets.” | “ Brights.” “< Russets.”” | | | eager Walee ae See Ca Number | Total x. Total of (lays. Nall | sada number Per si gd “Sumber | number Per sound | decayed | cent | sound | decayed ek ane || Base } decayed | decay. AAA. f eee it decayed decay. se eS = / 95 0 0 0.0 95 0 | 0.0 94 1 1 1.05 95 | 0 | 0 | 0 12 93 1 2 2.10 | 95 0 0 | .0 j 19 | 89 4 6 | 6.31 87 | 8 8 | 8.42 j 26 79 | 10 16 16. 84 78 9 | 17 NESD 33 | 71 8 | 24 | 25.26 j 56 22 39 | 41.05 40 | 60 | 11 35 36.8 | 40 16 55 | 57.90 47 | 59 1 | 36 37.89 | 31 9 64 | 67.36 54 50 | 9 | 45 47.36 | 12 19 83 | 87.36 61 | 34 4] 49 51.57 | ll ; 1 84 | 88.42 3 The above experiment was terminated about 24 months after it was started. At that time 27 of the bright fruits were sound, 25 of which were eaten, and only 3 of the russets were sound, none of which were edible. The 95 bright fruits had averaged 51 days and the 95 russet had averaged 36 days before developing decay. In 11 of the 12 lots the brights lasted longer than the russets. According to weight, the percentage of decay was 45.3 in the brights and 64.5 in the russets. The rate of evaporation of the juices is also much greater in russet fruit than in bright. From January 30 to April 7, 1915, 24 bright grapefruit lost 4.7 per cent and 24 russet lost 13.6 per cent from evaporation. During the same time 51 bright grapefruit lost 5.9 per cent, and the 51 russet lost 9.5 per cent. One box of bright oranges lost 10.4 per cent, and another box of russets containing the same number of fruits lost 15 per cent. Another box of brights lost 14.8 per cent by evaporation and the box of russets lost 17.9 per cent. In one box of half brights and half russets the brights lost 17.4 per cent and the russets 21 per cent. In one box of brights the loss from evaporation was the same as that sustained by the russet box. In 8 of the 12 lots mentioned under “ decay” (Table 5) the percentage of evaporation was greater from russet than from bright fruit and the total of the 12 lots showed the russets evaporated 23.12 per cent and — the bright 22.68 per cent. SPRAYING TO CONTROL ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 13 There seems to be an impression among consumers and retail dealers that russet fruit is a variety of citrus instead of being the result of the former presence of thousands of rust mites. The re- sponsibility for this erroneous idea rests with the salesman. It is considered good salesmanship to sell what goods there are on hand and to convince the purchaser of the merits of the same. Since more than half the crop is russet, some explanation must be made to the consumer as to the quality of the fruit he purchases. The explana- tion that russet fruit is a variety fulfills all the requirements of good salesmanship. The necessity for this exercise of shrewd salesman- ship, as well as its continuation, rests with the Florida citrus grower. One also hears frequently in Florida that russet fruit is sweeter than bright. So far as is known, no analyses indicate that such isthe case. Since the russet fruit is not sold before the holidays, it has ample opportunity fully to ripen, so no russet fruit is ever sour. In some tests made March 25, 1914, several russet and bright oranges were peeled so that they could not be told apart by the taster. These were given to a person to taste. In both cases where bright and russet fruit were compared, the person pronounced that the bright was the sweeter. On January 29, 1915, five men pronounced sprayed fruit sweeter and possessed of a greater refinement and delicacy of flavor than unsprayed fruit from adjoining rows. . BETTER GRADES OF FRUIT BRING BETTER PRICES. Obviously it is useless to raise the grade of fruit if second and third grade fruit sell for as much as the first grade. There is no reason to spend money to make first-grade fruit unless the improved fruit brings a good yield on the investment required to produce it. In order to show the difference in price received for different grades of fruit Tables 6 and 7 have been prepared. The data of Table 6 are based upon the returns from the 128,487 boxes of oranges and the 31,479 boxes of grapefruit, and these data are given in Table 1. TABLE 6.—Difference in the price received in the New York market for different grades of oranges and grapefruit during the season of 1915-16. Difference in price received between the grades of— Oranges. Grapefruit. Month. First |Second| Third | Fourth First |Second| Third | Fourth and | and | and | and eee and _| and | and | and Aotak second | third | fourth | fifth mage second | third | fourth | fifth eS grade. | grade. | grade. | grade. * | grade. | grade. | grade. | grade. uke November. .....-..- $0.39 | $0.28 |—$0.01 | $0.39 | $1.06 | $0.66] $0.36] $0.29} $0.00 $1.30 December........... SHY .08 -09 05 79 BS 157 26 -00 1.36 MEEHAN Viae meee cee = ce 2 220 14 —.00 aa¥/ 74 38¥/ .36 34 -00 1.08 METAL Y 1-200 -73 14 14 -ol 1.38 - 68 320 ~25 -03 NEyAL March Soot SeCe Senne 1.36 —.09} —.16 -49 1.59 PEP. . 43 47 -29 11.20 ACOH eee eee - 96 14 - 06 -67 1.82 . 00 -18 17 ~25 .60 1 Difference between second and fifth grades; first grade is unusual sale. 14 BULLETIN 645, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The dash (—) placed before the difference in price indicates that a lower grade sold for more than the next higher grade. This oc- curred several times among the grades of oranges, but not among those of grapefruit. The only explanation that can be offered for this irregularity is that the lower grades had the sizes desired by the trade at the particular time of the sale. Table 7 shows the differences in price for the grades of 400,805 boxes of oranges and 126,193 boxes of grapefruit when these are divided into three instead of five grades. TABLE 7.—Differences in the price receved in the New York market for different grades of oranges and granefruit during the season of 1915-16. Difference in price received between the grades of— é Oranges. Grapefruit. Month. Firstand| Second | Firstand Firstand| Second | Firstand second jand third; third second jandthird| third grades. | grades. | grades. | grades. | grades. | grades. INGVENIDET Lb i rs ee 3 | $0.342 $0. 044 $0. 385 $0. 517 $0. 314 $0. 831 December ees oe ee ee eee - 243 - 136 -379 - 369 - 654 1. 023 Baniany ers se ee ke opel bad nos ee! - 221 -117 -338 . 237 ~ 362 - 599 LGD ERAT Vp e oe eer ee ee oe ans . 168 114 . 282 378 - 325 703 LLG iel ee ae 2 a ie peepee Senin Bie Ween, | . 099 . 054 . 045 ~ 295 - 569 . 864 April eer es ee ee ee es . 226 - 110 . 336 - 059 . 279 . 308 If the difference in price received for the first and third grades be added and the sum be divided by the number of months, an average difference of 30 cents in price received for the oranges and 72 cents for the grapefruit is obtained. In a miscellaneous lot of 5,427 boxes of fruit, the first grade averaged 48.8 cents more than did the second grade, and the second averaged 8.3 cents more than did the third grade. Opportunity is seldom presented for comparing the price of sprayed and unsprayed fruit from the same grove. Through the cooperation of Mr. J. A. Stevens, of De Land, this was done with two carloads of grapefruit shipped in 1914 from sprayed and _.un- sprayed trees, that were picked and packed on the same day and sold in the same market. The sprayed fruit sold for $1.94 per box; the unsprayed fruit for $1.69. These respective prices are disap- pointing. It had been anticipated that there would be at least a difference of 75 cents instead of 25 cents in favor of the sprayed fruit. The net profits due to spraying, however, were sufficient to pay one-fourth of the freight charges. Although the difference is slight, it is more than four times what it cost to spray the trees. The prices of the respective grades of the fruit could not be obtained. In a grove about 1 mile distant from the grove previously men- tioned 516 and 300 boxes of grapefruit, respectively, were picked from SPRAYING TO CONTROL ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 15 sprayed and unsprayed trees in adjoining rows. It is not known whether all the fruit was sold in the same market. The sprayed fruit brought 98 cents per box, the unsprayed fruit 85 cents per box. The difference in price, though small, was twice the cost of spraying. Because of the vagaries of the market, due to the daily fluctuation in supply and demand, it can not be stated that the better grades will always bring the better price, yet the data presented leave no doubt that spraying raises the grade of the fruit and largely over- comes the devitalized effect caused by insects, and that, other things being equal, the better grades bring better prices. SPRAYING SCHEME FOR CONTROLLING CITRUS PESTS. As a general proposition the time to spray for the control of all pests of citrus trees is when they are present in such numbers that, if left to reproduce without artificial hindrance, they would soon become injurious. In other words the pests should be killed before they can do much damage to either the tree or the fruit. The pests should always be kept in such a state of repression that they can do little or no damage. In case the various pests of citrus are permitted to become so abundant as to cause injury, the profits which may be ex- pected from artificial treatment, such as spraying with an insecticide, are, to a certain extent, lost. Fortunately the life history and habits of nearly all citrus pests are such that good results can be obtained at any time of the year when the spray is applied. Nevertheless there are times when spraying is more opportune than at others. These periods come when the largest number of the insects are very young, for then they are killed most easily. The following spray scheme has been used very extensively for four summers in Florida and generally has given satisfactory re- sults. It must be admitted, however, that no hard and fast scheme can be recommended,.and that to a large extent the number of sprayings depends on the thoroughness of the work. I. Paraffin-oil emulsion; Government formula, 1-66 or 1 per cent of oil. May.—The main object of spraying at this time is to kill white flies, scale insects, and, to a large extent, rust mites. This treatment, however, must not be relied upon to control rust mites. The spraying should be done after the adults of the first brood of white flies have disappeared and before the appearance of those of the second brood. The fruit should be an inch or more in diameter. Since this treatment is given before the beginning of the rainy season, it does not interfere with the work of the beneficial fungi in reducing those insects not killed by the spray. Il. Lime-sulphur solution, 32° Bawmé, 1-50 to 1-75. June to July.—The main object of this treatment is to kill rust mites, and the 16 BULLETIN 645, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. correct time for its application varies with the appearance of the maximum number of the rust mites. It should be applied before the mites get very abundant and before any russeting appears. It will also kill some scales and white flies, but is not of great value for that purpose. Ill. Paraffin-oil emulsion; Government formula 1-66, or 1 per cent of oil. August 25 to October 31—This is the second spraying — for white flies and scale insects. The object of spraying at this time is to kill the white-fly larvee which are the progeny of the third and — last brood. It is this brood that causes nearly all the damage from the white flies, and the earlier they are killed the better it is for the trees. This spraying also will remove the sooty mold from the trees — and a sufficient amount from the fruit to permit the fruit to be col- ored up by the sun. Soda-sulphur, 1-50, may be added to this spray- - ing to increase its effectiveness in killing rust mites. IV. Lime-sulphur solution, 32° Baumé, 1-50 to 1-75. November or December.—The object of this spraying is to kill rust mites, and it may or may not be necessary, depending on the abundance of the mites. . It may be necessary to spray for rust mites before Treatment I is given. This is especially the case with grapefruit in the more- southern counties. In case the red spider becomes abundant enough to cause injury, an application of lime-suiphur solution should be ~ given. In case of heavy scale-insect infestation it may be necessary to spray three times with the oil sprays, in which case the treatment © can be given in midsummer or in winter. If the red scale is very © abundant, two sprayings with the oil emulsions should be given at_ intervals of about a month. The paraffin-oil emulsion may be made according to directions — given in Circular No. 168, Bureau of Entomology. . In addition to the foregoing there are three highly satisfactory © miscible-oil sprays on the market in Florida. | The soda-sulphur solution is made according to the standard formula: 30 pounds of sulphur, 20 pounds of caustic soda, and 20 gallons of water. This tests about 16° Baumé and may be used 1-40 instead of lime-sulphur solution, but it is not so effective in control- ling rust mites. It has an advantage over lime-sulphur solution in that it mixes readily with the oil emulsions.1 COST OF SPRAYING. The cost of spraying depends upon many different factors, such as the size of the trees, nearness to water, convenience of operation, type of spraying outfit employed. insecticide used, and character of 1for directions for making lime-sulphur solution see Farmers’ Bulletin 908. SPRAYING TO CONTROL ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. ily the labor. No grower should expect to spray a bearing tree for less than 8 cents for each application. It would be better to place the minimum at 4 cents. It should not require more than 10 cents to spray the largest trees in the State if any considerable number are present in one grove. An average cost per tree should not exceed 5 to 6 cents. If one figures the cost per box, a minimum would be 1 cent per application for 0il spray and somewhat less for lime-sulphur. A maximum would be 14 cents for either insecticide. An expenditure of more than 6 cents per box for the entire year should be unnecessary. PROFITS AND BENEFITS. Tt is impossible to express accurately the percentage of profit to be expected from spraying to cdntrol pests on citrus. The same condi- tion applies to cultural and other grove operations in Florida. The data at hand are suflicientiy accurate, however, to be worth pre- senting. It has been shown that the better grades bring more money than the lower, yet it would be fallacious to assume that if the entire crop higher prices. The trade will consume only so much high-grade fruit. Tt is reasonably certain, however, that the Florida crop has not yet reached the high standard where it would be no longer profitable to produce more high-grade fruit. At present 13 per cent first, 41 per cent second, and 46 per cent third grade oranges are shipped from the State, and it is possible and practicable to raise this standard to 35, 50, and 15 per cent for first, second, and third grades, respectively. It is assumed that the trade would handle fruit of this quality. Thus, the first grade is increased 22 per cent and the second 9 per cent. If 7,600,000 boxes are taken as the basis for the crop of 1915-16, there would be 1,293,987 boxes more in the first grade if spraying were done. These would sell, according to Table 7 (oranges) for 21.6 cents! more per box, or an increase of $275,181. There would also be 9 per cent more second grade, or 521,177 boxes. These would sell for 9.6 cents more, r an increase of $50,033. The percentage of the various grades of grapefruit was not very ifferent from that of the oranges, so 13, 41, and 46 per cent may be sed to represent the first, second, and third grades of grapefruit, espectively. The standard for grapefruit also can be raised to grade 5, 50, and 15 per cent. There would then be 22 per cent, or 399,685 oxes, which would sell for 30.9 cents per box more, an increase £ $123,559. There would be 9 per cent, or 163,508 boxes, which would + New York City prices. Other prices could not be obtained. were of a high grade the grower would receive correspondingly - 4 18 BULLETIN 645, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sell, according to Table 7 (gr ap) for 41.7 cents more per box, or an increase of $61,182. The total increase in value by raising the grade would be $509,955 for the entire crop of oranges and grapefruit. Elsewhere in this bulletin it has been shown that “russet” fruit is of about one size, or about 12.5 per cent smaller than normal fruit. If it is estimated that one-half of the crop is “russet” there would be a reduction of 475,000 boxes, which, valued at $1, would produce a loss of $475,000. This is extremely conservative. As a matter of fact, 100,000 boxes of fruit in Florida are thrown away because the fruit is too small! In regard to the reduction in yield caused by the devitalization of the trees, it is very conservative to estimate this at 10 per cent, or 760,000 boxes. In reality it is probably 20 to 25 per cent, and many sprayed groves prove this to be true, but for this estimate it is placed at 10 per cent. This amount of fruit is valued at $760,000. This would make a total of $1,744,955 as a minimum estimate for the increase that could be expected from spraying the entire crop. The cost of spraying groves producing 7,600,000 boxes would be not ‘more than 6 cents per box, or $456,000. This would be a net gain of $1,288,955 in the value of the crop produced. This gain could be divided in half and still a handsome profit would follow spraying. In addition to the direct profit, there is the satisfaction, which every enthusiastic orange grower must feel, in maintaining healthy trees and producing high-grade fruit. CONCLUSION. Of the total damage caused by insects and mites to citrus in Florida, more than 95 per cent may be attributed to six species. These, in the order of their destructiveness, are the citrus white fly, the Parpie scale, the rust mite, the red scale, the cloudy- winged white fly, and the red spider. Aside from the satisfaction of growing fine fruit and owning: healthy trees, it is estimated from the data reported in this bulletin that had the 1915-16 crop of oranges and grapefruit been sprayed according to the schedule recommended, the growers of Florida would have increased their net returns by $1,288,955. There is no reason why the standard percentage of fruit in the higher grades can not be raised so that the percentage in the first, second, and third grades will be 35, 50, and 15 instead of, as at pres- ent, 13, 41, and 46. In one of several instances given, spraying in- creased the amount of fruit in the first and second grades from 24.6 to 94.9 per cent, and reduced that in the third and fourth from 75.4 ~) a a ee SPRAYING TO CONTROL ENEMIES OF CITRUS TREES. 19 to 5 per cent; increased the amount in the first grade from 0.6 to 97.4 per cent, and reduced that in the fourth from 16.4 per cent to Zero. The better prices which, in most instances, can be obtained for the better grades of fruit fully warrant the adoption of a spray sys- tem that improves the grade and the amount of fruit produced. The data presented leave no doubt as to the practicability of making such improvement in the Florida citrus crop if the grower will ad- here to the spray schedule outlined. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY A WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1917 ayy * rer st’ a tte “om a sl ok i ; . y 4 *y P : re vr va ae os boniaide hd: tus yesoament: icf prior has Y PRI Bl pease SORGHig Smadidieyrdeethiyt set: 36 baie abies: ~~ loste tocly ports ad) SBe.of engi!> ehrarqenrel ape oekicss rae ‘ORR Be iced: ae F ors hesnezeiteea orn gh P? Quo capoeira 1 thostwkiggl ~peakaall Hines land ee Cae hid ‘ is a Se een iE See’ BULLETIN No. 646 4 \ Contribution from the States Relations Service A. C. TRUE, Director. Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 8, 1918 LESSONS ON PORK PRODUCTION FOR ELEMEN- TARY RURAL SCHOOLS.’ By E. A. Mittsr, Specialist in Agricultural Education. CONTENTS. Page. Page. INARA) aa D aU Ree ee OR Rea Ene meee Beall | SAIC SSO MRNA eel er tare ey Se etees etc cieeioe cee ree 15 TLOSROM SYS SMR GANS 5 eerie sie es eae te 2 AVG) Ese eC se AO raha LS PN Sea 17 TET cities lec im Bice a A I tio ane 6 AVALATH Toe pas epee ete aba toy ey pap Bes 18 HO eons csaoss basse cee eee ene 9 1 Dee Sees hemes Sc ke AORN SORES 21 II sap ekccaseatoeuoe se eee aS eeeeEe IQ) ONS? TOUS CWwlSSsoccsccasccccoouseHpecsaouc 25 Wesdu del Ube scsu acai he a aeeeeeeee 13 INTRODUCTION. Importance.—The growing of hogs is recognized as one of the most important phases of the live-stock industry. The value of hogs as meat-producing animals is attested by the facts that they are grown on 70 per cent of farms and that they constitute so large a part of the number of all farm animals. The United States Department of Agriculture Crop Report gives the following interesting figures with reference to the number of each kind of the leading farm animals in our country on January 1, 1917: Hogs, 67,453,000; sheep, 48,483,000; milch cows, 22,768,000; other cattle, 40,819,000; horses and mules, 25,765,000. Educational value.—The great importance of the subject as indi- cated in the previous paragraph and the readiness with which it lends itself to the teaching of the principles of breeding, feeding, and management of farm animals give it unusual educational value. The application of these principles in connection with hogs may be studied and observed in the brief period of one year. Its educational value is tecognized by school officials and extension workers and it is being made use of as a home project and as a phase of club work. It is with a view to introducing into the schools in a definite way the study of this important phase of animal husbandry that the fol- 1 Prepared under the direction of C. H. Lane, Chief Specialist in Agricultural Education. Nore.—This bulletin is intended for the use of teachers of elementary agriculture. 27820°—18—Bull. 646——1 i be if It i i oy) SULLETIN 646, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lowing lessons are outlined. Each lesson topic affords ample material for one or more recitation periods. Practical exercises.—The principles set forth in these lessons should be given practical application by the pupils in the growing of pigs at home. Such practice is usually denominated ‘‘home project” work. Suggestions in this connection under the heading ‘‘Practical exer- cises,’”’ are given with each lesson. Each member of the class should have charge of one or more pigs or assume responsibility for the care of hogs at home. References.—The publications referred to may be had from the United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., so long as available. Teachers and pupils should write to the State college of agriculture for publications on the subject. All reference material possible should be secured at the beginning of the year. Correlations. —Some suggestions are made in connection with each lesson topic as to the utilization of this subject in vitalizing the other subjects in the school curriculum. These correlation suggestions are not intended as a part of the lesson in connection with which they appear, but should be used with recitations in the other subjects. Teachers in rural schools should take advantage of every opportunity to give purpose to school instruction by connecting it with the prob- lems at the homes of the pupils. . NoTE TO THE TEACHER.—To make most effective the teaching of the lesson topics’ found in this publication the following points should be kept in mind and observed: (1) A monthly or seasonal sequence plan should be followed in the presentation of topics; (2) simple classroom exercises such as the working out of feeding rations should be performed; and (3) members of the class should carry on home work with pigs for profit. To have real educational value this home work should meet the following requirements: (a) The work with pigs should be a part of the regular instruc- tion in agriculture; (b) a definite plan should be followed in raising, feeding, and managing pigs; (c) the parents of pupils should agree to and approve the home work of pupils; (d) the home work should be carefuily supervised by some competent person; and (e) detailed records of labor, methods, expenditures, and incomes should be kept and reported upon in writing by the pupil. LESSON I. TOPIC: TYPES AND BREEDS. ~ Time.—Early fall. Lesson outline. —There are two types of swine, namely, the fat or lard type, and the bacon type. Both types are found to a greater or less extent in most parts of the country and are the outcome of local conditions rather than market requirements. The lard type prevails in sections where corn is used as the principal feed, and the bacon type is generally found on farms where corn is scarce and market conditions warrant the production of this type of hog. The lard type (fig. 1) of hogs is one which has a compact, thick, deep, smooth body and is capable of fattening rapidly and maturing early. PORK PRODUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 3 The hams, back, and shoulders are the most valuable parts and should be developed to the greatest possible extent. The whole body of the animal should be covered with a thick layer of flesh representing the extreme development of meat production. This type of hog, under good conditions, should weigh 200 pounds or more when 7 to 9 months of age. This is the most popular market weight. Due to the facts that corn is the most abundant hog feed and lard hogs mature very early, this type predominates. The most popular breeds of the lard type are the Berkshire, the Poland-China, the Duroc-Jersey, the Chester White, and the Hamp- shire. The Berkshire had its origin in England and takes its name from a shire or county by that name. The color is black with white mark- Fig.1.—The lard type. ings in the face, on the feet, and on the tip of the tail. The face is moderately dished and the snout is of medium length. The ears are usually erect, though they may incline forward in aged animals. _ The Poland-China originated in Butler and Warren Counties, Ohio. The breed takes its name from the two breeds from the crossing of which it is supposed to have resulted, namely, a Poland breed and a Chinese breed. The color is black with white on feet, face, and tail. The face is nearly straight and the jowl is full and heavy. The ears should be firmly attached with the tip drooped. The Duroc-Jersey had its origin in the blending of two red breeds, the Jersey Reds of New Jersey and the Durocs of New York. The color is cherry or yellowish red. The face is slightly dished, the snout is of medium length, and the ear is drooped. | ee ee ee 4 BULLETIN 646, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The original Chester White had its origin in Chester County, Pa., hence the name. ‘There are two other strains known as the Improved Chester White or Todd’s Improved Chester White, and the Ohio Improved Chester White, commonly known as the OIC strain. The color is white. The face is straight; the snout is usually longer than that of the Poland-China. The ear is drooped. In general conformation the Chester White and Poland-China are very much alike. The Hampshire breed was formerly known by the name of Thin Rind. The breed seems to have had its origin in Hampshire, England. The color is black with a white belt 4 to 12 inches wide encircling the Fic. 2.—The bacon type. body and including the forelegs. The face is straight and the ear inclines forward but does not droop. The bacon type (fig. 2) differs from the lard type in that the animals are more active, have longer legs and stronger bones, and do not carry as much fat as the latter. Their bodies are longer than those of the lard hogs. The hams and shoulders are light but the bodies are deep and wide. The most popular market weight ranges from 175 to 200 pounds. The most common breeds of this type are the Tamworth and the Yorkshire. The Tamworth is of English origin and takes its name from Tam- worth in Staffordshire. The color varies from a golden red to a chestnut shade. The face is practically straight, the snout is long and straight, and the ear is inclined slightly forward. PORK PRODUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 5 The large Yorkshire breed originated in England and takes the name of the shire of that name. The color is white. The face is slightly dished and the snout is of medium length. The ears are large and erect, but may incline forward in old animals. Study questions.—Name the types of hogs. Give the distinguish- ing points of each type. Name the leading breeds of each type. Briefly describe each breed. What other breeds are found in the community? Describe each. To which type does each belong? For what purposes are hogs grown in the community? Home meat supply? Market? References.—Farmers’ Bulletin 765. Practical exercises —Make a hog survey of the community, using the accompanying table for tabulating the facts collected. Community Hoe SurRvVEY. Memerar pupils 22. 20-20-2500. 22. DATOS RASS Ga Aine Cure en AME samme as Males. Sows. Small pigs. Large pigs. Total. | Notes. Value. - Num- al nar a eae | Pure bred. | | | | GHIRGUING 555 so aae eee eee Pevepebeeetoret | esterecsictal| repereteie = | store ela | Saree neta leeiapsre miners oe ene eines OMICS CHINO merry na seiccac cscee cc secs eeclecosece Beeaeoraatsenee [ponze oe Bocread sasaosa eopeane | IDISERC OTSA © oo Ss a aa a ee HC I Leone eae eee a Saeseee Peaceee lige 2 Cinastigre WIRHOs = cade crenata eee aa ee (eee ane) eed Pcie Mall ere a hoe Ree gS | ae [Saat Real ae SUETDR/OWIO. +. ccoscons ussesee Saaseee GoBe sao osassaq] Boosaco osacene "oooa.ce6 leccocec|eoscces lSeossc cocoons SW OHESINIIG. 3.5 Ba teb Goa RoROR EEG eae aE Cea ea = ane PAS 3 Seana cee Se ieeaenic Screen el Seca ua riectses pea ne.c Eta S MING Mesos cla\- eee ease ieee ews se eecnn PSE ||: Bepesneee se meme soe escell emesis cme (eres aeebeoe Grades. | | | | | PANG ORL ers swine Sess se eee oaece Soe ce ISOS CREE Sere Sere eH eS eaetel PE Seats ey Saini eae ee eae ya WOH SSIMITRO . 5 Se SESE tes ane OT nea a ens ee ete ene ene 5 emainns eee TELSTAR OS MD) 5 a SEER O EE ORE ao a eS rc Lo rey RSE eye te arg een es ree See E See Se eee et pate! SaEsee SIHHND. +. osooseeseacey paEee ce ebeeeSs BoronEs See nposein cae secu ae aocaase saddsoe sSc5ens conse oeagouc Grand total... -.. | EP pteres por 29eee° ie sjpese sgpmer eae we a | RENIN) Pea oh Nt Noh ad PRE: | Correlations.—Few people know how to make tabulations of facts or to interpret statistical tables made by others. Exercises of this kind can be made a most important part of the written work of the pupils. Such work is provided in the foregoing “practical exercise.”’ In addition to written work, facts are provided by such a tabulation for exercises in arithmetic adapted to the advancement of the pupils. Compare the geographical conditions of the community with those sections in which various breeds of hogs originated. Require the pupils to make sketches of the different breeds of hogs found in the community, placing special emphasis upon the charac- teristic features of each breed. 6 BULLETIN 646, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LESSON IL. TOPIC: HOUSES. Time.—Harly fall. Lesson ouiline.—Location: A well-drained site should be selected and, if possible, should have sufficient elevation to give the hogs a climb in reaching it. If practicable the house should occupy the south side of a hill. Principles of construction: Four important things should be observed in hog-house construction; namely, light, ventilation, warmth, and cleanliness. Light is provided by placing the house along a north and south line and by putting in suitable doors and Fic. 3.—Large or community house. windows. Doors, windows, and roof ventilation furnish a proper interchange of air. Hogs need good ventilation as well as people. A well-constructed house with good floor and bedding provides sufficient warmth. Let it be remembered that the hog has little natural protection from cold; hence the necessity for comfortable quarters. Cement makes a satisfactory floor, but in colder climates must be covered with wooden false floors. A good floor makes it much easier to keep the house clean. The arrangement of the house should be such that the beds and feed floors are well separated. Kinds of houses: There are two general classes of houses—large community or stationary (fig. 3), and small individual or movable (fig. 4). The large house has individual pens and is intended for PORK PRODUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. Hy quite a number of hogs. The advantages of the large house are: It is more economical for a large number of hogs; it is convenient for feeding and affords provisions for saving manure. If the house is to be quite large it is usually advisable to arrange the pens in two rows with an alley way between. The alley should be 4 to 6 feet wide unless it is desirable to have space for the passing of a wagon. In that event the alley should be 8 to 10 feet wide. The individual house, as the name suggests, is intended for one hog or for a sow and her brood. One decided advantage of the imdivid- ual or portable house is that it can be moved from place to place Fie. 4.—Individual or colony house. and can thus be kept sanitary and made accessible to pastures. There are two general styles of individual houses, namely, the box- shaped with four upright walls and the A-shaped. The dimensions should be 6 feet by 10 feet, or 8 feet by 8 feet. Wooden floors are good, but not necessary. The floor should be higher than the outside level of the ground, to insure dryness. All houses should be suf- ficiently high to permit the attendant to move about them with comparative freedom. By placing fenders on the walls a few inches from the floor, individual houses may be used for farrowing pens. Farrowing pens: When a number of sows are kept on a farm it may be desirable to have a regular farrowing pen. A small house pro- , 8 BULLETIN 646, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. vided with fenders (fig. 5) serves as a farrowing pen. Fenders may be made of 2 by 6 inch scantling and firmly attached to the walls of the pen some 6 inches above the floor. The object of the fender is to prevent the sow overlying young pigs. Study questions—What constitutes a good location for a hog house? What are the essentials of a good hog house? Name, describe, and give advantages of the different kinds of hog houses. What kinds of hog houses are found in the community? Which kind is most commonly used? Which seems most satisfactory ? References.—Farmers’ Bulletins 438 and 566. Fic. 5.—A small house provided with fenders. Practical exercises.—(1) Take the class to visit a modern hog house inthe community. Take notes on its location, construction, purpose, and accessories. Make a sketch of the general plan and arrangement. (2) When a visit is impracticable, have members of the class make written reports covering points mentioned in Exercise 1 as to hog houses at theirown homes. (3) Pig-project members should provide proper housing for their pigs. . The individual house is suitable for pig-project work. Correlations. —Written work and drawing work are provided in the practical exercises. Arithmetic: Finding the amount of material, its cost, and the cost of construction of the hog house visited or the houses reported upon by the members of the class provides splendid exercises in arithmetic. PORK PRODUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 9 LESSON III. TOPIC: SWINE JUDGING. Time.—F all. Before fairs. . Lesson outline.—Purpose: To know that a hog possesses the neces- sary qualities for laying on fat or producing good bacon, or for trans- mitting such qualities to its offspring is important in connection with profitable swine production. There are certain characteristics peculiar to the fat or lard type of hog and the same is true of the bacon type. Those either directly or prospectively interested in swine production should be able to recognize those characteristics. Hence the necessity for judging swine. Fic. 6.—Parts of the hog: 1, snout; 2, eye; 3, face; 4, ear; 5, jowl; 6, neck; 7, shoulder; 8, foreleg; 9, hind- leg; 10, breast; 11, chestline; 12, back; 13, loin; 14, side; 15, tail; 16, fore flank; 17, hind flank; 18, hip; 19, rump; 20, belly; 21, ham; 22, stifle; 23, hock; 24, pasterns; 25, dewclaws; 26, foot. Parts of the hog (fig. 6): Before attempting the use of the score ecard the pupils should become familiar with the locations and names of the parts of the hog. The accompanying diagram with its legend should be studied carefully before using the score card. The score cards: These are merely guides in making detailed studies of the hogs. Arbitrary values are assigned to the various points to emphasize their relative importance. The accompanying score cards should be studied carefully to enable the pupils to become familiar with them before attempting to use them. As much practice as possible should then be given in judging both fat and bacon types of hogs. The teacher should arrange for visits to farms of the community where pure-bred hogs are kept. 27820°—18—Bull. 646——2 — 10 BULLETIN 646, Us S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SCORE CARDS. ScorE CarD FoR LarpD Hoes. Register No....-.. : General appearance, 36: Weight, score’according toage22 > =a 2 ones noe beree ee a ses eee ee oe Form, deep, broad, low, long, symmetrical compact, standing squarely onlees: 202222 - sos) tose ane ae oe Soe as) Oe ee ee Quality, hair silky; skin fine; bone fine; flesh smooth, mellow, and ireeiromilumps or wrinkless 2. (eee se - eee ee oo ae Condition, deep, even covering of flesh, especially in regions of val- MADIO CUES Senne nee eee eee oe eae = eee ee eae oe ee eee neee Head and neck, 6: Snoutamediumueupih mot Coarse ea aren pee eae eee aa ee Hyes follaild brehp ss, eset ek eee ee ce ai alae Wace; Short.cheeksillh: a aio. See = semen aa ee inns eee ee comes Wars, fine .mediunt size; SOlt =: 22) -cene ess oe eee oe oe see eee Jowl; strong, neat, broad. ...- o2 25" ene sae: ee eeeseee- soe ne ae oe ce ee Neck thick, mediumilength: 22). 252 eee. 3 s-see ene ae oe ew ee eee Fore quarters, 10: Shoulders, broad, deep, full, compact on top.........--..--..-..----- Breast, AGVAnCed «WidG spose een eee ee a eee ae eee eee eee Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns upright; feet MECN SIZES Joos: ce ete eee ene eee ane Aer eee eae Body, 30: Chest, deep: broad? large girth: =. 25.22 5552-0 eee os oc 2 ee Soe Sides, deep, lengthy, full; ribs close and well sprung........--.---..-- Back, broad, straight, thickly and evenly fleshed---......---..-.-.... Loin} wide; thick-straiphite == 5 5222 scenes = aoa ee ae eee | ‘Belly, straight; even..2-.--<2< sass. ccc oe ore = Bee 2 ee eee eee Hind quarters, 18: Hips) wideapart, SMOODM: 22.222. see. eens ts eee ee eee Rump, long, wide, evenly fleshed, straight.........------.-----..--.- Ham, heavily fleshed, plump, full, deep, wide...--.----.-.-----...-.- ‘Thighse fleshed close to hocks: 2) re, 2-12 nc ee se eee ee Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns upright: feet MCGINM SIZE oo es 2s Sea oe ease ses sn oe asap aa ee eee ee Student’s | Corrected score. score. a PORK PRODUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. ital: Score Carp ror Bacon Hoes. reed Mer aera iaiearc. 2s INDI 2s Sees Sj a eee Register No..-.-.-.. Perfect | Student’s | Corrected score. score. score. General appearance, 36: : c pyeent , 170 to 200 pounds, largely the result of thick covering of firm # HGS cc csccocesccocosente rs soocoseedessesenssesesecasecsteceesesced| — _ Ilecoseoccessleesoseasase Form, long, level, smooth, deep-.....-.-.-.--.-..-------- aocoopseceos LON eee tees NE eee oc Quality, hair fine, skin thin; bone fine; firm, even covering of flesh without any soft bunches of fat or wrinkles.....-.-....------------ LOM Slse egasa| ssh ee ees Condition, deep, uniform covering of flesh, especially in regions of Wel GEIS GUUS. oo scscosscecess see sdessoccoeseoeesseseconscosassssoees LOM © sae [Po eeear Head and neck, 6: SEC, HOG. 6 ce co Ga dace cd 1Oe ba Ge OnE w OF COBO ERB ED = so ES eHCranecBeaooue 1, Ee seee cera bett een) DGS, WOU Tan), foe NS ooo aa eat sa se OBSAMEeS eco aessaeas se seee See | 1 Oe hee) Ses er la ae reer INC SUP. «2s oe secon 55s sconce sencquescoeueseso: sensccseenaseeEEoee I BS Soens her eeadapeeres IDES, (Jin, MGC SWB 5 ocoscccsceasas soe sses2oeeesessonese=se5 [te Re eee leeceea aac Jowl, light, trim.-....-- Jno gosensans cee secesesbasass22cocesecosoneesames | dh leg gee tee eel adioasac Neckamedinmilenst hon Ge ener ss ss cacis- - 22 nse ee eee meni einai le SaaS Rea eee cetee encore Fore quarters, 10: : Shoulders, free from roughness, smooth, compact, and same width Se paAcksan GMM Gt UAaGbCLS eer eee ee eee ea = =o eee ee ee cima eis aise Gills eee eee eee eeeics Breast moderate lyawide; mull * so 5425 ii-1= 3- ee eee seeeee Eee == OO ease ete a | A es Cee Legs, straight, short, strong; bone clean; pasterns upright, short; feet MEGNTTN S17. cascdoveododsasJousHece Sebo e BB EEBoS Soap OBooncEaeBESaee 7 SEE Ha Deas ome Body, 34: ; ieiesEmdeapmillcinth- sen: =o) «esse 2h... 267d Pee ee he ee ee here oe Back, medium and uniform in width, smooth, slightly arched-.-....-.-- 6535] [em ee gra grein {otters ee ete Sides, long, smooth, level from beginning of shoulders to end of hind quarters. The side at all points should touch a straight edge run- MincgiroOntOre LO;MInG (uarten sq -eesere-2- )=sehe eee ceases 1D) | Se Nee ae ole EDU SCG CE Deere ioe oe ot fenls 2 se sla nie oan sine S)s one Se cieeetisio seco 4 ae Sean nol eee cae Belly, trim, firm, thick without any flabbiness or shrinkage at flank. -| IKON ae ess ae Seal cies ooo coe Hind quarters, 14: Hips, smooth, wide; proportionate to rest of body....-..-.-.---.----- Die | ket Sm ie 8. eter Rump, long, even, straight, rounded toward tail.......-.-......-....-| ON Sateen ee Sel oes eae Gammon, firm ,rounded,tapering, fleshed deep, and low toward hocks. ii colle, Sei NG 2 ae Legs, straight, short, strong, feet medium size; bone clean; pasterns MEAS Leeeeeeeeoe ees io aise am iesince = seine at iene mena ee eee De oe eee rere | ee ses sRotaleemeeereer aa os ie csc cee ee tome eal oeeocce ee ee ci semeinee 1010) eee see eo |e eee a J ReSHPRYe Tr ES nj eS SNS Sen ee A na NS peat ila PU pee com SIRE Gl DUD SS ee ee eee are ae eee eae rae Datesiae tere eee Siudy quesiions.—What is the purpose of judging swine? What is ascore card? What are the characteristics of a good fat or lard hog? Bacon hog? What are the purposes of the fat or lard hog? Bacon hog? In what respects do the two types differ? Which is better adapted to the community? Have each member of the class make an outline diagram showing the parts of the hog. Name the parts. References.—Farmers’ Bulletin 566. Get State agricultural college publications. Practical exercises.—(1) The teacher should arrange to give mem- bers of the class practice in judging different breeds of pure-bred hogs in the community. Where practicable, secure the assistance of the county demonstration agent or some person especially qualified in this respect. The class should judge the pigs owned by project members. (2) If a community or county fair is conducted the teacher should take advantage of it to give the members of the class an opportunity to study and judge the best hogs in the community or county. Correlations.—Require the members of the class to make several copies of the score cards for their personal use. Making outline diagrams of hogs showing the parts of the hog affords practice in drawing. 12 BULLETIN 646, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LESSON IV. TOPIC: FATTENING MEAT HOGS. Time.—Early fall. Lesson outline.—It is too expensive to fatten hogs entirely on corn and other concentrated feed; hence the necessity for fall pastures and — other supplementary feed. During the first part of the fattening period the hogs should have access to good pastures such as cowpeas, soy beans, or peanuts in the South, and alfalfa or clover in the North and West. During this period some concentrated feed should be used to supplement the pastures. It is estimated that fattening hogs when ~ on good pasture should be fed about 2 to 4 per cent of their weight daily of concentrated feed. After the pastures are exhausted the Fic. 7.—‘Hogging down” corn. hogs should be placed in a small lot and finished off with concentrated feed. Durimg the finishing off period the animals should receive daily 4 to 6 per cent of their weight of concentrated feed. The practice of ‘hogging down”’ corn (fig. 7) has come to be a desirable method of fattening hogs in some sections. The advantage of this method is that the farmer’s time is not consumed in gathering and feeding the corn to the hogs. To balance the ration and supply succulent food, it is well to grow with the corn such crops as cowpeas, — soy beans, peanuts, rape, pumpkins, and the like. Where peanuts, — cowpeas, or soy beans can not be grown it is necessary to feed the hogs ~ alfalfa hay to balance the ration during early stages of the fattening © period. When hogs are being finished off in a small lot corn will, as a rule, © constitute the principal part of the ration, yet it should be supple- p. PORK PRODUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 18 mented with nitrogenous and succulent feeds. The following com- binations are suggested as rations: 1. Corn, 2 parts, wheat middlings, 1 part. 2. Corn, 2 parts, soy-bean meal, 1 part. 3. Corn, 5 parts, linseed meal, 1 part. 4. Corn, 9 parts, tankage, 1 part. 5. Corn, 1 part, wheat middlings 1 part, skim milk, 6 parts. Hogs should be kept clean, ample fresh water supplied, and smal quantities of succulent feed provided during the finishing-off period. Siudy questions—What forage crops are grown in the community as grazing crops for hogs? What concentrated feeds are used to supplement corn for fattening hogs during the finishing-off period ? Have each member of the class submit a statement showing the method of fattening practiced at his own home. This should include the pasture crops, the feed used to supplement pastures and the rations fed during the finishing-off process. References.—F armers’ Bulletins 874, 411, and 913. Write to the agricultural college of the State for bulletins on the feeding or fatten- ing of hogs. Praciical exercises.—(1) Students carrying on home projects with hogs should have pasturage for their hogs that are to be fattened. Select the pigs to be fattened. Make out rations of concentrated feeds, using those food materials that can be used most economically. These will usually include home-grown feeds. (2) Members of the class that are not carrying on home projects with pigs should assume charge of the feeding and care of the fattening hogs at home. If fecding is to be done intelligently the hogs should be weighed at the beginning of the fattening period and at intervals of a week or 10 days thereafter. The weights of the hogs provide a basis for calculating the proper amount of feed. Correlaiions.—Written reports of methods employed in fattening hogs at the homes of the pupils provide language work. Calculating rations and the amounts of different kinds of feed needed to fatten the hogs of project members or at the homes of pupils provides interesting exercises in arithmetic. The cost of the ‘materials used in the rations should be based on local prices. LESSON V. TOPIC: SELECTING BREEDING STOCK. Time.—Late fall or early winter. Lesson outline.—Importance of the brood sow: Influence of the sow upon the offspring is just as great as that of the male. Mis- mating cr a poor sow will not only give unsatisfactory results in breeding, but it will likely discourage the beginning breeder. This latter fact would be especially true of a youth carrying on a home ‘project with swine. 14 BULLETIN 646, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Qualities of a good sow: If possible, secure a pure-bred animal of a good strain. The forehead should be broad, the throat clean and trim, the neck moderately thin, the shoulders smooth and deep, the back wide and straight, the chest wide and deep, sides straight and deep, the body long and capacious, pelvic region broad and well developed, legs straight and moderately short, and a generally refined appearance; yet overrefinement may indicate a delicate constitu- tion. If a number of brood sows are to be used they should be uniform in type. This is necessary to secure a uniform lot of pigs. It is very unsatisfactory and unprofitable in breeding to have litters of pigs varying in appearance and lacking uniformity. To insure a uniform result it is advisable to select sows from a well-established strain of hogs. Importance of the male: As was indicated in the case of the sow, both parents have practically the same influence on the quality of the offspring; however, the male has the greater influence on the entire herd, since every pig is sired by the male, whereas all pigs do not have the same dam. While too much stress can not be placed on the importance of the sow, if possible the male should be superior to the sow. Regardless of the type of the sow, a poor male should never be used. Qualities of a good male: Secure a pure-bred animal of a good strain. The masculine characteristics should be strongly developed, especially in the head and neck; the back should be broad, arched and deeply fleshed; sides deep and long; quarters well developed; legs straight and strong. The animal should stand well up on his toes. Mating: Overrefined sows should be mated to rather masculine males, and coarse sows should be mated to males of high quality in- dicated by fine bone, skin and hair. Study questions. —Compare the importance of the sow and the male. If there are pupils in the class doing home project work with pigs, have them compare their brood sows with the qualities set forth as desirable. If members of the class contemplate buying a brood sow or securing the services of a male, they should apply the standards set forth in the lesson. References.—¥armers’ Bulletins 874 and 566. Practical exercises —(1) Members of the class who are beginning home projects with swine should select and secure their breeding stock. (2) Those who have grown a litter of pigs should select the animals best adapted to breeding purposes and dispose of them as such. Other pigs should be fattened for meat or disposed of for that purpose. Correlations.—Have pupils write a brief description of a desirable brood sow. PORK PRODUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 15 LESSON VI. TOPIC: DRESSING AND CURING MEAT. Time.—Midwinter. Lesson outline.—Dressing. Killing: This is done by inserting a knife with a narrow straight blade 8 inches long into the hog’s throat just in front of the breastbone. The point of the knife should be directed toward the root of the tail in line with the backbone. When the knife has been inserted 6 or 8 inches it should be given a quick turn and withdrawn. Scalding and scraping: In scalding the best results are had by using water at a temperature of 185° to 195°. Boiling water placed in a cold barrel is ordinarily reduced to a proper temperature. If the water is too cool much time is required in removing the hair and if it is too hot the hair 1s likely to set. A shovelful of hard wood ashes, a lump of lime, a handful of soap, a little pine tar or tablespoonful of lye helps to loosen the hair. The hog should not be scalded before life is extinct or the surface blood will be cooked, giving the body a reddish tinge. While being scalded the hog should be kept constantly moving. As soon as the hair and scurf slip easily from the surface scalding is complete. If the water is too hot scald the hind end first; if not, scald the front end in order to get a good scald on the head, which is difficult to clean. Clean the head and feet first. The hands and a knife or a candlestick scraper are all that are necessary to remove the hair.. After the hair is practically ali removed rinse the body with hot water and shave the remaining hairs with a sharp knife. Raise the gambrel cords, insert the stick and hang up the hog. Removing the entrails: Split the hog between the hind legs, separating the bones by cutting through the joint with a knife. Next run the knife down the middle line of the body, guiding with the right hand and shielding the point with the left hand. Split the breastbone with a knife or an axe and continue the cut on down to the chin. Remove the entrails. Open the jaw and insert a small block to allow free drainage. Wash out all the blood with cold water. The carcass should now be allowed to cool over night. If the weather is warm remove the backbone to hasten cooling. Cutting (fig. 8): Pork may be cut as soon as thoroughly cool. Remove the head back of the ears, remove the backbone and the sparerib, cut off the shoulders between the fourth and fifth ribs, and cut off the hams 2 inches in front of the pelvic bones. Trim the hams to smooth rounded pieces. Remove the fat from all parts and take out the loin. Cut the sides into two or three pieces. Curing meat: The meat should be allowed to cool thoroughly before it is salted. If the weather is cool, 24 to 36 hours is suffic:ent time to allow for this purpose. | 16 BULLETIN 646, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A clean hardwood barrel is a suitable vessel in which to cure meat. To insure cleanliness, scald the barrel thoroughly. Salt, saltpeter, and sugar or molasses are used most commonly as preservatives. Too much saltpeter should not be used, as it is harmful to the health. Two to four ounces per 100 pounds of meat is as much as it is well to — use. Salt and saltpeter have a tendency to dry out and harden the — meat, hence by adding a little sugar or molasses the meat is softened — and the flavor isimproved. For each 100 pounds of meat use 5 pounds of salt, 2 pounds of granulated sugar, and 2 ounces of saltpeter. Mix them thoroughly and rub the meat once every three days with a third of the mixture. The brine-cured meats are considered best for farm use. Brine is less troublesome and at the same time gives better protection against insects and vermin. During warm weather brine should be watched Fic. 8.—Cuts of pork: 1, head; 2, shoulder; 3, loin; 4, belly; 5, ham. Pure-bred Berkshire barrow. carefully. If it becomes ropy it should be reboiled or new brine made. Ten pounds of salt, 2 ounces of saltpeter dissolved in 4 gallons of boiling water should be used to each 100 pounds of meat. Cool the brine before pouring it over the meat. Meat should remain in the brine three to four days for every pound of meat in each piece. After the meat has been cured thoroughly by one of the foregomg methods it should be smoked. The meat should be washed thor- oughly and permitted to drip before the smoking process begins. The smoke should be provided by a slow fire of some hard wood, such as green hickory or maple. In the winter months the smoke should be kept going continuously until the smoking is completed. During the spring and summer a light fire should be kept going a day at a time every two or three days. This intermittent smoking should be kept up for two weeks, then provide a continuous smoke for 24 to 36 hours and the smoking is completed. Study questions.—Secure a written report from each member of the class covering the following: How are hogs butchered? What devices are used in scalding and in elevating the carcass for dressing? What instruments are used in dressing the carcass and in cutting up the meat? What vessels are used in which to cure the meat? What preservatives are used for curing? Give the proportions of the pre- serving materials used. References.—Farmers’ Bulletin 913. Write to the State agricul- tural college for publications on dressing and curing meat. Practical exercises. —Make a study of the community’s pork pro- duction: (a) How many hogs butchered at each farm? (b) The dressed weight of each hog? (c) The total weight of the hogs dressed on the farms of the community? (d) The value at local prices of the pork dressed in the community? (e) The amount of dressed pork sold and shipped out of the community? (f) The number and value of all the fat hogs sold and shipped out of the community ? Tabulate these facts. Correlations.—Collecting and tabulating the facts called for in prac- tical exercises provide language and arithmetic exercises. Geography: Does the community produce its supply of pork? If not, in what markets is it purchased? The returns from what money crop are spent for pork? If the community has a surplus of pork, in what markets is it sold? Are other products bought in the same markets? Could they be home grown? PORK PRODUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 17 LESSON VII. TOPIC: SOW AND PIG MANAGEMENT. Time.—Spring or fall. Lesson outline.—Care and feed of the sow: Many farmers have their sows farrow during the months of March and April and in the early fall months in the South. Since the weather is often severe in north- | ern sections during March and April, care should be taken to protect \ the sow from cold. Give her enough straw to make a warm bed, but | not so much as to allow the little pigs to get covered and crushed. The sow should have clean water but nothing else for the first 24 | hours after the pigs arrive. | On the second day a thin bran mash or skim milk will be relished. | Feed moderately for the first week. A mixture of two parts of corn and one of middlings may be fed in increasing amounts until the | sow is eating a full feed. If skim milk can be fed in addition to the grain, there is nothing better to make the sow give a full flow of milk. Another good grain mixture for the sow at this time is six parts of corn and one of oil meal. If skim milk is available, the sow will do well on 4 pounds of milk to 1 of corn. A full grain ration for a day should never be more than 4 per cent of the sow’s live weight. If the sow can be put on alfalfa, clover, bluegrass, or rape pasture, less 18 BULLETIN 646, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. corn will be required. A corn ration of about 2 per cent of the sow’s_ live weight with good pasture makes a cheap and adequate supply. Care and feed of the young pigs: Assoon as the little pigs begin to eat they will do best if fed additional slop in a separate pen and away from — their mother and the larger pigs. This can be done by having a pen or a lot where choice clover or other forage crop is growing to which the pigs may have access, but where the opening is so small that the larger pigs can not pass through. When the young pigs are from 8 to 10 weeks old they should be weaned. ‘This often causes a serious © check in their growth, but should not do so. When it is desirable to wean the pigs put the mother in a pen leaving a creep for the pigs. Feed the sow sparingly; give water instead of slop and have the grain ration dry. While the sow is receiving a maintenance ration the pigs should be fed all they will consume without waste. A ration consisting of such feeds as skim milk, middlings, corn, and green forage will satisfy the pigs’ appetites and simplify the weaning. Study questions.—What advantages are there in having sows far- row during the early sprmg months? What precautions should be taken to protect young pigs from severe weather? Give directions for the care of the sow after the arrival of the pigs. Give directions — for the care of the pigs until weaned; after weaning. References.—Farmers’ Bulletins 874 and 566. Secure State agri- cultural college publications on the subject. Practical exercises —(1) Students who have home projects with swine should secure a pig and begin to give it attention. If it is the purpose of the boy to go into the work more extensively he should — have a sow and litter of pigs to care for. Observe instructions in~ this lesson. (2) Boys in the class who are not carrying on projects with pigs — should assume responsibility for the care of a sow and litter of pigs © from the time the pigs arrive until they are weaned. Correlations.—Arithmetic: The entire expense in connection with the project should be kept. In projects including a sow and litter of pigs, the feed of the sow should be charged against the pigs until the pigs are weaned. Cash accounting with the growing of the pigs provides exercises in arithmetic. LESSON VIII. TOPIC: FORAGE CROPS. Time.—Spring. Lesson outline.—Importance: The successful and economical pro- duction of pork depends in a large measure upon good permanent pastures supplemented by other forage crops. There shouid be on an average 1 acre of permanent pasture for each brood sow kept. Green forage is little more than a maintenance ration, and if rapid gains are desired hogs should have a liberal allowance of grain. Growing PORK PRODUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 19 forage crops and grazing them off is a good method of improving soils lacking in organic matter. Kinds of crops: (a) For the cotton belt Bermuda, bur clover, white clover and Lespedeza make good permanent pastures. These should be supplemented by small grains and rape for winter, crimson clover and vetch for spring, cowpeas (fig. 9) and sorghum for summer, corn with soy beans, velvet beans or peanuts for fall. ()) For the Central and Middle Atlantic States, including the bluegrass region, bluegrass should be used largely for permanent pasture. It should be supplemented by rye (fig. 10) for winter, rape (fig. 11) for spring, red clover for spring and summer, corn with soy beans and rape for Fig. 9.—Grazing cowpeas. fall. (c) For the Northern and Eastern States bluegrass or redtop provides permanent pasture. Supplementary grazing should be furnished by oats and peas for spring, rape and red clover for sum- mer, and early field cornforfall. (d) For the West grazing is fur- nished by alfalfa and corn. Corn should be “hogged down.” Study questions.—What is the value of the permanent pasture ? Why are supplementary crops necessary? What grazing crops are used in the community for permanent hog pastures? What supple- mentary grazing crops are grown? Make out a list of seasonal succession crops for supplementary grazing adapted to the com- munity. Compare this list with the crops suggested for your sec- tion of the country. References.—Farmers’ Bulletins 874, 272* ,331*,411,566,599*. Write to the State agricultural college for publications relating to the subject. 20 BULLETIN 646, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fig. 10.—Grazing rye. Practical exercises.—(1) Students carrying on home projects with pigs should provide pasturage and supplementary grazing. At least 1 acre of a good permanent pasture should be provided for the Fig. 11.—Grazing rape. brood sow and her litter of pigs. Seasonal supplementary crops” should also be grown. At least three-tenths of an acre of each crop” should be provided for each mature hog. * May be obtained only from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Wash- ~ ington, D. C. Ps a PORK PRODUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 21 (2) Make a study of the permanent pastures of the community with reference to the type or types of soil used, the kind or kinds of grass crop, the period of the year during which grazing is afforded, the life in years of each kind of permanent pasture, the method of planting or seeding, the number of acres in permanent pasture on each farm, the total pasture acreage in the community, the percent- age of arable land devoted to pasturage, and the average number of hogs an acre of pasture supports. Correlations.—Tabulating the information called for in Exercise 2 provides written work and exercises in arithmetic. LESSON IX. TOPIC: SANITATION AND DISEASES. Time.—Spring. Lesson outline.—Sanitation: Hogs should be provided with clean, dry, well-ventilated quarters. Feeding places should be kept clean Fig. 12.—A cement wallow—a desirable type. and the water supply pure. Hogs should be allowed access only to streams the sources and courses of which are known to be uncon- taminated. Wallows (fig. 12) should be kept clean and supplied constantly with clean water. The houses and immediate premises should be thoroughly disinfected (fig. 13) once a month with air- slaked lime or a 5 per cent solution of crude carbolic acid. Animals that show indications of sickness should be immediately isolated YY BULLETIN 646, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and the premises thoroughly disinfected. New hogs brought to the farm should be isolated or quarantined for two weeks before they are permitted to run with the herd. Hog lice: Hogs, and especially young pigs, often suffer much from. this cause. When numerous, lice are a serious drain on vitality, fattening is prevented by them, and hogs so affected are very much more subject to disease. To eradicate lice, dip, spray, or rub hogs: with crude oil, crude-oil emulsion, or fee eal emulsion overag 10 days for three or four applications. Fe ee SP a hee wok i ee a SO rr eae ee ne ee, eee ee r= ss SET AT ETS PONE Te hi a Fic. 13.—Disinfecting a hog house. SP iecesce ES Mange: (a) This very troublesome affection with hogs is caused by a mite or parasite that pricks the skin of the hog to get tissue | fluid. This injury produces a red spot which finally results in a 4) scale under which mites may be found. (6) The symptoms are itch- ing followed by a loss of hair and thickening and cracking of the skin. (c) Treat mange by applying lime sulphur or nicotine dip once every 10 days for three dippings. Hogs should be washed thor- oughly with soap, water, and brush before dipping, to remove the scales. Hog cholera: (a) The real cause of hog cholera is a very small germ found in the blood or urine. It may be said that anything which tends to lower the health of the animal, such as improper feeding, insanitary conditions of hog lots, damp or cold sleeping places, and. ii ] PORK PRODUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 23 dirty drinking and feeding troughs may be regarded as an indirect cause. Since the disease can only be started by the introduction of the germ into the herd, and the organism is always present in the bodies of sick hogs and is thrown off in the feces and urine, the most dan- gerous factor in spreading the disease is the sick animal. It may get into the herd by sick hogs escaping from a neighboring herd, by the purchase of new stock not showing symptoms, by re- turning show hogs after visits to fairs or stockyards, and by the purchase of hogs which apparently have recovered. Fig. 14.—Scrubbing and cleaning the part preparatory to injecting the serum. (b) The symptoms are not constant and uniform, therefore the disease can not always be diagnosed with absolute certainty. Ani- mals suffering from intestinal troubles, indigestion, and poisoning exhibit symptoms which closely resemble those of cholera. In the early stages, hogs huddle together; have high temperatures (105 to 107° F. or higher); are constipated; the feces often streaked with blood; a characteristic odor is present; and after the third or fourth day diarrhea develops. As death approaches there is usually a reddening of the skin on the under surface of the body, snout, and ears. This turns into a purple color if death is delayed a day or two. There is a discharge of mucus from the eyes. Coughing may or may not be present. In chronic cases there is emaciation, and patient may linger for days and weeks. 94 BULLETIN 646, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. +: (c) Prevention is thebetter treatment. Separate sick animals from the herd at once. Vaccinate (figs. 14 and 15) the apparently healthy hogs with antihog-cholera serum. This serum only protects the hogs against cholera. It is a preventive and in no wise a cure. It is advisable to take the temperature of the hogs. This should not be more than 104° F. Burn or bury the carcasses of hogs that have died with the disease, disinfect all pens and yards after an outbreak of cholera. - Burn all t manure, litter, and straw, then apply a coat of coal tar. Pens should a, be situated so that they can be properly drained and cleaned. - — Fic. 15.—Injecting the serum in the flank. 4 Proper feeding, plenty of exercise, clean pens, and an abundance of sunshine will do a great deal toward protecting hogs from cholera. Study questions.—What steps should be taken to prevent diseases — of hogs? What diseases are most commonly found in the commun-— ity? What diseases have proved most serious? What methods have — been employed to prevent or to eradicate diseases? What type or ~ types of dipping vats are used in the community? Have each mem- — ber of the class describe a vat that is used at his own home or at the home of a neighbor. Practical exercises.—Make a study of the diseases of hogs in the community for the preceding year with reference to the following — PORK PRODUCTION FOR RURAL SCHOOLS. 25 points: (a) The kinds of diseases, (6) the number of hogs affected by each disease, (c) the treatment used in connection with each disease, (d) the number of mature hogs lost from disease, (e) the estimated value of such hogs, (f) the number of pigs lost from disease, (g) the estimated value of the pigs, (2) and the total estimated value of all hogs lost from disease. These facts should be tabulated and pre- served for study. - Correlations. —Written work and arithmetic problems are involved in the foregoing practical exercises. PIG-CLUB WORK. In the use of this publication it is suggested that teachers apply the facts set forth in the lessons to the activities of the pig-club work. For full instructions on pig-club work and record books to be used by members of pig clubs, teachers and pupils should write to the extension divisions of the State agricultural colleges and to the United States Department of Agriculture. PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO HOGS. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Feeding Hogs in the South. (Farmers’ Bulletin 411.) Hog Houses. (Farmers’ Bulletin 438.) Boys’ Pig Clubs. (Farmers’ Bulletin 566.) Breeds of Swine. (Farmers’ Bulletin 765.) Castration of Pigs. (Farmers’ Bulletin 780.) Tuberculosis of Hogs. (Farmers’ Bulletin 781.) Live Stock Classification at County Fairs. (Farmers’ Bulletin 822.) Hog Cholera: Prevention and Treatment. (Farmers’ Bulletin 834.) Swine Management. (Farmers’ Bulletin 874.) The Self-Feeder for Hogs. (Farmers’ Bulletin 906.) Killing Hogs and Curing Pork. (Farmers’ Bulletin 913.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Pasture and Grain Crops for Hogs in the Pacific Northwest. (Farmers’ Bulletin 599.) Price, 5 cents. The Hog Industry. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 47.) Price, 30 cents. Etiology of Hog Cholera. (Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 72.) Price, 25 cents. Recent Work of Bureau of Animal Industry Concerning Cause and Prevention of Hog Cholera. (Separate 484 from Yearbook 1908.) Price, 5 cents. Feeding Dried Pressed Potatoes to Swine. (Department Bulletin 596.) Price, 5 — cents. Fish Meal as a Feed for Swine. (Department Bulletin 610.) Price, 5 cents. Disposal of City Garbage by Feeding to Hogs. (Office Secretary Circular 80.) Price, 5 cents. Swine Judging Suggestions for Pig-Club Members. (Office Secretary Circular 83.) Price, 5 cents. 26 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1918 BULLETIN No. 647 4 ~ Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. May 3, 1918 THE ARGENTINE ANT* INRELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. By J. R. Horton, Scientific Assistant, Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Insect Investigations.’ CONTENTS. Page. Page. iroductionsessoseecceorssess wn cscccesecincs 1 | Nests and protective structures of the Argen- General belief as to damage to orange trees... 2 UT EN pogopooocosoocosoRUDDoec oes sD000eC0u 52 General account of orange culture in Cultural conditions in ant-invaded vs. ant- Pe PEE ON erie Sk Sa 4 free orange groves in Louisiana............ 56 Distribution of the ant in the orange groves ‘DiSeLeus aaa ae He EDO ONS OQ! Bae BerheUniied States. pats 7 invaded groves in Louisiana............... 57 Feeding habits of the aa Ra era 8 Experiments in controlling the Argentine ant 60 altel shee eit eae a Summary and conclusions........2..ccccece O 71 Relations with insects injurious to citrus trees 15 Relations with insect enemies of scales and pHIdspeeseamawee cceise coceccccscecciseer et 48 INTRODUCTION. The Argentine ant (Jridomyrmex humilis Mayr) is a native of tropical America, occurring in Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uru- guay. It was first introduced into the United States at New Orleans about 30 years ago and was fairly numerous in parts of that city as early as 1891.2 A few years later it had become established thor- oughly in and around New Orleans and was causing great annoyance as a household, garden, and field pest. Early it was carried to Cali- fornia, where it has become established widely. It is especially numerous in parts of the citrus districts of Los Angeles and River- side Counties and in the city of Los Angeles and occurs as far north as San Francisco and as far south as San Diego. 1For a discussion of other phases of the Argentine ant problem see Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 377, by E. R. Barber, entitled ‘‘ The Argentine Ant: Distribution nd Control in the United States.” 2 Transferred to Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations, Oct. 1, 1917. *Foster, Ed. The introduction of Iridomyrmex humilis into New Orleans. In Jour. con. Ent., vy. 1, p. 289-293. 1908. Note.—This bulletin is of especial interest te citrus growers in the southeastern States d generally to the public in that section. 27139°—18—Bull. 647 1 2 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The Argentine ant has been the subject of special study by this bureau for several years, more particularly as to its activity as a house pest, but also as to its general economy in relation to garden, orchard, and field cultures. The facts secured in the investigations + prior to 1913 indicated a very important injurious relationship of this ant to citrus culture in Louisiana. As a result of this apparent condition and in response to numerous complaints of injury to citrus trees occasioned directly and indirectly by this ant, a special in- vestigation was instituted in 1913 under the supervision of Mr. C. L. Marlatt, Assistant Chief of the Bureau of Entomology, to deter- mine the exact economic importance of the ant as a citrus pest and to devise effective means of preventing damage in citrus orchards. GENERAL BELIEF AS TO DAMAGE TO ORANGE TREES. It has been recognized generally that a few species of ants may injure orchard and other crops either directly, by feeding on plant parts, or indirectly, through their symbiotic relations with scale insects and aphids. The important features of the activities of ants toward certain scales and aphids, viz., soliciting “ honeydew ” excretion from them, carrying them about, constructing shelters over them, and combating their enemies, were pointed out more than a century ago by Pierre Huber,” some of whose observations were made upon orange-infesting species. Huber, however, makes no mention of injury caused to orange trees by these habits. Direct injury by ants, so severe as to cause the death of the trees in orange, cacao, coffee, and cotton plantations in the West Indies, is cited by the French historian Robin,’ contemporaneous with Huber. Robin probably referred to leaf-cutting ants, Atéa spp., several species of which destroy trees in tropical America by de- foliation. : Although the habits of ants in relation to plants and plant pests have been studied by many observers since these early writers, ex- treme views as to damage to orchard trees by ants, especially through the fostering of insect pests, have developed only since the Argentine ant became established thoroughly in southern Louisiana. This ant made the greatest impression upon people by its unusual abundance and aggressiveness, and became the subject of study by many laymen as well as entomologists. Interest in ants, especially as orchard 1 Titus, E. G. Report on the “ New Orleans” Ant. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Bul. 52, 190%. Newell, Wilmon, and Barber, T. C. The Argentine Ant. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bur. Ent. Bul. 122, 1913. 2 Huber, Jean Pierre. Recherches sur les Moeurs des Fourmis Indigénes. Paris, 1810. 3 Robin, C[laude] C. Voyages dans l’Interieur de la Louisiane ... 1802-1807, Tome I, p. 215. Paris, 1807. THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 3 pests, as indicated by the number of titles on this subject appearing in entomological literature, has increased greatly throughout the world in the past 10 years. The principal convictions which had arisen, on the influence of the Argentine ant on citrus fruit trees in Louisiana, are expressed in the writings of Dr. Titus and Messrs. Newell and Barber.’ Titus states, substantially, that the ants aid in the distribution of aphids and scale insects on citrus and other trees, remove young scales to new territory, establish colonies of certain species, and appear to have become caretakers for all kinds of scales and plant- lice. Newell and Barber, in addition to expressing the belief that the ants shelter and protect scale insects, aphids, and white flies, and establish them upon other plants, are of the opinion that it is in the orange groves that this ant has inflicted probably the most serious injury. They note that ant invasion is followed by so rapid an 1n- crease of scale insects that, unless prompt measures are taken against the ants, the second year of infestation shows a severe reduction in the crop, the third year almost complete loss, and the fourth or fifth year witnesses the death of many of the trees. These authors state further that the ants are particularly severe in their attacks upon the blossoms of the orange. The opinion of the Louisiana orange growers themselves on this subject may be summarized from the answers received to inquiries made and submitted in 1914 as to whether the ant injures the trees and in what ways. Of those growers replying to the question, about 61 per cent believed it to be injurious, 33 per cent stated that they did not know, and about 6 per cent believed that it was not injurious. The prevailing beliefs as to the nature of the injury were, (1) that it prevents bearing, (2) destroys blossoms and roots, (8) eats feeder roots, (4) destroys the fruit, (5) takes the sap out of the new growth, (6) causes the death of limbs by traveling continuously over the same spot, and (7) injures the bloom, causing the oranges to drop. it was believed also that the ants increase, disseminate, and protect scale insects and drive out lady-beetles. One answer, however, was to the effect that the ants are beneficial because they destroy other insects. It was generally agreed that the ant causes most severe injury to the orange trees, resulting in a complete loss of crop and culminating in the death of the trees. A preliminary survey of the orange orchards of Louisiana made it plain that many of them were suffering from some undetermined noxious influences. The trees were, as a rule, undersized, poorly shaped, lacking in the abundance of clear, dark green foliage which 1Qp. cit., p. 79-84. =Op. cit. 4 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. characterizes the healthy orange tree, and production was far below the standard for trees of their average age. During the blossoming period the flowers were often somewhat too numerous and con- spicuous, a condition which characterizes a “sick” tree, and dying and dead trees were numerous throughout the district. The apparent cause of the diseased condition of the trees was often traced to heavy infestations by scale insects and white flies, but obviously, in some cases, other factors contributed to this condi- tion. Many orchards not invaded by ants exhibited the same symp- toms as those overrun by ants. Manifestly, the amount of injury done by the ant must be distinguished from that due to other causes, and this involves a knowledge of the general conditions characteriz- ing citrus culture in Louisiana. The investigation therefore was planned to cover, first, a thor- ough study of the habits of the Argentine ant in relation to orange trees, and, second, a study of the cultural practices and other condi- tions which might affect the successful raising of oranges in Lou- isiana. An experiment in the reclamation of an ant-invaded and practically abandoned orchard was conducted to determine what might be done in the way of making such orchards profitable. The problem of ant destruction and control in the orchards was taken up at the beginning of the investigation and continued throughout its course. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF ORANGE CULTURE IN LOUISIANA. Louisiana is, perhaps, the oldest citrus-producing State in the Union. Orange trees have been cultivated there for at least 200 years and, perhaps, longer, at least one introduction having been made from Cape Haitien (Cap Francois), Santo Domingo, by the original French concessionaires, who arrived in Louisiana in 1718, and it is probable that citrus trees had been grown there by the Spanish colonists previous to this introduction. During the long period that has elapsed since this introduction orange trees have suffered occasionally from severe freezes, and several times have been killed to the ground. Freezes of this ex- treme sort, occurring in the period from about 1718 to 1806, are mentioned by Le Page du Pratz,? Robin,? and several other writers. Similar killing freezes have occurred during the past century, one, in 1835, killing every orange tree from the shores of the Atlantic to the Mississippi; * others, the last one of which at least was equally dis- 1Le Page du Pratz. The History of Louisiana. Translated from the French of M. Le Page du Pratz, y. 2, p. 17-18. London, 1763. 2 Op: .cit;*v..2, p. 17. 3 Op. cit., p. 474. “De Bow, J. D. B. In Review, v. 18, p. 609. New Orleans, 1855. THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 5 astrous, occurred in 1886,1 1895, and 1899.2 These freezes had the effect largely to discourage the commercial growing of oranges in Louisiana. Many of the succeeding citrus orchards consisted mainly of volunteer sprouts from the old roots allowed to grow at will with- out care or culture. After the later freezes considerable nursery stock, untrue to name and poor in quality, was imported into the State. The present citrus industry of Louisiana has developed since the great freeze of 1899, and all the trees now growing have sprung from old roots or have been planted during or subsequent to that year. Considerable damage also has been sustained by some of the orange orchards from floods due to excessive rainfall and high water and from tidal waves blown in from the Gulf of Mexico and the Barataria section by hurricanes and lesser storms.* An orange erower informed the writer that such storms had, by washing salt water from the Gulf over the orange trees on the left bank of the river below Pointe a la Hache, caused almost complete abandonment of orange growing in that section. Of the 8 or 10 severe storms of this nature, occurring in the past several years, those of 1893 and 1915 probably caused the greatest damage to citrus orchards. The storm of 1893 was followed by a tidal wave which “ engulfed everything before it,” * the water sweeping over the orange groves to a depth of from 3 to 5 feet or more in places, and remaining there for several days. While the present investigation was still in progress there occurred the most severe hurricane of all, that of September 29, 1915. Besides destroying more than 90 per cent of the entire orange crop of the State, and extensively damaging many of the trees by stripping off their leaves and breaking branches, this storm blew water in, at first directly from the Gulf and river; and, on its recurve, brought brackish water, laden with millions of tons of rushes from the Barataria swamps. The water remained about the trees in parts of the orange section for several days, and the rushes were deposited from 8 to 4 feet deep on the ground, many of the trees being laden with them. It is difficult, at present, to estimate the damage that will result from this storm to trees not actually killed; but one way in which it will manifest itself will be in the increased number of poorly formed trees due to killing of the branches by defoliation. 1Stubbs, W. C., and Morgan, H. A. The Orange and Other Citrus Fruits. la. St. Agr. Exp. Sta. Special Bul., p. 5, 18938. 2 Reeords of the freezes of 1886, 1895, and 1899 are contained in U. S. Weather Bureau reports. %See Humphreys, Capt. A. A., and Abbot, Lieut. H. L., ‘‘ Report upon the Physics and Hydraulics of the Mississippi River,’ Washington, 1861, for a record of the earlier floods along the lower Mississippi; and Cline, Dr. I. M., in articles in the U. S. Dept. Agr. Weather Bur. Buls. M (1904) and Y (1913), by H. C. Frankenfield. 4Garriott, EH. B. West India Hurricanes. U. S. Dept. Agr. Weather Bur. Bul. II, p. 40. Washington, 1900. 4 The principal source of damage to the present citrus plantings is, however, neglect of a proper routine of nursery and orchard prac- tice, including control of insect pests. Pruning in the nursery to produce symmetrical trees with the greatest possible production of fruit-bearing wood has been neglected. Later, when planted in the orchard, branches of various sizes are allowed to die from one cause er another, often from scale insects, and the dead wood removed, leaving a misshapen tree. The trees are nearly always planted too close. Owing to the shallowness of the soil’ the orange roots must spread to a great distance close to the surface, those of the different rows thus meeting and forming a network over the entire orchard. The branches of the various trees in the row also interlace in many cases, resulting in comparatively puny and undersized trees and low production. Furthermore, it is often impossible, at least always difficult, to get about in the orchard to give it the proper cultiva- tion and spraying, and in cultivating the bark frequently is bruised and branches of varying sizes are broken. Cultivation, fertilization, and spraying are neglected very often or practiced only intermittently. As stated by their owners, about 38 per cent of the orchards are not cultivated at all, the weeds in many of them growing almost as high as the trees. About 10 per cent of the orange groves receive such cultivation as is necessary for the raising of vegetables, which are grown between the rows. Several classes of fertilizer are used, regularly by some, and in- termittently by others. The chief kinds used are cotton seed, either meal or whole, commercial mixed fertilizer, stable manure, and shrimp hulls; sometimes two or more of these are used together. Approximately 37 per cent of the orchards, however, had received no fertilization of any kind for several years. A considerable pro- portion of the orchards, about 30 per cent, are sown with a cover crop, generally cowpeas. No standard program of controlling insect pests has been followed, except by a very few of the more progressive growers. According to reports received from 97 per cent of the orange growers of the State, spraying against scale insects, the white fly, and the rust mite has been practiced at one time or another in the last five years by only 15 per cent of those who reported. Some of those who sprayed made only 1 application a year, others as high as 5, and 11 different combinations of insecticides had been used with an 6 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 1The water table in Plaquemines Parish, where over 90 per cent of the citrus fruit of Louisiana is produced, lies from 1 foot beneath the surface in some orchards to 7 feet in others, but the average depth throughout the parish is only 2% feet. Draining usually is accomplished by open ditches, from 1 to 2% feet deep and from 2 te 3 feet wide at the top, leading to an outfall canal, which connects with a bayou of the swamps. In some cases there is a pump, propelled by a gas engine, to hasten the outflow and care for exceptionally heavy rains; and around some groves rear and side levees are con- structed. About 40 per cent of the groves, however, have no drainage system. THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. q array of spraying machinery that was even more diversified and inefficient than the insecticides. About 6.5 per cent of those who reported had at one time or another treated for the white fly by spraying the spores of the three or four entomophagous fungi known to attack this insect. After becoming familiar with the relations of the Argentine ant to the trees and the infesting scale and other insects, the history of the plantings, the natural conditions, and the widespread neglect of good cultural practices, one is forced to conclude that the latter are factors of much greater importance than the ant as causes of damage to and the destruction of citrus trees in Louisiana. The progressive decrease of production occurring in the last five or six years,* as well as most of the more severe forms of injury to the trees, is due to a combination of the causes here enumerated. ‘The several armored scales, the white fly, and the rust mite, which, of course, cause much injury to the trees, can be controlled without difficulty in the presence of the ants and regardless of them, as will be shown later. It is pos- sible that under new conditions the citrus mealybug and the fluted scale may become serious pests in the orange groves of Louisiana. The mealybug might become abundant on trees kept clean of other scales and white flies or in the event of a scourge overtaking its natural enemies. The fluted scale, from all reports, already has become a serious pest to ornamental orange and other trees in the city of New Orleans since the present investigation was discontinued, and later may be expected to infest the orange groves. DISTRIBUTION OF THE ANT IN THE ORANGE GROVES OF THE UNITED STATES. LOUISIANA. Data on the distribution of the Argentine ant in the orange groves of Louisiana have been received from the owners or by actual in- spection of 99 per cent of the groves of the State. The ants are present in 26.1 per cent, or about one-fourth of these groves. On the west bank of the Mississippi River, from McDonoughville to Home Place, in Plaquemines Parish, the ants are in 62.9 per cent of the groves; from Home Place to Buras, exclusive of the latter, they are present in 77.3 per cent of the orchards; from Buras to Venice, inclusive, they have invaded only 5.5 per cent. On the east bank of the river, in Orleans, St. Bernard, and Plaquemines Parishes, %3.8 per cent of the orchards between New Orleans and Olga, La., are infested with the Argentine ant. Over 95 per cent of the citrus 1The actual reduction of the orange crop of Louisiana, based on complete data as to number of bearing trees and amounts of greatest and last (i. e., 1914) crops of 80 per cent of the bearing trees of the State, is 36.8 per cent. ‘The present production, in other words, is only 63.2 per cent of what the orange trees have proved themselves capable of producing, 7 z 8 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. iruits of the State are produced in these three parishes, so the above figures give an accurate idea of the proportion of the orange groves that come under the influence of the ants. The ant has not yet gained an entrance into any of the seedling orange groves of Cam- eron Parish. CALIFORNIA. In California the ants are present in a considerable number of the groves at Riverside, Corona, Uplands, Duarte, Monrovia, Sierra Madre, Alhambra, San Marino, South Pasadena, Pasadena, and Altadena. They have gained a foothold in one spot in the town of Pomona, but have not yet been reported in any of the orange groves. When they do arrive there, however, they undoubtedly will bring the mealybug into great prominence, as a minor outbreak occurred dur- ing the summer of 1916, and conditions are the same there as at Alhambra. They are distributed pretty thoroughly throughout parts of the cities of Los Angeles and Pasadena. In Ventura County they infest some of the groves at Santa Paula and occur in several groves in one block at Fillmore. They have every appearance of having been introduced into this section within the last three or four years. In San Diego County they have not yet gained a foothold in any of the orange groves, but they have been introduced into the fair grounds, in the city of San Diego, where they overrun many of the ornamental plants both out of doors and in the conservatories. FEEDING HABITS OF THE ANT. The damage to orange trees by the Argentine ant must be either direct, through habits of feeding upon plant parts and tunneling and nesting about the roots, or indirect, through its relations with harmful insects and as a carrier of citrus diseases, or both. Not only were the nature and amount of the injury inflicted by the ant learned through a study of its foraging and nesting habits, but a successful method of controlling it as well. It is not the intention here to specify all the foods which the ant has been observed to utilize, or to describe its well-known ravages into household supplies, but rather to describe its feeding habits in the orange groves and particularly in their bearing upon the orange trees. The ant is omnivorous, and though much of its food is de- rived from plant sources, it exhibits a distinct need for animal food and utilizes not only the flesh but also the excreta and other effluvia of animals as well. Its need for flesh food is so marked that in the artificial formicary, when flesh food is not furnished, it almost al- ways will feed to some extent upon its own young. THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 9 FOODS OF THE ANT DERIVED FROM PLANT SOURCES. METHOD OF THE ANT IN OBTAINING PLANT NECTAR. The floral, and occasionally extra-floral, nectar of many kinds of plants forms the most dependable food of the ants from a direct plant source. The flowers of citrus and many other cultivated and wild plants are visited habitually for their nectar, which is lapped up from the area around the base of the stamens and petals, this area being evidently the location of the principal nectar-producing glands, at least in citrus. | With the aid of a hand lens the tube-shaped tongue of the feeding ant may be seen moving rapidly and continuously, in conjunction with the labial palpi, over the surface of the floral organs, while the food apparently is being pushed back by a thin, elbowed member that moves constantly within the tube. The ant often continues lapping up the liquid until a full crop is indicated by the distended semi- transparent gaster, this requiring from 15 to 30 minutes. It then usually rests for a period in the flower, or it may at once start its descent toward the nest. On their way down the tree forage-laden ants frequently rest in any sheltered location serving to exclude light and breezes, and almost invariably a group of ants resting motionless may be discovered in such places along the trails. ANTS POISONED BY FLORAL NECTAR. Occasionally the ants are poisoned by the nectar from loquat blossoms. On one occasion attention was attracted to a certain group of blossoms by the fact that most of the ants in that neighborhood were assisting sick comrades, carrying dead ants, or standing slug- gishly about. Close observation of many of the last mentioned showed them to have the mandibles wide open—rather an unusual attitude. Under a hand lens one was seen finally to open the mouth so wide that the mandibles extended at right angles to the sides of the head and to regurgitate a drop of yellowish fluid. Obviously it was a sick ant. It did not attempt again to feed. The loquat blossom has a heavy, sweet odor peculiarly its own, but suggesting hat of the peach or almond, and it seems probable that at times the nectar may contain traces of prussic acid. In addition to obtaining the nectar from the flowers, the ant gets a good proportion of its flesh food there, as will be shown later. UTILIZATION OF PLANT SAP AND ERUIT JUICES AS Foon. The ant also utilizes the unmodified plant sap from orange and ome other trees whenever it is able to obtain it. It habitually feeds pon the sap from wounds in the bark and often has been observed orking in considerable numbers on every freshly made cut of the 10 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pruning saw in the orange groves, lapping up the sap, just as it does the nectar from flowers, and the sap-laden ants passing from the wounds to the nest in the soil. This habit of visiting cuts and bruises on orange trees may be of importance in the carriage of certain disease germs to places where they may infect the trees readily through wounds. The ant is very fond of the juice of many kinds of fresh fruits and makes the most of the rotting oranges on the ground and the split fruit on the tree. It may be laid down as a practically infallible rule that the ants do not make the initial break into the rind or peel of fruits. This fact was announced long ago as true of European ants in general by Forel, who, as a result of his observations of these ants on pear, apple, peach, and orange trees, concluded that they never make the first incision through the skin of these fruits. The same is true of the Argentine ant as regards the orange, fig, plum, peach, and loquat in Louisiana. In some orange groves in winter the juice from bruised, decaying, and split oranges forms the ants’ principal source of food. ‘The ants also feed to a large extent upon figs when the fruits become soft upon the trees and many fall to the ground. Entrance to even this soft, thin-skinned fruit is gained almost invariably through wounds made by birds and the adult wood-boring beetle Ptychodes trilineatus Fab., or through a minute break in the calyx cup or the wrinklelike cracks which commonly form in the skin of the Louisiana fig. As a rule the ants do not carry away particles of the flesh of fruits. The flesh gradually dis- appears from an attacked fruit because deprived of the juice which constituted most of its mass. On entering a fruit the ants first lick up all the juice ready at hand. A shred of the flesh then is taken in the mandibles and the juice squeezed out and simultaneously lapped up by the tongue. This is repeated until all the flesh of that particular fruit has disappeared. Digect INJURY TO BLOSSOMS AND OTHER PLANT PARTS. INJURY TO BLOSSOMS. The ant sometimes chews into the stamens and petals of the orange and other flowers, but by no means habitually, and it is rare indeed that so many blossoms are injured as to cause any loss of importance. After examining thousands of blossoms in the worst ant-infested orchards during three seasons for such injury, it has been necessary to conclude that this activity of the ant is of no economic consequence. In certain situations where the ants are very numerous and desirable food relatively scarce some damage may occur in this way. It occurs 1Forel, Dr. Auguste. Les Fourmis de la Suisse, p. 422. 1875. THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 11 almost exclusively on isolated trees, where the number of blossoms and of host insects of the ant are low in comparison with the number of visiting ants. The following points have been noted as being generally true where the ants do use the mandibles on the blossoms: The parts attacked are usually the petals and stamens of open and presumably pol- lenized blossoms, and in most cases there is no evidence that the fruit is injured thereby. The attack usually begins in a wound made by other insects, and the work of destruction proceeds slowly. As many ants as could be accommodated by the blossoms have been observed to work steadily for one-half day without being able to destroy two petals completely. The ants never have been detected carrying away particles of the blossom tissue; evidently they desire only the juice. The mandibles are used to squeeze the juice out of a portion of the petal or stamen, that it may be lapped up by the tongue. The work of other insects often may be mistaken for that of the Argentine ant in the orange groves of southern Louisiana. Thus the blossoms of both the orange and the loquat may be found badly chewed and ragged, with tunnels cut into the unopened buds, while all are cov- ered with ants inside and out, seeming to make a positive case against the ant. When such cases have been examined with a determination either to see the ants cutting the holes or to discover what did cut them, the real culprit always turned out to be a bud moth,’ Uranotes melinus Hiibn., an unidentified case-bearing lepidopterous insect, or katydids. A few of the flowers other than citrus more commonly visited by the ants in the Louisiana orange groves are those of the loquat or so-called Japanese plum (Hriobotrya japonica Lindl.), peach, cow- peas, clovers, dock, goldenrod, and aster. INJURY TO ROOTS. The possibility of the ant causing direct injury to plant parts other than the blossoms and fruit, and particularly to the roots, was in- vestigated. In the orange groves the ants habitually nest in the ground near the base of the trees, and often the entrance to the nest will be found directly against the trunk. Many nests in these situa- tions were examined, and both the underground tunnels of the ants and some of the roots of the trees traced for a considerable distance. Dead and dying trees which were said to have been injured or killed by the ants and healthy but heavily infested trees were selected for these examinations. The principal facts brought to light were as follows: The ants never were found nesting directly in the root clusters of young 1JTdentified by Dr. Harrison G. Dyar, } 12 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 7 orange trees. They never were found to have tunneled along the principal roots of the older trees, nor were nests found near enough to these roots to affect them. The smaller roots of sickly and dying trees were generally deficient in number. The most evident cause of the poor condition of these trees was gummosis, the trees in some cases being almost completely girdled by it at the crown, and the bark in this section and for some distance along the principal roots being in a rotten condition. No orange roots were found harboring insects of any kind; there were no host insects of the ant there. In a word, the roots had not the slightest injury traceable to the ants. FOODS OF THE ANT DERIVED FROM ANIMAL SOURCES. ANIMAL Foop OTHER THAN INSECTS. A considerable proportion of the food of the ant in the orange groves, even aside from the excretions of scales, aphids, and treehoppers, is of animal origin. The ant habitually feeds upon the flesh of all animals, from the round worms to the vertebrates, that become avail- able to it. In addition to the dead and injured insects, which it finds in all sorts of locations, there is a more or less regular supply of the very prevalent crustacean known as the fiddler crab, which constantly is being crushed underfoot, and of certain small fishes oe- casionally left in the drainage ditches by the sudden removal of water by pumping. The ant also commonly visits piles of discarded oyster shells and feeds upon the particles of flesh adhering at the point of attachment of the oyster. Occasionally it also finds dead birds, field mice, rats, etc. It is unable to break the skin of a rat, as was proved by an experiment, but will clean out the liquids about the eyes and inside the mouth. The ant does not appear to eat muscular tissue in solid form, but shreds it off with the mandibles, lapping up the juices as it works, in the same manner as with fruits. In the artificial formicaries the particles of muscle not eaten are piled up in one of the chambers, and it seems possible that these may be drawn upon at times when meat is scarce. In the stable the ant constantly visits the manure and captures the larve of house flies and other insects. It also visits human excre- ment, whether directly feeding upon it or solely for the capture of scatophagous insects is uncertain. Large trails have been found of ants carrying dung from chicken coops to the nest, and it appears that the ant may utilize this dry excrement for food. Often it is seen visiting bird’s nests for the same purpose, though it also finds among the feathers certain refuse that is attractive to it and, perhaps, captures bird lice to some extent. It also has been seen feeding upon the liquid portion of freshly voided chicken excrement. THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 13 It is especially fond of sputum and the mucous secretion from the bronchial and nasal passages, particularly if voided by persons afflicted with a cold. The habit of the ant in getting into the mouth, ears, and nose of infants, whenever opportunity offers, is probably due to its fondness for mucus. Activities such as these, which are habitual with the ants to the full extent that opportunity offers, under certain circumstances obviously may be very important in re- lation to sanitation. Livine INSEcTS AS ANT Foon. The flesh food most esteemed by the ants seems to be made up of the insects which they capture alive. It is not solely for nectar that they visit the flowers of citrus and other plants, but also for the thrips, gnats, and other insects which they are able to capture there. A certain proportion of the ants foraging in the trees almost invari- ably are found to be carrying insects. The number so engaged will depend upon the availability of these insects. In a large number of observations on this habit, in all seasons, it was found that from as low as 0.49 per cent to as high as 45.8 per cent of the ants foraging in orange trees carried insects. Usually, however, less than 1 per cent will be engaged in capturing insects, and when the proportion is larger than 5 per cent it is because a special opportunity is offered. For example, on fig trees in Louisiana there is usually a period of emergence of psocids in the spring when other ant food is scarce, and the ants hang around the psocid groups and capture the insects as they emerge. Again, during the blossoming period of the small- leaved privet the ants are able to capture numerous thrips from the blossoms. The blossoms are narrowly campanulate, and the ants, un- able to pass between the stamens, await and capture the thrips as they attempt to leave. Large numbers of foraging ants are found carry- ing white flies at each emergence period of the flies, on both orange trees and privets. All these insects, of course, may be captured from the same trees at the same time. For example, on one occasion, when all the ants carrying insects on a privet tree in one and one-third hours’ time were captured and their prey examined, it was found that 32.7 per cent of the prey were thrips (frankliniella sp.), 46.5 per cent nectar-feeding gnats, 13.8 per cent white flies, and 5 per cent psocids. Often, however, they are engaged almost exclusively in the capture of one particular species. Large numbers of insects are captured on the ground, on weeds and ornamental trees, and in manure piles in the orange orchards of which no special account is taken because their capture has no bear- ing on the relation of the ants to orange trees. The ants also capture living and dead mealybugs, immature soft brown and black scales, 14. BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. aphids, immature stages of the white fly, and adult aphid and scale parasites, but so rarely that this activity is unimportant. The more important relationship of the ant as an enemy of the white fly in the adult stage is discussed on pages 38-40. INSECT EXCRETIONS OR HONEYDEW AS ANT Foop., The most dependable, if not the most abundant, supply of food of animal origin utilized by the ants in the orange groves is the honey- dew excreted by the several species of soft scales, plant-lice, and tree- hoppers which it attends. METHOD OF ORTAINING HONEYDEW FROM THE SOFT SCALES, APHIDS, AND TREE- HOPPERS. : The ants can be best observed obtaining sweet excretions from their host insects on the warmer days of winter, as fewer ants are run- ning at such times and they can be observed more closely without disturbing them. The process is essentially the same with one species of host as with another. Taking the black scale, for example, the ant approaches a mature or immature but settled insect and strokes the body with one antenna after the other, rapidly and rhythmically. Tf no liquid appears after 15 or 20 strokes, the ant usually passes on to another scale or rests motionless by the first. Unless the scales are very numerous a proportion of the ants always are waiting, and the principal function of the small shelter structures found over scale groups is believed to be to protect the waiting ants from light, breezes, and, sometimes, the too copiously falling honeydew and its attendant mold. When the scale is ready to excrete the anal plates open slowly outward and from between them is extruded a tubular organ, at the extremity of which appears a droplet of colorless fluid. This the ant takes and swallows at once. The tube is then retracted and the anal plates close. The whole operation requires only a few seconds, not allowing time for closer examination of the mechanism. The extreme lightness of the antennal stroke suggests the possi- bility of the presence of minute sense hairs on the body of the scale, which, if they occur, probably are distributed over the entire surface, as the stroking is not confined to the immediate region of the excre- tory pore. Attempts to induce excretion by stroking with a hair in imitation of the ants failed. From scales under the microscope there was no response to palpation with hairs of various stiffness. When the shell was pierced with a needle the anal plates half opened re- flexly, but not far enough for further observation. The process is very similar with the mealybug, as the following observation will illustrate: The droplet of mealybug excretion is considerably larger in proportion to the size of the individual insect than that of either the black or the soft brown scale. Two ants were THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 15 atched as they simultaneously stroked a mature mealybug on fig. oon the posterior pair of spines moved slowly apart and a fleshy, yramidal organ was extruded, at the tip of which there slowly ap- yeared a droplet of colorless excretion. This both ants grasped with heir mandibles, one standing at each side, and held until it slowly isappeared down their throats. The excretion was distinctly iscous, as shown by the plainly visible indentations made in the lobule by the two pairs of mandibles, and the slowness with which t was swallowed. Ants often have been captured carrying down the tree semisolid globules of mealybug excretion. These they car- ied in their jaws, as they would carry insects. The excretion of the uted scale also is voluminous and viscid. The ants also have been seen to obtain honeydew from a species of reehopper (family Membracidae) occurring on goldenrod in the ouisiana orange orchards. Only the larve of this insect (identi- ed by the late Mr. Otto Heidemann as H'ntylia bactriana Germ.) rere attended by the ants so far as observed. When ready to excrete, he tip of the abdomen was elevated and a droplet of translucent vellow liquid appeared. This was taken by the ants and carried in he jaws like a minute ball of jelly. The ants will take the body juices of scales and aphids as readily s their excretions, and the aphids often have been cut with a needle ‘or the purpose of observing this fact. The ants induce excretion in aphids by stroking with the antenne, in much the same manner as they do the scale insects. The con- sistency of the excretion of aphids varies considerably, that from some kinds being thick and jellylike, while from others it is almost - watery. An aphid occurring on cypress in Louisiana, for example, excretes a very thick honeydew which the ants swallow slowly and with apparent difficulty. The ants often are seen carrying these semisolid globules of honeydew in their jaws to the nest. Usually the ant hastily seizes the droplet the instant it appears, the liquid being flipped off to a distance if not promptly taken. The black scale also appears to throw the excretion to a distance, though not observed, as much of the sooty mold collects on the upper surface of the leaves which are under the scales. Some of the aphids attended— for example, the common orange-infesting species—have well-de- veloped abdominal protective siphons, but these organs are absent from others. RELATIONS WITH INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS TREES. It has been shown that the Argentine ant is rarely directly in- jurious to citrus, either through its feeding or its nesting habits. Through the one persistent habit of visiting freshly made wounds 27139°—18—Bull. 647-2 16 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. on the trees it may be of great importance as a conveyor of citrus diseases, but the actual extent to which it increases the spread of diseases as yet remains to be determined. Since almost all the damage so far caused by the ant has been through its relations with the injurious citrus insects, this damage must be solely in the nature of an intensification of the work of these insects. Only that portion cf such injury in excess of that normally caused by these insects can be due to their relations with the ants. It is, therefore, necessary to bear in mind that only a few of the citrus-infesting insects are of importance, and they cause practically all of the insect injury. The ant must be proved to enhance greatly the damage done by these major pests before a case can be made against it as a destroyer of orange trees. The major pests of citrus in Louisiana are four species of armored scale insects, the citrus white fly, and the rust mite, any one of which will cause more loss than all of the lesser pests, including the soft scales and the aphids, together. RELATIONS WITH THE AR ‘ORED SCALES. STATUS OF THE ARMORED SCALES OF CITRUS IN LOUISIANA. The four important armored scale insects of citrus in Louisiana are, in the order of their importance, the purple scale (Lepidosaphes beckit Newm.), the chaff scale (Parlatoria pergandei Comst.), the long scale (Lepidosaphes gloverii Pack.), and the white scale (Chi- onaspis citri Comst.). The purple scale is the most numerous and destructive of the citrus scales, infesting fruit, leaves, branches, and trunk, and generally incrusting the branches and trunk along with the chaff and long scales. The chaff scale infests nearly every budded bearing tree in the State, incrusting especially the trunk and larger branches, and at times overflowing onto the fruit and leaves in con- siderable numbers. The long and white scales also occur on most of the trees, but do not become so numerous as the first two, either of which would outrank them both as pests. The status of these scales does not seem to have changed much, excepting perhaps that of the white and chaff scales, in the last 12 or 15 years. The purple scale, according to Morgan,’ was considered one of the most dangerous scales in the State at that time (1893). The white scale, however, considered by Morgan? as one of the most destructive of the scales, causing bursting of the bark, does not now get so numerous as the others and causes little damage. The chaff scale, which Morgan states was not recognized as very destructive,’ now must be accorded second place to the purple scale as a scale pest of citrus in the State. Dr. Howard states that the chaff scale was the preponderating scale of citrus at a certain plantation on Bayou Téche as early as 1880. 1See Stubbs and Morgan, op. cit., p. 57. 2Tbid., p. 64. 2Ibid., p. 62. THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 17 It is worth noting here that the sweet seedling trees of Cameron Parish, which are apparently of Sicilian origin, are much more re- sistant to these scales than the budded trees. Although the more important scales occur on this type of tree, the infestation is always very light. The citrus white fly, likewise, has not become a pest on the Sicilian seedling trees, and these appear to be especially well adapted to the conditions found in southern Louisiana. The status of other armored scales of citrus occurring in Lou- isiana is about as follows: The Florida red scale, which Morgan noted as occurring only at New Orleans and Southport,! just across the river, in 1893, is now found scatteringly throughout Orleans, St. Bernard, and Plaquemines Parishes on citrus, palm, banana, olean- der, privets, camphor, and other trees. It never has been of more than very minor importance. The California red scale (Chrysom- phalus aurantii Mask.), a very serious pest in parts of southern Cali- fornia, has been reported on an ornamental tree (Podocarpus ja- ponica) in Audubon Park, New Orleans,’ and has been observed there by the writer, but does not occur in the orange groves. THE ANT Does Not ATTEND THE ARMORED SCALES OF CITRUS. The armored scales do not excrete honeydew or any similar liquid attractive to the ants, and are not, therefore, attended by the latter. On the contrary, they probably would become the prey of the ants if it were not for their protective shield or scale. Many hours of observations, extending over a period of nearly three years, on the actions of the ants toward the armored scales have shown conclu- sively that they do not directly attend the scales either in the ex- pectation of receiving honeydew or of capturing emerging parasites, which, by the way, are neither numerous nor effective. In the course of these observations ants several times have appeared to be palpat- ing armored scales with the antenne, but on closer examination the real subject of their attentions always has proved to bea young mealy- bug or other soft scale resting close to the hard scales. The pre- dominance of the armored scales makes impossible that their attend- ance should escape notice if it occurred. It was discovered early that ant shelters sometimes occur over large and small groups of the diaspine scales, but this activity could not afford protection of the least consequence to these scales, for the number thus covered is infinitesimally small in comparison with those not covered. That even those scales under the shelters receive only dubious protection from them is shown by the fact that they are often infected with some of the prevailing scale fungi. The fre- 1See Stubbs and Morgan, op. cit., p. 60. 2 Barber, T. C. The scale insects of Audubon Park. Jn Jour. Econ. Ent., vy. 4, p. 450. 1911. 18 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. quent occurrence of living soft scales or of remains indicating that such had occupied these shelters is evidence that they generally were built while the ants were attending these scales and had no relation to the armored scales which they covered. The forced conclusion is that any protection afforded the armored scales by the ants must be incidental and due merely to their pres- ence on the trees and their very manifest habit of attempting to prey upon all insects not supplying honeydew with which they come in contact. For this protection to be so effective as to be of great economic importance the scales must have enemies so efficient as usually to keep them greatly reduced. The fact is, however, that these scales are not kept under reasonable control by their enemies, even in orchards where there are no ants. PARASITES AND PREDATORS OF THE ARMORED SCALES OF CITRUS IN LOUISIANA. Although there was not time for a thorough study of the enemies of the armored scales of citrus in Louisiana, great batches of scale material from ant-free orchards have failed to produce more than a sprinkling of internal parasites. The more common hymenopterous parasites, reared from purple and chaff scale material selected because of the frequency of exit holes, were Aspidiotiphagus citrinus Craw. and Coccophagus flavoscutellum Ashm.1 A small black lady-beetle, Hyperaspis signata Oliv., with wing covers marked with a spot of red about the middle of each, feeds upon these scales to some extent, and a still smaller ladybeetle, Scymnus puncticollis Lec., is suspected of it. Larve, pupe, and adults of a large coccinellid, Chilocorus bivulnerus Muls., frequently are found in large numbers upon trees overrun by ants, and a minute black species, Microweisia misella Lec.,? also often occurs on some of the trees by the hundreds. Both of these insects are suspected of feeding upon the early stages of the armored scales, but neither of them seems to be deterred greatly by the ants. At all events, they are found in considerable numbers on trees infested by the ants. INFLUENCE OF THE ANT ON ABUNDANCE OF ARMORED SCALES IN LOUISIANA. In addition to prolonged field observations on the relations of the ants to the armored scales, experiments were conducted for the same purpose by excluding the ants from certain trees and noting the effect of their presence or absence on the scales. Thus the ants were excluded from one of two vigorous young orange trees having an approximately equal infestation of the purple scale and allowed free access to the other. Notes were made at intervals on the number of 1Identifications by Dr. L. O. Howard. Identified by Mr. EH. A. Schwarz. SIdentified by Mr. H. S. Barber. THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 19 sound and parasitized scales, the presence or absence of scale enemies, and the activities of the ants. This experiment was started on April 28 and concluded October 24, 1914. There was a large colony of the ants about the base of the nonbanded tree throughout the experiment, but the ants did not visit the tree, except to keep it patrolled by scouts, until several soft brown scales became established there, and at no time were they discovered paying the slightest attention to the purple scales. No scale enemies of any consequence were seen on either tree, and there was never any evidence of parasitism. The results of this experiment are summarized in Table I. TABLE I.—Eazperiment to discover the effect of ants upon the armored scales of citrus. Lowisiana, 1914. Ants present. Ants excluded. Date Number Number Number of sound scales Snvane Number and activities | Number of sound scales oe present. parasit- of ants on trees. present. parasit- ism. ism. Mavala il Od vk ciactlaictsicteeiesieae sicle 0 | Only 3 scouts in tree. .| 283................2--- 0 MUMBO pS Ohl L25 os jn esas ace eee ae © 0 | None on tree.........- OOM es Semiee ec heme 0 DENS AG Loge ore ee sea bemes Oe Goss err Oe Bere as SOI Aa Ue ee ae eee 0 wuilye dv, || 27Gss5e. sSsscks. Ss. ck: 0/8 anis capturing white | 530...................- 0 ies. MATTOS ALS: |e 1 180. os ess Sesioete diets 0 | A few scouts.......... W372 cient weicnze = kenres 0 Sept. 25 | 5,700 (estimated)........- 0 | 10 ants attending soft | 7,200 (estimated)...... 0 brown scale only. Oct. 24 | Trunk and main branches 0 | 50 ants, all attending | Trunk and main 0 literally covered. soft brown scale only.| branches literally covered. Reference to Table I will show that on May 7 there were 97 scales on the ant-invaded tree and 283 on the tree from which ants were ex- cluded. The number gradually increased on each tree from June to October, except that there was a slight and unaccountable decrease on the tree from which ants were excluded during June and July. On September 25 it was estimated that there were 5,700 scales on the ant-invaded and 7,200 on the ant-free tree. By October 24 the trunk and main branches of both were literally covered with the scales, and it was impossible to distinguish between the two as to infesta- tion. The scales had increased at approximately the same rate on both trees. The health of the trees remained good throughout, except for a few yellow spots made on the leaves by the feeding of scale groups. In another experiment the ants were excluded from a block of more than 200 bearing orange trees for several months, while an equal number of trees adjoining were left untreated as checks. The color of the trees in the treated block showed improvement over those in the check block, and this improvement was attributed to the v 20 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . cultivation and pruning received by the trees. There was no ap- parent difference between the two sets of trees as to abundance of armored scales. RELATIONS WITH THE SOFT SCALES. STATUS OF THE Sort SCALES oF CITRUS IN LOUISIANA. Only four of the six principal citrus-infesting species of soft scales occurring in Louisiana have been discovered in the orange section of Plaquemines Parish. These are the soft brown scale (Coccus hesperidum L.), the citrus mealybug (Pseudococcus citri Risso), the Florida wax scale (Ceroplastes floridensis Comst.), and the barnacle scale (C. cirripediformis Comst.). No injury to citrus, serious or slight, ever has been attributed to the last two scales in the history of the orange industry in the United States, nor do they now cause noticeable injury to citrus in Louisiana. The first two are the only citrus soft scales occurring in sufficient numbers in the orange groves to attract attention. Morgan? states that the citrus mealybug was very abundant in some of the orchards of Louisiana in 1893, especially in those well protected from winds and in thick-growing trees such as the man- darin, but was not a particularly serious pest at that time. These statements apply equally well for all practical purposes at present. The mealybugs occur scatteringly throughout the groves of Plaque- mines, St. Bernard, and Orleans Parishes. They usually make a strong start in the spring and early summer and threaten seriously to infest certain orchards, but between the middle of June and the first of August they are brought under control by their natural ene- mies. Infestation goes the same course on fig trees in yards in New Orleans, except that the mealybugs are at times somewhat slower in being subdued there than in the orange groves. Regarding the soft brown scale, Morgan’s statement that “it ap- pears and disappears, being kept in check by parasites, and for this reason has not attracted the attention of the orange growers”? also applies to-day. Its status is still essentially the same, though it is undoubtedly true that this scale will now be found in larger groups, in places, because of abundant attendance by the Argentine ant. It occurs upon nearly every budded orange tree over 3 years of age in the State, and also on banana, rose, and loquat in the orange groves. The important thing is, however, that it does not cause death or seri- ous injury even to the twigs which it inhabits, does not blemish the fruit, and is not of noteworthy economic importance even in orchards” overrun by ants. 1 Op. cit., p. 69. 2Tbid., p. 68. THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 21 The black scale (Saissetia oleae Bern.) apparently was first noted in Louisiana in 1910, when it was taken upon certain plants in Audubon Park, New Orleans, by Barber.’ It occurs commonly on oleander in many places about the city, but not a single specimen has been found in the orange groves. The fluted scale (Icerya purchasi Mask.), according to Mr. Ed. Foster, who for many years has been an enthusiastic and discerning observer of insect life about New Orleans, occurred in places near present spots of infestation in and near that city as early as 1891, and this is confirmed by the statements of certain nurserymen and growers. It now occurs in many yards in the uptown districts of the city and in several nurseries, but has not been discovered in the orange groves. THe ANT AS A PROTECTOR OF SOFT SCALES. INFLUENCE OF THE ANT ON ABUNDANCE OF MEALYBUGS ON CITRUS IN LOUISIANA. It was not possible to find sufficiently heavy infestations of mealy- bugs in the orange orchards of Louisiana during the years 1913 to 1915 to make experiments to determine the relative increase on ant- infested as compared with ant-free trees. Even in orchards overrun with ants the mealybug infestations were scattering and did not per- sist long enough to permit the desired experiments and observations to be made. The nonimportance of the mealybug as a pest in the orange groves of the State, however, seemed to make it unnecessary to conduct special experiments on them. Nevertheless, mealybugs were fairly abundant on fig trees in the laboratory grounds in New Orleans, and experiments of this nature were conducted on these trees and also on vigorous young orange trees, which were especially colonized with mealybugs for this purpose. The ants first began to frequent the fig trees in large numbers early in April, at which time mealybugs were rare and could be found only in small numbers in the most hidden places, such as old wounds, under dead bark, etc. On April 27 several groups of mealybugs which still occurred only in hidden places on the trunks and larger branches of the fig were transferred to each of two orange trees. By May 7 they had settled themselves permanently on the trees. Thereafter ants were excluded from one of the trees; in the case of the other, in addition to the ants patrolling it from the ground, a large colony, including 25° queens and many eggs and young, was transferred to the soil in the pot, where the ants took up their abode near the base of the tree. Observations were made at frequent intervals. The number of sound and parasitized mealybugs was counted and notes made on the 1Barber, T. C. The Coccidae of Audubon Park, New Orleans, La. In Jour. Econ, Ent.. y. 3, p. 424, 1910, 22 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. known or suspected enemies, while the activities of the ants were 7 observed on the unprotected tree. The results are summarized in Table IL. Tare II.—/nfluence of the Argentine ant on abundance of mealybugs on orange. Louisiana, 1914. Ants present. Ants excluded. ! aie: Number | Number Number Number | Noe Au of sound | of para- | of mealy-| fS0urd | sitized | of mealy-1 mealy- sitized aly- y | bug ene- mealy- | bug ene- Bes on any ~ | mies on Dues on | bugs on | mies on nee gS. tree ree. tree. tree. Pe eet lh oe ae 3 8 ea 50 hess ieee 1, 196;| 1 17. May hoo ae oe eae as ane epee ee ace BANAL 9i (2a 859 | 309 (1915 4T,3L. per cent). a cent). May ines si eer IEE 214 | 3(1.3 per| 4D,37, 727 | 90(11per| 3 L, 16, | cent). | ,1 A S, cent). | 158. 1C, LITO ee ee ceed EE See cee ADI POL te Oates 7 | 02 2D,1L ACOs Pe Se Se ee eee eee eee | Al eee ass ye es Qi O22 Sere 0. FCT 7 I ee eae ee | 6 Ore OSS 0:'0)4- 8 0. TNT VOR Ei Se Ses Ran eee eae 2 | Ol sie eee UE oce ee 0!) Ose coe 0 Symbols: T=tubuliferan thrips; mee of the pyralid moth Laetilia coccidivora Comst.; D=larve of the dipteron Leucopis griseola F syne =coccinellids; S=Syrphus fly larve; P=the mealybug parasite Paraleptomastiz abnormis Gir. At the time of beginning the experiment, May 7, there were 593 mealybugs on the ant-invaded and 1,126 on the ant-free trees. The mealybugs gradually disappeared from both trees, as shown in Table TI, until by June 12 there were practically none. There was consid- erable parasitization and the continuous presence in the mealybug groups of several different predacious enemies. On May 13, for ex- ample, 31.9 per cent of the mealybugs on the ant-invaded tree were found to be parasitized, and 19.5 per cent of those on the protected tree also were parasitized. On May 21 the percentage of parasitism among the ant-attended mealybugs was 1.3 per cent, whereas among those on the protected tree it was 11 per cent. Predatory enemies occurred among or near the mealybugs on both trees as long as the mealybugs lasted. The more common ones were predacious thrips, coccid-feeding larve of the moth Laetilia coccidivora Comst. (identi- fied by Dr. Harrison G. Dyar), and the two-winged fly Leucopis griseola Fallén (identified by Mr. Frederick Knab), unidentified lady-beetles, and larve of syrphus flies. At least one parasite, Paraleptomastiz abnormis Gir. (identified by Mr. A. A. Girault), was found on one of the leaves of the ant-infested tree. There was no evidence that the mealybugs were being attacked by fungus or other disease. The slightly greater persistence of the mealybugs on the ant-— frequented tree has little practical significarce and in part was ac- counted for by the following circumstance: On June 12 a strip of THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 23 cloth was tied about the branch on which 3 mealybugs still remained on the ant-infested tree to mark their location, and the persistence of mealybugs in this tree after June 12 was due to their being sheltered by this cloth. The instinct for hunting shelter is much stronger in the young mealybugs than in any other of the soft scales and doubtless results from their being the preferred food of preda- tory insects. During the course of the foregoing experiment on orange trees the mealybugs on the bearing fig trees, under constant attendance by the ants, had increased gradually, and during May overflowed their hiding place in the crevices of the bark and began to infest some of the smaller branches and leaves. On the branches they formed small groups and infested a considerable number of leaves, spreading along the underside, mostly in singles, twos, and threes. The period of maximum infestation of the fig trees extended from about the middle of May to the latter part of July. On June 26, while at its height, six of the trees were banded and the ants excluded for a period of 98 days, or until October 2, while six others were left unbanded and used as checks. The work of the enemies and parasites had become evident by the middle of June, however, and it was apparent that the mealybugs were having a struggle to make further headway. By about the middle of July they had begun to lose ground, and from that time very rapidly disappeared from all unsheltered portions of all trees, banded and unbanded alike. The mealybugs very rarely, if ever, succeed inreaching maturity on fig leaves,even on ant-infested trees. A heavy parasitization was indicated early in July, due principally to a small, yellow-brown hymenopterous parasite.’ After August 15 the few mealybugs remaining on the large fig trees were in protected situations in the bark of the trunk and larger branches. The ant trails also had become thin in the unbanded trees by that time because of the scarcity of mealybugs. As for injury to figs by mealybugs, though a few small groups appeared on some of the fruits of ant-infested trees during this experiment, the per- centage of fruits so affected was so small as to be negligible. Prac- tically all the fruit was clean and bright at picking time. The 1 This insect (Paraleptomastiz abnormis Gir.) measures about 1 mm. long, some speci- mens less; general color yellow, marked on head, thorax, abdomen, and wings with smoky gray; the wings with three rows of dusky, broken, transverse stripes near base, middle, and tip, respectively, giving them a spotted appearance; legs and antenne very long and slender, the former light yellow, the latter smoky brown. The insect has the peculiarity of keeping the wings elevated and in movement when running about on the leaves, which aids in distinguishing it in the field. The technical description by Girault is given in The Entomologist, v. 48, p. 184, London, 1915. While this parasite has been introduced into California, in localities in Alhambra, Duarte, and Sierra Madre, it has not yet become established as thoroughly there as in Louisiana, but if it does become so it will be an important factor in reducing the ant-attended mealybug infestations in that State. 24 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. leaves were of a clear, bright green, with very little sooting at any time. These trees, however, were receiving better attention than — the average yard trees about the city. They had been kept well pruned and braced; weeds had been kept down, and the trees had shown vast improvement over their condition when first taken in | charge. At no time during the three seasons in which they were under care was there any large amount of sooting of figs due to mealybugs. The fruit infestations usually were confined to one or two mealybugs in the calyx depression and the collection of a small group at this point on a small number of them. The mealybug conditions for the years 1913 and 1915 were the same as described for 1914, both on fig trees and on orange trees in the city of New Orleans and in the orange groves proper of Louisiana. © The sweet seedling trees of Cameron Parish are apparently not sus- ceptible to the attacks of the citrus mealybugs at all; at least none ever was found on these trees. Although certain groups of mealybugs may become larger because — of heavy ant attendance in Louisiana, the status of this insect does | not appear to have been changed by the protection received from the Argentine ant. The mealybugs usually appear in some trees in | some of the orange groves as well as on fig trees during April. At | times they become numerous enough to attract attention for a few | weeks in May, June, and July, but in the last-named month they — rapidly disappear, while their enemies increase, and by the last of July or early m August hardly any mealybugs can be found. The most important enemy of the mealybug in Louisiana appears to be the Sicilian mealybug parasite (Paraleptomastix abnormis Gir.). Of the numerous predatory enemies, the most conspicuous were cer- tain lady-beetles, larve of the green lacewing flies, larvee of the small gray fly Leucopis griseola Fallén, and lepidopterus larvee, of which | the most prevalent was Laetilia coccidivora Comst. The last-named | insect has the habit of spinning a more or less tubular web over the | mealybug groups and feeding under its protection through the larva — period, thus effectively defending itself against ants and other | enemies. Another mealybug enemy of less importance, but some- times fairly prevalent among mealybugs and other coccids, is a species of tubuliferan thrips which has not been identified. INFLUENCE OF THE ANT ON ABUNDANCE OF MEALYBUGS ON CITRUS IN CALIFORNIA. In parts of Los Angeles County, Cal., the attendance of the Ar- gentine ant upon the citrus and other mealybugs has a much more pronounced effect in favoring persistent, heavy infestation than in Louisiana. This is especially the case with healthy trees that are — THR ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 25 comparatively free from other infesting insects. Several experi- ments were conducted in that county in the summer of 1916 which bring out pretty well the varying effects of ant attendance on the mealybugs under different conditions. EXPERIMENT I, The subject of Experiment I was an orange tree whose 6 main branches had been cut back to stubs about 2 to 3 feet long. Three of the stubs, with 28 new shoots, were banded to exclude the ants, while the other 8, with 27 shoots, were left free to the ants. Mealy- bug infestation, prevalence of mealybug enemies, ant attendance, and vigor of tree were noted at intervals from the beginning of the experiment, April 14, to its conclusion, September 2, 1916. The re- sults are summarized in Tables III and IV. TaBLE III.—Effect of the Argentine ant on abundance of mealybugs on orange. Los Angeles County, Cal., 1916. Ants present. Ants excluded. Date. Number Number Mealybug infestation. naetene. Mealybug infestation. Neeren mies seen. mies seen. Apr. 14 | 74 clusters and groups..............-- 28 | 73 clusters and groups..........-.- 35 ayes) |p 100 groupseecereee cee sees ca ceee SOnIRSSNeLOUDS eee eee nee eee eens 76 May 17 | 361 groups of 10 to 150 bugs each...... 19 | 45 groups of 10 to 30 bugs each..... 38 July 6 | 112 groups, 10 to 50 ovipositing fe- 12 ovipositing females only with males with egg masses.......-.-..-- 38 egg masses; 9 masses of destroyed mealybug material.............. 15 July 17 | As on July 6, but more young scat- No living mealybugs.............. 0 tered over leaves <2 .24-3-:..-s2--55-|---- 301 The larger groups or clusters of mealybugs at first occurred on the main branches, where they had passed the winter, but the mi- grating young formed smaller but populous groups at the bases of the smaller branches and of the leaves. It will be noted that at the outset of this experiment there was nearly complete uniformity in the amount of infestation between the branches from which ants were excluded and those to which ants had access. Substantial uniformity of infestation persisted up to May 3, when there was a somewhat greater number of groups of mealybugs and more scat- tered individuals on ant-invaded branches than on those kept free from ants. Between May 3 and July 17 the mealybugs rapidly diminished to complete disappearance on the branches from which ants were excluded, whereas on those to which ants had access mealy- bugs continued to increase rapidly for a time, reaching the high point of infestation on May 17. Thereafter the infestation de- creased on these branches also, but much more slowly than on those 26 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from which ants were excluded, remaining, on July 17, about one-— third as heavy as on May 17. Up to July 17, therefore, the presence of the ants had a very notable effect in increasing and maintaining mealybug infestation. On this date the band was removed from one of the branches so that reinfestation under ant attendance might be observed, and one of the branches previously free to ant attendance was banded. No marked results were obtained from this test. As indicated in Table IV, a slight reinfestation of mealybugs occurred on all the branches free from infestation on July 17, but there was a general decrease of infestation on both types of branches and on the entire tree through- out August. The only living mealybugs remaining on either set of branches during August were young which were scattered over the leaves, the insects being destroyed by their predatory enemies before reaching maturity, and by September 2 the entire infestation on the tree was reduced to an insignificant amount. In other words, on this particular tree the effect of the ant in increasing and maintain- ing the mealybug was marked up to the middle or end of July, but this effect was practically lost during August. TapLe 1V.—EL£ffect of the Argentine ant on abundance of mealybugs on orange. Los Angeles County, Cal., 1916. Ants present. Ants excluded. sorte July 17 to From Apr. 14to Sept. 2. From July 17 to From Apr. 14 to Sept. 2. ept. 2. Sept. 2. Date. | 2 (2 [s& le | 3 de [ss [s.) 8 -0| 2. [eB ls bee. lezule ee > 2) 2) |e _.|| = & 8a laa) 5 Ae ea Ce es Al. S. | >be /g& ee > 2s % PA CD)) hae > t |8 & Se ee Pulgt |68 io} =—=woilSs i) 2 lt 5 | eo =5 155 —| SU iswss 4 see «2 2 BR iy Le z2 RE es 2 l\g2 Ag] Saye} ea Be ag of Ca = Se o8 jopl*® loa) 8 | Oh TS Sg! b= S.a\F> Se so | sales |55| 24 lsgles [se] 58 | s8 les |s5| 28 jsgles [23 ox Bs 2 Be: —-2 2n Se Pb ae On | 2g 3 Bu/2 be 2g PRIEEEICE o £3 o | faigo o et as =) o | Ae g 5 SSZ| 52 E | 23,5|8 | | |PsS/E5 E 5 S38 =p a Z2 |< A A Z |< a A ZA |< A A Zz is Z Aug. 7 50 |1,000 20 9 189 21 0.111) 0 405 81} 0.2] 0 150 | 30| 0.2 1 Aug. 16 153 575 3.6 31 382 71 .18 1 251 122 4 2 128 | 19 14 17 0 || 1,690 43 02); @| 1645 | 49 07 0 Sept. 2 |11,750| 216| .12 Hi 1,465 | 50 | .03 1 All of the leaves examined. The efficiency of natural enemies, as affected by the ant, was seen in the first period of the experiment, from April 14 to July 17. From April 14 to May 17 the number of mealybug enemies occurring on the branches from which ants were excluded did not differ widely | from that on branches to which ants had access; yet, although by the latter date these enemies had reduced greatly the number of — mealybugs on branches kept free from ants, their effect on mealy- bugs attended by ants was negligible. It appears that the mealybug predators are able to avoid capture by the ants, but are incapable © of reaching the mealybug groups closely attended by them. | { h : THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 27 From May 17 to July 17 the mealybug enemies rapidly decreased and disappeared from branches kept free from ants and greatly in- creased on those where ants were present, following, as would naturally be anticipated, the available food supply. In the succeed- ing period of the experiment, from July 17 to September 2, after a certain amount of fluctuation, depending upon the supply of host insects, the natural enemies finally disappeared from all branches with the practical disappearance of their prey. EXPERIMENT II. The second experiment was conducted in the same locality, at Alhambra, Cal., on eight bearing navel-orange trees, four of which were banded with adhesives on April 24 and kept free from ants, while the alternating four were left accessible to ants for compari- son. The results of this experiment, which are summarized in Table V, were similar to those in the preceding experiment, except that on the ant-invaded trees heavy mealybug infestation persisted throughout the experiment, or until September 12. TABLE V.—LHffect of the Argentine ant on abundance of mealybugs on orange trees, Los Angeles County, Cal., 1916. Ants present. Ants excluded. Mealybug infestation. Mealybug infestation. Date. On fruits. On fruits. Total | Num- | Per oe ore rts of | Total Num-| Per Sa Beye wie number | her in- | cent in- ber in- | cent in- exam- ede fested. | fested. May 24 800 | 1200 25 Approx metelya on 800 1150 | 18.7 | Approximately as Apr. 24. on Apr. 24. July 10 1, 405 328 24 242 groups of 1 to 5} 1,154 5 .43 | 12 groups of 1 to 5 mealybugs. mealybugs. July 24 1, 261 766 60.7 | 296 small groups, | 1,263 34 2.6 | 7 small groups, Pee scattered many scattered young. Aug. 7 1,596 923 57.8 208. veal groups, | 1,288 91 7. Many scattered in- many scattered dividuals. young Aug. 31 1,310 728 55.5 | Many cetondh. --| 1,086 59 5.4 | None. Sept. 12 1, 249 {Hl || BRL lncaoe Geckos. soeee 1, 282 64| 4.9 Do. 1 From 1 to 5 mealybugs hidden under the sepals only of each infested fruit. At the beginning of this experiment, April 24, mealybug infesta- tion was slight, only 103 scattered individual mealybugs and small groups Occurring on the trees from which ants were excluded and 7U individuals and small groups on those to which ants were allowed access, the ant-excluded trees being slightly more infested. On May 24 young mealybugs were found concealed under the sepals of 25 per cent of the young fruits on the ant-invaded trees and 18.7 per cent of those on ant-excluded trees, showing a slight tendency toward worse infestation under ant attendance. The marked tendency of mealybugs to establish themselves under the sepals of the young fruits and in similar situations to secure sheltered feeding places must be taken into account when considering the subject of the transfer of mealybugs by ants to establish new colonies. Between May 24 and July 24 mealybug infestation rapidly in- | creased on the trees to which ants had access, while it decreased, — with slight fluctuations, to an almost insignificant amount on those from which ants were barred. From July 24 to September 2 there was a slow reduction in the amount of mealybug infestation on the ant-traversed trees, an increasing number of mealybugs’ remains indi- cating increased effectiveness of the natural enemies, which had become more numerous following the food supply. On the trees from which the ants were barred the mealybug infestation in the same period, with minor fluctuations in -which the highest point was slight infestation of 7 per cent of the fruit, was maintained at a negligible amount. The most important early activity of mealybug predators occurred on the very small fruits, these insects occurring with mealybugs under the sepals as soon as the mealybugs arrived there and pre- venting the growth of infestations from these spots. From July 24 to the close of the experiment, September 12, the number of preda- tory enemies, again following the available supply of food insects, was greater on the trees traversed by the ants than on those from which ants were barred, there being from five to eight times as many — on the former as on the latter trees at the times examined. The prin- cipal enemies of the mealybugs occurring on these trees were Coc- cinellidae, Hemerobiidae, Chrysopidae, Pyralidae, and Syrphidae. During this latter period of the experiment, following the decrease in percentage of infested fruits on the ant-traversed trees, the in- creasing effectiveness of the mealybug enemies was manifested in the occurrence of an increasing number of fruits which had been rid of mealybugs, their previous infestation being indicated by bits ot cottony secretion, sooty mold, etc. 28 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EXPERIMENTS III anp IV. Two other experiments conducted at Alhambra, Cal., with nursery trees and potted seedling orange trees brought out very similar results. The nursery trees, owing to too late transplanting, failed to thrive and did not become very heavily infested with mealybugs, but showed less plainly but quite as certainly the results of ant attendance in increasing these insects. In the experiment on potted orange seedlings, 6 of the young plants were infested artificially with mealybugs, and on May 17, THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 29 after the mealybugs had become located, the ants were excluded from 3 of the plants on which there were 4,573 young bugs and allowed free access to the remaining 3, on which there were 3,094 mealybugs. On August 21 there were only 5/7 mealybugs left on the plants from which ants were excluded, 40.6 per cent of the leaves being infested with an average of 3.2 mealybugs each; whereas on the plants traversed by ants there were 5,461 mealybugs, 74.5 per cent of the leaves being infested with an average of 29 mealy- bugs each. EXPERIMENT VY. In the fifth experiment, which was conducted at Duarte, Cal., it was demonstrated that the effect of the ants in increasing the abund- ance of mealybugs may be largely neutralized in the presence of un- checked infestation by the black scale (Sazssetia oleae Bern.). Ten bearing naval-orange trees of about equal condition and equal mealybug, ant, and black-scale infestation, the last-named being heavy, and with fully 90 per cent of sooting of the leaves, the trees not having been fumigated since 1913, were selected for this experi- ment. On April 20 five of the trees were banded with adhesive mix- ture to exclude ants, and the alternating five left accessible to ants for comparison. The results of this experiment are summarized in Table VI. Taprte V1.—HEHffect of the Argentine ant on abundance of mealybugs on orange trees heavily infested with the black scale (Saissetia oleae). Los Angeles County, Cal., 1916. Ants present. Ants excluded. Mealybug infestation. Mealybug infestation. Date. On fruits. On fruits. On other parts of On other parts of aioe Num- | Per trees. tote Num- | Per trees. exam- | ber in- | cent in- ber ex- | Det in- | cent in- cde fested. | fested. Penne fested. | fested. | Per ct. Per ct. May 25 100 80; 80 Many scattered 100 94 94 Many scattered mealybugs and mealybugs and small groups. small groups. July 7 437 156 35.6 | 11.4 per cent of new 304 165 54.2 | 33.1 per cent ofnew shoots infested. shoots infested. July 21 455 154 33.8 | 51 groups of 1 to 30 382 193 50.5 | 36 groups of 1 to 15 young and 17 adults young and 47 With egg masses. adults with egg masses. Aug. 15 409 143 34.9 | 81 groups of 1 to 5 376 165 43.8 | 20 groups of 1 to 5 mealybugs each. mealybugs each Sept 11 364 198 54.5 | 79 groups of 1 to 5 340 137 40.2) 41 individual mealybugs each. mealybugs only. 30 BULLETIN 647, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The initial mealybug infestation, on April 20, was much greater on these trees than on those used in experiment No. 2, there being on the trees left free to ants 1,661 individual mealybugs and small groups, and 10 infested ripe fruits; and on those from which ants were excluded, 1,896 individuals and small groups and 4 infested ripe fruits. There was no appreciable increase of infestation between April 20 and May 25, but on the latter date a few mealybugs occurred under the sepals of many of the little fruits, a larger percentage of infestation occurring on the trees from which ants were excluded than on those to which they had access. Between May 25 and July 7 the intensity of fruit infestation in- creased on all trees, though the percentage of fruits infested de- creased. On July 7 about 18 per cent more fruits and 22 per cent more new shoots were infested on the trees protected against ants than on those frequented by them; and, while several fruits on the latter were infested more severely than any on the former, the trees free from ants continued to suffer a larger amount of fruit infesta- tion from July 7 to August 15. From August 15 to the close of the experiment, on September 11, the infestation was slightly worse on the trees to which ants had ac- cess. With the exception of such minor fluctuations as those indi- cated, however, the amount of mealybug infestation remained practi- cally the same on ant-invaded trees as on those free from ants throughout the period from July 7 to September 11. The struggle of the mealybugs to find suitable spots to feed and avoid their natural enemies on these scale-infested trees was marked. Every available spot free from sooty mold was occupied by them, and groups often occurred under sheets of the mold where it had lifted from the leaf. Even on the fruits the mealybugs were crowded by the black scale, and the practically equal and slight infestation on both sets of trees was due largely to this crowding. Mealybug enemies were numerous on both sets of trees throughout the experiment, especially the green and the brown lacewings, and larve of the green frequently were seen feeding upon larve and cocoons of their own kind and of the brown lacewings. Bits of cottony secretion of the mealybugs entangling the exuvie of mealy- bug enemies were numerous at every examination. Others of the more numerous mealybug predators were the lady-beetles Hyper- aspis lateralis Muls. and Rhizobius ventralis Erh., the predacious caterpillar Holcocera iceryacella Riley,? the predacious fly Leucopis bella Loew, and the predacious bug Zelus renardii Kolen. 1R. ventralis is primarily a black-scale enemy, but it also feeds upon mealybugs. 2Identified by Mr. Carl Heinrich. THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 31 EXPERIMENT VI. In the following experiment, verifying the results of the one pre- ceding, 4 trees longer subject to unchecked black-scale infestation were used, 2 of them being banded on June 2, the other 2 left free to ants. TasLe VII.—Effect of Argentine ant on abundance o fmealybugs in the presence of heavy black-scale infestation on orange. Los Angeles County, Cal., 1916. Ants present. Ants excluded. Fru:t infestation. Fruit infestation. Date. Ee With With With With With With mealy- black sooty mealy- black sooty bugs. scale. mold. bugs. scale. mold. eee Ber Shs. 9 2 as Yt Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. TDD! ol eke sees eee Ca eee 31.4) |eaeopenees| pecoucsese Sy 54) boanceocad toLodaaeae July 7. ------- 2<--- 5-22 ----- 0 ------ 202 o- 32.9 94.4 100 20.2 100 100 INTE. UE. pecdceocssccosesssoesascescsscass 48.1 53.5 100 20.5 45.7 100 Sept. 11......-..-------------------------- 39.6 91.7 100 21.2 98.7 100 The fruit infestation on different dates, summarized in Table VII, shows that mealybugs were always somewhat more numerous on the fruit patrolled by ants, but that almost no change in degree of in- festation occurred on either lot of trees. Most of the fruit on all trees was infested with young black scales, and all was sooty through- out the experiment. RELATION OF THE ANT TO MEALYBUG OUTBREAKS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA. The foregoing experiments establish beyond a doubt that the at- tendance of ants upon mealybugs in Los Angeles County, Cal., has the effect of greatly increasing their abundance, particularly during the first half of the summer, upon healthy trees comparatively free from other scale insects, causing severe infestations where otherwise they would be so scarce as hardly to come to notice at all. This does not mean, however, that the mealybug outbreaks do not occur in southern California except in the presence of ants. More than 300 outbreaks of the citrus and other species of mealybugs were reported during the summer of 1916 in and about Pasadena by Dr. A. G. Smith, the local county inspector. The writer inspected 167 of these for ants, but, while the Argentine ant was present in 72 of them, and other ants in 16 more, there were no ants in the remaining 79. Nevertheless, it is a fact that in Los Angeles County the enemies of the citrus mealybug bring it under control early in the season and generally cause its almost complete disappearance when there are no ants present to prevent. 27139°—18—Bull. 6473 tH] me k feat neers — Pe Sn. ae SSS Pe 32 BULLETIN 547, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2 Most of the mealybug outbreaks in Los Angeles County orange groves which came to attention during the summer of 1916 did not long remain very severe unless the Argentine ant was in attendance. An outbreak that occurred at Pomona may be cited as an example of what usually occurs under such circumstances. The mealybugs appeared in the orange trees in a certain locality and on walnut trees bordering the groves in April and May and were rather numerous on many trees during the latter month. By June 23, however, they had become so scarce that it was difficult to find them at all. None could be found on the walnut trees, and though some orange trees were found on which 15 out of 18 of the young oranges were infested, there were only from 1 to 10 mealybugs per fruit, hidden under the sepals. Predacious caterpillars, tubuliferan thrips, and small lady- beetles (Scymnus sp.) were also rather common under the sepals of these fruits and apparently feeding upon the mealybugs. The Ar- gentine ant did not occur in this section, and there were no other ants in the worst infested trees at the time of this examination. In San Diego County, on the contrary, the mealybug infestations were very bad in some of the groves where there were no ants in attendance at the time of the inspection, June 27 and 28. In the Lemongrove district three orchards were inspected, and all trees examined were infested very badly with mealybugs. In two of the orchards there were no ants of any species on the trees examined, but in the third a few small red ants occurred on some of the trees. The Argentine ant is not yet present in any of the orange groves of this county, although it has been introduced into the fairgrounds at — San Diego. In the Sweetwater Valley the lemon trees inspected also were infested very badly with mealybugs, but while two species of ants were fairly common on some of the trees, the Argentine ant was not present. The infestations were equally as bad on a number of trees on which there were no ants as on those where the ants occurred. In the Chula Vista district the infestation in the last two or three years had been quite as severe as at Lemongrove and in the Sweet- water Valley, but during the summer of 1916 it was so slight as to give no apprehension. This fact is attributed locally to the occur- rence of mealybug enemies, and especially the lady-beetle Crypto- laemus montrouziert Muls., in much greater numbers this year than usually. In the El Cajon Valley, which is considerably farther inland than the three orange districts previously mentioned, and is almost com- pletely shut in from air currents from the coast by the surrounding foothills, no mealybugs could be found, and Mr. H. M. Armitage, horticultural commissioner of San Diego County, stated that none had been found by the local inspectors, THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. ae In San Diego County, therefore, the conditions are such that the inealybug infestation is just as persistent in trees where there are no ants as in other localities overrun by them. This infestation may remain severe for from one to several seasons, and then there will come a period when the mealybugs will disappear almost wholly. This fact has just been illustrated in the Chula Vista district, and is no doubt due to variations in abundance of the mealybug enemies in that section. INFLUENCE OF THE ANT ON ABUNDANCE OF OTHER MEALYBUGS IN CALIFORNIA. The number and severity of outbreaks of other species of mealy- bugs in Pasadena have been increasing during the last three years. Dr. A. G. Smith, county horticultural inspector for the Pasadena District, states that in an inspection five years ago, covering the dis- trict bounded by Fairoaks, Colorado, and Lake Streets and the Alta- dena boundary line, only one mealybug infestation was found. An inspection three years ago of the same section of Pasadena produced 18 infestations, mostly on rice-paper plants. During the summer of 1916, up to the time this information was given, only the north half of this section, or from the Altadena line to North Orange Grove Avenue, had been inspected, but infestations were found in numerous places and on many more host plants than ever before. The worst of these outbreaks have occurred in territory invaded by the Argen- tine ant, and undoubtedly have been especially severe and persistent only where attended by this ant. A number of the outbreaks discovered by Dr. Smith’s inspectors early in the summer of 1916 had been greatly reduced, and the mealy- bugs had almost disappeared by August where there were no ants in attendance. The species concerned in these outbreaks and the host plants most commonly infested in this section are as follows: Pseudo- coccus citrophilus Claus. on pittosporum, bignonia, tecoma, citrus; Pseudococcus bakeri Essig. on Chamaerops and Washington palms, peppers, laurestinas, nightshade, tomato, banana, aralia, fig, cam- phor, and various garden plants; Pseudococcus longispinus Targ. on Dracaena palms, citrus, and some shrubs; Psewdococcus ryani Coq. on cypress hedge. Outbreaks of these species of variable degree occur every spring, but are less persistent and usually are controlled early by their natural enemies where no ants are present. Another species, known as the golden mealybug (Pseudococcus gurilanatus Mask.), attacks the Araucaria tree in many localities about Pasadena and remains numerous throughout the summer, regardless of whether ants are present or not, and often causes the defoliation of the trees. This mealybug either is not controlled by 34 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the various predators to the same extent as are the others mentioned above, or there may be some relation between it and its favorite food | plant which makes this insect distasteful to these predators.t INFLUENCE OF THE ANT ON ABUNDANCE OF THE FLUTED SCALE IN LOUISIANA. The fiuted or cottony cushion scale (Icerya purchasi Mask.) rank second only to the mealybugs as to preference by the Argentine ant,. : owing, as with the mealybugs, to the large amount of viscid exere- tion given off by the insect. In spite of heavy attendance by the ant, however, the fluted scale has not been able to thrive and become _ abundant in Louisiana, except during the last season in New Orleans. — This scale is believed by some, as previously stated, to have occurred © on Metairie Ridge and in various places in New Orleans prior to the destructive freeze of 1895. Whether this is true or whether the © insect has been imported into Louisiana only in very recent years is _ not certain. At all events the insect did not come to attention in the © State until the fall of 1912, when it was found by the State in- ~ spector.2. During the years 1913 to 1915, inclusive, closer attention — was paid to the insect, and it was found at various places in New — Orleans. Still it did not occur in the orange groves, and the infesta- — tions in and about the city were very scattering. Whenever they © occurred in some numbers on a plant, they were viewed with such — apprehension that extermination was attempted. It was, therefore, © impossible to get a sufficient infestation under suitable conditions for © experiments to determine the influence of the ant on their increase. | During the summer of 1916, judging from reports received from New | Orleans, the fluted scale spread more rapidly and became more numerous about the city than at any previous time, but the exact part i played in this increase by the ant is not known. INFLUENCE OF THE ANT ON THE FLUTED SCALE IN CALIFORNIA, The status of the fluted scale in California in recent years is given by Quayle,’ who states that the infestations become as bad at times | in some localities as when at their height in earlier years. As a rule,’ however, the insect does not become numerous enough to be con-| sidered of economic importance. No citrus orchards or trees could be found sufficiently infested _ with the fluted scale in southern California to serve for any adequate — tests as to the influence of the Argentine ant. The scale occurred 1A condition such as this apparentiy occurs in the case of the fluted scale on Spanish broom in Ventura County, ‘Cal. * Tucker, E. 8. Suppression of the Cottony Cushion Scale in Louisiana. La. Agr. Exp.) Sta. Bul. 145. 1914 ‘ ? Quayle, H. J. Citrus Fiuit Insects. Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 214, p. 470. 1911. THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 35 very scatteringly and, as a rule, was parasitized or had been de- stroyed by its natural enemies. This was true in orchards overrun by ants and in orchards free from ants, indicating, at least, that so far in southern California the helpful influence of the ant, if any, in relation to this scale insect has not overcome the effective control of the scale by its natural enemies. Aside from the well-known effectiveness of the Australian lady- beetle (Novius cardinalis Muls.), this control seems to be due, in Los Angeles County, chiefly to the parasitic fly Cryptochaetum mono- phiebi Skuse, aided, however, by hymenopterous parasites and the larve of lacewing flies. INFLUENCE OF THE ANT ON ABUNDANCE OF THE BLACK SCALE IN LOUISIANA. As already stated, the black scale (Saissetia oleae Bern.) does not yet occur in the orange groves proper of Louisiana, and, therefore, as with the fluted scale, no extensive tree-banding experiments could be conducted in this State during the seasons 1913 to 1915 to deter- mine the effect of ant attendance on its abundance. The black scale occurred in moderate numbers on oleander in New Orleans, and from these trees was transferred and colonized on young crange trees and an experiment of this nature attempted. The progeny of the colonized scales made an equally good start on both ant-free and ant-invaded orange trees. Nevertheless, the scales failed to reach maturity in a single instance, even where constantly attended by ants, and although they decreased a trifle more slowly where attended than where not attended by ants, all scales had dis- appeared from both banded and nonbanded trees within six weeks from the starting of the experiment. INFLUENCE OF THE ANT ON ABUNDANCE OF THE BLACK SCALE IN CALIFORNIA, The black scale has been rated as the most economically important of the citrus scales in California,’ where it is generally controlled by fumigation. The observations on the relation of the ant to this scale were made in orchards in which fumigation had been temporarily neglected. In an experiment in which five scale-infested orange trees were banded to exclude ants in April, and a similar five left accessible to them, the amount of scale infestation remained practically equal on both sets of trees throughout the summer, from April to September. In other words, after excluding the ants from five of these trees for a period of nearly five months but little difference in the amount of black-scale infestation or in quantity of sooty mold could be de- tected between them and five similar trees very heavily invaded by 1 Quayle, H. J., op. cit., p. 445. 36 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ants during the entire period. What difference existed was unfavor- | able to the view that the ants cause greater increase of the black’ scales. None of the trees had been fumigated since 1914. ! In another experiment two more Blaele scale infested trees were banded against ants in June and two similar trees left accessible to. them. These trees had not been fumigated for three years. As in| the case of the first eRe the amount of black-scale eee remained pr throughout the names of the season. i Sometimes there is a greater amount of black-scale infestation on, trees where there are no ants than on other trees of the same age and. condition overrun by ants. Thus, in a block of orange trees not fumi- gated for two years more than half the fruit on a number of the trees on which there were no ants was scaly, while on a number of. trees overrun by ants less than one-fourth of it was scaly. In this case the greatest scale infestation occurred on trees located next to older and heavily infested ones from which the scales had come by the usual means of dissemination, but there was no indication that the. ants caused an increase of the scales on the trees on which they. occurred. | In various orchards in Los Angeles and Ventura Counties, in which | there were no ants and in which fumigation had been neglected for | from two to four years, the black-scale infestation was quite as. severe as is ever seen where the ants are present. In fact, in order to | keep the black scale from reaching injurious numbers it ie been found necessary every year to fumigate some orchards in which there were no Argentine ants and very few of other kinds. Sometimes a second | fumigation is needed in the same season because of rapid reinfesta- | tion by what is called an offhatch, or an extra generation of scales, caused by their more rapid Aendlopmnen on especially suitable trees. | It is evident, therefore, that the black scale in southern California) is capable of reaching a very injurious degree of infestation in a single season, regardless of whether ants are present or not. Its) natural enemies are not sufficiently numerous to prevent severe in-| festation, even though there is no interference from ants. The effect of the ant in accelerating the increase of this scale is therefore of little practical importance and does not compare with its importance as affecting the mealybugs. | | | INFLUENCE OF THE ANT ON ABUNDANCE OF THE SOFT BROWN SCALE IN LOUISIANA. } As was the case with the black scale, it was impossible to find a. sufficient number of orange trees in ILewestnins heavily infested with the soft brown scale (Coccus hesperidum L.) to conduct extensive | THER ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 37 experiments to determine the effect of the ants. In a test conducted upon young orange trees colonized with the scales, two of the trees, on which there were 5,425 and 334 young scales, respectiv ely, were banded to exclude ants, while a third, on which there were 3,100 scales, was left accessible to the ants for comparison. The number of scales gradually diminished on all the trees, accompanied by a cor- responding increase of parasitized scale remains, until within two months from the time of starting the experiment practically all had been destroyed. The destruction of these scales was caused almost exclusively by parasites, the percentage of parasitized scales increasing, with slight fluctuations, at the same rate on the tree frequented by ants as on the {wo trees from which ants were excluded. There was nothing in the condition of the trees or in their suitability as a food plant of this scale to prevent the scales from thriving, as was shown by the fact that a few sound scales which had secured perfect shelter from para- sites remained on the trees as late as October, three and one-half months after all those not sheltered had been destroyed. It was plainly seen in this experiment, and many other observa- tions bear out this conclusion, that the internal parasites are the most effective enemies of the soft brown scale in Louisiana and that the Argentine ant does not extensively prevent the work of these insects. A considerable number of adult parasites were seen on these trees during the examinations, and fully as many on the ant-invaded trees as or the noninvaded ones. Two species of chalcids,’ viz, Eupelmus coccidis Gir. and Coccophagus coccidis Gir., were reared trom ant-attended soft brown scales in Louisiana. While an orange tree occasionally would be found in Louisiana with one or more small branches very heavily infested with the soft brown scale, assiduously attended by the ants, the worst infestations that came to notice were on plants other than citrus. For example, in an orange grove at Buras, where this scale was present in small numbers and scattered on orange trees, one limb of a rosebush was found infested so severely that in a space 1 foot long on a branch about one-eighth inch in diameter there were 1,440 scales. Large groups of this sort sometimes are found in which there is very little evidence of parasitism, but usually from 2 to 60 per cent or more of all the scales occurring in such groups either contain the parasites or show their exit holes. The soft brown scale undoubtedly is held in check in Louisiana orange groves, regardless of whether ants are present or not, by its natural enemies and particularly by the internal parasites. Identified by Mr. A. A. Girault, 38 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INFLUENCE OF THE ANT ON ABUNDANCE OF THE SOFT BROWN SCALE IN CALIFORNIA. There was no opportunity during the season of 1916 to study the effect of the ants on abundance of the soft brown scale in the orange groves of southern California because of the scarcity of the scales. Larger groups of this scale occur on various ornamentals where attended by the ants than where there are no ants, and its abundance on camphor, bottle, and pepper trees and many others along some of the streets of Pasadena where the Argentine ant occurs makes it appear that the ant has the effect of greatly increasing the infesta- tions there. Neither the soft brown scale nor the closely related citricola scalet occurred in any greater number in the ant-invaded orange groves of Los Angeles County than in those where the ant did not occur. In Riverside County, on the contrary, large groups of the soft brown scale were found more easily in the ant-invaded than in the noninvaded orchards. Quayle? has noted that the soft brown scale becomes especially serious under the influence of the ant in that county. Several orchards were mentioned by Mr. D. D. Sharp, Riverside County horticultural commissioner, in which the soft brown scale had become so numerous as a result of attendance by the ant as to attract general attention. In one of the most severely ant-infested orchards, however, which it was said had not been fumi- gated for several years, there was a large parasitization of the soft brown scale, as high as 82 per cent of them being found destroyed by parasites in a group under heavy ant attendance. It appears, therefore, that the Argentine ant may afford enough | protection to the soft brown scale at times on certain trees or in cer- tain localities to cause the formation of larger groups than is cus- tomary and retard the destruction of the insect by its natural ene- mies. This effect has not, however, been marked enough either in California or Louisiana to change the rank of the scale as a citrus pest of merely minor importance. This is due to the fact that in- ternal parasites and not predacious enemies are ls chief factor in the natural contro] of the scale. RELATIONS WITH THE CITRUS WHITE FLY. THE ANT AS AN ENEMY OF THE WHITE FLy. The only direct relation which the Argentine ant bears to the citrus white fly is that of predator. The first knowledge of this fact came as a result of observations made in an orange grove at Happy Jack, La., in April, 1913. At that time the prevailing belief, which 1 Goccus citricola Campbell. 2 Quayle, H. J. In Jour. Econ. Ent., y. 9, p. 472. 1916. * The citrus white fly (Dialeurodes citri Ashm.). The cloudy-winged white fly (Dialeu- rodes citrifolii Morgan) also occurs in Louisiana, but is greatly outnumbered by the first-named species. es THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 39 was shared by the writer, was that the ants fostered the white fly for its excretions, and when many ants were seen carrying adult white flies down an orange tree it was taken as evidence that they were transferring this pest to other trees and colonizing them thereon. As a principal occupation of the ants on nearly every tree was carry- ing white flies, however, and the reason for carrying only adults was not clear, the opportunity was taken to observe this work more closely. It was noticed that comparatively few ants were carrying white flies up the trunk, but that a very large majority, certainly over 95 per cent, were carrying them down only. If the ants were estab- lishing the white flies on other trees, it seemed that at least there should be somewhere near the same proportion carrying them up as were carrying them down the trees. Many of the ants therefore were traced as they carried the insects up and down the trees. In- variably those going up trees were traced to some cranny, where they poised in the dark for a rest or to avoid a breeze, or they would go up a short distance and then turn and go down again. In- variably those going down the tree were traced to the entrance to an underground nest, where they disappeared from view. Some of these entrances were directly at the base of the tree, but digging out such tunnels proved that the ants were not nesting about the roots of the trees or other plants on which the white fly might feed. It also disclosed the complete absence of underground colonies of living white flies and the presence of piles of dead remains of adults in the ant tunnels. The next step was to examine white flies carried by the ants to de- termine whether they were living or dead. Some of them were liv- ing, and a good many more were dead, but the most important dis- covery was that a very large majority still had their wings crumpled, as they are immediately after emergence from the pupa case, show- ing that they were captured just as they emerged. The percentage of white flies which the ants destroy must vary widely in the various groves at different times, and is probably never high enough to be of great economic importance. In a series of ten examinations to determine what proportion of the ants descending orange and privet trees with forage had captured white flies, the fol- lowing data were gathered on the subject: All the ants passing a point on the trunk going down the tree in a certain lengh of time, usually from 10 minutes to a half hour, were counted and classified as to whether or not they carried forage. Those carrying liquid forage could be distinguished by the distended gaster. The kinds of insects carried were noted without disturb- ing the ants where possible; otherwise the prey was collected. In 40 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. these examinations it was found that from as low as 0.7 per cent to as high as 54 per cent of the ants which had any kind of forage car- ried white flies. Other of the lower percentages were 0.9 per cent, 3.1 per cent, 3.2 per cent, and 13.8 per cent; while other higher per- “J \a ¢ centages were 21 per cent, 21.7 per cent, 34.7 per cent, and 38.4 per > cent. Most of these examinations were made at times when the foraging was not too heavy, so that the ants could be counted without danger of confusion, and the number of ants carrying white flies was often too large to count. The percentage of ants with forage in their possession in these examinations ranged from 16.1 per cent to 75.8 per cent. The above phenomena, which were observed many times on citrus and other plants every season spent in Louisiana, always may be seen during the emergence periods of the white flies in orange groves _ invaded by the ant. At times the ants with their captives are so numerous that the most casual glance will discover them as they go wavering down the trunks with the white-fly wings spread above their heads like diminutive sails. At times, when such a caravan is suddenly struck by a light breeze, the little sails will scatter in every direction as the ants hunt for temporary shelter to prevent being blown out of their course. The only possible direct part played by the ant in its relations with the adult citrus white fly in Louisiana is that of predacious enemy. RELATIONS OF THE ANT WITH IMMATURE STAGES OF THE WHITE FLY. Investigation of the behavior of the ants toward larve and pupze of the citrus white fly brought out the fact that, although they hover about these immature stages more or less, they do not palpate the larvee or directly obtain their excretion, but that they watch over the pupz solely for the purpose of capturing the emerging adult insects. Although the ants do not capture living white-fly larve, and only a comparatively few pupe, they are occasionally seen carrying the latter. Th: pupze taken are nearly always those in which the transformation to the adult is almost completed, the ants becoming impatient at waiting for the adult to appear or being impelled to. attack by its attempts to extricate itself from the puparium. In some instances as many as 8.7 per cent of the white flies taken from the ants have been pup, but this proportion is doubtless above the average. When most of the white flies on a heavily infested tree overrun with ants are in the larva stage the ants never are found in attend- ance in considerable numbers on the worst infested leaves. The ants have been seen to lick the leaf surface in the vicinity of white-fly larve and they undoubtedly secure a certain amount of white-fly | } t 2 THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 4l excretion in this secondary manner, especially when other food is scarce in the trees. If any large proportion of the white-fly excre- tion were taken by the ants, however, the sooty-mold fungus would be by so much the less prevalent in ant-invaded trees; this, however, is not the case. The ants do prevent to a very large extent the col- lection of excretory matter and the formation of sooty mold after mealybugs, even inducing such rapid excretion in certain young stages that the mealybug is unable to form the wooly covering, its body remaining almost naked and pink. EFFECT OF THE ANT ON ABUNDANCE OF THE WHITE ELLY. An experiment to determine the effect of the ants on abundance of white flies was started on April 25, 1914, a young orange tree with $38 white-fly eggs being banded to exclude ants and a similar tree with 1,474 eggs kept accessible to ants for comparison. The per- centages of young stages of the white fly dying from unknown causes and the quantity of new growth on the two trees were noted at every examination to make sure that the difference in white-fly infestation was not due to varying food conditions. On May 18 there were on the tree from which ants were excluded 949 sound and 118 dead larve and pupe and 189 unhatched eggs; on the tree that was accessible to ants there were 434 sound and 109 dead larve and pupe and 112 living eggs. Between May 13 and June 12 the nonbanded tree was merely kept under surveillance by scouting ants, but on June 12 white-fly emergence was at its height and the ants had formed a heavy trail into the tree, where they were capturing the emerging adults. Living white-fly larve and pupe were comparatively scarce and about equal in number on both trees. The remarkable thing was, however, that on the ant-invaded t.ee there were 167 empty pupa cases from which white flies had emerged and only 8 of the adult white flies, whereas on that from which ants were excluded there were 151 empty pupa cases and 130 of the emerged adults. In other words, the nonbanded tree was swarming with ants, some of which were carrying adults, and only 4.51 per cent of the emerged adults remained on the tree, whereas on the tree from which ants were excluded almost the same amount of emergence had occurred and 86 per cent of all the emerged white flies were still on the leaves. From June 12 to about the middle of August the white flies in- creased faster on the tree from which the ants were excluded than on the other. On July 1 there were 5,485 living young on the former and only 1,919 on the latter. The percentage of dead was practically the same on both, being 12.9 per cent of all young on 42 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the tree from which ants were excluded ard 10.4 per cent on the tree to which they had access. On July 17 the banded tree still led in white-fly infestation, there being 3,711 living young on this tree to 1,497 on the ant-patrolled tree, and by the 13th of August white-fly eggs, larve, and pups were too numerous on both plants to count. This final heavy infestation of both trees was expected, as it was improbable that complete white- fly control in the height of its breeding period could be accomplished by the ant. The relations of the ants to emerging white flies brought out in the foregoing experiment led to similar observations on other trees On June 12, at the height of a white-fly emergence period, two more trees from which ants were excluded and two on which they were present were inspected. On the first two trees there were 431 empty pupa cases from which white flies had emerged, and 369 adult white flies, or 85.6 per cent of all which had emerged, still remained upon the trees. On the ant-invaded trees there were 600 empty pupa cases with emergence slits, but only 36 of the white flies, or 6 per cent of the emergence, remained upon the trees. These observations indicate that the principal direct effect of the Argentine ant upon the citrus white fly in Louisiana is to destroy a varying proportion of them, thus entitling this ant to be called a white-fiy enemy. RELATIONS WITH APHIDS. The relation of the Argentine ant to aphids has been observed principally on the orange-infesting species, chief of which is Aphis gossypii Glov. In Louisiana, however, certain observations have been made upon the relations of this ant with aphids on loquat, elder, privet, oak, cypress, and certain weeds. : THE ANT AS A PROTECTOR OF APHIDS. The orange aphid appears in considerable numbers, sometimes very large numbers, on the newer growth early in the spring, often increases throughout April and May, causing some of the leaves to curl, and thereafter rapidly disappears, while a heavy parasitization is indicated by numerous dried skins punctured by the exit holes of the parasites. This condition, which has long existed both in Cali- fornia and in Louisiana, has not been altered materially even in groves and trees overrun by the Argentine ant. In Louisiana it occurs in scattered groups in January and February, often greatly increases in March, and becomes numerous on tender leaves and some of the blossoms in certain orchards during April and May. Even where heavily attended by the ant, however, its natural enemies, THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 43 and chiefly the internal parasites, have so reduced it by July or August that it is difficult to find specimens. The following examples will serve to illustrate the ineffectiveness of the ant against the parasites of the orange aphis: On April 22, 1914, in an orange grove overrun with ants at Happy Jack, La., aphids were very numerous, averaging about 34 per leaf of the worst infested leaves, and undoubtedly would have done much damage had their increase continued long at the same rate. Even at this time, however, the aphid shells punctured by parasite exit holes indi- cated a parasitization of 29.7 per cent. Three hymenopterous para- sites seen ovipositing in the aphids among the ants were watched until they had parasitized nearly every aphid on their respective leaves. While ovipositing in the aphids these little insects nimbly avoided the ants without flying. On May 15 living aphids could be found on these trees only with difficulty. In the meantime, too, many of the parasitized remains previously seen had been blown from the leaves, so that there was very little evidence that aphids had ever been numerous there. On April 28, 1915, 15 per cent of the ant-attended aphids in an erange grove at Ollie, La., had been parasitized, but living aphids were still rather numerous, averaging 20 per leaf on those leaves examined. By May 12 the aphis infestation in this grove had de- creased more than 50 per cent, and 49 per cent of the remaining aphids were parasitized. On May 27 an examination of twenty-five times as many suitable leaves as before revealed an average of only about two aphids per leaf, and 92.6 per cent of these were parasitized. The foregoing observations are merely examples of what may be seen annually in almost any grove in Louisiana in which ants and aphids occur. At Alhambra, Cal., early in April, 1916, a trail of ants was found leading to flourishing small colonies of aphids on the new sprouts of an orange tree that had been cut back about 4 feet from the ground. The aphids were very numerous and not more than one per group showed evidence of parasitism. On April 21 fully half of the aphids had disappeared from this tree and 79.6 per cent of the re- mainder were parasitized. Ten aphid-feeding lady-beetles (Hippo- damia convergens Gierin) and a few syrphid-fly larve also occurred on the tree. At Duarte, Cal., 20 young ant-invaded orange trees, badly infested with aphids on the new leaves about the middle of April, were almost completely free from them when examined on May 19. The tew aphids remaining alive were being attended by the ants, but not one-tenth of 1 per cent of what had previously been present remained on the trees at this time, and discolored and dried shells with their parasite exit holes were everywhere present. 44 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Again, at Sierra Madre, Cal., on June 16, scattered groups of aphids attended by ants on several trees revealed a parasitization of 92.1 per cent. On one of these trees 14 syrphid larvee with 1 coccinel- lid larva and 15 or 20 ants were found working on the same groups of aphids. The relations of the Argentine ant to an aphid commonly occuring on elder in Louisiana were observed especially because of the excep- tional abundance attained by this plant-louse early in the summer and its abundant attendance by the ants. During March and April the aphids become too numerous for the trees to support and thou- sands fall to the ground, covering the grass under the trees and crawling back up the trunks in large numbers for days at a time. This aphid is progressively destroyed by predacious enemies and especially by parasites, until by the middle of June it invariably has been reduced to an insignificant number, which gather about the bases of the stems and leaves, where the best possible shelter occurs. On April 24, 1914, the comparatively few shells and aphids remain- ing on one of these trees were counted. There were only 1,667 in all, 529 of which were living, 68.4 per cent being parasitized. The principal parasite concerned was identified by Dr. L. O. Howard as a species of Aphidencyrtus. On March 24, 1914, 9 robust young elder plants in pots were in- fested with the aphids and placed where the ants could get to them. About a month Jater, May 7, there were on all plants 2.436 living and apparently sound aphids and 985, or 28.7 per cent, parasitized. All parasitized shells were removed, and, on May 13, 1.18 per cent more aphids, parasitized since the previous examination, were removed, after which ants were excluded from 4 of the plants, on which were 418 sound aphids, and allowed access to the remaining 5, on which were 535 aphids. On June 3 only 47 living aphids remained on the ant-free plants, but 119 were on the ant-invaded plants: and by June 16, at which time most all the aphids had disappeared from the large elder trees thereabouts, not a living aphid was left on any of the little plants. In another experiment 2 robust elder plants were colonized with aphids on March 24. One plant was given 187 aphids and placed in a large trail of ants, and the other was given 185 aphids and placed where the ants could not get to it. By April 8 there were 3,194 living, apparently sound aphids on the ant-attended plant, an in- crease in 15 days of 1,708 per cent; and on the ant-excluded plant there were 2,514, an increase of 1,364 per cent. The more rapid rate of increase on the ant-attended plant seemingly was due to the activi- ties of the ant, other factors being apparently the same in both cases. The number of living sound aphids soon began to decrease on both . 1 : i { THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 45 plants, and as in the beginning it had increased more slowly on the ant-free plant, it now decreased more rapidly on that plant. On April 25 the number of aphids on the ant-attended plant had decreased to 2,043, on the ant-free plant to 802, and, from that date on the decrease continued as follows: On the ant-attended plant there remained, on May 6, 182 aphids; on May 20, 18; on June 3, 23; while on the ant-free plant, on May 6, there were only 52 aphids, and on May 20 all had disappeared. The ants, therefore, appeared to give a slight advantage to the aphids up to this time, but by June 16 all had disappeared from both plants, the parasites having won in the struggle for their possession. It is seen therefore that although the ant attends the orange and certain other species of aphids having very efficient internal parasites, it is unable to pre- vent the destruction of these aphids and cause any noteworthy in- crease in their number. TRANSPORTATION OF APHIDS AND COCCIDS. Although at times nearly 50 per cent of the ants foraging in citrus and some other trees capture insects and carry them down the tree, taking it throughout the season the average is less than 1 per cent. About 8 per cent of the total foraging workers counted in all ex- aminations were engaged in carrying all kinds of insects, but this is, of course, above the average, as counts were made only upon trees where the ants were engaged conspicuously in the transportation of insects. Only a fraction of 1 per cent, viz, 0.5 per cent, of the in- sects carried by the ants were scales and aphids, and only under ex- ceptional circumstances is the number carried worth considering. Extended observations on the activity of the ants in transporting seales and aphids have led to the following conclusions: (1) The ants feed to a slight extent upon the surplus insects when its host scales or aphids are very numerous, upon those that have died from parasitism or some other cause, and upon male scales as fully as their ability to capture them allows. (2) The ants utilize dead shells of the black and some of the armored scales for the construction of shelters and feed upon the softer by-products and detritus of these scales. (3) Direct dissemination of orange scales and aphids by the ant is only incidental and is negligible. Indirectly the ants aid in the dissemination of some of these insects by greatly increasing them on particular trees, and from these points of heavy infestation they spread by the usual means. Some of the facts which lead to the foregoing conclusions are as follows: A large majority of the scales and aphids carried by the 46 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ants are dead. Thus about 94 per cent of the mealybugs taken from the ants were dead or discolored and scarcely able to move, while - with the black scales and aphids carried the percentage of dead was — still higher. On the other hand, of those insects which do not fur- | nish honeydew to the ants most are alive when taken from their | captors. Nearly all captive white flies are alive, as are the psocids, © and even such fragile insects as thrips may be handled so lightly by | their captors as to remain apparently uninjured. Thus, on one occasion, a thrips dropped by an ant at once started to run, when | another ant seized and bit it viciously several times, after which the | only sign of life was a twitching of legs and antenne. The ants almost always carry their scale and aphid hosts, as well as all other captured insects, to the nest, which is rarely if ever so situated as to afford living conditions to these insects. On rare occa- sions, in Louisiana, living mealybugs had been found in ant trap- nests, containing only dried straw and manuie, but this happened in winter, when the mealybugs left not only the trees where there were ants, but also those in a part of the orchard where no ants occurred, and located on Bermuda grass. The soft scales found in ants’ nests almost always have been dead. On one occasion when an exception- ally large number of ants carrying mealybugs down an orange tree could be traced to the nest in the rotting wood, many dead and dis- colored mealybugs and mealybug particles were found and 80 whole bugs counted. There were only 2 living mealybugs, and these ap- peared to be diseased, being unable to move except for twitching the legs a little. The ants carry their host insects in considerable number only when these insects are exceptionally numerous, at which times they are able to supply a great deal more honeydew than the ants actually require. In Louisiana the ant attendance on the black scale and the citrus mealybug was nearly always in greater number than could obtain honeydew from them continuously. In California, however, the black scale, where unchecked by fumigation, becomes very numer- ous, overflowing the trees and covering them with sooty mold. On such trees the ants carry many scales at times. Thus in one orchard, in which both ants and black scales occurred in exceptionally large numbers, an unusually large number of ants were so engaged. For- tunately for observation, many of the nests to which ants could be traced were in the rotting stubs of cut branches. In these nests the scale phase most readily seen (that is, shells of mature scales) was scattered throughout the ants’ galleries. Many nests, with their contents, were removed and examined, and the remains of numerous insects found there, but the black scales, of which there were 118 young stages, all dead, and 97 shells of mature scales, outnumbered THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 47 all others. Ants, with scales, also were traced to underground tun- nels, which led neither to tree roots nor to any plant roots on which the scales could live. Aphids, too, are transported only when the infestation is very heavy. The largest numbers carried were upon maple and elder trees, on which aphis infestation persisted somewhat longer than on orange trees because of more rapid parasitism of the orange-infesting species. A great majority of the aphids carried were dead. Since almost all are destroyed by parasites, some undoubtedly contain parasites when taken by the ants, but the number thus destroyed is too small to reduce ’the effectiveness of these enemies. The destina- tion of the aphids carried was generally the underground nest. Only a very small percentage of the ants carry these insects up tree, and, when traced, these always have gone into one of the ant shelters for rest or, ultimately, retraced their steps down the tree. Experiments have been tried several times to induce the ants to remove scales and aphids from unsuitable food to a place where they could thrive. As an example of these experiments, about two dozen elderberry stems, very heavily infested with aphids, were on one occasion placed in the midst of thousands of ants at the base of an elderberry tree and examined at intervals thereafter. At the end of an hour aphids were leaving the stems, many were scattered about in the short grass, and a considerable number of others were travel- ing up the tree trunk. A great majority of the ants paid no atten- tion to these wanderers, but a few followed and stroked individual aphids while in motion. One such ant, becoming impatient after a few minutes of unrewarded effort, seized an aphid by a leg and pulled it about this way and that for a distance of fully a foot, when it let go and went its way. Similar experiments were performed with mealybugs, infested stems being cut and placed among numerous ants in pots containing vigorous young orange trees. The ants would attend and stroke these mealybugs indefinitely, but in not a single instance did one transport a mealybug from a dying stem to the flourishing growth of the young orange tree. Many of the mealybugs would wander off the dry stems, and some of them would find their own way sooner or later into the healthy tree. On one occasion, in California, a good opportunity was presented to the ants to assist mealybugs to regain trees from which they had been knocked by spraying with water under high pressure. The ant invasion was from “very heavy” to “extremely heavy” in about 70 per cent of the trees examined, the remainder having “light” or “very light” trails. Some of the mealybugs hit by the water were 27139°—18—Bull, 6474 48 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. knocked from one part of the tree to another, often landing on the trunk or larger branches. From 10 to 17 trees were examined each © time, and in all these inspections only 8 ants were found carrying | mealybugs, 7 of which were dead. In from one-half to 3 hours after spraying an average of 3 mealybugs per tree were crawling up the trunk; 18 hours after spraying the number had increased to 5 per tree average; at about 48 hours after spraying there was on an | average only 1 mealybug returning to every 4 trees. Certainly the ants did not assist to any appreciable extent in their return. The ants occasionally become impatient with aphids and scales that fail to excrete and seize these insects, just as at times they be- come impatient at waiting for an adult white fly to emerge :1d — seize the pupa. The pile of mealybug remains found in the tree — nest previously referred to indicates that the mealybugs were utilized as flesh food. There is little doubt that if sufficient time and pains were taken the ants actually might be observed eating occasional — aphids and scale insects. RELATIONS WiTH INSECT ENEMIES OF SCALES -AND APHIDS. EXTENT OF CAPTURE OF PREDATORY AND PARASITIC INSECTS. The ants are antagonistic to all the predacious and parasitic imsect enemies of coccids and aphids, but not more so than they are to all other insects which do not furnish them with honeydew. The ants are habitually carnivorous and view all other insects, ex-. | cepting perhaps some of the myrmecophiles, either as their cattle, furnishing them with liquid food, or as their prey, useful as flesh food. Although the ants take every opportunity to capture both predators and parasites of the scales and plant-lice, the number of this class of insects captured is very small. The close and constant attendance of the ants at scales and aphids, by preventing free ovi- position and feeding of the natural enemies, accounts mainly for the ants’ effectiveness as protectors of these pests, although the ants do feed to some extent upon eggs of certain scale predators. A large number of insects have been taken from the ant and identified, and only 0.72 per cent of all the insects carried have been predatory on species attended by the ants. These consisted of larve of the Leucopidae, the brown lacewings, Syrphidae, and Lepidoptera, the last very rarely, indeed. It is seen, therefore, that the number of predatory enemies of the soft scales and aphids which the ant is able to capture is insignificant. The number of internal parasites captured is still smaller, being only one one-hundredth of 1 per cent of the insects taken from the ants, \) THR ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 49 MEANS OF DEFENSE OF THE LACEWING INSECTS. The following observation will illustrate the methods of defense lof certain of the predatory enemies of soft scales and aphids. The larvee of the lacewing flies when attacked emit a fluid from the tip of the abdomen which, though so small in amount that it can scarcely be seen, strongly affects the ants. -The larve will avoid the ants if possible by keeping out of their trails when moving, and when feeding upon mealybugs take up a position under the groups, where they are protected by their prey. On a tree in which many cocoons of Chrysopa californica Cog. occurred and which was over- run with ants a larva of the Chrysopa was seen crawling up the trunk on the opposite side from the ant trails. The larva was teased over into the midst of the ants, with the following result: An ant seized it by a foreleg, when it brought the tip of its abdo- men forward and touched the ant, which then dropped to the ground. A second ant ran up, but as the chrysopid brought the tip of the abdomen forward, backed away, and the larva resumed its journey. Another ant took hold and, receiving the same treatment, backed hurriedly away in a circle, frantically brushing its head with the forefeet. Four ants then made a combined attack. The larva deliberately waited until they had a good hold, probably to be sure of its mark and conserve the secretion, when it touched them, and they acted precisely as had the preceding one. All these ants soon ceased to move and acted as if very sick. In the meantime the chrysopid passed out of the ant trail and proceeded up the tree. The larve of the brown lacewings defend themselves in precisely the same manner, emitting a minute globule of bright amber to red fluid that is evidently injurious to the ants. MEANS OF DEFENSE OF THE LADY-BEETLES. The larve of various coccinellids are protected by a covering of spines or of cottony excretion and by a thick yellowish material exuded from pores situated along the margins and dorsum of the body. Ants many times have been seen attempting to seize larve of the mealybug-feeding species Hyperaspis lateralis Muls., but not in a single instance did they succeed in capturing one. This larva, when feeding in the midst of mealybugs, usually remains perfectly motionless and does not attract the attention of the ants. When moving and attacked by them it flattens first one side to the surface, and, if attacked by several ants at once, it flattens down all around, leaving only the cottony filaments exposed. Sometimes the ants then will pull out masses of this cotton, and on one occasion they were 50 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. observed to pull out so much of it that the thorax of the lady-beetle — was made completely bare. In spite of this the object of the attack was able to escape. At another time several ants were attacking one of these larvee at once and each of them pulled out a mass of cotton from time to time. It soon was seen that some of them were unable — to loosen the material from the jaws and were thus kept out of the | contest. The larvee of such species as Coccinella californica Coq. and Hip- podanua convergens Guér. rely principally upon immobility, flatten- ing out, and their spiny covering for protection. The larva of Rhizo- bius ventralis Krichs. depends upon immobility, its natural flatness of body, and, in the presence of the black scale, which is its preferred — food insect, the honeydew from the scales collects in the sete ‘on its body and becomes coated with sooty mold, blending to some | extent with the sooty, sirupy leaf surface. The final emergency — protection of all these larve, after having exhausted the defensive — means of protection, is the so-called “reflex bleeding,” or excretion, — of a poisonous, repellent substance from the glands of the body. © This occurs whenever the larva is roughly handled or there is danger | of enemies actually destroying it. The adult coccinellids defend themselves principally by flattening — out, thus presenting the wing covers to the enemy, and by kicking. The kick consists of a sharp jerk of the leg by which the ant, threat- ening to seize it, is prevented from so doing. The ants often have been observed trying to capture adult lady-beetles, but never have they been seen to succeed. A single instance will illustrate the method of defense: On an orange tree overrun by the ants and also harboring numerous lady-beetles (Coccinella californica), one of the lady-beetles was seen traveling up the trunk in the trail of ants. Most of the ants were passing hurriedly by, swerving aside to avoid contact with it, but one ant was following and trying to seize one of its legs. This ant moved from side to side of the coccinellid, its jaws wide open, rushing it whenever there appeared to be an oppor- _ tunity. Every time the ant would attempt to take hold, however, the lady-beetle would either give a quick snap of its leg or would lower the body on that side. This ant finally was joined by a second, and both tried for 10 or 15 minutes, without success, to capture the insect. There seems to be evidence that adult coccinellids also some- times secrete a repellent fluid in very small amounts when attacked by ants, for the ants often back suddenly away on coming into con- tact with them. As a last resort adult coccinellids also have recourse to “bleeding,” which seems capable of repelling many ants at once and even much larger enemies. THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 51 Lady-beetles often occur in large numbers on trees overrun by ants. This was commonly the case in Louisiana with a minute, shiny black iady-beetle, Wicroweisia misella Lec., which occurs in large numbers on trunk and branches of orange trees at certain times of the year. This insect apparently feeds upon eggs and young of the chaff and purple scales and is entirely oblivious of the ants. The same is true of the large twice-stabbed lady-beetle, Chilocorus bivulnerus Muls., which often occurs in large numbers in all stages upon heavily ant- invaded trees. In California, large numbers of adult Hzppodamia convergens and Coccinella californica and all stages of the black lady-beetle (Rhizobius ventralis) occur at times on orange trees overrun by ants. On one occasion more than 1,000 adults of the first two and the ashy gray lady-beetle (Olla abdominalis Say), all of which feed ex- tensively on the excretions of the black scale, were counted upon 10 trees on which the ants were exceptionally numerous. Again, more than 60 of the black lady-beetles were found upon each of a number of young orange trees overrun by ants. A certain click-beetle, Limonius subauratus Lec.,t which feeds upon this excretion, is also fearless of the ants. MEANS OF DEFENSE OF THE PREDACIOUS PYRALIDAE. The principal means of defense of the larve of the predacious Lepidoptera which feed upon soft scales and mealybugs consists in moving the body rapidly from side to side like the cracking of a whip. The larva of Laetilia coccidivora Comst., however, protects itself chiefly by means of a tubular web which it spins over itself and its prey and through which ants can not pass. The nearly mature larve are protected rather effectively also by the spines on their bodies, and several times have been seen moving among numerous ants, apparently hunting for a place to pupate, without being mo- lested. MEANS OF DEFENSE OF THE SYRPHIDAE. The ‘larve of aphid and mealybug feeding syrphids also often are found on the leaves and fruit among the ants. The ants, though once or twice they have been found with very young larve of an unidentified species of syrphid in their possession, apparently never disturb them under ordinary conditions. The immobility and the spimes of those species which have been observed working among aphids and mealybugs among ants appear to protect them adequately from the ants. 1 Tdentified by Mr. J. A. Hyslop. Or bo BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INTERFERENCE OF ANTS WITH THE WORK OF PREDACIOUS INSECTS. Although the ants are unable to capture in more than insignificant numbers the insects predatory on the soft scales of citrus, to a con- siderable extent they do interfere with their work of destroying scales, as has already been indicated. This is particularly true of those scales which occur in groups, such as the citrus mealybug and soft brown and some other scales, the predators being unable to oviposit in groups closely attended by the ants. Under normal conditions the citrus mealybug, in Los Angeles County, Cal., is held in almost complete control by its predacious enemies, chief of which are some three or four species of lady-beetles, the brown and green lacewings, and at least three kinds of predacious fiies.1 Rearings of enemies from a number of large batches of mealybug material collected among the ants at intervals from April to September, 1916, from scattered locali- ties in Los Angeles County gave 71.8 per cent external feeders and 28.1 per cent parasites. Against the internal parasites, however, the ants appear to be much less effective, as has already been indicated. Of the internal parasites reared from citrus mealybugs in California by the writer, only 9.7 per cent are known to be primary parasites of the mealybugs. NESTS AND PROTECTIVE STRUCTURES OF THE ANT. LOCATION AND PURPOSE OF THE NEST PROPER. The Argentine ant, which is very ingenious at construction, builds its nest to meet the requirements of a comparatively few simple needs, a primary one of which is darkness. Aside from any special aversion which the ant may have to light, it seeks the darkness for safety, and it is only in the dark that the workers ever rest “ off guard.” The queens, especially the older ones, spend nearly all their time where the darkness is greatest, and when moving in the trails of the foragers, which they frequently do, invariably pass rapidly from shelter to shelter, spending as little time as possible in the open places. The ants never permit their young to remain in the light for long at a time, and both they and the great mass of the queens always are found in the darkest, most obscure parts of the nest. Another requirement of the ant is a proper regulation of tempera- ture and moisture to suit its young and itself. In exceptionally dry weather, such as often occurs in Louisiana from February to April or May, and in California throughout every summer, the nest will studied by Mr. R. 8. Woglum and are referred to here only in a general way, as necessary to show their relationships to the Argentine ant. ba THR ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 53 be tunneled into the ground. The depth will depend upon how far it is necessary to go to find the needed amount of moisture. It is in the underground nest also that the most comfortable temperature can be found, both in summer when it is very hot and in winter when it is very cold. In the cities the walls of buildings often are utilized, the ants taking advantage of the artificial warmth and shelter afforded. In rainy weather, when the soil is very damp, the underground nest will be abandoned for a location above ground, in buildings, trees, piles of dry weeds, piles of lumber, etc., and under almost any kind of shelter. When the ants are caught in the ground by a sudden rain, in situations where there are no convenient trees, buildings, or other shelter, “sheds” are constructed out of particles of soil and trash along the surface of the ground. These sheds are sometimes very large and are elaborately tunneled into galleries and pavilions. They dry out much more rapidly than the packed soil of the ground, and the young are kept in them until the ground again becomes dry. OFFSHOOT NESTS AND RUNWAYS. The ants habitually construct temporary quarters and utilize nat- ural shelters along the foraging trail, especially if the food supply is distant from the nest, as places in which to rest, secluded from light, heat, and wind, and in which wandering queens may hide. Tf the food supply is large, attracting many ants for a long period, the ants gradually construct runways, or series of shelters, between the nest and the food source, tunneling them in the ground or build- ing them up of particles of soil and trash, according to circum- stances. As these structures are built toward the sources of food and the queens are more or less constantly traveling in the trails of the foragers, it is in this direction that the colony expands. When- ever one of these wandering queens finds a suitably dark and secluded spot along the trail she makes her abode there permanently, de- posits eggs, and starts a secondary colony. Queens, eggs, and young occur almost constantly in the larger, more secluded shelters along the foraging trails. This is the most important means of local spread of the colony. A good illustration of the formation of offshoot nests in the ground occurred in the field poisoning tests at New Orleans. A supply of poisoned sirup kept near a fig tree for several months in 1913 attracted ants from three colonies in turn, all of which finally de- serted the neighborhood. On October 2 workers from a fourth colony, nesting in an outbuilding 72 feet distant, arrived, and by October 8 the file of ants from nest to jar had increased enormously. rt 54 BULLETIN 647, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The ants soon began tunneling into the ground at short intervals along the entire course of the trail, and by October 15 these shafts were numerous. The foragers still followed the original trail along the surface of the ground, but could no longer be traced for its entire length, as they were continually disappearing into the tunnels. Queens gradually separated from the original colony and took up their abode in the tunnels, until finally there was a string of small colonies all along the trail from mother colony to sirup. The origi- nal purpose of the tunnels doubtless was to protect the workers from light and heat while they rested from their labors, but the queens found them well adapted for nesting purposes. SHELTER STRUCTURES, OR “COW SHEDS.” In the trees the ants invariably utilize such natural shelters as cracks and depressions in the bark, abandoned tunnels of borers, the space between touching leaves and fruits, etc., often further exclud- ing light by piling particles of trash along the edges of cracks and walling in the space between nearly touching leaves, fruits, and branches. A portion of the ants foraging in trees almost invariably may be seen retracing their steps up the tree, carrying either liquid forage or prey with them. If traced, these ants usually will be found seeking a rest in the nearest shelter of the sort mentioned. Sometimes, while resting, their forage is deposited nearby and occa- sionally thereafter forgotten; at other times it is held indefinitely in the jaws. The erection of the so-called “cow sheds” over scale insects and aphids is a further extension of this habit of building shelters in which the worker ants can rest. The number of ants attending aphid and coccid groups is almost always greater than can secure honeydew continuously. Some of them, therefore, always must be waiting until their hosts have a fresh supply ready. During this period of waiting and unrequited solicitation the “ cow sheds” serve the usual ant-protective purpose. These structures, of course, may protect from enemies the particular insects covered by them, but, even if this protection were absolute, no great number would benefit by it, because comparatively so few are covered. The occasional occurrence of parasitized remains of scales under these “ cow sheds” indicates, furthermore, that the protection afforded even those com- paratively few scales is often faulty. On orange trees badly infested by the black scale shelter structures sometimes are found over groups of mealybugs, and in this case their most important function happens to be protection of the ants and mealybugs against the honeydew of the scale and its accompanying THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 55 sooty and green mold. Again, it seems to be primarily the ants that are protected, as they await the excretion from the mealybugs. Perhaps the clearest proof that these shelters are built mainly in response to the needs of resting worker ants is the fact that under certain circumstances they will be built on the tables supporting artificial formicaries, where no scales or aphids occur. Six formi- caries of the Janet type were kept on small tables set in pans of oil (see P]. IV). Food, poisoned sirup, and water were placed on the tables outside the formicaries. When sick from a poison, the ants are very eager for water with which, perhaps, to wash out the crops, and numerous sick ants constantly hung about the water plate. Whenever sufficient trash was allowed them they would build a shelter tent from the edge of the formicary to that of the water dish, and this tent always would be full of ants regurgitating the poison and cleaning each other’s mouth parts. THE HABIT OF BURYING NOXIOUS SUBSTANCES. Another activity of the ant somewhat along this line is the habit of piling débris upon noxious substances. On rare occasions they bridge bands of sticky material placed on the tree trunks in this manner. Generally, however, this is done only where the substance is actually injurious. In the field poison tests frequent cases were observed where the shelter-constructing and trash-piling habit merged into one. When foraging at the poison jars it was of common occurrence for the ants to construct out of particles of soft soil elaborate shelters about the sides of the jars, and sometimes com- pletely over them. (PI. 1.) As they learned the effects of the sirup they often would deposit more and more particles on the sponge within the jar and finally fill the entrance hole completely. In one case, for example, they partly covered the sponge and filled the entrance to one of the jars nine times in the course of several months. In an experiment with moth balls placed in a saucer with sirup poured over them, the ants eagerly took the sirup for a week, at the end of which time there were large numbers of dead in the mixture. The ants then became engaged principally in removing the dead. The saucer had been placed on a piece of white crepe paper, and when this accidentally got wet the ants bit out particles of the paper and constructed an elaborate shelter completely around the edge of the saucer. Under this large numbers of workers might be found at all times. As they continued to feed and get poisoned, however, they began piling bits of paper on the moth balls and finally completely covered them with the “ confetti.” ty 56 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CULTURAL CONDITIONS IN ANT-INVADED VS. ANT-FREE ORANGE GROVES IN LOUISIANA.1 As already stated, the Argentine ant infests only slightly mor than 26 per cent of the orange groves of Louisiana as yet. It wa found that 40.7 per cent of the groves that had never had the ant: in them were in “ poor” condition, while about the same proportio1 (43.9 per cent) of those that were infested with ants were in gooc condition. In other words, about 15.4 per cent more of the ant invaded groves were in “poor” condition than of the noninvadec groves, but this is probably in large part due to the greater neglect of the ant-infested trees because of that infestation, many of the owners becoming discouraged as soon as they found the ants present) A considerable number of groves had been abandoned completely because the ants had gotten into them. A slightly greater reductior in crop had occurred in the groves infested by ants, this reductior being, however, only about 0.22 box per tree greater than in those free from ants. Both the maximum and the last (1914) crops were far below what they should be in both ant-invaded and ant-free orange groves for trees of their age, being in each case less than 1 packed box per tree. In Cameron Parish the large sweet seedling orange trees, in which the Argentine ant does not occur, helped to raise the production average for the groves free from ants, as these trees produce from 5 to 15 boxes each. Thus it is seen that there is practically no difference between those groves in Louisiana where the ants are present and those where they are not, either in the condition of the trees or in the amount of fruit produced. It is undoubtedly true, however, that where the scale, white-fiy, and rust-mite infestations are heavy and no attempt is made to control them the crop will be reduced considerably. The effect of these insects also will be unusually pronounced on trees that are weakened by too close planting, poor drainage, and cultural neglect. The ants appear to have no effect on the rust mite. That groves completely overrun with the ants and in a badly run- down condition from neglect can be revived and brought back to their normal bearing condition without treating the ants or keeping them from the trees has been demonstrated. The principal features of this work will be related here briefly. i The data on conditions affecting the culture of orange trees in Louisiana were obtained partly by means of questions submitted to the orange growers, partly by personal inspec- tion of the groves, and are complete on about 96 per cent of the groves of the State. Those groves with a large percentage of trees fairly large for their age, symmetrical, with moderately dense foliage, of good color, and bearing an average-sized crop according to local standards, were classed as “ good.’”’ Those showing a large percentage of under- sized trees, with thin foliage, many dead and dying branches, poor color, lack of growth, and poor crop were classed as ‘“‘ poor.’ Bul. 647, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PROTECTIVE “SHEDS” OF THE ARGENTINE ANT. Surface shelter of soil particles constructed by the Argentine ant about a poison jar. PLATE I. (Original.) ip Bul. 647, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il. LOUISIANA BUDDED ORANGE TREE. Peculiarity of growth of the Citrus trifoliata stock, and a comparatively very slight incrustation of lichens. (Original.) | THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. Ba | DEMONSTRATION IN IMPROVEMENT OF ANT-INVADED GROVES IN LOUISIANA. If preventing the Argentine ant from getting into the orange trees would effect the practical commercial control of the chief armored scales and the white fly in Louisiana, as it does that of the citrus mealybugs in Los Angeles County, Cal., the problem of controlling these insects would be simply one of getting rid of the ants. The natural enemies of the principal pests of Louisiana, however, are unable, even in the absence of ants, to prevent severe infestation. On the other hand, if thorough measures of control were practiced against these insects, there should be no reason to worry about the ants. If the citrus mealybugs in California orange groves were as thoroughly controlled by the regular fumigations as are the armored and black scales, the ants could do only a negligible amount of harm through these insects. DESCRIPTION OF DEMONSTRATION ORCHARD. The orchard reclamation work about to be described was conducted on a grove at Ollie, La., practically abandoned, except for the har- vesting of the crop. The grove consisted of about 1,055 sweet, naval, mandarin, tangerine, and jaffa trees, a block of 603 of which were treated, the remaining 452 being left as checks. All the trees were very thinly foliaged, with small tops, and many of them with mul- tiple trunks. Many of the leaves were yellow and a moderate num- ber of branches were dead. The trees were poorly shaped, and branches were much tangled as a result of bad pruning. Many of the trees were suffering badly with gummosis,' some being almost completely girdled about the base of the trunk and larger roots by this disease. (See Pl. ITI.) The ant infestation was as heavy as has ever been seen in any orchard. All the trees were very badly infested with chaff, purple, and long scales, the first named being exceptionally numerous. Almost all the fruit had been very badly discolored by the rust mite every year, and, in some years, infestations of the citrus white fly were also severe. The largest crop ever produced by the full orchard of 1,055 trees was 1,400 boxes, occurring in the year 1911. The crop of the 1914 season had been only 400 boxes; or, in other words, the orchard had suffered a crop reduction of 71.4 per cent in three years. TREATMENT OF THE ORCHARD. The demonstration work of improving this grove was started in February, 1915, and continued until interrupted by the hurricane of 1 Also called “sore shin’’ disease. 58 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . 4 id cultivation, and tree surgery. Spraying was conducted against the chaff and purple scales, citrus white fly, and rust mite, and for the destruction of the lichens and moss which covered the trees (see Pl. I1). The trees were sprayed only three times, the first application, for scales and the white fly, being started February 12; the second, for lichens and moss, May 12; and the third, almost exclusively for scales and rust mite on the fruit, on July 26. Two different brands of paraffin-base lubricating oil made into emulsions containing 1 per cent of the oil and 0.5 per cent of soap were used in the insecticidal work. A commercial lme- sulphur preparation was used in the fungicidal work. The tree surgery consisted of pruning to improve the shape of the trees, the removal of wood diseased with gummosis, and the cutting back of Jaffa trees preparatory to rebudding. In some cases where a the trees branched from the ground into several trunks, those trunks . with poor tops which gave no promise of improvement were removed entire. The pruning of smaller branches was very light and con- sisted in the removal of all dead ones and thinning out of those entangled. All wood infected with gummosis was gouged out with a chisel and mallet and the wounds painted with a mixture of i part of creosote to 2 parts of coal tar. This work was all con- ducted in the spring, from March to June. The demonstration plat was clean cultivated throughout the season by plowing and cross-plowing, followed by disking both ways of the orchard, four cultivations, March 8, May 12, June 21, and August 26, respectively, being necessary. Close to the trees, where the plow could not reach, the weeds were kept down by hoeing. | As the orchard had never before been cross-plowed, a good many fairly large roots were broken in this work, but the trees did not suffer any apparent ill effect from this rough treatment. The drain- age ditches surrounding the plat were all deepened about a foot and the weeds choking them removed. Ee | September 29, 1915. The treatment consisted solely of spraying, : ST eggonmee sa RESULTS OF ORCHARD TREATMENT. Within three weeks after the application of the lime-sulphur solution most of the lichens with which the trunks and larger branches were coated had fallen off completely, a solution of 30° Baumé, at 1 volume to 50 volumes of water, accomplishing this result. Owing to the thinness of the trees and scarcity of food in propor- tion to the number of scales in this orchard, an exceptionally large number of these insects settled on the fruit. A count of the chaff and purple scales on 100 fruits from each of the two blocks on June 23 gave 112 on the sprayed fruits and 3,365 on the unsprayed, rep- THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 59 resenting a reduction of 96.7 per cent by spraying. By May 27 the leaves of the unsprayed trees had become quite badly infested with white flies. A count of those on 100 leaves picked at random from these trees gave 26,200 larve and pups, while on an equal number from the sprayed trees there were only 73, a reduction, therefore, of 99.7 per cent. The rust mite began to appear on the fruit in June, and by the 23d of that month there were 50 to 60 mites per fruit on unsprayed trees, while on the sprayed they could only be found on the row of trees adjoining the unsprayed block and then only to the number of 10 per fruit. On August 5, after the second insecticidal application, examination of 100 fruits on the sprayed trees gave 987 scales, or an average of about 9 per fruit, and 89 rust mites, the latter being so scarce that they were difficult to find. The unsprayed fruits were so badly in- ¥ested that scales could be counted in the time available on only 10 fruits, on which there were 6,982, and the rust mites were quite too numerous to count. Fully 75 per cent of the unsprayed fruit had by that date become discolored by the rust mites. By September the trees in the experimental block had responded beautifully to the treatment, and many persons commented on their improved appearance. About ten times as much new growth occurred on these trees as on the untreated trees. The fruit was larger, and a very large per- centage of it entirely clean. The sterm of September 28-29, however, blew down and broke many of the trees and knocked approximately 87.2 per cent of the fruit to the ground, preventing bringing the work to a completely satisfactory conclusion. It was possible, however, to count most of the fruit on the ground and that on the trees and examine it for insect injuries. There were practically twice as many fruits per producing tree left on the treated as on the untreated trees. Owing to the morass of weeds in the untreated block and to much of the fruit having been removed and sold by the owner, it was impracticable to count the fallen fruit in that block. In the treated block all the fruit which was not washed out of the orchard was counted and examined for insect injury. There were on the ground and on the trees 69,672 sweet oranges, tangerines, and mandarins, which, averaging about 200 to the box, made approximately 348 packed boxes of fruit. It was estimated _ that nearly one-fourth of the fruit was not recovered. The pro- duction was, therefore, about 435 boxes, or more than as much fruit as the entire orchard had produced the previous year, as a result of only one season’s treatment, 60 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The cost of the full treatment for the season was about 33 cents per - tree. It is scarcely necessary to say that complete destruction of the | ants would not bring about these results, nor did the ants in any | degree prevent their attainment. EXPERIMENTS IN CONTROLLING THE ARGENTINE ANT. POISONING TESTS. | In the poisoning work conducted against the Argentine ant in| Louisiana the following 16 poisons were tested: Strychnine sul- phate, potassium cyanid, oxalic acid, arsenic trioxid, lead arsenate, Paris green, tartar emetic, oxid of antimony, mercuric chlorid, mer- curous chlorid, copper sulphate, sulphate of iron, chrome alum, sodium arsenite, chloral hydrate, powdered extract of belladonna. | As 14 of them were given a thorough trial at three different strengths in the field, and 20 further tests were made on imprisoned colonies, there were 62 experiments in all. METHODS OF CONDUCTING POISONING TESTS. The receptacle used for the poisoned sirup was a deep-shouldered fruit jar of the type illustrated in Plate IV, with a tin lid with rub- ber band attached. A single entrance hole for the ants was punched in the center of the lid. To aid the ants in reaching the sirup, a piece of sponge was put into each jar. Scrap or waste sponges en- tirely suitable for this use may be purchased at wholesale drug’ stores for about 25 cents per pound. Upon beginning to forage at the poison, the ants would be traced to their nest and the location and size of the colony recorded, after which it would be watched and the effect of the poison noted. A definite amount of sirup, usually 4 or 8 ounces, was placed in each jar, every time, and the amounts taken by the ants thus learned. In poisoning tests on imprisoned ants each colony was confined to a low table supporting a three-celled Janet type plaster of Paris formicary, furnished with vent holes covered with bronze gauze. The ants were allowed to roam at will on top of the formicary and the. 4-inch margin between the sides of the formicary and the edge of the table. (See Pl. IV.) To prevent ants from leaving the tables, the latter were placed in shallow galvanized-iron pans about 8 inches wider and longer than the table tops, containing a lubricating oil costing from 15 to 25 cents per gallon. The advantages of this oil) were the extreme slowness with which it evaporates, its lack of an odor which might disturb the ants, and its nondrying property. Fresh sirup, cockroaches or other meat, and water were always at PLATE III. Iture. U.S. Dept. of Agricu Bul. 647, (‘JeUISIIQ) “eSVOSIP ,, UIYS o10s,, oy} AG posnvod spUNOM oI’ S901} YAINOJ pue puooes et} JO WMOIO 9} UO Sjods youtq ey, “Suryued esojo 004 pus surunid pajoo[seu WO ZUTZ[NSeI Seer oY} Jo do4 [[ems pus odeys 100d oy} e}0N “LNSWLVAY | Yaldav “v7 ‘SITIO Lv 3A0U5) SONVUO IVLNSEWIYAdXy Bul. 647, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. INTERIOR OF FORMICARiLUM. Type of formicary used in ant poisoning experimenis, and method of preventing the escape of ants by resting tables in shallow pans of lubricating oil. (Original.) THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 61 hand on the table, in addition to the poison, in order to approximate field conditions as nearly as possible. With this apparatus and method of feeding, ant colonies have been kept in a state of health for nearly two years. In some cases, where the ants are confined for prolonged periods without flesh food, they feed upon their own eggs and young. SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF POISONING TESTS. In conducting tests on nonimprisoned ants, difficulty was experi- enced in determining the effect of the poison upon the ant colony. Desertion of the nest may mean that the ants have been destroyed, that the poison has merely impelled them to move, that they have moved from need of better quarters, or that they have discovered more abundant and suitable food elsewhere. The colony may move slowly from the immediate neighborhood of the poison, but its scouts continue to hang about the latter indefinitely. It may remain where it is and follow the original trail near the poison without visiting it. Slow migration may occur, giving the impression that the colony is being destroyed, when such is not the case. From 26 to 298 days were required to bring out the results. If the poison dosage is too strong, the ants will leave it before much harm befalls them; if so weak as to assure continuous feeding, its action is extremely slow. The amounts of poisoned sirup consumed by the ants in field tests varied from as low as 0.04 ounce per day over a period of 189 days to as high as 1.2 ounces per day for 296 days. Dead worker ants were found in or near the poison jars only in the case of three of the poisons, viz, strychnine, potassium cyanid, and arsenic. Large numbers of dead ants occurred often only at the jars containing potassium cyanid. The poisons selected for a final testing upon imprisoned colonies were strychnine, potassium cyanid, arsenic trioxid, lead arsenate, mercuric and mercurous chlorid, tartar emetic, sodium arsenite, chloral hydrate, and belladonna. The first symptoms of poisoning shown by the imprisoned colonies are a strong desire on the part of the workers for water and assiduous cleansing of the body, par- ticularly the jaws. An ant will commonly regurgitate a dose of poison, and a sister worker will cleanse her distended jaws with great thoroughness, repeatedly going over them with the mandibles and tongue. The next effect upon the colony is generally the death of some of the young, followed by a slackening, and finally a cessa- tion of oviposition. The young then die rapidly, followed by work- ers, until all of both phases are dead. The queens then begin to do their own foraging, and finally succumb to the poison, at times not until several days after the demise of the last worker. | y 1 HI 62 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The poisons which came through both tests with the best record were: (1) Chloral hydrate, 3 gm., to sirup, 120 gm. (2) Sodium arsenite, 0.148 to 0.287 gm., to sirup, 120 gm. (3) Arsenic trioxid, 0.125 to 0.250 gm., to sirup, 120 gm. (4) Lead arsenate, 1.0 gm., to sirup, 120 gm. (5) Tartar emetic, 0.525 gm., to sirup 120 gm. By far the most rapid and successful of all was the chloral hydrate mixture. PoISONING ANTS IN THE ORANGE GROVES. Two experiments were conducted in an attempt to destroy the ants in orange groves by means of poisoning. One of these, in which the trees were not banded and weeds were allowed to flourish during the experiment, failed to have any appreciable effect upon the ants. In the other one a plat of 237 orange trees was first completely isolated from the rest of the orchard by means of barrier ditches. All weeds and trash were then removed from the plat, and the trees — all banded with an adhesive mixture, thus limiting the food supply for ants within the plat to the poison and a comparatively few rotting oranges, dead insects, and fiddler crabs. The ground in the plat was almost covered with a mass of ants, there being 250 “very large,” “Jarge,” and “small” colonies, or more than one for every tree. The ants took the poison intermittently, attendance being abundant at certain jars at one time, at others the next, and attendance at the poison was no doubt greater than it would otherwise have been be- cause of the scarcity of food. The result of the poisoning and tree banding together was to re- duce the ants after about four months to 2 “large” and 17 “very small” colonies. On ordinary inspection and comparison with the adjoining plat one would say that there were no ants left in the treated plat. The poison, in itself, was not a marked success, how- ever, as cutting off the food supply had caused fully 75 per cent of the ants to migrate, as shown by the speed with which the first large disappearance of ants took place, and the frequent occurrence of thousands of dead ants on the water in the ditches. USE OF TREE-BANDING MIXTURES. It seems doubtful whether adhesive and other repellent mixtures to be applied to the trunks of the trees will ever be used extensively as ant barriers in Louisiana orange groves. Such barriers do not reduce the ant population and can not be considered as a positive means of control. When used on a large scale bands of this sort need more or less frequent inspection and renewal or respreading, and the cost of | : THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 63 maintenance would not be justified under present conditions by the increased crop returns. In Los Angeles County, Cal., it appears that the citrus mealybug could be completely controlled in many cases merely by excluding the ants from the trees. Should that condition remain indefinitely, band- ing the trees would probably be as cheap a method of checking the mealybug as any other. At all events tree-banding mixtures will always have a use in protecting yard and ornamental trees, beehives, etc., from the ants. They may be used also to advantage in some cases in connection with poisoning and trapping the ants. In an endeavor to discover an ant barrier of this nature which would be impervious to changes in the weather, and which would only require infrequent renewal or respreading, more than 20 mixtures were tested upon orange, fig, and other trees. Lack of space prevents including detailed results of the individual experiments, and only the general conclusions already published elsewhere* will be stated. ADHESIVE MIXTURES. The most effective material of the adhesive type tested was made after the following formula: HIOWEES Ob Sulphur parimpyameients—— = i eee ee il Commercial tree adhesive, parts by weight___________________ 6 All the lumps in the sulphur should be broken and the two in- gredients thoroughly stirred together with a wooden paddle. The sulphur not only greatly prolongs the softness of the material, but appears to have a sufficiently repellent effect upon the ants to prevent them from bridging the bands with bits of trash or their own bodies. This mixture will remain effective in rainy, foggy, or exceptionally dry weather for from 3 to 5 months. If directly exposed for long periods to the sun, however, the surface becomes hard enough for ants to pass, and the bands should, therefore, be applied where the shade of the tree will protect them. This mixture must not be applied di- rectly to the bark of trees, as it will be to some extent absorbed and may in time cause injury. It should be applied to tire tape or other waterproof material which has first been wrapped about the trunk. REPELLENT MERCURIC SHELLAC. It is well known that corrosive sublimate has a strongly repellent effect upon the ants, and is the active ingredient in most, if not all, of the “ant tapes” found on the market, as well as of those watery solutions to be applied to household furniture with a paint brush. Comm. Hort., v. 5, p. 419-421. 1916. 27139°—18—Bull. 647——_5 64 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It seemed desirable to give this chemical a thorough trial in the field, but it was necessary to devise a means of protecting the mer- curic salt from rain. The ant tapes and liquids on the market were useless for outdoor work, because their value was quickly destroyed by moisture. In original experiments performed by the writer it was found that the corrosive sublimate could be made impervious to water by - dissolving this salt in an alcoholic solution of shellac. A consider- able experimentation, in which both methyl and ethyl alcohol and various strengths of the mercury were used, resulted in the following formula, which was most satisfactory: Corrosive sublimate______ 20 ORS | CREE eee OTS gm__ 20 Bthyl valecoho)t 24 irst Ter cae ee) ee Peer e.c__ 60 Shella @- cnn Bix ee A ED SE ena ail The corrosive sublimate is first dissolved in the alcohol, then the shellac added, and the mixture shaken until all is dissolved. In the few tests made with this mixture in the field it proved effective against the ants for about two months under the most trying conditions. It is less effective, however, than the adhesive mixture previously described, and too expensive for use on a large scale. It must never be applied directly to trees, as it will quickly kill the bark clear through and ultimately destroy the tree. It may be used by first applying thickly to strips of cloth, or soaking the latter in the solution, and then allowing them to dry out thoroughly. This method is, however, too tedious and expensive for practical use. Shellac solution of corrosive sublimate, made after the foregoing formula and painted in bands from 6 to 8 inches wide on the legs of tables, refrigerators, etc., where food is kept, ordinarily will keep the ants away for a year or more. The banding material will not long retain its strength when applied to metal surfaces, such as stove legs and galvanized-iron garbage pails. There is considerable danger attendant upon the careless use of corrosive sublimate, but if the precaution is taken not to get it into a cut or abrasion, or into the mouth or eyes while mixing, there is nothing to fear from it. It is much safer to handle in the form of a shellac solution than in that of an ant tape, being applied with a paint brush and not requiring any direct handling whatever. Once the “paint” has become dry there is no chance for the corrosive sublimate to shake loose and get into food. In making ant tape, on the contrary, there is danger of splashing the solution into the face or of getting it into a slight cut on the hands in soaking and drying the cloth strips, and when these are applied the loose poison in the fibers of the cloth is a constant source of danger to young children and domestic pets. Bul. 647, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. TRAPPING THE ARGENTINE ANT. Ant trap nest and fumigating cover used in destroying the Argentine ant in the orange groves of Louisiana. (Original.) PLATE VI. Bul. 647, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. * ey = é nh es Nas Gs AS veh 0) Pa : eS Roce Be . TRAPPING THE ARGENTINE ANT. About one-third. La. ? py Jack (Original.) killed in one of the traps nests at Hap natural size. Mass of dead ants THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 65 EFFECT OF CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE. A poisonous emanation appears to be given off by the mercuric hellac band which is very injurious to the ants, as one example of he behavior of ants which have crossed it will illustrate. An ant ttempting to cross one of these bands suddenly stopped when part fay across and began to stroke the antenne with the first pair of 29s. It remained on the band about 14 minutes, turning slowly bout, stroking the antenne, and drawing the legs between the vandibles. It then slowly retraced its steps off the band and moved imlessly about for a time, often getting in the way of other ants. oon one of these stopped and took hold of one of its antenne. ‘his made it active long enough to disengage itself, when it again ecame sluggish and wandered aimlessly. This continued as long s it was watched—about 10 minutes. Other ants, some of which rere themselves*sick, were trying to drag their dizzy fellows to a helter. Most of the sick ants finally became very sluggish and many f them fell from the tree. TRAPPING THE ARGENTINE ANT IN LOUISIANA. By far the best and the only practical means of destroying the \rgentine ant in the orange groves of Louisiana is by trapping. ‘he discovery that the ants would collect in large numbers in boxes f decaying vegetation in winter was first made by Messrs. Newell nd Barber, who described a method of destroying them based on his fact.1_ The method of trapping about to be described differs n several important respects, however, from that recommended by hese gentlemen. It is based mainly upon the fact that a very slight ain at any season of the year will cause the ant colonies to come out f the ground, where most of them nest, and seek dry, sheltered laces. EFFECT OF RAINS UPON THE ANTS. The favorite rainy-weather nesting places of the ants are under oose boards, piles of lumber, boxes, logs, sacks, and pieces of cloth, les of bricks, piles of dead weeds, under and in the sides of build- ngs, etc. They also preferably seek high ground, and, other condi- ions being equal, the largest colonies will be found on the ditch anks and the high ground at the base of the trees. Just as foraging vorkers often complete a partial natural shelter found upon a tree r elsewhere by making walls of bits of trash, the ants often build laborate structures of soil particles and trash under the loose boards nd other shelters found on or near the ground. The idea of using the traps about to be described was first sug- yested by the behavior of the ant colonies in an orange orchard in -10p. cit., p. 95-96. 66 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which a poisoning experiment was being conducted. As the jars used would be partly filled with water every time it rained, a shelter was made for each of them out of two ends of an orange box nailed together in the shape of a gable. Soon after these covers had been laid, every one was found to harbor an ant colony which crowded it to its fullest capacity. Protection from the rain alone not satisfying the ants, they shut out the light and drafts by completely filling in the space between the jar and the top and ends of the cover with particles of soil. Each nest was no doubt ideal from the ants’ point of view. Each was honeycombed with galleries of all shapes and sizes, ramifying in every direction. Any desired degree of moisture could probably be had in these galleries, those nearest the top being driest, and those directly on the surface of the ground most humid. The occupants would only need to move to underground quarters should prolonged dry weather occur. Each of these “ant castles,” as they might be called, was perfectly protected from rain by a good pine roof. On removing the roof and looking into the galleries, thousands of eggs, young, and queens were revealed. Many solid masses of young and eggs as large as a hen’s egg could be collected in these shelters. It was very evident that the ants could be much more rapidly destroyed when gathered together in this manner than by the tedious and unsatisfactory method of feeding them poison. Protection from rain and drafts, good drainage, and darkness be- ing the principal nesting requisites of the ants, it appeared that these requirements could best be met by a box with a roof. It was also found that ants could be induced to mass more thoroughly in numer- ous comparatively small colonies than in a few extremely large ones, A small covered box-trap was, therefore, given a trial, 15 of them being used in the first test. This was so satisfactory that it was fol- lowed by a large-scale experiment in which over 400 traps were used. DESCRIPTION OF ANT TRAPS AND FUMIGATING COVERS. The first traps (see Pl. V) were made of {-inch cypress; but sap pine proved to be just as good and was cheaper. Each trap con- sisted of the following 9 pieces: Two sides, 12 by 12 inches; 2 sides, 10 by 12 inches; 1 bottom, 10 by 10 inches; 2 top pieces, 8 by 12 inches, and 2 pieces of triangular molding 12 inches long. First the smaller sides and bottom are fastened together with rosined nails or screws to prevent warping, then the larger sides added. The top pieces are fastened together in the form of a gable, with a tight joint, this roof being set loosely on top of the box. The pieces of molding are nailed across the inner side of the roof where it touches the top of the trap to hold it in place. Covers to keep the gas in while fumigating are made of 28-gauge galvanized iron, each consisting of one piece 38 inches by 13+ inches, THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 67 bent into two right angles, forming two sides and the top, and two pieces 131 by 134 inches, forming the other two sides. The edges of ihe latter two pieces are folded inwardly over those of the first piece and hammered tightly together. Covers with soldered, instead of hammered, seams are preferable, however, unless the latter are very well made. The completed cover should measure 124 by 123 by 123 inches inside, leaving a margin of 3 inch to turn down all around the outside to reinforce the open edge. RESULTS OF ANT-TRAPPING EXPERIMENT. The experiment, the results of which are about to be briefly stated, was conducted in a block of approximately 19 acres’ of bearing orange trees completely overrun with ants, located at Happy Jack, La. The traps, numbering 415 in all, or about 22 per acre, were set April 21-22, 1914. A trap was placed on a slight elevation at the outer edge of the spread of every second tree each way, or one trap to each four trees. Tests of various kinds of filler had shown pre- viously that the best for summer was dry grass and weeds; for winter, equal parts of decaying manure and dry grass and weeds. From the time of setting the traps until the first rain, about 56 days, the ants were nesting almost wholly at from 8 inches to 14 feet in the ground. Even after such a period of prolonged drought, however, a rain of about 0.2 inch, occurring June 18, 1914, was sufficient to drive them into the traps in large numbers. Tests of different strengths of carbon disulphid and strong am- monia water as fumigants proved that 12 ounces per trap of the ammonia was satisfactory. The carbon disulphid, however, proved satisfactory at as little as 2 fluid ounces per trap, allowing the traps to fumigate for 1 hour. The first fumigation was started June 23, at which time it was nec- essary to fumigate 334 of the traps, only those which contained large and complete colonies being disturbed. The second, third, and fourth fumigations were started July 21, August 26, and September 28, respectively, completing the summer’s killing. A solid mass of ants, in all stages, nearly as large as a man’s hat, was killed in each trap each time. The workers and even the queens were so numerous that it was entirely out of the question to separate and count them in any large number of the traps (see Pl. VI). The queens, however, were counted each time in one or two traps with an average killing, and in this way it was estimated that 1,161,323 queens were killed in these first four or summer fumigations, 600,000 in the first two, 295,895 in the third, and 265,428 in the fourth. All of the traps were 1 All references to the acre are to the ‘“‘ square acre,” not the “acre front.” 68 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. full and fumigated the second and third times, and 404 of them the fourth time. The next five fumigations were started November 12, and December 4, 1914, and January 7, February 25, and June 7, 1915, the number of traps fumigated being 409, 403, 405, 305, and 21 at each respective fumigation. The number of queens killed in the last five fumigations was 34,765, 32,240, 55,080, 19,215, and 4,599, re- spectively. Before undertaking the work, an agreement had been made be- tween the officers of the Bureau of Entomology and the orange grove company by which that company was, among other things, to main- tain open barrier ditches* around the treated block, and keep that block of the orchard in a state of clean cultivation at its own expense throughout the course of the experiment. Succeeding events, how- ever, prevented the company, through no fault of its officers, from carrying out its part of the agreement. The result was that the ditches were not maintained, and weeds and trash remained in the orchard at all times; hence, many ants migrated into the block, often being traced directly to the traps, and other nesting places be- sides the traps were numerous. The persistent habit of the queen ants of forming small offshoot colonies along the worker’s trails is at once the principal means of spread and a great safeguard to the species. In the interval from the second to fifth fumigations, from 41 to 46 trails of ants were found migrating into the orchards from the direction of the levee alone, at every examination. Many ants from outside the orchard were, therefore, killed in the traps, and the duration of the work was unnecessarily prolonged thereby. The record of ants killed at the various fumigations is given in Table VIII. TasLteE VIII.—Results of ant-trapping experiment in an orange grove. Louisiana, 1914-15. | Number | F Number P ; Estimated - Estimated UTES: Date of eS number of | ae Date of ee number of — No. beginning. to fumi- cae No. beginning. to fumi- ce gate. | i gate. i aaa ee June 23,1914 334 | 600,000 || @---------- Jan. 7,1915 405 55, 080 Qasr July 21,1914 415 ’ 8.225. Feb. 25,1915 305 19, 215 dodccsseeee Aug. 26,1914 415 | ZI IFOID || 9. 02 nee June 7,1915 21 4,599 Aoat oeoceep: Sept. 28, 1914 404 265, 428 a peepee eee Nov. 12,1914 409 34, 765 Total3.ss3i 2c. 2 S52) one ec oseeee 1,307, 222 Beer ecoce Dec. 4,1914 403 32, 240 1It should be noted that a ditch of this sort already occurred along each side of the orchard from front to back, being constantly necessary to drain off the surface water. It was only necessary to clean the weeds out of these ditches and deepen them a little, and excavate a short ditch across the front of the place. The ants were prevented from coming in at the rear by the marsh, THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 69 After the eighth fumigation, February 27, 1915, there was very decided reduction in the number of ants in the orchard, and the fore- man of the place remarked that the ants were getting very scarce in the block. Only straggling workers occurred in a few of the traps from this time until the next fumigation, June 7. On March 25 examination of 30 orange trees revealed only one scout ant, and it was reported that there were no more ants about. A ranch hand said he had uncovered only three nests in plowing the entire block, while in a neighboring orchard (which had been treated for ants by the flooding method for three years or longer) he had raised so many he could not keep track of them. On the same date the ants were extremely numerous in the orange trees in an adjoining grove. A further examination on April 16 showed ants to be present on only 1 in 40 trees, and then not numerous enough to form trails. There were no ants at the blossoms or at the numerous aphids on the trees. Some large umbrella trees, which usually had from six to eight large trails, were absolutely free from ants. In the house it was no longer necessary to isolate food supplies, beds, etc., from the ants, from which there was not the slightest further annoyance, as stated by both the foreman and his wife. In the upper portion of the same property, about 90 rows from the experimental block, on the con- trary, the ants were running in heavy trails up all the trees and were numerous in the blossoms and at aphids. After the February fumigation another was not warranted for about three and one-half months, or until June 7, when 21 of the traps contained sufficiently large colonies to seem to warrant their destruction. The killing of queens had been reduced from nearly 300,000 in each of the first three or four fumigations to less than 5,000, and, of course, all the other stages had been comparably reduced. The experiment was a complete success, for it reduced the ants to negheible numbers. The following rough but not widely erroneous estimates will give an idea of the populousness of the ants in this orchard: The total estimated number of queens killed, as reference to Table VII will show, was 1,807,222. The workers and young must be estimated by volume. In the first four fumigations every trap fumigated con- tained fully one-half gallon of ants in all stages, and in each of the succeeding five nearly a quart. The total number of traps fumigated in the first four operations was 1,568; therefore 784 gallons, or about 153 barrels, of ants were destroyed. In the remaining five fumiga- tions there were 1,543 traps; therefore about 385 gallons, or about 1 barrels, of ants were destroyed. The bulk of the ants destroyed in this work, therefore, would-be almost great enough to fill twenty- three 50-gallcn barrels. 70 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. METHOD AND Cost oF FUMIGATING ANT TRAPS. It is recommended that not less than 25 traps per acre of 100 trees be used in ant trapping in the orange groves. There should also be 12 covers for each 100 traps. A trap should be placed near every other tree each way. For example, one near each of the first, third, and fifth trees in the first row, then similarly in the third, fifth, and seventh rows, etc. The traps should be located just under the outer spread of the trees, where they will not be in the way of the cultivator or so close to the tree that the latter will be injured by the fumigant. The distance from the trunk should be about 4 feet. They should be placed upon slight, level elevations made by throw- ing up and smoothing off a few shovelfuls of dirt. The ants will be destroyed much faster if every part of the orchard, including ditch banks and the tree hills, is kept free from weeds, loose boards, boxes, sacks, etc. It is, of course, not recom- mended to plow and cultivate during the winter months, but the orchard should be kept clean during the summer. In winter the traps should be filled with damp but not wet stable manure and dry weeds, the manure occupying the lower half of the box. In summer the manure, which is used principally for its heat, may be omitted. It is important to keep the lids on the traps at all times, as they keep out the rain, a very essential condition, darken the nest, and in winter help to retain its warmth. When the trap is full of ants and ready to fumigate the lid is thrown off, 2 fluid ounces of carbon disulphid poured in, and the cover quickly slipped on, the edges being banked with dirt to aid in retaining the gas. One man can do the work where the number of traps is smal]. Where the number of traps is larger they can be fumigated most efficiently by a crew of three men, one of whom measures and pours the liquid while the others remove the covers from fumigated traps, place them over those to be fumigated, and bank them with earth. A shovelful of soil tamped down at each side is sufficient. The traps must be allowed to fumigate for an hour. A crew of three men working continuously can handle 48 covers, removing them from one lot of traps and resetting them over the next in from 50 minutes to an hour. Two ounces of carbon di- sulphid will kill every ant in the trap and ants, worms, and sow- bugs for 3 inches in the ground beneath. While the same trap filler may be used indefinitely, it and the traps should be given a thorough airing after each fumigation. The figures here given on the cost of installing and operating the traps are based entirely upon the foregoing experiment conducted by the Bureau of Entomology. The cost of the traps, made of C-grade sap pine, all parts cut to fit, knocked down, was $0.23 each, 1 / THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 71 to which must be added an additional $0.08 for transportation and setting up, making a net cost of $0.31 each. The covers were made and delivered for $0.75 each. On this basis the first cost of traps and covers per acre would be about as follows: dD Sen Ae Osey Cn Gla 25 Mie ere SS ee $7. 75 SUCOVELSA LARSON 0 <2 Chitra ema eens eed eae oe ee 4, PAD) Net cost of traps and covers per acre_______________ 10. 00 A crew of three have in practice fumigated 400 traps in 14 eight- hour days, their services, at the rate of $1.25 per day each, costing $5.62. The carbon disulphid at that time cost $10.75 per hundred pounds. On this basis the cost of fumigating per acre of 100 trees per time would be about as follows: Cost of labor fumigating 25 traps, at $0.014_____________ $0. 35 Cost of Lumigcant;-25) traps) ates0 01g e222 eee oo Net cost of fumigation per acre___________________ . 675 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. Most of the orange groves of southern Louisiana, with the excep- tion of well-tended groves and seedling orchards, have been de- clining in the last seven or eight years. As a rule, maximum pro- ductiveness is reached at from 7 to 10 years of age, after which it diminishes, the actual crop loss up to 1914 being approximately 37 per cent of the known possible production. The principal cause of this decline of trees and loss of crop, which has been largely blamed upon the Argentine ant, is cultural neglect. The part played by the ant in causing this condition has been exaggerated. The only direct injury done by the ant is to destroy a negligible number of orange blossoms. The ants do not attend the armored scales of citrus or secure honeydew from them, nor do they disseminate the living scales. They do, however, disturb the predatory enemies of these scales, preventing the destruction of as large a proportion of them as would otherwise occur. Nevertheless, the natural enemies of the armored scales do not prevent heavy in- festation even in orchards free from ants. The ant can not prevent the control of the armored scales in Louisiana by spraying nor will it increase the cost of spraying. Destruction of the ants will not control these scales, and they must be controlled if orange growing in that State is to be made profitable. Under present conditions the Argentine ant does not cause excep- tionally severe infestations im the orange groves of Louisiana, even of those soft scales to which it is most favorable. The mealybugs have not been of importance as an orange pest in ant-invaded or- chards during the years 1913 to 1915, partly due to the effective- 72 BULLETIN 647, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ness of natural enemies, especially certain internal parasites, partly to overcrowding of the trees by armored scales and white flies, and partly because of the poor physical condition of the trees. In Los Angeles County, Cal., where the trees are kept free from other scales and vigorously growing, the mealybugs increase tre- mendously as a result of ant attendance. Ordinarily they are kept under complete control, where the ants do not occur, by their preda- tory enemies. In orchards where fumigation has been neglected and the trees become overcrowded with the black scale, the mealy- bug does not benefit so much from ant attendance, and infestation is much milder. The fluted scale has never been found in the orange groves proper of Louisiana, and the part played by the Argentine ant in causing the outbreak of this scale at New Orleans in 1916 is not known. The occurrence of this outbreak, closely following the 1915 hurricane, suggests the probability that the insect was largely spread by this means. The fluted scale is unable, under present conditions, to thrive on the orange trees of southern California even under the heaviest ant attendance, apparently being held in check principally by the Australian lady-beetle (Novius cardinalis Muls.), the green lace- wings, and the dipterous larva Cryptochaetum monophlebi Skuse. While the black scale occurs in New Orleans under constant at- tendance by the Argentine ant, the ant has failed to bring it into prominence there, and not a single infestation or even a single speci- men has been discovered in any of the orange groves of Louisiana. In California the black scale infestations often become very severe after a single season during which fumigation has been neglected. In two years’ time the insect is capable of increasing from almost none at all to such extreme numbers as to occupy every suitable feeding spot on the trees which it infests. Attendance by the ant for a single season does not noticeabiy increase the infestation of the black scale in California, where it reaches a maximum whether the ant is present or not. The natural enemies of this scale are not numerous and effective enough to control it. While exceptionally large numbers of the soft brown scale occur on certain host plants or parts of such plants under ant attendance in Louisiana, the natural enemies of this scale, especially the internal parasites, continue to hold it to insignificant numbers in the orange groves under present conditions. In Riverside County, Cal., this scale appears to have increased considerably in certain ant-infested orchards, but is generally controlled along with other scales by fumi- gation. In Los Angeles County both the soft brown and the citri- cola scales are scarce in ant-invaded as well as other orchards. The soft brown scale, however, is undoubtedly more numerous on cam- THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES. 73 phor and bottle trees (Sterculia diversifolia) and some other plants in sections of Pasadena where the ants occur than in sections where they do not. There is reason to believe that the Argentine ant may be an active agent in the spread of diseases through its habit of visiting various parts of the tree, and particularly freshly made wounds, for the pur- pose of feeding. It appears to introduce gummosis and wood-rotting fungi in this way more rapidly than could otherwise be the case. It may act as a conveyor of diseases of bacterial origin, such as the citrus canker, by carrying the causal organisms about on its legs and body. The control of the Argentine ant in Louisiana by the trapping method described in preceding pages is entirely practicable at a moderate cost. If ants are deterred by barrier ditches from entering the grove rapidly, five or six fumigations about a month apart should so reduce the worst infestations that annoyance from ants will cease. Thereafter fumigation of a few of the traps once in every three to six months will suffice to prevent further molestation. The esti- mated cost of reducing the ants from most extreme numbers to the few remaining where there is effective control would be about $6.03 per acre? for labor and fumigant, or not to exceed $16.03, including the first cost of traps and covers. It is believed that large sections of territory where the annual rainfall is heavy could be effectively and economically freed from ants by this method if all the members of the community would cooperate in the undertaking. Although the labor of ant destruction might be somewhat prolonged in cities because of the numerous buildings and other suitable nesting places, this method, it is believed, might be advantageously adapted to city use. Destruction of the ants in Louisiana orange groves will not effec- tively control the armored scales, or the white flies and the rust mite, and would not pay for itself in actual crop increase. Regardless of the ants many run-down orange groves in Louisiana can be so improved by one season’s thorough spraying and cultural treat- ment as almost to double their production. The success of certain orchards in southern Louisiana demonstrates that oranges can be profitably grown there if the trees are carefully selected and planted and the best-known cultural practices and methods of insect con- trol followed. The growing of citrus is a business which is in- creasingly requiring thoroughgoing business methods, and _ this applies in Louisiana as elsewhere. ) 1 The term acre as used in southern Louisiana means an acre along the river front by 40 acres deep, and should not be confused with the present use of the term, signify- ing 160 square rods, PUBLICATIONS OF THE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRI- CULTURE RELATING TO INSECTS INJURIOUS TO CITRUS AND OTHER SUBTROPICAL FRUITS. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Control of the Citrus Thrips in California and Arizona. (Farmers’ Bulletin 674.) Carbon Disulphid as an Insecticide. (Farmers’ Bulletin 799.) Common Mealybug and its Control in California. (Farmers’ Bulletin 862.) Fumigation of Ornamental Greenhouse Plants with MHydrocyanic-acid Gas, (Farmers’ Bulletin 880.) Control of the Argentine Ant in Orange Groves. (Farmers’ Bulletin 928.) Spraying for the Control of Insects and Mites Attacking Citrus Trees in Florida. (Farmers’ Bulletin 932.) Citrus Fruit Insects in Mediterranean Countries. (Department Bulletin 134.) The Mediterranean Fruit Fly in Bermuda. (Department Bulletin 161.) Katydids Injurious to Oranges in California. (Department Bulletin 256.) Argentine Ant: Distribution and Control in the United States. (Department Bulletin 377.) The Melon Fly in Hawaii. (Department Bulletin 491.) Fumigation of Ornamental Greenhouse Plants with Hydrocyanic-acid Gas. (Department Bulletin 513.) The Citrus Thrips. (Department Bulletin 616.) The Mediterranean Fruit Fly. (Department Bulletin 640.) The Melon Fly. (Department Bulletin 643.) Some Reasons for Spraying to Control Insect and Mite Enemies of Citrus Trees in Florida. (Department Bulletin 645.) Preparations for Winter Fumigation for Citrus White Fly. (Entomology Cir- cular 111.) Spraying for White Flies in Florida. (Entomology Circular 168.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. The Mediterranean Fruit Fly in Hawaii. (Department Bulletin 536.) Price, 30 cents. Mango Weevil. (Entomology Circular 141.) 1911. Price, 5 cents. Fumigation for Citrus White Fly, as Adapted to Florida Conditions. (Ento- mology Bulletin 76.) 1908. Price, 15 cents. Fumigation Investigations in California. (Hntomology Bulletin 79.) 1909. Price, 15 cents. Hydrocyanic-acid Gas Fumigation in California. (Hntomology Bulletin 90, 3 pts.) 1913. Price, 20 cents. Fumigation of Citrus Trees. (Entomology Bulletin 90, Pt. I.) 1918. Price, 20 cents. Value of Sodium Cyanid for Fumigation Purposes. (Entomology Bulletin 90, Pt. II.) 1918. Price, 5 cents. Chemistry of Fumigation with Hydrocyanic-acid Gas. (Entomology Bulletin 90, Pt. III.) 1913. Price, 5 cents. White Flies Injurious to Citrus in Florida. (Entomology Bulletin 92.) 1911. Price, 25 cents. i Orange Thrips, Report of Progress. (Entomology Bulletin 99, Pt. I.) 1911. Price, 5 cents. Red-banded Thrips. (Entomology Bulletin 99, Pt. II.) 1912. Price, 5 cents. Natural Control of White Flies in Florida. (Entomology Bulletin 102.) 1912, Price, 20 cents. 74 ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 16 CENTS PER COPY Vv oe oer: BULLETIN No. 648 OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY. Contribution from the Office of Farm Management. W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief. Washington, D. C. Vv May 1, 1918 A FARM-MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS COUNTY, GEORGIA. By BH. 8S. HASsKeryt, Assistant Agriculturist. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Description of area surveyed...----.-------- Ate |S 1ZOlOl DUSINCSSS = 22sec cecteneck cceceecenees 18 Method and scope of investigation.....-....- 5 |. Quality of farm business.....--...-..--.---- 20 mvneloitarming. 4/0) 95405 =. 6. eee ee ie ROLSATIZALION RSs cre a ae eat ne en 215 3 30 Tenure and landlord’s profits...............- 13m Cost OLproduchionerrseeseeeseeereceererecce 41 eA DOLSy StS! 2.2). ceisscincee cs = somes 14 DESCRIPTION OF AREA SURVEYED. Brooks County is located in the southern part of the coastal plain, just west of the center of the southern tier of counties in Georgia, about 50 miles from the Gulf of Mexico. The area covered by this survey is in the southern half of the county, bordering on the Florida State line. The location is shown by the shaded portion of the map, figure 1.’ This area was selected for study because here has been developed a diversified and profitable type of agriculture, with cotton retained as the chief single source of income. For years these farmers have developed the swine industry and the production on the farm of the products consumed in the home to a point that has been equaled in but few places in the South. It is believed that the type of farming found here embodies features that might with profit be adopted in many parts of the cotton belt. This is particularly true now that the recent rapid advance of the cotton-boll weevil into this section has forced many farmers to face the necessity of reorganizing their farms upon a basis involving less dependence than.hitherto upon the + For assistance in collecting the data upon which this study is based, acknowledgment is due to Messrs. M. A. Crosby, C. EH. Hope, A. G. Smith, and F. D. Stevens, of the staff of the Office of Farm Management; to J. M. Purdom, Jr., temporarily employed by the Office of Farm Management; and to Messrs. 8. H. Starr and E. C. Westbrook, of the faculty of the Georgia State College of Agriculture. Special acknowledgment is due Prof. Starr, who also-assisted in tabulating the data. 27202°—18— Bull. 648——-1. 2 BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. single crop, cotton. At the time this survey was made (1914) t boll weevil had not invaded Georgia, but since then the entire sout ern part of the State has become infested. Of-this, more will be sa in another place. The topography of the southern half of Brooks County is gent rolling to fiat. Most of it has sufficient slope to provide good natur tt Fic. 1—Map of Georgia, showing, in black, location of area surveyed. Shaded are indicates Coastal Plain section. drainage, though considerable areas, particularly near the stream are rendered swampy and of little value because of insutflicie: drainage. The soil of this area is distinctly sandy, being mainly of the No folk sandy loam and closely related types. It is a gray sand, unde laid at a depth of from 10 to 40 inches or more by a yellow subsoil « a heavier texture. The soil is quite uniform over the area covered k this survey and is fairly representative of the soils over a couside A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 3 able part of the coastal plain of this and the adjoining States. ’ Farther north in the county the soils become gradually heavier, grad- ing into the Ruston and Tifton series, but this survey has been con- fined to farms on the lighter soils found in the southern half of the county. The climate of Brooks County is warm and equable. The winters are mild, and the summers, though long and warm, are tempered by Gulf breezes. Snow falls rarely, and temperatures lower than 30° F. seldom occur, though thin ice frequently forms during the winter months. Killing frosts may occur any time between November 15 and March 1. The annual precipitation amounts to 52 inches; the heaviest rainfall occurs during the months of June, July, and Au- gust. In figure 2 the average precipitation and that for the year 1914 are shown by months. Quitman, the county seat, with a popula- tion of about 4,000, is just south of the cen- _ ter of the county and in the northern part of the area included in this survey. The Atlantic Coast Line +2) WwW ie ©) Zz z Zz 2 E < bs £ Oo w c a Railroad crosses the cis county from east to J van] Fee]mar| apr] may [sun.| JUL.| AUG, octT.| Nov.| Dec. west and the South es ue Sees ve AVERAGE Georgia Railroad from north to south, both passing through Quitman. These two railroads provide most of the area with good transportation facilities to outside markets, — though some parts of the area, notably in the southwestern part of the county, are 8 to 10 miles or more from shipping points. The public roads of the county are of sandy clay, and the principal roads - are being rapidly improved. For years Brooks County has grown nearly all the live-stock feedstuffs consumed, together with a surplus to be sold in other markets. Asa roca the local prices for such feeds are appreciably lower than those that prevail in the near-by counties which continue to purchase a part of their feeds from outside sources. Thus, in this county, the 1914 prices of corn and oats averaged about 75 cents and 50 cents per bushel, respectively, as compared with $1 and 75 cents throughout the greater part of the State. Fic. 2.—Precipitation by months at Quitman, Ga. 4 BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Brooks County has long been noted for the amount and quality of pork produced, much of which has brought a substantial premium in the larger markets of this and adjoining States. Until recently, practically all the pork was killed and cured on the farms; but a packing plant is now in operation in an adjoining county, thus providing a ready market for live stock on the hoof. Brooks County was organized in 1858. The pioneer settlers came to this section largely from the older parts of the State early in the last century, but it was not until the first railroad, the present Atlantic Coast Line, was built, just prior to 1860, that settlement was given an impetus. The older settlers came largely from northern Georgia, the Carolinas, and Virginia. The direction and rate of the development of the agriculture of the county are shown by the census data presented in Table 1. In 1860, 15.3 per cent of the land area was classed as improved farm land, a percentage that increased through each succeeding decade to 36.9 per cent at the time of the last census. A large part of the county is still covered by longleaf pine and other timber. TaBle I.—Census data, Brooks County, Ga. Meare eaters: 52. See See eee 1860 1870 18380 1900 | 1910 Wumber offarnis 47 /. 22320-2252. ase 300 394 930 1, 823 2,646 Per cent of land in farms. .-.-:--.-5----++- 81.1 65. 8 83.9 87.6 85. 8 Per cent of farm land improved.........-- 18.8 28.0 27.4 37. 4 43.0 Per cent of land area in improved farm land. 15.3 18.4 Bo 32.7|/ 36.9 @ Mores per farm... ooBesac sake oe gees B00 550 297 209 158 106. 6 Improved acres per farm..........-..----- 168 152 82 70 59 45.9 Value of farm land per acre-.........---..- $4.05 $14.12 $3. 79 $4.76 $4. 65 $14. 60 Value of farm property per farm.........-- 4,954.00 | 3,097.00 | 1,465.00 | 1,296.00 | 1,219.00 | 2,377.00 Per cent of farms operated by owners and IAAT APES oo se memiewc tens een oe ISD as =a eat 66. 2 50.3 41.55 Per cent of farms operated by cash tenants.|..-.....--|....-.-.-- 14.4 35.9 26.6 Per cent of farms operated by share ten- / ANUS Coe a ae ae ona oe een eee mee ae Eee |S so ~ coe 19.4 . 13.8 31. 9 ii Number of horses on farms..-....--------- 657 491 823 1,192 a5 205 Number of mules on farms..._-.-...--.--- 856 777 958 1,776 2,873) | Number of cattle on farms.....-..-.....-- 14,797 8,196 13,032 11,170 14,178 Number of sheep on farms.............--- 3,113 4,924 4,596 961 610 Number of swine on farms.......--------- 18,629] 11,087 | 17, 243 29, 885 47,210 | Number of swine per farm_......-.....--- 62.1 28.3 18.5 16.4 17.8 Number of swine per 100 acres improved - | Veni? sen tases eet 8 bce, ce 37.0 18.3 |. » -226 27.8 38.9 Berea! | eS 21,255 | 22,161 | 16,096| 34,065 Cotton... .-.-..-.--.-+--+-+-+++- bales 4,406 |" "3,466 | 6,288] 9,194] 7151| 13,977 Gorn ACIES * -2 tee seeeeee [bes o2--524 23, 027 26, 157 38, 428 40,121 a AO eee | ee = ai bushels 223,353 | 171,190 | 173,530 | 270,978 | 384, 220 546, 760 Oats age aa bee oes |: ie 14,087 | 13,225] 11,299 9, 512 ie ga eae a bushels 6,911 45,716 | 163,862 | 122,775 | 104,530] 143,120 Rive ACECS. 22: -|2225. seek oe 161 111 1 NEES ae a iin Sentai ee Ge ge bushels. - 1,914 1,738 879 565 500 1,900 Peet ACTOS ac a28 | oe oh. oe se hice cs ae 6, 884 10, 307 14,775 On aie eerie eis oS a a bushelss.|2so ste ee ee aS ee ee 91,685 | 196,724 365, 395 2 It should be borne in mind that in the census returns croppers are treated as farm operators, though in reality they are wage hands receiving their wage in the form of ashare of the crop. The numbers of actual farms are, therefore, considerably smaller than givenin the table, and the average sizes of farms are Cor- respondingly larger. Most of the farmers classed as “share tenants’? are in reality croppers. There are — but few share tenants, properly speaking, in Brooks County. a A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CoO., GA. 5 From the first, cotton and corn have been the crops of greatest importance. By 1900 the cotton acreage had declined, relatively, as compared with other crops, following a number of years of low _ cotton prices, but since that date cotton has been developed more rapidly than any of the other crops. The acreage of oats increased rapidly up to 1880, but since then it has steadily declined both in actual acreage and relatively. The plantings of rye have been in- creasing since 1880, but the total acreage is still small, this crop being used mainly for pasture purposes. The rapid increase in the planting of peanuts is noteworthy, the acreage having increased from 6,884 acres in 1880 to 14,775 in 1910. This increase has been coincident with and a result of the development of the swine in- dustry. The peanut acreage in Brooks County was in 1910 consid- erably in excess of that of any other county in Georgia, and equal to nearly 10 per cent of the total for the State. Of the different classes of live stock other than work stock, swine is the only one that has increased in importance. The number of sheep has declined rapidly since 1870, to an insignificant number, and the number of cattle was nearly the same at the time of the last census as it was in 1860. The number of hogs in the county declined somewhat from 1860 to 1870, but since then the number has con- stantly increased from 11,087 to 47,210 in 1910. Measured in terms of the number per 100 acres of improved farm land, the number of hogs declined from 37 to 18.3 during the decade between 1860 and 1870, but since that time the number has increased to 38.9 per 100 acres. Since this survey was made the acreage of peanuts grown and the number of hogs produced have increased very rapidly. This has been due partly to the better market offered for hogs, but principally to the invasion of the boll weevil, which has greatly in- creased the hazard of cotton growing. . METHOD AND SCOPE OF INVESTIGATION. In this study a record was obtained from each farmer of the amount and value of each class of farm property; the amounts, sources, and nature of all receipts and expenses; the amounts and values of each item contributed by the farm toward the family liv- ing; the amount of labor expended on each enterprise, and data on numerous other factors necessary in making a complete analysis of the farm business and calculating the cost of each productive enter- prise. The methods and details of calculating costs will be dis- cussed in another place. A farm-management survey should represent conditions that are as nearly normal as possible if the results are to be useful and of wide application. This is particularly true of crop yields and mar- Uh j ih | | : 6 BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ket conditions. Yields in Brooks County for the year covered by this study (1914) were approximately normal for all crops except cotton, which made yields somewhat above the average. This high yield oat tend to a certain extent to présent results EES on the cotton crop in a too favorable light. However, the market price of cotton during the year studied was low, owing to conditions growing out of the European war. The average 5-year price received by these 106 farmers was estimated by them to be 10.4 cents per pound of gross lint, whereas for the 1914 crop they received 7.1 cents, or about 32 per cent below normal. Undoubtedly this estimated 5-year price of cotton was conservative, a fact which would tend to counterbalance the effect of the rather Fic. 3.—Woodland constitutes approximately half of the farm area. The prevailing timber is the long leaf pine, which is rapidly being turpentined. large yield. To correct the effect of this abnormality, the average price received by each farmer for cotton during the preceding 5-year period was substituted for the 1914 price in figuring the returns from the farm. The price of watermelons fell during the shipping season to a low figure, with the result that many of the farmers, particularly those who had a late crop, received a very low price for a part of the crop, and many melons which otherwise would have been mar- ketable were not even harvested. The average price received for the melons sold from farms studied was $52.11 per carload, whereas the estimated average 5-year price amounted to $57.80. In every case where the price received was abnormal, the farmer’s estimated 5-year average price was substituted. Market conditions were normal for all crops sold except cotton and melons, and it is believed that with these substitutions men- ~ A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 7 tioned the results of this survey represent a close approximation to average conditions. It is true, however, that the cattle market was somewhat low, but this affected appreciably the income from ~ only three of the farms. Also the price of hogs was slightly depressed, but not sufficiently so to warrant substitutions. Numerous losses from hog cholera occurred throughout the county, and on a few of the farms studied such losses were serious, but taken together these losses represented approximately the average losses from that source during the preceding years. TYPE OF FARMING. Table II shows how the farm area is divided. The 106 farms surveyed average in size 331 acres, of which less than half, or 145 acres, are devoted to planted crops. Scarcely any idle crop land INVESTMENT PER FARM __ $1000 2000 3000 4000 $us4 #300 *364 REAL ESTATE x 5, Ea eG z Bite LEE SSD LALLA LIVE STOCK FEED & SUPPLIES IMPLEMENTS &MCGH'RY] 331 ZJoweine \ Zee wousts Eejoruen aiocs. £2 Jworx srocn fa Fig. 4.—Distribution of farm investment. is found, and less than 2 acres per farm of pasture in rotation. Permanent pasture, other than woods pastured, includes less than 8 acres per farm, slightly more than half of which is tillable. The remaining farm area (see fig. 3), or 53.3 per cent of the total acreage, consists of woods and waste land. About one-fifth of the woods and waste land, or 11.4 per cent of the total farm area, either can not be brought under cultivation at all, or not without a large outlay, since it consists of roads, ponds, and swampy areas near the streams. A like area of the woodland is fenced and utilized as pasture, leav- ing exactly one-fifth of the farm area in woodland that could be cleared but is actually used only as a source of wood, lumber, and turpentine, and as a public range. The woodland, fh fenced, fur- nishes a low-grade pasture which serves mainly to tide the live ‘stock over the el winter, spring, and early summer period when the crop area as now Groaned does not provide sufficient pasturage. The unfenced woodland serves a like purpose, it being a common practice to allow cattle and hogs to graze the public roads and range. The woodland is covered for the most part with longleaf pine, some of which is being turpentined preparatory to lumbering | _and clearing, while more is held as a source of firewood and future lumber supply. Several turpentine stills and sawmills are in opera- tion in the county. 27202°—18—Bull. 648——2 8 BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie II.—Distribution of farm area (106 farms, Brooks County, Ga.). Per cent of farm area in— Total | Acres of acres crop F Total pen bud oe Crop | Woods | Other Woes es woods 3 3 land pastured.| pasture. |_. 2 and pastured.| ete. saSt ee Nese) Pe NO ee Ae eh See Bo as a 331 | 145 | 43.9 | 11.4 2.8 30.5 | ore! 53. 3 | DISTRIBUTION OF CAPITAL. The average capital per farm and the manner in which that capital is distributed among its different elements are shown in figure 4. Three-fourths of the average farm capital consists of real estate, leaving one-fourth as working capital; and nearly three-fourths of ACRES PER FARM 20 CORN PEANUTS ; ZZ COTTON OATS COWPEAS : I MZZZZZZZZZLLLLA WATERMELONS RYE BB First Crop Second & Interplonted Crops Fic. 5.—Acres of crops per farm. the real estate value consists of land ($4,970). The average dwelling is worth $1,154, and the average values per farm of the tenants’ houses and other buildings equal $300 and $364, respectively. Nearly half of the remaining investment consists of live stock, and more than 60 per cent of this is work stock. For every acre of land in crops, these farms had $7.34 invested in live stock, $4.66 in feeds and supplies, and $2.28 in implements and machinery. The average market price of the land of these farms was found to be $20.50 per acre, while the crop land alone was valued at $30.30 per acre and would rent for $3.09. Thus the renting value amounts to approximately 10 per cent of the market value of the crop land. | But it should be borne in mind that this rent is based on the land in its present state of fertility, which has been built up by the extensive growing and pasturing off of such crops as peanuts. If cropped for several successive seasons with cotton, this light, sandy soil would then rent for much less. A large part of the woodland other than waste is valued at but little less than the crop land, since it carries A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 9 merchantable timber that would pay for bringing the land into cultivation. Its value is included in the investment of the farm. While most of it gives but little or no direct return, and since it represents so large a proportion of the area, the inclusion of its value in the capital gives the farm a lower per cent return on the investment and a lower labor income than it otherwise would show. | CROPS. The relative acreages of the principal crops grown on these farms are shown in figure 5. Corn represents the largest acreage, occupying 37.9 per cent of the whole crop area, while peanuts follow, with 31.2 ‘Fig. 6.—Corn and peanuts are commonly planted in alternate rows. This is a sound practice (see page 54). per cent; cotton comes third with 26.3 per cent; and oats fourth with 18.3 per cent. «However, more than four-fifths of the acreage planted in peanuts consists of peanuts planted in corn, and hence is to that extent a duplication of the area reported in corn. Throughout this bulletin peanuts planted in corn are thus treated as a second crop. (See fig. 6.) That cotton occupies a more important place on these farms than its relative acreage would indicate will be shown by a later table. Cowpeas for hay occupy fifth place in point of acreage, though this is nearly all a second crop, being planted after oats, rye, or water- melons. Watermelons come next with 5.3 per cent of the crop area, followed in importance by rye with 4.1 per cent. More than one- third of the rye acreage is grown wholly for grazing and as a winter cover crop, while other rye and much of the oats also furnish spring and winter pasture in addition to the grain harvested. The miscel- _laneous crops include sweet potatoes, sugar cane for sirup, sorghum, velvet beans, Irish potatoes, cucumbers, chufas, millet, and a few others. These miscellaneous crops occupy relatively unimportant 10. BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. acreages. However, they have an important place in the economy of the farm. LIVE STOCK. Brooks County has long been known for its live stock, particularly swine. The relative numbers of animal units’ of the different classes of live stock found are shown in figure 7. Cattle constitute shghtly more than half of the animal units, excluding work stock, while hogs make up more than nine-tenths of the remainder. Most of the farms keep a sufficient number of milk cows and poultry to supply the family needs, and in many cases a small surplus for sale on the local market; but on none of the farms is dairying or poultry raising otherwise important, owing to the limited local market for such products. A number of farms in the county make a practice of feeding cattle, securing, some of the feeders from the other farms in this and in vijginine counties, and shipping others in from Vlorida. Three such farms are included in this survey. ANIMAL UNITS ITEMS oA ANIMAL UNITS PER FARM FARM 10 15 20 ALL LIVE STOCK CATT LE SWINE WORK STOCK POULTRY’ OTHERS Fic. 7.—Number of animal units per farm of different classes of live stock. On a very few farms colts are grown, but nearly all the work stock is shipped in from other States. Bees are kept on a number of farms, but on only 4 farms studied were they an important source of income. One farm kept sheep and several supported a few goats. The number of animal units of cattle carried slightly exceeds those of hogs, but the latter in reality occupy much the more im- portant place in the business of these farms, as is brought out in Table III. Taste II].—Average value per animal unit of receipts from cattle, hogs, and poultry (106 farms, Brooks County, Ga.). Receipts include sales, increased inventories, and products consumed in the farm home. Item- Cattle. Hogs. | Poultry. Sales and increased inventory, per animal unit......-..-.--..-.-.-.------ $9. 68 $37. 60 $42. 25 Value of products consumed on farm, per animal unit.............-..---. 9.73 11. £0 65.35 otal credits per animalunife- 625. - 5220 -- see ae oa eee ee 19. 41, 49.40 107. 60 Total credits per HOw Unit wees cee nee p= eee ie en erie nee et tee aeieer iets 9. 88..|22 2 ieee a The equivalent of a 200-pound hog. It will be seen that hogs gave returns amounting to two and a half times as much per animal unit as did the cattle, or $49.40 as com- 1An animal unit is a mature cow or horse, or as many other animals as consume an equivalent amount of feed. Two colts or young stock, 5 hogs, 10: pigs, 7 sheep, or 100 poultry constitute this unit, A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS ©O., GA. ala pared with $19.41. Nearly half of the receipts from cattle consisted - of dairy products sold and consumed in the home, the balance being mostly cattle sold on the hoof. The low receipts per animal unit from cattle are due to the low grade of most of the native stock kept, and to the presence of the cattle tick in the county when these records were taken. A strong effort is being made to eradicate the tick and to improve the breed of cattle kept. The hogs grown are mostly grade stock of fair to good quality. SOURCES OF INCOME. One means of measuring the importance of the different farm enterprises is by the receipts from each in the form of sales and in- creases in inventories. Figure 8 shows graphically the sources of farm ueceipts and the relative importance of each, measured by this standard. It is seen that cotton is by far the most important single source of income, furnishing half of all the farm receipts, that term 1 DEFINITIONS.—The terms defined below will be used frequently throughout this bulletin. ; Farm receipts include all sales from the farm and increase of inventories of live stock, feeds, supplies. Farm expenses include all current cash expenditures, the value of farm labor per- formed by the family (except the operator), depreciation on buildings and equipment, and decreases in inventories of live stock and feed and supplies. Gross farm income is the sum of all farm sales, plus any increases in inventories. The net farm income is the difference between this sum and the sum of all farm expenses. For convenience, the term farm income is used to designate the net farm income. e Labor income is the sum that the operator has left for his own labor and management after deducting from the farm income the interest on his investment figured at the current rate on well-secured farm loans. In this study 8 per cent interest is the rate used. Hrequently prices of land are influenced by factors other than the present earning power for farming purposes. In such cases it is better, when calculating labor income, to use the interest on the working capital plus the net rent from the real estate instead of the interest on the investment. In this study these two methods of calculation gave essentially the same result, hence the simpler one was used. Farmer’s earnings represent the sum of the labor income plus what the farm furnishes toward the living of the operator and all others living or boarding in the farm home. Farm-management surveys have shown that the farm returns are largely dependent upon size of the business. For many purposes it is desirable that the factor of size be eliminated in order that farms of different sizes may be grouped together and compared. For this purpose the index of earnings is used herein. ‘This factor is determined as follows: All farms of similar size are grouped together and the average farmer’s earnings for each group is computed. The farmer's earnings of each farm in a given group is then compared with the average for that group, the group average being expressed as 100. Therefore, the index of earnings is the farmer’s earnings expressed as a percentage of the farmer’s earnings for all farms of a similar size. For example, if a farm shows an index of earnings of 110, it means that the farm in question returned farmer’s earnings 10 per cent larger than did the average farm of a similar size. The per cent return on investment is computed by deducting the value of the farmer’s labor from the net farm income and dividing the remainder by the total capital invested. This figure expresses the profits of the business as that term is ordinarily used in the business world, and is nearly independent of the size of the farm. Obviously, this factor would have little value in comparing tenants with owner farms, but in this study all farms have been reduced to the same tenure, namely, that of owners who operate thelr own farms. : The per cent return on investment eliminates the factor of size even more completely than does the index of earnings. These two terms express the profits of the business from different points of view, one ascribing the profits to capital and the other to the operator’s labor and management. Both haying been found very useful in this study, and are the ones used throughout as the principal measures of farm efficiency. ! } 12 BULLETIN 648, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. as here used not including products consumed on the farm. Hogs furnish the next largest returns, with 15.7 per cent of the total receipts, followed by oats and rye taken together, watermelons, corn, and cattle, these ranging in order from 6.1 per cent to 4.4 per cent of all receipts... But when the value of the products consumed in the farm home is added to the sales, the order is changed, hogs taking second place: followed by cattle, corn, miscellaneous crops, oats and rye, and watermelons. The miscellaneous crops include in order of importance sweet potatoes, peanuts, Irish potatoes, cabbage, etc. Other and less important sources of receipts or increases of invyen- tories of feed and supplies are poultry and eggs, sugar-cane sirup (see fig. 9), cowpea hay, receipts from miscellaneous sources, and live stock other than cattle, hogs, and poultry. The last named con- rs RECEIPTS Praooucts ONSUMED IN FARM HOME uae RECEIPTS PER FARM 600 600 1000 $1200 COTTON SWINE CATTLE AND PRODUCTS CORN MISCELLANEDUS CAOPS OATS AND RYE WAT ERMELONS FEED AND SUPPLIES POULTRY ANO EGGS SUGAR CANE ANOQ SYRUP COWPEA HAY MISCELL ANEOUS RECPTS OTHER LIVE STOCK se ran meceipTs bd COMSU™ED Mm THE FARM HOME Fic. 8.—Sources of farm receipts and products consumed in the home. sists of sales of honey and a very few colts, sheep, and goats. The miscellaneous receipts come from labor performed off of the farm, sales of wood, lumber and turpentine rights, tolls from gristmills, and rents from farm buildings, balers, and thrashing machines. The value of swine products consumed in the farm home was found to equal nearly one-third as much as receipts from sales of such products. In the case of cattle, these two items were of almost identical value (see Table IIL), while the value of poultry products and of miscellaneous crops used on the farm greatly exceed the sales therefrom. The method of measuring the size of any enterprise by direct re- ceipts therefrom does not give the proper weight to the feed and pas- ture crops, the major part of which are consumed by the live stock on the farm. The total value of the crops grown is, for many pur- poses, a better measure, and when this measure is used the corn crop jg * - 4 A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 13 ranks next to cotton, equaling half the value of that crop. The pea- nut crop then ranks fourth, and the oats, rye, hay, and sweet potato erops assume more importance than the receipts would indicate. A considerable part of the last-named crop is grown for hog pasture. Fig. 9.—Grinding sugar cane and evaporating the sirup. Nearly every farm in this sec- tion grows a patch of sugar cane, and on many of the farms the sirup is a source of eash receipts. CURRENT EXPENSES. The current expenses include 82 per cent of the total farm expenses for the year if we do not consider the value of the operator’s own service ($405) as a farm expense. The remaining 18 per cent con- sists of depreciation of buildings, machinery, and work stock, and de- creases in the inventories of live stock and feeds and supplies. The amounts and the relative importance of the principal items of current expenses are shown in figure 10. Labor constitutes more than half of these expenses, and half of this labor expense consists of cropper labor ($400). The latter represents the difference between the value of the cropper’s share of the crops he produces and his ex- pense for seed, fertilizer, and ginning, bagging, and ties. Wage "labor equals 38 per cent of the labor expense, and the unpaid family labor makes up the remaining 12.5 per cent. Commercial fertilizers constitute slightly less than one-fifth of the current expenses, and feeds purchased less than one-twentieth. The three remaining im- portant items of expense are, in order, repairs to buildings, fences, and machinery; ginning, bagging and ties; and taxes. TENURE AND LANDLORD’S PROFITS. Of the 106 farms included in this study, only 7 were operated by tenants. Of these, 5 paid a cash rent and 2 gave a stated amount of 14 BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lint cotton. However, 13 of the farm owners rented land in addition to the land owned, and 19 rented out parts of their farms, leaving 67 straight owner-operators. For these areas rented out a stated cotton rent or “standing” rent was the usual form of payment. No in- stances were found of entire farms rented for a share of the crop, though it is a common practice for single fields to be rented for a share of the crop grown, that crop usually being watermelons. On 33 farms that were rented in whole or in part, and for which the rent paid was cash or “ standing” rent, it was possible to calculate CURRENT EXPENSES PER FARM $3 00 6 00 S00 $1200 LABOR (EXCEPT OPERATOR) COMMERICAL FERTILIZER FEED PURCHASED REPAIRS GINNING, BAGGING & TIES TAXES MISCELLANEOUS ES CROPPER LABOR WAGE LABOR FAMILY LABOR Fic. 10.—Items of current expenses. the landlord’s net return. After deducting taxes, depreciation on buildings and all other expenses, the landlord’s net profit was found to be 8.25 per cent of the market price of the land. : Since so few tenant farms were found and it was desired to have all the farms on a common basis for comparison, all the farms rented in whole or in part were reduced to an owner-operator basis. This was done by adding the landlord’s investment, receipts, and expenses to those of the operator, thus treating the operator as an owner. The parts of the farms that were rented out were eliminated | from the farm business by deducting the investment, receipts, and expenses involved. LABOR SYSTEMS. WAGE SYSTEM. Two distinct systems of hiring labor are found here, as through- out the cotton belt. One is the wage system and the other is the share cropper, or cropper, system. Usually the laborers hired by the month are contracted for in January for a period extending to the beginning of cotton picking. The usual monthly wage varies from $10 to $15 per month, with or without rations; besides which A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 15 usually a house and often a garden plot are furnished. Much labor is also hired by the day during certain seasons, and it is very com- mon to hire by the “piece,” the units being 100 pounds of cotton picked, an acre of crop “chopped” or hoed, a bushel of peanuts harvested or shelled, ete. Much of the day and “piece” work is done by women and children. CROPPER SYSTEM. Under the cropper system the laborer usually receives, in lieu of a cash wage, one-half share of crops he grows, and he.is charged with half the cost of the fertilizer, ginning, bagging and ties, and sometimes half of the cost of seed used. The operator furnishes everything else, including work stock and all tools and equipment. In some cases the operator keeps all the cotton seed and in return does not charge the cropper for any of the fertilizer. Several other minor variations in the contract occur. In Brooks County the crop- per is usually required to plant peanuts between the rows of the greater part of his corn. The peanut crop is almost always pas- tured off by hogs, only sufficient seed being gathered to replace that used for planting. In some instances the operator buys the cropper’s share of the peanut pasture, but more commonly the cropper must have his own hogs to gather his crop if he is to profit by it. By many persons the cropper is mistaken for a share tenant. But in this section, at least, he is regarded as a wage hand who re- ceives his wages in the form of a share of the crop. He furnishes nothing but labor and is under practically as close supervision in the management, of his crop as is the laborer employed for a fixed wage. Most of the hired labor on these farms, both wage hands and croppers, are colored. Both labor systems are found on exactly half of the farms, including practically all the larger ones. The operator usually prefers the wage system and the laborer the crop- per system. The reasons for these preferences will appear later in this discussion. The cropper is ordinarily considered to be a somewhat higher grade of laborer than is the wage hand. Table IV shows the average cropper’s receipts, expenses, and net income per cropper, cotton being figured at the average 5-year price, as it is throughout this publication. 27202°—18—Bull. 648——8 16 BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLeE LV.—Cropper’s receipts, expenses, and net income, per cropper on 53. farms (124 croppers, Brooks County, Ga.). Cropper’s receipts: oes Cotton! 2 iL). Se See $297. 29 Corn and) ftodders 22 ene! sre 2 earl SS 68. 74 Peanuts 245 -- fee. ak Pe aaa es eee be 3 lO gy Oiler (2225/5 elk eee eras. O81) Mota 2s Sti OL TAS RPE te see $388. 70 Cropper’s expenses: Eired labor 22222—- 72. pote ee SEG) A ee I a ealamily labor 2222 22) 2) ee eis 2 ee 60. 10 Interest on cash eer a eS 1 Od 20 Mertilizer\ 5S aso eae af ee a eee as et eS OIE BORO Gannine ibaesinovand ies essai eres Sey se 11. 64 Seeds) ete xteweuittrat 0 a sities eee ee : -_ Se . 86 SIRO EY 5. eee ee EAE tS ce NER ee! | SS 130. 26 @ranper’s: net “income *=2.._ 2: ea eee ee 258. 44 - Hstmated, value.o& cropperis; labor =a ae 138. 60 The average cropper’s receipts amounted to $388.70, and the av- erage expenses to $130.26, leaving a net income to the cropper-for his labor upon his crops of $258.44, which compares with $138.60 as the amount that he would have received for the same labor had he been working for wages. In addition to this the cropper worked an average of 13.3 days for wages, most of it for the operator. Included in the list of expenses is an item of $60.10, the estimated value of the labor of the cropper’s family. This item added to the cropper’s net income gives $318.54 as the amount that the cropper and his family would have received for their year’s work on their crops had cotton sold for a normal price. The difference between $258.44 and $138.60 represents the cropper’s recompense for assuming a share of the risk of crop failure and a low market. AJl of the estimates upon which these calculations are based were secured from the operator and not from the cropper. COMPARATIVE YIELDS AND COSTS BY WAGE AND BY CROPPER SYSTEM. Table V shows the comparative yields and unit costs of crops grown by the systems just described. It will be seen that for each crop the average yields secured by the wage system are appreciably higher than those by the cropper system, the difference amounting to 16 per cent for cotton and solid corn and 8 per cent for corn planted with peanuts. These higher yields were undoubtedly due to heavier applications of fertilizer, closer supervision by the op- erator, and some differences in soil, since the best fields are often re- served for the wage crops. 1 Does not include returns from labor other than on his own crop, A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 17 TABLE V.—Comparative yields and wnit cost of crops by wage and cropper -sys- tems (Brooks County, Ga.). : Corn (with Peanuts ‘Peanuts (with Cotton. Corn (solid). peanuts). (solid). | corn). Item. | | é Wage Crop- Wage Storr Wage Crop- Wage Crop- Wage Crop- SYS- Beet sys- ae SYS- re sys- sa Sys- me ee tem. | tem. | *™-| tem. | *™-| tem. | "™- | tem. | '™- | tem Number of farms........- Bit: 93 53 47 14 77 43 49 4 76 49 Average yield of principal PTOMUCUSE eas sae 1-3 == -- a316 | a 272 615} 613] 613) 612) Pastured. Pastured. — = = } Cost per unit of principal | products: PROICLOPPeLS- 2 cece = -|=- 2 aee 30.080 |--.---- $0. 48 |...---- $0. 38 |--.---- $2.96 | 25--2- $1.74 *) Dojoperator:...-..22222--.- '$0. 093 | .097 | $0.83 | 1.20 | $0.67 9oi| sess (EGE Seceoae - 366 Average or total for sys- | | | . DN oospcccoscesocoGES -093’| .089 - 83 . 84 . 67 -66 | 11.09 | 10.09 | 5.70 5. 40 @ Pounds of lint. b Bushels. Under the wage system the average cost per pound of lint cotton is 9.3 cents, while under the cropper system the average cost to all parties concerned is 8.9 cents. But the share of the crop that goes to the operator costs the latter 9.7 cents a pound. From the stand- point of the laborer, the cropper system gives better financial re- sults. This is as it should be, for the cropper assumes a part of the risk incident to production, which the wage hand does not. In case of partial or total crop failure the cropper loses the use of all or part of his time, while the wage hand receives the same, or nearly the same, income as in normal years. In the case of corn, the total average cost is approximately the same by both systems, being 83 to 84 cents a bushel. But under the cropper system there is a wide divergence between the cost to cropper and operator of the share of the crop each receives. The cropper’s share of the corn costs him only 48 cents a bushel (38 cents when interplanted with peanuts), while the operator’s share of cropper corn costs the operator $1.20 (93 cents with peanuts in the corn). This divergence is so great that it is not surprising that many oper- ators who willingly accept share rent from croppers for cotton insist on cash rent for land devoted to corn, with the result that on cotton plantations generally a much larger proportion of corn than of cotton is grown under the wage system. The major part of the operator’s share of the cost of the cropper’s crops consists of work stock, labor, and the use of the land. The details of these oats are shown in Table XX (see p. 52). It should be borne in mind throughout this publication that the term “ costs ” covers every charge, including cost of supervision and wages for the. farmer, the cropper, and their families, — 18 BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SIZE OF BUSINESS. Farm-management surveys,: this one included, have uniformly shown that the size of the farm business is probably the most impor- tant factor in determining the returns the farmer secures for his year’s work. It is obviously impossible to secure a large return from a business of small volume, even if the margin of profit be a wide one. On the other hand, the larger the business the greater the possibility of both profits and losses. The influence of the size of the farm business on the returns is shown in Table VI. The sources and amounts of the farm receipts and expenses, and the net returns, presented from several different points of view, are shown for the groups of farms of different sizes and for the white and colored farmers separately. TABLE VI.—Relation of size of farm and race of operator to farm receipts, expenses, and net income (Brooks County, Ga.). Farms with total crop area of— ie All |Allcol- white | ored Ttein. Tess 50to | 75 to | 150 to rane farms. | opera- | opera- 50 74 149 249 Srl tors. tors. acres. | 2¢Tes- | acres. | acres. | Gor. Number of farms.........-.2.-2-.2---200-- 1S 24,1 27 21 16} 106 86 20 Acres of crop land per farm.............-.-. 33 63 111 192 389 145 166 54 Capital per farm..............-------------|$2,091 [$4,049 |$7,180 |$11, 110 |$24, 500 |s8, 992 ($13,329 | $3,275 ~ Receipts: (Crt. Soe Mens Bere dcee Apes toe- bose $413 | $845 |$1, 420 | $2,560 | $5,527 |$1, 964 | $2,213 $896 Live stock (exclusive of work stock)..-| 101 185 460 931 | 1,482 584 702 80 eediand 'supplies:2. 222-22 -2.--.22 22 35 39 92 99 155 81 87 53 iscellancCOUS=eee= 4-4-7 -tasere eee ee 11 23 70 14 118 46 49 31 otalireceiptSas--—-hs- scene 560 | 1,092 | 2,042 | 3,604] 7,282 | 2,675 | 3,051 | 1,060 Expenses: ca Gurentiwee sco. see ae oem see ae eee $232 | $541 $996 | $1,846 | $4,195 /$1, 416 | $1, 639 $453 DepreciahlOnl.\- = 222 os =- Hen esas ees 44 88 124 172 325 142 158 73 Decrease feed and supplies.-.-....-..-- 21 40 83 138 92 75 84 36 Decrease live stock (including work SUOCK) Fen neem see aoe ae | 37 63 71 114 198 90 101} 42 Totalexpenses sass ece.-- 35-22 ose. 334 732 | 1,274 | 2,270] 4,810 | 1,723} 1,982 604 Warm income: + 3.5/2 eset eae. Sek a eaeee $226 | $360 | $768 | $1,334 | $2,471,| $952 | $1,069 ~~ $456 Interest at 8 per cent....------ wise fais tes ae 167 324 575 888 | 1,959 720 826 262 Ian OnInCOmes = 2. san eaten es = oe eee 59 39 193 446 512 232 243 194 Food products used in home.............-.- 267 377 479 544 612 453 507 228 Wood used by operator..-..--------.....- 12 14 14 16 18 15 15 14 HL OUSE TONE. CSRS ees eee cere oh 33 53 98 133 306 116 132 40 Waniner's Carmine Ss se- 2h e- -n eee eee 371 480 784 | 1,139] 1,448 816 897 476 Estimated value family labor--.-----.-..- $61 | $118 $98 $119 $102.) $101 $88 $159 Family Carningss 2625 22 esniec oe ese eee 432 598 882} 1,258 1,550 917 985 635 Estimated value of operator’s labor-.------ $153 | $270 | $372 $442 $900 | $405 $446 | ° $231 Per cent return on investmenta........... | 44) Sais | 64). Sel he. vee eee eet eee a Unweighted averages. A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 19 Tt is seen. that the average receipts, expenses, and net farm income (or farm income)? for the different groups vary in almost direct pro- portion to the size of the farm. The same is true of both the labor income and the farmer’s earnings. Thus the farm income varies from $226 for the smallest-farm size group to $2,471 for the largest-farm group, giving an average of $1,069 for all of the white farmers, $456 for the colored, and $952 for all the farms taken together. This figure represents the fund available for the lving of the farmer and his family, provided he owns his farm unmortgaged, in addition to the unpaid family labor and the products furnished directly by the farm. This is of special interest to the unmortgaged farm owner. When the earnings of the farm capital, or interest upon the value of the farm and equipment, is subtracted from the farm income, the difference is called labor income. This item varies among the differ- ent groups of farms from $58 for the smallest farm to $512 for the largest one, with an average of $232 for all farms. The labor income is the measure of farm efficiency used in most farm-management sur- veys. It is of special concern to the tenant and the farmer who car- ries a mortgage. It must be remembered, however, that it does not take into account the living that the farmer and his family get di- rectly from the farm. When the items last named, consisting of food, fuel,? and house rent,’ are added to the labor income, the sum is what in this publica- tion is called the farmer’s earnings. This sum varies on these groups of farms from $370 for the smallest farm size group to $1,448 for the largest farm group, with averages of $897, $476, and $816 for the white, colored, and all farms, respectively. The farmer’s earnings are the measure of farm returns that has been used more than any other throughout this study. The farmer’s earnings do not include the value of the unpaid family labor. The latter averaged $101, and when added to the former equals what is shown in the table as family earnings. This figure represents the value of all that the farmer and his family secure from the farm in addition to the interest on the farm investment. It is the amount that the tenant would have for a living for himself and family. The sum of this figure and the interest on the investment represents the total net returns that the unmortgaged farm owner and his family secure from his farm, the average amount of which varies from $599 on the smallest farm group to $3,509 on the largest farm group, and $1,811, $897, and $1,637 for all white, all colored, and all farms, respectively. 1See definition in footnote, p. 13. 2FWarm value of wood (uncut) used in the farm home. This does not include wood used by croppers and wage hands. However, the latter is included in labor costs in ealeulating costs of production. *Ten per cent of the present value of the dwelling Knot the cost when new) is taken to cover the interest, taxes, and insurance. ~ 90 . BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A further study of Table VI shows that on the larger farms the op- erators live in much better houses and secure much greater values of food products from the farm than do those on the smaller farms. Between the extreme size groups the values of family food furnished by the farm varies from $267 to $612, and the average rental value of the houses from $33 to $306. On the farms of the smallest farm group the value of family living obtained from the farm actually exceeded the net income from all other sources by 39 per cent, but on these of the largest farm group the family living furnished equaled only 38 per cent of all of the other net receipts. In other words, on the small farms the family living obtained is an all-important Pooh, while on the larger US it is relatively a secondary consideration. Another method of measuring the profits of the farm is to se tract the value of the farmer’s labor from the farm income and call the remainder returns on the capital. Figured in this way, and not considering the item of family living obtained, these farms returned an average of 6.2 per cent on the investment. On the two groups of smaller farms the per cent returns were lowest, while on the fourth group, or good-sized family farms, they were highest. QUALITY OF FARM BUSINSESS. CROP YIELDS. On farms of a given size the yields secured constitute perhaps the most important factor in determining the farm profits. . In Table VII the farms are grouped according to the average yield of crops. The group of farms that have the lowest yields have an average crop index? of 69, which means that the crop yields equaled but 69 per cent of the average yields secured by all of the farms. This group of farms returned average farmer’s earnings? of $586, while for the other groups the crop indexes were 92, 104, and 126, and the farmer’s earnings $708, $840, and $1,061, respectively. But the farmer’s earnings are largely determined by the size of the farm. To eliminate the element of size and see the effect of crop yields independently, the index of earnings” and the per cent return on investment are shown. The group of farms with the lowest yields gave an index of earnings of 80, or in other words, farmer’s earnings 1The crop index represents the relative yields of all crops on any farm or group of farms aS compared with the average yield of all crops on all the farms in the survey, the latter being expressed as 100. For method of calculating, see Department of Agri- culture Bulletin 341, p. 75. The index here usedeis weighted, the acreage of each crop being weighted in propertion to the average amount of man labor expended on an acre of that crop. This weighting is necessary because of the wide difference in the relative intensity of the crops grown and of the different proportions in which these crops are combined on the different farms. 2See definitions in footnote, p. 13, A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS GO., GA. 21 which equal but 80 per cent of the average farmer’s earnings secured from farms of similar size. On the other groups of farms with in- creasing average crop yields, the index of earnings increased regu- larly to 116, while the corresponding returns on investment increased similarly from 2.9 per cent to 8.2 per cent. TABLE VII.—Relation of crop index to farm returns (Brooks County, Ga.). Per cent Groplindesc Number Sunes Farmer’s|Index of | return on 19 : of farms. aml ee earnings. | earnings.| invest- ; ment. LASS ARN 00) Soo co Ghose SEES REE ao: 57. scqesaeeeec 13 69 $586 80 2.9 (LEO BO ORO cosenoacse oe caeeeenee Se. > Sun ceeeaereee 43 92 708 87 5.6 LOD (0) 100 eee ea ceac ates Ae SeeennmeS ©. cas eneeaeeses 21 104 840 108 6.7 Sele stn) a Ov Clee. fe 22h Ae ays.2'- = .q,-- - Stee cette cm 29 126 1,061 116 8.2 PANN arINS® eee easel ea. <..-: ic eee es eee. oe 106 100 816 100 6.2 @ See definition of crop index on p. 22. The close dependence of profits upon crop yields can be shown more concretely by considering for each crop separately the relation ' between costs and yields. This relation is shown by Table VIII.t In the case of every crop, as the yields increased the cost per unit of crop decreased regularly, while the profits per acre correspondingly increased. Thus, the cotton yields of less than 200 pounds per acre of net lint cost 11.6 cents per pound to produce, but this cost de- creased to 7.5 cents per pound when the yields exceeded 400 pounds per acre. The low yields mentioned show a loss of $1.63 per acre, while the high yields returned an acre profit of $18.19. The farms that secured the higher yields of cotton were the ones which also returned the largest net profits for the year’s business. Thus the farms that secured cotton yields of less than 200 pounds per acre returned farmers’ earnings equal to only 47 per cent of the average returned by all farms.of a similar size, whereas the farms yielding more than 400 pounds per acre returned earnings 37 per cent larger than the average. +It will be noticed that the number of records for cotton and corn are greater than the number of farms surveyed. This is due to the fact that the costs of the wage crops have been kept separate from those of the croppers, since the two sets of crops are handled by more or less independent systems and are treated differently. Thus, many of the farms furnish two separate records of costs of cotton and corn. In this and one or two other tabulations these separate records have been treated as though coming from different farms. 22 BULLETIN 648, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasre VIII.—Relation of crop yields to costs per crop unit and profits per acre (Brooks County, Ga.). Profit : Average | Cost per Crop. Yield. Mur acre crop oF loss; s -| yield. unit. ee Under 200 pounds................. 15 172 $0.116 | a—$1.63 Cotton |} 200/t0)299 poundsas 355222 Siti. s. 68 258 -091 5.29 TSF enemies Fl 300 to 399 pounds. .....-.......... 43 338 -078 7.96 400 andloveraes= = ee eee eeeee 17 450 -075 18.19 INV CTACC = See ee ee a ainciace 143 299 091 7.04 inde 40 bushels ae ee Vs. 12 9.3 1.26 a—4.66 é tow Dushelseosseeteere eee cece 33 13.4 -85 a—1.16 Corn, solid.-.-.-.-.------- AGHO}20) DUS Lie] sees eee Om 11 17.8 7B 15 Over Z0bushelssee enema = 5 24.2 66 | 2.54 VAVeTag@rs. ofec ccc -soeeere se 61 14.3 89 a—1.31 nee i buster Sees 355s 18 8.2 80 a—.17 c to 12 bushels 37 10.1 74 - 04 Corn with peanuts......... 12 to 15 bushels 33| 13.6 70 "34 Over 15 bushels 32 16.7 57 2.92 AVCTAP OME em ese eee ee 120; 12.4 70 - 82 Winder 0ibushels=e ssseeeee sees 8 8.4 84 a—2.53 LO Tol oipushelsso4 0. ce ee eee eee ee 22 11.2 73 a—1.68 Osseo wea oe eee ce caehe 15: to20ibushelsaa = ses seen eeeee see. 22 16.1 47 1.21 20 o.25ipushels= = se saseeeee ene 10 21.5 37 3.42 OWer25,DUShC]Se eee eee 8 27.9 36 4.44 A: Verag® t,o 55 h a ee eeeaee 70 15.8 Ome 56 Dede: O° Ons 5-55 seer ceo ee 16 .34 26.88 a—1.74 (5 to.075 tones. eis ae sees. 37 - 56 17.20 58 Cowpea hay.......----.--- O75 to Lito. eee ee 5 "s2| 12.03 5.42 itonfandioverse--seeeee eee aee ee 8 1.06 11.23 8.62 Average). wobsestp=- 226. 66 | .59 | 18.57 1.42 Under 0.35 erin BE ert Oa 5 29 73.36 a—3.69 O:35:to 0:49 carloads ee ecee ease se 13 -42 53.68 1.84 Watermelons.............- 0.50 to 0.59 carload................ 17 ‘51 ] 51.26 2.01 O60 andlover sree eeece eee eee 10 -70 41.60 15.08 Averabe ee. 2 Mee ea 45 | 50) 52.54 | 4.23 Under 00\ibushels2* "ee nes ee 7 7) = 36 14.18 Sweet potatoes.....-...... 100 bushels. 0e) as ase = see eee LOT eeeLOO) -28 27.27 Over 100 bushels. ....-.-.-.--..--- 7 162 oe 65. OL Reveracctee saccuc ae ee 26| 108 29 | 33.90 a Loss. These results would indicate that where the market prices and other conditions are similar to those found at the time these records were taken it is necessary to obtain a cotton yield greater that 200 pounds of net lint per acre if a profit is to be secured. But these records were taken before the cotton-boll weevil had invaded the county. With the expenses of fighting the weevil added, either yields higher than 200 pounds per acre, or prices higher than 10 cents per pound are necessary if the crop is to show a profit to the grower. The data presented also indicate that under the conditions found, with corn at an average price of 75 cents per bushel, it is necessary to secure a yield above 10 bushels per acre of corn planted in rows alter- nating with peanuts, or about 18 bushels of corn planted “solid,” if a profit is to be shown when figured by cost determination methods. | A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CoO., GA. 23 Similarly, oats must yield about 15 bushels to show a profit at an average price of approximately 50 cents; but when the yield slightly exceeds 25 bushels, the cost is reduced to 36 cents per bushel. The latter yields a good margin of profit. Cowpea hay yielding one-third of a ton to the acre costs $26.88 per ton to produce, and entailed a loss of $1.74 per acre. Increasing the a 3 3 COST OF SWEET POTATOES - CENTS PER BUSHELS COST OF COWPEA HAY - DOLLARS PER TON o ts) wo o COST OF WATERMELONS PER CARLOAD 5 ° -_ ny oO Oo oO cS) 100 120 140 160 YIELD -SWEET POTATOES IN BUSHELS n Oo c oa fo) 2 3 4 5 6 . YIELD IN CARLOADS 1.2 6 dG) = 1.0 YIELD - COWPEA HAY IN TON COST PER BUSHEL NO foe Be ers eee eee 100 200 300 0c 500 600 YIELD OF COTTON-— POUNDS PER ACRE MUELD SEO OSH EES UEERIACRE COST OF LINT PER POUND Fic. 11.—Relation of yields of principal crops to cost per crop unit. yield to one-half a ton brought the cost down to approximately the market price, and increasing it to slightly over a ton reduced the cost per ton to $11.28 and resulted in an acre profit of $8.62. Watermelon yields of one-third of a carload per acre must bring about $75 per car at the point of loading, if the grower is to “ break _27202°—18—Bull. 648 ——_4 24 BULLETIN 648, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. even.” But if he increases this yield to half a carload he can sell for $50. without loss, and if he further increases the production to two- thirds of a car per acre, $40 per load will cover all costs. All the yields of sweet potatoes found show a wide margin of profit. Average yields of 70 bushels per acre cost 36 cents per bushel; increasing the yield to 100 bushels reduced the cost to 28 cents, while a further increase to 162 bushels further reduced the cost to 22 cents. The records for this crop are few in number and repre- sent small scale production. But the costs and margins shown would indicate that the crop offers commercial possibilities for the grower. ~The manner in which the costs per crop unit decrease with increas- ing yields is shown for the six important crops by the curves in figure 11. There is, of course, for each crop under any set of conditions a point beyond which any further increase in yield can be secured only at a cost per unit higher than the returns. On some individual farms in Brooks County this point of “ diminishing returns” has no doubt been reached or exceeded; but these tabulations show that in no case _ have any of the groups of farms studied brought the crop yields to that point. Evidently one of the surest means of increasing the profitableness of these farms is the increasing of the crop yields. UTILIZATION OF WORK-STOCK LABOR. The largest item of cost, next to that of man labor, is the cost of work stock. In this study it was found to amount to $509 per farm, which is approximately equal to half of the cost of all man labor, or 19.2 per cent of the cost of producing all farm crops. Figured on the basis of the cost per day of productive labor, the work stock cost $1.07, as compared with $1.20 for man labor. Manifestly, the utilization of work stock’so as to keep down this large element of cost is one of the chief factors in determining profits on these farms. TABLE IX.—Relation of number of productive days mule labor per mule to farm returns, acres per mille, and cost of mule labor per day (Brooks County, Ga.). Average Cost of number Productive days mule labor per mule. Neer as gue me per mule,|.Pe? day. 75 ANGWOSS S52 s5ce oS occ ace mee tins. cee. oe sees ee ee ele on hoc ae 12 62 $1.70 76 2O:O Fae sn oct ce gee a Ree eae ee oes a ee es eS 6. ee 26 s 88 1.23 DB 198 12 Se re ie eI Re a a a ee ES, ek i 33 112 1.00 428 ta laO Sa Fos Seem miadee gcc das aoe eeepc be ot ae ee eerie = seen 21 137 84 pS WS 006 a 2) gee i ae ee alt i I a eel a a ois on SI see LE 14 172 72 All farms? ooo 0 rete coe nae se eh cee 2S Je eB EEE RE REE wee see 106 113 1.07 A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 25 - Increasing the amount of productive labor per mule reduces the cost per day of such labor, resulting in a lower cost of production and larger farm profits. This is shown by Table IX, in which the farms are grouped on the basis of the number of days of labor per mule. On the group of farms reporting the least productice labor per mule, or an average of 62 days per year, the cost per day of mule labor ‘amounted to $1.70, which daily cost decreased regu- larly to 72 cents on the group reporting the most labor, or 172 days per mule. The striking relation be- ‘tween increasing days’ work per mule and decreasing cost per day of mule labor is shown by the curve in figure 12. It may well be asked by what means some > q'- Pa) e Ww io fc o': ao < =) uw = 2 : z = 9) ° 8) a r—) DAYS PRODUCTIVE LABOR PER MULE Fic. 12.—Relation of days of productive labor per mule to the cost per day. of the farms provided so much more employment for the work stock than did others. The data in Table X indicate that the area culti- vated per mule is the most important factor. Taste X.—Relation of number of acres of crop land per mule to utilization of mule labor and to farm. returns (Brooks County, Ga.). . Number of acres crop land per | Number mule. of farms. Average acres cr land per mule. Acres of crop land per farm. Acres of cotton per mule. Days mule labor Cost of cotton | Index cf per pound, earnings. 6) || COGS RIENICM | PROoCoOr : 26 BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Acres of crop land per mule.—In Table X the farms are grouped according to the amount of crop land worked per mule. The farms that have the fewest acres per mule, or an average of 16, secured only 67 days productive work from each animal, but as the number of acres increased, the number of days per mule increased regularly to an average of 139 on the group that operated the largest area per -animal. This increased employment of the work stock resulted in a corresponding decrease in the cost per day of productive labor from > $1.50 to $0.90. Such an economy in so important an item of cost must necessarily result in lower costs of production and greater profits. The cost of producing cotton decreased from 9} cents per pound on the first-mentioned group of farms to 8.3 cents on the farms that operated 30 or 35 acres per mule, but it increased to 9 cents on the farms that had more than 35 acres per animal. This result was corroborated by the index of earnings, which increases markedly up to the point of 30 to 35 acres per mule. Beyond this the profits are less. An apparent irregularity appears in that the index earnings were greater for the first than for the second group of farms shown in Table X. The explanation is that two or three farms with good crop yields and a low investment secured a high percentage of re- turns in spite of inadequate utilization of work stock. The number of farms in the group was insufficient fully to neutralize the influence of these few abnormal farms. It will be noted that the farms which cultivated the fewest acres per mule average smaller in size than those which operated a larger area per animal. Undoubtedly the larger farms possess advantages which facilitate their organization upon a basis providing for the more eflicient employment of work stock labor. _ It may further be stated that the cultivation of an increased number of acres per work animal was not at the expense of crop yields. In fact, the lowest yields were found in the group that worked the smallest area per animal. It is not probable that all the differences in costs and profits shown can be attributed to the differences in relative employment of work stock, for the men who keep their work stock efficiently employed are likely to be also more efficient in other respects. But the method of grouping used eliminates the effect of other factors as far as pos-_ sible, and it is believed that the influence of area per mule has not been greatly overemphasized. Farmers are often advised to reduce the number of acres per mule in order to cultivate the remaining acres more intensively, but the preceding table would seem to show that it is much more important to cultivate a sufficient number of acres per work animal to keep that A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS ©O., GA. 27 labor efficiently employed. From 30 to 35 acres per mule would seem to be the proper acreage under the conditions here found. The soil on these farms is a light sand and is easily cultivated. On a heavier type of soil, no doubt, fewer acres per mule would be found to be more desirable. RELATION OF AMOUNT OF TILLAGE TO COSTS AND PROFITS. Much has been said regarding the benefits arising from deep plow- ing, thorough and frequent preparation of the seedbed, and fre- quency of cultivation, much of the advice on these points making little or no distinction between types of soil. In gathering data for the purpose of calculating costs of production in this study, the amount of man and mule labor involved in each operation of each crop was ascertained for each farm. It is thus possible to study the profitableness of different amounts of tillage. Using the amount of mule labor expended per acre as probably the best available measure of the degree of tillage, the effect of that factor upon the profits and costs of cotton have been tabulated and the results shown in Table XI. The cotton crop was used because it was the most important crop grown here and because for it the jargest number of records are available. The figures upon which this table is based include all of the mule labor spent on the cotton up to and including the planting of the crop. TasLeE XI.—Relation of amount of mule labor expended in preparatory tillage of cotton to costs and profits (Brooks County, Ga.). Average : Number mule | Yield Cost of Days mule labor per acre, preparatory tillage. gays of net Profit, |. net lint ee prepara lint per acre per tory o pound tillage Pounds. LASS HIE Tabi a6 SSeS. eee IS eee a: On el pole aes 15 1.14 292 $8. 47 $0. 085 HESRLOMMO Meee | Sea ee on a ee el 44 1.77 293 8.37 - 087 DUO . ste oe Sea oe isle! 51 2. 22 298 6.53 093 PE ATI CRO VETERE RR a... = = = - -- - eee a ee 33 2.89 311 6. 22 096 Milrecords 2)... .. aes ee eames Se! 143 2.12 299 | 7.04 | 091 It will be seen that the increasing amounts of mule labor were ac- companied by slowly increasing yields, but that these yields were not sufficient to offset the increased cost. Thus the cost per pound of net lint cotton increased regularly from 8.5 cents for the group that expended Jess than 1.5 days of mule labor per acre, to 9.6 cents for those.on which more than 2.5 days were expended. These increased costs cut the profits per acre from $8.47 to $6.22. The results shown in this table would indicate that the extra labor cost involved in the deeper and more prolonged preparatory tillage 28 BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of cotton is not profitable on the light, sandy soils of this area. A sunilar tabulation based on the total amount of mule labor expended on cotton up to the time of harvesting the crop gave similar results, though slightly less pronounced. The results in this case were less pronounced because there is less difference in the practices of culti- vating the crop after planting than there is up to that time. Similar tabulations based on man labor gave less consistent results, since man labor is not so good a measure of the amount of tillage, owing to the differences in the number of mules used per team. No doubt different results would have been found on a heavier type of soil. RELATION OF AMOUNT OF FERTILIZER APPLICATIONS TO YIELDS, COSTS, AND PROFITS. 5 To calculate the cost of production it was necessary to ascertain the cost per acre of the fertilizers applied to each crop. The data thus gotten permit an interesting study of the relative economy of the application of varying amounts of fertilizers on the principal crops. Using the cost per acre as a measure of the rate of applica- tion, since it is the only common measure for all of the fertilizer materials used, the effects on yields, costs, and profits have been tabulated for the principal crops, as shown in Table XII. The cost covers all classes of fertilizing materials applied, including stable manure, cottonseed meal, and commercial fertilizers, the last named representing the greater part of the costs. On none of the crops tabulated, except sweet potatoes, and possibly watermelons, was stable manure an important source of fertilizers. Approximately half the farms purchased the raw materials and did the mixing at home, while the others used ready-mixed fertilizers. No account has been taken of the residual effects of fertilizers applied to preceding crops, but these are reduced to a minimum in a region with such a light, sandy soil, heavy rainfall, and long growing season; and in any case they tend to neutralize each other when a group of farms are con- sidered, as has been done in these tabulations. TABLE XII.—Relation of cost of fertilizer applications to yields, costs, and profits (Brooks County, Ga.). | Average = Profit or oe Number cost of Yield | Cost per Crop. Cost of fertilizers per acre. |orrecords. fertilizer | per acre. |crop unit, 10Ss per per acre. | eee. Pounds. | = $2'and less. 24 cast aaa 23 $1. 42 a 263 $0. 087 $7.45 Sine oe Se 56 3.00 seh 2 tin 8. o SSO Se se eee 35 4.85 Zl 4. Cotton.......++----+---- $6:1088i..5 Ble B 6.78 314 101; . 4.18 SS tO Soo ee 9 8.76 383 094 9.15 $10: gn@iover== 45... 5 7 11.32 427 086 11.00 Amennes ..-.. 2 22..223 143 4.32 | 299 091 7.04 a Net lint. fie Cane * A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 29 TsBLE XI\.—Relation of cost of fertilizer applications to yields, costs, and profits (Brooks County, Ga.)—Continued. Number| costar | Yield. | Cost per | Profit or a umber | costo i ost per Crop. Cost of fertilizers per acre. |>rrecords,| fertilizer | per acre. \crop unit. ESS ESE per acre. . 4 Bushels. 2 SL. 50 and lessteeeaees cece 28 $0.70 13.4 $0. 85 a—$0. 79 Corn, solid..............| ERM TOE PLS): aosesudedoos 22 1.89 14.1 -86 | a— 1.02 | $2:50\and Overs sos ccscc ase 11 4.19 16.7 1.03 |. a— 3.40 AVOPaSOs anata 61 1.76 14.3 -89 | a— 1.31 Oooo genacees Cee 16 oO : 11.2 .57 1.:72 * Nor Gls5U eset ees. 39 9 11.5 ~ = GB) 1.44 Corn, with peanuts...... Ne tosvie ile hs con. AG | 9 SEI i645 He 64 $2.50 and over.........---. 19 3. 21 15.1 -94/ a— . 1 A-verapeme tcl fot 120 1.56 12.4 .70 Ry) OF. 3. ee ee 55 0 14.9 .55 .76 Oats.-----.-2-+2-2--2++- loaee 0 ua oa 15 1.92 19.2 =6l:| a— 14 AVOEBEOs6 f2 5 2202-2528 70 41 15.8 - 56 - 56 Carload. $7 and less.. 16 5. 86 48 47.60 4.06 Watermelons.. bapcaccooned $7 to $9..... 15 7.82 . 50 50. 48°} 2.96" $9 and over. 14 9. 80 52 52. 50 5. 80 AV@NAP@S.. 22 025-sc52 2 45 Ua Ue -50 52.54 4,23 e "| Bushels. $3:and-lesseeeen: a2 seers 7 Hee 85 18 26 G3 tO S4 Ssepeee om ectee sens 8 . 21 96 3 Sweet potatoes.......... fs 1037. ae ae 5 5.12 113 +29 29.59 Sand Ovetaeeece eee e ssc 6 9.55 148 -30 55. 83 Average............-- 26 4.70 108 29 33. 90 a Loss. It was found that with every crop for which there were a sufl- cient number of records to make tabulations, increasing amounts of fertilizer resulted in regular and appreciable increases in yields. But with every crop except sweet potatoes the increased yields were obtained at a higher cost per unit of crop, with exceptions to be noted, and at lower profits per acre. Thus the cost of corn varied from 85 cents per bushel, with the least amount of fertilizer, to $1.03, with the largest applications; the corn planted with peanuts cost 57 cents per bushel without fertilizer, which cost increased to 94 - cents when the most fertilizer was applied. The profits per acre decreased in even greater proportion than the cost per bushel increased. Cotton to which the value of the fertilizers applied amounted to less than $2 per acre cost 8.7 cents per pound of net lint to produce. But with increasing amounts of fertilizer up to $8 per acre, the cost increased to 10.1 cents per pound.. Apparently, increasing the fer- tilizer applications beyond $8 per acre reduced the cost below the high points of the preceding groups. But the small number of _records for these highest applications renders the results unreliable for the last two groups. 30 BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Only 15 out of 70 farmers applied any fertilizer to the oat crop, a fact signifying that a large majority of them had not found it to be a profitable practice to make such applications. The 15 which did use fertilizers, to the extent of $1.92 per acre, increased their yield, but in so doing the cost per bushel was increased from 55 cents to 61 cents, and a small profit per acre was turned into a slight loss. Watermelons are fertilized rather heavily by nearly all growers, about 15 per cent of the value of the applications consisting of stable manure. The heavier applications resulted in somewhat increased yields, but at the expense of higher costs per unit of crop. Thus increasing amounts of fertilizers resulted in increasing the cost per carload from $47.60 to $50.48 and $52.50, respectively. This increas- ing cost per carload resulted in a correspondingly reduced profit per acre in the case of the second group, but the last group offers an apparent exception in that it shows the largest profit in spite of the high cost per carload. The higher prices obtained for the melons receiving the most fertilizer were, no doubt, due to the resulting better quality of melons and to the fact that they matured earlier and reached a more profitable market than did the melons produced on the other farms. Better salesmanship may possibly have been a factor in securing the high prices. The records for sweet-potato costs are few in number and repre- sent only small-scale production. The fertilizers applied consisted largely of stable manure and cottonseed meal. The results are there- fore not comparable to those obtained from records of other crops. The heavier applications were accompanied by much the higher yields, and the margin of profit was so wide in every case that the higher yields gave aes greater profits, pours the cost per bushel was nearly the same for all groups. The conclusion to be drawn from this table would seem to be that on this type of soil, with the type of farming and the fertilizer practice found. on these farms, it does not pay to use the larger amounts of commercial fertilizers on the common field crops. Water- melons may offer a possible exception, and sweet potatoes are dis- tinctly exceptional. It should be remembered that on these farms the organic matter in the soil is largely maintained by the extensive growing and pasturing off of legumes, particularly peanuts. On a heavier type of soil different results would probably have been found. ORGANIZATION. DIVERSITY. Much has been said and written regarding the advantages of a diversified type of farming. The greater safety from losses due to crop failure or demoralized markets, the better distribution of labor throughout tke year, and still other benefits arising from diversifi- A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 31 cation have been repeatedly urged and are familiar to nearly every- one. Especially was the matter of diversity brought to the atten- tion of the farmers of the South by the decline in the price of cotton following the outbreak of the European war. More particularly has the recent advent of the boll weevil into the southeastern part of the cotton belt increased the hazard of dependence upon cot- ton and made the matter an urgent one with farmers of that section. It is of peculiar interest, therefore, to study the farms of a locality © where a distinctly diversified agriculture, with cotton as the most important source of income, has been practiced for a long term of years. Such an area is found in Brooks County, which has for years been noted for the extent of diversification practiced. This is particularly true of the southern half of the county, which is the area covered by this survey. It has been pointed out that the soil here is a light-gray sand, representative of the Norfolk sandy loam and closely related types of that series. On this light soil a certain degree of diversification, including the growing of legumes, is a necessity if soil fertility is to be maintained at a point where profit- able yields may be secured. Necessity, thus, to a large extent, accounts for the development of the hog industry in this community. Further north in the county the soils become somewhat heavier, grad- ing into the types represented by the Rustan and Tifton series. These latter are better adapted to cotton than are the lighter soils of the southern part of the county. As a result, cotton is grown _there more largely to the exclusion of other crops. To study the effect of different degrees of diversification upon profits, the farms studied have been grouped according to the degree of diversity practiced, the measure used being the diversity index.t The results are shown in Table XIII. The most highly diversified farms averaged the largest in size. Eliminating the effect of size by the use of the index of earnings, it is seen that the least diversifica- tion returned 15 per cent less than the average for farms of a similar size, while the most diversification returned 16 per cent more than the average. It thus appears that under conditions found on these farms, with market prices normal, greater diversity means greater profits. It should not be overlooked that the least diversified farms are largely cotton farms, which carry the risk of both low yields and low markets, a risk that in 1914 proved all but disastrous to these farmers. +On a farm with enterprises all of equal size, the number of enterprises will be the diversity index. For example, a farm with 4 enterprises, all of equal importance, would have a diversity index of 4. However, it is seldom that any two enterprises are of ex- actly the same size or importance. The method of ealeulating the diversity index, how- ever, reduces all the enterprises to a comparable basis. For the method of calculating the index see Department of Agriculture Bulletin 341, p. 81. 32 BULLETIN 648, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste XIII.—Relation of diversity to cost of work-stock labor and to farm profits (Brooks County, Ga.). erage | Acres of Index Diversity index. Moher aves crop land tule eS of ms. | index. per farm. per day. earnings WISP H AM Den S252 oon oe =e -ee SSeS 27 1.5 9 $1. 20 0.98 85 PARE OES 22 )s eds Aa eis 32 See eee oe 54 3.0 147 1.02 100 4 and OM ELE eee emacs eee eer ei 25 4.7 194 98 1.00 116 PMMETATINSS | © 222252 alee Sete eee 106 3.0 145 1.07 1.00 106 It is easily possible for diversification to be carried to an un- profitable extreme.t Beyond a not well-defined limit, further diversification may be at the expense of skill and attention to the | details of the major sources of income. But it does not appear that any of these groups of farmers have gone beyond that limit. Prominent among the advantages to be gained from diversification, increased crop yields, resulting from more frequent rotation, and better employment of labor throughout the year, are usually stressed. However, on these farms there appears to be but little relation be- tween diversity and crop yields, the more diversified farms showing only a slightly higher crop index; but the diversified farms do show a distinctly better utilization of the work-stock labor, and it has been shown elsewhere that this factor is an important one. With the increase in diversity, the average number of days of pro- ductive work-stock labor per mule increased from 98 to 115 and 127, with resulting decreasing costs per day from $1.20 to $1.04 and $0.98. It thus appears that the more highly diversified farms have a slight advantage in yields of crops, and a considerable advantage in providing profitable employment for the work stock, and in re- turning aes profits per farm. PRODUCTION OF HOME SUPPLIES. Closely associated with the subject of diversification is the pro- duction on the farm of supplies consumed in the home. For many years the farmers of Brooks County have practiced, and prided themselves upon, the policy of producing at home a large part of the family living. In but few places will a class of farmers be found that produce for home use a larger amount of food products per family or per person than do the white farmers in this area. 1 Department of Agriculture Bulletin 341, p. 82. } { A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 33 TABLE XIV.—Relation of size of farm and labor of operator to value of food consumed in the home (Brooks County, Ga.). Farms with total crop area of— nit a All white {colored ess 50 to | 75 to | 150 to ee farms. | opera- | opera- 50 74 149 249 eval tors. 10) oe acres. | 2°ZeS- | acres. | acres. | Gvor. Number of farms...-.--......-.... 18 24 27 21 16 | 106 | 86 20 Number of adults per farm..........-. 3.7 5.0 6.0 5.8 | 5.7 5.3 5.5 5.1 Value of family food: pnrehasediatee: . -ose= 7.6 9.1 9.9 11.8 11.0 10. 2 10.7 6.2 Dairy PUOGUCtSS-=---25--+---4-ee 19.3 23.9 26. 2 25. 7 32.0 26. 2 27. 4 14.6 Other live-stock products. ...-..-.- 11 .6 «2 «2 «2 4 4 gil Total live-stock products....-..- - 66.4 65. 2 65. 3 64.6 67.7 | 65.8 66. 3 60. 8 IES ang NUtSee 25-1. o\= =)- = eee 229 4.4 5. 4 7.8 4.2 5.2 5.5 PU Mereta bless acer tere cinco Abs yan S = ae Scie odov Jed 4yOig (ae 0L°€9 $8 “SOT 06°83 CP ST 19°83 €6°8 SLOT Cv IT 89°F CATV pepeee nc |e petite ene ts Seer nigger Dire ee ~-910v Jed ene A iB 68°66 66 G8 60 °SS #8 OFZ 0€ 8 G66 6L CL 60 “LE EGS Ghat ahi ites Mee ance Shey Seceeeeee $4800 0108 10N a Met alla sien “771 96°F 80°¢ €0°£ [a eae ellie ELS |e ae eka F* biker |lgueaeteeiee. || 6-0 tie ene ee Sak 34 a “"SspIped) a 68 “62 C6 °S8 CESS 69'S €h°L TZ°8 ce 6 6L°OL 60 LE SSR yeas S| Fee ci Seiten Wile Pee acc) ee an gs ““s[eBjOL, S sci tig, wet aca cae Oa ({ eee ip goon. hake Pete LPR £0 °Y eR os sgh | ea aoa a sia Weed a Sed Tee are enema 64, $65 Gof 6OTa Te | ae ETA AO ONa wean i ||" si aime ee eannen RIORa pee cet reel mca ge 1 fon = oa eR ib) Da vaae acaies| (Se EaOD OF 0 80° 10°9 CT "a \ dg = alli. kepeae a yal lO AO COIN eta SA Or cece Senate age ot eer “-="===sqso0 [v1oedg < 91°F GIL Aa) eed ke Ng ees rerhen Gog OP 9F T 88 °T Il’? OUR gto ve ae eS kee eer a 5 e102 1T].10 A, 91% 16 ‘OT q¢° GFT isi 63" 10° Il* €@° Sian ates dE CA. yee eS By ae ea “""* pees Elna tes OL" GT £0" £0" G0" 90" 10° 89° Coe a: kaye en “Ysvo WO 4Se10}UT = OL'T 88°C 86° 8&° 8° 8E~ tr €9) GIT ORS ae ||2 a et ae eran Sen Speen c 4soo yuoute[ Uy, : PLS GL PL 667 C8 'T 06°T 98 °T 16% Fé €9°S PAS Re teabahl| |i a aye ean. CARER “7 10GB] OTN is 0€ ET 66 '9E 66k 69 °T IL T 161 16 °€ (0) 68 ‘61 OL “LT fg ie pe OUR UE Go ES cr es £6 C$ 80°s$ LI 3$ 60 6S 06 TS 98 oS 00°s$ GO "e$ poo se UeL PUB, eZ setoe Jed 4sop a GG cL OF a Ig 6P Lh LY § T6>=, 2) rs)" ae aan Cee eer War tees a oes SP1OO0I JO 1eQuUIn N < 5 *so0j}ejod “ouvO *SUOOUL cay ‘(Jeoys ur ;*(peyseryy)| *(sjnueed ‘(prfos) |" (puvspeeg)| “(pue,tdq) 400g qesng -10}8 \\ u pay) syvo s1eO VIA) u109 ulog m0}4)09 109402) s ‘(np ‘iqunog syooug) wajshs abom fq unosb sdow fo pun sad pun aiov tad 83809 —X]X @IAV, : BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 48 ~ fe aaa ” eee — 4 all OE "SUOT, 2 ‘oud poos Ajurey d ‘spuno,y 7 OTT SUITE ET y “STORE, p *po}SOATBY ULRLE & *SUOT[BY) 0 “sSory y “yon poo AA 3B *“TOPLOT eo Peyoodg o poxord poog z “1VO u ‘OINYSV F “SUTppor, 1a / “OUIAT @ ‘song b “STOUSN ET we *s) US pure “syred ‘ode 2 ‘]10} Suyseayyy, 2 ‘sor) pus Supsseq “Aupwury) o eeleens wewlenes 16 “O14 Rg STs CL ‘OTS al "TS 66 Og gg “08 wee wees eee ewe ee eee esses eeesese euees =) aod 4soy Faliguoe Sell ised P07 9°02 162 BGu Leu Bou » OCR ae ee REE PE cna toes DOL ‘onpoad woley see eeee seas sane see 10° 08'T 20° 09° 19°8h meee eeeees ween sews eeesecnces see ee= = O108 TOM JOT abe tar ig eae jae ne: BR iy) GZ 6 LOT ‘ae 12 ‘OP 10°18 sete ee seen Se sees ore dod onjuA £961 OV'g OL'9 60°TT gO" be °6 8h 6 63 “28 To "98 LE-LE "saat *S}800 O10 JON, wtteeereeees| gee g Ops beta wetteeeeeeeel Qaey SRP eae | eee etna ste | OMe aelarn eral iniist «(lain Spon | Rimisfn’ (am wie istalainin a asssa, Alas wie Steeeeeetesss gated 0 6I 99° O19 eS "Ti 60"2 086 gh 6 60°28 19 98 Lene eee EEE ELCE Eran Th p - -* eee wae ween 8B "U ZO°D sees soo puoody vO"h 80° PP iA 8P° 08° 89 ‘OT Tees ee LOATH O UL vord Che RG °S 60°C 66° 82 'T 66'S S227 ere Dees, 06° 10° OL" 90° 9%" oe" 0%" Yseo WO 4solop Uy 99° GG" 02° PQ” - Ie 6h" ve" 96° 92°T ~ysoo queue ;dtay tL 7G 90° LET o°% 00°% L1G 00°T 60% yay sees" LOG BT OTA Veh 96° 68% Lop G21 6% 8L°% £0 "8S OG 1 92°9 "see" "LOG RT WOT c0'eh 881d 83 1h OL 3S ros 98 "1 rots 91S eres 00°9$ “ess 7R}UOT puary teow dod 480.) ee a eect 6p 77a el da cae, 02. aati fom ae 9 nataalas oT . ee ets | tremraiate a ae eee nor TOO EASE ss sees === spz000d JO LOQUINNY “W100 UT *prlos *pored JON *poreer “U.00 UT “pros fcsens ‘OAL “SIRO — — -_ —_ ——E - “Syne, ] “ABYYVO Sod WH a sek Lo “Luy vod Moy *popSoa rey, SPU *pornysed sdoay : ‘ponutywoj)—("v) ‘Ajwnoy syooug) wagshs oboa fq unoub sdoso fo yun sod pun aton tod 880)—XTX AAV, A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 49 All calculations of cost of crop production have been based upon an acre as the unit. In Table XIX the itemized acre costs, yields, values and profits, and the cost per unit of each product are shown in detail for all the important crops grown by the wage system; and the same data for the crops grown by the cropper system are given in Table XX, the costs to the cropper and to the farm operator being shown here separately. The cropper’s share of the costs consists mainly of labor, that of himself and his family, and a small amount hired, followed in order by his share of the costs of fertilizer, gin- I'ig. 18.—For many years peanuts haye been grown extensively in Brooks County, prin- cipally as a crop to be ‘‘ hogged off’. Only sufficient seed was harvested for planting purposes and a few cash sales. Nearly all of this was ‘‘ picked”’ by the slow hand method here shown. ning, bagging and ties, interest on cash, and planting seed. The operator’s costs consist principally of mule labor, his own labor of supervision, land rent, and fertilizers, while of lesser and decreasing importance are the equipment cost, ginning, bagging and ties, seed, and interest on cash. The cost of the operator’s supervision amounts to a little less than half as much as that of the manual labor, all of the latter being furnished by the cropper. 17The terms of the cropper’s contract, the relative yields and costs to each party, and the relative yields. and costs by the two systems are discussed in the first part of this bulletin. s BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 50 *pojseArvyy Poos JO onyjVA v ---quoysds oddord Aq Wo7 10d 4S00 OSBIOAY Wo} Lod ONTBA 10 4SOD ~107v10d0 puw roddoro Aq peAreoad pTord JO FUNOUT\ jyonpoid cour ~---ue4shs 1eddo.1o Aq 4809 osvI0A Vy ~->-qrum tod 4809 ~ 10;v10d0 pur toddo1o Aq poarooo.r pyord Jo JuNOUTY “qonpo.ad wofeyy >----9710B Tod SSO] 10 WYOI o10v Jed onjBA 0.108 10d 4800 JON Sitter pe te === =SyTpar, “=== 9708 Jed 4800 [BIO], pees “Ysvo WO 480,10) UT, 4soo jue Wed uy, “** 10GB] ON] prpedossisashelobel russe ae aicheaics Sis 0 seas bei cas oleieinie'a 1Oqvy UB juot puBry- 10108 wad 4sog ‘spoysng p *spuno,y o *Sso'yT q a Se eee ied mero eisie a side Roolsncbaduachoscanogod 00828 F6 “STS 00 ‘0e$ 00 ‘0z$ 00 0a 00 ‘06% 08 ‘92$ 82 61S GL OTS $0 STS 8 "Sho 8 °Sho 0%0 099 6960 G9B9 082 Goto eR CSC are “--l -joppoy |oppoy | ‘oppor | “weppowy | “poeg *poog *pesg *poog 99 0$ p8 0$ €hT 08 680 ‘08 £6 '0$ 8 °0$ 02 T$ 8h 0$ COT “OS: £2 0$ 260°0$ 080 ‘0$ 8L°¢p 6L°Sp PE “Op pe 9p OTT? OTT 9ETo 9ETo “UO “WO “UWI0(/) “HLIO() “jury, “quvy “yur'T “yar'Ts ee Ra eG PEER Me eee le ee cL'I—a | 90°% 86°%—q | 69°T GL"I—q | SPs 8S 16 °¢ Song a pa Se a eaek H WcMI|Hs,—) ES ee VL Wy bL P IL’¢ I1'¢ 69 61 69 61 10°21 08°91 99"€ pL 69°. 99% 98°¢ 89°C 60°8 (Ati G8 1% LT OT 69° ST €8 OT e0"p Zp eae ree Boer Bese Hoeoe coe Gene sesecalloas Sasdsdladasaseeel os BASES al innit cette 69°¢ 86 °T 89° 99°% 98°¢ 89°% 60°8 (Acie GE 1% LT 9T 69ST. 8°OT 99° 92 °T CT : 8ST 'T a, Sep eves al Oe ec eae | Siar ar sc ep OanG Rj we eh 9% 9 6S 'P SE, ee £9 ° Po T$ vI'T 88 'a$ cL 98° 1$ 66° GL Ot 99 9) G6 °& 96°63 og 1 Ye OScOo. nares “See GONE biz [iene eS TUCO A. Air omy wae 27 |.29)'88 b3 S$ aaah *10}B10dQ| *toddosp |*10;e%10dQ | ‘1oddorg | 1078109) roddosp | 10;e10d 0] *xoddoxrg | *107e10dQ| *xoddoarp | *10;e10dQ| *toddory *sp10d01 ZF *(pornjsed ‘M100 UL) S}NUvO.T *Sp1000l F “(pony -sud ‘prjos) synmre7 ‘Coy ‘hjunog syooug) wajslis waddowa hg unoub sdouo fo yun sad pun aio wad 81809 — XX *sp1000.1 ef “(syn -vod YILM) TIO *spI000d FT *(PITOS) W109 *sp.1000r ¢ ‘(PURIST vog) 109,09 *sp1000r E¢ *(o]de4s 4.104S)10}409 OTL J, A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 51 COTTON. Slightly more than half of the cost of producing cotton consists of man labor, followed in order by mule labor, fertilizer, and land rent. : The cost of growing cotton was divided between the lint and seed in proportion to the relative values of each. Substituting the aver- age 5-year price of lint for the price received in 1914, for reasons previously explained, the value of the short staple lint was found to be 85 per cent of the total value of the lint and seed taken together. Therefore, 85 per cent of the cost of growing the crop was charged to the lint and 15 per cent to the cotton seed. The average cost of 7 16 ate eS Fe t ha Fic. 19.—Field of Spanish peanuts ready for thrashing. The recent ‘high prices offered for peanuts by the oil mills have greatly stimulated the production of that crop for the market. net lint? grown by the wage system is 9.38 cents per pound, which reduced to gross lint? equals 8.9 cents per pound. The cropper cotton costs 8.9 cents per pound of net lint to produce, which is equivalent to 8.5 cents per pound of gross lint. Since the cotton yield for the season of 1914 was somewhat higher than normal, these costs may be slightly lower than the average for a series of years. In certain years a considerable acreage of Sea Island cotton is planted in Brooks County, but in 1914 the amount grown was com- _ paratively unimportant. The number of records obtained are not sufficient to give a reliable average for this class of cotton, but the results are shown in the table for comparative purposes. 1 By gross lint is meant the weight in the bale, including bagging and ties. By net lint is meant the gross lint minus the bagging and ties. Except where otherwise stated, the term “ lint’’ is used throughout to denote net lint. The average weight of bales was 510 pounds, of which 23 pounds consisted of bagging and ties. - SE FA a —— re 52 . BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT. OF AGRICULTURE. CORN AND PEANUTS. Since corn and peanuts are commonly grown on the same land, the costs of these two crops will be considered together. Slightly more than two-thirds of the acreage of corn on these farms is planted in alternate rows with peanuts. Corn grown by itself, or “solid,” is planted in rows usually 4.5 feet apart, but when the two crops are planted together the distance between the rows of corn is increased to 6 feet or more. There is some difference of opinion among the growers as to whether this widening of the rows results in the lower- ing of the yield of corn. The tabulated results, however, show that it does lower the yield to the extent of 15 per cent. But growing the SL ee ae aie x pa Farell Peer, | Fic. 20.—With the increased production of peanuts for the market many power “ pickers ” have been introduced. The straw is baled and used for feed. two crops together results in distinct economies of labor and use of land, which much more than offsets the somewhat lower corn yield. Corn grown alone costs 83 cents per bushel to produce by the wage system, and 84 cents by the cropper system, whereas corn grown with peanuts cost 67 and 66 cents per bushel, respectively. An acre of peanuts in- corn, it was found, costs approximately one-half as much as an acre of peanuts planted alone. These costs indicate that the local practice of growing the two crops together is an excellent one. The costs of growing the two crops when planted together can not be divided on the basis of the respective values of each, since peanuts are nearly all pastured off, and as pasture they do not have a defi- nitely measurable commercial value. Therefore, all costs that clearly could be charged to either of the crops separately were so entered. But the few mutual costs, such as the breaking of the land, and land | A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 53 rent, which could not be directly separated, were divided between the two crops in the proportion of 63 per cent to the corn and 37 per cent to the peanuts. This division is based on the assumption that an acre of the combination crop is equal to 50 per cent of a full acre of peanuts and 85 per cent of an acre of corn. The ratio be- tween these percentages is approximately 37 to 63. It is universally held by farmers in Brooks County that 2 acres of peanuts planted in alternate rows with corn are in every respect’ equal to 1 acre planted “solid”; and it was found that the corn yield when the two crops are Miied together equals 85 per cent of the yield secured from corn planted alone. Peanuts are grown on these farms pr isan to furnish pasture for hogs, only sufficient seed being harvested to replace the seed planted and to furnish a small surplus for consumption in the home and for sale. The harvesting is therefore done on a small scale and hence is nearly all hand labor, resulting in a rather high cost of production for the peanuts picked. (See fig. 18.) Had harvesting been done on a scale sufficient to warrant the use of harvesting machinery, the cost per bushel would have been considerably lower than shown in the tables. When peanuts were gathered from areas used mainly for pasture, the value of the seed saved was deducted from the total cost and the remainder entered against the hogs as a pasture charge. Since this survey was made the increased market price for peanuts has greatly stimulated the production of this crop as a source of cash receipts. (See figs. 19 and 20.) Only a part of the corn fodder produced .on these farms is har- vested, and that part represents such a small percentage of the value of the whole crop that it is here treated as a by-product, the value of the fodder gathered being deducted from the total cost of growing the crop, and the balance charged to the grain. OATS. Oats are grown on almost every farm as a source of feed for work stock, and on nearly half of them oats served as a source of revenue. On many they were grown for a winter cover crop and to furnish winter and spring pasture for hogs and cattle. Much of that fed to work stock is fed in the sheaf. RYE. Rye is grown on a considerable proportion of these farms, but mainly as a cover and pasture crop. On several farms the grain is harvested and sold locally for seed purposes. The yield is low but the price is high, nearly $2 per bushel, resulting in a wide IT FT 54 BULLETIN 648, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. margin of profit per bushel. As a grain crop, rye is very uncertain on this light, sandy soil, but it fills an nop place as a cover and pasture crop. COWPEA HAY. Cowpeas are frequently difficult to cure for hay in this region, owing to rains during the period in which this crop matures. For this reason, the crop is not so commonly planted here as it is but a short distance farther north in the State. One-half of the area of oats and rye for grain is followed by a crop of cowpeas. One- third of the farms reported receipts from the sale of cowpea hay. The yield reported was low, averaging a little more than one-half ton to the acre. For purposes of determining costs, the crops baled were kept separated from those unbaled, the respective costs per ton of hay in the barn being $16.72 and $18.58. The difference in cost in favor of the crop bales was undoubtedly due largely to the difference in yields. Higher yields would unquestionably have given correspondingly lower costs per ton. WATERMELONS. Brooks County is in the center of an important area for the pro- duction of watermelons for shipping to northern markets, and on nearly half of the farms studied this crop is an important source of income. The fertilizer charge is the largest single item of cost, closely followed by that for man labor. It is usual for a professional car loader to pack the melons in the cars at a fixed rate per car. This cost is entered as “ special carloader,” instead of being included under costs of man labor. The material used for bedding the cars is mainly pine needles or oats or rye straw, the local value of which is nominal, and the cost of hauling which is included under the labor charges. The paper, nails, and slats charged are for lining and closing the cars. After the crop is harvested, cattle and hogs are usually allowed to graze off the cull melons and the growth of crab grass. The esti- mated value of such pasturage has been deducted from the gross cost as a pasture credit. Often a crop of cowpea hay follows thé melons, in which case the former shares its proportionate part of the land- rent charge. The net cost of this crop amounts to $25.09 per acre, or $50.18 per carload. Nearly all the melons are bought on the loaded car at the shipping point, and the costs shown are figured at that point. The average yield of half a carload per acre was normal, but the market price declined in the middle of the harvesting season to so low a point that a part of the crop was not gathered. The costs given in the table represent crops harvested and do not include the A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 55 cost of merchantable melons left in the field. When the cost is com- puted for the entire acreage of melons grown on the 46 farms, the cost per acre amounts to $22.17, or $58.32 per carload of melons harvested and sold. . SUGAR CANE. Sugar cane is grown on every farm to produce sirup for home use, and on two-thirds of the farms it serves as a source of farm sales. The sirup is usually sold in barrels to the local merchants, who ship much of it out of the county. The average price received in the barrel during 1914 was 26 cents per gallon. The costs shown herein represent the cost of the growing of the crop, grinding, evaporating, and putting in barrels on the farm. This crop is a very intensive one, requiring a large amount of labor per acre. Man labor is by far the largest item of cost, followed by mule labor, seed cane, and fertilizer. A considerable part of the latter consists of stable manure. The wood fuel used in evaporating the sirup is cut on the farms, and the labor of cutting and hauling the wood is included in the labor charges. The value of the seed cane saved and the small amount of canes sold or consumed on the farm has been deducted from the total cost, and the balance charged to the sirup, making the average cost 24 cents per gallon. The costs represent small scale production, but the profit per acre is fairly large. This crop can be grown at a comparatively low cost per unit of product, the chief problem being one of marketing the product. ' SWEET POTATOES. Sweet potatoes are grown in Brooks County only on a small scale, mainly for home consumption and for hog pasture. Nearly half of the cost of growing the crop is chargeable to man labor, the next largest items being mule labor, fertilizer, and land rent. The acre cost of the crop for hog pasture is $19.53 as compared with $29.89 for the crop harvested and put in the “banks,” the difference being the cost of gathering. The average yield was 109 bushels and the cost per bushel 24 cents. These costs represent small scale produc- tion and not growing on a commercial basis. The margin of profit is wide and it would seem that the crop offers opportunities for com- mercial production, provided a market can be found for the product. IRISH POTATOES. Only four farms were found growing Irish potatoes primarily for marketing. The yield secured was 69 bushels per acre. The costs amounted to $37.37 per acre and 55 cents per bushel in sacks on the farm. At the price received, about $1.19 per bushel, the margin of profit is the widest found of any of the crops grown on these farms. ’ ) 56 BULLETIN 648, U. 8, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COST OF FEEDING CATTLE. An increasing number of farmers in Brooks County are making a practice of fattening cattle for the market. Many of the feeders are shipped in from Florida. Others are purchased from farmers within the county or raised on the farms on which they are fed. Three such cattle feeders were included in the survey, and the itemized costs of feding are shown in Table X XI. Tapte XXI.—Cost of feeding cattle on 3 farms (Brooks County, Ga.). Number of cattle fed, 378; number of pounds gained, 62.070. Item. Cost. iiein (poor (CUS E OENS)) coc oe docascate ss seas soe acneSances scaeseBbeseoes soos secs sseasestessc50= $345. 31 Misia lie fover (GYR CANS) 25 anc casos os se ee elec os sees se cae oo sas sae een oes o2 2ess2segtcssseses=222 292.91 “ Hquipment cost. .-.-...----------- 2222-22 a nn 55. 46 Cottonseed meal (140 tons). .----------------- Site edtwets 258 Lis. < eee. ere ee 3, 155. 00 Chaar (nigils (1OHp) POTS. = 52 see oes shan 2 bsg deso 2252 eebssccs seemes Seu ss2oessdescocsesscescs 625. 00 ay (8 tons) =. 2. = - 2-2 eet co = on 2 2 a 2 = = 30. 00 Silage (corn and sorghum) (132 tons) a 506. 47 PRRIEN® Oc o52sesocssecesoss2e22 220. 00 Bedding c¢ (125 loads) 30. 00 Dipping, dehorning. - - - - -00 MGS soa qeescoubeseenwesesssodeeeese coe eee =a ds 8 sence ee eeees case soasseaezesecoscesss 327. 31 VERS Sco concosuamensenenmceree sce seseeessecage 2 osc essen 2521 aso aeeer tes 222 25s2s5secoase5i072 27.00 (GLOSS |COSta 2 staeer = 2 see ee eee ee ee 7, 612. 00 GCostiofeattle atendionieedine period 22 eae see eee ee 9 ee ee eee 12, 136. 46 BEATE CCE COV COM ie Oe) eC) UL DENN CAN eee = ee 12, 091. 00 a Ee Se a oe OS seals eclalsai's aimee oes MIS e See © cleieiei= Ie = == ~= 32-62 22 - - = = eee ee eee eee 7.29 a Charged at cost of production. 7 b 123*head for 2 months and 200 head for 33 months. e Oats, rye, and pine straw. Cost of hauling included under labor charges. The 378 cattle fed gained 62,070 pounds, or 164 pounds per head, at a gross cost of $9.09 per hundredweight. Deducting the value of the manure, estimated at $1 per wagonload in the feed lot, gives a net cost of $7.29 per hundredweight. On one farm the cattle gained 200 pounds per head, at a cost of 6.1 cents per pound, and returned a profit of $4.74 each; on another the gains were 150 pounds per head, at a cost of 8.9 cents per pound, resulting in a loss of $5.46 per head; while on the third farm the cattle gained 112 pounds each, at a cost per pound of 9.6 cents, and netted a loss per animal of $5.66. The cattle were sold when the foot-and-mouth quarantine was in effect and the market depressed; hence normally a better showing in the matter of profits could be expected. The cost of cottonseed meal and hulls constitutes nearly 84 per cent of the total feed cost. The silage fed is charged at the cost of production, since it has not here a recognized definite value. But all other feeds are charged at the prices on the farm or at the point of purchase. The labor charge includes the labor of buying the cattle, hauling feed from shipping point, feed and care of the cattle, oD) A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. ond and marketing. The total costs are figured at f. o. b. the shipping point, Quitman. COST OF SWINE PRODUCTION. On 55 of the 106 farms surveyed hogs were raised in suflicient numbers to justify the calculations of cost of production. The itemized costs on these farms are shown graphically in figure 21, and in detail in Table XXII. - COST PER 100 POUNDS LIVE WEIGHT $1.00 2.00 3.00 . 4.00 TOTAL COST FEED COST OF SE MAN LABOR INTEREST &TAXES MULE LABOR, EQUIPM’T VETERINARY, SERUM, ETC FS Peanuts Pastured Other Pasture 3 Corn Watermelons Fed [ZY Manure Credits - Fig. 21.—Cost of swine production. It will be seen by the table that of the gross cost of producing hogs, one-half is accounted for by the cost of peanuts pastured, two- thirds by all crops pastured, and 85 per cent by all classes of feeds. | The peanuts, oats, rye, and sweet potatoes fed were all pasture crops and have no definite commercial value, hence are charged at the cost of production. All other pasture is entered at the estimated renting value. Corn is charged at the farm price. TABLE XXII.—Cost of swine production on 55. farms (Brooks County, Ga.). Number of hog units @ per farm, 77; pounds of live weight gains per farm, 11.033. + Cost per Z 100 Per cent Cosue a pounds | of gross i live cost. weight Reanmbswpastured(32tacres)) bY 222 meee ae eee eet ane tee see ecie ra $309. 34 $2. 80 51.2 Oats and LAVGp OES UDINEG ee. Se doact coord tosouPsSenaetoenssaseoras 26. 03 = 2} 4.3 Sweet potatoes, pastured (2.24 acres) 6 ............-------------+---+--- 19. 80 .18 3.3 WY/GOGIS DR SUUNOS So sconce dqeenene eos odoosocudcuaueauesneadosenseosourades 9. 78 09 1.6 OGherpastune se seheet cee = = eeeer re eee ee eee). eels ieiocameeeiaaitee 10. 70 -10 1.8 OLA PASEUTELCOStO so. <..\- sateen San tie Seven see inansiepsecee erative 375. 65 3. 40 62. 2 Cory @i73ibushels) 728. sus 2. SRS ee ee SP. eS Ei 129. 40 1.17 21.4 Wyiatermelons) [edi <(ss(ysy- so. =2:- Sere teeeiie eect sicher otis 8. 43 08 1.4 ROLATEC A COSUE Sse =... - eee os eee ee eeiee sacs see tee ces 513. 48 4.65 85. 0 Mana bor 4idays) Sac jee «eens eee tenon aee ceescaes Bee ue a ae 58. 60 558} 9.7 Muleilabor(G:tidaiys) eee =. cee See ae ee! aa oyeyeree abe See 5. 02 05 -8 BE CHUL MOM GS pe ieee c= a2) 3 NO Ae ace SS wie uaa ele waned UML 1.13 01 «2 Welisimiaerny, Serabian, Clijoysy, iaaXXe bags ee oe eee osocusooceseeee 5. 50 05 ot) {UATE IG GR SRS GEA SES oe aes oe emt Serene Soi ye ieee a ee on ce ici Scie es 19. 62 18 3.3 NESS S Sa Coa GCOS HOE SOCAN: DEST «cia cla ola er IN Reyne an ene IS © ete - 82 - OL od! GR GOSSHCOS TERR PERN St NY. EAMDSS 3.1 Ra RAP RSS 7 IR SMI NE 604. 17 5.48 100.0 IMamUTes Cre Cities. See 28 )a. 5 see i SE Se ek ear a i Way od 40.85 sey 6.8 INIGEB GOS Hes hs NSE RT Sa) eT a a a 563. 32 Te OM eaeae tate Net cost on 45 farms with no losses from cholera............--.-..------|------------ zIBY Gil a Bees eee a See footnote, p. 60, for definitions. b Charged at cost of production. 58 BULLETIN 648. U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Next to feeds, the largest item of cost is that of man labor, equal- ing nearly 10 per cent of the gross costs, followed by the interest charge, and others of minor importance. The average number of hog units? on each farm was 77 and the cost per pound of live- weight gain? was 5.1 cents. Ten of these 55 farms suffered losses from hog cholera, which, of course, increased the cost per pound of the remaining hogs. On the 45 farms free from such losses the average cost per pound was 4.7 cents. The manure credit that has been deducted from: the gross cost represents the estimated value of the residual fertilizing effect of the peanuts pastured off by the hogs. It is the consensus of opinion held by these farmers, based on experience, that the peanut crop grown and harvested from the soil is as severe a drain on soil fer- tility as is the growing of a crop of corn. Manifestly, then, any fertilizing value of peanuts “hogged off” is the value due to the method of harvesting, and as such should be a eredit to the hogs and not to the peanuts. The average of a large number of estimates* places this fertilizer value due to the method of harvesting at $1.50 per acre of “solid” peanuts “ hogged off,’ and at 75 cents per acre cf peanuts and corn. Upon this basis the credits to the hogs have been calculated and entered as a manure credit. . Of special significance is the large proportion of the cost repre- sented by pasture crops, especially peanuts. Undoubtedly herein lies the secret of profitable swine production in Brooks County. Cost of slaughtering and curing swine.—lt has long been the prac- tice of the farmers of Brooks County to slaughter their hogs at home. Recently, however, a packing plant has been erected in an adjoining county, affording a ready market for live stock. Since the farmers now have the choice of selling their hogs on foot or of doing the slaughtering at home and marketing the resulting prod- ucts, it is of interest to know.the cost of killing and curing at home. These costs are shown in Table XXIII. On the farms that killed an average of 2,764 pounds of live hogs the cost amounted to 87 cents per hundred pounds of live weight, but on the farms that slaughtered 16,395 pounds each the cost was reduced by nearly one-half, or to lent of a 200-pound hog grown during the year. Immature hogs slaughtered or on hand at the end of the year were reduced to hog units by dividing the total live weight by 200 es live-weight gain includes the weight of all hogs sold and slaughtered, and any differences in the weights of all hogs on the farms at the beginning and ending of the farm year. ®JIn getting these estimates the farmers were asked, first, how much more rent they would be willing to pay for the use of Brooks County land on which either peanuts or peanuts and corn had been grown the previous year than they would for similar land that had produced a crop of corn; second, how much less fertilizer, measured by value, they would apply to a crop of cotton planted on land that had produced peanuts or peanuts and corn than on land following corn. The replies gave a wide range of estimates, the average of which is given above. A FARM MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS CO., GA. 59 46 cents per hundred pounds. The average cost was 54 cents. This does.not include the marketing of the meat, but it does include the hauling of the ice, salt, etc., to the farm. It represents the cost of the meat cured endl to sell. TABLE XXIII. —Cost of killing and curing swine (Brooks County, Ga.). Farms having each specified number of pounds of swine (live weight) killed per farm. . Average | of all farms, | Hess | 5,000 to | 7,000 to | 10,000 5.000 7,000 10,000 | pounds p ounds, | Pounds. pounds. |and over. iINumiberoftarms S222 os ayo 2s eerie = cree 50 14 10 12 14 Average per farm: . Live weight Killed (pounds). ....-..--...-------- 8, 438 2, 764 5, 446 8, 266 16, 395 Number of hegs)kalledit 7. ss megeee sue 47.2 21 33.7 48 83 Average weight per hog killed (pounds).......... 179 132 161 172 193 Manilapor (days) Pies cce.-c 2-4 o-oo sees 18.01 10.1 13.5 20.3 ieee Morleplaborl(daiys) seeesese ee ne eeeee cece 1.57 . 40 . 82 1.4 3.5 CostiofimanvVlaboretensse-c.-- oe aeeeee eee cee $23.51 $13. 58 $15. 20 | $26. 70 | $36. 65 Costiofmullelabor e222 4-22 2. eee ceeicae ee 1.39 - 43 -73 1.07 3.08 (iB quipment-COSte te = scene. +2. 2 eee eee eescee . 10 03 - 09 14 14 Bmilcdineichancea nesses. eee ae 7.73 3.96 5.60 7.71 13.04 Sally ger Ray am yen .cS. Same eae SE 9. 28 4.22 6.32 9.60 16.15 3 OLA eerie Se see selse2. = - = eee erect e - 43 - 50 57 oll, - 40 1 Ses SOROS CROCE aemmREEES ccc) eke nee 3.10 1.22 1.08 3.11 6. 40 otal COSta memes saline is Sc ee eae 45. 54 23.95 29. 58 48. 60 75. 86 Cost Der 100 pounds of live weight ldlllemeye 77 0.54 0. 87 0.54 0.59 0. 46 . a Cold storage and smokehouses. Approximately half the total costs consist of man labor. It is the usual practice to pay with scraps of the cheaper cuts of meats, the extra labor needed for killing. It should be borne in mind that a considerable part of the labor charge is the cost of supervision by the farmer, and that the slaughtering is done in January, at times when there is not much pressure of other work. PUBLICATIONS Oi THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO THE SUBJECT OF THIS BULLETIN. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. A System of Farm Cost Accounting. (Farmers’ Bulletin 572.) A Corn Belt Farming System which Saves Harvest Labor by Hogging Down Crops. (Farmers’ Bulletin 614.) What a Farm Contributes Directly to the Farmer’s Living. (Farmers’ Bulletin 635. ) A Method of Analyzing Farm Business. (Farmers’ Bulletin 661.) Trenching Machinery used for the Construction of Trenches for the Tile Drains. (Farmers’ Bulletin 698.) Suggestions for Parcel Post Marketing. (Farmers’ Bulletin 703.) An Economie Study of Farm Tractor in Corn Belt. (Farmers’ Bulletin 719.) Waste Land and Wasted Lands on Farms. (Farmers’ Bulletin 745.) The Farmer’s Income. (Farmers’ Bulletin 746.) The Use of a Dairy for Farm Account. (Farmers’ Bulletin 782.) How the Federal Farm Loan Act Benefits the Farmer. (Farmers’ Bulletin 792.) Minor Articles of Farm Equipment. (Farmers’ Bulletin 816.) Example of Successful Farm Management in Southern New York. (Depart- ment Bulletin 32.) Cooperative Organization Business Methods. (Department Bulletin 178.) Outlets and Methods of Sale for Shippers of Fruits and Vegetables. (Depart- ment Bulletin 266.) j Methods of Wholesale Distribution of Fruits and Vegetables on Large Markets. (Department Bulletin 267.) Relation between Primary Market Prices and Qualities of Cotton. (Depart- ment Bulletin 457.) . Farm Practice in Cultivation of Cotton. (Department Bulletin 511.) Seasonable Distribution of Farm Labor in Chester County, Pa. (Department Bulletin 528.) Validity of Survey Method of Research in Farm Management. (Department Bulletin 529.) What is Farm Management. (Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 259.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Renovating Worn-out Soils. (Farmers’ Bulletin 245.) Price 5 cents. A Successful Alabama Diversification Farm. (Farmers’ Bulletin 310.) Price 5 cents. Replanning a Farm for Profit. (Farmers’ Bulletin 370.) Price 5 cents. Farm Bookkeeping. (Farmers’ Bulletin 511.) Price 5 cents. How to Use Farm Credit. (Farmers’ Bulletin 593.) Price 5 cents. Outfit for Boring Taprooted Stumps for Blasting. (Farmers’ Bulletin 600.) Price 5 cents. Demurrage Information for Farmers. (Department Bulletin 191.) Price 5 cents. ; Costs and Sources of Farm-mortgage Loans in United States. (Department Bulletin 384.) Price 10 cents. Agricultural Conditions in Southern New York. (Bureau of Plant Industry Circular 64.) Price 5 cents. 60 ; : BULLETIN No. 649 4% Contribution from the States Relations Service A. C. TRUE, Director Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 13, 1918 EXPERIMENTS ON THE DIGESTIBILITY OF FISH.’ By A. D. Houtmes, Specialist in Charge of Digestion Experiments, Office of Home Economics. CONTENTS. Page Page IMTtROdUCHOM sao. cc z soe cess--(2 o/s - ee Le AaButterhishe sss. walenem ceeeicecinscccneee casas 8 Digestion experiments with men...........-. 3 | Grayfish.........- BIS id ie ea 9 BreparatloniOleisheser sss seeasenies = sees 40 Balmonk s/o. pao ssioee eyes seme cae o/a a sleverereis 12 Naturevofthe diet. es css =< - se see eaee oe 5) |) SUMIMALY: 7S. cecicee es SSSR eros = cielo seretee 14 Boston mackerel............----.:222-----+- 6 INTRODUCTION. While many studies have been made of the digestibility of milk, cereals, fats, vegetables, and meats (especially beef), less information is available regarding the digestibility of fish. Slowzoff? has reported experiments with six persons in which fish was substituted for meat in an otherwise uniform diet to determine its effect on the metabolism of phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium. He found no change in the metabolism of phosphorus; the absorption of calcium was dimin- ished 5 per cent, and the absorption of magnesium was increased 8 per cent. Kifanitsyn* found that the protein supplied by salt cod was 90 per cent digested by human subjects when the fish was eaten alone and 94.4 per cent digested when eaten as a part of a mixed diet. Rozov,* in a study of the relative digestibility of the fat of smoked and fresh smelt, found that it was 98 per cent utilized in the smoked and 97 per cent in the fresh. Slowzoff and Krawtschenko ® report 1 Prepared under the direction of C. F. Langworthy, Chief, Office of Home Economics. 2 Verhandl. Gesell. Russ. Arzte St. Petersb., 76 (1909), p. 220. 3 Nutritive Value of the Cod. Diss., Imp. Mil. Med. Acad. [St. Petersb.], 1887, pp. 56. {Russian.] 4 Comparative Assimilation of Fats from Fresh and Smoked Fish. Diss., Imp. Mil. Med. Acad.[ St. Petersb.], 1891, pp. 48. [Russian.]} 5 Verhandl. Gesell. Russ. Arzte St. Petersb., 1907-8; abs. in Zentbl. Gesam. Physiol. u. Path. Stoff- wechsels, n. ser., 4 (1909), No. 1, p. 40. Notre.—This bulletin records studies of the digestibility of Boston mackerel, butterfish, grayfish, and salmon, and is primarily of interest to students and investigators of food problems. 28623°—18—Bull. 649 Cy BULLETIN 649, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that the absorption of mineral salts is better on a diet containing fresh or salt fish and poorer on a diet containing dried fish than ona diet containing beef. Van Slyke and White,’ using the rate of excre- tion of nitrogen in the urine as an index of the rate of protein diges- tion, found that boiled cod (fresh) was more rapidly digested than boiled beef, boiled weakfish, boiled mussel, and boiled cod (salt). Rosenfeld,” in a study of the nutritive value of fish (sea pike and sea salmon), concludes that fish causes the excretion of a smaller amount of uric acid than meat and that fish is equal to beef for maintaining nitrogen equilibrium. In digestion experiments with — beef and fish, Atwater * compared the amounts of protein, fat. and _ ash assimilated, and obtained the same coefficients of digestibility for both food materials. Studies of the digestibility of canned salmon have been reported by Milner,* who found in four experiments in which an average of 401 grams of salmon was eaten daily for three days with a simple mixed basal ration consisting of bread, milk, butter, and sugar, that 96 per cent of the protein and 97 per cent of the fat of the salmon were retained by the body. A number of other investigators have studied the value of fish flesh for food purposes by means of artificial digestion experiments. Hoénigsberg* studied the relative digestibility of fish and found that pepsin digested whitefish protein more rapidly than raw and less rapidly than cooked beef. In a study of the digestibility of fish pro- tein by trypsin, White and Crozier® found that boiled codfish and dogfish digested more readily than boiled beef. Sulima’ conducted experiments to determine whether there were differences in food in the raw state and that cooked at a high temperature which would — affect the digestive process and concluded that gastric digestion was . much slower with cooked than with uncooked fish (sardines). ‘This difference, he believed, was due to the enzyms present in the raw fish. Konig and Spittgerber,® as a result of determinations of the composition, energy value, and constants of fish fat, and a study of the digestibility of fish flesh by means of artificial digestion exper- iments, concluded that fish flesh is as easily and completely digested as Meat. In the earliest elaborate series of investigations of food materials ade in this country, Atwater® studied the composition of fish, and the results of this investigation contributed largely to the gen- 1 Jour. Biol. Chem., 9 (1911), No. 3-4, pp. 219-229. 2 Zentbl. Inn. Med., 27 (1906), No. 7, pp. 169-176. 3 Zischr. Biol., 24 (1888), No. 1, pp. 16-28; abs. in Jahresber. Tier Chem., 17 (1887), p. 418. 4 Connecticut Storrs Sta. Rpt. 1905, p. 142. 5 Wiener Med. BI1., 5 (1882), Nos. 19, pp. 582-585; 20, pp. 614-616. 6 Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., 33 (1911), No. 12, pp. 2042-2048. 7 Arch. Hyg., 75 (1912), No. 6-7, pp. 235-264. 8 Landw. Jahrb., 38 (1909), Sup. 4, pp. 1-169. * U.S. Comr. Fish and Fisheries Rpt. 1883, pp. 423-494. DIGESTIBILITY OF FISH. 3 eral knowledge of the food value of fish and its importance as a source of fat and other nutrients in the diet. The results of his studies! of 50 or more varieties showed that, on an average, fish contains over 18 per cent of protein, and about 4 per cent of fat. Generalizing from these data it has been pointed out? that fish may be divided on the basis of their fat content into three classes: Those with over 5 per cent fat such as shad, salmon, butterfish, and herring; those containing from 2 to 5 per cent fat such as whitefish, halibut, and porgy; and those containing less than 2 per cent fat such as bluefish, haddock, and cod. It is evident that fish, like meat, may contribute materially to the fat of the diet, particularly if the fatter varieties are eaten. On the basis of the protein they supply they also resemble meat, and this is true too with respect to the ways in which they are used in the diet. Accordingly, fish should be considered as a protein food and classed with the meats. However, notwithstanding the fact that protein is essential in the diet and fat is supplied in a readily assimilated form in fish, the use of fish is small in comparison with the use of beef, pork, and mutton, which are also sources of, animal protein. The demand for land animal “meats” is at present in excess of the supply, while the possible sup- ply of fish is believed to be much greater than the present demand. In view of the attempts which are being made to interest the public in methods of reducing the consumption of meat without lessening the nutritive value and attractiveness of the diet, definite knowledge of the food value of fish is of especial importance. And so, as part of the studies of the food value and uses of fish in the home, which are being undertaken, it seemed desirable to study the digesti- bility of some varieties of fish taken to be representative of general types, including some which are well known and one, grayfish, which is comparatively new in the American market. DIGESTION EXPERIMENTS WITH MEN. Seven young men (medical and dental students) who had gained experience in other investigations of like character, served as sub- jects in this investigation. They were all normal individuals of good health, and reasonably active. During the experimental period they were requested to observe their usual routine as regards amount of exercise taken, hours of eating, etc. From their knowledge of physi- ology and previous experience in this type of work,-they were suf- ficiently informed of the nature of their duties to appreciate the im- portance of carefully following the directions given them. For the purpose of this investigation aspecial fore period and after period were not considered necessary, and accordingly the subjects 1 Loe. cit. and U.S. Dept. Agr., Office Expt. Stas. Bul. 28 (1906), rev. ed., pp. 45-50. 2U.8S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 85 (1898), p. 14. — os er 4 BULLETIN 649, U.S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. were allowed to follow their customary dietary routine preceding and ; following the experimental period. For the purpose of identifying _ the feces of the experimental period, three or four gelatin capsules containing about 0.3 gram of pulverized charcoal were taken with the first meal of the experimental period and with the first meal fol- lowing it; the separation of the feces due to the diet under investiga- tion was easily made at the lines of demarcation made by the por- tions dully colored by the charcoal. Inasmuch as this study is concerned principally with the coefficient of digestibility of the protein and fat of the fish, no attempt was made to maintain a nitrogen equilibrium or uniform body weight of the sub- jects. The urime resulting from the experimental periods was not collected, for it was considered that any constituents of the foods which had been sufficiently broken down to appear in the urine had undergone the process of digestion; furthermore, the results ob- tained by collecting and analyzing the urine of a short test period are not entirely conclusive since the urine can not be separated as satisfactorily as the feces. PREPARATION OF FISH. In this study of the digestibility of different types of fish, fresh butterfish and Boston mackerel were used, and canned grayfish and canned salmon. A fish loaf seemed to be the best form in which to prepare the fish for eating, since sufficient quantities for the entire experimental period could be prepared at one time. Furthermore, it was easy to prepare a fish loaf having a uniform composition and one which would not change materially on standing by the settling out of fat or evaporation of water. The butterfish and mackerel received a preliminary cooking before being incorporated in the fishloaf. The fish, after being cleaned, were thoroughly washed and placed as close as possible to each other in a covered cooker, water was added, and they were cooked for one-half hour. They were not boiled, but steamed in a very small quantity of water wiich prevented browning or sticking to the pan. To prevent any loss due to extracted fat and protem, the water in which the fish were steamed was retained and mixed with the fish meat, Beythien’ having reported that the water in which fish were boiled contained 8.8 to 11.3 per cent of the total fish protein. After this preliminary cooking of the butterfish and mackerel, the bones, any pieces of fins, etc., were removed and the fish meat was cut in an ordinary household meat cutter. The bones and bits of skin were removed from the canned grayfish and salmon, and the solid meat was minced in a meat cutter. From this point the prepa- 1 Pharm. Centralhalle, 47 (1906), p. 140. DIGESTIBILITY OF FISH. 5 ration of the fish loaf was identical for the canned and fresh fish. In each instance a quantity of the fish to be studied sufficient for the entire test period, after being mixed with salt and pepper, was very thoroughly and uniformly mixed and baked for two to three hours in a moderate oven. Whatever crust formed during baking was removed, and the remaining portion was again thoroughly mixed in order to secure a uniform product, after which a sample was taken for analysis. NATURE OF THE DIET. Inasmuch as experience has shown that in studying the digestibility of a single food it is desirable to supply the food material under con- sideration as a part of a simple mixed diet, a suitable basal ration was served with the fish loaf. It consisted of boiled potatoes, crackers, apple sauce, sugar, tea or coffee, and a little lemon juice as a condi- ment in some cases. In accordance with the usual custom, a sufficient supply of the special food under consideration (fish loaf) and of the other foods was prepared in advance for the whole experimental period. The fish loaf was kept in a refrigerator at 15° C. and remained fresh and in good condition, as did also the potatoes, which were boiled, mashed, and thoroughly mixed to insure uniform composi- tion. The apples, which were eaten raw, were of good grade and pleasant flavor. The crackers or “‘biscuits’”’ used were taken from a large lot and assumed to be of uniform composition. Though no attempt was made to have all eat like amounts, the subjects were urged to eat liberally of the fish loaf and moderately of the crackers and potatoes, following their individual preferences with respect to the apples and the tea or coffee. As a whole, the ration, though it contained no added fat and only moderate amounts of carbohydrates, was reasonably generous as regards protein and energy and was varied enough not to become tiresome. The food for each man for each meal was weighed in advance and kept separate. All remaining uneaten was weighed. The difference between the amount furnished and the amount remaining repre- sented the amount eaten. Samples of the food were reserved for analysis. The small amount of lemon juice (on an average, 35 grams per day), which was eaten with the butterfish and the Boston mackerel, was disregarded in computing the food value of the diet. The feces were collected, sampled, and analyzed by the methods followed in the department’s digestion experiments, of which the present investigation forms a part.! 1U.S8. Dept. Agr. Bul. 310 (1915), pp. 23. See list on last page. 6 BULLETIN 649, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BOSTON MACKEREL. The investigations reported in this paper, which form a part of an extended study of the digestibility, nutritive value, and uses in the home of fish and fish products, have to do particularly with the digestibility of protein. One of the varieties of fish, Boston mack- erel, here studied in comparison with other sorts of fish, has, however, ean considered from the standpoint of the relative dices eines of animal fats of different kinds in an earlier bulletin.' Boston mackerel (Scomber scombrus, Linneus) is a highly fla- vored fish, which can be compared to moderately fat meat in food value, since it supplies good amounts of both protein and fat. This fish, which is found throughout the north Atlantic, spends the winter months in deep water; in the spring, schools rise to the surface and approach the land. This fish forms one of the chief products of the New England fisheries, the catch during the year 1916 amounting to approximately 16,000,000 pounds. The fish used in this inves- tigation were purchased at a local market and weighed, after clean- ing, approximately 3 pounds each. They were procured at the height of the season, were in prime condition, and when prepared in the form of a fish loaf made a most appetizing dish. While the Boston mackerel possesses a characteristic flavor which is quite pronounced in the boiled or fried fish, this flavor was not evident m the fish loaf. . Three subjects living under normal conditions, who had acquired considerable experience in work of this kind in connection with the determination of the digestibility of some of the common edible fats of animal and vegetable origin, assisted in this study. The results which were obtained in the three-day test period follow. 1U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 507 (1917), p. 16. DIGESTIBILITY OF FISH. y Data of digestion experiments with: Boston mackerel in a simple mixed diet. Constituents of foods. ; A : Weight Experiment, subject, and diet. anal. Garba Water. | Protein. hy- Ash, drates. Experiment No. 444, subject D. G. G.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Grams. | Grams. Boston mackerel (in form of fish loaf) ome oi 1, 496. 0 926. 0 323:0°'| 199.9 |. 0.222... 47.1 ROtatOmetieacccesceboosstese Sashes ees 439. 0 331.5 11.0 91.7 4.4 Crackersia eine ac sk Ses i ELS eee 284. 0 19.6 23.0 201.1 2.3 Tit eee eas sera oe heck ec see oes eee 1,320.0 | 1,116.7 5.3 187.4 4.0 Sugar Peo ssct Se. ad. HSS eS AAO ees ese nlsncnicetae WAGON encase Total food consumed............---.----- 3,710.0 | 2,393.8 362. 3 651. 2 57.8 PROCES eee Persie nie site es Ss a RF CY ACORN oa 19.3 31.9 5.7 AmmTounttilizedt jes 2 ss. tase. SE esto eae 8 343. 0 619. 3 52.1 IPOR CORE LILI ZG ts xise aa scenic se soe se ars Se Dene since see ees 94.7 95.1 90.1 Experiment No. 446, subject R. L. S.: Boston mackerel (in form of fish loaf)....... 1, 184. 0 S269) lee 2554Gulne 5802: |e ae 37.3 WP OLATOR ELS coset aoe odds teaebbe te icete ones 227.0 171.4 5.7 47.4 eS) Crackers tntepemetet -cine asses ean es sic Setae> 243.0 16.8 19.7 172.0 1.9 becnetevercteltte anaes — oon WSR aS. 1,376.0 1,164.1 5.5 195. 4 4.1 YEE S500 Cone Gocco DORR BRE BE ROE DEP EE EAS 256 Behe BAS Beoseas| isos adea| Eoorosoes G3) laSaaccce Total food consumed....-........---.---- 3,088.0 | 2,085. 2 286. 5 472.8 45.6 Hecesmancseaie et. Sse oe a. fo8 Ss ees 4 ce SE 53210) SOEs eas 21.9 16. 2 7.4 PATIL OUITE NIGH ZOG crepes aioise wan ce a seisetc ce eel Sie = sielciemis | See ee 264. 6 456. 6 38. 2 IRercentaitilized iva esars soe separate ce See cise e Salsisics Sse e sees 92. 4 96.6 83.8 Experiment No. 447, subject O. E.S.: | Boston mackerel (in form of fish loaf) Sarees 1, 348.0 834. 4 291503 el SO nt Beene eee 42.5 POUNDS Se aD CUD UBC SOS CRBS oecS Db Teeeeor oc 476.0 359. 4 11.9 99.5 4.7 @rackers coace eric seene a creniscis clenee aes cise 171.0 11.8 13.8 121.1 1.4 FET Un Ges Soap ee adr ho IS ake 1,594.0] 1,348.5 6.4 226.3 4.8 DU Calera cise asec ae esi wisioisie wien ecleae ae ais NWR) | SSSA Bo aae Saacosess tdeadecas 16550) |Seeeeeee Total food consumed.......-.-.-.-.-.-.-- 3,754.0 | 2,554.1 323.1 211.5 611.9 53.4 NECES Ste reiaek tion cab sh coeds eee ee ede 60:0) | Soiseeseee 28.6 12.2 21.6 7.6 PAV OUITUESUEUITZOM IS eres re cs cise eee: 2a | Seisiennis => 2 |= earseeesice 294. 5 199.3 590. 3 45.8 POM COMEsUEUIZ EC alae os 315 = see eee Onis eros Mee cic icistenal cicomeceeee 91.1 94.2 96.5 85. 8 Average food consumed per subject per day....| 1,172.4 781.4 108.0 72.7 192.9 17.4 Summary of digestion experiments with Boston mackerel in a simple mixed diet. Experiment No. Subject. Protein.| Fat. iva Ash, P Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. LUN epee SPS Meet a gee ee DG a Gere =. Pee re Oe (LIS IES So 94.7 95.9 95.1 90.1 CNG SST, Une Sree ger ae Beye DES) eee RBS ein a eee eerie 92.4 96. 2 96. 6 83. 8 CLT SB Bah NG Ses iti ae a ES (O68 AS {Snap teers Gas hiss cis ea ee eee 91.1 94.2 . 96.5 85.8 AV CLACE cheeses ye ane twice 92.7 95.4 96.1 86.6 An average of 108 grams of protein, 73 grams of fat, and 193 grams of carbohydrates was consumed per man daily during the test periods with Boston mackerel, the fuel value of the diet being 1,861 calories. These constituents were found to be 92.7 per cent, 95.4 per cent, and 96.1 per cent digested, respectively. The coefficients of digestibility for the fish protein and fat were found to be 93.1 per cent and 95.2 per cent, respectively, when allowance was made for the undigested protein and fat resulting from the basal ration. - 8 BULLETIN 649, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BUTTERFISH. Butterfish (Poronotus triacanthus) was chosen for one series of studies as an excellent fish of the type commonly used as pan fish. Butterfish occurs on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts from Maine to Texas, and during the year 1915 the catch of the coastal fisheries of New York and New Jersey amounted to over 5,000,000 pounds. At times it is taken in such abundance that a glut in the market results, and, since this fish is usually soid fresh, great quantities are wasted. The butterfish which was studied in the experiments here reported was of a good commercial grade, purchased in the local market, and it was believed to be representative of this type of fish procured under the ordinary trade conditions. The three subjects who assisted in the study of the digestibility of butterfish, following the same routine which has hitherto proved en- tirely satisfactory, ate an average of 105 grams of protein, 37 grams of fat, and 208 grams of carbohydrates, daily, the fuel value of the diet being 1,585 calories. The data obtaimed for the three-day test period are included in the following table: Data of digestion experiments with butterfish in a simple mixed diet. Constituents of foods. Experiment, subject, and diet. pee "| water. |Protein.| Fat. |C@™P°bY| ash 3 : ¥ drates. 3 Experiment No. 452, subject D. G. G.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Butterfish (in form of fish loaf)............- 1,533.0] 1,120.9 303. 7 (EGON ewe eS 33.9 Ota Omens noe ce acne eee ce ree 115.0 86.8 2.9 0.1 24.0 12 CRE CKEES AS-i ee By io eee 322.0 2252 26.1 43.1 228.0 2.6 TEE ULL Go oes eee eee eR se 1,259.0] 1,065.1 5.0 6.3| 178.8 3.8 SU ane Stee Veet ath me Rae es, «5 189..0)5): 2 eee |e ol a eras 18950} eee Total food consumed................. 3,418.0 | 2,295.0 337.7 124.0 619. 8 41.5 INGYO ahs wise cars + coe ae a eae einai ose ae ea 46:01) Jee 22.8 5 14533 4.4 PAIN OWN FitEbL ZO Bassa aes oo oe So oe es em eee = all os a 314.9 116.5 608 5 37.1 |. Bericent 1 Gnle Zed teeter coe ea ee: |, 93.2 94.0 98. 2 89.4 Experiment No. 454, subject R. L. S.: | Butterfish (in form OMB VCE) So segdenoouse 1,419.0} 1,037.6 281.1 (6930) |Peeees 31.3 Potato mes peer cae eee ee nee 139.0 | 104.9 305 0.1 29.1 1.4 Wrackersmeyee = a aieee tesa weet egs oe oe eee ee 355. 0 24.5 28.8 47.6 251.3 2.8 JODIE 2 SSDS SS SES He diss on AOR ee eas 1,423.0] 1,203 8 ie, 7 den 202.1 4.3 DU SAL oe eyes cock oe cee ee mee anes co some 163)(0)|.: ele ete eee eee 16350) |Saeeeere Total food consumed................. 3,499.0 | 2,370.8 319.1 123.8 645.5 39.8 HCCOS tas eee a ne ADP Meee fo 6050)|... a 24.9 16.5 9.1 Am OUN Tt Zed ee Secon omens adeene on ao eleetceeos S|... ee 294. 2 114 3 629. 0 30.7 Ber centitilized een eae ce ies. teen. sec eels Ole: ee, 92.2 92.3 97.4 HA Experiment No. 455, subject O. E.S.: Butterfish (in form of fish floaty): eaten 8 1,290.0 943.2 255.6 CLA eee 28.5 Potato ; : aid Crackers 1.0 IMA DRE ae 4.4 PUgares ween Total food consumed (tay ae Rear os aS EC Rb UES 6 CoRR eee Jae Amount utilized Pericentartilized tee. te Ses 8 ek ROS | |e 89.6 83.3 97.7 75.8 Average food consumed per subject per day....| 1,174.2 gi05 | 104.7 Bh? 208, 4 13.4 ed ' DIGESTIBILITY OF FISH. 9 Summary of digestion experiments, with butterfish in a simple mixed diet. Experiment No. Subject. Protein. Fat. aeatos “| Ash, Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent 93.2 |. 4. 98.2 BBOEOLUTT COT GP DAG RG se | Hepibee ey ren anes at) 94.0 89. 4 Alo Ea aa RS Ei Sucks AU AO, GeacARES 1 92.2 92.3 97.4 771 Meee REE LTT iEy |e OV EGS iG Aa 89.6 83.3 97.7 75.8 Myerage! eR bt i eee 91.7 89.9 97.8 80.8 In the digestion experiments made with butterfish, the subjects ate an average of 471 grams of fish daily, which supplied 93 grams of protein and 23 grams of fat. The protein, fat, and carbohydrates of the total diet were found to be 91.7 per cent, 89.9 per cent, and 97.8 per cent digested, respectively. The values 91.7 per cent and 89.9 per cent for the digestibility of the protein and fat of the total diet become 91.9 per cent and 86.4 per cent, respectively, if allow- ance is made for the undigested protein and fat resulting from the basal ration. The estimated value, 86.4 per cent, for the digesti- bility of the fat of butterfish is somewhat lower than that of the other fish fats here reported. This lower value is no doubt in part due to the ‘“‘heaping up of errors” involved in estimating the diges- tibility of a fat of a single food when it represents so small a por- tion of the total fat eaten. The subjects reported that they re- mained in normal physical condition during the experimental periods, except that subjects D. G. G. and O. E. S. reported that the diet produced a constipating effect, which was due, no doubt, to its very complete utilization. GRAYFISH, The grayfish (Squalus acanihias, Linneeus), which is very abundant and easy to catch, though known to be wholesome, of good flavor, and usable for many appetizing dishes, has not been utilized to any extent in this country for food purposes, but has been considered largely as a source of oil and fish scrap, a fishery industry by-product of value for fertilizer material. Recently the Bureau of Fisheries has devoted considerable attention to the possible use of this fish in human nutrition and is of the opinion that it constitutes a cheap and very wholesome food. In the literature consulted, no reports were found of the digesti- bility of grayfish. In order to judge of the value of the grayfish in the dietary, it seemed desirable to obtain information on this point, and, accordingly, tests were made in which canned grayfish was served in the form of a fish loaf in conjunction with the simple basal ration employed in the other tests reported in this paper. The canned fish used for this study was supplied by the Bureau of Fisheries and was taken to be representative of a large pack put up by a commercial concern under the direction of the Bureau of Fisheries. 10 BULLETIN 649, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Denis‘ in a study of the blood of‘a number of fishes found urea in the blood of the grayfish. An analysis of the canned grayfish showed that the flesh of this fish contained both ammoniacal and urea nitrogen. The amount of nitrogen present in this form is, however, relatively small, and when allowance was made in the experiments which follow for this nonprotein nitrogen it was found that the value for the coefficient of digestibility of protein was not materially changed. Eight digestion experiments have been made with the grayfish and the results obtained for the three-day test period are reported in the following table: Data of digestion experiments with gray fish in a simple mized diet. ta Constituents of foods. ; 3 F Weight Experiment, subject, and diet. of fod: | Carbo- Water. | Protein. Fat. hy- Ash. | i j | drates. [cece | Experiment No. 535, subject H. R. G.: -| Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Grayfish (in form of fish loaf)............-- | 1,409.0 971.2 244.3 Sie woes 32.7 IBOLALO eee oie ape aoe eee 326-522 see oe 486.0 366.9 12.1 P 4.9 WORACK OTS ite oe oases 400.0 27.6 32.4 3.2 BULA ere Sate co yc, Seine se eiwia’ Bop easeos ce 581.0 491.5 2.3 1.8 DUPAL were sic ooo seas oeloe es oa le Soee cee peemee a2 o<|-2 ot o meee Dome men eee nee | hee ae Total food consumed...........------ 2,876.0| 1,857.2 | 291.1 | 42.6 TEE SS Sa oe ee 2 ne 64.0'|2.. ae 37.8 3.6 PINOUT LIZEO creme ook eee een = 2 > PE = = thee acide, 293.3 39.0 { —————__- Oa PET CONG MMIZed 9252-825 - choc sce ste ones ay ae ese 87.0 91.5 Experiment No. 537, subject P. K.: Grayfish (in form of fish loaf).............. | 1,621.0] 1,117.3 281.1 37.6 IROCAUO Me ne see Se ee oe ee ae ek a See 507.0 382. 8 12.7 5.1 | 0 -o 42.9 4.2 0 .9 3.6 2.7 340.3 49.6 N74 4.7 322. 6 | 44.9 94.8 | 90.5 Experiment No. 538, subject C. J. W.: | Grayfish (in form of fish loaf).............-. 1,331.0 | 917.4 230. 8 151.9 [2-2 2sceee 30.9 IROLALO eee ae Pe eee oS 452.0 341.3 11.3 0.4 94.5 4.5 Crackers Sopa eee enna Someones 2 Soe. See 202.0 | 13.9 16.4 27.1 143.0 1.6 ree. 160 APRA ER. GU eis 944.0| 798.6| 3.8 4.7| 134.1 2.8 (SAE Saas te ae oak Se ape mp ee Set | 12.0 |. ae F 2| see eens 41220) 22eeees Total food consumed.............-... 2,941.0| 2,071.2| 262.3| 184.1| 383.6] 39.8 HC CES ea eee ee nee eee ee 65:0 |: .2eeeee! 27.7 13.9 14.9 8.5 FATHOUNT TN ZEG sss 242 Soa seer ee Ca eee | eee | 234.6 | 170.2 368.7 31.3 Ber com vanied 2 22 0222 enn 3 | 35 ...| ee 89.4| 92.4] 96.1] 78.6 Experiment No. 547, subject H. R. G.: | Grayfish (in form of fish loaf)....-......... | 1,142.0 762.2} 219.7 R71 eee es a 27.9 IP OLALOE 22 Sate Bee ae ete oa 2 ee | 425.0 320.9} 10.6 0.4 88.8 4.3 Crackers 5 pie ete ace ne tle. ge 343.0 23.7} 27.8 46.0 | 242.8 2.7 IBDN 6 9B mocne ss 32s ease oe oe oe ae Ee 599.0} 506.8 | 2.4 3.0 85.0 1.8 SUSAt 5-2 See eee Eee. SAL ae EEE ead ad 2 |. Oe. 2.) Se eee eee Total food consumed................. 2,509.0} 1,613.6 | 260.5| 181.6] 416.6] 36.7 HOCeS = 2. - eee ee ae Seana. eee 49:0 |: ae 26.7 7.6 9.7 5.0 Asnount utilized 42 Mii) 210i. 14 File). | eae: | 993.8! 174.0] 406.9] 31.7 Percent nulized 23-20 655) tae 4258100 53: | eee 89.8 95.8 | 97.7 86.4 1 Jour. Biol. Chem., 16 (1913), No. 3, pp. 389-393. DIGESTIBILITY OF FISH. Avie Data of digestion experiments with grayfish in a simple mixed diet—Continued. Constituents of foods. ‘ . - Weight | Experiment, subject, and diet of food: Pacben Water. | Protein.| Fat. hy- Ash. drates Experiment No. 548, subject A. J. H.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. . | Grams. | Grams. Grayfish (in form of fish loaf)-.....-......-- 1,097.0 732.1 211.1 26.8 IBOtaLOR seca sce o eee tese see aeeene cee boeccoeacad Soe Sacban4 ose s2sseel|scee ested bosz5se5s[ecesckc- OTA KCTS eno oe cine nai soc S52 snes = ee C 0.6 PRE esd va see 28 S23 5o 0 J. orate seein SS aoe 0.5 SHEEP Base soe eobnebdsosesceccesosaseeoonocee||. . Sens codec cblleccacscodlodenoscud) .. 45 banasccs Total food consumed F 27.9 WECESA ieee e kas eee a) ok Amount utilized ofS 24.8 Pericengutilizedi, 985-5 se se oo - Jeeesesecist leecgectes: 97.0 88.9 Experiment No. 549, subject P. K.: Grayfish (in form of fish loaf)........-...-- 1,634.0 ; 1,090.5 314.4 18952))\\53 ee ee 39.9 EO LALOR Sees ee en so eas es riot el satelatess Se 500.0 377.5 12.5 0.5 104.5 5.0 (WRACK CTS Sasa epee isin ee Sinden win sepeieiwclcieie SEE 463.0 32.0 37.5 62.0 327.8 3.7 Ig En ee coodoe ae Caen eennEes nacoe cHOSAneaaC oe 926.0 | 783. 4 3.7 4.6 131.5 2.8 ESTEE ee eee Pe senor nee so Sa SSner Etec a4] oo Seceenes eee Serre jocccscte [e2escnose)|sesszes=¢ Jeveeeses Total food consumed......-..--..-..- 3,523.0 | 2,283.4 368.1 | 256.3 563.8 51.4 (WE CCSeereeterres. onsen ce cisos oe se see eee BOSOM eae aeee 15.4 | 9.9 6.1 4.6 IATM@UITE G1 EEOC = tay f oo ole pic.e 2S Sac oro ce ee oo i Se eer 352.7 246. 4 557.7 46.8 Penicant thee ooo a2 se gs - oe eee lore Pena meses (7 9578)] 96.15) 98ro) |i) ore Experiment No. 579, subject P. K.: | Grayfish (in form of fish loaf)---.........-. | 1,175.0 773.7 230307 Loon OM ee eee eee 17.8 IR OtATOR eae ee eos aa ae ss ee 0 21.7 | EY) ; 4.3 @rackGisye Sse sek ee asa cise see oes 0 Btu ot | 3.3 BUT ae Ss rere og ey sees b ae BOI 0 at BD 3.1 SURG ce oeae seaeaee cee seems Sete ses Bes 0 Total food consumed IG Ca es eae pees Amount utilized Per cent utilized Experiment No. 580, subject C. J. W.: | Grayfish (in form of fish loaf)............--. 1,151.0 | 757.9 Fest) WE ee ea eeeme 17.4 IP OGAL OM ese ona seh See ee ee eee 462.0 | 348.8 11.5 0.5 96.6 4.6 Grackers? ye 2. x2 aie sa eee eis sw ee 185.0 12.7 15.0 24.8 131.0 15 Fries. tad. | eligi ay 1,168.0/| 988.1 18.0 14,7/ leawe5.8)|| metastg ||) als SUM Posot cseoscesnnece: ceosccoseseccsonstec IPA) |loncecssecce||ssoecescsltcesceccs IWVRW) |nnconsce =Total food consumede sees s--- 25-26 3, 078. 0 | 2,107.5 257.0 181.0 505. 5 27.0 LOG Sag A > VR a Ress cS Beene 22.8 15.5 11.5 8.2 Amount utilized - ..-- ce hie See eee | | 1a eee lGoceeereer 234.2 165.5 494.0 18.8 Percent ttilized e-.-. 4 eae see eee es ee elrak Bsa 91.1 | 91.4 97.7 69.6 Average food consumed per subject per day....- 954.9 | 629. 6 94.9 | 68.1 149.7 12.6 Summary of digestion experiments with gray fish in a simple mized diet. Experiment No. Subject. Protein. Fat. fo anes, Ash. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. | 87. HS BoD E CCDC CE ACE EET TR Gee- oo -- Re et «Seen 7.0 | 96.6 96.7 91.5 Theis GRRE SR as ae aeee ied <6 Constituents of foods. Experiment, subject, and diet. Brent | eae, ; « arbohy- Water. | Protein.| Fat. drates, | sb. Experiment No. 563, subject P. K.: Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. | Grams. Salmon (in form of fish loaf)...........5..-. 1, 286. 0 796. 4 320.0 SQUAT | eee 30.2 IEG BOs acanG Soo ae CREE Eee oeCOR OEE eeEeces 553. 0 417.5 13.8 0.6 115.6 5.5 Crackers ese ts ae ian aed weoaal nulla 325.0 22.4 26.3 43.6 230.1 2.6 IBIEURGes neee rise aie erate Sole tie Ae a ae 717.0 606. 6 2.9 3.6 101.8 P11 STUER VA 5 ea ein iar ee a Bay GOS OE fied aisle eae A aie saree TSA tae G00 occsesse Total food consumed.....-..-........ 2,941.0} 1,842.9 363. 0 187.2 507.5 40.4 VG YoY eS rad ood Be tes MR Pees ee 49::O}) (Gane ee ieee 16.4 6.2 19.1 7.3 PATIVOUINE LER ZO CaS Mies as RT DNR eae ee eS 346.6 181.0 488. 4 33.1 IPericentiutilize dieses S58 FO Oe cee eerie eS eles ereee erste wile 95.5 96. 7 96. 2 81.9 Experiment No. 564, subject C. J. W.: oy Salmon (in form of fish loaf). . Sal)» Jalan (0) 690. 5 277.4 205 9R ee eee 26. 2 POtALO SAE Hee CP eaten eee 431.0 325. 4 10.8 0.4 90.1 4.3 O@rackers ase see ke 3 ae 177.0 12.2 14.4 23.7 125.3 1.4 UG See os a se ek 842.0 712.3 3.4 4.2 119.6 PB SSA Tee eee Bea aS es Tae ee ee RA FOSS O" | Ses ReR Ree gs ORG Da aN eee HVS |lesossase i} —_-_ otal foodrconsumedss. sees 4. eee 2,670.0 | 1,740.4 306. 0 149.2 440.0 34.4 JAGR BAGa nn se CHB OO OERE COSC ReEEE re eeer eon c Os ilnacasaucoe 23.6 7.4 18.4 6.6 INSaaoye bay RADY AU LV ZG eee 8 Bae ea one 3 | eee a oon eoes aueee 282. 4 141.8 421.6 27.8 Per centutilized).. 4.40... 9c 0:=. fAMMMOBE| ee 2 eer 92.3} 95.0| 95.8] 80.8 Average food consumed per subject per day... [ 745.4 466. 2 98.0 49.6 121.0 10.6 Summary of digestion experiments with salmon in a simple mixed diet. Experiment No Subject Protein Fat Carbo- Ash Dp.4 9) 5 ject. n. 3 hydrates. . Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. BOS Ser ou aria mBernaper ss TD REGRESS NESE RR LE 91-9 96.9 96. 6 85. 8 BO 2 Wers ene Sieh a Hels Uva 8 ss 8 eee Ia COREE See CHB 88. 7 94.0 76.9 CB aa She CnC EN OB rma pa PARE aire Oe Ga Sane SES 28 ae 95.5 96.7 96. 2 81.9 2 SHE AOS aaa Oe eee Eee OS WON oe oacunenod taanao seaeeoeaas 92.3 95.0 95.8 80.8 PACAP Clee eee eocosoeussedas 92.9 94.3 95.7 81.4 - In the test periods in which canned salmon was included in the experimental ration, the subjects ate an average of 355 grams of salmon daily. The total diet eaten supplied 98 grams of protein, 50 grams of fat, and 121 grams of carbohydrates per day, and the coef- ficients of digestibility were found to be 92.9 per cent for protein, 94.3 per cent for fat, and 95.7 per cent for carbohydrates. The fuel value of the diet was 1,326 calories. When allowance is made for the undigested protein and fat residues occurring in the feces result- ing from the accessory foods of the diet, the digestibility for the protein and fat of salmon is found to be 93.2 per cent and 93.7 per cent, respectively, and indicates that salmon is very completely uti- lized by the human body. 14 BULLETIN 649, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUMMARY. In the study of the digestibility of the protein and fat supplied © by some common varieties, fish in the form of ‘fish loaf” was served — as the major part of a simple mixed diet, which also included pota- _ toes, crackers, fruit, sugar, and tea or coffee. The principal results — are summarized in the following table: Summary of results of all digestion experiments. = VERSES ete x. amount o: igestibility | p; Syeee Number of Kind of fish. fish eaten of fish (| Digest experiments. per man protein. : per day. | Grams. Per cent. Per cent Ble ee eee Mackerel. este sen nse ese ciel ria co a'nlsiaate | 44 Real 95.2 Go ae eas PST LORHSH sees eee = eee eee ae ooo | 471 91.9 4 Soha c=s- sce Cry TS, oo secs sonossoscescce sesso estee: | 440 92.8 94.3 ee | GINS 30. eet 4: = 5 ss set Oe 3 | 12 93.7 On an average, the subjects ate 448 grams of Boston mackerel, 471 grams of butterfish, 440 grams of grayfish, and 355 grams of salmon daily, which would indicate that in every case the fish was — eaten with relish. Considering the experiments as a whole, the total diet supplied on an average 99 grams of protein, 60 grams of fat, and 160 grams of carbohydrates daily, the fuel value being 1,576 calories. The low amount of fat and of carbohydrates was due to the fact that butter and similar fat were omitted and the foods other than fish loaf which supplied both protein and carbohydrates, were limited in order that both the fat and the protein in the diet might be contributed in as large proportion as possible by the fish. The average coefficients of digestibility for fish proteins were: Boston mackerel, 93.1 per cent; butterfish, 91.9 per cent; grayfish, 92.8 per cent; and salmon, 93.2 per cent. In view of the close agreement, it would seem, from a dietetic standpoint, that the differ- ent fishes studied would supply protein in equally available form. The average coefficients of digestibility of the fish fats were found to be as follows: Boston mackerel, 95.2 per cent; butterfish, 86.4 per cent; grayfish, 94.3 per cent; and salmon, 93.7 per cent. As these figures show, the fats were well assimilated in the case of the mack- erel, grayfish, and salmon, which, according to the usual custom, are to be regarded as “‘fat fishes.’’ Considering the experiments as a whole, the very complete utilization of the protein and fat supplied by the fishes studied offer additional experimental evidence that fish is a very valuable food and that its extensive use in the dietary is especially desirable. PUBLICATIONS OF U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO FOOD AND NUTRITION. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. Meats. Composition and Cooking. By Chas. D. Woods. Pp. 31, figs. 4. 1904. (Farmers’ Bulletin 34.) The Use of Milk as Food. By R.D. Milner. Pp.44. 1911. (Farmers’ Bulletin 363.) Care of Food in the Home. By Mrs. Mary Hinman Abel. Pp. 46, figs. 2. 1910. (Farmers’ Bulletin 375.) Economical Use of Meat in the Home. By C. F. Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt. Pp. 30. 1910. (Farmers’ Bulletin 391.) Cheese and Its Economical Uses in the Diet. By ©. F. Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt. Pp. 40. 1912. (Farmers’ Bulletin 487.) Mutton and Its Valuein the Diet. By C. F. Langworthy and Caroline L. Hunt. Pp. 32, figs. 2. 1913. (Farmers’ Bulletin 526.) The Detection of Phytosterol in Mixtures of Animal and Vegetable Fats. By R. H. Kerr. Pp. 4. 1913. (Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 212.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Studies on the Influence of Cooking upon the Nutritive Value of Meats at the Uni- versity of Illinois, 1903-1904. By H. S. Grindley, Sc. D., and A. D. Emmett, A.M. Pp. 230, tables 136. 1905. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 162.) - Price, 20 cents. Studies of the Effect of Different Methods of Cooking upon the Thoroughness and Ease of Digestion of Meats at the University of Illinois. H.S. Grindley, D. Sc., Timothy Mojonnier, M.S., and Horace C. Porter, Ph. D. Pp. 100, tables 38. 1907. (Office of Experiment Stations Bulletin 193.) Price, 15 cents. Digestibility of Some Animal Fats. By C.F. Langworthy and A.D. Holmes. Pp. 23. 1915. (Department Bulletin 310.) Price, 5 cents. Digestibility of Very Young Veal. By ©. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 577-588. 1916. (Journal of Agricultural Research, 6 (1916), No. 16.) Price, 5 cents. . Digestibility of Hard Palates of Cattle. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 641-648. 1916. (Journal of Agricultural Research, 6 (1916), No. 17.) Frice, 5 cents. Fats and Their Economical Use in the Home. By A. D. Holmes and H. L. Lang. Pp. 26. 1916. (Department Bulletin 469.) Price, 5 cents. Studies on the Digestibility of the Grain Sorghums. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 30. 1916. (Department Bulletin 470.) Price, 5 cents. Digestibility of Some Vegetable Fats. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 20. 1917. (Department Bulletin 505.) Price, 5 cents. Studies on the Digestibility of Some Animal Fats. By C. F. Langworthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 20. 1917. (Department Bulletin 507.) Price, 5 cents. Experiments in the Determination of the Digestibility of Millets. By C. F. Lang- worthy and A. D. Holmes. Pp. 11. 1917. (Department Bulletin 525.) Price, 5 cents. Digestibility of Dasheen. By C. F. Langworthy and A.D.Holmes. Pp. 12. 1917. (Department Bulletin 612.) Price, 5 cents. Studies on the Digestibility of Some Nut Oils. By A. D. Holmes. Pp.19. 1917. (Department Bulletin 630.) Price, 5 cents. O 15 a he ie. Se, “Ps Fétie Cae ae a le ae eee Te ras) | TOE ua ve WEES ch SR coe ; = ae Wn esimeas €o ny ; ex . : 3 e wipes bic seenk. io offs Fe: arin Se ee yin ont ae tiki Aan a te Dts: 2 eae ae 1? ae Paeyera PSorsrictint ancaase Ketan eel Be (seth Beard: 5 ae A SR S| et eee consol art, Aca ty wey te eho! sit Biers ria S pease Ay Lh Biabeeitt Cit rint) Bae an Be f i Mig 34 vey : es ‘ a v9 Hi ‘2 mK bi ve ita! cane: Bales hikes a OS eh 7 2. Pah | + pay ree case VED wey: Tt 2 ae ote : a ae fii, \ - oe ey “ey bear ete. ad eadmiosn tea Piss Pe eas Bs apt He Pay ele che Sf 7 oA Be la awe) 4 Ripa is Se We tread a tele 2d iia hi Shiet* ar ek hy Liskin) iy Ah: NSW ar ai - iH agar, a } y is a DB Ac) Tit \OS ABANT + Srna if cx? ¢ # seek ROOT SAAT ARNT bk’ ‘ peta te. BS Ef iis Sues T Pi eve: OS ae = ~ “y} 6 ‘ An +t b G » ts P . 5 5 ete eprint fe oar ots , "#8 x ve 5) Wier ?.0)' at Sapaotie.tt i. git ad F Bits rr rar wy im te tae a 3 ‘ e 7u ms i i ew) 13 ‘ 4 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 650 Office of the Secretary Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv February 26, 1918 LEASE CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. [A study of the distribution of investments, expenses, and income between landlord and tenant. |] By HE. V. Witcox, Agriculturist. CONTENTS. Page Page. Different SyStOMS ae. nes se oes soc sk So eticies «Se US REStTICHLONS esac eee: oa cios soa eee ee 22 Length of lease period ...................--.- 3 | Supervision by the landlord................. 22 Methods of sharing crops and stock products.. 4els Good shushbandrycs2es- eas. eee ene nele ce ne 22 Methods of sharing pasture.................. 15s PAC WancesiOmenaniecsen ase ener aaa eee ee 23 Contracts for clearing land................... 15 | General systems of share leasing............. 23 Ownership of equipment.......2..........-- 15 | Sample stock-share lease...................-- 24 Methods of sharing expenses................- 17 | Assumptions underlying lease contracts.....- 28 Unexhausted value of fertilizers. ............. 20 | Suggestions toward a rational lease contract. . 33 Repairs and improvements ..........-- A} ist Die) SLAG IS OMG MeRLeNaMba- tsetse eee eee ceacteeret= 36 Privileges and perquisites.............-.-.--- 21 DIFFERENT SYSTEMS. About 37 per cent of the farms in the United States are operated by tenants under lease. Acute interest is being manifested by both landowners and tenants in the general features and special stipula- tions of lease contracts. Numerous inquiries are being made as to proper methods of sharing equipment, labor, and other expenses in- volved in farm operations, and as to the proper fractions to use in dividing proceeds. Practically all these questions are of an agricul- tural rather than a legal nature. It is a matter of much importance, therefore, to study lease contracts from a pure farm management standpoint. The wording of a lease is a comparatively simple prob- lem after the conditions essential to fairness have been agreed upon. Several methods of leasing are in use, as shown by an examination of leases in force. Farms may be rented for cash, either a stipulated 28624°—18—Bull. 650-1 1 2 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. = sum for the whole farm or a certain cash rent per acre. Cash rent varies according to local conditions from $2 to $30 per acre, being commonly $4 to $10 per acre in the north central States. Under the cash renting system the landlord furnishes simply the real estate while the tenant furnishes all working capital, bears all operating ex- penses, and receives all proceeds. A modified form of this system consists in paying a specified number of bushels of grain or bales of cotton, etc., in lieu of cash. A great many methods of share leasing are to be noted. Under this system much variation exists in the methods of sharing equip- ment and expenses, the proceeds being divided accordingly half- and- half, one-third and two-thirds, one-fourth and three-fourths, two- fifths and three-fifths, two-sevenths and five-sevenths, or by some other fraction. For example, “share croppers” on cotton farms fur- nish nothing but labor and receive one-half of the cotton. “Share renters” furnish labor, tools, and mules and receive two-thirds of the cotton on very fertile land or three-fourths on poorer land. On some share-rented general farms the tenant may supply all live stock and receive a share of the crops and all animal products, or pro- ductive stock may be jointly owned and the products shared. In many cases the chief crop areas of the farm are rented on shares, while the tenant pays cash for the farmstead, pasture, hay land, corn land, or some other specified area. This method of leas- ing is commonly called the share-cash system. Lease forms.—Printed lease forms seem to be of little avail except on large estates where the whole system has been thoroughly worked out by the manager, and where a uniform set of conditions is pre- scribed for all tenants on the estate. For the most part, however, printed lease forms contain only generalities. Usually it is neces- sary for landlord and tenant to agree by consultation on the features of the contract and then write a lease embodying these stipulations. Very often no written contract is made, the agreement being merely verbal. A written lease is more satisfactory, however, especially in the event of some subsequent disagreement or misunderstanding. Basis of discussion—The following discussion of the various fea- tures of leases is based partly on a study of lease contracts in actual vperation and partly on surveys of tenant farms throughout the country. These leases and survey records not only show the great variation in lease contracts under different conditions, but also indi- eate a basis for a rational lease form providing a reasonably just and fair sharing of equipment, expenses, and proceeds. The number of lease contracts examined was 258, every State being represented. The number of tenant farm survey records studied with regard to ce id | CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. 3 the essential features of the lease agreement was 2,907, including records from 414 dairy farms, 320 stock farms, 298 general farms in the corn belt, 1,113 cotton farms, 453 wheat farms, 176 potato farms, 100 sugar-beet farms, and 33 bean farms. The lease contract often contains minor specific agreements between landowner and tenant not definitely indicated in a farm survey record. All available farm leases, therefore, have been examined with reference to those points. LENGTH OF LEASE PERIOD. In a majority of cases the lease runs for only one year, usually with privilege of renewal upon one or two months’ notice. Often the lease provides more positively that the contract is understood to be continuous from year to year unless due notice of intent to dis- continue is served by either party. The lease year may coincide with the calendar year, or, more commonly, with the crop year (March 1 to March 1). Contrary to natural expectation and popular belief, annual lease contracts may not mean more frequent moving of the tenant than do long-term contracts. In fact, investigations on Wisconsin and Illi- nois dairy farms show that tenants remain longer on the same farm under an annual renewable lease than under lease contracts of two, three, or five years’ duration. On Kansas grain farms tenants often have remained 15 to 20 years on the same farm under an annual lease. Moreover, in some sections tenants have operated the same farm 25 to 50 years under annual leases, in the meantime buying farms which they in turn have leased to others. In fact, there are leaseholds which have descended from father to son, the present tenants having been born on farms then operated by their fathers, thus continuing tenant occupancy under annual lease without change into the second generation. Formerly farms might be leased in New York for as long as 99 years, but in 1846 the New York Legislature passed a law prohibiting leasing under longer contracts than 12 years. The purpose of this law was to check the establishment of a tenant class. England is often incorrectly cited as a country where tenancy problems have been solved by the adoption of a system of long-term leases. As a matter of fact, the vast majority of leases in England are for one year only, and are renewable. The same tendency is seen in the United States. Most lease contracts with negro tenants on cotton farms, Polish tenants on onion farms, Italian tenants on strawberry farms, Portu- guese tenants on bean farms, and Japanese and Chinese tenants on potato farms are verbal, annual, and renewable. In general, the 4 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUBE. duration and permanency of tenant tenure seem not to be correlated with either a written or a verbal form of lease.* Many tenants and some landowners prefer long-term leases, run- ning 5 to 10 years. Replies to a questionnaire recently addressed to tenants on Kansas wheat farms show that in almost every case the tenant would prefer a contract longer than one year. In a survey of 143 tenant dairy farms in Wisconsin and Illinois 76 per cent of the leases in Wisconsin and 66 per cent of those in Illinois were for one year, while 14 per cent of those in Illinois were for five years. In the case of certain special conditions a long-term lease is re- quired for the successful fulfillment of the contract. When live stock is leased it is customary to make a contract for 5 to 10 years. Con- tracts with a tenant for clearing land commonly give the tenant 5 or 6 years to bring the land into condition and receive adequate returns for the labor of clearing. On an Indiana farm rented for growing nursery stock the lease ran 8 years to enable all nursery stock to mature and to allow time for selling the matured stock to compensate for the extra preparatory expense of the first 2 years. Moreover, in various States an occasional farm devoted to general farming is leased for 10 years or more, rarely under a 15-year contract. METHODS OF SHARING CROPS AND STOCK PRODUCTS. FIELD CROPS. Corn.—On general farms in the corn belt when the tenant fur- nishes working capital and hired labor the landowner commonly receives one-half of the corn as well as of other crops. This is the prevailing custom in Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Missouri, Nebraska, North Dakota, South Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Mary- land, Tennessee, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Considerable variation in the share of corn, however, is to be noted in these States. Sometimes the landlord receives only two-fifths, one-third, or even one-fourth of the corn. On certain New Jersey 1The legal requirements governing the execution and recording of leases are usually prescribed by statute. It might be stated as a general rule of law that “All that is necessary to the execution of a lease is that it should be signed and delivered. It is not necessary that it should be witnessed or acknowledged except for the purpose of en- titling it to record.” (L. A. Jones, A Treatise on the Law of Landlord and Tenant.) This general rule is modified, however, in one or more particulars by the statutory law of many of the States. For example, most States require that leases for three years or longer be executed with the usual formality of a deed, while in one State at least no lease of land, except it be by deed, is effectual for more than one year. (Re- vised Code of Delaware, 1915.) ‘In practically every jurisdiction, by statutory enact- ment, every lease of land, or interest therein, for a period in excess of that designated by statute, must be recorded in the county where the land is situated, and a failure to so record will render the lease yoid as to subsequent encumbrancers and purchasers without notice, and for a valuable consideration, who first duly record their convey- ances.” (Encyclopedia of Law and Procedure.) ee Pen een en Se , CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. 5 farms where the landowner pays all expenses, including hired labor, he receives two-thirds of the corn. The same fraction for division of the corn is used on Ohio farms where the tenant receives a small guaranteed wage in addition to one-third of the corn. Occasionally in Virginia the tenant supplies three-fourths of the fertilizer on corn land and receives three-fourths of the corn. Share croppers on cotton farms, who furnish nothing but labor, commonly receive one- half of the corn or pay cash rent for corn land, while share renters, who furnish the working capital and the labor, usually get two- thirds of the corn. In cases on Colorado farms where the tenant supplies tools and horses and pays all expenses the landowner re- ceives one-third of the corn. On general farms in Delaware the landowner usually gets one-half of all crops, including corn. Wheat and other grain and seed crops—The examination of 453 survey records’ on tenant wheat farms in Kansas, Nebraska, Min- nesota, North Dakota, and Montana shows that on 267 of these farms the landowner receives one-third, on 106 farms one-half, and on 80 farms two-fifths of the wheat. On these farms the tenant supplied working capital and hired labor. Occasionally other fractions, such as two-sevenths or five-twelfiths are used in dividing the wheat in the wheat States of the upper Mississippi valley. Through the corn belt the tenant usually pays one-half of the wheat and other grains -_ on share-rented farms. Very generally where several cereal grains are raised on the same farm all of these grains are divided between landlord and tenant by the same fraction, the lease prescribing that the landowner shall receive either one-half or one-third of all grain. The landowner’s share of small cereal grains, as is the case with many other crops, is smaller in western States than in the corn belt. Frequently the landowner receives only one-third of the wheat and other grain, especially when the tenant pays thrashing expenses, as compared with one-half of the corn. Rye is commonly divided half and half. In the cotton belt share croppers usually receive one-half of the oats and share renters two-thirds. In Colorado the landowner commonly receives one-third of the oats and less often one-half, while in the corn belt and various other States the landowner usually receives one-half of the oats or more rarely one-third or two-fifths. On some New Jersey farms the landlord may pay all expenses and receive two-thirds of the oats and wheat, his share otherwise being one-half. On rice farms in Texas when the tenant supplies tools and mules and the landlord furnishes all seed and water, the landlord com- monly receives either two-fifths or one-half of the rice, depending upon the location and fertility of the farm. 1 Records furnished for examination by courtesy of Office of Extension Work in the _ North and West, States Relations Service. 6 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Millet is seldom a crop of sufficient importance on tenant farms to be mentioned in a lease contract. On a half share rented farm in Texas the landowner receives one-half of the millet. The division of clover and alfalfa seed on tenant farms is rarely specified in lease contracts, and few records are therefore available in reference to this point. In Indiana the landowner commonly re-. ceives two-fifths of the clover seed produced on the farm. In Colo- rado the landowner may receive one-half of the alfalfa seed produced on the farm as compared with one-third of the corn and potatoes grown on the same farm. Sunflowers are rarely an important enterprise on tenant farms. On one Kentucky farm where this crop is grown on a considerable scale the expense and equipment are shared equally and the land- lord receives one-half of the sunflower seed, as well as one-half of | the corn and alfalfa. In this case the work stock is fed from un- divided feed. . Hay and fodder.—Almost universally on share rented farms, when the tenant furnishes working capital and hired labor, hay is divided nalf-and-half if sold at all. Otherwise the hay produced on the farm is used in feeding partnership stock, but if the landowner owns no stock the tenant may pay cash rent for hay land. On dairy farms and stock farms throughout the country it is fre- quently prescribed in the lease contract that hay and fodder shall not be sold except with the permission of the landlord, but shall be fed to the stock on the farm. On grain farms the tenant often pays a cash rent for hay land and has all the product to sell or to feed to his own stock. In general, when the hay is shared_ half-and-half the tenant is required to pay one-half of all expenses and to supply the necessary tools and work stock. In a few cases, however, the tenant receives three-fourths of the hay. In Alabama and elsewhere in the cotton belt share croppers on cotton farms commonly receive one-half of the corn fodder, sorghum, and other fodder produced on the farm. In Colorado when the tenant furnishes tools, horses, feed, labor, and thrashing expense, he usually receives one-half of the alfalfa and less often one-third. The baling expenses are usually shared proportionately to the share of the crop received by the tenant and. landlord. On such farms the water assessment is commonly paid by the landlord, less often by the tenant, or sometimes is shared equally. In Kentucky, with all working capital and expense shared equally, the tenant’s share of the alfalfa is one-half, while he may receive one-third of the timothy or less often three-fifths. Wide variation occurs on Nebraska farms with reference to the frac- tional sharing of hay, the tenant receiving one-half or three-fifths or even two-thirds as his share. “ = BIS : CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. 7 It is frequently stipulated in the lease that straw shall not be burned or removed from the farm. Im some cases, however, it is specified that the land owner shall receive one-half or three-fourths of the straw. In the few instances in which the division of sweet clover is men- tioned in the lease contract this crop is divided for the most part half-and-half. Cotton.—As already indicated, cotton is commonly raised on tenant farms under one or the other of two systems known as share cropping and share renting, cash renting being a less common method. Under the share cropping system the cotton crop is divided half and half. Some variations are noted in the customs which prevail in different States in regard to the share croppers. In Alabama the landlord commonly furnishes all machinery and work stock and one-half of the fertilizer; less frequently he furnishes all of the work stock and fertilizer, while the tenant furnishes all machinery and feed. The landlord commonly provides all seed and pays for one-half of the ginning. In Georgia the landlord usually provides all working capital and pays all expenses except for ginning and fertilizer, which are shared equally. The same arrangement prevails in Louisiana, but the tenant may also get one-half of the corn or pay cash rent for corn land, as is frequently the case in other cotton States. In Mississippi the tenant ordinarily supplies all labor and one-half the fertilizer, while the landlord provides cabin, garden, tools, mules, feed, seed, and fuel. The tenant may also pay cash rent for all land not planted in cotton. Occasionally in North Carolina the landlord furnishes all of the fertilizer. The landlord may furnish one-half or all of the fertilizer and one-half of the seed. Similar arrange- ments are customary in South Carolina, Oklahoma, Arkansas, and Texas. Share croppers are essentially laborers under a system which gives them a personal interest in securing good yields. Under the method of share renting the tenant commonly furnishes mules, feed, tools, seed, and labor, while the landlord supplies land, cabin, garden, and fuel. For the most part the expenses for fer- tilizer, ginning, and bagging are paid by each party in proportion to his share of the crop. The landlord receives one-fourth or one- third of the cotton, according to local conditions and fertility of the soil. The understood conditions for share renting are practically the same in all of the cotton States. A law was passed in Texas prescribing that the landlord shall not receive more than one-third of the grain and one-fourth of the cotton for land leased under these conditions. Under the cash renting system the tenant pays all expenses and the rent is paid in a specified number of bales of cotton. In Alabama 8 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the tenant pays 13 to 24 bales of cotton per mule, but in Alabama and other cotton States the rent may be 2 to 3 bales per mule on more fertile land. Comparatively few tenants on cotton farms pay a fixed amount of money rent. Potatoes—Records on 176 New Jersey tenant farms on which potatoes are an important crop indicate that the potatoes were shared half-and-half on 157 farms on which the tenant furnished work stock, machinery, and hired labor, and by some other fraction on 19 farms. In New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and throughout the corn belt potatoes are commonly shared half-and-half. In the wheat States the landowner more commonly receives one-third of the pota- toes. In the Greeley potato district of Colorado the common practice is for the landlord to receive one-third of the potatoes. In Delaware, when the landlord furnishes tools, machinery, work stock, and one-- half of the potato seed, other expenses being shared equally, the crop is divided half-and-half. In a few instances in Indiana the landlord accepts as his share one-half of the potatoes in the field before dig- ging, or one-third “in the bushel” (dug and measured), at the option of the tenant. Frequently, however, the potato crop is shared half-and-half “‘in the bushel.” A common custom in North Dakota and elsewhere is for the landlord to furnish one-half of the seed potatoes, receiving one-half of the crop. Sugar beets—In Michigan, sugar beets are grown extensively by farmers who receive instructions from field superintendents em. ployed by the sugar companies. The required contract labor is com- monly secured through the factory manager and is paid for by ths farmer. The farmers who grow sugar beets under these conditions do the work of blocking, thinning, hoeing, and topping. According to records obtained on 100 tenant farms in Colorado on which sugar beets are grown, the tenant invariably supplies all tools, feed, work stock, and labor, while the landlord pays the water assessments and land tax. Under this system the landlord receives one-fourth of tha sugar beets. In a few instances, however, the landowner supplies tools, feed, supplies, horse labor, and twine, while the tenant pro- vides all hand labor. Under this arrangement the landowner re- ceives two-thirds of the sugar beets and all of the beét tops. Occa- sionally the landowner receives only one-fifth or one-sixth of the sugar beets. The prevailing fraction is one-fourth, and the present tendency is toward an even larger share. Moreover, in a few in- stances the tenant pays one-half of the water assessment. In prac- tically all cases the tenant hauls the crop to market. Leases on sugar-beet farms are for the most part written and of one-year duration. Tobacco.——The number of leases on tobacco farms available for study is not sufficient to determine with any certainty the most com- CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. 9 ; 2 : ah : mon method of sharing this crop, but a considerable variation is noted in the conditions mentioned in leases, particularly in Ken- tucky, Ohio,’ Tennessee, and Virginia. On a number of Kentucky farms where the tenant furnishes all tools, work stock, and general seed, he receives two-thirds of the tobacco. Under this arrangement the expenses for fertilizer and fuel are usually shared proportion- ally to the division of the crop. In some instances, however, the land- lord may bear one-half of the cost of baling the tobacco and receive one-half of the crop. On general farms in Ohio where tobacco is an important enterprise the tenant may furnish tools and work horses and receive four-sevenths of the tobacco, or the landowner may sup- ply one-half of the seed and receive two-fifths of the tobacco. On cer- tain Tennessee tobacco farms where the landlord provides all tools, mules, feed, and one-half of the fertilizer and spraying material, the tobacco is divided half-and-half. The same condition prevails in Virginia. When, on the other hand, the tenant supplies all tools, mules, feed, and seed, and pays for three-fourths of the fertilizer, he receives also three-fourths of the tobacco. Flax—F lax is frequently an important crop on tenant farms in North Dakota. On such farms the tenant commonly supplies the norses and tools, while the landowner provides all seed. Other ex- penses, including plowing, are commonly shared equally. Under these conditions the landlord receives one-half of the flax. Hops—tIn farm leases in New York in which the division of hops is mentioned, the tenant is usually required to furnish the tools and horses, while the landlord supplies all poles required for the growth of the crop. Other expenses, including sulphur, and labor for pick- ing the hops, are shared equally and the crop is divided half-and- half. ORCHARD FRUITS. Fruit in general—On farms on which fruit is not an important enterprise the lease contract often specifies a certain division of the fruit as a whole without mention of the kind of fruit. In some cases the landlord pays a horticulturist to teach the tenant how to prune and spray. The cost of spraying materials is usually shared in pro- portion to the division of the crop. Almost universally, under these ‘conditions, the fruit is divided equally. Nursery stock.—An Indiana farm was leased under a partnership arrangement for growing all kinds of nursery stock, including apple, peach, plum, pear, cherry, raspberry, blackberry, shrubbery, etc. The period of the lease was eight years. Under this arrangement the landlord received one-half of the wholesale price of all nursery 1JIn a group of 28 Ohio farms the landlord’s share of the tobacco is two-fifths on 16 and one-half on 12 farms. 28624°—18—Bull. 650-2 10 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stock. and if any retail sales were made the tenant received the dif- ference between the retail price and one-half of the wholesale price, as recompense for his extra labor in making small sales. Under this contract the landlord also received one-half of the fruit. The tenant supplied all equipment and paid all expenses, including marketing. At the expiration of the lease the remaining nursery stock was di- vided half-and-half. Apples.—The apple crop is usually shared half-and-half between tenant and landlord. This is the prevailing custom in New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, Indiana, Iowa, Nebraska, Colorado, and elsewhere. On New York farms when the tenant provides only the labor, the landlord receives two-thirds of the apples, while when all expenses, including apple storage and hired labor, are shared equally the crop is divided half-and-half. In Pennsylvania the landlord fre- a 3 * Paha ebs ee ed quently pays two-thirds of the fertilizer bill for orchard crops on farms where the apples are shared half-and-half. Peaches, pears, plums, and cherries—The method of dividing these crops is mentioned so rarely in lease contracts that no reliable conclu- sion as to the usual practice can be drawn. From the small available number of lease records, however, it appears that on farms where all expenses are shared equally the crop of peaches, plums, and pears, is divided half-and-half. On New York farms, where the tenant sometimes supplies nothing but labor, the landlord may receive two- fifths of the cherries and two-thirds of the apples and peaches. On Indiana farms, when the tenant supplies horses and tools, and the cost of hired labor, marketing, and spraying is shared equally, the landlord receives one-half of the peaches. When the tenant furnishes only the labor on New York farms the landlord may receive two- thirds of the peaches, and when the tenant provides two-thirds of the barrels and all labor, while the landlord provides all fertilizer, spraying material, and horses, the landlord’s share is one-third of the peaches and pears. TRUCK CROPS AND BERRIES. Onions.—On tenant farms in New Jersey devoted to truck raising, the landowner usually pays the taxes and fertilizer bills, while other expenses except labor are shared equally. The tenant supplies tools, machinery, and horses. On such farms the landowner receives one- half of the onions, but when the tenant supplies only labor the land- owner’s share is two-thirds. On rented onion farms in Massachusetts the tenant usually pro- vides hand tools, hand labor, and seed, while the landowner fur- nishes all horse labor and fertilizer and pays the taxes. The cost of bags is for the most part shared equally, but in some cases is paid by CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. PR the purchasers. Under these conditions the landowner receives one- half of the onions. On rented onion farms in New York the tenant furnishes one-half the tools, fertilizer, and seed, and all hand labor, while the land- owner supplies all horse labor and crates, and receives one-half of ‘the onions. Cabbage.—On New York cabbage farms where the tenant pro- vides the tools, horses, and all labor, while other expenses are shared equally, the crop is divided half-and-half. On rented farms in Colo- rado where cabbage is ‘4n important enterprise, the tenant may fur- nish all tools, feed, supplies, and horse iabor, and receive one-half the crop, or the landowner may furnish all tools, feed, supplies, and horse labor, while the tenant provides all hand labor and 45 per cent of the seed. Under the latter condition the tenant’s share of the crop is 45 per cent. Celery—Certain small tenant farms in California are devoted almost exclusively to the production of celery. On such farms the landlord furnishes the tools, work stock, and feed, while the tenant provides all hand labor, including the labor of spraying. Under these conditions the landlord’s share of the crop is two-thirds. The tenant on these farms, as is also the case on onion farms in Massa- chusetts, is really a laborer paid with a portion of the crop instead of a cash wage. Such leases are almost always verbal and run for only one year, but are renewable. Cucumbers.—Few records are available showing the method of sharing this crop. Cucumbers are grown on a commercial scale under a system of tenancy on several farms in Colorado. The land- owner commonly provides all tools, feed, supplies, horse labor, and seed, while the tenant furnishes all hand labor, and receives 70 per cent of the crop. Tomatoes——On certain tenant farms in Delaware where all ex- penses are shared equally except labor, which is furnished by the tenant, the landlord receives two-fifths of the tomatoes and one- half of the grain, but sometimes his share of the tomatoes is only one-fourth. In Maryland in cases where the tenant supplies tools, horses, and all labor, and where all other expenses, including seed, baskets, and crates, are shared equally, the landlord receives one- half the tomatoes. The common custom in New Jersey is for the landlord and tenant to furnish hampers and spraying material jointly, while the landlord pays the taxes and fertilizer bills and receives one-half the tomatoes. Occasionally the tenant furnishes only the labor, in which case the landlord’s share of. the tomatoes is two-thirds. Canteloupes——A few of the tenant farms in Maryland produce canteloupes on a large scale. On these farms the tenant supplies 1. BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the tools, mules, and labor, while other expenses are shared equally and the crop is divided half-and-half. Peas and beans —On 26 out of 33 tenant farms in Colorado on which beans are an important crop the landowner receives one- third of the beans as his share. Peas raised for canning purposes in Maryland are shared half-and-half when the tenant furnishes tools, work horses, and labor, other expenses being shared equally. In New York when the tenant supplies tools and horses, and all expenses are shared equally, the landlord receives one-half of the beans. In a few instances when dry navy beans are marketed the landlord receives one-half of the product, although he bears only 45 per cent of the expenses. Berries and grapes-—\n Maryland when the tenant furnishes tools and horses and the landlord pays all fertilizer bills the straw- berries are divided half-and-half, under a lease stipulating that other expenses, including crates and picking labor, are to be shared equally. On strawberry farms in Louisiana when all expenses, in- cluding picking labor, are shared equally the crop is divided half- and-half. The tenant is required to take plants from old straw- berry beds for replanting. On berry farms in Kansas when the tenant furnishes tools and horses and the landowner all seed and plants, the rent paid by the tenant is one-half of the strawberries, raspberries, and grapes. On such farms the tenant is required to renovate old berry patches by plowing them up and planting them in cowpeas for one season. LIVE STOCK AND STOCK PRODUCTS. Cows.—In Arizona a system has grown up whereby cows are rented to farmers. Similar arrangements are noted occasionally elsewhere. A creamery owner may furnish cows to farmers for a portion of the cream returns each month or for a cash payment of 50 cents to $1.50 per month. Under this system the owner of the cows also receives one-half of the increase in calves. Occasionally other owners of cows may rent them to farmers for one-half the increase, the calves to be divided when six months old and the farmer to have all of the milk. | Breeding dairy cattle—In Wisconsin a business man may buy a herd of dairy cattle, including bull, cows, and heifers, and may then make a long-term contract, usually for five years, with a farm owner who is to take care of the herd on his farm. The farmer furnishes feed, care, stable room, veterinary fees, and all general running expenses. The owner of the herd pays insurance and taxes on the stock. Under this system bull calves are sold as is found convenient and the proceeds are divided half and half. The returns from the CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARKS. 13 sale of heifer calves previously to final settlement go two-thirds to the owner and one-third to the farmer. At the termination of the contract enough stock is sold to repay the owner for his original investment, while the remainder goes two-thirds to the owner and one-third to the farmer. In cases of this sort the farmer receives all of the milk. According to another scheme somewhat in vogue in Wisconsin, the farmer stables, pastures, feeds, and cares for the cattle furnished by the breeder, and receives 50 cents a head per month from May to October, inclusive, and $2 per head per month from November to April, inclusive. The farmer also receives $1 per month per head for testing the cows to determine the milk yield and percentage of fat. The farmer and the cattle breeder share equally in the invest- ment and in all expenses except feed and labor, which are furnished by the farmer. Moreover, the cattle breeder pays for stenographer, and other expenses connected with correspondence. Both share equally in the sales, but the farmer receives all of the milk. These systems of handling cows and breeding stock are, of course, not comparable with any general system of leasing land for the pur- pose of stock production, since the farm owner is virtually a tenant in relation to the cattle breeder or owner of the live stock. The few cases in which the conditions of the contract arrangement are known are merely considered interesting as showing the methods which have been adopted for handling such problems. Milk and cream.—On dairy farms in all States where expenses are shared equally the landowner receives one-half the milk, whether it is sold as market milk or to a condenser, butter factory, or cheese factory, or one-half of the cream. The landlord may furnish one- half the cows and sometimes one-half the tools and work horses. In some States the landlord furnishes all of the cows, but the tenant must bear half of the expense of cows purchased to keep up the herd and replace cows that die. Sometimes, as in Sussex County, N. J., the tenant furnishes only labor and one-third of the feed and fertil- izer, receiving one-third of the milk proceeds. A similar arrange- | ment is found in Delaware. Beef cattle——In several States where the production of beef cattle has become a large industry, as in Iowa, for example, the tenant may furnish tools and work horses, haul the milk and pay the road taxes, while the landlord pays other real estate taxes and furnishes one- half the cows, beef cattle, and hogs. In cases of this sort the cost of feed and seed is shared equally and the proceeds from the cattle which are sold are divided half and half. A breeder of Angus cattle in Illinois rented herds of these cattle to a number of farmers for 10 years. The bull calves were sold as 14 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. opportunities arose, the proceeds being divided equally, while all female animals were retained until the end of the lease period and then divided equally. In another instance of renting Angus cattle to farmers for a five-year period the plan involved an equal division of all cattle at the end of the lease period. The farmer who took care of the cattle purchased a half interest in the herd. The division of the increase varied from year to year. Of the first generation of calves three-fourths went to the farmer, and of the second generation seven-eighths. The reason for this variation in the fractional divi- i sion was found in the high cost of feed, which was supplied by the — farmer. Colts——Very commonly when work horses belonging to the tenant are allowed free pasture and are fed from undivided feed, the land- lord pays stallion service fees and receives one-half of the colts. Hogs.—On hog farms, as in Iowa and Oklahoma for example, the tenant may supply all the labor, tools, and horses, and one-half the hogs, the cost for feed being shared equally. Under these conditions the proceeds from the hogs are divided half and half. Occasionally a farmer rents sows with pig from a hog owner and cares for them until the pigs are weaned. The pigs are then divided equally and the hog owner receives a number of sows equal to that originally furnished. If the pigs are fattened the owner of the stock must furnish one-half the feed. Sheep—On Indiana farms when the tenant supplies the tools, horses, and labor, and pays all the expenses, and the landlord fur- nishes all the sheep, the lambs and wool are divided in equal shares. At the termination of the lease, usually made for a five-year period, the tenant must return to the landlord the number of sheep furnished by him at the start. In other instances the landlord furnishes one- half the sheep and receives as his share of the proceeds one-half the wool. In Maryland, on general farms rented for one-half share, the tenant may supply the tools and work stock and one-half the fer- tilizer, seed, and productive stock, receiving one-half the proceeds from sheep. Angora goats.—In a few instances goat breeders have rented goats to farm owners for one-half the mohair and kids. In such: cases the farmer bears all expenses. Poultry and eggs-—On most rented farms the tenant owns all the poultry, being allowed to keep 50 to 100 hens and occasionally a few ducks, geese, turkeys, and guinea fowl. Quite often, however, the tenant is prohibited from keeping any poultry except hens. In such cases the returns from the poultry belong entirely to the tenant, but occasionally the landlord may specify for himself the privilege of receiving eggs and fowls for table use. Where poultry constitutes CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. 15 a more important enterprise in the operation of the farm the fowls may be owned jointly. In such cases as, for instance, in Delaware, on one-half share rented farms, the landlord receives one-half the eggs and increase. In a few instances on dairy farms, particularly in Indiana, the landowner receives two-thirds the eggs. METHODS OF SHARING PASTURE. In the corn belt the common practice on high-priced land is to require the tenant to pay a cash rent for pasture on crop farms, while in regions where land prices are low the tenant may receive the use of the pasture free as a perquisite. The cash rent for farm pasture ranges from $1 to $10 per acre, being usually $4 to $6 per acre. Such pasture land is commonly in a system of rotation, and it is considered as potentially crop land. The rent per acre, therefore, is fixed at about the same price as would be charged under a cash system for the crop area of the farm. On general farms in Colorado, rented on shares with expenses shared equally, the tenant may receive one-half the proceeds from the use of pasture. These proceeds commonly come from fees for pasturing outside horses or other stock. In general, when the tenant - has the free use of pasture for his work stock and a few cows and - hogs, he is required to share equally with the landowner the colt and calf proceeds. CONTRACTS FOR CLEARING LAND. In some leases special stipulations are made regarding compensa- tion of the tenant for clearing land. On an Indiana farm under a six-year lease the landlord furnished tile, while the tenant cleared the brush, fitted the land for cultivation and put in the tile drains, re- ceiving as compensation all products produced on the land for the six-year period. Sometimes the tenant clears a few acres of land adjoining the other cultivated fields, receiving wages and all the crops for one year in return for his labor. OWNERSHIP OF EQUIPMENT. Share croppers on cotton farms usually provide none of the equip- ment, the tools, mules, and feed being furnished by the landlord, and other expenses except labor being shared equally, and receive one-half the cotton. Share renters on cotton farms usually furnish tools, mules, and feed, and receive two-thirds or three-fourths of the cotton. The landlord furnishes all equipment and horse labor on celery farms, as in the arrangement in vogue under the share-cropping 16‘ BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. system for tenants, and receives two-thirds of the celery. The ten- ant under this system supplies all hand labor. On general farms throughout the country where several extensive crops are produced, the tenant is commonly expected to provide tools a and work stock. Occasionally the landlord may furnish certain © pieces of machinery and sometimes a part of the horses; or rarely the landlord supplies all equipment as an offset to certain other con- siderations. On such farms the landlord’s share is one-half, one- third, two-fifths, or some other fraction of all crops, according to local conditions. On some tenant farms in Ohio the landlord sup- plies all equipment and receives two-thirds of all crops. On a few Virginia farms where the tenant furnishes all equipment he receives three-fourths of the crops; usually, however, in that State under these conditions the tenant’s share is two-thirds. On stock farms it is customary for the landlord and tenant to hold an equal interest in all productive stock. They either purchase the stock in partnership or one owns the stock before the contract is en- tered into and the other buys a half interest, or the landlord may provide all the stock, sharing the increase and proceeds equally. In such cases the landlord receives at the expiration of the lease his original number of stock. Occasionally the landlord may own all productive stock, pay the tenant wages for caring for the stock, and take all stock proceeds. The tenant thereby obviously becomes a mere hired laborer. In a few instances the landowner supplies all of the poultry and receives as his share one-half the eggs and in- crease. On dairy farms custom varies with regard to the ownership of the cows, pigs, and poultry. In Wisconsin the cows and chickens are commonly owned half and half. Sometimes the landlord owns all the cows and chickens. More frequently the tenant owns all of the chickens. In Illinois the landlord usually owns all cows, the tenant bearing one-half of the cost of cows to replace those that die, while less often the cows are owned in partnership. The tenant most fre- quently supplies all of the chickens, but they may be owned jointly. In Vermont the landlord usually owns all of the cows and the tenant one-half of the other productive stock. In Delaware the landlord usually owns all of the cows or, less frequently, one-half of them. In New Jersey the tenant commonly owns one-half of the cows and hogs and all of the poultry, receiving all of the returns from the poultry, while other proceeds are divided equally. Occasionally, in Sussex County, N. J., and in Delaware, the tenant may furnish only the labor, while the landlord owns all the cows and pays two-thirds of the cost of feed and fertilizer, receiving as his share two-thirds of the dairy products. In Pennsylvania the landlord commonly owns CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. 17 one-half of the cows and other productive stock. A similar custom prevails in Maryland, Michigan, Indiana, Iowa, Minnesota, and Washington. METHODS OF SHARING EXPENSES. A wide variation is seen in different localities in the methods of sharing operating expenses. Frequently individual items of expense are not strictly shared, but are assigned, some to the landlord and. some to the tenant, in an attempt to equalize the burden of expense. An increasing tendency, however, is seen toward specifying in the lease the fractions of different items of expense to be borne by the landlord and tenant. Recently the custom seems to be gaining ground of sharing all expenses equally. FERTILIZERS. Share croppers on cotton farms usually provide one-half of the fertilizer, or in some cases the landlord supplies all fertilizer. Share renters, on the other hand, furnish three-fourths or two-thirds of the fertilizer, according as their share of the cotton is three-fourths or two-thirds. On half-share dairy farms and general farms in Dela- ware the landlord provides one-half of all of the fertilizer. The land- lord almost invariably supplies all lime used on the farm. In Indiana and Illinois the landlord commonly provides one-half of the ferti- lizer, less often all of it. Similar conditions prevail generally through- out the country. The sharing of the cost of fertilizer is often pro- portionate to the share of crops. On the other hand, the landlord often provides the larger share of the fertilizer, for example, two- thirds, three-fifths or three-fourths on half-share rented farms. In many instances the landlord provides all of the fertilizer, especially in case of an annual lease. On tenant truck farms in New Jersey, for example, the landlord furnishes all manure and usually all of the commercial fertilizer. SEED. The farm owner commonly pays for one-half of the seed or plants in the case of grain, potatoes, corn, cabbage, cucumbers, and various other crops, but all possible methods for dividing the expense of seed are in vogue. For example, the landlord frequently supplies all grass and clover seed and one-half the other seed, or he may furnish all seed, or in some cases the tenant may supply all seed, or finally, the landlord may supply all grass seed while the tenant furnishes other seed, especially in case of an annual lease where the tenant can not expect to derive the full benefit from the use of grass seed. 28624°—18—Eull. 650-3 18 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CRATES, HAMPERS, BASKETS, BARRELS, BOXES, BAGS, ETC. Expenses for all of these articles are usually borne equally. Bags for grain may be supplied in proportion to the share of the crop received by each party. The tenant may provide one-half or all of the baskets for tomatoes. Bags for onions may be equally shared, but in some cases the purchaser pays for them. On other farms the landlord may provide all crates for onions and all barrels for apples, or may furnish a part of them in proportion to his share of the crop. GINNING, THRASHING, TWINE, FUEL, AND OIL. The share cropper on cotton farms usually pays one-half the expense of ginning, and share renters pay their proportionate share of ginning (two-thirds or three-fourths), while the landlord usually provides the fuel. On grain, dairy, stock, and general farms through- out the country the cost of thrashing, twine, fuel, and oil is either shared equally or the landlord provides all or the tenant all. In still other cases the thrashing expense is shared equally while the tenant pays for the twine. Or, finally, the thrashing expense may be shared in proportion to the tenant’s and landlord’s shares of grain. SILO FILLING, SHREDDING, AND BALING. Expenses for these operations are commonly shared equally. Inu some cases, however, the tenant pays for all of them, while very frequently the baling expense is shared in proportion to the shares of the hay. MILK CANS, MILK HAULING, AND MARKETING CROPS. On dairy farms the tenant provides all or the larger share, or one-half of the milk cans, according to local custom. In Illinois the tenant furnishes one-half or more of the cans, while in Wisconsin he provides all of the cans. The tenant nearly always bears the expenses of hauling milk. Leases nearly always contain a clause on the method of sale and marketing of partnership crops and on the delivery of the landlord’s share of the crops. A division of crops may be made at the farm, after which the landlord’s share of the crops may be stored in a crib, granary, or barn. In other cases the tenant may be required to deliver the landlord’s share to his home, elevator, railroad station, or to any point within a specified distance at the discretion of the landlord. On Kansas grain farms the land- lord may receive one-third of the grain at the farm or only one- fourth if delivered by the tenant to the railroad station 10 miles distant. Again in Indiana the landlord may receive one-half of the potatoes in the field or one-third “in the bushel” at the tenant’s CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. te option: The tenant is often required to market all crop and stock products without previous division and to make the proper division of proceeds at a specified bank. In one instance on an Indiana peach farm the marketing expenses are shared equally. In the central wheat belt the tenant may be paid wages for delivering the land- lord’s grain to market, or may receive the free use of corn land in return for such labor. SPRAYING, BLACKSMITHING AND VETERINARY FEES. On stock and dairy farms ordinary veterinary fees and the cost of testing cows for tuberculosis and of vaccinating hogs for cholera are usually shared equally. Blacksmithing expenses are commonly borne by the tenant, or may be shared equally. Vitriol and formalin used for treating seed grain for smut may be provided by the tenant cr may be shared equally. Spray material for use in orchards and on other crops is commonly provided jointly, or may rarely all be furnished by the tenant or the landlord. The tenant usually sup- ples labor for spraying. On celery farms in California the landlord supplies all spraying material. FEED. On stock and dairy farms in Wisconsin, Iowa, Tllinois, Pennsyl- vania, Delaware, Virginia, and elsewhere, the cost of purchased feed is usually shared equally. The tenant’s work stock may or may not be fed from the common grain and fodder. When stock breeders rent stock to farmers on shares the farmers are usually required to furnish all necessary feed. LABOR. The tenant usually supplies all labor, not only his own but also hired labor and horse labor. At the opposite extreme, however, there are instances in which the tenant receives wages for his own work, while all horse and hired labor is shared equally. On celery farms in California, on cotton farms leased to share croppers, on onion farms in Massachusetts and New York, and occasionally on general farms in various States, the landlord supplies all horse labor and the tenant all hand labor. On a peach farm in Indiana the cost of hired labor is borne jointly. The cost of hired labor on dairy farms is often shared half and half, as it is also on a sunflower farm in Ken- tucky. Landlord and tenant often share equally also the labor of picking berries in Louisiana, Maryland, and elsewhere, and occasion- ally on general farms in Michigan, New York, South Dakota, and elsewhere—usually also the labor of picking hops, and occasionally the cost of plowing, especially on North Dakota wheat farms. Some- 20 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. times the landlord pays wages for the family labor of the tenant. In Ohio the extra labor required in handling tobacco is commonly shared in proportion to the shares of the crop. On share truck farms the landlord usually pays a part of the cost of labor required in picking and harvesting the crops. MISCELLANEOUS EXPENSES. Storage and freight——Cold storage expenses on apples and other fruits and freight on stock shipments and on other products are usually shared equally or in proportion to the tenant’s and landlord’s share of the products. Service fees.—The landlord in most cases pays all stallion service fees, and under such conditions may receive one-half the colts pro- duced by the tenant’s work horses. Water assessments——On irrigated farms in Colorado and else- where, the landlord may pay all water rates, or less often this ex- pense may be shared equally, or in some cases the tenant pays all. In all cases, however, the tenant is required to keep irrigation ditches, weirs, and flumes in order. Taxes, insurance, and telephone.—The landlord usually pays all insurance on real estate, while the insurance on partnership live stock and equipment is shared equally. Occasionally the tenant pays the insurance on real estate, especially in the case of an absentee landlord. The tenant may pay the road taxes and school taxes, while the landlord pays other real estate taxes, or the tenant may pay one-half of the road taxes. In some cases the landlord pays all real estate taxes, while in other instances all taxes are shared equally. Taxes on partnership stock and equipment are almost always shared jointly or in proportion to the shares of the proceeds. In North Dakota the tenant may work out the road tax in return for the free use of corn land, especially on wheat farms. The tenant usually pays the rental for telephone services, though sometimes this ex- pense is shared. UNEXHAUSTED VALUE OF FERTILIZERS. Little attention has been given in this country to the practice, universal in the English tenant system, of granting an allowance to a departing tenant for the unexhausted value of fertilizers bought and applied by him,during his period of tenancy. This principle is recognized with respect to lime, which is nearly always paid for by the landowner. But there are other materials, commonly applied to the soil, which are not exhausted in a single year. Rock phosphate, for example, is not exhausted within a period shorter than four CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. 21 years. If, therefore, a tenant applies rock phosphate one, two or three years before the termination of his period of tenancy, he does not receive the full benefit of the expense which he has incurred. The matter is frequently discussed in agricultural papers, but rarely, if ever, is it taken into consideration in leases. If a tenant by his own efforts and progressive methods increases the productivity of a farm, it is only just that the improvement should be duly recognized. REPAIRS AND IMPROVEMENTS. The landlord almost universally furnishes all materials needed in repairing buildings and fences, and in making other permanent im- provements as required, while the tenant furnishes all labor except skilled labor necessary for making the required repairs and improve- ments. The tenant, however, is commonly paid wages for work on extensive improvements, such as ditching, tile draining, building silos, etc. Often the landlord pays for the services of a skilled hor- ticulturist to prune orchards or instruct the tenant how to prune them. In the case of extensive improvements the landlord may sup- ply all labor while the tenant is required to board the laborers. PRIVILEGES AND PERQUISITES. The landowner may grant certain privileges to the tenant free or for a fixed sum of money or other valuable consideration, and may also reserve certain rights for himself. The tenant’s perquisites commonly include the use of dwelling house, other buildings, garden, and pasture, the taking of dead and down timber for fuel, the keep- ing of 50 or 100 chickens, and more rarely a few guinea fowls, ducks, | geese, and turkeys, the raising of a few hogs and cows to supply his family needs, and the use of fruit and other farm produce for his table. Frequently the landlord grants the tenant the privilege of keeping a considerable number of. cattle, hogs, and poultry, the tenant receiving all proceeds from such stock in return for the manure which they produce. All these privileges may be granted free, or the tenant may be required to pay a lump sum ion the use of the farmstead, or a fixed sum per acre. In some cases of partnership farming the value of all products taken for table use by the landlord and the tenant is charged against their respective accounts. The landlord may reserve the use of one or two rooms in tthe farmhouse, or a portion of the garden, or certain timber areas or hunting rights. Moreover, the landlord may reserve the privilege of the joint use of the farmhouse, living expenses being shared pro- portionately with the tenant, or the right to receive poultry, eggs, 99 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pork, milk, fruit, potatoes, and other farm products for table use, or the right to keep a driving horse in the pasture. Sometimes the - tenant is required to pay a special “improvement rent” of $25 annu- ally in return for improvements to be made on the place by the land- lord. RESTRICTIONS. The lease contract often contains a clause placing certain restric- tions upon the operations of the tenant. For example, it is some- times specified that alfalfa and clover land shall not be over-grazed, that stock must not be turned upon the pasture in the spring until the frost is out of the ground, that hogs must be ringed to prevent rooting, or must be immunized against cholera before being brought on the farm, or that the tenant must cut no young or growing timber. Some landowners do not allow the tenant to keep sheep, goats, pi- geons, geese, ducks, or turkeys. Frequently the lease prescribes that no straw shall be burned, that cornstalks must be plowed under, that a certain rotation must be followed, that no fodder may be sold from the farm, that certain specified crops shall not be grown, that — certain pasture land shall not be plowed, that a specified area shall be kept in pasture and meadow, or that only a specified number of horses shall be kept by the tenant. SUPERVISION BY THE LANDLORD. The amount of supervision exercised by the landlord ranges from daily or weekly visits to the farm, involving constant consultation with the tenant concerning all farm operations, or rare or occasional visits, to a condition of complete aloofness in which the landlord’s only apparent interest is in receiving the rent. The landlord may live on a neighboring farm or in a near-by town or in another county or city or even in a foreign country. Naturally the landlord’s inter- est in the farm operations is less under a cash-renting system than under a system of share farming. In partnership farming, in which each party furnishes part of the equipment and both expenses and proceeds are shared, it is commonly stipulated that all important matters shall be settled by consultation between the landlord an tenant. GOOD HUSBANDRY. Lease contracts commonly stipulate that the tenant shall operate the farm in a “ good husbandman-like manner” or in a “ workman- like manner.” These phrases are accepted as meaning that the tenant shall plow to a proper depth, do all farm operations at the proper time, promote crop yields and prevent waste, keep drains open, de- stroy weeds, haul out manure, ete. CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. Zea ADVANCES TO TENANT. Advances of cash or supplies by the landlord to the tenant usually bear the current local rate of interest and are ordinarily secured by crop len, chattel mortgage, or both. - GENERAL SYSTEMS OF SHARE LEASING. DAIRY FARMS. On dairy farms the landlord may provide one-half of the cows, while the tenant furnishes the other half of the cows and all of the horses and machinery and receives one-half of the proceeds. In other cases the landlord may own all the cows while the tenant furnishes all other equipment and receives one-half of the proceeds. In such eases the tenant bears one-half of the loss by death of the cows or one-half of the cost of cows purchased to keep up the herd. In still other instances the landlord may furnish everything except labor and receive two-thirds of the proceeds. In the first two systems ex- penses are shared about equally, while in the third system expenses are borne in proportion to the shares of the landlord and tenant in the proceeds. Occasionally all equipment, including cows, hogs, poul- try, work horses, tools, machinery, and other working capital, are shared equally, as well as all expenses of whatever nature. In this - ease also the proceeds are shared half-and-half. STOCK FARMS. On stock farms the tenant commonly supplies tools and horses while the landlord furnishes half of the productive stock and re- ceives one-half the proceeds. The landlord may provide all of the productive stock, or other modifications of this system may be adopted, though usually any such adjustment is to make fair a half- and-half sharing of the proceeds. GENERAL FARMS. In general farming, as well as in grain farming, the tenant may furnish the tools and horses and pay the landlord as rent one-half, two-fifths, one-third, two-sevenths, or one-fourth of the crops, ac- cording to the local conditions. In other instances the landlord may furnish all of the equipment and take two-thirds of the crops or more; rarely only one-half of the crops. On cotton farms where the tenant furnishes all equipment he receives two-thirds or three-fourths of the cotton and where he supplies only the labor he receives one- half of the cotton. These few cases may be taken to illustrate the types of share leas- ing systems in which the landlord receives a certain fractional part 24 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of all crops and products of a given farm rather than different fractions for different crops. A study of actual leases shows that, aside from large estates where a uniform contract is prescribed for all tenants on a given estate, there are rarely two lease contracts containing identical stipulations. Leases vary in their main features and in almost innumerable less important details. They differ in the method of sharing equipment, expense, and proceeds. They show how greatly varied have been the attempts to balance one item of expense or equipment with another. They may specify a long list of items of expense, equip- ment, privileges, perquisites, restrictions, reservations, etc., which are not shared but are to be borne or enjoyed exclusively either by the landlord or by the tenant. The money value of these expenses and privileges can not be known in advance, but only at the end of the year. These items may amount in the aggregate, however, to an important sum for both parties. In some cases no items of expense or privileges are shared. In such leases the items are merely divided between landlord and tenant in a manner which is supposed to be more or less fair. The landlord may pay for the fertilizer, lime, grass seed, twine, etc., while the tenant pays for thrashing, grain seed, blue vitriol, and fuel. Both the tenant and landlord may enjoy a large number of privileges of which the money value is not determined nor even approximately ~ estimated. SAMPLE STOCK-SHARE LEASE. Farm leases examined during this study vary in length from 1 to 14 typewritten pages, according to the amount of detail which the contracting parties wish to specify. The following is a sample stock-share lease form for use on farms on which live stock is owned in common, as adopted by the landlord-tenant conference under the auspices of the Winnebago County Farm Improvement Association, held at Rockford, Ill., January 31,1916. It does not contain a clause stating how the lease may be renewed, but otherwise is sufficiently detailed. This indenture, made and entered into this — day of February, 191-, by and between , party of the first part, lessor, and party of the second part, lessee, Witnesseth, that the first party in consideration of the agreements and stipu- lations hereinafter mentioned to be kept and performed by the second party, has leased and does by these presents rent and lease unto the second party, the following described real estate situated in the county of and the State of , to wit: (Example: NE. — sec. —, T. —, R. —, containing acres. ) To have and to hold the said premises unto said second party from the 1st day of March, 191-, at 12 m., to the 1st day of March, 191-, at 12 m., being ’ CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. 25 2 term of one year, with the privilege of renewal for each succeeding year as long as both parties agree. This leasing arrangement is known as a stock-share plan. The parties to this contract shall be partners* and will cooperate fully according to the terms of this lease, in order that each may receive the largest returns consistent with a practical system of cropping and soil management which shall maintain and even increase the fertility of the land, with the purpose that this farm _ shall not decrease in productiveness and value. The type of farming, as agreed upon, is live stock and ——. The plan is to feed most of the crops on the farm, depending upon the sale of live stock and dairy products as the principal source of income. (Here state as fully as desired the kind and number of live stock to be kept on the farm; also the plans for crop rotation and soil fertilization.) The following shall be furnished and shared by The first party will furnish above-described farm, including the improve- ments thereon, and shall pay all taxes and insurance on said property. He shall furnish material needed for repairs and improvements, and shall build new permanent fences and make other permanent improvements as required, and shall furnish all phosphates and limestone fertilizers required on said farm. He shall pay stallion-service fees on mares owned by lessee; colts to be owned in common. The second party shall furnish all horses (not to exceed ), harness, implements, farm machinery, and labor necessary to do all work required to properly conduct this farming business as described in this agreement. He shall make all repairs and improvements where skilled labor is not required, except as herein specified. He shall haul, from railroad station or source of supply, all material for repairing buildings and fences, which may be needed in the operation of said farm. He shall haul from railroad - station or source of supply and spread on the land limestone, phosphate, and other fertilizers purchased by lessor for use on said farm. He shall deliver to market all produce from the farm free of cost to lessor. Lessee agrees to operate said farm in a workmanlike manner, and to do the necessary work in good season and to care for the crops and live stock properly, pre- venting all unnecessary waste or loss or damage to lessor’s property. He fur- ther agrees that he will not burn any cornstalks, straw, or other vegetable matter grown upon said farm, but that all this material shall be spread upon the land as manure. Lessee may have potatoes and garden truck and such fruit as the farm affords, milk, poultry, and eggs, for family use only. Lessor and lessee shall furnish jointly all seed grain, grass seed, clover, and alfalfa seed sown on said farm during the period of this lease; also all live stock other than work horses, and feed, including hired pasture, if such be- comes necessary, for the same, including lessee’s horses. They shall furnish binder twine and all fuel for tank heater, thrashing, corn shredding, silage cutting, hay baling, corn shelling, clover hulling, veterinary fees, and stallion ‘service fees on mares owned in common. Wach party shall pay one-half of all taxes and insurance on all personal property owned in common. They shall share equally in all the proceeds from the sale of live stock, poultry, grain, and other produce raised on said farm. Milk and cream checks shall be divided by purchaser. The butter used by either party shall be taken out of his share. Hach party may gather and keep his own share of fruit. Buying and selling of materials, live stock, and other farm produce shall be left largely with the lessee, but all sales and purchases. of more than $- 1This agreement is not a legal partnership. 26 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. shall be made with the knowledge and consent of the lessor. All joint business in the way of payments and receipts shall be through Bank of Both lessor and lessee shall own in common, each an undivided one-half, all live stock, excepting as hereinbefore provided for, owned and produced upon said farm; and such of said stock as the parties shall agree upon shall be sold at such time as may be satisfactory to both. Whenever any cattle, hogs, grain, corn, or hay or any other product of said farm shall be sold, the proceeds shall be equally divided between the parties, or, if agreed upon, it may again be invested in other stock, grain, or material for the common use and benefit of the parties. Lessee further covenants and agrees that he will farm said land in a good, farmlike, and workmanlike manner; that he will commit no waste nor suffer injury to be done to the premises; that he will allow no noxious weeds to go to seed on said premises, and will keep the weeds and grass cut in the roads adjoining the land. Lessee also agrees that he will draw out and scatter on said premises, on or before December ist of each year, on the fields where it is most needed, fol- lowing out the plan of farming agreed upon in this contract, all manure being and made on said premises up to December ist next preceding the end of the term, and that in default of so drawing out and scattering said manure, he shall pay to lessor as penalty the sum of $———. That he will leave as many acres plowed on said premises at the end of his term as he finds plowed when he takes possession, and in default of so doing he shall pay to lessor $———— an acre for each acre short of such number. That he shall keep the buildings, fences, and other improvements on said premises in as good repair and condition as the same are when he goes into possession, or as good as they may be put in during said terms, loss by fire or inevitable and ordinary wear excepted; that he will not assign this lease or sublet any part of said premises without written consent of lessor; that he will not bring mortgaged property on said premises without the consent of said lessor; that he will not sell or remove any of the farm crop from said premises without the consent of the lessor; that he will not break up any established watercourses or ditches or undertake any other operation which will injure said land. That in case he shall, from any cause, neglect, refuse, or be unable to prop- erly prepare said land, sow, plant, harvest, or care for any and all crops to be raised on said land, said lessor, his agents, heirs, or assigns, may at their option take possession thereof and of the crops growing or being grown thereon, and properly care for the same, .and sell the same, and the proceeds remaining after payment of the rents, cost, and expenses and damages shall go to lessee. That he will surrender the stubble land, for the purpose of plowing, in the fall preceding the termination of this lease, as soon as the crop has been removed from the same; that he will surrender possession of said premises at the end of the term, or sooner termination thereof, and if immediate possession be not given, that he will pay lessor, or assigns, the sum of $———— for each and every day possession is thus withheld, as damages for nonsurrender. That a failure to keep and perform any of the agreements hereinbefore men- tioned shall, at the option of said lessor, or assigns, operate as a forfeiture of this lease and terminate the term, and lessor may take possession of the prem- ises at once without process of law, or he may bring an action at law for pos- session, said lessee being, from the date of such failure, a tenant holding over after the expiration of his term; that in consideration of this lease, and the agreements herein contained on the part of the lessor, said lessee covenants and agrees to keep and perform the agreements hereinbefore set forth, hereby eget Ha OIA ll Sa NBA 9) LPI SEIS ALLE DE AAA LOA LOX od eee oe — CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARKS. 27 covenanting that moneys due from him to said lessor for plowing, or damages, or otherwise, shall be and hereby are declared and made a perpetual lien on any and all crops, stock, and other personal property of lessee at any time kept, had, or used on said premises, whether the same are exempt from execution or not, such lien to attach from the commencement of the term. Said lessor reserves the right of himself, his employees, or assigns to enter upon said premises at any time for the purpose of viewing the same or making repairs or improvements thereon, the same not to interfere with the occupancy of the lessee; and reserves the right to himself or agent to enter upon said premises for the purpose of plowing the stubble land, from which the crops shall have been removed, in the fall preceding the termination of this lease. It is understood and agreed by both parties that the lessee’s reward for all farm improvements which he is required to make according to the terms of this contract shall come in the increased yields and greater returns which should result and which will be shared by lessee if he continues to operate said farm. But in case this lease is terminated before lessee receives the benefit from such improvements, he shall receive reasonable compensation for such im- provements. For example, hauling and spreading rock phosphate and ground limestone, seed clover and alfalfa, laying drainage, tile, stump pulling, ete. (Here state reward to be given lessee for unexhausted improvements. ) That in consideration of this lease and the agreements herein contained on the part of the lessee, said lessor covenants and agrees to keep and perform the agreements herein set forth, hereby covenanting that any compensations due from him to said lessee for improvement work, etc., shall be a lien on his share of the personal property, and must be paid before the proceeds are equally divided. And likewise, for failure to provide for and carry out any improvements on said farm which are agreed to in this lease, said lessor shall be liable for damages to said lessee to reimburse him for the loss which may result from such default. At the end of the term of this lease, an accounting’ shall be had between the respective parties hereto, and the produce, stock, ete., upon said farm belonging to lessor and lessee shall be equally divided. Lessee shall divide each kind of live stock into two equal lots, as near as may be, and lessor shall have his choice of lots of each kind of live stock, which division shall be final and binding upon both parties. And if a proper settlement can not be made in this way, all parties hereto agree to have a public sale on the premises for the purpose of dissolution. After all joint debts of lessor and lessee and the expenses of having the sale are paid, the proceeds shall be equally divided. But if one or both parties object to a sale and prefer a division of said property, then each shall select an arbitrator. They jointly shall select a third, and the three shall make such division of said property as to them shall seem equitable, giving each party one-half of the same, after deducting from each party’s share such indemnities or adding such compensations as may be justly charged or credited to him according to the terms of this con- tract. Neither party shall have the right to bind the other by any contract out- side the scope of this agreement, or by any purchases made within the scope of this agreement, except with the consent of the other, unless hereinbefore provided for. . (Signed) ——— =+=——., (Signed) ———-——. 4 28 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ASSUMPTIONS UNDERLYING LEASE CONTRACTS. A study of leases in actual operation discloses the existence of a few interesting general assumptions which are of much value: iu establishing a basis for a rational form of lease contract. Share renters on good cotton farms may pay the landlord one-third the cotton, but only one-fourth on poor farms. Similar arrangements are to be noted in other parts of the United States. The obvious assumption underlying this adjustment is that on fertile farms the . landlord is entitled to a larger share of the crops than on poor farms under otherwise similar conditions. The same consideration is, of course, apparent in renting land for cash, the cash rent per acre varying with the agricultural value of the land. | In many cases the landlord accepts as rent a smaller share of the produce delivered at the railroad station than at the farm. For example, on a Kansas grain farm the landlord takes one-third of the wheat at the farm or one-fourth at the railroad station at the option of the tenant. The assumption in such cases evidently is that the farther the farm from market the smaller should be the landlord’s share of the crops if the tenant is required to haul them to market. This assumption is manifestly in accord with justice and common sense. | On general farms the landlord’s share is often different for dif- ferent crops. For example in Colorado the landlord may get one- half of the hay, one-third of the grain, and one-fourth of the sugar beets, or one-half of the hay, one-half of the apples, one-third of the wheat, one-third of the potatoes, and one-fourth of the sugar beets. In Delaware the landlord may get two-fifths of the tomatoes and one-half of the grain, or one-fourth of the tomatoes and one- half of the grain. In Indiana the landlord may get two-thirds of the eggs and one-half of the milk, or one-half of the hay and corn and one-third of the wheat and oats, or two-fifths of the wheat and one-half of the corn. In Iowa the landlord may get one-half of the hay and two-fifths of the corn. In the cotton belt the landlord may get one-third of the corn and one-fourth of the cotton. In Michigan and Missouri the landlord may get one-half of the hay and one-third of the corn. In Nebraska the landlord may get one-half of the hay and one-fourth of the corn. In Ohio the landlord may get one-half of the hay and corn and three-sevenths of the tobacco, or one-half of the hay and corn and two-fifths of the tobacco and apples. In all these cases of variation in the shares of different crops on a given farm the tenant provided all labor. The specified differences in the shares of different crops is an acknowledgement of the fact that more labor is required for the production of certain crops than for others, and that the shares should in justice be correspondingly modi- ) CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. 29 fied. More labor must be expended on sugar beets, potatoes, tobacco, and grain than on hay. On relatively infertile farms the landlord may provide tools and work horses, pay one-half the expenses except labor and take one-half the products. The plain assumption here is that on these poor farms the land is not equal to the labor in productive value but that land and equipment together approximately equal the labor. There are a few instances of partnership farming of which an Indiana farm may be taken as an example. On this farm the land- lord furnishes one-half of all equipment, including tools, machinery, cows, other productive stock, and work horses. All expenses, includ- ing even taxes and hired labor, are shared equally, and the proceeds are divided half and half. In this case the underlying assumption evidently is that the tenant’s head and hand work is equal in value to the use of the land, for everything except land and the tenant’s own labor is shared equally. Many lease contracts used in farming by the general half-share system stipulate that the tenant shall furnish all tools, machinery, and work stock, and one-half of the cows and other productive stock, and that expenses shall be shared equally. Here the assumption is that the tenant’s labor is not equal in value to the use of the land, but that the tenant’s labor plus the use of tools and horses equals the use of the land. Thus it appears to be assumed in lease contracts that on average farms labor offsets or balances the use of the land, while on poor farms labor is of more value and on exceptionally fertile farms of less value than the use of the land. This is merely another way of _ saying that the landlord’s share of the crops should vary with the agricultural value of the soil. It may be well to discuss further some of the points involved in these assumptions, especially since there is at present an active interest among landowners and tenants in attempts to arrive at a rational basis for lease contracts. The assumption that labor offsets or balances the land underlies much of the discussion of tenancy in England and also prevails widely in this country. This assumption seems to involve, as a more precise definition of the amount of labor concerned, an amount suf- ficient to carry on the ordinary operations of a farm under a system of general farming. If, therefore, we start with the assumption that the amount of labor necessary to operate a farm for general purposes is equal in value to the productive power of the farm, it would then seem fair to assume that for the equal sharing of all farm produce between tenant and landowner, each should contribute one-half of the Sear Saas eee 30 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. necessary investment in work stock, productive stock, implements, farm machinery, and other operating capital, and should also share equally all expenses connected with the operation of the farm. In several individual instances this plan has been used as a basis of a half-and-half share lease and has apparently given good satis- faction to both tenant and landowner. Under such a contract the extra labor involved in the production of special or intensive crops should naturally be considered as a part of the expense. This would apply to such crops as berries, tobacco, hops, cotton, onions, sugar beets, celery, and also to potatoes and apples. It is obviously desirable that farm leases should be based on a plan which will not only give the tenant an elastic value for his labor and managerial ability to compensate for the possible rise of land values under the influence of speculative expectation and of com- petition of tenants, but will also give the tenant an equal personal interest with the landowner in the use of the most businesslike and scientific methods of farming to increase production, and also in economy with reference to all expenses connected with farm opera- tions. These desirable features of a satisfactory form of lease would ~ geem to be largely supplied by the contract in question. In one of the few individual instances in which essentially this form of con- tract is now in operation it is provided in the contract not only that all working capital shall be furnished in equal shares and that all expenses shall be shared equally, but also that all farm products used for family purposes by either the tenant or landowner shall be paid for by the respective party to the agreement. In cases where it is not convenient for landowner and tenant to furnish exactly equal shares of the working capital, all requirements of justice and fairness would be served by allowing each party the interest on his share of the working capital, to be taken out of the gross proceeds before the final division into equal shares. Where the landowner and tenant do not contribute equal shares of the working capital, it would be necessary to take out not only the interest on the unlike shares, but also all expense of the farm operations, before dividing the net proceeds into equal parts. If, however, the sharing of the working capital were equal, the amount of farm income to be shared equally could readily be determined by subtracting the total expense from the gross returns. The great variation which is to be noted in the shares of the land- owner and tenant in different systems of share leasing is evidence of the long struggle which has been undergone in attempts to devise methods of division satisfactory to both parties. It is apparent, however, from the variation in the shares for landowner and tenant proposed in leases, that the method of division has come about as a CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. 31 result of mutual demands and concessions and is therefore for the most part the final outcome of the blind operation of economic forces rather than the result of a deliberately planned system of division. It would seem that the main physical factors which operate in the production of farm products are land, working capital, and labor. If, therefore, an agreement could be reached on a reasonable valuation of land and a reasonable rate of interest which this land should draw, and also upon a satisfactory payment for labor and a rate of interest on working capital, these three factors, namely, interest on land, interest on working capital, and wages for labor, could be used as a rational basis for a percentage distribution of products. . : One of the great difficulties in establishing such a rational basis for the division of farm products under a share system of leasing is found in arriving at a proper estimate of the value of land. Farm land in the better farming sections is now held at prices which indi- cate the strong influence of speculative expectation of further rise in land prices. In fact much land is already capitalized at so high a price that the owner is forced to accept a lower rate of interest from the operation of the farm than could be reasonably expected from the same amount of capital otherwise invested. In estimating the value of the relative contributions of working capital and land to farm production, it is necessary to take into consideration the high relative risk and depreciation involved in the maintenance of live stock and farm machinery, as compared with the indestructibility of farm land. It may perhaps be fair to consider the relative contribution of a dollar invested as working capital as about three times that of a dollar invested in land, working capital yielding 10 per cent and land 34 per cent interest. The tenant’s services can not justly be considered as consisting merely of manual labor. His managerial ability is an important part of-his services. It is unfair, therefore, to rate the tenant’s services to the partnership at the same value for all values of farms in a given neighborhood. A labor income of $500 might be an adequate recom- pense for a tenant’s services on a $10,000 farm, but on a farm worth $50,000 his time and managerial ability are worth more. No business man would think of putting in charge of a $50,000 plant a man whose services were worth no more than $500. In order to obviate such an injustice to the tenant, it is necessary to assume that the value of his labor and managerial ability increases somewhat in proportion to the increase in the value of the farm. The tendency at present is for the land to take an increasingly large proportion of the joint product of land, working capital, and labor. In many of the richest farming districts land values have be- come so high that the landlord’s interest on his investment is only 3 32 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. or 4 per cent. If, for example, $1,200 is the maximum rent which a landowner can expect to obtain for the use of his farm by a tenant, it is apparent that the owner may consider this $1,200 as 2 per cent interest on $60,000 or 4 per cent on $30,000. Some landowners have felt that the rate of income derived from rented land ought to keep pace with the increase in land values. In the attempt to obtain such an increase of income they have tried to avoid the appearance of claiming more than one-half of the net proceeds. This has been ac- complished by requiring the tenant to furnish more than half of the working capital, by charging cash rent for the farmstead, pasture, or certain other “ privileges,” or by exacting an arbitrary “improve- - ment rent.” The tenant is thereby forced to pay as rent not only half of the farm income but also an additional sum in cash. There is an obvious advantage to both parties in the strictly half and half system of leasing. It offers no opportunity for either party , to get the better of the bargain by indirect methods. Landlord and tenant contribute equally to the partnership, share all expenses equally, and therefore receive equal shares of the farm income. The manner in which this system operates may be seen in the following average example constructed from survey records on farms in the corn belt. In this example the business of a 160-acre farm worth $25,000 is analyzed on a basis of good average yields and normal prices under a strict partnership system of leasing. Analysis of the business of a $25,000 farm leased wnder the half-and-half system. Receipts : Crops— 65 acres corn— Tenant. Owner. Farm. HE HOOMDUShelSTSOld ess eae ee een $375 $375 800 bushels fed. 35 acres wheat, 1,000 bushels sold_________ - 500 500 15 acres oats— 300. bushels) sold ==) aaa eee 60 60 300 bushels fed. 20 acres hay— DEtONST SOLO ee ee 25 27 5) a ee 25 25 20 tons fed. 185 acres crops. 20 acres rotation pasture. 5 acres waste. Stock— i 2NCOWS Cattle. nailik. et C= _ seen ee eee 350 350 (6 horses 7or mules: _ =... - ae =35 Oe Swine. Ue ee 250 250 Poultry sand egese2 2's PARESAT 15 75 Total ttaoviy @ i oi i aot | a is 1,600 1,600 $3,200 CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. 33 Expenses: Tenant. Owner. farm. TShbeevel over. Aleve) yobs $200 $200 ehfayrica dl apa el OY Oy a aaah hl ee 25 25 Cash expense of operation and repair__________ 300 300 Depreciation of equipment, 14 per cent of $500__ 35 35 Depreciation of buildings, 6 per cent of $2,000__ 60 - 60 Interest on working capital, 6 per cent of $2,500_ 15 75 Taxes on real estate and equipment____________ 80 80 MO Gell eee 26 Ee ee Ed ee eg 775 775 $1, 550 PES} eASTS Aes 1 CO TY Bays es a ESL ce Ue 1, 650 Reward for tenant’s management and labor________________________ 825 eWaAlGd rOrnuserOmnrealTeStAUe = se sere = = Ae ETERS Re Pie ER en, eee 825 Interest on real estate (per cent) _---_______________________ : Sas The tenant receives $825, half of the net profit, as a reward of his labor and management, also an allowance for half of the value of the family labor, and board of hired labor furnished, and the interest on his half of the working capital. His working capital is maintained at the same value at which he turned it into the partnership or is replaced. The landowner receives, in addition to his $825, an allowance of the interest on his half of the working capital, as well as having all taxes paid on his real estate and an allowance for depreciation. ; Interest on working capital in the above example is charged at 6 per cent. The rate would be about 10 per cent if it included depreciation charges. SUGGESTIONS TOWARD A RATIONAL LEASE CONTRACT. The conditions under which the various existing types of share farming have developed have led landowners to include in lease contracts such a bewildering variety of rights and privileges of unspecified money value that at first sight it would seem impossible _ to say whether the contract is just or not. The approximate value of all these items, however, is generally known. Shrewd judgment and local experience enable the landowner and tenant to estimate closely what the thrashing, twine, feed, seed, and fertilizer bills will be. Nevertheless, lease contracts in which various items of expense and privilege are empirically adjusted and assigned to tenant or landlord are never, except by mere accident, strictly fair, but are always slightly in favor of landlord or tenant. Any injustice of this sort may become a source of friction between landlord and tenant and may lead to more frequent moving on the part of the tenant. In some cases the tenant is a son or other relative of the landlord, in which event other considerations than those of strict business principles may be reflected in the stipulations of the lease. Or the owner may be a speculator merely holding the land for sale at an advanced price, being willing to accept a low rent pending sale and expecting to take his profit from the rise in the price of land rather 34 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. than in rent. But sheer generosity and charity are no more fre- quently seen in farm lease contracts than in other business transac- tions. Such cases may be left out of consideration, for most lease contracts are intended to be strict business propositions. Many farm leases now in operation indicate an apparently satis- factory manner of eliminating all unknown quantities from a lease, reducing it to a simple, specific, and readily understandable form. According to these contracts all equipment, including tools, machin- ery, work stock, productive stock, and other working capital, is owned in equal partnership; all expenses, including hired labor and taxes, are shared equally, and the proceeds are divided half-and-half. All products taken for family use by either landlord or tenant are charged against the respective parties. This system is obviously fair and explicit. The objection may be raised that it involves much bookkeeping, but farm bookkeeping is desirable from every stand- © point. In fact, many lease contracts stipulate that the tenant shall keep a complete daybook in which every item of expense and receip is entered. Such a contract provides a basis for the fair and equal sharing of all crops which may be grown on a farm, however unlike the amounts of labor required for their production, for if all expense for extra and hired labor is shared equally it is obviously just that the proceeds from crops requiring extra labor should be shared on the same basis as those which require little labor. Moreover, the unfairness of requiring the tenant to deliver crops to distant markets is obviated by sharing the expense of the labor thus involved. Again, this plan is readily adaptable to cases in which the tenant and landlord furnish working capital in unequal shares. In such cases it is merely necessary to take out of the undivided farm income the interest on each one’s share of the working capital and also the operating expenses, after which the remainder is divided half-and- half. Many leases constructed on this plan are in operation. Share farming seems to be based on the idea of equal division of the proceeds. In those cases in which the fractions are not half and half, but one-third and two-thirds, one-fourth and three-fourths, or two-fifths and three-fifths the unequal sharing is an adjustment to the fact that operating expenses and the cost of equipment are not borne equally. Even in such cases it would appear preferable that all expenses and interest on the unequal shares of working capital be taken out of the undivided farm income and that the remaining proceeds be then divided equally. The feeling of full and frank partnership between the landlord and tenant would thus be kept to the fore. The tendency would thereby be to avoid reducing the ten- ant to the status of a hired laborer receiving a bonus in the crops as an inducement for extra effort. CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES. P34) While the central point upon which the various stipulations in farm leases for share renting are focused is the idea of providing a just basis for a partnership in which the proceeds shall be shared equally, the first attempts to provide such a basis were naturally only approximations to justice. The various items of expense and equip- ment were borne by the landowner or tenant in such a manner as to balance one another as nearly equally as might be. In cases where it was not convenient for landowner and tenant to share these items equally an adjustment was reached by dividing the proceeds un- equally. Even in such cases, however, the idea of equal sharing was apparently the point of departure, and the unequal sharing of pro- ceeds was an adjustment to the fact that the two parties had con- tributed unequally to the business. At least two apparent exceptions to the fundamental half-and-half principle of tenant farming are widely prevalent. One of these is the share-cropping method of operating cotton farms. The area operated by a share cropper is usually too small to yield a living for his family and pay a reasonable interest on one-half of the working capital required for the operation of the farm. The share cropper is therefore required to furnish no working capital. In fact, he is virtually a hired laborer rather than a tenant. The other exception is typified by a form of lease contract used in renting general crop farms throughout the country. Where there is actual competition among tenants for the opportunity to operate farms, landowners commonly exact a bonus in the form of a require- ment that the tenant furnish most or all of the working capital. The assumption underlying this practice is, as explained above, that the tenant’s own labor alone is not equal in value to the use of the land, but that labor plus working capital equals land in productive value. Many recent farm leases indicate the possibility of using more flexible and, at the same time, more precise methods of adjusting the division of proceeds to the relative contribution of landowner and tenant to the partnership. These recent methods, which are gradually coming into vogue, involve in all cases the equal sharing of proceeds. Both landowner and tenant receive one-half of the net farm income. If equipment and other working capital are fur- nished in equal shares and all expenses are shared equally, one-half of the farm income naturally goes to each party without further adjustment. If the working capital is furnished in unequal shares, expenses and interest on each one’s share of the working capital are taken from the gross returns, after which the net farm income is shared equally. Underlying the lease contract in such cases is the assumption that the tenant’s labor is equal in value to the use of the land. For 36 BULLETIN 650, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. farms on which it is assumed that the tenant’s labor is either of greater or less value than the use of the land, a modification of the same general method is coming into use. According to this modified plan it is stipulated in the lease that from the gross returns shall be taken a specified wage for the tenant, a specified interest on land for the landowner, and all expenses, after which the proceeds are divided equally. Under this system it has been found necessary to stipulate that the tenant’s wages shall be paid before the interest on land is taken from the gross receipts. Otherwise, in poor years, the tenant might suffer an undue hardship. In localities where land values, under speculative influences, have reached a figure higher than their actual productive power for agri- cultural purposes would warrant, it may in time become necessary to distinguish between the two elements in land values—actual pro- ductive power and the increase due to anticipated rise in price. In such an event it would seem fair to disregard the latter in leasing land for agricultural purposes, for the tenant shares only in the crop-producing power of the land, and can not participate in the speculative rise of land values. STATUS OF THE TENANT. The economic position of the tenant varies greatly under different systems of leasing. Under cash rent the tenant is completely inde- pendent. He makes plans on his own initiative, organizes his re- sources, determines all matters of policy at his own discretion, decides the time and manner of applying labor to the various farm enter- prises, and receives all returns. Share leasing involves a partnership arrangement in which the two parties are jointly interested and deter- mine all details of plan by mutual consultation. In some leases, however, it is stipulated that in case of failure of the landowner and tenant to agree on methods the judgment of the landowner shall pre- vail. If the landowner furnishes most or all of the equipment he re- tains title to all crops and products till they are sold and division made, and in general directs all farm operations. Under these con- ditions the tenant is virtually a hired man. Such tenants may re- ceive money advances from the landowner and thus become even more dependent than the ordinary hired man. In fact there is no sharp line of demarcation in status between tenant and manager or hired man working wholly under direction of the landowner. O UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 626 OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv May 9, 1918~ PASTURE LAND ON FARMS IN THE UNITED STATES By _E. A. GOLDENWEISER, Siatistician, and J. S. BALL, Assistant in Farm Accounting CONTENTS Page Page mource Of Data wo. fs 8 oe ee es 1 | Geographic Distribution of Farm Pasture 3 Arrangement of Material . ..... 2.| Pasture Land, by Geographic Divisions Pasture Land in the United States as and States (Table) ...:....-. 14 Pa WHOIG! 2) vs Soe Se so eeu aes 2 | Pasture Land, by Counties (Table) . . 16 gee % = WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918 fe Oy uti} AU Oh AN AEE SM) eee a RT Tu UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE _ BULLETIN No. 628 Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry A. D. MELVIN, Chief he Washington, D. C. Vv _ January 28, 1918 | WINTERING AND FATTENING BEEF || CATTLE IN NORTH CAROLINA q poem, By El : W. F. WARD ai Animal Husbandry Division, Bureau of Animal Industry ‘oy | AND i ia R. S. CURTIS and F. T. PEDEN . Of the North Carolina Agricultural Experiment Station F : i § A - CONTENTS ; Page Page 4 Entroduction) hse) 06 one eee ee 1 | Summer Fattening of Steerson Grass . 19 Wintering Steers Preparatory to Grazing Summary of Three Years’ Work, Winter 27 ~ ON; PAStUTO yee. cee suite sin cooker ek we 4 and Summer ... «ss s 6 © « 27 . Winter Grazing of Steers . ..... 14 Winter Fattening of Steers. . ..- © »« 38 a Bhs a |i i if ia he ‘at WASHINGTON || ; GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 4 é > 1918 KE Tse WRAL eORG UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ' BULLETIN No. 631 . Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. Y : : April 19, 1 FIVE YEARS’ CALF-FEEDING WORK IN ALABAMA AND MISSISSIPPI By W. F. WARD and S. S. JERDAN Of the Animal Husbandry Division CONTENTS I. Winter Fattening of Caives in Alabama on Cottonseed Meal, Cot- tonseed Hulls, Cern-and-Cob Meal, and Alfalfa Hay, 1911-12 . 1 II. Fattening Calves in Alabama on Cottenseed Meal, Cottonseed _- Hulls, Corn Chop, and Corn Silage, 1912-13 . . 1... .. - 14 Ii. Fattening Calves in Mississippi on Cottonseed Meal, Corn, Cot- . tonseed Huils, Corn Silage,and Alfalfa Hay, 1914-15 . ... £21 IV. Fattening Calvesin Mississippi on Cottonseed Meal, Corn, Corn Silage, and Alfalfa,1915-16 . . . . +. « «© «© » » » see 29 V. Fattening Late (Skort-Aged) Calves for Market . . . . » + « 39 VI. General Discussion of Five Years’ Experiments . ... =. . « 48 Page WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 636 OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY Contribution from the Office of Farm Management, W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief (in cooperation with the Office of Horticultural and Pomolegical Investigations) Washington, D. C. W May 10, 1918 COST OF PRODUCTION OF APPLES IN THE PAYETTE VALLEY, IDAHO A DETAILED STUDY OF THE CURRENT COST FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE MAINTENANCE OF ORCHARDS AND THE HANDLING OF THE CROP ON 38 REPRESENTATIVE BEAR- ING ORCHARDS, PAYETTE DISTRICT IN WESTERN IDAHO S. M. THOMSON, Scientific Assistant G. H. MILLER, Assistant Agriculturist ' CONTENTS yt Page Page _ Summary of Results ... . <=... %41| Orchard Management. ....... 14 Location and Extent of Districts Studied . 3 | HandlingtheCrop ..... .- ae TORRY 2 History and Development ..... =. 3 | Packing-house Labor ...... GG. ZX Conditions 63... 0. es we - 6 | Cullsand Cider Apples ..... . - 29 Farm Organization . . . 2... «© « - 8 | Total Labor Costs. . « . . .. «+» e 30 FarmInvestments ....... . . 10 | Materialand Fixed Costs ...... 31 Orchards... ....-. + « « - « 11 | Summary of All Costs Considered . . . 33 Yields . . . «2+... +. +. 13/ Factors Affecting the Annual Cest of Pro- Markets and Prices . Ciebionvsr si cas sone ce abe eee WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 638 Contribution from the Forest Service HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester Washington, D. C. April 8, 1918 FORESTRY AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT By SAMUEL T. DANA, Assistant Chief ~ Forest Investigations CONTENTS Page Page Too Little Attention Paid to Some Effects Neglected Evils, etec.—Continued. of Forest Devastation . . ....-.- I Abandoned Railroads. . - . -. » 19 Why Our Forests Have Been Devastated. 2 A Lower Standard of Population. . . Neglected Evils of Destructive Lum- Suggestions for a Rational Timberland - bering POMC! jas a oo ok wo) a a) atte shia his EI an ge gs ea Need for a Different System of Han- A Roving Lumber Industry. . dling Forest Lands...» . Abandoned Towns. . . . . Land Ciassifieation . 2... > Deserted Farms. . .. . _ Continuous Forest Production . . Local Shortages of Timber . - Stability of Policy . . . . » a » Speculation . . . 2. » « » Public Control and Ownership . . Community Development Entacrauted Community Benefits . . . » » « WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918 ‘ . ae . ae FOREST SERVICE. srr. 2 HENRY S. GRAVES, Forester. ot et ALBERT F. POTTER, Associate Forester. BRANCH OF RESEARCH. Earte H. Crapp, Assistant Forester in charge. Forest INVESTIGATIONS. a pe ae RapPHaEt Zon, Chief. Sh) § DT. Dana, Assistant Chief. MY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 639 , Joint Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry, JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief and the Bureau of Markets, CHARLES J. BRAND, Chief | Washington, D. C. February 15, 1918 THE MARKET MILK BUSINESS OF - DETROIT, MICH., IN 1915 By : CLARENCE E. CLEMENT, Dairy Division, Bureau of Animal Industry ; and GUSTAV P. WARBER, Bureau of Markets CONTENTS Economic Phases of the Market Milk Business Market Demands and Sources of Supply . . Buying Milk from Farmers . . . . »« © o « Prices Paid to Farmers . . . 2 « 0 « e Collecting and Handling Milk in the Country . Cost of Collecting Milk at Country Stations Transportation of Milk to the City ..°. . Cost of Milk Delivered to the City . . . Trade Demands in-Detroit ..... . Preparing Milk for City Distribution . . Before Compulsory Pasteurization . . . After Compulsory Pasieurization .. . 5 Capital Invested and Cost of Handling Milk at ‘City Plants »City Distribution of Milk . . 2. 2. 2 2 2 2 2 ew ew ew ew 8 Summary of Comparative Costs of Handling and Distributing Milk Conclusions). visser: se holes selec ell eee an eet erence efor a a fe ee © © @ © © @ © @ @ Coit ie ot be eat OO aCeer) eee ee © © © © @ 6 eee © ®@ e ee © @ @ e ee ee ec ef © © 8 @ «eee &®& ¢ © «© © © @& WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 640 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. v 3 April 8, 1918 THE MEDITERRANEAN FRUIT FLY > By E. A. BACK, Entomologist, and C. E. PEMBERTON, Assistant Entomologist, Mediterranean and Other Fruit Fly Investigations CONTENTS Distribution Throughout the World . . The Campaign Against the Fruit Fly in _ Establishment and Spread in Hawaii. . Hawaii) cate 9) sh oie ter «26 Ren ere _ How the Fruit Fly got into Hawaii. . . Natural Control of the Fruit Fly. . . « Losses Incurred Through the Fruit Fly . Quarantine Measures to Prevent Intro- _ What the Mediterranean Fruit Fly is Like duction. 3)... 7. «6 6 © ones s Fruits, Nuts, and Vegetables Attacked . Summary . . 2. 6 ss ® 2» a ese Host Fruits of Commercial Value . . . Artificial Methods of Control not Satis- factory Under Hawaiian Conditions . 24 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918 SUSE REE IA TDA Gs ; NE OF THE WORST enemies of fruit grown in tropical and semitropical countries is the Medi- terranean fruit fly. Constant vigilance is necessary to prevent its establishment in North America. It is particularly destructive because it is difficult to con- trel and attacks many kinds of fruits, nuts, and vege- tables. In the Hawaiian Islands, where it has caused - great damage since 1910, it attacks 72 kinds of fruits. A partial list of these contains oranges, grapefruit, lemons, limes, kumquats, tangerines, peaches, apples, figs, apricots, bananas, mangoes, avocados, sapotas, loquats, persimmons, guavas, quinces, papayas, pears, plums, grapes, eggplant, tomatoes, and even cotton bolls. Most of these are now grown or can be grown in our Southern Siates, the Gulf region, and California and the Southwest. The purpose of this bulletin is to give alike to the citizen of Hawaii, the fruit grower of the United States mainland, and the traveler information that will help to.convey a clear conception of the difficult problem that has developed with the introduction of the Mediterranean fruit fly into the Hawaiian Is- lands. The pest can be kept out of the rich semi- — tropical fruit-growing sections of the United States only by the hearty and intelligent cooperation of all. a. ane a Taaeeen Sen seh x &£ a £ i é UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE : BULLETIN No. 642 Contribution from the peice of Animal Industry JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. April 30, 1918 ss THE FOUR ESSENTIAL FACTORS IN THE PRODUCTION OF MILK OF LOW BACTERIAL CONTENT By S. HENRY AYERS, LEE B. COOK, and PAUL W. CLEMMER : of the Dairy Division CONTENTS Factors Influencing the Sanitary Quality of Milk ' Objects of the Investigation - Description of Barn and Methods Used in the Production of the Milk Method of Sampling and Making the Bacterial Count The Experimental Work Contamination of Milk by Unsteriiized Utensils . Contamination of Milk by Manure and Dirt The Three Most Essential! Factors in the Production of Milk of Low Bacte- rial Content Bacterial Counts of Fresh ilk on the Average Farm The Effect of Temperature on the Growth of Bacteria in Milk Summary Conclusions WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918 BR So ARCANE «| ok Se EL NPT NAR eA NIE ABER ANP ORY Ty Mee” hop or RC. of) MCE RE IOP a Ral e> UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE _ BULLETIN No. 643 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief : March 8, 1918 THE MELON FLY By E. A. BACK, Entomologist and C. E. PEMBERTON, Assistant Entomologist Mediterranean and Other Fruit Fly Investigations CONTENTS Page Page Interesting Facts Concerning the Adult Fly 22 4 | Why the Melon Fly isa Serious Pest . . 24 4 | Control Measures . - - « 2 « 2 » 2 25 7 | Measures Taken to Keep Fruit Flies of tf Hawaii from Gaining a Foothold in Con- 8 6 What the Melon Fly is Like ..... Origin and Distribution . .....-. Establishment and Spread in Hawaii. . Methods of Spread. . . . 2.» 2 « « Economic Importance .-. . . « « « « - Nature of Injury Caused by the Melon Fly Food or Host Plants ........-.41 tinental United States . . . + » » » 29 Summary. - - 2 «© ses e+ es « « 30 WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918 HE MELON FLY is a truck-crop pest that in > the course of international commerce has been ~ spread from its native home in the Indo-Malayan region to the Hawaiian Islands, and has become so thoroughly established that it can not be eradicated. © Owing to its destructive work, such fruits as musk- © melons, watermelons, pumpkins, squashes, cucum- bers, vegetable marrows, and tomatoes can not be grown to-day in many parts of the Hawaiian Islands unless the plants are screened.. Cantaloupes and watermelons, instead of being common and cheap delicacies, as in former years, are now a luxury even for the wealthy; and cantaloupes, formerly grown in quantities about Honolulu, are now im- ported from California. Owing to the danger of introducing the melon fly into countries where it does not now exist, quarantines prohibit the export of Hawaiian-grown eggplant, bell peppers, and’ tomatoes, thus shutting off an income formerly enjoyed by the small farmer. In short, it is not possible to exaggerate the seriousness of this insect under Hawaiian coastal conditions. The problem, however, is not entirely a local one to be fought out by the people of Hawaii. Should the melon fly once break through the Federal quar- antine barriers and become established on the main- land of the United States, it will exact'a large annual toll of the truck crops of the South. It is - important, therefore, that truck growers learn some- thing about this pest, so difficult of control, in order that they may become actively interested in keeping it out. BULLETIN No. 647 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology ~ et L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. : ; May 3, ANtLOCUCHON] 6 <5 2 %s2 1c. 5 laste se ell oe General Belief as to Damage to Orange EEGER ce elite Sater co.) Sai ak wrens ois General Account of Orange Culture in PIOMMSIANA Ato ieit sh oe cater) ober tet S Distribution of the Ant in the Orange _ Groves of the United States . . . Feeding Habits of the Ant ..... Relations with Insects Injurious to Citrus Trees .... Sal siete ak eters Relations with Tnnect Enemies of Scales ANOWADHIGS oro. 6 ok ca ie cesar CONTENTS Page 1 2 a WASHINGTON THE ARGENTINE ANT IN RELATION TO CITRUS GROVES By _J.R. HORTON, Scientific Assistant, Tropical and Subtropical Fruit Insect Investigations Nests and Protective Structures of the Ant Cultural Conditions in Ant-Invaded vs. Ant-Free Orange Groves in Louisiana Demonstration in Improvement of Ant- Invaded Groves in Louisiana. . . . Experiments in Controlling the Argen- tine Ant . GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918. VAPU WANS Hea a UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 1918 Page UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 648 OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY Contribution from the Office of Farm Management W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief Washington, D. C. a: ; May 1, 1918 1 A FARM-MANAGEMENT SURVEY IN BROOKS. COUNTY, GEORGIA By E. S. HASKELL, Assistant Agriculturist CONTENTS ! Page Description of Area Surveyed ... . 1 | Size of Business Method end Scope of Investigation . . Quality of Farm Business Type of Farming : Organization Tenure and Landiord’s Profits . .. . 3 | Cost of Production Labor Systems WASHINGTON GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE 19138 Sede URTUANMITEE TY | | ITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 650° OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY: Contribution from the Office of Farm Management * W. J. SPILLMAN, Chief | Washington, D.C. 2 sN Rebruary 26.1918 8 a LEASE CONTRACTS USED IN RENTING FARMS ON SHARES _A STUDY OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF INVESTMENTS, EXPENSES | AND INCOMES BETWEEN LANDLORD AND TENANT By E. V. WILCOX, Agriculturist Restrictions -. . « » s »« « «» » 5 I mgth of Lease Period . . . . . © « Supervision by the Landlord . . . . . 4 | Methods of Sharing Crops and Good Husbandry ....--.«. = ‘ies Bate Advances to Tenant . . . » «> Z ethods of Sharing Pasture . General Systems of Share Leasing p Contracts for Clearing Land . c Ownership of Equipment .. Methods of Sharing Expenses Sample Stock-Share Lease. . . . C Assumptions Underlying Lease Con- ° UP AOES he el mtiie etalon eit ees tes iey seine nexhausted Valué of Fertilizers _| Suggestions Toward a Rational Lease Repairs and Improvements . . Contract . ...- vileges and Perquisites » . . Status of the Tenant . . . . « » « « eo ee es © © @ © WASHINGTON Se ENT PRINTING OFFICE 1918 ae eS No BRARY Wye ul allie 100159652