ras abel Bade av eanted Moen eid Aunties Me eet Py el ret iter eur an F) va t ay fet Helaterst : ih J haley is ra idet H ie pinta p\tS i ai pi haa RAE pein Oe ey teh a8 Witter wis ee we SRD + Pol “ His ot ca + ee 7 4 ie FAR aE ) tee bot Mi j ? 4 4 , i raat a ) ‘gua t YY shit} ‘ : iphareati vlan iia puis Tay 1 USN E i Y net uy { 1) wu WA ae? ana Oban ut 4 AEA ’ | van iy 44 } Wii epee , Ape tatery AR yet ! Pe MOAT A ANB Nesta dle Taig an aie ia! 7) ie ie y jhe ee ta) ¥ Pi de Bhan rar Peat at) $aey tage F) ipsa Ailsa ees pasate ckh ola He een) dian Fle ; } hilriatrges bre CPS ed oted Lie ee ea quia uy Kite ag a) =) A O ms) 4 aa ae = pa O bu Z 2 te < O > A aa ed O i) Lx O Z = O Y pe O bu LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM NATURAL HISTORY Be + hot Phe BONG 5) re , d U. S. DEPARTMENT ‘OF AGRICULTURE. Al ry, 2 {}\r ‘ ' Department Bulletins Nos. 851-875. WITH CONTENTS AND INDEX, PREPARED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF JOHN L. COBBS, JR., CHIEF, DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS. TD (<=> << WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. 1922, (xGayt 6 A - siycatno9 ee gb. YOTRETE Ath an pea ‘ eee at aa bo ee ODE EIS ie 0 re wh a7 oh, rw ie CONTENTS. Page. * DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 851.—Cost or Propucring APPLES IN Five CouUNTIES IN WESTERN NEw Yorxk, 1910-1915: BNET EST CULT TFT a seh ce a Ie i ch Sl A9OIR OT 1 Pe SiTpTNN TTT Sg TPaV PN OTR ASE STU Sv le a lM Se eT 3 Mabor 222 estes eal i oe ae ie EO EO 00. OO Ait Poste 4 Farm investment__-______ arth NONI T) SRI SS CREO! eS 1b COMET, eC 5 Farm organization____ pee adei ll Laie rod wlan opal eleale eo ET i 7 FNC MORGCHAT GSM aie ei a ee ae ‘eee UIE SS Se AE AE ae 9 Orchard management__________ TRE AeA OS ATMS CE TED i VAIS ENP COWL ce MIB Se Peo fyict 29 Summary of costs____________- ae 2 pavetwo tions] edt Va are 39 Influence of yield per acre on cost per barrel___ earl Deposit 43 Pricesenecerved: fon. truites ook a oy bes apie wey he weeny Fb oe eee hias 46 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 852.—THE FLow oF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE: Introduction: __ plan Haat BORED Sat 08 Pes le ty corr ah pe ee al Nomenclatures.] 23 eee is see Repeat eat yt eco: a 2 SENOS ACL Ol OX Se MN Ce NE eI LY AE a BP Netey eae Oe 3 Part 1. Flow of water in pressure pipes SOOM 20) a SI SF INI C2) sl SU 5 Formulas for flow of water in concrete pressure pipe shea ela peste NU 5 Opinions of engineers regarding the carrying capacity of con- erete pipe —-_______ EN. “Sp UR MROON e Jus 9 Necessary field data for determining the retardation elements of various formulas________ SS a eae MRA vn nis serine wd. 1 Scope of the experiments_______._______________ geigane 13 Hquipment and methods employed in collecting and interpret- FHya\ee> VIDVENG LS CaM ehh NA RIOR gata aye ley hg eo) Fag 13 EHlements of experiments for the determination of friction losses in conerete pipes, flowing full______ APE ED Sa eds hia Ey 20 Deseriptions of pipes_____ = ear tas aoa ap ear tee a ede meals NS 25 Analysis of the experimental ‘data: ae SRR ay ui 45 Effect of age upon carrying capacity__ 25 SBA again aia ine ein lye 49 Capacity of concrete pipes________________ Ng Megan th Se 51 Hstimate diagrams and tables; solutions for typical. pipe problems__ 54 Comparison of the various formulas_-___—____=-- = ee 62 Capacity of concrete pipe compared with that of wood-stave, cast- apo and riveted steel pipe__________ HN Deh gets. ed aes AO, eg OT ea 65 Hart 2MlOw Of Weiter inyerade dine pLpCSue . x.) 2 ws we '66 Description/of pipes se. 2 ae ESV SEE Gna ECD au (ele CGMEMISTONShA sy Sues Ri = fe RA ed oad Te ae hee Ad A 7 Acknowledgments_____-_-__-___ St RII Sete PSOne AMIS ELEN Ry GON HENRY 3 76 Appendix ________ ees anieess NEO COE NU, 20ND OW Discussion of “ Flow of water in concrete pipe” ila RSPEI SNUL Cse For a A BPA ND 92 Discussion by Mr. Allen____ i BS Cat ea Sea eA AA 92 Discussion by Mr. Bent_______ _. gees eta Galas yd Conley legate 93 Discussion by Mr: Minkle__.- S22 Meat inb dian dd C4 93 Discussion by Mr. Hazen____________ See OND DOEOL USN Ode: 96 Discussion by Mr) Lippincott. 22208) ie ti ed = b DOLE Ot 98 Diseussronmby Mars Newell ei 2) ees 2 med ONE SINS DD EO AE ONT 100 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 853.—THE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF HARMS IN NORTHWESTERN PENNSYLVANTA: Obj echiol Studiye susie Ss OST Oe ae Bl in DVigethc lagna Sen Ng NAGA, tans Man Mehl pe il SUM Ve Olene SUES s = uu il kn. aie i ae OA TONS SUI a 2 Area studiedsg 2105 tious oe Hy Bea ics Soh olathe ch A Pal Sheu EU deat ial 4 Classification of farms_ TN AI stiS a Soa er ch ai he Nea a Mh 6 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 851-875. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 853.—THE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS IN NORTHWESTERN PENNSYLVANIA—Continued. Production per Warm 228 2) DiIStributien of farm areas ere. - Sa ao) Se Distribution sof capital: >" See eee eee Distribution.oOf meceipts= 5.22. Se 2 ee DistributionvorceopPanecal..- Seer or eee eee DISHribULOMMOLMIVeUSTOCK. 2 RRM ae 2 eee Expenses... 20.0iGee Oy eT A Den | eee eee Size of farm, organization; and prolits pael wat eae Se ae Give stock 2 2 a eee BR ie ee Cropss2222 ee Maintenance of Soil fertility....__. Seb... See ee ees Ineome from sourcesioutside the fare 2) See ee Seas Me@nure. 2 a a DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 854.—THE FLOW oF WATER IN DRAIN TILE: Entrodue@biome2 2) eR ae ae Scope-of the investigation. = _ S325 ee eee Conclusions=2=—s- 2 Soe el. We ee es, ye ee Bs eet Description of experimental plant {2=2 ==) ae eee Pumpines:plant= 2). 2. 2. _ eee, ee ee SHIP Data MES) ys epee ta SA ee cans ee a Weirg2 222222257 oe. Sa ES rs Hook gauges ze wo TS tae en WWM 2 eee a a eae Method of changing grade__________ Se bayine the tile = 920 ee ee ee eee Covering; the tile 22-7 _ SRR 2 Piezometers’ and piezometer tubes= = 2-2" = 222s eer eee eee INGINEN CLAN G . e __ e ee ae e e (gOS Hormulse Lor) HOW, OL WAGE Lie C12 Ten tell eee ee Necessary data for comparing velocity formule____________________ Mean Veloerty. oe SA i ee ee ee Hydraulic erade or slope... 222) a ee Internal sizecot Grain til ese eee eae eee Actual depth’ Of Mow —— S22 Se a Eee a eee ae ee ee ee Methods of conductines tesis= ===. aes Sa Measurement-of mean velocity... 3225 2ea = Sa ee ae ee Results: Of ‘ObServationstss 2s) _ ee a eee DiScCussion Of ‘COMpuUtanhons.— == _ “Sue. Ss ee eee ee Mormiul se” LOW Leni Oya fey) ee se Formule for tile fowime partly’ tulle 2s eee Comparison of various formule Se ee ee Loss"of head in ‘catch basins. =" Te ee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN NO. SAPONIFIED CRESOL SOLUTIONS: Properties, Of MEXTUTES) wibby LOSIN GSO a Observations on speed or dilution Sas ee Cost of materials used=_222- ee See SUMMATY 222 2 ee a DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No, 856.—CURRANT-GRAPE GROWING: A PROMISING New INDUSTRY: Historical. introductions. ree ee Importance of the currant industry in Greece-__-+______=_____==__ Imports of currants into the United States_22=- = 22>) 22s ake Hxplorer’s| notes on Gurrent grapes222.______ = =e eee Currant-erape, VaTiChles,. $53. -—- jaSoe ee BS SOL NO of Panariti CULES bts sted ig i LS ap a el a Conditions ‘suited to Pxeeti eorvitd Culturés2 + 2a 2 sss eee Analysis of the soil of the Fresno Experiment Vineyard__-__-_____- Preparation of the soil, planting, and culture of currant vineyards__- Pruning and training the vines. .32-_ 2 ee ees OUR Co bo WOW IADUIPWWHH CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 856.—CURRANT-GRAPE GROWING: A PROMISING New InDustry—Continued. VSSTUiAy Sari tae) nS) NAL mS apelin eg a aL all egg Congeniality of the Panariti variety to phylloxera-resistant stocks__~ Harvestine) ‘and, Curing “Currants = saa sees seers Lica Sauls DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 857.—A Mopiriep BOERNER SAMPLER: SE VaviE GEOG LOCUS LM ANN PD aa AG RMR A a AGN SAG I gl lla TEES CPT EAM ag Tp VA RS De i NS aa (ESTER ESL Ut Sa SRN _ a yb pA, WS i a eg (GA MOMNE Leys Ley yal Gere ail ak et aimee een BT OA a LO WMUOLOUtAIMyther Sampler Sass ee ee ae DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 858.—REQUIREMENTS AND Cost OF PRODUCING MARKET MILK IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA: Churdetereand: scope Of they work. See ET ee ee Methods used in obtaining the data_____ con ps gn ee a Deseription of herds__________-___- a Nn an gaa Med ct Requirements for producing 100 pounds of NOON Keovatr Se oat ira ey nue oes Oe Requirements for keeping a cow one year__________________________ RequIIFEMentsH tor wkeeping sa” ull. — emer OA 8 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 871.—THE Dry-koT oF INCENSE CEDAR: Importance, iof incense \cedatr- 2 ee eee Total-loss” factors=—==22t—e 2k _ SS ee Sfocee, Method of collecting datam = 222) __ Sees Sea ae ee ee Secondary Tots se eee Se _ _ ee ee eee ee The dpy=rots 22 a ESS es __ ee ee ee Application ‘of “results 2s eee eee eee Relative aimpontancer ot vary-1ot ess ee Control: of dny-rots 22 __ Sa ee ee Summary 2 er _ ee ae Se ee ee Literature “cited 2s 5 a | ee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 872.—INSEcT CoNTROL IN FLOUR MILLS: Mill insect (conditions, bettered = en ee eee Incentive: leading. fo. msect sanitation = = 2 a Mediterranean: ounesmotin_— ee ee Methods Of control=_ 38.) |... 2 Preventive .NeASlWeS= =. 2-. e Natural control) bie Davasites__2. 22-2 o ee Artificial “control MeaAsures____ =. 5 te eee Conclusion 72... 3-7 + 30. ae se a ea a ee DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 873.—THE SHRINKAGE OF MARKET Hay: Introduction___..- 2 2 2 See ee spe ee ee ee ee eee Resumé of.data on shrinkage: 222. 2222.22 20 ee Factors affecting determination of shrinkage________________-_______ Shrinkage of newly mown hay 225 ae a eee Loss-ot.dry matter — "> Se ae) bo) ic) oO Lo bo bo bo CURR OO SOL + GOAN AMO PWNH CONTENTS DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 873.—THE SHRINKAGE OF MARKET Hay—Con. Methods of making hay to prevent unnecessary shrinkage___________ Bera aliton's Ou rules for measuring shrinkage________-_______ ey NEN SD EASE SSI ac GION NSO) a AS A DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 874.—FarM LAND VALUES IN IOWA: Purpose, scope, and method of investigation_-_______________________ Trend of land values in the country as a whole__ OES RN Increase in the average value per acre of Iowa farm land since 1850__ Range of prices paid SL OMe uatte TaN EDT Cl Mss ee Aa a a A Hebe Extent of activity in buying and selling farms, -1919_ NSAI SUINE OB ANN IAs Persons engaged in buying and selling ___ oP re ge) eee Division of increment between different classes_ RSLS UPON) Ea ea ce MN STATINS O fee Sel seas NA aa si A a palates Farm earnings and incomes of owners, tenants, and landlords, 1913, ROM yO TiS egal OG eae ree Oe NORE a lune) a eke The farmer's power of accumuiation as indicated by data on net NROTETEL AY Ms a SAIC ERR RES Va Ef Ma pps Summary of causes and probable effects of the “ boom ”___-_________ DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 875.—CotTton BoLtt WEEVIL CONTROL BY THE USE OF POISON: Principles governing poisoning operation___________________________ SGT Clin fy OL SOMMY CONUS Ce eee eae Red ie a te HELO ARH O NANO [0 liya]O OMS O Vaasa IR ss ee Organization of poisoning operation________ Les eda ae eee ES ES Dushinsymachin ery lO SCs 2 ss ow ks Re ee a Features to be noted in purchasing cotton-dusting machinery________ WOSTHO MH OTS OTM See OM Ase cc I Gains to be expected from poisoning_______________________________ Advisability of poisoning under present conditions_________________ Control of the cotton leafworm and fall army worm with calcium ETE © TVA fees a iat ti isis Eda: Ry ‘ rd. Pints: pS ie ur aut: ono nome vas 0 Ho: 3 ; Tet ae oe i Be Be: ‘eeacrant ae. may eA arte? Wins tye «lot Haier eA i ; : res eh . = hei t Se ad +" olte: § Lie FR og Me a otorvr « Bees! (GAL Went ps. hae mot Ay babe a pints Es ae ey pri ip : 7 he Pm, 2 il a aie ie eee). Se \ Apes , Baiads: de ae : hia ATE eight sent ae Medes 734. ‘i 40. gost hi ie me : 5 ‘ ‘ ae J oa We atta. e's gh ‘ewe: “aly Hut AO ASH a) padi an TER a Sa eo isa” “oct 1 wd i ane a a “ne VP id Eon ¥ need thaoater ‘oka A Git i. ¢ re. penne PTaE degli gaieutr (0 ikea os ee 2 areata aeains teem, — Oa ae ’ a + ¥ a . - . ae = Poy ate Se ae eres leh ae SE sie ony: eo Ne ae hi HLGD - ee S Pi sche tore rascal: Aap ae we ag Sa, ire selaciie! neatiod arith» oy: es Nie . iT? ; \ ae ae ea ‘é ’ Lior : iy) eae F es ae a > . he ‘ ' Paria) y : ‘ ; “8 s j oe . u } ae , wp] : a Pi t <4 ‘ ’ sath P 5 ; { ra A * * > » ‘ } 4 J we , t Ry By oh m # i Fi sar? p Aare ey i it pe i 2 ‘ ae ™ Leta pert . fi ride Of v¢ PRCTOrS a erin ; news) ph 1 — £ INDEX. -_——_- Accounts, ledger, for creameries, classification, bulletin by George O. Knapp, Burton B. Mason, and A. V. Swarthout__ Acids, tomato, investigations and determinations_____________ Aiz sponsa. See Duck, wood. Alfalfa hay, shrinkage, studies, Kansas experiment station___~_ micae food ot shoal-water ducks: —_ Bae ie ie eens ALLEN, KENNETH, discussion of flow of water in concrete pipe_ ALLERMAN, DuDLEy, bulletin on “ Marketing eastern grapes ”’__ Anatinae. See Ducks, shoal-water. Anitsrdesiucnion) byiStarlings 2.20 ae eee ae Appalachian Mountain Region, beef production, studies in West Apple orchards, in western New York, size, age of trees, Wanlebies/ andi yieldsuesta. sis se ee ee ea Apples— cull, utilization, western New York, and prices__________ grading, use of sizing machine, note____-_____-_-_________ growing, labor cost, western New York__________________ handling, picking, sorting, packing, and hauling, costs____ FATA CLTS YANO Wom AUTEN ID OS eS at ee spraying with Pickering sprays and Bordeaux mixture, Comparisonvoteyresultge. toe SE a ee yield per acre, relation to cost per barrel________________ Aqueducts, concrete pipe, water flow in, bulletin by Fred C. STUDY 3 a a NEY eS ae Ey aes Arizona, hay, shrinkage in stack, experiment_________________ Arkansas, grape shipments, 1916-1919, and destinations______ Arlington farm, studies of tile drainage, exceptional plant____ Arsenate, calcium— NSeuiMEcontrolsot Holl weevil=- USeHINEecoOnLroliok Cobton Insects. — wee Arum seeds, food of shoal-water ducks_____________________ Atlantic States, grapes, production and marketing___________ Austria, Perlmoos Cement Works, water-conduit system, ex- UIRTON ACH OTD A eS UL tS eee ata sah hes oe Back, HE. A., bulletin on ‘‘ Insect control in flour mills ”______ Bain, J. B., and R. J. Posson, bulletin on “ Requirements and eost of producing market milk in northwestern Indiana ’__ Baldpate— PILES OAITOD ep re pss Naat Baye Oot ok Sd a If ea gescriphonm and food habits. = 322" Vay ee eae Baltimore, market preferences in grapes__________________ BaRGHAUSEN, J. F., and MaANiLey Stockton, bulletin on “A peach-sizine machimed? . ves. a eee 91395—22 2 Bulletin No. Page. 865 1-40 8-9, 10, $59 11,16 873 2-3 5, 12, 20, ORT tor 852 92 861 1-61. 23-24, 868 { 43, 63 870 3-20 851 9-412 851 34-87 864 1 4,18, 21, 8512 27, 30. 40-41 851 29-29 868 29-89 aa gine $51 147 866 -29-87 851. 43-45 852 1-100 873 5 [washes oH desis set 854 58 875 3-29 875 29 B62 ee. Sn51 861 48-49 852 —-24, 79 872 1-40 858 1-31 862 10 10-16, 862 { 49-67 861 51 864 1-6 pe 2 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 851-875, Barium-water sprays, comparisons with Pickering and Bor- GERERASOED VS? 22 Sees Ss a _ Barley— density— spike— density, inheritance in hybrids; records. =—+ 24a eae eer ee inheritance studies, bulletin by H. K. Hayes and Barry V-Harlan ... Se e, r . Jee a eg pure-line parents and progeny records of many Varietiest) 004-2 2) _ Sa 2 ee eee length of internode in rachis, inheritance, bulletin by Be i. Hayes and Harry ViaeHarlan- 22 Barleys, classification by length of internode in rachis spike, historical,notes2 0 225 Se Re ER ee Baskets, climax, standard dimensions Bazin formula, water flow in pipes Beans, castor decortication, heating, pressing, ete., for castor oil See also Castor beans. Beef, production in Appalachian Mountain region, studies in West ‘Vireinigw2? 22050 24a eee ee ee Beetle, grain, sawtoothed, flour-mill pest, control Beetles— destruction by starlings HOUT control amy mail ss ee _ eee TOOU Ok Shoal Water GuCKS ===. Sa eee Bent, ArrHur §., discussion of flow of water in concrete pipe__ Berries, injury byzstanhines22:._ == Se Billbugs, destruction’ by star — ——————————_———————— Birds— food habits, list of Department publications_____________ injury to cherries, comparisons of different species_______ wild, food habits, list of Department publications________ “ Black. substitute, “nature. 222 32 ee Bluebirds,{ relation, to starlings _-—.. 2222 eee ee eee Bluestone. See Copper sulphate. Blue-wing. See Teal, blue-winged. Boerner, E. G., and HE. H. Ropss, bulletin on “A modified Boerner.sampler L222 2) _ _ a ee ee Boll weevil— control by use of poison, bulletin by B. R. Coad and T. PY Cassichy sah ren RD ES poisoning— cost, and ‘eains#to bévexpectedee_ seater ee Principles: -224=4RH==+s>~. __seee ee ee 300kkeeping— definition, scope; -ete’ “discussion 22222 Ei eee ledger accounts for creameries, classification, bulletin by George O. Knapp, Burton B. Mason, and A. V. Swarth- Ota: os Se = ee ee a ae “Boom.” Iowa farm lands, extent of activity in land sales, ete_ Bordeaux mixture, comparison with Pickering sprays, results_ Boston, market preferences in grapes_.=-____==___ = = 30xrckr, J. S., bulletin on “The dry rot of incense cedar”’_____ Bulletin No. Page. 14-16, 19, 866) 22) 30, 31, 38 369 3-14 869 1-2 869 9-15 869 1-26 869 6-8 869 1-26 69 1-3 861 11 852 66 867 9-31 370 3-20 872° 27-39 16-20, 42, 363 44, 60-63 872 27-89 (9,15, 21, 8624 27) 30, 36. (47) 60-68 852 92 868 29 868 17, 42, 68 862 68 868 28 868 67 ah 38 46, 47, 868 { 50, 51, 58 857 1-8 875 1-31 875 26-28 875 1-2 865 88-40 865 1-40 874 3-9 866. 8-45 861 51 871 1-58 872 —-27-89 S51 | 29 INDEX. Buckwheat and rye, cover crop for apple orchard, value and seeding_—___-________________ eS Mm A es a iBuesyitood of shoal-water duckssi22ss222 sess. ee Bull, requirements for keeping per Season and per year___ Buttonbush, seed, food of shoal-water ducks____-________-__~ @zccllenmour-millypest,), controle. (=. ese ee Calcium arsenate— effect on man and animals, precautions_______________- requirements for boll weevil poisoning____--_____________ wseMnecontrol o£ cotton insects.____.. “Bees 2 California— dry-wine section, grape-drying practices_________________ forests of incense cedar stands and losses from dry rot___ Fresno Experiment Vineyard, currant grapes, growing____ UO S ODE ater Rae Meet os oS te ek eee _ ee ee eS water conduit systems, examination and results_________ Calves, raising, credit against cost of milk_-________________-_ Wanada, water conduit systems, examination and results_ Carapias, destruction by Starlings... _.. au ie _eiiwol yews Canoonusenim bleaching’, castor oll. =. — aa ee Cars, loading with grapes, directions_____-_________________ Cassipy, T. P., and B. R. Coan, bulletin on “ Cotton boll weevil COMETOlLs byesuhe USeyOr POlSOMia 222. 2 MI ee Castor beans-— consumption in principal oil-producing countries__________ exports and imports, 1910-1919, discussion and tables____ - OTE CUNV AMIN 5 6) O CENTOS ee eye ee MSHeCHLOMVANG, VAlWA ONS see 2) a a eee WOISOnOMS Quality, NOteL 22 Ts ee HoOmMACces TheALMeNnt, NOE 2220s oe. ee ee FONE CONDE TEL ESESS ae A Lk Oe NU LA, RI SU Re a epettem Castor oil— NCLCA AK CAI SCS 2 scsi Beta LES gk I ay ee Sn American, comparison with imported product____________ DT SSCS AES POE eT SRR ea a yaaa et extraction— UML: TENA TLL ay cA AINE VRRP? a ci me Nn aie JATONS) CLAN ra CS ge ha IT A SMS Hise, Ne Ry oe Government plant at Gainesville, Fla., consumption of Deansand output LOO =LO1Oe a) a ip ae eee ae IMOUStLy. OUlleLin Dy. Jee Shrader! sake Se ee manufacture details and apparatug________________.__ medicinal use, preparation of potion, ete________________ mixin swithemineral oils, dimiculty_— Be plant, description and characteristics___________________ properties, analyses and specifications__.________________ SOND a RE "ARIE A oO RR sulphur-treated, vulcanizing for mixture with rubber_____ RISE Soi LINGUS bres iter le OL yi) IR ae gi ee ee ltl Bulletin No, Page. 851 19 9, 862 Fe 27, 30, 36, 46, 59 867 22, 28-80 861 | 12-13 875 131 867 3.7 867 3 S67 6 867 7-9 867 2 867 26 867 2, 27 867 2-3. 97 867 34 867 27, 31-34 867 28-31 867 23-26 867 39 867 1-40 867 9-13 867 40 867 36 867 1D 867 27, 31-34 S67 19) 867 38 867 35—40 854 49-50 22-23, 39, ea 44, 65 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 851-875, Cattle— feeding, gains and losses on different winter rations, ex- MemmentS 20S _ 25 ee eee ee pasture, gains and losses, influence of winter feeding___- rations in winter, and effect on pasture gains later, bul- letin by BH. W. Sheets, and R. H. Tuckwiller__--______ Cedar, incense— age relation: to dry-rot, infection se=---. ee decay caused by dry rot and other diseases______-__~____ dry-rot, bulletin by JS: Boyee-ss=s=— 42 Se eee - injuries by fire, frost, lightning, pruning, ete______-_____~_ scaling and marking for control of dry-rot__--__-_------__- @elers. food of Shoal-water ducks=- _ Saket s 2 Se eee Cellulose, nitrate ‘‘ dope,” treatment with castor oil, improve- TMEIIG, MOC. 2 2) SO eee i I | ERE)» Eb Raye ak re Cement, tire— DIEDIALAGLON With wertstor one. See sy ee uSse.or CAStorOllee2* 2" "= - +S - Ae ee See ee Chaulelasmus streperus. See Gadwall. Chautauqua-Erie grape belt, grape production and marketing, ISlLOLy,| ete. ee ee | ee eee Wherries, destruction by Starlines. ee eee @hezy formula, water flow. in pipes 222)" eae eee Chicago, market preferences in grapeS._.-__________________ China, castor beans, production and exports_________________ Cinnamon teal. See Teal, cinnamon. Clover— cover crop for apple orchards: Sess s eae eee hay, shrinkage, studies at experiment stations__________ leaf weevils, destruction by starlings__________._-_-________ Coan, B. R., and T. P. Cassipy, bulletin on ‘“‘ Cotton boll weevil control bythe use Of poIson = _ an a= eee Codling moth, “control im applevorchamls2 == =a eee Colorado— : hay, shrinkage in stack, experiment__---—-________=____ Nederland, water-conduit system, exanrination and results_ Concrete pipe— CORStLUCHLON “HMG USE ae a eee eR flow of water in, bulletin by Fred C. Scobey and others__ Gonifers, key-to'common kinds... ee ee Containers, grape, standard sizes and shapes____--___________ CooxK, ‘CE ., bulléetinton.. Pickering sarayay eee Coontail, food of shoal-water ducks____2- 322). Be ee Cooperation— grain elevator companies, organization, bulletin by J. M. Meblvand ‘O:" Bi desness2 2: 2 ee ee ees eee marketin= grapes ae 2ePss 2) ome ee eee | Le Copper— adherence to plantsrin “spraying sees 222 eee sprays, comparison of Bordeaux and Pickering, experi- TONES Lee ee re NR ieee ne BER Res eh ee sulphate— Ly Sprays, Study of eiicicncy ._se=2-- See eee stock solution, directions for making________________ Corinth grapes. See Grape, currant. Bulletin No. Page. | 8-10, 11— _ 412, 13-14, 870 16-20 10-11, 970{ 12-13, 14 870 1-20 hi 24-37, S714 48, 53-55 871: 13-20 871 1-58 871. «387-49 Beli 1-55 871 8 Gi lode 128/51 7, 13, 35, s62{ 44, 50 867 39 867 39 867 37 861 26-29 26-28, 8684 39, 44 852 6 861 50 867 5 851 19 873 4-8 16-17, 368 | 42, 62, 63 875 1-31 851 25-26 873 5 852—ts«GS, TZ. 852 3,4,9-16 852 1-100 863 38-89 861. 10-12 866 1-47 Bea, s62{ 42, 52 860 1-40 861 19-20 17-21, 25- 866! 27, 32-36, 40-42 866 $42 866 7-8 866 7, 42-43 INDEX. Corn— hoodsor shoal-watersduckse. 2222 oS Be eee ALAN T NTE VO NY ESR TTP) MANOS Sl BONS IO PR eR SOU ae ee en Cotton— es boll weevil. See Boll weevil. dusting for boll weevil, directions, amount, time, sched- TMSCCHS EDU MICATIONS: /1iSte ese ae Cottonseed meal, value in cattle feeds___________________-__ Cover crops, orchard, western New York, methods and cost__ Cow, keeping requirements for one year___-___---------__~-_ @ows, depreciation periSeasomeiss 0 a Cranberries, spraying with Pickering sprays and Bordeaux Mo FO) 860 2-5 INCOME DION OUESTGESOULECES! seo.) RES See ee es 853 30.31 incomes in lowa, 1918, 1915, 1918, 1919___- 874. 20-33 Towa, net worth and earning power, data________________ 874 BB Sir Farms— apple, western New York, investments, acreage, ete.______ 851 5-7 general, receipts, expenses, etc., comparison with dairy FRED ISTO Set ete Manresa Mare ute 2 VE AE ONT RA fi 3{ 110, irs Acer? iit eran 13-19, 23 Iowa, buying and selling during “boom” of 1919_________ 874 8-9 organization and management, northwestern Pennsylvania, bulletin by Earl D. Strait and H. M. Dixon____________ 853 1-32 Pennsylvania, distribution of area, capital, live stock, ete. 853 12-16 Feed— dairy cows, kinds, quantity and prices, average cost per OT era a tL a a Ae co an ee EA ee BOG ok 858 19-20 SECCTS! COSE, AMG Sad Sct Lis ey oi goa! RI a eA pe ele 870) 14-20 units, computation for various feeds, note_______________ 853 Patt Fence posts, treatment, study for rural schools______________ 863 16 Fertilizer, constituents in cow manure, determination________ 858 24-26 Fertilizers— apple orchard, use, cost and results_____________________ 851 14-18 tomato growing, practices in Florida___________________ 859 3-4 use on farms in northwestern Pennsylvania____________ 853 28-29 FINKLE, FE. C., discussion of flow of water in concrete pipe__ 852 83-96 Fire— © eontrol, for prevention of injury and diseases of trees___ 871 49-50 imgury, to-incense cedarisi2a: Jere TMB. Hee he Bien 871 38-39 protection for woodlands, lesson for rural schools_______ 863 20-23 Fires, forest, prevention rules______________________________ 863. 20, 22 Flickers, relation to starlings_______________________________ 868 47, 50, 51 Flies— destruction) by. Starlings yim (sy ey ie ee 868 24-25, 65 9, 15, 21, LOO Ob Shoal-wate ry GUC Gms eres pr hone ep bear AR ante ye eo a 30, 36, 48, 63 Florida— Gainesville, castor-oil plant, consumption of castor beans, Mi OULDUEMeLC:, 1 OLO ANG 1 Pesbiscrg i, AMM lest pass sn cee 867 D tomato— growing and shipping to market, practices___________ 859 3-7 TDL Sitateiy sats MTN Tce a a I eA) 859 1-2 Flour— ; mMimMication wath hydrocyanic acid 2. sees ee sees eas 872 27 mills, insect control, bulletin by E. A. Back______________ 872 1-40 moth, Mediterranean, introduction, life history and control 872 2-40 sacks, handling to avoid insect infestation_______________ 872 8-10 Hiy paper, castor-oil- ingredient__ 22 iat ewe ay, 867 39 Fomes igniarius, injury to trees and rapidity of spread______ 871. 20-22 Food— ; Saplak Ge duck, determination by stomach content_________________ 862, 18, a oa AE ) habits, American shoal-water ducks, seven species; bulletin DyeDowslacg@ xia O thee ee. a bee ee E 862 1-68 8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 851-875. Bulletin Forest, trees— No. Page. Hropacation, andunlantine 3 2 saa. 863 30-31 types and classes, study, and collection of specimens______ 863 4-9 Forestry— illustrative material, directions for collection____________ 863 3: information sources, and list of publications_____________ 8638 2,34-36 lessons on home woodlands, bulletin by Wilbur R. Mattoon and | AlVin. Dies swe ee FN 863 1-46 rotations in harvesting trees, application to incense cedar. 871 54-55 State OMmcials: dineciory—--— = _ a ee eee 863 36-37 economic values, lesson for rural schools_—______________ 863 10-13 fires; prevention; mules: =e. = 24. ewe ee 863 20, 22 protection against fires, live stock, insects, ete, study____ 863 20-23 reproduction methods, lesson for rural schools___________ 863 26-31 France, Dijon, water-conduit system, examination and results. 852 23, 79 Hreezino} insect, ton control an tlourn millcees 22s eee 872 39 Wrst, injury tonmecense cedat. ==. a ee ee 871 39-40 Fruit— farms, apple growing in western New York, cost, ete____ S851 2-47 thinning, customs in western New York apple orchards__-__ 851. 29-93 destruction by starlings s68{ 1 Bel, m ; i ORO E TS tga — “ratte ont ako ed ane ~ | 43, 57-58 wild, food of starlings and/other bindsSe-2- 3) 2 eee 868 ae WIA pDINS IM UnIOUS elects: Noe. _ 859 27 Fuller’s earth, use in bleaching castor oilt_______+___u__ 867 22, 29 Humication-sHour mills; directions=...... 26 eee 872 I 2 2Ar¢ Fungous diseases, grape, spraying experiments and results____ 866 29-29 Fungus— dry-rot, of incense cedar, description, spread, and results__ 871 S49 ring-scale, association with dry-rot of cedar__.___________ 871 16-20 GARRIELSON, I. N., and H. R. Katmpacn, bulletin on ‘‘ Eeonomic value of the starling in the. United States ”’__2. _- =) ses 868 1-66 Gadwall— description and “food habits 2 2s). lie eee) ee eee 862 2-10,49-67 distribution, and breeding range in United States_________ 862 2 Game, shoal-water ducks, food habits of seven specieS_________ 862, 10-68 Gas, hydrocyanic-acid, fumigation, details and instructions____ 872 11-27 Grading— grain, use of Boerner modified sampler___________________ 857 48 peach, sizing machine, construction and operation, bulletin by Manley Stockton and J. F. Barghausen______________ 864 1-6 Grafting, grapes, currant, tests of different stocks_____________ 856 12-15 Grain— elevator companies, cooperative, organization, bulletin by J. MM. Mehl and OB Jesnessae Se ees eee 860 140 STAIN, USE OL SAMUPLES emily OT tet CO western ee 857 34 sampler— modified Boerner, care, directions for making, ete_____ 857 8 modified Boerner, description and operation__________ S857 4-8 small, injury Dy. StArlMessee i aes. eas tee yep eee eee 868 34 6, 12, 19, Grams, food (of Shoal-watemducks: > 22 ee ae eee so] 24, 33, 40, 50 Grape— Catawba, description, demand, and commercial status_____ 861 6-7 Champion, description, and quality22le__~~-___-__ 861 8 Concord, description, quality, and demand________________ 861 5 Delaware, description, quality, and demand__-_-_-..__-____ 861 7 juice, factories, purehases of erapes#2-2=- === ees 861 20-21 Moore, description, quality, and demand________.--_______ 861 7-8 Niagara, description, quality, and demand____-___-_______-_ 861 6 of Corinth. See Grapes, currant. ; Worden, description and quality.___-- 241-20 a ee 861 8 INDEX. 9 Bulletin Grapes— No. Page, car lots, marketing mefhods 422k ay Bee eae 861 16-26 commercial production, changes in markets, ete.__________ 861 2-3 containers, standard sizes and shapes_________-__________ 861. 11 currant drying, practices in different countries_______________ 856 15-16 grafting, tests of different stocks_____+___-_._-______ 856 Dry growing, bulletin by George C. Husmann___-_-__-______ 856 1-16 growing in United States, localities, soils, and culture__ 856 7-15 MDE ES 111% fe AC ULI Se ee Les <7 De repr y aise ey 856 15-16 MIStOLICA NOLES: Carlyanalies, Ci@meee as ssa tae 856 1-2 planting, pruning, ringing, etc., directions____________ 356 9-12 development of varieties in United States________________ $61 1-2 eastern-— commercial varieties, description and uses___________ 861 5-9 marketing, bulletin by Dudley Allerfon______________ 861 1-61 producing sections, descriptions_____________________ 861 26-53 SOU. Shipments,, 191 G—1'9 10 seers js yes A re ak re Perel ends 861 4 34, 38, 44, | 46, 48, 49 European, production district and varieties in United SURES Se ee onan. ieg TL Ve eee sees 861 al PUY oye Slarlings_ eMnsl irre Gv) Wee: He Otere ect cent in 868 30-31 Jabrusea. See Grapes, eastern. marketing methods and channels________________________ 861 13-26 Marscn@inte DLOGUECHONLGISELICh=-—_ “ae 2 ae eee 861 al preparation for market, picking, trimming, and packing... _—s_- 861. 9-13 sales— FenMNSrand «COMLEACIS 22425." oe neers 861 21-26 SLAVE JULECO oA CLOLIES HUG ON). ARM pT Serpette 861 20-21 selling— Dy carloads. _ Pree) 2. as. rl ng Pony 861 18-26 DY SEOW CES 222 Hata ety: ns a aire foetus xeey't 861 14-16 shipments— destinations, by cities and by States, table____________ 861 55-61 on consignment and on contract__-____4=____+______-- 861 16-18 spraying with Pickering sprays and Bordeaux mixture, COMpPAmisONnsoLwesulis. Me = a Se Dg har) 866 22-29 stocks, resistant to phylloxera, importance______________ 856 7,12-15 RY DES MCE Terent. SCCbiOnS/=— 02 ae ee Slee 861 afl use mediet, Increasensjvaleo! fee Alan selieojanl ae0_ 861 2,3, 4 vinifera type, production in California___________________ 861 5 le a ‘Grasses, food, of shoal-water ducks___-@-__»§__ === 8624 18, 24, 29, 33, 40, 50 Grasshoppers, destruction by starlings______________ Gray— duck. See Gadwall. L. C., and O. G. Lroyp, bulletin on “ Farm land values FETE Os VWied ae tee ee emia ire 2 | 2 | eae aR ASS Ol Sect Ne ON 874 Gquecce Currant-oTrape Industhy. =. — see ee ee 856 Green-wing. See Teal, green winged. HARLAN, Harry V., and H. K. HaAyss, bulletin on “ The inherit- ance of the length of internode in the rachis of the barley SPOTS a A hs Bataan Relea geile loys a aApiatenttle hat EU, oerad 869 EM PVeShINe. “STADeS) GIL eChONS ss. Mmel MIRRIVET hE ee 861 Hauling— apples in barrels, practices in New York_________________ 851 coal, source of outside income for farmers_______________ 853 Pipes rGlation ito Starlingse2 jiu. eee 868 Hay— euring— method to prevent undue shrinkage________________ 873 terms used by -crowers 5). ae ee 873 868 { 20-22, 39, 42, 44, 64 145 2-3 10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 851-875. Hay—Continued. BONe Page cutting, time, relation to water content______-_) 873 19 gain ini weight in stack and barn. 22020 20) 5 2h iis 873 i . ; 34, Srewers, lossitromrlshrinkaaes = 2 See Se 8738 24-27, : , ; 382-38: growing in Pennsylvania, Mercer County and vicinity__.__ 858 26 loss of dry matter, causes, etess:..82 4) savas) i eee 873 15-18. : i 1, 3-4, losses by shrinkage, importance to producers and dealers__ 873 24-28, : : 32-33 market, shrinkage, bulletin by H. B. McClure____________ 873 1-33 quality} terms: used2 cs. ios. pa AeA don |. ot ee AD 873 380-32 shrinkage— atmospheric: humidity as bfactorsetsse1h Weer ie 873 12-13 data from experiments at,Experiment Stations______ 873 4-8. determination, factors affecting_.________-_=-_ 873 8-14 measurement rules, limitabionssee=— = ae 873 21-23 Spontaneous combustion, causes, temperatures, ete________ 873 I es storage, practices to prevent undue shrinkage___-________ 873 water content— ab WVARLOUSPSLAZES On CUIGIINo: _“_a eee ae eee 873 8-12 determination for measurement of shrinkage________ Hayes, H. K., and Harry V. Harwan, bulletin on “ The in- heritance of the length of internode in the rachis of the barley spike 2 23 ees o_o eye ep as Haymaking, methods to prevent undue shrinkage____________ Ha4zEN, ALLEN, discussion of flow of water in concrete pipe____ Heartwood,\srot spread 2222. 222) _ JN, ee Heat, use in control of flour-mill insects, directions and experi- Hemiptera, ‘destruction, by. starlings. 22235) ) eae Herbarium, forest, for school work, directions, notes_________ Heredity, internode in rachis of barley spike, bulletin by H. K. Hayes: and“Harry. V..Harlani!s!2). ai aces oor Aer See Hogs, receipts from, on farms in Grove City, Pa., area________ Home, woodlands, forestry lessons on, bulletin by Wilbur R. Mattoon and’ Alvin Dilless). 2-22 | | ee eee HuUSMANN, GerorGE, bulletin on ‘“ Currant-grape growing: A promisineinew. industty22 2-162 ee Se ee Hydrocyanic-acid gas, fumigation, details and instructions____ Hypera punctata, destruction by starling____________________ Idaho— Boise project, water-conduit systems, examinations and grape shipments; 19lG 1OlOs. ae __ | eee Incense cedar. See Cedar incense. Incomes, farms Towa, Odes Oils MOMS, Tie pascal India, castor beans and oil, exports, 1911—-1918__--__________ Indiana, northwestern, market milk production, requirements and cost, bulletin by J. B. Bain and R. J. Posson_==2_)_ = Inks, typewriter, castor-oll@ineredient_.2 22) a2 eee Insects— control in flour mills, bulletin by H. A. Back_-___-______ gamages, fo, TOrest treGs=—=-—- _ ..- Ss 2 ee ee food— of Shoal-water- ducks _ fee ek beni ee eis OLJSPATIN GS-45 20S ese a ee Internode, length in rachis of barley spike, inheritance, bulletin DY HH. ik, ayes and Harry ¥. Harla tees =e 869 1-26 873 18-20 852 96-98 871 «20-22 872 27-89 868 24, 48, 64 868 3, 4-27 869 1-26 853 24 863 1-46 856 1-16 872. «11-27 16-17, 42, 868 { 62, 62 852 ~—«-23, BS 861 3, 49 874 20-88 867 4 858 1-31 867 39 872 1-40 863 1 8,15, 21, 26, 30, 862 196 46-48, 58-65 (15-25, 39, 868 |41-43. 44, (60-65 869 1-26 INDEX. Ilowa— farm lands— fpoom7 1919: cansesiandeffectsees | Uiayeila was ly TIME EINCECASE (STI CO wel ee) ame ee mcs he eerie ee values, bulletin by L. C. Gray and O. G. Lloyd________ grape shipments, 1916-1919 and destinations_____________ Tama District, farm earnings and incomes, 1918, 1915, TGS TASS Se ple kek asap ip a le Warren District, farm earnings and incomes, 1913, 1915, TIS STUY TCS Werle 7 saat ee RMN pe lela ee aa Italy, Naples aqueduct, examination and results______________ JESNESS, O. B., and J. M. Ment, bulletin on ‘“ The organization of cooperative grain elevator companies ”_______-__________ KALMBACH, EK. R., and I. N. GAsBrizrson, bulletin on “‘ Heonomic value of the starling in the United States ”.-___-_________ Kansas— alfalfa hay, shrinkage in various stages of curing, data__ Experiment Station, hay shrinkage, experiments and SHUT CEG ued ea A eh eS ple crea eT CENAI grape shipments, 1916-1919, and destinations____________ ISING EP EeeLNe Lon CASLOL-Oll pOCLON sae en ee Ce Knapp, Grorce O., Burton B. Mason, and A. V. SwArTHouT, bulletin on “A classification of ledger accounts for cream- PTs CSugpe seme. He ee ee ea pail lle igh Peg cdesheili cay IGILCreTOLIMULa Wateny LOW, 1De plDeS. Maes Vs ann Ce eee! Labor— costs, in apple production, western New York ____________ dairy, rates and distribution in milk production________ farm, wages in Iowa, 1914-1918____-___-_-_ incomes, Pennsylvania farms, studies___________________ Laemophloeus minutus, control in flour millgs________________ Land— farm— values in Iowa, bulletin by L. C. Gray and O. G. Lloyd_ See also Farm land. Sales ty LOWal p TERI Gm ata E EL) 2 AS Eee al eNO Gat values in’ United States; by States#-- = sie reise oe Lead arsenate, use in apple spraying___~______________+=_____ Leafworm, cotton, control with calcium arsenate____________ Leather— substitutes, making, use of castor oil_---__-____-_____ HEATING Ne spake CRISOR Ou \vibeee Te ee Leaves, hardwood trees, descriptions_____________________ Ledger accounts, creameries, classification, bulletin by George O. Knapp, Burton B. Mason, and A. V. Swarthout_________- Tibocedrus decurrens. See Cedar, incense. PniohpmanTey nyuiry, bo incense’ cedars 2 2 a a ee Lime-sulphur spray, use in apple orchards, western New York_ Limewater— SAbLUTALC OR OUE TW ATA TOM 202 I a i sprays, Pickering. See Pickering sprays. LIPPINcoTtT, J. B., discussion of flow of water in concrete pipe_ Live stock— damages’ to, woodlands 24 O29 1) A ee CL MS Lert distribution on farms, Grove City, Pa., area, sales of prod- Bulletin No: Page 4 f 8-14, 874 | 37-45 874 4 874 1-45 3, 46, 861 {see 874 20-37 874 20-37 852 69, 88 860 1-40 868 1-66 873 9-8 2-35, 6, 873 | 21, 27 3, 46, 861 {eta 867 40 865 1-40 852 6, 11, 68 4, 18, 21, 851 | 27.30, | 40-41 858 20-22 874 38 9, 18, 19, 853 Ree 872 27-39 874 1-45 874 14-38 874 3-4 851 23, 25-26 875 29 867 36-37 867 37 5-8, 863 | ae06 865 1-40 S71 40-AL 23, 24, 851 { 95, 26 866 8, 43-44 852 98-100 863 21 15-16, 853 ae 12 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 851-875. Lioyp, O. G., and L. C. Gray, bulletin on ‘ Farm-land values in uns eoee ot Eee: S e e Locusts; destruction. by starlings..22 22 _ 2.91 fuie psa QF Mors scaling: Doyle wulecs 07 Le 8 Rd. 2 EBubricant eastor-0il, uses;andyvalue. 2 fae ee Masnort, DoucLtas C.— bulletin on ‘“ Food habits of seven species of American shoal-water ducks 2's 2). ie ei death*in' World) Were 2a ae St Machinery, peach-sizing, construction and operation, bulletin by Manley Stockton and J. R. Barghausen___-____ Mascots) destruction byestanlines. =. wane eee Manning formula ,water flow in pipes__2£-22_---_-=--- Mantle dipsweastor-oil coating] =. 05. Sa ee Manure— > production by dairy herd, value and fertilizer constituents_ use on apple orchards, western New York, and effect on SRST GS ete I | SRR a er Mareca— americaca. See Baldpate. penelope. See Widgeon, European. Market— hay, shrinkage, bulletin by H. B. McClures_ 222-2) milk, cost of production and requirements in northwestern Indiana, bulletin by J. B. Bain and R. J. Posson________ Marketing: farm tunber, lesson for rural sschools= = ae grapes of eastern kinds, bulletin by Dudley Alberton____ Markets— orape, Ghancessand ounlook_ 2222... see eee Pleherences iM oTapesee eee Owe. Te ee eee Marking, incense cedar for cutting to control dry-rot__--__---~ Marans, relation to:starlines = 2.0 325s SSS See eee Mason, Burton B., Grorce O. Knapp, and A. V. SwARTHOUT, bulletin on “A classification of ledger accounts for cream- Massachusetts, water-conduit systems, examination and results_ Matroon, Witsur R., and Atvin Dicey, bulletin on “ Forestry lessons"on home! woodlands #22 3. eee May beetles, destruction by starlings_____-___-_-_-- McCrvre, H. B., bulletin on ‘‘ The shrinkage of market hay ”__ Meadowlark, relation to starlings. —_..—- _..4..4) = ae Meu, J. M., and O. B. Jrsnuss, bulletin on ‘‘ The organization of cooperative grain elevator companies ”_____--_____--_-__ Mexico, water-pipe lines, data concerning___________--_______ Michigan— grape— production and marketing, history, ete_______________ shipments, 1916-1919, and destinations______________ hay shrinkage in barn, at experiment station ee ae Milfoils, food ‘of shoal-wateraducks:: 2 | {i eee ee Milk— market, cost of production and requirements in northwest- ern Indiana, bulletin by J. B. Bain and R. J. Posson___~ production— comparison of factors by percentages______--___----- COStS ana Tactors 1nvolved 2223 '_ Sea eee requirements per 100 pounds, feed, pasture, etc., by seasons— Bulletin No. Page. 874 1—45 868 22 863 37 867 35-37 862 1-68 862 1 864 1-5 858 7, 9, 23-27 851 AAS 873 1-33 858 1-31 8638 18-19 861 1-61 861 3-4 861 50-53 871, ...B2-HG 868 48, 51,58 865 1-40 69, 70, 852 89, 90 863 1-46 19, 39, 868 eh 44°61. 873 1.38 868 52, 53, 59 860 1-40 852 9 861 aT-48 3, 38, 861 ip 873 5, 6 858 1-31 858 15-19 10-15, 858 { 19-27 858 6-7 INDEX. Mill— construction, improvement, for insect control____*=________ flour, preparation for fumigation with hydrocy anic- acid gas MILLER, G. H., bulletin on ‘“ Cost of producing apples in five counties in w estern New York” Milling, castor beans for oil extraction, details_______________ Millipeds, destruction by starlings________- -§ Mills— clogging of machinery by webs of Mediterranean flour moth flour— insect control, bulletin by H. A. Back_______ SE Uae LP insect-control improvement, and’ reasons for UCN SELON NCU CELONS = eiemmrers als ha Mammon es Ee SE Oe heating for control of insect pests, important points______ Missouri— grape shipments, 1916-1919, and destinations____________ hay shrinkage in Stack, at experiment station data________ Mollusks, food of shoal-water ducks_ Montana, water-conduit systems, examination and results_____ Moritz, formula, for water flow in pipes_____________________ Mortgages, farm, in Iowa, discusSion___________ Moth, flour, introduction, life history, and control____________ Mud teal. See Teal, green-winged. Muscadine grapes, production district____________-__________ Musk grass, food of shoal-water ducks___________-___________ Mycelium, Polyporus acarus, action on incense cedar _______.__ Nettion carolinense. See Teal, green-winged. New Jersey, grape shipments, 1916-1919__________________ New York— apple production, cost in western counties, bulletin by Geib Vier See a GU, PT Se RR REL SE Catskill aqueduct, examination and results______________ Central Lakes district, grape production, marketing, etc__ City, market preferences in grapes_____-__-_-____________ grape— production and marketing__-____________ shipments, 1916-1919 Hudson Valley, grape production and marketing__________ Ontario shore, grape production and marketing___________ NEWELL, H. D., discussion of flow of water in concrete pipes__ North Carolina, grape shipments, 1916-1919__________________ Northwest, grape production and marketing_________________ Nuts, feed of shoal-water ducks_________ Ohio, grape— production and marketing, acreage, varieties, ete_________ shipments, 1916-1919, and destinations_ Oil, castor— iIndusiryabuUletiaMbye Ieee wslraderwe |e ey TA es See also Castor oil. Oils, vegetable, treatment with sulphur, uses of product______ Orchards, apple— fertilizing, methods. cost, and results______________ management, western New York, maintenance, spraying, VANE! WET) ACT so oa lw Se western New York, size, age of trees, varieties, and yields_ Ba Bulletin No. Page. 872 8 872. «18-83 851 1-47 867 9-31 25, 43, 8684 44, 65 872 3, 4-5, 40 872 1-40 872 1-2 872 ~—«11-27 872 3, 46, s61{ 55-61 873 4.6 8, 15, 862) 21, 26. 30, 35, 5G, 65 852.4. 483 852 7, 63 B74. ' 45-18 872 240 861 it af 5,12, 20, 862 95, 84, 49 B71 146 861 3, 48 851 1-47 J 24, 70, 852 80-83, 90 861-2938 861 51 861 26-37 3, 26, 30, s61{ 35, 55-61 861. 33-36 861 —- 36-87 852 100 861 3, 48 861 49-50 862 41, 44, 52 S61) 44345 3 44, 61 55-61 867 1-40 867 38 BBA wip oon 851 ~—« 12-29 51 3 851 9-12 14 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 851-875, Oregon— frape whipments, 1916-1919... 4... hae os 8. water-conduit systems, examination, and results__________ Otiorhynchus ovatus, destruction by starling_________________ Backine, Srapes, and contamers used _ Bee. ae eee Palma Christi. See Castor-oil plant. Parakratesis”’ ach .Greece, notes.2 SAS ne) hs 2 Parasites, Mediterranean flour moths. 23922 -2-_ = ae Pasturing, steers, gains of yearlings as influenced by winter rations; bulletin by E. W. Sheets and R. H. Tuckwiller_____ Peaches— myjuryuoy Starlings == "ae ee sizing machine, construction and operation, bulletin by Manley Stockton and J. F. Barghausen____--§_________ Peach-sizing machine— bulletin by Manley Stockton and J. F. Barghausen_____--_ development..and-:cost.2_2u0h eal cB itte . pepe ee Pears— grading, use of sizing machine, Ou Ee en eo eee MCs Starlinesel =! 22): Se. _ wie ee ee Pennsylvania— farm organization and management, bulletin by Earl D. Straitgand As MaDixon__ ee * eee oe i eee Grove City, farm business of 422 farms in vicinity______ hay shrinkage at experiment station, data_____________ northwestern, description of soils and conditions_________ Philadelphia, market preferences in grapes__________________ Phylloxera, grape disease, prevention by use of resistant Pickering— lime-water sprays. See Pickering sprays. sprays— bulletin’ by HOG. Cooks =22. . Se armen) eee eee comparison with Bordeaux mixture, resultS_________ preparation on commercial scale, suggestions_____-__ Piezometers, use in draintile for measuring water flow___---~~ Biveons. ‘relation ‘to starlings: -- 22 See eee Pintail— breeding! range. ree ee _, Fe description and> food: habits. 222s ~~ en Se eee Pipe, concrete— carrying capacity, opinions of engineers_______________ monolithic construction description =. =2=] Sse eee Sea Pipes— erade-line, water Owen A28 4-4 5 pas sei en a mrigation, TYDCSs 12 5h-5se 22 ee Le pressure, water. flow 10-45. eee. ee Plantains, food of shoal-water ducks. 222252) 2 ose Plantation, cotton, organization for boll-weevil poisoning__—_ Plants, food, of shoal-water ducks, classified list-__-______+_ Poison, use in control of boll weevil, bulletin by B. R. Coad and TP. Cassidy. Se eis s _ a ee ape ee Poisoning— boll weevil— organization of plantation operations_________-____ pringiples. governing —~..____ 2. 2eBage Lee eet Holliwweevils, cost, and Vonins __-. __. a ee calcium arsenate, dangers and precautions against____-~ Castor-bean, Note se eee Polyporus amarus, cause of dry-rot of incense cedar, deserip- tion, ! @tcllle. wel eeu eh ae oe ee eee i ree Pondweeds, food of shoal-water ducks____________________s= Bulletin No Page. 861 3, 49 22-24, 852 35, 41, TT, 78, 79 868 il?4 861 9-12 856 2-3 872 aah 870 1-20 868 30 864 1-5 864 -—6 864 i 864 1 868 30 853 1-32 853 4-32 873 4.5 853 4-5 861 51 856. 7, 12-15 866 1447 866 845 866 42-44 854 868 49-50 862 31 31-36 si { 49-67 852 9-16 852 3, 4 852 66-81 852 3—4 852 5-65 862. 6, 34, 45 875 17-18 862 49-56 875 1-31 875 17-18 875 1-2 875 26—28 875 5-6 867 2 871 2, 8-49 4,11, 16, 862 } 24, 29, 32, 40, 49 INDEX. Posson, R. J., and J. B. BAIN, bulletin on “ Requirements and cost of producing market milk in northwestern Indiana ”’__ Potato— beenclegndestruction by starlings. Bee re ee delta tood sof Shoal=water.ducks_ + Wms te et ae Potatoes, spraying with Bordeaux mixture and Pickering SPLAYS,, COMparison. of, Results 4. = _ ABest tne Poultry, farm receipts from, northwestern Pennsylvania____~ Prairie-grass hay, shrinkage, studies at experiment stations__ Pressure pipes, water flow in Pruning— CUErANnRNeTApeS:| and jtraining, vines -me) 2 a orchard, western New York, methods and cost Publications, forestry and farm woodlands, list Puddle ducks. See Ducks, shoal-water. Querquedula— cyanoptera. See Teal, cinnamon. discora. See Teal, blue-winged. Rachis, barley spike, inheritance of length of internode, bulletin by H. K. Hayes and Harry V. Harlan Rations— eattle, quantity, kinds, costs, and value, four-year experi- TEREST SS oe OS NE ee eee winter, for yearling steers, effect on pasture gains later, bulletin by HE. W. Sheets and R. H. Tuckwiller Red-headed teal. See Teal, green-winged. Red-headed widgeon. See Widgeon, Huropean. Refrigeration, tomato shipments, discussion Ce foodsOfShoal-water ducks. RE ae 2 Ricinoleic acid, constituent of castor bean, properties Ricinus communis. See Castor-oil plant. Ringing, grapes, directions Ripening— tomatoes, study of process, bulletin by Charles EH. Sando__ tomatoes, ventilation and wrapping, effects ROMS eEelanion tO SlLarMngS 2 <> ee Roosts, starling, destruction methods_____________________ Root louse, damage to vineyards in France__________________ Ropes, E. H., and HK. G. Borrner, bulletin on “A modified Boerner SUMED OTe Fae ay a ples = ys tar eine Dee ae oe Eee oa ell ee Rosin soap, mixture with cresol solution, results Rot— dry— Coloration o£ pwood, ;ISCUSSION ae incense cedar, cause, spread and resultS____________ incense cedar, control by fire protection, scaling and REDE Led GSR SE Ma Shae ne Ps 5 Ay SR lg ee a incense cedar, relation to age and condition of trees__ incense cedar, relation to tree wounds incense cedar, bulletin by J. S. Boyee_______________ heartwood of incense cedar, causes, description, and re- sults Rotations— COPY ALeEMNSVEVAMTa: | RAMS 2 ale ke ye es tree harvesting, application to incense cedar Rots— cedar, causes and spread forest tree, studies and literature concerning heartwood, spread Bulletin No. Page. 858 1-31 868 19 Dd, 6, 34, 362{ 45, 59 866 822 853. 24 873 5-7 852 5-65 856 9-10 851 20-21 863 34-36 869 1-26 870 7-20 870 1-20 859 28-29 6, 12, 862 419, 24, 33, 40, 50 867 35 856 10-12 859 1-388 859 24-30 868 49, 52 868 54, 56, 59 856 2 857 1-8 855 2-3 871 22-24 871 8-49 871 49-55 871 24-37 871 43-49 871 1-58 871 8-49 853 28 871. 54-55 871 8-49 8-22, 871 24, 28, 57-58 16 Rubber, mixture with castor oil, nature of product__________ Rye and buckwheat, cover crop for apple orchard, value and Seedie 2. fee ka ee eS Sacks, flour, handling to avoid insect infestation______________ Sampler— grain, modified Boerner, bulletin by E. G. Boerner and i. BY Ropess=24ie SV Seas | TRO AEE ae ed grain. See also Grain sampler. SANDO, CHARLES E., bulletin on “ The process of ripening in the tomato, considered especially from the commercial stand- point ” Scaling, incense cedar, for control of dry-rot__________________ Scarabeeids, destruction by starlings, notes on species________ SCHAFFER, JACOB M., bulletin on ‘ Saponified cresol solutions ”_ Scoprey, FRED C., and others, bulletin on ‘“ The flow of water in conerete: pipe? _.= a_i ee eee Scotland, Glasgow, water-conduit system, examination and TeSULCS ian ee ee Le Se ee Sedces. food of Shoal-water ducks==_ | "=e eee Seeds— f00d,. Of “Shoalewakeraduckse se See ee eee nes Forest tree, dispersion methods, lesson for rural schools__ Sepurators, castor oll sdescriptionae. aa ae “ Sharp-tail.” See Pintail. Sueets, E. W., and R. H. TucKwILter, bulletin on “ Effect of winter rations on pasture gains of yearling steers ”?_________ Shipnients) "grape; 1916 919= 2 | ae. See eee 8 ee Siiippers, hay, loss trom=shrinkager | Ses aele k eee SwrRaver, J. H., bulletin on “ The castor-oil industry ”____-___ Shrinkage, market hay, bulletin by H. B. McClure____________ Silage, cost and value, in winter rations for yearling steers___ Silos, dairy farms in northwestern Pennsylvania, use and results Silvanus surinamensis, control in flour mills____-_-___________ Sitona hispidula, destruction by starling_+__----__________=__ Sizer, peach, construction and operation, bulletin by Manley Stockton and J. R.-Barsghausen22_ . (Ue eas eee eee Smartweeds; food of shoal-water ducks--=-=-~_-=---225 --) 22 Soap— Castor-olly Naturesand male. ee 2 rosin, mixture in creso] solutions, results_-_-_--__-_--_____ Soaps, mixtures with cresol solutions, results, comparisons____ Soil, fertility maintenance on Pennsylvania farms, fertilizers MNG:. Time! (Ses ee a Sphenophorus spp., destruction by starling_--__-__-_-___________ muarters, destruction Dy StarhingS 25) _ ee... eee eee DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 851-875. Bulletin No. . Page. 867 38 851 19 872 8-10 857 1-8 859 1-38 Soli, 55. 19-20, 868 { 41, 61 855 os 852 «1-100 852 ~—«6 9, 88 4,18, 24, 863 { 29,32) 39, 51 5-8, 14, 19-20, 862! 24-95. 29, 32-35. 40, 42-46. 868 | 27-30 867 «29-81 870 1-20: 3, 26, 20, 8614 34, 38, 44, 46, 48, 49 (1,3-4, 873} 27-28. | “32738 867 1-40. 873 1-33 870: 14-20 8534, 27-28 872 27-29 868 17,18: S64 1-6 7, 14, 19, 96242529, 33. 42, 52 872 39° 8, 15, 21, 62 26, 35, 65 867 29. 855 23 855 Ds 853: 28-30" 868 17, 42, 63: 95, 43, 868 { 44, 6h INDEX. 17 Bulletin “ Spike-tail.” See Pintail. No. Page. Spontaneous combustion, hay, causes, temperatures, etc_______ 873 17GB Sporophore, Polyporus amarus, description and location on trees_ 871 8-13 Spraying— ee apple orchard, western New York, materials and cost_-__ 851 tee 2 9 value of Pickering sprays, experiments, bulletin by C. F. Cawikz 2 2 ee __ Spee ee eee eae eee 866 1-47 Sprays— lime-water, Pickering. See Pickering sprays. Pickering— bultetiny by. C! Bh . Cooktaates |. 5a ears dbp Hep 0866 1-47 See also Pickering sprays. “Sprig.” See Pintail. “ Sprig-tail.””. See Pintail. Starling— damage to crops and fruits, discussion_-__________________ 868 1-2 description, life history, and food habits___----__________ 868 846 economic status in foreign countries____---_- 868 13-14 introduction, distribution, and abundance ________________ S68 1-8 laws against, note______ 2 ees AOS rd SO) 868 dT value in United States, bulletin by E. R. Kalmbach and LONE Gabriclson-22202 oe = A ei Pe Sat pais 868 1—66 Starlings— control measures________ a oe ee 868 54-57 feeding young, habits___ ech ls A rary etter. te 868 39-40 injurious habits and control measures_____________ — 868 46-57, 59 NESES. AAMC LOO HIE LUT VT Ete 2 RT eae he me eres 868 46-53 young, food, animal and vegetable____ seth ct Tt 868 37-45 Steers, yearling feed in winter, effect on pasture gains later, bulletin by BH. W. Sheets and R. H. Tuckwillerii oe) et 870 . 1-20 winter feeds, cost and gains from________ SE PAN its OS ee) 14-20 Stocks, grape, resistant to phylloxera, importance_____________ 856-7, 12-15 ~ STocKToN, MAN LEY, and J. F. BARGHAUSEN, bulletin on “A peach-Simmme, machine? 22... a Bh 0 is 864 1-6 Srrait, Harn D., and H. M. Drxon, bulletin on “ The organiza- tion and management of farms in northwestern Pennsyl- {PRUE ah fe ee SNe emmememe: CREO Ny 6 a Oe Gabe ch Mit) COR aay 853 1-32 Strawberry crown girdler. destruction by starlings..__________ 868 17 Sugars, tomato, investigations and determinations____________ 859 { oe ’ Summer teal. See Teal, blue-winged. Survey, woodland, for rural schools a TIS OT ORE TIS TRGB Y 2-3 SwarrHour, A. V., GEORGE O. KNAPP, and Burton B. Mason. bulletin on “A _ Glassification of ledger accounts for GEEAMICIICS yy ee ee pC ALFOLE Tha cke 865 1—40 Teal— blue-winged— WRECHING THAW COR. Wire Myles ho A ee ees SS OO? 22 aL Se - 22-28 ; ore Fe mise 5) Sa eh descriptionnand ood ehabits. = ees See pe 862 { 49-67 cinnamon— breedingirangece 2. 2 ahs eA olen ak gy es 862 28 DR description and food habits______ Paihia Magen ns pide May GY pe green winged— adapuawpilihya- toy direke har natn c= ae ee eS ee a 862 17 23) description and food habits_-_-_- epee 4 4 862 { kere Tenebroides mauritanicus flour-mill pest, contro]___-____- 872 27-39 Tennessee, grape shipments, 1916—1919__________________ 861 3, 46 913895—22— —3 18 Tile— Clay, woner Now.in. Studies: ¢2) 5. slew... 52 eae drain— flow of-water in, bulletin by D. L. Yarnell and Sher- mani Weodward) == 22." 4:0 tue 2 2 eee water flow, ‘studiesilviuc +) ordi ¢e 2 See water-flow measurement, formulae, and comparisons____ Timber— farm— cutting and uses, study for rural schools______ era ea marketing, lesson for rural schools_____~__ = measuring and estimating, lesson for rural schools______ Timothy— hay, shrinkage. studies at experiment stations___________ seed, sources of supply, Pennsylvania farms, note________ Tipping ducks. See Ducks, shoal-water. Tires, cement for, castor oil ingrediento20_ +24) see Tomato, Livingston Globe, ripening studies_________________ Tomatoes— analyses of many!varieties_22- 2! si siialiqu) Suynget ae chemical investigations, 1814-1913--—___ eolor Siaces duns Tipenine === Saas comparisons of fruits grown at Arlington, Va., and at Peters’ Plas. 252-2 ee pa Te yea Bee composition changes during ripening, analytical data____ ripening— comparison of green-picked and vine-ripened________ process, bulletin by Charles E. Sando____---_---___- ventilation, effect _on ripening= 92) 22 ae wounds, relation of age and temperature to resistance___ Trees— cutthineyjedirections: tor farm, fim ce = See forest— ; one hundred important, list and remarks____________ propagationsand planning = ee types and classes, study and collection of specimens__ erowthjrstudy, lesson for rural Sschools=4 52238 s2 2 sees key to common, kind$#) 24255223) eee eae eee thinning for improvement of woodlands, directions_____- Gripoiun spp..coptrolinmioursmills= = a eee TucKWILLrER, R. H., and E. W. SHEETs, bulletin on *‘ Effect of winter rations on pasture gains of yearling steers ”________ “Turkey red” dye, preparation, use of castor oi]l____________ tah, hay sirinkaceimystack datas _=====s=-- ase Weréetibles. injury Dy Stavliaes=>--= => _ 2" See eee ee Wages) farm-labor, Towa) 1914-10182 See ok Washington— iD; CO: "market: preferetices -in-“grapese=4t i oe eee grape shipments, 1916-1919, and destinations_____________ water-conduit systems, examinations and results__.~--_- DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 851-875. Bulletin No. Page. i 18-25, sn{ 33-34 54 1-50 854 5-8 9-12. S54 34-49 863 15-17 863 18-19 868 17-18, 39 873 4-8 853 26 867 39 859 13-30 859 10-11 859 7-13 i 14,18, 859{ 19, 24, 26 859 14 859 17-21 859 1-3 859 3-7 859 47 859 37-38 859. 21-24 859 1-38 859 24-30 859 28-30 863 15-17 863 43-46 863 30-31 863 4-9 863. -25-26 863 38-49 863 93-95 872 97-39 870 1-20 867 38 873 5,6 868 34-35 859. 24-30 851 19 61 = 861 3. 48 S74 38 861 A je 86 { 55-61 2 23, 24, 872 36, 68, 71 INDEX, 19 Bulletin Water, flow No. Page. concrete pipe, bulletin by Fred C. Scobey and others___»__ 852 1-100 drain tile, bulletin by D. L. Yarnell and Sherman M. INV O'O Gygell: Cl aemma See LCR haa Nh eu oS NY 854 1-50 PATE SNM a TOUID Gee sae eg ae ON a Dea A EN gy A he 852 66-91 in) {OMPOYES ARONA oh oN Se ee Sa, ee ee ee 852 5-8 PT RCSSIMEROL DES 28k cee ee ee 852 ae in tile, measurement, formulz, and comparisons______--_ soa 34-49 % : ox 7, 14, 25, Waterulilye: toog of Shoal-water ducks. ees 2s ee 8624 34, 42, 58 2 39, Weevilsascestruction, by: Starlings 2.2.2 - oe 868 42, 44, 62-63 Weisbach formula for water flow in pipes__________________:_ 852 6, 63 West, Middle, grape production and marketing _____________ 861 45-48 West Virginia— experiment farm in Greenbrier County__________________ 870 T=} experiment station, steer feeding, experimental studies__ 870 3-20 Greenbrier County, experiment farm, study of effect of winter rations on pasture gains of yearling steers_____ 870 3-20 SAKES SEbULes.) Matures sa a 867 38 Widgeon— American. See Baldpate. HKuropean— GeScription ys and tood habits=—— a Sea 862 16-17 oreurcence in) United! States=._ et ee 862 16 Williams-Hazen formula for water flow in pipes______________ 852 ~—s«66, 11, 63 Winter— feeding— yearling steers, and effect on pasture gains later, bulletin by H. W. Sheets and R. H. Tuckwiller__ 870 1-20 yearling steers, effect on pasture gains later__________ 870 1-14 teal. See Teal, green-winged. Wood— duck. See Duck, wood. uses on farms, products of home woodlands____.________ 863 14-15 Woodlands— aovantaces to home wand farme 2 ee 8638 1-2, 10-13 farm management, lesson for rural schools______________ 863 32-33 home— forestry lessons on, bulletin by Wilbur R. Mattoon EIN COA Ny ANN wIO TU Creme eee in Nee el 863 1-46 improvement by cutting, directions____._.___________ 863 28-25 products, utilization, study for rural schools________ 863 13-15 location and extent, study, lesson for rural schools______ 863 9-10 protection, lesson for rural schools_______-___________.__—-—- 863 20-23 WoopWARkD, SHERMAN M., and D. L. YARNELL, bulletin on “ The LOW CE Wee sho Cheha Oe ey 854 1-50 Worm, fall army, control with calcium arsenate______________ 875 29 Wounds, cedar trees, causes, and relation to dry-rot-_________ 871 37-49 Wrapping— PMA PLM UGIOUSNetect) notes si. a One eee 859 27 ROMALOES) ertech OM) mipeninge 5. 3 a a ae 859 24-27 Mirena relatiom tor istarlkines.. <0 e eae e 868 48-49, 58 YARNELL, D. L., and SHERMAN M. WoopwA4pp, bulletin on “The MIORGW? COLE. Sy MA SH ea TE Tg COE eez a aN BYU 2 Si a Da 854 1-50 Me aprottyat at SRG oes seit | ‘pa ies iis wee GPO nan inn a a le pe oe a il th EE eee. | RE BLO i as bb. Sk al orm ae Sh--S . a "Se See OR , ee ie ule so] Wee Oa (fe ‘aes eee ne Saiw’s) “it " Tz We ott me i . Tied \ BE OL OL She ee: ae S325 Bi2, i Sat “span i (eottnke: st ae Ab I TY pp + A Garts. mae. i Ed at iets a t ac ito ate, ESOS eyelets oe hae he 38a al pas = nia a haha ort * (rere ee ot ile ee Pe PV 8 POE. ih iS S's A by en Ns UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 851 OFFICE OF THE SECRETARY. Contribution from the Office of Farm Management. H. C. TAYLOR, Chief. Washington, D. C. July 30, 1920 COST OF PRODUCING APPLES IN FIVE COUNTIES IN WESTERN NEW YORK 1910-1915. By G. H. Mitter, Assistant Agriculturist. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Imiroduction 22s. 2225552 1 | Orchard management___—-_-______ 12 Summary of results______--______ 3 | Handling the crop__-------______ 29 LEED) OO ae oS ae ane 4 | Summary-of costs_______-_- ______ 39 Farm investment _-_-----________ 5 | Influence of yield per acre on cost Farm organization________________ iG Deeper el Saal est ee 43 Mheworchards=---— 2222 2 se 9 | Prices received for fruit ___-______ 46 INTRODUCTION. The western New York fruit belt is the oldest commercial apple- erowing district in the United States. Few other regions in America have had the benefit of the experience of former generations in the production of apples. Thus, among 218 apple growers upon whose experience this bulletin is based, there are men who have orchards 30 to 60 years of age, as well as those who have recently planted young orchards. In this region the apple orchard is only a part of the farm busi- ness, other fruits and such crops as beans, potatoes, and hay being extensively grown. This bulletin treats of the relation the orchard bears to these other enterprises, of the orchard practices followed by the more successful growers, the effect of these practices on yields, the returns derived from different systems of orchard management, and the cost of maintaining orchards under each system.1 Detailed Norn.—Acknowledgment is due to the Office of Horticultural and Pomological In- vestigations of the Bureau of Plant, Industry for material assistance in the preparation of this bulletin; also to Messrs. S. M. Thomson and J. C. Folger, who aided in securing the necessary data. : 162274°—20—Bull. 851 il 2 BULLETIN 851, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. information is presented as to the time required to perform each op- eration, the necessary equipment, the size of the orchard, the age of the trees, the yield of fruit, and other related factors. id: Fie. 1—Map of New York State, showing the fruit districts. Shaded portion indicates area in which this study was made. The factors considered in arriving at the annual cost of apple pro- duction have been classified as follows: Labor for maintenance. Labor in handling. Materials used. Fixed charges. IN BVTVETS Ae oooh gseshosoce oc Hauling... ._.. eae Barrels##e.. 35. Taxes, Merial izai 2 es Sees e oer IPIGKINE? 9. 25 ee eee Spray materials. .-.-| Insurance. Pruning: Se 20 eee Sonne... 2.2: Se Manure_........ ...-| Equipment charge. Disposing of brush.....-....-. packinpe—:.- 2) Sseeeree Fertilizers............-.- IPIOWINE S25 eae eee eee Hauling tostation.......] Gasoline, oil,ete........ Machine hire. Other cultivating............. Colimabor... \- 2 Cover-crop seed ........: Interest. PHINNING. 52 < sb sce cc a's ee se see aretels oom wo 5 = 2c CRS | meee 2 Building charge. Propping 2. 2... oso. ean eles = © = 6 ~~ o/s peed | Renee ts oer cee Spraying... se Ses Seo ~~. eS | eee a eh eee Miscellaneous. -%. al 74 Bil, hd ADU eae ni: 2 -- s saa 180 82.0 | it) OS See 212 96. 2 1G Soe eee - 154 72.6 Til es 2 179 104. 4 TUG 56 Se eRe ae 177 64. 1 The net cost of production is influenced by the yield. The total net labor cost per acre grows greater as the yield increases (but not in proportion), while the net labor cost per barrel grows less. The net maintenance cost is a lower percentage of the total net labor cost on farms where an average yield is high than on those where the yield is low. ORCHARD MANAGEMENT. There is considerable variation in the methods of orchard soil, management followed by western New York apple growers. - Many factors influence these methods, among some of the more important of which are nearness to lake, type of soil, and to a great extent the COST OF PRODUCING APPLES—-WESTERN NEW YORK, ilk type of farming followed. The greatest factor, however, is the farmer himself. If he is what is termed a “ fruit man” he may be expected to do what is necessary to maintain a profitable fruit busi- ness, but unlike many of the northwestern fruit areas, the western New York district does not have many farmers who are in a strict sense apple specialists. General farming is practiced, so that the raising of other.crops often conflicts with important orchard work. The men here can not give the individual care and thought to the orchard business that the northwesterner can give. Much of the cultural work is done by hired labor. Many of the farms are worked on shares, in which case the orchard is frequently neglected, since it is very difficult to make the tenant understand the importance of careful and systematic treatment of the trees over a period of years, though if prospects indicate a large crop or the possibility of fair prices the tenant as well as the owner may cultivate and spray with care. MAINTENANCE. The maintenance of an orchard is the real problem in successful fruit farming. Many farmers have the foundation of a successful and highly profitable enterprise, but fail to put their best thought and energies into development and completion of nature’s good work. There are many poorly cared for and unproductive orchards to-day in western New York which, with the proper care and en- couragement, would produce profitable crops. The importance of maintenance is evidenced by the single fact that it requires annually about 75 man hours and 60 horse hours per acre. This amounts to about 44 per cent of the total man labor and 68 per cent of the total horse labor used per acre in the production of the apple in western New York. METHOD OF CULTIVATION. Generally speaking, in western New York we have two types of orchards—those which are cultivated and those which remain in sod. Of the 218 orchardists who were considered in this study, 193, or 89 per cent, tilled their orchards each year (see Table IX). Of this number, 175 tilled their entire orchard annually. Cultivation _ usually begins as early in the spring as the condition of the land permits, continuing until the middle or latter part of the summer. After the last cultivation, 108 of the 175 sowed their entire orchards to some cover crop; 67 did not, but allowed the weeds to grow. A few of these men pastured their orchards late in the season. An estimate of the value of such pasture was given by the growers andl a corresponding credit was allowed in arriving at the cost of pro- duction. Fourteen men tilled their orchards, but not annually; 11 left them in sod. 14 BULLETIN 851, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe LX.—Di/ferent methods of soil management (218 farms, western New ¥ ork). Per cent Items. Numben of of total : records. IAN farms Ses Waa Won cette so lace ce as «= 2 oe oN Fed Spans 218 100 Tillentire orchard annvallyeie . os. | os. one. =< ee oe ee eee | 175 80 Tilland cover-crop entire orchard annually. .-...-...-........-----.-------+---- | 85 39 Orchardsin Sod fees meee ee ape cones os 02 Counties. Be ie Eg eel 4 | Gem 3 |. wal g 3 ela = - 2 , : o = . o are |e} & |3igs}s |e) 8 | 2 iss 3 Ae hei es = a a 18 a a a BAe a: 3 8 S 50 A =F u i} z a h ts = g = = = 7] ol c oa S oO Oo o 4 |> = 4 & 1% Ib =| iw a — |p p= & & Se a eA ie | | a a | Wayne-~. sors s2 19} 20) 50.49/10. 10)$0. 1472} 16) 26) 40.42/$15.11/$0.1910} 35] 23] 45.89/$12.39/$0. 1688 Ontario... 2: 4 36) 29) 58.20) 11.64) .1207| 6} 21] 42.67] 13.11] .1760} 42} 20) 55.98) 11.85) .1270 MOUTRG. 2 3325322 18) 18) 55.98) 11.20) .1449) 29) 25) 42.96] 15 46 11712 47| 22) 48.17] 13.82) .1620 Orleans OE ee 24) 24) 45.11] 9.02) .1059) 26] 26) 41.69] 15.61] .1768} 59] 25) 43.33] 12.45) .1434 Niagara........ 26) 19) 58.12] 11.62} .1388) 9] 25) 36.67] 13.41] .1795} 35] 20) 52.61] 12.08) .1494 All counties. ...} 123} 20) 54.11) 10.82) .1282} 86] 25] 41.39] 15.06] .1774/@209] 22] 48.95] 12.57] .1486 a Nine men in Wayne County shake their apples from the tree. ote ms COST OF PRODUCING APPLES—-WESTERN NEW YORK. 31 There is considerable variation in the number of barrels picked _ per day by both day and contract workers. (See Table XX.) Men paid by the barrel pick between 30 and 40 barrels per day dur- ing heavy crop years. With exceptionally large crops, some men will pick as high as 50 to 60 barrels per day. The rate of picking will vary to a great extent with size of crop and of trees, distance trees are planted apart, mode of tree growth, and kind a ladders and picking utensils which the picker is required to use. When apples are picked by the day, the picker carries his apples to the sorting table, which is usually placed in a central position, so that all pickers carry their fruit about the same distance. Often “when contract picking is done the barrels are placed near the trees - from which the fruit is. picked. Apples are placed in these barrels by the picker, who marks his barrels as they are filled or has his tally card punched by the foreman. The average cost for picking by the day was $10.82 per acre (yield 84.4 barrels per acre) or 13 cents per barrel, while a contract picker picked at a cost of $15.06 per acre (yield 84.9 barrels per acre) or 18 cents per barrel. The average cost, considering both methods of picking, was $12.57 per acre, or 15 cents per barrel. All labor in harvesting, except contract labor, is figured at 20 cents per hour. The picking cost was about 33 per cent of the total net labor cost, or 10 per cent of the total net cost of production. It will be seen (Table XIX) that in Ontario and Niagara Commies the majority of growers visited picked their apples with day labor. In Wayne County there is a tendency toward day pickers, while in Monroe and Orleans Counties the growers depend to a great extent on contract pickers. SORTING AND PACKING. - Sorting and packing are done in the orchard, barn, or packing shed (see figs. 6 and 7). Practically all apples are sorted and packed from a sorting table. The common sorting table is usually 8 feet in length and 3 feet in width, inside measurement. Some growers use a level table, from which all apples are hand sorted into baskets and then packed in barrels. As soon as the apples are picked in one section of the orchard the sorting table is moved to another. Many of the orchardists who pack in the orchard make a practice of hauling a few apples into a shed or barn, so that in case of unfavorable weather the packing will not be delayed. Prior to the passage of the New York State packing law apples were packed either “orchard run,” “number ones,” or “number twos.” “Orchard-run” apples took in all sizes of apples above a minimum which might be stated by the buyer. “No. 1” apples 32 BULLETIN 851, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. were 24 inches and over in diameter and practically free from scale, bruises, or blemishes. “No. 2” were apples which were below this Fic. 6.—Picking, sorting, and packing apples in a western New York orchard. size and of a fair quality. In those days the pack depended mostly upon the farmer himself, or, if the apples had been sold to a buyer, Fic. 7.—Delivering apples in bushel baskets to packing shed, where they are sized on a mechanical sizer. upon his specific directions as to the pack he desired. Often the buyer furnished a packer to insure proper grading. Many times COST OF PRODUCING APPLES—-WESTERN NEW YORK. 33 apples were run into the barrel just as they came from the orchard, covered with burlap, and taken directly to the storage, there to be repacked when ready for market, according to the size and quality which the buyer might designate. Under the State law now in force the standard grades or classes for apples grown in this State when packed in closed packages are as follows: (1) New York Standard Fancy Pack; (2) New York Standard A Grade; (8) New York Standard B Grade; (4) New York Standard C Grade; (5) Unclassified. The minimum size of fruit in all these classes, including the unclassified, is determined Fig. 8.—A type of sizer used by many apple orchardists in western New York. _by taking the transverse diameter of the smallest fruit in the pack- age at right angles to the stem axis. The minimum sizes are to be stated in variations of one-fourth inch, 2 inches, 24 inches, 24 inches, 22 inches, 3 inches, 34 inches, and so on, in accordance with the facts. It is believed by many that the quantity. of marketable fruit produced in New York will not be curtailed by this law and that its enforcement will prove of great benefit to the apple growers of the State. At the time of this investigation the majority of growers visited sorted and packed by hand in the orchard, though there was a grow- ing tendency toward packing in the packing shed or barn. Many of the growers were considering buying sizers (see fig. 8). The average grower has so small an acreage of summer or fall fruit that the majority of it is still hand sorted and packed. The sizer is b4 BULLETIN 851, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. used to a great extent on the winter varieties, principally the Rhode Island Greening and Baldwin. No doubt within a few years the majority of commercial apple growers in these counties will be using mechanical sizers and packing a considerable amount of their fruit in the packing shed or barn or in community packing houses. By referring to Table X-XI, it will be seen that the. growers ot” Orleans County sorted and packed their fruit most cheaply, while the average cost for these operations was greatest in Ontario County. Considering 188 growers who sorted and packed their own fruit, regardless of whether or not they used sizers, it required on an average 36.72 man hours for sorting and packing an acre of fruit. The total cost per acre for sorting and packing was $7.35, or 9 cents per barrel. TABLE XXI.—Average time and cost per acre for sorting and packing (western New York, 1910-1915). ; - Sorting and packing. ; : Cost. Cc ties. eee Number} Barrels Man of in 10 hours records. | hours. : Per Per a acre. barrel. WR has So SN Sonos gene oe oe ae ae eee 32 29 31.10 86. 22 $0. 0856 COSTING) ie Bs NS Ae Se ee 34 25 46.18 9, 24 - 0981 MONITORS ER etcetera ae tere. Lk. 38 25 39.18 7.84 . 0920 (OVP T es yee Ne ea ia es yr rene es 2 49 28 33.30 6.70 . 0771 NincaraMe een In Guay ees ate | | ae | 35 26 34,94 6.99 0859 LMU Coors GSS) = SS) Sa Oe | 188 27 36. 72 100 - .0872 CULL APPLES. The solution of the problem of the disposition of cull apples has led to the development of one of the greatest of American by-product industries. Each year large quantities of these low-grade apples are used both for drying and for making cider. It often happens that western New York growers experience severe local hail or wind storms, injuring many apples and sometimes making windfalls of thousands of bushels of what would have been first-class marketable stock. In such cases dry houses and cider mills sometimes open for business very early, so that the farmer may haul in fruit which other- wise might be wasted. If the wind is severe enough to take off any great quantity of apples during harvest, all hands employed are usually turned to picking up the fruit. Scattered throughout the apple-producing counties of the State may be found several by-product plants (see fig. 9). A few years ago it was not uncommon for some of the growers to have drier kilns on their own farms, Apples in many instances were not picked, but COST OF PRODUCING APPLES—WESTERN NEW YORK. 35 shaken from the trees and used almost exclusively for drier stock. However, since the price of barreled fruit has advanced, the practice Fic. 9.—A small apple drier, Wayne County, N. Y. of shaking apples from the trees has become a thing of the past. Growers seem to find it more to their liking to sell this stock rather Fic. 10.—Delivering cider apples in bulk to the cider mill. than dry it themselves. One often finds a farmer, however, who still dries his own stock and what other dryable fruit he is able to buy in 36 BULLETIN 851, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the immediate vicinity. The quantity of apples used for drying or cider varies from year to year. About one-third of the apples used Fic. 11.—Hauling a load of about 50 bushels of cider apples in crates. for these purposes are picked from the ground, the remainder being ~ sorted out at packing time. Fic. 12.—Hauling barrels, 180 to the load, from the cooper shop to the orchard. Drier or cider apples are hauled in bulk, crates, sacks, or barrels (see figs. 10 and 11). The usual practice is to haul them in crates, delivering the apples to the factory and returning with the empty COST OF PRODUCING APPLES—WESTERN NEW YORK. aM crates. Very few of the cull apples produced in the lake counties are shipped outside of the immediate district. However, in Ontario County it is the practice of some farmers to sell this grade of fruit to a dry house at some considerable distance. This necessitates loading the apples into cars. The price paid for cull apples varies with the season and the condi- tion of the fruit. The market prices of the by-products control, to a great extent, the price paid for culls. Late in the season, just prior to the time of picking, or during picking, this type of dropped apple may bring anywhere from 75 cents to $1.25 a hundredweight. When the crop is large and the price of barreled apples low, cull apples usually bring 25 to 35 cents a hundredweight. Within the last few years this grade of apple has usually brought from 50 to 75 cents per hundredweight delivered at the cider mill or drier. Fic. 13.—Hauling empty barrels to the orchard. Of course cider stock will not bring the price that is paid for drier stock. No separation was made of the prices received for cider and drier stock, so that the figures here presented represent average prices of drier and cider stock together. About 25 per cent of the total yield of the orchards visited was sold as drier or cider apples. HAULING THE BARRELED FRUIT. Apple barrels are usually delivered to the farm by the cooper .or dealer, no separate charge being made for hauling (see fig. 12). The cost of hauling barrels therefore does not appear as a separate item 38 BULLETIN 851, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. among those which enter into the cost of production, but is included under the cost of barrels. The barrels necessary for the crop are not usually all delivered at once, for the farmers do not ordinarily have enough storage room for them. Uusally enough are delivered and stored so that the grower will have sufficient to carry him through the first few days of apple harvest. The rest of the barrels are delivered later, and are usually unloaded in the orchard. Since some of the barrels are thus stored on the farm, it, neces- sitates hauling them to the orchard at harvest time. This hauling is done by the farmer and is charged under “ other hauling.” How- ever, farmers often haul out each morning just enough barrels to Iig. 14.—Hauling a load of about 26 barrels to market, at a cost of about 2 cents per barrel per mile. last until one or more loads of packed apples are hauled to the storage or shipping point, depending on the teamster returning from storage or station to drive by the barn or shed and get more barrels. (See fig. 13.) Where apples are packed in a packing shed, some of the growers keep one man busy hauling the apples to the shed as picked. Either baskets, crates, or barrels are used for this purpose. This cost is also considered under “ other hauling.” There are different methods of hauling packed apples to the stor- age or market; generally the regular farm wagons are used. A crew of one man and team will haul from 20 to 35 barrels per load, depending upon the outfit. (See fig. 14.) A few growers haul the A COST OF PRODUCING APPLES-—~WESTERN NEW YORK. 39 apples by auto truck. One hundred and ninety-three orchardists used teams for hauling an average of 23 packed barrels a distance ~ of 2.26 miles at a cost of $4.39 per acre, or about 5 cents per barrel. The average cost per barrel per mile was a little over 2 cents. (See Table XXII.) Figure 15 shows a typical western New York apple cold-storage plant. Fig. 15.—A typical western New York apple storage. TABLE XXII.—4Average time and “cost for hauling to the station when a crew of 1 man and 2 horses is used (western New York). Rana => Per acre. ; by Ged of Yicld Load Cost Miles Cost per Count7. ase per (bai- per inatiedl barrel ore acre. rels). | Man | Horse Cost barrel. *| per mile. 3 hours. | hours. : WWranynets 26-6 92 ks ores O38 U2 24 8.58 17.16 $4. 29 $0. 0592 2.68 $0. 0221 Onan ne ee 5s ee 35 90. 5 22:) . S5S6umal7e G2 4,48 - 0495 1.82 . 0272 MOTORS a) ea >. is eee 46 85. 9 22 8.07 | 16.14 4.04 . 0470 2.04 - 0230 (CHIC a NSLS ae emi ta rr 46 85. 8 2 8.£0| 17.60 4, 40 . 0513 2, iL . 0204 INIacanae ha tye ia ee 5 82.1 Zz 9.70 | 19.40 4.85 - 0591 2. 26 . 0262 Allcounties ..-___. 193 83. 8 23 8.77 Wis o4 4.39 . 0524 2.26 . 0232 SUMMARY OF COSTS. TOTAL HANDLING COSTS. The total harvest labor cost for the 218 farms studied in western New York is $26.52 per acre, or 32 cents per barrel. Deducting the value of culls, there is a net cost of $12.06 per acre for harvesting. This is about 10 per cent of the total net cost of production. (See - Table X XIII.) ; 40 BULLETIN 851, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Paste NNIII.—Summary of all labor costs (218 records, Western New York 1910-1915, inclusive) .* ' Wayne (44 ree- |Ontario (42 rec- |Monroe (47 rec- | Orleans (50 rec- ords; 73.2 bar- ords; 93.3 bar- | rels). Tels). rels). rels) Item. Cost. Cost. Cost. Cost. Per Per Per Per Per Per Per Per acre. | barrel.| acre. | barrel.| acre. | barrel.}| acre. | barrel WENDT =: 4 See one le 2 $2.11 |$0.0288 | $2.22 | 0.0238} $1.76 |$0.0206 | $2.36 | 80.0272 IA WANS. Oc se escigsce coero ane SanOGae -40 | .0055 -08 | .0009 -18 | .0021 07 - 0008 [By SIsri ni. eee On OO ees oe a 5.40 | .0738 5.92] .0634 4.15] .0486 . 0461 ISM fee ee eine cin eos se 2.34} .0320 2.46 | .0264 1.96 | .0230 - 0206 IOWA ete os heist ite 2.25 | .0307 2.94] .0315 2.41 | .0283 . 0227 Other cultivating 4.44 - 0607 4.75 - 0509 4.58 - 0537 - 0369 Inne ee. aoe uses 99 0135 1.44] .0154 -58 | .0068 . 0059 [279]0) 01 eS Spe eeeEe eee 74 0101 -82 1 .0088 -34 | .0040 - 0099 Miscellaneous .06 | .0008 .22| .0024 -03 - 0006 - 0006 Sowing cover crop.......------------ -11] .0015 :11] .0012 -0 -0011 - 0009 Harrowing cover crop..-------------- -30 | 0041 -33 | .0035 -25 | .0029 - 0025 TO WINIORENe c cise ciee. cee eines eiciate's -08 - 0011 -05 . 0005 -16 - 0019 - 0015 Donan SULA nem ere 1.70 | .0232 1.84 | .0197 1.96 | .0230 . 0255 DHMRICMSPIAyYe ce sees eee eee 4.20 0574 4.21] .0451 4.96 | .0581 - 0632 Total-maintenance labor cost...) 25.12 3432 | 27.39 2935 | 23.43 | .2747 . 2637 Pasture CLeGitse sso noe ae ee ee oe see -90 0123 1.25 0134 .76 | .0089 . 0061 Total net maintenance labor cost.| 24. 22 3309 | 26.14 2801 | 22.67 2658 - 2576 PHL OIStaAblONseerer se e aes ease 3.66 0500 5.18 . 0555 4.00 | .0469 - 0533 QHITGMITRTINTIS. 5 on Seegan coon sceeseose 1.14 - 0156 Bike, . 0077 57 . 0067 . 0099 Piisitls. 655 Snoonsue a seseaa case sEae 9.86 | .1347] 11.85] .1270| 13.82] .1620 - 1434 _ Shake, pick up, and haul.......-.-.-- 4.53 |) OGTQ3 Bester ar |e are ne rere ae | eee eae | eres BOnsaHd Packaee-eeseese scee = eee 4.52] .0617 7.44] .0798 6.34 | .0743 . 0756 Pick up and haulculls......--..-.-.-- Dai, 0289 1.86 0199 1.73 | .0203 . 0243 Total handling labor cost. - .--- - 25.83 | .3528 | 27.05 | .2899 | 26.46 3102 - 3065 Gulliereditas= 2 2252 Se aseeeens b eee ae 22. 68 . 3098 iB} bY/ . 1454 11.30 1325 . 1548 Total net handling laborcost...--| 3.15 | .0480] 13.48} .1445| 15.16 1777 1517 Motalue Na pOMeOStsr cer a-- as aie .3739 | 39.62 4246 | 37.83 | .4435 - 4093 Niagara (35 records; 81.4 barrels). ords; 85.3 bar-| ords; 86.8 bar- Five counties (218 records; 84.1 barrels). | ase Per cent of total | Pet cent Per Per netlaber net cost. acre. barrel. p $2.05 $0. 0244 5.68 1.73 .16 - 0019 .44 .13 4.85 . 0577 13. 43 4.08 2.14 . 0254 5. 93 1.80 2. 40 - 0285 6. 65 2.02 4. 26 - 0506 11. 80 3.59 - 89 . 0106 2.47 nr Bs . 67 - 0080 1.86 . 56 -08 - 0009 “22 -07 -09 -0011 = pds} - 08 . 26 - 0031 Bri 22 .10 - 0012 . 28 -08 1.99 . 0237 peel | 1.68 4.81 . 0572 13. 32 4.05 24.75 . 2943 68. 56 20. 84 .71 . 0084 1.97 . 60 24. 04 2859 66. 59 20. 24 ‘ Asal. .0eos 12, 22 3.71 . 86 | . 0102 2.38 ie Item. Cost. Per Per acre barrel WUT UN EE 8 2 3 eroeye ign cen ao noes $1.71 $0. 0210 ORNL ae lee ea ote ow)= Seve 2 07 - 0009 Lie Oe es Ae Bee odie seeriecee 5.01 - 0615 LBS TERT RGU 3 Re ARE oe es eae 2.33 - 0286 IAG wiilne 3 Sek meponoe aeorideace memes 2.54 - 0312 THEM CUITIVALING :. -wicine ...| 27.37 | .3739 | 39.62] .4246} 37.83] .4435 | 35.53 - 4093 Total material cost...........-.-..--- 39.55] .5403] 52.25 |) .5601 | 50.76] .5951 | 53.64 . 6180 MMotaletmxed CoStios sc cece soe eke eee cee 35.74 | .4883] 26.64] .2856] 35.31 | .4139} 38.49) .4434 Total material and fixed costs..| 75.29 | 1.0286 | 78.90} .8457 | 86.07 | 1.0090 | 92.13 1.0614 Rotalimeticostas-se see cee cee 102.66 | 1.4025 |} 118.52 | 1.2703 | 123.90 | 1.4525 | 127.66 | 1.4707 46 BULLETIN 851, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XXV.—Summary of all costs (218 records, western New York, 1910- 1915, inclusive)—Continued. Niagara (35 Five counties records; 81.4 (218 records; barrels). 84.1 barrels). Per cent Item. Cost. Cost. ue total: Per Per Per Per acre. barrel. acre. barrel. Total net maintenance labor cost .........----- - aoe $25.49 | $0.3132 $24.04 | $0.2859 20. 24 Total net handling labor cost ...........--..--------- 15.72 - 1931 12.06 - 1434 10.15 Woeralmnop labor, COSt..------<-.-----2----=-5eee 41.21 - 5063 36.10 - 4293 30.39 Mistalanstariatieost i0-6=.-..0.s2..25.-.-2..... ee | 48.46 . 5953 49. 07 . 5835 41.31 AUD ERD Pee PETS ee ea a 1 30. 02 - 3688 33. 61 .3996 28.30 Total material and fixed costs.............---- 78. 48 9641 | 82.68] 9831 | 69.61 DEES Se ae a a 119.69 | 1.4704 | 118.78 | 1.4124 | 100. 00 PRICES RECEIVED FOR FRUIT. Within the last few years there has been an increased demand for apples. The population has also increased to a great extent, as has the number of apples eaten per individual. With an increased de- mand, which has exceeded, in some years, the supply, there has been a gradual increase in the price received by farmers for the product. Some years have been very discouraging, not only because of the low price received for the product, but because of the several natural difficulties with which the grower has had to contend. Some years it has been hail, in other seasons wind, and each year must be kept up the constant fight for the control of insect pests and fungus diseases. However, the apple grower of western New York is still producing apples commercially and much of his success is due to the type of farming which has been practiced for the last fifty years. * The majority of growers in the counties considered sell their product at the time of harvest. However, there is a growing tendency toward storing. The returns received f. 0. b. by the growers from whom figures were obtained averaged $2.84 in 1910, $2.29 in 1911, $1.83 in 1912, $2.80 in 1913, $1.63 in 1914, and $2.47 in 1915. There was some variation in the prices received for the different varieties, due not merely to differences in quality, but to a considerable degree to the ability of some growers to obtain a better price than others. © This is a personal factor, and perhaps one of the chief factors of suc- cess in the cases of many of the farmers of this area. In determining the net profit received for a product, it is usual to find the total cost and subtract from that figure the receipts from the by-product, if any. The balance is the net cost. The product in this particular instance is the marketable barreled apple. The by-prod- ae ee ss Pa COST OF PRODUCING APPLES WESTERN NEW YORK. 47 ucts are the apples sold to the dryer, cannery, or cider mill. The average price received for apples by the growers considered in this investigation was $2.20 per barrel. The average net cost of produc- tion was $1.41. By deducting the same it will be found that the aver- age net profit was 79 cents per barrel, with an average yield of 84 barrels per acre, or a net profit of $66.36 per acre. If interest on in- vestment ($25.72) is considered as profit rather than as expense, there is a net profit of $92.08 per acre, or 18 per cent on the investment of $514. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE ; = WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY Vv iane 5 eed ‘ t k t 4 a * UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 852 (3 Contribution from the Bureau of Public Roads Thos. H. MacDonald, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 28, 1920 THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. By Frep C, Scosey, Senior Irrigation Engineer, with discussion by KENNETH ALLEN, Arruur S. Bent, F. C. Finxiz, Avten Hazen, J. B. Livprncorr, and H. D. NEWELL. i CONTENTS. Rage Page. EEF ELOSUCIIO WM epee et ees sae ose ie aro xia Sein necin'e 1) {|| DeseripinionvOspipesase cme. cee cisecicaee solestieee 25 PNGRTOHCIATIING toh en os. emcee ce ebbc le ecceoe 2 | Analysis of experimental data................. 45 PEYBOSIORDIDO-4: ip Fic. 1—Hydraulic elements for loss of head in siphon pipe. intake. As a rule, little or none of this velocity head is recoy- ered at the outlet of the pipe. Entry head, ee (approximately) (2) The: amount of loss at the entry, due to the effect of contraction eddies and other retarding influences, is variable and uncertain, but most authorities agree that it should be taken as half the velocity head, unless the inlet structure is especially designed to minimize this loss. Yor further discussion see page 52. Friction head, h,, is that lost in overcoming the retarding influences within a reasonably straight pipe. In pipes of great length, the amount of this loss so far exceeds the two losses first mentioned that they often may be neglected, especially in small pipes. This is the loss upon which the experiments described in this paper were con- centrated. 5 6 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In addition to the above losses, there may be others, such as those due to bends and valves or other obstructions; but as a general thing, these items do not enter the design of concrete pipes, especially for irrigation purposes. For this purpose the pipe is laid on such gentle curves, both horizontal and vertical, that such losses need not be considered. . ; In 1775, Chezy, a French engineer, offered his now well-known formula for’ the flow of water in both open channels and closed conduits: V=CyRs_ (3) Here Cis a coefficient, originally thought to be constant, but now known to vary with functions of the slope, the hydraulic radius, the velocity, and with some factor representing the retarding influences in the channel. Some of the formulas used in this country for the design of pipes have accepted the Chezy formula as a basis and made only such modifications as experience dictated. Since the hydraulic elements secured in the field experiments furnish the necessary data for the determination of the factor repre- senting the retarding influences-in all the formulas most used in this country, this publication will show this factor as developed by field tests for several formulas as follows: (a) The Chezy formula (3). V=CYRs= C5908 (4) (6) The Kutter modification of the Chezy formula i oo Al: eee 3 cee ait (5) 1+ { 41.66 “( f SCY 8 in which @ is elaborated so that it takes into consideration the influence of the hydraulic grade and of the mean hydraulic radius and introduces a new variable, n, which is supposed to represent all the retarding influences. (ec) The Weisbach formula, which has been used by textbooks as a general formula for flow of water in clean pipes: LV? hy =f 2Dq (6) (d) The Williams-Hazen general formula? for many kinds of pipes: Vx CO), R°-33940 001 — 0.04 (7) 1E. Ganguillet and W. R. Kutter, translated by Rudolph Hering and John C. Trautwine, jr. A General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Water in Rivers and other Channels, New York, 1907, 2d ed. 2 Hydraulic Tables, Williams and Hazen, 2d ed., New York, 1909, p. 1. Bul. 852, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE I. Fig. 1.—EXCESSIVE ROUGHNESS OB- Fic. 2.—FLOW OBSTRUCTED WITH TAINED WITH POORLY MADE Woop ACCRETION OF SAND AND GRAVEL, FORMS. CEMENTED BY CARBONATE OF LIME. Ellipsed outlet to 60-inch round siphon pipe. Note ‘“‘mortar squeeze’’ at the joints; typical ofvery oldlines. View taken after 14 years’ use. Filia. 3.—PIPE UNIT FOR VICTORIA AQUEDUCT, BRITISH COLUMBIA. Exceeding smoothness obtained with oiled steel forms and omission of any wash coat. Bul. 852, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. Fig. 1.—WEIR AT INTAKE OF BISHOP LATERAL, BRITISH COLUMBIA FRUITLANDS Co., KAMLOOPS, BRITISH COLUMBIA (No. I7). Note hook gauge and stilling box. FIG. 2.—OUTLET OF CLAVEY SIPHON, OAKDALE IRRIGATION DISTRICT, CALIFORNIA. Note ridges left by imperfect wood forms, also hardened scraps of concrete stuck to bottom, also belting ridges at ends of forms. (Pipe No. 20.) FIG. 3.—GAUGE ON Di LINE, UMATILLA PROJECT, U. S. RECLAMATION SERVICE, OREGON. (PIPE NO. 23.) Shows mercury manometer (A); stufling box (B); piezometer tubing (C); color reservoir (D); color gun (2); and pump (I). THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 7 which may be arranged in the same form as formula 10, becoming y1 852 The authors of the formula suggest the following values of C,,: For masonry conduits of concrete or plaster, with very smooth surfaces, when clean, values of Cy=140 may be observed. Generally, such surfaces become slime covered, reducing the values of Cy to 130 or less in a moderate length of time; and if the surfaces are only a little less smooth, say in such shape as is represented by ordinarily good work, the value of Cy is reduced to 120. It is to be remembered that at the time the above recommendation was made there were very few experimental data upon the carrying capacity of cement-plastered and concrete pipes or conduits. How- ever, with all the data now available, the writer does not make any material difference in his.recommendation given on page 64. (¢) The Moritz formula’ for ‘‘concrete pipe built continuously with steel forms,”’ Q =—1.31 D277 /{9-555 (9) or Oil Ve Oe? fal Gi200) eee (10) Moritz suggests reducing the above coefficient of 1.31 from 5 to 10 per cent for “‘jointed pipes, depending upon the amount of care used in producing a smooth interior surface.” (f) For the reasons set forth on pages 45 to 49 the writer offers the following formula, which differentiates between various classes of concrete pipes by means of a coefficient C;. This formula is new to the extent of suggested coefficients only. V = 0, H°-5q0-25 (11) Vy? Eli O2dt5 (11a) Q=0.00546 OC, d2.8 A» (11b) in which the following values are suggested for the coefficient C,-: Class 1. C,=0.267. For old California cement pipe lines. It appears to have been the general practice throughout southern California during the early eighties to lay the pipes with a gen- erous supply of mortar and make little or no effort to remove the “mortar squeeze’’ at the joints; hence these pipes, even though perfectly clean, offer great retardation to the flow of water. This coefficient is also recommended for pipes of class 2 used to convey sewage. The present practice is to wipe all joints carefully and the resulting surface approaches that of class 2. 1 Working Data for Irrigation Engineers. By E. A. Moritz, New York, 1915, p. 66. Also see Flow of Water in Pipes, E. A. Moritz, Eng. Rec., vol. 68, No. 24, p. 667. 8 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Class 2. O,=0.310." For modern ‘‘dry-mix”’ concrete pipe and monolithic concrete pipe or tunnel linings made over rough wood forms. Also for surfaces as left by cement gun process. This coefficient should be used for pipes as commonly made at the present time in the west coast States; that is, in 2-foot sections, with a dry mixture, afterwards washed with cement mortar on the inside, the work of manufacture and laying being done by contract under little or no inspection. Under favorable conditions, such as clear water to be conveyed, carefully made joints and thorough inspection, this class may be made to approach class 3, but unless sure of his con- ditions the designer should use class 2 (for which Table 6 has been prepared). This is especially true for pipes less than 12 inches in diameter, because of the difficulty in making smooth joints. Class 8. O,=0.345. For small ‘“‘wet-mix”’ pipe in short units; for ‘“‘dry-mix”’ pipes in long units; for average monolithic pipe made on steel forms. These pipes may be evenly washed with cement mortar or asphaltum. For small cement-lined iron pipes and for concrete pipe madeunder pressure with interior coating of neat cement applied by a mechanical ‘‘trowel.’”’? To be used for pipes of. class ’ 4 when the water contains detritus or the line is to be used to con- vey sewage. (See Tables 7 and 8.) Class 4. C,=0.370. For glazed-interior pipe limes; for large cement-lined iron pipes; for monolithic pipe lines where joint scars and all interior surface irregularities are removed. Particularly ap- plicable to jointed lines of units made from wet, well-spaded concrete, deposited against oiled steel forms and allowed to set firmly before forms are stripped. The glazed surface resulting from this treatment is to be untouched with brush or other ‘‘wash”’ process and the units are to be so uniform in shape that no shoulders are perceptible to the touch when the line is finished. The finished joints are to be practi- tically as smooth as the rest of the pipe. (See Table 9.) This class covers only the highest grade of workmanship and materials. The specifications are rigid, but have been and can be attained commercially by an experienced organization. They are difficult to attain in a pipe less than 30 inches in diameter—too small to permit a man to work comfortably inside, and are probably pro- hibitive for sizes less than 12 inches in diameter. A few of the pipes upon which experiments were made appear to have coefficients higher than 0.370, but the writer wishes to be conservative in recommending a coefficient that necessitates a surface so nearly ideal. That is to say, a better surface may be attained in construction than should be anticipated in design. All the above formulas will be taken up again after an analysis of the data, and specific recommendations made with regard to each one so that the engineer familiar with one type of formula, not desiring to change to a new one, may have the best suggestions the available data offer in terms familiar to him. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 9 OPINIONS OF ENGINEERS REGARDING THE CARRYING CAPACITY OF CONCRETE PIPE. Experiments upon the flow of water in concrete pipes have been so few in number that there has been developed no clearly defined trend in thought, as was the case with the capacity of wood-stave pipes. In his discussion of tunnels, Finkle’ advocates applying a one- fourth inch coat of cement and sand in a 1 to 2 mixture to give a smooth surface and prevent percolation through the main concrete walls. ‘‘By means of this construction,’ he adds, “the coefficient of roughness in the Kutter formula has been reduced as low as 0.010 and in other cases it has been as high as 0.012. If the work is very poorly done it might run to 0.013.” Schuyler states? that the conduit supplying Mexico City was designed with a value of m equal to 0.017, but upon examination after construction he remarks, ‘‘The interior of the conduit is very smooth, and answers to Kutter’s rating of 0.011.” In his conclusions concerning the use of small cement-lined iron pipe, Metcalf has this to say of the carrying capacity: Satisfactory “data are lacking upon the carrying capacity of cement-lined pipes. It is believed that under favorable conditions the coefficient of discharge to be used in the Hazen and Williams formula is about C,,=120, but under actual conditions this coefficient has been found, in several carefully observed cases, to lie between 95 and 110. Unless the conditions are definitely known, therefore, the use of a coefficient not exceeding Cy=100 to Cy=110 in the Hazen and Williams formula is to be recommended. ; Jorgensen used a value of n of 0.012 in the design of a 6-foot rein- forced concrete flow line.‘ i Conway ® says that n was taken as 0.013 in the design of some lines in Mexico. The pipe units were 61 cm. (practically 2 feet) long, made with a “dry mix’’ and afterwards coated ‘‘with a Portland cement grout to which a little freshly slaked hme was added.”’ Tas_E |.—Friction factors used in designing concrete pipes of United States Reclamation Service. . . : Kutter’s Project. Line. Type. Size. BGG. Length Inches. Feet. Salt@Rivers*2 Veet a. os into Wreckssene sane se 2: Continuous. ..-...- 63 0. 012 2,130 DOR 5 ee asso sii Cottonwood canyon.....-.|..-.- GCO)sacanseaea 63 0. 012 500 Mictons ss Sige see 2 ok MATIOUSHE a aaer eer oe ese Jointedeeees snes 6 to 30 0.013 255, 689 SUMMY SIC Cs see ee saeco Mal tome eeei ko eee COE eee DAG cere cae 3), Om th ttt tetanic Se SE TOSSED ete seen Ae aoe GO rape oo 304 0. 013 3, 088 Winall eS AS a ee WZ] CUS eens toi lao (3 (oye ah epanee NZOATG Veoseissseess 61, 728 Belle Fourche..........- Belle Fourche. .........--- Continuous. .....- 70 0. 012 3, 565 IMaiKRAVET sige. cc oe cic ce 2 Willow Creeks... 05.5222. 5).0.25 GOMs eek ae 64 0. 014 1,479 BCISORE eyes eee ea eee Chance eer fs ja ee Jointedey eee ese! 304 0. 013 4,770 IDO) ae eee eee IB TO Ce aera co Ol ae Ore eee eee 804 0. 013 3, 546 DOM SS eeR eset HOTESEE BS Sat ate ag sa oceee oa EE (6\0) As Beaty oe 36 0. 013 8, 575 a0 gue Arost Economic Type of Hydraulic Power Conduits. F.C. Finkle, Eng. Rec., vol. 52, Sept. 2, , Dp. 263. 2 The New Water-Works and Reinforced Concrete Conduit for Mexico City. J. D. Schuyler, Eng. News. vol. 55, Apr. 19, 1906, p. 435. 3 Wrought-Iron Cement Lined Water Pipe. Leonard Metcalf, Eng. News, vol. 61, p. 2, Jan. 7, 1909. 4 Eng. News, vol. 62, Aug. 5, 1999, p. 146. __5 The Water Works and Sewerage of Monterey, Mexico, by G. R. G. Conway: Trans. Amer. Soc. Civil Engin., vol. 72, 1911, p. 497. 10 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Concerning the capacity of concrete pipes for the conveyance of sewage, Metcalf and Eddy quote from correspondence with various engineers, in substance as follows! (in all cases the friction factor is Kutter’s n): J. W. Alvord uses 0.015 for concrete, but has come to the belief after completing a number of miles that he did not secure work in the Chicago district that justified much less than 0.016. G. G. Earl uses 0.012 to 0.013 for concrete sewers in New Orleans. G. W. Fuller uses 0.013 for concrete sewers of greater diameter than 24 inches. J. H. Gregory uses 0.015 for concrete sewer trunk lines in the Passaic Valley. Hardesty ? states that a value of n of 0.012 was used in designing a tunnel lining of concrete deposited against wood forms. This state- ment called - forth a letter from C. F. Mullings * of the Madras Presi- dency, India, to the effect that orders were recently given by the Government inspector general of irrigation (India) to use a coefficient of 0.017 in the design of concrete lined tunnels. : Freeman * uses a value of n of 0.014 for concrete tunnels, stating: This is liberal enough to cover some roughness of finish and to provide against the retarding effect of mosslike growths, such as was noted in the Boston aqueducts, and will allow for retardation by some slight deposits of sand. on the bottom, although there will be small chance of this under the high velocities proposed. Freeman goes on to state that while the linings are new and clean . the value of n would probably be 0.011. For concrete-lined steel pipes he suggests a value of 0.013. In the same report (p. 350) C. E. Grunsky uses 0.013 for a lined tunnel 10 feet m diameter. The board of consulting engineers for the Winnipeg aqueduct makes the following recommendations: A coefficient of 132.8 Gn the Chezy formula) for a concrete section of basket-handle shape, 10 feet wide and 9 feet high, with hydraulic mean radius of 2.33 feet; a coefficient of 124.1 for a section of similar shape 5 feet wide and 5 feet high with a hydraulic radius of 1.24 feet: * E. G. Hopson, in the report to the city of New York of Burr, Hering, and Freeman,° recommended a value for (, in the Chezy formula, of 128 for a concrete aqueduct, based on a diminution of 124 per cent on open-trench portions, due to slimes. For tunnel sections the reduction in capacity by sliming was considered as only 5 per cent, but the inferior workmanship obtained in tunnels would make the final coefficient in both cases 128. 1 American Sewerage Practice, Metcalf and Eddy, Ist ed., New York, 1914, vol. 1, p. 97. 2W. P. Hardesty in Eng. News, vol. 56, p. 391. 3 Td., vol. 57, p. 245. 4 Hetch Hetchy Water Supply for San Francisco, 1912, by Jno. R. Freeman, San. Francisco, 1912, p, 221 * Canadian Engineer, Oct. 23, 1913, p. 605. 6 Report of Commission for an Additional Water Supply for the City of New York, New York, p. 214. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 11 The board of consulting engineers ‘ who reviewed the plans of the Los Angeles aqueduct suggested a coefficient for cement-lined tunnels of 0.014 for n in the Kutter formula. This value was used in the accepted design.” After conducting a series of experiments upon both open and covered channels in southern California (see p. 88 in Appendix) J. B. Lippincott concluded :* It would appear from these experiments that a coefficient of 0.012 for n in the Kutter formula would be safe in tunnels or covered concrete conduits with plastered surfaces. In correspondence with the writer, under date of June 15, 1915, Mr. Lippincott writes: An interesting feature relative to coefficients is the fact that in concrete-lined conduits in the Southwest, the effect of sunlight is very material in determining what the coefficient will be in the conduit. In the covered conduits that are dark there is no growth of vegetable or animal life in this section and our values of n are in the neighborhood of 0.010 to 0.012. If, however, the same class of lining is uncov- ered and exposed to the light of the sun, the coefficients are very much more unfavor- able and may run up to 0.018. RECAPITULATION. As a broad statement, it would appear that the concrete pipes and conduits of the country have been designed by the use of the Kutter formula, and that concrete has been considered as concrete, little or no differentiation being made due to various degrees of smoothness, regardless of forms, mixtures, or surfacing, although the acquired surface, due to slimes, has been considered. Values of n have been chosen from 0.012 up to 0.017, the reasons for this wide divergence not being quite clear in several cases. In no case has the designing engineer accepted literally the Kutter classification of 0.010 for ‘‘neat cement plaster”’ or 0.011 for ‘‘cement mortar one-third sand.’ Jt may be well to state here that these values of n are the only ones given in many standard lists that appear to apply to concrete and were based on very few data obtained under conditions that were probably more nearly ideal than commonly could be obtained commercially. The Kutter formula has been particularly popular in the West, while in the Eastern States the Williams-Hazen formula is exten- sively used alongside that of Kutter. A study of Tables 3 and 11 and of Plate VI will develop what coefficients may be expected from various methods of construction for varying sizes of pipe and varying velocities. While it is still evident that the Kutter formula should not be used with a given value of n for a given interior surface throughout the range of sizes 17This board consisted of Jno. R. Freeman, J. D. Schuyler, and F. P. Stearns. 2 Construction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, Los Angeles, Calif., 1916, p. 81. 3 Engin. News, June 6, 1907; vol. 57, p. 612. aie 12 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. encountered, still the change is not so marked as that found in the study of wood-stave pipes. The Williams-Hazen formula appears to more nearly apply if the value of (,, is chosen as suggested on page 64. NECESSARY FIELD DATA FOR DETERMINING THE RETARDATION ELE- MENTS OF VARIOUS FORMULAS. A glance at pages 5 to 7 shows that for study of the various formulas the same hydraulic elements must be determined by field tests. These are: (1) The mean velocity, V, of water in the pipe. (2) The loss of head, hy, due to retardation in a section of pipe of uniform size, within a known distance. (3) The internal size of pipe, D or d. The above data having been secured, the coefficient of retardation may be computed for each of the various formulas. MEAN VELOCITY OF WATER. The velocity of the water flowing in a reach of pipe may be meas- ured in two general ways: (1) Directly, by timing a given volume of water through a known distance. (2) Indirectly, by measuring the discharge of the pipe, thus determining the quantity, Q, and solving the equation V as Where the velocity is tested by the direct method the error is’ probably smaller than where the indirect method is used, unless exceptional facilities for complete measurements, including interior diameters, are at hand. LOSS OF HEAD DUE TO RETARDATION. Most of the recent experiments on the flow of water in pipes of uniform size have been made with piezometer columns. This was the method used by the writer. If a piezometer (fig. 1) be properly attached to the pipe, the pressure in the latter will support a column of water whose surface is at elevation /,, on the hydraulic grade line. In the same way the pressure at gauge No. 2 will lift a column to elevation H,. The difference between these elevations is the head lost, h;, due to the retarding influences. oe INTERNAL SIZE OF PIPE. The method used in ascertaining the inside cross-sectional area of the pipe is recounted in the description of each test. In some cases several joints of pipe, remaining from construction, were measured and their mean inside cross-sectional areas accepted as the internal sizes of the operated pipes. In other cases the nominal diameter of the pipe was accepted. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 13 As made in local pipe yards along the Pacific coast, the smaller sizes of pipe, say from 6 to 20 inches in diameter, appear to run under size. The writer measured two diameters on many sections of pipe, taken at random in various pipe yards. The results may be summed up as follows: The average true area of 8-inch pipe was 4.4 per cent less than the nominal; of 10-inch pipe was 2.7 per cent less; of 12-inch pipe was 3.5 per cent less; of 14-inch was 1.3 per cent less; of 18-inch was 1.4 per cent less. Sections of greater diameter than 20 inches appear to run quite true to nominal size. SCOPE OF THE EXPERIMENTS. 4 The writer conducted 130 observations on 30 separate pipes, 29 cf which ranged from 8 inches to 634 inches in diameter and one 120 inches in diameter. Seventeen pipes were of the “ dry-mix,” cement- _ washed, jointed types;°5 were of the ““wet-mix,” oiled-form, uncoated jointed type; 3 were constructed in the same manner and then washed with cement; 1 was of the wet-mix, monolithic, steel-form, coated type; 3 were of the wet-mix, monolithic, wood-form, uncoated type; 1 of the same construction, coated. All but two of these pipes were “running full’”’; that is, under pressure. Mean velocities ranged from less than 1 foot per second to more than 9 feet per second. From other sources also listed in summary Tables 3, 4, and 11, and briefly described in the Appendix commencing on page 77, descrip- tions of experiments on pipe up to 18 feet in diameter are abstracted. eT I AND METHODS EMPLOYED FOR COLLECTING AND INTER- PRETING FIELD DATA. With the inne exceptions, the equipment and methods used were the same as nner employed in the experiments on wood-stave pipe and which were described in Bulletin 376 of the department. For the sake of brevity these descriptions will not be repeated here. Color wnjector.—The only practicable method of measuring. the velocity of water in some of the pipes tested was by timing the passage of some color or chemical. For comparatively small volumes of clear water a saturate solution (from 5 to 8 per cent in air temperatures) of potassium permanginate was used. This color is rather uncertain, being decomposed by some waters and neutralized by reddish or muddy waters. - Where certainty of results is desired, almost regard- less of the water, fluorescein is the best chemical and Congo red the second choice, in the knowledge of the writer. At the present time, however, either is practically impossible to obtain... It is desirable to start the color at a gulp, whether in water under pressure or in a pipe but partly filled. The ‘“‘color gun” used in the experiments upon wood-stave pipe was improved somewhat. As shown in figure 3, S is a reservoir into which the solution is poured, through the coupling W. The latter is then closed and the air reser- 14 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. voir X blown up with the bicycle pump until under a pressure much in excess of that existing in the pipe under test. At a definite noted time the color is injected into the pipe through the cock V. The gauge readings were taken simultaneously with the passage of the color through the pipe. Color siphon.—Where the pipe discharged into a sand or ae box (PI. IIT, fig. 1), the first appearance of the color could be noted easily at the pipe outlet, even though 6 or 8 feet below the surface, if — the water was clear, but it was impossible to determine when the last sight of eolor reached the end of the pipe, as the pool would then be filled with colored water. To overcome this difficulty a length of garden hose was calibrated as a true siphon. The inlet end of this siphon was then held in the pipe outlet and the last appearance of color was observed at the outlet of the hose. From the calibration it was found that an effective head of 1 foot required four seconds to discharge a volume of water equal to the volume of the interior of the hose siphon. Thus, if the outlet of this siphon was always just 1 foot lower than the water in the outlet chamber, then the last appearance of the color in the concrete pipe was just four seconds before its last appearance at the hose outlet. Aw irap.—Since all water flowing in pipes contains more or less air in solution and sometimes even free bubbles of air, an accumu- lation of air in the piezometer tubes is to be looked for. In order to insure a water column free from air between the pipe and the gauge glass, the attachment shown in Plate V, figure 1, was developed. A solid water column follows the tubing aaa to the gauge glass, while air bubbles, taking the highest path, pass into bb. Any bubbles that might escape the first, glass Y at b are given another oppor- tunity to escape at c. The air chamber d is provided with an air valve. In blowing out the pressure tubing, the valve V is opened wide to create a draft. The air valve at the gauge glass is opened very slightly. A relatively large amount of water escapes at V and a small amount at the gauge glass. By watching the glass Y at b it could be seen that no bubbles passed into the tube aaa, thus assuring a column of solid water. ATTACHMENT OF PIEZOMETERS. Probably no small portion of the discrepancy between results of tests on carrying capacity of various kinds of pipe is due to the method of measuring the pressure head. Apparatus of some form must be installed so that the pressure head will sustain a water or mercury column to an elevation corresponding to the true hydraulic gradient over the point of application of the pressure. In order to secure this result, all positive or negative influence of velocity head must THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 15 be excluded. Herein lies one difficulty in making tests on concrete pipes in commercial service. There are two general ways in which access to the stream within a pipe may be secured. A small tube like A or B, figure 4, may be thrust directly into the stream, or a connection set in the shell of the pipe, like C. Tubes of type A or B were smoothly tapered, with the holes passing through the opposite sides of the tube. When a connection was to be made far from the end of the concrete pipe, a hole was tapped in the latter and the tube inserted through a stufing box. According to White’ a tube of type A not only registers the proper pressure head, without velocity-head influence, in an open channel, but also within a closed pipe. His third con- clusion is that Pitot tubes whose constants are unity in open canal ratings will remain unity, whatever the pressure of the liquid. His tubes Mand WN are of this type. Our tube of type A was, in essen- tials, the same as White’s static tubes of types Mand N. Although our tubes of this type were tapered with some care, Lawrence and Braunworth ? showed that the taper was of little importance. ’ It is to be regretted that Mills* did not continue his experiments on piezometer connections to cover tubes like A and B. He did, however, establish the fact that a connection of type C registers the proper pressure head.* The use of an orifice in the shell of the pipe, normal to the curve— that is, of type C—is justified by F. P. Stearns * and later by Desmond Fitzgerald.® Carrying the idea still farther, Marx, Wing, and Hoskins proved that— ‘When the pressure in the given cross section of the pipe everywhere exceeded that of the atmosphere an open piezometer will stand at the same height at whatever point of the cross section it be attached, and whether it communicates with the pipe at one point or several.’’7 In each of the experiments described in this paper, regardless of the auspices under which it was conducted, but one connection was made at each end of the reach tested. 1 The Pitot Tube: Its Formula. W.M. White, Journal Assoc. Engin. Socs., 27 (1901), p. 35. _ 2 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., vol. 57, p. 273. 3 Experiments upon Piezometers Used in Hydraulic Investigations. H. F. Mills, Pro. Amer. Acad. Arts and Sci., vol. 14 (Whole Series, 1879), p. 26. 4 Mills concludes ‘‘ that with an orifice whose edges are in the plane of the side, and passage normal thereto. the piezometric column will stand neither above nor below the surface of the stream, but willindicate the true height of the surface.” He also notes that a very slight variation of the passage from the normal causes an erroneous reading of the piezometer column; that where the orifice projects into the stream the column rises above the surface of the stream when the orifice faces upstream or is at right angles to thestream and the column does not rise to the elevation of the surface in the stream when the orifice faces down stream. 56 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 14 (1885), p. 3. 8 Td., 35 (1896), p. 241. 7 Trans. Amer. Soc. Ciy. Engin., 40 (1898), p. 526. 16 BULLETIN 852, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. »—Open to air: 26" Wi) Pipe 12% over all @ Ys hole : --C.1 Flug, brazed. Zo UR SFibre washer: SSS = MSts Screv cap S y B “Na// hose. —————— ots HI iP SUMMA Vat dls ; Surge Wall. (2"e. tne, Meter weight and Mercury-béitle. (2c tac) ie “s\ “ah Open 7o air. ul al Notes; sa Each glass and iron pipe Fis 2 feet lon fe Pp 4inch Wh pipe is¥_2 ins. diam. al” PPEMS Here 4 Inch W. pipe IS hes Inch diam. All metal panied 3 coats. Bic ycle Pur Graduated i= Gage Glass ca M4 ar cock. be ling’ es W4.x V4. Tee i's JST See Detail of U Tub ul GY‘cock. ; 4 cock. Mercury trap. Bicycle tire valve. are S | 'Sinno00n00 = Pia SSSS—S “ au” D 4* ig Tee = Color reservoir;— Jo be adjusted so that__ Reducer from , : outlet Comes at , Yj! to Ye" pipe. A PD y] w point. ; AR! 5 Copper ‘ or brass. To plezjometer- orifices. Fic. 2,—Method of attaching mercury manometers to concrete pipes. Details of manometers, fluorescein gun, and combined current meter weight and mercury bottle. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 17 DETERMINATION OF LOST HEAD. The exact amount of hf; (fig. 1) must be determined. Where a water column is used, say at gauge No. 2, the elevation F, is the gauge reading added to the elevation of the gauge zero above an assumed datum, with proper corrections (see p. 5). Where a mercury manometer of the U-tube pattern is used, the reasoning is as follows: It is desired to know the elevation F, (fig. 1) for a water column which is the equivalent of a mercury column in a U-tube placed as for gauge No. 1. Referring to figure 2, the mercury in the two legs of the U-tube below Q will | A@SSareseteey es beseentobalance. There- | (erection diam z fore the pressure of the | water at Q is just balanced by the-column of mercury ‘QT. But the pressure at e equals that at d. If the yas x02 mercury X were replaced | £7 : Be halos on with water it would reach : PREG Sse an elevation sR above Q, where s is the specific eravity of the particular mercury in the gauge, compared with the par- ticular water in the pipe. : : Set flush with gies Me Gap with 4 diam. But the elevation to which hele in centre. this water column would reach is the desired eleva- tion, E,. As applied to | these experiments, refer- | Ea Filfed ati brass: Me Pak ring to figures 1 and 2, the difference in elevation be- Note; /n ebore ‘pres J the piezometers Be relatively large. tween the readings of the “== TE. | Ta CE low gauge and the high gauge multiplied by the specific gravity of the mercury and added to the elevation of the low-gauge readings gave the elevation of the equivalent water column when the proper corrections had been applied. MEASUREMENT OF MEAN VELOCITY. As a rule, each pipe tested presented its own problem as to the method to be adopted to determine the mean velocity of the water, and in case this method digressed from one of the following standard methods it is described. 164725°—20—Bull. 852-——2 Fie. 3.—Various arrangements of piezometers for securing pressure head at a given place on the pipe line. 18 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Current meter.—Where the water entered or left the pipe in an open channel the discharge was determined with a current meter, and the velocity in the pipe was secured by dividing this discharge by the area of the pipe. The two-tenths and eight-tenths depth method was used, as the results obtained in this way, when compared with the discharge found by the multiple-point method, generally agree with it to about 1 per cent. TaBLEe 2.—Velocitics by color compared with velocities by weir and current meter. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 z ; Velocity| Velocity] Velocity pene ae Pipe per sec- | per sec- | per sec- | 7,— Vp, | Ve— Vo (this (Bul diam-} Crest length of weir. | Meter method. | ond by | ond by | ond by Toe Ta ES RC pul.).| 376). | °tt- | color. | meter. | weir. ¢ ¢ Ro j (Vc). | (Vm). | (Vw). Feet. Feet. Feet. |Percent.|Per cent. . 295 3.8 2. 3. 4, 6. 3 3 7 6 2 8 9 7 9 6 8 5 0 2 6 0 3 8 7 4 Fee See ne ROLES a teen wees a 1 Cipolletti weir with good conditions of contraction and velocity. 2 Rectangular weir with end contractions and sharp crest. 8 Meter held in each vertical at 0.6 depth from surface. : 4 Meter held at 0.2 and 0.8 depths in each vertical; mean accepted for vertical. 5 Rating curve developed by meter measurements. Velocity taken from curve. 6 Excluded from Table 2, Bul. 376, because gauge data lost for manometer No. 1. 7 Velocity integrated by moving meter slowly from top to bottom and return. 8 Indeterminate velocity ofapproach. Crest rounded. ° Experiments on 36-inch lock-bar steel pipe. ‘ 10 Rectangular weir with suppressed contractions at both ends. Velocity of approach indeterminate. Color.—Three chemicals were used in making powerful colors— fluorescein, Congo red, and potassium permanganate. About 1 tea- spoonful of fluoreacein (in the form of red powder) mixed in about a pint of water gave sufficient solution for four injections of color in a pipe carrying up to 60 second-feet. The powder mixed readily in cold water. Congo red is used in the same way, but about 10 times as much ‘‘red” is recessary to obtain the same intensity of color. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 19 In the use of potassium, a handful of the crystals made about 2 quarts of dense color. Cold water quickly attains a saturate solution if well stirred (from 5 to 8 per cent by weight at ordinary air temperature), and may then be poured off the undissolved crystals, which do not float. About 1 pint of solution will color 50 second-feet of clear water. Some waters break down the color to a morddy brown, which is unsatisfactory. In making a test the coupling W (fig. 2) is opened and the solution poured into the reservoir 8S. After Wis closed the gun is pumped up like a bicycle tire. Noting the time to a second, the operator opens the cock JV. The observer at the outlet notes to the second the first and last appearance of the color. The color is extended by the variation in the velocity throughout the section of the pipe. This extension covers from 8 to 12 per cent of the total time the color spends in the pipe. Comparison with carefully constructed weirs shows that the color method is correct within about 3 per cent. Wherever possible, a comparison between color and current meter was made. ‘To secure comparative results, the time the color spent in the pipe is taken as from the moment of injection to the mean between first and last sight at the outlet. These comparative tests are shown in Table 2. All watches used in the tests were compared before and after each experiment, corrections being noted for use in computing elapsed time. The watch agreeing best with jewelers’ chronometers was used as the standard. FIELD PROCEDURE. After the reach of pipe was selected,the manometers attached, and other equipment put in readiness, the method for proceeding with the field test was in general carried out as described in the para- eraphs following. Any necessary changes are noted in the text in connection with the description of the individual pipes tested. The watches used at both ends of the reach were adjusted to agree to the second, and again compared at the end of the observation. Manometers were read at intervals varying from 30 seconds to 2 minutes (depending on the amount of pulsation in the water). If a weir was used to measure the discharge of water, a hook gauge above the weir was read every 2 to 5 minutes, depending on the variation of discharge. If a current-meter measurement was necessary to determine the discharge, it was made either during or immediately following the series of manometer readings, the manometers being watched for appreciable variations of discharge. Where color was used to time the actual velocity of the water it was injected into the pipe at approximately known intervals, say 5 minutes, throughout the time during which the manometers were read. Ordinarily the second gauge was near enough to the outlet of the pipe so that one observer could both read the manometer and watch for the appearance of the color. Sometimes an additional observer was necessary. 20 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OFFICE EQUIPMENT AND METHODS. Original multiplication, division, and addition were performed on ‘mechanical devices, except in the computation of a few coefficients, where slide rules sufficed. Checking was done by 20-inch slide rules and graphic methods. Estimate diagrams were checked by proving random examples. Office procedure.—Where water columns were used at both ends of the reach of pipe tested the loss of head in the pipe for the given velocity was the difference in elevation between the top of the mean water column at gauge No. 1 and the top of the mean column of gauge No. 2. Where a mercury manometer was used at one or both of the gauges the equivalent water column for each reading of the mercury column was computed. The mean of the elevations of the tops of the equivalent water columns was accepted as the elevation for that gauge. The loss of head was then computed as before. Standard methods were employed in computing current-meter data or weir discharge. Where color was used in timing the velocity of the water, the time was computed as from the instant of injection to the mean between first sight and last appearance of the color at the outlet. ELEMENTS OF EXPERIMENTS FOR THE DETERMINATION OF FRICTION LOSSES IN CONCRETE PIPES, FLOWING FULL. In the following pages two tables are arranged (Tables 3 and 4) which give the elements of all known observations on concrete pipes under pressure. The various series are arranged in ascending sizes of pipe and within one series the observations are arranged in ascending order of velocities. EXPLANATORY NOTES ON TABLE 3. Column 1 gives the consecutive numbers of the pipes followed in column 1, Table 4, also in the discussions in the following pages and in the Appendix. The small letter a after the numbers refers to dis- cussion in the Appendix. Experiments conducted by this depart- ment are discussed in the text while the essential data secured from other sources are abstracted in the Appendix. Column 2 shows the authority (see also column 2, Tie 4) the series number where such was carried, together with the date of the test. N refers to H. D. Newell, project manager, United States Recla- mation Service, Umatilla project, Oregon. F refers to J. T. Fanning. B refers to the late Henry Bazin, ieee AB refers to Prof. A. Budau, Austria. RDJ refers to R. D. Johnston, consulting engineer, Ontario Power Co., Canada. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. ot M refers to F. F. Moore, designing engineer, board of water supply, New York City. S refers to the writer, Fred. C. Scobey, senior irrigation engineer, in charge of experiments on the flow of water in channels and pipes. In these experiments and computations he was assisted by E. C. Fortier, P. A. Ewing, and Thomas H. McCarthy. The other columns are considered self-explanatory. EXPLANATORY NOTES ON TABLE 4. Column 1 gives the same consecutive numbers as column 1, Table 3. See discussions after ‘Column 1”’ on page 20. Column 10 gives the equation for the pipe, as developed by the tests. This equation is obtained by the “center of gravity’? method— the equivalent of the “least squares’? method in its simplest form. The other columns are considered self-explanatory. TaBLE 3.—Elements of experiments for the determination of friction losses in concrete pipes, running full; with retardation coefficients for various formulas. 1 2 3 | 4 5 6 7 8 Coefficients of retardation. u u u S 5 5 2 g & SSoateen LO ek 12 13 14 B8/a-/14] 2 S Sra Ries — 2 5 2 I oy g 5 3 s S 8/82/38 |S | Nameanddescriptinof | 2 | £3] se za 350 las! a |e >| 2 pipe. ae a/esln}]. 18a! x a | 3 HAiloUlnH| © ag qu | CS] o bm |so| 8 2 Q olad|/o;] sa 5) go | aay (oO N |=28/ 2 3 a alu? | 4] 3 Z ema! gZ oo} 8 |=s| & | s ]s SB Pee .o-| 4 A {2 Jeeepeco |e | se |e le d Q V H Cs | C | Cw! Cn n f ins. cu.ft.| feet.| feet. 1 | 819 1} 8.0) Pomona, Calif.; jointed ce- 1.22) 3.51/10. 800)0. 291) 82.6) 94.8) 0.95)0. 0124). 0378 1915 2 ment pipe on continuous 1.24] 3. 56/10. 780] . 295) 83.8} 96.3 98} . 0123). 0357 3 down grade, straight; 1.24) 3.56/10. 820) . 295) 83.8) 96.1) .98) .0123). 0359 laid about 1885. Dy sat 2| 10.0} Pomona, Calif.; jointed ce- 1.10} 2.02| 3.120) .271| 79.2) 92.9} .96) .0134|.0410 1915 1 ment pipe on continuous 1.12} 2.06) 3.129] . 276] 80.8] 94.6) .98] .0132/. 0396 3 down grade, straight; laid 1.13} 2.08} 3.334] .270} 79.1] 92.3) .95) .0134}.0414 4 1888. 1.14] 2.10] 3.403] .270) 79.0) 92.3) .95) .0134}. 0414 3 |S 28 1| 10.0} Ontario, Calif.; jointed ce- 2.59) 4.75/15. 900) . 283) 82.6) 90.7] .91} . 0130). 0378 1915 2 ment pipe, on continuous | 2.65) 4. 87/15. 850} . 290) 84.8] 93.1) .94) .0126).0358 grade. 4 | $20 1, 12.0} Pomona, Calif. ; jointed ce- 1.25} 1.60) 1 793| 253| 76.2) 88.4 91| .0144). 0451 1915 2 ment pipe, on continuous 1.25) 1.61) 1.884) .248) 73.2) 86.6 89) . 0147). 0468 grade. 5 | $26] 10) 12.0) Pomona, Calif.; jointed ce- 1.18] 1.50] 1.694] .244) 72.8) 85.4] . 88] .0148].0485 1915] 9 ment pipe, straight and 1.32] 1.68] 2.120] .244| 73.0} 84.8] .87] .0148). 0484 1 approximately level, 1.54) 1.95} 2.188} . 280) 83.8) 97.3] 1.00} .0133}.0367 2 clear water; laid 1885. 1.57| 2.00} 2.497} .268) 80.0} 92.4) .94) .0138).0402 3 1.70] 2.17} 2.925} . 268) 80.4) 92.0} .94) .0137).0401 4 1.80} 2.29) 3.342) . 265) 79.2) 90.4) .92) .0139).0411 5 2.10} 2.68) 4.423) . 270) 80.7) 90.9} .92} .0137|.0396 6 2.24) 2.85} 4.918) .272) 81.4] 91.3 92} . 0136). 0390 8 2.71) 3.45) 7.055} . 275) 82.1) 91.0 $2) .0133). 0382 7 2.85} 3.63) 7.649] . 278) 82.9) 91.6 92} . 0135). 0374 6 | 833 1) 12.0} Ontario, Calif.; jointed ce- 4.59} 5. 85)14. 820) .322, 95.9/103.3] 1.03) .0120).0279 1915 ment pipe, straight; laid 1911, Te Nia 2) 12.0) Ontario, Calif.; jointed ce- 1.51} 1.92) 1.405) .343,102.1)121.1] 1.25) .0114|. 0246 1915 1 ment pipe, straight and 1.57} 2.00) 1.489) .347\103. 6/122. 2} 1.26) .0112).0240 level; laid 1900. 8 |S 53 1| 11.8| Oakdale, Calif.; jointed ce- -98| 1.29) 1.310) . 240) 71.8) 85.2) .88) .0148).050 1916 | 6 — pipe, slight sag in 1.18] 1.55] 1.769] .249| 74.4] 87.3] .90] .0145]. 0465 profile. 99 BULLETIN 852, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe 3.—Elements of experiments for the determination of friction losses in concrete pipes, running full; with retardation coefficients for various formulas—Continued. 1 2 3 | 4 5 6 7 8 Coefficients of retardation. 5 5 es je | 8 wae ee = 25). Op 0m ten ate alee S94) 14 B|e318| 8 3 |Se|33 - BSS = | Name and description of SoS (SEE! 6. a Pbnlacs i A os E | o pipe. é 2 Sa er) Sh9| ete SS ag NS a 8 | a|ea|2|s s° [88 |a7/8)]8 |B8| 2) 813 M4 = = i) (o) = | A|A |o| 4 eS sto ater te | FI Geet na] oe H d Q V HH Cs C Cw Cn nN fi i | ue mo } ins. cu.ft. | feet. | feet. i] 9 |S 24 1} 16.0} Pomona, Calif.; jointed ce- MSVALE & - 536] . 237) 73.1) 86.8} . 90) .0154/. 0478 i 1915 2 ment pipe, straight, on 1.54; 1.10) .512) . 272) 84.6) 99.8) 1.03) .0132/. 0362 | 3 continuous down grade; 1.62} 1.16] .570) . 272) 84.1) 99.4) 1.02} .0128). 0363 : pipe clean; laid 1883. 10 | $22 4| 16.0} Pomona, Calif.; jointed ce- 2.40) 1.72) 1.001} . 304) 94. 5]108.6} 1.11} .0127|.0290 j 1915 3 ment pipe, straight, on 2.47) 1.77) 1.051] .305) 94. 6]108.9} 1.11) .0127}. 0287 ; 5 continuous down grade; 2.61) 1.87] 1.251) . 296] 91. 7/104. 7) 1.07} .0130). 0306 2 pipe clean; laid 1883. 2.74) 1.96] 1.315] .302] 93. 8)106.9} 1.09) .0128}. 0293 ii 2.82} 2.02} 1.415] .300} 93.1/105.9} 1.08} .0129). 0297 1 2.92} 2.09] 1.445] .307] 95. 4/108. 2! 1.10} . 0127). 0283 i 6 3.35] 2.40} 1.964] .303] 93.8/105. 4) 1.07) . 0129}. 0292 8 3.41) 2.44] 2.088] . 292} 92. 4/103.6] 1.05] .0129). 0305 Til 3 E25 1] 16.0) Pomona, Calif.; jointed ce- 2.40) 1.72} .984] .306] 95.0)109.7| 1.12) .0127). 0285 1915 ment pipe, continuous grade. 12a | N1 |....] 16.0) Z, siphon, Umatilla pro- 3,74] 2.68] 3.800] . 243] 75.0) 82.4] .82) .0154). 0453 1912 ject, U. S. Reclamation 4. 87| 3.49) 4.500] . 291) 90.0} 98.0} .98] .0134}. 0317 Service, Oreg. 13a | N 2 |...-| 16.0) Z, sion, Umatilla pro- 3.42) 2.45) 1.900} . 314) 98.0]109.5) 1.11) .0125). 0271 1912 ject. 14 | S58 1] 18.0) Edwards line, Oakdale 3.48) 1.97) 1.625] .254| 79.8} 88.9] .89) .0148). 0405 1916 2 irrigation district, Calif.; 3.79} 2.15) 1.930} . 254! 79.8) 88.3} .88) . 0150). 0405 straight siphon. . 15 | 856 1} 18.0} Batdorf line, Oakdale 1.70} .96} .309} . 284) 89. 7/106.6| 1.11} . 0132}. 0321 1916 irrigation district; straight . down grade. 16 | S 42 6| 19.7; Clateral, Kamloops, B. C., .79| .37| .056) . 246} 78.1) 98.3) 1.03) . 0133). 0429 1916 2 Canada; straight in align- 1.07; .50} .109) .238] 75.8) 92.7); .96} .0145). 0459 3 ment, wavy in profile, 1.75] .84| .272) .249) 79.2) 93.6) .95] . 0148]. 0417 4 rough joints; laid 1911. 2.35) 1.12) . 466) . 255} 81.3) 93.7] .95) . 0147). 0397 5 2.63) 1.25) .538) .264) 84.4) 96.8) .98] .0143). 0371 7 2.93} 1.39} .745) . 251] 79.6) 90.6} .91) .0151). 0412 , 1 3.12) 1.48) .781)| .260) 82.7) 93.9) 94] . 0144}. 0382 . 17 | S 46 4| 19.7) Bishop lateral, Kamloops 1.33 63} . 102} .307| 98.6/120.0} 1.24) . 0124). 0271 1916 5 B. C., Canada; jointed 1.98 94) . 215} .315)100. 0/119. 5) 1.22) . 0121). 0257 7 cement pipe, gentle 3.14) 1.49} .557) .310) 98.7/118.4) 1.14] .0126]. 0265 8 curve in alignment, on 3.70) 1.76) .744) .316/100. 4)114.2) 1.15} . 0126). 0255 6 continuous down grade; 4.13) 1.96} .946) .313) 99.5}112.0) 1.12) .0127].0260 laid 1911. 18 | S60 5] 19.9) Temescal Water Co., Co- 2.14) .99) .200) . 340/108. 4/129. 4) 1.33) . 0119). 0220 1916 4 rona, Calif.; inverted 3.63] 1.68) .580) .339/108.1]123. 7) 1.25) .0118). 0221 ) 2 siphon of jointed cement 4.07) 1.88) .700) . 346/109. 8)125.3] 1.26) . 0117). 0212 3 pipe reinforced, straight 5.13} 2.37] 1.094) .349)111. 3)124. 3) - 1.24) . 0116}. 0208 1 in alignment, double 5.50) 2.54) 1.278) . 346/110. 4/122. 5) 1.22) . 0117). 0212 reverse curve in profile; laid 1911. 19 F 1; 20.0) Wrought-iron cement-lined 2.07) .95) .230) .304] 97.4/115.2) 1.18) . 0124). 0274 1880 2 pipe, 8,171 feet long ac- 3.25) 1.49} . 440) .345)109. 8/127. 2] 1.29) . 0115). 0213 3 cording to Schmeer. 4,20) 1.92) .730) .346)110. 7)125.1) 1.26} . 0116). 0212 i 4 5.08} 2.33] 1.040) .351)112.0)125.1) 1.25) .0116). 0206 5 5.67| 2.60) 1.340} .345)110. 1/121. 7) 1.21) . 0117}. 0213 | 6 6. 26) 2.87] 1.580) . 351/111. 7/122. 8) 1.22) .0115). 0205 7 7.14] 3.27} 1.990} .356)113. 5)128.7| 1. 23) . 0114). 0200 8 7.50} 3.44) 2.280} . 350/111. 7/120. 9) 1.20) . 0116}. 0207 9 8.16] 3.74] 2.720) .349)111. 1/119.6) 1.18] . 0117]. 0209 | 10} 8.55| 3.92) 3.000) . 348/110. 8)118.9} 1.17) , 0118). 0210 11) 8.73) 4.00} 3.130} .348/110. 7/118.5} 1.17) , 0118}. 0210 "1 8.82) 4.04) 3.200) . 347/110. 6)118.3) 1.16} . 0118). 0210 20 | 857} 1) 23.7, Clavey siphon, Oakdale 4.77; 1.55) .426) .328/106. 7|/120.9] 1.21) , 0122). 0226 1916 | 2 | irrigation district, Calif.; 5.59) 1.82) .543) .340/110. 7|/124.4) 1.24) .0119).0210 3) | monolithic, on gentle up- 6.02} 1.95) .522) .373)121,6)136.7| 1.36) .0110).0174 grade; built 1912. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 23 TaBLE 3.—LHlements of experiments for the determination of friction losses in concrete pipes, running full; with retardation coefficients for various formulas—Continued. ft Pipe number. 22 23 25a, 26 27a 28 28b 29 29b 30 2 Experimenter and year. S 61 1916 S 34 1915 N3 1911 N4 1912 8 51 1916 1895 S 55 1916 S 54 1916 8 36 1916 S 36b 1917 8 49 1916 34 5 6 fh H i 5 oO 2 = a ms a, ASh Lo o ov g\é oe, lee & | . | Nameand descriptionof | »& | bs Pp iS pipe. a 2 a Piso 3” | 85 oy" 5 2 om Cals la) =| d Q V ims cu.ft. | feet. 4) 23.5) ““ A” lateral, I OTH COND CO ho He Ot oD bo co ~ = Inside diameter. 46. 0 86. 6 216.0 Name and description of pipe. Victoria aqueduct, siphon No. 5 (see No. 30 above); series not so trustworth as No. 30; reach muc shorter; ignore observa- tion 1. Ri siphon, Umatilla proj- ect, U. S Reclamation Service, Oreg.; jointed concrete. R, siphon, same as No. 32 above; tests made when pipe was new. Churn Creek siphon, An- derson-Cottonwood irg. dist., Calif. Mabton pressure pipe, Sun- nyside project, Wash. Simms Creek siphon, Sun River project, U.S. Rec- lamation Service, Mont.; monolithic pipe, straight in alignment; built 1907-8 Perlmoos cement works, Austria; gentle curves in alignment,on continuous down grade; original data do not describe pipe manufacture or surface. Catskillaqueduct siphons. . Whitney siphon, Los An- geles aqueduct, Calif. monolithic pipe, cement mortar coat. Rondout tunnel, Catskill aqueduct, N. Y.: mono- lithic tunnellining made with oiled steel forms, ob- servations made on con- secutive days. Wallkill tunnel, Catskill aqueduct, N. Y., mono- lithic tunnellining made with oiled steel forms; ob- servations made on same day that identical dis- charge heldin pipe No. 39 above, which see. Conduit No. 2, Ontario Power Co.,Canada. See . 84 for explanation of items in this table. They do not represent data on actual individual runs, but are from velocity- friction curve. cu.ft. | feet. 9. 50) 9 (2) ake Discharge second. C3) 18. 50 20. 90 21. 60: 24. 90 16. 20 25.10 36. 50 * 45.90 46. 20 48. 20 48. 60 47.40 80. 80 66. 40 78. 00 86. 60 123.30 130. 60 140. 40 58. 40 90. 50 113.90 131.90 152.10 166. 70 542. 00 223.00 236. 00 238. 00 260. 90 345. 00 469. 00 472. 30 620. 90 624. 20 Mean velocity, per second. XN 209 1.92 2.17 2. 24 2.59 ODO OCOnNaIN & ow RPONOEW OR RON LAS ILS) S-S SOUS HS eer tea i) e SSNs RAROWNNYNE PeRwoOmNNE Soeooo QuveSsIsIVD HVS KOMI 10MON oo noee 8 Coefficients of retardation. hel 2a Gin 9 | 10: |) 1S aaa as so ES S . . Se/ 6/5 |8e| 8 | 8 Pret | et | el eee) ae S Sp | Hire fet aes 28 PS) 5 4 alo |E = 2] AH Cs C Cw Cn nN feet. | . 042) . 466/163. 0)188.2) 1.88) .0084). - 214] . 402/140. 4/151. 8) 1.48) .0105). . 275) . 400,139. 9/149. 7; 1.45) .0106 - 310] . 389/136. 2/145.1) 1.40) .0109 . 429] . 382/133. 7/140.6) 1.35) .0112 . 096) .416)147. 0/162.4) 1.59) .0099 . 252] .397|139. 7/149.0) 1.44) . 0108) - 544] . 393/139. 0)143.1) 1.36] . 0109 780) .412)145. 0/147.9} 1.40} .0106) . 870) . 392/138. 0/140. 2) 1.33) .0111 1. 080}. 375/130. 0/129.9) 1.23) .0117). 1.020} . 381/135. 0/135.3] 1.28) .0113). 1.145] .313/111.0/111.0} 1.04) .0137 1. 249) .368)/132. 7)129.4| 1.20) .0118 - 289) .420)154.1)156. 7) 1.47) .0104 -377| . 432/159. 2/159. 6} 1.49) . 0101 . 459) . 434/160. 2)159. 2) 1.49) .0101 1.194) . 384/141. 0)135.3] 1.24) .0114 1. 286] . 391/143. 8/137. 7| 1.26) .0112 1.581) . 380/133. 7/132. 4) 1.21] .0116 . 066) . 344/130. 9]136. 1] 1.28) .0123 . 155) . 345/132. 4/131. 9} 1.23) .0124 . 181} . 402/153. 7/152. 6) 1.42] .0108 - 312) . 355/136. 0/131. 8) 1,21] .0122 . 402} .358}137. 0/131. 4} 1.21) .0122 . 496] . 356/136. 3/129. 7) 1.18] .0122 1.150) . 405/160. 0)142. 7) 1.26} .0109 - 191} . 326/130. 4/123. 4) 1.12) ..0133). . 211] . 328/131. 2)123. 6] 1.12] .0132). . 284] . 285/113. 5|106.1) . 96) .0153 . 031) . 357/150. 0/144. 8) 1.31] .0124). .051| . 368/155. 0/146. 4) 1.32) .0119 . 112} . 338/140. 5}130.1) 1.18] .0131 . 089] . 381/159. 0/148. 4) 1.32) .0116 . 155] . 380/159. 0)144. 5} 1.28) .0116 . 211) . 327/137. 0/123. 0} 1.08] . 0134 . 319} . 323/135. 0/119. 2} 1. 04] . 0136 . 253] . 369/154. 0/137. 8} 1.21) .0119 . 033] . 346/143. 5]140.1} 1.27} .0129 . 051} . 368/154. 0/146. 4) 1.35] .0120 . 107; . 345/144. 0/133. 4] 1.19} .0128 . 092) . 374/157. 0/145. 7) 1.30) .0118 . 192} . 341/143. 0/128. 7) 1.14) .0129 . 170) . 365/152. 0/138. 2! 1.22! .0121 . 249) . 356/149. 0/132. 7} 1.17) .0124 . 261] . 357/149. 0/132. 9} 1.17) .0123 . 269) .358)149. 5/133. 2) 1.17] .0123 - 108) . 424/181. 0/163. 0) 1. 436} . 0104 . 448) . 416/178. 0/152. 0} 1. 304) .0105 . 990} . 420/180. 0/148. 0} 1. 256) . 0104 1. 701| . 427/183. 0/148. 0} 1. 242) . 0102 2.397) . 450)193. 0/153. 0} 1. 286) . 0097 | \, Weisbach. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 95 TaBLe 4.—Summary of series of experiments upon concrete pipes running full, including individual pipe equations. To be considered as supplementary to table 3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 il 8 9 10 Pee een tyiamn-|ierne| Lameen 5 iam-| Diam-- +t awe Pipe] : , ge | mum | Diam) iam) veneto | Areaof| Rangeof | Individual pipe xXperimenter. of pres- | eter of| eter of| ofreach are : No. ria pipe. | sure | bore. | bore. | tested. bore. | velocities. equations. head Years.| Feet. |Inches.| Feet. | Feet. | Sq.ft. | Ft. per sec. 30 7 8.0 |~ 0.67 | 1,310.9 | 0.349 | 3.51- 3.56 27 5 | 10.0 . 83 | 1,107.0 +545 | 2.02— 2.10 10 5 | 10.0 83 936. 2 545 | 4. 75- 4.87 30 4] 12.0} 1.00 621.1 .785 | 1.60- 1.61 30 4 12.0) 1.00 182.8 .785 | 1.50- 3.63 | H=0.7406 V1.813, 4 8 | 12.0] 1.00 217.8 185 5. 85 15 Onl L250) 200) 869. 4 .785 | 1.92- 2.00 Be es 8] 11.8 - 98 | 1,850.8 762 | 1.29- 1.55 32 4) 16.0) 1.38 785.0 | 1.396] 0.98- 1.16 32 2| 16.0) 1.33 853.8 | 1.396] 1.72- 2.44 | H=0.3464 V1.95, 32 2| 16.0] 1.33 | 1,897.6 | 1.396 1.72 2 UF IGE O IE M668) | oocee <2 1.396 | 2.68- 3.49 2 TSS BON WIG S8) Ned oooaece 1. 396 2.45 sey ulag ate 11 | 18.0] 1.50) 1,271.5] 1.767) 1.97- 2.15 Breigavelcte 3 | 18.0) 1.49 559.3 | 1.703 - 96 3 10) 19.7] 1.64] 1,116.0] 2.106 .37- 1.48 | H=0.3727 V1.863, 4 6] 19.7) 1.64 771.8 | 2.106 -63- 1.96 | H=0.2484 V1.981, 4 80 | 20.0) 1.66 | 2,163.2} 2.166 -99- 2.54 | H=0.2116 V1.5, Cae ern ca are POS) IMIS eee ons dlecribacee -95- 4.04 | H=0.2186 V1.903, 3 40 | 23.8] 1.98 | 1,046.2} 38.079 | 1.55- 1.95 5 7| 24.0} 2.00 | 2,306.5 | 3.142 - 63- 1.32 | H=0.2978 V2.0%78, 4 8 | 29.9 | 2.49 880.0 | 4.870 .67— 1.87 | H=0.2272 V2,004, 5 45 | 30.0] 2.50] 5,026.4] 4.909] 1.04- 2.45 | H=0.1394 V1.862, 1 ASN BOSON BEB Ne cet cases|lsssqases 3. 39- 3. 61 4 P25) || ROBON Pw Noe = oe kclloisaecce 2.73 4 50} 30.5] 2.54 } 2,276.8] 5.075 | 4.88- 5.78 | H=0.01478 V3.180, INGA oadeae 31.5 | 2.62 131.0] 5.413 | 3.00- 6.59 | H=0.0811 V1.971, 3 30 |. 36.0] 3.00 | 1,933.6} 7.070) 1.80- 1.89 3 30 | 36.0] 3.00 | 1,266.0] 7.070} 1.91- 1.95 3 70 | 36.0] 3.00 | 7,282.0} 7.070 3. 48 5 70 | 36.0] 3.00 | 7,285.0} 7.070 | 5.45- 9.06 | H=0.0497 V2.166, 1 65} 42.0] 3.50 | 1,336.1 | 9.620} 1.01- 2.91 | H=0.0711 V1.889, Tee Seis 42.0) 3.50 378.0 | 9.620 -99- 2.59 | H=0.0432 V2.423, "5 110 | 46.0] 3.82 | 9,774.0 | 11.520 | 1.41- 3.17 | H=0.0456 V2.166, 1-2 110) || 46.0] 3.83 | *9) 8307). 22. - =. - 3. 98= 4. 21 4 25 | 48.0] 4.00 | 4,242.3 | 12.570 3.77 7 60 | 54.0] 4.54 | 2,167.4 | 16.188 4.99 7 40 | 63.5 | 5.29 | 1,138.0 | 21.979 | 3.02- 6.39 | H=0.0787 V2.400, New. 38 | 86.6] 7.22 | 4,200.0] 40.919 | 1.43- 4.08 | H=0.03345 V1.912, eeeee Warmest LOSO, ||) .r-ctra leer eae sera ga sec ence 65 | 120.0 | 10.00 857.4 | 78.540 | 2.84—- 3.03 New. 710 | 174.0 } 14.50 | 8,419.0 |165.180 | 1.58- 4.67 | H=0.01113 V2.0. New. 710 | 174.0 | 14. 50 |13, 941.0 |165.130 | 1.58- 4.67 | H=0.01203 V2.09, Ay eer ae ees 2 18.00 | 6,466.0 |254.560 | 4.00-20.00 | H—0.0082 V1.93. DESCRIPTION OF PIPES. The descriptions in the following pages are to be taken as supple- menting Tables 3 and 4. The methods of determining the hydraulic elements necessary for each observation are described. The descrip- tions of pipes upon which previous experimenters have made obser- vations are given in the appendix. No. 1, Experiment S-19.—S8-inch jointed cement pipe, Irrigation Co. of Pomona, Calif.—This length of pipe line, between boxes 86 . and 89 on Reservoir Street, near Pomona, is straight in both vertical and horizontal alignment. From an examination of its inlet it is probably safe to say that joints in this, as in so many other of the older pipes, were not as carefully made as they are at present. Water columns were used for both gauges, No. 1 being attached to a brass piezometer tube of type A, thrust 5.8 feet down the 8-inch pipe from the 24-inch riser pipe similar to the one in Plate III, figure 26 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, 2. Water entered the riser from an 8-inch pipe directly opposite the pipe line tested. Inthereach,1,310.9 feet long between gauges there are 3 smaller riser pipes. Gauge No. 2 is attached to a iezometer identical in construction with No. 1, held in a position 3 eet above the outlet of the pipe. The water for this system is clear, bemg pumped from wells in the “Palomares Cienaga.’’! So far as the writer was able to determine from the inlets and outlets of pipes in this system, there was no deposit of either vegetable or mineral nature. The nominal diameter of the pipe was used in computing the area and quantity. As the velocity was found by the direct method, any difference between the true and the nominal area does not affect the velocity. If methods of construction used in the eighties were the same as to-day, it is possible the pipe is undersized, as that appears true of most present-day pipes. As it Was not practicable materially to vary the discharge in the pipe the three observations were taken at about the same velocity, although extended over two days. The velocity for any one run was taken as the mean of three batches of fluorescein, injected with a “color gun’’ into the intake of the pipe line at the foot of the riser pipe at gauge 1, and observed in the low riser pipe at gauge 2. Water was immediately withdrawn from the pool so that there was no uncertainty due to color lagging at the outlet. The capacity of this pipe is slightly greater than that of most pipes built in the eighties, but it appears to be absolutely clean, though with rough jomts. The value of C, is about 0.292. No. 2, Experiment S-21.—10-inch jointed cement pipe, Irrigation Co. of Pomona, Calif.—This pipe line, between. boxes 364 and 366, was laid in 1888. The gauges and piezometer connections were | identical with those used and described under No. 1. Piezometer No. 1 was placed 6 feet down the pipe line from the riser pipe forming delivery box No. 364 while piezometer No. 2 was thrust 1.7 feet into the pipe against the current, from box No. 366. A reach of line 1,107 feet long, straight in alignment and profile, was thus tested. Three batches of fluorescein Were timed for each observation, the mean time being accepted in computing velocity of the water. The nominal diameter was accepted in computing areas and quantity of water (see No. 1, p. 25). So far as is known, this line had never been disturbed since it was laid. There is probably little or no sedi- ment in the line, as the water is clear. The capacity of this line is slightly more than usual in this vicinity, the value of (, bemg about 0.272. No. 3, Experiment S-28.—10-inch jointed cement pipe, San Antonio Water Co., Ontario, Calif—This experiment was conducted on a straight reach of pipe laid in 1905 diagonally through an orange grove. In the 10 years since then it has not been necessary to dig up the pipe for root troubles. The nominal diameter was accepte in computing area and quantity of water (see No. 1, ‘Puehh oth gauges consisted of piezometer tubes of type A leading to water: columns in glass. The orifices for gauge 1 were located 12.8 feet down the pipe from its intake in a masonry division box, while those for gauge 2 were 936.2 feet farther downstream, and 2 feet above the 1 The Use of Underground Waiter for Irrigation at Pomona, Calif., by C. E. Tait, O. E.S. Bul. 236, U.S. D.A., p. 35. Bul. 852, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fic. |.—DIVISION Box OVER PIPE LINE SYSTEM IN CALIFORNIA. Where color is used to determine velocity in pipe entering such a box, the last trace of color can not be determined directly, as whole pool is then tinted. See page 14. Fic. 2.—DIVISION STAND ON PIPE SYSTEM IN CALIFORNIA. Piezometer tube is thrust into pipe line and pressure head siphoned over edge of stand to glass gauge tube. Note small iron pipes, in order to allow escape of air near inlet to pipes conveying water from the stand. See page 53. Fic. 3.—SitmmMs CREEK SIPHON, SUN RIVER PROJECT, U. S. RECLAMATION SERVICE, MONTANA. (PIPE No. 35.) Bul. 852, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. Fia. |—DEER FLAT FOREST PIPE LINE, BOISE PROJECT, U. S. RECLAMATION SERVICE, IDAHO. (PIPE No. 29.) Note reinforcement and forms for collar joints. Intake at end of trench in distance. Inset shows ; pipe unit over trench. Fic. 2—CHURN CREEK SIPHON, ANDERSON-COTTONWOOD IRRIGATION DISTRICT, CALIFORNIA. (PIPE No. 33D.) Longitudinal ridges on interior surface similar to those shown on exterior; due to cracks between form boards. Inset shows inside forms set for monolithic pouring. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. OF outlet of the pipe to another division box. The mean velocity of four batches of color was taken as‘ the velocity of the water for each of the two runs of water. Unfortunately it was not practicable to vary to a marked degree the quantity flowing in the pipe. The high velocities in this pipe and the clear water probably assure a pipe free from sediment. This is borne out by the value of C,=0.287, the increase in this coefficient marking the improvement in the joints. No. 4, Experiment S-20.—12-inch jomted cement pipe, Irrigation Co. of Pomona, Calif.—After passing through the reach of pipe described as No. 1, water may be delivered to the consumer or enter this reach of 12-inch pipe between boxes 89 and 90, on Franklin Street, Pomona. Water columns were used for both gauges, which were attached to eizometer tubes of type A; No. 1 being placed 10 feet down the line from the inlet and No. 2 being thrust 2 feet up from the outlet. Velocities were computed from the mean time of three batches of fluorescein, poured into the inlet and noted at the outlet. The color dragged out from 10 to 14 per cent of the total time spent in the pipe, indicating a very rough interior. Tittle is known of the condition of this pipe, as it was laid about 1885. The nominal diameter was accepted in computing area and quantity of water (see No. 1, p. 25). So far as could be ascertained at the inlet and outlet, the line is free from silt. It has never been necessary to dig up the pipe on account of root troubles, although it is very close to a row of trees. The line is buried about 3 feet, is straight, and nearly level. The water is clear at all seasons of the year. The poor joints are indicated by the coefficient 0.250. No. 5, Experiment S—26.—12-inch jointed cement pipe, Irrigation Co. of Pomona, Calif.—Water for this irrigation system is secured from wells located on a gravel and boulder subterranean reservoir, locally termed a ‘‘cienaga.’”’ Dikes of impervious material cut off the flow in the gravel, forming a natural reservoir. The water from several wells is piped to one circular collecting chamber, while two pipes from this chamber permit the water to be conveyed to either one or both of two portions of the main pumping plant. One of these latter pipes 193 feet in length was tested. With a constant draft, the discharge of either pipe could be varied by head gates at the upper end of each pipe. Thus it was possible to vary the velocity in the pipe under test from 1.50 to 3.63 feet per second. For each obser- vation the mean velocity of from 5 to 10 weighted floats was accepted as the velocity of the water between the intake chamber and a vertical riser pipe. These floats were made as follows: Small wire nails were thrust into an orange until it was of the same specific any as the water, showing little tendency to either float or sink. he pipe tested was under about a 4-foot head throughout its length, so that there was no tendency for the oranges to become heavier ° during passage through the pipe due to increasing water pressure, as is the case when a float of this nature is tried on a Shon pipe where the maximum head is much greater than the depth of the water in which the orange is tested while nails are being inserted. Of course, if a float in a pipe is too light it drags against the top of the pipe and if too heavy it drags along the bottom, in either case being impelled by velocities slower than the mean velocity in the pipe. It was thought that the round form of the orange would cause it to roll 28 BULLETIN 852, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, easily whenever the current carried it against the periphery of the pipe, rather than lurch back into the current, as would a more irregular float. The maximum variation in time of any one float from the mean time of all of the floats was about 5 percent. In connection with tests on pipe No. 7, floats of this type agreed with the velocity as determined by a well-made, contracted, rectangular weir 2.005 feet long within 1.2 per cent. At the intake a hook gauge in a stillmg box determined the pressure head at the piezo- meter tube (type A) located 10 feet down the pipe. At the outlet a similar tube was held 1.6 feet in the pipe against the current. The pressure head at this tube was read in a water column beside the riser pipe. This pipe was laid in 1885 and appeared to be per- fectly ane As it is in an open field there is no chance of roots choking the interior. The nominal diameter was accepted in com- puting area and quantity of water (see No. 1, p. 25). The value of C, varies with the velocity, from 0.244 to 0.278. No. 6, Experiment S-33.—12-inch jomted cement pipe, San An- tonio Water Co., Ontario, Calif—rThis pipe lies between two division boxes and extends under a wash located north of Twenty-fourth Street and west of Euclid Avenue near Ontario. Though tooshort for experi- mental purposes, if low velocities are to be considered the 227.5 feet between the boxes is ample when the commercial velocity, nearly 6 feet per second, is obtamable. Water columns were used at both gauges. These were attached to piezometer tubes of type A, No. 1 being placed 7.7 feet in the pipe from the inlet chamber and No. 2 being held 2 feet up in the pipe from the outlet chamber. Velocities were computed from the mean time of four batches of fluorescein, timed from the instant of injection at the inlet to the mean between the first and last appearance at the outlet. Just four seconds (by test) was required for a given body of water to pass through the length of hose under a head of 1 foot. This Faaa is of course the difference in elevation between the surface of the water in the chamber and the outlet of the hose. The nominal diameter was acpepes in computing area and quantity (see No. 1, p. 25). This pipe line was laid in 1911. The units are 2 feet long, made with a dry mix tamped into steel molds and afterwards washed on the inside with cement grout. The line is buried 2 or 3 feet and is straight but for a slight sag under the wash. The value of C,, 0.322, shows the marked improvement in jomts in pipe line laid in recent years. No. 7, Experiment S—27.—12-inch jomted cement pipe, San An- tonio Water Co., Ontario, Calif.—A straight, level reach of lateral pipe on Fourth Street, Ontario, was chosen for this test. Water enters the pipe over a division wall in a sand box and leaves it at the bottom of a - similar sand box on the corner of Fourth and Euclid Streets. Piezo- meter tubes of type A were used at both ends of a reach 869.4 feet long. The pressure head at gauge 1 was read in a water column beside the sand box, while that at the outlet piezometer was read by a. hook gauge in a stilling box attached to the piezometer by pressure tubing. Piezometer No. 1 was 4.7 feet from the inlet and No. 2 was 1.9 feet from the outlet. The mean time of six weighed orange floats like those described under No. 5 was used in computing the velocity of the water in the pipe. Accepting the mean area of samples of pipe of this size in the pipe yards of this company and comparing the ve- THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 29 locity as above determined with that found by dividing the discharge by this mean area, shows agreement with the mean of the two meas- urements of 1.2 per cent. The discharge was measured over a 2-foot contracted, rectangular shéet-iron-crested weir, with end contractions ereater than 2h, bottom contraction about 5 feet, and fA less than one- sixth of the length of the weir. The water welled up from the bottom, so that velocity of approach was negligible. This pipe was laid in 1900. A comparison of the zone occupied by points representing this pipe with that of pipes 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 9, 10, and 11 shows the progress made since the early eighties in the matter of smoother pipe pipe interiors and better joints, the value ef (, for this line being 0.345, an Be onaly high value for ‘‘dry-mix”’ pipe. ee No. 8, Experiment S—53.—12-inch jointed concrete pipe, J. W. Crane private lateral near Oakdale, Calif.—From one oi the laterals of the Oakdale irrigation district water is conveyed down a gentle hillside to the fields by means of a concrete pipe line. A reach 1,850.8 feet long was chosen for test, between the intake and an outlet hydrant in ariser pipe. The reach has one gentle curve in horizontal alionment and a slight sag near the far end. Water columns were used for both gauges, which were attached to piezometer tubes of type A. No. 1 was placed 4.4 feet down the pipe from the intake chamber, while No. 2 was thrust up into the lime 6.4 feet from the riser pipe. Gauge No. 2 was a glass tube, while gauge No. 1 was a hock gauge noting the surface of the water in a stilling box. Thus a correction for capillarity was necessary in computing the elevation ~ of the water column for gauge No. 2. Between the inlet and the second gauge are 21 riser pipes each 1 foot high, capped with a hydrant. The interior of the pipe was examined through several of these hy- drants and found to be clean of silt, but with rough joints between the 2-foot units of pipe. The line was constructed by a man rather new in the business and the value of smooth joints was not appreciated as it now is in southern California. This is shown by the fact that C, is but 0.245. Measurements of the pipe interior through these hy- drants showed the average diameter to be 0.985 foot or that the area of the pipe was about 97 per cent of the area of a 1-foot pipe. The measured area was used in computations. Velocities were deter- mined by injecting saturate solution of potassium permanganate into the upper end of the line and observing the first and last appear- ance of the color at an open hydrant 55 feet beyond the hydrant at auge No. 2. A few small leaks were evidenced by moist ground, ui the use of color in determining velocities automatically takes care of any correction for such leaks, the velocity of the color dropping in proper proportion and at the proper time as each leak is reached. 0. 9, Experiment S—24.—16-inch jomted cement pipe, Irrigation Co. of Pomona, Calif.—A second reach of the same main pipe line dis- cussed as No. 10 was tested between boxes 91 and 92. This part of the line runs diagonally under an orange grove, but, although it was laid in 1883, roots have never interfered with the flow of water. Itisstraight, on a gentle down grade, and buried about 2 feet. There was one riser pipe in the reach tested. The nominal diameter was accepted in computing area and quantity of water (see No.1, p. 25). Except for run 1, both gauges consisted of hook gauges in stilling boxes, No. 1 being attached by pressure tubing to a brass piezometer of type A, located 16.2 feet down the pipe line, while gauge No. 2 records the { ; ; 30 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. elevation of the water in a delivery box 785.1 feet from gauge No. 1. For run 1, readings were taken by a plumb bob attached to a steel tape and allowed to scratch the water surface in the riser pipe at gauge 1. Water entered and left this riser pipe in the same straight line, so insuring that there was practically no loss of head within the riser (see No. 1). Examination of the inlet and outlet of this line indicated that there was no deposit upon the surface of the pipe. The mean time of two batches of fluorescein was accepted in computing the mean velocity of the water. The capacity of this line is about as indicated in Table 6. No. 10, Experiment S-22.—16-inch jointed cement pipe, Irrigation Co. of Pomona, Calif—This reach of pipe, laid in 1883, comprises part of a main trunk line conveying water from the pumping plant.to minor pipe laterals. A straight section between boxes 36B and 37 was chosen for test. Box 36B is a single piece of riser pipe set directly over a rough hole in the trunk line about 8 inches square. The surface of the water in the riser was quiet so that hook gauge readings could be taken directly, no stilling box being necessary. Gauge and piezometer No. 2 were like those described under No. 9, the piezometer tube being held 3.2 feet up the pipe line against the current. The water was clear and no sediment in the pipe was seen through the hole at box 37B mentioned above. The pipe is on an even down grade, at no place under more than 3 feet of head. From three to five batches of fluorescein were timed for each run of water and the mean time was accepted in computing the mean velocity of the water for that particular observation. In order to secure runs at varied discharges it was necessary to return to this pipe from day to day and take an observation at the discharge then carried. The regimen of flow for each run was thus fully established. The nominal diameter was accepted in computing area and quantity of water (see No. 1, p. 25). The line is well laid, in comparison with other 1883 pipes, the value of (, being about 0.304. o. 11, Experiment S—25.—16-inch joimted cement pipe, Irrigation Co. of Pomona, Calif—Immediately upstream from the reach of pipe discussed as No. 10, a section of the same 16-inch pipe, 1,897.6 feet long, between a masonry division box and delivery box 36B was available for test. It was practicable to secure but one observation on this line, however, for the reason that the pipe was full at the intake end only when the maxium amount of water then needed was flowing. The nominal diameter was accepted in computing area and quantity of water (see No. 1, Hs 25). A hook gauge im a stilling box was used at the upper end. ‘The stilling box was attached by pressure tubing to a piezometer tube of type A, thrust 8.4 feet down the pipe line. Gauge No. 2 of this reach was gauge No. 1 of reach No. 10 (for description of which see this page). This pipe is laid on a gentle down grade with one S curve in horizontal alignment as it is carried around a residence. At no point is it under more than 3 or 4 feet of head. Examination at inlet and outlet showed this pipe to be free from sand or deposits. The water is clear at all times, being pumped from a subterranean bowlder reservoir (cienaga). A glance at Plate VI shows that the loss of head in this reach is practicall identical with that in the adjoining reach (No. 10), upon whic several observations were possibile: The value of C; is 0.306. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 31 No. 14, Experiment S—58.—18-inch jomted cement pipe, Edwards private line, in Oakdale irrigation district, Calif—Water for irri- gation is conveyed across a depression from a main lateral of the Oakdale district to a knoll, in a plain cement-pipe inverted siphon 1,283.6 feet long, subject to a maximum head of about 11 feet. The pipe was made on the ground by the owner of the farm, aided by a man with a small amount of practical knowledge of pipe mak- ing. There is one 12-inch standpipe and one 12-inch valve near the low point. As both inlet and outlet of this lme were submerged and it was not possible to vary the discharge to secure much variation in the velocity, practically all of the line was used in the experiments. Water columns attached to piezometer tubes of type A were used at both ends of the reach. Piezometer No. 1 was set 5.1 feet down the pipe from the intake chamber and No. 2 was thrust upstream from the outlet chamber a distance of 7 feet. Velocities were.determined by the use of a saturate solution of po- tassium permanganate, injected at the inlet and observed at the out- let of the siphon. The nominal size of the pipe was accepted, as it was not feasible to secure measurements of the pipe itself. From the fact that the value of C, is very low, about 0.254, the ee would judge that sediment has obstructed this pipe more or ess. No. 15, Experiment S-56.—18-inch jomted cement pipe, Batdorf line, Oakdale irrigation district, Calif.—Irrigation water is conveyed from one open-channel lateral to another down a gentle hillside and across about 600 feet of level field by means of an 18-inch cement pipe made of jointed units each 2 feet long. There are four vertical standpipes rising above the hydraulic gradient on the total length of about 2,500 feet. Examination of the pipe at these standpipes showed that the line was full of water only een about the last 700 feet. A reach was chosen from'a standpipe to the outlet, a length of 582.3 feet. A tube of type A was dropped down the standpipe and carried by the current 2 feet down the pipe. A similar tube was thrust 21 feet up the pipe from the outlet. Gauge No. 1 was a water column in a glass tube, while piezometer tube No. 2 was con- nected with a stillmg box and the surface of the water determined by a hook gauge. The velocity was determined with a solution of potassium tesa cone timed from the standpipe to the outlet. As it would have been a difficult matter to determine the moment of injection down a standpipe 10 or 15 feet high above the pipe line; the solution was placed in a corked bottle held in a sack made from a piece of fly screen which was wired to the end of a long one- eighth-inch iron pipe. The bottle was thrust down the standpipe and smashed against the bottom of the pipe line, thus releasing ihe color but retaining the glass within the screen. The line under the standpipe was clean of deposit, as nearly as could be determined by feeling with the iron pipe rod, and from the appearance of the outlet. The value of the friction factor would indicate this to be true. The pipe is straight, buried about 3 feet, appeared from inspection of the outlet to have good joints, and was probably in good condition. The value of C, is 0.284. No. 16, Experiment S-42.—20-inch jointed concrete pipe, lateral C, British Columbia Fruitlands Co., Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada.—The main canal on this project is concrete lined, skirting | i : , 32 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, the foot of a low range of hills and delivering water to the intakes of the cement-pipe laterals. This delivery consists of an iron head @ate at the canal end of a tube through the canal bank. Water is discharged through the tube into a rectangular sand and pressure regulating box 4 by 5 feet and 44 feet deep.1 The water leaves this concrete box over a weir crest and falls to the intake chamber of the pipe line. At the head of lateral C the weir is of heavy sheet iron, rectangular in form, 3.02 feet long, without immediate end con- tractions, but with a bottom contraction of 39 inches. In addition to the flow over the weir there was a small constant leak through the drain gate near the bottom of the weir wall. This leak was measured and added to the flow over the weir for any particular run of water. A reach of pipe 1,116 feet long was chosen for test between a stand- pipe located 99 feet from the intake and a division box. The pipe was straight in horizontal alignment but wavy in the vertical plane, having two summits, each protected by standpipes. At low points of the profile the pipe is provided with blow-off valves. The maxi- mum pressure on this pipe is due to a head of about 15 feet at the low points. Water columns attached to piezometer tubes of type A were used for both gauges. Tube No. 1 was dropped down a stand- pipe and allowed to be carried 3 feet down the pipeline. Tube No. 2 was thrust 1 foot upstream into the pipe line from the wall of the division box. The internal size of the pipe was determined by meas- uring two diameters on each of 10 pipe units remaining from the original construction. The mean area of these units was accepted _as the internal area of the pipe line. Each unit was 2 feet in length. They were made by the “dry mixture”’ process and afterwards washed with cement grout. The writer was informed that extreme haste was used in laying the pipe and that the joints are very rough internally. This would account for the heavy friction loss in this pipe. Examination of both inlet and outlet indicated that this pipe was free from gravel or other débris. At the time of these tests the water was murky from recent rainstorms and the spring thaw, but during most of the irrigation season the water is clear. The value of (, 1s about 0.255. No. 17, Experiment S-46.—20-inch jointed concrete pipe, Bishop lateral, British Columbia Fruitlands Co., Kamloops, British Columbia, Canada.—lIrrigation water is diverted from the main concrete-lined canal by a tube through the canal bank, discharging into the sand and weir box shown on Plate II, figure 1. From this weir the Bishop lateral, an underground pipe line, leads down a steep hillside to a point near the bank of Thompson River, thence ppeeling the river. A reach of pipe between a vertical air pipe and a turnout box was chosen for experiment. The airpipe was located about three-eighths mile from the weir shown in the plate, while the turnout was 777.1 feet beyond the air pipe. Water columns attached to piezom- eters of type A were used at both ends of the reach, No. 1 being set 4 feet down the pipe line from the air pipe and No. 2 being thrust 1.3 feet upstream into the pipe line from the turnout. The pipe is gently curving in horizontal alignment and appears to follow the river grade in profile. If there is a sag in the profile it is too small to be noticeable to the eye. Examination of the line when no water was flowing showed the interior to be clean of deposit, but typically 1 Described in “Irrigation Practiceand Engineering,” Vol, III, p. 368, B. A. Etcheverry, New York, 1916. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 33 rough to the touch in the usual washed-cement pipe way. The discharge was measured over the rectangular, contracted weir shown in the plate (fig. 1). The crest is 3.02 feet long, the end contractions each 1 foot, and the bottom contraction more than 3 feet. For two observations the end contractions were very slightly less than twice the depth on the weir crest; for the others the end contractions exceeded twice the depth. Elevations of the water surface above the weir crest were determined with the hook gauge shown in the stilling box. The mean inside area of the pipe line was taken as the average area of 10 samples of the pipe remaining from construction. This area was 2.106 square feet, while the area of a true 20-inch pipe is 2.182 square feet. Thus this pipe is 3.5 per cent under size. The velocity of the water in the pipe was found by dividing the discharge in second-feet by the area of the pipe in square feet. This line was laid in 1911, thus being in its fifth year of operation at time of test. The coefficient C,=0.313. No. 18, Experiment S-60.—20-inch jointed reinforced concrete pipe, Temescal Water Co., Corona, Calif.—Water for irrigation and domestic use is conveyed through 27,000 feet of plain concrete pipe flow line 22 inches in diameter and over 15 depressions which require inverted siphons. Of these, 13 areof reinforced concrete, 20 inches in diameter. One of the longest of the siphons, about 4 miles from Corona, was chosen for experiment. Open standpipes occurred near both inlet and outlet of the siphon. Water columns attached to piezometer tubes of type A were used at both ends of the reaches chosen. For observations 1, 2, and 3, piezometer tube No. 1 was thrust 9.8 feet down the line from the standpipe at the mlet. For observations 4 and 5 a hole was tapped in the top of the concrete pipe 101.7 feet from the intake manhole and the piezometer tube thrust 6 feet farther down the pipe. For all observations piezometer No. 2 was set in the pipe 0.8 foot upstream from a hole tapped in the concrete pipe 98.7 feet upstream from the manhole at the outlet. Velocities were ascertained by the use of solutions of potassium permanganate and of fluorescein. For observations 1, 2, and 3 the color was injected in the manhole at the inlet, while for observations 4 and 5 it was injected at the tap in the concrete pipe 101.7 feet from the man- hole. For all observations the color was observed at the manhole near the outlet. This pipe was cast on the ground in units 3 feet long. For moderate heads a 1:2: 4 mixture of cement, sand, and gravel was used and for higher heads the mixture was changed to a ration of 1 :2:3. All units were “washed” with cement grout before being laid. This siphon is straight in horizontal alignment but is on practically one long double-reverse vertical curve, the maximum head being about 80 feet, while the total length from manhole to manhole is 2,273 feet. The water is very clear and this siphon is undoubtedly absolutely free from débris, as all sand must pass more than 15 other siphons before reaching this one, the flow lne between this siphon and the next one upstream being but 300 or 400 feet long. One blow-off valve is located at the low point of the siphon. The pipe was laid early in the year 1911 and was thus about 54 years old at the time of the experiment. So far as could be determined from the low standpipes, the jomts were well smoothed and this pipe is probably 1 Engin. Rec., vol. 64, Nov. 4, 1911, p. 526. 164725°—20—Bull. 852 3 34 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. typical of present-day careful practice in the citrus groves of southern California where long, well-made units are being used. The value of Onis O845 ale No. 20, Experiment S-57.—24-inch monolithic pipe, Claveysiphon, Oakdale irrigation district, California.—As described under No. 28, the first portion of the Clavey siphon is 36 inches in diameter from the inlet to a ‘‘booster pump’’ which is used to force part of the water through 3,000 feet of 24-inch pipe to a point 8 feet higher than the inlet to the siphon. Tests were conducted on a reach 1,046.2 feet long between an air valve and a point 6.6 feet upstream from the outlet of the 24-inch pipe. Water columns attached to piezometer tubes of type A were used for both gauges. Velocities were determined with potassium permanganate solutions injected at gauge 1 and observed at the outlet. Thecolor dragged out from 6.2 to 9.6 per cent of the time from moment of injection to the mean time of first and last appearance at the outlet, depending on the intensity of the injection. Although nominally a 24-inch pipe, the mean of 6 measurements made in the last 30 feet of the pipe indicates the actual diameter was 23.7 inches, which was used in computations on this pipe. This pipe was constructed with wood forms, both inside and out. The longitudinal ridges made by the cracks in the boards, the circular ridge at the end of one setting of the forms and cemented concrete scraps are shown clearly in Plate II, figure 2, which was photographed Irom a point about 20 feet in the pipe at the outlet end. The values of C, are erratic, varying from 0.328 to 0.373. No. 21, Experiment S-47.—24-inch jointed concrete pipe, lateral A, British Columbia Fruitlands Co., Kamloops, British Columbia, Can- ada.—A reach of lateral A pipe line 2,306.5 feet long was chosen for test. Water entered the pipe from a box similar to the one described under No. 16. Likewise the installation of the piezometers was identi- cal with Nos. 16and17. The firststandpipe was located 64.7 feetfrom theinlet of the pipe. Between the two gauges were located two turn- out boxes (not in use at time of tests), one 12-inch standpipe, and one waste valve. Water in the standpipe rose to the hydraulic gradient. The writer had been notified that the pipe was partially filled with gravel from the hillside above the main canal. A heavy rainstorm had eroded the hill, filled the main canal near the inlet and regulating box with gravel, and washed some of the latter into the pipe line. The ratio between the measured size of several samples of this pipe and the true area of the water section was found in the following way: For one particular observation, the velocity of the water through the reach was determined with two injections of color—one permanganate and one fluorescein. These agreed within 2 seconds im an elapsed time of 1,800 seconds. The quantity of water was determined by hook-gauge readings on the 3-toot contracted weir at the pipe inlet. The area was then found by solving the equation A="; The area thus found was 2.754 square feet or 87.5 per cent of the nominal area of a 24-inch pipe and about the equivalent of the area of a pipe 23.5 inches in diameter. The mean value of (, is 0.252. :, No. 22, Experiment S-61.—30-inch jointed concrete pipe, Temescal Water Co., Corona, Calif—Water for irrigation and domestic use is conveyed over a shallow depression by a siphon pipe 1,028 feet long, inserted between an open concrete-lined channel in sandy soil and THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 35 a round pipe flow line. The siphon pipe is made of precast units, each 3 feet in length. The pipe is practically straight in both hori- zontal and vertical planes, the maximum head being about 8 feet. This line was constructed in 1911, being thus in its fifth year of operation at the time of the experiment. It carries water through- out the year. A reach was chosen for test between a point 79 feet from the intake chamber and a point 69 feet upstream from the outlet manhole. Water columns attached to piezometers of type A were used at both ends of the reach. Velocities were determined by the use of solutions of potassium permanganate, injected at gauge No. 1 and observed at the manhole beyond gauge No. 2. Measure- ments of the initial pipe section at the intake chamber showed the diameter to be 2.49 feet, or 0.01 foot less than the nominal diameter. No. 23, Experiment S-34.—30-inch Jointed Reinforced Concrete Pipe, ‘‘D, Line”, Umatilla project, United States Reclamation Service, Oregon.—Water for irrigation is conveyed across the depression near Hermiston, Oregon, in a 30-inch pipe laid in sections, each 4 feet long.* This line was constructed in the winter of 1909-10 and tested for friction losses in 1911 by Mr. H. D. Newell. The writer conducted tests on the same reach of pipe during the season of 1915. See No. 12a (page 77) and No. 24a, for pipe description. Thus while com- paratively new when first tested it had been in use nearly six seasons when these experiments were made. The pipe units were each 4 feet in length, cast in wood forms that had been coated with No. 26 sheet steel. The mixture and wash coating is described under pipe No. 32, page41. Gage No. 1 was a piezometer tube of type B inserted into the water section of the pipe dhrough a stuffing box, located above the valve A in figure 3, Plate 2. Newell appears to have used the pressure directly from a 3-inch valve set in the pipeline. The writer found so much air in the water column taken directly from this tap that he judged a piezometer tube, even of type B, would give more nearly the true pressure head (see discussion on page 15). This tube was con- nected with a mercury manometer. At the outlet a piezometer tube of type A was thrust 3.6 feet into the pipe, against the current. This tube was connected with a stilling box and the water surface in the latter was read by a hook gauge. The relation of the points plotted on Plate VI for the Newell tests (No. 24) and for those made by the writer (No. 23) indicate that the capacity of this pipe has diminished slightly. This was to be expected, for Newell speaks of deposits in the pipe after but one season while the writer’s tests were made in the sixth season. Until July of each year the water for this pipe comes directly from the Umatilla River, through about 4 miles of open canal, the last reach of which discharges in a direct line into the pipe intake. This river water, taken during the high-water period, would undoubtedly contribute greatly toward silt and débris within the pipe as the maximum demand so far has not required a velocity in the siphon in excess of about 2.5 feet per second. Veloci- ties were determined directly with solutions of fluorescein, the mean time of several batches being accepted in computing the mean velocity. This pipe is quite straight in horizontal alignment, while the vertical curves are long and gentle. There are five 6-inch valves and three manholes on the reach tested. Examination of the outlet indicates that the pipe is smooth and slimy inside. The color was injected into < Eng. News, Feb. 16,1911, Vol. 65, p. 208. 21d. May 1, 1913, Vol. 59, p. 904. { 36 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the pipe line between the piezometer tube and the larger iron pipe (see PL II, fig. 3). While but three observations were made on this pipe the conditions were very favorable for test. The values of C,, about 0.330, are probably indicative of the silted condition within a smooth pipe rather than of the interior surface itself. (See values for Newell’s tests, No. 24a.) No. 26, Experiment S-51.—30}-inch jointed reinforced concrete pipe, Prosser pressure pipe, Sunnyside project, United States Recla- mation Service, Washington.—Irrigation water is conveyed across the valley of the Yakima River by a siphon pipe of combination type. From the intake to a point 2,825 feet distant concrete pipe is used. The construction then changes to a wood-stave pipe! 31 inches in diameter, which extends for an additional distance of 7,500 feet. A. straight reach of the concrete pipe 2,276.3 feet long was chosen for test. Gauge No. 1, a water column attached to a piezometer tube of type A, was located about 500 feet from the intake, while gauge No. 2, amercury column attached to a piezometer of type C, had been installed at the time of construction. A similar connection of type C had been placed near the upper end of the line, but was destroyed by the construction of a railroad crossing. It was necessary, there- fore, to drill a new hole through the pipe and use a connection of type A. The velocities were determined by timing solutions of fluorescein, injected at gauge No. 1 and withdrawn into a white-lined pan from a secondary connection to the pipe line located near the head of the wood-stave portion of the line, beyond the end of the concrete pipe. The slight difference in the area of the wood and the concrete line was considered in computing the velocity in the concrete line alone. The mean area of the pipe was taken as the mean of the areas of six units of the pipe remaming from construc- tion. It is quite certain that there was no sediment in the pipe, as the reach tested is on a continuous down grade and the operating velocities high enough to carry any débris on down to the sag of the siphon, which occurs in the wood-stave portion of the line several thousand feet beyond the concrete pipe. Examination of the line during the series of tests disclosed the scour at the upper end of the line (mentioned on p. 51), but showed a pipe free from slime or deposit at the upper end of the reach tested, and this condition undoubtedly held throughout the reach. The jomts were not quite as nearly perfect as on the Victoria line (Nos. 30 and 31), and this probably accounts for some of the discrepancy in relative carrying capacities. As gauge No. 1 is located at an elevation approximately 20 feet higher than that of the outlet, it is readily understood that only velocities higher than that which necessitates a loss of head of 20 feet for the 2 miles of line beyond gauge No. 1 may be tested, because for all lesser velocities the pipe is not full at gauge No. 1. All concrete lines that serve as the intake ends of combination pipes are thus not subject to a complete test throughouta range of velocities, say, from 1 foot per second up, but can only be tested for the higher velocities. The concrete pipe was made in 4-foot lengths with an exceedingly wet mixture of 1 part cement to 6 of gravel. All gravel passed a quarter-inch mesh screen. Steel forms coated with a particularly Discussed as No, 35in Bul. 376, U.S. Dept. Agr., p. 78. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 87 heavy brick oil gave a smooth surface to the interior of the pipe. The concrete was tamped into the molds, and just before the initial set was retamped by a finisher, settling in the forms about 3 inches. This line was designed by use of the Kutter formula, with a value of n taken as 0.013. The maximum capacity of the whole siphon was computed as 26.6 second-feet; but, whereas 29.39 second-feet was sent through the pipe during observation No. 2, this discharge practically filled the intake chamber and may be taken as the maxi- mum capacity of the pipeline at the present time. Since there is a long stretch of wood-stave pipe beyond the con- crete pipe, each slight change in the velocity through the latter made a great change in the heights of the piezometer columns. A velocity of 4.88 feet per second was the lowest that could be tested, as it developed but a slight pressure head at the upper end of the reach. The velocity for maximum capacity was 5.78 feet per second. Thus the range of velocities feasible was rather short. Reference to Plate VI shows that, while consistent, the arrangement of the observation points indicates a very high exponent of V, namely, 3.18. Had the full range of velocities—between, say 1 foot per second and 5.78 feet per second—been possible of test, the points of observation might have more nearly compared to a slope of 2. Otherwise the conditions of experimentation appeared very good, and the writer is at a loss to explain the behavior of the points. The friction factors, by the same token, vary, the coefficient C, changing between 3.86 and 3.43, while from the appearance of the pipe interior it should have been about 0.360 for all observations. _ Nos. 28 and 28b, Experiment S-54-55.—36-inch monolithic pipe, Clavey siphon, Oakdale irrigation district, California.—The Clavey siphon of this district, built in 1912, is of unusual construction. Water from an open channel lateral is conveyed 3,000 feet across a swale in a 36-inch reinforced concrete pipe, built in place. The outlet end is a few feet lower than the inlet. Thus far the construc- tion is as usual. Near the bottom of the swale, a few hundred feet before reaching the outlet, water from this pipe may be diverted through a booster pump. ‘The energy of the total flow in the 36-inch line is used to pump a part of this same water through an additional 3,000 feet of gvanch pipe to a point about 8 feet higher than the inlet of the siphon.. Both parts of this siphon were constructed in the same manner. Wood forms were used for inside and outside surfaces. This con- struction usually gives longitudinal ridges in the concrete where each crack between boards occurs and more or less irregularity in the surface at the abutting sections. This is brought out in Plate I, figure 1, and Plate II, figure 2. The mixture used was 1 part of cement to 6 parts of gravel. The resulting concrete is not first class, there being several leaks in the siphon. Most of these leaks occur at the joints between abutting ends of pipe sections. Two reaches of the 36-inch pipe were chosen for tests, No. 286 being 1,266 feet long and No. 28 being 1,933.6 feet long, but including all of reach No. 28). Two lengths were tested, as the inlet end of the pipe was not com- pletely filled during observations 1 to 3, inclusive, because of the small quantity of water, and the fact that the booster pump was not in operation, the longer reach of pipe being tested when the booster 38 BULLETIN 852, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pump was lifting water to the outlet of the 24-inch pipe. On reach No. 28) a water column was used as gauge 1 and a mercury manom- eter as gauge 2. On reach No. 28 the water column was moved 667.6 feet nearer the inlet, but the mercury manometer remained the same as before. Air troubles at gauge 1 were minimized by the device shown in Plate V, figure 1. Piezometer tubes of type A were used for both gauges, No. 1 being slipped into the pipe through a one-eighth-inch wrought-iron nipple, while No. 2 was thrust down an air valve. Velocities were determined by timing fluorescein from its injection at gauge 1 to its appearance at gauge 2. For drawing off the colored water a ‘“‘gooseneck’’ of one-fourth-inch brass pipe was inserted down the air valve and the color detected in a white- lined pan. For some reason that the writer is not able to explain the friction factors are erratic and inconsistent. No. 29, Experiment S-36.—36-inch jointed reinforced concrete pipe, Deer Flat Forest pipe line, Boise project, United States Reclama- tion Service, Idaho.—Water for irrigation is conveyed across a wide depression, just below the dam of Deer Flat Reservoir, in a concrete siphon pipe 8,575 feet long and 36 inches inside diameter.' As shown in Plate IV, figure 1, this line is straight in horizontal align- ment and without vertical curves other than two gentle bends at the bottom of the slopes near the inlet and outlet. The maximum head is about 70 feet. The pipe units, 6 feet in length, were cast on the ground in steel forms. very wet mixture of 1 part cement to 24 parts sand and 3 - parts well-graded gravel resulted in a dense concrete. The shell is 3 inches thick, reinforced with five-sixteenth-inch wire. As shown in the plate, the joints were made with reinforced collars, each 3 inches thick and 8 inches wide in addition to the usual bevel and taper. The joints were calked on the inside with great care, the mixture used being 1 part cement to 2 of sand and tempered with hydrated lime in the proportion of 10 per cent of the cement by volume. A reach of this pipe 7,282 feet long from the foot of the first slope to the outlet was chosen for test. Gauge No. 1 was a mercury manometer attached to the pipe at a small hole through a cast-iron manhole cover. At the outlet a piezometer tube of type A was thrust 2 feet into the pipe, and the pressure head conveyed by tubing to a stilling box within the outlet chamber, the elevation of the water in the box being determined by a hook gauge. Unfortunately, in 1915 it was not feasible to vary the discharge through the pipe, so only one observation could be made. The velocity of the water was determined by accepting the mean of five batches of fluorescein, injected at gauge No. 1 and observed at the outlet. Accepting the mean diameters of 6 units of pipe remaining from construction, 2.999 feet, as the mean diameter of the pipe line, then the discharge was 24.6 second-feet, while the mean discharge over a weir below the outlet was 24.3 second-feet and the discharge as measured by a Price current meter, using the integration method, was 24.57 second-feet, and using the 0.2 and 0.8 depth method: was 25.15 second-feet (see Table 2, p. 18). 1 Engin. News, Aug. 8, 1912, vol. 68, p. 248. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 39 The large pool just above the 10-foot Cipolletti weir was cleared of sand just prior to the experiments. The end and bottom contrac- tions were equal to about twice the depth of water over the crest. The velocity of approach was about 1 foot per second. More exact figures were not feasible, due to shape of pool. The current-meter measurements were made by the hydrographer of the project simul- ‘taneously with the reading of gauges and the passage of the color in the pipe. Deere the summer of 1917 the writer again visited this pipe and made additional tests on approximately the same reach of pipe. There being an abundance of water it was feasible to vary the dis- charge through the pipe and thus secure tests at various velocities. Gauge No. 1 was attached to a piezometer of type A while the piezometer at gauge No. 2 was very similar to that in the 1915 tests, but a glass gauge tube was used instead of a stilling box. The velocities were determined by the travel of fluorescein solu- tions, which were timed from the intake of the siphon to the outlet. The average value of (, for all the tests was 0.395. The high veloci- ties probably assure a pipe free from sediment and the conditions at the intake are such that no gravel or heavy detritus would enter the siphon. As may be seen from the photograph, this pipe is excep- tionally straight and under most favorable flow conditions. The writer would consider the coefficients found as verifying a working coefficient of 0.370 for glazed pipe under average conditions of curvature. No. 30, Experiment S-49.—42-inch jointed reinforced concrete pipe, Victoria Aqueduct, siphon No. 1, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada.—A pipe line quite typical of present-day high- gerade construction has RS built to convey water for municipal purposes from Sooke Lake, a mountain reservoir, to Humpback Reservoir, about 10 miles from Victoria, British Columbia.' This line, 27.3 miles in length, follows the hydraulic gradient as a flow line with the exception of 6 inverted siphons. The slope throughout is 0.001 foot per foot or 1 foot fall per thousand feet of length. een more than one-half the line is curved. The pipe units are of the lock-joint type, each 4 feet long and exactly 42 inches in diameter. ‘The shell of the flow line is 3 inches thick and that of the siphons 44 inches thick. The maximum head on any of the siphons is 90 feet. The flow-line pipe is reinforced with triangular mesh wire and square steel bars are used in the pressure units. The concrete, a ‘‘wet mix,’’? composed of 1 part cement, 2 parts clean sharp sand, and 4 parts of beach gravel (maximum diameter three- fourths inch), was tamped into steel forms with a suitable slice bar, care being taken to force the coarse aggregate away from the forms, thus making a smoother surface. The forms were well wiped with oil just prior to each pouring. After being filled they were placed in a steam room for three hours; the forms were then stripped and the pipe, resting on a base ring, again subjected to steam for an additional four hours. The interior surface of pipes made in this way is unusually smooth. At times there was small pitting, the cause of which remained obscure. If 1 Engin. Ree., vol. 69, Feb. 21, 1914, p. 225; id., vol. 72, Oct. 2, 1915, p. 406; id., vol. 72, Oct. 23, 1915, p. 507. Can. Engr., July 23, 1914, vol. 27, p. 197; id., June 10, 1915, vol. 28, p. 652. Western Engineering, vol. 5, Sept. 1914, p. 105. 40 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. too noticeable such a surface was wiped with thin mortar. Unless pitted no wash coat was applied. The great amount of curvature was cared for by making three types of bevel-end sections and making the degree of curvature for each curve on the line such that one of the three types could be used with a maximum bend of 3° at each joint. This limit could be attained without inducing appreciable roughness within the pipe. As shown in Plate VIII, figure 1, the various sections of pipe were fitted together on the ground without the use of cement, a ‘‘soup hole’”’ being broken out of the top of each section just before fitting the following section. The outside of each joint was banked up with clay or stiff gravel to a point well above the spring line, in order to prevent loss of grout. In cementing the joints the invert was troweled from the inside. Then a band of spring steel 6 inches wide was tightened against the interior of the jomt and grout poured into the soup hole from a coal bucket. When the grout had set the band was removed and any necessary smoothing done with a trowel. The writer examined the interior of this line and found the joints as smooth to the touch as the rest of the pipe. Although this line is not covered with earth, no expansion joints were inserted at the time of construction, it being thought that the great amount of curva: ure would automatically care for temperature changes. Experience with this lme during the winter of 1916-17 shows that it would have been better to insert an expansion joint every few lengths of pipe. Siphon No.1, between manholes 4 and 5, was chosen for the major tests upon this line. It is longer than any of the other siphons and near enough to the gatehouse so that alterations in discharge may comparatively quickly reach the section under test. Holes were drilled through the top of the pipe near each end of the siphon at such elevations that the pipe was completely filled at these holes regardless of discharge. Piezometer tubes of type A were thrust into the siphon through these holes. Water was turned out of the pipe while the piezometers were carefully placed on the inside. These tubes were connected with gauge glasses by means of which the pressure head was read directly in water columns. Velocities were determined by fluorescein injected into the hole in the concrete pipe made for piezometer No. 1 and observed Le a the manhole in the flow line at the end of the siphon, beyond the hole for piezometer No. 2. A correction was necessary for the reason that the water did not fill the pipe for a few feet between gauge No. 2 and the manhole. Data for this correction were carefully taken with the level at the time the levels were run for the determi1- nation of the loss of head. As stated in the discussion under No. 54a, page 86, there is a weir just above the intake to the pipe line. The crest is about one-fourth inch thick, rounded over on a radius equal to about one-half the thickness of the plate. Water entered the chamber above the weir from one side, making an indeterminate condition of approach velocity. However, a float gauge was read for each run of water and the discharge computed by the Francis formula. The com- parison of the velocity in the siphon pipe as computed from this weir discharge and as determined by the direct, timing of color is given in Table 2, page 18. It is to be noted that, for all runs, the velocity by direct measurement is greater than as computed by weir discharge. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 41 In other words, as is to be expected from the conditions, the weir discharges more water for a given head than a standard Francis weir would have done. As mentioned above, the velocities used in the computations in tables 3 and 4 were all based on the color method. The mean diameter of this pipe, found by measuring two diameters on each of nine pieces remaining from construction is 3.50 feet, agreeing with the nominal diameter. All things considered, the writer regards this series as among the best, due to the very favorable conditions for experimentation. The value of C, is about 0.375 and may be taken as for a very smooth pipe with an excess of curvature. No. 31, Experiment S-48.—42-inch jointed reinforced concrete pipe, siphon No. 5, Victoria Aqueduct, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada.—This series of tests was conducted on the last of the siphons on this pipe line, siphon No. 5, located between man- holes 67 and 68. The same general discussion applies to this series as to No. 30. This siphon is much shorter, and in consequence the series should not be as reliable as No. 30. As shown in Plate V, figure 3, the siphon pitches down a steep grade, thence extends horizontally over a concrete trestle, thence climbs a steep hillside -to the outlet manhole (in the foreground). The values of (C, being around 0.390 would indicate a higher capacity than the observations on pipe No. 30, but those should be accepted over the tests on siphon No. 5. No. 32, Experiment 8=35.—46-inch jointed reinforced concrete pipe, R, siphon, Umatilla project, United States Reclamation Service, Oregon.—Water for irrigation is conveyed across a wide valley, from one open channel to another, by means of an inverted siphon pipe 9,830.8 feet long and subject to a maximum pressure head of 110 feet: It was constructed in the winter of 1909-10. The joint units are 8 feet in length, reinforced with a spiral of five-sixteenth-inch steel wire wound round longitudinal rods (PI. VIII, fig.2). The concrete was mixed in a ratio of 1 part cement to 1.44 parts sand and 2 parts gravel. The units were cast in steel forms and afterward painted on the inside with a grout made by pouring one-half bucket of cement into two-thirds of a bucket of water. This made a full bucket of a mixture of about the consistency of cream.! As shown in Plate VIII, fig. 2, the pipe is straight in alignment, while the profile is evident, with the exception of the deep sag across the lower lands, where the pressure head reaches 110 feet. Within the reach of pipe tested there are eight 6-inch valves, two 6-inch blow-offs, and four manholes, each 12 by 14 inches. This line was tested by Mr. Newell in 1911 and again in 1912 (see No. 33a, p. 79). During the season of 1915 the writer conducted experiments on the same reach of pipe, between a valve 72 feet from the inlet and the outlet chamber, a distance of 9,774 feet. For gauge No. 1 a mercury column was used, while for gauge No.2 a piezometer tube of type B, extending into the jet at the outlet, led to a stilling box wherein the water-surface elevation was determined with a hook gauge. Two diameters were measured on each of 8 pipe units remaining from the original construction. The mean area of these units was 11.52 square feet, while the exact area of a 46-inch 1 The details of manufacturing experience and costs covering a period of about three years are given in “Reinforced-Concrete Pressure Pipe on the Umatilla Project, Oreg., U. S. Reclamation Service,” by H. D. Newell, Eng. News, vol. 65, Feb. 16, 1911, p. 208. 492 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pipe is 11.54 square feet. The diameter of the pipe line was. accepted as 46 inches. The velocities for the various runs were determined by timing the passage of fluorescein from the point of injection, at gauge 1, to its appearance at the outlet. From 2 to 5 batches of color were used for each run. For any one run the elapsed time of the colors agreed within one-third of 1 per cent. Reference to Plate VI shows that the curve for the 1915 experi- ments, when produced, passes through the midst of the points for Newell’s tests made in 1911 and 1912. [If this fact is truly indicative, then the capacity has not changed during the interim. ‘This is rea- sonable, because the pipe is operated at a rather high velocity throughout the season and the feeder canal leading from the main canal to the intake is in a hard cemented gravel that would not com- tribute ravelings or silt, while the water itself comes from Cold Springs reservo1r, and so is free from silt, except such as it may pick up in transit from the reservoir to the pipe. The clean condition of the pipe interior, where examined at the outlet, would indicate a pipe comparatively free from slime. The mean value of the coefficient in the new formula, as determined from the Newell tests and our own, is 0.395, but it must be borne in mind that this pipe is practically straight, a rather unusual condition for a pipe nearly 2 miles in length. No. 33b, Experiment S=60.—48-inch monolithic reinforced con- crete pipe, Churn Creek siphon, Anderson-Cottonwood irrigation dis- trict, California.—In order to serve a certain acreage of land lying east of the Sacramento River, the flow of Churn Creek lateral is conveyed for about 4,300 feet in a round, monolithic siphon pipe extending from an open earth canal to a steel flume across the main channel of the river. (Pl. IV, fig. 2.) It was the original intention to extend the siphon under the bed of the river as a cast-iron pipe, but this plan was changed, so that at the edge of the deep-water channel the concrete pipe is turned vertically upward and placed in the first pier of a bridge across the river. ‘This bridge supports a steel flume and the pipe dis- charges directly into the flume. As shown in the plate, the siphon was constructed continuously, wood being used for both inside and outsideforms. Though originally designed 44 feet in diameter, the pipe was constructed with a diameter of but 4 feet, owing to a reduction in the acreage to be served. A single experiment for loss of head was made on this pipe in the summer of 1919. Piezometer tubes of type A were thrust into the siphon at inlet and outlet and the pressure head was carried over the banks to glass-gauge water columns. Piezometer No. 1 was thrust about 6 diameters (24.7 feet) down the inlet end and No. 2 was held 10 feet down the vertical outlet pipe located in the bridge pier. Between these piezometers there is a developed distance of 4,242.3 feet, so that a very material loss of head occurs for the commercial velocities—between 3 and 4 feet per second. The reach tested is practically straight in both vertical and horizontal planes, with the exception of the90° bend asthe pipeis turned upwardin the bridge pier. The loss due to this bend is immaterial compared to the friction loss, and was ignored in the computations. ‘The velocity of the water in the pipe was determined by injecting a solution of ‘‘Congo red”’ dye directly into the mouth of the siphon pipe, not into the pool in the THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 43 intake chamber. It was 1,091.3 seconds before the color appeared at the outlet and 84 seconds more before the last trace disappeared. In computing the velocity the elapsed time is taken as from the moment of injection of the solution to the mean between first and last appearances of the color at the outlet. Being injected under a pneu- matic pressure of 60 or 70 pounds against a static head of but 2 or 3 pounds, the ‘‘shot”’ of color leaves the color gun in but a fraction of a second, the lever handle of the valve being turned across the orifice slowly but continuously. When tried out in an open channel, where the injection can be watched, a great cloud of dense color, 3 or 4 feet, in diameter, can be shot into the water, with an instantaneous opening and closing of the valve, merely by turning the handle through 180°. As could be seen in the photographs from which the plate was made, each crack between the boards of the forms was clearly defined in the concrete structure. No opportunity has offered for examination of the interior of the siphon, but the velocities are such that little or no silt should collect in the pipe. The retardation factor of 0.313 con- firms the recommendation of 0.310 for pipes of similar construction. No. 35, Experiment S=-40.—634-inch monolithic reinforced con- crete pipe, Simms Creek siphon, Sun River project, United States Reclamation Service, Montana.'. Water for irrigation is carried over Simms Creek in a siphon pipe inserted between open channels. This siphon was constructed in the winter of 1907-8. It was built in place, steel in 6-foot sections being used for the interior and wood for the outside forms. The inside was then washed with cement grout. From intake to outlet the pipe is 1,556 feet long and 5.3 feet in diameter. Preparatory to the experiments conducted by the writer, piezome- ter connections of type C (fig. 4) were set in the zenith of the line at distances of 40 and 400 feet from the intake and 20 feet above the outlet. These will be referred to as taps 1, 2, and 3, respect- ively. At the time these taps were set the project manager inspected the pipe and found the interior in a very smooth, clean condition. So far as he is aware, the pipe had never been cleaned, although in its eighth year of operation. The loss of head for the various velocities was measured between taps 2 and 3, a mercury column being used at tap 2 and a stilling-box type of water column at tap 3. In order to fill the pipe completely at tap 3 it was necessary to insert flashboards in the slots of the outlet structure. The velocity was determined by accepting the mean time of two or three batches of fluorescein. For observation 1 the color was injected at tap 2, but for the other runs the color was injected at tap 1. The first and last appearance was noted at the outlet of the siphon. Thus for all observations other than No. 1 the color traversed a reach of 379.5 feet longer than the reach between manometers, while for run 1 the color reach was but 20 feet longer. The line was designed for a capacity of 175 second-feet of water, based on a value of n in the Kutter formula of 0.012. Mr. C. P. Williams, project manager, stated to the writer that ‘‘The maximum amount that had been carried by the siphon was about 225 second- feet. At this time there was 255 second-feet diverted:into the head of the canal and the loss between the head and the siphon was about 30 second-feet.”” Our experiments also bear out the fact that the 1Eng. Rec. , vdl. 59, 1909, p. 716. 44 BULLETIN 852, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, capacity is greater than a value of n of 0.012 would indicate. Air troubles in gauge No.1 caused inconsistent results for this series, and for this reason full weight should not be assigned to the tests. The values of C, range from 0.380 to 0.434, and the corresponding values of n from 0.0116 down to 0.0101. During the season of 1917 the writer again visited this pipe while it was carrying far more water than for any of the observations made in 1915, but the air troubles were even greater than before, so experimentation was considered out of the question. This pipe shows the need of ‘‘air chimneys” near the intake if maximum efficiency is to be reached. No. 37, Experiment S-59.—120-inch monolithic concrete pipe, Whitney siphon, Los Angeles Aqueduct, California.—The Whitney siphon, on the Saugus division, is 955 feet long, 10 feet inside diameter, with a shell 9 inches thick, and is subject to a head of about 75feet. It conveys water for municipal and irrigation purposes across a narrow canyon, between two flow-line tunnels. The sides of the canyon have a slope of about 3 feet horizontal to 1 foot vertical. The pipe was constructed in place, smooth wood forms being used for both inside and outside surfaces. The interior of the pipe was treated with a finish coat of rich cement mortar. The grit of the sand in this coat was very noticeable to the touch at the time of experiments in 1916. A reach of the siphon pipe below the level of the floor of the flow- line at both inlet and outlet was chosen for test. Holes were drilled through the top of the shell and one-eighth-inch iron-pipe nipples, each 18 inches long, were cemented into the shell. (The hole for a one-eighth-inch pipe is nearly one-fourth inch in diameter.) Two piezometer tubes of type A, exactly alike in construction, were thrust into the pipe through the nipples. The tapering end of these tubes was made flexible by a small rubber-hose joint with the main tube, so that the current might hold each piezometer in the direction of flow by means of the flattened taper, like a vane. The flow-line channel is tapered into the round section of the siphon pipe by means of transition sections at each end of the siphon. Between the transition sections and the flow-line sections manholes are placed at both inlet and outlet. The tap for gauge No. 1 piezometer was 59.2 feet downstream from the manhole at the inlet, while the tap at gauge No. 2 was 61.1 feet upstream from the manhole at the outlet. The holes in each piezometer tube were 3.6 feet downstream from the taps in the pipe. This made the reach between piezometers 857.4 feet long. Water columns were used at both gauges. The nominal size of the pipe was accepted in the computations. The velocities were determined by timing the passage of solutions of fluorescein, injetted at gauge No. 1 and observed at the manhole beyond gauge No. 2, correction being made for the fact that the channel is not full for part of the distance between gauge No. 2 and the manhole. Experience with this pipe showed that satisfactory tests can not be made on a reach of pipe that is relatively short, compared with the size of the pipe, especially for low velocities. The loss of head for 1 Construction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, Final Report, Los Angeles, Calif., 1916, pp. 210, 214. Engin, Con. July 3, 1912, p. 20. Bul. 852, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. Fia. |.—CONNECTION AT GAUGE I, CLAVEY SIPHON, OAKDALE IRRIGATION DISTRICT, CALIFORNIA. (PIPE No. 28.) Note air trap and color reservoir. Gauge glass is on pole. Fic. 2.—SIPHON No. I, VICTORIA AQUEDUCT. (PIPE No. 30.) Mr. Ewing is standing at tap for gauge No. 1. Fia. 3.—SIPHON No. 5, VicToRIA AQUEDUCT. (PIPE No. 31.) Notemanholesand concrete trestle over creek. Wood trestle used during construction for conveyance of pipe units. PLATE VI. Bul. 852, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ‘71N4 ONINNNY ‘Sadid ALAYONOD NO SNOILWAYSSEO SNIMOHS 422} 000] Jad jaa Oo pAyPH=H edt “ee . fo SojnwMsosul A JO syuauodxe pafeolpul (38! ee ‘poy Jo sso7 oC ae W4s$o2 4 aN C3 vere g ypeid SUuUlS = fs SNSepe re. wee © MOYS SLUOJS “P/ON ) ogz @ Sa1bieudis ly P “Uuoyais ‘ “eKuoydigyg ~ f f = woyols Kovey: $e. jon "Due 3, aie = . \ a 2 uoigody “IF ee » ra pe xe 0. “ol ug aa ls) 0 “ Ps) ° 7 * I Wet JIDOJOA yoas UA’ Siphon N25, Victor! ° eer Flat Forest Siphon. -pijon 315” ao SO) ‘Bazins)\© (5 fabton Pressure Siphon. i yh “puoses Jad Vike C2 oD IN Co ae =\ Irrigation Co. of Px Oberon Epo “eunq|no|43y Jo 3daq "Ss ‘fm ‘ZSe ‘Ing peer Flat Forest Nofe, Slants show a Oe © Wea 5 30 © Po Gs —=S g 3 bed. 720” \ UO Whitney Sjphon\Los Ange: les Aqueduch eS VS fae : cP © ue oS Loss of Head, H, in feet per 1000 feet F _9<-5 Wallkill Tummel 2 LOGARITHMIC DIAGRAM SHOWING OBSERVATIONS ON CONCRETE PIPES, RUNNING FULL. Indicated exponents of V in formulas of type H=kd*v* ‘IA 3Lv1d THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 45 a low velocity in a large pipe is so small that it conflicts with the ordinary errors of experimentation. For observation No. 1 (not included in Table 3) the water column at gauge No. 2 was 0.017 foot higher than the column at gauge No 1 for a velocity of 1.76 feet per second, whereas it should have been in the neighborhood of 0.070 lower. There was absolutely no error in the levels. Agreement between levels of the gauge glasses at the ends of the reach as developed by the wye level and as shown by the static pressure in the siphon with still water was within 0.001 foot. The writer can account for the discrepancy between the actual gauge heights (which indicated that there was a gain instead of a loss of head) and the heights that might be expected only by explaining that piezometer No. 1 is impinged upon by the water soon after pitching downhill at the intake of the siphon, while piezometer No. 2 is sub- jected to the current after the water has passed through 850 feet of 10-foot pipe, the last 200 feet of which are straight. The observations on this pipe listed in Table 3 were made at velocities great enough so that a distinct loss of head was recorded, but there is probably some of the same error that showed the gain in head for observation No. 1. For this reason the writer does not accord any weight to this series, but does not wish to suppress the tests and uses them to emphasize the necessity of testing relatively long reaches of pipe in order that the actual loss of head may far overshadow the unavoidable experimental errors. For experience on pipes of larger sizes see Appendix. ANALYSIS OF THE EXPERIMENTAL DATA. Water flowmg under pressure, confined on all sides, probably follows a slightly different scheme as regards velocity distribution from that of water which but partially fills the conduit, thus having a surface exposed to the air. For this reason the results of experiments under these two conditions will be discussed separately. FLOW IN PIPES UNDER PRESSURE. It has come to be generally understood that the relationship of friction loss to velocity within a given pipe of any material can be represented by the equation H=m V2 (12) in which the values of z are as a rule between 1.70 and 2.00, although there are many records of experiments in which the value of the exponent z was in excess of 2. For a series of pipes of the same general characteristics but of varying diameters the values of m follow the general equation m= K d* (13) Substituting in formula 12 eed Vi (14) This expressed logarithmically becomes log H=log K+z2 log d+z log V (15) 46 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In Plate VI the loss of head per thousand feet of pipe, H, for each observation on concrete pipes, is platted on logarithmic paper as an ordinate against the corresponding value of the mean velocity, V, as an-abscissa. For a given series of observations the resulting curve represents equation 12 in its logarithmatic form log H=log m+z log V (16) which is now recognized as the equation of a straight line where m is the intercept on the axis of H (which is the line V=1) and 2 is the tangent of the angle between the curve and the axis of V (indicated by. ajon, Fl. VI). A study of this plate, in connection with the descriptions of the various pipes, shows that pipes of the same structural characteristics follow a rather definite order of position on the plot. If all of the curves were of the same inclination to the axis V, then this order of position would be definitely and fully disclosed by a diagram in which the values of m are platted on logarithmic paper as ordinates and the diameters of the pipes, in inches, are platted as abscissas. The experiments upon some of the pipes, of necessity, covered such a short-range of velocities that the curves indicate a slope quite at variance with that which would have probably resulted for more complete series. For this reason the writer has not projected the curves to an intersection with the axis of H, in order to determine the relative positions of the values of m. Obviously some system of weighting should be assigned to the various series and, in the study of experiments upon wood-stave pipe, an arbitrary weighting method was employed; but because there was some criticism of this pro- cedure the writer hesitates to repeat it. If all the pipes were made in the same manner, had the same interior surfaces, and were subject to the same hydraulic conditions, a law derived by the method of least squares should be the best and most accurate. This method of handling experimental data, however, ascribes all variation from a given law to errors, according to the probability of errors, whereas most of the variation from an average law of data on commercially made concrete pipes is due to inherent differences in the pipes. For any given series of experiments upon the same pipe the method of least squares is applicable, in its simplest form; that is, by the center-of-gravity method1 This method was used in computing the individual formulas given in column 10, Table 4. The curve is represented graphically in Plate VI, where the center of gravity of all the points in any one series is shown as two circles around a center which is typical of the observation points for that particular series. That is, if the observation points are given as open circles, 1 Described in Bul. 376, U. 8. Dept. Agr., p. 50, and in Amer. Civil Engineers Pocketbook, 3d ed., New York, 1916, p. 847. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. . 47 then the center is an open circle, and if its points are given as solid dots, then the center is a solid dot. The centers of gravity of the upper and lower zones for a given series are shown by two concentric circles. The straight line representing the curve for that series passes through these three points, and the equation for this line is the equation for that particular pipe, so far as the observations developed it. On Plate VI are shown three lines indicating slopes for three values of 2. Theslope of 1.80 conforms to that of the Moritz formula and to the slope found by both Moritz and the writer for the flow in wood-stave pipes. The slope of 1.85 conforms to that of the Williams-Hazen formula, while the slope of 2 conforms to the slope in the original Chezy formula and has been adhered to by later authorities. The border lines of the plate are also drawn at the slope of 2 for ready comparison. The slope of 2 agrees with the belief, so long honored that it became an axiom but was later proved not necessarily true, that the loss of head must vary as the square of the velocity. | With the desire not to increase the number of already numerous formulas, Plate VI was studied, on a tracing made over 10-inch logarithmic paper, in connection with sets of parallel lines based on | the above-mentioned definite slopes. On this basis it was obvious that a slope of 2 most nearly applied, not only for the average slope of the various curves, but also in following the zone for a given size pipe from one series through a range of velocities to another series at higher or lower velocities. Accepting this value for z of 2 and recognizing that there are several typical concrete surfaces, it is now necessary to determine z, the exponent of d and a set of coefficients, K. Allen Hazen has stated, in discussing the Saph and Schoder experiments: It has seemed to the writer [Hazen] that the most accurate value for x could be secured by comparing the results obtained for very small and very large pipes. Of course it is impossible to secure very large pipes with precisely the same kind of interior surface as obtained in very small pipes, but it seems safer to compare the results obtained from very large and very small pipes, even though their interior surfaces do differ somewhat in character, than to take the indications of experiments more closely comparable, but covering a shorter range. It is to be borne in mind that Hazen was speaking of brass pipes less than 2 inches in diameter when he referred to ‘‘ very small pipes.”’ However, the reasoning was sound, and this suggestion has been followed by the writer. Concrete pipes were divided into four general classes, as discussed on page 7: (1) Old California pipes; (2) modern ‘“‘dry-mix” cement pipe and wood-form monolithic pipe; (3) wet-mix cement pipe and average steel-form monolithic pipe; (4) 1 Trans, Amer. Soc, Civil Engin., 51 (1903), p. 320. 48 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. glazed interior pipes. Class 3 was chosen from which to derive the value of « and of K,, using the 20-inch Temescal pipe (No. 18), sup- ported by Fanning’s experiments (No.19) for the small size and the CatskiJl aqueduct 174-inch pressure tunnels for the large size (Nos. 39 and 40). This class was chosen because the range between com- parable surfaces was greater than for any of the other three classes, of which classes 1 and 2 extend from 6 inches up to about 36 inches, and class 4 is represented by experiments on pipes from 30 to 63 inches only. The experiments upon the 20-inch and the 174-inch pipes men- tioned above were accepted as basic, partially because they were conducted upon relatively long reaches of pipe where conditions for experimentation were favorable, but for the most part because of their relative positions on Plate VI, as regards the positions occupied by points representing pipes which are known to have very smooth surfaces and pipes that are known to be rougher than modern practice will countenance, as well as lines that can be classed as “modern con- crete pipe,” neither exceedingly smooth nor “ mortar-squeeze”’ rough. From the centers of gravity for the 20-inch and 174-inch pipes, projections at a slope of 2 intercept the axis of H (line for V=1) at 0.2006 and 0.0125 respectively, from which values of m for their respective diameters, Kis computed as 9.4 and 4 as —1.28. Sincezg, the exponent of d, was accepted as —1.25 by Schoder and other authorities, and the writer did not desire to alter existing formulas unless the necessary change is radical, he also accepted — 1.25 for x and recomputed K. The pivot for changing the slope from — 1.28 to —1.25 should be for an average-size pipe rather than for a 1-inch pipe. A 42-inch pipe was accepted as about the average size; then substituting in formula 13, M = Fore» or log m=log 9.4—1.28 log 42 from which m=0.07859 for a diameter of 42 inches. With this value of m and —1.25 for the value of z, substitution in formula 13 gives 0.07859 = K 42 +, or log 0.07859 + 1.25 log 42=log K. or log K=10.92443, from which K=8.4. Making the final basic formula for pipes of class 3 read: 2 Freee (17) from which V=0.345 H5 do-5 — 1.63 H > [9-85 — 115 9-825 §0.5 (17a) and since Q=A V, then @=—0.00188 H°* d= 1.28 He pas (17b) THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 49 Olass 1.—From a study of the older San Antonio Water Co. and Pomona pipes of class 1, a coefficient of 14 was found for A,, making the formulas for this class read: (18) from which V=0.267 F{?5 (9-825 — 1.26 Ho5 [9-85 — 89 9.825 S05 (18a) and . Gr OLOOIAG E10" G2-2> — 0.99) Ele-a 1p? -822 (18) Olass 2.—Probably more than half the concrete pipes being laid at present in the United States are made locally, in 2-foot sections, by the ‘ dry-mix”’ hand-tamped, cement-washed process in the west coast States. This type of pipe constitutes most of class 2. Throughout the irrigated portions of California nearly every town has one “pipe For this class of pipes, a study of the newer Pomona and San Antonio Water Co. lines, supplemented by an examination of lines and pipe units in other parts of California, lead to the derivation of 10.4 for the coefficient K, making the formula for this class read 10.4 V? ae (19) from which V SOB LEE OE = Ao IDO ee MOR ay ag ae nle \. aNGian) and Qi OLOOMGO Heard? 22 — 11 5 Oz (19D) Class 4.—The experiments upon the Victoria Aqueduct, siphon No. 1 (pipe No. 30) were chosen as characteristic, because they are well supported on the conservative side by those on other exceed- ingly smooth finished pipes and the conditions for experimentation were so unusually favorable. The coefficient K, was found to be 6.7, making the formula for this class read 6S (20) from which 7 170870 Hs des— 1.75 Hes Dem = 128.5 Rows $4 (20a) an * Q=0.00202 Hes 2-5 = 1.37 Hs Des (205) EFFECT OF AGE UPON CARRYING CAPACITY. In designing a pipe line of a given material and workmanship the engineer must not consider so much the capacity of the pipe when new but after a period of subjection to the local conditions that finally determine the interior of any pipe line. Deposits of mud, gravel, etc., will of course choke any pipe and will not be con- | sidered in the following discussion, though it may be well to state in 164725°—20—Bull. 8524 50 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. passing that accumulations of detritus do not occur at the low point in the profile of a siphon pipe, but will pass this point and precipitate at the base of the first steep upward pitch. They are thus, as a rule, beyond the reach of a flushing stream if the only blow-off is located at the extreme low point. For this reason it is advisable to place the main blow-off at the steep upward pitch and a small valve at the extreme low point in order that the pipe may be completely drained. It has become an accepted fact that cast-iron and steel pipes carry less water for a given loss of head from year to year. So far as evidence is obtainable, wood-pipe interiors remain about the same, though occasionally a pipe is found with interior growths of Spongilla. Moritz writes: The effect of age on concrete pipe is not known, but it is customary to assume that the carrying capacity does not decrease, as there is no reason to suppose that it should. Bishop states that there appears to be no deterioration of capacity in cement-lined pipes laid in 1871-72 for lee purposes. His examination was made 38 years later.? The city authorities of Grenoble, France, Hien favorably upon the condition of a concrete pipe after 15 years’ service, mentioning a slight calcareous deposit one-sixteenth, inch thick.? At first thought it would appear that cement or concrete, subjected to water free from erosive material, should retain the original surface, with the possible exception of sliming, which may cut down the capacity from 10 to 15 per cent, but from which concrete surfaces are comparatively free.’ Examination of the interiors of many pipe lines supplemented by interviews with managers of water systems and a study of available literature show that the capacity may deteriorate, due to the following causes: (1) The invasion of rootlets from neighboring trees. (2) Scour from the water. (3) The accumulation of lime or other deposits. In southern California experience teaches that pipe limes may be laid under citrus groves with no ill effects from roots, but that where the line is laid near black acacia, willow, pepper, or eucalyptus trees, rootlets will enter the pipe, not necessarily at the joints, if it is poorly made and poorly laid, and retard the flow. These trees are named in order, the acacia being the most destructive. Roots will not effect a dense, well-made pipe, with tight jomts. (See Mr. Finkle’s dis- cussion on p. 95.) Literature contains accounts of clay and concrete pipes being clogged with roots, particularly of the elm tree.* . 1 Working Data for Irrigation Engineers, p. 69. 2! xperience with Cement Mains at Rahway, N.J. By Wm. Bishop, Pro. American Waterworks Assn. (1910), p. 217. Can. Engr., Oct. 19, 1911, vol. 21, p. 455. 4 Water Works Handbook, by Flinn, Weston, and Bogert, New York, 1916, p. 290. 5 Eng. Rec., 1916, vol. 73, p. 460; id., p. 514; id., p. 688; id., vol. 79, p. 36. Irrigation in Southern Cali- fornia, W. H. Hall, Sacramento, Calif., 1888, p. 495. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 51 Concrete, under usual conditions, will withstand high velocities.! According to A. P. Davis, the following conclusions were warranted from his observation of velocities in concrete: 1. That where clear water can be made to glide over concrete without disturbing its velocity or abruptly changing its direction, there is no practical limit to the velocities that can be permitted without harm. 2. That concrete which is subjected to the impact of water under high velocity is rapidly eroded and that under such conditions the velocities must be very carefully limited. The fact has been pointed out by C. H. Paul that concrete tunnels treated with a coat of water-gas tar, followed with two coats of coal tar, withstood velocities up to 64 feet per second without appreciable wear.? The experience with this feature of water flow, gained in making these tests, may be of value. The water conveyed through the Prosser pressure pipe (No. 26) contains many fine particles of hard, rough, basalt ravelings. This pipe is operated most of the time at much less than its maximum capacity, so that the water enters the intake in a very turbulent condition and rushes down the initial reaches of the pipe at a high velocity. At the intake the bottom of the pipe presents the appearance of having been subjected to a sand blast. All the finer materials in the concrete have been scoured out, clearly defining each hard pebble larger than about one-fourth inch in diameter. This scour has extended possibly one-eighth inch deep between pebbles. The degree of roughness diminishes from a maxi- mum at the bottom to none at the mid-diameter; likewise diminish- ing with distance down the pipe until it was not noticeable about 150 feet from the intake. (See Mr. Newell’s discussion.on p. 100.) A peculiar condition under which erosion may be expected was called to the attention of the writer in southern California. Unless pipe lines are laid on a smooth gradient, any sand in the water will wear out the bottom of the pipe where the latter goes over humps. The obstruction of a pipe by lime deposit is mentioned by W. E. Condon.’ (See Plate I, figure 2.) CAPACITY OF CONCRETE PIPES. In the following pages the design of @®ncrete pipes is considered with reference to carrying capacity alone. Structural features do not come within the scope of this paper, except as they affect the interior surface. The total loss of head necessary in the conveyance of a given quantity of water will be the sum of the velocity head, h,, the entry head, h,, and the friction head, h,, or its equivalent per unit length, less any velocity head, h’,, that may be recovered as the water 1 Safe Velocities of Water in Concrete, by A. P. Davis, Eng. News, vol. 67, Jan. 4, 1912, p.20. Engin. News-Rec., vol. 80, p. 172. Concrete, Plain and Reinforced, by Taylor and Thompson, New York, 1917, p. 779. 2 Use of Water-Gas and Coal Tar on Concrete Subjected to High Velocities of Water, by C. H. Paul, Reclamation Record, Jan., 1916, p. 46. Reprinted in Engin. Rec., Jan. 22, 1916, p. 108. 3 Originaland Acquired Roughness of a 30-inch Cement Water Supply Conduit, Southern California, Engin. News, Jan. 9, 1908, vol. 159, p. 41. 52 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. approaches the pipe outlet at a velocity relatively high compared with the velocity in the open water below the outlet chamber. This total may be expressed by the formula H.=hy+h.+h;—h’', (20) where H, has the significance shown in figure 1 and h,, h,, and h,, and h,’ have the significance defined on page 51. The influence. of gentle curves was included in the data upon which the formulas were based, so that an additional loss for slight bends or curves need not be considered in the design of the usual pipe on, irrigation systems. If sharp bends can not be avoided, then an additional loss of head must be anticipated. The results of such tests as have been made on bends in pipes are given in standard works on hydraulics. VELOCITY AND ENTRY. LOSSES. In designing pipes of small diameter and great length, the losses due to velocity and entry heads, h, and h,, are so small compared with the friction loss that they may be neglected. Otherwise they should be included in the allowance for total lost head. It is best to consider the water above any intake as at rest. From this state of rest velocity must be created and increased to the mean velocity, V, existing in the pipe. The head, h,, necessary to create a given velocity is shown in column 2, Table 5. The entry loss will be > from 0.5 h, where the pipe of standard size begins at a headwall and is without bell or taper mouth, to about 0.25 h,, for a rounded intake, and 0.05 h, for a bell-mouth intake. In Table 5, column 3, is shown the amount of entry loss when taken as half the velocity head (column 2), and the sum of the entry and velocity losses is shown in column 4. TABLE 5.— Mean velocity in pipe V, in feet per second, and head of elevation lost creating this velocity and overcoming entrance conditions, hy and he, in feet. V ho he hothe V hoy he hothe Ft. per sec. Feet. Feet. Feet. | Ft. per sec. Feet. Feet. Feet. 1.0 0.016 0. 008 0. 024 5.0 0.389 0.195 0. 584 -2 022 -O11 033 “2 420 . 210 630 -4 030 -015 045 «4 453 - 227 680 -6 040 - 020 060 -6 488 - 244 732 -8 050 - 025 075 8 523 . 262 785 2.0 062 031 093 6.0 560 . 280 840 2 075 - 037 112 on 598 . 299 897 -4 090 - 045 135 oe 637 -319 956 -6 105 - 053 158 -6 677 - 339 1.016 -8 122 - 061 183 8 719 359 1.078 3.0 140 070 210 7.0 762 - 381 1.143 o2 159 080 239 22 806 - 403 1. 209 «4 180 - 090 270 4 851 - 426 1.277 -6 202 - 101 303 -6 898 - 449 1.347 -8 224 112 336 -8 946 -473 1.419 4.0 249 125 374 8.0 995 498 1. 493 -2 274 137 411 224 1.045 523 1. 568 -4 301 151 452 74 1.097 549 |’ 1.646 -6 329 . 165 494 -6 1.150 575 1.725 -8 358 179 537 .8 1. 204 602 1. 806 THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. , 53 Where the usual types of inlet and outlet structure are employed, with but little construction and consequent expense incurred for con- servation of entry and velocity heads, it is recommended that the figures in Table 5 be used. AIR IN PIPE. Like all other lines, a concrete pipe must be protected by air valves against the accumulation of air at ‘‘summits” on the line. If this is not done the capacity will be reduced. . In addition to the air at summits it has been found that the capacity of a siphon pipe may be reduced by accumulations of air at the intake end. This accumulation may take place several hundred feet down the incline from the pipe entrance and manifest itself by a periodic ‘‘blowing back” of compressed air. The writer has seen two instances where the resulting conflict between air and water has burst the pipe. Pipes taking water directly from reservoirs are, of course, not Subject to these troubles, the depth above the intake being, as a rule, sufficient to insure filling of the pipe with water alone. Mr. A. E. Ashcroft, of Vernon, British Columbia, Canada, in speak- ing of some 36-inch siphon pipes, says: 4 A large number of air valves at the upper ends of the pipes have been effective in reducing vibration and thumping when the pipes are discharging only partially full. (See also Mr. Finkle’s discussion, p. 94.) The best air outlet is probably a “chimney” rising above the hy- draulic gradient. These vents may be from 1 to 36 inches in diam- eter, depending on the size of the pipe line, and smail ones should be so assembled that they may be taken apart, as débris collects in such vents and must be periodically removed. Moritz suggests the area of the relief pipe ,be one-twentieth of that of the pressure pipe? FRICTION LOSSES. The loss of head necessary to overcome internal resistances within the pipe is proportional to the length of the pipe, but is independent of the static pressure in the pipe. In order to determine the size of pipe and the loss of head necessary - to overcome the frictional resistances in the conveyance of a given quantity of water, three estimate diagrams and four tables have been prepared. Examples of typical pipe problems are given. The fac- tors of safety given below should be considered in each problem. FACTORS OF SAFETY. As in all conservative design or estimating, factors of safety must be used in order to take care of the divergence, due to unforeseen or abnormal conditions, from a general average. 1 Pro. 4th An. Conv., W. Can. Irg. Assoc., Ottawa, 1911, p. 76. 2 Working Data for Irrigation Engineers, p. 70. 54 BULLETIN 852, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In general a lower factor of safety may be used for a jointed pipe of precast units than for a pipe of monolithic construction. This is true because a given surface may be more closely anticipated before construction. For pipes of classes 1 and 4 (p. 7) the velocity may be assumed to be within 10 per cent of that computed by the new formula, provided the conditions are favorable. For pipes of classes 2 and 3 the writer would suggest about the same factors of safety as for wood-stave pipe: Five per cent when only a rough approximation to the actual needs of the pipe is possible; when water enters the pipe from a settling reservoir or velocities in the pipe are so high that a clean-scoured condition will always be present inside the pipe; and also where conditions of operation are such that no penalties are attached to a slight insufficiency of carrying capacity. Ten per cent when the above conditions for a very clean pipe are assured, but where penalties are attached to lack of capacity; or whete no direct penalties are attached but silted waters and low velocities may permit deposits. Fifteen per cent where rock ravelings may reduce the interior area of the pipe, or when penalties are attached and silted water is likely to cause excess retardation of flow, or where chemical analyses of the water indicate that accretions may be expected. : The designer may safely assume that the capacity of concrete will not change materially unless the pipe is subject to conditions mentioned on pages 50 and 51. As a factor for safety to be used in the design of a pipe line, the writer would suggest adding the percentage to the load to be carried rather than a change of coefficients—that is, if 100 second-feet of water is the desired quantity and a factor of 10 per cent is to be used, then design the line for a capacity of 110 second-feet. ESTIMATE DIAGRAMS AND TABLE; SOLUTIONS FOR TYPICAL PIPE PROBLEMS. 4 (1) An inverted siphon of class 3 is required to convey 60 second- feet of water a length of 2,800 feet, the velocity at peak load to be about 5 feet per second. Water has settled in a reservoir before entering the canal. The siphon is to contain no abrupt turns or obstructions. No direct penalty has been attached for lack of capacity. Required, diameter of pipe. Allowing a 5 per cent overload as a factor of safety, the rated capacity will be 60 +3 =63 second-feet. At a velocity of 5 feet per second the area of the water cross section—that is, the inside area of the pipe—must be 12.6 square feet, which is close to the area of a 48-inch pipe. On Plate VII, from the intersection of diameter line 48 and coefficient line 0.345, follow the guide lines to an inter- section with velocity line 5. This intersection is on loss-of-head line 1.7 feet per thousand feet of pipe. Thus for a 4-foot pipe 2,800 feet long the friction loss incident to the conveyance of 60 second-feet Bul. 852, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. Diameter. se Lo cRNA CH x OS f AY y 9310S Besse SSSA ood SERENESN ESA 0300 NEN =EEASE ttt B \\ \\s ‘\(\ LY \\ NGOS NUNN SAN ONAN N WEE \\\\ wees Neel Resa {UR ACES) CAAA AN A wh ws AY A \ \ W2RRRRRREeat (CroTaUUUUUUUVNaIll Ze; SSSI NESE SOBA CS SESE: x KOSS SX SSP BAAS eaneneet Ie etree $49 Sat eh Sieg Ox6' SA Wx OE wy aOXed=0' Se oe. Aa 0 Ny ASP WANN \\ Bal \) ZOVaOus' Ot Wesen natal Nn SS ANS SOc Oval we e aN S v\ SAA \- AE DES RS a <—\ wiz x ww Aer eo" eX SIS XT S Wem euts' VAX ou TX (VX A) IOECOnOsaaseS DXA EEE CeUsSeF + ° (re fo} 5 = i v fa + 3) 2 y £ fx I > oO o x= un 7) ° a ANNs Det aE TO Wo UU! oi Vara XN A an cana) \> SURE! PAS a Vas oe 70)? « #5 ; } Velocity, V, in feet per second. DIAGRAM FOR USE IN THE DESIGN OF CONCRETE PIPE LINES. From the intersection of the diameter and (, follow guidelines to the intersection of H and V, or from the intersection of H and V follow guide lines to the intersection of diameter and Cs. No straight edge required._ For recommended values of Cs, see page 7. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 55 will be 1.7X2.8=4.76 feet. In addition to this the loss of head 2 necessary to create the velocity of 5 feet per second is a4 0.4 foot. Assuming the entry head as one-half the velocity head gives an additional loss of 0.2 foot. Since for most installations there is but little or no recovery of velocity head at the outlet, it may be assumed that the total loss of head will approximate 4.8 +0.4+0.2=5.4 feet. If it is not feasible to sacrifice 5.4 feet a lower maximum velocity may be assumed and the above process repeated, this of course resulting in alarger pipe. If elevation is of little moment, that is, if more grade may be sacrificed, then a higher velocity may be assumed and a smaller pipe used. The same results may be dctined! by interpolating in Table 8. (2) An orchardist wishes to convey the output of a 5-inch centri- fugal pump, rated at 700 gallons per minute, from a standpipe near the well to the high corner of his orchard which is 5 feet higher than the land at the standpipe, and 1,370 feet distant along the line the pipe must follow. The owner wishes to use 12-inch pipe made by the dry-mix process. How high musw the standpipe be to deliver the water at the high corner of the orchard with a pressure head of 2 feet still available to insure a free discharge? To provide for an assured capacity of the line, for a shght undersize in the pipe, and a slight overload for the pump, we will figure on 15 per cent more than 700 gallons per minute or 700 +105 =805 gallons per minute. In column 4, Table 6, we find the item 809 as nearest to 805. This is close enough for our computations. Opposite 809 in the columns under a 12-inch pipe we find the velocity V, of such a flow in a 12-inch pipe will be 2.29 feet per second and the friction head for 1,000 feet of pipe, H, will be 2.44 feet. Since our pipe will be 1,370 feet long, this friction head will be 1.37 x 2.44 =3.34 feet. A small amount of fall is also necessary in order to generate the velocity of 2.29 feet per second and to get the water from the standpipe into the flow line. In Table 5, page 52, we find that a velocity of 2.4 feet per second requires a inna (fall) of 0.135 foot, according to column 4. Thus the following items enter into the total height of our standpipe: Feet. Ditterenceim elevation of the ground suriace: sees) ee 5. 00 Resenvesprecsune mead iat outlet see. 20) Si ie 2. 00 *) PichionvessumlescOiteet of 12-inch pipe for S09 GuPe Myo) ee ee 3. 34 Head to generate velocity and get water into the pipe................-...--- oS ACCOM eich 2 ea a ae aR CCS UR Ae UY 10. 47 So a standpipe 114 or 12 feet high, measured from the ground surface, will be sufficient to insure the flow and have some elevation in reserve for ‘‘freeboard”’ and surging. 56 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 6.—FOR ESTIMATING THE CAPACITY OF MODERN CONCRETE PIPE LINES MADE BY DRY-MIXTURE PROCEssS.! : Based on formula V= C;H®-*q9-65 using 0.310 for the coefficient C;. For instance, 2 second-feet of water, the equivalent of 80 miner’s inches measured under a 6-inch pressure, or of 100 miner’s inches measured under a 4-inch pressure, or of 898 gallons per minute, will be conveyed by a 12-inch pipe, with a velocity of 2.55 feet per second with a loss of head (grade) of 3.04 feet for each 1,000 feet of pipe. Quantity (Q). Inside diameter, in inches and corresponding area, A, in square feet. Miner’s | Gal- 6 8 10 12 14 16 Sec-| inches. | lons | 4=0.196 | A=0.349 | A=0.545 | A=0.785 | A=1.069 | A=1.396 A(40)| B(S0) 0.1 4) 5 ae 8 10 3) 12) °35 4] 16] 20 5} 20] 2 61528 Ir, 30 ; d 7aO oat! 35 3.2 1 -8| 32] 40 4, 1 | iagP'36 1" 45 4, 1 1.0] 40] 50 5. ; 1 1.2] 48] 60 6. .15 | 2 : i : 1.4] 56] 70 is 50) 2 i 1.6] 64] 80 8. f 30 | 2 i A 84 | 1 1.8] 72] 90| 809] 9.17] 93.00 | 5.16 |20.70 | 3:30 | 6.46 | 2.29 | 2.44 | 1.68 | 1.09 | 1.29 | .54 2.0] 80] 100] 898 |10.20 |105.00 | 5.73 |25.40 | 3.67 | 7.95 | 2.55 | 3.04 | 1.87 | 1.35 | 1.43 | .67 2.2] 88] 110] 988 |11.20 |140.00 | 6.30 |30. 80 | 4.03 | 9.50 | 2.80 | 3.66 | 2.06 | 1.63 | 1.58 | .82 2.4| 96] 120] 1,089 |12. 20 |165.00 | 6.87 [3650 | 4. 40 |11. 40 | 3.06 | 4.37 | 2.24 | 1.93 | 1.72 | .97 226 | 104 |) 130 4,168 |. ek 7.45 |43.00 | 4.77 |13.30 | 3.31 | 5.11 | 2.43 | 2.28 | 1.86 [1.13 Aa Erbe la efoy ele ed 8.02 |50.00 | 5.13 |15.50 | 3.56 | 5.92 | 2. 62 | 2.64 | 2.00 |1.30 B10 |» 220 | 150] tes ee 8.59 |57.30 | 5.50 |17.80 | 3.82 | 6.81 | 2.81 | 3.04 | 2.15 |1. 50 32 3}0 408) 160i| Waser eo: 9.17 |65.30 | 5.87 |20.20 | 4.07 | 7.74 | 2.99 | 3.44 | 2.29 1.71 3:41 136), 170} dopopaeneee cs. 9. 74 |73.50 | 6.23 [22.80 | 4.33 | 8.77 | 3.18 | 3.90 | 2.44 |1. 94 3.6] 144] 180} 1,618 }--...-]......- 10.30 |82. 50 | 6.60 [25.60 | 4.58 | 9.82 | 3.37 | 4.37 | 2.59 |2.18 38 | 152 | 190'|' 1, 70s jee neon. 5 10.90 192.20 | 6.97 [28.50 | 4.84 /10.80 | 3.55 | 4.86 | 2. 72 |2.41 4.0} 160] 200} 1,797 |..--.-]..... on|-neth2| eee 7.33 [31.50 | 5.09 [12.20 | 3.74 | 5.39 | 2.86 |2. 67 4-516 180°] «225 | 2) 000 se meee | 5 eae 8.25 |39. 70 | 5.73 {15.30 | 4.21 | 6.81 | 3.24 |3. 64 BI0)|200'} 250-1 2, igre ot eae See 9.17 49.10 | 6.37 [18.80 | 4.68 | 8.41 | 3.58 [4.53 5.5 | 220]. 275, |, 2, Arann es Sf A 10. 10 [59.60 | 7.00 |22. 80 | 5.15 |10. 20 | 3.94 |5. 49 610'| 240-4" Sng, |°2: G87 See 2 oa 11.00 |70. 70 | 7. 64 |27.10 | 5.61 |12. 10 | 4.30 6. 54 6.51) «20 | 325.) 2,902 | Sees 28 eo ee 11.90 |82. 70 | 8.27 |31.80 | 6.08 |14. 20 | 4. 66 |7. 67 18 oO 22 24 30 36 A=1.767 | A=2.182 | A=2.640 | A=3.142 | A=4.909 | A=7.068 V yea V H V H V as 6 V H A H | ——— ee ee ee ee es 4.5| 180] 225 | 2,022 | 2.55| 1.85 | 2.06 | 1.05 | 1.70 | 0.63 | 1.43 | 0.40 | 0.92 | 0.13 | 0. 64 |0.05 5.0| 200} 250 | 2,247] 2.83] 2.25] 2.29]1.29/1.89] .78]1.59| .50] 1.02] .16| .71 5.5| 220| 275|2,472|3.11| 2.72] 2.52] 1.57] 2.08] .95|1.75| .60] 1.12] .19| .78] .07 6.0| 240} 300 | 2,697 | 3.40] 3.24] 2.75] 1.86 | 2.27] 1.13]1.91] .71 | 1.22] .22] .85] .09 | 6.5 | 260] 325 | 2,922] 3.68] 3.80| 2.98 | 2.18] 2.46] 1.32] 2.07] .84] 1.32] .26] .92] .10 | 7.0] 280] 350] 3,146] 3.96] 4.40] 3.21 | 2.54] 2.65]1.57| 2.23] .97] 1.42] .30] .99] .12 7.5| 300] 375|3,371 | 4.24| 5.05] 3.44 | 2.92 | 2.841 1.77] 2.39] 1.12] 1.53] .35 | 1.06] .13 8.0| 320] 400] 3,596 | 4.53| 5.77 | 3.64 | 3.32 | 3.03 | 2.01 | 2.55 | 1.28] 1.63] .39] 1.13] .15 8.5| 340| 425|3,821 | 4.81| 6.50] 3.90| 3.74] 3.22 | 2.26| 2.71] 1.44] 1.73 | .45| 1.20) .17 9.0] 360] 450] 4,046 | 5.10) 7.30| 4.12] 4.18 | 3.41 | 2.54] 2.86] 1.50] 1.83] .50| 1.27) .19 9.5| 380| 475|4,271|5.38| 8.16] 4.35 | 4.66] 3.60 | 2.84 | 3.02] 1.79] 1.94] .56 | 1.34] .21 10.0} 400| 500} 4,496 | 5.66| 8.98] 4.58] 5.17] 3.79 | 3.15 | 3.18] 1.98] 2.04] .62 | 1.41 | .24 11.0| 440| 550 | 4,948 | 6.22 | 10.80 | 5.04 | 6.26 | 4.17 | 3.80] 3.50 | 2.41 | 2.24] .74| 1.56 | .29 12.0] 480] 600 | 5,398 | 6.79 | 12.90 | 5.50 | 7.43 | 4.55 | 4.53 | 3.82 | 2.86] 2.45] .88| 1.70] .34 13.0] 520| 650 | 5,847 | 7.36 | 15.20 | 5.96 | 8.76 | 4.92 | 5.29 | 4.14 | 3.37 | 2.65 | 1.04 | 1.84 | . 40 14.0] 560| 700 | 6,297 | 7.92] 17.70 | 6.42 '10.20 | 5.30! 6.14 | 4.46 | 3.90 | 2.85 | 1.20 | 1.98 | .46 15.0| 600| 750 | 6,747 | 8.49 | 20.30 | 6.87 [11.70 | 5.60 | 6.85 | 4.77 | 4.46 | 3.06 | 1.39 | 2.12 | . 53 16.0 | 640] 800 | 7,197 | 9.06 | 23.00 | 7.33 13.20 | 6.06 | 8.02 | 5.09 | 5.08 | 3.26 | 1.57 | 2.26 | .60 17.0| 680] 850 | 7,647 | 9.62 | 26.00 | 7.79 14.90 | 6.44 | 9.05 | 5.42 | 5.75 | 3.46 | 1.77 | 2.40] .68 18.0| 720] 900 | 8,096 |10. 20 | 29.30 | 8.25 [16.80 | 6.82 |10.20 | 5.73 | 6.45 | 3.67 | 2.00 | 2.55 | .77 20.0} 800 |1,000 | 8,996 |11.30 | 35.90 | 9.17 |20. 70 | 7.58 |12.60 | 6.37 | 7.94 | 4.07 | 2.46 | 2.83 | .94 22.0| 880 |1;100 | 9,896 |12.40 | 43.30 |10. 10 |25.10 | 8.33 [15.10 | 7.00 | 9.58 | 4.48 | 2.98 | 3.11 /1. 14 24.0} 960 |1, 200 |10, 795 |13. 60 | 51.90 |11. 00 |28.80 | 9.09 |18.10 | 7.64 11.40 | 4.89 | 3.55 | 3.40 |1.37 26.0 |1,040 |1, 300 |11, 695 |14. 70 | 60.80 |11. 90 [34.90 | 9.85 [21.30 | 8.27 |13.40 | 5.30 | 4.10 | 3.68 |1. 60 28.0 |1,120 |1; 400 12,594 |15.80 | 70.10 |12. 80 |40. 40 |10. 60 |24. 60 | 8.91 |15. 60 | 5.70 | 4.82 | 3.96 |1. 85 30.0 |1, 200 |1,500 |13, 492 |......]...-.-. 13.70 |46. 20 |11.40 [28.40 | 9.55 |17.90 | 6.11 | 5.59 | 4.24 |2.12 32.0 |1, 280 |1, 600 |14, 390 |......]--.. .|14. 70 [53.30 |12. 10 [32.00 |10. 20 |20. 40 | 6.52 | 6.30 | 4. 53 2. 43 1 This is the table that should be used in the design of pine lines made from units 2 to 3 feet long, as ordinarily made by hand in the pipe yards of the Pacific Coast States. Bul. 852, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. Fig. |1.—FLOW LINE ON VICTORIA AQUEDUCT. Interior photographed before grouting joints. Spots of sunlight come through ‘‘soup holes” in top of pipe line. ° FiG. 2.—Ri LINE, UMATILLA PROJECT, U. S. RECLAMATION SERVICE, ORSTOUL (PIPES Nos. 82 AND 83.) Inlet at end ofclearing in distance. Thisline under 110 feet of pressure head. ( .) THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 57 TABLE 7.—FOR ESTIMATING THE CAPACITY OF MODERN “WET-MIx’ JOINTED AND WELL-MADE MONOLITHIC CONCRETE PIPE LINES. Based ou formula V= Cs 779-5 0-625 using 0.345 for the coefficient Cs. For instance, 3 second-feet of water, the equivalent of 120 miner’s inches of type A or 150 inches of type B, will be conveyed by a 16-inch pipe at a velocity of 2.15 feet per second with a loss of head (grade) of 1.22 feet per thousand feet of pipe. Quantity (Q). Inside diameter in inches and corresponding area, A, in square feet. | 6 : 8 10 12 14 16 | A= 0.1963 | A=0.3491 | A=0.5454 | A=0.7854 | A=1.069 | A=1.396 eee My Wir iii) a Raye eee areal tee Feet. | Feet. | Feet.| Feet. | Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Feet. | Feet.| Feet.| Feet. | Feet. ‘0.1 4 5 | 0. 51 0.23 | 0.29 COCO Se ee ee LT a | een (S ea nS [aie | Ed 23) 8 10 | 1.02 - 93 57 PAM RAN es pe ae oa a A I eae We) 12 15 | 1.53 | 2.09 86 wy Gl a Np eae Ny ns Ne ever COU Os ee .4 16 20 | 2.04 | 3.72 | 1.14 OL OP Sty | Ose oy sapere ees eetes mre NT Dra Nee tea ees ae 5 20 25 | 2.55} 5.82 | 1.43 1.28 . 92 (Di rate ear aee al Pe UTI HE P eS .6 24 30 | 3.06] 8.38 | 1.72 1.85 | 1.10 By Tait OsyLON| (AO 2a ees eae tere em ea Ave 28 35 | 3.56 | 11.30 | 2.01 2.52 | 1.28 17 . 89 BOM se eeeeeee sialic .8 32 40 | 4.08 | 14.90 | 2.29] 3.28 | 1.47 | 1.02 | 1.02 -39 | 0.75 | 0.18 .9 36 45 | 4.58 | 18.80 | 2.58 | 4.16] 1.65 | 1.28 | 1.14 49 . 84 1.0 40 50 | 5.09 | 23.20 | 2.87 | 5.14 | 1.83 | 1.58 | 1.27 - 61 . 94 124 48 60 | 6.11 | 33.40 | 3.44 | 7.39 | 2.20 | 2.29 | 1.53 88 | 1.12 f 1.4 56 70 | 7.13 | 45.50 | 4.01 | 10.00 | 2.57 | 3.12 | 1.78 | 1.19 | 1.31 ub 1.6 64 80 | 8.15 | 59.40 | 4.58 | 13.10 | 2.93 | 4.06 | 2.04 | 1.56 | 1.50 ile 1.8 72 90 | 9.17 | 75.20 | 5.16 | 16.60 | 3.30 | 5.14 | 2.29 | 1.97 | 1.68 il, 2.0 80 100 10.20 | 93.00 | 5.73 } 20.50 | 3.67 | 6.36 | 2.55 | 2.46 | 1.87 | 1 ile 2.2 88 110 }11. 20 112. 00 | 6.30 | 24.80 | 4.03 | 7.67 | 2.80 | 2.95 | 2.06 | 1 1. ‘ 2.4 96 120 12. 20 133. 00 | 6.87 | 29.50 | 4.40 | 9.14 | 3.06 | 3.52 | 2.24] 1 il, 2 2.6 104 + 130 |13. 20 156. 00 } 7.45 | 34.70 | 4.77 {10.80 | 3.31 | 4.12 | 2.43 | 1 ie , 2.8 112 140 |14.30 182. 00 | 8.02 | 40.20 | 5.13 |12.40 | 3.56 | 4.76 | 2.62 | 2.13 | 2.00 | 1.05 3.0 120 150 |15. 30 209. 00 | 8.59 | 46.10 | 5.50 {14.30 | 3.82 | 5.49 | 2.81 | 2.45 | 2.15 | 1.22 oe 128 | ° 4. 6.23 | 2.99 | 2.77 | 2.29 | 1.37 3.4 136 4, 7.06 | 3.18 | 3.14 | 2.44 | 1.56 3.6 144 4, 7. 89 | 3.37 | 3.52 | 2.59 | 1.76 3.8 152 4, 8.81 | 3.55 | 3.91 | 2.72 | 1.94 4.0 160 9.75 | 3.74 | 4.34 | 2.86 | 2.15 18 ! 20 22 24 30 36 A=1.767 A=2.182 A=2.640 A=3.142 A=4,909 A=7.068 V AH V H V H V H Vv H Va H 2.0 86 100 | 1.13 OLE) \) OER Osi) Ob 70 |) Ch 0 |] LG) OSCB) ae skaligdesosiesoe aie oo ba. Pt 100 125 | 1.42 -46} 1.15 26 - 95 .16 - 80 104) @s Gal }) O03 Ne eeeeclases- 3.0 120 150 | 1.70 -65 | 1.37 37 | 1.14 -23 -95 14 6 Bi | Ege ores Bri) 140 175 | 1.98 - 89 | 1.60 Sih | ais} 31 | 1.11 20 71 - 06 | 0.50 | 0.02 4.0 160 200 | 2.23 1.13 | 1.83 66 | 1.52 41 | 1.27 26 81 5 08 57 03 4.5 180 225 | 2.55 1.47 | 2.06 . 84 | 1.70 -51 | 1.43 oe) . 92 .10 . 64 04 5.0 200 250 | 2. 83 1.81 | 2.29 1.04 | 1.89 . 63 | 1.59 -40 | 1.02 12 aial 05 BG) 220 275 | 3.11 2.19 } 2)52)| 1.26) 2.08) 776) 1.75.) .48 |) 1.12 15 18 06 6.0 240 300 | 3.40 | 2.62 | 2.75 0 | 2n 2 91 | 1.91 -98 | 1.22 19 . 85 07 6.5 260 325 | 3.68 | 3.07 | 2.98 1.76 | 2.46 | 1.07 | 2.07 .68 | 1.32 21 . 92 08 7.0| 280) 350] 3.96| 3.55] 3.21] 2.05 | 2.65) 1.24 | 2.23] .79] 1.42] .24] .99] .09 7.5 300 375 | 4.24 4.07 | 3.44 2.35 | 2.84 | 1.42 | 2.39 -90 | 1.538 -28 | 1.06 11 8.0 320 400 | 4.53 4.65 | 3.67 2.68 | 3.03 | 1.62 | 2.55 ! 1.03 | 1.63 sary |) Ue I) 12 8.5 340 425 | 4.81 5.24.1 3.90 | 3.02 | 3.22 | 1.83] 2.71 | 1.17 11.73 .36 | 1.20 14 9.0 360 450 |] 5.10} 5.90 | 4.12 | 3.387 | 3.41 | 2.05 | 2.86 | 1.29 | 1.83 40 | 1.27 15 9.5 380 475 | 5.388 | 6.56 | 4.35] 3.76 | 3.60 | 2.29 | 3.02 | 1.44 | 1.94 -45 | 1.34 5 ile 10 400 500 | 5.66 | 7.26 | 4.58 4.17 | 3.79 | 2.53 | 3.18 | 1.60 | 2.04 -50 | 1.41 -19 ae 440 550 | 6.22 8.77 | 5.04 5.04 | 4.17 | 3.07 | 3.50 | 1.94 | 2.24 . 60 | 1.56 a 2B} 12 480 600 | 6.79 | 10.40 | 5.50 | 6.0L } 4.55 | 3.65 | 3.82 | 2.31 | 2.44 5 (Al) ile 70) .28 13 520 650 | 7.36 | 12.30 | 5.96 | 7.06] 4.92 | 4.27 | 4.14 | 2.71 | 2.65 . 84 | 1.84 563 14 560 700 | 7.92 { 14.20 | 6.42 8.19 | 5.30 | 4.95 | 4.46 | 3.15 | 2.85 .97 | 1.98 avi 15 600 750 | 8.49 | 16.30! 6.87 9.38 | 5.60 | 5.53 | 4.77 | 3.60 | 3.06 | 1.12 | 2.12 - 43 16 640 800 | 9.06 | 18.60 | 7.33 | 10.70 | 6.06 | 6.48 | 5.09 | 4.10 | 3.26 | 1.27 | 2.26 - 49 17 680 850 | 9.62 | 21.00 | 7.79 | 12.00 | 6.44 | 7.31 | 5.41 | 4.63 | 3.46 | 1.43 | 2.40 = 5) 18 720 900 {10.20 | 23.60 | 8.25 | 13.50 | 6.82 | 8.20 | 5.73 | 5.19 | 3.67 | 1.61 } 2.55 . 62 20 800 | 1,000 }11.30 | 28.90 | 917 | 16.70 | 7.58 |10.10 | 6.37 | 6.42 | 4.07 | 1.98 | 2.83 . 76 22 880 1,100 }12. 40 | 34.80 |10.10 | 20.30 | 8.33 |12.20 | 7.00 | 7.75 | 4.48 | 2.40 | 3.11 292 24 960. 1,200 13.60 | 41.90 }11.00 | 24.00 | 9.09 |14.60 | 7.64 | 9.23 | 4.89 | 2.86 | 3.40 | 1.10 26 1, 040 1,300 {14.70 | 49.00 |11.90 | 28.10 | 9.85 {17.10 | 8.28 |10. 80 | 5.30 | 3.36 | 3.68 | 1.29 28 1,120 1, 400 |15. 80 | 56.60 |12. 80 } 32.60 |10.60 |19. 80 | 8.91 |12.60 | 5.70 | 3.89 | 3.96 | 1.49 30 1,200 | 1,500 {17.00 | 65.50 |13. 70 | 37.30 |11. 40 |22.90 | 9.55 |14.40 | 6.11 | 4.47 | 4.24 | 1.71 32 1, 280 1,600 /18.10 | 74.20 }14.70 | 42.90 }12.10 |25. 80 |10.20 |16.50 | 6.52 | 5.09 | 4.53 | 1.97 34 1, 360 1,700 }19.20 | 83.50 |15. 60 | 48.30 |12. 90 |29. 40 |10. 80 |18. 40 | 6.93.] 5.74 | 4.81 | 2.20 36 1, 440 1,800 |20. 40 | 94.30 |16.50 | 54.10 }13.60 |33.10 |11. 40 |20.60 | 7.33 | 6.43 | 5.09 | 2.47 38 1,520 1,900 |21.50 |104. 60 17.40 | 60.20 |14.40 |36.60 |12.10 |23.10 | 7.74 | 7.16 | 5.38 | 2.76 1 Columns headed A (40) and B(50) respectively refer to the number of miner’s inches in the equivalent number of second-feet. For instance, 72 miner’s inches are the equivalent of 1.8 second-feet in communities where 40 inches equals 1 second-foot. ® 58 For instance, 100 second-feet of water, the equivalent of 64.6 million United States gallons conveyed in a 48-inch pipe at a velocity of 7.96 feet per second with a loss of head (grade BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 8.—FOR ESTIMATING THE CAPACITY OF WELL-MADE CONCRETE PIPE LINES OR PRESSURE TUNNELS. Based on formula V=CsH°-5d°-6% using 0.345 for the coefficient Cs thousand feet of pipe. Quantity (Q). —— ——— a | en Inside diameter in inches and corresponding area, A, in square feet. 38 A=7.876 ESR SES OC GSI ro nS) OOOO NAME 10. SIENA SU OEE OLS LAE EL ao 40 A=8.727 . 20 110. cs NC) Ro oe he SEE SUSI alias & 42 A=9.621 Feet. 1.89 WIR SECO EN Sahih WOM Wo INS DOR GSNow 8. 84 9.36 "Ss or SCOOT He OC CO INNIS eae [e0} ox “I oe) fo) > oo SON Sah dh Sl 5 7.19 {11.5 44 A=10.56 Feet. 0. 26 4 A= Feet. SVB} aero Coarse ate eases Petra cacte Card NO Sa OIRO RO ROT a et oo oo sO 90.00 G0 OO GO Oe bo 6 11.54 Feet. 0. 21 48 A=12.57 V H Feet. | Feet. 1.59 | 0.17 1.99} .26 2.39 | .38 2.78 52 3.18 . 67 3.58 | .85 3.98 | 1.05 4.38 | 1.28 4.77 | 1.51 5.17 | 1.78 5.57 | 2.06 5.97 | 2.37 6.36 | 2.69 6.76 | 3.04 7.16 | 3.41 7.96 | 4.22 8.75 | 5.09 9.55 | 6.07 10.30 } 7.12 11.10 }| 8.19 11.90 | 9.42 12.70 }10. 70 13.50 }12. 10 14. 30 }13. 30 15.10 |15. 20 90 A=44,18 4 H 1.13 | 0.04 1. 24 . 05 1.36 . 06 1.47] .07 1.58 . 08 1.70} .09 1.81 -10 1.92 Sli 2.04 5 ils} De ES) hey Leh 2. 26 .15 2.49 .19 PEPIN G74 2.94 . 26 Bwile/ West 3.39 . 30 3.62 . 40 3.85 ~45 4.07 . 50 4.30 . 56 4.53 . 62 4,98 30) 5.43 .89 5.88 | 1.05 6.34 | 1.22 6.79 | 1.40 7.24 | 1.59 7.70 | 1.80 8.15 | 2.01 8.60 | 2. 24 54 A=15.90 V H Feet. | Feet 1. 26 | 0.09 1.57 14 Sou 621 2. 20 . 28 2.52 200 2.83 | .46 Sag 257. 3.46 | .59 BSc || esi 4.09 | .95 4.40 | 1.11 4.72 | 1.28 5.03 | 1.45 5.35 | 1.64 5.66 | 1.84 6.29 | 2:27 6.92 | 2.75 7.55 | 3.27 8.18 | 3.84 8.80 | 4.44 9.43 | 5.10 10.10 | 5.85 10.70 | 6.57 TSO Al eieao 12.00 | 8. 26 96 A=50.26 Vv H 0.99 | 0.03 1.09} .03 1.19} .04 1.29} .05 1.39} .05 1.49 | .06 1.59 | .07 1.69 | .08 1.79} .09 1.89, .10 1.99 aati 2.19 -1d 2.39 -16 2.59 -19 D579) ae 2.98 | .25 3.18 | .28 3.38 | coe 3.58 |. .36 3.78 | .40 3.98 | .44 4.38] .54 4.78 | .64 SULT. een 5.57 . 84 5.97 . 95 6.37 | 1.18 6.77 | 1.28 7.16 | 1.43 7.56 | 1.60 er day, will be Mot 4.22 feet per Quan- tity, mil- lions 32.316 35. 547 38.779 42. 070 45. 242 48. 474 51.705 54, 937 58. 168 61.400 64. 631 71.095 77.558 84.021 90. 484 96. 947 103. 410 109. 870 116. 340 122. 800 129. 260 142. 190 155. 120 168. 040 180. 970 193. 890 206. 820 219. 750 232. 670 245, 600 THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 59 TABLE 8.—FOR ESTIMATING THE CAPACITY OF WELL-MADE CONCRETE PIPE LINES OR PRESSURE TUNNELS—Continued. For instance, 400 second-feet of water, the equivalent of 259 million U. S. gallons per day, will oe conveyed in a 144-inch (12-foot) pipe at a velocity of 3.54 feet per second with a loss of head (grade) of 0.21 feet per thousand feet of pipe. Inside diameter in inches and corresponding area, A, in square feet. Quan- Quan- tity, tity 102 108 114 120 126 132 138 mil- (Q). | A=56.74 | A=63.62 A=70.88 | A=78.54 A=86.59 A=95.03 A=103.9 | lions SE ee ee ee ee ee pee ; : 1. 180 | 3.17 26 | 2.83 19 | 2.54 | .14 | 2.29 11 | 2.08 09 | 1.89 07 | 1.73 | .05 116 190 | 3.35 29 | 2.99 22} 2.68 | .16 | 2.42 12 | 2.19 10 | 2.00 08 | 1.83] .06 193 200 | 3.53 32 | 3.14 2412.82] .18 | 2.55 14 | 2.31 A P20 08 | 1.92] .07 129 220 | 3.88 39 | 3.46] .29 | 3.10 22 | 2.80 17.| 2.54 13 | -2.32 10) || PIN) SO 142 940 | 4.23! .4613.77| .34 | 3.39 26 | 3.06 20 | 2.77 15 | 2.52 12 | 2.31 | .09 155 260 | 4.58} .54 14.09] .40 | 3.67 30 | 3.31 93, | 3.00 18 | 2.74 || DEO) lait 168 980 | 4.94] .63| 4.40] .47 | 3.95 35 | 3.56 Q7 | 3.23 21 | 2.95 16 | 2.70 | .13 181 300 | 5.29 | .72) 4.72] .54|4.23| .40| 3.82] .31 | 3.46 24 | 3.16 19 | 2.89 | .15 194 320 | 5.64] .82|5.03] .61 | 4.52 46 | 4.07 35 | 3.69 27 | 3.37 | .21 | 3.08] .17 207 340 | 5.99} .93}5.34] .69!14.80] .521 4.33 40 | 3.93 SUES OA noe nag 990 360 | 6.35 | 1.04] 5.66] .77 | 5.08 58 | 4.58 45 | 4.16 BANESETO 2th 933 380 | 6.70 | 1.16] 5.97] .86 | 5.36 65 | 4.84 50 | 4.39 38 | 4.00] .30| 3.66] .24 246 400 | 7.05 | 1.29] 6.29] .95 | 5.64 72 | 5.09 55 | 4.62] .42] 4.21] .33 13.85] .26 253 420 | 7.40 | 1.42 | 6.60 | 1.05 | 5.92] .79| 5.35] .60] 4.85] .47) 4.42) .37| 4.04] .29 271 440 | 7.75 | 1.56 | 6.92] 1.16] 6.21] .87|5.60| .66]5-08| .51| 4.63] .40] 4.24] .3 284 460 | 8.11 | 1.70 | 7.23 | 1.26 | 6.49] .95| 5.86] .73 | 5.31] .56)} 4.84] .44/4.43] .35 9297 480 | 8.46 | 1.86 | 7.54 | 1.37 | 6.77 | 1.03 | 6.11 | .79 | 5.54] .61]5.05| .48]4.62] .38] 310 500 | 8.81 | 2.01 | 7.86 | 1.49 | 7.05 | 1.12 | 6.37 | .86]5.77! .66| 5.26] .52]4.81| .41 393 550 | 9.69 | 2.43 | 8.64 | 1.80 | 7.76 | 1.36 | 7.00] 1.04 | 6.35 | .80]5.79| .63]| 5.29] .50 355 600 10.60 | 2.91 | 9.43 | 2.15 | 8.46 | 1.61 | 7.64 | 1.23 | 6.93 | .96 | 6.31 | .75 | 5.78] .59 388 650 {11.50 | 3.36 {10.20 | 2.51 | 9.16 | 1.90 | 8.28] 1.45 | 7.51 | 1.12] 6.84] .88 | 6.26 70 420 700 |12.30 | 3.92 {11.00 | 2.92 | 9.88 | 2.20 | 8.91 | 1.68 | 8.08 | 1.30 | 7.37 | 1.02 | 6.74 81 452 750 |13.20 | 4.51 |11.80 | 3.36 {10.60 | 2.53 | 9.55 | 1.93 | 8.66 | 1.49 | 7.89 | 1.17 | 7.22 92 485 800 |14.10 | 5.15 |12.60 | 3.83 [11.30 | 2.88 |10.20 | 2.20 | 9.24 | 1.70 | 8.42 | 1.33 | 7.70 | 1.05 517 850 |15.00 | 5.83 }13.40 | 4.32 |12.00 | 3.24 |10.80 | 2.47 | 9.82 | 1.92 | 8.94 | 1.50 | 8.18 | 1.19 549 900 |15.90 | 6.55 {14.20 | 4.87 {12.70 | 3.63 }11.50 | 2.80 {10.40 | 2.15 | ¢.47 | 1.68 | 8.66 | 1.33 582 950 |16. 80 | 7.23 |14.90 | 5.35 13.40 | 4.04 |12.10 | 3.10 |11.00 | 2.41 /10.00 | 1.88 | 9.14 | 1.48 614 1,000 17.60 | 8.02 {15.70 | 5.95 |14.10 | 4.48 |12.70 | 3.41 |11.50 | 3.63 |10.50 | 2.07 | 9.69 | 1.64 646 144 156 168 180 192 204 216 A=113.1 A=132.7 | A=153.94 | A=176.71 | A=201.1 A=227.0 A=254.5 200 | 1.77 | 0.05 | 1.51 | 0.02 | 1.30 | 0.02 | 1.13 | 0.02 | 0.99 | 0.01 | 0.88 | 0.01 | 0.79 | 0.01 129 250 | 2.21 08 | 1.88 05 | 1.62 04 | 1.41 03 | 1-24] .02]1.10}] .01] .98 01 162 300 | 2.65 12 | 2. 26 08 | 1.95 05 | 1.70 04) 1.49} .03 | 1.32] .02] 1.18 01 194 350 | 3.09 16 | 2.64 11} 2.27 07 | 1.98 05) 1.74] .04) 1.54] .03 | 1.38 02 226 400 | 3.54 21 | 3.01 14 | 2.60 09 | 2.26 06} 1.99] .05]1.76} .03 | 1.57 02 259 450 | 3.98 | .27 | 3.39 17 | 2.92 12 | 2.55 08 | 2.24] .06 | 1.98 04 }1.77} .03 291 500 | 4.42, .33 | 3.77 21 | 3.25 15 | 2.83 10 | 2.49] .07 | 2.20 05} 1.97 | .04 323 550 | 4.85 | .40 | 4.15 26 | 3.57] .18 | 3.11 12 | 2.74 09 | 2.42] .07| 2.16] .05 355 600 | 5.31] .47 | 4.52 31 | 3.90] .21 | 3.40 15 | 2.98 10 | 2.64] .08 | 2.36] .06 388 650 | 5.75 | .56] 4.90] .37 | 4.22] .25 | 3.68 17 | 3.23 12 | 2.86 09 | 2.55 07 420 700 [6.19] .64]5.28| .42]4.55]| .29] 3.96 20 | 3.48 14 | 3.08 10 | 2.75 08 452 750 | 6.63 | .74 | 5.65 48 | 4.87] .33 | 4.24 23 | 3.73 16 | 3.30 12 | 2.95 09 485 800 | 7.07] .84] 6.03 55 | 5.20] .38| 4.53] .26] 3.98] .19 | 3.52 14] 3.14] .10 517 850 | 7.52 | .95 | 6.41 63 | 5.52] .42] 4.81] .29] 4.23] .21 | 3.74 15 | 3.34 11 549 900 | 7.96 | 1.07 | 6.78 70 | 5.85 | .48] 5.09] .33 | 4.48} .24 | 3.96 17 | 3.54 12 582 950 | 8.40] 1.19} 7.16] .78]6.17] .53]5.38| .37| 4.72] .26| 4.18] .19 | 3.73 14 614 1,000 } 8.84 | 1.32 | 7.54] .87|6.50]-.59| 5.66] .41] 4.97] .29] 4.41] .21 | 3.93 16 646 1,050 | 9.28 | 1.45] 7.91 | .95 | 6.82] .65|5.94] .45|5.23] .32]4.63]| .23 | 4.12 17 678 1,100 | 9.73 | 1.59 | 8.29 | 1.05 | 7.15 | .71 | 6.22} .49| 5.47] .35] 4.85] .26 | 4.32 19 711 1,150 j10. 20 | 1.75 | 8.67 | 1.14] 7.47 | .78|6.51| .56| 5.72] .38| 5.07] .28 | 4.52 21 743 1,200 |10. 60 | 1.89 | 9.04 | 1.24 | 7.80 85 | 6.79 | .59 | 5.97] .42 | 5.29 30 | 4.71] .23 776 1,250 |11.10 | 2.07 | 9242 | 1.35 | 8.12 92] 7.07 | .64)] 6.22] .45 | 5.51 33 | 4.92] .24 807 1,300 {11.50 | 2.23 | 9.80 | 1.46 | 8.45 99 | 7.36 | .69 | 6.47] .49 | 5.73 36} 5.11] .26 840 1,400 12. 40 | 2.59 /10.60 | 1.71 | 9.09 | 1.15 | 7.92] .80] 6.96] .57 | 6.17 41 | 5.50] .31 905 1,500 /13. 30 | 2.98 {11.30 | 1.94 | 9.74 | 1.32 | 8.49] .92] 7.46] .65 | 6.61 48 | 5.90] .35 969 1,600 }14. 20 | 3.39 [12.10 | 2.23 |10.40 | 1.50 | 9.05 | 1.04 | 7.96] .74 | 7.05 54 | 6.29 | .40 | 1,403 1,700 {15.00 | 3.79 }12. 80 | 2.50 }11.00 | 1.68 | 9.62 | 1.18 | 8.46] .84 | 7.49 61 | 6.68 | .45 | 1,098 1,800 }15.90 | 4.26 ]13. 60 } 2.82 11.70 | 1.90 |10.20 | 1.32 | 8.95] .94 | 7.93 68 |} 7.07 | .51 | 1,163 1,900 |16. 80 | 4.75 }14.30 } 3.15 |12.30 | 2.12 10.80 | 1.48 | 9.48 | 1.05 | 8.37 76 | 7.47 | .56 | 1,228 2,000 |17.70 | 5.27 |15.10 | 3.48 |13.00 | 2.35 |11.30 | 1.62 | 9.95 | 1.16 | 8.81 85 | 7.86 | .63 | 1,922 60 BULLETIN 852. U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 9.—ForR ESTIMATING THE CAPACITY OF GLAZED CONCRETE PIPE LINES. Based on formula V= Cs H-5d0-6%5 using 0.370 for the coefficient Cs For instance, 140 second-feet of water, the equivalent of 90.5 million United States gallons per day, will be conveyed by a 54-inch pipe at a velocity of 8.80 feet per second with a loss of head (grade) of 3.86 feet per thousand feet of pipe. Inside diameter in inches and corresponding area, A, in square feet. Quan- | tity oe ts 18 20 22 24 30 36 | mit (Q) A=1.396 A=1.767 A=2.182 A=2.640 A=3.142 A=4,909 A=7.068 | lions : Tees |e | er V H V iT V IT V H V ei V H 14 IT ay. Sec.-ft.| Feet. | Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Feet. Feet. Feet. | Feet.| Fect.| Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Feet.| Gals. 2.0|F sh -43\F Or48|\P Oe A3i" 0)-251)) 0.921) Oaks 076)" 0).09/is 0264) ea Ob em eee |e ee |= oe eae ee 1.29 2.5} 1.79 ATG ie: by AO} 1.15 23 95 14 -80) ANN (0) ASNT OAD} besotted 1.62 3.0} 2.15) 1.06]. 1.70 56] 1.37 32| 1.14 20 95 12) 61 03) )2 2228 ae ee 1.94 3.5) 2.51) 1.44) 1.98 -77| 1.60 44, 1.33 PAN etl ila! Auli 71 05| 0.50} 0.02) 2.26 4.0| 2.86) 1.87] 2.23] .98] 1.93) .57] 1.52} 36 1.27) 23/81] 07] 57] .03/ 2.58 Aoleieece|: aeop|) eebol) e283) 2E06 -73) 1.70 44] 1.43 28) -92 09 64 03} 2.91 5.0) 3.58} 2.92) 2.83) 1.57) 2.29 90} 1.89 oo] 1.59 sa} 02, 10 71 04) 3.23 5.0] 3.94) 3.54) 3.11) 1.90) 2.52) 1.10) 2.08] -66] 1.75 42} 1.12 13 78 05] 3.55 6.0) 4.30] 4.22) 3.40] 2.28) 2.75; 1.30) 2.27 .79| 1.91 00} 1.22) 16 85 06] 3.83 6.5} 4.66) 4.95) 3.68] 2.67) 2.98) 1.53] 2.46 -93} 2.07 59] 1.32 18 92 O7| 4.20 7.0) 5.01) 5.73) 3.96) 3.09) 3.21) 1.78) 2.65) 1.08) 2.23 .69] 1.42 21 99 08} 4.52 1 7.5} 5.37) 6.58) 4.24, 3.541 3.44) 2.04 2.84) 1.23) 2.39 is|tleDe -241 1.06 10} 4.85 8.0} 5.72) 7.49) 4.53) 4.04) 3.67) 2.33) 3.03) 1.41) 2.55 -90| 1.63 -28| 1.13 10| 5217 i} 8.5} 6.09) 8.46) 4.81] 4.56) 3.90) 2.62) 3.22) 1.59) 2.71) 1.02) 1.73 -31} 1.20 12] 5.49 9.0} 6.45) 9.49} 5.10) 5.13) 4.12) 2.93] 3.41) 1.78} 2.86) 1.12) 1.838 30] 1.27 13) 5.82 t 9.5} 6.80) 10.60) 5.38} 5.70) 4.35) 3.27] 3.60) 1.99) 3.02) 1.25) 1.94 39} 1.34 15) 6.14 10 7.16} 11.70} 5.66) 6.31) 4.58) 3.62) 3.79) 2.20) 3.18] 1.39] 2.04 43) 1.41 16) 6.46 il 7.88] 14.20] 6.22) 7.62) 5.04) 4.38} 4.17) 2.67) 3.50) 1.69} 2.24 52) 1.56 -20| 7.11 12 8.60} 16.90} 6.79) 9.04) 5.50) 5.22) 4.55} 3.17) 3.82) 2.01) 2.44 62) 1.70) -24| 7.76 | 13 9.31) 19.80) 7.36) 10.70) 5.96) 6.14) 4.92) 3.71) 4.14) 2.36) 2.65 73} 1.84 28] 8 .40 } 14 | 10.00) 22.90] 7.92) 12.30! 6.42) 7.12) 5.30) 4.30] 4.46] 2.74) 2.85 84, 1.98 -32| 9 .00 i! 15 10.70} 26.30} 8.49) 14.20] 6.87] 8.16) 5.60} 4.81| 4.77) 3.13] 3.06 97| 2.12) -37| 9.69 16 11.50) 30.10) 9.06) 16.20) 7.33) 9.30) 6.06) 5.63) 5.09} 3.56] 3.26) 1.10) 2.26 -43/10 .30 17 12.20} 34.00} 9.62) 18.20} 7.79} 10.40) 6.44] 6.36) 5.41) 4.02) 3.46) 1.24) 2.40 -48}11 .00 18 12.90} 38.00) 10.20) 20.50) 8.25) 11.70) 6.82) 7.13) 5.73) 4.51) 3.67) 1.40) 2.55 04/11 .60 | 20 14.30] 46.60) 11.30) 25.10} 9.17) 14.50) 7.58) 8.78) 6.39} 5.58} 4.07) 1.72) 2.83 -66/12 .90 22 | 15.80} 56.90) 12.40} 30.20) 10.10} 17.60) 8.33] 10.60) 7.00} 6.74) 4.48} 2.09) 3.11 -80/14 .20 24 | 17.20) 67.50) 13.60} 36.40} 11.00) 20.80) 9.09} 12.80) 7.64) 8.02} 4.89} 2.49) 3.40 -96)15 .50 | 26 18 .60] 78.90} 14.70) 42.60} 11.90) 24.40} 9.85) 14.90) 8.27) 9.39] 5.30) 2.92) 3.68} 1.12/16.80 28 | 20.00} 91.30) 15.80) 49.20} 12.80) 28.30) 10.60) 17.20] 8.91) 11.00) 5.70} 3.38) 3.96) 1.30)18.10 | 30 | 21.50/105 .50) 17.00) 56.90} 13.70] 32.40) 11.40] 20.00] 9.55) 12.50} 6.11} 3.89) 4.24) 1.49/19.40 32 22 .90\114 .60} 18 .10) 64.10) 14.70] 37 .30) 12.10] 22.40) 10.20) 14.30} 6.52) 4.42) 4.53) 1.71/20.70 34 24 .00}135 .70} 19 .20| 72.60} 15 .60} 42.00) 12.90]. 25 .60} 10.80] 16.00) 6.93} 4.99) 4.81) 1.91)22.00 36 25 .80/151 .80| 20.40) 82.00) 16.50) 47.00) 13.60] 28.80} 11.40} 17.90} 7.33} 5.59) 5.08) 2.15)23 .30 38 | 27.20|168 .60} 21.50} 90.90) 17 .40} 52.00) 14.40] 31.80) 12.10] 20.10) 7.74) 6.22) 5.38) 2.40/24 .50 38 40 42 44 46 48 A=7.876 A=8.7127 A=9.621 A=10.56 A=11.54 A=12.57 A=15.90 V H V H V H V HT V A 4 H V iT 20] 2.54) 0.50) 2.29] 0.38] 2.08] 0.30] 1.89) 0.23] 1.73] 0.18] 1.59] 0.15] 1.26) 0.08] 12.9 25) 3.17 -77| 2.86 59] 2.60 46) 2.37 ol] 2.17 29} 1.99 A} SALES) 12; 16.2 30} 3.81] 1.12) 3.44 .86] 3.12 .66) 2.85 .02| 2.60) 41) 2.39 33) 1.89) 18] 19.3 35| 4.44) 1.53] 4.01) 1.18) 3.64 90} 3.31 -70| 3.03 56} 2.78 45) 2.20 24) 22.6 40} 5.08) 2.00) 4.58) 1.52) 4.16] 1.18) 3.79 .92| 3.47 (ip) siauls| Oo) 2.02 31] 25.9 45) 65.71] 2.52) 5.16) 1.93) 4.68) 1.50) 4.26) 1.17) 3.90 93) 3.58 -74| 2.83 40] 29.1 50| 6.35| 3.12) 5.57) 2.25) 5.20| 1.85) 4.74) 1.45) 4.33] 2.15) 3.98 91) 3.14 50} 32.3 55| 6.98] 3.77| 6.30/ 2.89) 5.72) 2.23) 5.21! 1.75) 4.77| 1.89) 4.388) 1.11} 3.46 60) 35.5 60| 7.62} 4.49] 6.88] 3.43) 6.241 2.66) 5.68) 2.08) 5.20) 1.65) 4.77) 1.31) 3.77 71) 38.8 65] 8.25) 5.27) 7.45) 4.03) 6.76] 3.12) 6.16) 2.45] 5.63) 1.94) 5.17) 1.55) 4.09) 83] 42.0 70| 8.89} 6.12} 8.02} 4.67] 7.28] 3.62) 6.63) 2.83) 6.07] 2.25) 5.57) 1.79 ri -96) 45 .2 75| 9.52) 7.02) 8.59) 5.36] 7.80) 4.16) 7.10) 3.25) 6.50) 2.57) 5.97) 2.06) 4.7 1.11) 48.5 80} 10.20} 8.06} 9.17) 6.10] 8.32) 4.73} 7.58) 3.70) 6.93] 2.93] 6.36) 2.34| 5.03} 1.26) 51.7 85] 10.80} 9.04! 9.74] 6.88] 8.84] 5.34/ 8.05) 4.18) 7.37] 3.32! 6.76} 2.64) 5.35) 1.42) 54.9 90| 11.40] 10.10} 10.30} 7.70} 9.36] 5.98} 8.52} 4.69} 7.80) 3.71) 7.16) 2.96) 5.66} 1.60] 58.2 100} 12.70) 12.50) 11.50} 9.56] 10.40] 7.39} 9.47] 5.79] 8.67) 4.62) 7.96) 3.67/ 6.29) 1.97] 64.6 110} 14.00] 15.10) 12.60} 11.50) 11.40] 8.87] 10.40) 6.97) 9.53) 5.55) 8.75) 4.42) 6.92) 2.39) 71.1 120] 15.20) 17.90) 13.80] 13.80} 12.50] 10.70) 11.40) 8.89) 10.40) 6.60} 9.55) 5.22) 7.55) 2.84) 77.6 130] 16 .50| 21.00} 14.90] 16.10] 13.50) 12.40] 12.30} 9.74] 11.30) 7.79} 10.30) 6.19) 8.18} 3.34) 84.0 140} 17.80] 24.50) 16.00} 18 .60| 14.60] 14.60] 13.30) 11.40} 12.10) 8.96) 11.10) 7.12) 8.80) 3.86] 90.5 150} 19.00] 27.90} 17.20} 21.50} 15.60} 16.60] 14.20] 13.00] 13.00] 10.30) 11.90} 8.19} 9.43) 4.43] 96.9 160} 20.30) 31.90} 18.30] 24.30) 16.60] 18.80] 15.20} 14.80] 13.90] 11.80} 12.70] 9.30} 10.10) 5 .09]103.0 170 .60| 36.10} 19.50} 27.60) 17.70] 21.40] 16.10) 16.70) 14.70) 13.20) 13.50) 10.50) 10.70) 5.71)110.0 180 .80} 40.20} 20.60} 30.80) 18.70} 23.90] 17.00] 18.60} 15.60} 14.90} 14.30) 11.80) 11.30) 6.37/116.0 190} 24.10} 44.90) 21.80) 34.50} 19.80} 26.80) 18.00} 20.90} 16.50) 16.60} 15.10) 13.20) 12.00) 7.18)123.0 THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 61 TABLE 9—FoR ESTIMATING THE CAPACITY OF GLAZED. CONCRETE PirE LINEs—Continued. For instance, 400 second-feet of water, the equivalent of 259 million United States gallons per day, will be conveyed by_.a 120-inch pipe at a velocity of 5.09 feet per second with a loss of head (grade) of 0.48 foot per thousand feet of pipe. Inside diameter in inches and corresponding area, A, in square feet. Quan- tity, Quan 60 66 72 78 84 90 96 mil- (Oy. A=19.64 A =23.76 A=28.27 A =33.18 A=38.48 A=44.18 A=50.26 | lions 37| 144 | 2.83] .28 jor} for) SNOIR POONN NEhE ie Bo to co i) ie) Or for} ww for) rs ew oo CHO RRO WNWNNN NNREH be “I bo for) OOo oP RW WWWWNH NNNNH PRR RE HR e ~I No} od co ile) (=) ww co i) oo me = 2) RUS Ae OSI) DOO CD SR ce So ns COoOoO COOSOS COOOCOCHD BOOED FRNON ho > SO OG ESS eR CaN Re ool ea eae rae [o\) Ww fer) me Ne) ~) o DOR W WIONNE Ree ie} or Hoe is OOCONN DORR ee et é Re ‘ ee “I No oO ee eRe or i) a ww neg Yo} Or Sin ok forier) — fuS) Ne) bo ee aD oO 102 198 114 120 126 132 138 5 = 70.88 A=78.54 A=86.59 A=95.03 A=103.9 160 | 2.82 | 0.18 | 2.51 | 0.13 | 2.26 | 0.10 | 2.04 | 0.08 | 1.85 | 0.06 | 1.68 | 0.04 | 1.54 | 0.03 103 170 | 3.00} .20} 2.67} .15 | 2.40 11 | 2.17] .09)1.96| .07/1.79} .05) 1.64] .04 110 180 | 3.17 | .23 | 2.83 | .17) 2.54 12 | 2.29 | .10} 2.08} .08} 1.89] -06]1.73 |} .04 116 190 | 3.35 | .25 | 2.99{ .19 | 2.68 14 | 2.42; .11 |} 2.19] .09] 2.00} .07|1.83] .05 123 200 | 3.53 | .28 | 3.14 21 | 2.82 16 | 2.55 | .12 | 2.31 | .10| 2.10} .07 | 1.92] .06 129 220 | 3.88 | .34|3.46]) .25)3.10] .19] 2.80] .15| 2.54] .11 | 2.32} .09) 2.12] .07 142 2A0 |-4-23 | .40|3.77| -30)3.39| .238) 3.06] .17 | 2.77) .13 | 2.52] .10] 2.31] 08 155 260} 4.58} .47| 4.09] .35| 3.67] .26) 3.31] .20} 3.00] .16 | 2.74] .12} 2.50} .10 168 280 | 4.94 55 | 4.40 41 | 3.95] .30)] 3.56 | .23 | 3.23 IR PO) ees) eo || Salil 131 300 | 5.29 62 | 4.72 47} 4.23 | .35 | 3.82 27 | 3.46 21 | 3.16}, .16 | 2.89 | .13 194 320 | 5.64] .71 | 5.03} .53.| 4.52] .40| 4.07] .30] 3.69] .23 | 3.37] -18] 3.08} .15 206 340 | 5.99 | .81 | 5.34) .60) 4.80] .45 | 4.33] .35|3.93 | .27|3.58] .21 | 3.27] .16 220 360 | 6.35 | .90} 5.66} .67]5.08|] .50|] 4.58) .39) 4.16] .30]3.79]| .23 | 3.46]. .18 233 380 | 6.70 | 1.01 | 5.97 75 | 5.36] .56 | 4.84] .43 1) 4.39] .33 | 4.00] .26|3.66] .21 246 400 | 7.05 | 1.12 | 6.29 | .82| 5.64] .62 | 5.09 48 | 4.62 36 | 4.21 | .29| 3.85] .23 259 420 | 7.40 | 1.23 | 6.60] .91] 5.92] .69]5.35| .52| 4.85} .41] 4.42] .32] 4.04] .25 271 440 | 7.75 | 1.36 | 6.92 | 1.01 | 6.20] .76]5.60| .57|5.08} .44| 4.63] .35 | 4.24] .28 284 460 | 8.11 | 1.48 | 7.23 | 1.10] 6.49} .82| 5.86] .63]5.31 | .49] 4.84] .38| 4.43] .3 297 480 | 8.46 | 1.62 | 7.54 | 1.19] 6.72] .90| 6.11] .69|]5.54] .53) 5.05} .42| 4.62] .3 310 500 } 8.81 | 1.75 | 7.86 | 1.30 | 7.05 | .97 | 6.37] .75 | 5.77 57 | 5.26 45 | 4.81] .36 323 550 | 9.69 | 2.11 | 8.64 | 1.56 | 7.76 | 1.18 | 7.00 90 | 6.35] .70]5.79| .55) 5.29] .43 355 600 |10.60 | 2.53 | 9.43 | 1.87 | 8.46 | 1.40] 7.64 | 1.07] 6.93 |] .83]6.31] .65]|5.78| .51 388 659 |11.50 | 2.92 |10.20 | 2.18 | 9.16 | 1.65 { 8.28 | 1.26 | 7.51 | .97| 6.84] .76| 6.26] .60 420 , 700 {12.30 | 3.41 {11.00 | 2.54 | 9.88 | 1.91 | 8.91 | 1.46 | 8.08 | 1.13 | 7.37] .89) 6.74] -70 452 750 {13.20 | 3.92 |11.80 | 2.92 |10.60 | 2.20 | 9.55 | 1.68 | 8.66 | 1.30 | 7.89 | 1.02] 7.22} .80 485 800 |14.10 | 4.48 |12.60 | 3.30 {11.30 | 2.50 |10.20 | 1.91 | 9.24 | 1.48 | 8.42] 1.16} 7.71 91 517 850 |15.00 | 5.07 |13.40 | 3.76 |12.00 | 2.82 |10.80 | 2.15 | 9.82 | 1.67 | 8.94 | 1.30 | 8.18 | 1.03 549 900 |15.90 | 5.69 |14.20 | 4.23 |12.70 | 3.16 |11.50 | 2.43 |10.40 | 1.87 | 9.47 | 1.46 | 8.66 | 1.16 582 950 |16.80 | 6.28 |14.90 | 4.66 }13.40 | 3.51 |12.10 | 2.70 |11.00 | 2.10 |10.00 | 1.63 | 9.14 | 1.29 614 | 1,000 17.60 | 6.97 |15,70 | 5.17 |14.10 | 3.90 |12.70 | 2.96 |11.50 | 3.16 |10.50 | 1.80 | 9.63 | 1.43 646 62 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 10.—VELOCITIES, IN FEET PER SECOND, AS COMPUTED BY VARIOUS FORMULAS FOR GIVEN SIZES OF PIPE WITH GIVEN FRICTION HEADS. 1 2 Velocities, in feet per second, by formulas. iw Moritz. | 20 Rice Scobey. Williams-Hazen. Kutter. Coeffi- Diam- Gon Coefficient ( Cs). Coefficient ( Cw). Coefficient (7). cient eter | hoad ). (d) ea (2). |} _ | | | S0-- Ins.'| Ft. | Ft.| Ft.| Ft.) Ft.\ Ft.) Fe.) Fé.) Fe.) Fe.) Ft.) Ft. | Ft.) Fe.) Bt.) Ft. | Ft.) Fé.) Ft. ys 2A) | laa) PRS) ee eee 1.11)1. 24/1. 36/1. 48]1. 61). ._:} 1.01} 1.09} 1.24)..--.-}._..- 1. 45]1. 53]1. 52 6] 5.0) 1.83) 2.10).._.-]....- 1. 84/2. 04)2. 25)2. 45/2. 65)... .] 1.61) 1.73} 1.98)......}..--.- 2. 37/2. 50)2. 52 6)) 920) 2.46) 2: 8a). 2 eye oS 2. 52/2. 80/3. 08)/3. 36/3. 64)....] 2.15) 2.33) 2.68)...-.-]..--- 3. 28/3. 47/3. 50 12} 1.0} 1.26) 1.47) 1.63) 1. 75/1. 19}1. 32/1. 45/1. 58}1. 72)1. 85} 1.22) 1.35} 1.48) 1.56) 1. 65)1. 58/1. 67/1. 62 12} 5.0) 2.82) 3.28) 3.65} 3. 91/2. 84/3. 15)3. 47/3. 78)4. 10/4. 40) 2.74) 3.02) 3.36] 3.54) 3. 75)3. 86)4. 08)3. 96 12} 9.0} 3.79) 4.39] 4.89] 5. 25/3. 89/4. 33]4. 76]5. 19|5. 62/6. 06} 3.70) 4.05] 4.50) 4.72) 5. 00/5. 36/5. 66/5. 48 36) 0.2} 1.12) 1.30) 1.45) 1. 55/0. 99/1. 11)1. 22/1. 33)1. 44}1. 55) 1.19] 1.34) 1.48] 1.53) 1. 66/1. 39/1. 47/1. 35 36] 1.0) 2.51} 2.91) 3.24) 3. 47/2. 38/2. . 91/3. 16)3. 43/3. 69) 2.76] 3.01] 3.31} 3.49} 3. 73]3. 40)3. 59/3. 31 36] 5.0} 5.61) 6.51) 7. 24) 7. 77/5. 66)6. 30/6. 92)7. 55/8. 18]8. 81] 6.20) 6.74) 7.48) 7. 85) 8. 30}8. 33/8. 80/8. 08 U2) MOS2)s 2h aes 2.21) 2. 40)1. 54/1. 71}1. 88/2. 06/2. 23/2. 40) 1.96) 2.12) 2.31) 2.43) 2. 59}2. 26/2. 39/2. 12 IPN MY ee ar een ci= 5.00} 5. 36)3! 68/4. 08)4. 49/4. 89/5. 31]5. 71) 4.46) 4.83) 5.27) 5.51] 5. 79)5. 52/5. 84/5. 19 d2|) &2.0)2 ee eee 7.07) 7. 58/5. 3515. 94]6. 5417. 14)7. 7318. 32) 6.31) 6.86) 7.47) 7.80) 8. 20)8. 14)8. 59]7. 63 Blo} POA Pesan) 2.67) 2. 87}1. 85)2. 06}2. 26)2. 46}2. 67]2. 88} 2.39] 2.58} 2.81] 2.94) 3.07/2. 77)2. 93)2. 56 le} | POR) eee Se) ee 2 4. 62] 4. 91/3. 34/3. 72/4. 08]4. 46/4. 83]5. 21] 4.18) 4.51] 4.90) 5.11) 5. 37/5. 20/5. 39/4. 70 SO it) ee) ee se 5. 98) 6. 41)4. 41/4. 90]5. 38)5. 78)6. 37)6. 86) 5.40} 5.84) 6.34) 6.61] 6. 95)6. 77)7. 15]6. 26 iDLU) | i)s74 Reeie| Bead 3.08} 3. 30]2. 13]2. 37/2. 60)2. 84/3. 08]3. 31] 2.77] 3.00) 3.24) 3.38) 3. 57/3. 24)3. 42/2. 96 N20) MOG): ee ase 5.37) 5. 71/3. 85)4. 28)4. 71)5. 14)5. 57/5. 98) 5.82} 5.20) 5.65} 5. 89) 6. 18)5. 96/6. 30/5. 45 120)) ML 0)2 Se eee 6. 88} 7. 37|5. 08)5. 64)6. 20]6. 76|7. 32!7. 90) 6. 23) 6.73} 7.30] 7.62) 7. 98)7. 92/8. 36)7. 24 1441) 0.2): 52 pn 3.45] 3. 70]2. 39)2. 65/2. 92/3. 18/3. 453. 71) 3.13} 3.37] 3.65) 3.80) 3. 99)3. 65)3. 85/3. 33 TAA) WNO.'6)E EAS ee 5.97] 6. 40)/4. 32/4. 80]5. 27|5. 75|6. 23]6. 70) 5.43] 5.84) 6.34) 6.61) 6. 92)6. 76)7. 13)6. 14 BU Venn 0) ee ec 7.71) 8. 26]5. 69)6. 32)6. 96]7. 58]8. 21/8. 85) 7.00} 7.55) 8.18} 8. 53} 8. 93)8. 95)9. 45)8. 15 1 Based on formula for velocity in average wood-stave pipe; V=1.62 D:® H-5%, (See Dept. Bul.376, p.7.) COMPARISON OF THE VARIOUS FORMULAS. For the reason that there are at least four distinct classes of con- crete pipes, considered from a capacity standpoint, it was not feasible to make a percentage or graphical comparison between the recom- mended formula, with varying coefficients and the other formulas mentioned on pages 5 to 8. Of these other formulas, some con- sider the influences of varying surfaces by means of coefficients, while others are inelastic and were offered for ‘‘clean pipes,’’ regardless * of materials. . The point that must be kept continually in mind is that concrete pipes offer a greater range of interior surfaces, due to their initial construction, than pipes of any other material, considered by itself, or pipes of all other materials, considered together. ‘These concrete surfaces are almost unbelievably different, aside from all fouling by growths, slimes, or erosion. In the following discussion classes 1, 2, 3, and 4 will be considered as was described on page 8, in connection with the new formula, the latter being considered as the base from which a comparison is made. ’ THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 63 2 The values of the various coefficients are for favorable conditions, and factors of safety, as listed on page 54 should be used in design. For a comparison of velocities, as computed from various formulas, for various sizes of pipe and for varying friction heads, the reader is referred to table 10, page 62. Again taking up the various formulas mentioned on pages 5 to 7; the Chezy formula (4, p. 6), will not be considered directly, but in its modified form, known as Kutter’s formula (5, p. 6). THE KUTTER FORMULA. In discussing the Moritz experiments with reference to the value of n in Kutter’s formula, Hering states! that he ‘‘recognized as well as did Mr. Kutter himself, almost at the outset, that n was not to be considered a precise and unvarying constant, although it was more nearly so than any other constant before proposed.” The fact that n does vary has been understood by hydraulicians specializing in work involving the Kutter formula; but notwith- standing this the tables and diagrams which have been accepted as standard have assigned values of n to certain degrees of roughness without reference to other conditions. The usual understanding regarding variation occurring in the value for n has been that 7 is less in large channels than in small ones. In the case of pipes an opposite effect is noted; that is, the value of n becomes greater as the value of & (which is directly proportional to the diameter) becomes greater. The variations in the proper value of m to assume in the design of pipe become so complicated that the Kutter formula had better be abandoned in favor of the exponential type of formula. This would leave the Kutter formula for its original intended purpose, that of design of open channels, for which it is eminently fitted. However, for those who wish to use the Kutter formula, the follow- ing suggestions are made. Note that the value of n changes with diameter. If velocities are to exceed 8 feet per second, the next lower value of n may be safely used. The values of n given pre- suppose the use of some factor of safety about as given on page 54: Class 1. n=0.013 for pipes up to 10 inches in diameter. n=0.014 for pipes from 12 to 24 inches in diameter. n=0.015 for pipes from 26 to 42 inches in diameter. Class 2. n=0.013. for pipes up to 36 inches in diameter. Class 3. n=0.012 for pipes up to 24 inches in diameter. n=0.013 for pipes more than 24 inches in diameter. Class 4. n=0.011 for pipes from 12 to 24 inches in diameter. n=0.0115 for pipes from 26 to 48 inches in diameter. n=0.012 for pipes more than 50 inches in diameter Tn order to solve problems involving the Kutter formula, Plate XII is given. As being applicable to open channels rather than closed 1 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., 74 (1911), p. 459. 2 The Flow of Water in Irrigation Channels, by Fred. C. Scobey, U. S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 194, p. 60. 64 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, & pipes, the hydraulic radius is given instead of the diameter, but the diagram may be used directly for pipes, since R =? » that is, the hydraulic radius of a 6-foot pipe is i= 1.5 feet. THE WEISBACH FORMULA (6, P. 6). For those who wish to use this rather popular textbook formula, the following values of f are suggested, presupposing the use of some factor of safety about as listed on page 54. Class 1. f=0.040 for pipes up to 24 inches in diameter. /=0.030 for pipes from 26 to 42 inches in diameter. Class 2. f=0.030 for pipes up to 18 inches in diameter. {=0.025 for pipes from 20 inches to 36 inches in diameter. Class 3. f=0.020 for pipes up to 48 inches in diameter. f=0.015 for pipes more than 48 inches in diameter. Class 4. f=0.015 for pipes up to 48 inches in diameter. f=0.012 for pipes more than 48 inches in diameter. THE WILLIAMS-HAZEN FORMULA (7, p. 6). This formula, being made elastic by varying coefficients, applies very closely within the usual range of velocities. The foliowing values of C,, are suggested, presupposing the use of factors of safety as listed on page 54. For velocities exceeding 5 feet per second use a coefficient of C,, about 10 lower. | Class 1. Cy= 90. Class 2. Cy=110. Class 3. Cy=120. Class 4. C,)=140. THE MORITZ FORMULA (9, p. 7). The results of the experiments show that the lines of differentia- tion between classes of concrete surface may be slightly at variance with those suggested by Moritz (see p. 7). A -pipe constructed in place with steel forms may have very appreciable shoulders at the ends of the ‘‘set-ups,” while a jointed pipe may be very smooth at the joints as well as through each unit. | As shown on Plate VI and on page 47, the exponent of D, the velocity is more nearly 2 than 1.80; therefore the application of the Moritz formula changes with the velocities rather than with the diameters, since his exponent of d or D, the diameter, practically agrees with that of the writer. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 65 Using the classification as listed on page 7 and presupposing the use of factors of safety about as given on page 54, the coefficients in the Moritz formula are about as follows: Class 1. C,=0.90 for velocities up to 3 feet per second. Class 2. Oj,=1.15 for velocities up to 3 feet per second. 1.10 for velocities from 3 to 6 feet per second. Class 3. C,=1.25 for velocities less than 2 feet per second. 1.20 for velocities between 2 and 4 feet per second. 1.15 for velocities between 4 and 6 feet per second. 1.10 for velocities between 6 and 8 feet per second. Class 4. C=1.35 for velocities less than 2 feet persecond. —__ 1.30 for velocities between 2 and 4 feet per second. 1.20 for velocities between 4 and 6 feet per second. CAPACITY OF CONCRETE PIPE COMPARED WITH THAT OF WOOD-STAVE, CAST-IRON, AND RIVETED STEEL PIPE. Since there are so many classes of concrete pipe, a table showing percentage comparisons between the capacity of each class of pipe with, the capacity of pipes of each of the other materials at various ages would be extensive and confusing, so Table 10 may be used. This table gives velocities; capacity for a given size pipe is propor- tional to velocity. In a study of this table, the concrete pipe under consideration will classify under columns 3, 4, 5, or 6, according to the class descrip- tions given, on page 7. Average wood-stave pipe comes under column 20. Cast iron and riveted steel come under columns 8, 9, or 11, according to age of the pipe. The coefficients in their formula recommended by Hazen and Williams for new cast iron, new riveted steel, 10-year-old cast iron, 20-year-old cast iron, and 10-year-old riveted steel are, respectively, 130, 110, 110, 100, and 100. 164725°—20—Bull. 852——5 PART 2. FLOW OF WATER IN GRADE LINE PIPES. PIPES PARTIALLY FILLED. ; All available data bearmg upon the capacity of concrete pipes and other covered conduits flowing partially full are summarized in Table 11, page 68. The coefficient of retardation has been computed for five of the best known formulas in use in this country for the design of open channels. The formulas considered are the Chezy formula (No. 3, p- 6); the Kutter formula (No. 5, p. 6); the Wiliams-Hazen formula (No. 7, p. 6); the Manning formula,’ _ 1.486 ah ign V R 0.67.4 0.5 (20) in which n has approximately the same values as in the Kutter formula; the Bazin (1897) formula, ye “= R 0-5, 0.5 (21) For the smoothest cement channels a value of 0.109 for m is sug- gested in a table found in many textbooks, probably suggested by the first experiment on the Sudbury Conduit. See page 69. A glance at column 17, Table 11, shows that the value of m changes very rapidly with comparatively small changes of surface and of the various hydraulic elements. The writer believes that the formulas of Kutter, Manning, and Williams-Hazen can be applied with much more assuredness than that of Bazin, if a constant retardation factor is to be used for a given surface. As the pipes and conduits are not under pressure, but for the most ea are laid on an even gradient, where the hydraulic grade line ies parallel to and just under the intrados, it is perfectly proper to regard the pipe as an open channel. In the opinion of the writer the Kutter formula appears to apply, and as this formula is undoubtedly the one most used in this country recommended values of n will be given. n=0.0115 for glazed pipes and conduits carrying filtered water or water from which deposits or growths do not accrue. The pipes to be practically perfect in both surface and joints. n=(.012 for well-made pipes and conduits with first-class joints, smooth monolithic pipes or tunnels when new and clean. The surface to class as good, but not the equal of glazing. A surface such asis obtained by a ‘‘wash coat.’’ ‘To be free from shoulders 1 Robert Manning first offered his formula in 1889 (Trans. Civil Engineers of Ireland, 1890, Book No. 8, p. 175) in aslightly different form than as now accepted. It has been used extensively by some English and Canadian engineers, but has caused little comment in the United States until within the past two or three years. Itis much simpler of solution than the Kutter formula, and there does not appear to be any sacrifice in accuracy if the engineer uses the same values of n to which he has become accustomed. Further comments upon the Manning formula are found under the following citations: The Design of Channels for Irrigation or Drainage, by R. B. Buckley, London, 1911, p. 10; Engin. News, June 17, 1915, p. 1171; Engin. Rec., vol. 75, Mar. 10, 1917, p.395; Engin. News-Rec., vol. 79, Aug. 9, 1917, p. 277; id., vol. 82, Mar. 13, 1919, p. 536; id., Apr. 3, 1919, p. 685. Prof. H. W. King, of Michigan University, conducted computations that convinced him that the Manning formula is to be preferred to that of Kutter. (Handbook of Hydraulics, by H. W. King, New York, 1918, pp. 198, 403.) 66 THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 67 and other obstructions. To convey water from which deposits are not to be expected. May be more freely assumed where high velocities will be attained. n=0.013 for well-made pipes, carefully jointed or monolithic without appreciable shoulders, for waters containing a small amount of sewage. May be used also for designing sewers where conditions are such that high velocities may be attained with flushing streams. Applicable to storm sewers which carry but little deposit-creating material at peak load, but which may have a heavy deposit of grease at the high-water line of ordinary sewage flow. Recommended by Metcalf and Eddy for ‘‘concrete sewers under good ordinary conditions of work.’’! The values of n in the Manning formula are sufficiently close to those in the Kutter formula that the same values may be used by engineers partial to the Manning formula. The chief advantage of the latter is its simplicity of computation, but as the Kutter formula is practically never computed outside of a schoolroom—diagrams being quite generally used—this objection is not material. For those who prefer the William-Hazen formula it would appear that values for (,, of 140, 130, and 120 will quite closely apply to conditions as described for values of n of 0.0115, 0.012, and 0.013, respectively. Figure 6, offered for the general solution of problems by means of the Williams-Hazen formula, may be used for the design of open channels if the value of the hydraulic radius, 2, of the pros- pective water section in the open pipe, be computed into the terms of the equivalent circular section of a full pipe. The value of D, the diameter of the equivalent full pipe, may be computed since D=4R. EXPLANATORY NOTES ON TABLE 11. Table 11 is similar to Table 3, but contains the data for experiments made on pipes and conduits while they were but partially filled; that is, the surface of the water was exposed tothe air. In other words, the pipes and conduits were “‘ flow lines”’ rather than ‘‘pressure lines.’’ With the following additions the explanation for Table 3, page 20, applies to this table also. Column 2. FF refers to F. C. Finkle, Los Angeles, Calif. AFB refers to A. F. Bruce, Glasgow, Scotland. E refers to Boyd Ehle, engineer on construction of Victoria Aqueduct. JBL refers to J. B. Lippincott, Los Angeles, Calif. Crefers to the late F.C. Coffin. M refers to F. F. Moore, designing engineer, New York Board of Water Supply. H refers to Theodore Horton, Albany, N. Y. P refers to —- —— Perrone, Italy. S, as before, refers to the writer. 1 American Sewerage Practice, ist ed., New York, 1914, vol. 1, p. 94. BULLETIN 852, U. S. 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The following descriptions apply to experiments conducted by the writer for the Bureau of Public Roads. The pipes were laid on a hydraulic gradient and in no case were they flowing full of water. For descriptions of experiments conducted under similar conditions by other agencies see Appendix, page 77. No. 49, Experiment S-37.—10-inch jointed concrete pipe chute- drop on L-Y-7 line, Tieton project, United States Reclamation Service, Washington.—Some of the topography of the Tieton project is such that water for irrigation must be conveyed down very steep slopes from one open channel to another. For this purpose chute drops of both the open type and the pipe type are used. A series of experi- ments was conducted on one of the pipes. Water from the upper canal is delivered through the bank into a pool just above a 4-foot Cipolletti weir. After the water falls over this measuring weir it drops down a 16-inch intake well about 2 feet deep. At the bottom of this well the pipe chute, 10 inches in diameter, leads down the hill; falling 87.6 feet in a developed distance of 935 feet. The volume of water, Q, was determined by hook-gauge meas- urements of head on the 4-foot weir, where the contraction condi- tions were good and the velocity of approach reduced by a brush screen. All of the items in Table 11 are based on the general hydraulic assumption that A= v. As we have determined Q and VJ, we can solve for A as for a segment of 10-inch pipe. The resulting retardation factors for various formulas are all right in so far as they might be used in computing the velocity down a similar chute, but may not be used in the computation of maximum capacity for the following reason. All complete experiments upon friction losses in chute drops of either the open-channel or pipe type have developed the fact that the measured area of the wet cross section is much ereater than . By a ‘complete experiment” is meant one in which Q,V,and the wet cross section, which we will call A’, were measured independently. Such measurements disclose the fact that Q=(A’—A’’)V_ where A’’ is an area made up of the aggregate entrained air bubbles. As a concrete example take observation 6 (see Table 11, p. 68). The velocity, V, as measured was 13.59 feet per second. The quantity, Q, as measured over the weir, was 4.29 second-feet. What might be termed the net water area A=“ was 0.316 square foot. The nominal area of a 10-inch pipe is 0.545 square foot, but as most small pipes run under size the actual area -was probably nearer 0.5 square foot. Thus, while by computation but 54 per cent of the cross section of the pipe was filled, yet the intake pool was full and no more water could be crowded into the chute. In other words, the pipe was filled with a mixture of air and water. At the outlet of pipe chutes running to capacity this fact is manifest by periodic rushes of air into the outlet pool. It is not feasible and perhaps not possible to determine the mean area of the water section down a pipe chute by actual measurements. If such a thing were possible, then retardation factors could be com- . 72 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. puted, from which other similar chutes could be designed from a capacity standpoint without regard to the actual velocity attained. However, we do know, from experiments made on open-channel concrete chutes, that the value of m in the Kutter formula must be raised 0.002 to 0.004 when a chute is designed from a capacity standpoint.!. In other words, the series of experiments on this 10-inch ipe chute indicates that a value of n of about 0.014 or 0.015 should e used in designing for capacity, instead of the values as shown in Table 11, namely, about 0.0119. A view of one of these pipe chutes, in course of construction, and showing the vertical curve mentioned above, is given on Plate XXVIII in Volume II of Prof. Etcheverry’s work. The writer believes this view is of the 10-inch chute discussed above. No. 52, Experiment S-41.—36-inch jointed concrete flow line, Colorado Power Co., near Nederland, Colo.—In 1909 a flow-line conduit 12 miles in length was laid down the canyon of Middle Boulder Creek from the dam at Barker Reservoir to a small reservoir about 4 miles from Boulder, Colo., and about 2,000 feet in elevation above the creek bottom, where one of the plants of the Colorado Power Co. is located. This conduit is laid on an even gradient of 5 feet per 1,000 feet of pipe, except where inverted siphons are required to cross gulches and draws leading imto the canyon. An article describing this installation says: ? The 3-inch shell of the pipe that is laid on the hydraulic grade consists of one part Portland cement and three parts aggregate, graded from sand to stones having a maximum dimension of 1 inch. The pipe was cast in sections 2 feet long, with socket on one end and a bevel on the other end of each section to form the joints. Each section contains two hoops of No. 5 steel wire having a high tensile strength, one hoop being placed 6 inches from each end. These hoops are not considered to be of much value as reinforcing, but rather as an aid in preventing breakage before the concrete has set. The line of the conduit is very crooked, the longest tangent not exceeding 500 feet. Straight and beveled pipe were employed together to build the conduit on curves. The latter were located so their radii were as nearly uniform as possible, requiring only two kinds of beveled pipe. The mixture was placed in rather dry layers 3 inches thick and carefully tamped. ‘This allowed the forms to be pulled immediately after which the pipe section was kept thoroughly wet for 7 days, then the inner surface of the the sections was coated with a thick wash of neat cement to fill all irregularities. This surface was thus finished quite smooth, and, with the manner in which the joints were made, produced a conduit having a large carrying capacity. During the season of 1915 the writer conducted a series of experi- ments upon the carrying capacity of a portion of this conduit near the upper end. A reach 1,977 feet long was chosen. Open stand- ipes near each end of the reach and approximately each 500 feet Caden the ends gave opportunity for measurement of the pipe segment not occupied by the water at five evenly spaced stations on the reach. For each run the quantity of water flowing in the pipe was varied by regulation of the outlet gates of Barker Reservoir. The velocity of the water in the flow line was determined by accepting 1 The fact that the fundamental hydraulic equation Q=A V does not hold for chute drops, where high velocities, wave action,and turbulence exist, was first called to the attention of the writer by Mr. W. G Steward, of the United States Reclamation Service. The results of his experiments, which have been corroborated in essentials by those of the writer, are found in Irrigation Practice and Engineering, by B. A. Etcheverry, Vol. III, p. 261. 2 Engin. Rec., Nov. 6, 1909, vol. 60, p. 514. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. he the mean velocity of four batches of fluorescein for each observation. The color was injected at the standpipe marking the upper end of the reach and observed at a similar standpipe marking the lower end of the reach. The slope of the water surface was determined by piezometer tubes of type A connected with gauge glasses outside the pipe. The piezometer tubes were under identical dynamic conditions and examination of column 13, Table 11, shows that the corrected observed slopes practically agree with the nominal slope of the con- duit. It was necessary to correct the observed slope for changes in velocity head between the upper and lower ends of the reach, the flow not being uniform throughout the reach tested. It is the writer’s opinion, based upon his experience, that ‘uniform flow”’ is an ideal that is assumed in design but seldom attained in practice. The pipe was designed under an assumed value of n in the Kutter formula of 0.012 and observations made by the writer prove this assumption to have been correct, even after a period of 6 years without cleaning. So far as examination of the interior could be made from the various manholes the conduit is clean and practically free from slime. As the water comes from a large reservoir located on a mountain stream, it is clear and cold at all seasons of the year. No. 56, Experiment §-49.—42-inch jointed reinforced concrete ipe, Victoria Aqueduct, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Snare mentioned under the descriptions of Nos. 30, 54a, and 55a, the Victoria Aqueduct consists of about 27 miles of flow line, broken by six inverted siphons (PI. V, fig. 3, is typical of this flow line). Simultaneously with the experiments conducted on siphon No. 1 (pipe No. 30, p. 39) readings were also taken on gauges at manholes 3 and 4. This reach of pipe, 1,986 feet long, is downstream from the reach 800 feet long tested by Ehle in 1915 (No. 54a). Piezometer tubes of type A, under identical dynamic conditions, were held upstream against the current at the two manholes. ‘True siphon tubes were carried over the edge of the manholes and connected the piezometers with graduated gauge glasses. The gauge glasses were then considered in a scheme of levels and the fall of the water surface was thus determined. This method is probably more accurate than to accept the nominal slope of the pipe. The areas of the water sections at the ends of the reach for the various runs were determined by careful measurements in the manholes. The discharge of the pipe was taken as the velocity in feet per second (determined by color tests in siphon No. 1), multiplied by the mean area of the siphon interior (p. 41). This discharge, divided by the mean area of the water section in the flow line, gave the velocity within the flow line. The reach tested was typical of the whole aqueduct, being about half curve and half tangent. The friction factors confirm those found by Ehle and show the same decrease in the values of 7 as the depth of water (consequently the velocity and the hydraulic radius for the depths considered) is increased. It was not feasible at the time these tests were made to turn sufficient water into the pipe line to fill completely the flow section, as a repair, due to a hillside slip several miles downstream, was in progress. The values of the retardation factors show that 0.011 is probably as low a value of n as is feasible to obtain in a commercial pipe and should only be used for pipes under practically ideal conditions, such as hold on this aqueduct. CONCLUSIONS.' From the facts developed in this investigation the following con- clusions appear to be warranted. In considering the design of a concrete pipe or conduit, from a ca- pacity standpoint, the fundamentals to be kept in mind are: (1) Original interior surface. (2) Engineering; inspection and supervision of construction. (3) The water. (4) Acquired interior surface. In a jointed pipe, the original interior surface depends upon that of the individual units and of the assembled whole. Thesmoothest units are cast of a wet mixture and allowed to set in rigid, smooth, oiled forms. These units are true to shape and assemble into a nearly per- fect pipe. As the joints are practically as smooth as the cast surface, the number of joints is almost immaterial. Most processes that permit immediate removal of the forms do not protect the plastic concrete against distortion. Distortion in the units means offsets in the pipe that may easily decrease the capacity from 10 to 20 per cent. This percentage may be reduced after assembling the units by tapering down the offsets with mortar applied with a trowel. Supervision of the finished joints will usually improve the capacity materially. The good results obtained with the band method (see p- 85) appear perfectly feasible. A brush coat applied to a rough original interior will increase the capacity and decrease the percolation. The same coat applied to a smooth interior will decrease its capacity and is not needed, under ordinary pressures, to prevent percolation, if the pipe is properly made. ‘This is true for the reason that methods used in making pipe with a smooth interior are also conducive to a dense concrete. Note the suggestion that coating may scale off if radically different mix- tures are employed for pipe and coat. (See p. 99.) Pipe units made with the molds now on the market usually run undersize by as much as 3 or 4 per cent (in area) for diameters under 20 inches. Above that size, the nominal and actual areas are more nearly equal. Most pipes made with a wet mixture in short units, from which the molds are immediately stripped, ‘‘slump”’ to a slight extent, making a section somewhat undersize in area with a slight excess in shell thickness. . 2 From a capacity standpoint monolithic be and conduits are built under two general conditions: (1) In the open or in the com- parative freedom of a trench; (2) in a tunnel. nder the first con- dition the form adjustment, bracing, supervision, concreting, spading, and final inspection can be conducted from both inside and outside, with the added advantage of working in the daylight. Naturally this tends to result in better workmanship and higher carrying capacity than is feasible in a tunnel where all of the above operations 1 These conclusions were written since receipt of the discussions beginning on p. 92, and are, therefore, based on all the data in the paper. 74 THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 15 must be done from the inside alone under the shadows and imperfec- tions of artificial hghting. For all shapes, circular or otherwise, the invert is usually laid first. Forms for the remainder of the section are then placed on the invert and the section completed. Sometimes the first pouring extends just across the bottom and sometimes is carried up to the spring line. This depends on shape and size of the section. Smooth joints between the pourings and between the ends of adjoining set-ups are difficult to attain. Unless very heavily braced, the pressure of the head of wet concrete will spring the forms and result in offsets. On the Catskill aqueduct this amounted to as much as 0.15 foot.!. The writer has seen cases where contractions of from 2 to 4 inches were made in sections 5 feet or less in diameter. Other factors that influ- ence this movement are weather, length of sections, rapidity of filling the forms, and the type of aqueduct.' Before the advent of steel forms, engineers anticipated a rough interior when the forms were stripped and relied on a plaster coat to fill interstices, estimates of cost bemg based on that of a plaster coat on a certain sized conduit equated against that of an unplastered surface on a larger conduit.? The present practice in general is to use smooth steel forms; clean them thoroughly after each casting, then dry and oil or grease them before using again. If close attention is given to spading the mixture into close contact with the forms, then a surface is secured that is smoother than will be attained by adding a plaster coat, local roughness alone being improved by pointing up and chipping down. The crown in particular is liable to be rough. Experience indicates that a given surface is more assuredly repeated in a pipe of precast sections than of monolithic construction. ‘Thus a smaller factor of safety in the way of capacity overload may be assumed for precast pipe. The experiments indicate that some of the smooth- est pipe is of careful monolithic construction; likewise some of the roughest. Thus, while a very smooth surface may be attained, it can not be anticipated with the assuredness possible where units are precast under the best practice and subject to the conditions attainable in a pipe yard. For all types of pipe, competent engineering supervision and Eo pection are necessary if the best results are to be obtained. Velocity and entry heads should be provided at the intake. Align- ment and grades should be true. Changes in either should be made with as gentle curves as are feasible. Unless it is excluded above the intakes, means should be provided for the removal of débris at the foot of steep upward slopes. Means for the removal of air, not only at the summits but also near the intake (unless deeply sub- merged) should be provided. This is true of small orchard lines as well as large siphons. Trash racks, originally placed at the intakes of many siphon pipes, have since been removed in many cases because the danger from washout, due to the accumulation of trash, outweighed the good accomplished. - For all practical purposes it does not appear necessary to limit the higher velocities. The velocity should be at least sufficient to prevent the deposition, of silt—probably not lower than 3 feet per second. 1 Water Works Handbook, by Flinn, Weston and Bogert, New York, 1916, p. 276. 2 Jour. West. Soc. Engrs., Vol. XVI, No. 8, 1911, p. 696. Discussion of C. C. Saner. 76 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. More or less slime may be expected from waters stored in reser- voirs containing alge growths or from waters that have been con- veyed long distances in openearth channels. (See Mr. Hazen’s discussion on p. 97). This may also be true, but to a less extent, if the open channel is of wood or concrete. Waters of the Southwest are less hable to develop retarding growths in covered conduits than those of the East and Northwest. Water containing calcium car- bonate (CaCO,) will smoothly coat pipe of any material. If sand, gravel, or other débris is also present in the water, the cemented ac- cretion will be much more harmful, being rough and more rapid. After construction a rough pipe may become somewhat smoother if conditions are such that a mineral coating is deposited. An originally smooth surface will remain about as constructed or depre- ciate slightly by mineral or slime deposits. Slimes come quickly or not at all. A depreciation of from 10 to 15 per cent in capacity can occur within five to seven months, but does not greatly increase after that. Thus, to be of material benefit, cleaning must be frequent if necessary at all. For this reason periodic cleanings have been abandoned in many places.1_ If alge slimes are anticipated, it may be best to allow for 15 per cent depreciation of capacity and no cleaning. A concrete surface is not subject to a progressive roughening influence like the tuberculation found in iron and steel pipes, though tuberculation of the reinforcement may occur if too near the surface. Roots may affect a poorly made or poorly laid pipe, but will not influence a hard, well-jointed pipe. In considering various kinds of pipes it is not sufficient to compare concrete with wood, concrete with steel or iron, concrete with vitrified clay, or even concrete with concrete. This is true not only from a capacity standpoint, but also from the standpoint of strength, life, and operation. One particular class of concrete pipe must be com- pared with the pipe of the other materials or with concrete pipes of the other classes. Two estimates or bids for a concrete pipe may differ 20 per cent, yet from a capacity standpoimt alone the higher in cost may be the more economical. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. The writer desires to acknowledge indebtedness to the various engineers and managers of irrigation, municipal, and power systems who permitted and aided in tests upon the pipes in their charge; also to the Board of Water Supply of New York City and to the Ontario Power Commission of Toronto, Canada, for supplying hitherto unpublished results of tests made on their conduits. Tests made on pipes of the various United States Reclamation Service projects were made under a cooperative agreement between that service and this bureau. Especial acknowledgment is due the officers and men of the Reclamation Service who were unfailingly courteous, energetic in getting the best feasible conditions for experi- mentation, aa in many cases devoted to these tests long hours outside their regular work. 1 Water Works Handbook, Flinn, Weston and Bogert, New York, 1916, pp. 290-291. APPENDIX. The following pages are devoted to abstracts of the descriptions of experiments made by agencies other than the Irrigation Division, Bureau of Public Roads. The first part covers tests made on pipes under pressure while the last portion covers tests made on pipes and conduits but partially filled. The number before each description refers to the corresponding numbers in column 1, Tables 3, 4, and 11. PRESSURE PIPES. No. 12, Experiment N-1.—16-inch jointed concrete pipe, Z,, siphon, Umatilla project, United States Reclamation Service, Oregon.—In 1911 and 1912 Herbert D. Newell, manager of the Umatilla project, conducted a series of experiments on several of the concrete inverted siphons under his charge. For the sake of brevity the descriptive matter pertaining to all the tests will be abstracted from his extended article,t and placed under this number. Matter pertaining to indi- vidual pipes will be placed under the proper reference number. He states: During 1911 and 1912 a number of experiments were made to determine the coeffi- cient of friction. The quantity of water was generally determined by meter meas- urements. Difference of water surface elevation between the inlet and outlet ends were determined from bench marks carefully established on the inlet and outlet struc- tures. Regarding the 16-inch pipes he adds: No information exists as to whether or not the 16-inch pipes are somewhat ob- structed near the bottoms of depressions. It will be noted that the 16-inch pipe show discharges relatively much smaller than the 30 and 46 inch pipe. The 16-inch are made by the dry process and have joints every 2 feet. At every joint there is una- voidably a slight irregularity in the cross section. The mixture used in making the 30 and 46 inch pipe is distinctly a wet mixture. All sizes are grouted on the inside, but the grouting on the large size is more smooth, as a man can work inside the pipe and it is possible to do a better job. The nominal size of the pipe appears to have been accepted as the true size. In the experiment on this particular siphon the quantity of water for the first observation was taken as the mean of two meter measurements, one indicating a discharge of 3.78 second-feet and the other 3.70 second-feet. For the second observation the mean of three measurements, ranging from 4.78 to 4.97 second-feet was accepted. From the amount of the friction loss the writer would judge that some débris had accumulated between the time this pipe was laid and the date of the experiments. The retardation factors are not consistent. No. 13, Experiment N-2.—16-inch jointed concrete pipe, Z, siphon, Umatilla project, United States Reclamation Service, Oregon.—In addition to the information given under reference number 12a for the se of tests conducted by Newell, the following pertains to this pipe alone: 1 Studies of Coefficient of Friction in Reinforced-Concrete Pipe, Umatilia project, Oregon. By H.D. Newell, Eng. News, vol. 69, May 1, 1913, p. 904, 7 78 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The quantity was taken as the mean indicated by two current meter tests, one giving 3.19 and one giving 3.65 second-feet. This agreement is not as close as it should be. For this reason the writer would not give too much weight to the results of the experiments on this pipe in considering the friction loss which appears rather low for this type of pipe. The pressure head was measured by a “testing gage.” ‘The one observation on this pipe shows a value of C,=0.314. No. 19, Experiment.—Fanning 20-inch cement-lined wrought-iron force main pipe.—In 1880, J. T. Fanning conducted a series of experi- ments and listed the results in his well-known work on hydraulics,! but he does not give a description of the pipe or of his methods of experimentation. Hering and Trautwine say of this pipe: No short bends, but two large Y branches, two small blow-off branches, and three stop valves. No. 24, Experiment N-3.—30-inch reinforced concrete jointed © pipe, D, siphon, Umatilla project, United States Reclamation Service, Oregon.—This pipe, laid in the winter of 1909-10, was tested for capacity by Mr. Newell in 1911 and by the writer in 1915. (See No. 23.) For general data on the Newell tests see No. 12a. The elevations of the surface of the water at the inlet and outlet structures were determined by the use of a hose pipe and water pail, in a manner similar to that later used by the writer when other methods were not feasible. By means of a true siphon over the wing walls the surface of the water in the pail and in the canal are brought to the same level. For observation No. 1 a single weir measurement was accepted as indicating the discharge, while for observation No. 2 a single meter measurement indicated a discharge of 16.62 second-feet and a meas- urement at the weir at the inlet indicated a discharge of 17.04 second- feet. As noted in Table 2 the various elements have been computed for both these indicated discharges, rather than averaging them. This method follows Mr. Newell’s original article. A comparison of the platted points for this pipe (Pl. VI) indicated that it was very smooth when new, but had become somewhat ob- structed when tested by the writer four years after Mr. Newell’s tests. The relationship of the leading canal to the intake clearly shows that thisis highly probable. The average value of C;, for the three observa- tions equals 0:408, which is higher than usual, even for the best of construction. No. 25, Experiment N-4.—30-inch reinforced concrete jointed pipe, R, siphon, Umatilla project, United States Reclamation Service, Oregon.—This pipe was tested by Mr. Newell when it was in its fourth season of service. The discharge was taken as the mean of three measurements by current meter, ranging from 12.76 to 12.42 second-feet, to which was added 0.032 second-foot which passed a weir. Mr Newell states: “It is not unlikely that there is a con- siderable deposit of sand in the first low depression.’’ This would not appear to the writer to be a serious deposit, as the friction loss indicates a very efficient pipe. The relatively great length of the reach, 3,658 feet, makes this a valuable test, so far as one observation is indicative. The value of C, equals 0.351. 1A Practical Treatise on Hydraulic and Water Supply Engineering, by J. T. Fanning, 11th ed., New York, 1893, p. 238 2, Ganguillet and W. R. Kutter, translated by Rudolph Hering and John C. Trautwine,jr. A General Formula for the Uniform Flow of Waterin Rivers and Other Channels, New York, 1907, 2d ed., p. 154-155, THE FLOW CF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 79 For additional general information which also applies to this pipe see No. 12a. No. 27, Experiment B-1.—31.5-inch (0.8 meter) experimental con- duit, Dijon, France.t~—In 1895, M. Henry Bazin conducted a series of experiments upon ‘a cement pipe, 0.80 meter (31.5 inches) m diameter and 80 meters (262 feet) long. This pipe was straight, perfect in bore, and opened at its extremities ito two basins, 2 meters wide and 15 meters long, having vertical walls.” The velocities in the pipe were measured with a pitot tube, operated in one of three shafts, which divided the pipe into four equal parts. Each of these shafts was the full width of the pipe, 0.8 meter, and 0.8 meter in length, measured along the axis of the pipe. The discharge was also measured over a sharp-edged rectangular weir 2.01 meters wide, without end contractions, located 50 meters beyond the lower basin. The coefficient of discharge of this weir had been previously established. The loss of head was determined over a reach of 40 meters (131 feet) between the two end shafts. “On the right of each shaft was installed a manometer, consisting of a glass tube with a scale, the former being connected with the interior of the pipe by an orifice 0.002 meter in diameter, pierced in the wall, without any protuber- ance.”’ Considering the shortness of the reach, reference to Plate VI shows a remarkably consistent set of observation points, indicating an exponent of V equal to 1.971 and values of C, equal to about 0.418. If this value of C, truly represents the condition of this conduit, then a surface smoother than that of the Victoria Aqueduct is indicated, even considering the curvature of the latter. ‘To the writer this is almost inconceivable, in commercial construction. No. 33, Experiment N-5.—46-inch reinforced concrete jointed pipe, R, siphon, Umatilla project, United States Reclamation Service, Oregon.—This pipe, laid in the winter of 1909-10 was tested in 1911 and again in 1912 by Mr. Newell and in 1915 by the writer. (See No. 32.) In 1911 the elevations of the water surface in the inlet and outlet structures were determined by the use of hose and pail, men- tioned under No. 24a, and in 1912 a “testing gauge’’ was used. close agreement resulted between the two methods of gauging. The experiments by both Mr. Newell and the writer indicate that this is a very efficient pipe. Although not so smooth as the Victoria Aqueduct the absence of curvature gives about the same friction qetors, For general information that also applies to this pipe see o. 12a. No. 36, Experiment of Budau.—7.22 foot reinforced concrete pipe, Perlmoos cement works, Sell-Leukenthal, Austria.2—Prof. A. Budau conducted a series of tests upon a new pipe line serving a power plant. This conduit was 4,200 feet long and 7.22 feet inside diameter. No mention is made in the elaborate description of the tests as to whether the pipe is jomted or monolithic, made over wood or steel forms, coated or as left by the forms, exactly the nominal size or otherwise. The Ime has several curves in horizontal alignment, but each one covers such a small angle that from the standpoint of capacity the pipe may be considered straight. In profile the pipe is on a con- timuous gentle down grade. Loss of head was measured with water 1 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Engin., vol. 47 (1902), p. 246. 2 Experiments on pressure losses in iron reinforced concrete conduits, by Prof. A. Budau, from the “Zeitschrift des Osterr. Ingenieur und Architekten-Vereinnes No. 8,” Feb. 20, 1914, p. 141. QS ee = 80 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. columns in graduated glass tubes, installed at each end of the reach tested. The relative elevations of these gauges were established by the static head; that is, with still water in the lme. The piezometer connections were of type D (fig. 3), different from anything used in American experiments, so far as the writer is informed. A perforated brass ball, 30 millimeters in diameter, was set at the center of the pipe. In order to annul all influence of velocity head and secure only pressure head, the balls were filled with brass shavings. The usual tubing connection is made between the balls and the gauge glasses, through stuffing boxes set in the shell of the pipe. The volume of water was measured over a specially formed weir, having end contractions. Piezometer No. 1 was located about 14 diameters from the intake of the pipe line. This would appear to be at a point subject to much disturbance. The weir is located about 8 or 10 feet below the power house and no mention is made of baffles to still the velocity of approach. These conditions may offer grounds for criticism of this series, although the platted points appear to be consistent with the exception of observation No. 3, es was excluded by the writer in consideration of this series, as there is probably some error of obser- vation or typography. No. 38, Experiment M-1.—110-inch siphons, Catskill Aqueduct, New York.—The Catskill Aqueduct contains several pipe siphons using identical construction for inlet and outlet chambers and for the siphon proper. The latter is in essentials a steel pipe, lined with 2 inches of cement mortar and protected outside with at least 6 inches of concrete.* One siphon was lined with a cement-gun process while the others were grouted. For both processes, the invert, for a width of about 8 feet of arc, was lined in the manner employed in laying sidewalks. When the cement gun was used the coat was applied in layers in rapid succession. Hach layer is sufficiently rough for a secure bond with the next one. The resulting surface was floated and troweled to secure a smooth finish. The cement-gun process was abandoned by the contractor after one siphon had been so lined. In the grouting method, metal-covered wood forms were used after extensive experi- mentation. The grout was placed through a 24-inch pouring pipe inserted in a rivet-passing hole and subjected to a head of about 4 feet above the zenith of the pipe. The first batch or two of grout for each set-up, 15 feet in length, was mixed 1 part cement to 1 of sand) while the succeeding batches were mixed in a ratio of 1 to 2._ By both processes ‘‘ very smooth interior surfaces were secured.” (See p. 82.) In Table 3 are shown average coefficients for observations on the Esopus, Tongore, Foundry Brook, Sprout Brook, Peeksill, Hunters Brook, Turkey Mountain, and Harlem Railroad siphons, for a flow of 350 million gallons per day (542 second-feet). Concerning these observations, made in August of 1915 under the direction of Mr. F. F. Moore, the board of water supply writes: The condition was not favorable for obtaining the best results on the pipe siphons. * * * The result of measurements of flow in pipe siphons was recorded as an 1Engin. Rec., vol. 63, Apr. 15, 1911, p. 404; id., vol. 64, Bene 18s 1911, p. 332; Eng. News, vol. 66, p. 526; Municipal Jour, and Engineer., Vol. 31, Aug. 23, 1911, p. 229: id., Dec. 7, vol. 31, 1911, p. 719: Jour. N. E. Water-Wks, Assn., Sept,,1911: Waterworks Handbook, by Flynn, Weston, and Bogert, New York, 1916, p. 323, Bul. 852, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. Fic. |1.—RONDOUT TUNNEL, CATSKILL AQUEDUCT. Typical pressure tunnel construction, showing completed excavation and partial and completed concrete lining. Fig. 2.—CUT-AND-COVER SECTION OF CATSKILL AQUEDUCT, PEEKSKILL DIVISION. Interior of finished conduit on curve of 3,000 feet radius. Bul, 852, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE X. MMOH ph yyanaeanet SR MAA Fic. |.—WEIR AT INTAKE TO MILL CREEK No. 3 PIPE LINE, CALIFORNIA. Used in measuring the water entering pipe No. 5la. Fic. 2.—INTAKE, LYTLE CREEK POWER PLANT PIPE LINE, CALIFORNIA. Tapers from 44 inches diameter to 36 inches at pipe line proper. Sand trap shown between open canaland pipeline. (No. 53a.) THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 81 average, because observations were not of a character permittting reduction for indi- vidual pipes. These pipe measurements included the chamber and transition- section losses, of all kinds, at both ends of each pipe because it was not considered advisable at that time to provide piezometers, or other devices, necessary to the direct measurement of the pipe losses separately. These observations were reduced by taking advantage fo the fact that the pipes were of various lengths and the same type of construction, including the chambers, so that the assumption could be reason- ably made that the wetted surfaces are practically identical in character: hydraulically, and that chamber losses are the same in all chambers for any given flow conditions. Losses in the pipes were computed, using assumed pipe friction-loss coefficients, which computed pipe losses were subtracted from the measured losses. These com- puted residual losses were than compared and the set most nearly consistent selected. The coefficient used in obtaining the selected set was assumed to be an average for the several pipes and an approximately correct average because of the method used and the probability that not all pipes were in the same condition as to foulness, hydraulically considered. The value selected is believed to quite closely approxi- mate the truth, because some of the siphon pipes are so short that the total friction loss in them is very small as compared to the chamber losses. While the observations are not such that definite conclusions there- from would be warranted, still the indications are that a steel pipe, built up of relatively long sections, well jointed and lined with a smooth cement coating, gives a very efficient surface. Of course the primary object of this coat is to prevent the corrosion of the metal interior but is gives an added satisfaction to know that this prevention has been attained without sacrifice of capacity, for a given sectional area. If anything, the fractional loss is less than it would have been in a new metal pipe and the latter material would have continually lessened in capacity while the lining will probably remain about the ‘same, after the first slime coat is acquired. No. 39, Experiment M-2.—Rondout pressure tunnel,! Catskill Aqueduct, N. Y.—At the Rondout River crossing the Catskill Aqueduct takes the form of a circular pressure tunnel, excavated in solid rock and Imed with concrete. From the standpoint of capacity the tunnel is, in essentials, a circular pipe, constructed in place. (See Pl. IX, fig. 1.) The tunnel consists of vertical downtake and uptake shafts joined by an approximately horizontal tunnel. The developed length of the tunnel is 24,880 feet. About 16,000 feet from the intake a vertical drainage shafts extends from the ground line down to the tunnel. As the ground line at Rondout River is 300 feet below the hydraulic gradient, this shaft is, of course, sealed. In August, 1915, F. F. Moore, designing engineer of the board of water supply, conducted a series of experiments to determine the friction losses in this tunnel, from the drainage shaft to the outlet, a distance of 9,102 feet. The pressure head at the drainage shaft was measured with a mercury manometer of the pot-and-column type. Mercury readings were corrected for temperature of air and of water in the tunnel. The temperature of the water in the pipes to which the manometers were attached was assumed to be controlled by the ground and therefore unchanging. The mercury column was also read with no flow in the tunnel, thus establishing the levels between gauges. The elevation of the water surface at the outlet was determined by steel-tape measurements from a bench on the floor over the 1 Eng. Rec., Mar. 11, vol. 63, 1911, p. 279; Eng. News, June 1, vol. 65, 1911, p. 654; Water Works Hand- book, by Flynn, Weston, and Bogert, New York, 1916, p. 284. 164725°—20—Bull. 852 6 82 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. uptake shaft. Disturbance was eliminated at this point by passing the flow over stop planks below the shaft. In the computations it was assumed that the velocity head within the uptake shaft was changed to pressure head without loss. Obser- vations | to 4, inclusive, were computed from 31 readings at 5-minute intervals for each observation. ~ For the other observations readings were taken at minute and half-minute intervals for 124 readings. Observations were made about noon on each day, after which the dis- charge was changed and allowed until the next noon to secure a stable regimen of flow. As stop planks caused a break in the iyo gradient immediately below the reach tested, this rezimen of flow was quickly attained. The discharge was measured through a 210-inch Venturi meter located 8 miles above the tunnel. The leakage was known to be small and negligible from tests previously made. At the time of test the tunnel was new, but had been in operation for sufficient time to allow the surface to become somewhat foul, although the observations were not continued long enough to indicate the probable ultimate deterioration, hydraulically considered, of the surface which long and constant use might bring about. The concrete lining, 17 inches in thickness, was deposited against clean, oiled steel forms, being carefully spaded near the forms to assure a dense, smooth inner surface. The mixture used was, in general, composed of one part cement to two of sand and four of crushed stone. In conducting the experiments, the discharge (hence the velocity) was reduced from day to day until five observations had been taken. It was then increased from day to day until three more observations had been recorded, the velocities bemg about the same as those for the first three observations. A study of Plate VI indicates that for a given loss of head the velocity during the latter end of the series would be about 13 per cent less than that occurmg during the beginning of the series. In reply to a question as to ‘“shoulders’’ within the tunnels, the board writes: Regarding ‘‘shoulders,’’ by which is understood the irregularities in the concrete surface of waterways occurring at the places where form sections joined, there were such irregularities as commonly occur in the pressure-tunnel linings, but this effect hydraulically is unknown, because of lack of opportunity to compare, under other- wise identical conditions, the measurements as made with results which might be obtained with a smoother lining. The mortar linings of the pipe siphons were unusually free from form irregularities, such as exist being clearly of negligible effect, hydraulically. No. 40, Experiment M-3.—Wallkill pressure tunnel, Catskill Aqueduct, N. Y.—At the Wallkill River crossing the Catskill Aqueduct takes the form of a circular pressure tunnel, 4.4 miles long, excavated in solid rock with a minimum cover of 150 feet, the tunnel being then lined with concrete. Thus, like the Rondout tunnel, the conduit is a circular pipe, when considered from the standpoint of capacity. (See Pl. 1X, fig. 1.) The concrete was placed as a moderately dry mixture of 1 part cement to 6 parts of aggregate.? Careful spading against the steel 1 Engin. Rec., Jan. 1, vol. 61, 1910, p. 26; id., Jan. 29, vol. 61, 1910, p. 138; id., Feb. 28, vol. 69, 1914, p. 240; id., Sept. 17, 1910, vol. 62, p. 312. 2 Eng. Rec., Apr. 2, vol. 61, 1910, p. 450, THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 83 forms, which were well oiled or greased at each set-up, assured a dense, smooth surface. The equipment and method of taking the observations were the same as those employed in the tests of the Rondout tunnel (p. 81). It is to be noted from Table 3 that the same discharge, hence the same velocity, held for the observation taken on this tunnel and the Rondout tunnel, for any given day. The tunnels are 5 miles apart, and this one is 18 miles beyond the Venturi meter, where the dis- charge was determined. (See p. 82.) When the position and sequence of points is studied on Plate VI the position does not appear to follow a rather definite relationship to fe sequence, as was the case for the Rondout tunnel, but the points appear to be indiscriminately placed on either side of the line through the centers of gravity, as is the case with nearly all hydraulic experimentation. o. 41, Experiment RDJ.—18-foot monolithic concrete-lined tunnel, No. 2 conduit of Ontario Power Co., Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada.— For the following data concerning some unpublished experi- ments the writer is indebted to the Hydro-Electric Power Commission of Ontario. These experiments, conducted under the supervision of R. D. Johnston, are of especial importance for two reasons. So far as the writer is aware, the conduit is the largest on this continent, if not in the world. The velocities encountered in commercial opera- tion are three or four times as great as those ordinarily considered as high velocities in long penstocks. The following description is submitted by the commission: This conduit consists of approximately 6,726 feet of concrete pipe, of which 6,646 feet, located between the gatehouse and surge tank, was tested. Of this 6,646 feet appa muntely 5,170 feet is straight pipe and 1,475 feet in length is bends to the right of 800 feet radius. These bends consist of short curves separated by short tangents. The pipe is of oblate shape, approximately 18 feet in diameter, the greatest hori- zontal dimension being 19.26 feet and the greatest vertical 16.55 feet. The surface of pipe is unusually smooth and even. During construction great care was taken to see that the concrete was carefully spaded next to the oiled steel forms, and after the whole pipe had been erected all defects due to imperfect alignment of forms were removed by chipping and then the whole inside was rubbed down by hand with carborundum bricks. This pipe delivers water by means of a distributor and pen- stock to 7 turbines developing a total of approximately 91,500 horsepower. The pipe was put in operation in 1910 and the tests were made in 1913 and 1914. An examination of the interior made in April, 1918, showed no signs of cavitation or wear and a total absence of vegetable growth. This latter condition is probably due to the extremely high velocities, which at times reach 28 feet per second. The inside surface is shown on the accompanying photographs taken during the inspection mentioned above. (Pl. XI.) For the tests the velocity was measured by the ‘“‘color method.’’ This consists of liberating some coloring substance in the water at a known point and at a given time and recording the time taken for this color to be carried to another known point. The computations were based on an elapsed time, as from the moment of injection to the mean between first and last appearance of the color. The volume of the pipe or other container between the two points is measured or calculated, and this gives the total volume of water which has passed the second point of observation in the recorded time. The velocity of water at any section can then be calculated. In this case the point of introduction of the color was in the mouth of the pipe in the gatehouse and the point of observation was at the tailrace weir opposite No. 7 unit, which is the first one served by this conduit. Adjustments necessary for the change in velocity in the penstock, etc., were made after further tests had been made on the latter. (For a more detailed description of this method see Engineering News of Sept. 23, 1915.) The loss of head was obtained by observing the water levels at the gatehouse and at the surge tank. The surge-tank riser served as a huge manometer, in which all ~~ 84 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. small fluctuations were damped, so that close readings were made possible by means of an attached mercury gauge. The difference in level of the water at these two points, which was corrected, in the case of the surge-tank readings, to allow for the velocity head of the water which passed the surge-tank connection, included, of course, the loss at entry to the pipe line. The engineers who made the tests found it impossible on account of the disturbance to measure the pressure of the water in the conduit immediately behind the gatehouse, where the only manhole for a con- siderable distance is located. Great care was exercised to obviate errors in observation or calculation. To obtain the coefficient of the conduit and plot a curve of losses for different veloci- ties of water involved a long series of observations and a large amount of computation. The coloring material used was potassium permanganate in the form of small crystals. It was advisable to use as little of the color as possible and still enough to enable the observer to distinguish it easily at the power-house weir. When the water was clear it required about two-thirds of a pint of crystals. Roily water required considerably more. The apparent loss of head measured in the conduit is the elevation of. water in the forebay minus the elevation of water in the surge tank. There are three corrections to be applied to this resultant figure. It is assumed that the elevation of water in the surge tank is lower than a pitot-tube reading in the conduit opposite the surge tank branch by an amount equal to the velocity head of the water passing the surge- tank branch. Hence this velocity head is added to the level of the water at the gatehouse to give the correct figure for entry loss plus conduit loss, plus distributor loss from gatehouse to surge-tank branch. The entry loss based on the judgment of the engineers and on data impossible to give herein was taken as one-quarter of the ie velocity head or axa)" The distributor loss from unit No. 7 to the surge-tank branch was obtained by experiment and checked by computation. These two quantities, namely, entry loss and distributor loss, were deducted from the total loss and the net loss in the conduit, due to friction and curves, obtained. By this method about 34 runs were made and computed during the summer of 1913 and 8 more during the summer of 1914. The total range of velocity was from 7 feet per second to 21 feet per second. The items under No. 41a, in Table 3, are not computed from the 42 runs mentioned in the last paragraph above, but are developed from a velocity-friction loss curve which is itself based on those 42 runs. From this curve the velocities and corresponding friction losses were chosen and the remaining hydraulic elements and the retardation factors in the various formulas computed. A study of these retardation factors indicates that this conduit is exceptionally smooth. Only in cases where conservation of head is of great value in dollars and cents would the expense of hand treat- ment, such as is described here, be warranted. If we take the coefficients of retardation at their face value, then this pipe will carry from 10 to 15 per cent more than an average pipe of the type that the writer has classified as of the highest commercial construction. However, it is to be borne in mind that the experiments on this conduit determined gross losses of head from which loss by friction alone must be developed under certain assumptions. While no criticism of the assumptions is made, still the fact remains that, had it been feasible to determine friction losses alone, it is quite possible that the seeming variation of 10 to 15 per cent mentioned above might have been much reduced. FLOW-LINE PIPES AND CONDUITS. No. 50, Experiment FF-1.—-22-inch jointed concrete pipe of South- ern California Edison Co., Mill Creek power plant, No. 2, California.— The description of the experiment upon this line, as taken from correspondence with Mr. Finkle reads: The pipe was made in 2-foot sections in the ordinary plain cement-pipe forms as used for that purpose, and consisted of 1 part Portland cement and 3 parts sand mixed Bul. 852, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XI. Fig. |.—INTERIOR, CONDUIT No. 2, ONTARIO POWER Co., NIAGARA FALLS, ONTARIO. Note from text that form scars were chipped down; then whole surface rubbed down with carborun- dum bricks. Fic. 2.—MINIMUM OF EROSION BY CLEAR WATER. After eight years’ service the conduit shown in figure 1 has not been eroded sufficiently to obliterate paint marks made on walls in 1910. As velocities reach 28 feet per second, this is remarkable puigence thet good concrete does not erode under sliding contact with clear water. This view taken arch 31, 1918. ant 2@ Lal (Sy Be eweeegom oe wee wi Nanet NcWeaw Oy Os Oe PLATE XII. TROT > a¢ ca 8ee, WAX OX ! : : ava a0%@ ai Seo avo! | peer: | KS SOY ee | x Z at Pai SKK UX INN 6 N ie 852, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bul. draulic radius, Rin feel. Hy 7 ‘ sy AN N : N \ N : A \ N \ N S NS Ss SN NN ZA ANN x Werks x A AN SS ES e: Saul| epin5 NS My NIN ee oO = Oee SS i oN 9 0 8a! . is ANN! ot i v} SS 18) 080) DS <4 Za 1 — < D> FC.Scobey. DIAGRAM FOR THE SOLUTION OF GENERAL PROBLEMS IN- VOLVING THE KUTTER FORMULA. From the intersection of R and n follow the guide lines to the inter- or from theintersection of s and V follow the guide lines to the intersection of R and n. For circular pipes remember that D , section of sand V 4] 2 ve THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. . 85 with fine gravel not exceeding 1 inch in diameter. The sections were joined together in the ordinary way with cement mortar mixed with 1 part cement to 2 parts fine sand. The line has tangents ranging in length from about 100 feet to 500 or 600 feet, and curves, none of which have a less radius than 15 feet. The slope was made uni- form at the rate of 10.56 feet per mile. This pipe line delivered at its lower end, when filled to its full capacity, 9.2 second- feet without any pressure at the intake, which was provided with an enlarged section for accelerating the flow of water in the pipe. It was observed that the pipe did not run full below the first 2,000 feet. Subsequently the upper 100 feet of the pipe were raised to accelerate the water a little more, after which numerous tests ‘were made to determine the greatest volume of water that could be passed through the pipe. From this I found that the pipe would carry the most water when filled within 1 inch of the top, or when carrying a depth of 21 inches of water. Under this condition the pipe delivered 9.8 second-feet of water. The discharge of the pipe was measured by means of a rectangular, fully contracted Francis type of weir in one-eighth inch steel plate, and head taken with hook gauge. The depth of water in the pipe, from which the velocity and hydraulic radius are computed, was measured by means of a straightedge and hook gauge at the manholes, which are located every 500 feet along the line. Instead of using a trowel to make the joints, as is ordinarily done, I made a brass band ring 10 inches wide, having spokes equipped with turnbuckles on the inside to vary its diameters, the ring being flexible and lapped to permit reducing or enlarging its cireumference. In making the joints the pipes were carefully laid and evenly joined, and mortar applied in the groove allaround. Then the brass ring, reduced in diameter to slip into place, was introduced and centered over the joint. By working the turnbuckles the ring was then expanded to fit the diameter of the pipe and its inside circumference, thus squeezing the mortar into the crack and the surplus out to the edges of the ring. Grasping the spokes, the ring was then turned around slowly about five times to give the joint a smooth surface, after which it was loosened and remoyed, and all surplus mortar removed with a trowel, in such amanner as not to mar the surface left by the ring. This method made the joint smoother than any other portion of the pipe, and, so far as the eye could detect, made the pipe continuous on the inside. Had the same method been used for the 31-inch pipe for Mill Creek No. 3 line (No. 51) and for the 36-inch pipe for Lytle Creek (No. 53) I have no doubt these would have given about the same value for n in Kutter’s formula. The nominal slope was used in computation. As shown in Table 11 the above test indicates the value of n to be about 0.0116 for this pipe. If truly representing the inner surface of the pipe, the joints were most carefully made and the pipe in excellent condition. (See discussion No. 51 following.) No. 51, Experiment FF-2.—31-inch jointed cement pipe of South- ern California Edison Co. Mill Creek power plant, No. 3, Cali- fornia.—The description of the experiment upon this lime, as taken from correspondence with Mr. Finkle, reads: The diameter of this pipe was 31 inches and it was given a slope of 10.56 feet per mile. Its length was between 5 and 6 miles, with a few interruptions in the line, where steel siphons were used to cross ravines. Having profited by my experience regarding accelerations at the intake, showing that the pipe would be full at the upper end and only partly filled at the lower end, I gave this line additional fall in its upper part, calculated by a formula for that purpose. This pipe was manufactured in the same way as the 22-inch pipe (No. 50, p. 84), . except that 1 part of cement was used and 4 parts of sand, containing considerable eravel, the largest of which was 14 inches in diameter. It ‘was made in 2-foot sections. and laid in the same manner as the 22-inch pipe. The result was that the maximum capacity of the pipe occurred when it was filled to within 14 inches of the top or when it only carried a depth of water of 294 inches. The carrying capacity of the pipe under these conditions was 19.72 second-tfeet. This line was laid in 1901 and tested the same year. There are numerous curves between the tangents of various lengths, but none of the curves has a radius of less than 20 feet. The discharge was determined by using a Francis type rectangular, fully contracted weir in three-sixteenths-inch steel plate, measuring head with a hook gauge. (See Pl. X, fig. 1.) _ The depths of water in the pipe, from which the velocity and hydraulic radius are computed, were measured by placing straightedge along inside of upper invert on 86 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. each side of manholes and using hook gauge from top of straightedge down to surface of water. The nominal slope of the pipe was taken in the computations of the retardation factors for the various formulas. As shown in Table 11, age 68, this experiment indicates a value of m in the Kutter formula of 0.0142, and so far as can be determined from the descriptions of this pipe and the 22-inch pipe the values are accounted for by the manner of making the joints. (See discussion No. 50 above.) No. 53, Experiment FF-3.—36-inch jointed cement pipe of Southern California Edison Co., Lytle power plant, California.—The description of the experiments upon this line, as taken from corre- spondence with Mr. Finkle, reads: ; This 36-inch line, laid in 1904, was given a slope of 5.28 feet per mile, and allowance made for acceleration of the water at the intake (as explained for pipes Nos. 50 and 51, which see also for manufacture of pipes). The pipe showed a delivery of water amounting to 20.06 second-feet, when running within 14 inches of the top, or with a depth of water equal to 344 inches in the pipe. In the year 1908 a second test showed the capacity had increased, so as to deliver 21.2 second-feet under the same conditions as it previously delivered 20.06 second-feet. Investigation showed that this was due to a fine deposit of carbonate of lime formed on the interior of the pipe, almost making a glazed surface over the cement. This was deposited by the water of Lytle Creek, which contains considerable lime carried in the water in the form of bicarbonate. This line contains numerous curves between tangents of various lengths, but none of the curves has a radius less than 34 feet. The discharge was determined by passing water over a rectangular, fully contracted Francis-type weir in three-sixteenths-inch steel plate, and depth was observed with a hook gauge. The immediate intake was tapered from 44 to 36 inches in diameter (see Pl. X, fig.2). The depths of water in the pipe, from which the velocity and hy- draulic radius are computed, were measured by holding a straightedge against the upper invert on each side of the manholes and measuring from the top of straight- edge in manholes to the surface of the water. The nominal slope of the pipe was taken in computing the retarda- tion factors for the various formulas. According to the experiments, the glazing action of the lime improved the value of n from 0.0145 when the pipe was new to 0.0138 when it was 4 years old. Experiments at the end of, say, 10 years might show a very efficient surface but a decrease in eau | due to throttling of the water section, assuming the deposition of lime to continue. No. 54, Experiment Ehle-1—Victoria Aqueduct, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada.—Water was first turned into this pipe line on May 14, 1915 (see Nos. 30 and 31). On May 23 and 24, 1915, Boyd Khle conducted a series of tests to determine the friction factor nm in the Kutter formula.t As shown in Table 11, p. 68, the range of these tests extended from 3.36 second-feet flowing with a depth of but 8% inches up to 40.59 second-feet which filled the pipe, thus extending through the transition from an open channel a e., with water surface exposed to the air) to a pipe running full of water. It is not often that an installation is such that the behavior of water may be studied through this transition, as a pressure pipe is full of water, whatever the discharge, and a flow-line pipe as a rule is protected against complete filling by spillways near the upper end of the line. The reach covered by this series was 800 feet long. The upper end is near the pipe-line intake at Sooke Lake. The discharge was measured over an 8.02-foot sharp-crested rectangular weir, corrected 1 Engin. Rec., Oct. 2, 1915, vol. 72, p. 409. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 87 for velocity of approach. The depth of water upstream from the weir crest was 3.40 feet and the end contractions 1.50 feet and 1.55 feet, respectively. For all discharges less than 17.0 second-feet, the bottom and end contractions were in excess of two times the head on the weir. For greater discharges than the above, the end con- tractions are not sufficient to give standard conditions. The mean velocity for any particular run of water was taken as the discharge divided by the mean of the areas of the water sections at the two ends of the reach. The slope was taken as the constructed slope of the pipe line, a fall of 1 foot per 1,000 feet of pipe.’ The reach tested consisted of about equal amounts of tangent and curve, as is typical of this line, but did not include any of the siphon pipes. There is so much curvature on this line (50 per cent) and the individual curves are as a rule so sharp that the values of the coefficients of retardation may be taken as for a very smooth pipe with an excess of curvature. In other words, the average pipe with the same type of construction would probably show even more favorable carrying qualities. No. 55, Experiment Ehle-2.—42-inch reinforced concrete flow line, Victoria Aqueduct, Vancouver Island, British Columbia, Canada.— With the following modifications the same discussion applies to this reach as to No. 54 above: After flowing for 27 miles through a flow-line pipe, except for six inverted siphons, laid on a uniform grade of 1 foot fall per 1,000 feet of pipe, the water wells up through 110 holes 4 inches square from an outlet chamber just upstream from an 8.04-foot weir similar in construction to the one at the intake, except that the depth from the perforated floor to the crest of the weir is 1.88 feet and the end contractions are 5.5 feet each. For all observations the end con- tractions were more than twice the head on the weir; but the bottom contraction did not conform to standard conditions for a discharge greater than 17 second-feet. This series of observations was made on a reach of pipe about 800 feet long, just upstream from the weir described above where the discharge was measured. No. 58, Experiment JBL-1.—Tunnel No. 15, San Gabriel plant, Pacific Light & Power Co., California—Just before starting the con- struction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct a series of experiments was made on both open an covered concrete channels, located in southern California. The measurements, made by Charles H. Lee and D. L. Reaburn, were reported by J. B. Lippincott? under whose direction the experiments were conducted. (See p. 11 for Mr. Lippincott’s conclusions.) Of this tunnel he writes: The section is rectangular, 44 feet wide and 4 feet deep, with a semicircular arch, and fished with a 1 to 3 cement-mortar plaster. There was no vegetable growth in the tunnel which could be felt or seen. The tunnel has been in use for eight years. There is a slight curve at the upper portal. Discharge measurement was made on tangent above the curve. Twenty feet beyond lower portal there was a sharp angle in alignment. 1Jn the opinion of the writer the slope should have been taken as the fall of the surface of the water in the pipe, corrected for changes in the velocity head due to changes in the areas of the water sections at the two ends of thereach. However, his own experience on this same pipe indicates that practically the con- structed value for the slope is obtained when determined by the surface fall with the above corrections. (See column 13, Table 11, opposite pipe No. 56.) 2 Observations to determine the value os Cand 7 as used in the Kutter formula by Jj. B. Lippincott, Engin. News, June 6, 1907, vol. 57, p. 612. 88 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The discharge was measured with a current meter. Depths were determined from a horizontal straightedge. On account of rough topography, floor elevations as furnished by the company were accepted in computing the slope of the water surface. The value of n was found to be 0.0127. (Seep. 11 for Mr. Lippincott’s conclusions.) No. 59, Experiment JBL-2.—Tunnel No. 23 of the same system as above.—Of this experiment Mr. Lippincott writes:1 This test was made at tunnel No. 23 of the samesystem. Conditions were similar in all respects, except for slight curves just below north portal and above south portal. The length of tunnel is 318 feet and grade of floor 0.00095 foot per foot; n here was 0.0115. (See p. 11 for Mr. Lippincott’s conclusions.) No. 60, Experiments JBL-5 and 6.—Main supply conduit for Los Angeles, Calif.—These tests are described as follows: These were on the main supply conduit for Los Angeles, near the old ostrich farm, several miles north of Los Angeles. It is covered and has been in use four years. The length of section was 700 feet, being between two manholes. A curve occurred on this section. The wetted perimeter was very smooth, apparently of a 1 to 3 cement mortar. There was no sand, moss, or vegetable growth of any kind. Experiment 5 was at the upper and 6 at the lower manhole. The grade of the floor was the same as that of the water surface. The surface was a cement plaster on concrete. The value of 7 here was 0.0112 and 0.0109. (See p. 11.) No. 61, Experiment AFB-1.—Loch -Katrine Aqueduct, Glasgow, Scotland.—The concrete-lined portion of the new aqueduct from Loch Katrine to Glasgow was tested in 1895 by A. F. Bruce Of the construction he writes: Open frames of 6-inch by 2-inch battens were first placed in position and three- fourth-inch tongued and grooved boards, smeared with soft soap, nailed to the frames horizontally as the concrete was filled in. Every possible precaution was taken by working with spades to obtain a good face, and except where some defects showed themselves, no redressing was afterwards necessary. About 53 per cent of the aqueduct was lned. The section units were from 12 to 15 feet long, generally 12 feet. The reach tested was straight. The quantity of water was measured over a weir. The depths of water in the aqueduct were read on gauge rods in the chambers. Water at the lower end was checked by the fact that one siphon gate below the reach under test was closed. The lined section is 9 feet 1 inch wide on the bottom, with the invert dished 6 inches. The sides batter until at the spring line the a is 10 feet. The rise of the arch is 3 feet. Depth over all is 9 teet. Most of the observations indicate a correct value of n for this new channel of about 0.0124. No. 62, Experiment P-1.—Aqueduct of the Serrino, Naples, Italy.— In 1896 Perrone wrote® of a test made on the aqueduct of the Ser- rino, at Naples, Italy. This channel, of pure cement, polished, had vertical sides and elliptical bottom. The discharge was measured with a current meter. The value of n, being but 0.0107, indicates the workmanship and lack of slime to be all that the short descrip- tion implies. 1 Observations to determine the value of Cand 7 as used in the Kutter formula by J. B. Lippincott, Engin. News, June 6, 1907, vol. 57, p. 612. 2 Observation on the Flow of Water in the New Aqueduct from Loch Katrine; Glasgow Corporation Waterworks, A. F. Bruce, Paper No. 2921, Pro. Inst. Civil Engineers, Vol. CX XIII, 1895-96, part 1, p. 410 8 Zoppi, Sul Volturno, Carte Hydrographique d’Italia; The Flow of Water, by Louis Schmeer, New York 1909, pp. 46, 80, 93. , THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 89 No. 63, Experiment F-S.—Sudbury Aqueduct, Metropolitan water works, Boston, Mass.—Alphonse Fteley and F. P. Stearns conducted a series of experiments upon the Sudbury. Aqueduct in 1880.’ The conduit was new, of horseshoe shape, 9 feet wide and 7.7 feet high. The discharge was measured over a weir. This aqueduct contained sections lined with brick alone, and also sections lined with a coating of cement mortar over the brick. After stating that the capacity of the brick section is represented by the formula V=127R°-“s°*, they add: When the inside of the conduit is lined with a coating of mortar made of fine Port- land cement, its flowing capacity is from 7 to 8 per cent greater. This coating, though applied with floats, did not present as smooth a surface as was obtained in other por- tions of the conduit, where experiments would probably have given higher results. In some parts of the conduit where the brick surface was covered with a wash of Port- land cement laid with a brush, the flowing capacity was increased to the extent of from 1 to 3 per cent. Note that the exponents in the above formula are the same as those adopted by the writer. Also see discussion by Mr. Hazen on page 97. For the cement-lined section their formula would have read V=137 R°-5°5, which becomes, in terms used by the writer (see p. 49), V=0.394d°-"H°>, indicating a capacity about 6 per cent greater than the formula for the best grade of construction as suggested by the writer. Nos. 65, 66, and 67, Experiment H.—108-inch cement-washed brick sewer, North Metropolitan sewerage system, Boston, Mass.2— Theodore Horton describes experiments conducted upon a 9-foot circular brick sewer, the interior of which had been washed with cement mortar. So far as carrying capacity is concerned, the pipe is of cement. Extending over a period of several years, these tests show what may be expected with the lapse of time, when sewage is con- veyed in a concrete or cement lined channel. Below the East Boston pumping station the cross section of the sewer is a 9-foot circle for 2,000 feet; thence a horseshoe shape of the same area as the circle for 2,000 feet; thence another 9-foot circle for an additional 3,000 feet. A uniform gradient of 1 foot fall in 3,000 feet is maintained. The exact length of reach tested is not disclosed, but the statement is made that simultaneous measurements of depth showed the flow line above the horseshoe cross section to be parallel to the invert. Thus the nominal grade of the line might be accepted without correc- tion for any change in the velocity due to nonparallel flow. The discharge was determined with carefully conducted current-meter gaugings and the cross section by actual measurement. The first series was made in 1896, 10 months after the system at this point had been put in operation. The next series was made in 1897, after these channels had been in operation about 26 months, during which time ample opportunities for changes in the carrying capacity had taken place. The third series was made in 1900. The sides of the sewer, above and below the average water line, were covered with a thin coating of grease of a leaden color, and supported an organic growth, prob- ably of a fungus nature. By this time there were slight incrusta- tions at frequent intervals, ne to barely visible seepage of ground water, and the growth, while not much heavier, covered a greater 1 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civil. Engin. vol. 12, p.17. See also Jour. Assoc. Eng. Socs. vol. 26, p. 163. 2 Trans. Amer. Soc. Civ. Eng., 46 (1901), p. 78. 90 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. area on the sides of the sewer. The incrustation seemed slightly heavier, but the organic growth did not show any marked increase over that at the time of the 1897 tests. In his discussion Mr. Horton accepts the value of n of 0.0117 for 1896, of 0.0127 for 1897, and of 0.0133 for 1900. (See Table 11, p. 69 for individual values of each observation.) He notes that the de- posits of grease and of organic matter were greatest on the sides, especially near the line of average flow; that the bottom was clean scoured by sand and other heavy particles. In his discussion on these experiments, Rudolph Hering mentions several cases where the deposit exceeded that noted by Horton. Mr. G. C. Whipple brings out the point that the organisms which ow in sewers are vegetable forms of a very low type, while those ound in water pipes belong to the animal kingdom—fresh-water sponges, etc. The results of these tests would indicate that sewage undoubted] coats a cement surface to such an extent that an exceptionally aHiboth interior surface would not long contribute to a high capacity, as would be the case for most clear waters. By the same deposits, on the other hand, a very rough interior might be so smoothed over that the capacity will be increased, provided the sewage was suffi- ciently diluted with surface or other ordinary waters, thus preventing excessive deposits. Nos. 68, 69, and 70, Experiment H-2.—Basket-handle cement- washed brick sewer, North Metropolitan sewerage system, Boston, Mass.—Simultaneously with the tests described as Nos. 65, 66, and 67, Horton also made experiments upon the basket-handle section adjoining the circular section. The shape was 6 feet by 6% feet, but otherwise similar in construction to the circular section. The general description under the latter applies also to this section. The difference in the values of nm for the two shapes would indicate that a better surface is obtained in a circular form than upon plane faces, or those requiring hand troweling. A review of tests for carrying capacity shows this fact to be quite general. No. 71, Experiment M-4.—Cut-and-cover sections of the Hsopus division, Catskill Aqueduct, New York State.—-Long reaches of the Catskill Aqueduct were constructed as flow-line sections, as dis- tinguished from the reaches under pressure. These sections are of the cut-and-cover type, a concrete horseshoe 174 feet wide and 17 feet high. The invert, 16 inches thick, was laid first, in alternate panels each 15 feet long. After the forms had been filled— The work is screeded with a 16-foot length of 3-inch circular steel shafting, which is rolled along the top of the forms, bearing on the web plates and the horizontal legs of the angle irons riveted to them. Great care is taken to obtain a smooth finished surface. For the walls and arch, steel forms in 5-foot units bolted into 15- foot sections were used. From invert to arch any one section was completed at one pouring. After the oiled forms were in position, four men crawled between the forms, two on each side. As the concrete, a wet mix in a ratio of about 1 to 3 to 5, was poured in 1 Engin Ree. vol. 61 Jan. 8, 1910; vol. 62, Nov. 5, 1910; Water Works Handbook, Flinn, Weston and Bogert, New York, 1916, p. 271. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 91 from the top, these men spaded it away from the inside form, so that the inner surface of the conduit is very smooth. (See Pl. IX, fig. 2.) Simultaneously with the hydraulic experiments upon the tunnels and cement-lined pressure pipes described on pages 80 to 83, inclusive, measurements were made on three reaches of the cut-and-cover flow lines. For nearly half the runs nonparallel flow was indicated. That is to say, the slope of the water surface was either greater or less than the slope of the invert. The computations were not com- leted for such runs, but for all runs where the flow was uniform the ydraulic elements are given in Table 11, page 70. The quantity was measured by Venturi meter, as described for the pressure con- duits. The areas and wetted perimeters of the water sections were determined by measurements from arch intrados to water surface. The velocities were computed from the continuity equation Meri The coefficients of retardation indicate that quite high efficiencies are perfectly feasible in conduits of great size if care is taken to work the concrete mix into close contact with smooth forms and if care is exercised in moving the forms so that no offsets or shoulders are developed. A glance at the items in Table 11, page 70, shows the same indication toward incipient fouling that was found in the ex- periments on the pressure tunnels and pipes. The sequence of tests is Shown by the order of observation numbers. For any given reach of conduit the retardation factors indicate a rougher surface from day to day when the water is first turned into a conduit. DISCUSSION OF “ FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE.” + By Kennera Aten, Sanitary Engineer, Board of Estimate and Apportionment, New York City; Artaur 8. Bent, Engineering Contractor, Los Angeles, Calif.; F. C. FINKLE, Consulting Engineer, Los Angeles, Calif.; AttEn Hazen, Consulting ‘Engineer, New York City; J. B. Liprrncort, Consulting Engineer, Los Angeles, Calif.; H. D. Neweru, Project Manager, Umatilla Project, United States Recla- mation Service, Hermiston, Oreg. DISCUSSION BY MR. ALLEN. It is fortunate that in these times of soaring prices for cast-iron pipe a competing material for many purposes is found in reinforced concrete, for a careful perusal of the author’s important and exhaus- tive investigation demonstrates that if we can be sure of the best material and fabrication, this material can be safely used—at least under reasonable head—and with economy. In estimates for a 48-inch force main 12,350 feet long, based upon prices ruling in the summer of 1916, there was found a saving of $84,000 by the adoption of precast concrete pipe instead of cast iron, or 44 per cent of the cost for the latter. The difference to-day (Feb. 16, 1918) would be still greater. Precast concrete pipe appears to be particularly well adapted to sewer construction for several reasons: Joints are infrequent and consequently infiltration should be small; the width of trench is a minimum, causing less inconvenience to traffic and reducing the excavation; there will be little danger from corrosion due to acids sometimes observed with cast iron when used for sewers; and, finally, instead of a marked decrease in carrying capacity, due to tubercles, it would appear that the excellent surface obtained when first laid is subject to little deterioration from time. This means that for the same ultimate capacity we may assume no larger diameters and gradients, and possibly less, than for cast iron—certainly less than would be justified with ordinary brickwork or mass concrete. There- fore the best precast pipe would seem particularly adapted to the construction of those sewers where, on account of the flat topography or in order to reach the outlet at the desired elevation without pumping, minimum gradients must be employed. With a sewer 4 feet in diameter, for instance, and with a minimum velocity when flowing full of 24 feet per second, the frictional loss per mile will be with— New cast-iron pipe=2.11 feet (Williams and Hazen formula Cy—1380). Old cast-iron pipe =5.17 feet (Williams and Hazen formula Cy=80). Ordinary mass concrete =2.72 feet (author’s formula Cs=0.31). Best precast concrete =1.91 feet (author’s formula C;=0.37). In other words, under the conditions assumed, the friction loss with cast-iron pipe will vary from 1.1 to 2.7 and with ordinary con- crete work will amount to 1.4 times that to be had with the best precast concrete pipe. With any concrete pipe subjected to pressure, as in the case of slabs, bins, or concrete ships, reliance must be placed on the excellence 1 The original manuscript of the preceding paper was submitted to the men named, who in their varied experiences are familiar with concrete pipes for the conveyance of water forirrigation, power, and municipal use, and also for the conveyance of sewage. Criticism and discussion of the manuscript were asked for. Acknowledgment is now made of the time and labor expended gratuitously in preparing the discussion and comments given here. Throughout the discussion “the writer” will refer to the name heading that particular part of the discussion and ‘‘the author’’ will refer to the autuor of the paper. 92 THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 93 of the material and workmanship entering into the structure. Thorough inspection is quite as important as careful design and well-drawn specifications to avoid the possibility of failure. DISCUSSION BY MR. BENT. The author has reached a conclusion that in an empirical and ignorant way I reached many years ago. Our own struggle in laying concrete pipe lines has been, as the result of these conclusions, to secure the greatest possible smoothness of joints. I think we began to realize the importance of this shortly before we built the 12-mile line in Boulder Canyon, which the author has mentioned, and it was very interesting to learn that after these years of service he found the line carrying the quantity of water for which it was figured. At the time we were laying it, the Central Colorado Power Co.’s engineers were in a very anxious state of mind because some one had accidentally used a lower value for n than the chiefs later on approved, but it was then too late to change the diameter of the pipe. It was freely predicted that there would be bitter disappointment in the amount of water delivered. We tried to have the disappointment on the right side and succeeded by care in the work. The entire line was laid by us under contract and the joints inside and outside were made of 1: 2 mortar put on solely with a trowel. I used to talk about 0.012 being perfectly safe for n and 0.011 as being perfectly attainable. I still believe this was right, but it is so difficult to control field conditions that for some time we have pushed these values up one figure, and that seems to be about the conclusion ~ the author has reached. DISCUSSION BY MR. FINKLE. From experience with the manufacture of concrete pipe and its use, the writer has come to the conclusion that the carrying capacity of such a pipe is almost entirely in the hands of the engineer having charge of its design and construction. This statement relates more to the ordinary gravity-flow concrete pipes made in 2-foot sections and joined in the trench, but it will also apply in a considerable degree to other classes of concrete and cement pipes. Three points are important in attaining a at carrying capacity of concrete pipes. These may be briefly stated as follows: First, use as wet a mixture as possible and thoroughly settle the concrete in the forms, making every effort to have gravel and crushed rock in the mixture covered by a film of the fine sand and cement mix- ture on the inside of the pipe. This object can be attained by using more forms, so the sections can remain longer in the forms and a wetter mixture can be employed. ‘The increased cost of this will be slight, as it will only be the interest on investment and wear and tear of the additional forms. Second, in laying the pipes the joints must be carefully made so that there will be no projections or rough places where the sections are united. ‘This can be accomplished by using the revolving brass pnd described in connection with the author’s No. 50, experiment L Third, careful attention must be paid to the alignment and grade on which the pipe is laid. This is important, as it eliminates irregu- larities in flow due to uneven bottoms and angles or irregularities. 94. BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The writer’s experience has been that curves should have a radius of not less than six times the diameter of the pipe. If these precautions are taken there is no reason why concrete pipes can not beso produced as to have a value of n=0.011, or even 0.0105 in Kutter’s formula. It is therefore principally a question of engi- neering, which I am sorry to say has been greviously neglected in connection with concrete pipe work in the past. Little light can be thrown on the possible carrying capacity of concrete pipes by iy a most of the old pipes of ie class found in southern California, as they were nearly all laid out without any engineering supervision, or a proper survey to give uniform grade and proper alignment. A review of the author’s experiments on these old pipes clearly prove this point. In practice, the carrying capacity of concrete pipes, in common with other kinds, is often greatly reduced by the entrance of air at the intake. It is often customary to take the water into a pipe line from the overfall of a Francis weir for measuring it. The effect of this is to cause a large volume of air to be carried into the pipe with the water. The writer has often found this condition in connection with concrete pipes in southern California and elsewhere, and, after correcting it, has increased the carrying capacity of the line from 10 to 20 per cent. The examples of concrete pipe given by the author, with which the writer was connected, are the 36-inch Boulder Creek concrete pipe line in Colorado, designated No. 52, experiment S 41, for eich work he prepared the specifications and acted as consulting engineer. The experiment from which the author obtains a value of n=0.012 was near the upper end of this pipe. If the test had been made at a point farther down the line it is probable that a value of n=0.0116, or better, would have been obtained, the same as for the Mill Creek No. 2 pipe (No. 50, experiment FF 1), because the two pipes were manufactured and laid in the same summer. It has been well demonstrated as a hydraulic principle that there is a slight but constant acceleration of the velocity in long gravity- flow pipe lines of this kind, and the writer has found a difference in the value of n near the upper and lower ends of such pipes, where all the conditions were exactly alike. This phenomenon has been referred to by some authorities and called by the name ‘‘Constant acceleration in gravity conduits.” Both the Boulder pipe (No. 52, experiment S 41) and the Mill Creek No. 2 pipe (No. 50, experiment KF 1) were made and laid by day work under careful engineering supervision, which explains the results obtained as to carrying capacity, although these pipes were both made in 2-foot sections by the dry-mix process. Itis the opinion of the writer that, had these pipes been made with wet mix, they would have showed a value of n=0.0105, or probably even a little better. As to the other two pipes, for which the writer was engineer, namely Mill Creek No. 3 (No. 51, experiment FF 2) and Lytle Creek (No. 53, experiment FF 3), it must be remembered that both of these were installed by contract and without proper precautions in regard to making the joints, which is wholly responsible for the higher value of n and less carrying capacity of these pipes. : From the above and from all other experiences of the writer, his conclusion is that the values of n given by the author, as applicable to the best constructed pipes, which can be produced by the dry-mix THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 95 method, are as stated by the author, namely, for from 12 to 24 inch pipes n= 0.011; from 26 to 48 inch pipe n=0.0115; and for pipes over 50 inches in diameter n= 0.012. On the other hand, pipes made with a wet mix and laid with equal care by using the brass-band device, or some other method for making the joints smooth, should show better results, probably about as follows: For pipes 12 to 24 inches in diameter, n=0.010 to n=0.0105. For pipes 26 to 48 inches in diameter, n—0.0105 to n=0.011. For pipes over 50 inches in diameter, n=—0.011 to n=0.0115. _ In reference to the decrease of carrying capacity in concrete pipes, after they are laid, the writer has formed the following opinions from his own personal observations: First. There is no risk of interfering with the oariyine capacity of concrete pipes on account of roots entering them if they are properly made and laid. There is no case of record where roots have entered cement pipes, unless they were made without being properly tamped, or the spaces in making field joints were not properly filled with mortar. In this respect concrete pipes are different from vitrified-clay pipes, from which it is very difficult to exclude the roots of certain trees. This difference is due to the fact that it is not easy to cause proper adhesion between cement mortar and vitrified clay, when making field joints, while perfect adhesion between a concrete pipe section section and the mortar used for making joints can always be had, so as to eliminate all possibility of roots entering at the joints. Second. Some concrete pipes have become deteriorated through scour, the surface having become pitted and rough. Several cases of this kind have been observed by the writer in southern California. Such instances, however, are due to one of two things, either on account of too little cement in the concrete from which the pipes were made, or subjecting properly made pipes to unreasonable water velocities, particularly when the water carries sand or silt. Proper engineering will prevent anything of this kind, as every case where it has been done is an instance of design and construction without proper engineering advice. Third. It is possible, under many conditions, to have accretions occur on the interior of concrete pipes, whereby their capacity will be decreased. The most frequent cause of this is the deposition of mineral carried by the water in solution, either in its pure form or combined with silt and sand, carried by the water in suspension. As shown by the author, the most common mineral causing depo- sition on the interior of concrete pipes in southern California is bicarbonate of lime, and this will apply equally to any other locality where waters contain bicarbonate of lime in solution. Unless the water is very heavily impregnated with bicarbonate of lime and the velocity in the pipe is rapid, the deposition is very slow and would require a long time to make much change in the capacity of a pipe line, unless the water also carries such matter as silt, sand, and fine gravel in suspension. The writer has observed that the deposition of bicarbonate of lime is much more rapid from water which is warm than from cold water. This observation was made in connection with steel and iron pipes in the domestic water system in the city of Rialto, San Bernardino County, Calif., which carried water from Lytle Creek. Attention was 96 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, first called to the matter about 10 years ago, when it was discovered that a film of bicarbonate of lime had been deposited on the interior of the 36-inch concrete pipe line (No. 53, experiment FF 3) referred to in the author’s treatise. The writer then made an examination of the steel and iron pipes in the domestic water system at Rialto, carrying the same kind of water, and found these pipes coated in the same manner as the concrete pipe, the thickness of the accretion depending upon the length of time dur- ing which the pipe had been in service. Some of these iron and steel pipes had been laid since the year 1885, and during the 20 years of their use had accumulated from one-fourth to three-eighths of an inch coating on the inside. After that two ex- erimental steel pipes were installed for observing the effect of water. ne of these was placed in position in the month of November, and when observed again the following April there was very little evidence of any deposit. At the same time, another pipe section was installed new, just below the one which had been in use from November to April, and an observation was made on each the following October, which showed that both of them had become thinly coated with a deposit resulting from bicarbonate of lime in the water. As the only aiereioe in the conditions was the temperature of the water, which was cold during the winter and warm during the summer, the con- clusions were that the warmer the water the more rapid would be the deposit in the pipe. Another instance of deposit from water carrying bicarbonate of lime in solution on the interior of a steel pipe was observed by the writer in connection with a 36-inch steel ApH carrying the waters from the Southern California Edison Co.’s Lytle Creek power plant from the tailrace of the plant across the canyon to the intake of the Fontana Development Go's canal. In 1916 the floods washed out a small section of this pipe, revealing the broken ends of the pipe still in place. On the interior was a deposit of about one-eighth of an inch in thick- ness over the asphaltum coating. This pipe line was a steel riveted pipe, dipped in asphaltum accord- ing to the practice in southern California, and was installed new by the writer in the summer of 1904, and had therefore been in use for over a period of 11 years, when it was broken by the floods and observed. The deposit seemed to form over the asphaltum in exactly the same manner as it had been observed to form over the bare steel and iron surfaces in some of the pipes in the Rialto domestic water system. The conclusion from all of the above is that deposits from water impregnated with mineral will form on the interior of any kind of a pipe, and that concrete pipes have no greater affinity in attracting such deposits than other classes of pipe. DISCUSSION BY MR. HAZEN. The author deserves a great deal of credit for making a large number of useful tests of the frictional resistance of water in concrete pipes. These pipes are now used to an important extent, and they are sure to find increasing application. There is a great diversity in the methods of making concrete and cement pipes, and it is not surprising to find from the tests that the coefficients vary through a wide range. It may be suggested that the coefficients depend to some extent upon the quality of water, and not alone upon the smoothness of THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 97 the pipe. In the writer’s experience it has been found that reservoir waters carrying microorganisms sometimes foul pipes rapidly, and decrease carrying capacities to an important extent. This has been a vital matter with some pipe lines in this country andin England. The reduction in carrying capacity from organism may be in part, or mainly, temporary, and capacity may be restored soon after the organisms of the particular kind that cause trouble cease to be found in the water through natural causes, or by the application of copper sulphate. On the other hand, the conditions may become chronic with some reservoir waters. The matter is one that must be taken into account, and it will not do to assume that the variation in carrying capacity of concrete pipe is only due to the character of the surface of the pipe itself. | The author is to be particularly commended for making use of various approximate methods of measuring water. If he had insisted upon some one method thought to be more accurate than the others, it would have reduced the number of possible experiments. The methods used by him seem to have been sufficiently accurate. Efforts to obtain precision, while often commendable, may seriously limit the accumulation of useful data. - The writer is pleased to see that the Williams and Hazen formula still holds its own. He has used it in all his hydraulic work for 15 years, and found that, as an all-around working basis of estimate, it answers very well. | There is a distinct advantage in using only one formula, for one becomes thoroughly accustomed to it, accumulates his data in its terms, can much better judge all varying conditions, and is less likely to make errors in its application. ; The formula proposed by the author for cement pipes, V=@, H°*d°-°>, is unquestionably a good one and well adapted to the use. Asa practical matter, within the ordinary range of velocities, it would not make much difference whether it or the Williams and Hazen for- mula were used. Only at very low or-very high velocities would the difference become considerable. The formula proposed by the author has some interesting ante- cedents. The number of exponential formule has become so great in recent years that the range of exponents is well taken up, and any exponent that may be selected will be found to have been already used by someone. . Thus the Moritz formula referred to by the author at length in his paper is, in reality, the old Lampe formula, which antedates its use by Moritz by several decades. In a similar way the formula now proposed by the author for cement pipe is an old one. In 1882, Alphonse Fteley, then city engineer of Boston, found that it best accounted for the flow of water at various depths in two sections of the Sudbury Aqueduct.t He wrote it: V=127 R°-” 7°°° J stood for inclination, and is equivalent to s now used. (See pipe No. 63, “The formula now proposed by the author was also reached by the writer in 1901 by a reconsideration of hydraulic data presented by Mr. Fenkell.? 1 Boston Water Works, Additional Supply from Sudbury River, City Document, p. 92. 2 Jour. Assoc. Engin. Socs., vol. 26, p. 163. 164725°—20—Bull. 852——7 98 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, The formula V=130 R°° s °° was suggested for new pipe (and otherwise with varying value of the coefficient) as being more con- sistent and quite as accurate as some other procedures that had preceded. Following this, a simple hydraulic-slide rule was made to calculate pipe friction by it. This permitted a great increase in rapidity of estimate. The writer used these homemade rules for a year or two in his daily work, and made a number of them for his friends. He was well satisfied with the estimates that were reached by theiruse. Later the interest in hydraulic-slide rules increased, and there was a demand for more of them, and it was decided to have them made in quantity. Before doing this a careful reconsideration of the exponents was made by Prof. Gardiner 8S. Williams, which led to the adoption of those which have since come to be associated with the Williams and Hazen formula. This Williams and Hazen formula was intended to represent more accurately all round average waterworks conditions than the earlier one, which was identical with that one now proposed by the author, and the writer thinks that for such general use it is an improvement. It may be pointed out that a slight variation in the exponents does not make a very great difference in ordinary estimates. Precision in the values of the exponents is not to be expected and is not necessary. It is only desirable that the formula that is used should have exponents that do not differ too widely from the actual facts. With such a formula the important matter is a study of the coeffi- cients to find out whether these coefficients are affected by variations in the condition and smoothness of pipe surface, and by the character of the water that flows through the pipe. At the present time study of coefficients is much more useful than further study of minute differences in exponents. The writer is glad to see that the author is taking up his data along these lines. DISCUSSION BY MR. LIPPINCOTT. I have had a good deal to do with the construction of large concrete pipes, 10 to 12 feet in diameter, and the following observations may possibly be of interest: Concrete will expand and contract with wetting and drying in much the same way that it does between heat and cold, and in order to prevent shrinkage cracks coming from drying, the concrete pipe or conduit should be kept just as moist as possible during the period in which it is curing and until it has been actually put into service. In the case of large pipe particularly this can be accomplished by putting some water into the pipe and by closing the ends of the pipe after it is built so as to prevent the circulation of dry air through the pipe. I have known concrete pipe that has developed circular shrinkage cracks which leaked badly when water was first put in, and to close up after the water had been running through them for seven or eight days, I believe because of the expansion of the concrete due to its becoming saturated. By taking pains in the manner suggested with the construction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct in the Mona Desert, preventing the drying out of the concrete by circulation of air, mile after mile of this ditch could be built without any expansion joints and without any cracks developing. THE FLOW OF WATER IN CONCRETE PIPE. 99 It is suggested that concrete pipe, especially where it is to be laid on or near the surface of the ground, should where possible be built in cool weather rather than hot weather, both because of the tem- perature of the air and also on account of the temperature of the water. If the pipe is built in warm weather it is apt to shrink in cold weather and when cold water is run through it in such a way as to develop objectionable circular cracks. In 1907 or 1908, at the time the Los Angeles Aqueduct was being designed, investigation was made to determine the value of the coefficient n in the Kutter formula in a number of the conduits of southern California. The result of these investigations was pub- lished about that time in the Engineering News over my signature. An interesting feature that developed as a result of these investiga- tions was that the carrying capacity of the ditch and the value of the coefficient varied immensely with the question of whether the particular ditch or conduit was exposed to the rays of the sun or whether it was covered. If it were covered, the lining kept clean and smooth, but when it was exposed to the action of the sun a vegetable growth immediately set in. The growth resembled both the lichens on stone and long streaming grass. The result was. that we found values of 7m of about 0.012 for ordinary covered conduits, and anywhere from 0.014 to 0.018 for these uncovered conduits.t It was also observed that in ditches where the sand-box arrange- ments were poor that small bars of sand would follow down the conduit or even through the pipe lines and very materially, in fact totally, change the carrying capacities of the ditch. In other words, the capacity of the ditch is affected by the provisions that are made to remove sand and gravel that might otherwise enter. My experience is that plastered conduits of any kind should if possible be covered. It fas been found by experiments made, I think at the University of Michigan, that the expansion and con- traction of concrete varies greatly with the richness of the mix, the richer mixes expanding more than the leaner mixes. It is customary to make the plaster richer than the main bulk of the concrete in order to get a smoother surface. The different rates of expansion and contraction of the body of the concrete and the plaster is largely responsible for the scaling of the plaster. If a plaster is desired it should have about the same ratio of sand to cement as is used in the main mix between sand and cement, and much more labor should be put on than ordinarily in producing the smooth surface. By careful forming in conduits and by troweling it is found to be possible in He. cases to obtain a perfectly smooth surface without the use ol plaster. I believe that it is entirely possible to build a joimted concrete pipe that roots will not enter. A number of years ago I made an examination of the irrigation system at Rialto. This was all built of cement pipe which had been im service for a term of years, perhaps 15 or 20. The pipe ran under trees of all classes and kinds—cypress, eucalyptus, orange, and lemon trees and deciduous fruits. We cut into the pipe in many places and by means of mirrors threw the light back through the pipe so that it could be carefully examined. The pipe was clean, in every instance showing evidence of course of 1 The above experiments are described as Nos. 58, 59, and 66. 100 BULLETIN 852, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, very careful work, but demonstrating to my mind that it was possible to build a cement pipe that roots would not enter. This was a joited cement pipe built by Mr. Stowell, of Los Angeles. The “examination was being made for purposes of reorganization. DISCUSSION BY MR. NEWELL. With respect to the liability of concrete pipe to show decreased carrying capacity with age, my experience may be of some value. February 26, 1918, I inspected the interior of three concrete pipe lines, the R,, D,, and M pipes. de Bpe (No. 32 and 38a).—Interior diameter 46 inches; thickness of shell 3 inches; laid in winter of 1909-10; in use 8 years. The interior for several hundred feet from the intake appeared as good as when first laid. The impressions of rivet heads in the steel forms were clearly visible in the concrete. For the first few pipe lengths from the intake there had been a very slight abrasion on the bottom _of the pipe. It is over this stretch that the water flows freely when first entering the pipe and down which some gravel rolls. D, pipe (No. 23 and 24a).—Interior diameter 30 inches; thickness of shell 3 inches; laid in February—March, 1910; in use 8 years. On account of the relatively small diameter of this pipe, the mspection did not cover any great distance from the intake end. little abrasion near the bottom of the pipe was observed for the first few feet; thereafter the pipe appeared as good as new, slight irregularities in the forms being clearly indicated on the concrete. M pipe.—tInterior diameter 47 inches; thickness of shell 2144 inches; laid in winter of 1907-8; in use 10 years. On account of some seepage flow into the pipe, inspection had to be made at the outlet end. As in the other two cases, the interior seemed to be in as good a condition as when the pipe was first laid. Considering the length of service of the three pipe lines, the ie, that they are in use about 7 months each year and dry 5 months, know of no other type of construction which seems to promise such length of service, coupled with little or no decrease in carrying capacity. Some have felt doubt as to the permanence of the concrete pressure pipes with thin shells on account of the possible destruction of the steel due to the slow passage of water through the shell. A few days ago we had occasion to cut into the D, pipe for the purpose of insert- ing a valve, and found the steel as bright as when first laid. I am sending you a small section herewith.1 The sample of steel was taken where the pipe is subjected to a head of slightly more than 40 feet. Samples taken from other pipe lines have uniformly given the same result, indicating that there is little likelihood of deterioration in steel in this type of pipe. I may add that in no case has our reinforced-concrete pipe, built by the wet process, shown any material defects of construction or any sign of deterioration. 1 To allappearances the steelis new. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS bad GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 25 CENTS PER COPY. V Office of the Secretary Contribution from the Office of Farm Management H. C. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv July 20, 1920 THE ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS IN NORTHWESTERN PENNSYLVANIA. AN ANALYSIS OF THE BUSINESS OF 422 FARMS IN THE VICINITY OF GROVE CITY, PA. By Earu D. Srrarr, Scientific Assistant, and H. M. Dixon, Assistant Agriculturist. CONTENTS. Page. Page Opicctoustud ys. 5.525 625526 ess = se ces 2k 1 | Distribution of live stock..........-...------ 15 SLIT AO Os (20 ee eee ae 2, SER PONSES2eFe ore ole hs a5) to tonseoe cos ace ae 16 Areastudieds 225.24 2.55 Wie cece ee cen e. 4 | Size of farm, organization, and profits...-..-. 17 Glassificatiomofiarms==|.22252222205.22822- -- 6= |. dvivie'stockessee soe. aces sco eae ae aoe 22 PTOGUCHIOMIPCLiaALM cece 2s = 365 -= 222 1D) |WChGyehn oc ce ceecenaduendenec=socnerucconhose 25 Distribution of farm area. -..-...--..-------- 12 | Maintenance of soil fertility..........-...---- 28 Distribution oLcapital.. 2.22) 8 fesss8 = oe sic 13 | Income from sources outside the farm......-- 30 Wistribution ofreceipts.--2-=-----=2---s.2-=- 1A) /Renuresscoeee = os ons ses seaoce coset eee aeeseee 31 Distribution of crop area.....--.--.--------- 15 | OBJECT OF STUDY. The object of this study was to obtain, through a detailed analysis of 422 farms, information relative to farm organization, crop pro- duction, and profits for an area which was representative of numerous similar areas in western Pennsylvania, southwestern New York, eastern Ohio, and parts of West Virginia. The study has a particular significance in view of the changes which have been taking place in the agriculture of this region during the past few years. Until recently the farming practiced throughout this region was of the general crop and live-stock type. Many of the farms are of such size that their operators have found it more profitable to obtain some outside employment during a part of the year than to operate them continuously. In the spring of 1915 a creamery was organized at Grove City, the market center for these farmers, and an interest in this industry was immediately manifested by many of them. This resulted not only in a general increase in the number of dairy cows in this section 161155°—20——_1 ‘ 2 BULLETIN 853, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. but also in a definite change to the dairy type of farming by a number of these farmers. The present study, covering the farm year 1916, was made two years after the new industry had been introduced. flee ee eee eo @) VENANGO YOUNGSTOWN tO) A ONEW CASTLE 7 "LAWRENCE: BUTLER ‘ ' PITTSBURG SEE Location of Area Stutied Fig. 1.—Western Pennsylvania, shaded portion showing area where this study was conducted. SUMMARY OF RESULTS. The more important facts brought out by this study may be summarized as follows: Type of farming.—General live-stock and crop farming, until recently the type followed almost exclusively in the Grove City area, is being gradually superseded by the dairy type. At the time of ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS IN PENNSYLVANIA. 3 this survey, 46 per cent of the farms studied might be classed as dairy farms. Size of farm.—The 422 farms studied averaged 101 acres in size, 60 per cent of the land being tillable. The 40 per cent nontillable was mostly used for pasture. The average value of real estate was $57 per acre. Capital invested.—The average capital invested in the dairy farms was $8,112 and in the general farms $7,252. About three-fourths of this represented real estate. It required a working capital of $1,994 to operate the average dairy farm and of $1,746 to operate the average general farm. Income.—For the year 1916 the average labor come of 159 dairy farms was $279; of 190 general farms, $291.1 For all farms the amount available for family living averaged $740. This was in addition to the value of food products, fuel, and use of house furnished by the farm without money cost. The average amount available for family living on the dairy farms was $773 and on the general farms $714. For all farms of 70 acres or under, the average amount available for family living was $568; for the farms of over 130 acres, it was $1,152. One-eighth of the men operating farms of over 130 acres made labor incomes of $1, 000 or more, and: one-third made labor incomes of $500 or more. Receipts—About three-fourths of the iGal receipts for all farms came from livestock. Dairy products, cattle, poultry, and hogs were the four leading sources of income. The leading cash crop is wheat, returns from that crop representing over one-fourth of all returns from crops. Wheat, however, occupies but one-tenth of the crop area on the average farm. 1 Certain terms as used in this bulletin are here defined: Farm investment.—The value at the beginning of the farm year of allreal estate, machinery, live stock, and other investment used to carry on the farm business. It includes the value of the farm dwelling, but not the household furnishings. Receipts.—The amount received from the sale of crops, the net increase from stock, and the receipts from outside labor, rent of buildings, etc. The net increase from stock is found by subtracting the sum of the amount paid for stock purchases and the inventory value at the beginning of the year from the sum of the receipts from stock products, sales of live stock, and the inventory value at theend ofthe year. If the value of crops or supplies on hand is greater at the end of the year than at the beginning, the difference is con- sidered a receipt. Expenses.—The amount of money paid out during the year to carry on the farm business, together with the value of the unpaid labor performed by members of the family. Ifthe value of crops or supplies at the end ofthe year isless than at the beginning, this is considered anexpense. Household or personal expenses are not included. Farm income.—The difference between receipts and expenses. It represents the amount of money avail- able for the farmer’s living above the value of family labor, provided he has no interest to pay on mortgages or other debts. Labor income.—The amount that the farmer has left for his labor after 5 per cent interest on the farm investment is deducted from the farmincome. It represents what he has earned as a result of his year’s labor after the earning power of his investment has been deducted. In addition to the labor income the farmer receives a house to live in, fuel (when cut from the farm), garden products, milk, butter, eggs, etc. Per cent on investment.—The rate returned on the farm investment after the value of the farmer’s labor is deducted from the farm income. It represents what the investment earns after all expenses have been deducted and the farmer has received a fair wage for his labor. 4 BULLETIN 853, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The dairy farmers who sold all their milk for butter fat made higher labor incomes than those who sold butter only, or butter part of the year and creamery milk part of the year. These men also realized higher prices per pound for butter than those who sold butter only. One-seventh of the receipts from live stock came from poultry. Hogs were kept on nearly every farm, but receipts from hogs were only 8 per cent of all farm receipts. Less than 3 per cent of the total farm receipts were from sheep. Receipts from beef cattle were of considerable importance on some of the larger general farms. Use of silo.—Over one-half of the dairy farmers use the silo. On the dairy farms where silage was fed it was found that only 38 per cent of the feed used was in the form of concentrates, while on those without silage concentrates constituted 47 per cent of the total feed. Production per cow was greater on the farms where silage was used. AREA STUDIED. The 422 farms visited in making this study le within a radius of about 10 miles of Grove City, in northwestern Pennsylvania. The area covered included farms in Mercer, Butler, and Lawrence Coun- ties. More of them, however, were in Mercer:County than in either of the others. This study was made in the summer of 1917 in co- operation with the farm management department of the State College of Agriculture, State College, Pa. DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA. The surface of the region about Grove City is rolling. (See fig. 2.) Most of the area drains into a stream known as Wolf Creek, which crosses it about the center. Bordering this stream and its tribu- taries are considerable tracts of swamp land, but little of which has been drained. Scattered through the area are quite extensive bodies of timber, consisting principally of hardwoods. The soils of this region are of glacial orig and mostly belong to the Volusia and Canfield series.? They are the result of feeble glaci- ation of shales and sandstones. In texture these soils vary from a clay to a coarse sand. On steep areas the soils are generally stony. The alluvial soils of the bottoms are especially variable in texture, ranging from sands to heavy clays. In some of the swamps a con- siderable amount of muck soil may be found. 1 Acknowledgment is due to the Dairy Division of the U. S. Department of Agriculture for help and suggestions in planning and conducting the work; to Messrs. E. O. Anderson, of the Pennsylvania A gri- cultural College; F. Montgomery, C. E. Hope, H. L. Chance, C. E. Miller, of the Office of Farm Manage- ment; and J. Coke and J. C. Neale, of the Ontario Agricultural College, who assisted in collecting the field data. Thanks are also extended to the many farmers of the region who furnished the details con- cerning their farm business which has made this publication possible. 2 See soil survey of Mercer County, Pa., 1919. ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS IN PENNSYLVANIA. 5 The principal market is Grove City, though a few farmers sell some of their produce in Harrisville, Mercer, and New Castle, Pa. Railway transportation is furnished by the Bessemer & Lake Erie and the Pennsylvania Railroads. There are a few miles of macadam road. The Pittsburgh and Erie and the Pittsburgh and Franklin roads, which are kept in somewhat better condition than the average country road, run through portions of the area. The region has been settled for about 100 years, and the type of farming is general in nature. Until the establishment of the cream- ery, general crop and live-stock farming prevailed. Since that time, however, much more attention has been given to dairying. The leading crops, from the standpoint of acreage, according to the Fic. 2.—View showing typical topography of region. United States Census reports, have been hay, oats, corn, wheat, and buckwheat, arranged in order of acreage, and the relative proportion of the total crop acreage devoted to these crops has changed but little. Similar data show that there has been but little change in the proportion of the different classes. of live stock. THE GROVE CITY CREAMERY.! In May, 1915, the Dairy Division of the United States Department of Agriculture organized and began to operate a creamery at Grove City. (See fig. 3.) This creamery has been very successful. Be- cause of the excellence of the products manufactured, patrons have received good prices for their milk. Indirectly the creamery has been of benefit to the community in that it has served to maintain at a more stable level throughout the 1 See “How Dairying Built Up a Community,’’ Yearbook Separate 65. ‘ 6 BULLETIN 858, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. year the prices paid for butter. Many farmers stated that before the establishment of the creamery the hucksters made their own prices, which were very low during the summer months. Now, owing to the keen competition, the prices of dairy products during the months of large production have not been so low as formerly. The creamery building was constructed according to plans made by the engineers of the Dairy Division and financed by a stock com- pany organized by the business men of Grove City. This building was taken over by the Department of Agriculture on a long-term lease which insured the stock company a reasonable return on its investment. It provides facilities for conducting investigations Fig, 3.—Creamery at Grove City. which can not be carried on in the laboratories in Washington, and also proyides facilities for studying methods of creamery operation in general. | The creamery buys both cream and whole milk. Principally on account of the large sales of cottage cheese made from skim milk, the creamery has been able to pay good prices for whole milk, and many of the best dairymen are now selling their entire product instead of separating the cream and feeding the skim milk to calves and pigs. CLASSIFICATION OF FARMS. Reports from 422 farmers are used as a basis for this study. Sixty- three of these derived the greater portion of their receipts from work offthefarm. These cases are discussed under ‘‘Income from sources outside the farm,” page30. On 10 farms the greater part of the crop ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS IN PENNSYLVANIA. 7 area was rented out. These farms are discussed under ‘‘’Tenure,”’ page 31. On 159 farms the leading enterprise is dairying, and on 190 the farming is general in type. The grouping of the farms into these two types was made on the basis of the size of the business enterprises contributing to the farm income. Farms on which dairying was the leading or one of the important phases of the farm business were classed as dairy farms. Inasmuch as dairying and general farming represent the two more important types of farming followed in this area, this inquiry natu- rally developed into a comparative study of the farms following these Fic. 4.—One of the better dairy herds of the region. two types. In many ways the dairy and general farms are similarly organized, however, and in order to simplify some of the tables averages are given for both types together, any special differences bemg noted in the accompanying text. Until recently the so-called mixed or general type of farming was no doubt better adapted to the majority of farms in this area than a highly specialized type. While dairy farming has not been followed long enough to show any marked increase in profits over the other types, conditions over a large part of this area are especially favor- able for the development of dairying.. The relatively large acreage and good yields of hay, together with fair yields of silage corn, good pasturage, abundance of good water, and a good market, ‘undies fe a promising future for the dairy business. (See figs. 4 and 5.) 8 BULLETIN 853, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste I.—Summary of the farm business of 159 dairy farms and 190 general ar) Grove City, Pa., area, 1916. Dairy General farms farms (159). (190). Average. | Average. RAYM PCAz 5 Ce sees eee: ooo Bic nie a Base AGA SARE Sei ge eee oat te ey ioe Sat 97 104 CrOp ATES: | 52. e ree aie e ess Sa seis teat o> nl See ae eo ene one eee She Sire 48 48 Months of MaNIAbOre- sees x os 2 nese ee eat Lee ek ~ «eee Ses ee ee eee ee ee 17 16 Num berof productive animal units! =... 24022. - eee ee ene 15 13 Number of workstock2 25. 2525.5. 22 eet S 2 ee ee eee 3 3 Investment? 27225 .\o2 155 vee sates vance se cee. See Ae eee ee $8, 112 $7, 252 DAOC 0] KU ee te eee NRE) Mee NS Me a 6 = 2 2. So SEINE 1,366 1,185 IOGOUNSES. |e sods sop oganee ocho Je sease so caacteans do Iaseseenodussesososoagnoece 681 482 SATIN INCOMC oe ate es 2 = ee sie Sere, See ee eee ee eee 685 653 Interest on investment at 5 per cent.......--..--- Be 2 ee Reo Gace ub aries iotse seen 406 262 Waporincome ++: [52.5 - sess 2aeocwee ace Shee tee ke ane eae eee ee 279 291 Valine offarmer’s labor: : 02-322 oei.5.5 neko echiss oe ae one eke ee eee een $356 $316 Pericent ion investment 2. . senses eee enens see eee eae See eee eee eee eee 4.1 4.7 Warm income: - 22... . <.s20c2 42 idee Se ose ees 2 Sepa See tee eee eee eee $685 $653 Value of unpaid family TADOM 25 cscs ot 4 dene nas eo Le ee 102 67 HawilysinCOMe 3: . sacs anne Sace : oo anaes aes 2 ee eee 787 720 Interest paid.on indebtedness) 9 2se5 5 ge ee Ss eee na eee ee ee sat 14] ° Amount available for family living and savings... -- Tod aeelotci? Ss oak See ee eee 773 714 1 Tenies allstock except work stock. 2 After deducting farmer’s labor from farm income. 3 The sum of farm income and value of unpaid family labor, or the amount available = family living and savings had there been no interest to pay. Fic, 5.—Farmstead of typical dairy farm of the better class. In Table I is given a summary of the farm business of 159 dairy and 190 general farms. From this summary can be drawn some comparisons of the size of farm, crop area, amount of labor, amount of live stock, capital, receipts, expenses, and profits. All these factors are of vital importance to those operating farms of these types and those contemplating farming under conditions such as exist here. The average farm income, which represents the difference between the total receipts and total expenses, was $685 on the dairy farms and $653 on the general farms. In the expenses a sum is included for the value of the labor performed on the farm by the farmer’s family, which averaged $102 on the dairy farms and $67 on the ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS IN PENNSYLVANIA. 9 general farms. Comparing the family income per farm it will be observed that this is $67 higher on the dairy farms. The labor income, which represents the amount of money the farmer received for his year’s labor after paying all farm expenses, including the value of labor performed by his family, and 5 per cent interest on the capital invested, averaged $279 on the dairy and $291 on the general farms. In addition to this these farmers received house rent and what the farm furnished toward the family living. Figure 6 shows labor income, receipts, and expenses for the 349 farms arranged according to total acreage. Farms of the same total acreage have been arranged according to crop acreage—those having the lowest crop acreage being placed at thé left of the acreage group. The upper half of the chart shows labor income (or loss) and the lower half receipts and expenses. The broken and solid bars taken together represent total receipts for the farm, the solid part repre- senting expenses and the broken part farm income; that is, the dif- ference between total receipts and expenses. For a few farms the bars are solid black; this means that on these farms expenses equaled or exceeded total receipts. The dotted lines connecting the two halves of the chart are put in at 10-acre intervals. This chart furnishes some interesting material for the man con- templating the purchase of a farm where conditions are similar to those prevailing here. For instance, if he has in mind a 60-acre farm, he will see that the farms of this size gave labor incomes of from minus $67 to plus $508. Thus the lower half of the chart, showing receipts and expenses, will give him a good indication of what he might reasonably expect to take in as receipts each year and about what proportion of receipts he might expect to pay out for expenses on farms of different sizes operated under such conditions as prevail in the Grove City area. In studying this chart it should always be borne in mind that there are efficiently operated farms of all sizes, and that not all the poor farms are small. While it is not possible to tell exactly how much money a man on a 60-acre farm in this area ought to make, this chart shows how much several average, several poor, and several good farmers actually did make in 1916. For this reason a study of this chart ought to be a valuable aid to the better interpretation of the tables of averages given elsewhere in the bulletin, as they show the range of possibilities for farms of any acreage. An interesting group of farms, each of 100 acres, appears at about the middle of the chart. Note the variation in labor income from a minus labor income of $302 and increasing to a plus labor income of $1,263. This group of farms of the same size shows that while acreage has an important bearing on labor income, there are a number of other factors that are equally important. 165155°—20——2 10 BULLETIN 853, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A study of the receipts and expenses of these 349 farms shows that even if one knows the receipts of a farm it is not always possible to tell whether the farm is prosperous, though large receipts seem to be a pretty good indication that a farm in this region is prosperous. It will be noted that labor income increases from left to right—that is, as the size of farm increases labor incomes increase—also that while the little farms do not yield big incomes, neither do they show big losses. There are two ways of increasing the farm income. One way is to increase receipts and the other to reduce expenses. Too many farmers give too much attention to reducing expenses and not enough consideration to increasing receipts. By referring to the chart it appears that the principal reason why some of these farmers made more money than others was primarily because they increased receipts and not because they reduced expenses. The lower half of the chart shows that on most farms about one-half of the receipts were required for expenses, though on a few farms expenses equaled or exceeded receipts. On some of the more successful farms and on the larger farms in general a lower proportion of receipts was required for expenses than on the average farm. As mentioned elsewhere, the larger farms have a lower proportionate expense for- building, fencing, and machinery repair and depreciation than the small farms. Note that some of the average-sized farms (100 acres for this area) have larger receipts than some of the largest farms. Note that the farm with the largest loss (the largest minus labor income) had an acreage large enough for a fair income; the capital was not excessive for farms of this size, but reference to the lower half of the chart shows that the reason for the loss was that the expenses were out of pro- portion to the receipts. On this farm the unusually large expense was in part due to heavy bills for hired labor. Figure 7 shows the distribution of the farmer’s gross income. In preparing this chart the 349 farms were arranged in four size-groups. The fifth bar shows the average for all the farms. It will be seen that on the larger farms if the farmer is free from debt the amount avail- able for family living is large, even though there is little or no labor income. This sum is made up of the amount required for interest on investment, the value of unpaid family labor, and whatever labor income there may be. On these farms it totals over $1,150. PRODUCTION PER FARM. The amount of farm products for sale or for use in increasing the size of business is one of the best measures in studying the efficiency of a farm. While it is important that a farm be so organized as to contribute liberally to the farmer’s living, a farm can not be con- sidered profitable until it is yielding enough products for sale to “ee at om rome te i nt nr9 a rrerenn na ’ a ST abeiaaic OS 5 505 2; Se < Psa — OC OCS Sos 3 eS ROL Fic. 7.—Distribution of the farmer’s gross income. he has the option of either turning them into cash or using them in increasing the size of his business. Table II shows an itemized account of the various farm products, averaged for the dairy and general farms under study. The dairy enterprise was the one showing the greatest development in this area, and most of the dairy cows were kept for increasing the size of the herd. Part of the young stock was kept in this connection, but most of the other products were turned into cash. 12 BULLETIN 853, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasBLE II.—Products sold or added to inventory per farm on 159 dairy farms and 190 general farms, Grove City, Pa., area. Amount per farm, Value per unit. Product. Unit. see A ; Dairy yenera sete farms. farms. Range Average. Dairy COWS Ses set oe sate tts eee Eee ea dee:\ sees. 1.8 1 $40.00 to $100.00].......... Cattle aco een ee a 7 Pound? -23e-0- 1,565 2,171 -06 to -09 $0. 0779 IFLOTSES Se eee cee ee eee ead Ss. ease 0.3 na | 2o-OOmtomsousO00 725-0. . 2. TORS) Ee Se. EL eee Pounds: 22222 935 1, 235 08 to 12 . 0962 Chickens. so Bi es, Bo aac arenes (i erate 338 91 12 to 17 Jil} SUTTER SC oR one er it Ar (Opeee oases 62 543 065 to 10 . 0838 IBUEL Cr Tab meee eee ne Seo Se eee | Meare dosetse224 1,122 429 36 to 52 43 [SS SU GEE sess Se eee eee aes geese Dozenes eee 265 273 20 to -40 a5 VOC eae ee oe eS ee Pound! see 5 39 32 to -65 -36 Corner sare eis 2 es ae iBushelse seers 4 6 80 to 2.00 .98 Wihea Gs. 5 se weve S352 5 8. ae ae ee eee (eee een 22 32 1.55 to 3.00 1.70 Opts aes hea Se: fist. 2 See ae eee ee dosea2ee-- 8 16 70 to 1.00 ai} UV Ome he Se Ser) 0 Sa) ce Un et Se | Be GO. 5 Ska585 1 1 1.10) to). 1:60 1.06 IBNiCkWHeAL ee. San he ene eee dose eens 14 16 60 to 1.20 1.03 HROLALGES S22 oe 2 nein sae oe oe ee | eee Ope. seers 19 16 1.50 to 3.00 2.04 PW ]in Sis SSE EERE OO BEERS Some meE Se Ton. =. 4sesee 2.3 etl 9.00 to 15.00 11.32 END DIES eee =o ew oon) ee Barrel 2 5 4 1.50 to 3.00 1.83 SETA Ww DerTiesss ao 54 500 tee asa Quantee eee 96 6 -08 to Si .09 Mmouuny; SCC '=, == 3). 5,.055 Joe eee Bushel....-.-- 3 sill 2.50 to 4.00 3.36 @loverseed {2 sss2-28 32 8 he | ee Ca ee Pi) 4 8.00 to 13.00 11. 46 Mamiesirup eet see. os alececee ee eee Galloné=-=555- 2 2 1.00 to 2.00 1.32 Manianditeanm labor: 5-3 -ee eee Dayeee cote aetner 14 8 3.00 to 5.50 4.54 EAD OL eee oe 2! erie a ee ee dos sees 5 10 1.00 to 3.50 PROS It will be noted that in only two principal sources of receipts did the dairy farms exceed the general in amount produced forsale. The production of cows and butter fat was greater on the dairy farms. It should not be inferred that all of the farms sold those products, but the figures given simply represent the average of the farms taken as a whole; for example, of the 349 farms only 75 farms reported sales of sheep or wool, 36 of corn, 159 of wheat, 61 of oats, 16 of rye, 101 of buckwheat, 138 of potatoes, 105 of apples, 10 of strawberries, 134 of hay, 37 of clover seed, and 15 of timothy seed. Woodland also has a share in the farm production of this area. While, as shown in Table IV, the cash receipts from this source were - small, its contributions in the way of fuel and repair material for the upkeep of fences and buildings were of considerable importance. The range of prices is due to the quality of the product at the time of selling, the fluctuations of market prices, and the marketing ability of the farmer selling them. It is hardly practicable to itemize all of the smaller items of farm receipts, but the above list represents over 90 per cent of the farm receipts and all of the principal sources of receipts. DISTRIBUTION OF FARM AREA. The farm area on 349 farms in the region considered averaged in size 101 acres, and in respect to utilization was distributed as follows: Tillable area: Per cent. CrOP AL CR oa 5 soe wnla = Seay RE we eer sie oem sees pete eer 48 Tillable pasture. s-nj-2sa2 cn - peie - o's eee ee eile eee 12 Untillable’ pasture... 1... 220 022-2... 6. 2 ne eo 20 Woodland (pastured).); /-Uh.00 25. 90. 0 ee «ee 10 Woodland) .:- 2.225 L. sit eee es Bae ee 4 Wastes. oe ccce cc tee ela: se tee oe: Be ae ee 6 > / ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS IN PENNSYLVANIA. 13 The average size of the dairy farms was 97 acres and of the general farms 104 acres. The general farms had an average of a little over 6 acres more of pasture than the dairy farms. Woods, the greater part of which is used for pasture, occupy about 14 acres per farm. According to estimates made by 168 of these farmers, it takes 3 acres of average woods pasture to equal 1 acre of average open pasture. DISTRIBUTION OF CAPITAL. Table III shows the average amount of capital used and its ee bution for the dairy and general farms. TasBLE II1.—Average capital and its distribution on 159 dairy and 190 general a Grove City, Pa., area. Dairy | General _| farms. farms. AL TOELE GEOMIS g 7 sack ie esac ee ae ep UR: 2S Es ee eee a eae $8, 112 $7, 252 Capital distributed to— ' Per cent. | Per cent. LE LOE Rais 2a Ne cyte eal Sate oa, Sa ees soe eeee a ae eee ere 42 44 Dai TOLER och euege hn tat ea A SER SRI OEE ee I, fhe a RE EO eS ae 16 16 QS: DUET NG MITES ae em Ages a a eee I 9 ORR ar ONE GD Sob 17 16 FROUAUT CANES LALG =e amet amis siya ese see ene 2 xe SOE Be eh oS te Ses Sek 75 76 JOTRI® SICA e 6 Seeks CORA SS CSD OE Oe EUS O EEE ae IEEE een es ent es apes eee a oe 17 16 IN ECUITRAGIAYS 3 ASHE SES aCe IN Ieee SEG Ete aE Oars ee Rem == 7a ene ce RS A ee 5 5 coe ENING! Gf ONOY ONES) a eae A ng ee ee EOS eR Ee, Aa eee eae ee 2 2 a ee etn ret Ian Mle eins ora ieie fe SIS ew Sis EE Scie ARES wae ceieae AES 1 1 As shown, about three-fourths of the total capital used in the operation of these farms is in real estate. It may be noted that the capital investment of the dairy farms is somewhat higher than that of general farms. On the dairy farms dwellings average $1,334 in value, and all the other buildings $1,369 per farm; on the general ' farms the average of dwellings is $1,121 each and all the other build- ings $1,158. The value of real estate for all the farms here under study averaged $57 per acre. On the dairy farnis the sum of the value of the live stock, ma- chinery, feed, and cash, that is, the working capital, averages $1,994, and on the general farms, $1,746 per farm. In other words, if one were to go into this area and buy the average farm of about 100 acres he would need this much additional to invest in stock and tools before he began to farm. Of course, this does not mean that a man would need this total amount in cash in order to buy and stock the average farm, but that he would have to make an investment of that amount. Too many farmers make the serious mistake of attempting to operate a farm with too little working capital. It is better to have a ~ mortgage on the farm, if necessary in order to provide sufficient work- ing capital, than to have the farm clear and be handicapped because of the lack of stock and adequate equipment. 14 BULLETIN 853, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, DISTRIBUTION OF RECEIPTS. Table IV shows the sources of receipts on the dairy and the general farms. TaBLE IV.—Sources of receipts on 159 dairy and 190 general farms, Grove City, Pa., area. Distribution of re- ceipts with refer- ence to sources. Source. Dairy General farms. farms. Per cent. | Per cent. Dairy products): ios sc sch wase koe 2c tee eee ee eee en ee ene eee 38. 4 14.2 CBGETG Bee eisia os os aioe ciate clase Bei Stqe eee iad See ala Oe ea eee ee Ta ca 21.9 2551 Horses) anG@! Colts... cec.c 5c. eee ok ees Lee eae ee ee eee 2.3 4.5 Sheep aks. sec knees donee tees 1e SER Cee ye Ee 3 Ree oe Se ee 5 5.3 TPR RSE cree nc nd aes See a oc 8 He AS Beppe os ate Sn ee yeh oho 6.8 8.9 1 50) 6 10 1A ene ae ee ee ee ee ee GeO Gen dkccaciccacoae Soe 8.7 1.2 PAN SEOGK Se hoe ee ee Re eer San eieeiale dh oh steels ae en 78.6 69.2 SWICAE Es See. bo licks teinds cme Jade's ot GER Pen eiSe a: Meee a eee ee ee 2.7 4.9 Corniens 6 oe tea oe sine bask cd casi ee sdokigs oes See e en oe ae eee ee 3 5 TOTAL OOS | \ioctos. a6 = eis «= 255 soles woe Sees alae se SISNET en en 3.0 2.8 OATS Nanas eee oe seen des Bad dacs Se SeE ONS Sons Se eb A cee ee ee ee ee 4 1.1 Buckwheat see soho es «fs sass ease eee ee ee ee ee ee 1.0 1.4 Bice cee chee «ce Sones see Gar slteeh as Pemsasee doe 2a eee EEE ORE ee ee 1.8 5.3 Am ples. 22 as. 6 sn sek os fa Se da cee ene ood eae see see. nee eo ee Bee eee ee eee -6 -6 Other fruity ee |. ocsese Lise cee asaee Se pees oe ee ne eee ae ee ee oe ee ees at “34 AMV other! Grops sare. sa sess sation: voces headers apsiek see Ge RI Css SMO a at de eee ene aera 5 6 1 An animal unit is a mature horse or cow, or as many smaller animals as require the feed of a horse or cow, namely, 2 head of young cattle, 5 hogs, 7 sheep, or 100 hens. 2 Includes 3 head of work stock. 16 BULLETIN 853, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. On dairy farms, the dairy cows made up 44 per cent of the total number of animals, when expressed in the terms of a mature cow or horse, and 28 per cent on the general farms. On the dairy farms 66 per cent of the total number of animal units were cattle, and on the general farms 58 per cent. Seven per cent of the other cattle were beef cattle and 19 per cent young cattle, bulls, or breeding stock. Two and seven-tenths per cent of all the animal units were colts. On the 349 farms 80 colts were raised during the year, or 1 for every 13 horses kept. Most of the sheep in the area are found on the general farms. Only 3.1 per cent of all the stock on the 349 farms were sheep. About 90 head of poultry were kept per farm. EXPENSES. The expenditures for most purposes were practically the same on’ the two types of farms under study. The dairy farms, however, had an average expense of $199 more per farm than the general farms, due principally to extra expenditure for feed and labor. In operating a farm there is a direct relation between the type of farming and the percentage of receipts required for operating ex- penses. Fifty per cent of the total farm receipts were required for operating expenses on the dairy farms and 42 per cent for operating expenses on the general farms. Taking both groups together, 46 per cent of the receipts were required for operating expenses. Tanie VII.—Distribution of expenses on 159 dairy and 190 general farms, Grove City, Pa., area. Distribution. Item. Dairy | General farms. farms. Per cent. | Per cent. Hiredlaborand boards. 2:22 2 ee aes 6 eee acta ee eee eee eee 9.0 9.2 Hamily labors: b-2 ss. cress cece eae lose tease See eee see ee ae ee eae ee 15.0 | 13.9 Repairs: Machinery’... 222. ce eked nko oeese cae tie). Mae Soc Seen eee ee eee eee 1.6 1.5 Biaildin gs. si eis soe a else oe eee ee er see ae eg TUN RE a 4.0 4.8 MONCCS 3. 2/5 5) Si wa Ds csiadoe Neeme sowie weed Sains SRO SIOe cee Scio e Sete CREO eee Enea 1.6 2.3 Feed bought: Hay ete: . ois 252 e Soe eek a ete ee sore ne ee Boer eee aoe Cree eee p .9 -6 Grain CtCo 2 wc 22. bees ae sabek Meigs soot eo ee DT eee ae ee eee ee ee 21.1 10.4 Breeding fees'and veterinary>=. :-: ape =< 2. bce Se osc ace oak cceee ae nee ener eee Wb a 1.9 Seeds ee 22252 ee Sok eae ecic. ce - See oe Po ence Foe Se eet ee se eS ene ees 2.5 4.2 HW OTGUiZ Ole 255 jaie'n ed oo Soyer sei sales OSes hee Sere EI See cee eI ELE esis eee 4.7 6.4 Thrashing and ‘clover hulling. 2) Hes a5. ese ie pao ees cae Oe EE ae eee 1.9 2.5 Baling, machine work, fuel, and oil 1.6 2.6 TMSUTANCEs Oe a embed n oe sikeptc = ome 1.2 1.5 ECS SES roe aretha oie aha aele Sse a /chs, 05 aes 8.1 11.4 Maliciaiilinie es see en. se oticje eres 8.2) 1.2 Miscellaneous tia no cs Gace aes te aos Os wie sec ce ont eR BE os bold eee e ener oe eRe EEEe 5.0 5.5 Total.currentiexpenses. - -- eyes le = oad eee pecs tom ene ee ee ee ae 83.1 79.9 Depreciation: : BGI OSS 2) jc oc sini oe acini oe Wale One ds eleerie Sh De CEE De cites Bee Seen Ee eee 9.3 11.0 MERCHINIGT Yo ee oes 2 wing crete oe od ae Mtoe bre Spas ete a See ee eee Ce ae 7.6 9.1 1 Includes feed grinding, silo filling, fodder shredding, horseshoeing, spray material, twine, pasture rent, and barrels. ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS IN PENNSYLVANIA. 17 Seventeen per cent of all the expense of the farms was for feed. On the dairy farms cost of feed averaged 22 per cent of the total farm expense, and on the general farms 11 per cent. The average feed bill on the dairy farms amounted to $149. On the 349 farms taken as a whole, 26 per cent of the total farm expense was for repairs and depreciation on buildings, machinery, and fences. In other words, over one-fourth of the total farm expense was for maintenance of property. Fourteen per cent of the expense was for family labor, 9 per cent for hired labor, and 10 per cent for taxes. All the other expenses were small, the only two that amounted to more than 3 per cent of the total farm expenses being fertilizers, 5.4 per cent, and seeds, 3.3 per cent. Analyzing the expenses by size-groups, we find that on the farms with an area of 70 acres or under 30 per cent of the total farm expense was for repairs, depreciation of buildings, machinery, and fences, while on the group of largest farms, those with an area of 130 acres or over, these items amounted to 24 per cent of the total farm ex- pense. This serves to emphasize the fact that, in general, the larger the farm of a given type the lower proportionately will be the main- tenance expenses; that is, the larger farms show greater efficiency in that machinery, buildings, and fencing expenses are proportionally reduced. Fourteen per cent of the farmers rented additional pasture land, usually parts of tracts without buildings or of lands held by mining companies, the houses thereon being occupied by miners. Those renting thus usually pay about $1 per acre, as this is not good pasture land, bemg usually grown up with brush or partly in woods. Where it is rented by the month, the price is usually 75 cents to $1 per head of stock pastured per month. The average expense for pasture hire on the farms that rented was $21.20 per farm. SIZE OF FARM, ORGANIZATION, AND PROFITS. Twenty-three per cent of the farms covered in this study were 70 acres or under in size, while 18 per cent contained over 130 acres. By dividing the farms into four groups, those containing 70 acres or under, those of 71 to 100 acres, those of 101 to 130 acres, and those of over 130 acres, a series of averages is obtained that should be of prac- tical value to the farmers of this region. The dairy farmer with 70 acres or under is thus enabled to note how the average farm following this same type is organized and operated in this region. Like com- parisons may be drawn for each of the four size-groups. A number of factors, such as labor requirements and live stock returns, differ considerably in the operation of a dairy farm as com- ] 18 BULLETIN 853, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pared with that of a general farm, and for this reason separate tables are presented showing data on these fundamental factors of efficiency for each type. DAIRY FARMS. In Table VIII is shown a summary of the farm business on 159 dairy farms, arranged in groups according to size of farm. TaBLe VIII.—Summary of the farm business of 159 dairy farms, Grove City, Pa., area. Averages by farm area groups. 70 acres | 71 to 100 | 101 to 130) Over 130 or under.| acres. acres. acres. NMI Der OLfarmss aos). aces se cies ae Heaney a eee 37 66 32 24 arm area (Acres)! 5 ssc pokes cao ad se aati so Mee ee Ne ee eget 57 88 113 161 Cropiareal(acres)) Ra $5, 606 $7, 259 $9, 318 $12, 712 IRGCOIDES cr axeene ene cide ces ois Me We ee DES DE EES EEE Eee Rees 1,010 1, 218 1, 532 2,098 I RPOMSeSs ent Sek Ne ee: cee eA eS 484 607 771 1, 067 WAT ANCOME 2). oe. were ye ide eas a cists eee lege oat sete ee a i 526 611 761 1,031 Interest on investment at5 per cent.........-...--------------- | 280 363 466 635 TE ADOL INCOME 2 sjsu 's cnee sao oe ee eae Rae lene Same cee toe 246 248 295 396 Valuelotiiarmer’s laboric3)so ose oss esiensae soe oon EOE ee ee $349 $337 $370 $399 Ber. centioninvestment) a2) eee kh 5 -ceoce skscs Somes eee eee 3.2 3.8 4.2 5 Hanmincomoe i. 22/3255 Ses ese shes oe RE Ee Pens Soe $526 $611 $761 $1,031 Value of unpaid family labor.....................--2--.--+----- 57 106 110 153 Hamily.incomoe 2s, 2.12 5 2\- ve seca es ceo eteteeiois > 3 eee ee 583 717 | 871 1,184 Interest paid on indebtedness...........-..-------------------- 15 7 16 32 Amount available for family living...................-..-...... 568 710 855 1,152 Cropiyieldsiperacre: sek. sey sie bes ye ea eee Ok 2 See ae ee 102 100 104 98 1 After deducting farmer’s labor from farm income. 2 The sum of farm income and value of unpaid family labor. or the amount available for family living pad there been no interest to pay. 3 Percentage of average for all farms. The dairy farms 70 acres or under in size with an average of 33 acres of crops, 10 units of productive live stock, and $5,606 capital, returned the operator a labor income of $246. In operating farms of this size it required 15 months of man labor and an average of over two work horses per farm. On the farms of over 130 acres in size, 75 acres of crops were raised and 22 productive animal units were kept per farm. With $12,712 | capital these farms returned their operators an average labor income of $396. An average of 22 months of man labor per year was required in operating farms of this size and nearly four work horses. The per cent returned on investment, found by-deducting the value of the farmer’s labor from the farm income, varies from 3.2 per cent on the smallest size-group to 5 per cent on the farms in the largest size-group. In operating farms under conditions similar to those in this area the family income is of much interest, as it is the amount of money e ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS IN PENNSYLVANIA. 19 available to pay living expenses, interest on indebtedness, and savings. The family income averaged $583 on the farms of the smallest size-group, and increased with each size-group to an average of $1,184 on the largest size-group. GENERAL FARMS. Table IX shows a summary of the farm business on 190 general farms arranged in four groups according to size of farm. TasLe 1X.—Summary of the farm business of 190 general farms, Grove City, Pa., area. Averages by farm area groups. 70 acres | 71 to 100 | 101 to 130} Over 130 or under.| acres. acres. acres. Nim berohlarms =. -sos2e 5-66. Pope R ape Lia: ASC SRE 2 44 64 42 40 WanmMared= 2-222. fees SER OBOE Soe oS Oar ie oe 56 86 113 177 (Chip Gill os so éoucmtan See deoCoc ees AGetene Ss cUe SE AE BaReHot ooo tener 31 44 50 70 MonGhisiotla bors: 2-2 bic hae eee ese toa 2s ee cite we 13 15 15 20 FEROCUCHBVeaMIM A UNIGS = see ose oe hones oes on semen = 8 12 13 21 VO KaSGOCKe. 2 ae tates tee ey per tema: Nex WS SE By i. Lee ee ah a 2 2 3 4 WESTON Geese tpe is ese nts oe lcterd oecthewe e Liciehe wiva cs EAP ele $4, 308 $6, 573 $7, 388 $11, 432 PROG OL PD CS eee aa terass elaatete nisi sta cic aisle a eeictatwioers d alele s,evetetagen’sis ait 733 1,016 1,149 1, 755 BpROMSES eee stem sss nose ania See eet eca ae Reale 2.20 307 443 477 742 INpiida) MACOS .o5 Ssh s Sos cages noseceus sou eeoecoueoseseeecsondede 426 573 672 1,013 Interest on investment at 5 per cent...........--...------------ 216 329 369 572 ILB OOP WACO IDE Seog doeeeceneco sanORe ooh SArons buss aaaT eC oaeReeee 210 244 303 441 NialneropranmensSabOr so iso nace cise) ctemiee sis = + oseeeieciaton 283 319 311 353 Rem Cen OH MMVvieStMment ls he scene = ale sire oie lei= mr -'= alert eis 3.3 3.9 4.9 5.8 Tevind, Haeorindy ert? 2 eae Ds Obwam Era) 88 Le Rae 9 een cao Da $426 $573 $672 | $1,013 Malucoiunpaiditamily labor: 2: . e222 ee. 242 - nce ees oe 30 60 67 116 THA TATU yA TACOMIE A205, 2s see iole Sk stained wi eheitel telgyaye Sera /o Ui Jaye ees Ske 2 456 633 739 1,129 Interest paid on indebtedness .<.-....-....:-...---------------- 2 9 11 1 Amount available for family living..............-....-...--.--- 454 624 728 1,128 CroppyeldSmpemACLe seems nee erent er Malem tamer asia eae 102 99 95 103 1 After deducting the value of farmer’s labor from farm income. 2 The sum of farm income and value of unpaid family labor, or the amount available for family living had there been no interest to pay. 3 Percentage of average for all farms. Here, also, it will be seen that labor income increases with size of farm. The average labor income for the smallest size-group averaged $210 and that of the largest size-group $441. The percentage re- turned on investment ran from 3.3 to 5.8 per cent. It will be noted that, taken as a whole, the general farmers made labor incomes averaging $12 per farm higher than those of the dairy farmers. However, it will be noted that the average labor income on the two groups of small-sized dairy farms was slightly higher than on corresponding size-groups of the general farms. While the aver- age size of the dairy farms of these two groups was slightly larger than for the corresponding groups of general farms, the main reason for the larger labor incomes is that the dairy business is the more intensive. It is evident that the small general farms are not so well 20 BULLETIN 853, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. organized, neither are they so well adapted to conditions which exist in this area as are the dairy farms of corresponding $size. Table X shows all farms, by size-groups, classified according to labor income. . TaBLE X.—Number of farms in each size-group making labor incomes as specified (349 dairy or general farms, Grove City, Pa., area). Number Number “ Nuwar of farms of farms umber . : with labor | with labor} of farms Farm area group. ‘es aS incomes of | incomes of | showing group. | $1,000 and $500 to | labor loss. over. $999. MO ACTOS OLMNG CLs =o swine ste teres ei lertere © Hiei tee ete sie ree 81 1 12 18 WNSTOMOO RCreSteee S52 2 {At E See To- 8 Supe RS Xe Seer sera eee 130 3 21 33 HOUPOMSOACTES asso s ja)s SSR ine ok sae teen ee So - aed eee 74 3 12 13 N80 /ReresianG (OVELs 2ss~ = sales athe sees te cee enisece aSee 64 8 21 15 ANOTENMES 5 SeveeenMe Gaya Se pe plea lee line a setae, SR 349 15 66 79 This table shows the chance these farmers have, when operating farms of the various sizes shown, of making a large income. On the 81 farms 70 acres or under in size, only one operator made a labor income of $1,000 or over, and only 13 made incomes of $500. In the group of largest farms, those of 130 acres and over in size, one-eighth made labor incomes of $1,000 or more, and nearly one- half labor incomes of $500 or more. The three preceding tables serve to emphasize what has been brought out in every similar study conducted by the Office of Farm Management thus far, namely, that the smaller farms (except those operated under intensive methods near good markets) are relatively less profitable than the larger ones. In farming, as in every other business, the man with large capital has a much better chance of getting a large income than the one with little capital. It took a capital of $11,912 to give an average labor income of $424 in this area, this being the average capital of 64 farms of 130 acres and over in size. Often large incomes are made by farmers operating small farms intensively, but in such cases the investment is relatively large. Farm management studies uniformly indicate that the farmers with little capital invested make little money. Size of business is just as important with the farmer as with the merchant. EFFECT OF YIELDS PER ACRE AND RETURNS FROM LIVE STOCK ON LABOR INCOME. We have seen in Tables VIII, IX, and X that the larger farms make more money in this area than the smaller ones, and the ques- tion arises naturally whether this is due to higher yields or simply to greater production. ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS IN PENNSYLVANIA. 21 Table XI is designed to show the crop yields and live-stock returns for the different size-groups of farms expressed in percentage of the average yields of all farms, known as the crop index. Taste XI.—Average crop and live-stock index on 349 farms, Grove City, Pa., area. 70 acres 71 to 101 to Over or 100 130 130 under. acres. acres. acres. @roppin Gd Ox eens Sew siete ls Sata ee Sete ok is AR 102 99 99 101 Finge-SbOC kell Oxi eae ees hiakiias ckcraisettiae Me ettels bo's tees Stacke 102 100 99 99 This table shows that there is very little difference in the crop yields and returns per unit from live stock on the farms of different S1Zes. The crop yields expressed in percentage of the average for all farms in the region were 101 per cent on the dairy and 99 per cent on the general farms. The live-stock returns were 111 per cent of the average for the region on the dairy and 91 per cent on the general farms. This does not mean, however, that the live stock on the dairy farms was 20 per cent more profitable than that kept on the general farms. On the dairy farms the receipts per animal unit were higher, but the feed cost per animal unit was also higher, owing to the more expensive feeds consumed by the dairy stock. On the general farms, where more beef cattle and sheep are pro- duced, the returns are comparatively lower than dairy receipts, but the farmers are able to produce these at a much lower feed cost; and the net profit from such stock may be as high as from the dairy stock. The crop index on the large farms was practically as high as on the small farms, indicating that the old belief that the small farms pro- duce on the average the highest crop yields per acre is not justified by results in this area. 1 The crop index may be defined as the crop yields of a particular farm expressed in percentage of the average crop yields of all the farmsin the community. It is found as in the following example: A particular farm produces— Acres. 2,000 bushels of corn on..-.. 40 1,200 bushels of wheat on... 40 900 bushels of oats on... .- 30 120 tons of hay on......-.. 80 MNotalsssesccecesaseee 190 The average yields of the above crops in the community are: Corn, 60 bushels; wheat, 32 bushels; oats, 40 bushels; and hay, 1? tons per acre. Hence, on the average, the areas required to produce the above quantities of the products mentioned are— : 2,000--60= 33.3 acres of corn, 1,200+32= 37.5 acres of wheat, 900-=-40= 22.5 acres of oats, and 120 13= 68.6 acres of hay. Total=161.9 Thus, it requires 190 acres on the farm in question to produce what 161.9 acres produces on the average. Hence, 1 acre produces on this farm 161.9+190, or 85.3 per cent as much as the average acre of the com- munity. The live-stock index is the percentage comparison of the receipts per animal unit on farms weighted by their receipts, using as the basis the average receipts of all farms in the area expressed_.as 100. 22 BULLETIN 853, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table XII shows the effect upon labor income of improving the quality of the stock and increasing the crop yields. Yields per acre and returns per productive animal unit were found to bear the same relation to labor income on dairy farms as on general farms; hence for the sake of brevity the figures for the two groups have been tabulated together. Taste XII.—E fect of yields per acre and returns per productive animal unit on labor incomes, by size of farm, 349 farms, Grove City, Pa., area. LABOR INCOME. Live-stock index. Group. 100 acres or under. Over 100 acres. 100 or Over 100 or Over less. 100. _ less. 100. Crop index:! ‘ LOOMOMNCSS eee c's hawins Se carla aa eR See cies ie eee elo ree $41 $285 $134 $398 Over lOO Ee, 2 a eS eae ae Oa See eettel. a clots ‘ 224 452 340 576 1 For definition of these terms see page 21. In order to eliminate the effect of size of business as much as pos- sible, the farms were arranged into two groups. As would be expected, the groups having crop yields and live-stock returns above the aver- age made the most money. This table shows, moreover, that in an area like this, where so great a percentage of the returns is from live stock, it is better to make an effort to improve the quality of the live stock than to try to grow better crops and feed them to poor live stock. Those farmers operating either large or small farms whose crop yields were below the average of those produced in the region, but with live-stock receipts above the average, made higher labor ~ incomes than those having live-stock receipts below the average and crop yields above the average. — LIVE STOCK. We have seen in Table XII that the farms with crop yields and live-stock returns above the average made more than average labor incomes, and have observed the effect of increasing the receipts per unit of live stock. Table IV showed that over 14 per cent of the receipts on general farms and 38 per cent of the receipts on the dairy farms were from dairy products. It would seem, then, that one of the most direct and effective ways of increasing the income of the farmers of this region is to follow those practices that tend to increase production per cow. Accurate data were obtained on 265 farms, averaging 6 cows per farm, where the cows were kept for dairy purposes, which showed that the average sales of butter fat per cow was 116.6 pounds. This ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS IN PENNSYLVANIA. 23 is a rather low production per cow. It was possible to get accurate data of the butter fat sold per cow on 123 of the 159 dairy farms, but for the rest of the dairy farms it was not possible to get this figure accurate enough for these tables, because some of the dairymen sold market milk in Grove City or Harrisville, and others shipped this product for a part of the year to Youngstown, Ohio, and to New Castle, Pa. Some farmers sold market milk locally to miners and others living in the area. The average labor income of the 123 farms furnishing butter-fat data was $259, while the average labor income of all the dairy farms was $279. This indicates that the 123 farms are fairly representative. The pounds of butter fat sold per cow and the labor income of the farms selling butter only, of those selling creamery milk, and of those selling both butter and creamery milk is shown in Table XIII. Taste XIII.—Sales of butter fat per cow and labor income of 123 dairy farms selling products as specified, Grove City, Pa., area. Number |Poundsbut-| Average peur be of cows | ter fat sold | labor in- ‘| perfarm.| per cow. come. Farms selling— | TBE Ost hoe os oe Me OR ear e acr Teese Steno am 19 6 129.2 $79 Creamenyemiley pen. se aciesseses sae seca $2. eels } 75 8 150.8 325 Butterand creamery milk: 22 52222-----4--442---2 ashen | 29 7 125.1 208 _The farmers who sold butter and no other dairy products received an average of 35 cents per pound for their butter-fat product. Those selling butter and creamery milk received 41 cents per pound, and those who sold only to the creamery 43 cents. Those who sold to the creamery received 8 cents per pound more for their butter fat than those who sold butter only, or about one-fourth (24 per cent) more per pound. If the farmers who sold butter only had shipped their product to the creamery and had averaged the same production of butter fat the receipts per cow would have averaged $10.34 higher, and as these farms averaged 6 cows per farm would have received $62 per farm greater income. There were 82 general farms that sold butter only, and their sales of butter fat per cow were 84.5 pounds, _ which brought them an average of 33 cents per pound. With the - same production per cow, other things being equal, they would have received $8.45 more per cow and $40 greater income per year if their milk had been sent to the creamery. Most of the farmers of the area keenly realize the advantage of shipping their milk to the creamery, and the number of patrons of the plant is increasing rapidly. They also realize the need of improv- ing the quality of their herds. One cow-testing association and two bull associations have been formed since April 1, 1917. 24 BULLETIN 853, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. During the period April 1, 1916, to April 1, 1917, the 349 farmers bought for their farms 32 head of pure-bred Holsteins, 13 pure-bred Jerseys, 6 pure-bred Guernseys, and 5 pure-bred Shorthorns. In addition to the above pure-bred cattle, many began to improve the quality of their herds through the purchase of good grade stock and also by using pure-bred bulls. Ten per cent of the total farm receipts and about one-seventh of the stock receipts were from poultry. The receipts from poultry exceeded those from any class of live stock except cattle, were nearly as great as the combined receipts from hogs and sheep, and were over two- thirds as much as the receipts from crops. Fifteen per cent of the farms of the area sold over $200 worth of poultry and eggs per farm. Some of the farmers got good returns from turkeys. Not many ducks or geese were kept in the area. A reasonable increase in the amount of poultry, including turkeys, would seem warranted on many of the farms, especially on the farms with an abundance of family labor. Increased attention could be given to the poultry business without any interference with the major operations of the farm. The receipts from hogs made up 8 per cent of all the farm receipts, besides furnishing an average of 594 pounds of pork per farm for family use. Hogs were kept on nearly every farm, except some that sold whole milk to the creamery or as market milk. Receipts from sheep made up less than 3 per cent of the total farm receipts. The coarse-wool sheep predominated and the Shropshire was the principal breed. Only about 1 farmer in 12 following the dairy type kept sheep, while they were kept by one-third of the general farmers. The flocks averaged 15 head and produced 12 lambs per flock. There were a few farms in the area where the stock sales were principally from beef cattle, but not enough of them to justify drawing any definite conclusions relative to the comparative profit- ableness of dairy cattle and beef cattle. During the year of the survey the prices received for beef cattle were relatively higher than the prices received for dairy products, and consequently the beef-cattle farms would show a little higher labor income on the average than would an equally efficient group of dairy farms. Steers were kept on most of the general farms. The labor income of the general farms is a little higher than that of the dairy farms. On some of the larger farms very good returns were realized last year from beef cattle. It is probable that beef cattle can be raised at a profit on many of the larger farms, particularly those having large areas of rather wet pasture not adapted to sheep raising. Beef cattle require much less care than dairy cows, and where there is a shortage of labor on the farm the raising of beef cattle may be advisable. ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS IN PENNSYLVANIA. 25 Bulletin 150 of the Pennsylvania State Agricultural College, “Raising Beef Cattle,’ furnishes good data on raising beef cattle. Part of the conclusions set forth in this bulletin are as follows: ‘Beef production is adapted to and will be found profitable under Penn- sylvania conditions on land valued at $60 or less per acre that can maintain cows at the rate of 2 acres per head during the pasturing season, and on which corn can be raised for silage.” CROPS. For comparison with crop yields received on these farms for the year under study, corresponding yields as given in the United States Census reports for the years 1900 and 1910 are here presented. The average yields of the three counties in which the survey was made, as given in the last two census reports, are taken Lytogenher to give a figure applicable to the whole area. The yield of corn for the year covered by this Peale was about normal, being 34 bushels per acre as compared with yields of 33 and 32 bushels given in the last two census reports for these three counties. On well-drained land an excellent crop of corn was har- vested in 1916, but on many fields a large part of the corn was soft and of poor quality. Silage yielded an average of 74 tons per acre. Most of the seed corn planted for grain is produced on the farm, but ‘a considerable part of the seed for silage corn is bought. The climate here is less favorable for corn growing than that of many other areas. It is highly advisable to have a vigorous, early-maturing strain of corn, that yields well. Each farmer should make an effort to improve his strain of corn, which can be done quite easily by field selection of the seed. The yield of wheat was the same as that given for the area in the last two census reports. Wheat was the principal cash crop of the area, 3.8 per cent of the total farm receipts and over one-fourth (26 per cent) of the receipts from crops being from sales of this grain, _ The average yield in 1916 was 16 bushels per acre, and the average amount sold per farm reporting was 61 bushels. There are some farms in this area not well adapted to wheat on which rye could be introduced into cropping systems with profit. Rye is hardier ‘than wheat and will grow on poorer soils. The average yield of oats for the year of the survey was 30 bushels, as compared with census figures of 34 and 26 bushels. This crop occupies 16.3 per cent of the crop area of all the farms under con- sideration. It is an important crop in this area and nearly all of it is fed on the farm. Much of the grass seeding is put in with oats. Smut causes some damage to the crop each year, and a few farmers 1 For more details concerning the growing ofrye,sec Farmer’s Bulletin 756, ‘‘Culture of Ryein the Eastern Half of the United States.” 26 BULLETIN 853, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. have been using the formaldehyde treatment for it. By the use of this simple and inexpensive treatment the losses from oat smut can be reduced to a minimum.' The yield of buckwheat was 15 bushels per acre, as compared with yields of 16 bushels per acre for the census reports of 1900 and 1910.” About one-third as much land is devoted to buckwheat as to wheat. Buckwheat is a good crop to put on rough or weedy land. A good deal of buckwheat is sold, some is used in the house, and a large quantity is fed to the chickens. It makes an excellent chicken feed. The average yield of hay for the year 1916 was 1.7 tons per acre. The yield of this crop in the three counties in which the survey was made, for the United States Census of 1900 and 1910, respectively, was 1.1 and 1.2 tons. The hay crop in this area was large in 1916, but farmers generally said that the feeding value was somewhat lower than usual. Hay is the leading staple crop of the region, and ~con- sists principally of clover and timothy. Much of the red clover seed used is grown on the farm. This is the medium red variety. The alsike clover seed used is purchased. A considerable part of the timothy seed required for farm use is obtained by strippmg the heads from selected portions of the hay field. With care, seed of an excellent quality can be obtained by this method. Some of the farmers leave patches of timothy hay standing for seed. A few use the barn-floor sweepings for their source of supply of timothy seed. The yield of potatoes was somewhat below normal, 68 bushels per acre, as compared with yields of 102 and 93 bushels given in the last two census reports. The higher prices obtaimed, however, would about make up for the loss due to low yield. Potatoes, however, are a relatively unimportant crop in this area, occupying but 1.5 per cent of the total crop area, or about seven-tenths of an acre per farm. Little attention has been paid to orcharding in this area. Few of the farmers spray their trees, and many do but little pruning. In one part of the area surveyed one farmer who runs a special fruit farm does considerable spraying for his neighbors, using a small power sprayer. This farmer sold $175 worth of apples, $300 worth of cherries, $100 worth of peaches, $100 worth of plums, and $124 worth of strawberries. A small quantity of pears and prunes were produced and sold in this area. In general, market conditions are such that it would be inadvisable to increase to any great extent the acreage devoted to truck crops in this area, yet on many farms, especially on those where there is a large family at home, the addition of some special crop like strawberries, raspberries, or blackberries would materially increase 1 For information in controlling cereal smuts see Farmer’s Bulletin 939, ‘‘Cereal Smuts and the Dis- infection of Seed Grain,’”’ which may be obtained free from the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 2 For further details concerning the growing of buckwheat, see Farmers’ Bulletin 1062, ‘‘ Buckwheat.’ ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS IN PENNSYLVANIA. Da the farm income with practically no expense for extra hired labor in picking. Some farms in this area have soil adapted to the growing of onions, much of which is not being utilized, except for general farm crops. If some of this land were devoted to the onion crop the farm receipts would be considerably increased, and in most cases all of the extra labor required could be done by the family. Table XII shows that it is more important to increase the quality of the live stock than to increase the crop yields. However, one must not lose sight of the fact that it is very important to maintain crop yields. FARM FEEDS AND THE SILO. The use of silos is becoming quite general, there being 113 on the 349 farms studied when this survey was made. Eighty of these silos were on dairy farms. Thus over one-half of the dairy farmers were using silos. During the farm year 11 new silos were built. The average yield of corn for silage was 74 tons per acre, and on several farms the yield was over 10 tons. It was possible to obtain accurate figures of the pounds of butter fat per cow on 56 dairy farms that had silos and on 67 farms that had none. Table XIV shows the average investment per farm, average crop acres per man, total feed units required per animal unit, the average number of cows per farm, the sales of butter fat per cow, and the labor income on 56 dairy farms having silos and on 67 dairy farms without silos. TABLE XIV.—Average investment per farm, average crop acres per man, average feed units 1 required per animal unit, average number of cows per farm, the sales of butter fat per cow, and the labor income on 56 dairy farms having silos and 67 dairy farms without silos, Grove City, Pa., area. Pays Average _ Average | Average Pee. aes) pounds of | Average investment} crop acres per animal} cows per butterfat | labor perfarm. | per man. saith, pict i ae SES income, 56 farms with silos....:...-.---- $9, 013 37 3, 481 9 151.5 $346 67 farms without silos......... . 6, 610 32 3,336 6 132.8 187 1 A “‘feed unit’? represents the feed value of a pound of corn or its equivalent. 1 bushel corn—56 feed units. 1 ton bought feed=2,000 feed units. 1 bushel wheat=60 feed units. 1 ton fodder (stover)=500 feed units. 1 bushel oats= 29.1 feed units. 1 ton silage=333 feed units. 1 bushel rye=56 feed units. 1 ton hay=800 feed units. Feed units computed according to table in Wisconsin Circular No. 37, June, 1912. Farmers having silos on their farms fed a little more heavily than those without silos, but they also got a considerably higher butter- fat production per cow. Upon comparing the proportion of con- centrates in the feeds consumed on the two groups of farms, it is found that 38 per cent of the total feed units on the farms having silos were concentrates, while on the other farms concentrates 28 BULLETIN 853, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. averaged 47 per cent of the total. One of the reasons for this lower proportion of concentrates fed on the farms with silos is that good silage itself contains some corn and is therefore partly a concen- trate, and also that less concentrate is required, because of the succulent nature of the feed. Although the cows on the farms having silos produced 18.7 pounds of butter fat more per cow than those on the farms without silos, it should not be assumed that this difference or the corresponding difference in labor income is due wholly or even largely to the silo. The farmers with silos were better all-around farmers than those without. They had a larger average investment per farm, worked more crop acres per man, and had more and better cows. The silo was therefore only one of the several factors contributing to their success. CROPPING SYSTEMS. A common rotation on many of the farms is corn or potatoes fol- lowed by oats, and then by hay two years or longer. Where wheat is grown, the rotation usually is corn, oats, wheat, hay two or three years. Buckwheat is generally sown on the rougher land or land that has become foul with weeds. On some farms buckwheat fol- lows oats in the rotation and serves as a nurse crop for the grass seed. On many farms the hay is cut as long as it gives a fair yield. Some of the meadows do not run out in four or five years. A few farmers are trying out a rotation of corn, wheat, hay, hay. Judging by the percentages of area devoted to each crop, it would appear that the rotation most generally practiced is corn and pota- toes, oats, wheat, rye or buckwheat, and hay three years. MAINTENANCE OF SOIL FERTILITY. One of the important problems of this region is that of keeping up crop yields. The test of good farm management is not only the earning of a good current net income, but the keeping up of the fertility of the soil as well. To keep up this fertility, the farmer must rely on the use of manure, lime, fertilizer, and legumes. Practically the only legumes grown here are red clover and alsike. On the farms where manure is produced in sufficient quantity, manure spreaders were used with very satisfactory results. Too many farmers, how- ever, still practice the wasteful method of throwing the manure outside under the eaves of the barn and hauling it to the field but once or twice a year. FERTILIZERS. Commercial fertilizers are quite extensively used. Fifty-one per cent of the farmers concerned in this study used fertilizers on corn, 45 per cent on wheat, 47 per cent on buckwheat, and 36 per cent on oats. Most of the farmers used less than 150 pounds per acre. ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS IN PENNSYLVANIA. 29 Acid phosphate was used by many farmers. Some, however, used more expensive fertilizers. Mixing acid phosphate with stable manure in the barn was not practiced to any extent. In order to show the effect upon crop yields of increasing the amount of fertilizer and manure used per 100 acres of crops, the 349 farms were grouped as shown in Table XY. Taste XV.—The effect upon crop yields of applying different amounts of fertilizer and of live stock kept on 349 farms, Grove City, Pa., area. Fertilizer per acre. None. 100 pounds or under. Over 100 pounds. Animal units per 100 acres of crops. Animal < Animal ; Animal c units per ae ae Crop in-|units per a Crop in-|junits per ue ae Crop 100 acres Pp dex. 100 acres} 750 2 dex. |100acres| #7” ae index. of crops. ; of crops. ¥ of crops. : Pounds. | Pounds. Pounds. ByOmUnd erase = 6 = 25 0 82 28 55 92 28 174 98 Owersbseseo ee -5-85- 43 0 100 45 63 107 44 160 109 Farmers using over 100 pounds of fertilizer per acre of crops and keeping less than 35 animal units per 100 acres of crops failed to pro- duce as high crop yields as the farmers who used no fertilizer but had Fig. 8.—Limestone prepared for burning. Either coal or wood may be used. over 35 (or an average of 43) animal units per 100 acres of crops. The highest crop yields were obtained by the group using over 100 pounds of fertilizer per acre and keeping over 35 animal units per 100 acres of crops. ‘The crop yields on these farms were 9 per cent above the average of all thefarms. The lowest crop yields were on the group 30 BULLETIN 853, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of farms where no fertilizer was used and with the least density of live stock, the crop yields on these farms being only 82 per cent of the average. These men had little manure to apply and also overlooked the importance of heavier applications of fertilizer in order to offset the lack of farm manure. The soils of this area are naturally acid, and the use of lime has been found to give very good results. It is always advisable to use lime to insure a good stand of clover. Lime is quite commonly ap- plied to small grains like oats or wheat. Some farmers use ground limestone. In the southeastern part of the area surveyed there were several limestone quarries and small coal mines. Many of the farm- ers living near these buy the limestone and coal and burn their own lime. (See fig. 8.) Information as to the use of lime on soils, with specific directions for applying, may be found in Farmer’s Bulletin 921, ‘The Principles of the Liming of Soils.”’ The lime is usually distributed by hand. . INCOME FROM SOURCES OUTSIDE THE FARM. Records were obtained from 63 farms where over one-half (56 per cent) of the receipts were derived from outside sources. These farms averaged 71 acres in size with 35 acres in crops. The average total capital per farm was $4,893, receipts $896, expenses $448, farm in- come $448, interest on capital $244, and labor income $204. On the average, these 63 farmers spent 139 days at outside labor. The earnings during the time spent off the farm averaged $3.50 a day. Much, of the money earned outside was derived from either working in coal mines or else hauling coal from the mines to the railroad. (See fig. 9.) Some worked in limestone quarries. Day labor, work with sawmills, lumber business, labor on roads, school-teaching, milk-hauling, and carrying mail all contributed to the receipts from sources outside the farm business. As would be expected, crop yields were somewhat lower on those farms where nearly one-half of the time of the operator was spent do- ing outside work. With some operators, farming was their work dur- ing their spare time. - This is usually the case where there is plenty of outside work available. Because of the immediate returns it offers, outside work looks especially attractive fo those in need of money, while the returns from many farm enterprises do not come in at given intervals of time. For the study of the management of small farms in this area we have three types: those operated where over one-half of the receipts are received from work off the farm, those operated as general farms, and those operated as dairy farms. That the introduction of dairy- ORGANIZATION AND MANAGEMENT OF FARMS IN PENNSYLVANIA. ol ing into this area has been an advantage in this connection is shown by a comparison of the relative profits received on the farms operated under each of these types. Taking the farms of 70 acres or under in size, there were 38 on which over 50 per cent of the receipts were from work off the farm, the average labor income received being $192, while the average for those following the general type of farming was $210, and for those following the dairy type $246. The farmers fol- lowing the dairy type had on the average more capital invested than was necessary in following either of the other types, but the addi- tional income received, together with the added advantage of having steady employment throughout the year at home, and in the main being emancipated from the directing authority of others, makes this type the more attractive. Fic. 9.—Hauling coalfrom mine. One of the principal sources of outside receipts. TENURE. Records were obtained from 10 farm owners who rented out a part of their crop acreage. For the most part these men were consider- ably older than the average, thus making it necessary for them to get rid of a part of the responsibility of operating the entire farm, yet they continued to live on the farm. The average farm area was 117 acres, with 40 acres in crops, 10 acres of which was rented out. Their total capital was $7,330, average receipts $1,019, expenses $642, farm income $377, interest on capital $366, and labor income $11. Sixteen farms in the area were operated by tenants. Three of these were dairy and 13 were general farms. The operators paid cash rent. After the Jandlord’s farm expenses, consisting of build- ing depreciation and.repair, upkeep of fences, insurance, and taxes, were deducted from the rent received, the landlords received 2.6 per cent on their investment. Fifty-four farmers in the area increased the size of their business by renting additional land from companies owning land for coal 32 BULLETIN 853, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mines or limestone quarries, or from miners living on small tracts of land, or from men owning small tracts and doing very little farming. The crops most commonly put in on shares were small grains. The division of the crop and expenses varies greatly. A division that is quite common is for the renter to get two-thirds of the crop, he pay- ing two-thirds of the thrashing and fertilizer bill and furnishing all the seed. In other cases he pays all the fertilizer and two-thirds of the thrashing expense. Where the renter gets one-half of the crop, quite commonly he pays all the thrashing bill and the owner furnishes all the seed and pays the fertilizer expense. ’ Where additional hay land is rented, the renter usually gets from one-third to three-fourths of the crop fee depending upon the quality and yield and the ease of harvesting. Though only a small amount of corn land was rented out, the renter of such land usually paid for one-half of the fertilizer, did all the work, and received one- half of the grain and stover. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Public Reads THOS. H. MACDONALD, Chief Washington, D. C. ' PROFESSIONAL PAPER August 26, 1920 THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. By D. L. Yarnewu, Senior Drainage Engineer, and SHERMAN M. Woopwarp, Pro- fessor of Mechanics and Hydraulics, State University of Iowa. CONTENTS. Page. Page. ATETOGUCHON Ns. = 382: os oeawdsaesceee cee ~ ees 1 | Necessary data for comparing velocity for- Scope of the investigation............-------- 2 EVN eC Sree eter, Me pst a Saat) Miele oe SES IES ae 12 WOniGHISIOnNSe esse eae oe doe sceucssees 4 Meaniviclocityse sss meses ee oes ees 2 12 Description of experimental plant........... 5 Hydraulic grade or slope. .-.-.-.........- 119) ug pine Plant assess a. seoee eee te oes 5 Internal size of drain tile. ..-.-..-.......- 13 Sup plysbanke 2.0 soars aces eee en nee 5 Actual depiunol lowes 2s. 5 eeeee 14 NEUES prea s a ect el CE ad Bek Tul 6 | Methods of conducting tests....-........-... 15 TENG a, PAD CS hee = eee a De Re eS oe aes 6 | Measurement of mean velocity-.-...........- 17 1D) (bose eee eee ee S Ae aan See 6 | Results of observations.-...............----- 18 Method of changing grade........-....-- 6 | Discussion of computations. -...........-.-.- 34 Mrenyn oate Tlese haste ak oe eens 7 Formule for tile flowing full............ 35 Coverine-theitiless: 22 eee se ee ete 7 Formule for tile flowing partly full. ...- 40 Piezometers and piezometer tubes....-.. 8 | Comparison of various formule............-. 47 Wonienclatutecnc se etcct snes Sakon ae 9 | Loss of head in catch-basins................- 49 Formule for flow of water in drain tile...... 9 2 INTRODUCTION. The discharging capacity of tile drains has become a matter of considerable importance in recent years, on account of the heavy investments being made in this kind of agricultural improvement. Drain tile in small sizes have been used for a long time, but recently much larger sizes, 2 feet and more in diameter, have come into rather common use in some States. Where tile 24 to 48 inches in diameter and larger are to be installed, at a cost of $8,000 and upward per mile, reducing the diameter 2 or 3 inches may mean saving $500 to $1,500 per mile. Planning the best tile-drainage system for any situation is a com- plicated problem of balancing many diverse and uncertain factors of benefit and cost. The point of largest rate of return upon the investment can not be determined exactly. Obviously, a point may easily be reached where additional expenditure, although se- 166597°—20—Bull. 854 —1 2 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. curing an enhanced degree of drainage, would not yield additional benefit in proportion to the increase in cost, and might not be justified. On the other hand, an inadequate installation might be so ineffective as not to justify even the small expenditure it would require. It is the engineer’s high duty, therefore, in planning the general scheme of improvement for any drainage undertaking, to determine just what expenditure will yield a satisfactory return, and to so propor- tion the details as to secure the maximum benefit from the invest- ment. A deficiency at one point may reduce the effectiveness of the whole system, while the elaboration of one part out of proportion to the others might add materially to the expense without obtaining any benefit. The formulz in general use for computing the velocity of flow in tile drains were proposed years ago, when all drain tile were small as compared with the larger sizes used to-day. Under the earlier conditions, when other considerations had relatively large weight in determining the size of tile to be used, accuracy in computing carrying capacity was relatively unimportant; but nowadays drains 12 to 48 inches in diameter are common, and accurate knowledge of the capacity is essential for economical design. Although many experiments have been made upon flow of water in iron, steel, concrete, and wood-stave pipes, the results are not directly applicable to tile drains. The tile usually are not nearly so regular in size and shape as are the other pipes mentioned, and specially noteworthy is the number and nature of the joints. While the other conduits are either of continuous construction or in 10 to 20 foot lengths, drain tile are in lengths of only 1 to 3 feet. Fur- thermore, with clay tile the nature of the materials used and the methods of manufacture are the causes of some distortion in cross section; this is particularly noticeable where two lengths abut. The considerable unevenness at the joints, when multiplied by the greater number of joints, so greatly disturbs the flow of water as to make formule devised for other kinds of conduit inapplicable to tile drains. Realizing the need for accurate knowledge regarding the flow of water in tile drains, plans for investigating this subject were made by the drainage division of the Bureau of Public Roads, early in 1915. The experiments so far made concern only the smaller sizes of tile, and this report therefore should be considered as a progress report of the investigation of the whole subject. SCOPE OF THE INVESTIGATION. Drain tile installed for agricultural improvement serve two some- what distinct purposes—as collectors of excess water and as conduits to convey the water to some more or less distant outlet, but usually both purposes are served coincidentally. The investigation herein THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 3 reported, however, deals only with the discharge or carrying capacity of tile drains as conduits. No tests were made on sizes smaller than 4 inches in inside diameter, as the use of smaller sizes now is con- sidered generally inadvisable, the small bore greatly increasing the danger of obstruction by sediment or by displacement. Laboratory methods are essential for securing definite results in such an investigation, in order that each factor influencing the flow may be varied through a considerable range, yet always subject to control, while the other factors are maintained constant. Only in this manner can each influence be measured separately. The factors influencing the velocity of flow in a tile drain are: the inside diameter of the pipe, the depth of the water flowing, the slope or grade of the water surface (which ordinarily is that of the tile line), and the roughness and irregularity of the interior surface and of the joints. On tile lines installed for actual use in land drainage the grade of each line is fixed; most of the time they are empty or carry but little water; the amount of flow depends upon weather and seasons and can not be regulated for investigation; and when the flow is considerable the weather is likely to be bad, the roads practically impassable, and the ground surface covered with water— conditions that make it impossible to secure satisfactorily precise measurements in tile several feet under ground. The principal feature of the equipment for making the experiments “was a wooden flume about 570 feet long, in which the tile were laid “in earth exactly as drains are installed in the ground. The flume was adjustable to any grade up to 1.50 per cent (s=0.015), without disturbing the tile. The depths of flow were observed by piezometer tubes hung on the side of the flume. Care was taken to make the tile lines truly representative of drains ordinarily well laid under field conditions. Experiments were made with all the usual commercial sizes of tile, both of clay and of concrete, from 4 to 12 inches inside diameter. Nine grades were used, from 0.05 to 1.50 per cent, for each size and kind of tile. For each size, kind, and grade it was desired to test depths of flow of one-fourth, three-eighths, and one-half the internal diameter of the tile, and other depths ranging from half full to full - by successive increases of 5 per cent of the diameter. However, because of the practical difficulty of securing exactly any given depth of flow, the number of tests was considerably less than anticipated in the smaller sizes of tile. Also, the capacity of the pumping plant was not sufficient to fill the largest tile at the maximum grade. Tests were run, also, with the tile under slight internal pressure. In all, 824 separate tests were made, and from these a new formula has been devised for computing the flow in drain tile. 4 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. For comparison, 69 tests were made on 10 and 12 inch tile, so laid as closely to approximate poorly laid drains as found in the field, to show the results of using unskilled workmen in laying drains without proper supervision. Nine experiments were made upon the loss of head in catch-basins, using 8-inch clay tile. Grades of 0.20, 0.75, and 1.50 per cent were tested, with drops in the catch-basin of 0.10, 0.20, and 0.30 foot for each grade. The investigations were made at Arlington, Va., in 1916 and 1917. The experimental plant was designed and constructed by S. W. Frescoln, drainage engineer, and the tests were made by D. L. Yarnell, senior drainage engineer, under the direction of S. H. McCrory, chief of drainage investigations. S. M. Woodward acted as consulting engineer for the investigation, making suggestions in the conduct of the experiments and collaborating in the preparation of the data and report. This report upon the investigation of flow in drain tile includes a detailed description of the equipment and methods used and the tabulated data from the experimental work. The results deduced from the data are shown graphically, the method of developing the curves being explained. The formule now in general use for com- puting velocity in tile are discussed and comparison is made with the new formula presented. A diagram is given showing discharge capaci- ties based upon this formula, covering sizes from 4 to 48 inch tile, . and grades from 0.04 to 3.00 per cent. : So far as the writers have been able to learn, only one other similar investigation of this subject has ever been made. This was by Messrs. J. F. Rightmire and M. E. Chappel and was quite limited in extent (see Vol. IV, No. 4, Bulletin of the Iowa State College Engineer- ing Experimental Station). CONCLUSIONS. The following general conclusions have been drawn after a detailed study of all of the experimental data: (1) That the value of the coefficient of roughness, n, in the Kutter formula, as obtained by experiments in a drain or pipe at any depth of flow less than full, does not necessarily apply to that drain or pipe when flowing full. (2) That the exponent of the slope, s, is practically 0.5. In other words, the loss of head is in proportion to the 2.0 power of the velocity and not the 1.8 power, as given by many authorities. (3) That the exponent of the mean hydraulic radius, R, is 2/3. (4) The Chezy formula gives the same velocity of flow in a pipe flowing one-half full as in one flowing full, with the grade constant. The experimental data obtained seem to disprove this commonly accepted theory. THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 5 DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL PLANT. PUMPING PLANT. A eomplete pumping plant was installed to supply the water necessary to carry on the tests. The pump used was an 8-inch side-suction centrifugal pump. Its economical capacity was 1,800 gallons per minute. The suction pipe, 10 inches in diameter and approximately 40 feet long, was laid sloping from the pump to the intake ditch or sump. The discharge pipe, 8 inches in diameter, was so arranged that the entire capacity of the pump could be de- livered to the supply tank with the least frictional losses. The pump was run by a 30h. p. engine rated at200r.p.m. Itwas equipped with an oscillating-type magneto with the make-and- break spark. It was started on gasoline, and after becoming warm _ operated on kerosene. The engine was connected to the pump by a 10-inch, double thickness, endless leather belt. SUPPLY TANKS. Tn order to maintain a constant flow through the tile line, a supply tank 7 feet 9 inches by 7 feet 9 inches by 10 feet 9 inches deep (A, Pl. I) was built to receive the pump discharge. On the side of this tank opposite the entrance of the pump discharge pipe, a measuring weir and a hook gage were installed. A baffle board extending from the top of the tank to within 2 feet of the bottom was constructed. Thus the movement of the water from the discharge of the pump was quieted sufficiently to obtain a quiet surface on the water at the hook gage and weir. . Since the entire discharge of the pump was not required for all the experiments, an overflow tank (6, Pl. I) was built. Its size was 9 feet 6 inches by 9 feet 6 inches by 5 feet 6 inches deep. A trough from this tank carried the overflow water back to the intake ditch. For regulating the flow into the supply tank, an 8-inch gate valve was inserted in the pump discharge pipe. This valve is shown in Plate I, between tank B and the pump house. The water not required for the experiment passed through another 8-inch gate valve into the overflow tank. When the entire discharge from the pump was used in the tile, the gate valve in the overflow tank was closed. Another tank containing baffle board, hook gage, and weir was ~ used at the lower end of the tile line to measure the discharge from the tile as a check on the amount of water entering the tile. How- ever, the measurements from this tank, as will be explained later, were not used in the final computations. Both weir tanks were covered with boards to prevent any surface movement on the water being set up by winds. 6 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. WEIRS. For use in measuring the water entering into and discharging from the tile line, brass, triangular-notch weirs were used, the notch angle being 90 degrees (PI. II, fig. 1, and Pl. ITI, figs. 1 and 3). For tile over 4 inches in diameter, weirs with {-inch lips were used; while for tht 4-inch tile, knife-edged weirs were deemed the most accurate. The weir plates, both of which were set level, were so placed that the nappe of each weir cut free and was fully aetate To determine the discharge over the weirs, V. M. Cone’s formula, Q = 2.487 H?-805 was used in all computations. In this formula, Q=discharge in cubic feet per second and H=head in feet on weir notch. HOOK GAGES. Boyden hook gages were used to determine the head on the weirs. On both gages the vernier plates were securely fastened and bradded to the gage, so as to eliminate any error due to possible charge of position of the plates. Each gage was set at a distance of over 2 H to the side of the weir so as to record the correct head on the weir. FLUME. In order to test the carrying capacity of the tile bedded in earth as in actual practice, a continuous wooden flume (PI. IV) 570 feet long, 2 feet wide, and 2 feet deep was constructed of 2-inch plank. All joints and seams were calked with oakum and covered with pine pitch to make the flume water-tight. This continuous channel or flume was supported on yoke blocks suspended by #-inch steel rods (A, Pl. V) from 6 by 6 inch caps (B, Pl. V) which rested on 4 by 4 inch vertical posts (C, Pl. V). Two vertical posts with their yoke block formed a bent; the bents were spaced 8 feet apart. In all, _ 72 bents were erected. Each bent was braced by 4 by 4 inch posts CE PIS). METHOD OF CHANGING GRADE. The upper 6 feet of the steel rods were threaded with 10 threads to the inch. For support on the caps, bearing plates with ogee washers and 2-inch hexagonal nuts were used. To raise the flume an inch at any bent it was necessary to turn the nuts just 10 revo- lutions. Ordinary wrenches were cumbersome and slow for turning these nuts, consequently specially-constructed socket wrenches (Pl. VI, fig. 1) were used, consisting of hollow pipes so shaped as to fit over the nuts and with circular disk handles. This type of wrench ~ greatly facilitated the work of changing grade. 1 Journal of Agricultural Research, U. 8. Department of Agriculture, Vol. V, No. 23, p. 1083. THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 7 To decrease the amount of work necessary to adjust the grade of this continuous channel, the flume was rotated about its longitudinal center. Thus, when changing grade, one half of the flume would be lowered while the other half would be raised. The flume could be set to any grade up to 1.50 feet in 100 feet. To enable the workmen to determine whether the flume was at the proper grade, graduated wooden strips (A, Pl. VI, fig. 1) 2 inches wide, 0.5 inch thick, and several feet long were placed on each side of the flume at each bent. The difference of elevation between various grades at each bent had been previously computed, and these differences were marked on the gage strips with the corresponding erade number. Thus, when the proper mark appeared at the cross board through which the gage strip ran, the workmen knew that part of the flume to be at the desired grade. At points where the required change of elevation was considerable, the flume was not raised or lowered the entire amount at one time, but was changed by successive increments of only a few inches. ‘Thus the amount of stress on the flume was lessened, and the liability of leakage through the possible springing of the planks was eliminated. Z, The grade of the flume was checked with an engineer’s level im- mediately before each experiment, to eliminate all possible errors from inaccurate adjustment or from settlement of the vertical posts. 4 LAYING THE TILE. The tile were laid on earth in the flume as in actual practice. This earth in the bottom of the flume was about 7 inches deep. It was placed in layers, 2 inches at a time, and each layer was thoroughly tamped so that the bed on which the tile rested would not settle. At first a line was stretched along the flume immediately over its center and about 3 feet above the grade, and this line was used to erade the bed for the tile. It was soon found, however, that the gage line was in the way of the workmen, and another method for grading the tile bed wasadopted. ‘The material for this method consisted of a 30-inch strip, 2 inches wide and 0.75 inch thick, and a gage stick of the same size but 174 inches long. The workman laid the strip across the top of the flume and, holding the top of this gage stick flush with the top of the cross arm, determined whether oe invert of each tile was at grade (P. VI, fig. 9). COVERING THE TILE. While blinding the tile, an engineer was constantly in the flume to oversee the work and prevent any tile from being pushed out of line. Fine earth, free from large clods, was used for blinding, the inspector tamping the earth on each side of the tile with his feet. Thus any appreciable movement or current of water through the earth on 8 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. either side of the tile in the flume was prevented. After the tile were covered, the remaining space in the flume was filled with earth. PIEZOMETERS AND PIEZOMETER TILES. Tn order to measure the depth of flow in the tile drain, piezometer tubes of graduated glass were placed on the side of the flume and connected to the lower part of the tile line. Twelve tiles of uniform shape, for each size and kind, were selected, and a small hole was drilled through the wall of each. In each hole a 1-inch iron pipe, 2 inches long, was inserted, care being taken that the tube did not project inside the tile bore. This tube was set in cement (Pl. II, fig. 2), and any unevenness on the inside wall of the tile at the en- trance of the tube was removed by coating the surface with a little cement. This method of inserting the tube was deemed the best as determined by Hiram F. Mills from a study of the results of some 6,000 observations on various piezometer connections (see Trans. Amer. Academy of Science, 1878). Mills found that with an orifice whose edges are in the plane of the side of the conduit and with the bore of the tube normal to the plane of the wall, the piezometer column indicates the true height of the water surface in any open conduit, or the pressure in a closed conduit. At first these piezometer tile were so turned as to have the tube on the bottom of the tile in the flume. Much trouble was experienced . from the tube openings filling up, so the piezometer tile were then laid with the tube leading toward the side of the flume but turned slightly downward. The connection was made by rubber tubing to a steel nipple inserted through the wall of the flume (Pl. VII). On the side of the flume at each piezometer tile, a frame holding the glass tube was set. This glass tube (Pl. VID) was graduated in tenths and hundredths of a foot. Its zero was set at a definite distance below the top of the flume. A rubber tube connected the piezometer glass to the nipple in the wall of the flume. The zero of each piezometer gage was 173 inches below the top of the flume. The invert of the tile in the flume was always laid 164 inches below the top of the flume. The capillarity of the glass tubes used was found to be 0.01 foot. Thus, with water just entering the tile drain, the piezometer tube read 0.09 foot. In other words, in order to obtain the true depth of flow in the drain, 0.09 foot was subtracted from each piezometer reading. With the exception of the two piezometers near the tile entrance, which were only 8 feet apart, these tubes were distributed along the flume approximately 55 feet apart, the last piezometer being within a few feet of the outlet of the tile drain. ‘44311 48 OSNOY oulsuy ‘“sHUe} OY} 07 ZuIdid Jo JuoMEsUeIIC O10N “SHNVL AlddNS GNV MO1SYHSAQO 869-0 *H ‘d 'G PLATE I. {eases © = =) = a 2 op < - (e) es; Q ® (a) ) =) + w) (oo) Oe PLATE II. of Agriculture. Dept. S) U, 854 Bul. ‘9117 JO [TBA OPIsUT YT Ysny yas eqny 030N "A11L YaLaWOZaIq—Z "DIA €69-G *Y “d "dG “yur Ajddns wro1y oS1eYOSIp Jo [[BJ Go1J 9I0N “HOLON] 3SYD3CQ-06 HLIM YISM—"] “DIS er ata Bul. 854, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. a ee ee “a 4 © % B- P. R. D—534 Fic. 2.—CONICAL ENTRANCE USED TO INCREASE ENTRANCE VELOCITY INTO TILE. B. P. R. D—537 B. P. R.« D-691 Fig. |.—CONICAL ENTRANCE USED TO Fic. 3.—WEIR WITH 90-DEGREE NOTCH. INCREASE ENTRANCE VELOCITY INTO TILE Note free fall from discharge tank. PLATE IV. of Agriculture. Dept. > U 854 Bul. $t9-G "YH *d*d "SHNV_L AlddNS GNV MOTSAYSAO GNV ASNOH ANISN> i Y. Rite saan ONIMOHS ‘aWN14 JO GNF YsaddfM AO MAlIA IWYANAH PLATE V. Bul. 854, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ee BS: eet a 3 UPPER END OF FLUME, SHOWING I0-INCH CONCRETE TILE LAID READY FOR BLINDING. Bul. 854, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. Shae) fe a Fig. |.—CHANGING THE GRADE OF THE FLUME. Note 12-inch plank Jaid along top of flume for men to work on while changing grade. B. P. R. 0-628 B. P. R. D-699 FiG. 2.—LAYING IO-INCH CONCRETE TILE IN THE FLUME. Bul. 854, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. Se Sia, See e B. P, R. D—522 GRADUATED PIEZOMETER GLASS, FRAME, AND RUBBER TUBE CONNECTION TO PIEZOMETER TILE INSIDE OF FLUME. THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 9 NOMENCLATURE. The following symbols are used throughout this report: d=mean depth of flow in the drain, in feet. D=mean inside diameter of the tile, in feet. r=mean inside radius of the tile, in feet=} D. Q=mean discharge of the tile during the test, in second-feet. A=mean area of the tile bore, in square feet=zr’. a=average area of flow in the tile, in square feet. V=mean velocity of the water during the test in feet per second=2 : P=wetted perimeter in the tile, in feet. R=mean hydraulic radius=p; in a tile drain running full — ° s=hydraulic grade or slope. n=coefficient of roughness in Kutter’s formula. C=coefficient in Chezy’s velocity formula. Cy»=coefficient in the Williams-Hazen velocity formula. h=total difference in elevation between ends of a main drain, in feet. J=length of the drain tested, in feet. ; b=summation of the amounts of excess head in the submains, in feet. T=number of submains. U=depth of the soil over the main drain at its head, in feet; used only when main drains are 1,000 feet or more in length. s=m2 is the general equation for the flow of water in drain tile, in which z is always constant and m varies only with the size of tile. m=eD¢ is the equation for the variation of m for a series of drain tile of various sizes but of the same material; e and x are constants. mn’ =the special values of m found for each series of tile. Whenever a test is numbered, the reference is to the correspond- ing numbers in Tables 3 and 4 and to Plates X and XI. Throughout this discussion the term ‘“‘concrete tile” is used instead of ‘‘cement tile.’ The American Society for Testing Mate- rials, in its standard specifications for drain tile, defines concrete tile as tile made of ‘‘a suitable mixture of Portland cement, mineral ageregates, and water, hardened by hydraulic chemical reaction.’’ FORMULA FOR FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. It is common knowledge that the water enters drains at the joints and not through the walls of the tile. Since there is a joint either every foot or every 2 feet in the length of the drain, water enters the _ tile drain throughout its entire length. In tile of small sizes, this leads to an appreciable variation in the amount of water carried at different points in the tile; but in the larger sizes the amount entering is so small a proportion of the amount carried as to be unimportant in considering carrying capacity. The water in any tile drain is caused to flow and velocity is set up by two forces, one due to the grade of the tile line, and the other created when there is a variation in areas of water cross-section. 10 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. One authority includes a third force caused by the head due to height of the water table in the soil. It is interesting to note the variations between the different formule recommended for tile drainage. Some formule take into account only the grade or slope of the tile dram, while others include the additional head caused by the weight of the water in the soil above the drain. Few formule distinguish between the retardation influ- ences in coné¢rete and those in clay drain tile, while many treat both kinds of tile the same. One formula used by drainage engineers is the well-known Chezy formula, V= 0VRs= OR*55%5 (1) This was introduced by Chezy, a French engineer, in 1775. In this formule, C is a coefficient, originally considered a constant but since Liguemavell to vary with the retardation factors as well as nar the mean hydraulic radius and the slope. The Kutter modification of the Chezy formula, 9 iS i 66 +2: a 0.00881) a (vs (2) 1+( 41.66 ( 661 ae a is the equation probably most widely used by drainage engineers. To obtain this formula, the coefficient C’ has been replaced by an ex- pression involving the hydraulic grade or slope and the mean hy- draulic radius, as well as a quantity, n, to represent the influence of the roughness of the walls of the channel or conduit. The Poncelet, Hawkesley,! or Kytelwein * formula Dh T-+54D (3) ye V=48 applies to drains in which the velocity is due only to the hydraulic grade or slope of the drain. It has been used to a great extent for small tile systems in close soil and for determining the size of outlet drains. According to Wollender, Wage, and John,” * the mean velocity in drain tile is Die a Vo MN FG y The Vincent formula is 3 MDs V =45.95 Tle (5) } Sullivan’s New Hydraulics, p. 9. 2 Hamilton Smith’s Hydraulics, p. 272. 3L. Faure, Drainage et Assainissement Agricole des Terres, Paris, 1903, p. 99. THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 11 in which Vincent gives values for the variable coefficient, K, ranging from 0.75 for 2-inch tile to 0.875 for 6-inch tile. _ Friedrich! states that Professor Gieseler’s formula, V=36.22-/Ds° (6) is the best in practice as well as the simplest. Formula 6 is said by Professor Luedecke to have been deduced as early as 1852 by the agricultural engineer Stocken, at Schweidnitz, from Prony’s formula, which is V =47.63Ds (7) Beardmore’s, sometimes called Leslie’s, formula, V=100VRs : (8) is similar to Chezy’s, the coefficient C being taken as a constant, 100. The Williams-Hazen general formula for all kinds of pipes is V= 0,,R°-259-40.001-°-%4 (9) This formula is of special importance in this discussion, since careful comparison of it with the Chezy-Kutter formula has been made. C. G. Elliott, a widely known drainage authority, has modified the Poncelet or Hawkesley formula as follows:? Dh +4U ease 1+54 D (10) fer use on systems where the soil is open; V= s54/? +7) | (11) 1+54 D for use on large systems in close soil; b Ve 4)? (i +1) ae (12) 1+54 D . for use on large systems in open soil. The last term in the numerator under the radical in formule 10 and 12 has been added to allow for the water pressure in the soil above the tile drain. This additional head, however, is constantly varying, being greatest when the earth is completely saturated. It is doubtful whether it should be used in computing the discharge of a drain, and if so, then only in open, porous soils. 1 Friedrich, Kulturtechnischer Wasserbau, vol. 1, Berlin, 1912, p. 343. 2C. G. Elliott, Engineering for Land Drainage, New York, 2d ed., 1912, p. 93. 12 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A new formula based on tests actually made on drain tile, derived as hereinafter explained, is tentatively offered for tile flowing full. This formula is V=138 Ris} (13) It may seem that the exponential type of formula is Inconvenient because logarithms must be used to calculate results from it. How- ever, it is comparatively simple in the case of such a formula to prepare a diagram or chart, composed of parallel, straight lines if on logarithmic scale, from which the required velocity or the required discharge for any size of tile at any grade can be obtained at a glance, the accuracy of the reading depending entirely upon the scale of the diagram. Plate XIIT is a diagram prepared by using the formula as derived from the actual tests made, but applied to commercial or nominal sizes of tile. It should be noted that Elhott’s modifications of Poncelet’s or. Hawkesley’s formula are the only ones which take into consideration the head caused by the water table in the soil, while the Chezy-Kutter formula is the only one in which the different retardation influences in clay and concrete drain tile may be considered. NECESSARY DATA FOR COMPARING VELOCITY FORMULA. In order to test the relative accuracy of the various formule which have been recommended for use in determining the discharge of tile drains, the effect of each hydraulic element involved in the formule must be determined by experiment. However, in the tests made at the experimental plant it was impossible to determine the effect of the additional head caused by the water table in the soil. The ele- ments to be determined are as follows: (1) the mean velocity of the water in the tile drain; (2) the grade or slope of the drain, or the water slope if it is different from that of the drain; (3) the internal size of the tile; (4) the actual depth of flow in the tile drain. MEAN VELOCITY. The mean velocity of the water flowing in the drain can be deter- mined by various methods. However, only the following two methods were used: (1) by actually measuring the quantity of water entering or discharging from the tile drain per second, and then solving the equation y=" - (2) by timing a given volume of water through a previously measured distance. HYDRAULIC GRADE OR SLOPE. The slope of the line of tile tested at the experimental plant was always known, since the tile were laid in an adjustable flume which could be changed to the desired grade, the grade always being checked by a level. . ee es Ae ef “Weco - THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 13 INTERNAL SIZE OF DRAIN TILES. It is generally known that drain tile are not exactly of the dimen- sions corresponding to the nominal size. All of the concrete tile used - in these experiments were under the nominal size, while the clay tile generally were larger than the nominal size. However, the concrete tile more nearly averaged the nominal size than did the clay tile. Although in actual practice the nominal or commercial size of tile is invariably used in computing the discharge, yet to determine accurately the retardation factors it is essential to know the correct average diameter of the drain tile being tested. To determine the average diameter of all the tile tested at the experimental plant, two measurements were made at right angles to each other at each end of every tile. This task required the recording and averaging of 1,160 measurements when tile in 2-foot lengths were used, and twice this number when tile in 1-foot lengths were used. Table 1 gives the dimensions and cross-sectional areas of each kind of tile tested at the experimental plant. From a study of this table several points are revealed. In the first place, considerable error would have been introduced into the final results had the nominal or commercial diameter—instead of the actual, measured, average diameter—been used in the computations. For example, the mean velocity for the 6-inch clay tile at a grade of 0.50 foot in 100 feet, with a depth of flow of 0.498 foot and discharging 0.554 second- foot, is, when computed from the measured average diameter, 2.659 feet per second; with the nominal or commercial diameter the velocity is 2.823 feet per second. As a rule the mean of the areas of the tile computed from the diameters varying most above and below the measured average diameter, with their companion diame- ters, varies little from the area computed from the measured aver- age diameter. TaBLE 1.—Comparison of dimensions and areas of various kinds of tile used. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Oj) eeelatt 12 13 Vari- Diam-' Diam- - Com- Ae. ation ca eter Areas fs eter ee om-| mer-} tua in |Small-| nor- |7-°°| Larg-| nor- |g.) > mer-| cial |meas- area ATES area| est | mal ian est | mal ian Kind oftile cial | or | ured sisal nied be- }meas-| to in |meas-_to a : Be size |nom-|aver-|P'"* nes tween} ured |diam-| ,(y, | ured |diam-| (ty, of | inal | age aa. led. A cols. | diam-| eter a diam-} eter rl tile. |\diam-|diam-|"~ ~~ “"|"~" "| 5 eter. | in pad eter.| in sad eter. | eter. and col. 9 col. 12 6. 8. : 11. : In. | Feet.\ Feet. |\Sq.ft.\Sq.ft.| P.ct.| Feet. | Fcet.|\Sa.ft.| Feet. | Feet. \Sq.ft. Concrete saeco eS 4/0. 3333/0. 3280)0. 0873/0. 0845} +3. 2) 0. 3100/0. 3300/0. 0804/0. 3380/0. 3320)0. 0881 Hard-burned clay.-......- 4) . 3333] .3398| .0873) .0907} —3.9] .3150] .3380) .0837) .3520) .3500) . 0968 Concrete...........-.--.-- 5| .4167| . 4127) . 1364] . 1338) +1.9 3950) . 4100} . 1272) . 4220) . 4180} . 1385 Hard-burned clay........- 5] . 4167] . 4193] . 1364) .1381} —1. 2) .3780) .4510| . 1349) . 4350) .4510} . 1473 Coneretessns ess. 2c 6} . 5000} . 4970} . 1964] . 1940} +1.2) . 4850) . 4850) . 1847) .5130) . 4950) . 1995 Soft-burned clay...-.--.-- 6) . 5000} .5184] . 1964) . 2111) —7. 4 4760| .5260} . 1971] .5350} . 5300} . 2227 @oncreterars 8352 os: &| .6667] .6585}] .3491] .3406} +2.4; .6400} .6450] .3242) .6776) . 6620) . 3520 Hard-burned clay..-..-... 8} . 6667] ..6850] . 3491} . 3685) —5.5}) .6700] .6720) .3536) . 7360} . 7030} . 4066 WONGCKELC teense ee ae 10} . 8333] . 8274] .5454] .5377 1.4} . 8080] . 8110} .5147) . 8420] . 8410) . 5562 \USIB NEEL ASS ia eee 10} . 8333] . 8360} .5454] .5489) —0.6] . 7950} . 8300] .5185] . 8650} . 8400} .5708 Concrete se a 12/1. 0000) . 9915} . 7854] . 7721] +1. 7] .9630} .9780] . 7398)1. 0100)1. 0000) . 7933 Waitrified!2secies 2 Poe 8 Voi 12 1. 0000} .9857] . 7854] . 7631] +2.8] .9700} .9760| . 7436/1. 0200) . 9980} . 7996 1 Computed as an ellipse. 2 These tile were in 2-foot lengths; all others in 1-foot lengths. 14 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. _ ACTUAL DEPTH OF FLOW. The depths of flow in the tile lines tested were measured by means of the 12 piezometer tubes distributed along the flume, as previously described. As first laid, the tile at the lower end of the experimental line dis- charged into the open air with a free drop of several inches. This produced a backwater curve of the drop-off type which extended back for a considerable distance into the tile line, decreasing the depth of the water near the lower end. Yor the steeper slopes this effect was much extended, and, indeed, in extreme cases reached throughout the length of the experimental line. Such a condition was objectionable for two reasons: first, the hydraulic gradient under such circumstances would be represented by the slope of the water surface, which was then somewhat greater than the grade of the tile; second, since the condition was not one of uniform flow, it would become necessary to take account of the change of velocity at differ- ent points in the tile, with the corresponding changes in velocity head, in determining the head consumed in overcoming friction. Since these additional complications were unnecessary and objectionable, the drop-off curve was eliminated by installing a low, movable dam (shown in Pl. VIII, fig. 1) just below the lower end of the tile line. By adjusting the height of this dam, the water surface at the outlet could be maintained in close agreement ae any desired depth throughout the experimental line. The water entered the upper end of the tile through a conical entrance pipe (Pl. ITI, figs. 1 and 2) designed to give an entrance velocity approximating that of the steady, uniform flow im the tile line. But it was found impracticable to adjust the entrance velocity exactly to that of the line, with the result that the upper 50 feet of tile were required to bring the velocity to the condition of uniform flow, and the piezometers at the upper end would not always agree with the others along the tile. With this exception, the readings of depth in the various piezometers along the tile line could generally be brought into satisfactory agreement. With the tile only partly full, there were occasional quite erratic readings on some piezometers. These indicated unusual disturb- ances within the tile line. When through the warped or elliptical shape of the tile the joints do not fit closely, a-portion of one tile at the joint may project inward in such a way as to present a square obstruction against the edge of the moving stream of water. Violent impact of the water against such an obstruction produces a marked disturbance of the stream, and is indicated by extensive ripples and foam on the water surface which may persist for several feet down- stream. Several such cases were carefully examined by uncovering the tile and inspecting the water surface within, as well as by measur- THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 15 ing the height of the water surface outside of the tile at the joint. In some cases the water level outside the tile would remain steadily 0.1 or 0.2 foot higher on one side of the tile than on the other, and the surface inside the tile would be very turbulent and would seem to bear no relation to the elevation of the water surface outside the tile joint. Such phenomena were most conspicuous when the depth of flow was between half and full depth, and with the high velocities due to the steeper slopes. The phenomena seemed to depend upon the presence of air in the tile, as they disappeared largely when the tile were completely filled, so that all air was excluded. METHODS OF CONDUCTING TESTS. A test was always begun at the least depth of flow. Six men were needed to conduct a complete experiment at one grade, which required from 3 to 6 hours, depending upon the number of depths of flow tested. One man cared for the pump and engine, one read the upper hook gage, a third was stationed midway the length of the flume at a piezometer tube, another was stationed at the outlet to adjust the height of the movable dam, and a fifth man read the lower hook gage. The engineer in charge usually operated the valve controlling the supply of water to the upper weir tank, and watched the uppe piezometer tubes. The engineer announced the depth of flow he desired to obtain to the man stationed at the dam. The gate valve in the supply pipe was partly opened and the piezometer readings noted. The dam was then raised or lowered to secure the correct depth of flow at the piezometer tube near the outlet, special care being taker not to get a greater depth than desired there. The observer at the upper hook gage called out the various gage heights at short intervals, that the water supply might be regulated properly, and when the desired depth in the tile was obtained, sufficient time was allowed to determine that the depth over the weir was constant. The observations at the upper, middle, and lower piezometers indicated when the flow was steady throughout the tile line. When the flow was steady at the proper depth, the signal was given and each of the tWo hook-gage readers made record of the readings at his station every 30 seconds. Meanwhile, the engineer in charge passed along the flume, recording the readings of all piezometers in succession; the observer at the lower end of the flume went to the upper end and then recorded the piezometer readings in order, following just 2 mimutes behind the engineer’s readings; the observer at the middle of the flume watched the piezometer there to report if any considerable fluctuation indi- cated that the test should be run again. If the depth over the upper weir remained constant throughout the test, the engineer proceeded to obtain the next depth of flow; if the weir readings varied, the test 16 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for the same depth of flow was run again. About 20 minutes were required to obtain the data for each depth of flow, the amount of time depending upon the grade of the flume. The readings for the first two and the last piezometers were not included to obtain the depth of flow in the drain. It should be remembered that water as it enters the drain has not the velocity it will acquire after traveling some distance; therefore the first two piezometers usually recorded a depth slightly different from that of the piezometer 60 feet from the tile entrance or those of the succeed- ing piezometers. Even with a gradual, conical entrance to the tile drain (PI. ITT, figs. 1 and 2), the entrance velocity could not be easily regulated to be the same as the uniform velocity through the main portion of the tile. The average of the readings of the intermediate nine piezometers, less 0.09 foot, usually was taken as the true depth of flow, although at times very erratic individual piezometer readings were obtained which were not used in obtaining the average. Only the upper weir readings were used in the final computations. It was found in the earlier experiments that after waiting some time for the lower weir box to fill to.a steady height, the lower weir would read practically the same as the upper weir, proving that there was no measurable loss of flow in passing through the tile line. Hence, to save time in performing the experiments, it was decided not to wait for the lower weir to reach a steady reading. It may appear that, in using only the upper weir readings to obtaim the carrying capacity of the drain, too great a quantity of water was recorded due to seepage into the earth adjacent to the drain, which would credit the tile with carrying more water than it actually did carry. However, observation of the condition of the soil indicated clearly that the soil became sufficiently saturated by the time steady flow was obtained in the tile, that there was no such loss, at least not in quantity that could have affected the results of this investigation. The use of the dam at the tile outlet did not affect the carrying capacity of the drain, for special care was taken not to allow any piezometer readings at the lower end of the flume to exceed the readings near the upper end. The dam merely assisted in obtaining a uniform depth of flow throughout the length of the drain. Thus the necessity of corrections for changing velocity heads due to decrease in the water cross-sectional area at succeeding piezometers near the outlet was eliminated. Without the dam and with a con- stant flow over the upper weir, the successive piezometers showed a continuous decrease in depth, and therefore increase in velocity, toward the outlet of the tile line. In other words, the hydraulic gradient or water slope was greater than the grade of the tile. With no change in the amount of water,;passing over the weir, the height of the dam could be raised until the piezometer near the outlet re- *SSANHONOY AO LNAIOIsdS -09 SHL NO SLNIOP YVINOAYY|] AO LOAAAR SHL “ATIL NI MOT AO Hidaqd ANINYSIAG OL GIV7] SV ATIL AVIO HON ]-GI—"G “SIs WHOSJINGA NIVLEO OL SLNSWIYSsdxXS NI Gasq, WV¥GQ—"| “SIF g0S&—-d "HY ‘d “a fes—d "uy ‘d *g PLATE VIII. Bul. 854, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. cy : = re a [ c mi. U ‘Bul, 854, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture, PLATE 1X. 99. 3 agit tty My a s Sy a —| Fig. as ny ay L ir) 5 Tf ‘ Fig. 7 2 HARDIBURNED AGEAYSULCE: Ne Lo 4" CONGRETE TILE 5 5 Zz a x + a +——| 1 < Mean Velocity im Feet per Secord___|__| Fy = = — os SS 1_Ve/ocity in Feet per Second. fea i z 3 4 $ Sy == is Ik = Vy : mS N * P y a of ef] ay r) Aig2 2 e VGA SS ai Fig 8 “4 | 5” HARD BURNED CLAY TILE 3 t 5" CONCRETE TILE 3 = Mean Velocity in Feet per Second: r y ee 4 5 9 7) N Depth of Flow dC 6" SOFT Fig.3 BURNED CLAY TILE 6’ Cc Fig. 9 ONGRETE TILE — Bg 8: N cy Depth of Fon by Mean Velocity in Feet per Second 4 Woe 4 ‘Mean Velocity in 3 Feet per Second 4 do g oa & x a Depth of Flow 1S, 3A4 fy I 8” HARD Fig. 4 BURNED CLAY TILE ill 8" CONCRETE TILE }——=| Fig. 10 i Mean Velocity in 4 w Feet per Second s Mean Velocity in 3 Feet per Second 4 iS f 78 78 a RS S ws s 6s ; « Ss iS § Se 3 N Sy . z P4 ef — i aS [7 | 2 Fig.5 a . Fig UI _|| 10’ VITRIFIED CLAY TILE SS ee 10” CONCRETE TILE Bz | | 7 Mean Velocity iin Feet per Second } Velocity in Feet per Second ! Oe 4 s Mean Velocity in Feet per Second 4 Ss CURVES SHOWING RELATION BETWEEN DEPTH OF FLOW, VELOCITY, AND Store. \° a) ke. i> 4 x » 7 — ry by ‘Is ny S jo 6 (| an 6 Ig g or pss ———E—E——EEE EE CaN 5 Zt x 5 N 0° Ss RY |? of H ae oy Aa Ae oe if A lal - 70 ea || lo * go e an oo 3: 1 ——t— 4 xX) J 2 7 — —<— —_—_______ 1 Fig.6 i AZ a I: I2" VITRIFIED CLAY TILE wl. 12" CONCRETE TILE Bere 14 4 — Mean Velocity in Feet per Second. 3 4 THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 17 corded the same depth as that shown by the piezometer 60 feet from the tile entrance, without affecting the latter piezometer but caus- ing the intermediate piezometers to register the same depth. MEASUREMENT OF MEAN VELOCITY. As stated before, the mean velocities obtained during the experi- ments were determined by dividing the quantity of water passing over the upper weir by the average cross-sectional area of the water in the tile. For checking these results, velocities were determined also by coloring matter and by the use of a voltmeter. Both potas- sium permanganate and dyes were used. For injecting the colored solution into the tile, the use of a large hard-rubber syringe proved a satisfactory method. The voltmeter wes of the portable Weston type (model 45) with a range of scale from zero to 14 volts; carbon and zinc electrodes were used. ‘To complete the circuit, a saturated salt solution was inserted by the method employed in the color tests. When the water saturated with salt passed the pomt where the electrodes were placed in the tile, a current was set up whose intensity was indicated by the voltmeter. When the volume of saturated water had all passed, the needle of the voltmeter would return to its original position. An observer noted the time the color was injected and also ob- tained the times when the first and the last color passed the outlet. The time the color spent in the tile was taken as from the instant of injection to the mean between the first and the last of the appearance at the outlet. This same method was used in the voltmeter tests, the’ time being taken as from the instant of injection of the salt solution to the mean between the time the needle of the voltmeter began to register and the time when it returned to its original posi- tion. Table 2 shows part of the results obtained in comparing the values of the mean velocity as found by the weir, with those deter- mined by color and voltmeter. TABLE 2.—Comparison of mean velocities as determined by various methods. P Velocity by| Velocity by | Velocity by 7_V. 7 aa weir color voltmeter asaalde Viz Ve ; (V). (Ve). (Vv). Inches. | Ft. per.sec.| Ft. per sec.| Ft. per sec.| Per cent Per cent. 4 2.16 Qa2a tora cc ee Sees A (Mae a ea 4 2. 133 DAG Ole sao eee aol aloe Wes etic nse 1. 866 So cit Seen per ae ca) Ue |e ciaeatis 12 236 QOS iN PEE apaae ne SAG tal Sten ee 12 1.124 J Lea al Pee eee ees x (ont | eeemes eee 12 4.551 BS 2iini|s cis eee es ie cla eb) fal ee sae anes 12 3. 711 SECO |e ys mtu Ontan teens ahaa 12 2. 251 2.320 2. 291 —3 —1.8 12 2.493 2. 656 500 —6.5 —0.3 12 2.769 2.723 2. 764 +1.7 410.2 12 2.104 2.272 2.235 | —8.0 —6.2 166597 °—20—Bull. 8542 18 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. For determining the velocity, coloring matter can be used success- fully only in clear water. Potassium permanganate as well as dyes of all colors were tried in muddy water having a large velocity and it was found practically impossible to detect the colors. However, _the voltmeter method may be used equally well in muddy and in clear water for determining the velocity. It is believed that veloc- ities obtained by the use of either color or voltmeter will be quite accurate if the mean of several readings is taken. RESULTS OF OBSERVATIONS. Tables 3, 4, and 5 give the results of the tests. The various series are arranged in ascending sizes of tile and ascending grades. Table 3 gives the results of obserWations on clay tile; Table 4, the results of observations on concrete tile; and Table 5, the results of observa- tions on clay tile poorly laid. The Kutter coefficient of roughness, n, given in column 10, was determined from a large diagram specially drawn for this investigation. The variation and irregularity of the joints of the tile in the lines poorly laid can be seen in Plate VIII, figure 2. The tests summarized in Tables 3 and 4 were plotted on coordinate paper, with velocities as abscissz and depths of flow as ordinates. Mean curves were drawn for each grade through the points repre- senting the tests for each size and kind of tile. These curves are shown on Plate IX. A study of the curves reveals some interesting facts. For the flatter slopes the curves more nearly approximate a straight line; as the slopes increase the les become more curved, until at the steepest grade there is considerable bulge to the curve. The velocity at any depth of flow over half full is shown at a glance. It will be noted that the velocities at half full and at full are seldom the same, as they would be according to the Chezy formula. The greatest velocity seems to be approximately at the 0.8 depth. The curves were not extended below the half-full point on account of the insufficiency of data. In the largest sizes of tile, where symbols are shown but no curves have been drawn, incompleteness of data has prevented the development of accurate curves through these points. It will be seen that with some of the curves the points lie practically on the lines, while with other curves some points vary greatly, show- ing probable error in the experiments. —. ee THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 19 TaBLe 3.—Elements of experiments for clay tile. 4INCH TILE. 1 2 3 4 5 6 ii 8 9 10 11 Depth) 4 Area Hy- Di Vv Kutter! Chezy Test No. of == of © | draulie Se © | Slope. | coefti- | coeffi- flow. | D | flow A |radius. | Ch@rge- | locity. cient. | cient (d) (a) (KR) (Q) (V) (s) (n) CC) Cu. fet. Feet Feet. Sq.ft. Feet. | per sec. | per sec. La Saya ee eee a le 0.332 | 0.98 | 0.0901 | 0.99-] 0.0935 | 0.0547 | 0.607 | 0.0005 | 0.0101 88. 8 RUE eye eas anes ture .309; .91] .0866) .96] .1007 . 0562 .649 ; .0005} .0100 91. 4 ete ra my cs 298 88 0843 93 | .1023 . 0487 .578 | .0005| .0110 80. 8 Al ps Shays ae i ae 248 73 0709 78 | .1018 . 0404. -570 | -0005 | .O111 79.9 eer eR Me Ee NS 214 63 0602 66 | .0965 . 0274 -456 | .0005} .0126 65.6 Gree ened! Ss 159 47 0416 46 | .0813 0177 .424} .0005 | .0120 66.5 Uo ana ee 131 39 0322 36 | .0708 . 0098 .304 | .0005 | .0139 51.1 Spe ee hi ttl (ET ss 331 97 0900 99 | .0940 . 0703 -780 | .0010 | .0110 80.5 ONS Ss 5 eae 327 | .96 0896 99 | .0958 . 0744 .831 | .0010 | :0106 84.9 Ope ae TS .285 | .84 0812 89 | .1032] ~.0580 .714 | .0010| .0123 70.3 UIs SSCS ce la ere et ee .228 | 67 0647 71 | .0992 . 0568 -878 | .0010] .0104 88. 2 LD eee mee Sema oee ee 160 | .47 0420 46 | .0817 . 0235 -560 | .0010 | .0128 62.0 ees e mee eS a 136 40 0339 37 | .0728} .0166 -490 | .0010] .0131 57.4 EAU mers ant ie (De) Ys 329 97 0898 99 | .0950 .0969 | 1.079 | .0020] .0113 78.3 IBS See CROCE Eee 321 95 0887 98 | .0979 .1019 | 1.148] .0020} .0111 Spat UNG es el a 283 83 0807 89 | .1033 -0940 | 1.165] .0020] .0113 81.0 Tee cee: Sais eel aasees 271 80 | .0775 86 | .1034 -0904 | 1.166] .0020} .0112 81.1 UB o ac-sese Sn NORE 223 66 0631 70 | .0983 -0710 | 1.125} .0020| .0113 80. 2 IQ) s 122.2 be ce ames ome 173 51 0464 51} .0859 . 0414 .392 | -.0020| .0122 68. 1 Oe eae eee ie ST 129 38 0316 35 | .0700 . 0187 . 592 0020} .0145 50. 0. SUIT 2M Sele ee er ae 313 92 0874 96 | .1000 .1930 | 1.408] .0030| .0112 81.3 Gs ca ape ee eee na 244 72 0697 77| .1013 - 0864 | 1.240] .0030] .0123 71.1 Oe clas Cee Ae aa ee a 213 63 0598 66 | .0963 .0685 | 1.145] .0030] .0127 67. 4 A eke rae Ws BRT, 166 49 0440 49 | .0837 . 0361 .820 | .0030 | .0148 51.8 2) ane a OGn ESE ea nM 123 36 0296 33. | .0675 . 0180 .608 | .0030 | .0161 42.7 20 Se SS bol ne uaa ct i .317 | ,93 0881 97 0990 .1578 | 1.792} .0050] .0113 80.5 Oi eecao eden qe ents 287 | . 84 0817 90 1032 .1494 | 1.829] .0050] .0114 80.5 Brae ies sayin s bon amie 263 17 0753 83 1031 .1327 | 1.762] .0050] .0117 77.6 2AM esis oy ps a ee 223 66 0631 70 | .0983 -0978 | 1.550] .0050] .0125 69.9 BL) Seer ep a 170 50 0454 50 | .0850 -0517 | 1.139] .0050} .0142 55.3 Spee wee tne 128:| .38 | .0313| .35]| .0696] .0256] .819| .0050] .0159 43.9 Prien ete nec Goa 332 98 0901 99 | .0935 .1931 | 2.142) .0075] .0111 80.9 Bie oS epic, jem nena tae 320 94 0886 98 | .0982 .1905 | 2.151 | .0075| .0114 79.3 Gib. boo ce jae 288 85 0819 90 | .1031 .1756 | 2.143 | .0075] .0118 77.1 BE Sc aaa ee 253 74] .0724 80 | .1023 .1482 | 2.047] .0075] .0121 73.9 Bis oseco5s See uae 209 62] .0585 65 | .0954 .0996 | 1.702] .0075 | .0133]- 63.6 Oils ae duc Cow BE eee 164 48 0434 48 | .0830 .0654 | 1.508] .0075| .0133 60. 4 Belasco. cet neis os pea 134 39 0332 37 | .0720 .0425 | 1.279] .0075) .0137 55. 0 So ete aici ate 312 92 0872 96 | .1002 .2159 | 2.477 0100 | .0116 78.3 ED eR ESCO S oie au Benes 298 88 0843 93 | .1023 .2068 | 2.453] .0100] .0118 76.7 Gl ees tS eee tae melanie 283 83 0807 89 | .1033 .1984 | 2.459} .0100} .0118 76.5 WA oe Lie heels rae eS ee 233 69 0663 73 | .1000 .1476 | 2.227} .0100) .0125 70. 4 ASer memacnie tease eae 205 60 0572 63 | .0946 .1140 | 1.994 0100 | .0131 64. 8 AAP aren aS ins ES 151 44 0389 43 | .0785 -0615 | 1.579 0100 | .0138 56. 4 A eae ee Mayet cp ka 331 97 0900 99 | .0940 .2640 | 2.932] .0125 | .0107 85.5 Gc esac eceen See sae 304 90 0856 941 .1016 .2472 | 2.888 | .0125) .0113 81.1 AU Fes eile a ee 267\ 239 1329 | .36] .1439 -1540 | 1.159] .0020] .0138 68.4 1 Le eee poe 165 | .24 0684 | .19 | .0973 - 0540 -790 | .0020 0144 56.6 PQS A ao Vane LPs 670 | .98| .3664] .99] .1880 -7996 | 2.182] .0030| .0117 91.9 5 LY See TS 52 ee at ee 663 | .97 3649} .99| .1915 -7870 | 2.157 | .0030 0119 90.1 1 he ee eee ee, 510 | .74 2942} .80| .2062 -6390 | 2.172] .0030 0122 87.5 NOGRSA De eee 364 | .53 | .1990) .54) .1778| .3392{ 1.705] .0030] .0136 73.8 (Oy eee ee ae Biter ge 8 280; .41 1417 | .39 1490 - 2054 | 1.449] .0030 0139 68.7 TORR. 8 Seite hea Ses | 196 | .29 0871 | .24 1126 -0920 | 1.057 | .0030 0149 57.6 BOOM eet EU Le 676 | .99 3675 | .99 | .1840 | 1.0800] 2.939] .0050] .0112 96.9 47, 1b pea eae oogee EA Cah 558 | .82 3215 | .87]| .2085 -9210 | 2.870] .0050} .0121 88.9 Dees LOT s ee 427 . 62 2415 . 66 1935 5660 | 2.344 0050 | .0137 75.4 MTS ES le Lh a 358 | .52 1949 | .53 1760 3950 | 2.030 | .0050| .0143 68.4 Pe 1S ile wae ocean Serena de 272| .40 1363 | .37 1459 - 2360 | 1.730] .0050 0145 64.0 7 | oe era ee Ree Bes Vinay es 0755 | .21 1033 -0946 | 1.250] .0050 0149 55.0 662 | .97 3647 | .99 | .1919 | 1.2840] 3.522] .0075 .0117 92.8 642 | .94 3588 | .97] .1989 | 1.3000 | 3.623) .0075 | .0117 93.8 503 | .73 2900 | .79 | .2055 -9480 | 3.270 | .0075 | .0129 83.3- 356 | .52 1935 | .53 | .1754 5590 | 2.889 | .0075 0128 79.7 270 | .39 1350 |» .37 | .1451 3392 | 2.513 | .0075 0127 76.2 180 | .26 0773 | .21 | .1048 1481 | 1.915 | .0075 0129 68.3 667 | .97 3658 | .99| .1886| 1.4920] 4.079] .010 0116 93.7 661 | .96 3644 | .99]| .1924| 1.4650] 4.021] .010 .0118 91.7 657 | .96 3635 | .99]| .1940| 1.4475 | 3.982 010 0120. 90.4 473 | .69 2714; .74| .2021 |} 1.1580} 4.267] .010 0116 94.9 325 | .47 1723 | -47 | .1654 .5980 | 3.471 | .010 0120 85.4 250 | .37 1217 ; .33| .1369 -3760 | 3.089 | .010 0118 83.5 V7 38\5 525 0731 | .20 1013 .1814 | 2.483 | .010 0116 78.0 673 -98 3670 | -99 | .1861 1.6200 | 4.414 0125} .0118 91.5. 669 | .98 3663} .99] .1885 | 1.6200 | 4.423 0125 | .0118 91.1 490 | .72 2821 | .77| .2040|] 1.3475] 4.778 0125 | .0117 94.6 346] .51 1867 | .51| .1723 .7525 | 4.031 0125 0120 86.9 260 | .38 1283 | .35 | .1410 -4430 | 3.453 0125 | .0120 82.3 173 | .25 0731 | .20| .1013 -2096 | 2.869 0125 | .0113 80.6 AE Fee beats Oe Ne IR 553 81 3187 | .87 | .2085) 1.7675 | 5.546 0150 | .0112 99.2 Pit 5 A Se at aS a 540 | .79 3116 | .85 | .2082] 1.7375 | 5.576 0150 | .O111 99.8 D2) ah eb eae ep 501 | .73 2888 | .78 | .2053 | 1.5350 | 5.316 0150 | .0114 95.8 Ff [eee ET STL Me AS 338 | .49 1812} .49]| .1698 .7932 | 4.378 0150 | .0119 86.7 SRE eat IE ee hee 256 | .37 1257 | .34| .1394 4772 | 3.798 0150 | .0119 83.1 OG TCs ei. le 166 | .24 0689 | .19| .0978 2138 | 3.102 0150 | .0112 ‘81.0 10-INCH TILE. PA) MeeanL Rae \apatles 0.821 | 0.98 | 0.5467 | 0.99 | 0.2275 | 0.6386 | 1.168 | 0.0005 | 0.0104 109.5 75 G Se Bid oA legs -812| .97| .5444] .99]| .2324 .5874 | 1.079] .0005] .0112 100.1 DA ORME ee as -783 | .94| .5343] .97] .2429 -5770 | 17080} .0005} .0114 98.0 pa ee he a eat .749| .90] .5186] .95| .2497 -5640 | 1.088] .0005 0116 97.3 ATE A So SS oe BO ae: .697 | .83] .4890] .89]| .2541 -5578 | 1.141] .0005} .0112 101.2 pS IS BEL: ata .666 | .80] .4689] .85] .2542 -5503 | 1.174} .0005] .0110 104.1 IBGh OLS Paes Fao eRe" .626| .75| .4408] .80| .2521 .5366 | 1.217] .0005 0107 108. 4 De RPO oe ee 1 la .567 | .68| .3963 | .72| .2451 -4982 | 1.257} .0005 0102 113.6 .546 | .65 |] .3798 69 | .2413 -4611} 1.214] .0005] .0104 110.8 -473 | .57| .3203| .58] .2250 .3967 | 1.239] .0005} .0098 116.5 -421} .50| .2770 50] .2099 .3078 | 1.111] .0005} .0103 108. 4 -310| .37] .1852] .34]| .1692 -1998 | 1.079} .0005} .0093 117.3 -214| .26]| .1110|] .20 1251 1005 .906 1 .0005 | .0089 114.5 A THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. TaBLE 3.—Elements of experiments for clay tile—Continued. 10-INCH TILE —Continued. 23 1 2 3 4 5 6 it 8 9 10 11 Depth d "Area Hy- Diss Wes Kutter| Chezy No. of fe of £ | draulie : Slope. | coeffi- | coefii- pest flow. | D | flow. | 4 |radius.| Chat8e- | locity. cient. | cient. (d) (a) (Rk) (Q) (Vv) (s) (2) (C) Feet per sec. 1.661 } 0.0010 | 0.0109 106.6 1.752} .0010 . 0107 110.2 1.822) .0010) .0104 114.2 1.817} .0010} .0103 114.5 1.780 - 0010 - 0104 113.5 1.792} .0010} .0102 115.6 1.710} .0010} -0101 114.5 1.686 | .0010} .0099 116.1 1.486 .0010 | .0097 113.8 1.188] .0010] .0094 108. 2 2.318 | .0020} .0106 109.0 2. 350 - 0020 . 0108 107.6 2.353 | .0020| .0110 106.5 2.525 - 0020 . 0106 112.0 2.521 -0020} .0106 111.8 2.595 -0020} .0104 115.6 2.566 | .0020] .0102 116.1 2. 585 -0020 | .0100 118.8 . 2.493 | .0020 . 0100 ° 117.6 2.416 . 0020 . 0099 117.3 2.004) .0020 . 0101 107.9 1.567 . 0020 . 0099 101.4 2.793 . 0030 | .0107 107.9 2.817 | .0030 . 0109 106.9 2. 823 . 0030 . 0109 106. 7 2.813 . 0030 - 0110 105.8 2.815 . 0030 .O111 105.2 2. 847 . 0030 0111 105.1 4 2.877 | .0030| .0112 105.4 3.091 - 0030 . 0107 111.9 3.078 - 0030 . 0107 111.4 3.141 - 0030} .0105 114.1 3.077 . 0030 . 0104 113.7 2.985 - 0030 . 0106 111.1 2. 801 -0030} .0108 107.2 . 2.611 . 0030 -0110 103.3 2.274 . 0030 . 0109 98.8 1.836 | .0030 . 0107 93.0 801 96} .5410 99} .2371} 1.9900} 3.678] .0050} .0110 106.8 i 801 96 5410 99 - 2371 1.9700 3. 641 - 0050 . 0110 105.8 . 751 90 5197 95 2494 | 1.9575 | 3.767] .0050 . 0110 106. 7 ‘ 701 84 4915 0) 2540 | 1.9300 | 3.927] .0050 . 0108 110.2 " 665 80 4682 85 2542 1. 8400 3. 930 . 0050 - 0108 110.2 ‘ 647 77 4558 83 2536 | 1.7975 | 38.944} .0050 . 0107 110.7 : 618 74 4350 79 2512} 1.6575) 3.811 . 0050 . 0110 107.5 565 68 3948 72 2448 | 1.4700] 3.724] .0050) .0110 106.5 534] .64 3701 67} .2389 |] 1.3625) 3.681 0050} .0110 106.5 -470 55 -3178 -58 2242 1.0980 | 3.455 - 0050 -O111 103.2 -426] .51] 2811] .51] .2115 -9261 | 3.294] .0050| .0112 101.3 . 307 .37 . 1828 203 . 1679 - 9306 | 2.903 . 0050 - 0107 108. 2 PAB | G5 -1102} .20) .1246 - 2568 | 2.330} .0050) .0106 93.3 cn" pO ARI Sela pais ais Melee Le -801} .96] -.5410] .99] .2371 | 2.3850} 4.409] .0075] .0111 104.5 i pO ap et Ne ke pe Sa -796 | .95 | .5393 -98 | .2388]) 2.4120) 4.473 | .0075} .0110 105.7 : ZAUIOS vee otha cae eae - 782 . 94 - 9339 -97 - 2431 2.37€0 4.450 . 0075 - 0112 104. 2 ; 0 eemonae ata e 5) co aes - 748 - 90 -o181 -94 - 2498 | 2.3760 4.586 |. .0075 -O111 106.0 PADIEL et aN at areca ence . 726 87 - 5063 . 92 -2524 | 2.3400] 4.623 . 0075 -O111 106.3 PADD) sa IS Sea al - 684 - 82 - 4808 - 88 -2544 | 2.2590] 4.699] .0075 - 0110 107.5 B00 fen 2: Ras aig aoe -646] .77 - 4551 - 83 - 2536 |- 2.1330 | 4.687 . 0078 - 0110 107.5 + SUD Ss Ge See een ee a - 064 -68 | .3939 Auli, - 2446 1.8150 | 4.608 . 0075 - 0109 107.5 rr Se Se a es a - 540 . 65 ~3749 . 68 - 2401 1.6925 | 4.515 - 0075 . 0110 106. 4 UB ae oes pete ee ea a - 487 58 - 3318 . 61 - 2286 1.4350 | 4.325 . 0075 . 0110 104.5 a (BAPE ES GAA Se te ea ae - 409 ~49 - 2669 49 - 2060 1.0820 | 4.054 . 0075 . 0109 103.1 BUDS 311 Biel - 1860 . 34 - 1696 . 6440 3. 462 . 0075 . 0110 97.9 BUC re ee a amr er . 226 SPY - 1198 aoe) - 1311 -3449 |. 2.879 | .9075 . 0109 91.1 1 These tests used in deriving formule 27 and 29. 24 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie 3.—Elements of experiments for clay tile—Continued. 10-INCH TILE—Continued. Test No. 1 These tests used in deriving formulie 27 and 29. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ll Depth Area Hy- A = Kutter} Chezy of a of © | draulie ayaa 1 v ae Slope. | coeffi- | coeffi- flow. | D | flow. | 4. |radius.| C1978°: | *0Ctby- cient. | cient. (d) (2) (R) (Q) (V) (s) (n) (C) Cu. ft. Feet Feet. | per sec. |per sec. 0.99 | 0.2338 | 2.7715 5.099 | 0.0100 | 0.0110 105.5 -98 | .2391 2.7645 5.130 . 0075 -O111 105. 0 -941 .2505} 2.7070] 5.245} .0100] .0112 104.8 .94]) .2508}] 2.7505] 5.347} .0100} .0111 106.8 .90 | .2537{ 2.6695] 5.385] .0100} .0111 106.9 -90} .2538] 2.6485] 5.363] .0100} .0111 106.4 87] .2545] 2.5980] 5.464] .0100}] .0110 108.3 ~82) .2534] 2.5050] 5.538} .0100} .0108 110.0 74 2466 | 2.1960} 5.435 . 0100 . 0108 109.5 - 69 . 2411 2.0075 5. 297 . 0100 - 0109 107.9 - OL fe 2291 1.7325 | 5.196 | .0100] .0107 108.6 -49 . 2077 1.2920 | 4.766 . 0100 - 0108 104.6 2o2 - 1645 -7270 | 4.122 . 0100 . 9106 101.6 -20] .1241 -3831 | 3.498} .0100] .0102 99.3 -99'] .2288} 3.1220:] 5.717 | 70125) .0109 106.9 - 95 . 2492 | 3.0380] 5.841 - 0125 . 0112 104.7 -89| .2541 |] 2.9750] 6.085 | .0125] .0110 107.9 «84 . 2541 2.8430 | 6.144 . 0125 . 0109 109.0 -82} .2529) 2.7715 | 6.187) .0125 | .0109 110.0 - 12 . 2444 2.4030 | 6.112 . 0125 . 0107 110.6 .67 | .2376 | 2.2080] 6.045] .0125] .0106 110.9 .57 |] .2218| 1.7950] 5.784) .0125) .0106 109.8 -50} .2090| 1.5120} 5.509} .0125] .0106 107.8 . 34 - 1683 - 8804 | 4.796 .0125 } .0104 104.5 -19 | 21221 - 4303 | 4.038 | .0125] .0099 103.4 79} .2512] 2.8580] 6.569} .0150) .0110 107.0 -71 | .2433} 2.5380] 6.533] .0150} .0109 108.1 - 66 - 2372 | 2.3670] 6.509 - 0150 . 0108 109.1 - 56 . 2206 1.8480} 6.018 - 0150 . 0110 104. 6 - 46 . 2003 1.4120} 5.587 . 0150 - 0110 101.9 -o2 . 1650 - 8854} 4.997 . 0150 . 0107 100.5 -20} .1256 4462 | 3.995] .0150] .0108 92.0 12INC H TILE. 0.986 | 1.00 | 0.7631 | 1.0 0. 2464 0.8972 | 1.176 | 0.0003 | 0.0108 105.9 . 896 -91 - 7286 - 96 . 2922 - 9006 1. 236 - 0005 - 0115 102.3 -856 | .87 - 7037 -92 . 2975 -8540 | 1.214 -0005 | .0118 99.5 - 803 -81 - 6657 -87 - 3000 - 8380 | 1.259 - 0005 - 0115 102.8 - 754 -76 - 6263 -82 | .2985 - 7360 | 1.175 -0005 | .0121 96.2 . 694 -70 - 5743 bi - 2924 -6762 | 1.178 -0005 | .012' 97.4 - 650 -66 | .5338 210))| se meont -6496 | 1.217 -0005 | .0115 101.8 592 - 60 - 4786 03 - 2738 -5390 | 1.126 - 0005 0119 $6.3 558 ai. - 4456 .58 2654 -5006 | 1.124 - 0005 -0117 97.6 . 502 Sil - 3906 -51 2493 - 4261 1.091 - 0005 - 0115 97.7 -412 -42 - 3022 -40 2181 . 2754 911 - 0005 - 0122 87.3 - 306 -3l . 2019 -27 1732 -1518 - 752 - 0005 - 0124 80.8 -931 95 . 7464 .98 . 2841 1.4350 | 1.923 . 0010 . 0107 114.1 - 846 -86 . 6970 91 -2984 | 1.3430 1.927 - 0010 . 0109 111.5 . 794 -81 - 6587 -86 . 2999 1.2660 | 1.922 - 0010 .0110 111.0 -730 | .74 -6060 | .79 | .2964 1.1320 | 1868] .0010) .0114 108.5 - 697 ae - 5769 76 -2927 | 1 0500 1 820 - 0010 -0113 106.4 - 646 - 66 - 5300 -70 - 2850 - 9516 1 795 - 0010 - 0112 106.3 - 401 61 - 4873 64 . 2756 -8508 | 1.746 - 0010 - 0112 105.1 -5d5 -56 | .4427] .58 | .2646 .7360 | 1.663 |} .0010} .0114 102.2 .501 | -51| .3896| .51] .2490 -6170 | 1.584] .0010} .0115 100.4 -390 -40 . 2809 Bi - 2094 3730 1.328 - 0010 -O118 91.7 . 296 -30 - 1928 -25 1686 .2026 | 1.051 - 0010 . 0124 80.9 . 974 -99 | .7614 -99 2640 | 1.9080} 2506] .002 . 0109 109.1 . 853 -87 - 7017 -92 .2978 | 1.7200 | 2 451 - 0020 .0120 100.4 -807 | .82 - 6687 .88 .3000 | 1.6900 | 2.527 - 0020 -O117 103.2 - 764 -78 - 6346 -83 . 2991 1.5550 2.450 - 0020 - 0120 100. 2 -701 -71 - 5805 .76 2932 | 1.3900 | 2.394 - 0020 -Q121 98.9 - 646 - 66 - 5300 .70 2850 | 1.1960 | 2.256 -0020 . 0124 94.5 - 590 - 60 -4767 63 . 2733 | 1.0160 | 2.133 - 0020 0127 91.2 - 549 -56 - 4368 Ast - 2630 - 8904 2.038 - 0020 - 0128 88.9 504 «ol -3925 51 - 2499 7450 1.898 - 0020 - 0131 84.9 -406 -41 - 2964 039 2157 4657 1 571 - 0020 -Q140 75.6 . 298 30 -1947 26) .1695 2340 1.202 - 0020 - 0148 5.36 THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. TaBLEe 3.—LHlements of experiments for clay tile—Contjnued. 12-INCH TILE—Continued. 25 1 2 3 4 5 4— 6 7 8 9 10 11 Depth Area Hy- . i Kutter} Chezy Test No. of @ of — |draulic ee ula oe Slope. | coeffi- | coeffi- fiow. | D | fiow radius 8 y cient. | cient. (d) (a) (R) (Q) (Vv) (s) (n) (C) Cu.ft Feet Feet. | per sec. | per sec 0.95 | 0.2938 2. 232 3.086 | 0.0030 | 0.0116 103.9 -92 -2978 | 2.1840 | 3.113 0030 .0116 104.1 -88 | .3000} 2.0800] 3.103 | .0030} .0117 103.4 84] .2995 | 1.9450 3.030 - 0030 -0119 107.1 -79 -2957 | 1.7980 | 2.992 - 0030 -0120 100.5 aya -2923 | 1.6100 | 2.809 | .0030} .0124 94.9 -70 | .2850} 1.4400 | 2.717] -0030| .0126 92.9 - 64 - 2761 1.2560 | 2.567 - 0030 - 0129 89.2 -57 - 2624 1.0260 | 2.360 -0030 - 0134 84.1 51 - 2487 - 8440 2.173 - 0030 - 0138 79.6 38 - 2142 5222 | 1.785 - 0030 - 0147 70.4 26} .1718 2737 | 1.374 -0030 | .0158 60.5 -99 | .2640] 3 0380} 3.990] .0050 -0109 109.8 -98 - 2811 3.0030 4.002 - 0050 0113 106.8 - 94 -2952 | 2.8400 3.956 - 0050 - 0117 103.0 -89 } -2998 | 2 5440 | 3.762} .0050| .0124 97.2 -81 -2975 | 2.1300] 3.461 - 0050 -0131 89.7 - 76 -2927 | 1.8400 | 3.195 - 0050 -0138 83.5 -69 | .2846| 1.5650 | 2.963 -0050 | .0144 78.6 -63 | .2748 | 1.3550 | 2.803 | .0050 | .0147 75.6 -58 | .2638 | 1.1660] 2.651 -6050 | .0150 73.0 52} .2514 -9838 | 2.475} .0050] .0154 69.8 39 - 2169 5981 1.998 - 0050 - 0165 60.7 27 1765 -3259 | 1.564 - 0050 - 0175 GW.) -79 -2956 | 2.9890} 4.983 -0075 | .0114 105.8 - 69 - 2834 2.5440 4.869 - 0075 -0114 105.6 62] .2719| 2.1480 | 4.563 -0075 | .0117 101.0 59 - 2667 | 2.0500 4.551 - 0075 - 0117 101.8 63 | .2523 | 1.7400 | 4.346] .0075 | .0117 99.9 3V | .2086} 1.0180] 3.651 -0075 | .0120 92.3 26; .1714 -6250 | 3.153} .0075} .0119 87.9 : -70 | .2858 |} 2.9400] 5.498 |~.0100} .0117 102.8 ‘ -64 | .2750) 2.6170} 5.403 -0100 | .0116 103.0 : -57 - 2622 | 2.2980 | 5.297] .0100] .0114 103.5 5 -50 -2468 | 1.8400} 4.809 -1000 | .0119 96.8 41% a e -40 | .2184} 1.2960] 4.276] .0100} .0121 91.5 EO ernie Eee LTE Bir onieea tO fia etek 2028 27 | .1737 -6972 | 3.438} .0100} .1026 82.5 Ail Opava wel pare oe i. -496 50 -3847 -50 . 2474 2.0150 | 5.239 - 0125 -0122 94.2 GUILE eens) eae eet eee es -419 -43 - 3090 -41 -2207 | 1.5400 4.984 - 0125 -0118 94.9 A Drees leet tae Use S sis -321 -33 - 2157 -28 -1801 - 9694 4.495 - 0125 0114 94.7 AISBe Oe aye shine Yee et. -459 | .47 3482} .46] .2351] 1.9600] 5.630] -.0150} .0120 94.8 LULL eas ecient ee ae -444 -45 3335 -44 -2299 | 1.8575 | 5.570 - 0150 - 0119 94.9 SRY ee at noe ee ee - 403 -41 2935 -39 -2145 | 1.6150] 5.525 - 0150 -0116 97.0 AN OB rseseeee oe ae ~ 284 - 29 1820 24 - 1629 8639 4.747 - 0150 -O111 96.0 1 These tests used in deriving formule 27 and 29. 26 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tape 4.—Elements of experiments for concrete tile. 4-INCH TILE. 1 2 3 4 5, 6 7 8 9 10 11 Depth| gq Area a Hy- 4 Kutter | Chezy Test No. of D of q | draulic fee 1 Be Slope. | coefli- | coeffi- flow flow. | ~“ | radius. ge. y- cient. | cient. (d) (a) (Rk) (Q) (V) (s) (n) (C) Cu.ft. | Feet Sq.ft. Feet. | per sec. \per sec. 1.00 } 0.0845 | 1.00 | 0.0820} 0.0426} 0.504 | 0.0005 | 0.0107 78. -86 | .0773 | .92} .0993 - 0386 -499 | .0005 | .0120 70. -75 | .0683} .81 - 0990 - 0335 -491 -0005 | .0122 69. -63 | .0559 | .66} .0930 - 0196 -315 |} .0005} .0160 46. FOL -0432 | .51 - 0829 - 0120 -278 | .0005}) .0163 43. -36} .0274] .32 - 0649 2.0020 | 2.075 | .0005 | 2.0352 213. -95] .0828; .98} .0941 . 0650 -785 | .0010 | .0110 -84) .0754 | .89} .0997 - 0550 -730 | -0010} .0120 -73 | 0660} .78| .0982 - 0450 -682 | .0010} -0124 -64] .0571} .68} .0938 - 0375 -656 | .0010; .0124 -50 | -0419} .50] .0817 - 0218 -519 | .0010} .0134 -36] .0274} .321 .0649 - 0083 -301 | .0010 |) .0172 -99} .0842{ .99; .0890 - 0832) .988] .0020] .0116 -83 | .0747) .88} .0998 -0800 | 1.071} .0020| .0117 -74| .0671 | .79} .0986 - 0650 -968 | .0020 |) .0125 -66] .0587} .70} .0948 - 0544 -927 | .0020] .0126 -49] .0416} .49} .0814 - 0280 -673 | .0020] .0144 -38}] .0293 | .35] .0674 - 0127 -434 |] .0020}] .0175 -204 | .0030} .0117 -300 | .0030} .0117 -298 | .0030] .0119 - 263 | .0030{ .0120 : Q : -028 | .0030] .0135 -49} .0409] .48] .0807 - 0298 -727 | .0030 | .0157 -36] .0274] .32] .0649 - 0130 -475 | .0030 | .0185 -697 | .0050 |} .0113 -627 | .0050 | .0121 -484 | .0050]} .0129 -364 | .0050] .0133 < : fe -O81 | .0050 } .0146 -37 | .0283 | .34] .0661 - 0200 -706 | .0050 |] .0171 -168 | .0075 | .0112 -133 | .0075 | .0116 -968 | .0075 | .0123 -866 | .0075 | .0127 -O71 | .0075] .0141 .362 | .0075 | .0150 -314 | .0075} .0149 -90} .0803 | .95} .0976 -1931 | 2.406 | .0100] .0117 -89 | .0792} .94} .0984 -1905 | 2.404} .0100} .O118 85 | .0764) .90} .0995 - 1686 | 2.208} .0100 | .0125 -76 | .0688] .81 4 .0992 - 13882 | 2.008} .0100} .0134 -64] .0568] -67} .0936 -1046} 1.840] .0100} .0138 -50 | .0426}) .50] .0823 -0622 | 1.461} .0100] .0151 -92} .0812] .96] .0967 .2250} 2.771 | .0125] .0114 -88| .0784| .93]) .0%88 -2124 | 2.709) .0125| .0117 -74) .0668| .79) .0985 -1656 | 2.478) .0125| .0124 -62} .0552| .65] .0926 -1377 | 2.492} .0125 | .0120 -60] .0396} .47] .0793 -0760 | 1.918} .0125 | .0132 -41} .0322| .38] .0710 -0416 | 1.293 | .0125] .0163 -96 | .0833) .99] .0931 -2544 | 3.056] .0150} .O111 -92] .0814] .96} .0965 -2456 | 3.018 | .0150} .0114 -84| .0754] .89] .0997 - 2236) 2.965] .0150} .0118 x rs NX io.) (oa) So re} ~ vo} eo So co So Ne} et et POrwnnwe NNNOCUR NNN WC ie rs i=) (=r) =I ~I © So je) & eo WO D> oS Yo} we} or] Ree ee NRO ONIWOO FORDE AT OR DORDOD HOwWOtO OMWOWODO HPNNROODO POWOOH BPRODHO HR waATON ~I x co XI . So © € Wo) = — iw) Ze) Te) RR et et en OD WOM TON G00 Fs 0S _ COIN N oN .00 -78 | .0705] .83} .0996 - 1892] 2.684] .0150} .0126 -68 | .0615) .73 | .0964 -1506 | 2.449 | .0150 | .0128 -49] .0406] .48] .0804 -0848 | 2.088] .0150 | .0138 POESaANN©S Peay noosa ANeINID WARMar On AT ww D> oo SSSSz3Re SSH3N2 SSE on xr fen x veonsen MAO AAR AIL -38} .0290} .34} .0669 .0438 |. 1.511 -0150 | . 0150 1 These tests used in deriving formule 26 and 28. 2 Evidently an incorrect hook-gage reading. THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. OG TaBLE 4.—Elements of experiments for concrete tile—Continued. 5-INCH TILE, 1 2 3 4 5. 6 7 8 9 10 11 Depth| g Area a Di V7; Kutter | Chezy Test No. of = of = | draulic Ss & | Slope. | coeffi- | coeffi- flow. | 2 | flow. | 4 |radins.| Charse- | locity. cient. | cient. (d) (2) (R) (Q) (Vv) (s) (n) (C) Cu.ft. Feet Feet. Sq. ft. Feet. | per sec. | per sec. 0.396 | 0.96 | 0.1319 | 0.99 | 0.1169 | 0.0844 | 0.640 | 0.0005 | 0.0110 83. -308| .75| .1071} .80] .1243 - 0671 -627 | .0005} .0116 79. 221 | .54| .0729} .55] .1076 - 0346 -475 | .0005} .0131 64. -405 | .98]..1832 | .99]| .1125 - 1305 -980 | .0010} .0103 92. P2050 Sure mrt OLON CakOih loos - 0969 -954} .0010} .O111 86. -206} .50} .0667) .50] .1031 - 0448 -671 | .0010} -.0130 66. -134| .32| .0377} .28] .0752 - 0196 -521 | .0010}] .0130 60. a) |i) aii||= sibnt || ete) cgi7) -1840 | 1.400] .0020} .0106 91. -o17 | .77} .1102| .82) .1251 -1608 | 1.459} .0020} .0107 92. -2238} .54] .0738) .55] .1082 - 0848 | 1.150} .0020) .0117 78. -171 | .41] .0524) .39] .0907 - 0466 -890 | .0020} .0127 66. -126| .31| .0346|) .26] .0715 - 0256 -740 | .0020] .0126 61. -404} .98} .1331] .99] .1131 - 2303 | 1.730] .0030] .0104 93. -310 | .75| .1078} .81} .1246 -1853 | 1.719] .0030] .0110 88. -209} .51] .0680} .51} .1040 -0828 | 1.218} .0030} .0127 69. -159 | .38] .0475]) .36] .0859 - 0404 -851 | .0030] .0146 53. -119} .29] .0319} .24] .0683 - 0150 -470 | .0030] .0191 32. -398 | .96| .13823]} .99] .1160 -3052 | 2.307 | .0050] .0103 95. SOHN ei) SEBS | EF | a aleve - 2020 | 2.107} .0050} .0113 85. -193 | .47] .0613 | .46] .0987 -1023 | 1.668 | .0050] .0119 75. -159| .38) .0475] .36] .0859 - 0622} 1.310] .0050] .0130 63. -114] .27]| .0301 23} .0659 - 0283 -940 | .0050] .0139 52. 393 | .95{ .1314}) .98] .1179 -3563 | 2.711 | .0075| .0107 91. SOLO sida 1099) 582 te 250 -2814 | 2.560} .0075) .0116 83. -196 | .47 | .0626] .47]} .0997 -1349 | 2.154) .0075; .0115 78. -146} .35] .0423) .32] .0805 -0748 | 1.767 | .0075) .0117 71. -126} .31} .0346] .26] .0715 -0439 | 1.270 | .0075} .0138 54. -404} .98} .1831} .99] .1131 - 4282 | 3.218 | .0100; .0103 95. -298 | .72} .10384] .77] .1233 -3105 | 3.003 | .0100] .0114 85. £ -224| .54)] .0742] .56) .1085 -2318 | 3.124| .0100] .0102 94.9 -195} .47] .0614| .46] .0987 -1644 | 2.680 | .0100] .0109 85.3 -185 | .33}) .0380}] .28] .0757 -0736 | 1.935; .0100] .0117 70.3 -396 | .96] .1319] .99.} .1169 -4669 | 3.538] .0125] .0106 92.6 -312} .76{ .1085| .81} .1247 -3660 | 3.374] .0125]) .0114 85. 4 -231] .56} .0771} .58) .1104 - 2688 | 3.489} .0125 | .0104 93.9 -188 | .46] .0593 | .44] .0970 - 1892 | 3.189} .0125} .0102 91.6 -129| .31]| .0357 | .27} .0729 -0920 | 2.574] .0125] .0101 85.3 8 8 2 Ont COMO hw bo bho FH 00 00 ooorwoeo ORD hy hy Leni pel ell od “Jorst -401.| .97} .1327] .99| .1147 -5162 | 3.891 | .0150] .0104 93. -32 -73 | .1123] .84] .1254 -4565 } 4.065 | .0150] .0107 93. -261 | .63 | .0892} .67] .1174 -3150 | 3.533 | .0150] .0114 84. -176| .43) .0544| .41] .0926 -1548 | 2.846} .0150 } .0116 75.4 6-INCH TILE. BLO ree eee 3S 0.492 | 0.99 | 0.1937 | 0.99 | 0.1325 | 0.1366 | 0.705 | 0.0005 | 0.0111 86.6 BGR ee teste ous 2 fh IS os -391 | .79| .1637] .84}| .1510 - 0888 -542 | .0005 | .0145 62.4 SIN eer Bt erie eS -282} .57) .1136] .59] .1340 - 0463 -408 | .0005 |] .0164 49.8 BMS Roe cet. ties -225} .45| .0853] .44] .1163 - 0343 -401 | .0005} .0154 52.6 ES ae ees SS oe rene -173| .35| .0601) .31) .0958 . 0206 -343 | .0005 |) .0152 49.6 BOOS etme. 24847) 297 | 21926] | 99} .1375 -2187 | 1.136] .0010} .0104 96.8 Robes e ee Ss A -384] .77} .1608} .83) .1508 -1795 | 1.116} .0010} .0110 90.9 522) aa ee Soe ee eee -298} .60} .1214| .63) .1379 - 1070 -881 | .0010| .0126 75.0 Se ee hea) oe. ~222| .45] .0838| .43] .1152 0535 -638 | .0010| .0142 59.5 Se ee eee eee -176| .35| .0615|) .32) .0971 - 0295 -480 | .0010 | .0159 48.7 BAN Le se bo Ne -481 | .97| .1921] .99] .1390 -3026 | 1.575} .0020| .0107 94.5 «Ee eee -371}| .75] .1553} .80} .1498 - 2378 | 1.531} .0020] .0115 88.5 de ees seine are sas HE ioe -1190} .61] .1368 -1578 | 1.326} .0020| .0121 80.2 TADS es Ae a a -216 | .43) .0809} .42/ .1130 -0880 | 1.088] .0020{ .0124 72.4 TE SoS: ee eee -170| .34| .0587} .30] .0944 - 0459 -783 | .0020| .0142 57.0 1These tests used in deriving formule 26 and 28. rors o NwoarR- orords Or Onawn~I 28 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 4.—Elements of experiments for concrete tile—Continued. 6-INCH TILE—Continued. | 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Depth Area Hy- ae z Kutter] Chezy Test No. of ad of £ | draulic os 1 ve Slope. | coefil- | coeffi- flow flow A’ | radius.) CR27E°- | toctty- cient. | cient. (d) (a) (KR) (Q) (V) (s) (n) (C) Cu.ft. | Feet Feet. Sq. ft. Feet. | per sec. | per sec. DOU bee SE oo ae pee ee 0.489 | 0.98 | 0.1933 | 0.99 | 0.1846 | 0.3831 1.983 | 0.0030 | 0.0103 98.7 HRS Mesa 1 3, A raped -303 | .77} -1604) .83} .1507 -ol77 | 1.981 -0080 | .O111 93.1 ST VA ere gy a 21d} -00 |) - L091 | 2 561>> 1315 -1795 | 1.644] .0030} .0117 82.8 Dees ee eae te - 222 |~ .45 -0839 | .43 - 1152 -1190 |} 1.419} .0030) .0121 76.3 La sae nee ae 2 me Se ee -164] .33 0558 | .29] .0919 *.0550 -985 | .0030| .0137 59.4 DBO ee ees eo hire eee -480 | .97]| .1919 99 | .1394 -4335 | 2.259} .0050 - 0116 85.6 EEL eee St Se es Ss 385 SM Ae lS |) = 57583 . 1508 -3915 | 2.428] .0050 - 0115 88.4 TS Y fen aaa ea eee -270 | .54] .1077 S00 | a LS0% -2082 | 1.934} .0050 - 0126 75.7 17S TA aa cep pas ae tye Die ca =210'| .42) .077 -40] .1108 -1250 |} 1.604} .0050 }] .0129 68. 2 TSS ee a aS ia ery 151 -30| .0498 | .26) .0858 -0615 | 1.2384] .0050 - 0135 59.6 AON eee ES! zee =e -480] .97} .1919) *.99] .1394 -5874 | 3.061} .0075] .0108 94. AT eee ee 2 a ee -384 | 77 -1608 | .83 - 1508 -4691 | 2.917} .0075 -0117 86. ti DAA pee ame ete pe SS eh DIZ \or DONS LOST 5) sd D Me p LS -2680 | 2.466} .0075 | .0121 78. TCU SBR ee pet med ah MS - 212 43 - 0789 -4L -1115 - 1602 | 2.030} .0075 . 0126 70. Das ee AL ae ieee -142,| .29 . 0457 - 24 . 0816 .0633 | 1.383} .0075 - 0139 55. Gye Ey Lp op ieee 3 a -473 -95 1905 .98 . 1421 . 6238 | 3.274] .0100 . 0116 86. BAG ees Ate os =3004| «io 1527 7 . 1491 -4807 | 3.148] .0100}] .0123 81. DAS ie aes weal one eet -278 | .56 1116} .58] .1329 -3186 | 2.854] .0100] .0123 78. LS Sn Se as nism ee 212} .43 0789 | .41 -1115 -1991 | 2.523 -0100 } .0122 af SS ONE ee eee So sees 144] .29 0466 | .24]) .0825 -0904 | 1.939] .0100] .0123 67. BDO EEE erase sero see ee -440] .89) .1816]) .94] .1492 -6874 | 3.785} .0125] .0116 87. ete eee eS Seeley -431 87 . 1787 -92 . 1500 -6818 | 3.815 - 0125 0114 88. Hy Laps ie 32 3 a SE a eS -350 | .70} .1460) .75] .1474 -5306 | 3.635} .0125] .0118 84. HE ope ps Seas eae -264} .53] .1047) .54] .1289 -3402 | 3.249] .0125] .0119 80. HE = oe Ree eee see -202) .41 - 0740 -38 | 21077 -2096 | 2.832] .0125 . 0119 hts Ae se EA a ea lo) al, - 0413 21 - 0767 -0706 | 1.709 - 0125 . 0139 55. hl aE ane noe ne ene -435 | .88] .1800| .93]| .1497 -7705 | 4.280} .0150] .0113 90. EY fap tn ls Sao -do2| 71 . 1469 -76 | .1477 -5941 | 4.043 - 0150 -O117 85. Dp Sra eee eae a eee 298} .52] .1017| .52{ .1271 -3630 | 3.569] .0150}) .0118 81. Ha Qe re eee eee ss et - 193 -39 | .0696 | .36] .1041 - 2325 | 3.339] .0150} .O111 84. ee eee ee . 123 -20 -0374 | .19| .0723 -0936 | 2.504 0150 | .0110 76. 8-INCH TILE 0.645 -98 | 0.3389 | 0.99 | 0.1803 | 0.3096 | 0.914 | 0.0005 | 0.0109 96. 2 - 642 -98 | .3383 -99 - 1818 - 3096 -915 - 0005 0109 96.0. -047 | .83 - 3024 89 - 2002 - 2873 - 950 - 0005 0113 94.9 479 WA) .2654 | .78 . 1970 . 2187 824 - 0005 0124 83.0 -426:| .65 | -2331) =68)]' °1893 - 1957 -840 | = ..0005 0120 86.3 319 -48} .1635 -48 . 1612 - 1105 - 676 - 0005 0128 75.3 -258 | .39 1237 | .36) .1389 - 0720 -982 | .0005} .0134 69.8 -180 | .27 0755 -22| .1042 - 0323 428 | .0005 - 0137 59.3 DOSEN aio omer aki 654] .99 | .3402} .99 | .1720 -4440 | 1.305 | .0010 0107 99.5 DIOS Fire es eee sane - 625 95 . 3341 -98 - 1888 - 4261 1.276 | .0010 . 0116 92.9 TY a Ey Oe IE 004 | .84 3058 -90 | .2000 - 4104 1.342] .0010 -0115 94.9 Bice e aye aa eeO See -481] .73) .2666 i 1972 -3278 | 1.227] .0010} .0121 87.6 BI Sst ekg acs ae ee .428|> .65 | .2343| .69| .1897] .2839] 1.212] .0010] .0120 88.0 i EE EE ee -3ll -47 1583 -47 1585 . 1638 1.036 - 0010 0121 $2.3 ST Ss ae ase 2 2S eee . 253 .38 1205 35 1368 - 1130 - 937 . 0010 0120 80.1 B1(Ose. 2 eee ok es ep Wire| a7 0737 | .22 1027 - 0463 628 | .0010 0136 62.0 BUTE? 303 tee. 28 Les -648} .98 3394 | .99 1782 . 6373 1.882 | .0020 0109 99.7 i be NE Meee opie cpa oo -640 |} .97 3379 - 99 1828 6496 | 1.923 -0020 } .0108 100.5 LOE ts ce Lo ae ot 565 86 3110'| 91 1994 . 6035 1.940 |} .0020 - 0113 97.2 Beene Seeto ce: Sy SE. -W6] .75 | .2752] .8t] .1988| .5090} 1.850] .0020] .0117 92.4 A eee -448 | .68 2467} .72] .1933 -4387 | 1.778 | .0030 0119 90. 7 DE aE. See as Seek eat 335 -ol 1741 -ol 1664 . 2616 | 1.503 - 0020 0124 82.4 Taye Ean ee ease eet oe 263| .40] .1270| .37] .1409| .1602} 1.260] .0020] .0128 75.1 Ct EEE ape eee 180 | .27 0755 22 . 1042 - 0664 - 879 . 0020 0139 60.9 1 These tests used in deriving formule 26 and 28, THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. TaBLE 4.—LHlements of experiments for concrete tile—Continued. 8-INCH TILE—Continued. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Depth| 4 Area Hy- Di Vv Kutter Test No. of & of © | draulic Br .<- | Slope. | coeffi- flow D flow radius. charge. | locity. cient. (d) (a) (R) (Q) V (s) (n) | Cu. ft. Feet Feet Sq. ft. Feet. | per sec. | per sec IS pple es eee srs 0.643 | 0.98 | 0.3385 | 0.99 | 0.1813 |} 0.7870 | 02.325 | 0.0030 | 0.0109 UsfeCg) LS So ap ae 623 95 3334 9 1894 7750 | 2.324 0030 0112 BSieetes warren Soe nici 503 84 3053 90 2001 7240 | 2.371 0030 0114 Oe Saat eee SaeE ee 489 74 2712 80 1981 6224 | 2.295 0030 0116 KEW) See eB chore eee 445 68 2449 72 1928 5440 | 2.221 0030 0118 EG): ao ae Se aera 341 52 1789 52 1682 3354 | 1.884 0030 0123 SOS ES a eee Seer 262 40 1263 37 1405 1886 | 1.492 0030 0131 OD etree sees Le crniaci= =o 182 28 0767 23 1051 0824} 1.075 0030 0140 DOS eer ete Soe eo 647 98} .3392 99 1789 | 1.0105) 2.979} .0050 0109 HO a ae ee 628 95 | .3349 98 1877 | 1.0164) 3.035] .0050 0110 ROD. 2 oS ee a eae aera 623 95 3334 98 1894 9930 | 2.978 0050 0113 BOOR oss tenae ae eee eee 566 86 3115 92 1993 9108 |} 2.924 0050 0117 SAO sgh A cn ee A 512 78 2841 83 1999 8028 | 2.825 0050 0121 aie ee ee ae 443 67 2437 72 1924 6440 } 2.642 0050 0124 EUS) we ee eee ne ree aa 318 48 1629 48 1609 3610 | 2.216 0050 0128 COQ eet ote siete 270 41 1315 39 1436 2608 | 1.983 0050 0130 GOL ee Seas ee 189 29 0808 24 1085 1140 |} 1.411 0050 0141 GO 2A ke oie a= ~'2 647 98} .3392 99 1790} 1.1900} 3.508 0075 0112 (Ug a Secs obec ces -633 | .96] .3362] .99]) .1860}] 1.2280] 3.652 0075 0112 COMO rem Son Geos 2 -046 | .83 3019 - 89 - 2003 1.0880 | 3.603 . 0075 0117 GO apeeeirnae ae appt ES oS -495 | .75} .2746) .81] .1988 .9658 | 3.517} .0078|] .0118 COG a ee ee eee ys -442 | .67 | .24381] .71) .1922 .8204 | 3.375] .0075 | .0120 GU carcess SUS Ene ete as .d30 | .oOl}| .1741] .51.] .1664 .5042 | 2.896} .0075} .0122 CO Sete oet cee nie fe Sic) o . 260 -39 | .1250 37 . 1397 -3096 | 2.476 - 0075 - 0125 GY) ees See ee ee eee -170 | .26] .0697] .21) .0992 -1215 | 1.743} .0075} .0132 GLO See Nereis eae -645 | .98 | .3389] .99] .1803] 1.3580} 4.007 0100 0114 QHD he era cle eee . 642 -98 | .3383 -99 -1818 | 1.3630} 4.030 0100 0114 (TAN see BS anne -009 | .85 | .3082| .91] .1998] 1.2680] 4.114 0100 0117 613... -: ac Bee oes Eee -464 | .71 . 2565 15 .1954 | 1.0470} 4.082 . 0100 - 0117 OTA eee sie cite ess -415} .63| .2261] .66] .1870 -8788 | 3.886} .0100] .O0118 Os Jace oce See arma - 309 -47 - 1570 -46 | .1579 .5318 | 3.388 . 0100 - 0119 GIGE eames ee see 225 -34| .1028 -30 . 1250 . 2899 | 2.820 . 0100 - 0120 (IRE ais cee ene ee -153 | .23 |) .0601 -18} .0906 -1283 | 2.186] .0100} .0120 GRE ie eis ee) 2 . 642 -98 | .3383 -99 -1818 | 1.5120} 4.470 0125 0115 GQ ee So eieiae seis ee ele - 600 91 -3207 - 96 -1950 | 1.4880] 4.569 0125 0118 G20 pee eros A Soe aes -093 | .90] .3229} .95] .1962} 1.4700] 4.553 0125 0118 G2 ee eS is a See ae - 593 . 84 3054 -90 - 2001 1. 4080 4.611 0125 0118 OZ Cee e See Jonas as -487 | .74) .2701 -79 | .1979}) 1.2040] 4.459] .0125] .0120 (PB Sah arse ane aee e ae 426 65 . 2331 - 68 . 1893 -9928 | 4.260 . 0125 - 0121 OE am a an -324 |) .49) .1668] .49] .1629 - 6224 | 3.731 -0125 | .0122 (GAS is a aaa oe ra 244) .37 - 1148 34 - 1332 -3620 | 38.153 . 0125 - 0123 GAG use ess so se osm p= - 163 25 -0656 | .19 0957 -1602 | 2.441 - 0125 - 0122 OD giee ere oe Veter Rass .634] .96 3365 99 -1856 | 1.6450 | 4.889 0150 0116 GS iSeries ie aici - 616 -94} .3313 97 - 1915 1.6425 | 4.959 0150 0115 G20 Be eee ee c ieyiee ee arcs - 545 83 -3015 - 89 - 2003 1.5060 4.996 0150 0118 (OS) ese sel oseeee eee cee -482 | .73 - 2671 -78 | .1974] 1.2900 | 4.829 0150 0420 CB Uae ae a eee 414 63 -2255 | .66 . 1863 1.0140 |—4. 500 - 0150 - 0122 O32 epee nae a ieean ss - 323 -49 -1662 | .49 . 1626 . 6524 | 3.926 . 0150 - 0126 OBES Se Sec eee een eng eee 245 37 - 1155 34] .1336 - 8925 | 3.399 . 0150 . 0123 (ORY Steneeeceeeeee eames . 165 - 20 -0668 | .19 - 0967 -1879 | 2.813 . 0150 - 0120 Lk >> 0} OOrN RNID OO er OO ora > ~1 00 90 GAS aoe MII. 00 OOOO Fe Se ee) CBNONEAT AW1N®W WON SPwWwowroank oO NMINISIM MOOD AID MMODDOO ENCE AIS) 8 AIO NIELS ISIS) 10-INCH TILE. Ga Deere aan. wale eee 0.818 | 0.99 | 0.5366 | 0.99 | 0.2213 | 0.4818 | 0.898 | 0.0005 | 0.0125 CaS anne are ae a ae -783 | .95) .5265 | .98 | .2379 - 5150 -978 | .0005 | .0122 GAY/c Gee ea oles Ca eeeaBEEee -739 | .89} .5068| .94] .2475 -5114 | 1.009] .0005 | .0122 ese Sean one aee eee -106 | .85 |) .4887] .91 | .2508 -4910 | 1.005 | .0005 | .0123 OBC CRS BORE See ae -666 | .81 | .4638 | .86 | .2518 - 4429 -955 | .0005 | .0128 -616 | .75 | .4293 | .80 | .2491 -43824 | 1.007} .0005 |) .0122 -579 |. .70 | 4098) .75 | .2451 -4188 | 1.042) .0005} .0118 -501 | .67] .3803 | .71 | .2408 - 3668 -962 | .0005 | .0124 -ATA | .57} 3186) .59 |) . 2243 . 2780 -873 | .0005 | .0129 416) .50] .2708|) .50] .2076 - 2408 | ~.889} .0005 | .0122 -323 | .39]} .1944] .36] .1741 - 1470 -756 |} .0005} .0123 -241 | .29} .1302| .24) .1380 - 0832 -639 | .0005 | .0122 1 These tests used in deriving formule 26 and 28. 30 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE 4.—Elements of experiments for concrete tile—Continued. Test No. 2 3 4 5 Depth! @¢ ane a of > (0) oF fiow. D fiow A (d) (a) Sq. ft. 0.98 | 0.5357 | 0.99 -98 | .5351} .99 -95 | .5286|] .98 -89 | .5068| .94 . 86 - 4910 91 -81 4664 | .87 By ts) 4300 | .80 ~t2 - 4124 BE -67 | .3850 | .72 -59 | .3283[ .61 Bi We eer-7( Tio peau .39 1936 36 .29 1280 . 24 98 | .5355] .99 397 | "SSL BH 299 - 96 - 5313 -99 -89 | .5063 | .94 -86 | .4899] .91 -81! .4644] .86 ees 4329 | .81 =(2 4132 Ait -68 | .3881 |] .72 - 58 - 3259 - 61 -d3 | .2898] .54 - 52 . 2815 -o2 -41 2106 -39 . 30 4355/01. 25 .98 | .5356] .99 -98 | .5349 | .99 -95 | .5290] .98 .89 | .5073 | .94 .86 | .4939 |] .92 . 80 - 4619 - 86 aatit 4435 - 83 - (2 4161 out Gi. | peas2ie aus ae . 60 . 3381 - 63 .03 | .28/3 | .53 41 . 2074 .39 . 29 1317 |) 2.25 -97 | .5336|] .99 .97 . 5333 .99 95 5287 | .98 -90 5078 | .95 - 85 - 4875 91 . 82 - 4716 88 ay 4343 | .81 aya - 4072 .76 -68 | .3889] .72 . 60 . 3332 - 62 Aa! . 2741 =p 41 2066 38 . 28 L 22a tine -96 | .5300] .99 Bb . 5272 -98 -93 - 5222 -97 [1.88 | 0016.1... 93 | .83 . 4766 . 89 «8D | c4020 I 1. OL -72 . 4124 Sif -68 |} .3919 | .73 - 60 «3389 - 63 | .51}° .2749| .51 Al . 2090 .39 ~28°| .1235 ys} 6 Hy- draulic radius. (R) Feet. 0. 2241 - 2262 . 2360 . 2475 . 2505 . 2519 . 2493 . 2466 . 2419 - 2273 - 2097 . 1736 . 1366 - 2248 - 2326 . 2330 - 2476 - 2506 - 2518 . 2497 . 2467 . 2425 . 2265 . 2145 - 2115 - 1819 - 1413 - 2248 . 2267 - 2356 . 2473 10-INCH TILE—Continued. 7 8 9 10 11 P r Kutter | Chezy Dis- Ve- P Slope. | coeT- | coeffi- charge. | locity. cient. | cient. (Q) (V) (8) (n) (C) Cu. ft. Feet per sec. | per sec. 0.7240 ; 1.351 | 0.0010 | 0.0121 90. 3 -7510 | 1.403 | .0010 | .0119 93.3 - 7780 | 1.472 -0010 | .O0117 95.8 -7615 | 1.503} .0010 0119 95.5 .7360 | 1.499 | .0010 0120 94.8 .6930 | 1.486] .0010 | .0121 93. 6 .6278 | 1.460] .0010 | .0121 92.5 - 5954 1,444 - 0010 . 0122 91.9 .5354 | 1.391} .0010 0124 89. 4 -4462 | 1.359] .0010 0122 90. 1 .3650 | 1.320} .0010 0119 91.1 -1998 | 1.032} .0010] .0128 78.3 - 1110 -868 | .0010 | .0126 74.3 1.1160 | 2.084} .0020] .0114 98.3 1.1020} 2.073 | .0020} .0117 96. 1 1.1360 | 2.138 | .0020 0115 99.1 1.0960 | 2.165} .0020 0118 97.3 1.0600 | 2.164} .0020 0119 96.7 1.0105 | 2.176} .0020 0119 97.0 9448 | 2.183} .0020] .0118 97.7 . 8639 | 2.091) .0020 |) .0121 94.1 .7996 | 2.060} .0020] .0121 93.6 -6251 | 1.918] .0020 0123 90. 2 5186 | 1.790 | .0020 0125 86. 4 4982 | 1.770 - 0020 0125 86.0 3250 | 1.543 | .0020 0127 80.9 1437 | 1.060! .0020 0145 63.1 1.3400 | 2.502} .0030 |} .O0117 96.3 1.3380 | 2.502} .0030/] .O117 95.9 1.3800 | 2.609 | .0030]} .0116 98. 1 1.3450 | 2.651 | .0030; .0118 97.3 1.3280 | 2.689 | .0030} .O117 98. 2 1.2360 | 2.676 - 0030 0118 97. 4 1.1800 | 2.661 |} .0030 |] .0119 97.0 1.0760 | 2.584} .0030 0120 95. 0 -9586 | 2.505 | .0030 0122 93. 1 - 8092 | 2.393 | .0030 0123 91.1 . 6332 | 2.205 | .0030 | .0125 87.1 - 3791 1.828 | .0030 0130 78.6 1853 | 1.407 | .0030 0136 68. 9 1.7650 | 3.308] .0050 |) .0116 97.7 1.7350 | 3.253 | .0050 | .0118 96.0 1.7350 | 3.282 | .0050) .0O119 95.6 1.7300 | 3.407] .0050 |) .O119 96.9 1.6825 ; 3.451 | .0050) .O119 97.5 1.6250 | 3.446 |} .0050 0119 97.2 1.4800 | 3.408 | .0050 0120 96. 4 1.3450 | 3.303 | .0050 | .0121 94. 2 1.2480 | 3.209} .0050 0123 92.1 -9930 | 2.980] .0050 0126 88.1 . 7345 | 2.680} .0050 0129 82.9 -4934 | 2.388] .0050 0129 79.6 2222 | 1.810] .0050 0133 70. 2 1.7600 | 3.321 -0050 | .0117 97. 1.7400 | 3.300 | .0050} .0119 95. 1.7175 | 3.289 | .0050} .0120 94, 1.7100 | 3.409 0050 | .0119 96. 1.6250 |} 3.410 | .0050 0120 96. 1.4840 | 3.428 |) .0050 0119 97. 1.3400 | 3.249 | .0050 0123 92. 1.2460 | 3.179 | .0050] .0124 91. -9949 | 2.936 | .0050 | .0128 86. -7315 | 2.661] .0050 | .0130 82. - 4887 | 2.338 | .0050 | .0132 77. . 2236 | 1.811 .0050 | .0134 70. WONOMNKANOrAINIOO THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 31 TaBLE 4.—Elements of experiments for concrete tile—Continued. 10-INCH TILE—Continued. 1 1 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Depth| gq Area Hy- oe Kutter| Chezy Test No. of D of a draulic Re 1 Dee Slope. | coeffi- | coeffi- fiow. fiow. radius. os Dre cient- | cient. @d) (a) (fk) (Q) CVE 78) (n) (Cc) Cu, ft. | Fect Feet. Sq. ft. Feet. | per sec. | per sec. (hs Sa ea ee 0.806 | 0.97 | 0.5338 | 0.99 | 0.2288] 2.1150} 3.962 | 0.0075 | 0.0118 95.7 -800) .97) .5322|) .99) .2317] 2.0900 | 3.927} .0075| .0120 94. 2 779} .94) .5250|) .98| <2392)| 2.0850 | 3.972] .0075]| .0121 93. 8 726) .88] .5000| .93 | .2491 | 2.0560} 4.112] .0075 | .0121 95. 2 118 | .87) .4956| .92) .2498| 2.0440} 4.125{ .0075} -.0120 95.3 -659 | .80] .4592{ .85] .2616/, 1.8870} 4.110[{ .0075} .0121 94.6 -627| .76] .4371} .81} .2501} 1.7700} 4.050] .0075} .0122 93. 5 -570 | .69}] .3950] .74| .2440}] 1.5120] 3.828} .0075] .0126 89.5 O41} .65] .3724) .69| .2389] 1.3800} 3.706] .0075}| .0128 87.5 -487 | .59} .3291 | .61) .2275| 1.1560] 3.512) .007: . 0129 85. 0 -408 | .49] .2642) .49] .2050 -8044 | 3.045} .0075 | .0136 77.7 -323-| .39} .1944) .36| .1740 - 5306 | 2.729 | .0075 | .0133 75.5 PIPR ENE eal OAL Ka) S| Mp) tA 8) -2600 } 2.211} .0075] .0131 70.9 -792 | .96| .5297| .99| .2349| 2.4060} 4.542) .0100} .0121 93.7 (91 | .96] .5294] .99| .2353 | 2.4210} 4.574] .0100| .0120 94.3 -681 | .82) .4735 |) .88] .2517 | 2.2080) 4.663 0100 | .0123 92.9 -624) .75) .4350) .81] .2499} 2.0560} 4.727} .0100] .0122 94.6 -618 | .75) .4307|] .80] .2493] 2.0050] 4.655] .0100}] .0123 93. 2 -595 | .72|° .4139 | .77| .2468) 1.8840) 4.552] .0100] .0124 91.6 553 | .67} .3819] .71| .2411 | 1.6450] 4.308] .0100] .0128 87.7 -489 | .59} .3308] .62}| .2280) 1.3750} 4.157) .0100| .0127 87.1 -405| .49] .2616] .49] .2040 -9930 | 3.795 | .0100) .0128 84.0 -o27 | 2.40 | .1976 | .37 | -1756 - 6238 | 3.156 | .0100| .0134 75.3 -207 | .25) .1052) .20| .1214 -2318 | 2.203 | .0100} .0141 63. 2 810] .98| .5349] .99 | .2267| 2.7040) 5.055] .0125} .0119 95. 0 -809 | .981 .5346] .99} .2273 | 2.7220! 5.092) .01251 .0118 95.5 805} .97| .5336] .99] .2294] 2.6890} 5.040) .0125 | .0120 94.1 - 742) .90| .5083 | .95| .2470} 2.6800} 5.272} .0125 |) .0121 94.9 (01 | .85} .4857) .90| .2511 |} 2.5920) 5.336) .0125| .0121 95. 2 100) .85) .4852| .90| .2511 | 2.5920] 5.343] .0125] .0121 95. 4 -664 | .80| .4625| .86] .2517) 2.4660] 5.332] .0125} .0121 95. 1 ~-611 } 74) 24257) .79'| .2486) 2.2410) 5.265) .0125.| .0122 94.5 : -569 | .69) .3942| .73] .2438) 2.0000} 5.073 | .0125] .0124 91.9 -543 | .66| .3740|] .70| .2893| 1.8840] 5.037 | .0125 | .0123 92.1 -463 | .56| .3096| .58] .2213] 1.4620] 4.725 | .0125 | .0123 89.8 -A12| .50] .2674] .50| .2063] 1.2360] 4.622] .0125) .0120 91.0 314] 138] .1872] .35] .1704 -7000 | 3.739 | .0125 | .0126 81.0 -213 | .26) .1096| .20} .1244 -3260 | 2.983 | .0125 |) .0124 75.6 (Sete = Aree aes 781 | .94) .5257| .98| .2386| 2.8840] 5.486 | .0150) .0123 91.7 (Oe ao a ee ee -624| .75| .4350} .81] .2499} 2.4540] 5.641) .0150] .0124 92.1 Odea eins Sees -A21 | .51} .2749) .51}] -.2091 | 1.3820) 5.030 | .0150| .0122 89.8 12-INCH TILE. hia) ee ae aie a ee 0.985 | 0.99 | 0.7712 | 0.99 | 0.2587 | 0.9125 -943} .95] .7581] .98] -2836 - 8938 -889 | .90 | .7299] .95]| .2960 - 8672 -€45] .85] .7011}] .91} .3006 - 8492 -782} .79-] .65382) .85] .3014 - 7540 -106} .76] .6317] .82] .3001 - 6986 -691} .70] .5745] .74)| .2933 - 6496 -643 | .65) .5298] .69] .2854 - 6062 -580} .59] .4692} .61] .2717 - 4982 5384] .54] .4240] .55] .2594 - 4485 O11] .52] .4012} .52] .2526 - 4083 183 | 0.0005 | 0.0110 104.1 179 | .0005; .0117 99.0 188 | .0005]} .0119 97.6 211} .0005] .0118 98.8 154 | .0005] .0123 94.1 : - 0127 90.3 131} .0005} .0123 93.4 144} .0005] .0120 95.8 062} .0005} .0124 lat 058 } .0005} -.0120 92.9 018 | .0005 | .0123 90. 6 -364} .37] .2570} .33] .1991 - 2152 - 8387 | .0005 7 .0123 83.9 -275 | .28 | .1747| .23] .1588 - 1120 -641 | .0005 | .0132 72.0 1These tests used in deriving formule 26 and 28, Pe pe ee — S for) i=) (=) i=) or 32 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRIGULTURE. TABLE 4.—Elements of experiments for concrete tile—Continued. 12-INCH TILE. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Depth| g¢ Area, Ho- Kutter| Chez | Test No. of D of a draulic paube ae Slope. | coeffi- ae } flow flow tsdius. Fats | MOON a cienl. | cient. (d) (a) (£) (Q) (V) (s) (n) (C) Cu.ft. | Feet per sec. | per sec. 1.3180 | 1.729 | 0.0010 | 0.0115 | 103.3 1.2980 | 1.706] .0010] .0116] 101.7 1.2460} 1.720} .0010| .0119 99.8 i 1.1900} 1.722} .0010| .0120 99.2 i 1.0920} 1.689| .0010} .0122 97.3 j 1.0164} 1.642] .0100] .0124 95.0 F 9312 | 1.650 | .0010} .0121 96.6 8492 | 1.638] .0010] .0120 97.4 7255 | 1.543 | .0010} .0123 93.6 6278 | 1.491 | .0010} .0122 92.7 5114 | 1.414] .0010} .0122 91.4 3018 } 1.192} .0010] .0124 84.8 1443 898 | .0010] .0131 73.1 1.8400 | 2.406] .0020] .0116] 102.2 4 1.7525 | 2.339] .0020] .0121 97.3 : 1.6575 | 2.367] .0020} .0123 96.5 | 1.5350 | 2.377 | .00207 .0123 96.9 1.4160 | 2.331 | .0020] .0124 95.6 ii 1.2520 | 2.244] .0020| .0126 93.1 \b 1.1300 | 2.168 0020 0128 91.1 ji "9838 | 2.128 | :0020/ .0126| 916 — 8364 | 2.006] .0020] .0129 88.4 b 6804 | 1.887] .0020-] .0128 86.3 3820 | 1.556] .0020] .0132 79.0 1821} 1.165} .0020| .0139 67.6 2.2470 | 2.935] .0030] .0116} 102.1 2.1660 | 2.876] .0030] .0121 98.0 1.5180 | 2.647] .0030 | .0130- 89.3 1.2800 | 2.589} .0030] .0128 89.7 1.1800 | 2.552] .0030] .0129 89.7 1.0183 | 2.448] .0030] .0128 88.2 8172 | 2.311] .0030] .0128 86.7 5186 | 1.967] .0030] .0132 79.9 2333 | 1.493] .0030] .0134 70.8 2.2920 | 3.704} .0050] .0124 95.8 1.9170 | 3.631] .0050 | .0122 96.2 1.7800 | 3.552] .0050] .0124 95.1 1.57¢0 | 3.438] .0050} -0124 93.8 1.3750 | 3.243] .0050] .0127 90.1 1.1880} 3.165] .0050] .0124 90.5 7900 | 2.792] .0050| .0125 86.1 4600 | 2.518] .0050] .0117 88. 2 1.9700 | 3.821] .0075} .0138 83.1 | 1.5900 | 3.786] .0075]| .0131 86.0 | 1.2320} 3.585] .0075} .0129 85.7 8573 | 3.205 | .0075 | .0129 82.0 5954 | 9.739 | .0075| .0136 74 4 1.7150 | 4.172] .0100} .0136 82.5 1.7425 | 4.249] .0100] .0134 84.1 3 1.4960} 4.060] .0100| .0134 82.5 ‘ 9040 | 3.584} .0100} .0131 80.7 . 6846 | 3.123} .0100] .0138 73.3 2.0080 | 4.860] .0125} .0130 86.6 1.5900} 4.613} .0125] .0130 85.3 fi 1.0420 | 4.211 0125 | .0125 85.3 8010] 4.026] .0125| .012 86.9 ; 1.9780 | 5.310] .0150| .0128| 87.9 1.4080 | 4.843 | .0150| .0127 85.6 8510 | 4.295] .0150| .0122 84.8 | 1 These tests used in deriving formule 26 and 28, Bul. 854, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture, Fig.!. Concrete Tile Analytical Method using Selected Tests Velocities in Feet per Second Fig.2. Concrete Tile Graphical Method using Selected Tests Velocities in Feet per Second Fig.3. Concrete Tile Flowing Full belocities in ECU pcre Second PLATE X. Fig.4. Concrete Tile Flowing.9 Depth Velocities in Feet per Second 0150 0125 0100 -00390 0080 -0070 .0060 0050 .0040 .0030 0025 40020 0015 SLOPE 0010 .0009 .0008 0007 -0006 :0005 0004 92.003 .0150 0125 -0100 .0090 .0080 0070 .0060 0050 0040 0030 0025 0020) PEE 001s slo 0010 0009 0008 .0007 0006 .0005 -0004 0003 5 6 7 8 910 1.5 20 25 30 40 50 60 708090 5 6 7 6 910 15 20 25 30 40 5.0 6.0 7.08090 5 6 7 8 910 15 40 50 60 708090 AOE OMS RORLO) 15 20 25 30 40_ 50 60 70809.0 6. 0150 ee OO fdh fro | H 1 Alé/, SOGf fel: 7IE 0125 Ay tee | LT SON 610) 0100 NG Wes 1 0090 iim ll = e04 .0080 SS 448 f—496f-f60: 0070 530, ria: a ae a es iar Ne oo ee hor 5 | he I] Ht 442f 535 [594 fe97, “Ett ne i oe Hh ‘ iH 0040 my SF ae] [24 0030 435 J 486, hi by Lt < R Isso” Jé74 yA 675, h \h 0025 67 Si S79 5020 429, cib/, 57; fire RI J LJ] Q Bh [25/4 * * > CT fee) of * () s 66z s sf, 0015 {o0} Sy -; % S ~“ | DE/s iy OK & ~ 2) WHY S79 ~/a, D> ny 23f | 477) 3/09 ~ ~ S20. 766 — is PAM —| NIE a {|_| —t ens + | 474, v GY Ley | Al lg 3 a * tails | £0004 } 0003 | 09 10 15.20) 25 .30 0910 i 2) 2 0 oS ¢ 5 S Poeow So Go Ss ean eloUu Mean Hydraulic Fadi in Feet Mean Hydraul/e fradii in Feet Diameter of Tile in Feet Diameter of Tile in Feet Fig.5. Concrete Tile Flowing .8 Depth Fig.6. Concrete Tile Flowing .7 Depth Fig.7. Concrete Tile Flowing .6 Depth Fig.8. Concrete Tile Flowing.5 Depth elocities in Feet per Second Velocities in Feet per Second belocitjes in Feet per Second Velocities In Feet per Second 5 6 7 8 910 MS AW) AG) Bio) 40 50 60 708090 16 7 8 © Io LS 20_ 25 30 40 5.0 60 70 8090 ROME GH 7a OMNI) 1S 20 25 30 40 50 6.0 708090 5 6 7.8 910 15 20_ 25 30 40 .0_ 6.0 7.08090 ] .0)50 It — [ i Ir | 0125 | 7 |_| e/a IL LL ae ye) Al HEE .0090 [= II cl OE -0080 a = ina LI L .0070 }— Ei | | = 0060 1 =f i | | | -0050 | —ll | | if * | SUES -0040 i= te -——+ } 0030 ++ ia | ne LLL x + :0025 —} | _ 0020 | tJ Q nm i : Tr | 0015 sf : >t | Shs — OLE OLS N of]: V7. w &/ JE s A SAA Oe ko Vv CA * v 1S) 'O/ /s ~ AS ~N Ly Vv 0010 re 010 =o a | 0008 Ht 0007 “|| .0006 | 24.005 | » | = J i -0004 +— 1 i I | .0003 2) { 3 4 5 6 7 8.910 5 6 7 8910 5 oT Saw 3 4 5 6 7 83,10 Diameter of Tile in Feet eraser of Tile in Feet Curves UseD IN THE DERIVATION OF FORMUL€ FOR CONCRETE TILE. (Dianne of Tile in Feet Diameter of Tile in Feet THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 33 TasLe 5.—LHlements of experiments for clay tile poorly laid. 10-INCH TILE. 1 2 3 4 5 6 if 8 9 10 il Hy- - Kutter | Chezy Depth} d Area, a vee Dis- Ve- Test No. offlow.| p | offlow.|) 4 eagle charge. | locity. Slope. ie ete (d) (a) (R) (Q) Gv) (s) (n) (C) Cu. ft. Feet Feet. Sq.ft. Feet. | per sec. | per sec. (ee ce ca ee eee 0. 805 | 0.96 | 0.5423 | 0.99 | 0.2355] 0.5342] 0.985 | 0.0005 | 0.0120 90. 8 Pees Se Se pee aes -795 | .95| .53889] .98] .2391 .5679 | 1.054] .0005}| .0116 96. 4 1S? lo San SEH SE EEe eee -708 |-.85 | .4957} .90| .2537 5465 | 1.103} .0005| .0116 97.9 Silas ss USE e Ae bean aenae .625 | .75}] .4401 | .80]| .2520 -4934 | 1.121 | .0005| .0114 99.9 CP = = i Se ee ein -524 | .63] .3621] .66| .2368 -3780 | 1.044] .0005| .0116 96.0 0S ae 429 | .51 - 2837 aii - 2124. 2924 | 1.031 - 0005 0109 100.0 yoloneot - 1876 .34 . 1704 - 1602 - 854 0005 | .0111 92.5 -214 | .25 1110 20 | .1251 - 0744 - 671 0005 | .O111 84.8 - 836 | 1.00 5489 | 1.00 | .2090 - 5102 .929 |} .0005| .0117 90. 9 - 791 -95 - 53874 -98 | .2405 - 5390 1, 003 -0005 | .0120 91.5 -712 | .85] .4981 | .91 | .2535 -5222} 1.048} .0005 0120 93.1 -620| .74] .4865] .80) .2514 -4772 | 1.093 | .0005 0116 97.5 -532 | .64 3685 | .67| .2385 -4093 | 1.111} .0005| .0111 101.7 AeA (meta) 2736 | .50} .2087 2737 | 1.000) .0005} .O111 97.9 dll -37 | -1860 |] .34}| .1696 1620 871 | .0005 | .0109 94.6 Ba epeed Weel 206 |e yee [2 Lolo 0780 .647 |. .0005 | .0117 79.8 831} .99 5484] .99 | .2173 -7510 | 1.370 | .0010] .0118 92.9 -799 |} .96| .5403] .98| .2378 .7964 | 1.474 | .0010}] .0118 95. 6 -697 | .83] .4890| .89] .2541 -7855 | 1.607} .0010} .0115 100.8 - 628 ale - 4423 | .81 . 2523 -7180 | 1.624} .0010| .0113 102.2 -547 | .65] .3806|] .69] .2415 -6089 | 1.600 | .0010] .O111 103. 0 -422 | .51 2778 | .51} .2103 4114 |} 1.481 | .0010}] .0109 102.1 324 | .39 1966 | .36| .1749 -2656 | 1.351 | .0010} .0105 102. 2 -234 | .28 1257 | .23| .1349 1393 | 1.108 | .0010| .0105 95. 4 - 835 | 1.00 5488 | 1.00 | .2106 -7570 | 1.379 | .0010| .0115 95.0 - 786 ~94 5355 -93 |} .2421 -7720 | 1.442 0010 | .0121 92.7 -697 | .83 4890 89 | .2541 -7300 | 1.493 | ..0010 | .0121 93.7 -619 | .74 4357 79 | .2513 -6720 | 1.542} .0010| .0117 97.3 537 | .64 3726 68 | .2395 .5465 | 1.467} .0010] .0119 94. 8 SABRES cor? 2870 52 | .2136 -3720 | 1.296 | .0010| .0122 88.7 -338 | .40 2080 38 |} .1805 2222} 1.068) .0010} .0128 79.5 - 221 - 26 1161 21 - 1285 . 0768 -662 | .0010 | .0149 58.4 12-INCH TILE. SOs wemes reassess 0.951 | 0.96 | 0.7546 | 0.99 | 0.2769 | 0.9193 | 1.218 | 0.0005 | 0.0112 103.5 tee Bes aie aes oo ee nee -877 | .89] .7173 | .94] .2954 . 8396 | 1.171} .0005] .0121 96.3 SOC ESSE nee ao ee -731 | .74| .6068} .80| .2965 6468 | 1.066] .0005} .0130 87.6 COU. : Saee eae ete -643 | .65 |] .5272|) .69] .2844 5342 | 1.013] .0005] .0132 85. 0 Cohn NE ha ee ee ee -559 | .57] .4466} .59] .2657 ~ 4335 -971 | .0005} .0131 $4. 2 BOLE es eee ca nae tore TAG) be Ad | eeenok || 461 ~ 2500 . 2814 799 |} .0005} .O141 73.5 SOdeee ren tas en enise case's -373 | .38| .2646| .35] .2025 - 1512 571 | .0005| .0166 56.8 -916 | .93| .7392| .97]| .2882| 1.2640] 1.710} .0010] .0117 100.7 - 789 -80 | .6548} .86|] .2999] 1.0450 1. 596 -0010 | .0126 92.2 -691 | .70] .5714] .75| .2921 -8492 | 1.486] .0010] .0132 87.0 -594 | .60] .4806}] .63 2742 6197 | 1.289] .0010 | .0142 71.9 - 483 -49| .3719 .49 2432 -3760 | 1.011 . 0010 . 0159 64.8 -386 | .39| .2771}] .36 2078 - 2019 -729 | .0010} .0186 50. 6 972 | .99 | .7609 99 | .2654|] 1.7125] 2.251 .0020 | .0119 97.7 -926) .94 7442 | .98| .2856| 1.6750] 2.251 - 0020 . 0124 94. 2 -799 | .81] .6626| .87)| .3000} 1.3940] 2.104} .0020] .0135 85.9 -664 | .67 -5469 | .72 | .2882) 1.0125 1. 851 . 0020 - 0147 77.1 -573 | .58| .4602] .60 2692 7435 | 1.616} .0020 | .0156 69.7 -470 | .48 3591 -47 |) .2389 4634 | 1.291 - 0020 ! «0171 59.1 -368 | .37 2599 | .34)} .2005 . 2363 -909 | .0020} .0200 45.4 Alerter Wis esa) es -782 | .79| .6493 | .85| .2997| 1.6475 | 2.5388] .0030| .0136 84.6 ie oe eee e EE -672) .68| .5542] .73}| .2896| 1.2700] 2.293 . 0030 - 0145 71.8 UY). = SS oce Coe ae -557 | .57| .4447| .58] .265L . 8332 | 1.874] .0030] .0161 | ~ 66.5 BOD eee a= = so an,<2 -457 | .46] .3462| .45)| .2344 -5174 | 1.495] .0030] .0177 56. 4 (Chel PS en eau eo sae eee -360 | .37 2522 | .33| .1973 .2737 | 1.085 | .0030] .0202 44.6 166597°—20—Bull. 8543 34 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasBie 5.—Elements of experiments for -clay tile poorly laid—Continued. 12-INCH TILE—Continued. 2 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Depth| ¢ Area Hy- : cs Kutter) Chezy Test No. of D of > |draulic te ea we Slope. | coeffi- | coeffi- flow. flow. | + |radius. Be. y- cieno. | cient. (d) (a) (#) (Q) C14) (s) (n) (C) Cu. ft. Feet Neet. Sq. ft Feet. | per sec. | per-sec. BRD 2x eects ome athe 0.756 | 0.77 | 0.6280 | 0.82 | 0. 2987 1. 8025 2.870 | 0.0050 | 0.0152 74.3 ROS ee pee cunts aeeeta ee 636 65 5207 - 68 . 2830 1, 2980 2. 493 - 0050 0164 66.3 bo es Ve Sa Ee ae 549 56 4368 Sy / . 2630 9820 | 2.248 - 0050 0170 62.0 B8aahe began Peo 450 46 3394 45 . 2320 . 5887 1.735 - 0050 O19L 50.9 SSG aes See a Sk ce sk 356 36 2485 -33 195 - 3201 1.300 00505) 22eseRe2 41.6 SS (ete ee 2) eR Sees 929 94 . 7455 -98 | .2847 | 2.8640] 3.842] .0075 0137 83. 1 BSGHEec ee ere. See 849 86 . 6991 - 92 - 2982 2. 5800 3. 691 . 0075 0146 78.0 SOU eee oe see. Sees cies 709 72 5877 a iit . 2941 2. 1360 3. 635 - 0075 Q147 77.4 S90 Re. = Ae ee 700 71 5796 -76 | .2931 | 2.0380} 3.516 | .0075 0150 75.0 SOle aa E ches = osc aiee 638 65 5225 | <.69 |] .2834 1.7350 | 3.321 0075 | .0154 72.0 OD Bese Ee deers. 2 NY eae - 519 Da - 4073 -53 . 2544 1. 0260 2. 519 . 0075 . OL78 BYE B98 See yee ws ideeates se -428 | .43 -3178 | .42) .2240 6265 | 1.972} .0075 | .0198 48,1 Norte: Nos. 825 to 832, inclusive, 841 to 848, inclusive, and 857 to 893, inclusive; grade of flume uniform. Nos. 833 to 840, inclusive, and 849 to 856, inclusive; grade of flume undulating. DISCUSSION OF COMPUTATIONS. All of the formule derived herein are of the exponential type since this seems to be the only form capable of representing the data. It seemed most natural to determine first the relation of velocity to slope, other elements being unchanged. In using for this purpose the same line of tile without disturbing the joints, the most uncertain element in tile observations was removed. The chief remaining diffi- culty lay in the observations of depth of flow, to secure a constant value for comparison at different slopes. When, for a given size of tile and constant depth of flow, slopes are plotted logarithmically as ordinates against their corresponding velocities as abscisse, the resulting points are approximately on a straight line. The equation of such a line is of the form, “ s=mV2 (14) which in logarithmic terms may be written, log s=log m+z2 log V (15) where m is the intercept on the unity vertical axis, and zis the slope of the line, i. e., the tangent of the angle which it makes with the axis of V. For several different sizes of tile of the same material, the values of m follow the equation, ; m=eD* (16) THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. | 35 Substituting in formula 14, s—eDeVe : (17) This expressed in logarithmic terms is log s=log e+ log D+z log V (18) FORMUL FOR TILE FLOWING FULL. y In deriving the various formule, both analytical and graphical methods were used in order to insure accuracy. Figure 1 of Plate X shows the results obtained by the analytical method for the concrete tile. This diagram was obtained by plotting the velocities of all the selected experiments in Table 4* against their respective slopes. The centers of gravity of the various points for each size of tile were plotted, after being calculated as outlined below. Straight lines were drawn through these centers of gravity for each size. Thusa series of approximately parallel lines was obtained. It should be noted that in using the analytical method, equal weight is given to the least velocity and the greatest velocity. Theslopes and intercepts of each of the lines on this diagram were determined analytically. The following description gives the methods of derivation. Taking the experiments in which the tile were approximately full, shown in Table 4,‘ the center of gravity of all the points belonging to any one size of tile was determined as follows: The antilogarithm of the mean value of the logarithms of the various velocities gave the velocity coordinate of the center of gravity; the slope coordinate of the center of gravity was found in a similar manner. This point, C, shown by a solid circle (Pl. X, fig. 1), divides the plotted points into two groups. The center of gravity of the two groups separated by the principal center of gravity must also be found. These points, A and B, are shown by open circles. Having these two points, the equation of the line for:that particular size of tile and depth of flow can be readily determined, as shown by the following sample calcula- tion for 4-inch concrete tile: Let C=center of gravity of the whole group. A=center of gravity of the part of the group above C. B=center of gravity of the part of the group below C. 1The serial numbers of these selected experiments are indicated in Tables 3 and 4. - 36 BULLETIN 854, U. S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Let Cy, A,, By, and C,, A,, Bs, be the V and s coordinates, respec- tively, of the above centers of gravity. The calculations for these coordinates are as follows: No. Ve 8. Log V. Log s. 15 | “asi | conto | 9.s9a7og| Stum—39 672744 7900000| SUmM=28.477121 429 “9gg4 “0020 | 9:994933 Mean=9.918186= By 7'301030 Mean=7.119280= Bs 435 | 1.204 "0030 | 10.080590] ABtilog By—0.8283 i iyrii Antilog Bs—=0,0013181 dis] 2.1676 | L007 | 10-3a5979| Sum—41.493438 7 87p061 | Sum—S1.847032 46 2. TTL F “0 25 | 10.442652 Mean=10.373359= A y 096910 Mean=7.961758= A 5 o oa ee Antilog 4»=2.3624 8.0969101 Antilog A s—0.0091571 467 3.0558 -0150 | 10.485125 8.176091 4 Sum=§81.166182 Sum= 60.324153 Mean=10.1457727= Cy Mean=7.540519= Cs Antilog Cy=1.39885 Antilog Cs=0,.0034715 Ay — Cy=10.373359_ —10.1457727= 0.227586 Cy —By=10.1457727— 9.918186 = .227587 A s— Cs= 7.961758 — 7.540519 = .421239 Cs—Bs= 7.540519 — 7.119280 = .421239 A= C5 Ags 0; C,—B, Ca Since the three points, A, C, and B are in a straight line, which checks the accuracy of the work (sée American Civil Engineers’ Pocketbook, second edition, p. 848). The exponent, z, of V in formula 14, is the inclination of the line ACB, and is equal to the tangent of the angle formed by the line oe the unity axis of V. A,—B, 0.842478 pase ie coca Pee OA eee SOP mHO — A: =B, 0.455178 oe The intercept, m, is determined as follows from equation 15, using the coordinates of the center of gravity, C: Log m=log s—z log V (19) a C,—2 C, = 7.540519 — 1.8509 X10.1457727 = 7.270709 and m=0.0018651. The exponent of V and the value of m are found in the same man- ner for the other sizes of both concrete and clay tile,.running nearly full. These values are shown in column 7 of Table 6. This table gives the formula derived as explained above for each size of ve as well as the range of velocities used in the derivation. - Rayer ! Hy Vsidolniitig { neter of 7Ti/e in Feet Bul, 854, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fig.!/ Clay Tile Analytical Method using Selected Tests Ve/ocit/esain Feet per Second Fig.3. Clay Tile Flowing Full ig2. Tile Graphical Method using Selected Tests ne ay eoree Velocities in Feet per Second Velocities in Feet per- Second. PLATE XI, Fig.4. ClayTile Flowing .9 Depth Velocities in Feet per Second a gp eG Wo ee oe ag 40 50-60 708090 5 6 7:89 10 i520 25.30, -40*50:60708090 5 6 7 8 910 1520 25 30 40 5060708090 5 6 7 83910 15.20 ‘25 30 40 50 60 7086090 0150 oH | et .0150 a | ie + Lt 0125 | aa [ie] 213 x 4 _ 0100 oa Ie NG ri .0090 oo gb eps ee J 8 0080 eare _ 33 99 im Sal 0070 ‘a060 Tea | i .0060 15 x 0050 0050 264 90 fs 4 : cs 0040 0040 TI - 269 se f (Ss) ee, 6 Wig af Hod “5% |_| 0030 1080 e3_f)\ 93 0025 255 rice I's 259 | ! Wii, fs a YW /: VWs off * v/s re) 9.0018 - N oh y—fop.—f Gof KSe, ] 4 = 0015) S/ is ~ ~ = 4 S (2) IS ) fea) 2 /y Ly ~ KS) /N, % 0010 LS Ege ufos ; 0010 0003}-—+ 0009 0008 = 0008 0007 | ST a +1 0007 coos} —+ +6 om x .0006 00 SH 39 | .0005 9905 Wits 130 fj75 (340 0004 176 > = = r L- —— +0004 j * 000. 2082 0910152025 30 Oo10 5 20 25 30 73) | 49) 5) 6) 7, BL9\L0 ey Mean Hydraulic Fadit in Feet Mean Hydraulic Fadil in Feet Diameter of Tile in Feet Diameter of Tile inFeet Fig.5. ClayTile Flowing 8 Depth Fig.6. ClayTile Flowing .7 Depth Fig.7. ClayTile Flowing .6 Depth Fig.8. ClayTile Flowing .5 Depth Velocities in Feet per Second Velocities tn Feet per Second Velocities in Feet per Second Veloc/ties 1m Feet per Second S 6 7.8910 15__20 25 30 40 50 60708090 $ 6 7 8910 1520 25 30 40 50 60708090 § 6 7 8910 1520 25 30 40 50 60 708090 5 6 7 8 910 1520 25 30 40 50 60 708090 0150 =| V- ia 7, iH 0150 0125 ——+ al T Wy 0125 0100 | | If eect 7 a au 0080 | x f al = - 0080 0070 ] 0070 0060 zal 0060 0050 | LHe 4 “ 0050 0040 =F] | -+ it 0040 0030 al Oe Lt Ht x = Sa .0030 0025 La A zl s Lo | = 0025 s ‘al S | 0020 4 ++ + ; NY, & / b sy St 00204! 0015 y Hf Y : . a 12 CS i) ) ‘Of Hf 5 S) 0015 ~<é Sg BS) S 7 ~ a] ) | S PS i ) s 0010 I 0009 IE — | | 0010 .0008 i a ial ao08 0007 + . 4 | L 00 .0006 L ai # Sa oes I 4 .0006 0005 < | | r -—|— i i .0005 0004 E Tile alles SS _ ae 7 1 : 0004 0003 x : 0003 a Le a LTD } Diermainge Tilo aon 3. 4 5 6 7 8910 To Se ee 3) 4 #5 6.7 8.910 Diameter of Tile in Feet Diameter of Tile in Feet Curves USED IN THE DERIVATION OF FORMUL~ FOR CLAY TILE. Diameter of Tile in Feet THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 37 TaBLE 6.—Individual tile formule and revised intercept values. il 2 3 | 4 5 6 7 8 ~ Tile. Num- A ber of| Formulz derived sep- Revised om-| Actual Velocity. ob- | arately for each tile |" 7orceP Kind inal | 2verage Area of serva-| size. oh = : diame- | bore. tions. size. ii er. Inches.| Feet. | Sq. feet. | Feet per second. Hard-burned clay . 4] 0.3398 | 0.0907 | 0.607 to 3.328. ._ 14 | s=0.0014797 V2-0326.___. 0. 0015185 1D Ya) soe Fea Biase 5 - 4193 - 1381 -634 to 4.030. -. 17 | s= .0010494 V1-9729.____ 0010524 Soft-burned clay. . - 6 - 5184 -2111 | .765t03.368... 6 | s= .000819 V1-8321_____ 000761 Hard-burned clay. 8 - 685 -3685 | .893 to 4.423... 15 | s= .000617 V1-9914.___. 0006297 Vitrified........... 10 - 836 -5489 | 1.168t0 5.717... 18 | s= .000384 V1-9918_____ 0003927 IDG) eee 12 - 9857 . 7631 | 1.176 to 4.002... 6 | s= .0003185 V1-9907_____ 0003241 Concrete. .......--- 4 - 3280 -0845 | .504to0 3.056... 8 | s= .0018651 V1-8509_____ 0017954 IDO. Beaeesasaee 5 -4127 - 1338 | .640t03.891... 9 | s= .001077 V1-9183_____ 0010444 DD te ees aa 6 4970. -1940 | .705t03.274__. 7} s= .000856 V2-0104.____ 0008791 100 eee See 8 6585 -3406 | .914 to 4.959... 18 | s= .0005674 V2-0373_____ . 0006079 Poe oe ~10 - 8274 -5377 | .898 to 5.486... 26 | s= .0005003 V1-9632_.____ - 0004997 DOSS Meh. 12 9915 . 7721 | 1.183 to 2.935... 4 | s= .0003449 V2-0059.____ - 0003546 Since for the same kind of tile the exponents V vary for the differ- ent sizes, the mean of the exponents has been taken as correct; thus, For clay tile, z=1.96859. . For concrete tile, z=1.96433. Using these mean values of 2 instead of the values derived for each separate size of tile, new values, m’, were computed for the inter- cepts on the unity vertical axis, as follows: For clay tile, log m’ =log s—1.96859 log V For concrete tile, log m’ =log s— 1.96433 log V (20) (21) These values of m’ are given in column 8 of Table 6. To introduce the mean hydraulic radius into the formule, the rela- tion of the values of m’ to the hydraulic radii for the different sizes of concrete tile is represented by the formula, m' —e Re CR in which e and « are determined analytically, by a method similar to that previously explained, as follows: Mean : . | Intercept ae pociaulic values log R. log m’. : m’. Inches.| Feet. 0.0915 | 0.0017954 | 8.96142)Sum=27.16319.........._. 7.254171) Sum= 21.217044 5 . 1154 - 0010444 | 9.06221}Mean—9.05439= Dr. _..--_- 7.018853 > Mean= 7.072348= Dm’ 6 - 1379 - 0008791 | 9.13956) Antilog D;=0.1133.-.-.--.-.- 6.944020) Antilog Dm’=0.0011813 8 «1840 0006079 | 9.26482)Sum=28.0655...........-. 6.783850) Sum= 20.032332 10 - 2316 - 0004997 | 9.36474}Mean=9.35519= Fy...-_--- 6.698711'Mean=-6.677444= Em’ 12- - 2729 - 6003546 | 9.43600} Antilog Er=0.2265........ 6.549771} Antilog Hm’= .00047582 Sum=55.22875 Mean= 9.20479= F, Antilog F;= 0.1602 Sum=41.249376 Mean= 6.874896= Fin’ Antilog Fn’= 0.00074971 38 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The line representing equation 22 is shown in figure 1 of Plate X. The mean hydraulic radii in the above computations were obtained by averaging the hydraulic radii for the selected tests in Table 4 for each size of tile, and not by using a because these radii are for tests varying from 95 per cent full to full, The mean hydraulic radii have been plotted as abscissx with their respective revised intercept values as ordinates. These points are designated in the figure by stars. The centers of gravity as computed above have also been plotted, and a line drawn through them. Substituting in equation 22, transposing, and using the center of gravity just computed, Log e=log m’/— (—1.3128) log R (23) = 6.874896 + 1.3128 9.20479 and e=0.00006775 Thus ™m: — 0.00006 Tia ia 5 (24) where 0.00006775 is the intercept on the line R = 1, and — 1.3128 is the inclination of the line to the horizontal axis. The logarithmic diagram showing the development of the line for equation 24 is shown in figure 1 of Plate X. A similar line for clay tile is shown in figure 1 of Plate GE Substituting equation 24 and the mean value A 2 (p. 40) in the general formula 17, this general equation is now obtained for concrete ~ tile: s = 0.00006775 R28 Y1.001838 10: ULE V-00488 (25) From this, solving for V, we get V = 132.5 R008 0-509 (26) which is the formula derived analytically, using the mean hydraulic radii for the selected experiments for each size of concrete tile in Table 4. In a like manner, the formula as derived analytically for clay tile was found to be V = 134.7 [29-889 50-508 (27) The data used in deriving equation 27 for clay tile are shown on figure 1 of Plate XI. This diagram has been prepared similarly to the diagram in figure 1 of Plate X, except that the values used are from the selected tests in Table 3, for clay tile. Formule 26 and 27 were derived by the analytical method, using only experiments with the tile Hoxie from 95 per cent full to full, THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 39 but not under pressure. In order to derive a formula graphically, using the same data as those from which equation 26 was derived analytically, a separate diagram was necessary. This diagram (Pl. X, fig. 2) was obtained by plotting the velocities used in figure 1 of Plate X as abscisse, against their respective slopes as ordinates, just as in figure 1. Straight lines were drawn through each set of symbols, averaging the points by eye. Although these lines were not intentionally drawn parallel, it will be seen that they are practically so. The slopes of these lines were determined by scale, and the intercepts of the various lines with the unity vertical axis were read from the diagram. The inclination and location of the line involving the mean hydraulic radii and the intercepts were determined analyti- cally. The formula as derived graphically for concrete tile is V=138.5 [20-880 0-510 (28) It should be noted that the exponents of s are the same in equations 26 and 28, while the exponents of & and the coefficients preceding & vary slightly. In a similar manner, the formula for the flow of water in clay tile was derived graphically from the selected experiments in Table 3, this diagram being shown in figure 2 of Plate XI. In this case the inclination and location of the line involving the mean hydraulic radii and the intercepts were also determined analytically. The formula as derived for clay tile is V=121.4 Ro 0-5 (29) Comparing this formula with equation 27, it will be noted that the exponents of s are practically the same, while the exponents of FR as well as the coefficients preceding 2 vary somewhat. ‘This difference is probably due to the fact that the observations on the 6-inch tile are slightly mconsistent with those on the other sizes, and this dis- crepancy is treated somewhat differently in the analytical and graphi- cal methods. In the latter method, greater weight was given to the higher velocities than to the lower ones. The diagrams (PI. XI, figs. 1 and 2) show the variation in the inclination of the lines for the 6-inch tile. It will be noted that the formula for flow in clay tile, equation 27, was derived analytically. In order to determine the variation in the coefficient, the velocities for the selected experiments (column 8, Table 3), together with their respective hydraulic radu and slopes, were substituted in equation 27 and new coefficients computed. The mean of the coefficients obtained for clay tile was 137.6. Thus the formula for clay tile, using the same exponents for & and s as in equation 27, was found to be V=137.6 R08 0-508 (30) 40 BULLETIN 854, U. §. DEPARTMENT 6F AGRICULTURE, In a like manner, the data for the experimental velocities for the selected experiments (Table 4) were substituted in equation 26, and the formula for concrete tile became V=131 R888 50-509 (31) Noting how close the exponents of R and s were to 3 and 3, it was deemed advisable to determine what the coefficient would be when using these latter values. For the clay tile, using all the various sizes and lengths of tile, the formula became, V =136 Ri st Pe) In the case of concrete tile, the data for the 4-inch size show that greater resistance to flow is offered in this size than in the larger sizes. This is clearly shown in the diagram in Plate X as well as in column 10 of Table 4. Therefore, .it was decided to eliminate the 4-inch size and use the remainder of the sizes in the derivation of the formula. The formula for concrete tile, then, is V =138.2 R? s3 (33) None of the previous formule were derived from the combined data for both clay and concrete tile. Therefore, it was decided to derive a formula by using the velocities for both clay and concrete tile flow- ing full as obtained from Plate IX. These velocities were plotted as abscisse against their respective slopes as ordinates (Pl. XII). The formula derived graphically for both clay and concrete tile is V =137 96s" (34) This formula is practically the same as that derived for concrete tile as given ii equation 33. Since it was derived from the data for both clay and concrete tile, equation 34 is recommended as the general formula for computing the capacity of tile, merely eliminating the decimal in the coefficient and making the cxponaai 2 and 3, respec- tively, thus, V =138 Ri 3 (13) FORMUL FOR TILE FLOWING PARTLY FULL A great many experiments were made at other depths of flow as shown in Tables 3 and 4. These have been plotted and mean curves drawn through the points (see Pl. IX, figs. 1 to 12). The velocities at 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.8, and 0.9 depths and for the tile flowing full were read from these curves and plotted on logarithmic charts as abscissx, against their respective slopes as ordinates, to determine the equa- tions for flow at these different depths. Figures 3 to 8, Plate XI, show the studies made of clay tile at various depths of flow. With the exception of the 0.5 and 0.6 depths of flow (figs. 7 and 8), the lines were drawn through the various points by eye, the centers of gravity not being fee tuen analytically. Bul, 854, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE XII. Velociti2s in feet per Second 86 i Sib IS 2.0 25 30 40 50 60 708090 oe aT. kf ae AB a site (///Anan fas LV Se pA aman TREE CTH a= Lh Fora etc nn ee 7 YETETIN, SOR A Ons TEN SAI ea ad ea aie 09 2h 2 Se ee a a ee (23) ech) ee When Rial tn Feet CuRVES USED IN THE DERIVATION OF A RommenA APPLYING TO BOTH CLAY AND CONCRETE TILE. THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 41 However, for the 0.5 and 0.6 depths of flow the exponents of s were found to be rather high; so for these two depths the centers of gravity of the various sizes of tile were computed analytically, and the exponents of s were found to be the same as the values determined graphically. It should be noted that the diameter of the tile and not the mean hydraulic radius was used in the formule derived for various depths of flow. In determining the equation of the line showing the relation of m and the diameter D (equation 16), the centers of gravity were computed lest appreciable error should be introduced in attempting to draw these lines by eye. However, after the lines were drawn through the computed centers of gravity, the slopes of these lines were determined by scale-and the intercept was read direct from the diagram. d Depth of Flow D 5 6 mr; 8 9 = 10 Values.of K : ‘ i ld 23067 Equation Of Line K = $5.57 D) Fig. 1.—Relation of coefficient K to depth of flow in formulae 35-40. The formulze for clay tile as derived from figures 3 to 8, Plate XI, are as follows: For tile flowing full, -V=57.8 D9-862 30.512 (35) For tile flowing 0.9 depth, V=57.5 D°-878 59.50 (36) For tile flowing 0.8 depth, V=57.1 D9-58? 59-498 (37) For tile flowing 0.7 depth, V=60.5 D®-756 30.507 (38) For tile flowing 0.6 depth, V=63.4 D°-8%! 39.518 5 (39) For tile flowing 0.5 depth, V=72.2 D!-% 9.541 (40) These equations furnish sufficient basis for determining next a general formula to cover every depth of flow. Since in this group of formulz the exponent of s is about 0.5, each equation is of the form Vide Da2 (41) Plotting the values of the coefficient K in formule 35 to 40 as ordinates, against their respective depths of flow as abscisse, an equation involving K and 4 is determined (see text-fig. 1). This equation is found to be \—0-3087 K= 55.57( §) (42) 42, BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURR. Tn a like manner, plotting values of the exponent of D as ordinates against their respective depths of flow as abscisse, the equation for the exponent of D for any depth of flow was found to be (see text- fig. 2) d —0.639 ; a= 0.6284( 7) (43) Then writing the equation to cover every depth of flow in clay tile, we have 0.6 = 88 E G) 4 ayn 0-5 (44) ») qd Depth of Flow 5 5 6 Al Beng 1.0 vay OM Values of Exponent of D NI rN ; e639 L£guation OF Line a=. szsa (2) Fie. 2.—Relation of exponent of D to depth of flow in formule 35-40. When . equals 1—in other words when the tile is flowing full— and assuming the exponent of s to be 0.5 for all depths of flow, V = 55.57 99-8284 9-5 (45) A study of figures 3 to 8, Plate X, shows that the 4-inch concrete tile appears to have a greater coefficient of roughness than do the larger sizes. This is also indicated in Table 4. Therefore it was decided to eliminate the 4-inch tile and considér only the remaining sizes in deriving a new formula. The formule for the concrete tile for the 5, 6, 8, 10, and 12 inch sizes for all depths of flow then become: For tile flowing full, So 1007580 igh 306 (46) for tile flowing 0.9 depth, V=50.80 D®-589 30-491 (47) for tile flowing 0.8 depth, V=51.49 D958? 50-496 (48) for tile flowing 0.7 depth, V=51.93 D9 625 0-501 (49) for tile flowing 0.6 depth, V=51.37 D723 30-504 (50) for tile flowing 0.5 depth, V=49.22 D789 0-510 (51) and THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 43 BePera of nad re Values of K CONCRETE TILE | 01653 Equation of Line K= 51.26) Fig. 3.—Relation of coefficient K to depth of flow in formulz 46-51. Ses of Flow = a 4 | a et | . ~ <= N cee a S.7 & BS 0.6 y: 3 S E ; q\=460/ Eguation Of Line a = 558I( 2) Fie. 4.—Relation of exponent of D to depth of flow in formule 46-51, b The exponent of s in all cases is very nearly 0.5, while the constant K also varies but little. Following the same method as before (see text-figs. 3 and 4) to obtain the formula for any depth of flow, d 0-01653 ss 51.26( 45) (52) d \—0-4601 a= 0.5581( 5) (53) Thus, the equation for any depth of flow in concrete tile is 0.5581 yasi20 2)" |p [eyo 64 44 BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. d pei te : : When D equals 1 (when the tile is flowing full) and assuming the exponent of s to be 0.5 for all depths of flow, . 5126 eee ss (55) The similarlity of this formula to Prony’s formula in equation 7 should be noted. A formula for the clay tile using only tke data on the 5, 6, and 8 inch sizes (1-foot lengths) was derived, as well as a formula for the 10 and 12 inch clay tile (2-foot lengths). These, however, were not deemed of great importance as indicating the effect of joints in the tile line, since an insufficient number of tile sizes were available for considera- tion. From a study of the data on the flow in tile running partly full, it will be seen that the velocity does not vary in accordance with the variation of the hydraulic radius. This fact suggested an attempt to derive a formula that does not involve the hydraulic radius, but is of the type, V=($a)s"" (56) That is, instead of the hydraulic radius, or the area divided by the wetted perimeter, it was recognized that the area might have one exponent and the perimeter a different exponent. " -qU@TOQZe00 URITL 10} SULYIOM pur ‘F 9] B4 ‘8 WUINTOD UT SeT}[O0TOA [BJUOIITIEdxe SUISN paatoqy EEA) Ger atniennie AERTS Tayl PPSOOROP SOSH SOHO IR. SoS “"p 9[QG} UL SJUSUMIIEd xe pajOoTOS 10} IIped O[[NVIPAY UBoU SUISN ‘AT/BoTydRis paato(y *(9%) eosro8 gogo SST =A [ep of By UL SyWowtedxe poayooTes 1OJ TIpes oI[NBIpAY Weour SuTSN ‘AT[BOTZATBUB Paatiaqy “yynf buamopl 2719 222.10U09 ack ere pan erage eee a See es “777 * XT O9CT_q ‘9 07 T Samsy WoT] SatgIOOTaA SuISH “T[NJ oO SULMOG of! Joy ‘ATTworydeis paatiogq Be Se ae ee ce eae Fem gte eas Gl hes ig hee A ee, RU O LE OTe soinsy UWLOIJ SOTJIOO[OA suisn Thy 9°0 SULMOY Ota Joy ‘ATTeoTYd eas poatrecy Sn og ees eae eg HO Pare eae eee a XT 28Td ‘9 0} [ SomMsy WoT Sot oooa SuIsN “TINY 2°9 SULMOT {1} Oy *AT[Vorydvis paatiog -" "XT 03d ‘9 0} [ Somnsy wo SatjIoopoa BuIsn ‘T[HJ g°O SULMOY af 19 OJ ‘ATPeorydeis poatiacy “"" XT O9e[_ ‘9 OF T SoMsy WOT] SorjIOOTOA SuISN ‘[[NJ 60 SULMOT a]1} 10J ‘ATTBoTYdess poatiaq nf hod Burmozl aj kno SSS Sommers GOSRS NGO AiO SSO S GOI xX] aed ‘9 09 T Somnsy U0’ SaTpOOTOA Sursn ‘Aqpworydeis peated (28) o/18 e/2 O8I=A 1° “qUOTOYFZO0D WOM JOY SUTYIOM PUB ‘2/18 ‘e/g ‘XT O9BIq ‘9 OF [ SOINSY WO.I STPIOOTOA SUISN Poeatiecy *(O) soso cso-o OLET=A [7 JUOTOYZO0D UBOUL IO SUTYIOAM PUB ‘¢ OTB} “S WUINTOS UT SoT}OOTOA [VJUSUITIGdXO SUISN peated HG earosscosociesl GU eA |aeneecmienn me ets sane € O[GBI UL WMOYS S}UOUTTIOdXo PoJdoToS JO] pw OTMVIPAY Wout Suisn ‘ATPeoTydess poate (LE) gos-oSes90NL PEL SA J € o[(e) Ul WMOYS S}UoUTTIOdXS PopOOjOS JOJ Ipel OYMVIPAY Wvour SuIsn ‘AT[BOTJATVUB PEA “nf burmopf aja Anjo *y JO Sutie} UT “‘pariwap eynunwof fo hivnmung— ), XTAV J, THE FLOW OF WATER IN DRAIN TILE. 47 COMPARISON OF VARIOUS FORMULA. Since from a practical standpoint we are interested only in the tile flowing full, velocities as computed by formula 34 are compared _ with velocities as taken from figures 1 to 12, Plate IX, for the tile flowing full. These results are shown in Tables 8 and 9. The differ- ence is shown, rather than the ratio, between each two determina- tions of velocity, in order that the variations in the low velocities shall be given only equal weight with equal variations in the high veloci- ties. To get the average differences given in Tables 8 and 9, the arith- metical sum of the differences is divided by the number of items. Slope in Feet per /00 Feet mee Obs 42 SUNG wi TRE Bes OW Le LO s er Second @ tin @ fone p LY Ve/locih nN Experimental Velocities x Ponce/er.... N= 48V1+54D ° Willizms-Hazen N= CyR™s™ 0001 °°4 L =/000 fi a Chezy-Autter NeCVRs_ Be) ms eiiort 2 N-ABy 540 Cw= /20 * Derived..-...N=\38R*s?* Hire. 5.—Comparison of velocities computed by various formule. Both the Poncelet and the Beardmore formule gave greater dif- ferences when applied to the experimental data than does the ten- tative formula, No. 13. The velocities from the curves in Plate IX were substituted in the Williams-Hazen formula, and the average ‘value of O,, was found to be approximately 120. Using this value in the Williams-Hazen formula, recomputing the velocities, and comparing them with the velocities from the curves in Plate IX, it was found that the average differences were practically the same as the average differences stated at the bottom of Tables 8 and 9. A comparison of the velocities computed by the various formule for one size of tile may be obtained from text-figure 5. This figure shows the velocities for 8-inch tile as computed by the Poncelet, the Williams-Hazen, the Chezy-Kutter (with the coefficient of roughness ; n, taken equal to 0.013), the Elliott, and formula 13 herein derived from the experimental data. The observed experimental velocities are also shown. 48 Teo bh BULLETIN 854, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 8.—Comparison of velocities for clay tile flowing full. 1 2 3 4 5 Velocity Difference Size from. | Velocity | between of Grade. | curvesin}| byfor- | column3 tile. Plate mula 34. and IX. column 4. Inches.| Per cent. | Ft. per sec.| Ft. per sec. | Ft. per sec. } 4 0.05 0. 60 0. 59 —0.01 -10 sitle «84 + .07 - 20 1.08 1.18 + .10 -30 1.36 1.45 + .09 .50 1.76 1.87 + .11 -75 2.12 2. 29 + .17 1.00 2.44 2. 64 + .20 1225) 2.93 2. 96 + .03 1. 50 3.27 3. 24 — .03 5 -05 - 60 -68 + .08 -10 1.02 - 96 — .06 - 20 1.35 1.36 + .01 -30 1.70 1. 67 — .03 - 50 Py, 1 2.15 + .04 of 2.52 2. 64 + .12 1.00 2.83 3. 04 + -2l 1.25 3.39 3.40 + .01 1.50 3.90 3.73 — .17 6 -05 77 79 + .02 -10 1.04 1.11 + .07 - 20 1. 63 1.56 — .07 - 30 2.03 1.92 — .ll -50 2.59 2. 48 —.1l1 Total: plusidifierence =. crac --n-seeeaeeeeee Total minus difference 1 2 3 4 5 Velocity Difference Size from Velocity | between of Grade. | curvesin| byfor- | column3 tile. Plate mula 34. and IX. column 4. yf) ff Inches.| Per cent. | Ft. persec.| Ft. per sec. | Ft. per sec. 6 E r 3. 04 —0. 29 1.00 3.78 3.51 = 22/! 8 -05 - 87 95 + .08 -10 1.23 1.34 + 11 - 20 1. 82 1.89 + .07 -30 2.13 2.32 arn lly - 00 2. 92 2. 99 ae ole 15 3.53 3. 66 + .18 10 05 1.06 1.08 + .02 -10 1.57 1.52 — .05 - 20 2.27 2.16 — .ll -30 2. 74 2. 65 = (08 - 50 3. 50 3. 42 — .08 75 4.23 4.19 — .04 1.00 4. 98 4. 84 —.1l4 1,25 5. 63 5.40 — .23 12 -05 1.17 1.21 + .04 -10 1. 86 1.71 =i - 20 2.35 2.41 + .06 -30 2. 95 2. 96 + .01 -00 3. 94 3. 82 meal TaBLE 9.—Comparison of velocities for concrete tile flowing full. 1 2 3 4 5 Velocity Difference Size from Velocity | between of Grade. | curvesin}| byfor- | column3 tile. Plate mula 34. and Ix. column 4. Inches.) Per cent. | Ft. per sec. | Ft. per sec. | Ft. per sec. 4 0.05 0. 52 0. 58 +0. 06 - 10 . 78 - 82 + .04 . 20 .99 1.16 + .17 - 30 1.18 1.41 + .23 -90 1.69 1. 83 + .14 ai fs) 2.15 2. 24 + .09 1.00 2.39 2. 58 + .19 1.25 2. 82 2. 89 + .07 -1.50 3.06 3.16 + .10 5 -05 -61 . 67 + .06 -10 .97 ~95 — .02 - 20 1.36 1.32 — .04 - 30 1.71 1.65 — .06 - 00 2. 30 2.13 — .17 75 2. 69 2. 61 — .08 1.00 3.19 3.01 — .18 1.25 3.53 3.37 — .16 6 -05 - 67 . 76 + .09 -10 1.13 1.08 — .05 - 20 1.58 1. 53 — .05 -30 1.97 1. 87 — .10 - 90 2.30 2.41 + .11 ~75 2.95 2.95 + .00 1.00 3. 26 3.41 + .15 1.25 3.77 3.81 + .04 1.50 4. 28 4.18 — .10 Wotaliplus difference: 22.5sss eee ee rece ae VTotalminus differences. sss = olen se eee Number ofitems Average difference 1 2 3 4 5 Velocity Difference Size from Velocity | between of Grade. | curvesin| by for- | column3 tile Plate mula 34. and Ix. column 4. Inches.| Per cent. | Ft. persec.| Ft. per sec.| Ft. per sec. 8 0.05 0. 92 0. —0.02 10 1.31 1.30 — .0l 20 1.89 1. 84 — .05 -30 . 2.30 2. 26 — .04 - 50 2.99 2: 91 — .08 .75 3. 53 3.57 + .04 1.00 3.98 4.11 + .13 1.25 4.42 4.61 + .19 1.50 4. 83 5. 04 + .21 10 05 - 90 1.07 + .17 -10 1.38 1. 52 + .14 . 20 2.06 2.15 + .09 . 30 2.47 2. 63 + .16 - 50 3. 23 3.39 + .16 ao 3. 87 4.16 + .29 1.00 4.49 4. 80 + .31 1.25 4.99 5.37 + .38 1.50 5.37 5. 88 Seen? 12 -05 1.20 1.21 + .01 -10 1.72 1.71 — .01 - 20 2.37 2.42 + .05 - 30 2.93 2. 97 + .04 wd Sree S7m:a)is) ele ols oat ela ena +4. 42 wa we wold hoe bee ad orotate oe —1.22 cin cod te wtcclecbi nek ssl eenae a 48 ae eia wide games eesee eee foot persecond., 117 CORRECTION In/Bulletin 854 of the United States Depart- DewEorikervoulture, entitled "The vlow of Water in reno, tae lane: foie, tne Tormule) given an the lesend ay bottom of Plate XIII (facing page 48) should read: \/= 28 FPF SF | 35 : 5 Fa 25 20 “ie 307 | Is q_ 110 20 4 : ak i 15 OK 20k 45 | 3 | : 10 7, ts) 10 a || 15 | jy) ae 10 | Phe r 5 w ‘ 0 oo S| e[ Rea] R-2]R4 R= Re Bul. 854, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. SLOPE IN INCHES PER 100 FEET. 2 2 | 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10N 12 18 24 30 00.0 9000}-6000 8000! o95 7000'- 4500 | 6000}-4000 on 5000, 350 g 45001-3000 D 4000 400 C a 3500) v 30.0 2 ©. ‘ 3000+ 2000 Ls 4 2500 Ss X J 1500 20.0 2) A 2000 ; 1200 Oke) ‘ i 1500+ 1000 =| 900 5 [ fan 1200F 800 als \ \ \ L 700 100 S 1000 IG \ B . "900;- 600 lu} i ‘] 800 : IN) 3 L 500 j is 700L 459 ; ala 600f- 400 a4 I a | 500) 3°0 : wl \s4 450 300 40 | an 0 IL \ sor 289 oO | Ly nan 300 200 a a \ \ L {80 f ’ \ N 250° 160 q | v- ‘ L 140 120 | ay w PFT TN a Oe easel eel dal Ge ace AN Fe alte Se ke |S 100 \ Vi | TNT ce 2 2 z I20- 80 * ie ° oof, 72 ic (= y 90F 60 { 80 8 + 50 J ——| NJ 70 45 £ ees i EN 60F 40 _ \ 50 35 45 ; | call il \ " 35 3 z \e 30k 20 N 25 4 | y 15 y) 20 Bp ed a A RIL INS eg LEI | dl il UW ul 15-10 ir j L + 7 Hh | ! \ F i 10 05 4 2 oy. AS 10 20 SLOPE IN FEET PER 100 FEET. DISCHARGE CURVES FOR DRAIN-TILE BASED ON FORMULA V=138 S.! R.4, 4500 4000) 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1200 1000 300 800 700 600 500 450 400 350 300 250 200 180 160 100 5 PLATE XIII. ACRES DRAINED 3500) 2000) 3000}-2500) 200" 25001 2000) 1500 2000 120 1500] 1000 15001 \200 300 1200 1000), °° goof- 700 oa B00; 600 goof 7°°L soo 700 600}- 450 s00f 500) °° 450), 350 5001 400+ 300 4501 6 400 250 350f7 300 300} 250[. “a, 2501. o99|_ '8° 180 140 a 160 120 eof @°L 100 140,- 120; 90 80 120 100 ‘oof, pruning so as to leave the canes long enough to permit bending and tying to form a self-supporting circle, as shown in figure 2. Experiments are now being made to determine the methods of pruning, training, and culture necessary for the best results. It would be an easy matter, of course, to select a trellis system of training that would adapt itself to the growing of the currant- = x= —— Fic, 2.—A grapevine pruned to long canes, the canes afterwards being bent in a circle as a support. RINGING THE VINES. It has been found that in order to make the blooms set and secure full yearly crops of grapes the vines must be ringed every year. CURRANT-GRAPE GROWING. 11 This ringing consists of making two parallel incisions through the bark and cambium layer around either the trunk, the arms, or the. canes of the vines and completely taking out the bark and cambium layer between the two parallel incisions. (PI. V, fig. 1.) This does not interfere with the upward flow of the sap through the outer ring of undisturbed wood, but where the ringing occurs checks the return- ing flow while the ringed place is healing. (PI. V, fig. 2.) The ~ effects of ringing are a full setting of fruit and much larger berries and clusters. (PI. IV, figs. 1 and 2.) The ringing is done either with.a large-bladed pocketknife or with special tools made for the purpose (fig. 3). In ringing several factors need special consideration. The time the ringing is done is a most important matter and is related to the blooming period. If done either too early or too late, the desired results will not be obtained. It is best to do the ringing when the clusters are partially in bloom or in the middle of the blooming period. The blooming period being of relatively short dura- tion (usually not more than 10 days), when ringing on an exten- sive scale it 13 advisable to start just as the first flowers open and continue ringing throughout the blooming period. The effects on fruit setting are noticeable with vines ringed after they stop blooming. The depth of the incisions is also very important. They should be made entirely through the Fic. 3.—Some tools used in ringing vines. cambium layer, and the matter between the two incisions should be immediately and completely re- moved. The results obtained will depend on the thoroughness of this part of the operation. The width between the two parallel incisions is also an important matter. The distance between the incisions should be no wider than is absolutely necessary to allow a narrow circlet of the bark and cambium to be removed. On the arms and canes of vines a circlet one-eighth of an inch wide is sufficient; for large arms and trunks of vines a circlet one-fourth of an inch wide is necessary. If good judgment is used in doing this work the circlet removed on the vines ringed while in bloom should be completely healed over in six to eight weeks, or by the time the grapes are ripe. Another important factor is the part of the vine to ring. The effects on the vine are manifest, of course, only beyond the place of 12 BULLETIN 856, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ringing. Hence, the entire vine is affected by one ringing of the trunk, but when either arms or canes are chosen all of them must be ringed, in order that the entire vine may be affected. In the experiments conducted at the Fresno Experiment Vine- yard, 12-year-old ringed Panariti grafts on 10 different resistant stocks trained to stakes (vines 8 by 8 feet apart, or 680 to the acre) during 1917 and 1918 gave average annual yields per acre ranging from about 5.8 tons (Pl. IV, fig. 1) on the poorest stock to 10.35 tons on the best stock, the average on all the stocks being nearly 74 tons. The check vines with like treatment and care averaged only 21 tons to the acre (Pl. IV, fig. 2). Ringed 5-year-old Panariti grafts on 18 different resistant stocks, with trellis training (vines 8 by 8 feet apart, or 680 to the acre) during 1917 and 1918 averaged annually over 5 tons to the acre, while the check vines averaged only 1.9 tons to the acre.’ CONGENIALITY OF THE PANARITI VARIETY TO PHYLLOXERA- Se STOCKS. In the belief that an eer new grape industry can be de- veloped from the dried fruit of the Panariti grape, and that it is destined to play an important rdojie in Vinifera viticulture, this variety was one of those selected for extensive tests of the con- geniality of Vinifera grape varieties to the important phylloxera- resistant stocks at the Fresno Experiment Vineyard in California. In a 10-year test of the Panariti variety grown on various resist- ant stocks, a sufficient number of varieties of these stocks have been found from which to select those which are adapted to any of the types of grape soil, as well as to other conditions which are congenial to the currant-grape varieties and on which they show a tendency to good fruiting. The data given in Table III show ae relative behavior of Panariti vines growing on 10 different phylloxera-resistant stocks in the Fresno Expoonicns Vineyard. Ten vines each of the Panariti grape grafted on the Lenoir, Rupestris St. George, Riparia Gloire, Salt Creek, and Dog Ridge were included in the tests. Of each group of 10 vines, 2 were check vines, 4 were vines with canes ringed, and 4 were vines with trunks ringed. Five vines each of Panariti variety grafted on the Adobe Giant, Aramon X Rupestris Ganzin No. 1, Mourvedre X Rupestris No. 1202, Riparia x Rupestris No. 3309, and Solonis % Riparia No. 1616 were also included in the tests. Of each group of five vines, one was a check vine, two were vines For further information on the adaptability of resistant stocks to soils and other conditions see Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 172, entilted “‘ Grape Investigations in the Vinifera Regions of the United States with Reference to Resistant Stocks, Direct Producers, and Viniferas,’ and Department of Agriculture Bulletin 209, entitled ‘ Test- ing Grape Varieties in the Vinifera Regions of the United States.” CURRANT-GRAPE GROWING. 13 with canes ringed, and two were vines with trunks ringed. All these vines were trained to stakes. Taste III.—Relative behavior of check vines and ringed vines of the Panariti variety of currant grapes grafted on 10 varieties of phylloxera-resistant stocks trained to stackes at the Fresno Experiment Vineyard of the Department of Agriculture in California for a period of 10 years, together with fruiting results in 1917 and 1918. Range of dates in the 10-year period. Con- Name of the variety and of the |, on; | stock upon which it was grown. ality-| Growth starting. Blooming. Fruit ripening. 1 2 3 | 4 5 Panariti variety: = Adobe siant=ssss.8 225 5-- 5 89 | Mar. 2 to Mar. 28....| May 2 to May 25..-..| July 20 to Sept. 2. Aramon X Rupestris Ganzin 96 | Mar.1to Apr. 1.-.... May 6 to May 28--.--| July 15 to Sept. 15. No. 1. MogPRId ese. - 22 he cee 2 -...| 93 | Mar. 6 to Mar. 26..-.| May 1 to May 22--...| July 15 to Sept. 10. ICH OIE eat ee eee Se 86 | Mar.2 to Mar. 27.....| May 1 to May 20. ...| July 15 to Sept. 5. Mourvedre X Rupestris No. 92 | Mar. 4to Apr. 1..-.-- May 5 to May 20. ...| July 15 to Sept. 12. 1202. Riparia Gloire: 2:2 -25-5---=- 89 | Mar. 4 to Mar. 26..-.| May 2 to May 20. -.-_.| July 22 to Sept. 10. Riparia X Rupestris No.3309 95 | Mar. 4 to Mar. 27..-.|.._--. GOS Esc sse July 15 to Sept. 16. Rupestris St. George..-.-.-- 95 | Mar. 5 to Mar. 27....| May 2 to May 23. -.--.| July 15 to Sept. 14. SaltiCreckes 2232. seeee ee 85 | Mar. 1 to Mar, 26_...| May 1 to May 20_-.-.-.| July 15 to Sept. 15. Solonis xX Riparia No. 1616. . 92 | Mar. 5 to Mar. 28....| May 2 to May 20. ._-.| July 15 to Sept. 16. Yield of fruit (pounds). KGaA ee Sugar content (Balling scale). | (S"@™S ue Taq Name ofthe variety and of the stock Tn 1917. In 1918. eS upon which it was grown. Check |Ringed | Check |Ringed In In In In vines. | vines. | vines. | vines. | 1917. 1918. 1917, 1918. 1 6 7 Soul so 10 rat 12 B Panariti variety: Nd Ober Giantess assoc se oes 7.5 27.25 Usa SOs 30.5 27 0.9675 0.8770 Ae X< Rupestris Ganzin 21 36.25 | 11 20.25 28 26 7650 8255 0.1. : ID ae Ra Ghee ae ae 3 12 3 22.5 26.5 | 28 . 8300 8250 IL@UGNr sae Reo aNeee eae eae 1.5 13.25 2 10. 2. 28 26 - 6450 7500 Mourvedre Rupestris No. 1202.. 8 19.5 15 Hint3eo DBO 28 . 8700 7575 np arias GOs sie sys cise eecln = = 5 19.5 7 (alo 2309 30 . 8850 9450 Riparia< Rupestris No. 3309-.--- 17 30.25 | 20 28.5 28.5 26 -8650 8250 Rupestris St. George....-.-..-.- 655) |= 1525 2 20.5 28.5 26 . 7800 8550 alt, Crecksha aves sh as Eee 8 19.25 5 15.5 28 26 . 7800 8175 Solonis X Riparia No. 1616....._- 24A5) |p 26225) |e 9, 16 29 26 - 6900 -8325 PASVCTAS OLA amos se ecole LOD 2a 2k 6.95 | 18.525 27.4 26.9 - 80775 - 8310 The significance of the data in the various columns of Table IT is made clear by the following explanation: Column 1 shows the name of the variety and of the stocks upon which it was grafted. Column 2 shows the congeniality existing between the resistant stock and the variety grown upon it, expressed in the form of a percentage rating on a scale in which the growth of the variety when not grafted but growing as an entire plant on its own roots, under conditions to which it is well adapted, is taken “as the standard of excellence, 100 per cent. The congeniality percentages there- fore represent the behavior of the Panariti variety when grafted on the several stocks in the Fresno Experiment Vineyard expressed in terms that permit com- 14 BULLETIN 856, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. parison with its behavior when growing as an entire plant on its own roots. To illustrate, the table shows that as to congeniality the Panariti when grafted on Aramon X Rupestris Ganzin No. 1 was rated at 96, when on Dog Ridge at 93, and when on Salt Creek at 85. This shows-that the Panariti variety, which is well adapted to the conditions in the Fresno Experiment Vineyard, when grafted on these stocks at the same time under the same conditions, with the same treatment in the same vineyard, varied in growth and behavior in comparison with the variety on its own roots in accordance with the above ratings. Columns 3 and 4 show the earliest and the latest date of starting into growth and of blooming, respectively, on the 10 stocks during the 10 years. These data are given as a basis of comparison with other grape varieties growing in the same locality. As the vines must be ringed while they are blooming, the blossom- ing data also indicate the time of year when the ringing must be done. ; Column 5 shows the earliest and the latest date of fruit ripening on the 10 stocks during the 10 years. This serves to show that currant grapes can be grown in advance of other raisin grapes and that they may be sun dried before the fall rains start in districts where other-raisin grapes ripen too late. Columns 6 and 7, respectively, show the yield of fruit per vine that the Panariti check vines bore in 1917 on each of the 10 stocks, compared with the yield of fruit per vine borne by ringed Panariti vines on the same stocks grow- ing side by side, with otherwise the same care and treatment given them the same year. Columns 8 and 9, in like manner, afford a comparison of the yields of fruit in 1918. Columns 10 and 11 compare the sugar content (Balling scale) of the fruit of the Panariti variety on each of the 10 stocks in the years 1917 and 1918, respectively. : Columns 12 and 18 compare the acid content (grams per 100 c. c.) of the fruit of the Panariti variety on each of the 10 stocks in the years 1917 and 1918, respectively. Table IV shows the relative behavior of two young Panariti vines (ringed), each growing on 15 additional stocks, during. a 4-year period, the vines being trained to a trellis. Explanations similar to those given for the same columns in Table III apply to columns 1 to 5 in Table IV. Columns 6 and 7 show the relative quality and yield of fruit of the Panariti vines on each of the 15 different resistant stocks. The data in Table IV relating to the behavior of young Panariti vines trained to a trellis for only two vines each on 15 resistant-stock varieties do not allow a fair comparison with data in Table ITI of the behavior of older vines trained to stakes, but promises of larger yields with trellis training are indicated. More elaborate tests of these and other stocks are now under way to obtain more con- clusive data as to congeniality. The results of the ringing experiments for 1919 have not been compiled as yet. It is known, however, that they corroborate and strengthen the results obtained in 1917 and 1918, and that the actual yields in 1918 were fully 10 per cent heavier than those of 1917, when the heaviest crop that up to that time had been grown was obtained. Bul. 856, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VII. FIG. 2,—DRYING CURRANTS ON WIRE-SCREEN TRAYS. CURRANT-GRAPE GROWING. 105) TABLE 1LV.—Relative behavior of ringed vines of the Panariti variety of currant grapes grafted on 15 varieties of phylloxera-resistant stocks, trained on a trellis at the Fresno Hxperiment Vineyard of the Department of Agriculture in California, showing the fruiting results in 1918. Range of dates in 4-year period. Fruit borne in 1918. oO BI Name of the een and of the stock & tn Li 53 upon which it was grown. rowth > : PTUL F p g 4 Stantinet Blooming. ripening. Quality. = 5p BPs I ao iS S 'S) S 4 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 | Panariti variety: H Aramon X Rupestris Ganzin No. 2..| 74 | Mar. 12 to | May 7 to | July 22 to | Very good..| 17 Mar. 30. May 14. July 25. Berlandieri X Riparia No. 420-A....| 84 | Mar. 12 to} May 5 to| July 20 to | Excellent.) 25 : Mar. 26. May 8. July 22. Clairette dore’ Ganzin..........---.- 89 | Mar. 12 to | May 6 to} Aug. 2 to, Very good..) 32.5 Mar. 25. May 9. Aug. 9. (Constantia: epee hese ees Sk 86 | Mar. 12 to | May 6 to} July 25....-!..... CO. oase|) 125 Mar. 23. May 13. TET @NE]OXO) PLD Oy ores een eng = 65 | Mar. 10 to |....- do.....| July 22 to | Good......) 12.5 Mar. 27. July 25. Monticola x Riparia No. 18804.....- 88 | Mar. 10 to| May 5 to.| July 19 to} Very good..! 13 Mar. 23. May 13. July 25. Monticola < Riparia No. 18808....-- 74 | Mar. 10 to | May 6 to | July 22 to | Good......| 23 Mar. 24. May 17. July 25. Monticola x Rupestris.............. Fhe) Mesa GOmelaenes C@sc ess sly me to | Very good..| 12.5 uly 25. Riparia X Rupestris No. 3306. -...--. 88 | Mar. 12 to | May 5 to | July 20 to | Excellent..| 12.5 Mar. 28. May 15. July 25. Riparia < Rupestris No. 101-14..... 74 | Mar. 12 to| My 6 to| July 24 to | Very good..| 6 Mar. 26. May 19. July 25. upestmiswMartin’ 22). 22.25.05. .5 226 76 | Mar. 13 to | May 5 to] Aug. 1 to|..... C@- obec) 1s Mar. 27. May 19. Aug. 9 Rupestris Mission..........--------- 69 | Mar. 13 to | May 7 to|-.-.-.. GO ed Waee COoscco| 25.5 Mar. 25. May 19. Rupestris X Berlandieri No. 219-A..| 81 | Mar. 13 to | May 6 to | July 25.....|...-- COs csse]. 1a Mar. 29 May 17. SOlOMiSMRODUSTa ss eee pees seer 84 | Mar. 9 to] May 5 to] July 18 to}...-- GOs odes] 8 ; Mar. 23. May 17. July 25. VALET ee py Es se Saat Sa 86 | Mar. 11 to] May 5 to] Aug. 1 to|....- Glos sai) a! Mar. 24. May 18. Aug. 9. HARVESTING AND CURING CURRANTS. DRYING AS FORMERLY PRACTICED IN GREECE. The following is quoted from the Agricultural Explorer’s notes under date of March 6, 1901: The drying of the fruit is an important process, and there is one common substratum upon which all the corinths of commerce are dried. It is a sun- baked paste of cow manure. Whether a drying floor is prepared on open spots of ground scattered through the vineyards or consists of a large number of light wooden trays to be carried by the hand, makes no difference, both must be first painted with a thick coat of the above-mentioned paste and allowed to dry in the sun. The explanation given is that the dried paste absorbs the moisture from the injured grapes and continues during the night to absorb moisture, aS a coating of blotting paper would. In addition to this important office as an absorbing stratum it is claimed that the fumes of ammonia which are given off by it have the effect of giving the berries the desired dark-blue color which is demanded by the trade. Whatever may be said in favor of this method of curing, it can not fail to strike the unacquainted as an ex- ceedingly curious and objectionable one. A visit to the drying fields does not conduce to a removal of one’s objection to such a method. Some improved clean substratum ought to take the place of this old one, even though it ruin the large manufactures of manure paste. — 16 BULLETIN 856, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Since the date mentioned above, the methods of drying, curing, and marketing currants in Greece have apparently become more modern and sanitary. DRYING AS PRACTICED AT FRESNO. In the drying experiments with currant grapes made in the Fresno Experiment Vineyard by Mr. Elmer Snyder, scientific assistant, wire-screen trays and the ordinary wooden trays were used. The wire-screen trays allow slightly more uniform drying, but this is not important enough to justify the difference in the cost of the trays. (See Pl. VII, fig. 2.) A first-class entirely satisfactory prod- uct (in every way superior to imported currants) was obtained by using wooden trays. (See Pl. VII, fig. 1.) Because these grapes ripen so very early (Tables III and IV) there is practically no danger from rain at Fresno. The sun is very hot there at that time, and as the berries are very small, thin skinned, and high in sugar content little time is required to complete the drying process. The grapes should not be picked until they are fully ripe or, in the case of the Panariti variety, until they test from 28° to 32° Balling scale, varying with the season. The fruit as picked was placed on the trays, and it was found that it needed no turning, as it was exposed to the sun only a day or never longer than two days. The trays of drying grapes were then stacked one on top of another, with wooden strips between them to separate the trays, so that there was free circulation of air through them. Empty trays or some other cov- ering were put on the top of the stack. An average of 15 days was required for the drying grapes to remain stacked before they were sufficiently cured to be transferred to the sweat boxes. In drying experiments made during three seasons it has been found that when the Panariti grapes were picked at 26° Balling scale it took practically 34 pounds of fresh fruit to make 1 pound of the dried product, while when picked at 30° to 32° Balling scale it required scarcely 3 pounds of fresh fruit to make 1 pound. DRYING PRACTICE IN DRY-WINE SECTIONS. In the dry-wine sections of California, where the Panariti variety will, in the average seasons, ripen sufficiently early to be dried out of doors without any interference from rain, the drying will need to be somewhat modified, because the sun usually is not so hot. The grapes when placed on the trays need to be exposed a greater number of days and the trays should be covered during the night to protect them from dew. After the partially dried grapes are stacked, the further pro- cedure with them is like that previously described. For fuller particulars as to raisin curing, consult United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 349, “The Raisin Industry.” Copies of this can be had by sending 10 cents, the price of the bulletin, to the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1920 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Markets GEORGE LIVINGSTON, Acting Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER June 25, 1920 A MODIFIED BOERNER SAMPLER. By EH. G. Boerner, In Charge, Grain Intention tions: and H. H. Rorss, Specialist im Grain Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Iintroduchion==s2 ase Se 1 | How to obtain the sampler________ 8 DES Crepe ee en 4 | Care of the deyice---______________ 8 OSTA UL rien ae aT a Le 6 INTRODUCTION. The device described in this bulletin was developed primarily to meet the demands of grain dealers and laboratory workers for a cheap and simple method of securing from a larger sample to be graded a smaller representative portion of grain for testing and analyses purposes. Another application of the device, which should be of special interest to the grain trade, is that a sample can be divided into two or more representative parts, so that one representa- tive part may be used for testing and grading and the other part or parts may be turned over to the seller or the buyer of the grain, or retained for future reference. It can also be used for reducing the size of samples of seeds, flour, meal, feeds, or any other material of like kind for examination or analyses. This device should be of special interest to country grain dealers. A phantom view of the device completely assembled in operation is shown in figure 1. The device (commonly known to the trade as the “ Boerner Sam- pler”’) described in Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 287 was developed primarily for the purpose of dividing an original sample into smaller portions, which might be analyzed without the undue loss of time incident to handling a large sample, and to make this division in such a manner that each small portion would correctly retain the original proportion of the various factors comprising the 170658°—Bull. 857—20 2 BULLETIN 857, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fic. 1.—Phantom view of device. American manufacturers and users of this device are protected by a public-service patent. A MODIFIED BOERNER SAMPLER. 3 original sample. The original standard design is more complicated to manufacture than the modified sampler here described, but it is so constructed that it is somewhat more convenient to work with. It is used at all offices of Federal Grain Supervision, and is recommended for grain inspection departments and others who have to do a large amount of grading or testing. During the past few years the increased cost of material and labor has caused the cost of the original standard device to advance to such an extent that many grain dealers, especially country grain dealers, have not felt justified in purchasing it. Following the Department of Agriculture’s policy of bringing the equipment necessary for correct grading within the financial reach of all persons concerned, the original standard design for this device has been modified so as to cheapen its construction materially and bring its cost within the reach of all persons interested in grain grading. The first essential in the accurate grading of grain is the securing of a representative sample of the lot or parcel of grain to be graded. A representative sample varies in size somewhat as the bulk of the © lot to be sampled varies. For the weight per bushel test or dockage | determination, the quantity of the sample to be used is fairly large, and for these tests reduction in size may not always be necessary, but in every case the amount of the sample is many times larger than can be conveniently analyzed or tested for such factors as foreign material, other grains, damaged kernels, or moisture content. In order to obtain a portion small enough for these analyses and tests it is essential that the size of the original sample be reduced. Mere haphazard reduction of size of sample, however, leads only to confusion and disputes between the interested parties. Among haphazard methods of cutting down the size of the sample might be mentioned: Pouring out a portion of the sample; taking out a portion with a scoop’ or with the hand; dividing the sample with a ruler; or any other solely manual method. When a small portion is taken out of a larger sample by any of these methods it almost in- variably results in removing either too great or too small a propor- tion of foreign matter, broken grains, damaged kernels, and admix- tures of other grains; and even though this may not in some cases affect the result of certain tests, as for instance the moisture test, it may, and usually does, seriously affect the correct proportion of the admixtures in the remaining portion of the sample upon which the other tests are based, and incorrect grading is a common result. The reduction of the size of the original sample for analysis and testing is generally necessary and the retention of the relative pro- portions of the admixture of various other grains, foreign substances, broken kernels, and damaged kernels, of which the original was made 4 BULLETIN 857, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. up, is in such cases absolutely essential to correct grading; but with- out the aid of a mechanical device the retention of correct proportions with such a reduction is hardly possible. One familiar with grain grading knows:that to obtain uniform results the tests and analyses must be made on samples obtained in a uniform manner. It is surprising how slight a variation in the method of obtaining either the original sample or a portion of the sample for certain tests will cause a difference in the result; yet we find many methods in prea use, when the country as a whole is considered. To grade grain accurately requires not only a thorough knowledge of the grain to be graded and the grade requirements, but also ac- curate determinations of the grading factors, and for these deter- minations proper apparatus is necessary. A sample-splitting device for reducing the size of a sample for analyses and testing is con- sidered essential for correct grain grading, and for reasons already explained the modified device described in this bulletin was designed especially for use by country grain dealers. DESCRIPTION. The modified sampler consists primarily of the following parts: Two cylinders partially nesting or telescoping; two pans, or con- tainers; and three legs. The upper cylinder with its parts forms a hopper with gate; the lower cylinder contains a spreading cone, diverting ducts, and a funnel. Figure 2 shows the device completely assembled and ready for operation. The upper cylinder is designed to slide down inside of the lower cylinder until it rests upon the partitions of the diverting ducts ar- ranged around the base of the cone, where it is held in proper posi- tion. A funnel is set down inside of the upper cylinder so that with the cylinder it forms a hopper of ample capacity, shown in figure 3. This hopper is provided at its bottom with a gate that may be opened or closed by means of a convenient handle extending through to the outside of the cylinder. A bottom view of the hopper and gate is ‘shown in figure 4. | The lower cylinder contains the spreading cone, and holds it so that its point is directly under the center of the opening in the bot- tom of the hopper in the upper cylinder. The diameter of the spread- ing cone at its base is less than the diameter of the cylinder, and the space between the cone and cylinder is subdivided into a given num- ber of equal spaces by radial partitions extending from the base of the cone to the cylinder wall. The arrangement of the partitions as shown in figure 3 is such that any material passing through the de- vice, by way of the hopper, and sliding down over the surface of the cone, is divided into as many equal streams as there are spaces between the partitions around the base of the cone. Every other A MODIFIED BOERNER SAMPLER. 5) stream of material falls into one pan, while the alternate streams are diverted into the other pan, thus dividing the original material (sample) into two equal parts. The separation of the streams is accom- plished by leaving the openings be- tween the radial partitions unob- structed in every other space, and in the alternate spaces, between those left clear, providing bot- toms which, with the partition as sides, form diverting ducts. The streams of material passing through the unob- structed openings fall directly into the upper pan. The streams passing through the ducts are diverted into a funnel,shown in fig- ure 4, which collects the streams from all the ducts and dis- charges them as one stream (which is one-half of the original material) into the lower pan through a protected opening in the up- per pan.. The upper pan, illustrated in figure 5,is designed so that it catches and holds Fic. 2.—Side view of complete device. the half of the material passing through the unobstructed openings, but permits the other half of the material, which has passed through i aie 6 . BULLETIN 857, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the diverting ducts and funnel, to fall into the lower pan through a protected opening. The lower pan, also shown in figure 5, is a simple receptacle with a handle and a pouring spout. Three detachable legs are provided to carry the lower cylinder, and on these legs are supports for the upper pan. The device can be made of brass or block tin, but the material used must be of sufficient stiffness to resist bending or denting under working conditions. The primary purpose of this device is to divide an original sam- ple into smaller portions, which may be analyzed without the undue loss of time incident to handling a large sample, and to make this division in such a manner that each small portion will correctly re- tain the original proportion or percentage of the various factors Tic. 3—A, Top view of lower cylinder showing cone and arrangement of ducts and openings. B, Top view of upper cylinder showing hopper and gate (open). comprising the original sample. If the correct proportions of the original factors are retained, it is not an indication of failure on the part of the device if the grain or other material is not divided into absolutely equal parts every time it is run through the sampler, the essential feature being the retention of the correct proportion of the factors of the original sample. OPERATION. After the device is set up with the cylinders, legs, and pans in correct position, and the gate in the hopper closed and locked, the sample to be divided is poured into the upper hopper. ; Then the gate should be opened and swung clear of the opening, that the sample may fall through the opening in the hopper onto the point of the cone, where it slides over the entire surface of the cone, A MODIFIED BOERNER SAMPLER. 7 in a shallow sheet and is divided into as many streams as there are spaces between the partitions at the base of the cone. As every alternate stream falls into one pan, and the intermediate streams are diverted into the other pan, the sample will be divided into ap- proximately equal parts. In order to further divide the sample, it will be necessary only to close the gate and pour the contents of one of the pans—the lower pan will be found to be more convenient to use for this purpose—into the hopper, replace the pan, open the gate, and let that half of the original sample run through the device again. This action can be repeated, pouring always from the same pan, until the quantity of the sample deposited in one pan is the amount desired for analysis. By various combinations, pouring from Fic. 4.—A, Botton view of lower cylinder, showing spout at bottom of funnel and shield surrounding this spout. B, Bottom view, upper cylinder, showing bottom of hopper with gate open. : : the same pan every time, as described, or by sometimes using the other, almost any desired size of sample can be obtained, provided the entire contents of the oa being emptied are poured into the upper hopper each time. For instance, if the weight of the original sample is 1,000 erams, and it is desired to obtain approximately 30 grams for snelae. the sample should be poured through, or “ cut ” as it is commonly called, five times. The first cut starts with 1,000 grams, giving 500 grams in each pan; the second cut starts with 500 grams, giving 250 grams in the pan just emptied, and 750 grams in the other; the third cut 1U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 574 will be found convenient for use in grain grading in connection with this apparatus, as it contains tables of the conversion of the weights of mechanical separations of grains into percentages. 8 BULLETIN 857, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. gives, respectively, 125 grams and 875 grams; the fourth cut, 62.5 grams and 937.5 grams; the fifth cut, 31.25 grams and 968.75 grams. These weights may vary slightly in amount, as previously explained, but this will not affect the accuracy of the portion. CARE OF THE DEVICE. As there are practically no moving parts to this device it requires little care except to keep it clean. If the openings around the base of the cone, or the ducts, are allowed to become choked or partially clogged by pieces of straw, corneob, etc., the pac aey of the results may be vitally affected. With the present device it is a simple matter ® lift out the upper cylinder, examine the openings and ducts around the base of the cone, and remove any obstructions lodged there. This precaution Fic. 5.—A, Upper pan, showing protected opening through which material passes to pan. 8B, Lower pan. should never be neglected, as it affects the correctness of the sample and, by so doing, the analysis and grading of the grain in question. HOW TO OBTAIN THE SAMPLER. This device is covered by the same public-service patent as is the original standard apparatus described in Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 287, and anyone in the United States is free to make and use it without the payment of a royalty. A modified sampler made of block tin approximately 30 inches high and 10 inches in diameter, with 20 partitions spaced 1 inch apart around the base of the cone, which is considered ‘a suitable size for grain-grading purposes, is now on the market. The design is so simple that any competent tinner or metal worker should be able to make it at about one-third the cost of the standard “ Boerner Sampler.” Working plans and specifications may be obtained from the Bureau of Markets, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washing- ina) ship! Dey OP WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICD ; 1920 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE y, BULLETIN No. 858 , Contribution from the Bureau of Animal! Industry LD Ry a JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv July 16, 1920 REQUIREMENTS AND COST OF PRODUCING MARKET MILK IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA.’ By J. B. Barn, Dairy Husbandman, and R. J. Posson, Market Milk Specialist, Dairy Division. CONTENTS. Page. Page Craracter and scope of the work............. 1 | Determination of bulk line cost........ Boceioe 15 Methods used in obtaining the data.......... 2 | Percentage comparison of factors in milk pro- Description of herds...........-..---..------ 4 UC ELOTT Se aA Aa el RAW ssn om 15 Requirements for producing 100 pounds of | Factors involved in the cost of producing FLAN epee eee fees cL a 6 IO ene a =e Stee siclaiay are a sya epee aia terme stan ee ete 19 Requirements for keeping a cow one year... 8 | Presentation of results by months, seasons, Requirements for keeping a bull............- 9 amd y CALS. Se eae eee oes sce ea a eee 27 Summary statement of costs for thetwo years, Sind ary ee ae as ao 30 DY¢SCBSONSHs 2 Seeds eck tee ee 10 CHARACTER AND SCOPE OF THE WORK. In order to determine the requirements of milk production, to isolate and analyze the various factors so that methods could be recommended for reducing the cost of production, and to obtain data which would aid in improving general milk-production methods, the United States Department of Agriculture, through the Dairy Divi- sion of the Bureau of Animal Industry, began a series of studies in 1915. Since the intention of the department was to make these studies as thorough as possible, it was decided that the first step would be to obtain accurate data concerning the requirements for producing milk by practical dairy farmers in market-milk centers of the United States. Accordingly projects were organized to obtain detailed records on groups of dairies in various market-milk sections. 1 The work was carried on in northwestern Indiana in cooperation with the Purdue University Agri- cultural Extension Department, and applies especially to milk supplied from that section for the Chicago market. 174719°—20—Bull. 858 ——1 2 BULLETIN 858, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE INDIANA PROJECT. The project with which this publication deals was organized in Porter County, Ind., in cooperation with the Purdue University Agricultural Extension Department. The work was begun in August, 1915, and was continued for 2 years. The specialist employed by the two departments made monthly visits from September, 1915, to September, 1917, to each of a group of dairy farmsin the northwestern part of the State. This section was selected because the milk from most of the farms in that vicinity was shipped and sold as market milk. All the farms included in this report were approximately 40 miles from, Chicago and near-by cities. The many railroads run- ning into Chicago through this territory afforded convenient shipping facilities. The dairies were representative of dairy-farming conditions in that locality. Dairies conducted as hobbies or as breeding establish- ments were not included in the study, and with one exception the herds selected were owned or handled by resident farmers, many of whom lived on rented farms. Although the figures obtained show what was required to produce market milk under the system of dairy management found in the section studied, and probably approximate the requirements in similar sections, they of course do not apply to dairying in other sections where other conditions and methods of management prevail. The Chicago board of health inspected the dairies shipping milk to that city, and the equipment and methods used in the production and handling of the milk were subject to its supervision. Thus the figures given in this publication represent the requirements for producing milk in that section of Indiana for the Chicago market. The cost of production would have been somewhat different if either higher or lower grades of milk had been produced. METHODS USED IN OBTAINING THE DATA. The data obtained in this study are actual records obtained by regular visits of one day a month to 12 farms for 2 years and to 13 other.farms for 1 year. The specialist recorded in detail all avail- able information relative to the dairy business, including the amounts and classes of labor, feed and bedding used, the pasture cost, the amount of milk sold and that used on the farm, and the current expenses for the month. Accurate data on calves and first-hand information on methods of handling manure were systematically collected. | By obtaining records on every dairy regularly each month, the influence of unusual circumstances at the time of any particular visit was lessened, and by using the records of all the herds for each month average figures could be compiled for all the dairies and PRODUCING MARKET MILK IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA. 3 representative data for each month, season, and year thus secured. Records were obtained the second year as a check on the first’ year’s work and to increase the amount of data available for study. At the beginning and end of each year the field agent took an inventory of the dairy buildings, livestock, and equipment used in the care of the herd and its products. On his regular monthly inspection tour he arrived at the first farm of a group in time to observe the first labor operations connected with the evening chores. With watch in hand he noted and recorded the exact minute each labor operation connected with the dairy was begun and ended. The labor operations during the next morning were recorded in the same manner. Account was kept of the feeds that were being fed on the record day, including the kind, amount, cost, and description of each, and these were compared with the amounts recorded by the cow tester in the cow-testing association books. The quantity of milk sold and receipts each month were obtained. In addition the milk used by the proprietor and his help or fed to calves was measured or weighed and used as a basis for determining the amount kept on the farm during the month. The dairyman kept an itemized account of expenses which were incurred between the monthly visits, and these items were recorded. A monthly record was kept also of the purchase or sale of cows, calves, hides, outside bull service, and other miscellaneous informa- tion relating to the herd. The condition and methods of handling the manure were noted and reported each month. When all the labor operations about the dairy had been completed for the day at the first farm, the specialist drove to the second farm in time to observe the labor operations connected with the evening chores. This program was followed until Saturday afternoon, when he returned to headquarters and finished his reports for the week’s work. The same program was followed each week in the month, and each farm was visited every 30 days throughout the 2 years. COMPARATIVE SKILL OF MANAGERS. The comparative value of one dairyman with another, so far as ability to manage is concerned, is directly proportional to his com- parative skill in feeding cows economically, managing labor efli- ciently, conserving the fertilizmg value of manure, and producing a large volume of milk at low cost. The charge for management is separate and distinct from the charge for the physical labor of the manager. Wherever costs are given for human labor they include only hired man’s wages for work done by the manager. Therefore, it must be understood that wherever the terms ‘“‘labor cost,” ‘‘total cost of production,” and 4 BULLETIN 858, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. “net cost of production”’ are used, these terms do not include the charge for managerial ability. If it is desired to include managerial ability as a cost of production, when determined by any method selected, this amount may be added to the cost of production. INFLUENCE OF SEASONS ON COST FACTORS. Since the winter and summer seasons have a marked influence on the principal factors entermg into the cost of producing milk, the results have been computed separately for those periods. The months from November to April, inclusive, represent the winter season, and from May to October the summer season. ‘This division Fic. 1.—Better breeding saved labor. The owner of this herd of cows, averaging 9,200 pounds of milk annually, had to feed and milk only 9 cows to obtain as much milk as 12 average association cows produced. of time was based directly on the change in methods of herd manage- ment made in November and May. The various tables in this bulletin are based upon figures ob- tained during the 2 years of the study, and all results are expressed in weighted averages in which the weights represent the relative importance of the separate items averaged. DESCRIPTION OF HERDS. During the first year the 16 herds on which records were tabulated contained 334 grade and purebred cows, mostly of the Holstein breed, which produced on the average 6,877 pounds of milk testing 3.8 per cent butterfat. In the 21 herds included in the study the second year there were 404 cows of approximately the same breeding PRODUCING MARKET MILK IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA. | 0 which averaged 6,987 pounds of milk testing 3.6 per cent butterfat. Grade cows made up 78 per cent of those included in the 2-year study and the rest were purebred. Complete records for 2 consecu- tive years were obtained on 12 of the herds whose owners cooperated throughout both years. The number of cows in the herds is obtained by adding the cows in each herd each month and dividing the total by 12. TaBiE 1.—Number of cows in herds, average yearly production of milk, and calves pro- duced each year. 1915-16. 1916-17. Herd No. f Calves | Production a Calves | Production Cows produced| per cow Cons produced] per cow td. | per year.| per year. * | per year.| per year. Number.| Number.| Pounds, | Number.| Number.| Pounds. NOR se A Sa cis ce oad ROBE EE OO ROR aaea ss eee 13.6 13 GG: Ol ece oSeaseollebcosoacodlsooovssoaoad NOSE tects not does eetewee Se 23. 2 20 6, 957. 4 20.5 20 6, 237.0 TO oo 5 Cs aI ee eee eee Ml 20 GED GQNGI | ea AR ees Sees IES eee Aice Qh 25 sack goa eee ee Bee eee 25.8 17 7,091.0 28. 0 26 6, 890. 8 NOR nc acceded eee Iees GaSe Se aoeeeeeeee 16.1 13 6,331. 4 18.7 21 6, 162.3 We seem onda Sc bbe sees doe ee oe eee ete 28. 4 23 6, 309. 8 29.8 30 5, 660. 6 HOO ssebensosusSees sao eee eee ee 18.9 14 7,622.5 19.4 17 7, 866. 2 immense er 11.5 13 6,710.0 11.2 9 5,778. 1 TLL ee SE etl See Te eed a 18. 4 17 9, 063. 0 13.7 13 9, 083. 4 Tih Se ate a Nee ee 28.9 25 AP OM De! Qilvses ae eyelets) Sie tae ov llieyaravereiaralerehetoye HUES Se coe he REE SN 16.5 12 6, 296. 9 15.0 13 5, 566. 7 lit wecdecoeceeeGere eee eee eae 9.8 8 6,710.8 9.8 10 7, 007. 6 LNG) Se elt ese OO ae eee ees eee eae 14.4 15 9,127.0 15.2 11 7, 538.3 ING. ses $4 ese eter eae ee ee 7.8 6 9,452.6 9.4 8 9,127.5 NP Peete ecm. alta se Majetisl| acitie © Satya weiss c Sola 18.2 13 6, 454. 6 Use ood Bae ee ene Bl 32 (ECD 1y Bae oe, .4| Sema ha Geese eae ee 11@)_ 6 oreo o> SRE Cee SRE OE ECE Gee ee 35. 2 18 7, 306. 6 31.8 33 7, 750. 8 Wail. 2 oe eb codes Doge Be ae Ree DE OER OResS Opec > SSNS AEn eee a3 al cee eee amas 17.8 13 7, 166.3 Wee). og coe cece DSSS P OE SECURE Os ee ane Bees Cres] Aeon Seis Se |e moana eae 13.8 16 6, 682.8 See ees yt te Se af Dyas Sela Wes De SANS its. sepia cee - alee eee 17.3 17 7, 933. 8 iD. anec ace SE GREE ae Sele mete lL Pea | eee 24.8 22 8, 156. 2 DE. «5 oosseu cc tia EE ie oUt oa ee a eae a St Ua ne Ue 22.5 19 9, 106. 0 LD oc ace 22510 Secs Sete Ae eae a A AO (Ij ae 27.6 27 6, 947.0 Tiles GOSS HS SEO BO Ste reer ethene a argo es a2] | 15.6 17 4,779. 4 Toca ros coc spo U SRE eget Ue aeons hina a0 Se ania 2 ae ien ee 23.9 24 5,465.4 ANG) ae AREAL ae cere pe re 333.5 DOG Skee Se ees 404. 0 ea ela Lae are IO E EC SS SEAS eeee epee eee pane 20.8 16.6 6,877.0 19. 2 18.0 6, 987.0 According to these figures 87 per cent of the cows produced a living calf each year. Tasir 2.—Per cent of cows dry during the winter, swmmer, and year. ‘ | Period. Winter. |Summer.| Year. Weis Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. DELIT:S bsyiC ameter eae Sa Sad SAD MESS BORE ANS RN No RA PA De 12.6 12.1 12.4 SE COM my Cale ste oae ace Sues Ses eye ey ihe ald sa SD | OR ps se 13. 2 12.7 13.0 There was only a slight variation in the percentage of dry cows in the two seasons. This accounts for the uniformity of production of milk for the seasons. The calf crop was divided equally between seasons. 6 BULLETIN 858, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. REQUIREMENTS FOR PRODUCING 100 POUNDS OF MILK. It will be noted in Table 3 that with few exceptions the dollars and cents values have not been reported. Since prices of feed and labor change, results are more valuable when reported in a convertible form, such as pounds of feed and hours of labor. The average cost of hauling purchased concentrates to the dairies was $1 a ton and the average cost of grinding was 7 cents a bushel for ear corn and 4 cents for shelled corn and other grains. TaBLE 3.—Unit requirements by seasons for producing 100 pounds of milk during the two years. Winter. Summer.! Two Two Ttem. : ai | | Sere 1915-16 | 1916-17| *TS+ | 4915-16 | 1916-17 | ™€FS- Feed: Purchased concentrates..........-....--- pounds..| 24.5 16.5 20.0 15.9 13. 2 14.5 ome-grows Prainss | 2 oases oe ee eee eee Goseee| Vind 19.3 18.6 4.3 6.5 5.5 Motaliconcentrates= 59) se- ee eee eee does: .| 42°27 35a8iee Ise ome a e20e zen |tony 20.0 Noncommercial roughage........-.--.------ doze--|) 2352 13.0 17.4 9 5. 6 3.4 Commercial: Carhbohydratethaycesssecessoe eee eeeee eee do....| 17.4 29.7 24.3 2.4 13.2 8.2 erume hayaceessaeess ae oe een ene Goes #2358 26.0 25.1 14.9 16.5 15.8 oval dry nouehare reese ase see eee do....| 64.4 68. 7 66.8 18. 2 35.3 27.4 Silage and other succulent roughage..........-. do....|153.2 |143.2 |1476 | 56.4 63. 2 60. 1 Hauling and grinding concentrates. ........-. dollars..| 0.03 0. 03 0. 03 0.014 | 0.014 0.014 Pastures 2 os ee fe se Sak aspects ae oe ee ACTOS xrz)!s Sol Eee eee . 041 - 039 - 040 Bedding: = ..2.-% faeces -ieteine secs aecine ee eee pounds..| 20.3 20. 4 DOSS ea ae ete tetera Deas cata Labor HE Hb boatsh alt bey ofa) eS cae FGrar Us i plat tate pal a hours - 2.6 2.5 Bea 252 252 2,2 Horselaborten sais a eceee cate eles peiseccnscis doze 3 2 3 2 2 2 Overhead and other costs: iBuildineicharcestepoe- eee ss eee eee dollars..| 0.132 | 0.104] 0.116) 0.131] 0.114 0. 122 Equipment charges and dairy supplies......do....| . 081 - 065 - 072 . 079 - O71 -075 Herd charges: Taxes, insurance, veterinary, medicines, disinfect- ants, en1cow-testing association.....-- dollars. . . 044 - 043 - 043 . 044 - 047 - 045 Interest on cow investment...............--..-- (oko)- 9 - 079 - 066 - 072 - 078 - 073 - 075 Cost of keeping bileeee reas eer eece eects Glossop altri . 056 . 065 . 066 - 051 . 058 Total: Moo Sake tee eon nae eee doses. 413 - 334 - 368 - 398 - 356 aR rGy DEPrecianion Ou! COWSse. (nese eennor semaines Gopese|) LOOk | Seeeeeee - 017 eHOSH seen ters - 018 ADPreciation) Oni COWS eeesaaeserecenertaere. dove sss ance Obd swe el eee MOOD esis oom Total overhead and other costs........... do.... . 622 . 280 - 380 - 506 . 296 - 393 1 As the study was begun in August, 1915, the summer designated as 1915-16 includes September and October of 1915 and May, June, July, and August of 1916, The summer of 1916-17 includes the correspond- ing months of those years. Because the inventories showed a depreciation on cows the first year and an increase the second, these items were not added to the sum of the overhead and other costs in order that they might be more easily considered separately. The fact that there was a deprecia- tion shown on the herd for the first year and an increase the second is due to a combination of factors. When the last inventory was taken, the influence of the increase in market price of cattle during the second year was apparent. Especially was this true in the case of cows in their first and second lactation periods, on which there PRODUCING MARKET MILK IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA. T seemed to be a greater increase in value than was warranted by production due to increased age. On the other hand, due to the fact that most of the dairymen were replacing their poorer cows with more promising younger ones, the herds the second year contained a rather large proportion of heifers which had freshened for the first time, which accounts for the increase in value between the time they freshened and the time the second inventory was taken. The difference between the overhead requirements per 100 pounds of milk for the two years, aside from the depreciation and apprecia- tion on the cows, is due mostly to a greater average production the second year, which lowered the cost for each 100 pounds of milk pro- duced. The item of bull charges includes feed, labor, and overhead costs of keeping the bull. On account of the feed and labor being expressed in dollars and cents, a table showing in detail the unit requirements for keeping a bull in the winter and summer and for a year is pre- sented on page 10. If desired, current rates and prices may be applied to these records. CREDITS FOR EACH 100 POUNDS OF MILK PRODUCED. CALVES. The credits for calves amounted during the winter periods to 0.012 of one calf for each 100 pounds of milk produced and during the summer pericds to 0.013 of one calf. In this case the credit amounted to $0.12 for each 100 pounds of milk produced in winter, and $0.13 per 100 pounds of summer milk. This was based on the price for which they sold for veal or at the prevailing local price for heifer calves at birth. MANURE. For each 100 pounds of milk produced in the two winter periods, there was a credit of 332 pounds of manure, including bedding which contained 1.62 pounds nitrogen, 0.53 pound commercial phos- _ phoric acid, and 1.66 pounds potash. This was computed from the manurial constituents in the feed and the methods of handling the - Manure. For each 100 pounds of milk produced in the summer there was a credit of 54 pounds of manure, which was assumed to be of the same quality as that produced in the winter and contained 0.26 pound nitrogen, 0.08 pound commercial phosphoric acid, and 0.24 pound potash. The methods used in determining the credit for manure in the winter and summer periods are treated in detail, beginning on page 23 of this bulletin. o 8 BULLETIN 858, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. REQUIREMENTS FOR KEEPING A COW ONE YEAR. Since a large part of the feed required in the summer was supplied in the form of pasture grass, much less feed was consumed in the barn than during the winter. Attention is directed to the fact that the rations fed in the barn by these dairymen contained a relatively larger proportion of high-protein concentrates and legumes in the summer than in the winter. When the pastures became short, those dairymen who had alfalfa and clover fed them, while those who did not have legumes purchased concentrates in order to maintain the production of their cows. TaBie 4.—Quantities of various classes of feeds required and expenses incurred for keeping a cow during each season and for the entire year. =: Entire Item. Winter. | Summer. year, Number Of Cows. - s2/o2/2 = sg 58 ae meee reece EEE ee Oe Eee 740. 0 734. 8 737.5 Averape production-£. 92th sash eek ee chek Se es ee pounds. . 3,540 3,397 6, 937 Feed: ‘ Purchasedicontentrates=\. |< 622. --eisse-eepa. soa ees oo eee eee Opes) ie 07 491 1,198 Hlome-prown grains. 2/3/5245 suse nese a22 eos ae pee Sane eee do.... 659 187 848 otal concentrates. is cies sans soe sence dene see cine eee eee do...- 1, 366 678 2, 046 Woncommercial roughages. 2. oss ace ese oe eo ee eee do.--. 616 116 734 Commercial carbohydrate Nay- 22-22 222k ee ene eee ee eee do... 862 278 1, 148 Ler imica yas Jsceasers sane eiisiat tee eee eee eases geek eee eee es GO--=- 887 536 1,424 Totalidry roughage: bebe at 22 secacee sere pasts sone eeee do..-. 2, 365 930 3, 301 Silage and other succulent roughage... 2... - 22.2.2 25422220550 -- do...-. 5, 224 2,042 7, 276 Hauling and grinding concentrates.............--.--------------- dollars. - 1.06 45 1.53 Pasture: 225 2.4522 2b - 242. 5assgraee fo CLL PRES Ses: = PRE Ae ees ACTES- =| es ee aaae 1.36 1.36 1 3((s elt ES SCOR ome c SHAE Soni So SBAe sae oseadea: Aaeesads SASS 0 pounds (PAYS ee cisne shoe 720 Labor: HUMAN TaD OL Sse web Sons coe eae cece eee oo) See eec eee hours. - 90. 1 74.4 164.5 Horse labore scc2e: sbeastees 222 sebs eee ct = ee eiaa--- Bee ees do.... 8.9 7.4 16.2 Overhead and other costs: Building charees 2°. |p stacesee cemeee canis: eee eee eee dollars. . 4.12 4,14 8. 27 Equipment charges and dairy supplies.............-.----------- dol ez. 2.53 2.55 5.09 Herd charges: Taxes, insurance, veterinary , medicine, disinfectants, and cow-testing ASSOCIATIONS \-5 22 ek a edocs ee eceeee el assess Slee ese dollars. . 155) 1.56 3.12 Interest on cowinvestment. =. 5222-2 ---o 0 -)seeee ene ya eee dose. . De 2.57 5.14 COST Of Kee pyri eT ite ee leet ee ale te eee iate do 2.32 1.97 4.29 0 2) a eae ee A Se pt RR Or 8 doves: 13.07 12.79 25. 91 Depreciation om cows: 3:-. ---es s see em see cane -- aE eee Wesel eee do.... - 60 . 60 1. 20 Appreciation: Oni COWS=6:.cccs-es eee secs eee | ee oon ee eee eee GO| Se a ees ecees ctrtape es he Lee. Total overhead and other costs: 2222-522 . Sits se e-s 2 eee dost. 13. 67 13. 39 27.11 Approximately 16 hours less human labor was performed per cow in the summer period than in the winter. It may be seen in Table 17, which shows the labor used in producing, handling, and hauling the milk, that this difference is due to more work being done in the winter when the cows were in the barn than in the summer when on pasture. The labor required for handling and hauling the milk was practically the same for both seasons. A more detailed account of the units of cost will be found in the back part of this bulletin where the feed, labor, overhead, and other costs required for all the milk produced by the herds during the two years’ study are reported in detail. PRODUCING MARKET MILK IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA. 9 CREDITS PER COW FOR THE WINTER, SUMMER, AND ENTIRE YEAR. During the first year of this study living calves were produced by 80 per cent of the cows, while 94 per cent produced live calves the second year. The average value of these calves was $10.08. Most of the heifer calves were raised by the dairymen who produced them, but some were sold to neighbors to be raised. The grade bull calves - were vealed and usually sold for about $10 each, which was also about the average price of heifer calves which were sold to be raised. Since the purebred cows were given the same values as grade cows of like producing ability, the purebred bull calves were credited to the herds at what they would have beer worth when 4 days old to fatten for veal, and, similarly, the purebred heifer calves were given the same value as grade heifer calves. The value of milk consumed by veal calves was covered in the selling price of the calves. CREDIT FOR MANURE. The average credit allowed per cow per year for manure and bed- ding included the manure from the bulls, and represents what was or could have been saved by practicable methods of handling. Since the total cost of keeping bulls is charged against the cows under overhead and other costs, the manure from the bulls is included as a direct ° credit tothe herd. Of this total credit per cow 5.6 tons of manure and bedding were produced by the cows alone in the winter, and 0.7 of a ton of manure in the summer, amounting to 6.3 tons of manure and bedding per cow per year. (See page 23.) TABLE 5.—Credits for calves and manure per cow (bull manure included), and fertilizing constituents contained in the manure and bedding. Item. Winter. |Summer,|. Year. (CRIIWOS TOT COs Soe ses se Ses eM ea AS pee ee Ma See RD 0. 44 0. 43 0. 87 WM HaWbIn® OSE CON ceases sete see Aer ae Na arse ene te oe tons. - 5.9 0.9 6.8 Constituents of manure: INGIETO ROT pte pak eu smcen rele eeiee sat Mleunnn ce Siege Pasa. | 2 Melisa kuhs pounds... 57.4 8.9 66.3 IBM OST ROEICIACT CES sie ees Ne ae Ne ee ee eee dole 18.6 2.8 21.4 AO Fes He sree etn a Mem reels oy ENA Sipe tao do.... 58.8 8.2 67.0 REQUIREMENTS FOR KEEPING A BULL. The record on one bull for one month, called a bull-month, was taken as a working unit. The number of bull-months for the winter and -summer periods was the same. On 10 of the farms the bulls were allowed to run with the cows, and on some of the others were either put on cables or tethered out in the summer and so required little attention, which accounts for the smaller amount of labor per bull in the summer period. In some cases the bulls which ran with the cows were not put into the barns at all while the pasture was plentiful, and received no attention other than being driven from the pasture with the herd. 174719°—20—Bull. 858——2 10 BULLETIN 858, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 6.—Requirements for keeping a bull by seasons based on averages obtained from the equivalent of 33 bulls varying from 1 year old to maturity and kept for fractional parts of a year. ' Average | Average | Average Item. of two oftwo of two winters. |Summers.| years. Feed: | Concentrates— Purchased). (2 ecco as oe sna cee coe e e - .eee eo ne SS pounds..| 335.0 307.7 642.7 Home grown. 22.5.2 Se ee. SS Po ae eee do..--| 518.7 238. 3 757.0 Total concentratess:2 225 Ssse5- Jota 2 eee oe ee 853. 7 546.0 1,399. 7 Dry roughage— . : iNoricomimnenrcial pee cu ote ee are ere cae 6: Ere a see Choa el © BPA 7 37. 2 565. 9 Commercial'carbohydrate =: 2222-6 sane) --- ea eee nee oe GOss=5 || o05.4 733. 3 1, 586. 7 MeguMe sciates .) cis Sek Sai see aA ae ee oe See ee eee tS do....| 934.7 938. 1 1, 872.8 Total: dry Toughseeo. 2 ose. ee ees een ea ere a eer 2,316.8 | 1,708.6 4,025. 4 Succulent roughage.......-.-.------- BSA AER 5 SOROee 3 sac do...-| 4,331.2 | 1,671.6 6, 002. 8 Bedding. ..15,.2se Pee Mee eas ee ee eee eee oo ee Goss sa 64054 alter ce 645. 4 Pasture. --js2shzecce a2 di 2 0 Seok see Seine) o = 2 seem aS ao eee EE n CoE ee eee $4. 56 $4. 56 Human labor: cs ess esa s2 case cen ee eee Oe ee as (ee ere hours. - 23. 8 11.9 3h Overhead costs: Interestion) bull investment .342 295.2 he see oe eee ece $7. 83 $7. 83 $15. 66 Depreciation: Oni ule eee ee eee pe ee eee eee ee eee 2. 89 | 2. 89 5.79 Bull’sishare of buildings!) <222 5423. 1. S45 5s ea ae eee 4.12 4.14 8. 26 Total overhead) Costst:£.- L/L ws4 25a. 28 ee es Ee ee 14. 84 14. 86 29. 71 The reason why the yearly average depreciation per bull amounted to only $5.79 was that many of the bulls increased in size after being taken into the herds, and when sold for beef brought as much as or more than the initial cost. SUMMARY STATEMENT OF COSTS FOR THE TWO YEARS, BY SEASONS. The cost of the various requirements for keeping a cow and for pro- ducing 100 pounds of milk during the 2 years is presented by seasons in Tables 7 and 8. During the second winter and summer the total cost, except the herd inventory variation, was $7.32 and $3.25 more per cow and 6 cents and 16 cents more per 100 pounds of milk, re- spectively, than during the corresponding seasons of the first year. The cost per cow and per 100 pounds of milk did not increase in the same proportion the second year because of the variation inseasonal production of the herds. That there was an increase of only 6 cents in the cost of 100 pounds of milk during the second winter over that of the first, as compared with $7.32 increase in the cost of keeping a cow during the same period, is the direct result of the higher produc- tion per cow during the second winter. The high increase in the cost of producing 100 pounds of milk during the summer of the second year and the comparatively small increase in the cost per cow, is due to a lower average production during this period than during the summer of the first year. Higher feed prices the second year account in most part for the higher cost per cow during that period, PRODUCING MARKET MILK IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA. 11 TasiE 7.—OCost of producing 100 pounds of milk during four seasons, charge for manage- ment not included. 1915-16 1916-17 Item. inter. |Summer.| Winter. | Summer. HE CURCOSUHES Miae SEER ee ale 2 rae 2b SEER ok oe eee $1. 149 $0. 466 $1. 28 $0. 702 PASIUING COSI SGh sR BH Gee GHBe URE BSRGUe Ane arse ae oem 6 oii seta ee ease, OADM eicteretyeereiet 275 D\q@lolting? COS cous (65 ocecsageososseebocobeaseseresgapnss:uneees SUOBHE |ecieacaasd ae) We ocoescoc ILAIOOP COBRA SHS te CUREGE SBS SCO eo On OA A ASE Se ee SMe SMBS bye egy . 001 - 309 -dd1 ei) Overhead and other costs, except herd inventory variation. -..- 414 399 334 -307 Total cost except herd inventory variation...-.-..-.-.--- 1.985 1.514 2. 048 1.676 ANPREGIEINOTa, Om, CONS ab-3sc5450500 55 0aee pognoe dase Osaeseo8s5|oeedecose||acnocodcar - 054 - 059 ID eMrecratiOM OM COW See ene eee ticle = -eeisise ale = stel- = alareie SLR ewe J - 109 LOB Here cate Lala ae INGE COS Aoo sesee SES CEC CCH EEe CHEE EC eens. See alle 2.094 1.622 1.994 ipealy/ Giradlit Sos Caio Se eed ae. ea ete 109 134 7 Credit for cow manure and used bedding.......--.-----.----.--- 397 052 520 075 Crediimtoroullimanuney ee sees Eee e eRe eh eee 021 012 026 016 Mo facne cuter sa vata a ciaydet see aac algetecie Ss + Seperate wae - 529 173 680 239 INI@H @GSa AB cobs Ses SUC CR ERE ARO ORES See Sere ieee eee 2s sie arse 1.565 1.449 1.314 1.378 Higher feed prices during the second year were almost offset by the herd appreciation, together with the mereased production of Fig. 2.—Well-lighted stables kept the hired men contented and promoted health in the cows. milk. ‘The total cost was 10 cents less per 100 pounds of milk the second winter than it was the first, and was Oe Reins the same for the two summers. Calves sold for a higher price the second year and the fertilizing constituents in the manure and bedding also had a higher value on account of the higher price of commercial fertilizers. 12 BULLETIN 858, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The higher credit allowed for manure in the winter tended to equalize the net cost for the winter and summer periods. The values per pound at which the fertilizing constituents in the manure and used bedding were credited to the cows the first year were 18 cents for nitrogen, 44 cents for phosphoric acid, and 5 cents for potash, as compared with 25 cents, 6 cents, and 64 cents a pound for the same constituents during the second year. The value of a ton of manure the first year was found to be $2.38 as compared with $3.29 for the second year. TABLE 8.—Cost of keeping a cow during four seasons, charge for management not included. 1915-16, 1916-17, Item. Winter. |Summer.| Winter. |Summer. IEG KCOSE sa Sac Histis a See Bee See ee once one eee ee caer $39. 10 $16. 21 $46. 78 $23. 41 PASHINO COSLEE sam ain ote te eee nee oie re es SSS Ee i ote eee eee USS 2iil se cemeases 9.16 TASC MMNACOS eae se goacenosedeshosdeose soeUseaoeeeon so sSonBssoeae UWE) \jsscoss-22: 15019) Seer Sone LIVE lyae CestigHeed qa eos sec Aspe seassaqebecdodescososoo- cadaBeasose 13. 29 10. 73 14.30 11. 40 Overhead and other costs, except herd inventory variation. ---- 14. 11 13. 88 12. 23 11. 92 Total cost except herd inventory variation..........----- 67. 55 52. 64 74. 87 55. 89 IAP PT CCIAULOMIONMICOW Sere mri atest ere elas aera e alate alate = aie | eee | ee 1.98 1.99 Depreciation on cows -(y-ense s=- 4-t4- - d= == eee 3. 71 Sef pee osesee eee = cheese Motall costea2. tase see tiodee ok ore oe noes eee A ae oe ene 71. 26 56. 39 72. 89 53. 90 Creditifor'calvess 55.2 e520 oss seme see ene Se eee Oe Mee eral eee Sravann eiiatos Credit for cow manure and used bedding..-....----..----------- 13. 52 1.75 19. 02 2.50 Creditforibull: manure.) ssc -osc sees o-oo ee ee eee . 70 .45 - 96 . 54 Motalicnedits J. syn Smee gece eee oe gaa ee eee 17.99| | G.0b|) 24088) 7.97 Nei COSti 2.2 -nlsaa- conics o eee Aer eteacie cee Ae eee 53. 27 50. 38 48. O1 45.93 COST OF PRODUCTION BY HERDS AND BY SEASONS. The varying net costs of producing 100 pounds of milk, the average number of cows and the average production of milk per cow are shown for each herd during the two seasons of each year in figures land 2. It will be noted that although there is a tendency toward lower cost of production for the higher-producing herds this rule does not always apply. In some cases the other factors of cost outweigh the influ- ence of high production, or, again, the high production may have been obtained at too great an expense. This may have been caused by feeding the cows beyond their ability to produce economically. For example, in the winter of 1916-17 Herd 127 with a 6-months’ production of only 2,506 pounds per cow, produced milk at $1.04 per 100 pounds while it cost $1.50 to produce 100 pounds from Herd 125, in which the cows made an average winter production of 5,062 pounds of milk. The low cost-in Herd 127 was made possible by a low overhead due to small invest- ment in buildings and cows and a low feed cost, while Herd 125 showed high overhead costs, due to expensive buildings and cattle and a high feed cost, due to exceptionally heavy feeding. But to obtain the income on an equal volume of milk it would have been necessary for the owner of Herd 127 to keep two cows for every cow kept in Herd 125. 13 PRODUCING MARKET MILK iN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA. WINTER 1G/5-/E (16 HERDS) HERD NU/AGER 22 44.0 93.660 26.2 36.8/9.0 26.7 16.3 AA0 26.7 4219.0 16.8 17 90.7 AVERAGE NUITBER OF COWS IN HERD N x SS S VITSSSS FSH ygggs SO SONNOS OO/ DNIDIGO¢Ud 40 LSOP HERD NU/IBGER (3.2 100 (8.0.28.0 19.8 9.5 [40 247 18.0 283 1h2 223943 (85 177 228 18.2 223 148 1.7 20.7 AVERAGE NUIEZER OF COWS IN 11ERO Fie, 3.—Average production per cow and cost of producing 100 pounds of milk in winter. 14 BULLETIN 858, U. $8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 4 WS 102 103 110 109 108 6 8 Wl 106 H3 107 19 H2 104d HEROD NUMBER 103 eyes 22.3 U3 18.7 28.7 7.7 38.2 17.8 248 16.2 [5.8 SRK LE3 VERAGE NUMBER OF COWS /N HER AVERAGE PRODUCTION PER COW (POUNDS) SUMMER /9/6-/7 (2! HERDS ) COST OF PRODUCING 10 ® eS ee a et a ———— eV es a Ce ee) ET ee ——— 1 BS FS Se ee) ee 2S el Bee ee (Se Fe Bd ee ee ee me eee Ee a ES Se ee Se) 23 es ee ed eed ee ———— os es es ES PE es Ss ——— 3 Ss es a eS es es ee ee a = a SS SS] a Se a ee ee —— Ey ee a ee ey a ee ee | Se a 128 H4 WS H7 122 WE 123 109 124 H3 127 Ml 126 106 103 [10 107 108 f2l HO 125 HERD NUMBER 24.5 9.5 15.1 188 135 93 16.7 190 25.0 5.2 16.2 16.3 27.2 277 203 10.7 188 29.7 17:5 29.) 227 AVERAGE NUMBER OF COWS /N HERD Fic. 4.—Average production per cow and cost of producing 100 pounds of milk in summer, PRODUCING MARKET MILK IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA. 15 The average cost of producing 100 pounds of milk from all the cows on which records were obtained in each of the winter and sum- mer seasons can be found in the financial statement in Table 7 DETERMINATION OF BULK LINE COST. During the last 2 or 3 years a number of methods have been developed for determining the price of milk on a cost of production basis, and these plans are being used by a number of communities as a basis for milk prices. If in these plans the figures that are used merely represent the average cost of production, it is evident that practically one-half of the producers whose costs are above. the average will not be sufficiently well compensated for their efforts. This will have a tendency to discourage production and decrease the available supply. On the other hand, it would not be advisable to pay a price based on the least economical producer since this would encourage his poor methods and stimulate an prernrogucuion by the more economical producers. Between these two extremes there is a point under which the ereatest volume of milkis produced. Such a point or line of demarca- tion has been designated as the bulk line. This bulk line, shown in figures 5 and 6, is arbitrarily placed to eliminate that milk which is produced at a nabierd a higher cost as compared with the bulk of the milk produced, and yet is Mich enough to stimulate a corresponding increase in the low-cost herds. . If these figures are used in determining a price for milk it is ques- tionable whether the credit for appreciation on cows should be allowed, since it is doubtful whether normal market conditions would ever produce an appreciation on cows. Furthermore the appre- ciation in the value of cows due to market conditions gives a ‘‘ paper credit” rather than real credit since the cows were not actually sold. PERCENTAGE COMPARISON OF FACTORS IN MILK PRODUCTION. With the exception of November, the gross feed and bedding cost in Table 9 ran higher during the winter months than during the summer months. With this one exception there was apparently no large variation in the feed cost from month to month within any season during the two years. Since the manure and soiled bedding resulted from the feed and bedding used by the cows, the credit for these latter items was subtracted from the cost. of feed and bedding when making a com- parison of the net feed and bedding cost by months. The cost of feed and bedding minus the credit for manure and bedding gave the net feed and bedding cost. When the credit for manure and bedding was subtracted, there was no large variation in the cost of feed from month to month throughout the two years with the exception of 16 BULLETIN 858, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Ht : S g 8 15 VOLUITE OF f11LK PRODUCED (1/000 FOUNDS) a cera pane 7 EF C: aes aS |_| _ === Sais iomleseles Malesia aa | i sles ea | asa ay a ill uh St Us ea = pt el meee (00 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 550 600 650 700 750 GOO 850 900 950 1/000 1050 1100 /, he 9 9 959 95H9 9S SOB SR SOON CORSO Saga Vegsageag SASL EN AS RELEPS SEIS Renee aie ot hes FP fs F 1G. 5.—Volume of milk produced and the net cost per 100 pounds in summer, LT PRODUCING MARKET MILK IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA. O0S1 OS¢/ OObl OSE OOE! OF2/ O02! OSIl OO// OF0/ OOO! OS6 OOE OS8 OOB OSL OOL OF9 009 OSS OOS OG% OO% OG€ OOF OS? C0 OS! OO! OF “10JUTM UL Spunod QoT Jed 4S00 you oy} puv peonpoid 3IIut Jo omnjoA—9 ‘p17 (sonnod 0001) GF2N7O¥S SATIN FO FIWNIOA ee ee a eS ee a es see ee Nc | ee ie [Se al Se se ee a | HSS Se es. 3, a a eee 6 INI? 37d O€\—__|f 1 | : ele eae SE SJE SS EE a ES pee PERE dee Ss a | eee - 21-9161 AFLNIM SS : q ee ee ee ee or ® ele ae et es ioe ee ieee ANID 89d 09 = sete a ea ese : 9/-S16/ eILNIM Saba see secede | ae Z : ESS (ee ceric 4 Se ee ee Ae a ee re a ae Eevlesl ee ee ey Sere cee Boe SOz% 18 BULLETIN 858, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. November. The lower feed cost for November was accentuated because the credit for manure and bedding was divided evenly among the 6 winter months regardless of the amount of feed con- sumed in the different months. bf The human labor performed each month, especially when expressed on the “per cow” basis, was fairly constant within each seasonal period. The labor required to produce 100 pounds of milk fluctuated a little more, due to the variation in the amount of milk produced. It required 0.4 of an hour more human labor to produce 100 pounds of milk in the winter of the first year than in the summer, as com- pared with a difference of 0.3 of an hour for the second year. Atten- tion is directed to the fact that there was little variation in the average monthly labor required to produce 100 pounds of milk or to keep a cow in corresponding seasons of both years. TaBLE 9.—Monthly and seasonal distribution of milk prices, milk produced, feed cost and labor required. YEAR 1915-16. Per Feed e: Ae Mlle ent of Por Per andl Human labor. Horse labor. per 100 year’s | cent of | cent of bedaine income | year’s ear’s cos Month, Soren and nouns from | milk Heed less chee less. | milk | sold and |manure| Per 100) p,, | Per100} p,, freeht, | Sold and |bedding] and | Pounds} (4, | pounds} oy. e1gmt- | and used. cost. |bedding| milk. milk. used. credit. SS 3 : Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Hours. | Hours. | Hours. | How 5 0. it $1.57 9 8.8 6.4 9.7 2.0 12.7 3 1.6 puree a aad 1.41 6.9 8.6 ie 7.3 2.1 12.3 3 1.6 Tulye aca aoe ae 1.72 7.8 8.0 6.4 7.9 2.4 13.2 3 1.8 ATipaste ios. car tae 1.81 8.0 rh 71 7.5 2. 4 12.7 2 1.3 September.........-- 1.76 8.5 8.4 6.7 8.4 2a 12.0 2 1,2 October............. 1.72 8.7 8.8 6.9 10.1 2.2 13.0 2 1.2 Summer......- 1.66 47.8 50.3 40.8 50.9 2.2 12.6 2 1.5 November: .-..-...-- 1.91 8.9 8.2 7.2 5.9 2.6 13.6 3 1.3 December........... 1.92 9.1 8.3 10.2 8.1 2.7 14.9 3 1.4 January............. 1.86 8.8 8.2 10.9 8.7 2.9 16.2 3 1.4 February.........-.- log 8.3 8.1 ON etl 2.6 14.6 3 5 Nearcleer: carson. . 1.76 8.7 8.6 10.8 9.4 2.6 16.1 3 1.6 Kapil sis oo oe 1.77 8.4 8.3 10.4 9.3 2.5 14.5 3 1.8 Winter........ 1.84 52.2 49.7 59.2 49.1 2.6 15.0 3 1.5 Wears ieee 1.75] 100.0| 100.0] 100.0| 100.0 2.4 13.8 me 1.5 YEAR 1916-17, My oe. Weck Ro nd $2.08 8.8 9.2 7.5 7.8 2.0 13.0 2 1.0 Sisson ee 1.77 71 8.7 5.8 9.0 1.8 11.3 12 ‘9 Silvie eee 2G ee 2. 28 8.6 8.2 6.3 a4 2.0 11.6 12 1.0 WHTISE J: ek eon 2.45 7.7 6.9 6.0 8.6 2.4 11.5 "2 1.0 September-......... 1.85 6.1 7.2 6.7 8.1 2.5 12.3 12 1.0 October....-........ 9.15 7.4 7.5 7.8 8.5 2.6 13.3 7) figel Summer....... 2.09 45.7 a7.7 40.1 49.7 2.2 12.2 2 1.0 November..........- oh i301 8.1 7.6 8.4 4.9 2.7 14.0 2 1.2 December.......-.... 2.49 9.7 8.5 9.9 8.8 207 15.8 ao: 1.6 2.16 9.1 9.1 10.3 9.8 2.6 16.0 13 1.6 2.07 8. 4 8.8 9.7 8.1 2. 4 15.0 12 1.4 1.97 8.5 9.4 10.8 9.6 2.4 15.9 12 1.5 2.54 10.5 8.9 10.8 9.1 2.1 13.6 ‘2 1.4 2.25 54.3 | 52.3 59.9 | 50.3 2.5 15.1 | 12 1.4 Wear en | maar | 100! 0| 100.0 | 100.0 | 100.0 2.3 13.6 | 2 1.2 PRODUCING MARKET MILK IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA. 19 The figures in Table 9 indicate that there is no close relation between the monthly cost of milk and the monthly price received for it during the 2 years. There was no regular variation in the monthly cost within any of the seasons except a little lower cost in November, indicating that the cost in the section in which these records were obtained was about the same from month to month during the summer or during the winterseason. The price received for the milk, however fluctuated sharply from month to month. The methods by which the amounts and values of the various items considered in these studies were determined will be discussed briefly here under the several heads of feed, labor, and overhead and other costs. : 5; FACTORS INVOLVED IN THE COST OF PRODUCING MILK. FEED. EXPLANATION OF TERMS. Concentrates is a term applied to grains and by-products from the milling of grains or seeds, comprising those feeds containing a large amount of nutritive material in a relatively small bulk. Dry roughage includes various hays and other coarse feeding stuffs. Noncommercial dry roughage is applied to corn stover and corn fodder and any other dry roughage for which price quotations are not given in the trade papers. Leguminous roughage includes alfalfa, cowpea, clover, and other legume hays having such a small percentage of other grasses as not materially to affect the protein content. Commercial carbohydrate hay includes all commercial hays except those classified as leruminous roughage. QUANTITY OF FEED USED. The amounts of the different kinds of feed were based on the weights obtained for the total amount which each herd received in one full day. The feed was weighed for each herd on one day of every month, while this study was being made. The weighing of the feed, with the exception of that which three herds received the first year, was done by the cow tester of the Porter County Cow-Testing Association. The field agent who also made the visits to each herd every month, weighed the feed for Herds 114, 115, and 116 during the first year and checked up closely on the tester’s weights for all herds each month for both years. FEED PRICES. The home-grown feeds were figured at market prices on the farm plus any expense connected with them, such as grinding, hauling, and baling. Oats and ear corn were hauled to the mill to be ground. Limited barn space made it necessary for some of the dairymen to 20 BULLETIN 858, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. bale their straw and hay. The purchased feeds were figured at their actual cost at the feed store or on the track, plus the cost of hauling them home. The same methods were used in figuring the value of bedding. However, some of the bedding consisted of refuse hay and shredded corn stover left in the mangers, for which no charge was made. TaBiE 10.—Average cost of feed per ton on the farm, including cost of grinding home- grown grains and hauling purchased concentrates. 1915-16, 1916-17. Feed. iMac ehiae. ‘| Winter. | Summer.} Winter. | Summer. Burchased concentrates: 3.2 ete ee ee. ere ee $28.51 | $27.27 $35. 89 $36. 58 Home-ProwmPrainl..5.320)_- re ee oe ee ee ene eae 21. 44 23. 66 33.95 40. 23 Commercial carbohydrate hay... ....5..-50 5.22.22 -seeee eee 10. 20 7.59 10. 90 11. 41 Noncommercial’ rougshave: 2222-5258) se. sees) eee e EEE 5.13 7.35 5.95 5. 28 SOOM OA Yor eee hee acters en rena ee ae bern 12.83 9.57 12.89 13.34 Succeilent roushare ee eee See: Beds -GamepeeOP Se 4.03 - 4.08 4.03 4.08 PASTURE. The cost of pasture was determined by adding to the interest on the investment in land the cost of maintaining fences, and incidentals, such as seeding, cutting weeds, etc. The investment in land was obtained by subtracting the value per acre of the improvements on the farm, as determined by prorating their value in accordance with the quality of the different classes of land on a farm, from the improved value per acre. In one or two instances where land was rented at so much an acre for pasturage purposes, this value was taken. The cost of pasture was distributed over the 6 summer months as nearly as possible in proportion to the quantity of feed the herd received from the grass each month. LABOR. The amount of different linds of labor was obtained by timing the work performed during one entire day every month in each dairy. The rate per hour was computed each month for every farm on a basis of the number of hours available for work each month and the wages paid by that farmer, and any other expenses connected with the hired help, such as board and room or having a horse kept. The number of hours was found by using the average length of the working day, with time out for meals, and hours of work performed on Sunday. Board for hired help was computed on the basis of local rates. When these costs were tabulated, no charge for management was included. The labor performed by the managers was charged to the herds at hired men’s rates. Although a charge for management should be included in the requirements for milk production, no satisfactory method was found for determining what this should be for all the dairies. PRODUCING MARKET MILK IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA. 21 TaBLE 11.—Average labor rates per hour. 1915-16. 1916-17. Class of labor. Winter. | Summer.| Winter. | Summer. GTI Oe on da emsice GES DRGe CRE EEE Sores Ser Ce See eee si) cule $0. 153 $0. 149 $0. 160 $0. 164 LE ITTeG Tee ae: OR RE een oe eae ae - 129 -118 - 137 . 140 WOE. Sbasep Syst a eee o se BOO r ese cae See ae eammemn, 02) eens .128 . 122 a Way . 152 EVO VAI OG EAD ce pyre cho veeyasteisioriore nw eyssioeelncre a atbaiis aes SO esc - 088 081 . 100 . 090 FEVIONSCEEy erin tcieckei oi. ease emesis Pe siabe yer eytephe ste b.- 2 RENE ear - 100 . 100 . 100 . 100 1 Therate per hour for the labor performed by the managers is a little higher than that for hired men because as a rule the managers would have commanded a considerably higher monthly wage as hired men thanthementhey hired. Nocharge for management, however, is included in this rate. DISTRIBUTION OF LABOR. The summaries in Table 12 show that 80 and 76 per cent of the total labor for the winter and summer, respectively, was required to Fic. 7.—Meeting an early train 365 mornings in the year was an important item of labor. do work in the barn, such as feeding, cleaning, and milking; also, that the main difference in the amount of labor performed for 100 pounds of milk in the summer and winter was due to a difference in the production labor for the two seasons. ) TABLE 12.—Human labor used in producing, handling, and hauling 100 pounds of milk to the shipping platform. Winter. Summer. i Kind of work ae PRPS Ty eg Two 1915-16. 1916-17. eS 1915-16. 1916-17. StS Per Per Per Per Per ; Per Hours.| cent. |Hours.| cent. |Hours.| cent. |Hours.| cent. |Hours.| cent. |Hours.| cent. Production... .. 2.12] 80.2{ 1.98] 79.9] 2.04] 80.0] 1.65] 75.8] 1.69] 77.1] 1.67 76. 5 Handling.....-- 31} 11.8 -30| 12.3 -31] 12.1 w3a0 | Loe 2) -32} 14.6 -33 14.9 Hauling........ -21 8.0 -19 7.8 . 20 7.9 . 20 9.0 -18 8.3 .19 8.6 Total....] 2.64 | 100.0 2.47 | 100.0 2.55 | 100.0. 2.18 | 100.0 2.19 | 100.0 2.19 100. 0 - o 2s ae ae ee ee . 22 BULLETIN 858, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe 13.—Per cent and hours of labor performed by each class of help in the production of 100 pounds of milk. WINTER. Distribution of work per- formed. Labor per 100 pounds milk. . Class of labor. 1915-16. | 1916-17. | Average.) 1915-16. | 1916-17. | Average. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Hours. Hours. Fours. Manavers:.. = sce 2eeeseee ees tere 39.9 47. 2 43.5 1.05 1.17 1.12 TRE MeN oe 4 os ae webb alee cee 49.4 33. 0 41, 2 1.30 . 81 1.03 During the first winter studied, 2s shown in Table 13, the managers did 39.9 per cent of the dairy work, and the hired men performed 49.4 per cent of it. The remaining 10.7 per cent was done mostly by the women. A comparative study of the percentage of labor performed by each class of help for each season shows how the labor of the manager and his family replaced that of the hired help which was attracted to industrial plants by higher wages. The women limited their efforts for the most part to milking and to washing utensils, and actual observation showed that in these operations they were just as efficient as the men or even more so. OVERHEAD AND OTHER COSTS. HERD. A pound of milk from a purebred cow was worth no more than from a grade cow. Purebred cows were inventoried at fair prices for grade animals of similar producing ability, and the purebred calves were given corresponding grade values. This method eliminated both the higher overhead charge on cattle and the larger credit for the purebred value of calves. Each herd was inventoried the first month, and interest at the rate of 6 per cent was computed on the value of the cows and bulls at that time. An account was kept of all animals coming in or going out of the herd and what they were worth at that time. Losses due to death in the herd were accounted for in the difference between the inventories. At the end of the year another inventory was taken PRODUCING MARKET MILK IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA. 23 and the difference between this, plus the receipts for the outgoing animals and hides sold, and the first inventory, plus the value of in- coming animals at the time they entered the herd during the year, constituted the depreciation or appreciation on the herd for the year. As in the case of feed and labor the records on the cows and bulls were kept separate for each herd in order that the requirements for pro- ducing a certain quantity of milk, aside from the cost of keeping bulls, would be available for study. Records were obtained of the actual costs of taxes, Insurance, veterinary services, medicine, dis- infectants, and cow-testing dues. BUILDINGS. The buildings, including silos, were inventoried at the beginning and the end of the year and interest at 5 per cent was figured on the value of those used for the cows, as shown by the first inventory. The first inventory value, divided by the years it was estimated the buildings would remain in a usable condition, constituted the de- preciation charge. The cost of painting, shingling, and repairs was computed, and wherever possible the exact cost was obtained and recorded under ‘‘Upkeep and repairs.” The dairies were charged with their share of the actual taxes and insurance paid, as shown by county records and insurance policies. EQUIPMENT. The dairy equipment was inventoried at the beginning and the end of the year. Interest at 6 per cent was charged on the first inventory value. The difference between the first inventory, plus equipment purchased, and the one taken at the end of the year, plus equipment sold, was recorded as depreciation. A list of all repairs on equipment and dairy supplies purchased was kept by the dairymen and recorded each month. The taxes on equipment, as for cattle and buildings, were taken from the county records. CREDIT FOR MANURE. In the computation of credit to be allowed for winter manure, six factors. were considered, namely, the fertilizing constituents con- tained in the feed consumed; the proportion of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash not utilized in the bodies of the cows but voided in the manure; the per cent of the total manure which was voided in the barn; the per cent saved in handling and storing; the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in the bedding; and the value of these constituents in the manure and bedding at wholesale prices for com- mercial fertilizers. The small quantity of manure saved in the barn in the summer was presumed to be of the same quality as that produced in winter, 24 BULLETIN 858, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and was credited to the cows at the same price per ton as winter manure. A method of crediting manure was sought which would give definite figures on its fertilizing value, taking into consideration the manure available for return to the land, the method by which it was handled, and its constituents. It is believed that the system used is just and applicable. If, however, on certain individual farms or in certain localities the needs of the soil would not warrant the payment of market prices for all or part of the fertilizing constituents in the manure, adjustments should be made accordingly. DETERMINATION OF FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS IN FEED AND MANURE. The amounts of nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash in the feed consumed were determined by use of the average analyses‘! of the actual feeds consumed. As the descriptions and, wherever possible, the analyses, of the different feeds were recorded, it was possible to approximate quite closely the actual amount of fertility the manure contained. In this way all the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash contained in all the feed consumed by each herd in the winter six months was computed. Of these fertilizing constituents 75 per cent of the nitrogen, 70 per cent of the phosphoric acid, and 85 per cent of the potash were taken as representing the amounts that would be voided in the manure. These proportions are based on the results of digestion trials conducted by the Illinois and Pennsylvania experi- ment stations.’ The amount of nitrogen which, it was calculated, was returned in the manure was about 5 per cent lower than the average of the results of the two experiments, because the cows on which records were kept were not, for the most part, fed so heavily as the experiment- station cows and would naturally retain more of the nitrogen in their bodies. The phosphoric acid allowed was practically an average of the experiments, and the potash was about 2 per cent more, as it was thought the Illinois cows, since the experiment was conducted in June, excreted considerable potash through their skins, which would not hold true to so great an extent for cows in the winter period. When the total manurial constituents in the feed had been deter- mined for each herd they were credited to the cows in accordance with the scores which had been given to the herds for the total manure saved. Each dairy was scored on its efficiency in saving manure, taking into account such factors as manure voided in the barn, quantity of liquid lost in the barn, and length of time and method of storing. The ingredients of the manure credited to each herd were 1 Taken from ‘‘ Feeds and Feeding,” by Henry and Morrison. 2 See Hopkins, Soil Fertility and Permanent Agriculture, pp. 201-202. = PRODUCING MARKET MILK IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA. 25 then added to the nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash contained in the bedding. The amounts of these constituents thus obtained constituted the entire fertilizer credit the cows received. The composition of an average ton of manure produced by each herd in the winter period of each year was determined by dividing the fertilizing constituents it contained by the number of tons pro- duced. It was possible to calculate the tons of manure produced for 100 pounds live weight of cows by using an average of the results of three experiments conducted by the New York station, and one by the Ohio station, on the amount of manure produced by dairy Fic. 8.—Brown streams which flowed from the exposed manure pile wasted dollars of fertility purchased in the feed. cows.‘ It was found by averaging these experiments that approxi- mately 13 tons of manure were produced annually for 1,000 pounds live weight of cows. Our computations on tons of manure produced are based on this figure together with the weights of the cows on which records were kept. The bedding used was largely straw. The fertilizing constituents contained in one average ton of the manure and bedding from all the cows on which records were kept in the two winters were found to be as follows: Pounds. INTEROSeMMS. shen = io tay, apy apts) cement Ene Se Ae BEE 1s ay eri rs 9.8 Commercial; phosphoric! aciden 71.7 sae ee 2 Pe as oe LONE Cae dec Ree ae et ae CSE a ee: |. SEARING a ara eee eae 10. 1 4 Thorne, ‘‘ Farm Manures,” p. 97, 9 26 BULLETIN 858, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The average ton of manure, without bedding, produced by the cows in the winter months contained: Pounds NOTA aici oe eres eee 2's, ~ nly SR ~ 2S 9.7 Commercial phosphoric acid). -....+ geet. ++... sone ee ee aad Potash 2 cence tse e en. - eee oo ee a) Since these amounts are based directly on the contents of the feed consumed and bedding used, they are fairly representative of the manure and bedding, and manure alone, from average dairy cows handled for market-milk production. Table 14 summarizes the total costs represented by the feed, labor, and overhead and other charges, and the credits represented by the calves and manure: TABLE 14.—Proportion of total costs represented by feed, labor, and overhead and other costs. Average | Average | Average Cost factors. of 2 of 2 of 2 winters. |Summers.| years. Per cent.| Per cent. | Per cent. Weed Costigatcsecoce teimee ne sae see ade Hee ene al Ce eae ee eee Ree eee 5! 36. 0 49. 4 Pasture: cosh ee \c\-\- so wahoo Mais see oie erate act cleloia eee ee tele iale = eRe eee esa eral See 19. 0 8.2 Feed and pasture cost 920 252-2 120-1 = aan os sean ae seieeeeeaietee 59. 6 55. 0 57.6 Mabon costee kc see Sense temas sna cen oe See 19. 1 20.1 19.5 Overhead and other costs except depreciation on cows.. 20. 1 23. 4 21.6 Total cost except depreciation on coWS.......--------------+------- 98. 8 98. 5 98. 7 DepreciertiOn) OT COWS lar ere ae eae ee eee 1,2 1.5 1.3 Total cost including depreciation on cows........------------------ 100. 0 | 100. 0 | 100.0 Credits allowed for calves and manure: BIVOS Se ee F Sa taa estonia lel ate area Seales ee ere ae Aisin er ee 6.0 8.0 6.8 WEG) S oan Beep aodosse orn pS bmooba cH oUeUchaebemccoscbaananooesoosScas 23. 7 4,8 15.5 Calvesand manure... \saee oes Sener ee 2 oe Sees 29.7 | 12.8 22.3 The depreciation on the cows is reported separately from the over- head and other costs because there was such a wide variation in the figures representing this item for the two years. There was a depre- ciation on cows during the first year, which increased the cost of production approximately 6 per cent, but during the ‘second year the total cost was reduced by about 3 per cent on account of an appreciation in their value, due in part to an increase in market prices for cows. It willbe noticed also that the labor cost amounted to 19.1 and 20.1 per cent, respectively, for the winter and summer periods, while the overhead and other costs, including depreciation on cows, increased from 21.3 per cent in the winters to 24.9 per cent in the summers. This difference, however, was not caused by a variation in the overhead and other costs, but was a result of a lower charge in the summer periods than in the winters for labor and feed, including pasture, which were required to produce a certain amount of milk. These percentages are necessarily changeable, since PRODUCING MARKET MILK IN NORTHWESTERN INDIANA. Ot they depend directly on the relative cost of the various items which are required to produce milk. The same is true of the percentages given as representing the part of the total cost which was offset by the credits allowed for calves and manure. The percentages are influenced not only by the variation in costs, but also by the values allowed for calyes and manure and the amount of manure credited to the herds. PRESENTATION OF RESULTS BY MONTHS, SEASONS, AND YEARS. The variation in the monthly feed cost during any one of the seasons in either year was not large. In most cases the variations, as shown in Tables 15 and 16, are no more than might naturally occur on account of local conditions, such asa fluctuation in the price of feed or weather conditions. The reason why the November feed cost of each year was lower than for the other winter months probably is that during that month some of the herds were allowed to run in the fields that had been in crops, in order that scattered feed might be kept from going to waste. Some of the dairymen were later than others in beginning to feed their regular full winter rations. The cost of feed other than pasture fluctuates from month to month in the summer, and the same is true of the cost of pasture, but when these two costs are combined the variation in the total monthly feed and pasture cost is no more than occurred in the winter months. In distributing the pasture cost over the summer seasons the amount of grass furnished by the pastures each month was estimated and the total season’s charge for pasture distributed accordingly. The following per cents were used for both years: May, 15 per cent; June, 33 per cent; July, 20 per cent; August, 10 per cent; Septem- ber, 12 per cent; and October, 10 per cent. Since the records have been compiled it appears that these figures must have been fairly accurate, for wherever a heavy charge for pasture was made the amount oi other feed consumed was comparatively small. BULLETIN 858, U. S$. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. €°69F T86¢ ‘98 LL‘¥P6‘ST | 298‘6TL‘% | FESLe‘r |eeo‘9T0‘T SI ‘SPP ‘S TIE “62S GZ 1226 CSS 09°S6z G2 | Sh6‘GLP ET | SOP = |7° 7-7 FERS [PIOL 91S L 1989 FO'CIP'€ | O8E'86Z | 92 969 P86 ‘GET 18 “96 P29 ‘68 Lb°898'T | $9°% 9E°STh ‘9 | 9GF ‘Zz 1 Re el i ee ee ey €°38S Pb 118"9 OL'98h*E | BOS ‘soe 98 8&2 G18 “GPT 88898 OFS “96 9F6E8‘T | L6°T P8'6FS'G | LEE ‘992 Lebmrage |e ita ere OF h\ G*£9G €°ZI1‘9 9¢°Fc0'S | SIP‘ TFE €8 299 BES ‘8ST 09998 £78 ‘68 E1929 ‘T 10°% SI 6ST ‘S 6S ‘6FS Ops ele ea ~-AIVNIGoT % 6F9 6°26S ‘9 ZE "082 0S ‘P68 9F 608 26 ‘Z6T 0 "696 E13 ‘86 9¢ “TIS ‘T 91% T8°66S‘¢ | 221 ‘29% Tike tis a ee Se Arenuet ¢'SF9 9 °G0¢ “9 £9 S81‘ 261 ‘TLE Sh SPL EST ‘SIZ 19°620‘T 928 ‘C6 6¢ 198 ‘T 6F'% 62 °TS6‘¢ 62T ‘68% Schill csaibe Anak a ~ > Jaqured0q Tees piesa ROUT nG 1G°229‘%$ | 928‘SEE G6 POLE O8T “TAT ZS S8L$ OLF ‘PL FO'PIL'TS | 0&2 Ciao pees |MOLGeGtat jS0Ps lie t wer ~* "> Taq UIaAON “LI-9T6T UALNIM L°601'8 ¢°660 CE G8 '860‘SI | PIS ‘9PL‘T | 89'°STS‘s 6S “EEL € 08h 668 “ISP £8 GPT ‘9 PST Ge-e86 ‘0% | Te ‘6SI'T | ces | L°€6¢ T'L1L 9 £9 “S16 % 0€9 882 90 °LLS OPT 221 €$ "199 629 “92 8 PL0‘T LL‘T QL GLE € OSS “O6T | Sa& @ 199 L “SEL G LE E68 % 919 808 81129 SPS 601 29 "099 OFF 06 LO°TIZ'T yan! 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QOT 10 euml0ou “I0qRT I 18101 | eseq3no casetnD ong| ‘Pes eseusno1 Aq | “poy sayesyueou09 | ouroouy I ‘QI-SI6. UANWINAS "LI-9I6L PUY 9T-GI6T Jo siamuns ay) burinp yuu buronpoid sof ‘syyuow fig ‘syuamaunbes 40qD) pun prag—'9T ATA, 30 BULLETIN 858, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The ‘‘overhead and other costs” are not shown by months. Since they were prorated evenly over the months in each season, and since there was no definite fluctuation in the production of milk by months, these costs per 100 pounds would be approximately the same throughout the season. Table 17 does not include cost of feed and labor, but only the overhead and other costs which have not been previously itemized. TaBLeE 17.—Capital invested and overhead and other charges against buildings, equipment, and herds. Per cent of Item. Winters. | Summers. | Two years. |; inventory value. Buildings: ‘ ; Per cent. © Tnventorys2.c0s fesse eee ee ee ok $53,305.06 | $53,288.96 | $53,297.01 |.......-.- a Charges: : Interest ....-. Be Aaa 2 SANA SEARS SOS ARO ee 1,332 .64 1, 332 .24 2, 664 .88 5.0 MEPLecintionistac. se ae ee cee ee WP A 1,105.77 |. 1,105.43] 2,211.20 4.1 PAXCSE 3. Seas os See tr EL: = oeee 129 .79 129.75 259 .54 48) TnSUTANCE : as etee eet eer BO cp ey Se ea 91 .22 91.19 182.41 | © “3 - Upkeep and repairs........-...-. Pe ace See 386 .71 386 .60 773 .31 1.5 Total chargészsc.ne eee case ae ako to Sees 3,046.13 | 3,045.21 6, 091 .34 11.4 Equipment and supplies: Capital invested...22-!.2222--2 = 4222 Sees sees ose 10,546.18 | 10,546.18 | 10,546.18 |..........-- Charges: AN terrestres wes oS - Rein teen ee Se ee 316 .39 316 .39 632 .78 6.0 TRA PSE 2/50 2 tin. 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. *[BUISTIO 918 S1OY}O [TY “OYINe aepnoyaed oy} Aq WOATZ BYep ZuISN ‘IoPTIM OY} AQ POUTEIGO SLA OINSY OY} JVYY So}VOTPUT (x) YSTIOJsB wy] 10 ‘yndf 0DUL07Z ajoyn ay? fo sashjyoun yunjsodwur asou ay) fo hinwung— ]{ ATAVy, 11 PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. ‘o0rnf oy} Jo AItAvIZ OYTOOdS 9} SV 91ZO'T SOATS (GT) TopstoD 66 “8P'0 ‘18409. ‘60'0 =prure ‘6g'0 =UleJo1g ff “Spl0v OTUBSI0 SV aa SOIS ‘F00'0 *SISATOIPAY 109)8 IesNg pp *60°0 ‘P1NV O1.19TO {gh°O “Plow OTB 99 “IZ1'0 “OO ‘F80'0 ‘TO +280°0 “fOS +S00'0 ‘soyeydsoyd [Ty Pur oT ‘1200 ‘OSW ‘€10'0 ‘ORO ‘810'0 ‘O2UN :41MIy eToys OY} JOFYSIOM JOM 0} POLIOJoI ‘SJUONIT{SUOD YSL SUTMOT[OJ OY} SOATS OSTR (0G) 19GN49 aq *dSO1JXOP SV vp “GP LLX ‘OSO1GXOP ‘GFL Tx ‘OSO[NAGT z *(GS°9X0'0) 9LF'0 ‘UIOJOIg & *€00°0=N ‘U19}01dt0u -9/0'0=N ‘UI9}0I1g zx *60°T ‘9S01}X9P '60'T ‘aso_NAVT m “IL'€ 94 P[NoYsS a “00'T 94 plhoys n 8L°9 | 86 FS LG CP *6L LES | S8° *g ‘SMOTJVUTUTINOC 7 ‘E1 ‘SWOT}VUIUTINI0@ s “SUOMJVUTMIINJOP ET ‘Plow OI[VUL SY w “SUOLJCUTUTIOJEp 7g ‘1esns Sy Bb “pg ‘SUOTJVUTUMIN}O d “IesNs SV o *plo’ o1yI0 SY u “LI60'T ‘(SUOT}eUTMIIEJOpP F JO Uvem) 9orMf jo AjzIAvAs OYIOOdS fce'cg ‘oomnf pue dnd ‘z6‘oT ‘(qam) poos ‘ez"e ‘(JoM) UTS :SMOT[O] SV BIVP [CUOTIIPpe OATS (ET) TISIH pu Isolg w “SOTJOLIVA OZ ‘PIO’ 011910 SV 7 “MOLIBUTULIOJOpP 9UO y *SOTJOLIVA OZ ‘OSOoNTs SV ¥ “MOLJLUTDIIOJOP 1 ‘Plows OLI}10 Sy B “SUOTJVUIULIOJOP G ‘OpNAO ¢ *% ‘SUOT}VUTUTIN}OG £ “UHOL{LUIULIEJOp T ‘ain 2 “UONIVUIMIAJ9p [ ‘osoon[s Sy a ; 3 *66'T ‘TO ‘898°0 “OS ‘6200 01S ‘620'0 “O20q ‘G18'0 ‘OSIN ‘€FT'0 ‘OBO ‘919°0 ‘O28N :44S10M AIP [8404 09 PortEjoYy “6ST.0 ‘TO :920'0 “fOS8 :200'0 “OTS *200'0 ‘0700 *Z60'0 ‘O3W ‘010'0 ‘OBO ‘EF0'0 ‘O28N : (FU sI0M joM JO 0382} M0010d) S}UONITISMOD USW °O ST 9B S8I0'T ‘eo1Ml Jo AZIAvIs OYTONdS ‘7-96 ‘orn pue djnd ‘¢-g ‘paos ¢"T {(70M.) 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O'S |7°7 7777] $8 09%) peg Race UR SAU al eee eee tase oe SoG a TOG es) OG a 5569 SN | Feo Shy a €6'Ee | 9F'9 | F986 |Z «| @MOYG Pu Prep OTT | ON (9g) uedig pure Uoysnyy GL Gx! PLO") oy ) HA Gal ite ena bir AS eccy ee ag nee | LUaciese ora [ot Sac wees O Dace talon. Mc 12 ss oe ee amagt a aE **""9@I009SI1TY pus Lie | Oba | (me) | SOT 7] OF Se | 8S°9 | LL"86 1 “MOqSSUTATT “OULOW |-> 7777 OMA 3(9p) repAug. (ACE [PRESB Pe eo elie Sea en mOM ae oC SOG Sono nom dacaceod| otc aaplince Bee |ig RIG RES SOS SIP OE GGO S082 Saab EAA CAC QOOGISS oo Wap (GLEE PP IA PDT I ISIE IS a RE aa PTS al ae HOR RACY A yl 43 “TINjJOuUsyT pPuw OMIOW |--*- 7 OA (9%) HOWE pus sapyueL 12 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Relatively few investigations have been reported showing the pro- gressive changes in composition of the tomato. Differences in com- position between green and ripe fruit are given in several instances, but the researches of Albahary (2) and Bigelow (11) seem to be the only systematic studies of the changes occurring during development. Passerini (35) reports a partial analysis of both green and ripe fruits of two varieties. The data, which are expressed in terms of wet weight, seem to indicate that as the tomato matures there is an in- crease in water and sugar and a decrease in total solids and acid. Formenti and Scipiotti (19) found that the water content of the entire fruit was greater in the ripe fruit than in that half ripe. Thompson and Whittier (51) reported a slightly larger percentage of total sugar in ripe than in green tomatoes. Congdon (15) reported the specific gravity of ripe and green tomatoes as 1.0216 (average of eight) and 1.0230, respectively; also the citric acid content as 0.528 (average of eight) for ripe and 0.990 for green fruit. Bigelow (11) studied the composition of tomatoes (expressed juice) at different stages of maturity, but did not arrive at any very definite conclusions. He states that in general the per- centage of solids and sugars increases and the percentage of acid decreases as the tomato becomes more mature. Albahary (2) has given the most complete account of the chemical transformations in tomatoes during ripening. He used three succes- sive stages of ripening: (1) Green fruit before seed development, (2) green fruit at the time seeds were completely formed, and (8) fruit which was fully ripe, and he concluded that with ripening there is a progressive increase in acids, sugars, starch, and nitrogenous nonprotein constituents, while proteins and cellulose diminish greatly, remaining practically stationary toward the end of ripening. From the preceding résumé of former work on the chemical com- position of the tomato at different stages of its growth, it is seen that there is little consistency in the results obtained. ‘The red pigment of the tomato is not estimated in any of the routine analyses. It has been isolated by several workers, who found that the amount recoverable was 0.2 per cent of the dry weight of the fruit or less. Its preparation in pure crystalline condition was first accomplished in 1876 by Millardet (31), who named it solanoru- | bin. After it had passed into the synonymy of carotin, it was again isolated, in 1903, by Schunck (45), who renamed it lycopm. Mon- tanari (32) made the first analysis and proved that it was a hydro- carbon. The final identification of lycopin as an isomer of carotin was made by Willstaétter and Escher (58). In 1913 Duggar (17) studied the effect of conditions upon the development of the tomato pigmentation and found the color of the ripe fruit to depend (1) upon the presence or absence of lycopin in the flesh (in the absence of red lycopin the flesh is yellow, due to carotin and possibly xantho- = PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. 13 phyll, which are masked in the red fruit) and (2) upon the presence or absence in the epidermal walls of a yellow pigment. , In the pres- ence of the latter the red flesh is seen through a yellow screen, giving a more or less orange effect, but if it is absent the skin is transparent and the color a clear red. EXPERIMENTAL MATERIAL. The fruit for all the analytical work herein reported (with the exception of the ‘‘puffy’’ fruit discussed in the appendix) was obtained from plants of the Livingston Globe variety grown at Peters, Dade County, Fla. This variety is almost exclusively used for winter shipping to northern markets. For the life-history work the plants were grown in a field where the soil conditions represented the average of the entire acreage planted in tomatoes. These plants had the same treatment as the commercial plantings. They were set in the field in January and, following the local practice, were given four applica- tions of commercial fertilizer and the usual quantities of compost. In the former studies of the progressive changes in composition during ripening the tomatoes for sampling were classified by size and were usually picked at one time. This method of sampling was not deemed sufficiently accurate to be used in the present investiga- tion, for ripe tomatoes have a great range of variation in size, which fact alone should enable one to conclude that it is not the size that determines the degree of maturity. In order to establish a basis for selecting fruits of comparable maturity, blossoms were tagged and observations made as to the time of ripening. In a series of obser- vations made during the summer of 1918 at Arlington, Va., several hundred blossoms of Livingston Globe plants were tagged, and part of the fruit was picked every week, weighed, and measured. The important fact brought out by the experiment (Table III, Sec. A) is that the maturity of a tomato fruit depends upon age and not upon size. In the latitude of Washington, D. C. (at Arlington, Va.), 49 days were required to bring the fruit to maturity, starting with the blossom. Of the 20 fruits left upon the vines, all colored at the same time regardless of size or weight. The experiment was repeated with plants grown in Florida, and the same results were obtained. (Table III, Sec. B). In this case 200 tomatoes remained on the vines at the end of 56 days, 181 of which were colored (turning to red) and 19 green. ‘The variations in size and weight were as great as at Arlington, if not greater. It was impossible to judge to the day the age of the blossoms which were tagged, but the variation among blossoms was hardly more than one or two days. This method of obtaiing tomatoes of known relative maturity is a fairly accurate procedure and is certainly to be preferred to that used by other investigators, who selected fruit according to size. 14 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE III.— Weights and equatorial diameters of individual tomatoes grown at Arlington, Va., in the summer of 1918, and at Peters, Fla., in the winter of 1918, picked at intervals Jrom blossoming time until the fruits were ripe. Individual tomatoes. Locality and ° Color of Aver- descriptive data. fruit. ; age. No. 1.|No. 2.|No. 3./No. 4.|No. 5./No. 6./No. 7./No. 8.|No. 9.|No. 10 Sec. A.—Arlington, Va.: Weight (grams)— : Age 7 days.-.-- Green...| 0.30) 0.50} 0.70} 0.90} 1.50) 1.60) 1.70) 1.80) 3.00} 3.40) 1.54 Age 13 days do....| 1:40} 2.00) 3.60) 5.30) 6.10) 13.90] 14.60) 17.50) 20.80) 21.60) 10.68 Age 21 days . -| 39.60) 40.70} 42.20) 45.00} 50.50) 82.60) 85.70} 87.60} 90.00} 93.60) 65.75 Age 30 days ---| 52.90} 57.10) 71.50} 79.80) 83. 40/109. 50/114. 30/115. 70/128. 60/135. 40) 94. 82 Age 38 days --- -| 34.30) 49.40) 64. 40) 76.58) 81. 90/155. 10,169. 90/190. 30/276. 70/284. 00 135, 25 Age 49 days ...-| Turning | 55. 80) 94.10} 98. 80/122. 80/137. 20/164. 00/180. 70}197. 60/234. 50/247. 90,153. 34 to red Diameter (em.)— Age 7 days..--- Green.--| .45/ .60} .65/ .80} 1.05) 4.10) 1.15) 1.15) 1.40) 1.55) 1.14 Age 13 days .-..]--- do.....| 1.00} 1.20} 1.60} 1.80} 1.80} 2.60} 2.70] 2.70) 2.70) 2.80) 2.10 Age 21 days .-.-].-- do....) 3.80] 3.80; 3.90) 4.00); 4.10) 4.80; 4.90} 4.90] 4.90) 5.00; 4.41 Age 30 days ....]--- do....| 4.20} 4.30) 4.60) 4.70) 4.80] 5.40} 5.40) 5.50) 5.60) 5.70) 5.02 Age 38 days ...-|--- do....| 3.80] 4.10} 4.40) 4.80) 4.90} 6.00} 6.10) 6.40) 6.70) 7.30) 5.45 Age 49 days -... eure 4.60} 4.90) 5.20} 5.40} 5.70) 5.90) 6.30) 6.70) 6.90] 7.30) 5.49 to re Eee Src. B.—Peters, Fla.: Weight (grams)— : ; 3 Age 7 days...-- Green.-.| .07; .08} .08] .08} .09| 11) .52) .55) .67) 1.13) .33 Age 15 days ..-..|.-.do...-| 1.68) 1.75) 1.84) 2.27) 2.32! 9.40} 10.63! 11.95) 12.39! 18.19) 6.74 Age 21 days ....)--.do..-.| 40.78) 44.67] 45.12) 46.57] 46.67] 57.03] 68.02] 86.35) 86. 42/124. 72) 63. 65 Age 28 days ....|-..do...-.| 43.79] 62.60] 63.53] 67.12} 69.18) 75.35] 77. 48] 91. 85/111. 97/160. 84] 82.37 Age 35 days ....|--.do..- -| 53.32) 64.37] 73.40] 76.31] 94.92) 95.25) 97. 92/100. 12/118. 95/177. 48) 95.10 Age 42 days ....|...do....| 78.60} 95.45] 95.82] 99. 81/100. 78/126. 66/151. 23/195. 36/222. 11/313. 33/147. 91 Age 56 days -...| Turning | 79. 18/110. 18}127. 72/131. 52/139. 97/157. 42)170. 54/179. 69|185. 18/346. 79|162. 81 to re Diameter (em.)— : Age 7 days..... Green.--| .43) .45) .45) .45) .45) .55| .85) .95) 1.05} 1.30) .69 Age l5days....|--.do-.-.| 1.60} 1.60) 1.60) 1.70) 1.75| 2.80) 2.85] 2.90) 3.10} 3.25) 2.31 Age 21 days....|--.do....| 4.50) 4.55) 4.60} 4.60} 4.65) 4.85) 5.65) 5.80) 6.00) 6.60) 5.18 Age 28 days ....|--- do,..--|. 4.50} 5.00) 5.00) 5.05) 5.20) 5.50} 5.50) 5.80} 6.20) 7.00) 5.47 Age 35 days....|--. do...-| 4.45) 4.70) 4.75) 5.15) 5.45) 5.45) 5.60] 6.05) 6.15) 7.00) 5.47 Age 42 days ._..|-.. do....| 5.00} 5.45} 5.50} 5.60) 5.75) 6.25) 7.25) 7.25) 7.25) 7.35) 6.37 Age 56days .... Turns 5.25] 5.65) 5.70) 5.80) 5.90) 6.40} 6.60] 6.75} 6.85] 8.85) 6.38 to re ; Plates I and II show in color four stages in ripening, which are referred to later in this bulletin as green, 1.e., with no red present (A); turning, i.e., mostly green, with a trace of color at the style end (B); pink, i. e., slightly colored over most of the fruit, with little or no green except at the stem end, but not yet a good full red (C); and” red ripe,i.e., completely mature as far as color change isconcerned (D). Material for analysis was obtained by tagging blossoms (other than those of the ‘“‘crown hand”’)* soon after opening and then collecting tomatoes at the different stages in numbers large enough for sampling. An attempt was made to pick all the tagged fruit from an entire row in order to eliminate the error that possibly otherwise might have occurred of unconsciously selecting large or small fruit. Samples were taken at the end of the second, third, fourth, fifth, and sixth weeks, and after the tomatoes had barely started to color (designated as turning), and finally when fully colored or ripe. At the time of carrying on the work the weather conditions were such that eight weeks were required to bring the tomato to maturity (red ripeness). 3 Growers are accust omed to refer to all the fruit developing from a single inflorescence as a “‘hand.’’ The ‘‘crown hand”’ is the lowest inflorescence on the stem. It frequently fails to set fruit, Bul. 859, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Green, A: COLOR STAGES IN THE RIPENING OF THE TOMATO. turning, B. PLATE | Bul. 859, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE II R.C, STEADMAN, del A HOEN & CO.BALTIMORE 5-20-15 COLOR STAGES IN THE RIPENING OF THE TOMATO. Pink, @: red ripe, D. ‘PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. 15 METHODS OF ANALYSIS. Sampling and preservation.—In order to obtain representative samples at each stage of ripening and to avoid the necessity of analyzing a large number of individual fruits to determine existing variations, composite samples were resorted to. These composite sam- ples were taken from approximately 20 tomatoes. To eliminate error due to possible correlations between size and chemical composition, tomatoes were chosen so that each composite sample was obtained from fruits of all sizes, with the exception of abnormally large or small ‘fruit which were discarded. The method of collecting the samples was uniform throughout. Where the fruits were small (e. g., those 14 days old) a 200-gram lot was made by using entire tomatoes, but with larger fruit samples of 200 grams were made up by removing a cylinder from each tomato with a half-inch cork borer. The cylinders were taken through the equator perpendicularly to the axis. A fairly representative sample was obtained in this manner, for the portion removed from each tomato was roughly proportional to the size of the whole fruit. The method of preserving samples for analysis was similar to that used by Hasselbring and Hawkins (21) in their studies of sweet potatoes and identical with the procedure of Kraus and Kraybill (28) with tomatoes. The material was heated with 80-per — cent alcohol for 1 hour at 70° to 75° C., with the addition of cal- cium carbonate (CaCO,) to insure the neutralization of acids. Two- quart glass-top jars were used, and approximately 1,065 c. c. of 95 per cent alcohol and 0.5 gram of precipitated CaCO, were added, after which the heating was carried out on a boiling water bath. _ Moisture and ash samples were merely covered with 95 per cent alcohol without subsequent heating. In preparing the samples for analysis (with the exception of certain - moisture, dry-weight, and ash samples) the alcohol was removed from the insoluble residue by filtering into a 2-liter volumetric flask. The ‘residue was thoroughly extracted with warm 80 per cent alcohol, which was cooled, filtered, and added to the original filtrate. The volume of the flask was then made up to mark at 20° C. (referred to later as the original extract) and one-tenth and three-twentieths aliquots pipetted off and placed in separate Florence flasks, which were stoppered, labeled, and set aside. The residue was dried at 80° C. in an air oven for a few days and then allowed to come to air-dry weight, after which it was weighed and finely ground in a drug mill (referred to later as the original residue). One-tenth and three-twentieths portions were weighed and stored in small stop- pered vials. Moisture, dry weight, and ash.—An entire 200-gram sample eoweredl - with 95 per cent alcohol was placed in a large beaker and evaporated nearly to dryness on a steam bath. It was then transferred to a 16 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 250 cubic-centimeter tared beaker and dried at 60° to 70° C. to apparent dryness, after which it was dried in vacuo at 80° C. until the loss between two successive weighings was negligible. For ash the residue was ground in a mortar, then placed in the vacuum oven over night and approximately one-half of the total sample used for the crude-ash determination. Acidity— All acid determinations were made with fresh material. Two hundred grams of tomatoes were pulped and placed in a liter volumetric flask, made up to volume with cold distilled water, and toluol was added to prevent the growth of organisms. After stand- ing three days, 50 c. ec. aliquots were titrated against approximately a tenth normal sodium-hydroxid solution (N/10 NaOH), using phenolphthalein as the indicator. No trouble was experienced in determining the end pomt. Separate determinations were made untilthe duplicateschecked. Inorderto determine the effect of enzyms on acid content, a sample treated with boiling water was titrated three days later and the results compared with one using cold water. For the former, 200 grams of material required 14.28 e¢. ec. N/10 NaOH, and for the same quantity of material employing cold water, 14.18 c. c. N/i0 NaOH were required for neutralization. - Freereducing substances.—One-tenth of the origimal alcoholic extract was evaporated nearly to dryness while the same part of the residue was being extracted on a filter paper with warm water (35° C.). Very little reducing substance remained after extracting the original residue with alcohol, as described under ‘Sampling and preserva- tion,” but the warm-water extraction was performed to insure the removal of final traces. The aqueous extract was combined with the residue from the alcoholic portion and filtered into a 250 ec. c. volu- metric flask, after which the filter paper was thoroughly washed. One cubic centimeter of lead-acetate solution (a saturated solution of the normal salt) was added and the solution made up to volume at 20° C. The whole was filtered immediately and the excess of lead removed by adding approximately 0.5 gram of sodium oxalate. After standing a short time the mixture was filtered through dry filter paper and 10 c.c. of the clear solution used for the sugar deter- mination. The method used for determining reducing sugars was a combination of that of Bertrand (10), and that of Munson and Walker (33, 56). In this method the cuprous oxid is determined by titration, as in the Bertrand method, Fehling’s solution and the’ time of heating are as specified by Munson and Walker. The Munson and Walker tables were used for the sugar equivalents. Total sugars.—Fifty cubic centimeters of the solution used for free reducing sugars were transferred to a 100 c. c. volumetric flask and 5 c. c. of HCl (sp. gr., 1.19) added. The mixture was set aside over night and the flask made to volume at 20° C. the following morn- PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. Jef, ing. The solution was then neutralized and filtered and 20 c. c. used for reduction. Starch.—The residue from the water extraction of the sample used for reducing substances was placed in an Erlenmeyer flask and heated immersed in a boiling water bath for 24 hours with 150 ce. e. of water and 15 c. c. of HCl (sp. gr., 1.125). After cooling and neutralizing to phenolphthalein with NaOH, the mixture was made to 250 c. c. volume at 20° C. and filtered through a dry filter paper; 20 and 50 c. ¢. aliquots of this solution were used for reduction. Pentosans.—A quantity of the original alcoholic extract represent- ing one-tenth of the total extract was evaporated nearly to dryness in an Erlenmeyer flask and one-tenth of the original residue added to this. Pentosans were determined by the furfural-phloroglucid precipitate method. The usual procedure is to distill over 360 c. c. and then to make up to 400 c. c. with a phloroglucin solution. It required 480 c. c. of distillate to obtain all of the furfural present, and 40 c. c. of phloroglucin solution were added to this. No correc- tion was made for the additional 120 c. c. distilled over. Krdéber’s formule were used in calculating the pentosan equivalents, as given in the Official and Provisional Methods of Analysis (57). Total nitrogen.—Two hundred cubic centimeters of the original alcoholic extract, representing one-tenth of the sample, were intro- duced into a Kjeldahl flask and evaported to dryness on the steam bath, and to this residue one-tenth of the original residue from the original sample was added. The total nitrogen in the aliquot was determined by the Kjeldahl method.! Crude jiber.—A quantity of the residue representing three-twen- tieths of the sample was used for crude-fiber determination, which © was made in the usual manner. ANALYTICAL DATA CONCERNING PROGRESSIVE CHANGES IN COMPO- SITION DURING RIPENING. The data showing progressive changes in composition during the process of ripening are assembled in Table IV. In section A of this table the percentages are referred to the weight of the entire fruit; -in section B they are reduced to a basis of dry weight. Each entry in this table is a mean of two determinations, except as indicated by an asterisk (*), which shows that duplicate determinations were not made. Although the method of sampling has been described, it may not be amiss to emphasize the fact that each sample was a composite of fruits of the same maturity but of greatly varying sizes. The data with regard to average size and average weight at the various ages are found in Table III. 1 All determinations of nitrogen reported in this investigation were carried out bythe Nitrogen Laboratory, Bureau of Chemistry, United States Department of Agriculture. 175085°—20—Bull. 859 =) 18 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste IV.—Progressive changes in the composition of Livingston Giobe tomatoes during the process of ripening. (The asterisk (*) indicates that the given result is based upon a single determination; results not thus marked are the mean of two determinations. ] Age and color of fruit. Constituents. 14 days, | 21 days, | 28 days, | 35 days, | 42 days, | 56 days,|56 days, green. | green. | green. | green. | green. |turning.| red. SEc. A.—Percentage of entire fruit: MoiStune:ts Eee eee eee 3. *94.140 |*94.140 |*94. 540 *94, 240 |*94. 450 *94, 490 Total Solids. Se see eee : *5. 860 | *5. 860 | *5. 560 *5. 760 | *5. 550 *5. 510 Sugar-iree Solids: se ses 5. ets eee : 3.824 | 3.753 3. 416 3.385 | 2.994 2. 847 Ash CRUGGS cance sae eee : 02 | sae *, 509 *, 497 *, 484 * 504 Acidity (as citric acid) 1s .585 | 1352 | 833 .640 | .397 °420 Robal miprozen =e wee eee Lee 5 150 . 1365 . 1305 . 140 . 1225 .116 Protein — NSS 6.25) eee ee “i . 24 - 938 . 853 . 8156 - 875 . 766 TO) Total sugar (as invert) 2.006 | 2.106 2. 143 2.375 | 2.556 2. 667 @ane|sugar ee ont as eee eee eee Boat .041 | 0 . 018 . 070 - 018 . 024 Reducing sugar (as invert) .... ola 1.962 | 2.112 2125 2.300 | 2.537 2. 637 Starches : hes ghee ee ie AP orate . 830 . 616 544 - 505 . 222 . 146 PentOSANS ee aa ec ee ee eae . 276 . 247 . 273 - 264 - 228 . 238 Crude fibers cece eto ask abe i * 464 | * 447 * 484 *, 433 | *, 423 *, 394 Ratio (sugar + acid) 3.420 | 5.980 2. 430 3.710 | 6.480 |! 6.340 Carbohydrates— R Motels: 225 soe 3. 647 38.576 | 3.415 3. 443 3.628 | 3.429 3. 441 Soluble SAAR SOCIO 6 canes 1. 743 2. 006 2.106 2.143 Zale 2. 556 2. 667 MSOLUDIOL Ease cece ce ee Oe 1. 903 1.570 | 1.309 1.300 1. 253 . 873 . 774 Determined constituents..........- 99. 100 99. 801 | 99.294 |100. 192 99. 870 | 99. 526 99. 580 Szc. B.—Percentage of dry matter: - Sisar-free solids ae) eee ee 74,120 65.250 | 64.050 | 61.440 58. 760 | 53. 940 51. 670 ASHE Cru deer. ecu nsetere tee bees *9, 390 *9,590 | *9.090 *9, 150 *8. 620 | *8. 720 *9, 140 Acidity (as eitricacid) i522. 22) 4.740 9.980 | 6.000 | 15. 880 11.110 | 7.150 7. 620 eLotalmitroreniee aes aee eee ae 2. 960 2.560 | 2.330 2.340 2.440 | 2.200 2.100 iBrotein (= NX 16:25) eee ees eee | 18. 500 16.000 | 14.550 14. 660 15. 250 | 13.780 13. 130 Total sugar (as invert).............- | 25. 830 34. 240 | 35.930 | 38.550 42.230 | 46.030 48. 320 Cane Sugar o.oo ee eee ee . 264 -708 | 0 SEY} 1.215 324 - 485 Reducing sugar (asinvert).........- 25. 560 33. 490 | 36.040 | 38.200 39. 930 | 45.710 47, 850 SIREN RG Oeeore ee Ae IRA Bega a 9 15. 840 14. 220 | 10.500 9.770 9.630 } 4.000 2. 650 RENBOSANIS cect terse rie eee ae as 4,920 4.700 | 4.210 4. 890 4.580 | 4.120 4,320 Crademiberis sso 55 ee ee ae *7, 450 *7,920 | *7. 630 *8. 710 *7.510 | *7.620 *7.150 Ratio (sugar ~ acid)................ 5. 450 3.420 | 5.980 2. 430 3.710 | 6.4380 6.340 Carbohydrates— Ota ot. se ene ee ee cer 54. 030 61.030 | 58.270 | 61.920 63.970 | 61.720 62. 450 SOlUbD Ee as. eee ee ee 25. 830 34. 240 | 35.930 | 38.550 42. 230 | 46.030 48.320 Insolublesiiak-)- See eee ee 28. 200 26.790 | 22.340 | 23.370 21.740 | 15. 690 14. 130 From Table IV it may be seen that the tomato contains a com- paratively small amount of solid matter and that a considerable portion of this consists of acids and sugars, especially in the ripe fruit. In fruit 14 days old there are relatively small percentages of acids and sugars, but as the tomato matures these increase per- ceptibly in the case of acids and markedly in the case of sugars. In general, throughout the ripening period there is an increase in moisture, acids, and sugars and a decrease in solids, total nitrogen, starch, pentosans, crude fiber, and ash. Some of these losses are probably not absolute, but attributable to changes in the proportion of the constituents. Tracing the figures for moisture content from the first column, concerning tomatoes 14 days old, across to the last column for ripe fruit, it will be seen that there’is a gradual and progressive increase in total moisture. The only irregularity is that noticed in the fourth column (for 35 days). The moisture content here is greater than it should be if the change followed a regular curve of increasing water, being greater than in fruit when fully ripe. i ’ PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. 19 It seems that a clue to the reason for this irregularity is afforded by Table V, showing weather conditions for the period previous to pick- ing the samples. Just before picking this particular sample there . was a rainfall of 9.10 inches within 36 hours. This precipitation was as unusual for the locality as it was injurious. Not only was the actual rainfall excessive, but the overflow from the Everglades still further complicated the situation. In some places a total loss resulted, and everywhere some damage was reported. At Peters, Fla., where the fruit for this investigation was grown, the loss was comparatively small, but the ground was saturated for more thana week. In view of the fact that the only anomalous moisture content was found in the 35-day fruit, it seems justifiable to correlate it with the excessive rainfall. It would hardly be warranted, however, to conclude from this one instance that the moisture content is higher alter a heavy rain than normally. The coincidence is merely pointed out and should be of some interest in view of the widespread opinion in the canning mdustry that a heavy rainfall increases the amount of water in tomatoes. Bigelow (11) was recently unable to draw any definite conclusions with regard to this matter. Taste V.—Weight and equatorial diameter of tomatoes at dates when samples were taken, together with mean temperature and total precipitation for the period (usually seven days) preceding sampling. Meteorological data. Average Average Time of sampling. Color of fruit. weight diameter IBreciniiae (grams). (cm.). Tempera- aes ture (° F.)-| (inches). Asewlaidayse noes! s22ssshccnce Greene 2 exes ee ete 6. 74 3 66 0. 83 PMOGWIRGCA VS cs oek Saree wns st |Seeen COs tee eee 63. 65 5.18 73 2 INS OPIBId aA See eset gaee eee oss (eae se dOSetecisoneen ese 82.37 5.47 77 -O1 INE@ SAGEM a Rae ee te eee eee AGH ed nee 95. 10 5.47 62 9. 42 INO OCA Se nae. sees ealtee se CO ee es leet 147.91 6.37 68 27 INGOUSO\UaYy Sas aes. 2 555s5ce 5 Se fe bb watbaean Kop a0 ee 162. 81 38 76 -09 INT GAT ener ne ee ee Rane eine eee eee tel aisie Sw el epee Cin wei | cies eters 7 Al)s| heperaeaietes eae ANYON EELS Se ents Ae tas east ae om a Ie ty 8 ee Ped eos RE | Biss Sete eiar 10. 85 -Inversely with moisture, total solids show a gradual decrease as the tomato matures. Turning to section B of Table IV, which gives the same data as those of section A of the same table, but reduced. to a dry-weight basis, the sugar-free solids are seen to decrease con- siderably, while soluble carbohydrates increase and insoluble carbo- hydrates decrease regularly. Total carbohydrates vary somewhat, but in general seem to show an increase. Regarding the changes in acidity, there is considerable fluctuation, but when we consider the changes in a general way there is an increase in quantity from the second week to the fifth and then a gradual decrease during the last three weeks of ripening. The total quantity of acid found in the red-ripe fruit is, however, still greater than in Sa. -- | ee 20 BULLETIN 859, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the first stage analyzed. The possibility should be borne in mind that the ripe tomato may contain relatively.more acid salts and less free acid than the green fruit. Since the acid content was deter- mined throughout by titration to neutrality, with phenolphthalein as the indicator, it is obvious that the presence of acid salts might cause the analytical results to show more acid than the taste would indicate. As will be seen later, the change in the ratio of acid to sugar is in the direction to account for the sweetening that takes ) place during ripening. ) 5 | Sates aed ~ Nevertheless it is not | impossible that the ‘ a7. ratio of free-acid salts : is likewise of impor- 1 tance. It is believed that ‘rainfall and _ other factors influence the quantity of acid in tomatoes, although there are few ana- lytical data at hand to indicate this. In the fourth column of figures of Table IV (sec. B), concerning the tomatoes that received the highest rainfall, the acidity is 15.88 per cent, and in the fifth column, where the tomato would no doubt be still affected, there Fic. 3.—Diagram showing the progressive changes in the composition is a decrease to 11.11 o iviogson Sobe maizes doping nig: Te nanenARA \Dor cent, but this ig fiber; d-d, crude ash: e-e, starch; f-/, protein; g-7, soluble carbohy- ure iS higher than the , oe ash tees cee carbohydrates; i-i, total carbo- remainin g ones. | In this connection | it may be worth while to suggest that a tomato with excessive water content may have the intercellular spaces sufficiently diminished so that gas exchange is impeded. Under such conditions a deficiency of oxygen might result in an accumulation of acid, due to incomplete oxidation of carbohydrates to carbon dioxid. The most striking change during ripening is that undergone by carbohydrates. In the first stage analyzed it was noticed particu- larly that insoluble carbohydrates composed 52.1 per cent of the PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. al: total carbohydrates present, while in the last stage, that of ripe fruit, soluble carbohydrates were in excess, amounting to 77.3 per cent of the total. Nearly all of the total sugar in the tomato fruit is appar- ently invert sugar, and this increases from 25.56 per cent in the case of 14-day-old fruit to 48.32 per cent in ripe fruit, an increase of nearly 89 per cent. Starch decreases during maturation from 15.84 to 2.65 per cent. The most marked decrease, as would be expected, is no- ticed during the period of transition from green to red. The progres- sive decrease in starch during ripening is in striking contrast to the increase in starch noticed by Albahary (2). Pentosans decrease during ripening, but only to a comparatively slight extent. Total nitrogen decreases gradually during ripening and this fact is rather interesting and important in the light of some recent investi- gations of Kraus and Kraybill (28). They make the following statements: ’ On account of the wide differences in composition of different parts of any plant grown under a given set of conditions, only similar portions are compared. With but few exceptions, increased amounts of total nitrogen are associated with decreased amounts of total carbohydrates. This condition holds fairly uniformly throughout the plant with the exception of the lower leaves. ; Examination of Table IV (sec. B) shows that increased total nitro- gen in the tomato fruit under the conditions used for the material in this investigation is associated with decreased total carbohydrates. The above investigators analyzed leaves and stems of the tomato plant, while the data presented in the present paper furnish ana- lytical figures for the fruit, thus yielding complete analyses of the entire plant. The correlation between total nitrogen and _ total carbohydrates holds with respect to the fruit as well as to the other parts of the plant (excluding the lower leaves). All of the changes during ripening are represented in the diagram shown as figure 3. COMPARISON OF THE COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIALLY PICKED TOMATOES WITH TURNING AND VINE-RIPENED FRUIT. It is conceded by many commission men and by some of the erowers themselves that the tomatoes shipped to the North differ very noticeably in flavor and palatability from normal fruit. The chemical composition of Florida-grown tomatoes compares favorably with the various analyses reported of such fruit grown in other locali- ties, so the inferiority of the former can not be attributed to the kind of soil or climatic conditions prevailing in Florida. Elimination of these possibilities led the writer to look for other causes of the trouble. It will be seen from the analytical data which follow that tomatoes picked green and allowed to ripen exposed to air and light differ - 22 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. slizhtly in composition from vine-ripened fruit. They contain more sugar-free solids, slightly more acid, and less total sugar than vine- ripened tematoes, but these differences hardly explain the great difference in taste. In tracing the trouble to lack of ventilation it is believed that a proper explanation is presented. The analytical data upon which these conclusions are based are presented in Tables VI and VII. TaBLeE VI.—Composition of artificially ripened and vine-ripened Livingston Globe tomatoes. [The asterisk (*) indicates that the given result is based upon a single determination: results not thus. marked are the mean of two determinations. ] Commercially P . picked; green. Turning aati ine = ripene Constituents. Ripened Ripened | fruit; red As at room As at room Tipe. pisked. |tempera-| picked. | tempera- ture. ture. Sec. A.—Percentage of entire fruit: ; MOISUUEG 5 ot son, tema se eee ee ee *93.800 | *94.310 | *94.450 | *94.540 #94490. Total SOndS. 24203, 32 see a eee enone De = *6§.200 | *5.690 *5. 550 *5.460 *5.510 pupar-free SOHGS 2.26. on -. ea ees eh oat eee 3.975 3.059 2.994 2.916 2.847 Acidity (AS CiiriG acid) nannies - 508 «475 397 23875 420 POtaLNILOp enc) ks eras lees 5 ay ee .138 - 1335 . 1225 |. .1265 116 Propein’ (= N-566925) ese oe eer eae oe ee 831 . 834 . 766 791 .125 Vota surar(ASin Verb) sooo se Sees ee ee 2.225 2.631 2.556 2.543 2.667 GANG SUGAR. = oe mier Be een ee ae Bae ee ens > 060 -012 -018 024 - 024 Reducing sugar (asinvert)............-.-----+-- 2.175 2.628 2.537 2.518 2.637 EAE eae ee ak ke *, 855 095 . 222 -101 146 Pentosans...- eee oe 258 214 APE 251 238 Crude fiber - .- pee *, 404 *, 462 *, 423 *_ 438 #394 Ratio (stivar== acid). ee oe eee 4.380 5.540 - 6.430 6.780 6.340 Carbohydrates— QUA See se eae cee eee 8.742 3.403 3.429 3.334 3.441 Soluble=: 7h eee See cate 2.225 2.631 2. 55) 2.543 2.667 Insolibles) 3 ii ee ee eee TeoLG, 772 873 «791 774 Sec. B.—Percentage of dry matter: Sugar-free souds.- 35-0 322) Sas sas see eee 64.110 | 53.770 53.940 53.410 51.670 ACIGILY: (A5'CIITIC AGIA) eee; Dae eee eee 8.190 8.340 7.150 6.860 | - * 7.620 Total mitropen.-) 22: tec sceten poste ees 2.140 2.340 2.200 2.320 2.100 Prove (= Nix 6525) 5-5 ease eee ee eee 14.370 | 14.630 13.780 14.500 13.130 Total supar(Qssnvert)=.os ose. +e ee ee ee 35.880 | 46.230 46.030 46. 580 48.320 Caneisupar >. jos. teseccst ee eee Wee Ss 821 .210 . 324 - 430 4385 Reducing sugar (asinvert).....................- 34.970 | 46.010 45.710 46.120 47.850 Starches W.sac ese se women eee ae eee ee *13.790 1.680 4.000 1.850 2.650 Pen bOsans -).3o. one asoeceecee tee eae oe ee 4.170 3.770 4,120 4.600 4.320 Crude fiber 2 2S e555 oe ee ee *6.520 | *8.120 *7,620 *8. 020 *7.150 Ratio (sugar + acid) 4.380 5.540 6.430 6. 780 6.340 Carbohydrates— Votals:: te. 2 60.870 | 59.800 61.720 61.050 62.450 Soluble: ce Secge aa As tees ee ea A 35.880 | 46.230 46.030 48.320 Insoluble. S52 eee spn ae 24.990 | 13.670 15.690 14.470 14.130 The percentage composition of samples of commercially picked green fruit (Pl. I, A), of the same after being ripened at room tem- perature, of turning fruit as picked (Pl. I, B) and after being ripened, and of vine-ripened fruit (Pl. II, @) is given in Table VI. All the fruit for the different samples was collected at the same time, in order that a comparison might be made. In the case of commer- cially picked green tomatoes, four crates were taken at random in one of the largest packing houses of the South. ‘The fruit had just been picked and brought into the packing shed. The sample for analysis | NS ee ae PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. es was taken from as representative a lot as could be obtained, portions of approximately 20 tomatoes being used. These had been ripened by exposure to air and light in the laboratory until they assumed a characteristic ripe appearance, as judged by the color. They were sampled 13 days later, Turning tomatoes were taken to the labora- tory after being picked and one lot sampled; another lot was set aside toripen. Four days later they showed a red color and were therefore sampled. Vine-ripened fruit was, of course, sampled as soon as it was brought into the laboratory. Table VI summarizes the analyt- ical results obtained. Comparing the analyses of commercially picked green tomatoes with those given in Table IV, it will be seen that green fruits are not mature, for the chemical transformations of ripening have not been completed. The sugar-free solids are com- paratively high, while the sugars are correspondingly low. The total amount, of carbohydrates is still low compared with that in mature fruit. Taking composition as a criterion of maturity, one must con- clude that commercially picked green fruits are immature and there- fore inferior. When green fruit is commercially ripened, however, changes take place, which, although corresponding in general trend to those of normal vine ripening, nevertheless fail to bring the fruit to the same degree of ripeness attained normally. The artificially ripened tomato is lower in total sugar than vine-ripened fruit (46.23 per cent of the dry weight in the former, as contrasted with 48.32 per cent in the latter) and higher in acid (8.34 per cent,.as contrasted with 7.62 per cent). The ratio of sugar to acid in the former is 5.54, while in the latter it is 6.34. In other words, the artificially ripened - fruit is different in taste, due to the lack of one constituent and an excess of the other. In spite of these differences, however, the taste is not as bad as that of fruit which reaches the market. If some way could be devised to place on the market fruit having substantially the -same flavor as that found in tomatoes ripened like the samples used, there would be little likelihood of complaint. When the data for turning tomatoes (Table VI) are examined, it is found that they compare more favorably with vine-ripened ma- ture fruit than the commercially picked green fruits. In the interval between the time when green tomatoes are picked in commercial practice and the time of turning red on the plant, sugar-free solids normally decrease considerably, while sugars increase in proportion. Since in turning tomatoes there is very little starch present which can be converted into sugar, it is seen that there is not so marked an in- crease of soluble carbohydrates in further ripening as in the artificial ripening of green-picked fruit. ‘The acid content changed from 7.15 to 6.86 per cent during ripening, but the latter figure is below that of normal fruit. The total amount of sugar is also below normal, but not as much so as in artificially ripened green tomatoes.- The ratio 24 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the case of ripened turnings is 6.78, compared with 6.34 in vine- ripened fruit. This signified that the former should be comparatively sweet and less pronouncedly acid, as was indeed true. The facts brought out indicate that there is less chemical difference. between turning and vine-ripened fruit than there is between commercially ripened green fruits and the latter. Differences in chemical compo- sition between: vine-ripened fruit and commercially picked green to- matoes ripened in the laboratory, exposed to air and light, are not sufficient to account for the marked differences in flavor and palata- bility between commercially ripened fruit and normal fruit. This conclusion was confirmed by taste comparisons. EFFECT OF LACK OF VENTILATION ON RIPENING. Since the differences due to ripening after picking with normal exposure to the air were obviously insufficient to account for the in- feriority of Florida tomatoes after shipment, it seemed to be clearly indicated that the cause of the difficulty might well be lack of venti- lation during commercial ripening. As already stated, the fruits are wrapped before packing for shipment, and it seemed not unlikely that the paper used might appreciably retard gas exchange and thus modify the course of ripening. In order to test the hypothesis that wrapping plays an important part in influencing the composition and flavor of tomatoes, it was deemed necessary to analyze tomatoes which were ripened in a non- ventilated chamber and to compare the results with those obtained with wrapped fruit. Comparisons were made between (1) tomatoes commercially picked and ripened without ventilation, (2) commer- cially picked and ripened, wrapped with one paper, (3) commercially picked and wrapped with three papers, (4) commercially picked and ripened unwrapped at room temperature, (5) turnings ripened un- wrapped at room temperature, and (6) vine-ripened fruit. All of the fruit used for the above comparisons was obtained at the same time. A box for the green fruit ripened with no ventilation was made of composition board about a quarter of an inch thick. The approxi- mate size was a little less than 1 cubic yard. All corners were sealed with adhesive tape and the door was made by cutting it from the board and hinging it on. The total exclusion of air from the interior of the chamber of course was not secured, but the degree of nonven- tilation obtained was complete enough for the experiment, as shown by the fact that at times the oxygen content of the chamber would not support an alcohol flame. Six baskets of tomatoes (approxi- mately 125 fruits) were allowed to remain in this chamber, which was heated with one electric bulb, until they showed a red color. They were then removed and sampled by taking portions from 15 to 20 fruits. It required 11 days for the color to appear. Other fruits PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. 25 were wrapped with one and three papers and set aside at room tem- perature until they also attained a red color. These were sampled 11 days later. Summaries of the analyses are given in Table VII. Taste VII.—Composition of commercially picked green Livingston Globe tomatoes allowed to ripen under different conditions as compared with artificially ripened turnings and vine-ripened red fruits. [The asterisk (*) indicates that the given result is based upon a single determination; results not thus marked are the mean on two determinations. ] Commercially picked; ripening— Turning fruit; Vine- n ripened | ripened Constituents. No ven- | One pa- Three pa-| At room ab me fruit; ; tilation. [Pe .W74P-|per, wrap-| tempera- | tempera- | red ripe. ping. pings. ture. ture. Src. A.—Percentage of entire fruit: INGISDIRD aco a oeO uae as aa Ben ER aac 93.930 | *94.500 | *94.430 | *94.310 | *94.540 +94, 490 MocalsOlds. 22.2325 a. eee smescere- ss *6. 070 *5.500 | *5.570 *5. 690 *5. 460 *5.510 © Sugar-free solids.....-...-.---.-------- _ 8.745 3. 037 3. 039 3. 059 2.916 2.847 Acidity (as citric acid).....---..-----. 1.104 - 850 - 673 -475 OD) - 420 Totalemitnorenss. 2222. 4soa-cee oes soo. . #134 ~ 131 1265 - 1335 .1265 .116 Protein (=N X 6.25).......---------- *, 838 -818 791 . 834 791 725 Total sugar (as invert)-..-..-.-.--.--.- 2.325 2. 462 2. 581 2. 631 2. 543 2. 667 WaneSUeariee (cc canines asi eee ec : - 048 - 012 | - 077. - 012 . 024 . 024 Reducing sugar (as invert) -....---.-.- D275) 2. 450 2. 450 2. 628 2. 518 2. 637 Stance ate ae na cin oe os eee re cae els - 079 - 084 . 139 - 095 -101 - 146 IEGUIWOSEINS 6 Fee Sonos cree eee eee aaabene . 255 . 224 - 238 214 251 . 238 @nudeshber= =: 3a - eee eee 8 #482 *_ 482 *, 473 *, 462 +, 438 *, 394 Ratio (sugar + acid)...-..--.------.-- 2.110 3. 010 3. 760 5. 540 6. 780 6.340 Carbohydrates— : ; 3. 140 3. 253 3. 381 3. 403 3.334 3. 441 2.325 2. 463 2. 531 2. 631 2. 543 2. 667 -815 . 790 - 850 172 - 791 774 ~ Suc. B.—Percentage of dry matter: : Sugar-free solids. -.-.--.--------------- 61. 700 55.050 | 54. 550 53.770 53. 410 51. 670 ~ Acidity (as citric ald) eee ee -| 18.180 15.450 | 12.080 8.340 6. 860 7. 620 Total nitrogen......-- *2. 210 ~ 2.380 2. 270 2. 340 2.320 2.100 Protein (=N X 6. 95). *13. 810 14.670} 14.190 14. 630 14. 500 13.130 Total sugar (as invert) - - - 38. 290 45.950 | 45.440 46. 230 46.580 48.130 Caneisurartsssse.ss-2 - 791 . 218 1.382 . 210 - 430 - 435 Reducing sugar (as invert) . 37. 450 44.540 | 43.980 46. 010 46. 120 47. 850 Starch....-..-. 1.301 1.620 2. 500 1. 680 1.850 2. 630 Pentosans...- 4.190 4. 080 4. 270 3.770 4. 600 4.320 Crude fiber.........-- -| *7.940 *8.760 | *8. 490 *8.120 #8. 020 *7.150 Ratio (sugar + acid).....-. bie 2.110 3. 010 3. 760 5. 540 6. 780 6.340 Carbohydrates— Total 51. 730 60. 400 | 60. 700 59. 800 61. 050 62. 450 38. 290 45.950 | 45. 440 46. 230 46. 580 48.320 13. 440 14.450 | 15. 260 13.670 .| 14.470 14. 130 There are striking differences in: the analyses between the acid and carbohydrate content of tomatoes commercially picked and ripened without ventilation and the same fruit ripened when exposed to the air. Without ventilation the acids are very high and the soluble carbohydrates (sugars) are low. These facts indicate incom- plete oxidation of carbohydrates to carbon dixoid (CO,) with the consequent accumulation of acid. The connection of these changes in composition with the flavor is very obvious. The nonventilated fruit was markedly inferior. Although the reaction was decidedly acid, the general flavor was insipid. While the same effect was not produced to as great an extent in fruit ripened when wrapped with paper, it nevertheless takes place. Fruit wrapped with one paper had a noticeably inferior flavor; it was not as poor as the sample ripened without ventilation, but it was worse than that of green 26 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fruit ripened without wrapping. The acid content of fruit ripened without ventilation shows an increase of approximately 138 per cent over that of vine-ripened fruit; that of fruit ripened while wrapped with one paper, an increase of approximately 102 per cent; and that of fruit ripened while wrapped with three papers, an increase of about 58 per cent. The soluble carbohydrate content for fruit ripened without ventilation shows a decrease of nearly 21 per cent compared with normal fruit; that of fruit ripened while wrapped with one paper, a decrease of nearly 5 per cent; and that of fruit ripened while wrapped with three papers, a decrease of nearly 6 per cent. The data presented also bring out the fact that green tomatoes ripened when exposed to air and unwrapped are superior in taste and chemical composition to the same fruit ripened when wrapped with paper. | Several experiments were carried out in order to determine what effect lack of ventilation produced on the normal color of the tomato. Since they all yielded the same results, it will suffice to present the figures from one. Two large glass jars were filled with green fruit and cardboard covers placed over each. Unwrapped fruits were placed in baskets as checks. Both lots were held at room tempera- ture and examined at the same time. (Table VIII.) TasLe VIII.—lffect of lack of ventilation on the normal coloring of tomatoes held at room temperature. 21 fruits in bottles (no ventilation). 31 fruits in baskets (ventilated). Time of examination. : S Colored. Green. | Turning.| Green. Turning.| Pink. Red. Total. ATCOLiG\GAYS: cn cccwes cee benciectes “21. -oeeensen 6 10 6 9 25 pAdter 2 AS yS-so8 osecsne meee ees |aeeeomaone 71 el ese ae Asa ee noe 5 . 426 31 a 14 soft. These results would seem to indicate that lack of ventilation retards ripening and the consequent formation of pigment in the tomato. It was noticed that the tomatoes kept in jars were firmer than those left exposed to the air. Hill (24) records a similar condition in the case of peaches held in an atmosphere of carbon dioxid (CO,). His explanation is that CO, evidently prevents the hydrolysis of the pectin to which peaches owe their hardness. This may also be the case with tomatoes. An attempt was made to duplicate the results presented above by using a larger closed chamber and also by wrapping the fruit in paper, but no concordant data were obtained. There are hardly sufficient data to justify making any statement as to the effect of wrapping on the color formation. It is often noticed that tomatoes picked green and ripened arti- ae ee ee PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. INT ficially acquire a much better color than vine-ripened fruit. The color is deeper and more even. Investigation has been made by Duggar (17) of the effect of various conditions on. the development of the tomato pigment (called by this author lycopersicin). - He studied the effect of light and tempera- ture on its development and concluded that high color is independent of any direct effect of light and that fruit will redden perfectly in darkness at a temperature of even 20° to 25°C. He also states that ‘“when half-crown varieties are employed a temperature of 30° C. is sufficient to suppress lycopersicin development to a marked extent. Fruits nearer maturity, that is, those showing a blush of color, permit a stronger lycopersicin development at all temperatures employed.” Duggar (17) also studied the relation of oxygen to pigment produc- tion in the tomato and concluded that lack of oxygen inhibited lycopersicin development. _ From a consideration of all the data it appears that wrapping is harmful to the tomato and that lack of ventilation is probably the main cause of inferiority in taste and keeping quality. In 1913 Hill (24) reported on the respiration of fruits and growing plant tissues in certain gases with reference to ventilation and fruit storage. He found that apples and peaches ripened poorly when oxygen was withheld from them. It was also pointed out that an accumulation of carbon dioxid within paper wrappers in which peaches are shipped and an insufficient supply of oxygen cause “Gee scald.” Fischer and Nelson (18) recently came to a similar conclusion with regard to wrapping cantaloupes, maintaining that ‘‘wrapped cantaloupes do not refrigerate so well in transit nor do they reach the consumer in as good condition as do cantaloupes not wrapped.” In both of these investigations similar conditions were found to be the result of wrapping, namely, that wrapped fruits were firmer but of poorer quality than those unwrapped. Another serious disadvantage of the present method of picking and shipping green tomatoes lies in the fact that it is practically impossible to determine comparable stages of maturity in picking. In spite of the fact that the fruit of individual baskets is all approximately of the same size, the coloring of the fruit does not occur at the same time. The explanation for this fact has already been given. The maturity of a tomato depends on its age and not on its size; consequently fruits of the same size do not necessarily ripen and Pat red simulta- neously. The most obvious disadvantage of the inability to deter- mine comparable stages of maturity is the fact that when the fruit _ does ripen, either in transit or after reaching the market, it colors up so irregularly that many sortings become necessary before the dealer is able to dispose of it. The more uniform in size and color a package is the more salable it 1s, so naturally the dealer sorts the fruit to insure 28 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a quick sale. Im consequence of many handlings the fruit becomes soft and injured and is more liable to fungous attacks through the germination of adhering spores. It is clear that, if possible, only fruit of the same age should be packed in a single container. No criterion for determining age exists except at the time of turning from green to pink. If turning tomatoes could be packed instead of green ones, this particular commercial difficulty would be solved. Since it has been shown, moreover, that Florida tomatoes are lacking in certain fundamental qualities as to taste, which would likewise be remedied by picking. more mature fruit, the writer turned his attention to determining the feasibility of shipping “‘turnings.’’ It was found, as would of course be expected, that the riper the tomatoes the shorter the time it is pos- sible to hold them, but the fact was ascertained that “‘turnings”’ can be kept in good condition at a temperature approximating that ob- tained in refrigerator cars (50° to 55° F.) long enough to ship them and tosell them totheconsumer. Turning tomatoes held in the refrigerator for 10 days and then kept at a temperature of approximately 75° F. for 5 days longer were found to be in an excellent condition. Other fruits remaining at the lower temperature for 15 days were still firm enough to be held at room temperature for a few days. At lower temperatures than those used it is possible to hold tomatoes even longer than 15 days. Iced shipments in pony refrigerators sent by express from Miami, Fla., to Washington, D. C., arrived in excellent condition. One commission man who has been shipping fruit under ice for a number of years states that these tomatoes reach the market in excellent condition and bring higher prices than uniced fruit. The above statements are not offered as recommendations for picking and shipping turning tomatoes under ice. There are, however, many good reasons for suggesting that turning fruit may be picked and shipped under an initial icmg. One of these reasons has already been men- tioned, namely, that it would be possible to pick fruit at the same stage of maturity which would ripen uniformly and save considerable of the loss which is at present experienced. Furthermore, chemical analysis has shown that turning fruit compares favorably with normal or vine- ripened fruit in composition, taste, and palatability. Other investi- gators, Powell (38), Ramsey (39, 40, 41), Stevens and Wilcox (47, 48), Ridley (42), and others, have shown that fruits are more liable to fungous infection when they are wounded than when uninjured. This is what one would expect in the light of some recent investigations which show a high correlation between susceptibility to infection and the resistance offered by the fruit to mechanical puncture. The investigations of Rosenbaum (43) on the origin and spread of tomato fruit rots in transit have demonstrated that overripeness, bruises, and other injuries favor the appearance of these rots. Since the resistance of the epidermis shows the relative ease with which a fruit may become infected by means of a mechanical entrance of the ~ / PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. 29 spore tube, tables are presented showing these data in connection with tomatoes. Table [X (sec. A) shows the pressure necessary to penetrate the epidermis of fruit of different ages. The epidermis of colored fruit is softer than that of green tomatoes 38 days old, yet the difference is too small to justify the conclusion that green fruits are preferable on this account. Table IX (sec. B) also shows the effect of temperature on the resistance of the epidermis to wounding. ‘These results indi- cate that tomatoes are less liable to injury when cooled than when they are warm and consequently are less liable to fungous infection. It is generally known also that respiration decreases considerably with the lowering of temperature. The products causing the inferior taste and flavor in tomatoes probably result from intramolecular respiration as a result of withholding free oxygen from the tissues. Under the present methods of shipping tomatoes from the South it would be impossible to allow cars to remain open throughout the entire journey. The initial icing of cars at the warm end of the trip would have the effect of preventing the harmful result of lack of ventilation by reducing respiration to a minimum. TaBLE 1X.—Effect of age and temperature upon the resistance to wounding of the epi- dermis of Livingston Globe tomatoes, showing also color conditions. Sec. A.—Ageoftomatoes. Withneedlehav-| © Saree peo ee ing a diameter of 68 microns. ing a diameter of— Descriptive data. 49 7 13 21 30 38 5 - ; F Z days; | days: | days; | days; | days; days;| 68 microns; | 78 microns; green. | green. | green. | green. | green. yee turning. red ripe. Temperature of penetration SON Eeme mene mice ssw snes | 30 29 29 30 33 30.5 | 24 9 25 14 which penetration occurred for individual tomatoes: 41.3 | 38.3 23.6 14.4 40.9 36.3 27.8 23.2 38.4 37.1 32.6 21.3 40.6 | 37.3 | 33.9 | 20.4 41.2 40.3 32.1 23.7 41.0 40.3 31.5 24.8 39.6 36.6 29.3 24.9 41.3 | 37.6 | 34.7 | 25.6 41.7 -| 36.6 | 31.5 | 25.1 41.9 | 37.5 | 34.2 25.5 39.8 | 32.1 27.7 39.3 | 30.5 | 25.0 37.4 26.3 21.6 37.1 oles 28.1 Be R Cae cyaic Ia e eed loa nioe ate 38.8 22.6 25.4 Leo SERS ee |e 36.8 | 29.8 | 25.6 38.4 29255 |i Sek ee eee Aaa | Nea 39.3 RUB Nb esos pete PRIEST Bee ay a a 39.5 2A 59> |) SEES SHS GABE oe RCS eee Poe eames 36.4 289) sie eee Average scale reading for entire IOTROMPEMI ies esc Je) ese 40.8 | 38.0 30.5 23.8 29.3 Sila! 25.35 | 21.33 | 29.32 | 27.6 Due to tension of spring.grams| 11.75 | 10.86} 8.49] 6.38] 8.11 | 8.67 | 13.20] 11.80] 6.96] 6.46 Weight ofneedle androd...do..} 14.63 | 14.63 | 14.63 | 14.63 | 18.91 | 18.91 | 23.48 | 23.48 | 12.04 | 12.04 Pressure necessary to punc- : . GULCH eiicstiecse secs grams.| 2.88] 3.77] 6.14] 8.25 | 10.80 | 10.24 | 10.28} 11.68} 5.08} 5.58 1 For detailed information as to the apparatus and methods used to obtain the data presented in this ee see the following references: Hawkins and Harvey (22); Hawkins and Sando (23); Rosenbaum and ando (44). 30 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Against the arguments in favor of picking and shipping turning fruit one must consider the advantages of present practices. The picking of turning fruit would require that the fields be gone over more frequently than at present and that the pickers exercise much more judgment and care. The writer had planned to make com- mercial shipments of tomatoes picked at the turning stage in order. to get dependable information which might serve as a basis for rec- ommending to the growers changes in the current practice, but the discontinuance of this work for the present has prevented the carrying out of the plan. It is of very great importance to the growers that these shipments be made. It is felt that the work reported upon in this bulletin supports the chemical explanation offered of the infe- riority of tomatoes shipped from the east coast of Florida during the winter and spring months. It remains to be determined whether the changes in current practice suggested in these pages can be put into effect. If they can be, the result of these investigations will be to insure the consumer a better product in the future than in the past. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS. With the particular object of discovering the chemical basis for the inferiority of commercially picked and ripened Florida tomatoes marketed in the North during the winter and spring, a series of anal- yses has been made of tomatoes of several degrees of maturity and of tomatoes ripened artificially under various conditions of venti- lation. It was found that the only way to secure samples of comparable maturity for analysis was to tag the blossoms and pick the fruit at a definite age. There is a wide range of variation in the size of the tomatoes within the same variety, but ripening proceeds at a uni- form rate regardless of size. Maturity is dependent upon age, not upon size. Using fruit of known age, therefore, analyses were made which indicate that in general throughout the ripening period there is an increase in moisture, acids, and sugars and a decrease in solids, total nitrogen, starch, pentosans, crude fiber, and ash. The most strikimg change which occurs during ripening is that undergone by carbohydrates. Sugars increase from 25.66 per cent in fruit 14 days old to 48.32 per cent in ripe fruit. Starch decreases in the same interval from 15.84 to 2.65 per cent. The most marked decrease takes place during the period of transition from green to red. The percentage composition of fruit picked green but ripened with free access of air compared with analyses of turning and vine-ripened fruit did not show enough variation to account for the great differ- ee ee ary a een a ee a eee Le ne ene 270 Ves. : — PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. 31 ences in taste found in commercially shipped fruit. Turning toma- toes showed less difference from vine-ripened fruit than did the green fruit and compared favorably with normal tomatoes not only in composition but also in taste. The effect of lack of ventilation on ripening was to increase the acid content approximately 138 per cent over that of vine-ripened fruit. The flavor of tomatoes ripened without ventilation was very inferior. The soluble carbohydrate content showed a decrease of _ nearly 21 per cent. Commercially ripened green fruit, wrapped with - one paper, showed an increase in acid of approximately 102 per cent and a sugar decrease of nearly 5 per cent compared with correspond- ing tests of vine-ripened tomatoes. The results of wrapping with three papers were less marked and are difficult to explain. The data seem to justify the conclusion that wrapping probably modifies the course of ripening to such an extent as to account for marked changes in taste and flavor. The combined results of pick- ing fruit green, of wrapping, and of closing the cars in transit probably account for the total differences existing in quality between com- mercially shipped and vine-ripened tomatoes. LITERATURE CITED. ALBAHARY, J. M. (1) 1907. Analyse compléte du fruit du Lycopersicum esculentum ou tomate. In Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. [Paris], t. 145, no. 2, p. 131-133. (2) 1908. Etude chimique de la maturation du Lycopersicum esculentum (tomate). In Compt. Rend. Acad. Sci. [Paris], t. 147, no. 2, p. 146-147. > (3) Auwoop, W. B. 1891. Tomatoes. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 9, 18 p. and Bowman, WALKER. 1890. A study of tomatoes. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 4, 18 p. (5) Bascock, S. M. 1883. [Analysis of the] tomato. InN. Y. State Agr. Exp. Sta. Ist Ann. Rpt. 1882, p. 24. (6) Bacon, R. F., and DunBarR, P. B. ‘ 1911. Changes taking place during the spoilage of tomatoes, with methods for detecting spoilage in tomato products. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Cir. 78, 15 p. (7), Barney, 1: Hi: ; 1892. Do fertilizers affect the quality of tomatoes? In N. Y. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 49, p. 456-458. and LopEemAN, E. G. 3 1891. Notes on tomatoes. N. Y. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 32, p. 143-189. (9) Berarp, M. 1821. Suite du mémoire sur la maturation des fruits. Ann. Chim. et Phys., t. 16, p. 225-251. (10) BERTRAND, GABRIEL. nga 1906. Le dosage des sucres réducteurs. Bul. Soc. Chim. Paris, s. 3, t. 35, p. 1285-1299. (11) BicELow, W. D. 1917. Report on canned vegetables. In Jour. Assoc. Off. Agr. Chem., v. 3, no. 1, p. 1-21. (12) Brsnop, W. H., and Parrerson, H. J. 1890. Experiments with tomatoes. Md. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 11, p. 47-74. (13) Briost, GIovanntI, and Gicii1, TORQUATO. 1890. Su la composizione chimica e la struttura anatomica del frutto del pomodro (Lycopersicum esculentum Mill.). In Staz. Sper. Agr. — Ital., v. 18, fasc. 1, p. 5-34. (14) CALDWELL, G. C. 1892. The determination of sugar in the tomato. N. Y. Cornell Agr. Exp. — Sta. Bul. 49, p. 399-400. : (15) Conepon, L. A. 1912. A further study of the tomato with special reference to canned tomatoes. — InN. Dak. Agr. Exp. Sta. 23d Ann. Rpt., 1912, pt. Il, p. 216-242. (16) Danten, H. W. 1875. Beitriige zur chemischen Kenntniss der Gemiisepflanzen. In Landw. | Jahrb., Bd. 4, p. 613-721. (4) (8) 32 PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO, 33 (17) Ducear, B. M. 1913. Lycopersicin, the red pigment of the tomato, and the effect of condi- tions upon its development. In Wash. Univ. Studies, v. 1, pt. 1, no. 1, p. 22-45. Literature, p. 44-45. (18) FiscHer, G. L., and Nenson, A. E. 1918. More-care is needed in handling western cantaloupes. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Markets Doc. 9, 11 p., 4 fig. (19) ForMENTI, Carwo, and Screiort1, ARISTIDE. 1905. Zusammensetzung italienscher Tomatensifte. Jn Ztschr. Untersuch. Nahr. u. Genussmtl., Bd. 12, Heft 5, p. 283-295. (20) Gore, H. C., and Farrcump, Davin. 1911. Experiments on the processing of persimmons to renaer them nonas- tringent. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Bul. 141, 31 p., 5 fig., 3 pl. (21) HassELBRING, HEmnrIcH, and Hawkins, L. A. 1915. Bysiolosical changes in sweet potatoes during storage. In Jour. Agr. Research, v. 3, no. 4, p. 331-342. Literature cited, P. 341-342. (22) Hawkins, L. A., and Harvey, R. B. 1919. Shai laeresl study of the parasitism of Pythium debaryanum Hesse on the potato tuber. Jn Jour. Agr. Research, v. 18, no. 5, p. 275-297, 2 fig., pl. 35-37. Literature cited, p. 295-297. and Sanpo, C. E. 1920. Effect of temperature on the resistance to wounding of certain small fruits and cherries. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 830, 6 p., 1 fig. (24) Hii, G. R., jr. 1913. Respiration of fruits and growing plant tissues in certain gases, with ' reference to ventilation and fruit storage. N. Y. Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 330, p. 377-408. Bibliography, p. 407-408. (25) Huston, H. A., and Bryan, A. H. 1901. The chemical composition of materials. Jn Ind. Agr. Exp. Sta. 13th Ann. Rpt., [1899]/1900, p. 80-88. ; (26) Jenkins, EK. H., and Brirron, W. E. 1896. On the use of commercial fertilizers for forcing-house crops. Experi- ments with tomatoes. Jn Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. 19th Ann. Rpt., 1895, p. 75-90. (27) =a C. W. a 1873. Solania in Solanum lycopersicum. Amer. Jour. Pharm., v. 45 (s. 4, v. 3), p. 8-9. (28) Kraus, E. J., and Kraysii, H. R. 1918. Vegetation and reproduction with special reference to the tomato. Oreg. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 149, 90 p., 22 fig. Literature cited, p. : 87-90. (29) Luoyp, F. E. 1911. Carbon dioxide at high pressure and the artificial ripening of persim- mons. Jn Science, n. s., v. 34, no. 887, p. 924-928. Citations, p. 928. (30) McEtHeEntE, T. D. 1872. Lycopersicum esculentum.—Tomato. Jn Amer. Jour. Pharm., v. 44, p. 197-200. (31) Mittarpert, A. . 1876. Note sur une substance colorante nouvelle (Solanorubine) découverte dans la tomate. Nancy, 1876. (Abstract.) Jn Just’s Bot. Jahres- ber., Jahrg. 4, p. 783-784. 1876. Original not seen. (23) - 34 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (32) Montanari, CARLO. 1904. Materia colorante rossa del pomodoro. Jn Staz. Sper. Agr. Ital., v. 37, fase. 10, p. 909-919. (33) Munson, L. 8., and Waker, P. H. 1906. The unification of reducing sugar methods. Jn Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., v. 28, no. 6, p. 663-686. (34) PaLMERI, P. 1885. Sul pomodoro. Jn Ann. R. Scuola Sup. Agr. Portici, v. 5, p. 67-83. (35) PassERInt, N. 1890. Sulla composizione chimica del frutto del pomodoro. (Solanum lycopersicum L.) JnStaz. Sper. Agr. Ital., v. 18, fase. 5, p. 545-572. (36) Parrerson, J. 1889. Report of the chemist. dm Md. Agr. Exp. Sta. 2d Ann. Rpt., 1889, p. 67-93. (37) Precxo.t, Tu. 1909. Heil- und Nutzpflanzen Brasiliens. Jn Ber. Deut. Pharm. Gesell., Jahrg. 19, Heft 3, p. 180-207. Cites early analyses of John and Bertagnini. (38) Powett, G. H., et al. 1908. The ious of oranges while in transit from California. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Bur. Plant Indus. Bul. 123, 79 p., 26 fig., 9 pl. (2 col.). RAMSEY, ise J. (39) 1915. Factors governing the successful shipment of red raspberries from the Puyallup Valley. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 274, 37p., 26 fig. (40) 1915. Handling and shipping citrus fruits in the Gulf States. U.S. Dept. Agr., Farmers’ Bul. 696, 28 p., 10 fig. (41) 1916. The handling and shipping of fresh cherries and prunes from the Willamette Valley. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 331, 28 p., 11 fig. (42) Rivtey, V. W. 1918. Factors in transportation of strawberries from the Ozark region. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Markets Doc. 8, 10 p., 6 fig. (43) RosENBAUM, JOSEPH. : 1918. The origin and spread of tomato fruit rots in transit. In Phytopath- ology, v. 8, no. 11, p. 572-580, 1 fig., pl. 4. and Sanpo, C. E. 2 1920. Correlation between the size of the fruit and the resistance of the tomato skin to puncture and its relation to infection with Macro- sporium tomato Cooke. Jn Amer. Jour. Bot., v. 7, no. 2, p. 78-82. (45) Scounog, C. A. 1903. The xanthophyll group of yellow colouring matters. Jn Proc. Roy. Soc. London, v. 72, no. 479, p. 165-176, pl. 6-7. (46) Snyper, Harry. 1899. Tomatoes. Composition and food value. Jn Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 63, p. 513-517. oe Srevens, N. E., and Witcox, R. B. ; (47) 1917. Rhizopus rot of strawberries in transit. U. 8. Dept. Agr. Bul. 531, 22 p., 1 fig. Literature cited, p. 21-22. (48) 1918. Further studies on the rot of strawberry fruits. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 686, 14 p. (44) PROCESS OF RIPENING IN THE TOMATO. 3D (49) Street, J. P. ; 1911. Report on vegetables. In U. 8S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Bul. 137, p. 122-134. (50) Stiser, W. 1906. Uber die Zusammensetzung der Tomate und des Tomatensaftes. In Ztschr. Untersuch. Nahr. u. Genussmtl., Bd. 11, Heft 10, p. 578-581. (51) THomeson, Firman, and Warrier, A. C. 1913. Forms of sugar found in common fruits. Proc. Soc. Hort. Sci., 9th Ann. Meeting, 1912, p. 16-22. (52) Tracy, W. W. ; 1907. Tomato culture . . ., 150 p., illus. New York. (53) U. S. Department oF AGRicuLruRE. Office of Experiment Stations. 1893. Composition of vegetables. In U.S. Dept. Agr. Off. Exp. Stas. Bul. 15, p. 401. - (54) Van Stryke, L. L., Taytor, O. M., and ANpRrEws, W. H. 1905. Tabulated analyses showing amounts of plant-food constituents in fruits, vegetables, etc. InN. Y. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 265, p. 223-230. (55) VoorHEEs, EH. B. 1889. Experiments on tomatoes. N.J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 63, 27 p. (56) Wauxker, P. H. 1907..The unification of reducing sugar methods. Jn Jour. Amer. Chem. Soc., v. 29, no. 4, p. 541-554. (57) Winey, H. W., ed. 1908. Official and provisional methods of analysis, Association of Official Agricultural Chemists. As compiled by the committee on revision of methods. U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Chem. Bul. 107 (rev.), 272 p., 13 fig. Reprinted in 1912. (58) WiLustATTER, RicHarp, and Escuer, H. H. 1910. Uber den Farbstoffe der Tomate. In Ztschr. Physiol. Chem., Bd. 64, Heft 1, p. 47-61, pl. 2 (col.). } Bul. 859, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. EXTERIOR OF A NORMAL AND OF A “PUFFY” TOMATO. Bul. 859, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. INTERIOR OF A NORMAL AND OF A ‘‘PUFFY’’ TOMATO. PLATE IV. +0 APPENDIX. COMPARISON OF THE COMPOSITION OF “PUFFY” AND NORMAL LIVINGSTON GLOBE TOMATOES. The abnormality in tomatoes called puffiness is one in which the seed cavities are affected. The fruit sounds hollow when it is patted with the hand and shows external angular irregularities. Plates III and IV show the angular appearance of the exterior and also the characteristic appearance of the interior of the fruit. In a locality where the trouble was especially pronounced one crate of tomatoes was taken at random from a packing house and the number of hollow and normal fruits estimated. The figures follow: Estimated by the sound before cutting, normal 58, hollow 95; estimated by cutting the fruit in two, normal 32, partly hollow 56, pronouncedly hollow 66. Counts were made in order to determine whether certain plants produced fruits that were all hollow and other plants produced normal fruit. It appears that a single plant may produce both normal and hollow fruit. There is no stage in the life ee of the tomato at which puffiness is a natural occurrence, but it may occur on small as well as large fruit. It does not seem to affect the amount of color or the time of ripening. Table X shows that although there are some differences in chemical composition between normal and ‘ouffy’’ fruit there are no possible explanations to be gained from this standpoint. Various fertilizer plats were arranged to determine the effect of different amounts of nitrogen, potash, and phosphoric acid upon the production of “puffy” fruit. Seven plats were set out and the fertilizer mixtures were given in four applications at the rate of 1 ton to the acre. The fertilizer ingredients consisted of acid phosphate, sodium nitrate, and potassium sulphate, and the following ratios were used OuenBe various plats: 1:5 23-1210: 8-3 .5 23:37 10:8; 3 :6 305 (eo oe and (210.38. TABLE X.—Composition of normal and ‘‘puffy” Livingston Globe tomatoes. Both samples picked green, but fairly mature. Normal fruit. “Pufty”’ fruit. Constituents. a8 Wet basis. | Dry basis. | Wet basis. | Dry basis. IMIGTIS OIRO a) a SEG SA eee] See See Soe ee EY a OH Bg |Seaocesosser Qa BQ | Dasceecasece aN OrMESOMG Sees emia oe eiee moe se fcacie mai ce cee ee BNGAS ley neat ec GSS eGR aes Eos (SUOUEPETT RES) (SO HG IE Se ee ee 2.93 51.95 oD. 50. 00 OCAMPO eis oe see Ne Man hate oe acu ase ca nesee . 140 2. 48 . 139 4 Motalisugan (asinvert)- 252. 0..25-.22.22-hee ened e eel 2.71 48. 05 2. 84 50. 00 Reducing sugar (as invert)...........-.....------------ 2. 40 42. 55 2.61 45. 95 wm Sie Be ARTE es EE TS AS ee - 42 7.44 -38 6.70 Alcohol-soluble pentosans..........-.....-...-.-------- . 034 . 602 . 033 581 olipleypembosans ae. oe a. ae Soe Sok ce cet oes s Shoes . 190 3. 54 . 197 3.47 (CHROO® Tile. ae Os Oc ee aeememeeean .55 9.75 54 9.51 Carbohydrates: ANGE. oo gS CSAS SOO SEI SE ee ane ns aera 3. 904 69.38 3. 990 70. 26 SOU Os Soleo 5 Nua ea A a ee ae ee 2.71 48. 55 2. 84 50. 00 TSO LUO emer eee enna si Ret eae Stee Sep aaa 1.19 20. 83 1.15 20. 26 37 38 BULLETIN 859, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Examination of the fruit produced in this experiment showed that both normal and hollow fruits were to be found on every plat. Com- plete counts could not be made, owing to the destruction of the vines by a flood before the end of the season, but enough observa- tions were made to show that within the limits used varying quantities of fertilizer elements did not influence the production of hollow fruit. No positive results were obtained in this study showing the cause of puffiness in tomatoes, but the evidence indicated that the con- dition is not correlated with any considerable differences in the chemical composition of the mature fruit. The phenomenon is probably physiological in its nature, for the same varieties which show it in Florida are said not to do so, or only to a very slight extent, when grown in Michigan. A great difference that immediately occurs to one between conditions in the two places is that in Florida the crop is produced only through heavy annual applications of commercial fertilizers, which are not used in Michigan. Puffiness may therefore be dependent upon an unbalanced soil solution, but, if so, none of the variations in the fertilizers just enumerated sufficed to restore a proper condition. It is, of course, not inconceivable that puffiness is of a genetical nature and due to somatic variation. If so, it° might, in conformity with the observed facts, be much more frequent in some varieties than in others, and the same plant might show both normal and “puffy” fruit. The whole subject is one which needs investigation. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION-MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY ak i tee eh ik UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 860 Contribution from the Bureau of Markets GEORGE LIVINGSTON, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv August 20, 1920 THE ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES.. By J. M. Ment, Investigator in Cooperative Organization, and O. B. JESNESS. Specialist in Cooperative Organization. CONTENTS. Page. | Organization—Continued. Page. HETAER TG OCCLE aT le a eee 1 Stock subscription and member- Norms of organization_-—_~-__--~_~ 2 ShipEa ses Se aa Sear ess 21 Joint stock companies ________ 2 Incorporation! ===. 5 ae 22 Ordinary private corporations_—_ 3 Meeting of incorporators______ 23 The cooperative form____~-___ 4} Changing form of organization____ 24 Making preliminary survey____-___ 5 | General suggestions____-__________ 26 HOGA COndItIONS = — as 5 /Selection:on plant =o ees 26 Prospective membership___-___ 6 ITE CLO ie es ah ant ee ee 27 CONOR ed aS eee hes ee 6 Manasery Sik. Si cr tel aul eur eee 27 Volumenor. trade.= 2s sees 7 Stock certificates__.__________ 28 - Wiethod! of -survey= = 2 =! = 7 Maintenance agreement _______ 29 Oreami7alow= 22 heels eee, 8 Emergency capital_______.__ 30 Organization meeting ________ 8 Speculative tendencies________ 31 DES VU Si sek a ras Sa Li eres SGA Dp en Cixi ree Eo ee ee 33 INTRODUCTION. This bulletin is primarily intended to furnish a plan of organiza- tion and method of procedure for persons required to assist in the formation of cooperative grain elevator companies. It should be of interest to producers contemplating organization, to ordinary private corporation types of farmers’ elevators desiring to reorganize on the cooperative plan, and to persons interested in cooperative organiza- tion in general. While it has been prepared with special reference to conditions existing in the grain States, it is not intended to meet the particular requirements and conditions which are peculiar to any one State. Its scope is limited to matters which are regarded as fundamental and general, and the suggestions and recommendations . made are to be considered with reference to and in connection with 175430°—20-——_1 2 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. special cooperative laws and the laws governing corporations in each of the several States. The success of any organization, whether cooperative or for private profit, will be found to rest upon: (1) Social or economic need; (2) a sound organization plan; and (3) efficient management. The lack of any one of these fundamentals impairs the whole. A cooperative elevator company, like any other business organi- zation, must rest first upon some substantial economic need. An organization may come into existence by means of propaganda and enthusiasm engendered to serve a political, fraternal, or idealistic purpose, but unléss some substantial benefit or service is secured to the community such organization eventually must fail. The value to the community of any enterprise or undertaking is measured in direct proportion to the need therefor. The plan of organization must be sound. This means that some- thing more is necessary than mere statements of the high purposes and aim of the association. It means a definite and practicable plan of action, a plan which anticipates so far as it is possible to anticipate the practical problems and difficulties to be met in actual operations. : : A cooperative enterprise in arden to be successful must be con- ducted under efficient management and in accordance with a well- defined business policy. There has been too much tendency in the past to employ as managers men who are merely industrious and honest and who may not have that keen, discriminating judgment and tactful address so necessary in managerial positions. FORMS OF ORGANIZATION. In the United States three distinct forms of farmers’ elevator organizations are found, namely, (1) joint stock companies and un- incorporated societies; (2) ordinary private corporations of the capital-stock form; and (8) cooperative associations incorporated under special cooperative law. JOINT STOCK COMPANIES. The advantages of the joint stock company form of organization consist mainly in— (1) The ease of effecting organization, no formal procedure being necessary. (2) The saving of fees connected with incorporating. (3) Exemption from certain taxes affecting corporations. (4) Relief from the necessity of filing numerous corporate reports sometimes required of corpor ations. The joint stock company is adapted principally to small and com- pact organizations which desire to utilize some of the features of ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES. 3 corporations and still retain a partnership relation between the mem- bers. For organizations made up of a large number of members each having a comparatively small financial interest it is neither a convenient nor a desirable form, and for that reason it has not gained general favor in the farmers’ elevator field. Some of the disadvantages of this form are: (1) Each individual member of the company usually is jointly and severally liable for the entire company obligations. (2) The company can sue only in the names of the individual members composing it or in the name of a person first duly empow- ered, and if it is made defendant in a suit only those members served al process are held. (3) The company can not take, hold, or convey real estate by its company name, and every encumbrance or deed of conveyance must be executed in the names of the individual members, or by some per- son first authorized to act as their agent. The grain business is attended with some hazard, no matter how well conducted, and few men are willing to assume the partnership lability which usually follows the joint stock company form of organization. ORDINARY PRIVATE CORPORATIONS. The corporation-for-profit form of organization has predominance in number at the present time, although there is a decided tendency to reorganize under recently enacted State cooperative laws. During the period when the farmers’ elevator movement had its most rapid development the ordinary corporation-for-profit form was about the only possible corporate form of organization and it was adopted from necessity rather than from choice. Comparatively few cor- porations were organized which did not attempt with by-law pro- visions to secure some of the cooperative features specially author- . ized by later statutory enactment. Among these were the one-man, one-vote principle; limitations upon share ownership; and, to some extent, but not generally, the patronage refund and restricted divi- dend on capital stock, which now are considered the backbone of a really cooperative company. Considering that many of these fea- tures were without legal license and that they depended for effect entirely upon’ the mutual consent of the members, it is remarkable that the corporation-for-profit form has endured so well. However, the difficulties usually do not develop until the membership char- acter begins to change, through the retirement of members from active farm life, and the interests of stockholders become those of investors rather than of producers. A large majority of the 4,000 or more farmers’ elevator companies in the United States have at the time of organization been coopera- 4 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tive in purpose, if not in form or effect. Of the whole number per- haps one-third now are cooperative in the sense that earnings over and above operating expenses and a reasonable rate of interest on capital are distributed on the basis of patronage furnished. It is this feature of patronage refund and limitation of dividends upon capital stock to an interest charge which slowly but surely is estab- lishing-a class of farmers’ elevators that are properly designated as cooperative. The term “ farmers’ elevator” is properly applied to all forms of elevator organizations owned and controlled in the main by farmers, but it is doubtful whether the term “ cooperative eleva- tor ” will long be considered applicable to those organizations which have not adopted the patronage dividend or refund system in the distribution of earnings. THE COOPERATIVE FORM. The form of organization which under existing conditions and law will most effectively promote and protect the fundamental and now generally recognized cooperative principles is the form in which farmers’ elevator organizations are interested. For shipping asso- ciations which do not buy outright the products of their members and which act only in the capacity of selling agent, the nonstock form + is perhaps best suited to conserve cooperative principles. In the case of farmers’ elevators, however, which require considerable fixed capital, and which buy and sell grain and other products and supplies on a profit above cost basis, it is doubtful whether anything but a capital stock form of organization can be employed to advan- tage at present. Most of the grain States now have cooperative laws which authorize patronage dividends and other cooperative features. These laws are not uniform in all of the States, nor do they meet every requirement, but organization under them offers the best form at present, and will secure the benefits of any future amendments and changes in the law which are not inconsistent with present provisions. Among the cooperative principles not yet pro- vided for in the cooperative laws of some of the States the follow- ing may be mentioned: (1) Limitation of voting power to one vote per member, regardless of the number of shares or the amount of capital stock owned. (2) Limitations upon the number of shares or amount of capital stock that any single member may own. (3) Restrictions upon the power to sell or dispose of shares of stock except to persons acceptable for membership in the association. It may be that in states where each stockholder is entitled to one vote for each share of stock owned, what amounts to a one-man, one- vote rule may be secured by issuing only one share of stock to each 1For description see U. S. Department of Agriculture Bulletin 541, Cooperative Or- ganization By-laws, by C. E. Bassett and O. B. Jesness, 1918. a. ae ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES. 5 member but providing different classes of stock with shares of vary- ing par value. Some of the desirable cooperative features which are not especially authorized by the laws under which an organization is incorporated and which might not be valid as a by-law provision alone, may possibly be secured by means of a contract arrangement made at the time of issuing the stock certificate. Any and all by-law provisions in regard to which there is any doubt should be made the subject of a special contract by having them printed upon the stock certificates. ‘This will also have the effect of giving notice of the restrictions to possible purchasers. MAKING PRELIMINARY SURVEY. Before the organization of a cooperative elevator company is at- tempted or advised, a careful and unprejudiced survey of local con- ditions should be made in order to determine the economic need for the organization and to secure information that will be of assistance when the work of actual organization is undertaken later. LOCAL CONDITIONS. First it will be desirable to study the conditions under which grain is generally marketed in the particular local community in which organization is contemplated. Whether or not that com- munity normally is devoted to feeding or to shipping is of im- portance in this connection. The fact that marketing facilities are grossly inadequate one year does not necessarily indicate that other and additional facilities can be supported advantageously during a series of years. A fair comparison should be made between prices paid by local dealers and prices obtaining in the principal terminal markets, with due reference to freight and other charges deductible therefrom. It must not be imagined, however, that every daily newspaper can at all times be relied upon to report terminal values fully and accurately. It frequently occurs that even if such values are quoted accurately, there are coexisting conditions under which the prices are not available to the local buyer, and therefore are not applicable to current purchases in the country. In making a study of local marketing conditions it will be desirable to secure the services and advice of some practical grain man. If available, the advice of managers of successful neighboring associations will be especially valuable. Information regarding the amount of grain shipped from any station during a period of several years should be obtained from — local representatives of railroads, from the general offices of such railroads, or from State commissioners or bodies having charge of transportation matters within the State. Having determined the _ average volume of grain shipped from a certain station annually, its division among already existing agencies and dealers should be 6 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. considered. The volume of business which any single elevator is able to control will largely determine the minimum margin per bushel that is required to meet the overhead and operating expenses. The operating cost per bushel necessarily must be greater in han- dling 100,000 bushels per year than it would be in handling. 200,000 bushels per year. This applies with particular force to elevators dealing in grain exclusively. Of course, elevators which look to an extensive merchandise business for their main source of income may handle a small volume of grain with very little additional cost. Not infrequently such operators use their grain business as a feeder to their more profitable merchandise -business, in which case com- peting elevators, handling grain exclusively, are placed at a decided disadvantage. . Although the community need for cooperative marketing can not always be judged from the number of existing commercial agencies, for cooperative marketing may be made necessary at times by reason of having too many such agencies, their number and character be- come of vital importance in estimating the probable success of addi- tional marketing facilities. Hence, if from a conservative study of local conditions and as a strictly business proposition, it does not appear that a coorperative company is likely to be successful, its organization had better be held in abeyance. PROSPECTIVE MEMBERSHIP. Having studied the local conditions and the need for organization, it will be desirable to test the community. sentiment and desire. A cooperative elevator to be successful must, first of all, have a mem- bership considerable in number and sufficient to insure a dependable patronage from the start. Prospéctive membership should be deter- mined, if possible, by actual personal canvass of the community. General mass meetings are desirable for the purpose of acquainting the public with the principles of cooperative marketing and for the purpose of free and open discussion of the need therefor; but for the purpose of a concrete and physical appraisal of membership, nothing will serve so well as a formal expression from each inter- ested person. Every community has “chronic enthusiasts” who are in favor of everything that is proposed, but who, when the time comes for assuming definite obligations, find it easier to make excuses. The personal canvass may be made at any time, before, at, or following a general meeting, when the people have been thor- oughly acquainted with the objects of the proposed organization. CAPITAL. The matter of capital requirement is important and the prelimi- nary survey should be extended to cover a careful estimate of the | ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES. ii capital which the prospective membership may be expected to fur- nish. This estimate will be of value in apportioning the equitable share of the total capital requirement that each member should fur- nish when solicited for stock subscription and when the capital re- quirement has been definitely determined. _ Too often subscription lists are circulated and prospective mem- bers solicited to subscribe for as much as they can afford.up to a certain maximum amount. This method may be effective in raising the required amount of capital quickly, but may also result in elimi- nating many desirable members because of relaxation of effort when sufficient capital is in sight. Prospective members will subscribe more readily and more liberally when solicited for a definite amount, which has been determined and apportioned according to an equit- able estimate of what should be furnished by each. VOLUME OF TRADE. Under the head of local conditions, brief reference has been made to the volume of business that might be expected to originate in the community as a whole and its division among already exist- ing agencies. A consideration of prospective volume from this angle is important, but in addition a careful canvass should be made of the patronage which prospective members may be de- pended upon to furnish. While considerable patronage may be ob- tained from nonmembers when such patronage is solicited, it is bet- ter not to depend upon it, for not infrequently the possible increase in volume from this source is more than offset by patronage which members will give to other agencies and dealers. It is a mistake to assume that when a cooperative elevator has been established it will receive most of the local grain business as a matter of course. While successful cooperative elevators usually handle the bulk of a station’s grain, they do so because of having first laid a substantial foundation in the form of a large producing membership. METHOD OF SURVEY. First, one or more general meetings may be held, at which the need and readiness of the community for cooperative organization should be thoroughly discussed. Every person present should have an opportunity to express himself, but the meeting should not take the form of a protest meeting in which one or two persons are allowed to monopolize the time in abusing the existing agencies and dealers. Such procedure results only in estranging men who come for constructive purposes and for discovering practical means to improve their condition. It will be desirable to have present some person who understands cooperative organization and marketing methods for the purpose of answering questions and outlining organization plans. Such assistance usually can be obtained upon 8 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. application to the agricultural college of the State or to the Bureau of Markets, United States Department of Agriculture. In a num- ber of States there are farmers’ grain dealers associations whose secretaries are in a position to furnish valuable assistance. At or following these meetings, or in lieu of them, where it is found desirable to conduct the preliminary survey quietly, a tenta- tive subscription list may be circulated on which is shown the names of prospective members, the amount of capital which each prospective member thinks he can subscribe, and a conservative estimate in bushels of the grain which he markets annually. It may seem to be a duplication of effort to secure this tentative list of subscribers, and there may be conditions under which it will be desirable to eliminate it. In any event a list of prospective mem- bers, with an estimate of the capital and patronage to be furnished by each, should be prepared in some form. This list may be used to advantage as a basis for study and apportionment when later the actual capital subscriptions are solicited. The preliminary survey may be made by committees appointed at the first general meeting or by persons interested in the project. If it is impracticable to secure actual signatures to the tentative sub- scription list, then a list should be prepared in memorandum form, from the best information available and with the assistance of some one having an extensive acquaintance and knowledge of persons and property in the community. When the survey of local conditions and prospective membership, capital, and patronage has been completed, it will be desirable to de- termine in a general way the character and cost of the plant and equipment necessary to handle the business. Again, the advice of other associations in successful operation will be valuable. Contrac- tors and builders of elevators will usually furnish estimates and sometimes blue prints and plans for elevators of varying capacity. No intensive study of building plans is necessary at this time. The - approximate amount of capital required to provide a plant is the only purpose of the study. ORGANIZATION. ORGANIZATION MEETING. Assuming that the preliminary survey has shown an economic need and a genuine community desire for organization, we are ready to consider organization procedure. At this stage it will be neces- sary to call a general meeting for the purpose of perfecting a temporary organization and appointing the various committees necessary to carry on the actual work of organization. In case former meetings have been held and have been well organized and ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES. 9 conducted with parliamentary form and order, the chairman and - secretary of these meetings may act at the present meeting. If no former meetings have been held, the house should: proceed to elect a chairman and secretary and appoint the following committees: (1) Committee on membership and stock subscription; (2) committee on incorporation and by-laws; and (3) committee on buildings and plant site. . These committees may consist of any number of persons but should not be made too large. From three to five members on each committee are sufficient, and no objection can be made to having the same person serve on more than one committee. At this meeting the plan of organization should be thoroughly discussed in order that the several committees may be instructed relative to the wishes of those present. If the preliminary survey has been well conducted, a report, together with the recommenda- tions of the committee or persons conducting it, will furnish a sub- stantial basis upon which to build the organization plans proper. ‘The amount of capital, number of members, and probable volume of business to be depended upon will be approximately known, and the amount of capital stock and the number and par value of shares should be fixed at this meeting. It will be desirable also to consider some of the more important cooperative principles to be embodied in the by-laws, for which purpose the form of by-laws suggested in this bulletin may be presented and discussed. BY-LAWS. While the organization is yet of temporary character and there- fore is without authority to adopt by-laws that will be binding upon the future subscribers or stockholders, it sometimes is found desirable, if a large number. of prospective members are present, to adopt such by-laws tentatively, and even to elect the directors, who may later be made permanent. If this course is followed, the by-laws should be considered as carefully and_as seriously as if the action were final, for it will be expected that the persons who later act as incorpo- rators, and who then go through the form of legally adopting the by-laws and electing directors, will follow to the letter the actions taken by the larger body of prospective members. Some States re- quire that the names of the first directors appear in the charter; in others it is necessary to secure a license for commissioners to solicit stock subscriptions. The form differs in different States, but when definite and complete by-laws can be adopted by a large number of the prospective members, even if th‘s action is without legal effect, it provides something tangible to work on, and the actual work of perfecting a duly incorporated organization according to statutory 175430°—20 2 10 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. form becomes a simple matter. Asa matter. of fact, formal organi- zation, including incorporation, adoption of by-laws, and election of the first directors, is a technical procedure that can be carried out more expeditiously and with greater exactness by a small number of incorporators than by a large body of members meeting under con- ditions not always favorable to deliberate and orderly procedure. A form of by-laws that is beleved to embody the principles of co- operation most necessary to observe in a cooperative grain elevator company is given below. With slight modifications it should fur- nish a practical plan of organization under the laws governing cap- ital stock forms of cooperative associations and companies in most of the grain States. The notes following some of the sections are explanatory, and, of course, are to be omitted in the by-laws adopted by the organization. The by-laws when read in connection with the explanatory notes are thought to be sufficiently descriptive of the plan without further detail here. . . These by-laws should be regarded as suggestive only, and they should be changed to meet the individual and local needs of an association as well as to conform to governing State laws. : SUGGESTED ForM oF BY-LAWS FOR COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES.” ARTICLE I.—CORPORATE PURPOSE, ARTICLE IV.—DIRECTORS AND OFFICERS. Section. 1, Election of directors. 1. Name and location. 2, Election of officers. 2. Objects. - 3. Vacancies. 3. Powers. 4. Quorum. 5. Compensation. 6. Removal. ARTICLE II.—CAPITAL STOCK. ARTICLE V.—DvUTInS OF DIRECTORS. x Sean k 1. Management of business. Big ee ie 2. Employment of manager. 3. Stock certificates. i pet eee. 3. Bonds. a5 ie vibe ee 4, Meetings. 6. L ae eae 5. Annual audits. BAO SY Se ERUES CRCOEs 6. Depreciation. ihe Educational work. ARTICLE III.—MbmMBERSHIP, ARTICLE VI.—DUTIDS OF OFFICERS. . Qualifications. 1. President. Termination. 2. Vice President. . Restrictions. 3. Secretary. Reversions. 4, Treasurer. . Annual meetings. . Special meetings. . Notice of meetings. . Quorum, . Proxies. . Order of business. 1These by-laws were prepared with the cooperation of secretaries of State Farmers’ Grain Dealers Associations, ARTICLE VII.—DutTIES OF MANAGER. -In general. Duty to account. . Duty to insure. . Control of help. _ | Peenere ene Be Sesto ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES. 11 ‘ARTICLE VIII.—HARNINGS. ARTICLE IX.—SUNDRY PROVISIONS. 1. Apportioned: 1. Fiseal year. (a) Surplus. 2. Indebtedness. (b) Dividend on capital stock. 3. Extension of credit, (c) Hducational. 4, Collective buying. (d) Patronage refund. 5. Withholding dividends. 2. Method of refund: 6. Withholding patronage refunds, (a) Grain rate. 7. Emergency capital. (b) Miscellaneous products rate. 8. Speculation. (c) Merchandise rate. 9. Corporate seal. 3. Members’ share. 10. Amendments. 4, Nonmembers’ share. 5. Disposal of unapportioned share and nonmembers’ unapplied refund. 6. Notice of refund due nonmembers. 7. Capital impairment. ARTICLE I.—CoRPORATE PURPOSE. Srction 1. Name and location.—This Association shall be known as [The SRR SCRE L tN HRA NW 2? Grain Growers’ Cooperative Association]* and shall be incorporated under the laws of the State of __--__-____-_-______-__ . Its prinei- pal office shall be located in the town of —~-------____________ ,» county of See ce ee Sink the State Of Lewes, Notp.—Some of the State cooperative laws provide that the word ‘ cooperative ”’ shall form a part of the name of organizations incorporated thereunder. All asso- ciations should be incorporated under the laws of the State in which they are located. Sec. 2. Objecits.—The objects of this Association shall be to encourage better and more economical methods of production; to save to its members and others all unnecessary cost in the marketing and distribution of grain, seeds, live stock and farm products of all kinds; to buy cooperatively fertilizers, feeds, fuel, machinery, and all material and supplies ordinarily used on the farm; to cultivate and develop cooperative activity, and to perform any other work which may tend to benefit its members or the community in general. Sec. 3. Powers.—This Association shall have power to buy and sell and other- wise deal in, for its own account or on commission, any or all of the products and supplies described in section 2 hereof; to operate grain warehouses and flour and feed mills; to prepare and distribute cooperative literature and edu- eational matter; to lease, buy, build, own, improve, mortgage, sell, and control such buildings and other real and personal property aS may be necessary to conduct the business or as the association may from time to time determine. It shall have power to affiliate and cooperate, by membership or otherwise, with any other cooperative company or association; to subscribe and invest, not to exceed [twenty-five per cent] of its capital stock and surplus, in the capital stock of any other cooperative company or association having the same or similar objects and purposes as this Association, but no such action shall be taken except at a regular meeting or a special meeting called for the purpose at which [a majority] of all the members shall be present or voting. It shall have power to do anything and everything, not inconsistent with law, which is necessary or desirable to accomplish the objects and purposes herein stated. Norrm.—The objects and powers of the Association should be stated as definitely as possible, but they should also be made sufficiently broad to cover any future activities. State statutes will have to be consulted in order to determine what may or may not be included in this article. 1 All matter appearing in brackets is suggestive only and is to be altered to suit the best interests of each individual association. 12 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ARTICLE II.—CAPITAL STOCK. Section 1. Authorized.—The authorized capital stock of this Association shall be [twenty-five thousand dollars] divided into [five hundred] shares of the par value of [fifty dollars] each. All shares shall be full paid and non- assessable and the Association shall not commence business until [fifteen thousand dollars] shall have been subscribed and paid in. Notp.—The amount of capital stock must be determined with reference to the cost of plant, the volume of business to be handled, and the membership of the Association. Share value must be low enough not to exclude any one from member- ship yet high enough to provide the necessary capital. Sec. 2. Treasury stock.—The treasury stock of this Association shall consist of such issued and outstanding stock of the Association aS may be donated to or otherwise be acquired by it, and shall be held subject to disposal by the Board of Directors. Sec. 3. Stock certificates.—Certificates of stock shall be issued to each holder of full-paid stock. Each certificate shall state the par value of the stock, the number of shares represented, the name of the person to whom issued, and - shall bear the signatures of the President and Secretary and the seal of the Association and be numbered and issued in numerical order from the stock certificate book. Each certificate shall bear the following statement: “This certificate No. is issued and accepted in accordance with and subject to the conditions and restrictions stipulated in the By-Laws and amend- ments to the By-Laws of [The Grain Growers’ Cooperative Association ] and more specifically in [section 5 of Article II and sections 2, 3, and 4 of Article Ili] to wit: [Herein insert those sections of By-Laws which relate to transfer of shares, termination of membership, and restrictions upon share ownership and voting power], all of which is made a part of the signed agree- ment and receipt which appears on the stub-record bearing the same number and date as this certificate.” Sec. 4. Stock receipts.—A record of each certificate of stock issued shall be kept on the stub thereof and each certificate issued shall be receipted for on the stub in the following form: “In consideration of the issuance to me of this certificate of stock No. —— for shares of the capital stock of [The Grain Growers’ Cooperative Association] of ; , L do hereby agree to all of the conditions, re- strictions, limitations, and reservations stipulated in the By-Laws and amend- ments to the By-Laws of this Association, and more specifically in [section 5 of Article II and sections 2, 3, and 4 of Article III], which are set out in full on the certificate and made a part of this agreement. I have received the said certificate of stock this day of , 19—. b] (Signature of Member.) Witness: ; Notr,—Printing the By-Law restrictions upon the body of the stock certificate is a convenient and effective means of giving notice of such restrictions to intending purchasers. The receipt form here suggested will constitute a written contract relative to the observance of these restrictions. Sec. 5. Stock transfers.—Transfers of stock shall be made only upon the books of the Association, and before a new certificate is issued the old certificate must be surrendered for cancellation. The transfer of stock may be refused unless any and all indebtedness to the Association by the member shall first be paid. The stock books of the Association shall be closed for transfer [ten] days before ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES. 13 the annual membership meeting and [ten] days before the time set for pay- ment of interest and patronage refunds. Sec. 6. Lost certificates —The Board of Directors may order new certificates of stock to be issued in the place of any certificates alleged to have been lost or destroyed, but the owner of the lost certificate shall first cause to be given to the Association a bond in such sum, not less than the par value of such lost or destroyed certificate, as said Board may direct, as indemnity against any loss or claim that the Association may incur by reason of such issuance of stock certificates, or, in the discretion of the Board of Directors, a new certificate may be issued upon filing with the Secretary an affidavit properly certifying the loss of the original certificate. ARTICLE ITI.—MEMBERSHIP. SECTION 1. Qualifications.—Any producer of farm products or any person who may be a user of any of the products and supplies handled by the Association and a patron or prospective patron thereof in any territory tributary to the ship- ping points of this Association may upon application accepted by the Board of Directors become a member of this Association by agreeing to comply with the requirements of these By-Laws and becoming the owner of at least one share of its capital stock. NotTE.—There may be conditions under which it would be wise to limit membership to those who have been recommended by the Board of Directors or who have received a two-thirds vote of the members present at any meeting. Sec. 2. Termination.—At any time a member shall remove from the territory tributary to the shipping points of this Association, the Association may elect to purchase his shares of stock and to terminate his membership upon tender to him of the book value of his shares as determined from the last preceding financial statement, together with any dividends or refunds due and unpaid, less any indebtedness then due the Association. Such shares shall then become treasury stock of the Association. SEc. 3. Restrictions —No member shall own more than ____-- shares of the capital stock of this Association at any one time, and no member shall be en- titled to have more than one vote at any meeting of the members, regardless of the number of shares owned. Every member upon uniting with this Associa- tion agrees that in case-he shall desire to dispose of his shares of stock in the Association, the Association shall have the first right to purchase the same at their book value, and that no offer of assignment or sale shall be made to any person or interest until the Association shall fail either to waive this right or to purchase the shares after ______ days’ notice in writing. Any transfer of shares by assignment or sale shall give the assignee or purchaser no other right than to require upon —-_-__ days’ notice in writing, an election by the Board of Directors either to admit the holder to membership or to tender him the book value of such shares together with any dividends and refunds then due and unpaid. Sec. 4. Reversions.—If any member shall by purchase or by operation of law come into possession of more than ~_--__ shares of the capital stock of this Association, the Board of Directors may elect to purchase such excess shares upon tender to him of the book value thereof together with any dividends or re- funds due and unpaid. Also in the event of the death or disability of the owner of any shares of stock in this Association, such shares of stock shall re- vert to the Association upon the tender of payment by it to his heirs or legal 14 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. representative, the book value of same together with any dividends or refunds due and unpaid, or it may elect to transfer such shares to his heirs or legal representatives. Noty.—For legal effect, sections 2, 3, and 4 above depend entirely upon the charter provisions and the laws of the State in which the Association is incorporated. They are suggested hére as possible means of safeguarding cooperative principles and are to be incorporated into or excluded from the By-Laws upon the advice of com- petent legal counsel. Sec. 5. Annual meeting.—The annual meetings of the members of this Asso- ciation shall be held in the town of ______ “State of Leerse on theslastieesss: UU lp eg ] of each year at one o’clock p. m., if not a legal holiday, but if a legal holiday on the next business day following. Notp.—A number of companies have determined upon Saturday for the annual meeting, but it is suggested that some other day may be better, since among many farmers Saturday is given to shopping and other business affairs, making it difficult to secure an interested attendance. Src. 6. Special meetings—Special meetings of the members may be ealled at any time by resolution of the Board of Directors and shall be called at any time upon the written request of [a majority] of the members. Such request shall state the time and place of meeting and the object of meeting. Src. 7. Notice of meetings—Written or printed notice of meetings for every regular or special meeting of the members shall be prepared and mailed to the last known post-office address of each member not less than nb ay days before a regular meeting, nor less than ____ days before a special meeting, and if for a Special meeting such notice shall state the object or objects thereof and the time and place of meeting. Sec. 8. Quorum.—A quorum shail consist of —— of the members qualified under section 1, hereof, represented in person. A majority of such quorum shall decide any question that may come before the meeting, except aS otherwise provided. Norp.—When the organization is small and compact, the proportion required for | a quorum may be larger than in a large organization which includes considerable territory. Sec. 9. Proxies.—Voting by proxy shall not be permitted, but absent members may vote on specific questions, other than the removal of directors, by ballots transmitted to the Secretary of the Association by registered mail, and such ballots shall be counted only in the meeting at the time at which such vote is taken. Sec. 10. Order of business.—The order of business at the annual meeting and so far as possible at all other meetings of the members shall be: (1) Calling of roll. (2) Proof of due notice of meeting. (3) Reading and disposal of any unapproved minutes. (4) Annual reports of officers and committees. (5) Election of directors. (6) Unfinished business. (7) New business. (8) Adjournment. ARTICLE I[V.—DIRECTORS AND OFFICERS. Section 1. Election of Directors.—The Board of Directors of this Associa- tion shall consist of [Seven] members. The members of the first Board of Directors shall hold office until the first annual meeting of the members, when ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES. 15 their successors shall be elected from among the membership of the Associa- tion for terms of office as follows: [Three] for one year, [two] for two years and [two] for three years. Upon the expiration of the terms of the directors so elected their successors shall be elected for terms of [three] years. Directors shall hold office until their successors shall have been elected and have qualified and entered upon the discharge of their duties. The elections shall be by ballot and each member of record shall be entitled to cast one and only one vote for each Director to be elected. All elections except the first shall be con- ducted by two inspectors appointed by the President for the purpose. Noty.—In some States the corporation laws stipulate the number of Directors and officers an association shall have. if possible the Board of Directors should be so constituted that the various sections and geographical centers are repre- sented. This tends to avoid jealousy and strengthens the confidence of the members. Some object to having a Director hold office for more than one year, claiming that the Board might be so objectionable to the members that it would be desirable to elect an entirely new Board at the annual meeting. However, there are many advantages in keeping some experienced Directors on each Board. In case the ' entire Board should go contrary to the wishes of the members, the recall of each Director could be effected under section 6 of this article. A number of companies have adopted the plan of having Directors elected for one year but provide that in elections the names of all the old Directors must be placed in nomination and that the number of additional nominees shall be less than one-half of the whole number of Directors. This arrangement effects to retain on the Board a number of members who are experienced; at the same time it affords opportunity to dispose of old members who may have proven unsatisfactory. Sec. 2. Hlection of officers.—The Board of Directors shall meet within [ten] days after the first election and within [ten] days after each annual election, and shall elect by ballot from among themselves a President, Vice President, Secretary, and a Treasurer [or a Secretary-Treasurer]. Such officers, unless sooner removed, shall hold office for [one] year or until their sucessors are elected and have qualified. Sec. 3. Vacancies.—Any vacancy in the Board of Directors shall be filled for the unexpired term at any annual meeting or at any special meeting called for the purpose in the manner provided for the original election of Directors. If any Director shall cease to be a member his office shall be declared vacant. Sec. 4. Quorum.—A majority of the Board of Directors shall constitute a quorum at any meeting of the Board of Directors, but no proposition shall carry unless at least ——- members of the Board shall vote in the affirmative. Notr.—It will be convenient to permit less than the full number of Directors to transact business, but there may be occasions when it would be desirable to guard against action by a mere majority of the minimum number required for a quorum. Src. 5. Compensation.—The compensation of the Directors and officers other than the Manager shall be determined by the members of the Association at any regular or special meeting of the Association. Sec. 6. Removal.—Any Director of the Association may, for cause, at any annual or at any special meeting called for the purpose, at which a majority of the members shall be present, be removed from office by vote of not less than [two-thirds] of the members present. Hach Director shall be informed in writ- ing of the charges preferred against him at least [ten] days before such meet- ing and at such meeting shall have an opportunity to be heard in person, or by counsel, and by witnesses in answer thereto. Officers or agents of the Board of Directors may be removed from office or employment at any time by action of the Board of Directors. Norn.—In some cases, especially when the Board of Directors is large, it is desirable to have an executive committee. Such a committee can be made up of the President and two or more members of the Board. 16 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ARTICLE V.—DUTIES OF DIRECTORS. Section 1. Management of business.—The Board of Directors shall have gen- eral supervision and control of the business and the affairs of the Association and shall make all necessary rules and regulations not inconsistent with law or with these By-Laws, for the management of the business and the guidance of the officers, employees, and agents of the Association. They shall have installed an accounting system which shall be adequate to the requirements of the business, and it shall be their duty to require proper records to be kept of all business transactions. Notse.—The Bureau of Markets has devised systems of accounts for several lines of cooperative business, such as grain elevators, fruit organizations, creameries, live stock shipping associations, and stores. Information regarding systems of accounts may be obtained by writing to the Bureau of Markets, U. S. Department of Agriculture. Sec. 2. Employment of manager.—The Board of Directors shall have power to employ and to dismiss a business manager, and to fix his compensation. _Sec. 3. Bonds——The Board of Directors shall require the Manager and all other officers, agents, and employees charged by the Association with responsi- bility for the custody of any of its funds or property to give bond for the same. Such bond shall be furnished by a responsible bonding company approved by the Board of Directors, and the cost thereof shall be paid by the Association. NoTe.—It is advisable to have bonds furnished by a bonding company for the reason that such companies usually investigate the past record of all applicants for bond, and also endeavor to keep a check upon their habits and behavior while bonded, thus rendering a specific service in addition to the bond protection. Sec. 4. Meetings.—The Board of Directors shall meet four times per year, at least once in each quarter, at the principal office of the Association. Special meetings of the Board shall be held upon call of the President or upon written request of [three] members of the Board. Sec. 5. Annual audits—At least once in each year the Board of Directors shall secure the services of a competent and disinterested auditor or accountant, who shall make a careful audit of the books and accounts of the Association and render a report in writing thereon, which report shall be submitted to the members of the Association at their annual meeting. This report shall be based upon an actual physical inventory of all property, produce, merchandise, and moneys belonging or owing to and by the Association, and the last report shall furnish the basis for determining the book value of the shares of capital stock. Sec. 6. Depreciation—Annually the Board of Directors shall cause to be charged as part of the operating expense of the Association an amount not less than — per cent of the original value of all buildings, — per cent of the original value of all machinery, and — per cent of the original value of all office fixtures and equipment, which amount shall be reserved for depreciation. ; Notb,—Five per cent on frame structures, 23 per cent on concrete and brick, and 10 per cent on machinery and office fixtures is generally regarded as reasonable. The rate of depreciation should be fixed with reference to kind of property and deductions allowable in making income tax returns under the Internal Revenue Laws. Sec. 7. Educational work.—The Board of Directors are authorized to con- duct educational work for the purpose of stimulating interest in cooperative activity ; to subscribe for and have sent to the members such cooperative litera- ture and publications as they may determine upon, and to obtain membership for this Association in any State association or other organization of coopera- tive companies which may tend to further the object and purposes of this Asso- ciation. ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES. 17 ARTICLE VI.—DUTIES OF OFFICERS. Section 1. President.—The President shall preside over all meetings of the As- sociation and of the Board of Directors, sign as President with the Secretary or Secretary-Treasurer all stock certificates, notes, deeds, contracts, conveyances, agreements, and other instruments requiring such signatures, call special meet- ings of the Association and of the Board of Directors, and perform all acts and duties usually required of an executive and presiding officer. Src. 2. Vice President.—IiIn the absence or disability of the President, the Vice President shall preside and perform the duties of the President. Src. 3. Secretary.—The Secretary shall keep a complete record of all meetings of the Association and of the Board of Directors, sign as Secretary, with the President, all stock certificates, notes, deeds, contracts, conveyances, agree- ments, and other instruments requiring such signature; serve all notices re- quired by law and by these By-Laws; keep a complete record of all business of the Association, and make a full report of all matters and business pertain- ing to his office to the members at the annual meeting; make all reports re- quired by law, and perform such other duties as may be required of him by the Association or by the Board of Directors. Sec. 4. Treasurer.—The Treasurer shall receive, have-the custody of, and disburse such moneys, notes, and securities as may come into his possession by virtue of his office or by direction of the officers of the Association, and shall not pay out any of the moneys so received or notes or securities held except on a written order of the Secretary countersigned by the President, unless otherwise ordered by the Board of Directors. . ARTICLE -VII.—DuvtTIES oF MANAGER. Section 1. In general.—Under the direction of the Board of Directors the Manager shall have general charge of the ordinary and usual business opera- tions of the Association, including the purchasing, marketing, and distributing of all products and supplies; he shall conduct the business on a margin-above- cost basis, which margin shall be uniform and just on each kind or grade of grain, products, and supplies handled and which shall at all times be sufficient to meet the annual operating expenses and to provide the funds stipulated by divisions a, 6, and c, of section 1, Article VIII, hereof. He shall deposit all moneys which come into his possession in a bank selected by the Board of Directors, and shall make all disbursements therefrom by check. Src. 2. Duty to account.—He shall be required to maintain his records and accounts in such manner as will at all times show the true and correct condi- tion of the business. He shall render annual and periodical statements in the form and in the manner prescribed by the Board of Directors. He shall care- fully preserve all books, documents, correspondence, and records of whatever kind pertaining to the business which may come-into his possession. He shall prepare daily and file in the Association’s office a grain statement which shall show the total amount of each kind of grain in the elevator, in transit unsold, contracted from farmers and undelivered, together with the total amount in store and due on open sales as well as the amount represented by purchases or sales of futures, all of which shall be arranged to show the net amount of each kind of grain long or short at the close of business each day. Sec. 3. Duty to insure.—He shall be required at all times to keep the property of the Association well and fully insured which insurances must extend to and cover grain and property of all kinds, regardless of ownership, which may be in possession of the Association or stored by it. 175430°—20——3 18 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Sec. 4. Control of help.—He shall have control over and may employ and dis- miss all agents and employees of the Association not specially employed by the Board of Directors. Noty.—The principal responsibility for success falls upon the Manager, and his power should be limited as little as possible. If he can not be trusted to administer the details of all the ordinary and usual business operations, he should be replaced with a Manager who is worthy of full confidence. The Manager and the Board of Directors should work together, but meddling on the part of individual members should not be tolerated. When cooperative elevators become involved in financial difficulty the cause is frequently due to speculation, not in futures nor always inten- tionally, but simply through failure to know each day the exact status of grain contracts, purchases, sales, and hedges. For this reason the daily grain statement in section 2 should be insisted upon. ARTICLE VIII. BP ARNINGS. SEcTION 1. Apportioned.—At the end of each fiscal year the total net earnings of the Association which remain over and above all expenses and a reserve for depreciation shall be apportioned in the following manner: (a) Surplus—There shall be appropriated for the purpose of creating a surplus not less than [ten] per cent of the net earnings until such surplus shall equal at least [fifty] per cent of the capital stock paid. (b) Dividend on capital stock.—There shall be appropriated for the purpose of providing a dividend on capital stock a sum which shall equal but not exceed [six] per cent of the amount of capital stock issued and outstanding. (ce) Hducational.—There may be appropriated for educational purposes and for promoting cooperation and improvement in agriculture a sum equal to [five] per cent of the net earnings. (ad) Patronage refund.—The remainder of the net earnings shall be appor- tioned upon patronage in accordance with the method stipulated in section 2. Sec. 2. Method of refund—The earnings upon grain operations, the earnings upon miscellaneous products, and the earnings upon supplies and merchandise operations shall be segregated into groups (@), (0), and (¢€), respectively. Additional groups shall be established only as are necessary to provide for vari- ous commodities handled on widely varying net margins. Special transactions handled on the basis of actual cost of service shall be excluded in computing patronage refunds hereunder. (a) Grain rate.—The total net earnings which accrue from grain operations after deducting an equitable proportion of all expenses and the appropriations provided for in section 1 shall be divided by the total number of bushels of grain of all kinds bought by the Association during the year. The result shall be the patronage refund rate per bushel to be applied to grain purchased from members. (b) Miscellaneous products rate-——Patronage refund rates for other products bought by the Association shall be determined in the same manner as provided for grain except that they may for convenience be determined upon the basis of money value, instead of per unit, at the discretion of the Board of Directors. (c) Merchandise rate——The total net merchandise. earnings which accrue from merchandise and supplies operations after deducting an equitable pro- portion of all expenses and the appropriations provided for in section 1 shall be divided by the total volume in dollars of the merchandise sales during the year. The result shall be the patronage refund rate in per cent to be ‘applied to merchandise sales. Norp.—When various kinds of products and supplies or merchandise are handled it may be desirable to establish different rates of refund based upon differences in margins and handling costs. In this case those commodities which carry the same or nearly the same margins and handling costs should be grouped and refund rates established to apply to each group. It will not be necessary except in rare mstances to establish different rates of refund for the different kinds of grain handled. It is oe ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES. 19 almost the universal practice to fix the buying margins for the different kinds of grain with special reference to differences in handling cost. Therefore no further apportionment of expense is necessary, since the net margins will be about the same. Excessive earnings which accrue on some particular kind of grain usually _ are due to market changes after the grain has been bought from the farmers and are not the result of differences in first-hand buying margins. WHxceptions will, of course, have to be made of certain kinds of grain handled under abnormal conditions. Src. 3. Members’ share-—Each member shall receive patronage refund based upon the total volume of grain and other products sold to the Association and the volume of supplies and merchandise of all kinds bought from the Associa- tion during the year, which shall be computed by applying the refund rates as determined under division (@), (b), and (ec) of section 2 hereof. Sec. 4. Nonmembers’ share.—Each nonmeber may receive patronage refunds under the provisions of this article at __________the rate which is paid to members, provided that refunds appearing to his credit may first be applied to the purchase for him of one or more shares of the capital stock of this Association. Src. 5. Disposal of unapportioned share and nonmembers’ unapplied refund.— If nonmembers share in patronage refunds at a rate less than the rate paid to members the difference may be diverted to the surplus of the Association or may be distributed among the members in such manner as the Board of Directors may determine. In like manner any portion of the patronage refunds payable to nonmembers which is not accepted under the conditions of section 4 may be similarly diverted or distributed, but patronage refunds payable to “nonmembers shall be carried under separate account for a period of [two] years before being so diverted or distributed. Notn.—For the purpose of making income-tax returns under the Internal Revenue Laws, the special dividend provided for in this section should be kept separate from the refunds accruing upon, members’ patronage. Sec. 6. Notice of refund due nonmembers.—At least once each year there shall be mailed to each nonmember entitled to refund, a notice which shall state the amount of refund due and the conditions under which the refund will be made, and which shall contain a suitable form of application for mem- bership. Src. 7. Capital impairment.—In no event shall dividends on capital stock as provided for in division (0) of section 1, hereof, be paid out of the capital stock, but in case the earnings of the Association in any year shall be insufii- cient for this purpose, a sum equal to such deficiency may be set aside from the earnings of the following year before any portion of ‘these earnings is made available for patronage refunds. Norn.—This article may appear to be unnecessarily specific and detailed, but a simple statement that earnings over and above expenses and certain reserve items shall be distributed on the basis of patronage furnished is capable of various in- terpretations and applications, and it is believed that a practical and definite plan should be determined upon and incorporated into the By-Laws in order that it may be applied uniformly at all times. ARTICLE [X.—SUNDRY PROVISIONS. Section 1. Fiscal year —The fiscal year of this Association shall commence and end on the —— day of the following : Nortr.—Whenever possible, the fiscal year should end after the close of one sea- son’s business and before the opening of the next. Thus, a grain elevator usually has its fiscal year ending in spring or early summer, when practically all of the work of handling the previous season’s business has been finished. Suc. 2. Indebtedness The amount of indebtedness which may be incurred by or in behalf of this Association shall not at any one time exceed [two-thirds] of the paid capital stock. ; 20 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Sec. 3. Batension of credit—The business of this Association shall so far as possible be conducted on a cash basis. All accounts due and unpaid at the end of thirty days shall bear interest at the rate of — per cent from the date of sale and all sales tickets or bills of sale shall so state. ‘ Sec. 4: Collective buying.—All merchandise purchased through the Associa- tion, other than that regularly carried in stock, shall be paid for in cash by. the members ordering such supplies at the time of ordering the same, or the money may be deposited with a bank which has been approved by the Board of Directors, at the time of ordering. Notrs.—Without such protection an organization purchasing supplies for its mem- bers may find that some of the members will refuse to take supplies ordered or will not pay promptly. Sec. 5. Withholding dividends.—The Board of Directors may withhold the payment of a dividend on stock when in their judgment the condition of the business requires it, but no patronage refunds shall be paid during the period so withheld. Sec. 6. Withholding patronage refunds an Board of Directors may with-— hold the payment of patronage refunds when in their judgment the condition of the business requires it. In every such case, however, each member shall be credited upon the patronage refund register or similar record with the amounts so withheld, and these funds shall not be confused with the surplus provided for under division (a) of section 1, Article VIII. ; NotTe.—Withholding the dividends and refunds provided for in sections 5 oe 6 furnishes working capital during the time in which the surplus is being accumulated gradually by the appropriation of 10 per cent of the annual net earnings. When the financial condition of the company will permit, the dividends or refunds of prior years may be paid. By this method the surplus is not accumulated at the expense of those who patronize the company during its first years of existence. Sec. 7. Emergency capital.—aAt the time of uniting with this Association or at any time thereafter, when called upon by the Board of Directors, each member shall deliver to the Association his negotiable promissory note, payable on demand, to the order of the Association. Such note shall be for the sum of [twenty-five dollars] plus ———— per acre additional for each acre of crops to be grown by the members whose products are to be marketed through the Association. These notes shall be the property of the Association for the pur- pose of being pledged by the Board of Directors as collateral security for any loan that may be necessary in the conduct of the business of the Association. Any member’s note shall be available in the settlement of any damage to the Association that may result from the failure of said member to make good his contracts. Notre.—This section is intended to supply capital which is needed only for short periods, as, for instance, during crop-moving time and other periods when emer- gency capital is required. Organizations which have a surplus for such purpose may not find it necessary to include this section in their By-Laws. If any member knows that the Association holds his note, which may be sold to settle any damage caused by his breach of contract, it will probably cause him to comply more care- fully with the terms of that contract. Sec. 8. Speculation Neither the Manager nor any other agent or employee of this Association shall during the period of his term of office or employment be permitted to deal or trade in futures or options in grain or other commodi- ties or stocks in his own name or in the name of any other person or in the name of this Association except as it may be necessary to hedge actual pur- chases or holdings of grain or sales of stored grain and then only with the knowledge and consent of the Board of Directors. This Association shall so far as it is practicable avoid any and.all speculation in grain, and shall not at any one time accumulate by purchase or contract an amount which in the aggre- me i ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES, 21 gate shall exceed ______ bushels unless the same shall be resold or be properly protected by sales of futures. Sec. 9. Corporate seal——The corporate seal of this Association shall consist of two concentric circles, between which shall be the name of this Association, and in the center shall be inscribed “[Incorporated 1920, Iowa.]” and such seal is hereby adopted as the seal of the Association. Sec. 10. Amendments.—These By-Laws may be amended, repealed, or altered, in whole or in part, at any regular meeting of the members, or at any special meeting, when such action has been duly announced in the call, provided that three-fourths of the entire membership shall vote for such amendment, repeal, or alteration. Notn.—Any other matter which it is deemed desirable to regulate in the By-Laws may be provided for in this article. STOCK SUBSCRIPTION AND MEMBERSHIP. The work of the committee appointed to secure stock and member- ship subscriptions should proceed along lines which have been worked out carefully in advance. The entire community or terri- tory from which membership is to be drawn should be laid off in districts and men should be selected to canvass the district who have a wide acquaintance and are favorably known in the community. The subscription lists may be circulated by persons other than those nameéu on the subscription committee. It is neither necessary nor always advisable to have the men work in their own immediate neighborhoods. A record should be kept of each solicitor of the persons visited who have failed to subscribe and of the reasons given. Tf possible, these persons should be visited a second time by a dif- ferent solicitor, in order to make sure that they have been approached in the right manner and that failure to subscribe is not due to personal differences between them and the first solicitor. It some- times occurs that men who would make excellent members and who at heart are in favor of the enterprise will refuse to sign a subscrip- tion contract presented by a person whom they dislike. If possible, men who are generally regarded as substantial and of good judg- ment and enterprise should be visited first and their names secured to head the lists. The capital stock subscription contract (form No. 1) in the Appendix will furnish a model for subscription lists. It will be desirable wherever possible to have the capital stock subscriptions solicited by a local committee. The employment of a special salesman to place the stock on a commission basis is seldom advisable and should be resorted to only when it is impossible to secure the right type of men to serve on the committee. In some States the selling of stock in a cooperative company on a commis-- sion basis is prohibited by law. When it is found necessary to employ a paid solicitor, the stock should in every case be sold at an amount above par sufficient to provide for his commissions. Selling the stock at par and paying a commission thereon burdens the com- 22 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pany with a deficit at the outset. When capital stock can not be placed without the aid of a paid solicitor it may in most cases be taken as an indication that the community is not ready for organi- zation. : In soliciting capital stock subscriptions care should be taken that extravagant statements are not made and that the members are not led to expect the impossible. INCORPORATION. When by-laws. have been adopted tentatively by the prospective members, they will be used by the committee on incorporation as a basis for drafting the articles of association. If no by-laws have been agreed upon, the committee should draft a tentative form which, as far as it is possible to anticipate, will meet the require- ments of the association. If possible the articles of association should be drafted with the assistance of competent legal counsel and be made to legalize all matters set up in the tentative by-laws. The most able of counsel must know what an organization proposes to do, the activities to be carried on, and the means to be employed, before he can intelligently draft the articles of incorporation, or charter application, as it sometimes is called. It may be that upon examination by counsel the by-laws will be found to contain provisions that are not legal in the State in which the association is to be incorporated. In this case the by-laws will be changed to conform with the law. It may be that some of the objects expressed in the by-laws, which are ob- jectionable in the form stated, may be attained by different means that will readily occur to the counsel when he has before him a defi- nite and orderly statement of those objects. In this connection it may not be improper to point out that very able lawyers sometimes are not thoroughly acquainted with the objects and economic prin- ~ ciples that control cooperative companies, and they may with the best of intentions advise organization on some plan with which they are more familiar and which offers less difficulties than does the organization of a truly cooperative association. Herein lies the value of having prepared and decided upon in advance a form of by- laws detailing completely and in orderly form those matters which distinguish the cooperative from the ordinary corporation form which usually appeals to lawyers, bankers, and others who are more familiar with the ordinary form. The procedure for securing a charter varies in the different States and for that reason no detailed information can be given here. In general it may be effected by having a minimum of from 3 to 25 persons, depending upon statutory requirements, sign the articles of association, which articles or certified copies thereof are filed with certain State and county officers. - ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES. 23 MEETING OF INCORPORATORS. In case by-laws already have been decided upon and are tentatively adopted by the prospective members prior to incorporation, the next meeting becomes merely a perfunctory and formal meeting of the incorporators, who proceed to accept the charter and to legally adopt the by-laws and elect the directors already agreed upon. It is im- portant that. careful and accurate minutes be kept of the proceedings at all meetings, but those of the first meeting are especially im- portant. It may be desirable to have a blanket form of minutes pre- pared in advance which legally and in proper sequence will cover the organization details, and to have the meeting proceed along the lines indicated by thisform. (See Form No.2.) Allofthe persons whose names appear as incorporators should ordinarily be in attendance at this meeting and the minutes should so indicate. When the num- ber of incorporators is large and it is possible that some of them may be unable to attend the meeting it will be advisable to have them sign what is known as a call and waiver of meeting. This call and waiver of meeting is a notice which, in addition to stating the time, place, and purpose of meeting, contains a stipulation that the persons whose names are signed to it agree and consent to be bound by any action which may be taken at the meeting. (Form No. 3.) The first order of business at the meeting, whether it consists only of the incorporators, or of the subscribers also, would be a considera- tion of the reports and recommendations of the several committees. The report of the committee on stock subscriptions and that of the committee on plant type and location will indicate the relation of capital subscribed to the plant capital required. Ordinarily a co- ~ operative elevator company should not be organized until sufficient capital at least to cover the plant investment has been subscribed. It is much easier to secure capital subscriptions before organization than later. When the by-laws have been formally adopted the di- rectors therein provided for should be elected, which completes the organization. Immediately following the meeting of the incorporators or sub- scribers, as the case may be, the directors should meet for the pur- pose of organizing the board and electing their officers. If it is impossible to meet, then they should all sign a call for a future meet- ing, for as yet no one member has the authority to call a special meeting. This meeting is opened by any one of the members of the board. A temporary chairman and secretary are appointed, followed by the election of permanent officers according to the by- laws form. The board of directors at the beginning of their term in a newly organized company will find much to do and the fre- quent meetings may be arranged more conveniently by adjournment ~ from time to time than by calling special meetings. 24 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CHANGING FORM OF ORGANIZATION. It will be highly desirable for those farmers’ elevator companies which are cooperative in-purpose but for reasons already stated are not cooperative in form or effect to change to the cooperative plan before too many of their members have retired from active farm life and while the interests of producing members are still para- mount. The change may be effected in several ways, but only two methods are of special interest to farmers’ elevator companies: (1) In some States the change may be brought about by a formal declaration of intent on the part of the stockholders holding a major- ity of the voting shares, to come under and be governed by the par- ticular legislative act or statute providing for the incorporation of cooperative companies, and by a certification of the fact to certain State and county officials. (2) The old corporation may be dissolved and a new one formed to carry on the business on the cooperative plan. In this case the affairs of the old organization should be closed as if reorganization were not intended, but in the distribution of the corporation assets the interests of the individual stockholders in the old organization who de- sire to be members of the new organization may be assigned in payment for stock in the new organization, unless, of course, capital stock sub- scriptions are by State law required to be paid in cash. The assets of the old organization thus would be transferred to the new organi- zation and the claims of stockholders in the old organization who are unwilling to become associated with the new one may be settled by cash payment. Under this method new members may be ad- mitted by means of stock subscriptions and the stock interests of old members may be limited or apportioned to the same extent as if they were new members, differences being adjusted by cash payment. Any method is easily applied when the stockholders of the old organization are unanimously agreed to it. All methods offer diffi- culties when there are dissenting stockholders. The first method seems to be the one generally used in States in which it is authorized. The following language is typical of State statutes defining the kinds of companies which may take advantage of this method: All eooperative corporations, companies, or associations heretofore organized and doing business under prior statutes or which have attempted to so or- ganize and do business shall have the benefit of all the provisions of this act and be bound thereby on filing with the Secretary of State a written declaration, signed and sworn to by the president and secretary, to the effect that said cooperative company or association has, by a majority vote of its stockholders, decided to accept the benefits of and be bound by the provisions of this act. Whether or not an ordinary capital stock corporation, owned and controlled by farmers, but which operates strictly as a profit corpora- tion, and not having recognized or attempted to incorporate into its ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES. 25 by-laws or plan of operation the patronage dividend or other features which especially characterize cooperative companies in the new statute, would be entitled to declare itself a cooperative company for the purpose of coming under the provisions of this law may be open to question. There may be opportunity for proper objection on the part of dissenting stockholders claiming a right to share in future profits under the arrangement in force at the time of becoming stock- holders. However, no serious difficulties are usually encountered, since most of the stockholders who are inclined to dissent realize that they can not control against a majority of the members and that they will fare better to accept the terms offered them than to have a new company organized, the old organization abandoned, and its property brouglit to forced sale in dissolution proceedings. In reorganizing it sometimes is found desirable to fix the property interest which members have in the surplus or undivided profits of the old organization. Some of the members of the old organization may not wish to be members under the new arrangement; perhaps new members are to be admitted, which makes it necessary to fix the interests of old members before they shall become confused with the interests of new members. Several methods are open, none of which is entirely free from objection under all conditions: ' (1) The surplus may be distributed in the form of a cash dividend. (2) The surplus may be distributed in the form of a stock divi- dend, each member receiving additional stock shares in an amount equal to his share in the surplus. (3) The surplus may be left intact but new members may be re- quired to pay for stock an amount above par which will make their contribution to the surplus fund equal to the interests of the other members. In many instances the business of the old organization has been extended and the surplus employed in such manner as to make it practically impossible to distribute 1t by cash dividend, and the first method can rarely be employed to advantage. Many companies find objection to the second method for the rea- son that increasing the capital stock increases the amount of interest or dividend on capital stock required to be paid before any of the earnings are available for patronage refunds. A more vital objec- tion would seem to be that when the surplus is converted into capital stock the impairment of such capital stock through possible busi- ness loss assumes a far more serious aspect than a depletion of the surplus through the same cause. It may also occur that when a member is the owner of shares up to the limit which is allowed a single member, the conversion of surplus into capital will have the effect of giving to a member shares of stock in excess of the number which he is entitled to hold. 26 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The third method leaves the question of surplus open except in so far as it is used as a basis for fixing the real value of shares in the old organization. Under this method a new organization would be formed with a capital stock and proposed surplus identical with that of the old, the effect being to make the true value of shares in the new organization an amount above par exactly identical with the value above par of the shares in the old organization. It would be necessary to place the value of shares to new members at a price above par value which would make their contribution to the surplus equal to that contributed by the old members, or in other words, equal to that which the old members would have received had the surplus been distributed as a cash dividend. In point of fairness to the members of the old organization and safety to the new organization the last method would seem to be the best. The chief objection would be the difficulty of convincing members that book value or true value as measured by the surplus should form the basis of price rather than the par value which hap- pens to be printed upon.a stock certificate and which may as fre- quently appear on stock certificates representing stock of no value. GENERAL SUGGESTIONS. SELECTION OF PLANT. The selection of the type of plant and the location involves two problems. The first and most difficult is that of deciding whether to purchase an existing elevator plant or to build a new one. It usually is considered advisable to purchase one of the local elevators if one is for sale and if it is found suitable for the purpose. The next problem is to proceed in such manner that an excessive price will not be placed upon the elevator which it is desired to purchase. “Good will,” which in certain commercial organizations is placed at high value, usually is of minor consideration to a cooperative association, because it depends principally upon a membership for patronage. This fact should be presented fairly and fully to the owners of the property under consideration, and an option of pur- chase should be secured from them. After a company has been formally organized and before any property is purchased the services of a reliable and disinterested consulting engineer should be secured to examine and appraise the property and to determine what repairs and improvements are necessary to make it entirely suitable and capable of efficient operation. The services of such a person are usually well worth the cost whether it is decided to buy or to build a plant. If it is decided to build, his services will be needed in check- ing the estimates and proposals of the different contractors who are invited to submit plans and bids. Not always can the proposal of ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES. 27 the lowest bidder be accepted as being the cheapest, and it is de- sirable to have some disinterested expert analyze the different pro- posals in detail and later to protect the interest of the association by seeing that the work is done according to contract terms. While the size and equipment of the plant must depend always upon local conditions, a smaller and better equipped plant is preferable to one larger and less efficiently equipped. It should be remembered that a large storage capacity may be desirable for certain: purposes, but that with such a plant there is ever present the temptation to fill it. During periods when cars are difficult to obtain and the condition of grain is such that it can be stored on the farm more safely than in an elevator it is almost impossible for managers to refuse to receive grain while a storage space remains, and the chance for financial loss through deterioration is made the greater by having excessive storage capacity. An elevator which has a capacity of from 25,000 to 35,000 bushels, equipped in a modern manner, and which is capable of being emptied quickly when cars are available seems to be the plant generally favored by elevator companies which do not make a practice of storing grain for a storage charge. In the selection of a plant type it may be well to have in mind possible extensions and enlargements and to plan accordingly. Concrete construction offers stability and economy in insurance costs. On the other hand, wood and steel offer advantages when remodeling to meet change of conditions or when it becomes necessary to aban- don and wreck the plant. The correct type can be determined only with reference to specific local conditions and requirements. DIRECTORS. The directors are responsible to the membership for the success- ful conduct of the affairs of the organization. The type of men selected for directors will have much to do with keeping the confi- dence and loyalty of the membership. They should possess keen busi- ness judgment, but in carrying out their duties they should be able to subordinate their private interests and to work for the welfare of the organization. Men with a reputation for honesty and for open- minded conservative judgment are to be preferred. ‘They should, of course, be competent and should believe in the cooperative system. MANAGER. The most important duty which the directors will have to perform is the selection of a business manager. All personal preference must be laid aside, and the interests of the company as a whole be con- ~ sidered. The position of manager of a cooperative elevator company is a peculiarly difficult one; the individual members must be satis- fied and at the same time the financial interests of the company con- 28 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. served. It requires a man with tact, with ability to appraise human nature, and with the rare faculty of being able to decide impersonally against individual members in matters of controversy without giving offense. ; A manager must possess a high sense of duty regarding his own responsibility toward the company in addition to a keen understand- ing of the equitable relations to be maintained between the individual members. It is not difficult to please so long as one may compromise every difficulty that arises, but such a course méans general satisfac- tion for a time, then financial disaster, for difficulties will present themselves which can not always be settled in favor of the individual member and against the company. A manager having previous ex- perience in a farmers’ elevator where the business of both buying and selling is conducted and the general accounts are kept under the direct supervision of the manager should be employed if possible. Many high-class men are to be found among the local agents of the so-called line elevators, but the experience of these men, which in the main consists of buying wholly in accordance with instructions from a central office, does not usually fit them to take the responsibility and initiative required of the manager of a cooperative grain ele- vator. He not only must buy and sell upon his own judgment but must have some knowledge of corporation accounting and be quali- fied to stand on his own feet in every emergency. A high type of business man with little or no experience in grain is to be preferred to an inexpensive type of man with much experience in the simple routine of weighing and dumping grain and of issuing checks in settlement. Before employing any one as manager the directors should check carefully his past record and should not rely too much upon letters of recommendation which may be in his possession. The farmers’ elevator companies in the States of Illinois, Iowa, Kansas, Nebraska, Minnesota, North Dakota, South Dakota, Indiana, Ohio, Oklahoma, Colorado, Michigan, and Missouri now have State organi- zations, the secretaries of which are in a position to render valuable assistance in locating managers for new companies and in furnishing reliable information concerning the personal records of men who claim to have had experience. The State agricultural colleges of a number of these States likewise are in a position to give assistance. STOCK CERTIFICATES. It is not necessary that stock certificates be ready to issue to the members at the time of the payment of their subscriptions, but an 1 Generally designated as ‘‘ Farmers’ Grain Dealers Association’ of a particular State, The secretaries are at present located in the different States as follows: Bloomington, Ill.; Fort Dodge, Iowa; Hutchinson, Kans.; Omaha, Nebr.; Benson, Minn. ; Thompson, N. Dak.; Sioux Falls, S. Dak.; Wolcott, Ind.; Defiance, Ohio; Lambert, Okla.; Denver, Colo. ; Pontiac, Mich., and Montgomery City, Mo. : ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES. 29 ordinary receipt may be given instead, which receipt is taken up when regular stock certificates are issued: The plan of organization presented in this bulletin contemplates that certain by-law provisions shall be printed upon the stock certificate, and for this reason it may not be practicable to use the regular stock form usually carried by stationers. However, it may be possible to select a stock form on which the special provisions may be printed upon the back of the certificate by the local printer, in which case a reference to these provisions should be made upon the face of the certificate. Care should be exercised that these stock forms do not contain matter which vitiates or conflicts with the special provisions. MAINTENANCE AGREEMENT. Persons having a knowledge of the early struggles of farmers’ ele- vators in the United States may wonder at the absence in the sug- gested form of by-laws presented in this bulletin of the so-called pen- alty clause, which at one time was regarded as of much importance. Men who are familiar with the real intent and purpose of the first use of this clause, which in its most simple form provided for the payment to the company of a charge of 1 or 2 cents per bushel for every bushel of grain which any member of the company should market through other agencies or dealers, state that the idea of a penalty was entirely foreign to its purpose and that it was intended! only as a voluntary and mutual arrangement whereby, if it became apparent that outside dealers were paying more for grain than it actually was worth in order to discredit the cooperative company, — each member would contribute to the support of his company in the manner provided and as long as these conditions existed. The members would then sell their grain to such outside dealers, making these dealers fall victim to their own competitive methods. It pro- vided an equitable means for contributing to the support of the co- operative company during an emergency. Other companies copied the idea but lost sight of its real purpose and tried to make it a co- ercive means to compel patronage. Used in that way its presence in the by-laws has served only to antagonize the members, and, quite aside from the legal difficulties which are in the way of enforcing - such a provision, it is believed to have outlived its general useful- ness. ‘The patronage dividends in a truly cooperative company should furnish every inducement necessary to secure the patronage of the members without coercive means. In case it becomes necessary to meet conditions brought about by other dealers paying more for grain than it actually is worth in order to discredit the cooperative company, a direct personal appeal to the members, stating frankly existing conditions and probable 30 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. conditions in the absence of the cooperative company, would seem to be a better method. This might be followed by an attempt to protect and maintain the company in operation by means of a special contract arrangement. Companies that wish to incorporate into their by-laws a substitute for the so-called penalty clause may pro- vide therein that each member upon uniting with the association shall sign and enter into a contract of the form presented in the Appendix of this bulletin. (Form No. 8.) It is believed that such an agreement when signed by the members will be much more effective and will withstand legal objections to a mueh greater extent than will any liquidated damage or penalty clause which can be devised and incorporated into the by-laws. Unlike the usual penalty or liquidated damage clause, it does not rest upon any assumption of damage, but upon a tangible and valu- able service which is sold to the member for a charge. The rate of charge varies with the kind of service rendered and is applied to all grain marketed by a member, with the exception, that upon grain aa to the association, the charge is included with the usual buying margin and is not applied separately. EMERGENCY CAPITAL. The means whereby emergency capital is being provided by many companies deserves some attention. Comparatively few organiza- tions have sufficient capital to carry them. over the periods of heavy marketing without having to resort to loans. This is especially true of the new company which has not had an opportunity to accumulate surplus funds. The capital required at such times often exceeds the corporate borrowing power. It is neither necessary nor always desirable that an organization should have sufficient capital of its own to meet these emergencies, but frequently directors are required to pledge their own personal credit for these loans, which manifestly is unfair. The directors in many cases are placed in the position of having exceeded their corporate authority, and in the event of financial difficulty might be placed in an embarrassing situation. Sometimes the more prosperous members are prevailed upon to post- pone grain settlements until after the period of heavy movement. This is equally unfair, since they are then placed in the position of unsecured creditors and are thereby required to assume individual responsibilities and risks not shared by the membership as a whole. Emergency capital is necessitated by the business in its entirety and should be furnished by the entire membership. If each member can be induced to give his accommodation note for a just proportion of the emergency capital requirements, and such note be made avail- able for the purpose of collateral security to support emergency loans ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES, 31 only, the responsibility to a great extent will be divided among the membership. A suggested form of loan note is presented in the Appendix. (Form No. 9.) In some communities there is a deep-seated prejudice against the giving of notes for any purpose, and it may be difficult to secure from the members the individual loan notes here suggested. Where this condition exists it may be less difficult to get all of the members ° to sign one contract in common whereby each member guarantees the credit of the association up to and including some definite amount to be placed opposite his signature. For this purpose the form for a loan guaranty (No. 10) in the Appendix may be used. SPECULATIVE TENDENCIES. A weakness on the part of farmers’ elevator organizations which possibly is responsible for more failures than all other causes com- bined is the lack of an effective safeguard against well-meaning spec- ulation. Managers buy grain with a definite margin of profit in view. In many cases this margin is determined by bids or offers in hand on which grain may be sold. Between the time of purchase and the time when sale conveniently can be made, market changes take place which affect the bids or offers on which the purchase price was based. Should the effect of these changes be too narrow or liquidate the expected margin a temptation is presented to hold the grain for a reaction which may not come. Should the effect of market changes be to increase the visible margin, the manager may feel that the mar- ket trend is upward and be inclined to speculate with the excess mar- gins in the hope of increasing them still further. Not infrequently the tendency upon the part of managers to speculate in this way is encouraged by directors in the organization who are glad to receive the benefits of successful speculation but who are not slow to shift responsibility when the manager is found on the losing side of the market. Steps should be taken by members, directors, and managers to agree upon some definite policy, which policy should be strictly adhered to. If cars can not be secured with which to take care of time shipments and purchases can not safely be hedged, it is an inop- portune time to permit purchased grain to accumulate in the elevator. The risk of loss through declining markets should not then be allowed to shift from the individual member to the organization. Grain should remain on the farm or in storage until such time as a price that is fair to the farmer can be fixed, and the handling charge can be definitely determined. The directors should be directly responsible for the preparation of a daily statement. by the manager or bookkeeper which should be filed in the office of the company and . 32 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, which should show the number of bushels of grain of each kind which is being carried unsold or oversold as the case may be. Failure of the manager to keep within a stipulated number of bushels long or short should be followed by dismissal. The province of a farmers’ elevator is extensive, and its legitimate activities are many, but speculation, well-meaning or otherwise, is foreign to its intent and ‘purpose and musi be carefully guarded against if lasting and worth while success is to be attained. APPENDIX. NOTES TO FORMS. No. 1. Capital Stock Subscription Contract.—This form is intended for use when capital-stock subscriptions are solicited prior to organization. After incorporation the stock-subscription contract may be in the following form: “We, the undersigned, do apply for membership in [The __________ Grain Growers’ Cooperative Association], a corporation organized and incorporated under the laws of the State of ____._..__, having its principal office ab cee BO ey , --------_-, and we hereby severally subscribe for and agree to take the number of shares of the capital stock of said corporation placed opposite our respective names at the par value of $______ each, paying cash therefor upon demand.” \ No. 2. Minutes of Members’ First Meeting.—This form is not intended to cover all of the matters which are to be acted upon at the first meeting, but will be useful only as a suggestion for the preparation of the blanket form of minutes referred to on page 28 of this bulletin. . No. 3. Call and Waiver of Notice——This is the form also referred to on page 28 of this bulletin, and it should be signed by all of the incorporators pursuant to the first meeting of the stockholders. No. 4. Notice of Special Meeting of Members.—This form needs no ex- planation further than that it must conform to the method of calling special meetings agreed upon in the by-laws, which in turn must be in compliance with statutory requirements. No. 5. Stock Certificate-—Care must be taken that by-law provisions relat- ing to the transfer of stock, limitation upon ownership, or other restrictions or reservations, which are printed upon the stock certificates are made to con- form exactly with the by-laws as adopted. No. 6. Personal Guaranty of Indemnity on Issue of New Stock Certificate in Liew of Lost Certificate—This form may be used when the person to whom a duplicate certificate is issued is fully responsible for any loss which may be incurred in consequence of two certificates for the same shares being outstanding at the same time. No. 7. Bond-of Indemnity for Lost Certificate.—This will be used when addi- tional security is deemed necessary for possible loss growing out of the issuance of duplicate certificates of stock. No. 8. Service and Maintenance Agreement.—This is referred to on page 30 of this bulletin as a substitute for the objectionable penalty clause some- times used when it iy desirable to provide against the possibility of mem- bers selling their products outside the association. Its use is recommended in special cases only and not as a part of the general operating plan for co- operative elevator companies. No. 9. Member's Hmergency Loan Note.—This is an ordinary demand note used by the association only as collateral to support loans required during emergency periods. It is in fact a meang whereby the individual member loans his credit to the association for a limited amount. Upon withdrawal from membership the notes are, of course, returned to the maker. 33 34 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. No. 10. Loan Guaranty.—This form is suggested as a substitute for the loan note (Form No. 10) when it is found desirable to have all of the mem- bers sign the same instrument. In making changes in this form care must be taken that each individual member is not made jointly and severally liable with the cosigners for the full amount of the loan liability, or the purpose of the contract will be defeated. Form No. 1. : CAPITAL STOCK SUBSCRIPTION CONTRACT. We, the undersigned, for the purpose of forming a cooperative association at Se ee 8 to be incorporated under the laws of the State of .......... with an authorized capital of $...-... and to be known as [The ...... Grain Growers’ Co- operative Association] or by similar name, hereby severally promise and agree to become stockholders in a corporation hereafter to be organized and to take the number of shares of stock placed opposite our respective names at the par value of > age ate each, paying cash therefor upon demand when the corporation shall be organized and when at least $...... shall have been subscribed. Names. Addresses. Shares. ~ Amount, Form No. 2. MINUTES OF MEMBERS’ FIRST MEETING. Pursuant to a written call and waiver of notice signed by all of the incor- porators, the first meeting of the stockholders and members of [The __________ Grain Growers’ -Cooperative Association] was held at [here state time and place of meeting]. Meeting was called to order by —-_-_-_-__ and on motion by —____ Once yan ; Cibalioteiatach aid | was elected chairman, and __________ was appointed secretary. The secretary presented and read the call and waiver of notice, pursuant to which the meeting was held. On motion it was ordered to be entered in the Book of Minutes following these minutes: : The following persons were present: [Names of those present at the first meeting]. The chairman presented a [certified copy of the Certificate of Incorporation or Charter as the case may be] and stated that the original had been [here state time and place of filing or other procedure]. On motion it was ordered that same be entered on the first pages of the Book of Minutes. The secretary presented a form of by-laws prepared and recommended by [committee or counsel], which was read article by article, and as a whole, unanimously adopted and ordered to be entered in the Book of Minutes imme- diately following the [Certificate of Incorporation or Charter]. Next was conducted the election of [seven] directors as provided for in the By-Laws, Messrs. ~~ ._______ ang 22 eee being first duly appointed inspec- tors of election. All the stockholders having voted by ballot cast in person, the inspectors reported results as follows: ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES. 35 FOR DIRECTOR. The above-named persons were thereupon declared to be duly elected direc- tors of the association. On motion duly made and seconded, the following resolutions were unani- mously adopted: [Any special actions taken]. There being no further business the meeting was declared adjourned. Chairman. Secretary. In pursuance of the preceding minutes, the following forms are entered in the Book of Minutes: [Call of meeting, Certificate of Incorporation, By-Laws, ete. ]. Secretary. Form No.. 3. CALL AND WAIVER OF NOTICE FOR FIRST MEETING OF STOCKHOLDERS. We, the undersigned, being all of the incorporators of [The ______ Grain Growers’ Cooperative Association], a corporation organized under the laws of they Stabemok S25 Shan , and all of the subscribers to the capital stock of the corporation entitled to notice, do hereby call the first meeting of stock- holders) to be held at). = - at 2 mo’ clock. on thei 2.2. day of Soe 22s ‘ 192__, for the purpose of accepting the charter, adopting by-laws, electing di- rectors, [description of any other specific business to be transacted], and to consider and act upon all other business that may properly come before this meeting. We do hereby waive all requirements as to notice or publication of the time, place, and purposes of the first.meeting and do consent to the trans- action of any and all business pertaining to the affairs of this corporation. lO wee) Ghee See ee GhIS <2) eee apy ee OD aa, [Signatures of incorporators] : Form No, 4. NOTICE OF SPECIAL MEETING OF MEMBERS. meeting of the members of the Association will be held at [state exact time and specific place of meeting], for the purpose of [describe accurately the purpose of meeting], and for the transaction of any and all business in con- nection therewith which may properly come before said meeting. Yours very truly, Secretary. BULLETIN 860, U. S. 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For VALUE RECEIVED ...... hereby sell, transfer, and assign to .-.-.-----.-.---- to make the necessary transfer on the books of the corporation. Witness .... hand and seal this ........ CONES) GL iegeeiiee nes St MER OM Sn dpe Sn rnd ae ea G21 COTS ESSE B9) [OS Qo og OUR Sk Ten 2 eMC: a a A Sa Za F : = o : : QQ eS a ; = OF : ao. ; tie = ies ; et ees isos. 2 ee (Bo. ilwetoy : 9 2 = eee = a : S pie eee ete as a sae : Qu pentce re RB o) F a : dae <5 3 Ladies = 3 : 8 . . > , : ; nm a G : ae 5 ae 5 . o 1 ~ a Form No. 6. PERSONAL GUARANTY OF INDEMNITY ON ISSUE OF NEW STOCK CERTIFICATE IN LIEU OF LOST CERTIFICATE. A May c| i Mey enees eaet a seca Grain Growers’ Cooperative Association] : In consideration of a duplicate certificate, numbered ______ Fe MROIES 2 ase ete shares of the capital stock of the above-named Association, having this day beem issued to me .2£2 2.2L , in lieu of the certificate numbered ___-__ for the same shares previously issued to and now owned by me, which has been lost [or, accidentally destroyed] by me, I hereby undertake to refund to and to indemnify the said Association against all costs and expenses and all loss which may be incurred by the said Association in consequence of two certificates for the same shares being outstanding at the same time. xecirrednat) SLI Eau ok elie 283 “day: obey ghey fF 19m Form No. 7. 2 BOND OF INDEMNITY FOR LOST CERTIFICATE OF STOCK. Know all men by these presents that we, --_________ ZO (OIE «eee ne ae aan , aS principal, iy Sb es ee ee Pei) p= eee re ea , aS surety, are held and firmly bound unto [The ees Grain Growers’ Cooperative Association], a corporation organized under the laws of the State of __________ ETD SUA Os me ae dollars, to be paid to the said [The __________ Grain Growers’ Cooperative Association], its successors and assigns, for which payment well and truly to be made, 38 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. we bind ourselves, our heirs, executors, and administrators, firmly by these presents. Sealed With our seals this __-_~- daysOie 2 ==. =e The condition of this obligation is such that: Whereas, the said [principal] is the owner of record of ______ shares of the capital stock of the said Association, of the par value of [$50.00] each, and has made application to the said Association for the issue of a new certificate for the said —~_____ shares of stock, alleging that the original cer- tificate issued to him for said shares, numbered —_________ and dated the ______ CavtOb asia is lost [or, destroyed] ; and, whereas, the said Association has this day issued to the Said: =~: 2-7 == a new certificate for the said ____-_ shares of stock: Now, if the said obligors shall at all times defend, save harmless, and indemnify the said [The ~_________ Grain Growers’ Cooperative Association], its successors and assigns, from and against all claims, demands, and actions arising from or on account of the said original certificate, and against all damages, costs, and expenses by reason thereof, and shall deliver or cause to be delivered up to the said Association for cancellation the said original cer- tificate if the same shall be found, then this obligation shall be void ; otherwise it Shall remain in full force. {Signatures and seals]: Form No. 8. SERVICE AND MAINTENANCE AGREEMENT. THis AGREEMENT, made and entered into at ~-____-___ On (his <2235 day Of 2 ae , ALD. ASE Ssbetween [Lheis == es Grain Growers’ Cooperative Association], a corporation organized and existing under the laws of the State 1 apes lr ees , having its principal place of business at _____-____ , in said State, hereinafter called the Association, and __________ 0) pe ee ed County, i Si eee , hereinafter called the Grower, witnesseth: THAT FOR AND IN CONSIDERATION— 1. That the Association shall establish, equip, and maintain an office and grain elevator at ~--------_ ( es on , and there provide equipment, facili- ties, and means for weighing, grading, shipping, and handling wheat, corn, oats, and barley of different variety and grade. 2. That the Association shall there provide and have available to the Grower, market news and other information concerning the values and market condi- tion of wheat, corn, oats, and barley, of different variety and grade, and shall furnish the same to the Grower on request. 8. That the Association shall there employ and have available to the Grower the services of an elevator Manager whose duty it shall be to secure and to furnish to the Grower upon request, in so far as it is practicable, all special market news, and other information and advice which the Grower may require relative to the marketing of grain and the procurement of seed grain. 4.°That the Association shall weight and grade any and all grain of the kinds herein described, whether sold to or marketed through the Association, or to or through any other dealer or agency, which the Grower shall present for weighing and grading at the Association’s office at --_________ 5 Lae eee Caen ES THE Grower AGREES to pay the Association for such advantages, privileges, use, market news information, and weighing and grading service at the rate of [one cent] per bushel for each and every bushel of wheat, corn, oats, and barley which the Grower shall sell or market either directly or indirectly to or , ORGANIZATION OF COOPERATIVE GRAIN ELEVATOR COMPANIES. 39 through the Association or to or through any other dealer or agency during the life of this contract. Such charge shall become due and payable immedi- ately upon the sale or delivery of any and all grain, but shall not be applied to any grain which the said Grower shall have grown or come into possession of in territory not tributary to the shipping points of the Association. Tr ts MuruaLty AGREED that upon all grain which the Grower shall sell to the Association or which he shall require the Association to handle through its elevator and warehouse at —--_------- 5a , the charge of [one cent] per bushel herein stipulated to be paid shall not be in addition to, but shall be a part of the whole charge or charges which may hereafter be established for elevation and loading and for other services and handling. It 1s FurTHER AGREED that either party may terminate this contract on the first day of [July] of any year by giving notice in writing to the other party at least [ten] days prior to said date of the intent to so terminate. Termina- tion shall then be effective on the said [first day of July], otherwise the con- tract shall continue in full force and effect so long as the Grower shall reside in territory tributary to the Association’s office and shipping points, or shall continue to market any wheat, corn, oats, or barley in said territory. In WITNESS WHEREOF the said parties have executed these presents in dupli- eate the day and year first above written. (Slave: 5 ee Grain Growers’ Cooperative Association. | BY. 2 Pe ee ae Nee eee ’ President Ise. sO A ah NCR Re aU eT a : Grower. Witness: Form No. 9. a MEMBER’S EMERGENCY LOAN NOTE. fi? 8d ST Not Ne age aS De 1Qves On demand, for. value received, I promise to pay to [The __________ Grain without interest. Payable at: Torm No. 10. GY. icc a ES ea Bank: In consideration of your having at our request agreed to advance to [The Be RO Grain Growers’ Cooperative Association] any sums of money it may require during the life of this contract, not to exceed at any one time the total amount guaranteed hereunder: i We, the undersigned members of [The ___-__--_~ Grain Growers’ Cooper- ative Association] hereby guarantee to you the repayment by the said [The eee Grain Growers’ Cooperative Association] of all sums of money 40 BULLETIN 860, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. advanced by you to it as aforesaid, with interest at the rate of ___= per cent per annum, but subject to the limit on our aggregate and individual liability hereafter expressed. 1, This guaranty shall be a continuing guaranty, but our aggregate liabiiity shall not under any circumstances exceed the sum of $ and the proportionate share or liability of each of us individually in respect of the said sum shall not exceed in amount the sum placed opposite our re- spective signatures at the foot hereof. 2. Within the aforesaid limits of liabality this guaranty shall extend and be- applicable to the whole debt that shall ultimately be due to you from [The ae ne ee Grain Growers’ Cooperative Association] in respect to money ad- vanced by you to it as aforesaid, and not merely to so much thereof as shall be co-extensive with our aforesaid maximum aggregate liability hereunder. 8. You shall be at liberty without discharging us from our liability hereunder to grant time or other indulgence to the said [The __________ Grain Growers’ Cooperative Association] in respect to money advanced by you to it as afore- said, and to accept payment from it in cash or by means of negotiable instru- ments, and to treat with it in all respects as though we are jointly liable with it as debtors to you instead of being merely sureties for the debtor. 4, In order to give full effect to the provisions of this guaranty we hereby waive and each of us hereby waives all suretyship and other rights inconsistent with such provisions and which. we might otherwise be entitled to claim and en- force. We hereby waive and each of us hereby waives all notice respecting your acceptance of and assent to this guaranty and all notice necessary to charge us aS guarantors hereunder. 5. Each guarantor shall be at liberty at any time to withdraw from all lia- bility hereunder on payment to you of such sum as shall represent the pro- portion which his individual liability hereunder shall bear to the aggregate sum of advances made to [The __________ Grain Growers’ Cooperative As- sociation] and remaining unpaid at the time of his withdrawal. In the event of the death of any surety his personal representatives shall be at liberty to exercise a like power of withdrawal, and shall thereby relieve his estate from future liability under this guaranty. ISR CUE CL Sel yee ee eee creme >» this) edayOfe ane LOD Sees Signatures of Guarantors: Amount Guaranteed ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS x GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT. 10 CENTS PER COPY Vv UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 861 {3 Contribution from the Bureau of Markets ‘v GEORGE LIVINGSTON, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv September 13, 1920 MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. By DupLeyY ALLEMAN, Assistant in Market Surveys. CONTENTS. A Page. Page. MMeromuUchion ys ek Le eS 1 | Description of leading producing The rise and fall of commercial pro- SCC UI OTS pare aE ee ee en cea 26 Guictronees a eer Nee. 9 | Market preference__________ phen She 50 Changes in market outlets_________ S| DUS Gr DUGLONy ase Re os ae ee ae 53 Present commercial outlets_________ Ave (PAC OL CLUS TO 11S eens Soe 20/8 Soedy ich a as 54 Commercial varieties __________ 5 | Appendix: Destinations of grapes__ 55 Methods of preparation for market_ 9 INTRODUCTION. There are three main types of grapes produced in the United States, the European or vinifera type, grown extensively in Cali- fornia, among the principal representatives of which are the Tokay, Malaga, and Emperor; the /abrusca type, grown in practically all sections of the country, represented by the Concord, the Niagara, and the Catawba; and the Muscadine grapes, grown in the South Atlantic and Gulf States, of which the oldest and best known variety is the Scuppernong. This bulletin deals with the marketing of ‘ labrusca grapes, known commercially as Eastern grapes; the Euro- pean or Western grape and the Muscadines present very different problems of production and use. HISTORY OF VARIETAL DEVELOPMENT. When the first colonists reached eastern America they found the native grapes growing luxuriantly. As early as 1616 Lord Dela- ware wrote to England, “In every boske and hedge we have thou- sands of goodly vines running along and cleaving to every tree.” These flourishing native species of grapes encouraged the importa- tion of the best English and French varieties, which were planted in great number from New England to Florida. All of these vines sickened and died, but apparently only those planters immediately 178922°—20——1 1 2 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. involved were discouraged, for others were always ready to attempt the precarious experiment, hoping to find some more favored spot where these varieties would thrive. Such attempts to grow vinifera, or Old World varieties, in the eastern part of the United States were continued over a hundred years, and thousands. of dollars were lost in the futile experiments. They served only to prove conclusively that vinifera varieties would not grow successfully in the East. In the early part of the nineteenth century the American grapes, * species indigenous to this country, such as labrusca, aestivalis, ro- tundifolia, and riparia, were brought under cultivation. Because of their already established resistance to phylloxera, which prevents the growth of vimifera in the East, these varieties for the most part flourished and were relatively productive. Until 1830 the common cultural practice was to transplant and cultivate promising wild vines. By this time three important varieties had been developed, the Catawba, the Scuppernong, and the Isabella. The first two were widely grown in the South and the Middle West and the latter in the North. Shortly after the middle of the nineteenth century two important developments gave a great impetus to the grape industry. The first and most important was the discovery and dissemination of the Con- cord; and second was the extensive hybridization of American and © European varieties. Up to this time the only aim of grape growers and breeders was to obtain stock suitable for the manufacture of wine, but following the introduction of the Concord and other varieties of high quality the production of table stock began to assume an increasingly greater relative importance in the East, until in recent years the consump- tion of grapes by wineries has been smaller than the amounts sold as table stock and for unfermented grape juice. THE RISE AND FALL OF COMMERCIAL PRODUCTION. The grape industry grew rapidly during the two decades prior to 1880, but it was in the decade after 1880 that the greatest expansion occurred. In some sections grape growing was found so profitable that it assumed speculative proportions and many vineyards were planted in sections which were totally. unsuited to grape growing. The decade 1889-1899 was a period of readjustment, a reduction in acreage taking place throughout the South and the Middle West, but this decrease was more than offset by large plantings in New York. Hence, the Twelfth Census showed the production in 1899 as 18 per cent above that of 1889. The next 10 years, 1899-1909, showed an almost negligible increase in production, but the process of read- justment was continued. ' MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 3 The Thirteenth Census, taken in 1909, showed a still further relo- cation of production. The decrease in acreage and production in the South and the Middle West continued and was particularly marked in the southern and central parts of Ohio and Pennsylvania. Dur- ing this period the industry assumed approximately the present areas of production. Michigan, and, to a much smaller extent, Delaware, Missouri, New Jersey, and North Carolina, advanced to the position they hold in the industry to-day, while New York’s production was practically stationary. No official data are available as to the acreage or production at the present time or the changes that have taken place since 1909, but it is safe to say that the commercial acreage has been materially re- duced since that year. This reduction has been most marked in New York, Ohio, and in the Missouri Valley. Not only has the acreage diminished, but, in the opinion of well-informed growers and fac- tors, the production per acre in the leading commercial sections is by no means equal to that of the early days of the twentieth century. Table 1 shows the carlot shipments of Eastern grapes as reported to the Bureau of Markets by the various railroads on which the ship- ments originated, and incidentally it discloses the effect of the severe winter 1917-18 upon the commercial production. TABLE 1.—Carlot shipments of Eastern grapes for 1916, 1917, 1918, and 1919, as reported by originating railroads. State. 1916 1917 | 1918 1919 State. 1916 1917 1918 | 1919 Arkansas.....-. Baise 15 8 9 16 |} North Carolina... ..-- 13 0 0 0 Delaware...-....---- 34 - 69 39 18) |) Ola. oa obasceassoace 258 215 54 108 Gabon sateen ncce 0 6 4 @ || Once. be occacsscoar 0 2 3 4 WOWaeeee eee ene o8 143 86 68 156 || Pennsylvania-....---. 1,012 827 367 | 1,013 Kansasies it /sec0 ies 30 39 14 33 || Tennessee.........-- 1 0 0 0 Michigan ....-....:.. 1,849 | 3,667 | 1,637 | 3,795 || Virginia............- 2 0 0 0 Missouri...........-- 37 33 26 43 || Washington........- 30 36 59 61 Nebraska........-.-.. 113 8 2 12 ——_|—_—_|—___—_ New Jersey....----.- 5 4 1 0 Total_.....---- 8,031 | 9,140 | 4,338 | 9,472 New York......-.... 4,489 | 4,140 | 2,055 | 4,215 CHANGES IN MARKET OUTLETS. Not only has the relative importance of various districts changed materially during the last two decades, but the purpose for which the grapes are used in the different sections has also undergone an evolution, gradual but none the less marked. It has been mentioned that toward the end of the nineteenth century the use of grapes for eating purposes—for table stock—began to surpass the amounts used for wine. This tendency continued until about 1907-8, when pro- duction became so plentiful that even a combination of good pack- ing, low prices, and intensive distribution could hardly suffice to dis- pose of the crop as table stock. It was about this time that the manu- facture of grape products began to assume an increasingly greater 4 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. importance. These new products—unfermented grape juice, cham- pagne, and sweet wines manufactured in bonded wineries, and home- manufactured sour red wines—created three new market outlets. The first two of these grape products were made almost exclusively of local stock, that is, of grapes produced within hauling distance of the factories; but the third outlet was a proposition requiring bulk shipment with deliveries made either in trays or in 12-quart Climax baskets. ay The peak of the shipments of table stock was reached between 1907 and 1911. After the latter date an increasingly large amount of stock was used annually for beverages. These new outlets increased the consumptive demand and made it easier to dispose of the crop, but incidentally resulted in the lowering of the standard of pack in several of the leading sections. So much less labor is re- quired to prepare stock for pressing than for shipment as table stock that more and more stock went to juice factories, wineries, and in bulk to cities which contained a large foreign population. PRESENT COMMERCIAL OUTLOOK. Prohibition legislation gave rise to serious problems, by closing some of the important outlets hitherto used. The character of the grape industry is rapidly changing. Readjustments and changes in usual channels of trade are being abruptly forced on the growers between one season and another that in the usual course of commer- cial evolution would cover a period of years. The danger for the future lies in the possibility of the excess of supply over demand, but this can be minimized by utilizing to the utmost every available | legal outlet. : The grape-juice industry is in a thriving condition and the demand for its products has not been adequately suppled in the last few years. The grape-juice factories can be relied on to absorb a fairly large proportion of the stock formerly used for wine. The commercial manufacture of grape jellies, jams, and conserves which is being rapidly developed may create a demand even greater than the unfermented-juice industry, and, as it expands, will un- doubtedly furnish an outlet for a very large tonnage. The table-stock trade is also capable of expansion. This is espe- cially true in New England, in the Middle Atlantic States, and in the South. The Middle West is probably adequately supplied with table stock by Michigan shippers, who have kept in touch with this class of trade much better than have the shippers of New York, Pennsylvania, and Ohio. The table of destinations, given in the appendix, shows the wide distribution of Michigan stock and the relatively narrower distribution of New York shipments. MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 5 COMMERCIAL VARIETIES. As the grape industry of the East is founded upon the improved varieties developed during the nineteenth century, a short description of the characteristics of the leading varieties, from the commercial point of view, is here given since, of the 700 varieties recognized by pomologists, 7 constitute the great bulk of the production, only those 7 varieties are here described. THE CONCORD. The Concord is preeminently the leading commercial variety of the eastern United States. It is an interesting fact that the develop- ment of the commercial grape industry has gone hand in hand with ‘the introduction of this variety in the section. The characteristics that have made the Concord the undisputed leader among varieties are its extreme hardiness and high productivity under a wide range of soil and climatic conditions. The large quantities of Concord grapes that have been disposed of commercially during the past two decades have created a demand for blue or black grapes on the part of the consuming public analagous.to the favor in which the red _ varieties of apples are held. The clear, red juice of the Concord makes it the leading variety for the manufacture of grape juice, and several of the factories which produce the highest quality of product refuse any other variety. Large quantities were formerly used for the manufacture of sweet red wines, to which it gave a bright ruby color, a fruity flavor, and a fine body. The Concord may not be held in high esteem by a few con- noisseurs, but it is regarded as the standard variety by the general consuming public. It withstands diseases and insect attacks, pro- duces good, close, fair-sized bunches of medium-sized berries, and has a most attractive color and bloom. Its only weakness is that it is not so good a shipper as some other varieties, as it rapidly loses its flavor after picking and the berries soon shell and crack. Not only does the total commercial production of the Concord far _ exceed that of any other variety, but it is the leader in practically every grape-growing district north of the Potomac River and east of the Rockies, particularly in the Chautauqua-Erie belt of New York and Pennsylvania, where it occupies 95 per cent of the com- ‘mercial acreage. In the South it is not so popular, for the berries ripen unevenly, but even there it finds some favor for home con- _ sumption. Certain other varieties, notably the Niagara and the Delaware, often command a slight premium over the Concord, but this does not disprove the leadership of this great blue variety, as these other kinds meet a special and limited demand which can consume only a relatively small quantity of stock at premium prices. 6 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE NIAGARA. The Niagara is the leading white variety, but does not find much favor outside of New York State, where it is a leader in the Lake Ontario district, a relatively unimportant section. It has never attained great commercial popularity, because its quality is not high, and because of the difficulties surrounding its culture. This variety is very weak in the root, is subject to insect attack and sub- sequent winter injury, does not mature its wood well, and is often badly affected by fungus diseases. In appearance the Niagara is a very showy grape, with large, well- formed bunches. The ‘skin does not crack easily, but the berries shell badly from the stem. It has to a marked degree the “ foxy ” taste so characteristic of the labrusca species, and for that reason finds high favor with a small part of the consuming public. This results in an active demand for small quantities of this variety, with usual price premiums over blue varieties, but if Niagaras appeared in the market in as large quantities as Concords, it is probable that the special demand would be oversupplied and the price decline lower than that held by standard blue grapes. THE CATAWBA. The Catawba isa red variety of high quality and attractiveness, and is probably the best keeper of the commercial grapes. It is widely dis- tributed, being a leading grape in Ohio, New York, and the South- east. The late ripening of this variety, with its susceptibility to early frosts, prevents its wider dissemination. In only two sections of the North are Catawbas planted extensively—the Erie shore of Ohio and the Central Lake district of New York. The variety is at its best in the latter section, particularly on the banks of Lake Keuka, on land extending back to an altitude of 100 feet above the surface of the lake. It is a very attractive grape, the bunches being large, even, and compact. Its quality is high, though often impaired by premature picking. In the past it has been largely used for wine, as it makes a good, light-colored vintage. which was often used as a basis for champagne. As a matter of fact, the American cham- pagne industry was largely built upon this variety. Prohibition leg- islation released large quantities of Catawba stock hitherto used by wineries, but it is coming into favor for the manufacture of white grape juice, and much larger. amounts than formerly will probably be consumed for this purpose. As the Catawba is in only fair demand for table stock in most markets, and as the juice factories do not seem to be able to use all the stock formerly used for wine, this variety will probably appear MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 7 in greater supply on consuming markets in the coming years. This prospective increase in supply will probably eliminate the premium often received for this variety, but its many good qualities will un- - doubtedly soon create a demand that will prevent its price levels from dropping far below standard blue varieties, particularly late in the season, when demand-has become well-established and sup- plies of other varieties are declining. Care should be taken by all interested in the handling of this variety not to hurt its popularity by shipping stock which has not fully matured. Generally speaking, the red varieties are relatively more popular in the South than they are in the northern markets. The Catawba is one of the oldest commercial varieties, having been introduced and planted widely in the early part of the nine- teenth century. Up to the time of the introduction of the Concord it was the leading commercial variety. THE DELAWARE. The Delaware is the standard of quality among the Eastern grapes. There is no variety even of the vinefera type of richer or more delicious flavor or with more agreeable bouquet than the Delaware. Tt flourishes under a wide range of soil and climatic conditions and finds favor throughout the eastern United States. Its wider com- mercial production has been prevented by its comparatively low yield, which is caused by the small size of the vine, slowness of growth, the small size of the berries, and the susceptibility of the foliage to mildew. | It is in active demand. in leading terminal markets, generally commanding a marked premium over blue varieties. As this pre- mium is not due to any special class demand, but rather to general excellence of the fruit of this variety, it is doubtful if larger sup- plies upon the market would greatly depress its relative price. The Delaware is probably the most widely distributed of Eastern commercial varieties, as it finds favor in the Central Lakes and the Hudson River districts of New York, in Michigan, in Dela- ware, and is coming into commercial favor in the South as an early grape to ship to northern markets. THE MOORE. The variety known generally as the Moore is, in effect, an early Concord and is regarded in trade channels in that light. It resembles the Concord very closely, but the bunches are generally smaller, the individual berries larger, and the quality and texture not quite so good. It is not so hardy as the Concord and does not succeed on such a variety of soils, but it is a good keeper and shipper, 8 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and having the advantage of ripening from two to three weeks be- fore the Concord it may be regarded as a valuable commercial sort. Though less adaptable than the Concord in the matter of soils, it stands a much wider range of climatic conditions, thriving in New York, Michigan, the Missouri Valley, New Jersey, and the Southeast. THE WORDEN. The Worden is similar to the Moore in fruit characteristics, season, and soil requirements, and is rather more hardy and productive. If it were a better shipper it would probably largely replace that variety for the early trade. Its great drawback is tenderness of skin, which results in cracking and speedy deteriora- tion. In addition, it ripens unevenly and sometimes two or three pickings are necessary for a high-class pack. Like the Moore, it grows well in New York, Michigan, the Missouri Valley, and the Southeast. Also like the Moore, it is regarded by the trade and by the consuming public as an early Concord. It is a valuable variety for local consumption and near-by shipment and finds some favor for grape-juice manufacture, particularly in the Chautauqua-Erie belt. THE CHAMPION. The Champion is an early blue variety that belongs to the same category as the Moore and the Worden in that it is sold upon the reputation of the Concord. In this case the Concord is hurt by the substitution, as the Champion is of poor quality, with a sour and rather disagreeable taste. It is an important variety for the lighter soils of Michigan, but does not assume commercial importance in other leading districts. Its low quality usually results in reduced demand, and it commonly sells from 1 to 5 cents below the Worden, the Moore, and the Concord, the usual discount being 2 to 3 cents on a 4-quart basket. VARIETIES UNIMPORTANT COMMERCIALLY. There are hundreds of other American varieties widely grown in a small way, but their commercial importance is slight. It is safe to assume that 95 per cent of the stock shipped to terminal markets belongs to the 7 varieties named above. Offerings of the varieties named below sometimes appear in the larger jobbing markets, but rarely in car-lot quantities, and are usually sold merely as blue, red, or white varieties. The more important of these white or green varieties are the Diamond, Dutchess, Elvira, Pocklington, Norton, and Winchell; of the red varieties, the Agawam, Brighton, Diana, TT) MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 9 Goethe, Lindley, Virgennes, Ulster, and Wyoming; and of the blue or black varieties, the Campbell, Clinton, Cynthiana, Ives, Isabella, North, and Wilder. Of these, the Duchess, the Elvira, the Ives, the Norton, and the Cynthiana were used largely for wine, and it is ques- tionable whether the continued production of these varieties will be found profitable, on account of the various commercial weaknesses each one possesses. The Ives, however, has been successfully used for the manufacture of grape juice, and this market outlet may be further developed for this variety. METHODS OF PREPARATION FOR MARKET. The changes forced upon tne grape industry by recent legislation necessitate the most careful and businesslike handling of the crop. Astonishingly large numbers of growers and shippers are entirely unacquainted with methods and channels of distribution employed in other sections. Accordingly, this study and report have been made on comprehensive lines. PICKING. In picking, the bunches are cut from the vines with short, sharp spring scissors or grape shears and are laid in the tray or picking basket. This tray is usually placed on a low stool which is carried along the rows. The stool makes for efficiency and higher quality, as it is unnecessary for the picker to bend over each time a bunch is placed and the damage to the fruit which would result from care- lessness in throwing or dropping the bunches into the container is avoided. When full, the trays or baskets in which the fruit is picked are placed in the row under the vines to be collected later. Stone boats or narrow double-turn wagons are used to collect the full containers and carry them to the packing house or station. TRIMMING AND PACKING. For a high-class pack some trimming is usually found necessary to remove defective berries. Although the fruit’ is seldom affected by insect pests, in some sections the second brood of larvee of the erape-berry moth feeds on the inside of the berry, resulting in a shrunken condition or in so-called “ wormy ” grapes, which at times cause serious damage but of a kind which does not spread. The black rot often destroys many berries in a cluster and sometimes the entire cluster, while infection by the powdery mildew may destroy the marketability of individual berries or whole bunches. Also, in 178922°—20—2 10 BULLETIN 861, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. some varieties, small unripened berries are found at picking time, and sometimes some of the berries in a bunch, especially those at the shoulder, are so tender as to crack or shell at picking. FIELD OR PACKING-HOUSE TRIMMING. Trimming may be done as the grapes are picked, in which case they are packed directly into the final container, or the grapes may be hauled to the packing house in trays and there trimmed and packed. The advantage of packing in the field is one of convenience, for the resultant pack is usually one of relatively low quality, as many defective berries are overlooked; also short measure is likely to occur in field packing. The principal cause is the shrinkage of the fruit after leaving the vine. The disadvantages of trimming and filling in the packing house are the added expense and the mechani- cal injury often caused by the additional handling, which may be minimized, however, by careful methods. It is generally believed that the resultant pack is usually of a higher quality than if done in the vineyard. The careful trimming made necessary by any serious damage, either by insects or disease, can best be done in the packing house. Many grapes from the Central Lakes and the Hudson River Valley districts of New York receive this extra attention, but in the Chautauqua-Erie belt insect and fungus injury are so light that a very good quality can be packed in the field by a moderately careful picker. Central packing houses have been operated in a few instances, but without great success, due to various factors, such as extreme perish- ability of the product, the difficulty of securing sufficient skilled labor, and the high overhead cost of a packing plant for the short period of use. GRADES. No standara grades of grapes, as such, have been adopted, but certain cooperative associations and individual shippers have estab- lished reputations for high quality and good pack and receive a premium for their stock, which is marked by attractive labels pasted on the cover of the baskets in which their grapes are shipped. Two and 4 quart baskets may be labeled or branded in this manner, but 12-quart baskets not so conveniently. Branded stock receives a premium of from 1 to 4 cents over unbranded, generally about 1 to 14 cents on 2-quart baskets and 2 to 24 cents on 4-quart baskets. CONTAINERS. Wooden veneer baskets, of the Climax type, have been adopted as the standard package for table stock, in 2, 4 and 12 quart sizes, dimensions prescribed by Federal statute in 1916. Before this law ie. MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 11 went into effect, the irregularities of the packages in use were detri- mental to the industry.’ The tray, or lug box, has been one of the most-used containers, but its popularity is on the wane. As itis a low, narrow, open, rough box, holding 25 to 35 pounds of fruit, it is a very satisfactory con- tainer for use in the vineyard, when fruit is picked into it direct from the vines. The tray is in general use for bulk shipments. However, for any market where the appearance and condition of the fruit affects its sale, this package should never be used, as it is unat- tractive in appearance and often brings the fruit to market in a bruised condition. The “ gift case” is an important container on the New York mar- ket, but is seldom used outside of the Hudson River Valley. It is a small case or crate containing eight 2-quart baskets, separated into 2 tiers of 4 each. The grapes are covered with white transparent paper, and the tiers are separated by a thin board. After the con- tents are disposed of this case is not returned, and the name “ gift case” was adopted to distinguish it from the tray or lug, which is called “ return crate ” on this market. Practically all long-distance shipments are made in Climax bas- kets, but in most of the large markets of the country local grapes may be found, which have been either hauled to market or shipped in less than carload lots, in- almost every conceivable type of con- tainer. Market baskets are of three general kinds—the diamond weave, the square weave, and the veneer. As a class they rank next in im- portance after the Climax type. The sizes are very numerous, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, and a few 16 quart baskets being found. The 8-quart or quarter-bushel basket, the 14 and 15 quart or short 2-peck basket (half-bushel basket), and the short one-third bushel basket, holding between 10 and 11 quarts, are found most frequently. It 1 As the Climax baskets are of so much importance-to the industry in the East the fol- lowing paragraphs are quoted from the standard container Act (89 U.S. Statutes at Large, p. 673). See also United States Department of Agriculture, Office of Secretary Circular No. 76: Rules and Regulations * * * under the United States standard container Act of August 31, 1916. (a) The standard two-quart Climax basket shall be of the following dimensions: Length of bottom piece, nine and one-half inches; width of bottom piece, three and one- half inches ; thickness of bottom piece, three-eighths cf an inch; height of basket, three and Seven-eighths inches, outside measurement; top of basket, length eleven inches and width five inches, outside measurement. Basket to have a cover five by eleven inches, when a cover is used. (b) The standard four-quart Climax basket shall be of the following dimensions: Length of bottom piece, twelve inches; width of bottom piece, four and one-half inches; thickness of bottom piece, three-eighths of an inch; height of basket, four and eleven- sixteenths inches, outside measurements; top of basket, length fourteen inches, width six and one-fourth inches, outside measurement. Basket to have cover six and one-fourth inches by fourteen inches, when cover is used. (c) The standard twelve-quart Climax basket shall be of the following dimensions: Length of bottom piece, sixteen inches; width of bottom piece, six and one-half inches ; thickness of bottom piece, seven-sixteenths of an inch; height of basket, seven and one Sixteenth inches, outside measurements; top of basket, length nineteen inches, width nine inches, outside measurements. Basket to have cover nine inches by nineteen inches, when cover is used. : Weis) alts bool ona. a Ras 12 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is an interesting fact that many baskets which sell for 1 peck are a trifle large, and almost all selling for 2 pecks are considerably short measure; thus it is well for the consumer to buy two 1-peck baskets when he can do so at the price of a 2-peck basket. To avoid prose- cution, city dealers should be careful not to sell such short-measure packages as standard sizes of the containers they represent. A container for fancy stock, known as the Delaware eight-basket | carrier, is being used to some extent in Delaware, New Jersey, and in the vicinity of Philadelphia. It is a slat crate composed of two . layers of 2-quart till baskets in layers of 4 baskets each, and is similiar to the Georgia peach carrier. Fig. 1.—Loading cars in producing sections. CAR LOADING. The improper car loading of grapes shipped to market is a most potent cause of loss. For all types of packages the “straight system,” with all the packages placed end to end, extending from one ice bunker to the other, has been found most satisfactory. In every alternate layer of Climax baskets it is necessary to load those that touch one bulkhead crosswise in the car, in order to fill in the other- wise vacant spaces, but under no consideration should this be per- mitted elsewhere in the load. 2See Bird, H. S., and Grimes, A. M. Loading American Grapes. U. S. Department of Agriculture, Markets Document 14, 1918. MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 13 All slack should be taken up as the packages are loaded with racks to fill out at the end of the car when there is a surplus space. Kvery fraction of an inch of surplus space from side to side of the car should he tightly filled in by loading the last row diagonally and mismatching or “nesting” each row upon the one below. “Mixed loads,” or loads made up of different sizes of Climax bas- ‘kets, or of a combination of baskets and trays, should be avoided. When absolutely necessary to ship mixed loads in order to assemble a full car, the one rule is to make completed rows of each kind of package from end to end of the car. THE COMPLEXITY OF THE MARKETING MACHINERY. The problem of marketing, in its final analysis, consists of the disposition by the producer of a product, of which he has more than _ he requires, to the consumer, who has not as much as he desires. This is fundamentally true of all trade. A simple sale from the producer to consumer is seldom possible, because of complicating factors. | - The functions of the much-criticized middlemen, distributors, jobbers, and retailers have made possible the present high develop- ment of the commercial grape industry, for taken as a whole they form the agency through which the farmers’ grapes are marketed. As it is much cheaper and more satisfactory, and as it permits wider distribution, the practice of shipping grapes in carlot quantities has been developed. ‘This has led to the creation of yet another type of middleman, the local dealer and carlot assembler, who either buys outright from the producer or acts as his agent in disposing of his product. : Undoubtedly sharp practices and inefficient methods have been, and to some extent still are, in use by some middlemen, which work to the manifest disadvantage of both the grower and the consumer; but generally the methods and channels of marketing grapes have become so well-developed-and standardized, and competition has so far eliminated dishonest dealers and inefficient methods, that the grape industry of the East is in a very good condition, in so far as distribution is concerned. THE USUAL CHANNELS OF TRADE. The methods used in different localities vary with local conditions, but any or all of the following methods may be applicable. A farmer with a small quantity of grapes to dispose of has the ad- vantage in sections where the production is small; while a grower of large quantities has the advantage in one of the so-called grape sec- 14 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tions, where surplus of production over local demand necessitates shipment to distant markets. Grapes usually move successively from the grower to the local carlot assembler (local buyer or cooperative association), to carlot distributor (sometimes), to city carlot receiver, to jobber, to retailer, and then to consumer. Of course, there are many short cuts and variations to this method which have been worked out to meet indi- vidual conditions and requirements. It may seem cumbersome and inefficient to pass the fruit through so many hands, but when it is considered. that sometimes the grapes of 50 or 60 growers are in- cluded in a car which may be shipped a great distance, per- haps as far as from New York to Colorado, or from Michigan to Texas, and that often the contents of the car go to over 2,000 differ- ent ultimate consumers, the difficulties of the problem and the need for specialization by the handlers are apparent. If division of labor and specialization are commended in manufacturing plants, should they be condemned in the grape industry ¢ SALES BY GROWERS DIRECT TO LOCAL CONSUMERS. The simplest method of sale, that of producer direct to consumer, though open to all growers and to a limited extent practiced in all sections, is not of great commercial importance, and the larger the production of grapes in a section, the smaller is the relative im- portance which this method assumes. Farmers with small vineyards in a nongrape-producing locality often find a ready market among their neighbors, or they may haul their product to neighboring towns and villages and there peddle their crop. While the method is relatively unimportant, the quantity of grapes disposed of by this method in portions of the South, the Middle West, New Eng- jand, and the North Atlantic States, outside of the specialized areas of grape production, is fairly large in the aggregate. The proportion of the consumer’s dollar received by the farmer by this method may seem large, but it should be borne in mind that he has performed the functions of distributor, transportation company, jobber, and re- tailer, and is receiving payment for these services. SALES IN SMALL LOTS BY GROWERS TO NEIGHBORING CITY CONSUMERS. A second method is the direct sale by growers to consumers in neighboring cities and towns by express and parcel-post shipments. This has the general advantages and disadvantages of the former method and requires the services of less people in the distribution, but requires higher transportation charges than carlot shipments and necessarily reduces the possible marketing area. Also, asin the former case, this method is not feasible for large vineyards. The growth MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. £5 of this method is hindered by the difficulty of getting in touch with consumers and of making collections, and by the fact that most city consumers desire grapes in lots of one or two baskets on short notice. The aggregate quantity thus sold is small, but the method has a wide application. The recent great interest on the part of urban dwellers in the subject of marketing has led to the formation of many consumers’ cooperative associations or buying clubs, which should present a profitable field for development to growers with small acreage. Tt should be borne in mind in all of the sales direct to the con- sumer that the prices generally should not be so high as the retail price, for the consumers’ ability to purchase stock in just the quanti- ties he desires and just when he desires them, is one of the services figured into the retail price. A fair price for the farmer to charge the consumer for such sales would be the price at which the same stock sold to retailers in large near-by markets. Thus the producer receives payment which represents not only the cost of lis product but the costs and profits of the buyer, carlot distributor, and jobber, and the consumer saves what would represent the cost and profit of the retailer on similar transactions. If a farmer ships in this manner direct to consumers, basing his charge on f. o. b. prices, he has a right to ask more than fe saul current, price to reimburse him for his extra trouble and knowledge of marketing conditions. When he peddles his products he has a right to pease the full retail price, but as he usually wishes to make quick sales, ie may find it expedient to ask a slightly lower price. SALES BY GROWERS IN PUBLIC MARKETS. Grape growers near the larger cities sometimes find it to their advantage to haul their stock to the public markets, where they may sell direct to the consumer or to retailers at current market prices. 3 SALES BY GROWERS IN SMALL LOTS DIRECT TO RETAILERS. Growers sometimes find it to their advantage to sell direct to retailers located in neighboring towns and villages. Such a trade can be made profitable by an energetic producer, who, in years of crop shortage, can generally obtain stock from his neighbors and in years of heavy production can dispose of his surplus through other channels. The disadvantages of this method of sale are numerous, the field of distribution is reduced by the necessity of less than carlot shipments, the freedom of the retailer in buying only for his requirements is reduced, and the uncertainty of less than carload MT + 16 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. shipments is added. The costs and profits of the buyer, car-lot dis- tributor, and the jobber are eliminated, and this saving should be shared between the farmer and the retailer to make this method satisfactory and profitable to all concerned. SHIPMENTS ON CONSIGNMENT. By far the most common method practiced by farmers who ship their own grapes is to consign to commissior houses or brokers, who in turn sell to jobbers or sometimes direct to retailers. These factors act as the agent of the shipper, disposing of the grapes at the high- est price obtainable, paying. transportation, icing, and drayage charges, deducting a certain rate as commission, and remitting the Fic. 2.—Icing cars in a large distributing center. balance to the shipper. In some cities, such as Washington, D. C., and Columbus, Ohio, the functions ofthese various factors are not always distinct, as some houses perform the duties of car-lot receiver, commission merchant, broker, and wholesaler. The commission charge ranges from 5 to 15 per cent on the gross sales, but is usually between 7 and 10 on large quantities. An understanding should be reached beforehand as to exact percentage of commission to be charged. Growers who haye sufficient acreage to enable them to ship in car- load lots have a great advantage in this method of sale over growers who are forced to ship in less than carload lots, as the transportation costs are much less, temporary refrigeration while in transit (icing) is practicable, and the shipper has a much wider field of action, for he is able to forward his product to almost any market desired, either — by direct billing or by diversion. By this method the farmer saves . , 4 MARKETING EASTERN. GRAPES. A the costs and profits of the local carlot assembler, whose functions he has himself assumed. It should be remembered, however, that the business of growing grapes and the business of marketing grapes are as different and distinct as the business of manufacturing agricul- tural implements and the business of running a rural hardware store. The fact that a farmer is able to produce grapes of high quality in abundance is no sure indication of his ability to dispose of them at a profit, and he should not attempt to enter this highly specialized field without a very clear understanding of the methods to be fol- lowed and an intimate knowledge of the demands and requirements of the various markets. - Unfortunately very unbusinesslike methods of consignment are em- ployed by many growers who ship their products indiscriminately to the nearest large market whenever they happen to be ready to pick, without any study of the existing conditions on that market, or even a notification to their agent of their intention to ship. OVERLOADING MARKETS. Every market has a definite limit to its daily consuming capacity. When the carlot receivers or jobbers on any market find that the supplies of grapes on hand do not meet the demand, they naturally take steps to purchase them at the nearest producing section where the desired varieties and quality may be profitably obtained. On the other hand, if city dealers have several cars a day rolling toward their market, and in addition to these several shippers forward cars unsold to the same market, and they all arrive together, with per- haps heavy arrivals of freight and express less-than-carload ship- ments, it is probable that these arrivals will exceed the demand, and there will be a decline in price. Moreover, any continued surplusage of supplies will clog the channels of trade and result in severe loss to all concerned. Shippers should study the receipts on all markets to which they intend to ship and avoid those that are congested. In - addition, when they ship on consignment, they should write or tele- eraph to their dealers giving date of shipment, number and size of packages, varieties included, and a fair statement as to the quality and condition of the shipment. When shipping in carlot quantities, they should also specify car number and initials and should forward the bill of lading. ° CONSIGNMENT DECLINING. Principally on account of the difficulties mentioned above, the straight commission-house business in the grape industry seems to be on the decline. Many city dealers prefer the more businesslike method of purchasing outright in the producing sections the stock they need. In sections of large acreage,-where marketing methods 178922°— 20-3 18 BULLETIN 861, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. have become standardized, growers who consign their stock in nor- mal years are less often found, and it is only in the outlying and scat- tered districts, in sections from which the shipments are small, that consignment is now the standard practice. It should not be over- looked, however, that in a generally weak market consignment may be the only alternative. CONTRACT SALES. Sales on contract, or outright sales, are sometimes made. Such > sales are the result of an individual contract, which varies greatly in its adaptation to local conditions and is the result of bargaining be- tween the grower and the buyer, who may be a consumer, such as a grape-juice factory, or a city carlot receiver or a local buyer. Most of such sales are made on the basis of cash on delivery and are contracted for before the picking season. With the exception of sales to juice factories, this method of sale is seldom found in lead- ing commercial sections, but is confined to outlying vineyards where growers are not well in touch with market prices and conditions. A notable exception is the Keuka Lake district of New York, where most of the growers sell on contract to local dealers well in advance of the harvesting season. SALES TO LOCAL BUYERS OR CAR-LOT ASSEMBLERS. The most common method of sale is to local buyers or car-lot as- semblers at the current market price. Where grapes are produced commercially there are generally several dealers who make a spe- cialty of buying for cash the crop of the growers in their locality, usually delivered to the car. Here they assemble them in carloads and dispose of them through any of the usual market outlets. This is the simplest and easiest method of sale for the grower, as it transfers the highly specialized business of marketing the crop to a man who has had relatively wide experience. Besides his other duties the local carlot assembler often assumes large financial risks. The grower should also expect to pay him for his specialized knowl- edge of the industry. Conscience and competition usually keep down the profit of the local buyer to reasonable figures. In the sections of large acreage, such as parts of New York and Michigan, the competition between buyers is usually so keen that the grower is assured of the full market price for his product. However, in the more isolated sections, abuses have crept into the system and individuals are often found who ab- solutely control their limited districts, buying grapes not on the basis of what they are worth at the current market price, but on the basis of the lowest price at which they can be obtained. MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 19 ‘Such abuses are usually founded upon the growers’ ignorance of marketing conditions and their failure to interest outside competi- tion. Publicity, which informs dealers in other sections of the local, conditions and induces them to enter the deal, often provides the necessary competition. Cooperation between the growers to perform themselves, and for their own profit, the functions of the local buyer, is another alternative. Conditions are seldom improved by individual growers entering the field of marketing and trying to compete with the buyer, for in few such cases is the acreage controlled by any grower sufficient to enable him to ship easily in carload lots and the necessary connec- tions with the trade in large terminal markets usually are lacking. Too often the power of monopolistic local buyers is strengthened by the failures of growers who have attempted to break away and enter the field of marketing. __ Most local buyers or carlot assemblers try to dispose of their stock to city carlot receivers on shipping-point basis, as the speculative | features of their business are thereby reduced to a minimum.- When their reputation for financial soundness and integrity has been estab- lished they are usually successful. This type of factor may dispose of his crop in any of the numerous ways which are also open to the egrower—on consignment, to traveling city buyers through exchanges, to juice factories, etc. In a few cases carlot assemblers at shipping points have developed businesses similar in their methods to cooperative marketing associa- tions, in that they handle the product of some of the growers in their locality, acting merely as an agent and making a certain fixed charge per package. An example of this method is to be found at North East, Pa. SALES THROUGH COOPERATIVE ASSOCIATIONS.? In many of the more important sections grape growers have taken advantage of the possibilities of collective action by the formation of cooperative associations. Cooperation is the act of working with — others for a common benefit, and in marketing fruit it is most prac- tical in its application to crops of which a few standard varieties ripen at the same time. ‘Thus it has proved of great value in the grape industry. . As these associations take charge of the marketing of the grapes produced by their members, they perform a function in the industry quite analagous to that of the local buyer or car-lot assembler. The associations generally receive the grapes at the car door, load them 3See Bassett, C. E.; Moomaw, C. W.; and Kerr, W. H. Cooperative Marketing and Financing of Marketing Associations. Jn Yearbook U. S. Department of Agriculture, 1914, - 20 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the car, inspect their quality, and sell them for the highest price obtainable. The grower usually allows the association to take full charge of the shipment, and payment is commonly made by pooling the returns of the shipment of each day and remitting to the growers in proportion to their haulings of the various sizes and varieties, after deducting a certain charge for expenses. The details of these business arrangements, which depend on the constitutions and by- laws of the various organizations, cover a wide range of conditions and are generally covered by a contract between the association and each of its individual members. In some cases growers are allowed entire freedom of action, in that they may market their crops through the associations or through outside agencies, as they see fit; in others they are obligated to allow the association to handle all of their crops. Some associations charge their members on a percentage commission basis; sometimes they make a fixed charge per basket or per ton, out of which the expenses of management must be borne. . The profits, if any, at the end of the shipping season are divided among the shareholders of the association or prorated among the shippers, according to the rules of each association. Most cooperative associations in the grape industry endeavor to sell at the loading station. Other methods, such as consignment and sales to juice factories, are practiced, but the great bulk of the stock is sold on telegraphic orders. ? Notable examples of cooperative grape shipping associations are to be found in the leading sections of Michigan, New York, and the Missouri Valley. While cooperation solves many problems, it will surely result in failure unless the two basic requirements are met: (1) Such an organization must be founded on some definite urgent need, and (2) the manager or director of such an enterprise must possess the requisite ability and knowledge of marketing conditions. SALES TO GRAPE-JUICE FACTORIES. — The tremendous growth of the unfermented grape-juice industry during the past few years has established a most satisfactory market outlet for those growers whose vineyards are in close proximity to such factories. A large proportion of the tonnage produced in the Chautauqua-Erie belt, in Michigan, and in the Hudson River Valley is consumed in the manufacture of this product, and in the first dis- trict named nearly as much stock is consumed locally by factories as is shipped to outside points. The problems of marketing are reduced to a minimum for those growers who sell to juice factories. To some extent, both in Michi- gan and in New York, factories purchase their requirements from neighboring growers under contracts made before the grapes mature, MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. : 21 _which specify definitely the price to be paid, but the common method of sale is a contract to purchase the grower’s entire crop at the market price prevailing on the day of delivery. . Confusion sometimes arises as to just what the market price is, particularly when the consumption by juice factories is so great that few bulk grapes are sold for outside shipment. This occurred in Michigan in 1918 and to a less extent at the beginning of the season of 1918 in the Chautauqua-Erie belt. As no ratio between the price of 4-quart baskets and that of stock shipped in 12-quart baskets or trays has ever been established, it is usually left to the juice factories to pay what they think proper. Such situations are unfortunate, as they furnish a chance for unfair practices, but in the main the leaders of the grape-juice industry have the interests of the grower at. heart - and may be relied on to pay a fair price for what they buy. A still more effective insurance of a fair return to the grower is the fact that the production of grape juice has not of late years equaled the trade requirements. This has caused a very healthy competition be- > tween the various factories for the products of the vineyardist. Most of the grapes used by juice factories are produced within hauling distance, but in 1918, on account of the short crop, much stock was received by shipment, both by short hauls from within the same district and by long hauls, as between Michigan and Westfield, N. Y., and between Chautauqua County and Highland, N. Y. The common grape trays, usually owned by the factory, are the — standard package for grape-juice stock, though 12-quart Climax baskets are often employed, into which grapes are picked directly from the vines. Sales of stock in baskets are generally made on the basis of the gross weight; that is, with the baskets included. While juice factories generally prefer to buy from the grower, they do not confine their purchases to this source, but-sometimes send out representatives, who buy from local dealers or cooperative asso- ciations or purchase stock on telegraphic orders. Growers in out- lying sections who are able to ship in carload quantities would do well to investigate the possibilities of this method of sale. On ac- count of its acidity, the Concord comprises the great bulk of the grape-juice stock, but the Worden is sometimes used, and the Clinton is recommended as a valuable variety for this purpose. FREE-ON-BOARD SALES. In the early days of the grape-shipping industry, sales were made almost exclusively at the point of destination. Of late years the tendency has been toward the other extreme, until the great bulk of shipments from the more important grape-growing sections are now sold f. o. b. point of origin. bo BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. “BF. o. b.” is an abbreviation of the phrase “ free on board,” which means loaded in the car, ready for shipment, with no attachments to the stock. From the definition it will be seen that a car may as well be f. o. b. Kansas City, Mo., as f. 0. b. Lawton, Mich., and so, while this phrase is used almost without exception in this industry as re- ferring to shipping points, the exact station where cars are loaded should be specified in all cases. Sales made on an f. 0. b. basis imply contracts, either written or understood, between the shipper and the buyer, which cover a wide variety of clauses and conditions, but which have been standardized into three general types: Carloads f. 0.-b. usual terms; carloads f. o. b. cash track; and joint or open account sales. The volume of less than carload Sipe of grapes is so small that carloads are regarded as the unit. CARLOADS F. 0. B. USUAL TERMS. — The great majority of the Michigan crop is sold on the basis of “f. o. b. usual terms,” and this type of trade has reached a high stage of development in Berrien and Van Buren Counties. The shippers in this section, who are for the most part brokers and cooperative associations, keep in close touch with all possible market outlets, sending out daily quotations by wire to any available consuming center where they think they can place a car. Whenever one of these bids is accepted by a city buyer, assuming of course that his reputation for business integrity and financial soundness is satis- factory, they telegraph acceptance of his order, usually giving the number and initials of the car used to fill it, as well as the number and varieties of the baskets included. The buyer, with his order, has furnished shipping directions, according to which the car is billed out and turned over to ie transportation company. The shipper then takes the bill of lading, received from the railroad, to his banker, and instructs him to draw a sight draft on the Bee The banks in this section are usually willing to finance these dealers and advance them cash for 75 per cent of the face value of this draft, accepting the bill of lading as security. The bill of lading, with the sight draft attached, is then mailed to the: correspondent bank through which the buyer deals, if possible in the city to which the cars are destined. The arrival of the sight draft attached to the bill of lading is usually approximately coincident with the arrival of the car, and the buyer is informed in each tase. He then inspects the car, which is permitted in the standard form of contract and bill of lading. If he believes that the grade and quality are up to the standard agreed upon he accepts it. He does this by going to the city bank and “ taking up ” the sight draft. He pays its face value, receives the bill of lading, and thereupon accepts title to the shipment. MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 23 For this service the local banks in Michigan charge a fee of 25 cents per $100 face value of the draft, and the balance is credited upon payment of the draft, less any costs charged by remitting banks and less also an interest charge of 6 per cent on the money advanced, after five days’ grace expire. These are the standard terms to brokers. Cooperative associations are given financial. ac- commodations on nearly the same basis, but must have a sufficient balance on hand to cover all transient drafts. One of the most frequent causes for friction between shippers and receivers is the privilege of rejection at destination, incident to this type of sale. No one can deny the right of the receiver to refuse stock which does not come up to the quality agreed upon, but the complaint of shippers is that in a falling market even good “stock is rejected as unsound. This, of course, is sharp practice and is condemned by the more honest members of the trade. In this connection mention should be made of the Food Products In- spection Service of the Bureau of Markets, which, in many. of the larger markets, makes official inspection upon request of the ship- per or receiver at a cost of $4 per car or $2.50 on small lots, and issues certificates as to the quality and condition of the stock eich constitute prima facie evidence in the event of a dispute. ~When a buyer. decides. to reject a car, he refuses to accept the sight draft and bill of lading and aenelle notifies the shipper to that effect, often telegraphing a new offer for the car. This the shipper may accept or decline, and in the latter case he can sell to other dealers in the same market or divert the car to another city. Any one of these courses necessitates new arrangements with both _ the receiving and remitting bank.» Frequently, upon claim by the receiver, a shipper will eee a firm with which he has done busi- ness for some time a certain “allowance” or the discount of a few cents per basket on stock that arrives in bad enti. even ikea) the receiver Ears the draft. _* +. GARLOADS F. 0. B. CASH TRACK. In its simplest form the type of sale known as “f. 0. b. cash track” consists in the purchase of a loaded car of grapes, ready for ship- ment, by a traveling representative of a city dealer, of a juice fac- tory, or of a distributing agency, payment to be made before the car moves.. This type of sale is practiced to an increasing extent in all sections. But cash track sales are sometimes made in New York and in Michigan upon telegraphic orders when the buyer agrees to accept the cars at shipping point and has made arrangements to telegraph the amounts due. Another financial arrangement is for pe 24 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the buyer to deposit money at the shipper’s bank, allowing draft to be made at the time of shipment, or even to have his own bank guarantee a credit up to a certain amount and have draft made directly upon the city bank. Thus sales made “shipping point acceptance, bank guarantee ” are in reality a type of “cash track sales.” RELATION OF “CASH TRACK ” AND “ USUAL TERMS” SALES. The primary difference between “cash track” and “usual terms ” sales is the place in the transaction where the actual change of owner- ship occurs. Of the two methods, sales made on the basis of “ car- loads f. o. b. cash track” are to the benefit of the seller or shipper, and sales made on the basis of “carloads f. 0. b. usual terms” are to Vig. 3.—Grapes arriving at the terminal market. the benefit of the buyer or receiver. In the former case the buyer assumes a risk as to the honesty and business integrity of the shipper, and in the latter case the shipper assumes a risk as to the honesty and financial ability of the receiver. Further, in “ f. 0. b. cash track” sales the buyer assumes all risks of deterioration in transit, delays, etc., and the shipper is relieved of these risks, while in the case of “fo. b. usual terms” sales, at least in present-day commercial prac- tices, the case is reversed, and the shipper takes the risk. In many cases these risks cause one of the parties heavy losses. Thus we find shippers anxious to sell “cash track” even at a slightly lower price and buyers trying to make purchases on the basis of “usual terms.” Which of these may succeed in this com- mercial competition. depends on the organization of either class of factors and upon the conditions of supply and demand. In years MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 25 ot crop shortage, when buyers are clamoring for shipments and hunting to find them, many sales are made on the basis of “cash track,’ while in years of normal supply the shippers have to seek buyers and are thereby forced to sell on “ usual terms.” In the case of oversupphed markets, or when the average quality of the stock is poor, it is sometimes impossible to sell all of the grapes ready for shipment on an f. 0. b. basis. Under these condi- tions the only alternative is to consign to dealers in the large terminal markets for sale on a commission basis, or to sell through city brokers. SALES ON ACCOUNT. Account sales are of two general types, “joint accounts” and “open accounts.” Joint account sales. are common in the Chau- tauqua-Erie belt and to some extent in the Central Lakes, and are infrequently seen in other important sections. Deals of this sort presuppose an agreement between a shipper, usually a local buyer, and a carlot receiver in a terminal market, whereby the two enter into a virtual parnership to buy, ship, and sell grapes, the final profits being divided between the two, usually on the basis of joint account. Open account sales are common in the Chautauqua-Erie belt and are variable in type, their particular characteristic being that they: are made between shippers and dealers who are mutually confident in each other’s integrity and financial soundness, so that sales are made at what the shipper says is the market price and allowances are made for the arrival of stock in markets in poor condition, on the word of the buyer, and for a falling market. After the car arrives in market and is sold the buyer remits to the shipper, thus closing the account. SECTIONS WHERE F. 0. B. SALES ARE MADE. While the great bulk of the commercial crop of the East is marketed by these methods, f. 0. b. sales are seldom found outside of the few highly specialized grape districts, where each of the larger shippers is able to offer several cars a day. In Michigan, the Chautauqua-Erie belt, parts of the Central Lakes district of New York, the Hudson Valley of New York, and parts of the Missouri Valley district, factors, local dealers, or cooperative associations . have so developed their business and established contacts in the cities to which they usually sell that they are enabled to make most of their sales on telegraphic orders, especially in seasons of short production. In outlying parts of these districts and in the less im- portant sections of Delaware, the Southeast, New Jersey, the Ontario shore of New York, and parts of Missouri, few sales are made on an f. o. b. basis, as, except in a few instances, there are 178922°—20——_4 26 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. not sufficient cars shipped from any one point to establish its reputa- tion and to cause carlot buyers to investigate its possibilities. Most cars from these districts are rolled unsold, generally on consignment. DESCRIPTION OF LEADING PRODUCING SECTIONS. THE CHAUTAUQUA-ERIE BELT. LOCATION AND EXTENT. The Chautauqua-Erie belt is probably the most specialized grape- growing section in the United States outside of California. The in- dustry reaches its highest development around the towns of North Kast, Pa., and Brocton, Portland, Westfield, and Ripley, N. Y. The commercial vineyards are found in a long narrow strip of land running from Eden, N. Y., to Girard, Pa., along the shore of Lake Erie, including parts of the counties of Erie, Pa., and Chautauqua, and Erie, N. Y., and to a much less extent parts of Cattaraugus County, N. Y. Portland and Brocton, N. Y., are the leading shipping points of 2-quart baskets; Ripley, N. Y., and North East, Pa., of 4-quart baskets, and the 12-quart trade is the most important at Brocton, N. Y., and North East, Pa. Large grape-juice factories are estab- ened at North East, Pa., and at Westfield, Ripley, Brocton, Fre- donia, and Silver Creek, N. ae: Table 2 shows the emcees at the various stations throughout the belt as reported to the Bureau of Markets by the originating railroads: TABLE 2.—Carloadings of grapes in the Chautauqua-Eric belt. 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 1916 | 1917 | 1918 |1919 . Erie Co.,N.Y., Sept.—Dec.: Chautauqua, Co., N. Y., VAMP OA he cee ese oe 42 89 6 68 Aug.—Nov.—Continued. piUiialos: asa se eee 2 0 0 0 Silver Creek.......-..- 132 | 114 Sui al: Derbys... 2-5 ess 54 3 6 0 13 Smiths Mills........-- 44 17 4 33 Eden Center.......-.- 47 86 T2112 State Lines see 133 33 40 0 Fa Tis eae oe 2 9 0 14 Man: Bureniee ene eens 0 5 0 0 Dawtonusi: Stes eee 0 0 0 1 Mineyard eee 0 1 2 0 North Collins. ........ 66 85 6 50 Westfield. 525-205 258 148 | 120 6]. 68 — West Perrysburg....-. 0 0 0 75 Erie Co. total......- 162 | 275 24 258 ee Chautauqua Co. total |2, 255 |1,636 | 526 |1,924 Cattaraugus Co., N. Y., Ee Se ee Oct.-Nov.: Perrysburg.| 97 77 11 23 || Unknown, loaded in New SS a OD Roo enn, doe cee epee 0; 318] 161 0 Chautauqua Co., N. Y., BSS | SS Se SS Aug.-Nov.: Erie Co. Pa., Sept.—Nov.: | Brocton je. scseece ese 423 325 95 296 Hridseecusskeeeesoeces 13 0 0 0 Drinkirk. 6005 es 28 26 0 10 P'AINVIOW, «2,05 dat ober 6 6 2 Vf Forestville............ 137) |\taso 31 158 Girard. j-2 24s. (Ate 9 0 0 23 HOrsyiliG-. 2. smeseed 0 0 29 0 Harbour Creek....... 252] 143 64 | 204 Fredonia). 2.- 7.25215 241 | 224 14} 268 Moorheads..-......... 63 53 34 49 AWA osc eek canes 90 11 0 39 Northebasta-= cc.m-e 666 | 620) 223 | 727 LEC 1h Se eee eee ee 44 22 0 40 Springfield.../....... 3 0 3 Mayville. ste. 2282s 17 36 0 24 State Line............ 0 3 14 0 MinITOM. -asue ness vee 0 0 7 0 Unknown.....-..--:- 0 0 30 0 Portage = soe. eo 332 190 124 282 ae |) |) Pratiges: s2ta5522562%6 0 7 0 0 Erie Co. total....... 1,012 | 827] 367 /1,013 Prospect. Be 16 0 0 0 = es | Ripley..... 5}, “352 | 258) ]: 102° |) #210 Totalloadings in belt 3,526 |3,133 |1,089 |3, 218 Bheridatt, soc. cose 118 112 64 209 MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. DAT | The topography of this section causes a strict demarcation of the area suitable for grape growing and localizes the vineyards to the territory between the lake and the long ridge which roughly par- allels it. On the the lake side of the ridge the soil is a rich clay loam underlaid by limestone and shale and alternating with grav- elly loam, an ideal grape soil. The effect of a large body of water upon the temperature is to reduce frost damage to a minimum and the steady lake winds give the belt almost perfect immunity from fungus diseases. These two factors, together with the character of the soil, make this section an almost ideal place for grape production. HISTORY. The commercial grape industry in this region began in the eighties, ‘when the first shipments in carload lots were made. The prices realized, in some cases between $200 and $250 per ton, were so satis- factory that farmers began to plant extensive vineyards, coopera- tive marketing associations were formed, and individuals entered - the field.as buyers and independent shippers. The growth of the industry was rapid and at one time the shipments of the belt were estimated at 8,000 cars a year. During the past three years, how- ever, acreage and production have both declined because of a root- worm injury which left the vines in such a weakened condition that they were unable to withstand the recent severe winters. Clean culture is generally practiced, and is often supplemented by cover crops of rye, barley, buckwheat, or red clover. Generally the vineyards are plowed in both fall and spring and usually either manure or a commercial fertilizer is applied. ACERAGE AND VARIETIES. The Concord is the chief grape of the belt, and it is roughly esti- mated that 95 per cent of the commercial acreage is of that variety. The Worden is next in importance and probably comprises 3 per cent of the crop. The Moore, Niagara, Delaware, and Agawam make up the remaining 2 per cent. The Moore and Worden are the first to mature, moving heavily in a normal season from about the second week in September until the first week in October. Con- cords start the last week in September or the first week in October and are usually cleaned up by November 1. The Niagara, the Dela- ware, and the Agawam, known locally as “ varieties,” are generally shipped early in October. The commercial acreage of the belt is variously and unofficially estimated as from 33,000 to 35,000 acres, which is a material reduc- tion from the number devoted to grapes three or four years ago. No official statistics as to production are available, but it is the consensus 28 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of opinion of those in close touch with the situation that for the decade preceding 1916 the average yield per acre approximated 2 tons. The yield was materially reduced in 1917 by a very severe early freeze and in 1918 by a combination of rootworm injury and the winterkilling of the previous season. Very little replanting is being done. : MARKETING METHODS. While practically all known methods of marketing are used in the belt, two general types of sale greatly predominate—sales to local buyers and sales to grape-juice factories. These factors are for the most part reliable, up-to-date business men, who have the interests of the industry at heart. The juice factories of the belt have more prominence than in any other section and furnish an easy and profit- able outlet through which the grower may dispose of his crop. The importance of this phase of the industry is constantly increasing and will undoubtedly absorb the small quantity of grapes which have hitherto been used locally for wine manufacture. In normal years sales are made on an f. o. b. basis, which is facilitated by the high development of the industry in this section. COOPERATION. At present there are four growers’ cooperative associations in existence in the belt, only one of which is of more than local im- portance. This association has been the largest handler of grapes in this section and largely through its efforts the high reputation enjoyed by this section and the wide distribution of its products has been developed. ‘The organization devotes special attention to the New England trade and makes many sales in the smaller cities of Massachusetts and Connecticut. Because this association allows many of its members to sell direct to juice factories, its shipments have not been so large in recent years as formerly. QUALITY OF PACK. Careful trimming and packing and well-developed methods of handling the crop built up a high reputation for the grapes shipped from this section. The grape berry moth is troublesome in certain localities, but as fungus injury is generally very light, most of the grapes are picked into the shipping baskets directly from the vine. The pickers in this section are often paid by the basket. In this case it is to their advantage to place the bunches in the packages as loosely as possible. When the natural shrink is added, and the bunches are shaken down by the motion of the wagon and the freight car, these loosely packed baskets often reach the market with an inch margin MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 29 between the cover and the top bunch. Such short weight reacts upon the reputation enjoyed by this section and every one interested in the industry should strive to put a stop to this practice. The greatest responsibility rests upon the grower, who should take pains to secure a good, tight, full pack, remembering that the future of this section is dependent upon its recovery of the table-stock trade, and that every dissatisfied consumer reduces the terminal demand and the price. MARKET OUTLETS AND DISTRIBUTION. It is to be regretted that the data for the destinations of 1918 shipments only are available, as in that year production was far below normal and the field of d'stribution was materially reduced (see Appendix). However, it is known that shipments from this section have gone as far west as Denver, Colo., as far east as Port- land, Me., and as far south as Atlanta, Ga. A very large number of the 1918 destinations show merely the interstation shipments, as from Ripley to Westfield, or from Brocton to Fredonia, of grapes intended for juice factories. It should be remembered that not all the carlot shipments represent table stock, as a very large percen- tage of the stock shipped in 12-quart baskets was used in the home manufacture of wine.. This was especially true in the smaller cities of Pennsylvania and Ohio, where the proportions of the foreign- born population is large. Some of these cities are so small that a full carload of table stock could not have been consumed. Although in 1918 the grapes from the belt went to 109 different cities and towns in two States, it can not be said that the shipments of this section show a generally wide distribution, as in that year nearly half went to four cities—Pittsburgh, Westfield, Boston, and Philadelphia. Much of the remainder of the crop went to parts of Pennsylvania, Ohio, and New York, adjacent to the belt. The Mich- igan competition prevents a greater expansion of outlets toward the West, and few cars are rolled in that direction until after the Michi- _ gan crop has been consumed, which in 1918 occurred earlier than usual. On the other hand, a fairly large business has been built up in New England, but the short crop in 1918 prevented the shipment of many cars to that section. THE CENTRAL LAKES. DISTRICT OF NEW YORK. LOCATION AND EXTENT. The Central Lakes district of New York is one of the most inter- esting and important grape-growing sections of the country The deep, long lakes of Keuka, Canandaigua, Seneca, and Cayuga make 30 BULLETIN 861, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the climatic conditions most favorable for grape growing, and the steep banks and high hills surrounding Keuka Lake, t together with the thickly planted vineyards at its side, have given it the name of “the Rhine of America.” The commercial vineyards in this district may be divided into three main sections, those contiguous to three of the lakes mentioned above—the Keuka Lake section, comprising parts of the counties of - Yates and Steuben; the Canandaigua section, comprising particu- larly the Naples Valley and Canandaigua section in Ontario County ; and the Seneca Lake section, parts of Seneca, Schuyler, and Yates Counties, and, to a very limited extent, Ontario County. Table 3 shows the loadings at the various stations throughout this district, as reported by mail to the Bureau of Markets by the various originating railroads: TABLE 3.—Carloadings of grapes in the Central Lakes district of New York. 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 Ontario Co. , Sept.-Oct.° Steuben Co., Sept.—Nov.: Canandaigua...--..-. 25 17 25 11 Hammondsport tose Geneval.- ss ee 0 il 0 0 Pratispursee ess. INFO Se eee ae ee 124 89 77} 160 Rheims: Hoo ee Orleans: ae 21 0 0 0 —— Steuben Co. total. -- Ontario Co. total..... 170] 117| 102] 171 : === |} Yates Co., Sept._Nov.: Schuyler Co., Sept.—Nov.: Benton..-_.- pct eee se ee ee ss 61 92 40} 101 Bluff Point... Walloist: 3 333 A 30 28 19 46 Branchport- Ee — Dresden! 3 sete Schuyler Co. total..-| 91} 120 59 | 147 Dundee 2a ———| —-— Glenora 2-372 4-5 ee Seneca Co., Sept.—Nov.: PMT Odes See ee Burdette. s-2- soe a 0 0 15 29 Middlesex ===) 5253 Caywood e322. 222152 14 40 19 34 Maloes ras. oc ae See, end aiaice 2. ae 62 41 9 50 Benn Vanes «eee as Romulus.) 355... 20 7 0 9 Rock Stream........- Seneca Falls........-. 4 6 2) 4 Starkey... 2 eo ee Wale. P55 SN 52% PDE 1 0 0 0 —— Yates Co. total..__-_- Seneca Co. total..__. 101 94 45 | 126 Total loadings in istrict sl tte see HISTORY. The earliest plantings recorded in the Central Lakes district were in Steuben County in 1830.4 The industry spread slowly around the other lakes, and in 1854 the first commercial shipment was made to New York City. Shortly after 1860, the Concord and the Dela- ware were introduced into the district, and in the eighties the Niag- ara became very popular, particularly in Seneca County. Had all the vines set in this county come into bearing, they would have flooded the markets, for distant shipments were not then practicable, 4See Hedrick, U. P. The Grapes of New York. Report Agricultural Experiment Sta- tion for the Year 1907, II, pp. 83, 84, MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 31 as they are to-day. But this speculative enterprise was ill consid- ered, many vines were planted in heavy clay soils, and few survived to come into bearing, as this variety is especially eames Generally grapes do not do well in this district at an altitude beyond 200 feet above the lake level. The particular development around Keuka Lake, where Catawbas are grown to greater perfection than anywhere else in the North, _ and. in the Naples Valley, was toward wine production. The wine industry was begun in this section in the sixties, and by 1915 there were over 25 factories engaged in this process, Keuka Lake was the center of the Ameri¢an champagne industry, and important wine factories were in operation in Naples. ACREAGE AND VARIETIES. As in the other leading grape-producing sections, the acreage is on the decrease and the reduction has been particularly marked in Seneca County. The commercial acreage of the district is variously and unofficially estimated at from 12,000 to 15,000 acres. No official statistics as to the average production are available, but it is the consensus among those in close touch with the industry that the average yield per acre for the whole district was formerly about a ton, the low figure being due to the many uncared-for vineyards and the numerous varieties of low productivity. The Central Lake district is notable for the lack of standardization upon a leading variety, nearly all the well-known varieties being grown in commercial quantities. No official data are available as to the relative acreage of the different varieties, but it is roughly esti- mated by leading factors that the Concord comprises 60 per cent of the acreage, the Catawba 20 per cent, Delaware 8 per cent, Niagara 7 per cent, and others, such as the Elvira, Worden, Moore, Ives, Dia- mond, Agawam, and the Brighton the remaining 5 per cent. There is probably no commercial district where insect pests cause so little damage as around the Central Lakes of New York, but fungus diseases are troublesome; black rot, downy mildew, powdery mildew, anthracnose, and chlorosis often attack the fruit and vines. These fungus diseases necessitate repeated sprayings, and in recent years they have seemed to be under better control. On account of the frequent and extensive damage to the bunches, many of the best vineyardists use packing houses, but much stock, especially in the outlying sections, is picked directly into shipping baskets. A fairly good pack is usually shipped, particularly from the Penn Yan sec- tion, where there is one factor whose shipments command a consid- _erable premium. 32 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MARKETING MrrHops. Practically all known methods of sale are practiced in this region, but the principal outlet for the grower is through local buyers or car-lot assemblers. The contract system of sales is much in vogue. Growers often sell their crop to a local buyer before it matures, agreeing to pick and deliver at the buyer’s packing house for a cer- tain stipulated price. As the growers are often ignorant of the marketing conditions while the buyer is well informed concerning them, this system frequently works to the grower’s disadvantage. For instance, during 1918 growers in the Chautauqua-Erie belt were selling their Concords at $100 to $110 per ton, while some growers in the Keuka Lake section were hauling similar stock at the pre- viously contracted price of $60 and in some cases as low as $40 per ton. Other growers in this section, who were selling to the same buyer at the market price, were receiving $90 to $95. This last price is not out of line, for Central Lakes stock, except in the case of certain well-known brands, generally sells slightly below Chau- tauqua and Hudson River stock. A large amount of stock, in the aggregate, is bought on contract by outside buyers who visit this district and purchase crops at a certain definite price, which depends upon the quality of each vine- yard and upon the growers’s knowledge of price conditions. It might be said in passing that as a large percentage of growers is extremely ignorant of marketing conditions and practices, good stock may often be purchased in Seneca, Ontario, Schuyler, and Yates Counties at low prices; therefore many of the growers in these sec- tions fail to realize the full market price for their product. In the Keuka section and in the Naples Valley large amounts of this stock were formerly used for the manufacture of wine, and the closing of this outlet will undoubtedly work a severe hardship in these sections; however, some of these factories expect to engage in the manufacture of grape juice. A much larger percentage of table stock is shipped from this district than from the Chautauqua-Erie belt, 2-quart baskets being used almost exclusively. Eight-basket crates are sometimes em- ployed for shipping fancy table stock, such as Delawares. Consignment by growers, in less than carload lots and also in carlots, is frequently practiced, particularly from the district around Seneca Lake. As this consignment is generally done on a hap- hazard basis, growers shipping to certain markets merely because they did so the year before, it is not surprising that there is fre- quent dissatisfaction regarding the returns. MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 33 Prohibition legislation caused more disruption in the Central Lakes district of New York than in any other of the larger grape districts outside of Ohio, and this fact, together with the rather un- organized condition of the local trade, created more interest in mar- keting methods and caused the organization of several cooperative associations. MARKET OUTLETS AND DISTRIBUTION. The shipments from the Central Lakes district secure a wider dis- tribution than those from any other section in New York and are the principal source of late supplies for the eastern and southeastern cities of the United: States. Concords in this section ripen from 10 days to 2 weeks earlier than those of the Chautauqua-Erie belt, and during that time there is no competition between these two districts. When the belt begins to ship heavily on the West and the Hudson River’ Valley is shipping on the East, shippers in the Central Lakes district are hard pressed to find an outlet for their product. It is then that the shipments find their way into the more southern markets. Later, when Michigan is out of the market, some stock is rolled to the Middle West. It is noticeable that in 1918 both the Chautauqua-Erie belt and the Central Lakes district shipped heavily to the smaller cities in Pennsylvania, these shipments being largely of stock packed in 12-quart baskets for the home manufacture of wine. Largely on account of the location and directions of the railroads in these two sections, the shipments from the belt go to western Penn- sylvania and from the Central Lakes to the eastern part of the State. Also, all New York SHIpRINE sections roll stock to New England. (See Appendix.) THE HUDSON VALLEY OF NEW YORK. HISTORY AND DESCRIPTION. The production of table grapes in America first reached com- mercial importance in the Hndson Valley district.2 Before 1830 a vineyard of Catawbas and Isabellas was shipping to neighboring markets. This district is notable for the extensive experimental work that was done in the early days of the industry, in the pro- duction and dissemination of new varieties. This was an undoubted 5 See Hedrick, U. P. The Grapes of New York. Report of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station for the Year 1907, II, p. 89. 34 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. boon to the industry,*but its effect upon the district was question- able, for it resulted in the planting of many acres to commercially worthless varieties. There was great expansion previous to 1890, but between that date and 1900, when competition from other dis- tricts became stronger and fungus diseases began to affect the production seriously, there was a sharp decrease in the acreage of this district. The soil of the Hudson Valley district is variable, most vine - yards being found on coarse gravelly loams, in which shale or slate predominate. Most of the grapes are grown on the hills near the river, which has a stabilizing effect upon the temperature. Without this large body of water, grape growing would be impos- sible in this section. As it is, the winters are often destructive. The district comprises the counties of Columbia, Dutchess, Ulster, and Orange. Germantown, Roseton, Highland, Marlboro, Milton, and Ulster Park are the most important shipping points. Table 4 shows the loadings at the various stations throughout the territory, as reported to the Bureau of Markets by the originating railroads and boat lines: Tasle 4.—Carloadings of grapes in the Hudson Valley of New York. 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1918 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 Columbia Co., Aug.—Sept.:| Ulster Co., Aug.-Oct.: Claverack == oer 0 0 0 6 Clinfondale a a 2 2 0 3 Elizaville...._.- J 0 0 0 17 Esopus.._.- 5 9 7 10 0 Germantown. .- SE tees (8) 59} 1241 126 Highland... 29 7 23 14 HaGsones. 22 see 0 0 0 5 Marlboro. - - 98 91} 114] 102 — ieee. 35 eee be 19 15 3 0 Columbia Co. total_. 19 59} 124 | 154 Si. hintgs 2 Sea 1 0 0. 1 UIster Parke eee 49 46 16 32 Dutchess Co., Sept.-Oct.: | | West Parkes: bio 224 9 6 13 0 Fart VLOWD =. ee 2 3 0 if —_ Cokertown.......--.- _4 2 0 0 | Ulster Co. total... .-. 2165). 2372/2088 152 meatHook:. se... 2 2.23 0 0 0 6 | ————— ——S=— Tivoli sss55o 5.2 Al ae Smad 5h) oe250|| Unik wl eases eee 0 | 171| 187| 0 Dutchess Co. total. - 14 19 5 38 Total loadings in Hudson Valley...| 276 | 566] 573} 344 Orange Co., Aug.—Oct.: es Cedarclift-¢ 2) 32-2 3) | 8 25 9 | 0 Newburgh....+......- 2 0 8 | 0 Roseton. 22 4-2 ee. 3 17 55 32 0 Orange Co. total. -- 27 so |. 49 | 0 VARIETIES. There is no commercial necessity for such a great number of varie- ties as are produced in this district, but because of the proximity of so many markets where small quantities of fancy stock may be sold to advantage there are many varieties left from earlier times. No official statistics are available as to the relative acreage of the differ- ent varieties, but it is roughly estimated by leading factors that the MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. oo Concord comprises 50 per cent of the acreage, the Delaware 15 per cent, Niagara 15 per cent, Worden 5 per cent, Moore 5 per cent, and others, such as the Bacchus, Pocklington, Campbell, Hartford, and the Virgennes, the remaining 10 per cent. : METHODS OF SALE. All known methods of sale are practiced, but shipment on con- signment in less than carload lots by water freight is one of the most common. As the commercial vineyards are all adjacent to the river, which is navigable as far as Albany and Troy, many growers take advantage of the low freight rate and quick delivery in shipping to New York. Fruit loaded on the boat late in the evening will reach the city in time for business the next morning. The great drawback of this method is that it confines shipments to New York, Brooklyn, Albany, and Troy. The wider distribution of the products of this district is effected by the local dealers and associations. At several points local dealers control the situation, buying the offerings of the growers and selling them in carloads “ f. 0. b. usual terms” or “f. o. b. cash track,” preferably the latter, to their con- nections in outside cities. A grape-juice factory is established at Highland, which annually consumes a large amount of stock and offers an easy outlet for the products of the vineyards. In recent years the growers of this district have formed a coopera- tive association through which their products are sold. This associa- tion has been successful in disposing of its offerings to advantage, and is now one of the most important factors in this district. QUALITY OF PACK. Damage by insect pests is practically negligible, but fungus dis- eases, particularly black rot, are often very harmful. This some- times results in a poor pack, but on the whole the quality of the ship- ments from this district is good. Two-quart and 4-quart baskets are generally used, most of which are packed in the vineyard. On ac- count of the numerous varieties commonly grown, a practice has de- veloped of packing two or three varieties in one basket. which finds some favor with the fancy trade. MARKET OUTLETS AND DISTRIBUTION. New York is by far the heaviest receiver of Hudson Valley ship- ments, with Boston next in importance. Most of the remaining erapes go to the smaller cities in eastern New York State and in New England and an occasional car is shipped into Pennsylvania and 36 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. New Jersey, but because of the heavy competitive shipments from the Central Lakes and the Chautauqua-Erie belt, the prevailing shipping tendency is toward the East. THE ONTARIO SHORE OF NEW YORK. LOCATION AND HXTENT. The Ontario shore of New York, sometimes called the Niagara district, both from the principal county and the principal variety of this section, is relatively unimportant, when compared with the Chautauqua-Erie belt and the Central Lakes district which le near it. The acreage of the whole section has lately been on the decline, largely on account of severe winter injury. The general topographical features of this section are similar to those of the Chautauqua-Erie belt. Although commercial ship- ments are made from seven different counties, the industry is not of great importance outside of Niagara County, where Lockport, Model City, and Sanborn are the most important shipping points. Table 5 shows the loadings at the various stations throughout this section, as reported to the Bureau of Markets by the various originat- ing railroads. TABLE 5.—Carloadings of grapes in the Ontario shore district of New York. 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 | | eee) oS | Genessee Co., Oct.: Orleans Co., Sept.: IPavallONes= 5-4-1 /a1oas= see 0 1 0 0 Rancher. <./4- sss 3 0 0 0 | Holley malate en ee Se 0 1 0 4 Monroe Co., Oct.: ; Medina. soe eet se 0 2 2 0 ‘Brookport -<.55.--2-5< 3 1 0 0 Millers\s-- 222 2h ase 0 0 1 4 [Ojrastorels = Ot eee see 2 0 0 0 —— — |_| —— a SS SS Orleans Co. total.... 3 3 3 8 Monroe Co. total... 5 1 0 0 —S> ,s SS —S| —— — | =| ———_ | >. || Oswego Co., Sept.: Niagara Co., Sept.-Oct.: WaAcCOnaen. san-e an -ee == 32 0 0 0 (DULLER es. fee 0 1 0 0 _—<— ees Cambrase: -..-.-528.2 3 7 0 3 || Wayne Co., Oct.: Elberta... 6 7 3 15 Newark. - 0 0 2 0 Gasport - - - 9 5 2 10 Ontario sete ee 6 5 2 iG Lewiston - 0 3 0 12 CITE Gabe Saree sot 8 0 0 7 Mockportes.22--seeee 67 34 25 64 —— oes Se Model Citivas secs 28 20 20 54 Wayne Co. total....} 14 7) 4 24 Mortimer? ==222—-'5 223 0 3 0 0 —= SS SS Ransomville........-- 6 3 1 12 Total loading for PAUDOMMs see oe eee 12 9 5 43 district. 22 3-2222= 194 | 108 66 | 259 Wilson tase ae eae 9 6 3 14 Niagara Co. total..-| 140 98 59 | 227 The yield in this section is low because the Niagara, the chief variety grown, is a light bearer. It is roughly estimated that about 80 per cent of the commercial acreage is planted to the Niagara, 10 per cent to the Concord, and that the remainder is composed of the Worden, Moore, Delaware, and other less important varieties. MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 37 There are few large plantations. In fact, this section is interesting from a commercial viewpoint merely as a shipper of Niagaras, for nowhere does this variety reach such a high quality as near Lake Ontario, and particularly in Niagara County. METHODS OF SALE. A large percentage of the sales by growers in the counties of Genesee, Monroe, Orleans, and Wayne are made direct to retailers or to city markets in the near-by cities and towns. An important outlet is the shipment in less-than-carload lots on consignment to cities within the State, as to Buffalo, Rochester, Syracuse, and Rome. Some of the sales in these counties are made through local dealers who specialize in other fruits and handle grapes only as a side line. While there is some carlot shipping by growers, the greater part of the commercial distribution is effected by an association formed by growers for the marketing of their product. This association also handles some grapes in the Central Lakes district. The principal outlet for the carlot shipments from this district is in the large cities of the East—New York, Boston, and Philadelphia, and also in Pittsburgh. Insect pests are not particularly troublesome in this section, but fungus diseases, especially black rot, to which the Niagara is very susceptible, does considerable damage and necessitates careful trim- ming in years of infection. MICHIGAN. LocATION. While the quantity production of Michigan grapes does not equal that of New York State, nevertheless, as the shipments of table stock are heavier, the distribution more extensive, and the industry local- ized in a single section, southwestern Michigan may be regarded as the leading grape section of the East. While carlot shipments have been made from 10 Michigan counties during the last three years, the industry is relatively unimportant outside the counties of Van Buren and Berrien, and reaches its highest development around the towns of Lawton, Paw Paw, and Mie cawan | in the former county and Benton Haber and St. J nese in the latter. Table 6 shows the loading at the various stations throughout the State as reported to the Bureau of Markets by the various originating railroads. 38 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 6.—Carloadings of grapes in Michigan. 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 Allegan Co., Sept.: Kent Co., Sept.: Fennville...-....:-.-- 6 0 0 22 Belmont. --- 22-25 eee 0 1 0 0 Englishville........-- 0 1 0 0 Berrien Co., Sept.—Oct.: Grand Rapids-...---- 2 12 0 25 Barodasc. 22s2 0s: 69 | 136 9 0 Rockford... 22.220 26 0 2 0 3 Benton Harbor..-.--.- 257 | 740 | 603 /1,255 SPavlasss = sn se eee eee 0 0 0 2 Berrien Springs---.--- 5 12 0 21 g — ——_|—_ Bridgman ts -ea-6 52 | 104 17 0 Kent Co. total....-- 2 16 0 30 @olomia j2e 22 £54:-fose 22 81 36 | 157 3 —} _—— DWSLbY. ste 2 ee 168 | 237 1 | 288 || Mason Co., Sept.-Oct.: Bairland 222. EL s-- 0 12 7 0 Vudington: 228 -245-2 3 0 0 0 Galiens= 22 52sasee ee cf ace 0 1|| Muskegon Co.: Oct.: Glendora - 2222220 0 1 0 0 Slocum--: 2095-25225 3 0 0 0 arberti = ers eos 0 2 1 0 : _—S| —— | ———| -——— Hinchman....-...---- 0 27 0 0 || Ottawa Co., Sept.-Oct.: ° INS DIGR ee ae eee eee 0 59 0 0 Grand Haven...-....-| 40 28 0 1 INMIGS. Ssiccoaes S222: 3 6 0 21 Spring Lake........-. 0 0 0 3 RIVETSIGC =. 32. ose e 2 18 0 15 —— —— Royalton=- 5 425326-5 0 1 0 0 Ottawa Co. total.--.-| 40 28 0 4 St. OSepae ss - 5-236 255 | 512] 210] 498 SS SS SSS Sawyeliccs2s2: 4522.5. - 29 39 33 | 105 || Van Buren Co., Sept.—Oct: Scotidale. = 2225 eae 0} 180 0 0 Bangor-ose 22 cc eeeereere 4 0 1 BOGUS. . Src epee see 38 55 51 | 175 Breedsville.--....---- 1 0 0 0 SLenmMSe eee 0 4 0 0 Decatur soe ese esse 18 28 4 25 Stevensville-3-<--. =: 48 95 81 27 = GobleS2222: sca eee 0 4 0 4 Vineland. 7-222 -355 0 0 6 0 artiords---=es-4-- es 15 16 7 2 Wnien'Pier=_/5-552.5.4 0 1 1° Oo Kendall; 4... igeneses | 1 2 0 3 Wratervitet.. 2-200 -2 2 3 1 2 Lake Cora...--.------ 0 0 4 0 are == Lawrence..-- 3 12 ib 18 Berrien Co. total.-..| 954 |2,326 |1,057 |2, 565 Lawton ..2-23- nies oe 336 | 427 77 | 328 b a = == Matitawallsens- 2 -eer- 155 | 261 44) 158 Cass Co., Sept.—Oct.: PawiPawees-s-t eee 272 | 509} 254] 473 Dowagiac.--.----- -- 5 16 5 17 South Haven......-.- 0 8 0 17 Edwardsburg..-....-- 1 1 0 0 —_|—_— Marcelluis-..2--2<-/-.- ce 26 0 5 34 Van BurenCo.total| 802 |1,271 | 401 /1,029 S| SS ee | Witla ss ese sbsccsce 0 0} 169 88 Cass Co. total-_.2-:-| - 32 17 10 51 ; —— = SSS = Michigan State total |1, 849 |3,667 |1,637 |3, 795 Grand Traverse Co.,Oct.: : -T'raverse City --.--..--:- 1 0 0 0 E : Kalamazoo Co., Oct.: LKR ee eee ee ee 0 2 0 0 Wilianiss -Secepccene 6 7 0 6 Kalamazoo Co.total- 6 9 0 6 History. Grape growing is a younger industry in Michigan than in the States of New York, Pennsylvania, or Ohio. According to excellent local authority, the first commercial vineyards were planted in Lawton in the early seventies. The good returns received by this pioneer planter caused others to go into the production of grapes. The acreage was at first restricted to the district around Lawton, Paw Paw, and Mattawan, but soon spread toward the south and west, including the Benton Harbor-St. Joseph district. As in the early rapid expansion of almost all commercial sections, the acreage spread toward unfavorable localities in Van Buren and Berrien Counties, including the heavy land of the south, and the lowlands. Grapes were found to be unprofitable in these places and only a few scattered and relatively unproductive plantations now remain. Thus it has been demonstrated that only on the lighter soils where good air drainage exists does grape growing prove profitable, MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. - = te) - Severe attacks of black rot seemed to threaten the industry between 1905 and 1910 and caused the abandonment of many acres, but it was soon found that careful spraying would reduce the effects of this disease to a minimum. The methods of commercial disposition of the crop have gone through the usual evolution. In the early days near-by markets like Chicago, Lansing, and Detroit received the bulk of the shipments, which were usually forwarded on consignment; but now the extent of distribution of Michigan’s shipments and the strength of its f. o. b. market is unequaled in the grape industry of the East. ACREAGE AND VARIETIES. No accurate or official data are available as to the present produc- tion and acreage in Michigan, but the indications are that replant- ings have almost, if not quite, equaled the acreage abandoned. ‘The decrease in shipments in 1918 was due to a very light yield caused by unfavorable weather conditions, and can not be traced to any decrease in the number of vines. Substantiating this statement, local information puts the average yield per acre at 14 to 13 tons and the yield for 1918 at two-thirds to seven-eighths of a ton. The Concord is here preeminently the iaacline variety, with the Champion and the Moore next in importance. The Worden, Dela- ware, Niagara, and other varieties are grown, but their faethe im- portance is shght. In the absence of official statistics, well-informed local opinion places the acreage of the various varieties as follows: Concord 85 per cent, Champion 7 per cent, Moore 6} per cent, and others 14 per cent. It is interesting to note that the Champion is being replaced by the Concord to a marked extent, as progressive growers think that the Champion, which is a grape of low quality, reaching the market before any other variety, has a deleterious effect on the general consumptive demand. The Champion usually begins to move heavily during the second week in September and cleans up in 10 days to 2 weeks. The Moore Early generally begins from 3 days to a week later, their normal season continuing about 10 days. Most of the other varieties are shipped late in September. The Concord, which comprises the main Michigan crop, begins to move in heavy volume between the middle of September and the 1st of October, and usually continues for a period of about a month. MARKETING METHODS. The highest development of grape-marketing machinery is found in Michigan, and practically the whole crop is sold on an f. o. b. basis. 40 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COOPERATION. Cooperative organization has reached a high state of development in this State, particularly in the grape-growing sections, and practi- cally all the shipments from Van Buren County and many from Berrien are made through these associations. The tendency in the growth of the cooperative movement in Michigan seems to have been first toward localization and is now toward federation. The individual associations are small and seldom control loadings at more than a few stations, thus differmg markedly from some of the most successful associations in other States. The movement toward federation of these various small associations is a promising solution of the rather unfortunate spirit of competition that often arises between the individual organizations. These small associations are usually stock companies that own their own offices and market the grapes of their members, usually on the basis of a daily pool of varieties. Most of them handle other. fruits as well, and also buy baskets, twine, spray material, and even posts, hay, and feed for their members. Few of the individual associations actually sell the grapes, but confine their activities to inspection and loading, keeping accurate records of the amounts of each variety: de- livered daily. ‘The usual practice is to give each member 75 or 80 per cent of the estimated market value of each day’s haulings and to prorate the surplus among the members when the books are bal- anced at the close of the season, the returns to stockholders depending on the particular arrangements of each association. The shipments by these small associations are sold in the main by one or the other two large agencies—the one a distributing com- pany of national scope, which charges a brokerage fee for its serv- ices, and the other a cooperative federation of the associations them- selves. GRAPE-JUICE FACTORIES. All of the grape-juice factories of this region are located in Van Buren County. Lawton is the center of the industry, with a smaller development at Paw Paw and Mattawan. Most of the factories buy on a standard contract which guarantees the grower the daily market price on bulk stock, with a fixed minimum. As Michigan bulk ship- ments are light, a daily market price on this class of stock often fails of establishment, and it is left to the juice factories to state the price for each day. These factories sometimes buy in Berrien County for shipment, but most of the stock is secured by local haul- ings, which fact explains the very light shipments from Lawton in 1918. MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. Al THE STREET MARKETS. The street markets in Benton Harbor and St. Joseph constitute an interesting development in the Berrien County section. These cities are surrounded by many extensive vineyards, though in the main the individual holdings are considerably smaller than in Van Buren County. The size of these holdings, and consequently the large - number of growers, probably had an important bearing on the estab- lishment of the type of market at these points, for while in Van Buren County cooperation developed among the growers, in the street markets of Benton and St. Joseph there is found an extreme development of competition among the buyers. The street sales form what is practically an auction market, for the farmers sell their output daily by driving to certain crowded street corners in these cities, where they receive bids for their loads. Informal regulations are agreed to; the farmers’ wagons form in lines at certain corners, beyond which no buyers pass. The buyers congregate around each wagon as the line moves up and each makes a bid, the highest of which is usually accepted. However, if the grower feels that he can secure larger returns by consigning his _ shipment by freight or express to some city market he refuses even the highest bid and drives on to the railroad station. With this end in view, many growers address each basket with a rubber stamp to facilitate shipment. There is much controversy as to whether the returns from cooper- ative associations or street sales net the greatest profit to the grower, but the observations made by this bureau in 1918 show that only for a short period, when the Champion crop was cleaning up, did the street prices to growers exceed those paid by associations. This was due in part to the better average quality of the associations’ stock produced under close inspection and in part by the very nature of _ the business of the two types of factors, for the local buyers, who dealt on the street market, had to sell their grapes on a basis fairly comparable with the f. o. b. prices received by the associations them- selves. Usually the street prices reflect very closely the daily quotations from the tributary terminal markets, but in a few cases temporary _ abnormally high or low prices result from the vagaries of supply and demand. For example, on some evenings several buyers have carloads or boatloads nearly completed and bid up stock to high prices in order to secure quantity transportation rates, conversely relatively low levels often prevail because available carriers are completely loaded. 49 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. QUALITY OF PACK. The conditions of production on the whole are very good in this State, as careful cultivation, fertilization, pruning, and spraying are practiced. Michigan is singularly free from insect pests, but the black rot is troublesome and at times causes serious loss. Almost without exception, table stock is shipped in the 4-quart basket, which has become the standard Michigan container. The baskets are packed in the field, directly from the vines, and a good pack is gen- erally turned out. There is much local discussion as to the relative quality of the pack of cooperative associations, of independent growers, and of the stock sold on the street markets. Usually the pack of the associations is slightly superior. The relative quality of Michigan and New York shipments is another much-discussed point, for shippers from New York claim to put up a much more fancy product. The fact that Pittsburgh and Chicago, the two most im- portant markets where the shipments come into direct competition, consistently pay a slight premium for the New York stock would seem to corroborate this, but it is-doubtful whether the difference is not more fancied than real, for while the Michigan stock has been improving in recent years, it is believed by impartial observers that the quality of the New York pack in general has been deteriorating. The Climax baskets used in Michigan are often of coarse stock and do not present such an attractive appearance as the New York baskets. Many Michigan shippers refuse to label the baskets, al- though this costs only about one-fourth of a cent and usually se- cures a premium of 1 to 3 cents per basket. ‘These shippers have not conducted such an active campaign of advertisement of the quality of their stock as have the New York factors.. Another cause for this market preference is that many Champions, a variety of very low quality, have been shipped from Michigan. Growers have come to realize that this variety has a depressing effect on the general de- mand for Michigan stock and are rapidly replacing the Champion with the Concord. If those interested in the Michigan industry would pay more attention to these points, there seems no reason why the trade should not come to recognize fully the high quality of the stock from this State. MARKET OUTLETS AND DISTRIBUTION. While New York has been diverting its grapes from table stock to wine and juice manufacture during the past few years, Michigan has been developing new markets and a system of extensive and intensive distribution, unequaled in the grape industry farther east. The MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 43 shipments from this State are no longer confined to neighboring territories. Even in the short crop year of 1918 cars were rolled east to Massachusetts and New Jersey, south to Florida and Texas, and west to Idaho and Wyoming. In that year carlot shipments were made to 31 different States and to 169 different cities. The largest market for this section is Chicago, to which much stock is carried by water freight, Berrien County occupying the same rela- tive position to this city that the Hudson Valley district does to New York. Heavy shipments are also made by water to Milwaukee and other lakeside points. The general tendency is to ship toward the West and South; States east of Michigan receive but a small proportion of the fou shipments. Besides the adjacent States of Illinois, Wisconsin, Indiana, and Ohio, the Missouri Valley States of Iowa, Missouri, Nebraska, and Kansas are heavy receivers. OHIO. LOCATION AND EXTENT. The number of carlot shipments that have moved out of Ohio dur- ing the past- three years, as shown in Table 1, give no adequate idea of the importance of the Lake counties of this State. Ohio follows New York and Michigan in importance, and while its production is much more scattered than that of Pennsylvania, in total annual ton- nage it probably excels that State. The grape sections of Ohio are, in effect, a western continuation of the vineyard section of the Chau- tauqua-Erie belt, and every lakeside county is a fairly heavy producer. The proportion of the stock pressed to the stoke shipped out is higher in Ohio than in any other important eastern State, and as much more of this pressed stock was used for wine than for grape Juice, it is evident that in Ohio the industry is now undergoing a radical readjustment. Lake County, of which the principal shipping point is Union- ville, Cuyahoga County near Dover, Erie County near Sandusky, and Kelleys Island are the three most intensive producing sections in the State. The Sandusky section, which includes Kelleys Island, has rivaled Hammondsport, N. Y., as a center of the American champagne industry and has used fon this purpose a large Sogo. tion of the Catawbas produced locally. Table 7 shows the carloading at the varicus points in Ohio, as reported to the Bureau of Markets by the originating railroads. 4 44 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 7.—Carloadings of grapes in Ohio. 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 ‘Ashtabula Co., Sept.—Oct.: Lake Co., Sept.-Nov.: AIMPON sis 34 -oeoeesS 0 1 0 0 Madison. ...,........- 19 18 2 10 Ashtabulle>. 222 S222 28 1 0 0 0 POlwyrysos ac oceseuce cea 51 48 ti 32 Conneaut. _ 222-2. 3 0 0 1 Unionville............ 104 39 12 31 Genevar2. P26 5535-285 9 12 6 3 __—_—. —— Shybroék2 2 22s 3 0 0 ¢ Lake Co. total...... 174 | 105 25 73 Ashtabula Co. total-} 16 13 6 4 || Lorain Co., Sept.-Oct.: | AVONE = eaten eee 21 16 13 7 Cuyahoga Co., Sept.—Nov.: i —— od Woversn..- tse ee 31 43 0 0 || Ottawa Co., Sept.—Oct.: ee Danbury aenceesescese 1 2 0 0 Erie Co., Oct.: GLY DS Un eae eee 0 0 1 0 Berlin Heights. ...... 2 4 2 5 Port Clinton.......... 0 2 4 6 Ceylonss2 = 2 1 0 1 Putin Bay........... 1 6 0 0 Vermillion.-.......... 9 23 3 12 —-— —— ———_|———_ '—_—_ Ottawa Co. total.... 2 10 5 6 Erie Co. total....... 13 28 5 18 SS SS SSae ed Ohio State total....| 258 215 54 108 Geauga Co., Oct.: 3 MALGON. = a-csjccc en ce 1 0 0 0 ‘ ACREAGE AND VARIETIES. Taking the State as a whole, the Concord occupies the bulk of the acreage, but in all the lake counties, particularly Erie and San- dusky, the Catawba is relatively very important. The proportion of the Delaware and the Niagara, particularly in Cuyahoga and Lorain — Counties, is also larger than in most other commercial sections. No figures are available as to the acreage or average yield, but two facts are apparent: (1) That the acreage has been materially reduced by the combined effects of the recent severe winters and the ravages of the rootworm, which is particularly destructive in many parts of the State; and (2) that the average yield is much lower than in other commercial sections, due principally to the large, partially abandoned, acreage and also in part to the large proportion of va- rieties, such as the Catawba, the Delaware, and the Niagara, which are relatively hight yielders. At one time grape growing assumed considerable importance in the southern part of the State along the Ohio River, but these vineyards have long ceased to figure in commercial shipments. MetHops or SALE AND MARKET OUTLETS. As might be expected in a State where such a large proportion of the stock has been consumed by wine and juice factories, the contract type of sale predominates. As a general rule, these factories have not bought their required tonnage at the market price, as in New York and Michigan, but at a price agreed to early in the season, before the grapes matured. These establishments entered the market at picking time only when a short crop year cut down their pre- MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. : 45 viously contracted tonnage below their requirements. No small de- gree of dissatisfaction.is felt among many of the growers over these methods. ‘ The table-stock industry is being developed at present. Several movements are under way toward the formation of cooperative asso- ciations among the growers. These are deterred somewhat by the laws of the State, which limit the development of this type of organi- zation to straight stock companies. An association organized on this basis in the Dover section has conducted the selling for its members very successfully, usually holding the grapes until late in the season and then selling to wine or juice factories. Large amounts of the stock are hauled in wagons and trucks to the Cleveland market, which is a heavy grape consumer. In fact, nearly all the large cities of the State receive some of their supplies from near-by growers, who sell direct to jobbers on the “street.” The distribution of Ohio shipments, most of which originate in the Unionville section, is extremely narrow. In 1918 shipments went to only seven different cities in Ohio, though 1 car each went to three neighboring cities situated in Indiana, Michigan, and Pennsylvania. THE MIDDLE WEST. LocATION or PRopuCcING SECTIONS. In several scattered sections of the middle western territory, grape growing is a specialized industry, but nowhere does it assume the importance that it reaches in New York, Michigan, Pennsylvania, or Ohio. In the Missouri Valley section, which comprises those parts of Buchanan County, Mo., Doniphan County, Kans., Pottawattamie County, Iowa, and Douglas County, Nebr., adjacent to the river, the grape industry of the Middle West reaches its highest commer- cial development, with the Ozark section of Washington County, Ark., and Newton County, Mo., and the independent sections of Lee County, Iowa, and Taney County, Mo., next in order of importance. Grapes are grown to some extent in practically all parts of the Mid- dle West, but in few sections, other than those named above, does the industry assume much more than garden proportions. Table 8 shows the loading of full cars at the various stations throughout this territory as reported to the Bureau of Markets by the various originating railroads. 46 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 8.—Carloadings of grapes by States in the Middle West. 1916 | 1917 | 1918 | 1919 MISSOURI. IOWA. Andrew Co., Sept.: ._ Des Moines Co., Aug.: AMAZONIA. c= sees see 1 1 1 17 Burlington.....-... Buchanan Co., |__| “VGN I aw eg 0 2 0 0 Idaho State total. . - 0 6 4 3 Whatcom Co., Aug.—Oct.: — Grandview ....-.-...-- 0 15 5 13 OREGON. Yakima Co., Oct.: Josephine Co., Oct.: | Granger. Pesce ote 5 4 8 12 Grants Pass.....-.--- 0 2 0 3 Re lane ots sec oo 6 5 3 || eUmikn owes series oF 255, 0 0 2 0 Sunnyside.-.....-_..- 0 0 0 5 || Lane Co., Oct : WEnauO= sees 532. 0 0 3 4 Eugen Cee eae ee 0) 0 1 0 Wellangats ei eeree eee seems 17 7 7 11 || Umatilla Co., Oct.: Ferien Ae SE ie Ole de tea ia 1 1 4 Hermiston.......-.--- eae &0) 9 0 1 29 17 22 37 Oregon State total. - 0 2 3 4 50 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. As far as the American grape industry goes, the Northwest is self-sufficing, as very few shipments from the outside go into this section and practically all of the stock produced in Washington, Idaho, and Oregon is consumed within the borders of those States. As in other important American grape-growing sections, the Con- cord is the leading variety, but the Niagara, Delaware, Goethe, and Catawba are also found, the Catawba extending southward into California. Because the large city markets in this section are far removed from any other section which ships American grapes, out- side competition is eliminated and the local stock moves easily at satisfactory prices. The great bulk of the shipments consist of table stock, which is usually shipped in 4-quart Climax baskets, but a juice factory located at Kennewick, Wash., offers an outlet for much local stock and also receives carlot shipments. MARKET PREFERENCE. It is a well-recognized fact that different markets often have wide divergent preferences both as to container and as to varieties of the stock they demand, and as the shipment of table grapes will un- doubtedly be increased by the suspension of wine manufacture, the preferences of various markets become an important subject to grow- ers and shippers. This preference is usually the result of custom, in that the trade and the consumer have become accustomed to purchase certain varieties in certain-sized containers and will not purchase stock with which they are not familiar, except at a dis- count. Whether the quantity of bulk stock used in the consuming “centers will continue to bear the same relation to the movement ot table stock that it has in the past, is highly problematical. Chicago is, next to New York, probably the heaviest individual receiver of eastern grapes, and the bulk stock passing through this market has nearly equaled the amount of table stock. By far the heaviest receipts upon this market are of Michigan stock, much of which is shipped in by water. Undoubtedly the fact that Michigan uses 4-quart baskets almost exclusively for table stock has led to a marked preference for that type of container, so: that the 2-quart package is in very poor demand on this market and sells much below the usual proportionate price of these two sizes in other cities. The standard blue varieties, the Champion, the Moore, and the Concord, are the favorites, in season, the first named selling at the usual marked discount when in competition with other varieties. The Delaware and the Niagara meet a good but very limited demand and command a slight premium when in light supply, which is quickly wiped out by the arrival of any considerable quantity. This MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 51 market appreciates stock of good appearance and makes more dis- tinction between labeled and unlabeled stock than most cities. New York grapes generally command a slight premium over Michigan grapes of the same class. Pittsburgh has been an important distributing center for bulk stock, particularly that originating in the Chautauqua-Erie belt. A strong preference exists for 4-quart and 12-quart baskets, the latter having been used almost exclusively for wine, which in this district was mostly homemade. This’ market makes little or no distinction between varieties, except that it is markedly indifferent to the Ca- tawba, which can scarcely be moved in any volume. New York stock generally receives a slight premium here. The New York city market receives more varieties and types of containers than any other. Two-quart and 4-quart baskets for table stock, 12-quart baskets and return trays for bulk stock, are all in good demand, but the gift case is most easily moved. Probably be- cause New York has received heavy supples of various varieties from the Hudson Valley and Central Lakes districts of the State, the trade and consumers have learned the use of the different kinds, so that there is very little price’ differential between the Concord, Niagara, Delaware, and Catawba. The Champion and the Moore Karly generally sell at a slight discount. ‘The demand for Catawbas 1s not good until the other varieties are gone; then they can be moved in relatively large quantities. Philadelphia has been a heavy receiver of bulk stock, most of which went into wine; the ratio of this type of stock to table stock has been about 24 to 1. For table stock the 2-quart basket is much preferred, and the 4-quart package sells below the usual propor- tionate price of these two sizes in other cities. The Concord is the most popular grape and commands a premium over the Niagara and the Delaware if the latter are present in large quantities. Phila- délphia is not a Catawba market and it is difficult to move this variety. Boston is a good market for fancy stock. Delawares generally command a premium of 0.5 to 1 cent per basket, though the Niagaras usually bring less than Concords until late in the season when the former variety is disappearing. It is said that there has been no demand for the Catawbas except for wine-making purposes. This market is partial to both 2-quart and 4-quart baskets, and these containers usually sell at about the average proportionate price. Baltimore and Washington are similar in their market prefer- ences. They are predominately table-stock consumers and demand the 2-quart package. The demand for bulk grapes is relatively limited, and it is rather difficult to move any large number of 4-quart baskets. In normal years the Niagara commands a premium of 1 to 52 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2 cents on a small basket over the Concord, and the Delaware a pre- mium of 2 to 3 cents. There is usually a good demand for Catawbas, especially when the Concords grow scarce. The Appendix gives no adequate idea of the importance of these two markets, both of which were undersupplied in 1918. Cleveland and Buffalo have similar market preferences, both being located near important producing sections and receiving the majority of their supplies by local haulings in wagons and motor trucks. The former city has a preference for the 2-quart baskets, but Buffalo makes no great distinction between 2-quart and 4-quart . baskets. Both cities have been heavy consumers of bulk stock, and Cleveland is interested in the grape-preserve industry. These two cities use various varieties; the Delaware usually commands a marked premium over the Concord, the Niagara a slight premium; the de- mand for the Catawba is good, especially late in the season. Minneapolis, St. Paul, and Fargo are good markets for grapes, and their consumption of table stock is relatively large. The stand- ard varieties are the Champion, the Moore, and the Concord. The Concord generally commands a premium of 3 to 5 cents per 4-quart basket when in competition with the others. For blue varie- ties, the great majority of which are shipped from Michigan, the 4- fee bac is the standard container, though the 2-quart is the accepted container for Catawbas, which Hie jae a fair demand in these cities. Detroit receives the bulk of its supphes from the Heoitebng Michigan producing sections and has therefore become accustomed to the use of blue varieties in 4-quart baskets and has developed a preference for this class of stock. However, sometimes, as in 1918, New York Concords, packed in 2-quart baskets, when in competition with Michigan stock in fours, sells above the usual proportionate price of these two sizes in other cities. A limited amount of the Delaware and the Niagara usually command a slight premium, which is quickly wiped out by any increased quantity of these varieties. The Catawba finds a very limited demand in this market, until late in the season, at which time this variety can be moved in moderate quantities. Cincinnati, Columbus, and Indianapolis receive their early supplies almost exclusively from Michigan and their late supplies from New York. Therefore there is a marked preference for the blue varie- ties—the Champion, the Moore, and the Concord—in 4-quart baskets, and for the later red varieties, such as the Delaware and the Catawba, in 2-quart baskets. The demand for the Catawba is fairly good, especially in Indianapolis, where this variety commands a_ premium of several cents per 2-quart basket even over the Concord. MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. } St. Louis, Kansas City, Des Moines, Oklahoma City, Omaha, and Denver receive considerable home-grown stock very early in the season, but the larger part of their supply is furnished by Michigan. The standard blue varieties packed in 4-quart baskets are desired by the trade, and little other stock appears on these markets. A very limited quantity of Catawbas may be moved late in the season. In the southern markets—Jacksonville, Atlanta, Birmingham, - Memphis, Fort Worth, Dallas, Houston, and New Orleans—there is no marked preference between the 2-quart and 4-quart baskets. Shipments to these cities, shown in the Appendix, give no adequate idea of their consuming capacity, as the short crop of 1918 restricted the distribution to markets nearer the producing sections. None of these markets can stand heavy receipts without a proportionately marked drop in prices, but in the aggregate they represent an im- portant outlet which should receive more attention. While the Concord is the most popular grape in these cities, there is not so much prejudice against red varieties as there is farther north. In the cities of the far West—Spokane, Seattle, Portland, Butte, - San Francisco, and Los Angeles—the receipts of grapes of European varieties from California far exceed those of American varieties or Eastern grapes. However, some Catawbas are raised in California _ and find their way into the markets of Los Angeles and San Fran- cisco, usually in 4-basket crates, and the other cities are supplied by Washington with the Concord type of grapes. While Michigan grapes have been shipped to the more northern of these cities, the great bulk of the arrivals in Portland, Spokane, Seattle, and Butte are shipped from neighboring producing sections, principally the Yakima Valley. The Concord is the favorite grape of this type in these markets, though other varieties usually sell well, and the 4- quart basket is the common container, except in Portland, where 2- quart baskets are used almost exclusively. DISTRIBUTION. THE PRINCIPLES. No phase of marketing perishable products is more important, or holds greater possibilities for improvement, than the distribution of shipments. It should be the aim of all shippers to supply ade- quately the demand in neighboring consuming centers, up to the point where further supplies would cause disastrous clogging of the channels of trade. At this point or, under ideal conditions, just before this point is reached, shipments would be made to other cities more distant from the point of origin, even though higher freight rates render such shipments relatively less profitable. 54. BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE PRACTICES. 5 Until comparatively recent years indiscriminate consignment to the nearest large cities was the rule, but with the development of f. o. b. selling, much more attention is rightly being paid to the 1, 2, and 3 car towns. The table given in the Appendix shows the present stage of this development. A study of the relative popula- tions in the different destinations, shown in this table, will reveal the fact that some markets are relatively oversupplied and others greatly undersupplied, but it will be noticed also that this situa- tion seems to bear definite relation to the distance of these centers of population from the producing sections supplying them. For example, in 1918 Baltimore, a city of over 500,000 population, re- ceived 24 cars of grapes, while Cleveland, which is only slightly larger, received 75 straight cars, besides heavy less-than-carload re- ceipts and local haulings. CONCLUSION. A careful consideration of the facts presented in this study will convince the thoughtful reader that there is no universal panacea for marketing difficulties. Success in marketing the grape crop can come only when all those connected with the industry work efficiently in the production, preparation, and distribution of their product. The vineyardist should devote his attention to the production of the varieties demanded by the trade in his section, should guard against picking his crop either too early or too late, should pay par- ticular attention to putting out a good, full, honest pack, free from diseased berries or clusters, and should choose his marketing agency, be it local buyer, grape-juice factory, or cooperative association, with care and with due consideration of the relative economic efficiency of these various types of factors. The shipper should devote special attention to the intensive and extensive distribution of the crop, should supply the various markets with the varieties in the containers they require, and should do everything in his power to prevent inequalities in the supply on the various terminal markets. The city handlers, of all the various types from carlot receiver to retailer, should strive to- effect the uninterrupted passage of the grapes from car door to the consumer and should make special efforts to increase the consumptive demand when supplies begin to accumulate. If these most fundamental principles are carefully followed, and they are being followed more and more every year, there is no reason why the grape industry should not continue to be a very profitable one to all concerned. APPENDIX. DESTINATIONS OF GRAPES. The data here given are compiled from the daily reports of shipments made hy the carriers in connection with the telegraphic market news service of the — Bureau of Markets. In the case of grapes, the practice of diverting en route is relatively so limited that no provisions were made to record the changes from the original billing, but it is doubted if this will seriously affect the accuracy of these statistics. The unit in the following table is a full carload, which varies from 18,000 to 25,000 pounds. The shipments to each city are segregated by States, and, in Some cases, as in New York, by sections. Centers of grape-juice factory production, where it is probable that the great majority of the receipts were used for that purpose, are indicated by a star (*), as *Brock- port. The receiving markets are listed alphabetically in the first column of the table, while the producing areas, in which the shipments originated, are given at the heads of the vertical columns. The total number of cars destined to each market appears in the column at the extreme right. Destinations of carlot shipments of eastern grapes from each important producing section. . n . i | ogee | £/ss|4\2 a|ba Sy (an SiIBS|ala 8/48/8128 ~ Sal o=| |) ue! Dexia gdio 3 I = estination. O JA S/S an 4 if | 49 a ee S a c ° B|58|5 | 3 Md Aad ee Eo. Pea ple lel | | lel ele lal eS BIESIE/ElLS |SISIE/812!18iel/als SSS! Ol ot & Ie E eed Oe euler A\G Z\A2)/2 |Ol4 ls (4 )a1a le lo} a Aberdeen,.s5 Dak. 222-2 22s22-j-2 22-0 Wig es eeiec | Sema eee Sol nena eee Cal eee eel ear see ineae 10 PANTO ONIONS 22s 22 setes esses theese z Gir eee ete 71 eee baal oate| lasts Sena Recs) Seca eoce 7 PA DEYN Nas Mr asc ceo cek eek ea el eee BY [29 eee ese eoiesesiiseseleeec|Ee 2212 alee 34 Wiper due Minn.:. 22.0 is.+- sec cen sas See eal eee Be etic lives Roceulierale ois Pe 3 PMUleMmbOWNs dP Ases2 = 22-2 acess sell et ts a Wi STS Eee Serecte lice ova ceell eres a lstareral| eel sale 14 PMI DOU APE} se eee ee sl erie oe [oe ye |e malls safteas [Conn Cree ies letra pare Py Ne 2 PAIMATULON NER so 522 55s or wo eae eomalea sas) nate veces Seles alerts lees beratelen se BOA 3 PRISER CAIN AY) <2 oer eee See esis walrace Bee hae) Sean eee eee sere Bpeed cree 4 PRTIGETSOMS MG - 22 5-5 Stee ace stenoses SEE ES ee ey Fal Sete eee aero eee (ears 2 PRP CUOMM AV Saaca ese cee asses o ue saalbenclecces ers Ar De al esers|ecieeheetelesec | 4 PMHMATTC MEWS So 8e Sas = etree Soma eee nS [Pens ce lea sl Btsee Ay |e eB ene ae Sal oee ell eee 4 Wat ipala: Olio... -.0. 2 sees. cce RSE a eal oe ie Eola es aaa oes 2 nehison, Kansi 22.5. .2222.-h-eene== ae eee eels Drees ara avsterel eis = 2 enexeeal POR jee feel AUB TENS CI see eles ene a ee ele Hee Ges eeclee Meee al tall eee oe lice eee Re 1 Ss SOUSTOTE TWICE ee eo ele eee heen Saeleases Ll eee aceae etre accel facterel eal eas 1 AN OEAUCTE CESS ae ee ae een fe sie ew alles aD Seer eae ie cae eee ee 1 Aurora, 1 ee gee ane we Bas Li Esra |b fare se Peres) thst | Ie (ere oa 1 "ESS TEE, SLT oe eel ae et En peel ae | Soe Bees eS lest lve 1 ASST ANG GS Sea ae ee oe eee a rae 0 ie em Ae | sa Eels al sete ae oa ee el i ae aes 20 1 ; 56 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Destinations of carlot shipments of eastern grapes from each important producing section—Continued. Destination. | New York, Ontario shore. | New York-Pennsylvania, Chautauqua-Erie belt. | New York, Central Lakes. | New York, Hudson River. Delaware. Agistin bute Ohi0=s eeease enna cesar Baltimore, Mad 2215G4. 2c: seeps BF 4 Bay City; wMich sees eas opiete miata == IBGatniceNGDI-smesee snes ceniesescee=ce Belleville: Onion ye 2k fos oe see rae Bellevile Paes eee soca ae ccs aelslceie atte a Bellingham, Wash............----.--.- Bellington, Weegee see ee oe Le (eitebrad SNe ee A Pee ne Bradenville, Pa. .-- Bradford ;hace = eases eps eee ase ‘BIanspule, Paso se eee een eeaere Bridgeport;iConnmes=f- ses -e2- see seciskee Bees Bridgeton Pa. 2. 2. 2254 Ses sass ee IBTICht Ons MEASS o sosmis coos Scions IBTIStOlide as a sem ere seceee emer eee 3 EBTOCKPOLts Ne Norse cece once sels Brockway ville} Pas fas eset *Brocton, N. RY NOE 5 See eg een : Cedar Rapids, Iowa Centerville, Iowa. -. Century, W. Va...- Cincinnati, Ohio.... Charleroi, op pe ne, aes ha Sal Be Charleston: Si@2\- 2a vescmases enema @hiarlestons \Wi Valieoe cease eee eee (Cheyenné:; WYO. ence ssaen eee eae Chicago Meee en eaee sees eeee eee en Clarksburg; Wi2Vaeccc-essenssenu- anes Cimberland, Md 2752 aoe 22 8s cones = WAN VIGNE Dye seach aveee Son taoce nee Davenport, Iowa...-...-. Dayton, Ohio.....-.... Deadwood, 8. Dak... Denver, Colo....-.--.-- = Des Moines, lows. == Soc cace. ses. oe se lees Total. we. | Tot — = ROH REWIND HOR EN WR ONHENERONES 90 Core rear “et i coor wo J on % RR ROR N NRHN RP RNR ROR MO OOWNN ORF WN hn OW R eRe OO = x _ Roe oOnw MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 57 Destinations of carlot’ shipments of eastern grapes from each important producing section—Continued. @ lates | a les s|se/ 2/5 Ailsa) aie na) >b Wy S\i/pala| 8 a|Ea|£|4 q Destination. S a 8, o|f g Pleo ap lar] A| Pelee hee 8158/58/58] § Ee a 72 bb a a ee a q 3 BS = lige eles|Ele/2 /S/alel2\2|2/2/4] 2 Z2izZ |2/42/S3 |O|M(|Sidiaelalelo|a Meee Wainer Mich-s-.2..----2--2..-2--28...[o0-- THA] Wed lies) i pe eee eae Zeal eel eee 109 WaynsehakewNe Dake: ols yl eo le rcloos.-|22-2 Fea nM eae Bee Bees ee ene aaa al eel ern TOAST a Oss. TERNS Rae ees elle ae ear e eee) eae : Dubuque, lowa ID wi ila Wittatai = Soe eaocoee sees sees cane peed bases mee 2 a ; 1 Hort Dodge, lowa...-.-=-2------------ 2 aa SES Eee cl ale ote ete a Sulfate tee) 2 Ss = TEgin? Giovid (SS yi MN a mee ee (Pg Bee] hel | eee eee Bae a ee I | IEE “i HOMta SAIL P ADK seat) eae eerie |i. [aaa areal eeall (6) \eecc| Baed sare Sila. se SRrae ee sete a MaSiOniaAgmOMIOns---\- > 5. == === = Me ooell oeelicemce E56 Seed Beee bone bees pecs bemcsee- 3 plredonila, Nee ass 2o2250552- 22-2 === bo le|| PP recs kerelle eee Beicl Ae eee sae aril sal Mee eas 2 ; Freeport, {ll ae JOSE EROA EP eseoE eeresor perl beeen baer Sb al Sete sece EOss Bre eee Sas ee emai. : AMaTTOE QUO) a3 seen saeeaeeee seen as betel bere Bece 2 oae bee Ol ee) pracelneca|=sqeleene|eome|soee ema i Lf als eins INI Coe Sea abe na ee Ss eee ae Ui leded||Seacssese Pe (a re ese ree eran Paes | Meret Poe 4 IC CTIESE DW NMR Bee apnea ota aee|a. lame fia elites) |S See eee) Ween | Erm pers 1 AU Te is ‘ Germantown, Ohio. .--=..--:---------- | noe a IG ray. (ee [ete Bic ee Seer | item Pree aa) (eh eT RASS OM mM OMbe ee ae mace ot Jace tenn =|boe | saceeleesaleesdleeses serd|sscclloecc seis nae |Y el patee Glenns Falls, N. Y Es Se Ge sa ciniatan eee | rare tie See Qakeeoes Beales as Sn nee ee berenl Beis Grandabonks: Ne Dake 52 0 so - 355 |) || td By ell eyed fo) eee [lm ise Hece eh cat oe | eres 1 4 Grand Island, Nebr Teepe Ee aoe eee |e Ee ee Ape eS de sets [oe iee aly pars arses ieee ae ee oe 1 p Grand Junction, Colo: 2222 ---52-----=|5 2 .|--5--)o-2- Boealbeeec stor tend Beer ae | Sees CES SP le : Grand Rapids, Mich... _._...---------|..2_|.2-2-[5.2- em oar eee eal On ne) see [Cee Great Falls, Mont Spl eC ae or ee oe [a Foe ae be ele Ser Bec) Pe feet el eee eee) iia hl bene Green Bay, Wis aCe te oor es : ° B io =| 8 joy) e Pe | Sap ee Pe ee Pe Hays, Kaus. ... Haze. 1 ca ion i) B es A re “J SOO SRE OH EDD HED NRE ROWE RI OOP NN OON HR OPN EWN HE NIWN ENE BERN OREN UWE Ee OND Hutchinson, Kans : Soe ihe Aceseee Pe anoeWalls: Tdaho ssi 5.2G2 25.2 b=- cet) ese Peet sieioees Foe ee Seas Ime eee a [lee oleae 1 Hine rendences WANS 2 5250. bteos.- 2 =2--|eeks Rak Se (Reon a 8) Vee sre ee bevel Dole See ee ae - Indianapolis, Ind.......-....-...--+-.. Sige Sri 6 rp 2 ist (2 en eg a Nees |S Prc| ace 6 eotaad, Mich 2506222. cll.c.. 22! See etn iy eee IES eee Pel hei: Mae AR 3 \ / 58 BULLETIN 861 U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Destinations of carlot shipments of eastern grapes from each important : producing section—Continued, . Oo |]a;| a] & Blas| 2 |= ; a|s2|¢|m pa] Silpala| 8|s3/8/ 2 Ss a/3 a]s Destination. Onles 3, 205 : ap [Ms] ap] af é 8 SSS lee leg $\ 2/8) o| mal | | g E ela a ee pe Bles(ele| es isiaie 2 sel a log | & ®2}|o0] oOo] 5 So \cd - a1 a) ts) zlz |2/zl|S3lol|M/Si4iSlaleléla Ethacay No Yi csasnsas secures cacmetisees sleces|oseee 1 eS eee! eed mee eats aac bac baeelaces||Saee 1 Jacksonville; Mladscsoaoncta ses see See| sees | one nese Eee ese ese eel ea Seleec aS. Sosecl some 1 Jersey City, ANG Feet a uh oat all See 1 TON ee Pe tS- 3 Ps pees Bee oss ses asec codec 11 ohnstowns Pages coasecie soe eeseenses|Ecee Sede 8 WOLCE, Mls ek soos tec asacde he Set cee a lees ee eee ete 1 Voplins MO. so sac cceesousnee shoes sel eae 4 O53 Mole, soos noo Benet oe Lenwnat (ue Se 3 Kansas. City, M0. 25-5 fasscisstbee a= se| see 33 *Kennewick, Wash. 11 Kensington, Kans.. 2 Keystone, W. Va... 1 ein estony NOY. he oscaest sean ae ees eae 1 Knoxville sien nes sae eee aga 1 1 LaCrosse, A ES oe eae eee REM GP Here 6 a Mansing, (Mich 2.25 seccsscsaesee reece |Saoe 1 1 Se awiion pe Michse se mee. ceo cesar lsaee| Saas ene) ie ie Ae ee ee ee el nein) he OR Ar| le seed occ a7 MincolnsNipby...- tae ace eet ee ee iI) S22 i Seales ae ee a aged pa IR Se 25 Mhittle Ralisohe Veep er een alae Tal Rie | eck 1a 3 sal Stace eal taal 1 ittle Rock PAT 2 oseon ees oe eos res sees a z Oi) fechas Salloae ol Sea Rees | este lees 13 ivinestonsMonts. 3 eeceese sneha eaes oat ee leases sf ee ee | ies 1 ogansport tnd 525.2 2a-c-seceee ee eelsaoe ae woe] ee] > CBU cle tae Seer Seine See lees | Eres eases 2 Louisville, Ky...-.....--.. Sor aS a wool B [rc] coe 2 | es i 2 Ss i nl 30 1 1 i 3 Aa: BAG eSalbeos x} 13 ME TTOT SIN) BIC: coe ha ase s eporcem ere ea | | Scea|seaa|, Baloo eee 4 Mitchell: Dake. on sc3 55. 8h. eee ee Aes | See ae Jad. Boal eae oO OR WRI WEN ON RFR OIOINOWNCRHNRFORN WOR RR NRE Oo Sosa 42 1 7 3 5 3 10 : 5 ! 1 |.222)ecel Sore |aaee eee 11 e aloe ce |e ees |e ee ee 31 ae winssiaile ohn. aie, rel ave eal eer | eReaen] cee | ee 4 OLS Wa SWANS 3 oo ana Se Sose eee s ce a4) cee oeonleeae won MAS eC Eee es | Saree Rees | eee |e 1 Mita sa LOW A=\2s soso 2 ecw tes oceecle ene beeen pete wene|) 2) [ae 20) behee|cmcc.c)llm ne ee else eee eee 2 Painesville, Nid 32355 boo Fede ote 1 Ae ee ween [eens |2 esa doollee are Meee | Seen ne 1 Cherie fy) il sf: te oe Pee A ee Pe ae Sa ees ees ere see is is oe a 2 Pre NE Somat aN hs seas See ee | See |e ee ia ae Rad Jose gees eee eee 2 MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 59 Destinations of carlot shipments of eastern grapes from each important producing section—Continued. Destination.. > ee | New York, Ontario shore. *Sandusky, Ohio................------ ye Sanwanmaly Go esse eee ers decile es eee Savona, TNT Ag SE ge Ta vice Schenectady, N. Y...--- Scotts Bluff, Nebr... Scottsburg, Nebr Beet Asi eee Sea ete SMMTtNETS EW). Vide snc ones ace alos se sete Smithfield, Ohio........ Pyne Eom oa Nouth Bend, Ind .22-2 22-2222 2.----222- seis South Bethlehem, Pa.---_..........-.--. Southern Junction, Ill Spartanburg, S.C...............------ pare mpenCer, LOW scc-o acco eos cece esos aces ae Spokane, Washssi 550.552.2202 oc--2 se a Sprache: Mesa: Pere ee aS eae Springfield, Mass../.............-.---- Sheeltonipe ana s eee es eet lee yee Sterling, Ill...... BS AE DAS COE oe cep eae 2 eed Stevens Point, Wis...........--.------ nave Stony Island, Dee se pete ee 9 «6 ae Superior, Wis..... Syracuse, N.Y... Tacoma, Wash... Terre Haute, Ind Moledor OhiOs cscs shaces + se cceeoeeete FG PERE BETS Wh New York-Pennsylvania, Chautauqua-Erie belt. g| 8 3 | a A =| a|°9¢ EI a} 3 o | ite | g 4|3 elelalslelelal 2|z2/a |/O|M/S/4] a ao eae OAs bea | pene [aa Oy alsa 2 y - Soll An ap eens | ek | ave eee al ae Ticealees 65 ON) | ons te | ra ene OI a Pt bstae ae Datla Lae Stale. ee 2 21 37 |. 9 3 [o) © | bo e | a a) 3 oO je) | es HIPS) ecee eee | Others. | Total. bo _ td ive} he bet BS et RD CO et ST 9 CS OO Cr bo 0089 00S bo CO ee 9 bat et tt tO CD He OO ier) NE WNNOR EIR OR ORS _ eb = Or BS Ole ee Bo bb rary DDO tO Or i tt Ft CO Cr OO 60 BULLETIN 861, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Destinations of carlot shipments of eastern grapes from each important producing section—Continued. O|a:-| 2 PS Bles\2\5 2\f42) 9/8 Re (ee ee r= alga| 8/2 a/84/8|3 Destination. 6|/< =) otis 4 wis ap ior do. : Pal ac B/53/3]'5| 9 | | Slate el mie sla le] S| | 3 Ble lai4| EJES/e]e|] Bis q 3 a| | s 3 o|o0/S5/o] 3/4 3 4i|'o a i) zlziailz|Slo|M/S8i4zlSlaleiotea Topeka Kans 225. te ee See oe eee eee eee eee OG eaters! eee Des | eels hel | Sete ieee 12 RrAaceys Wenn << ee pee he ee ee eee ee QU s.k eo aeeal ose ieee Peele hel Bes 2 IBTENLON ON ines) se en en ee oy || ee eee We dco ce as ee ee ee Tle |e 1 mTnidad \COlO 2p eeet a ise cn eee Die >> Lae fe 2212 Goble Sec owe Seer sere ae 3 PTGS ON CON oe oe en ee | eee eee oe Dees Sel sete] Sac ae ee a ees ees i ARsa tO Kila" oes has ees tere ee ae sre Ee, ete 5 tee ee Be eee ees seer eels se il Abyaone Pa 522 SB ats aan Bee alone 3 Underwood5W2 Vato. nh Pe 1 (GRGICA MINS Vico 0 & ee a. Stace,” Skee iaa ae ohe 50 Valley City, N. Dak 2 Voorheesville, N. Y 1 Wabash Ind): 22292 1 Wahpeton, N. Dak...._..- 2 WrarreniePasde.- = mote oe Eat 2 iWiarsa walla ds. son seen ey ee ee eet cea 2 Washington DCs sstoae ee aaa ea 25 ‘Wiiterloo; Towa: casa ceee re eee eels 8 Wiatertoo, Nin Yoo) 92a, eee eee alae ee 1 WWACELL OWa1 IN ns Vo Sere aan ee | eee 10 Watertown, Wisss-2. 22 cesses eee eee ee a ee 5 WRICISEN Yo ee eee ie ae 4 Watuppa,Mass. 20 2922.52 sete skeee | Seal eee Sh) ee eel bese BP ee | Sees osc laced i Wieehatwkens Nad O82 teed eee cna loeas 2 Wiellinstonwy Kars ccs sate cee ceeme se nae 1 Westalton Moe . sa) 2c. 2: tA cee es 1 aWestfield) No Yo --- = 22-2 2 --------- |e 172 Wachi fa vans 5.2.22 2 ccpeiscsocesecees| bese 16 Wick-Haven, Passio 2.8. 2e esses ae 1 Whelkliffe, Oni: 35.222 es tease teen seis sens 1 Wilkes-Barre, Pas. 2:24 .¢. 7 ee bee ease 2 Wariner Kans). 2.6" 252550... shee asicee 1 Winona Minn 6222-2 4.2 558eseeccae Bate 8 Warions (ONiO- 222.2 shh eo eee f 1 Winston-Salem, N.C : il Wintone Par orenih olonetecs deseesece oe 1 Worcester, Mass.........-- 6 Vakamay Weashwes¢ << s)s. ere 22: 5 Wonkers iN Yo5-26 25 d2stct one seeseecoe See 1 Yorktown, ind =o) 5520-2 esses emeeee he yeas 1 Youngstown, Ohio 22 25.522 ss sacsee eee (aja : 14 WAIK OWE A. 2 8 Fe acre seis seee eee ears ae u Fav AN, Caen hb ee ee OM ¢ 1 ete 1 UnKnOWwMe hisses eee eee ewes 39 6/28) 0; 49; 5| O0|] O|] O| 5| 14) 1)53| 152 POLALS oon cake ee eee 66 |1, 089694 |573 |1,637) 54 | 14 | 68} 9] 26] 39 | 59] 9 /4,338 RECAPITULATION OF DESTINATION BY STATES, Adabamacusss cst accdsae see ste aeees tone loses eecee seen eeee i eee ae ete (eases eget Pe Se 1 ArEanSas |. sosn 2 So Sees ces sees cere eee cle ns | eee dees geo bedi | a Sa (ieee! (Aas 8 Seah [Se 20 Connecticus 550 e28oe on cece ee ae lence Bo) 7 [2 sot Rises bens ope aoe ce emer lees eee Gees 10 Colorado ss 322 40.228 2 ete ee aoe Oe? ees a 20a Cee See OG) ee gee meee Pree) District of Cohimbial 92 22 es ee ee oe AY QD oo) Socal cca [amale eee leccalonen eeee See eee 25 Bloni dae) ae aos eee asine cae oe coe tee oneness A Ol ieee (Pe Sree babar bea [aed 3 fee tl 1 Geor pia so See oe es eee eee re waleeene 1 7A er) (aes eae Wipe | Beste fede bys st ie et a 3 TANG x cps oes oie slo Seem ane cee oral cae an See ooo BOs Vere fo Sal ee Paratha [i 1).2 4 LITO ee ee ee oe ee ee ec Bo No le FL foi Pl Ya a ac DEES Slee eee 410 inidianace: ae see nes Se Aes ee eee | ee 8] 252 83 |) sees ec eee ce eee eee eee 94 DOW eee ne none ote nae Nose cee [ao ae Pa ee Sel a A 7A baat | 13 fT) (estes eras car) 108 Kansas eet 2s: fae 2s) ee ee 55 bel bese 60 |. 38 | “I 2a eels 72 Kentuvicysnes ss. 0 sseceecence ceaeeeeelerae 3) ae A a ee ee ee ss he elle Sa 30 MAMI 2 rt se oe cere ne oe cee ee Hee (io es eee Soe Meee nee (sres ncti| Seiseloe oc Sok! 13 Maro landiseerss 0 ore tinhns F ee hee es SQ oa} TS Sac 5 Se a ee | ae ee 27 MAGSACHUSEEIS ++. 0. ccccnccceews coeeue 1} 101 | 50 |135 Dosen coed] Seen] Sena ce oeieeee sees 1} 289 Michigan, $2.2.02.-0206-- Be tari oea pee 17°| 2'|..-2] 141 |? Diese eee iid ease Nc @ Includes 3 from Idaho (destination unknown). a fu Sacha MARKETING EASTERN GRAPES. 61 ‘Destinations of carlot shipments of eastern grapes from each important producing section—Continued. RECAPITULATION OF DESTINATION BY STATES—Continued. Destination. New Hampshire New Jersey...... New York..... North Dakota Onions epeeseceraacocs Oréconwes sees oss Pennsylvania......-.. Rhode Island. ........- ROXAS EE oe sec. cs cie Washington..-........ West Virginia........- Wisconsin) Set RWiyOMmlino es = iS a Se ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY Ste sue| eae eee suis a aya 3 § Ene: SEAS ad [ss] op | a] j e\salels| 4 : | HIS] ps | | Bo 8 d d elesiele|/ 2 |sla]eie|2 o/e0}/o|/o]/a ig E al 12) Bilae Vel | Selo Mo | 4 |S SEO ROSIE Io sell teveers S| Rane. IGE Sseeleee a Pesce 2 Bion Cee Sane e eet 5 he gaa ha) Bl aceell veh ll Plsceall aD a 1 | Delaware. =| a . A Bid sia| 3 Elo] a lest 226 oes 106 7 10 rr ae mnt” fs * % / x / 4 a 9 ete | ; val ie ‘ Re + coe e | | . * . ; bod : aaa : | : ; Hy t F { | | Te | ‘ ; ’ ¥ : | t 7 . - ; . , i “ ‘ io , ‘ Z ‘ | | | ‘ | F eet ‘ ie 4 ; ¥ | . bd S | . | \ | . . . ' | | : _" +? Pit ; wes = aoe +}? oe | Kh | nag i | “ a as : _ | . Aaa ak. th fa. rae ae ae ae BULLETIN No. 862 Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey E. W. NELSON, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. December 30, 19290 FOOD HABITS OF SEVEN SPECIES OF AMERICAN SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. By Doveutas C. Massort,! Aevaae in Economic Ornithology. CONTENTS. Page. Page IbaHROOWIO MIO. = = SooooeoeenbeoseasocoucusddaT 1 | Blue-winged teal. _.-.--.--....-........- serceu ele 22 Ge GhWell sccossoeestasuscecteosase eee 2 | Chaar nan@ al wenlla ss oe ohecseeoonosoenaensonoce 28 IRAN iat ehescin ca csice ascateceeeeenesaecdwase ts il) Babak re yl ie erect Gece Me Ren mer at eelner aap 31 ETO peAMnwlG SeOMe= weee see se seme sees ce LG AVRO OCMC Ck Ma esas Hoe ee an onion eee ae 37 (Coreteimsyabayererl WeeW le oo congoacocheceoobacaauune 17 INTRODUCTION. The wild ducks of the United States belong to three main groups: The mergansers (Merginae), known also as fish ducks or sawhills; the river ducks (Anatinae), called also shoal-water, puddle, plash, or tipping ducks; and the sea ducks (Fuligulinae), otherwise known as deep-water or diving ducks. This bulletin treats of the food habits of eight species ? of shoal-water ducks, one of which, the European widgeon, is only a straggler in the United States. Wild ducks are our most important game birds, their value to the people of the 1 Douglas Clifford Mabbott, author of this bulletin, was a member of the heroic Sixth Regiment, United States Marine Corps, and participated in all the hard fighting done by that organization at Bouresches, Belleau Wood, Soissons, and in the St. Mihiel salient. He was killed in action September 15, 1918, while taking part in an advance in the battle of St. Mihiel, and was buried near the village of Xammie, near Thiaucourt, France. Hewas born at Arena, Wis., March 12, 1893, and became a member ofthe staff of the Biological Survey, December 1, 1915.—EDIToR. 2 Three other species, the mallard, black duck, and southern black duck, are treated in Bull. 720, U.S. Dept. Agr., Food Habits of the Mallard Ducks of the United States, by W. L. McAtee, pp. 35, pl. 1, Dec. 23, 1918. Note.—This bulletin presents a technical study of the food habits of seven species of American shoal- water ducks: The gadwall, the baldpate, the green-winged, blue-winged, and cinnamon teals, the pintail and the wood duck; and includes a brief note on the European widgeon, which is a straggler in the United States. The vegetable food preferences exhibited willserve as guide to certain wild-duck foods that may be propagated when it is sought to increase the numbers of these valuable game ducks either in the wild state or in domestication. For specific information on this topic, see Bull. 205, U. S. Dept. Agr.; Eleven Important Wild-duck Foods, in which are discussed musk grass, duckweeds, frogbit, thalia, water elm, swamp privet, eelgrass, widgeon grass, watercress, waterweed, and coontail; pp. 25, figs. 23, May 20, 1915; ' also Bull. 465, Propagation of Wild-duck Foods, in which are discussed wild rice, wild celery, pondweeds, delta potato, wapato, chufa, wild millet, and banana waterlily; pp. 40, figs. 35, Feb. 23, 1917. 179375°—20-——1 2 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. United States totaling hundreds of thousands of dollars. Some of the species covered by this bulletin are among the most valuable, as the pintail, gadwall, baldpate, and green-winged teal. The ducks here discussed have not thus-far been utilized in duck farming to so great an extent as the mallard and black ducks, but the wood duck and the green-winged teal have proved to be adapted to such use, and possibly further experiments will result as success- fully with some of the other species. Information presented in the following pages shows the preferences of these ducks among vege- table foods, matters which should be heeded in attempting to estab- lish the more or less natural conditions which probably will be found necessary for success in the propagation of some of the species in inclosures. , GADWALL. (Chaulelasmus streperus.) Prats I, The gadwall, or gray duck, as it is sometimes called, is almost cosmopolitan in its distribution, breeding commonly in Europe, Asia, and North America and ranging south in winter to southern Asia, some distance into Africa, and in North America to the southern end of Lower California and to southern Puebla. East of the Mississippi River, however, and north of North Carolina, the bird is rare, and in New England is found only as a straggler. It breeds in most of the western United States and in southern Canada, but its principal breed- ing range for North America is in the prairie district extending from Nenanatia and western Minnesota to the Rocky Mountains, south to Nebraska, and north to Saskatchewan. The srl male gadwall is distinguished particularly by the scale- like markings on the breast, each feather on the lower neck and breast being black with a white crescent and a white border, producing a peculiar mottled or barred effect. The bird has a prominent white speculum or wing patch, bordered in front by black, with an area of chestnut-brown on the forepart of the wing, comprising the middle wing coverts. The remainder of the plumage is chiefly gray or brownish, streaked with black. The female lacks the chestnut wing coverts, and the breast and sides are buffy with the barred appear- ance less distinct. FOOD HABITS. In habits the gadwall resembles the mallard, feeding either on dry land or in shallow water near the edges of ponds, lakes, and streams, where it gets its food by ‘‘tilting’’ or standing on its head in the water. The food of both the gadwall and the baldpate, however, is quite different in some respects from that of the mallard. These two feed to a very large extent upon the leaves and stems of water Bul. 862, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. BI364M GADWALL (CHAULELASMUS STREPERUS). Male on right; female on left, FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. 3 plants, paying less attention to the seeds, while the mallard feeds indiscriminately on both or even shows some preference for the seeds. In fact, in respect to the quantity of foliage taken, the gadwall and the baldpate are different from all other ducks thus far examined by the Biological Survey. They are also more purely vegetarian, their diet including a smaller percentage of animal matter “dns that of any of the other ducks. For a determination of the food habits of the gadwall 417 stomachs? were available. These were from 19 States and Canada, and their collection extended over a period of 31 years. Only 24 were taken during the five months from April to August and their contents were not included in computing the average percentages, so that the results thus obtained apply only to the fall and winter months. Considerably more animal food is taken in summer than in winter, owing, of course, to the fact that more is available at that time of year. The percentage of animal food for the summer months is higher also because there are included in the averages analyses of numerous stomach contents of ducklings, which feed to a great extent upon insects. AI of the 11 stomachs collected during the month of July (9 from North Dakota and 2 from Utah) were ot young ducklings. A computation of the average contents of this series produced the followimg results: Water bugs, 56.18 per cent; beetles, 7.09; flies and their larvae, 2; nymphs of dragonflies and damselflies, 0.27; other insects, 2; total animal food, 67.54 per cent. Pondweeds, 12. 5B per cent; grasses, 5.09; sedges, 2; water milfoils, 0.55; smartweeds, 0.09; miscellaneous, 12. 18; total eget lle food, 32. 46 per cent. Of the remaining 13 stomachs collected in summer, all but two were from mature birds. Their contents averaged 11.17 per cent animal food and 88.83 per cent vegetable; 5.28 per cent, or nearly half the animal food, consisted of snails. Thus it will be seen that, so far as can be judged from the contents of such a limited number of stomachs, the summer food of the adult birds does not differ ereatly from their winter food. | A rather large proportion of the total number of stomachs (131) was from birds taken in Louisiana. These furnished the bulk of the collections for November, February, and March, but averaged much the same as those from the other States, the principal items con- sisting of sedges, pondweeds, Sagittaria tubers, grasses, some culti- vated rice, and mollusks. Arkansas contributed 57 stomachs; Utah, 53; North Carolina, 30; North Dakota, 22; and Florida, 20; the remainder being scattered. 3 Seventy-six of these were examined by W. L. McAtee. 4 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. VEGETABLE Foop. As computed from the contents of 362 stomachs collected during ~ the six months from September to March, 97.85 per cent of the food of the gadwall consists of vegetable matter. This is made up as follows: Pondweeds, 42.33 per cent; sedges, 19.91; algae, 10.41; coontail, 7.82; grasses, 7.59; arrowheads, 3.25; rice and other culti- vated grain, 1.31; duckweeds, 0.61; smartweeds, 0.59; wild celery - and waterweed, 0.53; waterlilies, 0.52; madder family, 0.87; and miscellaneous, 2.61 per cent. | PONDWEEDS (NAIADACEAE), 42.33 PER CENT. Of the 417 gadwalls whose stomachs were examined, 155 had eaten true pondweeds (Potamogeton spp.), 112 widgeon grass (Ruppia maritima), 20 horned pondweed (Zannichellia palustris), 17 bushy pondweed (Najas fleailis), 3 eelgrass (Zostera marina), and 8 pond- weeds which were too far advanced in the process of digestion to be further identified. In nearly all cases the pondweed food consisted chiefly of leaves and stems, and sometimes buds and tubers. Seeds were often present, sometimes in considerable numbers, but as a rule they appeared to.be merely incidental. Pondweeds are undoubtedly the favorite food of this species, as well as of the baldpate, and they are eaten very greedily. The gullet of one gadwall taken in Texas in November contained a mass of the foliage of small pondweed (Potamogeton pusillus) the size of a billiard ball. A series of 26 stomachs taken in North Carolina in December contained practically nothing but the leaves and stems of pondweeds, including true pond- weeds, bushy pondweed, and widgeon grass. Many of these stomachs were crammed. Often a few of the seeds were present, and three stomachs contained in addition a few sedge seeds. Other rather large series of gizzards containing chiefly foliage of pondweeds were taken in Florida, Louisiana, Utah, and North Dakota. SEDGES (CYPERACEAE), 19.91 PER CENT. The sedges, second in favor among the food items of the gadwall, constitute an important exception to this bird’s rule of feeding upon the leaves and stems of plants rather than wpon the seeds, for the leaves and stems of practically all the sedges are coarse, fibrous, or even woody, and do not make choice morsels. On the other hand, the seeds are a favorite item of food among most fresh-water ducks. The sedge seeds most often eaten by the gadwall were those of three- square (Scirpus americanus), by 150 birds; prairie bulrush.(S. palu- dosus), by 27; salt-marsh bulrush (S. robustus), by 24; unidentified bulrushes (Scirpus spp.), by 47; saw grass (Cladium effusum), by 68; and chufas (Cyperus spp.), by 31. A considerable number of birds from the Mississippi Delta, Louisiana, had been feedmg durimg 4, >". « FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. 5 January and February almost exclusively on the seeds of three- square. Some had eaten also the rootstocks of bulrushes, probably of the same species as the seeds; others-from the same general region had varied their diet by feeding to some extent upon the delta potato (tubers of Sagittaria platyphylla), and a few snails. Bulrush - seeds, however, usually constituted the bulk of the stomach contents. Several gizzards contained no fewer than 1,800 to 3,000 seeds. ALGAE, 10.41 PER CENT. _ It is not surprising that in a duck which feeds so freely upon the foliage of aquatic vegetation, algae formed more than one-tenth of the total stomach contents. These were eaten most freely in spring, the maximum consumption being 21.67 per cent of the total food for the month of March, and the minimum, 1.64 per cent in December. Most of the algae eaten consisted of musk grass (Chara spp.), but several other kinds were present. coontalL (Ceratophyllum demersum), 7.82 PER CENT. So far as known, the gadwall is the only duck which feeds to any extent upon the foliage of coontail, which gets its common name from a fancied resemblance in the shape of its finely branching stems and leaves to the tail of a raccoon. It is also called hornwort, hornweed, and morassweed. Many other species of ducks commonly feed upon the hard, horny coated seeds of the plant, but a series of 50 gadwalls taken in December, 1909, along the Mississippi River in northwestern Arkansas, had eaten large quantities of the leaves and tips of the stems, many to the exclusion of all other foed. The contents of these 50 stomachs averaged as follows: Coontail, — 87.72 per cent; duckweeds, 3.88; seeds of buttonbush, 1.66; pond- weeds, 1.6; algae, 1; sedges, 0.16; miscellaneous vegetable matter, 3.24; statoblasts of fresh-water bryozoa, 0.6; and water bugs, 0.14 per cent. It is possible that if stomachs of the baldpate had been avallable from the same region, this bird also might have shown a taste for the foliage of coontail. However, three other gadwall stom- achs (one from Colorado and two from Louisiana) contained con- siderable quantities of the plant, while only one of the entire collec- tion of baldpates had eaten it to an appreciable extent. GRASSES (GRAMINEAE), 7.59 PER CENT; AND CULTIVATED GRAINS, 1.31 PER CENT. Considerable quantities of grass. were found in stomachs collected during the spring months, especially March, when the tender young shoots are plentiful throughout the greater part of the ducks’ winter range. This consisted largely of the shoots and young leaves of switchgrass (Panicum repens and others of the same genus), but there were also present meadow grass (Poa sp.), saltgrass(Distichlis spicata), 6 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, little barley (Hordeum pusillum), crab grass (Syntherisma sanguinalis), wild millet (Echinochloa crus-galli), foxtail (Chaetochloa glauca), cut- grass (Zizaniopsis miliacea), rice cut-grass (Homalocenchrus oryzoides), salt-marsh grass (Spartina sp.), manna grass (Panicularia sp.), Mon- anthochloé littoralis, and a few others, unidentified. Several of these were represented oniy by the seeds, and then they usually consti- tuted a comparatively small part of the stomach contents. The cultivated gram was tabulated separately from the remainder of the grasses because of the economic interest attached to it. It con- sisted, however, almost entirely of rice found in the gizzards of several Louisiana birds taken in February, and was undoubtedly waste grain. Onestomach taken in Oregon in January was crammed with erains of barley; and another, from North Carolina in February, con- tained several kernels of corn. Obviously these also were of no eco- nomic importance. The rice, barley, and corn together amounted to 1.31 per cent of the contents of the whole number of stomachs. WATER PLANTAIN FAMILY (ALISMACEAE), 3.25 PER CENT. One of the favorite items of food among many species of ducks in the lower Mississippi Valley during the fall and winter months is the delta potato, as the starchy tubers of a species of arrowhead (Sagit- taria platyphylla) are called. These constitute an especially impor- tant food item among ducks wintering on the Mississippi Delta, Loui- siana, where the tubers grow in great abundance and the variety of duck food is not great. Many gadwall stomachs from this region contained only three items of food, which also have been found to be the typical diet of several other species when wintering on the Delta: these were the seeds of three-square (Scirpus americanus), the delta potato, and a species of snail (Neritina virginea), very abun- dant there. The stomach contents of a series of 27 gadwalls taken near the end of the Delta in November averaged as follows: Seeds of three-square (with a few of salt-marsh bulrush), 44:55 per cent; delta potato, 20.89; pondweeds, 13.78; and snails, 7.11 per cent; sev- eral minor items, as algae, coontail, duckweeds, and a few msects- made up the remainder. DUCKWEEDS (LEMNACEAB), 0.61 PER CENT. It is rather surprising that a duck which shows such a marked preference for the foliage of aquatic vegetation as the gadwall should not have eaten duckweeds to a greater extent. These are small floating plants, often present in such abundance in ponds, lakes, and sluggish streams as completely to cover large areas of their surfaces. The little plants are luscious and tender, and afford a favorite article of food for many species of duck. Large numbers of the gadwall 4 Bull. 465, U. S. Dept. Agr., pp. 21-24, 1917. FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. 7 stomachs examined were collected in the swamps of Louisiana, Arkansas, and other localities where .duckweeds abound, but the majority failed to disclose any duckweeds. Only 17 of the total number of ducks had eaten duckweeds (Lemna spp.), and some of these only in very limited quantities. SMARTWEEDS (POLYGONACEABR), 0.59 PER CENT. The Polygonaceae is one of the families of plants of which the seeds alone furnish an important article of food for birds. Thisvery probably is the reason why smartweeds are only one of the minor items in the food of the gadwall. The following species were identified from the stomachs examined: Dock-leaved smartweed (Polygonum lapatha- folium), found in 5 stomachs; water smartweed (P. amphibwum), in 3; and knotweed (P. aviculare), Pennsylvania smartweed (P. pennsylvanicum), water pepper (P. hydropiper), lady’s-thumb (P. persicaria), mild water pepper (P. hydroprperoides), and prickly smartweed (P. sagittatum), in 2 each. Seeds of black bindweed (Polygonum convolvulus) and another species (P. opelousanum) were present in 1 each, unidentified smartweeds in 2, and seeds of dock (Rumex spp.) in 2. Smartweed seeds were present usually in small numbers, but the gullet of one bird taken in Montana was crammed with about 3,000 seeds of water pepper, in addition to a few of dock- leaved smartweed. FROGBIT FAMILY (HYDROCHARITACEAL), 0.53 PER CENT. Wild celery @aliencaa spiralis) was found in the stomachs of 3 birds shot on Mobile Bay, Alabama, and waterweed (Philotria spp.) had been eaten in generous seen ie by a bird from southern Wisconsin. Wild celery is a very important food item of some species of ducks. WATERLILY FAMILY (NYMPHAEACEAR), 0.52 PER CENT. Two gadwall stomachs collected in Florida were filled with the seeds of a white waterlily (Castalia sp.), one containing about 1,100 and the other 1,200 seeds. Another from the same State contained 28 of the hard ovoid seeds of water shield (Brasenia schreberi). MADDER FAMILY (RUBIACEAB), 0.37 PER CENT. Ti ipsthices gadwalls had eaten seeds of buttonbush (Cepha- lanthus occidentalis). These seeds are narrowly wedge shape and are borne like miniature sycamore balls in spherical clusters on the ends of the branches of the plant, which is a shrub or small tree growing © in wet places. They had been eaten by few of the ducks in any great numbers, but in some instances they constituted the greater part of the stomach contents. 8 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MISCELLANEOUS VEGETABLE FOOD, 2.61 PER CENT. A large number of miscellaneous items made up the remainder of the gadwall’s vegetable food. The stomach of one duck from the mouth of Bear River, Utah, was filled with remains of the stems, leaves, and seeds of picklegrass (Salicornia ambiqua). A young duck from the same region had made a meal of willow catkins (Saliz sp.). Several gizzards from the wooded swamps of Arkansas contained fragments of scales from the cones of bald cypress (Taxodium dis- tichum), and one was entirely filled with galls from cypress leaves. Many from this region also contained the seeds, or fragments of seeds, of grapes (Vitis sp.), hackberry (Celtis sp.), holly (Ilex sp.), and sumachs (Rhus spp.). Seeds of beggar ticks, or bur marigold (Bidens sp.), water milfoil (Myriophyllum sp.), bottle brush (Hip- puris vulgaris), crowfoot (Ranunculus sp.), water pennywort (Hydro- cotyle sp.), dodder (Cuscuta sp.), myrtle ( Myricasp.), bur reed (Sparga- nium sp.), heliotrope (Heliotropium indicum), and many others, eaten in small quantities, completed the vegetable food of the species. AntmmaAL Foop. As has been stated previously, the proportion of animal food taken by the gadwall is very small; amounting to only 2.15 per cent of the contents of the stomachs examined, exclusive of the few scattered items taken during the months-from April to August. In these the presence of several stomachs of ducklings caused the average percentage of animal food to run considerably higher. The figures given were compiled from the contents of the 362 stomachs collected during the fall and winter months, from September to March. MOLLUSKS (MOLLUSCA), 1.6 PER CENT. About three-fourths of the animal food of the gadwall, or 1.6 per cent of the total, consisted of mollusks. In 6 April stomachs (not included in this average) they amounted to 15.83 per cent of the monthly food. In the fall and winter months they ranged from nothing in September to 4 per cent in January. Eight species of snails were identified, while there were unidentified fragments of snails in 5 stomachs and unidentified bivalves in 3. The most important snail was Neritina virginea, which is very common on the Mississippi Delta and constitutes one of the principal items of food of many species of ducks wintering in that region. This had been eaten by 25 gadwalls and ranged from a mere trace to 70 per cent of the food present. INSECTS (INSECTA), 0.39 PER CENT. Insects amounted to only 0.39 per cent of the total food. These consisted of caddisflies and their larvae (Phryganoidea), 0.19 per cent; flies and their larvae (Diptera), 0.07; bugs (Hemiptera), 0.05; FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. 9 beetles. (Coleoptera), 0.04; dragonflies and damselflies and their nymphs (Odonata), 0.01; and other insects, 0.03 per cent. One Oregon bird had made almost a full meal of adult caddisflies in October, and the tube-shaped larval cases were found in the stomachs of 8 others. _ The Diptera usually consisted of larvae or pupae, but occasion- ally of adult flies. Six families were represented, as follows: Crane- flies (Tipulidae), found in 1 stomach; midges (Chironomidae), in 10; soldierflies (Stratiomyidae), in 2; horseflies (Tabanidae), in 1; Borboridae, in 3; and Ephydridae, in 8. The bugs taken were chiefly aquatic. Water boatmen (Corixidae) had been eaten by 25 gadwalls, creeping water bugs (Naucoridae) by 6, and water striders (Gerridae) by-4, while shorebugs (Saldidae), ; se bugs (Pentatomidae), and ome hoppers ( Ee ieondae) were taken by 1 each. The most common Coleoptera were water scavenger beetles (Hydrophilidae), predacious diving beetles (Dytiscidae), ground beetles (Carabidae), leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae), and weevils (Rhynchophora). Other families represented were rove beetles (Staphylinidae), larder beetles (Dermestidae), ladybugs (Coccinel- lidae), pill beetles (Byrrhidae), leaf chafers (Scarabaeidae), darkling beetles (Tenebrionidae), flower beetles (Anthicidae), and blister beetles (Meloidae). Of the 362 birds taken during the fall and winter months, only 23 had eaten beetles, and these never amounted to more than 4 per cent of the stomach contents. Of 11 ducklings taken in July, however, all but one had eaten beetles; in three instances these Peaned to 15 per cent, and constituted 7.09 per cent of the food of all. Two gadwalls had eaten nymphs of dragonflies (Anisoptera), two those of damselflies (Zygoptera), and one an odonate nymph, too badly ground to be identified. The miscellaneous insects consisted of a few ants, ichneumons, etc. (Hymenoptera), and a caterpillar (Lepidoptera). Together they amounted to only 0.03 per cent. CRUSTACEANS (CRUSTACEA), 0.08 PER CENT. Crustaceans evidently are not much sought after by the gadwall. Twenty-one birds had eaten very small bivalved crustaceans (Ostra- coda), usually in small numbers. Three gizzards contained the fingers of crabs, two the remains of crawfish, and one a sowbug (Oniscus asellus). Altogether. crustaceans inoaihed only 0.08 per cent of the gadwall’ s food. MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL FOOD, 0.08 PER CENT. The stomach of a gadwall from an open lake in northeastern Arkansas contained several hundred of the small reproductive buds, 10 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. or statoblasts, of fresh-water Bryozoa. These are simple animal organisms which grow in colonies resembling masses of jelly, attached to submerged brush. Bits of hydroids (animals closely related to the corals) were found in 2 stomachs; spiders, in 3; water mites (Hydrachnidae), in 3; and the teeth or scales of small fish, in 2. BALDPATE. Mareca americana. Pirate II. Roughly speaking, the range of the baldpate, or American widgeon, includes practically all of North America. Its breeding range extends from Lake Michigan and Hudson Bay west to the Pacific Ocean and from Wisconsin, Colorado, and Oregon north to central Alaska, the Mackenzie Valley, and Fort Churchill. It does not breed commonly, however, east of Minnesota or south of North Dakota. Along the Atlantic Coast it is common in migration as far as Chesapeake Bay, and is only a straggler in New England and eastern Canada. In winter it is found as far south as Florida, Cuba, and Guatemala, and rarely in Costa Rica, Jamaica, Porto Rico, and Trinidad. Many individuals winter as far north as southern British Columbia, Utah, New Mexico, Illinois, and Chesapeake Bay, and a few occasionally remain in southern New England. The adult baldpate is distinguished by the followimg characters: There is a large area of white on the wings in front of the speculum, which is black with a narrow green area near its front edge; the top of the head, including the forehead, is white, producing the bald appearance which gives the bird its name. Just below the ‘‘bald spot,” covering each side of the head from the eye back to and includ- ing the nape of the neck, is a broad stripe of glossy green; below this the head and neck are mottled gray, the upper breast and sides pinkish brown, lower breast and belly white, under tail-coverts and outer upper tail-coverts black; the back is finely barred with black and gray or buff, and the rump is mostly white. The female lacks the white crown and green headband; the back is more coarsely mottled and streaked, and the white of the wings is less prominent. FOOD HABITS. The feeding habits of the baldpate are in general very similar to those of the gadwall. In some respects the similarity of the results obtained by computing the average percentages of certain elements of food in a large number of stomachs of each species is quite remark- able. For instance, the average proportion of pondweeds (Naiada- ceae) found in the gadwall stomachs was 42.33 per cent, while in the case of the baldpate it was 42.82 per cent. There are a few. slight differences in the food habits of the two species, however. The bald- PLATE II. Bul. 862, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. woseld visits cee "4Jo[ WO efeuloey {44811 TO o[eW (WNVOISSINV VOSYVIA]) SLVdd1vg cies FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. 11 pate appears to be even less of a seed eater than the gadwall. Sedges (Cyperaceae), consisting almost entirely of seeds, amounted to 19.91 per cent of the food of the gadwall, but to only 7.41 per cent of the food of the baldpate. The baldpate also ate more wild celery (Vallisneria spiralis), grasses, and water milfoils (Hippuris vulgaris and Myriophyllum sp.), but much less coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum). Investigation of the food habits of the baldpate consisted chiefly of an examination of the contents of 255 stomachs,? collected (all but 4) during the months from September to April, inclusive, from 25 States, 4 Canadian Provinces, Alaska, and Mexico. With the excep- tion of series of 53 from Utah, 50 from Oregon, and 29 from North Carolina, they weré very evenly distributed in numbers among the different States and Provinces. Four stomachs of birds shot in May and June, together with 22 others which were too nearly empty to allow accurate estimates of percentages of food contents, were not included in the computation, so that the results given are from the remaining 229 stomachs. In the list of food items, however, material from all stomachs is included. VEGETABLE Foop. The vegetable food of the baldpate for the 8 months from September to April averaged 93.23 per cent. This consisted of the following items in the order of their importance: Pondweeds, 42.82 per cent; grasses, 13.9; algae, 7.71; sedges, 7.41; wild celery and waterweed, 5.75; water milfoils, 3.48; duckweeds, 2.2; smartweeds, 1.47; arrow- grass, 0.36; waterlilies, 0.26; coontail, 0.24; and miscellaneous, 7.63 per cent. PONDWEEDS (NAIADACEAB), 42.82 PHR CENT. Pondweeds are by far the most important item of food of the bald- pate, as well as of the gadwall and several other species of ducks. Of the 229 baldpate stomachs, 157, or more than two-thirds, con- tained pondweeds in some form or other. True pondweeds (Pota- mogeton spp.) were found in 102 stomachs, widgeon grass (Ruppia maritvma) in 92, eelgrass (Zostera marina) m 10, bushy pondweed (Najas flexilis) in 9, and horned pondweed (Zannichellia. palustris) in 8. Asin the case of the gadwall, the parts of the pondweeds eaten by the baldpate were almost exclusively leaves and stems, with com- paratively few seeds, and birds taken from several different localities evidently had been feeding upon pondweed foliage almost exclusively. One of the plants of this family (Ruppia maritima) seems to be well entitled to its common name ‘‘widgeon grass,’’ as its foliage is fed upon by the widgeon even more extensively than by the gadwall. 5 Sixty-four of these were examined by W. lL. McAtee. 42 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Several ‘‘widgeons”’ shot on the shores of Long Island Slough, south- ~ western Washington, had eaten considerable quantities of the leaves and rootstocks of eelgrass (Zostera marina), a few of the stomachs containing no other food. . GRASSES (GRAMINEAE), 13.9 PER CENT. The principal grasses taken were switchgrass (Panicum spp.), by 11 widgeons, wild rice (Zizania palustris), by 5, and saltgrass (Distichlis spicata), by 5; rangegrass (Panicum obtusum), a little bar- ley (Hordeum pusillum), and cultivated rice (Oryza sativa) were eaten by one each; and in 16 stomachs were grasses which were not identi- fied. Six full stomachs collected in south central Louisiana in March contained practically nothing besides the remains of tender young: shoots of switchgrass. Several from other localities were filled with grass fibers and root stocks, and some contained grass seeds. One ' from Oregon held more than 1,200 seeds of switchgrass in addition to about 2,800 seeds of another grass which was not determined. The only cultivated grain found was a small quantity of rice taken from a stomach collected in Louisiana in January, when the grain could hardly have been anything but waste. The widgeon has been accused of doing considerable damage to fields of growing grain in spring, but such complaints are not borne out by the present investi- gation. It is very probable that flocks of the ducks do some little harm in this way, but such depredations are the exception rather than the rule. C F ALGAE, 7.71 PER CENT. Algae, consisting chiefly of musk grass, were found in the stomachs of 25 baldpates. More than two-thirds of this food was taken during the months of April and September, by ducks shot in Wisconsin, Michigan, and Minnesota, probably in migration. , SEDGES (CYPERACEAE), 7.41 PER CENT. The sedges do not play so important a part in the food of the baldpate as with the gadwall and several other ducks, probably be- cause the seeds are the only parts usually eaten, and this duck evi- dently cares little for seeds. The sedges eaten by the baldpate were: Three-square (Scirpus americanus), by 37; prairie bulrush (S. palu- dosus), 12; river bulrush (S. fluviatilis), 5; unidentified bulrushes (Scirpus spp.), 24; spike rush (Eleocharis sp.), 19; chufa (Cyperus sp.), 5; saw grass (Cladium effusum and C. mariscoides), 6; sedges of the genus Carex, 12; Fimbristylis, 4; and unidentified sedges, by 20. One duck shot in Chihuahua, Mexico, had swallowed no less than 64,000 seeds of spike rush. As a rule the baldpate does not take © sedge seeds freely where pondweeds and other aquatic plants with tender foliage are available. FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. 13 FROGBIT FAMILY (HYDROCHARITACEAB), 5.75 PER CENT. The plants of the frogbit family eaten by the baldpate consisted of wild celery (Vallisneria spiralis), which was found in 12 stomachs, and waterweed (Philotria canadensis), in 1. - Wild celery is a favorite food of the canvas-back, redhead, and other deep-water ducks, but as a rule it is not often found in the stomachs of ducks which do not dive. However, the stomachs of baldpates from several different ~~ ocalities were filled with wild celery leaves. This is very probably due to a peculiar habit which the baldpate has of followmg the diving ducks and feeding upon the leaves which they bring to the surface. This habit was noted by Wilson and Bonaparte® as early as 1831, and has been widely quoted by various writers since then. According to these early ornithologists, ‘‘The widgeon is the constant attendant of the celebrated canvass-back duck, so abundant in various parts of the Chesapeake Bay, by the aid of whose labour he has ingenuity enough to contrive to make a good subsistence. The widgeon is extremely fond of the tender roots of that particular species of aquatic plant on which the canvass-back feeds, and for which that duck is in the constant habit of diving. The widgeon, who never dives, watches the moment of the canvass-back’s rising, and, before he has his eyes well opened, snatches the delicious morsel from his mouth and makes off.” It is probable that these observa- tions are not entirely accurate, as the canvas-back is known to feed chiefly upon the rootstocks of the plant; the baldpate merely avails itself of the leaves thus cut off, brought to the surface, and discarded by the canvas-back. WATER MILFOILS (HALORAGIDACEAE), 3.48 PER CENT. Water milfoil (Myriophyllum sp.) had been eaten by 24 of the baldpates, and bottle brush (Hippuris vulgaris) by 18. Many species of ducks feed upon the seeds of these plants in small numbers, but the baldpate so far as known is the only duck which shows any particular fondness for their foliage. Several stomachs were found to contain the seeds also, and in a very few instances they predomi- nated over the foliage, but the bulk of the food derived from this family of plants consisted of the tender leaves and stems. A series of baldpates from Klamath Falls, Oreg., especially, had partaken of _ the foliage of Myriophyllum in considerable quantities. DUCKWEEDS (LEMNACEAE), 2.2 PER. CENT. Like the gadwall, the baldpate shows less partiality toward the duckweeds than do some other ducks. The stomachs of three individuals, one each from Wisconsin, Utah, and Oregon, were 6 Wilson, Alexander, and Charles Lucian Bonaparte, Amer. Ornith., III, p. 198, 1831. | 14 BULLETIN 862, U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. nearly filled with the small mdividual plants, or thalli, of a duck- © weed (Lemna sp.). These plants are very abundant in many of the localities from which the baldpates were taken, but for some reason other foods seemed to appeal to them more strongly. SMARTWEEDS (POLYGONACEAE), 1.47 PER CENT. The seeds of water smartweed (Polygonum amphibvum) were pres- ent in 11 baldpate gizzards, those of dock-leaved smartweed (P. lapathifolium) m six. Others identified were knotweed (P. avicu- lare), water pepper (P. hydropiper), and lady’s-thumb (P. persicaria), each in two, and mud water pepper (P. hydropiperoides) and black bindweed (P. convolvulus), each m one. The fact that the seeds of smartweeds are the only edible parts of these plants probably is the reason that they form so small an item of the baldpate’s diet. ARROW-GRASS FAMILY (JUNCAGINACEAE), 0.36 PER CENT. The arrow-grass family was represented in two baldpate stomachs from the State of Washington; both were nearly full of the seeds of arrow-grass (Triglochin maritima). These plants are quite closely related to the pondweeds, but, unlike the pondweeds, their seeds are the only parts eaten by birds. WATERLILY FAMILY (NYMPHAEACEAE), 0.26 PER CENT; AND HORNWORT FAMILY (CERATOPHYLLACEAE), 0.24 PER CENT. One stomach from Oregon was nearly filled with 50 of the large seeds of spatterdock (Nymphaea sp.) and fragments of many more. Two others contained seeds of watershield (Brasenia schrebert), and one the seeds of another waterlily (Castalia sp.). As already stated, the baldpate seems to lack the gadwall’s taste for the foliage of coontail (Ceratophyllum demersum). Only one bird (taken in Oregon in December) had its stomach full of this plant, and two others had taken a few of the seeds. MISCELLANEOUS VEGETABLE FOOD, 7.63 PER CENT. The stomach of one baldpate from lower Chesapeake Bay con- tained the remains of about 400 seeds of beggar-ticks, or “ pitch- forks” (Bidens sp.). In another from Texas were over 500 seeds of a wild heliotrope (Heliotropium indicum), which are often taken by ducks in much smaller numbers; in this instance they furnished 80 per cent of the contents. A stomach from Virginia was filled with the remains of a great many small tubers of arrowhead (Sagittaria sp.); one from Massachusetts contained quantities of the leaves of pipewort (Friocaulon sp.); and one from Utah was from a duck which had made a meal of the foliage and seeds of picklegrass (Salicornia ambigua). Among other items found in small quantities were bits of the scales from cones of cypress (Taxodium distichum), seeds of bur FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. 15 reed (Sparganium sp.), myrtle (Myrica sp.), saltbush (Atriplex sp.), purslane (Portulaca sp.), crowfoots (Ranunculus spp.), brambles (Rubus spp.), clovers (Melilotus sp. and Medicago denticulata), spurge (Croton sp.), sumac (Rhus sp.), holly (Ilex sp.), water hemlock (Cicuta sp.), and many others. Anima Foop. Animal food amounted to 6.77 per cent of the contents of the 229 baldpate stomachs included in the computation. Even this figure is probably unduly large, because the greater part of the animal matter consisted of snails found in the gizzards of a series of ducks from southern Oregon, the only lot of birds found feeding almost exclu- sively upon such food. More than nine-tenths of the animal food (6.25 per cent of the total) consisted of moilusks, the remainder “being made up of insects (0.42 per cent) and miscellaneous matter (0.1 per cent). MOLLUSKS (MOLLUSCA), 6.25 PER CENT. Fragments of small bivalves were found in 6 stomachs, and snails (univalves) in 29. As already stated, the greater part of the mol- lusks were from a number of Oregon imei taken along the shores of the Klamath River. Many of them had gorged themselves upon snails, and these constituted practically 100 per cent of the contents of 13 out of the 17 stomachs in the series, of which 7 contained nothing else. Two other baldpates, one from Lake Michigan near Chicago, and the other from Lake Manitoba, Canada, had fed largely upon mollusks. INSECTS GaeEcnAys 0.42 PER CENT. Insects which amounted to only 0.42 per cent of the food of bald-— pates included in our investigation probably are eaten to a greater extent during the summer months, especially by the ducklings. No ducklings of this species were available, but there can be little doubt that, like the young of the gadwall, they feed largely upon the adults and larvae of aquatic insects. More than two-thirds of the insects eaten by the baldpate (0.29 per cent of the whole) were beetles. These included water scavenger beetles (Hydrophilidae), found in 8 stomachs; predacious diving beetles (Dytiscidae), in 2; leaf chafers (Scarabaeidae), in 2; leaf _ beetles (Chrysomelidae), in 3; weevils (Rhynchophora), in 2; Derme- stidae, in 2; and unidentified fragments of beetles, in 16. One gizzard contained about 85 individuals of a species of rove beetle (Staphylin- idae), a small, elongated, soft-bodied insect, which is usually very common span decaying animal matter. Flies and their larvae and pupae furnished 0.09 per cent of the foodl Twelve baldpates had eaten midges (Chironomidae); 9, ephydrid fles (Ephydridae); 3, craneflies (Tipulidae); 1, flies of the family 16 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Muscidae; and 1 contained fly remains which were not identified. The larvae of midges are found in immense numbers in stagnant water in many localities, and are often an important food item for water birds. The remaining insects, amounting to only 0.04 per cent, consisted of a few caddisfly larvae (Phryganoidea), bugs, chiefly water boat- men (Corixidae), a dragonfly nymph, remains of small crickets (Nemobius sp.), a small aquatic caterpillar, a few small ants, and unidentified eggs, larvae, and adults of other forms. MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL FOOD, 0.1 PER CENT. Crustaceans furnished less than 1 per cent of the food of the bald- pate. They consisted of sand fleas (Amphipoda), bivalved crusta- ceans (Ostracoda), and afew unidentified forms. One stomach from St. Paul Island, ‘Alaska, was half.fullof the remains of sand fleas, and contained nothing else. These, together with bits of hydroids, a few spiders and water mites, and the teeth and scales of small fish, made up the remainder of the animal food. EUROPEAN WIDGEON. ( Mareca penelope. ) ‘The European, or red-headed, widgeon is an Old World species — but has been noted occasionally at a number of points on the Atlantic coast of North America, and in the North Central and Lake States. ° There are also several scattered records of its occurrence on the Pacific coast. In appearance the male European widgeon is similar to the baldpate except that the crown is creamy buff instead of white and the remainder of the head and upper part of the neck are reddish brown, with a black area on the chin and throat. FOOD HABITS. Not a great deal is known of its food habits in the United States. Sanford,’ discussing it, says that, “unlike the American baldpate,”’ it, is feoueaiy seen on salt water, feeding almost entirely on the short grass growing on the bottom. However, the baldpate also is known to feed commonly in salt water. Only five stomachs of the European widgeon were available for examination. Two of these were from Ben Bay, southeastern Virginia; one contained foliage of widgeon grass (Ruppia maritima) and eelgrass (Zostera marina); the other, only widgeon grass. The third was from the flats of the Susquehanna River near its mouth in northeastern Mary- land and contained rootstocks of pondweeds (Potamogeton sp.), bits of stéms and a few seeds of dodder (Cuscuta sp.), and a few seeds of bur-reed (Sparganium sp.). The fourth stomach, from the vicin- 7 Sanford, L. C., L, B. Bishop, and T. 8S. Van Dyke, The Waterfowl Family, p. 91, 1903. PLATE III. Bul. 862, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. (as ‘Ajo, WO epeMos {431 TO ofeTy NANITOYVD NOILLAN) IV3_L GSADNIM\-Na3Su5) AS 2 pe TE PO NI TERT RE Pat EA Ee ray ma) FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. 17 ity of Currituck Sound, North Carolina, contained leaves of eelgrass. The fifth, from Ipswich, Mass., contained only seeds of salt-marsh bul- rush (Scirpus robustus). Thus it will be seen that in all probability the food of the European widgeon does not differ materially from that of its American cousin, the baldpate. ‘GREEN-WINGED TEAL. (Nettion carolinense). Prats III. The green-winged teal, variously known to sportsmen as green-wing, mud teal, winter teal, or red-headed teal, has a very wide distribution, being found in the breeding season from New York, northern Penn- sylvania, Michigan, Nebraska, Colorado, and New Mexico northward to the edge of the Barren Grounds; from near Fort Churchill, Hud- son Bay, to Kotzebue Sound; and nearly to Point Barrow, Alaska. The main breeding grounds are in west central Canada from Manitoba to Lake Athabaska, and the bird breeds only rarely in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. It winters commonly in Mexico and the Bahamas, and rarely in Cuba, Jamaica, and Honduras; occasionally south to Tobago. It is also very common in winter in the Southern States, and many individuals remain throughout the winter as far north as they can find open water. It is one of the early ducks to migrate in spring, usually reaching the latitude of New York City during the first week in April, and arriving at the northern limits of its breeding range by about the first of May. The adult male green-winged teal can best be distinguished by its dark brown head with a patch of metallic green on each side, includ- ing the eye, and extending into a crest at the back of the head. It has also a white crescent in front of the wing and a metallic green speculum or wing patch. This wing patch is not so distinct on the female and young. Any of the teals can be distinguished from most of the other ducks by their small size, the green-wing measuring 124 to 15 inches in length, the blue-wing 144 to 16 inches, and the cinnamon teal about 17 inches. FOOD HABITS. _ The green-winged teal feeds largely upon the seeds of pondweeds, bulrushes, and other aquatic plants, although it takes also a smaller proportion of such animal food as insects, small crustaceans, and snails. When much disturbed during the daytime, the flocks feed largely at night. The flesh of the green-wing is very palatable, being considered among the best of American ducks, although it is said soon to become less palatable when the birds have been driven to the seashore and feed upon snails and salt-water crustaceans. On 179375°—20——2 18 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. account of the fact that the birds have little suspicion of man and fly in compact flocks, affording opportunities for pot shots, the green- winged teal has been greatly reduced in numbers. It is one of our most desirable game birds and should be carefully guarded against further depletion. VEGETABLE Foop. Of the contents of 653% green-winged teal stomachs examined, more than nine-tenths (90.67 per cent) consisted of vegetable matter. By far the largest item of food contributed by any one family of plants came from the sedges, and this amounted to nearly two-fifths (38.82 per cent) of the total food. Next to the sedges, pondweeds are the favorite food supply, contributing 11.52 per cent, while grasses follow closely with 11, then smartweeds 5.25, algae 4.63, duckweeds 1.9, water milfoils 1.11, arrow-grass 0.91, and bur reed 0.85 per cent. The remaining 14.68 per cent is made up of a great number of smaller items. SEDGES (CYPERACEAE), 38.82 PER CENT. The sedges form a very. constant item of food for the green-winged teal, being found in some form in 530 of 653 stomachs and forming the sole content of 51. Usually the seeds are taken, but practically all parts of the plants are eaten when young and tender. Seeds of bul- rushes (Scirpus spp.) form the largest item among the sedges, being found in the greatest number of stomachs and represented by several species. Unidentified bulrush seeds were found in 205 stomachs. The most commonly identified species was three-square (Scirpus americanus) from 121 stomachs. Seeds of prairie bulrush (Scirpus paludosus) were found in 46 stomachs, those of salt-marsh bulrush (Scirpus robustus) in 40, Scirpus cubensis in 13, and river bulrush (Scirpus fluviatilis) in 5. Other genera of sedges represented were Fimbristylis, found in 90 stomachs, Carex in 72, Cyperus 48, spike rush (Eleocharis) 45, beaked rushes (Rhynchospora) 5, saw grass (Cladium) 91, and unidentified sedge seeds in 44. No fewer than 30,000 seeds of a Cyperus were found in one stomach and 25,000 in feo tae while Eleocharis and Fimbristylis seeds also occasionally reached as high as 1,000 per stomach. PONDWEEDS (NAIADACEAE), 11.52 PER CENT. The pondweed group includes the true pondweeds (Potamogeton spp.), ditch or widgeon grass (Ruppia maritima), horned pondweed (Zannichellia palustris), eelgrass (Zostera marina), and bushy pond- weed (Najas spp.), all of which were found in stomachs of the green-winged teal, and seem to form a very important element of their diet. In most cases the seeds alone are taken, but the ducks 8 Two hundred and sixteen of these were examined by W. L. McAtee. — FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. 19 often eat also the stems, leaves, buds, and tubers of some species of Potamogeton, leaves and rootstocks of ditchgrass, and parts of the foliage of bushy pondweed, eelgrass, and horned-pondweed. Pota- mogeton (usually seeds) was found in 250 stomachs. In a few in- stances the species were identified, the most common being sago pondweed (Potamogeton pectinatus); but usually it was useless to attempt to identify species by the seeds, as they are so much alike as to be indistinguishable in the worn condition in which they are found in the stomachs. Seeds of this genus, however, even when present in small fragments, are easily distinguished from other seeds by the peculiar curved shape of the cavity which contains the em- bryo. The seeds of widgeon grass were found in 108 gizzards, and fragments of the leaves were identified from three. Seeds of eelgrass were present in 3 stomachs, bushy pondweed in 27, and horned pond- weed in 10. One of the latter stomachs contained more than 1,300 seeds. GRASSES (GRAMINEAE), 11 PER CENT. Eighteen species of grass seeds were identified from the birds examined, and unidentified grass seeds were taken from 19 stomachs. Those of the genus Panicum were most commonly eaten, being found in 59 gizzards, often constituting a large proportion of the con- tents, and reaching as high as two or three thousand in number. Another favorite seed was that of barnyard grass, or wild millet (Echinochloa crus-galli), which was found in 14 stomachs, and usually formed the bulk of the food whenever it occurred. One duck taken in Louisiana in January had eaten 6,000 seeds of jungle rice (Echinochloa colona), both the stomach and gullet being crammed full. Other. grass seeds eaten by this teal were wild rice (Zizania palustris), taken by 18 birds; cut-grass (Zizaniopsis miliacea), by 8; foxtail grasses (Chaetochloa glauca and other species), 9; and Monan-— thochloé littoralis, 16. A few kernels of corn had been taken by one bird, and rice by 21. However, all these ducks were collected during the winter months, and the rice and corn were undoubtedly waste erain. SMARTWEEDS (POLYGONACEAE), 5.25 PER CENT. Next in order of importance in the food of the green-winged teal come the smartweeds, which form one of the principal items of food of a great many birds. Thirteen species of smartweed were iden- tified, the most important being water smartweed (Polygonum amplibvum), found in 35 stomachs; dock-leaved smartweed (P. lapa- thifoluum), in 29; Opelousas smartweed (P. opelousanum), 14; water pepper (P. hydropiper), 12; and mild water pepper (P. hydropiper- oides), 10. The other smartweeds were found in only a few stomachs each, and those taken from 22 other birds were not identified. One 20 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. duck had eaten 1,630 seeds of knotgrass (Polygonum aviculare). Seeds of dock (Rumezx spp.), another plant of the smartweed family, had been taken by 5 birds. ALGAE, 4.63 PER CENT. Musk grass (Chara sp.) forms the bulk of the algae taken by the green- winged teal, being found in 89 of the 96 stomachs which contained algae. All parts of the plant are eaten freely, but the ducks seem to be especially fond of the odgonia, very small spherical or egg-shaped objects which form part of the reproductive apparatus and are attached to the whorled leaves. They are usually coated with lime and are rather hard, and consequently often remain in the stomach after all other parts of the plant are digested. Stomachs were found containing thousands of them, and occasionally they constituted the total contents. Musk grasses, of which there are many species, have a very wide distribution, and have been found in duck stomachs from _ practically all parts of North America. DUCKWEEDS (LEMNACEAE), 1.9 PER CENT. The duckweeds, the simplest and smallest of flowering plants, form a rather important element in the food of nearly all ducks which live on plant matter. These plants, at least in the typical genera, con- sist of merely a frond or leaf floating freely upon the water, with one or more small roots dangling below. The fronds are fleshy and tender, and are scooped up greedily by the ducks. They had been taken by 44 of the 653- green-winged teal examined, and averaged 1.9 per cent of the total food. WATER MILFOIL FAMILY (HALORAGIDACEAE), 1.11 PER CENT. The water milfoil family is represented in North America by three genera: Water milfoil (Myriophylium), mermaid-weed (Proserpinaca), and bottle brush (Hippuris). The seeds of all three of these were present in the series of gizzards examined. Water milfoil seeds had been eaten by 58 birds, those of bottle brush by 16, and those of mermaid-weed by only one. Anat Foop. Insects formed 4.57 per cent of the total food of the green-winged teal, the remainder of the animal food consisting of mollusks, 3.59 per cent; crustaceans, 0.92; and miscellaneous, 0.25; the total amounting to 9.33 per cent. INSECTS (INSECTA), 4.57 PER CENT. The largest item of insect food eaten by these ducks was flies (Diptera), which constituted 2.07 per cent of the total. Nearly all of these were in the form of larvae or pupae, the adult flies seldom being caught. Probably those found had been taken from the sur- face of the water, as it does not seem likely that a duck would be — FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. Al: adept at fly-catching. The larvae of midges (Chironomidae) were found in 61 stomachs, sometimes in very large numbers, and formed the bulk of the dipterousfood taken. They are abundant in shallow, standing water and slow streams almost everywhere, feeding upon decayed vegetable matter, and evidently are eagerly sought by the ducks. The larvae and pupae of craneflies (Tipulidae), soldierflies (Stratiomyidae), and Ephydridae were also commonly taken. Although beetles (Coleoptera) formed only 0.65 per cent of the total food, they were represented by a larger number of families and genera than the flies. Those most commonly taken were predacious diving beetles (Dytiscidae), water scavenger beetles (Hydrophilidae), crawling water beetles (Haliplidae), snout beetles and other weevils (Rhynchophora), and ground beetles (Carabidae). _ Next im order of importance in the insect food of this teal come the bugs (Hemiptera), with 0.54 per cent, including both the true bugs (Heteroptera) and the cicadas, leafhoppers, etc. (Homop- tera). Of the true bugs, water boatmen (Corixidae) were found in 32 stomachs, sometimes in very large numbers; back swimmers (Notonectidae) in 4 stomachs; water striders (Gerridae) in 4; and unidentified bugs in 6. The Homoptera were represented by a single jassid, or leafhopper. Caddisflies (Phryganoidea) furnished 0.31 per cent of the total food of the birds examined. These were taken in the form of the larvae, or caddis worms, which abound in creeks and ponds, or anywhere in shallow water containing the vegetation upon which the fly lar- vae feed. They live within silk cases or hollow cylinders made by themselves and covered with a variety of materials, such as grains of sand, bits of leaves or rushes, or pieces of mollusk shell. “These cases are open at each end, and the larva pulls itself along by means of three pairs of legs which, with the head, can be protruded from one end. Caddis larvae or cases were found in 46 stomachs, never in very large numbers. The remaining insect food (1 per cent) was made up of damsel- flies (Zygoptera), dragonflies (Anisoptera), stoneflies (Plecoptera), bird lice Mallophaga), grasshoppers (Orthoptera), ant-lions (Neurop- . tera), moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera), ants, bees, and wasps (Hymenoptera), and a number of miscellaneous unidentified insects - and their eggs, pupae, and larvae. Probably the largest single item among these miscellaneous orders of insects was the nymphs of damselflies and dragonflies, identified from 23 stomachs. MOLLUSKS (MOLLUSCA), 3.59 PER CENT. Next to insects, mollusks furnished the largest item of animal food for this teal, 3.59 per cent of the total. They were usually found broken, although whole snails were sometimes present. Empty 22 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, shells or bits of shell probably are often taken by ducks in lieu of gravel to help grind the food, but there is no doubt that the mollusks themselves, and especially snails, are relished by the birds and form an important element in their food. Three genera of snails were identified: Physa, Neritina, and Planorbis. Unidentified snails were taken from 44 stomachs, and bivalves from only 3. Broken mollusk shells, unclassified, were found in 90 gizzards. CRUSTACEANS (CRUSTACEA), 0.92 PER CENT. Small crustaceans, which are abundant in numbers and variety in nearly all streams and bodies of water, whether salt or fresh,.are sought by nearly all ducks. They furnished 0.92 per cent of the total food of the green-winged teal, or approximately one-tenth of the animal food. Chief among these were the ostracods, small bivalved crustaceans which might easily be mistaken for minute mollusks. Small shrimplike crustaceans known as amphipods were taken in some numbers, and in one stomach the claws of an unidentified crab were found. Y MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL FOOD, 0.25 PER CENT. A few spiders and mites (class Arachnida), centipeds (Myriapoda), fish scales, minute aquatic animalculae, and other insignificant items form the remainder of the green-winged teal’s animal food. ‘3 BLUE-WINGED TEAL. (Querquedula discors.) Pate LV... The blue-winged teal, blue-wing, or summer teal is slightly more restricted in its distribution than the green-wing. Although it has been recorded as breeding in Rhode Island, Maine, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Newfoundland, Quebec, Ontario, and New York, and as far south as northern Ohio, southern Indiana, southern Colorado, New Mexico, Texas, Utah, northern Nevada, and central Oregon, it is not common east of the Allegheny Mountains nor on the Pacific slope. Its principal summer home is in the interior of North America between the Rocky Mountains and the Great Lakes, from northern Illinois and Nebraska north to Saskatchewan. Its principal range extends north to British Columbia, and it occurs also rarely north to Alaska, Alberta, and about Great Slave Lake. In winter, blue-winged teals are found throughout northern South America south to Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, and Chile; they occur abundantly in Central America, Mexico, and the West Indies; and in the United States they are found near the Gulf, and as far north as North Carolina, and (sparingly) southern Indiana and southern Illinois. Unlike the green-winged teal, this is one of the least hardy of our ducks, migrating late in spring - “VY STI Wo opeutoy {1JoT WO OTRITV “(SHOOSIG VINGANDUAND) IVAL GADNIM-3Nn1g W9tia PLATE IV Iture. cu Dept. of Agri S) U Bul. 862 FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. 23 and early in fall. It usually arrives in central Iowa during the last week in March, and at Aweme, Manitoba, about a month later. In the fall migration it reappears throughout the northern half of the United States during the month of August and reaches the Gulf of Mexico about the middle of September. In habits it is very similar to the green-winged teal, and like that bird its numbers have been greatly diminished in recent years on account of its slight fear of man and the consequent ease with which it may be shot by even imex- perienced sportsmen. It is especially rare in most of the States east of the Alleghenies, and great care should be taken in some localities to see that it is not entirely wiped out. In general appearance the blue-winged teal is similar to the green- wing, having also a green speculum, which, however, is supplemented by a light-blue shoulder patch, separated from the green by a narrow white line. The adult male also lacks the white mark before the wing, which is present in the green-winged teal, but has a large white crescent on each side of the face in front of the eye. FOOD HABITS. To determine the food habits of the blue-winged teal, 319° stomachs were examined, collected from 29 States and 4 Canadian Provinces during a period of 31 years, and in every month but January. As might be expected, the greatest numbers were col- lected in the fall, during the months of September, October, and November, making the average percentages of various kinds of foods - for those months more accurate than for the remainder of the year. Rather large series were collected in Wisconsin (58), Florida (46), Maine (40), and North Dakota (86); the remaining stomachs were fairly evenly distributed. The character of the contents of the stom- achs from the States furnishing the largest numbers was not such as to influence unduly the final averages. VEGETABLE Foop. About seven-tenths (70.53 per cent) of the blue-winged teal’s food consists of vegetable matter. Of this about three-fourths is included in four families of plants. Sedges (Cyperaceae), with 18.79 per cent; pondweeds (Naiadaceae), 12.6; grasses (Gramineae), 12.26; and the smartweeds (Polygonaceae), 8.22. The remainder of the plant food is made up of algae, 2.95 per cent; waterlilies (Nymphaeaceae), 1.37; rice and ‘corn, 0.98; water milfoils (Haloragidaceae), 0.71; bur reeds (Sparganiaceae), 0.38; madder family (Rubiaceae), 0.35; and miscellaneous, 11.92 per cent. 9 Ninety of these were examined by W. L. McAtee. 24 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SEDGES (CYPERACEAE), 18.79 PER CENT. The sedges are grasslike or rushlike plants which grow in marshes or on the borders of ponds and streams. Ducks are especially fond of their seeds, which usually are small and hard and have a starchy interior. The family of sedges is a very large one, comprising about 3,200 species, widely distributed. The seeds most often found in duck stomachs are those of the bulrushes (Scirpus spp.), and the case of the blue-winged teal is no exception to this rule. Unidentified bulrush seeds were found in 184 stomachs, those of river bulrush (S. fluviatilis) m 18, three-square (S. americanus) in 10, prairie bulrush (S. paludosus) in 7, and great bulrush (S. validus) and salt- marsh bulrush (S. robustus) in 2 each. Other sedges taken were those of the genus Carex, found in 59 stomachs; saw grass (Cladiwm ef- fusum and C. mariscoides), in 55; chufa (Cyperus spp.), in 45; spike rush (Eleocharis spp.), in 33; beaked rush (Rhynchospora sp.), in 2; and sedges of the genera Fimbristylis, im 40; and Dulichium, in 2. Unidentified sedge seeds or bits of the plants were taken by 27 birds. PONDWEEDS (NAIADACEAE) 12.6 PER CENT. In 33 of the stomachs examined the seeds or other parts of pond- weeds formed from 95 to 100 per cent of the total food contents. The true pondweeds (Potamogeton spp.) had been taken by 151 birds, widgeon grass (Ruppia maritima) by 87, bushy pondweed (Najas edie and N. marina) by 18, eelgrass (Zostera marina) by 3, and | horned pondweed Gapmnaation palustris) by 2. One stomach held over 700 of the hard black seeds of widgeon grass.. Most ducks feed upon all parts of pondweed plants, and the blue-winged teal seems to pay much attention to the leaves and stems as well as the seeds. GRASSES (GRAMINEAB), 12.26 PER CENT. Of the 319 blue-winged teals examined, only 13 had eaten culti- vated grain. One of these, obtained in Kansas in April, had its gizzard filied with 19 kernels of corn and fragments of more, but corn taken at that time of year could hardly have been anything but waste. The other 12 birds had eaten rice, and as all were collected in Florida in November, this, too, was undoubtedly waste grain. Of the wild grasses the favorites were wild rice (Zizania palustris), taken by 22 birds; switchgrass (Panicum sp.), by, 18; the foxtails (Chaetochloa Glantec, C. viridis, and others), by 14; rice cut -grass (Homalocenchrus oryzoides), by 9; and Monanthochloé Kttoralis, by 18. Other species © less often taken were meadow grass (Puccinellia nuttalliana), barn- yard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli), cut-grass (Zizamopsis miliacea), rushgrass (Sporobolus sp.), and salt-marsh grass (Spartina sp.). FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. 25 SMARTWEEDS (POLYGONACEAB), 8.22 PER CENT. Two of the blue-winged teals had eaten seeds of dock (Rumez sp.). All other seeds of this family taken were of the true smartweeds (Polygonum spp.). These were represented by 9 species, and 16 stomachs contained unidentified smartweed seeds: Mild water pepper (Polygonum hydropiperoides), which was found in 31 stomachs; water smartweed (P. amphibiwm), in 27; and dock-leaved smartweed (P. lapathifolium), in 26, were the kinds most often found. Other species taken were prickly smartweed (P. sagitiatum), lady’s-thumb (P. persicaria), water pepper (P. hydropiper), Opelousas smartweed (P. opelousanum), Pennsylvania smartweed (P. pennsylvanicum), and dense-flowered smartweed (P. portoricense). ALGAE, 2.95 PER CENT. The greater part of the seaweeds taken consisted of musk grass (Chara spp.). Several stomachs collected in Wisconsin, North Da- kota, and Florida were nearly full of this alga, chiefly the odgonia, or reproductive cells. Altogether, musk grass was found in 31 stomachs, and unidentified marine algae, or seaweeds, in 4. WATERLILIES (NYMPHAEACEAE), 1.37 PER CENT. Waterlily seeds had been taken by 27 of these teals. Fourteen had eaten seeds of white waterlilies (Castalia sp.), and the other 13 had eaten those of the small purple waterlily known as water shield (Brasenia schreberi). Most of the white waterlily seeds were found in the stomachs of a series of ducks collected in Florida. One of these, together with the bird’s gullet, which was also full, contained 1,600 seeds and fragments of many more. WATER MILFOILS (HALORAGIDACEAE), 0.71 PER CENT. The plants of the family Haloragidaceae have a very wide geo- graphic distribution. They are chiefly aquatic, and have hard, nutlike seeds which persist for some time in bird stomachs. The three North American genera were represented in the stomachs examined, bottle brush (Mippuris vulgaris) in 8, mermaid weed (Proserpynaca sp.) in 5, and water milfoil (Myriophyllum sp.) in 44. BUR REEDS (SPARGANIACEAE), 0.38 PER CENT, The seeds of bur reed (Sparganium sp.) had been eaten by 39 of the blue-winged teals examined, but usually were found in small numbers. MADDER FAMILY (RUBIACEAE), 0.35 PER CENT. The madder family was rather sparingly represented by seeds of buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), found in 5 stomachs; bed- straw, or cleavers (Galwwm sp.), in 10; and rough buttonweed (isda teres) in 1. } 26 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MISCELLANEOUS VEGETABLE FOOD, 11.95 PER CENT. A large number of minor items of vegetable food were classified as miscellaneous. Probably the largest of these consisted of plants of the duckweed family (Lemnaceae). Although found in only 14 stomachs, they constituted nearly 100 per cent of the contents of several. Each of three stomachs collected in Iowa in August con- tained more than a thousand of the small plants of a duckweed (Lemna sp.). Twenty-eight other families of plants were represented, the most important being the aster family (Compositae), the water plantain family (Alismaceae), the parsley family (Umbelliferae), crowfoot family (Ranunculaceae), borage family (Boraginaceae), myrtle family (Myricaceae), rose family (Rosaceae), hornwort family (Ceratophyllaceae), and the vervain family (Verbenaceae). AnimmAL Foon. Animal matter constitutes 29.47 per cent of the total food of the blue-winged teal, which is more than three times the percentage of animal faod eaten by the green-wing. Over half of this (16.82 per cent) is mollusks, the remainder beng made up of insects, 10.41 per cent; crustaceans, 1.93, and miscellaneous, 0.31 per cent. MOLLUSKS (MOLLUSCA), 16.82 PER CENT. The greater part of the shellfish found in the stomachs examined probably consisted of snails, although small bivalves also had been commonly taken, and in a majority of cases the shells had been so thoroughly crushed by the powerful gizzards of the ducks as to make it impracticable to distinguish between the fragments of bivalves and univalves. However, 15 species of the latter were identified, and 2 of the former. Unidentified univalve shells were found in 31 stomachs and unidentified bivalves in 2, while fragments of mollusk shells taken from 106 stomachs were not classified. The full stomach of a duck collected in an Iowa swamp in August, 1907, contained thousands of snail eggs, amounting to 54 per cent of its contents. INSECTS (INSECTA), 10.41 PER CENT. The items of insect food of the blue-winged teal, in the order of their importance, are caddis larvae (together with their cases), beetles and their larvae, dragonflies and damselflies (chiefly in the nymph stage), bugs, flies (chiefly larvae), and a small percentage of miscellaneous insects. The larvae of caddisflies (Phryganoidea) or their cases were found in 37 stomachs, and amounted to 4.5 per cent of the total food. The greater part of these were found in a series of stomachs collected in Florida, some of which were over half filled with the fegmoute of caddis cases. FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. Paid Beetles (Coleoptera) amounted to 2.62 per cent of the food of the blue-winged teal, or less than one-tenth of the total animal matter eaten. Ten species of predacious diving beetles (Dytiscidae) were noted, 7 of ground beetles (Carabidae), 5 of water scavenger beetles (Hydrophilidae), 4 of crawling water beetles (Haliplidae), 3 of leaf chafers (Scarabaeidae), 3 of leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae), 2 each of snout beetles (Curculionidae) and billbugs (Calandrinae), and 1 each of whirligig beetles (Gyrinidae), shining carrion beetles (Histeridae), pill beetles (Byrrhidae), and mud beetles (Heteroceridae); while many individuals of most of these families were found which, on account of their fragmentary condition, could not be further identi- fied. Unclassified beetle remains were found in 50 stomachs. The nymphs or young of damselflies (Zygoptera) and dragonflies (Anisoptera) live in the water and afford delicate morsels for ducks. Twenty-two of the blue-winged teals had eaten nymphs of dragon- flies and two those of damselflies, while three stomachs contained remains of nymphs which were not identified. Bugs (Heteroptera and Homoptera) constituted 0.86 per cent of the birds’ diet. These represented 10 families, besides the remains of a few bugs which were not identified. "Water boatmen (Corixidae) had been eaten by 43 birds, creeping water bugs (Naucoridae) by 15, back swimmers (Notonectidae) by 12, water striders (Gerridae) and broad-shouldered water striders (Veliidae) by 2 each, and negro bugs (Corimelaenidae), stink bugs (Pentatomidae), giant water bugs (Belostomatidae), planthoppers (Fulgoridae), and leafhoppers (Jas- sidae) by 1 each. Only 0.65 per cent of the blue-winged teal’s food consisted of two- — winged flies and their larvae and pupae. Six families were repre- sented, and unidentified larvae or pupae were taken from 8 stomachs. The larvae of soldierflies (Stratiomyidae) and midges (Chironomidae) were present in 11 gizzards each, while those of flower flies (Syr- phidae) had been eaten by 4 birds, and Anthomyiidae, Ephydridae, and black flies (Simuliidae) by 1 each. The miscellaneous insect food consisted of unidentified fragments of insects, a grasshopper or two, 3 small moth cocoons, a few ants, insect eggs, etc. . CRUSTACEANS (CRUSTACEA), 1.93 PER CENT. Crustaceans furnished 1.93 per cent of the contents of all the blue-winged teal gizzards examined, and consisted of beach fleas, scuds, etc. (Amphipoda), found in 7 stomachs; small bivalved crustaceans (Ostracoda), in 8; and stalk-eyed crustaceans (Decapoda), in 2. The last-mentioned order includes the claw of a crab found in one stomach and a sand shrimp (Crangonyx gracilis) in the other. Two North Carolir.a stomachs collected in March were nearly filled 28 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. with beach fleas, or amphipods. Crustaceans which had been taken by 5 other teals were too fragmentary for identification. MISCELLANEOUS ANIMAL FOOD, 0.31 PER CENT. The miscellaneous animal food, which amounted to only 0.31 per cent, consisted principally of the remains of a few minnows and other small fishes, a few spiders, and several tiny water mites, or hydrachnids. CINNAMON TEAL. Querquedula cyanoptera. Puate V. The cinnamon teal is a western bird, its breeding range in North America extending from eastern Wyoming and western Kansas west to the Pacific coast, and from southern British Columbia and south- western Alberta south to northern Lower California, northern Mexico, southern New Mexico, and central western Texas. Its distribution is very remarkable in that it not only breeds in the Northern Hemisphere, but also over a large area in South America, the two’ colonies being separated by a zone about 2,000 miles wide in which the species is practically unknown. The cinnamon teal of North America migrates in winter only a short distance south of its breeding range in Mexico and is found at this season as far north as Browns- ville, Tex., central New Mexico, southern Arizona, and Tulare Lake, California. The South American birds migrate slightly northward after nesting, but the_breeding seasons of the two colonies are, of course, reversed. . The male cinnamon teal differs from the blue-wing in appearance in having a blackish area on the top of the head, and chestnut or cinnamon brown on the remainder of the head, neck, and underparts, giving it the local name of red-breasted teal. _ FOOD HABITS. Only 41 stomachs of the cinnamon teal were available for examina- tion. These were collected during the eight months from March to October, and from the States of Colorado, Utah, Arizona, Montana, Oregon, and California, the bulk being from Utah and California. Although the number is too small to furnish an accurate estimate of the percentages of various foods taken, nevertheless the results are of value in showing that this species probably does not differ materially in habits from the other two North American teals. VEGETABLE Foon. Like the green-wing and the blue-wing, the cinnamon teal lives mainly upon vegetable food, this comprising about four-fifths (79.86 per cent) of the total contents of the stomachs examined. And like the other teals its two principal and most constant items of food are the Bul. 862, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. B1368M CINNAMON TEAL (QUERQUEDULA CYANOPTERA). female on right. ? Male on left FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. | 29 seeds and other parts of sedges (Cyperaceae) and pondweeds (Naiada- ceae). These two families of plants furnished 34.27 and 27.12 per cent, respectively, of the bird’s entire diet. The grasses (Gramineae) amounted to 7.75 per cent; smartweeds (Polygonaceae), to 3.22; mallows (Malvaceae), 1.87; goosefoot family (Chenopodiaceae), 0.75; water milfoils (Haloragidaceae), 0.37; and miscellaneous, 4.51. SEDGES (CYPERACEAE), 34.27 PER CENT. Twelve birds had eaten seeds of prairie bulrush (Scirpus paludosus), 3 those of three-square (S. americanus), and the stomachs of 17 con- tained seeds of unidentified bulrushes. Seeds of spike rush (leo- charis sp.) had been taken by 10, seeds OL Carex by 5, and unidentified sedges by 7. PONDWEEDS (NAIADACEAE), 27.12 PER CENT, The pondweeds eaten consisted of seeds of true pondweeds (Potamo- geton spp.), found in 33 stomachs; widgeon grass (Ruppia maritvma), in 16; and horned pondweed (Zannichellia palustris), in 10. One duck had eaten over 400 large seeds of Potamogeton, and another 950 _ seeds of widgeon grass. GRASSES (GRAMINEAE), 7.75 PER CENT. The seeds of Monanthochloé lttoralis were identified from 5 stomachs. Other grass seeds and bits of grass fiber were found in 3. SMARTWEEDS (POLYGONACEAE), 3.22 PER CENT. Seeds of smartweed (Polygonum lapathifolium) had been eaten by 3 of the cinnamon teals, those of lady’s-thumb (P. persicaria) by 1, and unidentified smartweeds by 3. Two birds had taken seeds of dock (Rumez sp.). MALLOW FAMILY (MALVACEAE); GOOSEFOOT FAMILY (CHENOPODIACEAE); AND WATER MILFOIL FAMILY (HALORAGIDACEAE), 2.99 PER CENT. ‘Two stomachs contained unidentified seeds of the mallow family, amounting to 1.87 per cent of the whole. Another contained frag- ments of several hundred seeds of a pigweed (Chenopodium sp.), furnishing 0.75 per cent. Three birds had eaten seeds of bottle brush (Hippuris vulgaris) and 2 those of water milfoil (M/yriophyl- lum sp.), together amounting to 0.37 per cent of the total. MISCELLANEOUS VEGETABLE FOOD, 4.51 PER CENT.” A few seeds each of bur reed (Sparganium sp.), amaranth (Ama- ranthus sp.), yellow water-crowfoot (Ranunculus delphinifolius), bur clover (Medicago denticulata) and other clovers (Medicago sp. and Trifolium sp.), California sumach (Rhus laurina), heliotrope (Helto- troprum indicum), and cleavers (Galium sp.), and traces of musk grass (Chara sp.), made up the remainder of the bird’s vegetable food, 30 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Anmat Foop. The 41 cinnamon teals examined had made of animal matter 20.14 per cent of their food. This consisted of insects, 10.19 per cent; mollusks, 8.69 per cent; and a few small miscellaneous items, 1.26 per cent. INSECTS (INSECTA), 10.19 PER CENT. Over half the insect food of the series of cinnamon teals (5.4 per cent of the whole) consisted of beetles (Coleoptera). Disregarding several unidentified fragments, only four families were represented, the predacious diving beetles (Dytiscidae), water scavenger beetles (Hydrophilidae), leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae), and snout beetles (Curculionidae). The bugs (Heteroptera) amounted to 2.97 per cent, and Petites entirely of water boatmen (Corixidae). These are small brown or gray mottled bugs, with oarlike legs well fitted for swimming; they frequent the lakes, ponds, and streams throughout the greater part of North America, and are commonty eaten by many species of water birds. As they are very good swimmers, it must require quick work on the part of the ducks to catch them. They were found in 11 of the 41 stomachs. . » Remains of dragonflies (Anisoptera) were found in two gizzards, and a nymph of a dragonfly or a damselfly in another. The dragon- flies and damselflies (Zygoptera) together constitute the superorder Odonata, which furnished 0.92 per cent of thefood of the cinnamon teal. The flies (Diptera) taken were mostly larvae, and amounted to 0.62 per cent. Flies of at least four families—the midges (Chirono- midae), soldierflies (Stratiomyidae), flower flies (Syrphidae), and brine flies (Ephydridae)—were included. ee sen cee r| 20 eee eee eee 1 Avena sativa (cultivated oats)........-....--.-.|-- Be ee ere (ssce sci ic cnae 1 Hordeum vulgare (cultivated barley).........-. 1 i EE eee he oe ot eo t6 3 FX OF CEU DUB Soa neta g ie nein’ Sole Gawler > oeeins 2 1 |e ac. eccllacesee el beoe see eee Triticum vulgare (cultivated wheat)............]-.----.|------- J] |e fenassol temas 3 Zea mays (cultivated corn)............-----.-- ihe] oe cere 1 ally eae 3 Wood duck. 413 FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. 51 Taste I.—Items of vegetable food identified in the stomachs of the ducks treated in this bulletin and the number of stomachs in which found—Continued. Green- | Blue- | Cinna-| yp; Kind of food. Wall, | pate. | Winged) winged) mon | #1" | Quoc Total number of stomachs examined.........--.-- 417 255 653 319 41 790 413 SuBKINGDOM SPERMATOPHYTA—Continued. Cyperacez. : WinidentitiedsedpeSseo— eee -r-e--e-- 43 20 50 27 7 47 5 CiypTUSs COUTTS (@UwD)) osscc2-seedaneaseeolesosecl|emeosac|ocedeosdlesesacos||ecncced|ecosaac 1 Gypenusspe (Chuia) jose ete == == - 12 31 5 48 45, (ose 29 45 IDG OMG Osa cae bie CUO r eee lato ane aT Oeeee Ene ae eases BD e222 Rs ae Dulichium arundinaceum (three-ways sedge) .-.|..-----|-------|-------- Oe ee Faroe ees | teen Eleocharis Sp. (Spike rush).....-.-.------------ 13 19 45 33 10 45 2 TAG ARGUES SOshs ses cb oc eekoee pba saeeoeuseponee 5 4 90 AQ |ecsocec 61 8 Scirpus paucifiorus (few-flowered bulrush).....|.......}---..--|--------|--------|------- 670) | ee ret Se Scirpus americanus (three-Square) .--.--------- 150 37 121 10 3 15 5n | eee Scirpus paludosus (prairie bulrush)..---..-..--- 27 12 46 7 12 ANN Se Scirpus robustus (Salt-marsh bulrush) . ......-- PYM oer ea 40 Qian seuey 245 | heecee Scirpus fluviatilis (river bulrush).-.-...-.-.-.-.- 2 5 5 IB |scccasd 3 4 SEU IISICCIDEMS7 Si (OULGUSH) seme se tee eae ee Diceeeee nH Goes eael eee 8 47 Senpus validus (great bulrush))..222-.-.------<||-2.---2}------- 38 | Se pal eee es Scirpus Sp. (unidentified bulrushes)....-..-..-.- 47 24 205 184 17 154 16 POORER SLONNOSE (LIN OVERS) > 356 qansora| oe sscse||2eseeed essence |socsses-llaoeseac 1h hates caesar TROT ORE SDs CM KES) see se oe coe been |pesaGee| |boosese Soaseccd ae see seq |senscae il | Peeves Rhynchospora corniculata (beaked rush).....--..|---.---|------- Te Rea scalissceeee 7 15 Rhynchospora sp. (beaked rush)..--..-.-.-----|-------]------- 4 P| reece 8 2 Cladium effusum (Saw grass)....--------+------ 68 5 83 AGU eseeaee 103 15 Cladium mariscoides (twig-rush).....-.--------|--.---- 1 8 Of see ae nL eee SS CLERCONS ON (UGS) erase errote S(elseier lei minis salle nese (sm cteeiae lance aeoal cise eee eeieciecrs 6 3 Carex decomposita (panicled sedge).------------ ill ees 10 PN enone 2 21 CCE TEGO OO ORDO) sobs se Se aesnae eed besooda |tcooeod beneccosocesood pas sseadleucsooe 8 (CUiGHRD. (ECG) BecascdtSssoocse oeEre eee oneeee 8 12 62 57 5 19 33 Araceae. POTRE CRETE. CHORD) oc poccnescooedlecseeae|canados||oeuoscoulesodcone||$-s4eecinsacese 5 SOUT OS OG Glabrae) 92Y42)) 5 edo sed losoeaed||eaaseuc leseasonelesconecel|saoeeedicoseoe- 1 Lemnaceae. Samodan jalnniee (ONS CHO SCE sc concece tes coccecdloosoced | secboeedlececckoelleuecceulosbesac 99 enLonpenpUsiLa (minute dtckweed))=-s2 22552 \=ssene. |= saees4| a= sees eestor || eee a-|eeeee- 1 LG TNG Goon (Chie CONTEC) 6 suscaconaedeSe||seseso4|los cecudloac seus |scucseecllocoseadiceasoce 1 Lemna sp. (unidentified duckweeds)........-.- 17 3 44 LAE eee 15 185 Eriocaulaceae. BACLT SAT UARE (OY OND) -eoccn sab eosed Sesoced lpoaceod|eanecbcd|acooasucliosseodalascecoc 1 Briocaulon sp. (pipewort).-..-..--..--.-.------|--.---- I eeeieers onceee eeaaree aes Seer Pontederiaceae. Pontederia cordata (pickerel weed). ..-.--.----- (ieee 2 iL Sap a em ae. as re 8 9 Heteranthera dubia (water star-grass)....-...-.-|--..-..|--..---|.------- | eres |More ace 2 AROMAT SOGa6! HEMET) jens Aebessaetee|eossso4|secesaeladeoseselasccos-sleesoces 1 1 Juncaceae. ORUTTELISIS TG (DOL EUSIN) ate wes os sate le aoinieie = aici 4 oe eer eepee ee os |e ata oe | ee Cae 2 eo Ore Liliaceae. Polygonatum biflorum (hairy Solomon’s-seal)...|.......|....-..|.--.--..].-------|.-.----]--.---- 1 PSITLULIAAS Ded (SUCOMDTIAT) hres se see cle p cic re ats cere | ee ase | eee eine meee | ees at ete era Iie ae Bee = 2 - Haemodoraceae. GUTOCILECORELTLCLOT20N (EE G=U OO ty pa ae ere tate ys oer ror te rel See eco | eee eee ee isle ll ese ee wcll tie 3 Piperaceae. SCOMMPUS CAGES Ut An Glee iil Db -cogoresocooeced lee oesoe esesed joer teaed |codeseed leecoced Gasecas 15 52 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe I.—Items of vegetable food identified in the stomachs of the ducks treated in this bulletin and the number of stemachs in which found—Continued. Gad- Kind of food. STI Total number of stomachs examined ............. SUBEKINGDOM SPERMATOPHYTA—Continued. Salicaceae. Saliz sp. (willow), galls Saliz sp. (willow), capsules...-.----.-...--.-... Myricaceae. Myrica cerifera (wax myrtle).........-.--------|.-.--2- Myrica californica (California myrtle) Myrica sp. (unidentified myrtles) Juglandaceae. Hicoria aquatica (bitter pecan) Betulaceae. Carpinus caroliniana (hornbeam; blue beech). - Betula sp. (birch) Alnus sp. (alder) Fagaceae. Fagus grandifolia (American beech) Quercus rubra (red oak) Quercus palustris (pin oak) Quercus nigra (water oak) Quercus marylandica (black-jack oak) Quercus lobata (valley oak). ...--. Sure e Sesteeee Quercus sp. (unidentified acorns) Urticaceae. Ulmus sp. (elm) Planera aquatica (water elm) Celtis sp. (hackberry) Morus rubra (red mulberty).,...--------------- Boehmeria cylindrica (false nettle) Boehmeria sp. (false nettle) Polygonaceae. Rumer persicarioides (golden dock) BAIEL SY. AOCK semana ee ee eee Polygonum amphibium (water Smartweed) Polygonum arifolium (prickly smartweed) Polygonum aviculare (knotweed). Polygonum convolvulus (black bindweed) Polygonum hydropiper (water pepper) Polygonum hydroptperoides (mild water pepper) Polygonum lapathifolium (dock-leaved smart- weed)...-.. meee see eee sas = aes cwaleae Polygonum opelousanum (smartweed) Polygonum pennsylvanicum (Pennsylvania eS Oe ee es ee ee eee eee eee ewes ween ences Polygonum persicaria (lady’s-thumb) Polygonum portoricense (dense-flowered smart- Polygonum punctatum (dotted smartweed) Polygonum sagittatum (arrow-leaved smart- Green- winged teal. Blue- | Cinna- winged} mon teal. | teal. Bald- pate. Pin- tail. 11 16 W ood duck. 413 cor hw Ww Oe & seercee FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. 53» TasBLe I.—Items of vegetable food identified in the stomachs of the ducks treated in this _ bulletin and the number of stomachs in which found—Continued. Kind of food. Total number of stomachs examined SuBpkINGcDoM SPERMATOPHYTA—Continued. Chenopodiaceae: Chenopodium album (lamb’s-quarters) ......--- Chenopodium sp. (pigweed) AiruplerSpy, (Saltbush)=-o-<---s25-22<24--6-5-<- Salicornia ambigua (glasswort; picklegrass) Amaranthaceae. : Amaranthus retrofierus (green amaranth) Amaranthus sp. (pigweed) Caryophyllaceae. Spergula arvensis (corm spurrey ) PAU ENOTES se wiot selcaieie(e sion clan /aie ee claps’ = =e Wnt dentitiedcsss seein eee select =m escio inser Portulacaceae. Portulaca oleracea (common purslane) Portulaca sp. (purslane) Ceratophyllaceae. Ceratophyllum demersum (coontail; hornwort)- . Nymphaeaceae. Unidentified Nymphaea advena (cowlily; spatter-dock). ..-.-- Nymphaea microphylla (small yellow pondlily ) Nymphaea mexicana (banana waterlily) Nymphaea sp. (yellow pondlily).....-.--.---.. Beco Gad- wall. Bald- pate. 417 255 Castalia odorata (sweet-scented waterlily) Castalia tuberosa (white waterlily ) Castalia sp. (waterlily) Casialia'sp:,tuberss---as2 222-2222 e-e ene: Brasenia schreberi (water Shield)..........-...- Cabomba caroliniana (Carolina water shield)... Ranunculaceae. Ranunculus sp. (erowfoot) Papaveraceae Cruciferae. (Wim dentitied etme: c- sas aact- seesces Ace ses Brassica'sp. (mustard).........--.-----------+- Barbarea sp. (winter cress) Hamamelidaceae. Liquidambar styraciflua (Sweet gum) Rosaceae. Winidentified stance asioeate tasters tease vesisine ci Crataegus sp. (hawthorn) Fragaria sp. (strawberry) Rubus sp. (bramble) Rosa sp. (rose) Leguminosae. Cassia marylandica (American senna) _ Cassia sp. (unidentified senna)..........-..--.- _ Trifolium arvense (rabbit’s-foot clover)......--- Trifolium Sp. (ClOVEL)...00ccescesceececceeese Green-| Blue- | Cinna-| ;: ‘ - |W winged | winged} mon fae ios teal. teal. | teal. ° : 653 319 41 790 4i3 Bn [SSRIS ee eee cl ie ese tele (el riers Beane 1 1 Dulas s es Ds Nee Sea tel ievys r el eee. iD Reeepeee asneocd ER ecco Fe eee rel lero ae) Poe joes She a 20 & 1. Sul eeeeere PAN ee et aenee nen DD Nea ae 1a Seer el emma (ares cial teases efesael=\- 5 Dice sete |e Bae ee Sees We Sel eae eel ations Rol oe oh | Sooeeeellonaedae all a eisaisee 20 Yialeoe se 25 186 Ss Sete retes | (eer <8 Ercitoee PA eae Seen Sat Vere ik oe a Ia aA ee 4 oe ARS ep iter nll econ BGO Ne 5 EE ESAS pe eons ea ea Ey Ge seeee DE hey eel rey ee 6 3 Lf NGM Peele es 2 Re Sheed SS 1 3 = atetas SIL Mea een, \yalliatemmestay tea ld Bi Brie, 4 10 Ni ees 9 |- 3 20 IB} (S8 Saees 34 11 Ae EH (rere Wey cel fee oars Se [pee ienn Se 2 2 1 h (een | | et ee 8 (ilesseace 17 13 SEN TS eae ae rach oc a ae ahs eee ee oe eee 1 eaeoere Des nee fhe Ale Pere Well Suewel iat 1 ges pie eager EN eS a gona Tal \eccietaeaae 5 SEE eral ee ere Niieeeoaede 2 ANG teen re 12 6 mic eta Vet a ee ae 0 Reser 15 USS eres ous 43 4 See eee PRAT eames Tha | Become a large ere | pee se Eph Ll om Lieto SAE ecee SAS eb Seer |aeeaece Yio es pie OD ed SF pc ay Fea i es be se Le es oar 6 3 1 Wise cies 54 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE I.—Items of vegetable food identified in the stomachs of the ducks treated in this bulletin and the number of stomachs in which found—Continued. Green- | Blue- | Cinna-| »: Gad- | Bald- | _* : Pin- | Wood ; winged | winged| mon * wall. | pate. teal tegltn | teal tail. | duck. Kind of food. Total number of stomachs examined. ........ BEE 417 255 653 319 41 790 413 SuBKINGDOM SPERMATOPHYTA—Continued. Leguminosae—Continued. Melilotus sp. (Sweet clover)..........-.----- Seas erecta 21 Poe Sh | eee ee esi |e eat Medicago denticulata (bur clover)........-.-----]------- ; 1 slilesoeetes DB RTAE Ales Se te Medicago sp.-.=.----------- Jie en nscale Jae ee| p= See ee eee | eile rae ee 1 Reels eee Vicia Sp. (vetch) 2) 205-20 coe 3 on owe sas oan in| = see | Seer | eee | Pees | eee I Speer n= Vigna sinensts (COW Pe) sas. -d-2 5-52 one eee ee | eee eee he S| Sees Phere ce Unidentified sco. .2 cesses yess seco eee See eeee Eeeeoee De ease |e [c, oe ee a Geraniaceae. Geranium’ sp: (cranespill) ee. 222 o-oo anaes eee eee Ds Sz ee ol eee ae ee Ree ge len 2 HrotunySp- | (StOrkSpill) Sec eee 2-4 ea eee A seers we eS A ae ee jake 1 eee Euphorbiaceae. ~ CTOLON TE ELENSIS naa 52h soo ee See alk setts. 2 | eeees eee LU are Lali. OTS Croton Sp (SDULLC) pease see ae eee eee eee eee 1 il eats aot BoE 2 16 ERUPT DU BD yes. 2 eee eee oe eee eee Bes Peeeee rn pee eee Ab eel Sascees aoeee 1 Empetraceae. ; Em petrum nigrum (Crowberry))-2 -2-----+--6= s5\-seee= = |e ee i (erence es) Pacers carey 5 oe Anacardiaceae. Rhus glabra (smooth sumach)_.- 20. 222. cac-c ose aaa ee aoe see eel peer ees Hee eee eee eee 1 Rhus toricodendron (poison ivy)..-.--...--.---- A sees perce Pra raae Teo! kee otc 2 1 Rhus icuring(Caliiorma sumach) ss. -= so2eeee es ose eee | Seca ee eee eee TRS eae eee RRS: Rhus sp. (unidentified sumachs).............-- 25 1 1 :\| 4p eas 1 24 Aquifoliaceae. let sp.(nolly) 2.5 see tee pene eee eee eee 5 1 1 Sridevi haw fi 41 Rhamnaceae. Berchemia scandens (supple jack).......-------|- ee BaeesseseseecclGaac + Sepa el psy age RN 13 Rhamnus cathartica (buckthorn). = - J.22s25-2 02 |b2 555) eee alee |e | Sree eee 1 Vitaceae. Vitis cordifolia. (frostgrape) . 22=-.22s202 5-2-2222 4|5ecee eo lesse cee ene ae eee Cee eens Ree eae eee 3 Vatis:sp: (@rapes) a> 22 ee eee Ses eee ee Jules 22 CIA em ee 11 138 Malvaceae. Unidentified. -.2 2% 00-6 vb c ek cocetsie b= msee| Sab eee | See oe Eee eee 2 Sales: Abitiion abutiion (Indianmallow) 22. -=-a-ecaes|s-ee= 42sec eee Eee eee S| eee ees Sida spinosa (nailiprass) nese ets se eee ale ere Cees 1 21)| See SR a neel || SeR 3 ht Sida sp. (nail grass)........-..--- Peer as aa tee heen [ea mle OW | ee ee ke Shitemrea ache Malvasp. (mallow): - - 222 2s eae eee SUBKINGDOM COELENTERATA. Hydrozoa (hydroids) Alcyonaria SUBKINGDOM MOLLUSCOIDA. Phylactolaemata (fresh-water Bryozoa) Meiserarnaise wars SuBKINGDOM ANNULATA. Nereidae. Nereis Sp. (marine worms) SuBKINGDOM ARTHROPODA. CLAss Crustacea (CRUSTACEANS). Unidentified. . Gad- | Bald- wall. | pate. 417 255 2 2 ! if ratse cee! 1 2 Green- | Blue- | Cinna-| p; winged | winged} mon cae Wicod teal. teal. | teal. q ? 653 319 41 790 413 A eee oseese esos ane fee es Oi eas Senee An aS) P24. a Cer eer aA she 1 el fe a 2h |-acio ence | SA Eee 1 2 be eee Pinein sos ‘iy | aagiseae ut GN a ed AP. FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. 57 Taste I1.—Items of animal food identified in the stomachs of the ducks treated in this bulletin and number of stomachs in which found.—Continued. Kind of food. Gad- wall. Bald- pate. Green- winged teal. Blue- winged teal. Cinna- mon teal. Pin- | Wood tail. | duck. Total number of stomachs examined..,.......... CLAss Crustacea—Continued. Order OSTRACODA. Unidentified ostracods (bivalved crustaceans)... .. Cytheridae. CUGHER SDs sae eae es ee sive siagineksaes Cyprididae. : Candona sigmoides-.....-...-- ERE RE eRe aa CUTIE SOM ISOM aocondaedsueeoeosesacoure Sepa Order AMPHIPODA. Wri dembitiedare tee eee eon ce see snip nse cee ea oat Corophiidae. Conophiunnicylindncwin== 22 -2--45-2+224-55--2- Conomhiimispecosseta saat sss cele = Gammaridae. Pseudalibrocus Wttoraus.. 2-22... 2-42-22 2.- =: Gammarus fasciatus (Sand fleas).....--....----- DAG TILTLOMUSILOCUSLOseeeeneene ee eee ante: Gammarus Sp..........--.-.-------- BS poeta. Orchestiidae. FEM LEU ORO CCU Nam 2 No eee 2/5 nes em 8 FEY CHCULORKMECKEnOOCK Gita nes a2 see oe eee e Hyalella dentata........-- se hae cae een bana Mat ead Podoceridae. Amphithoé longimana.....-. ee has Meera ote ey Order COPEPODA. Unidentified copepods (water fleas).....-......---. Order ISOPODA. (Winidenmtiticdis sa) 1. fesse - et eee ececeenlace 22 Oniscidae. Unidentified sowbugs.......-. fess Ta EL Le Asellidae. ARS ELUWSESD ea ASC) hee Hane aortas sseeese as ae Mancasellus brachyurus (asel)....-.--..-------- Order DECAPODA. Suborder MACRURA. Crangonidae. i Winidentitied shrimp sass see eee eee eee Crangonys gracilis (Shrimp) Astacidae. Unidentified crawfishes..:....-.......-.--.-.-. CUMBaTUS PTOPUNGUUSs. 34922 eee eee COA DOMUSIS Ts mee eae eaten eee na noe Jace ae Suborder BRACHYURA. Unidentified crabs 417 255 653 Pilumnidae. Herapanopeus angustifrons...............------ Neopanope texana (Say crab)..........-.------- 319 41 790 | 413 _Unidentified insect fragments, eggs, larvae, and 58 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste II.—Items of animal food identified in the stomachs of the ducks treated in this bulletin and number of stomachs in which found—Continued. é Oe Gad- | Bald- Kind of food. wall. pate. Total number of stomachs examined . ..........-- 417 255 CLASS Insecta (INSECTS). PUPAE Lh e-em ees 2 See tee eco eae eae eee 9 13 Unidentifiediinsectigalls =: eater oe ease en ee eee eee Order THYSANURA. _ Unidentified 2520s) 2. Seaeeen gee hee Jae eee | eee | See Superorder AMPHIBIOTICA. . Unidentified damselflies or dragonfliesand intone 1 1 Order ZY GOPTERA (Damselflies). Unidentified damselfliesandnymphs..-.-.......... Dil Fe ee Agrionidae. Nehalenmnia spss aa Fee a ee oe een eee NLL A GTUO:S Pp oor SoS Se ae eee | ere | eee 23 Order ANISOPTERA (Dragonflies). Unidentified dragonfliesand nymphs..-..........-- Pa seat oe iAeschnid ae} my m phs ss Sae eee en a cee eee Libellulidae. Unidentified nymphs.......-.-..-. Baler a) See See el aes cok SomatochloriSpisi2202 3. seen ease ne seen oes| eee eee | eee SYMPETUNUSP wars a5 =i: acho s Aes oe Sees ee | eee eee Cordulia Sp sche f23i20 a Ss es ae a eee ee ae eee Order AGNATHA (Maryflies). Unidentified Mayfly nymphs..........-.......--.- A ener Order PLECOPTERA (Stoneflies). Wnidentified'stonefly larvaceer esse ee eee eee oe ones eee Order ISOPTERA (Termites). Claotermies Castaneus (LOrImibe) yee ses ee ee eee: |e eee eee Order ORTHOPTERA (Grasshoppers, etc.). Unidentified grasshoppers and their eggs.......-.]...----|------- Acridiidae. Onidentifieds. 2 252. She cin. es + Sow ea oe be eeeetse 1 MelanoplUsisp sai sec es seek eect ac ste aos | sees Pees Tettiginae (grouse locusts). Wnidentified. 3.0.2. 25822 Sue we oc cinco el eee epee mee RETAPEM SY a ne te ee ei ae oie oer eee | face Ooh el emcee Locustidae (green grasshoppers). WIMIGGHTIB ed pees teers nee aia cle mi «Sit re aie me ie al ere ett are OF CEMA IUSD vecte sata wrae soto ase o> = ioe isie) alot © atone | Sin teeters | tate Gryllidae (crickets). NETIOULUS BV sore oat 2 cin time aie lateinlse dieiniorae alone etee ts ehaeta rate 2 Green- | Blue- | Cinna- f ‘i Pin- | Wood Winged | winged; mon x teal. | teal. | teal. | tail. | duck 653 319 41 790 413 Vile cea ee ie See See 2 52 14 1 23 24 woe rarattts avs 2) Ses PS e eee 5 22 SRS Go REE es See nn Dorepeegtenes| 2 =e 73 sata 3 1 5 32 Dell > Un 08| Mae 2 1 UD AES Sg NO ecco RS PS Pa ee oe ae Drills Sacre iia reer Pope iy? 22 2 21 41 Dyes iees ER e aege 3 1 VIR Baa eal keg cB at 2 Kees Je |e Seer eee 1) Eee eee US) Fle ee A Pas ee 2a a Rll gs ae ee 7) ss ie See Us Se] ee ose ee 1 2 By ieetererwe ed ery oe (apo, Jato tualens C2 ee clears lees 1 4 Lultastiose: 5 2 a5 053 2 30| Sn see eee SE cere =< wba wea oe] co I ee eee 1 wee ceases es Seem es eee / aa celcwe sleckaeeee Dee eee 1 o belo ad) ote ails at eter Sere 2 Sao hee | os cre eae eee Sereeneneres il 1 FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. 59 Tasie II.~Items of animal food identified in the stomachs of the ducks treated in this bulletin and number of stomachs in which found—Continued. Gad- | Bala-| Gteen,| Bue- | Cinna) pin | wood Kind of food. wall. | pate, wiiged waged tool, | tail. | duck. Total number of stomachs examined...-......----- 417 255 653 319 41 790 413 CLAss Insecta—Continued. Order MALLOPHAGA (Bird Lice). (Wri emitted eagaens Se hee incl at aS eA. cee cia, 5 sa) eueoealeon STE i ee SEI SDI lou RU | Order HETEROPTERA (True Bugs). Betndcatihed purses epee loess ss lee alist a 6 Dieser 3 15 Corixidae (water boatmen). Winidentified|speciest=as: pees seas oe eee eas: 25 Quiles aes ashes ol BU Nemes 33 15 COU S Usd scene Se eee teste Soo on os tao Aeseeees haaeec|seaesae 32 43 aD aS Sell Speer Belostomatidae (giant water bugs). BECLOSTONLOIS Dy ety ee es Saas Bee tse hs 5 5 epee sall em neta ae Ws 2 ibs | erases 1 37 Nepidae (water scorpions). SE GTIIC (LET ONES Omen en Se ap ee cio Ye | ee oP AEE osae [Saneaaae sae nee leone (aera 2 Naucoridae (creeping water bugs). Pelocoris femoratus...-...-.-----+--++2--2---- A Ep aoaalasasced erscece 7 clever Deere ae I? QUITS SUS ase usa seers abe cee e eee Guete Seal eee seed 13) Eee mee 7 43 Notonectidae (back-swimmers). SOL ONUECLORS Denar Pee te tise ye eos en Be Set a a|INee cian DN oo Bellen Fat [Sleeves eu ence BUCTODSD secbanse oe ee See ee ee |e seaeee Meise eigen a eae ae 1 MEA LCORSULLO Lee ee see eee ai aa Sates Paw rots Says Mesa nal Seis ie 4 LST yee Eee oe ee 17 Saldidae (Shorebugs). SGUNG 30 .ce secede cuae aoa R eB eoO eee Eee Pat een ee URE me ee ba eh a eee oem te te ak A Se om Veliidae (broad-shouldered water striders). LV GCP OO LED S50) obs Gets SIS 5 Se AOE Soe ee) (eae ea Op | Fadel ope eee ol bh 7 VOR CUISIOMISS SoS eoc Esso ne bop pease ceed e eee ee ae | ee ape Pate SNE ok ee 2 eg ee 4 Gerridae (water striders). GOMRISUNLONGLIL GL Deane eer Ate tee: ee ee artes) Jeu bone osina||sv) oh AH dG Ale ar eel een es eee Late 1 CGITIS Boisas sec as oe cen eC eae e ee ES AGE eee ZN [iscsi 4 Dales res |S eens 29 Hydrometridae. PET ONIL CLT CAS) eeete sees ay Pert Ja | E | Se | osoeee | hee eee sees ay oeeeeros 4 Miridae. i Unidentified................ BoB sees oa Sake a ees seeacee IVA acere 33\| etal ae ewes celeritete Jeb. ve Lygus pratensis......... es Snes Dorareieiar | 1.) >| ere ere ne ive ghd [tidy Sig qa ll ee Agree oll eta Me ell ne ae 1 Mesoveliidae. | Mesovelia mulsanti OCS Ae Sone ets ERIS, tae eemeoam| Cae ek ied Ibe RR eo ee DRS cays ors] a a aa 6 Hebridae. LE IGE OS Dac ck COG SOSA TOE et ES fe | || Ga | | o |e ieee (Few areca 1 INGGlTh MIG BS (ESREREIIN DURE) arene et esGnrerdaseaeen lasoaest loseae is Gene ane seme | Sseapeal etoree 2 Coreidae. DOnMIstUsiSDss+.22.6-2 42222222254 SHR SECT |e span pnts al rs be ee ICP | ep ea Raat il Pentatomidae (Stink bugs). f Wiidentiliedes meses me seas sie es Se ek sare I (ses el VS Se aoe free ae el | ie ee El ec a 7 MVTENUCCLESHUNICET UU Smesee ces ee Be een aes oe MEE oes | Se rae eases Te heveomesnencat | Romer (ae bee ee LOSECSILS COTATI HOS OSS wie ROR oc CO EOE RAS IIOR| | SSS SEE EAE Seca ae te aie al rece 1 PEUSCIVISELLSIS Dieta) renters tae = et ere) oor ae cle Leet | oe pate ae ae ahr ia lee SelM a 22) | Corimelaenidae. CORITPELOCTIOUNILIALULOLG Conte ner Steere eee ae ere oe ee SU Se a See Se erat 60 BULLETIN 862, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie Il.—Items of animal food identified in the stomachs of the ducks treated in this bulletin and number of stomachs in which found—Continued. Kind of food. Total number of stomachs examined.............-- CLass Insecta—Continued. Order HOMOPTERA. Cicadellidae. Draeculacephala mollipes.........-------------- Fulgoridae. — Unidentified: 2-3-3520 oe fee eee eee Scolops sp Dicranotropis Sp\s7 <2 2s hoes neat eae oe Jassidae (leafhappers) = #2 2-25... seen 2b es ae ein Aphididae (plant lice). Rhopalosiphum nymphacae Order MEGALOPTERA (Fishflies). Unidentified larvae Order NEUROPTERA. Gnidentified.—- sh. seaees J sse2Ss 208 ze ster= Sialidac)|(dobson;iele:) £3.25 eee oe eee Order PHYRYGANOIDEA (Caddisflies). Unidentified larvae and cases Phryganeidae. Phryganea tm proves eee eee Limnephilidae. DLENOPNYLODSP ose one pose ae on see aes Sericostomatidae. Brachicentrus tncanus._-. 22 22-22-2.2--26-2--- Hydropsychidae. Hydropsyche sp Order LEPIDOPTERA (Butterflies and Moths). Hemileucidae. Hemileiicn mitt... - 222 es~ 22 sew eee Arctidae Wochntidae S25 a a2 eee ae ence eee acne eee Geometridal, pupa. 2-2 =n ase ee en se eee Pyralidae Tineidae, cocoon Vunidentified nmioths —: 2-2 2057 ee es oe Unidentified pilpad. 22.25) ent ee eee Unidentified caterpillars.<.2.-.2.. #2... 22 2-2... Order COLEOPTERA (Beetles). Unidentified fragments and larvae........-.------- Cicindelidae (tiger beetles) Carabidae (ground beetles). Unidentified COPS TINUE 55 Fo 5-2 Ao oes Pee ae eee SCOTIER CUDSITUUNS os oe ne cee oe ae aoe Scarites sp | wall. | pate. Green-| Blue- | Cinna- winged | winged} mon teal. teal. teal. Gad- | Bald- Wood duck. Pin- tail. 319 417 255 653 41 790 413 es ee ies re ee re ar FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS. bulletin and number of stomachs in which found—Continued. - Kind of food. Total number of stomachs examined......-...-.... CLAss Insecta—Continued. Order COLEOPTERA—Continued. ’ Carabidae (ground beetles)—Continued. A spidoglossa subangulata Bembidium intermedium Bembidium insulatum Bembidium sp MEO UOT MLUSHOCLOD teks etree eteto tolaaln aie) alerel=r io) ='= inl =lor Platynus sp Chlaenius sp Anomoglossus pusillus Har palus caliginosus Selenophorus sp Stenolophus conjunctus Anisodactylus dulcicollis A nisodactylus rusticus...-- spe eee see Avene Haliplidae (crawling water beetles). Unidentified Haliplus triopsis Haliplus unicolor Haliplus sp. - Cnemidotus edentulus Cnedmidotus pedunculatus ‘Cnemidotus sp Peltodytes simolex Peltodytes callosus Peltodytes sp Dytiscidae (predacious diving beetles). Unidentified adults and larvae Colpius inflatus.......-------.----------------- Canthydrus bicolor Canthydrus puncticollis HEC OCUALEIVILS UN ICOLOT sere a saa 22 = ee Hydrovatus compressus Hydrovatus sp Bidessus affinis SE PUESSTUSIOOSCILTCLUUS mara tals rat fetal os etae Bidessus flavicollis Bidessus sp Coelambus acaroides Coelambus inaequalis Coelambus punctatus Coelambus turbidus Coelambus sp Eiydroporus sp Coptotomus interrogatus I 61 Tasie II.—Items of animal food identified in the stomachs of the ducks treated in this Green- Gad- | Bald-|_—. winged wall. | pate. teal. 417 255 653 Ib Sees eel [acme A Bee sere se ee | es Eos eres | eee na | ener 1 i eihics, Bae BA a eal Pal (ee ee li Eat IDel| Sake eaee Oa ree ces oe Oe eee ae, 3 ils PPA RNe ce el Less i Sl bees oe EL | Spee ane oe lat ae 1 i I oh ee a ae ese ce uh 3 2 1a) rnseseeaute 1 hesetcy elle cae a Speen 1). eisiates Sette | Reese tes See iin AES eee] ee ee leg A. \iteemeee In| Parc es a Abi |e aes HLS | eA 1a Pee ges A 3 Jae ee EE eee ih as ea 0 Ces aPate Ne eeesieea ene AG ae drain eee 2 bee Re ea 2 PA | 3 aaa FOOD HABITS OF SHOAL-WATER DUCKS, 67 Tas_eE II.—Items of animal food identified in the stomachs of the ducks treated in this | bulletin and number of stomachs in which found—Continued. Green-| Blue- |Cinna-| p. Kind of 00d. wall, | pate. |Wzuged | winged | mon | {air | Grete Total number of stomachs examined.........-..--- 417 255 653 319 41 790 413 CLAss Gastropoda—Continued. Columbellidae. _ AREDNS CST Wooon ran socgnedosscossecqevessesees|200sc0s)sc00c04)|ac0dbo0q/ec0=¢0dd)|>c0se0- bulisaceece AVTURD IGS QUESTO Sa Sa D ROR BEB OCH TBE Hen be Doe Soe Senc | Soa een Geseese Eeeebecds cosccos Zi eee ea ALSHIIS UU 8 Coke BORO TEE OC OO EG COCR EES becicls ta) ARCs Creer ee aeeen sel eats ree ahd Bees Turbonillidae. TUCO S Dak Ses doa Gane apap eae soe ne Deere eae esac 5 de |Secese4 SSensaas Peeneeee Bese ae I eesedoe Pyramidellidae. OC OSLOMUSATOIS ULL IS race ete aires Se eclo em oles eG eee aa Ree SO Se cree Sies|ideckine s aleicctejee Tae meee OUOSLOMULUISD Rea torre ieee ene eee oe Sao as |e eee PRE ec elm te el icmecdices aiscectee OY ies edie Auriculidae. Melampus boreaus.....2.-.-.------5--0--+--+-- lis oSacn6e SAaSsessa lerodcaae BEeenee no aeacsadocor Olividae. ORCCILONIVUL CCE TS eesais thas one hice oh cto nich cise ee Gece eee ltl Sp aades cy Cneeeeee pean eco edas|lascoded Littorinidae. MELLON UORRU C2 Stem eer ne cic leeie Sean en ees 55 Ae EE ees ieee celeste eis a [eee sess IA aoe ee MRULOTINOMTON ALO s Acme ee cisinecene siecece sce oe te 1 See SS He Gates os ces ces ereemenee beret al eer Cerithiidae. PESILEGUTUMILUG MUL TIN eed = pete s)he eee ne masierts oi | gene (ue ee ieee eu vee SONNE Le 2 baa ene JBOSS OUPUHIIE EOE Bae BOSE Ae Oe ot Soe loan e So ea Sa Sees eee (ne Sete epee be eae ee JE OHULNTO SO oc co COS Se EBB C Era ere See Een eld ase Al aaere ara Meee | riers ae | eee Sule BUD UO SU OI TELCERO CTL ye NN pst ie Sd a eA oN | epee sa Span Ws sal Ne aR Lis ee (CBT VOTES O34. o ote De SB ATES ECE oie Soe een ORCS Tas acieieiadel Sea Seal Pencil se | ear 4: |i tenons Cerithidea tenuis..........--------- PUGS Sree aE SIS SE EROA SP CTS 3 ete Ae Saleen ee Rissoidae. Eydrobiaealifornicg. 124.222... 2---22 5-822 |e PUA Serer Ns 3 Se a jl. oie Rarer PE UIUCLLORLE TON eee ee ee eee 2) |aonanod|iaesccose|loboacsslloongopallaccesoc|soccc=< BES UEIUCILCLUGRS TO eer eae eye eh ee ese | eS ea ae eae em anes OR Pee lee ais 2, «| aut se 1 PEITUTUUN VCOLONILULEL HULLONUC sete rie ote a Sete eee | Pe eee ee oem cal teat oeel be aoees Alea s oc PPUNGULOPSIS|SPINOSUS. 842s mee sence sence Ug apa ae | Sa STC ae | it Assimineidae. j Assiminea affinis...... Sih Tot ic 00 for Me te | ERICA A DM ang Di sees Valvatidae. VZCUU CEE OAULT C1 Sere arene nome MMT SRO) is Ma EES enrages yee al Ry A mada EIS OU ATERATE toylag UI Ae SS Dd et Fel an VduOcareniCOniNatamn rnin ne tle ve alent oe ee Tal saree Ie eee nee seal l@acaerc Neritidae. NIVGRCLUIVONRECI2UAG Mean he teh etn hyn pce as the Aero Se il 1 Di es arts | epee age Li eee NUD OYTGR SS a sGeasencsosene soaeeecaasaee Pipa Nees Ses Sie erp eal aiiye atic 40 }_.....- INGHUUD. BIN > cas Sota Ole sae soe ee SON Uae eee SL Ras eh cer a See | See Sra es (fel acer SUBKINGDOM CHORDATA (VERTEBRATES). .~ CLAss Pisces (FISHES). Unidentified, teeth, scales, etc....................- 12 2 3 Syl sees 15 5 Poeciliidae. TEP RY EIEUIUS 159 Oe deste ws Re ay punk > en RS rpm eg VR Bary vt ) Kester leper CLass Amphibia (FROGS, TOADS, AND SALA- MANDERS). Ranidae (frogs). COIN Key aN BANE LSS ace eye ee Ses SE cS Nes Pn) Meet oes eer ed [ee etapa Age oe 2 JRO BD ooo oben ar ener | etped RS) ic i IN be aa ee (ee i] | Eee at PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO THE FOOD HABITS OF WILD BIRDS. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. The English Sparrow asa Pest. (Farmers’ Bulletin 493.) Some Common Game, Aquatic, and Rapacious Birds in Relation to Man. Farmers’ Bulletin 497.) Food some Well-known Birds of Forest, Farm, and Garden. (Farmers’ Bulletin 506. ; E Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. (Farmers’ Bulletin 630.) Common Birds of Southeastern United States in Relation to Agriculture. (Farmers’ Bulletin 755.) The Crow in Its Relation to Agriculture. (Farmers’ Bulletin 1102.) Propagation of Wild-duck Foods. (Department Bulletin 465.) The Crow and Its Relation to Man. (Department Bulletin 621.) Economic Value of the Starling in the United States. (Department Bulletin 868.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Fifty Common Birds of Farm and Orchard. (Farmers’ Bulletin 513, colored plates.) Price, 15 cents. Birds in Relation to the Alfalfa Weevil. (Department Bulletin 107.) Price, 15 cents. Eleven Important Wild-duck Foods. (Department Bulletin 205.) Price, 5 cents. Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United States. (Department Bulletin 280.) Price, 5 cents. Birds of Porto Rico. (Department Bulletin 326.) Price, 30 cents. Food Habits of the Swallows. (Department Bulletin 619.) Price, 5 cents. Food Habits of the Mallard. Ducks of the United States. (Department Bulletin 720.) Price, 5 cents. : Waterfowl and Their Food Plants in Sandhill Region of Nebraska; pt. 1, Waterfowl in Nebraska; pt. 2, Wild-duck Foods of the Sandhill Region of Nebraska. (Depart- ment Bulletin 794.) Price, 15 cents. The Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture. (Biological Survey Bulletin 15.) Price, 10 cents. Birds of a Maryland Farm. (Biological Survey Bulletin 17.) Price, 20 cents. The Bobwhite and Other Quails of the United States in Their Economic Relations. (Biological Survey Bulletin 21.) Price, 15 cents. The Horned Larks and Their Relation to Agriculture. (Biological Survey Bulletin 23.) Price, 5 cents. Food Habits of the Grosbeaks. (Biological Survey Bulletin 32.) Price, 25 cents. Birds of California in Relation to the Fruit Industry. (Biological Survey Bulletin 34. Part2.) Price, 40 cents. ‘ Food of the Woodpeckers of the United States. (Biological Survey Bulletin 37.) Price, 35 cents. : Woodpeckers in Relation to Trees and Wood Products. (Biological Survey Bulletin 39.) Price, 30 cents. 5 Index to Papers Relating to the Food of Birds. (Biological Survey Bulletin 43.) Price, 10 cents. ‘ ; Food of Our More Important Flycatchers. (Biological Survey Bulletin 44.) Price, 20 cents. Hawks and Owls from the Standpoint of the Farmer. (Biological Survey Circular 61.) Price, 5 cents. Destruction of the Cotton Boll Weevil by Birds in Winter. (Biological Survey Circular 64.) Price, 5 cents. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 25 CENTS PER COPY V iece. p Frontis Iture. Icu Department of Agri S U Bul. 863, {S010} OULOY oT, 179374°—20—Bull. 863——1 FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS. By Wicsur R. Marroon, Hatension Specialist in Forestry, Forest Service, and ALVIN DILLE, Specialist in Agricultural Hducation, States Relations Service. CONTENTS. Page Page. NATO CU G BLO Mee see ek eee 1 | Lesson V. Using farm timber______. 15 Sources of information_____ Bagot eae 2 VI. Measuring and estimating PNIVENSUIViCV ees 2 eee I SS 2 itimbersavec Ge ise aes 17 Illustrative material______________-_ 3 VII. Marketing farm timber__- 18 The home project___--__-__________- 3 VIII. Protecting the woods___- 20 Lesson I. Ferest trees and forest IX. Improving the home forest Cy CS ae oe eee ee ee 4 bye cutting 22===s2 2222s 23 II, Location and extent of aaa X. Growth of trees and for- woodlands___-________. 9 CSUS=s Bic ae ee eee 25 III. Economic value of the for- XI. Forest reproduction_____. 26 CS tea ene Ora aE eee ES 10 XII. Woodlands and farm man- IV. Products from the home agement 2 eee 32 TONES Paes as es eh GIS Soy ay an keyaayevay cee ee ee 34 INTRODUCTION. The right handling of the home forest has come to be a matter of recognized importance in farm management. Farming touches for- estry at a number of different points. The farm requires timber for the building and repair of houses, barns, sheds, fences, and tele- phone lines. It needs more or less wood for fuel, and it should have some woodland also for protecting the soil against erosion on steep slopes, for shelter for growing crops and live stock against the hot, dry winds of midsummer, the cold winds of winter, and likewise for the comfort of man, and the home of game animals. A farm without some woods is less attractive as a place to live and usually less valuable than one with at least a little woodland and some forest trees scattered about. Thus woodlands have a place both in the management of the farm and in the development of the community. The lessons which follow present the subject of farm forestry from the standpoint of the important local kinds of forest trees and their uses, the proper location of woodlands ‘on the farm, their economic value to the farm, the different farm timber products, measuring and marketing timber, utilizing timber rightly on the farm, protecting and improving woodlands, and planting young timber. A know!l- edge of farm forestry, applied along simple lines, should make farm- 1 oe 2 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. ing more profitable. These lessons have been prepared to give to the organized school work in elementary agriculture additional impetus in forestry, to provide material for instruction that is within the range of elementary pupils, and to furnish a topic for home projects that may be worked out profitably to every community and with real educational value to the pupils themselves. SOURCES OF INFORMATION. Practically all the subject matter for class use and instructions for home projects will be found in bulletins available, either free or at a small cost. Almost every State agricultural college has pub- lished one or more bulletins on some phase of forestry, and in most instances these may be had for the asking. Address the dean of the agricultural college. The Farmers’ Bulletins of the United States Department of Agri- culture referred to in this bulletin will cover many of the topics to be studied. Bulletins in this list will be sent free, so long as the supply lasts, to any resident of the United States, upon application to his Senator, Representative, or Delegate in Congress, or to the Chief of the Division of Publications, U. S. Department of Agri- culture, Washington, D. C. Because of the limited supply, appli- cants are urged to select only a few numbers, choosing those which are of special interest, and ordering but one copy of each. When the free supply has been exhausted, a number are yet for sale by ~ the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents each. Other publications of this department are also for sale by the Superintendent of Documents, but these are more often technical bulletins and of interest to those only who wish to specialize in the subject. Frequently revised classified lists of department publications on different phases of agriculture, one of which is on the subject of forestry, are issued by the Division of Agricultural Instruction, States Relations Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, for teach- ers’ use. The teacher will find that a number of the textbooks on forestry are suited to her needs, and that some of the elementary textbooks may be used by the pupils. In addition to the Farmers’ Bulletins and other Department Bulle- tins, the Forest Service issues a number of circulars on various phases of forestry which may be obtained directly from that division. THE SURVEY. One of the means ky which the teacher may become informed about the forestry interests of the district is a woodland survey. The pupils may assist in obtaining this information, but a first-hand knowledge obtained by the teacher will be a valuable aid. FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS. 3 This survey should include the kind of woodland, whether hard- wood, conifer, or mixed type, the important species of trees in the forest stand, in respect to their abundance and their use and com- mercial value, the leading rough timber products that have been sold, and the prices received in the woods or shipping point. This information may be collected and tabulated. A map of the district may be procured, or, if not available, one can be drawn on a large sheet by the pupils. On this map the homes and farms of the pupils are to be located. Place signs, emblems, or colored bits of paper to represent various facts from your tabula- tions; for example, colored circles to represent young, middle age, or mature woodland, squares to represent timber products sold, ete. Additional facts may be placed on this map, taking especial note of the acreage per farm, interest in taking care ot standing timber, etc. ILLUSTRATIVE MATERIAL. Construct a chart showing the relation in size of crown and trunk of a typical tree growing in the open (limby) and a tree in a close stand (long, smooth trunk). Illustrate by a diagram the maximum wood production per acre and quality production of good timber, by a crowded stand of trees and a thinned stand formerly containing more trees per acre. - Make drawings of the cross section of a tree trunk showing how the tree increases by a new ring of growth each year. Collect leaf specimens of the trees of the district and mount same on cardboard after pressing and drying them. Collect samples of the wood of the trees of the locality of approximately uniform size and mount them on boards, or hang them in frames or racks especially constructed. If possible, obtain like specimens of the woods of other localities. These samples may be classified and mounted into groups such as hardwoods and softwoods, or oaks, maples, pines, etc. At least a small collection of such woods should be a part of the equipment of every school. Charts showing the relative importance and uses of the most abundant woods should be made. _ Write to the Division of Agricultural Instruction, States Relations Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., for list of lantern-slide sets with lecture syllabi on the different phases of forestry. These sets of slides are loaned to teachers free of charge. THE HOME PROJECT. Jt is agreed by teachers of agriculture that instruction in that sub- ject should follow certain definite lines: (1) It should be seasonal. (2) It should be local in its interests and development. (3) It should meet the interests of the pupils. (4) It should be practical. 4 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. The home-project plan affords the best means of meeting these con- ditions, especially the practical side. The pupil is working out for himself the principles and theories taught in the classroom. The term “home project,” applied to instruction in elementary and secondary agriculture, includes each of the following requisites: (1) There must be a plant for work at home covering a season more or less extended. (2) It must be a part of the instruction in agri- eulture of the school. (3) There must be a problem more or less new to the pupil. (4) The parents and pupil should agree with the teacher on the plan. (5) Some competent person must supervise the home work. (6) Detailed records of time, method, cost, and income must be honestly kept. (7) A written report based on the record must be submitted to the teacher. This report may be in the form of a booklet. Type of forestry project.—A project in forestry must of necessity be of a much different type than a project in farm crops or animal production. The slow growth of forest trees and other factors in- volved make it a project covering more than one season. However, forest projects can be conducted and made of much value to the student and community. Among the forestry projects that can be carried out, the following are suggested: The renovation of a farm woodland, the replanting of a woodland and subsequent care of the young trees, the planting of forest trees on some eroding lands or other waste ground on the farm, mapping and finding area of a forest tract, cutting and marketing farm forest products, giving especial attention to the proper cutting of trees and to the removal of the parts of the trees not marketed, a study and survey of forest fires, in- sect enemies, and the diseases of the common forest trees. Lesson I. FOREST TREES AND FOREST TYPES. Problem.—To learn to know at sight the chief forest trees of the locality. Sources of information.—Bulletins of the State colleges of agricul- ture and State foresters on forest trees; Forestry Bulletin 17; forest tree key and description of 100 important forest trees on pages 40-48 of Supplement. The Forest Service, U. S. Department of Agricul- ture, Washington, D. C., is ready to identify leaves, fruit, buds, and wood that puzzle the young forester. Lllustrative material.—The best illustrative material for this lesson is to be found in the woods, where the trees may be seen and their characteristics studied. In case this can not be done, pictures of typical trees may be used. Blackboard sketches showing the form of different trees are easily made and should be used in this lesson. Topics of study.—Getting acquainted with the important kinds of forest trees in your locality. Their various common names and other FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS. 5 names. ) pure hardwood type, and (c) mixed hardwood and conifer type. Practical exercises Gathering leaves and fruit of the important local forest trees; press In wrapping paper, folded and labeled with place and date. _ Studying the shape and size of leaves; trace a Teatot cach ofthe important kinds of trees, and label mak name, place where found, and date. Grouping trees by kinds of fruit borne—nuts, keys, berries, cones, ete. Collect samples of winter buds from leading kinds of trees, label- ing with name of tree, place of collection, and date. Study of winter buds, with drawings of buds and twig arrange- ment. Collect tree blossoms from red and silver maples, willows, catalpa, elm, oak, dogwood, tulip poplar, basswood, buckeye, and snecanalliey Field oud ihe an to the woods, that may come into personal touch with the forest trees of your own neighborhood. Leaves: The leaf is the trade-mark of the trees. Gather the leaves, study and compare them to gain a first knowledge of the trees as individuals, then as groups. The tulip poplar writes its name plainly upon its square-cut leaf, but the boxelder has a leaf some- what resembling the ash, though its seed is similar to the maple key. Wherein does the ash leaf Hier from that of the locust or the * The sections on field study in Lessons I and III were contributed by Miss Lucy Keller- house, of the Forest Service. 6 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. hickory? The oaks are divided into the red and the white oaks. What is a typical leaf of each class? Iic. 1,—White oak, a woodland tree of wide distribution and high value, representative of the pure hardwood type. You will probably begin this study in the autumn, so before the leaves fall and your memory of them fails, press and either mount them or place in paper folders, and label with name, place where found, and date. 8 FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS. 7 . If the black gum is now reddening the red gum will soon begin to burn, and presently all the woods will seem as if on fire. The autumn colors will help to identify your trees and beautify your herbarium. A few of the broadleaf trees and all the conifers save one are evergreen. Fig. 2.—White oak leaf, flower, fruit, and winter bud: a, Pistillate or female flower ; b, staminate or male flower; c, winter bud. Separate the conifers into the pines, spruces, cedars, or other cone- bearers of your woods, and divide into as many species as you find. Draw a diagram,and.under the two heads, broadleaf trees and conifers, group the trees that you identify, with a short description of each. 179374° —20—Bull. 863-2 8 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. Fruit: While you are gathering leaves, bring in the fruit, or seed, that you find—the pulpy fruit, nuts, berries, pods, winged seed, and FEA OAK PugrIUT UCKOLY Fic. 3.—Leaf outlines of a few important species of forest trees. (Reduced—not to uniform scale.) tufted seed of the broadleaf trees and the cones of the conifers, and add to your herbarium. : : 4 FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS. 9 Buds: As the leaves fall, gather the bare branches and study the winter buds that hold next year’s leaves and flowers, from the big bud that tips the horse-chestnut to the long, sharp bud of the beech. Label them as you did the leaves. . Bark: The sycamore bark tells its own story, but do you know the bark of the elm from that of the ash? Contrast the glove-fitting bark of the beech with the rough-and-ready coat of the shagbark hickory. Branches: Each tree has its own way of branching, though its form is not always so definite as the red cedar spire. What is typi- cal of the white oak bough? The leaves of the scarlet and the pin ~ oak are considerably alike, but what is the character of each tree? Draw a leafless elm. Flowers: When spring comes and the buds are bursting, do not forget the flowers of the forest trees. They form a clock dial for the advancing year. So as they bloom in succession, bring in the blos- soms of the willow, the maple, the elm, and the cottonwood, until you have gathered the last flower of June, and seed are on the wing. While you have been getting acquainted with your trees, you have learned that they prefer certain localities; you have found the willow by the stream, the yellow or tulip poplar in the valley, the red oak on the higher ground, for one needs much moisture in its soil while another will grow in a drier situation. You have dis- covered that certain trees “ hobnob” together because of similar re- quirements for soil, moisture, and light. In this way you will learn to group your trees into er types when you begin your practical work as the forester of your home woodland. Correlations. Drawing: Sketch the different types of trees in the district; make drawings or tracings of the different shaped leaves. Mount these drawings and file with other illustrative ma- terial. ' Language: An account of a field trip carefully written will make a good English exercise. A tree booklet describing the different _types of trees, telling where they are found, some of their charac-_ teristics and uses, illustrated by original drawings and neatly bound with an attractive cover page, will furnish an excellent drill both in language and in drawing. Lesson II. LOCATION AND EXTENT OF WOODLANDS. Problem.—To study places about the farm where trees can be grown profitably. Sources of informantion.—Farmers’ Bulletins 358, 745, 1071, and 1117; Department Bulletin 481. - Topics for study.—Places about the farm where forest trees and woods should be kept. Timber is a poor land crop. Places where 10 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. forest trees are profitable: (1) Poor soils. (2) Steep slopes. (3) Eroding soils. (4) Rocky land. (5) Wet land. (6) Unused cor- ners or waste places. Extent of woodlands in the locality: Proportion of crop land and woodland. The total acres of woods on 10 to 20 representative farms in the locality. Practical exercises—From the data gathered in the survey con- struct a chart showing the proportion of crop land and woodland, the total crop acreage and the total woodland acreage. Study the places where you find trees growing and list such locations as in- dicated in topics for study. What type of trees do you find com- monly growing in each of these localities? What farms could profit- ably. plant forest trees? What sort of trees should be planted in case a young forest is established ? Correlations —Drawing: Draw a map of a farm or of the school district, locating the poor soils, steep slopes, eroding soils, rocky land, wet land, unused corners or waste land, and mark on this map the names of the trees that grow on these places or that could be profitably grown thereon. Language: Write a report showing the advantages of using the poor soils and waste lands for tree planting, giving examples from the farms of the district if possible. Arithmetic: Problems showing comparative acreage of crop land and woodland, and percentages of each, will be suggested in the study of this lesson. Lesson III. ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE FOREST. Problem.—To learn the value of a forest as conserver of soil moisture, as protection against soil erosion, as a shelter against ex- tremes of temperature, and as a means of increasing the farm income. Sources of information—Farmers’ Bulletins 358, 715, 745, 788, 1071, and 1117; Department Bulletin 481; Yearbook Separate 688; Forestry Mise. F- If Illustrative material.—The best illustrative material will be found in a field trip to the woods and field. Actual examples of the use of the trees can be pointed out. If a field trip is not practicable, illus- trations may be clipped from papers and magazines showing the erosion on unprotected hillsides and the use of trees as shelters in pastures and about the farm buildings. ; Topics for study.—With an acquaintance formed with the different species of trees, it will be worth while to learn their value both as in- dividual trees and associated together in woodlands. Timber or wood products. Treas grouped according to their value for wood or timber. (This is expend: in Lesson IV. ) FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS. 11 How a forest cover conserves the water from rainfall or melting snow. __ Flow of streams from open and forested land; seepage and springs. Protecting watersheds of city reservoirs and headquarters of large streams from erosion and floods. State and municipal forests. The 150,000,000 acres of Government National Forests held for protection of watersheds and streams and for a permanent tim-: ber supply. Private owners hold four-fifths of the total standing timber in the United States. Fig. 4.—The forest fleor. Leaves and twig litter on the ground beneath the trees, spongy layer of decomposed vegetable matter or humus, this and the lower layer of soil inter- laced with tree roots and rootlets, and the clay subsoil. Dense growth of seedling and sapling trees covering and protecting the soil. How trees protect the soil against erosion, and the formation of gullies on steep slopes. Examples of local hillsides and regions of the United States. Effect of woods as shelter against hot dry winds and cold winds for growing grain and fruit crops, live stock, and the farm home. The difference felt in temperature of the air in midsummer out in the open road or field and in the shade of a single tree or of woods. The same as experienced on a cold windy day in winter. Field study—tIn an excursion with the teacher to the hills and fields the class can learn, by actual observation, the bond between the forest and the river. 72 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. As soon as the pupil leaves the open and enters the cool shade of the woods he will note the forest floor—the undergrowth of young trees and shrubs, the ferns and moss, and the litter of fallen leaves, With his jackknife, or a trowel, let him dig down beneath this cover into the mold of many years of fallen leaves. The soil will be spongy and moist. What happens when rain falls or snow melts? Under the shadow of the forest it sinks into the spongy earth. (Fig. 4.) What becomes of the rain and snow that the forest has soaked up like a sponge? Find a spring. This is where the stored water is seeping out to feed the streams. The rainfall that has been held back Fic. 5.—Effect of deforestation. Washing of soil and devastation of valuable farm lands at the heads of streams. in the hidden reservoir of the forest is here transformed into a steady supply of water for the pasture, the mill, and the city. Let the class now return to the open and dig into the soil on the unwooded slope. It will be found dry and hard. -What happens when the rain falls or the snow melts on the open hillside? It is not held back and absorbed, but rushes down the slope. In a heavy rain the streams rise rapidly. Perhaps the class will find a bridge that has been carried away in a freshet. Someone may tell of the log bridge on the farm that was destroyed. Then what happens when the winter snow melts upon the unprotected mountain slopes and the spring rains swell the rivers? (Figs 5 and 6.) FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS. 13 - While the class is on the open hillside, places will be found where the soil, which has no roots to bind it, has been washed away by the rain, and on some steep slope there will be deep gullies dug into the ground. Where does the soil go that is washed down the slope? Into the. stream. Perhaps the stream carries the silt into the water supply of a city. If there is a river near, a sand bar may be found that has washed down from the hill country. What do muddy rivers mean to the harbors near the coast? Who has seen a dredge at work scooping up the silt to keep the channel free? This means a vast expense to the country. avi? The pupil who has noted these facts about woodland, soil, and stream, will begin to see the relation which the forests of our eqns Fic. 6.—Hffect of deforestation. Sand bars in the stream channels. Millions of dollars are spent yearly in dredging our rivers to keep them navigable. bear to the well-being of the land. The little examples that he finds in his own neighborhood of soil protection and good streams, of erosion and flood damage, are intimations of the larger meaning of the Nation’s forests to farm land and industry and commerce. Bhs own home woodland is a part of nature’s plan to aid man and his enterprise. Lesson IV. PRODUCTS FROM THE HOME FOREST. Problem—What products from the home forest can be utilized by the farm both for home use and for the market ? Sources of information—Farmers’ Bulletins 516, 715, 1071, and 1117; Department Bulletins 12, 605, and 753; Yearbook Separate 779. 14 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. Illustrative material—Prepare a wall chart showing in a tabulated form the various wood products. In each product column write the name of the tree or, better still, place a sample of the wood that furnished that product. Prepare another chart showing in lke manner other timber products such as nuts, roots, bark, gum, and edible fruits, listing the trees the same as in above chart. Any of the products from root, bark, gum, ete., will also make interesting and useful illustrative material. Topics for study.—Wood, in a rough state, is the principal farm timber product. What kinds of wood are used for the following rough products: (1) Saw logs; (2) poles and piling; (3) fence posts; (4) bolts, blocks, or billets for (a) cooperage, (0) implement handles, Fic. 7.—High-grade saw logs and rough stave boards cut from woodlands. (¢) wagon and automobile spokes, (d) pulpwood; (5) crossties; and (6) fuel wood. The sizes and other requirements for each of these various wood products, including the species of trees which are best suited and bring highest prices on the market. Forest trees which produce nuts of commercial value; roots, bark, gum, and edible fruit. List of these products under each head and what they are used for commercially. Se Lumber, manufactured from saw logs, is a secondary produet from the woodland. (How to measure sawed lumber treated in Lesson VI.) Its manufacture is essentially that of the sawmill man, rather than the farmer. Practical exercises.—What is the chief use of wood in the district ? What other forest products are made or used here? What trees furnish the greater amount of wood? What kind of lumber is . FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS. 15 sawed in the district? What becomes of this lumber? If there are any wood product factories in the district, arrange for a trip to the same and study the various processes from the rough wood to the finished products. What timber in the district is most valuable? Why? An interesting study to make is the part forest products play in the construction of machinery, transportation lines, airplanes, etc. Correlations.—Geography: Trace the timber products of the dis- trict to their market. In a like manner locate the source of timber products brought into the district and trace their probable route. On a State map locate the timber areas and learn, if possible, the important kinds of trees in each area. Locate the great lumber regions of the United States. From what ports are forest products of the United States exported? Arithmetic: Construct problems in which the prices of timber products are used. Use, if possible, the value of the forest products, the price of timber land, and prices of the miscellaneous forest products. Language: Make a study of the forest products of the district and write a report of your study. Another report of value will be that on the forest products that are imported into the district. Lesson V. USING FARM TIMBER. Problem.—To discover the right uses of farm timber. Sources of information—Farmers’ Bulletins 516, 711, 715, 744, 1023, 1071, and 1117; Department Bulletins 718 and 753; Forestry Bulletins 80 and 144; publications of State foresters and colleges of agriculture. Illustrative material—A gain a field trip will furnish the best illus- trative material for this lesson. Note the height of the stumps where timber has been cut, the careless felling of trees causing the injuring of young trees, the tops and large limbs left in the forest. In the absence of a field trip, pictures may be shown illustrating the _points mentioned above. Topics for study—tThe right using of timber on the farm should begin at-the time the tree is cut. Waste of good timber in the woods is altogether too common nowadays, with high values on prac- tically every kind of tree. . High stumps mean usually that the best quality of the timber in the tree is wasted. Often the value of the timber left in high stumps is sufficient to pay for all the costs of logging. Saw logs can now be taken profitably from the tops which had to be left only a few years ago. Wherever possible the tops should be worked up into crossties, mine props, or firewood. By careless felling of trees much promising young timber is broken and destroyed. 179374°—20—Bull. 8633 16 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. High grade and valuable timber should not be used in places about } the farm where less valuable woods will answer the purpose. Some- | times choice white oak worth $40 a thousand feet in the log for veneers, is split up into fence posts, or black walnut used for farm gates because it “ won’t split.” Substitutes can be found by children upon inquiry from their parents or neighbors. “Small and young timber cut in making improvement thinnings in overcrowded stands can often be sold or used on the farm for posts, poles, or firewood, instead of being allowed to decay in the woods. - Treating of fence posts: Short-lived woods when soaked in hot and then in cold creosote last from 10 to 20 years as fence posts. As the supply of long-lived woods, such as black locust, osage orange, red : | 4 q ; Fic 8.—Small pine logs cut in improving the woods by thinning. cedar, chestnut, mulberry, and catalpa become scarce, treated fence - posts are being increasingly used. Most all farms have some com- mon woods growing, practically all of which take coal-tar creosote readily. Practical exercises—In a field trip to the farm forests note what care is taken in felling trees, the disposition of limbs and tops, and the height of the stumps. What examples may be found where an expensive wood is used that could be replaced by a cheaper sub- stitute? What high-priced timber is found in the district? What is the common method of treating fence posts? How do telephone and telegraph companies protect their poles? What good and what bad example of the use of farm timber can you mention ? FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS. 17 Correlations —Language: Make a written or an oral report on the methods of cutting and handling timber on the farm with especial reference to disposing of waste timber. Write a short account on the best methods used in the preservation of timber used in posts, railroad ties, and other lumber. Arithmetic: Measure the height of stumps in a cut-over piece of timber and calculate the amount of lumber wasted. If one hundred 7-foot black walnut fence posts averaging 5 inches square in size can be replaced by 100 locust or red cedar posts of the same size, calcu- late, on the basis of local prices, the amount saved by the substitution. If creosoting a softwood post costs 15 cents each for treating but will make it last three times as long as one not treated, assuming average present local prices for labor in replacements and cost of untreated posts, what will be saved in 20 years in fencing a quarter section of land with posts spaced 12 feet apart? Lesson VI. MEASURING AND ESTIMATING TIMBER. Problem.—How shall timber be measured and estimated ? Sources of information—F armers’ Bulletin 715; colleges of agri- culture or State foresters’ publications; rule for scaling logs, page 39. Topics for study.—Measuring saw logs: Show how the diameter at the small end is found by measuring inside the bark along an average line, or two measurements taken at right angles and the two averaged. The diameter and length found, the approximate lum- ber contents is found by referring to a copy of some log rule; prob- ably the most common rule in use is the Doyle, although for small logs under 16 to 20 inches one of the least accurate rules, because from one-third to one-half more lumber is usually sawed out than is shown by the rule. (See Supplement, p. 39.) How bolts and billets are measured. What makes a standard cord of wood? Allowances made for defects in saw logs, bolts, or blocks, and in _other material. Estimating standing trees: Finding approximately the contents of standing trees in cords or board feet of lumber by measuring the diameter at breast-height (44 feet above the ground), estimating or measuring the number of 16-foot log cuts in the tree, and by using volume tables given on pages 18, 22, and 23 of Farmers’ Bulle- tin 715. Find the merchantable contents of the tree expressed in board feet. Estimating whole woods: Applying the same method to all the trees on a measured one-tenth or one-quarter acre, and thereby estimating the contents per acre. Recording the measurements by different species on a simple blank form ruled in squares in two direc- tions. 18 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. Practical exercises ——This lesson should be essentially one of prac- tice. The class should measure logs according to the Doyle rule, standing trees by the use of volume tables for trees, and cordwood by dimensions of the piles. A good exercise for the more advanced students is to make estimates on logs and standing trees and then by applying the Doyle rule or the volume table test the accuracy of the estimates. The practical value of this lesson is in acquaint- ing the pupils with com- paratively easy ways by which they can measure logs and cordwood and estimate the amount of lumber or cordwood in trees. Correlations —The op- erations mentioned in the practical exercises will af- ford abundant work in cal- culations and suggest a varied list of arithmetic problems. Lesson VII. MARKETING FARM TIMBER. Problem.—How shall the farm timber be mar- keted to the best advantage. Sources of informa- tion. — Farmers’ Bulletins 715 and 1100; bulletins of the State colleges of agri- culture and State foresters. lic. 9.—Measuring and estimating the saw timber Illustrative material._— in a stand of shortleaf pine. : Timber price lists. Ad- dresses of firms dealing in timber. Local prices for cordwood, posts, crossties, and piling. Topics for study.—F inding the best markets: Before timber is cut its approximate size and amount by species, and its disposal should be determined as definitely as possible. How to find buyers of cut- timber products. How are logs, bolts or billets, piling, posts, cross- ties, and firewood generally sold? Advertising in the newspapers, consulting neighbors who have recently sold timber, consulting State foresters and reliable experienced men. The owner protecting himself by a simple form of written con- tract: Much loss comes to sellers of timber products by failure to FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS. 19 observe this precaution and to have the agreement in proper written form. Selling timber standing: Selling for a stated sum by the acre, or a lump sum for the whole tract or “boundary.” What to sell'and what timber to keep growing in the woods; what timber to sell and what to use at home. Choice logs of certain aauade bring high prices, and can be profitably duipaeé, long distances by rail or water. Cooperative marketing of farm timber: Carload lots of logs, etc., the least amount that can profitably be shipped. Many wood manu- facturing concerns buy direct from producers in carload lots. A Fic. 10.—The best timber brings high prices and can usually be shipped for veneer or quarter-sawed lumber. Several owners can join in marketing a carload lot. farmer may not have sufficient white oak saw logs or hickory spoke blocks to pay to ship. Practical exercises —What timber is being sold in the district? Who is buying it? To what place is it being shipped? What stand- ing timber is sold in the district? What cooperative shipping of timber do you find? Visit a wood yard and note methods of han- dling the wood and get prices per cord on the different sizes of wood. Correlations —Abundant exercises in arithmetic will be suggested by the prices of timber and amounts sold. If a price list of timber and its products at the final market can be had, some interesting problems can be worked out by comparisons with local prices. For a language exercise make a report on the various kinds of timber marketed, prices paid, methods of transportation, and mar- kets. ee bel Pe as 20 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. Lesson VII. PROTECTING THE WOODS. | Problem.—tTo learn the best methods of protecting woodlands, and to discover the kind and extent of injury or loss due to forest fires. ' . Sources of information—Farmers’ Bulletins 173 and 711; Forestry Circular 205; Department Bulletins 308 and 787; Yearbook Separate 548; State publications. The U. S. Department of Agriculture and Tic, 11.—Oak spoke blocks, piling, and crossties ready for shipment.- the agricultural colleges will be glad to render assistance by identify- ing and furnishing information concerning various forest insects and plants. | Illustrative material—Pictures of forest fires, burnt. over wood- lands, forest rangers, their camps and equipment, copies of the United States Forest Regulations, and charts for fire prevention HELP PREVENT WOODS FIRES. BE SURE your match is out before throwing it away. DON’T throw away burning tobacco. | CHOOSE a safe place and make your camp fire small. PUT OUT your fire with water and then cover it with earth. DON’T make large brush heaps. Choose a still day for burning and plow furrows to protect near-by woods. BE CAREFUL WITH FIRE. FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS. ual will make excellent illustrative material. Pictures of trees damaged by insects or fungi, samples of damaged wood, samples of insecti- cides and materials used to prevent insects from damaging trees should also be used. Topics of study.— ire, the arch enemy of the forest: It kills large numbers of the smaller trees and kills or weakens the vitality of the older trees; the humus layers over the ground are destroyed. The loss of the protective covering exerts a marked effect in causing the soil to dry out and become hard, as a result of which the rain is shed off rapidly following dry weather, much as when it falls on a-house roof. Trees in farm woodlands and city parks are often seen dying at the tops, most usually from this cause. Forest rangers employed by the States and Government for the ad- ministration and protection of the State and National Forests. . What type of men are required for forest rangers whose duties require them to live out of doors and ride or work in all kinds of weather? Each National Forest divided into districts in charge of rangers. Fire pro- tective plans worked out in great detail for detecting and fighting fires as soon as possible after they start. Fire-fighting equipment, -such as lookout peaks and towers, telephone lines, and fire-fighting tool boxes at convenient points over the forest. Airplane patrol and the wireless telephone are being successfully used. Protection for State forest lands by similarly organized methods. Federal cooperation with the various States authorized by the Weeks law, for the protecting against fire of headwaters of navigable streams. Say ‘The grazing of live stock has much the same effect in removing the protective covering and packing the ground hard. Cattle and horses browse off the tender young seedlings and tramp down the upper soil layers. Sheep and goats are very destructive to young seedlings, particularly when closely herded. Hogs feed upon most kinds of acorns and nuts, although by rooting up the leaf litter they sometimes favorably expose the mineral soil for the quick germina- tion of tree seeds. Hogs are very destructive to the seed or mast of _ the long-leaf pine, and the young seedlings are killed in large num- bers by animals stripping off the thick, sweet, spongy bark from the roots. : . Damage by insects: Leaf and inner bark-eating, twig-cutting, bark and woodboring insects. Methods of checking spread of insect infestation by right methods of cutting. Fungi in forest trees as a source of the dying and injury of many trees. Some trees more immune than others. Importance of keeping woods in a healthy growing condition and rightly cut in order to combat the spread of fungus diseases. bo bo DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. _ PREVENT FOREST FIRES Start camp fires only in safe places and extinguish them completely before leaving. Put out any fire discovered or report it to the nearest Forest Officer. “The Laws provide heavy penalties for wilful or careless setting of forest fires. A reward will be paid for information leading to conviction of offenders. Form 98% FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS. 23 Practical exercises —What damages to woodlands occur in the district? What forest protection in use in this locality? Do you find any disease or insect attacking any special group of trees? Are farm animals allowed to graze in the farm woodlands? If so, what damages do you notice? Lesson IX. IMPROVING THE HOME FOREST BY CUTTING. Problem.—To study how to improve the home forest by proper cutting. : Sources of information—Farmers’ Bulletins 711, 1071, and 1117; Forestry Bulletins 92 and 96; Department Bulletins 11, 18, 139, and 308; Forestry Misc. R-8; State Foresters’ publications. Illustrative materialCharts or illustrations showing results of overcrowding and of proper thinning out of forest trees. Pictures showing results of careless felling of trees. If possible, visit a forest where these results can be actually shown by observing rings on stumps or cutting into trees that have been several years previously thinned. In an even-aged group, note different sizes of trees of same age as result of differences in growing space. Topics for study—Cutting the individual tree rightly; why as little as possible of the tree’s stump and top should be left in the woods; careful felling of trees. What is liable to happen to trees injured by another falling ? Thinning out overcrowded stands of forest trees. How fewer and fewer trees can grow on an acre as the trees increase in size. Avail- able light supply for growth. Purpose of thinning to utilize tim- ber that would otherwise die and go to waste. Also to stimulate the remaining trees to increased growth, which means increased value. Improve the woods by proper cutting, taking out (1) the mature, (2) broken, crooked, diseased trees, and (3) the slow-growing and less valuable species of trees. Most woodlands have many such trees crowding out young, promising trees of the better kinds. Making woodlands yield a profit on the investment, increasing farm income and the selling value of the farm. Practical exercises —The facts taught in this lesson should be veri- fied by actual observation in trips to forests. Study first hand the results mentioned in the lesson. A good project would be the im- provement of a forest plat by proper thinning, including the re- moval of diseased, defective, overcrowded, and dead trees, and un- desirable species. Correlations.—The class in drawing may construct the charts men- tioned under “ Illustrative material.” They should also make draw- ings of trees showing development under adverse conditions and of others under proper conditions. 94 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. eee eee ae I } i ' ( " I | l | ( | h | 1 | I | 1 | ! | ! | { | 1 ley | Fie 13.—The growth and value of pine are increased by repeated thinning. The trees removed can generally be used or sold profitably for firewood, treated fence posts, or small timber. A, Before thinning. IT ifteen overcrowded trees (shaded trees to be cut). B, The same stand five years after thinning. Six larger and more yaluable trees (shaded tree to be cut). . FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS. 25 Language: A survey of the general practice of home forest im- provement of the district with a written report of the same will afford a very good exercise in language. | Geography: A district or county map locating the farm forest areas and designating those under improvement. An outline map of the State locating the farm forest areas. | Lesson X. GROWTH OF TREES AND FORESTS. Problem.—To learn how trees and forests grow. Sources of information—Farmers’ Bulletins 134, 173, and 1071; Forestry Bulletin 92; Department Bulletin 308. Illustrative material—Potted seedlings, pots or boxes, and seeds of trees. A chart showing roots, stem, and leaves of a tree. A chart, or better, an actual cross section of a tree stem showing different parts of the stem, such as annual rings, heartwood, sapwood, bark, and cambium. Leaves mounted so that their structure can be studied. Branches showing bud and twig arrangement. Drawings showing shapes of crowns of trees grown in the open and grown in close stands. Topics for study.—The life of a tree and why it is necessary to know something about how trees live. The leaves, trunk, and roots, and function of each in the tree’s existence. How the tree breathes and gets its food from the soil and air; what travels upward and what downward in the branches and stems. Structure of the leaf and different parts of the trunk. How the branches lengthen and the tree trunk increases in size; the location, color, and structure of the living tissue or cambium layer. What are annual rings, heartwood, and sapwood? Requirements for growth: Air, light, moisture, and heat. Trees in association—a stand. Influence of trees upon each other. Difference, if any, between shape of crowns of open-grown trees and those grown in close stands. Influence of different light and soil moisture supply. Effect of tree density (number of trees in a given area) upon growth of the individual tree. Natural dying out of trees in close stands with advancing age. Understocked, well-stocked, and over- stocked stands and the production of (a) saw timber, and (0) cord- wood per acre under each condition. Practical exercises—Make the following tests to show require- ments for growth. Place a potted forest tree seedling in the dark for a few days; withdraw moisture from one and supply moderate amounts of moisture and excess moisture to other seedlings; sub- ject plants, if possible, to different degrees of heat. Note results. Erect a pole or 1 by 2 inch timber strip close beside a young, thrifty 26 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN 863, U. S. DEPT. OF AGRICULTURE. sapling pine or hardwood. At regular intervals of a week or month, mark on it the total height of the growing tree. Keep a record also of the dates and measured heights. ~ V cj ——S=SSSs: Sys = =~ Z \\ Z \\ - \ ———— ny — A = SSW 2 VO VDF ~~ LW Zw Ue, YP \i \ By Hy) : LZ : SES " : j Fie. 14.—How the tree trunk grows. All growth takes place in the cambium, lying between the inner bark and sapwood. ‘This is a very thin layer of living cells which : divide and subdivide, forming on the outside bark and on the inside wood (A). The inner bark, or last tissue, is soft and moist. Its function is to carry the food prepared in the leaves to all growing parts of the tree (B). By a gradual change the inner bark passes into outer bark, a corky layer composed of dry, dead leaves. This serves to protect the living stem against evaporation and mechanical injury (C). The woody growth during one season is called an annual ring. In the spring the newly formed cells are thin-walled and spongy, while in midsummer and fall the walls of the cells become thicker and denser. This difference can be distinguished in many kinds of trees as light colored spring wood and darker colored summer wood. Sapwood (D) is the lighter colored band of wood beneath the bark, often from 1 to 2 inches thick. It carries the sap from the roots to the leaves. Heartwood (EH) is formed by a gradual change in the sapwood by which it becomes darker, heavier, and often more lasting. Most of the trees, but not all, form heartwood. Pith is the soft tissue on the inner- most part of the stem, about which the first woody growth takes place in the newly formed twig (I). From it extend the pith rays (G). These flat bands of the same tissue connect the pith with the various layers of wood and the bark. They transfer and store up food. Lesson XI. FOREST REPRODUCTION. Problem.—To learn how trees reproduce themselves. - Sources of information—Farmers’ Bulletins 134, 173, 423, 711, 788, 1071, and 1123; Forestry Bulletins 45, 121, and 244. Forestry FORESTRY LESSONS ON HOME WOODLANDS. PA Circulars 45, 81, 99, and 208; Department Bulletin 153; Department Circular 8. | Illustrative material—Make a collection of seed specimens of the classes indicated under “ Topics for study.” Either mount these seeds on cardboard or put them in wide-mouth bottles. Clip pictures of young forest growth. Topics for study—Seeds: The various devices of nature for dis- persing the seed widely. Tree fruits with (a) wings, plumes, etc., (6) pulpy fruit with bony seeds sought by birds, (¢) rich nut kernels liked by rodents and birds, and often buried or otherwise Tig. 15.—Hffect of light supply upon the form and commercial value of trees. A, Elm which grew up among other trees of the same height but since cut down. Clear trunks make valuable lumber. B, This clm grew standing in the open. ‘Trees with short limby trunks are useful chiefly as firewood. stored away, (d@) light seeds which float or roll along the bottom of streams. Species of trees whose seeds are (a) carried by wind, (0) water, or by (¢c) birds and animals. (Fig. 16.) Sprouts: Different species of trees which reproduce themselves by means of sprouts from stumps. From what part or parts of the stump do sprouts arise? Species which sprout from surface or lat- eral-roots. Influence of the season of the year when cutting is done upon the vigor and growth of sprouts. Influence of age of parent tree upon success of sprouting. Natural forest reproduction: Young growth. (Fig. 17.) Condi- tions under which young growth starts in woodlands. oe 2's eee re 1.3. Loss and Gaine. <2 is... 422 2 ceere ce =e eee eee: INCOME AND EXPENSE ACCOUNTS (NOS. J TO P, INCLUSIVE). Income Accounts. Sales J i. Butter Sales. -...c 22. bee bt eee Roe ac - = ee eee eee NOY Crean DAles ~ie-d.crete oe scion er CE eee patie boc perros aa 3°3.. Malle Sales... 3.0doliched oslo colle se. on ce J 4. Cheese Sales. ..- oo. 220. foe Se een oe Se ee eee J 5. Buttermilk Sales......2...-...202 90401... J... eee eee CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. 5 K. Miscellaneous Income: Page. eee Viccchamaisescaledma =... . =... sees. porns sry kts ere Boreas 24 Le me Discounbtemeceivedics . 5. 2. . Seppe. ees Sr el occ ee 24. Expenss AccOUNTS. L. Raw Material: peminmbver hat i mrenases.-2. . - | Pit _Sepeee ots ee 2 A ap BE a a 24 eee cet Ke bmrehasess <:'. ies eee OT eae 28 ineanuUnderpaymentsand Overpaymentaese. =) 2 PTL O22. eee elk 25 tere Amiomebile Truck Operation: .. Ae PR eer ee! lA 26 Breivenairs on Automobile Trucks. 28 see. 22 0I Pe el SAY 26 eas vepreciation on Automobile Trugkgpes:o. 2-22-22. -.22522--222222 26 M. Operating Expense: Ais pn DOR are ee aS es i... a Sa tiene 2 fae i ee aif Mi peowemandyheimiceration. .. . . ..Sgeeeer at: 2 eee! oleae en ees 27 Mie AMT CHUL OWS UP OLES:: 2... . ./ SR BO) 3.5 OL) sees oe Pal Meee pattem. cosh... . .. ee Beene ele Te lad Zi Pie See) SprceimionOn AMG --/.'..... eee tae eo ead ied 28 aren homletvep cemlenttee sss. 2... Semen Poo e ee Se ne acne ee = 28 N. Administration and Selling: N 1. Express, Freight, and Drayage......-.-----.-.-. cehebepen eet « Mages 28 Nez veleplrowe.. Telesraph, and Postageaec =©...-2ten-<2- 5520222 8: 222: 29 Reo eet salarles. mike... . Seep eee ee eae 29 erm Oinernouppliess st .0010) 2... sce SSS 6 oe. So eet eee 29 INS Big) TERE eS 1 coh i Re aS eS 29 Ney linsurance...-.--... fe i ie NS MMR OE ops en SEO a ee ee 2 IR PEBEMILCEC eve pee cd 0h aie a ea iS ie oie a ty pee 30 Pecemlbass irom: Bad. Accoumts.....- 02 2 seme ce. = Jape ae ee ee ee a ae 30 Rome wrisce lian cous WX peOSen. o 8. a sees oo mai eee ee oe So 30 O. Purchases: Oe Merehandice FUGChases: tsi. 1. eee ey oe woe St ee 30 P. -Appropriation Accounts: 3 P 1. Dividend Appropriation.......-.--..--- 22 gaya i ae ch Nene Manes Mpa 31 Eee pea cinos rid “Appropriation : 2 sees. 622. st eee ee genes or ASSETS. A. CURRENT ASSETS. Caso on Hanp (A1). DeEpsir. CREDIT. 1. With the total of undeposited checks | 1. With the total of undeposited checks and cash as shown by Balance and cash at the beginning of the Sheet at the time of opening the period. books. 2. With the total of undeposited checks and cash at the close of the period. In order that a complete Trial Balance may be taken from the Ledger, without consideration of unposted items in any book of original entry, it is desirable that a Cash on Hand account be opened and maintained in the Ledger. Into this account is posted the amount of actual cash in the office at the time of opening the books and _at the close of each accounting period. At the beginning of the following period, this 6 BULLETIN 865, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. amount should be entered as the first item in the Cash Journal, the debit being entered in the Cash column, the credit in the General Ledger column, from which it is posted to this account. It is always desirable that all cash receipts be deposited during the accounting period in which they are received, and that all disbursements be made by check. Often, however, small items are paid in cash. Such expenditures should be covered by an order, which is approved by the manager, showing the amount, the date, account chargeable, and any other necessary irformation, and should be signed by the payee. At the end of each period a check should be drawn for an amount equal to the disbursements. The charge for this check should be made in the Cash Journal to the various Expense accounts and the check must be included in the next bank deposit. Bank Account (A 2). (Name of bank.) Desir: CREDIT: 1. With the balance in the bank as 1. With the amount of overdraft as shown by the Balance Sheet at the shown by the Balance Sheet at the ‘time of opening the books. time of opening the books. 2. With the total of all deposits during 2. With the total of all amounts dis- the period. . bursed by check during the 3. With interest credited by the bank. period. 3. With interest charged by the bank on overdraft. This account will appear in the Ledger under the name of the bank and should be debited with the amount of cash on deposit at the beginning of the period. This balance is determined by taking the balance rendered by the bank and deducting therefrom the total of all outstanding or uncanceled checks. Normally the balance shown by the bank will be in excess of that shown by the organization. Debits and credits to this account for interest receipts and payments, and exchange charges will arise from debit and credit memoranda submitted by the bank at the time of rendering its statement. Nores REcEIVABLE (A 38). Desir: septa: 1. With the face value of notes of . With amounts paid on notes by others on hand as shown by the their makers, settlements made Balance Sheet at the time of in any other manner or amounts opening the books. charged Loss and Gain as uncol- 2. With the face value of the notes lectable. received during the period. When notes are taken in payment for subscription to capital stock the total amount of such notes should be debited to this account. When notes are discounted at the bank, their face value, less the discount charged, should be debited to the Bank Account. This, however, does not change the notes, there being a contraliability to the bank for the full face value of the notes discounted. This liability is further discussed under Notes Receivable Discounted. CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. + 17 Accounts RecervaABLE Controt (A 4). Desir: CREDIT: 1. With the total amount charged to 1. At the close of the period with the customers’ individual account as total amount received from cus- shown by the Balance Sheet at tomers on account. the time of opening the books. 2. With any other credits to customers’ 2. At the close of the period with the accounts, including the writing off total of all sales charged to cus- of doubtful accounts. tomers’ accounts during the period. Inasmuch as the total of all charges and credits applying to the customers’ indi- vidual accounts constitute the entries to the above account, it is apparent that this account is a control over the customers’ individual accounts. It should in all cases be made to agree with the total of the individual accounts before a Trial Balance is taken. The balance, which is the total amount due from customers, must equal the net total of the balance of the mdividual amounts. Patrons’ Accounts RECEIVABLE (A 5). Desir: CREDIT: 1. With the amount of any purchase by 1. With any payments on account by patrons during the period. patrons. 2. With any deductions from patrons’ vouchers at the time of making settlement. This is a control account for sales to patrons, and should be operated in a manner similar-to Accounts Receivable Control, all sales being posted to accounts from the sale slip, and the total of these sales being entered in this account from the Journal. It may happen that a patron who has furnished only a small amount of butter iat during the period will have purchased from the creamery more than his voucher will cover. The voucher, however, should be fully made out, showing all amounts to the patron’s credit and the charges against him, together with the balance due the creamery. The balance on this account, together with the amount of any new purchases, should be deducted irom the next vouchers, or the patron required to -make payment in full. ManuracrurED Propucts Inventory (A 6). Desir: CREDIT: 1. With the value of all manufactured 1. Immediately after the beginning of products (and merchandise) on a new period with the balance of hand as shown by the Balance this account. Sheet at the time of opening the books. 2. With the value of all manufactured products (and merchandise) on hand at the close of the fiscal period. 8 BULLETIN 865, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is not intended to carry the inventory of manufactured products currently in the Ledger, although at the time of opening the books it is necessary to show this amount in order to arrive at a true basis of the net worth of the organization. The inventory should include products on hand, and any which may have been shipped on consignment and not paid for by the consignee. If part payment has been made on consigned goods, the amount of this payment should be deducted from the inventory. Under cooperative methods of conducting a creamery, distribution is made to to patrons for all butter, or other product, actually manufactured during a period, whether or not it has all been sold. This necessitates a slightly different accounting for inventories of manufactured products than is used under the ordinary plan of business operations, the amount of the inventories being credited to Sales accounts at the end of the fiscal period, and charged to these accounts at the beginning of a new period, instead of these entries being made in the Purchases accounts. .The following Journal entries will illustrate: COOPERATIVE CREAMERY. Desir. CREDIT. $359 Manufactured Products Inventory. ButtersSales .. 13 s28eece ra, Jer ee ee $350 To place inventory on books at end of fiscal period before closing books: Desir. CREDIT. $350 Butter Sales. Butter Imyentory eso.) ee eee $350 To close Butter Inventory account at the beginning of the new fiscal period. PRIVATE CREAMERY. DEBIT. CREDIT. $350 Manufactured Products Inventory. ‘Butter Wate urchasesea-cse-- seo ae eee eee eee $350 To place inventory on the books at the end of the fiscal period before closing the books. u Desir. CREDIT. $350 Butter Fat Purchases. Manufactured Products Inventory..............- $350 To close inventory account at the beginning of the new fiscal period. OPERATING Suppires INVENTORY (A7). DEBIT: CREDIT: 1. With the cost of all operating sup- 1. At the close of the period with the plies on hand as shown by the Bal- cost of all operating supplies used ance Sheet at the time of opening during the period. the books. 2. With the cost of all supplies sold or 2. With the cost of all operating sup- disposed of in any other manner. plies purchased. 3. With all freight, express, and dray- age charges on operating supplies. Operating Supplies include such items as fuel, oils and greases, packages and liners, butter color, salt, glassware, acid, washing powder, etc. An Inventory Report (see U. 8. Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 559, p. 11) should be kept at all times. The balance on this report must agree with the balance on this account. 3y reference to the descriptions of the Operating Expense accounts (Nos. M2 and M3) it is easy to determine what account should be charged with the supplies used. ————— CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. Or: B. SECURITIES. Srvzine Funp (B 1). DEBIT: CREDIT: 1. With all amounts withdrawn from 1. With any amount expended for the the general funds of the business purpose for which the special fund and deposited in a special fund for was created. the specific purpose of meeting some fixed obligation at a future time. 2. With any income derived from the money in this fund. (Credit Sinking Fund Reserve.) I A sinking fund is an amount of money periodically withdrawn from the business and invested in securities or deposited in a separate bank account for the purpose of meeting a fixed liability at some future time. For the purpose of determining the amount to be set aside each period, reference may be made to any of the published bond tables. Further discussion of this subject will be found under Sinking Fund Reserve, page 19. C. FIXED ASSETS. LANnp (C1). De=sir: CREDIT: 1. With the original purchase price of 1. With the total book value ofany land land as shown by the Balance sold. Sheet at the time of opening the books. 2. With all costs pertaining to the origi- nal purchase. 3. With the cost of any permanent im- provement made subsequent to the purchase. Land should be carried on the books at actual costs and should not be increased or decreased because of a change in value. The difference between the selling price and the original cost of any real estate should be debited or credited, as the case may be, to Surplus Adjustment account. Buinprincs (C2). Desir: CREDIT: : 1. With the original purchase price of 1. At the time of sale or destruction the buildings as shown by the Bal- with the total book value of any ance Sheet at the time of opening building sold or destroyed. the books. bo . With costs of all new construction. . With the cost of all additions or alter- ations when such costs increase the usefulness of the plant. 4. With the excess of the cost of the re- placement over the original cost of the part replaced. ae) 180208°—20—Bull. 865——2 10 ‘BULLETIN 865, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF, AGRICULTURE. . As the land and buildings are frequently purchased at the same time, the purchase price will include both assets. Care must be exercised that a proper division of these assets is made as depreciation is to be figured only upon the buildings. MAcHINERY AND EQurIpMENT (C3). Desir: CREDIT: 1. With the cost of all the machinery 1. With the total book value of any ma- as shown by the Balance Sheet at chinery and equipment that is sold the time of opening the books. or discarded. 2. With the cost of additions or alter- ations provided the efficiency is: materially increased. . With freight, express, and drayage charges on any purchase. 4. With cost of installation. oo This account should be charged with the costs of all items of machinery and equip- ment, which, under ordinary circumstances, will last three years or more, such as engines, boilers, motors, etc. When any article which has been charged to this account is to be replaced, the asset account should be credited with the cost value placed on this item at the time of opening the books or at the time of subsequent purchase. Example: A piece of machinery costing $100 was replaced by a new-one costing $150, cash being paid for the new article. The Journal entry would be made as follows: Desir. CREDIT. $100 Reserve for Depreciation on Machinery and Equipment. Machinery and’ igquipment:-----2--e eee eee $100 (For discarded machine costing $100.) 150 Machinery and Equipment. Bank Account -~ - 2353 oeece oa ee 150 (For purchase of new machine.) To the invoice value of any machinery purchased should be added any expense in- curred, such as freight or installation charges. In case the amount set aside as Re- serve for Depreciation on Plant is not sufficient to cover the original cost of the item replaced, the loss sustained should be charged to an account specifically captioned. Example: A boiler costing $150 was completely destroyed by an explosion. At the time the account Reserve for Depreciation on Machinery and Equipment shows a credit balance of $100. It was necessary to pay $200 for asimilar boiler. The follow- ing Journal entries should be made: Desir. CREDIT. $50 Reserve for Depreciation on Machinery and Equipment. 100 Loss, boiler explosion. Machinery and Equipment...............-.- $150 (For loss on Machinery and Equipment on account of explosion.) 200 Machinery and Equipment. Bank account. -iaectin ce csm tes beoe ne dee 200 (For purchase of new boiler.) In the above entries it should be carefully noted that the full amount set aside as a Reserve for Depreciation on Machinery and equipment has not been entirely ex- hausted by this loss, inasmuch as this fund is set aside to cover depreciation on all the machinery and equipment, and only the relative proportion applying to the boiler can be charged to the reserve account. CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. 11 The account, Loss, boiler explosion, should be periodically reduced by the following entry: Desir. $10 Expense, boiler explosion. Loss, boiler explosion.........-.--------..- CREDIT. $10 (For periodical charge to amortize loss result- ing from explosion.) At theclose of the fiscal year the account Expense, boiler explosion, should be car- ried to Loss and Gain account. Toots (C A), Desir: 1. With the estimated value of all the small tools asshown by the Balance Sheet at the time of opening the books. CREDIT: 1. With the book value of any tool sold and not replaced. This account should include such articles as hammers, wrenches, and small hand tools, which will under ordinary circumstances last for a period of less than three years. Further discussion of this subject will be found under Tool Replacement. The sup- ply of tools on hand should be inventoried at least once each year, and any large varia- tion from this account should be adjusted. Moror VEHICLES (C 5). Desir: 1. With the cost of any trucks as shown by the Balance Sheet at the time | of opening the books. 2. With the purchase price of new. trucks. CREDIT: 1. With the book value of trucks dis- posed of or destroyed. Orrick FURNITURE AND Equipment (C 6). Desir: 1. With the total costs as shown by the Balance Sheet at the time of open- ing the books. 2. With additional purchases. 3. With freight, express, charges incident to purcnase. 4. With cost of installation. or drayage | CrEpiT: 1. With the book value of any article sold, discarded, or destroyed. This account should include such articles as desks, filing cases, adding machines, typewriters, ledger, journal binders, etc. of time. to agree with the actual value. , which should last for an indefinite period This equipment should be furonraed Oey year, and the account adjusted BULLETIN 865, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. D. PREPAID EXPENSE. Prepaip INSURANCE (D 1). DeEBIr: 1. With the total amount of fire insur- ance premiums prepaid as shown by the Balance Sheet at the time of opening the books. 2. With the amount of fire insurance premiums paid. Usually policies run for a year and are paid for in advance. to the Prepaid Insurance account and represents an asset value. CREDIT: 1. At the close of the period with the portion of fire insurance premiums expired. 2. With the returned premium when any policy is canceled. This payment is charged The amount is re- duced periodically by a charge to Insurance Expense, the credit being carried to the Prepaid Insurance account. PRINTING AND STATIONERY (D 2). Desir: 1. With the estimated value of the stock on hand as shown by the Balance Sheet at the time of opening the books. 2. With the cost of all purchases during the period. CREDIT: 1. At the close of the period with the > estimated value of the amount used during the period. 2. With any amount disposed of other- wise. It is advisable to carry a Printing and Stationery account, inasmuch as such supplies will be purchased in quantities sufficient to cover several months’ usage. Prorating the expense over the period during which it will be used is preferable to burdening the month in which the purchase is made with the entire cost and thus possibly affecting the profits for the period. In this case Printing and Stationery Inventory account will be credited with the value of the amount used, the corresponding debit being carried to Office Supplies. LIABILITIES, RESERVES, AND NET WORTH. F. CURRENT LIABILITIES. Notes Payasie (F 1). OREDIT: 1. With the face value of all signed ob- ligations of the organization as Denir: 1. With the amounts paid in partial or entire settlement of signed obli- gations. shown by the Balance Sheet at the 2. With signed obligations given in re- time of opening books. newal, 2. With the face value of any obliga- tions subsequently issued. Should a note be renewed, thus in effect giving a new note for the old note, debit this account for the face value of the old note, and credit the account with the amount of the new note. A careful record should be maintained of all notes given, showing date issued, to whom, date of maturity, and rate of interest. CLASSIFICATION OF LEBGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. 13 Accounts PAYABLE (F 2). Desir: CREDIT: 1. With payment on account. 1. With amounts due creditors on open 2. With purchased goods returned for accounts at time of opening the credit. books as shown by the Balance 3. With allowances on purchases. Sheet. 4, With cash discount on purchases. 2. With the invoice value of merchan- dise purchased on credit. (Debit the various Inventory or Expense accounts. ) Separate accounts should be opened for firms with which a large credit business is conducted currently. Miscellaneous accounts payable may be handled in one account under the caption Miscellaneous Accounts Payable. Tt is not the intention to carry individual Ledger accounts with all the various creditors, owing to the fact that in many cases only a single purchase will be made from one concern and that practically all invoices will be paid during the period. Care must be exercised when entering checks to ascertain whether they should be charged to accounts payable when goods are purchased on credit, or to an inventory or expense account when goods are purchased for cash. When the invoice has been credited to Accounts Payable, the check given in pay- ment must be charged to Accounts Payable. As the canceled check is a sufficient receipt, it is suggested that invoices be stamped ‘‘ Paid -______, 19,” and filed alphabetically for future reference. A method preferable to that just described, especially for larger organizations, is the use of a voucher payable register, description of which may be found in most books on accounting. Accounts PAYABLE Patrons (F 3). Desir: CREDIT: 1. With the amount paid patrons by 1. With the net amount due patrons as eash or check. shown by the Balance Sheet at the time of opening the books. 2. At the close of the period with the net amount due patrons for deliv- eries during the period. The liability to patrons will be closed at the time payment is made by a debit to Accounts Payable Patrons, the corresponding credit being made to Cash or Bank Account. At the time of opening the books, it may occasionally be impracticable to determine the actual amount due the patrons, but this should be estimated as closely as possible, set up as a liability, and then any difference between the estimated and actual amounts should be charged or credited to Surplus Adjustment account. Example: If the estimated amount were $1,350 and the actual amount proved to be $1,410, the Journal entry at the time of payment would be: DEBIT. CREDIT. $1, 035 Account Payable Patrons. 60 Surplus Adjustment account. Banik Accoumteeenine cs « esieecc cass ssl $1, 410 14 BULLETIN 865, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. If the estimated amount was $1,410 and the actual amount was $1,350 the entry at ihe time of payment would be: DEBIT. : CREDIT. $1, 410 Account Payable patrons. Surplus Adjustment account. -........-- $60 Bonk A. CCOnRt-eeee occ eRe Ce eneEe 1, 359 In both the above cases the Accounts Payable Patrons account would be closed. The Surplus Adjustment account should be closed into Surplus account as described on page 22. Nores RecreIvaBLte Discountep (I 4). DEBIT: CREDIT: 1. With the face value of notes dis- 1. With the face value of all notes counted when settled for either by receivable discounted as shown by maker of through payment by the the Balance Sheet at the time of organization to the bank. opening the books. 2. With the face value of all notes subsequently discounted. By referring to the explanation under Notes Receivable, it will be noted that men- tion was made of notes receivable discounted, the proceeds of which were debited to the Bank Account, thus raising a liablilty. In case a note that has been discounted is not paid at maturity, the organization will be obliged to make payment to the bank for the face value of this note, in which case the following entry will be made: Desir. CREDIT. $100 Notes Receivable Discounted. Bank Accountess 2. eee eee $100 (For note of James Benton not settled for by him at maturity.) In case the note was met at maturity, the following entry would be made: Desir. CREDIT. $100 Notes Receivable Discounted. Notes Receivable: 3.225224. see oe $100 (For note of James Benton settled for by him at maturity.) In both the above cases the lability to the bank was liquidated-—first, by payment of the obligation by the organization, and second, by the maker. ‘Therefore, Notes Receivable Discounted should be debited in either ease. In the first instance, how- ever, the concern, still owns the note against James Benton which is an asset for future disposal, while in the second instance the note will be canceled and returned to the taker. When notes are discounted, the amount of the discount is to be considered as an expense and charged to an account called Interest Expense. Desir. CREDIT. $490 Bank Account. 10 Interest. Notes Receivable Discounted............ $500 (For notes discounted at bank with 10 per cent discount. ) CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. 15 CoLLEcTIONS ON Notes Drscountep (F 5). Desir: CREDIT: 1. With the amount paid to the bank 1. At the end of the period with the to liquidate Notes Receivable total amount deducted from pa- Discounted. trons’ vouchers applying on Notes Receivable which have been discounted. + In organizing a new association, notes are frequently accepted in payment for subscription to capital stock, and then discounted at the bank, the proceeds being used for the purchase of necessary equipment. In payment of these notes a certain amount is deducted from the patrons’ vouchers each period, and these collections should be paid to the bank to apply on patrons’ notes receivable which have been discounted. In such cases the following Journal entry should be made: Debit. . CREDIT. $100 Collections on Notes Discounted. iBank AN ceo mit eee eee! ey ee sb ee $100 (For payment to Blank Bank of collections received to date on patrons’ notes discounted. ) Tt will be evident that when the total of the payments to the bank for patrons’ notes previously discounted equals the total of the face value of such notes, this lability will have been liquidated and the canceled notes should be returned to the organiza- tion or to the various makers. At this time an entry should be made debiting Notes Receivable Discounted and crediting Notes Receivable. Such creameries deduct a certain fixed amount per pound on products delivered by the patrons during the period, the amount so deducted being applied on the payment of the notes. lt is preferable to make this deduction in even dollars—$1, $3, etc. Accounts PAYABLE HAvLERs (F 6), Desir: CREDIT: 1. With the amount paid haulers. 1. With the amount due haulers as shown by the Balance Sheet at the time of opening the books. 2. With the amount due haulers for services during the period. (This amount is deducted from the patrons’ vouchers. ) In some creameries the patrons employ haulers to deliver their product, the cream- ery paying the hauler, and later this payment is deducted on the patrons’ vouchers. Such disbursements do not constitute an operating expense to the organization. When the creamery makes no charge to the patrons the hauling becomes an operating expense and should be handled as any other expense account. (See p. 26.) 16 BULLETIN 865, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. G. ACCRUED LIABILITIES. IntTEREST AccRUED (G1). DEBIT: CREDIT: 1. With the interest accrued on notes 1. With the interest received on notes receivable during the period. receivable. 2. With the interest paid on notes pay- 2. With the interest accrued on notes able. payable during the period. The above method is believed to be advisable for smaller concerns, however. When the amount of interest accrued on either notes receivable or notes payable is consider- able, it is suggested that separate accounts be opened for each of the above items, showing Interest Accrued and Notes Receivable as an asset, and Interest on Notes Payable asa liability. (See also discussion under Interest, p. 30.) PAYROLL (G 2). Desir: CREDIT: 1. With all amounts paid to employees 1. With the amount of unpaid labor as for services, including advances. shown by the Balance Sheet at the time of opening the books. 2. With the amount of the pay roll, including all advances, at the close of the period, as shown by the time sheet. It is necessary to include all employees on the pay roll regardless of the department in which they are employed. The following Journal entry, which should be made at the end of each period, will illustrate the operation of this account. Example: The entire pay roll is $400 and $20 has been advanced during the period. JOURNAL ENTRIES. Desir. CREDIT. $135 Factory Labor. 265 Office Labor. aYPOU < . ... odo neyo mew ees eee $400 (For periodical pay roll.) 380 Payroll. Bank: A ccountse..!. da. se 380 (For payment of periodical pay roll.) Inasmuch as the $20 was charged to the Payroll account at the time the advance was made, the credit of $380 to the Bank Account will close the Payroll account. Occasionally an employee may desire an advance on his labor account, in which case the Payroll account should be debited for the amount advanced. It is not considered advisable to carry Ledger accounts with employees because of cash advances, but very careful note should be made of such advances to prevent duplicating the payment. Should an employee purchase merchandise, the sale should be charged to his per- sonal account. At the end of the period, or whenever the pay roll is made up, a check should be drawn in favor of the employee for the full amount of his wages. The em- ployee should then settle his account in the regular way. By following this procedure the records will reflect clearly the transactions involved. CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. 17 The following Journal entry will illustrate this procedure: DEBIT. CREDIT. $8.50 John Jones. " Merchandise Sales....-..-..- ee ape eee ee DOT ae? (For sale of merchandise to Jchn Jones, employee.) John Jones would then receive his entire wages and would settle for his account by the following transactions: Desir. CREDIT. $8.50 Cash. John Jones: Geen Sashes Ss See) ee $3. 50 (For payment of John Jones’ account.) Taxes AccRUED (G 3). Desir: CREDIT: 1. With the amount actually paid for 1. With the amount of accrued: taxes taxes. as shown by the Balance Sheet at the time of opening the books. 2. At the close of the period with its proportion of estimated annual taxes. At the beginning of the fiscal year an estimate of the taxes which will become due during the succeeding 12 months should be made. The amount of this estimate, if given careful consideration, can be made to approximate very closely the taxes which are actually assessed. Normally, this amount will show a credit balance which repre- sents the liability for taxes accrued but not due. However, when the tax payment is made during the fiscal year there will be a debit balance. This will be gradually adjusted as the periodical entries are made. Any balance on this account after the yearly taxes have been paid should be transferred at the end of the fiscal year to the Taxes account. H. RESERVES. RESERVE FOR Doustrut Accounts (H 1). Desir: CREDIT: 1. With all accounts charged off as 1. With the amount reserved to cover uncollectible. doubtful accounts as shown by the Balance Sheet at the time of open- ing the books. 2. At the close of each period with its proportion of estimated annual loss due to bad accounts. | Any collections received on an account that has been previously charged off should be credited to this account. This periodical charge should be based on the amount of annual sales and previous losses from this source. 180208°—20—Bull. 865——3 18 BULLETIN .865, U. S.. DEPARTMENT OF. AGRICULTURE. RESERVE FOR DEPRECIATION ON Moror-Veuicurs. (H-2).-_ .-... DesiT: | CREDIT: 1. With the book value of any item | 1. With the amount of reserve asshown * discarded or replaced by new by the Balance Sheet at the time equipment. of opening the books. 2. At the close of the period with the proportion of annual loss resulting from wear, tear, or obsolescence. 3. With the amount received from the sale of scrapped or discarded equipment. | It is suggested that a rate of not less than 25 per cent be charged off annually. RESERVE FOR DEPRECIATION ON PLanT (H 3). DeEsirT: CREDIT: 1. With the book value of any item 1. With the amount of reserve as shown discarded or replaced by new by the Balance Sheet at the time equipment. of opening the books. 2. At the close of the period with the proportion of annual loss due to wear, tear, and obsolescence. 3. With the amount received from the sale of any disacrded or serapped material. Owing to the conditions existing in some types of plants and to the peculiar nature of the work involved, the wear and tear on equipment is excessive. Special consid- eration should be given to these plant conditions in order that adequate reserves for depreciation may be provided. In an organization where a more detailed segregation of accounting data is desired, this account should be replaced by a separate account showing reserves for deprecia- tion on buildings, machinery, equipment, etc. RESERVE FOR DivipENDS PAyaBLE (H 4). Desir: CREDIT: 1. At the time of payment with the 1. At the close of the period with the total of checks paid to the stock- proportion of the annual dividend holders as dividends. _ to the stockholders. (Debit Dividend Appropriation.) It can be readily understood that those stockholders who have loaned their money to the organization, taking certificates of stock as security thereon, are entitled to be reimbursed for the use of their money, and in many instances this reimbursement is authorized by the by-laws. However, only those stockholders whose subscriptions have been fully paid should receive any share of the dividend payment. A periodical entry should be made as follows: Desir. : CREDIT. $50. Dividend Appropriation. ; Dividends.Payable.....Wicuspeie-eJoee $50. (To set aside an amount to be used in paying dividends at the close of the fiscal year.) CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. 19 At the end of the fiscal year sufficient funds should have been reserved to cover the dividend. When the dividend checks are written an entry should be made debiting Dividends Payable account and crediting Bank Account. In case this entry does not close the Dividends Payable account, it should be closed by a debit or credit, as the case may be, to Surplus Adjustment. The Dividends Payable account will be carried only by cooperative creameries. It should be constantly borne in mind that the ¢lividends thus provided are not deductible as an expense item in computing the income tax. SINKING FUND RESERVE. In the by-laws of a large number of creameries there is found a provision for the creation of what is called a sinking fund. This so-called sinking fund is created by withholding from the income distributable to patrons a certain amount per pound of butter fat received. This fund is to be used to pay the expenses of the creamery. Referring to the definition of a sinking fund given on page 9 it is at once evident that the mere withholding from patrons of a certain amount per pound of butter fat received will not establish a sinking fund, or anything which in any way resembles such a fund, inasmuch as the amount provided by the by-laws has not been ‘‘with- drawn from the general funds of the business,’’ nor has it been ‘‘invested in securities or deposited in a savings account.’’ In reality the only thing which has been accom- plished is the placing of a limit on the operating expenses and the creating of a reserve against which certain expenses are chargeable. Under this method part of the ex- penses are charged into the Loss and Gain account at the end of the year, and another part (those charged to Sinking Fund Reserve) are not. It is then impossible to deter- mine from the books the cost of operating the business without considerable addi- tional work and only an expert bookkeeper is able to prepare a statement which will show the true cost. Too little consideration is given to the fact that on account of the variation in the total operating expense from month to month, deductions for expense based on an estimate must necessarily be either more or less than the actual expense. Hither will affect the returns from future operations; a deficit will require that deductions be made from income in addition to those necessary for current expenses, and a surplus will make necessary the distribution of the previous year’s earnings thus accumulated. For this reason it has been found that the creation of a reserve to meet expenses is extremely undesirable, and it is recommended that the by-laws of creameries operat- ing under this plan be amended, and that such a plan be omitted in the organization of new creameries. This method of controlling expenses serves no useful purpose and the greatest benefits to all concerned would result if it could be replaced by a more modern and efficient one. However, numerous creameries will probably retain this clause in their by-laws, and therefore the accounting proecedure.necessary in such cases will be discussed here. When the by-laws contain the provisions just referred to, the term Operating Reserve should be used to indicate the account to which will be credited all income withheld from distributions to patrons for this purpose of meeting expenses. The terms Sinking T'und Reserve (see p. 20) and Sinking Fund must not be used in this connection. OPERATING RESERVE. DEBIT: | CREDIT: 1. With all expenditures which this 1. With amounts withheld from distri- reserve is created to meet. bution to patrons for the purpose pesto oF of meeting expenses. 20 BULLETIN 865, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Unusual losses, new equipment, and other items are frequently included in this account, as well as the expense items for which the account. was created. Thisshould. never be done. The amounts set aside to defray expenses are charged into the Loss and Gain account against gross income, and will ordinarily be allowable as a deduc- tion in preparing income tax returns, whereas amounts set aside to provide for unusual items are not allowed as a deduction in preparing such returns, and are not chargeable in the Loss and Gain account against gross income. Should it be desirable to set up a reserve to meet a contingency which may arise in the future, a special account should be opened for this purpose. Sruvxine Funp Reserve (H 5). DEBIT: CREDIT: 1. With the amount of the sinking fund 1. With the amount to be set aside when the obligations for which it pericdically to provide for the pay- was created have been paid. ment of a fixed obligation at some (Credit Surplus.) future time. (Debit Sinking Fund Appropria- tion.) It should be noted, also, that a Sinking Fund Reserve can be created out of profits, whether or not a sinking fund as described on page 9 has been created. I. NET WORTH. CapiTaL Stock (I 1). Desir: CREDIT: 1. With the par value of shares retired 1. With the par value of all shares or canceled. issued as shown by the Balance Sheet at the time of opening the books. 2. With the par value of all shares sold subsequently. The capital stock of a corporation is divided into shares, each share usually having a designated par value. These shares may be transferred from one individual to another without affecting the capital of the corporation. The ownership of a share of capital stock is evidenced by a stock certificate. In organizing a corporation, a subscription list should first be prepared, the signers of which bind themselves by law to purchase the number of shares subscribed. No certificate of stock should be delivered to a stockholder until his subscription has been fully paid. Until such payment is made, a temporary certificate may be given to the subscriber to be exchanged for the regular stock certificate on completion of pay- ment. When a subscription list has been prepared and the corporation formed on this basis, it is often provided that the subscription may be paid in installments. -Tocredit these partial payments direct to the capital stock account is undesirable. In view of this, when the subscription list has been completed an entry should be made debiting Subscription account and crediting Capital Stock account for the amount subscribed. When payments of the subscription are made, either by cash or note, in full or in part, these payments should be credited to Subscription account and not to Capital Stock account. The following entries will illustrate: CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. 21 Desir CREDIT. $10, 000 Subscription account, Captallistocle!) . Jeeiy. SS open ee Sele eee $10, 000 For subscription shown on subscription list No. 1. Desir. CREDIT. $4,000 Cash. 1,000 Notes Receivable. Subscriptiongaccountesasepmeerine ccs eee cess. .- eee $5, 000 50 per cent payment of the following subscriptions: (List of those making payment.) In case the entire capital stock is paid at one time, the following method might be used. Entries to illustrate issue of capital stock am payment thereof: DEsit. CREDIT. $8,000 Cash. 2,000 Notes Receivable. WaprtallStockes 208 2.0 URIS EN OU te ashe | AE SANS $10, 000 (Representing payment of capital stock issued to the following:) When shares of stock are acquired or sold for more or less than par value, the prem- ium or discount should be charged or credited as the case may be to Premium and Discount on Capital Stock account. For example, if a going concern desirés to sell additional shares, the shares veg, above par in value, an entry should be made as follows: DEBIT. CREDIT, $105 Cash. Canoutall Stock. Uasee is See a, aS ee OLS $100 Premium and Discount on Capital Stock--.....- gens (For sale of one share of stock at $5 premium. ) Likewise, if shares were sold at a discount, there would be a debit to Premium and Discount on Capital Stock. . The balance in this account should be written off into the Surplus account by periodical charges usually extending over a term of years. It occasionally happens that capital stock is offered for sale, and is purchased by the organization, to be held for resale at some future date. While this transaction may seem to resemble closely a retirement of the capital stock so purchased, and as such chargeable to the Capital Stock account, accountants generally have preferred to charge a purchase made in this manner to an account called Treasury Stock. In case the purchase was made above par, the entry should be: DeBIrT. CREDIT. $105 Treasury Stock. : CC ENT ONS) a 6 bu oc seg 8 Sa fer Co mama a eedae alll) (For purchase of one share of stock from Chas. Brown at $5 premium. ) When Treasury Stock is sold, the total amount received from such sale should be credited to the Treasury Stock account. Although it is not incorrect to charge the par value of this purchase to Capital Stock, it is a procedure not to be recommended. In case the organization is not a corporation, but a partnership, sole ownership, or association, the Capital Stock account would be replaced by accounts indicating the ownership, membership, or amount of certificate of indebtedness outstanding. 22 BULLETIN 865, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SURPLUS (1 2.) Dept: CREDIT: 1. With any debit balance of the Loss 1. With the amount of surplus as shown and Gain account at the close of the by the Balance Sheet at the time of fiscal year. opening the books. 2. With the net profit as shown by the credit balance of the Loss and Gain aecount at the close of the fiscal year. Any balance from the Surplus Adjustment account should be earried to the Surplvs account at the end of'the fiscal year, either as a debit or credit. In many organiza- tions the Surplus account represents the excess of assets over liabilities and capital stock. However, when a certain amount, commonly called a Reserve for Sinking Fund (see p. 19), is set aside out of earnings each year to retire the capital stock at a definite time, this reserve, together with the Capital Stock and Surplus, equals the excess of assets. When the opening Balance Sheet shows the Habilities, capital stock, and aecumu- lated reserves to be in excess of the total assets including good will, the Surplus account will show 2 debit balance. When this is the case there has evidently been a loss through operation which in reality amounts to an impairment of capital. Theamount of such debit balance should be debited to an account captioned Deficit. At the close of each following fiscal year, the Loss and Gain account and the Surplus Adjust- ment account should be closed into this account until the deficit'is written off. The Deficit account is in reality the debit side of the Surplus account, but should be carried under a different caption. For example, if there is no surplus and a Loss is sustained during the year, the loss shown by the debit balance of the Loss and Gain account is an impairment of the capital and should be carried to the Deficit account by the following Journal entry: Desir. CREDIT. $1,500 Deficit. ‘Bess ane Waite 2. 27 ee eee $1, 500 (To close Loss and Gain into Deficit account.) If the company makes a net profit of $2,000 during the succeeding ycar, the Journal entry will be as follows: DEBIT. CREDIT. $2,000 Loss and Gain. . DROHCH x... os cc ple ae pene SSP c..: :s See a 1, 500 (To close the Deficit and Loss and Gain account.) Loss AND Garn (I 3). DEBIT: | CREDIT: 1. With the balance of any account 1. With the balances of all Income charged with purchases of raw mater- accounts. ial for manufacture. 2. At the close of the fiscal year or other accounting period with the debit balance of all Expense ac- counts. CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. ° 23 During the year it is frequently found that errors or omissions were made in the work of closing the books for the previous year. These corrections should not be made through the Loss and Gain account but by making the adjustments direct to the Surplus account or to a Surplus Adjustment account. profit or loss, such as might arise from a sale of land, buildings, etc., Any unusual item of must not be entered -in the Loss and Gain account, but must be ahiered in the Sens account. By referring to the illustration on page 35, it will be seen that the result of the Income and Expense Statement.is the showing.of Net Profit. It is now desirable to show what disposition is made of the Loss and Gain account. This is the balance ‘of the net income, and this is effected by the last section of the statement, captioned Distribution of Net Profit. account called Undivided Profits. This is sometimes accomplished by the use of another However, it seems that the same results may be accomplished by the method here shown, without opening the additional Areoun in the Ledger. INCOME ACCOUNTS. - J. SALES. Butter Sass (J 1). Depit: 1. With the sale value of any butter that. may be returned bya customer. 2. With the balance at the close of the fiscal year. (Credit Loss and Gain. CREDIT: 1. At the close of each period with the total sales during the period. | CrEAM SALEs (J 2). Desir: 1. With the sale value of any cream that may be returned by a customer. 2. With the balance at the close of the fiscal year. (Credit Loss and Gain.) CREDIT: e 1. At the close of the period with the total sales during the period. Mix Sauzs (J 3). Desir: 1. With the sale value of any milk that may be returned by a customer. 2. With the balance at the close of the fiscal year. (Credit Loss and Gain. ) CREDIT: 1, At the close of the period, with the total sales during the period. CHEESE SAueEs (J 4). Desir: 1. With the sale value of any cheese that may be returned by a cus- tomer. 2. With the balance at the close of the fiscal year. (Credit Lossand Gain.) CREDIT: 1. At the close of the Shiéae with the total. sales during the period. 24 - BULLETIN 865, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BUTTERMILK SALES (J 5). DEBIT: 1. With the sale value of any butter- milk that may be returned by a customer. 2. With the balance at the close of the fiscal year. (Credit Loss and Gain.) CREDIT: 1, At the close of the period, with the total sales during the period. K. MISCELLANEOUS INCOME. MeRcHANDISE SALeEs (K 1). DEBIT: 1. With the sale value of any merchan- dise that may be returned by a customer. 2. With the balance at the close of fis- cal year. (Credit Loss and Gain.) CREDIT: 1. At the close of the period, with the total sales during the period. This account is to take care of sales of miscellaneous merchandise, such es eggs, grain, etc. The credit balances of all Sales accounts should be credited to Loss and Gain at the close of the fiscal year, thus closing the Sales accounts. Any sales to patrons of supplies, packages and liners, salt, ice, or other merchandise, which are used in the manufacture, packing, or shipping of products should be cred- ited to the Inventory accounts affected, and debited to Patrons’ Accounts Receivable. Discount Recervep (K 2). DEBIT: 1. With the credit balance at the close of the fiscal year. (Credit Loss and Gain.) CREDIT: 1. With any income arising from cash discounts deducted from invoices paid. EXPENSE ACCOUNTS. L. RAW MATERIAL. Butrer Fat PurcHases (L 1). DEBIT: 1. With the amount to be paid to the | patrons for butter fat delivered during the period. | CREDIT: 1. With the amount of undistributed balance. 2. With the debit balance at the close of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss and Gain.) CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. 25 There aretwo distinct methods of settling with patrons for deliveries of butter fat. The first method is to pay according to the market quotations regardless of operating expense; the second is to pay the patrons the entire net income, that is, the total receipts from product, less the total expense. The second method is to be followed in nearly all cooperative creameries. In creameries following the first procedure, the periodical debit to butter-fat pur- chases will be the total of deductions for butter delivered to patrons for hauling, for supplies sold to patrons, for collections on notes, etc., 28 well as payments in cash or by check, as shown by the recapitulation of patrons’ vouchers on the Patrons’ Settle- ment Sheet. Suppose that the Patrons’ Settlement Sheet at ihe close of the period shows: ano UM LOebespaid byneheck. 2.22. eA: o oraio ti cie sala ee on $9, 500 Ober SALeSMONDAtrONSe oi) .cc-5. « . ate tee lec eee ce a Seals 450 BOD Wes SOLCgONPATEONSL..\2-- . «<--> SORE Moses sscssccnecs eee s 40 The entry would be: DEBIT. CREDIT. $9,900. Lutter Fat Purchases. “Patrons’ Accounts Receivable—Butter Sold........ $490 Necotints kaya ble eatrons set a2 ee Seat oee 9, 500 The procedure under the second method is fully described on page 20, U. S. De- partment of Agriculture Bulletin 559, ‘Accounting Records for Connie Cream- eries.’’ However, it has been found desirable to substitute for the account Patrons’ Overdrafts, the account Patrons’ Accounts Receivable, operation of which is des- cribed on page 7 of this bulletin. In some creameries any balance.undistributed is allowed to accumulate and is distributed at a later date in the form ofa patronage dividend. When thisis done, the undistributed balance should be credited to an account captioned Patronage Dividend account and should not be carried forward to the next Operating Statement. A patronage dividend is in reality a deferred payment and is advised against, as it necessitates considerable clerical labor, with no apparent advantage. The Patronage Dividend account would be closed by debit, and the corresponding credit to the Bank account. The Undistributed Balance account is not raised in the Ledger, inasmuch as it is immediately closed by a debit, the corresponding credit. being carried to Butter Fat Purchases. However, in preparing a Balance Sheet, such undistributed balance should beshown as a part of the liabilities esillustrated on page 34. Sxim Mitk Purcnasses (L 2). Desir: CREDIT: 1. With the amount due patrons for 1. With the debit balance at the close skim milk purchased during the of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss period. and Gain.) UNDERPAYMENTS AND OVERPAYMENTS (L 3). DEBIT: OREDIT: 1. With the amount paid to patrons on 1. With the amount received from pa- account of errors in vouchers. trons on account of errors in vouchers. 26 BULLETIN 865, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Thisaccount would be used only by creameries operating on the cooperative plan, when it would be shown on the Operating Statement 2s all other expenses. Should it happen that an error is made in figuring 2 patron’s voucher, any balance due him should be immediately paid upon verification as to the accuracy of the claim and the amount carried to the debit of this account. In case an overpayment hes been made to a patron, he should be induced, if possi- ble, to reimburse the company immediately. Otherwise the amount will appear as a deduction on his next voucher, which is undesirable. Such refunds will be a credit to this account. The balance of this account should be carried to Butter Fat Purchases’ account, either as a debit or credit, as the case may be, before the Loss and Gain accourt is written up. AvutTomosnite Truck OpEration (L 4). DeExsir: CREDIT: 1. With all expenses incurred for oil, 1. With the debit balance at the close gasoline, rent, driver’s wages, of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss license fees, and cleaning. and Gain.) If the situation warrants, a separate labor account under Collection and Delivery Expenses may be maintained, but in most cases this would be an unnecessary segre- gation. The Automobile Truck Operation expense account should show the expense of actual operation, exclusive of repairs. Reparrs on AvuTomoBiLE Truck (L 5). Desir: CREDIT: 1. With the cost of all items of repairs 1, With the debit balance at the close on automobile trucks during the of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss period. and Gain.) Considerable care must be exercised in determining what should be charged to thisaccount. These charges should include repairs of allsorts, but should notinclude charges for replacement of entire unit. Additional equipment to a truck increasing its valuation should be charged to Automobile Truck Inventory account. DEPRECIATION ON AUTOMOBILE TRUCKS (L 6). Debir: CREDIT: 1. At the close of the period, with pro- 1. With the debit balance at close of portion of annual reserve set aside the fiscal year. (Debit Loss and to cover the estimated wear and Gain.) tear on automobile truck. HAULING EXPENSE. In some orgainzations this expense, or a part of it, is paid by the patrons. When the entire cost is so paid, the proper method of bookkeeping is described under Accounts Payable Haulers on page 15. However, when any part of this cost is paid by the creamery, an account captioned Hauling Expense should be opened under ‘the Raw Material account. All amounts paid to haulers would be charged to this account, and all charges to producers would be credited to this account. The debit balance would represent the expense to the creamery of collecting the raw material, CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. QT M. OPERATING EXPENSE. Lapor (M 1). Desir: CREDIT: 1. With the amount actually earned 1. With the debit balance at the close for the period by all factory em- of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss ployees as shown by the time and Gain.) sheet. (Credit Payroll account.) Tt will be noticed that this account is not charged with advances to employees nor with the amount paid to employees, but with the amount actually earned during the period. All payments, of whatever nature, are charged to Payroll account. (See p. 16.) PowER AND REFRIGERATION (M 2). { Desit: CREDIT: 1. With the cost of all material of any 1. With the debit balance at the end of nature used as fuel in producing the fiscal period. (Debit Loss and power. Gain.) i) . With the cost of electricity used for light and power. . With the cost of water. . With cost of all materials used in refrigerating machines or ice boxes (such as ammonia, calcium, ice, etc.). H CO In those organizations which desire detailed information relative to the cost of power and refrigeration, this account should be replaced by others which will give the de- sired detail. MANUFACTURING Suppries (M 3). DEBIT: CREDIT: 1. With the cost of all materials used 1. With debit balance at the end of the in the process of manufacturing, fiscal period. (Debit Loss and such as packages and liners, salt, Gain.) butter color, starter, etc. Reparrs oN Puant (M 4). Dzsit: CREDIT: 1. With the total amount expended for 1. With the debit balance at the close repairs to buildings, machinery, of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss and and equipment, as shown by in- Gain.) voice or other vouchers. Considerable care must be exercised in determining what should be charged to this account. These charges should include repairs of all sorts but should not include charges for replacement of entire units. The various invoices covering such ex- penditures-should be carefully analyzed and treated individually. 28 BULLETIN 865, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - Another method of taking care of these expenses for repairs to machinery and equip- ment, as well as to buildings, is to set up a Reserve for Depreciation on both these assets sufficient to cover all such expenses. This latter method is being recommended by some accountants. DEPRECIATION ON Puant (M 5). Desirt: CREDIT: 1. At the close of the period with the | 1. With the debit balance at the close proportion of the annual reserve of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss set aside to cover the estimated and Gain.) wear, tear, and obsolescence on buildings and machinery and equipment. The periodical proportion of the wear and tear on the plant is an expense and should be very carefully estimated. The question of the proper rate to apply as a charge for depreciation for an entire plant is one that can hardly be covered by a general statement, as local conditions are rarely comparable. In some instances a machine may last five years; in others it may last hardly a year, depending upon its load and care. The rate of depreciation will vary from 3 per cent in some cases to 20 per cent, depending upon the kind of building and machinery in use. Toot REPLACEMENT (M 6). DEBIT: CREDIT: 1. With the total amount expended for 1. With the debit balance at the close small tools during the period. of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss and Gain.) : Inasmuch as the investment in small tools will remain substantially the same at all times, it is suggested that in order to avoid taking an inventory and setting up a Reserve for Depreciation on Tools, all purchases be carried direct to Tool Replacement ex- pense. This method is believed to be much more simple and satisfactory than that of maintaining a depreciation account as in the case of machinery and equipment. N. ADMINISTRATION AND SELLING. Express, FREIGHT, AND DRAYAGE (N 1). Desir: CREDIT: 1. With any cost of freight, express, 1. With the debit balance at clcse of and drayage on inbound goods the fiscal year. (Debit Loss and when such an expense can not be Gain.) allocated to a particular inventory account. 2. With any cost of freight, express, and’ drayage on product shipped. All other charges for freight, express, or drayage should be charged direct to the inventory account for the article purchased. CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. 29 TELEPHONE, TELEGRAPH, AND PostaGE (N 2). DEBIT: 1. With the total amount expended during the period for items of post- age, telegraph, telephone, and messenger fees. CREDIT: 1. With the debit balance at close of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss and Gain.) OFFICE SALARIES (N 3). Desir: : 1. With any amount actually earned by office employees applying to the period covered by the pay roll. (Credit Payroll account.) > CREDIT: 1. With the debit balance at close of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss and Gain.) For further discussion on handling this account, see Labor Expense and the com- ments under Payroll. Orrice Suppuizs (N 4). Desir: 1. At the close of the period with the estimated amount of printing, sta- tionery, and supplies consumed. (Credit Printing and Stationery Inventory.) 2. With the cost of current purchases of small supplies. CREDIT: 1. With the debit balance at close of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss and Gain.) As it is impracticable to determine the exact amount consumed periodically, a iberal estimate of the consumption, rather than an attempt at actual inventory, should be charged to this account. Taxes (N5). Desir: 1. At the close of the period with the proportion of the annual tax chargeable to the period. (Credit Taxes Accrued.) CREDIT: 1. With the debit balance at close of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss and Gain.) INSURANCE (N6). Desir: 1. At the close of the period with the proportion of the annual amount chargeable to the period. (Credit Prepaid Insurance.) CREDIT: 1. With the debit balance at close of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss and Gain.) 30 BULLETIN 865, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. IntEREstT (N7). Desir: ; CREDIT: 1. At the close of the period with the 1. At the close of the period with the interest accrued during the period interest accrued during the period on Notes Payable. (Credit In- on notes receivable. terest Accrued.) 2. With the discount charged on notes receivable discounted. The debits or credits offsetting the entries of interest accrued will be made to the Interest Accrued account. At the close of the fiscal year the debits of this account should be transferred to the debit of the Loss and Gain account, and the credits should be transferred to the credit of Loss and Gain account. . The above method is advisable for small concerns. However, in case both intercst paid and interest earned be considerable, it is suggested that separate accounts be opened for Interest Expense and Interest Harned. Loss rrom Bap Accounts (N8). DEBIT: CREDIT: 1. At the close of the period with the 1. With the debit balance at the close proportion of the estimated annual of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss loss through bad accounts. (Credit cand Gain.) Reserve for Doubtful A:ccounts.) MIscELLANEOUS EXPENSE (N 9). DEBIT: CREDIT: 1. With the cost-of any items of expense 1. With the debit balance ‘at the close not chargeable to any of the fore- of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss going accounts. and ‘Gain. ) To this account should be charged donations to charitable organizations and any other expense that can not be charged to any of the other accounts. O. PURCHASES. Mercuanpise Puronases (O01). DEBIT: CREDIT: 1. With the cost of all merchandise 1. With the debit balance at ‘the close purchased for direct sale ‘during of the fiscal year. (Debit Toss the period. and Gain.) CLASSIFICATION OF. LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. 31 P. APPROPRIATION ACCOUNTS. DIvIDEND APPROPRIATION (P1). DEBIT: CREDIT: 1. At the close of the period with the 1. With the debit balance at the close proportion of annual dividend of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss chargeable to the period. (Credit and Gain.)? Reserve for Dividends Payable.) For further discussion, see Reserve for Dividends Payable, page 18. Stnxine FunpD APPROPRIATION (P 2). DEBIT: CREDIT: 1. With the amounts deducted from 1. With the debit balance at the close gross income as authorized by the of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss by-laws or by order of the Board of and Gain.)? Directors. (Credit Sinking Fund Reserve. ) For further discussion, see Sinking Fund Reserve, page 19. TRIAL BALANCE. While the Trial Balance is not a financial statement, it serves to prove the postings of the entries to the Ledger from the books of original entry. It is a summary of the various balances as they appear in the Ledger and should be drawn off before closing the Expense and Income accounts into the Loss and Gain account. If no mistake has been made in posting to the Ledger, the total of the debits will equal a total of the credits. A trial balance should always be taken at the end of every period and all errors should be located and corrected at once. CLOSING THE BOOKS. Preparatory to closing the beoks, an inventory should be taken of all supplies on hand and should be written up in permanent form. With it should be included a schedule of expense items, such as postage, stationery, and supplies on hand, and of the unconsumed balances of such accounts as Prepaid Insurance and Prepaid Taxes. The balances of all Expense, Income, and Purchase accounts should be transferred to the Less and Gaim account in order to ascertain the net income or loss for the season’s operation. The accounts should then be ruled, and the balance brought down. This balance is the net income for the year. Against this net income should then be charged the balances of the Dividend Appropriation and Sinking Fund Appropriation accounts. The balance of the Loss and Gain account should then be transierred to the Surplus account. After the books are closed and a post-closing Trial Balance has been taken to prove the mechanical accuracy of the work, the various flnancial statements are made up for presentation to the Board of Directors. 2 Care should be exercised that this balance be transferred to Loss and Gain only after the net income has been determined, as shown by the form illustrated on page 35 and 36. 32 BULLETIN 865, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, The ‘ollowing Journal entries will illustrate the procedure necessary to close the books: Entry No. 1. DEBIT. CREDIT. 000 Butter Sales. 000 Cream Sales. 000 Milk Sales. 000 Cheese Sales. 000 Buttermilk Sales. 000 Merchandise Sales. Toss and i Garinees 5. | ne eee 000 (To close the Sales accounts into Loss and Gain.) Entry No. 2. 000 Discount Received. Lossiand. Gain. 4. -eees o.oo 000 (To close the Discount Received account into Loss and Gain.) Entry No. 3. 000 Loss and Gain. Butter hat Purchasess--ese eee eee eee eee 000 Skim: MillsPurchasessaesss-= ee oe ee 000 Mierchandise*Punchasesss ste] seeee ae 000 (To close the Purchase accounts into Loss and Gain.) Entry No. 4. 000 Loss and Gain. Gabor :./2\ 20 2S Se S08 ee ee 000 Power! and Retrigeration 9). 225-2 2a ee 000 Manufacturing Supplies. See ee 000 Repairs’on Plantii.. SEP ee See ee 000 Tool-Replacement:(3. 2 AS eee ee 000 Depreciation on'Plantiet 2 Ve eee eee 000 Automobile: Truck Operation = - = 000 Repairsion Automobile druck... ==. -2 se eee 000 Depreciation on Automobile Truck.............--.-- 000 Express, Freight, and Drayage:...--...-----:-s-«- 000 Telephone, Telegraph, and Postage.....-......--..- 000 Office Salaries. ...: 5.28 on “See eee 000 Office Supplies. 5+.35.465. obs te ee ee Dee 000 Underpayments and Overpayments..............--- 000 POR CBs waiess « «snk Seats «ah: tee ee re 000 Insurance. .. -.< .\.¢Sipaets <2 -)-e aaa oe ee eee 000 Imterest.. .....- .....Shssisueesces ae eee aS eee ee 000 ossiirom: Bad, Accoumpste:..-2-5-caa4- ae eee 000 Mascetlaneous. . . 2:2 suisisjjetietne © oi WN alae eee 000 (To close the Expense accounts into Loss and Gain.) At this point the Loss and Gain account should be ruled and the balance brought down as net income or net loss. The following entry should then be made: Desir. CREDIT. 000 Loss and Gain. Dividend Appropriations... -/-25:-.:= nite cei 000 Sinking Fund Appropriation....2....--2.-ee=eeeeeere 000 (To close the Appropriation accounts into Loss and Gain.) The balance of the Loss and Gain account should then be transferred to the Surplus account upon direction of the Board of Directors. ee CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. 33 BALANCE SHEET. After closing the Expense and Income accounts into Loss and Gain there will re- main in the Ledger the Asset, Liability, Reserve, and Net Worth accounts, which are the Balance Sheet accounts. As has previously been stated, the Assets accounts should be arranged on the left-hand side of the Balance Sheet in the order of their probable cash realization and the Liabilities and Net Worth accounts arranged on the right-hand side in the order of their probable priority as to liquidation. The purpose of the Balance Sheet is to present the assets and liabilities of the organization in con- crete form and reveal the net worth as at a certain time. It is one of the most impor- tant statements to be prepared and should show by comparison with former similar statements, the financial progress of the organization. The following form of a Balance Sheet is recommended as a model to be used in preparing these statements. Attention is invited to the fact that while the Ledger shows the various reserves for depreciation as a credit balance, they are shown on the Balance Sheet as a deduction from assets, and also that while good will may be con- sidered as an intangible asset, it is shown on the credit side of the Balance Sheet as a deduction from the Net Worth accounts. This procedure is in conformity with the recommendation ef the Federal Reserve Board. 34 BULLETIN 865, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF- AGRICULTURE. ~ *YQUOU SUTALOT[OJ OY4, SUOIZEd 07 PayNqIystp oq OF, 1 seep tce teste cee reese s[B10L, ceceees **-Y4I0.M JON [e107 main cR~i5 a *=-->>-q10 TOC] SSOrT ~---->-ll sq0Ig PeplAIpuy pus snidimg ae ci ***peqLIosqnsuy) sso’T **}l---==paztoyIMy yo0I9 [ede WOM JON rosresseess*sQA Tsay [8}OL es a se teeee were testers tesco sonny SULTUTS POOH Tes = § . eo i ee nereeees= = -Q1qudvg SPUOPTATT aye OE :SOATOSOY i: ell eo! “"SOrTIG Bry JOLIN [BOT Re Scie sik vs sstssees+--pongooy SoxRy, ten nielniace o « ecetcce Siepr aeemringc eh S32 8/1 OAR ed SE AY “oIqvasgd ae ee eee: tae $0J0N WoO poniddy 4Sso10}UT = FaD 8) —SsolyyIqery pon.oo0y *poyUNoosiqy eisai ee |, |, Ta “SI SOON UO SUOTPOT[OD me ACM ee: ee ~-“poyUnoosigg o[GBATod0Y SOON feo Bal ft ee) sr ei 1 OOULTRE Pop TyStpu/) Saas "suo o[qvAey syuno00Vy Dae OL ee a eR | bee tas Oi 1 oqvaAey syuno0ddy PS (aL eee eeee Sees brewers === "-91GehBq SOJON Date) | TSOMMIGVI'T JuUoIMD ° ; ‘ON “IBOA YSU'T “Ivod VUOLIMG Sol yIqery qunoooy “vod QUOI pe Op ae s[eqOL, -- -gsuedx gy predolg [vjOL Ficizicia. ArouoTYe}ISg pue Suu Se eas souRmsuy predoig sosuedx Gq predeig aN a Sjyossy poxty [8}OL “quour -dinby pue oinqminy VyyO me Diehl) cini ia sig ale 01} -eloaidoq 10J 9AIOSOY SSO'T BS SSP IGG 0.2 SofoTYya A 10,0 eyes pte ats = ae s[OO.L “*** quefg wo WONVIdo1deq I0y eAIOSEY SSo'T ---qguoeudmby pus Areurppeyy signe Airs -timciciselateo eae ssulIpIng Le rasa oleae eee eee see pue’y IS}JOSSV Pox] rcsiein ciizisianle i aigle is puny sung SOC G SjOssy JUOLIMNY [BIO tad) 2 aisle Saige as sor 10qng 4onpoig pomyounuvyy —Sol.l0}U9A UT “Q[(VATODOY YUNODDY ,SUOIgLY Desisicisi asi“ JSS ehie> syumo00y [NAWQnod IJ OAtEsey ssory 7 3a a[QBAtodey syUNOy She doaasn tine tees a[qeatooaxy So}ON UO ponsody 4so10] UT We Ra eee DIGUATOOY SO}ON SUE ARR GMMR SA 308 yung uy [[ er ee anaes “pueyyT uo —yseg isjossy quoLNO ON qunoooy 4 ‘—6T ‘LG laquiaoaqy 2D sp Jaaysy aounj)vg CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIES. 35 INCOME AND EXPENSE STATEMENT. The Income and Expense Statement is an itemized statement of the entries made to the Loss and Gain account, arranged in such a way as to set forth clearly the results of the operations of the periods involved. The following form of Income and Expense Statement will be found convenient for exhibiting the operations of the creamery for either a monthly or a yearly period. Whenever possible a monthly statement of income and expense is advised. In the past no standard form of Income and Expense Statement has been used; therefore, this form should fill a very definite need. By its use not only the stockholders and directors may follow the details of the business, but a ready comparison may be made between the costs of operation of various periods. The amounts shown as sales and purchases in this statement should be net figures. That is, merchandise returned by the buyer should be deducted from the total sales, and merchandise returned by the company to the concern from whom it was pur- chased should be deducted from the total purchases. In preparing the trading section of the Income and Expense Statement, it will be found that a space is provided for showing the inventory at the beginning of the period separately from the purchases. If the entries have been made in the order provided, the amount of the inventory existing at the close of the previous period should be the first item in the various Purchase accounts. By deducting this amount from the balance on the Purchase accounts the purchases for the period may be found. THE BLANK CREAMERY ComMPANy, BLANK, VERMONT. Income and Expense Statement for ......------- Soke, OSS = Account Current year. . Last year. AB IUGC OTIS BCS esses aion sel aoe sims es esicketeies (Creamisaleseerer mesa eee meron e eae te eae SG LANES AO SRM Ate PanCEAE Mal re ck ee ee Less Returned Sales..............2..220.-- Net Sales....... Peete PS Aes ter aes Se Lathe Raw Material: Li Butter Fat Purchases..................5 q u 2 Skim Milk Purchases ...0...0........... ics tae 3 we weswes Collection Expense: L4 Auto Truck Operation................ L5 |) Repairs on Auto Trucks..............- L6 Depreciation on Auto Trucks......... Total Cost of Raw Material ......... Operating Expense: Labor... ... SE ae eee he ae HR acer at Power and Refrigeration................ | Manufacturing Supplies................- i Repairs on Plant ...............--- ec atachs Depreciation on Plant.................-- Tool Replacement..-.. 2.0.2.0... 00022008 SSsse5 Ono EH Total Operating Expense. --........ Add: ° Inventory beginning of year._............ Deduct: Inventory end of year. .......... eee ee Manufacturing Cost of Goods Sold ........ GrOSSMPROLb ce seseismaecnemiseecscee 36 BULLETIN 865, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Income and Expense Siatement for ..-.-.22202.-.5..00. , 19—Contiaued. eeeannt i Current year. Last year. | Gross#bront fonwande. <<... ccc] 0: ey a ee eer |e Administration and Selling: Ni ||, Express) Freichtvandebrayare: . 22-3 || aseeeeel 2 eg | eee N 2' || "Telephone, Telegraph: ‘and Postage: PN RR et ee eee INLBi|*” (Office Salaries) 9. jase Hee [la seeely aA eel lca ponent | eee INVA Oimce|Supplics- secre secre nee ses: sacs efeeitecs|)* 1 Ce | Nude semen | eee Ne, ji Dames. Zio). Sees cee Ra he 2 SSE | Eg Wa ie Te ee N6)} IMSUTAN COR eee ass aah... oe Se ee ee me Fee 8 Yh INV7* |"? Tintérest lee GEM SB C2 ee a > St eo a ane N8 Toss from ‘BadvAccoumts 2. <2. Ss Sees Cee | rk pee | ens | N9 Miscellaneous Ex ponseee cia... - cone cts ene || meee aia |, ae || eee Total Administration Expenses. 2-ce! camel) o> | =e | ees | Cae Operating Profit co. 2.65. seeegzeclli tee eal) De eee eel eee eon ee Miscellaneous Income: Kl Merchandise Sales:--.. 2S Sss. cE SA iG See a a as i eer O1 MerchandisesPurchasestan | 2. in. 2 285s sae c a) e a | Inventory, besimning of year... iS Sea ee eens eee ni eee Less Inventory end of year...........- ee Vik 0 Cost of Merchandise Sales............ ||| SESS ee ay crime as) iE 8 eee Merchandise vPnointen <.. savers ce aso es yi anne | Cece ree | eee |e a Discount Received 4.22.5) 28. BIE ISSY TT EEE OARS aca pe Net Miscellaneous Income-.-.......-.... Fee asc co||eenn i. || mse, el eee Net Pronite es .f2 rete ce ne at ee ee Men | eta ml epee aint | Nc) a el SS Distribution of Net Profit: Pit DividendeAtp pro priatl ONE ease eee eel ene | See ee “oaaccest P2 Sinking Mind PAs propria. tion = ey- melee || el mmm ee erratum || eee | eee 12 SUL PLUS. - Fe ora ae dees witiein cee tiee emcee: | coon all ec eeyerees || aman | | a TOtAl a scenae-cdeechescess cease eee |W teen onl aoe eee Cee | es oe I INSTALLATION OF ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT. It may be well to discuss the procedure to be followed in case additional equipment is installed or new buildings are constructed to accommodate the expansion of the business. This expense may possibly be met by selling more capital stock. How- ever, if the authorized capital stock has been entirely sold, this procedure would first necessitate receiving approval of the proper State officials to increase the capitaliza- tion. This method of securing additional funds is often impracticable, however, and the amount may be raised by placing a sufficient mortgage on the plant to meet the cost of the proposed expansion. In case the plant is mortgaged, an amount sufficient to liquidate the indebtedness at maturity will necessarily have to be deducted periodically from the gross earnings. This is the proper scope of the sinking fund as referred to in the first paragraph in this discussion. The interest on the mortgage should be paid annually and included in the Operating Expense. This amount de- ducted should be regularly deposited in a savings account, and there should in no case ever be a possibility of using this fund to pay current expenses. However, if neither of the above methods can be adopted, it will then become necessary to anticipate the expansion and withhold periodically a certain amount from the earnings. The amount thus withheld should be deposited in a savings account and not merged with the ordinary bank account. The following entries will illustrate the procedure to raise the reserve and other accounts. Assume that $5,000 is the necessary amount to be raised for the purpose of installing a new refrigerating plant. CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR CREAMERIKES. 37 Desir. CREDIT. $1, 000 Additional Equipment Appropriation (Refrigerating Plant). Reserve for Additional Equipment..........-..-.--- $1, 000 (Appropriation of income for purchase of re- frigerating plant.) 1, 000 Savings Account. 1B vale ZAC COUN io Sees | Be GSES Coins USE eM ae ae 1, 000 (To set aside appropriation in special Savings account. ) The above entries should be made periodically until the necessary amount has been raised. Desir. Crepir. $5, 000 Bank Account. Sa vAMesw ACCOMM AE. oc \. 5) eM eg oe yee eae $5, 000 (To withdraw fund from Savings account, making it available for the purchase of refrigerating plant.) 5, 000 Refrigerating plant. 1B eval fae Ja\ (CGO) Da he SO i pe ot RO sao 5, 000 (For purchase of plant. ) 5, 000 Reserve for Additional Equipment. (To close Reserve account into Surplus.) The required Ledger accounts would be: Savines Account. DEBIT: CREDIT: 1. With the periodical deposits to apply 1. With the amount withdrawn for the on the purchase of the refrigerating purpose of expansion. plant. Any remaining balance should then be carried to the regular checking account by a credit to this account and a debit to the Bank Account. REFRIGERATING PLANT. DeEsIrT: CREDIT: 1. With cost of new equipment at the |: 1. With the total book value of any time of purchase. part of the refrigerating plant sold or disposed of otherwise. RESERVE FOR ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT. Dapp CREDIT: 1. With the purchase price of new 1. With amounts periodically deposited equipment covered by this re- in the Savings account for the serve. (Credit to Surplus.) purpose of expansion. The balance of this account should be carried to the Surplus Adjustment account. 38 BULLETIN 865, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ADDITIONAL EQUIPMENT APPROPRIATION. DEBIT: CREDIT: 1. At the close of the period with the 1. With tne debit balance at the close proportion to apply to the pur- of the fiscal year. (Debit Loss chase of additional equipment. and Gain.)? It is suggested that instead of carrying the reserve set up for the purpose of expansion to the Sinking Fund Reserve account, these accounts just illustrated be set up, in order that the books may reveal the entire history of the expansion. As before stated, the sinking fund should be an amount of cash actually set aside to liquidate a fixed liability at some future date. It should never be maintained for the purpose of de- fraying current expenses. THE NATURE OF BOOKKEEPING. In order that the procedure herein described may be more clearly understood the nature of bookkeeping is briefly discussed here.* The Standard Dictionary defines bookkeeping as follows: The art, method, or practice of recording business transactions distinctly and systematically in blank books provided for the purpose, so as to show goods and moneys received, disposed of, and on hand; the credits given, and the assets, liabilities, and general status of the business, person, or house. If bookkeeping is ‘‘the art of recording business transactions,’’ the account must be considered the material expression of this art, since all bookkeeping eventually centers in the construction of certain accounts which will reflect the result of business transac- tions. For the purpose of recording and expressing the ‘‘general status of the business,’”’ accounts are classified as: a4 Asset Accounts: Representing all values which are owned and invested in the business; or earned, although not received, and those which have been expended for the benefit of a future period. | Liability Accounts: Representing all debts to outsiders due and now payable, due but not yet payable, and incurred to become due and payable at some future date. Net Worth Accounts: Representing the original proprietorship and the effects of the operations on the proprietorship.® Since Asset, Liability, and Net Worth accounts are representative of the actual properties themselves, these names are used to designate the properties, as well as their representative accounts. ite Since the Assets are all that are owned and the Liabilities are all obligations to out- siders, the net worth must of necessity be the difference between the first two, or the rights of the proprietorship to the excess thus determined. The following statement, therefore, shows the equality existing beween the total assets on the one side and the sum of the liabilities and net worth on the other. 3 Care should be exercised that this balance be transferred to Loss and Cain only after the net profit has been determined, as shown by the form illustrated on pp. 35 and 36. 4 Bookkeeping as discussed herein is limited to what is known as the double-entry method. 5Income and Expense accounts are Net Worth accounts of a temporary nature. They are fully de- scribed on pages 23 to 30 for the purpose of showing the details of the operations and their ultimate cffect on net worth. CLASSIFICATION OF LEDGER ACCOUNTS FOR GREAMERIES. 39 AsseTs=Lrapinimms-+-Net Worts. All accounts being included in one of these groups, it is evident that all transac- tions must be considered in the light of their effect on the respective groups. It is also evident that any transaction affecting one of the groups must likewise produce an equal net change in the other groups, except in a few instances when the transaction by its nature effects a change in the detail of one of the three groups and does not change the total of the affected group. Wemay classify these changes as: Tncrease or decrease in assets. Increase or decrease in liabilities. Increase or decrease in net worth. Transfer between items within any one group. : The customary bookkeeping names for these changes are ‘‘debit’’ and ‘“‘credit.”’ These same titles are used to show the side of the account on which the entry is made, debit being used for the left-hand side and credit for the right-hand side. Keeping these names in mind, the statement changes may be classified as follows: Desir: CREDIT: (1) Increase in assets. (1a) Decrease in assets. (2) Decrease in liabilities. (2a) Increase in liabilities. (3) Decrease in net worth. (3a) Increase in- net worth. Tt may be well to consider some of the more usual transactions which will-arise in a business, and to note the way in which they affect our statement, and the classi- _ fication shown above. Coles (1)-Capital ‘stock issued upon payment of cash.~ The result is an increase in the asset Cash and a corresponding increase in the Net Worth account Capital Stock. Using the above table, the transaction would be entered by a debit to Cash (1) and a credit to Capital Stock (3a).® i FOIE (2) Capital stock paid for by a note. The result is an increase in the asset Notes Receivable, and an equal increase in the Net Worth account, Capital Stock. 'There- “fore, debit Notes Receivable (1) and credit Capital Stock (3a). (3) A note receivable is paid in :ash, without interest. There is an increase in the asset Cash and a decrease in the asset Notes Receivable. This is one of the transactions described as being a transfer affecting the detail of one of the three parts of the business statement, and not in any way changing the totals of the part. Being both an increase and a decrease in asset values, we must debit Cash (1), the asset increased, and credit Notes Receivable (1a), the asset decreased. (4) Purchase of merchandise for cash. The asset Merchandise has increased; the asset Cash has decreased. Applying our table we have a debit to Merchandise (1) and a credit to Cash (1a). (5) Purchase of merchandise on account. We have an increase in the asset Mer- chandise and an increase in the Hability Accounts Payable; therefore, we will debit Merchandise (1), and credit Accounts Payable (2a). (6) Merchandise sold for cash. There is an increase in the asset Cash and a decrease in the asset Merchandise. Debit Cash (1) and credit Merchandise (1a).’ (7) Merchandise sold on aczeunt. -There is an increase in the asset Accounts Receivable and a decrease in the asset Merchandise. Debit Accounts Receivable (1) and credit Merchandise (1a). 6 All numbers shown in parentheses thus (32) refer to the number of entry in the table. TSales of merchandise or product actually affect two parts of our statement; i. e., that part of the sale price which represents the actual cost of the merchandise is a decrease in the asset, while the part representing profit is an increase in the net worth. These sales in actuai practice are credited to Merchandise Sales and closed into Loss aud Gain account at the end of the fiscal period. -” -—eoQVe 40 BULLETIN 865, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (8) Employee is paid wages in cash. There is a decrease in the Net Worth and a decrease in the asset Cash. Wages are a cost of operation and therefore decrease the net worth. They are an expense as distinguished from income. Debit Labor (tem- porary Net Worth account) (3a) and credit Cash (1a). After this manner, all transactions can be analyzed and classified to indicate the proper entry to be made. Again referring to our statement, Assets=Liabilities+Net Worth, and to the dis- cussion and illustrations which follow the statement, it should be noted that every transaction is composed of two parts, the debits and the credits, and that these two parts are always exactly equal and opposite in their effect. If, then, we start with any statement, the two sides of which must be equal, and every transaction affecting this statement has its two sides equal, the two sides of the result must be equal. As the sides are called in bookkeeping debit side and credit side, or debit and credit, respectively, we may formulate the following rule: The debits and credits by which any transaction is recorded must be equal. In this discussion we have considered only the three elements assets, liabilities, and net worth, and have classified the transactions as affecting two or more of these elements. In observing the changes in net worth, there are other effects to be con- sidered besides the question that a change has occurred, and the total amount of such change. It would be possible to discover this effect (in total) by recording the increases and decreases directly in the Net Worth account. However, when we-attempt to discover the reasons for the increase or decrease in the total net worth, we are at a loss to do so, for our records have not been arranged so that results can be coliected with proper regard to the relevant cause. ; For this reason it is desirable that we introduce another series of accounts: called © Income and Expense accounts, which are in reality subdivisions of the Net Worth accounts. Into these accounts are entered the various changes which are the result of the business operations, and which either increase or decrease the net worth, the Income accounts showing the increases and the Expense accounts showing the decreascs. The net results of these accounts will show, then, the effect, increase or decrease, on the net worth of the business. To arrive at the net result of these operations the various Expense accounts should be closed, their total being carried as a debit to.the Loss and Gain account and the various Income accounts carried as a credit to the same account. The resulting balance of the Loss and Gain account is the net income or loss for the period. which result should be carried to the Surplus or Deficit accounts by order of the Board of Directors if the concern is a corporation or association, or to the proprietorship account if owned by a partnership or individual. It will be noted that in making the annual entries to the debit and credit of this account, all the Income and Expense accounts will be balanced or closed. Accounts so closed should be ruled in red ink so that the year’s business will be kept sep arat and distinct from that of the succeeding year. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM SHE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D, C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY Vv UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 866 Contribution from the Bureau of Chemistry aN AN CARL L. ALSBERG, Chief Washington, D. C. . Vv August 24, 1920 PICKERING SPRAYS. By F. C. Coox,! Physiological Chemist, Insecticide and Fungicide Laboratory. CONTENTS, Page. | 3 Page HerbrOgUGpbOly Nanda. lace Sacinaes none seoss 2 = 1 | Results of investigation—Continued. Results of previous investigations..........-- 2 | INTO aNGSNE Sos Saas ee ee cS 29 Purpose of present investigation............- 6 Crambernlestss3s2 7) S042 20 eee ee 37 Preparation of sprays used.............-...-. 7 | Suggestions for the preparation of Pickering Results of investigation : spray on a commercialscale .........--.--- 42 TEU RTTO Ea he ere ieee een Se eSummanyes sce. sete. cee a eee 44 CirDiiGS 3 USS Sol eoec BOE aeaB eeseaaeeeees elke Bipliogran hiver stems kee eee eee eee 46 INTRODUCTION. When, in 1916, the price of copper sulphate (bluestone or blue vitriol) rose to 25 and 30 cents a pound in certain parts of the country, the United States Department of Agriculture began to receive many inquiries as to the possibility of controlling certain fungous diseases of fruits and vegetables, either by using sprays other than those containing copper or by reducing the amount of copper sulphate used per given amount of spray. Past work having failed to show any fungicides which could replace the copper sprays for certain important plant diseases and the search for a new spray appearing rather unpromising, it seemed advisable to seek a copper spray which was more effective per unit of copper than the standard Bordeaux mixture and at the same time not so caustic as to injure vegetation. Accordingly, the Bureau of Chemistry, in cooperation with the Bureau of Plant Industry and the Maine Agricultural Ex- periment Station, undertook an investigation to determine the com- parative efficacy of the so-called Pickering sprays, which had been 1 The author wishes toexpress his appreciation of the cooperation he received from J. K. Haywood,. Bureau of Chemistry; from W. B. Clark, H. A. Edson, L. H. Evans, W. A. Orton, J. W. Roberts, E. S. Schultz, C. L. Shear, M. B. Waite, E. Wallace, and R. B. Wilcox, of the Bureau of Piant Industry; from Donald Folson, W. A. Morse, G. B. Ramsey, and C. D. Woods, of the Maine Agricultural Experi- ment Station; and from Franklin Chambers, Superintendent of Whitesbog, Hanover Farms, N. J., and J. E. Sullivan, Superintendent of Aroostook Farm, Maine. 180971°—20—Bull. 866——1 2 BULLETIN 866, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tested to a limited extent in England, where laboratory tests indicated that they were superior to the Bordeaux sprays (3, 4).1 Pickering sprays, sometimes called Pickering limewater sprays, are prepared by mixing saturated limewater with dilute solutions of copper sul- phate, and contain their copper in the form of basic copper sulphates. RESULTS OF PREVIOUS INVESTIGATIONS. FUNGICIDAL ACTION. Bedford and Pickering (3, 4) claimed that the fungicidal action of Bordeaux depends upon the re-formation of copper sulphate by the action of carbon dioxid from the air. They believed that the excess of lime present in Bordeaux is carbonated before the copper, and held that since the fungicidal action depends upon the carbonation of the copper and the re-formation of copper sulphate, the excess lime of Bordeaux delays the action. These investigators stated that basic sulphates of copper are produced by the action of lime on cop- per sulphate, and that the basic sulphates vary in composition according to the proportions of lime and copper used. Most of the basic sulphates are complex, and contain, in addition to the ele- ments essential in a basic sulphate of copper, calcium sulphate or calcium oxid, sometimes both. For present purposes the calcium sulphate in these compounds need not be considered. The basic sulphates of copper, being practically insoluble in water, can of themselves have little or no fungicidal action, but when exposed to the carbon dioxid of the air they are gradually decomposed to form copper carbonate and copper sulphate. The copper carbonate, being insoluble, is incapable of energetic action. According to Bedford and Pickering, the substances which are formed in the so- called Pickering sprays by the action of lime on copper sulphate, omitting the calcium sulphate present, are: Formula A.— 4 CuO, SO, (or 10 CuO, 2.5 SO,). Formula B.— 5 CuO, SO, (or 10 CuO, 2 SO,). Formula C.— 10 CuO, SO. Formula D.— 10 CuO, SO,, 3 CaO (ordinary Bordeaux). Formula E.— CuO, 2 CaO (or 10 CuO, 20 CaO) (existence doubtful). Formula F.— CuO, 3 CaO (or 10 CuO, 30 CaO). The following equations * express the changes which these sub- stances undergo when acted upon by carbon dioxid in the laboratory, the equations being so arranged as to represent the results when the same initial weight of copper sulphate is taken in each case. The 1 The figures in parenthesis throughout this bulletin refer to the bibliography on page 46. 2The formulas are expressed in terms of the English imperial] gallon, which weighs 10 pounds, while the U. S. gallon weighs 8.3389 pounds, and the English fluid ounce, which is equivalent to 1/20 pint, or 28 cc., while the U. 8S. fluid ounce is equivalent to 1/16 pint, or 29.6 ce. PICKERING SPRAYS. 3 actual weight of pure lime (calcium oxid) and the approximate volume of ciear limewater which would contain this lime are also given in each case. | Formuta A(4 CuO, SO,). Proportions required: Crystallized copper sulphate 1, lime 0.169 (6:1); or copper sulphate 1 ounce,‘ limewater 134 ounces.” REACTION. (A) 10 CuSO, + 7.5 CaO = 10 CuO, 2.5. SO, +7.5 CaSO, (A’)10 CuO, 2.5 SO, +3.75 CO,=3.75 (CuO),, CO, +2.5 CuSO, This formula represents a 25 per cent re-formation of copper sul- phate. Formuta B (5 CuO, SO). Proportions required: Crystallized copper sulphate 1, lime 0.18 (5.56:1); or copper sulphate 1 ounce,’ limewater 143 ounces. ? U REACTION. (B) 10 CuSO, +8 CaO = 10 CuO, 2 SO, +8 CaSO, (B’)10 CuO, 2 SO, +4 CO,=4 (CuO),, CO, +2 CuSO, This formula represents a 20 per cent re-formation of copper sulphate. Formuta C (10 CuO, SO,). Proportions required: Copper sulphate 1, lime 0.203 (5:1); or copper sulphate 1 ounce,’ limewater 161 ounces.’ REACTION. (C) 10 CuSO, +9 CaO =10 CuO, SO, +9 CaSO, (C’) 10 CuO, SO, +4.5 CaO =4.5 (CuO),, CO, + CuSO, This formula represents a 10 per cent re-formation of copper sulphate. FormutA D (OrpINARY BorpDEAUX MIxTURE). Proportions required: Equal weights of copper sulphate and lime; or copper sulphate 1 ounce,’ imewater 800 ounces.’ REACTION. (D)10 CuSO, +44 CaO = 10 CuO, SO,, 3 CaO +9 CaSO, +32 CaO (D’)10 CuO, SO,, 3 CaO +7.5 CO, = 4.5 (CuO),, CO,+3 CaCO; +CuSOs This formula represents a 10 per cent re-formation of copper sulphate. 1 A voirdupois. 2 Fluid imperial ounces. 4 BULLETIN 866, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The results of their laboratory tests, in which the re-formed copper sulphate was determined after carbon dioxid had been passed through the various basic sulphates, led Bedford and Pickering to believe that the Formula A spray, re-forming 40 per cent of the copper sulphate, was from 12 to 15 times as effective as ordinary Bordeaux mixture (Formula D), which re-formed 2.8 per cent of the copper sulphate, and that the Formula C spray, re-forming 22 per cent of the copper sulphate, was about 8 times as effective as the standard Bordeaux (Formula D). . These investigators (4) stated also that, ‘‘the efficacy of a fungicide must not be estimated by the amount of copper contained in it, but by the amount which becomes soluble and therefore available for fungicidal action. Nor should the efficiency of a spray be judged by the visible deposit left on the leaves, for even if it were composed entirely of copper compounds it does not follow that it would be more efficacious than some other deposit which might be invisible. In most cases the deposit consists largely of material which is quite inefficient and may be detrimental to fungicidal action, as is the lime which constitutes four-fifths of the deposit visible after spraying with ordinary Bordeaux mixture.’ Later they reported that the idea that the fungicidal action of standard Bordeaux spray does not com- mence until several days after its application had been definitely dis- proved, and that the effects of the application of Bordeaux do not become visible at once because time is necessary for the decay of the tissues, which is the case even when a copper salt in solution is applied, but that the excess of lime in ordinary Bordeaux causes the fungicidal action to proceed more slowly. Pickering, however, be- heved that in ordinary or standard Bordeaux made with milk of lime the copper reacts and undergoes on the tree the changes given under the reaction for Formula D (p. 3). Swingle (23), Sicard (22), Bell and Taber (5), Vermorel: and Dan- tony (24), and others have discussed the chemical composition of standard Bordeaux sprays, which are prepared by. mixing a solu- tion of copper sulphate with milk of lime. These two ingredients are brought together in various ways, and the manner of mixing undoubtedly affects the chemical and physical properties of the spray. The details of the many theories covering the chemical reactions which take place when copper sulphate and calcium hydrate are mixed need not be considered here: Opposed to the belief held by Pickering and others that the copper of Bordeaux is slowly made active by the carbon dioxid of the air are the statements by Lutman (14) that Bordeaux mixture is fungicidal immediately upon application. This writer considers that the lime particles in Bordeaux have fungicidal properties. Swingle (23), in 1896, advanced a series of ideas as to possible methods * PICKERING SPRAYS. 5 whereby the copper of Bordeaux prevented fungous infection of plants. Gimingham (10) and Barker and Gimingham (1, 2) do not accept the theory of Pickering that the carbon dioxid of the air renders the copper soluble in Bordeaux, but believe that the per- meable cell walls of the spores absorb copper from insoluble copper compounds in the spray. In 1902 Clark (8) stated that the process of rendering soluble por- tions of the copper hydrate (Cu(OH),) of Bordeaux mixture, which under orchard conditions is of fungicidal value, is accomplished chiefly by the solvent action of the fungus spores, which have the power to dissolve enough copper to kill themselves. The host plant has a certain power of dissolving copper hydrate deposited on its leaves. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. A spray must so distribute the copper compound it contains as to completely cover the trees or plants in a thoroughly uniform manner and must possess the proper adhesive properties. If either of these physical properties is lacking, the spray fails to accomplish its pur- pose. ee Various settling tests with Bordeaux prepared in different ways have been made, and numerous adhesives have been tried. Haw- kins (12), who gives a detailed description of such tests, states that Pickering sprays remain in suspension better than ordinary Bordeaux. Lutman (13), in his data, which include descriptions of the precipita- tion membranes formed in freshly prepared Bordeaux, states that the slow settling properties and the presence of the precipitation membranes in freshly prepared Bordeaux are in a great measure responsible for its superiority as a protective agent against fungous diseases. This investigator studied the areas covered by 1 cubic centimeter of the various sprays tested on glass slides, as a result of which he concludes that “very dilute solutions such as. Pickerings possess a greater covering power for the amount of materials used.” The physical properties of the Pickering, or limewater Bordeaux, sprays are not described by Pickering, but have been studied by Lutman. (14) and by Butler (6). Butler, who has investigated the formation of sphere crystals in various copper sprays, claims that the rate at which they form depends on the concentration and tempera- ture of the mixture. Both of these investigators state that the film - membranes of the Pickering sprays do not deteriorate as do those in a regular Bordeaux spray, and that the sphere crystals are not formed in Pickering sprays, even after long standing. This is an important point, as the formation of such crystals signifies a breaking down of the precipitation membranes and a deterioration of the spray. 6 BULLETIN 866, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. Butler (7) states that freshly prepared Pickering spray has a light- blue color, which becomes deep blue on standing. He found a neutral or acid Bordeaux, such as the Pickering sprays, to act more quickly than ordinary Bordeaux, and reported that the Pickering spray was less injurious to grapes than ordinary Bordeaux. He states that the toxic value of the unit copper is the same in acid, neutral, and alkaline Bordeaux, but is more available for immediate action in the Pickering than in the ordinary Bordeaux sprays. According to McAlpine (15), who compared the results of Pickering with those of standard Bordeaux sprays on apple trees, the two varieties are equally effective in controlling black spot (Fusicladium dendriticum). The limewater Bordeaux adhered just as well as the standard Bordeaux, and had the additional advantages of being free from gritty particles, of acting_at once on the spores of the fungus, and of containing a much smaller percentage of bluestone. The check trees gave 92.5 per cent of good fruit, indicating that the black spot was not sufficiently severe to give definite results. I’. de Castella (9) states that Pickering’s claims concerning the greater efficacy of the limewater sprays are not borne out in practice. He reports that after extensive trial they have been found decid- edly inferior to 2 per cent Bordeaux and that the use of Pickering sprays can not be recommended. He considers the Woburn or Pickering paste sold in England to be satisfactory but not superior to Bordeaux. The greater solubility of the tetra-cupric sulphate seems to be a defect rather than an advantage according to this writer, for the reason that, while more active at first, it is removed by heavy rains more readily than the ordinary Bordeaux deposit, thus rendering the duration of the protection insufficient. No data are given by this writer to substantiate his claims. PURPOSE OF PRESENT INVESTIGATION. If the results obtained by Pickering in the laboratory in England hold true under field conditions in America, it is obvious that a great saving in copper in this country may be effected. This investigation was planned, therefore, for the purpose of outlining a practical method of preparing a copper fungicide which would be more effective per unit of copper than standard Bordeaux. The experiments were conducted with the following primary objects in view: (1) To determine whether sprays made in accordance with the various Pickering formulas (p. 3) were effective when applied under American field conditions. (2) To ascertain how much copper in the form of the different Pickering formulas is required per given quantity of spray to insure effective control of fungous diseases. PICKERING SPRAYS. — 7 (3) To compare the fungicidal values of certain of the more prom- ising Pickering sprays with those of standard Bordeaux mixture per unit of copper. (4) To determine the injurious action of the more promising Pickering sprays on various kinds of vegetation as compared with that of standard Bordeaux. : (5) To compare the adherence of Pickering sprays with that of standard Bordeaux. PREPARATION OF SPRAYS USED. Pickering sprays made according to Formulas A and C (p. 3) were used in such proportions that the finished sprays prepared by Formula A would contain the equivalent of 0.64, 0.38, 0.13, and 0.065 per cent of copper sulphate, and those prepared by Formula C, 0.36, 0.23, and 0.115 per cent of copper sulphate. In making the stock eonicions of limewater and copper sulphate. these directions, outlined by Bedford and Pickering (4), were followed: Dissolve the copper sulphate by suspending it in a piece of sacking, near the top of the water, in a wooden or earthenware container. Place not less than 2 or 3 pounds of some good quicklime (CaO) in a wooden container, slake with a little water, and add the desired amount of soit water. After making a smooth paste, add water, stir the lime and water two or three times, and let settle. Cover the container. Carbonate of lime found on top of the waterdoesnoharm. Run off the desired amount of the clear limewater, and mix with the required amount of copper sulphate solution. Test to be sure that all the copper has been combined with lime, and dilute to the required volume with water. To test for free copper, put a few drops of a solution of ferro- cyanide of potash in a white saucer with water and drop into this some of the clear liquid obtained after the limewater Bordeaux has settled. Ifa brownish-red color- ation appears, it indicates that copper remains in solution, a little more limewater must be added, and the solution retested. To prepare Pickering (A)' sprays containing in the finished product the equivalent of— 0.64 per cent copper sulphate: Mix enough of the stock solution of copper sulphate (prepared so that 1 gallon is equivalent to 1 pound of copper sulphate) to obtain 2 pounds, 10.7 ounces of crystallized copper sulphate with 42.88 U.S. gallons of the stock limewater, and make up the total volume to 50 U.S. gallons. 0.38 per cent copper sulphate: Mix enough of the stock solution of copper sulphate to obtain 1 pound, 9.3 ounces of crystallized copper sulphate with 25.47 U. S. gallons of the stock limewater, and make up the total volume to 50 U. S. gallons. 0.13 per cent copper sulphate: Mix enough of the stock solution of copper sulphate to obtain 8.67 ounces of crystallized copper sulphate with 8.71 U. S. gallons of the stock limewater, and make up the total volume to 50 U. S. gallons. 0.065 per cent copper sulphate: Mix enough of the stock solution of copper sulphate to obtain 4.33 ounces of crystallized copper sulphate with 4.36 U. S. gallons of the stock limewater, and make up the total volume to 50 U. S. gallons. 1 Throughout this bulletin capital letters in parenthesis following ‘‘ Pickering” indicate the formula used in making the spray. 8 BULLETIN 866, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. To prepare Pickering (C) sprays containing in the finished spray the equivalent of— 0.36 per cent copper sulphate: Mix enough of the stock solution of copper sulphate to obtain 1 pound, 8 ounces of crystallized copper sulphate with 38.98 U. S. gallons of the stock limewater, and make up the total volume to 50 U. 8. gallons. 0.23 per cent copper sulphate: Mix enough of the stock solution of copper sulphate to obtain 15.3 ounces of crystallized copper sulphate with 18.52 U. 8S. gallons of the stock limewater, and make up the total volume to 50 U. S. gallons. 0.115 per cent copper sulphate: Mix enough of the stock solution of copper sulphate to obtain 7.7 ounces of crystallized copper sulphate with 9.26 U. 8. gallons of the stock limewater, and make up the total volume to 50 U. S. gallons, Samples of water used in the various localities for the preparation of Pickering and Bordeaux sprays, analyzed by the Water Laboratory of the Bureau of Chemistry, contained very little ime or any other constituent that might interfere with the preparation of sprays, such as the Pickering sprays, which are made according to definite formulas and are said to depend for their activity on the presence of definite compounds, the basic sulphates of copper. According to the tests of Bedford and Pickering (8, 4), slight variations in the amounts of limewater employed result in the formation of different basic sulphates of copper, each of which functions as a fungicide in a characteristic way. In slaking lime it is important to add just enough water to make it heat, after which water is added slowly to keep the lime from burning. When the reaction nears completion more water is added to make a paste. Finally, when the total amount of water required has been added, the solution is stirred to form saturated limewater. RESULTS OF INVESTIGATION. POTATOES. BuigHt CoNTROL AND YIELD. PICKERING AND STANDARD BORDEAUX SPRAYS IN 1916. Six acres of Green Mountain potatoes in northern Maine (near the Aroostook Farm at Presque isle) were selected for these experiments. As the sprayer was made to spray four rows at a time, the field was divided into four-row plats which, in turn, were subdivided into 200-foot lengths. Since the field was 800 feet long, four subdivisions were made in each group of four rows. A certain spray was applied to the first and third 200-foot plats, another one to the second and fourth 200-foot plats, etc. Thus each spray was applied to one plat in the front and to one in the rear of the field. The plats were so arranged that each four-row plat where any particular spray was being tested had a four-row plat of Bordeaux-sprayed potatoes on one side and a four-row check plat on the other. Seven Pickering sprays were tested. Four (those used on plats” 1, 2, 3, and 4) were made according to Formula A, while three (those PICKERING SPRAYS. se is) used on plats 5, 6, and 7) were made by Formula C. All the Pickering sprays were applied with a hand-pump apparatus on July 19 and August 2, 10, and 17. Bordeaux was applied on these days, and also on July 26. Thus the Pickering sprays were applied four and the Bordeaux five times. Readings for blight, both early and late, were made by three observers working independently, those for the late blight (Phytophthora infestans) being made on the two middle rows of each plat. The average figures obtained from two observations by each of these individuals are recorded, in terms of the estimated percentage of the total foliage infected, in Table 1. The potatoes from the several plats were picked up separately and weighed, the yield results thus obtained being given in Table 1. TABLE 1.—Effect of various sprays on blight and yield of potatoes (northern Maine, 1916). Early blight. Late blight. Yield of tubers.1 Copper Plat No. Spray used. sulphate j et Y | Front of} Rear of| Front of| Rear of| Frontof| Rear of < field. field. field. field. field. field. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.|Per cent.| Pounds.| Pounds. AS Bas te Nl Bordeaux, 5-5-50...-.-- 1225 52 59 7 4 1,189 1,026 Gee aee setae inickerines(C) eee asses = LD 67 73 40 5 1,165 957 WHECKSEL ae Sale ca eae wedis-cissscescees|seo.cees 66 80 60 7 1,202 1,009 Dee sree caeen = Rickerime|(@)E---------- . 23 64 78 43 5 1,221 963 Bute aes .-| Bordeaux, 5-5-50-...-.-| 1.25 59 78 5 2 1,225 1,027 1 ene a rye Pickering (A) Saeeine eens - 065 63 86 53 6 1,170 915 Chie ck sel passe cee ivie cise ctsack molt ca|ec eek nee 68 83 53 a 1,189 957 Seer eae eioee Pickering: (A) ie s-5 2-525 - 13 65 78 13 3 1,187 901 eee s Mele te Bordeaux, 5-5-50....--- 25 50 Al 7 2 1,252 1,260 7 OE ae ickerine (©). -=---- 22! .36 61 58 36 6] 1,283 1,260 CHGO Re I Saal hs Ree Pa wr Ve 67 68 54 21 1,309 1,335 Ue ee Piekerino GA) Ss55.2-5- <2 . 64 64 55 27 4 1,260 1,426 BE eee eet Bordeaux, 5-5-50.......| 1.25 56 58 4 3 1,276 1,386 Deere fase a Pickering @A)xe0- 2-25: .38 63 61 21 Tales 1,208 CineU i Ec a eae en (ome gs 59 64 21 12] 1,220 1,190 Bl 1, 016 Dalee mieten mies Pickering (A) and rosin- 38 72 70 5 : fish-oil soap. 1 Determinations were-made on 200-foot depth of field, four-row plats. The blight in 1916 was not severe. The late blight on the-potatoes under observation was very irregular, being marked i in certain parts of the front of the field, particularly on the Gheck plats, while the rear showed but little. On August 24 the vines in plat 1 and in those sprayed with Bordeaux were green, while those in all the other plats had died.t_ The best results for the control of late blight (Phytophthora infestans) on potatoes were obtained with standard Bordeaux, 5—5—50. The average estimated percentage of late blight on all of the plats sprayed with Bordeaux was 41, the extremes being 2 and 7. The average yield for all of the plats sprayed with standard Bor- deaux was 1,205 pounds of tubers, and for the check plats 1,176 pounds. Plat 1, sprayed with the Pickering (A) spray, contaiming 0.64 per cent of copper sulphate, averaged 1,343 pounds of tubers, and showed 27 and 4 per cent of blight in the front and rear portions 1A portion of this field was sprayed commercially by the owner, starting with a Bordeaux, 44-50, and finishing with a Bordeaux, 7-7-50 or 8-8-50. Neither the length of life of the vines nor the yield was in- creased by this treatment. 180971°—20—Bull. 866——2 10 BULLETIN 866, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of the field, respectively. Plat 2a, receiving the Pickering spray which contained 0.38 per cent of copper sulphate and was mixed with rosin-fish-oil soap, showed 5 and 3 per cent of blight, and a yield of 1,098 pounds, while plat 2, receiving the same spray without the soap, showed 21 and 7 per cent of blight, and a yield of 1,261 pounds. Plat 3, receiving Pickering spray with an 0.13 per cent copper sulphate content, showed 13 and 5 per cent of blight, while plat 7 gave 36 and 6 per cent for blight. All the Pickering-sprayed plats were next to a check plat, while those receiving the Bordeaux were protected by sprayed plats on each side. No rotten tubers were found on any of the plats. As is often the case, some variation occurred in the yields from different portions of the field. The vines of the check plats were not injured by driving through the plats, a factor of some importance in view of the fact that the spray cart was driven twice through some of.the sprayed plats and four times through others when each spray was applied. It is interesting to note that the average yields of the Pickering- sprayed plats just discussed varied with the percentage of copper sulphate present in the spray. The increased yield of the sprayed vines over that of the unsprayed vines was small, because cf the dry weather and the early date at which the vines died. The weak Pickering sprays (containing 0.23 per cent of copper sulphate or less) did not give satisfactory blight readings or results for yield. While the 0.64, 0.38, and 0.36 per cent copper sulphate Pickering sprays gave little indications of controlling the late blight in the front plats, they showed some control on the rear plats, and all the yields were satisfactory. No differences in the action of the Pickering (A) and Pickering (C) sprays were noticed. The copper in these sprays did not appear to be 12 times as effective as that in the starfdard Bordeaux sprays, but per unit of copper present the Pickering sprays looked promising. It was accordingly decided to try Pickering sprays contiining a higher percentage of copper sulphate the following year. PICKERING AND BORDEAUX SPRAYS IN 1917. The arrangement of the plats adopted in 1916 (p. 8) was varied somewhat in 1917, in that the plats were arranged in triplicate and the various plats receiving the same treatment were placed in thrée different sections of the field. The copper sulphate content of the Pickering sprays tested varied from 0.3 to 0.7 per cent (Table 2). Rosin-fish-oil soap, 2 pounds to 50 gallons, was added to the Pickering (A) spray applied to plat 12, and dry arsenate of lead, 1 pound to 50 gallons, to the Pickering (A) spray applied to plat 13 and to the Pickering (C) spray applied to plat 14. Each of these three sprays contained 0.5 per cent of cop- ‘PICKERING SPRAYS. 11 per sulphate. Green Mountain (Norcross strain) potatoes, grown on new land, were sprayed six times during the season, using a Watson sprayer, after the vines were 10 or 12 inches above the ground. Portions of the two middle rows of each plat were read for blight and used for the yield data. The blight readings (Table 2) are the averages of the last readings of four individuals who worked inde- pendently of one another. The results obtained with Bordeaux spray (Pl. I, fig. 1) are more favorable than those secured from using the Pickering spray, with the exception of that applied to plat 1, where they were equally as good (Pl. I, fig. 2). The Pickering sprays which contained less than 0.5 per cent of copper sulphate did not control the blight as effectively as the standard Bordeaux and the Pickering sprays containing 0.6 or 0.7 per cent of copper sulphate. TABLE 2.—Effect of various sprays on blight and yield of potatoes (northern Maine, 1917).1 - : sie Soll Yield of | R : ; ; sulphate ate ield o otten Plat No. Spray used. in spray | blight. | tubers. | tubers. used. Per cent. | Per cent.| Pounds. | Per cent. 1S Ose 6 oR ces BoRee Rickerine; GA) ie ass. pyre h ares nee eae 2 0.7 44 406 12 Bordeaux, 5-5-50 1.25 45 384 14 (Chae. UslSecl Sagee Ls SCOASO CN GE ORE aes ASMC Re Soca tee om bene es 57 347 12 Pe eee Pickering (A) -.----:---- 0.6 52 409 13 _| Bordeaux, 5-5-50. 1.25 41 414 10 GCG keane |e ee mince oo sem ee ce sane yee aac h alee edie 85 321 10 Seerid cceescet. Biekoning (©) hemlet eek le eee awe 0.6 48 404 10 BOT EA tI 55-50 me eens yen ne a oer nE ee 1.25 42 415 11 (Chagos eigudl aseWHGs ES OBO SEA re eet ak sere a naman uaa ae le Sie oar 95 335 10 Ae BEEPS Sys acsie oie Pickering((As) ace sce stiscece eso one eas esse 0.5 53 392 12 Bordeaux, 5-d-50.....-.-.....-.-.-.......-.- 1.25 42 393 10 CHGEK.. JORGE Eas SARC ASe SERB OAE BEERS ear et raster eae ne tee a ee enn 88 301 10 Os anes ia eos. ipickeriney(@) eras venice er seni a eee cee 0.5 53 349 14 Bordeatixsj5-5-505- pees saci e eaten 1.25 43 325 8 GEC etree eee ne ene eee acio cleo emma cocaine eee nell ce amei cele 84 296 12 GE eeapcuneecac s Bickering (GA) isi ees wane eleceinse seein acne 0.4 67 355 10 i BOL CAIEXS 0-000 somes = 2 eae eee 1.25 37 415 11 Chie cheep rier Sete ce cnitiae seasick a clb t Sais 96 309 a Us Seo cteesaceetee Pickering) (Cees sees ose ee eee eet e 0.4 76 381 11 BON Ca 0 0- OU eeemer rer eee eeee ee 1.25 39 399 8 Check 96 320 9 63 337 14 Al 451 11 96 270 9 P15 ais au ns © See Pickering (A) and rosin-fish-oil soap-.--..-.-. 0.5 56 345 11 BOLG EAU OO OU senescence snes 1.25 41 366 17 (CHIEN SS eee RL aeree Eee etc oleae gener Sen atn re ee c a dee e 96 294 11 a Ae eee eee Pickering (A) and lead arsenate...-...-..--. 0.5 56 406 11 BordeaURyO-o 00 bse ee see eee os eee 1.25 42 430 13 (CHOC Keen Eimeria cena eet ans AAG Sys encase cal Me tae 96 270 9 1 Deo B eR Oe ReeEe Pickering (C) and lead arsenate.-...-....--- 0.5 57 358 10 M5 X0) 0 (212) UD: ti 9) | Se 1.25 44 396 16 (CHYGGK 4 6 LASSel Ba SUBSE GO CO HEB Ot ee DEORE EE nae mena a see eel Sea ee oe 96 294 11 1 Determinations were made on two rows, each 300 feet long. The total yield results for plats 1, 2, and 3, treated with Pickering sprays, and for the corresponding Bordeaux-sprayed and check plats are as follows: Pickering, 1,219 pounds; Bordeaux, 1,213 pounds; and check, 1,003 pounds. Plats 4 and 5, to which the Pickering spray having an 0.5 per cent copper sulphate content was applied, yielded 741 pounds of tubers; the corresponding Bordeaux-sprayed plats, 718 pounds; and the check plats, 597 pounds. The plats 12 BULLETIN 866, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. treated with Pickering sprays containing less than 0.4 per cent of . copper sulphate yielded less than the corresponding Bordeaux- sprayed plats but more than the check plats.’ The yield of tubers from the sprayed plats showed an increase of from 30 to 40 per cent over that from the unsprayed plats. A high proportion of rotten tubers was found on all the plats. This was due principally to the wet weather, but partially to the late start made in applying the sprays. The percentage of rotten | tubers from the various plats is too variable to permit of any definite conclusions. ‘The tubers from the check plats showed no more rot. than those from the sprayed plats. Barrels of potatoes from several of the plats treated with Pickering and Bordeaux sprays, as well as from the check plats, were stored in a potato cellar until February, 1918, when the tubers were sorted. The percentage of rot found among the potatoes from the various plats was very uniform. In 1917 the blight was severe, and the land used for the experi- ments was uneven, which gave some of the plats a decided advantage over others. The results showed that a Pickering spray containing 0.7 per cent of copper sulphate is in all respects as efficient as a Bordeaux, 5-5-50, containing 1.25 per cent of copper sulphate. No differences were noted in the relative efficiency of the Pickering (A) and (C) sprays. While these sprays were not shown to be 12 times as effective as standard Bordeaux, the indications were that they were more efficient per unit of copper in the solution used than the Bordeaux mixture. PICKERING AND BORDEAUX SPRAYS IN 1918. Series 1.—Tests with Pickermg (A) spray, containing 0.7 per, cent of copper sulphate, were made on two farms in the vicinity of Presque Isle, as well as on the farm used in 1916 and 1917. Each spray was applied five times to acre plats, using a Watson sprayer, two nozzles per row, in two instances, and a new single-nozzle sprayer in the other. Twice during the season the vines were double sprayed. The blight, while widespread in July, and threatening to do as much damage as in the previous season, was stopped by the dry weather during August. The blight readings on the vines, made by three individuals working independently, were low, 2 per cent or less, for the Pickermg- and Bordeaux-sprayed plats. The check plats ~ showed. from 20 to 50 per cent of blight. Evidently, then, the Pickering sprays applied in 1918 checked the blight as effectively as did the Bordeaux mixture. The yield results on two of the farms varied greatly, according to the location of the plats, beeause of an uneven distribution of manure and fertilizer over the fields. On the farm previously used for the Bul. 866, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. : PLATE I. Fia. |.—POTATO VINES SPRAYED WITH BORDEAUX, 3-38-50 (PLAT 55), AND UNSPRAYED (PLAT 54). FIG. 2.-POTATO VINES SPRAYED WITH PICKERING SPRAY (LEFT OF STAKE 48) AND UNSPRAYED VINES (RIGHT OF STAKE 43). Bul. 866, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. Fic. |.—POTATO VINES SPRAYED WITH BORDEAUX, 5-5-50 (PLAT B), AND WITH PICKERING SPRAY (PLAT |). FIG. 2.—POTATO VINES SPRAYED WITH BARIUM-WATER SPRAY (PLAT 59) AND UNSPRAYED (PLAT 58). PICKERING SPRAYS. 18 experimental work, however, where the treatment of the soil was uniform, increased yields were obtained from the plats treated with the Pickering and Bordeaux sprays. Series 2.—A second series of tests was conducted in northern Maine in 1918, using (1) a Bordeaux spray, (2) Pickering (A) and (C) sprays, (3) a spray in which the limewater was replaced by barium water, and (4) an 0.6 per cent solution of copper sulphate to which powdered arsenate of lead (1 pound to 50 gallons) had been added. In all cases the sprays were made to contain 0.6 per cent of copper sulphate. Green Mountain (Norcross strain) potatoes were first sprayed when the vines were 5 or 6 inches above the ground, after which they received five applications with a Watson sprayer, using two nozzles to arow. The results of this work are recorded in Table 3. Taste 3.—E fect of various sprays on blight and yield of tubers (northern Maine, 1918). nee Lat Yield of sulphate ate ield o Plat No. Spray used. in spray | blight. | tubers.2 used. Per cent. | Per cent.| Pounds. arnt says. - 2s s oe ee deaths Haves (WA) eae = mals oe ol Lae ap er ae 0.7 2. 274 IB ATAU Wa bOnS. sess ae oe ate ac oS eee ate einem 1.0 277 Bordeaux, 5-5—50 1.7 247 Bordeaux, 4-4-50 1.0 276 Bordeaux, 4-2-50..-. 3.0 258 Bordeaux, 4-1-50... 2.7 277 CHECKER CR oe ee seal oo eee ei eee ee eae ss 20-50 215 PRAMS Det c oc smtise eae PACK CHUM Ch CANIS ayes pees ese yal ee ely 2 7 1.2 261 Baritimywaterense wees ey eee Sees Shak ees beeigecs si 1.6 264 Bord eaumeo OOO 2 eee ee aie eres yartn tsi jocisinisoe 1.25 1.2 279 IB Xai ea Were bbsce CAE) eee ee oe ake tek eee el eee mea 1.0 1.5 243 IB OLde a xa 2 DO eee eh et ae alae) Sietaysjnyte 1.0 1.7 198 IBOrd Cauix: At HO eee a ose SE Pe a reece 1.0 1.8 222 ATI Sr crsineeniates cae se BiGlersiM oy CAs a eaaie Sse essed naoeio oe icine Sere si i108} 227 SPN TOA WETS) to ae Bonne aie See ee Se as off 2.3 303 Ord eax 7-900 sa ane Sees Saree wae oe ee es 1.25 2.0 224 Bordeatss 44-50. 2 45 Ss Se ete 1.0 1.3 295 Bordeaux; 4—D-h0 easels a ee eee ee ese te sails 1.0 1.9 370 Bordeaux 4150s 8 2. eee ano sSeecnceesct eee 1.0 2.5 375 IBOrdeaiix joo D0 kee ko eo os De eats Saas 1.25 a) 244 ue cwoteias Se aaa 33. 0 235 -| Pickering (A).--. 1.7 241 -| Pickering (C)---. 1.3 201 Bordeaux, 24-23-5 3.0 248 Bariumena terse: omens es ae ee Te eet E 1.7 241 Mise eRe es Sos oS Copper sulphate and lead arsenate. --....-.....- . 60 1.8 237 SBE ae sane ems Bordeatwx/5-5-50. 2 sce Fee ee eect ete ses 1.25 1.2 242 B) (CELMUEYGAEY) Ps a ere NR |e Sa TD SE oe aE IE ga See al On ee ee Fe 45.0 175 1 Determinations made on two rows, each 150 feet long. 2 Plat partially shaded. The blight readings of all the plats sprayed were practically the same (1 to 3 per cent), while the vmes on the check plats showed 33 and 45 per cent infection. The yields were remarkably uniform. for all the plats, with the exception of the last check plat, which was shaded by the adjacent trees. The dry season and the fact that the vines were killed by frost on September 9 tended to reduce the increased yields which are usually obtained from sprayed plats. Here the Pickering sprays containing 0.6 per cent of copper sulphate 14 BULLETIN 866, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. gave as good results as the Bordeaux sprays containing 1.25 per cent of copper sulphate. In fact, all of the sprays gave practically the same results. The only plats giving yields below 240 pounds were the two check plats and the one treated with copper sulphate and lead arsenate. The yield and blight readings were practically the same for the plats sprayed with the Pickering solution as for those sprayed with Bordeaux mixture (Plate IT, fig. 1). In Central Maine.—Separate plats of about 4 acre each of Green Mountain and Rural New Yorker seed potatoes, in Foxcroft, Me., were treated with Pickermg and barium-water sprays of 0.7 per cent copper sulphate content, and with reduced lime Bordeaux, 4—4—50, 4—2-50, and 4-1—50, sprays. The rest of the 8-acre field was sprayed with a standard Bordeaux, 5-5-50. Plats sprayed with standard Bordeaux were placed between the experimental plats. A spray wagon treating six rows at a time was used. As the vines were not sprayed until July 15, they were double sprayed at each spraying, or four times altogether. The results of these tests are given in Table 4. TABLE 4.—Effect of various sprays on late blight and yield of potatoes (Central Maine, 1918). Green Mountain. | Rural New Yorker. Plat Supe No Spray used. sulphate =e ae : f 1n spray. ghton| ~-- ght on} <-- vines. Yield. Se Yield. Per cent. | Per cent. | Pounds. | Per cent. | Pounds. 1%.) Pickering:(A)= 5. 322. 2n2-caecmsec cmemertcee 0.7 Trace. 331 Trace. 324 22...) Barium water.. oi -ss2. asec decencceccansb sess 7 -do...-. 322 |...d0-=..- 332 23-_..| Bordeaux, 4-4-5022 oso eeeiteeieiseie eee ees 1.0 dozss.: 285 |..-d0....- 285 Ae BOLdeaiik 4-200 ae eee ee eraser eee eee 1.0 do..... 338 |.--d0.---. 333 De=-| bordeatx, 4-150) ee pee see eee eee 1.0 do..... 381 |...do-..... 319 62.2:] Bordeaux, 5-5-50.: -- e255. Sees eee eae eee 1.25 doles! 258 peed Gnnsee 330 1 Obtained from two rows, 150 feet long. 2 A ledge of rock in this plat. On the whole, the blight results were uniform and very low. Early in August a trace of blight appeared through this and other fields, but the dry August practically put an end to it. The yields of Green Mountain tubers varied somewhat, particularly at the lower end of the field where plats 5 and 6 were located, but plats 1, 2, and 4 gave practically the same yields. The Rural New Yorker potatoes were grown on a more uniform portion of the field, so that they showed uniform results, except in plat 3, where a ledge of rock reduced the yield. Only traces of blight were seen on the Rural New Yorker vines, which are much more rangy and stand up from the ground higher than the Green Mountain vines, making them less liable to infections of late blight. BARIUM-WATER SPRAYS IN 1916. It was thought that the greater solubility of barium hydrate over lime might be an advantage in the preparation of a spray like the PICKERING SPRAYS. 15 Pickering sprays. While barium hydrate costs much more than lime, barium, unlike lime, is dissolved, leaving no residue. Barium is said to possess some fungicidal powers which lime does not. Oster- hout (16) noticed a peculiar contraction of certain species of spyro- gyra in 0.0001 molecular solution of barium chlorid, which was not produced by chlorid of lime or other salts. A spray contaming 0.38 per cent of copper sulphate was prepared by dissolving barium hydrate in water and adding the copper sul- phate solution to the barium water. When necessary more barium water was added until no free copper was present, as determined by tests with potassium ferrocyanide. In 1916 this spray was applied four times, while the regular 5—5—50 Bordeaux was applied five times. The plats sprayed with barium water were next to the check plats and the Bordeaux-sprayed plats were between two sprayed plats. The blight readings were: Barium- water-sprayed plats, 25 and 12 per cent; Bordeaux-sprayed plats, 12 and 10 per cent; check plats, 75 and 41 per cent. The yields of tubers were: Barium-water-sprayed plats, 1,142 and 1,052 pounds; Bordeaux-sprayed plats, 1,125 and 1,168 pounds; check plats, 1,058 and 1,138 pounds. In view of the fact that only 0.38 per cent of copper sulphate was present in the spray and but four applications were made, while the Bordeaux was applied five times, these results were sufficiently satisfactory to warrant additional tests. BARIUM-WATER SPRAYS IN 1917. In 1917 a barium-water spray made to contain 0.7 per cent of copper sulphate was tested. The average percentage of late blight on the vines was: Check plat, 76 per cent; barium-water-sprayed plat, 21 per cent; Bordeaux-sprayed plat, 13 per cent. The yield of tubers and percentage of rot from the two middle rows of each plat, each row being 100 feet long, were: Standard Bordeaux-sprayed plat, 148 pounds, 8 per cent rot; barium-water-sprayed plat, 168 pounds, 5 per cent rot; check plat, 130 pounds, 6 per cent rot. The barium-water-sprayed plat adjoined a check plat, while the Bor- deaux-sprayed plat had sprayed plats on either side.. BARIUM-WATER SPRAYS IN 1918. In 1918 a barium-water spray containing 0.7 per cent of copper sulphate, which had given excellent results in 1917, was tested on acre plats in a-commercial way, and another barium-water spray, containing 0.6 per cent of copper sulphate, was tested on a smaller scale. The plats to which 0.7 per cent barium-water spray was applied on the commercial scale gave blight yield readings of from 1 to 2.3 per cent as compared with readings of from 1.2 to 2.0 per cent in the 16 BULLETIN 866, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ease of those sprayed with standard Bordeaux and of from 20 to 50 per cent in the case of the unsprayed plats. The barium-water- sprayed plats yielded from 264 to 303 pounds of tubers, the Bor- deaux-sprayed plats from 247 to 313 pounds, and the oheol: plats 215 pounds. The application of the 0.6 per cent barium-sulphate spray to smaller plats gave an average blight reading of 1.7 per cent, as com- pared with 0.5 and 1.2 per cent for the Bordeaux, 5—5-50, mixture, and 33 and 45 per cent when no spray was used. The yields of tubers from two rows, each 150 feet long, were: Bordeaux-sprayed plat, 244 pounds; check plat, 235 pounds; barium-water-sprayed plat, 241 pounds. These results, extending over three seasons, particularly those of 1917 and 1918, indicate that a spray made with barium hydrate and containing 0.7 per cent of copper sulphate gives a satisfactory control of blight and the same yield of tubers as a Bordeaux, 5—5—50, con- taining 1.25 per cent of copper sulphate. Plate II, figure 2, shows the protective action given by the fee spray in 1918, when the blight was severe. In preparing the barium-water spray contaming 0.7 per cent of copper sulphate, equal parts of copper sulphate and barium hydrate (2.8 pounds of barium hydrate and 2:8 pounds of copper sulphate to 50 gallons) were found to be satisfactory. While such a spray gave good results and reduced the copper sulphate used 44 per cent, the price of barium hydrate is so high that such a spray can not be con- sidered commercially practicable at the present time. If the price of barium hydrate drops, or if bartum chlorid, which sells for $75 per ton, can be used, an effective spray may be cheaply prepared. The fact that no residue is left, that the barium hydrate may be added to the spray tank with the water and dissolved there, and that there is reduced wear and tear on apparatus, may induce a trial of this spray, particularly if the yields are shown to be stimulated to a greater extent than with Bordeaux, 5—5-50. — REDUCED MILK-OF-LIME SPRAYS IN 1917. Bordeaux, 3-3-50 and 3-14-50, sprays were applied to potatoes during the season of 1917. The reason for reducing the proportion of lime used as milk of lime was to determine its influence on the fungicidal power of the copper and its effect upon the adhesive prop- erties of the spray. Blight control—Check plat, 71 per cent; plat sprayed with Bor- deaux, 5-5-50, 13 per cent; plat sprayed with Bordeaux, 3-3-50, 38 per cent; and plat sprayed with Bordeaux, 3-14-50, 26 per cent. Yveld.—Check plat, 139 pounds; plat sprayed with Bordeaux, 5-5-50, 158 pounds; plat sprayed with Bordeaux, 3-3-50, 148 doundss plat sprayed with Bordeaux, 3-14-50, 172 pounds. PICKERING SPRAYS. 17 Rotten tubers.—Check plat, 3 per cent; plat sprayed with Bordeaux, 55-50, 4 per cent; plat sprayed with Bordeaux, 3-3-50, 8 per cent; plat sprayed with Bordeaux, 3-14-50, 8 per cent. — The Bordeaux, 5—5—50, spray gave the lowest average readings for blight. The largest yield of tubers came from the plat sprayed with Bordeaux, 3-14-50. Apparently the percentage of rotten tubers was not influenced by the spray used. The fact that the plats sprayed with Bordeaux, 3-3-50 and 3-14-50, were on lower ground than the other two plats, together with the wetness of the season, accounted for the high percentage of rotten tubers found on them. REDUCED MILK-OF-LIME SPRAYS IN 1918. In 1918 one-acre plats were sprayed with Bordeaux, 4—4—50, 4—2-50, and 4—1—50, to determine the influence of varying amounts of lime on a definite amount of copper. The average results of these tests, which were conducted on the same fields as the Pickering and barium- water tests, appear in Table 3. The blight readings are so low that it is impossible to draw a definite conclusion from them. Those for the plats sprayed with Bordeaux, 55-50 and 44-50, are lower than those for the plats sprayed with Bor- deaux, 4—2-50 and 4-1-50. ‘While the Bordeaux, 4—1-50, gave some- what larger yields than the other sprays, the average yields of tubers were practically the same for all the sprayed plats. The slight varia-: _ tion which exists is undoubtedly due to the location of the plats and the fertilizer used rather than to the sprays. ADHERENCE OF COPPER FROM SPRAYS TO LEAVES. The power of various sprays to adhere to potato leaves was tested by Girard (11), who employed standard Bordeaux, Bordeaux made with half the usual amount of lime, Bordeaux made with aluminum sulphate, copper and soda mixture, and copper and acetate of lime mixture. The sprayed plats were subjected to artificial ram for vari- ous periods. The Bordeaux spray made with half the usual amount of lime left the largest amount of copper on the leaves. The addition of sulphate of aluminum was of ‘no value. Butler (7) also concludes that a Bordeaux mixture made with a medium amount of lime has greater adhesive properties than one to which the full amount of lime has been added, and considers the alkalme Bordeaux sprays more adhesive than the acid or neutral Bordeaux sprays. Method of estumating copper on leaves.—To determine how~much of the copper from the various sprays actually remained on the potato leaves, sets of 50 leaves were picked from the vines on the different plats, the leaves from each plat bemg placed in separate envelopes. Directly after picking tracings were made of the outlines of the leaves and were later measured with a planimeter to obtain the areas of 18097 1°—20—Bull, 866——3 ~ 18 BULLETIN 866, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the leaves. The area of one side of the leaves only was used in mak- ing the calculations. The leaves were dried and used for analysis for copper. The results were expressed as milligrams of copper per square millimeter of leaf surface. By weighing the leaves when dry it was then possible to express the results both as parts of copper per million on the dried leaves and as milligrams of copper per square meter of leaf surface. Method of determining copper on leaves.—The leaves were placed in 44-inch porcelain dishes and ashed in the muffle at dull red heat. The ash was covered with 30 cc. of 1-3 nitric acid and allowed to stand over night. It was then filtered and washed, the filtrate made faintly ammoniacal, and brought to a boil. Next it was cooled, made to suitable volume, and filtered. An adequate aliquot was taken for the colorimetric estimation of the copper. This aliquot, as well as solutions of standard copper sulphate, contaming added am- monia and nitric acid, were evaporated to dryness in clean, white, 3-inch porcelain dishes. To the residues 5 cc. of distilled water and3 drops of acetic acid were added, and finally 3 drops of 10 per cent potassium ferrocyanid, the dishes being rotated to mix the solutions, which were immediately compared with the standards. The results are expressed as parts of copper per million. This method has been checked against the electrolytic copper method and found to give good results. The standard copper sulphate solution was made to contain 0.0001 gram of copper per cc. IN 1916. On August 12, two days after the third spray had been applied, a set of leaves (lot 1) was taken from the vines on the sprayed plats. On August 24, seven days after the leaves had been sprayed, addi- tional samples of leaves (lot 2) were taken. ‘The results of the analy- ses, which were made in duplicate, are given in Table 5. Average results for four sets of leaves, or 200 leaves, from each plat show that the barium-water and three of the seven Pickering sprays employed left a higher percentage of copper on the leaves to 0.1 per cent of cop- per sulphate present in the spray than Bordeaux, 5-5-50. The other four Pickeringsprays didnot show as high aratio of copper on the leaves as did the Bordeaux, 5-5-50. It must be remembered, of course, that the Pickering sprays were applied four times, while the Bordeaux spray was applied five times. Although the Bordeaux-sprayed leaves always showed the presence of more copper than any of the others, it is apparent that, considering the amount of copper sulphate used, the copper of the Pickering sprays adhered equally as well. The leaves from the vines treated with Pickering (A) spray and rosin-fish-oil soap showed the presence of-more copper than did those from the vines sprayed with plain Pickering (A) spray containing 0.38 per cent of copper sulphate. The amounts of copper on the leaves of the vines PICKERING SPRAYS. My sprayed with Pickering (A) and (C) sprays varied markedly. On an average more copper was found on the leaves sprayed with Pickering (C) sprays than on those treated with Pickering (A) sprays. TABLE 5.—Adherence of copper from various sprays to potato leaves (northern Maine). Copper adhering to leaves. Parts per mil- lion per 0.1 per cent CuSO, in spray (dry basis). Lot 1.! |Lot 2.2 Mg. square meter ofleafsurface. per Mg. per square meter ofleafsurface per 0.1 per cent CuSO, in spray. Lot 1.1) Lot 2.2 |Lot 1.1 eee es Cop- Pl Sa at sul- No. Spray. phate in spray 1916 Per See see Standard Bordeaux, | cent. Sor earn seers ees 1.25 SSE ne Pickering (A).........] .64 A eoeccs| Gee CW 5 5 SSE Seana ale Bates ee pete eal as) ion (COs Joasonnee cose c| eae 34a bbe eee Ope ee ae Las OOD Seto sma) Pickering (C).........! .23 Beaten te pais CG Ko) ece Alcea se mel omega LH ay ScEee eae Sones Glo}s SARS e meee Sel eaeas a) SBE Pickering (A) and rosin-fish-oil soap.:..| .38 a aaa Barium water.........| .38 1917 :: ile eee Pickering (A)........- 7 Deore Serene GOsE enor -6 Basecsee Pickering (C)......... 6 Aare ream Pickering (A)......... 5 Hse Fas cee OS see -5 Geel eee Geet eee A serine Pickering (C). - 4 mS ora ig (Oise Ses Cot a ker Be .3 iPS aaa Pickering (A) and rosin-fish-oil soap. . 13......| Pickering (A) and lead arsenate........ BANS Pickering (C) and lead arsenate. .....-- 5 Boe aie Bordeaux, 5-5-50-.....| 1.25 (CheGka PRs se CHECK Bae eet ne essa es. ck oe ae: Bordeaux, 3-3-50......} .75 tics ety Bordeaux, 5-5-50_...-..| 1.25 Bee ame Bordeaux, 3-13-50... of) Checks Bile is Foe as Ber acise Barium water.........| .7 Sees Burgundy mixture....| 1.25 pe ners pees 5-5-50......] 1.25 1918. (SESS OG Pickering (A)........- all Defer oreaes Barium water........- oi OE SaeTe Bordeaux, 4-4-50...... 1.0 Ae ee aa2 Bordeaux, 4-2-50...... 1.0 Fee See Bordeaux, 4-1-50...... 1.0 Goes ses: Bordeaux, 5-5-50.....- 1.25 Awe S Pickering’ CQ ae Cc Pickering (C). -6 a Bordeaux... .- -6 Barium water........- -6 Breese Copper sulphate and lead arsenate........ -6 Parts per million (dry basis). Lot 11 | Lot 2.2 163.3 332.6 149.7 53.7 29.4 22.3 35.8 19.6 9.11 U2 42.9 23.8 36.6 18.9 61.8 97.9 120.8 54.0 73.6 38.0 519.8 571.7 455.1 533.9 422.6 373.6 338.1 431.5 277.5 334.5 274.2 319.3 111.9 200.5 138.6 163.3 141.4 338. 0 128.9 275.0 213.3 390.0 387.4 | 1,073.7 41.8 22.05 363.0 956. 19 566.4 | 1,641.60 618.1 | 1,098.0 16.9 271.4 878.3 DE eee ens 1,217.5 Bese hohe 1,703.0 1,650 1, 400 1,950 1, 850 1, 400 2, 250 1,300 1, 400 1,400 1,200 900 13.0 | 26.6 23.4| 8.4 NS ERO) 27.6] 15.1 14.0| 11.1 18.7} 10.3 31.8| 16.4 7. 25) 27.2 31.8] 14.0 19.4 | 10.0 74.2 | 81.7 75.8 | 89.0 70.4 | 62.3 69.6 | 86.3 55.5 | 66.9 68.6 | 79.8 28.0] 50.1 46.2] 54.4 28.3 | 67.6 25.8 | 55.0 42.7 | 78.0 31.0 | 86.0 "48.4 | 197.5 45.3 | 131.3 82.4 | 146.4 "38.8 | 125.5. Seis 97.4 saree 136.4 Bo Bee eee ro oO 1 In 1916, picked two days after spraying, and in 1917, eight days after spraying. 2 In 1916, picked seven days after spraying, and in 1917, two days after spraying. IN 1917. Lot 2.2 Leaves picked on August 11, eight days after spraying (lot 1) and on August 24, two days after Saree (lot 2), were analyzed with the results shown j in Table 5. 20 BULLETIN 866, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Lot 1.—The copper of the Pickering sprays adhered to the leaves in proportionally greater amounts than that of the Bordeaux spray. Per unit of copper sulphate in the spray more copper was deposited on the leaves sprayed with the three Pickering sprays which contained the highest percentages of copper sulphate than on those sprayed with Bordeaux, but less on the leaves treated with the other Pick- ering sprays. The results for copper on the leaves sprayed with barium water were low. Of the leaves treated with the 3-3-50 and 3-14-50 sprays those receiving the 3-14-50 spray showed the largest deposits. Lot 2.—As arule, more copper adhered to the leaves sprayed with Bordeaux than to those to which any of the other sprays were applied. In several instances, however, the results for the Pickering-sprayed leaves were equal to those for the Bordeaux-sprayed leaves per unit of copper sulphate in the spray. The addition of lead arsenate or rosin-fish-oil soap to the Pickering sprays did not increase the amount ‘of copper which adhered to the leaves. More copper adhered to the leaves sprayed with standard Bordeaux than to those sprayed with barium water or Burgundy mixture. Average results —More of the copper of the Pickering (A) than of the Pickering (C) sprays adhered to the leaves. In three of the eight Pickering sprays tested, the copper adhered to the leaves in a higher proportion per copper sulphate content of the spray than the copper of the standard Bordeaux, 5-5-50. The Bordeaux, 3-14-50, spray gave higher results than either the Burgundy mixture or barium water. In proportion to the amount of copper sulphate present in the spray, the Burgundy mixture gave the lowest results of all. IN 1918. During the season of 1918, the adherence of copper to potato leaves was determined for Pickering (A) spray, containing 0.7 per cent of copper sulphate, for barium-water spray, with the same copper sulphate content, and for Bordeaux, 4-4-50, 4-2-50, and 4-1-50, sprays, each containing 1 per cent of eopper sulphate. The results (Table 5) are very uniform except those for the Bordeaux, 4—1-50, spray, used on plat 5, which gave lower figures than the sprays used on plats 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6. The highest average figure for copper per unit of copper sulphate in the spray was obtained in the case of the Pickering (A) spray with a copper sulphate content of 0.7 per cent, applied to plat 1. In the tests on plats A, C, D, E, and F, in which sprays containing 0.6 per cent of copper sulphate were employed, the amount of copper adhering on the leaves treated with Pickering (C) spray was the same as the amount adhering to those sprayed with Bordeaux. The leaves sprayed with Pickering (A) spray gave slightly lower results and those treated with the barium-water spray, PICKERING SPRAYS. 21 still lower ones. The solution of copper sulphate and lead arsenate did not seem to adhere to the leaves as well as the other sprays. SUMMARY. The various Pickering and Bordeaux sprays tested adhered equally well to the potato leaves. Little difference was noted between the adhesive property of the copper from the Pickering (A) and that of the copper from the Pickering (C) solutions. The 1916 results favored the Pickering (C) spray, while the 1917 results were higher in the case of Pickering (A) sprays. The addition of either rosin-fish-oil soap or lead arsenate to a Pickering spray failed to increase its adhesive properties. In 1916 the results on leaves sprayed with barium-water spray were higher than, in 1917 lower than, and in 1918 equal to the standard Bordeaux results. A reduction in the amount of milk of lime used in preparing a standard Bordeaux type of spray did not appear to influence the adhesive properties of the spray until the - amount used was less than that necessary to combine with the copper present, when a decrease in adhesive power resulted. The copper of the Burgundy mixture (sal-soda Bordeaux) did not adhere as well as the copper of standard Bordeaux, for the reason that all of the copper _ had not been precipitated by the sal soda. InsuRyY TO VINES AND TUBERS. No injury to vines or tubers was observed as the result of the appli- cation of any of the sprays used in these tests. SUMMARY. PICKERING SPRAYS. A Pickering spray containing 0.7 per cent of copper sulphate con- trolled the late blight as well as, and gave yield results equal to those obtained with, Bordeaux, 5-5—50, containing 1.25 per cent of copper sulphate. The copper in the Pickering sprays was apparently twice as effective as that in standard Bordeaux, 5-5-50. Pickering sprays containing 0.6 per cent of copper sulphate gave the same yield of tubers and nearly as effective control of late blight as Bordeaux, 5-5-50. Pickering sprays containing less than 0.6 per cent of copper sulphate did not give satisfactory control of late blight. The claims of Bedford and Pickering (3, 4) that the copper of the limewater sprays is from 10 to 12 times as effective as the copper of standard Bordeaux were not substantiated by the results of these experi- ments. Pickering (A) and (C) sprays were found to be equally effective in controlling late blight on potatoes. The Pickering sprays adhered to the leaves as well as standard Bordeaux. The use of rosin-fish-oil soap or lead arsenate with Pick- 22 BULLETIN 866, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ering sprays did not materially influence their adhesive properties on potato leaves. No injury to the leaves or to the potato plants was caused by any of the Pickering sprays tested. The amount of copper sulphate essential for the control of late blight on potatoes in Maine may be reduced 44 per cent by the use of Pickering sprays. The amount of lime required is reduced also and all grit removed from the spray, while at the same time the wear and tear on spray machinery is greatly diminished. These results were obtained in Maine where the principal potato trouble is late blight. It, is impossible to state what the efficacy of Pickering sprays on potatoes would be in sections where other troubles predominate. BARIUM-WATER SPRAYS. Tests with a barium-water spray containing 0.7 per cent of copper sulphate showed that it gave practically the same control of late blight and the same yields as Bordeaux, 5—5-50. In fact, in 1917 and 1918 the yields were slightly larger on plats sprayed with barrum water than on those sprayed with Bordeaux. REDUCED-MILK-OF-LIME SPRAYS. The 3-14-50 spray tried in 1917 (a severe blight year) gave a larger yield and a lower blight reading than the 3-38-50 spray. In 1918, the blight readings for the plats where the 4-1—50 spray was ‘employed were a little higher than for those where the 4—4—50 spray was used. Apparently the amount of lime present in a Bordeaux spray used for potatoes in Maine has little effect on the fungicidal power. As long as sufficient lime is present to combine with the cop- per, the extra ieee has no fungicidal advantage, but has several dis- advantages. Less copper adhered to the leaves when a 4—1-— 50 spray was em- ployed than when 4—4—50 and 4—2-50 sprays were used. This may be explained by the presence of free cOnD ey sulphate in the 4-1—50 sprays. STANDARD BORDEAUX SPRAYS. In sections where the blight may be severe, such as northern Maine, a Bordeaux, 5—5—50, is recommended. In other States where the blight is usually less severe a Bordeaux, 4—4—50, is desirable. GRAPES. ConTROL oF FunGous DISEASES, IN NEW JERSEY. Four acres of Concord grapes near Vineland, N. J., were treated with Pickering (A) and (C) sprays, varying in copper sulphate con- tent from 0.065 to 0.64 per cent, and with a standard Bordeaux, PICKERING SPRAYS. Diy: 3-3-50, spray, containing 0.75 per cent of copper sulphate. A Pickering (A) spray containing 0.38 per cent of copper sulphate was used alone and in combination with rosin-fish-oil soap. One plat was held unsprayed as a check plat. The sprays were applied on May 18, May 27, June 15, and July 7, 1916. A power sprayer was used for each spraying with the Bordeaux and for the May sprayings with the Pickering spray, while a hand-pump sprayer was employed for the June and July applications of the Pickering spray. Because of injury to the vines sprayed with the strongest Pickering solutions after a severe hail storm occurring on June 11, no further applica- tions of these sprays were made. The spraying of one or two rows of erapes with the weaker Pickering sprays was, however, continued throughout the season. TaBLe 6.—LH fect ny various sprays on blight and yield of grapes (New Jersey). Condition of fruit when Net Cop- picked. weight e per of Eiat Spray used. ies Fa are Berea Spray injury noted June 13. in |gouna| Black} cu ee from SIE Ne Tot. | dew. | eased. a Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct.| Lbs. We re tsiecsre Pickering (A)..-...-.- 0.64 (@) () @) @) 121 | Leaves and fruit greatly | injured; many buds de- stroyed. De erates eis |iaieis avai dO Ssseseewses -38 (4) Q) (1) (@) 411 | Almost complete defolia- : tion; part of fruit de- stroyed. Dre ose Pickering (A) and] .38 (@) (@) (@) (1) 784 Do. rosin-fish-oil soap. Geeneace Pickering (A)2____.-. -13 | 76.12 | 21.17 Pil || PBS eccooas Leaves noticeably injured. Oeisieteprsil isles es Choe eea kare al ols) 71.68 | 25.00 3.33 | 28.33 961 Do. (a Sete eee GOVE Sie ee _-| -965 | 69.63 | 25.98 4.39 | 30.37 | 1,501 | Leaves ‘slightly injured. Dee sieis Pickering (C)2.....,.] .23 (4) () (1) (CyNal aesiee ee Large proportion of leaves destroyed. ake oo eale oe COi8e sires eee - 23 (1) (1) (1) (4) 949 Do. Graas se epee Obese acsmccice raise -115 | 85.09 } 12. 43 1.48 | 14.01 | 1,502 | Leaves slightly injured. UQeeepose llores Be Pickering (A) Set ee - 64 3.5 | Leaves and fruit badly injured. Die sae A 2 ea (6 Ro PS i sei eee eae 38 5.0 | Leaves severely injured; fruit somewhat. BD eee bee Pickering (A) and rosin- -38 5.0 Do. fish-oil soap. Gye aa See se Pickeringi(A)) = 52.2522 -13 11.0 | Slight burning of leaves. pes Se eas Pickering,(@))..2-----2 42 .23 6.5 Do. See ey eb 2 ie Goa 8 ee -36 5.0 | Leaves severely injured; fruit somewhat. Checkers & allt dads bee cnc cee ba meseoe - 00 100.0 | Vines not much injured. The results in Table 7 show that the four strongest Pickering sprays tested (plats 1, 2, 2b, and 7) and the standard Bordeaux spray gave an excellent control of black-rot leaf spot on the leaves. The sprays used on plats 3 and 5 gave a less effective control of the disease. . Black-rot spots were seen on the leaves of all the vines on the check plat. The weeds in the vineyard were high, and the weather was moist, rendering conditions for infection excellent. Of all the ex- perimental plats, No. 5 looked the best, although not as well as the plat sprayed with standard Bordeaux. YIELD. IN NEW JERSEY. The yield of grapes sprayed varied with the injury to the vines, which in turn depended upon the percentage of copper sulphate in the Pickering sprays employed. The two weakest (those used on plats 4 and 6) gave good yield results, but plat 4 showed only 69 and plat 6 only 85 per cent of sound berries, as compared with 93 per cent obtained from the plat sprayed with Bordeaux, 3-3-50. PICKERING SPRAYS. 25 IN VIRGINIA. It was considered impracticable to attempt to determine the weight of grapes from the different plats in Virginia. From the three rows sprayed with Bordeaux 26 crates of grapes were obtained, an average of 83 crates perrow. From the 20 rows of grapevines sprayed with the Pickering sprays 26 crates of salable grapes were secured, an average of 1.3 crates per row. No grapes were harvested from the unsprayed check rows. Not all of the grapes from the plats sprayed with Pickering spray were picked, as some of the fruit was small and immature. ADHERENCE OF CopPpER FRom VARIOUS SPRAYS TO LEAVES. IN NEW JERSEY. Duplicate samples of leaves from the plats treated with the various sprays were gathered on June 6 (10 days after the second spraying) and on June 8 (12 days after the second spraying). Forty leaves from each set were analyzed, the results obtained on those gathered on June 6 being shown in Table 8. The area of one side only of the leaves was considered in calculating the area figures. The outlines of the fresh leaves were traced on paper, and the tracings later meas- ured by a polar planimeter (p. 17). TABLE 8.—Adherence of copper from various sprays to grape leaves. Copper adhering to leaves. Mg. per : Copper é ; Parts, A c square ¢ sulp ate arts per g. per meter Plat No. Spray used. inspray | per million, | square | ofleaf used. million | per0.1 meter surface percent | ofleaf | per0.1 basis). CuSO, } surface. | per cent in spray. CuSO, in spray. New Jersey: Per cent. Bi he ee Bord eaitx3-3=h0-22 2 eile se ora se 0.75 1,459 194 64.0 8.5 1 4 ae ee Pickering (A) Se ais See te OE ek - 64 982 153 46.2 7.2 Pe = dae | eae (1 Stet oe lB ac Ra Soy 6 he Re a ae om -38 750 197 29.9 7.8 PEF a ee a Pickering (A) and rosin-fish-oil soap. -38 709 187 27.8 de Binve tes eae Pigeons CAS) Eee SS Ns FEE corde -13 383 295 14.1 10.8. ee ecked son Beane Oe Bae ere Sees ee ee 065 110 170” 4 6 Fie ee ae ese Pickering (OFS a RE 23 110 48 4.2 1.8 Cmewrer ee a en OO = se certs ee ESS 115 184 160 6.2 5.4 SE eases eee Fo es Raa eae ee 36 285 80 1.5 3.0 CHECKERS Pee se kaais os Sot acne eee Se estes | paces ens gE eee ct Baeesee sae V; ane at ea ee Bordeaux, 3-3-50.. =. 2.22. .-22-225--- 0.75 1,440 192 44.6 6.0 i Pees FS f5. Pickering (CAS EEE. Fes sh pee ee - 64 191 30 6.9 ifoit Ras 5 i eScalps al eR GO setae ee ess aeeeer aes 38 18 5 atl A Of vee cas eae Pickering ae and Sone oil soap. -38 392 103 16.1 4.2 Beene ae Pickering (A 13 {2 Sager 5 i eee a eae SE ie a ang a De esueosen Pickering cs 23 174 76 5.6 2.4 Use eas tener COL Cee 36 321 89 12.8 3.6 BO HEC KRs end ne eE REE neti aa seek Sah es eee SSE SS eee AIRE ERM Poe eae Seti lo eta 1 Trace. The area results show more decisively than do the weight results that the copper from the Pickering (A) sprays adhered to the leaves in proportionately greater amounts than did that from the Pickering 26 BULLETIN 866, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (C) sprays. The leaves sprayed with Bordeaux mixture contained more copper and a higher ratio of copper per unit of copper sulphate present in the spray than the average for those treated with the Pickering sprays, showing that the copper of the Pickering sprays did not adhere to the grape leaves as well as that of the standard Bordeaux spray. The addition of rosin-fish-oil soap to the Pickering (A) spray used on plat 2 did not increase the adherence of copper to the leaves. IN VIRGINIA. f Duplicate sets of leaves from the plats treated with the different sprays were gathered on June 1 (six days after the second spraying) and on June 3 (eight days after the second spraying) and analyzed (Table 8). The results, both by weight and area, for the leaves gathered June 1 show that the copper of the Bordeaux spray adhered practically twice as well as that from the Pickering sprays. The use of rosin- fish-oil soap seemed to be of decided advantage. These results de not agree with those obtained by analyzing leaves in New Jersey where similar sprays were used. The low results for copper on the Pickering-sprayed leaves in Virginia, as compared with those obtained on leaves treated with sprays of the same formula and strength in New Jersey, may be accounted for in part by the fact that in New Jersey the first two applications were made with a power sprayer. INJURY TO VINES. IN NEW JERSEY. Until the severe hail storm of June 11 no burning or other mjury was noticed on the Pickering-sprayed plats. After the storm, how- ever, the leaves were torn, the grapes were punctured, and young shoots broken from the vines. The Pickering-sprayed plats were then re- duced in size, only one or two rows of the vines treated with the weaker Pickering sprays being continued through the rest of the season. The stronger Pickering sprays were dropped entirely. By July 7 new foliage had appeared on all the vines and no additional injury was evident. . Copper sprays used on grapes are often mixed with lead arsenate. Lead arsenate, however, was not used with the Pickering or Bordeaux sprays in this investigation. Consequently its influence on the burning of the foliage was not determined. The Pickering sprays containing 0.23 per cent and more of copper sulphate controlled the fungous diseases as well as the Bordeaux spray. As commercial sprays, however, they are impracticable because of their tendency to injure the grape leaves and fruit. The use of rosin-fish-oil soap with Pickering (A) containing 0.38 per cent of copper did not affect the caustic properties of the spray. a a ee PICKERING SPRAYS. 27 IN VIRGINIA. On June 10 a heavy hail storm broke the leaves, punctured the grapes, and broke off many shoots from the vines. Two or three days after the storm serious burning of the leaves was noticed. This in- jury was particularly severe on the plats sprayed with the strongest Pickering solutions. The weakest Pickering spray produced about the same injury as the Bordeaux spray. On June 26 new growth appeared on all the sprayed vines, and a fourth spraying was made on July 3, with no additional spray injury. As in the case of the tests in New Jersey, the injury to the leaves was in direct proportion to the percentage of copper sulphate present in the Pickering sprays. Among the numerous theories advanced to explain the burning or scorching of foliage by copper sprays are the following: (1) A specific susceptibility of the protoplasm of the plant to copper; (2) solvent properties or activities of the cell sap of the plant on the copper compound of the spray; (3) permeability of the epidermis or cuticle to the cell contents when conditions are favorable for exos- mosis and for a trace of copper which has been rendered soluble; (4) weather conditions following spraying, particularly moisture, which provides suitable conditions for the exosmosis of some of the contents of the cells of leaves; (5) the amount of spray on the leaves or foliage, the proportions of other constituents, such as lime, to the copper in the spray, the condition of the leaves, whether normal or injured by the weather, insects, etc., and, above all, the climate. EFFECT ON MATURING OF FRUIT. IN VIRGINIA. At the time of picking, samples of grapes from the different plats were analyzed for reducing sugar, sucrose, and acidity, using the methods of the Association of Official Agricultural Chemists, in order to determine the influence of the sprays in preventing a proper maturing of the fruit. TABLE 9.—LH fect of various sprays on composition of grapes ( Virginia). Composition of grapes By Copper picking time. ; sulphate Plat. No. Spray used. a spray rae used. e ucing Feat ; sugar Sucrose. | Acidity. Ce. nor: mal al kali per Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. kilo. AVES Pees 222.2 Bordeduxs3-3-b0lsss32 2 i.e. elle be eee 0.75 7.35 0. 07 162 WES = soe aes Pickering (A) Mee ee sear eee aeons Mea eee . 64 10. 52 ae 152 Gist <5 55 5k eee | ee oto S Se ee pe Be ee tee Soar a pee 5 -38 8.57 42 159 Diepe weg eo. Pickering (A) and rosin-fish-oil soap.--....-. -38 8. 54 -10 157 3 Oe cer Guan aSe esas IRigkering (GA) oes vise cess sie eet ceed a aoe cee -13 7.50 - 10 155 iat rea ee Pickerines(C) eae assoc oe = ieee aaa eee ee . 23 9.10 .28 152 (le B ROSS ROE ROE EE Bere OOS ee arsine Sonning eee eee eee 36 7. 60 - 20 15] BULLETIN 866, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The results (Table 9) naturally varied with the condition of the individual samples. The grapes from plat A, sprayed with standard Bordeaux mixture, showed the highest acidity and the lowest sugar content, while those from plat 1, treated with Pickering spray con- taining 0.64 per cent of copper sulphate, gave the highest content of sugar and a low acidity. Since the percentage of sugar increases and the percentage of acidity decreases during the ripening of grapes, no influence of the sprays in preventing-a proper maturing of the fruit is indicated. On the contrary, an increase in the sugar con- tent and a decrease of acid is evident in the Pickering-sprayed grapes, compared with those sprayed with Bordeaux. As no unsprayed grapes were analyzed, it is impossible to state whether or not the copper in the sprays éxerted a stimulating action on the grapes. The variation in the composition of the grapes sprayed with Pick- ering and Bordeaux may possibly be due to the greater availability of the copper in the Pickering sprays. The fact that more burning resulted from using the Pickering sprays than from using the Bordeaux sprays is evidence of a greater availability, or at least solubility, of the copper of the Pickering sprays. It has been sug- gested that the effect of the sprays on the composition of the fruit came through foliage injury. SUMMARY. Pickering (A) and (C) sprays, containing 0.64, 0.36, and 0.38 per cent of copper sulphate, caused severe injury to the grape foliage and fruit after a hail storm which tore the leaves and injured the vines both at Vineland, N. J., and Vienna, Va., in 1916. Under simi- lar conditions the Pickering sprays containing 0.23, 0.13, 0.115, and 0.065 per cent of copper sulphate caused less injury than the stronger Pickering sprays, but more injury than standard Bordeaux, 3-3-50, containing 0.75 per cent of copper sulphate. The strongest Pickering spray, that employed on plat 1, controlled the black rot fully as well as the Bordeaux, 3—-3-50, and the Picker- ing sprays containing 0.36 and 0.38 per cent of copper sulphate showed practically as effective control as the Bordeaux. The weaker Pickering sprays, containing 0.23 per cent of copper sulphate or less, did not control the black rot as well as the Bordeaux spray. The yield of grapes was reduced by all of the Pickering sprays except the two weaker ones. The copper of the Pickering sprays did not adhere to the grape leaves as well as the copper of the Bordeaux, 3-3-50. The averages of all the results obtained, including some not reported in the tables, show that where the Pickering sprays were applied with a power PICKERING SPRAYS. 29 sprayer as a fine mist (Vineland, N. J.) about one-half as much cop- per in proportion to that used in the spray adhered to the leaves as when standard Bordeaux was used. When the Pickering sprays were applied with a hand pump (Vienna, Va.), the ratio of copper retained on the leaves was still further reduced in the case of the Pickering sprays. The use of rosin-fish-oil soap with one of the Pickering sprays proved advantageous in the Virginia tests, but not in the New Jersey tests. Apparently the copper of the Pickering sprays exists In a more active and available form than the copper of the Bordeaux spray, as evidenced by the severe burning of the grape leaves. No differences were detected in the caustic action or in the adhesive properties of the Pickering (A) and (C) sprays. The caustic action and the fungi- cidal properties of the sprays made by the two formulas were apparently the same. The Pickering sprays seem to be too caustic for spraying grapes. _ These sprays, however, may have a very definite use for the last application when this must be made late in the season-after the berries are half grown. Bordeaux spray applied late in the season tends to remain on the berries, which is undesirable. Pickering sprays, however, are nonstaining. APPLES. ContTroLt oF FunGous DIsEAsEs. An orchard of Yellow Newtown (Albemarle Pippin) trees at Green- wood, Va., where bitter rot is prevalent, was selected for these experiments. The orchard was not well cultivated and was famous as a place for bitter rot. IN 1916. Of the 27 trees in the orchard 12 were sprayed with. Pickering sprays, 12 with standard Bordeaux, 4—5-50, and three were left un- sprayed. The sprays were applied three times, June 23, July 13, and July 27. The Bordeaux spray was applied with a power sprayer each time. The Pickering sprays were applied the first time with a hand-pump sprayer and afterwards with a power sprayer. The results of this work are shown in Table 10. 30 BULLETIN 866, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe 10.—E fect of various sprays on bitter rot of apples ( Virginia). Apples Copper Total ane . 7 ae i by:):) Lae Total Apples |Dropped| injured | Defolia- Plat No. | No. Spray used. Suipnats apples. apes with rot.| apples. : by tion. pray. 1916. Per cent. Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. Biceeseeen 1 | Pickering (A)........ 99 5 ee Aa 74 eee GO! eS Foci Ss eck See Ol Beate GOs cece eee Bee waite oe 1 ae GO fee Race nansene ee eS |e dot eas. LEN ee Bl Bec dO? es. 5 4-cee ese eae 1 | Pickering (C)........ Docecesces Miloea ae 0 (oe ae eee Desc eles 3 Geena sens 1 6848 2 Glee Aen ee 3 Check 1 DOE ss 2 IDOLS. 3 Sen chess 1 | Bordeaux, 4-5-50.... SF eae 74 | Sia 5 Co ae ee eee mceeoecee Cy Beacc CO Bernarce sectors 1917 Atte eaeincie laos Pickering (A)... Ag 6860066) boooro) Wai: GON ee soaceaewione Age cecslsceecleosee CO BABA ee asbaatiee Biteraelociaie| stcisaes Pickering (C).......- Bp wuascs scaaesl sae. e GOL Sete ae Bz 2 S0acegscocodlsseec GOD heehee noel ee Facies (sts Bordeaux, 2-2-50...- She mint aise (ere esos Bordeaux, 2-1-50.... Checkers ies cice| so ss erste wie ssid atta eee ee eee eee ee Peale ny selafeaianare Bordeaux, 4-4-50 1918. eee eae Bere ek Pickering (C)........] .58 5, 724 200 Eth Rese eae ia Reine eles Meese isternat Barium water......- 60 2, 594 50 7A) eeca aces |scoaasacnasaesooo5 CHECK he | seiajse ec oe = Ne Oe eee leeee eee 3, 736 736 NYAlUn ABS reeso Seney cbeo| Saasecors SaceSusece| boc ceo Bordeaux, 4-4-50 1.00 4, 5 DN 5. Soe ain hl Beane ne See cose assures Bitter rot was first seen in this orchard on July 10. On July 13, the time of the second spray application, there was a little bitter rot on two of the Bordeaux-sprayed trees and on one check tree. A small unhealthy tree in plat 5 showed the most bitter rot. On July 26, at the time of the third spraying, the following observations were made: Plat 3.—AlIl trees showed a little bitter rot. Plat 4.—All trees showed a little bitter rot. Plat 5.—One tree showed a little bitter rot, and the other two trees a good deal of rot. Plat 6.—One tree showed rot at the top, while the other two were practically free from rot. Bordeaua-sprayed plat.—Some trees showed no rot and others quite a little. On an average, the trees did not show as much rot as the check trees. Check plat.—A good deal of rot was seen, more than on the other trees in the orchard, PICKERING SPRAYS. 31 _ As only two barrels of sound apples were obtained from the 27 trees, it is apparent that none of the sprays controlled the bitter rot in 1916. Although the apples from the trees sprayed with Bordeaux did not show as much rot as those from the trees sprayed with Pickering sprays or from the check trees, practically every apple from the 12 Bordeaux-sprayed trees was affected to some extent with bitter rot. The failure of any of the sprays to control the bitter rot may be explained by the fact that the rot was severe that season, as well as by the fact that no spray was applied to the trees after July 27. IN 1917. Three trees from each of three plats were treated with Pickering (A) and (C) sprays, containing 0.50, 0.25, and 0.13 per cent of copper sulphate. Bordeaux, 4-4-50, was employed as the standard spray. Two trees were sprayed with Bordeaux, 2—2—-50, and two with Bor- deaux, 2-1—50, sprays, in order to determine the effect of decreasing the lime on the fungicidal action of the copper. Several unsprayed trees were left as controls. The sprays were applied with a power sprayer four times, June 4, June 22, July 9, and August 2. On August 2, because of injury caused by the sprays, the spray was applied to but one tree of plats A,, A,, A,, B,, B,, B,, and to but one of those sprayed with Bordeaux, 2-1-50. On August 30, counts were made of all dropped fruit. All fruit on the trees was picked between Sep- tember 14 and 18, and counted for rot and for a late type of Bordeaux injury or russeting which developed between August 30 and Sep- tember 13. The results are shown in Table 10. Scarcely any bitter rot was present in the orchard in 1917. Con- sequently, the results prove very little concerning the relative fungi- cidal value of the sprays tested. On plat B,, the tree sprayed with Pickering solution was the only one of the sprayed trees which showed any amount of rot, the other two trees of that plat being practically free from rot. | IN 1918. Pickering (C) spray and a barium-water spray, similar to the one used on potatoes with excellent results (page 11), were used on Cheese apple trees. Ten gallons of the barium-water spray were prepared by dissolving 8 ounces of barium hydrate in 9 gallons of water and adding 2 quarts of copper sulphate stock solution (1 pound per — gallon), diluting to 10 gallons with water, and stirring thoroughly. The Pickering (C) spray was prepared according to the directions given on page 7. A Bordeaux, 44-50, spray was the standard spray. ‘Two trees were sprayed with the Pickering spray, two with the barium-water spray, and two with standard Bordeaux, while one tree was left unsprayed. The sprays were applied with a power sprayer on June 14, June 28, July 26, and August 13. 32 BULLETIN 866, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. At the time of the third spraying it was noticed that three or four apples on the check tree were infected with bitter rot, whereas the sprayed trees seemed to be entirely free from it. On August 13, the date of the fourth application, one or two apples on the Pickering- sprayed, barium-water-sprayed, and Bordeaux-sprayed trees were infected with bitter rot, while the check tree showed a fairly large amount of rot. At the time of picking very little bitter rot was found on any of the trees. The Bordeaux spray gave 100 per cent protection from bitter rot. The barium-water spray gave a better control of bitter rot than the Pickering spray. The 1918 results (Table 10) are incon- clusive because of the small number of apples infected with bitter rot on the sprayed trees. ADHERENCE OF COPPER FROM VARIOUS SPRAYS TO LEAVES. IN 1916. One set of leaves was gathered from the sprayed and check trees on July 12, 13 days after the second spraying, and a second set on July 13, three hours after the third spray had been applied. The outlines of these leaves were immediately traced on paper, and later measured with a polar planimeter. The area of each set of 50 leaves was calculated, but one side of the leaves being used in the calcula- tion. Later the leaves were dried, and the copper determined in each set (Table 11). Tasie 11.—Adherence of copper from various sprays to apple leaves ( Virginia). Copper adhering to leaves. é ‘. Dine Mg. per opper etween Parts per square Plat No. Spray used. sulphate Spraying | Parts per | million Mg. per ~| meter of pray and aiiian er 0.1 square leaf used. | gathering a ee cent | meter of | surface of leaves. pase) e CuSO leaf per 0.1 * linspray, | Surface. | per cent DPaY:: CuSO, in spray. 1916. Per cent. Days. Perens Bordeaux, 4-5-50.-.....- 1.00 13 425 42.5 26.0 2.6 AOE Pickering (A)io- 22-2252 «13 13 59 45.4 1.3 1.0 LB ares bc ABC Ono ance oesesce - 065 13 90 138. 5 9.3 14.3 Bisse -seee Pickering (©)... sce 23 13 248 107.8 25.6 11.1 Geseeeeas-laaeee GO) weenie, peer -115 13 77 67.0 2.2 1.9 a eae Bordeaux, 4-5-50....-..- 1.00 4] 3,150 315. 0 266. 6 26.7 Be Opes ee Piekering (A) ole i 260 200. 0 16.0 12.3 ~ J d wie 185 284. 6 10.2 15.7 4 646 280. 9 15.9 6.9 ra 249 216. 6 20.3 WY Dt ROE PEE oe) Cece Se MaciocmeS acai 15 644 64.4 33.8 3.4 pisos 15 6..6:|5 202s casaee 50%) | sa peaie se a eh ee Bordeaux, 2-1-50........ 5 15 316 63. 2 15.5 3.1 Some een Bordeaux, 2-2-50........ -5 15 255 51.0 12.5 2.5 ATeITs2 5 33 Pickering (A) 022.5 .22 42 - 50 15 206 41.2 10.5 2.1 d NE aft see [emp ( Sees en a 25 15 146 58. 4 6.5 2.6 1A eS eae C0) in> scnseeas ees 125 15 62 49.6 3.0 2.4 iw Sy! ee ee _CC PICKERING SPRAYS. ae TaBLeE 11.—Adherence of copper from various sprays to apple leaves ( Virginia)—Contd. a Copper adhering to leaves. Time Mg. per paver between cea Parts per ar Sdare. sulphate | spraying arts per saa: g. per | metero Plat No. Spray used. in spray and million aon square leaf used. | gathering] (dry ee cent | meter of | surface ofleaves. | basis). | & CuSO, leat per 0.1 - surface. | per cent in spray. SO; in spray. 1917. Per cent. Days. 12 te Pickering (C)....-.....- 0.50 15 362 72.4 16.5 3.3 1S oor epee Cnc eo Eee ae somes 25 15 136 54. 4 TE: 3.0 Tope eicheverate SRGCCCS (Ets eee SE 125 15 52 41.6 3.0 2.4 pee mg eteains 4-4-50........ 1.00 25 955. 9 95. 6 46.8 4.7 CHE Came eaa cman ssh ebcc coc ences tleneanecse se 25 Suehleseeeseses c Odd See ees Be oe uane Bordeaux, 2-1-50--......- -5 : 25 374. 8 75. 0 21.1 4.2 Se ee Bordeaux, 2-2-50.-...... 5 25 595. 2 119.0 32.3 6.5 J) See Pickerms GAs)/p 253253. Ye - 50 25 800. 9 160. 2 37.4 7.5 NG eS ra ates Sisto nie ap Maidieliose caesar 25 25 445.8 178. 0 22.2 8.9 Ree er sace (Olin cinie Sebo nich cee te 125 25 126. 0 101.0 5.6 4.5 IB ee Secae Pickering (Gj easecsacene 50 25 683. 3 136.7 33. 6 6.7 ee aa aise OO hiaja, a\eisiie aise sw ek s 25 25 390. 0 156. 0 19.3 7.7 15 ieee a Se are de Sita meen Sactaree 125 25 172.3 138. 0 9.4 7.5 1918. Jha Scheie Pickering (C)....-.-.... -58 0 2,250 S90F ft |Saosecses. ol oseeee as (Beste eat Barium water..........- - 60 0 3, 250 EIDE ns Re eaaaceeod be aceac coon Beers Bordeaux, 4-4-50.-..-... 1. 00 0 4,350 OBEY ecedacacavel|anesoeceLee (Checkers | saat ocae. os ee ate see telyecsucncues 0 Gian baie. 2 et scal Saeeeten ca ahoeeceurnes ARS eee, Pickering (C)....-.....- -58 28 1, 450 2000S | seenctter =~ ameae nee Abie aa eg pee Barium water..........- - 60 28 2, 400 400 Fo ecisSave ¢.: Ge22236 22 ee 1.9 = 1 per cent free acid (as oleic). Todin muni ber: 22-2 222.2 - eee eee B2aie Saponification number........-.--- 181.4. Viscosity: 8: 2:75 see 6: eee eee 98.6. Unsaponifiable matter (per cent)... 1.0. ROR ee se Oo ae eS None. ; Aidulterantee: 14.522 245 fae 2 ee None detected. Samples of castor oil from various sources were heated to 400° F. for 1 hour to ascertain the effect of heating on the acidity. These results are given in Table X, and are reported as the percentage of acidity expressed as oleic. CASTOR-OIL INDUSTRY. . ao TasiLe X.—Analyses of castor oils from various sources, showing the effect of heating upon acidity. | Acidity (per cent). Description of sample. Control. | Heated. Bene: No: Uy Hee ae ets eh Ee Ue LONE: . oc SL See eeode ae Suen ase 0.47 0. 58 CEP: OEE As sca ciapisc Eo tae sore ea anee S02 SEE O OCIS eo eco Sortie One 1.00 1.05 Refined, No OL aera ae eto ESS eee aie SAREE » v aciclsianbe Seelntiee aces ee wees TAL .79 TRGiE GOL NIG) AUG ISE Rea aie ee a Rs See ae A e : r aa bislwis ho elaine eee eemee nine. os - 92 - 96 It is thus evident that heat alone has little effect on the acidity. This question arose from the possibility that if such acidity did develop, it might operate to pit the walls of the gas-engine combustion chamber during a run. When the Bureau of Aircraft Production went into the market for castor oil for lubricating purposes it drew up the specifications listed below, giving the properties which a good grade of lubricating castor oil should possess. Since these properties are possessed only by a high-grade No. 1 oil, these specifications may be accepted as fairly representative of this entire grade, regardless of its intended use. General.—(1) This specification covers the requirements of the Bureau of Aircraft Production in all purchases of castor oil for rotary-engine lubrication. The oil must be a high-grade vegetable castor oil suitable for this purpose. Both cold-pressed vegetable castor oil and hot-pressed vegetable castor oil which has been refined sy that it will meet the requirements of this specification may be submitted for purchases. (2) The castor oil must be free from adulteration, other oils, suspended matter, grit, and water. (3) The castor oil must meet the following requirements: Color.—(4) When observed in a 4-ounce sample bottle, the castor oil must be color- less or nearly so, transparent, and without fluorescence. Specific gravity—(5) The castor oil must have a specific gravity of 0.959 to 0.968 at 60° F. (Baumé gravity must be from 16.05 to 14.70 at 60° F.) Viscosity.—(6) The castor oil when tested in a Saybolt universal viscosimeter must have a viscosity of not less than 450 seconds at 130° F. and 95 seconds at 212° F. Flash point.—(7) The flash point must not be less than 450° F. in a Cleveland open-cup flash tester. Pour test.—(8) The castor oil, in a 4-ounce sample bottle one-quarter full, must not congeal on being subjected to a temperature of plus 5° F. for one hour. (See - specification No. 3525, ‘‘ Pour test.’’) Evaporation test.—(9) The castor oil must not show a greater loss than five-tenths of 1 per cent when heated in an oven at 230° F. for 1? hours. This test shall be made on a 5-gram sample in a glass crystallizing dish approximately 24 inches in diameter and 14 inches high, inside dimensions. Ash.—(10) The castor oil shall not show more than 0.015 per cent of ash and shall ohow no impurity of any sort not related to the original product. Solubility.—(11) The castor oil must be completely soluble in 4 volumes of 90 per cent alcohol (specific gravity 0.834 at 60° F.). This test shall be made on a2 c. c. sample. 34 BULLETIN 867, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Acid number —(12) It must not require more than 3 milligrams of potassium hydroxid (KOH) or 2.14 milligrams of sodium hydroxid (NaOH) to neutralize 1 gram of oil. This is equivalent to 1.5 per cent of oleic acid. Unsaponifiable matter.—(13) The unsaponifiable matter must not exceed 1 per cent. Samples used for this test shall weigh 5 to 10 grams. Todin number (Hanus or Wijs methods).—(14) The iodin number must be between 80 and 90. Samples used for this test shall weigh 0.2 to 0.25 gram and shall be treated for 1 hour. Rosin (Lieberman-Storch test) —(15) The castor oil must not give a reaction for either rosin or rosin oil. Cottonseed oil (Halphen test).—(16) The castor oil must not give a reaction for cotton- Seed oil. Inasmuch as the chemical analysis does not give the final word regarding the adaptability of an oil for lubricating purposes, engine tests have been made on the lubricating value of No. 1 hydraulic- ' pressed oil, No. 1 expeller oil, and No.3 refined oil. The results of such tests show these oils to be of equal value for lubricating pur- poses. Since the chemical and physical constants expressed above are practically identical, it follows that color is the only evident means of differentiatmg between the various oils. A demulsibility test applied to hydraulic-pressed oil compared with expeller oil reacted slightly in favor of the expeller oil. The difference, however, was so slight that the two oils may be considered in this respect practically identical. The following statements quoted from leading Teall: in castor oil (not manufacturers) show how the trade considers American- produced oil as compared with various imported stocks: The American-pressed castor oil will remain free from rancidity for a longer period than the imported oils and as a general average is vastly superior to any imported oil that we have received. The oil that comes from China and the Far East seems to be of a decided yellow color and, in the writer’s judgment, would indicate that it is hot pressed, i. e., that the oil was pressed from a warm or hot meal. In our opinion the oil made in the United States is equal, if not superior, to the im- ported. We will say that it has happened that the oil we purchased which was made in this country turned out to be better than that we have used which was made abroad. Domestic-manufactured castor oil will keep longer and be freer from acidity than the oil which is imported. Generally speaking, the imported castor oil, especially from the Orient, contains from 1 to 8 per cent acidity and by keeping the oil the acidity is likely to be increased, especially where the oil tests from 3 or 4 to 8 per cent. We look upon the domestic-manufactured white oil as being best not only for medicinal but for manufacturing purposes. Asa matter of fact, now that the War Trade Board has ruled (January, 1919) that castor beans and castor oil can come freely into this country, we doubt if any of this oil (oriental) willcomehere. Itis,as you may know, an inferior oil, and can only be used in comparison with a domestic production of No. 3 castor oil. he: \ ee eee ed ee oe ae ee CASTOR-OIL INDUSTRY. 35 USES OF CASTOR OIL. Castor oil has properties which serve to differentiate it very mark- edly from all other vegetable oils. This fact is no doubt attrib- utable to the predominating influence of its characteristic acid racical of ricinoleic acid. The striking properties of this acid are due to the fact that it is a hydroxy acid, a condition which is only approxi- mated in nature in the case of grape-seed oil. This hydroxylated condition is probably the property which serves to render it so valu- able in the industries, for it is apparent that when other oils are treated so as to increase their acetyl number and their viscosity they more nearly take on the properties of castor oil. Thus, when an oil is oxidized (blown) it becomes less soluble in gasoline, and its viscosity and acetyl value increase. In fact, the hydroxylation of acids normally soluble in gasoline renders them insoluble in gasoline. Sulphonated oils are insoluble in gasoline. Since hydrolyzing a sulphonated oil is said to yield hydroxylated oils, efforts have ac- cordingly been made in this and other laboratories to produce such an oil, using peanut and cottonseed oils, but without success thus far. For ordinary lubrication, the viscosity of castor oil is its great asset. Before the application of mineral oils for such purposes castor oil Was very largely used as a cylinder oil, but the production of high-grade mineral cylinder oil has greatly displaced it except in the Tropics. where it is still used for lubricating heavy machinery. However, in gas engines, which are lubricated by spraying the lubricant into the cylinder along with the gasoline (notably the rotary air-cooled types), it has been found that castor oil is absolutely necessary. The prop- erty of the solubility of mineral oils in gasoline is stated to be the reason that they can not be so used as a lubricant, owing to the lower- ing of their viscosity and “body” by solution in such a medium.! The insolubility of castor oil in such products is given as the cause for its specific advantages in such cases. ‘Some authorities assert that castor oil is preferable. to mineral oil because gasoline does not wash it out of the crank case so readily, which is, of course, a corol- lary of the above. However, mixtures of cylinder mineral oil and castor oil treated so as to maintain their homogeneity are stated after direct trial to be the more satisfactory, although such mixtures are perfectly soluble in gasoline. Castor oil, of course, can be used as a lubricant in other types of motors, but as the supply has been 1 Although theliterature almost universally states that castor oil is insoluble in gasoline, attention is called to the fact that this qualitative statement should be restricted to refer only to conditions obtaining at ordinary temperatures. A gentle heating effects ready solution; in fact, extraction of castor-press cake pomace with gasoline is the industrial method for obtaining the lower grade oil, leaving a pomace with about 2 perc2ntofoil. In view of thehightemperature conditions obtaining in engines lubricated with castor oil,itis apparent that this oil readily dissolves in gasoline; consequently, its specific advan- tage for lubrication under such conditions would not appear to reside initsinsolubility in gasoline but rather to the fact that solutionin gasolineleavesit with a viscosity higher than that obtaining with other . oils similarly treated. 36 BULLETIN 867, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. somewhat limited and at the same time the price materiaily higher than that of high-grade mineral oil it was found that the latter can be used in ordinary types, while only the former can be used in the rotary types. Abroad, however, castor oil was used almost exclu- sively in all kinds of aviation motors. The reason given was that castor oil keeps its viscosity better, sticks better, and protects the cylinder walls, valve seats, and other parts. A mixture of mineral and castor oils, containing a preponderating percentage of the latter, has been universally used in stationary motors. Some trouble with foreign castor oil has been due to its tendency to gum, which has been minimized by mixing it with various proportions of heavy mineral oil. Great difficulty has been experienced in forming a homo- geneous and suitable mixture of castor and mineral oils, owing to the fact that both are apparently homogeneous at the time of mak- | ing, but separation occurs upon long standing. A patent has been taken out by Archbutt and Deeley for heating castor oil in an auto- clave at 260° to 300° C., under pressure of 4 to 6 atmospheres for about 10 hours, whereby it becomes miscible with mineral oil in any proportion. Some state that castor oil unduly precipitates carbon - on the walls of gas-engine cylinders, owing to incomplete combustion, while others claim that because castor oil burns without a smoky flame and gasoline burns with a conspicuous cloud, any carbon deposited on the cylinder walls is derived from the gasoline rather than from the oil. Some lubricating engineers claim that the high steam pressures occurring in steam cylinders afford ideal conditions for saponifying castor oil, stating that this increases the acidity of the oil, with con- sequent pitting of the walls. Others claim that the walls remain perfectly bright. Another quality of castor oil as a lubricant, which seems to be quite generally accepted, is its ability to stick to the exposed surfaces, with consequent protection. Castor oil also keeps its viscosity better under changes of temperature than any other vegetable oil and many mineral oils. Artificial leather is made by dissolving cellulose nitrates in volatile solvents, incorporating castor oil in the mixture and distributing the same over treated cloth. Upon volatilization of the solvent, the solid constituents remain fixed on the goods. The rdéle of the oil is to impart softness and elasticity to the otherwise hard and stiff product and to enable this to be more readily coated on the cloth or other backing material. There are very few oils which can be added to nitrocellulose solutions without either causing the separation of the nitrocellulose from the solution or spoiling the luster and cohesion of the film. It is evident that a nondrying oil must be used and also one that is perfectly miscible in the solvents used. Castor oil fulfills these conditions very satisfactorily and is of additional value on CASTOR-OIL INDUSTRY. 3378 account of its resistance to climatic conditions and temperature changes as well as to its viscosity. A leather substitute, recently patented, is formed of a carrying vehicle, such as paper or a woven fabzic, and a facing of supple pyroxylin built up of successive laye's united into an integral structure of sufficient thickness to enable it to be removed from the carrier. The coating may be formed of nitro- cellulose 10, castor oil 20, amyl acetate 15, methyl alcohol 20, amyl alcohol 5, benzol 30, and pigment 3 parts. Such leatherlike products come in rolls of 30 to 60 yards in length and of varying widths, and find extensive use in upholstery, carriage tops, automobile fittings, suitcases, trunks, shoes, book bindings, and various lines of novelty goods. It has been generally assumed that only the No. 1 grade of castor oil is satisfactory for this purpose, but progressive manufacturers have learned that a properly refined No. 3 oil, although it runs high in color, can readily be used, inasmuch as most artificial leather products are of dark color. As is evident from the analyses previously recorded, the characteristics of the oil after refining are in no wise deleteriously affected. In the leather trade castor oil finds rather extensive use both as a lubricant and as a soluble oil. Specifically, it is applied to belting directly as a sulphonated product and is also incorporated in a com- posite grease which may contain in addition to the oil such products as tallow, wax, paraffin, and vaseline. Belts treated with this mix- ture are made flexible and are prevented from cracking, all of which operates to increase the friction on the pulley. It is stated that castor oil applied to leather in snowy weather keeps the leather soft and makes it waterproof; also that leather so treated is avoided by rats. It does not prevent a polish being produced on boots, and if applied once a week to leather shoes will cause them to last twice as long. Such treatment is particularly recommended if the leather has been wet. In such cases the oil should be rubbed in before the goods have dried. The softening of leather belts, harness, and other such leather goods is a further use to which castor oil is put. Sulphonated castor oil is made by treating the oil with sulphuric acid under carefully controlled conditions of temperature and pro- portion of ingredients. The resulting product may be soluble or readily emulsifiable in water. It possesses the property of emulsifying other oils and greases and carrying them into the leather, which thereby becomes lubricated internally. Mineral oil may thus be carried into leather and impart to it a certain interior humidity. Sulphonated castor oil also facilitates the penetration of tannin into leather. It forms an ingredient of various creams, both black and colored, for rubbing patent leather. Sulphonated castor oil is the basis of manufacture of emulsifying or soluble cutting oils used in connection with water. It may also be 38 BULLETIN 867, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. used with mineral oils as a cutting oil when no water is used. It appears to have greater cooling qualities than most vegetable oils and does not gum or become rancid. Sulphonated oils, particularly castor oil, have been used in pro- ducing the dye called Turkey red. Cotton cloth is treated with alum and immersed in a bath containing a solution of sulphonated oil (soluble in water). This is thought to form an aluminium oleate, which acts as a mordant to form alake. Treating the mordant cloth with alizarine results in a bright red lake called Turkey red. The relative quantity of this color that is now used is considerably smaller than formerly, owing to the use of other colors of a similar shade. For mantle dips this oil, as well as other vegetable oils, is used as a softener to render the coating of the mantle flexible. After the mantle has been dipped the coating on it has about equal proportions of cotton and the material from the oil. In the manufacture of linoleum, castor oil has been found to be of advantage in imparting flexibility and toughness to the goods, some- what the same as in imitation leather. Both No. 1 and No. 3 oils have been used, but since the finished goods are usually somewhat colored, no reason exists why an acid-free (refined) No. 3 oil would not be perfectly satisfactory. Vegetable oils, notably castor oil, may be treated with sulphur and vulcanized, similar to rubber. This may be effected either by treat- ing the oil with sulphur chlorid or by fusing it with sulphur direct. In the first case the product is known as “‘ white substitute,’ due to the comparatively light color of the product, while in the second process the product is known as ‘‘ black substitute.” Sulphur chlorid may be added to the oil direct in proper equipment to control the temperature, or it may be added to a solution of the oil in some solvent. In either case the mixture, more or less hot, may be poured into molds or cooled, then ground and dried. The same treatment is pursued in the case of both the black and the white products. On heating, both products mix well with rubber; hence the name ‘“‘substitute.’”’ The réle of this product does not necessarily have to follow that of an adulterant in the sense that it is a mere cheapener. Certain rubber goods are not satisfactory unless mixed with other products. For example, the specific gravity of vulcanized oils is lighter than that of rubber and their incorporation offsets the in- creased weight due to mineral filler. They also impart softness to the product, desirable in certain fabrication. It has been stated that so little sulphur chlorid is necessary for vul- canizing castor oil to make it set that it is difficult to work with. © Some authorities state that castor oil must be used for floating substitute. CASTOR-OIL INDUSTRY. 39 Among other uses in the rubber industry, castor oil finds application in the manufacture of gas tubing, insulating tape, and packing sheets. Cellulose nitrate ‘‘dope”’ is greatly improved by the addition of 5 to 7 per cent of castor oil or treated tung oil. Greater elasticity of film and slow evaporation result. Castor oil lends elasticity to varnish and has been stated to be an ingredient in certain artificial skin preparations, the formula for one of which is shellac, 1 part; alcohol, 3 parts; castor oil, one-fifth part. It is also used in retouching varnishes and in photographic-negative varnishes. In general, its use in varnish is to lessen brittleness and minimize the attendant property of chipping and peeling. Castor soap is transparent, white, and quite hard. It dissolves in cold water without rendering the latter turbid. It lathers quickly and is very soluble. In the manufacture of tire cement castor oil forms an ingredient of good thick shellac varnish. It prevents the bicycle rim from becom- ing hard and brittle. . Many salts of the aniline series are soluble in castor oil and advan- tage has been taken of the fact to prepare typewriter inks of great copying power, which permit large numbers of copies to be taken from the same impression. Hopkins! states that such inks are very little affected by extremes of dryness, moisture, heat, or cold. He also states that the oil-soluble colors are not affected by the moisture of the hand. Castor oil also prevents the ink from drying on the pad and at the same time ‘“‘bites’’ the oil-soluble aniline color into the paper and prevents it from rubbing. Objection, however, to the use. of the oil is that impressions from such inks are often surrounded by greasy marks caused by the fats spreading in the pores of the paper, and that the present practice is to make most of the stamping inks _ without grease by preparing mixtures of coal-tar dyes in glycerin. In the manufacture of fly paper castor oil is a necessary ingredient. Various combinations of castor oil, resin, and other products are spread upon heavy paper with a common glue sizing. It is stated that sugar is sometimes used to make the product more attractive. _ By heating nitrated oils to 130° C. or by oxidizing them with lead peroxid, rubberlike substances are obtained. Nitrated castor oil, made by nitrating with a mixture of 2 parts sulphuric acid and 1 part nitric acid, finds use in industry through its property of making ~ homogeneous compounds with nitrocellulose. Such a mixture vields a product resembling ebonite. Solutions of nitrated oils in acetone are used as varnishes, as a basis for paint, and for enameling leather. Castor oil finds a further use in the textile industry as a so-called wool oil” (sulphonated castor oil), and very commonly is referred to as ‘‘castor-soap oil,” both of auc are used for degreasing special woolen products. 1 Hopkins, A. A.,ed. Scientific American Cyclopedia of Formulas . . .1077p., illus. New York, 1911. 40 BULLETIN 867, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The potassium soap of this oil is used as a solvent for water- insoluble substances, as the ethereal oils, cresols, and synthetic perfumes. The extensive use of castor oil in medicine is due to its purgative property. Just to what this is dueis a mooted question. Some think that the presence of small amounts of ricine or some other impurity imparts to the oil this property, which is lacking in the pure glycerid or oil. Others claim that this property is characteristic of ricinoleic acid (the acid radical of the oil) and quote in support of their con- tention the fact that pure ricinoleic acid itself is purgative. On the other hand, the statement that castor oil extracted from the seeds by alcohol is more effective than that made by expression lends color to the belief that the solvent plays a selective réle in extracting more of the substance which possesses the purgative property. Much effort has been expended in attempting to remove from castor oil that property which makes it so repugnant to the taste and smell. Simple deodorization in a vacuum deodorizer is not altogether satisfactory. Everyone is conversant with- the corner druggist’s effort to mask it in soda water, peppermint, and other ‘‘sandwiches.” Coloring it and adding a tincture of some of the common spices is about as satisfactory as any method. The following rather unique concoction is quoted (J. King, King’s American Dispensary) for the reason that if such an unpleasant product as castor oil can be made to simulate a custard, even remotely, the fact should be made known to all: I find it a very pleasant mode of administration to boil the dose of oil with about a gill of good sweet milk for a few minutes, sweeten with loaf sugar and flavor with essence of cinnamon or other favorite aromatic; 1t somewhat resembles custard in its taste and appearance and is readily taken by even the most delicate stomach. CONCLUSIONS. It is thus seen that although castor oil is one of the minor oils, its industrial use is increasing in a marked degree. While it is more widely known for its medicinal properties, its use is being constantly extended in a variety of industries. The general method of manufacturing the oil in this eountey has been by crushing the beans in cage presses, but it has been found that the expeller produces an oil of satisfactory quality for all industrial uses and is perfectly satisfactory for aeroplane lubrication. Evidence has been obtained that a good grade of No. 1 oil can be obtained by extraction with volatile solvent. Highly acid dark oil can be refined by alkali but not highly bleached, while low acid oils can be refined and bleached to almost water white. Attention is called to the varied uses made of the oil and the possibility of finding markets for the more sluggish No. 3 oil. O Bul. 868, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. Je 4 « 20a ake "“s< A. HOEN & CO, B1289M PLUMAGES OF STARLINGS, Adult male (spring). Adult female (spring). Young in juvenal plumage, Adult, male and female (fall). UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 868 & Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey, E. W. NELSON, Chief. Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 10, 1921 ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING IN THE UNITED STATES By E. R. Katmpacn and I. N. GaBrRigLson, Assistant Biologists. CONTENTS. Page. } Page. Problems raised by the starling...-.........- 1 | Food habits in the United States—Continued. Sources of information..........-....-.------ 2 Vegetable food of adults—Continued. ~ Distribution and abundance......-...--.--.- 3 Sarai Vora see Mae see le yar oe ae ye 34 MM ESCHIP OMe te ciate em Mean see aes se sae os 8 Gandenkinuckees see eer mnee ae ene es 34 atenhistoby sae = ccisoeeee- asc escuela cee 9 Willd iris os bee ao sise ene a Pe 35 Economic status in other countries. ----..-.--- 13 Miscellaneous vegetable food....-.--- 37 Food habits in the United States.....-...-.- 15 Hood oles tin ese see merase eer seer ee 37 Animal food of adults.........-.--.-.---- 15 Observations from blind...-..-.--.-- 39 IWAREXCLS)-, Sasa SA SRE ACR s ep ies 15 Stomach examination...........-.-- 40 INIT OY<(0 IS et een nee ea ae 25 Atmaltood keen seca een eee 41 PIG Osh ee eae Eee 25 Meretableitood sees he esata 5 43 MOUSE ears aces ee gu sea aed 26 Food preferences at differentages.._- 44 Miscellaneous animal food.....--..--- 26 | Relation to other species of birds....---..--- 46 Vegetable food of adults..-.......-.---.- 260 lw Natuna emer esheemnny aes san snobs 5 sea 53 Chermiesen Sse sie eh oe re O46 || IBNEKOHCCR IAA OVP IROOSScoscssecen een ocsaseoesce 54 IBOLELOS 2 ees Me seenl yaar Bare Cee hao ole Controlamecasunesses essen eee ae sees 56 ANB ES es cco amasteeseessssasscconcaee- 28) i TLGAIRWNO NY,» oe bena cao seaueese doasedoseuoce 57 Pears and peaches..----..-...--.-..- 30 || Summary of evidence...............:.--.... 57 GrapeS...----------2--2- 20-22 2------ SOR Conclusions ceecme mea eee cris nye 59 Conners oe eoer sien so seme ad Santee 31 - PROBLEMS RAISED BY THE STARLING. INDFUL of the disastrous results that have attended the intro- duction. of exotic forms of wild animal life, farmers and bird lovers generally have looked with apprehension on the introduction and spread of the European starling in the United States. When the destructive careers of such introduced forms as the brown rat, the house mouse, and the English sparrow are considered, not to mention the annual toll in millions of dollars now being paid to satisfy the appetites of numerous insect pests that have been unwittingly brought from abroad, it is not to be wondered at that the deliberate importation and liberation of a considerable number of another species of bird that has since increased enormously in numbers should produce discussion. 182334°—21—1 2 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Criticism came first only from those who foresaw in the light of previous experiences what might be the result of an unhampered spread of the starling. For a number of years the birds were con- fined to a small area about the place of importation, New York City, and there they were of interest chiefly to ornithologists. Their spread, however, in the early years of this century to the neigh- boring suburban and farming sections of New York, New Jersey, and Connecticut brought them more intimately in competition with our native birds and in close contact with growing crops. The starling was heard from immediately. Reports of its aggressive tactics against native birds became frequent: Flicker nests were said to be usurped by the wholesale; the houses of bluebirds and wrens were sharing a similar fate; young robins were being dragged from their nests and killed; and the food supply of certain native birds was being seriously reduced by the ever-increasipg flocks of the foreigner. From farmers, too, came criticism: Cherries, ber-— ries, apples, and pears were reported damaged; in spring garden truck suffered; and in midsummer sweet corn was attacked by the birds. Even from the cities came complaints of the noise and filth connected with the large roosts of late summer and fall, established usually in a residential section. Few indeed had a good word to say for the new- comer. The occasional words of praise, however, were significant. Coming usually from careful observers, these appeared to indicate that, despite its bad points, the starlmg was destroying terrestrial insect pests at a rate surpassed by few, if any, of our native birds. From such conflicting testimony it was apparent that an accurate estimate of the starling’s worth could be secured only. by extensive field observation, supplemented by careful laboratory examination of the contents of a large number of stomachs collected under diverse conditions and representative of every month in the year. It was imperative that this be done in order that an intelligent attitude might be reflected in legislation enacted for the bird’s protection or control. Such work the Bureau of Biological Survey began in the spring of 1916, and the results of its investigation are discussed in the following pages. SOURCES OF INFORMATION. In conducting field work it was planned to visit as many points in the six States in which the starling was common in 1916 as one season’s work by two investigators would permit. Effort was 1 Field work in the States of Connecticut, Rhode Island, and Massachusetts, as well as on Long Island, New York, was conducted by I. N. Gabrielson; and in Pennsylvania, New Jersey, and New York (except Long Island), by E. R. Kalmbach. This involved continuous observation from the beginning of April to the middle of October, a period in which all forms of damage of which the starling had been accused could be investigated. The authors collaborated in the examination of the material collected and in the preparation of the manuscript. ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 3 made to visit places from which complaints had come, and enough of these were investigated to give a good idea of the habits of the star- ling in areas where it had acquired an unfavorable reputation. There were secured for this investigation a total of 2,466 well- filled stomachs, probably a greater number than has ever before been used for investigating the food habits of a single species of bird. Of these, 309 were of nestlings. Approximately two-thirds of the material was collected by representatives of the Biological _ Survey, the remainder being secured from reliable collectors, who at the same time submitted many economic notes of interest. Of these stomachs 1,250 were collected in Connecticut, 814 in New Jersey, 269 in New York, 62 in Pennsylvania, 43 in Massachusetts, 27 in Rhode Island, and 1 in Delaware. Besides these there were gathered 160 additional stomachs only partially filled with food. While these were not suited for estimating percentages, they fur- nished considerable information concerning food items. In response to a circular letter sent under date of June 15, 1915, to numerous bird students, horticulturists, and practical farmers, 269 replies were received. The following questions, embodied in that circular, will give an idea of the data obtained: 1. About what year did the starling appear in your neighborhood? 2. Isitnow common? When did it become so? Abundance as compared with other species. 3. Is the bird destructive to fruits? State kinds and, if possible, the approximate amount of damage. 4. Does the starling damage any other crops or property? 5. What are the relations of the starling to other birds? 6. Where plenty of nest boxes have been placed, has friction between the starling and other species decreased? 7. At what time of year do starlings begin to flock? Are they more destructive when in flocks than at other times? _8. Does the starling spend the winter in your locality? 9. From your observations do you consider the starling injurious or beneficial? Besides the replies to these requests, correspondence from other sources has yielded many facts that have been incorporated in this bulletin. DISTRIBUTION AND ABUNDANCE OF THE STARLING. ? The starling (Sturnus vulgaris) is native to all but the most north- ern parts of Hurope, and also occupies the samé latitudes in the western two-thirds of Siberia. Migration in fall takes the bulk of the species to countries bordering on the Mediterranean, and a portion to the warm latitudes as far east as Hindustan. Several related species and subspecies of starlings occupy adjacent sections and even portions of the same areas in the southeastern part of this 2 Most of the data here presented concerning the introduction and spread of the starling in the United States prior to 1916 have been compiled by W. L. McAtee, of the Bureau of Biological Survey. { + BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. range. The starling has been introduced and established as an inte- gral part of the fauna of Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United States. In North America attempts have been made to establish it at Cin- cinnati, Ohio (1872, 1873); Quebec, Canada (1875); Central Park, New York City (1877, 1887, 1890, 1891); Portland, Oreg. (1889, 1892); Allegheny, Pa. (1897); Springfield, Mass. (1897); Bay Ridge, N. Y.; and a few other localities. The bird gained a foothold at Portland, but now is scarce or extinct in that vicinity. Apparently the introductions of 1890 and 1891 into Central Park, New York City, are the ones which resulted in the permanent establishment of the species, and from this colony have been derived the thousands of birds now scattered over the northeastern United States. The starling has not spread with the rapidity characterizing the English sparrow’s occupation of the country. One-reason is that this bird apparently does not travel in box cars; another, that it has not been introduced into so many localities nor carried from place to place by man. Nevertheless, it has ‘steadily widened its breeding range and each year performs more and more extensive migrations. For six years after its first successful introduction into Central Park the starling did not breed beyond the limits of greater New York. In 1896 it was confined as a breeding species to New York City, Brooklyn, and Staten Island. By 1902 it had reached Norwalk, Conn., and Ossining, N. Y., on the north; and Bayonne, N. J., on the south. By 1906, territory as far north as Wethersfield, Conn., and as far southwest as Trevose, Pa., was occupied. In 1908, Providence, R. I., and Philadelphia marked the extremes of its breeding range; and by 1913, Hadley, Mass., and Westchester, Pa., had been reached. The bird bred not far from Washington, D. C., in the summer of 1916 and in the same season was found breeding as far north as the south- ern boundaries of New Hampshire and Vermont, while toward the northwest it had extended its breeding range as far as Oneida County, N. Y. (see map, fig. 1). In its post-breeding wanderings the starling has been recorded from a much greater area, extending in 1916 from southern Maine to Norfolk, Va. On November 10, 1917, ohe speci- men was collected as far south as Savannah, Ga. Inland it has been seen at Rochester, N. Y:, Wheeling, W. Va., and in east central Ohio. As a breeder the starling is by no means uniformly distributed throughout its range. In the first place, it is decidedly partial to thickly settled agricultural sections. It shows also a preference for the vicinity of the coast and the larger river valleys, and in its spread over the country lowlands are populated first. In the strip of terri- tory from New York City to New Haven, Conn., where the starling in 1916 seemed to be the most abundant breeding bird, it was con- ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 5 fined to a narrow belt of low, flat, or rolling farm land within 8 or 10 miles of salt water, and, with the exception of the Housatonic Lhe ene | ey ee r — Wlass. Provti herstiela Fic. 1.—Breeding range of the starling at various periods from 1896 to 1916. Since 1916 this range nas been extended so little that it is not indicated on the map. x Valley, there were few birds inland. East of New Haven the starling was restricted mainly to the shore. In most of the Con- ai. 6 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. necticut River valley below Middletown, where it is narrow, with wild, rough land reaching often to the water’s edge, the starling was scarce; but north of Middletown, where the valley widens until several miles of rich cultivated bottom land lie between the wooded hills, the bird was very abundant. Up. the river as far north as Springfield, Mass., the starling was as common a breeder as the robin. North of Springfield it was not present in great numbers, although favorable conditions for food and nest sites prevailed. According to a count made in 1916 by the bird club of Springfield, that city contained a breeding starling population of 5,000. Amherst, Holyoke, Northampton, and Greenfield, Mass., had colonies of vary- ing sizes, those of Amherst and Greenfield approximating 1,000 and 500, respectively. In eastern Massachusetts and in Rhode Island the birds were only local in distribution. On Long Island a line drawn from Oyster Bay on the north to Bay Shore on the south roughly marked the eastern boundary. of the region of abundance. East of this line the birds were generally, but not abundantly, dis- tributed on the north and south shores. They were absent from the center of the island except for a few in cultivated clearings. In 1916, the starling was extremely abundant in northeastern New Jersey, where it had been established about the cities of Newark, Paterson, Montclair, Elizabeth, and Plainfield for at least 15 years. It was also quite generally distributed throughout Somerset, Middle- sex, Hunterdon, and Mercer Counties. In the northern parts of Monmouth, Burlington, Camden, and Gloucester Counties it was locally abundant. There were very few, however, in the pine barrens in the southeastern part of the State, or in the hilly sections to the north, comprising all of Sussex and Warren Counties and parts of Morris, Passaic, and Bergen Counties. Up the Hudson the starling’s abundance was restricted to the vicinity of the larger towns, Peeks- kill, Newburgh, and Poughkeepsie having the greatest numbers. The narrowness of the valley prevented a general distribution along the lower Hudson. In Pennsylvania the bulk of the starlmg popu- lation was still confined to the vicinity of Philadelphia. The familiarity of the starling with human abodes, and the daily visits to a single feeding ground of the same post-breeding flock are the two factors that have given many persons an exaggerated idea of the abundance of the species. Few have attempted to estimate relative numbers during the breeding season. It is believed that in all of Hud- son County, most of Essex and Union Counties, and the southeastern and southern parts, respectively, of Passaic and Bergen Counties, New Jersey, the starling in 1916 had reached a state of maximum abundance, beyond which it will not increase as a breeder. The same may be said of the area immediately to the east and northeast of Brooklyn and New York City and extending along the Connecticut ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. q shore as far as Bridgeport. It is possible, of course, for the size of post-breeding roosts and winter flocks to be further augmented in this section by an increased breeding population in adjacent country. Taking this area as a whole, the starling about equaled the English sparrow asa breeder. In the residential sections of some of the cities it outnumbered the sparrow, but it in turn was greatly outnumbered about the freight yards, markets, business streets, and dumping grounds; and eyen in many of the rural sections the sparrow predomi- nated. Beyond this area of maximum abundance, centers of starling population, where the starling as much as equaled the English spar- row as a breeder, were quite restricted and often isolated from other colonies by many miles. Consequently, exaggerated ideas regarding the average abundance of the starling throughout its range were also held by persons living in the vicinity of localized colonies. A dis- tance of but a few miles will at times reveal great differences in star- ling abundance. At Bernardsville, N. J. July 22-25), starlings were too scarce to make collecting profitable, although at Mendham, only 6 miles to the north, the brood of the year was so abundant about the farms close to the village that the birds inflicted severe damage to the cherry crop. At Somerville, N. J. (June 5-8), only 10 miles from Plainfield, a center of starling population, the same unfavorable collecting conditions were met. At Freehold, N. J. (September 18- October 1), the location of a roost in the town accounted for an unusual abundance of starlings on the near-by farms, especially in early morning and late afternoon. After the roost had been eradi- cated, the starling could not be placed any higher than tenth in a list of birds of the surrounding country, arranged according to their abundance. In 1916, there was a vast area along the borders of the starling’s range where the bird was too scarce to be of any great economic sig- _ nificance. This applied to most of Massachusetts and Rhode Island; New York, north and west of Kingston; Pennsylvania and Delaware, outside of a 30-mile radius of Philadelphia; and New Jersey, south of a line drawn from Salem to Toms River. In this region many farmers were wholly unacquainted with the bird and very few had complaints to make. With a knowledge of the starling’s habitat and food preferences, both in Europe and in this country, and of the bird’s ability to adapt itself to new environment, some conjecture may be ventured as to its ultimate distribution in the United States. Until 1916, the Allegheny Mountains appeared to be an effective barrier against progress to the west, but now that numbers have been reported at points west of the divide, the spread through the low, fertile farmland of Ohio and Indiana may be rapid. There appears no reason why 8 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the starling, once established in the Mississippi Valley, should not readily extend its range as far north as the middle of Michigan, Wis- consin, and Minnesota. To the south, it will probably go nearly, if not actually, to the Gulf coast, though it may always be scarce as a breeder in the southern part of this area. To the west, the Great Plains with their scarcity of suitable nesting sites, and back of them the Rocky Mountains with their high altitudes, will bar the starling for many years from reaching the Great Basin or California by either a northern ora southern route. DESCRIPTION OF THE STARLING. Even in areas where the starling has been long established uncer- tainty exists as to its identification. Post-breeding flocks of red- winged blackbirds are often called starlings, and the damage they do is often attributed to the latter. The great differences between the plumages of the young and of the adults, as well as the great change in the appearance of the old birds from fall to spring, also lead to confusion. The starling, however, bears several conspicuous marks of identification, and when these are borne in mind, one will have little trouble in recognizing the bird. The adult starling is about 84 inches long, and its weight is about equal to that of the robin; but its short, drooping tail gives it, when at rest, a chunky, humpbacked appearance. From early spring until the middle of June the adult bird may be singled out at a dis- tance by its being our only black bird having a rather long, sharp, yellow bill. In the male the base of the lower mandible is somewhat darkened with livid; in the female these parts are simply paler yellow. After the breeding season, and coincident with the molt, the entire bill darkens until it is nearly black. The molt is usually completed by the middle of September and leaves the starling a much changed bird. The feathers of the sides of the head, breast, flanks, and under- parts have white tips, so that from a distance the bird has a gray, mottled appearance. At close range, however, the starling is a handsome bird in this plumage; the dark parts of the feathers of the throat, breast, and flanks are resplendent with iridescent reflec- tions of purple, green, and blue; while on the back, with its green and bronze iridescence, the feathers are tipped with brown. The tail and wings are dark, some of the feathers of the latter being edged with brown. During winter most of the white tips to the feathers on the breast and underparts wear off, leaving the bird dark below, with the iridescent reflections still present. (See frontispiece. ) On leaving the nest the young are a uniform dark olive-brown on the back, and below they are at first somewhat streaked with lighter markings, but soon become unicolor; the throat is white or buffy. The first molt begins about the same time as that of the adults. ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 9 The first new feathers appear on the sides of the breast, the flanks, and the center of the back, while the plumage of the head is the last to change. During July, August, and early September, young birds in all stages of the molt may be found. When the plumage has completely changed the young can not with certainty be distin- guished from the adults, although they tend to have larger white tips to the feathers below. ; In flight the starlmg may be confused with a few other species. From its habit of sailing on fixed wings for considerable distances it is often mistaken for the purple martin, but a little watching will reveal the starling’s greater speed. When in flocks starlmgs may be distinguished from other gregarious species with which they often associate by the wonderful coordination of action between the in- dividuals of the flock, their rapid wing beats, great speed, and ability to alter direction instantly. In searching for food the starling walks rather rapidly and with little change in pace, keeping up a continuous zigzag course when on grassland, seldom hesitating unless to pick up food. The contention of many bird lovers that the starling’s lack of song is agood reason for not allowing it to supplant native songsters is open to controversy. While its notes, outside of a clear whistle or two and a coarse rasping note of alarm, are subdued and lack melody, should one chance to be close to a male starling putting forth his best efforts, the results will be as fascinating as the more celebrated whisper songs of the catbird or of the brown thrasher. The starling is a mimic par excellence and has the notes of a number of our native birds already im its repertoire, a fact that has often led to error in identification when the observer placed too much confi- dence in notes alone. Perhaps the bird most frequently imitated .is the wood pewee, whose plaintive ‘‘pee-a-wee”’ is reproduced with such delicate skill that it can not be distinguished from the song of the woodland flycatcher itself. The mellow tones of the bluebird’s call are given with almost equal fineness. In areas where the bob-white is common its two-noted whistle is readily taken up by the starlmg and executed in a way that closely resembles the original. Notes of the red-winged blackbird, grackle, field sparrow, flicker, blue jay, Carolina wren, and English sparrow also are given, but less frequently. Young starlings have a harsh, hissing, or rasping note, which seems to have its origin as a feeding call, but is given for some time after leaving the nest. LIFE HISTORY. During the first week in April the wintering flocks of starlings begin to decrease in numbers as the birds mate and wander off in 182334°-—2 1——2 ~ 10 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. search of nesting sites. By the middle of the month this process is completed, although the birds often return to the old roosts for the night until nest building is started. For nesting sites, old woodpecker holes, natural cavities in trees, bird houses (particularly those intended for bluebirds, flickers, and martins), and cornices or crevices about buildings are most frequently chosen, although nests have been found on fire escapes; hay tracks, and barn doors, behind window shutters, and even in open boxes erected for pigeons. In fact, any cavity, regardless of size of opening or depth, may be utilized if the starling is able to enter it at all. The nesting sites chosen are frequently poorly protected from ram; consequently the nests are foul and damp. In the mere construction and occupancy of their nests, BP ebiies have been the source of some complamt. Beimg sturdy pias and equipped with bills well suited for tearng things to pieces, though not especially adapted to chiseling healthy wood, they Will at times do damage to roofs not recently shingled. The clogging of hay tracks or tracks of barn doors with their nests is occasionally a source of trouble, and the infesting of the immediate vicinity of their homes with bird lice is complained of when they build about water tanks, poultry houses, etc. The filthiness of their nests, due to the great quantity of excreta deposited, is also a common com- plaint, especially when the birds choose some spot immediately above the doorstep for their breeding operations.’ This condition prevails most often during the latter stages of the nestling life, when the parent birds are unable to remove all the accumulation. The height at which starlings nest is variable, the lowest nest cavity observed being 2 feet from the ground and the highest fully 40 feet. When they nest m trees the cavities usually range from 10 to 25 feet from the ground. The nest itself is usually composed almost entirely of dry grasses and is sufficiently large to fill the bottom of a cavity 3 to 4 inches deep. The interior of the nest will approximate 3 inches in diameter. A little green foliage, usually a few leaves taken from a near-by branch, is dispersed throughout the grassy structure. The interior is lined sparingly with feathers of domestic fowls. Straw, corn husks, string, and cloth are other materials sometimes used in nest building. Nesting sites used for several years in succession gradu- ally fill up with a partly decayed mass of these materials. [rom one nest in the cornice of a sawmill a good half bushel of material was removed. The eggs are of a pale-blue color and number from 3 to 6 to the set. Incubation lasts about 12 days.’ The young remain in the nest from 2 to 3 weeks, or until they are able to fly, which they do well on their first attempt. This habit, combined with the protected nest ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. OL sites, tends to reduce the mortality among young starlings much below that of many other species. Nestling starlings are fed by the parents nese on insects. For the first week both parents take part in the feeding operations, but in several nests that were under observation the female was left to do all the work during the later part of the nestling period. When - 8 or 4 days old the young are very noisy and give the feeding call in lusty chorus in response to almost any sound. Later, they learn to distinguish the approach of the parents and respond only to their notes or appearance. Other noises or vibrations cause them to crouch silently in the bottom of the nest, and no amount of coaxing will persuade one of them to stir or make a sound. Two broods are usually raised each year and sometimes there are three. The first of these leaves the nest about June 1 and the second late in July. Fledglings which may have been from either a belated second or third brood just from the nest were collected as late as September 12, at Bay Shore, N. Y. As soon as the first brood leaves the nest small flocks of young starlings can be found feeding on grasslands or roosting at night in trees or buildings. These flocks grow rapidly in size and by mid- July often number into the thousands. During the day no adult birds are found in these early flocks and very few appear until after the completion of the molt in September; both old and young, how- ever, occupy the same nightly roost. These post-breeding flocks usually select a roosting place in‘trees in the residential sections of cities and are there the cause of much complaint. Occasionally a roost will be formed in a cat-tail marsh or in a building, but this is the exception rather than the rule. At a roost in a marsh along the Hackensack River an opportunity was afforded to watch the starlmgs congregating. As early as 3 o'clock in the afternoon flocks of a dozen or two could be found | gathering in the hayfields in the vicinity, or perching.on dead chest- nuts, singing and preening their feathers. Most of these were juveniles with the molt extending up as far as the neck. They would fly alternately to the hay stubble, which was heavily infested with grasshoppers, and then to the tree tops when flushed. By 4 o’clock a flock of a hundred or more had gathered. In the scramble for grasshoppers and crickets, one or more momentary conflicts between competitors would be almost continuously in progress and, as the flock progressed across the field, a rollmg aspect was imparted to it as birds in the rear would fly forward to new territory. With the approach of evening the birds would rise and perform numerous flight evolutions, in which they displayed wonderful coordination of action. This was best observed when they would fly in the direction of the sun, and the flashes of light coming from 72 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. their glossy backs appeared as coming from a single mirror instead of from several hundred bodies acting independently but in perfect unison. After a minute or two of such flight the flock would some- times seem suddenly to lose this ability of coordinated action and the individuals would spread out in a long wavering line, breaking up into several groups before alighting. As dusk approached, the birds had worked their way toward the Hackensack River, where they gathered in compact flocks, singing in the tree tops along the bank. (Pl. I.) A few were seen feeding with a large number of red-wings on the tidal flats along the edge of the marsh. When darkness finally came the starlings in the tree tops sailed out over the marsh and jomed their relatives, perching on the cat-tail flags for the night. The behavior of starlings at all other roosts which came under observation was much the same, except in one instance, at Glenn Cove, N. Y. Here the birds went through the usual maneuvers and settled in company with a great number of grackles in a grove on the outskirts of town. Late in the evening the entire flock rose in a body and flew to the permanent roost half a mile or more away, behaving much the same as do crows in gathermg at a winter roost. These summer roosts are often imhabited by several species. Grackles or starlings usually form the bulk of the occupants, but there may be also numbers of cowbirds, red-winged blackbirds, English sparrows, and robins. An unusual roost was established at Washington, D. C., in August, 1917. At a point on the Mall, where grackles had roosted for years and starlings had been found for several seasons, a great mixed flock congregated, consisting of 8,000 or more purple martins, about 1,000 grackles, 300 starlings, and a few swallows (probably rough-winged swallows). The birds from these summer roosts frequently have a definite feeding route. For example, the starlings from the Glenn Cove roost flew south and east for about a mile to commence feeding, and from 5 to 7 o’clock each morning could be found in almost the same locality—an abandoned field. From here they worked in a well-de- fined circle, appearing at 4 o’clock in the afternoon im an orchard three-quarters of a mile north of the roost and feeding there and in the surrounding fields until going to the trees for the night. In October or November the starlings voluntarily abandon these tree roosts and resort to church towers, barns, or other buildings for shelter. Here they gather nightly until sprmg, when the flocks are broken up by the mating impulse. A local estimate of the number of birds in such a roost in a church tower in Norwalk, Conn., varied from 10,000 to ‘‘a million,” but an approximate count revealed the fact that not more than 1,000 birds were roosting there in April, 1916. Although the starling remains in some numbers throughout the breeding range during the winter, it exhibits a certain migratory Bul. 868, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. B1i7290 STARLINGS AT HACKENSACK, N J., ROOST. Photograph taken at about sundown while most of the birds were singing. A few moments later these starlings, along with hundreds of others, sailed out over a near-by marsh, where they roosted among cat-tails in company with many red-winged blackbirds. ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 13 movement. All the birds in one locality collect into a single roost, but in addition to this there is a large increase in the flocks along the seacoast and a considerable movement southward from the breed- ing area. For three years a varying number of starlings appeared in a fall roost in Washington, D. C., before breeding birds were first found in 1917. Other localities south of the breeding range have also reported wintering flocks for several years before the birds have become permanent residents. ECONOMIC STATUS IN OTHER COUNTRIES.’ While the behavior of the starling in its native home and in coun- tries to which it has been introduced can not be interpreted as a certain indication of its conduct under the new conditions it will meet in this country, its activities elsewhere will serve to call atten- tion to its capabilities for domg good or harm. Throughout most of its breeding range in Europe, particularly in France, Germany, and Hungary, the bird is held in great esteem and is encouraged, by the erection of nest boxes, to breed about farms and gardens. The chief German authorities, with one exception, have considered the starling more beneficial than injurious. The birds there do consid- erable damage to grapes and cherries, and to a smaller extent injure various cultivated-berries. On the other hand, they feed freely upon injurious snails and slugs, beetle larve, caterpillars, maggots, and grass- hoppers. Among their prey are such pests as ticks, gadflies, stable flies, cockchafers, fern beetles, pine weevils, fir weevils, spruce moths, snd field and mole crickets. French authors mention damage by the starling to olives and grapes, but are unanimous in dedenme the species useful. It is significant, moreover, that, although one of their articles was pub- _ lished in a viticultural journal, damage to grapes, one of the greatest _ points made against the starling, was not considered sufficient to exclude the bird from the list of useful species. In Belgium the starling is said to be very useful and its damage in- significant, as it prefers an insect diet. It eats about the same pests as in Germany, and in addition wireworms, grass moths, plant lice, and oak leaf-rollers. The late Otto Herman, distinguished Hungarian ornithologist, asserts ¢ that, taking its feeding habits of the whole year into consid- eration, the starling does a thousand times more good than harm and richly deserves protection. Starlings have rendered particularly efficient service during locust plagues in Hungary. The single Swiss author consulted gives the bird about as much adverse criticism as praise; and a communication from Tunis states 3 The data presented under this topic were compiled by W. L. McAtee, of the Biological Survey. 4 Herman, Otto, Nutzen und Schaden der Végel, Leipzig, p. 181, 1903. 14 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that on isolated plantations migrating starlings sometimes take the entire olive crop. In 13 of 18 general articles on the starling in Great Britain it is stated that the bird is more beneficial than injurious; one article says that while the bird is valuable now, its habits are undergoing a change for the worse, and four state that although very useful in grasslands and forests, the starling is entirely too numerous for the best interests of fruit growers. Exhaustive investigations of the bird’s habits have been made by Gilmour, Newstead, Collinge, and the national board of agriculture. After reviewing the whole question of the starling’s economic status the board of agriculture concludes ® that ‘‘on the whole * * * . the information at present collected goes to show that, in view of their great partiality for insect food, starlings are, from the forest standpoint, entirely useful, whilst in agriculture and gardening their usefulness far more than outweighs the occasional harm done.” Summing up, it may be said that in Europe the verdict on the star- ling is distinctly favorable; of 35 works dealing in a general way with the economic status of the bird, only 7 report adversely. It is note- worthy, moreover, that the findings of all the thorough and more scientific investigators have been in favor of the species, although some authors admit that at present starlings are too numerous in some localities. In most countries where the bird has been introduced, the case is different. In Australia and Tasmania testimony concerning starlings is generally unfavorable. Their great faults are driving away native birds and preying upon fruits. They have by no means lost their insectivorous tastes in their new home; in fact, they are credited with suppressing plagues of grubs and crickets which destroy grain and grass. Their numbers have become so great, however, that after the breeding season enormous flocks band together and at times descend upon orchards, vineyards, or gardens, where they make great havoc with the crops. The introduction of the starling into New Zealand does not seem to have resulted so unfavorably as in Australia. In 1907, just 40 — years after the first importation, James Drummond published an account of the activities of the species in that country.® His con- clusions were based on the testimony submitted by many farmers who had experience with the birds, and were to the effect that the starling was one of the most valuable of insectivorous birds. 5 Board Agr. and Fisheries (London), Leaflet 45, Rev. ed., 4 p., Jume, 1905, 6 New Zealand Dept. Agr., Div. Biol. and Hort., Bull. 16, 1907. ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 15 FOOD HABITS IN THE UNITED STATES.’ Examination of 2,157 stomachs of adult starlings ® showed that 57 per cent of the annual food was animal and 43 per cent vegetable. During the months from April to November, inclusive, excepting July, animal matter made up more than half the food, the maximum being taken in April and May (91.22 per cent and 94.95 per cent, respectively). In July, with the great abundance of mulberries and cherries offering an unlimited supply of luscious fruit, of the 52.67 per cent vegetable matter taken, nearly all, or 50.74 per cent of the total, consisted of these two items. In February, animal food dropped to the lowest point in the year, 28.17 per cent. The average, however, for the four winter months from December to March was 31.5 per cent, a remarkable showing when circumstances are consid- ered. The great majority of these winter stomachs were collected in New Jersey and Connecticut, and in view of the usual climatic condi- tions in these two States it seems noteworthy that starlings were able to secure such a relatively high proportion of animal food. ~ ANIMAL FOOD OF ADULTS. INSECTS. Of the total yearly food of the adult starling, 41.55 per cent is composed of insects, a greater proportion than is shown in the food of most of our native birds of similar habits. The monthly per- centages of insect food are as follows: January, 27.66; February, 23.81; March, 23.87; April, 32.61; May, 49.94; June, 52.26; July, 41.98; August, 56.92; September, 52.83; October, 57.8; November, 54.0; December, 25.2. During winter many hibernating insects or the bodies of dead insects which have been preserved by the season’s cold are eaten. Among these, beetles, weevils, stinkbugs, grasshoppers, caterpillars, and lepidopterous pupz are conspicuous. As the fields become more ‘thoroughly gleaned the percentage of insects eaten decreases, until in February and March it reaches its minimum, 23.81 per cent and 23.87 per cent, respectively. In April, as insects begin to appear in numbers, the percentage rises, and during the months from May to November, except in July, when the starling temporarily abandons an insect diet to feast on wild fruit, over half the total food is insects. As the character of the insect food of a bird is of vast importance im fixing its economic status, the different groups of insects in the food of the starling will be taken up in the order of their importance. 7 Graphic summaries of the food habits of adult and young starlings are presented in figures 2 and 3 (p. 38 and p. 45, respectively); and therelative proportions ofthe various food elements are set forth in percentages in Tables IT and III (p. 39 and p. 44, respectively). 8 Included with the stomachs of the adult birds here discussed are stomachs of juvenile birds that had left the nest and were shifting for themselves. 16 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It must be remembered that in ascertaining the economic worth of a bird not all the insects eaten can be placed fo its credit, as many are of great value because of their predacious or parasitic habits. CoLeoprTEeRA (Beetles). Of the 41.55 per cent of insect food consumed by the starling, nearly half (19.59 per cent) consists of beetles. These are divided among numerous families, but weevils, carabids, and scarabeids, in the order named, are of the greatest importance. The Rhynchophora, or weevils, stand first among the Coleoptera in the proportion of food furnished, 8.5 per cent of the starling’s food being from this source. In feeding on this group the starling is doing a very useful work, as the snout beetles include some of the most destructive insects with which man has to deal. Weevils : are eaten every month in the year. The smallest quantity taken in any one month was 3.13 per cent in October, and the largest, 20.16 per cent in a winter month, February. An examination of the monthly percentage table (p. 39) shows that there are two periods of the year in which weevils form over 10 per cent of the food. The first is i July (13.36 per cent) and August (10.91), when many species are emerging; and the second is in January (14.10) and Feb- ruary (20.16), when the starlings are feeding on hibernating forms. One of the most interesting food habits of the starling is im its rela- tion to the clover leaf weevil (Hypera punctata), a European insect which has long been introduced and acclimated in the United States and which does serious damage to the clover crop in some seasons. It is known that the starling habitually feeds on this msect in England, but it apparently goes far beyond its normal habit in feeding on it in this country. Nearly half (1,125) of the 2,301 adult birds exam- ined had eaten clover leaf weevils, and 12 had taken their larve. Of these no less than 54 had taken 10 or more weevils for one meal and 106 had taken from 5 to 10 weevils. The largest number of larve eaten was 49, taken by a bird collected in New Jersey in May. These formed 38 per cent of the stomach contents. Twenty-six was the greatest number of adults from one stomach, and these, together with 6 other weevils, formed 95 per cent of the food. In February, 288 of the 398 stomachs examined contained remains of this beetle, and in January, 33 of 84. In July, 211 of 375 birds and in August, 216 of 347 had taken this weevil. In every month of the year the starling is searching the grasslands and weed patches for the clover leaf weevil. The high percentage revealed in January and February would seem to indicate that Hypera punctata hibernates in far greater numbers than has been commonly believed, for it is scarcely conceivable that so many dead insects would be left in as good condition as are many of these this Bul. 868, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. B845M Fic. |.—STOMACH CONTENTS OF JUVENILE STARLING. Nearly 95 per cent of this bird’s food consisted of the remains of 26 clover-leaf weevils, the heads, thoraces, and wing covers of which may be seen at the left of the picture. v i The large mass in the upper right-hand corner is additional débris of the same insects; below it are parts of a elpver toot weevil; and in the lower right-hand corner are fragments of the skin of a cultivated cherry. eh Pel bwa @ e (iL dgeta ¢ e aera, * % B844mM Fia. 2.—STOMACH CONTENTS OF JUVENILE STARLING. Except for afew bits of vegetable rubbish, shown in the extreme lower right-hand corner of the picture, all of this bird’s food consisted of flies in one stage or another of development. There were present 1 adult and 76 puparia of Muscidae, at least 85 sarcophagid larvae, and another puparium. This bird apparently had been feeding in the vicinity of carrion or garbage. ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. ay late in winter. For example, one bird from Massachusetts in January had eaten 14 of these weevils and 4 others, which made a total of 26 per cent of its food. A Connecticut bird taken in the same month had also eaten 14 of these weevils, which formed 32 per cent of the food. In these two months 14 of the birds had taken more than 5 Hypera at a single meal. (PI. III, fig. 1.) * Another weevil eaten in considerable numbers is the lesser clover leaf weevil (Phytonomus mgrirostris). Seventy-three of the 2,301 adult birds had fed on this insect. The greatest number taken was 9 by each of 2 birds. The clover root curculio (Sitona hispidula), the larvee of which feed on the roots of various species of clover, is also a favorite, article of diet, having been taken by 505 adult star- lings. It was found most abundantly in the same months as the clover leaf weevil, as 27 of 84 birds taken in January, 119 of 398 taken in February, 83 of 375 in July, and 86 of 347 in August had eaten it. The birds frequently took numbers of this species, 36 having taken 5 or more. An August bird from Pennsylvania had eaten 30 adult clover root curculios, and one from New Jersey had taken 31. The closely related weevil Sitona flavescens, which has similar injurious habits, is preyed upon to a less extent, only 33 of the 2,301 adults having eaten it. One of these, however, taken in Connecticut durmg August, had devoured 17 of the weevils, and several others had taken 2 or more. The strawberry crown girdler (Otworhynchus ovatus), the larve of which feed on the roots of strawberries and other plants, had been eaten by 60 adult starlings, and the closely related weevil (Otiorhyn- chus sulcatus) known in Europe as the black-vine weevil, had been taken 7 times. Barypeithes pellucidus, another weevil known to attack strawberries and found in southern New England and adja- cent States, had been taken by a single bird, which had made 75 per cent of its meal on 167 individuals. In point of numbers taken, Sphenophorus, a group of destructive weevils known as billbugs, which bore into the seeds and stems of grain, stands next to the clover weevils, as at least 225 starlings had eaten them. Of these the ‘‘bluegrass billbug” (S. parvulus), which had been eaten by 104 birds, was most frequently taken. These insects sometimes do considerable damage to timothy. Five other species of this genus, all of them injurious, were taken in varying numbers by the birds. Phyzelis rigidus was found in 90 stomachs, one of which contained 13 individuals. As the starling stomachs examined often contaimed several species of these injurious weevils, a few of the more interesting ones are mentioned here. In a July stomach from Pennsylvania 20 Hypera punctata, 14 Sitona hispidula, and 2 Sphenophorus sp. formed 95 182334°—21—3 18 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. per cent of the contents. A New Jersey bird taken in the same month had made 60 per cent of its meal on weevils, as follows: 3 Hypera punctata, 9 Sitona hispidula, 1 Sitonaflavescens, 1 Phytonomus nigri- rostris, 1 Sphenophorus parvalus, and fragments of one other weevil. An August bird taken in Connecticut had eaten 13 Hypera punctata, 3 Phytonomus nigrirostris, and 1 other weevil, making of these 72 per cent of its meal. Another bird from the same State collected in January had eaten 9 Hypera punctata, 2 Sitona hispidula, and 3 Sphenophorus parvulus, which formed. 50 per cent of the total stomach contents. From the foregoing data it is evident that the starling is a very effective enemy of such weevils as feed on grass or forage crops. This is particularly noticeable in regard to the clover pests, and it is safe to assert that the starling is the most effective bird enemy of the clover weevil in America. It seems natural that the Ganahines or ground beetles, being to a large extent grass-inhabiting forms, should be present in the star- ling’s food, of which they constitute 5.71 per cent. As this family contains both beneficial and injurious insects it will be necessary to consider it in some detail. During the months from April to October, inclusive, carabids furnish a considerable portion of the food, varying from 4.56 per cent in October to 13.02 nm August. They are among the first beetles to appear in spring, and are promptly sought for by the starling. This is strikingly shown by their increase in the food from 1.07 per cent in March to 7.31 per cent in April. The maxi- mum consumption of these insects is in August and September (13.02 per cent and 12.93 per cent, respectively, of the food). During the other months the number taken is small and in no case forms much more than 1 per cent. Inasmuch as ground beetles seldom occur in nature in as great numbers as some of the plant-feeding beetles, their presence in star- ling stomachs is usually limited to a few individuals. They were found, however, in moderate numbers in nearly every Se col- lected during the summer. Comparatively few of the large predatory carabids of the genera Carabus and Calosoma are captured by the starling, as, of 2,301 birds, only 20 had eaten the former and 3 the latter. Pterostichus, a genus of small beetles living largely on animal matter, was found more frequently, 160 birds out of 2,301 having fed on it. One member of this genus, P. lucublandus, a medium-sized beetle, was found in 102 stomachs. Thirteen birds had captured members of the genus Di- celus, a highly beneficial group which feeds on insects, and 67 had eaten various species of Platynus, beetles with somewhat similar food habits. Ninety-five stomachs contained members of the genus ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 19 Chlenius, also insectivorous, and in 36 were the remains of Casnonia pennsylvanica, a curious and easily recognized little carabid. By far the greater part of the carabids eaten by the starling are those that are known to be somewhat vegetarian in habits, notably certain members of the genera Harpalus and Anisodactylus. These beetles feed to a considerable extent on grass seeds and pollen and, therefore, can not be classed among the more beneficial carabids. Hight species of Harpalus were identified in the material examined, and in 277 stomachs the identification could be carried down only to the genus. Harpalus caliginosus, the largest member of the group, was identified in 144 stomachs, and H. pennsylvanicus in 79. One hundred and thirty-eight birds had eaten beetles referable to Ant- sodactylus, but these could not be specifically identified. Of the four species of this genus found in starling stomachs, A. rusticus, identified in 65, was the most common. Carabids of the genus Amara, that are to a considerable extent vegetarian in their feeding habits, were eaten by 151 of the starlings examined; Scarites subterraneus was found in 14 stomachs; and Agonoderus pallipes, which is injurious to sprouting corn, in 3. When feeding heavily on carabids, the starling usually secures a number of species. For instance, a bird shot in New Jersey in April, that had made 91 per cent of its meal on carabids, had eaten 1 Amara, 1 Anisodactylus, 1 Platynus cwpripennis, and 1 Agonoderus; while a June bird from the same State had taken 20 Amara penn- sylvanica and at least 2 other carabids, these forming 75 per cent of the stomach contents. A July bird from Connecticut that had made 13 per cent of its meal on beetles of this family had varied the menu by taking 2 Pterostichus lucublandus, 1 Bembidium quadrimaculatum, 2 Harpalus sp., 2 Anisodactylus rusticus, and 1 other carabid. A New Jersey bird taken in the same month had devoured 19 Amara, 3 Ago- noderus, 2 Anisodactylus, 11 Harpalus, and 2 other carabids, which totaled 84 per cent of the food. A Pennsylvania bird collected in August had eaten 1 Harpalus caliginosus, 2 H. pennsylvanicus, 10 H. erythropus, 5 Pterostichus lucublandus, 1 Anisodactylus, and 1 other carabid—items which formed 72 per cent of the stomach contents. It must be admitted that in its fondness for terrestrial carabids the starling does some harm by consuming useful forms, but a study of the above data shows that only a small part of the Carabide eaten are of the decidedly beneficial species. The scarabeids, or lamellicorn beetles, follow the weevils and carabids in the quantity of food furnished the starling, 2.24 per cent coming from this source. Of these by far the most important are the May beetles (Phyllophaga, adults of the notorious white grubs), which furnish the bulk of the 2.24 per cent. Both adults and larve are eaten, the former more frequently. No less than 11 species of 20 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. this genus were identified in the food of the starling, and from 4 to 8 individuals were frequently found in a single stomach. One bird collected in June had eaten 12. Approximately 300 of the 2,301 adults had taken May beetles, most of them im May, when they formed 11.04 per cent of the food. Dung beetles of the genera Aphodius and we ee 40.56 |35.97 |41.25 | 6.76 | 4.58 | 1.04 | 1.49 | 0.34 | 0.54 | 3.61 |_....- 26. 62 13.57 Cultivated cherries |5oo2e isola ere eck ee D7 AOLT |ASO Dp ee ree | eee a el ee ea 2.66 Other cultivated | 5.84 | 0.66 | 2.87 | 0.76 |...... PY OG) Bees 0.50 | 2.19 | 0.38 | 0.96 | 5.78 1.75 SMe ele Wild fruits ........ 19.98 /32.90 |13.69 | 0.34 |_..._- 1.12 |35.82 |40.88 |39.57 |23.76 |41.80 |36.44 23.86 Geral: Sao 555752 2 1.54 | 2.30 | 7.60 | 0.92 | 0.47 |_.-... 0.44 | 0.07 | 0.46 |..-..- OL18 ss 1.16 1 Under this heading are included Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, and other miscellaneous insects, spiders, and mollusks. OBSERVATIONS FROM BLIND. Few birds are more voracious than young starlings, and when there are from 4 to 6 to feed, it requires the most strenuous efforts of their naturally active parents to supply their constant needs. An insight into the feeding operations was obtained near Closter, N. J., by means of a blind, from which a nestful of 5 young starlings could be watched at close range. This blind was so placed that the opening made for observation was within 2 feet of the nest cavity. This was located about 6 feet from the ground in the hollow limb of an apple tree. In watching these birds, attempt was made to identify the food brought in and to determine the frequency of feeding. Efforts at identification met with little success, as in no case could an item be specifically identified, even though much of the food was carried in plain view at the tip of the bill of the parent bird and often within 18 inches of the eyes of the observer. The alertness of the bird prevented more than a momentary glance at the food it carried\ Such identifications as ‘‘cutworms,” ‘‘earthworms,”’ ‘‘grasshoppers,”’ and ‘‘ground beetles’’ were the best that could be made under. the circumstances; and then, since fully a third of the food of the star- ling is carried where it is partially or wholly concealed at the base of the bill or in the throat, this phase of the observations afforded few facts of value—very little compared with the detailed data secured from stomach examination. It was noted, however, that rainfall had a distinct effect on the character of food brought to the young. Dur- ing showery weather or on days succeeding rainy nights large quan- tities of earthworms and cutworms were secured. ‘The main source of this supply was a near-by garden. A low meadow was a favorite 40 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. feeding ground during drier weather, and it was here that the birds secured most of their beetle food. Observations as to the frequency of feeding gave more satisfactory results. Although the starling is extremely cautious in its feeding operations, this characteristic was less pronounced in the pair used in this observation, owing to the fact that the nest was situated within a few feet of the crossing of two well-traveled roads, and frequently the parent birds would sit calmly in the tree while several vehicles and pedestrians would pass within 20 feet. Little concern was shown over the presence of the blind, but of the two birds the male was by far the more cautious and at times would be frightened away from the nest by some cause or other, thus delaying a feeding. It often happened that the female would make several feeding trips while the male was thus alarmed, and on one or two such occasions the female attacked her mate, after which he would obediently visit the nest and feed the young. In nine days a total of 390 feedings were recorded, in 14 periods varying in length from 30 minutes to 4 hours and 41 minutes. One hundred and four of the feedings were by the male and 286 by the female. An average of one feeding every 6.1 minutes was main- tained for the whole period of observation, 31 hours and 10 minutes. The highest rate was recorded on the morning of May 18, which was probably the seventh day of the nestlings’ life. A feeding every 3.2 minutes was maintained for 4 hours and 41 minutes. The lowest rate, once every 11.7 minutes, occurred on May 25, the day before the young left the nest. On the basis of one feeding every 6.1 minutes, and assuming that the young are fed 12 hours a day, which is conservative, there would be 118 feedings a day. As this brood left the nest on the sixteenth day, which is probably several days short of the normal nestling period of the starling, for the birds were disturbed considerably during the latter days of their nestling life, a total of 1,888 feedings would have been given to this brood of five, or 377.6 for each nestling. When it is borne in mind that the parent birds would often bring in three or four cutworms, earthworms, or grasshoppers, or an equal | bulk of miscellaneous insect food, at a single trip, one may gain an idea of the quantity of food required to develop a brood of young starlings. STOMACH EXAMINATION. For detailed study of food items an excellent series of 325 stomachs of nestlings, collected in Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey — during May, June, and July, was available. Sixteen of these, how- ever, contained so little food that they could not be used in estimating percentages, leaving 309 for such purposes. Nestlings in all stages — — a, to ———ae ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 41 of growth, from the blind, callow young of a-day or two to the husky, energetic fledgling ready to leave the nest, are about equally repre- sented, with the result that the percentages of the various food items may be considered to be fair averages for the entire nestling period. It is well known that as nestlings grow older there is a gradual change im food preferences. A discussion of the change of food habits in the growing nestlings, based on this material, grouped according to the age of the birds, will be found in Table ITI, on page 44. B ANIMAL FOOD. Compared with the 338 stomachs of adult starlings collected in May and June, it is found that the percentage of animal matter eaten by nestlings is somewhat greater, 95.06 per cent in place of 82.36. By far the largest animal item consisted of caterpillars, which, along with a few moths and a cocoon or two, formed 38.21 per cent of the food of young starlings and were present in 274 of the 325 stomachs examined. To very young birds caterpillars are especially attractive. Only 3 of the 79 nestlings estimated to be less than 6 days old had failed to eat these larve. In the stomachs of 10 of these, caterpillars formed over three-fourths of the food, while the average for the lot was nearly half. In the case of two nestlings, apparently more than 10 days old, caterpillars formed the entire stomach content. A large part of the caterpillars eaten by the starling are cutworms, a fact which may be attributed to the bird’s habit of searching for insect food on the ground. Cutworms are chiefly nocturnal in their habits, but their high percentage in the food of young starlings indicates either that they are secured by the parents from beneath the surface or, which is likely, that a part are picked up in the early morning hours before the insects have secreted themselves for the day. Beetles of various kinds constitute the next largest item (29.98 per cent) in the food of nestlmgs, of which nearly half (14.58 per cent) are members of the family Scarabeide, in which is found that notorious pest, the white grub, better known to the city dweller in its adult form, the May beetle (Phyllophaga). During late May and early June adult May beetles are favorite items of food with young starlings. One brood of 4 nearly fledged young had been fed en- tirely on these insects, at least 32 individuals being eaten, and another brood of 4 had eaten 27, which constituted 82 per cent of -their food. As would be expected, the larve of these beetles are seldom eaten unless the parent birds are securing food on newly plowed fields. A few other phytophagous scarabeids of the genera Euphoria, Lagyrus, Cotalpa, Anomala, Diplotaxis, and Serica also were eaten, but in no case were the insects of economic importance or the quan- tity taken worthy of note. Nestling starlings eat by no means as 49 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. many coprophagous scarabeids as do their parents, who, in late summer and in fall, capture numbers of the common small genera on the wing. Of these, Aphodius appears to be the favorite for the nestlings. Ground beetles (Carabidz) formed a little more than 8 per cent of the young starlings’ food, a proportion about equal to that taken by the adults in May and June. They were found in two-thirds of the stomachs examined, but in only one case was the quantity taken more than half the stomach contents. Conspicuous among the distinctly beneficial carabids eaten is the fiery caterpillar hunter (Calosoma calidum). This imsect was identified in 17. stomachs. The large Harpalus caliginosus was present in 54 stomachs, Chlenius tomentosus in 46, and members of the genus Anisodaciylus in 76. The presence of a considerable number of the last-named genus, together with specimens of Amara, show that not all the ground beetles eaten should be charged against the starling, as some of them are distinctly vegetarian. The young starlings’ consumption of weevils is nearly three times as great as that of the adults during the same period, and while in bulk the portion taken is small (3.26 per cent), it contains one item of considerable interest, the clover leaf weevil (Hypera punctaia). (See Pl. III, fig. 1.) This insect constituted by far the largest portion of the weevil food. It was present in 53 stomachs, and the larve occurred in 34. One brood of 3 newly hatched young had been fed a total of 59 of these larve, which, together with 3 adult weevils of other genera, formed nearly 70 per cent of their food. The best record for the destruction of adult weevils was made by a brood of 4 half-grown nestlings that had consumed 30 individuals of two other clover pests (Sitona hispidula and Phytonomus mgrirosiris) along with a number of billbugs (Sphenophorus sp.). The remaining beetle food, comprising 4.11 per cent, was divided among a number of families. Leaf beetles (Chrysomelide) and rove beetles (Staphylinide) were best represented, but in no case was the quantity eaten of importance. As the nestling period is too early in the season to permit a heavy consumption of grasshoppers, a large part of the orthopterous remains found (11.31 per cent) was composed of crickets. These were present in 134 stomachs, frequently associated with a grasshopper or two. One brood-of 4 young starlings about ready to leave the nest had eaten 19 crickets and 4 grasshoppers, which totaled over 81 per cent of the food; another brood, just hatched, had been fed 13 crickets and 7 grasshoppers, which formed over two-thirds of their diet; and in the case of two other broods of 4 and 5, respectively, the orthop- terous food constituted over two-thirds of the stomach contents. Most of the crickets eaten by nestlings are the common field cricket ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 43 —Gryllus pennsylvanicus), while many of the grasshoppers belong to the genus Melanoplus. There is nothing of particular interest in the remaining insect food of young starlings. None of the other orders were represented by as much as 1 per cent. Among the Hymenoptera eaten, ants were prominent, and of the Hemiptera, soldier bugs (Pentatomidz) formed the greater part. Of animal items other than insects, spiders are most conspicuous. They were present in 182 of the 325 nestling stomachs examined and formed 8.56 per cent of the food, compared with 1.28 per cent of that of adults for the same period. Spiders are especially acceptable to nestlings of a day or two, as their thin-walled stomachs are unable to assimilate hard food. These creatures were found in the stomachs of 71 of 79 starlings less than 6 days old, and brood after brood was found in which every individual had been given one or more spiders. | In some instances upward of a hundred were found when an egg sac filled with young spiders had been swallowed. A large part of the spiders eaten belong to the family Lycoside, the wolf spiders, which are terrestrial in habit and are generally considered less bene- ficial than those species which construct webs for the capture of flying insect pests. The greatest difference between the food habits of old and young starlings is in the quantity of millipeds eaten. ‘These form nearly a third (32.95 per cent) of the sustenance of the adult birds during May and June, but less than a twentieth (4.56 per cent) of the food of the young. In the frequency also of feeding on millipeds the nestling lags behind its parent. About 52 per cent of the nestling starlings were fed on millipeds, while fully 78 per cent of the adults had taken such food during the same time. It would seem, then, that the parent birds in their search for food for the young either deliberately pass up many a milliped or else devour them themselves as they proceed. Nothing of importance appeared in the remaining miscellaneous animal matter, which formed less than 1 per cent of the food. VEGETABLE FOOD. Of the vegetable food consumed, cultivated cherries are the only item of importance. This fruit was eaten by 30 of the 325 nestlings collected and formed 3.18 per cent of the food, as compared with 8.01 per cent for adults during the same period. Most of the cherries eaten by the nestlings are brought to them the last few days they are in the nest, when they have acquired a dietary very similar to that of their parents. During this short time, however, a hungry _ brood of 5 or 6 can make away with considerable fruit. A nest box which had been occupied by only one brood near Closter, N. J., con- +4 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tained 114 stones of cultivated cherries when cleaned on July 11. The economic significance of the starling’s taste for cherries is fully discussed under the food of the adults, on pages 26 to 28. The remaining vegetable food, less than 2 per cent, is composed largely of rubbish. Mere traces of corn, oats, and wheat were present in a few stomachs. FOOD PREFERENCES AT DIFFERENT AGES. In order to reveal the changes that take place in the food prefer- ences of the nestling starling from the time it receives its first meal to the time it is ready to leave the nest and shift for itself, the nest- lings’ stomachs were arranged in three groups, representing as nearly as possible the first, second, and third periods of nestling life. These groups include, approximately, (1) birds from 1 to 5 days old; (2) those 6 to 10 days old; and (8) all above 10 days of age. Each group was well represented, there being 79, 94, and 122 stomachs, respec- tively. Fourteen additional nestling stomachs on hand could not be used, as definite data concerning their age was lacking. The infor- mation derived from the regrouping of this material is presented in condensed form in Table III and graphically represented in figure 3. TaBLeE III.—Monthly percentages of various kinds of food eaten by gesting starlings, showing the changing character at different ages (see fig. 3 Grass- Miscel- Miscel- May hoppers . laneous ee ie Ground Wee- Cater- | Milli- laneous| Cher- Age ofnestlings. | heotles,| beetles, vic. erick. | Pillars.| peds. Spiders.| snimal| ries. Nee _ets. matter. matter Itoip. days: 224-52" 2.43 3.91 5.59 | 13.96} 45.26 1.48 | 23.44 2.98 0.18 0.77 6 to 10 days...-....-- 11.59 | 18.33 4.49 | 11.23] 34.88 5.34 3.57 5.93 3.36 1. 28 10 or more days. ...- 7.69 | 18.25 1.02 8.98 | 37.81 6.38 3.28 7.61 4.7 4.22 It will be noticed that as the bird grows older there is a decrease in its consumption of soft and easily digested foods. The bulk of spiders eaten, for instance, is confined to the first few days of the bird’s life. In the case of caterpillars the decrease is not uniform, although it is apparent that the very young birds are fed more than those a little older. There is also a gradual lessening in the quantity of crickets and grasshoppers taken. Under the heading ‘ weevils” a similar decrease is recorded, but instead of the hard-shelled adults being so popular with young starlings, it is the larve of the clover leaf weevil which forms the bulk of the food. In the case of ground beetles and May beetles, as well as with millipeds, the younger nest- lings are given smaller quantities. The same is true for the principal vegetable item, cultivated cherries. Only two of the 79 starlings less than 6 days old had been fed such fruit. ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 45 From the foregoing detailed account of the food of nestling star- lings and the comparisons made with the food habits of the parent _ birds at the same time of year, it is apparent that the habits of the young materially raise the starling’s economic status in the early summer months. In the consumption of destructive caterpillars, erickets and grasshoppers, and scarabeid beetles, three of the favor- ite food items of starlings, the young birds excel, and in the destruc- Re ie Mormore XK N\ . eS ; ysold Ett Oo 6ecKios NOU 1 eds MM Zz, Cece, CF =) Sovders BRee Leet Be 50 WIIG (PIGIIL S$ Gz2257q920Er5 PelC4ewes OE Cexero/ars Bee 50 veseoblble male Fie. 3.—Chart of food of 295 nestling starlings, showing its changing character during the three stages of nestling life. In Table III, page 44, the sameinformation is presented in percentages. Explanatory remarks on both chart and table are given on page 44. tion of beneficial ground beetles and cultivated cherries they are not so culpable as their parents. Correlated with this demonstrated su- periority in food habits are the facts that, bird for bird, nestlings con- sume more food than adults and that in the case of the starling they outnumber the adults two to one. Confronted with such an array of favorable testimony the worth of the young starling can be scarcely overestimated. 46 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF. AGRICULTURE. RELATION TO OTHER SPECIES OF BIRDS. The antagonism between starlings and other birds constitutes one of the most frequently heard complaints against this species. This is especially true in thickly settled regions where the natural nesting sites of hole-nesting birds have been largely replaced with artificial ones in the form of bird boxes. This fact in itself has a tendency to bring to human attention most of such conflicts, as many of the bird boxes are in dooryards where they are under more or less constant observation. It must also be borne in mind that the driving out of native species which: have been induced by enthusiastic bird lovers to take up sites in the dooryard, will be more keenly felt than the molesting of breeding birds at a greater distance from the house and with which there has been less intimate acquaintance. While particular attention was given to this complaint during the breeding season, little antagonism was actually observed. However, as acts of vandalism last for just a moment or two, it is not surprising that more instances were not noted. It is apparent, then, from the nature of the case that data of this kind must be secured largely from the notes of reliable observers. Those who have had the for- tune to witness such activities report that bluebirds and flickers suffer most, but martins, house wrens, robins, English sparrows, and a few other wild species, as well as domestic pigeons, are also bothered in their nesting operations. Unrelenting perseverence dominates the starling’s activities when engaged in a controversy over a nesting site. More of its battles are won by dogged persistence in annoying its victim than by bold aggression, and its irritating tactics are sometimes carried to such a point that it seems almost as if the bird were actuated more by a morbid pleasure of annoying its neighbors than by any necessity arising from a scarcity of nesting sites. Illustrative of this are the experiences of a pair of bluebirds observed at Norwalk, Conn., build- ing a nest in a cavity high in an elm tree. On April 8 two starlings were seen sitting nearby, whistling and squealing. They were not noted attacking the bluebirds, but the next afternoon the bluebirds had disappeared and the starlings were carrying nest material into the cavity. The next day the bluebirds tried to get into a wren box having an opening too small for their passage. A day or two later four bird boxes were erected in the vicinity, and the bluebirds prompt- ly began to build in one. This apparently aroused the displeasure of the starlings; so they entered the box and removed the nest material. The same performance was repeated at two of the other boxes, and it was not until the bluebirds had taken up the last box, which was provided with a 1%-inch opening, through which the starlings could not pass, that they were able to lay a set of eggs. That misfortune ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 47 still attended the bluebirds was disclosed one morning when the male was found dead beneath the nest and the eggs were deserted by the female. There was no evidence, however, to connect the starlings with the final disaster. Additional reliable evidence of bluebirds being driven out by starlings was secured at Norwalk, Wilton, and West Cornwall, Conn.; Groton, Mass.; Medford, Long Island, N. Y.; and Adelphia, N. J. i In contrast with such actions was the situation presented in an orchard at Norfolk, Conn., not far from the scene just described. Here a pair of bluebirds and two pairs of starlings conducted their family affairs peaceably in close proximity to each other. At Hart- ford, Conn., a pair of bluebirds and three pairs of starlings nested in natural cavities in apple trees located in two adjacent city lots. The owner of the property said he had watched the birds closely and did not see any evidence of antagonism between the species. In contests with the flicker the starling frequently makes up in numbers what disadvantage it may have in size. Typical of such combats was the one observed on May 9, at Hartford, Conn., where a group of starlings and a flicker were in controversy over a newly excavated nest. The number of starlings varied, but as many as 6 were noted at one time, Attention was first attracted to the dispute by a number of starlings in close proximity to the hole and by the sounds of a tussle within. Presently a flicker came out dragging a starling after him. The starling continued the battle outside long enough to allow one of its comrades to slip into the nest. Of course the flicker had to repeat the entire performance. He did this for about half an hour, when he gave up, leaving the starlings in posses- sion of the nest. On June 19, at Port Chester, N. Y., a controversy was observed be- tween a pair of starlings and a pair of flickers, whose brood was about to leave the nest, which was about 30 feet from the ground and within 25 feet of a house. When first observed one of the starlings was perched a few feet from the nest, in the entrance to which was one of the flickers. Whenever this flicker relaxed its vigilance for a moment one of the starlings would immediately make a dart for the nest opening. A scuffle would ensue in which both flicker and starling would come tumbling to the ground and a few feathers would fly. In the meantime the other flicker and starling would take up the wait- ing game in the tree top. This condition had prevailed for several days, and after a day or two more of continuous conflict the flicker succeeded in bringing forth its brood unharmed. The nest cavity was not then taken over by the starlings. : _ At Gwynedd Valley, Pa., an observer told of the killing of two | broods of young flickers hatched in a tree in his dooryard. He had prevented the starlings from nesting in this cavity by repeated shoot- 48 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ing early in spring, but was unable to prevent the destruction of the young flickers, which were killed by being dragged from the nest and dropped to the ground. At Closter, N. J., a similar conflict was re- ported in 1915, but in the following year the tables were reversed, for, in a dispute over a nest box only a few rods from the site of the flicker tragedy of the former year, a starling engaged in a struggle for -a nest box met its death, apparently in a battle with a flicker. That less serious outcomes sometimes result from starling-flicker feuds was indicated by circumstantial evidence at a point near Hopewell Junction, N. Y. A brood of starlings was occupying a nest cavity recently excavated by flickers in accordance with the approved princi- ples of flicker architecture, the entrance being on the lower side of the limb, protected from drainage. In a neighboring tree was found a brood of 6 half-grown flickers located in a natural cavity, similar to ones often chosen by starlings, a hollow limb with the entrance exposed upwards and with an opening full 5 inches in diameter. All circumstances seemed to indicate that the birds had simply exchanged nesting sites. Additional reliable evidence of the starling’s aggres- sive tactics against flickers, some of which involved the killing of young as well as the usurping of nest sites, came in reports from Hartford, Norwalk (2), West Cornwall, and Portland, Conn.; Woods- town and Adelphia, N. J.; and Ambler and Maple Glen, Pa. Purple martins suffer 4a only a limited extent from the starling’s demand for nest sites. Throughout Connecticut and much of north- eastern New Jersey the martin is not an abundant bird, so while houses put up for martins in various localities were usually occupied by starlings and English sparrows, there was little chance of their having been tenanted with martins, even had they not been occupied by the foreigners. One martin house at Norwalk, Conn., was oc- cupied by a pair of sparrow hawks on one side and three pairs of starlings on the other. At Hadlyme, Conn., a colony of fully 50 pairs of martins conducted unmolested their nesting operations under the close scrutiny of starlings that nested near by. An observer from Adelphia, N. J., reported that he had witnessed an attack on martins in his yard. He had erected two martin houses of four compartments each early in the year. One was occupied by starlings, and when a pair of martins appeared and attempted to take up the other abode a fight occurred. A starling was observed going into the martin house, and after pulling out one of the inmates dragged out the nest material. The martin was subsequently attacked whenever it ap- proached and it finally left the premises. In this and in another case at Adelphia the martins had come to the boxes for the first time. The two most specific reports received, bearing on the relation of starlings to wrens, are conflicting. In one, at Norwalk, Conn., a pair of starlings flew to a wren’s nest, and pulled the bird out and ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 49 killed it; while in the other, at Ambler, Pa., 11 pairs of wrens nested in peace in a yard of about an acre, although starlings were common in the breeding season. The single record of starlings attacking a red-headed woodpecker comes from Baltimore, Md., where a combat was observed over a nest cavity in a telephone pole. That the aggressions of starlings are not entirely restricted to attacks on hole-nesting species is apparent from the fact that after bluebirds and flickers, robins seem to be the birds most frequently molested. Although no observation of this kind was made by the investigators, reliable evidence has come from outside sources. At Ambler, ‘Pa., two nestling robins were killed by starlings, the victims being dispatched by powerful pecks on the head. At East Norwalk, Conn., a starling was seen to peck and break all the eggs in a robin’s nest. At the bird sanctuary at Fairfield, Conn., the remains of a robin’s nest destroyed by starlings was seen, the caretaker witness- ing this act of vandalism; after the robins had rebuilt the structure it was again destroyed, presumably by starlings. Other corrobora- tive evidence on this point was secured at Gwynedd and Spring House, Pa.; Adelphia, N. J.; Southampton, N. Y.; and Hadlyme, Conn. Single attacks on a Baltimore oriole’s nest and the young of a chipping sparrow were reported. It was an almost universal observation throughout Connecticut and New Jersey that the English sparrow is decreasing in numbers, and many persons attribute this to the starlmg. No belligerent acts between these two species, however, were witnessed in the field, though several instances of the usurping of the nesting or roosting places of English sparrows by starlings have been reported. In a number of cases these two species were observed breeding in close proximity, and under one water tank their nests almost touched. A few instances of starlings attacking domestic pigeons were re- ported. At Middletown, R. I., it was found necessary to wage con- stant warfare on the starlings to keep them from nesting in one pigeon loft, where they appropriated for their own domestic affairs the boxes put up for the pigeons. They carried in so much material that they filled the boxes and on one or two occasions dragged it in so rapidly as actually to barricade the setting pigeons, which were entirely unresisting. At Closter, N. J., it was reported that starlings had entered a pigeon loft, driven out the adults, and then, dragging out the squabs, had let them fall to the ground, where they were killed. Opposing testimony was presented from experiences on 4 squab farm at Stanton, N. J. Here the starlings nested peaceably along with the pigeons and the only trouble that the latter had occurred during cold weather, when starlings in considerable numbers used the coops 50 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for roosting places. Whenever a lantern was brought into the build- ing at night the starlings flew about in great commotion and, fright- ening the pigeons, caused some of the setting birds to leave their eggs. Starlings were reported on occasions to have driven pigeons even from church towers. At Norwalk, Conn., and Newburgh, N. Y., however, towers were found where pigeons were successfully raising young in the immediate presence of roosting starlings. To determine whether a mere scarcity of nesting sites is the cause of the antagonism between starlings and other species, 24 nest boxes were erected, 12 in the vicinity of Closter, N. J., and 12 about Nor- walk, Conn. These boxes were of a size commonly provided for flickers, measuring approximately 43 by 53 by 16 inches ‘Gnterior dimensions) and fitted with a 24-inch hole, and so constructed that the nests could be readily inspected by means of a removable front. In some of these boxes the size of the hole was reduced by tacking on the front small boards contaming circular openings, some 12 inches and some 12 inches in diameter. These were used to determine the smallest opening through which a starling can pass. The boxes were occupied readily both by starlings and bluebirds; in most cases this was not due to a lack of natural nesting sites, as there were many to be had. In one orchard a pair of starlings showed such a marked preference for a natural cavity that they raised two broods therein, although 3 boxes were in the immediate vicinity, unoccupied at the time thet nest was started. Following is a ee! of what trans- pired at the 24 boxes: Four boxes failed to have any bird activity connected with them; 18 had starling nests started; 14 had starling nests completed; 10 had starling eggs hatched (in 3 other instances the eggs were removed) ; 8 had bluebird nests started, four of which produced young; and 1 had a completed nest of house wrens. None of the 6 boxes with 13-inch opening was occupied by star- lings; 5 of 7 boxes with 13-inch opening were occupied by starlings; 10 of 13 boxes with 24-inch opening were similarly occupied; and at 3 boxes bluebirds were driven away by starlings. In summarizing the evidence bearing on the relation between the starling and our native birds during the breeding season, it is apparent that the bluebird and flicker suffer most. Both have no doubt to a certain extent been driven away from the vicinity of the dooryard. Regarding the seriousness of these attacks and the ultimate conse- quences to the population of the species it is believed the fears of many bird lovers are exaggerated. While instances such as those cited are numerous and often have resulted fatally to the birds attacked it must be borne in mind that this information is the compilation — st of more than six months’ constant investigation, during which time — | ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 51 no opportunity to secure data on this point was overlooked. Blue- birds are common and generally distributed in the sections thickly settled with starlings, and although observers have noted their dis- appearance in small areas confined to a dooryard or two, it is the opinion of those who are qualified to judge the general Giecance of these birds that in Connecticut and northeastern New Jersey blue- birds have either held their own or increased in numbers in the last few years. Since bluebirds will continue to nest commonly in locali- ties away from human habitation where they have little to fear from starlings, and since even in the dooryard, their nests, eggs, and young may be protected by providing nest boxes having an opening no greater than 14 inches in diameter, there is little danger of the race as a whole being ene in jeopardy. The flicker also will be driven from the vicinity of houses, but it, too, will always find a refuge in wilder situations to which the starling Seldom goes. In those parts of Connecticut, New York, and New Jersey where the starling has been a common bird and in competition with the flicker for at least 15 years the latter still maintains as con- Spicuous a place in the bird world as it does in other parts of these States where the starling is not yet common. The same can be said of the robin, which in northeastern New Jersey and along the Connec- ticut shore is an extremely abundant bird. Martins are more abun- dant in western, central, and southern New Jersey than in the center of starling paula, but such a condition of relative abundance existed eto the advent of the starling, and it can not be construed as a result of starling aggression. Neither can the apparent decrease in the English sparrow Tot ation throughout New Jersey and parts of New England in the last 10 years be correlated with the spread of the starling, as in many sections where the decrease of the sparrow has been noted the starling has not yet arrived in numbers. As for the other species at present known to be attacked by starlings, the acts of vandalism are so occasional that the effect is negligible and the situation is by no means as serious as that presented by the predatory habits of the blue jay, the grackle, or the crow. _ = e 2 TODIR CLANGIS 20:0! 1s San en als Pena 2 are Ie 1 eS Peroblu Spa. ae eee eee sas 1 he pIssp is sce. ce oe ones ee 1 Peederus litforamuss2: o-pecsceel seen ~~ - 2 Cymindis pilosa..............- STE ae 8 | Scaphidiidee (shining fungus beetles): ACUTE SP) hie careers o Se ix ral ae eas oa 9 BeOCAra SPs a. -cescme ba ene eee ee ee = = 1 CHIRSINGS PTI COLON: «fates 2 vse. oomtonalone ace 2 | Coccinellide (ladybugs): Chlaenius tomentosus..............-..-.-- 72 Unidentified'adiligh2 a7 sewer sie 2a 18 CHISSINNSIS Dee cue oec- + los sn ewes ere 193 Unidentified'larvyser. saa. eee oe: 2 1 Anomoglossus emarginatus..............-- 1 Mégillamaculats 2c eecne see oe eae = a 5 1 A total of at least 494 specifically different food items have been found in the food of the starling. ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING. 61 TaBLe 1V.—List of items identified in the food contained in 2,626 starling stomachs examined, and the number of stomachs in which each was found—Continued. ANIMAL MATTER—Continued. CoLEOPTERA—Continued. Coccinellidee —Continued. Hippodamia convergens...............-.-- 4 Hippodamia 13-punctata.................. 1 Hippodamia parenthesis.................- 15 IE POG SIMIaISD eases ~ <2. ece dons cece Se 3 Coecinella9-notata.o23 2.223.285 5-2-2b ae 1 Goceimellaispeies: sseioccece ss bses ec acl 1 SAGEM) oy1 0) 50a (Gl ip eee Mac Eee Ane ee pae 2 Scymnus americanus.....-.....--.-------- 1 Erotylide (banded fungus beetles): Wan STI A MOZATOL 2c sos o<250c5 so-5-ssecccs 2 Cucujidee (flat bark beetles): Silvanus surinamensis.-....--.-.-.-.-.----. 3 Histeridz (shining carrion beetles): HOI GO MGT e Mas se cae ie sza\ apie w'eieiece aoe oe 28 PELISbOL PLD IAPIAUUS =. 2) = 2 seen 2 e-ee ee toe 1 Hister harrisii....-.-.-. Cocccec sce 1 Hister interruptus var. immunis...-..----- 4 Master abbreviatus. = -024.-5---o42-----2- 1 ENSLGLGINEMICANUS.-o2- 2 255d. eee 5 EMISCOLPOLDLORUSS,. 9505 su ene 5--o des ses 1 fENISCCTISMDEOLUNGUS Ses se oo se- 2a eee ke if EMSECIS Deere ean. ecea oec ie acecic ee ames 17 Nitidulide (sap-feeding beetles): Mp shouad ni ew GhaLUS sss) ese ee sce ae 5 Trogositidz (grain and bark-gnawing beetles): Tenebrioides corticalis.........-..--------- 1 PNGHODTIOIGOSISDe asses Se ee ee keee ate cost 2 Byrrhide (pill beetles): eimidentifiediss 525422526222 eek sei Se 60 Cy iUSISONICAUS= ss ses~ 2222s eset os oe TL Oy DUS IS Pee etc siae ise Sa (nies oe ames Se 4 SV IEMUSISD -eVee ise ee Sees akicie ie ceecksscswes 4 Heteroceride (mud beetles): ERCKCEOCCLUSISD = cfe)= =o -te.)e siz scicranie se Saiciei= 1 Elateridz (click beetles): Wmidentified adults:-.- 2-2-6 22222-2022 5.2: 303 ihaidentinied larved ..-\--5-22222250-22 55-22 29 Adelocera discoidea....-.-...-------! see i Cryptchypnus abbreviatus..-..-.....-.-.- 2 Monocrepidius lividus .......--.-..-.---.-. 2 Monocrepidius vespertinus ..:--...----.--- 9 Monocrepidius auritus -..........-.-.----- 3 Monocrepidius bellus..-......-.-.-..------ 13 Monocrepidius sp .....------.--- Peet WE WITASHOTUSICLOGANS: 2.22.2 26 sot se Sees Se 17 DAS hOrius Speme ae aee sseece ones cna a eee Y 12 AMOTIOLES Manus. 2 --32--22h2422225---22-5 4 ‘AcTiotes pubescels. ...--2-2-2+---+-2------ 1 A STIQUGSS Dbeee aa agnehie BOBO Ee Ree e see Sere 1 luIG/e TAVTTTORS By SU ee ea See ee 5 ligterionius| priseus..-J-2--2--0e2 eee ee 11 Unidentifiedlarvece) eas o-oo eats tees 6 Chauliognathus pennsylvanicus..........- 13 Chauliognathus marginatus........-......- 12 Chanlioenathusispyesces eennoecse soe eee 2, Telephorus carolinus.............--------- 4 - Nelephorus bilineatus: . .22--.25:----2----2 4 HM OlEDHONUSISP Mee ooseeaem. ce ate eae 5 Polemius Spee yie 2s socecee es cote e cele ces 1 Cleridz (checkered beetles): @hartessapilosaeas2sssceneeeet sree ee ce ee 1 Scarabzeidze (lamellicorn beetles): Wnidentifiediadultsi2-e22-s4-<-\s-- 5-2 e2seee 104 Wmidentified larvee-s-2s25-2 ++ a-eecesese esse 34 GCanthomleeyis#. 322425. ease se ee sees hate 2 GCanthonispe- se ee cesar te aeceeeiae Se eel oe 2 Coprisiminutissss =o) seer eee eee 1 Copristhallins 22s 22 oe tee nace ee eee 6 Coprisispss patie Sree esate ans oe 1 Onthophagus nuchicornis.............--.- 9 Onthopharushecatess ease eee eee 9 Onthophagus pennsylvanicus......-....-- 6 Onthophacusispsece- acces eee ee T206 IAECSTMIS CORD ALUS See eee ees ee eee es ge 19 PASCORITELIS |S) sae ao acerse ao ct Bem Maree One 8 Ap WOGIUS LOSSOL ede -)/seieee ee ee ee 9 Aphodius fimetarius. -. -- sees ose Sees 106 IA PHoOGIUS eranariUSers -25- eee ae oe ae ae 9 APHeEG US iN GUINALUSS =] sees ee eee eee 16 A PHOMIUSISEOLCOLOSUS 5. seo =e: oor 1 iA PHOdMS! Spr Sees e-ss7 ose osees ee eee 25 Boibocerosoma farctum........---.-------- 2 Odomiaeusicoriperusses sass se a eee 1 Geotrupes splendidus........----.--..----- 2 Geolrupes sSpieatese teen ease eee see 1 Dichelonycha elongata. ....---.---.--..-..- 1 Serica vespertinas ss. -25--e2 asses eae ee 2 DeLiCaisp esses ee ss heat eases aaou see 1 DiplofamMs allanitiss-~ se = seen eee 9 IDI PIOLARISISD! 2 ses yeaa ee ates aes 13 Phytiophagarephtlids: sees ame ere ss sens == 1 Phy loephagatustasssseee eae aaa oe 30 Phyllophagaranixia ste se enee ner oe 10 Enyliophagaeipposasecsssecusees ase. eee 13 Phy lophaga micas mes ene see ea 4 Phyllophagaienvidar 2. 242-2228 22 ee = tee 3 Phyliophaga fraterma_- 25 -22-5--) 5. ssc. 6 Phyllophaga hirticula ..-.--=---.----=--:- 55 ny lopharasiorsterizs sas os ee ae 10 Phyllophaga crenulata. ......-.----------- 3 iPpnyllophaca beisbhise=5-s59-eee ea eee se sae ae 41 Phyllophaga'spzaas-.---25-es-se2 see ecao eee 162 ATIOMMAlANUCICOlAseese nen one ee eae eee 7 ANOMAIA|SD Sec cee age ese e eae esas 31 Cotalpavanigeras cae 2) --ee ese eee ete 6 Dyscinetus trachypygus. -....-------------- 1 Ligyrus gibbosus...--.----- i Eee 10 AY SD eee ae eae ee ae ee eee 2 Huphoria tulewdassst pes se eee see a 1 ‘Buphoriain dase eee as eee nes 12 Huphoriaisp..c2 sees eeces sees ees acee sees 8 62 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tas_e TV.—List of items identified in the food contained in 2,626 starling stomachs examined, and the number of stomachs in which each was found—Continued. ANIMAL MATTER—Continued. CoLEOPTERA—Continued. Cerambycide (long-horned beetles): Unidentified < -.-2- 225.5 ees ae be ee eee 9 Phymatodes variabisis. 9: 22s... 2.232525. 1 Monohammus scutellatus.....--.---------- 1 Lepturges querci. sin asa oe ie ae 1 Tetraopes canteriatoris: - 2.22 se ait eee 1 (PeLa0 DRSISP eaten aa aan 1 Chrysomelids (leaf beetles): Unidentified). 22- 3232 ,- 5. So eee ee 311 DONAaCIR SP 226 sos s nese ee 8 dees 1 Lema tnilineatas.<22 525550554 --sas eases 2 Crioceris:asparagi.t «3-2 «sea es aes 1 Chilamiys plicatas ses en een eee 6 Chlamys'Spi23-s=2~s4ss2a-seee es ee ee 1 IBaSSALelUS'SP nice ee ae se eee eee eee nf Cryptocephalus venustus-..-.------------- 8 Cryptocephalus calidus..-...-.-...------:-. 2 Cryptocephalus sp¥s=3-5:- 2525 nee eee 6 Pachybrachys m-nigrum ........---------- 1 Pachybrachysisp)-eecs =.= 2se-se2s ese aes 3 Diachus auratus. cee cesen sees eee eee 1 Typophorus canellus....-..---.----------- 3 Typophorus quadrinotatus......--.--.-.-- 8 Typophorus aterrimus....-..--.----------- 2 Typophorus gilvipes. -..------------------ 1 iy pophOrous Sp eae e nea 27 Graphops pubescens:: {== 2-222 55-5-sea-ee- 3 Graphops marcassitus.....-.--.----------- 3 Graphops/SP)s. 4. eee es 2 Oedionychis thoracies .- . 222: ..0c-<2e se 4ee 2 Oedionychis fimbriata...................-. 5 Disonyeha crenicollis... 55.22 ss ss Sees 1 Disonycha caroliniana...........-........- 1 Disonycha triangularis...................-. 1 Disonycha xanthomelaena....... Sortie We antes 2 COLEoPTERA—Continued. Chrysomelidse—Continued. Disonycha:Sps passer one eee sees se 2 Halticaienttac 5 eee eee reer eee soot 5 Haltica rinfal = sce ee ee see Bas aon 20 1 Haltica Spt arse Seen cs eee Sees es 1 Systona Wudsonias -5 sees eee ae if SySUeNa Spt sace ee smerny 68) 0 3 Phyllotretawittaiae 5.2) eee eee ee 1 Phyllotreta armoraciae ......-....--------- 1 Chaetocnema denticulata...........-...-.- 13 Chaetocnema minuta....-..2-2.-.2..---.-: 1 Chactocnemaisp eecce tae pense eee 20 Di bola DOrea lisse: see epee ee cet 1 Micrortiopala:valialaser sacra eee oe 35 Microrhopala sserenesss2- epee nee 2 Microrhopalaisp scosec eee eee eee 43 Coptocyela bicolor......-...--..-. a ie 1 Coptocycla;plcatate ace eens. 1 Coptocyela sp... -- jee BRAS alee tain eee 4 Chelymorphaiaretis eo serene eee 16 Tenebrionids (darkling beetles): Unidentitied !2s: 55) 54s amen ee te 10 Penebri oi GoSCuTISs ae ee ee i Opatrings Notuss=ss2 see ee eo esse 106 IBlapstinusim OeSbusees pease eee te a 1 Blapstinus metallicus...............-..-.- 1 Blapstinusispsss cee ce see eee sec ee 31 Helopsiaereuse: 355 sc eee eee ee oes 1 Anthicids (antlike flower beetles): Unidentified: <2. <2cee- eases bees 1 Meloide (blister beetles): Unidentifiedsee2 ee ee ee eee ase se 2 Melociamericanuss 25s een nnenee eeee 1 Epicauta pennsylvanica.........---...---- 1 RHYNCHOPHORA (Weevils): Anthribide (fungus weevils): BHupanius Marm OLreiSe ase =e cee eee 1 Curculionide (curculios, or weevils): Unidentified ete. oa. hee ae eens seas ees 267 Eipicaerus 1m bri cCabuss- 5 abe sees x ace 2 PhyxcliS Tifiduis! 5. oc eee ee ee 93 Otiorhynchus suleatuss: 9-2-2 eae c ke 8 Otiorhynchus OVatUSE= ss eeeeee-ese es - ae 61 Otiorhynchus Spie-<--- ew eee eee ee 2 Tanymecus confertus. --.---2--.-----...-4- 5 Barypithes pellucidus..-............... ees a ak | Sitona hispi dilaasececer ese see. sea 510 Sitons favescerste e222 ea eee 34 Sitonaispsac eee aeons aa Seeeeeee eee tao 98 Hy pera PuNnCiatysv-22 ao. see eee san Asice 1244 Phytonomiiswneles-- sees oe eeeeeee ees. e 3 Phytonomus nigrirostris............-.----- 75 Phy tonomus spz-2---se a eeeeere eee sere 43 Listronotus inaequalipennis............-.- 1 Listronofus frontalisa ssn apee seas nae + -s 1 ListronotiS spi se sp enees aeons see a 1 Hyperodes Sp. 222s canker 8 is 37 Pachylobius piciviorasS sue seamen es aes « - 1 LixXus'Spz-.-...eeeeeeee a elnebeteet Uptake 2 Smicronyx corniculatus............------- 1 BagouS SD aro care eee HEMIPTERA—Continued. Cercopide (spittle insects): Philsenusispi5s ene eee er eee eee ee 1 Membracide (tree hoppers): Coresaidiceros: =.N5.. ener ee as2ee 1 Ceresa Spec) Sse ee ee ee ke 1 Campylenchia latipes.......-......---.---- 3 Cicadellidee (leaf hoppers): Unidentifiedtecissi2 See eee se hes 2 56 Agallia4-ponetatascs= pees see seen e ae 1 Agalliasanguinolenta esses see ene eee ee 2 Agallia:s pos wot iee eid Ree Cael meaiep iti) ck 1 Draeculacephala mollipes..-...-- et Basi 1 Gy pona sp ti. 2 oS es eae este 1 Kerophiloes VATidis: Vass 52 ee eee eet te 1 Acucephalus albifrons...........--.------- 9 Deltocephalus/spieeeees eee eee eae 2 Fulgoridee (lanternflies): Unidentified= saa 4. a ee heehee Z SColops Specie ee eee ee eee ee etcea nT) A Acanalonia bivittata.----.-:.--.----.----: 1 ORTHOPTERA (GRASSHOPPERS, LOCUSTS, CRICKETS, (ETCc.). Unidentified adwliss2 oe ao eee eee tee 16 Unidentifiedtepes ss seee a here peers ae 10 Forficulide (earwigs): Unidentified st) ss. 25s eee ee ene. 1 Acridide (short-horned grasshoppers): Unidentified ya x52 sss) oeerepeeteet sacs 760 Nomotetiimcnstatise: = oaperas eee 2 Nomotettixispiiesss see te eee oe se 1 Tettix arelOsis= ass -el sen ae ee eee 1 Tettigidea parvipennis................-.-- 1 Tettizides lateralis: p2e 257 s-eseeee ine nes = 1 Tettigidea lateralis var. polymorpha...-.-. 1 Tettigideasp: =. oo sao ae aac es 8 Orphulella/ olivacea: sees ee see oan = 1 Stenobothrus curtipennis................-- 1 Arphia Sulphuredass- o- eeeeeeee e- =- 1 Arphia xanthopteracce .224 se eee eee 1 Chortophaga viridifasciata..............--- 3 HippiscusiSPs sense boob ees Come = 1 Melanoplus femoratus...........-..------- 2 Melanoplus femur-rubrum..........----.-- 24 Melanoplusiatlanis: 22 cee sseeecsee nia 1 Molanoplus'sp.2 2 a5 s5 oe sea ee aay 36 Locustide (green grasshoppers): Unidentified sa-eer eee eee ae 54 Orchelimumisp soe os eee ae see eee es se 2 Conocephalus'spita..2 ei acse eee oe see 4 Gryllide (crickets): Unidentified 22 eee eee isla 332 Gryllotalpa borealis2 2: fe sen eee ous = = 1 Nemobius fasciatus vittatus..............- 2 Nemobius'sp: osc ere he sone nt esecrese = 312 Gryllus pennsylvanicus.......--.-.------- 4 Gryllus Spo. 20 eee eee Eee ee 223 Miogryllus sp........:- Sah ca sail aeterlaiate's = 2 i ECONOMIC VALUE OF THE STARLING, 65 TaslLe 1V.—List of items identified in the food contained in 2,626 starling stomachs examined, and the number of stomachs in which each was found—Continued. ANIMAL MATTER—Continued. LEPIDOPTERA (MOTHS, BUTTERFLIES, CATER- PILLARS, ETC.). ‘Unidentified... ... Bi 2 IS at EAS A ae 65 TWH GOMiMOd OS 2Sie n--. -. cease ses acceso 1 Unidentified caterpillars......-.....---------- 812 (Wiring Gana tree Lob] Oe hee eee eee eee ere 20 Nymphalide (brush-footed butterflies): Argynnis eybele (caterpillar)............-- 1 Arctiide (tiger moths): Unidentified caterpillar .-..........----.-- 1 Noctuide (cutworms): Unidentified caterpillars.........-..-.---- 24 Nephelodes violans (caterpillar).-.....-.-- 1 Nephelodes minians (caterpillars). -...-..--- 22 Cucullia asteroides (caterpillars) ........-- 2 Lasiocampide (tent caterpillars): Malacosoma americana (caterpillars) --.--- 3 Malacosoma sp. (caterpillars) .........---- 2 Deilephila lineata (caterpillar) --..-..----- 1 DIPTERA (FLIES AND THEIR MAGGOTS). IBRORLACAMUNUSS Dees 5 4-48 onae seo bee sae Scene oe! PS FTGVOY ON OLE ERE: (Sy Os et Se fear 1 Phormiaterre-novee-425--2-5--22-222-2-h42-2- 1 MrISCa GOMeSHC2at sao. sc a-2522 Jtis 2 Seen css 2 IM GOYCUES SIOSG oisete a Ce eee ase eet ee 1 WHEYSODSISD ameter cine ee scce oe eee 1 LAGE SUS Se Gp n Sone ES CRE aE Nae Eee ease 1 ARACHNIDA (SPIDERS, TICKS, ETC.). WIASSTISIMESIECHIS: season nse some cers coe ann cece 1 PachyenathaSp-------2-----s<--< eae be 1 Re (ra eta WAS Ds samen se me aioe see 1 MGV SULCTISU CLAN Seren = S25 Sane Sess = osgee sees 1 iy COSA CALOMNGUSISS 2-2). o8 Os - eas to Sen oe eae 1 GV. COSA GNUOs ae am cSt esac esate ame eee s 1 Wy COS as PHHCIAL Aes senceee-osss= 5252. pene 1 MyYRIAPODA (CENTIPEDES AND MILLIPEDS). Diplopoda (millipeds): WTC entiiiedes tem actos ssa alte aoe ee ee 913 Nemasoma minutum..............--..-... 1 US Caeruleocincbuse- = --eseeee eee eee 10 Chilopoda (centipedes): Unidentified centipedes................... 7 CRUSTACEA (CRUSTACEANS). Isopoda (wood lice, etc.): Wnidentined= Sues Nabe oe I oe ea 15 Orchestia enilws=- os s950 2 anon eee ee 1 Orchestiaisp co ss-- bse ccee eee eee 1 Rorcellinlaevis ss-se-ere -os eee eee 2 IBOLCEITIOIS Paes irae oe eee ae eee 1 Armacllidinnis pass = see eee oe oe eee 1 MOLLUSCA (SNAILS, ETC.). Unidentified mollusks. ...-.......--.-..----.-- 71 Nassidz (basket shells): Llyanassa obsoleta.............--.---.----- 2 Zonitide (glassy snails): Zonites arboreus.-.......-..---- cee aeeseee 5 Gastrodonta suppressa.......-..---------- 1 Testacellide (flesh-eating land snails): Cochlicopailubricas 222s. 5 eee ee eee 1 Helicide (land snails): WalOniasp cosy scccsssclccsseeasetecece s il Auriculide (ear snails): Moelam pUSHinea tus sa-— ee eere ee sereeernee 28 - Littorinidz (periwinkles): Litforina rudiSe ee. se esece eet eae e wae 5 Pupillide (chrysalis shells): Vertigo ovatas.22 222 2222522222 soled 1 VEGETABLE MATTER, iWmidentified PUGSH-ts..-us2 === 2 ee beh e ce ese WintidentihedtmMast=-. 25 S22. 8: Ye eee cate 15 Wridentificdiwilditruit 2.222. 5-22. 2.5.65. -2 184 Werelableearbave. m2 2-222: sss. ol olsaseence cee 528 Werelablerub DISH: eco ho< ese oc ces 21 Pinacee: Juniperus virginiana (red cedar)......-.... 13 FUHUPELUS Sp; (JUNIper))...-- oes se tccee © 1 Graminez: Unidentified grass seeds.............------ 39 Andropogon sorghum (sorghum).......-.. 2 Panicum miliaceum (millet)........--...-. 1 Panicum sp. (switchgrass)...-.--..--.----- 6 Cheetochloa glauca (foxtail)........-...---- il Cheetochloa sp. Goxtail) = -22--.-2.-2+-52-- 2 13 Eragrostis sp. (love grass).......-..------- 1 Anthoxanthum odoratum (sweet vernal SLOSS eee s ee ee oo dae eee asec cece 1 AGE TITERS (Can Se aoe eee eeee Sea aS Boece 59 Triticum vulgare (wheat).-.--.--.----.-.-.- 15 Avene sativa (Oats) --..2. 22... -sceensccceas 6 2 ) Cyperacez: Wnidentified'sedges.2-. +... sass. secceeee Pee | Carex spy (S6d 26) se cee aaseet oe sete eeee ces 6 Convallariacez: Asparagus officinalis (asparagus)........... 1 Smilacee: Smilax herbacea (carrion flower)........... 1 Smilax sp. (greenbriar).......---.--.-.-... 1 Myricacee: Myrica carolinensis (bayberry)..........-- 122 Betulacez: PAITIISIS Ds (Alden) 22ers sae cee ee reer 1 Ulmacez: Celtis occidentalis (hackberry)--....-...-- 9 Moracez: Morus alba (white mulberry)........-.---- 45 Morus rubra (red mulberry)......-..---.-- 52 Morus Sp. (mul berry) eo ne ones soe 76 Polygonacez: EVEIMEOXaS Dyn COCK) baer eee ne aoe eee 8 Polygonum lapathifolium (smartweed)...- 1 er 66 BULLETIN 868, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie I1V.—List of items identified in the food contained in 2,626 starling stomachs examined, and the number of stomachs in which each was found—Continued. VEGETABLE MATTER—Continued. Polygonaceze—Continued. Polygonum pennsylvanicum (smart- Polygonum persicaria (smartweed).-.-.-- Polygonum sp. (smartweed)...--.-...- Chenopodiacez: Chenopodium sp. (pigweed)........-..-- Amaranthacee: Amaranthus sp. (amaranth)... -.........- Aizoacee: Mollugo verticillata (Indian chickweed) . Phytolaccaceze: Phytolacca decandra (pokeweed)... ..-.- Caryophyllacee: Silene media (chickweed).............-.- Berberidacez: Berberis vulgaris (barberry) ...........-- : Berberis'sp. (barberry):.--.----:. 5.2% Lauracee: Sassafras sassafras (sassafras)..........-- Brassicacer: ‘Brassica spy (mustang) meee. oe eee Grossulariaceze: Ribes'sp:(Carranh) Ssss=s eee a ee Rosacez: ‘Fragaria sp. (strawberry).-.....-.....--- Rubus sp- (blackberry,): 2250 273-22 323 Malacez: Sorbus sp. (mountain ash).............- Amelanchier sp. (June berry). -.......--- Malus sp. (cultivated apple)............- Pyrtus sp. (cultivated pear)...........-.. Amygdalacez: Cassiaceze: Gleditsia triacanthos (honey locust)..... me bh Fabacez: Trifolinm sp.(clover)/> =: 222-22 2.522:--.: Robinia pseudacacia (locust)...........- Anacardiacee: Rhus glabra (smooth sumac)............ Rhus copallina (dwarf sumac)........... Rhus radicans (poisonivy)-............- Rhus vernix (poison oak)........-.....- RUS SpAGRMAC) oe ae ts st Aquifoliacez: Tlex verticillata (black alder)............ Celastracez: Celastrus scandens (bittersweet)......... Vitacez: Psedera quinquefolia (Virginia creeper)... Ampelopsis sp. (?) (ampelopsis)........- Vitis sp: (erape) os oe cae eee e Cornacez: Cornus florida (flowering dogwood)....-. Cornus amomum (kinnikinnik)-......... Cornus asperifolia (rough-leaved dog- .Cornus paniculata (panicled dogwood). . Cornus sp. (dogwood). -......-...-:----- Nyssa sylvatica (sour gum)............-. Ericacez: 4 Gaylussacia frondosa (huckleberry). - .-- Gaylussacia baccata (huckleberry) -... - - Gaylussacia sp. (huckleberry) --.-.-.--..-- Vaccinium sp. (blueberry). -....-...---- Solanacez: Solanum sp. (nightshade). -.........-.-- Plantaginaceze: Plantago lanceolata (ribgrass).-.......-- Plantago sp. (plantain).-...-.-.-...----- Caprifoliacez: Viburnum sp. (arrowwood)..-......--.--- Sambucus canadensis (elder).-.....-.---- Composite: Ambrosia artemisiifolia (ragweed) -..---. Taraxacum taraxacum (dandelion)....-. PUBLICATIONS OF THE U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE RELATING TO THE FOOD HABITS OF WILD BIRDS. AVAILABLE FOR FREE DISTRIBUTION BY THE DEPARTMENT. The English Sparrow as a Pest. (Farmers’ Bulletin 493.) Some Common Game, Aquatic, and Rapacious Birds in Relation to Man. (Farmers’ Bulletin 497.) Food of Some Well-known Birds of Forest, Farm, and Garden. (Farmers’ Bulletin 506.) Some Common Birds Useful to the Farmer. (Farmers’ Bulletin 630.) Common Birds of Southeastern United States in Relation to Agriculture. (Farmers’ Bulletin 755.) The Crow in Its Relation to Agriculture. (Farmers’ Bulletin 1102.) Propagation of Wild-duck Foods. (Department Bulletin 465.) : The Crow and Its Relation to Man. (Department Bulletin 621.) Food Habits of Seven Species of American Shoal-water Ducks. (Department Bulle- tin 862.) FOR SALE BY THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS, GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE, WASHINGTON, D. C. Fifty Common Birds of Farm and Orchard. (Farmers’ Bulletin 513, colored plates.) Price, 15 cents. Birds in Relation to the Alfalfa Weevil. (Department Bulletin 107.) Price, 15 cents. Eleven Important Wild-duck Foods. (Department Bulletin 205.) Price, 5 cents. Food Habits of the Thrushes of the United States. (Department Bulletin 280.) Price, 5 cents. Birds of Porto Rico. (Department Bulletin 326.) Price, 30 cents. Food Habits of the Swallows. (Department Bulletin 619.) Price 5 cents. Food Habits of the Mallard Ducks of the United States. (Department Bulletin 720.) Price, 5 cents. Waterfowl and Their Food Plants in Sandhill Region of Nebraska: Pt. 1, Waterfowl in Nebraska; pt. 2, Wild-duck foods of the Sandhill Region of Nebraska. (Depart- ment Bulletin 794.). Price, 15 cents. The Relation of Sparrows to Agriculture. (Biological Survey Bulletin 15.) Price, 10 cents. Birds of a Maryland Farm. (Biological Survey Bulletin 17.) Price, 20 cents. The Bobwhite and Other Quails of the United States in Their Economic Relations. (Biological Survey Bulletin 21.) Price, 15 cents. ‘ The Horned Larks and Their Relation to Agriculture. (Biological Survey Bulletin 23.) Price, 5 cents. 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AT 25 CENTS PER COPY A 4 BULLETIN No. 869 a ee Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 30, 1920 THE INHERITANCE OF THE LENGTH OF INTER- NODE IN THE RACHIS OF THE BARLEY SPIKE. By H. K. Hayes, Head of Section of Plant Breeding, Division of Agronomy and Farm Management, College of Agriculture, University of Minnesota, and Harry V. Har- LAN, Agronomist in Charge of Barley Investigations, Office of Cereal Investigations. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Scope of the experiments. .......--.--------- 1 | Inheritance of length of internodes in crosses ES COLICALRO VLC Wie «2043, iste = Hira o/s ee aatai= 1 between pure lines.......-..--------------- 9 Pure-line varieties used in these studies...-.- 3) | POU AT yiOUNESUILS Sassi ase eyo eee ae 20 Reliability of experimental methods. .....-.- 4 | Discussion of results. ......--.---.----------- 21 - Effects of environment and varying sources Conclusions 4245 ,.: 5.23432 ae. See Sse ae 24 oiseedion density: 2-2-2. <.¢sc- ce -+--- =e Hi PMI era tune Cited aaeestceee sete nc -ooeeeseee ae: 25 Purity of parental forms..........-...------- 5 SCOPE OF THE EXPERIMENTS. In 1915 a series of studies on the inheritance of the length of internode in the rachis of the barley spike was begun in cooperation with the Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station. Internode length is a particularly favorable character for such investigations, as a large number of varieties furnish many gradations in internode length and in a pure line the average internode length of the rachis varies comparatively little from year to year. The project was undertaken for two main reasons, (1) as a study of inheritance in an unusually favorable size character and (2) as a contribution to the question of the taxonomic value of the length of internode of the rachis. - HISTORICAL REVIEW. The length of internode is frequently referred to as density, and both terms are used in this bulletin. As far back as Linneus, species were differentiated by this character. With fertility, it has been, consciously or unconsciously, one of the main bases of classification 182694°—20—Bull, 869 ——1. 2 BULLETIN 869, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of most of the modern taxonomists as well. The groups of Schuebler (22)', Seringe (23), Heuzé (11, 12), Voss (25), Koernicke (13, 14, 15, 16, 17), Atterberg (2, 3, 4), and Beaven (5) involved variations in density. In 1918 Harlan (10) offered an arrangement which elim- inated the question of density from the major groups. It was re- tained as a minor distinction only, because of the volume of the liter- ature in which it had been used. Its comp!ete elimination would have left too little connection between the author’s scheme and the previous usage. j In classifying barleys, density is an obvious and attractive char- acter. When confined to type forms the separations are ideal, but, as with many things in taxonomy, its perfection depends on limited material. The more material that is assembled the more the sub- divisions of density have to be increased. Linnzus (18) used the name Hordeum distichon to designate the lax 2-rowed and H. zeo- criton to designate the very dense 2-rowed forms. Schuebler divided H. distichon into erectum and nutans. Eriksson (8) used genuinum and patens to designate lax and dense subdivisions of erectum. Linneus recognized hexastichum and vulgare as the dense and lax groups of 6-rowed barleys. Koernicke divided hezxastichum into pyramidatum and parallelum and recognized brachyurum and macro- terium of Alefeld (1) as dense and lax subdivisions of pyramidatum. The finer the groups were made, the more confusing became the dis- tinctions. The confusion indicated that, while there might be some genetic distinctions, from a taxonomic standpoint there was no clear separation. \ In the mode of inheritance the situation is also complicated. As a size character, the accounts are quite favorable as to its constancy, and some varieties are traceable for centuries by this character alone. In recent times Blaringhem (7), possibly following the lead of the Svalof station, made quite elaborate studies of barley density in France. Harlan (9) found density to be quite a stable character. Regarding the-mode of inheritance, the studies, however, are largely unsatisfactory. The taxonomic papers contain no comprehensive measurement of density. Many of the inheritance papers are equally inadequate. In many instances fertility and density are treated together, as by Von Tschermak (24). Density has been regarded as recessive by Blarmghem (7) and as dominant by Von Tschermak. The only paper which is directly concerned with thé method of study used in this article is that of Biffen (6), who obtained results closely parallel to those presentedherein. In three crosses to which he paid particular attention, Biffen found the F, generation to beslightly more dense than the lax parent, although the numbers of individuals in F, were small. The F, generation consisted in each case of plants 1 The serial numbers in parentheses refer to ‘‘Literature cited,’’ at the end of this bulletin. > INHERITANCE IN THE BARLEY SPIKE. 5) with spikes as lax or as dense as those of the parents, with a series lying between these extremes which could not be satisfactorily classi- fied without further test. In some crosses the F,, generation curves plotted from the measurements showed two peaks and in others three. In a cross of zeocriton X nutans groups of plants were centered about internode lengths of 2.2 and 3 millimeters, respectively. The 65 plants constituting the more dense group were tested in the F, generation by seeding all individuals with internode lengths ranging from 1.8 to 2.6 millimeters. Of these 65 plants, 55 proved homozy- gous and 10 were heterozygous. Thus, 55 out of a total of 209 plants grown in F, bred true for densities near that of the dense parent, or a close approximation of a1:3 ratio. No genetic analysis is given of crosses which appear to have three groups in F,, or lax, dense, and intermediate forms. | Study has been made of the inheritance of density in wheat and, although apparently pertinent, it is not comparable to one made in barley, for the reason that the dense wheats are clubbed at the tip | and thus introduce a condition which makes comparison difficult. Gradations were found in F, between the parents. Nisson-Ehle (20) explained these on the basis of two kinds of factors, a positive factor for compactness which partially inhibited the action of one or more lengthening factors. Parker (21), in a more extensive study in which the statistical method was used, concludes that numbers such as Niusson-Ehle used were inadequate to demonstrate his hypothesis. In Parker’s studies segregation occurred in F,, but it seemed impos- sible to determine the number of factors involved. PURE-LINE VARIETIES USED IN THESE STUDIES. With the exception of the Jet variety, the pure lines used in crosses in the studies here reported are quite typical representatives of the three degrees of density much used by taxonomists in the 6-rowed barley. Their relationships are most easily made apparent by use of the taxonomic key which follows. The variations in density are well shown in Plate I. KEY TO BARLEY VARIETIES USED IN DENSITY STUDIES. Hordeum vulgare pallidum (6-rowed, hulled, awned, white). _ Subvariety typica, spike lax, pure-line Manchuria. Subvariety parallelum, spike dense, pure-line Reid Triumph. Subvariety pyramidatum, spike very dense, pure-line Pyramidatum. Hordeum distichon palmella (2-rowed, hulled, awned). Subvariety nutans, spike lax, pure lines Hanna and Steigum. Subvariety erectum, spike dense, pure-line Svanhals. Subvariety zeocriton, spike very dense, pure-line Zeocriton. Jet is a naked, black, 2-rowed barley of about the same spike density as Steigum. Although Hanna and Steigum belong to the same group, Steigum is slightly more dense than Hanna. Dejiciens 1 BULLETIN 869, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. was not used in any of the crosses, but is included because of an inherited variation found in it. The form used is lax and differs from nutans in having only rudiments of lateral florets. RELIABILITY OF EXPERIMENTAL METHODS. In this investigation the feasibility and accuracy of density deter- minations were tested in many ways. The length of internode was computed from the measurement of 10 mternodes in the middle of the spike. All measurements were taken in millimeters. To test the observational accuracy, the populations from wnich the density of three parents was determined were remeasured after a lapse of three weeks. The difference in the measurements of Manchuria was 0.02+0.01 mm.; of Zeocriton, 0.04+0.01 mm.; and of Hanna, 0.12+0.02 mm. Differences as small as 0.2 mm. in means of varie- ties, therefore, can not be demonstrated by the method used. As seasonal fluctuations in the means often are as great as this, the method of taking the data is sufficiently accurate. The internode measurement was taken in the middle of the spike, not only because of the greater convenience, but because experiments indicated that the imternodes in this zone are less variable than in other parts of the spike. Measurements were taken in different parts of the spike on approximately 100 plants of each of the Zeocriton, Pyramidatum, Manchuria, and Hanna parents. Where the spikes were long enough, six different sections were measured, i. e., nodes 1-11, 3-13, 5-15, 7-17, 11-21, and the last 10 internodes toward the tip. In Pyramidatum the measurements for nodes 7-18 and 11—22 could not be made. The means for these measurements, in milli- meters, were as follows: Zeocriton, 1.37, 1.47, 1.66, 1.81, 1.95, and 2.15; Pyramidatum, 1.98, 2.12, 2.17, and 2.15; Manchuria, 2.88, 3.13, 3.35, 3.42, 3.36, and 3.38: Hanna, 3.90, 4.17, 4.40, 4.47, 4.35, and 3.90. The Zeocriton is the only variety in which there is a progressive increase in internode length from the base to the tip. If the factor or factors determining this progressive increase segregate in a normal way, the progeny of a cross between this type and one in which this peculiarity is absent or less pronounced, as in Pyramidatum, might contain types easily misinterpreted. The mean of a pure recessive for a main density factor might easily differ by 0.2 to 0.4 mm. from the parent, due to the gain or loss of this marked progressive increase of internode length found in Zeocriton. Contrary to results previously reported by Harlan (9), no change in internode length due to the presence of sterile nodes was observed. 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No sorts were obtained which were homozygous for densities very different from those of the parents. FAMILY MANCHURIA (360) X STEIGUM (17). The parental forms of the Manchuria and Steigum cross gave nearly the same average density in 1916. In 1918 the Manchuria parent gave about the same average density as in 1916, but the Steigum averaged somewhat higher than in the previous year. The coefficient of variability of the Manchuria parent in 1917 was 4.19+ 0.15 mm.; of the Steigum parent, 4.90+0.17 mm.; and of the F, gen- eration which was grown in 1916, 7.69+0.21 mm. The data are reported in Table IT (sec. B). As Table II shows, some forms bred true in F, and in F,, while others were as variable as the F, generation. Selection 368-22 in the F, and F, generations gave means of 3.21+40.02 and 3.29+0.01 -mm., respectively. When compared with the parental forms, it seems that we have here a lower density line than either parent. As the number of individuals is small in many F, lines, it does not seem profitable to analyze more closely the results obtained. FAMILY PYRAMIDATUM (476) X JET (454). Table IT (sec. C) shows that the parental forms of the cross between Pyramidatum and Jet are of very different densities. The Pyrami- datum parent gave a mean density of 2.11+0.01 mm. in 1918; the Jet, 3.92+0.01 mm.; while the F, generation averaged 2.86 +0.01 mm. The F, generation is, therefore, slightly more dense than the parental average, which is 3.01 mm. This is quite different from the F’, generation in the cross between Manchuria and Svanhals, in which there was an almost complete dominance of the dense over the lax form. The F, generations were grown both in 1916 and in 1918. The means for these two F, generations were about the same as the parental average, being 2.92+0.04 mm. and 3.10+0.03 mm., respec- tively. The highest coefficient of variability for the Jet parent is 6.93 40.39 mm., while the highest coefficient for Pyramidatum is 6.16+0.21 mm. The coefficients of variability for the two F, genera- tions are 16.44+0.87 mm. and 18.38+0.81 mm., respectively, while the frequencies of the F, generations range from above the modal class of the lax parent to the modal class of the dense parent. It is of interest to note that with a total of 87 F, plants, none were of the same frequency range as that of the parents, all being of intermediate density. Of the 22 F, plants continued in F,, ten would have been included within the limits of this F, population. Of these ten, eight gave about as variable a progeny as the F, generation, while two 16 BULLETIN 869, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. appeared to give homozygous dense progeny. Of the entire 22 plants, representing all types of F, densities, nine proved about as variable in F, as the F, generation. Seven F, poleees which appeared to be breeding ire as deter- mined by “aie frequency distribution and coefficient of variability, were tested in the F, generation. This was done by selecting 10 heads of different densities and growing the progeny of each separately. Where all heads gave similar results, they are combined in the table and are given as the result of 10 plants. The F, line 325-5, of which only 26 plants were available for study, gave a mean of 3.15+0.02 mm. in 1917, with a low coefficient of variability. On testing this line in 1918, when data from 213 plants were available, a somewhat higher mean was obtained, or 3.43 +0.01 mm. Its coefficient of variability is also somewhat larger than in the homozygous parental forms. Selection 325-15 proved pure in F, with the exception of the progeny of one plant which gave as great a variability as the F, generation. Why one plant should behave so differently from the nine others is difficult to explain. The possibility of a natural cross must not be overlooked, although observations show that these are very infrequent. An occasional error is also a possibility, although precautions were taken to elimin- ate these as far as possible. The F, means for the seven lines wiHich gave evidence in F, and F, indicating that they were homozygous are as follows: 325-5 (10 plants), 3.43+0.01 mm.; 325-13 (10 plants), 3.47+0.01 mm.; 325-16 (9 plants), 3.74+0.01 mm.; 325-18 (10 plants), 2. 24 +0. 01 mm.; 325-20 (10 plants), 2.47 +0. 02 mm.; 325-21 (10 plants), 3.95+0.01 mm.; 325-22 (10 plants), 3.72 40.01 mm. Of these, five have mean densities which are not very different from that of the Jet (lax) parent, while the means of the other two are similar to that of the Pyramidatum parent. The most dense and the least dense of the five lax homozygous segregates have mean internode lengths of 3.43 +0.01 mm. and 3.95 +0.01 mm., respectively. As great a difference as this in any one season would not be expected in a sort homozygous for similar characters. It is not much greater, however, than seasonal variation in the means of several of the pure 2-rowed forms, which seem more susceptible to such variability than the 6-rowed parents. Inheritance of such a reaction difference might possibly explain the results here represented. Whatever expla- nation may be given for these new means, here, as in the Man- churia * Svanhals cross, no homozygous forms were produced which differed materially in density from the density of one or the other parent. INHERITANCE IN THE BARLEY SPIKE. 17 FAMILY HANNA (460) X REID TRIUMPH (404). The parental forms, Hanna and Reid Triumph, are of distinctly different densities, and there is no overlapping of frequency distri- butions during the three years in which they have been grown. In - Table II (sec. D) the mean of the Hanna parent ranges from 4.12+0.02 mm. in 1916 to 4.56+0.01 mm. in 1918. The Reid Triumph variety has much less seasonal variation, the mean in 1917 being 2.73 40.01 mm. and in 1916, 2.64+0.01 mm. It is of interest to note that the Reid Triumph has about the same average mean as the Svanhals 2-rowed form, while the Hanna is considerably more lax than the Manchuria form which was crossed with the Svanhals variety. The F, generation of the cross between Hanna and Reid Triumph proved more variable than the parents and frequently gave distri- . bution from below the mode of the Reid Triumph to considerably above the mode of the Hanna parent. Twenty F, plants were grown in F,, some giving as variable a population as obtained in F,, while other F, lines were no more variable than the parental forms. Fourteen of these F, lines which gave the clearest indication of being homozygous were further tested in the F, generation. The method was similar to that previously used, 4 to 10 plants of a line being grown and the combined result being the basis of conclusions as to purity. Of the 14 lines tested in F,, 8 gave evidence in the com- bined F, and F, data to show that they are homozygous for density. Those which are of questionable purity will be briefly considered. Selection 406-3 gave a mean of about the same density as the Reid Triumph parent, but the coefficient of variability is somewhat higher than in the pure parental lines. Selection 406-4 proved to be heterozygous. One of the head selections, 406—-4-3, produced a type which seems pure for density. The mean of this line is 3.72 +0.03 mm. Selection 406-9 seems to be heterozygous. Probably 406-9-1 is homozygous, the average mean being about the same as that of the Hanna parent. Selection 406-10 also is more variable than the pure parental variety. The frequency distribution indicates that fewer density factors are involved than in the F, generation. Selec- tions 406-16 and 406-18 appear to be heterozygous. In later gen- erations two selections of 406-18 seem to be homozygous. Thus 406-185 is probably breeding true with a mean density of 3.40 +0.02 mm,, while 406-18-9 gives evidence of being homozygous for a mean of 2.66+0.02 mm. 'Those which seem nearly homozygous by an examination of their frequency ranges and coefficients of variability as obtained in F, and F, generations are as follows: 406-1, mean 2.81-+0.01 mm.; 406-5, mean 4.43 +0.01 mm.; 406-7, mean 2.43-+0.01 mm.; 406-8, mean 4.32+0.01 mm.; 406-11, mean 4,5240.02 mm.; 406-12, mean, 18 BULLETIN 869, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2.84+0.02 mm.; 406-19, mean 3.29+0.01 mm.; 406-22, mean 4.37 +0.01 mm. Aside from these, individual heads grown in F, which appear to give homozygous progeny as a result of the single season’s test are as follows: 406—4-3, mean 3.72 +0.03 mm.; 406—9-1, mean 4.30 +0.04 mm.; 406-18-5, mean 3.40+0.02 mm.; 406-18-9, mean 2.66 +0.02 mm. The means for these four F, families are somewhat unreliable because of the small number of individuals grown. All coefficients of variability, however, are very small. These results show that homozygous intermediates may be pro- duced, as well as homozygous types, which give about the same aver- age density as the parental forms. No analysis of average differ- ences as small as 0.2 to 0.8 mm. has been attempted. The fact that environmental or other seasonal characters may modify the expres- sion of a character nullifies such close analysis. FAMILY HANNA (460) X ZEOCRITON (1039). The Hanna used in the cross with Zeocriton is the same pure line that was used in the cross with Reid Triumph. Zeocriton is a very dense 2-rowed form. This cross is between the most dense and the most lax form used in this study. The F, generation shown in Table II (sec. E) ranged from above the modal class of Hanna to the modal class of Zeocriton, even though only 141 individuals were studied. It has a correspondingly high coefficient of variability. An examination of the coefficients obtained in later generations show that some are as large as those obtained in the F, line. Others are intermediate, being significantly larger than any obtained in the pure forms, while still others are as small as those obtained for the pure parental lines. This would indicate that the mode of inheritance was more complex than in the cross between Pyramidatum x Jet previously mentioned. Selection 448-9, which was almost as variable in the F, as in the F, generation, was selected for further experiment, the progeny of 30 plants being measured in the F, generation. Data from 7 of the 30 progeny lines are presented, as the remaining 23 all appeared to be segregating. Results of density studies in F, lines 448-9-7, 448-9-14, 448-9-16, and 448-9-29 are given, as these indicate the segregation obtained in the unpresented lines. No F, line of greater coefficient of variability than 448-9-7 was obtained, and none with a wider frequency range than 448-9-16. Three lines appear to be homozygous, as determined by the frequency distribution and coeffi- cient of variability. These are shown in Table ITI. INHERITANCE IN THE BARLEY SPIKE. 19 Taste III.—Homozygous planis of selection 448-9 of the Hanna-Zeocriton cross, F, generation. 4 Number of Coefficient of Fs line. individuals| Mean | variability. Millimeters. PEA React bad ee ares faith sate Pala |sa/aja Cialeloitad setcida daldds<(Sicle S icjaiele o boise e 63 2.06+0. 01 6. 80+0. 41 BEE im BON anette ahah ia ojala fataraie xta)uja!a/aia eis eels lo isiareiw sieve elcie Disidve'sisie\eieie el siete 16 3.414 .04 7.33+ .87 ESS eee aa Ano le ticle a healers dase ia we See S 5 bs vlole’ cto'nia'elcler - 59 4.304 .02 4.654 .29 The mean of 448-9-19 is not as reliable as of the other two lines, as only 16 individuals were available for the study. Selections 448-7 and 448-13 appear heterozygous in the F, genera- tion and have about the same degree of frequency range. The coeffi- cients of variability are much smaller than in F,, but are significantly larger than in the pure parental forms. The frequency range for 448-7, of which 39 plants were studied, was from 2.0 to 3.2 mm. Two plants from each of these lines gave evidence of being homozy- gous in F,. These are shown in Table IV. TaBLE 1V.—Homozygous plants of selections 448-7 and 448-18 of the Hanna-Zeocriton cross, I’, generation. . Number of Coefficient of 1g: individuals| Mean. variability. Millimeters. BAe fe er Boia cts perso ciclaiolc bicinee cies eine ore epee 107 2.21+0.01 7.69-+0. 35 Aaa Jamey REL ES A EUS ECL ey ii Oe ENE Se SS Ce oe Ae eae? © ae ar 102 3.124 .01 5.774 .27 BAS eer ay tae eis Ponce. nee Ae eS See 64 3.194 .02 6.274 .37 BEES Ed Oe eee ae eee ee eee sie cio menek cine ene -/seerectns 57 4.154 .02 4.584 .29 Four of the 20 F, plants which were tested in F, appeared to give homozygous progeny. Three of these proved to be homozygous by further test, while one, 448-11, proved heterozygous. The F, lines of interest which seem to be homozygous are shown in Table V. TaBLE V.—Homozygous plants of selection 446-11 of the Hanna-Zeocriton cross, F', generation. Number of Coefficient of Fy line. individuals. Mean. variability. Millimeters. a Set Me nie ia ats chat aiid AS. Le Ee le tt RE bbe dena yal 73 3. 08+0. 01 5. 5240.31 FEE eae We I oe eal ee cays ein oe eompeiac tn. Gees 45 3.694 .02 4.344 .31 The three lines of especial interest which appeared homozygous by both the F, and F, study are as follows: 448-1, mean 2.30+.01 mm.; 448-5, mean 2.88+.01 mm.; 448-16, mean 4.30+.01 mm. The F, generation means are given for these lines, as they are based upon larger numbers than the F, test. Typical spikes of the parent _ yarieties and of these lines are shown in Plate IT. 20 BULLETIN 869, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In the Hanna x Zeocriton cross there are a number of homozygotes of a density intermediate between the densities of the parents. The homozygotes of this cross appear to fall in groups. Three near the dense parent have internode lengths ranging from 2.06 to 2.30 mm. Three near the lax parent have internode lengths rangmg from 4.15 to 4.30 mm. Four moderately dense mtermediates have internode lengths varymg from 2.88 to 3.19 mm., and two lax intermediates have internode lengths of 3.41 and 3.69 mm. This grouping is arbi- trary, as the difference between the two intermediate groups is little more than between individuals of either intermediate group. Some homozygous intermediates from this cross have densities approxi- mately the same as those of parents used in other crosses studied. SUMMARY OF RESULTS. The observational accuracy is such that differences in density greater than 0.2 mm. are significant when the measurements are taken in the middle part of the spike. Except in the Hanna and Steigum varieties the seasonal fluctua- tions in the means of the parents were not more than0.2mm. The seasonal variations in the means of the 2-rowed were greater than in the 6-rowed varieties. The density of the F, generation does not have an unvarying relation to the density of the parents. In the Svanhals x Manchuria cross density is dominant in the F, generation. Inthe Pyramidatum x Jet cross it was intermediate. The two I*, generations grown were no more variable than the parental sorts and all crosses gave segregation in F,. Although the number of F, plants grown averaged no greater than that of the parental forms, the frequency ranges extended from the modal class of one parent to the modal class of the other and often beyond these classes. The I, generation contained progeny groups which were no more variable for length of rachis internode than pure lines of the parents. Rather extensive studies of a number of F, generations gave further evidence of purity of several of these F, lines. The Manchuria x Svanhals and Pyramidum x Jet crosses gave forms homozygous for densities similar to those of the parents but none homozygous for intermediate densities. Crosses between Hanna and Reid Triumph and between Hanna and Zeocriton gave types homozygous for densities intermediate between the densities of the parents, as well as near those of their parents. The latter cross pro- duced homozygous forms similar to Reid Triumph, Hanna, and their homozygous intermediates, as well as forms like the Zeocriton parent. The range of means of these homozygous forms was almost continu- ous, although there was an indication of two centers of intermediate ~ INHERITANCE IN THE BARLEY SPIKE. 21 density. More extensive study would be needed to determine whether these apparent centers are of any significance. DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. From the fact that segregates homozygous for density are apparent in the measurements of the F; and F, generations, it seems safe to conclude that internode length in the barley rachis may be explained on the factor hypothesis. 'The number or value of the factors involved is not regdily estimated. In a general way the results of the Man- churia X Svanhals and the Pyramidatum x Jet crosses seem to indicate a single main factor difference. The proportion of homo- zygotes is roughly satisfactory, and the absence of homozygotes differ- ing greatly from the mean of their parents is also in favor of this belief. ‘The dominance of density in the F, generation in the first cross and its intermediate expression in the second is of interest. The results in the Hanna x Reid Triumph cross in the same way indicate a broad difference of two factors. In this cross forms were isolated: that were homozygous for intermediate densities, as well as forms having densities near those of the parents. These results can be interpreted very satisfactorily on the basis of two main factors for internode length. These factors are cumulative in effect, both being necessary to produce the extreme type. The results show that a sort may be homozygous for one of the factors and heterozygous for the other. At least, heterozygous forms whose progeny range is from the mtermediate group to one or the other parent are so interpreted. The Hanna x Zeocriton cross gave homozygous intermediates of unlike value, as well as homozygous sorts which were like the parents. If the presence and absence hypothesis is here used, three main factors may be postulated to explain the genetic facts. These factors may be supposed to be of like value, each inherited independently, each allelomorphic to its absence, the number showing a hetero- zygous condition being half the homozygous sorts. This hypothesis explains the genetic fact fairly well. Other mimor factor differences are doubtless necessary to explain all of the results. One known minor character of some density significance separates the parental forms. This is a difference in the progressive density from the base to the tip of the rachis, the Zeocriton parent beimg the only sort which shows a constant increase in length of internode from the base to the tip of the spike. A comparison of the Pyramidatum x Jet cross with the Hanna x Zeocriton cross illustrates some facts regarding the mode of inherit- ance of density. These are the two widest crosses made in the study. The first produced no homozygous intermediates. The second pro- duced many. An F, generation was grown of the Pyramidatum x 22 BULLETIN 869, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Jet cross. It was of intermediate density and no more variable than the parental forms. The second generation is shown in figure 1 as a multimodal curve with peaks at densities corresponding to those of the parents and the F, generation. The homozygous forms pro- duced closely approximated the densities of the parental varieties, as is illustrated by the curves. Although there is considerable varia- bility in the means of the more lax segregates, this is no greater than the seasonal variation of the means of several of the 2-rowed forms. The contrast between the Pyramidatum Jet and the Hanna x Zeocriton crosses is very striking. Each showed wide segregation NYIELPRS OF” SNLWVIDOUAILS YE 1@ 20 22 24 26 28 G0 GE GA GE GF GO FO 4A 4AEFS DLENSYT}-— NV LST. Fic. 1.—Diagrams showing the densities of parental forms and F, and F> generations of a cross between the Pyramidatum and Jet barleys (upper) and of four homozygous forms from this cross in the F3 generation (lower). in the F, generation. Hanna Zeocriton, however, produced a much smaller proportion of homozygous forms in F, and F, than the Pyramidatum-Jet cross. Homozygous intermediates as well as forms with the parental densities were produced in the F, generation. The heterozygous lines were of different types, some being as variable as the F',, while others were more variable than the pure forms, but less so than the F, generation. The means of the heterozygous forms were also of different values. The results are illustrated in figure 2 These graphs show the parental and F, types and four pure F, forms of unlike densities, as well as the heterozygous lines obtained. This cross has given nearly all sorts of densities, and by this one cross the different densities of the parental forms used in these experiments have been again obtained. INHERITANCE IN THE BARLEY SPIKE. Ta These results show that, although density is a very stable size character, in some crosses numerous factors are involved which, by recombination, produce homozygous forms showing an almost con- tinuous range of density from the very lax to the dense types. It is only reasonable to conclude that if a greater number of varieties had been studied, together with crosses between them, a continuous range for the average length of internode of homozygous forms could be obtained which would show only small differences in average density between types. These results are of considerable interest in barley classification. While dependable in the isolation and description of FIG 16 20 22 27.25 2 FOBE GAGE GE FOAL FF FE 4E SO GE SF ES DENST IV 1/7. Fic. 2—Diagrams showing the densities of parental forms and of the F2 generation in a cross between the Zeocriton and Hanna barleys (upper), of four pure lines (middle), and of several heterozygous lines (lower). strains, groups founded on this character are likely to overlap and hence to be of limited value for taxonomic purposes. While the general genetic results of these crosses are explained on a broad factor basis of differences of one to three factors, the fact remains that the homozygous segregates corresponding to the parents do not always have the exact density of the parents. Likewise, the forms homozygous for intermediate densities do not all fall together but in groups, which, in the Hanna x Zeocriton cross become almost continuous, even where limited numbers are concerned, and might become wholly continuous if it were possible to carry the full number to the fourth generation. Obviously, there are modifying factors, and so far as they affect density they may be considered as minor density factors. Several explanations are possible. These varia- 24 BULLETIN 869, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tions may be associated with the same variability which manifests itself im seasonal fluctuations. They may be due to the differences in the progressive density from the base to the tip of the rachis, which is more marked in some than in other varieties. Other explanations might be suggested, but in the absence of definite proof it seems unwise to attempt a more detailed analysis of the results. CONCLUSIONS. Despite the handicaps of the investigations, a number of points are established. (1) Internode length in the barley rachis is a very stable character, which is much less affected by environmental conditions than many size characters. (2) Segregation occurs in the F, generation of crosses, and forms homozygous for density appear in this generation, their purity being demonstrated in the F, generation. (3) In some crosses new lines with densities differmg much from those of their parents can not be secured, while in others lines with very different densities may be isolated. (4) The inheritance of internode lengths may be interpreted on the factor hypothesis. Some of the crosses studied appeared to differ by a single main factor of density, while in others two or three main factors are necessary to explain the genetic results. Minor factors were evident whose number or nature was not established and through whose action the means of homozygous forms of intermediate densities in some crosses May become more or less continuous between the means of the parents. : LITERATURE CITED. (1) AuEretp, F.G. C. 1866. Landwirtschaftliche Flora... 363 p. Berlin. ATTERBERG, ALBERT. (2) 1889. Die Erkennung der Haupt-Varietaten der Gerste in den nordeuro- paischen Saat-und Malzgersten. Jn Landw. Vers. Stat., Bd. 36, p. 23-27. (3) 1891. Die Klassification der Saatgersten Nord-Europas. Jn Landw. Vers. Stat., Bd. 39, p. 77-80. (4) 1899. Die Varietaten und Formen der Gerste. Jn Jour. Landw., Bd. 47, Heft 1, p. 1-44. (5) Braven, E. S. . 1902. Varieties of barley. Jn Jour. Fed. Inst. Brewing, v. 8, no. 5, p. 542- 593, 12 fig. Discussion, p. 594-600. (6) Birren, R. H. 1907. The hybridization of barleys. In Jour. Agr. Sci., v. 2, pt. 2, p. 183-206. (7) BurarincHem, L. 1910. Etudes sur l’amélivration des crus d’orges de brasserie. 288 p., illus. (8) Errksson, JAcoB. 1889. Collectio cerealis. Varietates cerealium in Suecia maturescentes continens, fasc. 1, 10 p., 2 fig. Stockholm. Haruan, H. V. (9) 1914. Some distinctions in our cultivated barleys with reference to their use in plant breeding. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 137, 38 p., 16 fig. Literature cited, p. 37-38- (10) 1918. The identification of varieties of barley. U.S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 622, 32 p.,4 pl. Literature cited, p. 31-32. HEUzE, GUSTAVE. (11) [1872.] Les plantes alimentaires. 2v., illus. Paris. (12) 1896-97. Les plantes céréales. Ed. 2, 2 v., illus. Paris. Korrnickge, F. A. (13) 1873. Systematische Uebersicht der Cerealien und monocarpischen Legumi- nosen... 55p.,1 tab. Bonn. (14) 1882. Die Saatgerste. Hordeum vulgare 1. sensu latiere. In Ztschr. Gesam. Brauw., Jahrg. 5, p. 113-138, 161-172, 177-186, 193-203, 205— 208, 304-311, 329-336, 393-413. PI. 5-14. (15) 1885. Handbuch der Getreidebaues. 2 Bd. Berlin. (16) 1895. Die hauptsichlichsten Formen der Saatgerste ... 15 p. Bonn. (17) 1908. Die Entstehung und das Verhalten neuer Getreidevarietiten. In Arch. Biontol., Bd. 2, Heft 2, p. 389-437. (18) Linn [Linnzvus], Carb Von. 1753. Species plantarum ... t.1. Holmiae. (19) Newman, L. H. 1912. Plant breeding in Scandinavia. 193 p., 63 fig. Ottawa. Literature cited, p. 188-193. 25 26 BULLETIN 869, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (20) Nizsson-Eute, H. 1909. Kreuzungsuntersuchungen an Hafer und Weizen. 122 p. Lund. (21) Parker, W. H. 1914. Lax and dense eared wheats. Jn Jour. Agr. Sci., v. 6, no. 3, p. 371-386, fig. 1, pl. 1. (22) ScHUEBLER, GUSTAV. [1818.] Dissertatio inauguralis botanica sistens characteristicen et descrip- tiones cerealium in horto academico Tubingensi et in Wiirtem- bergia. .. 47p., pl. Tubingae. Inaug. Diss. (23) SzerincE, N. C. 1841-42. Descriptiones et figures des céréales Européennes. In Ann. Soc. Roy. Agr. Lyon, t. 4, p. 321-384, pl. 1-9, 1841; t. 5, p. 103-196, pl. 2-10, 1842. (24) TscHERMAK, ERICH VON. 1914. Die Verwertung der Bastardierung fiir phylogenetische Fraget. in der Getreidegruppe. Jn Ztschr: Pflanzenzticht., Bd. 2, Heft 3, p. 291-312. (25) Voss, A. 1885. Versuch einer neuen Systematik der Saatgerste. Jn Jour. Landw., Jahrg. 33, Heft 3, p. 271-282. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE ; BULLETIN No. 870 ¥ Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry Sn. JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv October 20, 1920 EFFECT OF WINTER RATIONS ON PASTURE GAINS OF YEARLING STEERS.’ By E. W. Suzers and R. H. Tuckwiier, Animal Husbandry Division? i WINTER RATIONS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON PASTURE GAINS OF YEARLING STEERS. ” Il. THE USE OF SILAGE AND THE COST OF RATIONS FOR WINTERING YEARLING STEERS. CONTENTS. Page. Page Outline of the experimental work.......-..--. 1 I. Winter rations, ete.—Continued. The region and the problems.......--- 2 Gains and losses, winter and summer. - 11 Objects and plan of the work........--. 3 Graphie presentation of gains and Kind of steers used --..-.-.-..--------- 4 TOSSESHE S32 SOE sees Bee eat 11 Meedsuseds. <2. cae ss. esd. 22. See es 4 Conclusions: 3: 22225. ee se 13 Character of pasture...........-..---.- 6 | Il. The use of silage and the cost of rations Method of feeding and handling the for wintering yearling stoers.._...-- 14 SUGGS. SRS nS Seager ss Speier 7 Prices of feeds used.............-...--: 14 I. Winter rations and their influence on Cost per pound of gain.............._-. 16 pasture gains of yearling steers...-.. it Wialero cai nse cea sine cae e en 17 Quantity of feed consumed--.........- i Value of silage in the rations........... 18 Gains and losses during winter......-- 8 General summary of costs and gains. . 19 Gains during summer....-.....-..-... 10 WonClusiOnsesss2 es ate oe SeeeR eens 19 OUTLINE OF THE EXPERIMENTAL WORK. The work reported in this bulletin is part of a series of beef-cattle experiments that have been in progress since December 22, 1914, carried on in cooperation between the Bureau of Animal Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture and the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station on the farm of David Tuckwiller, 1 A report of cooperative work by the Bureau of Animal Industry, United States Department of Agri- culture, and the West Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station. 2 The authors acknowledge the services of W. F. Ward, formerly of the Animal Husbandry Division, who assisted in planning this experiment, and of F. W. Farley, J. B. Huyett, and E. A. SCE T IN, formerly of the Animal Husbandry Division, who assisted in carrying on the work. 183544°—20—Bull. 870-——_1 2 BULLETIN 870, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in Greenbrier County, W. Va., to study beef-production problems in the Appalachian Mountain region. This farm is located in the. southeastern part of the State in the blue-grass area. The results of this experiment apply not only to West Virginia but also to the ad- jacent States having similar con- ditions, as shown in the outline map (fig. 1). Some of the results and methods may be of such files general application as to be util- ny ized to advantage by cattle feeders : in other parts of the country. THE REGION AND THE PROBLEMS The topography in most parts of the region, except in the vicinity of streams, is gently rolling or even mountainous in the higher eleva- Tae ————_ tions. The area is generally cleared Fic. 1.—Map showing region to which this work applies. The black dot indicates the location of of forest trees, although vast areas the farm on which the experiment was con- of cut-Over Or stump land are ducted. Theshaded portionrepresents thearea : : to which the results are applicable, and the dot- found. The farms vary mM size ted portion shows an additional area towhich from less than 100 acres to more Pas ee ene than 1,000 acres. The land is especially well adapted for grazing purposes. In most sections there is tillable land for the production of abundant crops for winter feed or other purposes. ' It is in this general area that a large percentage of the grass- finished cattle are produced, which go annually to eastern markets. The fact that most of the steers produced in this area are finished for market from grass alone attests the value of the pastures, which consist largely of blue grass. The use of grain for finishing cattle is not general, although there are many sections where the prac- | tice is followed, particularly in the valleys of the larger streams and on gently rolling areas. By far the larger number of farmers who handle beef cattle grow either stockers and feeders or finish cattle for market from grass alone. It therefore becomes one of the principal beef-production problems in this general area to determine the best and most economical method of wintering the cattle and the one that will enable them to make the best possible use of the pasture the following summer, the time when clieapest gains are made. It has been a common practice in this area to winter steers on dry feed, such as hay, corn stover, and wheat straw, and on corn silage to a less extent, in a way that causes them to lose materially in weight. They are then pastured the following summer and sold WINTER RATIONS OF YEARLING STEERS. 3 from grass either as stockers or’ feeders or as finished steers for the market. There are some who hold the idea that it is profitable to permit this loss of weight, which with older steers often amounts to from 25 to 100 pounds. There are others who believe that cattle wintered on silage, or on a ration of which silage is a part, will not do well on grass the following summer. OBJECTS AND PLAN OF THE WORK. The objects of the experiments as a whole had these general prob- lems in view: 1. To ascertain the effect of different wintering rations upon sub- sequent pasture gains. 2. To determine the most satisfactory and economical method of wintering. 3. To determine the best method and the cost of raising beef cattle in West Virginia. Fig. 2.—The first day on pasture, April 29, 1918, after the cattle had been wintered on a ration of corn silage, cottonseed meal,and wheat straw. (This picture shows the class of cattle, the general appear- ance of pasture, and the nature of the country.) Two distinct phases of the problems as outlined in objects 1 and 2 presented themselves for solution: First, the wintering of yearlings that are to be pastured the following summer and sold as stockers or feeders; second, the wintering and subsequent grazing of older steers to be sold from grass when fat. The first, however, is the only one considered here, the second being reserved for further investigation. The work was carried on for a period of four years, in order to have an average of feedstuffs, cattle, seasons, and other conditions tend- ing to produce variation. The oman | plan of these experiments, including the rations used for the different lots of steers, is given in Table 1. ee Sree ae ve ‘ 4 BULLETIN 870, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 1.—Plan of the four years’ work. ; Lot . | Steers. 7 Z Summer No.l Season. |in lot Winter feed.2 feed.8 Lots 1..} 1914-15 10 | Corn silage, mixed hay, and wheat straw 1915-16 TAO) ae WO se ace casects «dees ron cee ee eee eee 1916-17 ROW eee 6 (0 a ee meee ae ee ne le eso Lots 2..| 1914-15 10 | Corn silage, wheat straw, and cottonseed meal..-..........-.--.--- Do. 1915-16 LON Se DO s,ayseraees Seve s BRS oh a es See oe era eer Do. 1916-17 KO sl se See (< {oe SA Amen (DE ea h gS A NS oer ec tes vad ee Don 1917-18 Ou Peas O's :.. 5 PER 0 a Se Te are ee ee Do. Lots 3..| 1914-15 10) Mixed hanya wi eit Sak wine se se ee a Do. 1915-16 Oa ee OO ..2.22ae2s 6 fob fd a ie aa ee ee Do. 1916-17 LOK eee O25 Se ee NS a Sia aamaiahe OS apes Ma ee ee AS Do. 1917-18 Os eee Gos scee se. ae es oe ee en eee eee Do. Lot 4..| 1917-18 10); ‘Corn silageiand soz_beammhay2k ssa i eee a eee ae ee Do. Lot 5..| 1017-18 10 | Cornsilage, rye hay, and cottonseed mecl.................-.------ Do. aes lots of steers were used each year, totaling as follows: 1914, 30steers; 1915, 39 steers; 1916, 39 steers; Steers. 2 From time cattle were taken off pasture in December until turned on pasture, about May 1. 3 From time cattle went on grassin spring untilsold. Each summer all the steers were turned into the Same pasture and had no feed except the grass. KIND OF STEERS USED. The steers used in this work were of grade Shorthorn, Hereford, and Aberdeen-Angus breeding. They were raised in southern West Virginia and were a good, uniform lot of cattle in age, weight, quality, and condition. They averaged from 650 to 675 pounds in weight Fig, 3.—Steersin Lot 1 at end of winter feeding, 1917-18. at the beginning of the winter period and were 1 year old the previous spring. FEEDS USED. Samples of each of the feeds used were taken at different times throughout the four winter feeding periods and sent to the De- partment of Chemistry, West Virginia Experiment Station, Morgan- town, W. Va., and there analyzed, with the results shown in Table 2. “WINTER RATIONS OF YEARLING STEERS. TABLE 2.—Composition of feeds used. Analyses (actual) as made at the West Virginia Experiment Station. Analyses (average) as given in Henry’s ‘‘ Feeds and Feeding.” Feeds. Garbo: ‘4 (Usits 5 rates TO- ‘ates Protein: |" cid. ’| Eat | Ash. | jain | Pachaa.’| Fat. | Ash. ing fiber. ing fiber. Per ct. Per ct. | Perct.| Perct.| Perct.| Perct. | Per ct. ct. BVOLIMSUASCE en vest yuice ce 1.86 21.52 0.53 1.13 2.1 21.7 0.8 iN 7/ Mimedeharye sevens. as ssh 6.60 79.49 1.90 3. 74 8.6 70.7 2.4 6.1 WaleaGiSitaw se. soles ee. 2. 86 84.11 1.38 3.21 By dl 81.8 i168) ee, TRG) TON 00-2 EN ee gee eae 5.79 79. 82 1.19 4.75 6.7 78.0 Ail ae Noy beanie see os se eeal ese on 10.00 68. CO 3.02 9.08 16.0 64.0 2.8 8.6 Cottonseed meal (zo0d)........ 37.58 40.34| 8.29| 6.05] 37.6 39.9 8.2 6.4 | From the analyses it is evident that the feeds used, with the excep- tion of cottonseed meal, were somewhat below the average in quality. The cottonseed meal used was of 41 per cent protein the first year and of 36 per cent protein the last three years. The silage was made from a mixture of dent and silage corn. Fic. 4.—Steersin Lot 2 at end of winter feeding, 1917-18. A three-year rotation of crops, consisting of corn, wheat, and hay, is practiced pretty generally in the section under discussion. Timo- thy is sown with the wheat in the fall, and clover is sown on the same field in the sprmg. This provides in the year following the wheat crop a mixed hay of timothy and clover. The mixed hay used in this work was obtained in this manner. _ In making soy-bean hay the ground is prepared about the same as it would be for corn. The beans are drilled broadcast, using 14 bushels per acre. They are usually sown the last of May or the first of June, after all danger of heavy frost is past. When the beans begin to form in the pods, about the first of September, the time varying with the variety of beans and the kind of season, the crop is cut and cured for hay. i 6 BULLETIN 870, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In making rye hay the seed is sown in the fall, as it would be for raising grain, except that more seed per acre is used. In the spring just before the rye blooms it is cut and cured. The composition and nutritive ratio of the rations fed are given in Table 3. TaBLE 3.—Dry matter, protein, carbohydrates, fat, and nutritive ratio of rations fed each year. Average Composition. - quantity: ||! 2. = ce Eee ny rot Ration. er D Carbo eae 2 steer Ty - arbo- : | daily. | matter. aa hydrates. OEE f Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. di (Gorn stlacee. Se aeeteeen none ae 20. 0 5. 26 0. 220 3. 000 0.140 Mixed have = soe ae aeb ae ee 5.0 4.39 - 200 1. 985 - 055 Wheat Sitaw= acts tne eee 2.54 2.33 . 018 - 891 . 013 1:14.5 pe ore 1 ema 11. 98 - 488 5. 876 - 208 2) | Corn'silage S222 se.-=-2s22acesse eee 23.1 6. 08 . 254 3. 465 . 162 Wiheat straw? cs ac secccoee eee 4.9 4.49 . 034 1.720 . 025 Cottonseed meal 42225 fe Peet 1.0 . 93 . 334 . 243 -079 1 :9.7 SER ee 11.50 . 622 5. 428 . 266 SuleMixed hay se= 2 oe sf eee wea aan aig) 10. 45 .476| 4.724 .131 Wiheat straws 2222 Sota ae le 4. 07 3.73 . 028 1, 429 . 020 112.9 eae 14.18 504 6.153 | 151 4) Corn siladves= = acces aoe ee ee 20. 0 5. 26 . 220 3. 000 . 140 Soy-bean thay ue. esas scene eee 6.0 5. 48 . 702 2. 352 . 072 1:6.3 (ee See 10.74 .922| 5.352 | 212 5.| Comeilave. 2 he ee Se 20.0 5.26 . 220 3.000 . 140 Ryehay. Ss s2dscech eee sence se ee 6.0 5.51 . 204 2. 760 - 066 Cottonseed meal. = .2-si5- 225-22 -mse5 5 . 46 . 167 «122 . 039 1:10.9 Be... See 11. 23 -591 5. 882 . 245 From the foregoing table it is seen that the quantity of dry mat- ter fed was practically the same in all lots, the chief difference in the ration being in the proportion of protein to carbohydrates. CHARACTER OF PASTURE. Each year the steers were turned on a rather rough pasture of about 160 acres, one-fourth of which isin woodland. The pasture is situated in a valley between two small mountains, and a small stream which flows through it provides an abundance of fresh water at all times throughout the summer. The soil is of limestone formation, and a good growth of blue grass with much white clover is found on all parts of the pasture not in timber. Under normal climatic conditions there is rainfall enough to keep the grass growing throughout the season. The latter part of the summer of 1917 was rather dry, however, and during August of that year the steers made but small gains. WINTER RATIONS OF YEARLING STEERS. 7 METHOD OF FEEDING AND HANDLING THE STEERS. In the fall before starting the steers on the winter feed they were divided into lots of 10 each. In this division care was taken to have the lots as nearly the same as possible in regard to quality, breeding, size, and condition. These different lots were given the same amount of space in open sheds with small outside lots about 30 by 60 feet in size. Water was supplied in these lots at all times, and salt was constantly available. The cattle were fed twice a day. The feed, both concentrates and roughages, was weighed each time and accurate records of it made. The steers were weighed at the beginning and at the end of the feeding period, the weights being taken 3 days in succession and an average taken for their initial and final weight. They were weighed also every 28 days. For identifi- cation, neck straps with numbers on them were used and individual weights taken in the morning after feeding. I. WINTER RATIONS AND THEIR INFLUENCE ON PASTURE GAINS OF YEARLING STEERS. QUANTITY OF FEED CONSUMED. In considering the quantity of feed consumed it should be kept in mind that these cattle were getting only maintenance rations, but enough to keep them in good, strong, thrifty condition. Table 4 shows the total amount of different feeds eaten in the various lots and the average ay, ration per steer in each lot during each of the four winters. TaBLe 4,—Average total and daily rations during four winters. 1914-15. Total Daily Lot | Number : Days. Ration. feed per | feed per No. | of steers. = aes rl Pounds. | Pounds. 1 10 L285 Conmisilacenesaoccee sea. 5 = BAe oe a ee Na oe a 2,111.5 17.0 Mixedehiniye = sarees acy... | Meme aie emacs tye ee seal Si a 653. 0 5.0 SWihea tis irene ects. SR ard ieee eer ye 429.0 3.4 2 10 PQSME COMMS Aiea eet tats |: SANUS ROR ee iia See 3, 105.0 25.0 IWiheatistiaiwicsse sya sce nee ies op hats nt ee ae 561.0 4.3 Cottonscedimealitrncscsi: —Seae sa sass okies Seseeiee 127.5 1.0 3 10 1233 | ei Maxe dh kaye see sare canta: Samy el ail eee NN So aa 1, 278.5 10.0 Gira Wares ao tree oer Saban ho eas 602.5 he, 1915-16 1 10 ODAC ORTMESTI AG Omrcrin eer. A MNRBN Ree (Al hee eda vas Se 2,440.0 20.0 Mixednhiayea meses sceee se. . . ee eens i. ie ea ee ee 610.0 5.0 IW HeabiStra weseas eas. « Se Sere sds Se ats 265.0 2.2 2 10 122 iCormstlac@ese ses. cea nc. - eh oss noes eee sees 3, 050.0 25.0 WaheatiStrawae es ose es. Pep ee eon 610.0 5.0 Cottonseedimeal Sesh se <= LR tesla eee oes 122.0 1.0 3 10 1228 tame Cay em < sree ses ser ~~ eine esac a aoe eae tee 1, 464.0 12.0 Straiweseten ses Sains = oo | See a She Be EER 18 530.0 4.3 8 BULLETIN 870, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 4.— Average total and daily rations during four winters—Continued. 1916-17. + : : Total Daily te hee ao Days. | Ration. feed per | feed per essay or steer. steer. Pounds. | Pounds. 1 19 | AS4) | Gorn silage.: oo 7... 22 eo © args a ee ee ee eee 3,015.0 22.5 Mixed Nay o> <0 - - 2 Bese ce eee eee eee 670.0 5.0 Wiheat.straw -=\-2::-- 25234. 2.8 eee Se 271.0 2.02 2 10 134: | Corn Silave. 3: -3.... - SSSS! = seo eee eee 3,015.0 22.5 Wheat strawiit ioc: . cb 53 0: saa ee aes 628.0 4.69 Cottonseedimeal-<: . Re. - soe ee ees 134.0 1.0 3 10 | 134] Mixed hay............---- oN ES ea "1,622.0 12.1 Wheat straws... eve 2 4: Bo Re oe ee ee 611.0 4.56 1917-18. 2 10 133 | Corn Silage: ..-.-- 2, 660. 0 20.0 Wheat straw... .- 738.0 5.55 | Cottonseed meal 135.0 1.0 3 10 133 | Mixed hay... 22... gee nee eee 1,782.2 13.4 | Wheat Straw 22.22 25. 2ai=p s 338555 eS eee eee 309. 1 2.7 4 | 10 183:|' Silage. 5.2.5, 2a. (ee. . ee ee 2, 660.0 20.0 Soy-bean hay. = 2.551 eee eee eee 798.0 6.0 5 | 10 133°} Silage ss. oe! 2k ee 5 Re. oe See ee 2,660.0 20.0 | Rye nay - 22.3.2 nee 8 ee ee 798.0 6.0 : | Cottonseediineai=3= == sages = Ape eeeee sp eee reer 66.5 0.5 Fic. 5.—Steersin Lot 3 at end of winter feeding, 1917-18. GAINS AND LOSSES DURING WINTER. The gains and losses in weight during each of the four winters are shown in Table 5. Tas ie 5.—Total and daily gains and losses during four winters. 7” . = se ee eee ee ee 1914-15. AN Average} Total | Average Tat Number initia final |gain(+)} daily N of | Days. Ration. weight | weight | orloss | gain or NO. | steers. per per |(—) per| loss per steer. | steer. steer. steer. Pounds.| Pounds.| Pounds.| Pounds. / 1 10 128 | Corn silage, mixed hay, and wheat straw. 622 599 —23 —0.18 13, 2 10 | 128 | Corn silage, wheat straw, and cottonseed by it ie. A mS, “re ee Se 618 692 +74 + .58 } 3 10 128 | Mixed hay and wheat straw.........--.-- 623 577 —46| — .36 ~ | | =— - CMG. (oie 4 ~ 4 q * WINTER RATIONS OF YEARLING STEERS. 9 TABLE 5.—Total and daily gains and losses during four winters—Continued. 1915-16. Average| Average| Total | Average Lot Number initial final |gain(+)] daily No of Days. Ration. weight | weight | orloss | gainor * | steers. per per (—) per | loss per steer. steer. steer. steer. Pounds.| Pounds.| Pounds.| Pounds. 1 10 122 | Corn silage, mixed hay, and wheat straw. - 678 678 00 00 2 10 122 | Corn silage, wheat straw, and cottonseed ® Meal a. 6 eee Se So... Leo 678 758 +80 + .66 3 10 122 | Mixed hay and wheat straw.......-.----- 678 671 — — .06 1916-17. 1 10 134 | Corn silage, mixed hay, and wheat straw. - 690 709 +19 + .14 2 10 134 | Corn silage, wheat straw, and cottonseed 00S eee ey See eae En, See 690 742 +52 + .39 3 10 134 | Mixed hay and wheat straw......--..--.- 689 659 —30 — .22 1917-18. 2 10 133 | Corn silage, wheat straw, and cottonseed mca eer eee ena... J ee ese 671 711 +40} + .30 3 10 133 | Mixed hay and wheat straw..........---- 671 615 —56 |] + .421 4 10 133 | Corn silage and soy-bean hay.-..........-- 671 698 +27) + .203 5 10 133 | Corn silage, rye hay, and cottonseed meal. 671 682 +11 | + .083 Table 5 shows that in 1914-15 the cattle in Lot 1 fed on silage, mixed hay, and straw lost an average of 23 pounds in 128 days during the winter, equal to a daily loss of 0.18 pound per steer. In 1915-16 the lot fed the same ration neither lost nor gained weight during the 122 winter days. In 1916-17 the lot fed the same ration gained an average of 19 pounds, equal to a daily gain of 0.14 pound per steer. Lot 2 in 1914-15, fed on silage, straw, and cottonseed meal, gained an average of 74 pounds in 128 days, equal to a daily gain per steer of 0.58 pound. The next year the corresponding lot gained 80 Fig. 6.—Steers in Lot 4 at end of winter feeding, 1917-18. 183544°—20—Bull. 870-2 10 BULLETIN 870, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pounds in 122 days, making a daily gain of 0.66 pound per steer. In 1916-17 the corresponding lot gained 52 pounds per steer in 134 days, making an average daily gain of 0.39 pound. In 1917-18 the corresponding lot gained 40 pounds per steer in 133 days, making an average daily gain of 0.3 pound. Lot 3 in 1914-15, fed on mixed hay and wheat straw with no silage, lost an average of 46 pounds, equal to a daily loss of 0.36 pound per steer. The corresponding lot in 1915-16 lost 7 pounds, equal to a daily loss of 0.06 pound per steer. Jn 1916-17 the corre- sponding lot lost 30 pounds, making an average daily loss of 0.22 pound per steer. In 1917-18 the corresponding lot lost 56 pounds, equal to a daily loss per steer of 0.42 pound. The lot fed silage and soy-bean hay in 1917-18 gained an average of 27 pounds in 133 days, making a daily gain per steer of 0.2 pound. In 1917-18 the lot fed silage, rye hay, and cottonseed meal gained 11 pounds per steer in 133 days, or an average daily gain of 0.08 pound. GAINS DURING SUMMER. In the spring of each year as soon as the grass was good enough, which was usually about May 1, the steers from all the lots were turned into the same pasture on grass with no additional feed. Weights were taken every 28 days, just as during the winter. Thus the effect of the different rations upon the summer grazing of the different lots could be studied. Table 6 shows the weights at the beginning of the grazing period, the weights at the end of the grazing period, and the total and average gains per steer for the summer period. TaBLE 6.—Total and daily gains during four summers on pasture alone. 1914-15. Ave weight Average | Total | Average Lot No Number } Days on Bere final gain per daily : of steers. | pasture. aaah weight | steer for | gain per aang per steer.| summer. | steer. period Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. Lice ae eee ae am ers Scene 10 168 599 935 33 0 De ee si RA oe oes Oa ee ue POR Mace sons 692 947 255 1.5 Bee ee oe See os Sa e aes eae HOt. ssaeee tee 577 892 315 1.87 1915-16. 38 Tan Soe a ee A NE RED: Aa i ee 0 10 167 678 1,022 344 2.1 Dee tae ee naiala a Hanae ow eo ee ED Gee po 25.s= 2 758 1, 036 278 1.7 SHEE ee Pee oie Saocinie bo eee ee oe Tht) | epee ote 671 981 310 1.9 1916-17. eee a 2 pee SS oe. See eter ee 10 157 709 979 270 ie OLE tea en aia ls oie oon tins SRR oe TO aise seosee 742 1, 000 258 1.6 Deedes Santee s fee dascpductos sotteceees HOM ccc kiscee 659 965 306 1.9 1917-18... D sags His dee oka noida wo EP a+ 30 ope 10 140 711 969 258 1.8 Be en cles hens ieee... ones ROM eons s cee 615 920 305 2.2 Bee Sah ce teciae a1 Robes Ee enfin ajdt ‘i, See eeene 698 938 240 7 Bisgee skdacadeeeb.c cab abboe we ceieee Se «sae ae HOT Geis cases 682 963 281 2.0° WINTER RATIONS OF YEARLING STEERS. fd: GAINS AND LOSSES, WINTER AND SUMMER. The gains and losses in weight in both winter and summer are summarized in Table 8, and averages are shown for lots fed on the same rations in different years. Fic. 7.—Steersin Lot 5 at end of winter feeding, 1917-18. TABLE 7.—Summary of gains and losses in weight per steer, winter and summer. Gain (+) Total 5 orloss | Gainin | gainin Lot ; (—) in weight | weight No Ration. Year. weight | per steer | persteer, > per steer in winter in summer. and winter. summer. Pounds. | Pounds. | Pounds. 1 | Corn silage, mixed hay, and wheat straw.......-.----- 1914-15 —23 336 313 1915-16 ~ +00 344 344 1916-17 +19 270 289 PAV CLA L OR erate ete one ee RE PIES Se elk a: < of neste eae —1 317 316 2 | Cornsilage, wheat straw, and cottonseed meal......-... 1914-15 +74 255 328 3 1915-16 +80 278 358 1916-17 +52 258 30 1917-18 +40 258 298 ASVGE MG odecaecsseucosesaacsr once SS OEE Cciceal BRM EeeeEaae +62 262 324 3 | Mixed hay and wheat straw...............- oe. eee 1914-15 —46 315 269 1915-16 —7 310 303 1916-17 —30 | 306 276 ; 1917-18 —56 305 249 PANICNAR GE sass Satie he nee cine set ees . eee eto ssa —35 309 274 4 | Cornsilage and soy-bean hay .................--------- 1917-18 +27 240 267 5 | Corn silage, rye hay, and cottonseed meal.......-.----- 1917-18 +11 281 292 GRAPHIC PRESENTATION OF GAINS AND LOSSES. The comparative rapidity and extent of gains and losses can be shown more clearly by the use of a chart than in any other way. Accordingly a chart is presented herewith as figure 8, which shows the average changes in weight of the steers of the three lots. Horizontal distance on the chart indicates the number of days that the steers were fed during the winters and pastured during the 12 BULLETIN 870, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. summers. The average length of the total period for the 4 years was 288 days, of which 130 days were in the winter or feeding period and the remaining 158 in the summer or grass period. The heavy black vertical line near the center of the chart marks the dividing line between the AVEKACE LEWVC77Y OF CLE LING LEXVOO , winter and su Se WINTER FEVC/OD SAYWVIES HAEFEYOO APO DAYS 48@ DAYS periods. 2G 56 GF U2 20 56 GF WZ /4O Vertical distance 4O5O on the chart repre- sents changes in live weight of the steers. The weights corre- sponding to each of the horizontal lines are given along the left side of the chart. Some rather strik- ing facts as to the way steers on differ- ent rations vary in weight from period to period during the winter are brought out. Itwill be noted that in Lots 1 and 3 there was an actual loss in weight each year during the first period of the winter. By the end of the second period this tendency to lose in Fic. 8.—Diagram showing average variations in weights of 3 lots of Ww el oh t had b een Steers during summer and winter feeding periods. 4020 8) VY & Qg Oo OD FY 6% & BNR e Re No es 9 N AWEHACE MMLVEYAT” PLLC STEER (POUNDS) overcome, and in most of the trials a slight gain was made during this period. While the average of Lot 2 showed a small gain during the first period, it is evident that the rapidity of gain was greatly increased during the second period. With one or two exceptions there was a marked loss in weight of steers in all lots during the last 18 days of the winter period. This falling off in weight can, no doubt, be attributed to the fact that the coming of the pasture season caused the steers to eat less dry feed and possibly to make less efficient use of what they did eat. Cattle fed on dry feed during the winter become restless with the appearance of grass and lose their appetites for the dry and less appetizing feeds which they have been receiving. ~S BF (ee WINTER RATIONS OF YEARLING STEERS. 13 There are some very noticeable differences in the gains made by the different lots during the first 28 days of the pasture season. With one exception all lots in each trial took on weight. The steers of Lot 3 during this first period of the spring of 1917 actually lost 2 pounds per head while on grass. There is no apparent explanation for this loss, in view of the fact that both Lots 1 and 2 made gains during this same month. Since all the steers were in the same pasture and received the same treatment, no satisfactory reason for the loss by the steers of this one lot can be advanced. As would be expected, the cattle which had been fed’on a ration that caused them to lose weight during the winter made the greatest gains during this first month on pasture. The steers which had been fed on a ration of corn silage, cottonseed meal, and wheat straw and which made a steady gain throughout the winter did not make so large a gain from grass during this first period as did the steers of Lot 3, which lost weight i in the winter. The greatest gains from pasture were made by the steers of Lot 1, although the difference between this lot and Lot 3 is so slight as to be almost negligible. While the summer gains of the steers of Lot 2, fed silage, cottonseed meal, and straw, were not so large as those a the other two lots, the total of both winter and summer gains shows an increase of 49 pounds over the gain made by the steers fed mixed hay and wheat straw and 14 pounds over those fed corn silage, mixed hay, and wheat straw. CONCLUSIONS. 1. An average daily ration of 19.8 pounds of corn silage, 5 pounds of mixed hay, and 2.5 pounds of wheat straw fed to average good steers weighing 663 pounds (Lot 1) for 130 days during the winter should maintain them without a loss in weight. _ 2. An average daily ration of 23.1 pounds of corn silage, 4.9 pounds of wheat straw, and 1 pound of cottonseed meal fed to average good steers weighing 664 pounds (Lot 2) for 130 days during the winter should maintain their weight and allow an average gain of 62 pounds per steer. 3. An average daily ration of 11.9 Wands of mixed hay and 4.1 pounds of wheat straw fed to average good steers weighing 665 pounds (Lot 3) for 130 days during the winter will not maintain their weight but will result in an average loss of weight of approximately 35 pounds. 4. The steers in Lot 2 receiving a protein concentrate in the ration did not lose weight as did Lots 1 and 3 (fig. 5). 5. The steers receiving corn silage as a part of their ration (Lots 1 and 2, Table 7) made greater total gains for ne year than those receiving rations of dry roughage alone. 14 BULLETIN 870, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 6. Steers wintered on dry roughage alone (Lot 3), which lost weight during the winter, and those fed a maintenance ration only of which corn silage was a part (Lot 1) made greater gains during the first two months on grass than those steers (Lot 2) which had made consider- able gain (60 pounds) during the winter. This would be expected if the steers in the first-mentioned lots were to be finished in the same condition as those in Lot 2, as they had considerably more gain to make in order to catch up in weight. 7. There was a slight tendency for the steers fed on dry roughage alone (Lot 3) to make less gain during the last two months of the pasture season than did the steers which had received silage in the ration (Lots 1 and 2) during the preceding winter, although this dif- ference was very slight. | II. THE USE OF SILAGE AND THE COST OF RATIONS FOR WINTERING YEARLING STEERS. Shall I purchase steers (that are to be fattened from grass the next summer) in the fall, and carry them through the winter largely on roughage, or shall I purchase them in the spring after some one else has wintered them? This is a question which the thoughtful cattle grazer in the good pasture areas is likely to ask himself and which it is of considerable importance to answer correctly. No matter what the answer may be on any particular farm or in any particular section of country, the fact remains that cattle are higher in price and are worth more in the spring just before the grass season opens than they were at the close of the pasture period the preced- ing fall. This increase in value is due largely to the cost of winter- ing, depending upon the rations and methods used. The data already presented in this bulletin afford an opportunity to throw some light upon this important subject. In the following discussion of this question it is necessary to fix the prices for feeds on the farm. It is felt, however, that this is the most questionable and unsatisfactory part of such experimental work, and is especially true for the last few years, durmg which unusual BES ein have occurred in feed prices. PRICES OF FEEDS USED. During the four years that this experiment was in progress the price of silage increased from $4 to $8 a ton, cottonseed meal from $30 to $60, and hay and straw advanced respectively 334 and 50 per cent. Thus the cost of wintering a steer in 1917-18 was nearly double the cost of keeping him through the winter 1914-15. While feed prices remain high, it is not certain that they will continue at the present high level for any great length of time. For this reason, and also for simplicity in making the various calculations, an average of the feed prices for the four years is used, as follows: he *s WINTER RATIONS OF YEARLING STEERS. 15 Per ton. Clam, SHR ey SSOuSe BOSS Sei arene 5 od ne ae ee ee mea $6 Wine ayoh Iniginy be 88 aa AR ae Ass a Ca << ede SGN AR eens 2 18 I Ssnyrei GIN Aas 2k ee eae clas pe ey a” RC ieee amo 18 Boveenme many. soyioey tee ser.’ Pee Obs Sap. sk Lae ee 17 \WIDGT RUE les eee 8 Ge eee oie ames err enema es oe if Cottomsecl erm eal yea rt ais Se LUN Se ee 50 The foregoing averages were made from figures taken from the Yearbook of the United States Department of Agriculture, and are the average farm prices in the States of West Virginia, Virginia, Maryland, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee, North Caro- lina, and parts of other adjacent States, to which this work is most applicable. An attempt is made to show the comparative cost of the different rations for the benefit of those who desire information on this phase of the subject. If the prices of feeds in any locality are different from the prices used in these calculations, it is suggested that they be substituted and the following calculations used as a guide, using, as the basis of calculation, the total amounts of the different feeds consumed per steer as shown in the first section of Table 4. Table 8 shows the rations fed, the gain or loss in weight per steer during the winter, the fall cost per hundredweight, the cost of feed- ing each steer through the winter, and the advance in spring value over fall cost of steers per hundredweight. TABLE 8.—Summary of rations, costs, and results. Ad- : vance in Gain(+)) Titial Value in| SPring 2 value | Cost to | spring Lot : loss(—)| ‘per | winter | per | .oVer ae Ration. Year. in Thane each hun- | imitial pen dred- | steer. | dred- ee steer, | Weight. weight.) iiin- dred- weight Pounds. 1 | Corn silage, mixed hay, and wheat; 1914-15 —23 $6.50 | $13.71 $9. 04 $2. 54 straw. 1915-16 00 6. 50 13. 74 | 8. 52 2.02 1916-17 +19 7. 00 16. 03 9. 07 2.07 PASV OLAS Okie esas Hae ieeins oe a siscte ccloueste oe - tas —1 6. 67 14. 49 8. 88 2.2 2 | Corn silage, wheat straw, and cotton- | 1914-15 +74 6. 50 14.47} 7.89 1.39 seed meal. 1915-16 +80 6. 50 14. 34 7.70 1. 20 1916-17 +52 7.00 14. 60 8.48 1.48 -| 1917-18 +40 7.50 13.88 9.08 1.53 PACT OLAS Oe mem ee Sar ccmonye aie ene eel ies oT +62 6. 88 14. 32 8. 28 1. 40 3 | Mixed hay and wheat straw.......---- 1914-15 —46 6. 50 13. 62 9. 38 2. 88 1915-16 —7 6. 50 15. 03 8. 81 2.31 1916-17 —30 7. 00 16. 74 9. 72 2.72 : 1917-18 —56 7.50 17. 30 11. 00 3. 50 PANT OTTO PAN RIS hee CES fe ge, Wee eS. 2 sy —35 6. 88 15. 67 8. 73 2. 85 4 | Corn silage and soy-bean hay..-.--...-- 1917-18 +27 7. 50 14.76 9. 32 1. 82 5 | Corn silaee, rye hay, and cottonseed | 1917-18 | +11] 7.50] 16.82] 9.84 2.34 meal. Notr.—The length of the feeding period varied somewhat from year to year, depending on the condition of the pastures in the early spring. The steers were fed 128 days during the winter of 1914-15, 122 days in 1915-16, 134 days in 1916-17, and 133 days in 1917-18. a 16 BULLETIN 870, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COST PER POUND OF GAIN. The cost of producing a pound of gain is the main factor in deter- mining whether a steer is being produced at a profit or a loss. The cost of feeding a steer during the winter, plus the cost of pasture the following summer, is the total cost of feeding the steer for the year: By dividing this amount by the increase in weight of the steer, the cost of producing a pound of gain may be ascertained. From Table 8 it will be noted that the winter cost constitutes approxi- mately two-thirds of the total cost for the year. Practically all the gain, however, is made during the summer or pasture season. Hence the cost of wintering becomes the governing factor in determining the cost of a pound of gain. A summary of gains and costs is given in Table 9. TABLE 9.—Summary of gains and costs. | Total | Total cost of gain, Gust Cost feed Cost Epis! G winter per per and per Na Ration. Year. and SS 3 | Mixed hay and wheat straw........... | 1914-15 269 13.62 8.40 22.02 082 1915-16 303 15.03 8.35 23.38 077 1916-17 276 16.74 | © 7.85 24.59 089 1917-18 249 17.30 7.00 24.30 097 Average../c aE Pee ae | ee 274| 15.67| 7.90| 28.57 086 4 | Corn silage and soy-bean hay.......... | 1917-18 267 14.76 7.00 21.76 081 5 | Corn SHEE, rye hay, and cottonseed | 1917-18 292 16.82 7.00 23.82 081 meal. 1 The cost of summer feed is calculated at the same rate for each lot each year, charging the pasture at 5 cents a day, as follows: : 168 days, 1915... 167 days, 1916. . 157 days, 1917. . eS s3sk ot ee =) yale 140 days, 1918. oo. eae eee ee - - eRe en son le ce pe ee een 7.00 The steers of Lots 2, which were fed corn silage, wheat straw, and cottonseed meal, made the greatest gains during the year at least cost for feed. Hence the cost of a pound of gain was lowest for these lots, the average for four years being 6.9 cents. Lots 1, fed corn silage, mixed hay, and wheat straw, put on gains at an average cost of 7.2 cents a pound. ee WINTER RATIONS OF YEARLING STEERS. 17 Steers fed mixed hay and wheat straw, which is by far the most commonly used ration in the section under discussion, made smaller yearly gains at greater cost than did the steers of the two lots afore- mentioned. It cost 8.6 cents to put on a pound of gain when the wintering ration consisted of mixed hay and wheat straw. The cost of producing a pound of gain was comparatively high in Lots 4 and 5, being 8.1 cents a pound for each lot. The rations used, while an improvement over the commonly used combinations of mixed hay and wheat straw, were too costly, when resulting gains are considered, to be recommended except when mixed hay is not available. VALUE OF GAINS. In Table 10 the increase in value per steer is shown. The initial cost plus the cost of feed and pasture is the total cost of the steer at the close of the pasture season. ‘The appraised valuation of the steers at this time was $2 per hundredweight more than the initial cost per hundredweight the preceding fall. While this is an arbitrary valua- tion, nevertheless it represents a very conservative figure, the actual increase in most instances being much more. The cost of labor and other cost factors are not considered; such items would be more than offset by the value of the manure from the cattle. TasLe 10.—Summary of costs showing increased value of steers at end of winter feeding period. | Value of Ap- | Tiotease a1. Cost to | steer, in-| praised pasos Initial ”. initial Lots feed each| cluding | value of No. Year. ¥ alee €T| steer one| cost of | steer at valve pins | year. |feedand| endof |. oa ie d pasture. year. pasture eno TA | bie ase Pee ee ee |= > BABAR $22. 11 $62. 54 $79. 48 $16. 94 HOT St Oeeteeesa er PORES. ao ot 2 ee Se | 44, 07 22.09 66. 16 86. 87 20. 71 TIGR IN so 0 cesirser a hs ee Be a eee ee 48. 30 23.88 72.18 88. 11 15. 93 PRSVCLARC .— eet rs on Set Soe nape tees) = | 44, 27 22. 69 66. 96 84. 82 17.86 MRA paperr are tae hes Sonam eer seis = pece 40.17 22. 87 | 63. 04 80. 50 17.46 PETAL pre eal aay ta amare agit tee ements Bi be et 44.07 22.69 66. 76 88. 06 21.30 GIGS peeing as se eee noe ae eS Bee Se Sates 48.30 22.45 70.78 90. 00 19. 25 TAS 1 CPUC Se Spee rime ee anes ane ae cre ee aaa 50. 33 20. 88 | 71. 21 92. 06 20. 85 PAV CTE Oe ko rceee: eS tenes rans ere 45.72 22, 22 | 67. 94 87. 66 19.72 oe RL RAN yee oe Stee pas ag a 40.50 22. 02 | 62. 52 75, 82 13.30 1915-16. . 44.07 23.38 67.45 83.39 15. 94 1916-17. . 48.30 24, 59 72. 89 86. 85 13.96 LOSES Ses mise oe hos ea CL Soe 2) ee ee klctncas 50. 33 24. 30 74. 63 89. 11 14. 48 | Wvericeras tee ee Pa 45.80 | 23.57| 69.37] 83.79 14.42 MPO Ig sees es ees Wd a 50.33 | 21.76| 72.09| 91.49 19. 40 Sy |i] SI Sas So ek a Sera 2 al ae i eee 50. 33 23. 82 74,15 87.40 13. 25 The estimated value per hundredweight at the end of the pasture season of all lots was the same, regardless of the extra finish due to 18 BULLETIN 870, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ereater gains made by the silage-fed lots. Steers from all lots were to be carried over and finished the following year; hence, no actual selling price is given. Had these increased gains been taken into consideration in estimating the value, the added profit per steer for the lots fed silage and cottonseed meal would have been even greater than the amounts shown in Table 10. In this table, as in all others, the steers of Lot 2, fed corn silage, wheat straw, and cottonseed meal, appear to best advantage, for they returned a profit of $19.72 per steer as compared with $17.86 for Lot 1 and $14.42 for Lot 3. Lots 4 and 5 were included in the table, but in the comparisons and con- clusions drawn they are not considered, as they were carried only one year. VALUE OF SILAGE IN THE RATIONS. In Table 11 the added value per steer to be gained by the use of corn silage and also of cottonseed meal in the rations is shown. Since most of the cattle wintered in West Virginia and neighboring States are carried through on dry feed, the steers fed mixed hay and wheat straw were used as a basis from which to make comparisons and those feeds were considered a check ration. The increased value of the steer in the spring over the fall value depends very largely upon the method of wintering, as is shown in Table 8, being from $1.40 to $2.85 per hundredweight. When the better methods are used the increase based upon the cost of winter- ing will be on the average about $2 per hundredweight, which is the figure used in making these calculations. TABLE 11.—Summary showing value of silage rations as compared with hay and strow (check ration). Increased pee: Decrease uicreneed gain per yearly in cost | value of Average steer valuees cost of | of ration | ration per Rakiog yearly over in gain feed as steer as A gain per |_ steers an and /compared|compared steer. fed Bae pasture | wit with check % per check eheck ration. steer. ration. ration. Pounds. | Pounds. Mixed hay and wheat straw (check ration) SUAS oc one 826] eee EPA Thy An ee oe as Corn silage, mixed hay, and wheat straw... 316 42 $3.73 22. 69 $0. 88 $4. 61 Corn silage and soy-bean hay.......--...--. 267 7 1—.62 21.76 1.81 1.19 Corn silage, rye hay, and cottonseed meal. . 292 18 1.60 23. 82 2— 25 1.35 Corn silage, wheat straw, and cottonseed | MGA a3 oe ee ee roe 324 50 4,44 22, 22 1.35 5.79 | 1 Decrease. 2 Increase. The addition of corn silage to the dry-feed ration resulted in an increase of 42 pounds in the yearly gain of each steer as compared with the check ration, and the substitution of cottonseed meal and corn silage in place of mixed hay produced an increase of 50 pounds of gain per steer. At the estimated value—$2 margin above the initial cost per hundredweight—these additional gains would be oS. ae WINTER RATIONS OF YEARLING STEERS. 19 worth $3.73 and $4.44, respectively. If the three rations had cost the same per steer per year, these figures would represent the added profit. With feeds at prices as charged during the first three years, however, the dry-feed ration was the most costly. It cost 88 cents less to feed a steer on corn silage, mixed hay, and wheat straw than on mixed hay and straw alone. The addition of cottonseed meal and the elimination of the hay decreased the cost $1.35. By adding these figures to the value of the increased gains, the total added profit per steer can be obtained. In the case of the steers fed corn silage, mixed hay, and wheat straw, this amounted to $4.61, and for the steers fed on corn silage, cottonseed meal, and straw the corresponding figure was $5.79. Since the average initial weights of the lots were practically the same for each trial, and since all lots were summered on the same pasture, the difference in final weight can be attributed to the different rations fed during the winter. GENERAL SUMMARY OF COSTS AND GAINS. A general summary of costs and gains is given in Table 12. TABLE 12.—General summary of costs and gains. Be Lots 2, 7, ots 1, (corn ots 5, (corm silage, Lots 3, ee 4, orm silage, wheat | (mixed Saye silage, Items. mixed straw, | hay and | oq = _| rye hay, hay, and and wheat Bea and cot- wheat | cotton- | straw). hay) tonseed straw). seed y)- meal) meal) Average cost of wintering..........-..-.------------- $14. 49 $14. 32 £15. 67 $14. 76 $16. 82 Average length of winter periods........-.-.-- days.. 128 1294 1294 133 133 Cost of feed per day, winter.............--.-..------- $0. 116 $0. 111 $0. 121 $0. 111 $0. 127 Average cost of summer feed................-..------ &8. 20 $7. 90 $7.90 $7.00 $7. 00 Average length of summer periods...........- days. - 164 158 158 140 140 WOSiMDeInG Aya tSUImIMer semen) 6 eS yee ee: $0. 05 $0. 05 $0. 05 $0. 05 $0. 05 Average of total costs per year...............-------- $22. 69 $22. 22 $23. 57 $21. 76 $23. 82 Average gain or loss per steer, winter....... pounds. . Sl ~ +62 —35 +27 +11 Average gain per steer, Summer...............- dose. 317 262 309 240 281 Average total gain per steer...............----- do... 316 324 274 267 292 Cost per pound yearly gain............-....--...---. $0. 072 $0. 069 $0. 086 $0..081 $0. 081 CONCLUSIONS. 1. Corn silage, wheat straw, and cottonseed meal (fed to Lots 2) was the cheapest ration used and at the same time the best, making the greatest increase (62 pounds) in weight of the steers. It is seldom that one gets the best for the least money. 2. Silage added to a ration for wintering steers makes it more economical than dry roughage alone, considering the gains made both during the winter and in the summer following the winter feeding period. 20 BULLETIN 870, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 3. With but few exceptions, a farmer or stockman (in the section considered) who has a sufficient number of mature cattle or their equivalent is justified in building a silo. 4, After the farmer or stockman has his silo he may Fee ae doualy buy a protein supplement. The quantity of cottonseed meal or other protein-rich feed would perhaps be regulated by the kind of roughage used with the silage. If a legume hay were used, the cottonseed meal or other protein concentrate could be eliminated entirely or at least reduced very materially in quantity. 5. The addition of corn silage to the ration for wintering yearling steers gave them an increased value of from $1.19 to $5.79 per head, depending upon the ration used. 6. As a general rule, where the farmer has silage and a roughage in the form of straw or various kinds of hay and stover, it would — seem advisable to feed his yearling cattle (should he wish to winter them and sell them from grass the next summer) a ration of silage, a little cottonseed meal—not more than 1 to 14 pounds—or other such feed, and the roughage that he has available. 7. The cost of wintering a yearling steer is approximately two- thirds the cost of keeping the steer one year. The profit, therefore, may be largely determined from the ration used and method of wintering. 8. The feeding methods used in wintering yearling steers added from $1.40 to $2.85 per hundredweight to the spring value over the value the preceding fall, depending upon the ration used. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY A UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE , BULLETIN No. 871 § Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER November 10, 1920 THE DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. By J. S. Boycn, Assistant Pathologist, Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology. CONTENTS. Page. Page. [mportance of incense cedar....-.--.-------- 1 | Application of results.....................--- 49 Rotal-loss factors... ..-...22:22225.Je2222250% 2 Relative importance of dry-rot......-.--- 49 Method of collecting data..........--....-.-- 4 Control of dry-rot...........------------- 49 SECOMOAMVALOLS Seema e ocr e tee aterm pie ecaie | MOTETIUINNA Tire cs eo eye tn =e ialeistatals cretteleass cee cicteleie se 55 Rheldry-Lotsee seo hs bec cic eebiewcbeeseeasa 8) | Muiterature cited eeniocsececcsaecc sees ee oeene 57 IMPORTANCE OF INCENSE CEDAR. Incense cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) is of considerable economic importance on the Pacific coast. The available supply of this species, which never occurs alone but always in mixture, chiefly with yellow pine, Jeffrey pine, sugar pine, Douglas fir, and white fir, averaging about 8 per cent of the stand, although often forming as high as 30 to 50 per cent, is estimated at 11 billion feet, 10 billion of which occurs in California (17, pp. 9-10).1. That the wood is very valuable for special purposes on account of certain qualities has been clearly pointed out by Mitchell (17, pp. 2-9) recently and was mentioned by Von Schrenk (26, p. 69) 20 years ago. However, in spite of the well- known value of the wood, only about 30 million feet is cut annually in California. The stumpage rate is low and the price for the finished product often little more than pays the cost of logging and manufac- ture, according to Mitchell (17, p. 6). The reason for this is obvious. The heartwood of incense cedar is commonly rendered totally worthless by the so-called dry-rot caused by Polyporus amarus. An idea of the quantity of timber rendered unmerchantable by this dry-rot may be obtained from Mitchell’s statement (17, p. 3) that so common is this defect that itis the usual practice to cut estimates of this species from 30 to 50 per cent on ac- 1 The serial numbers in parentheses refer to ‘‘ Literature cited” at the end of the bulletin. 182803°—20—Bull. 871——1 2 . BULLETIN 871, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. count of it. This leads to a distinct prejudice against the species on the part of both the lumberman and the forester. The lumber- man is naturally averse to handling a large quantity of practically worthless material for which there is little or no market in order to secure a small amount of valuable material, when the profit on the more valuable product is not sufficient to carry adequately the entire product. The forester sees a species of very little value, as attested by the low stumpage rate, occupying space which might be given over to surrounding species on which a much higher stumpage rate could be realized. This prejudice, which has resulted in the classification of incense cedar as an “inferior” species, is not based on any inherent quality of the tree itself, for sound cedar wood, as has already been stated, is quite valuable, finding a ready market; and the tree, on account of its relatively high tolerance.of shade, particularly during its earlier life, is a valuable component of the mixed stand in which it occurs. Incense cedaris a thrifty, aggressive species, quite tolerant of shade, and has a definite, permanent place in the forests of the Pacific coast. Its aggressiveness makes it almost an impossibility to eradicate the species entirely, and such an attempt would be highly inadvisable and might result in unforeseen disastrous consequences resulting from an artificial change in the composition of the stand. Greeley (6, p. 112) and Meinecke (16, pp. 21-22) have specifically advised against this. The lumberman, logging in types with incense cedar represented, faces the necessity of handling a large quantity of almost worthless timber, which if sound would be of high value. Since incense cedar probably can not be eliminated from the stand, the problem presents itself of the proper treatment of an inferior species which in time will undoubtedly become quite valuable. Foresters and lumbermen are showing more and more interest in the question, fully realizing that this species will always have to be reckoned with. We must have exact, far-reaching studies not only to handle properly and utilize the cedar at present, but to lay the foun- dations for a rational system of silvicultural management for the future. Production is inevitable; proper treatment must be evolved. Consequently, the study on which this paper is based was under- taken in an attempt to throw light on certain of the phases involved. TOTAL-LOSS FACTORS. Throughout American forestry literature dealing with regulation and management are found statements in regard to individual com- ponents of mixed stands to the effect that ‘in virgin forests incre- ment equals decay,” or sometimes ‘‘deterioration” is used in place of “decay.” Chapman (2, p. 317) and Meinecke (16, p. 3-4) have shown this generalization to be of absolutely no value, since the as- DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. 3 sumption is based on the factors of increment and decay, of which almost nothing is known. When deterioration is used in place of decay, it is an impossibility to reach a conclusion as to just what factors of loss are included in the term. The term “‘total loss’’ has been introduced by Meinecke (16, p. 4-5) to cover all factors which lead to any reduction of increment or actual volume in a stand, and he makes a strong plea for exact studies of all components of the total-loss factor for individual species before any effort is made to determine this for the mixed stand. To determine the components of the total-loss factor for any given species is merely a matter of simple observation, but to gauge accu- rately their relative importance is not easy, calling for careful com- prehensive work. In the case of incense cedar the numerical dropping out of indi- vidual trees, the mechanical injuries caused by fire, frost, light- ning, the breaking of branches, and other causes, a mistletoe, and several fungi play a more or less important part in the total-loss factor. These components may be divided into two broad classes, those reducing the future capital of timber (lessening the increment) and those reducing the present capital of timber (destroying actual merchantable material). It is impossible to draw a sharp line between these two classes, since some components find a place in both. The unavoidable yearly dropping out of certain trees, varying in size from seedlings to veterans, affects both the increment and mer- chantable material in a stand. Mechanical injuries, while primarily causing a loss in the merchantable timber, to some extent interfere with the normal growth of the tree, thus reducing the increment. A mistletoe (Phoradendron jumperinum libocedrt), the incense-cedar rust (Gymnosporangium blasdaleanum) (15, p. 35-37; 11), a leaf-in- habiting fungus (Stigmatea sequoiae) (3, p. 87; 4, p. 314), and the black cobweb fungus (Herpotrichia nigra) all primarily cause a loss in the future capital of timber by reducing the annual increment of infected trees. The amount of this loss is exceedingly difficult to gauge accurately, but it is so small in relation to the damage caused by the agencies reducing the present capital of timber that the above- mentioned organisms are given no consideration in this paper except incidental mention. Under certain conditions, the mistletoe is responsible for a slight reduction in the merchantable contents of the host tree by causing spindle to barrel shaped swellings on the boles of mature and overmature trees (14, p. 37). The wood of these swellings is rendered valueless for lumber, owing to the pres- ence of the mistletoe ‘‘sinkers,’’ or rocts, either living or dead. Swellings are rarely, if ever, found on the boles of younger trees. 4 BULLETIN 871, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Most important of all, however, is the loss of the present capital of timber through decay. The organisms causing decay in incense cedar are the pouch fungus (Polyporus volvatus), Polystictus abtetinus, Polystictus versicolor, Lenzites sepiaria, the red-belt Fomes (Fomes pinicola), some unknown fungi, and the incense-cedar dry-rot fungus (Polyporus amarus). The first five listed have never been found attacking living incense cedars. There are several forms of decay of triflmg importance in living trees, the causes of which have not been determined. Polyporus schweinitei has been found in one case. Standing out above all the other components of the total-loss factor is Polyporus amarus, causing dry-rot in the heartwood of the tree. Since the first utilization of incense cedar, the great destruc- tion wrought by this fungus has been a matter of extreme concern to lumbermen and foresters, as is shown by the constant references to the decay found throughout the literature wherever incense cedar is mentioned. The importance of dry-rot can not be overestimated, and it is on this point, together with the related mechanical injuries, that a study of the total-loss factor must be concentrated; the other considera- tions play a distinctly secondary réle. METHOD OF COLLECTING DATA. SELECTION OF AREAS. The first step in carrying on a study of the total-loss factors in any given species is the selection of proper areas for work. The areas selected, if the results are to serve for any but strictly local application, must be representative of the larger unit or region of which they form a part. It is self-evident then that areas located in the altitudinal or horizontal extremes of the range of the species under investigation must be avoided. The results of a study on such areas, while scientifically interesting, would be absolutely with- out practical value, since they would only answer for a limited unit on which the stand is abnormal and would fail to answer any ques- tions in regard to the major and more valuable portion of the range of the species. All indications tend to show that there is a considerable variation in the growth and development of incense cedar in different parts of its range. This has already been hinted at by Mitchell (17, p. 9, 13, 23, 24). The writer distinguishes three distinct ranges based on the development of the tree, and these are termed, for conve- nience, the optimum, intermediate, and extreme ranges. The best development is found in the southern Sierras, particularly on the Sierra, Sequoia, and Stanislaus National Forests, and the southern portion of the Eldorado National Forest, where the species is relatively rapid growing and thrifty. DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. 5 In the intermediate range, comprising the northern Sierras and the Coast Ranges, slower growth is the rule, and in the mixed stand where the cedar always occurs it plays a distinctly secondary part and might almost be classed as an understory tree. The poorest development is found in the extreme range, which includes stands at the horizontal and altitudinal extremes of the dis- tribution of the species. In such situations the trees are short, scrubby, and relatively of little value. With the above facts in mind, it was considered essential to choose areas representative of the intermediate and optimum range; the extreme range could be neglected, since it is of no practical im- portance. In the uneven-aged stands care had to be observed to select areas on which all age classes were represented, since if there is a relation between any of the total-loss factors and age of the tree, this would fail to appear if even-aged or nearly even-aged trees alone were con- sidered. ; Observation and a preliminary study by Memecke' showed con- clusively that the total-loss factor of supreme importance in the case of incense cedar is dry-rot caused by Polyporus amarus. Above all, then, it was essential to select stands in which dry-rot was com- mon, using discretion not to make the selections where loss from dry-rot was far above or below normal. Other total-loss factors, particularly mechanical injuries, could not be disregarded and were carefully considered. With a knowledge of the habits and condition of incense cedar throughout its range, several possible areas were tentatively chosen, a careful examination made in each case, and then the most suitable stands were decided upon. DESCRIPTION OF AREAS. The area selected to represent the intermediate range is at Sloat, Calif., within the boundaries of the Plumas National Forest, in the northern Sierra Nevada Mountains. In general, the region is one of heavy snowfall, with moderate winter temperatures and a long, dry, warm summer season. Lightning storms are not very frequent. The tract has a relative altitude of 4,300 to 4,700 feet. The fairly deep soil is a decomposed lava, normally dry and loose. The virgin uneven-aged stand, with a strong representation of mature and badly overmature trees of all species, is principally composed of western yellow pine (Pinus ponderosa), Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi), and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia). Where 1 The writer wishes to acknowledge his indebtedness to Dr. E. P. Meinecke, who first inaugurated astudy of incense cedar in 1912, the data obtained being included in this paper, for advice and direction through- out the course of alithe later werk. The essential methods followed in this study are outlined by him in | United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin 275 (16). 6 BULLETIN 871, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Douglas fir predominates, the two pines take second place, and vice versa. Third in order comes incense cedar, while sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) and white fir (Abies concolor) are but lightly represented. In the more dense stand on the lower slopes. and in the draws incense cedar forms a distinct understory, overtopped by all the other species; it is in such localities that the cedar shows every indication of slow growth and strong suppression. On the higher slopes and along the ridges, where the stand is more open, the cedar in individual cases often assumes a better position in the stand, and all the trees of this species, with few exceptions, appear to be more thrifty and to have made a more rapid growth. Badly suppressed trees are rare. The three areas selected to represent the optimum range are on the Stanislaus National Forest in the southern Sierra Nevada Moun- tains. One of these is at Strawberry, at an altitude of 5,300 to 5,600 feet; a second at Cow Creek, about 5 miles north and east of the first and at about the same elevation; and the third at Crockers Station, about 30 miles to the south and a little east of the Straw- berry area and at an altitude of about 4,500 feet. Since the areas are so nearly alike, a composite description will suffice. The soil is a rather deep, loose, decomposed granite, with many large granite bowlders. It is normally somewhat dry: The virgin uneven-aged overmature stand is rather open and is composed of sugar pine, western yellow pine, Jeffrey pine, white fir, incense cedar, and Douglas fir. Normally the pines predominate, with white fir or incense cedar next in order, Douglas fir being found sparingly only on the Crocker area. Incense cedar is represented by trees of all ages, and on the whole appears very thrifty. There are many individuals of large size, comparatively young. The cedar here is far from forming such a distinct understory as on the Sloat area, so the stand has made a much more rapid growth. NOTES ON INDIVIDUAL TREES. After the general notes were completed on an area, work was commenced on individual trees. Trees of all ages and conditions must be cut for a study of this kind, the primary purpose being to determine the age of the stand at which dry-rot becomes extensive. Observations on logging operations and the results of Meinecke’s preliminary study had shown that trees between 100 and 240 years old would yield the essential data on this point, and it was within these age limits that the investigation was concentrated, but the lower and higher ages were not neglected by any means. This resulted in clear cutting within the ages mentioned, except that those trees in which it was plainly apparent an accurate age count could not be made were left standing, while only a portion of the trees in the stand above and below these ages were cut. Thus, since a given eit DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. 7 tract was not clear cut, the representation of age, diameter breast high, and height classes obtained from the study must not be assumed as an exact expression of the actual conditions. Each tree was cut as closely as possible to a stump height of 18 inches, then limbed and bucked. The first or butt log was made 7 feet long and the others 14 feet long, the number of cuts depending, of course, on the length of the tree. The last cut was always made well in the top near the upper limit of the heartwood. The reason for bucking in 7 and 14 foot lengths was purely a practical one; any sound heartwood could then be utilized for 7-foot posts. The age count at stump height was taken as the age of the tree instead of adding a few years corresponding to the height of the stump, since the aim is to have all figures taken directly comparable. In this case with a minute constant variation no error can be introduced. Trees with wounds which destroy the center at stump height were avoided when possible, since in such cases an accurate age count could not be obtained; hence, trees of this kind are valueless for all further calculations in which the exact ageis afactor. Thesap width was obtained from an average of six or eight measurements. Three radii were measured to secure the average diameter. Separate measurements were made for the area covered by decay. The dates of occurrence and closure, when healed, were determined for all wounds present. Each log was split at least once in order to reveal completely all decay and internal wounds. Great care had to be observed in splitting the logs in order to be certain not to miss any decay, since the dry-rot occurs in pockets which may be separated in a linear direction by several feet of sound wood. This habit of ‘Tumping”’ also made it exceedingly difficult to trace the entrance of the decay in certain cases where the decay might be several feet removed from any possible point of entrance. It often became necessary to split log after log into many small pieces. In all, 1,075 trees were analyzed, 509 at Sloat, 266 at Strawberry, 100 at Cow Creek, and 200 at Crockers Station. | In all future references in this paper, for the sake of convenience the term ‘‘intermediate area’’ will be used to designate the area at Sloat, since it represents conditions in the intermediate range, and the term ‘‘optimum area’’ to designate the combined areas at Straw- berry, Cow Creek, and Crockers Station, since they represent condi- tions in the optimum range. The results of the field work follow. SECONDARY ROTS. Under this heading are grouped all decays the causes of which are unknown. Such decays are of various types and are almost invariably found immediately adjacent to open or healed-over wounds, particularly fire scars. Instances were encountered where 8 BULLETIN 871, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the decays were so badly eaten out by insects as to preclude any description of the rot. By reason of this, some light infections of Polyporus amarus may have been included under secondary rots, but such cases have undoubtedly been very rare. Of the 59 infections of secondary rots examined, only 9 resulted in culls of any importance, the highest percentage of unmerchant- able timber in relation to the total volume of the tree being 19.5 per cent. In all the remaining 50 trees the infections were negligible. These figures show secondary rots to be of only trivial importance in reducing the merchantable volume; hence, such decays are not further considered in this paper. THE DRY-ROT. The dry-rot of incense cedar, termed by eastern workers “ pecki- ness’’ or “‘pin-rot,’’ caused by the fungus Polyporus amarus Hedgc., was first described and figured by Harkness (7) but no cause was given. Next Von Schrenk (26, 67-77, pl. 2, 4, 5) described and figured the disease without stating the cause, and later (28) he mentions Polyporus libocedris, but without giving a description of type specimens. Hedgcock (10) first definitely assigned the cause of the dry-rot to Polyporus amarus sp. nov. and described the fungus. Later Meinecke (15, p. 35-37) presented a brief description of the sporophore, accompanied by a photograph of a typical fully devel- oped bell-shaped specimen, with the upper surface partially destroyed by insects. Murrill (24, p. 25) places the fungus in the genus Fomes, Harkness and Moore, Mayr, and Sargent have attributed the cause of the dry-rot to Daedalea vorax Hke., but Von Schrenk (26, p. 67-68) has shown this to be an error. Farlow and Seymour (5, p. 169) and Bryant (1, p. 15) have made the same mistake. The dry-rot is very widely distributed. It has been found at elevations varying from 650 to 6,480 feet as far north as Oakridge, Lane County, Oreg., west to the west of China Flat, Humboldt County, Calif., east to Shaver, Fresno County, Calif., and south to the north and east of Mentone, San Bernardino County, Calif. In fact, from all indications and hearsay evidence it is quite reasonable to presume that dry-rot is more or less prevalent in incense cedar throughout the range of the host (30, p. 150-152). THE SPOROPHORE. Since Hedgcock’s description was published, so many sporophores have been collected that the original description may be supplemented by the following, which is based on the examination of 25 sporophores, both fresh and old: Polyporus omarus.—Pileus soft and mushy when young, then rather tough and — cheesy, finally becoming hard and chalky when old, ungulate, bell shaped or occa- Bul. 871, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE | A FRESH SPOROPHORE OF POLYPORUS AMARUS ON A DOWN TREE. Photographed by Gravatt. PLATE II. Photographed by Meinecke. HOLE Cup. THE ORIGINAL SPOROPHORE ISSUED FROM THE KNOT HOLE AT THE TOP. Bul. 871, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. AN OLD SHOT- DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. 9 sionally subapplanate, often spuriously stipitate from knot holes, 4 to 15 by 5 to 22 by 5 to 20 cm., commonly 7 to 10 by 11 to 13 by 8 to 13 cm., occasionally abortive without hymenial layer, then assuming irregular shapes; surface pubescent when young, rimose and chalky when old, at first buff, then tan, and often blotched with brown when attacked by insects; margin obtuse, frequently having an outer band of darker brown, often slightly furrowed; context homogeneous,! lemon-yellow, later buff to tan, usually darker near the surface when old, slightly bitter to the taste, 4 to 14 cm. thick, commonly 9 to 11 cm., usually friable when dry but occasionally becoming partially horny, hard; tubes not stratified, lemon-yellow within, cylindric 0.2 to 3 cm. in length, shorter next the margin, mouths circular or slightly irregular, 1 to 3 to a millimeter, lemon or sulphur yellow during growth, turning brown when bruised or old, becoming lacerate; under surface of the hymenial layer sometimes exuding clear yellow drops of liquid, sweetish to taste; spores hyaline or slightly tinged with yellowish brown, smooth, ovoid (200) range 3 to 6.5 » by 4.5 to 9 w; standard size 3.5 to 4.5 uw by 6.5 to 7 uw, nucleated; cystidia none. The following table presents detailed measurements of 24 sporo- phores of Polyporus amarus: Taste I.—Sporophore measurements of the incense-cedar dry-rot fungus. cm. cm. cm. cm. cm. cm. cm. cm. cm. 3.8by 4.8by 8.3 8.0 by 13.0 by 13.0 9.5 by 17.0 by 13.3 4.2by 5.5 by 5.5 9.0by11.5by 9.9 9.8 by 13. 2 by 13.0 6.0by 7.3 by 8.6 9.0 by 10.0 by 10.0 10.3 by 14.9 by 14.8 6.8 by 11.2 by 12.3 9.0 by 10.5 by 11.0 11.4 by 20.7 by 19.8 7.5 by 11.4 by 9.0 9.0 by 13.3 by 12.0 12.0 by 16.4 by 10.8 7.5 by 17.0 by 8.1 9.1 by10.7by 8.5 12.1 by 21.2 by 12.5 7.6 by 11.4 by 9.5 9.1by12.4by 8.9 14.5 by 22.0 by 13.0 8.0 by 12.5 by 10.0 9.5 by 14.7 by 11.0 14.8 by 12.7 by 16.5 The sporophores, which last for one season only even at best, are not at all common, a statement which is supported by the number of years the dry-rot was known before the cause was definitely determined. During certain years sporophores seem to be very rare. They most commonly occur in the summer, and especially in the fall, but occasionally are found at other seasons. Observa- tions record two fresh ones in March in a rather mild climate at an altitude of about 3,000 feet in the Sierra Nevada. Another was found in a different locality in June. No sporophores have been found developing later than October, but occasional fresh ones may be carried over from a previous fall into the winter in a frozen condition. They are then destroyed in the spring. Typically the sporophores are produced on living trees but are, on occasions, found on dead fallen trees. (PI. I.) Seven such cases have been observed during the past five years. In five of these it was possible to determine the time which elapsed between the felling of the tree and the appearance of the sporophore. Three of the sporophores were produced 3 years, one 4 years, and one 27 years after the trees had been cut. As to how long the mycelium may 1 The substance of the sporophore not including the outer layers. 182803°—20—Bull. 8712 10 BULLETIN 871, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. persist in a dead fallen tree it is impossible to state, but the last figure given indicates a rather extended period in some cases. These cases refute the statements of Harkness (7) and Von Schrenk (26, p. 75) that the mycelium does not grow after the death of the tree. On dead down trees the sporophores were never half bell shaped or ungulate, but were more typically near the subapplanate type. Since so few cases of sporophores on dead fallen trees have been recorded during a rather extended period, it is safe to assume that infected fallen trunks are of slight importance from the standpoint of forest sanitation in infecting living trees through the production of sporophores. Although sporophores are rather rare, an accurate indication of the place formerly occupied by a sporophore is supplied by the shot-hole cup (Pl. II), so termed and described by Meinecke (15, p- 23, 46). These shot-hole cups appear as cup-shaped depressions below a knot, the depression being riddled with numerous fine holes. At first they have the color of the freshly opened bark of the tree, but later become weathered and gray with age. They are formed in the followmg manner: The soft fleshly or cheesy sporophores issuing through knots are usually soon eaten by squirrels and micro- lepidopterous larve. Some of these larve then bore into the bark of the tree, where they are sought after by woodpeckers, which chop out a cup-shaped depression in the bark, corresponding to the place formerly occupied by the sporophores. This depression is riddled with what appear to be numerous fine shot holes, the burrows of the insect larve. The presence of a shot-hole cup is just as reliable an index of dry- rot in a tree as is a sporophore. However, the same diagnostic values in relation to the age of the fungus plant im the tree, and consequently the extent of the resulting decay, must not be attached alike to sporophores and fresh and old shot-hole cups. An old, gray, weathered shot-hole cup would indicate the most extensive serious decay, while a fresh shot-hole cup, in turn, would indicate more extensive decay than a sporophore, since it is evident that more time must elapse before a shot-hole cup is formed than a sporo- phore and the longer the fungus plant lives in the heartwood the greater the amount of decay resulting. The number of sporophores occurring on a standing living tree is typically one. Von Schrenk (27, p. 205) gives the number as usually one, but it must be remembered that at this time no descrip- tion of Polyporus amarus had appeared, so it can not be stated definitely that Von Schrenk was referring to this fungus. However, Meinecke (15, p. 46, pl. 12) gives the number as typically one. Some- times two have been found. As many as five shot-hole cups have been observed on a single living tree, but an examination of their con- DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. 11 dition invariably showed that they had been developed successively, or at least not more than two in the same year. But on dead down trees the above rule does not hold. Of the seven known occurrences (see p. 9) several trees had two or more fresh sporophores. During the course of the actual work of dissecting the trees exact data were secured on three sporophores and 17 shot-hole cups dis- tributed on 15 trees, as follows: Two abortive sporophores on separate trees, one normal sporophore and two shot-hole cups on the same tree, 10 shot-hole cups on separate trees, 2 shot-hole cups on the same tree, and 3 shot-hole cups on the same tree. That there might be a definite orientation of the sporophores in standing living trees was suggested by the work with Trametes pina of Moller (18), in which he found 89.4 per cent of the sporophores on the westerly side of the trees, attributing this to the facts that the pre- vailing winds were from the west, the trees were most strongly struck by rain on the west side, and therefore the branch stubs (a very com- mon point of infection) were more moist on that side. Furthermore, he states that the sporophores appear at the same spot at which the infection commences. Weir and Hubert (32, p. 30), working with the Indian-paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium) on western hem- lock (T'suga heterophylla), found that most of the sporophores had a northwest to north-northeast orientation. However, the sporo- phores and shot-hole cups of Polyporus amarus are rather equally distributed to all points of the compass, showing no definite relation to any particular direction, and in not a single case was the sporophore developed at the same point at which the infection apparently com- menced. These sporophores and shot-hole cups occurred on trees ranging from 24.2 to 44.2 inches diameter breast high. The youngest tree which bore a shot-hole cup was 193 years old at stump height (1.5 feet), the next youngest was 221 years of age (28 years older), and the oldest, 379 years. Between the ages of 193 and 379 years the trees with sporophores or shot-hole cups were rather equally dis- tributed. These figures are not given for the purpose of establishing a diameter breast high or age range for trees in which Polyporus amarus fruits; the number of trees examined forms entirely too meager a basis. Sporophore formation did not seem to be in any way related to the width of the sapwood, since the sapwood in the trees which had formed sporophores varied from comparatively narrow in some cases to rather wide in others. The heights at which the sporophores and shot-hole cups were found varied from 9.6 feet to 48.7 feet from the ground level, but thirteen of them occurred between 15 and 30 feet and only two at a greater height than the latter figure. Sporophores or shot-hole cups 12 BULLETIN 871, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. always indicate that there is well-developed dry-rot in the heartwood. In such infections it is generally possible to distinguish three stages in the affected heartwood, with upper and lower limits. These stages for convenience are foeeed total extent, unmerchantable extent, and maximum concentration. “Total extent” is expressed by giving the height in feet in relation to the ground level of the lowest and highest point in the bole of the tree invaded by the fungus without regard to radial extent. By ‘‘unmerchantable extent”’ is meant the portion of the bole rendered valueless for lumber by the dry-rot, while ‘maximum concentration” covers that portion of the bole in which the decay seems to be at its worst. The upper and lower limits of all three of these stages may at times coincide, but especially that of the unmerchantable extent and maximum concentration. It is self-evident that these 2E: two mentioned can never exceed the total extent. The sporophores and shot-hole cups invariably appeared between the upper and lower limits of the maximum concentration. The lower limits varied from 3 to 25 feet below the sporophores or shot- hole cups, and the upper limits from 4 to 45 feet above them. In every case except one the lower limit of the unmerchantable extent was at 0. In other words the bole of every tree was unmerchantable, at least from the ground level to the sporophore or shot-hole cup. In the one exception the unmerchantable extent did not commence until 8.2 feet from the ground level. This was due to the presence of a large open fire scar extending from 0 to 10.8 feet. The fungus distinctly avoids the dried-out wood around open wounds, which habit will be fully discussed laterin thispaper. The upper limits of the unmerchant- able extent were variable. In the two abortive sporophores the un- merchantable portion extended for 10 and 24 feet, respectively, above the sporophores, while the extent above the shot-hole cups was 23 and 53 feet. The total extent in every tree with sporophores except one (see above, under unmerchantable extent) reached from the sporophore or shot-hole cup to the ground level, but the upper extent was variable, being for the two sporophores 24 and 25 feet, respectively, and for the shot-hole cups ranging from 24 to 53 feet. From the figures availabie it is impossible to make an exact state- ment as to the range of the total extent, unmerchantable extent, and maximum concentration of the dry-rot in trees with sporophores or shot-hole cups, except that it may be safely assumed not only from the figures at hand but from observations on jogging areas that the bole of a tree will always be unmerchantable from the ground level to a variable height above a sporophore or shot-hole cup. But it must be remembered that an old shot-hole cup indicates a greater development for the fungus plant in the tree than does the first DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. ug appearance of a sporophore or fresh shot-hole cup, and one should be influenced accordingly in judging the condition of a standing tree. THE DECAY. The dry-rot, described and pictured by Harkness (7), Von Schrenk (26, p. 68, pl. 2), and Meinecke (15, p. 46, pl. 12), is a very characteris- tic decay, most closely resembling the so-called peckiness of the eastern cypress (Taxodium distichum). Von Schrenk (26, p. 52-53) points to this analogy, even suggesting that the two diseases may be caused by the same fungus, but Long (12) has disproved this theory. The former investigator (29, p. 30) also calls attention to the macro- scopical similarity between this dry-rot and the brown-rot of redwood. Typically, the decay consists of vertically elongated pockets, varying in length from one-half inch to about a foot, which are filled with a brown friable mass, and the line of demarcation between the sound and decayed wood is very sharp. In some of these pockets small cobweblike or feltlike masses of white mycelium occur. The pockets are separated from each other by what appears to be sound wood, although in some cases streaks of straw-colored or brownish wood may extend vertically between two pockets. This is especially noticeable between young pockets. When immature the decay is faintly yellowish brown, soft and somewhat moist, and not broken up in the pockets. At times the mature pockets may be several fect long and rather broad; this type always occurs in connection with healed-over wounds, particularly healed fire scars in the butt of the tree. The decay has never been found in living sapwood and is usually confined to the heartwood of the trunk, but in very badly decayed trees the dry-rot sometimes extends into the heartwood of the larger limbs. In the aggregate, the immature decay or advance rot extends but a short distance vertically in advance of the typical decay, and a dis- tance of 2 feet beyond the last visible evidence of decay to the average eye will usually exclude all immature decay. This immature decay is very difficult te detect, occurring as it does in pockets, with the color in the very earliest stages differing but slightly, if at all, from the normal wood. An occasional pocket may occur several feet in advance of the main body of decay, and while the wood of the pocket itself is of course ereatly weakened, the intervening wood is probably very little affected, since the fungus hyphe are very sparingly found between pockets of decay. In all, 566 trees containing typical dry-rot were dissected. Typical dry-rot with small masses of white mycelium in some of the pockets is shown in Plate III. 14 BULLETIN 871, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. STRUCTURE OF THE DISEASED WOOD. The structure of the decayed wood in mature pockets was found to be practically as described by Von Schrenk (26, p. 70-71). In the very early stages of decay (immature pockets), cracks in the cell walls such as he describes for old pockets, which were most common in the pits, were rather rare. It was also found that cracks often started from the holes in the cell walls made by the hyphe of the fungus. The color of the decayed wood varies from light to dark brown, de- pending on the state of decay. In some of the decayed wood examined the bordered pits gave much the same appearance as is often presented by starch grains in a plant cell which have been partially corroded by diastase. Further examinations showed this condition of the bordered pits to exist in badly decayed wood, in slightly decayed wood, in the straw-colored _wood between the pockets, and in sound wood. Immediately upon treatment with xylol, and more slowly with oil of turpentine, the pits resumed their normal smooth appearance; consequently, the con- dition is the result of a deposit on the membrane of the pits, but as to the nature of the substance deposited or the cause of its deposition the writer is unable to give any information. At least, the fact that the deposit was found on the pits in sound wood proves that it is in no way a result of the action of the fungus. Badly decayed wood, slightly decayed wood, straw-colored and brownish colored wood between the pockets, and sound wood were treated with various reagents, the results in each case being practi- cally identical. Anilin sulphate colored the cell walls a brilliant yellow. A cherry to violet-red stain was produced by treatment with phloroglucin and hydrochloric acid. Chloriodid of zine and alcoholic iodin with sulphuric acid both stained the walls a yellowish brown color. After treatment for 12 hours with Javelle water, the wood turned a yellowish brown upon the application of chloriodid of zinc, and a brilliant yellow with the addition of anilin sulphate. The above tests demonstrate that the lignin compounds in the cell walls are not changed, in so far as our present knowledge of the nature of so-called lignin enables us to judge. Therefore, it seems probable that the fungus extracts from the cell walls either the cellulose or some other compound yet unknown. THE MYCELIUM. Hyphe were very rare in the pockets of badly decayed wood or in the apparently sound wood immediately surrounding these. Proof of their having been quite commonly present, however, was afforded by the tiny holes in the cell walls of the decayed wood through which the hyphe had passed. In the slightly decayed wood and the wood DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. 15 immediately surrounding it hyphz were found abundantly. They bore through the cell walls in all directions, showing no preference for the bordered pits and apparently making no distinction between spring and summer wood. They were rarely found in the medullary rays. Harkness (7) states that ‘‘the mycelium does not leave behind the slightest microscopical trace of its presence in the sound wood when passing from pocket to pocket.”’ In some of the brownish and straw- colored streaks of wood which extended vertically from pocket to pocket of immature decay, hyphz were found sparingly. These usually followed the lumen of a tracheid, but sometimes passed through the wall into the lumen of the adjacent tracheid. The writer was unable to follow the entire course of the hyphe in any case from pocket to pocket and therefore could not verify Von Schrenk’s statement (26, p. 73) that ‘“‘between the rotted areas the hyphe usually extend directly from hole to hole.”’ In some cases no hyphe were encountered in the discolored streaks between the young pockets, but this was probably due to the failure to make sections at the proper place. Hyphz were commonly present in the apparently sound wood surrounding young pockets to a distance of 4 mm. (0.157 inch), and sparingly from that point to 8 mm. (0.314 inch) in a horizontal direction. Owing to lack of proper material it was possible to make only a limited study of the vertical distribution of the hyphe. In the case of the last (highest) pocket in a diseased tree the hyphe were abundant to a distance of 1.5 cm. (0.6 inch) above the pocket, and sparingly from that point on to 7.8 cm. (8.07 inch), where they ended. Observation leads to the inference that the hyphe are able to pass for some distance through the sound wood without causing the slightest microscopical change in the color or structure other than an occasional hole in a cell wall as the hypha passes from the lumen of one tracheid to that of another. In certain cases isolated pockets of decay have been found at a maximum distance of approximately 4.3 meters (14.3 feet) from the nearest pocket of decay, yet a very careful analysis showed that there was only one possible means of entrance for the fungus into the tree, and consequently the hyphe must have traversed this distance through the sound wood before causing another pocket of decay. As to why the fungus decays only the wood in localized pockets which are separated by areas of practically sound wood it is im- possible to state, since nothing is known of the influence of a possible variation of the chemical and physical properties of the wood on the fungus. Orit may be that the answer to the question lies in another direction; that is, the hyphe in their work of destruction after a | | 16 BULLETIN 871, U. S$. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. certain time produce conditions unfavorable for their further develop- ment and are forced to seek another field. In the wood the hyphe are hyaline, varying in diameter from 0.8 to 3.34 but being most commonly 0.8 to 1.7 », branching and rebranching into the finest threads, anastomosing, sparsely septate, rarely constricted at the septa, and sometimes haying clamp connec- tions. They never become so abundant as to fill the tracheids completely. Usually the hyphe pass from the lumen of one tracheid into that of an adjoining tracheid and then extend up or down the lumen, but occasionally a single hypha may cross several tracheids in a radial or tangential direction without extending up or down their lumens or giving off any branches. The holes in the walls of the tracheids made by the hyphe are very small, particularly so since the hyphe are often sharply constricted when passing through the walls. Rarely the hyphe are irregular in shape. The hyphze composing the cobweblike and feltlike masses of mycelium in the badly decayed wood (see p. 13) are usually hyaline, but sometimes have granular contents. They vary in diam- eter from 0.8 to 40 yw, are richly branched, more commonly septate than the hyphe found in the wood cells, and sometimes constricted at the septa. No clamp connections were found. They frequently anastomose. They were often very irregular in shape, and globose or spindle-shaped swellings were frequent. OTHER FORMS OF DECAY. Besides the typical decay already described, two other very characteristic forms were found. One of these is characterized by small spots or pockets of brown decayed wood varying in width from 0.5 to 2 mm. (0.02 to 0.08 inch) and in length from 1 to 4 mm. (0.04 to 0.16 inch), with the long axis running vertically in the wood. In some cases larger decayed spots are formed by the joining of two or more smaller ones. The tiny decayed spots are separated by apparently sound wood. As for the structure of the decayed wood and its reactions with various reagents, these agree exactly with the typical form of dry-rot (see p. 14), and this decay is very probably an abnormal form of the typical decay caused by Polyporus amarus. The other form of decay consists of very small white spots (measure- ments as given above) in which the wood has been reduced to cellulose, separated by apparently sound wood. The structure of the decayed wood is practically as described by Hartig (8, p. 53-54; 9, p. 36-37) for decay caused by the ring-scale fungus (7’rametes pint), and the rot under consideration is undoubtedly caused by this fungus, since, through the courtesy of Dr. James R. Weir, the writer has been privileged to examine sporophores of Trametes pini with the typical PLATE III. Bul. 871, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. ROT IN INCENSE CEDAR CAUSED BY POLYPORUS AMARUS. TYPICAL DrRyY- Photographed by Meinecke. DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. 17 decay collected on incense cedar in Oregon. As far as the writer can ascertain, this is the only collection of its kind now known. Neither of these two decays affects the living sapwood. The mycelium of both is the same and differs from the mycelium of typical dry-rot. Studies were made where these two decays were distinct, where they graded into one another, and where they graded into the typical dry-rot. The hyphze vary from hyaline to dark brown in color, with a diameter ranging from 0.8 to 6.7 u but most commonly 3 uw. The heavier brown hyphz often branch profusely, the branches becoming smailer and lighter in color. The smallest ones are usually hyaline, and so are some of the larger hyphe. In some instances the smaller hyphze are merely continuations of the heavier strands. The hyphe are sparsely septate, often constricted at the septa and without clamp connections. They bore through the cell walls in all directions, but seemingly more often through the tangential walls. No preference is shown for the bordered pits. They are characteristically.sharply constricted when passing through the walls of the tracheids and have marked attachment organs. The hyphe did not enlarge in the secondary lamellze when boring through the wall, as is shown by Hartig (8, 9) for Trametes pini. Quite typi- _ cally, a single strand may pass tangentially through as many as 20 or 30 tracheids, often completely traversing an annual ring, without sending any side branches into the lumens. This mycelium appears to agree closely with that described and figured by Von Schrenk (26, pp. 73-74, pls. 4-5), but which he assumed to be secondary and in no way connected with the dry-rot. Often the hyphe seem to pierce a cell wall without developing in the lumen of the tracheid entered, a condition recorded by Hartig (8, p. 46) for Trametes pint. However, in so many cases unattached fragments of hyphze were found in tracheids through the walls of which the hyphez had pene- trated without developing in the lumen that most probably the hyphe did develop but were broken off in sectioning. In all, 80 trees which contained one or both of these decays were dissected. The Trametes pina decay occurred alone in 61 of these, the dry-rot in small pockets in 11, and both forms in 8 trees. In 28 of the 61 trees having the Trametes pini decay, this was either inter- mingled, graded into, or very close to pockets of typical decay without there being any line of demarcation between the two. In certain cases the two decays could be absolutely traced to the same source of infection. Tree No. 40 on the intermediate area forms an excellent example. This tree had two small open fire scars in the butt just at ground level. There was a light infection of typical pockets of dry-rot extending from ground level to a height of 7.3 feet. At this point Trametes pini decay appeared without any line of demarcation and 182803°—20—Bull. 8718 | 18 BULLETIN 871, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. extended to 29.4 feet, and then the typical pockets of dry-rot reap- peared, which ultimately ended at a height of 41.4 feet. The only possible means of entrance for the two forms of decay were the small open fire scars at the ground level. A similar condition is presented in tree No. 7 on the intermediate area. This tree had a large open fire scar extending from the ground level to a height of 8 feet. Typical dry-rot entering through this open wound began at 6 feet, extending to 9.7 feet, where it merged into Trametes pvni decay, which then gave place to the typical dry-rot at 14.7 feet, and the latter finally ended at a height of 20.7 feet. No line of demarcation could be distinguished between the two decays, and the point of entrance of the infection was at the open fire scar. Other examples could be cited, but these seem sufficient. In the eleven trees in which the dry-rot in small pockets occurred it was either very close to or intermingled with typical dry-rot in six, - and in four of these six trees both forms of decay could be exactly traced to a common point of entrance. There were no apparent lines of demarcation in any instance between the two forms of decay. In tree No. 392 in the intermediate range typical pockets of dry-rot extended from ground level to 28.7 feet. At this point the typical decay changed to the small pockets, and this form occupied the heartwood to 36.9 feet, where the decay stopped altogether. Finally let us consider the eight trees in which both the dry-rot in small pockets and the Trametes puni decay were found. In two of the trees the two decays occurred in different parts of the bole. In two trees the decays were very close together, while in four trees the two were accompanied by pockets of typical dry-rot. Tree No. 296 on the intermediate area offers an excellent illustration of this last condition. In this tree the dry-rot in small pockets, the Trametes pina decay, and typical pockets of dry-rot were intermingled, and transi- tion stages between the three forms were apparent from ground level to a height of 30.3 feet. In four of the eight infected trees it was possible to trace the entrance of both decays to the same point, healed fire scars. ‘There were no lines of demarcation separating the various decays. The interesting point in connection with the two forms of dry-rot and the decay caused by Trametes pini is that they occurred in the same substrata, either merging into one another or actually inter- mingling without any well-defined lines between them. That such lines of demarcation between different decays are the general rule has long been accepted and has been most recently expressed again by Weir (81). Hence, it is particularly interesting to find two exactly opposite types of decay intermingling so freely. It is quite probable, however, that such occurrences in the future will come to be recognized as quite common. The writer has already found DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. J 19 decays caused by Trametes pint and by Fomes laricis (the chalky quinine fungus) intermingled in the wood of living Douglas firs on several occasions, while down logs in the woods are often mycological gardens of wood-destroying fungi with the decays completely intermingled. Both the dry-rot in small pockets and the Trametes puna decay are nearly always found around decayed knots or following along healed wounds, mainly those caused by fire. Where the infections occur around knots the decay is almost invariably confined to the imme- diate neighborhood of the knot, resultmg im little or no loss in the merchantable contents of the tree. Where any appreciable quantity of wood was rendered unmerchantable, the decays were almost invariably in intimate connection with healed-over wounds caused by fire, frost, or lightning, particularly the first, throughout their extent. Exceptions to this rule did occur. In one tree, for example, the Trametes pint decay extended for a distance of 23.5 feet in the center of the tree above an open fire sear without being in connection with any other wound. But the fire scar was very large, extending deeply into the tree and undoubtedly had a far-reaching influence on conditions in the heartwood. In another tree (tree No. 40 on the intermediate area; see p. 17) this same decay extended for 22.1 feet in between two areas of typical dry-rot without following along any wound. The dry-rot in small pockets was found in one instance to extend for a distance of 8.2 feet, not in connection with a wound but merely as an extension of typical dry-rot. This case has already been cited (tree No. 392 on the intermediate area; see p. 18). The above fact suggests that the dry-rot in small pockets may be the result of the influence on the dry-rot fungus of changed condi- tions in the heartwood, either physical, chemical, or both, induced by the presence of wounds or knots. In further support of this hypothesis, it is almost invariably the rule wherever typical dry-rot is found along healed fire scars in the butt of a tree that stead of the pockets of normal size, one or more long continuous pockets of the dry-rot follow immediately along the scar throughout its length and invariably run cut close to the end of the scar. A maximum length of 10 feet has been attained. Such pockets have never been found except in connection with wounds. This seems to prove that variations in the typical form of dry-rot may be induced by certain types of wounds in the tree. The fact that the Trametes pint decay is usually found in the immediate vicinity of knots or healed-over wounds may be taken to indicate that incense cedar is an unsuitable host for Trametes pint and that the organism can rarely progress much beyond the point of infection. ‘This would also explain the rare production of sporo- phores and the fact that in the only known collection, to cite Weir’s 20 BULLETIN 871, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. words in a letter to the writer, ‘‘The sporophores are of the small depauperate type which I find occasionally on trees at high eleva- tions or on old punk knots from which the original sporephores have fallen and are reviving.” However, for the purposes of this paper these decays may all be treated as one and the same, since the dry-rot in small pockets and the Trametes pint decay are of negligible importance both in the number of infections and amount of cull resultmg. Hence, except in the data on the rate of spread of the dry-rot, they are included in all subsequent pages with the typical decay of Polyporus amarus. No relation was found between the width of the sapwood and the extent of decay; trees with wide and narrow sapwood seem to be equally affected with the dry-rot. RAPIDITY OF SPREAD OF THE DRY-ROT. Although the rapidity of the spread of decay caused by heartwood- inhabiting fungi in standing trees has always been of interest, very little work has been done on this line. MHartig (9, p. 115-116), mentions this briefly in relation to the rot caused by Polyporus (Fomes) igniarius in oak. More recently Mitinch (23) has published some interesting results from studies of the same fungus and host, showing a wide variation of 3.8 to 37.5 cm. (0.12 to 1.23 feet) in the yearly vertical progress of the decay, with an average of 5 to 9 cm. (0.16 to 0.30 of a foot). No tangible difference was found between the upward and downward rate of spread from the point of infection. Miinch’s results are based on an analysis of only 15 cases, and their value is further reduced by the fact that in determining the age of the infection which entered a tree through an open wound, he assumed that infection must have occurred the year the wound was made, or at least a very few years subsequently, even though the wound was still open at the time of analysis. True enough, as shown by Miinch (23), Fomes igniarius attacks not only the heart- wood but the sapwood of many trees and kills the cambium, causing cankers with subsequent callusing, and by counting the number of annual rings in the callus at the point of infection the age of the decay can be determined, provided a canker was formed the year of infection; but this is not uniformly the case, to judge from Miinch’s (23, p. 519) own statement that ‘‘ Fomes igniartus produces exceed- ingly variable cankers. Sometimes small points of infection which are scarcely noticeable and are soon healed perfectly. . .” In securing the figures on the yearly rate of spread of the dry-rot, only those infections were considered the entrance of which could be absolutely traced, without any other possibilities, to a healed scar for which it was possible to determine the exact dates of occurrence and closure. For example, an infection is found in a DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. I: tree which was cut in 1915. The fungus entered through a healed fire scar which occurred in 1781 and was completely closed by callus- ing in 1816. By subtracting 1781 and then 1816 from 1915 it is seen that the fungus has been in the heartwood a minimum of 99 and a maximum of 134 years. During this period resulting decay has progressed a vertical distance of 34.2 feet in the bole, or a yearly average of 0.25 to 0.34 of a foot. The radial extent of the decay is disregarded, since this is of little importance from a practical view- point. Any serious infection usually extends more or less through- out the heartwood in a radial direction. Of course, the above method does not give a single figure for the yearly average progress of the dry-rot, but it does give the exact minimum and maximum limits between which the true figure lies. In all 99 infections were possible of analysis by this method. The great majority of these commenced at ground level, entering through fire scars and extending up the bole. Ten of the infections were traced to wounds high enough up on the trunk, however, to make possible a comparison of the upward and downward progress of the dry-rot. This meager basis indicated that the dry-rot, in the main, progresses more rapidly downward than upward, although in individual cases this relation may be reversed. The yearly progress of the decay is exceedingly variable. At one extreme there is a tree in which the fungus had been vegetating be- tween 124 and 135 years, but the resulting dry-rot had only attained a length of 0.4 of a foot, or a minimum average yearly progress of 0.002 and a maximum of 0.003 of a foot. The tree was 147 years old. At the other extreme, the fungus in from 10 to 58 years caused decay extending over 30.9 feet of the bole of another tree, that is,a minimum average progress of 0.53 of a foot a year and a maximum of 3.09 feet. This tree was 240 years old. Again, in a 107-year-old tree the fungus caused a decay with a minimum average progress of 0.87 of a foot and a maximum of 1.90 feet a year, extending a total of 40 feet vertically. In the main, however, the minimum prog- ress of the dry-rot varied from 0.01 to 0.20 of a foot a year, while the maximum ranged from 0.01 to 0.35 of a foot. Higher yearly rates - than the upper limits stated were not uncommon, but lower rates than 0.01 of a foot were rare. These figures clearly demonstrate the slow progress of the dry-rot fungus in causing decay. Generally it required from 50 to 300 years to bring about any far-reaching dry-rot. In the heartwood of cer- tain individuals the fungus had vegetated for decades, the resulting decay only extending 1 or 2 feet from the point of infection. A similar condition was found by Minch (loc. cit.) for Polyporus (Fomes) igniarius attacking oak. As to why the development of the dry-rot fungus in certain cases is so inhibited the writer is unable to present 292 BULLETIN 871, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. any definite information, but certainly the chemical and physical condition of the substratum must have a strong bearing on this phenomenon. Hartig (9, pp. 115-116) believes in the case of Poly- porus (Fomes) igniarius that the width of the annual rings of the wood is not without influence on the rapidity of decay. Minch (20, p. 156) states that the more rapidly grown coniferous wood, conse- quently that with the broader annual rings, is more speedily decayed by Fomes annosus than slower grown wood with narrower rings, even extending this to broad and narrow rings in the same individual. Later (22, p. 403-406), he shows that suppressed individuals of beech artificially infected with Stereum purpureum. 8. rugosum, Polyporus (Fomes) igniarius, and P. (F.) fomentarius were more seriously de- cayed than dominant thrifty trees, yet it is just such suppressed trees which must have the narrowest annual rings. Finally (23, p. 521), the same investigator finds no relation whatsoever between the breadth of the annual rings and the rapidity of decay in the wood of oak attacked by Polyporus (Homes) igniarius. PURPLE COLORATION, Accompanying the dry-rot is a purplish coloration of the heartwood which is very characteristic. ‘The writer does not find this mentioned in any description of the dry-rot so far available, but it is well known to the lumberman. ‘This color varies from a light salmon-red or pink to a pronounced purplish red in trees with heavy decay, where it may stand out strongly in cross section as a ring surrounding the decayed area or present a mottled appearance over the entire heartwood. Where the coloration is faint it is sometimes impossible to detect it in cross section, but if the tree is split longitudinally the color is readily apparent, although it often fades out entirely after several days’ exposure to light and air. It usually commences at ground level and extends upward, but may start at varying heights. Microscopical studies of this colored wood did not show any devia- tion from sound wood. No hyphe were found except at points im- mediately adjacent to pockets of dry-rot. No chemical or physical examination was possible. In all, 634 trees were dissected in which the purple coloration was present. The notes from Cow Creek did not include data on this coloration. The youngest tree in which the coloration was present had an age of 72 years, while the youngest tree cut was 52 years old. No attempt can be made to set a minimum age limit for trees with purple coloration, since not many trees were cut below the age of 70 years. Of the 634 trees under consideration, the purple was present in 84 in which no dry-rot was found. In these the coloration, varying through all shades from a very faint salmon pink to pronounced red- eee ae ee es ae ee ee eee ee — a DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. 23 dish purple, usually began at the ground level, extending up the heart- wood to a minimum height of 2.6 feet and a maximum height of 31.4 feet. Of these trees 39 had open or healed-over wounds, mainly caused by fire, offering or having offered a means of access for the dry-rot, but the remaining 45 were without indications of wounds, the only possible mode of entrance for the decay being through branch stubs. It would be highly improbable that all of these trees could be infected by the dry-rot fungus without showing any indica- tions of decay, so the conclusion is obvious that purple coloration may exist unaccompanied by Polyporus amarus. In all, 510 trees with typical dry-rot alone or in conjunction with secondary decay were worked up at Sloat, Strawberry, and Crockers Station. Notes on 25 of these were incomplete so far as purple coloration is concerned, so they drop out of consideration. All but 17 of the remaining 485 had purple coloration accompanying the decay. In certain cases the coloration did not extend over the entire decayed area, running out before the decay ended, or else isolated pockets of dry-rot were found outside the area of coloration. In the 17 cases of dry-rot unaccompanied by any coloration, the decay as a rule was negligible. In four of these trees, however, there was a loss in volume caused by the dry-rot of 7.1, 21.3, 39, and 67 per cent, respectively, without any coloration being visible, indicating that serious decay can exist apart from the purple coloration. Of the 59 infections of the Trametes pint decay, 4 became impos- sible of consideration because of incomplete notes. Of the remaining 55, 12 were unaccompanied by purple coloration, but all of these except two were very superficial infections. Even in these two the amount of cull was very small. This decay had already been shown almost invariably to follow wounds in the trees; hence, it becomes quite reasonable to presume that the absence of purple coloration was brought about in most instances by the change in the physical or chemical condition of the heartwood induced by the influence of the wounds. Where the typical decay and the Trametes pint decay were inter- mingled the coloration was almost invariably present, although not always throughout the entire infected wood. This was also the case with the brown dotlike pockets. However, these data should not be judged as more valuable than indications, since the number of cases available was relatively few. Secondary rots comprised 43 infections; only 12 of these were in conjunction with purple coloration. The 31 without coloration only yielded one cull case; the amount of unmerchantable volume was very small, and furthermore these secondary rots were almost invari- ably in connection with healed or open wounds. 24 BULLETIN 871, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Hence, on account of the failure to find any microscopical evidence of fungous action in purple wood, the presence of dry-rot outside the area of purple coloration in certain trees, the frequent occurrence of extensive coloration in trees free from dry-rot, combined with the usual presence of the purple coloration in wood badly enough decayed by Polyporus amarus to cause a noticeable reduction in the merchant- able contents of the individual tree, while it may be more often absent in light infections, the conclusion appears obvious that purple colora- tion is not a result of the action of the fungus, but, on the contrary, if it bears any relation whatever to the dry-rot, is merely a condition of the heartwood inducing favorable development of the vegetating hyphe. The fact that the Trametes pini decay is more often unac- companied by the coloration is offset by such infections usually being superficial and following wounds which probably exert a profound influence on the heartwood. No relation was found between the purple coloration and the width of the sapwood. Trees with sap- wood varying from very narrow to very broad alike had the colora- tion in the heartwood. RELATION OF DRY-ROT TO AGE AND CONDITION OF THE TREE. From previous hints in the literature (22, p. 403-406; 23, p. 520; 16, p. 18-19, footnotes), Meinecke’s preliminary study on incense cedar and his later work on white fir (16), it was reasonable to assume that some relation should exist between dry-rot and the age and condition of the tree; i. e., the degree of dominance and suppression. Minch (22, p. 405), working with artificially infected red beech, found suppressed trees more susceptible to decay by Polyporus (Fomes) igniarius, P. (F.) fomentarius, Stereum rugosum, and S. pur- pureum than thrifty, dominant ones and explains this by the theory that the wood of suppressed trees contains a greater amount of air, consequently more oxygen, than thrifty dominants. In previous experiments the same investigator (19, 20, 21) had brought out the strongly favorable influence of oxygen in the host tissues on the development of wood-inhabiting fungi. Meinecke (16, p. 48) recog- nizes three periods in the life of white fir in its relation to the stringy brown-rot caused by the Indian-paint fungus (Hchinodontium tinc- torium): (1) The age of infection, at which ‘‘the infection rarely leads to more than negligible decay unless the tree is handicapped by quite unusually severe conditions, such as very large old wounds;” (2) the critical age, which ‘‘marks the point after which a combination of pronounced suppression and heavy wounding generally results in distinct decay;’”’ and (3) the age of decline, ‘‘when even dominant (that is, thrifty) trees become subject to extensive and intensive decay.’”’ The relation between decay and suppression is brought out. —— ee DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. 25 The crown class, as determined by observation of the standing tree, expresses the past history, more or less strongly modified by conditions prevailing through a varying number of years previous to the time of observation; it may not give the real past history of the tree. ‘‘Dominance” and “suppression”’ are really incorrect terms, used for lack of better ones. They are based on the relation of the height of one tree species to others in the same stand. In this case height alone would be misleading. For example, consider a more or less second-story species in a mixed stand, in which category incense cedar falls. Practically all the trees would be included in the inter- mediate or suppressed classes when related to other species in the stand, thus entirely obscuring the true relation of the individuals within the second-story species. On the other hand, it is an exceed- ingly difficult undertaking, often leading to grave error, to attempt classification by the observation of individuals in a mixed stand with relation to other individuals of the same species. For our purposes we can not consider other tree species, but must compare individual trees with others of the same species. But here, also, height alone is not the deciding factor. Instead of giving dominance and suppression in the current meaning, these terms are expressed by the relation of the actual volume of the tree to the average volume of trees of the same age. ‘Therefore, it was necessary to “curve” data collected on a number of trees to secure average volumes by age. Only trees of normal form with exact ages and free ‘(rom severe wounds, malformations, and other seriously injurious factors which would interfere with the correct computation of the volume were used. Curves were constructed for the intermediate area and for the optimum area, since it was apparent that the volumes by ages would be much higher for the last-named areas than for the first, which fact was strongly brought out by the result- ng curves. These curves are presented in figure 1, the higher curve pased on 461 trees representing the optimum area and the lower yased on 340 trees, the intermediate area. The National Forests on which these areas were located are also indicated. Thence, the trecs or the intermediate area and for the optimum area were rated in egard to their respective curves, those with a volume higher than the uverage given by the curve for the same age being classed as dominant und those with a lower volume as suppressed. At first, an inter- nediate group was selected by designating an arbitrary volume above ind below the average volume, trees between these limits being lassed as intermediate. However, it was found that such trees nelined either toward the dominant or the suppressed in their charac- eristics, depending on whether they were above or below the average n volume for the same age. Furthermore, it was exceedingly difficult 182803°—20—Bull, 8714 pet: : 26 BULLETIN 871, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, to determine just what the limits of the intermediate class should be, so in order to preclude any error in judgment the procedure as first stated of establishing just two classes, dominant and suppressed, to include all the trees, is followed throughout. The method of obtaining the volume of the tree in eubic feet requires a little explanation. Each tree was considered as a perfect cone over the stump, at which the age count had been taken, in order to obtain directly comparable figures for the different ages. Figures from normal trees showing the relation of the diameter breast high to diameter of butt at stump height (1.5 feet) were plotted and curved, the strongest portion of this curve lying between 10 and 50 inches diameter breast high. From this curve a table expressing 260 8 Volume += Cubic feet JS 40° 69 120 160 200 240 260 . 320 360 400 Fic. 1.—Comparison of average volumes of incense cedar on the optimum and intermediate areas. the relation of the diameter breast high to diameter of butt at stump height for each inch class was read. It was then a simple matter to secure the diameter outside the bark at stump height for any tree, no matter how irregular the stump might be, due to wounds or other factors, and combining this with the height to work out the total cubic contents. Loss of volume caused by wounds or other factors was dis- regarded. In other words, each trec was treated as if it was absolutely normal. Let it be emphasized again that the volumes obtained were not meant to be an exact expression of the actual volume of each tree to the last cubic foot but merely had to be directly comparable to each other for the various ages. In considering the trees with decay, each separate focus of dry-rot is termed an infection, and there may be two or more infections in DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. DA the same tree, each one, however, the result of a separate and distinct inoculation. As soon as an infection causes a measurable amount of cull it becomes a cull case and is so termed. Hence, every infection is not a cull case, but every cull case is an infection. Only loss of merchantable timber through dry-rot is considered; cull from wounds, knots, limbs, insect borings, or crook is disregarded, since these have no bearing on the loss from dry-rot except when the decay is directly traceable to a wound. In such cases loss from the wound is included with the volume of rot. For figurmg from the field notes and measurements the cull caused by dry-rot, the amount and degree of damage with relation to the resultmg loss in merchantable lumber was carefully taken into account, just as it is in scaling. For example, a cull case might have considerable lmear extent but consist only of a few scattered pockets in a straight line, resulting in little or no loss in merchantable volume. The same number of dry-rot pockets, shorter in linear extent but radially scattered throughout the heartwood, probably would cause considerable cull. Again, a number of pockets close to the sapwood, mostly slabbing out when the log is sawed, would have far less weight than the same pockets in the center heartwood. Meinecke’s method (16, p. 37) of considermg the entire bole of the tree over the linear extent of decay as cull, while justifiable with the commercially inferior white fir, could not be applied to the distinctly more valuable incense cedar. Here the lateral extent of the decay also had to be taken into account. This could be readily determined from the field notes and diagrams. For example, if the decay occu- pied one-fourth of the area as seen on cross sections and had a linear extent of 10 feet, the volume outside the bark of this 10-foot frustum (the tree bemg considered as a cone, see p. 26) was first secured and then one-fourth of it was considered as the volume of the decayed portion of the tree. Below one-fourth the decay was usually treated as negligible except when it had a lmear extent of several feet. The volume was then computed as before. Separate tables containing the above figures were worked up for the four areas, the trees being arranged progressively by ages, begin- ning with the youngest. It does not seem necessary to present Uns tables, since they were merely preliminary. In considering the trees on the intermediate area it was found that the first infection which resulted in cull occurred in a tree 98 years old. However, infection can take place at a much earlier age than this. For example, in a tree 104 years old there was a light cull case traced to a healed lightning wound. The tree was injured at the age of 50 years and the wound completely healed when the tree was 63 years old; hence, the tree could not have been older than 63 years at the time of infection. Again, in a tree 146 years old there was a 28 BULLETIN 871, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. serious cull case traced to a healed fire scar. This wound healed when the tree was 38 years old; hence infection could not have occurred subsequent to that age, since the field notes seem to exclude any possibility of an entrance of the dry-rot through a knot. Numer- ous other examples might be cited, but none of them reduces the minimum age of possible infection below 38 years. An analysis of infections definitely traced to healed wounds in trees on the optimum area places the earliest age at which trees may be infected at 34 years, and this may be accepted as the age of infec- tion for all the areas, since there is no apparent reason other than chance as to why the various areas should differ in this respect. Infections were very common between the ages of 45 and 80 years. No tendency was apparent toward an earlier age of infection in suppressed than in dominant trees, or vice versa. The foregoing figures are based on an analysis of 99 infections. Of course, this age may be even lower-than here indicated, but it is evident that the earliest age of infection can not be lower than the age at which heart- wood formation takes place in incense cedar. Just when this occurs is not definitely established, but observation seems to place it some- where around 20 to 30 years. _To be sure, there is a possibility of infection taking place in pathological heartwood resulting from an injury before the true heartwood is formed, the fungus mycelium vegetating in this type of heartwood until such time as true heart- wood develops and then attacking it. While absolute proof of this course of procedure is lacking, observations have all tended toward substantiating the theory. Furthermore, this age agrees approximately with that found by other workers with different species. Meinecke (16, p. 47) finds that for white fir (Abies concolor) decay caused by the Indian-paint fungus (Echinodontium tinctorium) ‘‘may show in trees 60 years old or perhaps younger,” while Weir and Hubert (32, pp. 17-18), working with the same fungus in western hemlock (T’suga heterophylla), set the average infection age for one type at 44.5 years and for another at 57.3 years. The figures are obtained by the use of a formula applied to the younger age classes. ‘These same workers (33, pp. 11-12) place the ‘‘age of earliest infection’’ at about 50 years for western white pine (Pinus monticola) attacked by several common wood-destroying fungi. Interesting as the determination of the age of infection or the age of earliest infection may be from an academic viewpoint, it is of little practical importance in this region. The questions of real import in this as in other species are the age at which decay begins to result in cull of economic importance and whether there is any relation between this and dominant and suppressed trees. The trees on the intermediate area and on the optimum area were first arranged es). DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. ei 29 by 40-year age classes, grouping dominant and suppressed trees separately, and the percentage of dry-rot was determined for each age class. This was done by relating the total volume of dry-rot in each age class to the total volume in cubic feet of the trees in that age class. From these tables it was apparent that while there was no tangible difference between the amount of decay in the dominant and suppressed trees on the intermediate area, on the optimum area there was a decided difference, most strongly shown in the younger age classes, the dominant group having a lower percentage of decay than the suppressed trees. That the trees in the intermediate area fail to bear out the relation- ship between suppression and decay indicated by the results of other workers on different species is after all logical. The reason for this is not hard to find. These trees are in the intermediate range for incense cedar, where the growth on the whole is relatively slow, and while they may be placed in dominant and suppressed groups within themselves, yet in relation to the trees in the optimum range they ‘are slow growing, practically all bemg included under suppressed, wito afew dominants. In other words, most of these trees are under the influence of regional suppression. Another glance at figure 1, which shows the great disparity between the volume-age curves for the two regions, brings this out more clearly. The term ‘regional suppression’’ is anew one. However, the concept which it embraces has long been advanced in ecology and silviculture. That there is a marked decrease in vigor and a decline in the rate of growth for each tree species outside its optimum, becoming greater as the dis- tance from the region of best development increases, until finally the species becomes completely suppressed by other species either in or closer to their own optimum, has been pointed out by Mayr (13, pp. 73-79). This is exactly what has happened to incense cedar in the intermediate range. At best a second-story tree, in this region, away from its optimum, it has become, except for a few scattered individuals, badly suppressed by Douglas fir, Jeffrey pine, and yellow pine, which, while not in their own optimum, are yet closer to such a condition than the incense cedar. Mitchell (17, p. 33) recognizes how far this may go in suggesting that it may be advisable to eliminate the species entirely on the sites less adapted to it. An analysis of the field notes reveals that this regional suppression is not due to a pathological condition, which might be suspected from the presence of the mistletoe (Phoradendron juniperinum libocedrv) or of the needle and twig parasite (Gymnosporangvum blasdaleanum). A comparison of the trees on the intermediate area with the volume- growth curve for the optimum area resulted in the classification of only 38 out of the total of 495 trees as dominant. In other words, 457 of the trees on the intermediate area are actually suppressed when compared to the average for the optimum area. 30 BULLETIN 871, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is not to be expected that the growth habits of the dry-rot fungus would vary to any extent in regions so closely related climatically as the intermediate and optimum ranges of incense cedar; therefore, it is reasonable to believe that no matter what the classifi- cation of the trees on the intermediate area may be in respect to dominance and suppression when compared with the volume-growth ‘curve for that area, to find the true relation of the dry-rot fungus to dominant and suppressed trees it will be necessary to determine the classification of each tree by comparison with the volume-growth curve for the optimum area. This is brought out in Table IT, in which the trees from all the areas are combined, the dominance or suppression of all the trees being determined by comparison with the volume-growth curve for the optimum area. Only trees in which the progress of the decay or a fire scar did not make it impossible to determine the age at stump height are included in this table. This explains the slight dis- crepancy between the total number of trees dissected and the total number included in this and subsequent tables. TaBLE IIl.—Cull caused by dry-rot found in incense cedars of the combined areas. . Cull caused by dry-rot SNe Average age. (percentage of the ; | total volume). Age class. Dominant. |Suppressed.| Dominant. en Dominant. | eaetaeey Oto 40 years. 222 2c 22 42 Ree ee 0 1 te ee ee 405) Pitas ee ] 0 Alito SOhy carson ase eee ee 8 43 74 57 0 1 Sito 20cyears ok ee Rae ee 60 125 105 105 40 2 PitoG60wyearss..-- eee 66 218 142 |. 140 4 4 16M to 200syearss = == 2 esse 42 191 180 179 7 12 201 T0240 ears! 22-2 ose | 34 84 223 222 19 26 241 to 280 years. .-.---..--.--- 15 79 265 258 52 40 281 FO 320, Vears. esse cee 7 42 301 294 68 60 S2l CO SHO Years: sae - 2-2 eee 3 16 341 332 68 66 361 T0400 Vears:.-- 1 scnesene ee 2 z 372 368 83 68 401 T0440 y cars: 22 ous. scenes 0 2 a eee SYD \p5ssosesa5se Combined!sJ.-2-2-0 ee 237 803 166 173 16 20 In Table II the dry-rot percentage in the age class 161 to 200 years, for example, is figured on the total volume of all the dominant trees both sound and decayed in that age class and not on the total volume of both dominant and suppressed trees. This is the method used throughout the table. It will be noticed that the number of trees (basis) in the suppressed class far exceeds the dominant, this being a direct result of the influence of regional suppression on the trees of the intermediate area. The columns of greatest interest are the last two, in which the dry-rot percentages of the dominant and suppressed trees in the different age classes are directly comparable. By dry-rot percentage is meant the percentage of cull caused by the decay resulting from DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. 31 the work of the dry-rot fungus. The reader should remember that the percentage of cull based on the merchantable volume of the trees would be higher than the percentages here given, since these are based on the total volume of the trees outside bark and including the entire top. In the younger age classes up to 160 years the percentage of cull is small and variable, in one class higher in the suppressed, in another higher in the dominant, and in a third equal. But in the age class of 161 to 200 years a decided jump in the percentage of cull occurs, particularly in the suppressed trees. While the increase in the case of the dominants is only 3 per cent, in the suppressed trees it amounts to 8 per cent, bringing the cull percentage to 12. In the next age class a still further change is apparent. Here the cull percentage in the dominant trees increases strongly, as does also the percentage in the suppressed trees, the latter still remaining considerably higher than the former. But in those subsequent classes which have a sufficient numbers of trees to make the data of value, the cullis higher in the dominant than in the suppressed trees. When the age classes are combined, the total cull is 4 per cent more in the suppressed than in the dominant trees. The salient features shown by Table II are the low percentage of cull in the younger age classes, the sudden increase earlier in the suppressed than in the dominant trees, which after it once begins goes steadily on with advancing age, and the higher percentage of cull in the suppressed trees as compared with the dominant trees in the two age classes which show the first sudden increase in this percentage. However, the percentage of cull caused by dry-rot is not the only figure of interest, since it is prerequisite that the trees first be infected and that these infections develop sufficiently to cause measurable cull. Table III gives the figures on percentage of infection and cull cases. The number of trees used as the basis and the average age are the same as in Table IT. TasLE III.—IJnfections and cull cases found in incense cedars of the combined areas. Infections (percentage | Infections causing meas- of total number of urable decay (percent- trees). age of total Calioeeceys Age class. Dominant. |Suppressed.| Dominant. |Suppressed. * Om GO FOR s Coa ae SS ane Sees eae eee Mellow aioe. On eeeeee on ears 0 PHSTOIsObyiear Seas serv ysmam te cies Som se hates otacdace 12 28) 0 5 tel {h@) A Sy echoes es eee en ee 50 33 28 15 TOM OAGOM CATS? Bitte j.2 <= dose eeae eae eens noe se 62 42 35 28 HOIST OPZUURY CANS ee rena rssacine ics Sa cciew nde. Ueneke Su seece 57 62 36 44 POOP AUN CALS epee ketene ries fei seas e a sae 71 74 56 63 2 AMELO Ao OATS ieuas osee ace eis cece ei a see aeel wees 87 82 80 78 ZELO OUR CATS re Aue sere seem tae ret ate gt 8) DE 100 90 86 88 32 WD EBD GR Bis cid SSE ee es sete BEE OE oe OE ee ane eee 100 87 100 87 361 to 400 years...........- =e SSH Ba REES SoSCe REC aE aes 100 100 100 100 OD i RDA AN SO cere UE SLi oe ae PHO lay Pe ee LOO es eee eee 100 Combined ee eerie sem ue et soe ae senyoc iat nays 61 54 41 42 32 BULLETIN 871, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table ILI shows that the percentage of infections is not in exact relation to the percentage of cull caused by dry-rot as given in Table II. In the age class of 41 to 80 years, while the percentage of infections is higher in the dominant trees the percentage of cull is slightly lower. In the age class of 81 to 120 years these percentages bear the same relation to each other as they do in all other classes except the classes of 121 to 160 years and 361 to 400 years. In the former there is a much higher percentage of infections in the dominant trees, while the percentage of cull is equal, and in the latter the per- centage of infections is the same in both dominant and suppressed trees, while the percentage of cull is higher in the former. For all the age classes combined the percentage of infections is markedly higher in the dominant than in the suppressed trees. Now, considering the columns relating to the total trees with cull cases, that is, where infections cause a measurable amount of decay, it is found that in the age class of 41 to 80 years none of the infections in the dominant trees result in cull cases, while all of the infections in the suppressed trees do, thus accounting for the higher percentage of cull in the suppressed trees in that class. In the next age class (81 to 120 years) the dominant trees have almost twice as many cull cases as the suppressed, and the percentage of cull is just twice as great in the former. But in the age class of 121 to 160 years, while the cull cases are in a higher percentage in the dominant trees the percentage of cull is equal in the two classes, showing that there is more loss per cull case in the suppressed than in the dominant trees. In the subse- quent age classes the cull cases and the percentage of cull are in the same general relation except in the age class of 361 to 400 years, where the difference is the same as explained for the infections. The total cull cases for the suppressed trees is only 1 per cent higher than for the dominant trees. The idea might have been advanced that since imoculation by spores of any wood-destroying fungus is to a certain extent a matter of chance, the greater percentage of cull in the suppressed trees might have been due to a greater number of infections in these trees. But Table III shows more infections in the dominant trees, while the cull cases are about equal in both. Therefore the cull cases must be more severe in the suppressed trees. The infections, or even the cull cases, do not show the same pro- gression through the age classes from the youngest to the oldest as is shown by the cull percentage. In the former the sudden, sharp increase in the age class of 161 to 200 years for the suppressed and in the class of 201 to 240 years for the dominant trees is not apparent. The increase is more regular throughout, thus indicating that there is an influence other than merely the number of infections which has DRY-ROT OF INCENSE CEDAR. 33 a strong bearing on the development of cull cases and the percentage of cull. Since neither the total number of infections nor cull cases follows the same law as the percentage of cull, it is self-evident that there must be an exact relation between this last and the more extensive or severe cull cases. Accordingly, in Table IV the severe cull cases, that is, those cases in which one-third or more of the total volume of the tree is a loss through dry-rot, are considered separately. The same basis is used as in Tables II and III and the percentages are based on the number of trees in the dominant and suppressed groups considered separately in each age class. TaBLE 1V.—Relation between dominant and suppressed trees in severe cull cases found in ameense cedars of the combined areas. Severe cull cases (per Severe cull eases (per cent). cent). Age class. Age class. Domjinant.| Suppressed. Dominant. |Suppressed. OsCovOhyeansseee epee eer seasick se 0 || 281 to 320 years....-.-..-- 71 66 41 to 80 years.........----. 0 0 || 321 to 360ryears....._....- 67 81 81 to 120;years.-.:-.--.-.-- 3 2 || 361 to 400 years....-...--. 100 50 121 to 160 years.......-.-..- 2 2 || 402 60440 years..-.2..2252).22.02.-22..- 100 161 to 200 years..........-- 5 14 201 to 240 yearsS.....--....- 26 31 Combined.......-.. 14 17 241 to 280 years...-........ 73 48 In Table IV is seen the same form of progression for the severe cull cases as was shown for the amount of cull in Table II. Low per- centages in both groups up to an age of 160 years, with a sudden inerease in the percentage of severe cull cases in the age class of 161 to 200 years for the suppressed group are followed by a like increase in the class of 201 to 240 years for the dominant trees. After 240 years is passed there is a higher percentage of severe cull cases for the sub- sequent age classes in the dominant group, just as is the case for the percentage of cull. The only exception to this is found in the class of 321 to 360 years, where the relation is reversed. The outstanding fact shown by Tables IT, III, and IV is that incense cedar during the earlier stages of its life, even though heavily infected, is able to retard the progress of the dry-rot fungus in causing decay. Then comes a period, earlier in the case of suppressed than of domi- nant trees, at which the progress of the fungus can no longer be held in check and the trees become subject to severe decay, with the accom- panying high percentage of cull. In other words, the decay becomes extensive. This period occurs in the age class of 161 to 200 years in the suppressed group and in the age class of 201 to 240 years in the dominant group. An analysis of the individual trees, in a table which is too long to present here, reveals the fact that this change begins at 167 years in the suppressed and at 214 years in the dominant trees,