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' vangeerderad Teel Eoeevsaene pt * Me haan bongraetd ernest iE f leap on ane daggnta ab ees ie) ima we 7 Ls Vv My wie at wevay ne L, wer on f tte 4 aha hal i ¥ Py eprevae ©. To abil shewy cane oat A : - fi ost Vee ra enaaradimas 4 O44 NFS aoa rait ota ‘ » tes 4 i , 7 vi oe 4 ole Cyl eeanrad wei Te pedro cue here parts ‘ i) ive ae a“ x pa one ieee 04 : re errr a) . aa bes eet miaset? 7 cae ree ca whey: Rakabet They - 4 , id janes? ene owen eee ' ' nen ote Lyi ome 7 ‘ » ‘ eens +4 4 ‘ , » apr Ligeti 1 ° ts \ cpap aun otdaewy brea toe at : weet tw . eee) Cie ", rhea Vee we aah et atk ung pens cera tan Fee i : Myce 4 Fe tee, jreneaten cater tel warery ier it a f op due ae, Wi anme ap abt OTP Pern ot eae i : ’ « 1 > ee +s mh 8 my . va ' be eee ohn ‘ mf vee das S aunetatiar nae 8 : 7 ee ee . Preah Poe hese - i ‘ y noVing ah OOTaM ' . at ' ’ Vat 't tee ad ‘ rapa a * 4s 22 a Ya LIBRARY OF THE AMERICAN MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY - Wht ee Ua Pham a ) ay U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE: (fe RT { f{ : thy Department Bulletins Nos. 926-950. WITH CONTENTS AND INDEX, PREPARED UNDER THE SUPERVISION OF JOHN L. COBBS, JR., “CHIEF, DIVISION OF PUBLICATIONS. WASHINGTON: GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFIOE. 1922. i ue Big sce as POS C0) VARY Re ie ie r 4 | Pat ¥ ~ ee , ’ ae na | ' Ree : Age Ps, = a . yr Ne ewer a Cat .» 2 is j i Y 2 ; ,, 9 we < a ; 43 nm a ; i ¥ : ra —4 f ~ 7 S } ‘ y j Me ‘3 { \ +. 4 at en ‘ R ay oe CO ee ET Ag} tise st ] (4 chit ah. ie aa) CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT Buritetin No. 926.—STUpIES IN THE BIOLOGY OF THE MEXTI- CAN CoTTon BoLtL WEEVIL ON SHORT-STAPLE UPLAND, AND SEA ISLAND COTTONS: Page. TVA © LEU RTUC OA es hg a gy SN ge Lg gat el Cc) a 1 Te PASEO EMCE I ene ENV eN 7 Be Meg bMS oy aL te Oe Nr Bee eS a a 2 Scope of the present life-history studies______________+__-___--__-- 3 Methods of study under outdoor insectary conditions____-___________ 3 Methods of study under field conditions________________ agement 4 Food plants of the boll weevil_____-__________ PA ALES iy. | SOI. MOEA 5 The boll weevil on Sea Island cotton___________- EES) RRR, IS a 6 Longevity of adult boll weevils on cottons______-__ eae SAE ET fai The size of the cotton square attacked by boil mcomisn | MD 10 Loeations for oviposition on cotton squares__________ pub 28 aM alot Reniodurom) emereence) to) OvipOSitONe ss as Lee ee se eee 11 Oviposition period under insectary conditions____________________ 11 Summary of fecundity of boll weevil on cottons under insectary con- CCITT ET COSTES 0 UE SE aur I RL NG nae RN 13 The average developmental period under outdoor insectary con- ENTER OAS a ag NT Ea ea le a A GB eS 14 The developmental period under field conditions__________________ 15 Hgg-laying activity of weevils under field conditions______________ 19 Length of time upland cotton squares hang on plants after egg TONIC ECS oes a Sr UREN RS DL DUALS a hy lle Caer aa ole REE AUR eee eae Meee 3} BN ae ie 20 Fecundity records on upland cotton under field conditions________ 21 Summary of developmental period of first generation weevils in up- land cotton squares under field conditions_____________ UIC SS DP Developmental period of first generation weevils on cottons under HELI CON TIONS = IOUS We a ide asa ak yh Peat TAMIR ae 23 Comparison of the developmental period of the immature stages of weevil under field and insectary conditions_____________________ 25 Developmental period in green cotton bolls_ i DARREN Bae 24 iy aT Fecundity of the weevil in cotton bolls_____ SO yay eR, 5 SUN Rl 28 The relation of temperature to the biology of the weevil___________ 30 The developmental period on different types of soil a aN 32 The effect of the determinate growth of the cotton plant on the DITOLOSayaOste Es Olli Wee y Tle RLS NAD Nn ie ah 32 En Dernaiony Otuthe boll weevil in lorid gee 33 General summary__ 2S AUS Ag Rie PAN lla eh Spat A OER.) BLT 43 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 927.—COMMERCIAL UTILIZATION OF WASTE SEED FRoM THE TOMATO PULPING INDUSTRY. Profitable utilization of waste materials_______________ 1 NaTunem and: SOURCE) Of LOMATO: Washemuema es eas oa 2 Distribution and quantity of tomatoes pulped nob anp ey iyi 2 Onanmtityger. Seediavatlables 22 Sua wee aL as eR eee VIED al Nag 4 Commercial products obtainable from tomato seed____________"___ 4 Procedure) im handling; tomatouwaste 22.2 o waa i eee 5 The use of exhaust steam compared with live steam______________ 15 Hxtracting the oil from tomato seed______ APE, SAMMI A 16 1RSSLTTA UIA i MOL IKOL KONG Kon maa {EV Yes) opr Heo CLS US Ne SU NY 19 OTM ce EAN Nn CY Tn a LU eA UA I eS ARN NE SVAN Ue Mea 20 Commercial procedure for utilizing tomato waste___._______- 20 Cost of handling the waste________ VESHALE ICS A gOS PSN oi tt ot" ape ty Sp 23 Possible returns and net profits from oil, cake, and meale__________ 28 SSSU STINT ENT eves amen TOR SS ee ANN CaN RHO ED RA CAO eg" MR Se A 29 2 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 926-950, DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 928.—SuUBSTITUTES FOR SUCROSE IN CURING MEATS: Page. Quantity of sugar used in culing meats: 22> 2255) eee ee ip WUMCtiGnar SUSAY ID Curing medt..2 222 Ne ee ee ee Pe Supstitmmes forsugar 2. ie ee ZL FGHNeNS: SIMU D2 es es wa ws it Te a, a eee P4 Gor sucarse {2222 BAe Se ae 3 Experimental worke 22 2 22 oe. ee 4 General plane e222 srreneetreee i SC 4 Experiments with pork hams:2- == ee 4 bxperiments with, sweet-pickle bacons2 332) 22. 3 eee aly Hxperiments with box-cured hbaconie225) 2s eae, any) Experiments with beef jams. 2-2 3s uss) See Se eee 23. General summary 2 = 2 2 Se ee 2 ee 28 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 929.—CoTTroNsEED MEAL For Horssks: Output and uses of cottonseed meal!=” oe see eee 1 Previous experiments in feeding cottonseed meal to horses__.______ 2 The experimental feeding _______________ EL URAC eee eB 2 Objects of-experiments. 25> +. Ce OES | ee 2 FHOPSe@S: USE ates a en A) RE) _ my Reeds usedize. 2 2 ee SE Ee) | ee 3 Details:o£ experiment=t 2) 2 See ee 4 Individual Cases ss 2.2 25 Br yo REED) CREE eae 6 Summary of experiments .<= 22s 2 Ueeee ae) eee as Tl Gonclusions’ and recommendations 2222 seas) ee eee a Suggested rations containing cottonseed meal___________-___________ 9 Publications relating to horse raising= ee ee 10 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 930.—THE PropUCTION OF BINDER-TWINE FIBER IN THE PHILIPPINE ISLANDS: Safeguarding the supply of imported raw materials________________ 1 The binder-twine fibersituation2 220 .2_ 22 ian. Sa eee ee Pe The Philippine Islands as a source of binder-twine fiber___________ 3 Present condition of the maguey industry in the Philippine Islands__ 5 Improvements needed in the maguey industry______-______-_________ 8 Purpose of the cooperative work with the Philippine Bureau of Agri- @ulture. Bie uh Eines _ a cs 9 Outline of the cooperative work.\2 oe ee eee ee 10 Resgultsof the: cooperative worle 2226 2a sei eee eee ee 11 The machine situation! 2209224 02 Gia ee ee eee 11 The ‘sisal ‘sitivatioms— 2! Ls ea Es) 15 Improvements on plantations 24) 22 es Nene 3 ee ee 18 Summary _222): 2002) Sy ys die Ve eh ed Ea ee _ eee 18. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 931.—CoRN-BELT FARMERS’ EXPERIENCE WITH Moror TRUCKS: Summary 22.3. ---- 2 et ee ee eee it Method of sttdy:.--_- 2-4) a Se ae 3 Location and\size of farms -_ = .- 22 eee ee eee 4 Distance to market. 200 ee ee eee) Se + Size of trucks-._. 2225 2 ee ee ee 6 Age of truck§1%.22222) 2 IN BE eS eens 6 Are these trucks profitable investments ?_22205) 222 eee 6 The best siz@a-2 = UU 0B Jo aes) Lee AER 2 2) 6 Advantages and disadvantages. —..-- oe eee aT 8 Road hauling with ‘tricks se! Ul ee ee 10 Road hauling for which trucks are not used2i22 See) ae eee 14 Hauling on the farm “with trucks. 2220020." {eee ee eee 14 @ustom hauling... 2222 ER ee ee 16 Effect of different kinds of roads on use of trucks__________________ alee Change of market oo. ee ee ee ee 19 Annual use of trucke 2222) EN SD 20 Lite-and depreciation of trucks——_ 2 2 Ve eens 21 Repairs —— eT A SUES ee 22 Gasoline: andoileoiu ee ee ee i ee 24 CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 931.—CoRN-BELT FARMERS’ EXPERIENCE WITH Moror Trucks—Continued. PWT iene irene 21) UR AE UNG Ut LAV ea Mai ee eae REESE iTrenl pr init nyzaeeeesesnn UNM MELD I aR SRL i ila ee 2 OL it MW yey AY ea Wa (CHISTES GOMES, Oy OCS RGEET wIUC Os VANES ae SURRENDER (CSE! OE LO WMT aay ssrB aU ol be) ce Spe te ena DI Tai a POs AU eae nee aie aL) Se Pe pM a Cite. LOT LMT fs ns ee bs Displacement of horSes_________-______ pe Mk STs a a gene SN PLL Harms on whieh tractors’ are owned. = 9-3) 2 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 932.—Lire History oF THE CopLING MoTH IN THE GRAND VALLEY OF COLORADO: TETAS EVE CON HAGEL pe A 49, a EY a Ee ene ienerandnV alley of Coloradol 2.2 n 22 ais eve ee 2 a TSB Syl lauranea Bat oy hag ope RS heal cr a Aig tL) NU aS Methods and rearing apparatus employed in the life-history studies__ The insectary_____ La Ses CRA eB aby rt uss a Natl le eae Mil unas esl aN EN ute hy Seasonal-history studies of 1915 -___________-__-_____ See eB AU te Codling-moth band studies of 1915 _________ EEA ERO ane 0 PI ay Seasonal-history studies of 1916_________________ LEN 0) Codling-moth band studies of 1916____________ Natural enemies of the codling moth_-__________ 4 Sy a abe MISSIN OUS| | SUG egg eet e ONGR E e aieeb2 Review of seasonal-history studies of the codling moth in 1915 and TUG TLC te AIR he 9 GA ag MRR 2 SEN SE PP rs A een CBN DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 933.—BLAck WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND Man- AGEMENT: DESCRIP LIONVOL CHE nETE Cie UN a Ee a De Lacie stn NS Silva Calls CH ALAC CETUS ELCS Le NG he eaR SUS EO CSR 2 Crowe of (stands! (yield per acre) 2222502 ee eee Measuring logs and estimating standing timber_____________________ VAIN LAN tAtMOMS 52 c 2 Desai OA eRe als od aN Degg 3 Hstablishing walnut plantations__________-_______________________- DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 9384.—DAMPING OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES : DAMA IN SOs INESeMOSTA Me epe C LEE ELE RU eaan N aa aes aa SLD) TAN OLIN Oy OL yRC OWT CT Sern a MAU RN EO a ne (CBD At SR SU eS eg IEP AT ei NT A pe pt ct Relative importance of the damping off fungi on conifers____________ Damping off fungi as causes of root rot and late damping off________ Relation of environmental factors to damping off___________________ IDEM SIE ys Ol SO WANN pope ee a Wa Moisture and temperature factors____________________ = Chemical factors________ Pilg 1 ent ele 2 ea sea Cate VY ORO WLLL by » Mig ahaa) BEST OL O Sy PAC TO 1 ieee ee I ca a le PS ee Se POU SP IL ENS KaIY ONAL CRG) OTT CMS ee a a a Me eg Ae PSS UMN EAI Top yee = MMII SD A a I a SI IE a A 2 LAT ETE OTS CONS | SS SA aM NG ML AIR A era ioe DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 935.—THE DISTRIBUTION OF NORTHWESTERN BoxEp APPLES: HANGER O CITC ETO Ta. See Oe ENON Waa ee ta aie ney Peg A) Se) UM ee ta al TOTO RULE eee Waa EP a Lye Ret SNe eae WRaIee 5 ONY ICFs Hadley Preparation formmarkepyse 8 oa en eae as a Transportation and storage facilities_____.____.____.________________- EVEL Ode TI ONT TUG ee MPUD ESA BUN EN a) BED Nap OTS ASS EDO NT CMe pa ae aie eI ee ee HEM CIA) sD Ts LCC CS teens cans rea a2 Ca EAE a ESO a aa AL JE AN OFT STAG Toe 94) Doce VL SH eS) UNG io) a LN RO A 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 926—950. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 986.—WuItp Ducks AND Duck Foops oF THE Bear RIveER MARSHES, UTAH: Page. al 2 3 Breeding species and their abundance__________________-_______ 3 Habits and activities after the nesting season__________________ 6 Bal] (Migrations ans ne a a a | a ee ee 9 The shootime Season +.- 322.5422 ES 10 Food supplies!attractive to, wild .ducks:._- --aeae so eee 10 Vegetable foods 2a a oes eS a 10 Animal $0008.22) 2 he et 14 Other. conditions affectines waterfowl 2 ee ee ee 16 Agricultural -operations2 24 2222S es Rees eae 2, eee aie 16 Naturally @nemices 2.26.08 es WO cee eae. | nee er eR 16 Conclusions 2s. 2 SS ees eer eee) 18 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 937,—COOPERATIVE GRAIN MARKETING: Introductions ee ee alle ks § SE il The: farmerselevator movement: 5 15 As) Te 2 Barly. developments 55-year? 2 Marketing: Condition g ese. 3! 0) es tO RD 4 The United) Farmers Association. 2 ees eg ee eee 5 Examples of farmers’ organizations in Canada__________________ 6 The Saskatchewan Cooperative Elevator Co. (Ltd.)_-----_-___ 8 United ‘Grain «Growers. (itd); 2) eee eee dat! Terminally Glew tors es pe yo phe aol eae ag a a apa Examples of farmers’ organizations in the United States___________ 15 Local ‘farmers’ elevators 22. 2-0 e hl ee | ee 15 Terminal activities __ ide Pit cA ISP SS a en 17 Functions of cooperative grain marketing organizations_____--__-__ 18 CoMPaATisons? and “COnClUSTOMS ee eS ee 20 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 938.—EFFECTS OF NICOTINE SULPHATE AS AN OVICIDE AND JLARVICIDE ON THE CopLtiInc Morn AND THREE OTHER INSECTS: Introduction. 2 2 LS Ve se 1 Experiments conducted in the laboratory 222522 1 ae 2 Effects of nicotine sulphate on eggs and newly hatched larve of the , Silkworm moti 222 Sk 2 74 Effects of nicotine sulphate on eggs and newly hatched larve of the coddling ‘mroth 22224 222255) 2 25) eee eR ee eee 4 Effects of nicotine sulphate on eggs of two other insects______—_ 8 Discussion as to how nicotine sulphate acts as an ovicide and larvicide’ 2% 2 AMk WSU ISSA 0S _ elk PE NE EEESSIE GONNA INA ladda NER iapene ney 10 Summary of experiments conducted in laboratory____-________ 14 Experiments: conducted! ‘in ‘orchards! 22) a es ee ee a ee 15 Experiments performed at Benton Harbor, Mich_______________ 15 dxperiments performed at Grand Junction, Colo-_____________- 16 Experiments performed at Roswell, N. Mex____-_-____________ 17 Conclusions from field experiments_.__._---__-__-=__+____=_= 18 Literature @ited-1222 42 2 Se 19 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 9389.—THr TurRKEY AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN THE SPREAD OF GAPEWORMS: Examination of market chickens and turkeyS__________-__________ di Hxperimental work 2222-2222. 20220 ce ee ee ee 3 Factors in the spread of gapeworms.....22 a Se ee 7 Investigations on) Maryland farmS.2222222 22220) Bee eee 8 Significance of turkeys in relation to gapes formerly unrecognized__ 10. Turkey the preferred host of the gapeworm___i-_i_~_L______-____ 10 How. to..avoid:losseés' in. chickens.2.22 022.0222 ssl eee ae 11 @onclusionSss222 6255. scce loses toss. ee ee 42 Wsish- Of TelerenCe@s oo. soso woe bac ee eee 13 CONTENTS. 5 DEPARTMENT BuLLETIN No. 940.—THE SporoGENES TEST AS AN INDEX OF THE CONTAMINATION OF MILK: Page. Present status of the sporogenes test The Savage method Defects'in the Sporogenes test______ Attempts to improve the characteristic stormy reaction Use of 20 c. c. quantities of milk in the sporogenes test_____-_______ al The sporogenes test in relation to milk produced under extreme con- ditions jor ‘cleanliness and of filthl 20 ty ee ea 12 Conditions of production of pasteurized milk as indicated by the SDOROZE|M ES We Ste ik Wd Ue Nd ON eA a eR eT eles Sole Se Ba 14 The source of the majority of spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes OUI, Sina Taam Kees BAe aye ee OU ME OR Gy ERE CN EL EEL 16 SUMMA andmconclusionS2ij. 8 Ais ove a ee ay i eh 19 HPBrTe Tce Tee V EAU TS sia Tite Ng UE I She Oe 20 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 941.—FarRM MANAGEMENT IN THE OZARK | REGION OF MissouRrr: | ATU EANRO CHUL TAN | SRM URE Nl SNE AR Aes UL ne a Bea ME a oy el a US iL Summarys, 2 see AN A UIC ge aL epee, 1) al I ‘Location and character of the area____..---_______________________ 3 i) Hama DUSTMeESS vad! COME 0.0) Ue by ide i a ie rh) Ps ia 12 I FRVEMETNP INVES SEINE TG) ics A CI ia a big Nie lca eyed aN ays oy oa AY 15 I CCTRCG Oey sR eg EAN Men A Se MN ti UES ON 17 i Crop production and yields — 2. sss eee Na eee 19 | HEMET ECCLES wee cry eva.) ide bom cial Mei Ele iisi ee ii ek Peete TU 20 MarmMe Expensese i UA A Si a BE A 5 20 Crop management BNE SM CUR Ii ce LA a A fy A OR SAL 8 22 | AE TNGE SCO Cy MUM ENT eS NIT TN Ey ec a I , 28 VE eS UTES SL EA UAC AD a Ne SRO IMAN ate 34 The organization and profits of individual farms___________________ 40 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 942.—PoISONOUS PROPERTIES OF THE | WHORLED MILKWEEDS ASCLEPIAS PUMILA AND A. VERTICILLATA VAR. GEYERI : UNAS EO OSE Or. PONTO CTs eee ee AN 2) RSE 1 Description of Aisclepias Pwnila__----_-- +» il Hxperimental work with A. Puwmila____-__2- = 2 Bypreal case ot Sheep 4G = 22 Vleet a 3 FSSPATIT ONES NSS | ARINC aE Re DE Nag SRL Sah al 1 ee SRE at 3) JeNATUECOY OVSTITENS) (LUE NSE D2 cS se a ee 7 “Osea Clee CIV a COR aE I RSD Ue 9 Experimental work with A. Ver Pee var. Geyeri BL a al 10 “ADS 74 UICC UMM CEST eS ay BES) 02x29 ON ee W(t a 10 Symptoms —_______ el el EE ER OA NY EAN aA Yao 11 BIW oexal pny Cl OS Meu LE TN ncn SR DR RAMTEC. ISLA Ae RTE A 13 Comparative toxicity of stems and leaves____________-________ 13 FSHUDUGMNN ONES YY SMR UIE 2 SN a a a pat (Sh 14 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 943.—Cost or PRoDUCING WHEAT: AV problem often! misunderstood sss see Deep yao in 2s il Application of cost data to farm organization___________-_ a ee BO LU 3 Summa grey Ok eS UU tse oa ea et aie SCALE 3 Basie factors and Cost estimates 2 ae a ea 4 Method, scope, and purpose of present study_________________-___-_- 4 Geocrapliy; ofa pTOc WCE OMe ee ets ase eee Ad OI ES 6 Comparative wwheate yields ewe ieee a 11 RECmnreMentseor. PLOduUCctionL = es ie ee ee ea 12 SumimargyOf COSESM Dig GST CES see se | aes 13 Range in cost per acre, by counties________»____________-_-________ 16 ING EC OSE Per MTS Tn eae Pea kt AON a ak fase aE? Up a Sey ice des pe BED 21 ANALYSIS (OL IHEMS Of (COS sn Aad eB asl ai eRe 2 fe eh 25 Array of farms according to cost per bushel, by counties____________ 47 Cumulative per cent of acreage grown at various costs per bushel____ 49 Cumulative per cent of total production ROE AD er MR gga PTY ea wa 51 Individual costs) per acres! 0 Ve ee a 54 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 926—950. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 944—TuHE ALCOHOL TrestT AS A MEANS OF DE- TERMINING QUALITY OF MILK FOR CONDENSERIES: Page. Review OL previous work. _..-. 2-224). 1 WES TMeEIOUS “USOC eee ss et ee eo 2 Snel | PERS Bo 2 Experiments at Grove City creamery. a 4 Comparison of acidity and alcohol tests of milk for condensing__ 4 Relative value of acidity and alcohol testgs_____-_______2_______ 8 Hxperiuments atcontiensertes” | 2.) ee ee 8 9 Conclusions [esas Be NAT NS A ee et ee 13 Listiof 'teferetaeer er 20 T ) ee 13 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 945.—THE INFLUENCE OF CALCIUM AND PHOS- PHORUS IN THE FEED ON THE MiILk YIELD OF Datry Cows: Dairy practices at the Government farm at Beltsville_____________ 1 Standard rations insufficient for optimum milk yield_______________ 3 Nature of the deficiency in the routine rations fed at Beltsville____ 5 Discussion of Jresults_ = == 9 Summary 228 72 ee es ee ee, _ ee ay Description of experiments, protocols, and tables__________________ 13 Effects, on milk yield, of liberal feeding during dry period______ 13 Effects, on milk yield, of feeding phosphate with alternated ra- tions. during.dry’ period... eee eee 14 Rations. given animals) before calvings= sees) eee eet 18 Condensed history of experimental animals______________ 20 Effects of phosphate feeding on body weight___________________ 23 Quantitative: restiltige.. 222 5.1 oo 2 eS 24 Grain mixtures used in experiments________ 25 Account of unsuccessful and incomplete experiments____________ 26 Literature cited2c222) ooo he eee ee 27 DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 946—CoMPARATIVE SPINNING TESTS OF MEADE AND SEA ISLAND COoTTONS: Introduction__ Meisel cla 98 Denes MOREE Se eRre me eos St ns) ere en ey al Purpose of the-spinnim’ tests 2 ee 2 Grade and staple“ of cotton ee Se eee 2 Mechanical conditions: 2+ S242 a es ae ees 3 Percentages of wastes... 22050 Vo Ae eee ee a ee 3 Breaking strength of yarn_______ ot ed Be Ne 4 Summary _ 26220 So Ue od a ae eee Sa id. Laeger ge ines 5 DEPARTMENT BuLtetin No. 947—WESTERN SNEEZEWEED (HELENTUM HOOPESII) AS A POISONOUS PLANT: Introduction gee sis Se a 1 Historical summary 228220022200 ee 2 1 Description. of the, plant-i225. 682 2b £4 Ae ee ee 3 Experimental work _ 22. ee eee 6 Feeding experiments with sheep______—__ == § aaa ifl Feeding experiments with cattle. 222-8 alo ee 15 Chemical examinataion of, the planta: = 2—— 22. ae ees 17 Urine exdmination....2- 4. 223 2 ee ee eee 23 Discussion and general conclusions... 2 ee eee 24 Symptomgee hfe des SOW EE ES A» re 24 Autopsy \ findings. 22. Pe ee ps (vel 27 Microscopic pathology of H. hoopesii poisoning_______________= rat Toxic dose tor, sheep. 2 30 Toxie dose:for..cattle_____ eee ee: 30 Acute cases 22272 oe wr Peet ie a it ee 31 Toxicity of leaves of plant____._._-_____ fee ee eee 32 Toxicity of:flowerss.._._.._. EEE eee 34 Toxicity of:stem leaves__.__..-__ eS See 34 Comparative toxicity of different parts of the plant__________-_ 34 Effect of drying on toxicity of leaves .2-_. [0 Seu ee ee 35 Seasonal variation in toxicity of the plant_____1_____222__22_t 36 Permanent effect produced by the poison______________________ ss aii Remedies sais Siti sk th al ad EE eR 38 ‘Treatmentiof plant:‘on the rangeL:..SUbe2s ay J eee 39 Practical suggestions for stockmen on the range_______-_---__ 44 Stimmary. . se ee a wee SOR 19 Ee 45 Ditevature cited. | 2 ee ee ee eee tis 48 CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 948.—CoMPOSITION OF CoTTON SEED: ee of visas? HNP ints pe ienbelbt ee: Se ee ee AMMA eM ISCCOL aie a 2 Lo i SOMETIMES SRNR As os “TEE ONG SI aa GRINS © a ae Il. Ouaae of eine seed nee pag i ay SOS TRRERSROMp l Ill. Total products yielded and manufacturing loss per ton of SCC eh a SH i satin snl Peas oh sh MMe Ny IV. Oil and meal yields per ton of seed____ cea a Lett V. Yields of oil and meal, by States, as compiled from AV AMI SEG c2 UMN Se alee ral RSI Tn Dae a SA VI. Yields of oil and meal, by counties, as compiled from analiySes == == ae SEES LEU Se 2 VII. Yields of oil and “meal, by “months, as compiled from SB WTONERY SSSA) eae 1 EE YSU Ue, ORAS VIII, Variation of yields of oil and meal on same market DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 949.—STANDARD AND TENTATIVE METHODS OF SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS: TARO GNC HON eae LT Tests for nonbituminous road materials_____________ Tests for bituminous road materials________________ eRenitatlivie TeSt Skee 2 oh ea sit ini pl Recommended standard methods of sampling Miscellameous matter. 2000 2 ee Formy for recording and reporting results________________ Comparison of degrees Baumé and specific gravity_____________ Comparison of centigrade and Fahrenheit degrees______________ IMG UTEN©: (aya Oieswonay 121) ON ea LS 2 ees References to tests for paint and paint materials, sewer pipe, dicaing Tilesandimeralss sees tees ie Tira KS9% ya) Wo RU ae a LE ie nba Sa DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 950.—REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWoOD RESOURCES OF THE TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST, ALASKA: O DVCCISROh Eh I Smeta bem emcee Sea AN ee IDSrameerrayG) TONE ONUiT Oy Uae bs oka reyes ee Advantages of regional development____________________ aes Importance of Alaska as a source of paper supply_________________ NBO Catia Oreo te tS we Ol OTA ead ee a OE Ne. Communication and accessibility________________ ie |, ire Topographic and other surface features_________ 2 at (GUUTInG rE ACO NE: (Fl VE 2901 0) ARSE LEE a re La aS eR ‘A Ritrevay OXSTE | SS RS ON La 2 VY LENE a) I OS Ouaiityve Ofmrimbers sey. eS ees eed iota ie ae . aaa i SUMEAD itygehOm Ul al CO ae so ees se ee Logging RANE SPD) Eo asl ead ine MAN ae CE lL 0 RE! TIGRE OX SE SR 2 NR i ga ee SEE LSS Eo PRUE. JL NESS UN ING Tape ee SEC (COME NPC Gao Tan oron nei ee Oneratine maverals and millouppliess 2s see ee ee eee JOMSTOKOMSE SNL! "@ateypa wate LDL» Spi Cy aN SPs Bat NE ape Ne ep hee ey seem 2 I TA BUN eAn Teas SUI) Ly; ae eh i rr a el ey yr ee Le Ae LS ae eS Ne IN CEUTECSTE TOV Se Macias BEB A ER a Le eee eS ee IVETE OVE LT! POC UETIAT Ego er ee a ek i Es ee ee IDyenKeNoy averel wrens FOO WeIe tha, WARIS Eee ee TaPUW SS als ie IRA os AG CI Ma TEIN SUA 0d ec eee AEN Vis ti Suse. Zama eager Rg yA BSAC SUM 2 amelie RNR On STROM Roane Mahe lle el ole vie Mee ic 2 ae TEN eel rig a2) (SES i A IL EN els TOE ae ee Ry pea RE 1 AR SST cy OU He OO G2 Co lO bo - lore) “1 © DAD OOIW Nhe 8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 926-950, DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 950.—REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWoOoD RESOURCES OF THE TONGASS NATIONAL Forest, ALASKA—Continued. Pages. Procedure in Government timber salesei22: 22.22 ee 22 Auphority to, sell ‘timber. 2. ee eS ee ae 23 PONY ae ae 2, 23 | Stumpage prices and readjustments_-.--_.--=-=2.=5--= 225 24 Stumpage price readjustments in Canada_____- 4 26 Financial standing of purchasers__—_——_ ==) 3222) | ae 26 Amount ofespital required_._._.__- = = ae ae eee 27 Applications for timber and water power_--____------________ 27 Time required to secure contract. 2 225222 ee) ee ea 28 References 2 Nah ee 4s ee faa 28 Maps’ aniisurveys- 2222528 4) aes ee 28 SamplefMereement. .—— 245 = ee ee a ea 29 Index to units, names of power sites, and approximate capacities____ 39 Map of Tongass National ,Worest2-_“_-_..--- eee eee 40 INDEX. Acidity— soil, relation to damping-off of see llings________________ test, milk, comparison with alcohol test______--_~-_-_---__ Aggregates, road building, tests and sieve analysis, methods_-_ Alabama— cotton seed, yields of oil and meal, by counties and months_ walnut range and estimated stand________ ERE Alaska Behm Canal Unit, timber stand and quality____________ exports and imports. balance of trade___________________ importance as source of paper pulpwood____________-____ paper industry, development, opportunities, importance, etc_ ee ClIM At ChCOM CNET ON S020) a ae ee southeastern— rail and water communication with Hast, etc_________ surface, features, and climate___ Pil aga Si Ad water-power sources, sites, permits, ete______________ timber resources for pulpwood, sale policy_____-_________ Tongass National Forest— location, accessibility, description, ete_________ patel Sa regional development of pulpwood resources, bulletin 1 o)se? , COMIN ero CE Fors a CUTE alae RN Uae Os Ln Alberta, United Farmers, grain marketing organizations______ Alcohol, use in test for quality of milk for condenseries, bulletin bDyeAa Ou DahtberssandvH: SivGarner!) 225 eee Alfalfa growing in Missouri, Ozark region, acreage, ete___________ hay, source of calcium in dairy feed, note________________ Alkali flies. See Flies. Anaerobes. See Sporogenes. Anthonomus grandis. See Boll weevil. Apple— | Jonathan, production and prices, Pacific Northwest._______ Rome Beauty, production and prices, Pacific Northwest___ Spitzenberg, production and prices, Pacific Northwest_____ Winesap, production and prices, Pacific Northwest________ Apples— ; boxes, northwestern, distribution of, bulletin, by C. W. Kitchen, E. M. Seifert, jr.,and M. B. Hall______________ ear-lot shipments, 1919-20, and their destination_________ eold-storage holdings, 1916-1919_________________________ destruction by codling moth in Grand Valley, Colo________ oradimeinules andyresmlationsl) 022s fs i eee ee growing in Missouri, Ozark region______.._________ gh snl MT PEK uO. FAT CMOS EGAN O Mites wees le ye ie northwestern, transportation methods and storage facili- production, Pacific Northwest, by States and by varieties__ shipments— Carel Oeil OMG 2 aes oe AAAS ra ETE AU Ve rece LAE export from Northwest, 1916—-1920___________________ Arizona, cottonseed, yields of oil and meal, by counties and STAG ON EL OS SS SRI EE LU Mo a Ait ME are a ca 96666—22 Bulletin No. Page 934. 80-8] 944. 4-9 11, 949)5 12, 13, 14, 948 933 950 950 950 950 950 950 950 950 950: 950 950 937 944 941 945 17, 62, 63 8-23, 202 7, 14 ie as ISS =1 02 U9 d 124 3, 11-16, 19, 20-26 19 16-17, 19 8-9, 27 948 23-24, 202 1 2 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 926-950. ° Arkansas— cottonseed, yields of oil and meal, by counties and months_ walnut range and estimated stand Asclepias— galioides, comparison with other species in toxicity_—____ pumila, description and experimental use as feed____-____ rerticillata, Qeseription and experimental use as feed____ Asphalts. testing and sampling Atripler hastata. See Lettuce, duck. AYERS, S. HENRY, and Paurt W. CLemMMEeER, bulletin on “The sporogenes test as an index of the contamination of milk ” Bacillus— enteritidis sporogenes as index of milk contamination____ malvacearum, cause of damping-off of cotton and cucum- D@Drs_.. 22) See Ree as a er. Bacon— box-curing bellies. with sugar and sucrose substitutes, ex- PTT 1 FS ea ree A 5D Pee sweet-pickle bellies, curing with sugar and sucrose sub- stitutes, experiments 22 Ae ee ee Bacteria— anaerobic, variant names. —.__ +_ eee milk, reférences; literature cited.2o2 28 = ee ee Baker, F.'S., bulletin on “ Black walnut: Its growth and man- Hoement 7 <= Bayonet grass. See Tule. Sear River marshes, Utah, wild ducks and duck foods, bulletin by Alexander Wetmore Beef— curing hams with sugar and sucrose Substitutes, experi- INGLES 2 Se ee ee eee Ree See ese SE ee dried, curing process and quality requirements AOC ee Beers, damping-off, causes. 23.2 4 ae ee ee Bety, G. A.. and J. O. Witiiams, bulletin on ‘‘ Cottonseed meal for NoOrses:” nee a a ay ice Rea el Bellies, pork, curing with sugar and sucrose substitutes, ex- MOGIMEES — Re eT a Beltsville Experiment Farm, dairy feeding, experimental SSG a a 2 ARS ah Dae i Ts BIDWELL, GEORGE L., and CHARLES F’. CRESWELL, bulletin on Wompositioneol cotton, Seed.) = oo. ee. ees ee 3inder-twine, fiber production in Philippines, bulletin by H. T. Edwards : 3ituimens, testing and sampling, methods and apparatus_____. Buiatr, W. G., and WM. R. MEApows, bulletin on “ Comparative spinning tests of Meade and Sea Island cottons ” 3011 weevil— biology studies on upland and Sea Island cottons, bulle- tin® by Georees. Simphe 2. oo 8 ae damage 'to Sea Island cotton:.crop..2 eS eee ee fecundity in varieties of cotton, studies_2._-__-_____.. 3 field studies DOU PLEATS oe ea ek oe ee hibernation in Florida_ WRRCCTAEN: SUGGS: 2 emer gs 5h eae ee IGNECVILY Simmer ae se eae ll 2 a Bolls, cotton. See Cotton bolls. Bombixr mori, eggs and larve, effect of nicotine sulphate shiek, paving, testing And Sampling 2. ee British Columbia, paper mills establishment________________ Broom corn, growing in Missouri, Ozark region Bulletin No. Page. 948 24-41, 203 933 aalies eG. 6, 942 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 942 2-9 942 10-14 36-61, ag { 7TB<74 940 1-20 940 3-19 934 2 928 19-23 928 12-19 940 1 940 20 933 143 936 1-20 928 23-28 928 23-28 934 2, 65 929 1-10 928 12-23 945 1-28 948 1-22) 930. 1-19 36-61 949 { a 946 1-5 926 1-44 946 il 926 13 926 15-25, 33 926 5 926 33-48 926 11-14 926 7-10 938 2-3, 14 949 28-35, 74 950 . 23 941 26 INDEX. Cabbage, damping-off, fungi causing_—__-___-_______-__-_____ Calcium, need in dairy feed, and sources of supply__----__-_- California. cotton seed, yields of oil and meal, by counties EEC L (ate oS ay EL Se MAE ly Ts he CE ee ee ee eee Canada, grain— AN Gti, FOE VATISSICO) YS Se SRE BE a marketing methods, comparison with United States_______ Carnations, damping-off, occurrence________--_____ Carp, habits injurious to duck feeding grounds______--___-___ Caterpillar tent— Cumolackealniit. Gomtrole tsi) kN ele See ee spraying with nicotine sulphate____ Ase Laer d earl Eph zd Crismaanczer, to wildvduckl nggsos e520 Nee ws let ply hg Cattle— feeding with sneezeweed, experiments and results______ rapsiMionim, MiIssowme Ozark Trecignes 2s See tease tees Cement, Portland, specifications and tests, and apparatus used_ Cerelose— description and composition______________ bisa es ee aoe use in meat curing experiments________ EI ui a ss Celery, wild, duck food value____-____ ERE NERS BEL Chemists, State highway testing, recommendations for sampling and testing highway materials___________________ Chickens— ‘ gapeworm infection, artificial, experiments______-_______ market, examination for gapeworm infection _____________ raising with turkeys, danger from gapeworms Chicks— HROLECHLOM EEO! SapeWOLM Ss S. esa ees we Tie Me ee susceptibility to gapeworms CHurRcH, L. M., and H. R. Totrrey, bulletin on ‘ Corn-belt farmers’ experience with motor trucks” CLAWwsoNn, A. B.— and C. DwicHr Mars, bulletin on “ Po’sonous properties of the whorled milkweeds, Asclepias pumila and PARMUCTIGUULOLT Vee, OCU GIG tne eee eh ee LESS ee us ; and others, bulletin on * Western sneezeweed (Helenium NOOPESI) SAS A /POISOnOUS, plant. 22 2s Le ee ee CLEMMER, PAauL W., and S. HENry AYRES, bulletin on ‘‘ The sporogenes test as an index of the contamination of milk ”___ Climate, Missouri, Ozark region, rainfall and drought Cobwell, oil extraction process, description, ete Codling moth— band reeoards, studies, 1915, 1916 effects of nicotine sulphate as ovicide and larvicide, bul- letin by N; E: MelIndoo, and others 2220-2 enemies, predaceous and parasitic, deser:ption StU Tice iy SERS I cee POR Ya ieee eee EM Colorado, life history studies, bulletin by HE. H. Siegler Gu) VEE. TRQHES aie ke Wile nese lea geese ko ster ROY MEALS LE life history in the Grand Valley of Colorado, bulletin by E. H. Siegler and H. K. Plank seasonal history, in Colorado, studies in 1915, 1916 Color, requirements in grading apples Colorado— Grand Junction— meteorological summary, 1915, 1916 orehard spraying experiments Grand Valley— codling moth, life history, bulletin by E. H. Siegler and H. K. Plank Bulletin No. Page. 934 2 945 6-7, 11, 15 948 41-42, 203 937 3.5 937 621 934 33 936 18 933 21 938 11 936 18 - (tO! 15-17, Tf 26, 30-31 941 28-99 949 17-18 928 3 928 4-28 936 14 949 1-98 939 3-7 939 13 939 8-12 939 11-12, 13 9 7, $) 93t 1-34 942 1-14 947 1-46 940 1-20 941 8-11 927 18, 23 gaol 40-45, 932) 7882 109 938 1-19 932 §2-83 939 87-89 932 1-119 932 1-119 939 { 9-82, Jee 4119-414 935 10,18 932 45 938 16-17 932 1-119 932 23 4 16-17, 63 © ’ ? 940 64-67 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 926—950, Condenseries, experiments with acidity and alcohol tests of WY yee 2 ee eT ea a Conifers— damping off, history, causes, importance and control______ susceptibility to damping off of different species_________ Cooper, M. R., and R. S. WASHBURN, bulletin on “ Cost of pro- Gucine Wheaties Se 4 ee oe ee Cooperation— marketing grain, bulletin by J. M. Mehl__---_----_____ value in growing fibers for twine in Philippine Islands__ Copper sulphate, control of damping off in conifer-seed beds_ Corn growing in Missouri, Ozark region, acreage, production, Viel, . Ct@weee. ae Oe ee ee Corticum vagwn, occurence, description, habits, and control___ Cotton— “ blackseed,” relation to evolution of Meade cotton________ “* Black-rattler,”’ relation to evolution of Meade cotton___ boll weevil. See Boll weevil. bolls— green, development of boll weevil_-_________________ preference of boll weevil for oviposition____________ damping off, parasites causing J -— os eee ee Meads— development, description, and qualities___________._ spinning tests, comparison with Sea Island, bulletin by Wim. R. Meadows and W. G. Blain_= 2) 5) ses Sea Island— area. With map 22082 22) oh es boll weevil, biology studies, bulletin by George D. Smith ee ela be, EE EO ee boll-weevil infestation, “studies tele ah AN we wa damage from bollsweevili= {233 ee spinning tests, comparison with Meade cotton, bul- letin by Wm. R. Meadows and W. G. Blair________ seed, composition of, bulletin by Charles F. Creswell and Geo. ‘L:Bidwelk 2.22 <5) 8 ee Cottons— boll-weevil infestation, studies on upland and Sea Island Varieties 5 =e UREN, 2 Ree Teel renee ee spinning tests of Teese and Sea Island, bulletin by Wm. R. Meadows and W. Blatt ec se. upland, weevil eee comparison with Sea Island____ Cottonseed damage to oil, meal and other seed____~__ meal feed: dangers. 2 2 Ee feed for horses, bulletin by G. A. Bell and J. O. Nye SUS pene Ree eereemegn ye eo oil and meal Meds. WA LIATLON Se 2 se o DUE MESS Sea! yields— by months in vdrious States__.--25...*) 2 Gig ae of oil and meal by months, in various States_________ Bulletin No. age. 944 9-13 934 7-27 934 19-22 943 D9 937 [Sei 930 9-18 O34 24-25. 27 18, 19, 941 23-24, 42-51 2, 4, 6-7, : 27-34, 9384 65-73. 79, 85-90 946 1=2 946 122 926 27-29 926 28-29 934 LG. ce) 946 1-2 946 1-5 926 4 926 1-44 926 6-43 946 1 946 1-5 948 1—221 926 2-48 946 1-5 926 28-29 948 5 929 1,2,6.7,8 929 1-10 929 1 3-4, 948 907-210 948 202-206 10-24, 27-42, 44-49, 54-88, 84, 87-97, 948), 100-116. 118-133, 136-156, 159-167, 172-201 INDEX. Cottonseed—Continued. yields—Continued. of oil and meal, by States and counties______________ of oil and meal per ton, by States__-________________ Cottonwood, Alaska, use for pulpwood______________________ CovucH, JAMES F., and others, bulletin on “‘ Western sneezeweed (Helenium hoopesii) as a poisonous plant.’___-__________ Cowpeas, growing in Missouri, Ozark region, uses, etc________ Cows— milk, yield, influence of calcium and phosphorus in feed, bulletin by Edward B. Meigs and T. EK. Woodward______ rations, standard insufficient for optimum milk yield____ Coyote, enemy of wild ducks in Utah_______________________- Cream, production in Missouri, Ozark region________________~ CRESSWELL, CHARLES F., and Grorce L. BmoweLL, bulletin on AOomMposition of cotton Seed 7Llki. 2 le eee rops— selection, acreage, and management, Missouri, Ozark re- Tonge. 2 0u SDE. COIN Tai BNA elie ASE ek a small, growing in Missouri, Ozark region__________-____ Curing, meats, use of substitutes for sucrose, bulletin by vere ELO ean G8 we es ee he SE PE PTE Cyclone pulping machine, description and cost DIS) SAAD wan 80 DAHLBERG, A. O., and H. S. Garner, bulletin on “‘ The alcohol test aS a means of determining quality of milk for con- LEST CSTE tear ear 2s SMM REN cL id eS PA RID SDN 8 ED Dairy— cows— milk yield, effect of calcium and phosphorus in feed, bulletin by Edward B. Meigs and T. E. Woodward__ rations, standard and experimental___________ herds, Missouri, Ozark region butter-fat production and conditions__ a AS EEISABUL Cea tal SHANE eine ie Deh sce Dairying, Missouri, Ozark region, cream productions, ete______ Damping off— CAUISCS SEM SL ally ATE I al yyet wee hes We SIE EA ea NAL Lee PAIL conifers, history, causes, importance, and control________ seedlings in forest nurseries, bulletin by Carl Hartley____ Delaware— tomato pulping, statistics____ i Bh EM Mle walnut range and estimated stand__ he Behitiwe peels Dextrose, use in meat-curing experiments__________ Dibrachys clisiocampae, parasite of codling moth ____________ Diseases, walnut, description_____________________ soles eed Disinfection, seed beds, methods____--_____________________ Dixon, H. M., and J. M. Purpom, bulletin on “ Farm man- agement in the Ozark region of Missouri ”_________________ Doss Men enuMeS OL SOMES AMG KTS 2 ss a ee eo WOLVES. Mardness) Oty TOCKi 2. 6 wi Cue ee Doyle log rule, measuring logs and estimating standing {EILTINGY OY SST A 1 a on $35 UA NY ree eae Dried beef, curing process, and “quality requirements Ue aan Da ceo Drier— direct heat, description and use_________ a AY eda trayless, description, capacity, and cost__________________ tunnel, description, capacity, and uSe_______________ Driers, tomato seed, description, use, and cost_______________ Drill, laboratory diamond core, manufacture and use_________ Drying, tomato seed, methods and equipment, cost, ete________ Duck lettuce, occurrence in Utah marshes_______________ Ducks— foods of Bear River Marshes, Utah, description and value_ migration from Bear River Marshes, Utah, in fall________ D Bulletin No. Page. 948 8-201 948 6-7 950 SG). ib 947 146 941 18, 25 945 1-28 945 3-8, 12 936 17 941 29-3 945 1-221 O44 1413 945 1-28 Geo 10 945 ee 43, 38 941 30-81 941 29-39 984 je 934 oor 934 1-99 927-3, 4,24 933 7.8.24 6-11, gee | ee 932 83 933 21 934 22-97 941 91 941 23 949 4-6 983 28-31 928 23-28 Oo ny eis 927. «12-18 927. 11-12 927 10-15 949 76-78 10-15, 927 { 24-97 936 12 e360 10-15 936 9 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 926-950. Ducks—Continued. wild— animal foods in Bear River Marshes, Utah__________ banded, return of bands to Department by hunters, MeQuest so lou es eS eee Bear River Marshes, Utah, species, number, habits, ete. enemies, Natural, birds and mammals__________.- _____ food destruction by agricultural practices___________ MO) CiegeapIpS = oe et) ee |) proteenon needle 2) 2 ss 2 a es shoonme "Season — = ee Epwarps, H. T., bulletin on “The production of binder-twine hber in. the*Philippine Islands”??2222 3 ee ee EGGLeston, W. W., work on poisonous plants, note___________ BKeggplant, foot rot and damping off, cause____-__-_-_ Elevators— farmers’, development, and conditions, discussion________ terminal— Canada, regulations and methods___="== ===) __ ass in UWnited States, operation... _ eee eee Engineers, State highway testing, recommendations for sam- pling and testing highway materials:__ = ee eee Exports, apples from Northwest, 1916—1920__________________ Family, incomes, farms in Missouri, Ozark region____________ Farm family, supplies from farm, average value_______________ income— y Gefinition S20 22 2 st ea Missouri; Ozark regions. 222 ee investment, averages for farms in Missouri, Ozark region_ management, Missouri, Ozark region, bulletin by H. M. Dixonzand J... MM. Purdom:=_ 53s. 0 eee OrZanizanion, Application) OF ‘COSt datas = 2 Parmers— elevators, development and conditions, discussion ________ grain, association in Canada and United States__________ Farming, corn-belt, use of motor trucks, experience of 831 ARINC TS = SE si es elie GE Sal gee Farms— corn-belt, use of motor trucks, acreage, by States_________ expenses in Missouri, Ozark region_~_-_________________ hill, comparison with valley farms, Missouri, Ozark region Missouri, Ozark region— business and source of income individual records and business analysis receipts and expenses, Missouri, Ozark region____________ valley, comparison with hill farms, Missouri, Ozark region wheat, crops acreage, climate, and soils________________— Federal Trade Commission, duties under water-power act Feed— cottonseed meal for horses, bulletin by G. A. Bell and J. O. Willianmigte S223 = oe ae 2 ee See ee nee cows, influence of calcium and phosphorus on milk yield, bulletin by Edward B. Meigs and T. E. Woodward Feeding— cows during dry period, effects on milk yields____________ dairy cows, experiments at Beltsville Experiment Farm__ sheep, with poisonous milkweeds, experiments and results_ Bulletin No. Page. 936 14-15 936 20 2 3-10, P36 \ ae 936 16-18 936 16 936 6-9 936 1-2 936 10 930 1-19 942 al 934 2 9a 2-6, 15-17 987. «12-15 987. «17-18 949 1-98 935 8-9,27 were 1314 941 13 ga 12-418 12-15, 21 { 42-51 944. 15-17 941 1-51 943 34 937 2-6, 15-17 937 5-18 931 1-34 931 3-4 20-21, ofl { 49-51 -(14,17-22, oat { 42-51 12-15, o8) { 42-51 941 40-51 (20-21 Dale Wings, 14, 17-22, ott { eee 943 6-11 950 18, 27 929 1-10 945 1-28 945 3-5, 13-19: 945 1-28 942 3-14 INDEX. Fecds— horse, rations containing cottonseed meal, suggestions____ stock, oil cake and meal from various sources____________ Hennentatron, . Stormy,2vot milk, cause. == Fertilizer, requirements in wheat production, and costs_______ Fiber— binder-twine— production in Philippines, bulletin by H. T. Edwards__ SATeCSUArGiM oe SUPPLY, IMpPOGbaNncesw.. 2. we Maeve cleanin en mie th Od s2 Beee a a eeu a plants, growing in Philippine Islands, cooperative work__ Sisal, cleaning methods and machines___________________ Fibers— cleaning machines, introduction and use, Philippine VERSE NF NC Sgt i a SENS SISA Ti ee ELE UNO ST: OUR CCS) setts eye a oes ak a ai Fiske, R. J., N. E. McInpoo, F. L. SIMANTON, and aL K. PLANK, bulletin on ‘‘ Effects of nicotine sulphate as an ov icide and larvicide on the codling moth and three other insects ”____ Blaxesdampine Off, Causes... 3. oo aes ce ee Flies, alkali, food Dit Ayu MCo HOCG Ce) efi ET PE a Florida— boll weevil, biological studies, bulletin by George D. Smith_ cotton seed, yields of oil and meal, by counties and months_ Forest— nurseries, damping off, bulletin by Carl Hartley_________ Tongas National, Alaska, development of pulpwood re- sources, bulletin by Clinton G. Smith -____________-_-_ Forests— Alaska, source of paper pulpwood_____________ aye National, timber sales procedure________________ Pee)". Pormaldehyde, use in control of damping off in conifer seed VOCUS cae I eee a ee a hes ie SalI ee oak Freight rates, pulp and paper from PN TUAIS ia Ons ee mR UIE Ree pa esta Ei pLOCeChOn Toy transit, meedsS_ 9 oo ees eee Hruits, growing in Missouri, Ozark region_-___-__-__--- = Fuel, Alaska pulp mills, sources________ eee! Fungi— causing damping oft of conifers, occurrence, descrip- CEPI AIT * SEC, eel i al cul eb it PRE ly ane pC Sip A NSS damping off, types and hosts, general and special________ Fusarium— fii7acanse Otadampins-oih Of flax es Sie ee spp. occurrence in conifer seed beds, habits____.______-___ Gapes, cause and control____ ale SiN eee STL ied eB Ao Gapeworms— GESeEILION: ang Mie MIS tO Y 22 4 publications relating to ee ag aE Nase ae spread by turkeys, bulletin by B. H. ‘Ransom sup nS 2 GARNER, H. S., and A. O. DAHLBERG, bulletin on “‘ The alcohol test aS a means of determining quality of milk for conden- SCE AES SIS Sf UR RE a Ve Sa RR Ul Se pag Ba A, Gasoline, for motor trucks, cost______ ch ci aupemays 2 1G Lh Na ees Geeseiavald a moltime- haibitgen= 2.62.2 0 SO ee Georgia— cotton seed, yields of oil and meal by counties and months_ walnut range and estimated stand______________________ Gibberella saubinetii, cause of damping off of grain__________ Gilmore needles, use in testing cement mortar____________ Glomerella gossypii, cause of damping off of cotton____________ Bulletin No. Page. 929 9-10 927 20 940 i 943 12,14,39 930 1-19 930 1-2 930 7-8, 11-15 930 9-18 930 1115 930 10-15 930 AA 938 1-19 934 Be 936 15 926 1-44 948 42-49, 203 934 1-99 950 1—40 950 j=) 950 22738 934 25-26 950 20-22 935 5 941 26-28 950 17,19 {27-34 934 65-73, | 79-90 { ie 934 11-19, | 97-90 q 934 2 34-35, 934 66-73, 82 939 Salty 939 6. 7, 10-12 939 13 939 1-13 944 T1138 931 24, 29 936 6,8 948 49-82, 2038 934 7,9 934 2) 949 25, 26 934 2 8 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULS. 926—950. oats, Taisen Missouri, Ozark regione =. ae Goose, Canada, occurrence on Bear River Marshes, Utah _—___ Grades, apple, packing for market, and grading rules_________ -Grading, apples, rules and regulations_._22). 022 2 Grain— buying and selling by cooperative organizations__________ elevators, “ hospital.” operation and benefits_.__._..-.-___ growers in— Canadaymarketin liens Siege rag SS paar = ge mae [BIOL iS *WOWeioUad PUGIOS | Giancees| OG 0G) 9) GucZeulpLOb oe HIEce = m|ESG elmuOROGem| Gite | OGpemen |e: Sen mmemen sun ODise Rules oe ee RE cas ee ee 12 020z Ame 5S UMGuseuenmeran 4K G72 Oh |) as | ene eR ap | Sikes SEDs ign SOTENDSypUe GAT | ees as see Se ae ee os Og 09 92 OuNL Fie hg ee ee meme acces (Epa | Ovnes ce le acreage meee POL a(R eee aes a | emg oe ie gna ee eee ee OR BE gee ae TMUNIXeyy ica Lat we ~ | eRe ee et eee Seo Fea Nee 2077) (=| DOr i ORAS Ce Hats (ioe aes eee ee eg Tae a Lat | eee CRC ete, ee ee a” PS ee Ee ee, Gee eat See in wee “ase10A V SS aged aati at ae ag | eS PLI€ LOT Nemes eae ea | LOGS 161 De ans 2 WONTAR SLE SIS) (ON Sh yee ees Aes PLT LZe ‘T OL ce Maes ee Gos OFL 6S sie age ed a a oe tel een op ar ele ae ae eg ren Semen Rae (MONG od LOt SE €& GGT zat F 8 LT G0 OL 10Z OG pees as ee ODE es Ee Nae Se oe ees Fone ee es 82 09 Fz AL “MHOT{B19UES 4ST 6 LT 6S €F F 61 £06 1 69 6S GOT 6ES Coates =| Retr ates ES) COX UE) N84) FS) RAST SIG IS See i cas han fe Sane Se edie ce ero icc 6049 Ame paar ee 19 19 SSD |S Aaa ala Saar CIS) loys see Sime 5 nS =| ecg Se Sie nS ae ae pan ae ee Ree te ian per Wee det ae ee LOTUS TA ENO Tspal ies Steele 8 SL ean aan See Si eee a Lf ee | een es Baal Ftc Sal Fax kee Sue Sue ee eal = arte mht ead, 2 8 er Se cael O31VAV Fe pan t= (peng Tea ae See eae Be ve. 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Gea Me = te Sts ODS Salt coe ger ties Olle ae a cz 03 9 Ane “MOTye19UES ISIN | 26 | 19 19 02 | 069'T | T8 G9 10°6L | O&Z‘T | 16 Sedans SO-TET 0 Sim [DCLG T SESE le Ayn 07 oune Ronee Ese Ge &% See One RIG Ser secre BN a eta a ef ee | I Cg AC ae | erat regina are oat eae NN ry ei ITD ASH AL COSTS ie ee ase OFT Dpgge ese Sey Sel Se Ste | ae ee CVO) sea fale Sapper anime eel Pent nt oe ery esol appa p ae wes rer avg Tee ee ang fe aseIOAV BOY C Dla iet —le Sae Ce taa lt ay ap ecee | Fa gies SII (01 arian | Ne mm Eo Se G62 Gp” ed cS Ee gS edhe eS cl aOR oa een CoC oie os adie. cond [210.1 ‘od FE PS &@ 6 OL 92 L GE - GCL | 896 Gi a ie tes a SE eon ODO SSA RGD Uae ane ois eee — ee reir 1g 09 T Avy “peyeuroqrA | 9 OL | &T €T € GL LE € II 6 1X6 € ~SSAIASLMBUE]CGL [DUIS HERIS) [OPPO SS OS eee ce 0g 0) 1 “idy ‘sing | ‘sing | ‘shoqg | ‘shivg ‘shnoq | ‘sing “Aqtaos | -Aq1A03 | “Aq1A08 | “AQTA03 *Aqtaes | -Aq1Ae3s : -u0] -u0[ -u0| -U0] “sep “10q, -u0T -U0[ “sep “19q, STEAee Aero Bom o3e umu | wut ose | [TA00\\ | -nN | umMuUr ose | [TA08,\\ | -UmMN -I0AV | -Ixey | -IxeyT | -I9Ay -Ixey | -10AV *pooj Jo puly ‘oe “sexes TOG = *SOTBUIO YT “SOTRI ‘STGL “DIA ‘UOSIPD]T ‘U01209 PUD)SI-vas UO JWVaaM 7110q 2Y7 LO hywebuoT— AT AISvL, 2 16073°—21 10 BULLETIN 926, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. was made by a first-generation female weevil that became adult dur- ing the latter part of June. This weevil lived a total of 67 days. The maximum length of life for the male weevils was also recorded for a first-generation weevil that became adult during the latter part of June. This weevil lived a total of 65 days. The average lon- gevity for hibernated weevils fed with sea-island cotton plantlets was 11.05 days. The weevils lived 10.7 days on sea-island squares and 15.3 days on green sea-island cotton bolls. By comparing the aver- age longevity of the weevil on sea-island cotton with the average longevity on upland cotton, it is clearly demonstrated that there is little, if any, difference in the food value of sea-island and upland cotton on the longevity of adult weevils. THE SIZE OF THE COTTON SQUARE ATTACKED BY BOLL WEEVILS. Male and female weevils feed largely on the cotton squares, except in the case of sea-island cotton, where there is a decided tendency to feed upon the bolls as well as the squares. Upland cotton squares grow very rapidly and there is little oppor- tunity afforded for direct feeding on the very small squares, except during the period when the first squares come on the plants and again when all Fic. 2.—Three sizes of sea-island cot- SQ(Uares are punctured. However, ton squares chosen for oviposition by sea-island squares do not grow very the boll weevil. : rapidly and a large number of the small squares are shed by the plant from feeding and egg punctures. It has been observed that a large number of undersized weevils are produced in sea-island cotton fields. These weevils are largely the result of eggs having been deposited in undersized squares, which re- sulted in an undersized weevil, owing to the lack of proper larval food (fig. 2). When a large number of sea-island squares are offered a female it has been observed that she invariably chooses the smaller squares for oviposition purposes. No records are available to show the length of the developmental period for weevils developing in under- sized squares on sea-island cotton ; however, it is not thought that there is much variation from that in large-sized squares. Observations on the size of weevils bred from bolls show that, except in the case of very young bolls which shrivel and dry very rapidly, nearly all weevils produced are of normal size. Sea-island cotton bolls seldom produce small-sized weevils, as the boll is very moist and furnishes much better conditions for weevil development than upland cot- ton bolls. BIOLOGY OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 11 LOCATIONS SELECTED FOR OVIPOSITION ON SEA-ISLAND AND UPLAND COTTON SQUARES. Upland cotton squares are usually punctured at the base of the _ square, as is shown in Plate I, figure 2. During the writer’s studies at Thomasville, Ga., in 1916, the majority of the punctures were observed, in the case of sea-island cotton, to be on the upper portion of the square. There is little proliferation around the weevil punc- tures on the sea-island squares, the punctures being mere specks as compared to those on upland cotton. This characteristic location for ege deposition is shown in Plate I, figure 1. PERIOD FROM EMERGENCE TO OVIPOSITION. Female weevils bred in the outdoor insectary required an average period of 8.9 days from the time they became adult to the date of oviposition. The period of time from emergence to oviposition varied from 6 to 20 days for weevils bred under insectary condi- tions. Boll weevils bred under normal field conditions appeared to have more vitality than weevils bred under insectary conditions. A record of 38 first-generation weevils bred under normal field condi- tions gave an average period of 7.07 days from the time they became adult to the date of oviposition. OVIPOSITION PERIOD OF THE BOLL WEEVIL UNDER INSECTARY CONDITIONS. The oviposition records for the weevil on upland cotton are pre- sented in Table V. MHuibernated female weevils kept with male weevils throughout life deposited eggs over an average period of 35.9 days compared with an average period of 21.7 days for females that were not kept with male weevils. The hibernated fertilized and nonfertilized weevils deposited a total of 3,605 eggs or an average of 7.2 eggs per day per female. During the lifetime of both series of hibernated weevils an average of 171 eggs was deposited by each female. ‘The greatest number of eggs deposited during any one day by a single hibernated female weevil, under insectary conditions, was 20. ‘The heaviest oviposition during the lifetime of both series of weevils was from the fifth to twenty-fifth days (fig. 4). The first- generation weevils deposited eggs for a period of 39.7 days and the second generation over a period of 35.2 days. The average period of oviposition on upland cotton for all weevils under observation was 33.1 days. The relationship between the mean daily temperature and the mean daily oviposition of the hibernated weevils is shown to cor- a2 BULLETIN 926, U.'S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. respond very closely; that is, the higher the mean daily temperature the higher the average number of eggs until the period of oviposition begins to decline (fig. 3). aE oa! eae: I] Beata Ti 2y mien iin ae ey i | Leg ve a ey TOMS. | ea Uae ee Fee (es Pe AY OB Ce ae wZ2 9 MEAN DAILY TEMPLE RATURE mem ——— MEAN QCAILY OVIPOSITION OF HIBGERNATED FE/FALE Fic. 3.—Relation of mean daily temperature to mean daily oviposition of hibernated ~ weevils. The oviposition records of the boll weevil on sea-island cotton differ very little from those on upland cotton under insectary conditions. The female weevils fertilized in the spring deposited eggs for an average period of 31 days and the hibernated weevils 10 M0. OF EGGS FER FEMALE S £66 LAYING PERIOD (DAYS) Fic. 4.—Mean daily oviposition of female weevils in upland cotton squares. fertilized in the fall, for an average period of 27.1 days. The first and second generation weevils deposited eggs for average periods of 35.4 and 33.6 days, respectively. The average oviposition period for the females in sea-island cotton squares is shown to be 31.6 days. BIOLOGY OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 13 TABLE V.—Oviposition period of the boll weevil on upland and sea-island cotton squares, insectary records, Madison, Fla., 1918. Upland cotton— c wie period. Nani? Sea-island cotton. : ber ber Source of weevils. Season. Gitorzs ln eea ote males. | Maxi-| Mini- | Aver- | males. | Maxi-| Mini- | Aver- mum.|mum.| age. mum.|mum.| age. Days. | Days. | Days. Days.| Days. | Days. Hibernated.......-...-- May-July. --..-- 12 59 16] 35.9 15 52 18 31 Hibernated, fall fertili- |..... Ose eee oes 10 53 5 21.7 10 44 16 Pfeil zation. : First generation........ June-August. --. 8 55 31} 39.7 10 47 25 35. 4 Second generation. ----- July-September. 10 45 20 | 35.2 10 46 19 33. 6 raieiigl: Sea eee ee | Ft a a (ae 33.1 Peale Tere Ets 31.6 SUMMARY OF THE FECUNDITY OF THE BOLL WEEVIL ON SEA- ISLAND AND UPLAND COTTONS UNDER INSECTARY CONDI- TIONS. Table VI gives a summary of the fecundity records of the boll weevil on sea-island and upland cottons. Here it is shown that the average number of eggs per day was highest with hibernated weevils for both types of cotton. The maximum number of eggs per day was made by a first-generation female on upland cotton and the maximum number per day on sea-island cotton was made by a hibernated weevil. The average number of eggs per female on upland cotton was 166.1 and the average number of eggs per day 4.92. On sea- _ island cotton the average number of eggs per female fell to 113.5 and the average per day to 3.8. These averages compare closely with those secured on upland cotton at Victoria, Tex., in 1913, where the females deposited an average of 212 eggs teh and 1 oviposition was at a rate of 5.9 eggs per jon TABLE Vi:—Summary of the fecundity of boll weevils on sea-island and upland cottons under insectary conditions, 1918. Average Eggs per day. Number] number aucnce Source. offe- | ofeggs fa males per fe- oneal Aver- | Maxi- male. | age. | mum. Upland cotton: Days. RIDER NAGECC Meer ia tye: SEI IRE Eo bs Been ee Ten 12 270. 3 35. 9 7.18 20 Hibernated, fallfertilization. --.......--....----------- 10 117.7 yA s 5. 4 19 First generation BedSEoT SUUBEE Perea SERSEEHBe teen Semric 8 222. 8 39. 7 5.6 25 Second!generation =~. 5.22222 52-2. sc226202-25-20+- see - 10 53. 9 35. 2 i155 7 TEC ea bee seers Series SREO AE See aR ioe ete Seles 0 RE a iors SESeeaa 4 BeaeaHer PRCT AO Cm oie ae BEL ME Asn op io Seas Nd ot eee | ee 166. 1 33. 1 COUP T) Beee eee Sea-island cotton: ; i pernated ee es ssat es sacs eee soos a2 eee desue ese 15 214.7 31 7. 38 19 Hibernated, fall fertilization.......-...--..--.--------- ; 10 122 27.1 4.5 16 irshigenerationee ose oe df aeeece sa seca ce else eee 10 79.9 35. 4 2.2 11 SEcOud LEMeratlOMs. 2827 sees see Ps Sose eee ee ee 10 37.5 33. 6 1.11 7 SECO 1) EG eR a aa oh he ee SO i ee gH Bescheoe SEB e eee Passes sed leaeesee PSV ETE Ee Seen ae ei pe Sanne Sm emus ert Ee Ere Wee IS ae See tac 113.5 31.7 PCa} [ee 14 BULLETIN 926, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE AVERAGE DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD OF THE COTTON BOLL WEEVIL UNDER OUTDOOR INSECTARY CONDITIONS. The data on the average developmental period of the boll weevil under outdoor insectary conditions for sea-island and upland cottons are presented in Table VII. These observations extended over a period of time beginning on May 26 and ending on September 10. The maximum developmental period of any weevil from egg to adult was 18 days and the minimum period 11 days. On upland cotton 506 male weevils bred in the insectary required a total of 7,568 weevil days, or an average period from egg to adult of 14.62 days. A total of 347 female weevils bred under insectary conditions required an average developmental period of 14.8 days. The average period of development for the immature stages bred in upland cotton squares is shown to be 14.91 days. On sea-island cotton 150 male weevils required 2,214 weevil days from egg to adult, or an average developmental period of 14.82 days. A total of 101 female weevils, bred in sea-island cotton squares, re- required 1,550 weevil days, with an average period of 15.06 days for development from egg to adult. There is practically no difference in the time required for development of the immature stages of the boll weevil in sea-island and upland cotton squares. TaBLeE VII.—Total developmental period of the boll weevil under insectary con- ditions, Madison, Fla., 1918. Males. Females. Both sexes. Aver- : Larval | Oviposition ace Source of weevils.| “fooq period. Num-| Wee- | A¥€!-| Num-| Wee- | 4Ver-|Tota! | Total ae er | vil | 86 | ber | vil | S86 | umn] war: elon bred.} days. od. bred. | days. od. | bred.| days at peri- od Upland cotton: Days. Days Days. Hibernated...| Cotton | May 26-July 27| 201 | 2,931 |14.09 | 126 |1,812 |14.38 | 327 | 4,726 | 14.4 square. 1b fy Sea Oss <28 May 29-July 23} 57 816 |13.4 41 | 564 {13.7 98 | 1,380 | 14.08 First genera- |...do--.... June 14-Aug.15{ 208 | 3,183 |15.3 133 |2,029 |15. 2 341 | 5,218 | 15.38 tion. Second gener- |...do-.-.. July 17-Sept 5.} 40 638 |15.7 47| 742 |15.9 | 87 | 1,380] 15.8 ation. « opal: 2.) eee t= se Cate <= eee om =r 506 | 7,568 |...- 347 '5, 147 853 112,704 |.....- JN (EE) Bate ce ase s- - “Sese bceaes| PAL eae ANGZi |). we '- |= ceee WsBinalt bet, slascertae 14 91 Sea-island cotton: Hibernated...| Cotton | May 26-July 20} 67 965 |13.5 46 | 689 |13.46 | 115 | 1,654] 14.3 DIN, ae eee do....| May 25-July 18} 34| 490 |14.4 15 | 220 |14.6 49 | 690 | 14.08 First genera- |...do..... June 21-Aug.15 33 498 |15.09 15 | 249 |16.6 48 746 | 15.5 tion. Second gener- |...do....| July 11-Sept. 4} 16 261 |16.3 25 | 392 /15.6 4) 653 | 15.9 ation. OAS = oN Some | | seo. ahd ee ea 150 | 2,214 |...... 101. \1,650)| 2228 253 | 3,743 |...... PROT ET EL jo, atthe CIRM (eel! ip | PS ASAI jee | Fa 3) | ae TAS Sore a Lo\O0n\ corse | Hoes .| 14.94 BIOLOGY OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 115) THE DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD OF THE BOLL WEEVIL UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS. Although it has been known that the factors of temperature and humidity influence the development of the boll weevil, and that labo- ratory breeding methods are more or less artificial, the exact differ- ence between the life history of the weevil under field conditions and in the laboratory has never been determined. In the experimental work at Madison, Fla., in 1918, it was found that the boll weevil in the field was requiring a considerably longer period for development than had been expected. Records tabulated by Hunter and Pierce* showed that the length of the developmental Fic. 5.—Cages used in the oviposition studies of the boll weevil under field conditions, Madison, Fla. period varied with the length of time the infested squares hung on the plant after egg puncture. The Madison studies fully corrob- orate this statement. The field-breeding records were secured under conditions which most nearly simulate nature. A large cage was placed over a cotton plant on which there were no infested squares (fig. 5). A single female or a male and female were liberated in the cage with the non- infested squares. On the second day if any squares were infested these were tagged (fig. 6) and the cage and weevil were then removed to a fresh cotton plant from which all infested squares had been removed. Thus day by day the weevil’s maximum oviposition capa- city was obtained and the infested squares remained on the plant 8 Hunter, W. D., and Pierce, W. D. ‘The Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil: A Summary of the Results of the Investigation of this Insect up to December 31, 1911. Senate Docu- ment 305 (U.S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent. Bul.:114). 188 p., 22 pl., 33 figs. 1912. 16 BULLETIN 926, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. normally, merely being weighted by a light string tag. When the infested squares fell the date was recorded on the tag. All of the infested squares of a certain weevil were assembled in an inclosed area to prevent damage (fig. 7) and placed on the soil under the plant just as they would normally lie. They were watched daily, and only about two days before emergence was expected were covered, still under the plant, by coarse wire screen cages (fig. 7) in order to get the number of weevils that emerged and determine the sex. Hence abnormal con- ditions were experi- enced for only about 2 days. Since these records “indicated a much ‘longer developmental period than was re- - corded in previous bulletins, a complete series of control ex- periments was con- ducted in the outdoor insectary (fig. 8). : Z Se | It will be seen by Fic. 6.—The infested squares tagged on the cotton plant, Table VIII that the Rae ae developmental period in the tumblers under insectary conditions at Madison is much more rapid than under the most favorable outdoor conditions experienced. Taste VIII.—Showing the length of the developmental period of the bolt weevil under insectary and field conditions, Madison, Fla., 1918. In insectary, developmental Outdoors, normal develop- Aver- period. mental period. age. Ten-day oviposition period. istrhte Days. oe Days. Accel- Devo) eration eevils ee of in- “pred, | Maxi- | Mini- | Aver- |"C@Vils| Maxi. | Mini- |. Aver- | sectary mum. | mum. | age. * | mum. | mum,/ age. days. UM NS oo Biro n.cle ee ae 370 15.6 13.6 14.8 50 24.5 20.1 21.6 6.8 PULGs-oe ee oe oes te ee 306 15.2 13.7 14.5 94 24.2 20.8 21.9 7.4 SHiveil—a Neyo... betes ae, 87 18 14.8 15.8 54 24.3 9.6 23.2 7.4 BIOLOGY OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. Ju74 The development of the weevil is retarded on the plant, and more so on the ground, and accelerated in the insectary. The outside soil is either too hot or too cool and damp, while the insectary maintains a more even condition, warmer than the plant and cooler than the ground. Tf one feels of a leaf or square on a hot day he immediately receives a sensation of coolness. If he lays his hand on the sand in the shade of the plant it feels cool and damp, and if he lays the other hand on the sun-heated sand he experiences a sensation of burning. Dr. Pierce made a series of temperature measurements on June 21, 1919, in a period of less than 2 hours (from 10 to 12 “ daylight-saving Fic. 7.—The field hatchery, Madison, Fla. time,” or 9 to 11 astronomical time) in which the air Saco about 2 feet above the ground was 88.5° to 89.5° F., The humidity by sling psychrometer was 68.5 to 69 per cent, i wet bulb 73.5. The temperature of the sandy soil in the sun was 106.5°, 111°, 111°, and 115° F. at different readings. Once in a while clouds shaded the earth. In the shade of the cotton plants the temperature of the sandy soil was 92.7°, 93°, and 94° F. at different readings; in other words, the shade of the cotton plant reduced the temperature 14°, but the air temperature was 4° or 5° cooler than the sand under the plant. Behind the involucre of the square on the plant the temperature was 88° F’., and next to the stem of the plant, 2 feet above the ground, it was the same. 18 BULLETIN 926, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. When the thermometer was wrapped in cool, green leaves it regis- tered 89° F., but when inserted into a square and wrapped in green leaves it registered 81°. The thermometer covered one-fourth inch by hot sand in the sun registered 106.5° to 107.5° F.; under one-half inch of sand it regis- tered 99°, under 1 inch 95°, and under 14 inches of sand 91°. Thus shallow burial of infested squares would merely give the immature weevils more favorable temperatures and almost insure emergence; while the sun-heated surface soil, even on this moderate day, was heated very close to a fatal temperature. Fic. 8.—Outdoor insectary, Madison, Fla., where the records were secured to check against the field records. Dr. Pierce then studied the temperature in the field breeding cages and found in the oviposition cage an air temperature of 85° F., a soil temperature in the sun of 108° to 108.5°, in the shade of the wire screen 90° to 94.5°, and in the shade of the plant 92° to 95°. The humidity in the cage was 71.5 per cent, wet bulb 85, while in the open air it was 68.5 per cent, wet bulb 85.5. There is therefore very little difference in the temperature in and out of the cage. The small wire-screen cages used to cover the squares during the last two days before emergence were then measured. In the shade of the plant the temperature was 94.5° to 96.5° F. and in the sun 103° to 106°. The cage, therefore, serves to mitigate slightly the intense heat. In the insectary measurements were made in the breeding tumblers. A temperature of 83.5° F. was recorded for the soil in the tumblers, while above the soil the temperature was 86.5° F. Since the tumblers were only moistened once during the hatching period, a temperature BIOLOGY OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 19 reading on the seventh day gave 84° on the soil and 87° above the soil in the tumblers. On the twelfth day the temperature was 84° on the soil and 86.5° above the soil. Thus, on this particular day, weevils developing in squares on the plant were experiencing 88° F., or probably less, and those in the squares which had fallen on the ground were receiving from Soon iloc E., -ac- cording to whether they were shaded or exposed to the sun, while weevils in the insectary were faring well at 83.5° to 87° F. It has been shown that the most fa- vorable temperature for development is between 83° and 84° F, In order completely to check up condi- tions maximum and minimum thermome- ters were installed in the field hatch- ery. Thus the maxi- Fic. 9.—Thermometers installed underneath the cotton mum and minimum plants in the field to secure soil temperature, Madi- son, Fla. temperatures experi- enced by the weevils after the falling of the infested square (fig. 9) were measured. EGG-LAYING ACTIVITY OF HIBERNATED FEMALE WEEVILS UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS. Table IX gives the data on the egg-laying activities of female weevils under field conditions on upland cotton squares. The females deposited an average of 76 eggs each at a rate of 8.4 eggs per day. The maximum number of eggs during any one day was 19. It is practically impossible to keep a continuous record of female weevils 20 BULLETIN 926, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, under field conditions. Female weevils liberated in large cages over growing cotton plants frequently get killed accidentally, spiders sometimes catch them, and they escape very readily from the cages. The records presented in Table XI really indicate the rate of oviposi- tion per day instead of the average number of eggs deposited per female. Taste IX.—Egog-laying activity of individual hibernated female boll weevils kept with males under field conditions on upland cotton. Aver- xi- Parent weevil. sta ae ite Date of | Date of number|num ber ‘ * first egg. | last egg. at 88S | of eggs |ofeggs Source of weevils. epos- ae ited: ||P a) aren Generation. No ° day. day. nes cho ae Hiubernated = 2.22. | Al | May 29] June 1 28 7 8 | Hibernated field collected. Dearest eee pA Sed Osea June 21 218 9.9 19 Do. 1 DY a Get ae oe 2 A 3 | May 31] June 5 33 5.5 7 Do. 1b Ties eee ae A 4 |June 1 | June 14 80 6.1 9 Do. Of sc ee = be Noe ASS) Med 0 June 8 65 9.3 18 Do. DO les oss oeteee A7 |June 8 | June 15 63 7.9 13 Do. De sot see A& |June 9] June 13 49 9.8 13 Do. pein) ee) | AQ | June 8 | June 14 68) ony 14 Do. aE op es aie mee eee } AlatO "|S do.--<-| dane: 19 70 5.8 11 Do. EO aioe os a OB | A 13 | June 12 | June 21 ai. Tl 19 Do. TBO) sooty lp ee | Aaa) dow S52 June 23 97 8.1 19 Do. bye ee Se aes ti A 16! June 18 | June 22 54 10. 8 18 Do. Mahal to < Arce a | Pears, ewe, 3 ai mmm 915 \e.c een 168 AVOraPGn asso scccas ihr 5 a ied, (ceo oa cel eC ee oe 76 S544 A eeeree Meritt eee | eS ied eye 3a a 2181 te 19 Maritim»! * 23. 4555 Last eeies |Je-222+--=- ae ae i 33 DDia| eee LENGTH OF TIME UPLAND COTTON SQUARES HANG ON THE PLANTS AFTER EGG PUNCTURE. In Table X are found the data on the length of time squares hang on the plants after egg puncture by the weevil. The average num- ber of days from the time the egg is deposited until it drops off the plant is shown to be 11.5 days. The maximum length of time any square hung on the plant after egg puncture was 19 days and the minimum period 6 days. The length of time elapsing from the date of falling of the infested square from the cotton plant to the emergence of the adult weevil is shown to be 10.8 days. Practically one-half of the weevil’s immature stage is developed while the square is on’the plant. The minimum number of days from falling of the infested square to the emergence of the adult weevil was 3 days and the maximum number 19 days. BIOLOGY OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. Dil TaBLeE X.—Showing development of weevil as related to the length of time squares hung on plants after egg puncture, eggs deposited by hibernated females on upland cotton. Aver- di v Aver- Mini- | Maxi- age ini- axi- age Total a Oty mum | mum |number| Total aE Oty! mum | mum |number number ae Son number|jnumber| days |number 5 eTnumber|number| days Date oviposition | squares 7, nt |@ayson| days on from |squares a days | days | from egan. under | Per | Plant | plant | punc- | under | jing | from | from | falling obser- | 2? | after | after |tureto| obser-|°”,6°S | falling | falling] of vation. cha punc- | punc- | falling | vation. adult to to square ture ture of adult. | adult. to square. adult. Mavi ZONES seo 29 315 7 15 11.6 12 122 7 12 10.1 WE Oya: See ae eee 100 | 1,125 6 18 11. 2 17 185 7 15 10.38 Mayesit ere ae... rm 24 269 8 16 11.2 9 82 7 11 9.1 ENON Seis scicis Ss 33 400 6 17 12.1 11 108 3 13 9.8 OS i a ee 24 307 10 19 12.7 2 21 10 11 10.5 TUNE Sewer She 23 265 7 17 10.6 u 79 7 16 11.2 EINE Oe See ani 12 148 6 15 12.3 2 22 10 12 11 TUNER cee ss tee 42 | 482 a 19 11.4 9 105 9 16 11.6 JD Yo) Se Se eee 51 514 7 13 10.7 8 107 10 16 13.3 MUTMO M2 eee oo. BO 28 289 6 16 10.3 14 156 9 19 11.1 OL ae Semecaee 36 410 6 16 11.3 7 83 10 15 11.8 AUITIOVLS Be ptet res ois else 19 240 9 19 13.6 4 39 9 11 9.7 Motaleeseseoee 421 | 4,764 85 2005 | eee 102 | 1,109 98 GT see ee PASCUAL Ose Se) se ays 1=3siaiall a1 = aaec's| se es Bee 7.08 16.6 11.5 SPO wep maase 8.1 13.9 10.8 Me pexcHTON IETS eles slovel| cise eee o2sl| eee aes 10 19 13.6 L7G | eae a aa 10 19 13.3 LiPo is. ee eon es Seoraeee paaasaes 6 13 10.3 AN Nee, ep Es 3 11 9.1 FECUNDITY RECORDS OF HIBERNATED FEMALE BOLL WEEVILS ON UPLAND COTTON UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS. The data on the fecundity of hibernated female weevils under field conditions are presented in Table XI. Of the progeny produced by the individual female weevils 73 males required 1,536 weevil days, or an average period of 21.7 days, for development from egg to adult. A total of 52 female weevils required 1,145 weevil days, or an average period of 20.2 days, for development of the immature stage. The aver- age period of development for both sexes under actual field conditions was 21.7 days, with a maximum of 24 and a minimum of 19.5 days for the first-generation weevils. A total of 17.99 per cent of the infested squares produced adult weevils. ‘This percentage is remarkably low compared with the generally accepted belief that approximately 35 per cent of the infested squares produced adults. At Madison the Norfolk sandy soil is so well drained that the developing weevils are exposed to terrific heat during the time the square is on the soil before the adult weevils emerge. Consequently a very large mor- tality occurs among the immature stages of the weevil. 22 BULLETIN 926, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XI.—Fecundity record of individual hibernated females of the boll weevil fertilized in spring under field conditions on upland cotton. | Progeny produced by individualfemales. Per- | Num- centage |ber eggs Males. Females. Both sexes. punc- Date oviposition | de- tured began. | posited earache ee RT Suuares nor- i De- De- | Total] «oq | Produc- mally. eek Weevil] velop- ae Weevil] velop-| wee- eral Heree ing | bred, | @2Ys- mental) C3 | days. |mental) _vils |Qave sexes, | 2aults. ° period. ; period.| bred. | C#YS: ° Days Days Days 188 | 20.8 6 124 | 20.6 16 312 19.5 ayia 297 | 21.2 a 148 | 21.1 22 445 20. 2 10. 08 137 | 19.6 3 60 | 20 10 197 19.7 30.3 93 | 23.2 7 166 | 23.3 11 259 23.5 13.7 43 | 21.5 0 0 2 43 21.5 13. 07 132 | 22 4 92 | 23 10 224 22.4 15.8 22 | 22 1 23 2 45 22.5 4.08 170 | 24.2 3 70 | 23.3 10 240 24 14.7 125 | 20.8 i 152 |, 257 13 277 21.3 18.5 120 | 24 3 67 | 22.3 187 23.3 11.4 104 | 20.8 7 152} 21.7 12 256 21.3 13. 6 105 | 21 4 91 | 22.7 9 196 21.7 13.6 13 D586) |e oe 52 4,145 | ee 195K Gai! Ree MTS | IANPTACE hee too eee 1) Pe OSOSh cic cece a eee PALSY (al (eee cao OPA Wea eseelinossaae Pal 7 17.99 Maximum........-- 218 DS )p eee a 24.2 (ia Psamor 23.3 22) | pease 24 57.1 Minimum........-- 28 1) les 19.6 Olea canes 2) eee ee 19.5 4.08 SUMMARY OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD OF THE FIRST- GENERATION BOLL WEEVILS IN UPLAND COTTON SQUARES UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS. Table XII gives a summary of the period of development in up- land cotton squares of first-generation weevils under field condi- tions, together with the temperature and humidity records. The average period of development in the infested squares while the squares remained on the growing cotton plants is shown to be 10.9 days. During the time the infested squares were on the ground or after they had dropped off the plant the average period of develop- ment is shown to be 11.4 days. The average maximum soil tem- perature was 103.7° F. Since it has been demonstrated that the boll weevil develops most rapidly under a mean temperature of 84° F., the higher temperatures experienced while the square is on the soil retard the developing process and prolong the developmental period of the weevil. Also high soil temperatures are directly re- sponsible for the death of large numbers of immature weevils. At Madison it was observed that a very high percentage of teneral weevils was killed by the heat before the weevils could make an emergence hole in the square. BIOLOGY OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 23 TABLE XII.—Suwmmary of development of first generation boll weevils under field conditions on upland cotton. age. Totalnum- F 1.| Average period of Aver- ber weevils jpyei. development. Mean Mean wares Date of oviposi-| Datesquares aan) SOL) niin. tion. r dropped off, | Datehatched. bee tem=| ‘soil Fe- | On Onna: Se Nhe pene Male = B * era- male.|plant./ground.| tal. ee Days.| Days. \Days May 29-Junel..-| June 6 June 25.) June17-June 25. 8 6 | 11.6 10.1 | 21.7 \65.5 | 85.4 | 111.7 May 29-June21_.| June7-July 8.-.| June12-July10.| 15 | il || OO We || P83 || OL. May 29-June5.--| June 9-June 16.) June20-June 25. 7 3; 10.8 9.4 | 21.2 |65.2 | 85.5 | 109.7 Junel—June14...| Junell-June24 | June20-July 5. . 8 8) || Wal, 12.7 | 23.5 |76.3 | 81 101.6 June2-June 8-...| Junell-June23 | June22-June25. 2 0} 11 10.5 | 21.5 |62.5 | 85.5 | 109.7 June 8-June 15. -.| June16-June30 | June30-July 5.. 5 4} 10.1 12.2 | 22.3 |76.3 | 81 101.6 June 9to June13.} June18-June23 | July 2-July 5... 1 3 | 11.5 11.0 | 22.5 76.3 | 81 101.6 _ June6-Junel4-...) June17—July 1_.| July 3-July 9. -. a 3 | 10.3 13.7 | 24 |75.96 | 81.4 | 101.3 June8-Junel9_..| Junel6-June30 | July1—July 5. -- 5 4 | 10.4 13.3 | 23.7 |76.3 | 81 101.6 Junel2-June21..| June1s—July 4. .| July 5-July 10. . 6 7| 9.3 12 21.3 |77.2 | 82.3 | 101.6 June12-June 23..| June19-July 8..| July 2-July 13. . 5 % el? 11.8 | 23.8 \79.2 | 82.8 | 101.2 June18-June 22..; June30-July 8..| July 11-July 13. 4 5) 1205 9.4 | 21.9 |79.2 | 82.8 | 101.2 INGE. del SSSR OH te conc eeac SC See meter Se cere 73 ESV RE sl pees | aeieered eee Serica eee VE] Sonne cleaver uri syste gue teil eth o A cv Liege old eee terete 2k 10.9 11.4 | 22.4 &2.6 | 103.7 DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD OF FIRST GENERATION BOLL WEEVILS ON SHORT STAPLE UPLAND, SEA-ISLAND, AND LONG-STAPLE UPLAND COTTONS UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS. In addition to the series of hibernated female weevils under obser- vation a series of first generation weevils was used to determine the difference in the length of the developmental period under field con- ditions on upland, sea-island, and long-staple cottons. The first generation female weevils deposited eggs at an average rate of 7.6 eggs per day on sea-island cotton. The maximum number of eggs deposited during any one day in sea-island cotton squares was 29. The 10 female weevils under observation on long-staple cotton squares deposited eggs at an average rate of 6.3 eggs per day. The greatest number of eggs deposited during one day in long-staple squares was 21 eggs. On upland cotton the 10 female weevils deposited eggs at an aver- age rate of 6.2 eggs per day, with a maximum of 23 eggs deposited by a single female during one day. On upland cotton the infested squares remained on the plants for A period of 11.4 days was the an average period of 10.9 days. average time required to complete the development of the immature stages after infested squares dropped off the plant. The average number of days elapsing from the date of egg punc- ture to the falling of the infested squares was 10.7 on sea-island - cotton. The average number of days required to complete the de- 24 BULLETIN 926, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. velopment of the immature weevil after the sea-island squares drop- ped off the plant was 10.4. The infested squares on the long-staple cotton required 12.3 days from the date of the egg puncture to the falling of the infested square. The time required for the immature weevil stages to com- plete their development after the long-staple squares dropped off the cotton plants averaged 10.5 days. One of the objections to the long- staple varieties of cotton is the tendency of the infested squares to hang on the plants, protecting the immature weevil stages to a cer- tain extent from natural enemies and mechanical injury. A total of 92 male weevils of the first generation bred in sea-island cotton squares required 2,006 weevil days or an average period of Fic. 10—Shallow wooden troughs filled with crude oil to keep ants out of the weevil hatchery, Madison, Fla. 21.8 days for development of the immature stage. The 75 female weevils bred from the same source required a total of 1,651 weevil days or an average period of 22 days for development from egg to adult. An average period of 21.9 days was required for the develop- ment of both sexes of the first-generation weevils in sea-island cotton squares. The 35 male weevils bred from long-staple cotton squares required a total of 726 weevil days or an average period of 20.7 days from egg to adult. A total of 549 weevil days was required for the devel- opment of the 26 female weevils from long-staple cotton squares, or an average of 21.8 days. The developmental period in long-staple cotton squares for both sexes from egg to adult averaged 20.9 days. A total of 61 male weevils of the first generation bred in. upland cotton squares under field conditions required 1,844 weevil days, or an average period of development of 22 days. The 33 female weevils BIOLOGY OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 25 of the same series required 718 weevil days, or an average develop- mental period from egg to adult of 21.8 days. The developmental period for both sexes under field conditions averaged 21.1 days from egg to adult. The total percentage of the infested squares producing adult weevils could not be determined, as a considerable number of the infested squares under observation were detroyed by ants, Sole- nopsis sp. (fig. 10). COMPARISON OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD OF THE IMMA- TURE STAGES OF THE BOLL WEEVIL UNDER FIELD AND IN- SECTARY CONDITIONS. The results of the breeding experiments under outdoor insectary conditions, conducted primarily to check the field breeding records, are tabulated and summarized in Table XIII. The average develop- mental period under insectary conditions for the hibernated and first-generation weevils in upland cotton squares was 14.5 days. The developmental period of the progeny produced by first genera- tion weevils in long-staple upland and sea-island cottons was 14.2 and 13.7 days, respectively. There is little if any difference in the length of the developmental period of the weevils bred in the three types of cotton squares under insectary conditions. A total of 1,148 weevils which required 16,568 weevil days or an average period of 14.3 days for development under Ta conditions is recorded for the three types of cotton. The developmental period of the immature stage of the boll weevil under normal field conditions on short-staple “upland. long-staple upland, and sea-island cottons is presented in Table XIV. The male weevils bred in upland cotton squares required 21.7 days for develop- ment from egg to adult and the females of the same series required a slightly longer period—22.33 days. A total of 323 weevils bred in upland cotton squares under normal field conditions required an average period of 21.9 days for development from the time the egg was deposited to emergence of the adult weevil. In sea-island cotton squares 92 male weevils required 2,006 weevil days, or an average period of 21.8 days, for development from egg to adult. The 75 female weevils bred from the same source required 1,651 weevil days or an average period of development of 22 days. Both sexes required an average developmental period of 21.9 days from egg to adult. On long-staple upland cotton 35 male weevils bred in squares under field conditions required 726 weevil days or an average period of 20.7 days for development of the immature stages. ‘The 26 female weevils required 549 weevil days or an average period of 21.8 days for development. Both sexes bred in long-staple upland cotton squares required an average period of development of 20.9 days from egg to adult. 26 BULLETIN 926, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tine 551 weevils bred under field conditions from squares of all three types of cotton required a total of 12,012 weevil days or an average period of development of 21.8 days from egg to adult. The average developmental period of the weevil in all three types of cotton squares under insectary conditions is shown in Table XIII to be 14.3 days from egg to adult. The average developmental period under normal field conditions for weevils bred from all three types of squares is shown to be 21.8 days. Under actual field condi- tions it is safe to say the boll weevil requires a period of 7.5 days additional time for development, or fully one-half more time than is required under insectary conditions at Madison, Fla. TABLE XIII.—Table showing the developmental period of the boll weevil under insectary conditions, 1919. Ca — e 1 os] . we — . oA ao lo Te ue) hol ial ue} Oear aes © |Saslele | ue erDiE Se HOD) @ joe £ -| & 2 ® ‘sy i i- wu} nal py fy Nature of weevils. Larval food. Period of ovi Ee Bp! 3 ae Blo |s4 a © position. S S|) wm |PolSS| wm lags at) a Bal cc | s (ga/s>| 8 |ae|ar ls s/s | 8 |Be/E |e \Sei5 | & aa OC =a wal ae esp RN eiefoal=y | ty hoes Days Days Days Hiabernated.. 225.022. Upland cot- | June 5-July 25 | 247/ 3,692) 14.9) 123/1, 816) 14.7] 370} 5,508| 14.8 ton squares. Hirst generation. .222.|52220-i3-sseee July 5-Aug. 19 | 189} 2,765) 14.6) 117/1, 762) 14.3} 306} 4, 438) 14.5 Total wp lard |-2 ete cee ete ye ae alae 436| 6,457} 14.8) 240/3, 578) 14.5] 676] 9, 946| 14.7 cotton. Long-staple cotton: First generation...) Long-staple | July 9-Aug. 2 210) 2, 953)14.06) 154/2,187) 14.2) 364] 5,140) 14.1 squares. Sea-island cotton. First generation...| Sea-island | July 5-Aug. 9 67| 917) 13.6) 41) 565) 13.7) 108} 1, 482) 13.7 squares. Motilallcottans. | 2.2. 252e-ce jee saeepeseceee 713/10, 327|14. 15 epee 14. 1/1, 148/16, 568) 14.3 TABLE XIV.—Showing the total developmental period of the boll weevil under field conditions. Males. Females. Both sexes. “ o : t b=! . fH a Periodotort. (3 | ae | 2 tele | Seem —— | eriod of ovi- mB] & |HZlo = Cy 53 Nature of weevils. | Larvalfood. position. SElas| 2 of Ey] & ete ou A 2'n gel Oo |Ba os 2 AS » ou 2 b iT) x) Te] Ye) a1 || 60.4 Halas] € es/8~| 8 |e |S” es SHI Se| © [38/8 BPS dies ee Z A <4 |4 | < |a a 4 Upland cotton: Days Days Days Hibernated....... Cottonsq...| May 29-June13.} 73) 1,536] 20.9) 52/1, 145}22.91) 125) 2,681) 20.8 DO. eas pee | ere (a | eee June 7-June 22.| 23) 477) 20.7) 27| 607/22.5 50] 1, 084| 21.6 First generation..|..... ae ee July 3-Aug. 2..| 61) 1,344) 22 | 33] 718/21.8 94] 2, 062) 21.9 Second generation. ..... govt July 31-Aug. 22.| 23) 539) 23.4) 31) 714/28.03) 54) 1, 253) 23.2 Total pplrend ecb tres ye eee Uoes eo 2) 180] 3, 896] 21.7, 143/3, 184]22. 33] 323] 7,080) 21. cotton, Sea-island cotton: First generation..| Cotton sq...) June 26-Aug. 4. 92) 2,006) 21.8 75/1, 651/22 167] 3,657) 21.9 Long-staple cotton: First generation..'..... apne June 30-July 30.) 35) 726] 20.7 26] 549/21.8 61| 1,275 20.9 ETERS) ae a, Nee ge 307| 6,628) 21.4 24415, 384/22.06 551/12, 012 21.8 types ofcotton. | BIOLOGY OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 27 DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD OF THE BOLL WEEVIL IN GREEN COTTON BOLLS. Owing to the fact that large numbers of adult weevils in the field at the time the bolls are set deposit eggs in the bolls almost as readily as they do in the squares, it is almost impossible to secure noninfested bolls for breeding purposes. Therefore the following method for securing the developmental period of the weevil in cotton bolls for upland, long-staple, and sea-island cotton was followed. Large, healthy, grown bolls were examined for egg punctures. The number of egg punctures was recorded on a light string tag, together Trig. 11.—Green cotton bolls bagged in muslin to secure records on the immature stages of the weevil, Madison, Fla. with the date of examination. The boll was inclosed in a thin muslin bag to prevent further infestation and allowed to remain on the plant under normal field conditions until the adult weevil emerged. All weevils that emerged were counted and the sex determined. During the month of August 200 weevil-infested bolls were bagged (fig. 11) on each of the three types of cotton. Daily examinations were made of the bagged bolls after a period of 10 days had elapsed. The upland cotton bolls produced 7 male weevils that required 233 weevil days for development, or an average period of 33.2 days. The 6 female weevils bred from upland cotton bolls required a total of 207 weevil days, or an average period of 34.5 days from egg to adult. The 200 long-staple or thick-rind cotton bolls produced 8 male weevils that required 250 weevil days from egg to adult, or an average 28 BULLETIN 926, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. period of 31.2 days. A total of 298 weevil days was required by the 10 female weevils bred from long-staple cotton bolls, or an average period of 29.8 days from egg to adult. The sea-island cotton bolls produced 30 male weevils that required 953 weevil days from egg to adult, or an average developmental period of 31.7 days. A total of 18 female weevils bred required 623 weevil days, or an average period of 34.6 days for development from egg to adult. (Fig. 12.) Since the bolls had probably been punctured from 5 to 7 days before they were bagged, it is evi- dent that the developmental period of the boll weevil in green cotton bolls is approximately 35 to 40 days under the most favor- able summer temperatures and longer during the fall months. Howe® states that the develop- mental period of the boll weevil in green upland cotton bolls at Tallulah, La., under insectary conditions, was 16.2 days. At Madison, Fla., the developmental period of the boll weevil in green Fic. 12.—Four cavities in which four cotton bolls under actual field boll weevils were reared in a sea- conditions more than doubles island cotton boll, Madison, Fla. 5 Howe’s record. FECUNDITY OF THE BOLL WEEVIL IN UPLAND AND SEA-ISLAND COTTON BOLLS. Throughout the season of 1918 attempts were made to secure rec- ords of the fecundity of the weevil in green cotton bolls. More than 200 pairs of weevils were under observation at different times during the season. In no case were clear and concise records secured for individual weevils. For some peculiar reason the females did not oviposit freely in the green cotton bolls under insectary conditions. PREFERENCE SHOWN BY FEMALE WEEVILS FOR OVIPOSITION IN SEA-ISLAND AND UPLAND COTTON FRUIT. An experiment to determine the preference by the boll weevil for deposition was made by confining six female weevils over upland and sea-island cotton fruit. The female weevils were confined in a large battery jar on moist sand. Fresh squares and bolls of both sea-island and upland cottons were placed in the jar each morning *Howe, R. W. Studies of the Mexican Cotton Boll Weevil in the Mississippi Valley, U. 8S. Dept. Agr. Bul. 358, p. 28. 1916. Bul. 926, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. FIG. I.—SHOWING POSITION OF EGG FIG. 2.—SHOWING POSITION OF EGG PUNCTURES ON SEA-ISLAND COTTON. PUNCTURES ON UPLAND COTTON. | Fic. 3.—THE DIFFERENCE IN STRUCTURE BETWEEN SEA=-ISLAND COTTON BOLLS (ABOVE) AND UPLAND COTTON BOLLS (BELOW). THE BOLL WEEVIL ON SEA-ISLAND AND UPLAND COTTONS. BIOLOGY OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 99 and all fruit in which eggs had been deposited was recorded and removed from the jar. The records of the experiment are presented in Table XV. A total of 49 eggs were deposited in upland squares compared with 17 eggs deposited in sea-island cotton squares. Eggs were deposited in six sea-island bolls, but in none of the upland cotton bolls. TABLE X V.—Preference shown by females of the boll weevil in locations for ovi- position on sea-island and upland cotton, Madison, Fla., 1918. Eggs in— Date. ea Sea. Oholeyorel |) care || oleae! || aes. island island squares. | sanares.| POs. | polls. Se bacoscsoe 0 0 0 3 July 18........-- 0 0 0 1 ilygt Oe ere 5 0 0 2 Uiihye20 eee oes 3 0 0 0 diel, Ale cbeotonee 9 4 0 0 Uulyp222 ease 3 2 0 0 UR Pis Coseacade 6 3 0 0 uly 2a eee 2 2 0 0 Juilye2oeseeeeeeee 4 3 0 0 ily; 26seen sae 5 0 0 0 Ushi oleseondosee 3 1 0 0 ‘ July 20 essen 4 2 0 0 Wily Mossososces 5 0 0 0 Motalaeeae 49 17 0 6 COMPARISON OF THE NUMBER OF BOLL WEEVILS THAT EMERGE FROM UPLAND AND SEA-ISLAND SQUARES AND BOLLS. The writer placed 4,000 upland squares in a large wire-screen cage on August 26, 1918. The squares were carefully examined to deter- mine whether each square was punctured and large enough to sup- port the developing weevil larva. Similarly, 4,000 sea-island squares were put up on the same date. From the 4,000 upland squares 1,476 adult weevils emerged soon after the squares were placed in the large cage, or a percentage of 36.9. From the sea-island squares 1,979 weevils, or a percentage of 49.4, emerged. 5 One thousand five hundred upland and 1,500 sea-island bolls were placed in a large wire-screen cage on September 1, 1918, to determine whether more weevils would hatch from sea-island than from upland bolls. It is shown in Plate I that there is a decided difference in structure between the two types of bolls, the sea-island being oblong, with a soft and oily texture. One hundred weevils hatched from the upland bolls compared to 650 weevils from the sea-island-cotton bolls. From the records secured at Madison, Fla., during 1918, it ap- peared that the majority of egg punctures in sea-island bolls pro- duced adult boll weevils. It not infrequently happened that as many as from four to eight weevil larve would complete their life cycle in a single boll. 30 BULLETIN 926, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE RELATION OF TEMPERATURE TO THE BIOLOGY OF THE BOLL WEEVIL. The relationship of temperature to the biology of the weevil has been thoroughly studied for the adult weevil. Little information is available, however, showing the effect of temperature on the imma- ture stages of the weevil. For years the Bureau of Entomology has made so-called status examinations in different parts of the weevil- infested area of the cotton belt to determine the percentage of mor- tality caused by the heat and dry weather in the immature stages of the weevil. From an examination of 91,082 immature weevil stages Hunter and Pierce’? found 23.5 per cent killed by heat and dryness. This examination extended over the different months of the growing season from May to October. The relatively small per- centage of mortality among the immature weevil stages recorded in this examination is misleading, because the life of the immature weevils was not followed through until the weevil became adult. From the writer’s observations at Madison, Fla., the critical period of the immature weevil caused by intense heat seems to extend to the teneral adult stage. Hundreds of teneral adult weevils were observed in squares in the field hatchery that were killed by the heat before they could make an emergence hole in the square. There- fore an examination made to determine the percentage of mortality caused by heat and dryness on any given date is misleading for the simple reason that, although the percentage of immature stages dead may not run very high at the time of examination, yet if it were possible to follow these stages through to emergence of the adult weevil the figures might be trebled. As a concrete illustration, on June 25, 1919, Dr. Pierce examined 451 weevil stages in fallen brown squares taken from plants on which tagged squares were hanging or had fallen. Of the 451 stages examined 134, or a per- centage of 38.95, had been killed from climatic causes. At the time this examination was made the writer had 1,378 fallen punctured squares that were tagged on the day of egg-puncture under observa- tion for breeding records. Dr. Pierce’s examination indicated that 38.95 per cent of the 1,378 fallen punctured squares would not hatch weevils, since the punctured squares used in his examination were taken from underneath the plants where tagged squares belonging to the writer were lying. However, of the 1,378 squares that were tagged, only 134, or 9.7 per cent, produced adult weevils. It is evident that a field examination is misleading in so far as the percentage of control of the immature weevil stages by heat and dryness is con- cerned unless these stages can be followed through to the emergence of the adult weevil. 10 Hunter, W. D., and Pierce, W. D., op. cit. BIOLOGY OF THE MEXICAN COTTON. BOLL WEEVIL. ail TEMPERATURES FATAL TO THE IMMATURE STAGES OF THE BOLL WEEVIL Owing to the lack of proper soil thermometers, it was impossible to determine accurately the fatal temperatures for the immature stages of the weevil. The thermometers in use frequently recorded maximums of 115 to 125° F., and under these maximum soil tem- peratures it seems safe to assume that not more than 10 per cent of the immature weevils will survive on Norfolk sandy soils such as occur at Madison, Fla. THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE LENGTH OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD OF THE IMMATURE STAGES OF THE BOLL WEEVIL. Mean temperature and humidity either shorten or prolong the de- velopmental period of the immature weevil. The exact amount of humidity required for development under optimum conditions has never been determined. A mean temperature of 84° F. has been de- termined as the optimum temperature for development of the im- mature weevil stages. Were it possible for the immature weevil to have the exact amount of humidity and a mean temperature of 84°. the developmental period of the immature stages would be approxi- mately 8 days. Temperature and humidity, however, are never just in the right proportion and so the period of development varies under different conditions. THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE LENGTH OF THE DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD UNDER INSECTARY CONDITIONS. Under insectary conditions the development of the weevil has been shown to be approximately 14.3 days from egg to adult. This period of development is much shorter than the period under field condi- tions owing to the smaller variation in extremes of temperature. The mean temperature at Madison, Fla., under insectary conditions during the months of June, July, and August approximates 81° F. according to the United States Weather Bureau records. The aver- age mean temperature is lower by 3° than is required for the optimum developmental conditions. Therefore it is to be expected that the _developmental period would be approximately 14 days under in- sectary conditions. THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE IMMATURE STAGES OF THE WEEVIL UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS. Under field conditions the development of the immature weevil is considerably retarded and prolonged. It has been shown that the infested squares remain on the plants for approximately 11 days after egg puncture. For fully 8 days after egg puncture the sap continues to flow to the injured squares and keeps the temperature lower than is required for proper weevil development. At night the 32 BULLETIN 926, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. transpiration of the plant further lowers the temperature surround- ing the developing weevil, and for 12 of the 24 hours of the day the minimum temperatures below 84° F. are retarding and prolonging the developmental period. After the infested square drops off the plant it is exposed to the high soil temperatures which range well above 100° F. from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. The immature weevil is again re- tarded and all temperatures above 84° F. as well as below 84° F. act as retarding factors. THE DEVELOPMENTAL PERIOD OF THE BOLL WEEVIL ON DIF- FERENT TYPES OF SOIL. Although the field biology of the boll weevil has not been studied for the different types of soil, the results secured at Madison, Fla., indicate certain generalizations which will probably hold good for the majority of cases. In addition to heat and dryness soil drainage must be considered. Poorly drained soils such as are found in the Mississippi Delta and the swamps and river bottoms will probably show an average period of development from egg to adult to be a few days shorter than it would be were these soils well drained. On the other hand sandy, well- drained soils, such as the Gulf Coastal Plains, the oak, hickory, and pine uplands, and the rocky hillside types, will probably show a longer period of development than any other generalized type of soil. The semiarid region of Texas should show the longest period of weevil development under field conditions. The range in the develop- mental period at Madison, Fla., was from 16 to 58 days for weevils © developing in squares and it appears probable that the maximum period would be much greater in the dry regions of Texas. THE EFFECT OF THE DETERMINATE GROWTH OF THE COTTON PLANT ON THE BIOLOGY OF THE BOLL WEEVIL. Perhaps no single factor contributes so much to the control of the weevil as the determinate growth of the cotton plant. On the Gulf Coastal Plains type of soil at Madison, Fla., the upland cotton usually sets its crop by the 20th of July and the cotton is practically all open by the 20th of August. In addition, the cotton plants are usually attacked by several species of rusts and wilts, which result in the plant becoming decadent, shedding off the leaves, squares, and immature bolls. This leaves the weevil with few breeding places. At this particular time also the weevils are so numerous in the cotton fields that the few squares growing on the plants are subjected to an overwhelming attack for both food and breeding purposes, which results disastrously to the fall generations of the boll weevil. The adult weevils in the field rapidly die off, and as few weevils are BIOLOGY OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 33 hatching out the number that live to enter hibernation is greatly decreased. The cessation of squaring naturally forces a considerable number of weevils to attack bolls which otherwise might escape. Whether the loss resulting from this attack is offset by an advantage to the crop of the next season on account of the presence of hearer hibernated weevils has not been fully determined. THE MAXIMUM NUMBER OF GENERATIONS OF THE BOLL WEEVIL UNDER FIELD CONDITIONS. The number of generations of the boll weevil under field conditions varies with the different seasons and on the different types of soil. A very dry and hot season may affect either generation to such an extent that the eggs deposited during the first half of the generation may not produce weevils at all, and consequently the generation is much prolonged. The following table shows the maximum number of generations at Madison, Fla., under field conditions: TABLE XV1I.—Maximum number of generations of the boll weevil bred in cotton squares, Madison, Fla. Period Period from from Generation. Date. fists Generation. Date. wee matur- matur- ity ity First generation: - Days. || Fourth generation: Days. Eggs deposited.....---..--- wwe A ooukcesse Eggs deposited_...........-.- Aug. 24]........ Generation mature......---- diobats) WY ee ok ae Generation mature.._..-...-- Sept. 16 30 Second generation: Fifth generation: Eggs deposited...-..--.---. June 30 }------.-- Eggs deposited.....-----.---- SGI PB) Nocosoeoe Generation mature.....---.- July 20 29 Generation mature.._..-.-.-. Oct. 16 32 Third generation: Sixth generation: Eggs deposited....--.-...-- dwwh?) As Necesasane Eggs deposited...-.-----..--- Ocisn24) | eae Generation mature......-.--. Aug. 17 29 Generation mature...._-.-... Nov. 17 33 The average date of killing frost at Madison, Fla., according to the 10-year average of the United States Wreathe Bureau, is November 29, therefore only six generations of weevils could develop under field con- tions HIBERNATION OF THE BOLL WEEVIL IN FLORIDA. During the winter of 1918-19 three series of hibernation experi- ments were conducted to determine the percentage of weevils sur- viving the winter at Madison, fla. The experiments were arranged to secure data on the number of weevils surviving the winter in the open fields and along ditch banks, in the woods on the ground among the leaves and other rubbish, and in the moss covered trees in the woods (figs. 13, 14, 15). Large wire screen cages 3 by 3 feet by 4 feet high were used for the hibernation experiments. The cages in the fields and on the ground in the woods were filled with an equal amount of moss, leaves, and cornstalks to represent approximately the material the weevils would hibernate in under normal conditions. The cages installed BULLETIN 926, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fic. 13.—Hibernation cages on the ground in the woods, Madison, Fla. BIOLOGY OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 35 in the trees were supplied with moss only and averaged 10 feet above the surface of the ground (fig. 15). The boll weevils were collected from near-by cotton fields and in- stalled in the cages every two weeks, beginning on October 1, the last cages being installed on December 1. TIME OF ENTRANCE INTO HIBERNATION. The time of entrance into hibernation by the boll weevil at Madi- son, Fla., usually begins about the time of the first killing frost. The average date of this event is November 29. During the fall of Fic. 14.—Hibernation cages in the open field at Madison, Fla. 1918, however, the warm weather held on until about December 8. On November 13 the temperature dropped to 37° F., but the 20 days following this drop were extremely warm and all weevils seemed active until the drop in temperature on December 8. The weevils were in hibernation almost continuously until February 20, the date on which the emergence records were started. The mean tempera- ture for November was 59.1° F. and 56.4° F. for December. When it is considered that hibernation begins between mean temperatures of 56 and 60° F. it is seen that the hibernation of the weevil in Florida during November and December is more of a drowsy con- dition than one of inactivity. The mean temperature for January, 1919, was 46.6° F. and for February 61.9° F. Therefore the weevil really entered hibernation late in December and remained in this condition for the month of January. 36 BULLETIN 926, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fic. 15.—Hibernation cages 10 feet above ground in the trees at Madison, Fla. aa In northern Florida the boll weevil, during the period of hiberna- tion, is seldom inactive for a period of time longer than a month. As was pointed out, the only months in which the average mean tem- perature is below 56° F. are December and January, and even then it not infrequently happens that warm days occur such as would force the weevil to activity. Thus it might be said that the hiberna- tion of the boll weevil in northern Florida is incomplete. BIOLOGY OF THE MEXICAN COTTON BOLL WEEVIL. 3) 7 ACTIVITY DURING THE HIBERNATION PERIOD. TIME OF EMERGENCE FROM HIBERNATION. Owing to the incomplete hibernation of the boll weevil in northern Florida the time of emergence must necessarily be a variable date. February 20 has been selected as the date emergence started in the experimental work at Madison. However, six weevils emerged on the 10th of February and four on the 16th. After February 20 little cold weather is experienced at Madison, and this date may be safely assumed to represent approximately the date when emergence begins for weevils sheltered in places exposed to the direct rays of sunlight. RATE OF EMERGENCE OF HIBERNATED WEEVILS IN FLORIDA. _ The emergence period in Florida extended over the period from February 20 to July 7. The rate of emergence was decidedly more gradual than might be expected when the relatively high tempera- tures prevailing during March, April, and May are considered. The accompanying diagram (fig. 16) shows the daily rate of emer- gence of the weevil when hibernating in the open fields, on the ground in the woods, and in the moss on the trees 10 feet above ground. The diagram also shows three prominent periods of emer- gence, or rather accelerations in the rate of emergence—viz, March -3, April 4, and May 5,6, and 7. On these dates the rainfall varied from 0.1 of an inch on March 3 to 1.75 inches on May 7. The extreme emergence recorded for May 6, 7, and 8 was also probably influenced by excessive temperatures. In the accompanying chart (fig. 17) the total percentage of rainfall compared to the total percentage of weevils emerged at different dates also indicates that excessive tem- perature was operating along with the rainfall after the 6th of May. One of the interesting facts concerning the daily emergence of the weevil when hibernating under the three different conditions is that the emergence from the cages containing moss as hibernation quar- ters was much later than the emergence from the other two sets of cages. Spanish moss has been proven to be difficult to warm up sufficiently to force the weevils out of winter quarters before late in the season and the results at Madison, Fla., corroborate this fact in every way. 38 BULLETIN 926, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. NUMBER OF WELVUS EMEP-GING 20.30 40 50 60 _7O GO _90 00 FT/S We?” HOW BIx wy Gq LRVRVVGIRHI Haan gSeng AL PUVA QV SVG Svayqgg Vyggy 2 al Fy 6 ; So % 2) fe Ne OoL/VD Nh 46 ZL 2. ed SS OM GEOCND WV WOODS: FS SA TROLLS ad f 26 |, Contributed by J. C. Smal:wood, Johns Hopkins University. 15 Fig, 9.—A commercial direct-heat drier, 16 BULLETIN 927, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. With steam at 50 cents a thousand pounds, which probably is as low as could be obtained at the present prices for fuel and labor, the total cost for heating the air during a season of, say, 50 eight-hour days would be $50. Table IV shows the size and character of the equipment required for exhaust and live steam, respectively. TABLE I1V.—Comparison of the size and character of the respective equipments required for exhaust and live steam in drying tomato seed. Equipment. Exhaust steam. Live steam. Size of pipe line =o. 262-2 --ssc tee ee terisee apes eeae 1 inches: < ss), acceso 3 inch. Length of pipeline: == 2-5 522232 ares sas = = Probably greater.....-..- IA CCRSSOTICS Seeman eo eeeen eases ee eee os onciee Oil separator...........- Trap. Same tos 3-2: ee eee Reduced pressure with re- Heating surface of radiator .-.-----.---..---.-.-- ducing valveis used. Greater ih 2 eae ese Fullsteam pressure is used. The cost of these installations will vary in every plant. It should be noted, however, that if there is a small engine near the drier, all or part of its exhaust steam may be piped to the radiator and allowed to flow through it continuously without the use of a trap. Allowing 6 per cent for interest on the investment and 12 per cent for depreciation, etc., an increased expenditure of as much as $275 for equipment for the use of exhaust steam over that for live steam would be justified. If the cost of live steam is more than 50 cents a thousand or the season longer than 50 days, even a greater expendi- ture would be justified, with a possible increase in saving. EXTRACTING THE OIL FROM TOMATO SEED. - - Two methods are used for extracting oil from oleaginous seeds— pressure and solvent extraction. The apparatus best suited for extracting oil by pressure is the expeller type of press (fig. 10), which is admirably adapted for press- ing seeds that contain from 18 to 20 per cent of oil. 265 260 365 280 40 [REN SVAVATU Ae emer at aes a ear an nee 415 385 200 320 30 MTT OTe Lee, accor eke eee Se eee oe a 4,050 3, 290 1, 860 2,749 375 9, 095 8, 092 6, 685 7, 350 1,014 Unreported firms are those who failed to respond to the request to furnish statistics of consumption. The estimates for these are based on general information. The total cost of shipping wet seed to the several drying centers would average $26,000 for 3,000 tons (about 1,000 tons of dry seed). To ship the dry seed would cost about $7,800. DRYING THE SEED. Since it is necessary that the seed be dried either at each pulping station or at a utilization center, the cost of drying will have to be figured accordingly. For convenience, Table VIII is presented to show the number and size of the several pulping stations. In order to determine more conveniently the cost of drying the seed at each of the pulping stations, they have been listed according to their ca- pacity. UTILIZATION OF WASTE SEED FROM THE TOMATO. 25 TABLE VIII.—Number and size of tomato-pulping plants in operation. Number Number Size of plant. of Size of plant. of plants plants Vader MPCOOWGOMS = sect <5 sc oc2 6 cleats 240) Nl GLKO0 10) SHO) OO esse concer seceaee 3 to 2, MOO WONS 22:5 2 35,155 h-facevess i Sean 24 RSt0CO oO; COO TomSe ee ere eee ene ee 1 ry 500 to 4, Maionse eee 7 || Over 10,000 tons (17 units) ..........-.-. 2 4, 009 to 6, 000 GIO es Oe © cua ee iene Nes aren 5 If the seed is to be dried at each of the pulping plants, a small tray drier (previously described) would be the most economical to install for the purpose. If a 4,000-ton plant, pulping 5,000 baskets of tomatoes a day, requires one drying unit (all the plants under 1,000 tons being eliminated from consideration), there would be 31 -in this class (for fractions of a unit must be considered as a whole unit). The eight plants of the succeeding two classes would require 16 more units, while the plants in the last two classes would require proportionately more units, or about 20. On this basis the total number of drying units required for the several plants would actually be 67, but 70 is adopted to allow for possible fractional capacities. EQUIPMENT FOR DRYING. The cost of the necessary equipment, including the cyclone heating and drying units, together with the operating cost for drying the seed at the pulping plants, is approximately as follows: F Estimated Equipment : cost. Seed-separating cyclone_________ my $200 Erna se eee ee 2 Rees Raitell t's Pees aurea = 50 TEA Ona fe le Cl Li A cee ans bh Bute nee tnd ae Oe LA BERG EL ie hat) Drier eS Ce pi ag rae plage 44 PENG Fan___ De IMAI Use Se a ee se UR Se 50 WLC AG Ci pa esata hs Awe ee nie Oe eS oe Sore eas TOO Housing______ at ef Bae: Me hd Re bala ae 50 Steam piping __ papel sje Seo inti See Aa De hOO Total cost of equipment fcr one drying unit___ 700 Total cost of Sanipment for drying at 70 pulping SGaibTO IS eee ee ik 3 Ses ee li lg Be MR $49, 000 The cost of operation has been calculated as follows: Operating costs: Estimate. Depreciation, at 10 per cent_____________ $4, 900 Labor (including shipping labor), 1 man at 40 cents an hour for 10 hours per TUT tan (CeO CO) eee eee ena Ge SO) OW CTyeeeeanen, 5 Aw eet aa a A 4, 200 25, 900 Total cost UY AE OD) RMT Cea aie ees, 74, 900 26 BULLETIN 927, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. If the wet seed is to be dried at one central drying plant it would still be necessary to install at each pulping plant seed-separating cyclones. This wet seed after arriving at the drying center would be subjected to the operation of washing, expelling the moisture, and drying, the latter operation being conducted in rotary driers. Such a plant would operate 24 hours a day, handling the peak pro- duction of 50 tons of wet seed a day over a season of about 60 days. The following equipment would be necessary for a plant of this kind: Estimated cost. Conveyor to holding tank Tank! and) istirrerh 22552)" ws Peres tes pee eae eee Piping to Cy Gloneg2 so. 52 See aL a A ae 10 eyclonesior tank and (conveyors. =) 2 Sa Conveyor: to expellers.. i ne 4 moisture expellers' 2.22. = {Pee eae eee Conveyor to driers_________ 4 J4L AE By Se ae ae Hidtiers 4.2 sith Mh 72 ee eA eee ee a Conveyor, to; bagcine machines eae eee Bagcing machine: = 34) 2.22). ae eee eae Piping, shafting, ete_____ pope ee Woe ol ee ee Boiler-and iON SiN Cs soy os Bk eal Os Hreight tand) incidentals] = 22 eee eee Pump; traps; valves) et@ts 2h wr eee Drilling swell, ete@x22-52 22 eh ee eee eee 70 cyclones at pulping stations, at $200 each_____ $14, 000 (CO pumps. ateoo0 each! a= wal eee 3, 500 Piping, freicht.ete+ 22.25.20. a ee 10, 000 Mmevdemta ls). ss ic 2a oy ENE 2 eT COCO) Total cost of equipment for drying the seed at a central drying: plant...) 222+. 55 ee eee 92, 500 The cost of operation is estimated as follows: Labor (loading wet seed into cars) ______________________ $1, 600 Depreciation o£ plant, atvl0 percent 9, 250 Labor, per day, $159.20 (approximate cost), for a season of 60 days2222 3230. be on ee ee eee 9, 552 Management (manager at $3,500, clerk at $1,200), three TOUTS a i oe 1,175 Power (500 tons of coal at $8' per ton))222—__ = ee 4, 000 Motal Me oa ee ee 25, 500 A summary of the costs of assembling and drying the seed at a central drying plant and at the several pulping plants is given in Table IX. After separating, assembling, and drying, the seed is ready for the extraction of the oil. The cost of this procedure will depend on the method of extraction employed, whether it be the expeller or the solvent method. UTILIZATION OF WASTE SEED FROM THE TOMATO. Denk TABLE IX.—Operating costs of assembling and drying seed at a utilization center and at the pulping plants. Drying Pulping Cost. center. plant. IDRDRACHITOD 2 5 obs SER O CORRO EEC eS eo ee ea ae eee ee ae ae $9, 250 $4, 900 Labor (including shipping)......... ERTS accie Score ae ee ESS e tiacd ucts soe line cee 11, 152 16, 800 PORTO: cna ee COROT TENS ORS ae ETE Set ea a ea 4,000 4, 200 MDT EAT ATT oo. SCUG HERO OS SORE SHES ORE IICS ACES: Se Ce ee oie eal er ania eee) 1,175 1,175 PRGSEIN MM OR (AMEE LS) A ly Ain Wo Son MEL ora whales wie Raine Didi ea einec eee Aeteinetinciee 25, 994 7, 806 Ota eeeey eee ame NEN SUL SRN TYG LURE NR labios. 08 AN Ml nah Seay: 51, 571 34, 881 EQUIPMENT FOR EXPELLING THE OIL. The same building which housed the cleaning and drying ma- chinery during the pulping season could be equipped with oil ex- pellers for crushing the seed during the winter months. -For such a plant the following equipment would be necessary : 5 expellers, 1 sump tank, 2 conveyors, 1 filter press, 2 grinding mills, 3 pumps, 2 tanks, piping, and miscella- neous. The estimated cost is_____- UR vaio Fees 0) OOO) The operating cost for expelling the oil from 1,000 tons of dry seed, with the depreciation cost of the machinery and the labor and power charges at current rates, is as follows: Depreciation of the plant, at 10 per cent_________________ $3, 000 Labor (1 mechanic, 1 engineer, 1 fireman, 2 laborers, and 1 HEC) TSESTON ETD) pees wae reesc ik token seg LY ia cas Me Se a a 6, 100 Power (600 tons of coal at $8 per ton) __________ ome A800 Management (manager at $3,500, clerk at $1,200) for 9 months________ Apa PAU elias hed He PAE PEER 25) Total pa unis a wee oe ee ADS The installation of a solvent-extraction plant would probably cost about the same as an expeller plant, namely, $30,000. The operating cost of extracting 1,000 tons of dry seeds is esti- mated to be as follows: Depreciation of the plant, at 10 per cent___________________ 3, 000 IDE) KON a Re EO VS STAN sg ORS Ua Re eT Pa ee ame er 6, 100 Power (500 tons of coal at $8 per ton)_______-_-_- 4, 000 AVA car ease Tn Sen tae eae a ead PIE SC a 3, 525 KURO ree WE ed 2 SSCs 8 ee Se a eee eee esse ve POE EUR ae ene ee 16, 625 The above operating costs for both expeller and solvent extraction are perhaps rather high, since the figures are based on the output of tomato seed only and represent but a comparatively short period of time, the equipment being idle for a large portion of the year unless something else, such as grape seed, pumpkin seed, or some other oleaginous material, can be worked during this idle period. In the event that other materials were worked, the overhead cost would be reduced accordingly and the profits augmented proportionately. 28 BULLETIN 927, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Since it is shown (Table LX) that the most economical operation is involved in drying the material at the respective pulping plants, the total handling cost of this utilization project would be the sum of the cost of preparing the seed and the manufacture of the oil by either the expeller or the solvent-extraction method, which is shown in Table X. TABLE X.—Comparison of the cost of tomato-seed utilization by either the ez- peller or the solvent-extraction method. : anally | Solvent Operation. Expellhing. asyigbutaia. Preparation Of seed: . <2 5552. -2 a5 seeee eae nats cecee os eh Oe see ee eee ae eee aan $34, 881 $34, 881 Recoveryrof oil: < se. sent eee somes: 428 eke - Peck ee eee 17, 525 16, 625 Total handling cost....-..-.....- Jtsckle ts Biteace pe DS deans ene eee 52, 406 51, 506 POSSIBLE RETURNS AND NET PROFITS FROM OIL, CAKE, AND MEAL. In estimating the possible returns from the oil, cake, and meal ob- tained from the seed, a price of 16 cents a pound for expeller oil and 14.5 cents a pound for extracted oil was used as the basis of calcula- tion. The value of the oil cake was estimated on the basis of $40 a ton, or 2 cents a pound, and the solvent-extracted meal at $30 a ton, or 1.5 cents a pound. The gross and net returns from oil, oil cake, and meal from 1,000 tons of tomato seeds manufactured by the two processes described and yielding 17 and 20 per cent of oil by expression and solvent ex- traction, respectively, are shown in Table XI. TABLE XI.—EHstimated gross and net returns from tomato-seed oil, cake, and meal obtained by either the expeller or the solvent-ertraction process. Value. - : Price per Products. ou pound Pp "7° | (cents). Becpeller Solvent ex- ay * | traction. (051 CR ht) Sa Re es ee ne es ae ee oe ener 340, 000 16 $54, 400(Nse 3. 52----.- Do-Aee Bit isis cise ASS eee eee ee eases ie ca 400, 000 WAS lS crorars Z.ciciecs $58, 000 Cael hire Sete ese s Cot es Sate be ae Sree EE Tee eee 1, 660, 000 2 DO COUN Mets oicie eo oe Mee ee Te ee NS oan pater inept se ase ee eee ele 1,600, 900 Vee soe cee ee 28, 000 Totaligross returns. 25/5. o. .ges 2 se wiles s Loec eae see ceiccies oki oeen eee 87, 6900 86, 000 Cost of Ol TeCOVEry end sos s cede os cte cle taiceremre se ee nce aise apa eee =e | See eee 52, 406 51, 506 Nefretnmis? 25228 foe lane Pl cans Soe eee Ses eer 35, 194 34,494 It is estimated that an oil-extraction plant will handle the entire tomato-seed waste in two months, which, added to the three months of the operating season during the summer when the seeds are col- lected and prepared, represents five months’ operation throughout the year. The above profits, therefore, which represent an operat- ing season of five months, could be increased by extending the opera- r UTILIZATION OF WASTE SEED FROM THE TOMATO. 29 tion to other materials, thereby decreasing the overhead charges and adding to the profits already accrued. A plant equipped and oper- ated by an association of canners or packers would have sufficient waste materials of various kinds from the different canning operations to enable it to run throughout the year, thereby reducing the over- head charges and increasing the profits very materially. _ SUMMARY. It has been shown that the waste from the pulping of tomatoes accumulates in vast quantities at the various pulping stations in the eastern and middle-western tomato belts. This material is at pres- ent entirely wasted, and in many cases its disposal entails consider- able expense to the producers. Investigation of the practicability of utilizing this waste shows that by the application of proper methods the seeds may be separated from the waste and made to yield oil and press cake or meal of con- siderable commercial value, the former as a table or culinary oil and the latter as stock feed. From the estimates made on the cost of separating, assembling, drying, and crushing the seed, together with the cost of the necessary equipment, considerable profit is indicated from an undertaking based on the utilization of this waste. The most feasible and economical method of procedure apparently hes in separating and drying the seed at the various pulping stations and shipping it to a utilization center, where the commercial products can be manufactured. A cooperative plan of manufacture by an association of canners and packers of which practically all tomato-pulping concerns are members would perhaps be the most feasible method for the prac- tical utilization of the waste, not only from tomatoes but from other products as well. With the growth and expansion of the industry from year to year, the returns from an undertaking of this character would be aug- mented in proportion to its growth, since the quantity of waste is dependent upon the annual output of tomato products. The utilization of an agricultural waste of this character for the production of commodities of much commercial value is suggested as a conservation measure worthy of careful consideration. O 6 BULLETIN No. 928 Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER January 7, 1921 SUBSTITUTES FOR SUCROSE IN CURING MEATS. By RatpH Hoacranp, Senior Biochemist, Biochemic Division. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Quantity of sugar used in curing Experimental work—Continued. SROY SPE SY eS aA eh ee oe 1 Experiments with sweet-pickle Function of sugar in curing meat__ 2 COMMEN UES EMS We Bae ty ha SU Substitutes for sugar ____________ 2 Experiments with box-cured Refiners’ sirup___--___--___~~- 2 COT ane SOE ON aa, IY eee 19 CORO SUSATS oe ee es i 3 Experiments with beef hams__ 23 Experimental work--_-_____-___-~- 4 | General summary —-__--~-_-__-___- 28 General: plan 222 esse 2 2 j Hxperiments with pork hams__ QUANTITY OF SUGAR USED IN CURING MEATS. Sugar is used extensively in the curing of meats in this country. In 1917, 15,924,009 pounds of sugar as such and 1,712,008 pounds in the form of sirup, or a total of 17,636,017 pounds, was used in curing meats in pickle in Government-inspected establishments. In addi- tion, a considerable quantity of sugar was used in curing meats in the dry way, so that the total quantity of sugar used in curing meats probably amounted to about 20,000,000 pounds. This estimate does not include the amount of sugar used in curing meats on the farm, for which there are no data available. _ At the time the sugar shortage developed in this country during the war, an investigation was started to ascertain how the greatest economy in the use of sugar in curing meats could be effected. Sev- eral methods appeared feasible but the use of certain sugar substi- stutes appeared to be the most practicable one. A series of carefully controlled experiments in the curing of several classes of meats with a number of sugar substitutes and with cane sugar was carried on in three large and one small meat-packing establishment. This investigation was completed a short time before the signing of the armistice, and while the war-time need for the information has passed, yet it is believed that the results of these experiments may be of present value. 18121°—21—1 f 29 BULLETIN 928, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FUNCTION OF SUGAR IN CURING MEAT. Sugar is used in curing meat chiefly on account of its effect. upon the quality of the-product. “Sugar-cured” hams and bacon are supposed to be of superior quality. A very large proportion of the fancy hams and bacon on the American market has been cured with the use of sugar or sirup. Sugar is not used in curing meat on account of its preservative action; in fact, it is probable that the quantity of sugar ordinarily used exerts but very little, if any, preservative action. Meat can be cured in entire safety without the use of any sugar, and large quan- tities are so cured. SUBSTITUTES FOR SUGAR. The sugar generally used in curing meats is sucrose in the form of granulated, clarified, or plantation-raw sugar. In addition, a considerable quantity of second-grade refiners’ sirup is also used. This grade of refiners’ sirup is not suited to replace granulated sugar in the household. The essential requirements for sugar substitutes used in curing meats are: (1) The cured meat should be of as high quality as that cured with sucrose; (2) there should be practically no spoilage of meat during the curing process; (3) the substitute should be avail- able in sufficient quantities and at a price comparable with that of sucrose. The following products were investigated as to their suit- ability for the purpose. REFINERS’ SIRUP. Refiners’ sirup, second grade, is a dark-colored, strong-flavored product resulting from the refining of cane sugar. It is variable in composition and quality and is usually purchased on specifications as to sugar and ash content. The total domestic production of first- and second-grade refiners’ sirup in 1918 is estimated by one of the large sugar-refining companies to have been 345,000,000 pounds, which is equivalent to approximately 210,000,000 pounds of sugar. Data on the production of second-grade sirup could not be obtained. It appears that the total supply of refiners’ sirup is about ten times greater than the amount required to meet the sugar needs of the meat-packing industry. First-grade refiners’ sirup is much higher in price than the second-grade product, and for that reason is ordinarily not used in curing meats, and if the production of second-grade sirup is estimated as half the total production, then the lower-grade sirup would supply approximately five times as much sugar as is needed in curing meats. However, the total supply of this grade of sirup is not available for the purpose. SUBSTITUTES FOR SUCROSE IN CURING MBEATS. 3 There is considerable difference of opinion among meat-packing establishments as to the value of refiners’ sirup for use in curing meats. A considerable number of establishments use sirup ex- clusively in curing pork products in pickle, with very satisfactory re- sults; on the other hand, a large proportion of the meat-packing establishments do not use sirup at all. According to the data pre- viously cited regarding the use of sugar and sirup in curing meats in pickle during 1917, it appears that approximately 10 parts of sugar as such were used as compared with 1 part of sugar in the form of sirup. CORN SUGARS. There are at least three grades of corr. sugar, besides glucose sirup, as follows: 1. Dextrose is a white powder resembling confectioners’ sugar in appearance. It is mildly sweet and dissolves readily in cold water. It is nearly pure dextrose and contains only a small percentage of moisture. 2. Cerelose is the trade name for a second-grade corn sugar. It is sold in the form of very small, light-brown globules of a mildly sweet flavor. It dissolves fairly readily in cold water. It is supposed to contain about 86 per cent dextrose, 10 per cent moisture, and 0.6 per cent ash. This product is used extensively as a substitute for sugar. At the time of the acute sugar shortage during the war, the supply of this product was not nearly equal to the demand. { 3. Seventy per cent corn sugar is a crude product marketed in the form of brown lumps of various sizes. It dissolves slowly in cold water and fairly readily in hot water, yielding a brown-colored, mildly sweet sirup. The manufacturer states that this product con- tains approximately 70 per cent dextrose, 20 per cent moisture, 0.6 per cent ash, and the remainder dextrin, etc. This product is ordi- narily available in large quantities. Glucose sirup was not considered on account of its relatively high dextrin and low sugar content, and because it was a much more expensive source of dextrose than the above-named corn sugars. The following table shows the composition of the corn sugars and the sirups used in the experiments: TABLE 1.—Composition of corn sugars and refiners’ sirup. Reduc- N Product. Moisture.| Ash. | Sucrose. ing P axe dete sugar. Ose mined. Corn sugars: ‘ Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. WD ExGTOSO= 4 Macnee tsi eo a 2.14 Oe Riles TSO E Ure Re Ee 96. 65 1. 04. Cer elOS ee een ead nea) MRO OI WEN 9. 30 SOD IA|D Sec Ae on aes Ry eae 84. 73 5. 32 70 per cent corn sugar.-...-.-.-....._- 11. 56 HOON SU wn ae AEN ADS 77. 75 10. 04 Refiners’ sirup: CS) ia tes gests maT SCORN Ua EO Tee pA 20. 44 3. 12 40. 29 Pa PY eels 6 Oe 11. 90 (oy) Bea ei ee ieee ie aL Cee il 20. 12 4, 42 40. 95 PPT ee es eee 12. 05 (ONCE A ANI RC MTA LG a 22. 60 5.10] 34 49 DEN OA: | Ke AUIS 11.77 | | | 4 BULLETIN 928, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EXPERIMENTAL WORK. GENERAL PLAN. Four series of experiments were carried out, one each with hams, sweet-pickle bacon, dry-cure bacon, and beef hams. These experi- ments were carried on in one small but modern meat-packing estab- lishment and in three large establishments, which will be designated as X, A, B, and C, respectively. The general plan of the experi- ments was the same for each establishment. At each plant the work was conducted as nearly as possible in the same manner as was regu- larly followed in curing the several kinds of meat under investiga- tion. In each experiment one package of meat was cured according to the regular practice in the establishment, while to each of the other packages an equivalent amount of each of the sugars under investigation was added in place of the sugar regularly used. In other respects all the packages at one establishment were handled in exactly the same manner. EXPERIMENTS WITH PORK HAMS. These experiments were carried on at each of the four establish- ments, but the one conducted at establishment X was of a prelimi- nary nature and not so extensive as those carried on at the other plants. PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENT AT ESTABLISHMENT X. Three tierces of hams were cured at establishment X—one without sugar, one with granulated sugar, and one with cerelose. The chilled hams were packed in tierces, as follows: Tierce 1, a mixture of 8} pounds of salt and 7 ounces of sodium nitrate was sprinkled over the faces of the hams as packed; tierce 2, the same quantities of salt and sodium nitrate, and in addition 44 pounds of granulated sugar were sprinkled over the faces of the hams in the same way; tierce 3 was packed in similar manner except that a like quantity of cere- lose was substituted for the granulated sugar. The tierces were held 48 hours in a curing cellar at 35°-37° F. and were then headed, filled with 80° plain brine and held at the temperature stated until cured. The tierces were rolled on the fifth, fifteenth, and thirtieth days after packing. The cured hams were weighed, inspected for soundness, soaked 74 hours in water to remove excess salt, and smoked 114 hours. Two smoked hams from each tierce were selected for test purposes. A brief record of the experiment appears in Table 2. SUBSTITUTES FOR SUCROSE IN CURING MEATS. 5 Taste 2.—Record of preliminary ham-curing experiment, establishment X. = ; Tierce 2, EY F erce granu- ierce 3, Item. no sugar.| lated | cerelose. sugar. INTHATDEMOMNSAINS Ss ceases cebine sss cee sa cciecc ces -Bys cc wec Seems usw cece 33 27 30 Ba PNOPLIOM ees sea eee E ee cite aetone s feo etecine le ate sais SE days. . 39 39 39 NucTshifonCurediNams a... cece ee Sek els Me ea pounds. . 362 354 348 BOG OLOMONCUECMNANS see oe = 52 seis ice ase /a sine = Sal -1 ees ate elie) -leieiaia'e welcio Normal.| Normal. | Normal. QUALITY OF THE CURED HAMS. In this and subsequent tests the quality of the hams was judged from the appearance of the freshly cut surfaces of the hams and by the appearance and palatability of the fried product. Two hams from each lot were used for the purpose. The hams were tested by 11 persons, some of whom cooked and tested slices of ham in their homes while others attended a test conducted in the laboratory. The slices of ham were always fried in a clean pan and never in the drippings remaining after frying slices of another lot of hams. Those who tested the hams in their homes were instructed to ob- serve similar precautions. A report of the test on the hams is pre- sented in Table 3. TABLE 3.—Quality of hams (preliminary experiment at establishment X). ns “ Tierce 2, i 4 a ; Tierce 2, mi y erce1,| granu- erce 3, erce 1,| granu- erce 3, Judge. nosugar.| lated | cerelose. Judge. nosugar.| lated | cerelose. sugar. sugar. Points. | Points. | Points. Points. | Points. | Points. SACRE pm eimai ou Cs 2 2 2 15 ay aioe ene, aed RSI 3 1 2 EB yee rn Oo as 1 2 Sa || \ Lec eee he re sees ae 3 1 2 Gin WAGE Kenia 1 3 ao Wigan re Rec oce 1 on 2) 1 De ee he eee 1 3 2 1 GN Oe ae 3 2 1 1D he Se ee eee il 2 3 Ta Soe 1 24 24 Total 20 22 4 Cae A Bie! 3 1 2 Basis for scoring: First choice, 3 points; second choice, 2 points, third choice, 1 point. When no choice was indicated the samples were scored alike. The result of this test indicates that the hams cured with cerelose were considered to be shghtly the best in quality, followed closely in turn by those cured with granulated sugar and with no sugar. There was really very little difference in the quality of the three lots of hams. It was noted, however, that the hams cured with sugar browned more readily on frying than those cured without sugar. a 6 BULLETIN 928, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EXPERIMENTS AT ESTABLISHMENTS A, B, AND C. PLAN OF WORK. Six tierces of hams were cured at establishment A and five each at establishments B and C. The chilled hams were first pumped in the body and shank with 100° brine containing sodium nitrate and were then packed in tierces, which were finally filled with pickle. At each establishment the pickles for the several tierces were made up according to the same formula except as regards the kind of sugar used. It may be noted here that raw cane sugar was being used regularly at the time in curing this class of hams at establish- ments A and C and refiners’ sirup at establishment B. At establish- ments A and B the tierces of hams were stored at a temperature approximately 36°-87° F., and at establishment C they were stored at a temperature of 40° F. The tierces were rolled on the fifth, fifteenth, and thirtieth days after packing. At establishment A the cured hams were soaked 22 hours in water at 70° F. and were smoked 30 hours at a temperature approximating 130°-135° F. At establishment B the cured hams were soaked 2 hours and 20 minutes in water at 70° IF. and were smoked 18 hours at 100° F. At establishment C the cured hams were soaked 3 hours in water 60° Ir. and were smoked 16 hours at 125° F. Each lot of smoked hams was carefully inspected for soundness by a Government inspector. Two sound smoked hams were selected from each lot at each establishment for test purposes, except from one tierce at establishment B, which had been mislaid. A record of the experiments is given in Table 4. TasLe 4.—Record of ham-curing experiments at establishments A, B, and OC. ESTABLISHMENT A, Tierce 1, Tierce 4, | pm; - THe granu- | Tierce 2,| Tierce3,| 70 per fo ea Hieree 6, HE lated |dextrose.| cerelose. |cent corn Sar Sheet sugar. ' | sugar. De gar. Number of hams 2433 - 2322 -ee ae 32 31 31 32 31 31 Curing period 262.2 een eeepc days... 54 54 54 54 54 54 Weight of green hams...-......-- pounds. . 300 300 300 300 300 300 Weight of cured hams. .........---- dom... 327 328 328 324 . 820 329 Gain in weight=3 222-2 = peace eee dora 27 28 28 24 20 29 Quantity. of pickle... ---2--2--.--- ga llons. . 13 14.5 16 16. 75 17 15.5 Condition of smoked hams........-...-.-- Normal. | Normal. | llight | Normal. | Normal. | 1 shank shank sour. sour. ESTABLISHMENT B Wiumber ofjhanis)-. 2. 3--bee3. 240. te = 2 se 28 28 28 28 2B ail hsm sisiaisie Curitig period oo 220-2 s oes ..days.. 45 45 45 45 bed etek a eee Weight of green hams......-....- pounds. . 290 290 290 290 PAD eee ae Weight of cured hams. ...........-- do.... 322 auerce 318 322 DOM pete Bice o ost. Gain intweight >). 2s) -2-42---2-52-08 do...- B2 eeeete seme 28 32 351 | Bee ee See Quantity of pickle................ gallons. . 18 18 164 16} Beers niete elaine Condition of smoked hams...........-..-.- Normal) iaeeee--ie Normal. | 1llight | Normal. |.......... shank sour. SUBSTITUTES FOR SUCROSE IN CURING MEATS. 4 TABLE 4.—Record of ham-curing experiments, etc.—Continued. ESTABLISHMENT C. Tierce 1, Tierce 4,| - . Ite granu- | Tierce 2, | Tierce 3,| 79 per ped) Eienee 6, sate lated | dextrose.| cerelose. |cent corn} “ PW DD DO Ft OOP RWW He a} : 5 oq pickle. Specific |Salometer Sodium | Sodium chlorid. Per cent. 16.15 9. 03 16. 26 9. 88 16. 07 10. 84 16. 50 16. 50 10. 76 16.18 10. 58 16.18 10. 76 24, 64 nitrate. Per cent. 0. 57 Total sugar. ° Per cent. 3. 92 2.68 ao oO ce Orr 00 BRAGS NNNNENNNN ESTABLISHMENT C. Orc CO CO DD ND Age of Kind of su i i . gar. gravity | reading pickle at 20°C. | at 20°C. Days. Degrees. News|) Granulated= 22.255. 2222205) 1.144 72 Gy eaees Oko Sires AE ee ae EE 1. 095 49 IN@ Win | MDEXTOSC ers ees see sees ae 1.144 72 54 |... OVO pS NA AO INLAY SEER 1. 095 49 INew-|| \Cerelosaje./)..4ee ooo oe. 1.146 73 54 |e GOS eee aS pone: aR 1. 094. 48 New. | 70 per cent corn sugar.-.-.....- 1.147 74 45 ee COO SIN aS SME es a 1.095 49 New. | Refiners’ sirup................. 1.148 74 by: eee COE NS eae) 1. 093 48 New. | Raw sugar.................22.. 1.144 72 4a |e ss GOSS mente det 1.092 47 Ne wei WINIomeya 2) ae) ie area aaa 22M eee ESTABLISHMENT B. New. | Granulated.................... 1.138 70 Ab IE hues COLO HS i A na a 1. 096 49 New. | Dextrose............222.---2.-- 1.138 70 New. | Cerelose....-...........-.----- 1.138 70 45 |....- Oe ee eae 8 1. 095 49 New. | 70 per cent corn sugar...-.....- 1.138 70 45 |... (CO a ee ae 1. 095 49 New. | Refiners’ sirup..............--- 1. 142 72 Ann eee Ko aS a OE may a) Se SY eee 1. 098 50 IN@ wes WNONOteeeeec een e ache mes - cia IZPAUD) eee soeoase 1.151 76 1.104 53 1.150 76 1. 100 51 1.150 76 1. 103 53 1.149 75 1. 103 53 New. | Refiners’ sirup................. 1.152 76 OO) peeete COO ere Se ae 1. 097 49 ING Wan HANOMC cca eee a eee ec. ole WE2DS? [eterna tere 17. 67 11.70 17. 27 11.19 17.17 11. 56 17.79 11.30 17. 24 10.81 25.32 co Lot) NWre Wp rp why to GO OD WEBS own oe 8 BULLETIN 928, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table 6 shows the relative quantities of curing materials in the old pickle from each tierce, based upon 100 parts of each curing material in the new pickle. TABLE 6.—Relative composition of new and old ham pickles at establishments A,. B, and C. ESTABLISHMENT A. Tierce 1, Tierce 4 ° ° Tierce 5, | Tierce 6 : Ageof | granu- | Tierce2,| Tierce3,| 70 per : 7 ? Constituent. pickle. | lated |dextrose.| cerelose. | cent corn ce Prone sugar. sugar. D: BAe. Days. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. Epalan chloride... 2ktties: New. 100. 00 100.00 100. 00 100.00 00. 00 100.00 BES aus eatiesee 54 55. 91 60.39 61.25 61.95 59. 06 59. 57 Bidens mitratesotte sate New. 100. 00 100.00 100. 00 100.00 100. 00 100. 00 Die euisssntess best dae sea 54 61. 58 83.35 62.26 63.16 77.19 58.49 Motalsugarsscsesesss eee cee New. 100. 00 100.00 100. 00 100.00 100. 00 100. 00 ID Oce.. setae seeeee eae et 54 68.37 66.31 67.96 69. 02 68. 99 70. 57 ESTABLISHMENT B. Bodiam \ehloridsteseeeeeeeeeeee New. 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 100.00 |.......--- NB ee eric s een rane ERA 45 C7549: ee 65. 21 65.39 GOr4a ee. oo. Hod Mm Miprares saa coe eee New. 100. 00 100.00 100. 00 100. 00 OOOO) J222 2. 3. 2. iD RSLS onesies ar een eres 45 86321) | |Gee scene 75. 86 75.00 WOSBD ios Sees ne Wotalismgaries.- Assasin New. 100.00 100. 00 100. 00 100.00 100.00 |..-------- DO RYE teeta cesie ners sseeieeiGe 45 TB 2E | sees st sei 73.91 77.36 (EcEY) IRSee Beene ESTABLISHMENT C. Sodium ‘chilorid:)-2-222).22422-4- New. 100. 00 100.00 100.00 100. 00 HOONOOH 2 Secsece IDOE tasececcce See een eee 55 66. 21 64.79 67.32 63. 52 OURO Mets sais a.6 Sodium nitrate..-2- eee saeeee- New. 100. 00 100. 00 100.00 100. 00 HOOROO! 554 2 258 DOL Sarasa haat eee iaeie 55 36. 36 54.17 31.58 82.61 BAO [see sos cise MOtaAl Susana. tosh eet eo New. 100.00 100. 00 100. 00 100. 00 OOS O0)| a5 <205~0'5 DOSS ee octet n= et See 55 78. 85 70. 66 76. 24 53. 23 MNO OHPE sete csi These data indicate no great differences in the sugar content of the old pickle from the different tierces. There are considerable varia- tions in the sodium-nitrate and sodium-chlorid contents of some of the pickles, but it is doubtful if they have any special significance. Attention is called to the fact that on the average the old pickle from the three establishments contains 63.38 parts sodium chlorid, 64.85 parts sodium nitrate, and 71.57 parts sugar, as compared with 100 parts present in the new pickle. The waste of curing materials oc- casioned by throwing away the old pickle from cured hams is ap- parent. COMPOSITION OF THE HAMS. Table 7 shows the composition of the hams. Analyses were made of the lean portion of a slice cut from the thickest part of each of two hams from each lot. While there is more or less variation in the composition of the several lots of hams, the data do not appear to have any special significance. SUBSTITUTES FOR SUCROSE IN CURING MEATS. 8) TABLE 7.—Composition of hams at establishments A, B, and CO. ESTABLISHMENT A. prec Tierce 4, | ierce 5,*| Tierce 6 granu- | Tierce 2, | Tierce3 70 per H , Constituent. lated |dextrose.| cerelose. |centcorn eee vase sugar. sugar. I> ¢ Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent.| Per cent. |Per cent. |Per cent. INTIS HUNG eRe tetera hfe Sy acta trannies 49.28 54.42 54.97 50.10 54.38 55.68 Sod chiorid:Ysgs wy eae eee 2 3.60 4.26 4.41 3.91 4.27 4.56 MOCIUTMM MITTATOS. so. os) ee 2 se c'e Se -19 125 OT . 23 .29 25 TUR UGUEE IT Ber es oe BRenrE Baer Bee nse mes 67 .36 58 .59 .39 36 ESTABLISHMENT B. IVEOISEURE el tens a Se. Bey 49. SOME ee ae eae 56. 27 52.95 His jo ba eee ees SOMMTEMCHIOTICE s 9a te ced R ai alleys eee leat 4, SoMa: eee ae Daek 4.59 G50) Pel ee ese eo Sodiumienitrate: 565.2 085225 2..0222. 2 Le Th ol see Nees 10 il 09) ea BIC OEDUSS TO AT eee nts rae lala asia eye SGyle sae 8 ae 50 42 Bat We er veraas ESTABLISHMENT C. IMIOISITINO ME ease sia siosn so ae teen cl eis 45. 52 45.17 51.33 53.30 A220 es eae Sodiumiychloride sno :k. Ih so. fe Ee ee 4.96 4.33 5. 80 5.15 AAD oe ne SWC IRM TAVITA HACE Bo oGae eesaoe Gan conees 07 - 06 06 07 (Oey | eee eit INCEIISRR he dc copee so ebebesseeepsSounobaS -36 50 56 42 AR eevee aoe QUALITY OF THE CURED HAMS. The quality of the several lots of hams was judged in the same manner as described under establishment X, except that ali the tests were made in the laboratory. —LTwo hams from each tierce were tested for quality. In Table 8 is presented a report on the quality of the several lots of hams. At establishment A the hams cured with refiners’ sirup were con- sidered to be of the poorest quality, and yet some widely distributed well-known brands of hams are cured with this grade of sirup. The opinion was very generally expressed by the judges that all the hams were of high grade and that there was really very little difference in the quality of the several lots. A similar test of the quality of each of the several lots of hams in this experiment was carried on by the establishment in which the curing test was made, but with considerably varying results. How- ever, by adding together the total number of points scored by each lot of hams in the two tests an average estimate of the relative quantity of the several lots is obtained, as follows: Tierce 1, granulated sugar, 76 points; tierce 6, raw sugar, 73 points; tierce 2, dextrose, 68 points; tierce 3, cerelose, 63 points; tierce, 5; refiners’ sirup, 50 points; and tierce 4, 70 per cent corn sugar, 46 points. At establishment B the basis for scoring was: First choice, 4 points; second choice, 3 points, etc. As before stated the hams in tierce 2 had been mislaid and were not scored. The results indicate that the 18121°—21——_2 10 BULLETIN 928, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. hams cured with 70 per cent corn sugar were of the highest quality, closely followed, in turn, by those cured with cerelose and granulated sugar, while those cured with refiners’ sirup were considered to be of appreciably lower quality. Tierce 5, in which refiners’ sirup was used as the source of sugar, was cured according to the regular prac- tice at this establishment, except that the hams were cured in a tierce instead of in a large, open vat. At establishment C the basis of scoring ranged from 5 to 1, as compared with 4 to 1 at establishment B, and 6 to 1 at establishment A. The data presented in Table 8 indicate that at establishment C there was comparatively little difference in the quality of the three lots of hams cured with granulated sugar, dextrose, and refiners’ sirup. The hams cured with cerelose were of ofily slightly lower quality, and those cured with 70 per cent corn sugar were considered to be of poorer quality than the others, but all lots were of good quality. TABLE 8.—Quality of hams at establishments A, B, and C. ESTABLISHMENT A (OFFICIAL TEST). Tierce 1, Tierce 4, | m; < Jud granu- | Tierce2,|Tierce3,| 70 per ite, merce 6, GASser lated |dextrose.| cerelose.|cent corn} *S" auoee sugar. sugar. B: oore Points. | Points. | Points. | Points. | Points. | Points. 6 3 5 1 2 4 4 2 6 1 5) 3 5 2 6 1 4 3 5 4 6 3 2 1 5 3 1 2 4 6 5 4 2 3 1 6 4 6 2 5 1 3 6 3 4 5 1 2 6 2 5 3 1 4 46 29 37 24 21 32 ESTABLISHMENT A (PLANT TEST). 5 6 4 1 2 3 1 2 3 6 4 5 2 3 6 1 4 5 5 2 3 4 1 6 3 4 2 1 5 6 1 6 2 3 4 5 4 6 2 3 5 1 6 5 2 1 3 4 3 5 4 2 1 6 30 39 28 22 29 41 ESTABLISHMENT B. Be ee See eae 4: See tee 2 3 Wl eeatincwce Bees oko ep cSidien'. aplicint sBec «chee aeec eee 2) | cess arate’ 3 4 dl eGiaite die Cae k SEE abe Cee eee ee 2 SPe seco = 4 3 ees ie train De eens aaa Me a yo ole ta Sa eeane ot 1): Bee. 3 4 2 he etromtatese fps SES ee bse Eas eet CELE Ee ee 4 Meese 2 3 1 ee ipa ee sg Main Le ee coe eae th no. mat ce 4 | eae 3 2 ToS oe ee Gee ee ee A ee. A |. Series 3 4 RAI Wesrars.clceted 1s ES Ee ae ad eee eae ene 2 tee Reese 4 3 tie See eee LODE de oo Sage tiers oo toe eee oaks 20) | sie once 24 26 WO ene lspissinre SUBSTITUTES FOR SUCROSE IN CURING MEATS. 11 TABLE 8.—Quality of hams at establishments A, B, and C—Continued. ESTABLISHMENT C, Tierce 1 Tierce 4 A . Tudee granu- ”| Tierce 2,| Tierce3,| 70 per : ene Tigre 6, Be. lated | dextrose.| cerelose. | cent corn| "ciyn ae sugar. sugar. 19 Ban i Points. | Points. | Points. | Points. | Points. | Points. EI Tee eect nia atelaynele craic aia'e Sieieivlaicigewine & 4 3 1 Drie hoe 1B) Seine LN Ce Oe ee es 1 3 5 ) AR Neo nea @ Dh ics SL a a a 1 3 2 5 pL TS ae ee LD poe 6 SORE HO ACE Le eel ate enone 5 2 3 1 Sty! Bis ced Cok SESE DOE eS et rete an near 1 4 5 2 Pe Same ele 1D sk Scio Wi Bees ace ART Se anu enone ee 5 3 1 2 AUNES SS gut sap (Gl ooicoanbooe Cee GHE DEP EE eC Saab bsen 2 4 3 1 Bae gees oh Eee eee ie ie aa sists ie/a sic selneisisine 6 < e'stdiwle Ss cidieve 5 3 1 4 Dy [ae HSS Sete Denese So SUERTE ee ee mC ee aie aaele anetae 5 1 2 4 Be) TITAS a a ee eee eae Sets e tlees weimeee 4 5 3 1 Dh ee are RG Tal Mette eee acre te eicciae cenete 34 32 28 23 Soe seteictee ores SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF HAM-CURING EXPERIMENTS. 1. Eighteen tierces of hams were cured at four establishments. 2. The extent of the absorption of the curing materials by the hams does not bear any relation to the kind of sugar used. 3. As an average of the results obtained at establishments A, B, and C it was found that the old pickle from the cured hams contained 63.4 per cent of the sodium chlorid, 64.83 per cent of the sodium nitrate, and 71.56 per cent of the sugar present in the new pickle. From the standpoint of economy the importance of making use of the old pickle, on account of the curing materials which it contains, is evident. 4, Five sour hams, three of which were classed as light shank sours, one of a light aitchbone sour, and one a shank sour, were found in a total of 518 hams cured. One sour ham was found in a tierce cured with dextrose, two in tierces cured with cerelose, one in a tierce cured with 70 per cent corn sugar, and one in a tierce cured with raw sugar. These data do not necessarily indicate the percentage of sour hams which might be expected in the practical curing of hams with the several sugars on a large scale. Such information can be obtained only by extended practical use of the sugars. 5. The average relative quality of the hams cured with the several sugars at the four establishments can not be indicated with a high degree of accuracy, since not all the sugars were used at each establishment. However, a careful consideration of the reports on the quality of the hams cured at each plant indicates that the hams should be ranked in approximately the following order, according to the kind of sugar used: First, granulated sugar; second, raw sugar; third, cerelose; fourth, dextrose; fifth, refiners’ sirup; sixth, 70 per cent corn sugar. There really was very little difference in the quality: of the first five lots of hams, and even the sixth lot, cured with 70 12 BULLETIN 928, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. per cent corn sugar, was considered to be of good quality. In fact, in the experiment carried on at establishment B the hams cured with , this sugar ranked first. EXPERIMENTS WITH SWEET-PICKLE BACON. Experiments with sweet-pickle bacon were ‘carried on at each of the four establishments, but, as with the hams, the one at establish- ment X was of a preliminary nature. In all, 19 tierces of bellies were cured. PRELIMINARY EXPERIMENT AT ESTABLISHMENT X. Three tierces of bellies were cured at establishment X, one with granulated sugar, one with cerelose, and one without sugar. The chilled bellies were packed in tierces as follows: Tierce 1: Sixty-one bellies were packed together with 8 ounces of sodium nitrate, 10 pounds of salt, and 44 pounds of granulated sugar, the curing mate- rials being sprinkled over the faces of the bellies. Tierce 2: Fifty- five bellies were packed with the above quantities of salt and sodium nitrate and with 44 pounds of cerelose. Tierce 3: Fifty-five bellies were packed with the same quantities of salt and sodium nitrate, but without sugar. The tierces were held 48 hours in a curing cellar at 35°-387° F., then filled with plain 70° brine, and held at the same temperature until cured. The tierces were rolled on the fifth, fif- teenth, and thirtieth days after packing. The cured bellies were in- spected for soundness, soaked 5 hours in water, and smoked 13 hours. No unsound bellies were found. Two smoked bellies were selected from each lot for test purposes. In Table 9 is presented a brief record of the experiment. TABLE 9.—Record of preliminary sweet-pickle bacon experiment, establish- ment X. Tierce 1, if a i 7 granu- ‘ierce erce Item. lated | cerelose. | no sugar. sugar. © Number. of bellies. 1202042025222 22 1-4 gee ee eee eee 61 55 55 Curing period 2. 2 oicc 2555. oso de osc oe ee gene ae ge = eee secs days. - 33 33 33 Weight ofcured bellies. 22 3-Lii 2.520532 22 SEE. See eter pe pounds 4 415 Condition of cured bellies .- oc oo. co pn sects sense os Sep mos eels eeeeeee Normal. | Normal. | Normal. QUALITY OF THE SWEET-PICKLE BACON. The relative quality of the three lots of bacon was judged upon the basis of the appearance of the freshly cut surface of the bacon and upon the appearance, texture, and palatability of the fried or broiled product. The three lots of bacon were tested by 12 indi- viduals, 6 of whom determined the quality of the bacon in their homes, while the other 6 attended a test held in the laboratory. In . ~ nea SUBSTITUTES FOR SUCROSE IN CURING MEATS. 13 this and subsequent tests made in this laboratory each lot of bacon was fried in a clean frying pan over a low flame and in as nearly the Same manner as possible as each of the other lots. A summary of the reports of the judges is presented in Table 10. TABLE 10.—Quality of sweet-pickle bacon (preliminary experiment at estab- lishment X.) Tierce 1, ie ae granu- ‘ierce 2 ierce 3 Judge. lated | cerelose. | no sugar. sugar. Points. | Points. | Points. 2 ee meee ea 3 i TS... see Pathan Sgaled lekenigitieh tee mepaaniner ost ROGET IGEE <0 e t i teiinnee 3 2 1 WGA ua i i ee 2 3 1 Too cette aij en nent Gh iL niiin.. « iinmeietrborin 1 2 3 2 Pe ye ae eee 3 2 1 ip an oie a a are, PRM eg 3 res re SEES EEE TES AC Ny ook 00 ede Mg SU Sea TOR ROR crs res u 3 fae ag a i ca ama sO 3 1 2 PORN aa a hk) MR a ie TO 3 1 2 Tie soccc ne ons mnie” Miia Vai gt Mae MI 3, aaeane neat 3 2 1 LANIER ME i en a 2 3 1 nN ACT nee re aor ON i ie 2 3 1 HET a eigen: ae etal eo Seu eee CRIN, "eee fe Gea 28% 26 | 174 Basis for scoring: First choice, 3 points; second choice, 2 points; third choice, 1 point. The result of the test indicates that there was very little difference in the quality of the bacon cured with granu- lated sugar as compared with that cured with cerelose, but that the bacon cured without sugar was of appreciably lower quality. This lot of bacon did not brown on frying and the flavor was distinctly inferior to that of the two other lots. EXPERIMENTS AT ESTABLISHMENTS A, B, AND C. PLAN OF WORK. Six tierces of bellies were cured at establishment A, and 5 each at establishments B and C. | At each establishment the chilled bellies were packed in tierces which were then filled with pickles made up according to the same formula except as regards the kind of sugar used. Raw sugar was being used at the time in curing this class of meat at establishment A, and refiners’ sirup at establishment B. The tierces were stored during the curing period at a temperature approximating 36°-87° F. at es- tablishments A and B, and at a temperature of 40° F. at establish- ment ©. The tierces were rolled on the fifth and fifteenth days after packing. At establishment A the cured bellies were soaked 14 hours in water at 70° F. and were smoked 30 hours at a temperature of 130°-135° F. At establishment B the bellies were due to be cured in 30 days but by a mistake were left in cure 48 days. The cured bellies were soaked ~ ty . . 14 BULLETIN 928, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2 hours and 20 minutes in water at 70° F. and were smoked 18 hours at a temperature approximating 100° F. At establishment C the cured bellies were soaked 14 hours in water at 60° F. and were smoked 18 hours at 120°-130° F. The smoked bellies were inspected for soundness by a Government inspector. - 04 07 - 04 -05 COGN Ee agree Total sugar .-2:.--------<000-n----- 5 name 27 30 -23 «41 Pep er aoe ESTABLISHMENT C. MOISHIING io sects nine av o's Aaya = mas a eine 17.51 16. 56 Ppailirt GHIOTIC 207: = oe a: Siew. 2 no = omeee ee 2.42 2.98 Sodium nitrate....-. SPE Shas Memos oa AR = = - 05 - 06 TT OPAMBTIPAL asec pete ae at asa nin oh a cia caters a0 -16 18 SUBSTITUTES FOR SUCROSE IN CURING MEATS. 17 QUALITY OF THE BACON. The quality of the bacon was judged upon the basis of the appear- ance of the freshly cut surface of the meat and of the appearance - and palatability of the fried product. The bacon was cut in thin slices, and all lots were fried in as nearly the same manner as pos- sible. Table 15 indicates the relative quality of the several lots of bacon. | At establishment A the basis for scoring was: First choice, 6 points; second choice, 5 points, etc. From the data in Table 15 it is apparent that in the official test the three lots of bacon cured with corn sugars were judged to be of appreciably higher quality than the other lots cured with cane sugars or refiners’ sirup. Also, the lot of bacon which ranked highest was the one cured with 70 per cent corn sugar. It was noted that the bacon cured with corn sugars browned more readily on frying than that cured with cane sugar or refiners’ sirup. In the plant test at this establishment the results indicate that the bacon cured with cane sugar and refiners’ sirup was superior in quality to that cured with the corn sugars. These findings are directly the opposite of those obtained in the official test on the same lots of bacon. It was noted in the establishment test that the bacon cured with corn sugar had a very dark and burnt appearance after frying. An average of the official and plant tests results in: First choice, tierce 1, granulated sugar, 66 points; second choice, tierce 4, 70 per cent corn sugar, 63 points; third choice, tierce 2, dextrose, 62 points; fourth choice, tierce 3, cerelose, 58 points; fifth choice, tierce 6, raw sugar, 56 points, ‘and sixth choice, tierce 5, refiners’ sirup, 53 points. The basis for scoring at establishments B and C was: First choice, 5 points; second choice, 4 points, etc. The data indicate that at establishment B the bacon cured with dextrose was considered to be of the highest quality, followed in turn by that cured with cerelose, 70 per cent corn sugar, granulated sugar, and refiners’ sirup. All lots of bacon at establishment B were considered to be too salty, which is due to the fact that the bellies were held in cure too long, as has been previously noted. At establishment C the bacon cured with dextrose, cerelose, and refiners’ sirup, respectively, was of practically the same quality, while that cured with graulated sugar and 70 per cent corn sugar was of slightly lower quality. On frying, the bacon which had been cured with corn sugar browned nicely while. that cured with granulated sugar or refiners’ sirup turned yellow. Establishment C conducted a test on the quality of the sweet-pickle bacon and reported that there was practically no difference in the 18 BULLETIN 928, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. flavor of the several lots of bacon but appreciable difference in the appearance of the product on frying. The lots of bacon were ranked in the following order according to the kind of sugar used: First, sirup; second, granulated sugar; third, 70 per cent corn sugar; fourth, cerelose; fifth, dextrose. TABLE 15.—Quality of sweet-pickle bacon at establishments A, B, and C. ESTABLISHMENT A (OFFICIAL TEST). Tierce 1, Tierce 4 A Fi granu- | Tierce 2,| Tierce3,| 70 per ie 5, | Tierce 6, Judge. lated |dextrose.| cerelose. | cent corn Tepe Taw sugar. sugar. 85, ya Sees : Points. | Points. | Points. | Points. | Points. | Points. J Wan SERS AeA BOSS Ce Smee ACA sa misers 3 4 5 6 1 2 Bee ee Ee. Fa SAS Es AE 3 5 4 6 2 1 oe Sears aiee abieick ete eens sae 3 5 4 6 1 2 1D See ote PAS AER ener is ama Rate 3 5 4 6 2 1 Ee ere se Se ok ae iis eee Nes ee 3 5 4 6 2 1 cee ee es ee See ee. CREE eee 3 5 4 6 2 1 SES apne Seo C noe McaCa aoe aaaso s60eo 3 4 6 1 2 ees. sad Stee gab Le Sees 3 4 5 6 2 1 1b BE ke Speen ER See A anae Soneaorecorae 3 5 4 6 1 2 TotaltscecwocsGas ee ses hes eseeee cee 27 42 39 54 14 13 ESTABLISHMENT A (PLANT TEST). 4 3 2 1 5 6 ay 1 3 2 4 6 6 2 3 1 5 4 6 3 2 1 4 is 4 3! 2 1 5 6 6 2 3 1 4 5 4 3 2 1 5 6 4 3 2 1 6 5 39 20 19 9 38 43 ESTABLISHMENT B. IN CON Oe OE Sy Spe a eres tai ee ere es 4 ie 3 1 O}\ | ae ae BS See 8 oS SiC Peek - See eae oREEE Soe 2 5 4 3 1 bes Fae See eee se cashiers teases caeeE eee Sees see 3 5 4 2, Abd | a = Diss 353. ces sa: See eee ae 1 3 2 5 A Net ee Oe We Goes cab aisnewscon sees ches onesse SeEeE 3 5 4 2 1B | heen Geers 1 ee Me ESS BE So ge BIS? Sa ea ee 56 ob re a= 3 5 4 2 ls | ee 5-5 Se lee Cb eee ee eee Sse Soa te eadasos 3 5 4 1 7 | [pe a Pe fo. ge cee e eek Ses eee ate eas eck 1 5 3 4 Dp TERE. BE Re ote ere see netic me eis aan sin ae eistatcietaeta leat 3 5 2 4 1 ey ee MOpAls oes. oases et eee eee eee 23 43 30 24 1G} eee ESTABLISHMENT C, SNE Lae Seen ae Seis PoC ERa RR ARE STs 2 3 4 1 ty. [sey os Eee Bieta = Oats tee tease noe oe ee ee ee 4 5 2 1 Shite cee NO ie da ee ee eas anes bbls SEE es 1 4 3 5 alah = ets > DES oie a cins Sot es tees tenes oC Ree Secs =a 2 4 5 1 3) BAS aee een i eee peek ps ge Bs 5 2 3 4 Aa hSee ck pe Sew abc eta ate tte eee Soap. eee Se 2 3 4 il One neeete eo A St ee ia a CR rie eS A Stare 1 2 3 4 Bale ccebes as Ys oc cota ems eae o ib caeiye she es ems 3 5 1 2 ANlomecetats / aes SE OCE Aeon nn Oot on: - OS SeEE 1 4 5 3 hl | Sra ape beer crets tal oss cere as deketias eee ee 74 32 30 22 CLUS eee ane SUBSTITUTES FOR SUCROSE IN CURING MEATS. 19 SUMMARY OF RESULTS OF SWEET-PICKLE BACON EXPERIMENTS. 1. Nineteen tierces of bellies were cured in four establishments. 2. The corn sugars were absorbed as completely by the meat dur- ing the process of curing as was the cane sugar. 3.. As an average of the results obtained at establishments.A, B, and C, it appears that the old pickle from the cured bellies contained 64.57 per cent of the salt, 65.75 per cent of the sodium nitrate, and 75.50 per cent of the sugar originally present in the new pickle. The waste of curing materials occasioned by throwing away the old pickle from sweet-pickle bellies is apparent. 4, No unsound bacon was found in any of the tests. 5. The quality of the bacon cured with the several sugars did not differ widely. As an average of the results of the tests conducted at establishments A, B, and C, it appears that the bacon should be ranked in approximately the following order, according to the kind of sugar used: First, dextrose; second, cerelose; third, 70 per cent corn sugar; fourth, granulated sugar; and, fifth, refiners’ sirup. EXPERIMENTS WITH BOX-CURED BACON. A large proportion of the fancy breakfast bacon on the market is cured by the so-called “ box-cure” method.-: The bellies cured in this way are especially selected for quality and size and are trimmed to rectangular form. The chilled bellies are packed in specially made metal-lined wooden boxes provided with hinged, tight-fitting covers. The boxes are usually lined with waxed paper before packing with bacon. The bottom is sprinkled with a thin covering of the curing mixture consisting of salt, sugar, and sodium nitrate, and a layer of bacon bellies is then carefully packed on the bottom, flesh side up, and a thin covering of the curing mixture is sprinkled over the meat. Successive layers of bacon and curing mixture are packed until the box is filled. The top layer is finally covered with paper and the cover is fitted into place with the aid of pressure. A definite weight | of bacon and curing mixture is packed in each box. The capacity of the boxes used by different establishments varies. Some estab- lishments use boxes holding approximately 625 pounds; others have boxes holding 1,000 pounds. Bacon cured in this way is not over- hauled. The curing mixture abstracts moisture from the meat and before the end of the curing period the bellies should be entirely covered with the pickle formed in this way. PLAN OF WORK. The experiments with box-cured bacon were carried on at estab- lishments A, B, and C, three boxes of bacon being cured at each plant. Granulated sugar, dextrose, and cerelose were the sugars used. A brief record of the experiments is presented in Table 16. 20 BULLETIN 928, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The same quantities of salt, sodium nitrate, and sugar were used in each box at a single establishment, correctiori being made for the impurities present in the cerelose. At establishment A the boxes were stored during the curing period in a curing cellar at a tem- perature of 36°-37° F. The cured bellies were soaked one hour in water at 70° F’. and were smoked 30 hours at 130°-135° F. At estab- lishment B the boxes were stored in a curing cellar at a similar tem- perature and the cured bellies were soaked 10 minutes in water at 70° F. and smoked 18 hours at 100° F. At establishment C the boxes were stored in a curing cellar at a temperature of approxi- mately 40° F. and the cured bellies were soaked one hour in water at 60° F. and were smoked 20 hours at 116° F. TABLE 16.—Record of boxz-cwred bacon experiments at establishments A, B, and C. ESTABLISHMENT A. Box 1, Box 2 Box : Item. ioe dex-’ cere-. sugar trose. lose. Wimber of belliesS...)6i(.2. 5.2 <2sic eins ane cance ns cere Ne eeeenorreys 8 (9 reports). 12and13..) 51 9.0 0s repr). z 9 (6 reports). Idandi5..| 22 | 89 Hig eboorts). 16 and 17.. 12 dU Recueil ters ce mo le Se 18 and 19-. 11 11.2 Lonel Soe oe wie Sere TABLE X.—Time required for hauling crops different distances with motor trucks. | Hours per round trip. pase Number of (miles). reports. earca Hours reported’ 8€- | most frequently. Zandisiasee 32 1.0 1 (18 reports). 4and5....) 89 ee 10 eo: 6and7....| 142 LG Bre orts). 8and9....| 99 2.0 ose 10andli..| 82 2.4 Be eee 4 5 24 (13 reports). 12 and 13.. 50 2.9 3 (14 reports). 14 and 15.. 28 2.9 3 (18 reports). 16 and 17.. ia Sh eed bei ee ea Coed ey ae 18 and 19.. 17 711 SAE Ie os he Coa eta aoe RETURN LOADS. The percentage of time which a truck is run without load has a direct bearing upon the cost per unit of hauling with it. If an owner can arrange to haul a load to market and then bring back a load of supplies to his farm on the same trip he can reduce the time required and expense by practically 50 per cent. The reports of these men show that they have return loads for their trucks about 34 per cent of the time. About 10 per cent, however, stated that they never ~ have return loads. Apparently the size of the truck, the length of the time it has been in use, and the distance from the farm to market have little to do with the number of return loads for the truck. 14 BULLETIN 931, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ROAD HAULING FOR WHICH TRUCKS ARE NOT USED. The majority of these men still use horses to supplement their trucks in hauling on the road. Of 510 men who reported concern- ing their use of horses for road hauling only 195, or 38 per cent, | stated that they do all their hauling with trucks. The reasons given by 305 of the remaining 315 for using horses*for hauling on the ead are shown 1 ee Table XI. It is seen that nearly three- ior a ie of these men give “poor roads” as the reason for using horses; that is, it was necessary to do some hauling to and from the farm at some time during the year when the roads were in such condition that the truck could not be used. After poor roads the reason given most frequently is that the body with which the truck is equipped is unsuitable for carrying the material which is to be hauled. TABLE XI.—Reasons for using horses for hauling on the road. Number Number : Per cent & Per cent Reasons for using horses. pees of total. Reasons for using horses. report: of total. Poorroads 22552. 06) see | e219) (A) rock too lie hitee eee serene 8 3 Truck body unsuitable........ | 42 14 || Keep horses busy....-.--.---- 3 1 PruckapuUsye eeen ee ee | 12 4: || Other: 21.222 ee eer 21 i It was not possible from the reports to determine the exact pro- portion of the road hauling. which is still done by horses on these farms. However, on a large percentage of them horses are used only for hauling which it is necessary to do when the roads are in such condition that the trucks can not be used, and such hauling would ordinarily amount to only a small aeneei 22 of the total. The size of loads and distance hauled with horses are approximately the same as given in Tables V to VIII. HAULING ON THE FARM WITH TRUCKS. Of 352 men who reported on the use of their trucks for hauling on the farm (i. e., in the fields and around the buildings), 199, or 57 per cent, stated that they do not use their trucks at all for such work. The reasons for not using the truck for hauling on the farm was not given in every case, but a large number stated that their trucks were not suitable for such work. The smaller trucks in many cases will not carry as large loads as it is desired to haul; often the truck can not obtain traction in the fields, and sometimes the body with which it is equipped is not suitable for some of the hauling on the farm. Many others stated that they used their horses for all hauling on the farm because there was no advantage in using the truck for such work. Most of the time required for hauling on the farm is taken up with loading and unloading, and the percentage of the total time EXPERIENCE WITH MOTOR TRUCKS. 15 which will be saved by the truck when used for such work is small as compared with the time it will save in road hauling. When there are horses on the farm which would otherwise be idle, it would naturally be more profitable to use the horses arid let the truck stand idle if there is no advantage in time saved or convenience in using it. The reasons for using their trucks as given by 145 of the men who reported that they did some hauling on their farms with their trucks are summarized in Table XII. Most of this hauling was crops. (See fig. 3.) In all, 105 men reported that they hauled some crops in the fields with their trucks, and a much smaller number reported the Fic. 3.—Unloading grain from a truck. The motor truck can often be used advan- tageously for hauling grain from the separator to the granary. hauling of any other material in the fields and around the buildings. These men who used their trucks for hauling crops on the farm hauled only 48 tons per year on the average. For all farms an aver- age of 83 tons of crops are hauled to market per year. Thus even the men who do use their trucks for hauling on the farm do only a small portion of all the hauling in the fields and around the buildings with them. TABLE XIJ.—Reasons for using truck for hauling on the farm. Number Per Reasons for using truck. | report- | centof ing. total. Time saved..........-..- 82 56 Convenience. .........-- 40 28 Horses busy..-.--.----- 12 8 Others cceeere eects ns 11 8 16 BULLETIN 931, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fifty-six per cent of these men gave the saving of time as the reason for using trucks for this hauling. The average length of haul with trucks on the farm was about 235 rods. A truck will save some time over horses on hauls of this length if there is no difficulty in obtaining traction in the fields. It may also save time to use a truck if only one or two loads are to be hauled and the horses and wagons are not ready for use. Twenty-eight per cent use trucks for some hauling on the farm, because they have found their trucks more convenient than horses. When frequent stops must be made, or when the truck or wagon must be left without attention for a considerable length of time, the truck may be preferable, even though the horses are allowed to remain idle, and the use of the truck does not save any time. The men whose trucks are equipped with pneumatic tires evidently use them to a somewhat greater extent for hauling on the farm than do the men whose trucks are equipped with solid tires. For instance, 252 owners of 1-ton trucks reported concerning the use of their trucks in hauling on the farm. Forty-eight of them have solid- tired trucks, and only 20 of these 48 used their trucks for any haul- ing on the farm. One hundred and sixty-nine have trucks with pneumatic tires in front and solids in the rear, and only 71 used their trucks for any hauling on the farm. The remaining 35 have pneumatic-tired trucks and 20 used them for some hauling on the farm. Thus only a little over 40 per cent of the 1-ton trucks equipped with solid tires and of those equipped with pneumatics in front and solids in rear were used for work on the farm, while better than 55 per cent of those equipped with pneumatic tires were used for such work. | e CUSTOM HAULING. Although all of these men use their trucks primarily for hauling to and from their own farms, about 40 per cent of them did some custom work during the year preceding the time of reporting. Of 504 who reported on this item, 295 stated that they had done no custom work. One hundred and eighty-nine of the remaining 209 received on the average $132 for such work during the year. The number who re- ported hauling different materials and the price per ton-mile are given in Table XIII. It is seen that most of this hauling was either crops or live stock. On the average the men who hauled crops hauled 35 tons a distance of 94 miles during the year, and the men who hauled live stock hauled 12 tons a distance of 184 miles. About 35 per cent stated that the custom work which they did had not been profitable. It was often stated that the principal reason for doing custom work was to accommodate the neighbors, and in many such cases the price was too low to make the work profitable. 7 ~~ x % ~T EXPERIENCE WITH MOTOR TRUCKS. 1 Tapre XIII.—Price received for custom work. Number | Price per Material. ofreports.| ton-mile. Cropsts.. Se caer eines eects 103 $0. 38 MhiVve SCOCK A eerie 119 . 46 Building material-......-- 22 38 1 tkb (=) aie ea ee Soe 30 .32 Others. = Aaa a3. 46 53 EFFECT OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF ROADS ON USE OF TRUCKS. It has been shown that the majority of these farmers considered poor. roads the greatest disadvantage in the use of a motor truck, and that most of those who still use horses for part of their road hauling do so because of poor roads. In order to gain a more definite idea ot the effect of the kind of roads on the use of motor trucks each farmer was asked to specify the kinds of roads over which his truck traveled and the number of weeks during the past year the roads had been in such condition on account of mud, snow, ice, or frost that the truck could not be used. All kinds of roads, from unimproved dirt roads to high-class highways, were reported. However, 80 per cent of the men who reported on this point stated that their trucks ordinarily travel only on dirt roads, and 14 per cent stated that the roads which they ordi- narily use are part dirt and part improved, and the remainder stated that they have only improved roads, either gravel, macadam, or better. On the average there were 8.4 weeks during the year when the trucks could not be used, and only about 6 per cent of the men re- ported that they were able to use their trucks every week. The men whose trucks usually travel on improved roads only, however, were prevented from using them but five weeks during the year, and over one-fourth were able to use them every week. The reports indicate that poor roads are not such a great handicap to pneumatic-tired trucks as to those equipped with solid tires. Table XIV shows the average number of weeks per year trucks with different kinds of tires on roads which are all or part dirt could not be used. TABLE XIV.—Effect of kind of tires on length of time trucks could not be used on roads which are all or part dirt. Average uber : é Number | of weeks Kind of tires. reporting.| ‘trucks could not be used. IPM UMA TICh ae: < meeeeeee oam <2 cereal 152 6.6 ESyoy LigG bese sh ests teen eae t Os eo ee cae | 211 9.4 9.1 Gass) 9 oO 18 BULLETIN 931, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The exact number of weeks these men who have roads which are all or part dirt could not use their trucks is as follows: Of 152 men who use pneumatic tires— 15 were able to use their trucks every week in the year. 58 were unable to use them for 1 to 4 weeks in the year. 37 were unable to use them for 5 to 8 weeks in the year. 25 were unable to use them for 9 to 12 weeks in the year. 7 were unable to use them for 13 to 16 weeks in the year. 7 were unable to use them for 17 to 20 weeks in the year. 8 were unable to use them for 21 weeks or more. Of 211 men who use solid tires— 8 were able to use their trucks every week in the year. 56 were unable to use them for 1 to 4 weeks in the year. 55 were unable to use them for 5 to 8 weeks in the year. 48 were unable to use them for 9 to 12 weeks in the year. 28 were unable to use them for 13 to 16 weeks in the year. 8 were unable to use them for 17 to 20 weeks in the year. 13 were unable to use them for 21 weeks or more. Of 338 men who use pneumatic tires in front and solid tires in the rear— 15 were able to use their trucks every week in the year. 82 were unable to use them for 1 to 4 weeks in the year. 96 were unable to use them for 5 to 8 weeks in the year. 7 were unable to use them for 9 to 12 weeks in the year. 27 were unable to use them for 13 to 16 weeks in the year. 28 were unable to use them for 17 to 20 weeks in the year. 13 were unable to use them for 21 weeks or more. Ten per cent of these men who have pneumatic-tired trucks were able to use them every week in the year, and less than 30 per cent were laid up for more than eight weeks by poor roads. Less than 2 per cent of the men whose trucks were equipped with solid tires were able to use them every week, and over 45 per cent of them were laid up for more than eight ee Forty-five men who have all improved roads reported the kind of tires with which their trucks are equipped. Two of them are equipped with pneumatic tires, 3 with solid tires, and 40 with pneu- matics in front and solids in rear. The number of weeks during the year these 45 trucks could not be used is as follows: 12 could be used every week. 16 could not be used for 1 to 4 weeks. 6 could not be used for 5 to 8 weeks. 7 could not be used for 9 to 12 weeks. 4 could not be used for 13 or more weeks. It does not necessarily follow that horses were always used for hauling when the roads were in such a condition that the trucks could not be used, as on at least a part of these farms there was no hauling which it was necessary to do at such times. 4 - XPERIENCE WITH MOTOR TRUCKS. 19 CHANGE OF MARKET. Each of these men was asked for the name of the town where he usually marketed his produce before the purchase of his truck and its distance from the farm. He was also asked to give the name of the town where the produce hauled by truck is usually marketed and its distance from the farm. The answers of 814 men to these questions show that 215, a little over one-fourth of the entire number, have changed markets since purchasing trucks. For these 215 farmers the average distance to the old market was 6.9 miles, and the average distance to the new market is 17.6 miles. Practically all of these men stated that they have changed markets because the new market is better than the old one. It should be remembered that a consid- erable number of those who have not changed markets were using first-class markets before they purchased trucks. The distances from these farms to the markets which they used before buying their trucks and the distances to the markets which they are now using are as follows: Of 60 men who formerly used markets 1 to 4 miles distant— 8 now use markets 1 to 4 miles distant. 21' now use markets 5 to 9 miles distant. 13 now use markets 10 to 14 miles distant. 6 now use markets 15 to 19 miles distant. 3 now use markets 20 to 24 miles distant. 2 now use markets 25 to 29 miles distant. 3 now use markets 30 to 34 miles distant. 2 now use markets 35 to 39 miles distant. 2 now use markets 40 or more miles distant. Of 112 men who formerly used markets 5 to 9 miles distant— 24 now use markets 5 to 9 miles distant. 387 now use markets 10 to 14 miles distant. T4 now use markets 15 to 19 miles distant. 5 now use markets 20 to 24 miles distant. 8 now use markets 25 to 29 miles distant. 9 now use markets 30 to 34 miles distant. 5 now use markets 35 to 39 miles distant. 10 now use markets 40 or more miles distant. Of 338 men who formerly used markets 10 to 14 miles distant— 1 now uses markets 5 to 9 miles distant. 9 now use markets 10 to 14 miles distant. 12 now use markets 15 to 19 miles distant. 2 now use markets 20 to 24 miles distant. 2 now use markets 25 to 29-miles distant. 2 now use markets 30 to 34 miles distant. 1 now uses markets 35 to 39 miles distant. 4 now use markets 40 or more miles distant. Of 8 men who formerly used markets 15 to 19 miles distant— 4 now use markets 15 to 19 miles distant. 4 now use markets 20 to 24 miles distant. Of 2 men who formerly used markets 20 or more miles distant— 1 now uses markets 20 to 24 miles distant. 1 now uses markets 25 to 29 miles distant. 20 BULLETIN 931, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE The fact that a man has changed his market does not necessarily mean that he hauls all of his produce to the new market or that he purchases all of his supplies from that place. In fact; a considerable number still haul some material either to or from the old market. Before they purchased trucks 80 per cent of these 215 men used markets which were less than 10 miles from their farms, but now 75 per cent of them are using markets which are 10 miles or more dis- tant. One hundred and two of them now use markets which are 15 miles or more from their farms, yet only 159 of the entire 814 are using markets which are 15 miles or more from their farms. Thus two-thirds of all the men who now use markets which are so far from their farms are men who have changed markets since purchasing trucks. ANNUAL USE OF TRUCKS. The number of miles per year which a truck travels has a direct bearing on the cost per mile run or per ton hauled. Depreciation, interest, and repairs are all more or less independent of the number of alee per year which a truck runs, and the greater the number of. miles traveled per year the less will be the cost per mile for these items. Table XV gives the average of the estimates of the days per year on which ee are used and “ihe number of miles traveled per year for trucks of different sizes. The days per year on which the truck is used does not mean the number of full days’ work which the truck does, but simply the number of days during the year on which some use was found for it. TABLE XV.—Annual use of trucks of different sizes. Days per year on Miles traveled per which truck is used. CAD Size of truck. - ar geal a Saal Number Number Days. | of esti- | Miles. | of esti- mates. mates. 4-LON ANG SLOW 2 = os: Joos oe ea oe ce eee Sa eae eee 170 54 3,928 62 1 “POWs ss ene car eine Bois aes ears o> 1 Sra eee 112 447 2,630 385 11-ton and 13-ton ........--- 2 Segemdbs spe reso soos antagawapoat Sone 90 81 2,570 82 GR ec pace aSpoocbeosraoe tense senoarsepebecsdo Qassemeeen saad): 86 45 2,837 41 RN oe ow Sadana ane tN 0, 112 627 2,777 570 In general the smaller trucks are used on a greater number of days and travel a greater number of miles per year. However, the indi- vidual reports show that there is no very close relation between the size of the truck and the miles traveled per year. For the farms under consideration the amount of material to be hauled, the length of haul, and the size of truck are all corelated in such a way that no one factor exerts a predominant influence. The exact number who estimated that their trucks travel different distances per year is as follows: EXPERIENCE WITH MOTOR TRUCKS. 21 7 per cent, estimated the annual mileage at 750 or less. 26 per cent, estimated the annual mileage at 751 to 1,750. 27 per cent, estimated the annual mileage at 1,751 to 2,750. 16 per cent, estimated the annual mileage at 2,751 to 3,750. 9 per cent, estimated the annual mi-eage at 3,751 to 4,750. 7 per cent, estimated the annual mileage at 4,751 to 5,750. 2 per cent, estimated the annual mileage at 5,751 to 6,750. 2 per cent, estimated the annual mileage at 6,751 to 7,750. 2 per cent, estimated the annual mileage at 7,751 to 8,750. 2 per cent, estimated the annual mileage at 8,751 or more. or or or or or or or or or or LIFE AND DEPRECIATION OF TRUCKS. The average first cost, life, and depreciation per year and per mile of travel for the trucks of different sizes are shown in Table XVI: TABLE XVI.—first cost, life, and depreciation charges for trucks of different ; sizes. [Figures in parentheses indicate the number of reports for respective items.] Size of truck. - 4-ton and t -14-ton and * 2.ton. 1-ton. “1i-ton. 2-ton. HATS ICOSU eee eee ee saa acne cam oleate $1,418 (71) $929 (582) | $1,809 (106) | $2,052 (56) EEG TALC CUMUpPIMeM tre ears chee Secs k ees te Selo tie 29 (57) 49 (489) 52 (83) 77 (46) Tis eMICOSUSE PEE ER ed st eee ~ 1,447 978 1,861 2, 129 Present aPenWyears) as -nssisc 2-2 sce bee see secs sees 1.3 (74) 1.3 (588) 1.4 (109) 1.4 (60) Remaining life (years).........--.----------+----- 4.6 (37) 4.9 (337) 6.4 (58) 6.0 (30) Moualslniter(y ears) ip seals ysis eis oa sal eel) ep OLY) 6.2 7.8 7.4 Amina depreciation 2. sso aij acee a2 -25e<0-- 205 p $245 $158 $239 $288 a: Milesitraveled per yearsn.o2-2- 22.2 s25---2 222-2522 3,928 (62) | 2,630 (385) | 2,570 (82) | 2,837 (41) Depreciation per mile of travel. .......-..--..---- $0. 062 $0. 060 $0.093 $0. 102 The quoted price of the truck often does not include some equip- ment which it is necessary or desirable to have, and each man was asked to report not only the first cost of his truck but also the cost of any extra equipment he had purchased for it. It was found that about two-thirds of the men had bought some equipment which was not included in the quoted price. This extra equipment varied from minor attachments costing only $2 or $3 to bodies and cabs costing as much as $200 or $300. As shown in the table, the amount spent for this extra equipment has been added to the reported first cost to obtain the total cost. Three men reported that they own trailers for use with their motor trucks. However, the cost of these trailers was not included in the total cost of the trucks. The total life of the trucks was figured by adding the present age— that is, the average number of years which the trucks had been owned—to the average of the estimates of the remaining number of years for which the trucks will give satisfactory service. The re- 22 BULLETIN 931, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - maining life of the truck depends not only upon its present condi- tion but also upon the probable work it will do in the future and the owner’s idea as to when it will be cheaper to discard it and pur- chase a new one than to spend more time and money on it for re- pairs. There is quite a wide variation in the individual estimates on this item, but the average life as obtained in this manner gives the best available basis for figuring depreciation costs. The average life of all trucks as figured by this method is 6.5 years. The annual depreciation was figured by dividing the first cost by the life in years, and depreciation per mile of travel by dividing the annual depreciation by the average number of miles traveled per year. A comparison of these figures with those for the cost of fuel and oil in Table XVIII and for tires in Table XIX shows that for each size the depreciation charge is greater than the combined costs of fuel, oil, and tires. REPAIRS. Each truck owner was asked to report the amount he had spent for repairs since the purchase of his truck. A summary of the re- plies for trucks of different sizes and ages is given in Table XVII. TABLE X VII.—Averaye repair cost of trucks of different sizes and ages. Size of truck. Present age (months owned). 2 and ca 1-ton. one 2-ton. Average total expense for repairs. APaANGMESSes- Aad oe alee eeernac esses OMEE Ores se SHE eee eee $9 $13 $11 $14 BU) Pea rinametonsApanasOse cekcsmensos scossodeaenecconccs 38 26 28 35 ZI PO BO. ne a tyne ole noses alae ee eis aloe aS te ae eae 41 62 32 31 The amounts which the owners of trucks of different sizes had _ spent are as follows: One-half ton and three-fourths ton trucks: Of 48 men who had used their trucks 12 months or less— 24 had spent nothing for repairs. 15 had spent from $1 to $87. 4 had spent from $38 to $87. Of 18 men who had used their trucks 13 to 24 months— 4 had spent nothing for repairs. 9 had spent from $1 to $37. 3 had spent from $38 to $87. 0 had spent from $88 to $137. 2 had spent $1388 or more. Of 4 men who had used their trucks 25 to 36 months— 1 had spent nothing for repairs. 1 had spent from $1 to $87. 1 had spent from $38 to $87. 1 had spent from $88 to $137. EXPERIENCE WITH MOTOR TRUCKS. 1-ton trucks: Of 262 men who had used their trucks 12 months or less— 122 had spent nothing for repairs. 118 had spent from $1 to $387. 14 had spent from $38 to $87. 4 had spent from $88 to $137. 4 had spent $138 or more. Of 261 men who had used their trucks 13 to 24 months— 51 had spent nothing for repairs. 154 had spent from $1 to $37. 38 had spent from $38 to $87. 9 had spent from $88 to $137. 9 had spent $138 or more. Of 36 men who had used their trucks 25 to 86 months— 2 had spent nothing for repairs. 18 had spent from $1 to $37. 10 had spent from $38 to $87. 2 had spent from $88 to $137. 4 had spent $1388 or more. 14 and 14-ton trucks: Of 36 men who had used their trucks 12 months or less— 23 had spent nothing for repairs. 9 had spent from $1 to $37. 3 had spent from $38 to $87. 0 had spent from $88 to $137. 1 had spent $138 or more. Of 56 men who had used their trucks 13 to 24 months— 19 had spent nothing for repairs. 24 had spent from $1 to $37. had spent from $388 to $87. - had spent from $88 to $137. 3 had spent $138 or more. 7 men who had used their trucks 25 to 86 months— 1 had spent nothing for repairs. 3 2B No Of had spent from $1 to $37. had spent from $38 to $87. 1 had spent from $88 to $137. 2-ton trucks: Of 24 men who had used their trucks 12 months or less— 10 had spent nothing for repairs. 10 had spent from $1 to $87. 4 had spent from $88 to $87. Of 26 men who had used their trucks 13 to 24 months— 2 had spent nothing for repairs. 14 had spent from $1 to $37. 7 had spent from $38 to $87. 3 had spent from $88 to $137. Of 5 men who had used their trucks 25 to 86 months— 2 had spent nothing for repairs. 2 had spent from $1 to $87. 0 had spent from $388 to $87. 1 had spent from $88 to $137. 23 + 2 YY 24 BULLETIN 931, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. q In all, about 50 per cent of the men who had owned their trucks 12 months or less had spent nothing for repairs, but comparatively few of the men who had owned their trucks for more than a year had been free from expense for repairs. Ordinarily the amount which must be spent for repairs during the latter years of a truck’s life will be considerably greater than the cost for the first two or three years. None of these trucks is entirely worn out, and it is not pos- sible from the reports to obtain an accurate figure as to the average annual repair cost for the entire life of a truck. In the absence of accurate figures, allowances of $75 per year for the }-ton and #?-ton trucks, $75 for the 1-ton trucks, $100 for the 14-ton and 14-ton trucks, and $150 for the 2-ton trucks have been made as fair charges for the average annual repair costs in figuring the cost of operation in Table XXII. (For the repair costs of some trucks which have been in use_ three years and longer see Department Bulletin 910, “ Experience. of Eastern Farmers with Motor Trucks.” GASOLINE AND OIL. The average number of miles obtained per gallon of gasoline and per quart of cylinder oil by the men who use trucks of different sizes are shown in Table XVIII. The average price which these men paid for gasoline at the time they made their reports (January to March, 1920) was 26 cents per gallon, and the average price of lubricating oil was 70 cents per gallon. The costs per mile traveled are com- puted from these figures. No attempt was made to learn the amount and value of the grease used, but in any case its value should be only a fraction of that of the lubricating oil. TasLE XVIII.—Gasoline and oil requirements of trucks of different sizes. [Gasoline, 26 cents per gallon; lubricating oil, 70 cents per gallon. VFigures in paren- theses indicate number of reports for respective items. ] Mil Miles : sea iles per : cost per Size of truck. gallon of oor ae rast Pest bee mile for i gasoline. 4 pital : eeeclin e Er iorerispeeca mene ie Gh) a] GS) ame) see Bt TR ARUP OCC DOR OD aoe CAC eODEbe Scaddcles aan 0.5 ¢ é 4 004 6 1e-ton‘and! 1s tonss+ 2-2 crse eo oe ee 9.7 (102) 027 | 52 (88) -003 .030 DUO s soe Sots eect ecik et a ee 8.0 (57) .032 | 38 (48) 005 .037 TIRES. Each man was asked to state what he paid for tires and the mile- age obtained. The tire cost per mile as shown in Table XIX was fig- ured by simply dividing the average cost of one tire by the average number of miles which the tire run and multiplying this result EXPERIENCE WITH MOTOR TRUCKS. Wh by 4 to get the cost for four tires. According to the estimates of 310 men the pneumatic tires on these trucks run on the average 4,400 miles, and the estimates of 161 men show that the solid tires run 7,/00 miles. So few of the 4 and #-ton trucks are equipped with solid tires and so few of the owners of 14-ton and 1$-ton trucks reported concerning the cost and mileage of solid tires that no figures for solid tires for these sizes are given. Since the cost of the tires with which a truck is equipped when purchased is included in the first cost of the truck, an allowance must be made for the number of miles which these tires run in order to de- termine the net tire cost to the user. Z According. to the estimates of these men the percentage of the total mileage of the trucks obtained from the tires with which they are equipped when purchased is as follows: Pneumatic tires on the 4-ton and #?-ton trucks run 23 per cent of the total mileage. Pneumatic tires on the 1-ton trucks run 25 per cent of the total mileage. Solid tires on the 1-ton trucks run 48 per cent of the total mileage. Pneumatic tires on the 14-ton and 13-ton trucks run 29 per cent of the total mileage. Pneumatic tires on the 2-ton trucks run 22 per cent of the total mileage. Solid tires on the 2-ton trucks run 36 per cent of the total mileage. The cost per mile as indicated by the cost of tires and the number of miles which they run has been reduced by these percentages in order to obtain the net cost per mile traveled. No attempt was made to ascertain the cost of inner tubes for pneumatic tires, nor to obtain the cost of tire repairs separately from the entire repair costs of the trucks. TABLE XI X.—Tire costs. Allow- Ben ance for N : x a . ost per tires on et cost Size of truck. Kind of tires. mile! machine | per mile. when bought. Pe LOMAM de -LOMs a -ss)aj- sci siicloels ys 52 e ole wie Pneumatic (52 reports). .-- $0. 039 $0.0069 $0.030 TiO aio aoe ea Pneumatic (290 reports). - - 023 -006 -017 IFO .oupoeacdoon se SeeeeRCoe eee e aSeBoee Solid (79 reports)......-.-- - 022 011 011 sei chal IBS iome pS ease pee ASeeeneEeoas Pneumatic (27 reports). --- - 030 -009 - 021 SiG sao ec be NOM aes ee ee Pneumatic (14reports)..-. 043 -009 - 034 Det ON ere saeete 2 SSS ha See ee oe Solid (14 reports).--.--.--- 038 -014 -024 KENDS OF TIRES RECOMMENDED BY USERS. These truck owners were asked what kind of tires they consider best for their conditions, regardless of the kind they are now using. The kinds of tires which 684 men with trucks of all sizes are now using and the kinds which they have decided are best are as follows: 26 BULLETIN 931, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Of 161 men who now use pneumatic tires— 159 prefer pneumatics. 2 prefer solids. Of 187 men who now use solid tires— 49 prefer pneumatics, 136 prefer solids. 2 prefer pneumatics in front and solids in rear. Of 3386 men who now use pneumatics in front and solids in rear— 191 prefer pneumatics. ¢ 100 prefer solids. 45 prefer pneumatics in front and solids in rear. In all 24 per cent now use pneumatics, 27 per cent use solids, and 49 per cent use pneumatics in front and solids in the rear. However, ex- perience has caused 58 per cent to decide that pneumatics are best for their conditions, 35 per cent that solids are best, and 7 per cent that pneumatics in front and solids in rear are best. The kind of tires which a man considers: best depends considerably on the size of his truck. The kinds which the owners of machines of different sizes prefer are as follows: Of 70 owners of 4-ton and #-ton trucks— 64 prefer pneumatics. 6 prefer solids. Of 481 owners of 1-ton trucks- 279 prefer pneumatics. 162 prefer solids. 40 prefer pneumatics in front and solids in rear. Of 90 owners of 14-ton and 14-ton trucks— 44 prefer pneumatics. 42 prefer solids. 4 prefer pneumatics in front and solids in rear. Of 43 owners of 2-ton trucks— 12 prefer pneumatics. 28 prefer solids. 3 prefer pneumatics in front and solids in rear. RELIABILITY. The reliability of a motor truck, as that of any other machine, has a very decided effect upon its profitableness. If a truck is out of commission for several days at a time when its services are needed and when its owner is depending upon it to help him through a busy time it can scarcely be considered a profitable machine for him to own. Likewise, if a great deal of time is lost on the road on account of motor and tire trouble, breakage, and other mechanical difficulties, this loss and annoyance may overcome all the advantages attending its use. In order to obtain information as to the reliability of motor trucks for farm use these truck owners were asked to give both the number of days their trucks had been out of commission when needed during the past year and the percentage of the time lost while using them, EXPERIENCE WITH MOTOR TRUCKS. ot Table XX shows the average number of days 784 trucks of different ages were out of commission during the year preceding the time of reporting : TABLE XX.—Days trucks of different ages were out of commission whew needed. Total | Average number | days out of of com- reports. | mission. Age of trucks (months). Zan Gelessas 2s oas eee. eee 374 0.8 UO P7 Coe mem eR MASE ESaee aes 354 2.0 5 BGG OWOPs o sosscsucascnenas 56 2.3 ANTS Sates eer Pape aL 784 1.4 The total number of days the trucks of different ages were out of commission is as follows: Of 874 which had been in use 12 months or less— 333 were out of commission no days. 24 were out of commission 1 to 5 days. 13 were out of commission 6 to 10 days. 4 were out of commission over 10 days. Of 354 which had been in use 13 to 24 months— 281 were out of commission no days. 44 were out of commission 1 to 5 days. 19 were out of commission 6 to 10 days. 10 were out of commission over 10 days. Of 56 which had been in use 25 months or more— 43 were out of commission no days. 7 were out of commission 1 to 5 days. 1 was out of commission 6 to 10 days. 5 were out of commission over 10 days. Kighty-four per cent of the trucks had not been out of commission at all when needed, 9 per cent had been out of commission five days or less, and 7 per cent had been out of commission over five days. In general, the newer trucks are somewhat more reliable than the older ones. Practically 90 per cent of those which had been in use 12 months or less had not been out of commission when needed. The average percentage of time lost on account of motor and tire trouble, breakage, and other mechanical difficulties, by 636 men own- ing trucks of different ages is given in Table X XI. TABLE XXI.—Per cent of time lost by trucks of different ages, oval Average Age of trucks (months). pa oF percent ; : reports. lost. UDQand) lessi. ces sccteee ees 305 0.5 PasbO 24a eee ea oins ee aie atelenleier 285 1.2 AiR OWEPS oAotesuoouscodane 46 0.6 B/N Ree a at THEN 636 0.8 ate 28 BULLETIN 931, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The loss reported by men who had used their trucks different lengths of time is as follows: Of 305 who had used their trucks 12 months or less— 260 reported the loss of no time. 40 reported the loss of 1 to 5 per cent. 4 reported the loss of 6 to 10 per cent. 1 reported the loss of more than 10 per cent. Of 285 who had: used their trucks 13 to 24 months— 215 reported the loss of no time. 60 reported the loss of 1 to 5 per cent. ~ 5 reported the loss of 6 to 10 per cent. 5 reported the loss of more than 10 per cent. Of 46 who had used their trucks 25 months or more— 31 reported the loss of no time. 15 reported the loss of 1 to 5 per cent. Eighty per cent of these men stated that they had 1ost no appre- ciable time on account of motor and tire trouble and other mechani- cal difficulties, and only about 1 in 40 reported a loss of more than 5 per cent. As the trucks grow older the amount of time lost and the number of days out of commission will become greater, but farm- ers in the Eastern States whose trucks have been in use longer than most of these do not often report any serious loss (see Department Bulletin 910, “ Experience of Eastern Farmers with Motor Trucks.”) The average length of haul for these corn-belt truck owners is about 9 miles, and the average time required for the round trip is not far from 24 hours. (See Tables V to VIII.) A loss of 10 per cent of the time on the average trip would mean a delay of only about 15 minutes. Such delays even with the trucks which give the most trouble would scarcely be as serious as the loss due to having a truck out of commission for several days when it is needed. To a certain extent the reliability of a motor truck, as of any other complicated machine, depends upon the ability of the operator, and the care which the machine is given. About 90 per cent of these | trucks are operated by their owners, or some member of the family, and it is to be expected that the owner of such an expensive machine as a motor truck, or any member of his family, would give it a rea- sonable amount of care, and at least endeavor to operate it intelli- gently. Furthermore, automobiles are owned on 95 per cent of these farms, and tractors on 50 per cent of them. Thus nearly all the men who drive the trucks have doubtless had considerable experience in the operation of similar machines. The exceptionally small amount of trouble which these trucks have given is doubtless due in part to these facts. EXPERIENCE WITH MOTOR TRUCKS. 29 COST OF OPERATION. The average cost of operating trucks of different sizes is given in Table XXII. ‘The items included are depreciation, repairs, interest on investment, registration and license fees, gasoline and oil, and tire cost. The figures for annual depreciation are obtained from Table XVTJ, and those for repairs from page 24. \ Interest is figured at 6 per cent on the average investment. The average investment has been found by the rule: Average invest- years of service+ | years of service x2 - i method for determining the average investment in equipment where a fraction of the first cost is charged off each year for depreciation. The interest charge when computed on this basis is slightly greater than when computed on one-half of the first cost. The registration and the license fees are the averages of those re- ported for the year of 1920 by the owners. These fees vary consider- ably in the different States. The number of miles traveled per year are obtained from Table XV, the gasoline and oil costs from Table XVIII, and the tire cost from Table XIX. The tire costs used are those for pneumatic tires for each size. In no case is the average cost for solid tires more than 1 cent per mile different from the pneumatic tire costs. No charge has been made for taxes, insurance, housing, or for labor spent in caring for the truck. However, these charges would ordi- narily amount to a very small! portion of the total cost of operation. ment=first cost « This is the generally accepted TABLE XXII.—Cost of operating trucks of different sizes. Size. 1j-ton pyonand) ton. | and 1- | 2-ton. 4 i ton. Fixed charges: Anmunaiidepreciation= ii. oA Ss ee he $245 $158 $239 $288 Annualrepairs....... SOC OSE REDE Tet oe uae Saeeenee 75 75 100 150 PACITNUTA TAT CR ES tees oe see ee lee hia sae ene ee a ernie ae 51 34 63 73 Annualregistration and licensefee.............-..--.------ 15 12 14 20 Motalehixed\chargeseemacsncessssae oo ee een eeee eae 386 279 416 531 Milesiiravelegipersyealenecaec- ce see ase -e eee k en eee . -/8, 928 2, 630 2,570 2,837 Wixedicharoes per millon. ova. c-. cs sche sede see lek eee ~ $0.098| $0.106| $0.162| $0.187 Gasolineandvoilipermiilehsesse sess soe tte See nee noha see - 024 . 029 . 030 . 037 PIRES etal Cts sects setae ee sano hics ain as eeeemeee ees Besa 030 O17 021 - 034 ROLAICOST perm omer kta 4 Ao Se ESL eR . 152 152 213 . 258 30 BULLETIN 931, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COST OF HAULING WITH TRUCKS. The cost of hauling with a motor truck is determined by the cost of operating the tr uck, the charge for the driver’s time and labor, the size of ldad hauled, an the percentage of time the truck runs eh. out a load. In Table XXIII are given the cost per mile of haul and the cost per ton-mile of hauling crops with trucks of different sizes. The cost of operating the truck is taken directly from the preceding table. The charge for the driver is obtained by allowing a rate of 50 cents per hour for his time while driving and while loading and unloading the truck. The average time required for hauling differ- ent materials as given in Tables V to VITI is 0.12 hour per mile-of travel for each size of truck. It is stated on page 13 that these men have return loads for their trucks about 34 per cent of the time; that is, each truck hauls loads both ways on 34 out of every 100 round trips it makes from and to the farm, and runs without a load 66 one-way trips. The cost of operating the truck and the value of the driver’s time for these 66 trips with no load must be charged to the 134 trips with loads, in order to obtain the actual cost per mile of haul. Every 134 miles of haul, then, must bear the expense of 200 miles of travel, or every 67 miles of haul must bear the expense of 100 miles of travel. The cost per mile of haul as given in the table is obtained by multiplying the total cost per mile traveled by 100 and dividing the product by 67. The cost per ton-mile hauled is determined by dividing the cost per mile hauled by the weight of the load in tons. As shown in Table V the average weight of the load of crops hauled with the 3-ton and #-ton trucks is 1.326 tons; for 1-ton trucks the average load is 1.313 tons; for 14-ton trucks and 1$-ton trucks 1.745 tons; and for 2-ton trucks 2.204 tons. The costs per mile of haul for the trucks of different sizes divided by these figures give the costs per ton-mile. TABLE XNIIL.—Cost of hauling crops with trucks of different sizes. 4-ton 1}-ton Size of truck. and 1-ton. and 2-ton. 4-ton. . 1}ton. Track cost per mule Ses enlace nearer tate tae ohn) hotel terete $0. 152 $0. 152 $0. 213 $0. 258 Charge for driver per milo mim ee os nate ae etal © om win mie eleinlelmr ate - 060 - 060 - 060 - 060 Totals Sse ce eee oe = eS ot wre ow a eae 212 - 212 - 273 318 Cost per mile of haul (33 per cent idle running)....-.-.-----..-- -316 -316 - 407 «475 Cost per ton-mile for hauling crops..-....--..------------------ . 240 . 241 . 233 . 215 SAVING OF HIRED HELP. The saving of time is given by these men as the greatest advantage in the use of a motor truck; but the saving of time will not be of any financial benefit to a farmer unless he uses the time thus saved on q EXPERIENCE WITH MOTOR TRUCKS. 81 other work, or unless it enables him to reduce the expense for hired help: .: . These men were asked whether or not their trucks reduce the ex- pense for hired help, either man or horse, and if so, to estimate the amount thus saved per year. Of 783 men who answered the ques- tion as to whether the truck reduces the expense for hired help 612, or 78 per cent, said that it does, and the remaining 171 that it does not. Three hundred and eighty-five of the 612 estimated the amount thus saved, and the average of these estimates is $209. This figure can scarcely be taken to represent:the actual amount which the labor bills of these men have been reduced since purchasing their trucks, but rather as their estimates of the amounts by which their bills would be increased if they did not now own trucks, and if they were doing the same amount of work they are now doing. There is little difference in the percentage of the owners of trucks of different sizes who say that their trucks reduce the expense for hired help or in the amounts which they estimate the trucks save. If $209 represents the average saving on the 78 per cent of the farms where the trucks reduce the expense for hired help, the amount saved by the average truck on all farms is $163 (78 per cent of $209). DISPLACEMENT OF HORSES. The operators of 637 farms reported the number of work stock they owned before the purchase of trucks, and the number they had disposed of since that time. The number of work stock varied from 3 and 4 head on some of the smaller farms to over 20 on the larger ones. . In all 6,264 head were kept on the 637 farms before the pur- chase of trucks. On 276 farms the number had been reduced since the trucks had been purchased by a total of 763. For all farms, this represents a reduction’of a little over 12 per cent, and an average displacement of 1.2 head per truck. Ordinarily the purchase of a truck will not enable a man who owns only 3 or 4 or 5 horses, all of which he sometimes uses as a single unit, to dispose of any. Only 13 of the 87 men who owned less than 6 head reduced their work stock after purchasing trucks. The number of head owned by different men and the number they disposed of after purchasing trucks are as follows: Of 87 men who owned less than 6 head before purchasing trucks— 74 disposed of none. 8 disposed of 1. 5 disposed of 2. 82 BULLETIN 931, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Of 184 men who owned 6 or 7 head before purchasing trucks— 83 disposed of none. 4 disposed of 1. 42 disposed of 2. 5 disposed of 3. Of 126 men who owned 8 or 9 head before purchasing trucks— 70 disposed of none. 6 disposed of 1. 33 disposed of 2. 12 disposed of 3. 5 disposed of 4. Of 103 men who owned 10 or 11 head before purchasing trucks— 46 disposed of none. 4 disposed of 1. 33 disposed of 2. 13 disposed of 3. 6 disposed of 4. 1 disposed of more than 4, Of 76 men who owned 12 or 13 head before purchasing trucks— 35 disposed of none. 3 disposed of 1. 12 disposed of 2. 3 disposed of 3. 16 disposed of 4. 7 disposed of more than 4. Of 111 men who owned 14 or more head before purchasing trucks— 53 disposed of none. 1 disposed of 1. 10 disposed of 2. 5 disposed of 3. 26 disposed of 4. 16 disposed of more than 4. In all, 57 per cent have disposed of no work stock. 25 per cent have disposed of 1 or 2 head. 14 per cent have disposed of 3 or 4 head. 4 per cent have disposed of 5 or more head. Evidently the displacement of horses by motor trucks is not as great as the displacement by tractors in the corn belt. Farmers’ Bulletin 1093, “ Influence of the Tractor on Use of Horses,” shows that on 141 corn-belt farms averaging 346 acres in size 2.5 head per farm were disposed of after the purchase of tractors. FARMS ON WHICH TRACTORS ARE OWNED. Tractors as well as motor trucks are owned on about half of these farms. However, most of the tractors are on the larger farms. Only 33 per cent of the men with 160 or less crop acres own tractors, while 65 per cent of those with over 320 crop acres own them. In all, 745 men stated whether they owned tractors and also gave the number of crop acres in their farms. The number of those with EXPERIENCE WITH MOTOR TRUCKS. farms of different sizes (crop acres, not total acres) who not own tractors is as follows: Of 32 who operate farms of 80 or less crop acres— 4 own tractors. 28 do not own tractors. Of 211 who operate farms of 81 to 160 crop acres— 77 own tractors. 134 do not own tractors. Of 189 who operate farms of 161 to 240 crop acres— 103 own tractors. 86 do not own tractors. Of 153 who operate farms of 241 to 320 crop acres— 88 own tractors. 65 do not own tractors. Of 74 who operate farms of 321 to 400 crop acres— 48 own tractors. 26 do not own tractors. Of 38 who operate farms of 401 to 480 crop acres— 25 own tractors. - 13 do not own tractors. Of 22 who operate farms of 481 to 560 crop acres— 13 own tractors. 9 do not own tractors. Of 26 who operate farms of 561 acres and over— 18 own tractors. 8 do not own tractors. 30 do and do The ownership of both trucks and tractors has not resulted in any very marked decrease in the number of work stock. Table XXIV ‘shows the number of work stock now owned and the number disposed of since the purchase of trucks on 290 farms of different sizes where tractors are owned. Table X XV shows similar figures for 293 farms where tractors are not owned. TABLE NXNIV.—Work stock on farms where both trucks and tractors are owned. een Present pe Present | Reduc- umber | number ion . Number | number tion one of of work since ee ae of of work since 4 farms. }|stock per| purchase ; farms. | stock per| purchase farm. of truck. farm. | of truck. SOlorlessie ieee. fost 3 4.3 1.3 || 401 to 480_._....-.-.- 16 pal 2enl D1 SO WO — 5 sescecece 65 5.6 1.4 || 481 to 560........--- 11 11.5 1.9 GIL GOPEOssseecscuup 81 Wott 1.4 || 561 and over....---- 13 20.5 il, PHO ORPA esses snoes 63 8.8 183 - BPA OZ See Cas oases 38 10. 2 1.5 TAU rye oats 290 8.7 1.4 84 BULLETIN 931, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XXV.—Work stock on farms where trucks, but not tractors, are owned. oe a Eres Hedue, | ean piesa Reduc- i ‘ Yumber | number ion . ; umber | number tion one ne i eine of of work | since Gas iein, of of work | _ since P sae farms. |stock per} purchase : farms. | stock per] purchase farm. of truck. farm. | of truck. 80 and Jess. ......-- 19 4.2 0.7 || 401 to 480... 8 12.9 2.4 81 10060" 2c ee 110 6.2 0.7 || 481 to 560 9 15. 2 liege 161 to 240... 66 8.0 1.3 || 561 and ove 7 19.1 0.3 241 to 320. Stee 52 10. 2 1.0 = S2L't0400! See seo 22 iB} | ileal AllogeFAseecee 293 8.5 1.0 Only 5 of the 68 men who have farms of 160 or less crop acres and who own both trucks and tractors are farming with less than four horses. None of the 81 men who have farms of 161 to 240 crop acres is farming with less than four horses, and only 8 are farming with less than six horses. Four of the 63 men with farms of 241 to 320 crop acres, and 1 of the 38 men with farms of 321 to 400 crop acres, are farming with less than six horses. ] ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 10 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 932 | NX Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology L. O. HOWARD, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER September 20, 1921 LIFE HISTORY OF THE CODLING MOTH IN THE GRAND VALLEY OF COLORADO. By EH. H. Siecier, Entomologist, and H. K. PLANK, Scientific Assistant, Fruit Insect Investigations, in cooperation with THE CoLoRADO AGRICULTURAL EXXPERIMENT STATION. CONTENTS. Page. Page VU EE OGUGUEOM ete ed a 1 | Miscellaneous studies—Continued. The Grand Valley of Colorado______- 2 Time of day moths emerge_____. 84 Explanation of terms_____________. aS Codling moth flight trials______. 87 Methods and rearing apparatus em- Time of copulation_____ Sante Seam 89 ployed in the life-history studies__. 7 Time of day moths oviposit_____. 91 PRHGIOINSECbaArys 22 2 ese) eee 8 Oviposition by individual moths. 99 Seasonal-history studies of 1915_____ 9 Deposition of infertile eggs____. 106 Whitening laryee.2 28 2 Se. 10 Time required for codling moth Pupe of the spring brood______- 10 larva to leave the egg_______. 107 Moths of the spring brood______ 12 Larve that fail to extricate them- The first generation____________ 17 selves from the chorion_____~-. 107 The second generation__________ 31 Habits of newly hatched larve_. 108 The third generation__________. 40 The codling moth “sting ’’?_____. 108 Codling-moth band studies of 1915___. 40 Codling moth larye feeding on Seasonal-history studies of 1916___-. 45 Date ct wigs) tei ee es aS 108 Pup of the spring brood______. 46 Experiments with black and white Moths of the spring prood_____. 48 PRIN Cl Sige Sante eae aes Aree eS 109 The first generation___________. 52 Percentage of transforming and The second generation_________. 66 wintering larve —__--_______. ialai The third generation__________. 75 Laspeyresia pomonella (L.) var. Codling-moth band studies of 1916___. 78 simpsonii (Busck) __________. 111 Natural enemies of the codling moth_. 82 Review of seasonal-history studies of Miscellaneous studies _-_-_________. 83 the codling moth in 1915 and 1916. 112 Effect of ccol temperatures on PSHE Un GSO ey pees iE Sioa 7 ee ee 115 emergence of moths of the spring | ECE(O)C0 be SP PE Se Hea gaa 83 INTRODUCTION. The codling moth, Laspeyresia pomonella (L.) (Pl. I, A) is generally recognized as the most serious insect pest attacking the fruit of the apple and pear and is particularly abundant and destruc- tive in the Grand Valley of Colorado. As a result of the extensive injury to the fruit industry of this valley for which this insect is re- sponsible, it was deemed desirable to make a thorough study of its life history as a basis for control experiments. 19552°—21—1 2 BULLETIN 9382, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The data reported in the present publication fill an urgent need of long standing for more complete and useful information regarding the seasonal habits of the codling moth in the Grand Valley of Col- orado. It should form a basis for constructive control measures for the use of orchardists in this region. The plans for this investigation were made by the United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, in cooperation with the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station. The work was done under the general supervision of Dr. A. L. Quaintance, in charge of deciduous fruit insect investigations, Bureau of Ento- mology, and Prof. C. P. Gillette, director and entomologist of the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station. A field station was established at Grand Junction, Colo., in the fall of 1914, by Mr. R. J. Fiske, of the Bureau of Entomology. The senior author was placed in immediate charge of the work in 1915, and was assisted during the year by Mr. E. R. Van Leeuwen, of the Bureau of Entomology, and in 1916 by the junior author. Much valuable information was given from time to time by Messrs. George M. List and Claude Wakeland, of the entomological department of the Colorado Agricultural Experiment Station. The general character of the work in the Grand Valley was quite similar to that of the codling-moth investigations conducted by the Bureau of Entomology in several other fruit districts, but it was carried out on a somewhat larger scale and includes certain phases of the hfe history and habits of the codling moth not hitherto reported. ; THE GRAND VALLEY OF COLORADO. LOCATION AND DESCRIPTION. The Grand Valley of Colorado is located in Mesa County, on the western slope of the Rocky Mountains, is about 32 miles in length, and has an extreme width of 5 miles. It comprises nearly 75,000 acres of land, about one-fifth of which is planted to fruit. At the time of these investigations there were approximately 10,000 acres of apples and about 2,500 acres of pears, while the remainder of the fruited area was devoted chiefly to peaches, plums, cherries, apri- cots, and bush fruits. The great majority of the orchards, of which the one shown in Plate II is a good example, were planted north of the Grand River, which flows through the entire length of the valley. TOPOGRAPHY AND ELEVATION. The valley is comparatively level, with the exception of a few elevations known locally as the “ Fruit Ridges.” The fruit district of Orchard Mesa, while higher than most other parts of the valley, is typical tableland. The general elevation of the Grand Valley CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 3 varies from about 4,500 to 4,800 feet, Grand Junction being approxi- mately 4,600 feet above sea level. CLIMATE. The climate is relatively dry, the annual rainfall being usually 8 to 9 inches, distributed according to the normal precipitation up to and including 1916 as follows: January 0.49, February 0.64, March 0.71, April 0.76, May 0.92, June 0.40, July 0.50, August 1.04, September 0.95, October 0.91, November 0.55, December 0.44, or a total of 8.31 inches per year. Moisture is supplied the crops by means of irrigation systems, use being made of the water from the Grand River. The day temperatures during the summer season are high, while those at night are relatively low. For further details as to weather conditions in the Grand Valley see Tables I and II (pp. 4 and 5), which give the annual meteorological summaries of the United States Weather Bureau for the years 1915 and 1916. EXPLANATION OF TERMS. In conformity with the previous life-history studies of the codling moth by members of the Bureau of Entomology, certain definitions of the terms employed have been adopted. — The term “ generation” is here used to include all the consecutive stages of the codling moth throughout the season, starting with the egg and ending with the adult or moth. Thus the first eggs to be laid (those deposited by the first moths of the season) would start the first generation; these and the resulting larve, pups, and moths would belong to this generation. The eggs deposited by the moths which belong to the first generation start the second generation, to which also belong the resulting larvae, pupee, and moths, and so on. The term “brood” as used in this publication is applied to any stage of the codling moth which may belong to a specific generation or to an unknown generation. For example, the eggs, larve, pupe, and moths which belong to the first generation are called first-brood eggs, larve, etc. The larvee which pass the winter include all the nontransforming larvee of the first and second broods, and, in the Grand Valley of Colorado, all of the larvee of the third brood. The specific generation to which each of these individuals belongs can not be determined unless they have been reared. The term “ generation,” therefore, can not properly be used to include the various stages of their suas. tions; they are simply called “ wintering” or “spring-brood ” larve, aud oie pup and moths into which they transform are flestenetad. “ spring-brood ” pup and moths. 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S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. A. ADULT MOTH RESTING ON APPLE LEAF. B. PAIR OF MOTHS IN COPULA. THE CODLING MOTH IN THE GRAND VALLEY OF COLORADO. Bul. 932, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 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F2)FS 112) 8% |}8 | 22) 89)6°0 | tO) 020] 02 | 246) 86 | G8] Sf} OF |} 99 |----7 77 [dy 0 jer |}0 |}T |}@ 10 |}0 |}2 18 |9 | Zt | 0 | 98)°-MN]9°2]6'e] 18] TOE | c=} 98} e9} 69 | Ze0) TZ0]¢ GTANGE slick | 97) Pe |eSo) poesia oes 7 -* Gorey os @ |8 |0 | |€ |2 10 }9 |Z | er | OL 10 | | MN] 9%] 97] G2] 8ce | 98] 89] 68)E°L | 91:0 | Sh'0] T GI ie | AN AS | te Bp Poe eee ss Aren1qo 7, i, G Té |} 0 | 9L) ST} |0 | 9T/ 6r/8 P T | TS |"MN] G'S | G2 | &F | OST | 98] 82 | 26 | SST | 2-0 | SIT | TE L>=\ 86 ORGS ASIC AB Reese eo oss Arenue [ i SF | I OS I I ——. ff a -] fo} ue) co | w wm fo Q re iS Be Eee se ee le ee) eee See |e) oe BR ale © Slejelel ele lesle| a2 jel se 2 | 8] slel Bb | si8/8) 21818] fal ee el ele o Silolels Bs | & Bola] 4 |] Joalas = fg} | 8| |Slele] «a © ’ ea S| B|8 18 PEELE GE S| aaa" |e) |acae Flee] S[5| 2 )2/2/8) 2) 2 a ae 2/8 /2/e\sa* | Slee 2 reais let | Oa OH Owl eetee! a || wei lo Sle ba ene tele es Slag a OPS ieee SS Sl asel ie Weer | facil ey eS al ae =| |ogiee| F |ZBisa/8/ 2 |zlele] 2 | ® ft n n 5 © . . gs] |" |8 Bee] § |Sa] 55/2) & | 2]: F uaWoTL ‘duo} | ‘duo |-§ a Hiei ailetoien| else eal @ ; “TN “xXB] Gi = Slee B Peel peel es a soulelyx i SUROT | = x MESS B| % 2, oO : : *OuUTYS *4tprumy *(seyout) skep Jo Joaquin PULM. ee -mng IATILIOY woe} Idwe1g ‘CL .) ommyerod ure 7, “9I16L “0709 “uoyounr puDniy ‘hinwwuns pp0Ib0)0L0aj0W JonUUP— [] AIAV I, 6 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. As mentioned previously and explained later, the larve which hatch from the eggs deposited by the second brood of moths do not transform into pups and moths the same season as hatched, but pass the winter in the larva stage. Hence there is, in the Grand Valley of Colorado, what might be called a “ partial” or “ incomplete ” third generation. However, these eggs and larvee are known as third-brood eggs and larvee. The “life cycle” of a generation includes the time from the deposi- tion of the egg to the emergence of the moth of the same generation. The “ complete life cycle” extends from the time of the deposition of the egg of one generation to the deposition of the egg of the next generation and, strictly speaking, should include the female sex only. The seasonal-history studies begin with the wintering or spring- brood larvee which transform to pup of the spring brood and from which issue the moths of the spring brood. The moths of the spring brood deposit the eggs of the first brood, which, upon hatching, are known as larve of the first brood. Some of these remain in the larva stage until the following spring, while the remainder transform successively into the pupz and moths of the first brood. The moths of the first brood produce the eggs of the second brood, which, after their incubation period, result in the larve of the second brood. Some of these, like some of the first-brood larve, are wintering individuals, while the others transform and become suc- cessively the pupx and moths of the second brood. The moths of the second brood deposit the eggs of the third brood. In the Grand Valley of Colorado all the larve of this brood pass the winter, comprising part of the spring brood of pupe and moths the following season. Wintering larvae or larve of the spring brood (spring-brood larvae) include: All of the nontransforming larvee of the first and second broods and all of the larve of the third brood. Pupe of the spring brood (spring brood pupe) include: All of the pupe from the spring-brood larve. Moths of the spring brood (spring-brood moths) include: All of the moths from the pupe of the spring brood. The first generation includes : 1. The eggs of the first brood. 2. The larve of the first brood: (z) Transforming first-brood larve; (6) Wintering first-brood larvee. 3. The pupe of the first brood. 4, The moths of the first brood. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 7 The second generation includes: 1. The eggs of the second brood. 2. The larvee of the second brood: (a) Transforming second-brood larve; (6) Wintering second-brood larvee. 3. The pupz of the second brood. 4. The moths of the second brood. The third generation (not complete in the Grand Valley) includes: 1. The eggs of the third brood. 2. The larvee of the third brood, all of which are wintering individuals. saa METHODS AND REARING APPARATUS EMPLOYED IN THE LIFE- HISTORY STUDIES. The methods used in the study of the biology of the codling moth in the Grand Valley were in most respects like those employed in simi- lar investigations of the bureau at other places. The rearing apparatus likewise conformed with that previously used, with the exception of an improved cocooning rack, devised by Mr. Van Leeuwen. This device was made of wooden strips 8 inches long, 12 inches wide, + inch thick, having two rows of compartments or cells, each cell of which would accommodate one codling moth larva. These cells were covered with a strip of celluloid, through which the transformation of the insect could be observed, and the record of the observations was kept by placing a reference number at the head of each cell in the space provided for that purpose. After the inspection of the insects, the cells were covered by a strip of wood one-eighth inch in thickness, which was held in place by means of wire clamps made from paper clips. Three views of the cocooning rack are shown in Plate III: a, the rack with cover re- moved, showing the cells and larve within as well as the reference numbers; 0, side view, showing cover held in place by wire clamps; c, top view. The cages used in the studies usually consisted of glass battery jars, 6 by 8 inches, covered with cloth tops which are held in place by rubber bands. The oviposition cages consisted of the regular battery jars, the bottoms of which were covered with a 2-inch layer of slightly moist sand. A fresh twig of apple or pear foliage was placed daily in each cage, as was also a small piece of sponge moistened with a solu- tion of brown sugar. The incubation cages, in which the eggs were kept, were similar to those used for oviposition purposes. The leaves, on which the eggs had been deposited, were held in a fiat position between two pieces of wire screen for a day or more to prevent curling while they dried. 8 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Pupation studies —The time of pupation of the larve was found by a daily examination of the cocooning racks. Studies of the pupal period—The pupal period was determined for each individual by noting the time of pupation and emergence of the moth. Studies of moth emergence-—The records of the emergence of moths were made daily. Studies of the oviposition.—In order to secure data on the ovipo- sition of the moths, it was necessary to confine the moths issuing on different days in separate cages. The foliage in these cages was re- moved daily and the number of eggs recorded. Studies of the length of life of moths—At the time of changing the foliage in the oviposition cages, all dead moths were. removed. The sex was then determined and the length of life computed. Studies of the incubation period—The two distinct embryological stages of the eggs previous to hatching were noted, namely, (1) the “red-ring stage,” or the first marked indication of the development of the circulatory system, and (2) the so-called “black-spot stage,” or the initial appearance of the black head of the developing larva. (See Pl. IV, B.) Studies of the larval feeding periods.—The feeding studies of the larve of the first brood were conducted in two ways: (1) By the stock-jar method and (2) by the bagged-fruit method. The feeding periods of the larve of the second and third broods were ascertained according to the stock-jar method only. In the stock-jar method, apples free from codling-moth larve were placed in a wire basket within a battery jar into which were in- troduced newly-hatched larve. These soon entered the apples and completed their feeding period within the fruit. Cocooning racks were placed in each jar and these were examined daily to ascertain when the larve left the fruit, and from these data the length of the feeding period was computed. The bagged-fruit method consisted in placing newly-hatched larvee on apples developing on the tree and covering the fruit with finely perforated paper bags. The fruit selected was first carefully examined to insure its freedom from previous infestation. The in- closed fruit was allowed to remain on the tree for a period of two weeks, after which it was removed and kept at the insectary under conditions identical with those described for the stock-jar method. THE INSECTARY. Most of the life-history studies of the codling moth were made at the insectary, a partial interior view of which is shown in Plate V. This was located to the rear of the laboratory and was partially Bul. 932, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. THE CODLING MOTH IN THE GRAND VALLEY OF COLORADO. Three views of cocooning rack: a, With cover removed to show the cocooning cells; b, side view; c, top view. Bul. 932, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. A. EGG. Greatly enlarged. _— Ss B. EGGs IN ADVANCED BLACK-SPOT STAGE ALMOST READY TO HATCH. Greatly enlarged. THE CODLING MOTH IN THE GRAND VALLEY OF COLORADO. PLATE V. Bul. 932, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. OadVuoO109 *A1@OOSUI JO MOTA IOIIOVUL JO ASATIVA GNVYSD SHL NI HLOW SNI1G09 AHL Bul. 932, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VI. KASS FOLD BURROMS . A. APPLES INFESTED WITH LARVZE. B. LARVAE AND PUP/E IN COCOONS. THE CODLING MOTH IN THE GRAND VALLEY OF COLORADO. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 7 shaded by trees, vines, awnings, and other buildings. As will be noted in the photograph, the insectary was of open-type construc- tion, permitting free circulation of the air; it was 40 feet long and 11 feet wide, with the lowest part of the roof 11 feet in elevation. The temperature conditions within the insectary closely paralleled those in the orchards, as was determined by frequent observations. A thermograph and maximum and minimum thermometers were kept in the insectary for temperature records; and the average daily temperatures used in the various graphs and charts throughout this publication were computed for each day by adding the temperature recorded by this thermograph for each hour of that day and divid- ing the sum by 24. Other data pertaining to weather conditions were obtained through the courtesy of the local station of the United States Weather Bureau, which was located within a half mile of the insectary. SEASONAL-HISTORY STUDIES OF 1915. The seasonal-history studies of the codling moth were commenced in 1915 with the observations of the time of pupation of the spring- brood larve.t The climate throughout the season was generally nor- mal, except in early May, when subnormal temperatures which fell below the freezing point occurred successively on the mornings of May 1 to 4 inclusive and again on May 7. On the 2d of May the tem- perature dropped to 22° or 23° F. in many sections of the valley, one exception being the Palisade peach district, which is usually favored with higher minimum temperatures. At the time of the freezes most apples had just dropped their blossoms, except the late-blooming varieties, as Rome Beauty and Jeniton. As a result of the low temperatures, the apple crop in the Grand Valley, with the exception of that included in the Palisade district and in a few orchards where oil heaters were employed, was prac- tically destroyed. Here and there were to be found a few pears, the blossoms of which seemingly were not so readily destroyed by the freezes as were those of the apple. The general shortage of the apple crop, however, did not in any way interfere with the life-history studies, since sufficient fruit was at hand for feeding and other purposes. In referring to the tables the reader should bear in mind that each table is a unit in itself. Successive tables are not necessarily con- tinuations of the life history of all of the individuals given in the previous table. For example, it will be noted that Table III is the record of the time of pupation of 320 wintering larve and that Table TV includes observations on the length of the pupal stage of only 233 of these individuals. Differences of this character may be due to 1 These larve were collected from banded apple trees in the fall of 1914 by Mr. R. J. Fiske, of the Bureau of Entomology. 10 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. | natural or artificial causes, such as death, accidental injury, para- sites, the removal of specimens for other purposes, etc. WINTERING LARVZ. As previously stated (p. 6), the wintering larve consist of all of the nontransforming larve of the first and second broods and all of the larvee of the third brood. (See Plate VI, B.) The winter cocoon.—The winter cocoon is a small, well-built struc- ture, having heavy silk walls in which are frequently interwoven small particles of bark. When compared with the more hastily con- structed summer cocoon, it will be noted that the winter cocoon is of heavier construction and thus affords the larva protection against the low temperatures of the winter season. The cocoon is gen- erally more or less oval in form, but varies to conform with the space in which it is built. The winter cocoon is usually found be- neath the bark on the trunk of the tree, well concealed from birds and insect enemies, in the crotches of the larger limbs, or in decayed or partially decayed tree cavities, etc. Not infrequently, in the Grand Valley, a mass of 10 to 20 cocoons, side by side or partially on top of one another, may be found on the tree in places particularly favor- able for hibernation. The cocoons are occasionally to be found around the base of the tree just below the surface soil or within cracks in the soil. Again, a considerable number of winter cocoons are constructed in various cracks and crevices within packing houses and storage cellars where the harvested fruit has been kept. Remodeling of the cocoon.—The wintering larva begins activity during the first warm days of spring; it then remodels its cocoon by attaching thereto a slender silken exit tube which provides for the safe issuance of the moth. This tube is usually a fraction of an inch in length, although tubes have been found that were 2 or more inches long, depending upon the location of the cocoon. Upon the completion of the exit tube a lightly constructed silken partition, which serves to separate the tube from the cocoon proper, is frequently built at its base. Emergence of the moth.—Shortly before the time the moth emerges, the pupa punctures this silken partition and, by means of its retrose spines, wriggles its way to the end of the exit tube. The moth then ruptures the pupal skin, crawls into clear space, spreads and dries its wings, and in due course of time takes flight. Were it not for the exit tube, many moths would be unable to free themselves from the place in which the larve have cocooned. PUP OF THE SPRING BROOD. Time of pwpation—Observations of the time of pupation of the wintering larvee were made daily by examination of the larvee within the cocooning racks. The tabulated results showing the time of CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. ie pupation of 320 larve are given in Table III and illustrated in figure 1. Tt will be noted that the earliest pupation occurred April 14, when two larve transformed, and that the last of the wintering larve pupated June 8 or approximately 8 weeks later. On April 26 there was a marked increase in the rate of pupation and a still greater increase two days later, owing to higher temperatures, as shown in figure 1. Following this activity the temperatures became abnor- mally low, reaching in the insect- ary a minimum of 27° F. on May 2, on this date only one larva pupating. This freeze contributed largely to the destruction of prac- tically the entire fruit crop of the Grand Valley west of the Pali- Fic. 1—Time of pupation of spring- sade district., Freezing tempera- EL a ae ae ee ige tures recurred on the mornings of May 3, 4, and 7, but on the latter date the temperature reached a maximum of 70° F., and, as a result, 18 larvee pupated. Pupation thereafter continued quite regularly (except on May 10) and reached its maximum on May 12. During the period of one week, May 7 to 13, inclusive, approximately 40 per cent of the wintering larve pupated. Following this crest of activity the rate of pupation gradu- ally diminished in the normal way. IS 3 AVERAGE DAILY TEMPERATURE, g NUMBER OF PUPAE. ‘TABLE IlI.—Time of pupation of wintering larve of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. | Date of | Num-|| Dateof | Num-|| Dateof | Num-|} Dateof | Num-|) Dateof | Num- pupa- | ber of pupa- | ber of pupa-_ | ber of pupa- | ber of pupa- | ber of tion. | pupe. tion. pupe. tion. | pupe. tion. | pupe. tion. | pupe. Apr. 14 2|| Apr. 26 13 || May 8 19 || May 20 1}; June 1 1 15 0 27 8 9 13 21 1 2 1 16 1 28 10 22 1 3 0 17 0 29 13 11 26 23. 5 4 1 18 2 30 11 12 30 24 4 5 0 19 2\|| May 1 4 13 20 25 2 6 0 20 3 2 1 14 12 26 2 7 1 21 7 3 3 15 10 27 2 8 2 22 0 4 3 16 8 28 4 ———_ 23 1 5 1 17 7 29 2 Total...| 320 24 4 6 3 18 4 30 8 . 20 3 7 18 19 0 31 1 Length of the pupal stage—lIn Table IV will be found the length of the pupal stage of 233 pupe of the spring brood. Reference to this table will show that the first pupation occurred April 14 and the last June 7. The pupal period of the individuals that pupated early in the season was naturally longer, owing to the lower average 12 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, temperatures, than was the pupal period of those insects that trans- formed later in the spring. The average length of the pupal stage was 27.58 days, the maximum 34 days, and the minimum 15 days. TABLE 1V.—Length of the pupal stage of pupe of the spring brood of the ecod- ling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Num- Length of the pupal stage in specified days. Date of | ber of pupation. |individ- uals. | 15 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24] 25 | 26 | 27 | 28} 29 | 30 | 31 | 32 | 33 | 34 Apr. 14 ils 16 is 18 2) 19 Zale 20 2 |- 21 ae 23 if ie 24 3 25 2H 26 10 |. 27 (aie 28 18 |}. 29 10 |. 30 8 |. May 1 Sale 3 3 4 3 5 1 6 34 he ih iby Ie 8 15 9 7 10 2 11 2 12 20 13 17 14 10 15 6 16 3 17 6 18 4 21 ible 2p) ie 23 3 |. 24 7 25 ie 26 Ue 27 all 28 7) || 30 6 |. June 7 1 eae 233} 1) 7| 6} 9.|.22) 19.) 7 | 32)| 39) 25 | 21) 23 1) 13 }> 5) 4 Days. Average length of pupal/stage. 2... --- -- 2 se. ae oe wie wan wale ee al tlle 27.58 Maximum length of pupal’stage.22j- 2. <2 soccer baat pesca i eee ae eee ee eee eee tee 34 Minimum length of pupal'stage:./-<- -5 3. 2 St ake aco c ie eee eee eee See eee eee ee eee 15 MOTHS OF THE SPRING BROOD. Time of emergence—The tabulated data of the emergence of 1,539 moths of the spring brood are given in Table V. It will be noted in this table that the first moths issued May 12, while the last moth of this brood did not emerge until June 29 or nearly seven weeks later. The emergence is largely dependent upon temperature and atmospheric conditions and hence the number of moths issuing daily fluctuates more or less in accordance with the climatic factors. The number of moths appearing daily gradually increased (with CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 13 one exception) up to May 17, as shown diagrammatically in figure 2, and probably would have saint? erowing larger had it not ier, for the retarding influence of the sae each began May 18 and continued to May 21, inclusive. The temperature dropped consid- erably on May 18 “nel was accompanied by 0.12 inch of precipitation. eee See) Se Sa POOR CAR TT 80 N a) Q GWERAGCE OAILY TEMPERATURE. | ES ee ee ECAC REECE ABI ane Fic. 2.—Time of emergence of moths of the spring brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. On the following day, May 19, the temperature dropped somewhat lower and heavy rains (0.44 ea occurred in the afternoon and evening. The next day, May 20, was colder than the two preceding days, the maximum temperature being 58° F. and the minimum 44° F. In addition to the low temperature, it rained practically the en- 14 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tire day, with a total of 0.29 inch of precipitation. The development. and activity of the codling moth were almost completely arrested, with the result that no moths issued and no eggs were deposited. With normal temperature conditions on May 18, 19, and 20, the emergence of moths would doubtless have been large. The weather turned increasingly warmer May 22, 23, and 24, and on the latter date the maximum number of moths (196) issued. Thereafter the emergence gradually decreased, the rate conforming closely to the variations of the temperature until all of the moths had issued. TasLe V.—Time of emergence of codling moths of the spring brood, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Date of | Num-|} Dateof | Num-]} Date of Num-| Dateof |Num-]| Dateof | Num- emer- ber of emer- ber of emer- j ber of emer- ber of emer- ber of gence. jmoths.|} gence. /moths.|} gence. j{moths.|| gence. jmoths.|| gence. |moths. May 12 8 || May 23 126 || June 2 1 || June 12 8 || June 22 2 13 30 24 196 3 14 1 23 0 14 15 25 135 4 4 14 10 24 1 15 30 26 41 5 6 15 8 25 0 16 83 27 102 6 3 16 2 26 0 17 108 28 95 7 15 17 2, 27 0 18 24 29 74 8 32 18 4 28 0 19 26 30 65 9 33 19 6 29 if 20 0 |! 31 46 10 26 20 8 21 “ June 1 56 11 10 21 0 Total...|1, 539 22 30 |! Oviposition by moths of the spring brood.—In Table VI are re- corded the observations of the oviposition of 1,140 female moths con- fined with 1,007 male moths in 92 cages. In this connection it is of interest to note the variations in the time of oviposition by the moths in the several cages. Thus, moths emerging May 12 and confined in cage. 1 did not deposit eggs until May 22, whereas the moths in cage 2, although issuing a day later, commenced oviposi- tion May 15. A more detailed study of the table will show numerous variations of the oviposition habits of the moths. A summary of the data is as follows: The number of days before oviposition averaged 6.19, the maximum was 19, and the minimum 2; the number of days for the period of oviposition averaged 13.82, maximum 33, mini- mum 1; the average number of days from the date of emergence to the date of last oviposition was 19.14, maximum 37, minimum 5. Number of eggs per female moth.—I\t was found in the oviposi- tion studies of the moths of the spring brood that the average num- ber of eggs deposited was 12.59 per female moth. This number was obtained by dividing the total number of eggs deposited by the total numberof female moths caged, as shown in Table VI. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 15 TABLE VI.—Oviposition of codling moths of the spring brood in rearing cages, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Sex. Date of— Number of days— Total Num- num- From Cage ber ber date of No. of Fe- Emer- First Last of eggs | Before | Of ovi-| emer- moths.| Male. male. | 8ence of | oviposi- } oviposi- | depos- | oviposi-|position| gence moths. tion. tion. ited. tion. | period.| to last oviposi- tion. 1 29 15 14 | May 12 | May 22] June 1 82 10 11 20 2 20 6 14| May 13 | May 15} June 9 230 2 26 Dill 3 24 11 Los |Eead ours May 24] June 3 162 14 11 21 4 28 12 16 | May 14 | May 17] May 31 207 3 il} 17 5 25 12 13 | May 15 | May 18} June 15 231 3 29 31 6 25 9 16 | May 16 |-.-do....- June 11 346 2 25 26 7 25 11 TAN Sed Omers May 21 | June 22 508 5 33 37 8 24 12 12h edo May 22} June 7 70 6 17 22 | 9 19 6 [3a lpeed Ores. May 23} June 4 94 7 13 19 10 23 7 1G) eeedoses May 28] June 2 2 12 6 17 11 34 14 20 | May 17} May 22} June 14 222 5 24 28 12 23 10 113} |S Glo sae May 24] June 1 115 7 9 | 15 13 22 15 aed owea eMidoweee June 11 162 7 iG) | DE 14 27 16 il: je Gio -do....- June 15 271 7 23 | 29 15 25 16 9} May 18 | May 25} June 13 151 7 20 | 26 16 28 19 9| May 19 Ed Oras June 17 80 6 24 | 29 17 8 5 3 | May 21 | June 9 | June 10 83 19 2) 20 18 22 7 15 ay 22} May 24! June 14 299 2, 22 23 19 25 13 Poop. 2 ay 25 | June 11 204 3 18 | 20 20 27 15 12d ofae- “dome done 77 3 18 | 20 21 16 5 it Se oko May 29) June 9 130 7 12 18 22 21 10 1i | May 23 | May 25 | June 15 74 2 22 23 23 25 14 ss | ed Obes ss =OK0) 4 June 17 149 2 24 25 24 23 8 15 dome May 27 | June 8 85 4 13 16 25 21 7 14 dome May 31 | June 17 132 8 18 | 25 26 12 7 Veco. 5 June 9} June 23 5 17 15 31 27 24 15 9 ay 24] May 27 | June 19 216 3 24 26 28 28 13 15 doe May 31 | June 20 176 a 21 27 29 23 12 11 AOWOssen June 1] June 8 78 8 8 15 30 24 10 14 Ad Owes: BE OOs eae June 11 88 8 11 18 31 20 8 12 domase edOueans June 19 98 8 19 26 32 26 10 16 do 2s dOnt es June 25 28 8 25 32 oo 26 15 11 Gloseess June 3] June. 23 451 10 21 30 34 23 8 NG NoaGe cose June 6] June 19 226 13 14 26 35 24 15 9 ay 25 | May 28) June 18 200 3 22 24 36 24 10 14 doses May 30} June 17 284 5 19 23 37 21 9 12 does June 1] June 19 53 7 19 25 | 38 23 13 LOS |-aadoueee June 9] June 15 21 15 7 | 21 39 22 9 13 | May 26 | May 31 | June 19 413 5) 20 24 40 20 9 11 O22 edu ns Gomes 419 5 20 24 | 41 30 12 18 | May 27 | June 1 do... 100 5 19 23 42 25 13 hae eed ours Perdos June 6 52 5 6 | 10 43 21 9 12 do. = donee June 18 244 5 18 22 44 22 12 NWO |e ssolons-<2 May 31} June 16 204 4 17 20 45 24 14 10 | May 28] June 1 dose 189 4 16! 19 46 24 10 TAS ed Os zee SORA Ss OOusses 243 4 16 19 47 22 a TGS oe LOW ese eidoyee: June 19 333 4 19 22 48 22 7 Talend Oneeee EA Oeste June 26 235 4 26 29 49 25 8 17 | May 29 | June June 18 323 4 17 20 50 31 14 17 Ouse Bi a(6 Ko yseeeke June 28 457 4 27 30 51 21 8 13 doses June 4] June 16 138 6 13 18 52 19 11 8 doze June 7 do....- 92 9 10 | 18 53 23 15 8 do....-| June 10 | June 11 39 12 2 13 54 20 9 11 | May 30] June 41] June 19 221 5 16 20 } 55 26 8 18 doze ere (oN June 22 296 5 19 | 23 56 25 14 11 done June 7 | June 17 157 8 11 18 | 57 23 14 12) es eG KO nee aes June 9 | June 22 126 10 14 23 58 23 15 8 | May 31] June 7| June 7 i) 7 I | geal 59 20 11 Oa Red ORNS Tee douene June 17 117 u il 17 60 26 10 Ga | saad Osea June 9] June 14 67 9 6 14 61 21 10 1S | dors ss -edouens- doze 51 9 6 14 62 24 14 10} June 11} June 7 | June 16 111 6 10 | 15 63 22 13 9 |...do....- June 10 | June 19 94 9 iO) 4) 9 a 64 27 12 ton |peed Obese Bel acod baeC Operas 113 9 10 18 | 65 11 3 8| June 2) June 1i | June 12 54 9 2 10 66 23 11 12} June 3} June 9 | June 16 183 6 8 13 | 67 il 7 4| June 41] June 10] June 11 49 6 2 7 68 6 1 2] June 5} June 11 | June 22 82 6 12 it7 69 19 9 10 | June 61!-...do..... June 21 28 5 11 15 16 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLeE VI.—Oviposition of codling moths of the spring brood in rearing cages, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915—Continued. Sex. Date of— Number of days— Total Num- num- From Cage ber ber date of No. of int Emer- First Last of eggs | Before | Of ovi-| emer- moths.| Male. male. | sence of oviposi- | oviposi- | depos- | oviposi-|position| gence moths. tion. tion. ited. tion. | period.| to last ovipos.- tion. 70 23 10 13 | June 7 | June 11 | June 20 251 4 10 13 71 25 15 10 do....-| June 16 | June 16 3 9 1 9 72 27 15 12 | June June 11 | June 27 250 3 7 19 73 22 13 9 Ones June 18 | June 21 10 10 1 13 74 22 7 15 dower: June 21 | June 25 7 13 5 17 75 31 18 13 | June 9 | June 16 | June 26 238 i il 17 76 29 12 17 (Os ah OUsEE Z June 27 52 7 12 18 a 33 13 20 | June 10} June 12} June 23 211 2 12 13 78 31 21 10 |...do.....|...do....- June 26 100 2 15 16 79 31 18 13 do....- June 15 } June 25 367 5 il 15 80 38 16 22 | June 11 | June 16 |...do_...- 134 5 10 14 81 29 14 15 | June 12 |..-do....- June 23 275 4 8 11 82 9 1 8 | June 13 | June 19 | June 21 if 6 3 8 83 20 10 LO) | Juamepi4 50 Se. S| ee tee a pl ee eee (ee NR We age 84 30 13 17 | June 15} June 18 | June 29 54 3 12 14 85 32 11 21 | June 16} June 19} June 26 129 3 8 10 86 30 13 17 | June 17 |...do.....| July 3 293 2 15 16 87 25 7 18 | June 18 | June 22 | June 30 92 4 9 12 88 25 10 15s eadoseite June 23} July 1 202 5 9 13 89 24 10 14 | June 19 | June 24} July 4 152 5 il 15 90 25 11 14 | June 20 | June 22] July 1 182 2 10 11 91 12 4 8) SUMe NAL, ee. eases eee OR a esebee ocioae oe acne 92 9 | 3 6 | June 22 | June 27 | June 27 24 5 1 5 AVOIAGe. 22.8 ose end even ea SRA CE ie ees eee 6.19 | 13.82 | 19.14 Maximum 2405 252 Pe ee Cee ee Ae ear ais Se | ee 19 33 37 Minimum 2): 353/05 Sees SA ae Ey aes es rh ad Ser ie et 2 1 5 Number of male: moths: 2... 2225553 226 Hie ree de bee Se es eee 1, 007 Number of female moths... -. jo2c-2 222002. Stok hee See Ee ee Se ee eee 1,140 Total number of moths: -—3.\. 2852s. ak Ae eee See ee eee 2,147 Total numberof eggs:>3-- 4,828 2.2 -25- Os8oe se Aes a eee ee eee eee 14, 359 Average numberof eggs'per female moth sos2)... se. Yens. Soke eee eee een eo een a eee 12.59 Length of life of moths —The dead moths in the oviposition cages were removed each day; their sex was then determined and the length of their life computed. The results of these observations are given in Table VII, in which it will be found that the average length of life of 1,283 male moths was 14.59 days and of 1,462 female moths 15.86 days; the maximum length of life of the male moths was 36 days, of the female moths 39 days; the minimum length of life of the male moths was 1 day, of the female moths 1 day. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 7 Taste VII.—Length of life of male and female codling moths of the spring brood m captivity: Summary of records of 2,745 individual moths, : Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. Length! per of | Length] ter of || Length | per or| Length! err | Length | Num: | Length| Num: of life. saath of life. mots. of life. Tae. of life. anaine of life. THOT of life. aGhine. Days Days Days. Days Days. Days. 1 9 5 15 15 95 8 29 15 2 9 2 3 16 58 16 99 30 11 30 6 3 4 3 5 17 58 - 17 88 31 4 31 4 4 14 4 il 18 50 18 73 32 6 32 5 5 29 5 12 19 41 19 72 33 5 33 10 6 46 6 18 20 65 20 91 34 3 34 2 J 63 i 41 21 43 21 69 35 2 35 3 8 79 8 39 22 38 22 36 36 1 36 0 9 49 9 72 23 26 23 37 37 0 37 0 10 77 10 77 24 27 24 33 38 0 38 1 11 65 11 79 25 21 25 28 39 0 39 1 12 71 12 88 26 25 26 24 ———_ 13 99 13 97 27 10 27 14 Total.|1, 283 Total.|1, 462 14 79 14 98 28 17 28 11 Average length of life of male moths, 14.59 days; female moths, 15.86 days. Maximum length of life, male moths, 36 days; female moths, 39 days. Minimum length of life of male moths, 1 day; female moths, 1 day. THE FIRST GENERATION. Eces or THE First Broop. Time of egg deposition—The first eggs of this brood were de- posited on May 13 in a cage in which were confined some of the earliest moths of the spring brood, emerging on different dates. The deposition of the eggs, as shown in Table VIII, continued daily /| SAH He QUERAGE ORILY TEMPERATURE. UNE Cay eal SUURTLS AT RS SUNE Fic. 3.—Time of deposition of eggs of the first brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. up to and including July 8, with the exception of May 19 and 20, on which days no eggs were laid owing to the unfavorable weather conditions previously mentioned (see p. 18). The greatest number of eggs deposited on any one day was 1,379, as will be noted in the 19552°—21 2 18 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. graph, figure 3. By further reference to this figure it will be seen that the average daily temperatures from June 8 to June 7 were relatively low and that during this period the moths did not de- posit very freely. With the rise in temperature from June 7 to 10, the moths were much more active and deposited 828 eggs on June 8, 1,106 eggs on June 9, and the maximum number of eggs, 1,379, on June 10. The average temperature was also high on June 11, but the deposition of eggs was notably less than on the preceding days. Following the crest of egg deposition, the number daily deposited gradually diminished, except on June 19, when 564 eggs were laid. Taste VIII.—Time of deposition, length of incubation, and time of hatching of eggs of the first brood of the codling moth, Grand Junetion, Colo., 1915. Date— Appearance of— Num- Incu- Bhi ber of bation on-) eggs. | Deposit-| Red Black |yatchea.| Red | Black | period. ed. ring. spot. ‘| ring. | spot. Days. | Days. | Days. 1 15| May 13] May 16| May 25| May 27 3 12 14 2 10)|-=-do.. | :eeee ee | ees es Mia yit28" 22a else eee 15 3 2| May 14] May 16 | May 27 |...do..... 2 13 14 4 20 One albioe evens bacee eee May: 229)l.2 5. Genes 15 5 5 | May 15| May 17 | May 28-|.-..do..... 2 13 14 6 1 O2cso Meese eeosea|seereeeeee May: '30i|2. 26a seeeone 15 rl 4| May 16| May 22| May 29 200) nee 6 13 14 8 2 Ce Yo ae (eas Sere eee Ses Le Mayi'31s|seParse slate 15 9 1| May 17] May 23] May 30 ECO see 6 13 14 10 5 Os AREWSE SEE |e eee eee, Juinet. 15): fia Pec ceaees 15 rt 8 | May 18] May 27 | May 31 |..-do...- 9 13 14 12 2 GOLL ESAS 205. as as aoc JUN! 4 2A) 2 eA ESE es 15 13 5 | May 21| May 27 | May 31] June 1 6 10 11 14 39 ay 22| May 28 do June 2 6 9 11 15 12 Sale a 12 16 1 4]. 13 17 1 5 |. 14 18 45 2 10 * 19 22 3 |. 11 20 34 4]. 12 21 14 5 |. 13 22 3 6 |- 14 23 7 ale 15 24 20 4 11 25 136 5 12 26 140 6 13 7 65 7 14 28 19 ia 13 29 42 14 30 8 15 31 284 13 32 90 14 33 2 12 34 187 13 35 157 12 36 41 He 37 5 > 38 120 12 39 51 13 40 162 1l 41 299 12 42 19 13 43 367 ll 44 57 12 45 11 13 46 7 ll 47 161 12 48 13 49 324 il 50 43 12 61 30 13 52 6 11 53 29 12 CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 19 TABLE VIII.—Time of deposition, length of incubation, and time of hatching of eggs of the first brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915—Con. Appearance of— Incu- bation Red | Black | period. ring. coor spot. — DPate— Obser- | Num- vation. poe Deposit-| Red | Black ed. ring. spot. Hatched. 54 46 | June 4/| June 9} June 11 | June 14 55 Sie ee dorst ARCEy PRI SS ee June 15 56 Aa ONTOS Ollie eare ete rere June 13 | June 15 57 MO Nes ase Ale cee June 16 58 A eee CL Ow seals 27 rc |e eter June 17 59 163 | June 6] June 10} June 12] June 15 69 ON pC Osete alee ct ho /T leapap i aie June 16 61 49 | June 7} June 10| June 12] June 15 62 OA | Bae Oo Wsee [eta eee asee eee June 15 63 215 | June 8] June 10} June 14 | June 17 64 TRO sy AE SCC Kaye ars 2A es ae pee | Me June 18 65 619 | June 9] June 11 | June 16) June 17 66 55 | June 10 | June 12]...do..... June 17 67 (EO) ere CKO Se sl eee, Sapa teeta VER eS De June 18 68 GOR OO tReet pat cll Micra echo June 19 69 233 | June 11 | June 15 |} June 18 |...do....- 70 Sie Bene Qastert Saw tema lhe) Seema June 20 71 76 | June 12} June 16 | June 18 |...do.. 72 19) Hae GOR sei ie: ei meee Enea baile, SEIN 5s June 21 73 102 | June 13 | June 16} June 19} June 20 74 (BO) = KOS SS a be June 21 75 241 | June 14] June 17 | June 19 |...do..... 76 5G) eRe Kas Sie Moke Seem ieee [ae ee June 22 77 237 | June 15} June 17 | June 20 |..-do....- 78 TIGL 21 eiSea aka ees ers) a Sy a ms UG June 23 79 245 | June 16} June 18 | June 21 |.--do..... £0 208 ee O te Aa alten Bacon | Geto June 24 81 248 | June 17 | June 19} June 22) June 23 82 HU} || I Coe Se alt eae ee a June 24 83 141 |} June 18 | June 21} June 24 | June 25 84 CS) EO (Oe cots ec Goa Seema ee June 25 85 504 | June 19] June 21 | June 24 |...do___.. 86 149 | June 20} June 22 | June 25 |...do..... 87 DOM ARGO Se ons ate ame da llAcctercraiae oe June 27 88 198 | June 21 | June 22} June 28 | June 28 89 Sg Oe: Barston (aed 2 oS an June 29 90 117 | June 22 | June 23} June 27 | June 28 91 Ly | OKO carl ech iar aR a June 29 92 145 | June 23 | June 24 | June 28:} June 30 93 Deed Oster Aiea ale a July 1 94 13 | June 24 | June 25 | June 29 | June 30 95 UAE Osc eee ee Ue Nes Ooi July 1 96 191 | June 25| June 26 | June 30] July 2 97 Dh eC OMe alors tee Sei witasaemee July 3 98 65 | June 26] June 28] July 1 |...do.... 99 ZA Wein aye eee ya saan Penn ela Ria July 4 100 11 | June 27| June 29} July 2/]...do..... 101 27 | June 28} June 30] July 3 |...do..... 102 ALP CLOSE E Sa Eee RN SR July 5 103 74 | June 29) July 1] July 3 |-...do..... 104 35 | June 30 | July 2] July 4) July 6 105 Tal © SH [ie Le AL eee July 7 106 94/ July 1| July 2) July 6] July 8 107 63 | July 2] July 4] July 7] July 9 108 TUNIS OR AD RIES tees ame 2 ale era July 10 109 16| July 3] July 6] July 8| July 10 110 33 | July 4 |...do..... July 10] July 11 11 UR Oboes a ae a Se ing ae July 12 112 17] July 5j]...do..... diay Ib ee Geeese 113 24) July 6} July 8] July 12] July 13 114 ESTE | ASU Veh esl ene Cl Oe sea renee eS ah, SD 115 11} July 8 SSS SS See SE EEE BO RB ee os 3 Mia SARS E ARERR trace soe: pence aoe reed he Se IMETTTE eee a eet eh ie ee ee ee le 1 Eggs not included in averages due to failure to develop fully. Length of incubation.—As will be noted in Table VIII, the earliest eggs required an incubation period about twice as long as those de- posited later. This is accounted for by the lower temperatures to which the earlier eggs were subjected. The incubation period gradually decreased as the daily temperatures became higher with the advance of the season. The average number of days from the date of deposition to the time of the appearance of the red ring was 2.70, maximum 9 days, minimum 1 day; the average number of days from the date of deposition to the black-spot stage was 6.62, maxi- mum 13 days, minimum 4 days; the average incubation period was 9.14 days, maximum 15 days, minimum 6 days. 20 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a8 % 8 8 g CLEAVAGE DAILY TEMPERATURE. PRBURHRAER seuss oo Ser Sem se ie hse fis a ie Oe | Brae = | | ia a Seen HS &% LA ee | \| OL ee 3 mn 4 Re tie a eee eens 4 fee Eee ee MAY SUNE Vay Fic. 4.—Time of hatching of eggs of the first brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Larv OF THE First Broop. Time of hatching—Larve of the first brood commenced to hatch on May 27 and continued to hatch until July 13, as given in the com- plete hatching data in Table VIII. The eggs were hatching in maximum numbers on June 17, just one week after the time when the greatest number of eggs was deposited. The interval from the date of the appearance of the first larva to the time of hatching of the Jarvee in maximum numbers was 21 days. This interval would prob- ably have been reduced somewhat had the weather been warmer on June 12, 13, and 14. The time of hatching of the eggs of the first brood is presented graphically in figure 4. Length of the feeding period, stock-jar method—The length of the feeding period of 758 larve of the first brood (both transforming CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. oT: and nontransforming) according to the stock-jar method (see p. 8) is given in Table 1X. As will be observed, the length of the feeding period averaged 21.64 days, maximum 35 days, minimum 12 days. Length of the feeding period, bagged-fruit method—In Table X will be found the results of the observations of the feeding period of 249 Jarve of the first brood (both transforming and nontransform- ing) by means of the bagged-fruit method (see p. 8). The average period of feeding was 22.77 days, maximum 35 days, minimum 15 days. Taste [X.—Length of feeding period of larve of the first bruod of the codling moth, stock-jar method, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Num- Length of feeding period in specified days. Date of | ber of entering | indi- fruit. | vid- lyol13i1ali5| 16 | 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29|30/31/32133/34| 35 uals. re May 27 ee seco sccllscus|ieece Sccheose||-ese|e3cclscoc]lsees to socfioce|se|lodlea|sef/oc 29 2 |-- gee|ss5o)jecs-|lssse ole Seel|- Bo 2ocloesslozo-||sesaecoe||so5 sdleellec||Sellec|oae 30 i lee agcifssce|[esoaissae senacselleselasocl! = ile gag locoo)|as0c} abe == =')|==| =| = == June 5 5 |--|- ye2oiseosi+o2disecc eee) Uy 8) ececlicnce 26¢lcoclocod foo aa|laciedianiec 6 16 |.- s2coileseclasa- UN eR aap ee ea I eal |soclsoo diese seleel[osliae]lcellaoe 7 3 |--}- szc|osca\|eooc|os == We esas e|lsoce|bacq|joace sac|sconlesosj|ec UW eclealinelieciooe 8 4)... seoecosisos: 2 pale PACS CAS Coole Sc elle sae edd |zccullocncljace ecllecllea|lec|iecdiece 9 ) Jeli =pafesoeih Je) ao || 4s eamelia sacl Ile eee oe Pedlecdeiooseliese Sle|oe|loqlooe i0 ig) eae > ee Aut pees elem |) Gel Wee | eel | eres [eyes doc] soe fal \o2lS4lled|as¢ iil 39 |-.|. Se ee EP GN MO Re IN SPT Bi aac Od te ae alee alee leclisollas| see 12 Gy eae Son|o sos) ooh |) ee aea ie ese SSR allen tee godt Wee -looclsellecleclGoleelleod 13 e) ieelte epee ecto letra ghee | veo 92) econ tired a ee ee eo cee aal oe also Sele 14 Ze Waele De gels | Era Deiter |e els 12a im | elt all | eae ED | acter Speer isicll eral ra erallleym | 7 ainie 15 Se a ee a eee ee ee ee a ee eee Eee ee ee ate eee rapes ee ioc Gal elses 16 a oe Fe lic felt ae | acd fel Plunge mS [hg he Veo Neo [ebuild By Lg Fg fe a 17 BPA Halt aoe thai Bes TNE topline esa) cet es sel foil eh Toa aa ie a ea Sees Se eee 18 Gel ioofe teelll | 2 AP i Oe eS AW) |) et) Ba ee eah ae icc eeleclianc 19 DORE ealeslee| alana eelee S| O91 9) nOnleonteamaa|ya4e |) ale S Bt pail ee loee 20 By {cl allel eel aeseehl ies RU ees fh SMe bil bese ISka A 2 Ti Ne ere i el i Te ey ee Pe 21 Be lesion Sacelp tbe eben Gh esec|cao) Dlleoka ll ealeeoat al easel ae eel ih 22 ANC ee el lees Th Zl eset ile ik Wp I ele eliaselt cod be laleAiat Sallis see 23 73) Nee) Ooh sega 24 St | Wenliaaeel ee ral wt dise a Malle Mae els alee! 24 PAE oie sel ll SSAA a2 Veta Ble PM 5 8 9 sl ba hes 214 tea ee el el 25 16) ealsalea elle PEN 6 94 AN ee lei ome cll 22 lene eLee Beeler | Sel ell e| ey oe 26 2a Se eee Te By emeeeee O Nleeodl Ze s Zitat! 2 Ile Padleellecie 27 Patel eal el oe ke Pid aa la Wa Sara baie a ses eal ace Nes he Os ee lB 2 |..|2 |. 1 28 8 | elses fete sel bee te VI eB eal en Veta] ) Ce | 2 et eda lee seelosiZ Ie 29 BE | aes |e 2a (eisai oui em ioe | rere ere ieee 30 WO ie Wis cee] p ale Re PA coal) cet en)" ie auiliy7 2 ibs] le sale sles a ee iG Ta eae 2 Wil Eee | Seale oo gelee WAN Gaeta te alee ee 3 MOREE IE Esl em Sr roe tA Taal Ahiti onItS erercycl Ree 4 PAN slesjeade IES eelededliaee aleeee 5 Sriao Mee ie SLI Be ale tye oe 6 ae elle] Rel eda SS Peal he a 2 |. 7 6 |1 58 ae ial aes es AS ee tale 2 Se oe 8 17 |_- Sl Ealevom|pueba| ec salt tnd. 1 2) 14 |. Sei POPES ,2) || eeroie lerereel| ees 10 3 |- Bilal ee PAN ee - Nara se aoe ee i 3 |- L ee eal Ne 1 12 Pal | al eal beers 743 eS (Se SSE eect Be 13 De eelelee eel sees TS 2 ae ee el sean 758 |1 |1 |1 \7 | 25 | 44 | 69 | 89 | 83 | 94} 73 | | Days ace lenciimofiecdina periods: coe st sccmcte sas soe emicine cies obece hoe nme’ Doueseiceceseocceceases 21.64 Maxiniurmlene Ga ofieeding Neonode ne nsene ss eoe sme cemanene seme nee deme feces sce sweeecece nse =ric-=-- 35 Minimum denethiofiecedine pertads: aseso: a saccteme eee sabe acme sinc cing sacs ones seicekiecsinccccieees 12 22 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE X.—Length of feeding period of larve of the first brood of the codling moth, bagged-fruit method, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Num- Length of feeding period in specified days. Dateof | ber entering |ofin- fruit. ners 15|16| 17 | 18 | 19 | 20 | 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 |30/31/ 32/33/34] 35 May 31 1 bates Lae June 2 1 se ETE ras es Uae aa es: 7 bes 2) es Sh6 5 6 See eeee sees| soe oases 2 | 2 6 14 foal eben laamelaase|cmels 9) 2 pits Sinan oh) bal See ag ence alec jeertel ia? DOR ye) (Beals || a HSN RN 9 | Pert Sane ales i} 3} ri amet ea il ars (i 2 fet et 2) (soehcana 1 |a.2-[eces]ccs [seco] cee] ee Ie ee eal 12 facet | eaaeal eae ft eM aeealicee 8 : 13: 6 a ae 97 /SS anaes eee : 12 Wes eas ee snl Dil sed lncel Les] | ha [AS tel a a gg ae i re ia SANE UME eae ieee ee (a ene Pee Fe ee ne tae eg ees 165[ eG lecdled [ezocteucalc cel Do [ceca | otk] ve 2] ema al mie a sae aa es | i TPN yesh cle ke Reval a ee ome oes tg Reb tL pte | eal eel cael tal eed, tga a 15 (bs 30h See see ale lee ete Oe 1 = 7s me id (oes fe (Sse bee ee ie es hee. Bs St | poy ails (ogee FAG Wit a et Ws om es |p|. |S, eo NDS : > mms Oa Peel fe (Nese ete Lael gee Oa (ea eerie Re ED oe ee eos a a =n Daal Ato) | aces (eal 4 |i GaGa. Da Te Eagle Ic tear | riebe cane Ella Del avi | ee sc alce, axl, Gate Nee (ts cll hel escent ee ee Thies. 67 a yl 9 I elec lle ele ae ce oy lice Fal Sash be Ne sl RAVAN 9 FT i g De lial (phe aks tole, ele Balada 2 29 re a eee el al oye 1 i B0 1.8 | 11 2 ke BN kipi| oanhi|e eal ee ed ; July 1 ate bed ede eT VERY BST EE EE SESE | al ee ee ee De ig ri ee ee Sa Aral en Leeda eT Sales 3 van lobe] so | ga] cen VLEs) Soe ere oe ee ne | 242/213) 1|17| 13 | 26 | 53 | 19 | 20 fel 2 Average length of feeding period...-....--.------- nic dies rete: arate SiG ate lhe tia Lede te te etate Ohare are PR Maximum length of feeding period : Minimum length offeeding period: == --22--sen- <2 aes ee ee ae eee eeeee eee Bhgretease ky 2 Length of the cocooning period—The cocooning period is herein considered as extending from the time the larva leaves the fruit until it has pupated. The data given in Table XI, therefore, apply only to the transforming larve of the first brood. By reference to this table it will be seen that the cocooning period was recorded for 430 individuals which left the fruit from June 23 to July 26. Of this number, 86 formed their cocoon in 4 days, 85 in 5 days, and 67 in 6 days. The average number of days for all individuals was 6.70, maximum 28, and minimum 1. This minimum cocooning period of 1 day is the shortest period recorded for any larva throughout this and the following season. The cocoon was of normal size, but was constructed very lightly. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 23 TasLtE NI.—Length of cocooning period of transforming codling moth larve of the first brood, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Num- Length of cocooning period in specified days, being the time Larvee | ber of from leaving the fruit to the time of pupation. } left indi- Av. | Max.} Min. fruit. a 1/2/3|4]5]6|7)| 8] 9 |10/12 |12/13'14'15'17|18|19!20'29I8/26!28 Days.|Days. | Days. June 23 1 tbh pal bae\loccl eiss|des soe berod eolsel so) cl el ae eenee -| 4.00 4 4 25 1 RNa a es | as a Tare eed tl re [EM em | rel cles mie -| 6.00 6 6 26 10 lees |) By eel eS ale we dM S| Saal St clgelledl eas -| 5. 60 11 4 eal 21 QMO Gesell Ly 2B Wo solecellssalesissisesalloalisallestlaciios -| 4.71 8 3 28 18 |. BA SPS aE eee Le ee er eal loose oll Ge 27} 8 3 29 14 |. Wey Te ee ees ose) Bese sleclicalisalloalladiioothac|lsalioe -| 5.43 9 2 30 10 DPA APA egal OF saloaloseilo Salecleataolselaslaaioe .| 6.60 12 4 July 1 OL |. a EPO a ee a a ele Ss ollecilosteo bE eelisolocties -|.-| 5. 87 17 2 2 Oi = i ALaA ie cea Coe Go| eo | Pepe | ge | | =|--| 0.00 11 1 3 17 DN eed ee Ns elesolaelleolaal eel mel ll laal Glee 1 | 7.82 28 3 4 17 1 ol a By Saab eS ea at iS aie se Teale sila aioall -| 8.00 19 2 5 17 PA BA Ba a Ee fe ae re le ped 10. 70 23 4 6 35 AQ IO | BPS esa wy al eosin i Wik Wes ye sloolleaildt 7.31 26 3 7 18 NO BS A hee eeshsohoslaylssticalcalle Pratt 6.39 13 4 8 28 |. 38 GIG focdlesa BY 2) yl ih Wests ys 7.00 15 3 9 20 |. We eo ES et hy SB ecalill yisollil Wells z a|| 725 14 3 10 14 |. Sool ap eal La ee ey NS ae lite 1 |..|..|..| 8.64 22 4 11 15 |. 1 A Seles SS Welesseeel Baleseslestl sells E 7.33 15 2 12 17 ADs ea | tL tac (0 Dh tee A Ms A ets I (We el Pere (ea Pee eal feel ese eee ie ll oa les =-leie 5 ie Ae ees se) Re ee Goin Zale Be eer ees este eed eee ere lise ls. le at, ol ees 6 19 |. oI) ae ies al | Fe) Ue eB A Ne ioeeel asec e elle ee ee se 7 ilae|p eal eoee| ae Be b= ll et baal Bs Ce Pre Se ee a Se Be ee Ale oe Bes eee 8 16 |. 2 pastel On| RAD SAMGB | a aeral Sohal beers eet | ees os oy one Sree ees see a lacee 9 8 |- fei | wees. 2M Qa AL Alege planer Ber ae aes = a es fa Pee ee = 1 10 1 USS eel eee 3 C'S Weel Beau ened Mes eael ls San Sees 3 eel ee s ie | St Sara 11 LG = Eeae 2\ 3 4 4 1 TE Se rates Pee Bel ee a hovetal|h all 12 as 1 5 1 Pa) Pe: 2} || pecoaretl 2 betel Oh =| ee Be eer Brel eee) Cee 13 1G Me eelpee Assos ee ae | Gale ty scete |. 2h | eee ee SCE ete ees PEA IE Se eae ; 14 6 | |Seoctsaec loose Belt lh aK) ay at Timi seeetel ko tt BS ae el ESE Se A Sone) Ecce 15 Thal ebeleaee jaar © Bae eee) he Dy | eee ae <2 2| DRE Eee SSS ees tet Pe) |S ce 16 falas = Lee lao ee Dig fed |S Sale| eee ea ee | ae S Bee eee 17 13 |- 1 ee od is ad Pied (SM ie bt 2a7a| 2 RES eee Oo 52 [eases 18 10 3 PA ee Vel fone al ieee Us aad ee i Rees IS Sere The aes ese ee 19 17 3 4 4 1 7 ee icicle nl eee oral Se elise ey be Se 20 15 |- salecesteeanc| GA S7ANS OZ soi a| "22a es ess eer een eee een Seeilotoe Aeon eee 21 i?) |" 3 : 670) ie Ba ee pee Peake else ose 2 SSRN ere Se es Eee |e 22 12:))5 Fs 1 1 1 2. Bt]. Beloscalh Dele Se ee | eee oe eee es redone or 23 Peale PN caf ces! WE DR Diol) bate Se] ce ele cere lee ee eee eaten ea ert eel ce ara 24 4}. be [ee Co ae hc Pe eb (| al A dh Se 25 $44) 1 1 NEI 3 Da \evape dl Syston | epee GS See real ata si ee eee eens ate 26 4}. Pe eee 1 eegeeed pt Wes genie ra | el ee Eee He Sk db SARE 384 Eee 27 3 |. a Brelisecl ie) a 1 ae eo acc Spall were eee tere ren a | eee Ee sacelles2 [toe 28 6 |. ee | apt tet Wek 7-8 Le es yo 1 1 peal eee eee Ee ee . 29 2 Ff (I ES al i ee he Bs aaa, ain SESE | lees Fe ese Seta eo 3 2 Tei se 10 DIE Ieee (eee ese eet iia ae lk le = lee oH lei 3 2 1 i Be ee Fa a Se eee ice cigzacliooeeleeeal eae ey ee || Sere eee Aug. 1 EW Fee eer spade ener leo eles bode # dae lee See eee pele | area | 331 1 2} 12 | 19 | 62 |106 | 74 | 26 | 13 4 2 1 1 Dial ee 1 1 iP teal Days. Average length of the piupalistage. - -2 28: --. 22.25.55 do sete came a= leo tome eee et ee ee 11. 44 Maximum length ofthe pupal stage. abe... - 22 c ee ~ dew emi cleeaje > sea eiee = ene eee ae 31 Minimum length of the pupalistage=22be 2b. 2 awe oot emcee em gnbap ee eee eae eee aaa ne Ee 6 Morus or THE First Broop. Time of emergence.—The records of the time of emergence of moths of the first brood were taken from two sources of material: (1) From moths that issued from first-brood larvee reared in the in- sectary and (2) from moths that issued from the larve collected every CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 25 three days from banded apple trees in the Hamilton orchard. The first of these sources was used primarily as a means of establishing the approximate emergence limits of the first-brood moths, while the moths that issued up h ee tccinie | aeaee MIke Mi CN Ae Hamilton orchard were used for the ovi- 2 position study of the first brood. The lat- ~ iil | | ter moths were em- of \ | | \ f gence approaches nor- z amu i mal field conditions AA ee Mb | more closely than es tes, z that of the moths ployed for this pur- from the insectary Fic. 6.—Time of emergence of moths of the first brood of ® a nN a QUERAGE DAILY TEMPERATURE. a & ta relative rate of emer- NUMBER OF 1OTHS. ~ iS LS pose because their the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. reared larvee. According to the insectary-bred material, the first moth appeared July 7 and the emergence continued daily, except on a few days, to August 15, (See Table XIV and fig. 6.) TABLE XIV.—Time of emergence of codling moths of the first brood, from material reared at the insectary, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Date of | Num- Date of Num- Date of Num- Date of |Num- emer- ber of emer- ber of emer- ber of emer- ber of gence. moths. gence. moths. gence. moths. gence. moths. July 7 2 July 19 17 July 29 10 Aug 7 7 2 20 12 30 12 8 8 11 20 21 aay 31 13 9 5 12 12 22 9 Aug 1 12 10 3 13 30 23 14 2 9 12 1 14 13 24 14 3 9 13 2 15 19 25 27 4 15 15 1 16 24 26 2 5 17 17 13 27 13 6 3 Total 426 18 30 28 | ! As given in Table X XV, the first moth of the second brood issued August 23, thus leaving a period from August 16 to 22, inclusive, during which no moths issued from larve reared at the insectary. This condition did not obtain with the material from the Hamilton orchard on account of the much larger number of individuals in- volved, but instead moths issued continuously during the foregoing period as would naturally occur in the field. During the interval August 16 to 22 there was probably an overlapping of the broods 26 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and, for this reason, it was impossible to determine from field ma- terial when the last moth of the first brood emerged and when the first moth of the sec- ha “| Te is teammablo to ASEAN Alas le TSI MSN i a vision of the broods COO er A reason August 19 was selected as the end of the emergence of the first brood of moths. The time of emergence of the moths of the first os Sie ae SICH Cie Core ati Beipel es brood from the ee pee Se larve collected in the aepiient ht ie aoheeee ent Hamilton orchard Fic. 7.—Time of emergence of moths of the first brood of 1S given im Table the codling moth, Hamilton orchard, Grand Junction, XV and presented Colo., 1915. ° graphically in fig- ure 7. According to these data the first moths issued July 10, and emerged in maximum numbers on August 9. NUMBER OF MOTHS. TABLE XV.—Time of emergence of codling moths of the first brood, reared from field material, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Date of Num- || Date of Num- Date of Num- Date of |Num- emer- ber of | emer- ber of eme7- ber of emer- ber of gence. moths. gence. moths. gence. moths. gence. |moths. July 10 4 July 21 16 Aug. 1 39 Aug. 12 75 11 22 22 17 2 31 13 7 12 50 23 27 3 44 14 69 13 15 24 34 4 53 15 73 14 22 25 56 5 56 16 13 15 26 26 26 6 74 17 52 16 9 27 35 7 67 18 41 17 4 28 41 8 59 19 46 18 13 29 64 9 89 19 33 30 57 10 87 Total..|1, 737 20 25 31 33 il 61 Number of eggs per female moth—It will be observed in Table XVI that the total number of eggs deposited by the 945 female moths of the first brood was 44,158 or 46.73 eggs per female moth. This average is nearly four times greater than that made by the spring-brood moths (12.59 eggs) owing, doubtless, to the more favor- able climatic factors during the oviposition perion of the first-brood moths. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 27 TABLE XVI.—Oviposition by codling moths of the first brood in rearing cages, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Sex. Date of— Number of days— Total From Cage | Num- num- From | date of N ss ber of Fe. | Emerg-| First Last | ber of | Before | first to | emerg- * |moths.| Male male. | cuce of oviposi- | oviposi- | 885 | ovipo-| last | ence to moths. | tion. tion. | @epos- | sition. | ovipo- | last ited. sition. | ovipo- sition. 1 24 10 14 | July 12} July 13] July 24 797 1 12 12 2 26 17 9 |...do....| July 14 | July 25 679 2 12 13 3 15 il Wholly 183 [ee -Olo ce los Gozeee 501 1 12 12 4 22 11 11 | July 14] July 16] July 24 390 2 9 10 5 26 14 12 | July 15 |..-do. July 28 351 1- 13 13 6 9 7 Dele dally ei Gis Beers er em ane os CO)7 Bel eis ae Lea eeal (sae if 4 2 2| July 17 | July 20} July 31 74 3 12 14 8 13 3 10 | July 18 |...do Aug. 1 667 2 13 14 9 33 11 22 | July 19 |...do Aug. 5 1,475 1 17 17 10 25 12 13 | July 20 | July 22 | Aug. 14 624 2 24 25 11 16 8 8 | July 21 | July 23) Aug. 5 767 2 14 15 12 17 9 8 | July 22| July 24| Aug. 6 684 2 14 15 13 27 14 13 | July. 23 | July 25 | Aug. 18 427 2 25 26 14 34 12 22 | July 24 |...do....| Aug. 10 | 1,089 1 17 17 15 26 11 15 | July 25 | July 27 | Aug. 13 860 2 18 19 16 30 15 15) |P2edos!: | | 2dol- 4 | Ang. 12 662 2 17 18 17 26 13 13 | July 26 | July 28} Aug. 8 602 2 12 13 18 35 12 23 | July 27 | July 29 | Aug. 18 | 1,127 2 21 22 19 19 4 15 | July 28 | July 30 |...do._- 776 2 20 al 20 22 9 18} /eseGlo). pe lsecGl@o a. ole solo» 640 2 20 21 21 33 15 18 | July 29 | July 31 | Aug. 14 517 2 15 16 22 31 10 ZN Noe 55 olleaOloo5 al] Aires, il 723 2 22 23 23 29 16 13 | July 30} Aug. 1] Aug. 25 700 2 25 26 24 28 6 22 |..-do....| July 31 | Aug. 19 737 1 20 20 25 12 6 6| July 31] Aug. 2]! Aug. 16 229 2 15 16 26 21 8 13 |..-do....| Aug. 1] Aug. 20 641 1 20 20 27 18 7 1i | Aug. 1} Aug. 5] Aug. 18 114 4 14 17 28 21 11 10 |..-.do....| Aug. 4 |...do.. 382 3 15 17 29 31 13 1g | Aug. 2 |...do....} Aug. 26 694 2 23 24 30 22 8 14 | Aug. 3] Aug. 5 | Aug. 17 512 2 13 14 31 22 7 15 |...do....| Aug. 6 | Aug. 25 465 3 20 22 32 23 10 13 | Aug. 4 |..-do...-] Aug. 28 | 1,068 2 23 24 33 30 13 Ap eee One |= Oe ae AT 22) 903 2 17 18 34 30 14 16} Aug. 5 |...do....| Aug. 27 703 1 22 22 39 25 16 TOR pee Ones eee One A TICS 23 (68 1 18 18 36 25 8 17 | Aug. 6 | Aug. 11 | Aug. 22 171 5 12 16 37 22 8 14 |...do...-| Aug. 8 | Aug. 24 | 1,185 2 17 18 38 27 Lyf LO} edo Aug. 10 | Aug. 25 200 4 16 19 39 35 1s 17} Aug. 7 | Aug. 9 | Aug, 26 742 2 1s 19 40 32 13 19 |...do...-|..-do..._| Aug. 28 | 1,434 2 20 21 41 34 15 19 | Aug. Aug. 10 | Aug. 25 1,393 2 16 17 42 25 15 10 |...do....|...do...-| Aug -29 634 2 20 21 43 26 13 13| Aug. 9 | Aug. 11 | Aus. 26 568 2 16 17 44 36 14 20 |..-do.---|-.-do-...| Aug. 22 990 2 12 13 45 27 12 15 |...do...-] Aug. 10 | Aug. 28 838 1 19 19 46 34 14 20 | Aug. 10} Aug. 12 | Aug. 30 755 2 19 20 47 27 10 UE OVS Ble eons SI) Nie Bs} 350 2 15 16 48 26 17 ies sdo-e. 35 doe Aug. 24 ( 1,000 2 13 14 49 31 14 17 | Aug. 11 | Aug. 13 | Sept. 2 622 2 21 22 50 30 16 -14.|__.do:...|...do-..-) Aug. 27 980 2 15 16 51 24. 14 19 | Aug. 12 | Aug. 14 | Aug. 28 436 2 15 16 52 29 9 PAD Neg HGkOs sa plas cO ses eile 50 Ke 701 2 15 16 53 22 6 16 |...do...-| Aug. 13 | Aug. 31 456 1 19 19 54 Q7 10 17 | Aug. 13 | Aug. 15 | Aug. 29 357 2 15 16 55 26 il 15 |...do..-.| Aug. 16 | Aug. 28 756 3 13 15 56 26 13 13) ClOseee|| Ales 35) eS Close 591 2 14 15 57 24 14 10 | Aug. 14 | Aug. 19 | Sept. 1 372 5 14 18 58 23 6 17 |..-do.-..| Aug. 16 | Aug. 31 583 2 16 17 59 22 8 14 |__.do....| Aug. 15 | Aug. 29 700 1 15 15 60 25 10 15 | Aug. 15 | Aug. 17 | Sept. 9] 1,103 2 24 25 61 22 ial 11 |..-do.-..} Aug. 18 | Sept. 1 749 3 15 17 62 25 11 15 |..-do Aug. 17 | Sept. 2 403 2 AZ, 18 63 13 5 8 | Aug. 16 | Aug. 21 | Aug. 27 29 5 7 11 64 25 12 13 | Aug. 17| Aug. 18 | Sept. 1 299 1 15 15 65 27 16 11 |_..do. Aug. 19 | Aug. 28 473 2 10 iol 66 21 9 12 | Aug. 18 | Aug. 20 | Sept. 7 502 2 19 20 67 20 9 Te). sdol. =|) -d0--= | Sept, 12 639 2 24 25 68 22 12 10 | Aug. 19 | Aug. 22 | Sept. 7 340 3 17 19 69 24 9 15 |...do....| Aug. 20 | Sept. 12 565 1 24 24 PARY. ODL Ce earn eee Peed tat Rae 203 Se ev Sener pa PORN BAIL: pd A Sees 2.07 | 16.78 | 17.85 PIU AERAL TAT LTT taper epee aN a tes Ry a op pty a ey nr Coe erate ake he cho 5 25 26 WU brhaltia db raat oreo ye es as 2 Mean RO Reenter eS aloha lb PORT os pe ee eG a 1 i 10 1 No eggs. 766 Total number of eggs : ae Average number of eggs per female moth... 11 i ] 2 46.73 28 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Time of oviposition—One of the most important problems in con- nection with the control of the codling moth in the Grand Valley was to determine when the earliest eggs of the second brood were deposited and when oviposition was at its height. It is believed that these data could best be secured by using moths that emerged from larve collected regularly from banded orchard trees, since the subsequent emergence of the moths would correspond to that which would naturally have occurred in the field. With this in view, the moths from the Hamilton orchard material were kept for oviposition studies, beginning with those that emerged July 12 and ending with those that issued August 19. As is given in Table XVI, 69 cages containing a total of 1,711 moths were employed and, as will be noted therein, the average number of days before oviposition was 2.07, maximum 5, and mini- mum 1; the average number of days from the first to the last ovi- position was 16.78, maximum 25, and minimum 7; the average num- ber of days from the date of emergence to last oviposition was 17.85, maximum 26, and minimum 10. According to this table the first eggs were deposited July 13 by moths that emerged July 12 and the last eggs were laid September 12. A few moths issued July 10 and 11 from the Hamilton orchard material, and, in addition to these, several moths emerged from insectary-bred and other material as early as July 7. These moths were confined together in a cage and deposited the earliest second- brood eggs on July 11, as shown in figure 8, page 31. Length of life of moths—Table XVII includes the summary of records of the length of life of 1,719 male and female moths of the first brood. The data in this table show that the average length of life of 769 male moths was 11.86 days, of 950 female moths 12.68 days; the maximum length of life of male moths 41 days, of female moths 35 days; the minimum length of life of male moths 1 day, of female moths 1 day. As has been frequently observed in other studies of the life history of the codling moth with but few excep- tions, the average life of the female moth is longer than that of the male. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADC. 29 Tapte XVII.—Length of life of male and female codling moths of the first brood in captivity; summary of records of 1,719 individual moths, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. Length N A vot | Length ne Length ou Length Nuee Length Da Length a of life. mothe: of life. ante. of life. moths. of life. moths. of life. moths.| lfe- moths. Days Days. Days. Days Days Days. 4 4 4 1 ie 26 16 64 31 1 31 0 2 8 2 2 17 29 17 39 32 0 32 0 3 24 3 10 18 27, 18 36 33 0 33 0 4 15 4 10 19 10 19 21 34 0 34 0 5 44 5 16 20 12 20 20 35 0 35 1 6 48 6 35 21 16 21 13 36 1 36 0 7 55 7 35 22 7 22 16 37 1 37 0 8 55 8 61 23 6 23 7 38 1 38 0 9 38 9 72 24 7 24 7 39 0 39 0 10 68 10 75 25 8 25 3 40 0 40 0 i 49 i 103 26 7 26 5 41 1 AL 0 12 58 12 96 27 4 27 3 ||_——_—_|_———_ 13 45 13 74 28 3 28 3 Total.| 769 Total.| 950 14 39 14 65 29 2 29 3 15 46 15 54 30 4 30 0 Average length of life of male moths, 11.86 days; female moths, 12.48 days. Maximum length of life of male moths, 41 days; female moths, "35 days. Minimum length of life of male moths, 1 day; female moths, 1 ‘day. LirE CYCLE OF THE FIRST GENERATION. Life cycle, stock-jar feeding method.—The length of the life cycle of the first generation of the codling moth, by the stock-jar feeding method, is given in Table XVIII and, as shown therein, includes the time from the deposition of the egg to the emergence of the moth. The complete life cycle extends from the deposition of the eggs of one generation to the deposition of the eggs of the next, and it will therefore be necessary to add 2.07 days, the average number of days from emergence of moth to first oviposition, to the figures in Table XVIII to determine the complete life cycle. It will be noted in this table that the data include 221 individuals, giving the incuba- tion period, and the average, maximum, and minimum length of the larval feeding period, the cocooning period, the pupal period, and the life cycle. The summarized averages are: Incubation period 9.91 days, larval feeding period 20.75 days, cocooning period 6.99 days, pupal period 11.64 days, and life cycle 49.30 days, complete life cycle 51.37 days. Life cycle, bagged-fruit feeding method.—In Table XIX the life cycle of the first generation of the codling moth, by the bagged-fruit method, is given for 109 individuals. The summarized average figures are: Incubation period 10.55 days, larval feeding period 22.18 days, cocooning period 5.40 days, pupal period 11.03 days, life cycle 49.18 days, complete life cycle 51.25 days. TABLE X VIII.—Life cycle of the first generation of the codling moth, as observed by rearing, stock-jar feeding method, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. 30 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Num- Larval feeding f Cocoonin iod. | iod. i ae Seder | oa a period. ocooning period | Pupal period Life cycle egg depo: indi-| ba- | — sition. oe fon. | Ay, |Max.|Min.| Ay. |Max.|Min.| Av. |Max.]Min.| Av. |Max.| Min. Days.| Days. |Days.|Days.| Days. |Days.| Days. | Days. |Days.|Days. | Days. Dae: Days. May 13 1 14 | 27.00 27 27 | 4.00 4 4 | 12.00 12 12 | 57.00 Ca Eye 23 4 13) [22525 23 PAM IE ee 5) 3 |. 10.25 il 8 | 49.00 50 24 ll 13 | 21.45 25 19 | 5.36 11 2 | 10. 81 13 6 | 50.63 54 24 1 14 | 20.00 20 20 | 4.00 4 4 | 11.00 ili 11 | 49.00 49 26 2 13 | 20.00 21 19 | 5.00 8 2} 9.00 10 8 | 47.00 48 27 9 13 | 19.77 23 18} 5.22 9 3 } 10.33 12 8 | 48.33 53 29 11 12 | 20.63 22 18 | 5.09 i 3) 1127 13 10 | 49.00 51 29 15 13 ! 21.80 27 19 | 6.66 9 3 | 13.26 31 9 | 54.73 72 31 3 12 | 20.66 22 19 | 14.33 28 4 | 10.66 12 9 | 57.66 70 June 1 2 12 | 20.50 21 20 | 7.00 vi 7 | 10.00 11 9 | 49.50 51 2 12 12 | 21.08 25 18 | 9.25 23 3 | 11.33 13 7 | 53.66 66 4 31 11 | 19.83 27 14] 6.77 20 3 | 11.45 20 7 | 49.06 65 6 15 10 | 22.20 32 18 | 8.40 14 4 | 13.13 21 9 | 53.73 63 9 20 8 | 20.55 26 Ais) | -2lgt533) 14 2 | 11.60 14 8 | 47.70 56 10 23 8 | 20. 86 29 UN Teal 13 4 | 11.47 15 9 | 47.52 56 11 13 8 | 20.84 26 19} 6.84 13 3 | 12.38 25 10 | 48.07 57 12 10 8 | 21.20 24 18 | 7.60 11 4 | 12.10 16 10 | 48.90 53 13 6 8 | 21.00 24 19; 6.66 9 4 | 12.50 14 11 | 48.16 52 15 3 7 | 24.66 29 20 | 10.33 11 9} 9.66 11 8 | 51.66 55 16 3 7 | 22.66 25 20 | 6.66 10 2 | 12.00 14 10 | 48.33 50 16 1 8 | 18.00 18 18 | 5.00 5 5 | 13.00 13 13 | 44.00 44 18 1 7 | 21.00 21 21 | 12.00 12 12 | 11.00 11 11 | 51.00 51 19 3 7 | 20.00 24 17 | 7.66 9 6 | 12.00 15 10 | 46.66 54 20 2 7 | 18.50 20 17} 5.00 6 4 | 11.00 12 10 | 41.50 45 21 6 a \We2050 26 16 7.16 9 4 | 11.16 12 10 | 46.83 53 21 t 8 | 17.50 19 15 | 6.50 8 5 | 11.00 12 10 | 43.00 46 23 2 7 | 19.50 20 19 | 8.50 12 5 | 9.50 11 8 | 44.50 47 25 1 7 | 16.00 16 16} 5.00 5 5 | 11.00 11 11 | 39.00 39 26 3 7 | 18.33 23 16 | 6.00 6 6 | 12.66 14 11 | 44.00 50 27 2 7 | 17.50 18 17 | 6.00 6 6 | 12.00 12 12 | 42.50 43 30 1 6 | 17.00 17 17 | 6.00 6 6 | 12.00 12 12 | 41.00 41 221 | 9.91 | 20.75 32 14 | 6.99 28 2 | 11.64 31 6 | 49.30 72 1 Add 2.07 days for complete life cycle. TasBLeE XIX.—Life cycle of the first generation of the codling moth, as observed by rearing, bagged-fruit feeding method, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Num- Larval feeding P P . Li 1 Dite of | burotl Teme period. Cocooning period. Pupal period. ife cycle. egg depo-| indi-|, ba- "|= >So a a sition. mis tion} Ay. |Max.|Min.| Av. |Max.|Min.} Av. |Max.]Min.| Av. |Max.| Min. Days.| Days. |Days.|\Days.| Days. | Days. |Days.' Days. |Days.|Days.| Days. |\Days. |\Days. May 16 1 15 | 32.00 32 32 | 5.00 5 5 | 10.00 10 10 | 62.00 62 | 62 22 1 11 | 25.00 25 25 | 4.00 4 4 | 10.00 10 10 | 50.00 50 | 50 23 5 11 | 26.40 30 23 | 4.80 6 4} 11.00 12 10 | 53. 20 59 | 49 23 8 12 | 27.37 32 23 | 6.25 15 3 | 10.62 13 9 | 56.25 63 | 50 23 5} 13 | 21.80 23 21 | 4.60 6 4 | 10.40 11 10 | 49. 80 51] 49 24 8 13 | 21.12 22 21 4.12 5 3°) 10975 13 9 | 49.00 52; 48 24 9 14 | 22.22 25 21 |) 5.66 8 4 | 10.55 12 9 | 52. 44 57 | 49 26 3 13 | 26.33 27 26} 7.38 12 4} 9.00 11 8 | 55. 66 60} 51 27 6 13 | 23.66 27 20 | 9.33 22 1 | 2a3Bui a 10 | 58.33 74| 49 29 4 12 | 19.50 21 18 | 7.00 8 6 | 10.25 11 9 | 48.75 50 | 47 29 2 13 | 19.00 20 18 | 5.00 5 5 | 11.50 12 11 | 48.50 50 | 47 31 Jf 12 | 19.00 19 19 | 4.00 4 4 | 11.00 il 11 | 46.00 46 | 46 June 1 5 12 | 21.20 26 19 | 4.80 6 4} 10.80 12 9 | 48. 80 55 | 44 2 2 12 | 21.50 23 20 | 3.00 4 2 | 11.50 12 11 | 48.00 51 | 45 4 3 11 | 20.33 21 20 | 4.66 B 4} 11.00 12 10 | 47.00 48 | 46 6 5 10 | 21.40 28 16 | 5.40 8 4| 9.60 il 8 | 46.40 54] 42 9 4 8 | 20.50 21 19 | 4.25 5 3 | 11.50 13 10 | 44.25 46 | 41 10 3 8 | 22.33 28 19 | 9.66 15 6 | 13.33 15 11 | 53.33 57 | 46 13 8 8 | 23.25 29 D1 4.75 7 4 | 12.75 19 11 | 48.75 53] 44 16 4 8 | 21.75 24 20) 4.25 5 4 | 11.75 12 11 | 45.75 48 | 43 18 1 7 | 21.00 21 21 | 5.00 5 5 | 12.00 12 12 | 45.00 45 | 45 19 4 7 | 22.50 24 20} 4.50 6 3 | 10.75 12 10 | 44.75 47 | 43 21 3 7 | 17.00 19 15} 4.33 5 4 | 10.66 11 10 | 39.00 41 | 36 21 3 8 | 21.33 25 19} 4.66 5 4 | 11.66 12 11 | 45. 66 50] 43 23 3 7 | 18.00 20 16 | 4.00 5 3 | 10.00 il 9 | 39.00 41 38 24 4 7 | 20.50 21 20 | 4.75 6 4 | 12.25 16 10 | 44. 50 50 | 42 25 4 7 | 18.75 21 18 | 6.50 10 3 | 10.00 13 8 | 42.25 44] 41 109 |10.55 | 22.18 32 15 | 5.40 22 _ _ _ eS wo _ o oa > © _ oo ~_ =~ 1 Add 2.07 days for complete life cycle. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 31 THE SECOND GENERATION. Hecs oF THE SECOND Broop. Time of deposition—Table XX shows the number of eggs de- posited daily by moths of the first brood in oviposition jars in the insectary. It will be noted that the period of egg deposition extended from July 11 to September 15, inclusive, and that during this interval (ae er | ea pamireen ee i he faba | ea (scl il a | ef ra ° 8 ° AVERAGE OQRILY TEMPERATURE. JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER Fie. 8.—Time of deposition of eggs of the second brood of codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. 38,485 eggs were deposited. The largest number deposited in any one day was 2,452 on August 14, as will be seen by reference to this table. The time of maximum deposition, as shown in figure 8, occurred about midway between the earliest and latest deposition. 32 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XX.—Time of deposition, length of incubation, and time of hatching of eggs of the second brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Date— Appearance of— Obser- ca Number Tncu- vation |, es de- of eggs bation No. [peered | _ De Red | Black |yatcheq.| hatched.| Red | Black | period. posited.) posited. | ring. spot. C ring. | spot. Days. | Days. | Days. 1 Girly a balay, 13: |) ie al es eee 0 7A oe 6 Sel eee - 10 | July 12 |...do....| July 17 | July 19 8 1 5 7 3 53 | July 13} July 14} July 16] ...do... 50 1 3 6 Ph ees en Ee eee | seen soreael ose. eee July 20 Pa ear eae anes oo 7 5 271 | July 14 | July 15 | July 19 |...do-..- 179 1 5 6 Bi] ics a beclae eee Saalese se sacee [mentee July 21 AS# |e. . care | ewe ee 7 7 303 | July 15} July 16 | July 20 }...do.... 170 1 5 6 8 288 | July 16 | July 17] July 21 | July 22 282 1 5 6 9 176 | July 17} July 18 ]}-..do....| July 23 169 1 4 6 10 398 | July 18 | July 19] July 23; July 24 378 1 5 6 Fj [h Meee len See So eal ate ee eee ee July 25 Gia acts eee 7 12 208 | July 19| July 20 | July 23 | July 24 94 1 4 5 1 (eee Oe eee nD ae Pa July 25 106} 2268-4 eee 6 14 396 | July 20} July 21} July 24] July 26 376 1 4 6 15j) = sac) ale beens aelecenke oe eel peer July 27 pe Sage es no ee d/ 16 395 | July 21 | July 22) July 25 | July 26 51 1 4 5 Vo ele ies 7 gel Sota 2 | See: ae July 27 300} 2222 2ee-| seeeeeee 6 18 539 | July 22| July 24 | July 26 |...do-... 32 2 4 5 1 emcee (aR SO 15 ES are eo ae July 28 AQGH| seca cl Estee ee 6 20 455 | July 23 | July 25 | July 28 | July 29 446 2 5 6 DUNS SoD Se eee ae Be te eee cee July 30 ial Pees ere sas aa 7 22 261 | July 24 | July 25 | July 28 |...do-- 245 1 4 6 Biles RHE Seb coe een Baa he ae ee eee July 31 g IS aan ec Ley eae 7 4 404 | July 25 | July 28] July 30 |...do-... 315 3 5 6 Try | ara alka (Ee WS «| AO SL een yee Aug. 1 Br antag | ee eae 7 26 309 | July 26] July 28] July 31 |...do.... 250 2 5 6 ral ie Lee Sl es ret ote eaeeeat an | Boner a Aug. 2 TO Kegel (caps ets 2 "1 28 645 | July 27| July 28| Aug. 1]|..-do-.. 555 1 5 6 Ft | Pega led Pesaro |e OS | ae Aug. 3 BS plore e | Seca 7 30 684 | July 28 | July 31|/ Aug. 2 |...do.... 588 3 5 6 1 lel Paes el (ER S| ERE eM |S ark Slap Aug. 4 62h eee A eee 7 32 909 | July 29} July 31} Aug. 3 !..-do.... 709 2 5 6 FB Bree ieel pe poem cl Sesertreae| | Sesan sages Aug. 5 TU eesescitel leer esc 7 34 595 | July 30} Aug. 1] Aug. «4 |...do..-- 303 2 5 6 ft ees so eae cetera el aoe 15 Wee al eae se Aug. 6 DAY [eemeees ree fenees ea Yi 36 937 | July 31} Aug. 2] Aug. 5 |...do... 581 2 5 6 SUN eetezie ah Al ite tl ee eile eae Aug. 7 BF Be ete SOS [eer scereie 7 38 966 | Aug. 1] Aug. 3] Aug. 6 |...do...- 58 2 5 6 Ft eg el EE eres eo eae Aug. 8 S374 ni. jee alae 7 40 641 | Aug. 2] Aug. 4] Aug. 7|...do.... 340 2 5 6 2 TR Ne a as | EPS ee | hes Aug. 9 244>)% 222 kee pease ee 7 AON Vwi lle ofa baleen < deena ate eh op Aug. 10 Ct | ene | SRN ee as 8 43] 1,013 | Aug. 3] Aug. 5] Aug. 8] Aug. 9 223 2 5 6 Ab Woe 2 aa| onde seers |p ec ee Eanes Aug. 10 (a) RSME See Safe 7 45 720 | Aug. 4] Aug. 6] Aug. 9 |...do.... 554 2 5 6 rh Ree ARSE RE ae See ceoaauN ated. A Aug. 11 1374) saceee ool eccrine 7 47 693 | Aug. 5] Aug. 6] Aug. 10 |...do...- 464 1 5 6 AS o2o Sas lee eee ee | Seen Aug. 12 TOAD Ae eee | eee 7 49| 1,045} Aug.. 6| Aug. 8 | Aug. 11 |...do-.-- 543 2 5 6 5) epee lye BE aaa | bee i Sa Ee aia ae, Aug. 13 AQST Tense aceon. 7 51 314; Aug. 7] Aug. 10 | Aug. 12 |...do-...- 223 3 5 6 = By) BES Pemiene aemse| ae nee ee ae Aug. 14 695) Sere | aeee as 7 53 787 | Aug. 8 | Aug. 10 | Aug. 13 |...do.... 401 2 5 6 5A CREE weTSes be Se Se ERE Sree Eee Aug. 15 DOO} Teed 2 RESUS = Se 7 55 | 1,400] Aug. 9] Aug. 10] Aug. 14 |...do.... 1,064 1 5 6 SOUPSie Te Seah Mee et See: ae Aug. 16 Pylt [eames Sets 8 7 57 | 1,495] Aug. 10 | Aug. 11} Aug. 15 |...do..-- 837 1 5 6 58) | sadness. cae < asd SS eee Aug. 17 AOSTICE. Ste ae 7 DO ees enol ae oes -pa Deleon eee oe | eee ee Aug. 18 1D rok mace ate Bee 8 60] 1,311 | Aug. 11] Aug. 12] Aug. 16 | Aug. 17 105 1 5 6 Li ae ees acre te - Ame eel ie ee Aug. 18 WOSNG aiceeaee = meee 7 77 Are tas ce ie Sear lon . sae reel oe reset Augie 19 |) (66i) eee eee eeeeeree 8 63 | 1,358 | Aug. 12 | Aug. 13 | Aug. 17 | Aug. 18 81 1 5 6 iets mies See ies Scope.| ee - Eas Pas ass - Aug. 19 1 27a) Sane aerals eres 7 oN epee aes Ss Sener [n.- Son eee Pep eememe Aug..-204° 9, \ “SON GSC etre iermeeee 8 66 | 1,626 | Aug. 13} Aug. 14] Aug. 19 |...do.... 1, 480 1 6 7 67 | 2,452] Aug. 14] Aug. 16 | Aug. 20 | Aug. 21 2,280 2 6 7 68 583 | Aug. 15 | Aug. 17} Aug. 21} Aug. 22 501 2 6 7 CON Reh? 6 eee ce SR es lage Aug. 23 522. . neoa| aa 8 70| 1,378} Aug. 16] Aug. 18 | Aug. 21 | Aug. 22 978 2 5 6 7 8) Pee ae [EPS ae ies | Ul Sapae Se eee Bue 23 Pst eect [act 2 ote 7 72| 1,462] Aug. 17| Aug. 20| Aug. 22|...do....| 1,087 3 5 6 7 Sen We ae ee | haat ra) [Fe Aug. 24 380), --caee | eee 7 74| 1,485 | Aug. 18 | Aug. 20} Aug. 23 |...do.... 1, 292 2 5 6 PBN ite et Noh eS Ae ooo eee esas Aug. 25 163 |... sos oepe eee 7 eC CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 33 Taste XX.—Time of deposition, length of incubation, and time of hatching of eggs of the second brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915— Continued. Date— Appearance of— Obser- une Number Tncu- “ae esas de- D Red Black itched Red | Black an No. 5 e- e ac atched. e ac eriod, posited.) posited ring. spot. Hatched. ring. | spot. Days. | Days. | Days 76 | 1,353 | Aug. 19} Aug. 21 | Aug. 24 | Aug. 25 352 2 5 6 WALA Poe Re = |e aes oe ES aoe ace eh ae Aug. 26 GAGs | ashen tlhe Re EAs 7 78 | 1,340 | Aug. 20| Aug. 22 | Aug. 25 |...do.... 456 2 5 6 79) llecsnwedel abe eecese |booeeosens |baoneacpas Aug. 27 Ol GR hee as colar kee "7 80 | 1,490) Aug. 21 | Aug. 24} Aug. 26 |...do...- 45 3 5 6 Gililo oop e sel Seeses ose Seceaconded eredenocec Aug. 28 SAT | (eee es | ee 7 82] 1,526 | Aug. 22} Aug. 24 | Aug. 27 |...do.... 889 2 5 6 (28) | 5a | a Di aes (en Aug. 29 VU Be Eee Bal leper 7 84 895 | Aug. 23 | Aug. 26 | Aug. 29} Aug. 30 841 3 6 if 85 343 | Aug. 24 |...do....| Aug- 30 | Aug. 31 278 2 6 7 Gil Se) Cale Be heal eee aeeee ercaecoscn Sept. 1 BY as Sete Be ese 3 Se 8 87 702 | Aug. 25 | Aug. 27 | Aug. 30} Aug. 31 407 2 5 6 RG een 258s be seceine Boe loncuaae seo MBemesees S Sept. 1 DBBalieaddeclioasze ye 7 89 412 | Aug. 26 | Aug. 28 | Sept. 1] Sept. 2 325 2 6 7 EO \ncoc dass |eseoseees eesoeeescs|eseageebse Sept. 3 7) tal ene as a 8 91 348 | Aug. 27 | Aug. 28 | Sept. 1]|...do- 282 1 5 7 OP} |lscsoacenelosasancaod|encoecosad|aseacanss= Sept. 5 USM eS Seeeise eemaeS 9 93 224 | Aug. 28} Aug. 29| Sept. 2] Sept. 3 146 1 5 6 VLA i i OE) as oie 3 a el Ph ee Pe ere Sept. 4 TNS erseskege es oes ser eae i $6) onc sabclieseestaeed|bedeouseeclasaceaqces Sept: 5 OS es ereece| oa sosaee 8 96 129 | Aug. 29{ Aug. 31 | Sept. 4 |...do.. 18 2 6 7 7/2) Oa = oe a Eee ne beri aeae See Drees Sept. 6 SOP setemeclsscueees 8 Cli ees NE A Ea 4 ares 5| tenons Sept. 7 Bibel renee es eee 9 99 309 | Aug. 30 | Sept. 1 | Sept. 6 |...do- 133 2 7 8 W0D |ecroctedlesesacdaod |spss5ccsoe |Seusarasee Sept. 8 IG epee eas Geesee ee 9 OU |e eibasars| Wteegacsee Seeeesanos ncberaracs Sept. 9 TOMS cejaeeecl Sarees 10 102 300 | Aug. 31| Sept. 1!Sept. 7] Sept. 8 171 1 7 8 108) | saeeck ee lescesereaes Seeseheess If dace: Sept. 9 OSM enaceaealmsgeicec 9 10 eee deed te seeee nee |Sonerosass cosccsceec aes 10 Dill sererasers | ease AS 10 105 35 | Sept. 1| Sept. 3 | Sept. 8 |...do. 30 2 7 9 OG |jesbansdetee Soe ch sels onecanecd|bsokoacecs Sept. 11 HA eee cecal eoaeaene 10 107 29 | Sept. Sept. 6 | Sept. 10 |...do- 22 4 8 9 LOST eet ce. Me eee Wee. ce Sept. 12 Of Szemcaee|Seesueoe 10 109 28 | Sept. 5| Sept. 8! Sept. 13 | Sept. 14 22 3 8 9 Fh Regs leheeteteoe lecaumee | Pemd see Sept. 15 ill Pee be et nna 10 TULL 2p es el oh Ea: OO a A Sept. 16 | Om Sel a 11 112 4 | Sept. 6| Sept. 8 | Sept. 14 | Sept. 15 3 2 8 9 THIS | acedoacs| Wahee bess leeeeeeee|aocesedser Sept. 16 Il pesenbua base lees 10 114 7 | Sept. 7 | Sept. 9 | Sept. 15 |...do. 1 2 8 9 TITUS Ve Sete cs eine ee oe eye Sey aes tl Re es Sept. 17 1G eeeaSpes ecsooses 10 116 2) Sept. 8 | Sept. 11 | Sept. 17 | Sept. 18 2 3 9 10 117 SSO oe Oye adGe es -llece do. - Sept. 19 2 2 8 10 IG) adisen eae seen asa SOC oteSere Fase seerae Sept. 20 I sonaesadledsocase 11 119 2| Sept. 10 | Sept. 12 | Sept. 18 |...do- 2 2 8 10 120 32 | Sept. 12 | Sept. 14] Sept. 20 | Sept. 22 26 2 8 10 121 1 | Sept. 15 | Sept. 18 | Sept. 23 | Sept. 24 1 3 8 9 STS CIT IB Esy CY NSE elena ee || eee en ae es BDESOM: |e eek Seale ea Dees Us ONG area Pes aro [aspen acetal hes preety ei eee cies [Slee mioee eames, 22 So Sz8 1.85 5. 54 7.22 IIT eo | ly eel re che cl era ee Cale [pareve Leen A Peerage Cette Lhe ee we Sees 4 8 11 AN Voner Pe | eae sen ae Oe Sd ee ei Na Ree Sera es ees tree aateee level's e aya eeeiges 1 3 6 Length of incubation—A record of the observations of the em- bryological development and incubation period of the eggs of the second brood will be found in Table XX. It will be observed that the length of the incubation period was increased toward the latter part of the season, as the temperatures became lower. The average number of days from the time of deposition to the appearance of the red ring was 1.85, maximum 4 days, and minimum 1 day; the average number of days from the time of deposition to the appearance of the 19552°—21 3 34 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. black spot was 5.54 days, maximum 8 days, and minimum 38 days; the average length of the incubation period was 7.22 days, maximum 11 days, and minimum 6 days. LARV. OF THE SECOND Broop. Time of hatching.—By reference to Table XX it will be seen that the time of hatching of eggs of the second brood extended over a period of more than two months, namely, from July 19 to September 24. The largest number hatching in any one day was 2,280 on August 21, a date which is just midway between that when the first a ee ee eee) as es A Vas ae oo ‘AL 0B es So ee ey SS asd ee ee (By ela Ea ea al haere ea NOS pos he Te eas 1 a pigs ese FE Ih eae Balas ot rats Peas Ee bs ier emia fees OS ae SS eae) eran ae ee iceland OR aS Mi —H To |e ae So | Obed Fal ore il — i es re Sele wet Se ae ee a Ae eee em Fe ee ee ee Me Ieee as a ee ea PRN ERS A = ak pe x ey } 2 ee GUST SEPTEMBER Fic. 9.—Time of hatching of eggs of the second brood of the. codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915, larvee of this brood appeared and the date when the last larva hatched. In figure 9 the daily hatching record is shown diagram- matically with average daily temperatures. Length of the feeding period.—The length of the feeding period of larvee of the second brood was established by means of the stock-jar method (see p. 8). The observations of 1,939 larve are presented in Table X-XT, in which it will be noted that the feeding periods during the warmer weather of July and August were considerably shorter than those during September and October. The first larvee of the second brood entered the fruit July 19, and although some of CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 35 the larve hatched and commenced feeding as late as September 24, none that entered the fruit later than September 12 successfully completed its feeding period. The average length of the feeding period was 28.69 days, the maximum 67 days, and the minimum 15 days. TABLE XXI.—Length of feeding period of larve of the second brood of the codling moth, stock-jar method, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Num- Length of feeding period in specified days. entering | indi- fruit. vad 15|16| 17|18|19| 20] 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25} 26] 27] 28] 29] 30] 31] 32| 33| 34/35/36] 37| 38 July 19 20). See abe Wei S) aes note AieeM mallee eel etn hones sleG el 8 IL ote 2 ZH I oN) 2a OE de ZU eS ESCH Oy rey ie ED NS lls ale eal eal 1 Sod Dy ASS TG yap SSPE a ARE)! SE Oe Ce ie eel ts] ileal! 22 74. sell SA EAA TSP CARIES AI Se ey oo BN HST is oa cl ail f el all Sol oe ll ee 23 28 SESS OT RS SIS Neeley SH orl SH eel ST UG) Sanh ill eal Io Less 24 67]. TS Gy a aE TG ee GI Sal I eI SG oo fl pt fee Panes | a | 25 20 SAD OGH BS ISOM) Vet Saal eats a SS rhe eau So i aes ese asl eae 26 48 PURPLE leec mai chet Qetllpy Savile one neal Be otal oo : 27 44 WD Dal OO Bl ey Gh oh Ti a ooh aii alll” SMS ale © 28 38]. 2 i) ZS Ba SS ih A SSS Tes I Oh oie rs 29 50]. ZIRE Severe aimee Gly Glee Slee ol tad alan Soe laren RAS Rasen Dl OR LSE alae 30 39]. Sy ee A rg) a I SO AST Ne LES SI) aS OR 31 58... AL ail) TG) a, a | OSE) Ti) eT Gls Sai sie Aa ee Aug. 1 Be Modoc: Sale Si 2 dl IS SE A Oye ay Za TE aS Sp = A Sle aI 2 62..| 1 Tp BO) BP Ne A eG TES SY SS Gh oh a lhe 3 52. ese oO Ale lh eral IS Gi A ca ay ON eo ah Sa So el ae 4 37 : HT a OD zi aL SS ODS So a Ty a OE sore 5 56). . cca DB Sy adn a Zi FE ON BAL Tl Gl Soy eas edie lla 6 64) _. Na Oh OG a ah BB AE Da) ST wp ON oles a 7 51l..| 1 see SA Se a A a abe SP a aS Te | aN al 8 Sil... St) TB GI) GQ) ab ab BI BAD BL Bisa aes ea ail 9 55]. - al) se eee PSH SAL OH Ba aye ZN Ne aloe ae 10 Elcdlsdleeate Sl Uh Se BL Se Ge SS ea OG Tey OT TS A ri ele 11 28] - 1 ONS DOAN a A SY Ga eT Ea ee Ne aeells 3 12 47|.. A AA le Gl ete sha @) ZI A GS TUES gi Sal ete 13 49|_.|.- 1 Uae A GP Gl Sal ASSES ai Te eR aa aa il 14 33]. . SA CR EOE ae al ya OOM ll ZN oil She gill eal est 4 15 Sel iboal llccatteeeec ca ae ee A Si ON all ye al aa Sait call 16. 44. 5 scaecgh oll Se al OG Sh GANS Gil Mell ON) allay Ba ah 17 5G) | ae i eelieee | oa SS) SA peo Vedio rates Es allie CWE Ne Rao ed 18 40]... 1 Aa Pa al esa Aas TN ssi? SW Oy Mo Ea elle ae 19 39. . : Le a GT DI al Dio ae a Alar aia 2 20 34]. - 3 ale i Apa a Gs ee SION SU eG Ca al All... alls Soeealssah <3) HO Gh AILS ay ea al eae aloe 1 22 2. eA allt Ge Pg pais |B [ani ova hm Nl cident ae (eae [Che AN 3 2 ee 23 Doe Leal ee a Ses Se a A GCS ICS Sawa a 24 STINE A 1|. SM ce eels AP ie lle Bales canes Seo aa Od aa 25 Dilles an I fl et st tte | ne Pee | oe 2 26 40]. oe al ac) ES OTN SHS BE SOSA Se MSE alls ee 27 9911) x cele BOS ey Ah AE So Me aI IOS = 1 28 21. , ees SA dh SES SCN) eS TW SN lhe oll 29 32). é Sich Messe i HSH ale) al 30 24). 3 soe a al Aa a a at A Glee 31 21 f ala call Serle jet) ase ll 2) Lio oe Sept. 1 17 EPS Ee eee res erence |e ere eee Pea ? 1] 4) 13] 19] 57] 93] 132] 144] 142] 167/135|123] 99/105] 89) 69| 47| 62! 40] 56] 35| 15) 19| 25 36 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE XXI.—Length of feeding period of larve of the seaond brood of the codling moth, stock-jar method, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915—Continued. Num- Length of feeding period in specified days. entering | indi- | fruit. foes 39 | 40} 41 | 42 | 43 | 44) 45 | 46 | 47 |48 49/50/51 52/53/54) 55| 56 | 57 | 58 |59/60|61!62|63 64/65/66) 67 “ July 24 67) (yD| eee 15d Fa [al | Ph Atal e bail 28 ye) (Pere| foe ee ES SE Seat SEE (a ss ae ae i SRESe Ses alt S | Aug. 1 fla RST a Sp aS HO i i ae TE P| PS LE A: =e | 2 iy] eel | Fe (ae SS eo eee oe nae ose ellos Peete 3 ei Pale = 5 £7) Be ee a ae bal eigen Tees |S seal ale 6 64; 2 de Py dae sa) Pe Pel ee Wie3 (22 Seok SAIS = 7 ul iD Sees ell all ies ee eee |e seals a me : 8 rill Pipes [es Tyee 3h aa ed | He ae|eed ee balls ‘ elle 2 9 Bb] el eeelasslase ace ee Peloa| betes sally sell A 3 10 571_- hier | bs tl Pie eel elsalles3 wale aleeaets a etelliayais 1] 28) 62 ae eek pec aelece A ee Je) a2 fiok aes malig ~ 4 12 47). 11 SS eae es ae ee elestssee sll a Salts s y 13 49) 2) 1 1 nll traea I Sales| olla mall Salle 2 ae 14 to) LP Spt ees ee ee oe Soe ae le ee palig 3 mers 15 Bola asl 5 Te elieeeie Seles oeiee eleoeliee ells “tes eee 16 CE ee ie | ees oe te 2\e Lee TAA SAS Sale F; sel red fe oe 17 29) 1). i eeiees) li Plssa las | (Se sen i8 Be cle eo mate 18 CU) Ee 1 Us Uae OS ae ep [ed oe oe (aes Sev ecl ts Pre | ae ft ee oe 19 39) 1). E e2 ees be eet (age) aces ee ce Balin x Belise\ieel ac 20 Adan ef Ses ree 8 Se EAR loe Bale aleelee ls £1 Sele 21 CH epee | eat (Pe |S oe Wet eieo Hes AAleales Be bee Ley see walls = las 24 LT 2) el eet ee S| Eee BB Ae loca ae eee asl ee Se emacs Sal mel eee a Sel koeyel lees 25 Pha 774 (aes | ears bencaied Vy Sl alec|ee if 53 a Bere 3 Oe a Pl 26 ADS. |) Ai a 2) Le eA ae Eel seal 22 CAN (are se eet hae |) ed ee 27 PANS) ase Ny aU yeah ai steele ll| sibs = Hee See na ele ee | eee 28 All ne eel Be eee 7A (Seer ete pete Peed el |e 1 WED] Fea heel |e 2 ee eS lee (Re Sele eae 29 2 |e A ers aT, eg esa ood ee al ellscl loo Alo. lose Es selectiod| Cllsceeligee 30 24) it) 2222) 3S aioe Sia [es|es| Se eee leas 2 eal ee call Ss 5 31 7A ee RD 1 i ee eae ee el a 2/23) iN grab al a | Sais 4 a) 2A Ae GS) Se ese | Sept. 1 D7 ralon Les Sia. nal UNleaseleaih dh 24 Alea = = LS oe) aes tee Salil =| hae 2 Pll Boe 1G ealine = 1 rE: Ee foe ae sy PN SI al Se rien eal i 1 3 TG| os] eee) eee 2 Dy Die LY ayo] EM a ees |e | | 313 Fife 2] se Aa eee + TPA AL Babe Lee Bealls ie elie = Eee 5 Sles.c lees Pelee Tae eerie yf Sele 6 1O0leeetsee i a 1. 1 a. 7 2) eee ee Say te | ad Uline 1) 2) 1 ile | 8 5 ln ome ND 9 aes (el bt ene fase AE a See see Meee 10 piesa ere ele 1 12 | een Ss a 1, 939 29] 22) 16) 15) 12) 12] 12) 6) 17] 7 6) 5) 6 8 ] ' Days. Average length of feeding period: ..- .....2.0. 3... 32s. bak Se ee ee 28. 69 Maximum length of feeding period -. 2.62582. 20s a ae ee ee eee Ree eeeeee 67 Minimum length'of feeding period's: .2-- 22 aso. = ne oe a eee eee Slots eve. 15 Length of the cocooning period.—The time consumed in construct- ing the cocoon by the transforming larve of the second brood will be found in Table XXII. As will be noted therein, the average cocoon- ing period for 20 individuals was 9.35 days, the maximum 31 days, and the minimum 3 days. The maximum here reported is the longest cocooning period secured for any larva throughout this and the fol- lowing season. As will be seen from Table XXII, this individual left the fruit September 1 and pupated October 2. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 37 TABLE XXII.—Length of cocooing period of transforming larve of the second brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Num-| Length of cocooning period in specified days, being the time from leaving the fruit to the ber Larvee of time of pupation. left fruit. | indi- vid- UISei esi ae | one Om aml te Aug. 5 ah eee See (Sie Saltese 7 Ueber letiacl bscete le cee aed 8 ie TDG pesos | oti eel Se 9 1}. ct etd bal eaetes baeetel gee 10 iL is Date Sal arte ll We asleene 12 1 er eee 13 1 | RAs Fe ee, esl aeons 16 Ol eae [arse Oe 1 1 19 11 [eal Cee ska Det Se de 20 Mcphee Peete te cick) Salers t 1 22 | BESS eee TEA eal Nees Rae eke 28 Pelee Sets | ee Sele eee PP Sept. 1 geese agen (spare Solecad cee 3 (a eran eres mea Sees et oe 7 [bila Se Pees = Bye HS Pee tid ee Total Pb) [The SS PAN Abt BS a 10 | 11] 12] 16 | 31 1 Dp ares les we ei 1 Eve. Syl ames aft Uy eee ides a rllcase ak See ceee i A he Vee bea erase Maxi- | Mini- mum, | mum. Aver- age. Days. | Days. | Davs 11.00 12 10 12.00 12 12 4.00 4 4 5.00 5 5 6.00 6 6 10.00 10 10 3.00 3 3 16.00 16 16 6.50 7 6 6.00 6 6 8.33 10 7 5.00 5 5 12.00 12 12 31.00 31 31 11.00 il 11 6.00 6 6 9.35 31 3 Pur OF THE SECOND Broop. Time of pupation.—It will be observed in Table X XIII and figure 10 that pupation of the second brood oc- curred from August 12 to October 2, in- clusive. Length of the pupal stage—In Table XXIV the length of the pupal stage of 16 pupe of the sec- ond brood is given NUMBER OF PUPAE. Prat TA - a leq 3 La 2a ; ee 8 CeTDeER Fig. 10.—Time of pupation of the second brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. and, as recorded therein, the average was 15.62 days, the maximum 31 days, and the minimum 11 days. TABLE XXIII.—Time of pupation of transforming larve of the second brood of the codling moth, Date of Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Aug, 12 1 |/Aug. 19 14 il 21 15 2 22 16 1 23 17 1 25 : Number|| Date of | Number pupation. | of pupe.||/pupation.|of pupe. Bee ee Date of | Number pupation.| of pup. Aug. 27 2 28 1 29 1 30 1 Sept. 9 1 Date of | Number pupation. |of pupz. Sept. 13 1 14 1 Ogi, 1 Total.. 20 38 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste XXIV.—Length of the pupal stage of pupe of the second brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. lees Length of the gms stage in speci- Date of | _ of pupation. ep aie 11 | 12) 13 | 14) 16-) 19} 21) 31 —— | — ] ——: —_ | —— |_—___ J —_ ___ Aug. 12 1 Bae | ee et et 14 1 i Us ee Fes de year PT yee el et 15 Vche ccafaselelsaalis lS tee lereelal ener ieee 17 ime De joo] Oho 2] sce eae eee eres 19 sae ool dbp lee) ee Seales leeee 22 sie er) Se fit! a ee Bs fle 23 ile te 1 Sc lee Sesloaee 25 1 ie ifs | ee al creel aae eee 27 2 |. ere i 22) 1 Be eee Se 28 Lie ee et Jgus), STAR See 29 its ites alee Se eel 30 We oe 8 Tas nee Sept. 9] 11], Saale i fara ie 13 ie eA os Sees Bee 1 14 ila ele dU eas ae 16 2 1 2| 6 1 2 1 1 | Days. A-verage length of pupal'stage. 62. 262 2s a ee ee eee 15. 62 Maximum length of pupalistage.=2 =) fag 0 ce Se se eae ef um length of pupal stage =). 52240 Ae ee ee ee eee Morus OF THE SECOND Broop. Time of emergence.—The time of emergence of moths of the sec- ond brood reared from insectary-bred material is presented in Table ax o> BEE Rie 8 AUERAGE DAILY TEMPERTURE KAI] Ha iY ACR a ANWR PACT ATA AURA eA eerie eee ‘GUGUET See EPIBER OCT oes R WUMBER OF MOTHS ~ Fic. 11.—Time of emergence of moths of the second brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. XXYV and figure 11. The first moth of this brood issued August 23, the last October 14; thus the emergence extended over a period of more than one and a half months. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 39 TABLE XXV.—Time of emergence of codling moths of the second brood, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Date of | Number || Date of | Number emer- of emer- of gence. moths. gence. moths. Aug. 23 1 || Sept. 12 1 25 1 18 2 29 2 23 1 Sept. 1 1 |} Oct 3 1 6 1 14 1 7 2 ————— 10 PANN A Wauiad |= el) oe alla) LirE CYCLE OF THE SECOND GENERATION. In Table XXVI are given the summarized data showing the average length of each period in the life cycle of the codling moth as derived from observations of 16 individuals of the second generation reared by the stock-jar feeding method. It will be noted that the average length of the incubation period was 6.12 days, the larval feeding period 20.49 days, the cocooning period 8.56 days, the pupal period 15.62 days, and the average life cycle 50.81 days. TABLH XXVI.—Life cycle of the second generation of the codling moth, as observed by rearing by the stock-jar feeding method, Grand Junction, Colo., L915. Num- Larval feeding : cooning period. iP riod. Li ‘ Date of | ber of| Incu- period. Cocooning period upal period ife cycle egg depo-| indi-| ba- z sition. | vid- | tion. ———_——— uals. Avy. |Max.| Min.| Av. |Max.| Min.| Av. |Max.| Min.}| Avy. | Max.] Min. Days.| Days. |Days.|\Days.| Days. |Days.|\Days.| Days. |Days.|Days.| Days. |Days. |Days. 6 | 18.50 20 17} 8.00 12 4 | 11.50 12 11 | 44.00 47 41 14 19. 33 24 16 | 12. 66 16 10 | 13. 66 14 13 | 51. 66 60} 46 16 21. 50 25 18} 5.50 6 5 | 13.50 16 11 | 46.50 53 | 40 21 20. 00 20 20} 7.00 ul 7 | 14.00 14 14 | 47.00 47 | 47 6 6 6 6 | 19.75 20 19} 7.75 10 6 | 16.75 21 13 | 50.25 55 | 44 6 | 20.00 20 20} 5.00 5 5 | 14.00 14 14 | 45.00 45 | 45 6 | 28. 00 28 28) 11.00} il 11 | 19.00 19 19 | 64.00 64] 64 7 | 18.00 18 18 | 12.00 12 12 | 14.00 14 14 | 51.00 dl | 51 7 | 25. 00 25 25 | 6.00 6 6 | 31.00 31 31 | 69.00 69 | 69 i) on Bee pep wp a for) for) i) Ls) f=) > Ne) iW) wo i for) ie.) on lor) — for) cs 15. 62 3l 11 | 50. 81 69} 40 a 40 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. | THE THIRD GENERATION. Owing to the small number of moths of the second brood that were reared at the insectary, data of the third generation were not se- cured. The moths of the second brood deposited third-brood eggs but none of these hatched. Complete data of the third generation, however, were obtained in 1916 (see p. 75-78). CODLING-MOTH BAND STUDIES OF 1915. Two orchards were selected for banding purposes. The first of these, known as the Edwards orchard, was unsprayed; it was located about one-half mile west of the insectary. The second, or Hamilton * RVERAGE OAILY TEMPERATURE. Fic. 12.—Number of larve of the codling moth collected from banded trees, Edwards orchard, Grand Junction, Colo,, 1915. orchard, was well sprayed throughout the season, and was located about 2 miles west and 3$ miles north of the insectary. Certain trees in each orchard were scraped to remove the loose bark on the trunk and larger limbs and were then banded with a strip of burlap cloth, folded to three thicknesses, having a width after folding of alert 5 inches. These bands were removed every three days with one exception in both orchards when the interval was four days. The larvee of each collection were kept separate and were allowed to spin up in corrugated pasteboard strips at the insectary for further study. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 41 in Table X XVII and figure 12 will be found the data for the Edwards orchard. As noted therein, the first larval collection was made June 22 and the last November 11, and during this period 3,001 larvee were secured. The maximum number of larve collected at any one time was 250, and this number was successively obtained on July 20 and 23. During the season of 1915, 1,417 moths, or 39.96 _ Behe eclat pa Al ol Py | ee pee. Gabe el 85 7S 70 VM | {Sec aes veil TAI te Teen ae y Gsreseeegeeagse JUNE JULY AUGUST QLERAGE DAILY TEMPERATURE, > PERCENT OF MOTHS EMERGING 1918. 8 26 es 2 & 8 “7 14. 17 20 23 Fic. 13.—Percentage of codling moths emerging from band- collected material, Hdwards orchard, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. per cent. of the total number of larve collected, issued from the band material. The percentage of moths emerging from each collection is shown in figure 13. No moths from this orchard emerged in 1915 from larve collected after August 16 In the following spring 976, or 27.52 per cent, of the moths emerged. The remainder of the larvee, 32.52 per cent, failed to transform to the adult stage. 42 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XXVII.—Band-record experiment. Codling moth larve collected at the Edwards orchard, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Total | Total Per cent of— Date Col- Num=|'initmn-=" |) mim ))002 ee of lec. | Per of | ber of | ber of col- ion larve | moths | moths | Moths | Moths Dead lection, No col- | emerg- | emerg- | emerg- | emerg- SadbanGe 1915 * |lected.| ing, ing, ing, ing, male 1915. 1916. 1915. 1916. June 22 1 10 2 0| 20.00 0 | 80.00 26 2 66 31 0| 46.96 0 | 53.04 29 3 82 62 0| 75.60 0 | 24. 40 July 2 4 172 51 0 | 472.80 0 |427.15 5 5 269 63 0 | 494. 02 0 | 45.98 8 6 89 77 0} 86.51 0| 13.49 11 i 3104 100 1 | 497.08} 40.97 | 41.95 14 8 144 97 0} 67.36 0 | 32.64 17 9 171 128 1} 74.85 0.58 | 24.57 20 10 250 197 3 |. 78.80 1.20 | 20.00 23 11 250 173 9| 69.20 3.60 | 27.20 26 12 173 123 10 | 71.09 5.78 | 23.13 29 13 182 89 17] 48.90 9.34 | 41.76 Aug. 1 14 155 80 BY |p eaileCoil 23. 87 | 24.52 15 167 58 55 | 34.73] 32.94 | 32.33 7 16 198 49 85 | 24.74) 42.97 | 32.29 10 17 153 24 43} 15.68] 28.10 | 56.22 13 18 162 9 50 5.55 | 30.86 | 63.59 16 19 135 4 100 2.96 |.. 74.07 | 22.97 19 20 126 0 63 0} 50.00 | 50.00 22 21 127 0 78 0} 61.41 | 38.59 25 22 117 0 88 0 75.21 | 24.79 28 23 123 0 81 0 65.85 | 34.15 31 24 70 0 44 0| 62.85 | 37.15 Sept.3) 25 82 0 54 0) 65.85 | 34.15 6} 26 56 0 40 0| 71.42 | 28.58 OPM se PTh 44 0 34 (0) || LE PAN) PRE 778} 12} 28 42 0 13 0} 30.95 | 69.05 15} 29 27 0 15 0} 55.55 | 44. 45 18 30 18 0 11 0} 61.11 | 38.89 21 31 19 0 13 0} 68.42 | 31.58 24 32 18 0 8 0| 44.44 | 55.56 27 33 4 0 1 0! 25.00! 75.00 30 34 9 0 2 0| 22.22 | 77.78 Octetsantersp 10 0 7 0} 70.00 ; 30.00 6} °36 0 0 0 0 0 0 9 37 7 0 4 0} 57.14 | 42.86 12 38 6 0 1 0} 16.66 | 83.34 15 39 1 0 it 0 | 100.00 0 18 40 1 0 i 0 | 100.00 0 1 |) All 0 0 0 0 Osa 0 24 42 5 0 1 0} 20.00 | 80.00 DPW 2S 3 0 3 0, 1.00 0 30| 44 0 0 0 0 Di gia ai) Nov. 2 45 2 0 1 0. 50.00 | 50.00 5 46 0 | 0 0 0 0 0 8) 47 0 | 0 0 0 0 11 | 48 2 | 0 1 0 50.00 | 50.00 Total larvedss.| 03/550 |r. 0a dene oa eee erates Saeie | sae meas Totalamoths =a ses- | 1,417 976 | 439.96 427.52 |132.52 | | 1 A Jarva killed in handling; 1 killed by predatory spider. 22 larvee killed in handling. 31 larva killed in handling. 4 All percentages based upon number of live larvee collected. The data in connection with the band studies made at the Hamil- ton orchard are shown in Table XXVIII and figure 14. The earliest collection was made June 28; the latest, October 21 following the final harvest of the fruit. A total of 4,183 larvee was collected from which 2,092 moths, or 50.01 per cent, emerged in 1915. No moths issued during the season of 1915 from any larve that were collected in this orchard after August 19. For the percentage of moths issu- ing in 1915 from each collection of larvye see figure 15. In the CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 43 spring of 1916, 869 moths issued, or 20.77 per cent of the total num- ber of larvee collected. The rest of the material, 29.22 per cent, did not reach the adult stage. NUMBER OF LARLAE. AWERAGE OILY TEMPERATUFE, - Fic. 14.—Number of larve of codling moth collected from banded trees, Hamilton orchard, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Under field, or nor- mal, conditions, there is a_ distinct overlapping of the larve of the first and second broods and of the second and third broods and similarly the moths of the first and sec- ond broods overlap. Hence with larve collected in the field it is impossible to know at all times to which brood the in- dividuals belong. But with the insects reared at the insect- ary the brood identity 5 85 80 Yj g & © rN S 100 708 ea = N Wao =e . BS 60k =o : ee em ea reer (aeons tea & EGR ee aeo eae AQ) (es cae a ic bl eNO ic. 15.—Percentage of codling moths emerging from band- collected material, Hamilton orchard, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. 44 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of each individual is definitely known, and this information aids in the establishment of the approximate limits of the broods as they occur in the field. TABLE XXVIII.—Band-record experiment. Codling moth larve collected at the Hamilton orchard, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. Total | Total Per cent of— Date | qo. | Num- | num- | num- ber of | ber of | ber of larve | moths | moths | Moths | Moths Dead col- | emerg- | emerg- | emerg- | emerg- individ: lected.| ing ing, ing ing, nal 1915. | 1916. | 1915. | 1916. : June 28 1 138 98 0} 71.01 0} 28.99 July 1 2 127 63 0} 49.60 0} 50.40 5 3 116 84 0} 72.41 0} 27.59 8 4 124 71 0] 57.25 0} 42.75 11 5 130 116 0} 89.23 0} 10.77 14 6 185 158 2] 85.40 1.08 |} 13.52 17 7 191 151 1} 79.05 5.23 | 15.72 20 8 252 201 3} 79.76 1.19} 19.05 23 9 333 238 8} 71.47 2.40 | 26.13 “a 26 10 322 245 8} 76.08 2.48 | 21.44 29 11 311 225 14] 72.34 4.50 | 23.16 Aug. 1 12 235 165 13 | 70.21 5.53 | 24.26 4 13 176 101 25 | 57.38] 14.20] 28.42 7 14 176 89 53 | 50.56] 30.11} 19.33 10 15 127 44 31 | 34.64] 24.40] 40.96 13 16 123 24 37] 19.51} 30.08] 50.41 16 17 131 16 51] 12.21} 38.93] 48.86 19 18 101 3 54] 29.70} 53.46] 16.84 22 19 109 0 54 0} 49.54] 50.46 25 20 108 0 82 0} 75.92] 24.08 28 21 98 0 81 0} 82.65) 17.35 31 22 123 0 76 0} 61.78 | 38.22 Sept. 3 23 129 0 100 0} 77.51 | 22.49 6 24 46 0 26 0} 56.52] 43.48 9 25 58 0 30 0} 51.72.) 48.28 12 26 48 -0 22 0 |- 45.83 | 54.17 15 27 31 0 16 0} 51.16} 48.39 18 28 14 0 il 0} 78.57! 21.43 21 29 23 0 15 0|] 65.21 | 34.79 24 30 22 0 13 0} 59.09] 40.91 27 31 27 0 18 0} 66.66] 33.34 30 32 11 0 8 0} 72.72) 27.28 Ociamas 33 8 0 4 0} 50.00} 50.00 6 34 1 0 0 0 0 | 100.00 9 35 6 0 2 0} 33.33 |) 66.67 12 36 12 0 7 0} 58.33 | 41.67 15 37 2 0 1 0} 50.00} 50.00 18 38 4 0 2 0} 50.00! 50.00 21 39 5 0 1 0} 20.00] 80.00 Total larve. i.) 4,183)|-.2-3852| 2.28 ts ed| eek ee aoe eee eee Total moths... .}........ 2,092 869 } 50.01 | 20.77 | 29.22 In figure 16 is presented the total combined number of moths emerg- ing daily from the larve collected in the Edwards and Hamilton orchards during the season of 1915. As will be observed therein, the moths began to emerge on July 9 and continued their emergence until September 8, except on September 4 and 6, when no moths issued. The maximum emergence, 152 moths, issued August 6. The total number of moths emerging from this combined material in 1915 was 3,509 and in the spring of 1916, 1,845, or 45.37 per cent and 23.86 per cent, respectively, of the total number of larve collected. The rest of the larvee, 2380, or 30.77 per cent, died over winter or through injury as a result of handling or from other undetermined causes. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 45 The life-history data obtained in 1915 are shown in diagram in figure 17. SEASONAL-HISTORY STUDIES OF 1916. During the season of 1916 the life-history studies of the codling moth were continued along the same lines as in the preceding year. In several instances, however, the work was elaborated somewhat, since the amount of material on hand was a little larger than in 1915. The biology of the codling moth in 1916 was quite similar to that of 1915, except that the second generation began somewhat earlier in the season. Full data on the third brood were obtained. eee ec r i Vina PIN A IS Lev aot a WERAGE DAIL We ee TUPE. Gon ° S ¢ D t ¥ 2 Gerakan a JULY FPUGUST SEPTEMBER — Fig. 16.—Time of emergence of codling moths from band-collected material, Hamilton and Edwards orchards, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. j The blooming period of apple trees occurred in 1916 about the same time as in the previous year and, as in 1915, was followed by a little freezing weather. On the morning of June 30 the temperature dropped to 27° or 28° F. in some parts of the valley, while on the next morning the temperature was about 1° lower. At this time about 85 to 90 per cent of the blossoms had dropped in the orchards of the Fruitvale district. While some injury resulted from these freezes, it was not sufficient to cause a serious crop loss. Frost rings and pits, the latter being in the calyx cavity, developed in much of the fruit, however, mde as a result, the codling moth larvee fre- quently cetera fhe Genii through fee frost pits. 46 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PUP OF THE SPRING BROOD. Time of pupation—The daily observations of the time of pupa- tion of the wintering larve are tabulated in Table X XIX and pre- SECOND GENERATION, THIRD GENERATION, SPRING BROOD. FIRST GENERATION. APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER S 10 18 20 2530 § 015 20 25 30 5 10 15 20 2580S 10 16 2025 30 5 10 152025 30 6 10 15 2025305 1015 2025 W § 10 15 2025 H aw al ees YS DEPOSITION OF FIRST BrOOD EGGS. ISTH. 8TH. — ae ee ese | eae, | PUPATION OF \SPRING BROOD. EMERGENCE OF SPRING BROOD MOTHS. FIRST BROOG LARVAE LEAKING FRUIT. < |. PUPATION OF FIFST BROOD LARVAE, 27TI f s : 4TH. OEP Pe r se OND BROOD\EGGS. Sete = ISTH. HATCHING '” ~ SECOND BRdOD EGGS. 197 Cee 2STH. 1st, < ea en S = AB SANG for Ss Sethe AF : uTH. i preckition + tor Hata Th H ny Fic. 17 —Diagram of life history of the ‘coals moth in the Grand Valley of Colorado, 1915. se nted graphically in figure 18. Reference to this table will show that 508 larvee were under observation and that the earliest pupation occurred April 16 and the latest -& June 12, the period thus covering ‘ae ee aah “t about two months. The maximum 15 IK in pupation took place May 6, when C | wil «2 3¢ individuals pupated. On April - so, 28,36 larvee transformed to pupe, Bet «{ and if weather conditions had con- “aati eh lies tinued normal for the remainder ans Wi cia clN eo sitee of the month, it is probable that Seem Nae © SS une” the maximum pupation would Fic. 18—Time of pupation of spring have occurred about May 1; but, brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. as will be seen 1m the graph, the 7 ‘CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 47 temperature dropped considerably, resulting in a check to the pupa- tion activity. TABLE XXIX.—Time of pupation of wintering larve of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. Num- Num- Num- Num- Num- Peron ber of Seen ber of eae ber of Cane ber of Sten ber of "| pupe. “| pupe. "| pupe. "| pupe. "| pupe. Apr. 16 1 Apr. 27 24 May 8 29 May 19 6 May 30 6 17 6 2 36 9 21 1 2 18 8 29 3 10 6 21 3 June 1 2 19 0) 30 9 il 13 22 4 2 1 20 6 May 1 9 12 8 23 3 3 0 21 5 |i 2 6 13 2 24 7 4 4 22 10 || 3 10 14 1 25 3 5 0 23 24 4 18 15 5 26 0 6 2 24 22 5 29 16 4 27 7 12 1 25 23 6 37 17 10 28 3 26 24 7 25 18 12 29 i Total -| 508 Length of the pupal stage——The length of the pupal stage of the pupe of the spring brood was computed from 390 individuals, be- ginning with five larve that pupated April 17 and ending with one that pupated June 12. The results of the observations are given in Table XXX, in which it will be noted that, as the season advanced with its higher temperatures, the pupal stage became shorter. Nearly 20 per cent of the pupe were in the pupal stage 27 days, while the average length of this stage for all of the pupz was 26.80 days with a range of from 13 to 36 days. TADLE XXX.—Length of the pupal stage of pupe of the spring brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. Num- Length of the pupal stage in specified days. Date of pe pupa | indi- tion. ve 13114|16| 17 | 18 | 19} 20) 21 | 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 30 | 31 |32/34136 uals t Apr. 17 Bale SL aaa eeeal lh i | i Uae 18 Ne Tah Oats a eal otal @ulpeds 1 aa 20 4 |. eal els sel eet ae teas 21 @} le Sh ENS ete all nee ul oe |e a de Pan 22 8 |- | LS |e |e ie Spies NOI Leal fa aes 1 23 TAS Fe eee Le a ete cet alee at a (Rie Mega Se eae 1 Pare a eal ed aaa] Deepest ee 24 18 |. peelb aS Pitae ce aloes OF ess 25 i? qe le esol 24 it dle dherB dea Salle 26 19 |. fae rid ates PA |S ee 27 18 |. Eeeale seca Bl 284.8 MiGs 28 26 ee Wlcessh By WO 20) |) yt al 29 3 Sarai | Bee a Sacer Peeler alee 30 als 1 BY eet coeeidd i 1 Wee May 1 Il | Lee) spa pall Stoll oh || ed era | ed | 2 5 |. ise i ae aD) le Se (acelin | 3 oe FaeeGoeall cok 3 I Seal el le ee: | 4 13 Rpevae | al esiyaeAl icooe: le vot |e perc tere =e 5 25 errata a b (ayant aye tte ae i aaa =| U Ils 6 33 ese slo) Gelelssie 2 1 ee 7 20 1 eferite 1 | 12 (Oyo ee | etek 8 22 9 8| 4]. 9 13 Balhae ah eae 10 6 Liye Paeeiaes | inet leat 11 12 |. 4 Ais a kills 12 6 4 ue |e 13 1 Sc Ee 14 1 LD ae eR ened eens oh | eae Ure aha | be ee 1 . . . . . . ' . . ‘ . ' ' . 1 1 . 48 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XXX.—Length of the pupal stage of pupe of the spring brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916—Continued. ah Length of the pupal stage in specified days. Date of pee pupa- indi- ee vid- |13]14]16] 17 | 18 |19]20| 21] 22 | 23 | 24 | 25 | 26 | 27 | 28 | 29 | 39 | 31 | 32/34] 36 May 15 Ce Bel esa esc Sone mae eel ee 3). cce(, Dileess | name See leeealecealecn|es |e. 16 375 sales |eosteeee Bere eee lente acl eee Le eos Sea ee BS 17 fe) ee (res Se 2 Cs a Ae Qs | See ea ee ee Ee ee ees | a iby ees 18 95s 5 |S Seaesealbe cles [Ee ]e 2 EF A esc fees Ut foe Be ell le 19 gE re fea”) ee) ee ee PS ec es 1 Bois Wel Ae. ce: cena Bie eel ete) See ete lee eilo tation = 20 TY oc I Se Soe ee oH er Peel feet tel ee | a ee |S aei tome Peel ere Pe 21 Pe aes ae ees sal ee Br) ses) (en een eee aren ss I en et | bine Peel lal eee 22 Bal ae fea (etn Wes i ae See ale ake i iV We ae |e ele ee Peel ea 23 6S sal lasel baise Easolle Bal 22a eae aa Spel Sem a\oso Ma) claceelke esl seeelece Rate 24 En ee eal ete > 7) Ves Ee Ae Pr ae ee ee los Sal acct Paes oso spe eee nie. 25 7 ed (ares apie Dea te pS (ee (Se ea ey a Oe oe Stee een, ieee peeliace|s ae 27 1 ol at Bee Wei 0 RS ey es Ase Ge es eel eee ilaee lel ee i Bolle eee ee 28 PA) eal Saas 8 1 oe | el ee [ee a (AN Pe Pee Se oa Se local asia “29 Deena 1 Per al sei sal is Fe Sel Bes Borie See cca cio scat eee etal [Sece}1 505 eee ees 30 Galees|boelase 6 Joece|se chee a] sc afe cee | Son) he 28 | ey See ee rere | eer | Pere (tee ea ae 31 aU es ae Pm | Shae |e Telpeshs. Alon lesnale oe] bece lao |e crepe te ci] teeel eater pteretel ears |etsisi|iso June 2 ara) EAE Sc | SE all. Steal eR Sea Oo as a es A Vee el ei AILS. oe ee ae 4 7a eee |e fig a i se Westie) | ee P| Pe ET ee be eee siee adlosaellsas cen we llemclSsestase 6 BD [SSCL YY De ps AAV Saye ofa eS aT aa ieee et Em NF | | eee | an 12 1} od. |. -[oe.|ence| nae ley fece| ue |Seeel a Alor ce at SMP ae cs es eee a Pups 390 1/2 3/1 10) 263) 166 6|12| 9| 8 | 87] 80] 77) 58} 40)18)4)2)1 Days. Average length of pupal stage 2226.2 26625 dpe oFealoeeee ae ae ee eae oe Ee eae ae eee 26.8 Maximum length of pupal stage................-. a Sere aie ed Sie oe Baler ee tes, inal eos pare ee eo 36 Minimum length:of pupal Stage: 2.2...) {ceene2 ceeds Se ean Se eee eee 13 MOTHS OF THE SPRING BROOD. Time of emergence.—The tabulated data of the time of emergence of 4,808 moths of the spring brood are given in Table XXXI. The first of these emerged May 10 and the emergence period continued until June 28, when the last moth of this brood issued. The emer- gence reached its maximum on May 24, on which day 552 moths ap- peared. On the preceding day, May 23, the next highest in number, 432 moths, issued. The retardation of emergence, as caused by ad- verse climatic factors on May 20, is readily seen by the marked decrease in emergence frpm 309 moths May 19 to 3 moths May 20. The daily rate of emergence is shown in figure 19. TABLE XXXI.—Time of emergence of codling moths of the spring brood, Grand Junction, Colo, 1916. Date of |Num-}| Dateof |Num-|| Dateof |Num-|| Dateof |Num-|| Dateof | Num- emer- ber of emer- ber of emer- ber of emer- ber of emer- | ber of gence. |moths.|| gence. |moths.|| gence. |moths.|| gence. |moths.|} gence. {moths. May 10 3 May 21 13 June 1] 169 June 11 74 June 21 1 11 10 22 368 2 80 12 58 22 5 12 21 23 432 3 146 13 42 23 1 13 49 24 552 4 150 14 43 24 3 14 8 25 151 5 120 15 29 25 2 15 4 26 135 6 97 16 26 26 1 16 39 27 160 7 45 17 17 27 0 17 36 28 274 8 86 18 17 28 1 18| 162 || 29| 247 9] 79 19| 11 19 309 |} 30 283 10 53 20 14 Total... .|4, 808 20 3 | 31 179 CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 49 Oviposition by moths of the spring brood—The data obtained from the oviposition studies of 1,449 female moths confined in 123 cages with 1,292 male moths are presented in Table XXXII. The summarized figures give for the average number of days from the time of emergence to day of first oviposition 6.07, maximum 13 days, minimum 2 days; average number of days of oviposition 13.38, maxi- a A PA Ca ASAT PT De ca mee ae eer: | SEE a ° LY TEMPERATURE. Ved XN x 120 Q % g 177. ee JUNE Fic. 19.—Time of emergence of codling moths of the spring brood, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. mum 82 days, minimum 1 day; average number of days from the date of emergence to last oviposition 18.46, maximum 34 days, minimum 7 days. Number of eggs per female moth.—In connection with the ovi- position studies of moths of the spring brood, it was found that the average number of eggs per female moth was 11.34. Beat 50 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XXXII.—Oviposition by codling moths of the spring brood m rearing cages, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. Sex. Date of— Number of days— Total = num- om Cage tek : ber of date of No. paths F Emer- First Last eggs Before | Of ovi-} emer- "| Male male, | ence of | ovipo- Ovipo- e- | ovipo-| posi- | gence * | moths. | sition. sition. |posited.| sition. | tion. | to last ovipo- sition. 1 20 10 10 | May 13 | May 21] June 4 76 8 15 22 2 5 3 Biltmee ae 1 Eh gis LY lege PIC aera i 6) | PICS) SRO Ga a ec 3 13 7 6 | May 16| May 19] June 4 89 3 17 19 4 23 14 9| May 17 | May 22 |...do-.... 110 5 14 18 5 25 19 6| -do....| May 24] June 1 145 7 9 15 6 25 20 Biloaed Oe ne ses do....| June 16 209 7 24. 30 7 26 18 8 May 18 | May 23 | June 5 184 5 14 18 8 28 17 a esedore2|4-= do..-..| June 11 440 5 20 24 9 27 18 ==200-. -2| May (240 /bsidouses 241 6 19 24 10: 25 10 1B May 19| May 23] June 6 283 4 15 18 11 15 8 ie \aecd Ose ne ee do....| June 10 247 4 19 22 12 25 11 AA donee June 8 267 5 16 20 13 23 12 Le Seeders aan .-| June 14 304 5 22 26 14 24 13 TP ezdosse June 11 135 6 16 21 15 23 7 16) |23%dos=—4 -| June 16 210 6 21 26 16 24 il 13a poe oases June 13 286 12 14 25 17 1 Up | (Sabesoos May 20 OlWecssteenelGaaem ene leemete ce = 18 2 1 1| May 21 i ER Sie es ae | ea 19 22 11 11 | May 22 229 4 17 20 20 25 8 Ded Osten aeaG Ke 202 4 22 25 21 21 13 8 |..-do_.-.-| May 27 | June 14 214 5 19 23 22 24 14 10 |...do....-] ...do....| June 17 138 5 22 26 23 16 4 12 -do....| May 28 | June 14 186 6 18 23 24 25 10 15 |..-do....| May 29 | June 11 79 7 14 20 25 25 7 Shee COR see One June 16 186 7 19 25 26 25 11 dan eed Onare May 30 | June 9 86 8 11 18 27 24 11 13 May 23 | May 26 | June 12 189 3 18 20 | 28 26 14 12 |...do....| May 27] June 9 258 4 14 17 | 29 20 5 1 eon ean ipee do....| June 17 322 4 22 25 30 25 10 152520022 May 29] June 11 198 6 14 19 31 23 12 DA ee Oneraaieee Gow. sales Ete 254 6 14 19 32 25 14 ADT ee CO eee hie do....} June 15 172 6 18 23 33 23 9 145 |-=-dore .-do. idores 244 6 18 23 | 34 25 14 LS |fesdo May 31 | June 11 154 8 12 19 | 35 16 4 12 |...do....] June 3 | June 17 44 11 15 25 36 24 11 13 “May 24° May 29] June 12 179 5 15 19 37 25 8 17 |...do....| May 30] June 5 11 6 7 12 38 25 11 TAM Eee CO eee one do....| June 8 40 6 10 15 39 24 7 Ag | ERs Ko) |S do....| June 12 45 6 14 19 40 20 13 7 -do....| May 31] June 16 12 7 17 23 41 25 12 13 ecole ari ee foloe = alhahebstsy o's! 50 7 19 25 42 24 13 ll -do....| June 1] June 15 156 8 15 22 43 24 il 13 -do....| June 2] June 8 49 9 tf 15 44 25 11 14 do.. June 3, June 17 63 10 15 24 45 25 12 13 do....| June 6 ~dOSe,=10 108 13 12 24 46 25 9 IGE sador oe oe do....| June 6 13 i 13 47 20 14 6 CO -fec)acosecceeclese eee Tbes ae evel seoeew eal eens he 48 13 6 7 BY (ney oe (ae eet I carstyets eo 14 nn oni See| acres cee leeer coms 49 25 11 14 “May 25| June 4 | June 17 247 10 14 23 50 24 if! 13 |..-do....| June 5] June 11 44 il 7 17 51 25 14 ah il ero Cones eo Ko Sabah rhateye 3) 226 ll 12 22 52 11 7 4 -do.. June 7] June 13 78 13 if 19 53 23 12 11 “May 26 May 31 | June 20 182 5 21 25 54 25 12 13 |...do....| June 1] June 16 83 6 16 21 55 14 4 1019. -do.- 2 dine is) ||ame 7 68 8 15 22 56 24 10 14 -do....| June 5] June 18 141 10 14 23 57 20 12 8 ‘May 27 | May 30] June 6 91 3 8 10 58 25 8 17 |...do....| June 3 | June 16 63 7 14 20 59 25 12 IS ee d0- June 4] June 13 17 8 10 17 60 19 9 10 -do June 48> -dosss. 97 12 6 17 61 27 8 19 May: 28° May 31} June 14 57 3 15 17 62 25 14 DU Se -dows 2 .\2%s do.. July 1 19 3 32 34 } 63 22 10 12 eth June 1/|June 9 126 4 9 12 64 24 8 16 |..-do June 2] June 17 97 5 16 20 65 24 10 14 |..-do....| June 3] June 25 241 6 23 28 66 27 11 16 |...do....| June 5| June 9 53 8 5 12 67 27 12 15 “May 29 | June 2] June 15 194 4 14 17 68 25 11 14 |i doze. sae: do....| June 17 132 4 16 19 69 13 5 8 do.. June 5 Oviaae 83 7 13 19 70 25 14 LW |2:2do: . June! (6t|522d0-75 2 206 8 12 19 71 25 13 12 !...do....| June 8! June 20 66 10 13 22 CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 51 TABLE XXXII.—Oviposition by codling moths of the spring brood in rearing cages, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916—Continued. Sex. Date of— Number of days— Total fm num- rom Cage ae ber of date of No. | moths mee Emer- First Last eggs | Before | Of ovi-| emer- *| Male male, | 8e2ce of | ovipo- ovipo- e- | ovipo-| posi- | gence * | moths. sition. sition. |posited.| sition. | tion. | to last ovipo- sition. 72 23 10 13 | May 29 | June 10} June 16 154 12 7 18 73 25 10 15 | May 30] June 2] June 13 39 3 12 14 74 28 12 16 |[..-do-..-.|..-do....| June 18 95 3 17 19 75 27 14 13 |..-do....| June 5 | June 15 174 6 11 16 76 27 i 20 |..-do....|...do....| June 18 98 6 14 19 77 25 14 11 |..-do....| June 9 | June 15 25 10 7 16 78 27 13 14 |...do....| June 10 | June 16 35 11 a 17 79 15 8 7 | May 31] June 5| June 18 61 5 14 18 80 24 16 8 }..-do....| June 6/ June 17 126 6 12 17 81 25 14 Linessdo-2 33) Sune 10) 2s2dox: 58 10 8 17 82 24 10 14 |..-do....|..-do....| June 20 44 10 il 20 83 25 14 Ls e-dons = -do....| June 25 67 10 16 25 84 16 7 9| June 1] June 5] June 18 252 4 14 17 85 24 10 14 |_.-do. June 48 |e d0ns=,- 126 7 11 17 86 24 16 Sl Sedons ae. dos |eedoss 203 7 Tl |e ales 87 23 10 13 |..-do....| June 10 | June 17 46 9 8 16 88 24 14 10) June 2 | June -7 |---do-. - 188 5 11 15 89 25 14 11 |..-do- June 8/ June 16 80 6 9 14 90 24 5 19 | June 3] June 5} June 14 106 2 10 11 91 22 11 11 o...-| June 6 | June 20 171 3 15 17 92 25 13 12M seed Ouse Une Seed on se. 73 5 13 17 93 25 9 16 -do-. June 10} June 17 34 7 8 14 94 24 12 12} June 4] June 6) June 24 269 2 19 20 95 24 9 15 |..-do....| June 7 | June 21 327 3 15 | 17 96 26 11 15 do....| June 9 donee 158 5 133-1 17 97 28 14 14 do. June 10} June 20 95 6 11 16 98 24 12 12>) June 5 }-2-doz...| June 21 94 5) 12 16 99 23 11 12 do.. June 12} June 26 139 7 15 21 100 11 4 7 do.. June 14} June 18 10 9 5 13 101 25 13 12} June 6| June 8} June 20 103 2 13 14 102 25 10 15 |..-do. June 9/| July 2 376 3 24 26 103 19 9 OV |Easdors June 11 | June 19 25 5 9 13 104 30 17 13 | June 7/| June 9/| June 21 342 2 13 14 105 28 14 14 | June 8 | June 10 /...do..- 152 2 12 13 106 30 13 17 dozs.-|| Junest it) AeAdone” 266 3 11 13 107 24 15 9} June 9 |..-do-..-} June 20 138 2% 10 il 108 26 12 14 |...do....| June 14 | June 19 92 5 6 10 109 25 15 10 | June 10 | June 13 | June 17 59 3 5 7 110 12 5 7 Goss s4\2e00s-. 5 |2-d0-e 98 3 5 7 lil 25 13 12 |} June 11!..-do....| June 18 106 2 6 7 112 28 9 19 Gore ee do....| June 30 350 2 18 19 113 32 17 15 | June 12}.June 14/| July 2 290 2 19 20 114 33 18 15} June 13} June 16) July 5 297 3 20 22 115 32 11 21 | June 14] June 17) July 2 224 3 16 18 116 22 8 14 | June 15] ..do....|..-do. 208 2 16 17 117 20 9 11 | June 16] June 19 | June 27 40 3 9 11 118 10 4 6 | June 17 |...do....| June 28 157 2 10 11 119 14 3 11 | June 18} June 25/ June 25 4 7 1 7 120 8 1 7 | June 19} June 26| July 7 13 7 12 18 121 13 3 10 | June 20| July 1| July 3 11 11 3 13 122 2 1 TDMA be etn ie oe a rae ost es ce eae fre ae mS le 123 4 1 3 | June 23| July 2] July 7 7 9 6 14 BNCV OCEANS Ge Ms ae ro Nee eae oat As Ds oe eRe eee Sela ee 6.07 | 13.38 | 18.46 VA ce eT ANE TD Ae sects etch PS ie 2 he a Ses cise eae EES alee 13 32 34 * JU iia eG ay OT ea ee ee Rete eee AcE Seo ie Ora ny es Bee ae oe a AP 2 1 7 iA DersO finial CANO b MS = ee ee erent 52/5, sere pe I eter a eS ao ts a Se ee tls OD og 1, 292 Niner Ole ale Mm ObNSEereet sue loses eae ce IOs Uiohe Fee ee Be eh cle occ eke. 1,449 MOA Mt AM DEO MOL OS see ees sad eens eee ne Seen eee Shins Se. Soe HQ ee dee cases cece etee 2,741 MORAN be mOles ese lens yaa ys eee nl Spee ad aes eg eras see Soe tee ce sieiee tsi sgeue esse 16,435 Average number OL egses perfemale moth 2-262 yscic eels slo sicieenne acre cee eens eecinels scenes 11.34 Length of life of moths—As in the previous season, the dead moths were removed daily from the oviposition cages and the date of their death recorded. From these records the length of life of 2,738 moths was computed. As shown in Table XXXIII, the 52 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. average length of life of 1,281 male moths was 14.67 days, maximum 35 days, minimum 1 day; the average length of life of 1,457 female moths was 15.73 days, maximum 39 days, minimum 1 day. TABLE NNXIII.—Length of life of male and female codling moths of the spring brood in captivity: Summary of records of 2,738 individual moths, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. Length) KU2F| Length | er of Length nana ae ne pee ber at Length Par ar of life. moths. of life. moths.| © “4°: |moths.} ° life. moths.| life. moths.) ® life. moths. Days Days. Days. Days. Days. Days. 4 1 9 1 6 15 64 15 96 29 7 9 13 2 7 2) 4 16 56 16 96 30 12 30 6 3 6 3 6 17 59 17 88 31 3 31 4 4 14 4 11 18 50 18 70 32 6 32 6 5 29 5 12 19 43 19 68 33 5 33 4 6 46 6 18 20 64 20 94 34 3 34 2 7 64 7 41 21 48 21 70 35 2 35 3 8 79 g 40) 22 39 22 41 36 0 36 0 9 48 9 73 23 27 23 40 37 0 37 0 10 88 10 75 24 30 24 27 38 0 38 1 11 78 11 77 25 18 25 23 39 0 39 1 12 56 12 93 26 27 26 23 |————_ —_———_ 13 86 13 98 27 10 27 14 | Total..| 1,281 | Total. ./1, 457 14 | 84 14 99 28 14 28 14 } Average length of life of male moths, 14.67 days; female moths, 15.73 days. Maximum length of life of male moths, 35 days; female moths, 39 days. Minimum length of life of male moths, 1 day; female moths, 1 day. THE FIRST GENERATION. Hees oF THE F'tRST BROOD. Time of egg deposition—In Table XXXIV and figure 20 it will be observed that the first eggs of the first brood were deposited 1 May 19, and the last July 7, the period of deposition covering about 7 weeks. The eggs laid on the lat- ter date, however, were infertile, but the single egg de- posited July 5 com- « pleted its develop- ment and hatched on July 11. The largest number of eggs laid in one day was 883 on ee (00 PA OA eA me Beal June 9, and this date ts was approximately the middle of the Fic. 20.—Time of deposition of eggs of the first brood of 5 Ae dl " ° the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. oviposition period. AVERAGE DAILY TEMPERATURE, NUMBER OF ECCS. Mar VYUNE YULY CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 53 TABLE XXXIV.—Time of deposition, length of incubation, and time of hatching of eggs of the first brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. N Date— Appearance of— Obser- ecal | Number TIncu- vation | esos de- F of eggs bation No. posited. pepest: Red ring. Ee Hatched.| batched. zee ee period. Days. | Days. | Days. 1 16 | May 19 | May 29] May 30] June 1 14 11 13 ede | Pret Se tete os else scatters [fo = aves iw atelevel eters erie easy June 2 Dill eerretaians es lleaie ise wee 14 3 7 | May 21] May 24| May 30] June 1 3 3 9 11 Gs 113 gals el I ee: Ne ERP apes REE a June 2 ge Beare ineraticrss ers 12 5 12 | May 22| May 24] May 81 |..-do..-. 7 2 9 11 GRIPE ere SSomsiace tal ecmisceee a lcete suck = June 3 Ohi sees seeoeeee 12 7 86 | May 23 | May 25] May 31 {June 2 4 2 8 10 8] poo dasa Gadeeerce lbbuaee eed eeeseqeeos June 3 DEN a sate iayata|eyaeisseee il OP ere irc eepeme a sect cere siti sibisie (ce aie aie ewe June 4 Aon eiserre gua mee nace 12 10 117 | May 24] May 28] May 30] June 3 2 4 6 10 Mal ee ais | etcrwisnieiahs wi [iain sicmie ic cl srmiea ise eiee June 4 BOM Seens eal contac ae il 173 leecoStee| AD OCOSSCoe Mecreooaee EoEteererr June 5 1 Cl eee eage| enee ary ES 12 13} [6 See es BAS ae SS ae ee ate See June 6 Qhilescerte salle eeisaees 13 14 2| May 25| May 29/ Jume 4{June 5 2 4 10 11 15 BIS || Wenn HS lee colOs Sealeacloceajesuelo ass 28 3 9 10 1G Nessbsera Sasccbeose Sseeassace Seen srars June 6 Soler mean see ccuen 11 17 130 | May 27] May 29] June 5 |}...do.... 108 2 9 8 1G) (ll 5 dose eed SBS eB ee ere] MESA Hetna Geer eee. June 7 1 i SSS Ses | ee ee 9 19 353 | May 28} May 30} June 6 |-.-.do.... 304 2 9 10 OE ee eal eiettere eerscie| tre aoe eis eves ccomtataye June 8 QU Sean sarees aes 11 21 218 | May 29| May 31] June 7 }..-do-.. 176 2 7 8 POD ERNE aA ate lover eteve maa alee Se SI ENE elses cei June 9 ZO vse | ate clara se 9 23 194 | May 30] June 2] June 8 ]...do.. 173 3 9 10 THe Se Sb oco| POSES Ones SORE See see neers June 10 CN | a Oe el eee 11 25 177 | May 31] June 3] June 9 }j.-..do- 141 3 9 10 OM eps cleten| (Hs Seisieerae S| wistepseeertual sae de oa ies June 11 CN eam a VE a il 27 106 | June 1} June 41] June 9 | June 10 70 3 8 9 ZS eae Php lief he eye, Ne a eters cise a llaehs ase ayers June 11 8 PR We eee ae 10 OR) | 5 es re es ane Sete ee ieee eae Ieee June 12 PS SAROB OA Aboot 11 30 179 | June 2] June 6] June 10} June 11 143 4 8 9 yb ee Saoead| pdb acce soe lscesaad Send sero wees June 12 be abe oe eas, aS 10 32 425 | June 3] June 6] June 10] June 11 272 3 7 8 38). acontaces lasoesecnes lSoasteetor |Seeesaaraes June 12 SO) eee ee osllaareceee 9 34 451 | June 4] June 7 | June 11 |...do.. 307 3 7 8 Sth 25 ose hal Sea Soca) meee eee ese eee June 13 PAIN eae See ees Fans ae 9 36 486 | June 5/| June 8] June 12 |.-.do. 403 3 7 8 37 180 | June 6] June 9 doeaee|==edor 101 3 6 a SS hee Geb 2 6 ASS SOF Ge ACO AC Ie SMe eee June 14 CAO) eer Sea edge 8 Oli ee oars | eco ais ste isicis ates |mree ae ome me June 15 DF il ieee ne ae wires 9 40 176 | June 7| June 9] June 13 | June 14 93 2 6 7 EUW We OD Ree Se) ates ope es ee ieee re June 15 Payal oe eee ee enere 8 42 471 | June 8] June 10 | June 14 |...do. 320 2 6 7 Eos ee | ee ee) (cee re eee (ees ee June 16 CYR SS SCaeo el Speers 8 44 883 | June 9] June 11 | June 15 }--.-do-.. 539 2 6 7 CN eT eee SPA Serica a [eames feel |e Sears June 17 24 Bile craters oahu ioe cis 8 ZAG || in Ee See 00 [55S De a Bd [Aran gee (Cae ee June 18 OO) | Deteisevsegs eeeeigents 9 47 420 | June 10} June 11} June 16 | June 17 210 il 6 a CA) ee BET ec a ec eee ee = ees Se June 18 GBh Eennecee | eaecee/s 8 49 272 | June 11} June 13] June 17 |...do.... 239 2 6 7 50 361 | June 12 | June 14/ June 18 | June 19 245 2 6 i OME Seek eecalhsciiansmee s|eaeasicee usl|ece asc eiaae June 20 200 ae coacleenaeeee 8 52 267 | June 13 | June 15 | June 19]...do._-.. 131 2 6 7 53 380 | June 14 | June 17} June 20 | June 21 251 3 6 7 54 136 | June 15 |...do.. SCO a \4s5\(55-CMsc 24 49 2 5 6 ay ig UOTE SESS el (ete een (meee eee June 22 eat Ee Senate Ieee cd ene aes 7 56 429 | June 16} June 18} June 21 |...do_... 2 5 6 BY IIS SSS BeUe Sec oRC BUGS Se ccs AESeH eoraers see June 23 21D A eee ees | esse 7 Fife pil | Spent aie NaS Ssh egal ites Men eo a June 24 G10) Saaeece a eaeeaee 8 59 623 | June 17} June 19} June 23 |.-.do... 355 2 6 7 GUE Beare: |errctercete aa lnjc eee ees tees re aoe June 25 TQuienassehs|eesibedes 8 61 558 | June 18 | June 20 | June 24 |...do.... 402 2 6 7 (Oil ees ee Ses a Fe June 26 PONY tee ea Bl ste ee 8 | 63 103 | June 19 } June 21 | June 25 |...do.... 37 2 6 7 | Cay tees BS | Fe is eg ac eae June 27 Pay ee Sacer e Ae ete 8 Gbg Pa ea se te eee ec ear eae June 28 Sule te eee eee 9 66 158 | June 20} June 22 | June 26 | June 27 46 2 6 7 67 125 | June 21 | June 24 | June 27 | June 28 31 3 6 7 GSR Prrs cree (inert area ats cA ee Ae June 29 Steere aaenc esc: 8 69 8 | June 22 | June 25 | June 28 |___do.... 8 3 6 7 70 16 | June 23 |...do..-..|...do....| June 30 6 2 5 i 71 29 | June 24 | June 26} June 29 |...do.... : 15 2 5 6 72 1 AUN icteyerce: seta mectetat areas 7 73 2 Sh [eect ee Sree ee ie 8 74 37 | June 25 | June 27 | July 1 |..-.do.... 33 2 6 8 75 21 | June 26 | June 28} July 2] July 3 16 2 6 8 76 16 | June 27 | June 30 !...do....l...do.... 6 3 5 7 = 54 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XXXIV.—Time of deposition, length of incubation, and time of hatching of eggs of the first brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916— Continued. Date— Appearance of— Obser- es Number Incu- vation eggs de- ; of eggs bation No. Inosited.| D ewes Red ring. era Hatched.| batched. a oe period. ———— | Days. | Days. | Days. 77 35 | June 28; June30 {July 3] July 4 12 2 5 g 78 3 | June 29] July 1] July 4] July 5 1 2 5 6 79 3} dune: 807) SULy a Al scents S| eee eee 0 ial ies Se 0 80 15} July 1 do =-2-| July. 16) iuuly; 107 9 2 5 6 81 8] July 2] July 4]July 7] July 8 5 2 5 6 G2 ema od ames sete | eek ace ocea pee eeeaee July 9 al rsceeetelaascoee e 7 83 4 Sali P38 oe eee ee ee OF) seer — 7] = see bel aeoe lace aleeeee 1 3 77, meas (7.13) ee || SA A Un Din SS 8 2 3 2B re ONE Sa es ase ls late | iene [nes 1 eh tered a7: VR ia || Sa TR ai 1s SS) fi 3 Pf ee ee. || ee at PS ee 1 1 = 28 ves 2 29 1} -..<.2.-| 5 oe gee al eae eee Pee 30 1 Pe Sosee sere Looe cclsnee| eae JA be | See | Sregee e (BR ae 1 = 2 areata] Sec] Boel ete 7ST Mig Hl Rs I) eek Rae Rn Pe ap 2) ESR ui eer ie eS See Se Pig a st I Pees |e ty UB Sear dy Si ge] |” | jae DA ieiace £| l= ajage la Belen 63] ob sales cl oe oc l> aloes eibecce D | aims 2 |e arate ote tener ere 149 | 284 | 108 | 52); 6] 2] 1 1 Days Average length of the pupal stage..........-....0-.2--2ceeeecceeecece 11.23 Maximum lenpth of pupal'stage.- 5.25.2 ccn2 eoecescccecneomen neue 19 Minimumlengthiofpupallstage--....<.--sswteee sec aceeemee eee cee eee 6 -gence of the moths CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 59 Morus OF THE First Broop, Time of emergence.—As in the studies of 1915 (p. 24), a record was kept of the time of emergence of first-brood moths reared from insectary-bred material in order to determine the approximate limits of the brood. In Table XL it will be noted that 829 moths issued from July 5 to August 19, inclusive; the same data are presented graphically with temperatures in figure 23. Records were also taken of the time of emer- eee i ALT Kal a that issued from the larvee collected every three daysin the Ham- ilton and Edwards or- chards. The moths that issued up to Au- gust 13, inclusive, were used for oviposition purposesin preference to those from the in- sectary-bred material, because their rate of emergence corre- Vigees : Pe sponded more closely Fic. 23.—Time of emergence of codling moths of the first : brood, insectary-bred material, Grand junction, Colo., to that which would joi¢ & ‘) ERAGE OILY TEMPERATURE, | a ats NUMBER OF PIOTHS. have occurred in the field. These data are given in Bable XLI and figure 24, and, as seen therein, the first moth emerged June 25. The rate of emergence, how- ever, was very low until July 1, but on this date 17 moths issued. The first moths of the second brood from insectary-bred material issued August 7, and the data indicate that from August 7 to 19 there was an overlapping of the moths of the first and second broods. Since there is no way of determining the brood to which the moths from field material belong, a date (Aug. 13) midway between that of the last emergence of the first-brood moths and the first emer- gence of the second-brood moths was taken as the dividing line be- tween the two broods. TABLE XL.—Time of emergence of codling moths of the first brood, from ma- terial reared at the insectary, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. Date of | Num- Date of | Num- Date of | Num- Date of | Num- Date of | Num- emer- ber of emer- ber of emer- ber of emer- ber of emer- ber of gence. | moths. gence. | moths. gence. | moths. gence. moths. gence. /moths. . | July 5 1 || July 15 39 || July 24 46 ||} Aug. 2 26 ||Aug. 11 2 7 33 16 30 25 26 3 22 12 1 8 3 17 31 26 40 4 8 14 3 9 6 18 50 27 19 5 7 15 1 10 19 19 40 28 22 6 5 16 1 11 19 20 49 29 21 7 5 19 1 12 19 21 47 v 31 8 8 13 24 22 44 31 22 9 3) Total... 829 14 13 22 45 || Aug. 1 22 10 5 60 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XLI.—Time of emergence of codling moths of the first brood reared from field material, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. | Dateof | Num- |) Dateof | Num- || Dateof | Num- || Dateof | Num- || Dateof | Num- emer- ber of || emer- ber of emer- ber of emer- ber of emer-_ | ber of gence. |moths.| gence. | moths. gence. | moths. gence. | moths. gence. |moths. June 25 1 || July 6 25 || July 17 40 || July 28 165 || Aug. 8 152 26 0 7 42 | 18 68 29 96 9 117 27 0 8 28 19 70 30 93 10 133 28 2 9 16 20 53 31 94 il 132 29 1 10 45 21 91 |} Aug. 1 110 12 77 ; 30 5 11 41 22 125 2 111 13 72 July 1 17 12 72 23 76 3 95 2 9 13 51 24 121 4 76 3,309 3 6 14 34 25 109 5 92 4 30 15 59 26 83 6 111 5 28 16 41 27, 59 7 135 AVERAGE DAILY TEMPERATURE, NUMBEF? OF MOTHS. Ange JULY AUGUST Fic. 24.—Time of emergence of codling moths of the first brood from band-collected material, Hamilton and Edwards orchards, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 61 Number of eggs per female moth.—The observations presented in | Table XLII include 1,713 female moths which were confined with 1,596 male moths in 133 cages. These moths produced a total of 75,337 eggs, or an average of 43.98 eggs per female moth. TABLE XLII. —Oviposition by codling moths of the first brood in rearing cages, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. Sex. Date of— Number of days— Total eee eo er O ate of F Ele First Last | eggs | Before} Of | emer- Male ie 8 of Oviposi- | oviposi- de- Ovipo- | ovipo-| gence BeUS Eh tion. tion. |posited.| sition. | sition. | to last ® Ovipo- sition. » SSL EE| SARE BE SUNeR 25 e ea eS eaeeale aceser seeaces ate cee cee ese as Bee DE Be. ete ee Jun er 28; |stats eee Ne Se aa see e I ee Beh ea eee ee NOR 29 pleases sr | et elas ee aia saloon oes et 12s en TUNEL 3 0) vase ees eee eee hn seta Rot Beet le seein d Se sre || Se Sars oe Vit, WN nee ccbss ce|lnoveesc del seSeonsd|ssneeaer|oeesssacleasbanee 11 aE sek July 3) July 15 SIG terme: ae see eee nee ees oe ee sae nee diol) Seles esse Ad aols socks od eee do sal SeBenpee| eee sean eaee ere ae seee eee aces ARG BD | sence cascc||2ocsconsodecscdoad|tcosectellsenceasslenacctas Bete || | eee: VOU? A [eccocc cons secesedeod|/secpeeee|sececaccl|cooseoss|usascons 9 lye ue Seca July 61} July 16 G40G ba Shale Bah er ek 8 10 ) Ajay 7 eWay a ail dhblliy’ «ily 315 2 12 13 14 14) July 5 |-.-.-do July 16 322 1 11 11 6 19| July 6] July 8 -do-.. 753 2 9 10 13 8 | July 7 |-.-do--.-| July 24 398 1 17 | 17 14 7 |..-do-....| July 11] July 18 134 4 8 11 14 WAS Roly 8 |e 2dO see |p uulyen2e 541 3 13 15 4 12) July 9 |..-do...-.| July 28 256 2 18 19 8 14| July 10 |...do....| July 24 161 1 14 14 15 8 to) July 12 | July 23 479 z 12 13 9 12| July 11 Edone es dulya16 125 1 5 5 15 5 0 July 13 | July 20 219 2 8 9 14 12 | July 12 |..-do--..| July 28 352 1 16 16 9 11 |...do July 15 | July 23 516 3 9 il 10 16 do -do...-| July 24 204 3 10 12 12 13 | July 13 | July 14 | July 27 612 1 14 14 13 13 to) July 16 | July 28 357 3 13 15 17 17| July 14 | July 15 | July 26] 1,020 1 12 12 12 21 | July 15 | July 17} July 30 900 2 14 15 12 14 O July 21 | July 27 85 6 7 12 10 16 | July 16| July 17 | Aug. 1 1, 222 1 16 16 3 12 do....| July 19 | July 30 184 3 12 14 12 12| July 17} July 18] July 28 665 if 11 11 6 10 o....| July 19 | July 30 436 2 12 13 13 12] July 18 -do....; Aug. 1 748 1 14 14 16 9 o...-| July 20 do 654 2 13 14 5 13 |..-do-. do....|...do-..-| 1,088 2 13 14 11 10 July 19° do..--| July 30 535 1 11 11 16 15 .-| July 22 | July 28 420 3 7 9 14 10 a6 ..do..-.-| July 30 579 3 9 11 12 14| July 20]..-do...-| July 31 794 2 10 11 8 19 o...-| Jwy 23 | July 28 341 3 6 8 7 17| July 21} July 22) July 31 281 1 10 10 5 16 fe) .do-...| Aug. 7 1,191 1 N7/ 17 11 14 do.. July 23 | July 30 385 2 8 9 11 10 July 24 | July 29 391 3 6 8 16 9] July 22 |] July 23| Aug. 4 791 1 13 13 14 10 do.. July 24| Aug. 5 250 2 i3}4 14 9 11 G0ze =n 0s === | ee don 296 2 13 14 3 IG does eed omen WACO AN 7 536 2 15 16 12 12 |...do-...|...do....| Aug. 8 822 2 16 17 8 5 |..-do....| July 25 | Aug. 4 228 3 11 13 14 12 | July 23| July 24] Aug. 6 595 1 14 14 16 9|...do....| July 25 |...do....| 1,153 2 13 14 15 10 |...do...-| July 27 |...do-..- 444 4 11 14 9 15 uly 24 July 25 | Aug. 4] 1,013 1 il il 11 1D peeidow 24 do....| Aug. 8| 1,305 1 15 15 13 12 pine July 26] Aug. 9] 1,017 2 15 16 8 WE ceeC Ooced bee do....| Aug. 14 931 2 20 21 16 8 |...do....| July 28] Aug. 4 540 4 8 11 16 12] July 25| July 27| Aug. 8 979 2 13 14 15 11 |...do....| July 28} Aug. 7 802 3 il 13 il 16. '>. dos. 22"... CO se ae eee dou. 5. 1,423 3 11 13 62 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste XLII.—Oviposition by codling moths of the first brood in rearing cages, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916—Continued, is Sex. Date of— Number of days— Total Num- num- From Cage ber Emer ber of date of No. of Fe ence First Last eggs | Before Of emer- ‘ moths.} Male enale 8 of oviposi- | oviposi- de- ovipo- | ovipo-| gence ‘i gel Saabs tion. tion. |posited.| sition. | sition. | to last ; Ovipo- sition. 55 28 16 12| July 28 | July 28 | Aug. 8] 1,065 3 12 14 56 28 18 10) aly, 26)|-220do-s esas do.... 709 2 12 13 67 27 14 135 ed one esta d0\- 7. |b-dO-e el apleOls 2 12 13 58 28 10 18) Sendo tee do....| Aug. 11 | 1,616 2 15 16 59 29 6 23 | July 27 }...do....| Aug. 15 915 1 19 19 60 30 13 17 |...do....] July 29 | Aug. 10 558 2 13 14 61 27 17 10 | July 28] July 30 do 276 2 12 13 62 28 13 15 GOs eee do....| Aug. 13 381 2 15 16 63 28 20 Si edoesec i vuly: Si Antes az 107 oul) 8 10 ‘ 64 28 23 Ey eee Koy Saal tet do....| Aug. 8 341 3 9 11 65 28 13 15 6-4 celleoe do....| Aug. 11 606 3 12 14 66 26 9 NPN a(c Kon sel be do....| Aug. 12} 1,016 3 13 15 67 24 11 13 | July 29 |...do....|...do 601 2 13 14 68 22 10 DN eeedOmeee| ase do....| Aug. 15} 1,171 2 16 Ur 69 24 12 12 Sdoeee al se do....| Aug. 16 277 2 17/ 18 70 26 20 6 |...do....| Aug. 1] Aug. 11 432 3 11 13 71 20 13 7! July 30} July 31 |...do... 408 1 12 12 72 24 15 9 |...do-..-| Aug. 1] Aug. 14 344 2 14 15 7 24 14 LON e. Adozee ses do. donee 427 2 14 15 74 25 8 17 do....| Aug. 2 do... 442 3 13 15 75 24 5 19 | July 31 | Aug. 1 | Aug. 15 197 1 15 15 76 25 15 10 |...do....| Aug. 2] Aug. 8 199 2 7 8 77 24 10 4aaes dows ease do. Aug. 11 468 2 10 11 78 21 9 12 .do- Aug. 3 |Aug. 12 455 3 10 12 79 28 13 15 | Aug. 1]...do...-| Aug. 16 565 2 14 15 80 26 15 Ge edormaec|has do....| Aug. 17} 1,054 2 15 16 81 29 i LSyisedore -do...-| Aug. 21 991 2 19 20 82 27 12 1592. 200s. 2 ele=20 On. a5 [eat G On selmi aad, 2 19 20 83 29 6 23| Aug. 2| Aug. 4] Aug. 19} 1,144 2 16 17 84 27 10 17 |...do ug. 5|Aug. 14 323 3 10 ip. 85 28 9 19 |...do do....| Aug. 19 415 3 15 17 86 27 10 17 |_..do....| Aug. 6 | Aug. 13 562 4 8 i 87 25 11 14| Aug. 3] Aug. 5| Aug 11 608 2 4 8 88 25 14 JIS dosee ssc do....} Aug. 14 484 2 10 11 89 25 10 15 do....|...do-...| Aug. 16 680 2 12 13 90 20 10 10 |...do....| Aug. 6 | Aug. 18 373 3 13 15 91 22 5 17 | Aug. 4/]...do-...} Aug. 17 457 2 12 13 92 22 12 LOW doses + -|e- dos eee | Ania s22 652 2 17 18 93 32 8 24|...do-...| Aug. 7 | Aug. 17 335 3 1 13 94 25 10 15| Aug. 5] Aug. 6|Aug. 22] 1,043 1 17 17 95 25 6 19 |...do do....| Aug. 25 502 1 20 20 96 25 15 10 |...do Aug. 7 do.... 468 2 19 20 97 17 15 2|...do-..-| Aug. 10 | Aug. 10 3 5 1 5 98 26 7 19| Aug. 6| Aug. 7 | Aug. 15 126 1 9 9 99 28 10 18 |...do do....| Aug. 17 950 1 11 il 100 28 16 12 |...do....| Aug. 8 | Aug. 21 575 2 14 15 101 29 10 19 |...do....|..-do....| Aug. 24] 1,048 2 17 18 | 102 26 19 7| Aug. 7 do....| Aug. 19 247 1 12 12 103 28 14 14 |...do- Aug. 9|Aug. 18 173 2 10 il 104 26 11 15))|\53 doze sedow. Je|b don aes 511 2 10 il 105 27 18 9 .do- .-do....| Aug. 22 479 2 14 15 106 28 12 16 |...do- Aug. 10 | Aug. 24 143 3 15 17 107 27 17 10| Aug. 8] Aug. 9] Aug. 26 155 1 18 18 108 25 13 12 |...do- FOR i qdo-5. 785 1 18 18 109 25 9 16 .do. Aug. 10 | Aug. 19 332 2 10 11 110 25 13 | 12h dos. ee dow se Ane20 234 2 11 12 iil 25 16 | 9 |...do- ..-do....| Aug. 26 388 2 17 18 112 25 14 11 |...do....| Aug. 11 | Aug. 18 218 3 8 10 113 25 15 10} Aug. 9 | Aug. 10 | Aug. 23 517 1 14 14 114 25 10 Vege G0). 2 .\ 2. Ose |) 2 Ors 733 1 14 14 115 25 11 14 |...do- Aug. 11 | Aug. 22 710 2 12 13 116 24 9 Thue do... 22) 2-2 dos... ANE 26 755 2 16 17 117 18 8 10 |...do- Aug. 14 |...do 377 5 13 17 118 27 11 16 | Aug. 10 ee 12 | Aug. 27 376 2 16 17 119 25 12 | 13 9) -do. Os id 568 2 16 17 120 28 12 | 16 do Aug. 14 | Aug. 26 707 4 13 16 121 26 14 12 G02. 42|-23 do....| Aug. 29 624 4 16 19 : 122 | 7 14 | 13 |...do do....| Aug. 30 571 4 17 20 123 27 12 | 15 | Aug. 11 | Aug. 13 | Aug. 27 703 2 15 16 124 25 13 | 14a Re 0 see, |e do....| Aug. 29 346 2 17 18 125 27 16 | 11 |...do....| Aug. 14 | Aug. 21 146 3 8 10 126 26 16 | LOU Sed O ea ols O se oA Pe eee, 445 3 9 11 CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 63 TABLE XLII.—Oviposition by codling moths of the first brood in rearing cages, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916—Continued. Sex. Date of— Number of days— Total Num- num- From Cage ber Bana ber of date of No. of Fe- erica First Last eggs | Before} Of emer- moths.| Male. Pies 8 of oviposi- | oviposi- de-_| ovipo- | ovipo- | gence Slerratne tion. tion. posited.) sition. | sition. | to last ovipo- sition. 127 27 14 13 | Aug. 11 | Aug. 14 | Aug. 27 84 3 14 16 128 25 13 12 | Aug. 12 |...do Aug. 28 643 2 15 16 129 26 18 8 |..-do....] Aug. 15 | Aug. 23 190 3 9 11 130 26 17 9) E--do--)-|2-2do Aug. 26 406 3 12 14 131 25 17 8 | Aug. 13 |..-do Aug. 29 146 2 15 16 132 25 12 18 isse@lOneeslaas6lo -do. 735 2 15 16 133 22 11 11 |...do- Aug. 16 | Aug. 31 €09 3 16 18 MTEL. hah) SRL EAT BST nA eee ene eo Sees aaemee ese 1B, 2BY \lsconscuc|ecoshocd|sesecooc ANOS oe Susi ys SoG. Nios ok Bau mse an cet came me mssen ats 2.21 | 12.69 | 13.63 HIE SS Oa ge a ta 5 20 20 ME Tener eae eee enc. ain et ncals Satan slemciseieisear te neeeeeasc 1 1 5 Average number of eggs per female moth, 43.98. Time of oviposition—As previously mentioned, the moths that issued up to August 13, inclusive, from the larve collected every three days from banded trees in the Hamilton and Edwards orchards, were employed for the oviposition studies. It will be noted in the summary of this table that the average number of days from the date of emergence to the first oviposition was 2.21, maximum 5 days, minimum 1 day; the average number of days of oviposition was 12.69 days, maximum 20 days, minimum 1 day; the average number of days from the time of emergence to last oviposition was 13.63, maximum 20 days, minimum 5 days. Length of life of moths—A record was kept of the length of life of 3,231 moths of the first brood of which 1,561 were of the male sex and 1,670 of the female sex. According to the mortality data given in Table XLIII, the average length of life of the male moths was 13.12 days and of the female moths 12.20 days. The maximum length of life of the male moths was 38 days, female moths 26 days; minimum length of life of both the male and female moths 1 day. 64 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE XLIII.—Length of life of male and female coaling moths of the first brood in captivity: Summary of records of 3,231 individual moths, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. Male. Female. Male. Female. Male. Female. Num- Num- Num- Num- Num- Num- Length Length Length Length Length Length of life. | Pet Of} ofiife. | Per of |) “ortite. | Pex of! ofiife. | Per Of || ortife. | Per of} orjite. | ber of moths. moths moths. moths moths. moths Days Days Days Days Days Days. 1 11 1 6 15 76 15 111 2 5 29 0 2 12 2 9 16 81 16 89 30 4 30 0 3 8 3 id 17 75 17 65 31 0 31 0 4 18 4 15 18 65 18 51 32 1 32 0 5 13 5 20 19 56 19 40 33 0 33 0 6 36 6 33 20 51 20 29 34 0 34 0 7 49 7 70 21 42 yar 18 35 0 35 0 8 107 8 99 22 35 22 12 36 0 36 0 9 151 9 147 23 22 23 9 37 0 37 0 10 137 10 172 24 12 24 4 38 iJ 38 0 11 141 11 195 25 13 25 1 ——_— |——_— 12 124 12 156 26 5) 26 1 Total..| 1,561 | Total..|1, 670 13 | 102 13 169 || 27 4 27 0 14 103 14 142 | 28 1 28 0 | Average length of life of male moths, 13.12 days; female moths, 12.20 days. Maximum length of life of male moths, 38 days; female moths, 26 days. Minimum length of life of male moths, 1 day ; female moths, 1 day. LirE CYCLE OF THE FIRST GENERATION. Life cycle, stock-jar feeding method—'The summarized data giving the average length of each stage in the life cycle of the codling moth, first generation, are given in Table XLIV. These data are derived from the observations of 550 individuals reared by the stock- jar feeding method. By reference to this table it will be found that the average length of the incubation period was 7.67 days, larval feeding period 19.33 days, cocooning period 5.61 days, and pupal period 12.26 days. The average life cycle was 44.89 days and the average complete life cycle 47.10 days, obtained by adding to the life cycle 2.21 days, which is the average time that elapsed from the emergence of the moths to the deposition of the first egg. Life cycle, bagged-fruit feeding method—In Table XLV the re- sults of rearing 188 individuals of the first generation from the egg to the adult stage, bagged-fruit method, are given. By reference to this table it will be seen that the average incubation period was 8.56 days, the larval feeding period 20.45 days, cocooning period 5.26 days, pupal period 11.86 days, average life cycle 46.37 days, and the aver- age complete life cycle 48.58 days. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 65 TABLE XLIV.—Life cycle of the first generation of the codling moth, as observed by rearing, stock-jar feeding method, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. Larvel feeding Num- A Cocooning period. Pupal period. Life eycle.1 Date of | ber of} Incu- period. &P par y egg depo-|indi-| ba- sition. | vid- | tion. uals. Ay. |Max.| Min.}| Av. |Max.| Min.| Av. |Max.| Min.| Av. | Max.] Min. Days.| Days. |Days. |Days.| Days. |Days.|Days.| Days. |Days.|Days.| Days. |Days.| Days. May 29 29 | 10 18. 79 23 16 | 6.37 30 4 | 12. 03 17 8 | 47. 20 i) 2a) 30 25 | 10 18. 80 24 15] 5.52 9 4 | 12, 24 16 10 | 46. 56 57 | 39 31 16 | 10 19. 12 22 17} 4.62 9 3 | 11. 87 14 10 | 45. 62 52} 40 June 3 60} 8 19. 63 24 15 | 6.06 16 4 | 12.18 14 10 | 45. 88 59°) 40 4 32 8 19. 93 24 16 | 5. 34 12 2 | 12. 25 13 V1 | 45. 53 52) 40 5 37 8 20. 27 26 18} 5.94 18 4 | 12. 62 14 11 | 46. 83 59 | 42 7 13} || 7 19. 46 23 17 | 4.15 6 3 | 12.15 13 10 | 42. 76 47 | 38 8 30] 7 18. 60 27 15 | 5.66 16 on l223 15 11 | 43. 50 61 37 9 47) 7 19. 55 25 16] 6.61 15 3 | 12. 42 14 11 | 45. 59 55 | 39 9 34] 8 19, 82 34 15 | 6.08 12 4 | 12. 29 14 10 | 46. 20 62) 39 11 Donnas 18. 16 26 15] 5.56 12 3 | 11. 88 15 10 | 42. 60 58 | 37 12 18} 7 19. 66 30 V5.6 13 4 | 12. 33 15 10 | 44. 16 57) 38 13 13 7 19. 38 25 7 |) e683 11 4; 12. 84 19 11 | 44. 76 51 41 14 19} 7 19. 63 29 16 | 4.47 9 3 | 11.94 14 10 | 43. 05 54 | 37 15 26) 7 18. 57 26 14] 5.34 12 &) |) thik 73 14 6 | 42. 65 EM 8 16 4 7 18. 7. 22 15 | 4.25 5 4 | 11. 25 13 10 | 41. 25 47 Bye 17 ya er 19. 44 26 15] 5.51 13 3 | 12. 65 15 11 | 44. 61 54 37 18 32 | 7 19. 37 28 16 | 6.25 19 4 | 12. 40 15 10 | 45. 03 58 39 19 UP 20. 66 26 16 | 3.91 5 3 | 12. 00 13 10 | 43. 58 51 | 36 20 16] 7 17. 81 22 16) 4.56 8 4 | 12, 25 13 11 | 41. 62 46 | 38 21 1 ih 16. 60 16 16} 5.00 5 5 | 12. 00 12 12 | 40. 00 40 | 40 21 3] 8 18. 33 20 16 | 3.66 4 3 | 12. 66 13 12 | 42. 66 45 | 41 24 1 6 19. CO 19 19} 4.00 4 4 | 12.00 12 12 | 41. 00 41 41 28 3 6 21. 33 23 20 | 5.33 6 by ie aby) IE 11 | 45. 00 49 | 43 July 1 1} 6 16. 00 16 16 | 3.C0 3 3 | 13. 00 13 13 | 38. 00 38 | 38 2 1}; 6 19. 00 19 19} 4.00 4 4 | 14. 00 14 14 | 43. 00 43 | 43 550 | 7.67 | 19.33 34 14} 5.61 30 2 | 12. 26 19 6 | 44. 89 th || 8%) 1 Add 2.21 days for complete l:fe cycle. TaBLtE XLYV.—Life cycle of the first generation of the codling moth, as observed by rearing, bagged-fruit feeding method, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. Num- Larval feeding | Qocooning period P eri Lif 1 Date of | ber of| Incu- period. ‘ el ppalperiod Pie: egg depo-;indi-| ba- sition. | vid- | tion. uals. Ay. |Max. |Min. | Av. |Max. |Min. | Avy. | Max.| Min.| Av. | Max.]| Min. Days.| Days. |\Days.|Days.| Days. |\Days.|Days.| Days. |Days.|Daus.| Days. |Davs.|Days. May 19 1| 13 19. 00 19 19 | 5.00 5 5 | 10. 00 10 10 | 47. 00 47 i 22 2/11 22, 00 25 15 | 4.00 4 4 | 11. 50 12 11 | 49. 50 51} 46 24 6 | 11 20. 66 23 18 | 3.66 5 3 | 11. 00 12 10 | 45. 33 50} 44 26 6 | 10 21. 00 23 19 | 4.33 5 3 | 11.16 12 11 | 45. 60 49 | 44 27 28 | 10 21. 46 27 18 | 5.25 11 3 | 11. 42 14 8 | 48. 14 58 | 42 28 24 | 10 21. 25 24 19 | 6.62 18 3 | 12. 00 14 9 | 49. 87 66} 44 29 7 | 10 21. 71 25 18 | 4.71 7 3 | 11. 42 13 10 | 47. 85 52 | 45 30 1| 10 19. 00 19 19 | 4.00 4 4 | 12. 00 12 12 | 45. 00 45 | 45 31 5 | 10 21. 60 23 20 | 4. 2 5 4 | 11. 40 12 10 | 47. 20 50 | 44 June 3 9] 8 20. 55 25 17 | 4.44 6 4 | 11, 66 13 10 | 44. 66 49} 41 4 4] 8 21. 75 27 18} 4.5 5 4 | 12.75 13 12 | 47. 00 52) 44 5 22) 8 20. 04 25 17 | 4.95 15 3 | 11. 90 14 11 | 44. 90 57 | 40 7 6] 7 21. 33 25 19 | 5.50 8 3 ; 12. 00 13 10 | 45. 83 50 | 42 8 6 7 19. 83 21 19} 5.00 6 4 | 12.16 ils} 12 | 44. 00 46 | 42 9 Oe ig 19. 77 24 17 | 4.66 7 2 | 11. 88 13 11 | 43. 33 49} 39 9 8} 8 19. 62 22 7 | 6. 20 19 4 | 11. 62 3 11 | 45. 75 62) 40 12 5 7 19. 00 21 18 | 4. 20 5 4 | 12. 20 13 12 | 42. 40 44 | 41 13 GN t 20. 00 23 18 | 7. C0 18 4 | 11. 70 13 10 | 45. 71 60 | 39 14 iL 7 22. 00 22 22) 4.00 4 4 | 13. 00 13 13 | 46. 00 46 | 46 15 1 7 20. 00 20 20 | 4.00 4 4 | 10. 00 10 10 | 41. CO 41} 41 16 4 7 21. 50 24 19| 4. 7& 6 4 | 12. 50 14 11 | 45. 75 49} 41 17 4| 7 20. 25 21 19 | 5.00 6 4 | 12, 25 14 11 | 44. 50 47 | 43 18 il 7 20. 72 23 Wy |) 27 19 3 | 12. 45 14 10 | 47. 45 62] 38 19 Gh of 21. 66 23 21} 4.66 5 4 | 13. 33 14 13 | 46. 66 48 | 46 20 1 7 18. 00 18 18 |} 5.00 5 5 | 12. 00 12 12 | 42. 00 42 | 42 21 ald 18. 85 22 NG || BY 7 5 2 | 13.14 15 12 | 42. 59 49 | 40 188 | 8.56 | 20. 45 27 17 | 5.26 19 2 | 11. 86 15 8 | 46. 37 66 |} 38 1 Add 2.21 days for complete life cycle. 19552°—21—_5 66 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE SECOND GENERATION. EGGs OF THE SECOND Broop. Time of deposition —As given in Table XLVI, eggs of the second brood were deposited from July 3 to August 31, inclusive, and dur- ing this period 46,410 eggs were laid. These data were obtained by confining the moths that emerged from the larve collected in the cee TANS foarte WR aS al be Ve StS IN VEST SS ce aa Se PARR ee BPAMBGRCEE (ams Ase —1Hi fy Ree ae BMA Ae ee Se REN mc tot ea Pe Pe ss] STE Ys ca Pee ee ee AVERAGE DAILY TEMPERATURE, NUMBER OF EGGS. \ sie esi Been ae) ee aa EY EVE aa) eS Ea Ge NG aera ee eee een ee % 0 ~< w) N 8 t yes AUGUST SEPTEMBER Fic, 25.—Time of deposition of eggs of the second brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. field, using all of the moths that issued up to August 138, inclusive. The greatest number of eggs laid on any one day was 2,333, and these were deposited on August 2. The time of egg deposition is shown graphically with average daily temperatures in figure 25. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. Num- Date— Appearance of— Obser- | ber of Number vation | eggs of eggs No. | depos-} Depos- Red Black | yatchea,| Batched.| Red | Black ited. ited. ring. spot. : ring. | spot. Days. | Days. 1 13 | July 3] July 5| July 8] July 9 12 2 5 2 41 July 4] July 6|/July 9] July 1 3 2 5 3 1| July 5] July 7) July 10] July il 1 2 5 4 36 | July 6] July 8] July 11} July 12 31 2 5 5 190 | July 7/| July 9} July 12) July 13 131 2 5 Cy Gace eee HEN ee Sen aye er ay pe ar July 14 B4y cise nin||aqn cuss seb Bnbe ol RSE BSOSHas |AUABOOeoe a] Mees een AEE July 15 WO ees ce |eictescote 8 213 | July 8 | July 10] July 13} July 14 177 2 5 @) |soasacedicspaseo roalocoscesce|oosos so555 July 15 Zl |rosdeced|ecesoncs 10 170 | July 9) July 11] July 14 |...do.... 138 2 5 TH eocasesa) BeeSseod aed Gace cel pameciees ese July 16 Daal foeicaieiat| Batetete sce 12 288 | July 10 | July 12 | July 15 }...do.... 112 2 5 SNe Basico es Pee oe cee |e weminstec|Seeeeemmice July 17 WATE oe ee ae a od Te eamoo es dlsocenes aae) Becasne ts ol OE os sae July 18 GP Seren areca as 15 468 | July 11 | July 13 | July 16 | July 17 351 2 5 18 el ekiapesa 4 Al [Sees ey ed | Sea ete RA et July 18 OGM siceree el ocescce 17 157 | July 12{ July 14 | July 17 |.-.do... 100 2 5 TE laceteeaes ol recast Ss RSC easy lanes ges ee July 19. DAN NEE Fe es oie 19 270 | July 13] July 15 | July 18]...do...- 116 2 5 ODN saodepas| Ueedecadase sasse aden Eacseneaee July 20. LOS HS sce cee emesis cs 21 84 | July 14 | July 16] July 19 }...do.--. 42 2 5 DOM Semler rey eters Sseaep ya singe yee nrks 2 Lanier rato July 21 DBE uses als aos Sa 23 28 | July 15) July 17 | July 20 |...do- 168 2 5 Goh eI | i on il aca July 22 TA [ces ta ae bn ea D5} ocdogac|joaasoce San Bbeeeosaea Boceeeosue July 23 Gres Societe 26 300 | July 16) July 18] July 21} July 22 264 2 5 7g (eee eS A Mal insin ae ABAT IONS Lis July 23 TUG pees pan ee 28 274 | July 17} July 19] July 22 |.-.do.... 260 2 5 29 596 | July 18] July 20} July 23 | July 24 519 2 5 30 292 | July 19) July 21 | July 24] July 25 274 2 5 31 846 | July 20] Juy 22) July 25! July 26 635 2 5 S$) lssacehcuibdossadosale specnadéal te dacaseee July 27 IGP) |loasoconellesooodoe 33 593 | July 21 | July 23 | July 26 do. .-. 397 2 5 By DOG ASOL Al SEeROBAGEE BSC OOcIere evens July 28 G5e eieeere ese 9 llecacencd ep doce neans MODE OAse aol MeseaeeueNs July 29 ee ei ra ra eee 36 | 1,284 | July 22 | July 24 | July 27 | July 28 270 2 5 Sal eeaseee bese ase cae anise oaeelncmeemnene July 29 SOOT ee ie el erence ong 38 | 1,097 | July 23 | July 25) July 29} July 30 910 2 6 ON ereieterete es | eeeasorelele ain) meterersicteveia'|iapnic smremelors July 31 Dai llereleents Alleuecress 40 | 1,333 | July 24 | July 26 | July 30 |.-.do..- 946 2 6 Ag eatistence | Secs asc (sean semcclloss fececes Aug. 1 Ielleoeacaeelloooocode 42 722 | July 25} July 27 | July 31 |...do.... 541 2 6 ASG eee sete eG he [Aaa AUG AE Ae ss Aug. 2 Bib ee aegis eae hes 44 | 1,528] July 26 | July 28} Aug. 1 |...do.-.. 1,375 2 6 AB \SeRESAEs st cecee ee] Eee ea cn Mpeeamer nes Aug. 3 Bil [eens ANE alae 46 553 | July 27 | July 29} Aug. 2]|...do.... 431 2 6 Gl lacneanaslleceaucyaec|bceaeceno. paaoasseee Aug. 4 CU eee Re | Boseeese 48 | 1,658 | July 28| July 31} Aug. 3 |}...do.... 1,542 3 6 49 | 1,471 | July 29 |...do..-.|...do ....|..-do.-.. 338 2 5 RU locconeddsocemascae bossadeccs cesenosead Aug. 5 Qual ocdoocdalldoacsadd Leg Peres eae esse eis | mersrseelapolcigens oseictos Aug. 6 Ie SSocoaosa||cassaase 52] 2,019 | July 380) Aug. 1) Aug. 4] Aug. 5 727 2 5 583 lbnoasdeclseaaasrecelaasesesane||ceuasnenae Aug. 6 I le (el tenner rete etata i 54] 1,674 | July 31} Aug. 1! Aug. 5|...do.-... 268 1 5 5) lsccaesac snp cednade Adesncdeonlaseaosuose Aug. 7 MeO) loo seecacllonussuce 56 | 2,256; Aug. 1] Aug. 3} Aug. 7] Aug. 8 2,098 2 6 57 | 2,333 | Aug. 2| Aug. 4] Aug. 8] Aug. 9 1,890 2 6 58] 1,582 | Aug. 3] Aug. 6} Aug. 9] Aug. 10 1,345 3 6 59 | 1,499 | Aug. 4 |...do-..-.} Aug. 10 | Aug. 11 1,364 2 6 GO ecsoéesclicacodouocclaudecedcolloocncousss ug. 12 80) lssoccoss|losaccse- 61} 1,641 | Aug. 5] Aug. 7] Aug. 11 |...do.--.. 1,313 2 6 CO IAS oe es 3 LL Aug. 13 Sie Mere see e @Slecntedde| Sosadoaonslloor Ssaners soceaansee Aug. 14 Ibe) Seeaaeeol HoAeosae 64 980 } Aug. 6] Aug. 8] Aug. 12] Aug. 13 245 2 6 Gy eagosseeScssdoecna lboassaesan|soqsacneae ug. 14 Cohn eases eee 66 | 2,115 | Aug. 7| Aug. 9| Aug. 13 |...do.... 338 2 6 G7 aaaseeulgcneoodsas Sanoceerne las asaseaas Aug. 15 Gy eaeeneec Sontence 683 | Bsc ele bets cnsteee retetoetersic etal oe ieretseiecie ug. 16 hol Seteoces lesaasoae 69 | 1,944 | Aug. 8] Aug. 10} Aug. 14 |...do...- 1,613 2 6 ABS | eye lll ae RSI Ee asc a cS Aug. 17 Fs ene cee ce 71 | 1,347] Aug. 9} Aug. 11 | Aug. 14 |...do.... 1,131 2 5 72 | 1,346 | Aug. 10 | Aug. 12} Aug. 17 | Aug. 18 1,185 2 7 WOM ese eeen | wen ee eens ee ecen = sailmaescme ans ug. 19 Ginette ee caae 74 | 1,322) Aug. 11] Aug. 14 | Aug. 18 |...do.... 1,190 3 7 75 662 | Aug. 12 }...do-....| Aug. 19 | Aug. 20 549 2 7 (fo Notecassliscostoscad ysoneusocellaoeoueocas Aug. 21 710) Atte SEES 6 0000 WW HO FC “1H ISO CO NI OO AI SI ST SINT OD SI DD OO YS TO IT NT OO IT OO I SIT ID WH ID I DD DD AIS CO SID MID ID ID AID OMNI DNDN OND DD DS 67 “TABLE XLVI.—Time of deposition, length of incubation, and time of hatching of eggs of the second brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. 68 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE XLVI.—Time of deposition, length of incubation, and time of hatching’ of eggs of the second brood of the codling moth, Grand Junction, Colo,, 1916— Continued. | Bene Date— Appearance of— Obser=)) Heriot yj ed eS EN ber ee eee TCT vation | eggs of eggs bation No. | depos- | Depos- Red Black Hatched,| batched.| Red | Black | period. ited. ited. ring. | spot. : ring. | spot. Days. | Days. | Days. 77 212 | Aug. 13] Aug. 16 | Aug. 19} Aug. 20 155 3 6 7 78} 1,806 | Aug. 14 o...-} Aug. 20 | Aug. 21 307 2 6 7 (0) lnecenear|lscsocscesn eset sonsellehosoce ace Aug. 22 1 SOOM ects sec paeieiatce ok 8 80h] ow ood] Pas see sib Sa Bose ee See Ade: 23 ie 7 ee een Se ee 9 81 | 1,641} Aug. 15 | Aug. 17 | Aug. 22]|...do. 1,411 2 7 8 B25) Sae2 Sao tae sce ctl dete scleral sae peeps Aug. 24 C1! hl es en (Sea 9 83} 1,335} Aug. 16 | Aug. 18 | Aug. 22 | Aug. 23 147 2 6 7 BAe cede ae see secce ae) wcmaccunea|ase ess rae Aug. 24 hana ie = Sis oneean 8 Be etter S| Oak EE EG a eee ere ee Aug. 25 40) [ot ccee oasis 9 86 943 | Aug. 17 | Aug. 19 | Aug. 24 |...do. 811 2 7 8 87 723 | Aug. 18 | Aug. 20 | Aug. 25 | Aug. 26 578 2 Ul 8 88 689 | Aug. 19 | Aug. 21 |...do-. -do. 145 2 6 7 Ch er tere Mapcaecnes| asacaemaes laasenes er Aug. 27 ABB eo facta cs epeete a/orate 8 U0) eae eesc| bescmooues|BebaaraselaanJescsce Aug. 28 Oe cielo ie a nee [Sart erat Lit be D +o — Dt et [a 9° b Gel Hh ae aa we ee oe | 2 10 U 1 paired 1 IN ig a a OREDINCA ese ana ds uy to} 2 ce re aint a et Toa ies ech : al = | =o crete aed arte cs 7 oo [eye . a ' oO aes teo ; TA ‘Ane = =~ titre . ins Pel or) r ‘ Tet ' ‘i — ' i INA i ' : ; : ears i) us) Th Pee OR rr. = S aE an a a oN ‘op + + 7G vo o i = Ans ORB 2. Tis yp TAA iT) Pa aan Cr ort es ’ ae ne elit 4 = Fy _ |e eee ge TT] ee =e ees B 9s a | 8 Ese soe sieetceacre ara a Soop jewels er a, Qi = aie toe PAID ODS aint ame Ane Oo sige hg 0 Vint eet —* . eT NAN rae a = oh n , oD OD HOD u Ano SoD ATES] 1 71 u ATs) é aa s | > | ane 1s ads H > oO ' LOD CDN a = tS ' SI ar.) | cee TAM AN: Ea qd os bal rm oD Oi al sal = bio Ban! ' nN 4 ' A s a] a ae mA TASS, Ine Ts ; oan I ' A : ra | : A S oA ‘ ae AANN ' on) 1 OD mae Rage ipa ‘ iN Fi ' am 1 AA Panes =H a 8s | ob chalk as ooh were’ oa ot ewan bia ae ales Tah cia ~ © N a4 aa ‘ON ' = a aes ie a TanBDICN TTT) ae % eS fay a eee = = pctiges bh | = A to =a ' oo s oo iret Te erst ' tO 4 meio ‘— (3 i= o8 ro N = ‘ t Yala. | 1s He mA Ir) A (AMR ' ri =e ae ’ : =] = sin mei: rast we ee pope ogee eae er ete 3 op 19 i HO ahs a : oOxH aN i) a) ate 8 re Calor) Gr) at Toi] ; TA 4 “AAT = [S) ~ A on | » txt oD roo i AN st st tin ia ost 2 moe OD 'Or oe Moe! Mu Ss “<> sen Tek TON =n) ~ore + 4 = x ‘ MAN ' —~) ' = fi 7 = Ay Pee) S x on ma Pais aris =i k —— am Mo =e 18 ical S © ay ean oS CON TSI nia Coa =a) “Om + ' = = CoS SND Noo 25 re) Spas cal ae erg Pare) A av ‘3 a = sow wad 00 00 Ax co Se ect vs Sass TAN cera ao [eo 5 ° | es) OO Ko in WT) stam aS Ws) es? oo : 5 Or) S a 19 a OO [> Bis) Grlorl : . on oD A oD. ' 4 1 So n eis 1 a Sas) re oS ENS) AnD caries = aaa VUE GN aaa = BSS | ao +15 on soOr~ sar ree i aa ' ae 1 ' TES Reade oo Ss a 1D oO = bo SHESIOY ip St To i TA ' a f aN - Ss ns S o a Som taal Am Ooo aaa Ook Cn) Pics Teta ek aT oo Cate onl as i ta Sore ~ — ori Loe See Fe meewbeeaue Eee te si ‘ae Te eee atts R = OD OO ron TOMA HON rei ‘ Neale Use D ea rea = ol =~ | MICs et sfc Seu GN AON AAO riage law as va ee cares |= on oc 2 HOCA ea ‘oH St ors ae rai tenet : psa = ote + o> wb Agi | doris Cision SSS TEIN ‘ Ae ' I : Boot i 5 : ve tie o9 2eo a USES ~ on Loar) i NAH ' ae 0 uN it wat Ce bs | x 2S SL esccdieaehats mare, reaven SiS Sa Valine =] Ss = oo oo Sas nat oy et Et arta" AN : = r Geir) AN 7 TTC i ‘ = 7 =] a 3 5 NOD nae eat eal Ser noe es Gellar) i aH ms $9 00 ’ ia) a ' DS —] D > Seo no lean aeattst Terenas Se a as S| eee aT a aac ey Sse ANG AT. = ra > woo 3 a Lert tae noes ioe x mer ' aa De Oates = J S wn mA Sree ot ae ae or Vi pero ae R .s a ' sch baka teat retain is ee ah uk Hous a Te 2 a Se eee SR Suh sei z iw = ccna REREEEESEIEE come We Danita ia re as | an; NMED Sa Sopa FER SE eee Ws So g i] O48 = rover laa! fh ie ' m4 Onn no eB nL atk 2d © y, Byeea SELaensRREREEE ane big ae ga is 4 aab raaae SER REL AARNE tons SEEEEESSEEESESES a DeRose Oe Cacho pe gtr gecrtene ees eal wie ‘ Ve a sou tennant: oO m= eS (ee ee AQ sf SLBRRES i ea ee =) a As aoa AVeSs ea ae ae 28 eases & mit iz 3 = S22 = 69 HID OS _—— 5 aan CIVOAO aa x = © | Cie at aera polesaeabponteln’ = 5 ARs sebavouieconiecietniace x eenegem ae Ago aoa EEC ere = Ses we Tsp tg 88 ar COD a 19 Om 0 ese = ala = DOAN Sean at 11a Nod HA le » 68)|2 Jo... 4) Sten eee ees e5 | AUR 260 Be eee 8 17 6 7 IBN 2 Tale GOSs cee ke See ee Se oe etl AU 7 |e eye ees 8 19 6 7 QO 82 Eee dows ana. esse eee ee ies) AUR OS aE aan ernie eater eee 8 21 6 7 22> P16 5] SAO Or me. ose = 2 eee eee ee ence 8 50 2| May 16] May 25 | 10.30. 6.06 p. m., May 26..-.....---.- 31 36 3| May 19] May 30 | 10.50. i oh oa ease egy re bs 2 10 ‘ 45/22 dow eee May: 13 | SinOe eer 1102.8, mise ee eee 2 3 Dil Maye 221 CO nese aio nee 3) Dae sct hea acee Seer onenen ae 7 1 6 | May 23 | May 25 |/ 11.50... -| 12moon, May 272-2 =) 2222. eae 48 10 7 |.--d05. . =| May, 301) 10!2852.52\"10:55.a% aoa ste eee eee 32 8|...do...-| May 31 | 7.45... O37. Meee 1 52 9 \-..do...-| June 2) 7-58. LA0ipeimeceee 5 42 10). 2doss2.| Sune 3 7-12-25) 251o pee ee eee eee eee 7 3 ih) ee Ckoys a “COE = oe iene 6.25 Di diities cacceor eee eae 11 13 1D dod ssa don aa ain 6:25 pia. os goes see eee 11 11 13 | May 24) May 31; 7.29....- 8.06.8. Mit .c ie cecanioe cee SO eee eee eee 37 14|...do....| June 2 | 7.00.. 1.40: Dein. is ses cnecee eee 6 40 151/52 doe ee Goes. alone eee 9.48 po asec cecen eee ete 10 33 4 163\Cc2doues-|Munentsi idee 148: Dom+ 32.92.) 2 4ceeeeeeeers 6 3 17 | May 27)| June 4 | 6.45.. S07 sp. TH tes sen aet eee emeneeee 8 22 18 |...do...-| June 5 | 6.45.. i a US es os Weegee meses oat oho 4 30 19| May 28] June 2 | 6.45.. Tes fs US Oe ee See 15 20'| May 29]...do..-.-| 6.25.. 5:48 DIN. ocak eee ees 11 23 21 | May 31] June 3 | 6.25.. 9.50 asm 322252552 eee eee 3 25 22} June 3] June 20 | 7.25.. 1. 30\p..d. 22 22 See eee 6 5 23) June 4] June 7 |} 6.25.. Uh a.tme o.oo Ae See 4 35 24 -do....} June 9)}/6.35.._.. 2.00 DiI ae.-6 ocak ene Eee ees 7 55 25 | June 8] June 12 | 6.20..... 6515 plies oe ee ee eee 11 55 26 | June 11 | June 13 | 6.15.. O.15ip. os oe. Se 1D | erictanece 27 | June 15 | June 21 | 6.45.. O Pe Me SSS sset sea eee 8 15 28 } June 16 | June 23 | 6.50..... 5/45 DA. as seks oe eee eee 10 55 CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 91 TABLE LXVII.— Observations of the copulatory period of codling moths of the first brood, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. f Minimum time ‘ Date Date Time attached. Pair | moths found found Moths separated subsequent No. | emerged. |in copula.|in copula. to— Hours. | Minutes. “4 A.M 4 1| July 24 | July 25 | 7.43..... MAO teassrmi ae etie i ssyiaieiejaeietsis 3 57 i 2) July 27 | Aug. 2] 7.20..... AVS OM aM eo hs hoe oS 9 30 3 | July 28} July 31} 7.13...... peal RS oD cals, Sipe eta seen eee 5 2 AN aD, SINE Caer a | pe) a oe HONS permease Os 4 56 5 | Aug. 3] Aug. 5 | 6.54....-. QTR IM se ease we ce shee 7 43 6 |...do....]..-do QED 2 ava | OL OO sPapleaeCrseysieisisin/s< cst ecveve 8 8 ! 7| Aug. 4] Aug. 11 | 7.29..... SrA 8 Pier n meee. << ceeeere 10 19 . 8| Aug. 5] Aug. 7 | 7.00..... AS Syne ae aaah Cee ne 9 55 8 |...do....| Aug. 8 | 7.05-.. ID AOup Sms Se eee eke Sea 5 14 9) Aug. 6] Aug. 13 | 6.20..... LOO a. Me) eee eee ee 3 49 10 |..-do...-}| Aug. 20 | 7.45.._.. LOY OO pyran see ysererrarcietarers toler. 14 15 11 | Aug. 9] Aug. 12] 7.06..... 2.45 p. m Ul 39 12 | Aug. 10} Aug. 15 | 7.25..-.. 12.10 p.m 4 45 13 | Aug. 11 | Aug. 13 | 6.00..... 10.40 a. m 4 40 14 | Aug. 12 |] Aug. 7.45..--- SO Dan Nes Nee So Me ate rs eiociars | erates eee 17 15 | Aug. 14] Aug. 17 | 7.20....- 11.27 a. m 4 7 16 |...do....| Aug. 20 | 6.50..... SUD aD en pee a es ee gedose 9 5 : 17 |_..do....| Sept. 1] 7.40..-.. Died previous to separation. x 13 LANGE; Pea Globe coll 7A0) So sed| GMOs Osis a ceonuecscocncadbe de 1 5 TIME OF DAY MOTHS OVIPOSIT. A series of studies was inaugurated in 1915 and continued in 1916 to ascertain the time of day the moths deposit their eggs most freely. The results of these studies are given herewith. Moths of the first brood, 1915.—This experiment included 11 cages in which were confined a number of male and female moths. The observations were made at 3 p. m., 6 p. m., 9 p. m., 12 o’clock mid- night, 6 a. m., 9 a. m. and 12 o’clock noon, or, in other words, daily every 3 hours except at 3 a.m. These studies were commenced at 12 o’clock noon August 16 and were concluded at 6 a. m. August 21. At each examination the old foliage was removed and a. fresh supply furnished, and at the same time the number of eggs deposited on the sides of the cages was recorded and the eggs removed. Some E eges were deposited on the sand in the bottom of the jars, but as 3 these could not be accurately counted, they were not taken into con- sideration. In Table LXVIITI the tabulated data of the time of deposition of 3,621 eggs will be found in addition to the mean temperatures during the periods of observation. This table has been summarized and the data presented in Table LXIX, by reference to which it will be noted that the great majority of the eggs were. deposited between 12 o’clock noon and 9 p.m. The time of greatest deposition occurred just before dusk, the moths being very active at this time. It is of interest to note that with a mean temperature of 78.90° F. during 5 observation periods from 9 a. m. till 12 o’clock noon, only 2.34 per cent of the eggs were laid, whereas the moths laid much more abund- antly with both higher and lower mean temperatures when these occurred later in the day. ar ig ee ae ar ere co eT PRS eS a “qq sTaprot =" wr {uoou=ur pamenera ATCOnS 62 °&9 0S °99 GC LL GL 68 0S °06 SZ 08 GL€9 98 69 GL 99 GG SL 00 “88 00 “68 00 “62 GL“€9 €b LS 0S °€9 GG PL 0S “Ss 00 “06 GL 08 GG b9 eh 69 00 °€9 GG PL 00°18 Go °L8 GG LL 0S °99 BULLETIN 982, U. S. 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(Ota ote Or Ne gg og a3 a9 ag a9 93 a og w | a3 gR -BAIOSqO -BAIOSGO KS i=) : iS : : : : : > : : ] > jo. jo OulTyL, jo oR 38 —uwo poyisodep ss50 jo 1equUMN : —u0 peytsode r , rs s | —jsn3 = | s390 a Vann &I eI €1 aL ra re II | IT Or Or Or -ny posure stpoyy oO || * SS a ent ~ —_—S o3 3 G II OL 6 8 L 9 g | P g a oe I —'ON 938) “¢ ‘uoYpune pubLy “uD ¢ yo ydaoxa ‘sunoy aaly) huare hyip Uayn? suorjDauasgo “pooLg qs.iif ay) fo syjou buypoo liq uorpisodrao fo I6L ‘0109 mua t—ITIIAXT PIV ; 4 . \ ; ; “ ee le Tee CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 93 TABLE LXIX.—Time of oviposition by codling moths of the first brood; observa- tions taken daily every three hours, except at 3 a. m.; Grand Junction, Colo., 1915; summary of Table LXVIII, ; | Average | Percent} Mean Num- Total | number | ofeggs | tempera- bet of Period of number | ofegys | deposited! ture dur- axiom observation. ofeggs | per ovi- | per Ovi- | ing ovi- erode deposited.| position | position | position Pp : period. | period. | periods. OTH, 5 | 12 mt. to6a.m a 1.40 0.19 59.00 4|6a.m.to 9a.m 24 6.00 83 64. 56 5 | 9a.m. to12m..... 85 17.00 2.34 78.90 5|12m.to3p.m 598 119. 60 16.49 87.15 5 |3p.m.to6p.m 1,375 275.00 37.91 85. 10 5|6p.m.to9p.m 1,492 298. 40 41.14 73.70 5 | 9p. m. to 12 mt 40 8.00 1.10 64.00 m—=noon; mt.—midnight. Moths of the spring brood, 1916.—The study of the time of ovi- position by moths of the spring brood was commenced at 12 o’clock noon on June 5 and the observations were made daily every 3 hours, except at 3 a. m., until 12 o’clock noon June 12, a period of one week. The details of this study are presented in Table LXX and sum- marized in Table LX XI. By reference to the latter it will be noted that over 79 per cent of the eggs were deposited from 3 p. m. to 9 p.m. It will be seen in the table that the mean temperature for the 7 days from 9 a. m to 12 o’clock noon was 76.39° F. Although this temperature is in no wise unfavorable for egg deposition, yet only 1.54 per cent of the eggs were deposited during this interval. Later in the day, with both higher and lower mean temperatures, much higher percentages of eggs were deposited. From 3 p. m. to 6 p. m. 58.80 per cent of the eggs were laid, the mean temperature being 82.92° F., or a little over 6° higher than the temperature from 9 a. m. to 12 o’clock noon. From 6 p. m. to 9 p. m., with a temperature of 73.14° F., 20.52 per cent of the eggs were deposited. 94 taken daily every three hours except at 3 a. m., ations ] Obsern tion by codling moths of the spring brood. posi TABLE LXX.—Time of 01 Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. BULLETIN 932, U. S. 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BGG alaiat-lalar aisha BGG AAO aa AA & 3 : Pano anmoantoaNmoantoad : = = s a [-) Oo oOo 6 8 5 5 a 5 5 5 MOTH IN COLORADO, noon: mt.=midnight. m.= 95 96 BULLETIN 982, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE LXXI.—Time of oviposition by moths of the spring brood; observations taken daily every three hours, except at 3 a. m.; Grand Junction, Colo., 1916 ; summary of Table LXX. Mean Average | Per cent pant Total | number | of eggs pase ae = = eore Period of observa- | number | ofeggs | deposited ain Saar tion. ofeggs | per ovi- | per ovi- avi a F deposited.| position | position Me periods aaon origd sition Dp Ja) Te periods. oF, 7|12mt.to6a.m-.-. 0 0.00 0.00 57.07 7|6a.m.to9a. m... 0 0. 00 0. 00 62. 64 7|9a.m.tol2m-..-.-.. 10 1. 42 1. 54 76. 39 7|12m.to3p. m...- 92 13. 14 14, 20 83. 75 7|3p.m.to6p.m- 381 54. 42 58. 80 82. 92 7/6p.m.to9p.m.. 133 19. 00 20. 52 73.14 7|9p.m.tol2 mt... 32 4.57 4.94 64. 96 m=noon; mt=midnight. Moths of the first brood, 1916—Oviposition studies, similar to those just described, were made with moths of the first brood during a period of one week from July 24 to 31, inclusive. The results are given in Table LX XII and presented in a summarized form in Table LX XIII. The eggs were deposited in largest numbers from 3 p. m. to 6 p- m., with the greatest activity about dusk. With a mean tem- perature of 79.28° F., from 3 p. m. to 6 p. m., over 35 per cent of the eggs were laid, whereas with a lower mean temperature, 72.96° F., from 6 p. m. to 9 p. m., over 46 per cent of the eggs were deposited. It would appear from the foregoing studies that the time of day is the most influential factor relating to the time of oviposition by moths of the spring and first broods. The moths, as a rule, are most active in depositing their eggs late in the afternoon to early in the evening, their activity being greatest just about dusk. 97 CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. e oo1wnS iD wD ' smoryearasqo hp BSASSBRSSARSRASABARS | : UWsoAjoq o1nyeiedte, Uva OY ee 5a GF SSNS aS CECI Cd ICs ay jUBOW | ° LSSSSSRRRSESSLSRSAASER | : ‘ ; ‘ HANMDOO poytsod OO OCC RRS TS Vase S aa -ep s8de JO Joquinu [Rj0,, a > ont DHANMDOOCOMmHOOMHNDD ot Se | Bey=130) ad mWON oro Me Cat eae = o Bg z ® co) Ae uo) D DWDSOCOCOCHHEHOOSCSCONNOSS | © 3 w8 : S 5 So oseIO.T =o) on 09 a ONS = +10 a "o8t9 | MSSSCOSCORNHOSCSCSCONASOSSCS/E nN no = bel N -oserfog, | wASOCriMHoSSOSOMROSS |B “080 | SASSCSSCSHSSSCOSCOMHMNOON | & on a oe ial a -oser0g | ees N Ae oe aoe eae Lon! : MWAAMSOSOMNDSOSCOCHOOMOSSSO | cdl ae | 2a ~ 22 iE 4 i) ‘oer | THis 226° BO q 2 ee eee “9300 | SSSSSSSSSSSSCSSOONNSSS | H iam N q AQ "e8RI[0O.7 | MIMOSDCOMHOOCOCOCOMRODOSOSOS | = Loma “9309 | eR ooconpnconeNascoce |e =) ol aa = a nN : =) adeno | ggecoooasocconotess | | 989 grocoososoososNsssss | somal = a q 2 -oser1og | DBHSSOSOSCSSOSOSSSOSOSOONSSS | 9 so b N ee = -a8t9 HOSSSSSSG50500590900|% oa) =e 9 =| ie sc -98tT[OiT scoocooogcecocoscess |p n Bp “98tQ mecocontosccoenecces |g o ~ = - a -a8eT]O WT oroocooncesoocounces | g 2 E -a8tQ cooooocoosososnomoss | & « i=] vt wo) = 7 “eseT[O.7 woccocosoooscocoonsss | 8 oe ysic1@) ANAOCOCOWNSCOOCOOOCOCOCSoOSooOSo | 25 12 = = -eSer[O,T AASSSOSSSS9S99909089 | -98t9 On9S2990999988999099 8 = ey — . oo oO Y astro 7 MHOSOCOCOSCCOSO ccomoce | & ‘03t0 | cooocosrcoscososesss | an) oS eed ‘gd UT[Oy Hooocosonscosossomess | & ¥ x a) 133@) recococnsconcscesceso |g a Y E -oSerod | mooeoeosoososssosos= |@ ey @ ccoccconscososossoso | 8 “| -g3R1[0u1 mMOoSSSSOnHSOSOSSSSOSSSO | # _—— bol mare aa a meme ma non y= de Pete ee ig aay tana ieee fetes ¢ ' MEG of, ae ee ea a es Dee ee ee rare alte ap oe ae en oe FRSA SRRPORR RRR SA & ? Be “ Pais ~ (panies |e = es = leant : : AAS AAS 8 BQ AAA 8 SQ RAIA ao ‘ ga: ~ a fe) a nN a ’ oa! H'o ODHORMANMORHORBHMNORHORH : ; ° Be yn S = 7 | ag Se A a % * — bs o |r 2a6 & CORN 5 Sus Ee is) a } AS ae m.=noon; mt.=midnight. } CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 99 Taste LXXIII.—Time of oviposition by moths of the first brood, observations taken daily every three hours, except at 3 a. m., Grand Junction, Colo., 1916; summary of Table LX XII. Mean Average | Per cent Nun Total | number | ofeggs | ‘pera agar Period of observa- | number | ofeggs | deposited aintata vation i OUCH SS |) IN GNae || 19 One rind: periods deposited.| position | position StvOT ; i period. | period. periods. @ | 12mt. to6a.m--.- 24 3. 42 0. 56 65. 46 7 | 6a.m.to9a.m 13 1. 85 0. 30 68. 57 7 |9a.m.to12m 58 8. 28 1.36 76. 60 7 |12m.to3p.m 268 38. 28 81. 64 7 |3p.m.to6p.m 1, 535 219. 28 35. 92 79. 28 7 |6p.m.to9p.m 1, 998 285. 00 46. 68 72. 96 7 | 9p.m.to12 mt 381 54, 42 8. 91 69. 60 m—noon; mt—midnight. OVIPOSITION BY INDIVIDUAL MOTHS. Studies of the fecundity of individual moths were made in 1915 and 1916 by isolating pairs of male and female moths in separate cages. These moths were segregated either one or two days after their emergence and were then confined in jelly-glass tumblers into which were placed daily fresh apple or pear foliage and a small piece of sponge moistened with newly made sugar solution. Each cage was examined daily for eggs. Moths of the first brood, 1915.—As shown in Table LX XIV, the first moths in this study emerged July 26, while the last pair, No. 83, emerged August 19. The summarized results of the observations show that the 83 moths deposited a total of 3,762 eggs, or an aver- age of 45.33 eggs per female. The maximum number of eggs laid by a single individual was 185; the average number of eggs laid by a single female in one day was 10.84 and the maximum 80. Attention is here drawn to certain facts as revealed by a com- parison of Tables XVI and LXXIV. It will be noted in the former table, which gives in detail the oviposition data of moths of the first brood confined, in 1915, in the usual large battery-jar cages, that 46.73 was the average number of eggs deposited per female moth, while 45.33 was the average number deposited per female by the individual caging method, as shown in the latter table. This latter method seems to have reduced the length of the period of oviposition as well as delayed it somewhat. However, as will be seen by a comparison of Tables XVII and LXXIV, the - average length of life of the female moth was about the same by either method, it being 12.68 days when the moths were confined in the large battery-jar cages and 12.80 days when caged individually. A detailed record of this and other important oviposition data ob- tained by the individual caging method in 1915 is given completely in Table LX XIV. 100 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste LXXIV.—Oviposition by individual codling moths of the first brood, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915. , s = st ® 5 % Date of— Period (in days). | & | oO a Be iS cs n 2 os 275) Eevee | 34 . to om. on o 3 2) gh Se | Se Sees | se 3 d d ES g g. |8S/Ba| BS | SS | ee] ee 5 Z & | & |8\|ale3 |22/58| Fa | s8 123 | gs S = b= ee SPeieS) 8 ae Soa oe S|. arcs g fo) S$ = 20 2) Siow sca rp ge | 2-6 S Sa: E) S| sg |E | eee) be ee a ee | es S|) 8 | Boe | aoe eee meee ae a 5 3 2 3 S| 2 fe¢Pe | eo lege mes els ol aS 3 q aed a o Oo |e (Smal us | 6 =| a) > Gi Au <3) i 4 A 1° Ix io} a vA a < = Days. 1| July 26} July 28) Aug. 3] Aug. 4] 2| 7 8 1 9 5 29°] 5.8) 12 Oy oaly: 27 ed 29 Pen Goeeeee AIS Sol 2a a 2 9 2 2.0 1 3| Aug. 2] Aug. 4]| Aug. 10} Aug. 15| 2; 7 8 5 13 4 Bie cod | 124 41] Aug. 4/| Aug. 5| Aug. 5| Aug. 8) 1} 1 1 3 4 1 16 | 16.0} 16 5 dOssss- Aug. 6| Aug. 6] Aug. 16] 2] 1 2 10 12 1 hill eM) 2 Giese GOzees ed0s--5- Aug. 14 do | @ 10 2 12 8 115 | 14.4) 47 Wi \\eacktk@seeae dogs Aug. 13} Aug. 17} 2] 8 9 4 13 4 14] 3.5 8 Sule eedO-- aa ee Onan Aug. 11| Aug. 15| 2) 6 7 4 11 5 121 | 24.2 | 38 COM (eee Koa eet eCLOs=s Aug. 12 |...do..-... Baie C7 8 3 11 6 136° | 2207) 51 iY fleet @nctoc d0:-==. Aug. 9] Aug. 12/ 2| 4 5 3 8 3 19} 6.3] 10 (1s |eedosee- Edos Aug. 15 | Aug. 16} 2)10] 11 1 12 8 88 111.0] 36 12) \52s00- saat fdo==ee Aug. 13 | Aug. 17} 2] 8 9 4 13 8 185 | 23.1 | 38 13) |ee2do--es 2 oRGO Less Avie. 16522 -d0=--- - Pd \oalh 12 1 13 9 118 | 13.1 | 36 Tan eeedow 2s Are ea edose se Aug. 19| 3] 10 12 3 15 2 2 |) 10 1 Gy lsoe@loe- ans ESc0le-ecllaoc Gosseee 6Osca- 3 | 10 12 3 15 7 Ye) || ae Ks 113) eee era e2do3=— 5 Aug: 11 | ‘Ages 21 989) 2S 7 0 7 5 95 | 19.0] 26 17 dot--e: Aug. 8} Aug. 13 | Aug. 19} 4] 6 9 6 15 5 77| 15.4) 44 18 i}. Sedo ceeiteedosas: Aug. 9/| Aug. 16] 4] 2 5 7 12 2, 2) 1-0 1 19 Goncts Aug. 10} Aug. 13 CO sshe Gules. 9 3 12 4 46 | 11.5 | 28 20) Aug. iG Ane) Si iteedoresae Aug. 14} 2] 6 7 1 8 6 103 | 17.2} 58 21 Ozee== SEC OSeaat= Aug. 9j| Aug. 12} 2) 2 3 3 6 2 30 | 15.0} 27 22) ane O-eeee .-do...-.| Aug. 10} Aug. 13 | 2] 3 4 3 7 2 30 | 15.0 | 27 23 domes: a8 dO -s.5| He doseee EdOnssa< Wh) 4 3 i 3 103 | 34.3 | 73 24 Go:e-c Ante) AGU edoseees see d0ssee5 3} 2 4 3 if 2 al Nee dees) 3 75) | - (0 ee Aug. 10| Aug. 18} Aug. 19] 4] 9 12 1 13 it 22y\) Seal. 6 26 | Aug. 7] Aug. 16] Aug. 20} Aug. 21| 9] 5 13 1 14 4 16 | 4.0 7 27 Gossecs Aug. 9] Aug. 14) Aug. 17] 2] 6 7 3 10 4 7 | W708.| 24 28) \-)2d02-e=- Aug. 15 | Aug. 15 Gl)-eaa- ey eal 8 2, 10 1 Sh ss) 3 29 doves Aug. 16] Aug. 16 GOseas eal 9 1 10 1 Bl sa) 3 30 | Aug. 8 | Aug. 10} Aug. 17| Aug. 20] 2] 8 9 3 12 5 25 ie 5:0 9 31 dozee Oho hasee Aug. 11} Aug. 12} 2) 2 3 1 4 2 B30) 3 32 do. PALES Mtl Peed Oss ae Aug. 19} 3] 1 3 8 11 1 1 lieth 1 33 doses Aug. 12} Aug. 12} Aug. 16} 4] 1 4 4 8 1 Se he2: 0.) 32 34 | Aug. 9 | Aug. 11 |...do...-. Aug. 19} 2 | 2 3 7 10 2 85 | 42.5 | 68 35 |...do....-| Aug. 12| Aug. 16| Aug 20] 3] 5]. 7| 4) a al. 991 7.3) 13 36 do: = Edoltee: Aug. 22| Aug. 24) 3 | 11 13 2 15 8 | 12is) P52 |°°30 37 Gopeee- GOs--=4 Aug. 16 | Aug. 20} 3] 5 7 4 11 3 223| io | 13 38 dose Aug. 13 | Aug. 15 | Aug. 19) 4] 3 6 4 10 3 Dolor t | Lo 39 doses Aug. 14} Aug. 14] Aug. 15} 5] 1 5 1 6 1 Dilan. 25 40 | Aug. 11 Go=teas Aug. 21} Aug. 22| 3] 8 10 1 11 6 76) 12.7] 21 41 Os ase Aug. 15 | Aug. 20 doe 4) 6 9 2 11 6 28) 4.7] 11 42 dos2226 do:tea. Aug. 15} Aug. 18) 4] 1 4 3 7 1 15) 15.0) 15 43 GoOzere G0s=- == Aug. 27; Aug. 31] 4 | 13 16 4 20 7 34} 4.9] 12 44 Gores Aug. 16 | Aug. 16} Aug. 23] 5) 1 5 7 12 1 3| 3.0 3 45 | Aug. 13 | Aug. 17 | Aug. 23 | Aug. 26) 4] 7 10 3 13 4 ems 3 46 (6 Fo See so does Sept. 1 | Sept. 2 4 | 16 19 1 20 10 63 6.3 15 47 (6a Aug. 18 | Aug. 31.) Sept. 3] 5! 14 18 3 21 13 170 | 13.1 | 56 48 doe: doe Aug. 18) Aug. 22) 5] 1 5 4 9 1 rile B..0' o 49 G0!a--- Aug. 19 | Aug. 24 | Aug. 26] 6] 6 11 2 413 4 69 | 17.3 62 50 doze: do. 222 Aug. 29} Aug. 29} 6] 11 16 0 16 9 158 | 17.6} 63 51 SO Ose eee Aug. 22 | Aug. 27 do=-= =: 9) 6 14 2 16 3 24 | 8.0) 11 52 dor==- doi Aug. 29| Sept. 1} 9] 8 16 3 19 3 PAD AN MEST ee 1M) 53 dose Aug, 23) Sepp. 2) Sept. 8) |.10)| 11 20 6 26 8 45] 5.6 | 19 54 Gores =- Aug. 24 | Sept. 1] Sept. 2}11)] 9 19 1 20 4 Tioal beat Nets 2 Bobs aaa ante Aug. 29 | Sept. 2]! Sept. 3|16| 5 20 1 21 4 16} 4.0 6 56): -.do_s223 Aug. 30 | Aug. 30} Aug. 31/17] 1 17 1 18 1 4] 4.0 4 57 (Naam ae Aare; 19) Atte. 23) Aqie. 27 | 06d 10 4 14 4 63 | 15.8 | 50 5&1. S00) sone Aug. 20} Aug. 20 |...do.-... (eye 7 7 1d 1 OF Kos0 3) 59 | Aug. 15} Aug. 18 | Aug. 22 | Aug. 26 3 lat) 7 4 il 5 120 | 24.0] 37 60 do:2. ae dozieulese doz: 2’. =dOLee ee cla, 7 4 il 5 90 | 18.0 | 28 Gl ec sd Our. seme doses Aug. 24| Aug. 31} 3] 7 9 7 16 3 SaaaO |. Le 62 do.s2-% Aug. 19 | Aug. 28 | Aug. 29| 4 | 10 13 1 14 9 101 | 11.2} 39 63 do:c22 Aug. 20 | Aug. 20] Aug. 22| 5] 1 5 2 7 1 18) 3..01 °-18 Of eetdors.ce| sez do.2:2: Aug. 27| Sept. 1 5 | 8 12 5 17 6 30) | 5,0 9 65 > dOss. Aug. 23 | Aug. 24 |...do..... 8 2 9 8 aly 2 (ap saw) 5 66 | Aug. 19 | Aug. 22} Aug. 25] Aug. 27| 3] 4 6 2 8 3 29) 9.7) 24 (Fhe, Ms PoE ers bo ANTES 26) 5-00. --n0 3/8 7 1 8 4 123 | 30.8] 80 68) 21) -dOr2.2<)2-42 dos: Aug. 23 | Aug. 29} 3] 2 4 6 10 2 17) '8.5'| > 16 TU Paes 3 fo eeeas | ae doeuee Sept. 4) Sept. 5| 3113 16 1 17 10; 110]11.0] 41 CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 101 TasLtE LXXIV.—Oviposition by individual codling moths of the first brood, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915—Continued. ‘ g | : ® B Date of— Period (in days). | 3 eres a ae : S| 3d A ob ae x Ee | & | | Sg | ) it 2 We = op Di 3 } = é Se laa ts Be Se oe S d d 3 S gq° |/es/S./ 28 | so /es|es A Z g H B)glee |sel/Ss) bo | -8 | Se) sa ve | 2 os PAN oi |stics 6/Se|) cg | Sa | 88 | as ® 3 zB cal! Sy SS Shs) ll eiien I cSlts S| Sic | BS.) Be S a 5 SiS) Sees! Fate/stay |S ese NSS acto jursas=t talfey sta 2 | gs d : q “a a og 5 6 jars Pile QD 3 Ae | Be ° co) 2a os | & 6 E ae lelesssiss/= | 28/2 |B | Be = s 2 2 3S s(S\fesi=2 (5 | HE |e [8 | eS i 3 q es a ® Dlx 18 wel us | o os = aU 4 A ic 4H A fa} O |e fo) = Z a < =| ; Days. ; 70 | Aug. 19 | Aug. 22 | Aug. 30/ Aug. 31 3 9 11 1 12 8 82 | 10.3 50 P Gil Wee coke aes |Se dors Aug. 25 |...do..--. 3| 4 6 6 12 4 83 | 20.8] 46 Rel Osea = Aug. 23 | Aug. 29] Sept. 1 4 7 10 3 13 4 Oe Nee kss |] bes = 73 Cosas aee Gosaaee Aug. 30} Aug. 31; 4] 8 11 1 12 6 55) 9.2) 19 7 Ne sek yeane Aug. 25 | Sept. 1] Sept. 2] 6] 8 13 1 14 3 19} 6.3 9 Gon | SCLOws a4 GOse. oe Aug. 29| Sept. 1) 6] 5 10 33 13 5 32 | 6.4 9 76 do==s-- ANUS AG ec eCl@e cee 5 Aug. 31] 7] 4 10 ® 12 3 18} 6.0] il t's ECHO sae a Cs saeclencClOsase5 Sept. 1} 7] 4 10 3 13 2 LR On Osi 10 eh) sClOKsaes Aug. 27| Sept. 7] Sept.10| 8 | 12 19 3 22 8 24 3.0 5 WO) ee edo ee. - Aug. 28 dozens Sept. 8} 9] 11 19 1 20 6 30} 5.0] 10 r3{0) Ne exelyaaae Aug. 29| Aug. 31] Sept. 2/10) 3 12 2 14 2 8| 4.0 5 SIE Peed Oren. Sept. 1] Sept. 1] Sept. 8/13] 1 13 7 20 1 9| 9.0 9 BE) Ne Sele ee Aas doze at Sept. 9| Sept.12]) 13) 9 21 3 24 4 i} | 3.33 7 Sale Ore. < Sept. 2] Sept. 2} Sept. 5|14] 1 14 3 17 1 4| 4.0 4 TG es oe seal eens Saceselpsenesoasaliae sel eacs naar se Cameae eae S47 | BM Neceesc|leeasoc SUMMARY. | Average. |Maximum.| Minimum, Number of days from emergence to first oviposition... -.-. 4. 90 ily 1 Number of days from emergence to last oviposition - ..-..- 9. 66 21 1 Number of daysin period during which female was deposit- fT EC SSE te sires eee eect arc ale Sia cine stciajs sei maremicele ase 5. 75 16 1 Number of days on which oviposition occurred..-.-....-.. 4.18 13 1 Number of days female moth lived after last oviposition. . 3 1) 10 0 ‘Total length of life of female moth in days......--.--..---- 12. 86 26 4 Number of eggs deposited by one female moth..-.....----- 45. 33 185 1 Number of eggs deposited by one female moth in one day. 10. 84 80 0 In Table LXXYV it will be noted that 14 moths have an oviposition record of 100 or more eggs, one having laid 185 eggs, two over 150 eggs, one over 125, and ten between 100 and 125 eggs. TABLE LXXYV.—Oviposition by individual codling moths of the first brood, Grand Junction, Colo., 1915; data taken from Table LXXIV. Number of eggs deposited by individual moths. 100 t0 125 | 125to150 | 150t0175 | 175 to 200 101 136 158 185 103 170 103 110 115 118 120 121 121 123 102 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Moths of the first brood, 1916.—The study of the number of eggs deposited by moths of the first brood was continued in 1916 on a more extensive scale than during the preceding year. The methods em- ployed, however, were identical in all respects. The data herewith given were obtained by recording daily the number of eggs laid by 201 female moths, beginning with moths that emerged July 11 and ending with moths that issued August 22. As will be seen in Table LXXVI, these 201 individuals deposited a total of 17,225 eggs, or an average of 85.70 eggs per female. TaBLeE LXXVI.—Oviposition by individual codling moths of the first brood, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916. C) 1 bu Date of— Period (indays). |a [|S |S |8 |& g Sj | on a aS 2 ES ep oo 3 = fo>) ee x) - q > 2 = Org = @ ofa) ee eevee sete es bel E : g AF 6|S| |8e |e8|/28| 88 | 2S | SS] 88 q 2 iS o etal rebar eh lle sy ters |) n2 | Se) ee ms = ue) - an q oS oo 3H O-- Da 3.4 iS) a aa —.4 S| .S ea) || g & | e242 186) ac 3 Q 3 wo) | aS 120 Oe Se) gets | aS ; a a Blalged| | & za lp iS ae | 82 2 8 5 a oH |e] 8 ises/ee/2 | aa| a | ec] se 8p ° Os yaa) g=1 =) |} co! ek] a: Qe x | & Z 2 | 8 |S|Sigeei-Si3 | Hb1s (2 [es 3 i 3 i) O}wa mA) ° ° > By cs 3 4 A AO le, Os even Wien anand Days. 1/ July 11] July 13} July 22] July 23; 2) 10 11 1 12 9 229 | 25.4] 57 Ae a6 ey ss 55)) robb Te anise Sale abiky Sey ish |ho 3 10 1 il 5 109 | 21.8] 38 3: | 22-do2s=. - July 19 | July 25] July 27| 8] 7 14 2 16 5 5g) s3-0 6 oF ent essa eee LOSS eae July, 234) Uly, 285 8a 5 12 5 17 5 48} 9.6] 29 Deed Osea pee ener | aa eee Shaly) 165) ce ales eee eee Lyi Bese (ee eel Saenees 6 12 22dol-2*2 | Saly 20) | Tuly 20) | Suly- 235 9Nea 9 3 12 1 3 | 3.0 3 “| oly 125) Soly, WN Iuby 923") Inly7 26a ez 11 3 14 if 185 | 26.4 | 67 Si\22-d022 Ajbibre ky ih =-Cl.55- July 30} 3] 9 il 7 18 8 192 | 24.0} 45 9 | 52do0.--2 2) Daly, 14 |\Iily 4 | dioly. 24,)||) 25) al 2, 10 12 1 39 | 39.0] 39 1D eee doles July 21] July 21] July 26; 9] 1 9 5 14 1 6} 6.0 6 DDE dome ee bully) LO tL veee2 || sae OSaees EN® 58 11 3 14 3 A) OU e/ 3 12 220s 22 bases. eae eee LD eg ets Pte raed! Ss acad| sansoolheeoods Oa cee Beeeee 13 | July 13 | July 23 | July 29! July 30] 10) 7 16 1 iyé 5 12) 2.4 6 14 Of July 18} July 26 | July 28] 5] 9 13 2, 15 9 186 | 20.7 | 66 15 doses Oe oAse|| Aholie Bey leis sass Ops 12 3 15 8 Bo O.9 loath 16 (6 Ke apa July 15 | July 27 | July 27| 2) 13 14 0 14 13 199 | 15.3 | 64 17 do... -do... July 20} July 21) 2] 6 if 1 8 6 107 | 17.8} 36 TSS Ole donee July 21 (i Dal orf th eae | cio 7 185 | 26.4 |) 54 19 GOssore Jilye LGN seed o>. July 25] 3] 6 8 4 12 5 127 | 25.4 | 54 20 do.. GOss2e2 Tilly fs Usa ee aoeeee= 3) | 8 5 7 12 3 146 | 48.7 | 77 21 (6 Ko ey ppm es | beat oS JANIE}, (D.| ame one actos | meee 23) ||’; Swaeene ORE eon leica sce 22 Os July 29; July 29) July 29/16] 1 16 0 16 1 Lope 1 23| July 14| July 16] July 21] July 22] 2] 6 7 1 8 6| 159] 26.5] 48 24 0....-| July 221] Sily 295) July 30) 818 15 1 6 4 OF 223 4 25 Operas. Jtily) 23) \522do-- do... Oneal 15 1 6 5 46] 9.2] 21 pi eed ome July 16| July 31] Aug. 1| 2/16] 17 1] 218 8 89 | 11.1] 45 27 GOs. #2 Sd0,22 22 July 29] July 29| 2) 14 15 0 15 11 69} 6.3] 10 28 Gosece- July 18 BCOnsaes Gozo 4} 12 15 0 15 10 245 | 24.5] 74 99 |. ..do....- July 16] Aug. 1] Aug. 2| 2/17] 18 ens 10 58| 5.8| 22 fal 8 (Eesara Re ae Fee eee te erg JULY Vie |G ool seeee eee il ae ae (0) Soe es ee ee 31 eee Pee hee ae e Hiv eee eae nmol SSeS ol ert. AS ES Rome (On Apowal aeeene 32} July 15 | July 17] July 22] July 30] 2) 6 7 8 15 5 99 |} 19.8] 40 33 ts) July 20 | July 20| July 20} 5) 1 5 0 5 1 8| 8.0 8 34 Gone July 17 | July 27 | July 28; 2) 11 12 1 13 11 266 | 24.2] 78 35 doss=. July 18 | July 30] July 30) 3) 13 15 0 15 13 168 | 12.9} 48 36 do July 19| Aug. 3] Aug. 4] 4] 16 19 1 20 7 21 | 3.0 8 37 Go: July 31] Aug. 5] Au alone 21 2 23 6 20) 3.3 8 38 |...do July 18 | July 30] July 31) 3) 13 15 1 16 11 207 | 18.8} 51 AUDI) earatapee July 22] Aug. 5| Aug. 6| 7/15] 21 1 |) 22 13 Wiel BOs) 18 40 i Ree a ee. A Aj Ua UY (| | eee epee LS I pe Pe tc, (UG 5] eee 41 do July 24| Aug. 7] Aug. 9] 9] 15 23 2 25 3 3 | 1.0 1 42} July 16] July 18| July 29] Aug. 1] 2/12] 13 By file 5] 120] 24.0| 76 43 doi... do... July 24] July 30] 2) 7 8 6 14 4 WN Les 3 44 |_..do..... July 22| Aug. 3| Aug. 3| 6/13] 18 0| 18 13 | 271 | 20:8) 54 45 (ak ae July 18 | July 23 | July 25] 2) 6 7 2 9 6 151 | 25.2 | 87 46 ro ee July 23 | July 30} Aug. 1] 7] 8 14 2 16 7 113 | 16.1 | 45 47 ee. July 22) Aug. 1 a0:-sa- 6 | 11 16 0 16 5 $)| 156 3 48 do.. July 20! Aug. 151 Aug. 16] 4! 27 30 1 31 14 351 2.5 6 1 Date of death unknown. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 103 TABLE LX XVI.—Oviposition by individual codling moths of the first brood, Grand Junction, Colo., 1916—Continued. 4 = qi : bs 2 : Date of— Period (in days). a 9 = og g bo @ 4 & |b2|% |% |.3 ; E 2 eevee |e |S |e ie t a : = d Or lsd | 5 o6 _ (2a Be ! 5 d s 3 8 g° |§¢|$./ 28 | od | 28/886 ° =| s s =| Bela saree (eet er ess ll eee | eee) (pee ei ; © a 5 @ 4 | 2 ie $|Sa| 72 | 388/88) as 2 g g “3S | 218 leo.| se |8" | se | ga] S68) 38 S q & = Sees meuesete| Slee je lS Weis) | Ba 7 2 iE 5 S| 8 \ooc! © 2 oa | A bp ° uu ° a] 2 “4 o-n Ra! 5 ca 25 ‘5 a § a H g 2 e 3 eleikesi"2ie | 85/8 |8 | ex 3 “od Gs 9) oO} |e eo ° i) Ay ca) a =) A | O |e e) a AZ a 4 = Days. 49 | July 16) July 19| July 31; Aug. 1] 3} 13 15 1 16 11 119 | 10.8} 31 (0) | 2 CKOEe al es COGeG| Seen ereere Daly 29 eee 13h Pees Hee eeral Sear ore 51} July 17 | July 24 | July 31] July 1] 7| 8 14 1 15 8 67 | 8.4] 20 52 do.....| July 23 | Aug. 2] July 2] 6) 11 16 0 16 10 128 | 12.8 | 71 53 do.. July 20 | July 30] July 1] 3] 10 13 2 15 8 95 | 11.9) 31 54 |...do..... July 19 | July 28} July 29} 2/| 10 11 1 12 10 PAI || PAL} | 4 9/ 55 do.. July 22] Aug. 2| Aug. 2] 5] 12 16 0 16 10 175 [17.5 )| 81 56) |2..d0--..- July 19 | July 27 | July 30) 2] 9 10 3 13 9 258 | 28.7 | 81 Dla |seeGO! a. -.- July 22| Aug. 4] Aug. 4] 5] 14 18 0 18 12 90] 7.5) 16 HS | Saeco see July 21 | July 31] July 31/ 4) 11 14 0 14 11 IBS | Ue) Ei DON ean obes.: July 19} July 28 | July 30] 2} 10 11 2 13 8 a0) i i aan a | 60 |...do....- July 23 | July 27| Aug. 1] 6] 5 10 5 15 2 250 1 61 | July 18} July 20 | July 30/ Aug. 2} 2) 11 12 3 15 11 215 | 19.5} 62 G28 Reed Osea |p aedOs2-2-|-eed Ose diblyy Gul |) 9) |) ah 12 1 13 10 126 | 12.6 | 28 63 |...do.. July 22} Aug. 6] Aug. 7] 4 | 16 19 1 20 9 101} 1.1) 56 G4) adore teh a3 o..-.-| July 31] Aug. 2) 4) 10 13 2 15 9 139 | 15.4] 58 Gon seacdoneeee July 20} July 29 | July 29} 2) 10 11 0 11 10 236 | 23.6 | 69 66 |...do..... July 22} July 31|) Aug. 2} 41] 10 13 2 15 9 183 | 20.3 | 69 67 do.. Opeeae ug. 1] Aug. 4] 4] 11 14 3 17 4 By ues 2 68a eeedoleee] |e sedore =. July 22} July 26] 4] 1 4 4 8 1 WN PM 2 69 do....-| July 26 | July 26) Aug. 2} 8] 1 8 7 15 1 i} ile@ 1 70 | July 19 | July 21 | July 31 Gore. ea) |) ul 12 2 14 5 22) 4.4 8 71 |...do..... July 28} Aug. 6] Aug. 7] 9 | 10 18 1 19 8 56} 7.0] 20 UP |S Ol@ess ee July 22} July 31|) Aug. 1] 3} 10 12 1 13 10 165 | 16.5 | 37 stl eeedoress: July 28) Aug. 2] Aug. 5] 9] 6 14 3 17 4 20} 5.0 7 74 do..... July 24 | July 30] July 30} 5| 7 11 0 11 7 126 | 18.0 | 27 75 dolsk: July 28| Aug. 3| Aug. 4] 9] 7 15 1 16 6 98 | 16.3 | 38 Gs | coc6 Obes sn) Renee ceees| See meeeee Av el SA Gael 6cecocl adsense 10); || 465 sco OL Sxee 4| Sete Ud |esclOuanae Aug. 2{| Aug. 2] Aug. 9] 14] 1 14 7 21 il 2a 250) 2 78 GOR As Se Be letcl Saabs z ee YA eee) Seer areal toca cal eee a Ree eee OF eee ces |aeeeee. 79 | July 20| July 24| Aug. 5] Aug. 6] 4/ 13 16 1 17 9 223 | 24.8 | 111 EO ceGleuscee July 25 | Aug. 9] Aug. 14} 5 | 16 20 5 25 9 20} 2.2 5 81 |...do.....| July 24 | Aug. 4] Aug. 4] 4 | 12 15 0 15 10 i | HH |) iS 82) |-..do:-..- July 22} Aug. 5] Aug. 7] 2 | 15 16 2 18 10 200 | 20.0 | 109 83 do.....| July 25 | July 30] July 30} 5]! 6 10 0 10 6 165 | 27.5 | 44 84 |...do.. Uilivan2on | PeaGOseee= Aug. 1] 3] 8 10 2 12 8 252 | 31.5 | 89 85 |..-do..... July 22) Aug. 6| Aug. 9] 2/ 16 17 3 20 9 29} 3.2 9 86 | July 21 |...do..... July 29) July 30) 1] 8 8 1 9 6 102 | 17.0 | 47 87 |.-.do..-..| July 23 | July 30] Aug. 5] 2) 8 9 6 15 6 91 | 15.2 | 40 GS ||. Gl@-5526 July 31] Aug. 8} Aug. 9/10/ 9 18 1 19 9 181 |} 20.1) 50 89 |...do..... July 25 | Aug. 17 | Aug. 18 | 4 | 24 27 1 28 20 136} 6.8] 22 OOS alias ses | ee kk nai 280 (seal eet |e cael aeeeee TEP Ne SE Oni essss lees ee 91 | Aug. 5} Aug. 7] Aug. 24) Aug. 25] 2 18 19 1 20 17 316 | 18.6 | 112 ODE AUIS Osea Onesa- Aug. 17 | Aug. 18; 1/} 11 11 1 12 11 240 | 21.8; 52 OS peed Osenes Aug. 14 | Aug. 28 | Aug. 29} 8 | 15 22 1 23 12 249 | 20.8 | 106 94 |...do....- Aug. 11 |...do.-..-| Sept. 1] 5 | 18 22 4 26 7 13} 1.9 3 95 |...do.....| Aug. 14! Aug. 21 ug. 23} 8| 8 15 2 17 8 175 | 21.9] 69 G8 |jeseGl@-csecllose doves Aug. 17 do...-. 8| 4 11 6 17 3 PAL WoW) |) ale) O7albeedosse. Aug. 8 | Aug. 14] Aug. 20| 2) 7 8 6 14 6 88 | 14.7 | 47 (ape ilte CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 115 SUMMARY. The life-history studies recorded herein were made in the Grand Valley of Colorado during the seasons of 1915 and 1916. The climate of the Grand Valley is comparatively dry and warm during the summer season, and is very favorable to the developirent of the codling moth. According to the data secured in these studies, there are two com- plete generations and a partial third generation of the codling moth in the Grand Valley. Length of the pupal stage of the spring brood.—In 1915 the length of the pupal stage of the spring brood averaged 27.58 days, the max1- mum was 34 days, and the minimum 15. In 1916 the average was 26.80 days, the maximum 36, and the minimum 13. Oviposition by moths of the spring brood—In 1915 the average number of days before oviposition was 6.19, the maximum 19, and the minimum 2; the average number of days for the period of ovi- position was 13.82, the maximum 33, and the minimum 1; the average number of days from the date of emergence to the date of last ovi- position was 19.14, the maximum 37, and the minimum 5. In 1916 the average number of days before oviposition was 6.07, the maxi- mum 13, and the minimum 2; the average number of days for the period of oviposition was 13.38, the maximum 32, and the minimum 1; the average number of days from the date of emergence to the last oviposition was 18.46, the maximum 34, and the minimum 7. Number of eggs per female moth of the spring brood.—Accord- ing to the oviposition studies of the spring-brood moths of 1915, the average number of eggs per female moth was 12.59; in 1916, 11.34 eggs. Length of life of moths of the spring brood.—In 1915 the average length of life of the male moths was 14.59 days and of the female moths 15.86 days; the maximum length of life of the male moths was 36 days and of the female moths 39 days; the minimum length of life of the male moths was 1 day and of the female moths 1 day. In 1916 the average length of life of the male moths was 14.67 days and of the female moths 15.73 days; the maximum length of lfe of the male moths was 35 days and of the female moths 39 days; the - minimum length of life of the male moths was 1 day and of the female moths 1 day. THE FIRST GENERATION. 'Embryological changes and length of the incubation period of jirst-brood eggs.—The embryological changes in the eggs of the first brood and the length of the incubation period were as follows: In 1915 the average number of days from the date of egg deposition 116 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to the time of the appearance of the red ring was 2.70, the maxi- mum 9, and the minimum 1; the average number of days from the date of deposition to the black-spot stage was 6.62, the maximum 13, and the minimum 4; the average incubation period was 9.14 days, the maximum 15, and the minimum 6. In 1916 the average number of days from the date of deposition to the appearance of the red ring was 2.62, the maximum 10, and the minimum 1; the average appearance of the black spot from the time of egg deposition was 6.68 days, the maximum 11, and the minimum 5; the average incu- bation period was 7.32 days, the maximum 14, and the minimum 6. Length of feeding period of the first-brood larvae, stock-jar method.—During the season of 1915, the length of the feeding period averaged 21.64 days, the maximum was 35, and the minimum 12. In the following year the average length of the feeding period was 20.19 days, the maximum 42, and the minimum 14. Length of feeding period of the first-brood larve, bagged-fruit method.—The records in 1915 give an average feeding period of 22.77 days, a maximum of 35, and a minimum of 15. In 1916 the average feeding period was 21.10 days, the maximum 29, and the minimum 17. Length of cocooning period of larve of the first brood.—As shown by the observations in 1915, the average cocooning period was 6.70 days, the maximum 28, and the minimum 1. In the following sea- son the average cocooning period was 5.53 days, the maximum 30, and the minimum 2. Length of pupal stage of the first brood—The average length of the pupal stage, first brood, in 1915 was 11.44 days, the maximum 31, and the minimum 6; in the succeeding year the average length was 11.23 days, the maximum 19, and the minimum 6. Oviposition by moths of the first brood—As shown by the studies in 1915, the average number of days before oviposition was 2.07, the maximum 5, and the minimum 1; the average number of days from the first to the last oviposition was 16.78, the maximum 25, and the minimum 7; the average number of days from date of emergence to last oviposition was 17.85, the maximum 26, and the minimum 10. The summarized data for 1916 are as follows: The average number of days from the date of emergence to the first oviposition was 2.21, the maximum 5, and the minimum 1; the average number of days from the first to the last oviposition was 12.69, the maximum 20, and the minimum 1; the average number of days from the time of emer- gence to the last oviposition was 13.63, the maximum 20, and the minimum 5. Number of eggs per female moth of the first brood —The moths of the first brood of 1915 deposited 46.73 eggs per female moth. In the following year the female moths deposited an average of 43.98 eggs. CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 117 Length of life of moths of the first brood.—In 1915 the average length of life of the male moths was 11.86 days, the maximum 41, and the minimum 1; the average life of the female moths was 12.68 days, the maximum 35, and minimum 1. In 1916 the summarized figures give 13.12 and 12.20 days as the average length of life of the male and female moths respectively. The maximum life of the male moths was - 38 days and of the female 26 days; the minimum length of life of both the male and female moths was 1 day. Life cycle of the first generation—The average life cycle as obtained by rearing individuals from the egg to the adult stage, stock-jar feeding method, in 1915 was 49.30 days, the maximum 72, and the minimum 38. According to the bagged-fruit feeding method, the average life cycle was 49.18 days, the maximum 74, and the minimum 386. To obtain the complete life-cycle add 2.07 days, which was the average time from the emergence of the moths to the deposition of the first egg. In 1916 the average life cycle, stock-jar feeding method, was 44.89 days, the maximum 77, and minimum 36; and the average complete life cycle, obtained by adding 2.21 days to the life cycle, was 47.10 days. The average life cycle, bagged-fruit feeding method, was 46.37 days, the maximum 66, and minimum 388. The average complete life cycle was 48.58 days. THE SECOND GENERATION Embryological vhanges and length of the incubation period of second-brood eggs.—In 1915 the average number of days from the deposition of the egg to the appearance of the red ring was 1.85, the maximum 4, and the minimum 1; the average time for the ap- pearance of the black spot was 5.54 days, the maximum 8, and mini- mum 3; the average incubation period was 7.22 days, the maximum 11, and minimum 6. In the next year the average appearance of the red-ring stage was 2.06 days after egg deposition, the maximum 3, and minimum 1. The average appearance of the black spot was 5.80 days, the maximum 7, and minimum 5. The length of the incubation period averaged 6.93 days, the maximum 10, and mini- mum 6. Length of feeding period of second-brood larve—tThe average length of the feeding period in 1915 was 28.69 days, maximum 67, and the minimum 15. Im 1916 the average length of the feeding period was 28.61 days, the maximum 70, and the minimum 14. Length of cocooning period of larve of second brood.—In 1915 the average length of the cocooning period was 9.35 days, the maximum 31, and minimum 3. In the following year the average number of days for the construction of the cocoon was 4.80, the maximum 14, and minimum 2. 118 BULLETIN 932, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Length of pupal stage of second brood.—The average length of the pupal stage of the pup of the second brood in 1915 was 15.62 days, the maximum 31, and the minimum 11. In 1916 the average length of the pupal stage was 13.51 days, the maximum 16, and the minimum 11. Oviposition by moths of the second brood.—No oviposition data were obtained in 1915 owing to the fact that the eggs deposited by © the moths of the second brood failed to hatch. In 1916 fertile eggs were deposited, but since moths emerging on different dates were confined in the same cages no oviposition data were obtained. Number of eggs per female moth of the second brood.—In 1915 no fertile eggs were deposited, but in the following year the aver- age number of eggs per female moth was 45.58. Length of life of moths of the second brood.—The moths of the second brood of the seasons of 1915 and 1916 were not confined in separate cages according to their time of emergence. For this rea- son no data were obtained. Life cycle of the second generation—tThe life cycle of the second generation in 1915, as determined by rearing, was as follows: Aver- age length of incubation period 6.12 days, average larval feeding period 20.49 days, average cocooning period 8.56 days, average pupal period 15.62 days, and average life cycle 50.81 days. In 1916 the records show that the average length of the incubation period was 6.01 days, the average larval feeding period 18.08 days, the average cocooning period 4.78 days, the average pupal period 13.52 days, and the average life cycle 42.40 days. THE THIRD GENERATION. Embryological changes and length of the incubation period of third-brood eggs.—In 1916 the average number of days from the date of deposition to the appearance of the red ring was 2.49, the maximum 5, and the minimum 2; the average number of days from the date of deposition to the appearance of the black spot was 6.36, the maximum 9, and the minimum 6; the average incubation period was 7.77 days,-the maximum 11, and the minimum 7. Length of feeding period of third-brood larve.—The average larval feeding period of the third-brood larve in 1916 was 37.55 days, the maximum 68, and the minimum 20. PERCENTAGE OF TRANSFORMING LARVZ. Percentage of transforming larvae of the first brood.—In 1915 47.52 per cent of the first-brood larve transformed, while in the following season 74.15 per cent pupated. Percentage of transforming larve of the second brood.—In 1915 1.08 per cent of the second-brood larve transformed. In 1916 6.71 per cent of these larve transformed. ) CODLING MOTH IN COLORADO. 119 Percentage of transforming larve, band material—In 1915 the percentage of larve collected in the field in connection with the band studies that transformed to the adult stage was 45.37, and in 1916 40.88. MISCELLANEOUS. Natural enemies—The following predators were recorded: A small beetle, Zenebroides corticalis Melsh., and a spider, Cori- arachne versicolor Keys. The following parasites were observed: 7'richogramma minutum Riley, Dibrachys clisiocampae Fitch, and Arthrolytus apatelae Ashmead. The predacious and parasitic enemies play a very unim- portant réle in checking the codling moth in the Grand Valley. The emergence of moths from fruit cellars is later than that in the field. The period of emergence in fruit cellars, however, is shorter than that which obtains under field conditions. The majority of the moths of the spring and first broods emerge during the latter part of the morning and early part of the after- noon. The codling moth is believed to be a nonmigratory species except for short local flights. The moths have, however, strength to fly in a continuous flight, unaided by the wind, for a distance of at least one-half mile. The codling moth is most active in depositing her eggs late in the afternoon to early in the evening, the activity being greatest just about dusk. The fecundity of the codling moth in the Grand Valley is high. Three female moths of the first brood deposited in confinement over 300 eggs each, the highest total deposition by one moth being 316 eggs, 115 being the largest number deposited in one day by a single female. The codling moth larva normally cuts its way through the eggshell and emerges head first. Occasionally it will protrude the anal end first, but in this case it is sometimes unable to extricate itself. An examination of a pear orchard devoid of fruit revealed the fact that codling moth larve will sometimes burrow into the new growth, resulting in the browning of the foliage. The codling moth larva prefers to spin up under dark-colored bands. The buff-colored variety of the codling moth known as Laspeyresia pomonella (L.) var. stmpsonii (Busck) was reared in the Grand Valley. O a1 rss bo Pirie te we Fe : } Oh iad Foto re ong omen fifi: RE agi! | wen 2 Rianne a Fin 2 ee vameated ’ Y oT r, roy ~ 2 Ne? Be HOE me PROT CTT See aeret (4s i _ = F t 8 e3 ep ty iy Tete ag 4 x Contribution from the Forest Service WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER March 8, 1921 BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. By F. S. Baker, Forest Examiner. CONTENTS. Page. Page. PMCLOGUCHONM = HS a 1 | Growth of stands (yield per acre) —_ 26 Distribution of walnut ____________ 2 | Measuring logs and estimating stand- ESAT OW IA AS a 2 a a pee ta 6 sho eae yl 00 oY Sane eee Pal oe 28 Description of the tree__________ TGS |) \WWEliihe Neneh) ee 31 Silvical characteristics ____________ 18 | Establishing walnut plantations —___~ 40 Growth of individual trees_________ 22 INTRODUCTION. The importance of black walnut (Juglans nigra, Linn.) was im- pressed upon the whole Nation by the efforts made during the war to secure black-walnut wood for gunstocks and airplane propellers. The supply, which has never been large in comparison with the supply of other woods, was greatly depleted to satisfy these war-time demands. The demand for black walnut has continued strong since the close of the.war period, and comparatively high prices have been maintained. Even during peace times there is sure to be a constant though moder- ate call for walnut and at higher prices than are obtained for most other North American woods. In order that the supply of black walnut may not be inadequate for manufacturing needs in the event of another war, there should be a reserve of growing timber. Whatever the Government may ac- complish in this direction on its own lands, every farm within the range of walnut growth on which trees of this species are found is potentially a part of such a reserve. Obviously, black walnut is a very valuable element of any timberland or farm wood lot in which it grows. Great importance, therefore, attaches to the questions of available supply, growth, and management of black walnut, and of the financial possibilities of growing it for the timber market. It is the purpose of this bulletin to present such information as is available on these subjects. 19340°— 1 2 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, DISTRIBUTION OF WALNUT. BOTANICAL RANGE. That there is a considerable quantity of walnut still left in the country is due to the immense area on which the species grows and not to the presence of large supplies in any one region. The botanical ARSSS >” zen) Frimary commercial range Secondary commercial range Botanica/ range Fic. 1.—The range of black walnut. range, as shown in figure 1, is from southern New England and Ontario to Minnesota, South Dakota, and Nebraska, south into Texas and east to Georgia, reaching the Atlantic coast line in South Caro- lina. Planting has introduced walnut into every State in the Union, BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 3 although usually in the sections outside its range occasional shade trees only are found. COMMERCIAL RANGE. The commercial range is also very wide, extending in places almost to the limits of the botanical range, the value of walnut being suffi- cient to warrant the cutting and shipment of amounts as small as part of the range from as far as Kerrville, Uvalde, and New Braun- point. During the war the commercial range was probably wider than ever before except toward the southwest, where the quality of the wood is unsuitable for lumber. Some of the outlying shipping points in the northern part of the range were Crofton, Nebr. (some of the logs coming from near Yankton, S. Dak.), Garden City, Minn., and Ferryville and Madison, Wis. Michigan shipments have come from as far as 80 miles north of the Indiana line and from an island in the Detroit River. In the northeastern part of the range, the region about Geneseo, N. Y., and Long Island mark the outermost points at which commercial amounts have been found. In the southeastern portion logs have come from the region of Columbia, S. C., from a mill operated for a time at Columbus, Ga., and from another at Mont- gomery, Ala., although only a part of the logs were obtained in the locality. West of the Mississippi, logs have come from as far south as Shreveport, La., and along the Red River; and in the southwestern part of the range from as far as Kerrville, Uvalde, and New Braun- fels, Tex. In the western region logs came from as far as Thomas, Okla.; Great Bend, on the Arkansas River in Kansas; and Stockton, on the Solomon. No records of shipments have come from very far west in Nebraska, Crete being about the limit. The best natural development of walnut is to be found probably in the Ohio River Basin, in the southern Appalachians, or in Arkan- sas. The best groves “laced on the market in late years were at Dan- ville, Til., and easier Springs, Mo.; but this was because the old ogi sands had ‘been preserved yhyonel the personal desires of the owners rather than because of any exceptional growing condi- tions. That exceptionally large trees are not limited to any particular region is shown by the widely distant points from which large logs have been obtained for various expositions.. A 12-foot log, 52 inches in diameter, from Jackson County, N. C., was exhibited at the Cen- tennial Exposition, Philadelphia, in 1876; and a 16-foot log, 77 inches in diameter, from Mormon Creek, Bates County, Mo., at the World’s Fair, Chicago, in 1893. A 20-foot log, 52 inches in diameter, from the Osage eee cen of the Indian Territory, was secured fo exhibi- tion at the Paris Exposition, in 1900. 4 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INFLUENCE OF SOIL AND CLIMATE UPON DISTRIBUTION. Throughout its wide range the local distribution of walnut is con- trolled by climatic and soil factors, which affect not only its abun- dance and commercial value but also the other species with which it characteristically associates in the forest. In general, walnut is found on rich. moist but well-drained soils. It is more dependent upon these conditions than are many of its associates, and a rela- tively slight inferiority in any of these respects may be reflected either in a scarcity of walnut or in slow and scrubby growth. Its dependence upon good soil is more marked, however, in regions in the western part of its range, which have a relatively scant precipi- tation, than it is in well-watered regions like those in the southern Appalachians. In the latter situations it makes a better develop- ment on rocky and shallow, though by no means sterile, soils than could be expected elsewhere, compensation for the deficiency in soil qualities being made by the abundance of the summer rains. West of the Wabash River and in the Mississippi Valley below Illinois walnut of good development is almost invariably on rich bottom lands. An exception to this is its occurrence in the Boston Mountains of Arkansas, where because of the heavier precipitation it is found on flat mountain tops and benches. It is, however, by no means a stream-bank tree in the sense in which sycamore, river birch, and willow are. These species, though frequently growing near by, are rarely seen in intimate mixture with walnut except in the moister places in the eastern part of its range. This is probably because the soil for walnut must be not only moist but well drained and aerated as well—a fact which, no doubt, also explains in large measure the lack of walnut in such places as the Mississippi bottom lands, which are subject to protracted flooding. The deficiency in soil aeration may also be responsible for the exceedingly slow growth and virtual failure of certain plantations on rich but exceedingly compact bot- tom-land soils, heavily sodded and never thoroughly broken. LOCAL FORMS OF GROWTH AND ASSOCIATED SPECIES. Walnut is found in three characteristic situations—as scattered field and fence-corner trees, as scattered trees in hardwood stands, or as pure stands, usually on the edge of the hardwood forest. In fields, particularly in the Ohio River basin, it sometimes rep- resents a remnant of the original stand, left because of its value when the land was cleared for agriculture. The fence-corner trees have come up because the uncultivated soil attracted squirrels to bury the nuts there and because in such situations the trees were protected from injury. Ever since the days of the great popularity of walnut furniture there has been a tendency among farmers to conserve this BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 5 tree more than associated species, partly because of a vague notion that it had exceptional value and partly, no doubt, on account of the yield of nuts. As scattered trees in the hardwood forest, black walnut is found throughout the eastern part of the country, and here it is not re- stricted to the bottom lands. It usually forms a very small propor- tion of the total stand, especially in the Southeastern States, where the forest is composed of a great variety of species. In the Ohio River basin it is found in most of the open wood lots, where constant culling is reducing the stand and grazing is preventing all reproduc- tion. In the repeated cuttings that have gone on in these groves for the last 30 years, walnut trees too small to be merchantable were often left to grow, in the hope that the earlier demand for walnut would be renewed. West of the Mississippi walnut becomes a more promi- nent component of the river-bottom forests, and in parts of eastern Kansas and Nebraska it is distinctly the dominant, sometimes prac- tically the only, member of the stand. Pure stands of walnut are somewhat common in much of the Ohio River basin, where they are typically found adjoining stands of mixed hardwoods and extending as open groves into pasture lands. These groves are valuable sources of supply, for the trees are fairly uniform in size and are much less expensive to market than are scat- tered trees. Pure stands of walnut are also frequent in certain localities in the western part of its range, although the stands as a rule contain an admixture of elm and hackberry at least, and fre- quently a number of other species. Pure stands are rarely dense enough to keep out grass, but the sod is usually not normally thick in these places. The wide range of walnut involves its association with a vast num- ber of other species, from basswood and hemlock in the northern part of its range to holly and shortleaf pine in the southern part. In the Ohio-Indiana region it is found most frequently with ash, oaks, beech, maple, hickory, elm, cherry, and Kentucky coffeetree. South of the Ohio River the most prominent difference is the association of red cedar and walnut, which is especially characteristic in Kentucky -and middle Tennessee. In the Appalachian Mountain walnut is widely scattered, but reaches its best development on bottom lands and coves below 4,000 feet in elevation. Its associates are very nu- merous in this region, red oak, white oak, yellow poplar, and chestnut being the chief. In Illinois its more common associates in the river- bottom hardwood types are oaks, white elm, and ash. Toward north- ern Illinois and Wisconsin basswood and sugar maple become more important, but do not extend far over into lowa. West of the Mississippi white elm, oaks, hackberry, and to a lesser extent hickory 6 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (Hicoria minima) are typically found with walnut. Cottonwood is exceedingly common along streams, but it is more frequently an in- habitant of the bars and sandy banks of the large rivers than of the deep, rich soils of the smaller stream bottoms where the walnut is found. In Kansas, elm, hackberry, and walnut are constantly found together in stands of varying composition as far south as the Ar- kansas River, where a flora more characteristically southern, contain- ing various oaks, makes up much of the valley forest. Wherever Kentucky coffeetree, is found walnut is almost invariably present, and this tree may be accepted as a trustworthy indicator of a site suitable for black wainut. SUPPLY. The supply of black walnut has been reduced in much the same way as that of all our hardwoods since the settlement of this coun- try. Certain factors, however, notably the value of both the tree itself and the soil it thrives on, have together induced a compara- tively rapid decrease in the amount of black walnut, which never was really abundant. Therefore we now have less of this than of any other commercially important wood, with the exception of cherry and, possibly, black locust. ESTIMATED STAND BY STATES. To make a definite statement in regard to walnut resources at this time would be quite impossible, because the trees are so widely scat- tered and so seldom found in any large quantity that authentic fig- ures for even limited regions are difficult to obtain. The fact that such large amounts came to light during the war has led to over- optimistic estimates in many quarters, as a sort of reaction from the unduly low estimates that were popular for many years before the war. The best information at hand gives the present stand for the country as 821 million feet, distributed among 28 States, as shown in Table 1. Of this amount probably 50 per cent is inac- cessible to the manufacturers, half of this on account of the unwill- ingness of owners to sell at any price and half on account of the excessive cost of getting the timber out from the remote valleys of the southern Appalachians and Ozarks. Even at war prices hauls of over 20 miles to railroads were very rare, and all timber farther removed is virtually inaccessible. The remaining 50 per cent con- sists of material generally smaller and of poorer quality than existed in the older stands, and in the East it is very largely in the form of scattered field and fence-corner trees and of shade trees about the farm. BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 7 TasLEe 1.—ZHstimated anount of standing walnut, in millions of board feet, by States. (Trees 12 inches in diameter and over, breast high.)* VTC Ge RAL ATNILIChS TALES! set we ee ee ee Seeks Pela sey 30 DR@aP YEOET RG cost SRE a hn) Pe He PYG LIC TES SI cI A ls I RE ial i eee gt age 2 PR ESTNYA SS VMN eU I caer ee get Tate pee Eee eye eA ce ie ee 26 - South Atlantic States__________ STE CIO PE UE fe Ns Ie AS oa Ca 64 UD SUG ATR Do ei oe ep Wel ar Ee ei ee ED a eee Seer aes il ASUS TESPT UR TIVE! 2 pes Ea Se a Ee Ee cae ee Pee ee ee paren NS TUES og aa a aN gE a eee eT Pp aliperes 29 INonthn Carolinas 22.2 22 oeieeies Bape SAE Bao Biya gee ecm 14 Sontag © Aten ea pee th cr ee LS save eee eae os at Bhs Ete ey ee TK Georgia ____-_ SRR NEE ra i tas eee ee oes Pao BR SUD a a 8 North Central States_________ Ey neuer ieee OER Monee es tole rena ne (ill (ORT a Shs saua pee UE NE ok Achat Soe ad OE 63 Southern Michigan______ Ee: DRIER eS Oh en Dec nee iD Re ee 15 NGA A. ae ee SENSO SOON Fe GTS oe 8 ae ae MO RES AOE ere a sine mele Vee eS 44 Southern Wisconsin________ abel 3 pope EN dee ee Rates Ae eee oe ge 1 MIMO 1Ge ss ash es ies MS AS Pe SAS Yo ane (Se ie ee Ee 79 South Central States______________ eens Ea Bee SUA SE se So sot a West Virginia _ Rea ol OR ane SP PED a0 ser nt El ue eh ada Gane se 60 Serie Cys etl 9 Pe ee BnSptpratty Stee ete Es Ga eres Ne 67 Tennessee __ Pipe ernie eda tats Less LOY ere cy oka te pian! 60 TY BVERR VIET WE) OCG IS) ene Ke mia ees Zi en ee es TE ey Ae 215 Minnesota_ hie s sti i Es sate Ble BAS EY Terai rece sate betes CV 3 VON (2) oe es Oe ce ute Tisha We ae Ree Regs Sere Es Bee is 60 Ja ESIGN SS SoS ee ee ee ede Ee iol eset Lit eee eee ee SING ING IselS peeeenaltenen es eerie ee Ce Sie SB eB he: SRE TORS ES 18 Kansas__ ws ae Be a Po) STE Oa a PAs ele eos en ep ea Pl SOUUMEIME Stale Spee ee SS UUs nese a LSE BET A SEP BS 114 DASA SAG fe eee ie sea BREE S Anatole Pte Se ENE BEAD 46 Oklahoma ___ a8 Bs eigaes BERD S22 T a EN Zhe on See SSAA REE: 18 Mexase! eS) Pi Riese Ace NS ge R hn Peeps OA NE ses MNES AE ean 37 IS OUISTAMN A eas oe ea pS ee ee aa CEO eed 3 Mississippi _________- =e ees Sa ees ohana 4 Alabama —_--____ eae. eis EEE ee eS parades 6 RG triipemeee 2 Sy ot Poe ope ate eR Bee Ea 821 IMPORTANCE OF WALNUT IN THE DIFFERENT STATES. NEW ENGLAND STATES. The stand of walnut in the New England States, except in western Connecticut, is confined to scattered planted trees. 1J¢t is not claimed that these quantities are accurate. They are very general approxi- mations based upon the best available evidence, and should be held subject to correction on the basis of future timber estimates, 8 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MIDDLE ATLANTIC STATES. New York.—Although the entire State of New York lies within the botanical range of black walnut, there are only a few places where the species exists plentifully. Sullivan and Orange Counties, in the southeastern part of the State, contain commercial amounts; but on the west bank of the Hudson, above Newburgh, and from the Hudson eastward as far as, but not including, Long Island, it is very scattered. In the Genessee Valley, especially in Livingston County, walnut is found in amounts sufficiently large to warrant commercial exploitation if the demands were similar to those of war time. New Jersey —Walnut is plentiful in the western part of New Jersey, especially in Sussex, Warren, Hunterdon, and Cumberland Counties, being, of course, most abundant and of the best quality on the better soils. On the sandy soils farther east its growth is slower and its quality inferior, although large trees are frequently found. Pennsylvania.—In the northern and central parts of Pennsylvania walnut is very rare. West and southwest of this region of scarcity lies a belt in which walnut is somewhat common on the good soils of the valleys, but is lacking in the mountains. The southwestern and southeastern parts of the State contain stands of walnut scattered very generally throughout the hardwood forests, particularly in the larger valleys. SOUTH ATLANTIC STATES. Maryland.—Valuable stands are found only in the western part of Maryland. The infertile red clays prevailing farther east and the sands of the coast belt are not favorable to a good development of walnut. Delaware.—Only the northernmost portion of Delaware contains native walnut of high quality. Virginia.—The Shenandoah Valley remains the best walnut region of Virginia, although the abundance of walnut there has been greatly reduced. Commercial quantities are still to be found throughout the whole length of the valley, as well as in the coves and valleys on both sides of the mountains. On the east slope of the Blue Ridge a considerable amount of walnut is found in small, fertile mountain valleys. To a lesser extent it grows on the slopes of these small valleys but is of inferior quality. In the Piedmont region the river valleys contain considerable walnut, the Potomac and Rappahannock basins contain the most, and the York and James somewhat less. South of this region walnut is scarce, and is found in carload lots only in the broadest of the bottom lands, the poor red soils of the uplands being unfavorable to its development. On the coastal plain of Virginia walnut is rare. PLATE I. Bul. 933, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. IND. iN DECATUR COUNTY, I.—NATURAL GROVE OF BLACK WALNUT Fig. IN WHICH BLACK WALNUT IS CHAR- INDIANA, IN 2.—OPEN WOODLOT Fig. ACTERISTICALLY GROWING IN MIXTURE WITH OAKS AND OTHER HARDWOODS. SOME WALNUT TREES HAVE RECENTLY BEEN CuT. Bul. 933, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. Fic. |.—GROVE OF BLACK WALNUT IN INDIANA, FRINGING MIXED HARDWOOD STAND AT RIGHT. Fic. 2.—WHITE OAK ComING IN UNDER BLACK WALNUT THAT FIRST INVADED THE PRAIRIE SOD. Bul. 933, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. VIEW IN SWAIN County, N. C. IN THE APPALACHIAN MOUNTAINS BLACK WALNUT OCCURS IN MIXTURE WITH CHESTNUT, YELLOW POPLAR, RED OAKS, AND HICKORIES. BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. . 9 North Carolina—The coves and valleys of the mountain region of western North Carolina up to an elevation of 4,000 feet are the most favorable sites in the State for walnut. For many years these forests have been subjected to selective logging, carried on at greater and greater distances from shipping points, and the walnut has been removed along with other valuable species. This process culminated in the close search for walnut during the war. As a result, stands containing much walnut of merchantable size and quality can now rarely be found in the western part of the State, except in remote sections distant from railroads or in places otherwise difficult of access. In the Piedmont region it is found commonly as far east as a line relatively parallel.to the mountains and passing through Statesville, and in this region perhaps the largest amounts in the State exist at the present time. Still farther east walnut is occa- sionally found on better bottom lands, but in many large areas it is entirely lacking, although hedgerow and roadside trees which have been protected are not infrequent. South Carolina.—As a whole, walnut is not commercially important n South Carolina, being found in quantity only in the one tier of counties next to the mountains. Throughout the Piedmont region, as far as Columbia, it is usually found only as scattered trees on rich soils, but in some localities it is more abundant. Georgia.—Walnut is of importance only in the Appalachian Val- ley region of northeast Georgia and the Blue Ridge region to the east, where a few counties contain 40 per cent of the total stand. Toward the southeast the proportion of native walnut decreases, and along the two or three rows of counties back from the coast noth- ing but planted walnut or protected roadside trees is reported. No- where is there now sufficient walnut to give the section any com- mercial importance, and the scattered walnut of the Piedmont region is hardly more considerable. NORTH CENTRAL STATES. Ohio.— Ohio is one of the famous old preducers, and, in spite of a somewhat dense population and large agricultural area, there are still large amounts of walnut to be found, especially in the broken east central part of the State, where it flourishes in fields and in mixed hardwood stands and seems to be reproducing in a satisfactory way. Itis common but less plentiful over the remainder of the State. Southern Michigan.—Although a famous hardwood State, Michi- gan is too far north to have very much walnut. This wood has been shipped from as far north as the fourth tier of counties above the Indiana line, a distance of 80 miles. Toward the southwest, on account of the sandy soils, it is only occasionally found, but over 19340°—21___2 10 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE: most of the two southern tiers of counties it is plentiful as a field tree. The quality is excellent to its northern commercial limit. Indiana.—The whole State of Indiana has a high reputation for black walnut, but at present the species is irregularly distributed, a condition that is explained by the differences in the soil and by the settling and clearing of the land for agriculture. The northwest part of the State never has been to any great extent a walnut sec- tion, the poorly drained lands of the Kankakee River and the sandy stretches about the south end of Lake Michigan being unfavorable to this species. In the northeastern part of the State and in a region south of the Wabash River, embracing all but the lower third of the State, soils are excellent, and walnut is everywhere seen in fields, along roads, in wood lots, and especially west. of Indianapolis, in pure groves fringing mixed hardwood stands. The south third of the State is more rolling and broken, and walnut is largely confined to valleys and protected slopes. The soils in some places are sterile clays underlaid by hardpan or rock, and are unfavorable for walnut, which is, therefore, scarce in these localities. In the region as a whole, however, walnut is of commercial importance. The forests of the Wabash Valley below Vincennes and of the Ohio Valley be- low Evansville tend toward types more characteristically southern, and walnut becomes more rare. Southern Wisconsin.—Walnut exists in commercial quantities in southwest Wisconsin below a line running from La Crosse to Bara- boo and Madison. It is nowhere very evident, but rich pockets of pure stands are found in out-of-the-way valleys. The trees usually grow as pure grooves in grassy hollows or scattered singly among the other species in the better class of hardwood stands. Walnut grows much farther north in Wisconsin, but is sparsely distributed, usually as widely scattered individual trees. Illinois —Most of the walnut in Illinois is found north of a line from St. Louis to Terre Haute, and is generally limited to the bottom lands and moist flats. Walnut is an important element of the hardwood stands in this region and is particularly abundant in the central part of the State. On the poorly drained and sandy soils in northeastern Illinois there is less walnut, and in the hardwood forests of southern Illinois it forms a smaller proportion of the stand than in the bottom-land forests farther north. SOUTH CENTRAL STATES. West Virginia—The walnut in West Virginia is largely confined to the northwestern half of the State. The elevation of the south- eastern half of the State is in general too high and the soil is too shallow and poor for walnut, although there are many valleys which BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 11 contain a considerable amount of merchantable walnut, as well as much small growth. In the region of the Great Kanawha and New _ Rivers the walnut has been almost entirely removed. In the extreme southwestern part of the State there are scattered stands. Though walnut grows to good size in West Virginia, it is not so large,.in gen- _ eral, as in Ohio or Indiana, and it is also more defective. _ Kentucky.—Kentucky is a heavy producer of walnut and still con- tains large quantities in spite of long-continued cutting. The blue- ' grass region of central Kentucky is the main source of supply on account of the ease with which most of the timber may be obtained and because of its general distribution on nearly every farm and wood lot. The largest amounts, however, are in the mountains of eastern Kentucky, but these supplies have hitherto been inaccessible, even at high war prices, on account of the long hauls over inferior roads and the small amounts available in any one place. In extreme western Kentucky the principal forest is the more characteristically ‘southern type of bottom-land hardwoods in which walnut “as an insignificant member. Tennessee.—Tennessee is divided into three walnut-producing dis- | tricts—east, middle, and west Tennessee—each containing different topographical and forest types. East Tennessee is mountainous and contains a great deal of walnut scattered as field trees in the agricul- tural lands of the valleys and appearing quite generally in wood lots and in the hardwood type, where it makes excellent development. On pine lands it is more rarely seen and is of inferior form. In the mountains it is found up to 4,000 feet in elevation, usually in coves with rich, deep soil, along with yellow poplar and white and red oaks. In the rolling country of middle Tennessee it is a common tree, although its development is inferior to that in east Tennessee. In the aggregate there is probably more walnut in this section than in either of the other divisions of the State. It is found in limestone soils, even where outcrops indicate a shallow soil, and it frequently associates with red cedar. In the hollows and valleys of the lime- stone region it reaches excellent proportions. West Tennessee tends to the alluvial-bottom type and contains only a scattering of walnut. PRAIRIE STATES. Southern Minnesota.—There is very little walnut in Minnesota, although some has been cut in the two southern tiers of counties, where conditions are similar to those of northern Iowa. Iowa.—lowa is one of the most important sources of walnut, par- ticularly in the southern and southeastern parts. The loess soils of this State are deep and rich, and the broad river bottoms present large areas of well-watered soils in which walnut thrives. Planted on the uplands, walnut usuallv grows slowly, and its development 12 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is unsatisfactory. Along the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers it is found in draws leading down to the streams, where branches have been cut through the bluffs. These draws contain a considerable quantity of walnut which may be regarded as here marking the most northerly limit of growth in commercial amounts. Missouri.—Missouri ranks first in the amount of its standing wal- nut. The distribution of the walnut is somewhat uneven on account of the diverse topographic, soil, and climatic conditions. North of the Missouri River these conditions resemble those of Iowa, and the river bottoms and moist draws support relatively large stands of walnut in mixture with oaks, elm, hackberry, and, sometimes, along larger streams, cottonwood. The quality is good, although the trees do not, as a rule, reach a very large size. South of the Missouri River, in the western part of the State not included in the Ozark Hills, the conditions are more like those of eastern Kansas, and the proportion of walnut to other hardwoods is even greater. The third diviston of Missouri—the Ozark region—occupies most of the State south of the Osage River. Here walnut is found everywhere in the bottom-land forests, though rarely in pure groves. On the slopes and uplands it is absent. In the aggregate there is a large amount still standing in the Ozark region, and in more remote districts there is doubtless much excellent stuff, for even at the height of the war demand walnut was seldom cut farther than 20 miles from the rail- roads. There are probably 2,200 square miles of this more remote section from which only the best veneer logs have been removed. Under present market and labor conditions this region is virtually inaccessible. The fourth region is the heavily wooded southeast portion of the State from St. Louis southward, comprising the Mississippi bottom lands. Walnut is found here, scattered through the bottom-land hardwood forest, but in quantities too small for general commercial exploitation. Nebraska.—In the southeast corner or the State there is a great deal of walnut along stream bottoms, but north of the Platte it is less abundant, and is found in commercial amounts chiefly near the Missouri River in draws where creeks break through the bluffs. Kansas.—In eastern Kansas walnut is a very prominent constituent of the bottom-land forests for long distances, frequently composing 30 per cent of the stand. It is nearly always associated with elm and is usually second in importance to this tree, which extends to drier lands than the walnut. Hackberry is very frequent, and bur oak, white oak, and many other species may also be found in smaller amounts. Occasionally the stand will be pure walnut over areas of 5 to 20 acres, but mixed stands are the rule’ Walnut is sometimes found on the northern slopes of the river bluffs among oaks and elms, usually where the slope is gentle and the soil is deep, especially near BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 13 springs or seeps. Small streams usually have the most favorable bottom lands; such rivers as the Kansas and Arkansas deposit too much sand along their bottoms. SOUTHERN STATES. Arkansas.—Walnut is widely distributed in Arkansas, usually in the deep rich soils of the stream bottoms; but its growth in large quantities is mostly confined to the northern part of the State. In the northwestern region, known as the Boston Mountains, the physio- graphic and climatic conditions are such that walnut ceases to be a river-bottom tree and appears upon the level terraces and mountain tops, which alternate with steep escarpments. Here the soil is rich | and deep, of limestone and sandstone origin, and bears a blue-grass sod in most places. The rainfall is greater than in other regions west of the Mississippi River and conditions more closely resemble those of central Kentucky and Tennessee. In much of Arkansas the walnut is difficult of access, as the stands are far from railroads and hauling 1s expensive. Oklahoma—Walnut is of considerable importance as a bottom- land tree in Oklahoma. In the western part of the State it is scat- tering or only locally abundant; but in the eastern part, the old Indian Territory, it is still very common, although a great deal was recently cut, and the remaining timber is therefore mostly small. This region contained the last of the virgin walnut. The wood is con- sidered inferior to walnut grown farther north and is little sought for milling. Texas.—Conditions are widely variable in Texas, and the develop- ment of walnut is correspondingly irregular. The species is found over the whole eastern part of the State, though it is nowhere very abundant at the present time, the region having been worked heavily for export during the last 20 years. On the lower stretches of the rivers the prevailing forest is of the southern hardwood bottom- land type, consisting mainly of gums, oaks, and cypress and contain- ing little walnut ; but toward central Texas the southern species drop out one by one, and walnut becomes increasingly important until the western limits of its range are reached, where it associates with Mexican walnut (Juglans rupestris). In the black-soil region the wood is dark and uniform, producing veneers of a deep brown color with even a purple or dark-greenish shade. Toward the limestone region of the Edwards Plateau, where the conditions of growth are severe, the wood is light in color, streaked with darker shades, and sometimes so variable and so dark lined as to pass for genuine Circas- sian walnut. Valuable burls also come from this region. Texas walnut is defective in general and at present is not often cut for milling. | 14 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Louisiana, Mississippi, and Alabama.—In Louisiana walnut is not found in the pine type and is rare in the alluvial bottom-land type— the two types which comprise by much the greater part of the forest area; but commercial amounts are sometimes found in the Red River Valley, in the northwestern corner of the State. In Mississippi wal- nut is widely scattered through the extensive alluvial bottom hard- wood type, but is so scarce that shipments of logs from any part of the State are rare. Alabama has never figured as a walnut-producing State, most of this species being found in the northeastern part, in the valleys of the Tennessee and Coosa Rivers. FUTURE SUPPLIES. The future supply of walnut can not well be inferred from any statement of the present stand of merchantable timber, because in such a statement immature trees are not considered. An estimate of the average annual yield is much more expressive of what may be expected in the future. Previous to the war the average annual cut probably ran between 40 and 50 million board feet a year, and those most familiar with the situation believed that this represented fairly well the cut that might be sustained continuously. This was borne out by the discovery during the war that the country actually had much more merchantable walnut than anybody supposed, although the increase was due in part to closer utilization and the release, as an act of patriotism, of supplies not usually on the commercial market. The war cut heavily into the growing stock, however, and the yield for some years will be reduced. Nevertheless, if the amount of young growth is in normal proportion to the older trees there is no reason why the old sustained yield of 40 to 50 million board feet should not be resumed. An estimate of the amount of immature timber is even more dif_i- cult to make than an estimate of the merchantable stuff. Among those informed, the opinion is common that in most of its range there is an abundance of young walnut down to 6 or 8 inches in diameter. There is an astonishing lack of reproduction below this size, except in the upper Ohio and eastern region. The trees now rated as un- merchantable—and this is particularly true in the western part— are, as a rule, not thrifty young trees, but older growth that has been suppressed and stunted, though still capable of recovery and of de- velopment into saw timber. From this source there is a fair assur- ance of a moderate supply of black walnut for, perhaps, 30 years, comparable in amount to the walnut cut during the 20 years before the war. Ifa great war should occur during the next 30 years much difficulty would be experienced in securing desirable amounts of walnut. It is too late now to provide for any material increase in BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 15 the supply during that period, although the situation may be some- what ameliorated by the careful management and conservation of re- maining stands. At the end of this period the remaining supply will begin to decrease unless active steps are now taken to secure an ade- quate replacement by extensive planting or by forest management to secure natural regeneration. The upper Ohio Valley and Appalach- ian region is too limited to maintain a very large output. There is absolutely no need, however, of our sacrificing a national asset like black walnut, which may be perpetuated if the proper action is taken. ! \ , ‘N tv WY) ' iN NAN iy bE AN ih SEQ UY NI ACN } Wen ie we ee vi Ree a PY 60 ft. 2 OPIS if “Wi Se re SAHIN ! PYAY J) pe aS Fic. 2.—Open-grown black walnut tree. DESCRIPTION OF THE TREE. SIZE AND FORM. Black walnut is naturally a large tree, and, if it were given time and a favorable site, it would grow to magnificent proportions. At present, however, it is a rare thing to see trees over 30 inches in diam- eter, breast high, and these are usually open grown with broad- spreading crowns and short trunks. Logs as large as 77 inches at the 16 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fie. si > base 48 ft. Ei SORES MAI SIRE EAS RIS ND Pops RoR EN EAM a eer NN as athe ad pcs Sete 2a 3.—Forest-grown black walnut tree, = 96 Ft. small end have been cut, and heights of 125 to 150 feet are on record, although to-day trees 100 feet tall are rare. The average tree that is cut at present con- tains about 15 feet of merchantable length. When it has grown in the open, black walnut has the ap- pearance of an or- chard tree, with a short, clear bole and a round, spreading crown, which in sum- mer exhibits a mass of beautiful foliage. In the winter the coarse branching habit and the large, dark twigs usually make it easy to iden- tify the tree even at considerable dis- tances, although young and abnormal trees may sometimes be mistaken for ash or hickory. In the forest a typical black-walnut tree presents a tall, clean bole of little - taper up to the lowest branches. At this point the identity of the main trunk is fre- quently lost, and a few large limbs spread out to form a rounded crown at the level Le lie — of the forest canopy. The greater merchant- able length, the more slender and more grad- ually tapering stems, and the smaller, more re- stricted crowns of forest- grown trees are in con- spicuous contrast to the short, thick, rapidly tapering trunks and full crown of trees grown in the open. Of two neighboring trees measured in Indiana—one a field and the other a forest tree—the former, because of rapid taper and low branches, had only about 15 feet of merchantable length, but the latter had nearly 30 feet. Forest-grown trees near Fort Wayne, which measured from 30 to 35 inches in diameter, breast high, had from 64 to 72 feet of merchantable length. It is very characteristic of walnut, both in the open and in the forest, for the main trunk to break up within a few feet of the lowest limbs into a number of large branches, no one of which appears to be the leader. TWIGS. A characteristic feature of the twigs, by which black walnut and butternut may be dis- tinguished from other trees, is the way in which the pith is divided by thin diaphragms into spaces or chambers. The pith of black walnut is of a pale buff color, but that of but- ternut is dark brown. ROOTS. The root system of black walnut is deep seated and characterized by a marked tap- root. This is well defined even during the first year of the seedling. Later the tree _ throws out prominent lateral roots. BARK. The bark of black walnut is one of the most variable features of the tree, the differences being caused largely by different rates of 19340°—21——_3 BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 7 Fic. 4.—Black walnut seed- ling from a brushy site, at beginning of third year of growth. 18 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. growth. The bark of a rapidly growing walnut tree is thin and reticu- lated in some places almost as much as the bark of ash; but, as a rule, the ridges and furrows are much larger and less regular, and the retic- ulation is not apparent. The color of the bark from inside to outside is always dark, being almost black when it is wet after a rain. On slow- growing old trees the bark becomes several inches thick and is broken up into irregular blocks by transverse cracks. This is especially true toward the southwestern limits of the walnut range in Texas, and there the color becomes lighter, being a reddish brown in some locali- ties. The darker bark, as well as the greater straightness of bole and better general symmetry, are, however, usually sufficient when leaves and fruit are absent to distinguish walnut from butternut, or white walnut, as it is called in some sections. LEAVES, FLOWERS, AND NUTS. The leaves are pinnate, from 1 foot long on forest-grown trees to 2 feet on vigorous trees in the open, with from 15 to 23 leaflets, smooth and light shiny green above, paler and somewhat hairy below. The leaves closely resemble those of butternut and, to a less extent, those of ailanthus. In the midsummer the tree is very ornamental, but because the leaves are put out late the winter ap- pearance continues for a relatively long time. Flowers are borne at the same time the leaves begin to develop, the staminate or male flowers in catkins 3 to 5 inches long, and the pistillate or female flowers in inconspicuous clusters of two to five greenish flowers, on the ends of the branches. Only one or two of these pistillate flowers develop into nuts. The mature nuts are round to pear-shaped and 1} to 2 inches in diameter outside the greenish fleshy husk that incloses them. The nut proper is nearly spherical, with many ridges roughening the surface. The value of the nuts as articles of sale is variable. Although in general the nuts have meats moderate in size and difficult to remove from the shell, the nuts from certain trees are exceptional both as to size and cracking qualities. The trees that provide these exceptional nuts are of value in developing special horticultural varieties. SILVICAL CHARACTERISTICS. SOIL AND MOISTURE REQUIREMENTS. The requirement of black walnut for fertile, moist, but well- drained soils has already been discussed. This requirement should be kept in mind in selecting sites for the planting of walnut. In addition, because of the deep root system of walnut the subsoil underlying the planting site should be of a porous texture to a corresponding depth. A dry atmosphere does not seem greatly to BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 19 affect the growth of the tree, provided the soil conditions are suitable, for the development is good in the irrigated plantations that are scattered through the arid West, and the natural range of walnut extends in Texas into a region of relatively light rainfall. Its de- pendence upon good soil is more marked, however, in regions that have a relatively scant precipitation than it is in well-watered regions. TOLERANCE OF SHADE. Walnut is decidedly intolerant of shade, although its ability to endure shade varies with site and soil conditions and the age of the tree. During the first few years of its life it will bear consider- able side shading, as is shown in occasional instances in which walnut was planted between rows of corn and grown successfully in combination with corn for two or three years. In mixed hard- wood forests, where there is a lack of light, walnut reproduction is practically never found. It is found on the edges of the forest, along roadways and streams, and in other places where the con- tinuity of the forest cover is broken. In the East, at least, it can come up successfully through brushy tangles of sassafras, sumac, rose, and raspberry bushes, and in between clumps of shrubby willows. In plantations the interlocking of the crowns soon causes a decided reduction of diameter growth; and, after the tree has attained a height of 30 to 40 feet, height growth is no longer stimulated by crowding, the effect of which is, rather, to cut down all increment. Suppressed trees in these conditions become stag-headed and put out water sprouts all the way up and down the trunk. REPRODUCTION. Black walnut reproduces both by seed and by sprout, the former means being very much the more common. The nut crops are usually generous and the percentage of fertility is high. Transportation of the seed to any distance, however, is practically dependent upon squirrels, and the greater part of the walnut reproduction is undoubt- edly from nuts that are buried by squirrels in open grasslands ad- joining forests. Started under these conditions, the seedlings receive the abundant light needed for their vigorous development. It is - doubtful, in fact, whether the seedlings can successfully establish themselves from nuts that are left lying on the surface of the ground or are only lightly covered with fallen leaves. Of the nuts buried in the forest only a small proportion produces successful trees; most of the seedlings are eventually suppressed by the overhead shade unless they are fortunately located under some break in the forest canopy. This characteristic of walnut reproduction makes it appear likely that in many of the mixed stands containing walnut the walnut was the first to start, originating from nuts buried by squirrels in’ 90 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. open meadows and prairies, and that the associated species came in later beneath the walnut, after the latter had established forest con- ditions. The agency of squirrels in the establishment of walnut is probably responsible also for the frequency of practically even-aged groves of walnut. Of some even-aged stands, which started within the memory of living man, it is known that the small fields and hill- sides they now occupy were seeded by squirrels in a single year. It is quite likely that this is the usual origin of even-aged stands that have sprung up without human action. Whether this is due to exceptionally heavy seed crops or to bad winters that killed off the squirrels before the nuts were dug up and eaten, or to short winters that did not force the squirrels to consume all their hoard, or to a combination of such circumstances, can not now be told. Reproduction is remarkably rare in the greater part of the range of black walnut under conditions as they now prevail. Practically all walnut stands are grazed by cattle, that destroy the young seedlings, or, still worse, by hogs that eat the nuts. Consequently, no reproduc- tion of walnut or anything else is taking place, and the stands are becoming grovelike, with open grassy floors. Even where grazing is excluded, however, walnut reproduction is not generally seen. This is difficult of explanation, but possibly it is linked with the effect of the settlement of the country on the number of squirrels and their habits. _-In western Indiana profuse reproduction is occasionally found along the fence rows around fields. containing old walnut trees, as well as scatteringly on open southern slopes of draws leading down to the Wabash River on both the Indiana and the Illinois sides. In some localities in Missouri young trees are characteristically scat- tered on open southern slopes near hollows that contain mature wal- nut. The growth on these open slopes, however, will be subnormal ’ and the trees will be poor. Conditions are much better farther eastward, and in such regions as southwestern and southeastern Pennsylvania, parts of West Vir- ginia, northern Virginia, Maryland, northern Delaware, and western New Jersey reproduction is locally profuse. It is usually found along stream courses passing through agricultural lands, pastures, or woodlands, although by no means exclusively limited to such sites. Along roadsides, the edges of wood lots, fence rows, and, in fact, in almost any place where there is protection and sufficient light young walnut is likély to be found. In all this region the reproduc- tion of walnut is rendered more certain than farther west, on account of the fact that the woodlands are not generally grazed here, while grazing is the rule in the Ohio Valley and westward. Even in this region of maximum reproduction, however, trees above 6 inches in diameter are seen much more frequently than seedlings. bie) 4 " =% BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 21 Sprout reproduction occurs irregularly from stumps of small and moderate-sized trees cut, apparently, at any season of the year. The sprouts are usually numerous and come from the side of the stump somewhat above the root collar. During the first few years the sprouts usually grow tall, weak, and crooked, resembling those of cottonwood, especially if they are not in full light. The first season’s growth probably continues until frost, which kills back the tops of the sprouts for as much as a foot. Unless there is plently of light, all the sprouts usually die in a few years. In the open, one or two or even three sprouts may persist and grow into fair-size trees. The original stump rots away, however, weakening the base of the sprout and infecting it with red butt rot. Sprout reproduction rarely pro- duces a good tree of saw-log size. Certainly it is not to be con- sidered seriously as a means of regenerating a stand. DISEASES AND INJURIES. FUNGI. Black walnut is moderately free from tree diseases and is as resist- ant to injury as any of its associates. Red butt rot is found in a smal] percentage of trees, mostly old trees of northern growth, al- though it is very bad in parts of central Kentucky. Asa rule the rot extends only a short distance up the tree, and “butting off” the lower 3 or 4 feet of a hollow tree will usually remove most of this defect. The “doty ” zone that surrounds the advanced decomposi- tion at the center is generally narrow; it is frequently possible, in fact, to saw boards within an inch of an open hollow before any dis- coloration appears. A white top rot is found, limited almost entirely to southera logs, particularly from Oklahoma and Texas. Its presence is indicated by punky knots and occasionally by conks on the upper trunk. This rot - extends a greater distance up and down the trunk than the red butt | rot and is a much greater detriment to the logs, especially if they are to be used for sawing into lumber. A large log with a defective center might be made to furnish a large amount of first-class veneer, but could not to advantage be sawed into lumber. INSECTS. A tent caterpillar disfigures the foliage of many roadside trees and reduces the rate of their growth. It is reported, however, to be rare in forest-grown trees and groves, walnut being worst affected when it grows near cherry or apple trees. In ornamental trees the nests should be promptly burned. Except for this caterpillar, walnut is very free from insect pests. 29 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. GROWTH OF INDIVIDUAL TREES. Walnut may be classed among the more rapid growing hardwoods. | The fertility of the soil on which black walnut is usually found greatly facilitates the growth of the tree. The poorer the site, the slower are all phases of growth, in height, in diameter, and conse- quently in volume. Growth is also affected by the shade from adja- cent trees, and this accounts for the characteristic differences in form. The rate of diameter growth, on soils of equal quality, depends nor- mally upon the amount of foliage, and hence is slower in the small- crowned trees of the forest than in spreading-crowned open-grown trees. When the trees are suppressed by the shade of taller trees, diameter growth is greatly decreased. HEIGHT GROWTH. ' Table 2 gives an idea of the average height growth of black walnut in comparatively open, pure stands in central Indiana and Ohio. It should be accepted as applicable only to “ grove walnut”: Se TABLE 2.—Height growth of walnut in comparatively open stands in central Indiana and Ohio. Age. | Height.|| Age. |Height.|| Age. |Height. Years.| Feet. Years.| Feet. Years.| Feet. 0 13 60 72 84 20 35 70 75 120 85 30 53 80 78 130 86 40 62 90 81. 140 87 50 68 100 82 150 88 I] 1} DIAMETER GROWTH. In the course of this study diameter-growth measurements were made on 128 trees located at 16 places in 6 States. While the number of trees thus scattered is too small to afford reliable data, the aver- age measurements shown in Table 3 will give a general idea of the average rate of diameter growth, breast high, of walnut under neither the best nor the poorest conditions: TasLe 3.—Breast-high diameter growth of walnut, based on measurements of 128 trees widely scattered. Diame- Diame- Diame- ter ter ter Age. | breast Age. | breast Age. | breast high high high Years.| Inches. Years.| Inches. Years.| Inches. 10 1.2 60 18.3 110 26.0 20 5.0 70 20.6 120 26.9 30 8.8 80 22. 2 130 27.8 40 12.5 90 23.8 140 28.5 50 105) 6 100 25.0 150 29.2 ! Distribution of measurements: Indiana, 37 trees from 5 localities; Ohio, 75 trees, 3 localities; Illinois, 5 trees, 1 locality; Virginia, 5 trees, 1 locality; New Jersey, 7 trees, 1 locality; Missouri, 3 trees, 1 locality. BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 23 A few selected measurements are given below as illustrating the rate of diameter growth under specific conditions. It should be noted that they do not afford a safe basis for the comparison of dif- ferent regions, since local differences in soil and stand may affect the rate of growth even more than a wide geographical separation : (1) Near Indianapolis, Ind.; illustrating the difference in diameter growth of four trees that grew in the open and three that grew in the forest. The two situations were about one-quarter of a mile apart and the soil in both cases was deep, dark loam. The stand containing the forest-grown trees was open and parklike, as a result of cutting operations in late years. The other species in the stand were white ash, white oak, white elm, beech, sugar maple, hack- berry, Kentucky coffee tree, and hornbeam. (Table 4, No. 1.) (2) Fayette County, Ohio; a similar comparison of diameter growth in open fields or groves (45 trees) with that (of 13 trees) in dense stands of mixed hard- woods. The growth both in the open and in the forest is less than in the pre- ceding case, probably due, in part, to less favorable soil and moisture condi- tions. (Table 4, No. 2.) (3) Near Indianapolis, Ind.; eight trees that grew on a southwestern slope on the southern edge of a mixed hardwood stand of ash, elm, and white oak. (Table 4, No. 3.) (4) Near Indianapolis, Ind.; six trees in a pure walnut grove on a flat meadow adjoining a mixed hardwood stand of oak, elm, ash, and hackberry. This stand is now somewhat dense and diameter growth is probably relatively low in late years. (Table 4, No. 4.) (5) Near Fort Wayne, Ind.; five trees in a virgin mixed hardwood stand composed of white oak, elm, yellow poplar, and ash, with a slight amount of black walnut, located on a flat, with deep, rich, loamy soil of potential agricul- tural value. ‘These trees are probably typical of the growth of the older walnut stands cut 40 years ago. (Table 4, No. 5.) (6) Near Deer Park, Boone County, Mo.; three trees from a grove on bottom lands. (Table 4, No. 6.) (7) Eleven butt logs laid aside for veneering at Indianapolis; of unknown source, but probably from Indiana. These are very choice logs—round, clear, of rapid growth, and indicative of the average maximum growth in this region. (Table +4, No. 7.) (8) Two butt logs fronr Marshall, Ind. (Table 4, No. 8.) (9) Five butt logs from Farmersburg, Ind. (Table No. 4, No. 9.) (10) Four butt logs from Carmel, Ind. (Table 4, No. 10.) - (11) Seven butt logs from Shreve, Ohio. (Table 4, No. 11.) (12) Six butt logs from Mount Gilead, Ohio; apparently came from a wheat field. (Table 4, No. 12.) (18) Five butt logs at Farmville, Va.; probably forest grown in mixed hard- wood stand on rich bottom land. (Table 4, No. 138.) (14) Seven stumps, New Jersey. (Table 4, No. 14.) _ (15) Two stumps near Cameron, Mo.; in a mixed hardwood stand on a northern exposure considerably above the stream bottom. Stump diameter, 17 inches, age 59 years. False rings were numerous. This growth was a little below the average. (16) Three stumps on the Kansas River bottom lands near Lawrence, Kans. Averaged 28 inches in diameter, stump height, at 638 years; a very rapid growth. (17) Three butt logs at Kaw City, Okla. Averaged 30 inches in diameter on the butt end at 88 years, which is also above the average. The logs came from the bottonr lands of a tributary of the Arkansas River. ee 24 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (18) Six stumps at Valley Falls, Kans., in the bottom lands of Delaware Creek. Averaged 25 inches in diameter, stump height, at 64 years; also above the average rate of growth. (19) Five stumps in northern Delaware. Averaged 25 inches in diameter, stump height, at 94 years. (20) One hundred 20-inch logs taken at random in Missouri, Iowa, and Kansas. Averaged 83 years of age at the top end. Logs of this size measured in Indiana and Ohio were 81 years of age. These figures would apparently indicate that the rate of diameter growth of walnut is about the same in the river-bottonr woodlands of the prairie States as it is farther east. TABLE 4.—Hxramples of diameter growth of black walnut ‘based on age described under the corresponding numbers on page 23. Age (years). No. Grown in— 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 |.60 | 70 | 80 | 90 | 10 | 10 | 120] 120 | 140 | 150 Diameter at breastheight (inches). OTeSt ess c0 oS Sf 0.2) 4 326) G25] 12: BGT) VO A ee ike eee Lege 1.4) 5.4/10.2) 14.8) 18.8] 22.3) 24.6).....].....|...--!...-- Aa ats S| Sees See 2 -6} 3.1) 5.4! 8.0] 10.8) 12.9) 15.2) 17.2) 19.1) 20.8) 22.4).._..).....)...../.2..- -6] 38.1) 5.4) 8.5] 11.8) 15.0) 17.8] 20.5] 22.8) 24.9) 26.6).._.. x Beles 3 150) -4: 9) OS 1) 1256 | C146) L750) 19 A 20 aoe el pee eters | een ere [eee aren 4 1.7), 70). 12. 6) 46.1) 1858) 20.6) 22..0)<2353), 23. )asees See een cere ee eee 5 1.4) 4.4] 7.4} 10.7] 13.5) 15.8] 18.0) 19.6) 21.4) 23.3) 24.3) 25.6) 26.8) 28.0 29.3 6 VT. 4l) 553) 285 1] °205.8) 1325166) 09s Gl ae ee ew | i en ere | emer | eee ee 7 2.4) 6.4! 10.7] 15.0} 18.3} 21.4! 24.0) 26.3} 28.0/.....|.-.--|--... de alr 8 Al) 1029) 15.0] 18:3]- 20; 4) see. Slee so See ee S| ee as | ee ee nee ee | eee eer 9 oA SL (622)-9.6| 1259) 1624) 1982211912359 eee eee eee a oe ee cee Se ces 10 25:0) +6..4)' 10..6]' 14-6) 176) -21..0)924.10| 225207) 5 a= | Sern yl ere tere tte oe | eee er = ll <9) 4.4) 7.4] 20. 8) 1650) 20! 5024.18 soa ents ered |e aerial crenata Serene | aes iets ore 12 2.0) 7.5) 13.1) 18.1) 22.0) 25.0)-.-:. pha Saas S| Sek S| SS Ea cet eed nea = 13 1.4), 5; 8] 10. 2) 1450) 1724) '20:\0| 2253 |) 24.2 aero eres etn eed eer ree = 14 28 4%. 1) 13.0): 275] 2006) 123-4124 01 24 Olas ee a tae heer | iene | Sere cre) | rete <= 1 See description on p. 23. VOLUME GROWTH. As the growth of a tree in volume depends upon the rate of growth in both diameter and height, it is more variable than either. A statement of the increment in board feet to be expected at the end of any period will consequently have little bearing upon any par- ticular stand. In order, however, to present a general idea of the average volume growth of individual trees, Table 5 has been pre- pared. It indicates fairly well the volume growth in groves in the Ohio Valley, but does not apply to single trees or rows grown in the open, to forest-grown trees, particularly in the eastern part of the range, or to trees in artificial plantations. It is less applicable to groves in regions east or west of the Ohio Valley. It is evident from this table that walnut may be grown most advantageously, from the standpoint of greatest continuous volume production, on long rotations, for the reason that both the average annual growth and the current annual growth continue to increase up Se ae BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 25 to 150 years at least. The age to which individual walnut trees could be best grown, from the standpoint of greatest volume production, is probably limited not so much by an ultimate decrease in the rate of volume growth as by the setting in of butt rot. The average age at which logs are cut at the present time is 80 or 90 years—a period at which the tree is making rapid growth. TABLE 5.—Volume growth of black walnut. | Average | Current Age. | Volume.| annual } annual growth. | growth.!| - Board Board Board Years.| feet. feet. feet. 48 1.0 is 60 100 1.7 4 70 150 2.1 5.0 e| 380 200 2.5 5.0 90 260 2.9 6.0 100 320 3.2 6.0 110 380 3.5 6.0 120 440 3.7 6.0 130 505 3.9 6.5 140 565 4.0 6.0 150 635 4.1 7.0 1 Average annual growth for each decade. RELATION BETWEEN RATE OF GROWTH IN DIAMETER AND THE FORMATION OF SAPWOOD. The thickness of the sapwood depends very largely upon the rapidity of growth, the trees which have grown most rapidly having the widest sapwood. For this reason thrifty young trees are more likely to have wide sapwood than old trees. Local differences in site, however, frequently modify the tendency to vary with rapidity of growth. Trees from certain regions are notoriously sappy, but from other places the percentage of black heart is uniformly high. The relation of rapidity of growth to thickness of sapwood is shown in Table 6, which is based on 124 logs from widely scattered points. Of those trees in which the rate of growth was about the average the sap- wood contained from 12 to 14 annual growth rings. TABLE 6.—Thickness of sapwood.* Growth | Thick- Years Growth | Thick- Years Growth Thick- Years last ness of in last ness of in last ness of in decade. |sapwood.| sapwood. || decade. |sapwood.| sapwood. || decade. |sapwood.| sapwood. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. Inches. 0. 2 0.3 25 0.9 1.2 14 1.5 1.9 13 “3 4 20 1.0 1.4 14 1.6 2.0 13 4 oil 18 a: 1 14 1.7 Pei 12 = -8 16 1.2 1.6 13° 1.8 2.2 12 -6 9 15 1.3 ey 13 1.9 2.4 12 cil 1.0 14 1.4 1.8 13 2.0 2.5 12 -8 1.1 14 1 Based on measurements of 124 logs. 26 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The light-colored sapwood of black walnut used to be considered more of a defect than it is now. It is the present practice of most manufacturers to subject their lumber to a steaming process as soon as it comes from the saw. This steaming turns the sapwood to the ‘same color as the heartwood and renders it equally salable. The sapwood of posts decays very much faster than the heartwood, and this renders the use of round walnut posts decidedly unsatisfactory. GROWTH OF STANDS (YIELD PER ACRE). It is difficult to estimate the yield on an acreage basis, of a species that characteristically grows so scattered as black walnut does. How- ever, the yields of pure, open, grovelike stands are given here as TSpEGlne of what may be expected of natural stands under the best conditions. The first example is that of a walnut stand “covering an area of 2.5 acres, located in Decatur County, Ind. The growth is scattered somewhat regularly over the whole area, except near the middle, where an area of perhaps one-quarter of an acre was cleared around a gas well. The stand is entirely of walnut, apparently even-aged and about 50 years old. The forest floor is covered by a bluegrass sod and is grazed by hogs and cattle. Naturally under these circum- stances there is no reproduction. The slope is slightly to the north, where a small permanent stream bounds the grove. The soil is a deep, rich loam, similar to that of the cultivated fields adjowning. (See Table 7.) TABLE 7. Number | Estimated Number | Estimated Diameter breast high. | oftrees | yield per Diameter breast high. | oftrees | yield per -per acre. acre. per acre. acre. | Inches. Board feet. Inches. Board feet. Below:82:55 22. 222 5 10; Ogee SS oeeceies 20'COi22.-sosecetpieceeee 6.0 960 S.fOrlOssas se SPL eee eke eons. 22024: |. fs. SeRE 2.4 552 LOtONZ See sks dete WG jal tate eb reis Seicc- 24:70: 26205- 0 nese eae 1.6 512 IZ toils set 2 33. Cty ee ee Aare 266028 S7e 8 Sse 1.2 534 4 TOnGe ss. > owe 8.4 336 28 C0302 cee ee eeeee a4 246 IGLTOLS: oe stok cere Teal 497 [ne ISO 20s. tet t Scare 9:3 1, 023 Total per acre.... 55. 6 4, 660 The larger merchantable trees on this area, together with some very large, short, “ fence-corner ” trees on another part of the farm— a total of 68 trees estimated to contain 15,000 board feet—were sold for $102.50 a thousand board feet on the stump. The above estimate of 4,660 board feet in this grove is believed to be low; but if it is accepted as it stands it gives a value of $477.65 an acre after 50 years, or an annual income of $9.55 an acre. In making comparisons it is imperative to remember that this stumpage price was exceptionally high even in a period of vastly inflated war prices. Before the war .540 a thousand would have been high. BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 20 The second example is that of a small grove of 48-year-old walnut mixed with younger trees of other species, in Hendricks County, Ind. The grove occupies six-tenths of an acre and is in a pasture adjoin- ing a mixed hardwood stand of shagbark and bitternut hickory, white oak, elm, sycamore, and an occasional black walnut. This grove Pesceatly illustrates the invasion of meadowland by the “ome in the progress of which walnut was the leader, the associated species being mostly young trees which came in after the walnut was established. The stand is still too small to show a large yield in board feet. (See Table 8.) e TARLE 8. Number of trees per acre. Dreyeneiap Jo Want breast high. ae ; Others || C&R Acre: Walnut. species.! | Board Inches. | feet. Below 8 5.2 U5 ayaa | eee ares 8tol0...-. 8.6 itd) | Seber eae 10 to 12 6.9 TESTE We a ua aa 12 to 14 10.4 LOPAN Gas eee 2 14 to 16 RGU Minera ee certo k 344 16 to18.... GUO eee eee 483 18 to 20.... IST jossecanens 187 Total. - 48.3 31.0 1,014 1 Elm, shagbark, white oak, bitternut, and hackberry, in the order of abundance. Another stand of much the same form was found in Hendricks County, Ind., growing under similar conditions in a pastured area. Originally this stand fringed a mixed hardwood stand very similar to the previous example, but the timber has been largely removed. This walnut stand is not quite pure, but has a slight admixture of hickory, oak, and: Kentucky coffeetree, along with seedlings of ash and Kentucky coffeetree. There is an excellent sod, and the area is grazed by cattle. The walnut stand occupies half an acre. The age of the stand is not known, but it is evident that it is still immature and will have a very much greater value in 20 or 30 years. (See Table 9.) Another walnut grove in Jefferson County, Kans., shows that stands of this kind are by no means limited to the Ohio Valley. This stand, which is about 60 years old, and nearly even aged, is located on the bottom lands of Cedar Creek, on an area of about 15 acres, bounded on the south by Cedar Creek and on the north by corn land. This land is subject to overflow for a few days in exceptional years, but usually it is above high water. The soil is a deep, dark loam, which gives excellent corn yields in the adjoining fields. The stand has not been grazed, and there is a considerable amount of 28 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. undergrowth of young elm, hackberry, and Crataegus, but not of walnut. TABLE 9. Number of trees per acre. Yield Diameter per acre breast high. As of weal er nut. Walnut. species.) Board Inches. feet Below 8 4 Dee eee emits 8 tol0. 2-2 (ae Beene recs tana aA Le 10 to 12 12 2. Wie Sats Seimes 12to14 4 ae emo oack 14 to 16 2 2 80 16 to 18.... Bio) seezteeces 560 18 to 20.... 8 2 880 20 to 22 (itd Meer lasso o5 Soe 22 to 24 1 bs RE ese 230 2A 1026.5. cc | oes - Shinn t| eee eee 26:10:28 52) 252.22 Sssel oe ea pee ees 28 T0302 | Base sa. on lenece eee eee ee ae 30 todo sas sa eee NOt Meeeeake es Total... 45 14 | 1, 750 | 1 Shagbark hickory, Kentucky coeetree, and white oak, in order of abundance. The two trees 30 to 32 inches in diameter were white oak. Of the trees over 8 inches in diameter, breast high, the stand con- tains, on an average, 23 merchantable walnut trees to the acre, 38 unmerchantable walnuts, and 8 other trees (hackberry, burr oak, and Kentucky coffeetree). The merchantable trees average 2.45 logs to the tree, or 24.5 feet of merchantable length. The average log contains 55 board feet. Each tree, therefore, averages 135 board feet, and the merchantable stand to the acre is 3,275 board feet. These figures are based on 208 logs that had been cut and were actually scaled. This stand was too small to show maximum productivity, but it indicates what may actually be secured in 60 years in western river-bottom lands. MEASURING LOGS AND ESTIMATING STANDING TIMBER. MEASURING LOGS. : The Doyle rule (Table 10) is in general use for scaling walnut logs, and has been used in this bulletin in all computations involving board feet. This rule penalizes small logs very heavily, and does not at all represent the amount that can actually be sawed from them. With the present run of logs averaging 70 to 80 feet to the log, 1,000 feet scaled in the log by the Doyle rule will cut about 1,400 feet of lumber. In logs about 25 inches in diameter the Doyle scale represents closely the actual amount that can be cut in walnut of good quality. ESTIMATING STANDING TIMBER. secause of the high value, scattered occurrence, and variation in form, of black-walnut trees, estimates of their volume are now made, not by the “ cruising ” methods commonly practiced in the timber BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 99 TABLE 10.—The Doyle log rule. Length in feet. Diam- nes er 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 | rb } 12 | 13 | 14 15 | 16 | inches. - Board fect. Ge ates 20 | 283 | a ee Se | 3.0 3.3 3.5 3.8 4 71) 93.4 | 39 1 45 \|-5.1 1.5.6 | 62 | 6.8 7.3 7.9 8.4 9 8 6 7 8 9 10 il 12 13 14 15 16 9 9 11 12 14 16 17 19 20 22 3 25 10 13 16 18 20 29 25 27 29 31 34 36 11 18 | 21 24 98 | 31 Bat «Bi 40 43 46 49 12 | 24 28 32 | 36 40 44 | 48 52 56 60 64 13 30 35 40 46 51 56 | 61 66 71 76 81 tal) 37 44 | 50 56 | 62 69 75 81 87 94 100 15 45 53 60 68 76 83 91 98 106 113 121 | 16 54 | 63 72 81 90 99 | 108 117 126 135 144 | 17 63 74 84 | 95 | 106 | 116 | 197 137 148 158 169 | 18 73 s6 | 98 | 110 | 122 | 135 | 147 159 171 184 | - 196 19 s4 | 98 | 112 | 197 | 141 | 155 | 169 183 197 11 225 20 96 | 112 | 128 | 144 | 160 | 176 | 192 208 204 240 956 21 | 108 | 126 | 144 | 163 | 181 | 199 | 217 235 253 971 289 92 | 121 | 142 | 162 | 182 | 202 | 223 | 243 263 983 304 | 324 23 | 135 | 158 | 180 f 203 | 226 | 248 | 971 293 316 338 361 24 | 150 | 175 | 200: | 225 | 250 | 275 | 300 325 350 375 400 9 | 165 | 193 | 220 | 248 | 276 | 303 | 331 358 386 413 441 26 | 181 | 212 | 242 | 272 | 302 | 333 | 363 393 493 454 | 484 27 | 198 | 231 | 264 | 298 | 331 | 364 | 397 430 463 496 529 98 | 216 | 252 | 288 | 324 | 360 | 396 | 432 468 504 540 576 99 | 234 | 973 | 312 | 352 | 391 | 430 | 469 508 547 586 625 30 | 253 | 296 | 338 | 380 | 4292 | 465 | 507 549 591 634 | 676 31 | 273 | 319 | 364 | 410 | 456 | 501 | 547 592 638 683 729 32 | 294 | 343 | 392 | 441 | 490 | 539 | 588 637 636 735 784 33 | 315 | 368 | 420 | 473 | 526 | 578 | 631 683 736 788 841 34 | 337 | 304 | 450 | 506 | 562 | 619 | 675 731 737 844 | 900 35 | 360 | 420 | 480 | 541 | 601 | 661 | 721 781 841 901 961 36. | 384 | 448 | 512 | 576 | 640 | 704 | 768 832 896 960 | 1,024 37 | 408 | 476 | 544 | 613 | 681 | 749 | 817 885 953 | 1,021 | 1,039 38.| 433 | 506 | 578 | 650 | 722 | 795 | 867 939 | 1,011 | 1,084 | 1,156 39 | 459 | 536 | 612 | 689 | 766 | 842 | 919 995 | 1,072 | 1.148 | 13295 40 | 486 | 567 | 648 | 729 | 810 | 891 | 972 | 1,053 | 1,134 | 1,215 | 1,296 I forests, in which all or many of the species are to be logged together, - but by the separate examination of each merchantable tree. The usual practice is to estimate first the length and small-end diameter inside the bark of each log in the tree, and then to find the contents of the logs in board feet by the Doyle rule. To estimate closely the length and taper of the logs and their diameters inside the bark re- quires a practiced eye and a knowledge of bark characteristics, in order that the thickness may be gauged from appearances with rela- tive accuracy. In most merchantable logs the bark averages from 1 to 14 inches in thickness, as shown in Table 11. TABLE 11.—Thickness of bark, in inches, on logs of different diameters.* Diameter] Bark |Diameter| Bark |Diameter| Bark oflog. |thickness.| oflog. |thickness.| oflog. |thickness. 6 0.5 15 Holl 24 1.3 7 5 16 1.2 25 1.4 8 -6 17 132 26 1.4 S$ cu 18 1.3 27 1.4 10 -8 19 1.3 28 1.4 11 of 20 1.3 29 1.4 12 1.0 21 1.3 30 1.4 13 1.0 22 1.3 14 1.1 23 1.3 1 Based on 291 logs mostly from Ohio and Indiana. 30 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In selling walnut on the stump the owner should accompany the buyer, who is usually an experienced walnut cruiser, and with him estimate the length and small diameter of each log that will be cut, keeping a detailed memorandum of the scale and the sizes agreed upon. The average form and development of trees of different diameters at breastheight are shown in Table 12, which may be used as a rough volume table for average trees, particularly if they have been grown in groves or wood lots. The trees used as a basis grew in Ohio and Indiana, but the form is probably very much the same throughout the range of walnut, except where conditions are very unusual, as around the outer limits of the range, particularly toward the west and southwest. Tasie 12.—Form and volume of walnut trees of different diameters, breast high. Distance above ground (feet). Diam- Mer- faeke Total | chan- |Volume? hi yh | 1 | 10 | 20 | 30 | 40 | 50 | 60} 70} 80 | height] table | (board Gas (feet). |length2| feet). ches) (feet). Diameter inside bark (inches). Dee 256) 2 Or? [ee cee) ease sles cots | Sesena| esas Eee se leeeee 0 Be ae ee ee Peal ea tD AO eee cates eceee ara eee ie sed) (Se ee 163) 253. ose ees Saccel 458 (ee Tl ONT S22 a eo S| reel ee | eee eee 22) Wee Ce a ec tae ical Rael tg SO PS eh aia eee mn ae AIRE ee EL Dl 2c MRS Chee tse te edit | SDA SG Boacoe Doseed eeicced pacod saceaweose 3D) |Pees ce oolee see ee Besa A eae | peor prance ue al Oi) Ses cel Sea Sa ee 40 WESse Bree ee: Meee ERS: Ole 4eoo| eno teh Oil Ra ees Beye ae cane ee ees 45) | ess SIRS See ere BESO 0: ask ie SEO NF eS Io) Rae She eae ne 40) | ee ais Se 9....| 9.9] 6.2} 4.3 3.0) 1.7 Ee Si PASS core laccce H3.)||co% acteer laseeeeee UVES sabes Wel BRON BAO) 232 29. Lc aselbiose eee Salas oeerme me eeee mee UT sel WS Ae ares) Gers 4.2) 2.7 Vid: Ve et | Sooner BO sae ea eee 12....) 12.6] 8.6] 6.4[ 4.8) 3.3 1.8] 0.1 GL PEE CEC EE See 13....| 13.5] 9.5] 7.2] 5.4| 3.8] 2.3 +b) 63 8 18 14....| 14.5] 10.3)°8.0) 6.0) 4.4) 2.8 9 64 ll 27 Pisses lose led Sakai) Loa eorOMeosonl meats 66 13 40 162 PIES V4 F459) 52955 SES oe Deeds S| ene 68 17 52 17....| 17.4} 12:8) 10.2) 8.0) 6.2) 4.412.3 70 21 70 18. 222| 18) 4 1327) | LEO) 887 16 GSOh fF L459) 255 OsP Ie kee 71 25 88 195522] 19,4) \ 04, 6.38) 993 725.1) Seon Bi) aasoe 73 28 110 20....| 20:5 | 15.5 [12.6 | 10:0.) 8.1.) 6.0/3.8) 20 |22es2 74° 31 132 Qe 206) 1654) 1854 Osi) 858) e656! |p4550)] elon eee 76 34 160 222207 ALITA 194023) TS OLS. 2 259s 2501) eee 78 37 190 23...-| 23.4] 18.5 | 15.0 | 12.2] 10.1 Chote) WO PAs eae 79 | 40 230 A 2550 F 19.54 1529) | 03! 0 08S) 282511) OF Ol] Se OnkOrs 81 43 270 25. - 26.6] 20.6] 16.7] 13.8] 11.5] 9.6] 6.6) 3.5] .7 82 46 320 26... 28.1} 21.8 | 17.6 | 14.6 | 12:3°) 9.8 |) 752) 4.0) Li2 84 49 380 2i.-.-| 80.0: )) 22:83) 9855 )) 1574.) 13 OH LO: oil) seis) 40a pe 85 52 445 28. 31.8] 23.8] 19.4 | 16.2] 13.7] 11.2) 8.4] 5.3] 2.2 87 54 520 29.. 33.9 | 24.9} 20.2] 17.1) 14.4] 11.9] 9.0] 6.0] 2.7 88 57 615 30....] 36.0] 26.0 | 21.1 | 18.0] 15.2 | 12.6] 9.7] 6.6] 3.3 90 59 720 1 Stump height assumed to be 1 foot. : 2 Merchantable length to a top diameter (inside bark) of 10 inches. 3 Figured by Doyle rule, values curved. Short-cut methods of approximating the contents of standing trees are often of use, as in the case of preliminary correspondence between buyers and prospective sellers. According to a very satis- factory method used by one firm in gaining a general impression of the amount, the owner is requested to send in a list of all trees offered for sale, giving the girth of each at 44 feet above the ground and its length to the first living branch. The girth divided by 4 will give BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 31 approximately the diameter of the first 12-foot log inside the bark at the small end and the clear length will indicate whether the tree is a field or a forest grown walnut and will show to a certain degree how many logs may be expected. The size of the upper logs may then be estimated on the basis of the butt log. This method is simple and well adapted for the use of the walnut owner who wants to know approximately how much walnut he has. WALNUT PLANTATIONS. Walnut has always been a popular tree for planting on account of its attractive appearance, the value of its wood, the production of nuts, and the ease with which it may be propagated. Walnut has consequently been planted in every State in the country as single shade trees, as windbreaks, as open, orchardlike stands planted for nuts, or as closely planted stands for log timber. The last are found chiefly in the prairie regions from Ohio westward. There are 126 stands on record in Iowa alone, which is probably the leading State in this respect. Most of the plantations of this kind were estab- lished in the period of the great popularity of the wood, from the close of the Civil War to 1890, although at least one, in Missouri, dated back to 1836, and another, in Illinois, is said to have been planted in 1823. These plantations have improved the general ap- pearance of the farms and have served excellently as shady groves for cattle. FACTORS AFFECTING THE SUCCESS OF PLANTATIONS. Many owners-take special pride in their walnut plantations and maintain that these add to the market value of the farm. In most cases this is undoubtedly true, and the reasons are those mentioned above; but, because of lack of management, unfortunately many walnut plantations have not been successful as producers of valuable wood. The following table shows the average breast-high diameter growth in plantations, in comparison with the average for the natu- ral stands of block walnut measured (Table 13), and with the slowest growth observed in a natural stand (see description of forest- grown stand in Fayette County, Ohio, on p. 23). The figures for growth in plantations are based upon measurements of 90 planta- tions. This comparison of artificial with natural stands is not very favor- able to the artificial. After the planted trees reach 50 years of age the growth is slower than that of the slowest observed in natural stands. Furthermore, the mediocre quality of the planted but un- managed trees was in marked contrast to the clean, straight, very tall boles of the forest-grown trees. Two reasons may be assigned 32 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. for this prevailing inferiority of walnut plantations—either there was a poor choice of planting sites or there was wrong management of the planted stands, or both. Taste 13.—Diameter growth in plantations, in comparison with average and slow growth in natural stands. Diameter, breast high (inches). Age In naturalstands— (years). | T, plan- tations. | O ee Ofslow growth. growtb. “ 10 2.0 1.2 0.6 20 §.2 5.0 3.1 30 7.4 8.8 5.4 40 9.2 12.5 8.0 50 10.9 15.7 10.8 60 174.83 18.3 12.9 70 13.4 20.6 15. 2 - 80 14.4 22.2 17,2 - CHOICE OF PLANTING SITES. The plantations of walnut in the prairie regions were quite natu- rally started in the situations in which the owners most needed trees; that is, on the treeless uplands or, occasionally, in recent years, on parts of cleared bottom lands. The sites selected were only rarely those which supported tree growth at the time of the settlement. The soil quality of these sites may be excellent, but the moisture present in the soil during the summer is insufficient for the flourish- ing growth of walnut. As has been pointed out on pages 4 and 18, walnut needs for good growth a deep, fertile soil, both well watered and well drained, per- mitting the free movement of soil moisture and, at the same time, the access of air to the roots. These qualities are the more necessary the less favorable the climatic conditions, especially the precipitation. From Indiana westward soils suitable for planting are to be found principally in bottom lands, but bottom-land soils are in fact to be pre- ferred even in the East. Swampy areas and places where cottonwood, willows, sycamore, or river birch form, or have formed, the chief growth will usually prove unsuited to walnut, though areas subject to floods for short periods, in which the backwater does not stand long in the depression, may form excellent sites. If the soil is a sterile sand, or if hardpan exists not far beneath the surface, as in parts of the Lake States, walnut can not be grown satisfactorily, even in the most favorable climate. In the East, with its larger amount and better distribution of rain- fall, much more freedom in the selection of planting sites is possible than in the prairie regions or in the Lake States. In the limestone regions of Tennessee, Kentucky, West Virginia, and the northeastern part of the range in general, cut-over lands and even rocky hillsides, Bul. 933, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. ee ee Fia. 2.—Goop SOIL. EFFECT OF SOIL QUALITY IN AN INDIANA BLACK-WALNUT PLANTATION. 1.—Poor SOIL. FIG. PLATE V. IND. THE AND THOSE STANDING ALONG THE OUTER EDGE PRUNING. MEASURED LARGER IN DIAMETER THAN THOSE INSIDE. WALNUT PLANTATION, SHOWING CLEAN STEMS MADE BY HIGH 1.—PLANTATION OF BLACK WALNUT IN HOWARD COUNTY, TREES ARE CLOSELY SPACED, 2.—BLACK- Bul. 933, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. FIG. Fia. BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 33 if erosion is not actively taking place, are promising sites for the suc- cessful growth of walnut. Similarly, the level, rolling country of BeaPmeasicnn New York, eastern Pennsylvania, amd New Jersey west of the sandy parts, where the soils are deep, present favorable sites for walnut. Western Maryland and the Shenandoah Valley of Vir- ginia are generally well suited, but eastward to the coast the soils are usually not adapted, although occasional sites on river bottoms or rich flats are excellent and have produced walnut shade trees of large size. In North Carolina, South Carolina, and northern Geor- gia, except in the mountain region, it is doubtful if the climatic condi- tions are best for walnut. The species range almost to the Gulf and has been planted as an ornamental tree in Florida, where phenome- nal crops of nuts are reported; but often in this region the tree is poor in quality and becomes defective at an early age. The planting of walnut for its wood in most of North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, and Louisiana is problematical, because there has been no experience with actual plantations in that region. The best criterion for determining a planting site, either in the East or West, is whether walnut grew on the site naturally and made a good development. If it did, planting is safe; if it did not, the plant- ing may be successful with good ninevhe AeAROTE but there is an element of uncertainty involved. The soil needed for the most satisfactory production of merchant- able stands of walnut is nearly everywhere the best agricultural soil. Placed on a strictly economical basis, there is little argument for growing walnut for wood production on these soils. Tillotson * shows the net annual yield for 12 plantations from 12 to 42 years of age scattered from Indiana to Iowa. The best stand shows an annual income of 91 cents an acre; the poorest, a loss of $1.50 an acre an- nually, while the average sumer shows a loss embodying failure to pay taxes and interest charges on the expense of establishment. In the States in which walnut is of chief importance the gross income - from farm crops amounts annually to about $15 an acre. Excluding all interest charges, it would be necessary to have about 65 thousand feet, board measure, to the acre at the end of 75 years in order to yield an equal gross annual income. According to the most optimistic estimates the amount would hardly be 20 per cent of this. There is no point in giving up good agricultural land that can be used as such to the growing of walnut foe wood only. MANAGEMENT OF PLANTED STANDS. Walnut is intolerant of shade, and this is an important item in its management, disregard of which is one of the causes of the unsatis- 1“ Worest Planting in-Eastern United States,” by C. R. Tillotson, Bulletin 153, United States Department of Agriculture, p. 31. 5 34 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. factory development of plantations. It affects the crown density and directly limits the number of trees to the acre under which the proper growing conditions may be maintained and the best material produced. The number of trees to the acre required to maintain a continuous crown cover is, of course, largest in the early history of a plantation and decreases with age, either naturally, through the crowding out of the less rapid growing individuals, or under manage- ment through their removal in thinnings. In the case of walnut close spacing (see “ Spacing,” p. 42) at the start is more praccicable than with many other species, because of the relatively low cost of nuts and planting. This close spacing tends to reduce, although it can not always prevent, the profuse branching of the trees at a height of about 6 feet. When, however, the crowns commence to crowd each other badly, some beginning to take the lead and others to fall behind, it is poor economy to maintain such a density, and thinnings become imperative. Left to themselves, these even-aged plantations develop so uniformly that the dominant trees do not much exceed their lesser neighbors in height, the thrift of the whole stand is lowered by mutual suppression, and the stand is in a condi- tion of stagnation. Ultimately, the crowns become very much re- duced and stag headed, and water sprouts come out profusely on the trunks. These water sprouts grow slowly until the tree dies or is released by the death of neighboring trees; whereupon the sprouts take a new lease of life, and the tree develops into a topless branchy stub of no use for any purpose. The combined effects of poorly chosen site and overcrowding are shown in a plantation in Jackson County, Mo. Although the plan- tation is 82 years old, few of the trees are merchantable. The stand is situated on a hilltop, which, in this western region, is too dry for walnut; consequently, the trees of the outermost row, exposed to full light on one side, have poor development, branch low, and are prac- tically worthless. The effects of overcrowding upon the condition both of the trees inside the plantation and of those in the outer row may be summarized as in Table 14. TABLE 14. Percentage of total number of Average trees, diameter |__ We breast Ge high. atér Healthy. spouted. Decayed. Inches. AJULEOU LOW Se eee ce on eis ce sea ne Each cepacmaean ene cate omeeetets 17.1 65 18 17 NINIOUEL OCR sna iee ctccc cneeeewear soe ar eee cacieine sabe ee 12.7 34 63 3 board feet. If pruning will double the value of a log BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. 35 In a plantation 31 years old in Howard County, Ind. (Pl. V, fig. 1), the outer trees averaged 8.3 inches in diameter, breast high, and the inner trees only 7.4 inches. There were 342 trees to the acre in this plantation, although experience indicates that 300 to the acre is full stocking at this size. Natural groves seldom contain over 60 trees to the acre at 60 years of age. Pruning—Walnut trees may be pruned with profit, the object being to obtain clean, straight boles. Logs from such trees are dis- tinctly more valuable. Before the war knotty logs usually brought $20 to $25 a thousand board feet, f. o. b. cars, shipping point, re- gardless of size, and smooth logs were paid for on a sliding scale of prices, the lowest of which was better than the flat price for cull logs. In average logs the difference was about $20 a thousand ob ASECelr _tainly a paying proposition. The spreading tendency of the walnut tree and its intolerance of shade make pruning to some extent neces- sary even in the best-managed stands. Limbs that support essen- tial parts of the crown should not be taken; but smaller branches and low limbs that will ultimately be crowded out should be cut to hasten the natural process and give more clear wood in the log. The pruning should be flush with the trunk, and care should be taken not to injure the trunk. The saw is ordinarily the best in- strument to use. The first cut should be from beneath, and should sever bark and wood sufficiently to prevent peeling of the trunk when the branch drops. A second cut made from above then severs the branch. It is well to prevent the subsequent infection of the wound with the germs of decay by painting it with tar or with a good water-resisting paint. PROBABLE YIELDS FROM PLANTATIONS. As there are few plantations in this country that have grown up under ideal soil conditions and have been properly tended, it is impossible to judge future yields of logs from actual examples of plantations, and all natural stands are spaced so irregularly that they do not represent maximum productivity any more than do the overcrowded plantations. The growth in value of individual trees may be estimated, however, on the basis of the prices current in the year 1918. Table 15 shows the values of trees of different sizes delivered at the railroad. Except when they were close to shipping points, it was not profitable in 1918 to cut trees under 17 inches in diameter. It is apparent from Table 15 that the value of walnut increases rapidly with age, partly because it holds up its increment well, but more on account of the sliding scale of prices for logs that is every- where in vogue for this species, and which places a decided premium 36 on large logs. BULLETIN 983, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Trees in plantations, therefore, should be grown as long as they appear sound and healthy. Of course, it is impossible to tell at this time what scale of log prices will be used 150 years hence, but, nevertheless, the plantation should be managed with a Jong rotation-in mind. TABLE 15.—Value of individual trees.t | Diameter | Volume | Value | || Diameter} Volume | Value breast board atrail- | Age. || breast board at rail- thigh. feet. road.2 | || thigh. feet. road.2 Inches Years Inches 13 18 $0. 36 42 22 190 $8. 20 14 27 54 45 23 230 10. 80 15 40 afi | 48 24 270 13. 80 16 52 1.00 51 | 25 320 17.30 17 70 1.70 55 26 380 21. 50 18 88 2.40 59 27 445 26. 50 19 110 3. 40 63 | 28 520 32. 20 20 132 4.70 68 | 29 615 39. 90 21 160 6.10 1a 4 30 720 49. 00 Age. 1 This table applies to individual trees in groves or open woodlands and not to Rae grown singly in the open field. The prices were those current in the year 1918. 2 As the stumpage price is so variable, depending upon the length of haul, the value of the trees delivered at the railroad is the most constant figure that may be given. Stumpa) tracting cutting and hauling expenses from the value of the logs delivere age value may be figured by sub- The number of trees on a well-managed plantation iil at all times show the maximum that can be grown to the best advantage. The reduction from year to year will be accomplished by frequent thin- nings and will not be left to the processes of nature that lead to ex- cessive mutual suppression and to stagnation of growth. Such a plantation on good soil should yield logs somewhat as shown in The calculation is believed to be conservative for the Ohio Valley and northeastern region, but possibly it is somewhat high for the trans-Mississippi States, where height growth is not generally so good and where merchantable length is, therefore, some- Table 16. what less. 1 Derived from Table 1, p. 2, Farmers Bulletin 711, C. R. Tillotson. TABLE 16.—Possible yield of black walnut plantations. Average Age diameter pa te Board feet | Value per (years). pease se per erat per acre. acre.2 10 1.2 2700: | ct524) ele ee eins 20 5.0 700 “oa. oa cS | ee eeee ete 30 8.8 PA al ee eee larga aera 40 12.5 160. “|S Ree eal eleb eee 50 15.7 100 4,800 $83. 00 60 18.3 85 8, 500 229. 50 7 20.6 70 10, 500 387. 80 80 22.2 65 13,000 566. 80 90 23.8 55 14,300 726. 00 100 25.0 50 16,000 865. 00 “The Care and Improvement of the Woodlot,’”’ by 2 Based on the value of logs delivered at the railroad and not on the value of the stumpage, as the latter is too largely conditioned by cutting and hauling expense. If a plantation, initiated with wider er 5) o, is left to grow into merchantable timber, the production will be less than that ‘indicated «a BLACK WALNUT: ITS GROWTH AND MANAGEMENT. on above. In the first place, the height and merchantable length will be less, on account of the lack of close spacing in youth; in the second place, the clear length will be less and the quality poorer and, there- fore, the prices will be less; and, in the third place, after about 30 or 40 years the diameter growth will be smaller, as the trees will have begun to crowd each other, unless they were planted very far apart. With an initial spacing of 6 by 16 feet, making about 450 trees to the acre, a thinning will be necessary in about 30 years. Even if the stand is not thinned at this time, the taller and more thrifty trees will prob- ably have sufficient hight to become merchantable, although they will be inferior to trees that have had the proper care all their life. Open-grown trees or orchards planted for the sake of the nuts will naturally have a more rapid growth in diameter, but will have less clear length. The value of such open-grown stands will mani- festly be incidental to the production of nuts (see “ Production of Nuts,” p. 37). In ine West, black walnut is planted to some extent on irrigated land for sind beak and ornamental purposes as well as for the yield of nuts. The logs are not likely to find a very ready sale, as the freight rates to all mills that specialize on walnut are excessively high, amounting to $50 a thousand board feet or more; and it is un- likely that the amount of timber in any one place will j nee cutting by local mills. Growth under these conditions is apparently very much the same as in the prairie States. Two plantations offer the comparisons shown in Table 17, one being a wide-spaced plantation in eastern Illinois, in which the trees are 6 by 16 feet apart, and the other a windbreak near Ogden, Utah. The plantation in Illinois is located on a rise several hundred yards from a stream, and, as there never was any natural tree growth on the area, it is possible that the site is too dry for walnut. The soil is rich black prairie loam. The spacing of the trees is very wide, and there is little difference in diameter between marginal ices and those within the stand. The plantation 1 in Utah is situated along an irri- gating ditch, in which water is flowing during practically the entire growing season. TABLE 17. Diameter, breast high (inches). Average.| Largest. | Smallest. PRODUCTION OF NUTS. Although growing walnut for the sake of the nuts produced is a matter of horticulture rather than of forestry, it is necessary to take this source of income into consideration in dealing with this species 38 BULLETIN 933, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. @ as a wood producer. It is, of course, impossible to get a maximum yield of walnuts and of wood at the same time, because the former demands a wide spacing that will give low wide-spreading crowns exposed to full sunlight, and the latter calls for a closer spacing with consequent limitation of the individual crowns and of the amount of fruit produced. In the average grove planted for general utility as scattered trees or small clumps, the walnuts will be a by-product of some value, either for family use or for sale. In some sections the growing of trees for the nuts only may be more profitable, and the logs produced in small numbers will be of secondary importance. Table 18 contains the statistics of the Thirteenth Census (1910) upon the production of walnuts. Tabie 18.—Production of walnuts, by States, according to the Thirteenth Census (1910). Bearing | . Under > | Nuts per * Pe Bearing . trees per - Price per| Income State. trees. bees farm re- pean pound. | per tree. : porting. s Pounds. Cents. Cents. eee ae tS oe wise ee ee ees eee 3, 228 1,753 3.1 48.8 2.2 107.5 IZ ONAL Des ee Sale On ee peom ee epee See (Oy ee lsaabasoecullboccodecapl ccenocseballyscosossa sloscnnobscs Arkansass 2222 st sea hee ene eee 9, 104 5, 640 9.2 56. 4 1.5 84.5 paler ed a ee Sele EE OR PRR Coa Aa ae 7, 905 |- 22 24.2 1.6 37.5 Olorad oles Ata Sree eee Cee Seco te Caan (2) ae || eee ere sees BRR Sal Be totacsso cocoa aon| bs cocecenee Connecticut ae sere ane eee 3,188 2, 636 12.6 } 14.2 “4.1 58. 2 Dela wanes: 3c Ast oe ke ee 890 554 3.4 39.5 1.6 63.2 Mlgridas 24 oe eee ee ee a 470 2, 855 2.5 90.7 1.8 163.3 ee ears eee wa eee Baas eee aes | Gas 2, 258 3.8 | 62.4 2.1 131.0 OUR SS 25 < als se stiae cia eeicn 2 eee eeipee ee os rake) efuel etoee ees \ aaipeieate cers Gapecabas| noabaodecole saad ess NiFinpies Gis. ee ae eee a es ee tea ae | 44/159 24, 698 24.7 12.0 1.4 16.8 INGA a oes ee ee eee EEE 11, 848 4, 822 12.9 31.9 1.2 38. 2 TOWAE Sema aaeees acseeen eee ae seer ae 125, 194 24, 277 31.7 9.1 1.8 16.4 oni sas i= t ead P25 tts 4 eee le eyes 113, 537 8, 619 60. 6 3.3 1.6 4.8 IL 04 UC) hee Sen ear or en ee Pes Sie ae 14, 521 2,360 15.8 54.8 1.4 76.7 Motisianas: $215 edie tk cee Ree eae 616 655 4.0 88. 7 1.8 159.5 EDA c ee eine ekaren panne eae PLS SEM e ATE eee 231 63 7.2 6.9 3.1 21.4 Maryland -..6%2) st ls eet epee 5, 375 1, 522 5,3 51.2 1.1 56. 4 Massachuschts 9.2 s-csn4 sha teen eee 1,910 434 6.8 20.9 3.0 62.7 Michigans <-.25.42 $i a! be eee 16, 105 3, 520 6.7 33.9 1.4 16.8 AIT GS O12 ream ate ote (are ale etree ate ate 3, 459 922 21.9 24.9 1.9 47.3 MissisSippus cy See fas eo eee 2,914 2,391 3.6 52.0 2.4 124.8 eee Tlayo: — Ww i . a ; if e 4 ‘ . 5 2 Z . . * a . . ? a UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE , BULLETIN No. 934 , Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry at WM. A. TAYLOR, Chief Se’ Tt. Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER June 16, 1921 DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. By Cart Hartiry, formerly Pathologist, Office of Investigations in Forest Pathology. CONTENTS. Page. f Page. Damping-off in general____________ 1 | Damping-off fungi as causes of root- Damping-off of conifers___________ O rot and late damping-off________ 70 OTS clasts ieee eee LE me 27 | Relation of environmental factors to ConcicinmMaya cum == oe 27 CLM in <= Osea ae ees ffi MUSaTiUmMSp p= 22 Se eee ae) |) IDemMSliny Ol Soa ee 74 Pythium debaryanum_________~_ 35 | Moisture and temperature factors__ 79 Rheosporangium aphanider- (Clagrmmni@ail ite veEnoirsse 2 79 TMA GUS eee Se ee ee DAO MBTOLO STC Lato Ts ee ee 82 Phytophthora spp-----_---~--~ BY) Hh AG aan yleclenmaneinrs 86 Miscellaneous phycomycetes____. ~ 61 | Summary________________________ 86 Othermtungiss 2 sa ease 64; || Maiteratune citedl 22222 see ees 91 Relative importance of the damping- off fungi on conifers____________ 65 DAMPING-OFF IN GENERAL. Damping-off is the commonest English name for a symptomatic eroup of diseases affecting great numbers of plant species of widely separated phylogenetic groups. It is commonly used for any disease which results in the rapid decay of young succulent seedlings or soft cuttings. Young shoots from underground rootstocks may also be damped-off before they break through the soil (66).'| The same term is even used for diseases affecting the prothallia of vascular erypto- gams (2). The name apparently originated in the fact that the dis- ease is usually most prevalent under excessively moist conditions. In those cases in which the disease becomes serious without the pres- ence of unusual amounts of moisture the term is a misnomer. It is, however, so thoroughly established in practical use that it would be impossible, even if desirable, to establish any other name. 1 The serial numbers in parentheses refer to ‘‘ Literature cited,” at the end of this bulletin. 19651°—Bull. 934—21 1 2 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, While the parasites reported as causing damping-off are probably not as numerous as the host species which are subject to it, a con- siderable number are known. ‘Two quite different types of damping- off parasites may be recognized. In the first type we have fungi, such as Pythium debaryanum Hesse and Corticium vagum B. and C., soil inhabiting and primarily saprophytic, which attack a great variety of hosts, and are at least better known, if not more destruc- tive, as damping-off organisms than as parasites on older plants. They are specialized as to the type and age of tissues which they at- tack rather than as to host. The second type includes fungi less common as saprophytes and with a relatively limited, sometimes very closely limited, host range. Phoma betae, the systemic parasite of sugar beet (37), is an excellent example of the host-specialized para- site, transmitted in the seed and capable of seriously injuring various parts of the older plant at different stages of growth as well as at- tacking seedlings. Most damping-off parasites are intermediate in habit between the extremes of these two types. Of those which are somewhat host specialized, the following may be mentioned: Phomopsis vexrans, the cause of foot-rot of eggplant, reported by Sherbakoff (128) as a frequent cause of damping-off of this host and believed to be carried on seed. Gibberella saubinetii (Mont.) Sace. (29) and the imperfect fungi which kill grain seedlings as well as cause diseases of the older plants (80; 126, p. 218). Species of Gloeosporium and Volutella named by Atkinson (2, p. 269; 52) as able to kill seedlings er cuttings of particular host plants. Glomerella (Colletotrichum) gossypii, described by Atkinson (1) and Barre (4) as likely to cause damping-off of cotton (112). Fusarium lini, the flax parasite, reported by Bolley (14) as destructive .to young seedlings. Phoma lingam, the cause of black-leg of cabbage, at least under inoculation conditions able to kill quickly seedlings of cabbage and other crucifers ((2). Peronospora parasitica (Pers.) De Bary, a downy mildew attacking cabbage and various other crucifers, reported as killing thousands of very young cabbage plants in Ilorida seed beds (41). The entomophthoraceous Completoria complens, on fern prothallia (1; S87, p. 208). Bacillus malvacearum, a parasite of the leaves of cotton plants, which can also cause damping-off of its favorite host (118) and the bacteria from diseased cucumber plants with which Halsted (53) caused typical damping-off of cucumbers. Damping-off fungi with wider host ranges include Phytophthora fagi, Aphanomyces levis (100), Rheosporangium aphanidermatus (38, 39), Botrytis cinerea, and certain Fusaria. The so-called prop- agation fungus, “ vermehrungspilz,” a sterile damping-off mycelium which Sorauer (133, p. 321) believed related to Sclerotinia and for which Ruhland (115) has erected a new genus, considered by both DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 3 authors the most serious enemy encountered in growing softwood cuttings in Germany, if distinct would be a further addition to these generalized parasites. However, it is now believed (34) to be identi- cal with Corticium vagum. Common generalized parasites of older plants, such as Sclerotinia libertiana, Sclerotium rolfsi (129), and Thielavia basicola (47), capable of attacking roots or other parts of older plants of numerous species, may also be considered among the damping-off fungi when they cause the death of small seedlings, as occurs, for example, in attacks by Sclerotinia libertiana on lettuce (20, p. 28) and celery (103, p. 536) in seed beds. Further study will probably result in multiplying almost indefinitely the number of more or less important damping-off parasites, both of the specialized and unspecialized groups, although the most important of the latter type are probably already known. Most of the references in literature to damping-off describe its occurrence in truck crops and the losses caused in these crops. Ac- cording to Halsted (53, p. 342), weed seedlings are also very com- monly attacked. Duggar (33) names lettuce, celery, cotton, sugar beet, cress, cucumber, and sunflower as especially susceptible to injury by the two most important damping-off organisms. Except for the plant species in which damping-off by seed-carried parasites is common, it appears that the economic damage from damping-off is serious only with plants whose culture involves the raising of the seedlings in crowded seed beds for subsequent transplanting. For example, tomatoes do not ordinarily suffer from damping-off in the field (70), but the growing of seedlings in flats for subsequent trans- planting is-sometimes seriously hampered as a result of the preva- lence of damping-off.. This same principle holds in general for trees. Broad-leaved trees, which are usually not as crowded in the seedling stage as are the conifers, seldom give rise to complaint on the score of damping-off. The conifers, subject. to serious losses in nursery beds, are not believed to be greatly affected in this country by the better known types of damping-off under forest conditions (68) except in the less common cases in which seedlings come up in close eroups from squirrel hoards, artificial seed spots, or similar sources. A considerable number of broad-leaved trees have been reported at one time or another as injured by damping-off, though complaints of commercially serious losses are not common. The cases which have come to the writer’s attention are listed below: Cause not determined: Orange (43, 108). Olive, in greenhouse at the University of California. Russian wild olive (Hlaeagnus sp.), serious at an Iowa nursery; oral re- port by Mr. C. R. Bechtle, formerly of the United States Forest Service ; at another nursery in the same region this plant was reperted as very little subject to injury. aa BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Cause not determined—Continued. Magnolia (31), troublesome if the pulp is not washed off the seed before planting. Bucalyptus spp. (88, p. 45; 131), serious under moist conditions. Betula spp. Communication by Dr. Perley Spaulding, of the Bureau of Plant Industry ; found especially susceptible in a Pennsylvania nursery. Carob, at United States Plant Introduction Garden, Chico, Calit. Dr. Mel T. Cook states that damping-off is more serious in carob seedlings if the seed is removed from the pod than if pods and seeds are sown together. Robinia pseudacacia (18). Apple, in greenhouse at the Michigan Agricultural College. Sclerotinia sp. (Europe) : Betula (79), a disease of seed and germinating seedlings. Phytophthora fagi (Europe): ‘ Fagus. Hartig (59) and many other writers; seriously affected, even in forest. Platanus (15). Acer (15), A. platanoides and A. pseudoplatanus (86, 104). Robinia (59, 78). Fraxinus (73). Acacia (59). Cercospora acerina (Europe) : Acer platanoides and A. pseudoplatanus (58). Pythium debaryanum: Tilia europea and T. ulmifolia (187), serious. Robinia (75, p. 138-14), killing germinating seed. Catalpa (126). Rhizoctonia : Citrus seed beds (180) ; much loss. Catalpa (126). Botrytis cinerea: Catalpa (126). Fusarium sp.: Citrus seed beds (130) ; much loss. The sugar beet is apparently the only plant whose damping-off diseases have been investigated with any degree of completeness by modern methods. While there is a great mass of literature on damping-off, it is mainly descriptive and on control measures. Most of the reports of the causal relation between the different fungi and the disease in the various host plants have been based on demon- strations of the presence of the fungus in diseased seedlings. In a great number of these cases identification has been doubtful. Even when a fungus is known to belong to a parasitic species, it is by no means certain that the mycelium found belongs to a para- sitic strain. It has been found, for example, that only part of the strains of Corticium vagum occurring in sugar beets are able to attack that host vigorously (88, p. 154). Similar data for pine appear in figures 1 and 2. Furthermore, even parasitic strains of several of the damping-off organisms are so widely distributed as DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 5 saprophytes that one of them might easily get into a killed seedling after some other parasite had caused its death. Not only in the case of seedlings killed by fungi like Peronospora parasitica, but in nosr PINUS BANKSIAWA |p aaq] PLS REGIOGA | enn joie 19/4 exer| ean |_2ea_| er | ea] @7_| es | 7 | 72 R 1/00 LIVING SEEDLINGS PER OO IN GONTROLS af 8 Fig. 1.—Diagram showing the relative activity of different strains of Corticium vagum in inoculations made at the time of sowing the seed. In experiments Nos. 36, 45, and ‘47 the values are plotted for the number of seedlings appearing above the soil. For the other experiments the number of seedlings surviving at the close of the experiment have been taken. Explanation of symbols: O=Strain 147, from spruce seedlings, Washington, D. C., 1910; +—=strain 50, from pine seedlings, Nebraska, 1909; =strain 233, from Hlaeagnus sp., Kansas, 1913; —f—strain 230, from the same lesion as strain 233; @ =strain 183, from bean, New York, 1910. ir Su aaa YEAR /DNB IDE 1917 ami qias pale ose [oe op oo S20 ey) ie} ny is) SEEDLINGS SURVIVING PER 100 lo) Vic. 2.—Diagram showing the relative activity of different strains of Corticium vagum, as indicated by the number of seedlings surviving in inoculated soil. Explanation of symbols: @=—Strain 189, from sugar beet, Michigan, 1910 (light-brown mycelium with few sclerotia) ; A=strain 211 and A= strain 212, from sugar beet, Colorado, 1910; M=strain 186, from potato, Ohio, 1910; D=strain 187, from potato, New York, 1910; +—strain 205, from Douglas fir, Colorado, 1911; *=strain 192 and O=strain 206, from pine, Nebraska, 1911. cases of true damping-off produced by the rotting type of parasite, much of the rapid decay of the seedling after death is brought about by bacteria and fungi other than the one causing death. 6 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Inoculation experiments are therefore probably even more neces- sary in damping-off investigations than in studies of most other dis- eases in order to demonstrate etiological relationships. Unfortu- nately, most of the inoculation work with damping-off organisms prior to 1900 was either crudely done by placing diseased seedlings against healthy ones or consisted of experiments in which purity of cultures and validity of controls did not receive sufficient con- sideration. Recent investigations not primarily directed toward damping-off, but which have decidedly increased our knowledge of the relation between Corticium and the disease, are those of Peltier (98) and Fred (43). The latter established a strong presumption that the difficulty in securing stands of various field crops having oily seeds in soil where green manures had been recently turned under is due to the killing of the sprouting seed by damping-off organisms. In tobacco, sugar beet, and pine, whose damping-off has received considerable attention, it has been found that the damping-off proper is commonly preceded by the killing of many of the sprouting seeds in the soil (38; 68, p. 522; 81, p. 5) and followed, after the plants become too large to be killed by the damping-off organisms, by root sickness and the death of small roots (38, p. 161; 64; 100). This latter has been reported also as a serious matter in the case of Corticiwm vagum for potato (51), a host on which damping-off is not important because of the lack of commercial propagation from seed. Pythiuwm debaryanum further has been reported as continuing to work in the cortical tissues and leaves of tobacco plants which have been in- fected too late to result in death (81). The fact that a number of the damping-off fungi are able to attack young or soft tissues of so great a variety of plants and are much less able to kill older plants suggests that resistance to damping-off may be in part based on purely mechanical factors. Hawkins and Harvey (71) recently have extended, to Pythium debaryanum the idea, developed by Blackman and Welsford (12) and Brown (16) for Botrytis cinerea, of the importance of mechanical penetration in the fungous invasion of plant tissues. While for 2. cinerea mechanical pressure was found to be the main factor only in cuticle penetration, with P. debaryanum. the penetration of the cell walls of all parts of the potato tuber was apparently largely dependent on mechanical puncturing by the hyphee, only tubers with mechanically weak cell walls being susceptible to decay by the fungus. The extreme sus- ceptibility to P. debaryanum and Corticium vagum of soft, thin- walled tissues and the resistance of older stems and root parts would fit in well with such a theory as to the method of wall penetration, as in the older tissues the thicker cell walls would obviously be a serious bar to the extension of a fungus dependent partly or en- ‘i DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. I tirely on mechanical puncturing for its progress from cell to cell. Hartig (61, p. 147-150) shows a fungus which he does not name, but which is evidently a species of Fusarium, dissolving the young un- cuticularized epidermis of pine seedlings; but he states that it can not so dissolve older epidermis. The increased protective value of the epidermis of older plants can only in part explain the immunity most of them develop against serious attack by damping-off organ- isms, as lesions already started or which may later develop from the infection of young roots are unable to extend into the older parts of the plants. It may be mentioned here that the writer in a very preliminary test found strains of Corticium vagum and Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon which had been proved able to cause damping-off of pines also apparently able to destroy filter paper in inorganic salt solu- tion, while Pythium debaryanum seemed not so able. Ruhland (116), on the other hand, found the strain of the “ vermehrungspilz ” (Corticium vagum) which he tested to be very weak in cellulose- destroying ability as compared with Botrytis cinerea. DAMPING-OFF OF CONIFERS. HISTORICAL. While the losses from damping-off in seed beds of dicotyledonous tree species are occasionally serious and in the case of beech in Europe have required considerable study, they have been so far overshadowed in this country by the losses in coniferous seed beds that practically all the attention thus far, both as to etiology and measures of prevention, has been devoted to the disease in conifers. The literature on the damping-off of conifers is considerable. A large part of it, because of the extensive early development of plant pathology and forest planting in Germany, has been writ- ten by Germans. A large portion of the German articles on it was either by foresters or by botanists in the day when most patho- logical work was of the reconnaissance type. Therefore, while the work of one of the best known of the parasites on coniferous seed- lings was noticed in Europe as early as the eighteenth century (21, p. 252-253) most of the European data available are observational. The only fungi which were at all definitely connected with the dis- ease on conifers seem to have been Fusarium (/usoma spp.) and Phytophthora fagi (P. omnivora De Bary in part). The damping- off Rhizoctonia was described in Germany in 1858 and Pythiwm de- baryanum in 1874; the fact that neither of these, important in conif- erous seed beds in both the eastern and western United States, has ever been reported from conifers in Europe is perhaps the best evi- 8 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. dence of the relatively small amount of actual investigation carried on there on this disease in the nurseries. A number of references to the damping-off of conifers in the English horticultural and botani- cal literature yield even less definite information as to the causal fungi than do the German articles. With the awakening of interest in reforestation in the United States between 15 and 20 years ago and the first efforts to grow _ pines in quantity for forestry purposes, attempts were made to de- termine the cause of the disease in this country and to develop direct- control methods. Duggar and Stewart (32) made what appears to be the first report of Rhizoctonia in connection with the damping-off of conifers. Spaulding (136, 137), in work begun in 1905, con- tributed much to our knowledge of the etiology of the damping-off of pine in this country, especially in relation to Fusarium, and origi- nated the sulphuric-acid method of control. The writer in 1910 re- ported preliminary inoculations on conifers with both Rhizoctonia and Pythium debaryanum (62). The work of Gifford (46) and Hofmann (77) added to the information on the causal relation of Fusarium spp. and P. debaryanum, respectively. Hartley, Merrill, and Rhoads (68) have recently established the parasitism of a num- ber of strains of the Corticium vagum type of Rhizoctonia on pine seedlings under inoculation conditions, have confirmed Spaulding’s conclusions as to the parasitism of Fusarium moniliforme Sheldon, and have given preliminary data on other fungi. They consider P. debaryanum and C.vagum more important in pine seed beds than any. single Fusarium species. Hartley and Hahn (69) have announced successful inoculations on pines with P. debaryanum and Lheospo- rangium aphanidermatus Edson, with less satisfactory evidence of the parasitism of Phytophthora sp. and a fungus tentatively referred to Pythium artotrogus. Hartley and Pierce (67) report the finding of P. debaryanum in Tsuga mertensiana and Pseudotsuga taxifolia as well as in the pines. In damped-off pine seedlings they find P. debaryanum more commonly than C. vagum, especially in beds which have received disinfectant treatments. Other considerations, how- ever, keep them from concluding that the former is necessarily the more important of the two. Both of these latter papers and all of the reports of Pythium with the exception of Hofmann’s are brief notes, presenting no evidence in support of the statements made. DESCRIPTION. The symptoms of damping-off in conifers have already been de- scribed in some detail (68). In the paper cited, injury due to exces- sive heat of the surface soil and injury caused by high wind, both of which may easily be confused with damping-off, are described and accompanied by colored illustrations both of different types of damp- te . DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 9 ing-off and of these nonparasitic troubles. The detailed descriptions will not be repeated here. A brief summary of the different types of disease recognized as included in damping-off follows: (1) Germination loss: The radicles are killed very soon after the seeds sprout and before the seedlings can appear above ground. This is an important type, which can be caused probably by any of the organisms commonly capable of causing the better known types of trouble (61, 63, 68, 137). (2) Normal damping-off (figs. 3, 4, and 5) : The seedlings are killed by fungi inyading either the root or hypocotyl after the seedling has appeared above the soil and while the stem is still dependent largely on the turgor of its cortical tis- sues for support. In sandy soils root infection is more common than hypocotyl infection, though the latter is the type most emphasized in the early horticul- tural descriptions. Btittner (26) some time ago recognized the frequence of Fig. 3.—Normal type of damping-off of Pinus ponderosa. At the left is a damped-off seedling or root sprout of the southwestern ragweed (Ambrosia psilostachya). (Photo- graphed by S. C. Bruner.) root infections. Damping-off in beds out of doors is primarily in most cases a root rot, either of this type or of the types preceding and following. (3) Late damping-off includes cases of the root-rot type occurring only after the seedling stems have started to become woody and the cortex has begun to shrivel. The damping-off parasites, or at least part of them, continue to kill Seedlings by rotting their roots for some time after the stems become too woody to be decayed. The seedlings affected do not fall over till a considerable time after death. For convenience, all cases of this sort up to the purely arbitrary age of two months are classed as damping-off. However, in weather permitting of average speed of development the seedlings are usually able to resist attack before they reach this age. Seedlings at the marginal age between suscepti- bility and nonsusceptibility to killing infections are found often with the younger parts of their roots killed, but with the older portions apparently able to resist invasion by the fungus, recovery taking place by laterals. Dr. R. D. Rands and the writer in 1911 established the ability of seedlings from 43-day-old beds of Pinus sylvestris, P. banksiana, P. nigra austriaca, and P. nigra poiretiana to survive such infections, even when more than half of the root system has been destroyed, by transplanting such root-sick seedlings and 10 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. observing their continued growth (fig. 6). An article recently found (25) shows — that Biittner had earlier made the same sort of demonstration of recovery of root-sick conifers. Observations on olive seedlings in 1916 showed cases of — partially rotted roots which were recovering by sending out lateral root — branches. (4) Top damping: The cotyledons or upper part of the stem are invaded by the parasite, sometimes before the seedling breaks through the soil. The infec- tion may or may not be fatal. A special case of this type, probably caused by a different parasite from those most commonly active, is that which in a publica- tion above referred to was described and figured as “black-top” (68). It is Ff Ilia. 4.—The beginning of an epidemic in drill-sown Pinus banksiana. Black crosses (X) indicate disease foci where the germinating seed were apparently killed and from which the disease is now spreading to adjacent seedlings. (Photographed by Dr. J. V. Hofmann.) ‘ distinguished from ordinary top damping by the very dark color of the invaded tissues and its apparent dependence on some unusual set of climatic factors for its progress in the seedling after infection. The killing of dormant seed by fungi is a matter of some practical interest in seed beds, and possibly still more so in forests, as it may help to explain the failure of certain conifers to reproduce except on mineral or certain other special soil types (68). With sugar beets Pythium debaryanum (100) is said to attack dormant seed as well as seeds which have sprouted. It is to be presumed that with conifers some of the damping-off fungi will be found to attack dormant as well as sprouting seed. This matter is now under investigation. DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. ill Something is already known about the seed fungi of herbaceous plants (76, 91), broad-leaved trees (79, 92), and juniper (95). RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE DIFFERENT TYPES. Of the types of damping-off described in the foregoing pages the first two are ordinarily the most important. Late damping-off is rarely as serious as the normal type of damping-off. Top damping is only of importance in cases of excessive and unusual atmospheric moisture, so far as the writer’s experience indicates. In the Middle West it has proved relatively insignificant. The three types which Bic. 5.—Nearly complete destruction of the seedlings of Pinus banksiana at an unusually early age, at Garden City, Kans. (Photographed by Dr. J, V. Hofmann.) occur after the seedlings appear above the soil surface can, of course, be evaluated by frequent counts during the damping-off season. This has apparently not yet been done by anyone. However, in experi- ments on damping-off control by soil disinfection, data have been obtained on comparative emergence (number of seedlings appearing above the soil surface) in treated and untreated plats and on the total parasitic losses after the seedlings appear which permit a certain amount of analysis of the losses due to damping-off parasites. The data from five nurseries bearing on this point are presented in Table I. . 12 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, TABLE I.—Relative importance of losses by damping-off before and after conifer seedlings emerge from the soil. Basis. Loss in control plats. Number of Emerged r Nursery and species. Series. plats. (viable seeds). Ra Disinfectant. col. 6 to Treat-| Con- | Be- ed, |trols.| fore. After./Total./ col. 7. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Bessey (Nebraska sand hills): PAC eee Chae Ck. _ Pinus banksiana..........- Average of 9....) Sulphuric acid} (a) (0) | 37.8 |¢€27.2 | 65. 0) ¢1.39 SPinus ponderosa.........-- Average of 2..5,<15 Sed Obese aeeee 6 8 | 28.1) 27.3 | 55.4 | 1.03 ‘eeePinus resinosa.....-....--.- Average Of3s.c0\-enadOsessaeecer 4 7 | 29.4 | 54.1} 83.5 . 54 en City (southwestern Kansas): | Pinus austriaca..........-- Average of 2....| Copper — sul- 4 3 | 69.0 | 27.5 | 96.5 | 2.52 phate. Binlisanksiana oe eee ee (00h ee Zine chlorid. - . 3 2| 80.7 | 12.0 | 92.7 | 6.72 Pinus ponderosa.........-- Average of 7....| Copper sul- 17 29 | 15.3 | 30.9 | 46.2 .49 : phate. Cass Lake (northern Minne- sota): INOWLOSIER= nae Formaldehyde 6 3 | 3.8 | 37.2 | 41.0 . 10 INOS 1052S eases sees Coe Sette 6 3 | 25.7 | 36.2 | 61.9 3 am F Face NON LOs3 Sere Zine chlorid. .. 4 4{ 5.7] 26.2 | 31.9 é Pinus resinosa.........-..-- No. 054.800: (0m peers 4| 3) | 0a dileazie 5 1:| 6.18 Nos. 1057 and | Heat........-. 4 2) 4.91] 16.9 | 21.8 29 1061. East Tawas (Michigan): > F 1073: eae Formaldehyde 6 3 | 5.9 | 45.3 | 51.2 13 Pinus resinosa............-. {i074 oie panty Sulphuric acid 2| 71 58.2|180| 76.2) 3.25 Nos. 791 and | Formaldehyde 7 8 | 12.6 | 36.1 | 48.7 35 Fort Bayard (New Mexico): 792. Pinus ponderosa.......-.--- Nos. 891 and | Sulphuric acid 8 6 | 14.5 | 18.6 | 33.1 78 892. | @ Area counted, 122 squats fect. b Area counted, 78 square feet. ¢In Pinus banksiana ax the Bessey Nursery, the loss after emergence is slightly low and the ratio slightly high, because of the closing of counts on afew of the series before damping-off was entirely over. The procedure was to average the number of seedlings which emerged in the control plats in each series and subtract this number from the average number emerging (that is, appearing above the soil surface) in the treated plats in the same series. The treated plats chosen were the ones which allowed the averaging of the greatest number of plats treated with the same disinfectant. Only those plats were taken in which there was no evidence of injury to the seed or seedlings by the disinfectant and in which the amount of normal damping-off during the first few days after emergence was so slight as to indicate satisfactory initial control of the parasites by the treatment. In such plats it was assumed that the germination loss was unimportant, and the average number of seedlings appear- ing on them was taken as representing the number of viable seeds per plat. The difference between this emergence figure and the average emergence in the controls was taken as indicating the extent of para- sitic loss before the seedlings appeared, including any destruction of dormant seed by parasites which may have occurred as well as the killing of germinating seed. Both this figure and the number - | j of seedlings which succumbed to damping-off after emergence were reduced to a percentage based on the indicated number of viable seeds, and they are directly compared in columns 6 and 7 of Table I. At three of the nurseries the data of the same species of pine and with the same treatment were averaged. The data in Table I do not indicate any regularity either in the extent of loss before emergence, the loss after emergence, or in the ratio between these two values. For ob- vious reasons, no reg- uwlarity is to be ex- pected in any of these items. The table is of some interest, however, in confirm- ing the evidence of the inoculation ex- periments, of obser- vation of sprouting seed dug up in the beds, and of the par- tial or complete fail- ure of emergence at the centers of large damping-off foci (figs. 4, 7, and 8) that the work of parasites before the seedlings appear may in some cases be of consider- able importance. It is obviously impos- sible to make any general quantitative statement of the se- ‘riousness of such loss, DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 13 E : : Fic. 6.—Root sickness in Pinus nigra poiretiana. The two in view of the varla- seedlings at the right are healthy. The three at the left tion in its extent at a tiie ne ss ae oe eer Renee different times and the lowermost sound point. Similarly injured seedlings places and of the in- when transplanted lived and made satisfactory growth. accuracy of any computations based on the relative emergence of hosts as irregular in their germination as the conifers are known to be. The case is complicated in addition by the fact that, despite careful avoidance of treated plats known to have suffered chemical injury, it is probable that a few seedlings were killed before emergence by the disinfectants used in some of the 14 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, cases. It may furthermore be that in other cases the disinfectant had a stimulating effect, resulting in better germination in the treated plats, entirely aside from that resulting from parasite control. The number of disinfectant methods which concurred in giving apparent increases in germination, however, makes it seem reasonably cer- tain that no great part of the increase was due to this stimulation. In addition to the different disinfectants shown in the table, mer- eurie chlorid, heat, hydrochloric acid, nitric acid, and ammonia all apparently resulted in approximately the same increases of germina- tion in tests at the Bessey Nursery as the sulphuric acid which was used as the standard for comparison in most of the series. Relative emergence in treated and untreated plats, as well as damping-off Fic. 7.—A clean-killed area in a bed of Pinus ponderosa, caused by Corticium vagum. Inside a 12-inch circle at the center of this ‘‘ patch”? no seedlings appeared. It will be noted that the weeds as well as the pines have been killed with the exception of Salsola tragus. , loss after the seedlings appeared, was determined at two nurseries in addition to those given in the table. The results at these nurseries in general confirmed those at the five nurseries covered by the table in showing lower emergence in the controls. Although it is impossible to draw positive conclusions, some idea of the seriousness of losses before the appearance of the seedlings above ground can be obtained by studying the data in Table I. The fact that such losses appear considerable, sometimes exceeding the losses from the damp- ing-off that occurs after emergence, is believed to explain the com- mon failure to secure satisfactory results from control measures taken after the seedlings have come up and the disease has become noticeable. It is somewhat interesting to note that the data in the DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. iS table tend to confirm field observations that, as compared with other species, Pinus resinosa is more susceptible to the later forms of damping-off than to germination loss. Further indication that the killing of germinating seed before emergence may be important enough to help explain cases of poor germination is obtained by an entirely different method, as follows: At the Wind River Experiment Station of the United States Forest Service counts of the seedlings emerging and of those which later died were made on a number of untreated plats by forest officers, who kindly permitted the writer to use the data obtained. The counts were made separately on 10 plats each of noble fir (Abies nobilis) and silver fir (Abies concolor). The plats of each species had been sown with equal quantities of seed. It appeared on in- spection of the figures that the plats which showed the poorest emer- Fic. 8.—The area shown in figure 7 after the bed had been weeded and damping-off had practically ceased. (Photographed by S. C. Bruner.) gence were also the ones which suffered the most subsequent loss. The coefficient of correlation between the number of seedlings emerging and the percentage of subsequent loss in the same plats was found to be —0.49+0.16 for the noble fir, and —0.50+0.16 for the silver fir, an average of —0.49+0.11 for the two species, confirming the conclusion drawn from inspection of the figures. In other words, poor emergence and heavy subsequent loss were in general associated. The simplest explanation of this association appears to be to suppose that both poor emergence and subsequent loss were largely due to the same cause, namely, the damping-off parasites. Another possible -explanation of the correlation would be to neglect parasites as im- portant causes of the poor emergence in certain plats and to suppose that the higher subsequent loss in such plats was due to heat injury, the less dense stands affording less shade to the bases of the seedlings composing it. As damping-off is in general so much more important than heat injury as a cause of death after emergence and the dif- ference in the degrees of shade between the plats with the denser 16 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and the plats with the thinner stands must have been very slight, this latter explanation has not much to support it. The data are believed to constitute further evidence of the importance of parasites in de- creasing the percentage of emergence in coniferous seed beds. That the effect of parasites on emergence should have been large enough in this case to make itself apparent on the face of the figures, despite the variations due to other sources, is especially interesting in view of the fact that the losses after emergence in these plats were not ee ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF DAMPING-OFF. The importance of damping-off in coniferous nurseries in Europe is indicated by frequent reference to the disease in the literature. Biittner (25, 26) states that whole beds are frequently destroyed by it. Baudisch (9) speaks of the death of entire stands in many nurseries as the result of damping-off. In the United States Spauld- ing (137) considers damping-off a serious obstacle in forestation operations. Clinton (28, p. 348-349) reports serious damage to conifers in New England nurseries. The writer has found the dis- ease especially prevalent in nurseries in Nebraska and Kansas, a some- what unexpected situation in view of the relatively dry conditions prevailing there. A correspondent has reported heavy loss in seed beds in Texas. The economic importance of the disease in conifers is due in part to the rather heavy average losses experienced at many nurseries and in part to the irregular character of the losses. In one season losses may be negligible, while the next season the beds of certain. species may be practically wiped out. Even without this element of uncertainty the losses experienced are expensive, because of the high cost of coniferous seed. The seed of some species costs from $3 to $5 a pound and seldom shows a germination of more than 60 per cent under nursery conditions. Aes ona win So eC cee oe ND. 3:2 ove canis Saw Ue eee pereeeei teen Pinus attenuatasc.: ste2 ieee = oe ea) hoe eee is | eee eee np S 5 SEE See PATITIS DADKSIANA Sash iecicie cae 2 ceecieiets line ee Nb. Nicos seca Psae ce Boe, B., H. (2) PITS CONCOMA. =~ pen aeee > «cine ais ceases Tome Nb DY. cco 3k salle loca | peeteemeceeee PintnS Calis... sos Se ceteen ssh. oes eee Te 222 ape wind Job ais copii mele | Ole esae eer eee cee te a Host names for American species follow the usage in the publications and a later verbal communication of Mr. George B. Sudworth, of the United States Forest Service. For exotic species the Standard Cyclo- pedia of Horticulture, New York, 1916, edited by L. H. Bailey, is taken as the standard. The classification follows Saxton (118). + Symbols signifying the authority for the report: B= Boerker (13), Bu= Biittner (25, 26), Bp= Bates and Pierce (7), C=Clinton (28), H= Writer’s estimate, N= Nurserymen’s estimate (obtained by the writer), Nb= Neger and Biittner (94), Ne= Neger (93), P= Nurserymen’s estimate (obtained by Pierce), T= Forest officers’ estimate (compiled by Tillotson, 139). c Susceptibility to Phytophthora fagi. DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 21 | Taste II.—Relative susceptibility to damping-off of different conifer species—Continued. " Reports of relative susceptibility. Host species. Not | Least More sus- 3 sus- | sus- aS |) HENS |) entities, |) 228 than medi- suscep- Corr cep | average ate phanjthe tible tible. | tible. Be. - | average. : Pinacez (A bietoideze)—Continued. TTISIOR COIS AEs sniceee cece ssceecsies|ememe sins IND S228 eke e ctl eee gteaeltceccseisaee IPTG jileeall Te CO eon cSaseescenee deseecete eae IN Scebe GaP eRenonee Base onne eect metose ETERS CLTTONALE SS OR ASG Cee ae Ste eee ct eee eee A ee eS al eee TS (2) eee PEAT SUED CHUAN ae a me ese Peels nas fee) csc als aoe eee lnc aeeeeas [seek Se. Deter ea FED TAI ST OMG ATA USM See ae 5 feces sis esaiall ho odon 5's a oe eee |incioe seamen (Pe ysas)s| Se se auc: PANUISMOMTICOlAss 4. ose ese eS ed Merseme iee iaek Be MSR) See |e eee ae ae Pinus nigra austriaca (Austrian pine)....|.....--- INoRete ENS Es (3) oe sce aoe Bp Ni Pinus nigra poiretiana (Corsican pine)....| Bp--..]........|..-..-.----- 1 och Ree ers ae eee ESTTTUS SOs MUS UNISen ee ose ete Heme nae pre ecamie|(as ose acl eaatenmaliace at neers se Bisse clo eet sees IPINUISINOUCES ae sae cae2- see esse ee mone | seeeertae Nf) op aoe loaeaasoenec tasesece maae eemaace Pinus ponderosa (type not specified) .-..- AS) 53 | eee BP. ae INDDe= oe ky (4) 2c Pinus ponderosa (Eastern Rocky Moun- CALMED) Peer eee ee See stad cc etek aleticcees [ueenaeas Jag GD Sees oe eoecc Bien stee Anus MONG erOsay (PacinciCOast tye) sa.-\es=- 624 See-eeer|| bess ase. scene seemesieceere = EITESIRESIN OSAe Serer eecl-oe = toate = ects e's 2|- otic |eeceee se ING) 2226-|2eeeryene Bp} Hehe) Bet EU ERCL SBE Las eRe ae oie ree Sea yaaa | Soyo )= (Ss ara BOOS | eee aa cae cee Na sareeee IPIMUSSULODMSS2ys-sisee 2a zai este e = te Pine 2eeeae io} JE INES Naser CNL. PITTS SV WCSthISeres eateries ace mae acca eases si -cleeeeee (2) Secor lat Peat leo th (Gal! INK EUIITISIOA CU a apse ee Seah = ye ctpeis Salsas e| ssa ee Bee ee ee ceieame [Sere -s| bees sae EATS TCM ELST yas see se ee cia ewe es soe INTL OS 5) eet aes ee ee nen VE ea eee » Pseudotsuga taxifolia (type not specified).|.......-]......-- INT) Gi) | MES IN (See EeSeudorsweataxiiola (Colorado type).---|4----2-4| NDseealtesece cece) ee cece oe] noes Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Northwestern VIDE eee tenes Saree oe ise fem eisiaseiseencclonss-eice ID es joeeeseeee IN]lS ae) heseacsocees FSi oe CH ila G CNSIS= ae aemarse casket cane |e oa] oer seer peeca seen Nibe Es | PBs seeese NM beronepoms=<2-- 2-c2-s22 2-2 - ces 9 17 51 23 48 15 IBCLCEN DASE OMTObals cs saeco mai jens aie 6 10 31 14 29 9 Sciadopitoidex: SGEG OO ie WEL Ripe S Sooo See cane oases Coos aemel oe > aiso| SSS e Mee! Preeti (= mess eeepe Nb. Cupressaceze (Cupressoidez ): Chamaecyparis lawsoniana...........--.-|.------- Nb. Ye eee ee Bis geste Chamaecyparis pisifera..............-..-- Cryptomeria japonica Cupressus spp- - Cupressus arizonica Juniperus communis Juniperus monosperma...---...---------- Juniperus pachyphloea...-...--..-------- Juniperus virginiana Sequoide: Taxacee: Libocedrus dectirrens Taxodium distichum... Thuja occidentalis. - Thuja orientalis... Thuja plicata..--.-..- Number of reports Percentage of total Sequoia spp....-...--..-.- Sequoia washingtoniana Taxus cuspidata Soft escesbssesess sees! Species. The fact most evident in Table II is the extreme variation between reports, not only on closely related species but even on the same While it is, of course, possible that the obvious lack of a definite basis and method of comparison in most of the reports is responsible for most of this variation, it seems to the writer more probable that different species do actually vary in their relative sus- ceptibility to damping-off in different localities. In the first place, 22 BULLETIN 934, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the conditions which might increase resistance of one host might very easily decrease its resistance for a host with different environ- mental requirements. To illustrate by an extreme example, the pinon (Pinus edulis) of the arid or semiarid region might remain resistant in soils in which Picea engelmanni of the high mountain- stream bottoms or Picea mariana of the northern swamps might be low in vigor and easily attacked. In the second place, it is to be expected that species with a certain order of relative susceptibility to the parasites which predominate at one nursery may exhibit a very different order of susceptibility to the different. combination of para- sites which might be prevalent in another locality. The only individual species on which there are a sufficient number of reports and a sufficient agreement between the reports are the two common western spruces, Picea pungens and P. engelmanni, which (at least as compared with Picea excelsa) seem rather susceptible, and Pinus ponderosa, which (as compared with most of the other species of the Abietoidez) is to be regarded as generally more re- sistant than the average. Within each of the larger genera of this group it seems evident that susceptibility is extremely varied and that no statement as to the relative susceptibility of the genera them- selves can therefore be made. The only group generalization that is perhaps permissible is derived from the consideration of the Cupressoidexw. In this group, out of 23 reports, 16 are in the “ not susceptible” or “least susceptible” columns and only one indicates more than intermediate susceptibility. Of 163 reports pertaining to the Abietoidez, only 26 place them in the “not susceptible” or “least susceptible ” columns and 63 in the classes of more than inter- mediate susceptibility. The general feeling among nurserymen seems to be that serious damping-off need not be feared among the cedars and their relatives. The data at hand tend to justify this confidence. CONTROL OF DAMPING-OFF. Early efforts to prevent damping-off were chiefly directed to the avoidance of excessive moisture in either the air or soil. A means to this end, which has been observed more or less by nurserymen for many years, both in the United States and elsewhere, is the applica- tion of small quantities of dry sand to the seed beds after the disease becomes noticeable (18, p. 166; 83). This is sometimes applied hot (101, p. 48-44; 145), though even this procedure does not result in very great advantage. Surfacing with hot sand can not always be counted on to give any measurable advantage over untreated beds (67, p. 3). The use of sand (25) or sterile subsoil (101) instead of ordi- nary soil in covering seed at the time of sowing has been advised. Johnson (82) did not secure satisfactory results with sand in tobacco a DAMPING-OFIF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 23 beds. Making the upper part of the bed to a depth of several inches of recently dug subsoil appeared effective in a single test by Spaulding (137) and at four nurseries by cooperaters of the writer in later tests, the results of which will be published elsewhere. The procedure is unfortunately rather expensive in large-scale work and under some conditions at least undesirable because of the poor subsequent growth on such soil. Excessive vegetable matter (45), imperfectly rotted manure (67), or green manures recently plowed under (48) have all been advised against as likely to favor the disease. The experience reported with conifers (67, 139) indicates that damping-off can be to a certain extent decreased by broadcast sowing as compared with sowing in drills. The usual recommendation of thin sowing to avoid the seed-bed disease of other plants has also been made for conifers (67). Transplanting healthy seedlings from infected beds into new soil is recommended as a means of saving them from attack (11, 145). ' The writer’s tests of transplanting at a Nebraska nursery gave no promise of economic value as a control method, although he is in- formed that it was successfully employed in a nursery in New Mex- ico. The time of sowing appears to have a relation to the amount of disease at some nurseries, but conditions in this regard evidently differ in different localities, so that the best time to sow from the standpoint of avoiding damping-off must be determined separately by repeated tests at each nursery. For example, observations both by the nurserymen and the writer during several seasons at the Bessey Nursery, in Nebraska, indicate that fall sowing is an ex- cellent means of decreasing loss from damping-off in at least one pine species, and Retan (110) reports the same thing for a nursery in Pennsylvania, while at two Kansas nurseries and at nurseries men- tioned by Tillotson (139) fall-sown beds suffer more than those sown in the spring. Treatment of the seed with mercuric chlorid (25) or with copper sulphate (122) has been recommended. While it has been demon- strated (38) that a proper heat treatment of the seed will greatly decrease the damping-off in sugar-beet seedlings, this is explained by the fact that one of the most important parasites of the sugar beet is systemic and often present in the seed. There is no reason to believe that seed-carried infection is of any importance in conif- erous seed beds. The only advantage that could reasonably be expected from a seed treatment of conifers would be that which would come from the prevention of seed decay in the soil before germination starts, and this protection could be expected to be ef- fective only if a relatively insoluble disinfectant, such as Bordeaux mixture, was used. ! Soil treatment is the most direct and probably the most profitable method of attack on the disease. It is especially easy, for tobacco 24 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. seedlings (82) as well as for pines, to prevent by soil disinfection losses before the seedlings appear above the ground. Heat disinfec- tion of seed beds has boen frequently mentioned. Burning wood or litter on the surface of the beds before sowing, said by Gilbert (47, p. 36) to be a common procedure in preparing tobacco seed beds both in Italy and in parts of this country, has been recommended for coniferous seed beds by Biittner (25). The disadvantageous results sometimes noticed following the application of wood ashes to pine seed beds may prove an objection to this type of treatment in some of the nurseries. Ata Nebraska nursery (67) moist heat proved only partly satisfactory, unavoidable reinfection having serious results. Steam disinfection, using the inverted-pan method commonly advo- cated for tobacco seedlings (10, 47, 81), has been reported by Scott (123) as successful at a nursery in Kansas. Gifford (46) found steaming with the inverted pan only partly satisfactory. It is not believed that it is hkely to pay to install the necessary apparatus for » steam disinfection at nurseries in nonagricultural districts where steam tractors are not available for temporary use. The hot-water soil treatment as used by Byars and Gilbert (27) is probably worth a trial at any nursery where damping-off is serious and fuel cheap. | It may be that in some localities where steam or hot-water treatment of the soil is not sufficiently effective, its efficiency can be increased by reinoculating the soil immediately after treatment with sapro- phytic molds and bacteria to provide maximum competition for parasites which come in from the outside. Tests of this procedure will be described later in the present bulletin. The value of char- coal has been emphasized by Retan (109, 110). Chemical disinfection of the soil has also been employed. Sulphur has long been in use as a soil treatment against the damping-off of various plants (45, 111) in addition to its use in combating potato scab and onion smut. It was tested on conifers by Spaulding (1386, 137) in the form of light surface applications to the beds after ger- mination, but without decisive result. In later cooperative tests pow- dered sulphur raked into the soil before the sowing of the seed failed to indicate any large measure of value. Very finely divided forms of sulphur in various amounts and times of application are prob- ably worth some further test. Moller (90) and Sherbakoff (128) have reported the successful use of copper sulphate in combating attacks of Corticium on dicotyle- dons. In Johnson’s experiments on tobacco seedlings (82, table 3) copper salts and Bordeaux mixture were the only chemicals for which any value was indicated. Sherbakoff apparently used copper sulphate and other strong disinfectants chiefly to stop the extension of vigorously spreading damping-off foci by local treatment rather than as a general treatment for use over the beds. Such treatment DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 95 would presumably kill all seedlings on the area treated, but would, of course, be of considerable value in’ stopping at the outset such mycelia as those which caused the damped-off area in figure 7. The procedure would be of practical value only in cases in which damp- -ing-off was chiefly limited to a few large patches of this sort, a rather rare condition in conifers. Copper sulphate solutions have been used on pine seed beds at the time of sowing with considerable success at some nurseries (65, 67). Except in a nursery in which the soil contained carbonates, it has proved rather difficult to prevent injury to the pines. The trial of some such combination of copper sulphate and lime as was used by Spaulding (136) on the surface of pine beds before sowing, which apparently prevented the damping-off of lettuce in some unpub- lished pot experiments of Mr. J. F. Breazeale, is considered desir- able. ‘Treating seed beds with ordinary Bordeaux mixture has also been recommended. Horne (78) secured especially good results against Corticium vagum in tobacco seed beds by heavy applications of Bordeaux mixture, and Schramm (122) and Clinton (28) have obtained indications of its value as a spray in preventing the damp- ing-off of conifers. It is probably worth further tests in various amounts of application. In tests conducted by the writer in 1912 and still unpublished, some advantage was indicated for Bordeaux mixture as a surface treatment after soil disinfection with acid. Zine chlorid as a soil disinfectant has also been found valuable in a number of cases (65, 67), but it is more expensive and apparently less dependable than copper sulphate. Formaldehyde and sulphuric acid have been tested more fre- quently than other disinfectants. The use of sulphuric acid on coniferous seed beds was originated by Spaulding (136). The first intensive experiments with this acid were reported by the writer (63). The first experiments with formaldehyde on conifers seem to have been in the early greenhouse tests of Spaulding (137), repeated in forest nurseries in 1907 by Jones (83) and Spaulding (136). Most of the experiments with these two substances have already been sum- marized (67). A report not mentioned in this summary is that of Schaaf (119, p. 88), who obtained favorable results with the acid. The great trouble with formaldehyde is its tendency to kill dormant seed. The length of time which must be allowed to elapse between treatment and sowing in order to avoid this killing varies with con- ditions. Formaldehyde is more expensive than acid and seems on the whole to have been less effective in disease control. Acid, on the other hand (applied just after the seed is sown, which is found to be the best time), on a few soils has caused injury to radicles, which it was at first thought could be prevented only by very frequent watering during the germination period; while in a few cases, when cold 26 BULLETIN 934, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. weather resulted in a long germination period, it has killed or in- hibited the germination of some of the dormant seed. All injury can be prevented by treatment a few days before sowing, followed by the addition of lime just before sowing, but lime used in this way has apparently destroyed a considerable part of the value of the acid treatment against the disease. Further consideration of the data on which earlier papers (63, 67) were based indicates that the apparent need for frequent watering during the germination period, which was required at a few of the nurseries where the first tests of acid treatment were made, as well as practically all of the germina- tion reduction, was due to the use of unnecessarily large applications of acid and that the trouble can be eliminated by determining by test the minimum quantity of acid which will be reasonably effective — in each locality. If this can be done it should establish the acid treatment as the most profitable for general use of any of the methods of damping-off control which have so far been extensively tested. In view of the various parasites which may cause damping-off at different times and places and which vary greatly both in their means of dissemination and in their physiological qualities, it is not believed that any single disinfectant will be found entirely satisfac- tory at all nurseries. It is also unfortunately true that no one strength of treatment can be recommended for all nurseries. The quantity of acid to be used at any specified nursery will have to be determined by test at that nursery. A single test, no matter how well conducted, is not sufficient to serve as a basis for conclusions. However, a number of small-scale tests, made at different times and in different parts of the seed-bed area, should determine the best treatment for any particular nursery with a reasonable degree of certainty and’ with very little work. If the plats are equal in size and receive equal quantities of seed, all the nurseryman needs to do to determine the value of the treatments is to count the number of living seedlings on the different plats at the end of the season. The decrease in the number of weeds as a result of the use of acid is itself sufficient at a number of nurseries to pay the entire cost of the treatment. Detailed methods of application have already been pub- lished (67). The differing proportions of acid between which the best treatment will ordinarily be found to lie are 2 and 7 ¢. ¢. (one- sixteenth and one-fourth of a fluid ounce) of the concentrated com- mercial acid per square foot of seed bed, applied just after the seed is sown and covered. It should be dissolved in 500 to 1,000 c. ¢. (1 to 2 pints) of water per square foot of bed before applying. The drier the soil before treatment, the more water should be used in dissolving the acid. No treatment applied after germination begins can have the maxi- mum value in controlling the disease, because the damping-off para- dq DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. al sites frequently, if not usually, do part of their work before the seed- lings appear above the soil. Furthermore, any treatment at all effect- ive against the disease is almost certain to hurt the seodnes if applied after the seed starts to sprout. Both the acid and copper-sulphate treatments which have been found useful in pine seed beds are of very doubtful value for most hosts other than conifers, as the angiosperms on which observations have so far been made are too easily injured by the disinfectants. The weeds in the nurseries have been injured or entirely kept from appearing by treatments which caused no injury to the pines. CAUSAL FUNGI. CORTICIUM VAGUM. Occurrence and parasitism—tIn a recent publication (68) Corti- cum vagum B. and C. (C. vagum solani Burt, Hypochnus solani Pril. et Del., the common damping-off Rhizoctonia) has been reported on a number of conifers. Inoculation, reisolation, and reinoculation on pine have established its, parisitism on this host beyond a reason- able doubt, though in these inoculations, as in most, if not all, the work which has been done with the fungus on angiospermous hosts, the cultures employed have been from plantings of diseased tissue instead of from single spores. The inoculation experiments have confirmed the field observations indicating that this fungus is fully as able to cause loss by destroying germinating seed below the soil surface as to cause damping-off of the better known type after the seedlings appear above the soil surface. An extensive list of angiosperms on which the fungus has been reported is given by Peltier (98). Cross-inoculations between the pines (68), on the one hand, and potato (40) and sugar beet (38) have shown the same strains to be parasitic on both conifers and angiosperms and established the physiological as well as the morpho- logical identity of the fungus attacking pines with the common Corticium vagum. Now that Duggar (34) has offered strong, though not yet entirely conclusive, evidence of the identity of C. vagum with the European “vermehrungspilz” (the Moniliopsis aderholdii of Ruhland; 115) it is to be presumed that it is a cause of damping-off of conifers in Europe as well as in Amer- ica, though no reports of it on conifers have been so far en- countered in European literature. The Rhizoctonia reported by Somerville (132) on Pinus sylvestris and the Rhizoctonia strobi de- scribed by Scholz (121) as killing young Pinus strobus were both on trees more than 4 years old, so that they had no relation to damp- ing-off. Furthermore, the first of these was apparently the old Rhizoctonia violacea, now known as FP. crocorum (R. medacaginis) , a fungus entirely distinct from Corticium vagum, probably belong- 28 BULLETIN 934, U.:S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ing to an altogether different group of fungi and not known to cause damping-off of any host. Rhizoctonia strobi is not sufficiently de- scribed to allow determination of its identity. Variations in virulence-—In the imoculations earlier reported on conifers, different strains of Corticitum vagum were said to vary greatly in virulence (68). Further examination of the data on which this statement was based yields confirmatory evidence. Part of this evidence is shown graphically in figures 1, 2, and 10. The experiments on which these graphs were based involved at the time of seed, sowing the addition to the soil of apparently pure cultures of C. vagum. Throughout each experiment the different units received PINUS BANKEIANA PINUS RESINOSA 19/7 1918 ee ae ee 8 SEEDLINGS GERMINATED PER 100INCONTROLS 9 Fic. 10.—Diagram showing the relative activity of different strains of Corticium vagum, as indicated by the number of seedlings appearing in inoculated pots.» Hxplanation of symbols: O =—Strain 147, from spruce seedlings, Washington, D. C., 1910; V —=strain 215, from sugar beet seedlings, Washington, D. C., 1911; [J=—strain 230, from Hlaeagnus sp., Kansas, 1915; 0 =strain 233, from the same lesion as strain 230. Strains re- isolated from these, the results of which appear in experiments Nos. 71 and 72, are indicated by the same signs as the original strains used in the inoculations from which they were taken, ‘The original strains in experiments Nos. 71 and 72 are indicated by arrows. equal quantities of seed, and the culture substratum used in inoculat- ing was the same for all strains. Experiments 36, 45, 47, 49, and 51 were conducted on plats in out-of-door drill-sown beds, experiment 36 on an alkaline soil, all of which had been heated in a moist con- dition at a temperature of not less than 80° C. for not less than 10 minutes,’ and experiments 45, 47, 49, and 51 on a sand which had 2This temperature is probably high enough to eliminate damping-off organisms. Tests by Dr. Theodore C. Merrill indicate that the three most virulent parasites so far worked with are killed by placing agar tube cultures for 10-minute periods in water at the following temperatures: Pythium debaryanum, 65° C.; Corticium vagum, 50° C. for mycelium and 60° C. for sclerotia; Fusarium moniliforme, 70° C. Both the Pythium and Fusarium cultures contained spores. The possibility of the survival of oospores which would not be capable of germination for several months was apparently eliminated by the writer, who retained Dr. Merrill’s heated Pythium tubes and made final transfers from them 71 months after heating, still without securing growth. Plenty of typical oospores were present in the part of the heated culture from which transfers were made, DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 29 been treated with sulphuric acid followed later by lime. The other experiments included in the graphs were on autoclaved sandy loams in pots in the greenhouse. In these graphs are included all of the results in which the same groups of strains were used repeatedly in different experiments. In figure 1, the values plotted for experi- ments 36, 49, and 51 are for the number of seedlings which appeared above ground, the heavy inoculations and favorable conditions for damping-off in these experiments being such that even weak strains caused heavy losses and the survivals therefore do not give differ- ential results. Comparison of the survival data in the other experi- ments in figure 1 with the emergence data for the same strains in that figure and in figure 10 indicates that the strains best able to reduce survival are also the ones best able to reduce emergence. While the data presented in the graphs are not entirely consistent, it is very evident from them that strains 147, 213, and in a lesser degree 206 were regularly more virulent than most of the strains in tests conducted several years apart on different species of Pinus. It is also evident that certain strains of 186 and 189 which appear in figure 2 are quite regularly of low or doubtful virulence. Strains 50, 183, 192, 211, 212, 230, and 233, whose virulence is apparently inter- mediate, show a greater variability. In experiments 36, 45, 47, 49, and 51, in which conditions especially favor parasitism, they may cause practically as serious loss as the regularly virulent strains, the best differential results being shown in experiments in which the disease is less favored. The apparent variation in the relative viru- lence of such strains in different experiments may, of course, mean that their virulence is differently affected by different conditions. It seems rather more probable that the variation in relative activity is to be classed as accidental variation, necessarily great with small units which are subject to numerous uncontrollable variables. It seems entirely possible, however, that part of the observed differences in relative activity may be due to differences, not in virulence, but in the ability of the different strains to maintain themselves saprophyt- ically in different soils during the period between inoculation and the commencement of germination. For example, strains 230 and 233 came from a nursery in southwestern Kansas in which the soil- acidity exponent, as determined by Dr. L. J. Gillespie, of the United States Bureau of Plant Industry, is 8.4. It seems entirely possible that these strains, rather strongly parasitic in some of the experi- ments, including an experiment on the soil from which they were taken, might prove less able than strains from some other habitats to maintain themselves on some of the eastern soils used in the green- house tests. The source of strains 230 and 233 was furthermore a locality where high soil temperatures are to be expected. The fact 30 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that experiments 71 and 72, in which they showed the least virulence, were conducted in a colder greenhouse than any of the other tests may have had something to do with the lower activity indicated for these strains. Variation in the temperature requirements of different strains in accordance with the temperature of the source locality has already been demonstrated by Edgerton (35) for one of the anthrac- noses. It is hoped later to determine the temperature and acidity preferences of these two strains as compared with the others used. It should be noted that the consistently weak strain No. 189 (fig. 2), was abnormal in habit, lighter brown, and produced fewer sclerotia than typical strains. The other strains appearing in the graphs showed no conspicuous morphological or cultural differences that were identical. The only other strain which was noticeably abnormal in culture was one from pine seedlings in Kansas, intermediate in habit and color between No. 189 and the typical strains and indicat- ing little more virulence than. No. 189 in the few experiments in which it was used. It does not appear in figures 1 and 2, but was included in the experiments reported in the following paragraph. Peltier (99) believes low sclerotium-forming capacity to be a sign of degeneration and low virulence; the writer’s experience agrees with his as to virulence, but these two strains showed no other evi- dence of lack of vigor. As a further check on the reality of the apparent differences in virulence between different strains, all of the original strains avail- able at the time, a total of 29, were used in the practically duplicate experiments 71 and 72 and the relative survivals of the same strains in the two series mathematically and graphically compared (fig. 11). The very decided correlation between the two experiments indicated by the graph has a coefficient? of 0.813-+0.042, nineteen times its 2The correlation coefficient, a very useful thing for many kinds of biological work, which unfortunately has received little attention from plant pathologists, is explained by Secrist (124, p. 48 et seq.) and the process of computation described (124, p. 453-467). A shorter method of computation is*given by FE. Davenport (30, p. 465-467) ; the example he gives is of a series with a large number of varieties, in which the correlation table is employed. Davenport’s method is, however, just as useful in such a case as this, in which the number of varieties is. too small to make the formal table advantageous. In such a case the computation should be arranged as by Secrist (124, p. 460-461), but the guessed rather than the true mean used and Davenport’s formula employed. If the coefficient is +1, the correlation is perfect; if it is 0 there as no correlation, and if —1i, perfect negative correlation. The significance of a coefficient less than 1 is judged from its relation to its probable error. King (84), in an excellent discussion of cor- relation, gives rules for judging the degree of significance of the coefficient. The correlation coefficient has its greatest potential usefulness in examining apparent causal relations. It is soused in connection with the relation between the hydrogen-ion exponent and damping-off in considering figure 12 of the present bulletin. Interexperimental, or, as Harris calls them, ‘interannual’ correlation coefficients of the sort used for these Corticium strains have been used by Norton (96, p. 51) in measuring the constancy of rust resistance of asparagus strains, by Harris (54) in demonstrating the constancy of differences in various characters between strains or individuals, and they appear to be useful for this purpose in the present case. a DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 81 probable error. Peltier’s results permit similar correlations for the 18 strains common to his experiments 1 and 1A on carnation cuttings and for the 22 strains common to experiment 1 on cuttings and ex- periment 2 on seedlings. The coefficients found are decidedly lower than those obtained from the experiments on pine, 0.510.117 for the experiments on cuttings and 0.86+0.124 for the comparison of the results on cuttings with the results on seedlings, but neverthe- less indicate some interexperimental correlation for the same strains and therefore inherent differences in parasitic ability between the dif- ferent strains. ce.) es) g SELDLINGS SURVIVING PER SPOT UNIT 5 SYST AIS AS MES MI9gg 8 9 Fel FAI As aq STRAINS OF COPPTIC/IUM LAGU Fic. 11.—Diagram showing the comparative virulence of 29 strains of Corticium vagum in two successive inoculation experiments on Pinus resinosa. The results in experiment No. 71 are shown by the solid line, the strains being arranged from left to right in the order of descending virulence indicated by the number of seedlings surviving in this experiment. The results from the use of the same strains in experiment No. 72 are shown by the broken line. The obvious correlation between the two curves (coefficient 0.81+ 0.04) indicates a real difference in virulence between the different strains. The strains indicated by the underscored numbers are original strains and those not under- scored reisolations from the original strains in earlier inoculation experiments on pine seedlings. In the work on pine seedlings, with the possible exception of strains 230 and 233, there was no evidence of attenuation in arti- ficial culture. Strains 147 and 213, isolated in 1910 and 1911, re- spectively, seemed as strongly parasitic in experiments 71 and 72 (1917 and 1918) as any of the five strains isolated in 1916 or the six strains isolated in 1915. Of the 20 strains above mentioned, three pairs were isolated under such conditions and showed such later agreement in performance as to indicate their individual identity. For the purposes of considera- tion in the following paragraph, the one of these probably duplicate strains which happens to have the higher number was eliminated from each pair. The survival figures in pots inoculated with the 17 strains 32 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. remaining, giving the mean of the results in experiments 71 and 72, are shown graphically in figure 13, together with the results of some of Peltier’s experiments in which other strains were used. Per- centages of seedlings damped-off after germination are not included in these and most of the other data on pines because the most viru- lent strains often entirely prevent germination, and no value for sub- sequent loss is obtainable. The grouping of most of the writer’s strains at the least virulent end of the register (that is, the one with the highest number of living seedlings) is of some interest. The distributions based on the two experiments considered separately jor 9 rR Sethe Nat Qi Nas S | x Qé NZ % S J 8 | 8 e | > wy | ct % N Hn STATION f 2. Cee Pr ete OX) TANS 40 Wt 12 IA 1% 1 16 17 I'ic, 12.—Diagram showing the relation between damping-off of conifers (broken line) and soil acidity (solid line). The acidity of soil samples from the different nurseries, determined by Dr. L. J. Gillespie, is reported as Pu7, indicating approximate neutrality while Px6 indicates ten, and Pu5 one hundred times as great a hydrogen-ion concentra- tion as Pu7 ; therefore the lower the hydrogen-ion exponent line, the greater the acidity. The seriousness of damping-off at each nursery is on an arbitrary scale in which nurseries with negligible loss are rated as 1, and the nursery which suffered most is rated as 10. These values are estimates, though for some of the nurseries extensive counts were available on which the estimates were based. agreed very well in this grouping. The minor group at the end of extreme virulence is not taken to indicate an actual grouping but, rather, an artificial one, due to the fact that both the strongest strains and some less strong were thrown into the same group by the lack of additional seedlings for the stronger strains to kill. This lack of additional seedlings constituted a limiting factor. In other words, conditions favored damping-off even in these two experiments too much to permit completely differential results for the more viru- lent strains. Despite this artificial limit preventing the full vari- ability becoming evident, the coefficient of variability of the survivals DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. ; 2% had the high value of 63-+-9.7 per cent. The graph indicates also a decided, though less extreme,-degree of variability for Peltier’s strains on carnations; the survivals for the 18 strains which he used in both of his experiments on cuttings have a variability coefficient of 29-+3.5 per cent and the 23 strains in experiment 2 on seedlings BO =+-6.9 per cent. PYTHIUM DEBARYANUM ® coed fete bos 38 @ 0O CORTICIUM LAGUM WPITEPS STRAINS ON FINE o o0 00 a @ooo nPee TIERS STRAINS ON CARNATION CUTTINGS ee a Oo Bee eo BO .0. ...0 oO O PELTIER’S STRAINS ON CARNATION SEEDLINGS oO Q OO oO O Bae Oo oO oS alee oO eee fea ly YB O..* 20 +0 60 go /00 PLANTS SURVILING PEP 10Q/N CONTROLS Wig. 13.—Diagram showing the results. of inoculations with 17 strains of Corticium vagum and 35 strains of Pythium debaryanum, arranged in decreasing order of virulence from left to right, as indicated by the survivals in pots of pine seedlings artificially inoculated with them. The Pythium results represent the mean survivals in 5 pots inoculated with each strain in each of experiments Nos. 66, 67, and 68. Hach point located is therefore based on the results in 15 pots, 10 of Pinus banksiana and 5 of P. resinosa. The Corticium results on pine represent 5 or 6 pots each, in two experiments (Nos. 71 and 72) on P. resinosa. The outline circles represent P. debaryanum strains from East Tawas, Mich.; the solid circles represent strains from other localities. ‘The second row of squares shows the sum of the results in Peltier’s experiments Nos. 1 and la (99, his table 8). The lowest row of squares shows his results in experiment No. 2 (his table 4). ‘The strains represented in figure 13, as used on pine, include 1 from bean, 2 from potato, 1 from sugar beet, 1 from Elaeagnus, 2 from Picea engelmanni, and 10 from Pinus resinosa, P. ponderosa, and P. banksiana. Two were from Washington, D. C., 2 from New York, 1 from Ohio, 4 from Michigan, 4 from Minnesota, 1 from Ne- braska, 2 from Kansas, and 1 from California. The sources of these strains are widely distributed both as to host and locality; they are 19651°—Bull. 984—21——3 34 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. rather more representative of the country as a whole geographically than the strains in the larger of Peltier’s experiments, though less representative as to host sources. The number is too small to justify conclusions as to the proportion of Corticiwm vagum strains which can be expected to prove strongly virulent on pine. The data are offered merely as a beginning, to which it is hoped experimenters with other strains of C. vagum will make additions. In addition to the strains used in these two experiments, several others which had been lost or for other reasons could not be included in both the final experiments had been previously tested on pines in earlier experiments. Of these, 6 strains, 1 each from alfalfa, sugar beet, Pseudotsuga taxifolia, Pinus banksiana, P. resinosa, and P. strobus, gave indications of low virulence on the pines; 3 strains, 1 each from sugar beet, Pinus sylvestris, and P. ponderosa, gave indi- cations of rather high virulence; while another strain from P. ponde- rosa indicated an intermediate ability. to attack pine. Combining these strains with those represented in figure 13, there are data on 27 original strains, of which 8 are roughly classed as strongly virulent on pine seedlings, 14 as weak, and 5 as intermediate. Edson and Shapovalov (40) have conducted inoculation experi- ments on potato stems with 6 of the Corticium strains which had been used on pine, including the 5 strains mentioned by them on page 218 and their strains R. XV (the writer’s strain 192 of fig. 2) on page 215. Strains 147 and 724, which had proved the most destructive in the inoculations on pine, appeared also rather strongly virulent on potato. Strain No. 186, originally from potato, which had given no definite evidence of parasitism on pine, also proved unable to cause lesions on the potato stems. The remaining 38 strains, all of inter- mediate virulence on pine, gave results on potato which were less in- dicative of agreement with the order of virulence on pine. The data suggest that strains strongly parasitic on potato are likely to be strongly parasitic on pine, and vice versa, but the agreement between their results and the writer’s is not sufficiently complete to establish the point. FUSARIUM SPP. Fusarium is often found on or in damped-off seedlings (24, 46, 60, 94, 120, 137, 141, 142). The early inoculation experiments, conducted in the main with strains not sufficiently described to allow their iden- tification, have been recently summarized (68, p. 587), together with descriptions of inoculation experiments on pine seedlings with four commonly recognized species of Fusarium. These, though not fol- lowed by reisolation, gave rather definite evidence that Pusarium moniliforme Sheldon was decidedly parasitic and /’. solani less strongly so. Fusarium ventricosum Appel and Wollenw. was indi- Pi 3 cated as more strongly parasitic than /’. solani, but in a single test only and with a culture of doubtful purity. Fusarium acuminatum KE. and E. gave no evidence of parasitism. These results agreed with those of Spaulding (137) in indicating that the ability to attack seedling conifers is not limited to a single species of Fusarium and that /. moniliforme is ‘one of the more virulent. The statement by Hartig (61, p. 147-150) that a Fusariumlike fungus was able to cor- rode the young epidermis of pine seedlings has already been men- tioned. DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. on PYTHIUM DEBARYANUM. Pythium debaryanum Uesse (Artotrogus debaryanum Atkinson, Lucidium pythioides Lohde) has been known since 1874 (74, 86) as a common cause of damping-off of various angiosperms. The first known observation was made by De Bary about 1864 (74). Despite the large number of hosts on which it has been listed, its parasitism has been definitely established on few. Peters (100) has successfully inoculated sugar beets with pure cultures; at least part of his strains, including presumably part or all of those he used in inoculation tests, were obtained from single spores. Edson (88) working with the same host, reisolated the fungus from inoculated seedlings, and made reinoculations with it. Both find it able to cause root sickness of plants not attacked early enough to be killed outright. Johnson (82) and Knechtel (85) have caused damping-off of tobacco seed- lings with it, and the former reported it also able to persist in the cortex and kill the lower leaves of tobacco plants which survived attack. The fungus has long been reputed parasitic on potato tubers and has now been found by Hawkins (70) to be the chief cause of the rot known as “leak” in California. Peters (99) made success- ful inoculations with pure cultures on cuttings of Pelargonium. Most of the reports of parasitism, however, have been based on microscopic examination or more or less crude inoculation experi- ments. Noteworthy among the latter are those reported by Hesse (74) on Camelina sativa in the original description of the fungus. These were made before pure-culture technique had come into use with fungi, but were so thoroughly checked by microscopic obser- vations at every step in the process that they must be admitted as very good evidence of the parasitism of the fungus. A number of reported angiospermous hosts are listed by Butler (23), Voglino (143), and Johnson (82, p. 34, footnote, and p. 35). Reinking (107) recently reported Canica papaya as attacked. A host which the writer has not found in the literature is rice, found by Dr. Haven Metcalf seriously attacked in the seedling stage in a field in South Carolina. A second apparently new host for the fungus is fenu- ereek (Trigonella foenum-graecum). The writer found oospores typical of Pythium debaryanum in the tissues of damped-off seed- 36 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lings received by Prof. William T. Horne, from Sonoma County, Calif., with the statement that the disease was seriously affecting the stand. The fungus was easily isolated, and the results of suc- cessful inoculations on pine with the cultures obtained are included in Table V (p. 47). A fungus resembling P. debaryanum was also found in damped-off cowpea (Vigna sp.) seedlings grown in rotation with pines at a Nebraska nursery. Pythium equiseti Sadebeck, reported as parastic on the prothallia | of Equisetum arvense, was successfully used by Sadebeck (117) in crude cross-inoculations direct from /. arvense to potato tubers. De Bary (5) reversed the direction of the experiment between cryptogamous and phanerogamous hosts by successfully inoculating prothallia of H'quisetum arvense with Pythium debaryanum directly from diseased Lepidium seedlings. He also secured positive results on prothallia of the fern Z7’odea africana by the same method. The Equisetum prothallia he found to be especially favorable media on which to develop Pythium debaryanum. Fischer considers the fungus found by Bruchmann (17) and Goebel (49) on prothallia of Lycopodium sp. as probably identical with P. debaryanum. A care- ful reading of the original articles is sufficient to show that the sym- biotic fungus which they described was an entirely different or- ganism. Saprolegnia schachtii and Sporodospora jungermanniae, re- ported on two of the Hepatice, are of doubtful position (42, p. 403), though Butler (23, p. 89), after a survey of the literature, apparently favors the view that the former is distinct from the damping-off fungus. De Bary (5) reported Vaucheria and Spirogyra apparently immune against P. debaryanum. Early references to Pythium debaryanum in connection with gynosperms seem to have been based on the probability that it would be found to be the cause of damping-off in conifers (6; 97; 134, p. 27). The first actual finding of the fungus in any gymnosperms of which the writer is aware is indicated by a label marked Pythium debaryanum in the handwriting of Mrs. Flora W. Patterson on a package of coniferous seedlings from a New York nursery collected in 1904.4 The seedlings, judging from the several rather long cotyle- dons and the fact that both cotyledons and primary leaves are denticu- late, are probably of one of the species of Pinus having medium-sized seed. In 1908 Dr. R. J. Pool, of the University of Nebraska, and his student, Mr. H. S. Stevenson, obtained in culture from damped-off coniferous seedlings a nonseptate fungus which was _ probably Pythium debaryanum, but which formed no distinctive spores on the media on which it was grown. A year later the writer obtained the fungus from pine seedlings at the same nursery and reported it as *In the Office of Pathological Collections, United States Bureau of Plant Industry. j _ parasitic on pines in preliminary inoculation experiments (62). In 1910 Spaulding (137) found it on spruce in New York, and Hof- mann (76) later made successful inoculations on both pine and spruce seedlings, using P. debaryanum cultures both from aerial trap plates and from recently damped-off seedlings of cabbage, radish, and Russian thistle (Salsola tragus). Hofmann’s work, detailed notes of which the writer has been permitted to examine, was done with cul- tures which were contaminated by molds, but was checked up by microscopic examination of the lesions resulting, which showed the affected tissues filled with nonseptate hyphe. His results are taken as a rather strong indication that P. debaryanum attacks spruce as well as pine and that the fungus attacking conifers is physiologically as well as morphologically identical with that causing the damping-off of angiosperms. There thus appears from the literature to be reason to believe that Pythium debaryanum is parasitic on representatives of two groups of the Pteridophyta and on gymnosperms, as well as on various monocotyledons and dicotyledons, a range of hosts not only remark- able but perhaps unequaled in our present knowledge of plant parasites. Final published proof of parasitism seems to be available for three or four species of dicotyledons only. Additional inocula- tions on conifers with strains isolated from various other hosts are reported in the present bulletin. Some of the detailed evidence neces- sary for complete proof of the parasitism of the Pythium on conifers, lacking in experiments previously reported because of the doubtful purity of the cultures used and failure to reisolate and reinoculate with the organism, is also given here, together with evidence of the ability of the parasite to cause root sickness of pines too old to suffer from damping-off. Descriptive data of interest on Pythium debaryanum have been supplied by Hesse (74), De Bary (5), Ward (144), Miyake (89), Butler (23), and Butler and Kulkarni (24). An important contri- bution to the physiology of the fungus and the factors controlling its passage through the tissues of one of its hosts has recently been made in the previously mentioned paper of Hawkins and Harvey (71). DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 37 IDENTITY AND ISOLATION. The fungus in the writer’s cultures referred to Pythium debary- anum Hesse has been so called for the following reasons: (1) The morphological characters agree with those described and figured for Pythium debaryanum by other workers and with those of strains obtained from Dr. H. A. Edson under this name. (2) The absence of zoospores in the writer’s cultures agrees with the experi- ence of others with Pythiuwm debaryanum (2, 5, 23, 24, 38, 100), all workers with pure cultures having obtained zoospores infrequently, if at all. The _ earliest work by Hesse (74) in which zoospores were apparently produced 38 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. readily at certain times of the year was done before the development of pure- culture methods. Water cultures kept in the dark and in the light, at constant and at varying temperatures, with nutrient substrata consisting of steamed or outoclaved fragments of potato, carrot, sweet potato, turnip, sugar beet, corn meal or rice, nutrient agar, sugar-beet seedlings, and insects have all produced only sexual fruiting bodies and chlamydospores (the so-called conidia). (3) The successful cross-inoculations, those which Edson (38) used on sugar- beet strains and the writer had found parasitic on pine and had used on pine, strains which Hawkins had found parasitic on potato tubers and Edson on sugar beets, confirm the work of Hofmann (77) in indicating that the .Pythium which causes the damping-off pine is a parasite on entirely unrelated species of host plants, a commonly recognized characteristic of Pythium debaryanum. The organism is easily isolated from recently damped-off conifer- ous seedlings or from soil direct by placing the seedlings or a lump of soil at the edge of a Petri dish of solidified prune agar and transfer- ring to tubes mycelium from the advancing edge of the resulting growth. It has been found in or obtained from damped-off conifers in California, Kansas, Nebraska, Minnesota, and the District of Columbia, as well as in cultures made by Mr. Glenn G. Hahn in Michigan. Picea engelmanni, P. sitchensis, Tsuga mertensiana, Pinus nigra austriaca, and Rseudotsuga taxifolia are the coniferous hosts from which cul- tures of Pythium debaryanum have been obtained. It has been iso- lated directly from soil not only in coniferous seed beds but from open grassland in California not adjacent to any seed bed or culti- vated crop. Unless Mucor is abundant, Pythium is commonly ob- tained in apparently pure condition on the first transfer from the plate, as prune agar appears unfavorable for most bacterial growth while allowing rapid spread of the Pythium. On media made from prunes which taste sweet and with a total gross weight of not more than 40 or 50 grams per liter of medium, the Pythium will make a rapid growth, often extending radially 1 mm. per hour at tempera- tures in the neighborhood of 22° C. and produce both chlamydospores and oospores. A less valuable medium for isolation work, but more convenient for subcultures than any other which has been tested, is autoclaved corn-meal agar. The growth is not luxuriant, but spores are always formed and the cultures seem to be as long lived as those on any other medium, retransfer being rarely necessary more often than twice a year. Much stronger growth and more abundant fruit- ing is obtained on such media as sugar-beet or rice-stem agar, but the leathery surface of the culture on such media makes transferring dificult. On rice grains, corn-meal mush, beef agar, and on corn- meal agar plus 2 per cent dextose or sucrose no spores are formed and the cultures are short lived, though growth is heavy and on the last-named medium extremely rapid. On agar containing the juice from sour prunes or on corn-meal agar prepared without sub- jecting it to the high temperature of the autoclave, both growth and fruiting have been very poor or even lacking. : DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 39 | In both artificial cultures and in the tissues of coniferous and dicotyledonous hosts the numerous strains observed showed no con- spicuous differences in the size or other characters of the spores pro- duced, though noticeable and constant abnormality was found in one strain in the readiness with which spores were produced and in two strains.in the ratio between chlamydospores and oospores in agar cultures. In the first-mentioned strain, obtained from pine in Kansas, and in cultures reisolated from seedlings inoculated with it, both chlamydospores and oospores are produced tardily and so scantily that it is often difficult to find them. In most strains, on the other hand, almost the entire contents of the mycelium are promptly emptied into the spores as soon as the limits of rapid vege- tative growth are reached. In another abnormal strain from pine from the same locality, and in still another furnished by Hawkins from a California potato, chlamydospores are produced in large numbers, but oospores are few. In many other strains, including several from California, the opposite condition obtains, oospores in plate cultures being decidedly more numerous than chlamydospores. These peculiarities of particular strains seem to be fairly constant characters, the first abnormal strain mentioned having been under observation for more than three years without any change in its tend- ency to scanty fruiting, and the low ratio of oospores to chlamydo- Spores having been constant during the shorter periods over which the observation of the other strains extended. In view of the small variation between different strains in the matter of speed of growth, a purely vegetative character, this variation in reproductive habit is somewhat surprising. The strain which produced spores infre- quently was unquestionably parasitic, though it killed fewer seed- lings than the average Pythium debaryanum strains. The strains with the high ratio of chlamydospores were both of at least average virulence on pine. Oospores in the strains the writer has had in culture, whether ex- amined in agar, in water cultures, or in root tissues, have ordinarily been somewhat larger than the diameter of 14 or 15 to 18 y. given in a number of the descriptions. The maximum range has been 12.8 to 20.6 u, the same strain sometimes being well down within the usual size range and sometimes ranging from 17 to 20 yp. The largest oogones observed were 26 » in diameter. Various stages of fertili- zation are shown in Plate I, figures 2 to 4. Chlamydospores attain a maximum diameter in the case of the limoniform intercalary forms of 32 », and spherical chlamydospores sometimes reach a diameter of 28». There is no lower limit for these bodies, as under unfavor- able conditions—e. g., in sour-prune agar—they are sometimes all less than 15 yw in diameter, and the smaller ones are little larger than the as a 4() BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. hyphee which bear them. Both oogones and chlamydospores may be either terminal or intercalary. The normal hyphe are large, varying from 3 to 7 » and sometimes more in diameter. Typical hyphe, showing the false septa developed at the boundary of the protoplasm and the portions of the hyphe which have been evacuated in the extension of the younger parts, are shown in Plate I, figure 1. At points at which the ends of hyphe come in contact with the glass of the culture dish, peculiar contact swell- ings are produced (Pl. I, figs. 5 to 7), much the shape and size of antheridia, but not walled off from the adjacent hyphe and having no apparent significance in the life history of the fungus. These are not always terminal (PI. I, fig. 8). It is noteworthy that Hesse de- scribed contact swellings at the tips of the hyphe just before pene- trating the epidermis of Camelina sativa. The asexual nonsporangial fruiting bodies of Pythiwm debaryanum are referred to as chlamydospores rather than as conidia, though in - most of the previous literature the latter term has been used for them. Hesse called the terminal bodies conidia and the intercalary, gemme (74). It is believed that the best terminology and the one which should be followed for all fungi, as it now is for most, is that which limits the term conidium to a spore which is adapted primarily for aerial distribution or which is at least readily separated as soon as it is mature from the parent hypha from which it arises. The most typical conidium, in fact, is a spore which is abstricted by the parent hypha at maturity. The asexual spores of this Pythium re- main attached to the parent hyphe indefinitely even after the hyphe are dead and empty. It is a common thing to find numbers of these bodies in water cultures, still attached to hyphz which are so com- pletely empty that it is only with favorable lighting that their thin colorless walls can be seen. So firm is the attachment that vigorous shaking is required to release any considerable proportion of the spores. It seems probable that in nature the spores are released chiefly as a result of the destruction of the hyphz walls by bacteria. While there is reason to think that Pythium debaryanum is some- times disseminated by wind, it is by no means certain that it is through the medium of these spores. It is true that these bodies have thinner walls than are commonly found in chlamydospores of some other fungi, but they have somewhat thickened walls as compared with the vegetative hyphe, and they are commonly intercalary. These facts, and the indications that they are better able to with- stand unfavorable conditions than are the hyphe, all tend to entitle them to rank as chlamydospores. De Bary (5) speaks of them as “dauerconidia.” Their ability to stand drying is not entirely demon- strated, but is indicated by the relative longevity of the fungus on different media. On beef agar and on rice, on which no spores are Bul, 934, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE | PYTHIUM DEBARYANUM FROM ARTIFICIAL CULTURES. Fig. 1.—Hyphe, showing old portions of hyph and false septa separating them from the portions still containing protoplasm. Fics. 2 to 4.Various stages of oospore formation. Fias. 5 to 8.—Hyphal swellings at points of contact with glass. From camera-lucida drawings. DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 41 formed, a few tests indicate that the fungus is very short lived, sometimes dying in a month. On media on which spores are pro- duced, transfers any time before the sixth month, and often as late as the tenth month, start immediate growth on fresh media. This is true even for strains which produce few or no oospores. The im- mediate commencement of growth from cultures 3 or 4 months old is taken as an indication that the new growth results from the asexual spores, as oospores are commonly believed to require a rest- ‘ing period of five or more months before they are able to ger- minate (5, 38). INOCULATION ON STERILIZED SOIL. Pythium debaryanum has been used in inoculation in pots of recently autoclaved soil in 16 different series of tests. *In 10 of these, fragments of agar cultures were scattered over about one-fourth of the area at the side of each pot when seed was sown; in 2 of these 10 and also in 2 other tests some pots were inoculated over their entire surface. In-every one of these 12 heavily inoculated series positive results were indicated by smaller emergence and where any considerable number of sprouting seeds escaped the fungus by heavier damping-off loss in the inoculated pots than in the controls. In some cases the fungus killed all or practically all of the seed or seedlings in the inoculated pots before they emerged from the soil. In a total of 7 series, part or all of the pots received lighter in- oculations, consisting of one or two small fragments of an agar culture placed just below the surface of the soil at the edge of each pot. In 5 of these success was indicated. In the sixth and seventh also of these lightly inoculated sets, there was more damping-off in the inoculated pots than in the controls, but the difference was neg- ligible. The damping-off caused by light inoculations was in general distinctly less than that resulting from broadcast inoculations. To sum up the evidence: Sixteen separate experiments were conducted with Pythium debaryanum on pine seedlings in autoclaved soil, and in every one fewer seedlings survived in the inoculated pots than in the checks; the difference in most of the experiments was large. Of the successful inoculation experiments—that is, those in which the difference between the inoculated pots and the checks seemed significant—9 series included jack pine (Pinus banksiana), 7 series western yellow pine (P. ponderosa, Colorado and New Mexico seed), and 3 series red pine (P. resinosa). In addition to the pines, Doug- las fir (Pseudotsuga taxifolia, Colorado seed) was grown in two large plats in one of the earlier series, one being inoculated over its entire surface with Pythium debaryanum. Because of the poor quality of the seed in the test on Douglas fir, too few seedlings were obtained to furnish a decisive test, but the difference in the emergence in the inoculated plat and the control affords preliminary evidence that 42 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Pythium can cause the “ germination-loss” type of damping-off in Douglas fir as well as in species of Pinus. Of the seeds sown in the control plat 43 produced seedlings which appeared above the soil, while only two seedlings appeared from an equal number of seeds sown in the inoculated plat. Altogether, 38 strains, excluding reisolations, have been tested on one or more of the 3 pine species. Strains from both the Pacific coast and the eastern United States and from a number of hosts other than pines were among those used. With the exception of two or three strains from a pine nursery in Michigan, the use of which was followed by so little damping-off as to leave their parasitism uncertain, all of the strains proved parasitic under favorable condi- tions, though some were more virulent than others. The positive re- sults in the 14 successful experiments are based on the comparison of a total of approximately 1,160 inoculated pots with 195 control pots. TABLE III.—IJnoculation experiments with Pythium debaryanum in pots of steri- lized soil. Pythium strain. Results. Num- Damp- Series, experiment number, ber | Inoculation ing-off | Sur- and host. Tnitial strain of method. |Emerged} after | vival No, from which it | pots. (per 5-pot| germi- | (per 5- wasreisolated. unit). |nation| pot (per | unit) cent) Serigs A.—Initial inocula- tions: ; D1 Re ie ec eeeate eee 5 | Agarcultures 1 100 0 broadcast at oneside of pot. Controls) ae a eee 5 |Noinoculum 74 0 74 Fido te aah) tA Dele aee Gozeeens 82 0 82 No. 58, Pinus banksiana. - 1S ih Ned re See ee 5 | Agareultures 41 28 30 at single point in each pot. Controls!|223<2.22. 22220 5 | Noinoculum 55 0 55 No. 58, Pinus ponderosa... broadcast at one side of pot. [or 2 Cam tcra ct © 1 ron) ro) Nooo om ro) No. 62, Pinus banksiana. - Agar cultures 14 7 broadeast at one side of pot. | Ra seeelt cets ote ce cue 5 | Agarcultures 16 81 3 Series B.—Reisolatedstrains: (= et No. 295 (in P. 5 (b) 14 72 4 No. 62, Pinus banksiana. . ect looritrols eee wraliete See Dil actctnenceeeee 78 0 78 aA different soil used in these pots from that used with strain 258 and the first three control units. _ »Allinoculations with fragments of agar cultures scattered broadcast at one side of the pot, including about one-fourth ofits area. Nothing was added to the controls in experiment 62, but sterile agar was added to the controls in experiments 66, 67, and 68. DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 43 TABLE III.—/noculation experiments with Pythium debaryanum in pots of steri- lized soil—Continued. Series, experiment number, and host. Series B.— Reisolated strains—| Continued. No. 66, Pinus banksiana. -| No. 67, Pinus banksiana. - No. 68, Pinus resinosa. .-. Pythium strain. Results. Damp- Num- ; - ing-off | Sur- Initialstrain per Tuoculation Emerged| after | vival No. from which it OS * _|(per 5-pot| germi- | (per 5- wasreisolated. | P unit). | nation} pot (per | unit) cent). |(338...... No. 295 (in P. 5 (2) 9 67 3 ponderosa, expt. 58). \|345...... No. 218 (in P. 5 (a) 15 33 10 banksiana, | expt. 58). ch es No. 258 (in P. 5 (a) 36 25 27 banksiana expt. 62, 2d unit). Aas a sales GOFs.sesee" 5 (a) 59 10 54 AIO nsaaas No. 348 (in P. 5 (a) 25 100 0 banksiana, expt. 62). 450.....- No. 347 (in P. 5 (a) 41 72 11 banksiana, expt. 62). Controls: |2ee2 ease. eee 745), | BECO BEECH ened 75 14 64 338_...-. No. 295 (in P. 5 (@) 7 57 3 ponderosa, expt. 58). B45. . 25: No. 218 (in P. 5 (a) 24 37 15 banksiana, expt. 58). Ala No. 258 (in P. 5 (a) 57 24 44 | banksiana, expt. 62, 2d unit). LW scans No. 258 (in P. 5 (2) 30 37 19 banksiana, expt. 62, 1st unit). AQ bk No. 348 (in P. 5 (a) 62 65 22 | banksiana, expt. 62). 4505 2 22r)- No. 347 (in P. 5 (a) 53 27 39 banksiana, expt. 62). Controlsiipeeno see eerere Oh EE an aee oe 87 5 83 338. .---- No. 295 (in P. 5 (a) 85 26 63 ponderosa, expt. 58). 345052. - No. 218 (in P. 5 (a) 76 24 58 banksiana, expt. 58). 414.0000. No. 258 (in P. 5 (a) 98 14 84 banksiana, expt. 62, 2d unit). Al pee No. 258 (in P. 5 (2) 92 11 82 banksiana, expt. 62, Ist unit). co Sea No. 348 (in P. 5 (a) 95 45 52 banksiana, expt. 62). 450....-- No. 347 (in P. 5 (a) 84 40 51 banksiana, expt. 62). Controls) |e ss. 5: eee US| ea aie ee eer ors 104 0 104 @ Allinoculations with fragments of agar cultures scattered broadcast at one side of the pot, including about one-fourth of its area. added to the controls in experiments 66, 67, and 68. Nothing was added to the controls in experiment 62, but sterile agar was As has been stated, securing positive results did not always mean that the, control pots remain uninfected. Even with the most care- ful treatment and the use of boiled water throughout the experiment 44 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, it proved difficult to keep the control pots entirely free from damp- ing-off. Cultures from seedlings which damped-off spontaneously in control pots indicated that Pythium as well as Fusarium may be introduced by accident, even when insects, birds, and rodents are ex- cluded. This agrees with the evidence of Hofmann (77) that Pythium debaryanum is sometimes disseminated by wind, despite its apparent lack of adaptation to wind distribution. It is also in- dicated, however, that unheated tap water increases damping-off when used on control pots and probably carries this semiaquatic fungus. Notwithstanding infections in the controls of a number of the experiments, it is believed that the large number of pots whose’ results have been considered in drawing conclusions, the fact that the Pythium pots lost more heavily than the controls in every one of the 16 experiments, and the magnitude of the differences between both the emergence and subsequent damping-off figures for the inoculated pots and the controls in most of the experiments establish the parasitism of the fungus in inoculation on autoclaved soil without it being neces- sary to present all the evidence in detail. The pot series which in- volved reisolation and reinoculation (Table III), together with the results given for other purposes in Tables V and VI, seem sufficient by themselves to establish a parasitic relationship. ~ REISOLATION AND REINOCULATION. In a number of the experiments dead seedlings in the inoculated pots were examined and typical Pythium hyphe and spores were found. In three of the experiments in which the controls remained entirely free from disease up to the time the experiment was closed, reisolations and reinoculations were made in accordance with the usual rules of proof. The results are given in Table ITI. From Table III it will be seen that five strains reisolated from Pinus banksiana and one strain reisolated from P. ponderosa gave positive results in pots of P. banksiana and P. resinosa. In addition to the reinoculations shown in the table, the ‘strain reisolated from Pinus ponderosa (No. 338) was again reisolated in duplicate from — P. banksiana in experiment 62, and both these secondary reisolations gave cultures which were parasitic on P. banksiana and P. resinosa in subsequent inoculations. That the organisms reisolated were actually the same as those used in the initial inoculation is indicated not only by the absence of dis- ease in the control pots of experiments 58 and 62, but by the distinc- tive characters of some of the strains. In general, cultures reisolated from strongly parasitic initial strains were themselves strongly parasitic and vice versa. This is shown by comparing the figures for the initial and reisolated strains, as shown in Table IV. Each figure represents the average results in 10 pots of jack pine and 5 of red + ‘ a) 3 DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 45 pine in experiments 66, 67, and 68 combined. The figures are rel- ative, the mean survival of 47 different strains used in all three ex-— periments being taken as 10. A survival figure above 10 therefore - means that the strain was less destructive than the average Pythium; and a figure below 10 indicates more than average virulence. As~ strain 218 was not used in these three experiments, strain 345 can not be compared. Taste 1V.—Comparative virulence of original cultures and reisolated strains of Pythium debaryanum in experiments 66, 67, and 68. Rela- Rela- Pythium strain. Description. ive Pythium strain. Description. ive vival. vival. Os 208. <2 0 - == Original culture.-...--.-. Gu eNom OS eee Reisolated from 338. -..- 9 INO. 414.2 .--.---% Reisolated from 258 . 12 |) No. 347..-_---.-- Original culture--_.----- 4 PMO AU ec ce cee cis|cic n= - Cie sae u an eee ae e ae WW INO, 450) cesceoact Reisolated from 347. ._.. 7 ING o ChB Respeeeees Original culture.....---- Ay WN DSA Se eeee sees: Original culture.....-.-- 10 WWOnGsS.--------- Reisolated from 295- -..- CEN) IOs 4119) = a= Seeoee Reisolated from 348. ._-.- 4 No. 408..-------- Reisolated from 338. -... 6 These figures are not absolutely consistent, but are to be viewed as contributing to the evidence furnished by the absence of damping- off in the control of experiments 58 and 62 that the cultures reiso- lated in those experiments were actually identical with the original strains. A further proof of this identity is in the fruiting tendencies of the strains. Both Nos. 414 and 415, the strains reisolated from original strain 258, exhibited the peculiarly sparse spore production which has been characteristic of strain 258 for the entire period dur- ing which it has been in culture. The other reisolated strains, taken from pots inoculated with normally fruiting strains, all sowed normal spore production. PURITY OF CULTURES. A slight deficiency in the evidence as to the parasitism of Pythium debaryanum both in the writer’s work and apparently in all previous investigations except those of Peters (100) and possibly Knechtel * is the lack of single-spore cultures. The large number of strains which have remained apparently pure through numerous subcultures and have retained their individual characteristics as to virulence and fruiting tendencies (one strain having been carried on artificial media continuously for eight years without material change) give very strong justification for believing that the cultures used were pure. In three early inoculation tests the cultures used were after- wards found to have been contaminated by bacteria carried by mites; the positive results obtained in these three were the basis of the ear- 5 Knechtel’s work in Rumanian has been available to the writer only in the German abstract, which makes an ambiguous statement on this point, 46 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. liest report of pathogenicity (62), but have not been used as evidence in the present bulletin, though the contaminating bacteria in one of them, when tested independently, showed no evidence of parasitism. In all the experiments mentioned in the foregoing as giving positive results with Pythium the cultures used were apparently pure. Cultures from single chlamydospores should be reasonably easy to secure, part of the chlamydospores in water cultures being separa- ble from the mycelium by vigorous shaking, and further inoculation tests with cultures so obtained are probably desirable. The experi- ments so far conducted are believed to be sufficiently conclusive, how- ever, for all practical purposes. For isolation of absolutely pure lines of this or any other ceenocytic fungus, it is evident, as pointed out by Dr. W. H. Weston (146), that isolations should be made from the uninucleate swarm spores. For the determination of the bare fact of pathogenicity such a refinement would be superfluous. CROSS-INOCULATIONS. The physiological identity of the Pythium attacking coniferous seedlings with the one which attacks dicotyledoys is indicated by the results of several inoculation experiments. The last two experi- ments, one with jack pine and one with red pine for the host, are the most comprehensive and give results sufficiently decisive so that quotation of the corroborative evidence from earlier experiments is considered unnecessary. The results appear in Table V. Each unit consisted of five 3-inch pots except in the controls, in which 23 pots were used in the jack-pine experiment and 18 in that with red pine. In the second experiment, separate records were kept of the survival in each pot, and the probable error calculated from the controls was less than two seedlings per pot for a single pot, less than 0.9 for a mean of 5 pots, and less than 0.5 for the mean of the 18 control pots. While the number of controls was, of course, in- sufficient to furnish an exact basis for such a calculation, the small value found tends to confirm the impression gained from inspection of the table that considerable confidence can be placed in the results. The difference appearing in Table V between jack pine and red pine in point of susceptibility to germination loss from Pythium agrees with field observations in Nebraska, the red pine at the Bessey Nursery, though on the whole more susceptible than jack pine to damping-off losses, having given indication of more resistance to the disease for the first week or two. Inoculations in other experiments on western yellow pine indicate that the strains which attack it are identical with those attacking jack pine and red pine. The conclusion reached from the cross-inoculation results is that the Pythium causing damping-off of the three species of pine men- DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 47 tioned is identical with Pythiwm debaryanum, causing leak of potato tubers and the damping-off of seedlings of two dicotyledonous families. TABLE V.—Results of moculations on jack pine and red pine with Pythim debaryanum from various hosts. Inoculation results. On jack pine. On red pine. Strain. Host from which isolated. Sur- Emerged Damp. vival | Emerged Day sea (per 5-pot (Gee (per |(per 5-pot Gen Gen unit). | cent). aN unit). | cent). pot). | Dicotyledons: No. 131 @ Potatobwber. selec see ae eae = secs 45 36 30 101 BB || iB) No. 8105 WO ese cence snes } SSS ES OCrEISee 45 34 30 62 41 7.4 Average potato..........-...-- 45 35 | 30 82 32 | 11.6 No. 294 ¢ Sugar-beet seedlings. .......-.....--. 50 8 | 46 79 36] 10.2 No. 295 ¢ Originally potato strain 131, but twiceinoculated on and reisolated from sugar-beet seedlings by Ed- ROmpsssccs cued Cob ene Cae se Eee 28 32 19 62 48 6.6 No. 296 d Sugar-beet seedlings.................- 19 | 32 13 68 58 5.8 Average, sugar beet......-...- 32 24 | 26 70 47 7.4 No. 529 Henugreek Seedlings den. 2am a= +. - 36 | 31 25 102 26) 15.0 No. 530 IDOE eset Tee eee tee lessee | 60 | 49 31 108 22 16.8 Average, fenugreek......-...-- 48 40 28 105 24| 16.0 Conifers: | | No. 258 Western yellow-pine seedlings... .-.- 58 9 53 109 17 | 18.0 No. 550 Sitka spruce seedlings.........-.---- | 15 80 3 39 98 _D No. 555 Engelmann spruce seedlings........- 42 29 30 45 70 5.0 Average, spruces......-.------ | 29 55 17 42 84 2.6 Sonirols ee ese eee ees oli 87 5 83 | 104 0| 20.9 a Furnished by Mrs. C. R. Tillotson:hasbeenused » Furnished by Dr. L. A. Hawkins: cause of leak. successfully on sugar-heet seedlings by Dr. H. A. ¢ Furnished by Dr. H. A. Edson. Edson. d Diseased materialfurnished by Prof. W. T. Horne. VARIATIONS IN VIRULENCE OF PYTHIUM STRAINS ON PINE. In Pythium debaryanum strains, as in the case of Corticiwm vagum, there appeared to be a considerable difference in the parasitic activity of different strains used in the same experiment. Figures 14, 15, and 16 show graphically the results from inoculations with different strains of P. debaryanum in all the experiments in which it was possible to compare directly the activity of different strains. All the inoculations involved at the time of sowing the addition to the soil of cultures on nutrient media in recently autoclaved 3-inch pots. In experiment 31C the inoculum fragments were scattered over the whole pot, in 31D at only one point in each pot, and in the others were distributed over about one-fourth of the pot’s area. As noted elsewhere, the variations observed in the results may have been due in part to differences in the ability of the different strains to main- 48 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tain themselves saprophytically in the soil used rather than entirely due to difference in virulence. The data shown in figures 15 and 16 indicate in the first place rather more accidental variations in the results with Pythium than with Corticium (see figs. 1, 2, 10, and 11). The agreement between original and reisolated strains from the same original source is de- cidedly less good than in the case of Corticium (see experiments 71 and 72, figs. 10 and 11). In general, there are only two strains of HOST PINUS BANASIANA PINUS RESINOSA YEAR 19/7 LAT exPr|_aic | wb | 68 | 59 | cec | e20| 6 | 67 |oe | 2 [7 Qo N Se" a So Ox S820 Ne VN O N Fig. 14.—Diagram showing variations in virulence as indicated by the living seedlings in pots of autoclaved soil inoculated with different strains of Pythium debaryanum. For experiments Nos. 31 and 66 to 72, inclusive, the surviving seedlings at the end of two or three weeks after germination are shown. For the other experiments damping-off was so heavy in the inoculated pots that the survivals did not give differential results for the different strains, and the germinations are therefore shown. The reports are based for experiments Nos. 71 and 72 on 2 or 3 pots for each strain in each experiment, and for the other experiments on not less than 5 pots for each strain.: In experiments Nos. 66, 67, and 68 the number of pots in each experiment for the strains whose reisolations were also used varied from 10 to 40 for each strain, the results of the separate 5-pot units being shown in figure 15. The strains indicated by the different symbols are as follows: From potato: @=Strain 131, isolated in 1909, California. Furnished by Mrs. C. R. Tillotson. From sugar beet: O=Strain 295 and its reisola- tions from pine. No. 295 was furnished by Dr. H. A. Edson as a reisolation of strain 131, after having been passed by him through two generations of sugar-beet seedlings. A=Strain 294, isolated in 1912. Furnished by Dr. Edson. A=Strain 296, isolated in 1912, Wisconsin. Furnished by Dr. Edson. X=Strain 297, originally from pine, Nebraska, 1911. Passed through two generations of sugar-beet seedlings by Dr. Edson. From pine seedlings: #+—Strain 255, Kansas, 1913. Chlamydospores numerous ; oospores rare. §§—Strain 258 and its reisolations, Kansas, 1913. A sparsely fruiting strain. O =Strain 218 and its reisolation, Kansas, 1912. ©=—Strain 347 and its reisolation, Washington, D. C., 1915. fFi—Strain 348 and its reisolation, Washington, D. C., 1915. A=Strain 349, Washington, D. C., 1915. H—=—Strain 354, Minnesota, 1915. Pythium which can be said to have definitely shown difference in activity continuing through several years and on different species of pine. These are strains 295 and 258. As No. 258, the weak strain, has also been found abnormal in its fruiting tendencies, the evidence in these graphs does not indicate a decided difference in virulence between different typical strains of Pythiwm debaryanum. The other strain, which seems rather uniformly weaker than No. 295, is No. 131, which according to Dr. Edson’s records was originally the i a vl fi same strain, No. 131 having been twice used in his inoculation ex- periments on sugar beets and strain 295 recovered from the second experiment. The apparent difference between this original strain and its supposed reisolation may possibly be due to the treatment given strain 131. Before it was used in any of the experiments shown but after it had been used by Dr. Edson, it was allowed to get very dry and was revived with great difficulty, growth being very slow. While it apparently recovered all of its normal growth qualities after one or two transfers, it is thought that this may possibly explain the AMUSE BANKSIANA | LLMYE apparently decreased virulence in the later Be 7 YEAR experiments. EXPT.| The failure to se- cure as definite indi- DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. AY cations of constant GX> virulence differences SH as were obtained for NS several of the Cor- NSzo ticium strains is be- aS lieved to be in part 3Q20 due to a smaller SS actual difference be- Nit ) tween the different q : p Fig. 15.—Diagram showing the results of inoculations with Pythium strains as strains of Pythium debaryanum. This figure supplements pearing in the graphs figure 14, giving the results for original and reisolated Cia strains independently. Each point plotted is based on and ae part to a the results in five pots. The object of this diagram is to larger accidental va- give an idea of the degree of variability in the success of riation between re- inoculations. An explanation of the symbols used will be found in the legend of figure 14. sults in pots inocu- lated with the same strain. The growth of Pythium on agar media is much more affected by variations in the substratum than is the growth of Corticium, and it is rather natural to expect greater variations when the two fungi are added to autoclaved soil. In experiments 66, 67, and 68 a number of strains not used in the earlier experiments were tested, i addition to the strains previously used. The survival results for all the different strains, both original and reisolated, 47 in all, are Shown graphically in figure 16. The results in experiments 66 and 67, both on Pinus banksiana, are averaged and taken as the subject, while the results with the same strains in experiment 68 are made relative and shown by the broken line. The correlation between the performance of the same strains on the two species of pine is by no means as clear in the graph as it was in the case of the Cor- ticium strains (fig. 11). The areas bounded by the broken line and 19651°—Bull. 9834—21——4 4 50 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the horizontal line showing the location of the mean for experiment 68 are much larger below the means than above it in the left-hand portion of the graph, while the reverse is true in the right-hand portion. To this extent the relative activity of the strains in this experiment agrees with the performance of the same strains in the two jack-pine experiments, as shown by the solid line. It can not be decided from an inspection of the graph whether there is a real agreement, in view of the large accidental variation present. How- ever, the correlation coefficient, 0.446+0.079, five and one-half times its probable error, indicates a considerable correlation, not as good as was found for the Corticium strains, but sufficient to establish a strong presumption that observed differences in activity of the dif- Ss S K Bao % : 60 foxy 9 8 S Han N 7 3 ~y | £40 C 5 1 g 5-9 § td 9%) SEDER EE EEE a alata LEEEEREE SEE ERERNG SERERE FRAINS OF PYTHIUM DEBGARYAN Fic. 16.—Diagram showing the comparative virulence of 47 strains of Pythium debaryanum in successive inoculation experiments on species of Pinus. The results in experiments Nos. 66 and 67 (on Pinus bamksiana) are shown by the solid line, the strains being arranged from left to right in the order of descending virulence indicated by the number of seedlings surviving in those experiments. The results from the use of the same strains in experiment No. 68 (on Pinus resinosa) are shown by the broken line. Such correlation as there is between the two curves (coefficient 0.45+0.08) goes to indicate a real difference in virulence between the different strains. The strains indicated by the underscored numbers are original strains, and those not underscored are reisolations from the original strains in earlier inoculation experiments on pine seedlings. ferent strains in these inoculation experiments were in part actually due to differences in the capacity of the strains. It has been suggested in the foregoing that the difficulty in demon- strating constancy in the direrenea in Silence between the various strains of Pythium debaryanum is due in part to the lack of such extreme differences as were observed between the various Corticium strains. Figure 13 shows the distribution of the different original Pythium strains according to the virulence indicated in the three inoculation experiments of figure 16 (application to autoclaved soil at the time of sowing). Each value plotted is based on the average results.in 15 pots. Of the strains used, 21 were from species of pine, 1 from spruce, 2 from potato ttbers, 2 on fenugreek, 3 from sugar beet, and 6 from soil direct. Despite the considerate nutiben: of an DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 51 strains, they are not much more representative than the smaller num- ber of Corticium strains experimented with. All of the strains from soil direct and 11 of the strains from pine were taken at approxi- mately the same time from the same nursery in Michigan by Mr. Glenn G. Hahn; despite the fact that these were the most recently isolated of the strains used, nearly all of them proved weak in the inoculations. Of the 17 strains which proved the weakest (out of 35), all but 3 were from this Michigan nursery. The 18 strains from other sources (5 from California, 2 from Minnesota, 2 from Kansas, 1 from Wisconsin, 2 from an unknown focality, and 6 from Washing- ton, D. C., representing two coniferous and three dicotyledonous host genera), aS shown by solid circles in figure 13, for the most part were rather closely grouped within the more virulent portion of the range. The coefficient of variability in the survivals allowed by the 35 Pythium debaryanum strains is 393.6 per cent, while for the smaller number of original strains of Cortictum vagum in experi- ments 71 and 72 it is 63+9.7 per cent. It is evident from figure 13 that if there had not been a disproportionately larger number of strains from the Michigan nursery the variability of the P. de- baryanum strains would have been much less than 39 per cent. The number of strains was, of course, altogether insufficient for either fungus to represent adequately a population as immense as the total number of strains of either of these omnipresent species. The above data, however, contain the only available information of which the writer is aware on variation in the virulence of different strains of P. debaryanum. The evidence as a whole, both from the results shown in figure 13 and the experience with 6 other strains which were not used in the experiments on which figure 13 was based, lead the writer to believe that most strains of Pythwwm debaryanum taken from lesions in plants are ordinarily likely to prove rather virulent parasites on pine seedlings. It further appears that the variation in virulence between the different strains of P. debaryanwm on pine seedlings is less than the variation in strains of Corticiuwm vagum. PYTHIUM INOCULATIONS ON UNHEATED SOIL. Inoculations with Pythiwm debaryanum were made in western Kansas on a fine sand containing little humus after treating the soil with acid followed by lime. Commercial sulphuric acid was apphed at the rate of 14.8 c. c. per square foot of bed, followed two days later by 25.5 grams of air-slaked lime raked into the soil (0.16 liter of acid and 0.274 kg. of lime per square meter). The acid was diluted before applying with 256 volumes of water. The seeds were sown in drills, and inoculum was placed in the drills at the time of sowing. Each unit involved approximately 11 linear inches of drill, and all 52 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT’ OF AGRICULTURE. received equal quantities of seed. Three strongly parasitic strains of Pythium were used, and a total of 12 units of jack pine and an equal number of western yellow pine was inoculated with 12 inter- spersed units of each species as controls. The mean results are as follows: Pinus banksiana.—Inoculated plats: Emerged, 64.2+4.9; died during the next 17 days. 25 per cent. Control plats: Emerged, 85.5+3.6; died during the next 17 days, 13 per cent. Pinus ponderosa.—Inoculated plats: Hmerged, 34.61.8; died during the next 9 days, 39 per cent. Contrel plats: Hmerged, 45.4+1.3; died during the next 9 days, 25 per cent. The difference in emergence apparently due to the inoculation is for the first species three and one-half and for the second nearly five times its probable error. While, of course, 12-unit means are in- sufficient to allow the calculation of entirely reliable probable errors, they give some idea of the amount of variability of the results and the confidence which can be given them. It is impossible to give any such expression applying directly to the damping-off percentages and their differences, for the reason that averages for this item have been made in the writer’s work not by averaging the percentages for the individual units but by totaling all the seedlings and the dead seedlings on the plats to be averaged and recalculating the percent- age from these figures. This seems the only safe method, as other- wise units in which germination is low by accident or by the action of parasites will be given an influence on the resultant mean entirely — disproportionate to the number of seedlings which they contain. Average values for damping-off obtained by this method and by the method of averaging the percentages of the individual plats or pots are often very different; it not uncommonly happens that the units in which germination is lower than the average also have especially high damping-off percentages, both phenomena being caused by an unusual activity of parasites. In such case to average the percentages themselves usually gives a higher damping-off figure than to total the seedlings for the different units and redetermine the percentage, and the latter practice is considered the better. In the present case the differences in the damping-off percentages obtained by the two methods are not great. The figures obtained by averaging the per- centages of the ultimate units are as follows: Pinus banksiana.—Inoculated, loss 30.9-£5.0 per cent; controls, loss 138.2+2.8 per cent. Pinus ponderosa.—Inoculated, loss 40.0=5.1 per cent; controls, loss 24.13.3 per cent. The differences between the inoculated and control plats in damp- ing-off percentage were for the first species a little over and for the second a little under three times their indicated probable errors, wi DAMPING-OTF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 53 The results in general make it appear that the Pythium was able to kill some pines both before and after their appearance above the soil surface on the soil treated with the acid and lime. The control in this experiment did not receive the nutrient substratum added with the Pythium inoculum, but an experiment run under the same con- ditions at nearly the same time, in which seven strains of hyphomy- cetes with the same substrata entirely failed to decrease survival, indicates that the rice subtratum was not in itself the cause of the observed result. The rather weak action of the Pythium in these experiments stands out in sharp contrast to the results with Corticium vagum in the same experiments, practically all emergence being pre- vented by most of the Corticium strains used, some of which had proved less active than Pythium in tests on autoclaved soil. In a soil in Nebraska, somewhat similar but with more humus, 5.5 e. c. (three-sixteenths fluid ounce) of sulphuric acid per square foot apphed in solution at the time of sowing had been found greatly to decrease damping-off. In different parts of beds treated with acid from 10 to 17 days earlier, 96 plats, each 3 inches square, were laid out, and each plat was inoculated at the center. Interspersed with these were 96 plats set apart as controls. Emergence had already begun at the time of inoculation. Jack pine, red pine, and Corsican pine were the hosts, and three Pythium strains of known parasitism, erowing in pieces of prune agar the size of peas, constituted the inoculum. The damping-off after emergence was less than 1 per cent higher for the inoculated plats than for the controls. Even such a light inoculation would probably have given some results in auto- claved soil, so the experiment indicates, as would be expected, that this acid-treated soil was less favorable for Pythium debaryanum than steamed soil. On pots containing entirely untreated soil the following series of inoculations were made at the time of sowing the seed : Inoculation at one point in each pot: Hxperiment 25. Jack and western yellow pine, 1 pot of each inoculated ; survival 13 days after emergence slightly greater in both than in the six controls. HWxperiment 27. Jack pine, 73 pots, 27 controls; average emergence, 59 in inoculated pots and 56 in controls; damping-off, 39 per cent in inoculated pots and 387 per cent in controls. HXxperiment 29. Jack, Corsican, and western yellow pine, 112 plats in- oculated just aS emergence commenced instead of at seed sowing, as in other cases, and 112 controls alternating with them; damping- off was less in the inoculated plats than in the controls. Hxperiment 31. Jack pine, 8 pots inoculated, 8 controls; inoculated, emergence 33 per cent, damping-off 13 per cent, survival 198; con- trols, emergence 38 per cent, damping-off 26 per cent, survival 196. Experiment 58A. Jack pine, 5 pots inoculated, 5 controls; inoculated, emergence 59 per cent, damping-off 32 per cent, survival 40; controls, emergence 51 per cent, damping-off 12 per cent, survival 45. 54 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tnoculations at two points in each pot: Experiment 26A. Jack pine, 3 pots inoculated, 4 controls; inoculated, emergence 29 per cent, as Compared with 89 per cent in the controls ; subsequent damping-off the same in both. Inoculations at four points in each pot: Experiment 58B. Jack pine, 5 pots inoculated, 5 controls; inoculated, emergence 51 per cent, damping-off 10 per cent, Survival 46; controls, emergence 43 per cent, damping-off 22 per cent, survival 34. Experiment 59A. Jack pine, 5 pots inoculated, 5 controls; inoculated, emergence 55 per cent, damping-off 2 per cent, survival 54; controls, emergence 50 per cent, damping-off 8 per cent, survival 46. Of these experiments, No. 29 was in the original fine sandy soil of a nursery in Nebraska in which Pythium is commonly found native and damping-off losses are usually heavy. Experiments 58A and 59 were conducted on soil from the same source which had been -kept dry in the laboratory for five years; experiments 25, 27, 31, and 58A were on greenhouse mixtures of sand and soil. In experi- ments 31, 58A, 58B, and 59 parallel inoculations were made on auto- claved portions of the same soil, with definitely positive results in three of the four cases. In the heated soil the results were positive, not only because of smaller losses in the controls but because the losses in the inoculated pots were actually heavier in the sterilized soil than in that untreated. Inoculations broadeast : Experiment 31. Jack pine, 8 pots inoculated, 8 controls; inoculated, emergence 31 per cent, damping-off 39 per cent, survival 129; con- trols, emergence 38 per cent, damping-off 26 per cent, survival 196. Experiment 59. Jack pine, 5 -pots inoculated, 5 controls; inoculated, emergence 58 per cent, damping-off 22 per cent, survival 45; controls, emergence 44 per cent, damping-off 2 per cent, survival 48. Even with these broadcast inoculations the results on untreated soil were too indefinite to allow the drawing of positive conclusions. In both experiments much heavier losses than these resulted from inoculations on steamed soil. It is evident that experiments on steril- ized soil do not always show what can be expected on ordinary soil. The same thing is indicated by the results of Edgerton with tomato wilt (36). CONCLUSIONS AS TO THE PARASITISM OF PYTHIUM DEBARYANUM. Pythium debaryanum has been found in low-altitude nurseries in all the species of conifers from which a serious effort has been made to obtain it, and its parasitism has been indicated in autoclaved soil on all of the conifers on which inoculation has been attempted. Therefore, although the work reported has been limited to a relatively small number of hosts, it seems likely that it will be found able to cause damping-off in most of the species of the Abietoidee which suffer seriously from the disease. Just how active as a parasite it is a , \ DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERTES. 55 under ordinary nursery conditions is yet to be proved. The results in inoculations on disinfected soil, together with the frequency with which the fungus has been isolated from seedlings in the nurseries, lead the writer to believe that it is an important cause of disease in the seed beds. Further experiments on unheated soil, however, are considered desirable. RHEOSPORANGIUM APHANIDERMATUS. CULTURAL STRAINS. A culture of a parasite on radishes and sugar beets, described by Edson (39) under the above name, was obtained from him, and an- other strain, shown by Edson’s records to be a subculture from the same original strain, was furnished by the department of plant pathol- ogy of the University of Wisconsin. In parallel cultures on solid media this fungus proved in many ways remarkably hke Pythiwm _debaryanum, reacting in practically the same way to the different media on which it was grown both in relative growth rate and in spore production. Mycelium, chlamydospores, oogones, antheridia, and oospores are not recognizably different from those of Pythiwm debaryanum. ‘The oospores have seemed on the whole slightly larger and the mycelium a little more inclined to aerial growth than most of the Pythium debaryanum strains, but neither difference was sufh- cient to have diagnostic value. Swellings of the hyphe occurred at points in contact with glass, just as with Pythiwm debaryanum (PI. I, figs. 5 to 7). In liquid cultures the Rheosporangium was readily distinguished from Pythium by the formation of the presporangia described by Edson. Autoclaved cylinders of turnip, 15 to 20 mm. long, cut with a 5-mm. cork borer, proved convenient bases for growth of both Rheosporangium and Pythium in water culture and quite as satis- factory as sterilized beet seedlings. Presporangia were also pro- duced in autoclaved soil, and in a single lot of corn-meal agar they were formed abundantly in the agar in Petri dish cultures. In none of the writer’s cultures, either with flies, sugar-beet seedlings, or turnip cylinders as nutrient bases, were mature escaped sporangia or Swarm spores commonly produced. The Rheosporangium was not obtained in any of the numerous cultures made from coniferous seedlings or from seed-bed soil. INOCULATION EXPERIMENTS. The Rheosporangium cultures above referred to, strain 229 fur- nished by Dr. Edson and strain 351 received from the University of Wisconsin, were tested on pine and red-beet seedlings, with parallel inoculations with Pythiwm debaryanum. The results appear in Table VI. ait 56 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE VI.—Results of parallel inoculation with Rheosporangium aphanidermatus and Pythium debaryanum on pine seedlings in autoclaved soil. Results. : A a) F - - Number Experiment number, host, and inoculating fungus.¢ of pots. | Emerged|Damping-| Survival (per cent} off (per | (per cent ofseed).| cent). | ofseed). No. 30, Pinus ponderosa: Per pot. | Per pot. | Per pot. Rheosporangium strain 229 =< 2.0: 3-6 3. oe ee 5 23 3 22 Py thium sy 2iStaims on eas. gio ee ese se ee ee 5 14 3 9 Controls2eie. 2. sees ee eee sates eae Ss tae eee 5 20 22 16 No. 31, Pinus banksiana: Rheosporangium sbraini229 -95.j4-2 - 245535. 25 See ee 5 45 13 40 Pythium, strain BO SAO) SS en BOL 10 12 44 7 COntrols: «scones senate See eee ies ee See ee 25 43 5 41 Per 5-pot Per 5-pot No. 58, Pinus banksiana: unit. unit. Rheosporangium, Straim}229)2 2 cs ooh s Sate eae 3 5 46 “2, 45 Pythim <8 Strains coy. aesee eo see tee eee eee 40 2.6 50 1.3 Controlseeant hi Sey Boe er aa ak,” ee ee ene 10 78 0 78 No. 59, Pinus banksiana: Rheosporangium, Strain 229... 5 46 11 41 Pythium, 8 Strams 1. Sth jas : 40 15 35 10 Sr) Controls 27 he eae eer Ssh d ceeds Hos else ee eee Eee 10 64 0 64 No. 61, Pinus banksiana: Rheosporangium, StVain 30! See ce ns a eee 20 16 36 10 Dy thiim. 2 Strains sa-soeo.. eee eee ee ae eee 20 2 57 1 Controlss rege ee eee oe ee ee ec ee 20 60 2 59 No. 61, Pinus banksiana and beets in same pots: Fines) heosporangitim, Straim'Solie. 222868 Se cee anaes 5 { _ (2) 88 (2) 8 No. 61, beets alone: . Rheosporangium, strain $0. 2.2262 222s 2 hese eee eee 5 43 72 12 No. 62A, beets: 330 Z : SUTIN 229 Fees '55 ees oe 1 89 1 88 Rheosporangium{ 18 anaste oe ee 4 42 35 27 Pythium,.2 strains= son 26s-ee cues eee oe eee 20 12 83 2 Comirols! (oo Jace ee et peers se er eC ae eee See 11 86 0 86 No. 62A, beets: : : StTaln! 2292 ese 52. ee eee eee 50 20 40 Rheosporangium straim dbliuccneadee cS: : al eee eee ee 5 cQ7 78 c6 Controls: asad haoee oes sete a cas Sa ee ee ne 5 oF 1 c 76 No. 62A, beets and Pinus banksiana in same pots: Finés\e neosporangium, Strain) 229262. <2 eee eeece 5 i a os 33 Boer fRheosporangium, SEN GIL ccsesccsesacs 225s 2s52co= by) { Be Re a Pines : 5 81 0 81 BootsyControls See ee ee ee 2 { 67 0 57 No. 62B, Jack pine: @ ae 5 . A Strain) 220 eles cee sc tan ee eee ees 8 14 5 Rheosporangitumy train S51 eee as to 2 53 10 48 Py thium, Straini2o82) ees. ae es as eee ee ee ee eee 2 10 100 0 Controls. 222 ne. seas te one petose ee eee OEE ee eee 3 82 0 82 No. 66, Jack pine: 3 4 FE ae SUC 20 eee eee eee ee 3 9 5 BJICOSDORAME ium strain Sila Saks 520) aes 5 80 52 39 Pythium, 47 strains and substrains..-......- Se ees 235 43 33 29 Controls. coi htc tk aodeds oe bod Ghee OE OEE eee 25 75 14 64 No. 67, Jack pine: c ; 5 a ‘ a SULA 229 he ene tee eee ee eerie 107 1 Rheosporangium {Stain Ctl ice, eae Mee a At a cs oon 5 88 6 83 Pythium, 47 strains and substrains....-../-...-.---....-.-- 235 51 26 38 @ontrols ee 5; ee. cocci tise oe one ae Oe ee Te 23 87 5 83 No. 68, Red pine: ae £ is B ind : Straim229 a0 2252. SE oe See eee BY Rheosporanginm{ 2 a 3 8 50 4 Pythium artotrogus (?), Michigan strain.............-......... 3 13 8 12 Pythium artotrogus (?), Washington, D. C.— Strain’$2l 5A Se ee ee eee eee 3 11 0 il DELain' 83 1ee 2. hae Soo ete ee a eee oe ee ee 2 29 6 27 Strain: Satis. [24120 5 Ee ee 2 6 0 6 Controlss2 25-320 2c oe san toes Se ee See ee een | 14 9 0 9 OTHER FUNGI. Data on the possible relation between various other fungi and the damping-off of conifers have been already summarized by Hartley, Merrill, and Rhoads (68, p. 546-550). Pestalozzia funerea on the basis of the experiments of Spaulding (135), Botrytis cinerea on the basis of observation and very preliminary inoculations, and 7'richo- derma koningi on cultural evidence only are all believed to be po- tential causes of damping-off, though not ordinarily important. AJ- ternaria sp. is under a certain amount of suspicion on account of its frequent association with the damping-off of conifers, but it has never been used in experiments. hizopus nigricans (incorrectly re- ported as Mucor), 7richothecium roseum, Rosellinia sp. from nursery soil, Chaetomium sp. from maple roots, strains of Penicillium and _ Aspergillus, Phoma betae, and Phoma spp. are all reported to have been used in inoculations with negative results. Since the publication of the above summary a preliminary success- ful inoculation experiment with Botrytis cinerea on recently emerged Pseudotsuga taxifolia has been found briefly mentioned in an article by Tubeuf (140) on another disease. Further experiments with va- DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 65 rious strains of Botrytis, both from conifers and from other hosts (the latter supplied by the departments of plant pathology of the California and New York (Cornell) Agricultural Experiment Sta- tions), have already yielded confirmatory evidence of the parasitism of B. cinerea. While a considerable number of fungi have been considered in the foregoing, it is entirely possible that there are still parasites which have received no consideration and that some of them may perhaps be important. The moist-chamber method of culturing parasites for isolation yields only those which produce spores readily; the planted-plate method is not well adapted to the isolation of slow- erowing fungi or bacteria. It is suggested that in further culture work with damped-off conifers an attempt be made to secure slow- growing organisms by dilution plates of teased-up fragments of recent lesidns. RELATIVE IMPORTANCE OF THE DAMPING-OFF FUNGI ON - CONIFERS. The relative importance of the different damping-off parasites is something that has not been thoroughly investigated for any host. The most information on this point is that given by Busse, Peters, and Ulrich (22) for sugar beet. In this case they find the special- ized Phoma betae distinctly the most important, with Pythiwm de- baryanum second and Aphanomyces levis third. Peters (100) apparently considered Rhizoctonia unimportant as — a cause of beet damping-off. The opposite was indicated by a small number of cultures by Edson (88) from beet seedlings on Kansas and Colorado soil. These yielded more Corticium vagum than any other parasite and no Pythium at all. Johnson (81) states that most of the damping-off of tobacco seedlings is due to Pythium debaryanum and Corticiwum vagum. Atkinson (1), speaking for cotton in Alabama, and Sherbakoff (127, p. xev; 128; 129), speak- ing for truck crops in Florida, make Corticitwm vagum the impor- tant damping-off parasite, with P. debaryanum negligible. Horne (oral communication) found the same situation in tobacco seed beds in Cuba. Atkinson (3), in an article on trees, held that many of the cases of damping-off attributed to P. debaryanum are in real- ity due to C. vagum. Peltier (98, pp. 336-837) has reported Rhz- zoctonia solani as the cause of damping-off of a large number of plants, recording his observation of the damping-off of seedlings of nearly 50 species of miscellaneous genera and cuttings of 13 different “species, all of which he attributes to the Rhizoctonia. He does not state whether in this case he used diagnostic methods likely to de- tect Pythium debaryanum if it had been present. 19651°—Bull. 934215 66 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. For the conifers, no very reliable data on relative importance have been published. Numerous European reports emphasize the damage due to Fusariwm spp., while a smaller number attribute loss to Phytophthora fagi or to both. There seems to have been little effort to determine the presence or absence of Corticium or Pythium, so these reports can not be: given great weight. Spaulding’s evident belief (136) in the importance of Fusarium has more weight, as he was on the lookout for the other fungi; the moist-chamber diagnostic method employed in most of this work was, however, not well adapted to the detection of either one. The same is true of the work of Rathbun (106), in which dilution plates of seed-bed soil were employed. Rankin (105) attributes to Yusartwm spp. the greatest importance in tree seed beds in this country, with Pythiwm debary- anum and Rhizoctonia spp. important in certain cases. Gifford (46) emphasizes the importance of Fusarium, while Clinton (28) appar- ently found Rhizoctonia (Cortictum vagum) especially prevalent in the examinations he made. On the basis of the data presented or summarized in this bulletin, it is believed that of the various organisms which have been con- nected with damping-off in coniferous seed beds Pythiwm debary- anum, Corticium vagum, and Fusarium spp. include all of impor- tance. The others, either because of low indicated virulence or infrequent occurrence, and in most cases both, do not seem to merit extensive consideration. In order to form an idea of the relative frequency of the parasites named above as important, there have been brought together in Table TX the results of the examination of 438 damping-off foci in untreated beds and 304 foci which have appeared in beds which had received various disinfectant treatments. The data are presented by foci rather than by individual seedlings, as was done in the census reported by Busse and his coworkers. Most of the diagnoses were made by planting recently diseased seedlings in plates of solidified prune agar, all the seedlings taken from the same focus, or “ patch,” of damped-off seedlings being put into the same Petri dish. The — resulting growth was in some cases transferred to a tube for later examination, but was usually examined directly in the plate. In a smaller number of foci the seedlings were macerated and examined directly without recourse to culture methods. As Pythiwm debary- anum does not commonly fruit in diseased seedlings of pine or of tobacco (81) and its hyphe are-both difficult to find and not in themselves considered a sufficient diagnostic character, this latter method of examination is not so satisfactory for the determination of Pythium as it is for Corticium, which is easily recognized by its DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 67 1 thick-walled truncate-tipped hyphe and characteristic branching. A : further difficulty in the direct-examination method, unless the seed- Blings are sectioned, is in distinguishing between Conner hyphee prhich are in the tissues and those outside. The well-known habit of the Corticium of sending hyphee superficially over the surface of plants which it is not appreciably 1 injuring makes it evident that only hyphe actually found in the tissues ee diagnostic value. Direct microscopic examination is, furthermore, very edie to fail to detect Fusarium. The olametealiess method heaton appears the better of the two, and the results of the culture diagnoses appearing in the lowest two lines of Table LX deserve probably more attention than the total occurring a few lines above, in which the results of direct examination of the seedlings are also included. The high proportion of Corticium reported from the Michigan and Minnesota nurseries -is probably due in part to the fact that most of the examinations made there were of the direct microscopic type. Taste 1X.—Results of the examination of damping-off foci in coniferous seed beds for Pythium debaryanum, Corticium vagum, and Fusariwm spp. W Beds of heated |Beds treated with Untreated beds. soil. strong acids. Net Number ‘Number a showing— - | showing— - | showing— Grouping. 3 = 3 een Z ON ae g a a Z ‘ : ? eI i ils :| 3 nt a e/EIEIElSl/E/EIB| ele) 2/2 oO oS oO fa oD cS) oO me {->) =, oO i= CI a 3 S oA a 3 os} 4 q ey 3 Ss) = a 12) (S) ~~ a S) — te a fo) Bb is) t= >) mh! oO 3 So P| o 5 ele hs Pe |e le le la |e ls lS le Be cality; erkeley, Calif.......... mele eI RIE, J ett 4 3 1 B \odsoo : 5] 5] 0 2 MamitomsCololseie. eat. e he Se ee 22 0; 19 @) lopeco foerel Salalah secre (eeisisielcre ats he Is Monument, Colo wise aes ase eeee a 34 @i) 90) 1} |ecsae Ea Sette Seats eyteralal| asia meee lector Garden City, Kans.— Garden City Nurseries.........----.-.---- 18 4 0 9) 14] °5!/ 0} 7] 28] 8] 2 9 Kansas Nurseries (sand)--........-----:-- 20 4 9 7} 15) 2) 0} 6}] 16] 9) 2 8 HelalseyNCDEe seca i cessc ere eee Se 224 | 124} 45) 155| 28) 10] 0] 17) 99] 34) 2] 61 Case lala, Nim suey) anneal gh nen 42} 15) 21 Dyiicieys al tstasved ort al nee 1} 0| 0 0 ' Dundee, Ill.......-- Spare hte ease an i ae 4 0 GL Te sel Bsn eae (esas Ses epee peel eee East Tawas, Mich.— Beal Nurseries (Gam) eS ey Sen Bae 45 | 14] 33 Oil Vealases a segs le a | tae 1} 1] 0 0 East Tawas Nurseries...-..--..-----.---- igs) aa 7 IU RNa Tee ees ee Hea 13] 7) 6 2 Washington greenhouse....--..----..----.- 12 a8 9 CASO e NOM Shes eseae| bsace mi Be Total: IN(E Hal) OS pies Nc ys Rie Saran a oe ae ee 438 | 184 | 162 | 204 | 64] 19; 0O| 33] 163] 64; 12] 82 MCL CCTIGARC srorraie siajtiet es wis cis Siteeesisin ste seis 100} 42) 37] 471] 100} 30] Oj 52) 100} 39] 5] 5 eee Cine nostic methods: ; irect examination— : Be N(UIMIDCR At seen ee aa wee sos a 156 | 39] 108) 25 Oa eyes mesial esis 16} 6] 8 4 RETCEMPALC ceeinisn te soe a os nasheeds tee OO) | 2) || GO || WG llesoe deecallencallocac 100 | 88} 50] 25 _ Planted-plate cultures— INDUC OSS SAS AS SR Se ene nh ve cae eset a ae 282 | 145 | 54] 179) 64] 19] 0] 33] 147| 58| 4] 78 IPSICHOUBIR2 55.0 5 c0qsccosoeooecbecuoobooouEs 100! 51) 19{ 631 100] 80] 0: 521100] 39| 3] 88 68 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE IX.—Results of the eramination of damping-off foci in coniferous seed beds for Pythium debaryanum, Corticium vagun, and Fusarium spp.—Con. Beds treated with| Beds treated with |[Beds treated with formaldehyde. | copper sulphate. zine chlorid. All treated beds. Number Number Number umaber 3 — ; wing— ‘ — z wing— eerie : showing ~ showing + showing < sho g ae) BS | 4 S| 2 i : :| 3 : m :| 2 : : :| 3 ; 4 S/ElE/E|Slel2/2/2/8/212/2)2 1218 o om oO = oO an oO iI oO Te) o i=! oO at oO Lot mm | Olt] Ss] en | OAs] SB] en | Bl] BI] ow ais] s o ~ = YD (S) ~ he n Ss » = S) ~ a 2) So job. | Bo Sl cS) obs es es) | ose ese eae eieeommaie ss oleae Ble /O;S |e |e lO|e |e |e ole] se | a lo] By locality: erkeley, Califie..s-esse.-lneaes BA See serie Gao |= sacl saclibeaelseccrl oscllacs's Ena 8} 5| 0 2 Manitou, {Colo:e ae E EP ee ete ee Ss o5easoe bee eoeclecedissccts Seles celloasen ase ed Monument, Colowsascsees. |e Shea) ae colt cers | eee 8 ee RR eas se eee nce oc leosoclacaod ene er-—< Garden City, Kans.— Garden City Nurseries. oi On Oy 3 WY Oi Oy) al Sle Da ON Ss eb 2s 145) 87) eae Kansas Nurseries (sand) Sawin Bes Mri eee ccc BA Be eee apenas ec Byers [emcee ead ik 2 |) Halsey, Nebr....------- scl BME SO TL we (|) 33) td 8] O} Oj. 5] 175) 67} 3} 112 Cass Lake, Minn.........- aes Bets Hotrlaacd asec Son Baas Ges Bsecel asa secs a OL: 0}; 0 0 Dundeew lle eggs eee Peels | se cs cae ee, me aS 8 Re 8 i en a East Tawas, Mich.— Beal Nurseries (sand)... Gea Sepa beselesed reece Sere ae cel meee aeee aff sel Saas lees 1 1); 0 0 East Tawas Nurseries. - - 8; 5] 4] 0 Oy) BP sya) 5] 3] O| 2) 32] 20} 13 7 Washington greenhouse .--!.-..- Meee ete eeeeleaaod pee |icsclae eles oe Ue sale eee ad 2| 0 3 Total: INUMbers = Shaan seeoe 48 | 25; 11 | 27 13 8 3 9 16} 4 0 | 10 | 304 | 120; 26 | 161 Percentage.-.-..-------- 100 | 52 | 23 | 56 | 100 | 62 | 23 | 69 | 100 | 25 0| 63 }100| 3 By cise nestle methods: irect examination— INUMbeR Ss: eee eee Si Hy Zl Oo Hh} ay BiB 5| 38] 0} 2] 34) 18] 14 8 Percentage sn- cence oases 100 | 63 | 50 0 | 100} 80 | 40] 40 | 100 | 60} O]| 40} 100} 53] 41 24 Planted-plate cultures— Nam bens sees ae see 40 | 20] 7] 27 8} 4) 1) 7] 10) £04) (8) 270 | 102") 12 | 153 Percentages: seeccscesee 100 | 50 | 18 | 68 | 100 | 50 | 13 | 88 | 100 9 0 | 73 | 100 38 4 57 The data on the different nurseries do not allow any generalizing on the basis of locality except to say that all of the fungi seem quite generally distributed in the Lake States and Great Plains region. In general, it appears that the Fusaria as a group are more common than either of the other fungi; as they grow more slowly than either the Pythium or the Corticium, they were probably rather more common relatively than even the plate-culture method indicated. It also appears that the Pythium occurred in more foci than the Corticium in the beds examined. Further culture work, perhaps by the method of dilution plates of fragments of lesions, seems de- sirable, especially in the East and the Northwest, regions in which there are large coniferous nurseries and in which nothing like a parasite census has been attempted. Observations on the type of focus occurring in most of the nurseries in the Rocky Mountains leads the writer to believe that Corticium will be found especially important there. While the data on the fungi in foci in disinfected beds are insuffi- cient to serve as a basis for much in the way of conclusions for any individual treatment, they in general agree with the assumption, which knowledge of the fungi would favor, that Corticium is the BS i c DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 69 “most easily controlled by soil disinfection (see the bottom line in the last four columns of Table IX). Its poor adaptation for aerial dissemination would lead one to expect to find it seldom in beds treated with efficient disinfectants. The entire absence of Corticium in heated soil therefore seems somewhat significant. The rather high Corticium yield in the formaldehyde plats is of some interest in view of the reported inefficiency of formaldehyde in destroying Corticium vagum on potato tubers (48, 50). As will be noted from the data given, more than one suspected parasite was often found in what appeared to be a single focus. This was probably in some cases due to independent foci being nearly concentric; it also in “some cases undoubtedly means that one of the organisms found was only secondary. In the beet-seedling cultures by Busse and his associates, individual seedlings yielded two or more potential para- sites in 100 of their nearly 1,300 examinations. It not infrequently happened in the work on pine seedlings that no fungus recognized as a likely parasite could be isolated. This was especially true in plate cultures when Rhizopus or Trichoderma happened to be abundant, as both are very fast growing and often suppress para- sites. This is an additional reason for the development of some method as a dilution plate of lesion fragments for diagnosing damp- ing-off. ; . Even an accurate and complete census of the organisms present in the different foci could not be directly interpreted in terms of rela- tive importance. None of the parasites so far used in inoculation have been vigorously parasitic under all conditions. Of both Corti- cium vagum and Pythium debaryanum some strains, microscopically indistineguishable from the others, are very weak as parasites. Only part of the Fusarium species are parasitic on pine, and data showing which are and which are not parasitic are known for only a very few. There is therefore no fungus which can be said positively to be the cause of any particular damping-off “patch” simply because it was found in some of the dead seedlings in the patch. In an occa- sional exceptional case, such as the large Corticium patch in figures 7 and 8, there is such a vigorous growth of the fungus that its pre- dominance is undoubted, but such cases are rather rare. A census throws light on the importance of the different fungi, but can be interpreted only in the light of inoculation results. - For Pythium and Corticium the inoculation data do not permit any simple comparison between the two, for the reason that neither is uniform. Each has strains of high virulence and strains having practically no effect on pines. In the inoculations in autoclaved soil at sowing time the strongest strains of Corticium vagum have on the whole caused more damage than any of the Pythium strains, but, on the other hand, there has seemed to be a higher proportion of very 70 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. weak strains of C. vagum than in the case of Pythium. In inocula- tions on Pinus banksiana and P. ponderosa in Kansas sand treated with acid followed by lime, the average Corticlum was very much more destructive than even the strongest Pythium strains, allowing practically no germination in most cases. On the other hand! In ex- periments in which the inoculum was applied directly to Pinus resinosa and P. ponderosa seedlings, either immediately after germ- ination or after the older parts had become resistant, the Pythium: has been the more effective. The inoculation evidence so far avail- able justifies so nearly equal emphasis on the two that it can prac- ~ tically be eliminated from the calculations. It is the writer’s opinion that the Corticium strains are probably rather less virulent on the average than the Pythium strains, but perhaps better able to main- tain themselves and spread from one seedling to another in most soils. The evidence of Table IX that the Corticium seemed less fre- quent in the damping-off foci is more or less counterbalanced by the apparent larger size of many of the disease patches which it seems to cause in the seed beds. Nearly all the large clean areas such as are shown in figures 7 and 8 have been found to contain abundant Corticium hyphe. The evidence on the whole seems to indicate a very nearly equal importance for the two fungi. The Pythium is probably somewhat the more important for the stations at which most of the cultures in Table IX were made, but the Corticium has received more emphasis from other observers in this country and is indicated by the writer’s observations to be more important in the western mountains than any other damping-off fungus. The inoculation evidence for Yusarium spp., though less complete than for Corticium and Pythium, is nevertheless rather helpful in indicating their importance rating. None of those so far tested in inoculations at sowing have shown the destructiveness of the aver- age strains of Pythium or of the stronger strains of Corticium; while this is only in part a test of virulence and in part a test of the ability of the fungus to grow saprophytically in the soils used, the indication is that no one Fusarium species is the equal in destructive capacity of either Corticium vagum or Pythium debaryanum. How- ever, when all of the Fusarium species which occur in the seed beds are considered, the group as a whole may prove quite as important or even more important than either of the other two fungi. The data already at hand rather definitely indicate considerable importance for all three. DAMPING-OFF FUNGI AS CAUSES OF ROOT-ROT AND LATE DAMPING-OFF. As has been already stated, root-rot, often with frequent recovery, has been commonly observed in ‘ghedlinies several weeks old. It has been especially common in the vicinity of old damping-off foci in ¥ which Cortictum vagum appeared to be: the active parasite, but beyond this indication of the causal relation of C. vagum it was not known which of the damping-off fungi were able to attack the roots of seedlings too old to be killed by damping-off. To throw light on this point, seedlings of Pinus ponderosa and P. resinosa grown in autoclaved soil in the greenhouse and approximately 14 months old were inoculated with different fungi. There had been a certain degree of early damping-off in these pots, but it had apparently ceased before the inoculations were made. The inoculum used con- sisted of cultures on rice introduced through the drainage holes at _ the bottoms of the pots. The strains of Pythium debaryanum and Corticium vagum used were the ones which had given maximum results in earlier inoculation experiments at the time of sowing. The strain of Yusarium ventricosum was the only one available, and the Fusarium moniliforme strains were all of approximately equal viru- lence, the three used having given as much evidence of parasitism as any of the strains of this species in the earlier damping-off experi- ments. Three pots of each pine were inoculated with each strain. Two 3-pot units of each pine were set aside as controls and inoculated with sterile rice. In addition, three pots of each pine were kept in the same bench without the addition of any inoculum, for comparison with the controls with rice. The results of this experiment, taken _a month after the inoculations were made, with the seedlings averag- ing 24 months old, appear in Table X. The roots of the living seed- lings were washed out carefully with water to permit examination. The results in so far as they indicate root-rot of the oldest seedlings are best shown by the figures in columns 4 and 5. These seedlings were so far advanced that the fungi had not been able to kill them, and nearly all would probably have recovered if they had not been dug up. It will be noted from column 4 of Table X that a consider- _ able portion of the Pinus ponderosa seedlings with root-rot had al- ready made their recovery apparent by pushing out adventitious roots above the decayed portion at the time they were examined. For Fusarium ventricosum there was only the merest indication of ability to attack pine roots at this stage. For F/. moniliforme the evidence is somewhat better, more pots being included and the dif- ference in healthy-topped seedlings with injured roots between the inoculated pots and the controls being approximately twice its indi- - eated probable error for each species. The percentage of root-injured seedlings in the Pythium debaryanum pots exceeded that in the con- trols in each species by between three and four times the probable error of the difference, while the difference in percentage between the Cortictum vagum pots and the controls is approximately four times its probable error in the case of Pinus ponderosa and five and one-half times its probable error in the Pinus resinosa pots. The DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. Mel iil} ee 12 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. weak point in the results is, of course, the insufficiency of the 6-pot and 9-pot groups as bases for probable-error determination. The indicated relative ability of these different fungi to cause root-rot is about the same as their relative ability to cause the damping-off of sprouting seed and young seedlings, as indicated by the results of the earlier experiments in which inoculations were made at the time of sowing. The fact that only the very strongest available strains were used and that the pots were rather heavily inoculated is to be kept in mind in considering these results. As in the seedlings examined in the nursery beds, when a root system was partly rotted it was only the younger portions of the roots that were affected. The evi- dence obtained from this experiment needs to be amplified by experi- ments with other coniferous hosts, other strains of the fungi, and under other conditions. The experiment just described furnishes the only evidence available on the relation of the important fungi Pythium debaryanum and Corticium vaqum to the root-rot of conifers and is therefore presented as a preliminary contribution. TABLE X.—Results of root inoculations of older pine seedlings with damping-off fun gi. i Seedlings which developed root-rot Number of. (per cent). Tops still healthy. Host and inoculating fungus. Pots.| Seed- | Rootrecovery. | 4 verage | Killed.| Total. lings. )| + ‘i AEE Dilber dividual Not ots. Started. Started: p 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Pinus ponderosa: Pythium debaryanum, strains 295, 550, 9 71 27 25] 5344.5 4 56 and 810.4 Corticium vagum, strains 147, 213, and 9 56 16 34} 5143.5 4 54 747.0 Fusarium moniliforme, strains 249, 251, 9 64 19 27 | 4246.2 0 45 and 260.0 Fusarium ventricosum........--- Beara 3 18 17 39 | 50 0 56 Controlsxjscp -2 ces ee oamare tome oeae 6 41 2 15 | 2246.5 0 17 Controls without ricosse.se cesses esee 3 18 0 17 | 23 0 17 Pinus resinosa: Pythium debaryanum.........--.-...--- 9 140 3 16] 1844.0 12 31 Corbiciinaiy aril epee ene eect tai 9 146 3 16} 2142.4 13 33 Fusarium moniliforme...---2.22----+---6 8 128 0 11} 1243.7 2 13 Fusarium ventricosim:..-aseseee-— aes 3 39 0 5 4 0 5 Controls... 2h soaks eee noes 6 115 0 3 442.0 6 10 Controls withoutricevse-seeeneee eee ee 3 51 0 0 0 2 2 - a Forrelative virulence of these strains on younger seedlings as compared with other strains of the same species, note their position in figures 11 and 14. b i or performance of these strains in inoculations at time of sowing, see an earlier publication (68, table 2). The figures in column 7 give information as to the percentage of late damping-off resulting from the inoculations. A certain per- centage of the early type of damping-off appeared in some of the g j DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 73 4 pots, as there were still present a number of soft-stemmed seedlings from seeds which were slow in germinating. These younger seed- lings were excluded in counting the dead, the rule being to include only plants which had developed a sufficiently rigid stem to remain upright after death. Comparison of the percentage of killed with _ the total percentage attacked for the two pines is rather interesting. _ As has already been pointed out, while Pinus resinosa suffers very heavy damping-off losses at a number of nurseries 1t seems to be less susceptible than some other species to parasitic injury during the sprouting period, before the seedlings appear above the soil sur- face. Observation of beds of this species during different seasons has indicated that it has not a greater susceptibility, but rather the fact that its susceptibility lasts longer, which causes it to suffer as seriously as it does at certain nurseries. It is indicated in Table X that the succulent root tips of Pinus ponderosa are just as easily attacked by damping-off parasites as those of P. resinosa—in fact, considerably more easily attacked, as indicated by the figures in col- umn 8. With the P. ponderosa seedlings, however, the older parts of the roots had become resistant at this age in nearly all cases, while of the affected P. resinosa seedlings more than one-third were still unable to limit the lesions, and death resulted. In general, this experiment indicates that Corticitum vagum and Pythium debaryanum are able to cause the death of some pine seed- lings which have developed rigid stems and that both are also able, as has been found by other workers in the case of sugar beets, to cause “root sickness,” the rot of the younger portions of the root systems, in seedlings which have developed too much resistance to be killed. The evidence for the parasitism of the two Fusarium species on these older root systems is not so good; as in the experi- ments on younger seedlings, their ability to attack the pines is prob- ably less than that of the other two fungi. Further inoculation ex- periments are desirable. both with these fungi and with others on the - roots of seedlings too old to succumb to the more ordinary types of damping-off. RELATION OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS TO DAMPING-OFF. In the earlier section dealing with disease control, mention was made of the general belief on the part of men who have had experi- ‘ence with seedling diseases that damping-off is favored by thick seed- ing, by much organic matter, especially by poorly rotted manure in the soil, and by excessive moisture in the air and soil. It is also commonly stated that high temperature favors the disease; on this point there is perhaps a less general agreement. Practically all the evidence on these points is observational. 74 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, DENSITY OF SOWING. The relation between the disease and thick sowing was strikingly indicated for tobacco seedlings in a single experiment by Johnson (82). For pines the only available information is from four experi- ments on Pinus banksiana. The results of the first two appear in figure 19. In both experiments there is an indication of an increase in the percentage of diseased plants as the seed density is increased. There is, however, no such marked relation as in Johnson’s work. As the pines were sown in drills, they were so close together even in the less dense plats that no very great increase in the ease of spread of the disease was to be expected from in- creasing the density. ~ S Ss) sumably explained by the fact that with 600 4200 7800 24700 3000 equal num b ers of NUMBER OF SEEDS SOWN PER SQUARE FOOT OF BED seed per square foot & S q 90 : WL Greater differences x Sao should be expected ES in broadeast beds. g Se That heavier losses S have been found in 2 60 drill-sown beds than st in those sown broad- aN cast (69; 189) is pre- s ‘ = 8 Fic. 19.—Diagram showing the extent of damping-off in ‘drill-sown Pinus banksiana in plats with different seed of seed bed the seed- densities. The regular’ seed density at this nursery was lings are much closer 600 seeds per square foot. together in draille than in broadcast beds, and thus the spread of the mycelium of para- sites from one seedling to another is facilitated. Two tests of different seed densities were also made in 3-inch pots of autoclaved soil in the greenhouse. Each regular pot was sown with 28 seeds (equivalent to 600 per square foot). The pots were inoculated by adding to each a single small fragment of an agar culture of Pythiwm debars yanum. Uninoculated pots showed an emer- gence of approximately 50 per cent of the seed and were entirely free from subsequent damping-off in both experiments. The results ap- pear in Table XI. In this case not only the damping-off after emergence but the loss before the seedlings appeared bore an apparent relation to sowing density. In the field experiments there was no evidence that the loss before the seedlings appeared was affected by seed density. DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 75 TABLE XI.—Results of inoculation, at the time of sowing, with Pythiwn debaryanum on Pinus banksiana in different sowing densities in pots of autoclaved soil. [The percentages of ‘‘ Damping-off,’”’ columns 4 and 7, are based on the number ofseedlings; the percentages given in columns 3, 5,6, and 8 are based on the number of seeds.] Num- Results (per cent). ber of : ; Density of seed sowing. pers Experiment 58. Experiment 59. ex- Pee Damp-| Sur- Damp-]| Sur- ment. |Emerged. ing-off. | vival. Emerged. ing-off. | vival. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 IRECADIBY 2, OS are eS eee See fe a 10 15 43 10 26 13 23 DOUG sc de Se ce eee eee s oar ae ee 5 8 65 3 8 91 1 "TNELEOND,. cite Sec ae es a 5 1 100 0 11 34 7 Regular, but 10 additional seeds near ‘ point of inoculation..-.........-.-..---- 5 6 33 4 17 37 11 MOISTURE AND TEMPERATURE FACTORS. The relation of damping-off to moisture and temperature are sub- jects less easily studied. In 1907 and 1908 Mr. W. H. Mast, then supervisor of the Nebraska National Forest, conducted daily counts of the number of seedlings damped-off and compared these records with temperature and rainfall records. The writer in 1909 repeated his work, maintaining parallel records of damping-off, air and soil — temperatures, soil moisture, atmospheric humidity, wind movements, and evaporation. The 1909 records of damping-off, temperature, soil moisture, and evaporation appear in figure 20. The damped-off seedlings were counted and removed in the morning and evening, the day period thus being in most cases 10 to 11 hours and the night period 13 to 14 hours. Because the period was not always the same leneth, the data are reduced to a per hour basis. Air temperature was recorded by a sheltered thermograph 3 feet above the soil sur- face. The evaporation graph represents the mean loss per hour from two porous cup atometers of the writer’s own design, in which the rather long and slender Chamberlain filter bougie was used and supported in a horizontal position just above the soil surface so as to be under as nearly as possible the same atmospheric conditions as the seedlings. The two bougies were placed at right angles to each other in order to eliminate as far as possible the effect of change of wind direction on their mean loss. While the rain-correction mount- ing had not at that time come into use, the error due to rain absorp- tion appeared negligible; atometers filled shortly before rainfall were read immediately after without any gain being found in the water in the reservoir. The psychrograph and wind-movement rec- ords are not presented, as the evaporation values are more easily inter- preted. Soil moisture was periodically determined in the soil of the BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 76 ‘Md G 0} GZ JO GIdop yw= X “UD GZ 01 C JO YIdop JXL—© “Wd 9°90 02 O Jo TIdep JV—@ : canj}stom [fos 0} Sutasezoa spoqurds JO woljeurldxy ‘TH “8 QO'9 9}¥BOTPUL SOUT [BOTJI0A OY} ‘SP1OD0I 9IN}STOUI-[IOS pUv aIN}vIedM9} 94} JOT ‘odBJANS [10S oy} MOTeq “UID Eg peTANG se q[nq esoyM JeJoMOW , 0G} B JO SSUIPVAL 9}VOIPUL VAIND STG} SulAUvdMOdIB Sjop oY} 9TIYA ‘Spaq, oy} JO soVjAnS Vy} VAOGK A9}J0M T YdvaSourssy) pozdj[eYs vB WO1y Way] ST 9A1ND oIN}e1IIdu9} eUT, ‘“SISeq A[INOY Ue OJUI po}JIOATOD ore SaINnSy esey} ‘Y}SueT [ends Jo JOU o19M PapPTAIP SNYI SvA 9uIT} Ou} Qorgs ojUur sported (N) 34510 pue (qd) Avp 04} SY ‘“SUIUIOM puv }YSIU ‘peJUNOD SSuT[pees p¥ep 24} puv PaINSvemM SeM SdioJeM0MIe dnd-snorod wory UOTeIOdvAa ey ‘Suonrpuos 9INJVIOdUI9} PUB IINJSTOUL 94} SUI} VOIPUL PUL BVYySvIgeN UI ATosinuU v 1V DUDISYUHG sng JO Spaq Ul Yo-Suidwuep Jo sserSoad aq} SUIMOYS WRISVIQG—'OZ ‘DI e Zz Mt o/ 6 8 Zz 9 9 st BAIN OG GZ 82 l2 92 92 H2 €2 22 12 O2 6f 1 Z/ a9 Si t/ él el u o/- & AINAP NOINININONTNONTONONTONG oh A Sa ee ee ae Ye wa LD JAD IDA YN eles ~ NV Nex de ons | rods ss 92 wh S £00 woR so so~' ——s WES IN KAYA MA AY NV 1 QR & 38 e 88 ig > RS = = | Nan A (| i ed a uit] y Viv : ; smh 3 Y se 5 P =) i: “g *Stae ~*~ 5 f x o% CI t DS Las ' 02 >> es S$ oe = 5 aa 8 / a ne ae DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. iy! _ plats on which the seedling counts were conducted, each determina- tion representing two, and in some cases four, points. The deter- minations for the upper one-fourth inch of soil, made more frequently than for lower levels, are connected in figure 20 by a dotted line, which gives some idea of the amount of moisture in the surface soil during the periods between determinations. The determinations were too infrequent to permit anything more than an estimate of the moisture conditions between determinations, but the writer, having before him the records of the times and amounts of rainfall and artificial watering as well as the evaporation and soil-moisture de- terminations, is in a better position to make such an estimate than the reader. The dotted line which gives this estimate should not be depended on to show what the percentage of moisture was at any one time, but is believed reasonably reliable as showing whether in gen- eral the soil was wet or dry. In interpreting the soil-moisture rec- ords, it should be kept in mind that the soil was very sandy, the wilting coefficient of composite samples from various parts of the nursery, as determined by the indirect method of Briggs and Shantz in the Laboratory of Biophysical Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry, being only 3.4 per cent. The hygroscopic moisture in dry air for the soil of the plats actually under consideration was indicated by repeated determinations for the surface soil on dry days to be in the neighborhood of or slightly below 2 per cent. The nursery is located in a region of large temperature fluctuations, where the air during the day i Is zenamelio dry, and consequently the dew is heavy at wii The first result of interest is the difference Berroa the damping- off for the day and the night periods. In the records of every day but two, more seedlings went down during the day period than during the night, the differences in most cases being large. As the evaporation and temperature showed similar day and night fluctua- tions, it is difficult to say whether temperature or moisture condi- tions were responsible. The other interesting result brought out by the graphs is the sudden drop in the general level of the damping- off graph following the rains of June 15, June 19-20, and July 3 In each of these aimee cases the tame off came up again ane after the soil moisture came down. The fact that in the daily fluctuations the damping-off varied directly with the evaporation rather than inversely is an apparent contradiction of the generally accepted doctrine that moisture favors the disease. This contradiction is, however, only apparent. Dur- ing the first part of the damping-off period, when the seedlings are still soft, the recognition of damping-off depends on the decay of that part of the stem just above the soil surface which allows the seedling to fall over. This usually takes place at this nursery as 78 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, — a result of the extension upward of lesions which have started on the parts a little below the soil surface. It is supposed that such decay takes place most rapidly at high temperatures and that it is the temperature rather than the evaporation graph which the damp- ing-off is following in these early day and night fluctuations. Dur- ing the latter part of the damping-off period a dying seedling shows its first signs of distress in the drying up of its leaves, the stem being too stiff to go down until after the infection has gone far enough in the roots to cut off most of the water supply. It is, of course, under dry conditions that such a sign of distress will be most in. evidence. During the latter part of the damping-off period it is therefore altogether likely that the day and night fluctuations are caused, at least in part, by the higher evaporation rate which ob- tains during the day. This is a relation not to the rate of progress of the disease, but rather to the rate at which the symptoms of dis- ease appear in plants already seriously affected. The drop in damping-off following the increased soil moisture of June 15, 19-20, and July 3 also apparently contradicts established doctrine. While it is ordinarily true that a wet soil is a cold soil and that in the rainy weather which causes wet soil the evaporation is usually low, it does not seem possible on inspection of the graphs for these items to attribute entirely the reduction of damping-off during these periods of wet soil either to low temperature or to low evaporating power of the air. Lowered soil temperature probably had something to do with the reduced loss following the rains. It is also suggested that a sudden change in moisture content may tem- porarily hinder a soil fungus by decreasing its air supply. In this sandy soil the fungi can work at very considerable depths during dry periods. Initial lesions have been found as much as 12 inches below the surface. If this soil is as completely changed in its. aera- tion qualities by wetting as the sandy soil with which Buckingham (19) worked, a rain might result in a rather sudden change in the level at which the fungus is able to operate. On the whole, the graphs tend to confirm the common statement that high temperature favors damping-off. It must, however, be borne in mind that in uncontrolled field plats several factors vary simultaneously, and it is impossible to definitely attribute any ob- served phenomenon to any one of them. Furthermore, it is not possible to say for the seedlings at different ages just how long it will take a factor to exert an effect on the damping-off curve. An addi- tional consideration is that a method of investigation which gives entirely, reliable information on the speed with which the disease develops does not necessarily throw light on the conditions under which the greatest total amount of disease can be expected before the seedlings become old enough to resist attack. High temperatures, | ; = 4 4 DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 79 within reasonable limits, are expected to increase the speed with which the disease works, but these should also hasten the develop- ment of the host to a point at which infections are unable to cause death. It is the total amount of damage in the beds rather than the damage per unit of time which is of practical importance. For a number of reasons, then, the method followed in obtaining the data for these graphs can not give information of maximum value. While ‘data of the sort mentioned are of undoubted interest and would be of still more value if the records had been commenced when the first seedlings appeared instead of a few days later, the relation of any specific factor to the total extent of the disease can be better deter- mined by comparing plats in series in which the factors are as far as possible controlled and varied one at a time. To vary soil moisture and soil temperature independently will prove somewhat difficult, another. but it can be done with the proper facilities. Some work with en- -yironmental factors should be done under conditions of artificial in- — oculation in the greenhouse, in which the different damping-off parasites can be experimented with separately, as it is obvious that the factors which favor the activity of one may not be favorable for CHEMICAL FACTORS. Chemical factors are presumably also important, as the soil is in most cases the culture medium for both the parasite and the host. The much greater activity of Pythiwm debaryanum in autoclaved soil than in untreated soil may be due to the larger quantity of soluble organic matter commonly present in autoclaved soil. Pythiwm debaryanum has been found more sensitive to unfavorable substrata in artificial culture than Corticitwm vagum and is apparently more dependent on soil organic matter in the nurseries than is C. vagum. For example, in the normal humus-containing surface sand in the -beds-at Cass Lake, Minn., both Pythium and Corticium occurred frequently in the damped-off seedlings, while in beds a few feet distant, from which enough of the surface soil had been removed to leave no humus, nearly all the damping-off foci contained abundant Corticium, and no Pythium could be found. With both fungi and, in addition, with two species of Fusarium (68) heavy inoculation has been more successful in experiments at the time of sowing than hight inoculation. This has been thought possibly due in part to the larger amount of nutrient substratum added in the heavy inocula- tions, allowing better saprophytic development of the fungus in the soil. In each of the two experiments with Pythium reported in Table XI, a 5-pot unit was treated with corn-meal infusion and another with prune infusion at the time of inoculation. In both experiments germination was lower, damping-off after germination higher, and the survival less than half as great in the pots with 80 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, infusion as in the inoculated pots not so treated. In the first experi- ment 5-pot units of unheated soil were also inoculated in the same way. In these also both the units which received infusions showed less germination and more loss after germination than the unit which received no infusion, though the differences were smaller than in the autoclaved soil. In the second experiment the ight inoculation used failed to cause material loss in the unheated soil units, even though two of them were treated with the infusion as in the previous test and two others received triple portions of the infusion. The experience in the nurseries, in which heavy applications of manure, and especially poorly rotted manure, in a number of cases have apparently resulted in increased disease, and the finding of Fred (48) that green manures recently plowed under favored the work of Corticium have already been mentioned. The addition of dried blood at two nurseries in Kansas was in both cases followed by very much héavier loss than in the controlled plats. The only instances known to the writer in which the addition of organic matter to the soil has shown any indication of materially decreasing damping-off (with the exception, of course, of the organic disin- fectants) are the result reported by Gifford (46) with tankage, a single case in the writer’s experience with bone meal, and the cases in which cane sugar has seemed to decrease losses somewhat (67). It is of some interest to note that the experience available also indi- cates increased disease as a result of the addition of inorganic nitrog- enous substances. Sodium nitrate and sodium nitrite have both given some indication of increasing damping-off. Ammonium sul- phate in six separate series has in every case resulted in decreased stands, though unfortunately in experiments in which the damped-. off seedlings were not counted. Ammonium hydroxid, though ap- parently having some initial value as a disinfectant, as indicated by early damping-off losses, in a number of cases has been followed by very heavy total losses. This experience is of some interest in view of the apparently rather general belief that plants on a soil rich in nitrogen are especially susceptible to disease. The chemical factor for which there is perhaps the most evidence of a relation to damping-off of conifers is acidity. The fact that sulphuric-acid soil treatment has been found to be one of the most effective means of controlling the disease, that its value is mainly lost if lime is later added to the soil, that soil treatment with sulphur in a number of cases has seemed to decrease the disease, and that lime alone and wood ashes have had either no effect or have appar- ently increased the damping-off whenever they have been tried, all suggest that soil acidity is not favorable to the disease. Additional indication of this appears in figure 12. The acidity determinations serving as the basis for the graph were made by Dr. L. J. Gillespie, / ils a DAMPING-OFF IN FOREST NURSERIES. 81 ; \ of the Bureau of Plant Industry. The estimates of the relative se- riousness of damping-off are very approximate, based in part on observation only. The stations at which damping-off is rated as 1 are places at which it has been reported by nurserymen or foresters as negligible or absent. The estimates for stations 10, 11, 14, and 15 are based entirely on the reports of others, and for station 5 on the basis of counts of damped-off seedlings made by Mr. R. G. Pierce and Mr. Glenn G. Hahn. The writer personally has made the esti- mates or checked the estimates of the nurserymen at the other sta- tions. A considerable degree of correlation between the hydrogen- ion exponent and the amount of damping-off appears on the face of the graphs, the coefficient being 0.75+0.07. If the correlation is calculated with the H* concentration itself instead of its negative exponent, the coefficient, in this case itself negative, is not so high (—0.58+0.11). All of the above data on acidity relation have been picked up incidentally in connection with other work and are merely suggestive. The suggestion, however, seems sufficiently strong to warrant further experimental work directed specifically at the rela- tion between soil acidity and the disease. The indication in the graph that damping-off is not serious in soils in which the hydrogen-ion exponent (P,,)° is less than 6 is of particular interest, in view of the experience of Hawkins and Har- vey (71) with cultures of Pythium debaryanum on potato juice. They obtained good growth through a range of acidity from Py 3.4 to 5.8, with no growth or practically none at 3.06 or 8.4. If this represents the acid tolerance of the fungus in the soil solution, it is evident that ordinarily acid soils can not be expected to remain free from damping-off because of inhibition of this particular fungus. This suggests that the apparently salutary influence of soil acidity in decreasing the damping-off of some of the conifers may be ex- erted in the direction of increasing the resistance of the host rather than of inhibiting the parasites. In any case, it must be kept in mind that as the numerous conifer hosts commonly grown in nurseries have many different habitat preferences and many very different parasites of potential importance, it is not to be expected that there will be found any such constant relation between any factor and the amount of disease as would be expected in a disease in which only a single parasite and a single host are involved. ®Pz 6 is equivalent to a hydrogen-ion concentration, expressed in mols per liter, of 1X10-° or 0.000001. The higher the exponent, the smaller the hydrogen-ion concentra- tion. An exponent of 7 means approximate neutrality. In dealing with this exponen- tial form of expression, it should be kept in mind that Pu6 means ten times and Pxd one hyndred times the hydrogen-iron concentration indicated by Pu7. Conversely, the concentration of hydroxyl-ions at Pu7 is one hundred times as great as at Pud. 19651°—Bull. 934—21 6 82 BULLETIN 934, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BIOLOGIC FACTORS. Mention has already been made of two strictly biologic factors which may influence the amount of damping-off. Taylor (138) and Rathbun (106) have found Fusarium not only at considerable depths in the soil of pine seed beds, but viable Fusarium spores without hyphe in the alimentary canals of earthworms and insect larve in the soil, and they attribute to the migrations of these and to the tunnels which various animal forms make in the soil a possible im- portance in the distribution of damping-off Fusaria. 8 3 B q S| = 2 3 Set lrea les Ie oe aes eile Wen) amir Ss < n (2) Z A 5 Fy = < = 5 i= Washington ....-.. 32 | 167 |1,763 | 9,401 |6,770 |1,787 |1,854 |1,881 |1,930 |1,094 | 473 16 | 27,168 Oregon. 2.2.20. <2 2 9] 195 | 1,354 |1,478 | 781} 798 | 406] 232] 108 G0) |peeece 5, 443 Wodahos2es2s.--5252 4 5 | 542] 1,767 | 872) 229; 192] 193) 113 20 Gh Beamer 3, 943 Montans q 3 = = 5} S a 2 = & gs =| = 5 5) 3 ® a © 3 re¥ 8 = 5 iS 4 n ) Z A 5 & =| < =| 5 a Wenatchee Valley istic = sn mee 3 46 | 633 | 3,773 |3,438 | 827] 877] 799] 916] 776 AQ eta 12,128 Yakima Valley...-| 25 | 110] 964 | 4,007 |2,105| 742] 795] 974] 951] 284] 425 14 | 11,396 South Idaho.....-- 4 5 | 53241, 57991) 7529) 203) 185 ie tiaslel0s 20 eee 3,568 Hood River. 225 ss|----c5 4 52 738 | 939] 467] 608] 386] 199} 101 Tele Se 3,519 Spokane district-.-.-|.-.--- 3 93 | 1,221 | 857} 181] 126 90 50 31 8 2s 25613 Walla Walla....... 3 8 93 500 | 427 98 51 46 WO} | fe eee 1, 238 West Oregon....-- 2 3 48 291 | 270} 132 43 18 26 5 Dale e ce 843 Medford - Rogue Riveriess eccre.|s-5e=- 1 55 222} 156) 137 97 14 10 OF SEs | eae 694 East Oregon..-----|------ 1 30 185 | 173 57 55 23 3 1h eae eee 528 Montanaeeneesases|-== a= 23 | 108 269 73 8 5 4 5 So eee 500 West Washington. Weis nc) atelcisier 6 3 3 7 (oy | eet ON ee 28 Total==: =.= 5. 38 204 |2,608 |12,791 |9,193 |2,805 |2,849 |2,484 |2, 280 |1, 227 559 16 | 37,054 WENATCHEE VALLEY DISTRICT.1 : Sep- | Octo- Novuanll Decem-| Jan- Feb- : Statiors. femiers| er ipa. Gaal uary. | ruary. March. | April. | Total. Appledale-.-..---------------- 7 10 “| bozsepec||eseee2cq||-2- etic aeeee elt set ec 21 IBTOWStCLE ne eee ene ee aeeee 37 160 125 42 16 16 11 9 416 @ashmeree= seen ee eas 29 310 352 85 174 110 163 195 1, 423 @Ghelanee sess aen ee ae a 13 184 |. 188 68 56 43 77 21 650 IDS ilososssSesosesscaaser il 106 117 29 55 21 53 92 492 IDES ole sececeszossresses|bsosesze 3 Vail eects 1 QO a emews| Smee eens 31 DDIM iE isn oesdsoscesesse acess 42 200 186 54 60 29 41 23 639 Leavenworth......---------- 3 25 35 9 4 9 | sae 86 WEIR eee coneeesecessacsce 6 78 69 21 13 21 27 7 245 WAU Gi sponte Sen tosesassbocr|baséosse PAN) | ae Sonemetbooooced|socabs0c De eel lo napces 22 MGM WP Soeececodscecessone 35 210 211 45 35 32 35 40 644 WIDER .225-sopcnesscses2oss sne dees Ee 2 11 10 Ree eos a) Seeccadcbocdaosd hb Saocnocllasecindite 23 Totaly en meteesae cee 633 | 3,773 | 3,438 827 877 774 916 776 | 12,103 1 Totals include following shipments: 3 cars in July, 46 carsin August, and 40 cars in May; also 1 car from Moses Coulee and 3 from Vulcan. / THE DISTRIBUTION OF NORTHWESTERN BOXED APPLES. 13 Pacific Northwest car-lot shipments of apples, 1919-20 season, by States, prin- cipal districts, and shipping stations—Continued. 2 YAKIMA VALLEY DISTRICT.? Sep- | Octo- |Novem-|Decem-| Jan- Feb- March Stations. tember.| ber. | ber. | ber. | uary. | ruary. April. | Total. I OISCRee em sae ladles secis.cis Se els owiciise 41 55 ee ese cael coe sc 22 45 86 Calder es oe ese ae 63 133 200 COUNCH Ese aes ss aecietiee sine 8 66 120 IBTIIMCH Geese seit oc sie sierctoiciae 17 54 102 IGE 65 QanoRece see ee nee aes 14 40 nuitlande@eeeccsssscsesce 6. 115 214 773 Weim berliys = oss as alse sient a0) 7 33 48 AUT A erae reps e eee enya (sie ia\s ieee em aelne as 12 18 Meri diamiessesacccscae ce clsecelaccccieee 21 24 INempaeeeeeseeee asics ae 14 182 306 Ne wallzhym ou thle e\\-\siste11-r)-(0\|'2 1-14-1215 [2 =e laisieres 170 ean ay eye eiaeaeee Sessa cies sai 60 119 225 360 862 153 308 119 211 4 4 3 4 1,579 752 203 185 |. 174 108 20 3, 568 2 Totals include following shipments: 25 cars in July, 110 in August, 425 in May, and 14 in June; also lear from Thorp and 2 from Marlin. 3 Totals include following shipments: 4 carsin July, 5in August, and 6in May; also 1 car from Montour, 2from Blackfoot, and 3 each from Houston, Pocatello, and Shoshone. 14 BULLETIN 935, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Pacific Northwest car-lot shipments of apples, 1919-20 season, by States, prin- cipal districts, and shipping stations—Continued. WuitE SALMON AND Hoop RivER DISTRICT.4 . Sep- | Octo- |Novem-| Decem-| Jan- Feb- . Stations. tember.| ber. | ber. | ber. | uary. | ruary. |“arch-| April. | Total. Deew Orerteetens sce cscelcsast tes 4 9 4 13 ih | Se Meena ec 31 DotuneOnereeees-seeee eo eeea eee 70 40 1G SESeee SPB nee core) ian Saeets 111 Hood River, Oreg...----.--- 39 236 328 251 191 134 79 87 1, 421 Eents’(Portiand), (Oret22e-6\-s-25--6|s-sseec~ 4 2 Dl as serial Sage ame eeectsfe = Wikalite, OMG iHsgsasccoscosscagad|soseasee|poeedacs 8 1 5 2 (Gilassasese 22 Mosier Orertee toe eae seer 4 10 65 16 29 32 10 1 167 Odelit@res?= see 2 129 142 64 132 30 36 1 538 Parkdale iOrep a sses-5.- ee 3 28 31 11 46 27 Di eke eiaiores 149 Sine, One cee oscoosrleacdaece 2 2 9 3 2 Delle trctetere 89 MhesDallessOrepe sacs ces oee eco 8 13 6 1 Dsl cee ema 2 31 MroutcreeksOrege sass seer |as se ae 5 a bl eae as (pert, FS 0) Se eS eee ee 14 WantrfornOree een e= ass canine |e =e se 5 79 128 44 166 99 59 9 584 Woodworth, Oreg...-------- 1 2 3 Billseeasnqs Dy ee Be aN ett nie 11 Goldendale, Wash..-..-..---|-.------ 9 Dy ee AR | Se 2 a SUE a ce a dE 21 Underwood, Wash.....----- 1 92 74 17 12 2 Ail Esee ciate 202 White Salmon, Wash...-.--..|..---.-- 64 73 36 8 3 2 1 187 Motaleeeacasee ces ees: 52 738 939 407 608 336 199 101 3,519 SPOKANE DISTRICT.5 LNG OSE OES ey enemere ane Lasser SE 3 3 6 he ects ne ol Scheele ol ete Sie ei | nee ee 9 Bonners Ferry, Idaho...--..}.......- 8 3 eer eet wegen SE Els cht aiall & emp ees 11 CON ese sscdboosndéeesscceloorsses- 4 Pel ee aera eS eer Weta ete aerosol susee ac 6 Coulee(@ity-= - 25-222 5-2-== = 5 7 (8 al Pee sen aS Sens 627 eR Fr eal ee Ma 29 (CMONiGoocsscesecssscosscces 5 34 yp ee eel ated ea (ie Geese a aise 4 iallonmgdes 41 Davenport peceeena- 2-2-2 1 26 12 A | pe ee ocean Sesencus||sancscsd|loqseseen 43 Waviesispur Washi. a. 2 2262. |s-o- os ese eeeeeee AL Oi ie spears ee |e RS LE ree | re 10 IDEA, WER Sse ccccaspsccoscllacssqses OTe eee ee eos ae cet wales Sebasciiocc cass cllsaceesee 5 Weembarkere resaeo= ei 7 20 11 De fic. ay Oe areca | ee ae 39 ID Sao pce S es eoEEaSeasoee Aaaeceasloesesone UD ho. Seen le eosges| pean eee 11 IDWS GWE sou stesoscessasoee 16 143 26 9 22 6 Dh linea ee Ae 224 LDP oossasoonsadsasesued|eorcsnas 8° 1 Rea eee seed ARAr che slice ollanea came 20 Waintiold- sWiash a2). 22 alee cecs: 35 DHS eee eee D) |i 23. ce aa Ree em eee ee 64 arming tony Wastes ss2)) elena 4 Te Nonestoseh eiame eee 1 aksieee sea ol ee rae 12 IROTTBIDAK CS Some er ae eee nee ae 30 19 7 12 (al ees sal seme 75 GOHIGG). os schscerssasesesncs|ssscsce= 3 (a Pete (Prem sete ere ase Ree scicae| laactee 7 (CECI 5. ockedesceceascod|ssesccée 29 13M |-ceceee i aa Sele Lia Sena 44 ilhvard eet Seat eee eae 7 55 3 11 2 1 Onieas at 81 SINT Sos sesosseotosseaseadleseasone St BeSee as eee eral Bees set oleccooeeolloncsscmclleons sae 8 MIGICUS. 5-2 ccepcecassodescce 1 16 Bie ees See asee oecie VS [eects to ener eee 21 MeyersytallSeeeer eens neree 5 89 40 8 We ecacnese TO aero 157 IMM Oi eae SS noceosoeecued|socesace 9 le EO ete acter acts soso |isebcadc 10 INGO 4-5 sess sseeeoosdes 13 78 44 YW WSooceser|S5r 2040o[enasecollsceoge: = 137 INOTMI CO Sosa sesaoosesosa|acoosnee 5 Bie eae Bee laasn oie 1 Willan ean oe. 10 Op PONhUNIY ae = oe eat | eee | eee Ma ee Sostosescoscedfoesoccorscaccecejoscaosce 141 OfisiOrchardSses- sees eee ae 1 99 69 6 21 Hy | ees ase eee re 201 Pgh 5 dso Sacedoodallsodstobelldo-acaas 4 MW Poko raselacdosasb|lododécsn|loccmoces 9 (QUINVAS sc conoetasoassssesaecllaaccosee 11 7 Me eel ease SOS moar Socags-clloconasae 15 Shifiia) Wri) (ode aocsmscecsceelescatose 21 23 5 SL ey soe cial reine | Meese 50 SHUUMMGE | so snoceséoncese ase al 4 154 119 25 29 32 38 31 441 Spokane Bridges = oe eee nee nn 3 Oe en Serene Sn Soc esaa cade aned toe 13 MOGI cgomdocmoncns Csoras||oseasceg|lssses8ec PPM eopesan|ba25506-|]ascacseq|3sos022-|]ssacs0¢ 22 PrInica eee ee eens se ee oe 20 48 Uh Jes eee Drees. seal See ee eed 83 \WGit ise tak BODO OO er DS nenoee| baseencel acme cra 13 | 22s siciees|.cee one tl Ree e| rete Seas | EeereeteLse 13 WERT is WER apes coeeotcc|loosesbae 18 10 1 3 UE leecibGcce|oasccaan 33 Wilson Creek, Wash. .....---|-------- 55 36 20 10 3) sen o- cloacae 129 Coeur d’Alene, Idaho........|--.-.--- 48 yd ees (Seater Sse Sale scene ccillosacesos 76 Ialeyok (oes MG hY) oor oo eecece||-segeee 4 Pieseaosad|-onc fe ac|lococsecc||scontsed|[oscocae 12 Lewiston, Idaho. .....-...... 9 110 71 25 7 19 Bl ee cate sta 246 MeGuires; idano:..--5-------|see- o- == (i SHEE Meee era sr Sceoorel asec acc sSuclodes 7 Moscow iChat se 10 se ee eee te ie scecrr|(Ssocacocl loc soon 11 Post Falls, Idaho........-... 1 2 9 1h Premed EE ae 13 aL OFAN eee case eee 93 1, 221 857 131 126 90 50 31 2,612 4 Totals include the following shipments: 4 cars in August and 75 cars in May; also 1 car from Holstein, Oreg., and 2from Maryhill, Wash. 6 Potals include following shipments: 3 cars in August, 8 carsin May, and 2 cars in June; also 1 car each from Albion, Wash., Colfax, Loon Lake, Usk, Alan, Laclede, and Porthill, Idaho; 2 cars each from Che- wale Dart, Kiesling, Genessee, and Rose, Idaho; and 3 cars each from Galena, Idaho, and Valleyford, ash. THE DISTRIBUTION OF NORTHWESTERN BOXED APPLES. 15 Pacific Northwest car-lot shipments of apples, 1919-20 season, by States, prin- cipal districts, and shipping stations—Continued. ’ WALLA WALLA-MILTON-FREEWATER DISTRICT. : Sep- | Octo- |Novem-| Decem-| Jan- Feb- ‘ Stations. tember.| ber. | ber. | ber. | uary. | ruary. | March.) April. | Total. PMV CEMMUUNCTION AWiaS We) ee ol ee = o/s aan =e = OM saeaceee| Seba yee eacdre es pacasee Hanabead 5 Dayitouswwashen..\<-<2- i 2 - 11 82 53 9 12 6 Ol ee eae 181 LOASENG), \AVEST yy Oe 3 Sr ig gm ee so MS BA eyes | Se a 6 PRHES CO DUS ONO Semen sam oe --lloeinte nee ella eine 2 7) ecarenal esecc ene sgocenes||scuecse-||2o5casec 4 Mouchet,wiash--.----------- ili} 30 36 6 Ghul es eae wan bp asteie lat saal se 86 Waitsburg, Wash........--.. 6 67 61 7 12 11 Bile lets 167 Walla Walla, Wash.......--- 40 201 142 33 9 9 AAR eee ee 443 Wralltitlas Wiashiei.5--.------- 12 31 26 Dy ease Sal eeisocicec Ese acca eee 72 Milton-Freewater, Oreg...--- 13 83 99 41 15 20) eaeieeeealeeesceee 271 ING soles ere eae 93 500 427 98 51 46 2A eee arte 1, 238 12 51 4 20 47 19 4 41 5 1 ¢ 4 ETD DARGe mai pees ck ese nee ok 2 6 2 il UW eam cee meee lee 8 So 12 UuUNetiom Citys... -2-2------- 4 byt eae ee 1 1 Ny eee lee ae 14 LLANE VOCS E as Na eae so sete mene ean 8 8 Qin tes Serra hs | SNe eterna STE Hp a BI ea 25 ILGO NAGI. 42 Uke i ors EMS oops | Seer te) Piney Serene teil ern ae 3 DANA Wesel yah oa OM Shales 5 IMeManmiyilles e222 2525-2222 - 3 14 11 7 O}el haaices MA eee aie en ENE 37 Monmmoutheeeseee. 2222-2542 1 ol neers 20] Pe eee ale URN ee oR aed ana a as fel tae - 4 IMOnTOCHIe se eee esas. e 1 11 7 Co (ese mag aM a ea 25 ING WAD CE Oke ese oe telomere cess =e 1 31 27 5 AO | SNe E My Ae Tota pei Lea 68 NZORU aN dees at elec ee ells oeekoee 2 2 7) 4 6 26 5 52 TRIG oe ane COE See aera 6 12 Diie | iipeale gM sts. te Tak ci MARIN ap Ro Ne ae 20 IRGSG1 Ob ee ope Se Eeee eee 5 32 63 70 (Sl eee lesa) eee ee (eh | 176 ALGIERS peat eee te le 22 5 26 14 VE he adel CES oe Tele ee ae (St ato 49 Saige bin ee es See ee eee 2 13 17 5 14 Dyn yas, Seal RGR ea 56 SUIRPCRHOI O85 SSS ee eee ae | es ee 4 Ph \ rete ese apa ote RE Bia Aha Ue ce Kea cr 8 6 NG RRBs ogee Ree ee aete 73 ee eae Biligscose ale pe eer NEA aash FNL dv Di Ge a itis 6 Pia a tine ees oe he 4 TBP ec 8 oe Feta a NY A i a et (ere hl ee! 5 Walsonwvillenen sess he Beenie peat oe 5 3 5 3 Lin |e 5s | ners 17 Noncallasiase rece kU ee Sie see ae [i Cs cyl |e Sef a ee aon. TU Se lee De Ae oa 8 OCA ae en ae 48 291 270 132 43 18 26 5 813 MONTANA DISTRICT. ® DEIN Seb6 Gs deans eee eeeenane 10 26 7 [is eRe a oha eoa sess ale epee ell eins Satay 46 IDE STO Mere ae sora cseisceoase 2) 2 halle eee STF sed ar UE See 6 East Bridger,......./...-.-. SOME bay ee ZN SB er ROR Ds eT A | Pale Pe eats cele 5 HTOMIDCLE Ase e oc es cteee eee wets) Bi Saye Becca Es AE afte ART es oe 13 Ip knavillhiGya oq paaeeeenaeTeee M 49 104 35 5 1 1 5 2 208 TL Go) Vayeiea jes ek AS i Ss || 2 Nees see 1 | Wa sae a eh au 5 SILCSIAMe ARE eer Sah Pete 4 PNA Se ate, Re AGS 2 Ol OR eS Fey ae lle a ae ML mee a | 8 SOIMICES He R race ieee doce lae oO acss ee 3 a | eee [serra acell to rae eer as ea Se 7 Stevensville.............---. oie sib 41 Te sees ae eel ae eel tana sec 1 62 VALGUS Je Joao one Seen ee eee 1 20 GR eee ees 1 1G Va en eae 31 IVVIOOU SID Cec lotesorsicicicte nlm ress = 21 55 ee ee Db We he, Sacer eas ees 94 “MENS Ras aoe eee eB eaes 108 269 73 8 5) 4 5 5 500 6 Totals include following shipments: 3 cars in July and 8in August; also 3 cars from Attalia, Wash. 7 Totalsinclude following shipments: 2 carsin J ne 3 carsin August, and 5 carsin May; also | car each from Amity, Cottage Grove, Deer Island, Garden Home, Gaston, Gray, Mount Angel, Waconda, and Willamina; 2 cars each from Coburg, Fairview, FallCity, Forest Grove, Monitor, Myrtle Point, Robinson, Sherwood, and Springfield: and 3 cars each from Chemawa, Clackamas, Crabtree, Dayton, Fayetteville, West Scio, Wigrich, and Woodburn. 8 Totalsinclude following shipments: 23 carsin August; also 1 car each from Billings, Flaxville, Helena, Livingston, and Polson; 2 cars each from Park City and Ravalli; and 3 cars each from Edgar and Missoula. 16 BULLETIN 935, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Pacific Northwest car-lot shipments of apples, 1919-20 season, by States, prin- cipal districts, and shipping stations—Continued. WESTERN WASHINGTON. 9 A Sep- | Octo- |Novem-|Decem-| Jan- | Feb- P Stations. tember.| ber. | ber: | ber. | wary. | ruary. | March.| April. | Total. NISL ee toe A APE, Se ae 8] PS eM Byles oeiees| eae 7 Gi |p aaecoesitesencce 16 SPACOM A ays aerate See seria oistce | ae la cine moceiene 78 ERE Se ctlsoar cel |aenen os alc &aenges 2 4 TOLAL eat erctser ian pace cer 6 3 3 7 Oy aasecteas 2 28 ROGUE RIVER, OREG., DistTRIcT. 1° IAS an digeer eee e as onic altos 1 17 13 3 2 Th eaces.clScsuReee 37 CentraliPoint.- =... ---26--<=- 2 11 10 pare een leet al ose cue | eaeeaee 24 Goa is tills es oes ooaasoesodeses 3 12 10 Rese eee eeeaerellas sae aoclasnAates 28 Grantsibassesene ee ses se nee 13 35 27 1 Peete eenetescliscasscs 1 96 Medfordiss ceacss2cosvestexese 28 133 88 99 95 13 10 1 467 RlogueIRAVer= so = sec cee 7 11 6 6: inceedis skill teres eee | ere es seehacree 30 UNDG Ee aoe en ene eee aes 1 2 2 A GeM Be ede Nees ol leans ||Seoaeeed 10 LOtale ss kegs ce tse eee 55 222 156 137 97 14 10 2 694 Beaverton ssec acces -c-: see c 7 (CRITIC UREA aa aes Gee 7 COVE SeRi ioe es seek cae a clases 28 ID Cine aa bes ae Maes 30 Hermiston 41 Huntington 5 Imbler..... Lae 118 Trrigon.....-- k Sis Shon 4 La Grande Le 72 MAN Ciimee acre sence caceece 2 IN ESE Sas cee Sere 57 Ontarioss’ jest cee ese oace cee eae a6 39 Mba held meme eee eae teas ; ‘ aa 43 Wmtonee eee eee eee a ee we 29 Walle yetemtes cre iacn hee nomen en 44 ROA: se cae eee he 30 185 173 57 55 23 3 1 52R 9 Totals include following shipments: 1 car in July; also 1 car each from Everett, Port Angeles, and Woodland; 2 cars from Kelso; and 3 cars from Vancouver. 10 Totals include following shipments: 1 carin August; also 2 cars from Merlin. 11 Totalsinclude following shipments: 1 carin August; also 1 car each from Jamieson and North Powder. Exureir No. 3. The car-lot shipment figures in the following tabulation were taken from telegraphic reports from division superintendents of common carriers. These figures are given here to show by comparison the rela- tive importance of the main apple-producing sections of the United States. | The Central Appalachian section consists mainly of the important apple-producing portions of Virginia and West Virginia and a few contiguous counties of Maryland and Pennsylvania. Most of this section lies within the watershed of the Potomac and its tributaries. THE DISTRIBUTION OF NORTHWESTERN BOXED APPLES. iM Shipments of less than car lots and apples brought into large terminal markets from near-by producing sections are not included. Total , is : Central Total Wash- Mon- Pacific New f . Oregon. | Idaho. Phe Appa- United ington. tana. North- York. marae aTeet lachian. States. 1916-17..| 14,426 3,041 182 145 17, 693 10,206 |* 11,748 57, 821 1917-18..| 15, 837 3, 448 3, 528 171 | 22,984 5, 867 7,212 | 58,534 1918-19..| 16, 232 2, 246 536 262 19, 276 22, 900 9, 625 69, 552 1919-20..| 24,476 4, 768 3, 574 452 33, 270 10, 234 11,392 82, 514 ExuHipsir No. 4. GRADING RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR APPLES. [As adopted by Washington State Department of Agriculture. ] DEFINITION OF TERMS. Tolerance—In order to provide for the variations incident to commercial grading and handling, a “tolerance” of 5 per cent for a total of all defects from the standard will be permitted in all grades, and shall be computed by counting, weighing, or measuring the specimens judged to be below the standard of the grade. Uniform in size-—The term “uniform in size” shall be construed to mean that apples in any one package shall not vary more than one-half inch in their greatest transverse diameter. Packing.—The term “ properly packed” shall refer to the arrange- ment of apples in each package; apples to be properly packed shall be arranged in the container according to the approved and recog- nized methods, and all packages shall be tightly filled, but the con- tents shall not show excessive or “ unnecessary bruising” as a result of the pressure exerted in inclosing an overfilled package. APPLE-GRADING RULES. (Season 1920.) Eatra Fancy.—KExtra Fancy apples are defined as sound, mature, clean, hand-picked, well-formed apples only, free from all insect pests, diseases, blemishes, bruises and holes, spray burns, limb rub, visible water core, skin punctures or skin broken at stem, but slight russeting within the basin of the stem shall be permitted. Fancy Grade—F ancy apples are defined as apples complying with the standard of Extra Fancy Grade, except that slight leaf rubs, scratches, or russeting shall be permitted up to a total of 10 per cent of the surface, and provided that scab spots not larger than one- quarter inch in diameter in the aggregate shall be permitted in this rade. ae C” Grade—‘C” Grade apples shall consist of sound, mature, hand-picked apples which are practically free from infection, bruis- ing, or broken skin, and which are not badly misshapen, provided that two healed worm stings, slight sun scald, and scab up to a total of one-half inch in diameter shall be permitted in this grade. Combination Grade—When Extra Fancy and Fancy apples are _packed together, the boxes must be marked “Combination Extra 21394°—21 3 18 BULLETIN 935, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Fancy and Fancy.” When Fancy and “C” Grade apples are packed together, the box must be marked “Combination Faney and ‘C’ Grades.” Combination grades must contain at least 25 per cent of apples which are of such grade as would be permitted in the higher grades. None of the higher-grade apples shall be sorted out of any lot and the remainder packed as combination grade. Orchard Run.—When Extra Fancy, Fancy, and “C” Grade apples are packed together, the boxes must be marked “ Orchard Run,” but Orchard Run apples must not contain any fruit that will not meet the requirements of “C” Grade. It shall be unlawful to remove any of the higher-grade apples from any lot and then pack the remainder as “ Orchard’ Run.” Unclassified —All firm apples which are practically free from in- fection, but which do not conform to the foregoing specifications of grade, or, if conforming, are not branded in accordance therewith, shall be classed as “ Unclassified” and so branded, provided that no restriction shall be placed on the number of worm stings admitted to this class. Open wormholes will not be permitted. This grade must be plainly marked with the word “ Unclassified.” COLOR REQUIREMENTS. Apples shall be admitted to the First and Second grades subject to the following color specifications. The percentage stated refers to the area of the surface which must be covered with a good shade of red. Extra i" Extra | 7, Fancy. Fancy Fancy. Fancy. | SOLID RED VARIETIES. STRIPED OR PARTIAL RED IER ig | LHR Ge VARIETIES—Ccontinued. Per ct. | Per ct. ATensRied Set Seon ee —Northwest 1916 - 17 12,500 7 et Northwest 1917 - 18 + Northwest 1918 - 19 Meise /\. sNorthmest 1919 - 20 \ T. 11,500 i Wi 11,000 i f (i 1 fz i] D 5] 10,500 A / \ 10,000 i : He f 9,500 [ if \ 9,000 7 | NEAL ae Lt 8 000 TI \ 7,500 b: July August September October Novenber December January 21394°—21. (To face page 20.) February March April Nay June WxuiBir No, 7.—Rate of carlot moyement Of apples, United States and Pacific Northwest 1916-1917 to 1919-1920. Exuipit No. 8.—Primary distribution of carlot shipments from the Pacific Northwest. OF : ee co * he o ee eects sur). ExHiBIT No. 8 (Continued).—Primary distribution of carlot shipments from the Central Appalachian district. Nese aveNp T= mores en 4 hares ae oe vie: Cer che he ries THE DISTRIBUTION OF NORTHWESTERN BOXED APPLES. 21 California—Continued. Illinois : * J2@NTI ON = Se ina 5 PACINO Teh Bots Sas es AD ES, 5 ROTO eS Se 13 Bloomington as - 24 SaeramentOe. 2 eee 25 Brideeport =... ee 11 SameWires oui ae - 2 ate tae 16 COLT £02 Pe ae em aed 15 San Mranciscos. saa 222 Chichi OS era eee 4, 254 San jose____ eet aaa 13 Wecatuime sea eo) Be ee 9 Stockton acai ts pain amare: EY 13 Joliet il a ae Sass Aho, A 8 Wiatsomvillle@ssi= 2 steer 30 Monmouth =222 22222.) Das 4 Colorado: °® Neoga _____ an site 16 Colorado Springs__---__-_-_ Gotan (Ovaiite |2ts\relre aaa EES 13 Denver Ber eo ae 292 Oliviersaeeee i et RIS 4 TEE IGE a asa ie ee 3 Othawawe eee sees on. el OM: 10 I DTETR OVC Eas eee Sees 26 Peonigse pecs ee. 24 Connecticut : ° Rockford _____ SoS EID 11 SI PO WOTE a a2 aes btw! AG Sprimetieldn as: sos. cIvais 12 Earetonrd: 22 zs ae oO Streatote #6 =~ os 0.) Wee 4 New Haven aoa te 15 AV Jeni ey naa we sees et oui SAV RE 23 Waterbury - a 4 | Indiana: ” Delaware.‘ IDKTENOS TING 16 District of Columbia : HontmWiayne2ee a= ee ire ee 9 Wishing tonmior 2s wieder) 82 Indianapolis) sera 169 Florida: * Miller Sed eed Se 4 Jacksonvilles 2. 3 Sass 38 Malton eee ma 4 IMC VARNVCS ty =.= oi. tine ness 9 Southend saa eeu 4 BenNSACOl as Se =) Sie se 14 Mernewelaiit ene een x 4 SNaiiaiy OVsh See ee eee a 20 Vincennes__ shea ten SESE 88 Georgia: ° Towa: PAN Ea eT Geers A ka ll eat 90 TBs OeUH MERON 15 JNU USE) =e ee ms Zi Cedania pid si. == saan 28 Columbus 4 Clinton =e pa alt INPACONM SS es - yh ee eS a Cormectionville== Saas 4 Idaho: * CounciBlitts== aes 10 ISONGC. 22 eee ee ra 5 Davenport===—=—=—as = 18 Loraine eS aio RU Eee 6 Des Moin égs22 6) ee 90 Montpelier. ees 4 Dubugqu G26 as 10 MoScowe= = hee es alail Hon Dod geste 2. ees 20 Nampa sees Aer aeee 9 Fruitland ob eR NS 12 ING Walelivamouth 2s ae 13 Var VG yas eee ake eee 9 VC GC we ee 163 Malviernnt 2 Suan 22 RO CALE ORS. Bas xe oh ee 15 Marshalltown -—2--- 32 Sie Am thony Mee Sas 5 MaSoni@imyauus cars fi 10 5 The following additional consignments were made to Colorado points: 1 car each to Agate, Akron, Boulder, Cheraw, Greeley, La Salle, Otis, and Simon; 2 each to Eaton, Rocky Ford, Sterling, and Wray. \ i 6 The following additional consignments were made to Connecticut points: 1 car each to Danbury and New Britain; 2 each to Meriden, New London, and Norwich. 7™The following consignment was made to Delaware: 1 car to Wilmington. 8The following additional consignments were made to Florida points: 1 ear each to Baynard, Blackman, Carolina, Leonard, and Torrey; 2 cars to Miami. 29The following additional consignments were made to Georgia points: 1 car each to Kramer and Mount Pleasant; 2 each to Harris, New England, and Valdosta. 10The following additional consignments were made to Idaho points: 1 car each to American Falls, Buckingham, Burke, Glenns Ferry, Idaho Grove, Malad City, Minidoka, Moss, Rexburg, and Wallace; 2 each to Blackfoot, Burley, Idaho Falls, Kooskia, Meridian, and Rupert; 3 cars to Goodrich. 4 The following additional consignments were made to Illinois points: 1 car each to Amboy, Arthur, Avon, Benton, Blandinsville, Cissna Park, De Kalb, Duquoin, Franklin Grove, Freeport, Galesburg, Grayville, Jefferson Park, Kansas, Martinsville, Mattoon, North- field, Oneida, Orion, Pontiac, Princeville, Proctor, Quincy, Richardson, Rock Island, Roscoe, Simons, Velma, Warrington, Waukegan, and Worden; 2 each to Ashley, Champaign, Dan- ville, Kewanee, Litchfield, Murphysboro, Normal, Oregon, Paxton, and Wheaton; 3 each to Centralia and New Salem. 2 The following additional consignments were made to Indiana points: 1 car each to Anderson, Gessie, Knox, Kokomo, Michigan City, Muncie, Steubenville, and Whiting; 2 each to Rushville, Union City, and Warsaw; 3 each to Elwood, Evanston, Logansport, Newcastle and Williamsport. # The following additional consignments were made to Iowa points: 1 car each to Ames, Atlantic, Bagley, Belmond, Bernard, Carroll, Clarion, Cresco, Croton, Decorah, Drum, Dumont, Hagle Grove, Fort Atkinson, Garner, Herrold, Jefferson, Kalona, Lacona, Manchester, Manly, Melrose, Miles City, Paullina, Reinbeck, Rock Valley, Sac City, Shenandoah, Sumner, Sutherland, Tama, Trask, Tripoli, Valvern, Van Wert, and Williams; 2 each to Algona, Ashton, Chariton, Lisbon, Macedonia, Rock Rapids, Tiffin, West Liberty, and Westside; 3 each to Beaver, Creston, Dixon, Grinnell, Hampton, Kingsley, Raymond, Sheldon, and Spencer. 22 BULLETIN 935, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Ilowa—Continued. Massachusetts : 7 CONTA Oe es a eh 8 Boston22 3 eee eae 247 Obiumiwass £252 22 Sees 13 Holyoke25 223232 See 6 SHOU ee erates Fb 129 New Bedford____-___ 9 Wiel RET OO =e ee See et 23 Springtieldl 2 =e 22 Kansas : “ WOT CES TG Te a ee 8 Arkansas Cityesworeceh bo.) 4 | Michigan: ” BBE City: ae ee 4 ChampionZ0. 222 aise 6 Coffey ville. 222 ere 6 Detroit.2 22. een? 194 Concordia ase eee ol. as 4 Grand Rapidss.22 025 aie 9 BIS wor Gli et 4 Greenwood________________ 7 GOEMeSC0 ee ues Be ee a Saginaw,.2.2 0: Aes eet 4 Hays =e Ee ge ae 9 | Minnesota : 7 LED RPC) Nii oS (oy so SAR a IES 7 Albert. Eeac222 2s Dee 13 Independence ____________- 6 Butler: 22! 22). De ee 4 Marion ence wis AoE 6 Crookston________ parent 16 Mel Vernon tee OS eer 17 Duluth 2 See EPERET 176 ING WOM 2 ace eo eee 9 Effie______ ae ey, 5 iParSOUS 2222 222 2S ee 10 inbibenograye 5 Mopekars secu. a8 aia Bo Le Roytet. 262 eee 821 Wichitaye 223 ie ee 51 Minneapolis) sasaces i ar 4, 058 Winfield 2 =. 220 Se see 21 Minnesota Transfer________ 60 Mates (Center ==. 2 aaa mew 6 Mitchell: . 2 ot eee ie Kentucky : * . Moorheadé ae 6 exam etoMer aie 6 14The following additional consignments were made to Kansas points: 1 car each to Abilene, Almena, Atchison, Bancroft, Beardsley, Bedford, Belmont, Beloit, Benedict, Bentley, Bubbock, Bucklin, Carlton, Chanute, Clyde, Colby, Courtland, Eldorado, Ellin- wood, Hnglevale, Garfield, Grinnell, Hamburg, Haven, Helca, Herndon, Holton, Iola, Jetmore, Little River, Lorraine, Lucas, Ludell, Lyons, McPherson, Manchester, Man- hattan, Marysville, Meade, Norcatur, Ogdensburg, Rushcenter, St. John, Summerfield, Traer, Wakeeney, Washington, Wellington, Wheeler, and Wilmore; 2 each to’ Baxter, Bremen, Hureka, Fort Scott, Garden City, Jennings, Junction City, Kellogg, Mankato, Mitchell, Norton, and Oberlin; 3 each to Dodge City, Hmporia, Goodland, Great Bend, Harper, Ottawa, and Salina. 1 The following additional consignments were made to Kentucky points: 1 car each to Bowling Green, Henderson, Johnsonville, Montague, Paducah, Sharon Springs, Silver Creek, Soldier, and Wolf Pit; 2 each to Owensboro and Pineville; 3 each to Boone, Frankfort, Fremont, Marshall, and Middlesboro. ‘ 16The following additional consignments were made to Louisiana points: 1 car each to Crowley, Fullerton, Gibsland, Hazel, Lewisville, Maurice, and Morgan City; 2 each to Fayette and Lucas; 8 cars to Shreveport. “The following additional consignments were made to Maine points: 1 car each to Auburn and Merden. 18 The following additional consignment was made to Maryland: 2 cars to Locust Point. The following additional consignments were made to Massachusetts points: 1 car each to Fall River, Pittsfield, and Watuppa. *0 The following additional consignments were made to Michigan points: 1 car each to Croswell, Harnsville, Lake Linden, Lansing, Lowell, Morenci, Roseburg, Sault Ste. Marie, Sturgis, Trimountain, and Wyandotte; 2 each to Adrian, Battle Creek, Bay City, Han- cock, and Wellsford; 3 each to Kalamazoo and Menominee. ™ The following additional consignments were made to Minnesota points: 1 car each to Aitkin, Battle Lake, Bovey, Breckinridge, Clara City, Clearbrook, Collegeville, Dover, Eden Valley, Elk River, Faribault, Fertile, Harlis, Hendrum, International Falls, Kasson, Kenneth, Marshall, Minneota, Montevideo, Motley, Nashua, Redwood, Richville, Robbins- dale, Sauk Rapids, Washington, Wayzata, and Winton; 2 each to Argyle, Bemidji, Brainerd, Fergus Falls, Langdon, Lismore, Mahnomen, Proctor, Red Wing, and Worth- ington; 3 each to Chisholm, Ortonville, and Winona. The following additional consignments were made to Mississippi points: 1 car each to Brookhaven, Fernwood, Foster, Hampton, Hanford, Hattiesburg, Ingomar, Lockhart, McComb, Maben, Malvina, Natchez, Rankin, Richey, and Union; 2 cars to Prairie. THE DISTRIBUTION OF NORTHWESTERN BOXED APPLES. 23 Missouri : * Nebraska—Continued. Cartage ee 2 ol ie. 4 Gira lise yael 477 Colmmpign 2226 oo oe ele 34 EVAR Vaya me a be 4 NeBeuriigaly = st aes eee 41 ENA ShINS Spr 2s abet 12 Jetierson: (City, -22 oe a 8 Teioioheewme Ee 4 LOOT SS ie eee peek eae 14 Keamieyzes 2 su te Serer tad 13 Kansas City, 22= = = sae ae 583 incomes ee a a 157 Sis JOS via ee 47 IN@ROe 2 ee Ei 15 Si. WQS 22a 306 Nomina Platte. uae Te ieeear 450 Montana : * Omi ee, era 700 Angconda_________________ 12 Scorebluitunl. a ewan 10 ee Benes SSesees asses ae New Hampshire.” OTN NIN cere ees 52 ahs dee New Jersey :” ae if en a a 188 TeEESe ye City = eke oo Ea 52 inook___—____ =--~=--=-= d Newark 10 (Cite aie enete eo Sle 56 ae eg ae SOT IS Gt: ASS ai Cae eare = see eee 5 WCer OMe ae ee 6 Bae am ; THR gala 16 Philip shure sss c= Sele 6 Forsyth__ eee a Te eh tein em ENTE BEE 4 Cleiseii tee ae ae 5 | New Mexico. Gilendiverss 22.2 eecy 4 | New York:”~ Create Wa Sees ee 69 UID Ase oa 13 Senta OWili@ Ie eee 6 VALU URINE 2 Bee eee alll TEM Reyes aay oe ge ree a 26 Raisin Syon = 4 Helena__ peer 32 Banke Ye 2 ee ee eee 15 ISO Bier Sycol 4 BMT NTO 2 : 4 Ihaunele= = — eae OG BROOK 22. Ss ee 5 Meer STOWE ark 19 Buitalo 288. ea eee AT Livingston pa ee 6 BU el Geek cere ae ere Oe 25 cea teers ee aise 4 Cormelss Soe ee ae 5 Manchester _ aya a 5 Done Pavia 15 Milese@ity; .s ue 2 Lut Le 26 EOE aa Tk Ws a eR EL 148 VIS SOU eee oe es wae 46 Geneva. oe ee eee 21 EVO Clase OCS Cm ed os a aL COM Se Sa ea ae ees 37 Roundup_____ ened 14 OT Me Ee i ee See 37 Shelbys == === ees 5 SAVES COvyi ee 32 Stanford____ ew 6 WOCKPOnRt2 aa = eee 70 A RSTETEN: | ae Ft ee see 5 Medina) se 208 2a eae 13 Whitefish____ pase nied 70 Ney Wolk Cilin7z 2,401 \hY Cli 1010) a ae 4 Niacaraehaliges == see 7 Nebraska : ” ore TeielnToeG! —- 5 PAVIA COpeeee 8 ROCGHESTCT eee ee ee PB: NSE CO es = eee eh 7 Schenectady ee eee Th (CHEAT WIT OLE |e ae le ee 8 Suspension Bridge ________ 98 2 The following additional consignments were made to Missouri points: 1 car each to Belle, Charles, Clarksdale, Desloge, Fenwick, Flint, Glenwood, Holmes, Louisiana, Me- Donald, Malden, Matson, Minden, Moberly, Napoleon, Nevada, Plattsburg, Schuyler, Sedalia, Sikeston, Wheeling, and Wright City; 2 cars to Beaver; 3 cars each to Mexico, Springfield, and Winston. 24 The following additional consignments were made to Montana points: 1 car each to Armstead, Basin, Browning, Chappell, Delphia, Dillon, Garrison, Grassrange, Hingham, Ismay, Judith Gap, Kintyre, Libby, Plentywood, Poplar, Stockett, Valier, Warmsprings, Wennett, and Windham; 2 each to Bigtimber, Conrad, Custer, Eveleth, Medicine Lake, Redstone, Rexford, and Virden ; 3 cars each to Big Sandy and Finch. 2 The following additional consignments were made to Nebraska points: 1 car each to Albion, Ashton, Beaver Crossing, Belgrade, Benkelman, Vereville, Bigsprings, Gladen, Blcomfield, Broken Arrow, Bushnell, Central City, Chadron, Chappell, Cobb, Columbus, Cortland, Cowles, Creighton, Crookston, Curtis, Dannebrog, Deshler, Dorchester, Elsie, Elyria, Fairfield, Fullerton, Germantown, Grafton, Grant, Haigler, Havelock, Hazard, Hebron, Hemingford, Holstein, Hooper, Imperial, Inayale, Lewellen, Long Pine, Loretto, Madison, McCook, Merna, Minden, Moorefield, Newman Grove, Ogallala, Ong, Osmond, Scribner, Shickley, Sterling, Upland, Valley, Venango, Wakefield, Wisner, and York; 2 each to Broken Bow, Cozad, Crete, Culbertson, Dayid City, Dawson, Eustis, Farnam, Loup City, Mitchell, Morrill, Oxford, Sheldon, and Wymore; 3 each to Chester, Emmett, Fairbury, Gothenburg, O’Neill, and Wahoo. 26'The following consignments were made to New Hampshire points: 1 car each to Keene and Manchester. 77 The following additional consignments were made to New Jersey points: 1 car each to New Brunswick and Plainfield; 2 cars to Elizabeth; 3 cars to Bayonne. °° The following consignment was made to New Mexico: 1 car to Raton. 2 The following additional consignments were made to New York points: 1 car each to Amsterdam, Colden, and Ithaca; 2 cars each to Canastota, Jamaica, Melrose, Rock- port, and Rome; 38 cars to Wellsville. 24 BULLETIN 935, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. New York—Continued. Ohio—Continued. STE CUS Make Stade es oe 26 Limes: 352 4 TE Oy ee Pa ge ho gy 7 Toledo. 22.25 2-4... 60 [Biehl ts a ee 10 Youngstown 2 10 AV S00 eat ae ye = bt 14 ZanesvilleL:. 2.0). eae 5 North Carolina : Oklahoma : * AST @ Vall teen net ast 3 aed A yolt 18 Ardmores22 222 a eee 8 Chanrlothe = ste bk. Atala 14 Nini ie eae 6 WAVeOTLG VIG = es en g3 Ab uke! 4 McAlester.) a ea 10 Gastonia________ am i 4 Muskogee____-- 27 North Dakota : ™ Oklahoma =22 saa 132 IDEA ChE See lt ees eee Da Shawnee________ EP LER 14 IBTSTNGRC ke eee 86 UNS 8 a Ge ae 110 Cogswell _ ona er 4 | Oregon: * Cooperstown ______— x 5 Baker —-__* peer re tS, INT 7 Dickinson______ Rants 3 10 Bend ___ 2c sot at che en 4 Fargo ___ ra * 76 Cornelius ___-_______ 3! dae 5 Grito see = ole esa 14 IMEI, Jetormileag@l {= 2 12 WWeCd Gs! ses Se ae ees Se 8 Mive Points) as ee 4 VET a ae Ee as SS Ee AP 15 Hood: River. see 72 Marmath ree 10 Medford______ __ Pia Seen eu 4 VEN © te ee ar 308 IN@where:2 3 22 ee 8 New Rockford_____________ 10 Portland: 2. eee 165 Oakes. 224 oa So ADSL 6 Salem ____ peers tat St ot a 7 Ransomeville_____________ 9 The Dall@suc koe eh ee 140 Rossvill@z<422: eae ip 17 | Pennsylvania: ° Rugby Bee ALAS, SEES 5 ATEQO TNE eee ot en wee ae 9 Stanley 22 bos ae ey Oe 6 Beaver Falls____-__-____—_ 4 TOWNE aes ie ee 4 EVersOni 2 5 Walley (City. 59 PAZ SLC ee is ee 4 Wahpeton_ Bebe Lee etal ad 6 Lehighton: e220 eae 8 WiAllliStomeee a eee ES 13 Philadelphia____-_____-_-____ 471 Ohio : ” IPAS OWNER 630 Ont Heo. es eee eae - 106 Scranton-c.<2 2 ee 22 INS ON 4 | Rhode Island: * Bellefontaine Pe 4 Providence 2] aaa 55 Canton: 222414 eéms eas 22 | South Carolina : * Cincinnati eee ae eee 124 Anderson: eee ies areata ae 8 Cleveland=]==22 253 Uhh ae. ses 194 Charleston Zz Columbus 2333225. 2aa0 (7 Greenville 18 Dayton 222 Ske eee ene 17 Spartanburg ______________ 33 20 The following additional consignments were made to North Carolina points: 1 car each to Linville, Rockingham, and Vilas; 2: each to Greensboro and Statesville; 3 each to Albemarle and Winston-Salem. . “The following additional consignments were made to North Dakota points: 1 car each to Bathgate, Berthold, Binford, Brantford, Brocket, Calvin, Carbury, Carrington, Casselton, Chaffee, Colgan, Curlew, Dazey, Deering, Drayton, Eckelson, Edinburg, Wgeland, Inderlin, Epping, Fessenden, Finley, Flasher, Forestburg, Friend, Glen Ullin, Hankinson, Jamestown, Kelso, Kindred, Lakota, La Moure, Landa, Lidgerwood, Linton, Lisbon, MeVille, Mantador, Mayville, Michigan, Nekoma, Noonan, Northwood, Oriska, Park River, Perth, Portland, Powers Lake, Reeder, Regent, Rock Lake, Sarles, Selfridge, Sherwood, Starkweather, Stirum, Strasburg, Streeter, Tolley, Tower City, Turtle Lake, and War- wick; 2 each to Alta, Cando, Dogden, Fullerton, Goldenvalley, Hatton, Inkster, Johns- town, Kensal, Lansford, Luverne, McClusky, Mott, Page, Sharon, and Sykeston; 3 each to Grand Forks, Hettinger, Hillsboro, Maddock, and Max. #2 The following additional consignments were made to Ohio points: 1 car each to Findlay, Lando, and Wooster ; 2 each to Lorain, Portsmouth, and West Lafayette ; 3 each to Massillon and Springfield. *8The following additional consignments were made to Oklahoma points: 1 car each to Ada, Beulah, Bison, Blackstone, Blackwell, Booneville, Canute, Chandler, Crane, , Custer City, Durant, Elk City, Fairview, Frederick, Grainville. Guthrie, Hobart, Hollister, Kiefer, Miami, Moore, Morris, Mounds, Okemah, Okmulgee, Pauls Valley, Stillwater, Tuttle, Tyrone, and Woodward; 2 each to Calumet, Cherokee, Chickasha, Dickson, Lawton, Perry, and Vinita; 3 cars to Cushing. *The following additional consignments were made to Oregon points: 1 car each to Albina, Altus, Ashland, Bertha, Brandt, Corvallis, Eugene, Graham, Hermiston, Klamath Falls, Moro, Roseburg, and Yamhill; 2 each to Houlton and Nyassa; 3 each to La Grande and Pendleton, ‘ *® The following additional consignments were made to Pennsylvania points: 1 car each to Arnot, New Britain, and New Kensington; 2 each to Arnold and Erie; 3 each to Homestead and Lancaster. * The following additional consignment was made to Rhode Island: 1 car to Woonsocket. * The following additional consignments were made to South Carolina points: 1 car each to Greenwood and White Stone; 2 each to Charlotte, Rock Hill, and Union. THE DISTRIBUTION OF NORTHWESTERN BOXED APPLES. 25 South Dakota :* Texas—Continued. Aberdeen .2 225 ke Sees 131 Tui Chiba ness tet oeess Se ae 4 ATHEST AM ee Te 4 Stalirancispa 2 ee ae ee 4 Brookings: .. 2 eee 4 Sein AVN ee 10 Meadwood, es 14 SaneAmtonioqus = aa iar 64 IDYENTIS IDG Re 6 SanvBenitos 0 se ee 4 Dy rak@rese oO ae ade 12 Sani Marcos 22 226 2 eee 5 ERO nee eee 6 Mere am we os 2 8 Mi SOs 28 ee 6 MDavlOry sees sikelele A ae 4 Mobridee . 6 0. vse 11 OD Saysl etc eee BDU 33 [Pei k(Siip ee EE es 5 VV ZENG Oe lee el NS a 113 ) BOSH Gh Ss a a pee 58 6 Wichita Falls ---.--__-__-. 16 Plamen tomy 2s a ee 5 Neo ailcupny ea le a et a 5 IRsh ool Onc Lee 16 | Utah:* SOUS aS oy i eee 39 Salt Lake City____________ 18 \WWElWeOM ao 24 | Vermont.” Tennessee :® Virginia : “ \ Bristol ______ ss 8 ny mech burner 9 Chattanooga CHEM 23 INO GLO lke ees We ee AT Johnson City_________-_____ 4 Inne Mano MG. 12 ERGO VAM Gs sete ea ee 11 ROANOKE 2 Ae es eae 7 IMfeTi pS) 63 | Washington : * NaS tail ees So ee ae WEP 29 Bellinger. 222222 J Sebi 15 Texas :*” Everette eek lies 55 JN) Os Es 0 EY ER ES APN 8 Grand View ______________ 10 ATIVE THIN ie tt tere a 4 Kennewick EEN ee ee, 7 DAW UIS (ITN Ss ee eee 22 Went. = 2 226s Le es Se ae 23 IBECaIMOM Ge TE 17 IVE alo ti a eo be ae Die 5 Brenham 2822s Ser ee 4 North Puyallup ___________ 14 Cameron! 6s ae ae 4 Olympia 25 NEN VAN SLY Cisco So) Ae 6 PAIS COR eee na en oaereee ee zs 2 Corsicana_ pea AGE tier 4 Puyallup_____ pase EA ho 7 Dallas______ 179 Seattle we see aes PE Se SOOO HIG ASO Mae aie ee a ee Pill Selah gx fae es 16 IDOE WOE a ee 121 Spokane _____ Saree a (2) Galivestomus 220 18 Sumners. 2s ee ee Sat ws F133 Greenville _.-_____-__ 13 Tacoma BW 24 ~ | Aly ETOUST Oni sn se eee 138 Toppenish asf eel ane 5 Nae OV wiveinen alae 28 Umatilla REL SR 2 14 Vissi ellipses oe ate es 5 Vancouver enna ba ho) pT Git eR ee pes oo ae ek 24 WIELD Weill Ee 46 38The following additional consignments were made to South Dakota points: 1 car each to Bath, Bellefourche, Blunt, Brentford, Burke, Corsica, Delmont, Doland, Edgemont, Erskine, Ethan, Faith, Fedora, Freeman, Fulton, Groton, Hartley, Herried, Holmquist, Hoven, Howard, Hurdsfield, Hurley, Isabel, Kimball, Lake Preston, Lesterville, Mellette, Menno, Missinhill, Mount Vernon, Murdo, Oldham, Oneka, Ree Heights, Ruby, Savoy, Scotland, Selby, Sinai, Stickney, Tulare, Veblen, Viborg, Vilas, and Winner; 2 each to Alexandria, Arlington, Bridgewater, Canova, Chamberlain, Conde, Garretson, Highmore, Lead, Letcher, Parkston, Redfield, Rockham, Tripp, Volga, Webster, White Lake, and Wolsey ; 3 each to Clark, Morristown, Vermilion, and Wessington. 89'The following additional consignments were made to Tennessee points: 1 car each to Centerville, Glen Ellen, Humboldt, Norris, and Trenton; 2 each to Barnesville and Katherine ; 3 cars to Dyersburg. 40The following additional consignments were made to Texas points: 1 car each to Allendale, Alpine, Alvin, Ballinger, Boden, Bonham, Brownsville, Burnside, Clear Creek, Coleman, Corpus Christi, Cuero, Easterly, Eastland, El Campo, Gainesville, George, Gid- dings, Goodwin, Hardin, Herrington, Hartley, Hasse, Hershey, Hunter, Huntsville, Jordan, Lacy, Lester, Lufkin, Manning, Mason, Mexico, Mineola, Nebraska, New Braunfels, Pescos, Pleasanton, Pullian, Somerset, Stamford, Sulphur Springs, Sylvan Grove, Terrell, Timber, and Uvalde; 2 each to Athens, Bay City. Bryan, Flatonia, Granger, Llano, McKinney, Mineral Wells, Nacogdoches, Palestine, Paradise, Seymour, Temple, Weatherford, and Yorktown ; 3 each to Brownwood, Eagle Pass, Lubbock, and Port Arthur. “ The following additional consignments were made to Utah points: 1 car each to Bingham, Greenriver, Hyde Park, Layton, Lehi, Petersboro, and Stoddard; 2 cars to Roy ; 8 ears to Richfield. 42 The following consignment was made to Vermont: 2 cars to Rutland. 42The following additional consignments were made to Virginia points: 1 car to Appalachia ; 2 cars to Newport News; 3 cars to Lemon. “The following additional consignments were made to Washington points: 1 car each to Almira, Argo, Borup, Cascade, Cashmere, Cle Elum, Dryden, Edgeley, Eltopia, Fort Wright, Hillyard, Index, Knapp, Lemona, Malden, Malone, Ravenna Park, Republic, Rochester, and Wells; 2 each to Hast Farm, Ellensburg, Hoquiam, Lind, Ritzville, Sandy Point, and Wenatchee ; 3 cars each to Aberdeen and Centralia. 26 BULLETIN 935, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Washington—Continued. Wisconsin—Continued. \\VGRITLIET Ls eed ee ES Ee 0 Stevens Loin eee 6 AUNTY SVT CO 2 a ea 17 Superionrs oS eee 10 WanIkinns ce Se ee 448 Wausaul2 ces Se 4 Wellin ee Fe eee 115 | Wyoming: * West Virginia.* Casperio 3) 2 eee 23 Wisconsin : ® Cheyenne 22a ais 207 AD RICtOn eee = 3 ee 5 Orosbyooes ee ee ee aut 5 Bae Glaimes eats slat Gilletieti2c2. ee ea 4 Janesville_____ peer 5 Kemmerer.2.6 to 4. La Crosse___ Bs aa alts Tar anniel de eu ee eens 79 Madison — Pepa eyes $11 iS 10 Rawlins 20s 2a 4 Marshfield ——_ == eee 8 Riverton. 22) eee 4 Milivvanikees.- . ee ae 124 Rock Springss2s ss eee 4 Oshkosh... 212 Bees ee 7 Sheridan ______ (el Ae ae 18 Richland Center. 4 Thermopolis __-_-_---_-» + 4 CANADA. Alberta: * Nova Scotia:” @aleairy,) =. tee ii es 20 | Ontario: ° IDiohaOrNKONN So 17 Hamilton. 2s See ee 5 Werth Ride een 4 Win GStoms 2:24. Ee 4 British Columbia : ® Toronto —____--_----_----- 52 Cub Bank aise aes 16 | Quebec: A Grand Horky esse 18 Montreal] ____________+___- 22 Vancouver sae e2 aa 25 Quebee __----------------- 4 ; Fy Saskatchewan : Manitoba : Moose Jaw______ Ml 12 Brandon Ba ae a Sia t at Prince Alberha 22 esses 4 Wann pe oa ee 36 Leen Ee ee Le 26 New Brunswick : Saskatoonu.2 0 ae 12 St. John 22a. eres wean 4 Wey Uli es 2 ene eS 14 WEST INDIES. Cuba: Havana 225 eb ee ei alli 45 The following consignments were made to West Virginia points: 2 cars each to Huntington and Litchen; 38 cars to Bluefield. y 46 The following additional consignments were made to Wisconsin points: 1 car each to Antigo, Blanchardville, Cody, Kenosha, Merrill, Oneida, Prescott, Rosholt, South Range, and Wild Rose; 2 each to Green Bay, Jefferson, Rhinelander, Ripon, River Falls, Sydney, and Winter; 3 each to Beloit, Racine, and Washburn. shel 47 The following additional consignments were made to Wyoming points: 1 car each to Diamondville, Dietz, Evanston, Frontier Park, Glenrock, Hereford, Lingle, Moorcroft, Ruck, and Wheatland; 2 each to Lander, Powell, and Upton. 48'The following additional consignments were made to Alberta points; 1 car each to Big Stone, Clairmont, Fitzgerald, Killam, and Redcliff; 2 cars to Pocahontas; 3 cars to Medicine Hat. 49 The following additional consignments were made to British Columbia points: 1 car each to Fernie, Hulatt, Huntingdon, Seton, and Three Forks; 2 cars to Milner; 3 each to Sidney and Victoria. 50The following additional consignments were made to Manitoba points: 1 car to Leighton ; 2 cars to Melita; 3 cars to Elm Creek. ‘The following additional consignments were made to New Brunswick points: 1 car to Humphreys; 3 ears to Salisbury, “The following consignment was made to Nova Scotia: 1 car to Tomkinsville. 53 The following additional consignments were made to Ontario points: 1 car each to Aberdeen, Dublin, Millbank, North Bay, Port Arthur, Prince Albert, Redmond, Rockland, St. Thomas, Sudbury, and Welland; 2 each to Bainsville, Chippewa Falls, Ilillsbury, and Omemee; 3 cars to London. “The following additional consignments were made to Saskatchewan points: 1 car each a Perea Canora, Carnduff, Chaplin, Fernwood, Kerr-Robert, and Rutan; 3 cars to Swi ‘urrent. THE DISTRIBUTION OF NORTHWESTERN BOXED APPLES. ONT Exuisit No. 10. Comparison of apple exports by months. Months. 1916-17 1917-18 1918-19 1919-20 Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. Barrels. SGT con cde aabee cn ete SteB Bee DB Ea eC Epes easaecs 129, 503 24, 720 14, 942 34, 619 MEROD CIs eerae eae sees acisinrsclnete Neiwieietne-ciawic asec 346,014 68, 985 90, 780 115, 715 INORG ENE DE Ie eee ert sie viatels ac ce sis Sa meete cle cmizele seas 378, 820 150, 644 104,572 213,270 SDH EOITR) DET. coe AU IEE SOE Rane AEE eee Eso e ote mere meena 342,572 190,390 | 160,035 142, 806 PREM UL Atay ears atstas eae npay ste mrss ele echt aay ayeret ete ale, Hera) miayeve a are nike 203, 904 33,776 213,107 161, 157 PODIIRISY « socssegsaeuedonsseasesdacens s2onceneueeduuce 130, 666 26, 232 493, 996 90, 215 CREM Se Rae AO ae es Be let ae ee 1,530,979 494,747 | 1,077,432 757, 782 WxHrpit No. 11. To make a comparison of the rate and destination competition among the three main apple-producing sections of the United States, the mileage and freight rate from Spokane, Wash., Rochester, N. Y., and Winchester, Va., are shown from those points to nine of the prin- cipal terminal markets of the country. These rates were in effect on March 31, 1920, but are given merely as a matter of information and can have no standing in adjusting freight charges with carriers. For that purpose official « quotations from tariffs on file with the Interstate Commerce C ommission and with State commissions should be secured from carriers’ representatives. Spokane, Wash. Rochester, N. Y. Winchester, Va. To— Rate Rate Rate Distance nq | Distance Distance (miles) per 100 (miles) per 100 (miles) per 100 * | pounds. “7- | pounds. * | pounds. Chica OFM Bee ye ssa citer em Nee 2) sets Sale 1,835 $1.25 605 $0.31 770 $0. 42 Detroit Michioe eee sae estes ccciee cone: 2,118 1.25 322 . 244 612 32 Indianapolis 1haK0 |e ale neuen name erie amete 2,019 1.25 536 298 664 39 WinicnraniMOMmoneeen asst. he ee 2,120 1.25 514 274 553 8 Pittsburgh, 12 oo Semen ee ObeE nS e sae Se aee 2,303 1.25 286 214 302 .24 Buffalo, N.Y sob Sos esl npBe eS see uEnSseude 2,371 1.25 69 -11% 435 ae philadelphia deren lees seice as en cee 2,652 1.25 369 224 223 aay ING WanVOnkaINE oYee sn eaee Gi sse sce ceeteoence 2,744 1.25 370 . 224 315 Pu Boston, Mass Poti SEDC ORCS RSET SECO eEE OO EonG 2, 868 1.25 - 428 25 548 - 294 The refrigeration charge on apples per car prior to March 1, 1920, from Spokane to these points was as follows: Chicago, $60 ; Detroit, Indianapolis, Cincinnati, Pittsburgh, and Buffalo, $65 5 Philadel- phia and New York, $70: Boston, G75. The tariffs named a heating charge from Spokane to Chicago only, and this rate, prior to March iL 1920, was $27. The refrigeration charges on shipments originating in the East vary, depending on the individual tariffs of the carriers. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 15 CENTS PER COPY V ‘ ; « i “4. a, rh reat dt Boa \ \@ lem (a ye D¥}y By? BULLETIN No. 936 ¢ Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey. a E. W. NELSON, Chief. Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER. May 31, 1921 WILD DUCKS AND DUCK FOODS OF THE BEAR RIVER MARSHES, UTAH. By ALEXANDER WETMORE, Assistant Biologist. CONTENTS. ; Page. Page. MGTIO CUT) ON en 1 | Food supplies attractive to wild General account of the Bear River RGICKSH eee See Se 10 (BES Se ae 2 Vegetable foods_____-__--____ 10. Discussion of waterfowl___-_______ BS PASrartiraea'T eet Cl See 112! Breeding species and _ their Other conditions affecting waterfowl_ 16 a DUNG aM Cerne eS 3 Agricultural operations________ 16 Habits and activities after the Naitunalwenemiccs= == ena 16 MECN SE SeAsonmes= see Gt | saConelusionte=—— = = = eee Sea ee 18 JENaNEL roan keereee v1 KG) cee ae pn se ae 9 The shooting season__________ 10 INTRODUCTION. The economic value of wild ducks and geese as a source of sport, an incentive to healthful outdoor recreation, and an adjunct to the food supply is universally recognized in this country. Legislative measures for the protection of these birds, designed to enable them to hold their own against an ever-increasing army of gunners, have multipled and have added to the restrictions on hunting as need for them has been realized by sportsmen and persons interested in birds in general. These regulations, however, have not been sufficient to maintain the birds in their former abundance. Regions that once were the summer homes of myriads of wild ducks have been drained and placed under cultivation, and extensive areas where the birds at one time bred are now populous farming communities. The changes have crowded out former avian residents and have served in a cor- responding degree to reduce their numbers. Realization of these Norn.—This bulletin is a report on the abundance, food supplies, and general conditions affecting the wild ducks and geese breeding on the Bear River marshes in Utah, or frequenting this region at, other times of the year, before their migrations to other parts of the United States. It is for the information of sportsmen and others interested in waterfowl. 20862°—21 1 2 BULLETIN 936, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, facts has led more recently to the adoption of other compensatory measures to encourage our larger waterfowl. A number of extensive marsh areas have been made permanent refuges under the guardian- ship of the United States Department of Agriculture, and many private preserves, some of them formed by artificial means, have been established, where the birds are protected while nesting and are ~shot under more or less rigid local restrictions during designated. ‘open seasons for hunting. As a means of cooperating in such efforts to maintain and increase the numbers of our waterfowl, the Biological Survey has undertaken investigations of the general con- ditions under which wild ducks live and thrive, coupled with counts of the numerical abundance of these birds in different areas varying in character. Much of this needed information has been gained through studies of the foods and general activities of our native wild ducks. Several bulletins dealing with favored duck foods that may - be introduced or propagated in many areas where they are at present unknown have been issued, and one enumerating the breeding ducks and the available duck foods of lakes in the sandhill region of Nebraska has been published.? ) During three summer seasons the writer was engaged in fald work dealing sh wild ducks in the Bear River marshes in Utah, spending the greater part of the time from July 15 to October 23, 1914; May 18 to October 20, 1915; and May 15 to October 25, 1916, on this work. Extended observations and notes were made during the entire period, and in 1916 a°count of the breeding ducks found in this area was made in as detailed a manner as practicable. In the following report is embodied a general account of observations and studies on the numbers and abundance of waterfowl, their food supplies, and the general conditions under which such birds live in that region. GENERAL ACCOUNT OF THE BEAR RIVER MARSHES. Bear River, the largest of the three main tributaries draining into Great Salt Lake, flows into the northern end of that body of water. Before reaching the saline waters of the lake proper the main stream of the river (Pl. I) breaks up into several branches, which in turn subdivide into minor channels, the whole forming a great delta embracing marshes grown with dense vegetation and open barrens of alkaline earth or mud. The silt-charged stream of the main river has filled in around its mouths, leaving two main lake 1 McAtee, W. L., Eleven Important Wild-Duck Foods: U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 205, pp. 25, igs. 23, 1915; McAtee, W. L., Propagation of Wild-duck Foods: U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 465, pp. 40, figs. 35, 1917. 2 Oberholser, Harry C., and W. L. McAtee, Waterfowl and Their Food Plants in the Sandhill Region of Nebraska: Part I, Waterfowl in Nebraska; Part II, Wild-duck Toods of the Sandhill Region of Nebraska: U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 794, pp. 77, pls. 5 (incl. 1 map), 1920. WILD DUCKS OF THE BEAR RIVER MARSHES, UTAH. 3 areas, called respectively North Bay and South Bay, that open into the arm of the lake proper, known as Bear River Bay. Three main channels and one smaller one flow into North Bay and three over- flows or branches supply South Bay. The space encompassed by these is wet and swampy. A large area known as Hansens Island, lying between the lower portions of the two bays, is cut by an old channel, formerly connected with the river but now separate, except where a canal (made by the Bear River Club in the fall of 1914) gives access to it. = Gie's=iet)| Stim minjetatal Staal See 18 0. Psi 38 18 ligand 18 72, 2 18 61.1 12 25. 0 6 16.6 Suet ei Nese ass22|. ees: Vong Soya ya nace. ois be 6 100. 0 6 GONGE a vere eee 7 Nellans fe 6 50, 0 6 50. 0 6 50. 0 6 Oar Gl adem cena ce oee oes Hy sete esas 6 83. 3 6 66. 6 6 83./3.4| = tea aes Bee cote 6 16.6 pee eae A 12 25. 0 6 ee i Perce eeeiam en Fa TA oe dom al a lee ae. Bee 6 33. 3 6 33. 3: |seseele cdl emedordectel soe bagel aoe ceseeer ieee ee baleeeenisceee EFFECTS OF NICOTINE SULPHATE ON EGGS OF TWO OTHER INSECTS. Experiments similar to those performed on the eggs of silkworm moths and codling moths were also conducted upon the eggs of NICOTINE SULPHATE AS AN OVICIDE AND LARVICIDE. 9 potato beetles (Leptinotarsa decemlineata Li.) and tussock moths (Hemerocampa leucostigma S. & A.). Fifteen potato-plant leaves, each bearing a cluster of potato- beetle egos (1 and 2 days old), were collected in a potato patch, and after the petiole of each leaf had been inserted into a bottle of water in the laboratory, 11 of the leaves were sprayed with solutions of nicotine sulphate 1:400 and 1:800 and the other four leaves were used as controls. The eggs thereafter were observed daily; prac- tically all of them hatched, and the newly hatched larvee were ap- parently not affected by remaining on the wilted leaves 1 or 2 days, after which they thrived when fed fresh and unsprayed leaves. Rela- tive to the time of hatching there seemed to be little, if any, differ- ence between the sprayed and unsprayed eggs. Similar results were obtained by spraying eight clusters of potato-beetle eggs in a potato patch with a solution 1:400 containing soap (2 pounds to 100 gallons water). In order to obtain tussock-moth eggs of known ages, many large caterpillars of this moth were collected and were put in wire-screemr cages, in which the remainder of the hfe history was completed. On various dates eggs from these cages and some from trees in the field were collected, placed in open pasteboard boxes, and then sprayed with four solutions of nicotine sulphate. Two of the solutions con- tained soap in the proportion of 2 pounds per 100 gallons of water. Some of the control eggs were not sprayed, while the others were sprayed with tap water; no difference in hatching between these was observed. The details of these experiments are summarized in Table III: TasLe I1]—dffects of nicotine sulphate on eggs of tussock moth in laboratory. | d Eggs collected in cages. Eggs collected infield. Age probably from freshly- laid eggs to those ready to purengte of Eggs 1 and 2 days old. Eggs 2 and 3 days old: hatch. y eulphaue ution 350} 5 eae irene E Egg Num- Egg Egg Num- E Egg amiaell. ber of | , 50%, | masses | berof| _.480., | masses | berof| _-988 | masses egg that that egg that that egg that that Masses | Hatched did not | masses reeked did not | masses harened did not tested. *| hatch. | tested. ‘| hatch. | tested. ia lee ote eda Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. Per cent. | Per cent. TUSZTOO ae ema SRE 2 ee ee || eo ee 4 25.0 75. 0 12 83. 3 16.7 SEIN ohese ase eee. SS eeee ee Eee ee 4 62. 5 tay Sta ES alll PSS cs celina dat de 1:800-+soap.....- 4 25. 0 75.0 4 25.0 75. 0 33 87. 9 12) 1) 1:1000-++soap..-.-. 4 37. 5 62.5 acc cen Beene cenalecorl ates 45 82. 2 17.8 Control.......... 3 83. 4 16.6 4 87.5 12.5 45 93. 3 Os 7 Tt is seen from Table III that nicotine sulphate is not efficient against the eggs of the tussock moth; the percentages given for the masses of eggs that did not hatch, however, are too low, because the final examination showed that as.a rule when a control and a sprayed 22660°—21—Bull. 988——2 a 10 BULLETIN 938, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mass of eggs (both recorded as hatched) were closely observed, more larve had emerged from the former than from the latter. The ones sprayed with nicotine sulphate were shghtly retarded in hatching, and the eggs in most of the masses which did not hatch contained aborted embryos, while the remainder of them were totally unde- veloped. DISCUSSION AS TO HOW NICOTINE SULPHATE ACTS AS AN OVICIDE AND LARVICIDE. Tt is difficult to determine accurately how any insecticide kills a larva or an adult insect, and in the light of our present knowledge along this line it would perhaps be impossible to ascertain definitely how an ovicide affects insect eggs. For this reason no attempt was made in the present investigation to determine how nicotine sulphate killed the eggs tested. Nevertheless a little theory on this subject may not be out of place here. Before attempting to explain how nicotine sulphate acts as an ovicide, it is first necessary to know something about the coverings of an insect egg. It is well known, as compiled by Packard (8, p. 520), that a ripe insect egg has two coverings. The external one, the egg- shell or chorion, is usually thick and hard; it is pierced by one or more minute canals, the micropyles, and consists of two chitinous- like lamine kept in close apposition by means of numerous minute pillars. The internal covering, the vitelline membrane, is always thin and delicate. The developing embryo inside the egg is supposed to breathe directly through these coverings as does a chick embryo through the shell of a hen’s egg. According to the results already presented, it was ascertained that freshly laid eggs, sprayed with solutions of nicotine sulphate, were affected more than were older eggs likewise treated. The chorions of these eggs were not as hard as those of the older eggs. This fact alone may explain the difference in the mortality recorded. Since it is scarcely possible that the spray solutions passed through the egg- shells, there remain two possible methods of explaining the death of the eggs sprayed: (1) Upon evaporation of the spray solutions there was usually left a thin film on the leaves sprayed, and perhaps also on the eggs. This film on the eggs might have decreased the aeration through the eggshells and thus caused death by suffocation. (2) Since practically all of the aborted embryos appeared to have died Curing the last stage of development, the preceding view does not scem to have much weight. As the sprayed surfaces continued to emit a nicotine-like odor for some time after the spray solutions had been applied, it seems reasonable to suppose that the embryos were killed by breathing the exhalation from the sprayed surfaces through the eggshells. Nicotine is a nerve poison, and the more highly developed NICOTINE SULPHATE AS AN OVICIDE AND LARVICIDE. 11 the nervous system the more effective the poison. This fact probably explains why practically all of the embryos that died succumbed during the last stage of development. Feytaud (3) described five stages in the embryology of (Hudemis) Polychrosis botrana Schiff. and of (Phalonia) Conchylis ambiguella Hpbn., and he treated many eggs of these moths with various strengths of pure nicotine and soap. The resulting mortality varied consider- ably, but even the strongest solution (1: 666) used did not prove effi- cient. He tested the eggs in the various stages of development, but in almost every case in which the embryos died they succumbed dur- ing the last stage. Lovett (4) sprayed apple-tree foliage with solutions of nicotine sulphate, and after several hours, when the leaves were perfectly dry, he placed many small tent caterpillars (Malacosoma pluvialis Stretch) on these leaves. He states that these caterpillars showed a decided aversion for the sprayed leaves; all of them soon became sick and a large percentage of them died. On the third day after the foliage had been sprayed more caterpillars were placed on the same . leaves and similar results were obtained. The leaves were not eaten. Lovett performed other experiments in which the caterpillars slightly ate the leaves which had been sprayed several hours previously. In this case the action of the nicotine was quick and decisive. These results agree with those given in the preceding pages. Theoretically nicotine sulphate is nonvolatile, although we know from experience that the commercial 40 per cent nicotine sulphate (the kind used in all the preceding experiments) is more or less volatile. Moore and Graham (7) state that pure nicotine sulphate is nonvolatile, and demonstrated that its vapor or exhalation (if either one is given off) did not kill the insects tested. They also state that commercial 40 per cent nicotine sulphate contains from 1 to 2 per cent of free nicotine, whose vapor did kill the insects tested. Moore and Graham claim that when spray solutions are prepared by using commercial nicotine sulphate, hard water, and soap, the nicotine sulphate is decomposed, setting free the nicotine; the amount of decomposition depends upon the amount of alkalies contained in the solutions. This view easily explains the presence of a thin film (already mentioned several times) left upon evaporation of the spray solution, which is certainly the nonvolatile portion of the nicotine sulphate contained in the solution. For some time after the application of the solution the film continues to emit an odor and its exhalation is more or less toxic to young larve, showing that it is not pure nicotine sulphate according to Moore and Graham. Moore and Graham (7) state that 12 days after lettuce in a green- house had been sprayed with a solution of commercial 40 per cent nicotine sulphate, it still bore nicotine. ee BULLETIN 938, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. To determine how long nicotine sulphate may remain on fruit-tree foliage after the application of the spray solution, the following ex- periments were performed by McIndoo. On September 10 a small pear tree was sprayed with a solution of commercial 40 per cent nicotine sulphate 1: 800, containing fish-oil soap (2 pounds to 100 gallons water). On various days thereafter about a quart of the sprayed leaves were collected on each recorded date; the leaves, after being ground in a meat grinder, were then mixed thoroughly with water containing sodium carbonate. Upon distilling this mixture a distillate containing nicotine was obtained on‘each day tested up to the thirty-fifth day after the leaves had been sprayed. On the forty- second day after applying the spray solution only an indication of a precipitate was observed, but concluding from the precipitates ob- tained prior to this date the amounts of nicotine present in the distillates seemed to decrease irregularly from the first to the forty- second day; soon after which the remaining leaves fell from the trees. During these tests there was comparatively little rainfall; neverthe- less the results of the tests indicate that considerable rainfall is required to remove all of the nicotine sulphate adhering to the sprayed . leaves. The details of these tests are presented in Table IV: Table 1V.—Tests on various dates using pear-tree leaves which had been sprayed on Sept. 10 with a solution of commercial 40 per cent nicotine sul- phate (1: 800) containing soap to show the presence of nicotine. Kind of precipitate pee per obtained using— ous Amount Date. ieee aa of Remarks. Had been Phospho- Silico- rainfall. € sever molybdic | tungstic prayed: acid. acid. Inches. Sept. 11 1 | Heavy...-| Heavy... -- 0.00 | Sprayed leaves emit nicotinelike odor. Sept. 12 2 \SeadOLe. 22 \2bs doce 8 -00 Do. Sept. 12 (4) INOMG=- 2.27 | INOMese.—- -00 | Unsprayed leaves on another tree were used. Sept. 13 3 | Heavy-...-| Heavy..-- .00 | Sprayed leaves do not emit nicotinelike odor. Sept. 14 ANREEAON sre = |2e2G0re-e aes 14 Sept. 15 Bl occ ase god SE See Se -O1 Sept. 16 6 [Bete eee ess cleten. cscs 08 Sept. 18 8 air 3. 2 -.| Maint. . +00 Sept. 24 14 0.....--| Very faint Ube Sept. 27 | 33, SSN a Ale OME Re 07 Sept. 28 US) ene ee scale case otce 16 Oct.r A. 21 | Fair -| Very faint 00 Oct. 4 D247 Beers alae etnan me sees 01 Oct. 5 2D beeeee see = 2 | teens wi Sok 20 Oct. 8 28 | Fair- None 07 Oct. 9 20 ee Mh & Al ietetir cote bre nn 2 35 Oct. 11 IB |. eee ois (bi - Seema 01 Oct. 12 BPA See aes |S eee ee 36 Oct. 15 35 | Very faint.| None... Al; Oct. 19 BRE: aeeaegee| |e Ia aaa 89 Oct. 20 cl 53 oe eee! (5 - eA 01 Oct. 22 42 | Indication.} None......|.....-..-- Total amount of rainfall during tests. - . 2.36 1 Control, TER, NICOTINE SULPHATE AS AN OVICIDE AND LARVICIDE. Ko At the suggestion of Mr. V. I. Safro, McIndoo washed separately 50 sprayed pear-tree leaves in 50 cc. of water. The resulting filtrate. was acidified with hydrochloric acid and then tested for the presence of nicotine by adding phosphomolybdic acid and silicotungstic acid. Each test apparently showed the presence of nicotine. Fifty un- sprayed leaves were likewise tested as a control; no precipitate was observed. One hundred unsprayed leaves were also tested, using the same amount of water; this time a precipitate was observed, and the same result was obtained thereafter on several occasions. Only green _and unbroken leaves were used in these tests. At all times there is more or less foreign organic matter in the form of dust on the leaves; this is readily seen in microscopical sections through unsprayed _leaves, and alkaloidal reagents precipitate it, as well as the nicotine which may be present. Consequently the preceding method should not be regarded as reliable; nevertheless, Mr. Safro (9) has pub- lished his method and says: Generally we are able to obtain a definite indication of the presence of nico- tine in as little as 25 cc. of water by using five leaves that had been sprayed at the usual strength (about 0.05 of 1 per cent nicotine). On the fourth day after the pear tree used in the experiments had been sprayed, about a quart of the sprayed leaves were collected and washed in water containing sodium carbonate, each leaf being washed separately. Next the leaves were washed in running water for 5 minutes, and were finally ground and tested as described above. By adding phosphomolybdic acid to the resulting distillate, a faint pre- cipitate was obtained, but none by adding silicotungstic acid. On the eighth day after the leaves had been sprayed, the test was re- peated, but this time the leaves were washed for 10 minutes in running water. No precipitate was observed in this test even by adding phosphomolybdic acid. In each of the two foregoing tests the water containing the sodium carbonate and foreign matter removed from the leaves was distilled. Adding either acid to the resulting distillate invariably produced a precipitate, but in none of the tests with sprayed leaves did the distillate ever emit a nicotine odor. The second experiment described above indicates either that the spray solution did not pass into the leaves or that the amount of nicotine still held by them was too small to be detected by the method em- ployed. The following results will substantiate the former view: A small quantity of nicotine-sulphate solution (1:800) containing fish-oil soap (2 pounds to 100 gallons of water) was colored with car- mine acid (Griibler’s Carminsaur) and an equal quantity with indigo carmine (sodium sulphindigotate). Several leaves on a pear tree were sprayed with each of the colored solutions, and two entire detached leaves were submerged in each solution for 15 minutes; the 14 BULLETIN 938, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. petioles of the leaves were left projecting above the surfaces of the solution. An hour later the four treated leaves were put into absolute alcohol and a day later a few of the stained leaves on the tree were likewise treated. The absolute alcohol did not dissolve or scatter either one of the stains, and the only other reagents used were xylol and Canada balsam; these also did not scatter the stains. A study of the sections made shows much stain on the outside of the sprayed and submerged leaves. While none was observed inside the sprayed leaves, it was usually present inside the submerged ones and the most of it seems to have passed through the ventral surfaces of the leaves. Its passage may have been aided by the stomata which occur exclu- sively on the ventral surface of these leaves; botanists, however, say that the stomata are so small (0.0006 mm. and less) that neither dust nor water can pass through them into the plant. According to the © above results the spray solutions did not pass into the leaves sprayed, nor did the dust in the film of adhering nicotine sulphate enter the stomata. SUMMARY OF EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED IN LABORATORY. Nicotine sulphate as an ovicide, with one exception, was found inefficient against all of the eggs tested—namely, those of the silk- worm moth, codling moth, tussock moth, and potato beetle. The eggs sprayed with it were variously affected, depending on the strength of the spray solution used, on the age of the eggs tested, and whether or not the solution contained soap. Upon the eggs of three of the species of insects used there was practically no differ- ence in effects between solutions containing soap and those without soap, although those with soap were much more effective upon the eggs of the tussock moth. Comparing the effects of the spray solu- tion 1:800, the strongest one of the economic solutions used, the percentages of eggs sprayed with it that failed to hatch are as fol- lows: Ninety-nine per cent of the freshly laid eggs of the silkworm moth, but only about 75 per cent of the older eggs of the same insect; about 20 per cent of the codling-moth eggs on apple-tree foliage; 75 per cent of the tussock-moth eggs (1 to 3 days old) ; and about 12 per cent of those of the same insect which had been col- lected in the field; and practically none of the potato-beetle eggs. The effects of the exhalation from leaves sprayed with solutions of nicotine sulphate varied considerably, depending on the larvee tested and the strength of the solutions used. Again comparing the effects of the solution 1:800, all of the newly hatched silkworms and codling-moth larvee placed upon leaves sprayed two hours previously died, but the silkworms succumbed the more quickly; all of the silk- worms but only a small percentage of the codling-moth larvee placed upon leaves sprayed 24 hours previously died. a a NICOTINE SULPHATE AS AN OVICIDE AND LARVICIDE. 15 Seventy-seven per cent of the newly hatched codling-moth larvee placed upon pears sprayed 24 hours previously with a solution of nicotine sulphate 1:800 died, but only 33 per cent of those placed upon pears sprayed a week previously died. Relative to the control of the codling moth, the following briefly summarizes the more important points herein recorded: About 20 per cent of the freshly laid eggs sprayed with a solution of nicotine sulphate 1: 800 failed to hatch, and one-third of the remaining em- bryos that emerged died before they entered pears sprayed a week previously. Hence about one-half of the eggs and larvee had been destroyed up to the time when the remaining larve entered the sprayed pears; a large percentage of the latter larvee died, as about 60 per cent of the pears did not become wormy. According to these laboratory results nicotine sulphate does not seem to be efficient against the codling moth, although only one application of it was made; nevertheless its effectiveness would certainly be increased in proportion to the number of its applications and to the amount of rainfall. EXPERIMENTS CONDUCTED IN ORCHARDS. According to the preceding laboratory results nicotine sulphate would not seem to be efficient against the codling moth. To deter- mine this from the practical viewpoint the following experiments were conducted: EXPERIMENTS PERFORMED AT BENTON HARBOR, MICH. The experimental work conducted.at Benton Harbor consisted in testing the relative efficiency of nicotine sulphate when combined with soap and when combined with soap and arsenate of lead in contrast with the efficiency of arsenate of lead when combined with lime-sulphur at summer strength. The experiments were made in a sod orchard about 50 years old, and each of the four plats selected consisted of 16 trees. All of the applications throughout the season were made with the same power sprayer and at a pressure well above 100 pounds. The spray was delivered through the Vermorel type of nozzle. Although the experiments were started with the calyx application, all of the plats, including the check (No. 4), were given the cluster bud application. The set of fruit was scattered and rather light, being lightest in plat No. 3, but it was sufficient to give reliable experimental results. In order that trees with as uniform a crop as possible might be secured throughout the different plats, five count trees in each plat were not selected until after the fruit had set. The fallen fruit was 16 BULLETIN 938, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. collected once a week and examined for codling-moth injury, and at picking time the picked fruit was also examined. The results of these examinations are given in Table V. TABLE V.—Codling moth injury as shown by examination of both fallen and picked fruit from experimental plats at Benton Harbor, Mich., 1917. Fruit record. No = 2 Sn < = Percent- ae Number of applications and brief Number of larval en- Total age of Hat formula of each. trances at— Number} number | {otal of wormy | of apples | number apples. | exam- | of apples ined. | free from Calyx. | Side. | Stem. worms. 1 | 1 application of lime-sulphur and 3 applications of lime-sulphur + 1 pound arsenate of lead to 50 gallons Walek ae... een ee yee Ee ee 191 277 14 336 6, 543 94.71 application of lime-sulphur and 3 applications of nicotine sulphate : [:S00S Soap. Seer eho. eae eee 559 662 ral 1, 249 9,924 87.41 to ra rot) — © Ko) Ko) =r a is) ct a lo} i=} ° Bh E o>) i a = io} i= is] i] rs) B a w | of lead to 50 gallons of water......-.- 40 195 4 231 2, 949 92.15 | 1 application of lime-sulphur (check)... 2,032 607 93 2,484 6, 060 59. 00 | | ~ Reference to Table V shows that nicotine sulphate (plat No. 2) gave a control of only 87.41 per cent, while arsenate of lead (plat No. 1) gave a control of 94.71 per cent. There is thus seen to be no practical advantage in combining arsenate of lead with nicotine sulphate in sprays designed to control the codling moth (plats Nos. 1 and 3). EXPERIMENTS PERFORMED AT GRAND JUNCTION, COLO. Experiments similar to the preceding were also performed at Grand Junction, Colo. Of the 12 plats sprayed, only 2 were sprayed with nicotine sulphate, but since the results obtained using arsenate of lead vary so greatly, the data from 4 of the latter plats are given in Table VI, so that the results from the plat sprayed with nicotine sulphate may be compared with those from the plats sprayed with arsenate of lead alone and also with the results from the plat sprayed with arsenate of lead and nicotine sulphate combined. In plats on which it was applied (i. e., all except plats Nos. 10, 14, and 15), the calyx application was made with a Bordeaux type of nozzle which delivered a fairly coarse and driving spray; a mist type of nozzle was used for all subsequent applications. With this exception the same spraying equipment was used for all plats except the checks. At various times throughout the growing season and at harvest time the apples on eight trees in each plat (four in each of the two check plats) were examined; the results of these examinations, to- gether with the treatment of the several plats, are given in Table VI. NICOTINE SULPHATE AS AN OVICIDE AND LARVICIDE. 17 TABLE V1I.—Codling-moth injury as shown by examination of both fallen and picked fruit from experimental plats at Grand Junction, Colo., 1917. Number of applications.| Tota] number | Fallen ae Total : : ee of apples apples Plat No. Formula of insecticide. Won For apples | free from pepples oeaea first | second | Total.| exam- Worms. | orms worms. brood. | brood. ined. Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 2 | 1 pound of powdered arse- nate oflead to 50 gallons Ol Wale a eaasei ees 4 % 6 23, 508 37.75 72.16 | 62.09 3 | Nicotine sulphate (1:800)- - 4 2 6 29, 881 17.32 58.33 37.96 4 | 1 pound of powdered arse- nate oflead to 50 gallons of water plus nicotine sulphate (1:800)-.....---. 4 2 6 24, 003 40. 97 84.17 67.50 8 | 1 pound of powdered arse- | nate oflead to 50 gallons | Of; water. 25.23-..-2 0b 2: 3 2 5 38, 874 48. 28 82.31 73.49 9 | Same as above...........- 4 3. 7 47,773 47.74 85. 53 76. 53 10 | Same as above. .........-- 13 2 5 | 37, 628 22. 83 60. 69 46.33 f4vand"15 "Check (ansprayed)= 22222 =|o2 2S 2ae lo 2 22]. 2 eee | 33, 882 7.36 15.01 | 8.72 1 All three were cover applications, the calyx application being omitted. Although the results in the preceding table vary considerably, it is seen nevertheless that nicotine sulphate when used alone was ineffi- cient (plat No. 3). EXPERIMENTS PERFORMED AT ROSWELL, N. MEX. The experimental work conducted at Roswell consisted in a com- parison of the efficiency of nicotine sulphate with that of arsenate of lead alone and also with that of arsenate of lead combined with nico- tine sulphate. For this purpose four plats, lying in a 640-acre tract of apple trees, were selected ; they were similar in all respects and the trees, about 20 years old, were of the Ben Davis variety. Following the regular 5-spray schedule, all the plats, except the check (No. 4), were sprayed on the following dates: April 25, May 15, June 14, July 18, and August 14. During the first application about 21 gallons of spray material were applied to each tree, but during each subsequent application only about 17 gallons per tree were used. Bordeaux nozzles were used for the calyx application and a mist type for the other applications. A power sprayer, holding 200 gallons, was employed, and the pressure was maintained at 200 pounds with three leads of hose. During these experiments the dates and amounts of rainfall are as follows: May 6, 0.23 inch; July 19, 0.03 inch; July 20, 0.03 inch; August 1, 0.54 inch; August 2, 0.47 inch; August 15, 0.15 inch; August 17, 0.60 inch; and August 18, 0.93 inch, giving a total of 2.98 inches. The details pertaining to the plats, formulas of application, and results of the foregoing experiments are given in Table VII. 18 BULLETIN 938, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE VII.—Codling-moth injury as shown by examination of both fallen and picked fruit from experimental plats at Roswell, N. Mewx., 1917. Fruit record. Flat Number of applications and formula of each. Total Fallen Har- Total No. numbe: ap vested ples ckpprle: foaieen Pls Saal free from A worms worms. ined. * | worms. 1 | 5 applications of 1 pound of powdered arsenate of lead Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. tofo0igallons Ofgvater s.c.s06---5-com= accor saceeebeeee 1 33,472 93. 64 97.66 96. 88 2 | 5 applications of 1 pound of powdered arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water-+nicotine sulphate (1:800)+ # poundiof laundry soap! --cccc snc cosscnee eos eee ene 27,011 85.55 98. 99 97.00 3 | 5 applications of nicotine sulphate (1:800)+ } pound of laundry soap to 50 gallons of water..-...............- 3 6,170 88.01 93. 43 91.94 4} Unspraied. .. eee eee thes nb De icceste ends sneer 414,401 52.06 50.01 51.53 1 On 6 trees. 2 On 4 trees. 3 On 4 trees. 4 On 12 trees. From Table VII it is seen that the trees sprayed with nicotine sulphate (plat No. 3) yielded a crop of apples 92 per cent sound, while those sprayed with arsenate of lead (plats Nos. 1 and 2) yielded a crop 97 per cent sound, and that the addition of nicotine sulphate to the arsenate of lead mixture (plat No. 2) did not materially increase the percentage of sound fruit. CONCLUSIONS FROM FIELD EXPERIMENTS. According to the work conducted during the season of 1917, it is shown that nicotine sulphate 1:800 with soap gave a fair degree of control for the codling moth at Benton Harbor, Mich., and. at Ros- well, N. Mex., but that it was not as effective as 1 pound of powdered — arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of water; and also that there was no practical advantage in combining arsenate of lead and nicotine sul- phate in sprays designed to control the codling moth. Of course it is well known that nicotine sulphate controls aphids on fruit trees, but this phase of the subject is not considered in this paper. At Grand Junction, Colo., where the infestation was much heavier, nico-. tine sulphate 1: 800 without soap was inefficient against the codling moth. (4) (5) (6) (8) (9) NICOTINE SULPHATE AS AN OVICIDE AND LARVICIDE. 19 LITERATURE CITED. [Dr SELLEM, F. E.] 1916. Nicotine sulfate for codlin moth control. Jn Ann. Rept. Hort. Dept., Yakima Co., Wash., p. 62-72. Eaton, J. 8., and WATERBURY, H. E. 1917. Codlin moth experimental work in Ross orchard. Jn Ann. Rept. District Hort. Inspector, Yakima Co., Wash., p. 27-42. FEYTAUD, J. 1912. Action des insecticides sur les ceufs de la cochylis et de l’eudémis. In Bul. Soc. d’Etude et de Vulgarisation de la Zool. Agr., Bor- deaux, p. 1-20. ‘Lovett, A. L, 1917. Nicotine sulphate as a poison for insects. Jn Jour. Econ. Ent., vy. 10, no. 3, p. 333-337. 1918. Nicotine sulphate an effective ovicide for codling moth eggs. Notes in Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 11, no. 1, Feb., p. 149-150. McInpoo, N. E. 1916. Hffects of nicotine as an insecticide. Jn Jour. Agr. Research, v. 7, no. 3, p. 89-122, 3 pl. Moore, WILLIAM, and GRAHAM, S. A. 1917. A neglected factor in the use of nicotine sulphate as a spray. Jn Jour. Agr. Research, v. 10, no. 1, p. 47-50. PACKARD, A. S. 1903. A text-book of entomology. New York. SArgo, V. I. 1917. How to test for the presence of nicotine on sprayed plants. In Jour. Econ. Ent., v. 10, no. 5, Oct., p. 459-461. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V Ra Sey | ed ERT U AE OR Athy: slvettiony: out fr % ey yi dy’ 4 . NSPE Ws UL osx % ois ot Oh? At ES Ri ote Ab vega Ah Maser age : 3 gout Py er Res A aerpd: cat aye ie Pak ane 2 mgmt valet kat if gs et P wie mona Mmyengiia f \ Wie ag) Oi bd nh agen JO sie) | pyar es, FAS oikiae i i he ehceiey i ‘ i ; ‘ ib) cabot | Mf had, ‘ pF! i tRe if 1 Ast Ken hee ety 1) CRY ; hive te Lob CA TOONT Se Ane a dla erent ee atiy Hom OVERET Trae 0 HOTA + Sh ti LOD MEE wees is, bg fi . ie Wh « | 6 ; \ ; # . ng ty ga ; Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. A April 22, 1921 Tn SET nt Tae Hee RO, Pr De a Ee TREES THE TURKEY AN IMPORTANT FACTOR IN THE SPREAD OF GAPEWORMS.’ By B. H. Ransom, Chief, Zoological Division. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Examination of market chickens Significance of turkeys in relation AMO OCU KEYS). eWay CN es il to gapes formerly unrecognized__ 10 Experimental work ~------------_ 3 | Turkey the preferred host of the Factors in the spread of gape CAPEWOLMApH ee Wee ee eee 10 OEMS pete enue eA 7 | How to avoid losses in chickens__-_— 11 Tawes seen on Maryland Conclusiongirs ete Je Se Sere nee 12 fa EAITE NAS apy eee Mie cH Be a 8 ! List of references__ ~~~ _--_- = 13 EXAMINATION OF MARKET CHICKENS AND TURKEYS. OR THE PURPOSE of collecting some statistics on the preva- lence of gapeworms (Syngamus trachealis) in the vicinity of Washington, D. C., and of obtaining material for use in experiments, examinations were made of the tracheas of 685 chickens killed for sale at poultry stalls in Center Market during the latter half of December, 1916, and the months of January and February, 1917. Nothing definite is known as to the ages of these chickens except that the chickens were all obviously large enough for food purposes. Probably none were less than six months old, most of them likely were older, and no doubt many were a year old or more. No gape- worms were found. At the same time the tracheas of turkeys from the same market were similarly examined. The ages of the turkeys, as in the case of the chickens, were uncertain, but undoubtedly all the turkeys were at least 6 months old, and many of them were probably more than a year old. During the period mentioned the tracheas from 386 tur- keys were examined. The next year, beginning March 2, 1918, an- 1 The writer is greatly indebted to Dr. Lawrence Avery, of the Bureau of Animal In- dustry, for assistance rendered in carrying out the investigations reported in this paper. 22888°—21—Bull. 939 2 BULLETIN 939, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. other series of 115 was examined, and during the month of Novem- ber, 1918, a final series of 178; in all, 679 turkey tracheas were ex- amined. In the case of the chickens practically the entire trachea was obtained from each bird, but in the case of the turkeys usually only a portion of the trachea was secured, so that as a rule an exami- nation of the entire trachea could not be made. In the first series of turkey tracheas (386 examined in December, 1916, and January and February, 1917) gapeworms were found in 89, and characteristic lesions marking the former location of gape- worms in 3 others, a total of 92, or 23.8 per cent. In the second series (115 examined in March, 1918) worms were found in 17 and a gape- worm lesion in 1 other, a total of 18, or 15.7 per cent. In the third series (178 examined in November, 1918) worms were found in 48, or 24.2 per cent. The percentage of turkey tracheas infested out of the total number examined was 22.5 per cent. It is possible that the lower percentage observed among the tracheas examined in March as compared with those examined in December, January, and February, and in November following, was the result of having more incomplete specimens of tracheas than were generally secured in the two latter series. In any event, in view of the fact that throughout the three series incomplete tracheas were the rule, it appears quite certain that more cases of infestation would have been found if the entire trachea could always have been secured. It is, therefore, fair to conclude that the percentage of infestation among the turkeys examined was in reality higher than the 22.5 per cent actually found. Counting the gapeworm lesions found without worms attached as representing worms, and counting the paired male and female as a single worm, a single worm was present in 91 cases, 2 worms in 36 cases, 8 worms in 14 cases, 4 worms in 6 cases, 5 worms in 8 cases, 7, 9, and 18 worms in 1 case each. if In view of the complete absence of gapeworms from a large series of adult and approximately adult chickens, and their common occur- rence in a similar series of adult and approximately adult turkeys, all obtained at the same market and at the same season of the year, it would appear that adult chickens are poorly adapted as hosts for gapeworms. Evidently the occurrence of gapeworms in adult chickens in the general locality of Washington, D. C., must be ex- ceedingly rare, though, as is well known, gapeworms are of frequent occurrence in young chicks in this as well as in many other localities. On the other hand, it is evident that not merely young turkeys may harbor gapeworms, but that in the locality mentioned these parasites are very common in adult turkeys. Although, as noted, the ages of the various turkeys from the Washington market were uncertain, many of the turkeys examined were no doubt considerably more than THE TURKEY IMPORTANT IN THE SPREAD OF GAPEWORMS. 3 a year old. That turkeys above 3 years of age may harbor gape- worms is established by the fact that a turkey which was kept at the Bureau of Animal Industry Experiment Station, Bethesda, Md., for three years after it was brought there was found after its death to be infested with a pair of gapeworms. EXPERIMENTAL WORK. Experiments in artificially infecting chickens of various ages with gapeworms were carried out as follows: To provide material for infecting the chickens, cultures were made at first from gapeworms collected from the tracheas of turkeys. Later many of the worms collected from the artificially infected chickens were also used in mak- ing cultures. The worms were chopped into small pieces and the eggs released by tearing apart the fragments of the uteri in a small quantity of water. The water containing particles of worms and the eggs was spread on the surface of a sterilized medium culture made from chicken feces mixed with powdered animal charcoal. This was kept moist in a petri dish and allowed to incubate at room tempera- ture. After about two weeks’ incubation a large proportion of the eggs contained fully developed larve, many of which commonly hatched and continued active for long periods after hatching. The cultures were then ready for use and were fed to the chickens by plac- ing small portions scraped from the surface of the culture medium directly into the mouth and making sure that the birds swallowed the material. The chickens used in the experiments, except the adults, were hatched in incubators and kept from exposure to gapeworm infection until used. Usually only one feeding was given, and in most cases the chicken, if it did not die earlier, was killed two weeks after feeding the infectious material. Occasionally chickens were killed for examination in less than two weeks after infection. The tracheas and lungs were examined for gapeworms, the latter by dis- section in physiological salt solution, a lens being used for the dis- covery of small, incompletely developed worms: Altogether 139 chickens of different ages were thus fed infectious gapeworm material. The results are shown below. Results of artificially infecting chickens with gapeworm material. Number | Number | Per cent Age of chickens when fed. fed. rare feria anieered TE GO.ZE WE ts HO BBE red Ae ESI ICING ER SEE it iar arn aati aes = li os ad a ate 47 41 87 PUOSEWICE KS Sain talctecteeeinem ae chee oe Sool 2 ele ei eld Be on 32 27 84 OORT CES Bre tote Nee ete eh SR TSI SE en ee 32 21 66 DIRWEeKSi EO; ACU tise cae ise iae e oe Role aie bso eee cite eames ee nose cs eme chic 28 8 29 4 BULLETIN 939, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. From the data shown in the table it seems evident that as chickens grow older they tend to become less susceptible to infection with gape- worms. Apparently, therefore, the most likely reason no gapeworms were found among the 635 chickens from the Washington market was that these chickens when examined had reached an age at which they were no longer favorable hosts for gapeworms. Probably some of them had been infested earlier in life but had afterwards lost their parasites. How long gapeworms will persist in youhg chickens that do not succumb to the infestation is uncertain. That adult chickens, however, in those unusual cases in which they become infested with gapeworms, are likely to harbor the parasites only temporarily is indicated by some of the findings in the following experiments: Twelve adult chickens a year old or more were fed gapeworm material from cultures on April 26, 28, 30, May 2, 4, 7, 9, and 11, altogether receiving 8 feedings, except one which was killed May 7, before feeding time, and hence received only 5 feedings. Material from the same cultures was fed to 12 1-week-old chicks April 24, 28, 30, May 2, and 4. All the young chickens died of gapes in 11 to 27 days after the first feeding, and all were found infested with gapeworms. Except the one killed May 7, 11 days after the first feed- ing, the adult chickens were killed 16 to 29 days after the first feeding and 1 to 14 days after the last feeding. Gapeworms were found in only 3 out of the 12. The lungs of one killed 16 days after the first feeding and 1 day after the last feeding contained an unpaired female 2.5 mm. long, and in the trachea were two pairs, the females being 6.5 mm. and 10 mm. long, respectively. The 10 mm. female was producing eggs. Another chicken that was killed 18 days after the first feeding and 3 days after the last feeding har- bored in the trachea a single pair of worms. The female of this pair measured 13 mm. in length and was depositing eggs. In the trachea of the third chicken, killed 29 days after the first feeding and 14 days after the last feeding, there were 7 dead males without females, 4 living males withont females, 3 living females with dead males, 1 living female with a living male, and 1 living female without a male. The last two females contained apparently viable eggs, but in the other three females the eggs were apparently nonfertile, dark, and unnatural in appearance. All the worms, alive and dead, were firmly attached to the trachea. The living worms were enveloped in a thick layer of mucus. On another occasion 6 adult chickens probably a little less than a year old were fed with a gapeworm culture. Seven days later one was killed. No worms were found. A second chicken, killed 8 days after feeding, had one unpaired worm, one pair of coupled worms in the lungs, and 14 pairs of coupled worms in the trachea, all imma- THE TURKEY IMPORTANT IN THE SPREAD OF GAPEWORMS. 5 ture, those in the trachea evenly distributed from bronchi to larynx. The females in the trachea measured 3 to 6 mm. in length. The worms in the trachea were enveloped in masses of very viscid, tena- cious mucus and none apparently were attached to the wall of the trachea. Another chicken was killed 11 days after feeding and was found to be free from parasites. Twenty-eight days after feeding, microscopic examination failed to show gapeworm eggs in the feces of the three surviving chickens. The following day one of them was killed and found to be free from parasites. Thirty-one days after the first feeding the two surviving chickens were fed with a gape- worm culture. Eight days after this feeding the chickens were killed. One of them was free from parasites, the other had one young worm in the lungs, and a pair of coupled worms in the trachea. The female of this pair was ruptured in removal but measured 15 mm. or more in length and contained eggs ready for oviposition. This pair of worms was enveloped in a mass of tena- cious mucus. Evidently the worms in the trachea came from the first feeding of gapeworm material, 39 days before the chicken was killed. The findings in the case of one of the chickens referred to sug- gest very strongly that the worms that had succeeded in establishing themselves in the trachea were having difficulty in maintaining them- selves, as 10 of the 15 males present 29 days after infection were dead though firmly attached to the trachea, and as the living worms, both males and fernales, were enveloped in a thick layer of mucus, indicative perhaps of a strong reaction, on the part of the host, that would soon destroy them. In two of the other chickens also the unusually large masses of mucus enveloping the worms suggest the likelihood of the early death or expulsion of the parasites. In any event it 1s evident, since in the one instance a large proportion of the gapeworms present 29 days after infection had died after reaching maturity, that gapeworms in adult chickens, when they succeed in establishing themselves in the trachea, sometimes die within a month after infection, infestation with gapeworms in such cases thus being of brief duration. Further evidence of the transient nature of gapeworm infestation in adult chickens is given by Waite (1920, p. 115), who fed about 150 earthworms from gapeworm-infested chicken runs to three yearling hens. Fif- teen days later gapeworms could be distinctly seen in the tracheas of two of them by looking down their throats in a good light. Two weeks later the worms had disappeared, and when the hens were killed and examined 72 days after the feeding with the earthworms, no signs of gapeworms were found. In view of the difficulty of infecting adult chickens with gape- worms, the likelihood of the brief duration of infestation in cases in 6 BULLETIN 939, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which the worms succeed in developing to maturity in adult chickens and the failure to find any gapeworms among a large number of adult chickens obtained from a certain market, though the parasites were of common occurrence in adult turkeys from the same market, it seems evident that adult chickens are not likely to be of great im- portance as carriers of gapeworms. On the other hand it is certain that sometimes they may harbor gapeworms for brief periods at least. Besides the fact that adult chickens occasionally may be infected ex- perimentally may be cited the following instance of infestation follow- ing exposure to infested ground. “oped vob bale. ttedot Ae rig espe ot: YORE mo oas Hy st Fred a ea a te et 2 iP MARY Ar ‘acpi: taaruaaecky ibede Bade se 4 aE ota Ay) cepa TE hE tae eh MP 1} en ic ay 4 ( oT Cel) | Ran eae ae oe ‘get “4 ss ee Tee ts ae Re oo ee aBhatdlinvi a a it Feeds. ‘eo teher leans hot i MeOs eS ee jalan bee's Pips Pi ne tread ate (GIVE Many athe OEE, eee bs Sy sAugns Ria i OE it ey rarOve SiR oi) Te rd abd Pt Ue eae ti ipahe Me si Ve fae: 3 Se) as? eeu cial Fue PE) ale ae ike TBR ie oes $4534, eli bie Hin? Ye eedohbyebis wee seer ho hee ay > tana BL GOON oR OE am Ciieagire, creat | LO008 ce vod | a iii otiet Sua te 2 Oe: pre Phen! epg te Al Wrotiaty Ve) atipeibentt ad ebay “aathtnts waa : i ee ” Lil & e a heres Ay bohm, Cie te oh ; pL!) a! Oe oi, ate a ed a0 8 Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER April 25, 1921 THE SPOROGENES TEST AS AN INDEX OF THE CONTAMINATION OF MILK. By S. Henry Ayers and PauLt W. CLEMMER, of the Dairy Division. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Present status of the sporogenes test_ 1 | Conditions of production of pasteur- The Savage method______-_-_-~ 3 ized milk as indicated by the spo- The Weinzirl method _______— 6 rogenes test___——~ Sas55555=5555 14 Defects in the sporogenes test___-~— 7 | The source of the majority of spores Attempts to improve the characteris- of B. enteritidis sporogenes found He Stormy, reachon.——— = 9 in milkk_-------~--- es oo 16 Use of 20 c. ce. quantities of milk in Summary and conclusions —---~----—~ 19 the sporogenes test--___----____ 11 | Literature cited -____------~-----~ 20 The sporogenes test in relation to milk produced under extreme con- ditions of cleanliness and of filth_ 12 PRESENT STATUS OF THE SPOROGENES TEST. The sporogenes test is based on the characteristic milk reaction produced by certain anaérobic spore-forming bacteria which are widely distributed in nature and which are particularly common in fecal material. Numerous names have been given to anaérobic bacteria that give the typical milk reaction, some of which are the following: B. ente- ritidis sporogenes (Klein); B. aerogenes capsulatus (Welch), syno- nym B. welchii (Migula); B. perfringens (Veillon and Zuber) ; and B. Saccharobutyricus immobilis (Schattenfroh and Grass- berger). It is generally believed that the organisms bearing these names are either identical or very closely related species. In milk, under anaérobic conditions, these organisms produce what is known as the “stormy” fermentation. In a characteristic reaction the casein is coagulated and the curd torn by gas within 24 hours at 87° C. The whey is usually quite clear and the odor of butyric acid is noticeable. When the milk in a test tube is covered with a paraffin plug the latter is usually forced up almost to the top of the tube and sometimes entirely out of the tube. 25154°--21——1 2 BULLETIN 940, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. English bacteriologists have made use of this characteristic reac- tion, both in water and milk analysis, in order to detect the presence of B. enteritidis sporogenes, which in their opinion indicates con- tamination by fecal material. The test has consequently become known as the sporogenes test. Therefore, in this paper the name Bb. enteritidis sporogenes will be used in designating the organism caus- ing the stormy reaction, except when direct reference is made to pub- lications in which different terms are used. The organisms giving this test should not be confused with B. sporogenes of Metchnikoff, which gives an entirely different milk reaction. Whether the bacteria which show the sporogenes test are identical makes little difference provided their distribution in nature is about the same. They are known to be present in fecal material, in miscel- laneous foodstuffs, cattle feed, soil,and water. Since they are present in cow feces, it is natural to assume that their presence in milk may be used as an index of contamination by manure. If they are present in feeds and soil to the same extent as in manure, their presence in milk may be rather an index of the general condition of cleanliness of production. The obvious advantage of using the spores of B. enteritidis sporo- genes as an index of contamination lies in the fact that pasteurization does not destroy them, and therefore does not interfere with the de- termination of their presence in milk. Furthermore, they are not believed to vegetate in milk under normal conditions, and vegetative cells do not sporulate in the presence of the fermentable sugar in milk; so the sporogenes test with both fresh and old milk, provided it is still sweet, should give the same results. The test has conse- quently become known as a “nonmultiplying test.” Should it prove to be reliable in gauging the cleanliness of production and be rela- tively accurate, 1t would be extremely valuable in milk-control work. It has not been difficult to find spores in milk which give the char- acteristic stormy reaction. Fliigge (4) in 1894 isolated anaérobic butyric-acid bacteria from milk. In 1897 Klein (8) examined milk in London for spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes and found them in 8 of the 10 samples examined. Since then they have been found in milk by various investigators, among whom are Savage (12), Hous- ton (7), Barthel (1), Brown (2), Simonds (14), Ritchie (11), Pryor © (9), Weinzirl (15), Shippen (13), and Ford (5). Probably spores of these anaérobic bacteria can be found in all milk if large enough amounts are examined. There seems to be a difference of opinion among different investi- gators as to the value of the sporogenes test in indicating manurial contamination and the general conditions of cleanliness in produc- 1 The numbers in parentheses refer to ‘ Literature cited,’ at end of bulletin. SPOROGENES TEST. 3 tion. Savage (12), who was among the first to apply the test for this purpose, and who has studied the test probably more than any one else, realized its limitations. He states that the test does not show so close an agreement with the cleanliness of farm conditions as does the estimation of G. coli. On the whole, however, he thought that the sporogenes test might be of considerable value in estimating pollution, especially in market milk. Ritchie (11) concluded from his results that the sporogenes test was of little value. He obtained no correlation between the number of positive reactions and farm conditions. Barthel (1) was of the opinion that there never was a direct relation between the hygienic quality of milk and the presence of strict anaérobes. On the other hand, Weinzirl and Veldee (15) have used the test as a means of determining the manurial pollution of milk and believe it to be of distinct value. There is nothing new about the sporogenes test so far as its general application is concerned. It has been known for a long time, but it has not been given a thorough trial under controlled conditions of production. From past results the test gives promise of being too valuable to discard, yet it is too uncertain at present to use without knowing its limitations. It is the purpose of this paper to present some results obtained with the sporogenes test on milk produced under controlled con- ditions. THE SAVAGE METHOD. Savage (12) first examined 1 c. c., 10 c. ¢., and 20 ¢. c. of milk, the smallest quantity being added to a tube of freshly sterilized whole milk, while the other quantities were placed in empty, sterile test tubes. The milk was heated to 80° C. for 10 minutes, then cooled and incubated under anaérobic conditions at 37° C. After 48 hours the tubes were examined for the typical stormy reaction. These quan- tities were found to be too wide apart to yield a satisfactory esti- mation of the number of spores, so the following method was advo- cated. Small, narrow tubes, about 4 inches by + inch, were used in batches of 10. The tubes were sterilized and 2 c. c. of milk added to each, making a total of 20 c. c. in the 10 tubes. The tubes were heated, incubated, and examined as mentioned above. Each tube which showed a typical stormy reaction was recorded as 1. Thus, if three tubes showed the reaction, the result was recorded as 3. Savage set the following arbitrary standard, which he says can not be considered a rigid standard: 0 or 1 tube positive=good milk. 2, 3, or 4 tubes positive=unsatisfactory milk. 5 or more tubes positive=bad milk. A number of samples of milk produced under dirty conditions have been examined by the Savage 10-tube method. His method was 4 BULLETIN 940, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. varied slightly in that sterile paraffin was poured into each tube after heating. This formed a plug over the milk, and it was not necessary to place the tubes under anaérobic conditions. It was considered advisable to try the test on milk produced under conditions that would represent the worst grade of milk which might be encountered under commercial conditions. In order to do this, four cows were placed in a small barn which had been used for simi- lar experimental purposes. The loft above the cows was composed of narrow boards laid from 1 to 2 inches apart. Hay and cobwebs hung down from these openings. The walls were soiled with manure and dirt. All the cows were allowed to become dirty and their udders-and flanks were more or less covered with partly dried ma- nure. ‘The manure was removed from the floor only twice a week. Open pails, not sterilized, were used for milking. To show the relation between the Savage sporogenes test and the milk, the sediment from 1 pint of milk, the total count, and the re- sult of the Savage test are shown in Plates I, II, and III. In the upper right-hand corner of each square is a number designating the number of tubes showing a positive sporogenes test out of the 10 tubes used for each sample. Keeping in mind the arbitrary standards set by Savage (that is, 0 or 1 + = good milk, 2, 3, or 4 + = unsatis- factory milk, 5 or more + = bad milk) the results are interest- ing. It will be noted that according to this test the milk from Samples 1 to 35, inclusive, would be called good milk. It is believed that the sediment disks and counts make further discussion unneces- sary. Particular attention is called to the difference in sediment be- tween Sample 1 and Samples 19 and 20. None of the three showed a positive test by the Savage method. On Plate III samples from 36 to 52, inclusive, would be classed as unsatisfactory by the Savage sporogenes test. No one would dispute this statement, although many were no worse than those called good on Plates I and II. Samples 53, 54, and 55 are classed as bad by the test, yet they are no worse than some called good. It is further evident from the results shown on the plates that there is no relation between the sporogenes test as used by Savage and the total count. In this connection it may be noted that the milk ex- amined was fresh milk. Savage also found very little relationship between the test and the total count. The question naturally arises in connection with the sporogenes test as to the accuracy of the test itself. Will a number of tests with a given sample of milk show the same results? To answer this ques- tion, 5 sets of 10 tubes each, with 2 c. c. of milk in each tube, were prepared from a sample of milk. In other words, the Savage method was applied 5 times to the same sample of milk. From the results of SPOROGENES TEST. 5 14 samples of milk examined in this manner it is evident as shown in Table 1 that there may be a considerable variation in the results obtained from a given sample. TABLE 1.—Variation in the Savage sporogenes test, showing number of positive tubes of 2 c. c. each after incubating for 48 hours at 37° to 40° O. Number of positive tests. Range in number of | positive Set 1.| Set 2.|Set3.!Set4.|Set5.| tests. Sample. 6 CO MIO? Or CO DOF ONOOREEP NEPHEW RO WOAnDDORONHENORNON OWMAMHONNOOHHENGD MNOOWOONHHOORW DRBROIWONWHENHONWN NMWOMHOSHOSOOCOCON Chehch ch ct ct ct ct et ct ect ct ct ct e000 oDoCOOoOooSoCOS ONOORENNNHEENEO The sample of milk in every case was shaken thoroughly to give as equal a distribution of spores as possible. The 2 c. c. samples used in the sporogenes test were removed in two different ways: (1) Ten 2 c. c. samples were removed from the sample of milk by means of a sterile 2 c. c. pipette; (2) ten 2 c. c. samples were removed from the sample of milk by means of a sterile 10 c. c. graduated pipette, successive 2 c. c. portions being delivered for each sample. It was found that this variation in removal of the 2 c. c. samples had no effect on the results of the sporogenes test. The effect of the variations in the numbers of positive tubes and different sets of tubes of milk from the same sample of milk is ob- vious when one attempts to grade the milk by the Savage method. For example, in Table 1, Samples 2, 3, 6, 8, and 10 would be graded as either good or unsatisfactory, according to the results of the sporogenes test and the Savage arbitrary standards. This is shown more clearly by consideration of the results obtained with Sample 2. Each set of 10 tubes represents a complete sporogenes test according to the Savage method. In Set 2 there were no positive tests and in Set 4 there was one; therefore, the milk would be graded by either of these tests as good. In the other sets there were 2, 3, and 4 tubes positive, which according to the standards would necessitate calling the milk unsatisfactory. Two reasons at least may be designated as contributing causes for the variations in the sporogenes test: First, uneven distribution of the spores in the milk; and, second, lack of development of the char- acteristic stormy reaction on which the test is based. Savage (12) mentions the fact that the lack of an even distribution of spores is a 6 BULLETIN 940, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. serious drawback to the utility of the test, while Simonds (14) found that a failure to get the stormy fermentation does not neces- sarily mean a lack of growth of the organisms giving the test. This he believes from his experiments is cue to not having the correct de- gree of anaérobiosis in the milk tubes. How far the lack of development of the characteristic stormy reaction influences the assumption of an unequal distribution of spores is difficult to determine. As long as these variations in the sporogenes tests continue, the value of the test is materially lowered, and the reason for the variation is of little importance except that if it were definitely known some remedy might be found. This defect in the sporogenes test applies not only to the Savage method but also to the other methods mentioned in this paper. THE WEINZIRL METHOD. A method of determining manurial pollution of milk in which the sporogenes test is used has been suggested by Weinzirl (15). The method of making the test is essentially the same as the first one used by Savage, although the results were interpreted in a somewhat differ- ent manner. The method of Weinzirl consists in using 5, 10, and 15 ec. c. samples of milk from each sample which is to be examined. The milk is heated to 80° C. for 10 minutes and melted paraffin poured _ on the milk to make a layer one-eighth inch or more in thickness. The tubes of milk are then cooled and incubated at 37° C. From his examination of cow manure, Weinzirl calculated that there were prob- ably 10,000 sporogenes per gram of manure in the partially dried condition in which it usually enters milk. Based on this figure, he estimated the amount of manure in milk as follows: A positive reac- tion in the 5 c. c. tube indicates 1 gram of manure in 50 liters of milk; a positive reaction in the 10 c. c. tube indicates 1 gram of manure in 100 liters of milk; and a positive reaction in a 15 c¢. c. tube indicates 1 gram of manure in 150 liters of milk. To determine the value of Weinzirl’s method, 48 samples of milk were examined which were produced under dirty conditions. The same conditions of production prevailed as those previously described under the Savage test. The results of the work are presented in Plates IV and V, on which are shown sediment disks from each pint sample of milk examined, together with the results of the sporogenes test as performed by Weinzirl and the total bacterial count. Fresh milk was examined in all cases. In the upper left-hand corner of each square is shown the result of the sporogenes test. Figures 5, 10, and 15 represent the respective number of cubic centimeters of milk used, and opposite each is a positive or negative sign. pe ‘i = : cS) SUR . to ay Being (eA a eas RR ESE EY ES 6, 500 oe is EGE ial AED | he 3” 200 Ge SE) Biers EE Meee Te ee) IR | og AE oe Ll rei ee a 8” 600 eee Pe TS a 2 ale he a eta ea ee 8) 100 See ee ae TR ae, ATOR RSENS UR. a FEET, Bg 9° 900 Gv Oe aaa no ae pe et aa 10, 300 UO eR. =F = se == = = = = — _ 4 10, 500 geen Fe Witte ee Re NN el een Ha | ae er ee 2 10, 500 eee ae ae — — — _ _— — _— — _— a 11, 000 he SIR 2 + - — — = = — — — = 1 12, 200 APA ae + _— — 1 12, 600 ita Ba Ne ac Pl 2 12’ 700 1 \(Gy Be + + = = = _ = = — _ 2 16, 700 SAT Ba a lr) peter Ec SRM Ee See ot ag 18” 000 ieecee Se Ne ee fe 20, 700 ee _ — _— — — — _ — Saari se 9 28, 400 Boies Be BSA. | een een are (Pes kg 31/500 Bian NES Oh eels Bean Ey ee lo ee a eA Seg a 31, 800 ODay ee _— _— — — — — — — — — 0 36, 600 ponies (ce |e eh at eee gene ee va 40, 700 Oe = ON igo ea Pak ia a ea Igy HIF A A a 45,000 | MILK PRODUCED UNDER DIRTY CONDITIONS; COWS DIRTY; UTENSILS NOT STERILIZED. eee feo ae Ee de ae ee eg 33, 000 Dib fo) ae ae 46, 000 Sante oft alk h Pattal eel NG 1017 000 ae eve SEN ee ieee Ihe A eg Sh ine eg De aml ade aor Ihe ee] 9 106, 000 Beet: SL ASE ce er ra | ce ee ee 107, 000 Galan ge perce sepei gs eee vs = baler ese | ae le =o Pat 112’ 000 ‘paged deo fF | Be Sethe tig ate. |]y clea Se EEG 118) 000 cea Bra meter ters ipeeeun| eiy til mal ame a, erent ch Geyellhris 129’ 000 gi 4 0 RSS lt eg Pg = re 245, 000 UOis 2s ef a | ae BR ah 320, 000 rile iff eau set Heel ims Ine Z| eA CR WE — GH 750, 000 ee oe Ba ese Wren ety eagles ones ae ig |S laa ls Stes 20000 gies Fealfradis etal all Manan ES eta re | ere TE EN NM see TD) (Oe. 3 edule els CED nr ee | oe ¢4 lig eG el rae tree WEE? ele oe QgonOdO (Gen fuel 2a | ele aha ce | 9 ee ema a a ETT il ae +{/+]4+]+]4+]4+ ]4 )-] =] = | .7 | 225500; 000 Wego Joi Sao telat || ge Binh ch | eRe ee A asia Meira ten ast Sa ee ip ereay ete te deme renee epee 46) |) <61NGOOL OUD An examination of the results obtained from milk produced under extremely dirty conditions shows that in general the number of posi- tive tubes was considerably higher than in the case of the certified milk. It is true that there were some samples which showed only two or three positive results. Such samples would be difficult to place by this test. The general picture presented by the results, however, is such that a marked difference is shown in the results obtained by the sporogenes test when milk is examined which has been produced under these extreme conditions. It is evident that these results determine the limitations of the test. The number of positive reactions in a set of 10 tubes using 20 c. c. quantities of milk, therefore, must fall either within the range of the results shown in Table 4, which represent the examination of good and bad milk, or somewhere between these fig- 14 BULLETIN 940, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ures. It is apparent that there is not a very great range left to cover the results obtained in the examination of the intermediate grades of milk. From these results, however, it seems probable that the spo- rogenes test, using 10 tubes of 20 ¢. c. quantities of milk for each tube, may be of some value in determining whether milk has been produced under clean or dirty conditions. One test, however, would probably not be sufficient to enable one to make this decision. If several tests were made and the great majority of the results were either high or low, the results could be interpreted more accurately and the value of the test would be greatly improved. It is impossible to say from these results where milk produced under fair conditions would fall according to this grouping. The tendency would be for such samples to show great variations, some falling into the clean grade, others into the dirty grade. CONDITIONS OF PRODUCTION OF PASTEURIZED MILK AS INDICATED BY THE SPOROGENES TEST. In connection with the results just discussed it will be of interest to see what commercially pasteurized milk showed, using this test to in- dicate conditions of production. ‘This is possible, because the test is probably a nonmultiplying one, as shown by the work of Savage (12). To verify this point several experiments were conducted by holding pasteurized milk at room temperature for 24 hours. No change in the number of spores was observed other than what could be accounted for by the limitations of the test. Since the spores are not destroyed by the usual pasteurizing tem- peratures and do not change in number, the sporogenes test, if it correlates with the presence of manure or with the general conditions of cleanliness in production, should, as suggested by Weinzirl, be an excellent test for determining the quality of the raw milk before pas- teurization. The results which are shown in Table 5 were on the 10 c. c. and 10-tube basis, because the samples of milk were examined be- fore the value of 20 c. c. quantities of milk was known. When examin- ing the results it should be kept in mind that certified milk shows negative results with this quantity of milk. Consider, now, the re- sults of the sporogenes test with dirty milk shown at the bottom of the table, and what can then be said of the conditions under which the raw milk was produced. SPOROGENES TEST. 15 TABLE 5.—The sporogenes test with milk produced under unknown conditions and milk produced under dirty conditions. COMMERCIAL PASTEURIZED MILK. Posi- Sporogenes test in sets of 10 tubes, with 10 c. c. of milk. tive tests. Bacterial Sample No. count. | | | | 3, 100 3, 500 4, 800 5, 700 10; 400 10) 800 12’ 400 12) 500 13; 700 15; 600 15, 800 17; 600 17) 800 17, 800 18, 800 19) 200 19; 300 20, 200 20, 300 22) 800 24) 700 25, 200 26, 900 30, 600 41) 900 57, 000 80, 000 345, 000 mil ise Il mar il J T OOIHDOe Whore = ae i dosed dye) i OPEN PTONDOCLNHWNROMDNOMWOOWH OR Er ar th arse et Wey | se b+tt++t++444+4 | i T iS +H+tH+tH+t 1 $++t+t4+t4+t4++t+t4t4t +L +bH+t 1444 1444444444444 | +l Lt+t+i +l | bt+++t+4+ 14+ 144441 +1 PE Lt+H0 1 LL +t+t4+ 1441 0+ 1 PPE Ltt td bt+t+++0+4+4 14 Hoi We) tease Tei ib WW seaeseararsr Il NeW har ba ars: Hh WW ese ie al I fii tt dae dad Wy a ++) 1++++14111 MILK PRODUCED UNDER DIRTY CONDITIONS; COWS DIRTY; UTENSILS NOT STERILIZED. 33, 000 46, 000 101; 000 106, 000 107, 000 112/ 000 118, 000 129’ 000 245, 000 320, 000 50, 000 1,340, 000 1, 810, 000 2,900, 000 11, 600, 000 22; 500, 000 25, 000, 000 61, 000, 000 b+ t++ | OMNIMOOIr WHF ttt++ i) t+++44+ War tl arse We llar se te Wa se e DOOWNAN DON FPAIWON OWI +H+H4h4+4+t44t44t4444 lar i Pd tae te Wee nen Har th lw Peay ee ett +++ 1441441 14+14+1414 +++1++144+1 14141414 ++t1++1++1 14141414 PED Psen et ++++++ 1441 | +44 If the sporogenes test is any criterion, it seems evident that the_ pasteurized milk for the most part was not produced under very clean conditions. It would appear that in general the conditions of production were probably similar to those under which the samples represented at the bottom of the table were produced. While information as to the production, indicated by the sporogenes test, could not be relied upon to do more than suggest probable cond1- tions, the test might profitably be applied occasionally to milk from individual farms in connection with control work. 16 BULLETIN 90, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. THE SOURCE OF THE MAJORITY OF SPORES OF B. ENTERITIDIS SPOROGENES FOUND IN MILK. It is known that the spores of B. enteritidis sporogenes are widely distributed in nature. As stated, they are found in cow manure, cattle feed, soil, and water. In fact, they are so generally distributed that their presence in milk may be interpreted theoretically as con- tamination from a number of sources. Perhaps they come from various sources, but since they are present in manure in larger num- bers than in other material likely to serve as a source of contamination, it seems logical to assume that most of them come from that source. Race (10) believes, however, that in practice milk cans form a most fruitful source of these organisms. He offers no figures to support his belief, which, if true, naturally would decrease the value of the test as a means of detecting manurial contamination. While con- tamination by dirty utensils is extremely important from the stand- point of number of bacteria introduced, it is not usually of so serious a nature as that of cow manure. In the consideration of the sporogenes test the influence of utensils, however, can not be overlooked, and a number of samples were run to determine the importance of this factor. The sporogenes test, using 10 tubes with 20 c. c. of milk, was run on samples of milk produced under dirty conditions with unsteril- ized utensils. A similar number of tests were then made on milk produced under the same conditions, but with sterilized utensils. Then a third set of tests was made on milk produced from cows which had been cleaned and which were kept clean, but for which the utensils were not sterilized. In fact, the utensils were simply washed with cold water. Small-top pails were used when the cows were clean, in order to exclude as much manure as possible. From the results of this work, which are shown in Table 6, it will be seen that, taking the samples as a whole, there was very little difference in the sporogenes test between samples produced under dirty conditions with the utensils not sterilized and those produced under dirty conditions with sterilized utensils. It would seem from these results that unsterilized utensils do not contribute to any marked extent to the contamination of milk by spores of B. enteri- tidis sporogenes. SPOROGENES TEST. a TABLE 6.—felation of the sporogenes test to milk produced under varying conditions. MILK PRODUCED IN DIRTY BARN; COWS DIRTY; UTENSILS NOT STERILIZED. Posi- F camels Sporogenes test in sets of 10 tubes, with 20 c. c. of milk. Eel ge ee 0. tests: count. 1 eel a ys ee eet ete eee i ae eee tee all 9 33, 000 2 + + + + = oF af = = = 7 46, 000 3 aE Aly Pstaw ih esis leack yy | wee leviet nature Veal shila 6 101, 000 4 ATES RSF ge) ms eee lee Nee DN a 2 106, 000 5 He dese | Ese Ro ea] Seo la B= 9 107, 000 6 ae fae fae Se ye SS SS 5 112. 000 7 ooo a Pe a ee EE) = 9 118, 000 8 a + ak = = = — _ _ = 3 129, 000 9 ole + + aL = — — — — — 4 245, 000 10 ap fae | ar ae ae ae RP ae Se ap | at) 320, 000 11 aL a0 dt + = = — _ — _ 4 750, 000 12 ae ai at = = — — = = = 3 1,340, 000 13 Sel ect ctoet Neston laws hve coral ec eter stballeestee alt octane 10 1,810, 000 14 deo eR se EE GE te Se 7 2,900, 000 15 + + + + 4 + — - — - 6 | 11,600,000 16 + ae + + + + + —-}|- = 7 | 22,500,000 17 +) ] +t} } +t] +] +] + |] + | + | 10 | 25,000, 000 18 Se ee (| —|/-}]-]- 6 | 61,000,000 SAME AS ABOVE, EXCEPT UTENSILS STERILIZED. 1 4 ose ose | Se ae) ae |] ae SE ae | ae no 19, 000 2 de de se se te a ee 7 26, 000 3 ae fae ff se se Se se) se te Oe = 9 32, 000 4 4 aie a = = = |= = _ = 3 37, 000 5 ae | se i ae |ose | ae) Se | AE | ae Sf 8 41,000 6 ais. Hpevelt —-|- 2 56, 000 7 ES a ee Sm a orate. |S Seek te PR | gee Dr ee 0 64, 000 8 + + + 4 at ae |r + + + 10 68, 000 9 ae ae ae ae Sg ee cee oe 4 76, 000 10 af BT SE SE eT SE EE nt) 102, 000 11 + + + cwallsads ecctects AG~O0 Sicis a ceiee nis cieee cco ek So Se ae eee | ein Pees Ree eee Biel eee Gey Caesars |e cia Shlneeces (OC 205s See een” Wertels oe aS me olsoooc bone Ue eee Seon eee oes i Neal ress paee VALLEY AND LEVEL-UPLAND FARMS. UN ONG meee eee secon sine coe Saat Poa 9 6 6 8 UW ey ae) |) oe 22 1 | 21 | 18 | 12 30 DO ee ease nia oie mayan eisieeisisieayes eee LO 2 ake lee 1) a ey al al 4] 2] 3]14] 3 5 GLO RS Se eee dere ee neces sete ay it af 8 od] 5 | on 4 6] 6] 6] 8] 7 9 SL es a scmreimrneniee aon hee 2 sacelned |. ase 11 5 4| 5 3913] 5 6 3 NG 20 Peete sees ses toe AW ota inerelereveel = cee a PN 8) 1 107 or An 2a io 1 QLD a de Sense obese ae eee Pa asta ce raced Mpc PAN WS) econ Aj Por tele Sy litesems PE—BU eee emi nsse sien ccceiae ss Shes fe cael semallecee cei] = cee Bo C2 Ae A alleen al Wel aileecices Bei eee riee eect n ce shoes Sppelbe eee bie al caer eral S eee alleges eaoe 2i)| eee Syl aae cle erets Dale omisis BORA rere race aiiercia rw sia cie ies oscar Se nied seeps cielieystets | eters | oe 2 1 i ba he 2 i as bees Wlseste icin 0 Ee RS ie COCO OC CERES: (imes || ename armaere| erie Mees] bce oat Dei Dee 2 i eae ee eels clisqor Doieerattic AG=p OS Sees Oona ence erines cmcectebe = celles eel emacl meee} aaa 3) || al sil ee 4 PN AL Ne Wal cteic nice OVET DOE Se ante tes oats ohiepieeie «eel es tals aie ee fete «he cae 2: Ml ovaate'| e eegs Dialh dare 2 We cee ee ce 73 SSG Oats, kafir, millet, and sorghum crops are utilized as auxiliary sources of feed, and the feed requirements of the farms determine the acreage devoted to these crops. These crops were grown more frequently on the hilly farms. FARM MANAGEMENT IN THE OZARKS. 93 CORN. Corn is relied upon as the main feed crop of the region, and on practically every farm as many acres of it are put in as possible. A rotation system has been definitely adopted on farms in many sections. In other sections the system has not been so definitely worked out, and on some of the most fertile bottom farms corn is planted year after year. The thin soils of this region will not stand continuous corn cropping, and the general practice is to plant corn one or two years, followed in the fall by wheat or in the spring by oats. With the winter cereal, grass and clover are seeded, and during the following years hay is cut as long as the stand remains good. After haying, the sod may be devoted to pasture for a few years. The two most important problems with which these farmers are faced in crop production are frequency of droughts, to which this country is subjected, and the low productivity of the soils. The Missouri State Board of Agriculture has for a number of years published estimated yields of crops by counties, and to show how seriously the corn crop is affected by droughts in this region the followmg table is presented, giving such yields for the county of Texas, together with the precipitation for July and August recorded at Houston, Texas County. Taste VIII.—Yield of corn and rainfall. . Combined = Combined Holaliypld July and Pol yield July and Year. . August Year. : zs August in Texas infallat in Texas * County. rainfalla County. rainfall at Houston. | Houston. Bushels. Inches. Bushels. Inches. OD reece socks ome wees ese 830, 963 By Zu BLO seat eeee as eet ae ae pees 671, 749 4.68 IE GQ) Sie snes She I ase a 964, 100 6.130 | WOM eee oases eee 313, 1 7.0 NOOO eee ah acc aeeeees 1,027, 120 QOD BIOS eee eee eaten ee oe nce 680, 600 11.10 IO) Scot pae naa aanetaeseres 1, 551, 056 HO RGIE|| IONO so chéossedédtasdenecsaus 843, 291 3.54 TOs eer i Ue Bee i | 1,087, 860 DV 40 | LOE Pes Soa see See ees ee 1,019, 568 6.62 LOT Deere eee ne ee a 2b 1,085, 133 10. 86 The frequency of rainfall throughout the growing season is a very important factor. To illustrate, the July-August total precipitation was almost identical in 1917 and 1914, but in 1914 6.07 inches of rain fell m August, while in May, June, and July, respectively, but 0.24, 0.85, and 0.96 inches of rain fell, In 1917 the May, June, July, and August precipitation in inches was 2.25, 3.18, 3.35, and 3.27, respectively. In 1914 the corn crop was 313,140 bushels and in 1917 1,019,568 bushels. Many factors besides rainfall can have a very great influence upon crop yields. The above table, however, does show in a general way how very seriously the corn crop has been affected by droughts in this county; and farmers, not only in this county but in every county 24 BULLETIN 941, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, visited, appreciate the effect of this factor upon their returns over a period of years. For greater assurance of returns the farmer is interested in a system of farming which will economically maintain humus in the soil, and thus add to its water-holding and drought-resisting capacity. The sale of corn is relied upon to some extent for income, but more’ generally corn is raised to meet the live-stock needs. As shown in Table IV, the yield of corn throughout this region is low. Many farmers, however, are increasing their yields by feeding most of their crops to live stock, thereby returning a good supply of manure to the soil each year. SILAGE. Five of the operators with upland farms and ten of the operators with bottom and valley farms had silos. The use of silage has long proved to be profitable under certain conditions and is being increas- ingly practiced by farmers in this region. Some farmers harvest the corn and put up the stalks for silage. The use of saccharine sorghums for silage has been tried in only an experimental way by a few of the farmers, but with favorable results. Sorghum makes sat- isfactory silage, and in view of its excellent drought-resisting qualities it should have an important place among the farm crops of this region. In certain sections of the South it is used for this purpose almost to the exclusion of corn, and uniformly good results are obtained. Pastures suffer along with other crops during the periods of drought, and many farmers in this area, particularly those exten- sively engaged in dairying, realize more and more the importance of providing silage for the winter feeding period, and to supplement the pastures during the periods of drought. WHEAT. The greater part of the crop receipts was from the sale of wheat. The soils throughout this area can not stand continuous grain farming. Wheat and other grains should remain, as they are now, subsidiary crops on the general live-stock farm. Winterkilling does not occur to any great extent. During the year of the survey, however, 45 acres of wheat, or 7 per cent of the acreage planted, was so killed on the farms from which records were obtained. RYE AND BARLEY. Rye and barley are relatively unimportant crops in this region, though on the thinner soils in the ‘‘uplands’’ rye would perhaps bring as good returns as wheat. Rye was grown more often than barley. FARM MANAGEMENT IN THE OZARKS. 25 TIMOTHY AND CLOVER, Timothy and clover are the main hay crops at present, and both do well in good seasons. The humus content of the soil is very low on some farms, and where such is the case it is difficult to get a good growth of clover. However, clover does well where the soils are kept in good condition by a proper system of crop rotation and pasturing. For greater assurance of a crop of hay most farmers make it a practice to plant both timothy and clover in seeding meadows. ALFALFA, SOY BEANS, AND COWPEAS. A very limited area was planted to alfalfa, soy beans, and cow- peas. A few operators were found raising a few acres of alfalfa with moderate success on the better grades of soil. If the known pre- cautions against acidity are taken and the soil inoculated, the area can be profitably increased. In establishing alfalfa liberal application of stable manure has been found necessary on most of the farms. Soy beans were also grown by a few of the farmers from whom records were obtained, usually a limited area in corn for silage, and in two or three instances as a separate hay crop. The acreage of this crop could well be increased, both for the purposes just mentioned and also as a grazing crop for hogs. Cowpeas do well, and make an excellent hay. They could be sown to advantage with the sorghum and millet hay, and the quality of the hay would be greatly improved without materially decreasing the tonnage. Certainly, more legumi- nous crops should be raised, both because of their soil-building powers and also to afford additional feed for stock. The price of concen- trates, cotton-seed meal, bran, linseed meal, etc., is extremely high, and many of the operators have abandoned feeding them. Unless satisfactory substitutes are used, this can not be done without suffering a loss both in milk production and in growth of stock, and also a loss of returns from the other feeds fed. With an abundant supply of leguminous hays, clover, alfalfa, soy bean, or cowpea, a satisfactory balanced ration can be provided by feeding them in conjunction with sorghum or corn silage, or other hays with some corn. KAFIR, MILLET, AND SORGHUM FOR HAY. Most of the farms studied had an acreage of sorghum, kafir corn, or millet, as an auxiliary hay crop, because the droughts at times almost entirely ruin the meadow hay crop. In view of the drought- resisting qualities of the sorghums, they undoubtedly will receive much consideration in the future cropping systems of this area. Sudan grass is also worthy of consideration in the arrangement. of profitable cropping systems in this area. Where such a practice has been adopted the farmers have available for other purposes a 25328 °—21——4 26 BULLETIN 941, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. part of the acreage otherwise devoted to hay. Such areas can be diverted into pasture, which allows a broader and more adequate basis for soil improvement, or they can be used as an aid in growing additional feed or cash crops. OTHER CROPS. Field beans, potatoes, and sorghum for sirup represent a minor source of income on many farms. A small area of field beans con- tributes substantially to the income of some farms. Some operators, however, have been unable to find a satisfactory sale for their crop. The marketing facilities of this region are very limited, and it would be unwise to include a large acreage of a new crop, such as field beans, without first having secured an outlet. Sorghum sirup and potatoes, when sold, represent usually the excess over the amount raised for home consumption, and are sold on the local markets. The principal miscellaneous crops sold are cotton and sweet potatoes raised in the southern part of the area. One operator who raised broom corn sold $390 worth of brooms. Small sales of berries, cherries, garden produce, etc., are also among the miscellaneous sales. The small operator is very much ‘‘up against it” for a cash crop in this region. Evidence of this is seen in the amount of receipts from the sales of ties, and receipts for work done off the farm. The entire region is too far north for the profitable production of cotton. However, with intelligent cooperation and the solution of the market- ing problem involved, an increased amount of one or more of these minor crops (sirup, field beans, potatoes, and berries) could be sold from many of the smaller farms. FRUIT. Apples.—The apple enterprise seems to be very much neglected and on the decline on these farms. A total of 168 acres of apples was found on the farms studied, but this does not include many small areasreportedfor home use only. The trees in most instances were not cultivated, pruned, or sprayed. Many of the areas in orchards were used for pasture or hay and the trees were dying out. The returns from many of these orchards are of minor importance. The neglect in caring for them was due to the difficulty experienced in marketing previous crops. Only one farmer was found who sprayed and other- wise systematically cared for his orchard, and he, last year, from two acres of trees, sold over $400 worth of apples. They were all sold, however, on a local market, and he was furnishing about all it could handle. (See fig. 10.) There is no doubt, also, that many orchards in this region have been set on soils which are not suited to this purpose, particularly such as are underlain at a slight depth with a hardpan or solid rock. FARM MANAGEMENT IN THE OZARKS. Tl Fic. 10.—The apple orchard shown in the upper picture received regular cultivation and spraying, and contributed substantially to the farm income ofthe operator. The peach orchard shown in the lower picture is quite typical of the orchardsin the region. Winter-killing and late frosts seem almost to pre- clude profitable peach production. 28 BULLETIN 941, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Peaches.—Large areas of this region were set to peaches a few years ago. The crop was found to be very unreliable because of the late spring frosts and freezes, and winter freezing and lack of proper care have killed out many of the orchards. Small frwt.—The production of strawberries and other small fruits which farmers reported very profitable in certain areas in the western part of the State, when undertaken on a small scale, can be commercially profitable only when undertaken in a community where there are sufficient growers to be able to club together and ship in carload quantities or where there is a local demand for the crop. LIVE-STOCK MANAGEMENT. The principal factors operating to make live-stock production the main industry in the region are: (1) Transportation facilities are such that, generally speaking, they preclude the marketing of products which are bulky or perishable; (2) the soils of the region are predominantly thin and, owing to the rock content, difficult to cultivate, and quickly deteriorate under continuous grain farming; (3) there is a large amount of wild land which, without cost to the operators, furnishes a varying amount of pasture to live stock of all classes; (4) the lands are adapted to the growing of grasses, and very good improved pastures can be made out of land which is apparently valueless for other purposes; and, (5) a system of farm- ing with live-stock production as its base, if properly carried out, enables the operators to maintain and improve the quality of the cultivated land and furnishes a product which is easily marketed. All ordinary classes of live stock do well in the region, and at present all are being produced. The raising of cattle is the oldest and most extensively developed branch of the industry. However, a large number of hogs, horses and mules, sheep and goats, and chickens, are raised in the territory. The desirability of not restricting the source of income to one enterprise on the farm has already been pointed out, and examples of individual farms present the favorable results obtained by combining a number of live-stock enterprises. Some of the farms received revenue from all classes of live stock mentioned, and the majority had three or more live-stock enterprises. As to the combination of live-stock enterprises that will be most profitable on any given farm, local conditions must determine, and to a certain degree the inclination of the operator himself. The scheme of farming, however, should be such as to produce on the farm all feed needed by the live stock maintained and raised, and the farmer should strive constantly to improve the grade of the live stock kept. The higher the grade of live stock raised, the greater will be the returns from the feed consumed, under economic management. FARM MANAGEMENT IN THE OZARKS. 29 Profits which may be expected from the various classes of live stock vary from year to year, as prices and local conditions vary. In 1917 operators who were successful in raising hogs almost uni- formly showed a satisfactory farm income. There was a ready demand at high prices for all hogs offered for sale, an unusually heavy acorn and mast crop was produced in the woods, the feed cost was low for the majority of the hogs raised, and there was no general epidemic of hog cholera in the region. On the other hand, those operators who raised colts found little demand for them, and sales were made with difficulty and at a low price. The margin of farm profit contributed from year to year by the various enter- prises varies according to conditions governing production and mar- keting. An analysis of the receipts shows that cattle and hogs were the live stock which contributed the largest return on these farms. Fic. 11.—Type of dairy herds kept for production of cream. The profitable production of cattle in this region depends upon grazing to furnish the bulk of feed required during the summer, with sufficient grain and hay raised on the farm to maintain them during the winter. The bulk of the cattle sales are in the late sum- mer directly off the pastures, though an occasional farmer produces sufficient corn for feeding out a bunch of cattle during the winter. Cream is also being sold from this country in increasing volume. (See fig. 11.) CREAM PRODUCTION. This territory is well provided with a market for cream, creameries being located at a number of the more important railway stations, and a few operating at interior pomts. Practically every little village has one or more cream-receiving stations. It is difficult to overstate the help this has been to many farmers, particularly to those operators of only moderate-sized farms to whom the steady 30 BULLETIN 941, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cash receipts from the sale of cream, though small, was the one factor which enabled them to go ahead with their work of improving and enlarging their farms and building up their herds of live stock, even in some cases preventing actual farm disaster. The sale of dairy products represented a source of cash income for 43 out of the 79 farms for which records were taken. The average amount of sales for farms selling dairy products was $215. On some farms the sales amounted only to an occasional few pounds of butter or cream and on afew farms it constituted the chief source. On many farms the sale of cream was one of the major sources of income. A few of the farmers had kept records of the amount of their sales of butter fat through the year, and one of the local creameries kindly gave information as to production of a few additional farmers with whom the sale of butter fat was a major source of income. In this way the accurate butter-fat production for seven of the better herds of dairy cows in the region was obtained for the year 1917, as is shown _ in the following table: TaBLE 1X.—Butter-fat production of seven dairy herds. Average produc-: iverea gatas tion of butter fat er COW. Farm, pute price per Vale of num- Des pound. * | ber of Gout Quantity.| Value Pound. Pounds We sels: vids Selanne dese aoe eRe aSSee Sere 80 $0. 438 $429 9 09 $48. Dea eis ents ease See see Soe a ee ee eae eaee 1,56 421 658 10 15 66 Se a 2 eres 32 Se OO ae ree 2, 812 409 1,152 18 156 64 AE Ra. . carers ceese ees Peeaarades scacres-.::- 23'] “ivestock..< -5-sscecsueeetcee eeeeee eee Woods and swaste’... 2-2 scchoaone see seee doss:- 10'|; Machinery: 2-22. assteaccae eee enere ence ore PASHULOM: a5 -10jae sor =p eae tee eee este eleste do:-.. 7 .| Heedtand cash: --3--- se-eateceeeeeeeteneseese Total'ianmn areaias--3---sce sence do.... 40 Total capital 3..cccacecceee tae tacasees ACREAGE AND YIELD OF CROP. NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK. Total Begin- Crop. . Acres. 5 ur- Pro- yield. Class. ning of year chased.| duced. (Chisnt) ansaaoesnoe Soma 50 bushels. . 110 | 12 UVC a ets od ote becca domes 35 6 COWS do2s20esnsseemeseeeee 1 2 1 Oatsand millet hay--....--. --tons.. 3 8. 754] CallveS)..- <:\ievic niattteferestererelal liners 2 1 Potatoes. 22. <= 2secee = Ser Sees eee eee eee eee ee 49) Labor income (loss) '..8. 2.2.2 4... ostegansc eee see Re Coe —128. Farm No. 1 is a small farm in a rough and rocky section. This farm gives anillus- tration of the hardships and difficulties which confront an inexperienced operator with limited means attempting to establish a small farm on the poorer upland soils: of this region. This operator bought his farm in 1908, using practically all of his money in the purchase of the 40 acres. In the 10 years following he suffered disaster a number of times, from crop failure due to drought and from loss of livestock. Being a mechanic, he returned to St. Louis after each disaster and worked until he had accumulated enough money to purchase more work horses and supplies. In this way, he has spent. 4 of the 10 years preceding 1918 in St. Louis, his wife and two small children living on the farm in his absence, but unable to do much farming. He had worked the greater part of 1916 in St. Louis, and, as he said, returned for the fifth start. At the beginning of the farm year covered by this study he had live stock consisting of 1 cow and 2 horses. He spent four months out of the year in St. Louis and with his. savings purchased for $215, 2 cows, 2 calves, and 2 hogs. 1 The first five of these farms are rolling and hilly farms, and the next five are valley and level-upland farms. FARM MANAGEMENT IN THE OZARKS. 43 The total year’s income on this farm was only $94, while the expenses were $173. Not having raised any crops for sale, and having practically no live stock, he has no chance of making a farm income after paying the year’s expenses and allowing the value of labor performed by his family. FARM NO. 2. DISTRIBUTION OF THE FARM AREA. DISTRIBUTION OF CAPITAL. (Wroplancdee ree essence cies : .2-ice aeeeee eee eee WO peeteree exer 10 Brood sows..------------- 2 eaa se ne assests IOS 5 =e toe else ee | ees eer eee eee 21 DISTRIBUTION OF RECEIPTS. DISTRIBUTION OF EXPENSES. Amount} ,- Hired: labor. f52tiss- 6s estcosis eee ees $67 Source. sold. Value. Mami ly TAWOR 4.3222 ecniceee mee eeeeeeeeneees 600 Repairs to machinery .-...-...-..--.--------- 33 Repairs to building and fences. -...-...-..--- 32 ptatoes--.2P sos eee bushels. - 6 g9 | Feed..........---------- +2222 22222222207 270 NVI fa eee epee ae oaece dome 66 136 | Seed.-........--------- +--+ 22202 er ee eeee eee 46 ADS eet han ew canned down 48 Ady | eT UNG Zee oe ee om ale al ea 40 INTO OSS rR OE PSE os 20) |BOLHenexXPCN SES") pre eer eee ee ree en ene Eee 102 Wor sak re, nue a bushels. . 75 105 | Depreciation, machinery and buildings....... 74 PT AY Aeris inte =a ents a cicee e eee |peeee se 23 canis on oe ee | ee 635 Morale pen SCSpee ease ease Eee eer 1, 264 IDAIT Vy PLOGUCtS =. | = =22 eae eee Peers 133 CONS FEE He 52 a2. 8 5e cad een See 50 sheep and) WOol- 22 22e2s22 540s eee eere 147 DWANIC sralsteios naires nese ae ce een eer 486 otalreceipts: 2 -s2c- a-2-er|sseaesee $1, 785 ; Farm income (difference between receipts and expemses) - .------------------------------------------ $521 5ypercent tuterest Ol capitalls e-a--eee ee ==— <== = -eeiaee eae eee eee ee eee eee eae 366 Labor Income 3:2. hsste2eebcepeb ieee eis ss =n seseee ose sesh See eee ee eee eee eee 155 This is one of the larger upland farms with a rolling topography. It was poorly organized, as will be observed by a study of the acreage and production of crops, amount and returns from live stock, the size of the feed bill, and the amount of both man and horse labor used. Quite a large area was in meadow hay. Eighteen acres of apples had also been planted, but the trees were being allowed to die out, and the acreage last year was cut for meadow hay. Quite a large amount of live stock was kept. Cattle sales amounted to $635, and furnished the largest single source of income, with hogs, $486, the next largest. Revenue was also obtained from dairy products, colts raised, sheep, wool, crops and fruit. If this farmer were to pay his family the value of their year’s work at $600 and pay interest on his investment at 5 per cent he would have left for his own year’s labor FARM MANAGEMENT IN THE OZARKS. 45 only $155. Compare with No. 4 as to organization of crop land, amount of labor used, feed purchased, live-stock production, and amount of work stock kept, and it will be easy to detect why this farmer got only $155 as labor income for his year’s labor while No. 4 got over $1,000 for his. FARM NO. 4. DISTRIBUTION OF FARM AREA. DISTRIBUTION OF CAPITAL. Mropabeaereee cit. suet seis. tie sie sieeente acres.. 55 | Land and buildings.-.-.......-..-.-..-.---- $5, 600 Wioods'and waste... ..- 2.02... 20522-4.2-- dorses 70) MUivierstOCkcs: seca cirsiey= sella iaye io cae ln meio etarere RESiUi@adeascd se DOse SEO OEE pereesne do-65-) 35: |MMachinenye: 2222252222 -seeee ——| Feed and cash NOGAITATMN ATs .28 eee ers eens do.... 160 Total capital DISTRIBUTION OF CROP AREA. NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK. Total Begin- chap. yiela. | Actes: Class. ning of aps Brace year. ‘ i (CUT 1's GUS BRB mene meee bushels. -.| 300 17 Corn for silage........--.--- tons..| 60 8 COWSE ta s-c2ehenessssecees Ohi lhe teen ere [Kafiricornesies jsse- cscs =e do.... 1.5 2 eifenseete see seseeeee 3 Pa es she ere WWihedberolt sooo. sen Leet bushels. .| 115 9 Calviest ee hai 22h! s ae scene Soe ees 13 Oatsitee sce seb ee yee sides ances Osaka) ily 32D) | PELOLSCSS2vSn hence eee ee Bile aseca|esae ope: Bere aes 2 scissleivizcissoee oe tons. - 9 12 ORGS sas s5 oceans see soe 1 Sl Beemer se cseaos PANTY LOS eseae rasta eros aie ointe wie telatassiei=ja|[eietcteils = 2 Coltse Pee ee epee ae tel eeeyaese 2 (CANCO 4.5 dSueaDaconnese esse bebeoEa Neneneee 1/5 Sheep sais— 245. eee. 6 Wee WAM OS! = 22) ys 2 scene ccc ert = Sal es Deeseyerc 8 IBrOOd!SOWS=------ses-ea 1 MeeEonese HOSS e os. 252 Sie ciis ne ces Bo lease ses 10 IROWUDGYaass eee Seceesaeer i Boe ace 59 DISTRIBUTION OF RECEIPTS. DISTRIBUTION OF EXPENSES. Amount Hamilly Ta Worse sae see ence. aoe ete ee $400 Ounce sold. Value. VEDAS TOMMACHINELYfee moe eee i 15 Repairs to buildings and fences.....-....------ 35 eCU ED: alice aa eee eae ateeeecomee 23 25 CHD) || SGGGL. - ccsotasosseddosscbeosscesososcodezeasdes 27 1 17 Otheriexpenses sae. =e -ee-eealeoeers a= 73 175 262 | Depreciation, machinery and buildings.....--- 100 15 11 a Wairyaproducts sae esos lene. Ole nes 400 Total expenses. ...------.--------------- 673 Wattles San. Meee eee ee Le Ue 615 COVSaee eee lee eet eb eae cesisets eas seacuee 85 SheepiandawOolsnese= sa snes=2seeelaeeeeees 230 ORS eee ste clei ntas -tteclosieter cinta ysis ce ieee 376 LOUNGE; AMG CLES eo eris- = a tasieiclel2 nal sae eee 177 Motalineceiptss: =a meee =-s-= -|sesoseee 2, 223 Farm income (difference between receipts and expenses) ....--.---..------------------------------ $1, 550 OWPCIACEMENMGEreSt OM: CApltalias. ices mim ore elspa (ay=re siclele elo eRe ee aCe aioe nie ee Sao ee tee ee See 391 VAD OMIMCOMC! see fe clic ca ess Na meisinsijeeisc sale eile Meer eine Oe lee eee oie cele see Seo aaeesiaees cinleee 1, 159 This is a highland farm with rolling topography, which was operated quite success- fully. Fifty-five acres of crops were raised, consisting of corn, wheat, oats, kafir corn, meadow hay, apples and garden crops. It was not necessary to purchase any feed in addition to that raised, which aided materially in holding the expenses to aminimum. Dairy products, calves, colts, wool and lambs, hogs, poultry, and general crops were produced upon this farm. All these enterprises brought in some revenue, the largest single source being cattle. The total gross farm income was $2,223. No colts or lambs were sold, the increases being kept on the farm to increase the size of the business for the coming year. No outside labor was hired, and the single item of largest expense was $400 for family labor. Deducting expenses, a net income of 46 BULLETIN 1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. $1,550 was left, of which $1,159 was the operator’s labor income for his year’s work, which is a very successful showing under the conditions existing in this area. This farm was so organized that the farmer could pay his family labor for the work performed, pay interest on investment, and at the same time be well paid for his own year’s work. FARM NO. 5. DISTRIBUTION OF FARM AREA. DISTRIBUTION OF CAPITAL. CLO AICS 5: 2560558222 sees eden ae sereenes acress. (67 | Pandrandbuildingses pe. eee eee ee eee Eee $4, 000 Wioodsiand iwaste: —-<--2--- eee eee dol. 203 |itive stock .. .. [tae / si samen een 2,170 PASHING sccm ac Accke soe e eee eneeeee doi... 70. | Machinerys ..-.259 eee ee eee 643 ented (Olt sso: \-/a semesters e oe eee do 10: | MeedFand: cashin sa. 55520 Sato eer ee eee eee menor 590 Totalfarmareas.- --se=2--ee--eeee do 440 Total capitales -ass4ee- oer eee eoree: 7,403 ACREAGE AND YIELD OF CROPS. NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK. Total Begin- Crop. Acres Pur- Pro- yield. Class. ning of year. chased.| duced. MONEE Geen se cee eee bushels. . 700 20 Wiheataic 2.25) See ae do. 300 Ve @OWS ia icc eee 1) Eeoees Salaaaeecae 18 Brae Ma a ee Ae ee tons. - 10 15:\), Heifers... ito Ae Se evan | NLA Millet hayes eee! ae ee do:-=! 4 3) Callies... 8. Reena 8 2 14 Aafia soo. 2 25a ete ee ee do...- 13 7 (ot Ree i ee dy | aes seth a ete a Apples ua: cc2: aboaasooeee bushels 400 4:1 SHGOLSE 252.020 eee nee 15 a eee BSE MRS AtArdeMee ccs Sc hcstese t eee eee eS meee ‘l}) ElOrsesie ) 235. PRES eee GS, | Mat So Se eee Pease Mee on eae see bushels 8 2) CONS _.-A case eee eee ih eeeeets ne 1 Brood sows. ...-.--------- ele oe ee eee OPS!) ::caaeeeeeee sae Bil esosoaae 31 bobs Lon EURO ean = RR a eee =e Sue ee Res Ses CCT Ie ne 99 DISTRIBUTION OF RECEIPTS. DISTRIBUTION OF EXPENSES. Amount fired labors. Ae Sse eee eeee aero eee $105 Source. soldi) iy) S108: |Family labor.. 4940 fol 396 Repairsitomachinenye---ceeee sees eee ee tees 50 Repairs to buildings and fences..........-..-- 90 BHD tees cae ee Sees bushels. . 225'|' 9498 || Beed..---. 02 J. poe oe pe 49 Apples )5/-A Se ee ome 400 ZAAWi)| SEE. os sasescecdca=sseccsasesesssessqocos2+ 86 Ff ae bene peg ABI ES 2 tons... 2 AQ: | ertilizer.c: 2. .)2 2 kes othe eee eee eens 72 (ivi Sa OE bushels. - 200 350 | Other expenses..........--...----.----------- 153 Wai nyaplod ucts as-is) eeyeeeee | eees 76 | Depreciation, buildings and machinery...---- 88 AGUIO en oor jase ae 2 a2 soe eee | eroeneee rae 850 (Ce. ety Re RE Ron LARS iIP Tm lin keh ay 60 Total expenses: 2.22.04. 464 -e Ree ee 1,089 LORS tees api cen oe le Sees Peete 342 Paitin andieges toe lon sph eee |e eeete a 136 Potalireceipts: a. se ee ee | eee eee 2, 682 1 Second crop. Farm income (difference between receipts and expenses) ....--------------------------- Ba A see Ue $1, 593 oO pericent interest on capital 232 esse ne cece +s | teen eccrine Nene eae eee eee een ee eee eee 370 LigboriMcome: -\<2 = << 2ciseseace ease see see + see ee ne en's = alstie te eee eee See ee ees 1, 223 This was perhaps the most successfully operated of all the hilly-upland farms from which records were obtained, and in this connection it is interesting to note that when this operator moved to the farm 20 years ago he bought it from a man who had made a failure of its operation. The present operator has taken in more land than was under cultivation when he first bought it and has expended an immense amount of work in picking up and hauling stones off the place. For hay he had 15 acres of meadow, 7 acres of alfalfa, and 3 acres of millet. Two acres of cowpeas were planted in the apple orchard. The other crops consisted of 20 acres of corn and 17 acres of wheat. The live stock consisted of 12 cows, 15 feeding steers, 5 horses, 1 colt, 4 brood sows, and other young FARM MANAGEMENT IN THE OZARKS. 47 stock, and a flock of chickens. No live stock was lost during the year. He has for years practiced a regular system of crop rotation and pasturage and the use of stable manure on his land, and good yields were obtained. He also cultivates and sprays his apple orchard carefully and obtains good yields. Apple sales of $400, wheat $428, and net sales of cattle amounting to $850 were his largest sources of cash re- Ceipts. Hogs contributed $342 to the farm income. Revenue was also obtained from the sale of dairy products, raising colts, poultry, and other sources. The gross farm income amounted to $2,682, total expenses of $1,089 deducted from this left a net income of $1,593, of which $1,223 was the operator’s labor income for his year’s work. FARM NO. 6. DISTRIBUTION OF FARM AREA. DISTRIBUTION OF CAPITAL. (CORR0}0) Cie ee oe oS BBO R IEE BERIeE REE eee acres.. 37 | Land and buildings........................- $5, 000 Waste and woods...........:------------- one. LOH PMiveIstockseeere mee pte yee econ Uae cionaeeee 626 ASU UUT Omer aes ites = Bispace era apie dota. 2) | PMachineny and toolss=ss55ese-e eee ee eneeeeee 160 : =| PHeedianidlicashve sa ee ee obakases 64 Rotaliranmlanen esas aaa e eee ee Glosss5 UC Totalicapitales 45sec acer sce coe 5, 850 ACREAGE AND YIELD OF CROPS. NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK. Total Begin- Crop. ; Acres. F Pur- | Pro- yield. ESS. ning of! chased.| duced. year. 375 8 100 10 COWSE2 S332 5 5 See Sui Ibaaeneea beBosose 230 LOPS aS ere ee os a eye Bln as ee ee eRe ae 65 315) [Heifers so. eee ISH ee eters (OE ys 2 2 @allvessehe <5. 2 soe eeeeoee Di lhcte peas 4 SOD OB SEO EOD ONES REE eee oid instr teers 3 SET OUS@22 2 22 Sse To se a eo a eee (OO) IES) 5 2 Bk at SS 8 AUR (CI epee gay Cro 6 ; IBOATS ee 25 ames ene 1 Lae ee Brood sows....-.-2....-.- Pa re el ee IBI@EE. - soos2occaeosgossese 6 8 15 Chickens cee ese CN pes rutin 18 DISTRIBUTION OF RECEIPTS. DISTRIBUTION OF EXPENSES. Amount JOP) MANATEE OOPS Sono naaeanocandeeanccanoonan (le} Source. sold. Value. Naniilvalapoltena: co weer ee ae ee ete eae ee 150 Repairsomachineryes se 2-04. eee ee eee 10 Riepains GOrenceSs-pe see. =) epee enone see eee 10 MO ORI ssea ye caleveinsisiarcinc bushels. . 54 CrOy sal FE LLEYSCG Li «tae ens Ve aan ol te 160 Oatste eae aeeeaeete Sushi do.... 60 ENGIN Io SYS Li Oe RE ERs os SOO ee ete aios PSEC Hore cee 18 \WWINGE Win Abe densbeoreanaaase do.... 50 95 | Other expenses. .-....-.---------:----------+--- 124 BBW Vic -\3: ne asisgasigancaeee do...- 2 _ 4| Depreciation, machinery and buildings......... 40 IDEwbry TOROCII CSS 4586 seaossosacas sooseccoed 40 — CRITI SO Sosa cnbeaareetbeceredons Saoesreccs 151 Totaliexpensess 26255 ss) cesGesecjecesene 1 524 Oolii®.6 £c sA as aeter Baee CSE EOEA oss pebEsaoese 215 1S IG ES ob Come eeGe pen tae Hen BC Cone Weceeassce 268 Poultry andieres: ¢ 0... 22 shales. sects 34 Motal receipts: ----.-.-----2|---------- 948 Farm income (difference between receipts and expenses) -..-.--.-----------------------------e+----- $424 5 per cent interest on capital......-.---------------------- 2-22-22 ee eee eee eens 292 LAVOE WAGONS) 4, aosnonadosdoosooabeceEunaBodageooUe sp odouoaunoUcbodenSuaqecHeroogocRoTdorcoonec 132 This farm of 77 acres had live stock at the beginning of the year consisting of 3 cows; 4 calves, yearlings, and heifers; 7 mares, 2 sows and 7 other hogs. There were 8 acres of corn and 24 acres of wheat, oats, and barley; 2 acres of hay, and 21 acres of pasture. Receipts from hogs were low. Some dairy products were sold. Six colts were born during the year but were of a small, inferior breed and of low value. Most of the crops raised were fed on the place, and, in addition, $160 was spent for feed. Feed produced by the combination of crops was not as great as could have been Py 48 BULLETIN 1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. obtained by planting more corn and forage crops, and returns from stock were not commensurate with the value of the feed consumed, especially from the great number of horses. This farm had for three years belonged to the present owner, who stated that at the outset he had $2,000 cash, in addition to that used in purchasing and equipping the farm, but had used this entire amount in addition to the farm returns for the three years’ living. The year’s analysis of the business shows quite clearly why this was necessary. His horse enterprise is large and unprofitable. FARM NO. 7. DISTRIBUTION OF FARM AREA. DISTRIBUTION OF CAPITAL. Croprarea oss ceactex ccc tec eeemineeece acres... 56 | Land and buildings......................... $9, 500 Waste andiwoods: <2: 22. -.25---rins= =e doze-=)) 109) 9 Pie stoCks heer eee ener eee eee 1,761 IPASTUIRO SS Ae ce ane: isjiays aterm cieseeee do.... 35 | Machinery and tools..........-........-..-- 505 CaSb ie c's cc tae eee ee en Eee ne 100 Motalfanmiancace-=ese eee seeee eee COncsc ALO Total. capital: 222 2239=ceeeeeee ee eee 11, 865 ACREAGE AND YIELD OF CROPS. . NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK. Total : Begin- 2 Acres. : Pur- Pro- yield- Class. Gian chased.| duced Comes nseet: ae ceete seas bushels 200 4 Corn and soy beans for silage.tons. - 100 10 Wihteat ins csccesk< ese nese bushels. . 96 10 BUY Coe Sse denece soe 32 4 Gye (Mastured) cnc bese ee eee 4 Oapsee es eee) ees bushels. - 128 4.5 Kafir corn (seed)..-.-.------ dozece 10 2 15 ID) See REE eA eee kPa 15 SS tons 4 5 DOVADeaANS ss joe toe cs a ase ee do 15 6 SOTEAUN: | He seee2 coer gallons 40 1.5 Canelatter ontseaeeseeee ee ee Othe 10 4.5 AMpless-f < aasshioce.t seek Sane ase 4 IBIaCKbernicss- a eee aaeeee crates. - 44 1 DISTRIBUTION OF RECEIPTS. DISTRIBUTION OF EXPENSES. Amount Fired labors sac ganst eens sect cee eee Crees -$40 ‘ Source. sold: || “#10: )\qasaril ylation. yoke ol | nes ine alee tn Mame 500 Repairs to machinery....--..--...----------- 22 Repairs'tofencess. 2522.0 oss ce secs seeee see se i WihGatemen tae ee ieee eee bushels. - 0) || GG) |) CCl oc sees ess see cosecoosssasssosccmasacoaseS 212 Cee ee nish eee Reee do...- 2 A || C86). oo scoosescoscoososeoc coz esersssoss900008 46 OPISE So sedoeacesecraseacasad do.... AO 30 | Other expenses......------------- soppcosacsres 166 ET ye ey ok = meters tons-- 4 4g | Depreciation, machinery, and buildings...-.- 120 Blackberries...-....-.----- crates. - 41 43 Dairy products: see. eee eee | Rea 658 Total expenses -.---..--.--------------- 1,113 CATO orice ge. 2 cee side tes Sas eee cee eee 374 COliS es ipa cit eS aleve nas ee eee 25 EIGN eae eric eosed cen ooeeeaeeee | eeeeees 252 Poultry, and Cees. . <2. A scau sete eeleeee eas 118 \WGt ie see eerese eet cep acoacellesuctcgs 12 Rotalivecetpts= =... e--e eee leeeee ene 1,724 é Farm income (difference between receipts and expenses)...............--..----------- +--+ 2-2-2 eee $611 oper cent interest on capital a. .sssaet-222ccscts-.teseeeeee ee nn t te Le eR Re Eaten Cen eee 593 Labor income.......- sassescegigeesdicdesa...csaleee Mec esalid. eee ea errr eT This farm had an improved area of 91 acres. The stock on hand at the beginning of the year consisted of 10 cows, 9 heifers, and 1 bull; three horses, 1 mule, and 1 colt; 2 sows and 8 other hogs, and a flock of chickens. Fifty-six acres of crops were raised and good yields obtained. This represents one of the farms where dairying receives considerable attention. When the present operator purchased this farm, six years ago, it was in a badly run- down condition, and his good management in inaugurating a cropping system and FARM MANAGEMENT IN THE OZARKS. 49 the dairy industry has been the means of building up the farm until he now gets yields far above the average of the region. He covers 14 acres a year with 7 tons of manure per acre. The cows ofa dairy herd were kept for dairy purposes (steer calves not being raised), and consumed most of the feed raised on the place. In addition, $213 worth of feed was bought. The average annual production of butter fat per cow was only 130 pounds, an inadequate return for the feed consumed. In consequence, as the capital investment was rather high, a labor income of only $18 was earned by the operator. Increasing the production of the dairy cows is of prime importance on this farm. FARM NO. 8. DISTRIBUTION OF FARM AREA. DISTRIBUTION OF CAPITAL. (ChiG)o) BIKE Soon oaascdoeaoeaerBoDooGeoded acres. . 52 | Land and buildings..............-.-..--.--- $7, 800 Woods and waste.........-...-.....-- do...- 25)\| MIBIN CSE OGKse ye aic, =o paysierelotiai tarsi ci=)aiatet= sina eis stars 1,812 IBASGURG mente Nacicice cee cigcesise eee ssmece do...-. 43 | Machinery and tools.........---...-.-------- 986 Cashes cicecie gaia sieseisc ioc ee ga ee ees eee 200 Total farm area......--.-------- do.-.: 120 —_—— Motalicapitalle vex jc y= ee dee ee 10, 798 ACREAGE AND YIELD OF CROPS. NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK. Total Begin- Crop. : Acres. f Pur- Pro- yield. Class. Giyent chased.| duced. WORMS seaie ctw ieteion sees bushels.-| 800 20 WWICa tee aiemccisicecic asses do....} 230 TO) BCOWSEe hae see eet ce Ueeee sana iaeacase OATS eo emaleecmsiecioaiciestenae sist do.. 160 4s \wblieifers' 42 52. Se asieeee- ia Anil ayer It a ale BELO eee eieis\sleleteieicicicielats see rere tons... 16.5 DT oP SGC CRs ea si see Sys ert capes sita ye eee eel tactic ie JNTAIE Se oeaeaoolcadsaeecead donee 2 2ha@alwese ent saae--hesacese ee Salekesate 12 INDO. «2 ssdoadacdssoosasasosedssd||lascc0sed Qi PB lls 828 ens eee sees tbe pe Se ciel ee ade IROAYEOSio gu poodeuEcedoede cquSDouese Goeseees iL eEorseskts:/-2easaqueieasoe ees SplSeee Seca |sosssore Garden...... malcinisiere oleic senior ieris | toc eiceise QNaCOltsss sb 325 sap eeeeesae: UBS severe 1 Shee pigs se cises ase eee Qe one CANS eee WamDSeeia.o 0 eee ees ATs eee 11 Brood sows...------------ Dil Slnerseeelisis scree OS oa Soa pornos ce Roos banal coal aGhe ane 24 Chickens!2))-222. 3 | NOO Vsoteesos 50 DISTRIBUTION OF RECEIPTS. DISTRIBUTION OF EXPENSES. Amount Ehined labor eic.2 Nis son. iced ts BAS oelocie see $44 Source. sold. Value. Bamaiyala bone sire ot oats cere toni sie sisisisse eee 600 Repairs to machinery...............--.-.---- 50 Wepainsito)p wildingsi es eeee ss sess eee eee 75 Soya eee meeneoneneeee = 100 |) GiB |) PEC! cc ooseseoesscse cosesee= sseccemaaseaa00 100 Wheat do... 180 BAO) |] (SCG < . -oceoodasceasende sacs saespeecascosocn 38 ORS a uae ee ne ee nal 25 OPN OMCIMIZeTe eee yu mere erence remains 54 IEE jones cep ee cee a spat oeeae a 1 97 | ;Othenexpensess--! oe) seh eye ost eens ee 92 DainyaproductSes- ste. Le eece seece|e se. 658 | Depreciation, building, and machinery..-.... 105 CHithlsc aoqaacndconbecndeaBcoorcHssl asenenas 455 OSI). & Uae ie A a I IO eI 65 Totabexpenses! 0 is Jedi Se eae Sane ae 1, 158 Sheeprand kwoOlsecs see eee oe eee eee 217 OPS Omens an nose satinceadc sae marci iae 797 ROU GY Meets oe ssa te sees mse a ellecnaeass 255 Joeaetee 3, 007 Farm income (difference between receipts and expenses)...................---..-2---222-2-2------- $1, 840 PCMCeMulMtCKest OM (Cap baliyy See hele le ie sre oat pet ere ale tenner Ute ne Ae ae 549 MUG SVONE TAU Groy aD) OS ca A eR es cd is mcd a I ls lL alg _ 1,309 This farm contained 95 acres of improved land. It is interesting to compare this farm with farm No. 7 as to crop area, size of business, and returns. The stock on hand at the beginning of the year consisted of 9 cowsand 17 head of other cattle, 3 horses, and a, colt, 2 brood sows, 20 sheep and lambs, and a flock of chickens. Manure was saved 50 BULLETIN 41, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. and applied carefully, and a 3-to-4-year rotation followed. Most of the crops raised, except the wheat, were fed on the place. All calves were raised. Two litters of pigs were raised from 1 sow, one litter from the other sow, and the sale of these pigs furnished an especially good source of income. Income was derived from all other classes of live stock kept, with over 20 per cent of the total receipts from sales of crops. Both a good farm income and labor income were earned. The family labor on this farm, valued at $600, was done by the operator’s daughters, who found the work both profitable and pleasant. (See Fig. 17.) This farm is well organized and. unusually well diversified. FARM NO. 9. DISTRIBUTION OF FARM AREA. DISTRIBUTION OF CAPITAL. Wroplarediocessicc as ckins soe see eee acres.. 122 | Land and buildings. 23 eee eee $10, 260 Woods and waste)... ~.-)---2~ sees a do...) 198! | Dive stock? Si... eeeee eee eee eee ee 3,153 PASCO R se asses et ehiwas ersb erence do=2_- 91) |/EMachinery/and tools!2assess-eeese eee eee eee 673 ——| Meed and cash:cis3sdasosese Moyo sae 376 otal arm area neem .e eee eee do 311 ——— Totallicapitale esos eae eee eee 14, 462 ACREAGE AND YIELD OF CROPS. | c NUMBER OF LIVE STOCK. Total Begin. Crop. ; Acres. f ur- Pro- yield. - Class. ning of year chased.} duced Corr. jase eseteeee ee bushels..| 1,155 33 WCAG pecs care scree rae dol 385 29 |) (COWS )s's 5-25 2e ccc aan Ua MeRee ee esac ete Oats eae ais SSA deste dose 300 12" Steers...j2e5. eee eee Col sec fes (Sl 18 i ee eRe i ee EL tons. - 20 30) (enters -\.. 5S sence ee Oh ptcita scl Macrae @owpeas (hogeed)) 2222.25 eee ee See eee 12") (CALVES: sR a: Eee |e See i pean 13 Orchard; gardens ietC.-- 2-seaee eels eee ic) Horses. .2ic- oc ate ees CO lcs ic ache |e Mules... 232255280) P| aoa soc ESC ERoE Colts(.2 8 sae ee ee Bhi memo 2 IEWOS -. sss deces ee eee 204 Ree er Meee WAMNIDS Wf2)-cio8 ot See ase eee 23 IBTOOd SOWSS-22-ee=ee eee A he Beetd| eee Se OPS ... cass See eeee ees LEM Seacertes 44 DISTRIBUTION OF RECEIPTS. DISTRIBUTION OF EXPENSES. c Amount | 5, Mire d 1abOr aaa cectoe ke aes $20: SO UES: sold. Value. Ham ily laWoLs Seacoast eee ee 180 Repairs to machinery ...-....--.-------------- 35 Repairs to building and fences. .....-..-.----- 33 Como ise ssss8552 ee : (Hh) || SEE) a= caeesosaae =e socssessosceesecsss525csesse 32 Winter wheat na E Beil |) WMG eon os osc sa sees sasessacsessce=22225° 60 ied aeate oo i ie! in fo) Oubenex...) 98e-c.2--- From 1892 to 1918....... 20. 64 21.41 Minnesota: Clay@ountye-ee noses eee Moorhead... .3-2------- From 1881 to 1918....... 23. 65 23.75 Traverse County.....-...---.-- Wheaton........ abceoeer From 1915 to 1918....... 18.47 21.18 WINTER WHEAT. Kansas: Mord Countyea--eeeecse tesa DodveiCity:... sateecescee From 1896 to 1918....... 20.32 13.70 Pawnee County). ccs Larned ).2): 22, ae ee From 1860 to 1918....... 22.70 19. 88 McPherson County............. McPherson......-......- From 1889 to 1918....... 31. 16 31. 46 Missouri: Saline County-.--2.-ce-n-- see Marshall: 322. epee ei - From 1890 t0 1918.......] 38.63 36. 12 Jasper County.............---- Joplingy 2. >. cence From 1878 to 1914 @...... 41. 26 StiGharies County.s2-s-- seer. StuCbarles: 0 eperee- From 1890 to 1918....... 36. 68 35.11 Nebraska: Phelps Countys---2-2 = a. eel) Holdredge:-:- cere... - 6 From 1891 to 1918....... 24, 84 25. 83 Saline County27-2-2---- see Crete: o:. 2. See ean From 1880 to 1918....... 28. 85 33. 42 Keith Courttyecce-- sects cceee- odgepole:.. 2 seep cee. From 1890 to 1918....... 16.62 18.95 a2 Norecord taken after 1914. COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 11 Over a series of years approximately one-half of the annual pre- cipitation in all districts occurred durmg the four months, April, May, June, and July. The lowest annual precipitation was _ re- corded in Keith County, Nebr. (16.62 inches), and the highest in Jasper County, Mo. (41.26 inches). In Ford County, Kans., and Morton County, N. Dak., the rainfall in 1919 was considerably below normal. In Ford County the dis- tribution during the growing season was sufficient to insure a fairly good yield. However, in Morton County the rainfall was not well enough distributed to produce an average yield. SOILS. Wheat was grown in the regions visited on fairly deep limestone soils, generally well supplied with humus. The lime content was especially high in Ford County, Kans., Keith County, Nebr., and Morton County, N. Dak., where the amount of rainfall is limited and the soluble material has not been leached out. In general, little wheat was grown on sandy soils, since this soil type is not so well adapted to wheat growing because of its tendency to blow during high winds. On these soils no commercial fertilizer was used except in the Missouri areas. | COMPARATIVE WHEAT YIELDS. The yield of farm crops in any given region is influenced by a number of things, such as soil fertility, weather, insect and fungus diseases, crop management, etc. Therefore, the results of any attempt to tabulate yields for a single year must be considered as suggestive rather than definite and conclusive. Yet when yields are tabulated over a series of years an average yield can be arrived at which will be of value in measuring the possibilities of the area for a given crop grown in that region. In Table V the average wheai yields for the State, county, and farms visited in 1919 are recorded. In some cases the figures on yield were obtained from the Bureau of Crop Estimates, United States Department of Agriculture; in others, from State boards of agriculture. The average yield of sprmg wheat in the United States in 1919 was 9 bushels per acre, in contrast with a yield of 8.4 bushels per acre for the total spring wheat area surveyed. The average yield for all winter wheat in 1919 was 14.7 bushels per acre, while the average yield for the farms surveyed in this region was 14.9 bushels per acre. The abnormally low yield of wheat in Morton County, N. Dak., was partially due to an insufficient amount of total rainfall which was not well distributed over the growing period. 12 BULLETIN 9438, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In Grand Forks County, N. Dak., and in Clay and Traverse Coun- ties, Minn., a period of moist, hot weather occurred just prior to harvest time, resulting in wheat rust, which reduced wheat yields appreciably in these counties. It will be noted (Table V) that the largest number of farms in the spring-wheat districts are included in the group having a yield of from 5 to 10 bushels per acre, while the largest number in the winter wheat districts come within the group having a yield of from 15 to 20 bushels. The average 1919 yield per acre for the farms included in this study was determined by dividing the total production by the total harvested acreage. The costs presented in this bulletin are based on the actual yields obtained on these farms. TaBLE V.—Annual yields, spring and winter wheat. Range in yield per acre. ‘isorn 9or10 |} Aver- 2 y aa State | year | age for Region. awa county | farms 25 bush ace aver- | visited,| Under | 5 to 10 | 10 to 15| 15 to 20] 20 to 25 inal Be. age. 1919. |5bush.} bush. | bush. | bush. | bush. Onn SPRING WHEAT. No. of | No. of | No. of | No. of | No. of | No of farms. | farms. | farms. | farms. | farms. | farms. NO@aHN WEN OUP,. oh asccnsdqodae 10.6 Grand Forks County....|......-- Morton Countyee-neee-er pene ee South Dakota. ...-- = 11.3 Spink County --:--------|2-----.- Minnesotamerseeerenereeeece 14.1 Clay) Countiyeeeeo-eee =e sence ee Mraverse! COUNLYemeees-4|eeeaeees Totalspring wheat...-|.......- Rencentonvoltaleee-eeres ser eres sees WINTER WHEAT. WANSAS Si oie SE ciap! eee eee LB he. d Pee (Sees |e eee ee oo wae ol ee eRe lsoooaoor |Seotecad Bes Hserse HOLGER COUN bY seeee eee lee ence ae 12.6 13.3 3 7 6 10 Gillaskieess Pawnee County ...-.-2-2\)222-2-25 12.9 13.9 1 4 16 10 1 beneateaee ae McPherson County ....-.|.-..---- 14.7 LOA Be cre se 8 17 TAOS es eS Missoni: sees. cece -cte ae oe P4s3M ade de! Sho. BRS se Seas cca alee ae eee | Moeece ns eaters: Saline Coumty.-ssseeee se |eeee meee 15.7 1133). | CEaeeeee 3 7 12 Ta Scab cca Jasper County:.3.-2-24-|5e-2 2 see 15.8 19D ons eee eee ee 17 12 1 St. Charles County ..-.--|-....--- Ho s2 NEG) | Sameer eaccoor 2 12 22 2 Nebraskisemessccr- scree neer GAO | Gace Joey BONG OS a ee meal SE Pheips County. . Pelt Meee : ae eee Saline County Keith County Motalswinter wheat: -1|---ssse alls seee | nee ee 4 39 69 101 65 6 Percent oftotals.- 0s 222 ees eee ale ee 1 14 24 36 23 2 REQUIREMENTS OF PRODUCTION. In arriving at the cost of wheat production the following elements of cost have been considered: Labor, which includes (1) all direct man and horse farm labor, and (2) contract labor, including such items as marketing wheat at a fixed charge per bushel and various labor operations in growing the wheat crop, where done at a contract rate per acre. Materials, including seed wheat (with cost of treating seed) ; _barn- yard manure and straw, fertilizer and twine. COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 13} Thrashing, which includes (1) cash paid per bushel, (2) board for the part of thrashing crew furnished by the thrasherman, and (3) any thrashing fuel furnished by the farmer. Use cost of land, or land rent, which includes (1) interest on wheat land investment for owned farms, (2) the market value of the share of wheat given at thrashing time to the landlord as rent, and (3) the actual cash paid for cash-rented wheat land. Other costs, including (1) farm taxes and surance; (2) special crop insurance, (3) use of tractor and other farm machinery; (4) loss due to abandoned wheat acreage; and (5) overhead. Credits, including (1) straw, (2) pasture, and (3) msurance received for damages to the growing wheat crop. SUMMARY OF COSTS, BY DISTRICTS. In Tables VI and VII is presented a summary of average cost per acre and per bushel for the areas surveyed. This enables a com- parison of the total costs of production by districts, and the part of the total costs that is chargeable to labor, materials, thrashing, use of land, and other costs. Taste VI.—Summary of average cost per acre and per bushel of spring wheat, 1919 (197 farms). | | North Dakota. reoetn Minnesota. IAN | pecs Item. spring cee Grang Morton] Spink | Clay pee wheat. | cost. County. County.|\County.|County. County. INiamiberiotrecordS:-ctsjiec i= =e4/<1-2 aie 39 39 39 38 . 42 WON aesoacse INOUAV ACHES sete « sisis cele oe seleisnineieselecist 10,060 | 5,840 | 9,500; 10,376} 7,071 | 42,847 |_.....-- Total production (bushels) --.....--.--.------ 98,335 | 25,835 | 93, 862 | 84,325 | 59,690 |362, 047 |.....--- Average yield per acre (bushels)-.....-------- 9.8 4.4 9.9 8.1 8.4 Sra eocescess Labor (land preparation and seeding) .-..-..--|...-..--|-.------ eee eS ane BeSeesee Sepa cia] stemaoe 18.0 Man labor cost per acre..--.-------------- $1.24 | $1.69 | $1.16} $1.29} $1.40] $1.32 |._....-.- HIOrSeN a DOR COSbeasen eee os eee eee = Patt 3. 34 2. 54 2.35 3.17 DET | Been sese Contractilaborisessesoe neces eee eae eee = - LOR Beate - 01 AO Saeieeaae 2.031) | beeen = apo (ianvestine marketing) i= <5 sa cee ace lliae oct 26 oie) - 20 -19 -47 14 nag 1.39 Asbisseqoc Use cost of other farm machinery - palsy 1.32 1.98 1.51 Wea) 4, 133 1 P43} 1.93 1. 68 U5 63 sissecc Loss on abandoned acreage... e722 202 .24 -18 . 69 -91 SOG See aee 53 SS ese 5 Aga55e5 SACK TENG so sacc eos seen eee eee Bsheceee ON eee Sees Geo 5 OlSsee5% Owverheadeeseenes- ee il 76) LAA) 25031) 2 248i 2eal7 1S 57/ 2.50 1.59 il. SilleaGoee Totalcost peracre.| 25.01} 24.35) 30.88] 37.55) 35.78] 34.64] 24.11] 39.88] 28.78] 28.62] 100.0 Credits ei eine. eter. 5 iil 1.29 -68| 2.27 1.14 - 51 .27 34 - 26 5074-08540 Net cost per acre.......- 24.30} 23.06) 30.20) 35.28] 34.64) 34.13] 23.84) 39.54! 28.52) 27. 80!...-.- Net cost per bushel..... 1582) PEGS! 2e38i" 2ST SOs 5 W742 0 |e ee ee lery zi Pomme ete (| reir Without land rent: Net cost peracre....| 18. 16) 15.29) 21. 76| 21.36) 24.34) 22.85) 16.90} 26.29) 18.95) 19.21).-...- Net cost per bushel. 1. 36 1.10 15,7 1.31 1.26 Giles 1. 56 1.45 1.05 ZO Bake The gross costs are partially offset by credits for pasture and any straw utilized on the farm. The difference between the gross cost and the sum of these credits is the net cost of producing wheat. per bushel was obtained by dividing the total net cost by the total yield. The average acre cost of each item of expense was computed on a weighted basis by dividing the total cost of each item by the total This method results in a relatively low regional cost per acre for items of expense that did not occur on the entire acreage. As an illustration, the cost of binder twine in Morton County, N. Dak., where but 10 per cerit of the acreage was cut with a binder, amounted to but 2 cents per acre when distributed over the total wheat acreage. wheat acreage. The cost COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 115) Again, in Keith County, Nebr., less than 1 per cent of the wheat acre- age was manured at a prorated cost of 2 cents per acre. Such averages, of course, have no direct significance to the grower, though they may have weight in determining a regional cost. An analysis of the total cost for sprmmg and winter wheat under the five headings, ‘‘labor,” ‘‘materials,” “thrashing,” “use cost of land,’ and “‘other costs,’ shows that labor constitutes about 32 to 35 per cent of the total cost of production; thrashing about 8 per cent; materials from 10 to 17 per cent; land rent from 24 to 30 per cent; and “other costs”’ from 17 to 19 per cent. The two largest items of cost, ‘‘labor’’ and “land rent,” constitute about 56 and 64 per cent, respectively, of the total costs in the spring and winter wheat areas. The variations in labor practices and costs are shown in detail elsewhere in this bulletin. The average use cost of land in each district represents a combi- nation of tenures and is not indicative of the rent charge for any par- ticular renting practice. The land rent charge, therefore, is a com- posite figure, made up of the interest on land values on owned farms and the cash or share rent paid on rented farms. These variations in land values and variations in yields and in the acreage of wheat produced on owned and rented land are reflected in the differences in the average land rent charges for the various districts. Because of the lower land values and the lower yield of wheat in the Spring- Wheat Belt the charge for the use of land is considerably lower here than in the Winter-Wheat Belt. Nearly 40 per cent of the spring wheat and 60 per cent of the winter wheat acreage In question was grown by renters. To these men the charge for the use of land is an important item of cost. To the operator who owns his land a charge for the use of land is less vital from the standpomt of actual cash outlay. The owner, however, has an investment in wheat land, which, if rented out, would return to him an income in cash or equivalent thereto in the form of a share of the wheat crop. Therefore,in determining the cost of producing wheat on owned land, interest on investment in land has been con- sidered an item of cost in order that cost of production on owned and rented land may be comparable. The importance of the charge for use of land may be seen by referring to the last two items in Tables VI and VII, where the cost per acre and per bushel without land rent has been shown. In the case of spring wheat the charge for use of land amounted to 64 cents a bushel and in the case of wimter wheat 58 cents a bushel. In the winter wheat districts the three counties in Missouri had the most uniform cost per acre. With the exception of Salime County, Nebr., the average cost for the Missouri areas was consider- ably higher than the cost for the other winter-wheat areas, The 16 BULLETIN %8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. principal reasons for this are found in higher land values and a more thorough preparation of the land for wheat in the three Missouri districts and in the Saline County, Nebr., area. Since yield has a much less important influence on the cost per acre than on the cost per bushel, the acre cost should be the unit used in comparing the cost of wheat production in the districts vis- ited. The cost of twine, shocking, thrashing, and marketing vary somewhat with yield; but, unless the yields are abnormal, this varia- tion is so slight that the costs per acre are comparable within a region. The yield per acre, however, as already pointed out, has a decided effect on cost per bushel, as will be seen from an examination of Tables VI and VII. The average cost of producing winter wheat was $27.80 per acre and $1.87 per bushel, as compared with an aver- age cost for sprmg wheat of $22.40 per acre and $2.65 per bushel. It will be seen that the average cost per acre for all spring wheat was $5.40 less than for all winter wheat, though the average cost per bushel was $0.78 greater. This difference in cost per bushel is due to a lack of relation between the cost of producing an acre of wheat and yield obtained; the cost per acre of winter wheat being 24 per cent greater than for sprmg wheat, whereas the yield per acre was 77 per cent greater. RANGE IN COST PER ACRE, BY COUNTIES. In Table VIII the farms have been grouped according to cost per acre. In the five spring-wheat counties the acre cost per farm ranged from $12.98 to $47.84. Only 7 per cent of these farms, how- ever, had a cost in excess of $30 per acre, and the number with a cost of less than $20 per acre was of small importance in all but the two counties visited in North Dakota. In the two North Dakota areas over 78 per cent of the farms had a cost of $25 or less per acre. In Grand Forks County comparatively low labor and rent costs were found on a goodly number of farms. In Morton County the labor costs were fairly high, which was partially offset by a low thrashing cost and exceptionally low rent costs. The wide range in acre costs within each area is explained in the following manner: As a rule, those farms showing a cost of less than $20 per acre had comparatively low labor costs, combined with a low rent charge, the latter being due to a low valuation of land on owned farms and low yields on rented farms; and since the value of the share of wheat given to the landlord for the use of the land has been charged as rent to the operator, the rent charge on rented farms varied with the yield obtained. In this connection it should be noted that a good many of the farms in each area having a cost of less than $20 per acre were share-rented farms. Again, the farms in this cost group did not have excessive costs from abandoned wheat acreage. COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 107 The next two and important groups, $20 to $25 and $25 to $30 per acre, contained farms on which there was either a gradual or irregu- lar increase in all or a part of the various items of cost over those farms in the preceding group. These increases were most pronounced in laber and rent costs, although a few farms came within these groups because of abandoned acreage costs. TaBLE VIII.—Range in cost per acre, by counties, spring and winter wheat, 1919 (481 farms). Cost per acre. Num- : sige as Under} $20 $25 $30 $35 | $40 and District. reer of | $20 | to $25 | to $30 | to $35 | to $40 | over ‘| (oum-| (num-| (nUM- | (nUM-|} (nUM- | (nUM- ber of | ber of | ber of | ber of | ber of | ber of farms).| farms).| farms).| farms).| farms).| farms). SPRING WHEAT. North Dakota: Grand Forks County....-...------------- 39 10 18 9 1 1) oe Morton County.......-.------------------- 39 21 12 Oise cecolaosane aol sme ansos South Dakota: Syonimlke Clowial iy 5 Aecuscdomersecuanosesbecse 39 5 20 12 D1 ae arr oa ae Minnesota: (CHEAy COTTA 7ja.coseancuadeesecsoecoseedscn 38 6 17 9 id | Ba Bi eae get MraverseCounby. so ccc tcc seein we 42 4 21 14 PAN Wrens ts 1 Total,spring wheat.......-.-.--.-..---- 197 46 88 50 11 1 1 Percent oftotal..-...-------.----------------- 100 23 45 25 6 8 5 WINTER WHEAT. Kansas: Interne! (Cosby aocenedoeceoegeeserae 32 10 7 il 2 HR en Pawnee County. ..-...---:-.------ ea 32 4 18 9 Deg Ply See yeh cca McPherson County......-.-.-----:------- 35) (Meee 7 12 11 3 2 Missouri: Saline County..-.-..------------ Son sncoesna| 29) || beers 2 1 10 8 8 Jasper County ---..-.-.---- Adzcovossscbec¢ 30) ee eae ss 3 17 6 4 StaCharles'County .2-.-.---2---.2-------- 38 |Beeece eal sees. 5 16 11 6 Nebraska: Phelps County. ...-----.----------------- 30 5 15 9 ibat a, are meee S Saline County ssac-c -ssas-<-e bese eee Bel obec ace aes ec 1 3 16 15 IGT (OWENS Sagano sahooososeooseeroded| 23 3 3 8 4 3 2 Total, winter wheat .....-...--..-.-.--- 284 22 52 59 65 49 37 emcentqontOuale aster eee eee eee ee 100 8 18 21 23 17 13 The farms in the three highest cost groups had one or more exces- sive items of cost.. Thus in the Grand Forks area the farm having a cost of $30 to $35 per acre was a rented farm with a yield of 12 bushels per acre based on the acres harvested, but about one-half of the acreage seeded was abandoned before harvest. In the same area the farm in the $35 to $40 class abandoned 150 out of 210 acres. The two farms having the highest cost in Spink County came in the $30 to $35 group. One of these farms had a very high rent cost and the other a high labor and rent cost combined with a com- paratively high cost for seed wheat. The eight farms in Minnesota with costs of $30 to $35 per acre had high labor and rent costs, and the one farm in Traverse County with a cost of over $40 was a small farm highly capitalized. The 26218°—21—3 18 BULLETIN 9483, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. labor, rent, equipment, and overhead costs were comparatively high, with a resultant cost of $47.84 per acre. In the winter-wheat areas the variation in cost per acre on farms in the same county was due primarily to the same causes that affected costs on the spring-wheat farms. Thus in Ford County three of the four farms having a cost of $30 to $40 per acre were share-rented farms on which good yields were obtained, making a high-rent charge to the operator. The one farm with a cost of $30 to $35 per acre in Pawnee County was a share-rented farm also with a high yield. Of McPherson County’s five farms appearing in the two highest cost groups three had abandoned acreage and the other two were share- rented farms with good yields. The two farms with lowest acre costs in Saline County, Mo., had comparatively low-labor costs and exceptionally high credits for straw and pasture. The farms having a cost of $40 and over per acre in the three Missouri counties had no item of expense for abandoned acreage, but were universally high in labor costs, and in some instances had high thrashing and rent costs; the latter owing to high land values or very good yields of wheat. In the Nebraska areas the variation in cost per acre was attributable to the reasons mentioned above, the principal causes of variation closely following those mentioned for the Missouri areas. In the three Missouri areas the prominence of the farms with comparatively high acre costs is due to thorough land preparation, good yields, and high land valuations. Likewise on the farms in Saline County, Nebr., which are relatively small, much labor is devoted to land preparation, good yields were obtained, causing a fairly high thrashing charge per acre, and land valuations were higher than in any other area visited except one. Thus it is evident that the acre cost of growing wheat is in no way constant, but may vary as the quantities and values of the various items of cost vary. The amount and the cost of labor devoted to raising an acre of wheat may be influenced by many things, some of which the farmer can not control, and in consequence the acre cost may change from year to year. This is borne out by a study of individual farm costs in each area. The amount of labor devoted to seed-bed preparation was not uniform in any given locality. This lack of. uniformity was due to different practices followed on individual farms and even on different fields on the same farm. Soil conditions, weather conditions, available labor, distance from market, etc., all have much to do with the hours devoted to raising an acre of wheat. As an example of variation in practice it was not uncommon to find farmers in certain winter-wheat areas who plowed a part of the land, listed a part, and disk-drilled a part in cornstalk or grain stubble land without further preparation. In some instances a part of the COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 19 wheat land was in such condition as a result of heavy rains that an 8-foot binder was able to cut but one-third to one-half of a full swath. The influence of such conditions on labor requirements not only in cutting but in shocking such wheat is apparent The abandonment of a high percentage of the acreage has a decided effect on acre cost. Rent or interest on land, the value of which ranged from $30 to over $200 per acre in the spring-wheat areas, is also a big item in acre- cost variation, just as is high or low yields on share-rented farms. Other items of cost were less variable, but each contributed its part to the range in acre costs as shown for these farms. Could each wheat farmer foresee the cost per acre of production, and furthermore forecast with any degree of accuracy the yield for any given year, farming as well as cost of production studies would be much simplified. But unfortunately, this is not the case, and while such information for one year is of considerable value, it is only after data of this nature have been obtained for a number of years that plans for farm organization can be undertaken with best results. These cost figures, therefore, should be treated as preliminary, repre- sentative of but one year’s work. They should be supplemented by | similar figures for years to come to make them applicable as fixed standards for individual farmers. (Further variations in the cost per acre and per bushel on farms operated by landowners are shown in Table XX XVII, appendix, where an itemized statement is recorded for each farm visited.) VARIATION IN NET COST PER ACRE. In figures 4 and 5 the spring-wheat and winter-wheat farms have been grouped according to cost per acre, without regard to counties. In the spring-wheat area 88 of the 197 farms came within the $20 to $25 class. Next in importance were the farms with costs ranging from $25 to $30 per acre, followed closely by the group with cost under $20 per acre. Few farms had costs of over $30. TaBLe 1X.—Varwation in net cost per acre, spring and winter wheat, 1919 (481 farms). Cumula- Cumula- Num- ‘ ; Cumula- tive Harvest-| tive per | Produc- | “ Produc- Net cost per acre. pet a per cent | Seeded. ed. |centhar-| tion. neve DEO: tion. * | of farms. vested. aakpae SPRING WHEAT. Per cent.| Acres Acres. Acres. | Bushels. | Bushels. | Per cent. 46 .4| 10,389] 10,156 23.7| 62,855 | 62,85 17.4 88 68. 1 22, 224 21, 962 75.0 | 196,224} 259,079 71.6 50 93. 4 10, 066 9, 440 97.0 89,432 | 348,511 96.3 11 99. 0 1,278 1,178 99. 8 12,618 | 361,129 99.8 1 99.5 210 60 99.9 423 | 361,552 99.9 1 100. 0 51 51 100. 0 495 | 362,047 100. 0 22 7.8 5, 468 5,193 12.2| 46,437] 46, 437 7.3 52 26. 1 11,773 11, 485 39.1 141, 542 187, 979 29.6 59 46.9 10, 823 10, 537 63.8] 160,860 | 348, 839 54.9 65 69. 7 8,343 8, 206 83.0] 146,151 494, 990 77.9 49 87.0 5, 044 4,924 94.5 92, 508 587, 498 92,5 37 100. 0 2, 489 2,369 100. 0 47,626 | 635,124 100.0 20 BULLETIN %3, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In the winter-wheat area the farms having costs from $30 to $35 per acre were predominant, though the variation in size of groups was much less marked than that shown by the spring-wheat farms. The NET COST PER ACRE NUMBER OF FARMS 20 TO wt 25 To 30 30 TO 35 35 TO 40 40 & OVER fs Fic. 4.—Variation in net cost per acre, spring wheat, 1919. importance of these various groups is brought out clearly in Table IX. where the cumulative per cent of acreage harvested and cumulative per cent of production are presented. JET Seu NUMBER OF FARMS - UNDER 20 20 TO 25 Fig, 5.—Variation in net cost per acre, winter wheat, 1919. In the spring-wheat areas 68 per cent of the farms visited produced wheat at costs of less than $25 per acre.. These farms had 75 per cent of the acreage and 72 per cent of total production. COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 21 In the winter-wheat areas the range in cost per acre was greater than in the spring-wheat areas. Nearly 70 per cent of the farmers, rep- resenting 83 per cent of the acreage and 78 per cent of total pro- duction, had costs of $35 or less per acre NET COST PER BUSHEL. RELATION OF YIELD TO COST PER BUSHEL. As heretofore shown, a wide range in cost per acre existed on the farms visited. While, of course, it is advisable to produce a maximum yield at a minimum cost per acre, the ultimate result of importance is the cost of producing a bushel of wheat. If yield were to increase with fixed relation to an increase in cost per acre, a definite basis would be established for planning profitable farm organization. However, one may handle a crop according to approved methods of production only to have the crop destroyed by insects, fungus diseases, exces- sive droughts or rains, etc., and while the acre cost of production may be reasonable, the cost per bushel may be extremely high. The experience of wheat growers has been that if they can withstand the losses occasioned by crop failures they may hope to realize a com- pensating income during the good years. Were it not for a reali- zation of these things an exceedingly bad year might induce many farmers to go out of the business. In Tables X and XI the spring and winter wheat farms have been grouped according to yield. A review of these tables shows the in- fluence of yield in determining cost per bushel. . In general, as the yield per acre increased, the cost per bushel decreased. TaBLE X.—Relation of yield to cost per bushel, spring wheat, 1919 (197) farms. N naeee: A N iatieet A um- | lative ver- um- | lative ver- Aver- Aver- : ber per age ee ber per age Range of yield. | orrec- | cent of a cost per Kange of yield. | orrec- | cent of eal cost per ords. | produc-| ¥4@*°- | pushel. cords. | produc-| 71°: | bushel. tion. tion. Bushels Bushels, Bushels. Bushels, 1to 1.9.. 3 0.2 1.3] $12.16 || 10to 10.9...._... 11 67.0 10.3 2.30 2to 2.9.. 5 -8 2.8 5.81 | 11 to 11.9... 2.222 22 79.7 11.5 2.10 SUOMa Gree seen 7 1.6 3.3 5.98 || 12 to 12.9..._.._. 7 84.2 12.0 1.95 4to 4.9.. 14 4.9 4.5 4.54 || 18 to 13.9._.._... 8 90.5 13.2 1.93 Ht). HW. Seekene 18 11.0 5.4 3.79 || 14t014.9........ 4 94.5 14.6 1.79 6 to 6:92. 5.52.: 27 23.1 6.5 3) 25))|\elowonl 5:92.52 eee 2 98.0 15.4 1.45 T7to 7.9.. 22 32.2 7.6 2.97 || 16t0 16.9........ 2 99.7 16.7 1.60 Sto 8.9.......-. 2 Oa 46.1 8.5 2.65 || 17 and over.....- 1| 100.0 20.8 115 9to 9.9... 19 55.0 9.5 2.58 The column in these tables showing cumulative per cent of pro- duction indicates that over one-half of the wheat grown on the spring-wheat farms included in this study was produced on farms having yields of less than 10 bushels per acre, and that 45 per cent was raised on farms having yields of from 10 to 20.8 bushels per acre. In AY BULLETIN 943, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the winter-wheat areas better yields prevailed than in the spring- wheat areas. Here nearly 50 per cent of the wheat was grown on farms having yields of from 2.2 to 16.9 bushels and the other 50 per cent was grown on farms where yields of from 17 to 30 bushels per acre were obtained. When one considers the range in yields obtained on these farms, the great variations in costs per bushel are not surprising. TABLE XI.—Relation of yield to cost per bushel, winter wheat, 1919 (284 farms). N iaike A N wae A um- | lative ver- um- | lative ver- Aver. Aver- . ber per age ber age Range of yield. | ofrec- | cent of iad cost per || ange of yield. | ofrec- | cent of yield cost per ords. |produc-| ¥2*¢- | bushel. cords. | produc-| ¥*®¢- | pushel tion. tion. Bushels. Bushels, Bushels. _|Bushels, PAN Ae oe 2 0.3 2.5 $6.55 || 15t0 15.9......-- 21 43.3 15.4 1.90 SUOy oo. 1 4 3.4 4.35 || 16t0 16.9....__.. 18 49.4 16.4 1.82 Arto AO: 3 25 8 = 1 -6 4.9 3.160) |) LV toj7.9. = 2 ee 24 59.9 17.5 1.61 DitOmosOEere ees 3 1.1 5.6 3.37 || 18to 18.9....___- 27 70.0 18.5 1.80 GrtoN6:OE ae 3 1.5 6.4 3.42 || 19 to 19.9........ ll 73.6 19.5 1.76 TALIA) Tt) = emer e 7 3.3 Us 2.89 || 20 to 20.9...._... 28 82.3 20.2 1.55 Sita8:9e. ose 14 6.5 8.2 Q2F47, || 20etoy21 Oo eee 15 89.6 21.4 1.56 9it0' 9192 Peet 12 9.1 9.6 2.39:|| 22 to 22.9. . Ae 12 94.3 22.2 1.49 1O:towOl9s- ee 14 12.1 10.5 2.26 || 23 to 23.9.. 6 96.4 23.4 1.65 LE tone ees 12 14.5 11.3 2.17 || 24 to 24.9. 4 4 98.2 24.2 1.29 IDG) PAE ee 12 22.3 12.4 1.97 || 25 to 25.9. .- oe 4 99.2 25.2 1.47 1B io bo 13 28.5 13.4 2.06 |} 28 to 28.9........ 1 99.5 28.8 1.49 LACONIA: 22 18 35.4 14.5 1.97 || 29 and over...... 1 100.0 30.0 1.46 | VARIATION IN NET COST PER BUSHEL. On the 197 spring-wheat farms the average cost was $2.65 per bushel, and the cost on individual farms ranged from $1.15 to $14.38 per bushel. However, but one of the 197 farms had a cost as high as $14.38, and only 15 farms, representing 2.5 per cent of the wheat pro-_ duced, had costs exceeding $5 per bushel. In figure 6 the 197 farms have been arranged according to net cost per bushel, that the relative importance of each cost group may be shown. The variations in net cost per bushel are due, of course, to varia- tions in costs expended per acre and in the yields obtained, both of which factors have been previously discussed. However, it may be of interest to note conditions that prevailed in 1919 on some of the farms having extremely low or high costs. A review of the records taken indicates that when the farms were classified, as shown in figure 6, both those with comparatively low and those with compara- tively high acre costs often appeared in the same cost per bushel class. Yield is the most variable factor in determining the cost of producing a bushel of wheat, and this factor is therefore largely responsible for the grouping of the farms. Farms where a part of the acreage was not worth cutting usually had a high acreage cost, owing to expenses in preparing land and seeding wheat that was not cut. Furthermore the yield from the acreage harvested was usually low, thus further increasing the bushel cost. Of the farmers having COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 98 a cost of $5 or over per bushel, about one-half abandoned a part of the seeded wheat acreage, and the yield on this group of farms ranged from slightly less than 1 bushel per acre to 7 bushels per acre, based CUMULATIVE NET COST ee A er ree Aen aie ana ig PER | SS eel aa PRODUCTION $1.10 lll 0.3 1.20 1.30 ZZ. 1.40 — 1.50 : 1.60 wild : 1.70 Wy : . 1.80 YY : 204 Yi Ly Zo LE YY). ee YW; YW); ane LD Ee UM LL_ IELZ=— | ;Z]/Zq=-_ _PE=XLT/P=Y/ JT HLL lw YY EZ PIIJJWJ|JWJJP=JJ|J]J]Z/— Ula WHMIIJPE=- I= ’’/]_ WY IJ ITZ WYMMMMy, WUMII“aw i YEE=—_ IJ IJ JJ JHU YY IE=@! JIJIJYY=00— #0 pg YH, —————_ WMIIMMIz@|3u0w, VILL. WI WM“, YW WIT. “Ys Wi Fig. 6.—Variation in net cost per bushel, winter wheat, 1919. on the acreage harvested. The farms having a low cost per bushel were farms on which comparatively good yields were obtained, many yielding from 10 to 15 bushels, and in some instances as high as 20 bushels per acre. 94 BULLETIN 943, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The average cost for the 284 winter wheat farms was $1.87 per bushel. The range in cost on individual farms was from $0.96 to $8.24 per bushel (eee fig. 7). Nearly 75 per cent of the wheat grown CUMULATIVE NET COST NUMBER OF RECORDS PER BUSHEL 5 100 2) 1.20 ee 130 YY 1.40 a i \1so Yfyy TOF LF Vi Yi yf 1.60 qqugaCAUJlw!-:;, 1.70 7 1.80 =— 2 — 4 190 === 2.00 D 7 oo a Fic. 7.—Variation in net cost per bushel, spring wheat, 1919. on these farms in 1919 was produced at a cost of $2 and less per bushel and was grown on 165 of the 284 farms visited. As in the spring- wheat districts, good yields were obtained on the farms having low COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. Ze bushel costs. A number of such farms reported yields as high as 15 to 25 bushels per acre. The farms on which the cost per bushel was exceptionally high reported yields ranging from less than 3 bushels to 8 and 10 bushels per acre. A number of the farmers with the higher costs abandoned a part of their wheat acreage because it was totally destroyed or in such condition that 1t was not worth the expense of harvesting. ANALYSIS OF ITEMS OF COST. The labor costs and other items of expense entering into the cost of wheat production have been expressed in terms of hours of labor and quantities of seed, twine, etc., wherever possible. This has been done because requirements expressed in these terms are more valuable for purposes of comparison than when expressed in the less stable terms of dollars and cents. These cost factors have been treated under the general headings, “Labor,’’ ‘Material’ “‘Thrashing,”’ “Use cost of land,” and ‘Other costs.” LABOR. AVERAGE HOURS OF MAN AND HORSE LABOR PER ACRE. Table XII shows the average number of hours per acre devoted to wheat production in the various regions studied. The figures shown are averages for only those farms operated with horses, all farms on which the tractor or motor truck was used having been omitted in this tabulation. The average hours per acre of man and horse labor for each dis- trict are representative, with the exception of any variation caused by different practices followed in providing labor for thrashing. In the spring-wheat areas the farmers furnished the thrashing crews in Morton, Clay, and Traverse Counties, and the total man and horse hours include all labor for hauling and pitching bundles in these counties. But in Grand Forks and Spink Counties the owner of the thrashing machine furnished the men and teams for thrashing, and this labor, which would amount to about 14 man and 24 horse hours per acre, is not included in the averages shown in Table XII. In the Kansas areas and Saline County, Mo., the crew was furnished by both farmers and thrashermen. Had the farmer furnished the entire crew the average hours of production would have been increased by about 1 man-hour per acre. In all other winter-wheat areas, excepting Saline County, Mo., the thrashing crews, and therefore the thrashing labor, are included in the averages for these areas. In the spring-wheat areas the average man-hours varied from nearly six hours per acre in Grand Forks County, N. Dak., to about nine hours 26218°—21——4 26 BULLETIN 943, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. per acre in Morton County, N. Dak. The hours per acre of horse labor in these two counties were 19.2 and 25.7, respectively. In the winter-wheat areas a greater variation was found, man labor varying from 7.3 hours per acre in Pawnee County, Kans., to 17.5 hours in Jasper County, Mo., and horse labor from 19.7 to 39.5 hours, respec- tively. When the total labor was divided as to land preparation and seeding, and harvesting and marketing, it was found that im nearly every case the bulk of total horse labor came in the fall and spring when the land was prepared and the crop seeded. In the spring- wheat areas there was usually little difference in man-hours as thus divided. Generally any difference that occurred indicated that more man labor was required in land preparation and seeding than in harvesting and marketing. In the winter-wheat areas wider variations occurred in the two divisions, and usually the man-hours for harvesting and marketing were higher than for land preparation and seeding. TasBLtE XII.—Average hours of man and horse labor, by counties, spring and winter wheat, 1919 (360 farms). [Farms using tractors or trucks not included.] Preparation | Harvesting and and seeding marketing Total (hours per (hours per MeN Region. acre). acre). Man. | Horse.| Man. | Horse.| Man. | Horse. SPRING WHEAT. North Dakota: GrandehHorkssCountyerere ee corer Cee e cee eee 3.6 14.6 NP) 4.6 5.8 19. 2 Morton County2 an. jene ce cece cree eee ee 5.4 19.6 3.8 6.1 9.2 ont, South Dakota: | SpinkiCountyearaecceee eases see ee ee | 3.1 14.8 3.0 5.3 6.1 20. 1 Minnesota: | Clay County: ..2 ere eae sede te eee 4.2 aS Al 4.0 Tes} 8.2 22.4 Traverse County ver ssesse acess Some entice sees 4.1 17.3 4.7 8.4 8.8 25. 7 WINTER WHEAT’. Kansas: | Kord County ssi 2e2 ee aot ose asses soe i= See 2.8 12.0 4.8 8.8 7.6 20. 8 Pawnee Countys. sper eee aee seca iene ares see 2.6 11.7 4.7 8.0 7.3 19.7 McPherson County2e. se ee secon ne ee eae sae eee 4.5 18.8 4.8 8.1 9.3 26.9 Missouri: Saline: Courty 32230. c2 ee eee ec creas eee eeeS) oeeee o. 18.5 8.1 11.1 13. 2 29.6 Jasper County : £52: Joes eeereaees =e eas- >t eee 8.1 26.8 9.4 12.7 17.5 39. 5 St.’Charles County: ee eee ees te ee eee ees. eee 8. 2 25. 1 8.9 11.5 17.1 36. 6 Nebraska: Phelps County. .- 3. 0 13.0 5.5 8.6 9.2 21.6 Saline County...- Gnd 24.7 8.1 12.4 14.8 37.1 Keith County..-. Pai 9.3 6.9 10.1 9.6 19. 4 VARIATION IN LABOR REQUIREMENTS. From Tables XIII and XIV it is apparent that there was a wide variation among individual farms in the amount of labor devoted to growing an acre of wheat. In these tables the farm records included in Table XII were grouped according to total man hours per acre. COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. il In the spring-wheat areas all but eight of the 159 farms were well represented in four groups, or in those classes having man labor requirements of from 4 to 12 hours per acre. In Grand Forks and Spink Counties, nearly all of the farms came within the two groups, “A to 6” and “6 to 8” hours per acre. In Morton County the largest group of farms required from 8 to 10 hours of man labor per acre, and in both Minnesota areas the majority of all farms showed require- ments of from 6 to 10 hours per acre. Of the total wheat acreage grown on the spring-wheat farms more than one-third was grown on farms having man labor requirements of from 6 to 8 hours; also a large acreage was represented by each group of farms commencing with 4 to 6 hours per acre, and including the 10 to 12 hour group. TasBLeE XIII.— Variation in labor requirements per acre, spring wheat, 1919 (159 farms). [Farms using tractors or trucks not included.) Range North Dakota. oat Minnesota. Renter of 1 acre. nee Total. per | ozand Mort Spink Cl T per Forks orton Dp ay Taverse acre. County County. County. County. County. Man.| Horse. Acre- A cre- Acre- Acre- Acre- Acre- Farms.| age. |Farms. age. |Farms.| age. |Farms.| age. |Farms.| age. Under 4 paddses|seocon|beonecdlocccod 1) 410) 3.6) 13.4 Ato6...| 15) 3,987) 2) 473) 15) 3,350; 2) 520).......)...... 34] 8,330) 5.1) 18.1 6to8 11} 1,970; 54/10, 889) 6.9] 20.6 8to10 13} 2,422 39) 7,064) 8.7) 25.5 10t012 7| 963 24) 3,578) 10.7| 28.8 12to14 2 160 4) 385) 12.9 32.8 MUO UWB 4cossgedlscoeeel| 1) BT EU Se aACS Sa abecseiee | ll) SAU BSES ES eas See 2} 180) 14.6) 35.0 UEUO I loceecodlaceood|boet0de|[oscddeccoocd|looossa|lesccocdlocnasad|secoocs|leccaoc|oceouas|sososd|[osacelboonacs 18to20.. 1 51 1 51] 19.1; 45.8 Total. 34) 5, 566 aoa Toe) Pei Taste XIV.—Variation in labor requirement per acre, winter wheat, 1919 (201 farms). [Farms using tractors or trucks not included.]} Kansas. Missouri. Range of man- ar hours per acre. Ford Pawnee McPherson Saline Jasper St. Charles County. County. County. County. County. County. Acre- Acre- Acre- Acre- Acre- Acre- Farms.| age. |Farms.| age. |Farms.| age. |Farms.| age. |Farms.| age. | Farms.) age. 7, 632 : ; 9 5 | 28 BULLETIN 43, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE XIV .— Variation in labor requirements per acre, spring wheat, 1919 (201 farms)— Continued. | Nebraska. A uemaee Bours Range of man-hours Total i per acre. aad : Phelps County. | Saline County. | Keith County. Man. | Horse. — bsnl Acre- Acre- Acre- Acre- Farms.| age Farms.| age Farms.| age Farms.| age Umderaee = SISE2ie 22). aes eee lao and |s tote cal Meme ccs e]le Ls Salaam aete piers eta LSE | Meee ree le eac cia cre = 4Xt0i6-5e. ee ccasene 1 0 ea see See See. ||-cS seer a ees eee 56 7 1, 605 5.4 15.9 (AN ees ee igs Lee 4 GPR) Shar eel EES Br 4 505 41 | 9,402 6.9 19.1 SiiOORe. Waser sce dee 70 LE ee een Meee | o- eeeee Bane oede 41 | 7,503 9.0 22.9 LO TOMS TS Eee 5 495 3 171 2 355 22| 2,867 10.8 26.2 TZ itO Mae ese 2 245 8 403 1 60 17 1,280 12.8 30.7 PAGO NOS A See UN ACES (ee 8 447 1 40 24) 2.007) 15.2 36.1 1G} 0 ees ee IS eae) scmes 456 6 nS} || eee ee eS 22 | 1,360 16.7 37.0 V8 FO' 20 SSs Fis 2z,. daca kek certs stots 2 1208 Ree. tee Cece ae 14 976 18.7 41.5 QO 22LE oO E8s Jove acaecees|aaseeene 1 Ve | Soe eeee eee ces 6 402 20. 5 44.9 QI EO DA eos ok ova cin eae nee Resse a Meee ine | RS eters [occa ee cos lee eee 1 55 23.8 47.0 PATO 26s. 555525 S53 Se LAE Fe See eisai rele, = cine setaleeie see |e eee me 4 229 24.6 44.2 26 CO Soe: stone Naawsce ae naiemen | meteeen leeeeenee Jaseoesas |: oseasscllase=cesc 2 56 27.4 61.6 Motala ace cea 28 3, 744 28 1, 408 8 960 201 | 27,742 10.0 24.8 In the winter-wheat areas each labor group from 6 to 20 hours per acre was well represented by farms in one or more of the counties visited. None of these farms reported less than 4 man-hours per acre, and the average for the 4 to 6 hour group was 5.4 hours. Like- wise, few of the farms reported more than 20 hours per acre, although two farms with small acreages were in the 26 to 28 hour class. In the winter-wheat area the majority of farmers in the three Kansas counties and Phelps County, Nebr., reported comparatively low hours of labor per acre. The farmers in Saline County, Nebr., and Jasper and St. Charles Counties, Mo., reported comparatively high hours of labor, while those in Saline County, Mo., were fairly well distributed in all groups from 8 to 20 hours per acre. In Keith County, Nebr., but eight of the total farms were included in this tab- ulation because of the extensive use of tractors and employment of contract labor. SUMMARY OF LABOR PRACTICES. As an indication of variations in amount of labor expended per acre, a summary of labor practices is given in Tables XV to XIX inclusive. COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 29 TasLtE XV.—Summary of labor practices in the Dakotas, spring wheat, 1919. Grand Forks County, N. Dak. Practice. Rec- |} Acre- ords. | age.1 Per | Per cent. | cent Mamnuree so. diso-2.---- 72 8 lO Wee non sess secs 1C0 91 Eloy {oeeion) SaaeLSOne 8 5 eres nice cis sais e eee 67 26 Disk Gases) BUSSES ORDA eee SOS Epeeoe Harrow (spike). _.__--..- 69 | 65 Pera waieediall (@pilce)), 21 16 OLA ee ee NS ee 2 21 8 Hanllseeds: 2220. ss25- = 38 37 Cleanseed.......------- 77 74. Treatseed......-------- 82 71 Mrillseeds o-.. + fc... - 100 | 100 ie (tractor).......---- oie OSES EE GOSS eens 100 100 Cut (CHHFRENOD) Ss caecoceas Head and stack.......-. Head and stack (tractor) . ShOckeemeee sere Sesser 100 100 HRESDOCKU MES: Fee om ccc 33 36 Shock-thrash.......--..-- 100} 100 Stackers sta ae sea. Stack-thrash...........- Haul to granary..-...--- 67 | 632 Haul to market (from STAM ATV elect ieieie 69 35 Haul to market (from TEXTE). noscoocoocus 67 65 1 Thrashing and hauling percentages are based upon bushels. 3 Disking was done 1.3 times in Grand Forks County, 1.2 times in Morton County, and 1.1 times in Spink County. Morton County, N. Dak.| Spink County, S. Dak. | Average Average _| Average hours per Hee ao “| hours per hee wen hours per acre. : : acre. 3 acre. Per | Per Per | Per fan.) Horse.) cent. | cent. | Mfan.| Horse.| cent. | cent. \' Man.) Horse. 9.4] 21.8 67 8 | 10.9] 20.1 72) 7 12 PAS 1.7 9.0 85 68 | 2.4] 12.0 98 | 60 2.0 10. 8 Tee ee eee 13 11 Od eeecee 15 | 14 WO | eesecos 1.0 4.2 77 31 1.3 5.5 78 | 25 .8 3.8 poooro OeRene 5 11 Al eee ead 2 -3 BO) Wess ee 24 2.0 90 82 -8 3.2 98 |) 94 -3 eZ 2 1.0 38 36 5 2.0 42 | 37 32 V2 4 1.9 10 10 6 1.9 5 | 18 A 1.9 oll 2 33 34 ol “2 18 | 25 oul a7) oS llGoeesee 90 90 6G}! [Boeeade 68 | 68 By IEGoeson oll esaeeee 95 94 ll (ee ee 78 | 71 SN | cere -5 2.0} 100} 100 6 2.4 | 100} 97 -6 2.6 spocual leaeGecl ysectac COR raEe God USISe pete Ree eRe eeaene ore 5] 3 TD ects 2.5 18 10 7 P25 Cl 82 | 68 olf 2.8 BOS He AS eae GOMES) Be eeeEe ib osocc Se Bets Beene eeeteee 8 | 10 bea La es Yar 90 90} 2.5 4.3 25 | 20 2.7 4.6 SOAGHA Ge sesa ESSl Se See 5 ccou ol be Gea eeer er Gmeeere 2| 2 2.4 1.3 oC iceseeee 18 9 Silk | Saserent= 85 | 79 o® loose5es pdt SoBeSee 8 3 Boul arateeiets 22) 27 oll Iesecsoe Ome 5 3] 1.3] 2.6] 85] 81 1.0 1.9 13 8| 1.6 1 esas Reacas Ses aael oe seee 97 | a97 BA letersi 25 | 19 B \sasceo5 -5 9 87 | a92 2 4 80 | 50 6 1.1 off 2. 1 90 93 ofl 1.5 80 | 50 8 1.6 .5 1.4 13 7 ~2 5 56 | 50 a 1.5 3 Harrowing was done 1.5 timesin Grand Forks County, 1.8 timesin Morton County, and 1.4 times in Spink County. 4 Contract. a Some grain was thrashed into bins. TasBLe XVI.—Summary of labor practices in Minnesota, spring wheat, 1919. Practice. Clay County. Traverse County. Rec- ords. Per cent. Manne maenace ns sost nc see ossnenesee 77 EO Wee eae oy ayeiaerayateaiclne isis aise 85 Plow {(unegie) Beier ipo arate \evejeli Sed Seay 26 DDS kt Beene ye emcee ey eS 69 DISka(GRacton) Nees shat ceeeees sees 10 beElammow, (Spike)8)....----2------------ 85 Harrow (spike) tractor..-.....------- 10 la leintOuy SOMUOES. 6 oecosbaeaeessasedecos 5 Harrow spring tractor....-.-.----.--- 10 Harrow after drill (spike). ...-...---- 51 Harrow after drill tractor...........-.- 5 EO] Reece haem sae 1) 8 TE MMUSCE Ma. adele cist snsteee secede se 44 Cieanisced mi: ask b en Sek eid 79 MreatiSCed eames Hae n o $ we 3 fe) o > a | A, B i] 80 ° we ° | Ay pe < wi aE = O Z kK 0p) mi} > oc < as zZ > << a oc rm o Ww oO < rm ce Oo < WwW 0) ie xt al < ) ox Wl > Oo O KB < ac be Ls iL K- =) @) fag WwW a < ui ae, < COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 83 for the plcw on a part of the wheat acreage. (See fig. 8.) In Ford County 31 per cent of the wheat area was listed; in Pawnee County 50 per cent; and in McPherson County 19 per cent of the land was broken in this manner. After listing a “‘ridge buster,” or ‘‘sled,’’ as it is commonly called, was used for the purpose of tearing down the ridges or rows left by the lister. In some of the areas a part of the corn stubble land was prepared for seeding by running over it with a two-horse disk cultivator. In St. Charles County, Mo., 21 per cent of the wheat acreage was gone over with the disk culti- vator. The disk harrow was extensively used in some areas for all preparation prior to drilling. On some farms a part of the grain stubble and corn land received no-preparation, but was seeded with Fig. 8.—Preparation of land for wheat with the one-row lister. a disk drill, which served the purposes of preparing the land and seeding in one operation. (See fig. 9.) The spike-tooth harrow was used extensively in both spring and winter wheat areas. In the spring-wheat areas 76 per cent of the entire acreage was spike-harrowed before seeding, and 30 per cent of this acreage was harrowed again after seeding. The spike-tooth harrow was also commonly used in the winter-wheat areas, but none of this work was reported after seeding. In the spring-wheat districts 83 per cent of the acreage was cut with a binder and 17 per cent was headed. (See Pl. I.) Of the total acreage harvested, 6 per cent was cut with tractor power. All work with the header was reported from Morton County, N. Dak., and Spink County, S. Dak. In these two areas 88 and 20 per cent, respectively, of the total acreage was headed. In the winter-wheat 34 BULLETIN 3, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. districts 66 per cent of the total wheat acreage was harvested with the binder and 34 per cent was headed. Tractor power was used in harvesting grain in all areas excepting Jasper County, Mo. Of the winter-wheat acreage 13 per cent was cut with tractor power. Heading was found to be most common in Ford and Pawnee Counties, Kans. About 64 per cent of the Ford County acreage and 78 per cent of the Pawnee County acreage was harvested with the header (see Pl. II). In both spring and winter wheat regions most of the bundle grain was shock thrashed. The headed grain was stacked before thrash- ing. The grain was either hauled direct from the thrashing machine to local elevators and railroad cars or stored on the farm. In some localities grain ebkevators were soon filled, railroad cars were not Fig. 9.—Disking stubble land preparatory to drilling wheat without further preparation. available at thrashing time, and adequate storage facilities were not available on the farm, so that a part of the wheat was often dumped in piles on the ground until marketing and storage facilities became available. In every case all labor and expenses incident to storing and hauling grain to market have been included in the cost of production. LABOR RATES. Man-labor rate-—The man-labor rates, as shown in Table XX, are based on prevailing month and day wages paid for farm labor at the time the work was done, including board, when furnished. The labor of the farmer and any members of his family was charged at the same rate. The labor prior to harvesting was mainly per- formed by the farmer, with the aid of month hands. During the harvest period, however, because of the scarcity of harvest hands COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 85 and the transient character of labor employed, practically all labor was hired on a day basis at a much higher wage. For this reason different rates have been used for seed-bed preparation and seeding and for harvesting and marketing. The wage paid was mainly governed by the competition for farm labor at the time the work was done; it will be noted that there is considerable variation in the rates used in the several districts visited. Horse-labor rate.—The horse-labor rates, as shown in Table XX, are based partially on the prevailing charge for team work in the regions visited, and partially on the cost of horse labor as obtained from detailed cost records which were available for some of the States in which this investigation was made. It will be noted that the horse- labor rate in Ford County, Kans., was higher than in other districts visited; this was due to partial crop failures in 1918 and 1919, which resulted in a relatively high cost of grain and roughage. TaBLE XX.— Man and horse labor rates per hour, spring and winter wheat, 1919 (481 farms). Seed-bed preparation) Harvesting and and seeding. marketing. State and county. Man rate.| Horse rate.) Man rate.|Horse rate. SPRING-WHEAT AREAS. North Dakota: Grand Forks County......-..------ Ee eee occ ase $0.35 $0. 20 $0.60 $0. 20 MMORLOMACOUMLY oe fs) 0-2 os see cece ces Hae am al Se eee 35 20 -€0 .20 South Dakota: Spink County.....-...-.-. EGReGe Geman mte ces c=, + Seen 40 -20 65 20 Minnesota: : ; Cla yaC OUNIGY ae eaea- soe sean emcees > >- = - sss seeee -30 . 20 . 60 .20 MraverselOOunuyre sce. a. 22 sa aseecee Soses sae st = Scere 35 -20 -60 20 WINTER-WHEAT AREAS. Kansas: : ROLGICOUM Yee ane asae eee eaaeee ce 12-15 - =e > - sees 35 25 75 25 IDA WMee) COUMEY ce eee vaca cone cet eee ons Sees cs Se eeeeee -30 18 60 -18 Mem hersomy COunibys sss ace Saeco e 2 =i «2 see -35 20 3115 20 Missouri: Shllan (Coin iy/s5e Ssqac eee EU aaHose sc Oana sees acini 30 18 .60 oil JASpem COUNLY ae skeen estascee omer: oss = 6G cee 30 18 50 18 Stachanrles!Coumtye 2 -cse-s-n ore eee eee. sss >. eee Be -18 -55 -18 _ Nebraska: Help SRC OUMtYy Sete sees semen ce eee eee be ees = 2 Ree 35 20 65 .20 Saline COuNtye seen e ce ote eee eeeeueeink to 5 3 eee 35 - 20 .70 20 CCHINCOUNLY ssh Aces cri see eee eens nics eee -35 .20 .80 -20 AVERAGE LABOR COST PER ACRE. The labor cost, as shown in Table XXI, includes all man-and- horse labor expended by the farmer and any contract labor hired. All work m which the farmer’s men and horses had no part has been recorded as contract labor. This includes a small amount of plowing for which the farmer paid a stipulated sum per acre for man and horses or tractor and plows; a small amount of cleaning seed wheat; a nominal amount of cutting wheat with the grain binder; and some marketing grain, which was usually hauled with a truck at a fixed charge per bushel per mile hauled. The relatively 36 BULLETIN 943, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. high charge for contract labor in Keith County, Nebr., was largely due to the great amount of grain hauled to market by contract labor, this being 66 per cent of all that was produced. In some districts considerable work was done with tractors. Unless contract work, the man hours for operating the tractor were included under labor costs; but obviously no cost for horse labor would occur. The maintenance and upkeep cost of the tractor have been charged under machinery costs and not as hours of tractor labor. The great variations in average labor costs, by counties, as shown in Table X XI, are due to the variation in man and horse labor rates used in calculating labor costs, and to the variations in amounts of labor devoted to raising an acre of wheat. As previously shown, considerable variation existed in the average labor rates determined for various counties. However, it does not necessarily follow that those counties having the higher labor rates had the higher total labor costs per acre. TaBLE XXI1.—Average cost per acre of labor, by counties, spring and winter wheat, 1919 (481 farms). Direct . man-and-| Contract | Total Region. horse |laborcost.| cost. labor cost. North Dakota: Grand’Porks'! County ack bss Sos eS eae nes ee $6.18 $0.11 $6. 29 Morton County........---- Ag esecasacasooscec dsc sncascecasessoscesc2- 8. 41 . 06 8. 47 South Dakota: Spink County. ..-ctec- 222.56 sceeeees sess Re ee eee ee eee 6.72 .07 6. 79 Minnesota: Clay County. ¢2\32 S42 sos ne eee eee Oe eee eee ere nee 7. 26 . 03 7.29 Traverse! COUNTY << jaseae ee 2 ose ee eee oe ER eee eee 8. 87 03 8. 90 AM sprine wheaitin® - 2 as eae heh ee eo. oo Eee eee 7.30 07 7.37 Kansas: Mond Countyie ce. oo So se2 80 ea See oe 6 eee 9. 62 . 04 9. 66 Pawnee! County: «21-605 secon Genie ae oe ae: +) OSE E REE oe EEO Eee 6. 78 . 02 6. 80 AG MoRhersonl Countyiercn- mre m see ee ner 2 eee eee eneCeee ee eee rer 10. 70 . 02 10. 72 issouri: Saline: County. 4. 2228 ies te eso 3 See eee ee 11.19 5 OB} 11. 42 Jasper County =-.i2-seceses ces ncee we secede as =e eee eee oe eee 13. 41 5B 13. 63 StCharles' County ace. tcc bceoe oa eos eRe oer CE eRe ere POSS 7 |e eae 12. 37 Nebraska: Phelps! Countyinias sccissice fsee ecliee nea cin see eerie oe ee eee aes etl eoooonacs 8. 99 Saline! Coun bao oe ios re Gee cls sieht a eaere eco Oe Cee 14. 72 01 14. 73 Keith County 2s 2 sae cece ute bsieo tte eye io Soe eee 7.69 1.50 9.19 All winter wheat......-- Sesseeeeeed case. teens ee ee 9. 66 .19 9. 85 MATERIALS. SEED. The most common variety of seed wheat for the spring-wheat districts was the Marquis, and for the winter-wheat districts the Turkey Red. An average of approximately 3.5 per cent of the winter-wheat acreage was reseeded, while no reseeding was required for spring wheat. lant eg COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. BT The rate of application is the average for one seeding only, but the cost per acre includes the value of the seed used on the reseeded acreage. For this reason, and also because the acre cost for seed is a weighted average, the average amount applied per acre multi- plied by the average price per bushel will not equal the cost per acre. The value of seed wheat per bushelis an average. Some men bought high-grade recleaned seed and some used their own supply for planting. The figures given include the value of any materials used for seed treatment. All farm-grown seed was charged at its farm sale value at planting time. The average rate of seeding and the average price per bushel were somewhat less for the winter wheat than for the spring wheat, with a correspondingly lower cost per acre for winter wheat. (See Table POX.) i BINDER TWINE. Because of the light straw, the average binder-twine requirements per acre were appreciably less in the spring-wheat than in the winter- wheat districts. In three spring-wheat and in four winter-wheat districts the entire acreage was cut with a binder. Principally because of the short straw in Morton County, N. Dak., 90 per cent of the acreage was cut with a header. The average price paid for twime varied from 22 cents per pound in Clay County, Minn., to 29 cents in Grand Forks County, N. Dak., and the average for all winter wheat was 1 cent per pound higher than for all spring wheat. (See Table XXIII.) TABLE XXII.—Seed requirements per acre, spring and winter wheat, 1919 (481 farms). | Per cent | Rate of ni Average State and county. of acreage] applica- FTL Dee cost, per re-seeded.| tion. ‘: acre. North Dakota: Bushels. Grand Forks County............. We... eee laaeeseeee 1.39 $2.44 $3. 39 INO Horan (Coiba pened | See ec 100 2.85 . 23 66 Jasper County... 2c ccencec ee Soe eeeenicc see seme ioses 100 2. 32 2283 53 St. Charles County.....-.-.-- ESRC SS oss 2 pees. 109 2. 26 25 55 Nebraska: Phelps!Countyaa-02eascocceee ccm ore oe sake as See ee 99 2. 68 24 63 Saline County........-.---.-- SE SE COR SER eenic: Sac c caeeebs 100 3. 69 24 87 Keith! County /ceccten coe scec ace cete ects sons eee ee see oe 77 2.31 25 58 Alliwinter wheats 227. 2 jaeiecese cet eaisicm = fence Bde 66 2. 80 24 68 MANURE AND STRAW. When manure is applied to a particular crop, other crops following in the rotation get part of the benefit. This cost then should be distributed among the different crops grown. When applied directly to wheat, 50 per cent of the estimated value was charged; when applied to the crop immediately preceding, 30 per cent was charged; and when two other crops preceded, 20 per cent was charged to the wheat. The largest number of farmers reporting the use of manure (80 per cent) was for Saline County, Nebr., while the smallest number was for Keith County, Nebr. In Ford County, Kans., and Keith County, Nebr., only 1 per cent of the total wheat acreage was manured. Farmers in these counties regard manure and straw of more value for top dressing to conserve moisture and prevent “‘blow- ing” of the land than as a fertilizer. In these two counties not enough moisture is available to make manure valuable as a fertilizer. For the spring-wheat districts 8 per cent of the total wheat acreage received an application of manure and straw, while for the winter wheat only 5 per cent of the total acreage was covered. (See Table XXIV.) GREEN MANURE. In St. Charles County, Mo., it is a common practice to plow under a certain number of acres of new clover seeding each year. Corn is usually grown on this land for one or two years, followed by wheat for one or two years more. It will be readily seen that this practice - COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 89 results in material benefit to the crops which follow. From each farmer an estimate was obtained relative to the amount of clover seed used and the time required to sow this seed on the average amount of new seeding plowed under each year; also the crops following on this land were noted. With these data available a charge for the value of the clover seed used and the time required to sow it was computed, which amounted to $2.80 per acre. This cost was prorated to the crops receiving benefit. In the case of wheat this charge amounted to $0.33 per acre. TABLE XXIV.—Straw and manure applied per acre, spring and winter wheat, 1919 (481 farms). Per cent | Rate of | Cost per Per cent F ; of total | applica- acre State and county. ie peers acreage | tion per | actually | P 8-| covered. acre. covered. North Dakota: Tons. Grand! Works County..:-2-----:-22---:---- eis si nee 72 8 10. 28 $5.09 Montomi@ountyae ces sese 2 sess meee see 2 a laetceeiee etree | 67 8 6. 84 5.66 South Dakota: Siorimlke COIN eee eee as = 34 4 9. 52 5.41 MebhersoniCountyas eer see ee ccc aece ss += ce eee elie 60 14 6. 40 5.38 Missouri: Samet COunt yee. yo eenec ee cee eee s ses -- - eee 24 2 6. 50 5. 44 JaspernCOuntyaens - socseess sess 5224552062 -> 2s eebeeee en. = 60 4 9. 43 7.96 Stacharles!Coumtynie sce c een tees ne cnes Sc os ceeeeeese oe 68 7 9.24 6.94 Nebraska: he lps\COUl byes sa) sevs ie netelorsiel asia oe = = Pees cococacene 70 7 8. 23 2.57 Saline|\County--------------------------------------- Bee cies 80 17 7.84 2. 45 IRCETEEMC OUTIL See eine mets aie ane Seine ccs ss siete = a 22 1 4.95 3.96 NUS WATIbEDWINEAE sorts series] 2s sis r=te ais els «=o tc 2 SIE eee 51 5 7.98 4.87 COMMERCIAL FERTILIZER. Commercial fertilizer was not used in any of the areas visited except Missouri, and in this State to no appreciable extent except in Jasper County. In this county 97 per cent of the men interviewed used commercial fertilizer on their entire wheat acreage, and 3 per cent used no fertilizer on this crop. The quantity applied averaged 100 pounds per acre and the average cost was $42 per ton. In St. Charles and Saline Counties commercial fertilizer on wheat was not reported except on one farm in each county, where a very small acreage was fertilized, more as an experiment than as a regular practice. ° GRASSHOPPER CONTROL. In Ford County, Kans., much wheat was destroyed by grasshop- pers. To control these pests a mixture in the proportion of about 20 pounds of bran, 1 pound of arsenic or Paris green, 4 gallon of 40 BULLETIN 3, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. molasses, and 2 oranges or lemons was used. Some of the poison was furnished gratis by the county, so only such poison as was pur- chased by the farmer is given on the records. Twelve men in Ford County, Kans., and 13 in Phelps County, Nebr., reported the use of grasshopper poison; on these farms this charge was of little impor- tance, and, prorated over the entire acreage surveyed, amounted to but 2 cents per acre in Ford County and 1 cent in Phelps County. TaBLE XXV.—Thrashing practices and costs, spring and winter wheat, 1919 (481 farms). Prevailing thrashing practices. Average cost per State and county. Part of crew! furnished by— epost) Aoeeg gue for FE aEaSg of pro- | rate per Pecionl Thrasherman. Farmer. duction.| bushel. SPRING WHEAT. North Dakota: Grand Forks County-....| Shock....-. JAN. . 23.0 See Eisicin sos eee 100 $0. 27 $2. 78 Morton County...-.-.--- Stacks5 2542.52. ehe- saeeerer AUT. aca mee meas 100 -10 43 South Dakota: | Spink County......-.--- Shock. ..-- AMl.o3..decBeeee cesses Ssaeceeeees 92 nae 2.68 - Minnesota: Glay/County2--+-sece-=- Shockoe elses so. eee eee All csscsssscece: 97 5118} 1.18 Traverse County.-.....- Shocks 3 Eee ee ec sees eel |e All. Sones 99 13 1.13 WINTER WHEAT. Kansas: acd Connt Stack..... UNE soo odae |Gedabnuedecsoasecc 57 . 20 \ 2.58 WEE MID UEENonanacoesoc Shock..... Field pitchers...| Bundle haulers... 43 : 19 295 Stack.) 2 53IVAQM. oc 5. eee a| wcleaee ee aes 5] Pawnee County.......-- (Shock {slau ee pitchers...| Bundle haulers... 25 -19 \ 2.67 WisteXOee Geos) Mlle eeescoceqallone icles eee eae 29 Bo McPherson County...... {Shock rae Field pitchers...| Bundle haulers... 75 122 \ 2. 83 Missouri: Saline Count Boa OEY 3.87 Verte wed 37 29 Jasper County pone 100 08 1.45 St. Charles County...... SHOCKse es pemee Ee sane AME ee cmaacene 100 -10 1.86 Nebraska: Phelps County.......-.. cereale Sp. ofl | te Saline County........... Shocks 2 aiitese) 35 eee ATE ees 100 ll 1.98 Keith County...-..-.-.. cice Gueeme ee) 82] 10] ae 1Jn every case the thrasherman furnished the crew for operating the separator and engine and the farmer furnished the men and horses for taking care of the thrashed grain. THRASHING PRACTICES AND COSTS. The main thing which determined the rate per bushel paid for thrashing was the proportion in which the thrashing crew was furnished by the farmer and the thrasherman. (See Table XXYV.) In some regions the wheat yields varied so greatly that thrashing was paid for on an hour basis rather than a bushel basis, and of course farms with low yields had a comparatively high thrashing rate per bushel. In three of the spring-wheat districts the farmers usually furnished all of the thrashing crew, and the average thrashing rate varied from 10 cents per bushel in Morton County, N. Dak., to 13 cents in both of the other two counties. In Grand Forks County, N. Dak., and COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 41 Spink County, S. Dak., the thrasherman usually furnished the thrash- ing crew, and the average rate for thrashing was 27 cents we bushel in both counties. In the Kansas areas the farmers furnished the bundle haulers and teams and the thrasherman furnished field pitchers, where shock thrashing was done; where the grain was thrashed from the stack, the grain pitchers were furnished by the thrasherman. In any case, the crew furnished by the thrasherman did not vary to any marked extent, and the rate per bushel was fairly uniform, being slightly higher for stack thrashing. In Saline County, Mo., 63 per cent of the production was thrashed with the farmer’s crew and 37 per cent with the thrasherman’s crew. The rates were 16 cents and 29 cents a bushel. In the other winter- wheat areas the thrashing crews were furnished by the farmers in nearly every case and the rates averaged from 8 cents to 11 cents a bushel. The average cost per acre varied in each region ee to ‘yield and rate per bushel. The average acre cost for all winter wheat was 52 cents greater than the average for all spring wheat, but the average bushel cost was 4 cents less for winter wheat. USE-COST OF LAND OR LAND RENT. An estimate of the value of the land on which wheat was grown was obtained from each farmer visited. The current interest rate on first mortgages was also determined for each district. The result obtained by multiplymg the investment in wheat land by the interest rate was used as the charge for use of land on owned farms. If the land was rented on a cash basis the actual cash rent paid per acre was used. If the land was share-rented the value of any items ‘furnished by the landlord, such as seed, twine, thrashing, crop insurance, etc., was charged as a cost to the operator; these items were then deducted from the value at thrashing time of the share of wheat given to the landlord, the difference appearing as the operator’s cost for the use of land. The one-half share rent system predominated in the Spring-Wheat Belt, and the one-third share rent system was most common in the Winter-Wheat Belt. Approxi- mately 30 per cent of the spring-wheat acreage was rented on a one-half share basis and 62 per cent of the wheat land was owned by the cperator. About 47 per cent of the winter-wheat acreage was one-third share-rented and 42 per cent of the wheat land was owned by the operator. On owned farms the market value of the wheat land influenced ‘the land-rent charge. On share-rented land the yield per acre, the share given as rent, and the part of the expenses paid by the landlerd are the dominating factors. 492 BULLETIN 943, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In the spring-wheat areas the interest on investment exceeded the value of share-rent paid, while in the winter-wheat districts the reverse was true. TABLE XXVI.—Use-cost of land per acre, spring and winter wheat, 1919 (481 farms). Owned land. Rented land. State and count In- y- Value | terest | One- | One- | Two- | One- per | onin-}| half | third | fifths | fourth | Cash. acre, vest- | share. | share. | share. } share. ment. North Dakota: ‘ ‘ Grand!Horks'County-- sessceesece see see $80 | $4.79 | $3.48] $4.56 |.....-.- Leela an sha MontoniCountyaceen aacreee cece cece seas. 36 2.16 2.65 2587 Recoedee $1. 57 1.25 South Dakota: SpinksCounty.. oes cciecbe ebemticechmece se ae 134 8.06 7.50 3230) (Sah aeeee 58)! | Pes ees Minnesota: Clayi Counts es cm ececaie ase pasion ees 137 8. 20 3.80 SUS L eae ecoallceors ate 3. 53 Traverse County... -ccccssesecececece adans 108 6. 50 4.24 root aror acer ee seeing 3.00 All spring wheat.........-.-.-. Ae ere 100 6.00 4.90 SHO Sul sae seis 2.02 3. 52 Kansas: 2 lord) Counties avetdaccn sistant raewineroee een 55 3. 28 9.96 RIGA re ea Si Cit" Sat ae Pawnee County. -...... berate a ea 87 5. 23 9.49 9.09 ; $11.26 |.......- 6. 00 IMciehensonsConntyasesee ee eenene een eee 1345) 78) 06\)|- se neee S534 aon O74 ae Gee 7.05 Missouri: | Salinet Counties St. Charles County. ...- SUI oh | ERO ZO IP ok} (2) He oe 30} 10.5) .6|] .45 | 2.13 Nebraska: Phelps County ......... (TIC Aal lio he (An eset cea AeeIerral no oe ollaon od 6.7|.4] .48| 1.23 Saline County.......... Mele US LB 43 yej eed er ici] <'2.5 seta ee apne Cee eee 2.9|.6] .50} 1.93 Keith County.......... 47.8 -9 | 1.34 | 30.4 8 -48 | 4.3 4 385 | 30.4 | .3 .48 1.68 LOSS ON ABANDONED WHEAT ACREAGE. On some farms visited a part of the acreage seeded to wheat was not harvested because the crop was destrayed or in such condition that it was not worth cutting. All costs for labor, seed, manure, COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 45 use of land, unless recropped, taxes and insurance, etc., expended on this acreage make up the charge “Loss on abandoned wheat acreage.’ When pastured, credit has been given for the value of the pasture. The total cost of all abandoned acreage in a region, divided by the acreage harvested, is the average abandoned acreage cost per harvested acre. (See Table X XIX.) In Scuth Dakota, Minnesota, St. Charles County, Mo., and Keith County, Nebr., no abandoned acreage was reported, while in the other areas from 0.5 to 8.2 per cent of the wheat acreage was not harvested. SACK RENT. During thrashing in Saline and St. Charles counties, Mo., a part of the wheat was sacked and stored on the farm until thrashing was over, or hauled direct to local elevators. In many instances the farmers did not own sufficient sacks and rented additional ones. The rent for the use of these amounted to about 4 cents per sack, and the acre charge for sack rent averaged about 7 cents an acre for each county. TaBLE XXIX.—Loss due to abandoned wheat acreage, spring and winter wheat—1919 (481 farms). a | | Per cent Per cent | Average sk forms Nees Acres | oftotal | cost per State and county. aes ears har- acreage acre Gaia * | vested. | aband- | aband- oneal oned. oned. ge. | North Dakota: Grandehonksi Counters essere cece. sane cicicies 28 10,959 Mi@Aiomn Chibi h\/sannseecedencne dee obasee -Seresnee 28 6,312 South Dakota: SPU COUMUY 121s = scien = ware cise Seay aia ates ele eicie's | sos eee 9, 500 Minnesota: : Clay County 10,376 PUTAVeLSELCOUMbYA sa .)0) cee ee reid aye ese ne Nsiays -=||- = 26 Ae 7,071 Mlisponimegwheatuen so iss oes se eee s. - | 11 | 44,218 Kansas: Horde Coumbyaesce se sess ce oe coe eee cee ee. 19 10, 164 9, 817 3.41 6. 83 Awe COUNT sce ae eee nes ase ase aere sce cin: | 16 9, 282 9,092 2.05 8. 53 peviceherson\@ ounibiy) eee jee eee eee 34 4,990 4,652 6.77 9. 52 Missouri: | Sainven© oui yi pee eet ce aati Se eemaee ae civ 31 2,523 2,362 6. 38 13. 26 ASDC OUND ane sce iced a oe eke sacle se abaesere ies 2s 10 2,960 2,949 37 16. 43 StiaChanrlesiCoumbya- ase. .cecse cece ncneeceeeso+||. sees 3,035 Bi O85 Pei cie a -tel=| seciaseets Nebraska: ; Piel pstCoumtyjemisselit\-> se See os sine Ste deen 30 4,573 4,404 3.70 8. 46 Saline Coumiyae se seco ee cee sce eeisa soe cenise ces 3 2,018 2,008 - 50 29.73 IXGtN, COLMA Se aecsusoneAs ss ASR B Eee Hee ee eee eee en 4,395 Ze IY Bee aerobe onccneene JAI yale WWE hob ecooseoesetenaseapaasacdeaese 16 43,940 42,714 2.79 9.18 OVERHEAD. In addition to items of expense such as labor, seed, twine, thrash- ing, etc., which are directly chargeable to wheat, there are certain items of general farm expense that are not only an essential part of the wheat account, but also a part of the cost of every other crop and 46 BULLETIN %43, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. each kind of live stock produced. This list contains such items as interest and taxes on barn lots, fence rows, roads, etc., building and fence repairs and maintenance, and miscellaneous cash expenses. It is generally considered that these items of farm expense can be handled best by allowing this miscellaneous cost to represent a certain per cent of the combined material and labor costs of each enterprise. Detailed cost-accounting records as kept on representa- tive wheat farms in several of the areas visited show that this charge amounts to approximately 12 per cent of the value of labor, materials, and thrashing. Since the type of farming in the districts studied is so similar, this rate has been used for all farms. CREDITS. The items which have been considered as a credit to the wheat crop are straw, pasture, and special insurance received for damage to the crop through fire or hail. The straw was considered of very little money value and often only that portion needed for bedding was saved; the remainder was left to rot or was burned in stacks in the field. In the winter-wheat areas some farmers pastured the young wheat during the fall and spring months. This was especially true in Kansas and Missouri. In Saline County, Mo., the high credit for pasture was largely due to a considerable area being so badly lodged that it was not cut, but was pastured with hogs. In only a few instances was insurance reported as having been received for losses owing to fire or hail. (See Table XXX.) TABLE XX X.—Credit per acre, spring and winter wheat—1919 (481 farms). Special sian i | z crop in- State and county. Straw. | Pasture. ermanice Total. received. North Dakota: Grandi Works County2 se. ase eee ee. eee ene eases $O:19) tee .22 Seas eee { $0.19 Morton! County: fis c55. eee ee SL CEE ete AAA See $0. 06 - 00 South Dakota: Spink’ Connty es bce 28 sees cia fe = Sas eee ees ete 519") dae ce teers emer ise -19 Minnesota: Cisy: County. < iitesaes cease Socio tee eae ees RE REOA Ee oe aeene SS oe CAR cl bor Coo aene . 58 ‘Traverse COUNtY 22-22 eesti ne se se tee oe eee ae aeeee AOU eR Geeeeol Wnbesaccie . 30 All sprinp wheat. ties. cscs clas 2 +s see eeeeaee oe oer Ae ee 01 -35 Kansas: | MOTGKO OUND Mckee ce nin Mibeciaicnjclatneie ae css o.o Qe R ea eee . 30 $0. 38 -03 | .71 PATA SOU ae rac rose Sein a estate opats tv ieie ala > oo eee rrsre ero .18 .98 13 1. 29 McPherson County......-.-..-... Pe eee BS See .42 s2Odls sae eiaee ois - 68 Missouri: SEY GY Orhan ae Sete See eC eC SAeeeenee os aecacesees . 48 MizOC eee cece c PPA Uprisp oie Cfej bia ih ee ae SUS... en ie RR! 5 AEA BODO A a¥f «41 -16 1.14 Bir@haries County . seta -' 38 c6 2. od. JZ eeeeeee -49 OZ) ee ce a atate - 51 Nebraska: EMOLPS: COUMDV 2) = taitce oer ae [vin 055.52 -\ arene ete . 20 OTN Aes cee ~27 PALIT ONN UV ee occas ahaa A apie ae ate 2:2 « aE |b [Is eo aD) 1.30 IL See aS eS. 52 oeel ae eee ae 1 (| 11 ee ee a Ae SR accel cl ERR imc c See al eae ere ere (ee eee EG | 1.50 let ee eeb os |AREeEEEed lo odc.canee) Seeer em aer 1 ie &) 1.60 | 1 Nae GbE ceces eee ees eee 3 3.0 1.70 | 2 fi ae 2 Dee Sees ee Bee 415 1. 80 1 BiedliSoone See eoae eee Chall 6.5 1.90 4 2 1 1 8 10.6 2.00 3 SB eallbcoec meee 1 8 14.7 2.10 3 1 3 1 8 18.8 2. 20 ag 2 1 2 10 23.9 2.30 4 2 1 3 11 29.5 2. 40 1 a3 il 5 10 34.6 2. 50 1 2 1 3 7 38. 2 | 2. 60 4 3 3 3 a 13 44.8 | 2. 70 1 3 7 1 12 50.9 | Pe eee nae 1 al as 8 55.0 | 2.90 i 1 1 3 6 58.1 | 3.00 | 1 2m 8 2 7 61.7 ka ee eae Tig) | eee 2 2 3 63. 2 | SO) Ui hs ant Ud ga PMN an | 3 3 64.7 | 3.30 | 1 3 A Wel ic Ghee 1 6 67.8 3.40 | 1 1 1 OFs, En en Bie [eorecz 08S oHOO aetna To tee ets 3 2 6 73.4 bl D tel ete eee iL ACen, 1 2 74.4 Bi Owe aeeceere a eee 1 Dra eeeer se, 3 75.9 Site) Meaabaeeeec Liane per hay Sea leororwer at 4 77.9 BOOM ete sien see One Lees esis I 2 4 80.5 | AON eS oem Sesaallce ie Sacre (te Sammars I ola Sasol A ae aa eo anibed | By eer na 80.5 CU SIT es oa rete ea | beat sees She 1 Piles eercer a 2 81.5 AI 20E Mee beaeeeess OP Rs aaeeie ees 1 1 4 83.5 CLG ed eens leaps 3 Ca [ersten eich peak aa Re 2 84.5 ASDC; cea Reese aerate tec, | Se ame ele yee 3 | 86.0 AS IO alerts srevealnystereeeerers ore 2 ELSA eletsiene eit 3 87.5 4. 60 1 Qty S da c:=-crsl| Es ee oe gas 3 89.0 AAI ere-seree Se. Of Mpseiiev- =: =/2:2|| SOS less ome oe ere 3 90.5 AS pelle eer 2 9a ke (Bc... 5, eam 28k ec | 90.5 AS OOD eee oie ces ,< lie ee rieeereenelle Oc +e cag 1 2 91.5 5. 00 1 it | eee es A sel eee ae eee 1p eee a ae 2 92° : DOO Pee cee ae Zool aR | is o's eta) | ete a ct 2 93.5 FAGOR le senmme nya Dye ya 3! 3 2 8s | S| Be et DN 7945 ATAU eal es ee ene Teer... ft el eee! Desc Sete il = 95. Oh GROOMS Asso ween O10 epee or: 5 cael ad aie meee 2 96.0 6. 10 PSS eects Saee|aea =~ - «tle arene el ices ce teres 1 . 96557 GHA sees ahies = DW tapos, 2i2,<.+s73)| Seater seiee siee ese 1 97.0 bo \0) a eercercercrcre It Ree | ie Sol Seema 1 97:5 SHO ba liars ta TQ | RMS. SG 0 ee ate 1 | 98.0 LOW20 Saleen ser Te ewac oss GREE er el Secicemscce Usa 98:5 10,20) Wesn eis iene Eo SS dite Dee 1 99.0 iG SL Nan fselee eae 1 el ipa Ro ecel aeeachae 1 99. 5°\4 ICC See | Ep eet Ss 2 eee emi eee 1 100. 0 Total. ... 39 39 39 38 42 | IS soa: a Average cost group. 48 BULLETIN 943, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE XXXII.—Array of farms according to cost per bushel, by counties, winter wheat. 1919 (284 farms). : Kansas. Missouri. Nebraska. Cumu- Cis aS ee lative group. Rie : St. ‘ * Total. | per cent Ford |Pawnee BRETeon Saline | Jasper Gharles Phelps | Saline | Keith ofall County.|County. County. County.|County. County. County.)County.|County farms. | Pe gua. Farms.| Farms.| Farms.| Farms.| Farms.| Farms.| Farms.| Farms.| Farms.| Farms. . LPAI RE See eno] See caiaiel (See ecicl's «cade atoall Mee eee oie Itc oes aes eee 2 0.7 1.10 2 UN | evehacd ap ell es Spiapeeiansll Siam creas ph petageis evel a Le et 3 1.8 1.20 1 a ee oe 1 ee se 1A Pe ai Stes Sy 1 5 3.6 1.30 2 Del | ese a ere eee ee 1 eve Sep et 3 8 6.4 1.40 1 Qi S| See peu ees Fe 1 i eee 1 2 10 9.9 1.50 1 PH ere ain a3 2 5 ae |e eae 2 Ne 3 20 16.9 1.60 4 Qs | ae es tes ce 2 4 1 1 a2 18 23.2 1.70 4 4! 1 1 3 GAG) |. eee 1 3 23 31.3 1.80 al 5 1 2 a3 4 2 1 2 21 38.7 OO RSE eee e 2 3 5 6 | 6 3 3 2 2 a 30 49.3 2.00 Diet| eotrecra ste 1 1 6 5 3 4 3 25 58.1 2.10 1 1 3 i 1 4 3 Sraalll ahs es 22 65.8 2.20 1 2 3 al 3 1 (@) Gd Nh wae 15 Tile 2.30 1 1 2 6 Ur (eee Ne |< coe 1 De aleteeicne 10 74.6 2.40 Pe tees See, G2) | eisinak ee ees 1 4 paged aes Oe 12 78.8 2.50 Pp il ates eee HS See a | 4 1 es SS Seay 12 83.0 ZEOOM |. Ss eS SL Ss a SES Ale ee 1 OF hy kee eee 5 84.8 2.70 2 1 3 Boe ibe seteoian paepatey oes - 1 tl ese etie 11 88.7 QSOS] So /Se ra Ula Tees | Seep eee De eee ei Ns oe Monat 3 Lg] HS eR 5 90.5 2O0F ae. seca es oot | Sees UNE Stam ete 55 sa5o0n6 1 1S ts | Asan es 3 91.6 B00) al Beet aaa ee 1 (he Beker al ges ey a te EER eee ees ra 2 92.3 BETO eee een acne 2 Le aie 1 2 et [ag acre Vas ante 1 4 93.7 3.20 ag ee eee i Une Se (me et ieee GL NO cll 2 94.4 Shou Garson SHneseee 1 SDS) iss Pe Spey ce iV | | 2 95.1 DOE {ce rare che Me cy che | eee | mal Er URE ee tee re 1 95.4 nati eA Cemees| maserecis aes [Se se ee eee al: = SA See a ee Rae alee a 2 96.1 Sh CUN ee aaron bY eee rere eee See per oka imc, Sepa | 1 chi: 9 ee 3 97.2 557s || ceseee Booaetiel becca. ) a eS Stel Sasa mercies) Soe cia soue de 1 97.5 BESO in| are steels a eee ie Rees Pert scccectaleeseaes| (48 sesee cle ooas one 1 97.8 SOOT Neteie ate ol eemetne ce hn hee eter en isl en a ee I oo ace 1 98.1 BOO) [iets hhc al| Ae er ie es agile eee | eee Ae ro Sab Asa Selle Aber acells lanes 98.1 (loa Wh eee ere ers ale ae ete iL yh) ee S| eee Ue eae [Dae Baty | Re 1 98.4 AZO BS 5 ee Sapa A me pea Pepe aS 1.90 54. 2 2. 00 63. 6 2.10 68.8 2.20 72.9 2.30 76.9 2.40 80.7 2. 50 85. 2 2.60 86.5 2.70 91.3 2. 80 92.0 2.90 92.7 3. 00 93.1 3.10 93.8 3.20 94.8 3. 30 95. 0 3. 40 95.5 3. 50 95.9 3. 60 96.9 3. 70 97.1 3.20 97.3 3. 90 97.7 4.00 97.7 4.10 97.8 4, 20 97.8 4.30 98. 4 5.10 99.1 5. 20 99. 2 8. 20 100.9 | | a Average cost per bushel for all winter wheat. CUMULATIVE PER CENT OF TOTAL PRODUCTION. Tables XXXV and XXXVI show the cumulative per cent of total production with reference to cost per bushel. In the spring-wheat areas about 67 per cent of the total bushels har- vested was grown on farms havings costs not in excess of the general average of $2.65 per bushel. This percentage varied in different counties. In Grand Forks County, 87 per cent of the production was grown at a cost of $2.60 or less, but in Morton County only 13.3 per cent was produced as cheaply as $2.60 per bushel. _ In the winter-wheat districts approximately 60 per cent of the total production was raised at the average cost or less per bushel. As in the spring-wheat districts, the cumulative per cent of production grown at various costs per bushel showed considerable variation among the various districts visited. heat, 1919 . > & p> [aa = =e =) = “a POM ARMAHHAOMAAHINANM IMMORHHOHOMABKLK AMOK AOHHDDANAHMRANHDON DAS ial S&S og SS CHAS SoSH SH SHR USAR IS SASKASDSHHAKM eH SSO ORNS | 0 | =H AAA HIRIRO 1SH EER DDHDDHDRAAAARAAARAHRBAHGBAG ae - a8 ; LS = Fy Se ; (2 S p Aare 1 FEDORA MOHRON IH MMONADHIDSOSOOMIDINAAAAAAAS 6 8 d Die coe flesartt atic restttiatat IAG SSSHS [eSNG IMSSHTFA SI GISSASSAS = S a) aeG ite of AAMT MWHOCRRRDDORARAGDABAAHAAD 5 ae wer S 8 EO & 5 oF os jo Bae 5 as COWMODOMNR MD MORK KRKKROCHDKNNMMONARODOOODO eS Sle a USS roti wien ce rer hens Pino SSE Sr (SBHAtssstHSAAH HAHA SR AOK MHDS Pt c = o oag OOH \ORNR ALE RR DDHRAHARAAARGARAARAS a © ica] ~ ; | o Sm © ' s a4 o a 28 : : 3 a Qs i ad id Te OOM OAHAHRMOMIONN \OMKRHMMAWDDORAMAMAANANANS Ss a ag & SHA AAA SHAH SBMABANA (NK HOSDADMHASBHAHAANAMSSSSS Fl so eB a,5A = ASEH IDGOSH NNR DDDORAABAGBAGAHAAAS | > i} S Sa 5 250 a : ay a oa ; H oN | § 3 : (=) So ae q B bx BL IRN NN AAAMMMM IMHHOOCONHMHHHIDNININANDDOKRARBKKRNHORKRMHOMOHO ~~ = y= le) ietaet te oes AAA ANANNN MH (HHHASDAIAGDGHKRGHGHHAHHOHHMORKMMISGHANANBSORASS nh = z 8 Pape ENC) Se ieee hen et Oia Beall Bafa lon) sul oe ee eee re SoM seo SSIES ESIC HE MENS C EMSS NC ENSS Oe | One ll sees, cheer ‘ so Or Se Nae D ' aS ave ear icblt rsh SS ae ee ne 3 oo TIMOR OCMOMARMHHHOD (HHOOODOARRRERERRARERREN DMD MARAM|D rrr en ee Ue rN lh ale UU vehiver ewe tie ese) we Paice ie! fe cayvam, teva Sallieapel Cayo alist ea lve ba iise i 6 mia) 6 eel as eticta ) et Je aie,0 Once cen le, Se ugeee 2 be ' ‘ . ’ oo S Ama 8 ADIGSIGN A GARAG SNS 1 HHA HG GMSSSSSSSSSCSCSHENENERENS 1 pitas >i S So = FAA DTHHON NN D 1DOHBAGAHAAABRHRAHAAHAAAABHAHGAGGBGAGGS srr ras > = } Ok SF S ’ ’ > OZ ei en eee TP DS oe ee age eee 3 ges = = ; seoeSoosoeooSe SOC SoOSCSOOMO SD eS OSSD OSD OS OS OOO OSD OSSD SOD O OSS OOO SOSEeSCO = O 2 SAAD AN DOR DAHOHAMA DOOR DH AOAAMADORDHOHAMADORDAHOMORORMORAMAS ica] | 58 Ssqadda GHANA IAAAA Sood ad oad odo odod tat wat ta wai wt Had idig i GOS SAOHSSN 1S) 8 Bo ® s Sie = a KK % & 4 Q fo + Yon) a) | a Average cost per bushel for all spring wheat. COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 58 Taste XXXVI.—Cumulative per cent of total production, by counties, winter wheat, 1919 (284 farms). Cumulative per cent of total production. i Cost MePher-| «.; St. ; ae group. Ford | Pawnee gayi Saline | Jasper Charles Phelps | Saline | Keith All County, | County, | goin ty, | County, | County, |qounty, | County, | County, | County, aan Kans. | Kans. Kane. Mo. Mo. A Y>! Nebr. | Nebr. | Nebr. EEL Per bush. | Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent.| Per cent. $1. 00 GL, OD Ness ses et YS a | ZL DE 11.3 2.33 1.10 11.3 OR ES eS Oa ic. ae eee ae ees fe Sn COSC RGl IIS ae (Series aes 11.3 5.1 1. 20 12.8 (ee eee tec AN OU las cya es Gh (8; Sees sae Seeeiee sae 13. 4 6.5 1. 30 24.9 UPI) a) Ls ee AR OW Is = cts COOL A hs 2 coe ema, Be) 25.1 12.:0 1. 40 31.1 2S ona aee tee 4.6 iy 74 TON Da ills cyseraeek: « 3.0 34. 5 18.5 1.50 Bie 2 BON Oita Wee se Sse 9. 0 20. 4 S33. (3 4 ipa ens oe 3.0 55. 6 27.5 1. 60 beh il AQ dW tl Me soto! 9.0 24. 1 43.6 4.3 6.4 58. 6 35. 2 1.70 61.0 69. 2 1.8 iby, 38.3 56. 8 4.3 8.3 64.9 45. 1 1.80 64. 6 82.7 3.8 31.4 PhS 65. 7 11. 4 11.0 72.8 53. 6 iL, QUE oe cecboe deat tac 4 SeamGooac poeecn soe Seeeemmern IS c\cses oat lyase Mere erates] Le Ne yr Ie RPE i 1.90 64. 6 89. 7 29), il 54.9 74.0 73.8 30. 4° 18. 6 83. 5 63. 9 2. 00 74. 5 89.7 Dow 58. 2 92. 9 85. 0 54.1 30. 6 99. 8 73.7 2.10 WS 91.7 31.8 60. 6 95. 4 93 0 64.5 51.8 99.8 78. 4 2. 20 78.9 96. 3 41.2 65. 4 100. 0 95. 0 64.5 66. 0 99. 8 82. 2 2. 30 82.9 97.9 52.1 Wosom ee = oe 95. 0 68. 0 71.5 99. 8 85. 5 2. 40 86. 3 97.9 58. 2 Om Nl ele 100. 0 76. 4 82. 2 99.8 88. 5 2. 50. 90. 4 97. 9 76. 1 163.5 >| |Sae5aee oe lloasaccses 84.8 85. 2 99.8 91.8 2. 60. 90. 4 97.9 80.8 OSONy ||) o = 35 eee 86. 7 94.5 99.8 92. 9 2.70 96. 8 99. 2 88. 0 CVG | eer cscs 89. 1 95. 9 99. 8 95. 9 2. 80 96. 8 99. 2 88. 0 SON2) 32a... pa eee oe 93. 1 96. 7 99. 8 96. 4 2. 90 96. 8 99. 2 88. 0 ON GW || osc). ha eee se 94. 4 98. 6 99. 8 97. 0 3. 00 96. 8 99. 2 90. 4 OB86s Tee 22-2) Saleeee ee eae 94. 4 98. 6 99. 8 97.3 3. 10 96. 8 99. 2 94.1 OER O ie eM. 2/2 ere 94. 4 98. 6 100. 0 97. 7 3. 20 98. 1 99, 2 95. 5 OA ON Wisc.) eee ee 94. 4 URE Se aeeaees 98. 1 3. 30 98. 1 99. 2 96. 0 Oe aeECe alls sauaeies 94. 4 QBN Oval ass ace 98. 3 3. 40 98. 1 99. 2 96. 0 (L1G) 7a emer ee 11S a 97.0 O8h Ont ao) Neel 98. 5 3. 50 98. 1 99. 2 96. 9 OG Shales: <= eee ee 98. 4 O86" lan oa Beier | 98. 7 3. 60 98. 1 100. 0 96. 9 OG Sails 202 pos ee ee 100. 0 TOONO ease eee 99.1 3. 70 5 99. 2 3. 80 99. 3 3. 90 99. 5 4. 00 99. 5 4.10 99. 6 4, 20 99. 6 4,30 99.7 5. 10 99. 8 5. 20 99.9 8. 20 100. 0 a Average cost per bushel for all winter wheat. 54 BULLETIN 943, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INDIVIDUAL COSTS PER ACRE. Table XX XVII shows costs per acre for each of the owned farms covered by the survey. TABLE XXXVII.—Jndividual costs per acre on owned land, spring and winter wheat, 1919 (327 farms). Factors of cost, per acre. Total net cost, with rent. Ree- | Acres | Yield ord | har- | Total Total | Rent ue num-| vest- | 2TOSS net i ae per ber. | ed. | anor. | Mate- |Thrash-| Miscel-] cost, |Greqit.| Cost, or Cio Pen iar || Sees Seo EVE | ing. jlaneous.| with- ‘| with- eae ees acre. | bushel. | out out ent rent. rent. | ment). SPRING WHEAT. TRAND ForKS County, N. Dak. 1 375'| $6.25) $3.59] $2.72) $3.22 | $15.78 |__..... $15.78 | $3.60 | $19.38 | $1.26 15.4 2 280 7.43 4. 63 3.21] 5.12] 20.39 | $0.36 | 20.03 5.40 | 25. 43 1.52 16.7 3 260 3. 63 3. 60 2. 88 3.92 | 14.03 -90 |) 13.53 6.00 | 19.53 1.63 12.0 4 173 6. 59 4.67 3. 58 Bboy) LS.) Noseesoe 18.79 3.60 | 22.39 1. 64 13.7 5 200 5, 42 3. 47 3. 67 S29) eloason| teen 15.85 2.40 | 18.25 1. 66 11.0 6 180 8. 88 4. 66 3.19 A5669)) 20739)|225 622. 21.39 4.50 | 25.89 1.71 11.9 af 65 4, 84 3.94 2.12 3.08} 13.98 46} 13.52 5.40] 18.92 1.72 11.0 8 63 9.37 3. 94 4.00 4.86 | 22.17 .63 | 21.54 4.50 | 26.04 1.75 14.9 9 553 7.02 4,27 2.25 3.50 | 17.04 09} 16.95 4.20} 21.15 1.76 12.0 10 475 5. 66 3. 80 3.18 3.40] 16.04 |....... 16. 04 6.00 | 22.04 1. 87 11.8 11 236 8. 07 4, 26 3.18 4.76 | 20.27 -21] 20.06 4.50 | 24.56 1.88 13.1 12 110 6. 53 3.99 2. 24 Shei || MG. Til [oon s- 16.11 5.40 | 21.51 1.89 11.4 13 65 7. 54 4.10 2.07 4.46} 18.17 SHE || We 40) 4.20 | 21.60 1.92 11.3 14 200, 5. 58 4.15 3. 92 Os 22) mn Saar ellge || Altes 7A0) 3.30 | 22.00 1.95 11.3 15 80 5. 83 3.19 1.75 3.34 | aa Site | eee 14.11 5.40 | 19.51 2.08 9.4 16 410 5. 55 2. 81 3. 66 440) hy LONE 2 eee 16. 42 5.40] 21.&2 2.14 10. 2 17 90 6.30 3. 28 2. 78 SHOTA i 1LGSsoa| ae eee 16. 33 5.40 | 21.73 2.24 9.7 18 300 8. 06 4.01 4.77 5.20 | 22. 04 sili |] PAL Se 5.10 | 26.97 2.34 Tl..5) 61 295 5.37 4.47 1.87 3.44 | 15.15 -30 | 14.85 5.10 | 19.95 2. 67 7.5 20 160 6. 61 3. 76 2.25 32/39) AGrognleeeeeas 16.35 7.50 | 23.85 2.98 8.0 21 300 6. 25 4,22 2. 50 4.44 | 17.41 20) Lit 3.00} 20.21 Seat 6.0 22 15 6. 63 4,19 3. 82 3.53 | 18517 |) +2233) |) 15:84 3.60} 19.44 3. 89 5.0 a3} 155 7.69 4. 63 2.98 5.40 | 20.30 -o2| 19.98 3.60 | 23.58 4.57 5.2 24 450 5. 46 4.57 2.22] 10.18] 22.43 .89 | 21.54 6.00 | 27.44 6. 12 4.5 Morton County, N. Dak. 1 35 | $6.13 | $2.84] $0.81] $8.11 | $12.89 | $1.14 | $11.75) $2.40} $14.15) $1.64 8.6 2 63 6. 33 2.05 .09 3.76 | 12.73 BA) Pei 2.10} 14.12 2. 03 6.9 3 12 5, 51 3.15 . 66 3.12 | 12.44] 1.50] 10.94 3.00] 13.94 2.29 6.1 4 280} 10.58 3. 83 - 93 4.27] 19.61 -18 | 19. 43 2.10) 22513 2. 29 9.6 5 40 8. 22 2. 52 - 50 3.36 | 14.60] 2.50] 12.10 1.80 | 13.90 2.78 5.0 6 65 11. 41 3. 68 . 64 4.54 | 20.27 .77 |. 19.50 2.10} 21.60 2.99 7.2 7 150 (p73 21h SO 4.07 | 14.58 .53 | 14.05 2.10) 16.15 3. 04 5.3 8 275 8. 03 3. 54 . 83 6.45 | 18.85 .25 | 18.60 2.10} 20.70 3. 06 6.8 9 500 4.13 3.14 . 33 2.86 | 10.46 SPAN || 10) Xs) 3.00} 13.26 3.19 4.2 10 50 9.65 4.28 - 60 9.95 | 24.48 |..----- 24,48 2.10] 26.58 3.32 8.0 11 210 8.99 3.11 Be yi 3.23 | 15.70 31 15. 39 1.50 | 16.89 3.50 4.8 12 260 | 11.68 3.18 - 65 5.00 | 20.51 a (lil 19. 74 1.80] 21.54 3.57 6.0 13 30 9.63 2.92 64 3.35 | 16.54 -30 | 16.24 1.20) 17.44 3. 74 4.7 14 29 11.64 3.14 .69 6.49 | 21.96 .28 | 21.68 1.80 | 23.48 3. 86 6.1 15 120 | 10.28 4.19 48 4.68} 19.63} 1.25] 18.38 3.60 | 21.98 3.92 5.6 16 140 5. 54 3.15 . 30 4.02] 13.01 27 | 12.74 1.80} 14.54 4.11 3.5 if/ 40 9.38 3.43 03 5. 04 18. 38 -60 | 17.78 2.40] 20.18 4.12 4.9 18 100 8.95 3.38 -46 4.21 17.00 -50 | 16.50 1.50} 18.00 4, 23 4.3 19 100 9.34 3.13 -o2 5.47 | 18,46 SHOW for(i! 3.60 | 21.31 4.30 5.0 20 150 8.59 4.24 . 30 3.27 | 16.40 .50 | 15.90 2.40] 18.30 4,58 4.0 21 100 8. 95 3.34 36 4.67] 17.32 -45 16. 87 1.80 | 18.67 4.60 4.1 22 100 | 12.09 2.32 . 50 5.25 | 20.16 -18'}| 19.98 1.80] 21.78 4.74 4.6 23 100 10. 62 3.59 -03 7.41 22.15 1.08 21. 07 2.10 | 23.17 4.88 4.8 24 150 8.79 3. 01 37 15. 03 Pf 7AV Noo ishehd) 26. 40 1.50 27.90 §. 28 5.3 25 160 13.14 3.14 - 46 4.79 21. 53 19 21.34 1. 50 22. 84 5.33 4.3 26 60 7.98 2.52 . 20 2.85 13.60 . 20 13. 40 2.10 15. 50 5. 57 2.8 27 186 8.07 3.46 20 4,81 16. 59 .67 15. 92 2.10 18. 02 5.64 3.2 28 170} 10.45 4.01 52)}' 12:36) 2784 le Wea? || 20887 2.10 | 27.97 5.68 4,9 = COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. YS, Taste XX XVII.—IJndwidual costs per acre on owned land, spring and winter wheat, 1919 (327 farms)—Continued. , Total net cost, Factors of cost, per acre. | est on Per Per : rial, ing. j|laneous.) with- "| with- |; ¢.| acre. | bushel. | out out er, % | | | rent. rent. |e") SPRING WHEAT—Coctinued. Morton County, N. Daxk.—Continued. 29 140| $9.31 | $3.17 | $0.27 | $4.82 | $17.57 | $2.32 | $15.25] $2.40 | $17.65 $5. 98 3.0 30 275} 10.75 2. 26 +39 5.02 | 18.38 -45 | 17.93 2.10} 20.03 6. 03 3.3 31 100 8.78 4.20 - 28 4.04 17.30 sda) 16:97 300) |) igh 87 6.79 2.9 32 23 6.19 2.70 -18 4.56 | 13.63 -22| 13.41 1.50] 14.91 7.45 2.0 33 60 8.79 B23 36))) 16°39) 28.77 83 | 27.94 1.80] 29.74 8.30 3.6 34 80} 14.62 4.40 24 4.74 | 24.00 32 | 23.68 1.50] 25.18 10.17 2.5 35 205 7.44 3. 28 24 3.37 | 14.33 15) 14.18} 1.50] 15.68 10. 44 1.5 36 80 8.55 2.43 20 7.20 | 18.38 75 17.63 | 3.00} 20.63 12.13 isd 37 | 250 6.38 3.01 10 3. O1 12.50 20 | 12.30 1.50 | 13.80 14. 38 1.0 ! | SPINK County, S. DAK. 1 60 | $5.82] $3.14 | $5.00) $4.30 | $18.26 | $0.42 | $17.84} $6.00 | $23.84 | $1.15 | 20.8 2 120 5. 97 4.03 3.53 Aan) |) Mae asco ase 16. 86 6.00} 22.86 1.39 16.4 3 60 8. 96 3. 89 1.11 4.77 18.73 | 2.25 16. 48 6.00 | 22.48 1.79 12.6 4 135 5. 44 3.97 2.95 4.04} 16.40 -30} 16.10 6.00} 22.10 2.01 11.0 5 145 6.73 2.20 3.49 3.65 16.07 -25 | 15.82 8.10 | 23.92 2.03 11.8 6 180 8.11 3.13 3.58 4.31 19.13 -05 | 19.08 7.50 | 26.58 2.03 13.1 7 60 | 10.52 3.69 1.35 4.14 IGE TW |jae---- 19.70 7.50 | 27.20 2.15 12.7 8 100 4.17 2.99 2.08 4.09 | 13.33 |------- 13.33 6.00 | 19.33 2.18 8.8 9 200 8.18 3.73 2.73 4.22 | 18.86 25 18.61 7.50'| 26.11 2.20 11.6 10 | 85 6.97 3.10 3.18 4.89 18.14 a9 17.55 9.60] 27.15 2.30 11.8 11 163 7.46 3.80 3. 04 3.74 | 18.04 61 17. 43 6.00 | 23.43 2.39 9.8 12 250 6.79 3.05 2.97 4.54 WGC lee = = 20 17.35 9.00 | . 26.35 2.48 10.6 13 85 4.78 3.46 1.91 ANS || 145335 see 14. 33 6.09 | 20.33 2.63 Let 14 300 5. 56 3.43 2.59 4.17 | 15.75 -33 15. 42 9.00 | 24.42 2.66 9.2 15 100 6. 20 2.58 2.92 3.85 15.55 -00 | 15.05 6.00] 21.05 2.68 7.8 16 190 6.68 4.19 1.64 Ba Jl7/ 15.68 -08 15.15 6.00} 21.15 2.71 7.8 17 100 4.71 3. 04 3.10 4.52 | 15.37 25 15.12 9.00 | 24.12 2. 82 8.6 18 75 10.14 5. 42 2.35 oa Oal) 23-710) || beeen 23.70 9.00} 32.70 3. 03 10.8 19 210 7.64 4.08 2.55 4.41 | 18.68 ]|.-.-.-- 18.68 | 12.00] 30.68 3.10 9.9 20 40 8.39 2.98 2.24 S410) 17231 | asses 17.31 5.40 | 22.71 3.13 7.2 21 100 7.44 3.01 2.36 3-91 16.72 -12| 16.60 6.00} 22.60 3.30 6.8 22 525 8. 26 3.61 4.69 3.74 | 20.30 -05 | 20.25 9.00 | 29.25 3.39 7.8 23 320 6. 07 3. 04 2. 28 5.50 | 16.89 -47 | 16.42 9.60} 26.02 3.42 7.6 24 160 5. 59 3.31 1.97 GAGS Ee /Hoo || ae 17.55 6.00 | 23.55 3.90 6.0 25 120 8.40 3. 26 1.08 3. 54 16. 28 -00| 15.78 7.50 | 23.28 3.98 5.8 26 320 8.06 3.29 1.78 3.94 17.07 25 16.82 | 10.50} 27.32 4.11 6.6 27 300} 11.94 3.48 1.16 4.20 | 20.78 -33 | 20.45 7.50 | 27.95 4.49 6.2 28 330 5.76 3.31 3. 28 3.50 | 15. 85 -29 | 15.60 7.50 | 23.10 4.54 5.1 CLAY COUNTY, MINN. 1 58 | 36.89 | $4.45 ; $9.96 | $3.78 | $16.08 | $0.26 | $15.82 | $7.50 | $23.32 | $1.54 15.1 2 80 9. 86 5.18" 3.45 5.76 | 24.25 -ol | 23.94 7.50} 31.44 1.90 16.6 3 160 9. 46 5. 50 1.76 4.80 | 21.52 135) 21-39 6.00} 27.39 2.08 13.2 4 127 8.09 3.72 1.16 AS) 17/45 Eo eee 17.45 9.00} 26.45 2.19 12.1 5 85 5. 84 3.66 1.10 4.32] 14.92 -16 | 14.76 6.00 | 20.76 2.42 8.6 6 39 5.32 3.81 -92 4.15 14. 20 a ilil 14. 09 12.00 | 26.09 2.47 10.6 i 900 5.68 4.25 85 3.30 | 14.13} 1.39) 12.74 9.00} 21.74 2.62 8.3 8 120 | 10.02 5. 82 1.56 6.14 | 23.54 21 23. 33 9.00 | 32.33 2.69 12.0 9 110 9.19 4.27 1.46 4.47 | 19.39 -45 | 18.94 12.00 | 30.94 2.71 11.4 10 930 4.64 4.64 1.20 6.41 16. 89 -48 | 16.41 12.00] 28.41 2.80 10. 2 11 240 7.82 3.95 1.25 3.98 | 17.00 -42|) 16.58 6.60 | 23.18 2.81 8.2 12 300 9. 36 3.74 97, 3.59 | 17.62 -17 | 17.45 6.00 | 23.45 2.93 8.0 13 90} 10.30 4.60 We 27 4.53 | 20.70 -56 | 20.14 6.00 | 26.14 3.36 7.8 14 100 | 12.81 4.91 1.74 6.34 | 25.80 .00 | 25.30 6.00 | 31.30 3.43 @) 1 15 280 6.13 4.36 -79 6.74 | 18.02 -23 | 17.79 6.60 | 24.39 3.48 7.0 16 160 4. 36 4.99 -74 6.07 | 16.16 1.25] 14.91 9.00 | 23.91 3.71 6.4 17 75 8. 81 4.58 1.91 4.66 | 19.96} 1.04} 18.92] 10.50} 29.42 3, 7) 7.8 18 800 8. 47 3.67 1.36 3.05 | 16.55 156 | 14.99 6.00 | 20.99 3. 83 5.5 56 BULLETIN 43, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste XXXVII.—IJndividual costs per acre on owned land, spring and winter wheat, 1919 (327 farms)—Continued. Total net cost Factors of cost, per acre. Eon. Rec- | Acres viel ord | har- Total Total | pont ield num-) vest- | - TOSS net | (nter- lee ber. | ed. | yapor.| Mate- |Thrash-| Miscel-| cost, |Greqit.| Cost, | ect Per Bere soca: ador-) mal. | ing. flaneous.| with- |~7°°™) with- |.°° v5 acre. | bushel. out out AN rent. rent. | ™ent). SPRING WHEAT —Continued. CLay County, Minn.—Continued. 19 70) $8.71 | $5.41} $0.94) $3.95 | $19.01 |..--.-.- $19.01 | $7.50 | $26.51 | $4.08 6.5 20 100 8.97 4.07 +293 3.82 | 17.79 | $9.16} 17.63 6.00} 23.638 4.30 5.5 21 180} 11.34 4,24 2.41 6.76 | 24.75} 1.11 23. 64 7.50 | 31.14 4.32 7.2 22 250 | 10.50 3.90 2.43 3.85 | 20.68 20 | 20.48 6.00 | 26.48 4.41 6.0 23 130 11.47 6.29 1.43 5.94] 25.13] 3.08] 22.05 7.50 | 29.55 4.49 6.6 24 220 7. 08 3.82 48 6.38 | 17.76 68 | 17.08 9.00] 26.08 5. 02 5.2 25 30 7.73 4.48 1.56 3.72 WAG) 2 aoe 17.49 9.00 | 26.49 5. 30 5.0 26 75 8.12 4.07 1.25 5.31 18.75 44 18.31 6.00 | 24.31 6.68 3.6 i TRAVERSE COUNTY, MINN. 1 120] $8.63 | £3.48] $1.48] $38.27 | $16.86 | $0.34 | $16.52 | $4.80 | $21.32 | $1.91 11.2 2 97 8. 46 3.33 1.29 4.69 17.77 -32| 17.45 9.00 | 26.45 2. 02 13.1 3 45 9.99 4.99 1.45 508) |iee2teoly| eee 21.51 5.40 | 26.91 2.05 13.1 4 100 8.68 4.40 1.30 3.02] 17.40] 1.60] 15.80 4:80 | 20.60 2.10 9.8 5 LOW LO Nii 4.02 1.41 42231) 2ONsS aE 1B 8 20. 43 6.00 | 26.43 2.22 11.9 6 160 8.13 4.76 1.44 4.34] 18.67 94 17.73 7.50 | 25.23 2.24 11.2 7 30 7.80 4.02 1. 04 2. 94 15. 80 A-7 15. 53 6.00} 21.53 2.27 9.5 8 500 7.99 3h 7il 97 2.98] 15.65 aa05|) Tons 4.80) 20.15 2. 28 8.8 9 70 7.99 4.29 1.60 3.84 | 17.72 -36 | 17.36 6.00 | 23.36 2.31 10.1 10 275 5.11 4.01 75 5.29] 15.16 45 | 14.71 6.00] 20.71 2.40 8.6 11 33 | 10.59 4. 04 2.45 4.35] 21.43 45 | 20.98 | 12.00} 32.98 2.44 13.6 12 90 8. 86 3. 92 93 5.27} 18.98 20) 18.78 7.50 | 26.28 2.44 10.8 13 100 | 12.29 4, 38 1.57 5.04} 23.28 13 | 28.15 6.00 | 29.15 2.50 | ° 11.6 14 160 | 10.18} 4.45 1.47 4.46 | 20.56 50 | 20. 06 7.80 | 27. 86 2.53 11.0 15 230 8. 20 4.47 90 2.84 | 16.41 05 | 16.36 4.80 | 21.16 2.61 8.1 16 300 5. 90 3.18 . 96 4.67 | 14.71 67 | 14.04 6.00 | 20. 04 2.73 7.4 17 50 8.09 4.14 .97 Shey iG: 7/7 66 | 16.11 7.50 | 23.61 2.75 8.6 18 340 | 10.96 3.48 1.48 3. 97 19. 89 15 19. 74 7.20 | 26.94 2.78 9.7 19 165 5.61 3. 56 Pars 5.28 | 15.58 30 | 15.28 7.50 | 22.78 2.78 8.2 20 70 9. 86 4,12 . 88 3.47 | 18.33] 1.00} 17.33 6.00 | 23.33 2.79 8.4 21 160 9. 35 3.55 -98 ALAL.|\ ROOR 2 eee 17.99 6.00 | 23.99 2.79 8.6 22 90} 11.23 4.63 1.07 4,21 | *21.14 39 | 20.75 7.20 | 27.95 2. 85 9.8 23 40 8. 32 3.97 1.66 SAM MOON Pee eee 17. 66 6.00 | 23.66 2. 86 8.3 24 200 | 10.87 3.70 1.69 4.00 | 20. 26 25 | 20.01 4.80 | 24. 81 2.93 8.5 25 200 8. 78 4.42 1.13 3.69 18. 02 10 17. 92 7.50 | 25.42 2.94 8.6 23 155 8.77 4.53 1.70 3. 50 TSO ON |S <2. aeeS 18. 50 9.00 | 27.50 2.99 9. 2 27 225 9.57 3.35 = fal 3x60. || As Se sae 17. 24 6.00 | 23.24 3. 06 7.6 28 230 | 11.17 4.14 Ul 1l7/ 3.78 | 20.26 -22 | 20.04 6.00 | 26.04 3.18 8.2 29 40 | 10.83 3.29 2.65 4.03 | 20.80 .27 | 20.53 6.00 | 26.53 3. 22 8.2 30 60 | 12.68 4,04 1.43 4.91 | 23.06 42 | 22.64 7.50 | 30.14 3. 29 9.2 31 100 9. 29 4,29 93 4.13 | 18.64] 1.00} 17.64 9.00 | 26.64 3.46 Hoth 32 300 8. 25 4.45 Stil 2.97 |* 16.44 |...-.-. 16. 44 7.50 | 23.94 3.54 6.0 33 210 11.04 4.13 . 80 4,29 9|/ e206 |e 20. 26 4.80 | 25.06 3.58 7.0 34 90 8. 03 4.50 1.14 3.16 | 16.83 50 | 16.33 6.00 | 22.33 3.59 6.2 35 360 8. 80 4.40 1.22 A. TA | SIS856))|/22-2204 18. 56 7.50 | 26.06 4,24 6.2 36 51 17.73 5.77 2.94 9.65 | 36.09 25 | 35.84] 12.00] 47.84 4.93 9.7 WINTER WHEAT. Forp COUNTY, K ANS. 1 320 | $9.29] $2.06| $0.42} $2.48 | $14.25 | $0.84 | $13.41 | $3.60 | $17.01 | $0.98 17.4 2 90 10. 30 1.85 4.48 5.08 | 21.71 2.90 | 18.81 3.00 | 21.81 -99 22.0 3 200 13.43 2.68 4.59 5.16] 25.86 | 3.60] 22.26 3.60 | 25. 86 1. 06 24.3 4 300 8. 95 2.53 4.45 5.39 | 21)32 .54 | 20.78 4.50 | 25.28 1.15 22.0 5 220 | 10.41 2. 35 4. 00 4.37 | 21.138 | 1.73] 19.40 3.60 | 23.00 1.15 20.0 6 100 9.79 2. 88 3.49 5.85 | 22.01) 1.20) 20.81 3.00 | 23.81 1,24 19.2 7 335 9. 94 2. 24 3.10 4.60 | 19.88 . 36 19. 52 3.00 | 22.52 1.26 17.9 8 240) 11.15 2.73 4.44 DOD») | Seem Mal le areata 23. 97 4.50 | 28.47 1.29 22.0 9 190 7.50 1.65 2. 20 4.53 | 15. 88 .31 15. 57 3.00 | 18.57 1.29 14.4 10 190 8. 87 1.72 3. 92 3.37 17. 88 - 05 17. 83 2.40 | 20.23 1.29 15.7 11 110 9.72 1.64 3. 86 5.76 | 20.98} 1.56 | 19.42 3.00 | 22.42 1.34 16.8 COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 57 TABLE XXX VII.—Individual costs per acre on owned land, spring and winter wheat, 1919 (327 farms)—Continued. Factors of cost, per acre. Total net cost, with rent. Rec- | Acres : ord | har- Total Total | pont ae num-| vest- Sr OSS net | (inter- acre ber. | ed. iLeinorr Mate- |Thrash-| Miscel-} Cost, red cost, oat Gal Per Per . abor.) rial. | ing. jlaneous.| with- | with- | °°" c1-| acre. | bushel. out out ment) rent. rent. : WINTER WHEAT—Continued. ForpD County, KAans.—Continued. 12 100 | $9.41 | $1.36] $2.85 | $2.44 | $16.06 | $0.34 | $15.72 | $2.40 | $18.12] $1.41 12.9 13 80 | 12.35 2. OL 2.90 5.36 | 22.62 | 2.37 | 20.25 3.00 | 23.25 |] » 1.55 15.0 14 230 | 11.89 2.73 3. 46 6.23 | 24.31 -09 | 24.22 3.00} 27.22 1.60 17.0 15 175 | 11.41 lene 2.65 4.53 | 20.32 -20.| 20.12 3.00} 23.12 1.69 13.7 16 105 7.12 |. 2.43 2.10 5.11 17. 36 .69 | 16.67 3.00 | 19.67 1.30 10. 4 17 140 8.48 1.50 2.42 4.23 | 16.63 | 1.42) 15.21 3.60 | 18.81 2.09 9.0 18 80 | 13.74 1.96 ile 3.88 | 21.35 .78 | 20.57 3.60 | 24.17 2.15 11.2 19 200} 13.71 3. 29 1.67 4.70 | 23.37 -70 | 22.67 3.00 } 25.67 2.62 9.8 20 250 8.00 1.52 - 63 3.24] 13.39] 1.60] 11.79 3.00 | 14.79 4.35 3.4 21 200 6. 61 2. 80 82 20 |) WLC ooesos0 12. 93 3.00 | 15.93 4.90 3.2 22 145 8.78 1.70 38 3.96 | 14.82 -31 | 14.51 2.40 | 16.91 8.04 2.1 23 70 6.30 1.98 76 7.92 | 16.96 .36 | 16.60 3.00] 19.60] 13.72 1.4 PAWNEE COUNTY, KANS. 1 75 | $6.91 | $2.88 | $3.01 | $4.40 | $17.20 | $2.72 | $14.48 | $6.00 | $20.48 | $1.05 19.5 2 470 6.46 2.51 3.33 4.26 | 16.56] 1.36] 15.20 4.80} 20.00 1.08 18.5 3 120 6.07 1.91 3.47 4.41 15. 86 -40 | 15.46 6.00 | 21.46 1.12 19.2 4 87 8. 94 1.78 3. 84 4.24 | 18.80 -06 | 18.74 4.50 | 23.24 1.16 20.0 5 135 6. 99 3. 86 1.33 4.57 | 16.75 | 10.70 6.05 4.50} 10.55 1.20 8.8 6 140 4. 26 2.91 3.46 §.24 | 15.87 .86 | 15.01 4.50} 19.51 1.37 14.3 7 310 7.92 1.73 3.76 6.89 | 20.30} 1.02} 19.28 6.00 | 25.28 1.44 17.5 8 25 5. 99 1.55 3.40 4.95 | 15.89 68 | 15.21 4.50} 19.71 1.52 13.0 9 160 8. 86 2.03 3. 32 3. 17 17.38 | 1.97 15. 41 6.00 | 21.41 1.56 13.8 10 110 6. 16 2. 49 2.74 4.68 | 16.07 .45 | 15.62 6.Q0 | 21.62 1.59 13.6 11 400 5. 89 3.41 2. 50 4.08 | 15.88 -10 | 15.78 4.80 | 20.58 1.66 12.4 12 240 6. 96 2.00 2.69 %. 21 18.92] 1.30] 17.62 4.80 | 22.42 1. 67 13.5 13 80 | 10.84 2.67 3.55 7.29 | 24.35} 1.40] 22.95 6.00 | 28.95 1.70 17.0 14 140 | 7.28 3. 00 2.36 6.13 | 18.77 | 1.42 | 17.35 5.40 | 22.75 1.75 13.0 15 80 6. 92 2.20 2.25 6.16 | 17.53 | 1.33 | 16.20 4.50 | 20.70 1.88 11.0 16 305 5.75 2.21 1.91 5.59 | 15.46 -80 | 14.66 6.00 | 20.66 2.16 9.5 17 250 5. 83 2.05 1.56 4.11 13. 55 -09 | 13.46 4.80 | 18.26 2. 28 8.0 MCPHERSON COUNTY, KANS. 1 45 | $12.90 | $4.02 | $2.99 | $4.09 | $24.00 | $1.71 | $22.29 | $7.20 | $29.49 | $1.68 17.8 2 33 | 11.49 2. 58 3.71 5.78 | 23.56 -61 | 22.95 9.00 | 31.95 1.75 18.3 3 60 | 13.39 3. 43 3. 78 Wo |) Be TB ecoccse 27. 73 9.00 | 36.73 1. 88 18.9 4 20 7. 94 2.70 3. 31 9.72 | 23.67 | 3.10] 20.57 9.00 | 29.57 1.90 15.0 5 120 | 11.02 4.06 2.96 4.98 | 23.02 -50 | 22.52 9.00 | 31.52 2.25 14.0 6 120 | 10.92 3. 62 2. 96 4.45 | 21.95 74 | 21.21 6.00 | 27.21 Dail 12.0 7 60 9. 94 PME 2. 07 4.24] 19.22) 1.50) 17.72 7.50 | 25. 22 2.47 10. 2 8 80 | 10.88 3. 60 2.22 5.24 | 21.94 -09 | 21.85 6.00 | 27.85 2.54 10. 0 9 320 | 13.53 3. 81 2.98 5.61 | 25.93 .67 | 25. 26 9.00 | 34. 26 2. 64 13.0 10 80} 11.22 2.75 1. 83 5.09 | 20.89 -79 | 20.10 7.50 | 27.60 2. 91 9.5 1 140 9.57 3. 20 2.13 6.37 | 21.32 -36 | 20.96 9.00 | 29. 96 3. 09 7 12 50} 13.35 2.56 2. 08 4.36 | 22.35 34] 22.01 7.50 | 29.51 3.14 9.4 13 180 9.94 2.63 1.78 6.20 | 20.55 -90 | 20.05 7.50 | 27.55 3. 94 7.0 SALINE COUNTY, Mo. 1 90 | $8.35 | $3.01 | $3.39 | $5.95 | $20.70 |$14.89 | $5.81 | $18.00 | $23.81 | $1.21 19.7 2 40 9.58 3. 67 3.14 6.71 | 23.10) 2.79 | 20.31 13.50 | 33.81 1.50 22.5 3 100 | 15. 87 3. 86 3. 67 7.54 | 30.94] 1.00 | 29.94] 10.80] 40.74 1.70 24.0 4 40 7. 80 3.12 5. 04 3.90 | 19.86} 1.07] 18.79] 15.00} 33.79 1. 88 18.0 5 100} 13.438 3. 48 2.73 4.29} 23.93 | 1.45 | 22.48! 12.00; 34.48 1.92 18.0 6 85 | 16.50 3. 49 3149) 5.22)| 28.70 |- 22 ee 28.70 | 12.00} 40.70 1. 94 21.0 7 70 5.53 |. 3.41 5. 84 7.09 | 21.87] 1.42] 20.45; 15.00] 35.45 1.97 18.0 8 65 | 17.84 4.31 6. 54 6.48 | 35.17} 1.06} 34.11 15.00 | 49.11 2.16 22.8 9 40} 13.18 3. 14 2.48 TAA) 26224-| eee 26. 24 9.00 | 35.24 2.31 15.3 58 BULLETIN 943, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste XXXVII.—Jndividwal costs per acre on owned land, spring and winter wheat, 1919 (327 farms)—Continued. { Factors of cost, per acre. Foualneligst, Rec- | Acres i ord | har- Total Total | pont Mae num-| vest- : SUC net | (inter- acre ber. | ed. | papor Mate- |Thrash-| Miscel-| cost, Credit cost, Osi Gal Per Per 5 abor.) rial. | ing. /laneous.| with- | with- |i Vest-| acre. | bushel. out out ment) rent. rent. : WINTER WHEAT—Continued. SALINE County, Mo.—Continued. 10| $200) $8.58 | $2.57) $1.92] $3.66 | $16.73 | $8.43 | $8.30 | $16.50 | $24.80 | $2.32 10.7 11 70 | 11.03 3.16 2.14 5.49)4 QIV82h ee 5 ee. 21.82] 15.00] 35.82 2.34 15.7 12 65 5. 98 3. 32 3. 28 5. 15 17.73 .97 | 16.76} 15.00] 31.76 2. £0 11.3 13 15 | 13.73 3.54 3. 82 4.30 | 25.39 -32 | 25.07 9.00 | 34.07 2. 84 12.0 14 75 | 14.02 3. 29 1.96 4.72 | 23.99 -83 | 23.16} 15.00] 38.16 2. 86 13.3 15 175 | 10.90 3.76 4,29 4.06 | 23.01 14} 22.87 18.00 | 40. 87 2292) 14.0 16 37 8. 29 3. 46 1.97 6.59 | 20.31 | 4.05 | 16.26} 15.00] 31.26} 3.04 10.3 17 30] 13.96 3.19 2.18 9.64 | 28.97 | 4.20] 24.77] 12.00] 36.77 3.11 11.8 18 65 | 20.32 3.75 1.90 5.22} 31.19 -46| 30.73) 12.00] 42.73) 3.29 13.0 19 40| 14.99 3. 54 1.78} 19.83} 40.14] 1.87] 38.27) 12.0)}. 50.27 3.35 15.0 20 20} 14.63 3. 26 1.80 4.10 | 23.79 -30} 23.49] 13.50] 35.99 4.25 8.7 21 40] 15.13 3. 44 1.50 9.81 | 29.88] 4.06] 25.82) 12.00] 37.82 5.20 13, JASPER CouNTY, Mo. 1 52 | $13.42] $5.33 | $1.67] $4.49 | $24.91 | $0.78 | $24.13 | $8.10 | $32.23 | $1.29 25.0 2 145 | 10.50 6.18 1.34 6.69 |. 24.71 | 4:03] 20.68 7.80 | 28.48 1.41 20. 2 3 34! 14.26 5. 00 1.52 4.41] 25.19 ~82 | 24.37 6.00 | 30.37 1.43 21.2 4 68 | 12.21 4.65 1.53 4.93 | 23.32 ~Ol |) 22.1 6.00 | 28. 51 1.52 18. 8 5 130 | 12.93 3.96 1.64 6.42 | 24.95 -25 | 24.70 8.40 | 33.10 1.54 21.5 6 85 9. 93 4.65 1.78 5.86 | 22.22 -52] 21.70 9.00 | 30.70 1.54 20.0 7 17 | 18.29 7.65 2.03 Coil) 508") 5.290 979 9.00} 38.79 1.55 25.0 8 §5| 15.15 4.94 1.54 4.71 | 26.34] 3.00] 23.34 9.00 | 32.34 1.62 20.0 9 140 | 13.74 5. 41 1.55 4.89 | 25.59 -d51} 25.08 9.00 | 34.08 1.66 20.5 10 185 | 13.97 5.37 1.43 5.45 | 26.22] 2.59] 23.63 8.40 | 32.03 1.70 18.9 11 20 | 14.84 5.39 1.41 4.65 | 26.29 -65 | 25.64 6.00 | 31.64 1.71 18.5 12 75 | 15.54 6. 67 67) 5.90 | 29. 83 .64] 29.19 9.00 | 38.19 1.75 21.8 13 70 | 12.67 5.75 1.32 5.40 | 25.14 -43 | 24.71 7.50 | 32.21 1.79 18.0 14 85 | 13.55 5. 28 1.29 4.32] 24.44] 1.00] 23.44 7.50} 30.94 1.85 16.7 15 30] 15.84 8.17 1. 20 4.51 | 29.72] 5.33] 24.39 6.00 | 30.39 2.07 14.7 16 39 | 23.90 4.62 1.76 6:(35|) (SiGe aes 37.01 9.00 | 46.01 2.22 20.8 17 39 | 14.82 4.33 1.27 8.75 | 29.17} 3.08] 26.09 7.50 | 33.59 2.24 15.0 St. CHARLES County, Mo. 1 15| $9.48 | $3.86 | $2.86] $6.76 | $22.96 | $0.33 | $22.63 | $12.0) | $34.63 | $1.15 30.0 2 90; 10.18 3. 84 2.21 5.28 | 21.51 -06 | 20.95 7.50 | 28.45 1.19 24.0 3 144) 12.34 4.21 2.21 4.01 | 22.77 14] 22.63 8.40] 31.03 1.35 22.9 4 67 VAY 3. 82 2.14 7.24) 20.77 .37 | 20.40} 12.00] 32.40 1.39 23.3 5 So} L273 2. 94 2.01 4.16] 21.84 .32| 21.52 9.00} 30. 52 1.40 21.8 6 33 | 15.08 3. 61 2.55 4.82 | 26.06 -42 | 25.64] 138.50] 39.14 1.44 27.3 7 52] 11.80 3.70 1.81 4.17) 21.48 -48 | 21.00 8.40 | 29. 40 1.48 19.9 8 89; 10.93 2.99 1.91 5.04 | 20. 87 -44 |} 20.43] 12.00] 32.43 1.49 PNET 9 60 | 13.84 3. 25 2.03 5.33 | 24.45 -83 | 23.62 9.00 | 32.62 1.51 21.7 10 105 | 10.04 3. 40 1.76 3.93 | 19.13] 1.19] 17.94 10.50 | 28.44 1.57 18. 2 11 36} 15.82 3.17 1.93 6.34 | 27.26] 1.22] 26.04 8.40 | 34.44 1. 60 21.6 12 90} 11.89 3. 14 1. 86 O:1D/ pez Os4On| ee eset 20.46 | 12.00] 32.46 1.62 20. 0 13 20} 12.48 3. 55 1.83 4.41 | 22.27 -46 | 21.81 10.50 | 32.31 1.62 20.0 14 80 9. 91 4.49 1.77 aS |e 2m ete ra opel 21.21 9.00 | 30.21 1. 63 18.5 15 54] 13.35 3. 53 1.73 5.87 | 24.48 -58 | 23.90 7.50 | 31.40 1.65 19.1 16 23| 11.36 3. 51 1.73 4.22) 20.82 Ole) 2ONSts LON SOb mB OneL 1.69 18.3 17 70 | 11.73 3. 48 2.10 7.52] 24.83 -29| 24.54) 12.00] 36. 54 1.73 21.1 18 62} 15.93 4.09 1. 84 OF 42) |e Veen | erent 27. 28 9.00 | 36.28 1.80 20. 2 19 70 9.45 3. 59 1.69 5.21 19. 94 - 43 19. 51 12.00} 31.51 1. 82 17.3 20 65 18. 58 3. 87 1.92 6.14} 30.51 1.00 | 29.51 7. 50 387. O01 1.85 20.0 21 60 | 12.69 3. 89 2.29 7.73 |) 26. 60 -50 | 26.10] 18.00} 44.10 1.86 23.8 22 110} 13.43 3. 92 1.89 4.96 |} 24.20 -28°| 23.97) 13:'50"| ove ai 1.87 20.0 23 41 | 17.19 3. 84 1.99 5.96 | 28.98 -41 | 28. 57 9.00] 37.57 1. 88 20. 0 24 40 | 18.63 6. 69 2.00 6.97 | 34.29 15 | 33. 54 7.50} 41.04 1.99 20. 6 25 40 | 14.55 4.31 1. 98 7.44 | 28.28 -30 | 27.98 | 12.00] 39.98 2.00 20.0 26 38 | 13.12 5. 22 1. 88 5.41 | 25. 63 -57 | 25.06] 15.00 }- 40. 06 2.00 20. 0 27 77 | 14.60 5. O01 1.91 5.96 | 27.48 -52| 26.96} 15.00] 41.96 2.02 20.8 28 55 | 17. 67 4.71 1.77 6.01 | 30.16 -64 | 29. 52 9.00] 38. 52 2. 06 18.7 29 80 12. 36 3. 64 1.27 5.16 | 22.43 38 | 22.05 7.50 | 29. 55 2.15 13.8 30, 42 14. 87 3.32 1. 42 5.19 24. 80 -65 | 24.15 9. 00 33.15 2.32 14.3 31 180 | 12.01| 4.19 1. 29 5.41 22.90 «af || 22.63 9.00 | 31.63 2.48 12.8 COST OF PRODUCING WHEAT. 59 Taste XXXVII.—IJndividual costs per acre on owned land, spring and winter wheat, 1919 (327 farms)—Continued. Factors of cost, per acre. Total net cost, with rent. Rec- | Acres | . ord | har- Total Motel wet, isd num-| vest- gross net | Gnter- wees ber. | ed. | papor Mate- |Thrash-| Miscel-| cost, |Q aqit cost ee Gin || ee Per j anor.) rial. | ing. /laneous.| with- ‘| with- | oect-| acre. | bushel. out out t rent. monte oan de WINTER WHEAT —Continued. PHELPS CouNTY, NEBR. . | 1 20} $6.48 | $2.50; $0.82) {2.82 | $12. $6.00 | $17.62 | $1.58 8.0 2 20 7.33 3. 08 1. 38 B00 \ Gy 6.00 | 21. 56 1. 66 13.0 3 100 8. 20 3. 86 1.63 4.17} 17. 7.50 | 20.22 1. 68 15. 0 4 235 9. 49 2. 87 1. 53 4.97] 18 6.90 | 25.76 1.86 13.8 5 110 9. 56 2. 82 1.53 4.61 | 18 7.50 | 26.02 1. 86 14.0 6 43 | 12.30 2. 84 1. 66 4.34] 21 7.50 | 28. 64 1.91 15.0 7 80 9.19 3. 37 1. 20 3.23 | 16 6.60 | 21.09 1.92 11.0 8 430 9.70 2. 67 1. 28 3.44] 17 7.50 | 24. 59 2.05 12.0 9 100 8. 73 2.65 1.05 4.88 | 17 7.50 | 23. 71 2.43 9.8 10 140 9. 40 2.60 1.02 3.91 | 16 7.50 | 23.95 2.48 9.6 11 120 9. 74 3. 08 1. 06 3.90} 17. 8.40 | 25.76 2.69 9.6 12 90 | 11.22 2.42 - 94 3.56 | 18 6.00 | 24.14 2.76 8.8 13 105 9. 09 2.38 75 Sof |) 15 Te OO 235239) |) oe oe Ll 7.5 14 55 6. 3 2.53 43 5.34 14 9.00 | 238. 26 6. 33 3.7 SALINE County, NEBR. | 1 50 | $10.59 | $4.36) $1.83 | $5.95 | $22.73 | $0.20 | $22.53} ¢9.00 | $31.53 | $1.43 22.0 2 55) 15.15 4.72 2.86 4.74 | 27.47 -45 | 27.02 9.00 | 36.02 1.61 22. 4 3 30} 16.44 5.19 2. 28 6.47 | 30.38 | 2.50] 27.88) 12.00] 39.88 1.69 23. 6 4 48 | 13.30 3. 96 2.19 5.43 | 24.88 otal |) PRG 4) OO. Bie x7 1.76 20. 8 5 65 | 10.15 4.55 1.72 hoe) Azo Neceosss 22. 81 12.00 | 34.81 1.93 18. 0 6 50} 13.33 3. 64 1599 6.97 | 25.93 50 | 25.43] 15.00} 40.43 1.93 21.0 a 85 | 12.97 3.38 2.39 506 || ZBL) |ooceees 23.79 | 15.00) 38.79 1.94 20. 0 8 45 | 13.42 3. 58 1.61 5.49 | 24.10 22 | 23.88 9.00] 32.88 2.05 16. 0 9 40 | 11.62 3. 58 1.76 So Ol) PEGE eoccoas 20.93 | 16.50) 37.43 2.08 18.0 10 35 | 19.16 4. 20 1. 94 GaO Ss iole oon | seeeee 31.33 | 10.50} 41.83 2.09 20. 0 11 50 | 14.39 3.90} , 1.80 Loi | PIGED |lscccces 27.40 | 12.00] 39.40 2.10 18. 8 12 55 | 16.62 7. 03 2. 02 8.44] 34.11 -82 | 33.29 15. 0 48. 29 2.10 23. 0 13 40 | 138. 87 3. 38 1.85 5.62 | 24.72 038 | 24.34] 12.00) 36.34 2.14 17.0 14 90} 18.51 5. 52 2.02 5.04] 31.09 -33 | 30.76] 12.00] 42.76 2.16 19.8 15 16) 17.24 4.07 1.80 (00 |) BET Neacdesc 27.77 | 16.50 | 44.27 2.21 20.0 16 30 | 19.11 5.25 1. 80 6.33 | 32. 4 33 | 32.16] 12.00) 44.16 2.21 20. 0 17 60 | 13. 30 4.22 1. 68 5.86 | 25. 06 40 | 24.66} 12.00] 36. 66 2.29 16. 0 18 15} 14.69 3. 97 1.75 7.29 | 27.70 50 | 27.20} 12.00] 39. 20 2.31 17.0 19 22) 13.43 4.31 1. 28 5.46 | 24. 48 91} 23.57) 12.00] 35.57 2.37 15. 0 20 122] 11.15 3. 90 2.05 6.42) || 23:52 |. --.22- 23.52 | 15.00] 38. 52 2.49 15. 4 21 Gon elo 3. 85 1. 48 5.87 | 28.78} 1.15 | 27.63 | 15.00] 42.63 2.51 17.0 22 90} 15.73 4.63 1. 56 6.02 | 27. 94 -33 | 27.61} 15.00] 42.61 2. 61 16.3 23 74 | 21.50 4.31 1. 94 9. 87 SEO ee cccce 37.62] 12.00] 49.62 2. 64 18.8 24 20 | 17.27 3. 68 1.85 5.85} 28.65 50 | 28.15} 12.00] 40.15 2.77 14.5 25 12} 17.09 3. 38 1. 28 6.32 | 28.07 42 | 27.65 | 12.00] 39.65 2. 83 14.0 26 50} 15.55 5. 50 1.08 5.01 | 27.14 |.....-- 27.14 9.00 | 36.14 3. 61 10.0 27 30 | 14.65 4.34 1. 24 5.19 | 25.42 20 | 25.22] 14.40] 39.62 3. 96 10. 0 KeitH County, NEBR. il 450 | $8.09} $1.56) $2.07] $4.04 | $15.76 | $0.44 | $15 82 | $38.90 | $19.22] $0.96 20.0 2 130 | 13.02 2.14 2. 94 5.18 | 23.28 -39} 22.93 5.40 | 28. 33 1.01 28. 0 3 65 | 11.94 2. 23 2.61 8.33 | 25.11 23 | 24.88 4,80] 29.68 1.19 25.0 4 150 8. 24 2.77 2.49 9.65 | 23.15 06 | 23.09 8.40] 31.49 1.35 23.3 5 69] 12.64 2.20 1. 96 4.86 | 21.66 34] 21.32 4.50 | 25.82 1.37 18.8 6 60 7. 53 2.20 1.44 5.41 | 16.58 10 | 16.48 6.00 | 22.48 1.50 15.0 7 100 7. 32 2.00 1.22 Dean lise28" |peeeeee 13. 28 6.00} 19.28 1.57 12.2 8 65 9. 29 2.98 2.05 G25), COS Neccccce 20.77 7.50 | 28.27 1.60 17.5 9 100 | 11.69 2. 83 1.69 4.88 | 21.09 25 | 20.84 6.00 | 26. 84 1. 68 16.0 10 40} 13.86 2. 50 1. 60 3.40 | 21.36 |.....-- 21. 36 6.00 | 27.36 1. 82 15.0 11 65 | 12.06 2.49 14 | Beil || Silsbee 31} 20.96 7.50 | 28.46 1.99 14.3 12 200 5. 44 2.25 ilo Til 4.84 | 13.64 |....2.. 13. 64 6.00 | 19.64 2.00 9.8 13 20} 15.07 2.50 1.09 4.02 | 22.68 25 | 22.43 2.40] 24.83 3. 08 8.0 an: et aa ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FI THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. ¢eAD oa aa. 15 CENTS PER COPY wi ie ive UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv May 12, 1921 THE ALCOHOL TEST AS A MEANS OF DETERMIN- ING QUALITY OF MILK FOR CONDENSERIES. By A. O. DaHuBerG and H. S. Garner, Research Laboratories, Dairy Division. CONTENTS. Page. Page Review of previous work______-____ 1 Experiments at condenseries_______ MestumeLhods useG== 4-22 bk 2 WiOnkat sHactotnyavAme se et we 9 Experiments at Grove City creamery_ 4 \WVOrds GE IMRGinOIPy/ Jee 11 Comparison of acidity and alcohol Coneiisions say Sea per ie oe ae 13 tests of milk for condensing__ 4. \Plisteot references22 2s soe ae 13 Relative value of acidity and alco- Holy tesisrs saris Ss Re hee BE 8 REVIEW OF PREVIOUS WORK. The urgent necessity for some means of determining the quality ot milk received at condenseries and other dairy manufacturing plants has resulted in the continued use of the acid test even after its defects have become generally recognized. This test is based on the assumption that a titratable acidity above the normal for fresh milk indicates an increase in acidity due to bacterial action. It is well known, however, that a certain part of the alkali added to milk to obtain an end point with any given indicator is combined with constituents of the milk other than the acids. While this has been recognized it has not been generally realized how great a varia- tion in the apparent acidity may be due to this cause. It has been recently pointed out by Rice (1)? that the casein and the phosphates both combine with alkali and are subject to a sufficient variation to cause in some instances an apparent high acidity in fresh milk. Our own experience, which is not unusual, has shown that not infrequently milk rejected because of high acidity was fresh milk in which bacterial action was highly improbable. In making evapo- rated milk the most essential characteristic is the ability of the milk 1See list of references at end of bulletin. 27179°—21 2 BULLETIN 944, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to withstand a temperature sufficiently high to insure the subsequent sterilization without causing an objectionable curd. While it is as- sumed, and no doubt correctly, that acidity is an important factor: in determining the coagulating point of concentrated milk, it is by no means certain that other factors may not be of equal or even greater importance. Sommer and Hart (2) have shown that there is no consistent relation between the titratable acidity and the heat coagulating point of milk. This they found also to be true of the ‘hydrogen-ion concentration or true acidity of the fresh milk, but they express the opinion that it may become a factor under com- mercial conditions. They found, on the other hand, that the varia- tions which occur normally in certain of the ash constituents have an important part in determining the temperature at which it coagulates. The titration of milk in the usual way will give no indication of the condition of the ash and may be very misleading as to the hydro- gen-ion concentration. The alcohol test has been used to a limited extent for determining the quality of milk with special reference to its sanitary condition. This test is usually made by mixing equal volumes of milk with 68 to 75 per cent alcohol and observing whether a coagulation results. It is generally considered that a coagulation indicates bacterial change in the milk, but Auzinger (8) shows that fresh milk not in- frequently coagulates under these conditions and offers some evi- dence to show that it is due to changes in the milk salts, particularly in the calcium. Ayers and Johnson (4) show that while the alcohol test becomes positive when an appreciable amount of acid or rennet is produced in the milk there is no consistent relation between the alcohol test and the total number of bacteria present. They found that while the addition of acid phosphates to milk in- creased the tendency to coagulate with alcohol, the neutral or dibasic phosphate had the opposite effect. When dibasic phosphate is added to milk considerably more acid is required to produce a positive alcohol test than with the normal milk. While the work of Ayers and Johnson shows that the alcohol test is not a reliable index of the sanitary quality of the milk, there is a possibility that its action on milk may be correlated with the heat coagulation point of the evaporated milk in such a way as to render it of some value in grading milk in condenseries. TEST METHODS USED. The alcohol test as used in this investigation was made by mixing equal parts of 75 per cent alcohol and milk and observing whether coagulation takes place. In case the milk shows a visible coagulation | eaieon | DETERMINING QUALITY OF MILK FOR CONDENSERIES. 3) it is considered unsafe from the standpoint that the milk after evaporation will not stand the heat necessary for sterilization with- out becoming curdy. The test is practical and easy to make at the weigh room. The test as used in this work was made by adding 1c. c. of milk to a small test tube containing 1 c. c. of alcohol and mixing at once by inverting once or twice while holding a finger over the top. Any reaction that takes place will be very quickly evident, the large majority of tests showing coagulation immediately or giving no reaction at all. The gradation of coagulation is shown by the size of the curd particles formed. Unless the curd particles formed are small the reaction is not at all difficult to distinguish, even by one not familiar with the test. A mixture of milk and alcohol giving a negative reaction immediately breaks clear from the walls of the test tube, while a mixture giving a coagulation of fine particles will leave the walls of the test tube cloudy. Mix- tures showing a medium or large particle curd formation are readily discernible because of the adherence of the curd particles to the walls of the test tube. In the work of grading the milk at a condensery on a commercial basis two’small brass dippers of 2 c. c. capacity each were used. Thirty test tubes arranged in a block of wood 3 inches wide, 2 inches deep, and 18 inches long, having three rows of holes of the proper diameter and depth, were first filled with 2 c. c. of the 75 per cent alcohol by means of one of the brass dippers. Two men working together then went through the individual cans, taking 2 c. c. of milk from each and mixing it with the 2 c. c. of alcohol. No more time was required than is necessary in making the acidity test. The first work attempted with the alcohol test was to determine whether any correlation existed between the coagulation and the acid content of milk as measured by the usual titration method. Samples of milk were taken from individual patrons at the weigh room of the Grove City, Pa., creamery for the observations made. Reactions with 75 per cent ethyl alcohol and titratable acidity were determined shortly after taking samples and at stated intervals on those not showing positive coagulation with alcohol, until such action occurred. All samples which did not show coagulation with alcohol at the outset were held in a water bath at 35° to 87° C. (95° to 98.6° EF.) during subsequent observations. A tabulation of 211 samples of milk handled according to the method outlined shows conclusively that there is no direct relation between the coagulation of the milk with 75 per cent alcohol and the acid content of milk as measured by the titration method. 4 BULLETIN 44, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EXPERIMENTS AT GROVE CITY CREAMERY. COMPARISON OF ACIDITY AND ALCOHOL TESTS OF MILK FOR CONDENSING. Finding no consistent relation between the coagulation of milk by alcohol and its acidity content as shown by the titration method, work was started to ascertain the relative value of the two tests. Samples of milk, representing all conditions met with at the con- densery, were taken at the weigh room of the Grove City creamery. Five pounds of each sample selected—which in the large majority of cases represented a mixed milk of some particular patron’s herd— was evaporated in a 10-liter flask under a vacuum of 25 to 27 inches to a concentration of 24 to 1, the time required being from 50 to 70 minutes, with a temperature of 40° to 50° C. (104° to 122° F.). The evaporated milk was placed in baby-size tins and sterilized in an autoclave for 30-minute intervals at 121.1°, 112.8°, and 107.2° C. (250°, 285°, and 225° F.). Portions of evaporated milk in 100 c. ec. Erlenmeyer flasks were run in the autoclave at the temperatures used and also at 100° C. (212° F.) for 30 minutes to note the extent of coagulation. When sterilization at 112.8° C. (235° F.) for 30 minutes indicated that the product would not stand a higher process- ing, the next lower temperature was used, only two temperatures higher than 100° C. (212° F.) being used. The cooled cans of steri- lized milk were shaken for one minute before examination for gen- | eral physical appearance and curdiness. The main observation of the sterilized samples of evaporated milk concerned the extent of coagulation and whether or not they showed curdiness after shaking. Curdiness of shaken samples was de- termined by the physical appearance of the product and by mixing a portion of it with hot water. In reporting on whether or not the sterilized samples were curdy after shaking, the temperature of 112.8° C. (235° F.) for 30 minutes was used as a standard of compari- son. In the large majority of instances the curdiness was pronounced enough to leave no doubt as to the accuracy of decision, and the sample sterilized at the lower temperature quite generally substan- tiated the classification given on the basis of the standard tempera- ture used. On the other hand, the samples showing no curdiness after sterilization were in most cases not at all difficult to classify, as they showed, in general, less coagulation even with the higher temperature. Table 1 shows the results of sterilization of 90 samples of milk of varying acidity, 45 of which coagulated with 75 per cent alcohol. Forty-three of the 45 when evaporated and sterilized at 112.8° C. (235° F.) for 30 minutes showed curdiness after shaking. Coagula- tion of practically all these samples when evaporated was very pro- nounced, in some instances being so hard that it was impossible in DETERMINING QUALITY OF MILK FOR CONDENSERIES. 5 any manner to reduce the extreme lumpiness. Some of the samples of low acidity showed as objectionable a curdiness as those of the higher acidity, indicating the reliability of the alcohol test and un- reliability of the acid test in picking out those which will not stand the sterilization necessary in manufacturing evaporated milk. The table shows also the result of sterilization upon 45 samples of milk of varying acidity, all of which showed a negative reaction with 75 per cent alcohol. Forty-two of the 45 when evaporated and sterilized showed no curdiness after shaking. TABLE 1.—Comparison of alcohol and acid tests at Grove City creamery. Milk concentrated 24 to 1 and sterilized at 235° F. for 30 minutes. Effect of sterili- zation noted after shaking for 1 minute. Coagulation with 75 per | No coagulation with 75 cent alcohol. per cent alcohol. SEG Effect of steri- Effect of steri- Acidity. lization. lization. Total Total samples. 7 samples. se ot (0) Curdy. curdy. Curdy. curdy. Per cent. 0.14 to 0.15 3 3 S'S cree ae Err eae AR, -15 to .16 5 5 0 1 0 1 1) HO eel? 10 8 2 9 0 9 17 to .18 11 11 0 12 1 11 18 to .19 10 10 0 11 1 10 19 to .20 5 5 0 10 0 10 20 to .21 1 1 0 2 1 1 Total... 45 43 2 45 3 42 It seems quite certain that there is some condition of raw milk coagulating with 75 per cent alcohol, making it impossible to sterilize without getting a curdy finished product, for such milks when evapo- rated and sterilized give a much firmer coagulation than those show- ing a negative reaction with 75 per cent alcohol. In some instances the coagulation, even at the lower temperatures used, is such that the product turns to a hard, cheesy mass incapable of improvement with long-extended shaking. Figure 1, showing the type of curd ob- tained in sterilization, indicates clearly the difference which must exist in the condition of milk coagulated with 75 per cent alcohol. Only 6.7 per cent of the samples made from milk coagulating with alcohol gave a soft curd, the remainder giving either a firm or a hard eurd, both of which are as a rule difficult to shake out to give a product showing no curdiness. With the evaporated samples from raw milk not coagulating with 75 per cent alcohol 88.9 per cent gave either a soft curd or no coagulation at all, the remaining 11.1 per cent giving a firm curd. The soft curds shake out very easily, giv- ing a smooth-bodied product of good consistency showing no curdi- ness. 6 BULLETIN 944, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The difference in the effect of sterilization upon evaporated milk made from raw milk, showing negative or positive reaction with 75 per cent alcohol is further emphasized in figure 2, which shows the curdiness found at all temperatures used. To get complete figures on all the four temperatures it was as- sumed in compiling these data that a sample showing curdiness at a temperature actually used would show curdiness at any higher tem- perature. With raw milks showing negative reaction with 75 per Raw milk curd/in Raw milk not curdtin with 75% alcoho. with 75% alcohol ARAM G OOF Nestctatets 4 RRR RRR RRR SC So FIRM CURD I1-17o PRK ROKR ONY S25 SSR RR RS SSK ROR RK RIC] SOCCEROOS SS RI BN I SOS is bs FS fs tS PS es e .> i RS be be PS > be 2, pS rs tS b2 i> e PO oS SSS I SN SO Se on gO? } SSC OSC e555 $589 OOOOY S50 SEES S Sens ORG ODO ODO IIT TT ES V5 i MBKTFR peek 0 a Uy NSOFT CURD Ka Zs Fig. 1.—Types of curd obtained in sterilization of evaporated milk. cent alcohol only 4.4 per cent of the evaporated samples showed curdiness at 100° C. (212° F.) and 107.2° C. (225° F.) for 30 minutes; 6.6 per cent at 112.8° C. (235° F.) for 30 minutes; and 31.1 per cent at 121.1° C. (250° F.) for 30-minutes.’° With! raw milks coagulating with 75 per cent alcohol, 57.7 per cent showed curdiness at a temperature of 100° C. (212° F.) for 30 minutes, 80 per cent at 107.2° C. (225° F.) for 30 minutes, 95.5 per cent at 112.8° C. (235° F.) for 30 minutes, and 100 per cent at 121.1° C. (250° F.) for 30 minutes. These figures show quite strikingly a difference in 7 e@ temperature necessary to in- izin 1 sure a complete destruction of the bacteria. Samples of raw milk ith: alcohol and showing curdiness when evaporated and sterilized can be sterilized without showing curdiness diness when using a steri ion W ble to manufacture from it evaporated milk that will not DETERMINING QUALITY OF MILK FOR CONDENSERIES. g a coagulat t 1mpossi condition of milk coagulating with 75 per cent alcohol, which renders givin give cur 1 BSR segeegegecend Sa . : SAPS 58 SSSI) s i b BS ee ns Bes = SSeS pereeteretae 5 eaecees eceyess irene lestataasereneceweararerorenevece < 8Y Se BEES SE Bb 6 N IWoe Aa, e a 2 eS Bs 53696 ose SOS SSO SOQRY 3 eZ ~ nee ge ee = ESS ee = ww NS Pos estes ee es Reeseses <2 3 SR X< 9 Ni es SS eee lacateveces NIW Of 2, oF. 2 hf NN S52 esenes megens esate ot SRK ee taMe hata tetera Ses . < NV Se ee SS 7\ Weeisacesecetererecere ocoeey seers rerscacenestaes SK 7 Yj Beeieegereenraeeennnte oe egeececare lane 3 S35 aS 58989 ase SOR S >= oe oS Be | : She : cm Vials im 40 ahi rd tae Ye & if HEA’ "gata 3 raf S tie ¥ee; ae sant) 1% si Contribution from the Bureau of Animal Industry JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER May 27, 1921 THE INFLUENCE OF CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS Bo oe FEED ON THE MILK YIELD OF DAIRY By Epwarp B. Metres, Physiologist, and T. E. Woopwarp, Dairy Husbandman, Dairy Division. CONTENTS. Page. Page. Dairy practices at the Government Description of experiments, proto- farm at Beltsville___.___________ 1 cols, and tables—Continued. Standard rations insufficient for op- Rations given animals before imum: samilkes vield.g.. 2 oe | 3 (Cal sy aM ot 5 2s ee a a 18 Nature of the deficiency in the routine Condensed history of experi- rations fed at Beltsville________ 5 mental animals —--_____-___ 20 Discussion of results__._.___________ 9 Dffects of phosphate feeding on SUM inv aan wanes ne ee 12 body; .weisht #-_ "= see 23 Description of experiments, proto- Quantitative results _-________ D4 Cols sam datables 2pm gee eae La 13 Grain mixtures used in experi- Effects, on milk yield, of liberal TOMS HA Seed pp hol RN ae nce S25 feeding during dry period____ 13 Account of unsuccessful and in- Effects, on milk yield, of feeding complete experiments _______ 26 phosphate with alternated ra- Rateratuce .citeds.2oes sso eee ae 27 tions during dry period____-_ 14 DAIRY PRACTICES AT THE GOVERNMENT FARM AT BELTSVILLE.t Opportunities for observing the effects of the feed on milk secre- tion have been rather favorable on the dairy experimental farm at Beltsville, Md., where the authors are stationed. Since 1912 a herd of from 50 to 100 cows, some of which are purebred Guernseys, Jerseys, or Holsteins, and some grades, has been maintained here. Daily records have been kept of the milk yields throughout, and | yearly records of the feed consumed up to 1918. Since 1918 monthly or daily records of the rations have been kept. The fat in the milk of each cow has been determined once a month, and from the results so obtained the monthly and yearly yields of fat have been calculated. The feeds chiefly used have been corn meal, wheat bran, cottonseed 1The authors wish to acknowledge the valuable services of H. J. Nedrow, H. T. Converse, and W. H. Benscoter. Messrs. Nedrow and Converse were the herdsmen at the Beltsville farm during the period when the experiments were carried out, and they supervised the feeding and care of the experimental animals. Mr. Benscoter was responsible for the feeding in a number of cases, and carried out this part of the work with unusual care and accuracy. 27763°—21 1 2 BULLETIN 945, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. meal, linseed meal, alfalfa and other legume hays, and corn silage and stover. Most of the cows have had a little pasture in the sum- mer, but not enough to make up any considerable proportion of the total amount of feed eaten in the year. The aim has been to feed the cows as much protein as is required by the most liberal of the American feeding standards, to keep them in good condition, to have them calve once a year, and to have them ar each year for 6 to 8 weeks before calving. It has generally hap- pened in practice that the cows were fed a little less liberally than is demanded by the Savage and Eckles standards (9)? for the first two or three months after calving, and a little more liberally later. When they were dry they were usually fed 4 pounds of grain mix- ture B3 4 pounds of legume hay, and as much silage as they would clean up. When the hay was alfalfa and the amount of silage eaten daily 80 pounds, which was the most usual state of things, this ration provided 1.29 pounds of digestible crude protein and 10.29 pounds of total digestible nutriment daily. After subtracting the maintenance requirement for a 1,000-pound cow, this would allow 0.59 pound pro- tein and 2.37 pounds total nutriment daily for the growth of the unborn calf, which, according, to the results obtained by Eckles (3), ought to be eee We have recently calculated the protein and total nutriment in the yearly rations of a number of cows from the general herd and have compared these quantities with those required for their maintenance and for their milk and fat yield according to the Savage standard. The results have shown that the cows usually received rations a little more liberal than those demanded by that standard. During the last two years a number of the purebred Holsteins have been run on official test. In order to increase their milk yield their rations were made decidedly more liberal than those called for by any of the feeding standards. During the milking period they received daily about 12 pounds of alfalfa hay, 20 pounds of corn silage, and as much grain as they could clean up without getting sick; they usu- ally ate 18 to 20 pounds a day of grain mixture F. They were fed heavily also before their calves were born; for 60 days or more before calving they usually received about 15 pounds of grain mix- ture F', 12 pounds of alfalfa hay, and 25 pounds of corn silage, a ration containing approximately four times as much protein and two and one-half times as much total nutriment as the routine ration fed to the dry cows of the general herd. The cows on test gave from 15,000 to 20,000 pounds of milk in the year; that is, three to four eine as much as most of the cows in the general herd. A part of this larger yield is due to the fact that 2The figures in parentheses refer to ‘ Literature cited” at end of paper. * See list of grain mixtures used in experiments, on p. 25. ius CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS IN THE FEED OF DAIRY COWS. 3 the test cows were better bred, but a part also is due to the larger quantity of feed they consumed. How much of the increased milk yield to attribute to each of these factors is a question of great prac- tical interest. STANDARD RATIONS INSUFFICIENT FOR OPTIMUM MILK YIELD. The cycle of lactation consists of two phases which may be called the preparatory and the active phases. Considerable changes go on in the udder of a cow for some time before her calf is born, and usually make themselves manifest by an increase in size and con- gestion of that organ. There is no doubt that the amount of the subsequent milk yield largely depends on these changes, and it is highly probable that the changes themselves depend on the state of nutrition in which the animal happens to be for the few weeks before her calf is born. Gur CE Tie eae 5. hg eS... ACwReGT HUNDRED POUNDS OF MILK Fig, 1.—Influence of the length of the dry period on the subsequent milk yield in the case of cow 17. The columns represent the pounds of milk given in the first clear calendar month after calving in the years indicated. Before calving in the years 1914 to 1917, inclusive, this cow was fed the routine ration for dry cows at Beltsville; her dry periods averaged 44 days. Before calving, in December, 1918, she was given a dry period of 122 days and fed approximately as in her previous dry periods. Tt is well known that animals are capable of storing up large quantities of nutritive material in times of plenty and using these stores in times of stress. The effect of the feed on milk secretion, therefore, often may be long delayed and rather complicated. It is not at all impossible that the effects of a deficient ration supplied in one lactation period may not show themselves until the subsequent period or even later. Figures 1 and 2 give graphically the histories of two cows which were brought to the Beltsville farm some years ago and fed and treated according to the usual routine. The milk yields fell off very 4 BULLETIN 945, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. noticeably during the routine treatment. After several years of the routine treatment cow 17 was given an unusually long dry period before calving, and cow 201, a more liberal ration for some weeks be- fore calving. In both cases the subsequent milk yields were markedly increased. (See p. 13.) The increase in the milk yields of these cows is due in the one case to the more liberal ration supplied before the calf was born and in the other to the long dry period with a supermaintenance ration. The rations fed after calving bore about the same relation to the milk yield as they had in previous years. It may be added that the milk yield for the first few weeks of lactation is not very closely dependent on the contemporaneous food supply (2). 1917 9 HUNDRED POUNDS OF MILK Fig. 2.—Infiuence of the length of the dry period and of the ration fed during that period on the subsequent milk yield in thecaseof cow 201. The columns represent the pounds of milk given in the first clear calendar month after calving in the years indicated. Before calving in the years 1914 to 1917, inclusive, this cow was fed the routine ration for dry cows at Beltsville; her dry periods averaged 50 days. Before calving. in Decem- ber, 1918, she was given a dry period of 78 days, and during the last 40 days of this period was fed a much more liberal ration than the previous one. (See pp. 13 and 14.) The course of events which these two cows illustrate is typical. Several similar histories could be presented. Indeed, it has been the rule on this farm that greatly increased milk yields were obtained when cows from the general herd were dried ‘off two months or more before they were due to calve and fed liberally during the dry period. Cows 17 and 201 were selected as examples, not because the downhill course of their milk yields on the routine treatment was particularly rapid or the subsequent recoveries particularly marked, but simply because they had been freer from disease and from disturbing ex- periments during their stay at Beltsville than others which might have been selected. It is, therefore, a very moderate statement of the case to say that average and high-producing cows often do not maintain anything like their optimum milk yield when they are bred to calve once a year and fed for several years approximately accord- ing to the most liberal of the American feeding standards, even CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS IN THE FEED OF DAIRY COWS. 5 though they may get a little pasture in addition.* Under this treat- ment the milk yield may be reduced, after a few years, to less than half the optimum; and when it has been so reduced it may be very greatly increased by liberal feeding during a 2-months’ dry period. A point of great interest to be noted in the history of cow 201 is the length of time which it took for the full effect of the routine method of feeding to become apparent. The milk yield did not reach its lowest point until she had been on the farm for four years. NATURE OF THE DEFICIENCY IN THE ROUTINE RATIONS FED AT BELTSVILLE. It is probable that the rations fed at Beltsville were not deficient ii a general sense, but deficient only in one or a few particular con- stituents necessary for milk secretion. The cows were kept in good general condition, which seems to indicate that they received enough of the energy-yielding portion of the ration. The recent very inter- esting work of Forbes (5) indicates that cows milking liberally may often receive insufficient calcium and phosphorus in their rations. The experiments reported in this bulletin were directed toward throwing more light on that question. There is no doubt that a cow’s milk yield may be markedly in- fluenced by the nutriment which she receives during 6 or 8 weeks be- fore her calf is born. The experiments to be reported have, there- fore, been confined to the influence of the ration fed during this period on the subsequent milk yield; and, for the reasons that follow, the phosphorus fed during the dry period has been varied rather than the calcium. The results of certain metabolism experiments in which the cal- cium and phosphorus balances have been followed—particularly those of Forbes (5) and Hart (8)—seem to show that calcium and phosphorus metabolism are largely independent of each other. In these experiments, however, the calcium and phosphorus balances were not followed for more than 20 days successively. There is no reason to doubt the figures that have actually been obtained, and it is very likely that a cow may lose 200 or 300 grams of calcium while remaining in phosphorus equilibrium. But it is doubtful whether the metabolic independence of the two elements ever goes much further than this. In a recently published article this question was discussed in some detail, and it has been pointed out that the weight of evidence obtained from carcass analyses is strongly against the view either that the ratio of calcium to phosphorus in bone is subject 4 Our evidence shows only that cows are not kept up to their optimum milk yield when fed the protein and total nutriment required by the standards in the form of the amounts of grain, hay, and silage used on the Beltsville farm. The reader must judge for himself how closely this method of feeding approaches what is typical throughout the country. 6 BULLETIN 945, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to more than very small variations or that the concentration of either of these elements contained in any of the soft tissues undergoes more than insignificant changes. Evidence has also been adduced to indicate that calcium assimilation in cows is likely to be seriously interfered with for a period of at least eight days by the mere col- lection of their urine and feces by attendants as practiced in the experiments of Forbes, of Hart, and of ourselves (13). It is likely, therefore, that any considerable deficiency of either calcium or phosphorus in the rations of a milking cow will bring about the loss of both elements from the animal’s bones if continued for more than two or three weeks, and that a cow which has suf- fered from the lack of either during any considerable part of her lactation period will find herself depleted in both when she reaches the end of that period. In recently published articles from this laboratory (12) (13) it has been shown that the phosphorus content of the blood plasma of cows is highly variable, and that it is likely to be low in the plasma of the Beltsville herd toward the end of their periods of pregnancy. This suggests that the cows of the Beltsville herd usually reach the end of their lactation period with their phosphorus stores depleted, and that the rations fed during the dry period are not sufficient to restore them. For the reasons which have been given it is likely that the calcium stores of the Beltsville cows are also depleted during their lactation periods, and that neither the calcium nor the phos- phorus stores can be restored to their proper level during the dry period unless the cows are fed rations which make it possible for them to assimilate liberal quantities of both elements. In the articles just mentioned, certain other facts regarding cal- cium and phosphorus metabolism were brought to light. It was shown that the concentration of calcium in cows’ blood plasma is much more constant than that of phosphorus. It is usually easy to raise the concentration of plasma phosphorus by increasing the amount of phosphorus in the rations—either by feeding more grain or by adding sodium phosphate to the ration. But the changes, brought about in the concentration of plasma calcium by analogous procedures or by any other influences that we have encountered so far, are comparatively insignificant and usually fall within the limits of error of our determinations. It has seemed likely, therefore, that changing the amount of phos- phorus in the ration would have more immediate and easily deter- minable effect on the changes which go on in a cow’s udder shortly before her calf is born than changing the amount of calcium. The experiments herein reported were planned with this idea in mind. But it was essential that both the control and the experimental ani- CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS IN THE FEED OF DAIRY COWS. 7 mals should have plenty of calcium in their rations, and therefore all received alfalfa hay in quantities which it was hoped would provide sufficient calcium. The details of the experimental procedure and the results obtained are given in the description and tables at the end of the article. The experiments consisted essentially (a) in drying cows off about 60 days before they were due to calve, (0) in feeding the controls a certain basal ration, (c) in feeding the others the same basal ration, giving grain and hay on alternate days and adding sodium phos- phate to the grain, and (d@) in following the milk yields from the tenth to the fortieth day after calving. Some of the animals used in the experiments were from the general herd, and had previously been fed approximately according to the Savage feeding standard. Others had been on test during the year preceding the experiments, and had been fed much more liberally. In the case of the animals from the general herd (see Tables 1 and 2) the alternated feeding with phosphate had a very favorable influence on the subsequent milk yield; but in the case of those which had been on test (Table 3), the effect was insignificant. This indicates that the rations fed to the general herd were deficient in one or both of the principal bone-building elements. The results show that the effect of the alternated feeding with phosphate on the subsequent milk yield will depend on the previous history of the cows as well as on the amount of phosphorus contained in the basal ration. It follows that the quantitative results of the experiments are significant only for the special conditions under which they were carried out. They might be entirely different in a herd whose previous history had been different, or with a basal ration which contained a different amount of phosphorus. The attempt has been made, however, to get an approximately quantitative idea of the increase in milk yield produced by the phos- phate feeding under the conditions of experimentation used with the cows of the general herd. For this purpose, only those animals have been considered which figure both as controls and as experiment ani- mals and whose histories are given in Table 1. The method and -results used in this attempt are given in Table 8 with its appended comment and in figure 3. The animals gave, on the average, 37.9 per cent more milk after the phosphate feeding than would have been expected from their previous performance. The milk yield from the tenth to the fortieth day after calving has been taken as the most important measure of the effect produced by the alternated feeding with phosphate during the preceding dry period. But certain other aspects of the effect produced by this treatment have also been studied. 2 ead = 8 BULLETIN 945, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Both the animals on the experimental feeding and those used as controls were weighed from time to time. We do not wish to lay too much stress on the results obtained, because the manner in which an animal gains weight in the period of a month or so before it calves depends almost as much on its previous history as on the ration fed at the time. The results in question are given in Tables 4, 5, 6, and 7. They are rather irregular, but indicate, on the whole, that the animals on alternated feeding with phosphate made somewhat better gains than the controls. In a previous publication from this laboratory (13) a balance ex- periment was described in which the animals received alternated rations with phosphate for a part of the time. The alternated feed- ing with phosphate had no perceptible effect on the amount of urine or feces voided or on the water content or consistency of the feces. PHOSPHATE 1918-19 PHOPPHATE 1919 CONTROL 1918 DL 1918719 CONTR PHOSPHATE 1920 HUNDRED POUNDS OF MILK wee ey ae! eyes CMM (WIE SSGRRREEE ee COW I7 cow49 Cow 50 COW 54 Fic. 3.—Comparison of milk yields of cows from the general herd after control and phos- phate feeding. The columns show the amounts of milk given in 30 days soon after calving; the lighter portions of the columns show the amounts of milk to be expected after the phosphate feeding, using the yields after the control feeding as a, basis, and taking into account the facts that some of the animals aborted and that the younger ones would show the increase normally occurring with the second calf (see pp. 24 and 25) during the experimental feeding. We have the impression that the increase in size of the udder which occurs before calving has generally appeared earlier and has been more marked in the animals which have received the phosphate than in the controls. There have, however, been exceptions to this rule, and we do not feel inclined to insist very strongly upon it. We realize keenly the difficulty of judging accurately where no exact measurements are taken. CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS IN THE FEED OF DAIRY COWS. a DISCUSSION OF RESULTS. Our results indicate that the milk yield of the general herd at Beltsville has been reduced by an insufficiency either of calcium or of phosphorus, or of both, in the rations, in spite of the facts that these contained more than the average proportions of both calcium and phosphorus and were fed in the amounts required according to the feeding standards. We think it is still an open question whether calcium or phosphorus has been the element chiefly lacking, and whether the rations could be improved from the standpoint of min- eral nutrition by varying the proportions of the different feeds used. Work aimed to throw light on these problems is now being carried out here. In the meantime, however, it seems worth while to con- sider what the knowledge already at hand indicates ought to be done. Table 1 contains the cases where a cow s record after the phosphate feeding is compared with a previous record of her own made after a period on the basal ration. It will be noted that in most of these cases the basal ration was fed before the first calf was born. The results as given in this particular table, therefore, are chiefly evi- dence for the view that the heifers received insufficient calcium or phosphorus in the rations supplied to them before they had their first calves. We believe that this was the case, and we shall later discuss the racions supplied to the heifers which had never had calves. But the records for the general herd indicate that, under the Beltsville routine, the animals never recovered from the mineral shortage which made itself evident in the first lactation period. The evidence from the records which indicates this may be summed up as follows: In the case of the animals born at Beltsville and kept under the routine treatment there was no tendency for the milk yield to rise after the first lactation period to the extent that it did in the cases of cows 54, 63, 71, and 81, shown in Table 1. The rise as be- tween the first and subsequent lactation periods was approximately that which would be expected from the data collected by Pearl and Patterson (14) and by the Holstein and Guernsey breeding asso- ciations. In the case of animals brought to the farm from other places and kept under the routine treatment, there was frequently a tendency for the milk yield to fall off more rapidly than it should with advancing age, as in the cases of cows 17 and 201, figures 1 and 2. As many of the cows which received the alternated rations with phosphate received a basal ration somewhat lower than that fed to the general herd during their dry periods, it is fair te compare the milk yields of these two sets of animals. Cows 49, 54, 71, and 81 may be taken as representing the effects of the phosphate feeding in the 27763 °—21—_2 10 BULLETIN 945, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. case of grade Guernseys. In a period of 30 days soon after calving, these animals gave 1,009 pounds of milk on the average. Their rec- ords may be compared with those of the other grade Guernseys of the herd, selecting lactation periods later than the first and in which there was no suspicion of abortion or other disturbing disease, and using the best month’s milk yield in each lactation period as the figure to be compared with that given above. There are 4 animals with a total of 8 lactation periods available for the comparison, and the average best month’s milk in the 8 lactation periods was 660 pounds. As the grade Guernseys available for this comparison were rather few, the same calculation was made for the grade Jerseys. There are 16 ani- mals with 52 lactation periods available in this case. The average best month’s milk is 722 pounds. The grade Holsteins are not suffi- ciently numerous to give figures of any value. No cow among the grade Jerseys and Guernseys of the general herd has ever surpassed the 30-day record of cow 71. In only one case has the average 30-day record given for cows 49, 54, 71, and 81 after the phosphate feeding, been surpassed, namely, with a best month’s milk yield of 1,041 pounds given by one of the grade Jerseys. In only five cases has the lowest 30-day record among these four cows been surpassed, namely, by best month’s milk yields of 1,041, 988, 987, 1,004, and 943 pounds, respectively. The results show, therefore, that the cows of the general herd at Beltsville suffered from an insufficiency of either calcium or phos- phorus, or both, in their rations throughout their lives, both before their first calves were born and afterwards. The following shows a little more in detail than’ has been done heretofore how they were fed. The young stock generally received milk until the animals were six months old or more. The feeding of grain, hay, and silage, how- ever, was started before the end of the first month and gradually increasing quantities of these feeds were given until at the end of six months the calves were taking 3 pounds of grain, 3 pounds of legume hay, and 10 to 20 pounds of corn silage. After they were taken off milk the calves were usually fed 3 pounds of grain, 3 pounds of legume hay, and as much corn silage as they would clean up. The grain mixture most used was grain mixture E. If they ate 25 pounds of corn silage daily, which may be taken as a fair average, this ration would supply 0.94 pound digestible protein daily and 8.16 pounds total digestible nutriment. This is approximately the protein requirement given in the Wolff-Lehmann feeding standards for growing dairy cattle and somewhat more than the requirement for total nutri- ment (10). CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS IN THE FEED OF DAIRY cows. Il1 The manner in which the cows were fed and treated subsequent to the birth of their first calves has already been discussed at some length (pp. 1 to 3). It is only necessary to add a word about the actual amounts of grain, hay, and silage given. The manner in which the mature dry cows were fed has already been given (p. 2). The mature milking cows were generally fed 1 pound of grain mixture B or C to each 3 pounds of milk given, 6 to 8 pounds of legume hay, and as much corn silage as they would clean up. They usually gave about 25 pounds of milk a day when they were fresh and at this period they commonly got 8 pounds of grain mixture B, 8 pounds of legume hay, and 30 pounds of corn silage. They usually got a little thin with the progress of their lactation and were then fed somewhat more grain in proportion to the milk yield. In the course of the year, as has already been stated, they got a little more protein and total nutriment than is required by the Eckles or Savage feeding standards. The bone-building elements can probably be supplied in sufficient quantity in two different ways—either by feeding the ordinary ma- terials much more liberally than the feeding standards require or by adding calcium and phosphorus in the form of inorganic salts di- rectly to the rations. We are confident that the latter method will finally be adopted and will effect a great saving in the cost of pro- ducing milk. . But so radical a change in feeding practice ought, perhaps, to be introduced slowly and with caution; the more conservative dairy- man will probably prefer to keep to the ordinary farm feeds until the effects of feeding inorganic salts of calcium and phosphorus have been more fully worked out by the experiment stations. Our experience at Beltsville indicates that with many cows a liberal ration fed for 4 to 6 weeks before calving easily pays for itself through the increased flow of milk in the subsequent lactation period, and we think that there are many cows throughout the country which are far more valuable than their owners suppose them to be. Those dairymen who have been feeding their animals according to the standards or less should try giving each cow a period of two months dry and feeding her during that period three or four times the protein and two or three times the total nutriment required for maintenance. The feeds used should contain plenty of calcium and phosphorus—legume hay and a liberal proportion of bran and cotton- seed or linseed meal. If dairymen find that the milk yield of any of their cows is doubled by this process, they will run no risk of reducing their profits by feeding those cows even 50 per cent more 12 BULLETIN 945, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. | nutriment in the course of the year than the feeding standards call for:® There is one other aspect of the case which must be discussed. Quite apart from the question of the feed cost per pound of milk when a cow’s yield is reduced by feeding a ration deficient in one or more necessary constituents, is the question of the effect of this process on her capacity to resist disease. The Beltsville herd has suffered severely in the last three years from contagious abortion. The relation between the incidence of this disease and the manner in which the cows have been fed is being carefully studied at present, and the results of this study will be reported later. The results already obtained, however, are sufficient to justify a strong sus- picion that abortion has occurred more frequently among the animals that were less adequately fed. But, whatever the final results of this study may be, it is obviously bad practice to allow a cow to deplete her body stores of important materials for long periods of time, even though milk may thereby be temporarily more economically produced. The ideal method is clearly to keep the yearly supply of raw materials in the food equal to the demand for milk produc- tion. SUMMARY. Feeding cows for several years according to the commonly ac- cepted standards with little or no additional pasture, has resulted in their milk yield being reduced much below the optimum. The con- dition of reduced milk yield so brought about may be corrected by giv- ing the animal a dry period of two months, and feeding during that period a ration containing legume hay and grain with a high phos- phorus content and with three or four times the amount of protein required for maintenance, and two or three times the total nutri- ment. The milk yield in the subsequent lactation period may some- times be doubled by this treatment. In the case of cows of which the milk yield has been reduced by several years’ standard feeding, a greatly increased yield can be brought about by feeding “alternated rations with phosphate” dur- ing the dry period. This is taken to mean that the ordinary rations are more likely to be deficient in one or both of the principal bone- building elements than in any other constituent. 5 Weeding cows! heavily before they calve, of course, introduces the risk of milk fever. But if this disease is properly treated, the mortality is not high, and there are appar- ently no enduring bad effects. A well-managed dairy farm should be equipped for deal- ing with milk fever. Our experience at Beltsville shows that the risk even of the appearance of the disease is not very great. In the last five years there have been something over 30 cases of cows fed two to four times the maintenance requirement of protein and total nutriment before they calved, and milk fever has appeared only twice. One of these cases was in a young cow, but was mild; the other was in a cow 15 years old. CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS IN THE FEED OF DAIRY Cows. 13 DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTS, PROTOCOLS, AND TABLES. EFFECTS, ON MILK YIELD, OF LIBERAL FEEDING DURING DRY PERIOD. Cow 17, a grade Jersey, was born in 1909 and brought to the Belts- ville farm in 1912. The protein and total nutriment contained in her rations during the years 1914, 1915, 1916, and 1917 were calcu- lated and compared with the quantities required for her maintenance and for her milk and fat yield according to the Savage standard (9), and it was found that she received on the average a surplus of about 10 per cent of protein and about 2 per cent total nutriment. It may be considered, therefore, that she was fed as nearly accord- ing to this standard as is possible under any ordinary conditions. She was on pasture for only 7 days during the four years under con- sideration. She had a calf toward the end of the summer of each year; the 1917 calf was born six weeks ahead of time, but it sur- vived and was alive and well in June, 1920. The other three calves were all born at term. Her dry periods were 44 days on the average. In 1914 she gave 5,709 pounds of milk; in 1915, 5,121 pounds; in 1916, 5,056 pounds; in 1917, 4,693 pounds; and in 1918, 2,569 pounds.® In 1918 she was given a dry period of 122 days, with approximately the same ration as in previous dry periods. She calved December 11, 1918, and her milk yield for 1919 rose to 5,578 pounds. During her dry periods in 1914, 1915, and 1917, she was fed 4 pounds of grain mixture B, 4 pounds of legume hay, and 30 to 35 pounds of corn silage. During her dry period in 1916 she received 4 pounds of grain mixture B, 3 pounds of oat hay, 28 pounds of corn silage, and had 7 days on pasture. During the last 53 days of her 1918 dry period she was fed 4 pounds of grain mixture C, 4 pounds of legume hay, and 30 pounds of corn silage. Her milk yields for the first clear month after calving in each of the five years under consideration were as follows: October, 1914, 799 pounds; Septem- ber, 1915, 731 pounds; September, 1916, 690 pounds; November, 1917, 416 pounds; and January, 1919, 873 pounds. The milk yield for the first six weeks after calving is not markedly influenced by moderate changes in the feed supplied (2), and the rations given in the months mentioned above were so nearly equiva- lent that they could not have produced the observed differences in the milk yield. These are to be attributed, therefore, to the nutritive condition of the cow in her dry periods. The large yield for January, 1919, is the result of the long dry period with a ration considerably above the maintenance requirement. Cow 201, a purebred Holstein, was born March 13, 1905, and brought to Beltsville in 1912. The protein and total nutriment con- 6 This very low yield is partly explained by the facts that the cow aborted in 1917 and that she had an unusually long dry period in 1918. a 14 BULLETIN 945, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tained in her rations during the years 1914, 1915, 1916, and 1917 were calculated and compared with the quantities required for her maintenance and for her milk and fat yield according to the Savage standard, and it was found that she received, on the average, a sur- plus of about 8 per cent protein and about 9 per cent total nutri- ment. She was on pasture for 46 days during the four years under consideration. She calved normally in the autumn of each year. Her dry periods were 50 days on the average. In 1914 she gave 12,182 pounds of milk; in 1915, 8,269 pounds; in 1916, 7,224 pounds; in 1917, 5,708 pounds; and in 1918, 4,796 pounds: In 1918, she was given a dry period of 78 days, and, during the last 40 days of this period, was fed a much more liberal ration than during her previous dry periods. She calved October 30, 1918, and her milk yield for 1919 rose to 8,711 pounds. During her dry periods in 1914, 1915, 1916, and 1917 she was fed approximately the same rations as those fed to cow 17 in her corre- sponding dry periods. During the last 40 days of her 1918 dry period she was fed daily 11 pounds of grain mixture C, 11 pounds alfalfa hay, and 26 pounds corn silage.. Her milk yields in pounds for the first clear month after calving in each of the five years under consideration were as follows: December, 1914, 1,188 pounds; Octo- ber, 1915, 1,230 pounds; October, 1916, 896 pounds; October, 1917, 579 pounds; December, 1918, 1,293 pounds. For the same reasons as have been given in the case of cow 17, the greatly increased milk yield after the 1918 calving is to be attributed to the more liberal ration fed in the 1918 dry period. It should be mentioned that this cow was milked three times a day during De- cember, 1918, and only twice in the other months above recorded. But the increase in milk yield to be expected from this change in treatment has been much studied at Beltsville; it could hardly have been more than 10 per cent in a case such as that under consideration. The actual increase as between October, 1917, and December, 1918, was more than 120 per cent. EFFECTS, ON MILK YIELD, OF FEEDING PHOSPHATE WITH ALTERNATED RATIONS DURING DRY PERIOD. These experiments may be generally described as follows: Cows were dried off about two months before they were due to calve and were fed, during their dry periods, a basal ration containing 3 to 6 pounds of grain, 4 to 5 pounds of alfalfa hay, and 30 pounds of corn silage. Half of the animals were used as controls and were fed the basal rations without supplement. The others received the same basal rations supplemented with sodium phosphate, the grain and hay of the rations being fed on alternate days. In many cases the same OCALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS IN THE FEED OF DAIRY cows. 15 nimal served as a control one year and as an experiment animal the ext year. In a typical experiment an animal would receive daily ‘or 60 days before calving 3 pounds of grain mixture C, 4 pounds falfa hay, and 30 pounds corn silage. The next year she would eceive in the corresponding period the same average daily quantities f the same feed, but instead of receiving equal amounts of all the eeds every day, she would receive on one day no grain, 8 pounds of falfa hay, and 30 pounds corn silage, and the next day 6 pounds of rrain with sodium phosphate added to it, no hay, and 30 pounds of orn silage. For the sake of brevity the first procedure will be poken. of as the “control feeding,” the second as the “ experimental eeding ” or the “alternated feeding with phosphate.” The animals which received the phosphate were fed alternated ‘ations, as above described, with the idea of separating to some extent he calcium and phosphorus compounds inthe intestinaltract. There sa good deal of evidence to show that the absorption of phosphorus rom the intestinal tract may be hindered by the simultaneous pres- nce of calcium compounds (1), (4), (7). As the hay contains most f the calcium of the rations, and the grain most of the phosphorus, he experimental animals received an excess of calcium one day and n excess of phosphorus the next. When the average daily ration was pounds of grain mixture CP, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, and 30 pounds orn silage, they received about 61 grams of calcium and 17 grams of yhosphorus on the days when they were fed hay; and about 16 grams f caleium and 50 grams of phosphorus on the grain days. After calving, the controls and experiment animals were fed alike wr according to their milk yields. As the milk yield for the first five r six weeks after calving is not much influenced by small changes in he contemporaneous food supply (2), we have not thought it neces- ary to give a detailed account of how the cows were fed during this eriod. The milk and fat yields of the control and experiment animals were ollowed for the first 40 days after calving, and, as a rule, the milk ysroduced from the tenth to the fortieth day after calving was taken s a measure of the effect of the alternated feeding with phosphate. n many cases the body weights of the animals were also followed luring the periods when they were on the control or the experimental eeding. It was decided to use sodium phosphate as the mineral supplement, yartly in order to study the effects of phosphorus as distinguished rom calcium, partly because the phosphates of sodium are much nore soluble in neutral solutions than any of the phosphates of alcium, and it was judged that feeding the more soluble salts would produce the maximum effect of the phosphorus on metabolism. Di- 16 BULLETIN 95, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sodium phosphate (Na,HPO,) was selected because it is the most nearly neutral of the various sodium salts. A very pure prepara- tion of this compound, containing 9 to 12 molecules of water of crystallization,’ can be obtained commercially at about $100 per ton. Sodium phosphate has been fed in only a few of the numerous phosphate-feeding experiments which have been conducted in the past. Gouin and Andouard (6) worked with it to some extent, but they gave no information in regard to the particular sodium phos- phate used or in regard to its water content. If we understand them right, their doses were very small in comparison to those which we finally used. We began with doses of 4.5 grams of phosphorus as di-sodium phosphate daily, and finally gave doses of 24 grams with- out producing any noticeable digestive disturbances. In deciding on the basal ration to which the phosphate was to be added we were largely influenced by the fact that the dry cows at Beltsville had previously been fed, as a matter of routine, a ration consisting of 4 pounds grain,® 4 pounds legume hay, and 30 pounds corn silage. This ration carries decidedly more than enough protein and total nutriment to provide for the maintenance of a 1,000-pound cow, according to the Haecker and Savage standards (9) ; and according to the results obtained by Eckles (3), the surplus should be sufficient to provide for the development of the unborn calf. Using a slightly less liberal feed for the basal ration made it possible to compare the performance of the cows fed phosphate in addition with that of the general herd. In several cases, however, a somewhat more liberal ration was used both for the control and for the experimental] animals. Alfalfa was selected as the hay to be used, partly on account of its high calcium content and partly because it had been used at Belts- ville in the past as often as anything else. The experiments fall into two general classes: First, those on ani- mals which had been fed for some years previously according to the routine used for the general herd; and, second, those on animals which had been on test and which, for at least a year preceding our experiments, had been fed much more liberally than the general herd. In the first class there are two smaller groups. Group 1 consists of seven experiments where the same animal served in one year as control and in another as experiment. Group 2 consists of experi- ments in which the records of animals on the phosphate feeding were 7The salt crystallizes with 12 molecules of water, but loses a considerable part of its water of crystallization readily on exposure to air. As obtained commercially, there- fore, it generally contains less than 12 molecules of water. 5 The grain mixture fed has been varied from time to time. Those most frequently used were grain mixtures B and C. The protein, total nutriment, and mineral con- tent of these are fairly typical for all the other mixtures. CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS IN THE FEED OF DAIRY Cows. 17 compared with those of other approximately similar animals used as controls. The data in the case of the animals which had been on test are rather complicated. In our experiments all these animals were dried off 60 days or more before they were due to calve and were fed during this period on a basal ration of 3 pounds grain mixture D, 5 pounds alfalfa hay, and 30 to 35 pounds corn silage. The controls received this ration fed in the usual way and without any supplement. The others received grain and hay on alternate days and with phosphate added to the grain. It would be possible to compare the experiment animals directly with the controls in this series, but as they are not exactly comparable and-as the cases are few we have thought it better to take into account the past records of both controls and experiment animals. We have, therefore, compared the performance of each animal, after either control or phosphate feeding, with her perform- ance in the preceding year and determined whether the phosphate or control performances compare the more favorably with the preceding performance of the same animal. For several years before the experiments began the cows from the general herd, of which the histories are tabulated in Tables 1 and 2, were fed approximately according to the Savage standard. They received on the average about 0.25 pound protein and 1 pound total nutriment more daily than this standard calls for. The building of the calf annually is not taken account of in this calculation, but the yearly 91 pounds protein and 365 pounds total nutriment received over and above what the standard calls for should have provided sufficiently for this process, according to Eckles’s results (3). The manner in which the test cows were fed contrasts strongly with the above method. During the year in which they were on test and actually milking these animals received a daily average surplus of 1 to 1.5 pounds protein and about 4 pounds total nutriment. For a number of weeks before they calved they received the enormous daily surplus of about 4 pounds protein and 16 pounds total nutri- ment. In other words, the ration fed before calving in preparation for the test contained about six times as much protein and about three times as much total nutriment as is required for maintenance. In the course of a year, taking into account the dry period before going on test, these animals received about 100 per cent more protein and about 50 per cent more total nutriment than is called for by the Savage standard. Tt will be noted that the character of the experiments has made it necessary to keep the animals under observation for periods of more than a year, and to use the milk yield as a measure of the results -to be*studied. In the course of a year innumerable small things, which eH 18 BULLETIN 945, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. are quite beyond experimental control but which might have some influence on milk yield, happen to a cow—weather changes and small disturbances in health and appetite are examples of such incidents. To report them, even to the extent to which they have been recorded in our notes, would be quite impracticable on account of the space required. We have, therefore, given only such features of the his- tories of the cows as might have an influence on the milk yield of the same general order of magnitude as the differences which have com- monly been observed as the result of the phosphate feeding. The manner in which the animals were fed before calving in our experiments is given below, and the tables give such data regarding the experiments as can be conveniently tabulated. RATIONS GIVEN ANIMALS BEFORE CALVING. ANIMALS FROM THE GENERAL HERD. Cow 17, 1918—September 25 to October 18, 3 pounds grain mixture ©, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. October 19 to December 11, 4 pounds grain mixture C, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. Cow 17, 1919-20.— November 26, 1919, to February 14, 1920, alternated rations with daily average of 84+ pounds grain mixture CP, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. February 15 to March 29, 1920, alternated rations with daily average of 44 pounds grain mixture CP, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds eorn silage. Cow 21, 1918— August 28 to November 380, alternated rations with daily aver- age of 6 pounds grain mixture CP:, 5 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. Cow 49, 1918—October 31 to December 1, 4 pounds grain mixture C, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. December 2 to 25, 5 pounds grain mixture C, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. Cow 49, 1919-20—December 12, 1919, to January 14, 1920, alternated rations with daily average of 44 pounds grain mixture CP, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. Cow 50, 1918.—October 2 to December 20, alternated rations with daily aver- age of 5 pounds grain mixture CP:, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, and 30 pounds corn silage. From October 4 to 9, 85 grams calcium. carbonate were added daily to the silage on the days when hay was fed; from October 10 to December 20, 158 grams. : Cow 50, 1920.—April 2 to June 3, 5 pounds grain mixture C, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. Cow 54, 1917—March 14 to May 14, 3 pounds grain mixture C, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. Cow 54, 1919—May 8 to June 2, alternated rations with daily average of 3 pounds grain mixture CP,, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. Cow 59, 1917—October 26 to December 26, 3 pounds grain mixture C, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. Cow 63, 1917-18—December 1, 1917, to February 1, 1918, 3 pounds grain mixture ©, 8 pounds corn stover, 30 pounds corn silage. Cow 638, 1919.—February 3 to March 10, alternated rations with daily aver- age of 3 pounds grain mixture CP:, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 24 to 30 pounds CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS IN THE FEED OF DAIRY Cows. 19 eorn silage. March 11 to 28, 3 pounds grain mixture C, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 24 pounds corn silage; rations not alternated. March 29 to April 25, same as for February 3 to March 10. Cow 64, 1918-19.— December 19, 1918, to January 5, 1919, 5 pounds grain mix- ture ©, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. January 6 to February 6, 1919, 6 pounds grain mixture C, 5 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. Cow 67, 1918.—April 1 to 20, alternated rations with daily average of 3 pounds grain mixture CP2, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. Cow 70, 1918—19.—October 19, 1918, to January 27, 1919, alternated rations with daily average of 3 pounds grain mixture CP:, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. Cow 71, 1918—September 25 to December 1, 8 pounds grain mixture C, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. December 2 to 11, 5 pounds grain mixture C, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. Cow 71, 1919-20 December 20, 1919, to February 20, 1920, alternated rations with daily average of 34 pounds grain mixture CP, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. February 20 to March 1, 1920, alternated rations with daily average of 54 pounds grain mixture CP, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 80 pounds corn Silage. Cow 81, 1919.—Kebruary 24 to April 24, 1919, 3 pounds grain mixture EH, 3 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage, 5.7 grams calcium as calcium chlorid daily. Cow 81, 1920.—February 13 to April 6, alternated rations with daily average of 34 pounds grain mixture CP, 3 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. Cow 213, 1918.— January 1 to February 6, 5.6 pounds grain mixture C, 3 pounds soy-bean hay, 8 pounds corn stover, 25 pounds corn silage. Cow 214, 1918.—March 28 to May 6, alternated rations with daily average of 8 pounds grain mixture CP2, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. May 7 to 15, alternated rations with daily average of 5 pounds grain mixture CP», 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. May 16 to 27, alternated rations with daily average of 5 pounds grain mixture CP:, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, 30 pounds corn silage. ANIMALS WHICH HAD BEEN ON TEST DURING THE YEAR PRECEDING THE EXPERI- MENTS. For a month or so before they calved previous to the test lactation period these animals were fed daily rations of from 8 to 18 pounds of grain mixture F, 10 to 16 pounds alfalfa hay, and 24 to 30 pounds corn silage. The grain mix- tures fed contained more protein and ash than either grain mixture C or D. The rations supplied a great excess of both protein and total nutriment above the maintenance requirements. After they had finished their tests, these animals were dried off about two months before they were due to calve. Cows 227, 232, and 240 were selected as controls and were fed 3 pounds grain mixture D, 5 pounds alfalfa hay, and 30 pounds corn silage for 60 days before calving. Cows 228, 229, and 248 served as experimental animals. For 60 days before calving they were fed alter- nated rations with a daily average of 34 pounds grain mixture DP, 5 pounds alfalfa hay, and 30 pounds corn silage. 20 BULLETIN 945, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CONDENSED HISTORY OF THE EXPERIMENTAL ANIMALS. TABLE 1.—Animals from the general herd used both as experiments and controls. Date of calving. Days dry. |Milk yield.1| Fat yield. F | -seeentes) £5 aes q | Date of birth.| Breed. Cons Phos een een atten) After After control | After phos- | trol |phate rol a Osi Fae HOS S feeding. | phate feeding.| pe- | pe- |, oe P oe ae phate é riod. | riod. | £eed- | feed- | feed- | feed- S ing. | ing. | ing. | ing. ail Days. | Days.) Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. 17 1909. Grade Jersey..| Dec. 11,1918 | Mar. 29,1920 122} 122} 847) 858} 33.9] 33.5 49 | Oct. 22,1914 | Grade Guern- | Dec. 25,1918 | Jan. 14,1920 71| 36] 831] 953 | 40.7| 43.8 sey. 50 | Oct. 25,1914 | Grade Holstein} June 3,1920 | Dec. 20,1918 73 98 | 995 | 972) 38.8] 38.9 54 | Jan. 22,1915 | Grade Guern- | May 14,1917 | June 2,1919 | First 61 | 669 |1,027 | 24.1) 349 sey. ; ca 63 | Oct. 17,1915 | GradeHolstein| Feb. 1,1918 | Apr. 25,1919 |..do..| 103 | 422 |1,018| 15.5 | 34.1 71 | July 15,1916 | Grade Guern- | Dec. 11,1918 | Mar. 1,1920|..do..| 60] 632 1,121] 29.1] 49.3 sey. 81 | Feb. 19,1917 |..... do. .| Apr. 24,1919 | Apr. 6,1920|..do..| 44] 685| 936] 26.0] 42.1 1 The figures given in these columns represent the number of pounds of milk and fat given from the the figures for the yields from tha eipttfcentit vo the tery ich day alfeneslivms asthedady will records from the tenth to the seventeenth day in 1917 had been lost. The following comments are made on the animals in Table 1: Cow 17.—This animal gave very little more milk after the phos- phate feeding than after the control feeding. She had a long dry period in both cases. It seems likely that the long dry period enabled her to restore any insufficiency of bone material which may have ex- isted at the beginning of the experiment. She had a uterine infection after the experimental feeding, which may have reduced her milk somewhat in the experimental period. : Cow 49-—This animal aborted during the period of phosphate feeding 89 days before term. The abortion greatly shortened her dry period on the phosphate feeding and prevented her receiving the more liberal grain ration which she had eaten for 23 days before calving during the control period. In the general herd, abortions 5 weeks or more before term have decreased the first two months’ milk yield from 30 to 50 per cent. We have no way of accounting for the increased milk which was given in this case after the abortion, except as the result of the phosphate feeding. Cow 50.—This animal was fed a much more liberal grain ration than the others in both the control and experimental periods. She “leaked ” milk from her udder to a considerable extent through the experimental period, and she had a uterine infection after calving in the control period, which may have somewhat reduced her milk yield. She gave a little more milk in the control period than in the experimental period. The numerous disturbing circumstances make it difficult to interpret the results, but they seem to us to indicate that often the addition of phosphate will have little effect when the basal grain ration is as high as 5 pounds daily. CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS IN THE FEED OF DAIRY COWS. 21 Cow 54.—This cow aborted during the phosphate feeding 28 days before term. Judging from the history of such cases in the general herd, her milk yield should have been about 10 per cent less than after the control feeding. We have no way of accounting for the actual increase except as the result of the phosphate feeding. Cows 63, 71, and 81.—The remaining three animals of Table 1 were fed on the control rations before their first calves were born and on the experimental rations before their second calves were born. It is well known that heifers are likely to give more milk with their second than with their first calves; the average increase has been worked out by Pearl and Patterson (14) for Jerseys, and the department has figures obtained from the cow-testing associa- tions for Guernseys and Holsteins. In Table 8 we have given the actual and expected increases; in calculating the expected differences we have in each case used the set of figures which would give the largest differences, in order to avoid any possible suspicion of favor- ing the results of the phosphate feeding. The milk yield of all three heifers increased after the phosphate feeding decidedly more than would be expected as the result of age alone. We have no way of accounting for the additional increases except as the result of the phosphate feeding. TABLE 2.—Animals from the general herd used only either as experiment or control animals. CONTROLS. No. ofanimal. | Date of birth. Breed. Date of Days dry. Milk Fat calving. yield. yield.t Days. Pounds. | Pounds. OES Lat at eS Aug. 10,1915 | Grade Holstein....| Dec. 26,1917 | First calf...... 568 20.5 eT ee Oct. 18,1915 |..... GOMPE 3. cd Feb. 6,1919 | 62........ pees | S108 40.1 DG ae aes Se Sept. 26,1915 | Holstein...-....-- Feb. 6,1918 | First calf...... 742 26.7 EXPERIMENT ANIMALS. Dee ese 2S 3 WOOT eecree te Grade Jersey....-- Nowa 0191 Sa 8h oc eee ee 1, 458 60.9 (7 (eas es eee Se Dec. 29,1915 | Grade Holstein...-| April20,1918 | First calf.....- 753 26.3 OM wea. 3 ose April22,1916 | Grade Guernsey...| Jan. 27,1919 |....- do-f20e¢! 588 28.3 PAIS a. Spree es eee Mar. 18,1916 | Holstein.......... May 27,1918 |....- Oasse eer 1,554 8 1 The figures given in these columns represent the number of pounds of milk or fat given from the 10th to the 40th day after calving. The animals whose histories are tabulated in Table 2 were used in early experiments in which we were still feeling around for the conditions under which the effects of the phosphate feeding would stand out most sharply and in which the treatment of the subjects was not so carefully controlled as in the later experiments. The results, however, are in general accord with those of the later experi- ments, and it has seemed to us worth while to report them. 22 BULLETIN 945, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It would, perhaps, be fair to compare cow 59 with cows 67 and 70; cow 64 with cow 21; and cow 213 with cow 214. The figures for cow 59 represent approximately the average performance for the heifers of the general herd with their first calves. Cow 67 is a half sister of cow 59. The two animals have the same sire; the dam of 67 has a somewhat better record than that of 59. Cow 70 was selected in order to try the effects of phosphate feeding in an unfavorable case. Her mother had the poorest record of all the cows in the herd except two, and she herself was of unpromising appear- ance. Cow 64 was milked only twice a day; and cow 21 three times. The difference in the milk yields is, however, larger than is generally produced by this difference in treatment. Cows 213 and 214 were half sisters, both being daughters of the same sire. The dam of cow 213 had a decidedly better record than the dam of cow 214. Cow 213 was milked only twice a day, and cow 214 three times, but the difference in milk yields is very much greater than could be ac- counted for by this difference in treatment. TABLE 3.—Animals which had been on test during the year preceding the periods of control and phosphate feeding. CONTROLS. { Date of calving. Days dry. | Milk yield.1} Fat yield. 38 oan os o 23 Ss 3.2 ae 2s 3 ry Opens: 4 | Date of birth. Breed. After control | Before|,,— | Soe 3g |BSs g Test period. | or phosphate | test | 4) @ |8n'ul @ [Bae a feeding. |period|ao3| 3 |°o8| & |° 23 = Cge| me | S r4 $88| » |S79) » |5.q¥ S Hee) 8 jges| B ead v4 1S) aH | ae |< Days. |Days.| Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. | Lbs. 227| Aug. 2,1915 | Holstein...... Apr. 18,1918 | Jan. 11,1920 fies 137 |1, 674 |2,019 } 61.8 | 83.8 calf. 239| Mar. 31,1916 |..... do.........] Nov. 29,1918 | Mar. 15,1920 |...do..| 58 |1,591 |2,046 | 45.5 | 67.5 240| Nov. 10,1914 |..... dozens: Sept. 27,1918 | Feb. 9,1920] 59| 112 (17876 |1;8s1 | 64.2 | 80.9 EXPERIMENT ANIMALS. 298| Sept. 2,1915 | Holstein...... Apr. 4,1918 | Dee, 30,1919 | First | 79 1,429 2,016 | 44.7] 64.9 calf. 229) Nov. 8,1915 }..... do.........| May 28,1918 | Jan. 31,1920 |.-.do.. 94 |1,817 |2,078 | 53.8 | 71.7 248| Mar. 15,1916 |..... do.........| Jan. 22,1919 | June 17,1920 |...do-.| 63 |1/594 |1/611 | 51.0] 45.1 1 The figures in these columns represent the milk and fat yields from the tenth to the fortieth day after calving, except in the case of cow 229. Inher case they represent the milk and fat yields from the twentieth to the thirty-fifth day after calving multiplied by 2. It was necessary to take these figures instead of the usual ones, as she was sick for some days after calving in 1920, and suffered a severe cut in her rations, and she became sick again on the thirty-sixth day after calving. It is not necessary to make any detailed comment on the results given in Table 3. The differences in milk yield as between the cows fed phosphate and those fed the basal ration alone are so small as to be insignificant. It follows that the favorable influence of the phosphate feeding is CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS IN THE FEED OF DAIRY COWS. 23 reduced to negligible proportions in the case of cows which have been superabundantly fed in their immediately preceding lactation period. EFFECTS OF PHOSPHATE FEEDING ON BODY WEIGHT. Both the animals on the experimental feeding and those used as controls were weighed from time to time. The results are given in Tables 4, 5, 6, and 7. These figures summarize all the pertinent results that we have. Heifers 67 and 214 were fed on the control rations in the late winter of 1917-18 and changed over to the ex- perimental rations a few weeks before they caived. They, therefore, figure as controls in Table 4 and as experiment animals in Table 2. They were on the experimental feeding for such short periods that the weights obtained from them during those periods-can not be used in the present discussion. TABLE 4.—Heifers on control rations; all four pregnant. Period Daily ration. j during No. of | which | Average animal. | weigh- cael ings were oa Feed. Quantity. Feed. Quantity. Feed. Quantity. taken. # Days Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 20 75h leGrain C222 3 | Alfalfa hay... 4 | Corn silage. - 30 60 OS65> |e aeee do...---- Syl Saeee GOs... 4 A iets does. 30 180 1.04 | Grain E....- dl ean do.. or |e neee dow’ 52! 30 59 0.90 | Grain C..... 3. eae Gort: 28 | ee Goeseee ee 25 TABLE 5.—Heifers fed alternate rations with phosphate; No. 70 pregnant, No. 74 farrow. Period Average daily ration. during No. of | which | Average animal. | weigh- mel ingswere| 8%2- Feed. Quantity.) Feed. Quantity.| Feed. Quantity. taken. Days. | Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. (Ue 70 1.24 | Grain CP, .. 3 | Alfalfa hay.. 4 | Corn silage. - 30 YE ee eae 80 DEO. al Bese GO=525 sia BIN Pee = GOee ee lier) Ae lac dows ss: 30 TABLE 6.—Cows fed control rations during dry periods before calving. Period Daily ration. during No. of | which | Average animal. | weigh- ee : ings were ean Feed. Quantity. Feed. Quantity. Feed. Quantity. taken. Days Pounds. Pounds Pounds. Pounds ies eae 50 1.38 | Grain C..... 4 | Alfalfa hay. - 4 | Corn silage. - 30 Cie am aaa os, 59 eG seem doeas-e= 5. |e GOssas = AG is eee dors stese 30 Sle gen soe 47 I 285 \eex 53 dose Sate eos G0s3323.2 As| art 4 do.. 30 igi 7% see ame 60 TBP AN pee tees Gorse ss Gi) Emer G0teo iM see wea toy 30 24 BULLETIN 45, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 7.—Cows fed alternated ‘rations with phosphate during dry periods before calving. . Period Average daily ration. during No. of which aaeee animal. | weigh- Sa ee were| & Feed. Quantity. Feed. Quantity. Feed. Quantity. en. Days Pounds Pounds i Ee ee 0.93 | Grain CP. ba ae hay.. s Corn silage - - 7) ee el 80 1.57 | Grain CP}-- pH ates eaasene Gy ESS d0.62-.5 30 DO aut 30 2:50 fe 4 Olses: ye bee Mp wavadas zt eek idoweee~ 2% 30 Wee anacs 3 30 1.87 | Grain CP Sih eee GOnns.re- al (es Oz. sas: 30 1 a 31 TOR ee 22 Orsis abe Biel arsed 2 GOs. <3 Sihaceee do. s.-22 30 It seems worth while to give in more detail the histories of two animals of which the weight changes on the experimental aoe were followed for comparatively long periods. Heifer 74 was born October 15, 1916. From October 19, 1918, to January 15, 1919, she was fed Slistin ou rations with phosphate, re- ceiving as a daily average 8 pounds of grain mixture CP,, 4 pounds alfalfa hay, and 30 pounds corn silage. She was farrow during this period. Her weights were as follows: October 24, 1918, 754 pounds; November 23, 1918, 804 pounds; December 23, 1918, 890 pounds; January 12, 1919, 930 pounds. Cow 21 was born in 1907. From August 28 to November 30, 1918, she was fed alternated rations with phosphate, receiving as a daily average 6 pounds of grain mixture CP,, 5 pounds alfalfa hay, and 30 pounds corn silage. She had calved November 7, 1917, and became dry September 6, 1918. She calved again November 30, 1918. During the period of phosphate feeding her weights were as follows: September 2, 1,027 pounds; October 2, 1,107 pounds; November 1, 1,143 pounds; November 21, 1,153 pounds. Her best previous month’s record for milk yield on the Beltsville farm was made in October, 1914, and amounted to 1,041 pounds. Af- ter this her milk yield gradually fell off; the best month’s production after the 1917 calving was 469 pounds. She was in very good con- dition when she calved in 1918; in December, 1918, she produced 1,276 pounds of milk, and in January, 1919, 1,815 pounds. These two cases show clearly that sodium phosphate may be fed to cows for long periods in large amounts without producing any deleterious effects on the digestive and assimilative processes. QUANTITATIVE RESULTS. In Table 8 and figure 3 an attempt is made to estimate how much the alternated feeding with phosphate increased the milk yield in the cows of the general herd under the conditions of our experiments. . The column headed “ Expected yield after alternated rations with CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS IN THE FEED OF DAIRY COWS. 25 phosphate” gives the milk yields to be expected after the experi- mental feeding, using the yields after the control feeding as a basis and taking into account the facts that some of the animals aborted, and that the last four were heifers with their first calves in the con- trol period and with their second or later calves in the experimental period. The figures represent the milk yield in 30 days beginning soon after calving. TABLE 8.—Hzpecied and actual 30-day milk yields of cows from the general herd after alternated phosphate feeding: actual yields after control feeding. Expected Actual milk viola | milk yield | mili yield No. of animal. after atte al- | after al- eontial ernated | ternated aEineTS rations with|rations with * | phosphate. | phosphate. Pounds. Pounds. Pounds. 847 847 858 831 565 953 995 995 972 669 599 1,027 422 495 1, 018 632 739 1,121 685 753 936 5, 081 4,993 6, 885 ' The actual yields after the alternated feeding with age 37.9 per cent more than the expected. phosphate aver- GRAIN MIXTURES USED IN EXPERIMENTS.? GRAIN MIXTURE A. Worn mealies 45 pounds. Wheat bran_-----_-- 36 pounds. Cottonseed meal_____ 18 pounds. fei On) | sane Mi ES ap nS 1 pound. GRAIN MIXTURE C. Corn-and-cob meal__. 45 pounds. Wihteat brane === == 36 pounds. Cottonseed meal_____ 18 pounds. ING) Oe 8 aoe AE eee 1 pound. GRAIN MIXTURE CP1. (CHa hays Opin eine gene ae 100 pounds. Naz2HPO:, 12H2O__--_ 10 pounds. GRAIN MIXTURE D. Hominy grits________ 45 pounds. Ground oats_-------- 36 pounds. Cottonseed meal _____ 18 pounds. Ia @ leaves 2 Doe 1 pound. GRAIN MIXTURE B. Corn; meal see 40 pounds. Wheat bran _________ 40 pounds. Cottonseed meal _____ 20 pounds. NIK ©) Ras Es 20s ae 8 en a8 1 pound. GRAIN MIXTURE CP. GrainiGs 22 nl see es 100 pounds. NazsHPO., 12H2O_____ 11 pounds. GRAIN MIXTURE CP2, Grainy Ciearieee: veel 100 pounds. NazHPO.. 12H2O_____ 6 pounds. GRAIN MIXTURE DP. (Grreee tray ee gee iene ees 100 pounds. Na:HPO:. 12H2O0_____ 19 pounds. ®The cottonseed and linseed meal used in these mixtures were meals from which the fat had been extracted by the old process—heat and pressure without solvents. 26 BULLETIN 945, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. GRAIN MIXTURE E. GRAIN MIXTURE F., Corn-and-cob meal___ 55 pounds. Ground oats__-----_-_ 28 pounds. Wiheatepran 9 9 = 30 pounds. Linseed meal_______- 20 pounds. Linseed meal________ 15 pounds. Cottonseed meal _____ 10 pounds. ING TE ae eee 2 Ss5) Fe 1 pound. Gluten feed ___-_____ 14 pounds. Hominy feed ____-___ 14 pounds. Wheat bran —__--_-___ 14 pounds. NaClsc 222.000 ee 1 pound. ACCOUNT OF UNSUCCESSFUL AND INCOMPLETE EXPERIMENTS. Many experiments on the effects of phosphate feeding were begun and then had to be abandoned because the animals aborted or failed to calve, or for other reasons. In other cases phosphate was fed to cer- tain animals, but under rather different circumstances from those in the experiments which have been reported. We wish to mention briefly these unsuccessful and incomplete experiments partly because the results sometimes furnished interesting hints, partly in order to avoid any suspicion that the results reported for the successful experi- ments might be cases unconsciously selected in which the milk yield happened to be large after the phosphate feeding. Several animals were started on the control rations, and subse- quently either aborted or turned out to be sterile. It is not necessary to say anything about these further than that, in the cases where they aborted, the milk yields were such as would be expected from a con- sideration of their histories in comparison with those of the rest of the general herd. Cow 63, whose 1918 and 1919 lactation periods have already been described in detail, was started again on the basal rations in 1920. She carried her calf to term, but acquired an acute general infection after she had been milking about two weeks, which rapidly reduced her milk yield to a very low point, and finally made it necessary to have her slaughtered. She began this lactation period, however, with a milk yield which promised to be as good as or better than that of 1919 after the phosphate period. It is to be remembered that her dry period in 1919 on the phosphate feeding was 103 days; and her dry period in 1920 was also about 100 days. We are inclined to think that these long dry periods made it possible for her to store up a good quantity of calcium and phosphorus, and it would not be surprising if the effect of the long dry period with phosphate feeding in 1919 lasted into 1920. ; Several cows started on the phosphate feeding turned out to be sterile; and one aborted in addition to cows 49 and 54, whose histories have already been reported in detail. The abortion in question oc- curred at a period when it was the custom to remove aborting cows from the farm immediately, and before we realized that cows which CALCIUM AND PHOSPHORUS IN THE FEED OF DAIRY Cows. 24% aborted after a period on the phosphate feeding might give more milk than they ever had before. We have no knowledge of the amount of her milk yield after the abortion. Besides the cases so far reported, there are only seven animals which received any sodium phosphate at all. One of these received small daily doses (6.9 grams phosphorus as sodium phosphate) from the time she was born to when she dropped her first calf. She aborted with this calf, and gave a rather small quantity of milk sub- sequently. On account of the abortion and of the fact that the doses of phosphate were small, we do not think that this experiment throws any light at all on the question of the effects of phosphate feeding on the subsequent milk yield. ss The six other animals received basal rations alone and then the same rations with phosphate added for short alternated periods, the main purpose of the experiments being to determine the effects of feeding phosphate on the concentration of phosphorus in the blood. Three of these happened to abort after periods of a week or more on rations without phosphate. They gave about the quantities of milk which would have been expected on the supposition that they had never had phosphate. The other three dropped their calves while on the phosphate feed- ing. Two of them aborted after 7 and 10 days of phosphate feeding respectively. Both gave more milk than they ever had before, and decidedly more than would have been expected on the supposition that they had never had phosphate. The third was a heifer carrying her first calf. She calved normally at term after 26 days of phosphate feeding and gave much more milk than the general average for the herd with their first calves. These last three results suggest that even a short period of phosphate feeding may have a markedly favorable effect on milk yield if it occurs during the few days immediately before calving, during which the udder is rapidly enlarging in prep- aration for the coming lactation period. LITERATURE CITED. (1) Bertram, J. 1878. Ueber die Ausscheidung der Phosphorsiure bei den Pflanzenfressern. In Ztschr. Biol., v. 14, pt. 3, p. 335-882. (2) Ecxtes, C. H. and Parmer, L. 8. 1916. The influence of the plane of nutrition of the cow upon the composition and properties of milk and butterfat. Mo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Research bul. 25. (3) Ecxtus, C. H. 1916. The nutrients required to develop the bovine fetus. Mo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Research bul. 26. (4) Forses, E. B., with collaborators. 1914. The metabolism of organic and inorganic compounds of phosphorus. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta., Tech. ser. bul. 6, p. 66. (5) Forges, E. B., with collaborators. 1916-1918. The mineral metabolism of the mileh cow. Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Buls. 295, 308, and 330. 28 (6) (7) {8) (9) (10) (11) (12) (13) (14) BULLETIN 945, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Gouin, A., and Anpovarb, P. 1902-1903. Nouvelles recherches sur la nutrition des jeunes bovidés. Jn Bul. Sta. Agron. Loire-Inf., p. 66— HAMMARSTEN, O. 1915. A text-book of physiological chemistry. Trans- lated by J. A. Mandel. Tthed. p. 762. Hart, BE. B., McCottum, E. V., and HumpuHrey, G. C. 1909. The roéle of the ash constituents of wheat bran in the metabolism of herbivora. Jn Amer. Jour. Physiol., v. 24, no. 1, p. 86-103. Henry, W. A., and Morrison, I’. B. 1915. Feeds and feeding. 15th ed. Dp. doa. Same. p. 668. Same. p. 113. Metcs, BH. B., BLATHERWICK, N. R., and Cary, C. A. 1919. Contributions to the physiology of phosphorus and calcium metabolism as related to milk secretion. Jn Jour.*Biol. Chem., v. 37, no. 1, p. 1-75. Metes, EH. B. BLATHERWICEK, N. R., and Cary, C. A., with the collaboration of Woodward, T. EK. 1919. Further contributions to the physiology of phosphorus and calcium metabolism of dairy cows. Jn Jour. Biol. Chem., v. 40, no. 2, p. 469-500. PEARL, R., and ParrerRson, 8S. W. 1917. The change of milk flow with age, aS determined from the seven day records of Jersey cows. Me. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bul. 262. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 5 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Bureau of Markets GEORGE LIVINGSTON, Chief Washington, D. C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER February 21, 1921 COMPARATIVE SPINNING TESTS OF MEADE AND SEA ISLAND COTTONS. By Wm. R. MreApows, Cotton Technologist, and W. G. Buair, Assistant in Cotton Testing. CONTENTS. Page. Page Init o cue tions a5 eee ee 1 | Percentages of waste-—-______--== 3 Purpose of the spinning tests______ 2) Breaking strength of yarns_______- 4 Grade and staple of cotton________ SS UNIO Ta array ee aa et ea Se ee 5 Mechanical conditions_____________ The ravages of the boll weevil have reduced the annual production of Sea Island cotton in the United States from 92,619 bales in 1917 to 6,916 in 1919, and the prospect for the crop of 1920 indicates an even lower figure. From present indications it is feared that the entire industry may be destroyed within the next few years. How- ever, the Bureau of Plant Industry of the United States Department of Agriculture has developed a new variety of cotton which promises to replace the rapidly diminishing Sea Island crop. This new va- riety is known as “ Meade.” The introduction of new varieties of cotton is usually attended with "many difficulties because growers and manufacturers are reluctant to change from a well-known variety which has given satisfactory results for many years to another variety that is in the experimental stage of development. Such was the condition which prevailed at the time that the Meade cotton was first introduced in the Sea Island districts. The principal reason for experimenting with this new variety was to prepare for the damage that was expected would re- sult to Sea Island cotton if the’ boll weevil should reach this region. It is thought that Meade has now been established on a commercial basis and that its future production is assured. The Meade cotton was developed during 1912 and subsequent years from what was known locally as “ Blackseed” or “ Black Rattler ” Norr.—This bulletin is of interest to the growers, cotton merchants, dealers, and manufacturers of Meade and Sea Island cottons. 27917°—21 2 BULLETIN %6, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cotton grown near Clarksville, Tex. Its chief cultural characteris- tics as compared with the Sea Island cotton are its earlier maturing bolls increased production of lint and seed, and its larger bolls and consequent greater ease of picking. The Meade cotton is a long-staple upland variety, producing under favorable conditions a fiber 13 inches long, of fine texture like the Sea Island. Because its seeds are nearly smooth it can be handled to advantage on common roller gins. There is little tend- ency to “butterfly”; that is, for the fibers to grow shorter at the base of the seed, which was one of the undesirable traits of the older long-staple upland varieties, such as Floradora, Sunflower, and Allen. So closely does the Meade fiber resemble Sea Island that the two can not be distinguished except by experts. It is said that Meade has been sold on the regular Sea Island market at Savannah at a premium over the mainland Sea Island. PURPOSE OF THE SPINNING TESTS. The United States Department of Agriculture, through the cotton- testing specialists of the Bureau of Markets, has conducted spinning tests on representative bales of Meade and Sea Island cotton grown during the seasons of 1916-17, 1918-19, and 1919-20 in order to de- termine the practical spinning value of the Meade cotton in com- parison with that of Sea Island. GRADE AND STAPLE OF COTTON. The grade of the cotton for the tests of 1916-17 and of 1918-19 was practically equal. That of the season of 1919-20 was repre- sented by a mixture of Meade cotton grading No. 24, grown on sandy soil; by another mixture of Meade cotton grading No. 3, grown on clay soil; and by a mixture of Sea Island cotton grading No. 14. The length of staple of the cotton tested was 12 inches for all three seasons, excepting the Meade produced on clay soil, which was 175 inches in length of staple. The United States Official Cotton Stand- ards for Sea Island cotton were used as a basis of comparison for both growths on which the 1919-20 tests were made, but the earlier tests were made before the official standards for Sea Island had been established; hence, it can only be stated that the grade of cottons used the first two years was equal as between Meade and Sea Island and approximately equal to the grades used in the last test. 1The spinning tests of the Meade and Sea Island cottons herein described were con- ducted independently during three different years. The test on the crop of 1916-17 was made in 1917 at the North Carolina State College of Agriculture and Engineering, West Raleigh, N. C., by William 8. Dean, formerly assistant in cotton testing; the test on the crop of 1918-19 was made in 1919 at the New Bedford Textile School, New Bedford, Mass., by C. E. Killingsworth, formerly assistant in cotton testing; and the tests of the crop of 1919-20 were made in 1920 at the North Carolina State College of Agriculture and Engineering, West Raleigh, N. C., by William G. Blair, assistant im cotton testing. SPIN NING TESTS OF MEADE AND SEA ISLAND COTTONS. 3 MECHANICAL CONDITIONS. All of the test lots were run under the same mechanical conditions except for minor changes in the draft to secure the required weight of sliver. These changes were necessary because the Meade was slightly more wasty than the Sea Island. PERCENTAGES OF WASTE. Accurate records were kept of the amount of cotton fed to and de- livered by each machine and of the waste discarded at each process. The invisible loss depends upon the grade of the cotton and the atmospheric conditions under which it is being manufactured. To offset the effect of the latter an attempt was made to maintain the relative humidity at 65 per cent, but because of the absence of humid- ifiers in the picker room it was not always possible to keep a constant humidity in that room, which caused slight variations in the invisible loss. : Table 1 gives the percentages of visible waste obtained at the pickers, cards, and combers; the invisible waste; and the combined visible and invisible waste from both the Meade and Sea Island cot- tons tested. TABLE 1.—Percentages of waste obtained from Meade and Sea Island cotton during the seasons shown. 1916-17 1918-19 1919-20 Meade | Meade Sea Sea Meade Meade cotton, | cotton Island Island p ?| Tsland cotton. cotton. sandy | cla cotton. cotton. iil, Spall. cotton. Visible waste: 5 IRICKerseat oe ee ces ks, ee 1. 80 1. 04 1. 63 1. 63 2. 34 3. 14 1.05 (CRIROS LSE Soom Soe oe BEER olen euetceh (ate eam 7. 66 7. 04 5. 70 Dae 6.49 | 10.01 5. 03 Comers ae: | Sei aie oe eT | 22. 45 23. 26 19, 39 15. 03 18. 85 16. 12 15. 20 PaMotalivisibleya-anessn. = So ee Nae 29.48 | 29.34] 24.82] 20.55] 25.51} 26.19 19.79 Inayisiole wastes: seca So. .k econo ede ~ 74 i GA 1) . 74 2. 54 3. 97 3. 63 Total visible and invisible waste from : pickers, cards, and combers2....._.-.- 30.22 | 29.61 | 26.94 | 21.29] 28.05] 30.16 23. 42 1 Based on the net weight fed to the respective machines. 2 Based on the net weight fed to the opener picker. These waste percentages show that the Meade and Sea Island cotton were practically equal in wastiness for the season of 1916-17, the percentages of visible waste being 29.48 and 29.34, respectively. The tests made on the cotton grown in the season of 1918-19 show that there was 4.27 per cent more visible waste in the Meade than in the Sea Island cotton. This difference was almost entirely due to the waste made on the comber. The tests made on the crop of 19*9-20 Showed a difference of 5.72 per cent more visible waste for the sandy soil and 6.40 per cent for the clay soil Meade than for the Sea Island. 4 BULLETIN 946, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The greater part of this difference in waste occurred at the pickers and cards, and may be partly accounted for by the lower grade of the Meade selected for the test. On-averaging the results of the tests for the three seasons, it was found that on the pickers, the Meade cotton was 0.82 per cent more wasty than the Sea Island; on the cards, 1.40 per cent; on the combers, 1.94 per cent; and for all three processes, 3.50 per cent. The differ- ence on the comber could be eliminated by slight adjustments of this machine, so that the difference in the wastiness of the two cottons might be reduced to an almost negligible amount. BREAKING STRENGTH OF YARN. » Both growths of cotton were spun into 23’s, 40’s, 60’s, 80’s, and 100’s yarn. Each number of yarn was produced with three different twists, namely those indicated by the twist multipliers 3.25, 3.50, and 3.80. That is, these figures multiplied by the square root of the number of ‘yarn being spun give the turns of twist per inch in the yarns. The results of the twist tests were not conclusive in that they show some cases in which the strength of the yarn increased on changing the twist multiplher from 3.5 to 3.8, and other cases in which the strength decreased with the greater twist. The same facts were evident when the twist multipher was changed from 3.5 to 3.25. A comparison of the breaking strengths of the Meade and Sea Island cottons is shown in Table 2, in which the breaking strength in pounds per skein of 120 yards for the various numbers of yarn having a twist equal to 3.5 times the square root of the number of yarn is given. TABLE 2.—Breaking strength, in pounds, per skein of 120 yards of various sizes of yarns spun from Meade and Sea Island cotton grown in different seasons. (3.50 twist multiplier used.) 5 Sea Size of ; Season. Meade cotton. Tsland Rice cotton. s 23’s 129.7 144.7 WQIG-17..- 2-02 eee ne nnn e renee ee ne ns ices ones soeeees {ro0'g 15.2 17.4 23istee 109.2 128.7 10/5 Se 60.1 €9.8 MOIS=19 ooo Soe visio oS ad ale wtelaeeiclaei = Seeicicie b= cisiwie pine. > Sie iteleistatata G0iSaaeee 35.4 39.4 80’s. - 24.1 25.9 100’s. 16.3 17.6 Sandy soil.| Clay oh 20'S seiseelt 103.8 107.69 122.6 40’s. 2... 54.6 eels) 58.5 tt ES) ee ee RR sSEESSeo. - 3o5q= fosceedooor cicod060ced 60's naar Ba. 7 30.7 34.8 80’s 22.6 19.6 22.3 100’s 15.5 12.8 15.6 During the seasons of 1916-17 and 1918-19, when the Meade and Sea Island cottons were grown under normal conditions, the break- ing strength of the yarns spun from Meade cotton was weaker than SPINNING TESTS OF MEADE AND SEA ISLAND COTTONS. 5 that of the Sea Island, regardless of the number of yarn spun. During the season of 1919-20, excessive rains in the Sea Island dis- trict weakened the strength of the fiber of both cottons before they were picked. The Sea Island cotton was apparently affected more than the Meade, as shown by the breaking strengths of the finer numbers. On the coarser numbers, the Sea Island had the greater _ strength, whereas on the finer numbers, the two varieties were prac- tically equal in strength. The Meade cotton grown on clay soil gave a stronger break on 23’s yarn than that grown on the sandy soil, but on the finer numbers, the greater breaking strength was obtained from the Meade grown on sandy soil. SUMMARY. Meade cotton has been developed as a possible substitute to replace the rapidly diminishing supply of Sea Island cotton. Its length of staple varies from 17% to 1% inches, the greater portion being 13 inches. It matures two to three weeks earlier, gives a greater pro- duction of both lint and seed, and is more easily picked than Sea Island. The grade and staple of the Meade and Sea Island cottons tested were practically equal for the seasons of 1916-17 and 1918-19, but were unavoidably different for the season of 1919-20. The cotton was run under as nearly identical conditions as pos- sible. Averaging the visible waste for the three seasons, it was found that the Meade cotton was 3.50 per cent more wasty than the Sea Island. Comparing the breaking strength of the Meade and Sea Island yarns for the three seasons, a difference of 17.2 pounds was found in favor of the Sea Island for the 23’s yarn and 1.68 pounds for the 100’s yarn. Under the adverse weather conditions during the grow- ing season of 1919-20, the breaking strength of the sandy soil Meade was equal to that of the Sea Island for the finer numbers of yarn. ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. Cc. AT SCENTS PER COPY V gage Hee act betne® ai | jf iat sik th Pcie orizeon iat ths pre ies ee Seg dons) ewes] Mee aa ihe? Jom ee he glee! cod set ona we. HS caevipedzicires Poukket alice ded’ hii neat ? wore ab nol oat, eae figchaiee. maeitiet ai ost cue [PREP cia toe heal ois .nedtowsbnklee uo Rd aay ig hoyaied | asi tog radneny ork ote phase ey aaah snore te Rar soe dpktsins: aifbont Bwics & ase (Fate iS haniott eliage! opios't ry Bee Me 8 Fy pated + asia anal EE Abe : if . yas Oterel ha PMOTER Sa: | “omleret bat ‘ i ‘ A et pees eee an: ak en Pula eae OS, PEO Bes “gerishy ate: gor str (il) FIeBy Heron ae i banter bien ety have “is 6) ss RE bao’ aavw ebay Re a. “ght tok abr, CAE: Gaul eae ‘at mek Tie PA hed 8 bad witiiere After ‘Haomed Bae MA a BMRA. Lie ett EPO a ey iLoten BS ah ; Ure, ko wcae sii ‘evcett, tee WOH ii POA sik #8 Da f yout SST ES He EP TR re ia eee mare EE oer Linen ipo jd mie ecm’ er oe % met ae 4 ay Cue is , ie re yf Poot a) Ah Rae UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE , BULLETIN No. 947 | Contribution from the Bureau of Animal industry ‘q JOHN R. MOHLER, Chief Washington, D.C. PROFESSIONAL PAPER October 11, 1921 WESTERN SNEEZEWEED (HELENIUM HOOPESII) AS A POISONOUS PLANT. By ©. Dwicutr Marsn, Physiologist in Charge of Investigaticns of Stock Poisoning by Plants; A. B. Ciawson, Physiologist; James I’. Coucn, Pharmacological Chemist; and HapieicH Marsu, Veterinary Inspector, Bureau of Animal Industry. CONTENTS. Page Page ITA ROG MO MONS ASE Gsocaeeede obeoe Hse aea ae aeBer 1 | Discussion, ete.—Continued. EIS OMCAU SIMI AMY Me emer eer east ees as. 1 Toxicity of leaves of plant..................- 32 Description of the plant..........-..-------- 3 MoxiciiysOffMOwers ee essen eee eee eee eee 34 Msepentmentaliworks oo. cej2--ceeecce- eee 6 Moxicityvof stem leavies/s~---4- 24-62 ses-e oe 34 Feeding experiments with sheep...---...-.. 11 Comparative toxicity of different parts of the Feeding experiments with cattle........-.--- 15 lames Ses eae es PES | Ye mee ete FAS 34 Chemical examination of the plant....-...-. 17 Effect of drying on toxicity of leaves........- 35 LOTINeexamMMa OM sess sees se ace ese occ ee 23 Seasonal variation in toxicity of the plant... 36 Discussion and general conclusions......--..-- 24 Permanent effect produced by the poison.... 37 S\ Ag OOWIS Sei Cho cde seep a ree ee eeace a aEe eee 24 IROMEMTES Seen ies Ooi Ae celeste Peele aise 38 EATIUOPS ypu Gin SS eae seen a Seca eee ere © 27 Treatment of plant on the range......-..--.-. 39 Pathology of H. hoopesii poisoning..........- 27 Practical suggestions for stockmen on the Mom edosedorsheepesease-eeereescecese cece 30 TANG OMe eset rae eisai Rae s seine sie ciatealaeie ine 44 Moxieidosetomeattlesene: msec aese sees s ess 80) |} Summ anya seerer tee eas ceil clea ceins cictee erase 45 EP ACULC CASES erate ae ferersictetats pe eae eee eeeitetnelainie se Sir | peluiteratuneycived sm are=sereeer creel ees -aceee ae 46 INTRODUCTION. HISTORICAL SUMMARY. In 1903, V. K. Chesnut, who was at that time in charge of poisonous- plant investigations in the Department of Agriculture, while visiting Sevier County, Utah, was told that a disease of sheep was prevalent in that part of the State. The disease was characterized by vomiting and wasting away, the sheep dying after a time varying from a week or two to # month. Nothing further was heard of this disease by the department until January, 1914, when the senior author, who was making an address to the stockmen of Salina, Utah, was told that the sheep on the summer ranges in the Wasatch Mountains 28468°—21—Bull. 947 —1 2 BULLETIN 947, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. suffered from a disease commonly known as “spewing sickness.”’ The symptoms, as described, seemed to correspond fairly well with those caused by Zygadenus (death camas), and the men were told that this plant was the probable cause. A picture of the plant was shown, and some of them recognized it as growing on the ranges where the trouble occurred. A botanical examination of the ranges in question was made by W. W. Eggleston in the following summer, and two visits were made by Dr. Hadleigh Marsh to see the sick animals. On the first visit, from July 25 to August 7, 1914, a number of spewing cases were seen and some autopsies made. The ‘‘sneezeweed,’’ Heleniwm hoopesii, was seen where some of the sheep were grazing, and one of the herders expressed his belief that this plant was the cause of the trouble. It was found, however, that quite generally Zygadenus grew near where cases of poisoning occurred, and it was concluded that this plant was the probable cause of the trouble, although it was noted that the cases were not typical of Zygadenus poisoning, and that Zygadenus was not found in some of the localities. It was also found that many cases occurred in September, which was rather late for Zygadenus. The second visit was made by Dr. Hadleigh Marsh, from September 12 to 21. This was just after the sheep had left the summer range. The localities where sheep had been reported poi- soned were examined carefully. Dried leaves and seed of Zygadenus were found in many places. It was thought that the Zygadenus was abundant enough to account for some of the losses, but not for all. The fact, too, that most of the herders believed in the sneezeweed as the poisonous agent was not to be ignored, and it was felt that definite experimental work should be undertaken which would verify or elim- inate the sneezeweed theory. This experimental work was commenced when the Salina Experi- ment Station was established on the Fishlake National Forest in 1915, and has been continued for five years. The installation of a station on a range where the spewing sickness was common, with the oppor- tunity of observing the field cases, together with feeding experiments with the fresh plant, soon established proof that the spewing sickness was not caused by Zygadenus, but was the result of eating sneezeweed (Telenium hoopesw). A preliminary publication, Circular A-9, United States Department of Agriculture, was issued concerning this work in 1916. The effects of the plant were of such a character, however, as to make the detailed experimental work very slow and tedious, and in the course of the work many perplexing questions arose, so that it was only after several seasons’ work that it was possible to make a fairly complete report on the subject. WESTERN SNEEZEWEED AS A POISONUOUS PLANT. 3 The following references to the poisonous properties of Helenium hoopesti have been found in the literature: Pammel (1910, p. 140) says that it is “said to be poisonous to sheep.” In 1911, page 781, he says: It is said to be poisonous like other species of the genus. Sheep carefully avoid it, feeding on the grass and other herbaceous plants, leaving the plant standing. Barnes (1913) states that ‘“‘sneezeweed (Helenium autumnale, Helenium montanum)’’ grows all over the West and is poisonous to sheep. He also says that water from tanks in the sneezeweed region may poison sheep and has poisoned men. With very little doubt the sneezeweed he speaks about is Helentwm hoopesi. Glover and Robbins (1915, pp. 66-67) give a brief description of “Dugaidia hoopesiw”’ and state that ‘in the mountainous districts of Colorado bitter milk and meat are not uncommon, and it can no doubt be safely attributed in many instances to the eating of this plant. Severe poisoning may result from eating large quantities of the plant.” Hall and Yates (1915, p. 246) include Helenium hoopesii in a list of plants “either definitely known to be poisonous to stock or are under suspicion, but which seldom, if ever, cause serious trouble in California.”’ Pammel (1917, p. 462) says: The Rocky Mountain D. hoopesii is a much larger plant than the eastern species. This is very common in Utah and western Colorado. I saw a great deal of this in the Uintah Mountains. Sheep were abundant on the range where I noted this plant. I found that, though sheep will eat all kinds of herbage, they carefully avoid this species. I feel sure that when forage is scarce they sometimes eat this weed and may sometimes die. The summer I was on this range hundreds of sheep died from various causes, some, perhaps, from this sneezeweed. Marsh (1918, pp. 19 and 20) makes a summarized statement in regard to the plant. Beath (1919, p. 45) says: Recently western sneezeweed is reported to have occasioned losses among sheep in certain States, especially Utah. The poison is slow in action and said to be cum- ulative. Its specific nature has not as yet been announced. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLANT. 1! Helennum (Dugaldia) hoopesw (fig. 1) belongs to the composite family and is a strong perennial, growing to a height of 1 to 3 feet with one or several stems. It often develops a large crown and spreads vegetatively by this crown. (Hig. 3.) The plant, when young, is often-hairy or woolly, particularly the stems, but later becomes glabrous. The stem is leafy; the thick 1The description of the plant was prepared by W. W. Eggleston, Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture. 23 —-! 4 BULLETIN 947, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE.. entire leaves of a deep green color are dotted, have several parallel veins, are oblong, lanceolate, sessile, or in the root-leaves spatulate witha long tapering base. There may be one or several flower heads. The heads are 2 to 3 inches broad, with oblong-lanceolate scales. The ray flowers are of an orange color, numerous and fertile, about an Fic. 1.— Helenium hoopesii. Mature plantin blossom. inch long; the disk flowers are brownish orange. The seeds are numerous and hairy. The plant occurs at elevations from 5,200 feet to 12,500 feet, but its usual limits are from’ 7,000 feet to 10,500. It is found in the yellow-pine belt, grows abundantly in the aspen and spruce belts, WESTERN SNEEZEWEED AS A POISONOUS PLANT. 5 and somestimes reaches the Arctic alpine zone. Its best habitat is on sunny slopes of the aspen-spruce belt in moist well-drained soil. It thrives in the higher mountain parks of Colorado and Utah and in the upper Kern River watershed in the southern Sierra Nevadas of California. Heleniwm hoopesii is also found in the Wind River and Teton Mountains, Wyo.; the Caribou Mountains, Idaho; in the Stein Mountains, Oreg.; the Ruby Mountains, Nev.; and in the Warner Mountains, Calif. In the Sierra Nevadas it has been found north from the Kern River to Clarks Fork, north of Sonora pass on both sides of the range, and also in Washoe County, Ney. In the higher mountains of Arizona and New Mexico it is well distributed. In the Black Mountains and the Mogollon Mountains of New Mexico it is abundant along the streams in the higher mountain canyons. In the Sacra- mento Mountains, N. Mex., it occurs in the bottoms of many of the _ Fig. 2.—Distribution of Heleniwm hoopesii in the United States. higher canyons that are destitute of streams. The White and the Mogollon Mountains of New Mexico and the San Francisco Peaks of Arizona have high mountain parks similar to those of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado and the Wasatch, and in these parks sneeze- weed is abundant. In the Wasatch Mountains the blossoming period is from the middle of June to the middle or last of August. In many overgrazed areas it has become the predominant plant. Figure 4 shows how thickly it grows in some localities. From the color of the flowers it is sometimes called “ yellowweed,”’ and some stockmen called it ‘sunflower,’ but in Utah it is most commonly known as “sneezeweed.’’ The Navajos have a name meaning owl’s claws. Figure 2 shows the distribution of the plant in the United States. . | | 6 BULLETIN 947, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EXPERIMENTAL WORK. The feeding experiments were carried on at the Salina Experiment Station, in Utah, and were continued through the summer months from 1915 to 1919. Facilities for chemical work were provided at the Salina station so that such work as was dependent on field conditions was conducted Fic. 3.—Helenium hoopesii. Young plants showing root system and method of vegetative reproduction. there, but the more detailed work was carried on in Washington, where laboratory facilities were more complete. The plants used were all collected in the immediate neighborhood of the Salina Experiment Station, in the Fishlake National Forest in Utah. The weights of the plants are all given in the equivalent of the green plant. The following table gives a summarized statement of the work with sheep and cattle and will give an idea of the extent of the experimental work on which this paper is based. WESTERN SNEEZEWEED AS A POISONOUS PLANT. od od 0d ‘od od *OUON: THO ‘od ‘od od ‘od og od ‘od ‘od “OUON -Apourey we eeeee res eeees “ped SEE EOEEEEES 1 SRS RRVepEOT.S Sols JON > - ZUTHOYN ULOIS POI Os JON "psa pord Omran nN *SSoTOIS Jo AyIeAeg snooos seccns op." 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"""|¢T Aqne 0} eT oune ApSOG eS Se TOD ess s> 25 OD aaa Garo O TEER “Avy VjTVITe Ul pag |°-¢ Atng 03 eT oun |--~~*~-"zQ 07 86 “ST6T *SsUTPIeJ JO poyuVay | “suTpeeyjo ayeq “"""""8¢8 0} LEP I> 18 11980 “"*"" "Ee 07 998 |" > FS 91918 “""**@"2) 0) FOL |" 69F Geeys Tot tts 7 "===" @°¢6 |- >> CGO¢ deays "7" @°88 07 FOL |" ~~ 32% desys “"""@ ZIT 09 L2T |" TZb deays eee GG, 02 08 |" ~~“ 19h deeys eos ego 6 |° ~~ 6lF deoys “77777-6407 Z8 > ~~ 89 deays “"*"""g0T 0 SIT |°°* a6F deoys ae 18 0208 |"*" gf deeys ee #6 07 80L |" ~~ 29 dooys *-"""G"66 01 9ZT |" ~~ 90¢ desys ---06F dooys ~~~ ggF dosys “SPunOT *qmemIedx9 “01? SuLINp JYUSIO\M | -eUsIseq mp icteeuea ts “BT ATAVY EL WESTERN SNEEZEWEED AS A POISONOUS PLANT. aL FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH SHEEP. In the experimental feeding two distinct plans were followed— corral feeding and forced feeding. Corral feeding.—tn the early experience in corral feeding the ani- mals were given nothing but sneezeweed, which was supplied in as large a quantity as they would eat. Inasmuch as some of these feedings were continued for a considerable period, in some cases three weeks or more, the question naturally arose whether insuffi- cient nutrition did not play a large part in the production of symp- toms. This was later definitely proved to be not the case. It was found, moreover, that the animals could be induced to eat only a limited quantity of the plant, and that this quantity was fully as great when hay was supplied with it. Some of the animals were fed as long as they would eat the plant without regard to whether it produced death, while in other cases the feeding was continued only to the time when definite symptoms appeared. | Forced feeding.—In the forced feedings the balling gun was used and the material, ground up, was administered as rapidly as possible. As the animals did not, in all cases, take the material readily, it was sometimes necessary to repeat the feeding in order to give a toxic dose. As shown by the table, also, the forced feedings were some- times extended over a number of days to determine the effect of definite repeated feedings given in this manner. TyYPIcAL CASE OF SHEEP 413. Sheep 413 may be taken as a type of the effect of a single forced feeding of H. hoopesii. This animal was a wether, weighing at the time of the experiment 543 pounds. The temperature shortly before the experiment was 104.7° F., its pulse 114, and its respiration 60. The high pulse and respiration are accounted for because this animal had not been handled before and was somewhat excitable. On June 24, 1917, between 10.45 and 11.08 a. m., it was given, by the balling gun, 2.383 pounds of H. hoopesw leaves and stems. This material had been finely ground. At 2.05 p. m. the temperature was 103.8, the pulse 140, the respiration 60. June 25, 8 a.m., the temperature was 102.5, pulse 144, the respiration 36. At this time the animal appeared dejected and the femoral pulse could not be detected. At 2.30 p. m. the animal was very sick; the heart was beating irregularly and no femoral pulse could be felt. At 3 p.m. the pulse was not only rapid, being 156, but was irregular. At 4p. m. the respirations became irregular. The animal showed no inclination to move about. This condition continued during the evening, the pulse rate remaining very high. On June 26, 6.25 a. m., the animal was extremely weak, while the rapid, irregular pulse and the irregularities of the respira- 12 BULLETIN 947, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tion continued. At 10.55 a. m. the animal appeared to be somewhat bloated, and breathing was noted as very irregular and noisy. The respiration was in groups of two or three, followed by holding of the breath after inspiration. These conditions continued unchanged during the day, the animal growing worse. On the morning of June 27 it was found dead. In regard to the symptoms, it should be noted that the tempera- ture continued during the sickness practically unchanged, the extremes being 100.6° to 105.3°. The high temperature, however, was noted only once and in repeated observations the temperature was only between 102° and 103.6°. The respiration varied somewhat more widely, running from 36 to 150. There was, however, no continued period of rapid respirations. The animal apparently had naturally a somewhat rapid pulse, as, on the day before the experiment, it was found to be 114. During the whole period of the illness, however, it ran high, going up as high as 156 and not falling below 121. In the autopsy petechiz were found on the surface of the heart and the trachea was somewhat congested, as were the lungs. In the alimentary canal the mucous membrane of the first, second, and fourth stomachs was congested. Congestion also was found in the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, but not in the rectum. There was a small mass of coagulated serum in the rumino-reticular groove and in the anterior groove of the rumen. It was noted that the blood vessels beneath the skin were somewhat congested. TypicaL CASE oF SHEEP 421. This sheep can be taken as typical of those cases of prolonged feeding in which the principal symptom produced by the H. hoopesii was weakness, and in which vomiting was not exhibited. The sheep was a ram received at the station June 6, 1917, and at that time ~ weighed 95 pounds. On August 6 and 7 an attempt was made to have the animal eat Zygadenus elegans. This feeding did not pro- duce any effect. On August 27 a beginning was made of feeding H. hoopeswi. At this time the sheep weighed 126.5 pounds. The general plan of feeding was to give the animal all the H. hoopesw it would eat, and with it was mixed more or less alfalfa hay to induce the animal to eat more readily. In preparing the material for feed- ing, ordinarily there was used from 3 to 5 times as much H. hoopesvi as hay. In some instances, however, more hay was mixed with the uneaten H. hoopesw. Between August 27 and September 18 the animal ate 47.925 pounds of H. hoopesia per hundredweight of ani- mal. The total days of feeding were 23, but symptoms appeared in 19 days after an average daily ration of 2.83 pounds of the plant. The sheep ate quite readily and appeared to be in good condition until September 6, when it did not seem quite right. Distinct symp- Bul. 947, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Fic. 1.—SHEEP 421, AT 10.44 A. M., Fic. 2.—SHEEP 421, AT 10.45 A. M. SEPTEMBER 18, I9I7. SEPTEMBER 19, IQI7. Fic. 3.—SHEEP 421, AT 10.46 A. M., Fic. 4.—SHEEP 332, IN THE ACT OF SEPTEMBER IQ, IQI7. VOMITING. Fic. 5.—SHEEP 314, IN ATTITUDE Fig. 6.—SHEEP 314, JUST BEFORE SHOWING WEAKNESS. DEATH. WESTERN SNEEZEWEED AS A POISONOUS PLANT. 13 toms, however, did not appear until September 15. At that time it was still eating freely of the plant, but was gradually getting weaker, would lie down much of the time, and, when walking, dragged its hind legs. On the next day (September 16) the animal was not only lying down much of the time, but, when attempting to walk, acted as though the hind legs were stiff. On September 18 the weak- ness had so much increased that when standing it trembled and found great difficulty in keeping its feet. Plate I, figure 1, shows the animal at 10.44 a.m. On the afternoon of September 18 it was lying down with head stretched out, and when put on its feet was unable to stand more than a minute or two at a time. On Sep- tember 19 the pulse was weak and the animal was down and did not attempt to rise. On the morning of this day it was given 3 ounces of Epsom salt and a subcutaneous injection of one-tenth of a grain of strychnin. The pulse was noted as irregular and the respirations rapid. The pictures, Plate I, figures 2 and 3, were taken at 10.45 a.m. and 10.46 a. m., and show very clearly the extreme weakness of the animal at this time. On September 20 it was given 1 ounce of Epsom salt and a subcutaneous injection of one-tenth of a grain of strychnin. The sheep was so weak that it was unable to raise the hinder part of the body from the ground. On this day the animal was regurgitating; some green mucus ran from its mouth and nostrils, but it did not vomit. -On September 21 it appeared somewhat better, perhaps as the result of the action of the Epsom salt, and on this day it was given two doses of one-tenth of a grain of strychnin. The sheep was given alfalfa hay and bran and this feeding of hay was continued on the succeeding days. On Septem- ber 24 the animal received 2 ounces of Epsom salt, and on September 25 appeared very much stronger. From this time there was a con- tinual gain in the sheep’s condition, and on September 28 it was turned out into the pasture. On September 30, the last day of observation, the animal weighed 103 pounds. It was evident, how- ever, that recovery at this time was only partial, for the animal’s general condition was rather bad. TyPicaL CASE OF SHEEP 380. Sheep 380 may be taken as a type of those animals subjected to pro- longed feeding which, in addition to weakness, showed a pronounced tendency to vomit. The animal, a ewe weighing 60 pounds, was brought to the station May 28, 1916. The feeding was commenced on May 30 and was continued until July 21, 53 days. During that time the animal ate 113.82 pounds of H. hoopesti. Symptoms of poisoning, however, appeared in 25 days from the commencement of the feeding, at. which time the animal had eaten 64.583 pounds. 14 BULLETIN 947, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The plan of feeding, as with Sheep 421, was to have the animal eat as much of the H. hoopesi as it would take. The plant was cut up and mixed with a certain amount of alfalfa hay, as the animal would not eat it without hay. The quantity of hay mixed with the ZH. hoopesii varied, being sometimes as much as one-half of the quantity of the poisonous plant. This feeding was continued from May 30, and the animal appeared in good condition with no evident symp- toms of poisoning until June 23. On June 18 it was turned into the Fic. 4.—An overgrazed range on which Helenium hoopesii has taken almost complete possession. pasture with the other animals, but during the rest of the time it was confined to the corrals. On June 23 it was noticed that while lying down the sheep regur- gitated, and there was some belching of stomach gas. On June 24 some green material was noticed about the mouth, and on June 25 it was found that she had vomited. On June 27 the animal had become quite weak and was not inclined to stand. At this time she evidently, to some extent, had lost her appetite for any kind of food. The feeding, however, was continued. On June 29 the pulse was noted as somewhat irregular and the animal was lying down most of the time, although still strong enough to stand. From this time WESTERN SNEEZEWEED AS A POISONOUS PLANT. 15 on there were, every day, evidences of vomiting, and at times there was marked regurgitation and belching of gas and rumbling of the intestines. On July 1 it was noted that both pulse and respiration were very irregular. These symptoms continued with little change until July 7. On this day, in addition to vomiting, the animal was troubled with coughing; doubtless the coughing was caused by the irritation produced by some of the stomach contents getting into the larynx. There was no marked change after this except that the symptoms became gradually more marked. The irregularity and weakness of the pulse were more apparent and vomiting was more frequent, while the appetite gradually grew less, the animal not even caring to eat hay. On the morning of July 23 the sheep was found dead, having died some time during the night. As there might be a question whether lack of sufficient food might not be the cause of sickness and death in cases like this, it should be stated that it was clearly proved by checking up in other cases that the weakness was not due to lack of food, but was distinctly due to the poisonous effects of the plant. In the autopsy which followed the death of the animal the only abnormal feature noted was some congestion in the fourth stomach, duodenum, jejunum, ileum, cecum, and rectum. FEEDING EXPERIMENTS WITH CATTLE. On the Utah ranges where the spewing sickness affects sheep there are no accounts of the poisoning of cattle by H. hoopesii. In following the cattle upon the range where it has been so closely grazed that very little remains except H. hoopesivi, no evidence has been obtained of cattle grazing upon this plant. Certain reports, however, from Colorado ranges have led to the belief in the possi- bility of cattle being poisoned by H. hoopesii. Accordingly it seemed important to prove conclusively whether the plant would or would not affect cattle. Two head of cattle were treated in 1919 and both became sick as a result of the feeding, with typical symp- toms resembling those produced in sheep. The following experiment with Cattle 827 may be considered as typical of the possible effect of the plant. CASE OF CATTLE 827. Cattle 827 was a yearling steer received at the station on June 1, 1919, weighing at that time 340 pounds. From June 6 to 8, and on July 28, an attempt was made to have it eat aconite. The aconite produced no effect, although the animal as shown by the curve, figure 5, lost weight while in the corrals. Except for this experiment with aconite, the animal remained in the pasture until the experi- mental feeding of H. hoopesii was commenced, on August 5. The 16 BULLETIN 947, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. steer had prospered up to this time and weighed on August 4, 447 pounds. The feeding continued from August 5 until September 12. The stems and leaves of the H. hoopesii used were ground up and mixed with chopped hay in order to induce the animal to eat. Gen- erally speaking, about 10 pounds of the plant were prepared and mixed with 5 pounds of hay. The plan of the experiment was that the animal should be induced to eat as large a quantity of the H. hoopesii as possible. Both this and the other animal very much preferred hay and frequently would pick out the hay, leaving a large portion of the H. hoopesii. Under such circumstances more hay was mixed with the H. hoopesit, so that a fairly good average daily ration of hay was fed during this period. * Up to September 13 no symptoms were noted other than a certain amount of inactivity in the animal. The curve of weight, figure 5, FOO ss Bea 350 4 2) a eIN GT Oa ear Ge : eae eae Ba Bee Bet ee SE 2 ee 75 Mer nee ES /0 Za) ce] 10 #0 3O, 9 19 a9 8 18 28, JUNE SULY AUC. SEPT. Fic. 5.—Weight curve of Cattle 827, fed aconite June 6 to8 and July 28, and Heleniwm hoopesii August 5 to September 12, 1919. shows that during this time the weight of the animal was maintained fairly well. On the morning of September 13 it was noticed that the animal must have been vomiting, as there were several patches of the material in the pen. The steer at this time was frothing at the mouth and regurgitating. A little later in the day he was seen in the act of vomiting. On September 14 the pulse was found to be very weak, so weak in fact that it was very difficult to count. The animal was much depressed and showed marked weakness. He was still vomiting at intervals. Figure 8 shows his attitude at 10.50 in the morning when he was regurgitating and frothing at the mouth and occasionally belching sour-smelling gas from the stomach. These conditions continued on the succeeding days, the vomiting being more pronounced, the pulse continuing weak, and the general weakness of the animal increasing. No more H. hoopesii had been fed after September 12, and comparatively little hay had been eaten. On the afternoon of September 17 the animal was turned into the Bul. 947, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. Fig. |.—SHEEP 374, SHOWING DE- Fic. 2.—SHEEP 358, EXHIBITING SALI- PRESSION AND WEAKNESS. VATION. Fig. 3.—SHEEP 361, A RANGE ANIMAL Fic. 4.—SHEEP 420, NAUSEATED. (LARGE SHEEP IN FOREGROUND), IN POSITION OF VOMITING. Fic. 5.—CATTLE 827, SHOWING NAUSEA. Fig. 6.—CATTLE 827 VOMITING. WESTERN SNEEZEWEED AS A POISONOUS PLANT. LY pasture; an observer followed him and succeeded in getting pho- tographic records of the vomiting, one of which is shown in Plate IT, figure 6. He was kept in the pasture the rest of the season until about the first of October. During this time as shown in the curve of weight, figure 5, he gained a little in weight, but was not in good condition. On September 26 he weighed 409 pounds. A report received from the owner of the animal December 17, 1919, indicates that after being taken from the range the animal remained in poor condition, and there is reason to assume that the injury produced by the feeding of H. hoopesii was permanent. CHEMICAL EXAMINATION OF THE PLANT. No previous analysis of Heleniwm hoopesvi has been published. A nearly related plant, Heleniwm autumnale, the sneezeweed of the eastern United States, has been investigated by Koch (1874) and Reeb (1910). The latter isolated the substance of the formula C,. H,; O;, which he called “helenic acid.” The pharmacology of this was investigated by Lamson (1913), who named it “ helenin’”’— an unfortunate choice, since that name was already established in science and commerce for a mixture of lactones obtained from Jnula helentum. It was thought probable that the H. hoopesii would be found to contain helenic acid or a nearly related substance. A thor- ough chemical search, however, failed to reveal the presence of helenic acid or of any toxic compound which resembles it in physical and chemical characteristics. The poisonous properties of Helenium hoopesi1 depend upon the presence of very small quantities of an exceedingly toxic glucosid to which the name “dugaldin” has been given. This occurs most abundantly in the leaves. It is found also in the stems, flowers, and seeds and in minute amounts in the root. Careful investigation of all the other constituents of the plant has shown that they are non- toxic to sheep and guinea pigs. Dugaldin may best be prepared from the juice of the fresh radical leaves of H. hoopesii. ‘The juice is expressed from the shredded leaves, which yield 40 to 60 per cent of brown, very bitter juice, the quantity depending on their age and the climatic conditions. The juice is preserved with 0.5 per cent of chloroform, allowed to stand 12 hours to settle, and filtered. The filtrate is then treated with animal char- coal which is kept suspended in the liquid by frequent stirring or shaking. After 4 to 7 days, the glucosid and coloring matters will have been adsorbed by the charcoal. The mixture is now filtered, when the filtrate appears colorless and slightly sweet instead of bitter and is nontoxic even in large doses. The animal charcoal which 28468°—21—Bull, 947-3 18 BULLETIN 947, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. remains on the filter paper is washed with water, dried at ordinary temperature, and extracted with warm alcohol, which dissolves the dugaldin with a little colormg matter and sugar. The alcoholic solution is evaporated to dryness at a low temperature; the residue is treated with absolute alcohol, and the solution is filtered off. This is boiled with a little fresh animal charcoal, filtered, cooled, and a large volume of ether is added, when the glucosid precipitates out in white flocks. The yield is less than 0.01 per cent of the green leaves taken. As thus prepared dugaldin is a white, amorphous substance sol- uble in alcohol; less soluble in water, chloroform, acetone, and pyri- dine; sparingly soluble in acetic ether; insoluble in ether, benzene, and petroleum ether. It is soluble in aqueous solutions of the alka- lies and forms a slightly soluble compound with lead. Its barium salt is insoluble in alcohol. The glucosid is readily decomposed; when treated with acids or on heating with water it hydrolyzes, yielding a sugar which reduces Fehling’s solution in the cold, and a brown resin which is still bemg studied. Attempts to crystallize the glucosid in quantity have not been successful. Reactions of the glucosid.—Ferric chlorid gives no coloration. Tannic acid precipitates the glucosid from its solutions. Bromin water precipitates an addition compound which is soluble with decom- position in hot water. On acetylation the glucosid is decomposed. Acid solutions of the glucosid form a cloud with Mayer’s solution. Uranyl acetate produces a transient precipitate insoluble in alkalies and soluble in hydrochloric acid. Potassium permanganate is imme- diately reduced. Cold chromic-acid mixture gives no change, but on heating, the mixture is completely reduced, forming a green solu- tion. A mixture of hot nitric and sulphuric acids nitrates the glu- cosid, forming a yellow solution. On dilution with water a yellow nitro derivative is precipitated which is soluble in alkalies. CHEMICAL EXPERIMENTS. The material used for the chemical examinations was collected at the experiment station, Salina, Utah. When green material was used, it was collected and ground through a meat chopper immediately before being used. The dry material used was air- dried under cover until the weight was nearly constant. It was then preserved in cloth bags. 1. Moisture, ash, extract.—Air-dried samples of radical leaves in No. 60 powder were used for the following determinations: Per cent. Moistires:. sleseice candi c.-o seveds.. assent -2ep aeee eee 9, 70 WESTERN SNEEZEWEED AS A POISONOUS PLANT. 19 Ten grams were extracted with various solvents in succession: Grams. Per cent. Petroleum ether extracted. .........-.-....-- Seale 0. 5065 5. 06 inher extra Chel ses ewe hs 52,42. so. 3. Moe eye. 2 0. 4800 4.80 Ciloroiormyextracied? s-¢ 0 1). 2 lee ee eee ee 0.1611 ow! Mleoiolkexirachede sas 23 os oe. ke 1. 5834 15. 83 Ties. See ee oe Re ae Ie ens ee a ae ee 27.30 The ash contained a large proportion of calcium carbonate. The petroleum-ether fraction contained a phytosterol. The ether extract contained fats and a trace of tannin; the chloroform extract con- sisted of resins, tannin, and dugaldin; the alcohol extract contained resin, sugar, dugaldin, tannin, and coloring matter. 2. Juice.—Total solids, 9.80 grams per 100 ml.; specific gravity, 1.042 to 1.052 at 25°; tannin precipitates, 0.335 to 0.364 per cent. 3. Alkaloids.—The various samples of juice and of aqueous and alcoholic extracts of the plant, after acidification, yield precipitates with Mayer’s solution. They were, therefore, investigated for the presence of an alkaloid, but no substance of this class could be isolated from any part of the plant. 4. Hydrocyanic acid.—Samples of green and of air-dried leaves were tested for cyanides as a routine procedure without yielding any evi- dence of their presence. 5. Toxic saponins.—Hxtractions of green and of air-dried leaves were made to isolate toxic saponins and several other extractions, as well as the juice from the leaves, were tested for saponins without revealing their presence. Extracts of the plant strike a green color with aqueous ferric chlorid, but this is due to the presence of a tannin which is precipitated by gelatin solution. 6. Volatile toxins —Eight hundred and fifty grams of air-dried H. hoopesvi radical leaves were placed in a still and 3 gallons of water added. The mixture was heated to boiling. The distillate had the characteristic odor of A. hoopesw, due to the presence of a minute quantity of essential oil. It reduced potassium permanganate; gave no color with ferric chlorid; and was neutral in reaction. The total volume of the distillate was 6 liters. This was fed to Sheep 429, in divided doses, without producing any effect. 7. Search for helenic acid—(a.) A chloroform extract from 1 kilo- gram of dried radical leaves was freed from chloroform. Following Reeb’s procedure, the extract was heated with successive portions of water on the steam bath and filtered. After cooling, the aqueous solution was greenish-yellow in color and had a very small amount of oily matter floating on the surface. It was evaporated to conven- ient bulk and extracted with several portions of chloroform. The chloroform dissolved out 4 grams of green solid, which was not bitter and was nontoxic. 20 BULLETIN 947, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (b.) Two hundred twenty-five grams of dried blossoms and seeds of Helenium hoopesii were ground to No. 20 powder and were ex- tracted with chloroform in a Soxhlet. The chloroform was distilled off on a steam bath. The residue weighed 28.95 grams (12.86 per cent) and was brownish, fatty, and fluid. It was heated on a steam bath with successive portions of water for several hours and filtered. The filtrate was bitter; it was evaporated to dryness on the steam bath. The residue was a yellowish resin. This was extracted with benzene. The white insoluble residue was very bitter and contained dugaldin. The benzene soluble matter was not bitter and was nontoxic. (c.) A second extraction with chloroform of 400 grams of dried blossoms and seeds yielded 12.62 per cent extract, in which no helenic acid could be found. A tabular statement of pharmacological experiments will be found in Table 2 on page 23. 8. Water-soluble constituents.—Fifteen kilograms of air-dried basal leaves ground to about a No. 12 powder were extracted with water by percolation. This did not remove all the bitterness from the leaves. The percolate was brown and bitter. It was concentrated to a small volume. During this process a light-brown precipitate appeared, which consisted of albuminoids and calcium salts. This was collected, washed, and tested for toxicity to sheep. Sheep 409 received daily doses of 5 grams of this precipitate fromm Sep- tember 4 to September 16, inclusive, receiving two doses on Sep- tember 10, 11, 12, and 16—a total of 80 grams—without effect. Fifty grams were fed to Sheep 425 on September 10 without produc- ing any effect. The concentrated aqueous solution was divided into two portions. One portion was boiled over a free flame for several hours, when a further quantity of the brown, nontoxic precipitate separated and the solution lost its bitterness, due to hydrolysis of the glucosid. During a period of four days Sheep 450 received 2,400 mils of this orally in five doses, but beyond some abdominal dis- turbance showed no effect. The other portion of the concentrated per- colate was treated with lead acetate, and the precipitate was filtered off; the filtrate was neutralized with ammonia and precipitated with basic lead acetate. This precipitate was filtered off, and the lead removed from the filtrate with hydrogen sulphid. The lead- acetate precipitate was washed, suspended in water, and decomposed with hydrogen sulphid. The solution was bitter and contained part of the glucosid. It was very toxic. The basic lead-acetate precipi- tate, freed from lead with hydrogen sulphid in the same way, was not bitter, contained no glucosid, and was nontoxic. The filtrate from the lead precipitations was bitter, contained a portion of the glucosid, and was very toxic. WESTERN SNEEZEWEED AS A POISONOUS PLANT. ot The mare from this extraction still contained some of the glucosid. It was dried and tested for toxicity. Small amounts fed to sheep caused nausea. Sheep 445 was force-fed small amounts of this mare moistened with water 3 times a day for 12 days, receiving in all 30 doses of mare. The animal developed the characteristic spewing and died on the twelfth day. 9. Nauseant substances—(a) In order to investigate the question of whether the glucosid or the water-insoluble constituents of the plant are responsible for the spewing cases, 1,500 grams of the marc from number 8 was taken. This had been extracted with water to which it yielded part of its dugaldin, but still contained resins, fats, etc. It was thoroughly extracted with alcohol, which removed all the bitterness. The marc from this alcohol extraction was care- fully dried and force-fed in quantity to a sheep without producing any effect. The alcohol was distilled off the extract which was green, fatty, and bitterless, the glucosid having been decomposed by the heat to which it had been subjected during the distillation. The alcohol extract was treated with chloroform, when about 75 ‘per cent of it dissolved. The residue was fed to Sheep 447 and pro- duced no effect. The. chloroform was removed from the soluble portion and this residue was fed to Sheep 456 without effect. (6) Two and one-half kilograms of the marc from number 8 was boiled two hours with 9 liters of (1 per cent) sodium-hydroxid solu- tion and the liquid portion was pressed out. The insoluble matter was again boiled two hours with 9 liters of water, which was pressed out. Both of these liquids gelated on cooling. The residue was boiled a third time for two hours with 9 liters of water and pressed out. The mixed colates were heated to boilmg and acidified with . hydrochloric acid, when a curdy, green precipitate in quantity fell. This was washed thoroughly and tested for toxicity. Sheep 428 received one-fourth of it orally and showed no effect. (c) The mare was extracted with dilute hydrochloric acid, which dissolved a small quantity of inorganic matter. It was then washed, dried, and tested on sheep, when it was found nontoxic. 10. Alcohol-soluble constituents —Fifty-six and one-half pounds of fresh radical leaves were shredded in a meat chopper and immediately put into two 5-gallon cans, which were then filled up with strong alcohol and sealed. After two months the cans were opened. The material was packed in percolators and exhausted with alcohol. The marc from this extraction was carefully dried and tested for toxicity. A large part of it was fed to Sheep 541 for an extended period without producing any abnormal conditions. From the alcohol extract the glucosid was isolated, but owing to much decomposition only a small amount was obtained. 22 BULLETIN 947, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 11. Experiments with the juice-—(a) The juice is very toxic and small amounts of it fed daily for an extended period produce spewing cases. It was shown that all of the dugaldin might be precipitated from the juice, leaving a liquid which is not acutely toxic. Sheep 460 received on separate days three doses of 650 mils each of juice which had been precipitated with tannic acid and filtered. This produced no effect. Inasmuch as 250 mils of the untreated juice were sufficient to kill in a short time, it is evident that the tannin had removed the toxin. (b) It was desired to see whether juice precipitated with tannic acid would cause the spewing cases. Accordingly three sheep, Nos. 463, 473, and 501, were given from June 25 to August 23, inclusive, daily doses of juice from 2 pounds of fresh leaves from which the dugaldin had been removed by precipitation with tannic acid. As a precau- tion against tannic-acid poisoning, the precipitant was added only in slight excess to the juice and, after filtermg off the precipitated glucosidal tannate, the excess of tannic acid was removed by neu- tralizing the solution with ammonia when the tannic acid precipi- tated as a calcium compound. At the end of the experiment each sheep had received the detoxicated juice from 118 pounds of fresh H. hoopesta radical leaves. None developed spewing symptoms and all survived. (c) Part of the tannic compound of the glucosid produced in these experiments was dried and fed to Sheep 482 in 2-gram doses daily (14 pounds green leaves) for 31 days and in 4-gram doses for 25 days without producing any definite effect. (d) A quantity of moist glucosidal tannate from 49.5 pounds of radical leaves was warmed with water and magnesium oxid in an attempt to decompose the compound and liberate the dugaldin. - This mixture was fed in divided doses to Sheep 503 twice daily for 24 days. The animal did not become seriously sick, but the urea excretion was markedly diminished, which indicated that the glu- cosid was being partly absorbed. It was later found impossible to regenerate the glucosid quantitatively from its tannic acid compound, and it is believed that in these cases the larger part of it was excreted without having ever been absorbed from the alimentary tract. (ec) A quantity of the juice was treated with animal charcoal and after seven days had lost its bitterness and color; 500 mils of this juice (about 2 lethal doses of untreated juice) were drenched into Sheep 539 without producing any effect. 12. Toxicity experiments with dugaldin.—A number of animals were given doses of a solution of dugaldin in order to test the toxicity of that glucosid. The details of some representative cases are pub- lished in Table 2. ed WESTERN SNEEZEWEED AS A POISONOUS PLANT. 23 TaBLe 2.—Results of tovicity tests with dugaldin. Dose. Animal. |Weight.) Date. | | Material. Effect. Fpomne- Autopsy. | ee How given. | Grams 1919. Mi. | Guinea pig 17. 500 | Mar. 26 4 Orally-..--- Solution of du-| Sick....- Died sesame Charac- galdin. teristic. Guinea pig 18. SOM eeGO! jee bo Diese |s ays do: sateen GOsse See se Be OUR a Pes O ss see Do. Guinea pig 19- 400 |...do...- Si esub i onic ee = @Ozes-smc= Be Ouees Killed....- Do. taneously. Guinea pig 20. 425 |...d0_ .-- sti) eee do:-2 244 [seen G0 saa- oes |- eG. == - Recovered Guinea pig 20.|..------ Mar. 27 iS a eee dotises pases Golees 32 ES dO: 2s. Ee Ose. Guinea pig 20.|.....--- Mar. 28 3B es eoe dO-c2--2 | et Oho scee peed Ouczs OSes ter Guinea pig 20-|.-..---- Mar. 29 38) |eoo6 = dora Jesse doze.-hee. Sek Saar SEOs 2 53 Guinea pig 20-|.-..---- Mar. 30 oylBees do dons sae). Be dowes: donee = Guinea pig 21. 380 | Mar. 27 1 Orally) 2a |eee dors 2s. 2 Bd owes 5 SSO eoeene Guinea pig 22. S103) cae Oieead| et! Sub en = 3 eae Gora. eee Bad onesss SiO loa bee taneously.| - Guinea pig 23. 250 | Mar. 28 4 Orally.-..... Solution pre- |...do-..-.- Rete (ones aoe cipitated by tannic acid. Guinea pig 24. 240 | Apr. 9 2 Rectally .5.|-22-: doz: dol: Killed..... Do. Rabbit 21....| 1,800 | Mar. 27 1.5 | Intrave-|..... Goss O==s235 |S 5id on ney Do. nously. CHEMICAL SUMMARY. 1. The poisonous principle of Heleniwm hoopesii is an easily decom- posed glucosid to which the name “ dugaldin”’ has been given. It is a bitter, white, amorphous solid; soluble in alcohol; less soluble in water and chloroform; insoluble in ether, benzene, and petroleum ether. 2. Dugaldin is most poisonous when administered orally, but is also toxic when given intravenously, subcutaneously, or rectally. 3. Dugaldin may be precipitated from its solutions by tannic acid, with which it forms a sparingly soluble compound of low toxicity. 4. Helenic acid, the active principle of Helenium autumnale, does not occur in H. hoopesii, nor do alkaloids, toxic saponins, or hydro- cyanic acid. URINE EXAMINATION. Tn order to determine what effect is produced in the urine following the ingestion of H. hoopesti, a number of 24-hour samples of urine from several sheep were examined chemically and microscopically. It was found that the total volume of the urine was diminished, in some cases enormously so. The urea excretion was also markedly diminished, while the content of ammonium compounds was much increased. Sugar was not found, but albumin frequently appeared, especially after prolonged feeding. When the feeding of H. hoopesia was discontinued the volume and urea content of the urine increased, while the ammonia quickly fell to normal. These results indicate a functional disturbance of the liver, since it is in this organ that the conversion of ammonium compounds to urea is largely effected. The 24 BULLETIN 947, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. presence of albumin in the urme further indicates an alteration of the kidney. Sheep 469 was fed small amounts of fresh H. hoopesi daily, and frequent examinations of the urine voided were made, as shown in Table 3. TaBLe 3.—Examination of urine of Sheep 469. Condition of 7 Specifie . 5 Bile Biliary Date aaa Volume. gravity. Reaction. |Albumin. pigment. Urea ands 1919. Mils. Grams. Acag: 2425.52 Normalaver eee 1, 704 1.019 | Alkaline... . 0 se 48.78 0 DED Mom Fed Heleniwm 905 1027) -osee LO merece Trace 0 31.76 0 hoopesii. ST] 1) a Bas eee dose >). -oce 610 1031 eee do.. do.. + 21.11 0 Sepin 19s ssfeee ae COs. sstsaseea 254 1.043 |.-..-. (6 Koes hee (a Sr doz an Gg Oy Petree Sept. 23..--| Spewing.....-.. 7380 15024 |) -Acidbe ease. 0 ae 4.45 0 Sepi: (26, isc) S2tes-S ee 750 1.015 | Alkaline. -.- + + ORE LY | Saar eee The volume of urine voided rapidly diminished, as did the quantity of urea, but not proportionately. The amount of ammonical nitro- gen could not be quantitatively. determined in the field, but rough tests showed beyond question that the proportion of this was greatly increased. On September 19 the animal began to spew, when it was taken off the H. hoopesit ration and fed hay. The volume of urine voided immediately rose, the quantity of urea increased more slowly, and the proportion of ammonical nitrogen slowly dropped to normal. Sheep 503 was investigated at the same time. This animal was fed a mixture of tannic-acid compound of dugaldin and magnesia. The result was an ultimate reduction in the amount of urine voided, a quick drop in urea, and an increase in ammonical nitrogen. The results of the examination are given in Table 4: TaBLE 4.—Hzamination of urine of Sheep 503. Condition of Specific : = Bile Biliar Date saiiriol" Volume. sravity, Reaction. |Albumin. piement. Urea. aie 1919. Mils, Grams. Sept. 6.---- Normal 2225.5 1,525 1.018 | Alkaline... - 0 0 32. 88 0 Sept. 14.-.-| Dugaldin tan- 2,145 LOU eee oe Oe. - see Trace, + 20. 98 0 nate, ieteel Ss tes | eno QOce at een 230 1052 eee edo ssi 0 ++ 8. 68 0 DISCUSSION AND GENERAL CONCLUSIONS. SYMPTOMS. There is a definite line of symptoms in /. hoopesii poisoning, but they differ in detail according to the severity of the illness, and there is a fairly clear distinction between the symptoms in acute cases and those from prolonged feeding. In general the symptoms resem- ble those of other kinds of plant poisons, but are not so violent as insome and are not accompanied by convulsions. WESTERN SNEEZEWEED AS A POISONOUS PLANT. 25 Depression.—The first symptom noted in the corral cases is de- pression. In very mild cases this may be the only symptom noted, and probably in most range cases is overlooked. This is shown in the attitude of Sheep 314. (PI. I, fig. 5.) Pulse.—In most cases the pulse is weak, irregular, and somewhat rapid. Of these characteristics the irregularity is most noticeable, and in mild cases this and depression may be the only symptoms noted. Of course in range cases this is never recognized. Weakness.—Accompanying the depression and weak and irregular pulse is a general weakness, which is more pronounced in the pro- longed cases. This is shown in Sheep 374 (PI. II, fig. 1) and still more clearly in Sheep 421 (PI. I, figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and:6). In some of the acute cases this weakness does not appear at all. Restlessness.—Both in the early and later stages of the sickness, the animals generally exhibit marked restlessness. If they are strong enough to stand on their feet they will remain standing but a short time, when they will lie down and then very soon get up again and move about in an uneasy way. Stiffness—During the sickness a peculiar stiffness in gait fre- quently is noticed. This accompanies the weakness, though it is not a result simply of weakness, and may be considered somewhat characteristic of the intermediate stages. Temperature.—There are no marked changes in the temperature, and it remains practically normal during the period of illness. Respiration.—The respiration is quickened when the animal at- tempts to get up on its feet, and is also more rapid during the acute stages of the sickness. There are no peculiarities of respiration which can be considered as characteristic of H. hoopesii poisoning. Salivation.—Salivation occurred in many of the force-fed animals and in some of those poisoned by prolonged feeding. “In some cases the salivation resulted in profuse frothing at the mouth. Doubtless this was due in some measure to mechanical irritation caused by the method of forced feeding, but this was not the complete explana- tion; salivation may be considered as a common symptom in the forced-feeding cases and as a symptom which occasionally occurs in chronic cases. Sheep 358 (PI. II, fig. 2) is a good example of a salivated animal. _ Nausea.—N ausea was exhibited in many of the animals; it did not however, always result in vomiting. In some of the acute cases vomit- ing did not take place, although it did in some of those in which re- peated forced feeding were made. Generally speaking, in the pro- longed cases vomiting, or ‘“‘spewing,’’ as it is called by the sheepmen, is the most prominent symptom of H. hoopesii poisoning. In range animals it is practically the only symptom which is noticed by the 26 BULLETIN 947, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. herders. It is not unusual, when a flock of sheep has been feeding upon a H. hoopesii area, to see large numbers of them throwing up their heads and vomiting. The large sheep in the foreground of figure 3, Plate II, shows the typical attitude of one of these animals in a flock feeding upon the range, and figure 4 of Plate I shows the attitude assumed by a corral force-fed animal in the act of vomiting. Sheep 420, which became ill from prolonged feeding, is shown in Plate II, figure 4, in an attitude produced by nausea. The pictures of Cattle 827 (Pl. II, figs. 5 and 6) show nausea and vomiting. This tendency to vomit may continue for a prolonged period after the feeding upon H. hoopesii has been stopped. The experiences with the animals in 1917 may be quoted as giving a definite idea of the frequency of this symptom. Out of 12 prolonged feedings and 2 repeated forced-feeding cases in this year vomiting occurred in > 8 feedings and in 1 of the repeated forced-feeding cases. Of the 8 acute cases in this year only 1 showed a tendency toward vomiting. Coughing.—Many of the poisoned sheep were noticed to be fre- quently coughing. This was particularly noticeable in the animals poisoned upon the range. It is probably due to mechanical irrita- tion caused by material from the stomach getting into the larynx. Bloating.—Bloat occurred in some of the experimental animals in both acute and chronic cases, and when it occurred was sometimes accompanied with the belching of gas from the stomach. Bloating can not be considered as a usual symptom of the experimental ani- mals. In range cases, however, most of the spewing cases apparently are bloated. Trembling.—Trembling was noticed in a number of the cases, but can hardly be considered a characteristic symptom, as it probably results simply from the general weakness of the animal. Diarrhea.—In some of the animals diarrhea followed the severe stages of the sickness and was noticeable before complete recovery took place. It was not, however, a usual symptom, and neither it nor constipation can be considered as characteristic of H. hoopesir poisoning. Most PROMINENT SYMPTOMS. The especially prominent symptoms, then, of H. hoopesii poisoning are general depression, weak and irregular pulse, weakness, and nausea, followed by more or less chronic vomiting. Vomiting is not a characteristic of the acute cases and does not always appear in the chronic cases. Apparently the chronic cases of sheep can be divided into two types—one characterized by extreme weakness with rapid and irregular pulse, and the other with the added symptom of vomiting. Death comes on quietly and is not accompanied by convulsions. Plate I, figure 6, shows Sheep 314 in the last stages. WESTERN SNEEZEWEED AS A POISONOUS PLANT. 27 AUTOPSY FINDINGS. In 1915 there were 6 autopsies on sheep, 7 in 1916, 7 in 1917, and 1 in 1918. In the results of these autopsies no uniform picture was presented which could be considered as’ characteristic of H. hoopesii poisoning. In some there were congested lungs and kidneys, but this condition was by no means found even in the majority of cases. Generally speaking there was, however, distinct congestion of parts of the alimentary canal. In nearly all cases there was congestion of the duodenum and ileum, and in most of them congestion of the walls of the stomachs. In some cases this congestion was found in the cecum and even in the rectum, but this was not ordinarily the case. It can hardly be said that the autopsies gave any diagnostic characteristics of H. hoopesii poisoning. In 4 of the 5 acute cases on which autopsies were held a consider- able mass of serous coagulum was found on or near the rumino- reticular groove. This, doubtless, was caused by the marked effect of the H. hoopesii poison upon the circulatory system, as explained in the discussion of the pathology which follows. MICROSCOPIC PATHOLOGY OF H. HOOPESII POISONING. The pathological changes occurring in the tissues of sheep poisoned with Heleniwm hoopesii, or its extracts, vary with the type of the case and the method of administering the material. Liver.—In all types of cases the liver is affected, the hepatic cells varying in condition. In acute cases the liver cords may appear compressed from edema, and the hepatic cells themselves often contain large, irregular-shaped, open spaces. In other cases the hepatic cells are swollen so as to obscure the capillaries. In the chronic type, mild cloudy swelling or fatty degenerative changes may occur. In one case interstitial hepatitis, and in another a well- marked small-cell infiltration occurred. Bile ducts are very frequently catarrhal or sometimes badly broken down. The quantity of blood varies between wide limits, a few cases being severely congested, while in others very little blood is present. In all cases the blood stream in the liver is affected, this being seen best in the central lobular and sublobular veins. In many such veins, besides normal erythrocytes, there are leached or degen- erate erythrocytes, granular material, areas of numerous leucocytes, and sometimes fibrous material. Hepatic cells sometimes are floating in the blood stream. These bodies may or may not be attached to the wall of the vein. While some of them may be formed | about the time of death when the blood flow becomes very sluggish, their structure would indicate that they are thrombi. The thrombi and the edematous, or swollen, liver cells cccasion some resistance to the blood flow, and sometimes cause the mesen- teric veins, the spleen, and the pancreas to be more or less congested. 28 BULLETIN 947, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Lungs.—There is no more uniformity of condition found in the lungs than in the liver. As a rule the acute cases have congested lungs, the capillaries in some being greatly distended, and there is much blood in the arteries. In some cases the pronounced capillary congestion has led to a transudation of serum, and some diapedesis of erythrocytes. Generally, too, there is a marked catarrhal con- dition of the bronchi, which may contain desquamated epithelial cells and red blood corpuscles. Alveoli in places contain coagulated serum. The blood contained in and sometimes filling the arteries is similar in condition to that seen in the veins of the liver, except that normal leucocytes are rarely seen. The lungs of the three chronic cases examined were found to be diseased. In the sections of the lung of Sheep 319 there were necrotic areas. The alveoli surrounding such areas contain numerous leucocytes and some exfoliated epithelial cells. Some small blood vessels were engorged. In the lung of Sheep 348 there were areas of serous transudation, which, with the thickened alveolar walls and marked invasion of leucocytes, obliterated many alveoli. This condition probably results from spewed material being drawn down the trachea and accounts for the cough so common in old “spewers.”’ Sheep 437, an old spewer killed later with Asclepias galioides, had lung adhesions and necrotic areas. In sections of the least diseased parts of the lung there was an excess of connective tissue. Kidneys.—The kidneys are equally variable in their pathological condition. In none of the cases examined was there severe con- gestion. In all those studied there was an edematous condition of the capsule of Bowman, the edema separating the folds of the glomeruli and leaving a large clear area between the glomeruli and the capsule wall. This is sometimes accompanied with a small quantity of stainable material resembling degenerated cytoplasm. In most of the cases examined the cells of some portions of the con- voluted tubules had undergone degenerative changes. Some are swollen, while others are beginning to disintegrate the granular material lying in the lumina. Alimentary tract—The most pronounced change occurred in the alimentary tract of the acute cases, the exact portion varying with the method of administering the material. In four sheep—Nos. 338, 314, 331, and 413—-which died from single forced feedings, the most severe changes were in the rumen and reticulum near the opening of the esophagus. In one sheep which was drenched with an extract the severe changes occurred in the walls of the abomasum, colon, and rectum, with less severe changes in the small intestine. The changes found in the rumen and reticulum walls are of the same character, consisting of a very pronounced serous infiltration WESTERN SNEEZEWEED AS A POISONOUS PLANT. 29 and an invasion of great numbers of leucocytes. The serum which has become coagulated is in all tissues, pushing the tissue elements apart and greatly thickening the walls. It is a portion of this serous transudate which was found in the serous coat in the neighborhood of the rumino-reticular groove. In these cases, with one exception, erythrocytes are not abundant, though vessels just beneath the mucosa are distended. The leucocytes are very abundant in the submucosa in places and are grouped, resembling lymph nodules. These areas may ex- tend up through the muscular layers and into the serosa. The cells of these areas differ from those of lymph nodules. They are apparently more or less degenerated, but on the whole more re- semble polymorphonuclear leucocytes than the cells of the lymph nodules. The abomasum wall is edematous, and in areas in the mucosa is sometimes hemorrhagic. Sheep 451, which was given an extract of Helenitwm hoopesti in a drench, differed from the foregoing in that the point of irritation was mainly in the abomasum, colon, and rectum. The walls of these por- tions of the alimentary tract were highly congested, the congestion being accompanied by edema and hemorrhage. This condition was most pronounced in the mucosa in which layer degenerative changes had occurred. The abomasum wall was most thickened and the serum Wxs more coagulated there than elsewhere. The conditien differed from that found in the first and second stomachs of the force-fed cases in that there was not so marked an invasion with leucocytes; more blood was present, and the serum was less coagulated. In this case the duodenum and jejunum were quite edematous but not severely congested. No sections of the ileum were made, though the autopsy report shows it to have been inflamed in portions. This inflammation of portions of the alimentary tract does not occur in chronic cases. There may be mild congestion and some edema present in the abomasum and ileum, but this is not severe. In many places in the digestive tract the erythrocytes of the venous blood take the eosin stain much less strongly than those in the neigh- boring arteries. This, taken with the finding of degenerated erythro- cytes in the veins of the liver, indicates a certain amount of direct action of the toxin on the red blood corpuscles. That this is not severe in chronic cases has been shown by hemoglobin tests on sick as compared with normal sheep. Tissues from a number of guinea pigs killed or made sick on extracts of Helentwm hopes” were studied and agreed fully with the findings on sheep tissue: Dugaldin, then, appears to be highly irritant and to be absorbed in any portion of ‘the alimentary tract of the ruminant. It is proba- 30 BULLETIN 947, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ble, however, that to be absorbed in the rumen or reticulum it must be in sufficient concentration to damage the epithelium. TOXIC DOSE FOR SHEEP. In determining the toxic dose a distinction should be made between poisoning by a single administration of the plant and the toxic result of prolonged feeding. It was found that no animal would eat enough in a single day to produce symptoms, but by the use of the balling gun it could be compelled to swallow enough to produce intoxication or death. Moreover, the whole aerial part of the plant including stems, leaves, and flowers was used with some animals while in other cases use was made of stem leaves, radical leaves, flowers or stems, leaves, and fruit. Toxic dose of whole plant, including leaves, stems, and flowers when fed.—Eight sheep were used in the feeding of the whole plant in 1915 and two in 1916. Table 5 shows the result: TABLE 5.—Summary of feedings of leaves, stems, and flowers. ne Quan- Total verage tity per ‘ daily hundred-| Daily pepe Total | feed per | Days | weight | average Animal. weight | Gays |hundred-| before of to Result. ae fed. weight sick. animal | produce sence of to sickness. animal. produce sickness. 1915 Pound. | Days. | Pounds. | Pounds SHCCDis LOs a om ae ane sae eee QAO lio. cereal maereeeincta| Seca Not sick. Sheep 319.....--- 3.9 21 75.3 3.1 Died. Sheep 326.....-.- 1,546 | nsec gal aaanceeemelemeneee oes Not sick Sheep 328.......- 3. 932 19 74, 713 3.9 Sick. Sheep 329---......- 1,933) [sas ones |Sncinis as cles fee eoepiee Not sick Sheep 333. <\- Spcce a sasescese 2, 182 24 28. 372 1.182 | Weak. SHEED 344.5. = cele Seen cscs ; a830 N\s.oes.s ae sate Se | sree Not sick. SHeSp S40) Pe cea see ates ee eee He 1.361 23 35. 7 1.5 Symptoms. 1916 SHEGD (S86 =) o.o8 sc cece eet 77. 166 |- 52 1, 434 20 37. 579 1.879 | Very sick. Sheep 3852. a.m: -seece eee 49. 074 36 1. 363 23 34. 626 1.505 Do. AVCTAGO s22.. 2350 sake eae Ee eae he SAE ee SEE Ee 21.6 47.715 2.17 ) Tn all the cases of 1915 except sheep 316 the animals were given only the H. hoopesii. In the cases of 1916, hay was fed with the plant. Averaging these cases, a daily feeding of 2.17 pounds continued 21.6 days produced sickness or death. The limits of the daily dosage, however, were rather wide, varying from 1.18 pounds in Sheep 333 to 3.9 pounds in Sheep 328. There was nothing in the conditions of the experiments to explain this wide divergence. TOXIC DOSE FOR CATTLE. Cattle 824 was made sick in 21 days, voceivint that time 52.6 pounds while Cattle 827 was made sick in 39 days, receiving in that time 48.32 pounds. The two cases average in 30 days of feeding with WESTERN SNEEZEWEED AS A POISCNOUS PLANT. 1 a daily dosage of 1.68 pounds per hundredweight of animal. This, it will be seen, does not differ materially from the average obtained for sheep, so that the inference is a reasonable one that H. hoopesii is about equally poisonous to sheep and cattle. ACUTE CASES. Table 6 gives a summary of the animals to which the green plant was given by forced feeding in one day in order to produce acute cases. Taste 6.—Summary of forced feedings of green leaves in one day which produced intoxication. ert va, od per aime. come P umber o end o Animal: feedings. Soe. feeding to Result. animal. |SY™ptoms. 1915. Pounds. Hours. SiiGGis TS) Ae ee Gcoe Se ese ease Aen ee Gee oe Sree 2 2. 646 64 | Sick. DUCE DES A eepes aN A seca ns 2 Ae Selec icine sisrcincs/é since alain 2 2. 846 (4) Do. SHEED ter riartaeieisis= aco nisin sh ole sioaieincias su ctacceed 3 2. 645 2 Do. 1916. SMWGED TSB. - sa atsenesognaseeese seeeaenescapescse sac 2 2. 509 34 Do. 1917 Claerye Wil oS ee Boater corGan sHesee Core acs oe Beeaae 1 2. 306 &4 | Very sick. SUED 440. 2 orl aec one see asco oneasesssesosseeelsonac 1 2. 501 54 | Sick. SOGGi0) (eS ee ee ee eet tc Ba 5an50d 36 Sa. Rese eeAae eee see 1 2. 299 24 | Symptoms. SIGE) GH4b 222 cone os pos osceceseeessescsocesenesesec 1 2, 217 64 Do. 1918 S10) AG SOB SSS Eee on sor SBS ao pee eee See mae 1 2. 835 314 | Sick. hCG BE = IB Ge SSCS De Ee ace ase eee Rare ee aaa CA See A eee 1 Immediate effect. The average dosage in the table above was 2.494 pounds, with a minimum limit of 2.217 pounds and a maximum of 2.846 pounds. In general it may be stated that 2.5 pounds of green leaves fed in one day may produce intoxication. It should be noticed, however, that none of these feedings resulted in death. Reference to Table 1 will show that— Sheep 320 received 2.79 pounds without effect. Sheep 318 received 2.646 pounds without effect. Sheep 347 received 2.756 pounds without effect. Sheep 479 received 2.473 pounds without effect. It is recognized that there is some difficulty in noting slight symptoms and that some of these animals may have been affected by the plant, although no positive symptoms appeared. It is fair, however, to draw the inference that while 2.5 pounds may be con- sidered as the toxic dose of the green plant in acute cases, it does not follow that all animals receiving this quantity in a single day will be poisoned. 32 BULLETIN 947, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Comparing these results with those in Table 8, showing the effect of feeding green leaves in the corrals, it is interesting to note that the average quantity, about 2.5 pounds, necessary to produce acute cases, is only slightly greater than the average quantity, fed in the corrals for three weeks, which produced chronic cases—namely, 2.2 pounds. While as large a quantity as 3.143 pounds has been fed daily for 22 days before producing intoxication, it is evident that when the feeding is not made in a single dose, but is continuous and spread over a considerable period of time, much of the toxic principle must be eliminated. CoNTINUED ForcEepD FEEDING. In some animals the forced feeding of green leaves was continued in smaller doses for several days. The following table shows those in which positive results were obtained: TaBLE 7.—Forced feedings of green leaves, in two or more days, which produced intoxt- cation. Quantity fed per hundredweight of animal. ; Days Number Animal. fed of feed- : IES Daily Total. average. Result. 1915. Days. Pounds. | Pounds. ISG) 16 57 See aR SH SA eis Tere SoceSOSeEtps Aaure 3 4 4.001 1.33 | Died SHED SOB) << = at broem ratatpeterars ee estes aciaintela tetera 3 5 4, 139 1.379 | Sick. SHECD 8272. :cto cee oreo a ene see eee ee 7 12 7. 936 1, 134 Do. IASVETALO sos s2 ccd cabs sh cece eae eae ial eee eee: 5. 359 LBD Sih ern eee es According to Table 7, an average daily feeding of 1.281 pounds continued for 44 days produced sickness or death, or, in round num- bers, 14 pounds given daily for 4 or 5 days produced intoxication. As compared with voluntary feeding upon leaves (p. 33) these force- fed animals were poisoned on a smaller dosage and in less time. TOXICITY OF LEAVES OF PLANT. It is to be presumed that sheep on the range, when eating H. hoopesit feed mainly on the leaves. It is of special interest, therefore, to know the dosage of leaves that will produce sickness or death. | SFG | Ize SONIA ce ay cose cones, aun BISI00p) 926. 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LI-9I6T. SI-LIGT 6I-SI6T. *uosves doi *ponutu0g—SHINOW GNvV saiuNnog ag *ponuyjuaoo—-SVSNV HAV c1o‘T | ere 166 966 isa! *SpUNO |" spunvg ‘TSW | “TO *sord “ues 1®10.L —Jo prork OsBIOAV IvOA-G “ponutyu0)—sashyoun worl paprduoo sp ‘sayunoo fig ‘jnaw pun pro fo spja.xX —TA TIAV\, prttt eter cee eeeee 13q0390 won c eee e eee e ee Jequiejdeg :UjOoUTT cre tt ec ences eae 1340390 pocasizsSacess Jequioydeg :00'T FSS Gere e sissies 19q0}90 pera eines Cietc Joequreidag PQOUNIME'T N Rees wes semper eso ss 19q0190 mes bare tee Gers Jequie}das 102] ARTE T “yjyuou pue AyUM0D 35 COMPOSITION OF COTTON SEED. worrsss sss 9 8R IDA wee ee eee ee 19q019O seeeecceseeeee Joqureydeg OTT Sean PGsoanan|esoona5s 6&6 628 OL 610‘T | 86z ¢ 116 aks STS Be lis: oe 8 = 3810 V teense srt sete e eee 19Q0190 requieydeg SUOMI’ BUGS OPO ERolg OsvIOA VY SUOSTPRIL gery Sao oe as OBvIOA VW Boos SO oRs ee seccc Arenuer BIER AOS OREO OS Joqureseq TOQUIeAON, PASS HSS oO ae 1940100 SLR ee eerie Jequreydeg {O30U0'T. {86 886 T S86 SOE ¥G SERIE CIAO eG osvIOA VW PESOS IRE SSCS SSO ri 0)y| em iOS T 986 18 pio ciie PCIe ~--Arenue sr SUOES TERRA OF Jaqureseq. “>> = IOQULOAON Fe era Se cs 19q0}00 Tone rao eee Tequieydeg sUBS0'T, eee ESO Pete erat P8G S86 066 AN COON BOR 19q0100 roquie3deg MOATY OAT Gora a PRLOr Ta | Peco earctitcess eeasans aseIoay T aero Leen Jae eben reset ee 13q0290 ¢ leas oe lar ce amiligge esc en|ce Secca\ ce pee Jequieydeg ?BPBAON | RNY POSER SS POIIO RS 5 ARP Aaaie a PACE as ee a 13q0309 OOS 0 [ERISA ORISA IA Ce ATES S| fies atin fev aia (6g Gea (85 eee | ee ee a nes a ee =e ee [RSRIPSEZS 9 | MSA Pale Oy See acer (10 Li tse (a1 s) | :ATOULOS] UOT TOO‘T | #18 g £16 90€ L1G 966 STE 9T 616 61E ai 6F0‘T | 062 GG 000‘T | 66g See || faerie reat OsvIOAV See | ae Dales Sra de | nets pr ieh eae 19q0100 [ia ce S| ee ica | kamen p59 Oe Saceurbe = Jequre}deg :001UOTT ea cana a esBIOAW lnesoace: sea Jaqureseq. gbeeseeea apes JoqureAoN tet et een str ecee ee 19Q0}90 Tears eZ OO sie GC Sateen ICT | eee emer leeane nie RG UUs se CLOG rae POG Mean SOUP bat SOG mia || bate een | BOs eal So aceeealoccncpeecsieice g 166 LEE 8 886 GEE ¢ FE6 81é 8 910 1 F636 CF Jaquie}dag Sioa Renunog *spunod|'spunog “spunod| spunog “spunog|spunog *spunod |"spunog “spunodspunog TddIsstsstpy ea | ‘110 ae wow | “to | S10 | toe | to | Seby | Tew | TO | aaby | TH | “TO | eg | TN | TO *sotd : -ures “yjuour pue AyUNOD ; ST-LI6T 6I-8T6T 2 CI-FI6T 9T-ST6T LI-916T —yo prot [eIOL esBIVAB IB9A-C ‘uosves do1p BULLETIN 948, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. *ponuljuoO—SHINOJW ANY SHMNAOD Ag *ponut}wooO—-SVSNVAUV 36 “ponuryu0j—sashynun wouf paprdiumos sp ‘sayunoo hq ‘jnaw pun pro fo spja.X — [A AAV, 37 COMPOSITION OF COTTON SEED. 9¢0 ‘T 826 F¥6 “-"""@8RIOAV ~---Arenuer sees “Iequle00q, tees eee eee >> IOQUIOAON, PEREOSSOOSEBAISIAI TYG HY) tooo sees" "" 9 TEquTeIded *1}OSTI0 g terre etre eee OSRIOAV SOE ODEOOSOG OG * 19QULOAO NT eoospoanes ~*=="==79q0100 eee “-"="" Joqureydeg OU SS See O8VIOAV SESS R ESS OR ORR SOSOANT A MnIEYt eet ece eee etee ~-19q ULe90q “7"" ">= J@QULOAON, were eee e eee ~">"*19q0}00 we teeecee eres Jequreydeg isda Seas 77777 -O8BIOAY “Arenwer cece e eee et ee es Jequreseq feeeeee eee “> IOQULBAO NT eee cere eer teee 19Q0}00 eeecces ---7 ">" Jequreydag AMO g setts eer e ee OsVIOA VW wee e teeter eee- 19q0190 s+rs52-777">>- J9qureydeq “BU TOeNO, seen ee eee ---93BIOAW SoS PED EOROOnS TOqUIOAON, >-+->--7>->---g9qureydeg TWO}. MON, BSCR SSCOR Some Aac 19q0490 Mertiset wees oe Joqureydes DySeTNg. ttre eet ee eseIOAY sin)e\s cicicicicin\= *>--Jaqureides sadog 130190 Jequieydes Wd *qjuour pues AyuNO0D 066 '1Te 0% 286 11g al 6S90‘T | 908 OL 696 11g G6 $F ¥00‘T | 80g ZO BS eo mot te fe || me |g fessceeeice Sati ain tapes sel areal OC Oriel WTOP reat | “Crete ees alles 6c SPREE Ss) a ali Sas o10‘T | 10g I ¥00‘T | Zee P Pel T | 908 g 096 Tze G6 JF fears | ee see oe evra ea terns pi (ORG €&E j 096 __| 8 L SILT | I1é (4 T00‘T | 208 882 (eae eae es eae enone | «e86 Le ra 108 i 096 108 L 126 122 Gog 8 PROG SE > PEOS Es URE ged Dp a Pera nees leer ne se O10‘T | 922 RR Seo SRST ee ecg 016 0ze 89% Zz Tr ‘T | 982 oy D ooeten | henbiatae [ase aeenn mere | AP ace pede Fy cccceeee[ewececee|eceaeeee|entratecferewecee|steeeectleneeeeer[esereeee[eeense--| ong [Opp | E freteseec|eccceeee[ceeecee|[eeceeeee[eeeeeeeeecte eee is cn deca onl noe dose: | SoRSE zee |tiag aefa aed te ae Selon el le ece reise Siete Re serene ete (ees | 07 Sime sae ie ea Ge RP aR ph oS eek oe S a Sar eae ne a Goce I 2 166 69 8 096 &2E eg 620‘T | 76% ral 626 0zg 16 ht 666 662 LL Cite keene: EZ I cea | ese | peta) 5 np 18 i C6 749 £6 Gi 23 8 eae ag aaa tag eee og pee ae SSG SA ees leone |S ete ipaemneoneny| meron ea S524 F£6 108 G8 Jo SSS sss ete eae leaeneee as Gao then «os Soe mee ie aca 286 9ge [emer ooo le I ae Ee G66 CR Si apes Sense oes PREY eo eae ca se cag er gc tse oer G8Z I 6 262 6 Bisieielaaiae eisai | eal ce a 166 F0E L 186 Org j 6g0‘T | 008 6 606 i ries la og Ree SES S025 SG peters | nme ie he a (ata i Se oe S/S 2 Scie So | ae ool S| hp 096 OFS I +6 Tee i 601 ‘T | 20g II F00‘T | 928 €1 a Ee BORED Wel Duce an Bree ae POC Beto ebb catasre feo oF pata ete | eco geet he aur a aaa O&E‘T | 986 rs eee al era aoe anes Sra ord lepers aeeteeeiael becciachacl das GECRGEE| faerie acne |e tee sala eseareemee eA aes Soraanna|fioaseend|soaemoo4) or ctye || a t daecrted ane emer ass na ie eet ppt 3 | ae 2 ee ca |g 4 ete se, Sa eee eae #6 Tes T an gle : paces ites eds i cai meee as ee S25 AIEEE SES lacceceils insert ein ace sails als sane 096 Org T Seis cinta Sie | esos SOs |NOSe paket ts (pecan | cates 5 “Spunod “SPUNOT "Spunod | Spunog “spunod |" spunod “Spunod | spunog “Spunod |" Spunog “SpuN0d |" SpPuUn0gT ao *sord “seid *sord “sorta. Fs ‘sod |. - & wen | mo | eh, | wen | TO | smog | Te | “To | by | Tee | TO | mug | TH | TO | tueg | Tee | “To a ann H 6 11-9161. SI-LI6T 6I-ST6T : 2 SI-FI6L 9I-ST6T. = Hee [8101 4 esBvIeAe IBOL-G 5 ‘mosves doig ~Q 38 ‘ponuljuoO—SHINOJ, GNV SHILNONOD AG *penurjyuoO—SVSNVHAV ‘ponurju0j—sashynun wouf pajidmoa sp ‘sayunoa fig ‘jnew pun pro fo spja.x —JTA @IAVL, 39 COMPOSITION OF COTTON SEED. 656 1Gé 656 TE PRES OC OS CREPES er PO3er 25 (CSeaae Onno: “Berares ESTEE PEPE n ORE SIO dis cee € Fes ee pateoebe laeseaoer ine Boaeeva| ewes Al eal an Sa Soy eo PSS reais ve ele. ea ee eae Par a ZSI‘T | E82 g ScRReR oS Bere Se eee S Sais vasa ss agcceiss Ec ‘I | +82 I ip F PSS ORO OSD COBO SSG SOAS OIOO GG ORO OA D00000 ster eee OST T GSS 6 OEE POLI LOM | CACC rs ROSES SECS tees aee ty 896 ge Zz 222999274. 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S. 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 74 F£6 0GE Tere LAIR ceep AN coe lea peta 1¥6 €&6 € 096 68E 4 Tg0‘T | Lee G caenaeea ea Gl 5, Cale oe palin: acd Drak Pearce aeentinlh paea eee ooh NPM tO SE ala eS (4) LIE IT TEI oe |e cep 2 | a acs [> ce ieee AE Seema | meiner a G26 (acta I 966 GFE i! te gre ed | eae el | eg $6 OE pak Ses Abe. vs chads cos ee 096 tetetey SG £96 Chet eae eb Ph ay ee a os BEBE LEIS REG 2S Seite | ie cea a er | Saat (ata aca fee a OST T | LEE I €£6 88 Che Sarge eae ae shee eS OFS ChE € 116 iats F £86 TIE cI ; g 6 tS JERR | ates | icicle | pice rl Aiea cD 1940190 eee ol |e oleae ge > Jequieydeg BUIpINVeg 1G ite MET Gite MEE |hO0 Res (Rae osBlOAV Ce OO oD eee tel ae | ee eee ie Arenuer G “Jequle0eq, 86 Iq U19A0 NT Qi SRS SR RES eescr rics eerinceies Reis cise snicces si: 19q0190 Z Jequieydeg sedioqi0[30 GG 186 FEE Si kerebes |e aoe gsvIOAV IT I T € (6 9 G G 9 6 ¥ ¢ F Pe MB ee eee be bee ee |e ea eee Set 1940100 $6 988 g 826 €6E F 6F8 O&€ 9 16 8GE (4 OF6 ‘TIE GPs Neier an Meaney |W oaca th Sg eee Joqute;dag “spunod |" spunog “Spunod | spunog *“spunod|'spunog “spunod|spunog *Spunog | spunog “spunod|*spunog 7900090 “sot d *sotd ‘sod *sotd “sod wen | to | eh | om | to | AG | teem | to | Seb | We | To | ayy | TM | “TO | meg | TW | TO = E ‘soya -ares *qjuour pus AyuN0D SI-FI61 9I-ST6I LI-9I6T 8I-LI6T 6I-8T6L —jo prot 1810L QSBIOAB 1BOA-G ‘uosves dog “ponuryu0g9—SHINOW ANV SHINNOO rag *ponuljuop—VIDAOAD ‘penuryw0j—sasfijoun woul payduuoa sv ‘sayunoa fig ‘pneu pun pro fo spjav.A —[A AIAV, 75 COMPOSITION OF COTTON SEED. ee osvIOAV 19Q0100 Joqureideg. sueUTyIMeYy Ge Sm EOS segealll LG Gaeta Nt iLinaeae: Soh l| rab sc aaah aa ig ell osesune ans) cae ee an 190100 require} dog Tureuy Ng I GE6 £66 COT aaleeie ie se eas asBIOAV G ase lie Weta [Tay spar | et Re hp Tee rch ca ea Arenuer G86 €0€ i ap ieieek| edere seetsa| exter care alla te cet © nn OC (LOO G I G “>>> === I9QGULOAON: *- 1940100 ~-77="== Tequteydag ‘Dsep, 896 G66 9¢ S16 9g LL PSS SO SESE GYANT pajesnesses | Bate 66 ial 190190 G G86 696 i => ines leery a fe sade ca fees 2 meee ~-> = Joquiey.deg 0d sH ou aD ~ onl oD OOS AN ' ‘ ‘ ‘ ' : ’ ‘ ' oD ica) (ea) (ea) N oD OO NI OD De Pad grees (pees ea da te 1940100 requre}deg Od REGO Ghee epee nee 19(0}00 requre}deg 100101 d 48, U. 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 124 1&6 age | ii 296 | OFS or 818 6Se OL | 816 61g 6 196 Gite hike = CIRO (hGao -ee || | PRR oscecetoor osBIOAy £56 PEs g ie See 188 828 g OF6 (fe) pa AS POR OEE eae s|[Ta eee n erence es Arenuer 966 Lge i z +6 908 Zz ZL6 GO Cece na te Caster ma | = see al Reames dea al cee Jequre.eq. iC Clpeenm |G Gena eerecs 118400 968 OFS Z FT6 TOG? er. asses esl area | esas seal iesssas ss Jaq UIaAON OF6 C6 108 Zz £96 Fie a Sines cll Rata aees col oho cil eae oe nae 1240990 S06 gre I £56 Sead PSipaee PEGS aSS Mis) Fimalie nits Spssscisssss S Arenues lseisaases F88 TE T Jaqure.eq cetseere[ateeeeeeleeeeeeee] Gon | cee | pect ee e|eo reece - [eer e eee ler erect rere eee I9q0190 == | ——— | SUT 188 Ore | FT 96 | LE | 8 Ha || TBs || @ 886 | 928 | ¢ 126 | OTe ieee Fiala eae OSBIOAV ieee eer ili eg Taba SM || yon ec kay || ae stele == | tate elses cin == | cinte'ein mim eiee ==> => mmm F98 CORE Ny Tig ie [PP SRRSEISS TIT 5 Sam cah a Neate aaa | aca ma 19qQ 01999 (7 898 SFE I Eilinprabel paces a ells oes 61g T 26 aa SG OSHE OG eee “JO UIaAON £98 OFE j 190 ‘T | 098 z 0zE g £06 FZE eddagaail as oaeees So aes Jaqoq00 606 GEE IT S16 Fee 9 OF I Tt6 Cze spelesaieiatae = c(o' ir sine = Jequraydag a (RS eae Taq ULODESP | SUS ae OU a | ey | aaa | ia Sealkeee rhs: “Soho Teens Pe se | ne || a Sone eelport wese[ereecee-| ogg fete |g. fernrttte aseway SShnetse eEBeS ae --| o ~ Jaq UIOAON £06 ets Sespshe sala ege sing epefekeyoacsatey le letelosec ia else icicle sielesoictaine sh cte pa oa yl discs Gl ol peseasielaiais | aeisiose: Iota | Siaast e/a ier iso's see 19q0100 ate | : ue yING cerec ccs leee eres eee ee SSR [soo Ss35)|>oaaetor| Feacnees [Shareean||>s9s5b5e CFG FZE IT 066 GEE 0% 896 868 Les oa ee eee oBBIOAV “| 616 11g g 826 FEE an gree lt Sterne Aice Seas | ~Arenuer Ee be ea ee "71 286 STE € ee eae || Fe ee IS eateries Rp Dee Se I a (SS) aes [ae ae ar (LO PTF STG 6FE IT C16 €G§ M JOQUIDAON i Sen ae LIE F 86 rans OL “1090190 Eee ttc | oases eek td | at aeagtin | cng |j acted opel || 3 ial Gia eae SESE CANT || BIL | Gee (paket) eto sae OSCE ea 7 requmaydas “SPUNOT |" SpunoT “SPUNOT) SPUNOT “SPUNOT | SPUNOT “SPUNOd | SPUN0T “SPUNOd | SpuN0T “SPUND | SPUNOT suTdng PERLE eceeeela ke : 2 Peel ae ESO Claes | ae ‘sod | . : ‘sord | . : ‘sod | . 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 126 Se See UP go eal patient mae eg cent Lee T aya eee “esRI0AV a ck aerial || bees pial 7 ait iS Tg a | OOS SIS a Fa See O(a | eee eens Glo Ne NLOLSYS) :sau0r 9&6 ee &6 126 GZE OFT 2S ew aye OO RIO AG, OF6 9T€ TEESE || cea math || Ses Dade k|| Sed be | (la aes aoe Arenuesr 906 008 To meeer| | Wide boiber| (Mek Reseda || Beco = | ORRIN eae Joqule09q 826 TGe ieee) || Sevakaey 25 catia aoe || we deg ae || Pcie lee be aq UIa.A0 Ny £56 TCE 1G eck abies See een 1940190 £56 60€ cI ~7-==== Jequreydes suoysuyor ¢ é 9 | 900'T | 698 | T 826 | Teele PAS | AS |S 886 | Pe) | TT Pace it 1840390 Ose ree es eel aro ae | I sos | eee | T al ca leg cele eel Packers ea requ; dag “Spunog|"spunod spunog “SpunOg ‘spunog| spunog “Spun | Sspunog “SpuUNOg |" Spunog | 40H : tate iSOTQ iy, : % é P : : : ' : 2 i =a : wen | To | Sh | wer | no | eM | team | to Sr, | Teen | To SU | wat | “To S10 | were | “110 = Deas ‘sotd : CT-FI6I | OI-ST6I LT-916T SI-LIGI GI-SI6I ie Pare | Ww “uosees doa —jo pyork OSBIOAB IROA-C “ponulju09—SHINOW GNV SHIENNOD A “ponut}uoO—VNITOUVO HLAYON ‘ponuryu0,)—sasfipnun woul papidimoa sp ‘savjwnoo fq ‘yoaw pun 2.0 fo spjer_X —'TA ATAV], COMPOSITION OF COTTON SEED. 906 0cE 616 OTs 668 0&& Seale 010 ‘T T ay pe ee POO ANOS LYE see e-e-- 968 &1é FL8 OLE 4 wrresseer ss -98RI9AV ~-ATeNUee Too seesssss =>" 19quLe00q, Totter sss sss" "19 UO AON, ~- 1940990 poeta ~-requreydeg :BINQUOYOO AL BR oo8 OSvIOAV psiicisioeicls Arenuer “190100 picts ~->->-J9quie7deg TUIPIR I sottt ests ss =-98BI0A VW -->--Joqures0q, Toros esses s29"-T9qULOAON HOO ene oo ===" 190100, soo eeeeeses== = 79qure7deC sWOSIPCTL orreretess = -98RIOAV soesesssssr= == 9QUIOAON *-19q0100 seeeererens=== T9qQuIe1de9 TIOMOGON sores sss 9988194 VW sp recsrisoesc sss enue seeeerssesss** -19qTI009(. serecsssss*== = 19QUIOAON pleisiciserelseiei ge TAQ O1O@ rupooury, sorers rns 98R IFAW PORBOR RO DOP SOS SCA 4e] qHaucye eeeeececere =" I9quULe0e(, “-* "9G UIOAON steeeeressses22 =" 79G0996 eoceesecerr= == aqureideg :110Ule'T, seeerocses = --O8BIOAV sivieleisie seins oi ATEN weeceee “=="=-JequEe0eq “-> “I9qUIEAON Sineisicitisieicineieis/ See TOCONOG woeeeeecess=-- 19qQuIe7de9 100] BULLETIN 8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 128 9F8 GPE ] Sector 4) eho aig SH ot ea cs tw Glee es (ade eee ll oar Gees nce a al | eae lS ks | greets oe aug A Sana | nee 9F8 GFE il earnest “aDRlOAW Cea SP a Ee See ee as Bim ee ee OFS are Pode pl peeeree PRE aia Sata eget ge Pe recap ae lS Sen a OUEST inept teases | Sys NGI Wika gree al |eeere Se attains Arenuer | .. : b | | -I9AOUBH MON 818 Te i 920‘T | 918 T £06 098 en Z0G 66 L 986 9ge g 086 Sze 8ST poe eee: asvIIAV : | I zj | c9g 1ze g mage clipper leas Gomer garnet a 668 SLve fe 88605 TERSS= z Sai eel SRD RT | eases a unrain be oo 1040390 SRR aS | aioe C54 \Gpe ey 920‘T | 9T€ if £06 09¢ Tis oo til eee 9 eam oe peg nee ee gee ieee che aa sare |r son oe aoe ag ~--Jequreydag is I! SUSbN 286 61g Poe aeeece fo creaa eens poo: SRS SS SUSRS rise ese Raa Mesh aah RSS *ISGNEISoe neta St pe ncitie Z86—Ss«|:«GTE T eres osvieaA Vy 286 61g [ Pokscses lieben hc icacicleinsesl ele nfcincin| (akc abalone celica gee hea ia Ra oh) S| | S/o hy tate gta ede y | aia eeiepmhe eee cui einl sy cuzin ele eicl| Ramisisan piniol ese ian sinunisisiee iequieydeg a YS ES Ss SR ec ae [Nee |e ir | Perce [eas ee ee ee ee eee eee MOOR] 986 Gg aaaes ace co ee Rs 656 PIE I 986 | 886 | ¢ 60‘T | O18 € DORMS ATG. |eBT i <= [PTT eBBIOAV C16 108 I FIE T 1t6 rats a oe (ee oa | © es ews eee lurepuraaliseieassa[ers ects e et Steg Avenues SESUSE CF Rca Rie Oi accel a Sneek > Rea aRS SS cee Sa |e apecians nema (GARG sig I 5 en | eerste lr comigapia: | [mace gag ones | Sanat | See meme TLS) 166 608 (Aertel | in Magee ea mela eae aaa See og Be | Ran cD | fe aa STI ‘T | ore z AIRE hang in | feces UE | Care Raa lal 1OqUeAON RSE OSGI SEE Gg eis oo) aise aac ae css orig Reiisnics seitisiesictisipe so cnlegoien PRG I #20‘T | SO T BOISE RE IC SEES RRS GSS Ses ESS O00O | | _| | | | . SO1OO 606 =| 888 =| g 716 POE |G T98 FEE 7 600‘T | 908 z PiG™ oases na) eA7en gap egarrelsparker Sig reis 206 1g T See eles alae S) IAPOOST=ulaSTe I agics os (Rpee sss ars 2° 3a Stat ee UB ORC. a a a ae a a a aa Cae T98 g a aie ae Secon is |e rate hac isha || aeepe areal ante CS EGLO A 6 ore P 86 org Tee = Alea Sear et Bee Saeerls p See alee eens el MES eriec’ ES rhe iegitie hewn an coe 1940100 $66 ogg ee ee el es |e ata te eal be o | Jequieidag “SpUNOd | SPuUN0T “SPUNOT | SPun0T - | SpUNn0d| Spunvod “SPUNO dT) Spun0d “SPUNOd | SPUN0T “SPUNOT | SPUNDT | :ALOULOSJUOPL z . . ‘soqd |. r ‘sod | . % SOT |aeeee ¢ ‘sofd | . , | ‘sojd | . = J | [eo NO | -eg | TN | HO | neg | TN | TO | seg | TW | TO | seg | TW | TO | reg | TH | “TO ry Se el a a [Nn —_—_— ‘sord R CTF I61 9T-ST6I LI-9T6T SI-LI6T 61-8161 : Sue yyuow pus AyuM09 —— : : —Jo pyett TROL ASBIOAB IeOA-C | ‘uoseos dog *ponulju0O—SHINOW GNV SHIINQNOD Ag *ponuryuoO—VNITOUVO HLUMON *panurj 0, )—sashjpup wouf papiduos sv ‘sayunooa fig ‘naw pun nro fo spy X —"TA AAV, COTTON SEED. COMPOSITION OF SSS O Soa GOS Se ot eSiin 19q0390 TuosIE dg T 776 _¥¥6 ¢ paeiisecis co .4 BION cieivisisieisie}|\el7/sieizisicis 2 TAQULOOO CL see eee elec eee eee e ee ----- 190200 isuBUIIMbieg BOSS O DOU COD Osa y5 eG VAST soroc>--ArenuUBes tetescesness=-- 19 UIOAON BOSEROOGUSHGHEGIE YG KOIXO) seoressess-"--r9qureideg sIopued 9 toes sere =---98RI9A V ES Sasa Seon | Saeeeee sorts sess s""""19qUIOAON syuejonbseg Ti . |eeceeeee+-- = -gSer0ay wee ec ee e|-ce eee eefeee este nee s--==-19q0790 SOOT WIe SEODOCOOROGSCE HL NEY ANY BOESOOGOISOOSIOS SANTIS too teeerere ===" T9qure0e(, soorsss2"" =" 19qMIOAON, sss tissiee crs O10O rersessess=--- I9quie}de9 :osURIO See ee HO i ry 668 GSE LE6 Tr : soetcieisisisi>'=I= 599 B10 ANY wane eee efeec cece e [eee e eee eres ss ----Kenuer BEGSISBOSOGOSO SOY (OGG) srereess == T9qure7deg :MO[SUO sererrere ss -98R IIA VW --Arenues totetetsst= = -79q Tad: tsserst5-2--- 1I9qTIOAON ~~ 19q'0190 tst2ts25--+---79qure}de9 HOLA ULeYyION ose) 9466°—21—Bull. 2 BULLETIN 8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 130 696 Pee 116 | cee | 18 ze | sie | 86 666 | 00g | 8L ce alae te | Gap eee eee >--98er0ay 926 oce zee ere Ne ze. | g0e— «| TL ST coe ha gs cite (Sea al ipsa ese ie aac as [pee --+->-Krenuee e6, | See 126 | ose | Fe ore =| FIe | OF Gage’, iene ae |cOk San | eens ces pide iss) See es “roqureseq 200‘T | gee 126 «| Se Cd zee 6 oce | Le G10) Ue ire) | Cees alee es pees hic eee oe JoquIaAoNt 996 6£E 206 «=| THe | O@ 206 | ere | ze G0, |G TOe el pee ee aa linge es seal ener capa 7940190 996 gee 606 =| Fe AT we6 =| ee S| @ Rea eta. ee >-frenuer ose Piaoseee soatemre | nog] pecoaeelhe eee foo teall Gone eee oe eee ee Sis ame: Re eee ane |e (i eee ae | :ydjopuey £26 ccemeniee: ge0'T | gre | 1 60 | cle) | 106 | 20g 19 Guam at |loce sal Se mT gam lece alee meee so7 sso aseieay 0F6 fags NG) ce naipa aces iaaaiees [Sees 23a[eoate tes eee sess ug |soe lz eo0'T |e | 1 Seopaiinn [iscsnSes|pasesse ates es ree- SosoS age Srenuer °Z6 Tee | pisces |perescasiessoe tee lpagee ss page peels pero a6 Tre «| Fe) |Z 760 | see Beg are| ss socea ye ae aeons 5° “=> sen IS AONT sue Sy eae ome era COTS Cre) op we =| cle |T ceo. | ore =| a ede |e gesetnss gsceeses | esceen jg So" SSS rogoIND Magaenen apc sacsleo tear lee one \se ec a= Senet pots |preeseea|sereae== sg | loz. T 096 =| céz_ | T SpE isss|enasssss Bapoapes|eoso=a5>=>-se Taq aiday “spunod)|spunog “spunog|'spunog “spunod|spunog “SpUunog| spunog “Spunod | spunog “spunod|'spunog 1g “sod . ‘sod | . sod | . ween | tO | ak, | Teen | “10 aug ‘Teen | “110 aoe TH | TO | seg | Te | “HO | akg | TeeM | ‘To ‘sotd -ULBS “(ueT pues ST-FI6T OI-ST6T LT-OT6T SI-LI6T GI-SI6T SlGcCrala eee Sao —Io pps OBBIOAB IBOA-C “uostes do1p *ponutu0p9—SHINOW GNV SHILNQOD rg *panuyjaoo—VNITOUVO HLYON “ponuryu0)j—sasfiynun woul pajyidumoa sp ‘sayunos hg ‘jpaw pun ro fo spja.X —TA AIAVI, SEED. Pon COMPOSITION OF COTTON 198 188 G98 GEE GES 668 016 866 186 , 920 ‘T FL6 lor) iS) (Se) OD ra OD 1 rt g £00 ‘T SECO OC ODO TOO REKGIGY ANS OOS GD ORSON iquoucy p roomeossoonss=-19q Uae, ou ~ IO(ULOAON, RESEOS RSE RBG IEC RYCKOUY() ered ia icie mini eis zaqurojdeg AURIS 886, 700 ‘T 920 ‘T 166, 200 ‘T ¥ GIG Gale oe ieee Oa COAT: Sesee38|eecessosboaoaSca2/ iA praia eisteisisinisds “=== =" Jaq Ulead, Se Ses sorrssss="* = T9qULOAON rigs picinis eecaee =< Peso OIG Bae ao ~-="=="= Jaqureydeg :pueyj}oog 6F Tor rte ress ="98R 190A Aa a At Cae AT NUE ~-IOQUIOAON Bis ao | Seacsis a eae TO O20) Pee ss aise “7 >"">==J9quieydes suosdures TS sooseess sss <9 8B 190A VW an ees Saar ee AL CTU S fe “>"> ***"19qU1899 CT 7 18qQ UI9A0 NT a 2 EC Otay) See ae | Tooter eesss""= 79quTEIdeS :pPIOJIOYINA, pisos “""""93B10A VW Seincislosis [ee sitie cise Jeiveoc Se MONI G PROB OBIE POP O2 0099999927 @,oi TTR EGL - JOQUIOAON PSSST SISTA OIOO, SUBMOY GEE ggg GEE F pcicimsis $/e\5 2S = 59S CIOAN, Pes ser arsincs ssi KIeNUeL oo 295" = "=< - 19GUIOAON pietoisdero sci is ce mei I9q0100 Pee Tsirersie cic Bais requre;deg SULVY SUI My BULLETIN 948, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 132 Pee e ei elekes && G Bhima RGU GSE ‘s) 686 OTs CR ORE esBIOAW nape icicles fnisisie i slain ae Seren rn ss nic Serials [sisi aarte cieccrie ~>--oquLeaq, IOqULOAON Bee 1940190 SUOMI AA *- 7" -9SBIOAV Pris ~Arenues ~“TaquULeeq jrm trots" "* * IGQUIOAON ae a ee eee OU OO () pace Saris Om Ura] a OHO CesGReris nines OF BIOATY, lenin meres oC Tenue, >=" 19q0JO Joquro}deg sou A. pige Sern oo S-O sR IOACG: Dina pee NT £88 oge | Le TS eee eT goa. | gee =| PT goeg. «| zoe) | 696 6 | 862 8 nteeenes|oneensonennen--y9QmTONa( Te6 Wpge el eas OelpsseracG |e: sages (acer aes Ree ake a KG sg (| tee | SP 206 6 | gie | se BPr sagan |sne heen =>" 22 TOG UTEAGNT 188 oze | #1 p66 | Oke | 89 cog. | gee | Ge ees | ze | SF Qed. | Tae (pg [rcesezse|eseeensc[eeer= -|-ranecerenncnese= 19qoWO 188 ang. NOL 696 | Tee | 08 606 =| se =| 128, lies = | % POG) SOUR 1/8 | “i|peecedes|esearaalncincnnn= steeeeenese=s> roqurajdag wordy) —— — — =— —— —— —— == 996 908 1 Raper ier | cane Sect eo | eee |r Sera ean | epee Tame | POR EE app aa Ree ong pr eA Ea es Bi eee SS SSI aa alas. 9G6 90 I shite rsh 3S S>sQgeID AW 966 Rif ete et ieeemies | inpeees (ase 2 os me gn | a oon eeeoees (cae oo a| cas 0 s"| cece en yl eet" 7|reauemn | eto" | mec | peranre |p mann gan| sees eshte neta aome <5 = “1040190 “SPUN |'Spunod “SPUNOT|"Spunog “spunog| spunog “Spunod | spunog “spunog | spunog “SpuNnOgT | Spunod BIUBALASUBLT, ; Pee |e Ca ec eee Seer | re : SST Cl | eee . ‘sord |). . 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DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 142 868 LOE *spuno | spunod *spunod|'spunod “SspUuNOT|'Spunog OB aie Be SEN GAOT Gece asl eee CHE INI) b Tee T5> OS BIOAE aE ES earn 5s Sinema Jaquredeq sotetere|-eeeeeseee-=>- IQqUTQAON aenconodbossess+ ">>> Jaqureydag ABLINIL FES gin saris eStloA VW Raa lp Bee een ag ae tage LOOOLOG): soARTT Se ene eee aR TONY: ap te es aah a Lae oie Arenuerp “spunod 908 686 “spunod | spunog *[B0TN, TO ‘sod -UURg TOW | ‘TIO ‘TRO | “TIO ST-PI61 9T-ST61 ZT-9161 ‘uosvos dor ‘TROW. *spunod “spunog|'spunog *sotd c *sord WO face | Wee | We See ST-LI6T 6I-8T6T *ponuljuop—SHINOW GNV SUMNNOD AG “ponurjuo)—VAOHV THO “TROT THO —Jo pos asBIOAB 1BOA-C *ponuru0j—sashynun woul pajzrduoa sp ‘sayunoa fig ‘nau pun 7.0 fo spja_X —"TA AAV], ‘soy d -UIBS [RIO “>> =-Jaquredeq a hae TaquroAON ~>--1aqo,00 “="""""= Jaqureydeg 2]Teysie Resets: Ss “GgeIG At, 190100 ae woteseeeses == Jequreydes TYSOIUTO Fite ee eda ANG, Joqurea(y IoquUIOAON Joquiey dag TUIBLINQO “yQuour pus AyunNoD | COMPOSITION OF COTTON SHED. n=" "" "| 066 wreecssese=*-93RI0AV Scogonnar Arenuer “JOC UIOAO N soscesesns=== = t9quioided Ysngs}td 9 oA REI ROS OsBIOA VW eee ed ee SS tie ies sicedsisie eee ee 2s IAQ UNO ee ela gt cue ee pe i a ae ieee --"=== Jaqureydes ouAC 966 896 (bs Sah Sale ea amare “77 -9SR1OAVW SES 19q0}100 roquieydeg corer es sess OBR IGA WV *- IOQUIOAON == 25-5 1eqono@ vossss0222->5- gqtmaqdag 1005[NULYC, ~~ eS eee | coo piccrer a whys Se ce I9quie00q pecdoinicis sacieelot seen IOQUIsAON, Dee ei ec 190300, soe tssssess=== Jaquiojdeg RRPSE ESE G O8V1IOA VW JIequis00q surtesssess === IQQULIOAON POPE SS OME ROSA ASS 19q0100 soeeeeeeses== Taquieideg woot costs =-9seIaAy Saag eect | Ah SPA KARAS a ste aaeorrenr (20 LOO KSKO sc) ie) KO ONG seressesss 9 =98B 190A ero KIC NUelt *-="="-Jaqureo8q *"" === J9qULOAON geile seme cis ets cet sar sone rece nee 1990390 I ea He FERN FEA SIG FA AISI a0 He Kay KOKaYS| :oes04SNI\L ouUMed /VULOYRLTO: :004SUPLO BULLETIN 8, U. 5S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 144 666 GGE I 198 LOE i! | 686 C1] G 696 60€ € ce eae aaa | ee ae | 186 soe pct, teed Oe an as ee BsBIVAY Edda Me Cleans Mikael |e peec als: Same Tat 2-8 ae Renn) Benen Benen Penh C eed Gite et lst nelle) Reet t a) beenns Ct tn tnte Peerenen Peer rene octeeseseeecsees Azenuer EES ese eae |p a eee ee Bub oc hONem ek co aU legmege ee sage oleae ss yg eer pee eee ese eee earl eee ioquiadeq BME M Marre asin ok See 092 betes a boers | ee, (hee ee 666 L6G (6 Penne TRG ote | pee eeeae anh ces eee gee a eed eR oa | Rees eas tg JOqUIOAON WRN ee deen ie bi lee LI0 1 | OFZ I STO I | 12€ I Eine he eed be cgneae Al ie caer || eS || GREE |h Rae | eke meres eS (OIG) a i 198 LEE STi a mcs (ie ge La | a ee fpmn trem E eons lanai fate or aan cee Hen [Ee raqure}des :yeAonbes gaditaaiadl 186 T sosinrsaeage | iepacy igaoeet| naibe ee: | aM eSI LACO T peal | ooetvtebieag | etree od reeae erin, | (ene = eee Reena ot ec as aC z Pinas G sae sg AOo IOAN SES USO | IA] tees | aaa Scan |e | Meine |) ae (teen ti oeiciaae | meiepaek | Atne deaiee || Ween Cea vee epee (lame rng | are ace ee dante [eee eee ose 100300 Scalia, URERieseie| (ralRcRacaes a ae HSS ASG PES ES See See IT sejemeSepalin caren. @ (Circle a ebieiae ool een Se OS aro al eee oma iomo a Aalst 2 Ss ee TAI UOG savenone|baacoour||oqnacos 6e8 coe I SeaSc Pod |lSaS0Scan|Pescon st jsececcrsianaace sellocsaa5aclonnaoba| sence lscan eect Cyt coe T [poe SSS se" OBRIO ATy: Be pane aha ems OCS Gog T riba IOS BES GR bs OR Ee D Se eS aia ee ies | pO ey Pe or tare) aCe ine Soo oma aloha tol BYR eUIYysNg RS es ga oa OSBIOA V sata agne -JOQUIOAON See anes 10q0390 || PR |e sme Ber eae 1 [Pa SequesoN Ee EET |e oe MY i ie ig Se bee oe ea || ee ee POCeew lglinice lead oleae ae ose = cole. ela endle ce Sel al eee eRnSIER Ce ks 1990190 "| 000 T | SOE I 626 90€ 6 lpcamaaet|capecoad lit See ee a roquieydes “spunog|'spunog “spunod|'spunog “Spun0g |"Spunog “spunog|spunog “spunog|spunog “Spunog “spunog :00103U0g : : ‘soqd | . . ‘sord ; ‘soqd | . : : : EW | HO | eg | TW | HO | oq | TOM | TO | ore, | Tet | “TO SM | wen | to | eM | wen | no Se 7c | eid “yuo pue Ajun09g CT-FI61 9T-ST6I LT-9I61 8I-LI6T 6I-8T6T \ 5 BIO], jo pers | | ‘uosees doig OsvIOAG IROA-C *penuluop—SHINOW GNV SHMNAOD AG *ponul}uo\)—V WOHVTHO ‘panurya0)—sasijyoun wor payuduod sv ‘savjunoa fig ‘joaw pup pro fo spjav{ —"TA AIA], SEED. 145 COMPOSITION OF COTTON Be reas OSVIOA VW ~---Arenuer “----9quIe0eq. sro ot sss 552" = -19qmeAON eG : -==--79q0}0O PERSE oR DOSe require; deg “VUTYSE MA 6§6 68 IT 6&6 682 [CG mee eee "o>" "-93B10A VY paeainnccen | eet ong | neg: |e se | sare) ame | pee || ne ra 6&6 686 T Sembee ee en ce es : M SBODSSgC Seine el" SS che | ea ea eg |= Se sorta oss" =-98RI9A VW eee pSeteei io | eters [ee ee (a “o-=7---Arenuer = SOS Ea OEE eee |e Rea: | seme ~~ “JoquIOAO N :1OUOSE eee mien cei | [cae s[-2esecee[eeeeeeee|eee eens 69% G srrrsso oss == 98BIOA VY eT | pr a Mee | aa ail |e eee | leet. 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGEICULTURE. 146 16 PEE 8 G26 Tre g 898 Ee @ 626 cTe ST €10‘T | 90€ 9 86 98 fe Belge a ONO COSY HCY Hy £06 6FE IP 096 Tee ra S16 Tee &% G96 PIs £6 Z10‘T | TOE LL 166 Ze RGZe so peeer oes s SS STONE ry 966 628 911 816 cee PL £06 raate &% £6 Bok OT 196 608 8h +46 oe We bite! oes ~7--poomusery) 66 ge ia! 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 184 “SpUuNOd | Spunod [RON “spunod|'spunod Teo | TO 9T-ST6T 11-9161 ST-LT6T ‘uosves do1p *penuljuopO—SHINOW GNV SHIZNNOD A *ponurju0opO—SVX@.L “spunog| crete eeeeee ee JOqUIdA0 N seer teers eee eee ~19q0}0O seeeeeeeeeeeee equreydeg 7mOS10 pus yy see ceee reer eee 19q0}90 ceeee eee e sees Jequre} deg TEISeH terre eee ee eee esBIIAV terete eee eee eee- 19qQ0200 oon anon seenne- Jequre}deg 7HOStIe HL wees reer tee eSBIOAV erect cee e ect eeee- 19q0}90 emcees - T9qTIOAON Soriaic= "===>" 19q0100 trresese-""" = J9qureideg unyL norstses ss" O8RIQAW sooo ss""""">= J9qureqydeg :preMoHT Be eselOA VY eqcerces Arenuel “Ioqui1o00q “7777">"> " J9qULOAON, TTS Reine as 1940190 S2305 -- Jequieydeg 7u09SnO_L ~7" 7-5 "-93BIOA WV Teste ss "==>" TEqULOAON Babes “--=-79q0100 soostessss="=- I9qureydeg ssuLydoy arene OsBIOAV See Ee DONG aol ry ~* > *JequreAo Ny 77>" >" 18q0I00 torrets ress"-- I9qurojdeg THE ---> O8CIOAV PESCe Jequiey}deg :03[8pIH BULLETIN 8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 186 pee FPG T Gaal <2 5G atides. | fis 7 ehOUe Ts, OGG z 106 99% g nape | aia <2 1G S08 69% 9 worerrrrprrresereay oem pe aero es 5 Seal Se ae ea |g usher ERG Rae = Pay oa palue or en ese to 2 106 69% (4 I dec wed cl singe cad Nip sept ae | ead |e ad (Re sepe eee ene ae AEDT a aes ax I Rose: (Pe Slee Mecham HE ea Peeer es | he0e I eager [ieee oige 2 |Pewmetes | messes stlaneeee.|Teree cas 2c 2s peemOO OLED SPECS patie =| Kar ipeocearl (oak edie eal hemears eee | oR ¥00‘T | 962 z praia eee | Bia a ee i (aes ee ee Cline oa ohana aa ease OUI On -uosuygor bara Rikers ee ye0'T | 6FS | T een TR aT ORS FNS eat |e Sora seas HIM GOO Nem POG S IED 810T | 88% | @ woresesses*"@8BI0AV SSE Reel Beta teal ae A p20 ‘T | 6S | T ie 0 gee eae ia Sees eR SOD RO GEe =, ||NE pi bar Prac Preeay caltcten $a |genatgeve Aes aC CLOD) ‘STOM Ure sg ta aes ee ee LL8 ere T ERE SIR [Pte ASS RRS ASCO EE SEE LENS ST ee SE NR sie I woreesssess* QBBIOAW specced meu! | ri aman (oa camel aad LL8 g1g I ei sete secu (ripen | es oem neg | cies] re gel Fie | gee | nace eeanlat nieces Sede | epee eibe [imme 5 “CUO AO NT 7WOsIeyer > Seppe ods Cis el ee aie (a charlie Ton Uae eae eager ag ee lLO neigh] |S gratges [po cae Ine Sameuas 666 6 P 66 6 P wor rrr tts egBloA Wy SES a a | RSIS | OT| [ae ok elhice aN | aba ee aeeetiat eng Sle ha Leaky appa ket te kak a C16 GEG T Pepto Su|!ede s 25 do ee al Ree amen LO ULE DO Ni se 2 Sie a a gc NO a a esis eg Dagan oss bed RT aa al sheen | ak a oasis ee 698 992 g ete cragal erate galery hae |g ace Seca meme SeuUOTOO) wodsee Wis aie nail ees > oug| S23. 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TasLe VIII.— Variation of yields of oil and meal on same market. 207 Origin. ares | Routh) Mica Origin. sae | Olle. |) weet, Jefferson County, Ark.: 1918 |Pouwnds.|Pounds. || Washington County, 1918 |Pounds.| Pounds. Althemier.../-.-.--.- Dee. 13 256 947 Miss.: MOE seeeisete ee .-do- 273 1,032 Greenville.........--. Sept. 1 284 937 1D 0)}.5,.GsCRe aeons ..do... 283 1,105 DON ees eee ene eed Oe =. 297 950 IDOe 5. .c 5a eeacognos --do. 295 1,169 IDOacdocuscenccede .-do. 305 1, 026 Ouachita County, Ark.: Dox ois sae ree .-do. 313 994 LEGON ee elef-ia.2)=\-o Nov.. 7 255 1,055 IDO nbasassasuoeee .-do. 317 928 IDYo)s 8 ee eBeaaae --do. 262 1,092 DOS ses 2 je Sos .-do. 323 922 1D 0}s 2 Cees Heater .-do. 263 988 1D) OF RSG esas See ce _-do. 2.323 947 1DXO)-, 5. bosoesgoso3 .-do-. 276 1,036 || Sunflower County, Miss BD OMe ewes see .-do. 286 1,045 TRO Wie ve aioe secrets eee Noy. 18 287 997 IDS Ls ees eee G ..do. 302 | 1,073 Doweee: Ak. wales dos eel ® 2035 |ihe 1054 Mississippi County, LD Oss Gane mean ee hed dona 298 975 Ark.: IDOE Saeeae apes S-e@Os see 305 978 Osceola 314 1,042 IDO)a a sciposeeendese Nov. 21 290 1, 089 D 318 | 1,029 IDG aeaRapeeete EROS oe 295 | 1,093 Do 329 1,032 Doe LOO .s4| BOL| Tp ne Do 334 | 1,080 DOs ca dene sees Nov. 23 322 | 1,051 Be 338 | 1,118 Dosey oe Osec| 2) LOR 297 921 || Tallahatchie County, Pulaski Cane Ark. Miss.: Scott 287 988 Charleston..........- Nov. 24 298 1, 064 Do. 290 893 Dower yl wen oe _..do....| 318] 1,039 Do. 281 998 DOM ese eee Nov. 25 276; 1,048 Do 321 937 IDO anadasoacease Peadoweee 294 953 Do 264] 1,051 WO jaGaseeanece. LoGOOs cea) We | 1 Cy/ Do 303 985 IDO eee ree ae Nov. 26 302 1,111 Burke County, Ga.: ID NO) cE Nov. 27 283 | 1, 020 Waynesboro. .......- Dec. 11 278 903 Dow st BONE Nov. 30 314 | 1,004 IDO). o2s5a50e059506 --do. 301 966 || Mecklenburg County. DO. cesuscseoscecs --do. 305 959 DO), ccseesasessss .-do. 315 890 Charlotte eee Sept. 21 284 988 Do.....----.----- --do. 333 925 Onsen soda ae Ridoumer 289 985 Clark County, Ga.: IDOsuetes eases ..do. 295 960 Athens..-...-.-.----- Oct. 24 297 921 DOM ee Ne do. 295 978 Do.-----.-------- --do. 307 845 1D Oe ee a aE _.do. 302 896 WO so-usse2nsencsc --do-. 328 912 DON eee cee _.do. 314 998 Franklin County, Ga.: DOM pores __do 397 966 Lavonia.......-----.- Jan. 29 291 909 IP) OSes aes idous 329 947 Do.....-..------- --do. 312 909 Dosen eee _.do 333 921 Do.....---------- --do. 312 915 DOR ee a ee _.do. 342 937 Burke County, Ga.: ID@as55cssconss5e¢ .-do. 350 934 Waynesboro aa Pd De Sept. 5 300 804 Scotland County, N.C.: TD oso oe a Sept. 6 319 814 Gib soneeeeessseseeeee Nov. 26 283 1,039 TDG =\5 5 Sea me doe 324 864 DD) Oe) Recike a ~ecGl@: See 289 1, 105 DO sed as aeaeeeeee Sept. 7 327 1,007 Do............--- --do. 293 | 1,070 IDO) Seas eee Sept. 9 309 903 IDO)..esceaccascace .-do. 296 | 1, 096 IDO) ee eee Sept. 10 394 96 || Cumberland County, 1D) RO ae Sept. 11 291 991 -C.: ADD) Qn eee eae tai Rees _.do. 301 890 Fayetteville bocacdaucc Nov. 9 309 950 DOSE NUR Y canis idole 314 865 DOs oasecacescoses --d0..... 330 956 AL) ee eG aha dom 333 896 IDWecesososscocodc Nov. 11 276 959 DOM Baheieshe eae a6 OlOscseo 294 941 Dougherty County,Ga Dove aU en Nov. 12 296 931 Albany. ...-.-.----.- Sept. 7 260 944 Doe sek aie Nov. 13 281 925 IDO. s222209s2e202- sol). 282 | 1,032 Do eee ldots: 288 925 Do.........:....- --do.. 302 | 1,010 pe Ss eG Lael Nov. 14 316 959 DWOnre 22-2 p2=-= === --do.. 304 RYU i aed ips aCe UIC Nov. 15 295 902 IDs -se22o2eaccuae Sept. 10 307 959 |) Union County, INGICE: Do.....---------- Sept. 11 308 985 Unione ies Oct. 5; 305 918 Dolss----=$4----- Sept. 12 313 982 295 950 WO. ccceosstesonss Sept. 13 294 931 316 890 IDO. cesenncdepeczs --do. 303 963 325, 979 IDO. cc. cceseotouens ---do... 304 966 334 950 IDX) eee obee se saee --do..- 319 925 311 931 Lee County, Miss 313 940 TIGRE eboeeeoeeoss Oct. 2 280 | 1,026 320 921 Dor2---2- 5-222). --do.. 292] 1,042 pep aie IDO Lead ee eee dome 295 | 1,020 309 940 DOR Sess e eeu, ee ae .-do. 298 1, 118 313 1, 048 DOM aie _.do. 336 | 1. 055 Do 325 | 1,010 Y Barnwell County, S. C.: Sunflower County, Miss: Allendale............ Sept. 26 276 978 Drewr Ses crise eeanae Nov. 3 321 1, 064 ORV Sh pe domee 302 903 WOossbeencdsoacee ols 56 323 1, 067 1D YO), ou Ue pT Ecdouee 314 922 IDO) a sedan eae enaee .-do... 323 1, 089 TDG en a ..d0....- 318 921 DOE ae nidonm 324 1, 080 TD ne JO bnce 323 | 1,029 TD 0 tan aa done. 324 | 1,089 TYG MRM Ae es donee 329 909 208 BULLETIN 8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Tasie VIII.— Variation of yields of oil and meal on same market—Continued. Origin. Berkeley County, 8. C.: Monk é Corner..-.... Calhoun County, 8. C.: St. Matthews......... Penineton se Sounty, S. atage nee cea eee Lincoln County, N.C.: Lincolnton ....-.....- WIMOLe sec eeseeeee Union County, N. C.: MIONEOC Se aaiat- eee ter Date sold. Oil. ae Pounds. Nov. 313 Bed 0:5. 316 Midolcn: 318 Oct. 16 285. ee) OLO2e a= 301 Be eGO:-e 327 Oct. 29 301 PeedOcsoce 305 Fd Oseeee 324 eedose-23 340 Oct. 21 281 Be OMe. 284 J. d0n sis 287 se Oessce 301 Ta donee 302 seedOleeee 325 Sept. 13 288 Sept. 14 280 Sept. 16 279 BEROa5 a5 297 Sept. 18 302 Sept. 10 289 SAO Bes 295 me Ose 295 Sept. 11 280 Pedorewer 298 Sept. 12 283 Sept. 13 280 Se cOl@ngiee 282 Noy. 14 276 Pd Or eras 279 Noy. 15 274 Nov. 16 283 Nov. 18 296 Vee O ser 322 Novy. 19 290 Nov. 20 278 acOlMes oe 291 -do.. 310 1917. Nov. 30 286 gedOnes 299 pedOeeee 300 .-do. 303 = (6\y- 312 Oct. 14 308 ee CLOn eee 311 sEdor 314 peko2 314 Oct 17, 306 mn eA Ose 2) 314 S2(6K0)- 308 Acieloyar 326 Bere Ko) 336, Oct. 10 288 Oct. il 285 Belongs 291 Oct-13 311 et Oke ats 316 Oct. 15 314 Oct. 16 297 Meal. Pounds. 896 1, 093 966 Origin. Bempsieed County, Do Bartow County, Ga.: Cartersville. .....--.- Do Hancock County, Ga.: Devereaux....---..-- Dawson Bartow County, Ga.: Cartersville. .-......- Taliaferro oN Ga.: Crawfordsville. . Date sold. 1916 Oil. _ Meal. Pounds.| Pounds. 280 287 296 297 298 301 304 308 310 315 315 321 321 321 322 327 331 332 333 334 337 333 344 348 350 323 329 332 338 338 307 311 318 322 326 350 366 355 330 341 303 355 360 335 348 349 336 327 338 333 338 341 302 370 344 344 302 352 321 322 324 337 348 356 311 322 326 327 327 330 330 dal 343 1, 035 985 1, 020 1, 016 1, 004 909 COMPOSITION OF COTTON SEED. 209 TasiEe VIII.— Variation of yields of oil and meal on same market—Continued. Origin. Date”, |--oity)> Meal. Origin. paren Oil. |p Mest: Terrell County, Ga.: 1915 Bone Pounds.|| Greenwood County, 1915 |Pownds.| Pounds. Waweoneey see ss coco Aug. 14 1,007 S. C.—Continued. do ae 1,061 Greenwood .....-. Sept. 19 335 931 309 988 Dosen ewe PAO 341 | 1,010 309 | 1, 001 rire ieee Mamta. Nis jee 353 | 1/016 314 1,058 |} Monroe County, ere 1914. 314 1, 064 Jalllhy Chon eseseccdce Sept. 4 314 997 317 963 IDO Sie. Somes ed omens 314 1,001 327 982 Hope County, Ark.: 348 915 || Atkins...........-.--I- 290} 1,036 299 ocular 9 lt 315| 1016 303 | 1,004 |) Pitt Gane: IN/o (OEE 306 877 @oupersese--occecec 319 925 309 | 1,105 ID ec See eee 327 978 320 991 ID Ore eeeco cone 329 931 338 1, 010 [Doe ae es cece 331 953 MW Obse see t ee aoe 336 925 c IDO). -caeonesenoses ae 346 928 325 969 || Cabarrus County, N.C.: 332 956 Concord ss eee sees Oct. 18 317 972 337 978 TD ae eee ea 5 319 959 Do 338 966 DOS eee 327 956 Dillon County, S.C.: (DO ae eco ore 331 972 Little Roeix........-. Sept. 24 361 966 ib) Oe ee eee 321 937 -d 367 956 TD Yay See eee =e 315 963 374 944 Doe eet 329 956 De phepabeot canons SoZ 1, 032 cececoosecescor 1,013 334 | 1,039 |! Union County, N. C.: 4 SP LOGS | “arises a eles 309 899 351 "915 Dose eee 354 861 358 982 Dosen 397 896 363 956 Dose Ee enne ee! 337 963 366 959 DO sae 393 834 384 978 Do Ga FIs FCS AEE) 309 852 Geese seen se ae 347 1,007 339 940 Doses: 349| 915 340 975 Dose ss ousne 329 909 343 959 Dorwe sca: 351 912 344 979 Magu sale eases 324 963 347 956 Doe aA ew 347 947 349 940 Doster tee, 328 940 349 959 DO een 354 931 350 1, 029 DOM Ne oe ees 359 896 351 1, 016 Date a ae 339 893 356 eS Dg wasn as 321 883 359 Doral sie a! 331 883 361 1, 029 DOMeue eine 331 934. s ae pe Reena 360 865 amberg County, 353 960 Bamberg 340 845 a aoe Doren ees! 352 874 DOe sess aoe Sees |e 357 823 Bad 312 979 TDL eda 361 861 Do....-.--------- ---d0..... 314 937 |! Barnwell County,S.C.: 20 coagencascares gO os 979 || “Allendale 347 934 Da. eae Oct. 30| 311| 991 | Do SRA 2 ee DOP sa2- boa ses 2. -00:.2-- 320 991 Doe en 359 918 ae eats ee lee al Doles 37L| 893 0) See a eee Hee te -GOzeee= 3 Novy eR Ran etree agen Beet er 40. 3i0 | _ 979 | Greenwood County, weet ee en ecce ee --do....-| 327 | 1,058) Greenwood Nov. 5| 300] 1,036 peas ae 5 i Geer vood County, Do iggee ie Cla Seoul ye -do Rteev.ch 310 1, O01 ! Onset eaecesecs wee GOL 31 i lcatiene Downe oe Ddoues 334 922 331 006 Do. 4p Sees eGO22252 336 972 337 985 WD OUs Ses see aces sat G@OLezie 342 1,051 344 972 WO sec cccucse ns 2G0rsee 363 941 367 1,013 Williamsburg County, 350 931 aC Oe 352 985 Gordons.........-.--- Sept. 26 336 827 359 1, 026 DOr esses aes Semen aed Oeeeae 355 868 371 972 IDs haccoscsenoce Ee does 364 807 333 922 DO seescbes cer ee aedOsecne 371 899 29466°—21—Bull. 948——_14 210 BULLETIN 98, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF: AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE VIII.— Variation of yields of oil and meal on same market—Continued. . Origin. Dato esi ||) Meal Origin. Date | oil. | Meal. Barnwell County, S.C.: 1915 |Pounds.| Pounds.|| Greenwoo County, Dunbarton..........- Jan. 16 322 922 S.C.: 1915 |Pounds.| Pounds. DO es cx aiaeiasiS| ia GOsen=e 343 928 Greenwood..........- Nov. 11 326 959 Dome n- Bose Bee dors: 346 922 DOs-ssseceseosee=| see do..... 333 1, 082 WDOse6 Sage chose [sec doserer 322 928 DO. 8s. shee seces| bee do..... 344 1,007 DOts reese = sees eelees Goce. 334 953 DOL ree aeeeeeeeel tae do..... 350 975 UD Le Seatsebosane sec G02--=- 323 887 Dotueeissceemiaccee Nov. 12 326 928 DOE aedaciceiiactae Ses GO!--e 357 963 Dob scence enccel are do....-. 337 902 Florence County,8S.C.: Dol tetescqeeeoe Nov. 15 295 1, 042 Olanta 2.22 sce se =she Dec. 5 348 918 DO! nhens esses o4-G0s- hs. 313 1,070 DOteacs ccs ee ae Dec. 6 311 972 Dol suseincdoe Seek peeCOnsee 331 1, 086 Dotto sccctereenlees dora: 315 944 DOs eee Reese Nov. 16 315 921 DOr te ashe eeee aoe doseee 335 956 DO! cee cae steeee <2eG0:2-25 317 982 DOs me socccheoses pee doteee- 337 979 Do! sass stsmbecot Seelnn Ss 317 980 DO Eee inseeeiee Dec. 9 324 918 Do) 4342.2 2bcen aoe 30 -G0.7<0- 342 1, 048 Dos es caseeenee Dec. 10 340 921 Dee sce 2 2dOss<- 354 947 211 ON OF COTTON SEED. COMPOSITI MAP I. ——— Ww es WWW oO Wy AWWW 6 w L®ouw QoL fe) os ALABAMA SCALE - STATUTE MILES 40 20 30 40 $e ZZoOO0- Sozke o « ee Fw & wy) | 7 a. Wl a eco a we : Gora fo o 7) oji94o0i1c6 2 oO— (eo) = i NAN A 0D 00 09 | Sy == =p fees = i : i ! ee : i = i ® See eee ees i I ee SS Z 2 ee 2S S VE ———— Sa, oS ae on =— Sie y <2) Pray S = “ 4 = 4 a = c sey F eal = - ! : —\__ 4 i= ao i} 912 BULLETIN 8, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bul. 948, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Map II. [See table on p. 24.] w <-: We = 5 ‘< : & § < ~ N: Is SD oO \ 3 5 \N For meaning of shading, see legend on Map I. OS Reteteteteteet NY SSR RY SKY “A RN i) eneseretete S252 OOO eee COMPOSITION OF COTTON SEED. 213 Bul. 948, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. ? Map III. mt SAN i» For meaning of shading, see legend on Map I. 214 BULLETIN 8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bul. 948, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Map IV. [See table on p. 49.] SNGiyan my w a (d f = Le - = i AEs } i ning of shading, see legend on Map I. mea. COMPOSITION OF COTTON SEED. Bul. 948, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. [See table on p. 85.] mies < = < i) ~ 2 =) —] SCALE - STATUTE e 215 For meaning of shading see legend on Map I. 216 BULLETIN 8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Bul. 948, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Map VI. [See table on p. 97.] 3 ’ BY . NS NC 7 Nr | ! NI - N \ | nee FS NAAN SS . LN Is 2 Ah 4 i SN! OY? o = a < 4 He is cx s 2 a CSO OH & = FR RON BA a NS ~~ 05% 0.0! | N PF / 4 x os 4 “a hi ae a 5 } i} hs e eotaeetees ‘ x PS RO X a 4 NA \\ \ For meaning of shading, see legend on Map I. 217 *[ dey, WO puossej oes ‘SuIpeys JO suluvoUr 10, Map VII. UW IL VNITOYVI HLYON o y Yo oS; € : NZ Z Ix Ge 2) aS a i { bang] 7] u/ xt vee m : Ea i | vo Rar iso] TET PENT TN EBT ZD WTF: in COMPOSITION OF COTTON SEED. [See table on p. 117 \ VALS AESSS \ I X&e. Be DY 4 iz Bul. 948, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. { tk | ice as i oh 2 ol 08 0 2? ; Bul. 948, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. [See table on p. 134.) 0,9, 0: 0,0 2009 a“ INOWATA PCRAIG ee SOS ,— S Xx eee eececete < S = ] =< OKLAHOMA SCALE- STATUTE MILES BULLETIN 948, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Map VIII. For meaning of shading, see legend on Map I. COMPOSITION OF COTTON SEED. 219 Bul. 948, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Map IX. [See table on p. 146.] ; < ee AY Se oe o——, < p \e cmon ANG Go Nea Va = _————_—_ For meaning of shading, see legend on Map I. SOUTH CAROLINA 220 Bul. 948, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. [See table on p. 157.] F ~ i i 0% < & IN CL etl Sa ETZEL LSS : “|Retotes we SS N =e N=. BULLETIN #8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. For meaning of shading, see legend on Map I. 221 Map XI. [See table on p. 167.] COMPOSITION OF COTTON SEED. Bul. 948, U. S. Dept. or Agriculture. *"T dey WO pussy 90S ‘SUIPBYS JO SULUBOT 10.7 ene) nye t ee Vai IK Vy Wwe SUS et = P é v4 ESS fe = Ny ZZ She Wy aloes Sie, ow LEY 5} Pes i a: rN Ld g a We N ACR res Paerdo Xx > . ES aN ia ~ S . § 3 ; : e o s ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D.C. AT 25 CENTS PER COPY V UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN No. 949 Contribution from the Bureau of Public Roads THOMAS H. MacDONALD, Chief Washington, D. C. Vv October 10, 1921 STANDARD AND TENTATIVE METHODS OF SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. Recommended by the Second Conference of State Highway Testing Engineers and Chemists, Washington, D. C., Feb. 23-27, 1920. CONTENTS. Page. | Page. UGE OCT CULO ay sayy ss cert gs cl AA NS Fee Pe 1 | Recommended standard methods of sampling. 69 Tests for non-bituminous road materials....... 3 | Miscellaneous matter........................-- 75 Tests for bituminous road materials..........-. 36 | Forms for recording and reprinting results... . 79 Mo GabevienbestSee suemins se ceca k acess SSL a eee 62 INTRODUCTION. In connection with the administration of Federal appropriations for highway construction, conferences have been held from time to time, between representatives of the Bureau of Public Roads and of the various State highway departments, for the purpose of formu- lating policies relative to matters of mutual interest. In accordance with this general plan, a conference of testing engineers of the State highway departments was deemed advisable in order to standardize the work of the State highway department laboratories and the bureau laboratories. The conference held at the Bureau of Public Roads, Washington, was called by the committee on tests and investigations of the Ameri- can Association of State Highway Officials and the following repre- sentatives of State highway departments and of the Bureau of Public Roads were in attendance, for all or a part of the conference: Agg, T. R., Iowa. Cooper, W. F., Louisiana. Anderton, B. A., Bureau of Public Roads. | Dayton, R. B., West Virginia. Begg, R. B. H., Virginia. Dean, A. W., Massachusetts. Bragg, J. G., New Jersey. Gage, R. B., New Jersey. Carmick, L. G., Bureau of Public Roads. | Goldbeck, A. T., Bureau of Public Roads. 29465°—21— Bull. 9491 - BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Grimes, J. F., Kentucky. Purrington, W. F., New Hampshire. Hinderlite, H. B., North Carolina. Rea, A. 8., Ohio. Hutchinson, G. W., Delaware. Roman, F. L., Illinois. Jackson, F. H., Bureau of Public Roads. | Rossell, F. C., Maryland. Lang, F. C., Minnesota. Saunders, R. L., Connecticut. Leavitt, H. Walter, Maine. Seaton, R. A., Kansas. Maddocks, Frederick T., California. Smith, E. B., Bureau of Public Roads. Martin, W. D., Ohio. Terrell, D. V., Kentucky. Milburn, Henry M., Bureau of Public | Ulman, Malcolm H., Pennsylvania. Roads. Withey, M. O., Wisconsin. The important recommendations which resulted from the confer- ence are due largely to the painstaking and effective work of the testing engineers who participated. Standard methods of sampling and testing the materials employed in highway construction were adopted, as set forth in this bulletin. It will be noted that the standard methods adopted by the American Society for Testing Materials have been accepted so far as the field has been covered by that society. In some of the methods minor revisions of the A. S. T. M. standards have been made, and where that has been done, the notation that follows the title of the test or method indicates that there has been such revision. For tests that have not been standardized by the American Society for Testing Materials, the methods of testing set forth in Bulletins 314, 347, and 555 of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, contributed by the Bureau of Public Roads, have been adopted for the most part. Several new tests and revisions of old tests are suggested for trial, to be adopted later if they prove to be satisfactory. It will be noted that for the convenience of testing departments, there is given the full text of all tests usually employed in a highway department testing laboratory. This has been done because it is believed it will save time and avoid confusion to have all of this material available in a single volume. The tests set forth in this bulletin are recommended as official standards by the committee on tests and investigations of the Amer- ican Association of State Highway Officials, and this recommenda- tion is concurred in by the Bureau of Public Roads. The recommendations of the conference were assembled and arranged by T. R. Agg, chairman of the committee on tests and investigations of the American Association of State Highway Offi- cials, and A. T. Goldbeck, engineer of tests of the Bureau of Public Roads. TESTS FOR NON-BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS. 1. ABRASION TEST FOR BROKEN STONE. (A. S. T. M. Standard method, serial designation D 2-08, slightly modified.) (1) The machine (see fig. 1) shall consist of one or more hollow iron cylinders, closed at one end and furnished with a tightly fit- ting iron cover at the other; the cylinders to be 20 cm. in diameter and 34 cm. in depth inside. These cylinders are to be mounted on a shaft at an angle of 30° with the axis of rotation of the shaft. (2) The rock to be tested shall be broken from, large irregular pieces to as nearly uni- form size as possible, and as near to 50 pieces as possible shall constitute a test sample. No pieces having edges or faces that have been rounded by wear shall be included. The total weight of rock in a test shall be within 10 grams of 5 kilograms. All test pieces shall be washed and thoroughly dried before weighing. Ten thousand revolutions, at the rate of between 30 and 33 per minute, shall constitute a test. ‘Only the percentage of material worn off which will pass through a 0.16-cm. (=4;-inch) mesh sieve shall be con- sidered in determining the amount of wear. This shall be expressed as the percentage of the 5 kilograms used in the test. (3) For materials having a specific gravity below 2.20 the quantity used for the test shall be adjusted on a volume basis, re- taining the specified number and size of pieces. For such materials a volume of 4,000 c. c. of the broken stone or broken slag shall be used. 2. ABRASION TEST FOR GRAVEL. (1) The aggregate shall first be screened through screens having circular openings 2 inches, 14 inches, 1 inch, ? inch, and 4 inch in diameter. The material of these sizes shall be washed and dried. The fol- lowing weights of the dried stone shall then be taken: 1,250 grams of the size passing the 2-inch and retained on the 14-inch screen, 1,250 grams of the size passing the 14-inch and retained on the 1l-inch screen, 1,250 grams passing the 1-inch screen and retained on the #inch screen, 1.250 grams passing = S = ‘D (fh | 5 3 ella . SSS = ZW SSS SS S ———— —Z_— 3 = = a aw iil Pn HH iit 7 “aH: | sles ginal qo Fic. 1.—Abrasion machine—Deval type (front view). 4 BULLETIN 49, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the 3-inch screen and retained on the 4-inch screen. This material shall be placed in the cast-iron cylinder of the Deval machine as specified for the standard abrasion test on stone. Six cast-iron spheres 1.875 inches in diameter and weighing approxi- mately 0.95 pound (0.45 kg.), each, shall be placed in the cylinder as an abrasive charge. These spheres are the same as those used in the standard rattler test for paving brick. | y (2) The duration of the test and the rate of rotation shall be the same as specified for the standard test for stone, namely, 10,000 revolutions at a rate of 30 to 33 revolu- tions per minute. At the completion of the test the material shall be taken out and screened over a 34-inch mesh sieve. The material retained upon the sieve shall be = 7 SECTION OF CL/ FULL SIZE Fie. 2.—Details of Dorry hardness machine. washed and dried and the percentage loss by abrasion of the material passing the 7- inch mesh sieve calculated. (3) When the material has a specific gravity below 2.20 a total weight of 4,000 grams made up of the four groups of sizes described above, instead of 5,000 grams, shall be used in the abrasion test. 3. DORRY HARDNESS TEST FOR ROCK. (1) A core 25 mm. in diameter and about 10 cm. long shall be cut with the diamond drill from the specimen to be examined. The core should in every case be drilled perpendicular. to the bedding plane of the rock. After thoroughly drying, the speci- men shall be inserted in grip of the Dorry machine (fig. 2), leaving about 1 inch pro- jecting from the lower end. The grip shall then be inserted in the sleeve so that the ‘ f SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 5 lower end of the specimen rests on the steel disk. The funnel shall be filled with sand and the machine run until the lower end of the specimen has been worn down to the plane of the disk. The grip carrying the specimen shall then be removed, brushed free of dust, and accurately weighed. By means of small metal washers, any one or more of which may be slipped over the projecting rod of the grip, the initial weight shall be adjusted to exactly 1,250 grams. The grip shall then be replaced in the same position as before and the machine given 1,000 revolutions at the rate of 30 per minute, after which the grip and specimen shall be weighed again. The VLLLVLILMLL LLL LLL % NA mo, o7 CHOON POMS Fig. 3.—Diamond core drill. test shall be repeated with the specimens reversed, in order to obtain the average hardness of the two ends. (2) The sand used as the abrasive agent shall be a crushed quartz, screened to pass a standard sieve having 30 meshes per linear inch and to be retained on a standard sieve having 40 meshes per linear inch. Since it is almost impossible to obtain such a sand commercially, it is customary to specifv a sand not more than 5 per cent of which will be retained on a No. 30 sieve and not more than 25 per cent of which will pass a No. 40 sieve. Sand known to the trade as No. 24 quartz will usually fulfill these requirements. The }-inch opening in the funnel of the hardness machine will allow about 18 pounds of sand to pass through during a test. (3) Calling the initial weight of grip plus specimen a, the final weight after 1,000 revolutions b, the coefficient of hardness=20—(“—). 6 BULLETIN 99, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (4) The coefficient 20 is chosen as the standard cf comparison to give about the same range of values as those obtained by the Deval abrasion test. The loss in weight is divided by 3 in order to avoid negative coefficients, since it is found that a specimen may lose as high as 60 grams in a single test. 4. TEST FOR TOUGHNESS OF ROCK. (A. S. T. M. Standard Method, Serial Designation: D 3-18.) (1) Toughness, as applied to rock, is the resistance offered to fracture by impact, expressed as the height of the final blow of a standard hammer required to cause frac- ture of a cylindrical test specimen of given dimensions. (2) Quarry samples of rock from which test specimens are to be prepared shall meas- ure at least 6 inches on a side and at least 4 inches in thickness, and when possible shall have the plane of structural weakness of the rock plainly marked thereon. Sam- - ples shall be taken from freshly quarried material, and only from pieces which show no evidences of incipient fracture due to blasting or other causes. The samples shall preferably be split from large pieces by the use of plugs and feathers and not by sledg- SIDE VIEW Fig. 4.—Details of diamond saw. ing. Commercial stone-block samples from which test specimens are to be prepared, shall measure at least 3 inches on each edge. (3) Specimens for test shall be cylinders prepared as described in paragraph 4, 25 mm. in height and from 24 to 25 mm. in diameter. Three test specimens shall constitute a test set. The ends of the specimen shall be plane surfaces at right angles to the axis of the cylinder. (4) One set of specimens shall be drilled perpendicular and another parallel to the plane of structural weakness of the rock, if such plane is apparent: If a plane of structural weakness is not apparent, one set of specimens shall be drilled at random. Specimens shall be drilled in a manner which will not subject the material to undue stresses and which will insure the specified dimensions. The ends of the cylinders may be sawed by means of a band or diamond saw,!' or in any other way which will not induce incipient fracture, but shall not be chipped or broken off with a hammer. After sawing, the ends of the specimens shall be ground plane with water and carbo- rundum or emery on a cast-iron lap (see fig. 5) until the cylinders are 25 mm. in length. (5) Any form of impact machine which will comply with the following essentials may be used in making the test: 1 Satisfactory forms of diamond drill and diamond saw are shown in figs. 3 and 4. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. i( (a) A cast-iron anvil weighing not less than 50 ke., firmly fixed upon a solid founda- tion; (6) A hammer weighing 2 ke., arranged so as to fall freely between suitable guides; (c) A plunger made of hardened steel and weighing 1 ke., arranged to slide freely in a vertical direction in a sleeve, the lower end of the plunger being spherical in shape with a radius of 1 cm.; (d) Means for raising the hammer and for dropping it upon the plunger from any specified height from 1 to not less than 75 cm., and means for determining the height of fall to approximately 1 mm.; (e) Means for holding the cylindrical test specimen securely on the anvil without rigid lateral support and under the plunger in such a way that the center of its upper py j- = ee SeeSsss So ¥ w ON j Z ZAUlllh .S AANAANY) 225 | A \ Lp IN ee ee eee) Sa oy + NN AAU ! z WN is GX x1 @ GAINOWE O15I (ANE sRAMED AST Ran) ZZAN A * ' aise NX | iis So ae BASIN ABVO BFL BEARINGS N : z | F puter. AN S BSS a SS SESS OE AES TURE: IRANN GG) eR > ' a UN we | : WS Z ypwnn nen nn nnn nnn ak! \VZV a8 i Fic. 5.—Details of grinding lap. surface shall throughout the test be tangent to the spherical end of the plunger at its lowest point. (6) The test shall consist of a 1 cm. fall of the hammer for the first blow, a 2 cm. fall for the second blow, and a fall increasing by 1 cm. for each succeeding blow until failure of the test specimen occurs. (7) The height of the blow in centimeters at failure shall be the toughness of the test specimen. The individual and the average toughness of three test specimens shall be reported when no plane of structural weakness is apparent. In cases where a plane of structural weakness is apparent, the individual and average toughness of the three specimens in each set shall be reported and identified. Any peculiar condition of a test specimen which might affect the result, such as the presence of seams, fissures, etc., shall be noted and recorded with the test result. 5. TESTS FOR APPARENT SPECIFIC GRAVITY AND ABSORPTION OF STONE OR OTHER COARSE MATERIALS. (1) The apparent specific gravity shall be obtained by weighing the water dis- placed by a sample of the material weighing approximately 1,000 grams, broken into pieces about 14 inches in diameter. The vessel to be used is shown in figure 7. It consists of a galvanized-iron cylinder closed at one end and measuring 5 inches in diameter by 8 inches high. A brass spout 4 inch in diameter is soldered into BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a A ! S A ; Concrefe foundoran A Concrere foundaron FRONT ELEVATION POL TLE wWATION Fia. 6.—Details of Page impact testing machine. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 9 the side of the cylinder 6 inches from the bottom. The spout is inclined at an angle of 2° with the horizontal and is 24 inches long. A notch is filed across its lower end, as shown, to stop the drip from the displaced water. To determine the specific gravity, the dried and cooled sample shall be weighed to the nearest 0.5 gram and immersed in water for 24 hours. The pieces shall then be surface-dried individually with a towel, the sample reweighed and immediately placed in the cylinder, which has been previously filled to overflowing with water at room temperature. (2) The weight of water displaced by the sample shall be used to calculate its apparent specific gravity. The difference between the original weight of the sample and its weight after 24 hours shall be used to determine the absorption. “2! Galvanized | lron (. Seeeera 5a. Note: Notch is filed across . is) eae lower end of spout ,/é¢ (27) to prevent drip.—-+- ———— Ree eae a 2 brass pipe,Z2 long | §” 800 cc beaker N77 hree lugs soldered a) bottom symmetrically. Fic. 7.—Vessel used in making specific-gravity and absorption tests. 6. TESTS FOR APPARENT SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF SAND, STONE, OR SLAG SCREENINGS AND OTHER FINE NON-BITUMINOUS HIGHWAY MATERIALS. (A. 8. T. M. Standard Methods, Serial Designation: D 55-19.) (1) The following tests, ‘‘Le Chatelier” and ‘‘Jackson,’’ are equally suited for use in determining the apparent specific gravity of sand, stone, and slag screenings and other fine non-bituminous highway materials and may be considered as alternates. _ I. LE CHATELIER TEST. (2) The determination of specific gravity shall be made with a standardized Le Chatelier apparatus which conforms to the requirements illustrated in figure 8. This apparatus is standardized by the United States Bureau of Standards. Kerosene free from water, or benzine not lighter than 62° Baumé, shall be used in making this determination. 10 BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (3) (a) The flask shall be filled with either of the liquids to a point on the stem be- tween zero and 1 c. c., and 64 grams of sand or other fine non-bituminous highway material of the same temperature as the liquid shall be slowly introduced, taking care that the material does not adhere to the inside of the flask above the liquid and to free the material from air by rolling the flask in an inclined position. After all mate- rial is introduced, the level of the be obtained from the formula ——— rai haa sa liquid will rise to some division of | bcm —.— ——,— the graduated neck; the difference INO AL; ~~ between readings is the volume : \s = : displaced by 64 grams of the ma- ae eye : terial. Ground Glass 7 ~§ : The specific gravity shall then Stopper: “| — — — -— : Ss Weight of material (g) wee? : ~~ Displaced volume (c.c.) (b) The flask, during the opera- tion, shall be kept immersed in water, in order to avoid variations in the temperature of the liquid in the flask, which shall not exceed 0.5° C. The results of repeated tests should agree with 0.01. Il. JACKSON TEST. (4) The determination shall be made with a Jackson specific-grav- ity apparatus (illustrated in fig. 9), which shall consist of a burette, with graduations reading to 0.01 in woccees wececcarcae = L435 om Have two O/ec specific gravity, about 23 cm. (9 Graduations ertend inches) long and with an inside above land diameter of about 0.6 cm. (0.25 inch), which shall be connected with a glass bulb approximately 13 ‘ em. (5.5 inches) long and 4.5 cm. below O Marh--2 +». Se ee ee ee ee Capacity : : Ng of Bulk : (1.75 inches) in diameter, the glass BA ! bulb being of such size that from iS w; $ amark on the neck at the top toa i ‘mark on the burette just below the : bulb, the capacity is exactly 180 ' ¢. e. (6.09 liquid ounces); and an Erlenmeyer flask, which shall con- | : |! fe Y— tain a hollow ground-glass stopper | boa weiter grictaagt oie rely 7ch =o cs having the neck of the same bore a a a CN Nae asa er as the burette, and shall have a Fic. 8.—Le Chatelier apparatus for specific-gravity deter- capacity of exactly 200 & = (6.76 riinatitis: ounces) up to the graduation on the neck of the stopper. (5) The method is as follows: (1) Dry at not more than 110° C. (230° F.) to a con- stant weight a sample weighing about 55 grams; (2) weigh 50 grams of the dry sample to 0.1 gram and pour it into the unstoppered Erlenmeyer flask, which shall be cleaned and dried before each determination; (3) fill the bulb and burette with kerosene, leaving just space enough to take the temperature by introducing a thermometer SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 11 through the neck; (4) remove the thermometer and add sufficient kerosene to fill exactly to the mark on the neck, drawing off any excess with the burette; (5) run into the flask about one-half of the kerosene in the bulb to remove air bubbles and then run in more kerosene, removing any material adhering to the neck of the flask, until the kerosene is just below the ground glass; (6) place the hollow ground-glass stopper in position and turn it to fit tightly and then run in kerosene exactly to the 200 c. c. (6.76 ounces) graduation on the neck, care being taken to remove all air bubbles in the flask; (7) read the specific gravity from the gradua- tion on the burette, and the temperature of the oil in the flask, noting the difference be- tween the temperature of the oil in the bulb before the determination and that of the oil in the flask after the determination; (8) make a temperature correction to the reading of the specific gravity in accordance with the table furnished by the manufacturer of the apparatus, adding the correction if the temperature of the kerosene has increased and subtracting it if the temperature of the kerosene has decreased. 7. WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT AND VOID TESTS ON COARSE AGGREGATE. (1) The weight per cubic foot of coarse aggre- gate shall be determined as follows: A cylin- drical measure of at least one-fourth cubic foot capacity, with inside diameter approximately equal to inside height, or a box approximately cubical in shape and of not less than one-half cubic foot capacity shall be used. Ordinarily, the determination should be made on aggregate in air-dry condition. When the aggregate con- tains an appreciable amount of moisture, the percentage of water by weight shall be deter- mined and recorded. (2) About one-fourth of the total amount of ageregate necessary to fill the measure shall first be introduced in such manner as to avoid separation of sizes. This material shall then be shaken down by rocking the measure from side to side until no further settlement takes place. The process shall be repeated until the measure has been filled to overflowing, after which it shall be struck off level with the top with a straightedge and weighed. The percentage of voids in the aggregate may be determined from the weight per cubic foot and specific gravity in the usual manner. Fic. 9.—Jackson specific-gravity apparatus. 8. WEIGHT PER CUBIC FOOT TEST FOR FINE AGGREGATE. (1) For determining weight per cubic foot of fine aggregate use a cylindrical metal measure having an inside diameter equal to the inside depth. A measure of capacity of one-fifth to one-half cubic foot is suggested, but a measure as small as one-twentieth cubic foot capacity may be used. Ordinarily the weight per cubic foot should be 12 BULLETIN 9, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. determined on air-dry material. When the aggregate contains an appreciable amount of moisture the percentage of water by weight shall be determined and recorded. (2) Fill the measure one-third full, puddle with 25 to 30 strokes from a 4-inch round steel bar 20 inches long, pointed at the lower end. Continue filling and puddling in like manner until the measure is full, then strike off the top by a rolling motion with the bar. Determine the weight of the contents of the measure and calculate the weight in pounds per cubic foot. 9. SIEVE ANALYSIS OF BROKEN STONE, GRAVEL, PEBBLES OR BROKEN SLAG. (A. S. T. M. Standard Method, D 18-16, slightly modified.) The method shall consist of (1) drying at not over 110° C. (230° F.) to a constant weight a sample weighing in pounds six times the diameter in inches of the largest holes required; (2) passing the sample through such of the following size screens having circular openings as are required or called for by the specifications, screens to be used in the order named: 8.89 cm. (34 inches), 7.62 em. (3 inches), 6.35 cm. (24 inches), 5.08 cm. (2 inches), 3.81 cm. (14 inches), 3.18 em. (14 inches), 2.54 cm, (1 inch), 1.90 em. (¢ inch), 1.27 em. ($ inch), and 0.64 em. (4 inch); (3) determining the percentage by weight retained on each screen; and recording the mechanical analysis in the following manner: Per cent. Passing 0.64 cm.: inch )isereen .<52< 2c Fs een Passing 1.27 em. (4 inch) screen and retained on a 0.64 cm. (4 nek} screen.... ...... Passing 1.90 em. (? inch) screen and retained on a,1.27 em. (4inch)screen.... _....- Passing 2.54 cm. (1 inch) screen and retained on a 1.90 cm. ($inch)screen.-.. ...... 100. 00 10. SIEVE ANALYSIS OF SAND OR FINE AGGREGATE. (A. S. T. M. Standard, Serial Designation: D 7-18, slightly modified.) The method shall consist of (1) drying at not over 110° C. (230° F.) to a constant weight a sample weighing not less than 100 grams and not more than 500 grams; (2) passing the sample through each of the mesh sieves ? (American Society for Testing Materials standard sieves) specified in Table 1; (3) determining the percentage by weight retained on each sieve, the sifting being continued on each sieve until less than 1 per cent of the weight retained on each sieve shall pass through the sieve during the last minute of sifting; and (4) recording the mechanical analysis in the following manner: Per cent. Passing 200-mesh sieVe 5. 3-225 = 22.<< loc ke ee ce 6 oe eee eee Passing 100-mesh sieve and retained on a 200-mesh sieve-..-.-------.--.---- ------ Passing 80-mesh sieve and retained on a 100-mesh sieve..-.--.--.--..------- ------ Passing 50-mesh sieve and retained on an 80-mesh sieve..-..--.----.-------- ------ 100. 00 2 The order in which the sieves are to be used in the process of sifting is immaterial and shall be left optional; but in reporting results the order in which the sieves have been used shall be stated. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 13 Tasie [.—A.S. T. M. standard sieves. Permissible varia- tions. : . . e Actual . Wire Mesh designation. Unit of measure. mesh. | Opening. tama. : Mesh. Diameter, ae —-a24> —— a sa ——— a | 103 (eases sisdoabe 3.9 0. 200 0. 056 0. 04 0. 005 PERO 15'S SER Cie tes a a aaa Inches..-.... ae 9.9 . 079 . 022 aie . 002 20 Centimeter. - 8 . 085 . 040 | . 0015 DME err Ts oT Imehesmeeenesesaa: 20. 3 . 0335 . 0157 me . 0006 30 Centimeter........ 12.0 . 050 - 033 ° 4A | 0012 FRAO SSCS aii ead alc sari INCHES) 55) seaee 30.5 . 0197 - 0130 1.0 - 0005 401 Centimeter. .-..-:- 16 . 036 - 026 6 - 0010 TS SS Ce es aaa Tn Chie see Sha saat: 40.6 . 0142 . 0102 1.5 - 0004 50 Centimeter........ 20 - 029 - 021 .8 - 0010 EPOCH SETA ES ea taal dest aris michesia: pleas 50. 8 . 0114 - 0083 2 . 0004 80 1 Centimeter........ 31 .017 015 1 . 0008 ubieaan yor ahs sms Tee imehesife se) 2528 78.7 . 0067 - 0059 3 . 0003 1001 Centimeter........ 39 . 014 - 0116 1 - 0008 pac eames vir ee aes Hm CHesheensee re 99.1 . 0055 - 0046 3 . 0003 2001 Centimeter........ 79 . 0074 . 0053 3 . 0005 SIE TSS cS i a ge a oe amehessite.o.2 Sed 200. 7 . 0029 . 0021 8 . 0002 1 The }-inch circular opening screen and these sieves are recommended for the sieve analysis except for fine aggregate used in bituminous surfaces. 11. SIEVE ANALYSIS OF MIXTURES OF FINE AND COARSE AGGREGATES. (A. 8S. T. M. Standard Method, Serial Designation: D 19-16, slightly modified.) The method shall consist of (1) drying at not over 110°C. (230° F.) to a constant weight a sample weighing in pounds six times the diameter in inches of the largest holes required; (2) separating the sample by the use of a screen having circular open- ings 0.64 cm. (4 inch) in diameter; (3) examining the portion retained on the screen in accordance with the standard method for making a sieve analysis of broken stone, gravel, pebbles, or broken slag (test No. 9), examining the portion passing this screen in accordance with the standard method for making a mechanical analysis of sand or other fine aggregate (test No 10); (4) and recording the mechanical analysis in the following manner: Per cent. Ascii oee (OammesistTe Viewers ne Himes sap e ec ect ine lt RSME a ee Passing 100-mesh sieve and retained on a 200-mesh sieve. .....------------ Passing 80-mesh sieve and retained on a 100-mesh sieve. ....-...---------- Passing 10-mesh sieve and retained on a 20-mesh sieve. -......------------ Passing 0.64-cm. (4-inch) screen and retained on a 10-mesh sieve. ...-..-..-- Passing 1.27-cm. (4-1nch) screen and retained on a 0.64-cm. (4-1nch) screen- - Passing 1.90-cm. (?-inch) screen and retained on a 1.27-cm. (4-inch) screen- - 100 In the sieve analysis of the sand fraction, the following sizes of sieves shall be used except for fine aggregate used for bituminous surfaces: }-inch circular opening, 10-mesh, 40-mesh, 80-mesh, 100-mesh, and 209-mesh. 14 BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 12. TESTS FOR DETERMINING THE AMOUNT OF CLAY AND SILT IN SAND OR FINE AGGREGATE, IN GRAVEL AND IN SAND-CLAY, TOP SOIL, OR SEMIGRAVEL. A. SAND OR FINE AGGREGATE. (1) The specification covers the determination of the quantity of clay and silt in natural sand to be used in road construction. (2) The sample as received shall be moistened and thoroughly mixed, then dried to constant weight at a temperature between 100° C. (212° F.) and 110° C. (230° F.). (3) Five hundred (500) grams representative of the dried sample shall be placed in a dried and accurately weighed pan or vessel having vertical sides and provided with a pouring lip. This pan shall be substantially 22.9 cm. (9 inches) in diameter by not less than 10.2 cm. (4 inches) deep. Pour sufficient water in the pan to cover the sand (about 225 c. c.). Agitate vigorously for fifteen (15) seconds. Allow to settle for fifteen (15) seconds and then pour off the water into a tared evaporating dish, taking care not to pour off any sand. Repeat until the wash water is clear, using a glass rod to stir the material for the last few washings. (4) Thoroughly dry the pan and washed sand in an oven at between 100° C. (212° F.) and 110° C. (230° F.), weigh and determine net weight of sand. (5) Compute the per cent of clay and silt as follows: Original weight — weight after washing Original weight For a check on the results, evaporate the wash water to dryness and weigh the residue. 100=per cent of clay and silt. Weight of residue "Onemalvernt me cent of clay and silt. B. GRAVEL. (6) The specification covers the determination of the quantity of clay and silt in natural gravel to be used in road construction. (7) The sample as received shall be moistened and thoroughly mixed, then dried to constant weight at a temperature between 100° C. (212° F.) and 110° C. (230° F.). (8) A representative portion of the dry material, weighing not less than 50 times the weight of the largest stone in the sample, shall be selected from the sample, and placed in a dried and accurately weighed pan or vessel. The pan shall be 30.2 cm. (12 inches) in diameter by not less than 10.2 cm. (4 inches) deep, as nearly as may be obtained. Pour sufficient water in the pan to cover the gravel and agitate vigor- ously for fifteen (15) seconds, using a trowel or stirring rod. Allow to settle for fifteen (15) seconds, and then pour off the water into a tared evaporating dish, being careful not to pour off any sand. Repeat until the wash water is clear. (9) Dry the washed material to constant weight in an oven at between 100° C. (212° F.) and 110° C. (230° F.), weigh, and determine net weight of gravel. (10) Compute the per cent of clay and silt as follows: Seeeee Welen eaten alten Wwaes 100=per cent of clay and silt. Original weight C. SAND-CLAY, TOP SOIL, AND SEMIGRAVEL. - (11) Dry 500 grams of the material at a temperature below 350° F. (176.6° C.) to a constant weight. Gently pulverize to break down soft clods or masses, but not to grind or break hard material. Pass through a 10-mesh sieve, weigh the coarse residue, and record as ‘‘coarse material.’? Use the material passing the 10-mesh sieve as the starting point of a percentage analysis as follows: (12) Weigh out two samples of 50 grams of this material for duplicate analysis. Place each in a tared wide-mouth bottle (5 to 6 cm. diameter and about 12 to 15 cm. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 15 high). Add about 5c. c. of dilute ammonia water and about 200 c. c. of water. Close with a cork or glass stopper and shake thoroughly for 20 minutes. Allow the sample to settle eight minutes and decant carefully or siphon off the supernatant liquid to a depth of 8 cm. below the surface of the liquid. (The depth of the liquid in the bottle should be sufficient to leave about 4 cm. below the point of siphoning.) Fill the bottle again with water, shake for three minutes, allow settlement, and siphon off as before. Repeat the process until the supernatant liquid is clear. Be careful to wash the stopper and neck of the bottle free from coarse material before decanting. (13) Dry the bottle and washed material to constant weight at between 100° C. (212° F.) and 110° C. (230° F.), weigh and determine the net weight of washed material. Original weight— washed weight Original weight (14) Asa check the washings drawn off shall be collected and evaporated to dryness for direct recovery of the fine sediment classed as clay and silt. Weight of residue Original weight The determinations on the two samples shall check within 1 per cent to be accept- able. x<100=per cent clay and silt. <100=per cent clay. 13. TESTS FOR SEMIGRAVEL, TOP SOIL, AND SAND-CLAY. The amount of clay and silt is first determined in accordance with test No. 12, then proceed as follows: (1) Wash the contents of the bottle cleanly into a porcelain evaporating dish and carry to dryness on a water bath. The dried residue shall be carefully scraped from the dish and passed through a nest of 20. 60, 100, and 200 mesh sieves. The residue retained on each sieve shall be weighed and recorded as sand of the respective sizes. Their sum constitutes the total ‘‘sand.’’ The residue passing the 200-mesh sieve and caught in the pan shall be weighed and recorded as “‘silt.’’ Duplicate samples should check within 1 per cent. (2) The coarse material shall be examined for hardness and with the magnifying glass to identify its character as quartz, hard iron compounds, feldspar, schistose material, or indurated clay. Hard quartz or iron gravels are valuable in themselves and as indicating the quality of the finer aggregate. Feldspar, mica, and clay nodules are worthless and indicate that the accompanying soil is poor for road building. (3) The sands shall be examined with the magnifying glass for identification as quartz and for the presence of mica scales or feldspar needles. If mica or feldspar is present in appreciable amounts the sample should be rejected. (4) When the clay is recovered by evaporation it can be examined for tenacity by cementing together two glass plates, each 1 inch wide, set at right angles, with a layer of clay whose thickness is fixed by a fine bent wire laid between the plates. The moist clay shall cover the wire on one plate, and the other plate shall be squeezed down tightly on the wire. After drying, the one plate shall be held firmly against cleats, wire slings shall be run symmetrically from the ends of the upper plate to one arm of a beam balance, and the tension necessary to separate the plates shall be given by shot or weights in the other pan of the balance. This test is tedious, and is of service chiefly on low-grade samples which are of doubtful efficiency, but which represent the only available material for local construction. (5) Approximate tests for tenacity of mixture can be made as follows: Make cylinders 25 mm. in height and 25 mm. in diameter from the material passing the 10-mesh sieve. Work the material into a stiff mud and mold under 132 kg. per square centimeter pressure. Dry thoroughly at 100° C. (212° F.) and break by the small Page impact machine for testing cementing value, using a 1-kg. hammer and l-em. drop. Record the number of strokes as the relative measure of tenacity. 16 BULLETIN 99, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Mix 50 grams of the material passing the 10-mesh sieve with —* grams of water and knead with the hands into a spherical ball. Measure the diameter. Let this ball drop from a height of —* cm. on a flatslab. Measure and record: the reduction in diameter and examine the surface for cracks. Usually the plastic character and adhesiveness of a good road soil can be judged by the feeling of the mud made irom the material, its adherence to the hands and its stretch under light pulling. 14. TESTS FOR QUALITY OF WATER TO BE USED IN CONCRETE. (1) Acidity and alkalinity.—The acidity and alkalinity test shall be made by immers- ing strips of blue and red litmus paper in a vessel of the water for a periad of five minutes and noting color. A marked reversal in color indicates excessive acidity or alkalinity and the necessity for further tests. (2) Total solids and inorganic matter.—Five hundred (500) cubic centimeters of the water shall be evaporated to dryness in a weighed dish. For this purpose a platinum dish of 100 to 200 c. c. capacity is found most convenient. The dish shall be nearly filled with the water and placed on a water bath, additional portions of the sample ot water being added from time to time until 500 c. c. have been used. The contents of the dish shall be evaporated to dryness and the dish and contents cooled in a dessicator and weighed. The weight of the residue in grams divided by 5 is the per cent of total solids in the water. (3) The total solids obtained as described, may consist of organic matter, of inor- ganic matter, or of combinations of organic and inorganic matter. The platinum dish shall be ignited at low red heat, and the darkening of the residue during the early stage of the ignition usually indicates the presence of organic matter. The per cent loss on ignition at low red heat will usually be an indication of the amount of organic matter, but it should be noted that some mineral salts tend to volatilize or partly decompose on heating. (4) The determination of the decomposition of he mineral matter in the water usually requires a complete chemical analysis of the total solids obtained by the evaporation of 500 c. c., or more, of the water, and is not generally undertaken except when the percentage of total solids is large, or the water appears to give abnormal tests in other respects. (5) A comparison of the given water with a water of known satisfactory quality can be obtained by making standard soundness, time of setting, and 1:3 mortar strength tests with standard sand, using the same cement c standard quality with each water. (Suggested limits for the last-named test are asfollo s: Any indication of unsoundness, marked change in time of setting, or a variation .. more than 10 per cent in strength from results obtained with mixtures containing the water of satisfactory quality, shall be sufficient cause for rejection of the water under test.) 15. TEST FOR ORGANIC IMPURITIES IN CONCRETE AGGREGATES. The test recommended is described in the ‘‘Proceedings of the American Society for Testing Materials, ‘Philadelphia, Pa., Volume XIX, part 1, 1919, Appendix to Report of Committee C-9 on Concrete and Concrete Aggregates.”’ (1) The test as usually made consists of shaking the sand thoroughly in a dilute solution of sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and observing the resultant color after the mixture has been allowed to stand for a few hours. Fill a 12-0z. graduated prescrip- tion bottle to the 44-0z. mark with the sand to be tested. Adda3 per cent solution of sodium hydroxide until the volume of the sand and solution, after shaking, amounts to 7ounces. Shake thoroughly and let stand for 24 hours. Observe the color of the clear 2 No definite weight of water or height of fall recommended. _eerer re SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. uy liquid above the sand. A good idea of the quality of the sand can be formed earlier than 24 hours, although this period is believed to give best results. (2) If the solution resulting from this treatment is colorless, or has a light yellowish color, the sand may be considered satisfactory in so far as organic impurities are con- cerned. On the other hand, if a dark-colored solution of a color deeper than that indicted is produced, the sand should not be used in high-grade concrete such as that required in roads and pavements, or in building construction. * * * * * * * (3) Color values: While it is not practicable to give exact values for the reduction in strength corresponding to the different colors of selution, the tests made thus far show this relation to be about as follows: Reduction in com- pressive Color No.1! strength of 1 : 3 mor- tar at 7and 28 days. Per cent. IDI bid lee ee aes aaa eRe None. SHI OUINO YZ aeierettoes ne cae delenit 10 to 20. ESTING Oise eA sets oc selec SEES 15 to 30. Rone 4 sais sce cee ec eeimicsenre 25 to 50. RYSTIEG Ssh ete cae ate 50 to 100. 1See Plate V, Proceedings of the American Society for Testing Materials, vol. xix, part 1, Report of Committee C-9, for Color Scale. (4) Washing dirty sands has the effect of greatly reducing the quantity of organic impurities. However, even after washing, sands should be examined in order to determine whether the organic impurities have been reduced to harmless proportions. The following list includes sufficient apparatus for making five field tests at a time: Five 12-0z. graduated prescription bottles; Stock of 3 per cent solution of sodium hydroxide (dissolve 1 oz. of sodium hydroxide in enough water to make 32 oz.) This test does not give satisfactory results when lignite is present in the sand. 16. TEST FOR MORTAR MAKING QUALITY OF FINE AGGREGATES, (1) When the fine aggregate is mixed with Portland cement in the proportion of 1 part of cement to 3 parts of sand, by weight, according to standard methods of making 1:3 mortar briquets, the resulting mortar at the age of 7 and 28 days shall have a strength in tension and compression of at least + per cent of that developed in the same time by mortar of the same proportions and consistency, made of the same cement and Ottawa sand. (2) Preliminary acceptance samples shall be subjected to both 7 and 28 day tests and acceptance based thereupon. Samples tested during the progress of the work shall be accepted on the basis of the 7-day test. 17. STANDARD SPECIFICATIONS AND TESTS FOR PORTLAND CEMENT. (A. 8S. T. M. Standard Method, Serial Designation: C 9-17.) SPECIFICATIONS. .(1) Portland cement is the product obtained by finely pulverizing clinker produced by calcining to incipient fusion an intimate and properly proportioned mixture of argillaceous and calcareous materials with no additions subsequent to calcination excepting water and calcined or uncalcined gypsum. 4It is recommended that the strength ratio be 100 per cent for this purpose. 29465°—21—Bull. 949: 2 18 BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CHEMICAL PROPERTIES. (2) The following limits shall not be exceeded: Per cent. Boss on aenimon 2A: So CCAR A I Ee eee 4. 00 Insolublemesidtie:: i322 = sesieadios sees lee es Te ee eee eee . 85 Sulphunicanhydride.(SO3) 4.0: <.2)-\j2 s0646e0% aaa ete eee eee: 2. 00 Marmesia (ATE) Menno aie niece ose os ain s Cer Sek Ree Salata) aaeeeee ere eee 2 oO} OO PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. (3) The specific gravity of cement shall not be less than 3.10 (3.07 for white Port- land cement). Should the test of cement as received fall below this requirement a second test may be made upon anignited sample. The specific gravity test will not be made unless specifically ordered. (4) The residue on a standard No. 200 sieve shall not exceed 22 per cent by weight. (5) A pat of neat cement shall remain firmand hard and show no signsof distortion, cracking, checking, or disintegration in the steam test for soundness. (6) The cement shall not develop initial set in less than 45 minutes when the Vicat needle is used or 60 minutes when the Gillmore needle is used. Final set shall be attained within 10 hours. (7) The average tensile strength, in pounds per square inch, of not less than three standard mortar briquettes (see par. 51) composed of one part cement and three parts standard sand, by weight, shall be equal to or higher than the following: Tensile Age strength at Storage of briquettes. per test square inch Days. Pounds 7 |b day in moist airsi6idays imiwaters 2a 2es 552 545 ae ee ee eee eee reer ee 28) al dayanmoistiain 27 daysim water yan 26 yee ee ere ee ee eee 300 (8) The average tensile strength of standard mortar at 28 days shall be higher than the strength at 7 days. PACKAGES, MARKING, AND STORAGE. (9) The cement shall be delivered in suitable bags or barrels with the brand and name of the manufacturer plainly marked thereon unless shipped in bulk. A bag shall contain 94 pounds net. A barrel shall contain 376 pounds net. (10) The cement shall be stored in such a manner as to permit easy access for proper inspection and identification of each shipment and in a suitable weather-tight building which will protect the cement from dampness. INSPECTION. (11) Every facility shall be provided the purchaser for careful sampling and inspec- tion at either the mill or at the site of the work as may be specified by the purchaser. At least 10 days from the time of sampling shall be allowed for the completion of the 7-day test and at least 31 days shall be allowed for the completion of the 28-day test. The cement shall be tested in accordance with the methods hereinafter prescribed. The 28-day test shall be waived only when specifically so ordered. REJECTION. (12) The cement may be rejected if it fails to meet any of the requirements of these specifications. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 19 (13) Cement shall not be rejected on account of failure to meet the fineness require- ment if upon retest after drying at 100° C. for one hour it meets this requirement. (14) Cement failing to meet the test for soundness in steam may be accepted if it passes a retest using a new sample at any time within 28 days thereafter. (15) Packages varying more than 5 per cent from the specified weight may be rejected; and if the average weight of packages in any shipment as shown by weighing 50 packages taken at random is less than that specified, the entire shipment may be rejected. TESTS. SAMPLING. (16) Tests may be made on individual or composite samples as may be ordered. Each test sample should weigh at least 8 pounds. (17) (a) If sampled in cars one test sample shall be taken from each 50 barrels or fraction thereof. If sampled in bins one sample shall be taken from each 100 barrels. (6) If sampled in cars one sample shall be taken from one sack in each 40 sacks (or 1 barrel in each 10 barrels) and combined to form one test sample. If sampled in bins or warehouses one test sample shall represent not more than 200 barrels. (18) Cement may be sampled at the mill by any of the following methods that may be practicable as ordered: (a) From the conveyor delivering to the bin at least 8 pounds of cement shall be taken from approximately each 100 barrels passing over the conveyor. (6) Proper sampling tubes inserted vertically may be used for sampling cement in filled bins to a maximum depth of 10 feet. Tubes inserted horizontally may be used where the construction of the bin permits. Samples shall be taken from points well distributed over the face of the bin. (c) Sufficient cement shall be drawn from the discharge openings in filled bins to obtain samples representative of the cement contained in the bin, as determined by the appearance at the discharge openings of indicators placed on the surface of the cement directly above these openings before drawing of the cement is started. (19) Samples preferably shall be shipped and stored in air-tight containers. Sam- ples shall be passed through a sieve having 20 meshes per linear inch in order to thoroughly mix the sample; break up lumps and remove foreign materials. CHEMICAL ANALYSIS. LOSS ON IGNITION. (20) One gram of cement shall be heated in a weighed covered platinum crucible, of 20 to 25 c. c. capacity, as follows, using either method (a) or (0) as ordered: (a) The crucible shall be placed in a hole in an asbestos board, clamped horizontally so that about three-fifths of the crucible projects below, and blasted at a full red heat for 15 minutes with an inclined flame; the loss in weight shall be checked by a second blasting for 5 minutes. Care shall be taken to wipe off particles of asbestos that may adhere to the crucible when withdrawn from the hole in the board. Greater neatness and shortening of the time of heating are secured by making a hole to fit the crucible in a circular disk of sheet platinum and placing this disk over a somewhat larger hole in an asbestos board. (6) The crucible shall be placed in a muffle at any temperature between 900° and 1,000° ©. for 15 minutes and the loss in weight shall be checked by a second heating for 5 minutes. (21) A permissible variation of 0.25 will be allowed, and all results in excess of the specified limit but within this permissible variation shall be reported as 4 per cent. 20 BULLETIN #9, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INSOLUBLE RESIDUE, (22) To a 1-gram sample of cement shall be added 10 c. c. of water and 5 c. c. of concentrated hydrochloric acid: the liquid shall be warmed until effervescence ceases. The solution shall be diluted to 50 c. c. and digested on a steam bath or hot plate until it is evident that decomposition of the cement is complete. The residue shall be filtered, washed with cold water, and the filter paper and contents digested in about 30 c. c. of a 5 per cent solution of sodium carbonate, the liquid being held at a temperature just short of boiling for 15 minutes. The remaining residue shall be filtered, washed with cold water, then with a few drops of hot hydro- chloric acid, 1:9, and finally with hot water, and then ignited at a red heat and weighed as the insoluble residue. (23) A permissible variation of 0.15 will be allowed, and all results in excess of the specified limit but within this permissible variation shall be reported as 0.85 per cent. SULPHURIC ANHYDRIDE. (24) One gram of the cement shall be dissolved in 5 ec. c. of concentrated nydro- chloric acid diluted with 5 c. c. of water, with gentle warming; when solution is complete, 40 c. c. of water shall be added, the solution filtered, and the residue washed thoroughly with water. The solution shall be diluted to 250 c. c., heated to boiling, and 10 c. c. of a hot 10 per cent solution of barium chloride shall be added slowly, drop by drop from a pipette, and the boiling continued until the precipitate is well formed. The solution shall be digested on the steam bath until the precipitate has settled. The precipitate shall be filtered, washed, and the paper and contents placed in a weighed platinum crucible and the paper slowly charred and consumed without flaming. The barium sulphate shall then be ignited and weighed. The weight ob- tained multiplied by 34.3 gives the percentage of sulphuric anhydride. The acid filtrate obtained in the determination of the insoluble residue may be used for the estimation of sulphuric anhydride instead of using a separate sample. (25) A permissible variation of 0.10 will be allowed, and all results in excess of the specified limit but within this permissible variation shall be reported as 2 per cent. MAGNESIA. (26) To 0.5 gram of the cement in an evaporating dish shall be added 10 c. c. of water to prevent lumping and then 10 c. c. of concentrated hydrochloric acid. The liquid shall be gently heated and agitated until attack is complete. The solution shall then be evaporated to complete dryness on a steam or water bath. To hasten dehydration the residue may be heated to 150° or even 200° C. for one-half to one hour. The residue shall be treated with 10 c. c. of concentrated hydrochloric acid diluted with an equal amount of water. The dish shall be covered with the solution digested for 10 minutes on a steam bath or water bath: The diluted solution shall be filtered and the separated silica washed thoroughly with water. Five cubic centimeters of concentrated hydrochloric acid and sufficient bromine water to precipitate any manganese which may be present shall be added to the filtrate (about 250c.c.). This shall be made alkaline with ammonium hydroxide, boiled until there is but a faint odor of ammonia, and the precipitated iron and aluminum hydroxides, after settling, shall be washed with hot water, once by decantation and slightly on the filter. Set- ting aside the filtrate, the precipitate shall be transferred by a jet of hot water to the precipitation vessel and dissolved in 10 c. c. of hot hydrochloric acid. The paper shall be extracted with acid, the solution and washings being added to the main solution. The aluminum and iron shall then be reprecipitated at boiling heat by ammonium hydroxide and bromine water in a volume of about 100 c. c., and the second precipitate shall be collected and washed on the filter used in the first instance if thisis stillintact. To the combined filtrates from the hydroxides of iron and alumi- SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. on num, reduced in volume if need be, 1 c. c. of ammonium hydroxide shall be added, the solution brought to boiling, 25 c. c. of a saturated solution of boiling ammonium oxalate added, and the boiling continued until the precipitated calcium oxalate has assumed a well-defined granularform. The precipitate after one hour shall be filtered and washed, then with the filter shall be placed wet in a platinum crucible, and the paper burned off over a small flame of a Bunsen burner; after ignition it shall be acidified with hydrochloric acid, concentrated on the steam bath to about 150 ec. c., and made slightly alkaline with ammonium hydroxide, boiled and filtered (to remove a little aluminum and iron and perhaps calcium). When cool, 10 c. c. of saturated solution of sodium-ammonium-hydrogen phosphate shall be added with constant stirring. When the crystallin ammonium-magnesium orthophosphate has formed, ammonia shall be added in moderate excess. The solution shall be set aside for several hours in a cool place, filtered and washed with water containing 2.5 per cent of NH,. The precipitate shall be dissolved in asmall quantity of hot hydrochloric acid, the solution diluted to about 100 c. c., 1 c. c. of asaturated solution of sodium-ammo- nium-hydrogen phospate added, and ammonia drop by drop, with constant stirring, until the precipitate is again formed as described and the ammonia is in moderate excess. The precipitate shall then be allowed to stand about two hours, filtered and washed as before. The paper and contents shall be placed in a weighed platinum crucible, the paper slowly charred, and the resulting carbon carefully burned off. The precipitate shall then be ignited to constant weight over a Meker burner, or a blast not strong enough to soften or melt the pyrophosphate. The weight of magnesium pyrophosphate obtained multiplied by 72.5 gives the percentage of magnesia. The precipitate so obtained always contains some calcium and usually small quantities of iron, aluminum, and manganese as phosphates. (27) A permissible variation of 0.4 will be allowed, and all results in excess of the specified limit but within this permissible variation shall be reported as 5 per cent. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY. (28) The determination of specific gravity shall be made with a standardized Le Chatelier apparatus which conforms to the requirements illustrated in figure 7. This apparatus is standardized by the United States Bureau of Standards. Kerosene free from water, or benzine not lighter than 62° Baume, shall be used in making this determination. (29) The flask shall be filled with either of these liquids to a point on the stem between zero and 1 c. c., and 64 grams of cement, of the same temperature as the liquid, shall be slowly introduced, taking care that the cement does not adhere to the inside of the flask above thé liquid and to free the cement from air by rolling the flask in an inclined position. After all the cement is introduced, the level of the liquid will rise to some division of the graduated neck, the difference between readings is the volume displaced by 64 grams of the cement. The specific gravity shall then be obtained from the formula Weight of cement (g.) Specific eal —aplaeed volume (c. c.) (30) The flask during the operation shall be kept immersed in water in order to avoid variations in the temperature of the liquid in the flask, which shall not exceed 0.5° C. The results of repeated tests should agree within 0.01. (831) The determination of specific gravity shall be made on the cement as received. If it falls below 3.10, a second determination shall be made after igniting the sample as described in section 20, 22. BULLETIN 9, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DETERMINATION OF FINENESS. (32) Wire cloth for standard sieves for cement shall be woven (not twilled) from brass, bronze, or other suitable wire and mounted without distortion on frames not less than 14 inches below the top of the frame. The sieve frames shall be circular, approximately 8 inches in diameter, and may be provided with a pan and cover. (33) A standard No. 200 sieve is one having nominally a 0.0029-inch opening and 200 wires per inch standardized by the United States Bureau of Standards and conforming to the following requirements: The No. 200 sieve should have 200 wires per inch, and the number of wires in any whole inch shall not be outside the limits of 192 to 208. No opening between adja- cent parallel wires shall be more than 0.0050 inch in width. The diameter of the wire should be 0.0021 inch, and the average diameter shall not be outside the limits 0.0019 to 0.0023 inch. The value of the sieve as determined by sieving tests made in conformity with the standard specification for these tests on a standardized cement which gives a residue of 25 to 20 per cent on the No. 200 sieve, or on other similar graded material, shall not show a variation of more than 1.5 per cent above or below the standards maintained at the Bureau of Standards. (34) The test shall be made with 50 grams of cement. The sieve shall be thor- oughly clean and dry. The cement shall be placed on the No. 200 sieve, with pan and cover attached, if desired, and shall be held in one hand in a slightly inclined position, so that the sample will be well distributed over the sieve, at the same time gently striking the side about 150 times per minute against the palm of the other hand on the upstroke. The sieve shall be turned every 25 strokes about one-sixth of a revolution in the same direction. The operation shall continue until not more than 0.05 gram passes through in one minute of continuous sieving. The fineness shall be determined from the weight of the residue on the sieve expressed as a per- centage of the weight of the original sample. (35) Mechanical sieving devices may be used, but the cement shall not be rejected if it meets the fineness requirement when tested by the hand method described in paragraph 34. (36) A permissible variation of 1 will be allowed, and all results in excess of the specified limit but within this permissible variation shall be reported as 22 per cent.® MIXING CEMENT PASTES AND MORTARS. (37) The quantity of dry material to be mixed at one time shall not exceed 1,000 grams nor be less than 500 grams. The proportions of cement or cement and sand shall be stated by weight in grams of the dry materials; the quantity of water shall be expressed in cubic centimeters (1 c. c. of water=1 gram). The dry materials shall be weighed, placed upon a nonabsorbent surface, thoroughly mixed dry if sand is used, and a crater formed in the center, into which the proper percentage of clean water shall be poured; the material on the outer edge shall be turned into the crater by the aid of a trowel. After an interval of one-half minute for the absorption of the water the operation shall be completed by continuous, vigorous mixing, squeezing and kneading with the hands for at least one minute. During the operation of mixing, the hands should be protected by rubber gloves. (38) The temperature of the room and the mixing water shall be maintained as nearly as practicable at 21° C. (70° F.). NORMAL CONSISTENCY. (39) The Vicat apparatus consists of a frame A (fig. 10) bearing a movable rod, B, weighing 300 grams, one end, C, being 1 cm. in diameter for a distance of 6 cm., the other having a removable needle, D, 1 mm. in diameter, 6 cm. long. The rod is 5 Article 36 is to be withdrawn from these specifications, effective Jan. 1 1921. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 23 reversible, and can be held in any desired position by a screw, E, and has midway between the ends a mark, IF’, which moves under a scale (graduated to millimeters) attached to the frame A. The paste is held in a conical, hard-rubber ring, G, 7 cm. in diameter at the base, 4 cm. high, resting on a glass plate, H, about 10 cm. square. (40) In making the determination, 500 grams of cement, with a measured quantity of water, shall be kneaded into a paste, as described in section 37, and quickly formed into a ball with the hands, completing the operation by tossing it six times from one hand to the other, maintained about 6 inches apart; the ball resting in the palm of one hand shall be pressed into the larger end of the rubber ring held in the other hand, completely filling the ring with paste; the excess at the larger end shall then be re- moved by a single movement of the palm of the hand; the ring shall then be placed Fic. 10.—Vicat apparatus. on its larger end on a glass plate and the excess paste at the smaller end sliced off at the top of the ring by a single oblique stroke of a trowel held at a slight angle with the top of the ring. During these operations care shall be taken not to compress the paste. The paste confined in the ring, resting on the plate, shall be placed under the rod, the larger end of which shall be brought in contact with the surface of the paste; the scale shall be then read, and the rod quickly released. The paste shall be of normal consistency when the rod settles to a point 10 mm. below the original surface in one-half minute after being released. The apparatus shall be free from all vibra- tions during the test. Trial pastes shall be made with varying percentages of water until the normal consistency is obtained. The amount of water required shall be expressed in percentage by weight of the dry cement. 24 BULLETIN 9, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (41) The consistency of standard mortar shall depend on the amount of water required to produce a paste of normal consistency from the same sample of cement. Having determined the normal consistency of the sample, the consistency of standard mortar made from the same sample shall be as indicated in the following table, the values being in percentage of the combined dry weights of the cement and standard sand. Percentage of water for standard mortars. For 1 to Forito For1to For1to For 3 mor- For 3 mor- For 3 mor- For 3 mor- neat tars of |} neat tars of neat tars of neat tars of ce- stand- ce- stand- ce- stand- ce- stand- ment ard Ot-|| ment ard Ot- || ment ara Ot- || ment ard Ot- paste tawa || paste tawa paste tawa paste tawa sand sand sand. sand | Se ae eae oe eh ONS HODES Se eae Je) Ne 10:'0"||624s:— Soe ae 10 Oj) ESE Sk S SAY Be 11.0 19 aA en re OSTA 22asea ene ober aes 10. 2205-4 3 ee oe LU || 2 See eS ee ee De 2 DV ta has Se Pom a ere [78 aes eee Sse TORSE| 26: Fee ee eee 1 IE pede Uo ok Bs bane eS DETERMINATION OF SOUNDNESS. (42) A steam apparatus, which can be maintained at a temperature between 98° and 100° C., or one similar to that shown in figure 11, is recommended. The capacity of this apparatus may be increased by using a rack for holding the pats in a vertical or inclined position. (43) A pat from cement paste of normal consistency about 3 inches in diameter, one-half inch thick at the center, and tapering to a thin edge, shall be made on clean glass plates about 4 inches square, and stored in moist air for 24 hours. In molding the pat, the cement paste shall first be flattened on the glass and the pat then formed by drawing the trowel from the outer edge toward the center. (44) The pat shall then be placed in an atmosphere of steam at a temperature between 98° and 100° C. upon a suitable support 1 inch above boiling water for 5 hours. (45) Should the pat leave the plate, distortion may be detected best with a straight- edge applied to the surface which was in contact with the plate. DETERMINATION OF TIME OF SETTING. (46) The following are alternate methods, either of which may be used as ordered: (47) The time of setting shall be determined with the Vicat apparatus described in paragraph 39 (see fig. 10). (48) A paste of normal consistency shall be molded in the hard-rubber ring G as described in paragraph 40, and placed under the rod B, the smaller end of which shall then be carefully brought in contact with the surface of the paste, and the rod quickly released. The initial set shall be said to have occurred when the needle ceases to pass a point 5 mm. above the glass plate in one-half minute after being re. leased; and the final set when the needle does not sink visibly into the paste. The test pieces shall be kept in moist air during the test. This may be accomplished by placing them on a rack over water contained in a pan and covered by a damp cloth, kept from contact with them by means of a wire screen; or they may be stored in a moist closet. Care shall be taken to keep the needle clean, as the collection of cement on the sides of the needle retards the penetration, while cement on the point may increase the penetration. The time of setting is affected not only by the percentage and temperature of the water used and the amount of kneading the paste receives, but by the temperature and humidity of the air, and its determination is therefore only approximate. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 25 (49) The time of setting shall be determined by the Gillmore needles. The Gill- more needles should preferably be mounted as shown in figure 12 (b). (50) The time of setting shall be determined as follows: A pat of neat cement paste with about a 3-inch diameter and one-half inch thick, with a flat top, mixed to a Ad jae Bottle ye of g ff Tron Wire Galvanized fron Wire, Size of Mes, yoe for onnection 10 Constant-Level alvaruzed mm Freceé 2 G BLU ig a ft Lhe B peer Cc pped where possible, _persg.tt, tinned inside, Hard Solder only to be used. - Top Edge turned on Shelf to be made of Tron Wire formed on All Searms to bela, Apparatus to be made of Sheet Copper weighing LLoz + 2 Steam Vents ----- = of Cover. Plan. Top VacKiicooee st 30 a" eae Fia. 11.—Apparatus for making soundness test of cement. Bottom Plan. Elevations Bey See Ri £93) ee eM) | Tit a 4 i. ‘ as |” bye Q jo yzkit--2 = § es ~ aT) -+- ao S oy Es s83 S Sa 29 29 QY 2/G)2|4-P*, ¥I07 Wauly She normal consistency, shall be kept in moist air at a temperature maintained as nearly as practicable at 21° C. (70° F.). The cement shall be considered to have acquired its initial set when the pat will bear, without appreciable indentation, the Gillmore needle one-twelfth inch in diameter, loaded to weigh one-fourth pound. The final 26 BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. set has been acquired when the pat will bear without appreciable indentation, the Gillmore needle one twenty-fourth inch in diameter, loaded to weigh 1 pound. In making the test, the needles shall be held in a vertical position, and applied lightly to the surface of the pat. TENSION TESTS. (51) The form of test piece shown in figure 13 shall be used. The molds shall be made of noncorroding metal and have sufficient material in the sides to prevent spreading during molding. Gang molds when used shall be of the type shown in figure 14. Molds shall be wiped with an oily cloth before using. ——__~_, (a) Pot with top surface flattened for determining time ofsetting by Gillmore method. ax Y, 7 Y, Y, Vdd, (b) Gillmore needles. Fig. 12. (52) The sand to be used shall be natural sand from Ottawa, Ill., screened to pass a No. 20 sieve and retained on a No. 30 sieve. This sand may be obtained at a cost of 2 cents per pound, f. o. b. cars, Ottawa, Ill. (53) This sand, having passed the No. 20 sieve, shall be considered standard when not more than 5 grams pass the No. 30 sieve after one minute continuous sieving of a 500-gram, sample. (54) The sieves shall conform to the following specifications: The No. 20 sieve shall have between 19.5 and 20.5 wires per whole inch of the warp wires and between 19 and 21 wires per whole inch of the shoot wires. The diameter of the wire should be 0.0165 inch and the average diameter shall not be outside the limits of 0.0160 and 0.0170 inch. The No. 30 sieve shall have between 29.5 and 30.5 wires per whole inch of the warp wires and between 28.5 and 31.5 wires per whole inch of the shoot wires. The diameter of the wire should be 0.0110 inch, and the average diameter shall not be outside the limits 0.0105 to 0.0115 inch. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. Pl (55) Immediately after mixing, the standard mortar shall be placed in the molds, pressed firmly with the thumbs, and smoothed off with a trowel without ramming. Additional mortar shall be heaped above the mold, and smoothed off with a trowel; the trowel shall be drawn over the mold in such a manner as to exert a moderate pressure on the material. The mold shall then be turned over and the operation of heaping, thumbing, and smoothing off repeated. Fic. 13.—Form of briquette as recommended by the committee on uniform tests of cement of the American Society of Civil Engineers. (56) Tests shall be made withany standard machine. The briquettes shall be tested as soon as they are removed from the water. ‘The bearing surfaces of the clips and briquettes shall be free from grains of sand or dirt. The briquettes shall be carefully centered and the load applied continuously at the rate of 600 pounds per minute. (57) Testing machines should be frequently calibrated in order to determine their accuracy. (58) Briquettes that are manifestly faulty, or which give strengths differing more than 15 per cent from the average value ofall tests pieces made from the same sample Fig. 14.—Gang mold. and broken at the same period, shall not be considered in determining the tensile strength. STORAGE OF TEST PIECES. (59) The moist closet may consist of a soapstone, slate, or concrete box, or a wooden box lined with metal. Ifa wooden box is used, the interior should be covered with 98 BULLETIN 9, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. felt or broad wicking kept wet. The bottom of the moist closet should be covered with water. The interior of the closet should be provided with nonabsorbent shelves, on which to place the test pieces, the shelves being so arranged that they may be with- drawn readily. (60) Unless otherwise specified all test pieces, immediately after molding, shall be placed in the moist closet for from 20 to 24 hours. (61) The briquettes shall be kept in molds on glass plates in the moist closet for at least 20 hours. After 24 hours in moist air the briquettes shall be immersed in clean water in storage tanks of noncorroding material. (62) The air and water shall be maintained as nearly as practicable at a temperature - of 21°. C.'C70° Be) 18. TESTS FOR PAVING BRICK. (A. 8. T. M. Standard Method, Seria] Designation: C 7-15.) The quality and acceptability of paving brick, in the absence of other special tests mutually agreed upon in advance by the seller on the one side and the buyer on the other side, shall be determined by the following procedure: I. The rattler test for the purpose of determining whether the material as a whole possesses to a sufficient degree strength, toughness, and hardness. II. Visual inspection for the purpose of determing whether the physical properties of the material as to dimensions, accuracy, and uniformity of shape and color are in general satisfactory, and for the purpose of culling out from the shipment individually imperfect or unsatisfactory brick. The acceptance of paving brick as satisfactorily meeting one of these tests shall not be construed as in any way waiving the other. I. THE RATTLER TEST. y THE SELECTION OF SAMPLES FOR TESTS, (1) Place of sampling.—In general, where a shipment of bricks involving a quantity of less than 100,000 is under consideration, the sampling shall be done at the factory prior to shipment. Bricks accepted as the result of test prior to shipment shall not be liable to subsequent rejection as a whole, but are subject to such culling as is provided for under Part II, visual inspection. (2) Method of selecting samples.—In general, the buyer shall select his own samples from the material which the seller proposes to furnish. The seller shall have the right to be present during the selection ofasample. The sampler shall endeavor, to the best of his judgment, to select brick representing the average of the lot. No samples shall include bricks which would be rejected by visual inspection, as provided in Part II, except that where controversy arises whole tests may be selected to determine the admissibility of certain types or portions of the lot having a characteristic appearance in common. Jn cases where prolonged controversy occurs between buyer and seller and samples selected by each party fail to show reasonable concurrence, then both parties shall unite in the selection of a disinterested person to select the samples, and both parties shall be bound by the results of samples thus selected. (3) Number of samples per lot.—In general, one sample of 10 bricks shall be tested for every 10,000 bricks contained in the lot under consideration; but where the total quantity exceeds 100,000 the number of samples tested may be fewer than 1 per 10,000 provided that they shall be distributed as uniformly as practicable over the entire lot. (4) Shipment of samples.—Samples which must be transported long distances by freight or express shall be carefully put up in packages holding not more than 12 bricks each. When more than 6 bricks are shipped in one package, it shall be so arranged as to carry two parallel rows of bricks side by side and these rows shall be SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 29 separated by a partition. In event of some of the bricks being cracked or broken in transit, the sample shall be disqualified if there are not remaining 10 sound undam- aged bricks. (5) Storage and care of samples.—Samples shall be carefully handled to avoid breakage or injury. They shall be kept in the dry so far as practicable. If wet when received, or known to have been immersed or subjected to recent prolonged wetting, they shall be dried for at least six hours in a temperature of 100° F. before testing. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE RATTLER. (6) General design.—The machine shall be of good mechanical construction, self- contained, and shall conform to the following details of material and dimensions, and shall consist of barrel, frame, and driving mechanism as herein described. (7) The barrel.—The barrel of the machine shall be made up of the heads, head liners, staves, and stave liners. The heads may be cast in one piece with the trunnions, which shall be 24 inches in diameter, and shall have a bearing 6 inches in length, or they may be cast with heavy hubs, which shall be bored out for 24-inch shafts, and shall be key-seated for two keys, each one-half by three-eighths inch and spaced 90° apart. The shaft shall be a snug fit, and when keyed shall be entirely free of lost motion. The distance from the end of the shaft or trunnion to the inside face of the head shall be 152 inches in the head for the driving end of the rattler, and 112 inches for the other head, and the distance from the face of the hubs to the inside face of the heads shall be 5} inches. The headsshall be not less than three-fourths inch thick, nor more than seven-eighths inch thick. In outline, each head shall be a regular 14-sided polygon inscribed in a circle 282 inches in diameter. Each head shall be provided with flanges not less than three-fourths of an inch thick and extending outward 24 inches from the inside face of the head to afford a means of fastening the staves. The suriace of the flanges of the head shall be smooth and give a true and uniform bearing for the staves. To secure the desired true and uniform bearing the surfaces of the flanges of the head shall be either ground or machined. The flanges shall be slotted on the outer edge so as to provide for two three-fourths-inch bolts at each end of each stave, said slots to be thirteen-sixteenths of an inch wide and 2? inches center to center. Each slot shall be provided with a recess for the bolt head, which shall act to prevent the turn- ing of the same. Between each two slots there shall be a brace three-eighths of an inch thick, extending down the outward side of the head not less than 2 inches. There shall be for each head a cast-iron head liner 1 inch in thickness and con- forming to the outline of the head, but inscribed in a circle 284 inches in diameter. This head liner shall be fastened to the head by seven five-eighths-inch cap screws, through the head from the outside. Whenever these head liners become worn down one-half inch below their initial surface level at any point of their surface, they shall be replaced with new ones. The metal of these head liners shall be hard machinery iron and should contain not less than 1 per cent of combined carbon. The staves shall be made of 6-inch medium-steel structural channels 274 inches long and weighing 15.5 pounds per linear foot. The staves shall have two holes thirteen-sixteenths inch in diameter, drilled in each end, the center line of the holes being 1 inch from the end and 12 inches either way from the longitudinal center line. The spaces between the staves shall be as uniform as practicable, but shall not exceed five-sixteenths of an inch. The interior or flat side of each stave shall be protected by a liner three-eighths of an inch thick by 53 inches wide by 19% inches long. The liner shall consist of medium- steel plate, and shall be riveted to the channel by three one-half-inch rivets, one of 30 BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which shall be on the center line both ways and the other two on the longitudinal center line and spaced 7 inches from the center each way. The rivet holes shall be countersunk on the face of the liner and the rivets shall be driven hot and chipped off flush with the surface of the liners. These liners shall be inspected from time to time, and if found loose shall be at once reriveted. Any test at the expiration of which a stave liner is found detached from the stave or seriously out of position shall be rejected. When a new rattler, in which a com- plete set of new staves is furnished, is first put into operation, it shall be charged with 400 pounds of shot of the same sizes and in the same proportions as provided in sec- tion 9, and shall then be run for 18,000 revolutions at the usual prescribed rate of speed. The shot shall then be removed and a standard shot charge inserted, after which the rattler may be charged with brick for a test. No stave shall be used for more than 70 consecutive tests without renewing its lining. Two of the 14 staves shall be removed and relined at a time in such a way that of each pair, one falls upon one side of the barrel and the other upon the opposite side, and also so that the staves changed shall be consecutive but not contiguous, for example, 1 and 8, 3 and 10, 5 and 12, 7 and 14, 2 and 9, 4 and 11, 6 and 13, etc., to the end that the interior of the barrel at all times shall present the same relative condition of repair. The changes in the staves should be made at the time when the shot charges are being corrected, and the record must show the number of charges run since the last pair of new lined staves was placed in position. The staves when bolted to the heads shall form a barrel 20 inches long, inside meas- urement, between headliners. The liners of the staves shall be so placed as to drop between the headliners. The staves shall be bolted tightly to the heads by four three- fourths inch bolts, and each bolt shall be provided with a lock nut, and shall be in- spected at not less frequent intervals than every fifth test and all nuts kept tight. A record shall be made after each inspection showing in what condition the bolts were found. (8) The frame and driving mechanism.—The barrel shall be mounted on a cast-iron frame of sufficient strength and rigidity to support it without undue vibration. Itshall rest on a rigid foundation with or without the interposition of wooden plates, and shall be fastened thereto by bolts at not less than four points. It shall be driven by gearing whose ratio of driver to driven is not less than one to four. The countershaft upon which the driving pinion is mounted shall not be less than 143 inches in diameter, with bearing not less than 6 inches in length. Ifa belt drive is used the pulley shall not be less than 18 inches in diameter and 63 inches in face. A belt at least 6 inches in width properly adjusted, to avoid unnecessary slipping, should be used. (9) The abrasive charge.—The abrasive charge shall consist of cast-iron spheres of two sizes. When new, the larger spheres shall be 3.75 inches in diameter and shall weigh approximately 7.5 pounds (3.40 kg.) each. Ten spheres of this size shall be used. These shall be weighed separately after each 10 tests, and if the weight of any large sphere falls to 7 pounds (3.175 kg.) it shall be discarded and a new one substituted; provided, however, that all of the large spheres shall not be discarded and substi- tuted by new ones at any single time, and that so far as possible the large spheres shall compose a graduated series in various stages of wear. When new, the smaller spheres shall be 1.875 inches in diameter and shall weigh approximately 0.95 pound (0.43 kg.) each. In general, the number of small spheres in a charge shall not fall below 245 nor exceed 260. The collective weight of the large and small spheres shall be as nearly 300 pounds as possible. No small sphere shall be retained in use after it has been worn down so that it will pass a circular hole eS ee SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 31 1.75 inches in diameter, drilled in an iron plate one-fourth inch in thickness, or weigh less than 0.75 pound (0.34 kg.). Further, the small spheres shall be tested, by pass- ing them over the above plate or by weighing, after every 10 tests, and any which _pass through or fall below the specified weight, shall be replaced by new spheres; provided, further, that all of the small spheres shall not be rejected and replaced by new ones at any one time, and that so far as possible the small spheres shall com- pose a graduated series in various stages of wear. At any time that any sphere is found to be broken or defective, it shall at once be replaced. The iron composing these spheres shall have a chemical composition within the following limits: Combined? carbote M5001 8. Yash Dea D2 Not under 2.50 per cent. Gerpintreccar bom 4uut 225.88 Fei oles hoe es Not over 0.25 per cent. SHRM at ONS ALIRES PORES Oe ESS Bey TSO GUE Not over 1.00 per cent. Ere CK OM ai es eae oe ES Not over 0.50 per cent. AOS PMO EUSS ere AERIS Oo Le heed Not over 0.25 per cent. MUR PIB eer ners cys oe ie al SA! eS yh) Be irae Not over 0.08 per cent. For each new batch of spheres used, the chemical analysis shall be furnished by the maker or be obtained by the user, before introducing into the charge, and unless the analysis meets the above specifications, the batch of spheres shall be rejected. THE OPERATION OF THE TEST. (10) The brick charge.-—The number of bricks per test shall be 10 for all bricks of so-called ‘‘block-size,’’ whose dimensions fall between 8 and 9 inches in length, 3 and 3? inches in breadth, and 3? and 41 inches in thickness. No brick should be selected as part of a regular test that would be rejected by any other requirements of the specifications under which the purchase is made. (11) Speed and duration of revolution.—The rattler shall be rotated at a uniforn rate of not less than 29.5 nor more than 30.5 revolutions per minute, and 1,800 revolu- tions shall constitute the test. A counting machine shall be attached to the rattler for counting the revolutions. A margin not to exceed 10 revolutions will be allowed for stopping. Only one start and stop per test is generally acceptable. If, from accidental causes, the rattler is stopped and started more than once during a test, and the loss exceeds the maximum permissible under the specifications, the test shall be disqualified and another made. (12) The scales.—The scales must have a capacity of not less than 300 pounds, and must be sensitive to 0.5 ounce, and must be tested by a standard test weight at intervals of not less than every 10 tests. (13) The resulis.—The loss shall be calculated in percentage of the initial weight of the brick composing the charge. In weighing the rattled brick, any piece weighing less than 1 pound shall be rejected. (14) The records.—A complete and continuous record shall be kept of the operation of all rattlers working under these specifications. This record shall contain the following data concerning each test made: . The name of the person, firm, or corporation furnishing each sample tested. . The name of the maker of the brick represented in each sample tested. . The name of the street, or contract, which the sample represented. . The brands or marks upon the bricks by which they were identified. . The number of bricks furnished. . The date on which they were tested. Dor Whe 6 Where brick of larger or smaller sizes than the dimensions given above for blocks are to be tested, the same number of bricks per charge should be used, but allowance for the difference in size should be made in Setting the limits for average and maximum rattler loss, > os ee 32 BULLETIN 49, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ; . The drying treatment given before testing, if any. . The length, breadth, and thickness of the bricks. The collective weight of the ten large spherical shot used in making the test at the time of their last standardization. 10. The number and collective weight of the small spherical shot used in making the test at the time of their last standardization. 11. The total weight of the shot charge after its last standardization. 12. Certificate of the operator that he examined the condition of the machine as to staves, liners, and any other parts affecting the barrel, and found them right at the beginning of the test. 13. Certificate of the operator of the number of charges tested since the last standardization of shot charge and last renewals of stave liners. 14. The time of the beginning and ending of each test, and the number of revolutions made by the barrel during the test, as shown by the indicator. 15. Certificate of the operator as to number of stops and starts made in each test. 16. The initial collective weight of the ten bricks composing the charge and their collective weight after rattling. a The loss calculated in percentage of the initial weight; and the calculation itsel 18. The number of broken bricks and remarks upon the portions which were : included in the final weighing. 19. General remarks upon the test and any irregularities occurring in its | execution. : 20. The date upon which the test was made. : 21. The location of the rattler, upon which the test was made, and name of the owner. : 22. The certificate of the operator that the test was made under the specifica- : tions of the American Society for Testing Materials and that the record is a true | record. 23. The signature of the operator or person responsible for the test. 24. The serial number of the test. oan >. In the event of more than one copy of the record of any test being required, they | may be furnished on separate sheets and marked duplicates, but the original record . shall always be preserved intact and complete. : For the convenience of the public, the accompanying blank form, which provides . space for the necessary data, is furnished and its use recommended. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 33 Serial No. ....-. Report or STANDARD RatrueR Test or Pavine Brick, Identification data. Meme MbOUrMIshin& SAM Pl)... 2,255 2 - eeis ge eye Sc. = wes epgysigeei ss one) ee Namerotire finm manulactummeysample.-2.25..---.c2-----:s2 a2 see eee sore es seeee Pirecnorjapewhich sample represeats. 0) Clr... Se ee ne Brands or marks on the brick Quantity furnished....................... Drying treatment..................---- Oa ecaniacl ae eee eee ID ANH) HOSE See Ses De ee eae Wem Gutiet eas ss scic sc cee S-- VB eCSr2i6 bil viper es tes te Rl lara ieee MPN CKMESS 025-5 Standardization data. Rib eeeee Condition umber not any i att of lock | Condition | 224 Posi: | repairs Weight of charge (after standardization). StS On oretaves tion of affecting staves. _~°* | fresh Stave | the condi- liners. tion of the barrel). UG) IRFE@ SUIGIGS 5 Saad csqoo aces decane TaE Boos an CEB nesa| EeSnoSOBOsEe) ScaeonOaneas |Gsnastesrtes baerAdeeantce STEUESMCROS Mees Seems = velo= cise aes ciceccesccssjscscees Number of charges tested since last inspection Running data. Time readings. Z a Revolution) Running counter notes, stops, Hours. | Minutes. | Seconds. | 7¢@4ings. etc. Beginning of test Final reading Weights and calculations. Percentage loss (the calculation must appear). tna Enero at ole! ODnICKS*) sat. Sasaec.< es cetoestna ls aro sectoe cle new eae es. SIAM AL Seek kk I SB SSE Ines Vaile, ONSET Gees HeSee saac aer Pano eS Seen OSUSE a> SRC ATSB ens Hacc EEO ease 5 ame Loss of weight Number of broken bricks and remarks on same I certify that the foregoing test was made under the specifications of the American Society for Testing Materials, and is a true record. (Signature of tester) 29465°—21—Bull. 949: 3 34 BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A CCEPTANCE AND REJECTION OF MATERIAZ. (15) Basis of acceptance or rejection.—Paving bricks shall not be judged for accept- ance or rejection by the results of individual tests, but by the average of no less than five tests. Where a lot of bricks fail to meet the required average, it shall be optional with the buyer whether the bricks shall be definitely rejected or whether they may be regraded and a portion selected for further test as provided in section 16. (16) Range of fluctwation.—Some fluctuation in the results of the rattler test, both on account of variations in the bricks and in the machine used in testing, are unavoid- able, and a reasonable allowance for such fluctuations should be made wherever the standard may be fixed. In any lot of paving brick, if the loss on a test computed upon its initial weight exceeds the standard loss by more than 2 per cent, then the portion of the lot repre- sented by that test shall be at once resampled and three more tests executed upon it, and if any of these three tests shall again exceed by more than 2 per cent the required standard, then that portion of the lot shall be rejected. li in any lot of brick two or more tests exceed the permissible maximum, then the buyer may at his option reject the entire lot, even though the average of all the tests executed may be within the required limits. (17) Fixing of standards.—The percentage of loss which may be taken as the stand- ard will not be fixed in these specifications, and shall remain within the province of the contracting parties. For the information of the public, the following scale of average losses is given, representing what may be expected of tests executed under the foregoing specifications: Maxi- mum per- missible loss. General average loss. Per cent. | Per cent. For bricks suitablefor heavy trafic... .-2----ss20- een 2 eee ee eee ee eee 22 24 For bricks suitable for medium traffic... ....2..22+5. 2222-5 ese oe eee eee eee 24 26 For.bricks suitableforlight traiic: =<). 2ecd- += 2s eee tee eee eee ee eee 26 28 Which of these grades should be specified in any given district and for any given purpose is a matter wholly within the province of the buyer and should be governed. by the kind and amount of traffic to be carried and the quality of paving bricks available. (18) Culling and retesting—Where, under sections 15 and 16, a lot or portion of a lot of bricks is rejected, either by reason of failure to show a low enough average test or because of tests above the permissible maximum, the buyer may at his option permit the selier to regrade the rejected brick, separating out that portion which he considers at fault and retaining that which he considers good. When the regrading is complete, the good portion shall be then resampled and retested, under the original conditions, and if it fails again either in average or in permissible maximum, then the buyer may definitely and finally reject the entire lot or portion under test. (19) Payment of cost of testing.—Unless otherwise specified, the cost of testing the material as delivered or prepared for delivery, up to the prescribed number of tests for valid acceptance or rejection of the lot, shall be paid bythe buyer. (Seealso section 23.) The cost of testing extra samples made necessary by the failure of the whole lot or any portion of it shall be paid by the seller, whether the material is finally accepted or rejected. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 35 Il. VISUAL INSPECTION. It shall be the right of the buyer to inspect the bricks, subsequent to their delivery at the place of use and prior to or during laying, to cull out and reject upon the follow- ing grounds: (20) All bricks which are broken in two or chipped in such a manner that neither wearing surface remains substantially intact, or that the lower or bearing surface is reduced in area by more than one-fifth. Where bricks are rejected upon this ground, it shall be the duty of the purchaser to use them so far as practicable in obtaining the necessary half bricks for breaking courses and making closures, instead of breaking otherwise whole and sound bricks for this purpose. (21) All bricks which are cracked in such a degree as to produce defects such as are defined in section 20, either from shocks received in shipment and handling or from _ defective conditions ot manufacture, especially in drying, burning, or cooling, unless such cracks are plainly superficial and not such as to perceptibly weaken the resistance of the brick to its conditions of use. (22) All bricks which are so offsize, or so misshapen, bent, twisted, or kiln marked, that they will not form a proper surface as defined by the paving specifications, or align with other bricks without making joints other than those permitted in the paving specifications. (23) All bricks which are obviously too soft and too poorly vitrified to endure street wear. When any disagreement arises between buyer and seller under this item, it shall be the right of the buyer to make two or more rattler tests of the brick which he wishes to exclude, as provided in section 2, and if in either or both tests the bricks fall beyond the maximum rattler losses permitted under the specifications, then all bricks having the same objectionable appearance may be excluded, and the seller shall pay for the cost of the test. Butif under such procedure the bricks which have been tested as objectionable shall pass the rattler test, both tests falling within the permitted maximum, then the buyer can not exclude the class of material represented by this test and he shall pay for the cost of the test. (24) All bricks which differ so markedly in, color from the type or average of the shipment as to make the resultant pavement checkered or disagreeably mottled in appearance. ‘This section shall not be held to apply :o the normal variations in color which may occur in the product of one plant among bricks, which will meet the rattler test as referred to in sections 15, 16, and 17, but shall apply only to differences of color which imply differences in the material of which the bricks are made, or extreme differences in manufacture. Absorption.'—The absorption test shall be made on five rattled brick, which shall be immersed in water for 48 hours. The absorption shall be expressed in per cent of the weight of the brick before immersion. 7 Not a part of the: A. S. T. M. standard method. TESTS FOR BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS. 19. DETERMINATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS. A. HYDROMETER METHOD (USED FOR THIN FLUID BITUMENS). The specific gravity of thin fluid bituminous road materials is determined at 25° C. as compared with water at that temperature. This may be done with the above- mentioned apparatus by first pouring a sufficient quantity of the material into the tin cup, which is then placed in the large dish containing cold or warm water as occasion may require. The material in the cup should be stirred with the thermometer until Fig. 15.—Hydrometer method of determining specific gravity. it is brought to a temperature of 25° C., after which it should be immediately poured into the hydrometer jar and its gravity determined by means of the proper hydrom- eter. In case the hydrometer sinks slowly, owing to the viscosity of the material, it should be given sufficient time to come to a definite resting point, and this point should be checked by raising the hydrometer and allowing it to sink a second time. The hydrometer should never be pushed below the point at which it naturally comes to rest until the last reading has been made. It may then be pushed below the read- ing for a distance of three or four of the small divisions on the scale, whereupon it should immediately begin to rise. If it fails to do so, the material is too viscous for the hydrometer method, and the pycnometer method should be employed. The direct specific gravity reading obtained by the foregoing method is based upon water at 15.5° C. taken as unity. For all practical purposes this reading may be corrected to water at 25° C., considered as unity, by multiplying it by 1.002. Thus: Specific gravity 25° C./25° C.=specific gravity 25° C./15.5° C. 1.002. B. PYCNOMETER METHOD (USED FOR VISCOUS FLUID AND SEMISOLID BITUMENS AND EMULSIONS). The inconvenience and difficulty of employing the ordinary narrow neck pyc- nometer when determining the specific gravity of viscous fluid and semisolid bitumens has led to the use of a special form shown in figure 16. 36 U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE BULLETIN NO. 949. Standard and Tentative Methods of Sampling and Testing Highway Materials. Errata. P. 57. Change the formula for specific gravity to read Specific gravity 25°C. /25°C .=______—__ (b-a)-(d-c) SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 37 This pycnometer consists of a conical or Erlenmeyer-shaped flask about 4.5 cm. high, 4.0 cm. diameter at bottom, and 2.5 cm. diameter at the mouth. It is care- fully ground to receive an accurately fitting solid glass stopper with a hole about 1 mm. bore in place of the usual capillary opening. The lower surface of this stopper is made concave to allow air bubbles to escape through the bore. The depth of the cup-shaped © depression is 4.8 mm. at the center. The flask has a capacity of about 25 c. c. and weighs when empty about 25 grams. Its principal advantages are (1) that any de- sired amount of bitumen may be poured in without touching the sides above the de- sired level; (2) it is easily cleaned; (3) on account of the 1.0 mm. bore the stopper can be easily inserted when the flask is filled with a viscous oil. When working with semisolid bitumens which are too soft to be broken and handled in fragments, the following method of determining their specific gravity is employed: The clean, dry pycnometer is first weighed empty, and this weight is called a. It is then filled in the usual manner with freshly distilled _ water at 25° C., and the weight is again taken and called 6. A small amount of the bitumen should be placed in the spoon and brought to a fluid condition by the gentle application of heat, with care that no loss by evaporation occurs. When sufficiently fluid, enough is poured into the dry pycnometer, which may also be warmed, to fill it about half full without allowing the material to touch the sides of the tube above the desired level. The flask and contents are then allowed to cool to room temperature, after which the tube is carefully weighed with the stopper. This weight is called c. Distilled water, at 25° C., is then lcm. poured in until the pycnometer is full. After this the stopper is inserted, and the whole cooled to 25° C. by a 30-minute immersion in a beaker of distilled water maintained at thistemperature. All surplus moisture is then removed with a soft cloth, TZ0IN5, and the pycnometer and contents are weighed. This weight is called d. From the weights ob- tained the specific gravity of the bitumen may be readily calculated by the following formula: Specific gravity 95° C./25° Cis —— = oe Fig. 16.—Hubbard-Carmick pycnometer. (Dimensions only approximate.) Both a and 6 are constants and need he deter- mined but once. It is therefore necessary to make but two weighings for each determination after the first. Results obtained according to the method given above are accurate to within 2 units in the third decimal place, while the open-tube method is accurate to the second decimal place only. The specific gravity of fluid bitumens may be determined in the ordinary manner with this pycnometer by completely filling it with the material and dividing the weight of the bitumen thus obtained by that of the same volume of water. The pycnometer may be readily cleaned by placing it in a hot-air bath until the bitumen is sufficiently fluid to pour. As much is drained out as possible and the interior swabbed with a piece of cotton waste. It is then rinsed clean with a little carbon disulphide, and after drying is again ready for use. 38 BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. C. DISPLACEMENT METHOD (USED FOR HARD SOLID BITUMENS). For materials which.are hard enough to be broken and handled in fragments at room temperature, the following method will prove convenient. A small fragment of the bitumen (about 1 c. c.) is suspended by means of a silk thread from the hook ' on one of the pan supports, about 14 inches above the pan, and weighed. This weight is called a. It is then weighed immersed in water at 25° C., as shown in figure 17, and this weight is called 6. The specific gravity may then be calculated by means of the following formula: Specific gravity——, 20. DETERMINATION OF BITUMEN SOLUBLE IN CARBON DISULPHIDE. This test consists in dissolving the bitumen in carbon disulphide and recovering any insoluble matter by filtering the solution through an asbestos felt. The form of Gooch crucible best adapted for the determination is 4.4 em. wide at the top, tapering to 3.6 cm. at the bottom, and is 2.5 em. deep. For preparing the felt the necessary apparatus is arranged as shown in figure 18, in which a is the filtering flask, b a rubber stopper, ¢ the filter tube, and d a section Fie. 17.—Displacement method of determining specific gravity. of rubber tubing which tightly clasps the Gooch crucible, e. The asbestos is cut with scissors into pieces not exceeding 1 cm. in length, after which it is shaken up with just sufficient water to pour easily. The crucible is filled with the suspended asbestos, which is allowed to settle fora few moments. A light suction is then applied to draw off all the water and leave a firm mat of asbestos in the crucible. More of the suspended material is added, and the operation is repeated until the felt is so dense that it scarcely transmits light when held so that the bottom of the crucible is between the eye and the source of light. The felt should then be washed several times with water and drawn firmly against the bottom of the crucible by an increased suction. The crucible is removed to a drying oven for a few minutes, after which it is ignited at red heat over a Bunsen burner, cooled in a desiccator, and weighed. From 1 to 2 grams of bitumen or about 10 grams of an asphalt topping or rock asphalt is now placed in the Erlenmeyer flask, which has been previously weighed, and the accurate weight of the sample is obtained. One hundred cubic centimeters of chemi- cally pure carbon disulphide is poured into the flask in small portions, with continual agitation, until all lumps disappear and nothing adheres to the bottom. The flask is then corked and set aside for 15 minutes. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 89 After being weighed, the Gooch crucible containing the felt is set up over the dry- pressure flask, as shown in figure 18, and the solution of bitumen in carbon disulphide is decanted through the felt without suction by gradually tilting the flask, with care not to stir up any precipitate that may have settled out. At the first sign of any sediment coming out, the decantation is stopped and the filter allowed to drain. A small amount of carbon disulphide is then washed down the sides of the flask, after which the precipitate is brought upon the felt and the flask scrubbed, if neces- sary, with a feather or ‘‘policeman” to remove all adhering material. The contents of the crucible are washed with carbon disulphide, until the washings run colorless. Suction is then applied until there is practically no odor of carbon disulphide in the crucible, after which the outside of the crucible is cleaned with a cloth moistened with a small amount of the solvent. The crucible and contents are dried in the hot-air oven at 100° ©. for about 20 minutes, cooled in a desiccator, and weighed. If any appreciable amount of insoluble matter adheres to the flask, it should also be dried and weighed, and any increase over the original weight of the flask should be added to the weight of insoluble matter in the crucible. The total weight of insol- uble material may include both organic and mineral matter. The former, if present, is burned off by ignition at a red heat until no incandescent parti- cles remain, thus leaving the mineral matter or ash, which can be weighed on cooling. The difference between the total weight of material insoluble in carbon disulphide and the weight of substance taken equals the total bitumen, and the percentage weights are calculated and reported as total bitu- men, and organic and inorganic matter insoluble, on the basis of the weight of material, taken for analysis. This method is quite satisfactory for straight oil and tar products, but where certain natural asphalts are present it will be found practically impossible to retain all of the finely divided mineral matter on an asbestos felt. It is, therefore, generally more accurate to obtain the result for total mineral Matter’ na ig 2 Apaatatns Jon. determining by direct ignition of a 1-gram sample in a platinum Solin RATT. crucible or to use the result for ash obtained in the fixed carbon test. The total bitumen is then determined by deducting from 100 per cent the sum of the percentages of total mineral matter and organic matter insoluble. Tf the presence of a carbonate mineral is suspected, the percentage of mineral matter may be most accurately obtained by treating the ash from the fixed carbon determi- nation with a few drops of ammonium carbonate solution, drying at 100° C., then heating for a few minutes at a dull red heat, cooling, and weighing again. When difficulty in filtering is experienced—for instance, when Trinidad asphalt is present in any amount—a period of longer subsidence than 15 minutes is necessary, and the following method proposed by the Committee on Standard Tests for Road Materials of the American Society for Testing Materials is reeommended: From 2 to 15 grams (depending on the richness in bitumen of the substance) is weighed into a 150-cubic centimeter Erlenmeyer flask, the tare of which has been previously ascertained, and treated with 100 c. c. of carbon disulphide. The flask is then loosely corked and shaken from time to time until practically all large particles of the material have been broken up, when it is set aside and not disturbed for 48 hours. The solution is then decanted off into a similar flask that has b2en previously weighed, as much of the solvent being poured off as possible without disturbing the 40 BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. residue. The first flask is again treated with fresh carbon disulphide and shaken as before, when it is put away with the second flask and not disturbed for 48 hours. At the end of this time the contents of the two flasks are carefully decanted off upon a weighed Gooch crucible fitted with an asbestos filter, the contents of the second flask being passed through the filter first. The asbestos filter shall be made of ignited long-fiber amphibole, packed in the bottom of a Gooch crucible to the depth of not over one-eighth of an inch. After passing the contents of both flasks through the filter, the two residues are shaken with more fresh carbon disulphide and set aside for 24 hours without disturbing, or until it is seen that a good subsidation has taken place, when the solvent is again decanted off upon the filter. This washing is con- tinued until the filtrate or washings are practically colorless, The crucible and both flasks are then dried at 125° C. and weighed. The filtrate containing the bitumen is evaporated, the bituminous residue burned, and the weight of the ash thus obtained added to that of the residue in the two flasks and the crucible. The sum of these weights deducted from the weight of substance taken gives the weight of bitumen extracted. 21. DETERMINATION OF BITUMEN INSOLUBLE IN CARBON TETRA- CHLORIDE. This determination is conducted in exactly the same manner as described under ‘‘ Determination of hitumen soluble in carbon disulphide,’’ using 100 c. c. of chemically pure carbon tetrachloride as a solvent in place of carbon disulphide. The percentage of bitumen insoluble is reported upon the basis of total bitumen taken as 100, as described under ‘‘ Determination of bitumen insoluble in paraffin naphtha.’’ 22. DETERMINATION OF BITUMEN INSOLUBLE IN PARAFFIN NAPHTHA. This determination is made in the same general manner as the total bitumen determination, except that 100 c. c. of 86° to 88° B. paraffin naphtha, at least 85 per cent distilling between 35° C. and 65° C., is employed as a solvent instead of carbon disulphide. Considerable difficulty is sometimes experienced in breaking up some of the heavy semisolid bitumens; the surface of the material is attacked, but it is necessary to remove some of the insoluble matter in order to expose fresh material to the action of the solvent. It is, therefore, advisable to heat the sample after it is weighed, allowing it to cool in a thin layer around the lower part of the flask. If difficulty is still experienced in dissolving the material, a rounded glass rod will be found convenient for breaking up the undissolved particles. Not more than one- half of the total amount of naphtha required should be used until the sample is entirely broken up. The balance of the 100 c. c. is then added, and the flask is twirled a moment in order to mix the contents thoroughly, after which it is corked and set aside for 30 minutes. In making the filtration the utmost care should be exercised to avoid stirring up any of the precipitate, in order that the filter may not be clogged and that the first decanta- tion may be as complete as possible. The sides of the flask should then be quickly washed down with naphtha and, when the crucible has drained, the bulk of insoluble matter is brought upon the felt. Suction may be applied when the filtration by gravity almost ceases, but should be used sparingly, as it tends to clog the filter by packing the precipitate too tightly. The material on the felt should never be allowed to run entirely dry until the washing is completed, as shown by the colorless filtrate. When considerable insoluble matter adheres to the flask no attempt should be made to remove it completely. In such cases the adhering material is merely washed until free from soluble matter, and the flask is dried with the crucible at 100° C. Bul. 949, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE | ELECTRIC OVEN FOR VOLATILIZATION TEST. ‘€ SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. Al for about one hour, after which it is cooled and weighed. The percentage of bitumen insoluble is reported upon the basis of total bitumen taken as 100. The difference between the material insoluble in carbon disulphide and in the naphtha is the bitumen insoluble in the latter. Thus, if in a certain instance it is found that the material insoluble in carbon disulphide amounts to | per cent and that 10.9 per cent is insoluble in naphtha, the percentage of bitumen insoluble would be calculated as follows: - Bitumen insoluble in naphtha 10.9-1__9.9 Total bitumen Y100=1~ 99 =10 per cent. 23. VOLATILIZATION TEST. An oven is used that will give a uniform temperature throughout all parts where samples are placed. A gas oven of the type shown in figure 19 or an electric oven of proper design (see P1. 1) may be used. The bulb of one of the thermometers 13 immersed in a sample of some fluid nonvolatile bitumen, while the other is kept in air at the same level. The first thermometer serves to show the tempera- ture of the samples during the test, while the latter gives prompt warning of any sudden changes in tem- perature due to irregulari- ties in the heat. Before making the test the interior of the oven should show a temperature | of 163° C. as registered by the thermometer in air. A tin box 54 cm. in diameter and 34 cm. deep (American Can Co., gill type, deep pattern ointment box) is accurately weighed after carefully wiping with a towel to remove any grease or dirt. About 50 grams of the material to be tested is then placed in the box. The material may then be weighed on a rough balance, if one is at hand, after which the accurate weight, which should not vary more than 0.2 gram from the specified amount, is obtained. lt may be necessary to warm some of the material in order to handle it conveniently, after which it must be allowed to cool before determining the accurate weight. The sample should now be placed in the oven, where it isallowed to remain fora period of five hours, during which time the temperature as shown by the thermometer in bitumen should not vary at any time more than 2° C. The sample is then removed from the oven, allowed to cool, and reweighed. From the difference between this weight and the total weight before heating the percentage of loss on the amount of material taken is calculated. The general appearance of the residue should be noted, especially with regard to any changes which the material may have undergone. Some relative idea of the amount of hardening which has taken place may be obtained from the results of a float or penetration test made on the residue, as compared with the results of the same test on the original sample. It is also frequently desirable to make the specific gravity and other tests on the residue for the purpose of identifying or ascertaining the character of the base used in the preparation of cut-back products. Before any tests are made on the residue, it should be melted and thoroughly stirred while cooling. hic. 19.—New York Testing Laboratory oven. 49 BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE) Highly volatile and nonvolatile materials should not be subjected to this test at the same time in the same oven owing toa tendency on the part of the latter to absorb some of the volatile products of the former. oer 24, FLASH AND BURNING POINT f \ TESTS. The open-cup oil tester consists of a brass oil cup, a, (Fig. 20) of about 100 c. c. capacity. The outer vessel, b, serves as an air jacket. No glass cover is used in = the open-cup method. A suitable thermom- = eter, c, is suspended from the wire support, = d, directly over the center of the cup so 2 that its bulb is entirely covered with oil = but does not touch the bottom of the cup. = The testing flame is obtained from a jet of = gas passed through a piece of glass tubing, = and should be about 5 millimeters in length. = The test is made by first filling the oil = cup with the material under examination to alr 2 within about 5m. m. of the top. The Bun- | 2 sen flame is then applied in such a manner = that the temperature of the material in the 5 cup is raised at the rate of 5° C. per minute. = From time to time the testing flame is brought almost in contact with the surface Cc of the oil. A distinct flicker or flash over the entire surface of the oil shows that the flash point is reached and the temperature at this point is taken. It will usually be found that the flash point as determined by the open-cup method is somewhat higher / than by the closed-cup method, for the same i material. = The burning point of the material is ob- tained by continuing the test and noting that temperature at which it ignites and burns. The flame should then be extinguished by means of a metal cover supplied with the instrument. & & a ee, Ee) 4, i " t . 1G. 20.—Open-cup oil tester. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 43 25. FLOAT TEST FOR CONSISTENCY. The float apparatus consists of two parts (see fig. 21), an aluminum float or saucer, a, and a conical brass collar, b. The two parts are made separately, so that one float may be used with a number of brass collars. In making the test the brass collar is placed with the small end down on the brass plate, which has been previously amalgamated with mercury by first rubbing it with a dilute solution of mercuric chloride or nitrate and then with mercury. A small quantity of the material to be tested is heated in the metal spoon until quite fluid, with care that it suffers no appreciable loss by volatilization and that it is kept free from air bubbles. It is then poured into the collar in a thin stream until slightly more than level with the top. The surplus may be removed, after the material has cooled to room temperature, by means of a spatula or steel knife which has been slightly heated. The collar and plate are then placed in one of the tin cups containing ice Fig. 21.—New York Testing Laboratory float apparatus. water maintained at 5° C., and left in this bath for at least 15 minutes. Meanwhile the other cup is filled about three-fourths full of water and placed on the tripod, and the water is heated to any desired temperature at which the testistobemade. This temperature should be accurately maintained, and should at no time throughout the entire test. be allowed to vary more than one-half a degree centigrade from the temper- ature selected. After the material to be tested has been kept in the ice water for at least 15 minutes, the collar with its contents is removed from the plate and screwed into the aluminum float, which is then immediately floated in the warmed bath. As the plug of bituminous material becomes warm and fluid, it is gradually forced up- ward and out of the collar, until water gains entrance to the saucer and causes it to sink. The time in seconds between placing the apparatus on the water and when the water breaks through the bitumen is determined by means of a stop watch and is taken as a measure of the consistency of the material under examination. 44 BULLETIN 49, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 26. FIXED CARBON DETERMINATION. This determination is made in accordance with the method described for coal in the Journal of the American Chemical Society, 1899, volume 21, page 1116. One gram of the material is placed in a platinum crucible weighing from 20 to 30 grams and having a tightly fitting cover. It is then heated for seven minutes over the full flame of a Bunsen burner, as shown in figure 22. The crucible should be sup- ported on a platinum triangle with the bottom from 6 to 8 em. above the top of the burner. The flame should be fully 20 cm. high when burning freely, and the deter- mination should be made in a place free from drafts. The upper surface of the cover should burn clear, but the under surface should remain covered with carbon, ex- cepting in the case of some of the more fluid bitumens, when the under surface of the cover may be quite clean. The crucible is removed to a desiccator and when cool is weighed, after which the cover is removed, and the crucible is placed in an inclined position over the Bunsen burner and ignited until nothing but ash remains. Any carbon deposited on the cover is also burned off. The weight of ash remaining is deducted from the weight of the residue after the first ignition of the sample. This gives the weight of the so-called fixed or residual carbon, which is calculated on a basis of the total weight of the sample, exclusive of mineral matter. If the presence of a carbonate min- eral is suspected, the percentage of mineral matter may be most accurately obtained by treating the ash with a few drops of ammonium carbonate solution, drying at 100° C. then heating for a few minutes at a dull red heat, cooling and weighing. An excellent form of crucible for this test has a cover with a flange 4 mm. wide, fitting tightly over the outside of the crucible, and weighs complete about 25 grams. Owing to sudden expansion in burn- ing some of the more fluid bitumens, it is well to hold the cover down with the end of the tongs until the most volatile products have burned off. Some products, particularly those derived from Mexican petroleum, show a tendency to suddenly expand and foam over the sides of the crucible in making this determination, and no method of ob- viating this trouble without vitiating the result has thus far been forthcoming. Recent experiments in the laboratory of the Bureau of Public Roads indicate that the difficulty may be overcome by placing a small piece of platinum gauze over the sample and about midway of the crucible. The gauze should be so cut or bent as to touch the sides of the crucible at all points, and is of course weighed in place in the crucible before and after ignition. Fic. 22.— Apparatus for determining fixed carbon. 27. SPECIFIC VISCOSITY DETERMINATION. The viscosity of fluid bituminous road materials may be determined at any suitable temperature by means of the Engler viscosimeter. This apparatus is shown in figure 23, and may be described as follows: a, is a brass vessel for holding the material to be tested, and may be closed by the cover, b. To the conical bottom of a is fitted a conical outflow tube, c, exactly 20 mm. long, with a diameter at the top of 2.9 mm. and at the bottom of 2.8mm. This tube can be closed and opened by the pointed hardwood stopper, d. Pointed metal projections are placed on the inside of a at 1 E ( SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 45 equal distances from the bottom and serve for measuring the charge of material, which is 240 c. c. The thermometer ¢ is used to ascertain the temperature of the ma- terial to be tested. The vessel a is surrounded by a brass jacket, /, which holds the material used as a heating bath, either water or cottonseed oil, according to the tem- perature at which the test is to be made. A tripod, g, serves as a support for the apparatus and also carries a ring burner h, by means of which the bath is directly heated. The measuring cylinder of 100 c. c.. capacity, which is sufficiently accurate for work with road materials, is placed directly under the outflow tube. As all viscosity determinations should be compared with that of water at 25° C., the apparatus should be previously calibrated as follows: The cup and outlet tube should first be scrupulously cleaned. A piece of soft tissue paper is convenient for cleaning the latter. The stopper is then inserted in the tube and the cup filled with water at 25° C. to the top of the projections. The meas- uring cylinder should be placed directly under the outflow tube so that the material, upon flowing out, will not touch the sides, and the stopper may then be re- moved. The time required both for 50 and 100 c. c. to run out should be ascer- tained by means of a stop watch, and the results so ob- tained should be checked a number of times. The time required for 50 c. c. of water should be about 11 seconds and for 100 c. c. about 22.8 seconds. Bituminous road mate- rials are tested in the same manner as water, and the temperature at which the test is made is controlled Fig. 23.—Engler viscosimeter. by the bath. The material should be brought to the desired temperature and maintained there for at least three minutes before making the test. The results are expressed as specific viscosity compared with water at 25° C., as follows: ; are o (: _Seconds for passage of given volume at A°C. eee ae cotiy ate C- seconds for passage of same volume of water at 25° C. 28. DETERMINATION OF PERCENTAGE OF RESIDUE OF DESIRED PENETRATION. Fifty grams of the oil are placed in a 3-ounce deep, seamless tin box; the box is placed in a sand bath and heated over a Bunsen burner. A thermometer is suspended in the oil, the bulb not touching the bottom of the box. The temperature of the oil is kept at from 249° C. (480° F.) to 260° C. (500° F.), and the oil is stirred from time to time with the thermometer to prevent overheating in any part. Depending upon the nature of the oil, as usually indicated by its flash, consistency at 25° C. (77° F.) and specific gravity, the operator can with experience tell about what percentage it will be necessary to evaporate before cooling and taking a penetration of the residue. 46 BULLETIN 49, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. It is sometimes necessary to make several trials before the desired result is obtained, When the required penetration is reached, the residue left from evaporation is weighed and its per cent of the original sample taken is computed. 29. TEST FOR PENETRATION OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS. (A. S. T. M. Standard Method, Seriai Designation: D 5-16.) I. DEFINITION. (1) Penetration is defined as the consistency of a bituminous material expressed as the distance that a standard needle vertically penetrates a sample of the material under known conditions of loading, time, and temperature. Where the conditions of test are not specifically mentioned, the load, time, and temperature are understood to be 100 grams, 5 seconds, 25° C (77° F.), respectively, and the units of penetration to indicate hundredths of a centimeter. RR Fic. 24.—New York Testing Laboratory penetrometer. Hl. APPARATUS. (2) The container for holding the material to be tested shall be a flat-bottom, cylin- drical dish, 55 mm. (23; inches) in diameter and 35 mm. (1% inches) deep.? (See figs. 24 and 25.) (3) The needle ® for this test shall be of cylindrical steel rod 50.8 mm. (2 inches) long and having a diameter of 1.016 mm. (0.04 inch) and turned on one end toa sharp point having a taper of 6.35 mm. (one-fourth inch). (4) The water bath shall be maintained at a temperature not varying more than 0.1° ©. from 25° C. (77° F.) The volume of water shall be not less than 10 liters and the sample shall be immersed to a depth of not less than 10 cm. (4 inches) and shall be supported on a perforated shelf not less than 5 cm. (2 inches) from the bottom of the bath. 8 This requirement is fulfilled by the American Can Co.’s gill style ointment box, deep pattern, 3-ounce capacity. 9 Tt isrecommended that the Roberts No. 2 parabola needle be used until such a time as Committee D-4 of the American Society for Testing Materials are in a position to make a recommendation relative to a type of needle which may generally be obtained. a SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 47 (5) Any apparatus which will allow the needle to penetrate without appreciable friction, and which is accurately calibrated to yield results in accordance with the definition of penetration will be acceptable. (6) The transfer dish for container shall be a small dish or tray of such capacity as will insure complete immersion of the container during the test. It shall be provided with some means which will insure a firm bearing and prevent rocking of the container. Ill. PREPARATION OF SAMPLE. (7) The sample shall be completely melted at the lowest possible temperature and stirred thoroughly until it is homogeneous and free from air bubbles. It shall then be poured into the sample container to a depth of not less than 15 mm. (2inch). The sample shall be protected from dust and allowed to cool in an atmosphere not lower than 18° ©. (65° F.) for one hour. It shall then be placed in the water bath along with the transfer dish and allowed to remain one hour. IV. TESTING. (8) (a) In making the test the sample shall be placed in the transfer dish filled with water from the water bath of sufficient depth to completely cover the container. Fic. 25.—Dow penetration machine. The transfer dish containing the sample shall then be placed upon the stand of the penetration machine. The needle, loaded with specified weight, shall be adjusted to make contact with the-surface of the sample. This may be accomplished by making contact of the actual needle point with its image reflected by the surface of the sample from a properly placed source of hght. Either the reading of the dial shall then be noted or the needle brought to zero. The needle is then released for the specified period of time, after which the penetration machine is adjusted to measure the dis- tance penetrated. At least three tests shall be made at points on the surface of the sample not less than 1 cm. (2 inch) from the side of the container and not less than 1 cm. (¢ inch) apart. After each test the sample and transfer dish shall be returned to the water bath and the needle shall be carefully wiped toward its point with a clean, dry cloth to remove 48 BULLETIN 99, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. all adhering bitumen. The reported penetration shall be the average of at least three tests whose values shall not differ more than four points between maximum and minimum. (6) When desirable to vary the temperature, time, and weight, and in order to provide for a uniform method of reporting results when variations are made, the samples shall be melted and cooled in air as above directed. They shall then be immersed in water or brine, as the case may require, for one hour at the temperature desired. The following combinations are suggested: At 0° C. (82° F.), 200-gram weight, 60 seconds. At 46.1° C. (115° F.), 50-gram weight, 5 seconds. 30. DETERMINATION OF DUCTILITY OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS. (Method described in Trans. A. 5. C. E., vol. 82, 1918, p. 1460.) A briquette of the material to be tested shall be formed by pouring the molten material into a briquette mold. The dimensions of the briquette shall be 1 cm. (0.394 inch) in thickness throughout its entire length; distance between the clips or end pieces, 3 cm. (1.181 inches); width of asphalt cement section at mouth of clips, 2 cm. (0.787 inch); width at minimum cross section, half way between clips, 1 cm. (0.394inch). The centerpieces are removable, the briquette mold being held together during molding with a clamp or wire. The molding of the briquette shall be done as follows: The two center sections shall be well amalgamated to prevent the asphalt cement from adhering to them, and the briquette mold shall then be placed on a freshly amalgamated brass plate. The asphalt cement to be tested shall be poured into the mold while in a molten state, a slight excess being added to allow for shrinkage on cooling. When the asphalt cement in the mold is nearly cool, the briquette shall be cut off level, with a warm knife or spatula. When it is thoroughly cooled to the temperature at which it is desired to make the test, the clamp and the two sidepieces are removed, leaving the briquette of asphalt cement held at each end by the ends of the mold, which now play the part of clips. The briquette shall be kept in water for 30 minutes at 4° C. (39° F.) or 25° C. (77° F.) before testing, dependent on the temperature at which the ductility is desired. The briquette with the clips attached shall then be placed in a “ductility test machine” (fig. 26) filled with water at one of the above temperatures to a sufficient height to cover the briquette not less than 50 mm. (1.969 inches). This machine consists of a rectangular water-tight box, having a movable block working on a worm gear from left to right. The left clip is held rigid by placing its ring over a short metal peg provided for this purpose; the right clip is placed over a similar rigid peg on the movable block. The movable block is provided with a pointer which moves along a centimeter scale. Before starting the test, the centimeter scale is ad- justed to the pointer at zero. Power is then applied by the worm-gear pulling from jeft to right at the uniform rate of 5 cm. (1.969 inches) per minute. The distance, in centimeters, registered by the pointer on the scale at the time of rupture of the thread of asphalt cement shall be taken as the ductility of the asphalt cement. 31. STANDARD METHOD FOR THE DISTILLATION OF TAR AND TAR PRODUCTS. (A. 8S. T. M. Standard Method, Serial Designation: D 20-18.) (1) The sample as received shall be thoroughly stirred and agitated, warming, if necessary, to insure a complete mixture before the portion for analysis is removed. (2) If the presence of water is suspected or known the material shall be dehydrated before distillation. About 500 c. c. of the material are placed in an 800-c. c. copper still provided with a distilling head connected with a water-cooled condenser (see SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 49 mmr Tae qe Screws Yo be threaded full length PLAN Fia@. 26.—Machine for ductility test. 29465 °—21—Bull. 949 ——4 50 BULLETIN 949, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fig. 27). A ring burner is used, starting with a small flame at the top of the still and gradually lowering it, if necessary, until all the water has been driven off. The dis- tillate is collected in a 200-c. c. separatory funnel with the tube cut off close to the stopcock. When all the water has been driven over and the distillate has settled out the water is drawn off and the oils returned to the residue in the still. The contents of the still shall have cooled to below 100° C. before the oils are returned, and they shall be well stirred and mixed with the residue. (3) The apparatus shall consist of the following standard parts (see fig. 28): (a) Flask.—The distillation flask shall be a 250-c. c. Engler distilling flask, having the following dimensions: Mameteriombullbs ec. ce nc: 2 doco eee ee eee 8.0 cm. Length of necks eee sn Se ee Dane So eee ee 15.0 cm. Diameter of mecksetee fs... cn soe dee ee eee 1.7 cm. Surface of material to lower side of tubulature............... 11.0 em. Length of tubulature:.- 3. ----220.54.-...320 tee 12. 2 oe Orem Diameter, ot tubulatureé:. 22. 3302) soe eee ee ee 0.9 cm. Angle of tiubulatire 7: ... 2-222 S.22 See eee 75 deg iy “Ti a i - Rai Fic. 27.—Dehydrating apparatus. A variation of 3 per cent from the above measurements will be allowed. (b) Thermometer.—The thermometer shall conform to the following requirements: It shall be made of thermometric glass of a quality equivalent to suitable grades of Jena or Corning make. It shall be thoroughly annealed. It shall be filled above the mercury with inert gas which will not act chemically on or contaminate the mercury. The pressure of the gas shall be sufficient to prevent separation of the mercury column at all temperatures of the scale. There shall be a reservoir above the final graduation large enough so that the pressure will not become excessive at the highest temperature. The thermometer shall be finished at the top with a small glass ring or button suitable for attaching a tag. Each thermometer shall have for identification the maker’s name, a serial number, and the letters ‘‘A. S. T. M. Distillation.” The thermometer shall be graduated from 0° to 400° C. at intervals of 1° C. Every fifth graduation shall be longer than the intermediate ones, and every tenth gradua- tion beginning at zero shall be numbered. The graduation marks and numbers shall be clear-cut and distinct. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 51 The thermometer shall conform to the following dimensions: Mm “Ure letigtllen male gerry (ce geen ater ae ne sis EE i at haa i ee a SE 385 Diameter of stem (permissible variation 0.5 mm.).......................---.- if Diameter of bulb, minimum ‘shall not exceed diameter of stem)............. 5 Length of bulb (permissible variation 2.5mm.).............-...--.-+------- 125 Distance from 0° to bottom of bulb (permissible variation 2.5 mm.)........... 30 Distance from 0° to 400° (permissible variation 10 mm.)........--..-..------- 295 Fig. 28.—Distillation apparatus with vertical condenser. The accuracy of the thermometer when delivered to the purchaser shall be such that when tested at full immersion the maximum error shall not exceed the following: 23 Irom pator Og Cees ae ae oe 2 oc a arene ee ee ee 0.5 rome 200CetOrsOU Rss era a i ey a ee eae te ie 1.0 a) 52 BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The sensitiveness of the thermometer shall be such that when cooled to a tempera- ture of 74° C. below the boiling point of water at the barometric pressure, at the time of test, and plunged into free flow of steam, the meniscus shall pass the point 10° C. below the boiling point of water in not more than 6 seconds. The thermometer shall be set up as for the distillation test, using water, naphthalene and benzophenone as distilling liquids. The correctness of the thermometer shall be checked at 0° and 100° C. after each third distillation until seasoned. (c) Condenser.—The condenser tube shall have the following dimensions: Mm PNOE YD) Fei chee ee ces. Ee Leh Son aeNNS ei tuto | 1 Pe! Ned es) et tai 70 Length of straight twhe:: - 22... ... 24.28 i eee eee eee 185 Width of tube: ssiee iat: Shc... 25 aie ee 12 to 15 Width of adapter‘end of tube: - 42.5.4... eee ee eee eee 20 to 25 (d) Stands.—Two iron stands shall be provided, one with a universal clamp for holding the condenser, and one with a light grip arm with a cork-lined clamp for hold- ing the flask. (e) Burner and shield——A Bunsen burner shall be provided, with a tin shield 20 cm. long by 9cm.in diameter. The shield shall have a small hole for observing the flame. (f) Cylinders.—The cylinders used in collecting the distillate shall have a capacity of 25 c. c., and shall be graduated in 0.1 c. c. (4) The apparatus shall be set up as shown in figure 28, the thermometer being placed so that the top of the bulb is opposite the middle of the tubulature. AII con- nections should be tight. (5) One hundred cubic centimeters of the dehydrated material to be tested shall be placed in a tared flask and weighed. After adjusting the thermometer, shield, condenser, etc., the distillation is commenced, the rate being so regulated that 1 c. c. passes over every minute. The receiver is changed as the mercury column just passes the fractionating point. The following fractions should be reported: Start of distillation to 110° C. 110 to 170° C. 170 to 235° C. 235 to 270° C. 270 to 300° C. Residue. To determine the amount of residue, the flask is weighed again when distillation is complete. During the distillation the condenser tube shall be warmed when nec- essary to prevent the deposition of any sublimate. The percentages of fractions should be reported both by weight and by volume. 32. STANDARD METHOD FOR DETERMINATION OF SOFTENING POINT . OF BITUMINOUS MATERIALS OTHER THAN TAR PRODUCTS (RING- AND-BALL METHOD). (A. 8S. T. M. Standard Method, Serial Designation, D 36-19.) Nore.—It was recommended by the conference that this method be followed for both asphaltic and tar products. (1) The softening of bituminous materials generally takes place at no definite mo- ment or temperature. As the temperature rises, they gradually and imperceptibly change from a brittle or exceedingly thick and slow flowing material to a softer and less viscous liquid. For this reason, the determination of the softening point must SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 53 be made by a fixed, arbitrary, and closely defined method if the results obtained are to be comparable. I. APPARATUS. (2) The apparatus shall consist of the following: (a) A brass ring 15.875 mm. ($ inch) in inside diameter and 6.35 mm. (+ inch) deep; thickness of wall, 2.38 mm. (sz inch) permissible variation on inside diameter and thickness of ring, 0.25 mm. (0.01 inch). This ring shall be attached in a con- S Sg =< : e 8 28 Drass "Wing Froger Fosttiar of Ball. I@. 29.—Detaiis and assembly of apparatus for determining softening point, ring-and-ball method. F venient manner to a No. 15 B. & S. gauge brass wire (diameter 1.79 mm.=0.0703 inch). (See fig. 29.) (b) A steel ball 9.53 mm. (3 inch) in diameter weighing between 3.45 and 3.55 grams. (c) A glass vessel, capable of being heated, not less than 8.5 cm. (3.34 inch) in diameter by 10.5cm. (4.13 inch) deep. (A 600 c. c. beaker, Griffin low form, meets this requirement.) (d) A thermometer which shall conform to the following specifications: Gtalblenath pate ge ee a 370 to 400 mm. (14.57 to 15.75 inches). Diameternp as ays ee 6.5 to 7.5 mm. (0.256 to 0.295 inch). Palloslensthers) sn ae et not over 14 mm. (not over 0.55 inch). Bulbvdiameter.-..°...,... 0... 4.5 to 5.5 mm. (0.177 to 0.215 inch). 54 BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The scale shall be engraved upon the stem of the thermometer, shall be clear cut and distinct, and shall run from 0° to 80° G. (32° to 176° F.) in 1° centigrade divisions. It shall commence not less than 7.5 em. (2.95 inches) above the bottom of the bulb. The thermometer shall be furnished with an expansion chamber at the top and have a ring for attaching tags. It shall be made of a suitable quality of glass and be so annealed as not to change its readings under conditions of use. It shall be correct to 0.25° ©. (0.45° F.) as determined by comparison at full immersion with a similar thermometer calibrated at full immersion by the United States Bureau of Standards. II. PREPARATION OF SAMPLE. (3) The sample shall be melted and stirred thoroughly, avoiding incorporating air bubbles in the mass, and then poured into the ring so as to leave an excess on cooling. The ring, while being filled, should rest on a brass plate which has been amalgamated to prevent the bituminous material from adhering to it. After cooling the excess material shall be cut off cleanly with a slightly heated knife. Ill. TESTING. (A) Brruminous Marerrats Havine Sorrenine Pornts 80° C. (176° F.) or BEetow. (4) Assemble the apparatus as shown in figure 29. Fill the glass vessel to a depth of substantially 8.25 cm. (3.25 inches) with freshly boiled, distilled water at 5° ©. (41° F.). Place the ball in the center of the upper surface of the bitumen in the ring and suspend it in the water so that the lower surface of the filled ring is exactly 2.54 cm. (1 inch) above the bottom of the glass vessel and its upper surface is 5.08 cm. (2 inches) below the surface of the water. Allow it to remain in the water for 15 minutes before applying heat. Suspend the thermometer so that the bottom of the bulb is level with the bottom of the ring and within 0.635 cm. (4 inch), but not touch- ing, the ring. (5) Apply the heat in such a manner that the temperature of the water is raised 5° C. (9° F.) each minute. (6) The temperature recorded by the thermometer at the instant the bituminous material touches the bottom of the glass vessel shall be reported as the softening point. (7) The rate of rise of temperature shall be uniform and shall not be averaged over the period of the test. The maximum permissible variation for any minute period after the first three shall be 0.5° C. (0.9° F.). All tests in which the rate of rise in temperature exceeds these limits shall be rejected. (B) Brruminous Marerrats Havine Sorreninc Points ABove 80° C. (176° F.). (8) Use the same method as given under (A) except that glycerine shall be used instead of water and that the thermometer shall conform to the following specifications: ‘Potal Veneta 2 heen ae atte ees 370 to 400 mm. (14.57 to 15.75 in.) Diameter et Stemieee Sls. shee 6.5 to 7.5 mm. (0.256 to 0.295 in.) Bulb length, not over. .....-.... 14 mm. (not over 0.55 in.) Bil diametertaak es sae ee 4.5 to 5.5 mm. (0.177 to 0.217 in.) The graduations shall be from 30° to 160° C. in $° C. and shall be clear cut and dis- tinct. The 30° mark shall be at least 75 mm. above the bottom of the bulb. The length between the 30° mark and the 160° mark shall be between 230 mm. and 275 mm. The thermometer shall be furnished with an expansion chamber at the top and have a ring for attaching tags. Itshall be made of a suitable quality of glass and so annealed as not to change its readings under conditions of use. It shall be correct to 0.25° C. as determined by comparison at full immersion with a similar thermometer calibrated at ful] immersion by the Bureau of Standards. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 55 IV. ACCURACY. (9) The limit of accuracy of the test is 0.5° C. (0.9° F.). V. PRECAUTIONS. (10) The use of freshly boiled distilled water is essential, as otherwise air bubbles may form on the specimen and affect the accuracy of the results. Rigid adherence to the prescribed rate of heating is absolutely essential in order to secure accuracy of results. A sheet of paper placed on the bottom of the glass vessel and conveniently weighted will prevent the bituminous material from sticking to the glass vessel, thereby saving considerable time and trouble in cleaning. 33. METHOD FOR EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS MIXTURES. A. CENTRIFUGAL METHOD. The extractor shown in figure 30 was designed upon lines suggested by an examina- tion of machinesin use by A. E. Schutte and C. N. Forrest.1° It consists of a one-fifth horsepower, 1,100 revolutions per minute ver- tical-shaft electric motor, a, with the shaft projecting into the cylindrical copper box }, the bottom of which is so inclined as to drain the spout c. A three-sixteenths-inch circular brass plate 94 inches in diameter is shown in d, and upon this rests the sheet-iron bowl e, which is 84 inches in diameter by 23 inches high, and has a 2-inch circular hole in the top. Fastened to the inner side of the bowl is the brass cup f, having a circle of one- eighth-inch holes for the admission of the solvent, and terminating in the hollow axle, which fits snugly through a hole at the cen- ter of the brass plate. The bowl may be drawn firmly against a felt-paper ring g, three- fourths inch wide, by means of the 24-inch milled nut h, for which the hollow axle is threaded for a distance of three-fourths inch directly below the upper surface of the plate. The axle fits snugly over the shaft of the motor, to which it is locked by a slot and CERES DED 5: (be Fig. 30.—Centrifuge extractor. (Reeve The aggregate is prepared for analysis by type.) heating it in an enamel-ware pan on the hot plate until it is sufficiently soft to be thoroughly disintegrated by means of a large spoon. Care must be taken, however, that the individual particles are not crushed. Ii a section of pavement is under examination, a piece weighing somewhat over 1 kilogram may be cut off with hammer and chisel. The disintegrated aggregate is then allowed to cool, after which a sufficient amount is taken to yield on extraction from 50 to60gramsofbitumen. It is placed in the iron bowl and a ring three-fourths of an inch wide, cut from the felt paper, is fitted on the rim, after which the brass plate is placed in position and drawn down tightly by means of the milled nut. Ifthe bitumen is to be recovered and examined, the felt ring should be previously treated in the empty extractor with a couple of charges of carbon disulphide in order to remove any small 10 Any extractor of similar design may be used. 56 BULLETIN 9, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. amount of grease or resin that may be present, although a proper grade of felt should be practically free from such products. The bowl is now placed on the motor shaft and the slot and pin are carefully locked. An empty bottle is placed under the spout and 150 c.c. of carbon disuphide (carbon tetrachloride, benzole, or chloroform may also be used as solvents) is poured into the bowl through the small holes. The cover is put on the copper box and, after allowing the material to digest for a few minutes, the motor is started slowly at first in order to permit the aggregate to distribute uniformly. The speed should then be increased sufficiently by means of the regulator to cause the dis- solved bitumen to flow from the spout in a thin stream. When the first charge has drained, the motor is stopped and a fresh portion of disulphide is added. This opera- tion is repeated from four to six times with 150 c.c. of disulphide. With a little experi- ence the operator can soon gauge exactly what treatment is necessary for any given material. When the last addition of solvent has drained off, the bowl is removed and placed with the brass plate uppermost on a sheet of manila paper. The brass plate and felt ring are carefully laid aside on the paper and, when the aggregate is thoroughly dry, it can be brushed on a pan of the rough balance and weighed. The difference between this weight and the original weight taken shows the amount of bitumen ex- tracted. The aggregate may then be tested as oc- casion requires. When it is desired to re- cover and examine the bitumen, the apparatus shown in figure 31 will be found convenient and fairly safe for the distillation and recovery of such inflam- mable solvents as carbon disulphide. In the labora- tory of the Bureau of Pub- lic Roads this apparatus is arranged so that the glass tubing passes through a stone partition between two sections of a small hood, thus keeping the distilling and receiving apparatus entirely separated. The solution of bitumen should be allowed to stand overnight in order to permit the settling of any fine mineral matter that is sometimes carried through the felt ring in the extractor. The solution is then decanted into the flask a, and the solvent is driven off by means of heat from an incandescent lamp until the residue is of a thick sirupy consistency. Meanwhile the solvent is condensed and recovered in the flask b. The residue is poured into an 11-cm. porcelain evaporating dish and evaporated on a steam bath. The most scrupulous care must be taken at all times that no flames are in its immediate vicinity. Evaporation is carried on at a gentle heat, with con- tinual stirring, until foaming practically ceases. It is advisable to have a large watch glass at hand to smother the flames quickly should the material ignite. As the foaming subsides, the heat of the steam bath may be gradually raised, and evapora- tion is continued until the bubbles beaten or stirred to the surface of the bitumen fail to give a blue flame or odor of sulphur dioxide when ignited by a small gas jet. Fic. 31.—Recovery apparatus. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 57 The dish of bitumen should then be set in a hot-air oven maintained at 105° ©. for about an hour, after which it is allowed to cool. Its general character is noted and any tests for bitumens that are necessary are then made upon it. The difference between the final aggregate and the original amount taken gives the amount of bitumen extracted, which is subject to correction, dependent on the amount of ash determined. from the washings. Ash correction shall be made in the following manner: The total solution of bitu- men, well stirred, is rapidly measured and an aliquot portion taken, usually 100 c. c., and poured into a previously weighed suitable flat-bottom dish, preferably quartz. The solvent is evaporated over a very low flame and the residual coke is then ignited with a burner capable of furnishing high temperature, such as a Meker. (Caution: When an inflammable solvent is used evaporation should be conducted on a steam bath and care should be taken that no flames are in the immediate vicinity.) The dish and contents are then cooled in a desiccator and the percentage of ash calculated. B. HOT EXTRACTION METHOD. The New York Testing Laboratory extractor consists of a large brass cylinder, through the bottom of which projects a 16-candlepower incandescent carbon-filament bulb to supply heat to the extraction apparatus proper, which is held in the upper portion of the cylinder. This apparatus is composed of a cylindrical brass vessel for holding the solvent, a cylindrical wire basket made of 80-mesh wire cloth, suspended in the cylinder, and an inverted conical condenser which serves as a top. The ageregate is prepared for analysis by heating it in a tin dish on the hot plate until it is sufficiently soft to be disintegrated by means of a large spoon. The disin- tegrated aggregate is then allowed to cool. Five hundred grams of aggregates contain- ing particles larger than one-half inch in diameter and 300 grams of aggregates with all particles smaller than one-half inch are then closely packed in the wire basket and covered with a disk or wad of absorbent cotton or felt. From 175 to 200 c. c. of carbon disulphide are next placed in the inside vessel, in which the wire basket should be suspended. The top is then placed in position and cooling water circulated through it.. Heat is applied by means of the electric-light bulb. The solvent is boiled in the lower part of the extractor and condenses on the under surface of the top, from which it drips upon the wad of absorbent cotton and then percolates through the sample. A complete extraction may be made in three hours. At the end of this time the apparatus is allowed to cool and the basket containing the extracted ageregate carefully removed. After thoroughly drying, the aggregate is placed upon a pan of the rough balance and weighed. The difference between this weight and the original weight taken shows the amount of bitumen extracted which is cal- culated upon a percentage basis of the original. This figure should be corrected for fine mineral matter which passes through the meshes of the wire basket as follows: The solution of extracted bitumen is thoroughly agitated and measured in a glass eraduate. Jive or ten cubic centimeters are then poured into a weighed platinum crucible or dish, burned, and ignited to ash. The amount of mineral matter in the entire solution may then be calculated from the amount of ash produced from that portion ignited. The total percentage of such ash is then deducted from the per- centage of bitumen already calculated in order to obtain the true percentage of bitu- men. The amount of this correction will ordinarily vary from 0.1 per cent in uni- formly coarse aggregates to 1 or 2 per cent in the analysis of aggregates containing a considerable amount of very fine mineral matter. SUGGESTED METHOD FOR EXAMINATION OF BITUMINOUS MORTARS. Bituminous mortars may be extracted by the use of bronze tubes which *re capable of being whirled in the type of centrifuge similar to the Babcock milk tests. This method is based on decantation of the supernatant solvent. The difference between 58 BULLETIN #9, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the final aggregate and the original amount taken gives the amount of bitumen ex- tracted which is subject to correction of the amount of ash determined from the wash- ings. Ash correction to be made as given under A. 34. DETERMINATION OF WATER IN BITUMINOUS MATERIALS. The apparatus consists of a copper still, 6 by 34 inches; a ring burner to fit the still; connecting tube; condenser trough; condenser tube; separatory funnel; and a ther- mometer, 0°—250° ©. In the case of coal-tar material, 50 c. c. of coal tar naphtha or light oil shall be measured into a 250 c. c. graduated cylinder, and 200 c. c. of the material to be tested shall he added. In the case of petroleum products, petroleum naphtha may be used. The contents shall be transferred to the copper still and the cylinder shall be washed with 100 to 150 c. c. more of naphtha, and the washings added to the contents of the still. The lid and clamp shall be attached, using a paper gasket, and the apparatus set up as shown in figure 27. The condenser trough should be filled with water. Heat should be applied by means of the ring burner and distillation, continued, until the vapor temperature has reached 205° C. (401° F.). The distillate shall be collected in the separatory funnel, in which 15 to 20 c. ce. of benzol or naphtha have been pre- A wy > ae pp rox. /3em - Approx. 2.85cn, Capacity of Bulb: See rh 250 fo 290 ce. pine / Fic. 32.—Retort for distillation test. viously placed. This effects a clean separation of the water and oil. The reading shall be made after twirling the funnel and allowing to settle fora few minutes. The percentage shall be figured by volume. ; When fresh supplies of naphtha or light oil are obtained they shall be tested to deter- mine freedom from water. It is recommended that further investigation be made on this method by using a water-saturated solution of naphtha. This criticism has been made on the method due to the fact that naphtha possibly possesses an affinity for water. 35. TESTS OF PREMOLDED JOINT FILLERS. The bituminous material before manufacture into the premolded joint fillers should be subjected to the tests as for poured expansion joint fillers. 36. TESTS FOR EMULSIONS. The essential tests on emulsions are per cent of water and quality of bitumen. The percentage of water may be obtained by the methods of water determinations in test No. 34 without the addition of naphtha or benzol. The emulsion can be broken SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 59 down. by the addition of a 10 per cent solution of calcium chloride. The separated bituminous material is then kneaded by hand to separate all contained water and then subjected to the usual quality tests. 37. DETERMINATION OF PARAFFIN SCALE. It is recommended that the paraffin scale determination be omitted on account of difficulty encountered in obtaining dependable results due to the inaccuracy of any methods which have heretofore been introduced. 38. STANDARD METHOD FOR DISTILLATION OF CREOSOTE. (Extract from A.S.T.M. Standard Method, Serial Designation: D 38-18.) (1) (a) Retort.—This shall be a tubulated glass retort of the form and approximate dimensions shown in figure 32, with a capacity of 250 to 290 c. c. The capacity shall Soe an ames a= oe /f ~ > Fig. 33.—Asbestos shield. be measured py placing the retort with the bottom of the bulb and the end of the offtake in the same horizontal plane, and pouring water into the bulb through the tubulature until it overflows the offtake. The amount remaining in the bulb shall be considered its capacity. (b) Condenser tube—The condenser tube shall be a suitable form of tapered glass tubing of the following dimensions: Mm. Diameter of small end (permissible variation, 1.5 mm.)........---------- 12.5 Diameter of large end (permissible variation, 3 mm.)...........-----.--- 28. 5 enethn (permissible variation, MM.) 225 Sess ee cela ne eiele «oie ian ele 360. 0 60 BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (c) Shield—An asbestos shield of the form and approximate dimensions shown in figure 33 shall be used to protect the retort from air currents and to prevent radiation. This may be covered with galvanized iron, as such an arrangement is more convenient and more permanent. (d) Receivers.—Erlenmeyer flasks of 50 to 100 c. c. capacity are the most convenient form. (e) Thermometer.—The thermometer shall conform to the following requirements. The thermometer shall be made of thermometric glass of a quality equivalent to suitable grades of Jena or Corning make. It shall be thoroughly annealed. It shall be filled above the mercury with inert gas which will not act chemically on or contami- nate the mercury. The pressure of the gas shall be sufficient to prevent separation of Thermometer Cork Stopper de dh ield- Sh condenser Wire Gauze, 20 Mesh. ey fe ey Fic. 34.—Assembled apparatus for distillation test. the mercury column at all temperatures of the scale. There shall be a reservoir above the final graduation large enough so that the pressure will not become excessive at the highest temperature. The thermometer shall be finished at the top with a small glass ring or button suitable for attaching a tag. Each thermometer shall have for identi- fication the maker’s name, a serial number, and the letters ‘“‘A. S. T. M. distillation.’? The thermometer shall be graduated from 0° to 400° C. at intervals of 1° C. Every fifth graduation shall be longer than the intermediate ones, and every tenth gradua- tion beginning at zero shall be numbered. The graduation marks and numbers shall be clear-cut and distinct. The thermometer shall conform to the following dimensions: Mm. Total length, maximum... - <2) 22.02... 08. a0. So eee ee eee 385 Diameter of stem (permissible variation, 0.5 mm.).........-.--.------------- fi Diameter of bulb, minimum (shall not exceed diameter of stem)........-..-..- Length of bulb (permissible variation, 2.5 mm.)........-------+------+------- 12.5 Distance, 0° to bottom of bulb (permissible variation, 5 mm.) ............--..- 30 Distance, 0 to 400° (permissible variation, 10 mm.)..............------------- 295 SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 61 The accuracy of the thermometer when delivered to the purchaser shall be such that when tested at full immersion the maximum error shall not exceed the following: irom tor200e On ye 52) nee SG A! : NUM RAR CRM Sd 2 OL? OL rome OOcetoro OOM astra sume Quyencneen 5 HE oon n ea a Se ORC: roms O0CEGOrs OS. Cem eae eee cpee eg e e” EMRORS she cal oy sea i Bo (C The sensitiveness of the thermometer shall be such that when cooled to a tempera- ture of 74° ©. below the boiling point of water at the barometric pressure at the time of test and plunged into free flow of steam the meniscus shall pass the point 10° C. below the boiling point of water in not more than six seconds. (2) The retort shall be supported on a tripod or rings over two sheets of 20-mesh gauze, 6 inches square, as shown in figure 34. It shall be connected to the condenser tube by a tight cork joint. The thermometer shall be inserted through a cork in the tubulature with the bottom of the bulb one-half inch from the surface of the oil in the retort. The exact location of the thermometer bulb shall be determined by placing a vertical rule graduated in divisions not exceeding one-sixteenth inch back of the retort when the latter is in position for the test, and sighting the level of the liquid and the point for the bottom of the thermometer bulb. The distance from the bulb of the ther- mometer to the outlet end of the condenser tube shall be not more than 24 nor less than 20 inches. The burner should be protected from drafts by a suitable shield or chimney (see fig. 34). (3) Exactly 100 grams of oil shall be weighed into the retort, the apparatus assem- bled, and heat applied. The distillation shall be conducted at the rate of at least one drop and not more than two drops per second, and the distillate collected in weighed receivers. The condenser tube shall be warmed whenever necessary to prevent accumulation of solid distillates. Fractionsshall be collected at the following points: 210°. 235°, 270°, 315°, and 355° C. The receivers shall be changed as the mercury passes the dividing temperature for each fraction. When the temperature reaches 355°, the flame shall be removed from the retort, and any oil which has condensed in the offtake shall be drained in the 355° fraction. The residue shall remain in the retort with the cork and the thermometer in position until no vapors are visible; it shall then be weighed. If the residue is to be further tested it shall then be poured directly into the brass collar used in the float test or into a tin box and covered and allowed to cool to air temperature. If the residue becomes so cool that it can not be poured readily from the retort, it shall be reheated by holding the bulb of the retort in hot water or steam, and not by the application of flame. For weighing the receivers and fractions, a balance accurate to at least 0.05 grams shall be used. During the progress of the distillation the thermometer shall remain in its original position. No correction shall be made for the emergent stem of the thermometer. When any measuranle amount of water is present in the distillate it shall be sepa- rated as nearly as possible and reported separately, all results being calculated on a basis of dry oil. When more than 2 per cent of water is present, water-free oil shail be obtained by separately distilling a larger quantity of oil, returning to the oil any oil carried over with the water, and using dried oil for the final distillation. TENTATIVE TESTS. 39. PROPOSED SOUNDNESS TEST FOR COARSE AGGREGATE. Immerse 10 small pieces of the rock in a saturated solution of sodium sulphate (Na,SO,), for 20 hours, after which place for four hours in a drying oven maintained at 100° C. Repeat the treatment five times. The condition of the rock as to soundness is noted at the end of the test. Samples which exhibit marked checking, cracking or disintegration shall be con- sidered to have failed in this test. 40. TENTATIVE TEST FOR ABSORPTION OF CONCRETE. It is recommended that the method of making the absorption test prescribed for cement drain tile in the Standard Specification for Drain Tile, American Society for Testing Materials, Serial Designation C 4-16, be employed for making the absorption test of concrete until a different method is developed. 41. PROPOSED TEST FOR PERCENTAGE OF SHALE IN GRAVEL. It is suggested that for the separation of shale and other pieces having low specific eravity from concrete aggregates, a solution of zinc chloride (ZnCl,) or some other satisfactory liquid having a specific gravity of approximately 1.95 be used. A sample of the pebbles should be first dried to constant weight at not over 110° C., then placed in a container partially filled with the solution. Agitate for five minutes, skim off the lighter materials and then pour the solution through a sieve which will retain the pebbles. Repeat the operation until the entire sample has been separated. Dry to constant weight, measure the volume of retained material and compute the percent- age by volume of shale or other soft material. 42, PROPOSED MODIFICATION OF THE ABRASION TEST FOR BROKEN STONE AND SLAG. It is recommended that in order to secure data for a revision of the standard abrasion test for stone, abrasion tests on broken stone and slag be run parallel with the regular test (described on page 3) but with a charge of stone made up in the manner pre- scribed for the charge of gravel for the abrasion test. The purpose is to determine whether it is possible to secure consistent results with a charge for the abrasion test made up from the product of the crusher as it is delivered to the job. 43. PROPOSED ABRASION TEST FOR FINE AGGREGATE. The following is a tentative method for determining the resistance of the fine aggre- gate to abrasion. The fine aggregate is washed and dried at a temperature not exceedimg 110° C. All material retained on the 4-inch sieve, and all material passing a standard 50-mesh sieve is discarded. Five hundred grams of the portion passing a 1-inch screen and retained on a 50-mesh sieve are placed in a Deval abrasion cyl- inder with a charge of 250 grams of 3°;-inch commercial steel bearing balls which shall weigh within 1 per cent of the required 250 grams. The charge in the Deval abrasion cylinder is rotated for 2,000 revolutions at the rate of 33 revolutions per minute. The sample of sand is removed and sieved over a 100-mesh sieve. The sample is prefer- 62 SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 63 ably divided into three portions for sieving, the sieving being completed over a sheet of white paper, and is continued until practically no dust passes the sieve when shaking for one minute. The portion retained on the 100-mesh sieve is weighed. Five hundred grams minus the weight of the samples retained on the 100-mesh after abrasion is taken as the loss from abrasion. This weight divided by 5 gives the per- centage of wear. 44, PROPOSED FIELD METHODS OF MAKING SIEVE ANALYSIS. Either volumetric or gravimetric methods may be used on a sample of not less than 500 grams in the volumetric or 200 grams in the gravimetric test. The following methods for making these tests are suggested: A. VOLUMETRIC METHOD. Briefly described, the apparatus for this test consists of an outside cylindrical con- tainer with telescopic cover, two nests of semicylindrical screens and sieves fitting into the outside cylinder and containing a smaller cylinder with telescopic cover. This small cylinder contains in turn a 10-inch rule having 34-inch divisions and a 200 c. c. graduated cylinder. The entire outfit is very compact, measuring about 14 inches in length and 5 inches in diameter. r Both the outer and inner cylinders are exactly 10 inches in inside depth, the tele- scopic covers being made to fit the contents of each cylinder. As used at present, there are in each outfit five screens having circular openings 13-inch, 1-inch, ?-inch, 4-inch, and }-inch in diameter, respectively, and three sieves of standard 10-mesh, 20-mesh, and 50-mesh, respectively; also three rings of 3-inch, 24-inch, and 2-inch diameter, respectively, fitting in the cover of the container. The large cylinder is used when making a screen analysis of a coarse aggregate, while the small cylinder is used in determining the gradation of sand or other fine aggregate. The cylinder is filled with the material to be examined, which is then screened through the screen, or sieve, selected. The portion passing the screen, or sieve, is returned to the cylinder and the height of the material determined, each 0.1 inch corresponding to 1 per cent of the original volume. The portion retained on the screen, or sieve, is determined in the same manner. The percentage passing plus the percentage retained when obtained in this manner add up to more than 100 per cent of the criginal volume, and if the true percentage passing each screen or sieve is to be reported, the correct value is obtained by dividing the percentage passing each screen or sieve as found above by the total! of the measurements obtained for material retained and material passing the screen or sieve. For example, ii a gravel shows by measurement 60 per cent retained on a l-inch screen and.50 per cent passing a l-inch screen, the true percentage passing the l-inch screen is— BO ries Oh at 60-50 110 45% per cent. B. GRAVIMETRIC METHOD. The apparatus required consists of a spring balance, 200-grams capacity, graduated to tenth-gram divisions and provided with a weighing pan; a series of field sieves well graded in size from a 4-inch screen to a standard 200-mesh sieve. The sample, selected in accordance with the method described, shall be dried in the air or by heat- ing to not over 110° C. The sample for sieve analysis shall be selected from the dried sample by the method of quartering and shall weigh approximately 200 grams. This sample shall be passed successively through the various screens required and the total percentage passing each sieve shall be reported. 64 BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 45. PROPOSED FIELD DETERMINATION OF CLAY AND SILT. The apparatus used in this test is the same as that described under the volumetric method of making sieve analysis, test 44. Two hundred c. c. of the sand or other fine ageregate are measured in the graduated cylinder and transferred to the small cylin- drical container. Water is added and the sand washed by agitation. The large min- eral particles are allowed to settle and the water containing the clay and silt is poured into the large outside cylindrical container. The operation of washing with new portions of fresh water is repeated until the wash water remains clear. The water in the large container is allowed to stand over night to permit the clay and silt to settle out. The clear supernatant water is then poured off and the sediment of clay and silt remaining is transferred to the 200 c. c. graduated cylinder. Water is added to bring the contents of the graduated cylinder to 200 c.c. The volume of sediment in the cylinder is determined at the end of three hours. This volume divided by 2 gives the percentage by volume of clay and silt on a wet basis, three hours standing. This value is usually from 24 to 4 times the value obtained when determining the clay and silt by dry weight. If we assume, therefore, that the specifications require not more than 5 per cent of clay and silt by dry weight, less than 74 per cent by volume of clay and silt would indicate that the fine aggregate complies with the specifications, while more than 12 per cent by volume of clay and silt would indicate an excess of material removed in washing. 46. PROPOSED METHODS OF FABRICATING AND TESTING COMPRESSION FIELD SPECIMENS OF CONCRETE. As a guide to the selection of the sample of the concrete and to the method of mak- ing compression specimens in the field see the procedure outlined in Appendix 1, in the report of Committee C—9 in the Proceedings of the A. 8. T. M. vol. 17, part 1. The essential part of the report is as follows: Sampling the concrete.—Concrete for the test specimens should be taken immediately | after it has been placed in the forms. All the material for each sample should be taken from one place. A sufficient number of samples—each large enough to make one test specimen—should be taken at different points so that the specimens made from them will give a fair average of the work. The location from which each sample is taken should be clearly noted for future reference. In securing samples, the concrete is taken from the mass by a shovel or a similar implement and placed in a large pail or in some other receptacle for transporting to the place where the specimens are molded. Care should be taken to see that each specimen represents the total mixture of the concrete at that place. Molding the specimen.—The pails containing the samples of concrete should be taken to the place selected for making the test pieces as quickly as possible. To offset segregation of materials during transportation, each sample should then be dumped out of the pail into a nonabsorbent water-tight receptacle and without further mixing immediately placed in the mold. Different samples should not be mixed together, but each sample should make one specimen. (The conference recommends that a 4-inch rod 2 feet long should be used for puddling the concrete instead of the 3-inch rod recommended by Committee C-9. The conference also recommends that the material be placed in the mold in layers 3 inches deep and each layer puddled 20 times with the rod.) “Ramming should be avoided, but care should be taken to remove air pockets. The freshly made specimen should be struck off and troweled level with the top of the form. The specimen should preferably be capped in the field while it is in the mold so as to be ready for the testing machine. After the concrete has stiffened appreciably and before the molds are removed, neat cement or a rather stiff 1:2 mortar may be used to fill the molds level full. A piece of plate glass or machined metal plate should then be worked around on the top of the mortar until it rests on the form. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 65 This plate should be oiled or a piece of wax paper be placed between it and the con- crete. If the forms are carefully made, this will give top and bottom surfaces per- pendicular to the sides of the specimens. To prevent the specimen from drying out, it should be covered or otherwise protected. If desired, the mold itself may be buried in sand while the specimen is being molded. ‘At the end of 48 hours the specimens should be removed from the mold and buried in damp sand.”’ (It is the sentiment of the conference that oftentimes in concrete road con- struction it would be advisable to cure the test pieces along the side of the slab, under conditions similar to those of the pavement.) ‘* Testing.—Ten days prior to the date of test, specimens should be well packed in damp sand or wet shavings and shipped to the testing laboratory, where they should. be stored either in a moist room or in damp sand until the date of the test. It is assumed that ordinarily a 28-day test will be made, although tests at 7 and 14 days will give some indications of the results to be expected at 28 days. In case 7-day tests are made, the test pieces should remain at the job as long as possible to harden, and should be shipped so as to arrive at the laboratory in time to make the test on the required date.”’ 47. PROPOSED METHODS OF MAKING TEST SPECIMENS OF CONCRETE IN THE LABORATORY. The conference recommends that concrete specimens shall be proportioned by volume. The measurements of the unit volumes of aggregate shall be made in accord_ ance with the method outlined under ‘‘ Weight per cubic foot of aggregate” (p. 11). Volumes required for the given quantity of concrete shall be measured by weighing the requisite amounts of each material. The weight of 1 cubic foot of cement shall be assumed to be 94 pounds. In weighing quantities of a coarse aggregate which varies considerably in size of particles, it is suggested that the aggregate be graded into different sizes and the proper proportions of each of these sizes be used. In making specimens sufficient quantities of materials |! to fill a single specimen mold with an excess of 10 per cent should be calculated. The dried materials should be placed on a metallic or other nonabsorbent mixing tray and thoroughly mixed toa uniform color with a square-nose trowel. The requisite amount of water for temper- ing the mix to proper consistency should be weighed. The dry material should be formed into a crater and about three-fourths of the estimated amount of water added. The entire batch should then be turned until of uniform composition, water being added until the required consistency has been obtained. The amount of water actually used in the mixture should be recorded. In molding the test pieces, the form should be filled to about one-quarter of its height and thoroughly puddled with a 3-inch rod, using 20 strokes per layer. From two to four hours after molding, compression specimens should be capped with a layer of neat cement in order that the top of the specimen may present a smooth surface for loading. The cap can be readily formed by means of a glass plate which may be worked down on the neat cement until it rests on top of the form. In order to eliminate shrinkage, the cement for capping should be mixed to a stiff paste before the concrete specimens are made. Adhesion of the concrete to the base of the mold and to the glass can be eliminated by oiling the base and by inserting a sheet of paraf- fined tissue paper beneath the glass. Specimens should be removed from the forms on the day after they are fabricated, marked, and stored in damp sand, or in a moist chamber until tested. It is recommended that tests be made at 7, 28, or 90 days; the 28-day period is the most commonly used. 11 Tn most cases it is preferable to use air-dry aggregate. 29465°—21—Bull. 949-5 66 BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Compression tests.—The specimen to be used in compression tests shall be a cylinder not less than 6 inches in diameter and 12 inches high. When the diameter of the largest particle of aggregate runs over 2 inches an 8 by 16 inch cylinder is recommended. The mold should be of metal. A suitable type of mold consists of a 12-inch length of cold-drawn steel tubing 6 inches inside diameter, split along one element, and closed by means of a circumferential band and bolt. Suitable forms can also be made from galvanized iron. Forms should be tight and should rest on level nonabsorbent bases. At least three specimens should be made to cover any single point in a series of tests. Only one cylinder of a kind should be fabricated at one time. In testing compression specimens the speed of the moving head of the machine shall travel approximately 0.05 inch per minute when the machine is running idle. The bearing plates of the testing machine shall be brought into direct contact with the end of the specimen, and aspherical bearing block shall be used on top of the test piece. The diameter of the bearing block shall be approximately the same as that of the specimen; the radius of the ball in the block should be not over one-half the radius of the test piece. As the testing head of the machine is brought down upon the top of the cylinder, the lower section of the adjustable block should be oscillated to and fro to insure a central bearing and to avoid pulling the cylinder to one side. The results of the tests of individual specimens should be reported. 48. PROPOSED TRANSVERSE TESTS OF CONCRETE. Field specimens.—A slab 30 inches long, 8 or 12 inches wide, and of a depth equal to the depth of pavement should be employed. This specimen should be molded at the edge of the pavement with its long dimension parallel to the length of the road. The forms for separating the test piece from the remainder of the road should be made of sheet metal and should be submerged about three-fourths of an inch below the finished surface of the pavement. In order to provide bearing surfaces and a uniform thickness at the center, three strips of wood 3 inches wide should be placed on the subgrade with their axes running transversely with respect to the axis of the test specimen and wide faces parallel to and equidistant from the top of the pavement. The boards should be placed near each end and at the center of the length of the test piece. Specimens should be tested over a 24-inch span and loaded at the center. Laboratory specimens.—A specimen 12 inches wide, 8 inches deep, and 30 inches long, to be tested by center load over a 24-inch span, is suggested for laboratory fabrication. The methods of proportioning, mixing, molding, and curing of the transverse test piece should be similar to the method previously outlined. The modulus of rupture S, may be found from the following expression: Thus s,=, in which P is the center load in pounds and } and d the breadth and depth in inches of the slab, respectively. 49. PROPOSED TEST FOR CONSISTENCY OF CONCRETE. For the determination of the consistency either in the field or in the laboratory the committee proposes the use of the 4 by 8 by 12 inch conical frustum, as shown in figure 35. In making the test, the thoroughly cleaned frustum should be placed on a level nonabsorbent surface and filled with 3-inch layers of concrete. During filling, the mold should be held down by the operator placing his toes on the lip at the bottom of the mod. As each layer of material is introduced it should be puddled by a stirring motion with a one-half-inch rod to uniformly distribute the material. After the upper layer has been placed the top shall be struck off and the mold removed by slowly pulling it vertically upward. The height of the frustum shall be measured and the slump calculated from the difference of the height of the mold and the frustum. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 67 In making the slump test in the laboratory or in the field it 1s recommended that the form be filled immediately after mixing and withdrawn three minutes after mixing has been completed. When central mixing plants are used slump tests shall be made at the plant and at the end of the haul. At the plant the sample of concrete shall be taken after the + — 4" —_ oe ——— ate =F Gu : Ec BLEVATION =<)" PLAN Fic. 35.—Cone for concrete slump test. entire batch has been discharged from the mixer. At the end of the haul the slump sample shall be taken from the batch after it has been dumped on the subgrade. The slump at the points of deposition shall be suitable for the particular type of finish employed, a 68 BULLETIN 9, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 50. DETERMINATION OF PERCENTAGE OF PIGMENT IN PAINTS. The per cent of pigment shall be determined by extracting a weighed amount of from 10 to 50 grams of the paint, or from 5 to 30 grams of the paste, several times with light paraffin naphtha (preferably 86° B.), using approximately 50 c.c. of fresh naphtha for each extraction, and repeating the operation until the liquid of extrac- tion remains clear and colorless. The amount taken for analysis may be varied according to the nature of the material. The extraction and washing of the pigment shall be completed by the use of two or three portions of about 50 c. c. of ether, the pigment finally dried to constant weight at 105° C., and the per cent of pigment by weight calculated. One hundred less the per cent of pigment found shall be con- sidered as the per cent of vehicle. 51. TESTS FOR THE AMOUNT OF SPELTER COATING ON CULVERT METAL. The amount of spelter coating shall be determined by one of the following methods: (a) Lead acetate method.—The solution used for making this test is prepared by dissolving 400 grams of crystallized lead acetate in 1 liter of water. When dissolved, add 4 grams of finely powdered litharge and agitate until most of it has dissolved. The solution is allowed to settle and the clear portion decanted for use. Ordinary glass tumblers have been found very satisfactory to use in making this test, as they are the right diameter to enable the sample to be maintained in an up- right position without supports. Use several 21-inch by 24-inch pieces cut accurately to 2; inch and weighed to three decimal places. Weigh and submerge separately, for 3 minutes, in tumblers contain- ing solution of lead acetate. The samples are then taken out and the adherent lead, removed with a stiff brush or steel spatula. A burnishing action should be avoided, ~ as under some conditions closely adherent lead will be plated out ontheiron. Repeat the 3-minute immersions in the lead acetate solution until a bright surface is exposed. Four 3-minute immersions are usually sufficient. Wash specimens in water, dry, and weigh. The loss in grams will also be the loss in ounces per square foot. (b) Antimony hydrochloric acid method.'!»—Use several 24-inch by 24-inch pieces, weighed to three decimal places. They are then immersed separately for one-half minute in hydrochloric acid of specific gravity 1.20 to which has been added 5c. c. of antimony chloride solution prepared by dissolving 20 grams of antimony trioxide in 1,000 c. c. of hydrochloric acid of specific gravity 1.20. The pieces are scrubbed with a brush under running water, dried, and weighed again. About 100 c. c. of the hydrochloric acid will usually be sufficient for immersing the test pieces if a 200 c. c. beaker is used. The same portion of hydrochloric acid may be used for at least 5 test pieces. Five cubic centimeters of the antimony chloride solution, however, should be added for each sample on account of the antimony being removed from the solution by the iron. The test pieces being exactly 24 inches by 2} inches, the loss in grams will also be the loss in ounces per square foot. 12 This method is discussed at length in the Proceedings of A. T. M. 1915, p. 120. RECOMMENDED STANDARD METHODS OF SAMPLING. 52. SAMPLING BROKEN STONE. (1) By whom taken.—Samples are to be taken by the engineer or his authorized representative. (2) When taken.—Samples are to be taken from the proposed source of supply at least —— days before the stone is to be accepted or rejected, also from every —— cubic yards quarried, or when the quality or appearance of the stone changes, and at such other times as may be directed by the engineer. (3) Where and how taken.—(a) Sampling for quality: Samples shall be taken either from the quarry or from cars as directed by the engineer, and shall be sound interior rock, representative of that which it is proposed to use. Mixed samples may be taken if deemed necessary by the engineer. (6) Sampling for size: Samples of the crusher product shall be taken either at the crusher or from cars as directed by the engineer. The sample shall be mixed from runs of the crusher on different days, or if taken from cars, shall be taken from both ends and top and bottom of the car. (4) Amount and size of sample.—(a) Sampling for quality: A sample shall weigh between 25 and 40 pounds and shall consist of pieces of rock at least 14 inches in size and one piece at least 3 by 4 by 6 inches, free from seams and cracks, and with bed- © ding plane marked. (b) Sampling for size: A sample for size shall weigh not less than 10 pounds for materials of three-quarters inch maximum diameter or less. Samples of materials of other sizes shall increase in weight to a maximum of approximately 60 pounds, varying with the size and weight of the largest pieces represented by the sample. The sample shall be representative of the product as delivered for use. (5) Marking and shipping.—Samples shall be shipped in tight boxes or bags and shall be accompanied by a card in the container or securely attached thereto, stating date, by whom taken, by whom submitted, source of supply, exact location where sample was taken, proposed purpose to which the material is to be put, space for remarks, and in case of quarry investigations, owner, quantity available, amount and character of stripping, whether material from same source has been previously used, where and for what purpose, and with what results, haul to nearest point on road, average haul to job, character of haul, initial cost of rock. Notification of sampling containing the above data shall be forwarded separately to the laboratory immediately upon taking the sample. ; 53. SAMPLING BROKEN SLAG. (1) By whom taken.—Samples are to be taken by the engineer or his authorized representative. (2) When taken.—Samples are to be taken from the proposed source of supply at least —— days before the slag is to be accepted or rejected, also from every —— cubic yards quarried, or when the quality or appearance of the slag changes, and at such other times as may be directed by the engineer. (3) Where and how taken.—(a) Sampling for quality: Samples shall be taken either from the deposit or from cars as directed by the engineer, and shall be representative of that which it is proposed to use. Mixed samples may be taken if deemed necessary by the engineer. 69 70 BULLETIN 9, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (6) Sampling for size: Samples of the crusher product shall be taken either at the crusher or from cars as directed by the engineer. The samples shall be mixed from runs of the crusher on different days, or if taken from cars, shall be taken from both ends and top and bottom of the car. (4) Amount and size of sample.—(a) Sampling for quality: A sample shall weigh between 25 and 40 pounds and shall consist of pieces of slag at least 14 inches in size and one piece at least 3 by 4 by 6 inches. (6) Sampling for size: A sample for size shall weigh not less than 10 pounds for material of three-quarters inch maximum diameter or less. Samples of materials of other sizes shall increase in weight to a maximum of approximately 60 pounds, vary- ing with the size and weight of the largest pieces represented by the sample. The sample shall be representative of the product as delivered for use. (5) Marking and shipping.—Samples shall be shipped in tight boxes or bags and shall be accompanied by a card in the container or securely attached thereto, stating date, by whom taken, by whom submitted, source of supply, exact location where sample was taken, proposed purpose to which the material is to be put, space for remarks, and in case of quarry investigations, owner, quantity available, whether material from the same source has been previously used, where and for what purpose, and with what results, haul to nearest point on road, average haul to job, character of haul, initial cost of slag. Notification of sampling containing the above data shall be forwarded separately to the laboratory immediately upon taking the sample. The conference, recognizing that in general slag is not a uniform product, recom- mends that special care should be taken to get a representative sample. 54. SAMPLING STONE BLOCK. (1) By whom taken.—Samples are to be taken by the engineer or his authorized rep- resentative. (2) When taken.—Samples are to be taken at least —— days before the block is to be accepted or rejected, or when the quality or appearance of the block changes, and at, such other times as may he directed by the engineer. (3) Where and how taken.—Samples shall be taken either from the quarry or from cars, as directed by the engineer. They shall be representative of the block which it is proposed to use; and no samples shall include blocks that would be rejected by a visual examination. (4) Amount and size of sample.—The sample shall consist of at least 10 blocks. The bedding plane shall be marked on at least 2 blocks. (5) Marking and shipping.—Samples shall be shipped in tight boxes and shall he accompanied by a card in the container, or securely attached thereto, stating date, by whom taken, by whom submitted, source of supply, exact location where sample was taken, proposed purpose to which the material is to be put, whether material from same source has been previously used, where and for what purpose and with what results, initial cost of block, haul to nearest point on road, average haul to job, character of haul, and space for remarks. Notification of sampling, containing the above data. shall be forwarded separately to the laboratory immediately upon taking the sample. 55. SAMPLING GRAVEL. (1) By whom taken.—Samples are to be taken by the engineer or his authorized rep- resentative. (2) When taken.—Samples are to be taken from the proposed source of supply at least —— days before the gravel is to be accepted or rejected, also from every —— SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. fel cubic yards excavated, or when the quality or appearance of the gravel changes, and at such other times as may he directed by the engineer. (3) Where and how token.—(a) Sampling at the pit: Enough samples shall be taken to represent an average of the material. Anindividual sample must be taken through a full vertical section of that material which it is proposed to use at the point selected. Each sample shall be taken from a freshly exposed vertical face. (6) Sampling from cars, barges, etc.: Enough samples shall be taken, as directed by the engineer, to represent average composition. Samples from cars shall be taken from both ends and from top and bottom of the car. (4) Amount and size of sumple.—(a) Sampling for quality: For screened gravel | sample shall weigh 25 to 30 pounds. For bank gravel sample shall weigh 50 to 75 pounds, (b) Sampling for size: A sample for size shall weigh not less than 10 pounds for mate- rials of three-quarter-inch maximum diameter or Jess. Samples of materials of other sizes shall increase in weight to a maximum of approximately 60 pounds, varying with the size and weight of the largest pieces represented by the sample. The sample shall be representative of the product as delivered for use. (5) Marking and shipping.—Samples shall be shipped in tight boxes or bags and shall be accompanied by a card in the container or securely attached thereto, stating date, by whom taken, by whom submitted, source of supply, exact location where sample was taken, proposed purpose to which the material is to be put, space for remarks, and, in case of pit or bank investigation, owner, quantity available, amount and character of stripping, whether material from same source has been previously used, where and for what purpose and with what results, haul to nearest point on road, average haul to job, character of haul, initial cost of gravel. Notification of sampling, containing the above data, shall be forwarded separately to the laboratory immediately upon taking the sample. 56. SAMPLING SAND. (1) By whom taken.—Samples are to be taken by the engineer or his authorized representative. (2) When taken.—Samples are to be taken from the proposed source of supply at least days before the sand is to be accepted or rejected, also from every —— cubic yards excavatea, or when the quality or appearance of the sand changes, and at such other times as may be directed by the engineer. (3) Where and how taken.—Samples shall be taken from freshly exposed portions of the deposit as directed by the engineer. Mixed samples may be taken if deemed necessary. In general, the number of samples shall be sufficient to cover the extreme variation of quality in that part of the deposit which is proposed to be used. (4) Amount and size of sample.—Kach sample, whether individual or composite, shall weigh between 10 and 15 pounds. (5) Marking and shipping.—Sampies shall be shipped in tight boxes or bags and shall be accompanied by a card in the container or securely attached thereto, stating date, by whom taken, by whom submitted, source of supply, exact location where sample was taken, proposed purpose to which the material is to be put, space for remarks, and in case of source investigation, owner, quantity available, amount and character of stripping, whether material from same source has been previously used, where and for what purpose, and with what results, haul to nearest point on road, average haul to job, character of haul, initial cost of sand. Notification of sampling, containing the above data, shall be forwarded separately to the laboratory immediately upon taking the sample. 72 BULLETIN 949, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 57. SAMPLING SEMIGRAVEL, TOP SOIL, AND SAND-CLAY. Samples of materials of this class shall be of two kinds: Class I, samples of the raw material taken from the natural deposit; Class II, samples of the loose material after being mixed in place on the roadbed and before consolidation. Class I samples shall be used simply as preliminary evidence of the suitability of the ageregate, subject to admixture of one or more ingredients to adjust the composition to the limits set forth in the specifications. The final acceptance of the material as satisfying the specifications shall be based cn Class II samples. Standard containers.—(1) A three-compartment box of pasteboard, wood, or metal, outside dimensions 5 by 10 by 10 inches; or (2) close woven bags or sacks of material which do not allow sifting out of fine-particles, dimensions 6 inches wide by 12 inches long. Labeling.—Each compartment in the box container must contain a label showing at what depth the contents were taken. The whole sample shall be accompanied by a card, securely attached thereto, stating date, by whom taken, by whom submitted, source of supply, exact location where sample was taken, position within the deposit where taken, owner, quantity available, amount and character of stripping, if any, whether material from same source has been previously used, where, and with what results, haul to nearest point on road, average haul to job, character of haul, initial cost of material. When bag containers are used, one complete sample shall comprise 3 bags, each bag labeled as to depth from which the material is taken. Each bag, or, if preferred, a larger receptacle containing the three bags, is to be labeled with the information detailed above. How to take Class I samples.—For each 1 acre or less of area two samples must be taken, one a local sample and the other a composite sample. The local sample is to be taken near the center of the area and is intended to represent the vertical average of the material at that point. It shall be taken in three layers, each layer —— inches thick, according to the method described as follows: The material is to be loosened over a 3 by 3 foot area to the specified depth, usually 4 inches. The loose material is to be intermixed with a shovel and the sample for one compartment of the box container or one of the bags is to be taken therefrom. The remaining loose material is to be shoveled out and discarded. The second layer is to be loosened to equal depth, usually 4 inches, to be intermixed as before, and a second compartment or bag is to be filled. The same procedure shall apply to the third layer and the filling of the third compartment or bag. In exceptionally thick deposits the depth of each layer or the number of ieee may be increased to cover the entire thickness of the deposit. The composite sample is to be taken as follows: Roughly divide the area to be rep- resented by the sample into squares not exceeding 50feetinsize. At the corners of all squares loosen a 3 by 3 foot area to a depth of 3inches. Thoroughly mix the loose material. Carry an equal amount of the material from each such point to a central point and intimately mix the various samples. Not less than 200 pounds of material must beso mixed. From the center of the pile of mixed material fill a container and label for shipment. Where the material occurs as a substratum sink no less than four 3 by 3 foot pits per acre or smaller area to intersect the material. Remove the covering, andsample the exposed bed as for a local sample described above. How to take Class IT samples.—These are the mostimportant samples and should be taken by the engineer or competent inspector while work is in progress. 13 A depth of 8 inches is suggested. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS, 718 When the materials have been spread and intimately mixed in accordance with properly drawn clauses covering methods of construction, the engineer should fill a container at intervals of —— ™ feet, along the road, and also at such other points as his judgement may dictate, where evidence of unsatisfactory mixing is apparent. Very prompt examination of these samples should be made in order that defects of composition may be remedied by the builder before consolidation has progressed. 58. SAMPLING BITUMINOUS MATERIALS. GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS. All samples should be selected to represent as nearly as possible an average of the material, care being taken that they are not contaminated with other materials. It is recommended also that special care be taken to forward the samples in clean, suitable containers, and wherever possible all materials should be sampled at the point of manufacture, and sufficiently in advance of shipment of the material repre- sented to allow for the testing and reporting upon the samples before shipment. When impracticable to take samples at the point of manufacture they should be taken by the engineer or inspector from the shipment immediately upon delivery. In collecting samples, if there is any doubt of the homogeneity of the material it is recommended that individual samples be lifted as hereinafter described, and such samples should be forwarded to the laboratory, where tests should be conducted to determine the uniformity, after which a composite sample of equal parts of the individual samples may be mixed for complete tests. Samples should be taken as frequently as neccessary to insure the uniformity of the material. : Marking samples.—Samples should be marked for identification in such manner that the identification will not be removed in transit. Notification of sampling containing this identification, together with such other information as is required or of advantage to the laboratory, should be separately forwarded to the laboratory immediately upon taking the sample. Size of samples.—No sample should be less than 1 quart, whether for complete testing or for individual test. Plant sampling.—Drip samples are recommended. In taking drip samples, the pumping should be continued until sufficient time has elapsed to clean the line before sample is taken. The drip valve should be so regulated that the collecting of the material continues through the entire time of pumping. When impracticable to follow the above method it is recommended that samples be taken from the storage tank at three different levels. Material in barrels or drums at a plant should be sampled by taking samples from not less than 3 per cent of the containers. Whenever possible, the portion of the sample from each drum or barrel should be taken from near the heart of the barrel after it has been split open. Where samples must be taken from the top of the barrel, the material lying within 3 inches of the surface should not be included. A hatchet or any sharp-pointed tool is suitable for the purpose of digging into the barrel. (Important.—Do not use kerosene on the blade.) The several portions are then to be pressed in a can of not less than 1 quart capacity, using a quantity of material which will nearly fill the can, which is then to be tightly covered. If cans are not available and some other type of con- tainer is used, it must be entirely free from paper or any other substance to which the bituminous material adheres readily. Check field samples are recommended on plant-inspected material. Field sampling.—For barrel shipments, see plant barrel sampling. 14 Intervals of 500 feet are suggested. 74 BULLETIN 9, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Sampling fluid products—When a fluid material is shipped in tank cars, and the sample is to be taken directly from the tank car to represent an average of the entire tank-car contents, the following method is suggested: A tin can, with a tight-fitting removable cover and wire handle, is secured, and a number of holes one-eighth of an inch in diameter are punched in the cover. This bucket is then weighted in any convenient way and lowered slowly by means of a cord attached to the handle through the entire depth of the tank car, so that the can will be filled with material from all depths of the car. This can is then emptied into another can of at least 1 quart capacity having a screw top or other equally tight cap or cover. A sample is more representative when the tank car has been agitated before the sample is taken. Where individual samples are desired to check the uniformity of material throughout a tank car, it is suggested that thief samples be taken from top and middle and a third sample be taken from the outlet valve through which a sufficient amount of bituminous material has been allowed to flow in order to clean the valve properly. Semisolid products.—Barrel shipments are to be sampled as in plant sampling. Tank-car shipments are to be sampled through the dome by the use of a clean hot shovel. Bituminous aggregates.'°—It is suggested that a 5-pound sample be submitted when the material is sampled before being placed in the pavement. Samples of pavements should be at least 1 square foot in area. The material should be carefully boxed in order that it may remain intact during transit. 59. SAMPLING PORTLAND CEMENT. See test No. 17. 60. SAMPLING PAVING BRICK. See test No. 18. 61. SAMPLING METAL CULVERTS. Owing to lack of uniformity of spelter coating on culvert sheets, it is recommended that as many samples as possible be taken from different culverts, each sample to be about 3 inches square. The samples should be straightened ele in a press or vise—under no circum- stances should they be hammered. 62. SAMPLING OF PAINT AND PAINT MATERIALS. Where a shipment of such material consists of a number of separate packages a sample should be taken from a sufficient number of such packages to give a repre- sentative composite sample. The contents of the containers should be stirred to homogeneous consistency before sampling. In case of mixed paints, oils, and thinners the sample should be at least a pint. Preferably the sample should be placed in an air-tight friction top can. In the case of pastes and dried pigments the sample should be approximately 1 pound. 15 The term “‘bituminous aggregate’”’ is defined as follows: The mineral or other aggregate, together with the bitumen which is used as the cementing medium. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 75 MISCELLANEOUS MATTER. 63. LIST OF APPARATUS FOR CONDUCTING TESTS ON BITUMINOUS MATERIALS FOR ROAD CONSTRUCTION.’° Analytical balance with weights. Rough balance. Pycnometer—Hubbard-Carmick type. Hydrometers and jar. Penetrometer. Constant temperature oven. Open cup flash tester. Ring and ball apparatus. Ductility machine. Erlenmeyer flasks. Porcelain gooch crucibles and asbestos. Aluminum float with three brass collars. Engler flasks (250 c. c. distillation flasks of special dimension). Condenser tubes. 25 c. c. graduates. Sprengel tubes. Copper still, with steel Slane. dimensions 6 by 34 inches. Ring burner to fit copper still. necessary inside Engler viscosimeter with standard ther- mometer. Extractor for bituminous mixes. Platinum crucible, cover and triangle. Vacuum pump. Spatula knives. Stop watch. Burners, Meker and Tirrill. Rubber tubing. Stirring rods. Tripods. Thermometers. Triangles. Wire gauze. Hot plate. Waiter still. Desiccator. 3-ounce tin cans, deep pattern, Gill type, American Can Co. 2-ounce tin cans. 64. LIST OF APPARATUS FOR PHYSICAL TESTING OF NONBITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS.” 1 Deval abrasion machine with four cyl- inders. limpact machine for toughness test (optional). 1 diamond-core drill, with suitable drill press (optional). 1 diamond saw (optional). 1 grinding lap (optional). 5 pounds No. 120 carborundum. 1 forcing press for breaking samples for Deval test (optional). 1 scale, capacity 5 kilograms and sensi- tive to 0.5 gram. 1scale, capacity 1,000 grams and sensi- tive to 0.1 gram. 1 large drying oven. 110-inch desiccator, chloride. 1 millimeter scale. 1 100 c. c. graduate. 1100 c. c. beaker. 1 16-inch sieve, reinforced, with square openings 74 inch in size. 1 50-pound anvil. 1 10-pound sledge. 1 3-pound double-face stone hammer. 1 14-pound single-face stone hammer. 1 6-inch scoop. 1 cement-testing machine. 1 200,000-pound testing machine, versal type (optional). 6 3-gang cement molds. with calcium Uni- 1 set of Gilmore needles 1 Vicat needle l complete set of standard screens and sieves. 1 platform scale. 1 mixing pan for concrete, 3 by 4 feet. 1 large trowel. 1 small trowel. 1 sieve agitator. 1 cement-mixing table with nonabsorbent tone optional. top. lnonabsorbent closet for storage of briquettes. l apparatus for accelerated soundness test. 6 pieces plate glass, 4 by 12 inches. 6 pieces plate glass, 4 by 4 inches. 1 immersion tank for storage of briquettes. 1 pair seamless rubber eloves. 126 by 12 inch cylindrical molds with metal base plates. 1 truncated cone for slump test, 4 by 12 by 8 inches. l specific gravity vessel (Bull. 555, U.S. Dept. of Agric., fig. 1). 1 Le Chatelier specific eravity flask. 100-pound bag standard Ottawa sand. 1 }-cubic foot cylindrical measure. 1 cubic foot measure. 1 tempering tank for mixing water. 1 puddling bar 3 by 21 inches. 16 This list includes those items of equipment that would be used ordinarily. A number of additional pieces of apparatus might be required for occasional tests. 17 This list Includes items of equipment that will be used continuously and also certain items of equip- ment which will be used only occasionally, and these latter are indicated as ‘‘optional.” 76 BULLETIN 949, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 65. THE MANUFACTURE AND USE OF LABORATORY DIAMOND CORE DRILLS. Black carbons or diamonds used for laboratory drills should range from 75 to 3 inch in size, and should be dense and regular in shape. Diamonds suitable for the work will weigh in the neighborhood of 0.1 carat each and from six to eight diamonds are required for a l-inch drill. They may be obtained from any of the diamond importers. The diamond drill consists of a bronze crown soldered to the end of a seamless steel tube about 44 inches long and 1§ inches outside diameter and carrying six diamonds, each about 35 inch in diameter. The other end of the steel tube carries a No. 2 Morse taper hollow drill shank through which water is admitted to the inside of the drill. The drill crown proper is made of Tobin bronze, 1-inch internal diameter, 13-inch external diameter, } inch high, with a recess 345 inch in depth by 1% inches in diameter in which the steel tube issoldered. Figure 3 gives a detailed view of the drill crown showing the various dimensions. In figure 36 are shown the various pieces of appara- tus used in the operation of setting the diamonds in the drill crown. A isa piece of cold-drawn steel 14 by 4 by 6 inches with a yoke Cand thumbscrew and is used to Fiq. 36.—Apparatus used in manufacture of diamond drill. hold the drill crowns. After mounting a crown in the clamp as shown, six holes are drilled in the face of the crown at equal distances apart, three of the holes almost breaking through the outside of the face of the ring and three almost breaking through the inside of the face. The holes should be slightly smaller than the diamonds which are to be used, and each should be slightly nicked on the thin edge with a fine file. A diamond is now placed in one of the holes, gently tapped with a piece of brass so as to hold it in place, after which the crown is placed in a small jeweler’s vice ‘‘D” having jaws of soft steel or brass and with which the diamond is forced into the hole. Should the diamond not stand the pressure and crumble, it is not fit for drilling and should be used for other purposes. It should be possible to force any diamond good enough for drilling purposes into a hole in the above manner. Flat drills B, made of $-inch drill rod, turned to about 4 inch long and of a size slightly smaller than the diamonds, are used for drilling the holes. It has been found that the flat drills are better than twist drills for they are stiffer and do away with a center punch. After the diamonds are all set, the drill is soft soldered to the end of the steel tube and is then ready for use. SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. vere Any drill press equipped with a hollow spindle and with the table so arranged that the water carrying the rock cuttings may be properly collected and carried away is satistactory for use in rock drilling. A drill press carrying a No. 2 Morse taper is large enough. The speed of the drill should be in the neighborhcod of 300 revolu- tions per minute. Great care should be exercised when first using a diamond drill. A block of very soft limestone or sandstone should be selected and a number of cores cut from this stone until it is found that the drill is working properly, after which it may be used Fic. 37.—Diamond drillin use. on harder rock. The sample should be bedded on a bag filled with sand as shown in figure 37, or in the case of very small pieces, it may be necessary to mount the samples in plaster of Paris before drilling. Plenty of water should be used on the inside of the drill so as to keep the space under the crown entirely free from rock cuttings, which, especially in the case of soft rock, have a tendency to ‘‘gum up” the drill. After one or two cores have been drilled, their diameter should be measured, and if it is found that the drill is cutting cores more than 25 mm. or less than 24 mm. in diameter, one or two of the diamonds must be reset. If the drill crown is turned to the dimen- A 78 BULLETIN 99, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sions shown, however, and the diamonds set as indicated, the cores should come out very close to 25 mm. in diameter. The pressure should be applied always by hand and never automatically on account of the tendency of carbons to shatter if subjected to any appreciable impact. When drilling stone by hand, the pressure on the drill may be regulated in accordance with the character of the material being drilled. This is, of course, not the case if an automatic feed is used. A much greater pressure may be used when drilling fine-grained, homogeneous materials, such as trap, even if the rock is very hard, than in the case of coarse-grained, non-homogeneous materials or stone in which minerals of greater hardness than the mass of the rock are embedded. With a properly constructed drill, it should be possible to cut a core 4 inches in length from rock of medium hardness in about 10 minutes. Properly constructed drills will cut from 20 to 50 feet of rock, depending, of course, on the average hardness of the stone being used. 19 SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. PRO OG 0 OOS OS OSC OO nono Dro no moo Gono pajLodaxy Sr a ait ky Moines ep IER ie gC RI Reebaca ee Ringe gS tory arabe ae ie nike me aecnr gale eae Sy LO CLLOAUE ae : = — PSO Eom omen neotugivig) Se 229 9 = NG| [ORRISE\), [oo 2 =o Ses eeosiaG) G eae ees ‘nGhizoroygy US Ses Aq peysey, Bee ITO“: 22 qduog “== -- 7 Aq peso a PISO DSS BREESE ut ‘bs sod *sq] “48 “Ap Gap gly Sawer eae il eet Mea Sem eS P NO) KO RONG acs Se RAGS RS a ano O Du Rie “ssouysno} “AV eee veteeteterg: creep ceeeeg teeeeeg cee eey COs eae as aa rao ~ peoy JIU) SES IP EE Rane cathe Saat aos Ce “eau ANGTT) “HATVA ONILNEWHO TY VE |... ---- 2-2-2]... 2222s e-feee ee PBOT [BIOL (3) DD) pe ceboccets Pac seceann ease ee HEMI MASI foo Pe oso Oo eSTTgIG) Soe ee es An@havtoyg) Coe cee Aq peso, SS ONES) IN OLS eae Semetter tattle okra cee Gigi |ihee SPs ae alee Sa PAOr VOMET EE oo toe Se ten igen eu we oe “ay “no “sqy “sqy ert eS ee (3) (1) nen SRSA TE MOY Wet ep gece =o caamte nS : NOUS MOS) Serie COD SEM OC SOD ODS OO OU OCG OG SUS “ja0o “piey “oAV i x S6il| oder i) |) se ieee eeUORCLIOSONy: ae ee a a en ee Reap seis Gk cee el le eps or SIU] 96 UTVX) ae A ee ee ee ae ce 0s eas THOM, UG] Oeil, He gilbace oP essee.|ee noose Smee aaah Si iahale h |iP > Shas mace era| egstc acs N= > AOI YOO‘T S8O'T Be Ne es ead atl tavama ele en ISS SIS A PIC CoA ete | Case li Laced ca CIN) FOC eae eS SI Nina gM ee TUN NGS} UCLO (a pees Mee ac vem ot Aa ed enc ee each gies aoe! 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[PROS SOE ASSIS (SISTO) Watasacap ela ee a a fe oonl AAS HRSUDU YS crseee snes Rae aaa a 4M “SUIO ee ee reer eee eee se setae OO) esa AG Danse, “ONIHSVM AG HSHW 002 “ON UWHANN SBE eh aie ikea ane egs Choe ae Gada tert Te e------ eee ee ee MUG Sa AQUIOG See ee sen ee Aq peisey, “HO TVA ONIDNAWAHO 2 202° 2 | ————_—_—— - . _ Sa aeaees Pauaarct acer ioay 006 “ON topuy | Mie athe abe ~ “YM [BULOIG SKED (RG NEG Yoga epanee BORED) MBE ee oa Ph Nec INGEIOEEE I, I eaciceetecs aan - 002 ‘on—oot ‘on (Pe cli Aten ut $10A9 SR Tia eg i SPO at CE Nc | a oe eins oan Ree a gn et Aq ape aye(] STR B INN Aa cect |e hae ale GOT ONSTORHORe ee DIM eae Ur j—"ut $ OG IT alge ete eto CMBIQ “77777777777 eTdures ‘posn 1098 beeen efecc ee ek fees eee og & apg A Pn Gna ee : PRs hepa at te oe ; Zs Paki al | soaaee spanned) SIRON OG SON : . of sdep gz i % Bee Oe eee a SNE [aminine-<|mnininis cin gnaw minnie ul f—"Ur T a ES ee le ee wi 0S “ON—OF “ON x ; ae ea OAV : Se ie Sapte ela leben sty ee aE oy, | | SSS OPEL ON =O GOIN a lteter ee 29 el ut §[—"utz YE SIRS ae ie es On | Se Et SRL Na wR CF et Wied conta tr carl i ead (fee OS “ON—06 “ON A ee Te OT See ae. “ul tee $c 2 cae Rec apc we dl peer Means RAR ROAR TR il Be Moe fete 8 alfa oo tos ORAL arteries Nueem() [ears uN Toe ests a3) 2s "Re pista hese ieee petri tes ise TE So nc I Pe eae a be ena eho Mal LF ag ale dare | ca a OT ONS Ur Lee | eo ee aie UL § BAO ABP-8z “ACP-1, “ABP-9z ACP-), = E : —— —_——— “pug Bareq49 ‘pug oydueg % “LAN ‘pOY— ‘ssvg % TA "QOY——"SsBq = us ! J = “SLSG.L NOISNGL “SISATIVNYV 'TYOINVHOUWIN if it nf ‘a 39 (0789.9) (Ayano) (amo) Sie Ss 0 0 Se eee oh ERR OEE gM TR SSP DLO Nast ea a ard aah ocd tc th NC ae ape ie Ae en nn Ne ae ara eT a eee “ONT 7 DUN “SLSA], THAVUY) GNV GNVG CAr1OVBIOGB] JO OMEN) 81 SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS, were eset te tee et et ee ee eee ee eee eee eet eee eet ese tee eee see tee ee eer cece mn eee nee seers eee ee eee ee meee te tee ee te eee ee ee tte et te tt et te et ts Se ee ce Se Ce ac ce ee a ane AS) Gh Sa ee ee eee Shee a a aa eee, PSs emits OBOE TS ‘SIU ¢ poulveys eq SHNGNNOG AUDIOS so se are LU ie cater: = tee Tena SONILLAS 4O AW, “AED 8 “Aep J “Moy FZ 10 N ie MEX Gl [aan See prea ~- Aq ope FH LONG LG ects NAT) «||. ejecta wee eaenne DAVIS 00Z “ON SUIsSeg Off, BEER PERI BRB ERNE Naa hie cro Sean pciean eee yee es “OASIS QOL ON suIsseg :SSANANI ~* Aq ope (poyrmsy)- ~~~ ==> = % SONORODRINts nae = ese eter ee rea | :(10T[OYVYO OT) ALIAVUD O1dIOMag aie he Seelb ayses eS es WUD Ia ESF BS Se (e939) (-Aqyunog) a ee ee a ah OLULUTO NTs casein ie oe cas tage & alee ne o Y DELUCA AY (Main Pa, = Wier ne Sasa ae “paylopp ~~ oo meres SLSG], ONGAWH) (‘£107¥10q e[ Jo eureN) 29465 °—21-—Bull. 949-6 82 BULLETIN 9, U, S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 2 CEN ERI SO Oe Gla RACE So aa er DORIOGONT = 2 2S SS RE one OO erste a ame aes ana g Io tT Sinielel= Sie parle ee lca leinineyrnie nepege er ria cere ee ees eiee's Mee ress e Peees cE sss pest eS Ee Sse esgic SyLoUWaay CIR Pee EE Ee Brae ate ekh i>) eae sc Iam Fe eee ae Ae Ieee le ee S Sie cack See aseg ERT uoroadsur isp] anurs sjsay, fo “ONT PES ee | Se ee ae YO) Sao ns = eee UO ARI et AO pelsag, a nl IT CP IGRI SECA Cy GR Sea ap oa tae ae ae Sso'yT U90 Iog spout ovsio. sis ise de Sister tas We yekel oassele lemmaaner si oleie oi DUG: | “SQ eee ee | auiee eae Fe PS ee elec eas Fee Ae oe ek ee Wider. |, SO tei ae ee en ee ee re ACU: OulL], SUOTIN[OADT 28C)[ieeeeoh:cetareeees gees gs ae SPS Se 4M [RIVIUT VLVG DNINNOW = a= 6 (emia = © minln apm im wie milla walneal cla nino a oiw mn [in i= aia = 2a 2 rile )~ininiwjaic = 2\0\wie\e = eee sis aleeiae sciciicisic = - aSIVYD [BIOL “NOLLGYOSAV : eT McRae MM eM ama ee cya a ie] | Rr Sp enamel escegs Soaeys cae Rae i Rin ot cars soroyds [[eulg | ~-""""--- PIO Sas cw and ada tee Aq paisa, Sh niet ich diced iciecicon| ma Ag ae eee eo | lconmscate a | ea res a orice ras | aay bea soloyds ase] Sq'T “IM ‘ON “sult “sur ‘sur irene ‘qideq ‘YU pRolg ‘yjsueT LSaL WA TLoV a SNOISNYUWIG (99849) (-Ayunop) (‘mMo.T,) "SP Cif Seo oe iles . ros o oe | ULSAN K spe psys Deere ge CaM 8 Mah ata A hl aed a alan alas aba s —a g eaaay 11) 7) aay ay) PTS SESa], MOIUNG (‘£107810q BI JO Te N) SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS, 83 (Name and location of laboratory.) REPORT ON SAMPLE OF ROCK OR SLAG. Walsoratory NO. 2.22222) 252: Se SERPENT RSMPTINURE CAC SEPSE © et mie ea EA ype ee oreo 2 seas Ab od nla DuMeniied DY.2.....-.......50 7222. irtlews. 352 28225-23 Address....:....3 =a OLELN20) = nee ee ia "gt? 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S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ; 67. COMPARISON OF DEGREES BAUME AND SPECIFIC GRAVITY. (Liquids lighter than water.) 140 140 eT. = 75 op at 15.5° C. (2) °B.=———— —- aD (1) Sp. gr. 304° zat 15.5 Ci) wo Spee 130 at 15.5° C. ash Sp. gr PBs Sp. gr. cs Sp. gr. ons Sp. gr. 10 1. 0000 31 0. 8695 52 0. 7692 73 0. 6896 11 - 9929 32 . 8641 53 . 7650 74 - 6863 12 - 9859 33 - 8588 54 . 7609 75 - 6829 13 . 9790 34 . 8536 55 . 1567 76 6796 14 - 9722 85 . 8484 56 - 7526 77 6763 15 - 9655 36 - 8433 57 . 7486 78 6731 16 9589 37 . 8383 58 - 7446 79 - 6698 17 9523 38 - 8333 59 . 7407 80 6666 18 . 9459 3 . 8284 60 . 7368 81 - 6685 19 - 9395 40 - 8235 61 . 7330 §2 - 6604 20 . 9333 41 . 8187 62 - 1292 83 . 6573 21 . 9271 42 . 8139 63 . 7254 84 - 6542 22 9210 43 . 8092 64 7216 85 6511 ZR 9150 44 . 8045 65 . 7179 86 - 6482 24 090 45 - 8000 66 . 7143 87 6452 25 9032 46 . 1954 67 . 7167 88 - 6422 26 8974 47 . 7809 68 - 7071 89 - 6393 27 8917 48 . 7865 69 . 7035 90 6363 ; 28 8860 49 . 7821 70 . 7000 29 8805 50 = LO. 71 . 6965 30 . 8750 51 ~ 1734 72 . 6931 68. COMPARISON OF CENTIGRADE AND FAHRENHEIT DEGREES. CONOR WNrO 9 5(°F. —32). (yer =o. B30 (yom See 5 | 9 F. C. I. C F C F C. Fr C. F. 32.0 388} 100.4 76 168.8 || 114 | 287.2 ||} 152 | 305.6 || 190 374.0 33.8 39 102 2 77 | 170.6 || 115] 239.0 || 153 | 307.4 || 191 375. 8 35.6 40 104. 0 78 | 172.4 || 116} 240.8 || 154] 309.2 || 192 377.6 37.4 41 105. 8 79 | 174.2 || 117 | 242.6 || 155 | 311.0 || 193 379. 4 39. 2 42] 107.6 80 | 176.0 || 118 | 244.4 || 156] 312.8 || 194 881. 2 41.0 43 109. 4 81 177.8 || 119} 246.2 || 157 | 314.6 || 195 383.0 42.8 44 111.2 82 | 179.6 || 120] 248.0 || 158] 316.4 || 196 384, 8 44.6 45 113.0 83 181.4 |) 121 249. 8 || 159 318.2 || 197 386. 6 46.4 46 114.8 84 183.2 || 122} 251.6 || 160 | 320.0 || 198 388. 4 48,2 AT) ALGS6 85 | 185.0 |[ 123} 253.4 || 161 321.8 |{ 199 390. 2 50. 0 48 118. 4 86 186.8 |} 124 255. 2 || 162 323.6 || 200 392.0 51.8 49 120. 2 87 188.6 |} 125 257.0 || 163 325.4 || 201 393. 8 53. 6 50 | 122.0 88} 190.4 || 126] 258.8 || 164] 327.2 |} 202 395. 6 55. 4 51 123.8 89 192.2 || 127 | 260.6 || 165 | 329.0 |} 203 397. 4 57.2 52 125.6 90 | 194.0 || 128} 262.4 || 166] 330.8 || 204 399. 2 59. 0 53 127.5 91 195.8 || 129 | 264.2 |} 167 | 332.6 || 205 401.0 60. 8 54 129, 2 92 197.6 || 130 | 266.0 |) 168 | 334.4 || 206 402.8 62.6 55 131.0 93 199. 4 || 131 267.8 || 169 | 336.2 || 207 404.6 64. 4 56 132.8 94] 201.2 || 132 | 269.6 || 170] 338.0 || 208 406. 4 66. 2 57 134.6 || 95] 203.0 || 1383) 271.4 || 171 339.8 || 209 408. 2 68.0 58 136. 4 96 | 204.8 || 134 | 273.2 || 172) 341.6 || 210 410.0 69. 8 59 138. 2 97 | 206.6 || 135} 275.0 || 173 | 348.4 || 220 428.0 71.6 60 | 140.0]; 98} 208.4 |) 186 | 276.8 || 174 | ,345.2 230 446.0 3.4 61 141.8 99 | 210.2 || 1387 | 278,6 || 175 | 347.0 || 240 464. 0 (BEY 62 143.6 || 100 | 212.0 || 138 | 280.4 || 176 | 348.8 || 250 482.0 77.0 63 145. 4 ;| 101 213.8 ;| 139 282.2 ,| 177 350.6 || 260 500. 0 78.8 64 147.2 || 102 | 215.6 |} 140] 284.0 || 178 | 352.4 || 270 518.0 80.6 || 65 149.0 |} 103 | 217.4 |} 141 285.8 || 179 | 354.2 || 280 536. 0 82.4 || 66 150.8 || 104 219. 2 || 142 287.6 || 180 356.0 |} 290 554.0 84.2 || 67 152.6 || 105 221.0 || 143 289.4 || 181 357.8 |} 3800 572.0 86.0 || 68 154.4 || 106 222.8 || 144 291.2 || 182 359.6 || 350 662. 0 87.8 69 156. 2 || 107 221.6 || 145 293.0 || 188 361.4 || 400 752.0 89.6 70 158.0 || 108 | 226.4 || 146} 294.8 || 184] 363.2 |) 450 842.0 91.4 71 159.8 |} 109 228. 2 || 147 296.6 || 185 365.0 |} 500 932.0 93. 2 72 161.6 || 110 230.0 |} 148 298.4 || 186 366. 8 || 550 1,022.0 95. 0 73 163.4 |! 111 231.8 || 149 | 300.2 || 187 | 368.6 || 600] 1,112.0 96. 8 74 165. 27)" 112 233.6 || 150 302.0 || 188 370.4 |} 650 1, 202.0 98.6 75 167.0 |) 113 35.4 || 151 303.8 || 189 372.2 |} 70 1, 292. 0 SAMPLING AND TESTING HIGHWAY MATERIALS. 69. METRIC CONVERSION TABLES. 95 Length. Capacity. Mass. Bee United States | Cubic centi- |) Avoirdupois Inches. Millimeters. liquid ounces. meters. paces Grams. yy =0. 0312 0. 7938 Lies Le arse 29. 574 (eas Sees 28. 3495 qs= . 0625 1, 5875 Dee Bade 59. 147 PEE Seer 56. 6991 4= .1250 38. 1750 ape sese 88. 721 See wont 85. 0486 4— ., 2500 6. 3500 We cienis ee 118. 295 BS aN Savors 113, 3981 = .9000 12. 7000 OES aaa 147. 869 DS east 141. 7476 ieee 25. 4001 Ghee 177. 442 GUSH hee ne 170. 0972 Deis avatsa 90. 8001 (ae WAS eae 207. 016 Ube eee SERIE 198. 4467 Beis Lass 76. 2002 SSL cere Bea 236. 590 Siete ee 226. 7962 Aiea ets 101. 6002 Oe eae ee 266. 163 Oke cmemeierc 255. 1457 Menus. 127. 0003 16=1pt.-.. 473.18 16=11b 453. 59 OAgapeee 152. 4003 32=1 qt 946. 36 Oh EP one 10 Ueeerees 177, 8004 128=1 gal 3, 785. 43 5 SR. 558 20 B52 Poko = 203. 2004 (he pislle aaacs 10 105822 22-2 30 Qe eae eiave 228. 6005 G7b3ees2e2 20 1.4110..._- 40 1.0144...... 30 Oaibeemee 50 UBD. nase 40 aU Gee 60 Centi- 1. 6Y07...... 50 2. 4692..... 70 meters. 2.0288... - 60. 2.8219... 80 BOM = scoce 70 Del Aleenee 90 2s (Mi ilesscee 80 3. 5270 ea eS S043 2 =e 90 BS A dasoeee 1,000=1 kilogram. een one He 3. aRi0y 100 Agia ||) 3 Be slon co: tise 1.5748 | 4 Titer: 1. 9685 5 2. 3622 6 2. 7559 7 3. 1496 8 3. 5433 9 ! 70. REFERENCES TO TESTS FOR PAINT AND PAINT MATERIALS, SEWER PIPE, DRAIN TILE, AND METALS. Determination of Per cent Pigment in Paints (See Page 68). Standard Methods for Routine Analysis of White Pigments. (Refer to A. S. T. M. Standard Method, Serial Designation: D34-17.) Standard Methods for Routine Analysis of Dry Red Lead. (Refer to A. S. T. M. Standard Method, Serial Designation: D49-18.) Standard Methods for Routine Analysis of Yellow, Orange, Red, and Brown Pigments containing Iron and Manganese. (Refer to Standard Method, Serial Designation: D50-18.) Standard Specifications for Turpentine. - (Refer to A. S. T. M. Standard, Serial Designation: D13-15.) Standard Tests for Paint Thinners other than Turpentine. (Refer to A. S. T. M. Standard Method, Serial Designation D28-17.) Standard Specifications for Purity of Boiled Linseed Oil from North American Seed. (Refer to A. S. T. M. Standard, Serial Designation: D11-15.) Standard Specifications for Purity of Raw Linseed Oil from North American Seed. (Refer to A. S. T. M. Standard, Serial Designation: D1-15.) Tentative Specifications for Cement Concrete Sewer Pipe. (Refer to A. 8. T. M. Tentative Standard, Serial Designation: C14-19T.) Standard Specifications for Drain Tile. (Refer to A. 8. T. M. Standard, Serial Designation: 04-16.) Tentative Specifications for Clay Sewer Pipe. (Refer to A. 8. T. M. Tentative Standard, Serial Designation: C13-18T.) Tests for Spelter Coatings on Culvert Metals. (See page 68.) Standard Specifications for Structural Steel for Bridges. (Refer to A. S. T. M. Standard Method, Serial Designation: A7-16.) Standard Methods for Chemical Analysis of Plain Carbon Steel. (Refer to A. S. T. M. Standard Method, Serial Designation: A33-14.) Standard Specifications for Billet Steel Concrete Reinforcement Bars. (Refer to A. S. T. M. Standard Method, Serial Designation: A15-14.) pataket ea na i ie eae eee eters a vba tos ‘y ‘/ ee sii ae ‘be Tog Nt SR toa ot ne eet ee ene Hg rhe 3 at whe | ELRAZ By iT ALA: cei ita ares (Thee che ames re te imtorh eee | ) i bert Deka daa Heri? ae Pui ai bi hab ve a ort ft utrna(grurd vie Dar i ; | ‘ | t-Vt ae c= etranes ite iv ane re bre ny f te ee nol sacra e e fmorenay Crash 2ee) Da atte h, ‘ ‘at Ret Aobiamelive die | elt Seg SEE ined Laliate ira hihed aa — aM es 7 pine Lirsy yh CELE 2 ‘i aie ii } eh - ie rt wh oe eee! ie nl % t a a fi hppa: : f by eek are FF 8 myer tie Ort Paget hat: Cie-GE4s. doetitien tT fie INDEX. LiTTROCETCUIGTASES SOS yey ST Te eRe Cre eee oir a ea rn aorkrwnNneH TESTS FOR NONBITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS. we wbrastom test for proken StONC.. 00.2 esos - wee hee cee conten ees eee cease oe Mea ORL St TOL OTA Vliet 25 8A oe eo iy ENS ota ran, isda Ao occ alain ci 4 w'aee mWonnahardnessitest tor Tock... 22.2... os ek eee fee bases eee nese Osi PrOM UOUCTMCISIOL LOCK cel es suk Baie melee Mele meas, Pec algae ge as . Specific gravity and absorption tests, stone or other coarse materials. ..-.-- . Tests for apparent specific gravity of sand, stone, or slag screenings and other fine nonbituminous highway materials. ............-------------- . Weight per cubic foot and void tests of coarse aggregate_....-.-...--.-.--- Metent per cubie foot test for fine aggregate: ..0/.-...- 4-5 5h020202-- 222 . Sieve analysis of broken stone, gravel, pebbles, or broken alae bse alr a moleve analysis of sand orfineageresate...2).2500,..2 2.2. ol . Sieve analysis of mixtures of fine and coarse aggregates. ..........-...--- . Tests for determining the amount of clay and silt in sand of fine aggregate, in gravel, and in sand-clay, topsoil, or semigravel............------.--- Plestsionseaneravel, top soil, and sand-clay...-)...2.0 22.2.2. /22.22- 022. . Tests for quality of water to be used in concrete...........--------------- . Test for organic impurities in concrete aggregate............-.--------.--- . Test for mortar-making quality of fine aggregate. .......-.--.-.--.-.-.-.. motandard speciiications for Portland cement: ..2.- 2. +... -..5te-53ae-tes - “TT@SeiS) hove Oia age] ORCC aay eee ee Ace AL oo SS re RU ee Re TESTS FOR BITUMINOUS ROAD MATERIALS. . Determination of specific gravity of bituminous materials................. . Determination of bitumen soluble in carbon disulphide...-.-.-..........- . Determination of bitumen insoluble in carbon tetrachloride. ............. . Determination of bitumen insoluble in paraffin naphtha. ................ PERV olen ihuzerivORe LCS bess en mer aene es JOU ol coe Saree iia a ee ee Peiash ane putaimMespoInt-lestsse ss. 2 eke ne ee Pl OEMECSERLOVACOMSISLCUC YS acters See he Oect ee eee eee ee ees coe aes Pebixccucarponndeterminatom.= 22222222 2iiset dese ssc ce eek tesa tes tke MC MeCINC wISCOStly, GeLerMINaAON. (22455. .0 25804. sods esas ete: . Determination of percentage of residue of ———————_penetration. ...... . Nest for penetration of bituminous materials,........--.2.----2.2------- . Determination of ductility of bituminous materials.............--.......- . Standard method for the distillation of tar and tar products . Standard method for determination of softening point of bituminous mate- fia MO LMeTLU Metal LOG WCUS a2 y-: acer ra deepengensta see) eine sae ee . Method for examination of bituminous mixtures....................-.--- . Determination of water in bituminous materials. .................-...--- mElesiscoh premoldeduountiilletss.s-2. 052. 2te as eee ee SL oe . ‘Tests for emulsions............... S eafh Se Mepcin Bik ea aE RON A aR cabs exes en Se mWeternnina tion ofparatimescalelss 22 425.) cee ee . Standard method for distillation of creosote..................-.-.------- 29465 °—21—Bull. 949-——_7 97 98 > SO GS Or Ot Ot Ot Ot Nor OO ONT SO OH BULLETIN 9, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TENTATIVE TESTS. . Proposed soundness test for coarse aggregate. . ... 2... ccceeeececcccceceee- . Tentative test for absorption of concrete. . ...-.-..... cee eee . Proposed test for percentage of shale in gravel...............2-2---0ee0ee . Proposed modification of the abrasion test for broken stone and slag... ... . Proposed abrasion test for fine aggrepate.............--.-----.-eeeeneeee- . Proposed field methods of making sieve analysis. -..-..--..---.-----.--- . Proposed field determinations of clay and silt. .......-.......-.-.-.--.-- . Proposed methods of fabricating and testing compression field specimens of concrete ..; - - 46 fs seas. Cpt Le Ee Se Ee ee eee ee ee . Proposed methods of making test specimens of concrete in the laboratory. - . Proposed transverse tesis of concrete... ...- << .2 «+ 322- staeee ene eee . Proposed test for consistency of concrete. ....-.-..2--22-242-5 se4asesn2 se . Determination of percentage of pigment in paints. .............-.....-.- . Tests for the amount of spelter coating on culvert metal............-... RECOMMENDED STANDARD METHODS FOR SAMPLING. . Broken stone. 2.5 22 2 st etavace nox eek dec ae pe ee . Broken slag... . .-...s2-2---2++2ateegenns pean ee eee eee . Stone block. o-oo Pe So ee a ce Birt . Semieravel, top soil, and. sand clay....4.-23.-¢ 5o-ee) oe ee ae eee , Bituminous materials... 3 .jqatekec ee - eke ee ee eee . Portland cement... 222.2... ee cece Be eee eee } Pawang bricks.) acon aes eae writ Sele adine + Sat eae ae Se eeeee ees . Metal culverts.2 22. c2 ocs Ge Gate eee oe eee . Paint and paint materials: = - l2.c2e2. nt 85-2 ee eee eee MISCELLANEOUS. . List of apparatus for conducting tests of bituminous materials for road construction. ee ee ie Be ee ee . List of apparatus for physical testing of nonbituminous road materials. -. . . The manufacture of a diamond;core drill... 293422 Sena eee . Forms for reporting (tests:.. «<4: 64495-24462 eee! eee ee eee . Comparison of degrees Baumé and specific gravity.........---..----+---- . Comparison of Centigrade and Fahrenheit degrees. ....-....--..---.----- . Metric conversion table... .....--.-:2/-2:-22-2eeee eee eee . References to tests for paint and paint materials, sewer pipe, drain tile, and metals.......-.2.5 222 lve. ee Se Sk ce 2 eee eee ADDITIONAL COPIES OF THIS PUBLICATION MAY BE PROCURED FROM THE SUPERINTENDENT OF DOCUMENTS GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE WASHINGTON, D. C. AT 25 CENTS PER COPY Page. 62 62 62 62 62 63 64 64 65 66 66 68 68 69 69. 70 70 71 72 73 74. 74 74 74 75 75 76 79 94 94 95 95 UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE Contribution from the Forest Service WILLIAM B. GREELEY, Forester Washington, D. C. June 15, 1921 REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES OF THE TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST, ALASKA. By Crinton G. SmirH, Forest Inspector. CONTENTS. Page Page Objects of this statement______~--- 1 | Water-power permits ____-__________ 18 Demand for pulp and paper_____-- 2 Developed water power in Alaska_ 18 Advantages of regional development_ 2 | Fuel__-_-_______---------------- 19 Importance of Alaska as a source Markets_____-_-----~--------_-__- 1? of paper supply__------------ 3 Daa see aoa eee z0 Locatiun of the region___________ 5. P Lae He gerne of Cag a Communication and accessibility_ 5 CEE RCE Poe een ea 5 : Authority to sell timber________ De Topographic and other surface Policy 23 SEES ose eee ae ee 6 Stumpage prices and readjust- Climate of the region__________ iG ments __.__ i 24 Timber and stand_--------------- 8 Stumpage price readjustments in Quality, of timber.2—--.-.+-_-__ 9 Canada a Mes pelo pene 26 Suitability for pulp and paper__ 10 Financial standing of purchasers_ 26 Mogeing tT ak ae a Es 11 Amount of capital required______ 27 Wao tee erst OE Lida le J 13 Applications for timber and water Construction of improvements_____ 14 | - DO WEI oe MeO heme eaten NAT QT Operating materials and mill sup- Time required to seaure contract__ 28 TOU eR CS a i eee 14 References 22 22 2 sae ee a ae Se) Disposal of mill effluents_________ 15 Maps and surveys_____________- 28 Water ‘supply 22 22a oe ee ee oe 15 | Sample agreement _--_-__-_-_ 29 Whe LeeDOWelee oe eee 16 | Map of Tongass National Forest____ 40 OBJECTS OF THIS STATEMENT. This statement has been prepared to aid those who wish informa- tion on the timber and other resources of the Tongass National Forest in Alaska, to indicate the capital and organization necessary for the development of Alaskan pulp and paper mills, to show what data on the timber resources of that region have been and are being collected by the Forest Service, and to outline the conditions of pur- chase of timber on the National Forests. 1 Acknowledgment is made to the Forest Products Laboratory for technical features ; particularly to a report by H. E. Surface, entitled ‘‘ Conditions Existing for the Manu- facture of Pulp and Paper in Alaska,’ material from which has been freely used; and also to the district forester at Portland, Oreg., for valuable assistance. 29729°— —1 2 BULLETIN 98, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DEMAND FOR PULP AND PAPER. The time seems to be ripe for the extensive exploitation of Alaskan pulpwood. The successful operation of pulp and paper mills in near-by British Columbia, which has practically similar timber and power resources and comparable transportation facilities, removes the speculative element from the proposed development. The de- mand for paper. has increased to such an extent that it has become possible for well-organized and adequately financed companies to operate pulp and paper mills on an extensive scale, particularly for making newsprint. Ten years ago the United States produced its entire supply of newsprint. In 1919 two-thirds of it was imported, mostly from Canada; and Canadian supplies are not without limit.” All indications point to a continuance of the demand at prices which should make possible profitable operations in Alaska. New sources are imperatively required for the supply of raw pulpwood. This need has already brought mills to the Pacific coast. They were located, first in California, Washington, and Oregon, and then in British Columbia. The same transition has taken place in the lumber industry, and the production of lumber in the Pacific Northwest is increasing steadily. The movement in the pulp in- dustry, however, is necessarily slower, because of the greater invest- ment called for per unit and the very large requirement for power. Furthermore, the pulp industry demands an assured permanent sup- ply of raw material and a proper allocation of water power under stable tenure, both of which requisites are found in the Tongass National Forest in southeastern Alaska. It is the policy of the Forest Service to sell pulpwood from the National Forests with such provisions for future supply as will assure the permanence of the industry. ; ADVANTAGES OF REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT. There is room for a number of milis on the Tongass Forest. When these are in operation, together with the established mills of British Columbia, which are reported* to represent an investment of $42,000,000, they will constitute a producing region whose products will have a recognized standing in the world’s markets. The develop- ment of this region will facilitate the procurement of sales contracts and needed capital, make it possible to attract both skilled and un- skilled labor, and, lastly, but by no means of least importance, en- able the industry to secure favorable conditions and rates for the transportation of its products. These are prime factors in the suc- cess of an operation of any magnitude, and are recognized as such. 2See “Some Startling Facts About Canada’s Forests,” by Frank D. Barnjum, in the Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, Jan. 1, 1920, reprints of which are available from the publishers. ® See consular letter of J. J. Johnson, Feb, 20, 1920. DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. 3 Well-known examples of regional localization of industry are steel production at Pittsburgh and Gary, the making of automobiles at Detroit, textile and other manufacturing in New England, and so on. The possibilities of regional development can scarcely be overem- phasized. Pioneer conditions of the region have been met and overcome by the successful establishment of mills in near-by British Columbia. After much expenditure of time and money, and in spite of some re- verses, a number of going concerns are manufacturing pulp and paper in British Columbia along the coast between Seattle and Prince Rupert. Some of the earlier projects on the Pacific coast were started be- fore the time was ripe for their success. The prices for products were too low to offset the costs involved in establishing a new 1n- dustry far removed from consuming centers and with consequent high transportation charges. The paper shortage has radically changed the situation. Market requirements necessitate an expansion of the industry and seem to preclude a return to the old-time price levels. IMPORTANCE OF ALASKA AS A SOURCE OF PAPER SUPPLY. Secretary of Agriculture Meredith recently said: Alaska is destined to become a second Norway. With her enormous forests of rapidly growing species suitable for pulp, her water power, and her tide- water shipment of manufactured products, Alaska will undoubtedly become one of the principal paper sources of the United States. A substantial develop- ment of the paper industry in this wonderful region, combined with the intelli- gent reforestation of pulp lands in the older regions, should settle forever the question of a paper shortage in the United States. Within the last 10 years, he points out, “the Forest Service has brought about the sale of 420,000,000 feet of saw timber in the National Forests of Alaska.” The Department of Agriculture believes that the development of the forest and water-power resources of Alaska is a practicable means of increasing the supplies of newsprint available for the United States, and therefore of eventually lessening the paper shortage now so acute. The National Forests of Alaska probably contain 100,000,000 cords of timber suitable for the manufacture of newsprint and other grades of paper. Under careful management these Forests can produce 2,000,000 cords of pulpwood annually for all time, or enough to manufacture one-third of the pulp products now consumed in the United States. The Alaskan forests also contain the second chief essential of the paper-manufacturing industry—water power. While no accurate survey of water power has been made, known projects have a pos- 4 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. sible development of over 100,000 horsepower; and the Forest Serv- ice estimates that a complete exploration of the National Forests in southern Alaska will disclose their potential horsepower to be not less than a quarter of a million. Scarcely any other part of the country offers a field for the up- building of a permanent pulp and paper industry equal to that afforded by Alaska. It is a virgin field because, in spite of its natural advantages and vast supplies of raw material, economic conditions had not, prior to 1919, become sufficiently favorable to attract capital. For years the Forest Service tried in vain to interest capital in the development of enterprises for paper production in Alaska. Had it succeeded these enterprises would now be in a very advantageous position. It may be said in passing that the purpose of the Forest Service looks beyond merely finding a market for Government timber in order that the timber may be cut and a new growth started in its place. The Forests are administered as public properties created to serve public needs. Alaska’s first need is capital. It has not yet reached a point at which the upbuilding of the Territory can be effected merely by an influx of pioneers of the type that conquered the wilderness in our Western States. While development must be a gradual process governed by economic facts, large-scale oper- ations are essential. To the extent that conditions can be made favorable for such operations development will be hastened. Public ownership of the National Forests and their administra- tion in accordance with the general policy pursued by the Forest Service affords capital certain important advantages. The amount of the investment necessary is greatly reduced by the fact that the Service is in position to guarantee permanent supplies, on reasonable terms as to price, and made available as needed. In other words, the operator does not need to invest heavily in raw material or assume the speculative risks involved when timber must be carried for a number of years with accumulating charges before manufacture. Again, prospective operators do not have to negotiate with a number of different owners or spend time and money in building up an op- erating unit. It is the desire of the Government to facilitate the es- tablishment of mills, and the Forest Service is therefore glad to make available all the information that it can secure and to offer terms and conditions of sale that»will interpose no unnecessary or unreasonable obstacles to development. The value to Alaska of a pulp and paper industry on the National Forests can scarcely be overstated. By creating a demand for labor it will build up the population; by creating a market for farmers’ crops it will stimulate agricultural development; and it will improve transportation facilities and benefit all kinds of business. The Ter- DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. 5 ritory has been losing population and retrograding commercially and industrially in the last few years, primarily because after the first cream of her mineral wealth had been skimmed general economic conditions were not favorable to immediate further progress. An alteration in these conditions now opens an opportunity to start the tide running the other way. Obviously, the building up of Alaska generally will work to the advantage of any business enterprise located there, since it will make for better living conditions, greater contentment and stability of labor, and superior facilities of many kinds. At the same time that the interests of Alaska will be advanced by establishment of a local paper and pulp industry, such an industry will itself participate in the benefits of local development. LOCATION OF THE REGION. The timber described in this report is situated along the coast and on the large islands of southeastern Alaska, on the Tongass National Forest. The region is about as far west as it is north of Seattle and takes the one hundred and fiftieth meridian time, which is one hour slower than Pacific coast time. The largest towns in southern Alaska are Juneau and Ketchikan. Ketchikan, which lies at the extreme southern end, is only 670 miles from Seattle and approxi- mately only one-third of the distance from Seattle to the well-known town of Dawson on the Yukon River, in the Klondike region. Ketchikan is only 60 hours by steamer from Seattle and is only 93 miles from Prince Rupert, British Columbia, the terminus of the Grand Trunk Pacific, a transcontinental railroad. The scheduled time for passenger trains from eastern points is seven days. It is possible to ship freight by car ferry from Ketchikan to Prince Rupert, and thence by rail eastward to its destination. COMMUNICATION AND ACCESSIBILITY. Southeastern Alaska is favored with numerous deep-water harbors open the year round, and there is comparatively smooth water in the straits and passages. This region is advantageously located, with reference to shipments by rail and water, to the United States and water shipments to the Orient, South America, and Australasia. - The distances by water and rail to important markets are: From— To— Distance. Statute ‘ miles. Prince Rupett.-..----+s--eeseeeeceseeee enone ING tele SRS Gar ccc oee oS ale pertnler Basar t Pe ae aekees £. tepetlncat 932 CRED Eire ee Mee aay de Sis ad 3, 113 Sitka... ---- 22s eee e eee eee eee eee ING We VOL Kes serene eae eno Seco sere 4 021 6 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. From— | To— Distance. Nautical miles. San! Franciscos i. fic s5 i... SS2ht et - e ee 1, 302 New York ss oc. seeks Gee ane epee eae 6, 564 Sitka Pls ses t ee I I sted Honolthuls f 09S SL ee, LE ee 2, 386 Sidney's. o.02 55 Ate ec aie gee ee cremieeeee eee 6, 806 Wellington : 5... 2.20) COM 6, 499 New York (via Panama)............--..-.--- 5, 262 New York (via eases Strait) gant. esas 18, 135 pokohams Feta oo sebbs dan Caos yandeoes -S8ancee Fa 336 A anghai {21 109. 22S Aas ey. ee B37 San Francisco... ...------+-+++++-0+222- 2222+ OY EWN 0 Cs Heenan nen aire ee SS SLT a ieee SA ee ae 6, 221 Honolthirt). . ASE STU TTS RE 2,091 PAM AMG! is 2/)s Ge GaSe eee oe ee eee tet tara 3, 245 Valparaiso: !. e225 55152285. TERE Eee. ae 5, 185 1 A nautical mile equals 1.15 statute miles. Regular mail service by boat to and from Alaska is maintained throughout the year. The region is served by a military cable to © Seattle, available to the public. Wireless stations, both Govern- ment and private, are well distributed along the coast. During the last two weeks in April, 1920, the West Coast Lumber- man reported that about 100 cargoes ae Alaska were loaded at Portland. Most of these cargoes were destined for the canneries. Several steamship lines ply regularly from Alaska to the “ outside.” The Pacific Coast Steamship Co. operates four steamships. The Alaska Steamship Co. operates five passenger steamships and nine freight steamers. The Grand Trunk Pacific operates in the Alaskan service two steamers and the Canadian Pacific one* The Union Steamship Co. operates 10 steamers to Alaskan ports, There are a number of other boats. operating to Alaska, and at Ketchikan the number of clearances of vessels per year is in the neighborhood of 2,000. From the regular ports of call reached by coastwise steamers, fishing boats, and mail boats, the outlying regions are reached only by special trips with gasoline boats. The type of boat used most successfully by the Forest Service is 45 feet long, and should have a crew of two.men; but the Service does not have the facilities to take interested parties on investigating trips for timber and power- site locations. There are, however, a limited number of boats for hire at all the principal ports at rates depending on the demand for the service and the character of the trip. TOPOGRAPHIC AND OTHER SURFACE FEATURES. Burchard (U.S. Geological Survey Bulletin 592, 1914, p. 97), de- scribes the general topographic and surface features as follows: The mainland and islands of southeastern Alaska are generally mountainous, and there is little level land either as upland area or along the shores. Along 4The Merchant Marine Act of June 15, 1920, makes certain restrictions upon the trans- portation of merchandise, and any one interested in Alaska would do well to familiarize himself with the provisions of this act. DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. * much of the coast line the hills and mountains rise abruptly ° and the dense forest growth, extending down to the level of high tide, overhangs the steep banks. The islands are separated by an intricate system of waterways and fiords, known locally as straits, canals, channels, passages, sounds, narrows, inlets, bays, coves, and arms, some of which reach far inland. Many of these waterways are very deep and can be safely navigated by the largest ocean steamers, but some are so shallow as to be navigable only at high tide by boats of moderate draft. The coast and entrances to harbors are rocky and in places the greatest care is necessary in order to avoid rocks that are barely submerged. The topography is so rough that only in favored localities or at great expense can wagon or tram roads be constructed. The waterways are, therefore, of great value in affording routes of communication between different portions of the region and between this region and the Pacific coast ports of the United States. Indeed, were it not for water transportation the mining and quarrying industries in southeastern Alaska could scarcely have been developed. The rock surface is in general thickly overgrown with small to medium-sized timber and dense underbrush and has a soil cover of decayed wood, moss, and mold, from a few inches to 3 or 4 feet thick as a rule, but thicker in hollows and crevices in the rock. CLIMATE OF THE REGION. f Accurate climatic data for the region, based on observations taken at all the larger towns, are available from the records of the Weather Bureau. It must be remembered that these data were taken near tidewater, and that the annual precipitation of a given catchment basin which includes country in the higher altitudes can not be as- sumed to be the same as at sea level. In this respect the data will be found lacking. The dense forests bordering: the shore line of southeastern Alaska are the result of the moist, humid climate. The records show that the annual rainfall ranges between 80 and 130 inches. Three-quar- ters of the precipitation occurs from March to November. In the high altitudes the winter precipitation is largely in the form of snow, and in consequence the winter run-off is much less than that of the rainy season. There is a difference of only 2° in mean annual temperature be- tween Puget Sound and Sitka. The mean temperature for January is 83° and for August 56°, an annual range of only 23° at Sitka. At Juneau, on the mainland, there is less oceanic influence, and the mean annual temperature is lower, the difference being more marked in winter than in summer. The harbors of southeastern Alaska are ice- free the year round, and the water is warm enough to favor the marine teredo, which is very active in salt water in southeastern Alaska, so much so that piles designed to be permanent must be coated with protective covering of'cement or otherwise protected. 5 Reaching a maximum elevation varying from 4,000 feet in the southern part to 7,000 feet in the northern. 8 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Altitude has a profound effect on climate, and this is shown in tree growth. The limit of merchantable timber is found at about 2,500 feet above sea level. Work in the open is possible at all times of the year, but logging operations are not profitable in the short days of winter. It is hkely that a mill would rely on stored pulpwood for a three or four months’ run. In Ketchikan it is said to be necessary to use artificial lights after 3 o’clock in the afternoon in December. It is stated that the low summer temperature would be of advantage in sulphite-mill practice. TIMBER AND STAND. The most widely distributed commercial tree on the Tongass Forest is western hemlock (7'suga heterophylla). It is a rapidly growing tree, and is suitable for either mechanical or chemical pulp, either alone or in mixture with other species. It is conservatively estimated that it forms 60 per cent of the merchantable stand. It is being ex- tensively used for pulp at a number of plants in British Columbia. Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) forms about 20 per cent of the stand. It varies greatly in percentage of mixture, from pure stands of 10 acres or less to stands in which it is found only here and there. Spruce and hemlock form increasingly larger Deneembaets of the stand of timber toward the north. Other species forming approximately 20 per cent of the stand are western red cedar (Thuja plicata) and yellow cypress (Chamecy- paris nootkatensis) with a little cottonwood, birch, lodgepole pine, and white fir. The stand of timber on the Tongass Forest is roughly estimated at 9,000 feet, board measure, per acre, and the timber forms a belt back from the coast that averages approximately 1 mile in width and varies from a minimum width of one-fourth mile or less to a maxi- mum of 5 miles. An average stand of 20,000 feet per acre of mer- chantable timber was found in a cruise of the Behm Canal Unit, and individual stands of 100,000 feet per acre have been found over small areas. The Behm Canal Unit, as shown on the map, has a stand of approximately 1,000,000,000 feet, board measure, of which 88 .per cent is spruce and hemlock. Spruce is used locally for lumber, box shooks, and piling; cedar for lumber and shingles; and hemlock for lumber and piling. Practically all of the timber in southeastern Alaska is under the control of the Government and is within the boundaries of the National Forest, the exceptions being reservations and town sites. The area of land in private ownership is small. Bul. 950, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. F-70495 STAND OF HEMLOCK AND SPRUCE ON REVILLAGIGEDO ISLAND, TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST, ALASKA. Western hemlock constitutes about 60 per cent and Sitka spruce about 20 per cent of the merchant- able timber in southeastern Alaska. Bul. 950, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE II. STANDS OF SITKA SPRUCE AND WESTERN HEMLOCK, WITH ‘‘CLOSE-UP”’ SPRUCE IN CENTER, ON ALASKA NATIONAL FORESTS. DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. 9 QUALITY OF TIMBER. The spruce in the commercial sizes is generally sound and of good quality. The hemlock, however, is apt to be defective, the damage consisting of partial decay at the butt, “black knots,” or fluted trunks. The latter defect is pronounced only in the butt logs of the smaller trees, the bark in the very worst cases being recessed almost to the center in three or four places around the circumference. The smaller and inferior trees of both species are apt to have numerous limbs extending near the ground. In general, hemlock is not the equal of the spruce for pulp making and for lumber, as well as for many other purposes, and its present stump- age price is therefore commonly about half that of spruce. All estimates in this report are based on stands from which wood “merchantable for pulp” may be taken. For either hemlock or spruce, decay in butt logs of “merchantable pulpwood” seldom ex- ceeds 15 to 20 per cent, and the decayed portion may be eliminated when the wood is prepared for pulp making; that is, when it is being split or “ broken up” with saws. Even when timber is badly affected with “black knots,” the knots may be completely removed at an additional cost for “ preparing,” over the ordinary cost, of about $1 per thousand for handwork; that is, chopping with an ax, as evidenced in actual practice. By using proper mechanical means this extra cost of preparing the wood can be reduced one-third to one-half. Fluted trunks may be used, since in preparing the wood for the “barkers,” pulpwood bolts over 12 inches in diameter must be “sized” or split anyhow. Therefore, in splitting, the pieces may as well be separated on the “flutings” as elsewhere. The standard rossing machines then can easily remove all of the bark without excessive waste of good wood. That “limbiness” is not a serious objection is evidenced by the fact that many eastern mills now use wood from the tops of trees to as small a top diameter as 3 inches. Cottonwood may be included in some of the Alaskan sales as a pulpwood, and it is locally considered to be suitable for no other use. The Alaskan cottonwood is of about the same character as cottonwood grown elsewhere. All spruce and hemlock now considered merchantable for saw timber would make a high grade of pulpwood so far as defects are concerned. The proportions of timber merchantable for saw tim- ber and of that merchantable for pulpwood but not for saw timber would, of course, vary in different stands, and this feature would be carefully studied in developing specific projects. 29729°—21——_2 10 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUITABILITY FOR PULP AND PAPER. So far as suitability of species for pulp making is concerned, it should be sufficient to point to the British Columbia and Pacific Northwest pulp mills now operating on Sitka spruce and western hemlock. At times the hemlock alone is used, and it is said to prove as satisfactory as in mixture with quick-cook sulphite fiber, as far as quality of product is concerned. In addition to newsprint, only a few grades of building and mill wrapping paper are made at the British Columbia plants; but hemlock-spruce sulphite fiber is shipped to outside mills for the production of bond, manila, tissue, pure-fiber printing, and other high-grade papers requiring a strong, tough, white fiber. Western hemlock and spruce are the standard mechanical and sul- phite pulpwoods for the United States mills in the Pacific North- west also, the hemlock being consumed in greater amounts than any other single species. In 1918, 145,583 cords of hemlock pulpwood and 35,385 cords of spruce was consumed in Washington, Oregon, and California. Of ground wood pulp the hemlock, mixed with spruce and cottonwood, amounts to 20 to 50 per cent of the total, and the yield for the mixed species is about 1,850 pounds of air-dry pulp per cord. Of pulp cooked by the sulphite process alone, the yield is about 1,050 pounds per cord. The spruce (75 per cent), mixed with black cottonwood (25 per cent), affords a yield per cord of about 950 to 1,000 pounds of bleached soda pulp suitable for the highest grades of book and writing papers made from wood. From these three woods the following papers are made: Manila, cartridge, express, bag, fiber wrappings, news, tissue, fruit wrap, toweling, sheathing, book, label, writing, and related papers. The above facts show that the two principal species concerned are both commercially suitable for mechanical and sulphite pulps (in- cluding high-grade Mitscherlich fiber), and the papers that are usually made from them, as before specified. While the consensus of practical opinion is that the spruce is somewhat the better pulpwood of the two, the following condensed summaries of some Forest Service semicommercial tests* at the Forest Products Laboratory, at Madison, Wis., carried on for a period of 10 years, afford a good opportunity for a comparison of them. The slightly greater weight of the hemlock per unit volume of prepared wood would usually be offset in commercial practice by the greater loss in cleaning. Yields are air-dry weight per cord containing 100 cubic feet of solid wood. ®See “ Paper,” July 30, 1919. DEVELOPMENT OF, PULPWOOD RESOURCES. 11 Sitka Spruce— Dry weight of wood per solid cubic foot, 24 pounds. Average fiber length, 3.5 mm. Sulphite pulp: Yield 1,080 pounds; easily bleached; easy pulped; excel- lent strength and color. Possible uses, similar to white spruce; is con- sidered the standard for sulphite pulpwood and is used for news, wrap- ping, book, and high-grade printings, etc. Sulphate pulp: Yield 1,150 pounds; easily pulped; excellent strength and color. Possible uses, similar to white spruce; highest grade of kraft paper and strong fiber board. Mechanical pulp: Yield 2,040 pounds; character, slightly grayish color. Possible uses, similar to white spruce; for practically every use where ground wood pulp is required. Western Hemlock— Dry weight of wood per solid cubic foot, 23 pounds. Average fiber length, 2.7 mm. Sulphite pulp: Yield 1,050 pounds; easily bleached; easily pulped; good strength, fair color. Possible uses, similar to white spruce; is considered the standard for sulphite pulp wood and is used for news, wrapping, book, and high-grade printings, etc. Sulphate pulp: Yield 1,100 pounds; character, good strong fiber. Possible uses, similar to white spruce; highest grade of kraft paper and strong fiber board. Mechanical pulp: Yield 2,160 pounds; character, good strength and fiber; grayish color. Possible uses, similar to white spruce; for practically every use where ground wood pulp is required. The Forest Service has little test data on black cottonwood, but from the resemblance this wood bears to other “ poplars,” and the results of its use in mixture by some of the western mills, it may be said with a fair degree of conservatism that this species will produce, with a medium yield per cord, a ground wood pulp of good white color, of short fiber, of little strength, soft, and free from pitch. It would serve as a filler for the finer grades of ground-wood papers when properly mixed with spruce ground wood and the long-fibered sulphate pulp. There is every reason to believe that the Alaska cottonwood as a species would serve well as a source of soda pulp for high-grade book paper. The softness of the fiber would really be advantageous, and remnants of bark, knots, and fungous stain would be of no con- sequence in the soda process. LOGGING. The use of timber for commercial pulpwood in Alaska is just be- ginning. The 400,000,000 feet of timber sold and cut to date from the National Forests in Alaska has been made into products such as piling, sawlogs, and shingle bolts. The logging methods have been developed from “hand logging,” in which the trees were felled so 12 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that they would fall directly into the water or could be rolled in by hand, to steam-donkey logging, the donkey being mounted on a raft and “beached ” at high tide, yarding directly into the water. Later two donkeys have been used, a yarder and a roader. In the water the logs are boomed and towed to the sawmills. The logging heretofore has been of comparatively large or selected timber. Pulpwood cuts will have a larger yield per acre than those for other purposes, as smaller timber will be cut. It is doubtful if the present system of logging is the best and cheapest that can be de- vised for pulpwood logging on an extensive scale. An overhead system seems to promise one solution of the problem. In this sys- tem a number of small logs could be brought to the water with a “choker.” Gravity chutes might be profitably employed on the steeper slopes. To reach the material farther back, it might be necessary to put in logging railroads running along the contour. No two logging units would present the same problem; several methods of logging would likely be used on the same general operation. In 1918, $8.95 was the average cost for raw pulpwood at the mills in California, Oregon, and Washington. It is believed that pulp- wood can be produced more cheaply in Alaska, as the greater part of the wood will be cut within less than a mile of the water’s edge. Figures of $4 to $6 per cord would normally approximate average costs under present methods of logging. The following cost figures are from “ British Columbia, a Com- plete Guide,” Vancouver, British Columbia, 1919: Average Average “Year: Pulpwood.| value Year. Pulpwood.| value Cords. | per cord. Cords. | per cord. IQUE. PE SUM Ee eee kane 150 S760 191914. A880 A 80, 013 $5. 33 it) Dees eee ey BEN re se 35, 067 5.50. || 195. Be ee eee ae ee 90, 535 6. 08 TGIS? Si eh eae SAL 84,173 4577 Hh W916 S383. a ee 108, 997 5. 32 The natural system of sheltered canals and waterways (see map, p- 40) and the proximity of most of the timber to them affords a great advantage in lessening the expense of logging. Log rafts are now towed as far as 200 miles to sawmills. Towage to the mill will be relatively inexpensive, especially if the operator uses his own tugs. It is estimated that the cost will not exceed 1 cent a mile per cord. This factor greatly reduces the original investment in logging plant, as compared, for example, with railroad operations. It also makes the physical factors in logging practically constant throughout a long period, as contrasted with the increasing cost of typical log- ging operations in the States, which must move farther and farther back into less accessible timber, with increasing cost of construction and operation as the rougher and higher country is penetrated. DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. 13 The timber would be thoroughly soaked when delivered at the mills, but this would be of no disadvantage for ground wood pulp making except that logs left too long in salt-water storage would accumulate barnacles which it would be necessary to remove in clean- ing the logs. In fresh-water storage these barnacles would doubt- less drop off. It is probable that at a number of mill sites fresh- water storage would be obtainable. Soaked wood, although less de- sirable than fairly dry wood for sulphite pulp nici. offers no ereat difficulty in this respect. A large number of American sul- phite mills use wood coming directly from the water, and others have installed special chip driers. For making soda and sulphate pulp it is of much more importance that the wood be dry. LABOR. The local labor supply is adaptable to all kinds of work. Laborers are usually attracted from the woods to the canning industry, or to mining, or to the aquatic fur industry, depending on the wages paid and the conditions of employment. An assured supply of skilled labor would be available after a number of mills were estab- lished in the region, but there would, of course, always be competi- tion from the other industries named. It should be noted that there has been an exodus of white popula- tion from Alaska with the decline of the mining industry. It is esti- mated that not more than half of the 1910 population of 65,000 remains. However, the tendency to emigrate was checked in 1919, for during that year more people entered Alaska than departed from the Territory. The Alaskan Engineering Commission, which is engaged in build- ing a railroad from Seward to Fairbanks, imports its labor and maintains a crew of 3,000 to 4,000 men. This railroad will be com- pleted in 1922, and competition for labor from this source will be eliminated. It is of interest to note that laborers in Alaska are accustomed to work on a piece basis rather than on a time basis, and this would probably influence the employment of labor for logging operations. It might be desirable to consider contracting the labor for the cut- ting and delivery of pulpwood. Many of the pulpwood operations in vst would not be located at or near towns already established. In order permanently to hold men in responsible positions under such circumstances, and to reduce the labor turnover to a minimum it would doubtless be necessary for the prospective operator to construct dwellings and to consider the extent to which he might provide such conveniences as stores and amusements to serve as inducements in securing and 14 BULLETIN 950, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. retaining ‘the full crew of laborers which is necessary for profitable operation. Social conditions would be almost entirely in the hands of the operator, and he would be guided by the trend of the times in respect to investments which are designed to secure the stability and efficiency of labor. CONSTRUCTION OF IMPROVEMENTS. “Construction from the ground up” summarizes the require- ments to be met in Alaska, which is comparatively an undeveloped country. Following the acquisition of the timber and source of power, the mill site and town could then be advantageously located. It would be necessary to clear the site before construction could begin. A sawmill would no doubt be required, and the first logging would be for the clearing of a mill and town site, and the building of such necessary structures as wharves, storehouses, mills, dwell- ing houses, offices, machine shops, and stores. The power develop- ment might require the erection of a dam for storage purposes, in addition to the usual diversion works, conduits, water wheels, gen- erators, and distributing system. Several of the structures would necessarily be of concrete. For logging, the improvements and equipment would depend on the methods employed. Scows, tugs, launches, pile drivers, and booms would be essential. During the period required for the construction and equipment of a pulp and paper mill in Alaska there would of course be no revenue. OPERATING MATERIALS AND MILL SUPPLIES. In addition to fuel, the more important operating supplies for pulp mills in general are lime or limestone, sulphur, soda ash, salt cake, grindstones, bleaching agents, and repair materials. At present there are no operating limekilns in southeastern Alaska ; one abandoned kiln in the Ketchikan district has been reported. A soda or a sulphate pulp mill could secure its lime by operat- ing a kiln of its own, and there are numerous known deposits of limerock (marble) that would furnish high grades of lime (over 99 per cent CaO basis). Dolomitic limestone, however, is unknown in this region. It may be present, but no deposits have yet been located. Hence a sulphite mill requiring dolomitic lime would have to search for deposits of suitable rock or else import it from the “outside” at a high cost. By using the “tower system” of “acid” manufacture, however, a sulphite mill can employ high-calcium lime- stones, and British Columbia sulphite mills use this system. Such limestone is abundant among the sedimentary rocks of southeast Alaska. Belts of it miles in width are exposed on tidewater and DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. 15 the rock can be quarried at small cost. The known deposits in Alaska of the high-calcium marble also could be made to serve very well for the tower system, and an enterprise could count on a cost delivered at something less than $1.50 per ton, the prewar price. The high-calcium lime should cost delivered something less than $5 per ton, the prewar price. For sulphur, mills would have to depend on Japan or, more probably, on the Louisiana and Texas deposits. The cost delivered has been estimated at $22 per ton, the prewar price. Soda ash and salt cake, delivered from San Francisco, cost about $27 and $17 per ton, respectively, the prewar prices. If electrolytic bleach were made, soda ash would be obtained as a by-product. Undoubtedly the bleaching materials, if any are required, can be supplied most cheaply by operating an electrolytic process plant. The cost of salt for this purpose, delivered from San Francisco, is about $3 to $3.50 per ton, the prewar price. Grinder stones would probably be shipped from the eastern United States or from England. With respect to Fourdrinier wires, ma- chine clothing, machinery repair parts, belting, etc., the same would be true. A much larger stock of supplies and repair materials would have to be kept on hand than in the States. Any mill in Alaska would require extensive carpenter, smith, and machine shops of its own and, very likely, a foundry; otherwise, the only adequate shops and foundries to which the mill would have access would be those at Juneau or Prince Rupert. DISPOSAL OF MILL EFFLUENTS. As any mill in southeastern Alaska would be built on tidewater, and as the tidal variation is about 15 to 20 feet, there would be no difficulty in satisfactorily disposing of the effluents into the sea. On this account the mills of the region would have an advantage over the great majority of mills in the United States. Although no inter- ference is anticipated with the salmon industry, this possibility should be carefully considered. WATER SUPPLY. Pulp and paper mills require comparatively large quantities of pure water. The character of the water supply, like the availability of the water power, can be determined only for the individual project. The peaty discoloration and the characteristic glacial tur- bidity of streams that are occasionally found may be corrected by means of a filter if necessary. For the ordinary grades of news- _ print it might not be necessary to filter the water. ? 16 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. WATER POWER. The following extracts from an article by J. G. Hoyt, Geological Survey Bulletin 442, indicate the general water-power situation in southeastern Alaska : Owing to topography, the streams, with the exception of a few of the larger rivers which come through the mountains from the interior, have small and precipitous drainage areas. Their courses are short and they have a large fall; in fact many of the streams are made up of a series of cataracts. In the northern part of the area most of the streams head in the glaciers which cover a large portion of the country. In the lower southern part of the area many of the streams head in small lakes which occur a short distance back from the shore line in the hanging valleys that are characteristic of this area. Most of the streams flowing from these lakes are precipitous and many of them empty into the ocean with a cataract at the shore line. These lakes afford excellent opportunities for storage, as the topography near them is such that a dam can usually be constructed for raising their water level. The most successful powers already developed depend on such storage during a large part of the year, and further development in this region will depend on the availability of such lakes. The run-off from the streams in this area results principally from direct rain- fall, melting snow, and melting glaciers. In view of the large rainfall, the ex- cellent forest cover, and the glacial areas, the general deduction would be that this section should have many large streams with an abundant and well-sus- tained run-off. This, however, is not the case, as the catchment areas are small and, although the total yield per square mile is considerable, the streams are not large and they fluctuate very rapidly. The streams which, head in lakes have a much better sustained flow and are practically the only ones in the area which are of much value for power, as any large development must depend on storage, both for the winter months and during dry parts of the summer. The principal defect in the water supply, so far as the production of power is concerned, is the extremely low flow during the winter months. On the smaller streams, which have no storage, there is practically no flow in winter, and even on the streams having lake storage the flow is extremely low, as shown in the records for Turner River, which empties into Taku Inlet near Juneau. This stream has a drainage area of 60 square miles and heads in Turner Lake, which offers excellent facilities for storage. A portion of the area is also covered with glaciers. The scantiness of the winter flow is due largely to the meager amount of storage capacity in the ground, which freezes to bed rock, thus holding back the water. The winter flow is particularly slight when freezing weather comes before the heavy snowfall and in those inland locations at the head of inlets or passages where the ameliorating influence of the Japan Current is less effective. It has been estimated that on several sites, no storage being provided, the ratio of low winter flow (which involves two, three, or four months) to usual summer flow is only about 2 to 5 per cent. On the other hand, it should be noted that the high-flow period in Alaska coincides with the usual low-flow period in other locations which causes so many of the pulp mills to shut down in the late summer. DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. qi In developing the timber resources it will be possible to produce cheap steam: power by the use of Sawmill waste as fuel. The ultimate development, how- ever, for both lumber and pulp will be through the establishment of mills at accessible power sites. A great drawback to water-power development in this region is the difficulty of transmission. The country, as already stated, is cut by numerous channels, has a rough topography, and is covered with dense forests. Therefore trans- mission lines are difficult and expensive to construct, and this practically pro- hibits development at sites where the power can not be utilized at the point of development. In view of these difficulties, the possibilities at the present time for large power development in southeastern Alaska are not great, and such projects should be closely scrutinized as to their feasibility both from an engineer’s standpoint and from that of an investor. The opening of new mining districts and the development of the timber interests in this region will create a more widely distributed demand for power and enable the utilization of sites which at the present time can not be con- sidered as available. As already stated, the success of any large water-power development, to be run during the entire year, will depend on the possibility of an adequate storage. The meager topegraphic data available indicate that there are probably many lakes throughout the region which will offer excellent storage facilities. A number of power sites available for large-scale pulp and paper manufacture have been noted. In order to ascertain whether or not the powers on these sites will be fully satisfactory and how they can best be adapted, either alone or in conjunction with one another, definite surveys and other engineering investigations will be neces- sary, including stream-gauging through a period of years.’7 Of the specific powers noted, the more promising are those at Fish Creek, Shrimp Bay, Mill Creek, Warm Spring Bay, Speel River, Bailey Bay, Cascade Bay, Silver Bay, Swan Lake, Thomas Bay, Tease Lake, and Sweetheart Falls. The Warm Spring Bay, Mill Creek, and Speel River powers are known to receive glacial drainage and on this account are expected to be especially susceptible to tempera- ture changes and to have wide extremes in summer and winter flow. This is known to be true of the Speel River powers, which have been gauged continuously throughout for several years. There is no assurance that the powers mentioned above will be the best ones obtainable in southeastern Alaska. The country is so new and unexplored that no one now knows just what specific power possibilities may eventually be located. There are numerous known streams whose power head and summer flow would probably be satisfactory, and some of them may possibly have ideal sites for storage reservoirs sufficiently large to insure a sustained winter flow of 10,000 horsepower at a comparatively small cost; but until re- 7%In the summer of 1915 the Forest Service established a number of uses stations in cooperation with the U. S. Geological Survey to ascertain the Alaskan power possibilities for pulp-manufacturing purposes. Twenty stream-gauging stations had been established in Alaska by 1917, and the records are being maintained. The data, includ- ing 1918, have been published as Bulletin 712—B of the Geological Survey. 29729°—21 3 18 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cently no one has been interested in such sites, and casual knowledge of the region is not sufficient to locate them. However, the Forest Service is now conducting general reconnaissance work, and all pros- pective power and reservoir sites are being noted as the region is systematically cruised and mapped. In its administrative work also, efforts are continually being made to augment the existing in- formation on power possibilities of interest to pulp and paper manu- facturing enterprises. WATER-POWER PERMITS. The Federal water-power act (H. R. 3184) provides for the estab- lishment of the Federal Power Commission, with offices in Washing- ton, D. C., having authority to act in the administrative control of all power sites on the navigable waters and on the public lands and reservations of the United States, and over the location, design, construction, maintenance, and operation of power projects on such sites. Among the general duties assigned to the commission, the fol- lowing are of immediate interest to those who are contemplating water-power developments: To issue preliminary permits for power projects; to issue licenses for power projects and transmission lines on navigable waters, public lands, and reservations of the United States; to prescribe rules for and to fix annual license charges; and to determine the relation of such charges to prices to consumers. The Federal water power act applies to National Forests and pro- vides a basis of charges as follows: That the licensee shall pay to the United States reasonable annual charges in an amount to be fixed by the commission for the purpose of reimbursing the United States for the costs of administration of this act; for recompensing it for the use, occupancy, and enjoyment of its lands or other property; and for the expropriation to the Government of excessive profits until the respective States shall make provision for preventing excessive profits or for the expropria- tion thereof to themselves or until the period of amortization as herein provided is reached, and in fixing such charges the commission shall seek to avoid increas- ing the price to consumers of power by such charges. The passage of this act gives stimulus to water-power development which has been handicapped in the past, largely on account of the un- certainty of tenure under the old law. The legislation provides for the issuance at reasonable rates of term licenses, which will be irre- vocable except for violation of their terms. DEVELOPED WATER POWER IN ALASKA. About 15 water-power projects, developing a total of 37,350 horse- power, were reported in 1917 for the region of southeastern Alaska. These plants furnish power for mining and various other industries. The largest plant in southeastern Alaska develops 5,700 horsepower. DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. 19 FUEL. Fuel for steam power can be obtained from three main sources: (1) Wood waste from logging, pulp mill, wood room, and saw- mill operations. (2) Coal now delivered by colliers from the Vancouver Island mines and from the Alaska fields of coal and lignite when they have been developed. . (3) Fuel oil delivered in tank steamers from the California fields. MARKETS. The leading market for pulp and paper from the Tongass National Forest will be the United States. Its transition in 10 years from the position of an exporter of newsprint to that of an importer, securing two-thirds of its supply abroad subject to any restriction which it may be to the interest of the exporter to impose, will make it ad- vantageous to paper users to patronize the manufacturers of Alaskan pulpwood. The successful installation of pulp and paper plants in British Columbia after a number of trials has proved that the ex- ploitation of this general region is practicable. They represent a logical, progressive exploitation of known proportions. The condi- tions of acquirement of timber in British Columbia are no more advantageous than those in Alaska, nor are they likely to become so. In 1919 the pulp and paper mills of British Columbia produced 120,000 tons of paper (mostly newsprint) and 170,000 tons of pulp (ground wood, sulphite, and sulphate). Their principal markets are the Pacific coast States of the United States, the western Prov- inces of Canada, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand. The product of Alaskan mills will come into direct competition in markets now supplied by Canadian and American mills. By reason of the accessibility of timber to the Alaskan mills and favor- able operating conditions, this competition should be successfully met. Manufactures in British Columbia and Alaska have little to fear from each other and much to gain in the common develop- ment of the region. Norwegian paper was formerly shipped to Seattle and the west coast, South America, and the Orient. Because of the disadvantages they suffer as to fuel supply and raw materials European producers are likely to be supplanted in many markets by west coast mills. The largest potential market in the Orient for the Alaskan pro- ducer is China. The annual per capita consumption there is less than one-quarter of a pound. The per capita consumption of the United States is 33 pounds per annum of newsprint alone, or 100 8Pulp and Paper Magazine of Canada, Jan. 15, 1920. 20 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. pounds per capita of all papers. If the market in China were de- veloped to one-tenth that of the United States the demand would be enormous. The unique advantages in the exploitation of Alaskan timber are the proximity of raw materials to tidewater and natural power sites and the favorable relation to the world’s markets. Obviously, a paper plant located in southeastern Alaska has a world-wide choice of markets under independent transportation conditions, either rail or water transportation being available. TAXES. Outside of incorporated towns no general property taxes are im- posed, but all industries in Alaska, including those in incorporated towns, pay a Federal license fee which, where applicable, is based on actual yearly output. No license fees have been named to date on pulp and paper, but it is reasonable to suppose that this will be done when the industry becomes established. The fee on lumber is 10 cents per thousand feet b. m. FREIGHT RATES. In the absence of cargoes for shipment, it is difficult to get firm quotations as to costs of transportation. Any rate quoted would probably be above a competitive rate which could be obtained on cargo shipments. In 1914 the rates were about $2 per marine ton (40 cubic feet) from points in the vicinity of Ketchikan to Portland and Seattle. The rate from Juneau and vicinity was about $3 per marine ton. These rates have more than doubled for the class of merchandise included in the classification. However, there is no reason why an enterprise with the tonnage of an ordinary-sized newsprint mill should not operate its own or chartered ships so that the above rates would be approximated under conditions similar to those of the present time, especially if the return cargo were charged with its share of the expense. In this connection it is interesting to note that the exports far exceed the imports of Alaska. The balance of trade in favor of Alaska is about $30,000,000 per annum. A result of this is, of course, that there is greater demand for cargo space for outbound than in- bound traffic, and an explanation is afforded in a measure of the fact that coal is shipped into southeastern Alaska from Vancouver rather than from the fields along the Government railroad terminating at Seward. In 1917 the rates on dry pulp in bales from Seattle to the Orient were about $5.50 per 2,000-pound ton; on newsprint, $6 to $7. On paper of any kind the rates to Australia were $5.50 to $8. These DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. 21 rates have been increased since 1917. In 1915 the all-water rate quoted on general cargo from coast to coast was $8 per 2,000 pounds. In 1920 the Shipping Board quoted a rate of 90 cents per hundred from the Pacific to the Atlantic via the Panama Canal. This is $18 per ton. It is understood that the rail rate from Seattle to New York is about $24 per ton for newsprint. At the present prices for newsprint, this charge of one and a fraction cents per pound is not prohibitive ; and, in view of the shorter time required than for water transportation, it may be favorably considered. Jt is believed that shipping by rail from Prince Rupert will before long become a factor of importance. It is probable that _ pulp and paper shipments at very favorable rates via American- owned boats will be made in scow loads to Prince Rupert, and possi- bly by car ferry, to save handling and export packing. Prince Rupert also may in the future offer facilities for transshipment to coast and transocean ports. It has been estimated that shipment by scow from points in southeastern Alaska to Prince Rupert would cost 50 cents to $1 per ton. The following statement concerning transportation by the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway was furnished under date of July 7, 1920, by A. E. Rosevear, general freight agent of that railway, in response to an inquiry from the Forest Service: The present freight rates of wood pulp, sulphite, or sulphate (wet or dry’, in rolls or compressed in bales, carloads, from Prince Rupert, British Columbia, to Minneapolis, St. Paul, Minnesota Transfer, Duluth, and other similar east- ern United States terminals, is 564 cents per 100 pounds; to Chicago, 69 cents; and to New York, 924 cents; minimum weight, 60,000 pounds per ear. (Since the above was written a 35 per cent increase in freight rates has been made effective. ) On news-print paper, carloads, also on wrapping paper (not printed) the present rates from Prince Rupert, British Columbia, are, to Minneapolis, St. Paul, Minnesota Transfer, Duluth, and other eastern United States terminals, as well as to Chicago and New York, $1.06% per 100 pounds; minimum weight, 40,000 pounds per ear. The main line of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway extends from Prince Rupert, British Columbia, to Winnipeg, Manitoba, distance, 1,748 miles. At Winnipeg it connects with the Great Northern Railway, Northern Pacific Rail- way, through the Midland Railway of Manitoba, also with the Canadian Pacific Railway in connection with their Sco line, as well as with the Canadian National Railways. The grades from Prince Rupert easterly through the mountains are four- tenths of 1 per cent, with the exception of 20.15 miles of 1 per cent grade, designed for operation as a pusher grade. In effect, therefore, the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway grade against eastbound traffic igs virtually four-tenths of 1 per cent as against westbound traffic an actual four-tenths of 1 per cent. There is but one summit through the mountains of British Columbia, and this has an altitude of 3,724 feet above sea level. There are 7 short snow sheds and 11 short tunnels west of the Rockies on the way to Prince Rupert, Less 22 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. snow is experienced on the line of the Grand Trunk Pacific Railway through the mountains than on any other northern Pacific coast line, which includes the Chicago, Milwaukee & St. Paul, Great Northern, Northern Pacific, and Cana- dian Pacific Railways. At Prince Rupert, British Columbia, the railway recently installed a car-ferry slip dock, and a similar slip dock has been installed at Swanson Bay, British Columbia, by the Whalen Pulp & Paper Co., in order to cater to the loading and unloading of carload traffic at Swanson Bay, thus avoiding the expense and delay occasioned by steamer service and transfer of shipments at Prince Rupert from or into cars. The distance from Prince Rupert to Swanson Bay is 112 miles. The installation of .a car-ferry slip dock at Ketchikan, Alaska, could, we understand, be easily accomplished, and navigation would be safe between that point and Prince Rupert, British Columbia, a distance of 93 miles. The channel between Prince Rupert and Ketchikan is protected practically all the way by islands, which form a natural breakwater, thus insuring safe opera- tion of a car ferry; and the same remarks apply with equal force to other points in southeastern Alaska, such as Prince of Wales Island, Wrangell, Petersburg, Treadwell, Douglas, Juneau, Haines, and Skagway, including inter- mediate points. In answer to your question as to whether a car-ferry service appeals to us as feasible under present conditions, we beg to reply in the affirmative, pro- vided slip-dock facilities are installed and such industries located and in opera- tion as to make it an object to the railway to inaugurate the service. PROCEDURE IN GOVERNMENT TIMBER SALES. National Forest timber is examined and, if its sale is desirable, it is estimated and appraised by a forest officer. It is then advertised at a minimum stumpage rate or rates, the highest bid (sealed) accom- panied by the required deposit from a responsible party is accepted, and the award is made on condition of the execution of a satisfactory contract and the delivery of a sufficient bond. Required deposits are made as cutting continues, and at stated intervals the timber is reap- praised and new rates fixed in accordance with the terms of the con- tract. The local forest officer in charge scales or measures the tim- ber, requires the deposit of funds, and represents the Service in the enforcement of the contract. The United States Forester is represented by the district forester and forest supervisors, who are in a position to explain in detail all the requirements as to organization, financial showing, and conditions of sale. It should be understood that timber is sold by the Forest Service only for continuous operation, and that the general policy or form of contract does not permit the acquirement of timber on a specula- tive basis. The Forest Service recognizes the difficulty in promoting an enterprise of the magnitude of a pulp or paper mill in Alaska, and gladly gives assistance and data to the extent of its resources, but declines to enter into a sales contract before it is assured of the DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. 23 financial ability of the applicants to operate according to the terms of the contract. The Forest Service sells stumpage only. The purchaser of timber has no cut-over land problem, for the Government retains title to the land. Any legitimate use of the land incident to the develop- ment of the project is allowed at a nominal consideration or free of charge. AUTHORITY TO SELL TIMBER. The act of June 4, 1897 (30 Stat., 11), authorizes the sale of timber on the National Forests. It also permits the export of any forest product from Alaska (see any agricultural appropriation bill, and the act of February 1, 1905 (33 Stat., 628), and this permission includes, of course, the export of pulpwood and wood pulp. The act of May 14, 1898 (30 Stat., 414), prohibiting the export of timber from Alaska does not apply to National Forests. The fact that these two sections appear in the codified laws of Alaska as sections 226 and 100, respectively, without any cross reference whatever, has confused many in their search for legal authority for the exporta- tion of timber, and on reading section 100 they have assumed such exportation was illegal. Timber can not be legally acquired under the mining law, nor is there any provision for purchases of timberland or concessions of timber. The disposition of the timber is, as has been indicated, on a competitive bidding basis by sealed bids. POLICY. The policy under which the Forest Service is now working, with respect to the development of Alaskan timber resources for pulp- wood, is as follows: (1) Firm contracts are offered for sufficient timber to supply a proposed paper mill for as much as 30 years; and, if additional timber is available, which may properly be reserved from other present disposition, the Service offers as one of its contract stipula- tions to reserve additional stumpage from sale up to a maximum of 15 years’ supply pending the completion of the first contract, and thereupon to appraise the reserved area and place it upon the market. The maximum amount of timber the Forest Service is prepared to award to one purchaser or group of interests is two billion feet board measure or its equivalent in cubic feet. (2) The contracts provide for the reappraisal of stumpage prices at intervals of five years after timber cutting begins, the first to be made seven years after the contract is signed if the full two-year period allowed for construction is used for that purpose; but, in addition to fixing the price for the first five years, a scale of prices is named which will in no event be exceeded in the reappraisal cover- 24 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ing the second five-year period. The possible maximum prices for the second five-year period are ordinarily double the rates fixed for the initial period. The purpose of this provision is to fix a maximum liability for the cost of timber during the first 10 years of operation of the enterprise. After the first and most critical 10 years in the life of a new enterprise of this character, reappraisals are to be without this special limitation, but must be within the average cur- rent price obtained for corresponding timber in southeastern Alaska. (3) The reappraised rates in pulpwood contracts are based upon the current value of corresponding timber in southeastern Alaska, full recognition being given in reappraisal to the quality and accessi- bility of the timber included in the particular contract and to any other physical condition affecting the operations of the purchaser, STUMPAGE PRICES AND READJUSTMENTS. Minimum stumpage prices for each sale are on the basis of ap- praisals worked out under standard methods which are applied to each unit of timber before advertisement by the Forest Service. A tract of pulpwood has recently been advertised and sale awarded on the Tongass Forest near Port Snettisham at rates of $1 per thousand for spruce, cedar, and cypress, and 50 cents per thousand for hemlock and cottonwood. The stumpage prices in Alaska have varied recently from 50 cents to $3 per thousand feet, board measure, depending on the species, quality, and condition of the timber, its accessibility to tidewater, the cost of logging, etc. The appraisals are made on the basis of im- mediate operation, and provision is made, as hereafter explained, for reappraisal of timber under long-term contracts. The sample contract, a copy of which is included in this bulletin, provides for a readjustment of stumpage prices after the first five years of operation following the two-year period of construction, and at five-year intervals thereafter during the life of the sale. In addi- tion to fixing the price for the first five years, a scale of prices is named which will in no event be exceeded in the reappraisal covering the second five-year period. The readjusted rates will in no event exceed the arithmetical average price received for stumpage in the National Forest sales during the preceding 12 months from the Na- tional Forests of Alaska. The reappraisals will be based, according to contractual obligations, on the price of logs of similar species in southeastern Alaska, on the current operating costs in southeastern Alaska, and on a reasonable margin for profit and risk in the business of logging. The general principle of the redetermination of stumpage prices during the life of long-term timber sales has been in effect on all DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. 25 National Forests for many years, but the interval between reap- praisal dates of saw timber sales in the States is usually three years. Pulpwood contracts in Alaska provide that these reappraisals shall be made by determining the current value of corresponding timber, due weight being given to the quality and accessibility of the stump- age and other physical factors in the particular operation. The re- appraisal plan has proved to be reasonable and fair both in prin- ciple and in application, as is evidenced by the fact that, while pro- vision is made for an appeal to the Secretary of Agriculture from the decision of the United States Forester in fixing reappraised stumpage rates, no appeal has as yet been received. The good faith of the Forest Service has never been questioned in its reappraisal work. It is as willing and able to satisfy operators for pulpwood in Alaska as it is to satisfy operators for saw logs, pulpwood, or other materials on the National Forests in Idaho or California. The principle of reappraisal at. intervals during the life of a long- term contract for the purchase of timber from a National Forest is essential as a means of preventing speculation in Government prop- erty. Without it there would be at least an opportunity for a pur- chaser to have his chief interest not in a bona fide manufacturing en- terprise, but rather in the chances for disposing of his contract to his own pecuniary advantage. The effect of the establishment of such a speculative system would be disastrous so far as it concerns the actual development of such industries as the manufacture of pulp and paper in Alaska. Furthermore, wholly aside from the prin- ciple that the public is entitled to a fair return for its property, the intent of the law is that National Forest timber shall be sold at not less than its market value. It is the manifest duty of the Forest Service to secure such returns from long-term as well as short-term sales. In many respects this principle of reappraisal works to the ad- vantage rather than to the disadvantage of the purchaser. Under Forest Service timber-sale contracts a purchaser pays for timber in relatively small amounts prior to cutting. At no time during the life of the sale is it necessary for him to make a heavy investment in standing timber. In order to justify the establishment of a new pulp and paper mill, backed by privately owned timber, a heavy initial investment in timberlands would be necessary, and this investment would be steadily increased by interest charges, taxes, and protection costs. On the Pacific coast it is customary for tim- _berland owners to consider that their investment in standing timber doubles every 8 or 10 years. This is a fixed charge which can not be avoided. A purchaser of National Forest stumpage, however, has no such inevitable increase in the cost of his raw material, for each reappraisal merely determines the actual current value of the sem 26 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. stumpage. Money paid for stumpage is returned to the manufac- turer in a few months, as he markets his product. The price fixed by these reappraisals may be more or may be less than the cost of similar private stumpage bought at the beginning of the sale and carried to the same time, with the increases due to interest charges, taxes, and protection. The stumpage cost of privately owned timber necessary as a backing for a pulp and paper mill would increase at a constantly accelerating rate per unit of volume because of the com- pounding of interest. The influence of this factor is so strong as to make the purchase of National Forest stumpage, to be paid for practically as cut and at its actual current value, preferable from a strictly business standpoint. In fact, this principle of reappraisal at intervals during the life of the contract has been accepted as reason- able and satisfactory by applicants who are now negotiating with the Forest Service for pulpwood in Alaska. STUMPAGE PRICE READJUSTMENTS IN CANADA. The principle that the public is entitled to the price increment on the value of its property is recognized in the various forms of pulp licenses and sales in British Columbia, Ontario, Quebec, New Bruns- wick, and Nova Scotia. In each Province the timber acquired by individuals is subject to a “royalty,” which is increased by “ orders in council.” This right to increase the royalty is equivalent to the right to readjust prices on stumpage in the Forest Service contracts, and is freely exercised in the Canadian Provinces wherever it is deemed necessary. In some Provinces the change is possible only at certain stated intervals. FINANCIAL STANDING OF PURCHASERS. The objects of the financial requirements are: (1) To secure as purchasers bona fide operators having adequate financial assets to carry out sale contracts successfully, and (2) to eliminate speculators and promoters who risk no capital of their own, have little per- manent interest in the success of the enterprise, and seek profits pri- marily from the formation of a new company or the manipulation of its stock. These requirements will not be so enforced as to prevent legiti- mate promotion or the financing of National Forest sales in part with borrowed capital by responsible men in accordance with con- servative business standards. Evidence as to financial standing will be required before advertised timber is finally awarded and the con- tract furnished to the successful bidder for execution. Informa- tion as to required assets will be given in response to inquiries at the time timber is being advertised, in order that the prospective bidder may be informed as to the showing required. DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. DAL AMOUNT OF CAPITAL REQUIRED. The production of pulp and paper is always in large units, on account of the extensive investment for the developments which must be made for power, manufacture, transportation, and other facilities. Roughly, the capital required for manufacturing a given amount of stumpage into paper is thirty to forty times greater than that for manufacturing it into lumber. In 1916 the cost of a pulp and paper plant was figured by the Forest Service at $25,000 per ton for a balanced ground-wood sulphite and paper plant producing 75 tons per day. The same plant to-day would probably cost $4,000,000. The trade paper, Pulp and Paper Magazine, of Canada, for January 15, 1920, cited two proposed developments. One requires a capital of $5,000,000 to build a plant covering 100 acres with an annual capacity of 75,000 tons of sulphite pulp and 35,000 tons of news- print. Twelve thousand horsepower are required. Another plant with a 200-ton daily capacity of sulphite pulp and a ground-wood mill with a daily capacity of 200 tons of newsprint calls for an outlay of $5,000,000 to $6,000,000. There is likely to be great diver- gence in costs of plants of similar capacity in Alaska, depending on the cost of power development and the inherent conditions of the site. : The careful investigation of various sites by a competent engineer is necessary for the proper correlation of initial costs as against costs of operation. A prospective purchaser will, of course, make his own investigations of all essential features. One applicant is known to have spent more than twenty-five thousand dollars through several experts in investigations of pulp timber, water power, and general conditions before making formal applications for timber or water power. APPLICATIONS FOR TIMBER AND WATER POWER. There is no prescribed form of application for timber, and no priority is established by the filing of an application, for the award is based on the acceptance of the highest satisfactory bid. An appli- cation filed with the Forest Service furnishes a basis for the deter- mination as to whether the timber is for sale and, if the application is from responsible parties, for the examination and advertisement ' of the timber. Definite statements as to the requirements, plans, re- sources, and tentative organization of the applicant are very desirable as an aid to the Service in considering applications. Applications should preferably be made to the district forester, Forest Service, Ketchikan, Alaska (Juneau, Alaska, after July 1, 1921), although they may be made through the district forester, Forest Service, Port- land, Oreg., or the Forester, Forest Service, Washington, D.C. Ap- plications for water power should be made to the Federal Power Commission, Washington, D. C. 28 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TIME REQUIRED TO SECURE CONTRACT. No definite statement can be made as to the length of time required to consummate a pulp-wood contract. The timber will ordinarily be advertised for at least three months. Prior to advertisement, how- ever, the prospective purchaser must of necessity make his own ex- pert determination of the desirability and practicability of the proj- ect. Ifthe examiners will keep in touch with the local representatives of the Forest Service, it will usually be possible for the Service to get the timber desired in shape for advertisement and sale by the time the examinations of the company are completed and the company is ready to proceed with the development, REFERENCES. For the convenience of those who desire references to the literature of the industry, the following suggestions are given: Bibliography of the Pulp and Paper Industries, by Henry E. Sur- face, Forest Service Bulletin No. 123. This bulletin gives a compre- hensive summary of the literature up to 1918, with a list of pulp and paper trade papers, and is obtainable from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C. Price 10 cents. The rules and regulations governing National Forests, together with the procedure in timber sales, special uses, and other activities of the Forest Service, are given in The Use Book, which may be had on application to the Forest Service. Alaskan conditions are well set forth in the annual reports of the governor of Alaska to the Secretary of the Interior. A list of references is given in these reports also to Government publications on Alaska. Lists of manufacturers of pulp and paper mill machinery and supplies are given in Thomas’s Directory of American Manufacturers. MAPS AND SURVEYS. It should be understood that, although general statements of loca- tion and stand of pulpwood are given to show the sufficiency of timber for regional development, the statements are not sufficiently detailed for the segregation of pulpwood stands into operative units, properly correlated to water power and other facilities, without an independent examination and determination on the part of the prospective purchaser. When he is satisfied as to the opportunities the Forest Service will offer the timber for sale after a rough recon- naissance has been made. The map attached shows the best present information the Forest Service has as to the location of water power and desirable pulp Bul. 950, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. F=24498A Fic. |.—FOREST OF HEMLOCK, SPRUCE, AND OTHER SPECIES NEAR KETCHIKAN, ALASKA. F-73999 Fig. 2.—LoGs CuT UNDER A FOREST SERVICE TIMBER-SALE AGREEMENT AND HELD IN A Boom AWAITING TOWAGE TO MILL, WHITEWATER BAY, ADMIRALTY ISLAND. TONGASS NATIONAL FOREST, ALASKA. Bul. 950, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. F-70500 A PAIR OF BEAUTIES—SITKA SPRUCE. THE TREE ON THE LEFT MEASURES 37 INCHES AND THE ONE ON THE RIGHT 389 INCHES IN DIAMETER. The clearer portions of trees like these may profitably be cut into high grade-lumber. The smaller timber in the background contains much valuable pulpwood material. DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. 29° units. It has been the object to allocate roughly to each water power an amount of timber properly situated to keep it in operation con- tinuously. The Forest Service is not committed, however, to the sale of timber on the units as delineated. The map may serve as a guide for the examination of suitable locations, and no more. The Service has available on request maps of the Tongass Forest, drawn on a scale of 8 miles to the inch, which give more particulars and would be valuable in the detailed examination of pulpwood resources. The Service has had insufficient funds to conduct intensive surveys and stream-gauging work on the Tongass Forest on a satisfactory scale, but is pushing this work as rapidly as its resources permit. The coast line of Alaska is being charted by the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey. The charts produced are satisfactory for navi- gation. These maps furnish a basis for the survey of the interior, which has been partially mapped by the United States Geological Survey, the Land Office, and the Forest Service. The area indicated on the map as having been cruised does not comprise the entire area surveyed by the Service. Detached surveys are made in connection with numerous special uses, timber sales, homestead-land settlement, improvements, etc. However, the survey of an area of 20,000,000 acres with a coast line of 12,000 miles is obviously a task which it will take years to advance to a point where reasonable demands for maps and estimates of timber can be satisfied. (Sample agreement.) UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FOREST SERVICE. TIMBER-SALH AGREEMENT. DESCRIPTION OF TIMBER. Tees pac STBLOL Di: MAYS ET TZ Sep gS RE Cy ee ee gon: a corporation organized and existing under the laws of the State (fag a ERENT MARES ced gl RIC ES, EO ie , having an office and principal place of business at _-__--_-____________________-- SSUES) OC» Re PR a epee ge IES eat TMELEDyNABECET | A aaa to: to purchase an area of about —~_L~___~_~___-_-____-__-_--____ cation. acres to be definitely designated on the ground by a Forest officer OTRO MEO M CUMIN OTN MN it Ae Reese Ns SE ETI El ONES as definitely designated on the attached map which is hereby made a part of this agreement, within the Tongass National Forest, at the rate or rates, and in strict conformity with all and singular the requirements and conditions hereinafter set forth, all the dead - timber standing or down and all the live timber marked or desig- nated for cutting by a Forest officer, merchantable as hereinafter defined, for pulpwood, saw logs, and for other forest products 30 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Amount. Initial rates. Reappraisals, customarily produced in Alaska. The estimated amount to be eut under the provisions of sections 7 and 8 is = be ie re TL 3 ee cubie feet of Sitka spruce, hemlock, and other species, approximately __________ per cent Sitka spruce and ~_________ per cent hemlock. Provided, That in designating the area to be cut and the areas to be reserved from sale as specified in section 2(h) herein, units, bearing timber suitable for local use may be excluded to a total amount not) exceeding: __... _= Seis sa eae Spe ciel cubie feet ~ or equivalent amount in other units of measure if, in the judgment of the forest supervisor, the operation of the purchaser is not in- terfered with thereby. Provided further, That the purchaser shall establish in Alaska, not, later ‘than)-24: 65 4.22). a ee ae , a pulp manufac- (Date) turing plant or plants with a daily capacity of not less than SUE OWES Lg SESE SE hs ry BEA WPA eS TS tons, which daily capacity shall total of at least. 22 sche 2. See er Eee ae, Sees tons. Failure of the purchaser to make the first installation by the date first above specified shall render this agreement subject to cancella- tion in the discretion of the Forester; and failure to increase the daily capacity of the plant or plants by the second date above specified will render this agreement subject to such a reduction in area and volume of timber as will be, in the judgment of the Forester, commensurate with the manufacturing capacity estab- lished. PAYMENTS. Sec. 2 (@) We do hereby, in consideration of the sale of this timber to us, promise to pay to the First National Bank of Juneau, Alaska (United States depository), or such other depository or officer as shall hereafter be designated, to be placed to the credit of the United States, for the timber at the following rates: For all timber cut prior to April 1, 1928, at the following rates: Gis ccoull ead ge WN ot) 105 per 100 cubic feet for Sitka spruce and Alaska cedar, and $2... Gee eee per 100 cubie feet for hemlock and other species. For all timber cut on or after April 1, 1928, and prior to April 1, 1933, at such rates as shall be designated by the Forester within thirty days preceding April 1, 1928; For all timber cut on or after April 1, 1933, and prior to April 1, 1938, at such rates as shall be designated by the Forester within thirty days preceding April 1, 1933; For all timber cut on or after April 1, 1988, and prior to April 1, 1948, at such rates as shall be designated by the Forester within thirty days preceding April 1, 1938; For all timber cut on or after April 1, 19438, and prior to April 1, 1948, at such rates as shall be designated by the Forester within thirty days preceding April 1, 19438; And for all timber cut on or after April 1, 1948, at such rates as Shall be designated by the Forester within thirty days preced- ing that date, DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. Except as hereinafter provided, material below merchantable size under the terms of this agreement which is cut and removed at the option of the purchaser shall be paid for at the rates then in effect for merchantable material. Material unmerchantable on account of defects may be removed without charge in the discre- tion of the district forester. (0) The Forester shall reappraise and within thirty days before each of the foregoing dates designate the value of each species in consideration of current operating conditions and markets in southeastern Alaska, including the operation of the purchaser, such reappraisals to include the timber on the entire tract, and to be based upon an equitable margin for profit and risk to the purchaser under the operating conditions prevailing throughout the region: Provided, That the stumpage price for any species fixed upon any reappraisal date shall not exceed the arithmetical average of the prices received for National Forest stumpage of that species in southeastern Alaska during the twelve months preceding the date of reappraisal, as shown by sale contracts executed during that period; and Provided further, That in no event shall the stumpage price for any species established by the Forester to apply during the period from April 1, 1928, to April 1, 19383, exceed double the initial rate for that species as stated above. ; (c) If any material cut under this agreement and merchant- able under its terms is manufactured or sold by the purchaser for other uses than pulp or its products, the Forester may upon the next reapparisal date establish a special stumpage rate for each class of material so manufactured or sold during the suc- ceeding period, which rate, in accordance with the ratio per one hundred cubic feet currently used by the Forest Service, shall be not less than the initial stumpage price fixed herein and shall allow the purchaser an equitable margin for profit and risk under eurrent selling prices and costs of production in the region defined above. (d) It is further agreed that the Secretary of Agriculture will, upon written application from the purchaser showing good and sufficient reasons therefor and specifically the existence of a seri- ous emergency arising from changes in market conditions since the last reappraisal, at his option, when action of either charac- ter is necessary to relieve the purchaser from hardship, either— (1) Redetermine and establish the stumpage rates and desig- nate a date when the rates as redetermined shall be effective, which date shall be within six (6) months of the date of appli- — cation, or (2) Grant an extension of time within which the respective amounts of timber specified in section 4 shall be removed, not to exceed the total period allowed for cutting all the timber. Any stumpage rates redetermined upon application to the Sec- retary shall be determined in accordance with the methods and under the terms above set forth, and shall apply only during the remainder of the five-year period then current, when the rates shall be regularly designated after reappraisal, 382 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Cutting period. Periodic cuts. (e) In no event, however, shall the stumpage rates for products from material whose utilization is required by this agreement as established upon any date above named, or upon application from the purchaser, be less than those specified herein to be paid for timber cut prior to April 1, 1928, (f) It is further agreed that at the date of any reappraisal of sstumpage prices the Forester may require such modifications in the sections numbered 7, 8, 13, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, and 24 in this agreement as are necessary, in his judgment, to protect the interests of the United States. Such modifications shall be limited to requirements contained in the then current timber sale con- tracts in southeastern Alaska and shall be practicable under the existing equipment and organization of the purchaser. Any addi- tional operating costs entailed by such modifications, as ascer- tained by the Forester, shall be taken into consideration as a fac- tor in reappraisals. (9g) Payments shall be made in advance installments of not less than ten thousand dollars ($10,000) and not more than twenty thousand dollars ($20,000) each when called for by the Forest officer in charge, except just before the completion of the sale or a period when cutting operations are to be suspended for at least three (8) months, when the amount of the payment shall be desig- nated in writing by the Forest supervisor, credit being given for the sums, if any, heretofore deposited with the said United States depository or officer in connection with the sale. (fh) It is further agreed that an area or areas of timber located on the elite: National Forest located_______-__-_-_________-_ Sapp a A Sap a Bl RN ly which areas are considered by the district forester to be accessible to the manufacturing plant of the purchaser, shall be later selected and cruised by the Forest Service. These areas shall, except in case of serious deterioration from fire, insects, or similar causes, be reserved from sale by the United States until six months prior to the completion of cutting on the area covered by this agreement, but in no event later than October 1, 1952, and it is agreed that at a date so determined the timber on the areas to be selected, together with any timber included in this agreement which in the judgment of the district forester will be uncut on March 30, 1953, shall be appraised and advertised for purchase under sealed bids, at such minimum prices and under such conditions and requirements as the Forester shall deem necessary: Provided, that the total amount of timber in- cluded under this agreement and on the areas to be selected shall approximate but not exceed_________________-_______ cubic feet, which amount is not guaranteed by the United States. PERIOD OF CONTRACT, Sec. 3. The cutting and removal of timber under this agreement shall begin not later than April 1, 1928, and unless extension of time is granted all timber shall be cut and removed and the re- quirements of this agreement satisfied on or before March 30, 1953. Sro. 4. Unless such amounts are reduced in writing by the dis- trict. forester at least) _.___.--2 ==. eee cubic feet * DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. 33 shall be cut prior to April 1, 1928; at least ____________________ cubic feet shall be cut prior to April 1, 1933; at least PASTE, 9A. ue es Se eypic steep shall be’ cutsprior: to Ape OsS atheist S212) bee eiTeeod) Ls eet cubic feet shall be cut prior to April 1, 1948; and at least ________________ cubic feet shall be cut prior to April 1, 1948. TITLE. Sec. 5. The title to all timber included in this agreement shall , Title to tim- remain in the United States until it has been paid for, and scaled, measured, or counted as herein provided. Sec. 6. Timber upon valid claims and all timber to which there Pimper on exists valid claim under contract with the Forest Service is ex- “aims. empted from this sale. DESIGNATION. Sec. 7. Timber shall be designated for cutting as follows: The Pimper wee exterior boundaries of the sale area shall be marked and all seed sees in mark- trees and groups of seed trees and areas considered unmerchant- able or inaccessible in the judgment of the Forest officer in charge within these boundaries shall be plainly marked or posted. All other timber shall be considered as designated for cutting. Groups of trees or single trees may be reserved for seed wherever it may be deemed necessary by the Forest officer in charge: Pro- vided, That not more than five per cent (5%) of the mechantable volume on the sale area shall be so reserved. All other merchant- able timber shail be cut. Src. 8. The approximate minimum diameter limits outside bark yinimum di at a point 4% feet from the ground to which timber shall be desig- ameter limits. nated for cutting under the terms of this agreement are fourteen (14) inches for Alaska cedar and eight (8) inches for all other species. LOGGING. Sec. 9. As far as may be deemed necessary for the protection of national forest interests, the plan of logging operations on the ian ot 12 respective portions of the sale area shall be approved by the ging operations. Forest officer in charge. When operations are begun on any natural logging area, the cutting on that area shall be fully completed to the satisfaction of the Forest officer in charge before cutting may begin on other areas, unless such cutting is authorized in writing with the requirement that cutting shall be completed on the area left unfinished as soon as practicable. After decision in writing EEE Ae ge by the Forest officer in charge that the purchaser has complied cut-over areas. satisfactorily with the contract requirements as to specified areas, the purchaser shall not be required to do additional work on such areas. Sec. 10. All and only designated live trees shall be cut. No No cutting be- timber shall be cut until paid for, nor removed from the place or fe Payment. places agreed upon for scaling until scaled, measured, or counted by a Forest officer. Sec. 11. No unnecessary damage shati pe done to young growth Damage to or to trees left standing, and no trees shall be left lodged in the Y°UTS towth. 34 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. process of felling. Undesignated trees which are badly damaged’ in logging shall be cut if required by the Forest officer in charge. paealty To, Sec. 12. Undesignated live trees which are cut, or injured waste. through carelessness, and designated trees left uncut on areas on which logging has been completed shall be paid for at double the current price for the class of material which they contain fixed in - accordance with the terms of this agreement. Timber wasted in tops or stumps, designated timber broken by careless felling, and any timber merchantable, acording to the terms of this agree- ment, which is cut and not removed from any portion of the cut- ting area when operations on such portion are completed, or be- fore this agreement expires or is otherwise terminated, shall be paid for at the current price for such material. The amounts herein specified shall be regarded as liquidated damage and may be waived in the discretion of the Forest officer in charge in acci- dental or exceptional cases which involve small amounts of mate- rial. Any timber remaining on the sale area at the expiration or termination of this agreement, for which payment as specified in this section has been made to the United States, may be removed within six months from such date of expiration. Sec. 13. All cutting shall be done with a saw when practicable; stumps shall be cut so as to cause the least practicable waste and | wees height not higher than eighteen (18) inches on the side adjacent to the ter. highest ground for all trees with a diameter of twenty-four (24) inches and under at a point 4% feet from the ground, and not higher than twenty-four (24) inches on the side adjacent to the highest ground for all trees with a diameter over twenty-four (24) inches at the point described, except in unusual cases when in the discretion of the Forest officer in charge this height is not | considered practicable; all trees shall be utilized to as low a diameter in the tops as practicable and to a minimum diameter of ten (10) inches for Alaska cedar and six (6) inches for all other | species when merchantable in the judgment of the Forest officer in | charge. The log lengths shall be varied so as to secure the great- | est possible utilization of merchantable material. | pees used as Src. 14. Wood taken from tops or unmerchantable timber for use as fuel in connection with logging operations shall be allowed free of charge. SCALING AND MERCHANTABILITY. . Measurement. Smo, 15. Material shall be piled, rafted, or skidded for scaling, measurement, or count if required by the Forest officer in charge and in such manner as he shall direct. Logs will be measured in cubie feet on the basis of the length and the average middle diameter inside the bark taken to the nearest inch, or, if it is impracticable to secure the average middle diameter, on the basis of the length and the average of the diameters inside bark at the two ends of the log, each measured to the nearest inch. Sec. 16. If any pulpwood is cut in the form of cordwood in- stead of in logs, it shall be measured in cords of 128 cubie feet of stacked wood, and the number of cords converted into cubic feet at the ratio of one cord equaling 100 cubic feet unless or DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. 35 until, as the result of actual measurements, the district forester and the purchaser shall have agreed on the use of some other ratio. Such material shall be piled for measurment as the Forest officer in charge shall direct. Sec. 17. In obtaining the cubic contents of logs the maximum “Scaling length. Measuring length may in the discretion of the district forester be thirty-two feet; greater lengths may be measured as two or more logs. Sec. 18. Any tree which in the judgment of the Forest officer , ara pl contains one or more logs merchantable as defined in section 19, tree. and having a net total merchantable volume of 25 per cent or more of the total volume of the tree, shall be considered mer- chantable under the terms of this agreement. Sec. 19. All spruce logs are merchantable under the terms of eee ee this agreement which are not less than 16 feet long, at least 6 inches in diameter inside bark at the small end, and after deduc- tions for visible indications of defect are estimated to contain 334 per cent sound material; all Alaska cedar logs are merchant- able under the terms of this agreement which are not less than 16 feet long, at least 10 inches in diameter inside bark at the small end, and after deductions for visible indications of defect are estimated to contain 33% per cent sound material; and all logs of hemlock and other species are merchantable under the terms of this agreement which are not less than 16 feet long, at least 6 inches in diameter inside bark at the small end, and after deductions for visible indications of defect are estimated to contain 50 per cent sound material: Provided, That the 334 per cent aforesaid in spruce and Alaska cedar logs and the 50 per cent aforesaid in hemlock and other species shall be so loeated in the log as to permit the use of the sound material for pulp manu- facture under the pulp manufacturing methods used in efficiently conducted pulp operations in Alaska. Sec. 20. On request, copies or abstracts of the scale reports ‘%¢ale reports. will be furnished to the purchaser after they have been approved by the forest supervisor. BRUSH DISPOSAL. Sec. 21. The district forester may require that all tops shall be pee ee orat of lopped and all brush scattered so as to lie close to the ground ‘ and away from standing trees and reproduction, or any other method of disposal the cost of which shall not be in excess of this method. HIRE PROTECTION. Sec. 22. During the time that this agreement remains in force the purchaser shall independently do all in his power to prevent and suppress forest fires on the sale area and in its vicinity, and shall require his employees, contractors, and employees of con- tractors to do likewise. Unless prevented by circumstances over which he has no control, the purchaser shall place his employees, contractors, and employees of contractors at the disposal of any assistance in authorized Forest officer for the purpose of fighting forest fires, fighting fires. with the understanding that unless the fire-fighting services are 36 Spark arrest- ers. Fire ment. Burning of refuse. Transportation equip- on logging roads. Logging, provements. im- BULLETIN 950, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, rendered on the area embraced in this agreement or on adjacent areas within one mile, payment for such services shall be made at rates to be determined by the Forest officer in charge, which rates shall be not less than the current rates of pay prevailing in the said National Forest for services of a similar character: Pro- vided, That the maximum expenditure for fire fighting without remuneration in any one calendar year, at rates of pay deter- mined as above, shall not exceed $10,000, including the furnishing of special trains or other special service as required; and further provided that if the purchaser, his employees, contractors, or em- ployees of contractors are directly or indirectly responsible for the origin of the fire, no payment shall be made for services so ren- dered, nor shall the cost of such services be included in determin- ing said maximum expenditure for any calendar year. It is further agreed that except in serious emergencies as de- termined by the Forest supervisor the purchaser shall not be re- quired to furnish more than 100 men for fighting fire outside of the area above specified, and that any employees furnished shall be relieved from fire fighting on such outside areas as soon as it is practicable for the Forest supervisor to obtain other labor adequate for the protection of the National Forest. Src. 23. If required by the Forest supervisor in writing, all donkey engines or other steam-power engines shall, during the period from June 1 to October 1 of each year, burn oil, or shall be equipped with spark arresters acceptable to the Forest officer in charge, six (6) 12-quart pails, six (6) shovels, and a constant supply of not less than the equivalent of twelve (12) barrels of water, this equipment to be suitable for fire-fighting purposes, and kept in serviceable condition. i Sec. 24. During the period from June 1 to October 1 of each year, no refuse, brush, slash, or débris shall be burned without the written consent of the Forest officer in charge. Src. 25. Officers of the Forest Service, fire fighters, and other regular and temporary employees shall be transported free of charge over logging roads operated in connection with this sale not common carriers, and shall be permitted to ride upon logging trains and engines or to operate speeders when traveling upon official business. Forest officers and other employees riding on logging trains, engines, or speeders shall do so at their own risk, and the owner of the railroad expressly reserves the right to enter into an agreement with such persons before entering upon said trains or engines, or before operating a speeder, releasing the said owner from liability for any injury sustained by them in riding on said trains, engines, or speeders, arising from any cause whatso- ever. In emergencies arising from forest fires, special trains shall be furnished to officers and employees of the Forest Service. OCCUPANCY. Src. 26. The purchaser is authorized to build on National For- est land, sawmills, camps, railroads, roads, and other improve- ments necessary in the logging or the manufacturing of the tim- ber included in this agreemnt: Provided, That all such structures DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. and improvements shall be located and operated subject to such regulation by the Forest officer in charge as may be necessary for the protection of National Forest interests. The continuance or operation of such improvements on National Forest land after this agreement has terminated shall be subject to authorization by permit or easement under United States laws, and unless such authorization is secured all improvements not removed shall be- come the property of the United States at the expiration of six months from the termination of this agreement. Sec. 27. All merchantable timber used in the construction of buildings, roads, and other structures, necessary in connection with the cutting and removal of the timber covered by this agree- ment, shall be paid for at the current rates for such material under this agreement. Cull material and unmerchantable tops of any species may be used for such purposes without charge and shall be left in place where used. Sec. 28. Logging camps, mills, stables, and other structures, and the ground in their vicinity, shall be kept in a clean, sanitary condition, and rubbish shall be removed and burned or buried. When camps or other establishments are moved from one location to another or abandoned, all débris shall be burned or otherwise disposed of as the Forest officer in charge shall direct. MISCELLANEOUS. Src. 29. At all times when logging operations are in progress the purchaser shall have at the main camp for his employees working on the sale area a representative who shall be author- ized to receive, on behalf of the purchaser, any or all notices and instructions in regard to work under this agreement given by the Forest officer in charge, and to take such action thereon as is required by the terms of this agreement. Sec. 30. Complaints by the purchaser arising from any action taken by a Forest officer under the terms of this agreement shall not be considered unless made in writing to the Forest supervisor haying jurisdiction within thirty (80) days of the alleged unsat- isfactory action. The decision of the Secretary of Agriculture shall be final in the interpretation of the regulations and pro- visions governing the sale, cutting, and removal of the timber coy- ered by this agreement. Sec. 31. All operations on the sale area, including the removal of scaled timber, may be suspended by the district forester, in writing, if the conditions and requirements contained in this agreement are disregarded, and failure to comply with any one of said conditions and requirements, if persisted in, shall be suffi- cient cause for the termination of this agreement: Provided, That the district forester may, upon reconsideration of the con- ditions existing at the date of sale and in accordance with which the terms of this agreement were fixed, and with the consent of the purchaser, terminate this agreement, but in the event of such termination the purchaser shall be liable for any damages sus- tained by the United States arising from the purchaser’s opera- tions hereunder. 37 Construction timber. Sanitation of camps. Representative of purchaser. Complaints by purchaser. Suspension of operations. 38 BULLETIN 950, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. oa of Sec. 32. All the books pertaining to the purchaser’s logging operation and milling business shall be open to inspection at any time by a Forest officer authorized by the district forester to make such inspection, with the understanding that the information AN obtained shall be regarded as confidential. ae een Ag Os Sec. 33. The term “ officer in charge” wherever used in this agreement signifies the officer of the Forest Service who shall be designated by the proper supervisor or by the district forester to supervise the timber operations in this sale. oes March Src. 34. No Member or Delegate to Congress, or Resident Com- missioner, after his election or appointment, and either before or after he has qualified, and during his continuance in office, shall be admitted to any share or part of this contract or agreement, or to any benefit to arise thereupon. Nothing, however, herein contained shall be construed to extend to any incorporated com- pany, where such contract or agreement is made for the general benefit of such incorporation or company. (Section 3741, Re- vised Statutes, and sections 114-116, Act of March 4, 1909.) eis non- Sc. 35. This agreement shall not be assigned in whole or in part. ust FAtee eee Src. 36. The conditions of the sale are completely set forth in ment. this agreement, and none of its terms can be varied or modified except in writing by the Forest officer approving the agreement, or his successor or superior officer, and in accordance with the regulations of the Secretary of Agriculture. No other Forest officer has been or will be given authority for this purpose. Sec. 87. And as a further guarantee of a faithful performance i of the conditions of this agreement we deliver herewith a bond in . the sum of Fifty Thousand Dollars ($50,000.00), and do further i agree that all moneys paid under this agreement shall, upon failure on our part to fulfill all and singular the conditions and require- ments herein set forth, or made a part hereof, be retained by the United States to be applied as far as may be to the satisfaction of our obligations assumed hereunder. We do further agree that should the sureties on the bond delivered herewith or on any bond delivered hereafter in connection with this sale become unsatis- factory to the officer -approving this agreement, we will within thirty (30) days of receipt of demand furnish a new bond with sureties solvent and satisfactory to the approving officer. | Signed in duplicate this ____.-____ GLB OF yo ae ane ee eas MO oe | [CORPORATE SEAL. ] ) By = 25000 _ al Wun eeieet epee ee setise te RUNES OFe Amo ee fiend Wu vowed osetia nese ye Tts 2 ite wort fittest a ee 2 ea Se a tee 2, Witnesses : Forester, DEVELOPMENT OF PULPWOOD RESOURCES. 39 Index to units, names of power sites, and approximate capacities. : Possible Unit. Name. horse- power. PAG DOT MOVACI Ie aioicts/nceisiniafein = oie He a's cee Seie,sis = = HASH OL OGK a -/arac ee eaesis coe