Ss , : a 2 + ' } a Sarr mie nee ( ; Uy ‘ « ye Sanit , a Be aT U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTUK= 63-06 CE Department Bulletins Nos. 125. 4 WITH CONTENTS AND INDEX. Prepared in the Division of Publications. = WASHINGTON: | GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE. ) 1914. ( : The production of certified milk Appendix —_—~— CONTENTS. yy 66708 PRL DepartMENT Buuietin No. 1.—Mepicat MiLk CoMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. iMherworior milk COMMISsONns--62....-2B22.2..4-2 2022-22 2-22 eee The first commission: Its organization and objects...---------------- Origin and meaning of the term ‘‘certified milk”........-....-.------ SPE: igual Oy CAGES Sy A oreo ot ic cae ate i ae Requirements and standards......-.---------------------+-+-+-++--- Methods and work of the various milk commissions Some general considerations.....---.------------------------------- The American Association of Medical Milk Commissions Equipment and methods. ....-.--.--.----------------------------- Information secured from producers Hygiene of the dairy "MEETS YOO BUOLAL SS aaa pd Sh cr ae AS OA hg Ae ae ERS Veterinary supervision of the herd acteroloctealistam@ards=. fs. iB gees = soe epee eee ean bee Bees Chemical stamdards amovmiethods. 2. 22082. aac. 2 os ec eee Methods and regulations for the medical examination of employees, ier healthvand spersonalsyolenereerss8 0. 2 2 taee ee eee ee DEPARTMENT Buuvetin No. 2.—TuHE Fisa-scrap FEertinizeR INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. Purposes of the investigation Historical Other fish used in the preparation of fertilizers...........-.------------- The alleged destruction of food fish in the menhaden industry PRC remmubolocaemme emetic iu tin |. ee IT 2 eee Schiele tite Dh Sonmposnioneor dish anudrrish scrap. ... Bcd -2 2 o62 8Le ee WUSES cis eae oe ala hee enc ea RIM. UE lh ol ne a 2 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS., 1-25. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 3.—A Montel Day’s Work For Various Farm OPERATIONS. ; Page Entredpetions-2- > 2 _...: = 2/2 Re Sa eNO sae a ee Relation of farm equipment to farm management Investment factors 3... 0.52: Re i Seasonal operating ftactors.:. |. eee oe ee le 4 Daily operating factors] s.- 0: See eee ee er Determining the net WORDS" da yaeeer -eeene....: 2 Analysis of ine data. useless er ONIN TOWONHERH, Summary /.3 0,242) 642, ee ee. 42 DerarRTMENT BuuueTiIn No. 4.—TuHe ReEsrEpInG or DerpieteD GRAZING LANDS TO CULTIVATED PQRAGE PLANTS. Prefatory Note <2... 2 =. 225/05 Segoe ~ scape A ea 1 The range problem. 20... 25.55 ee 2 Investigations of the National Forest Range problem by the Forest Service - 2 Location and character of the revegetation studies..................-.... 4 The general studies. .:2--.-- 222. ss 22 ee eae 5 Investigations in the Wallowa Moun taims.¢ 22. :: 0 eee ee 9 Selection of species. : 2252.5. 2225 <2 22 se 25 Relative amount and cost of seed per acre.......--..-------------------- 26 Increase in forage production<2-. <2. sGp—-e5- 2 eee eee eee 29 How to graze the range during the restocking period......-...-- SEI | 30 Conclusions... 2.0.22 2h.225 Steen ce cies ee ees ee 30 DEPARTMENT Butietin No. 5.—THEe SoutHeRN Corn Rootrworm, or BupDworm. Distribution =... 3202.2 tice ic ees I cee ee ee ee Food plants of the larve...........------ ob. Lee eee Peles Food.of the beetles... 5.2... ne cint eke 2. ped ee eee Depredations of the larvee im com...:.2.5.. 5/2520, 22 ee Losses-caused by: the Jarvee:.,.. ... (22.4. --/5- oe eee eee Habits of the larvae. .:.c.a.-.scke22.. S222 e-. ee eee eee OVIPORMBON 25.255. eS ees ae sais 2a ee Seasonal bistoryiw ee: esse sess Saipan Natiiral enemies? 220.3552 2 2050055. - Rok eee re Remedial-and preventive measures.....---.---.--52-5--+-+-s see DEPARTMENT Buiuetin No. 6.—THE AGRicULTURAL UTILIZATION oF ACID Lanps By Means or AcID-TOLERANT CROPS. Introduction. 2:2... s2chbn-g- +--+ ++ amtee ohh ee ee Source of soil acidity....-.----..----- 22-52 n- ea ee Decomposition of leaves...-.....-....:.:-.- 4.2 re Acidity of green manures...........--2 5. -...-.4555 re Injurious effects of acidity............-. +...) . 00 en Source of nitrogen for acid-land plants. .-... 2:22.30 eee eee eee Crops adapted to acid soils. ._.-..... .. :2.ao epee le Lezuminous plants for acid soils....... .225 2 252 9-eeeee Beis pees Acid-tolerant crops in rotation. :..... i242. = cess = eee =~ Beneficial effects of soil acidity . EE Seen nd @oneluston.--- 2-22-2222 et ee ee... ree DeparTMENT Butietin No. 7.—AGRICULTURAL TRAINING CouRSES FoR Em- PLOYED TEACHERS. Introdtiction. 22... . - .. 2 2. ee nie 2 Pe ee ee Means by which employed teachers may acquire agricultural training..... A suggested reading course in agriculture based on farmers’ bulletins. - - - 13 = ONnooap | DD CON OTR WWNHY eH i one Ne a CONTENTS, DEPARTMENT Buxuetin No. 8.—THE WESTERN CorN Rootworm. SITING LLOI ap Ro aes Nays Stine eescn leone a dias GMa OMS clare, Ls (Sielu aed Gra aea eb ued 1D Vester ONDER ORAU sk VRS aa eee NR 2: ENR ae a RE (Oe SP eRe freroryso! Lnewmnech ame Lis TAVAGES.. e-em 25-2 Ses a cicla nie ee eect Panemivrmmdetectinmimjury tO\COrM. . fee. cl. eee tcl s dene eee nae Te aeeal Owe eave) TOKE Cee st NE ER ee eR oe ate RU ree Ree rere [BS THSXOUSICONE SHALOM ke oun el aK 2) kgs 2 ees eee one at yee ee [Neiiimallene mane meewernte | 2s cp ee ciel Waa tL ea pl Ne Pur ee et cela wl Crop rotation as a preventive IMCASULC «seeps ste Huis do sie Swelsin= ys oeere ales Department Butietin No. 9.—An Economic Stupy OF THE ACACTIAS. {PINTS ROIS Os VIS SLC NAO a Oe, ee Oe Re ee Bue emUspa CAC A ss ne iets alle cee ek are Ln’ Met rege cto Mya ep niaispetovek syetetErarec arsrsiahe Sharactensiles! of various Species... Se vse ee jie salle aela lee eies dies ot Pirstonyonenedcra culture in Califormia:.46. 22... 2 Njatee Sete ae oan ta iss TENRGHAVOVAMENG: TLS CSS eM RE a ORE ge co gag CEO ACNE Propagation and management of acacias..........---------- afghan pcarmia y GoeneraleconmGlisiomg's coi eyes eee iS okie as i Med dye Lae Dae a DEPARTMENT BuLueTIN No. 10.—PROGRESS REPORT OF COOPERATIVE IRRIGA- vf TION EXPERIMENTS AT CALIFORNIA University Farm, Davis, Cat., 1909-1912. Haratfneo clam Gt Oa Ar so a= Ley pe) SNe A lad Sk Ni UCL Sr hae pat 1 fieseVseyg Ow (OMTAEAN Wie ie pene eta gee Gen APO em Me mun ear etn, tary ete ey En limicationvon onan, alOlO sd Oni ard OU2 eh i eel sega Irrigation experiments with Indian and Egyptian corn in 1910 and 1911.... Irrigation and crop rotation experiments in 1912........-.-..------------ DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 11.—ForEest MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE IN DELAWARE, MARYLAND, AND VIRGINIA. Loblolly pine adapted to forest management.............----.----------- Disinibution andam portance. = 2.55424 snk ae ees eee Ss see iacienersics Ol loblolly qoime: 2 27.2.4 aise ure afehee, eile iat ees oy ee ee OPTIMIZE a5 USEFI Rg Sa ae as ER eRe Eye ce NU Ua tet muMieS et Manacenent-olloblollypine foreste.- 20522... ise 8 1 eee ENTDTOGTDGIIC JA. Sa reaeg ty ae ante igen er DR gen ne Seay LAINE MBC RCE Peg Se Pe INfommTe Ta Claeys a Nts ati a seliy 2pm) SSS el) U ea hs oN Distinguishing characteristics of the tree......./...---...---2+.-2-6. W@irmmCtenIsiNCMO LHe woods ee. © Bee lied at 8 indy. my aubyat sail eas DEPARTMENT ButLeTIn No. 12.—UsEs or CommMERcIAL WOODS OF THE Unitep States. Brrcu, BrrcHEes, AND MAPLES. TETSMETROYG HUM OT KO eet Sg eet acca te a RRC odr cl a a UR peed NM EieS eee mel AS IPSS DSI QUIERES ape eee 2 OI eg Oey Pe Te Mag eee os (Gravy Tomar asp hie 6 Sth Pao ae Ie erm SMU ETE MP ey th oi ee Le Iestenmpnrrelss ae es RMN 2 a RON raha moa Sealy Haas Gye Aten TET ee Meyers ys eat Nee aL | URE a RE at Gee leaNi thay ch hy Me Samant St ie ib Vito RE [oe elas” Rg RS 9 Ue ap aetna Nirerd ORG ea er Suter mapleneieegae te sso Jae ell wee ee Uae ae Vines emai te 28 Share Bla@ksm arp Ge gee etary Uae ies Nae are st La a Re a ees DHrAoOOONNE: oD W ee ‘ee 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. DEPARTMENT BuLuEtTIN No. 12—Continued. Ve tlemncnplermrts S05 0/22 2 os tens, ME les, Bou Sek 52 Se ee ce Drummond maple Silver maple ta eae. GON... s. RO eee eee Broadleaf maple Boxtel dene 238 SS 2. ST nn so 2 Vine maple sssa2fc 32 555 Sete ss: a ee O81 SV eRerena DEPARTMENT BuLietin No. 13.—WHItTE PINE UNDER Forrest MANAGEMENT. Suitability of white pine for management..........-...---------2-+----+- Geéograplitcal range 2 2750 3.55.5..2; Ge ee ete eh Lr White pine and the lumber industry 2223.72) Se) eee General characteristics of white pine stamds2.2_-.-2-2.-2--.2_-.-.! 23a Silvical: characteristics:.': 222222 2: <. 225e eee eee. eee Second-growth white pine as an investment.............2...-+------------ Management::22 2:32. 452 $42 25252865 ee eee White pine for windbreaks and reservoir protection...............-------- Planting-and sowie white: pines os 22. 2d) 25 Protection 225020 oS AEE Ra Appendix is ocks fe cee el ee A Ae Ae Sk ae DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 14.—THE Micratory Habit oF THE HOUSEFLY Larv# as INDICATING A FAVORABLE REMEDIAL MEASURE. AN ACCOUNT OF PROGRESS. Introduction: 22002 4o oe te ae Themisratory halite. £252 Bes eae i Se SAO Se ee ere The bearing of the migratory habit on the problem of control.............- Summaayss--22ss-ee JIL EPSR SES Soy loa PE EE ee References to literature.............--- AUREL, SS EY Si eae a gna DEPARTMENT BuuuETIN No. 15.—A SEALED PAPER CARTON TO PROTECT CEREALS FROM INSECT ATTACK. Eeonomiciimportance of the problem s.c-.). 5.32322 33225 eee eee eee Preliminary observations... .b22.. 2 2235 5 eee Pxperiments in ‘California... 2:..-...ce-82 3252 Soe eee eee Where infestation takes place. .:.. 25-2. - 226.) eae Drying the cereal... ::..08.050 05. eee ee eee The sealed carton... 22.0.2 Pe ee eS ee Packages other than sealed ‘cartons. 22525-22 + 22 2222 522) eee Summarys Sho oes Sea ee ee es (eae sates cede rk DEPARTMENT Buuetin No. 16.—TuHe CuLtture or FLUE-cURED TOBACCO. Introductions: 32 526 Sse ee... CRIA ee eee Soils:of the fie-cured’ district... 2. 2. 22525 2 eee Crop rotation, systems: ..-.....-....... 2+. 4s8e= eee eee Fertilizers for flue-cured tobacco: .--22-.-2-25 eee] eae eee eee Varieties of fue-cured: tobacco: - 2. . ..2-eeeeeen es See eet Selection and care of seed plants........----------------+----+++- etree eee Preparation and care of seed bed.......-.-------+--+++++--0-20+ rrr rte Early and late planting compared.......-------<---+---+-5++--++-------- Preparation of the soil for transplanting. - .----------------+-+++-+------- Cultivation of the growing crop.......-:-----====229-5222eeea-s+------2- Diseases and insect enemies. .....-..---------- +2222 02 r ett ttt rns Topping and suckering... ..)..-.~ ... - Geeta re eee ~~" et Harvesting. 2). oe ciety a seks es Oo 2 ee ete le eels Curing’and. handling... 2.425. 22pm a ee oe a HOmNH ONODor NFR FE CONTENTS. DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 17.—THE REFRIGERATION OF DRESSED POULTRY IN TRANSIT. Ramee vena Ae CO lie) ity a oa Poe alee crores) = ciajteiaista cletela oes nee bl wile ole ww alae ope RENO OMe MMVeSTIPAMONE: fice ts tle wekla wh ae oe Saye tole oa eileaciecinc CCE OM Mexmivien (SandOU: 2/552 uit == flea a Swicls w'e'-\cieie s'eslalsle vse ecto nemesis SMO TMO MCE ta ss eee ke te ee cisco es ceeecoaneedens ree CRU RCA enn te ostaiaeSee --e seneigccc « sicld nals oboe 5 a sole etew a sail = Piereapencel emiumertepeetterr ret. Ae ae G2 ohn aralarara/ a2 hs ofe eid nisiele amine: tie Mem PeraULe Om NAckAe es) MCA. Lee ei. Se Soo cle wee Se Boma esata herr Le cla acon olan dane ole uiafe/a g's ge mee 7a Buiietin No. 18.—A Report on THE PHOSPHATE FIELDS OF SoutH CAROLINA. TGVEAROGI ACT TOD ie, Go SA cy am eee eae a ate” oe A mr te) Pra ME Ene ISLIGIMEAT 5 = 2 2 eRe eee Paar Ae ee ae Ries ne eI es 7 EE LAE AES Georraphyand: topography. ....-) 222242. .--- OREN TAO Lh teen eee CIESSISE, ONE TOL ISY 0) AT = eae to tr aoe ntl i aR eR A A ea ap Cremopvea moe emrrenCe: amd) ONO at 2 Fer.) slats a's ta crn eiavaier sole cee ae iyaieakandiehenieal* properties. £2222... 62s ei see ce oaee tek eae ae Wheat oa ksi Gar tea Mira aes Sa Ns Ea ale al a ee ge omer b oh ie Ney aia AI Sig Tae Ti WS ETRY kedere pseu coy RR ae eat a Regen ees Ayre ken os 8) GUase i) * CORE Cir OOS lbKO Moras eter ican ene cae Ronen te ea Arye tease eae a Syn eae es ‘SVS: DORIS es eT Ag ge at snes rl ne mPhase ts Lat ect RAPA LOU Chee test at et ferro: SY yen antes ats ae olan Men Rewer tte, ees BExKe MO IMGMErAON Gey etre et teen ee She NA HARES Uae ee eee EKeSeMincOnan ion: oti tme nm dustiy~ 1s ae eee aa te ERR OMU MMe TINO ISG ttre are rs nee st) ae ee eto SHU DGTP? 5 ere ee Ae EF IE NR ey ate Rr OS Reta ashe aed eM baer aN DEPARTMENT BuLLETIN No. 19.—THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER IN THE LAKE ERIE VALLEY. TET TRO VGN UC TEY 2% cstv ete tle ie aot llth coda pre Mate eh een gt Veda ahabek Oo eee TEURSTORE. |, EU'S, Sth Baye Brea as aliments sme). hae aU arco te SO ercirreer mn Oma ET) Ut OM <4 e-y-tat ost) cree ote ee ah Bt oy mae he Na Ens bss TRGOG: TOLAATE Soe Ck GB VSS thes re er Mean a eo eligi Ae ded eae de eee ae Character of injury and destruetiveness..-...-.-..-2-4-222-+----225---- Occurmenceandudesinuctive outbreakas tase see se le ete eee ANTIBES UEIGTO i ected drach ee ead se es eS eos Gretta ae LDCS CEM DOA, 5 wget PB ce ata CoE = = bs A eS ge ac Na rSOZIS OMT ES OTS] tO eae oe ery NANA ee a rh aia dey eS 2 aasibest alc Pred ac COUR CMeMIIeS (<4 seer tt tot hc tes A SEL ee Neramemnehe Chee tein eaaw. ie a eotns ©. ¥ 9s AapMman sp tnetat Eh ni8 Sear Pitino os rth lol PERN Bibliography . Ip geek enn Sino nih 4 nae came CELT SURSUSTAS BAER IK TEL DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 20. - ters MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP ON THE FARM. Pera ae CHAR GASH As NR Ee 0 A + Ne ee Spe Sr ng dh Aw ten ciel Guan ews alee The value of sheep on the farm......... PETS ee See MG eens epee Pe Sealine ato eka 2 ba vine“ 4 Agee ea Nee sh a8 soon oe Se ROMS M1 @ CMS 2 spa nan APs ae Set Bee Se OE) EO ak @amero tilestlo eke. nis ecrr toes ees oa eet Ss EET Heedhmoushie crypts 7th 8 i OR Sek PN oa 8 oe RESIS AO a ea Ni Shearmeaudkeaneo-the wool. 22-J2ss lee. EO Sb as a Cost:of maintenance 2 wre eke Pe Peo ks et PO RR SCO ODO ON DOOR WN HF a S&S 11 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25, DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 21.—THEe CoMMERCIAL FATTENING OF POULTRY. Jingrodmetioniy co. oo ee oS ae ee, The feeding experiments. ©... 25. ea0 oe Details comeerming thevieeding )... es. 2. Se. ee ee Patienine bemsts Gee Se 2 a PRY a Individual variation in fattening chickens.............-- aioe cette ee Mixing machines and other labor-saving devices............------------- Advantage of the portable feeding battery. ................----.-.------ Hxpert labors. 20) cessed se fe os ee Grading poultrysc: sso se 2s ie a ee. Shrinkage din: dressing. 0405 no3 2.3. eee oe ee, 2 Initial cost of chickens as affecting profit in fattening...-.....-..-------- Relation of gram fed to: manure produced/si-.-. 3222828 a 2 eee Digestible protein and energy value of the rations......-........-.---.-- Comparison of experiments of 1910, 1911, and 1912....................... Conclusions. ...-. - eae siatsh tpn sean sean Remeron Oe DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 22.—GameE Laws For 1913. Introduction: 222 00. 2S eS Teepislation int VOU3 2 oes ea ence, See ee eae New laws passed:in 19132302. 02st oe ee Seasons: 2. bs ess ee oe ee sas Pe Regulations for the protection of migratory birds..........--.---..-----.--- Open seasonse: 22. Scoce 25 Se oe ee Ss a ee Licenses for hunting and shipping game.-....2...--.---.------+----+----- DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 23.—ViITRIFIED Brick AS A PAVING MATERIAL FoR Country Roaps. Introduction: 352. sks. hse el) es ee ee Theraw-matertalevco.ci ose oe kee os ge et eee The manwiacture.. 222 L225 ee Oe pa Physical characteristics... 6..50..5.2. 5252. Se eet ee ane ee eae Mesting thelbreks 50260. arose. . Rae eee ee eee ee Construction e223 508s sa ee iG eee ee Cost of brick pavements. 2.2.0 2255. ieee oe ee Maintenance of brick pavements... 2.2: S22. 06255. 220.2 ee Typical specifications for the construction of brick roads.........---------- Conelusiom. eee ee ee oe IRR eal es DEPARTMENT BULLETIN No. 24.—CoTtoNnwooD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. Importance of cottonwood.2..-......-. 522.200 Pee eee eee Annual cut and present supply .......- 222... 3253 oe eee eee eee eee Character of the wood...--22:........ . {eee ee eee eee GhATACKer OL Stas. 52.2.6. ss ee we se eee ee eee Form and growth of individual trees. ...20725 soe eee <= «- - -- Growth and yield of stands...........-. gen eee elem aes => cs = eee MAMACCINENE. 22. oe ee ee ew ee So ove on a eee === CONTENTS. i DEPARTMENT Butuetin No. 24—Continued. — Page. emeos IkOM PLOWING COLLOMWOOGs - 2.25 0k eace woe rece cede ndecndcalenecs 45 Poa SAG sec ughne Oe bee Atl PEG oe Oe” Ae Ne te es Iie rege ee 48 EE i GE aT el Ae Se oe Se grec SSS RIarnt - -Aeemieie abe 61 DEPARTMENT BuLLETIN No. 25.—THEr SHRINKAGE IN WEIGHT OF BEEF Cat- TLE IN TRANSIT. I. Southwestern shrinkage work of 1910-11...........--2....-..0.---.---- 1 TNS CoD GUNG © eR SOs ape ce er en il CO.) anV Stet Op TiLOVE TUT SISLT eH 0 a ea ae Pr ee 2 Jed eo We), Oi, THING) AWOL RA CONS Coste REESE cee Ore Rein amp Serer 3 INCOUTAC VEO mUrACK SOMOS s -8f 1) 2 soe oS fois bee cos Se aie ately cblel= wn ele es gt Shrinkage in weight not the same on all classes of cattle...........-- RUS By TBE Keri Gils) Sui ane airs 01 cf ae mes Se Nr 7 sivineninillwerimmM acest ceo os 5 MAAR Oe i Sees cca, apts aha lal Mie! atar 9 Mreamment,oheattle at; market. 3. ooo. Soe s teen <% selesie wists wie te 9 Wefatl tote tn exworks. 22.520 seereteate memes om tele areca ce ain oreleeteieie iatals 10 SHETETTTOS ASH, ON ISLS VSO N OMS C0) ol cM eh es = GRR a age ae gE RE ep Dil C6 GAC TUTE T OT See hs eh nth oa ene Cite sacle Py Sock Crea aye oe Cray ol SETS ye tate 22 ii Northwestern shrinkage’ work’ of 1911-12) 2.22.00 .2e ee lee e eee ene 24 RENEE UE COUN LUO Tle ey ee reese new cos wets wise a aia ws cjasaia avare ts cial whet ae eels Bae 24 EOWAtbe data, Were obtained 2) 0o os ee So ee es Seales 24 pibtneM leat TM APKC steaks terse as te ye CSR Sera as rte ce aes Nery aya ACE ey 26 iesnme. of arrbvalatpmarketes. o-oo. eS adls - bes sce b eee oceee ee 27 Crindinorapalmsth is mpimika gers. oe Nene ye Gul Ae ct i h Ur ee Melee Oh os ea 28 Nieroinimoxwarmarand COO). 5.52. 7.. inspection of dairies seems to serve a double purpose, in that it not only puts a clean milk, which is produced under medical supervision, in the hands of the consumer at a reasonable price, but it also serves as a school for dairymen who may contemplate at some future time the production of certified milk. MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. i INSPECTION OF DAIRY AND PRODUCT. The answers from the various commissions relative to inspections show considerable variation. In some instances the inspections are made by members of the commission and in others paid inspectors are employed to do the work. As a rule, inspections of the dairy are made monthly by either a veterinarian or a member of the com- mission, or both, and in some instances inspections are made every two weeks. The tuberculin test is usually applied annually, but in some cases this is done every six months. Chemical and _ bacteri- ological examinations range all the way from once a week to once in two months; in most instances, however, it is the practice to make tests every two weeks or oftener. HEALTH OF EMPLOYEES. The employees in certified-milk plants are required to be clean in habits and appearance and are not admitted to the stables or dairy if not in good health. Some commissions require that employees be regularly examined by a physician and given certificates of health. In some certified-milk plants attendants when ill are cared for in a building specially set apart for the purpose. PRECAUTIONS TO PREVENT SPREAD OF CONTAGIOUS DISEASES. Where a large milk business is conducted and several thousand customers are served daily, there is danger that some contagious disease may be brought into the dairy in some of the bottles. To avoid this, in some instances a wagon makes a special trip to collect bottles from any house where a contagious disease 1s known to exist. These bottles are thoroughly boiled in a special room before they come to the dairy proper. They are then subjected to the same cleansing process as all the others. SOME GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. IS THE DEMAND FOR CERTIFIED MILK INCREASING? Although there has been a remarkable increase in the quantity of certified milk produced between 1907 and 1912, it must be admitted that the demand is not as great as might be expected. In nearly all localities it is a hard fight for the milk commissions to educate the consumers to the consumption of certified milk. There are two main reasons for this. First, it has been found that there is a general apathy among consumers as to the purity of their milk supply. This would hold good as well with certified as with market milk. Another reason is that the price of certified milk is considerably higher than that of market milk, and it is hard to get people to pay the extra cost. Reports were received from 45 commissions as to the 8 BULLETIN 1, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. demand for certified milk. Three of these were indefinite. Only 10 out of this number reported that the demand was increasing rapidly ; 1 more stated that the demand was fair, 2 that the demand was increasing steadily, 2 that there was a moderate demand, and 4 that the increase was gradual. This gives a total of 19 commissions that found that the demand was increasing in a satisfactory manner. The other 23 answers were divided as follows: Not a rapid increase, 12; very slow, 1; slight increase, 2; slow increase, 7; limited, 1. It appears from these answers and from the results tabulated that while certified milk is increasing its sphere of influence, the increase is very slow, and at the present time only about one-half of 1 per cent of the coat milk supply of this country is certified. One com- mission made the report that the demand was fairly good, but no dairyman was willing to supply it. Another commission accounted for the slow increase in the demand for certified milk by saying that the use of certified milk was limited because of the superior quality of the market milk in the city where the commission was located. PRICES OF CERTIFIED MILK COMPARED WITH THOSE OF MARKET MILK. The prices of certified milk to the consumer vary in different cities from 10 to 20 cents a quart, the average price for all cities being about 14.2 cents. The price of ordinary market milk in the same cities varies from 5 to 12 cents a quart and averages about 7.8 cents. Certified milk therefore sells for an average of 6.4 cents a quart more than market milk. Asa rule, where the price of market milk is low, the price of certified milk is also comparatively low, although this does not hold true in all cases. It was found in 1907 that the average price of certified milk was te cents a quart, and the average price of market milk was 74 cents a quart. It will be seen from the foregoing figures that while the. average price of market milk has increased only about 0.6 of a cent a quart, the average price of certified milk has increased about 2 cents a quart. THE INFLUENCE OF CERTIFIED MILK. While certified milk is in a class by itself and does not enter into competition with ordinary grades of market milk, it has much edu- cational value in cities where it is used. There is no doubt that the advertising of certified milk does much to inform consumers that clean milk costs more than dirty milk and that a cheap milk is apt to be dangerous. The influence of certified milk on dairymen in general is a little more complex. Certified dairies have certainly shown how to pro- duce the finest grade of milk and have served as models along this MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. 9 line. An unfortunate feature has been that mary of them have been operated at a financial loss, and this has had a demoralizing effect upon many dairymen, who have been led to believe that the produc- tion of clean milk necessitates the outlay of large sums of money in expensive equipment. SO-CALLED CERTIFIED MILK NOT CONTROLLED BY MILK COMMISSIONS. There are a few dairymen who sell their product under the name of certified milk who have no connection with the milk commissions. These, in some cases, certify to their own product, and in others samples are sent to a State experiment station or to some local chemist or bacteriologist for examination. Some dairymen in this class supply a very creditable product. There are others whose milk is of only ordinary quality. Here, again, the samples for analysis are usually taken by the dairyman himself from milk fresh from the cow and immediately iced and sent to the analyst. The analyst reports his results and the dairyman uses them to advertise his product. This can not be looked upon as anything but a deception, as the consumer is given to understand that this is the analysis of the milk as it is delivered to him daily. It is only when medical milk commissions have been organized and a plan of education has been started to create a demand for sanitary milk designed for infant feeding that there arises any danger of an impure milk being put on the market under such a label. It is manifestly unfair, therefore, that after a commission, serving without pay in the interest of the public, has created a feeling that “certified” milk means a safe, clean milk for infant feeding, some unprincipled dairyman should be able to prey on the ignorance of the public and supply an unsafe milk at a high price. Some steps should be taken by the milk commissions or by city or State officers to prevent such practices. Where milk is an article of interstate commerce, however, the national pure-food law covers misrepresentations of this character. LEGALIZATION OF THE TERM “CERTIFIED MILK.” The State of New York has set a good example in passing a law for regulating the sale of certified milk. A portion of the law reads as follows: No person shall sell or exchange, or offer or expose for sale or exchange, as and for certified milk any milk which does not conform to the regulations pre- scribed by, and bear the certification of, a milk commission appointed by a councy medical society organized under and chartered by the Medical Society of the State of New York and which has not been pronounced by such authority to be free from antiseptics, added preservatives, and pathogenic bacteria in exces- sive numbers. AIl milk sold as certified milk shall be conspicuously marked with the name of the commission certifying it. 4999°—Bull. 1—13—_2 10 BULLETIN 1, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. New Jersey has also passed a very stringent law governing the production of certified milk. This act was approved by the gov- ernor on April 21, 1909, and a section of it reads as follows: 11. No person, firm, or corporation shall sell or exchange or offer or expose for sale or exchange as and for certified milk any milk which is not produced in conformity with the methods and regulations prescribed by and which does not bear the certification of a medical milk commission, incorporated pursuant to the provisions of this act or organized or incorporated in some other State for the purposes specified in section 1 hereof, and which is not produced in conformity with the methods and regulations for the production of certified milk from time to time adopted by the American Association of Medical Milk Com- missions, and which is below the standards of purity and quality for certified milk as fixed by the American Association of Medical Milk Commissions; and any such person, firm, or corporation violating any of the provisions of this section shall be guilty of a misdemeanor. The State of Kentucky also defines certified milk in the following | words: An act for preventing the manufacturing and sale of adulterated or mis- branded foods, drugs, medicines, and liquors and providing penalties for viola- tion thereof. Section 3, paragraph 3. If in the case of certified milk it be sold as or labeled “ certified milk,’ and it has not been so certified under rules and regulations by any county medical society, or if, when so certified, it is not up to that degree of purity and quality necessary for infant feeding. California has also passed a law governing certified milk, and several other States contemplate such legislation. Michigan has seen fit to recognize the importance of this subject and has passed a law which varies somewhat from the other laws. The Michigan act provides that any board of health having two or more physicians among its membership is authorized to appoint five physicians as a medical milk commission to supervise the production of certified milk. In towns not having a board of health so consti- tuted the State board of health may make the appointment. FINANCIAL SUPPORT OF MILK COMMISSIONS. Members of milk commissions rarely receive any pay for their work, their services being given gratis for the public good. Small expenses of the commission are usually met by the commission itself. Occasionally philanthropic subscriptions are received. In one city three men contributed $800 after an appeal by the commission. Postage, printing, and salaries of experts are usually paid by the producers. There is no uniformity regarding the charges for certification. Some commissions make absolutely no charge, while others charge the actual expenses of the various inspections and examinations to MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. dial the dairymen. The following is a list of some of the charges made by different commissions at the present time: $40 a year for each dairy. $10 a month. $25 a year for each 100 cows. $8 a month for 100 quarts. $60 a year for each dairy. One per cent of the retail price. One-half the cost of the bacteriological examinations. $10 per 1,000 caps. $5 per 1,000 caps. $4 per 1,000 caps. $3.50 per 1,000 caps. $1.25 per 1,000 caps One-third of a cent a quart. One-fourth of a cent a quart. One and one-half cents a quart. It would seem that the most equitable charge for certification would be by the sale of caps bearing the seal of the commission. This is done in a majority of cases, but, as can be seen, the charges vary over a wide field. THE AMERICAN ASSOCIATION OF MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS.* The spread of the certified milk movement was undoubtedly re- tarded because of the difficulties that presented themselves to those who had such an organization in contemplation. The subject was not broadly understood by the medical profession, and even when the organization of a milk commission was determined upon it was diffi- cult to arrive at the most acceptable plan of organization and detail of working methods. The usual procedure was to get into correspondence with one of the older commissions, which would relate its individual way of handling this problem. If the plan submitted seemed unsatisfactory, other commissions would be written to, and so an endless correspond- ence resulted, which proved especially burdensome to the Newark, N. J., commission. The secretary of the Cincinnati commission, Dr. Otto P. Geier, encountered this same difficulty at the period of organization of that commission. It resulted in his sending out a series of 24 questions covering every phase of activity in milk commission work. These were addressed to every commission then known. This very ex- -haustive tabulation showed that there existed considerable lack of uniformity as to organization, working methods, supervision of ‘dairies, chemical and bacteriological standards, methods of bottling, capping, and sealing, etc. 1The writer is indebted to Dr. Otto P. Geier, secretary of the American Association of Medical Milk Commissions, for data regarding the organization of the association. iby BULLETIN 1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Out of this mass of correspondence an attempt was made to arrive at the most acceptable standards and working factors, and the con- clusion was reached that a conference of the milk commissions would be most valuable to all concerned. In February, 1907, the Cincinnati commission addressed the various milk commissions suggesting a conference to be held in connection with the meeting of the American Medical Association at Atlantic City. Out of this grew a temporary organization. Dr. Henry L. Coit, Dr. Otto P. Geier, Dr. Samuel McC. Hamill, Dr. Rowland G. Freeman, Dr. William H. Park, and Dr. Thomas W. Harvey, acting as a committee, formulated a program and called the conference for June 3, 1907, at Atlantic City. This initial conference was remarkable in that delegates were pres- ent from 12 different States, representing 21 commissions in aS many cities. Over 100 physicians and leading hygienists attended this meeting, and a tremendous amount of work was accomplished. Re- ports were read by delegates as to the work of their particular com- missions. Papers were presented on the broad topic of a pure-milk supply for cities. A permanent organization was effected, to be known as the American Association of Medical Milk Commissions, and the following officers were elected: President, Dr. Henry L. Coit Secretary, Dr. Otto P. Geier. Treasurer, Dr. Samuel McC. Hamill. Council: Dr. Rowland G. Freeman, chairman (5 years); Dr. Henry Enos Tuley (4 years) ; Dr. C. W. Brown (3 years); Dr. A. W. Myers (2 years) ; Dr. H. L. K. Shaw (1 year); and the president, secretary, and treasurer of the association. Committees were appointed upon every phase of activity in milk certification to investigate and report at the next annual meeting. It can be said that this meeting marked a new era in the pure-milk crusade. It is agreed that this organization is in position to crys- tallize the best thought that has been given to this subject, and that through such central organization quick dissemination of that knowledge will follow. The constitution of this association declares its object in the fol- lowing language: The purpose of this association shall be to federate and to bring into one compact association the medical milk commissions of the United States; to ex- change views and to adopt uniform methods of procedure in the work of the medical milk commissions; to fix chemical and bacteriological standards; to determine the scope of veterinary inspections; and to foster and to encourage the establishment of medical milk commissions in other cities. A better understanding of this subject will reveal the fact that milk commissions are widening their scope, and that through their activity the quality of the general supply of milk in the large cities MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. 13 is being elevated. It will show that it is practicable for any medical association to form such a commission, which, once formed, will be most useful in educating the public as well as the profession and in creating a demand for a cleaner milk supply, and will thus further the efforts of boards of health. THE PRODUCTION OF CERTIFIED MILK. EQUIPMENT AND METHODS. In the following pages is given a short description of the “equip- ment and methods that are used at the present time among the various dairies that produce certified milk. The Dairy Division is ready at any time to furnish working blue prints for the construction of barns and milk houses in which certified milk may be produced and handled. STABLES. The stables in which the cows are housed. for the production of certified milk are built of various materials and vary greatly as to their arrangement and cost. In the past certified stables have been built mostly of wood or brick, but of late there have been a few stables erected entirely of concrete. Feeding floors, walks, and gut- ters are nearly always built of cement, and in a number of cases the platform on which the cows stand is also built of this material. Some certified dairies use wood for this purpose, and a few are using cork brick for the cows to stand on. While many of the certified barns at the present time are built with a storage loft for feed overhead, it is thought that the best practice is to have the cows in a separate one-story structure. A great deal of money has been spent in some certified-milk plants in finishing the stable in an elaborate manner with tile and expensive trimmings. Experience would seem to show that good results can be secured in an inexpensive barn, provided the proper precautions are observed. The floors should be smooth, nonabsorbent, and easily cleaned ; the gutters should be capacious; the walls and ceilings should be absolutely smooth so that they may be easily kept free from dust and other dirt. Square corners and ledges should be avoided. The barns which are most easily kept clean are built with rounded corners and no horizontal ledges where dust may accumulate. It facilitates work if running water is available in a barn, so that the floors and walls may be washed down with a hose. At least 500 cubic feet of air space and 4 square feet of window glass per cow should be allowed. Many certified stables are built - with a much greater window allowance. Sunlight acts as a disin- fectant in the stable and adds much to the attractiveness of the building. Views of stables are shown in Plates I and II. 14 BULLETIN 1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. DAIRY HOUSES. Milk houses on certified farms vary almost as greatly as do the stables. Stone, brick, wood, and cement are used for their construc- tion. The same rules regarding the absence of ledges and the smooth- ness of the walls, floors, and ceilings should be observed. An entirely separate room should be provided for handling the milk, and in the majority of certified dairies this room is kept tightly closed while milk is being bottled and no visitors are allowed access to it. In some of the milk rooms air is supplied through a filter, so that there is no danger of bacteria being admitted from the outside air. Screens should be provided for all openings in the milk house, and there is no excuse for flies in the milk room. HEALTH AND CLEANLINESS OF CATTLE. The medical milk commissions require the tuberculin testing of the herds under their supervision. In addition, any cows showing abnormal symptoms or any form of disease which might affect the milk are eliminated from certified herds. The cattle are carefully groomed at least once a day so that there can be no accumulation of filth upon them, and in many dairies the cows’ tails are washed daily. Many certified-milk producers are in the habit of clipping the hairs from the udders, fianks, legs, and bellies of all the animals, so that they are the more readily kept clean. A few certified dairies have installed vacuum cleaners with which the cows are cleaned previous to milking. These cleaners take up much of the dust, loose hairs, and scurf which would simply be brushed into the air of the stable by hand cleaning. After the cows are cleaned they are fas- tened so that they can not lie down until the milkers are through. REMOVAL OF MANURE. Wherever practicable the manure should be carried to the field daily. Many dairies follow this custom and find it economical, in that the manure does not have to be handled twice, as it would were it kept in a pit. At other dairies covered pits are built for the re- ception of the manure. Where these are built they should be of water-tight construction and should be tightly screened and covered to keep out flies. BEDDING. While straw is used for bedding in some of the certified dairies, a large number use either planer shavings or sawdust. Baled shav- ings may be had at a nominal price and make a very satisfactory bedding in sanitary dairies. As fast as these shavings are soiled or become damp they should be removed with the manure and replaced with clean, dry shavings. MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. 15 FEEDING. On account of the dust and odors which arise from the feeding of hay, grain, and silage, nearly all certified dairies prefer to do the feeding after milking has been completed. BARNYARD. The barnyard should be well drained and kept free from all filth. If good natural drainage can not be secured it is sometimes necessary to fill in the barnyard with coal ashes, gravel, shells, or some other drainage material. Sometimes underdrains are put in to carry away superfluous moisture. As the cows often lie down in the barnyard, Fig. 1.—Ordinary milk pail made into a small-top pail by the addition of a hood. it is important to keep the yard clean, so that they may not become unnecessarily dirty. UTENSILS. Particular attention is paid by certified dairies to the construction of the utensils which come in contact with the milk. It is most de- sirable to have the utensils as free as possible from all crevices and inaccessible parts. The simplest utensils are the ones which are the most readily cleaned, and hence the danger of contamination from them is less. Small-top milk pails are used by practically every certified dairy. There are many forms of the small-top milk pail in use at the present time, and it is generally known that these pails are responsible for the elimination of many bacteria from milk. Figure 1 shows a small-top pail which can be made from an ordi- nary milk pail by the addition of a hood. This pail will take the place of some of the more expensive kinds and do very satisfactory work. 16 BULLETIN 1, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In considering the purchase of a sanitary milk pail two things must be considered—first, its practicability, and, second, the ease with which it can be cleaned. Some of the so-called sanitary pails have proved to be too cumbersome and unwieldy for practical use, while others have spouts, sharp angles, and inaccessible places that are extremely difficult to clean. It is usually the practice to fill all of the seams and corners in milk utensils with solder, so that a smooth, cleanable surface is presented. At practically all of the certified dairies steam is used for the sterilization of utensils, including bottles, cans, milk pails, strainers, and in some cases even the coolers and bottle fillers. This sterilization is done in large ovens, which can be bought ready-made or can be built by the owner of the plant. (See Pl. IV, fig. 12) In these sterilizers the utensils are sterilized with live steam, usuaily for a half hour and sometimes under a slight pressure. These sterilizers are con- structed of cement, brick, iron, and in one dairy the sterilizer in use is lined with giass enamel, which makes a smooth, cleanable surface. In many certified dairies the custom is practiced of sterilizing the milk pails and other utensils and leaving them inverted in the steri- lizer until milking time. This protects them from contamination due to flies or impure outside air. PREPARATION FOR MILKING. At all certified dairies great care is exercised to see that the stable air is free from dust and odors at milking time. The cows are groomed and the floors are swept long enough before milking so that the dust has had a chance to settle. Some dairies make a practice of spraying the air in the barn and the bedding with a fine spray of water just previous to milking, so that all dust particles are laid. At one dairy this result is achieved by the use of steam. Pipes pierced with holes run horizontally through the barn, and just before milking steam is turned into them. One disadvantage of this method is that it raises the temperature in the barn considerably in the sum- mer time. Before milking, the cows are usually cleaned by a separate gang of men. In a few places the milkers wash the cows just before they milk them, but this is not considered so satisfactory on account of the fact that the milkers’ hands are apt to be contaminated from the wash water, and unless they are careful to clean them each time there may be bad results. The cow-cleaning gang usually consists of three or four men, who thoroughly prepare the cows for the milkers. One of these men sometimes uses a damp towel or a piece of sacking with which he wipes off the body of the cow to remove any loose hairs or dust which have not been removed by previous grooming. Then the cow’s udder and flanks are washed, usually in two separate waters, care being taken to change the water often enough so that it does Bul. No. 1, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE Il. EXTERIOR VIEWS OF DAIRY STABLES WHERE CERTIFIED MILK IS PRODUCED. PLATE II. Bul. No. 1, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. INTERIOR VIEWS OF DAIRY STABLES WHERE CERTIFIED MILK 1S PRODUCED. Bul. No. 1, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. STEPS IN THE PRODUCTION AND HANDLING OF CERTIFIED MILK. 1. Clipping cows. 2. Cleaning cows. 3. Washing cows preparatory to milking. 4. Milker washing hands. 5. Milking. 6. Cooling and bottling. Bul. No. 1, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. STEPS IN THE HANDLING AND DELIVERY OF CERTIFIED MILK. 7, Sealing bottles. 8. Storage. 9. Case of bottles ready for delivery. 10. Delivery wagon. 11. Washing bottles. 12. Sterilizing bottles. “NOILVNINVLNOOD WOYS SHLNOW] AILLOG LOALOYd OL GASf SONIYSAOD ACISLNO PLATE V. Bul. No. 1, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. 1 not do more harm than good. In some certified dairies a disinfectant is used in this water, but in the majority of cases plain water is used. After washing, the cows are usually partially dried with a clean towel, the object being to have the cows’ hides slightly moist, but not wet enough for any moisture to run on the milkers’ hands or drip into the pail. While the cows are being prepared the milkers assemble in the dressing room and put on their clean milking suits and thoroughly scrub their hands and finger nails with soap and brushes. In a few dairies the requirements for the cleanliness of the milkers are so rigid that only smooth-shaven men are allowed to milk the cows or have anything to do with handling the milk. When the milkers are satis- factorily prepared for milking they are handed sterilized milk pails and milking stools and allowed to start work. In some dairies the cows are milked in a room separate from the stable. This room holds only a few cows at a time, the cows being cleaned in the main barn and led into the milking room to be milked. Judging from the bac- terial counts of the various dairies there is nothing specially gained by this, if proper precautions are taken in the main barn. MILKING. In a few dairies the milkers use a little vaseline on the hands while milking, but in practically all cases milking is done with dry hands. It is very often the practice to discard the first few streams of milk from each cow, which are drawn into a cup. This “ foremilk ” con- tains large numbers of bacteria, and the count can be reduced by re- jecting it. Milkers are instructed to milk quickly and quietly, and after each cow is finished they carry the milk to the straining room, where it is strained and cooled immediately. By far the best method is to re- quire the milkers to wash their hands after milking each cow. Plenty of clean towels should be provided for the purpose of wiping the milkers’ hands. In one dairy paper towels are being used, so that perfectly fresh unused towels are at hand for each mulker. During the milking the milkers should not be allowed to rest the milk pail on the floor, as the bottom of the pail is lable to become covered with dirt, which is transferred to the milkers’ hands when he pours the milk from the pail. SUBSEQUENT HANDLING OF MILK. The milk is removed immediately from the barn to the milk house, where it is cooled and bottled at once. In some dairies the milk is bottled warm and the bottles are packed in ice or stood in ice water. This eliminates much exposure to the air. Various types of bottie fillers are in use in the large dairies, while one or two of 4999°—Bull. 1—_183—_3 18 BULLETIN 1, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the very sinallest fill the bottles from a large dipper or pitcher. In the last few years capping machines have been perfected so that the bottles may be filled and capped without being touched by human hands. This is a decided advantage, as the old method of placing the caps in the bottles by hand was liable to result in serious con- tamination. Practically all of the certified establishments sterilize the caps which are used in the milk bottles. This sterilization is best accomplished by dry heat, as steam is apt to swell the paper caps so that they do not fit the capping machine or the neck of the bottle. The caps are placed in a small cylinder or rolled in brown paper and placed in dry ovens, where they are heated for about an hour. Practically all certified-milk dairies now use some sort of an out- side cover to protect the mouth of the bottle from being infected with dust or dirty water. A variety of appliances for this purpose are in use, some of which are shown in Plate V. TRANSPORTATION AND DELIVERY. Great care is taken to see that certified milk is always kept cold. It is cooled in the dairies by ice water, brine, or direct expansion almost down to the freezing point, and from that time until it is delivered to the consumer it is kept well packed in ice to prevent the multiplication of bacteria. The distribution of certified milk is sare: in some cases by the pro- ducer, but very often the producer ships to some retailer in the city, who handles the product for him. Some certified dairies maintain laboratories in charge of physicians or trained nurses where certified milk is modified for infant feeding according to physicians’ prescriptions. The modified milk is put up in nursing bottles, sufficient feedings for one day being prepared at a time and delivered to the consumer in a refrigerator case. INFORMATION SECURED FROM PRODUCERS. In order to secure accurate data relative to the production of cer- tified milk, a list of questions was sent to owners and operators of certified-milk farms. Answers were received from a large number. It was found that quite a number had discontinued the production of certified milk for one reason or another, several having stopped because of the lack of sufficient markets for their product or because the production was attended with financial loss. Answers to the questions were received from 92 dairies, distributed among 17 States. NUMBER AND BREED OF COWS. The number of cows in herds producing certified milk varies from % to 600. It was found that the average number of cows in certified dairies was 88. Practically every breed is represented in these herds. MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. 19 Some grade or native stock is found in most of them. There are several herds of registered animals. The breed is not considered of special importance with most of the commissions, provided that the composition of the milk produced is within the limits of the stand- ards prescribed. Provided that the health of the animals is perfect, it makes very little difference apparently what the breed is. QUANTITY AND QUALITY OF THE MILK. The amount of certified milk produced daily by certified dairies ranged from 124 to 6,000 quarts. The average daily production per dairy was found to be 7474 quarts. The average production of all the cows of all the dairies reporting is somewhat higher than that found in market milk dairies, but it is still far too low. An average of all the answers received showed that the production amounted to 8.3 quarts of milk per cow per day. The fat in the milk as reported varies from 3.2 to 6 per cent, and averages about 4.3 per cent. This is a slightly lower average than was found in the investi- gations made in 1907. The total solids as reported by the various dairies ranged from 11.74 to 14.5 per cent, with an average for all dairies of an even 13 per cent. BACTERIA IN THE MILK. The average bacterial counts of the milk from the dairies reporting: varied considerably. One dairy claimed that their count ranges from absolutely sterile plates up to 1,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter. Three dairies reported counts of 20,000. The average bacterial count of all the dairies reporting was 4,069 per cubie centimeter. Some extremely low averages were reported, one dairy having an average count for one year of 655 bacteria per cubic centimeter. Still an- other dairy reported a seven weeks’ average of 600 bacteria per cubic centimeter. RETAIL PRICES OF CERTIFIED MILK. The producers’ reports on the retail price of their product shows that the lowest price received is 10 cents a quart, which price was reported by four dairies. The highest retail price was 20 cents a quart, which is received by two dairies. Averaging all the replies, it was found that the average retail price of certified milk is 14.3 cents a quart. AGE OF MILK WHEN DELIVERED. Milk commissions have striven for the delivery of certified milk as soon after it is produced as possible; all other things being equal, the sooner it is delivered and consumed the better. In answer to the question as to the average age of certified milk when delivered, 92 producers returned answers which showed that some milk was 20 BULLETIN 1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. delivered within 6 hours after its production, while some was not placed on the market until it was 48 hours old. The average age when delivered was 20 hours. As some of this milk will not be used until 24 hours after its delivery, it is possible for some certified milk to be consumed after it is 72 hours old. SANITARY CONDITION OF CERTIFIED-MILK DAIRIES. In the past about 37 certified farms have been scored by represent- atives of the Dairy Division. An average of all these scores shows that the condition of certified-milk farms is about 90 points out of a possible 100. This is a remarkably good showing, in view of the. fact that to attain a mark of 100 conditions must be absolutely per- fect in every respect; that is, that not a speck of dust or dirt could be found on the cattle or in the stables or milk house and that every- thing else was above criticism in every respect. That certified dairies have maintained a high standard is evidenced by the com- parison of their standing with the scores of ordinary dairies in gen- eral. Dairies supplying market milk to various cities in this country have been scored and will average between 40 and 45, depending upon the section of the country and the efficiency of the inspection system which governs them. A total of 953 dairies, the scores of which were filed in this division in one year, show an average score of 41.6 out of a possible 100; so that it will be seen that the average certified dairy scores more than twice as high as the average market-. milk dairy. The lowest score of a certified-milk dairy of which there is any record in this department is 73.6. QUALITY OF CERTIFIED MILK. An index to the quality of certified milk is the result of complete analyses and examinations of this product at various milk contests, descriptions of which will be found in Bureau of Animal Industry Circular 205. Eighty-nine samples of certified milk and cream were scored in these contests, and the average score was 87.96 for certified milk and 87.82 for certified cream. The greatest fault in these sam- ples was that relating to flavor and odor rather than to the bacterial count. When it is realized that in order to score perfect on bacterial count in these contests the average number of organisms found must be less than 400 to the cubic centimeter, it will readily be seen that certified milk has maintained a high standard as regards quality. Certified milk and cream both scored considerably higher than did milk and cream in the market classes. The average bacterial count for all the samples of certified milk submitted in these contests was between 7,000 and 8,000 to the cubic centimeter. It must be remem- bered that many of these samples were prepared especially for the MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. 21 contests, so that they indicate a knowledge of dairy sanitation and do not necessarily mean a uniform product of the same high quality. KEEPING QUALITIES OF CERTIFIED MILK. As would naturally be expected, certified millk with its small num- ber of bacteria will keep sweet for a long time. The theory that clean milk should have a long keeping quality works out in practice. In- stances are on record where certified milk has been taken on an ocean voyage and not only brought back in good condition but kept sweet until 30 days old. In fact, it is now a common practice for people when crossing the water or taking a long land journey with infants to take several cases of certified milk with them. They are then rea: sonably sure of having a constant supply of sweet milk for several days. This has been a great convenience and has given comfort to many people. A number of certified-milk dairies in the United States sent exhibits of milk to the Paris Exposition in 1900. The milk kept perfectly sweet for two weeks and in some instances 18 days after being bot- tled and after a summer journey of 3,000 to 4,000 miles. Regular delivery bottles were used, the only extra precaution being to use two paper caps instead of one, and to cover the caps with paraffin so as to exclude the air. Of course the milk was carefully packed in ice for shipment, but this was the only means used for preservation. The milk and cream contests at the National Dairy Show in recent years have demonstrated the remarkable keeping qualities of certified milk. Some of the samples submitted have come to Chicago from as far as the States of Washington and California, and from various parts of Canada. Though these samples have some of them been over a week old when plated, they have shown remarkably low bac- terial counts, in some instances the count being less than 1,000 per cubie centimeter. After this milk has been judged it has been kept in cold storage, and some has been consumed over two weeks after its production, when it was found perfectly palatable and apparently unchanged in any way. — However, it is not advisable to use old milk even though it may taste sweet. Serious consequences may result due to bacterial growth which can not be detected in the flavor of the milk. IS THE PRODUCTION OF CERTIFIED MILK PROFITABLE ? At the present time the unqualified statement can not be made that the production of certified milk is a profitable venture. Seventy- four certified-milk producers answered the questions sent out by the Dairy Division as to the profitableness of certified-milk production, and their answers may be grouped as follows: Unprofitable, 33; profitable, 22; not very profitable, 4; fairly profitable, 11; condi- 29 BULLETIN 1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tional answers, 4. The conditional answers included 3 which stated that the business was profitable only part of the time, and 1 which stated that it would be profitable if the markets for the prod- uct were larger. These answers can not be considered as favorable to the profitable production of certified milk, so a regrouping would give: Profitable, 37; unprofitable, 37. Out of the 37 dairies which are classed as profitable there are 15 which state that the business is not very profitable or only fairly so. There is very little doubt that certified milk can be produced and sold at a fair profit, as this is being done by many dairies at the present time. However, the large number of unprofitable dairies shows that there is need for a radical change in the methods of many of the farms which are producing this class of milk. It is unquestionably the fact that many certified-milk producers can lower the price of production by applying better business principles to their operations, and this will undoubtedly result in a swinging of the balance from loss to profit on their books. OBSTACLES TO THE PROFITABLE PRODUCTION OF CERTIFIED MILK. To support the statement that some certified dairies are run under lax business methods, it 1s only necessary to point to a few figures received by this department. For instance, one dairy reports that the retail price of milk is 20 cents a quart, the average bacterial count is 4,000 per cubic centimeter, and that the business is not profitable and it would require a retail price of 25 cents a quart tomake itso. Another dairy states that the retail price is only 12 cents, the bacterial count 3,000 (less than in the case of the other dairy), and that the business is profitable. There is a difference of 8 cents a quart in favor of the first dairy, and yet with that advantage it is unable to conduct the business at a profit. Many certified-milk producers have erected extremely elaborate buildings, the interest and depreciation on which are so high that they form a considerable item to be charged against the cost of production. The interest and depreciation on a simple, inexpensive certified plant is estimated to amount to at least 6 cents a gallon, or 13 cents a quart. In some of the more elaborate plants, where much money has been spent for ornamental equipment, the interest and depreciation would be much higher. Experience in the past has proved that the produc- tion of clean milk is not dependent upon expensive equipment so much as upon care and vigilance concerning the methods of produc- tion. It is a well-known fact in business that a manufacturing plant can not afford to turn out such a small quantity of goods that the interest and depreciation on the factory will be too heavy a tax on the goods sold. Applying this same principle to dairying, it is almost impossible to see where some of the small dairies can afford to operate MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. Wie as they do. One dairy reports that they are selling only 12} quarts of certified milk a day, and the interest and depreciation on the capital invested in this plant will certainly amount to quite a large item per quart on all the milk sold. Another plant reports a daily selling of 30 quarts, and another of only 120 quarts. The average production of milk per cow in certified dairies shows that many unprofitable animals are probably being kept, and a thor- ough system of record keeping should be inaugurated in order to weed out the low producers. One dairy reports that the average test of the milk is 6 per cent fat, and it is hard to see how such milk can be profitably sold in competition with 4 per cent milk. In order to improve the herds from year to year calves should be raised from the best producing cows. Here again is another item of added expense on the certified dairy, as the raising of calves is an expen- sive proposition, especially where milk valued at from 15 to 20 cents a quart is used. If calves are not raised and cows are bought from the outside there is little chance of bettering the herd. On most certified farms a higher class of labor is utilized than on the ordinary dairy farm. Many college graduates are employed as foremen, managers, or bacteriologists, and such men usually command higher salaries. Markets for certified milk at the present time are not developed sufficiently. Several of the certified dairies reporting that the pro- duction of this product was unprofitable intimated that if more milk could be sold and the plant operated at a greater capacity a profit might be realized. The general public so far has very little idea as to what certified milk really is, and an educational campaign might well be carried on by the producers. In addition to this, lax methods on some farms have necessitated a high price for certified milk, and this has cut down the consumption considerably. There seems to be little uniformity regarding the distribution of certified milk. Some of the methods now in vogue seem to be to the disadvantage of the producer. Of the producers reporting, 25 retail the product of their dairies, while 47 do not. From the answers re- ceived it appears to be more economical to distribute through a mid- dleman, especially where the points of production and distribution are widely separated. The middleman has the advantage of already maintaining an establishment in the city and of running regular retail routes on which the certified milk can be distributed quite economi- cally. Some of these distributers of certified milk seem to charge the producer a rather high rate for their services. Many city dealers buy market milk from farmers and receive from 14 to 19 cents a gallon to cover the cost of freight, bottling, and distribution, besides giving them their profit. Certified milk is nearly always bottled at the farm, so that the expense of handling in the city is much smaller. 24 BULLETIN 1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Figures submitted to this department, however, show out of 50 cents a gallon paid by consumers for certified milk from one farm, the pro- ducer got 26 cents, the freight was 4 cents, and the middleman charged 20 cents a gallon for his services in distributing the product. Another dairy receives 12 cents out of a retail price of 15 cents a quart, leaving the distributer 12 cents a gallon. In one case the mid- dleman received 5 cents a quart for distribution, while the other re- ceived 3 cents. THE FUTURE OF CERTIFIED MILK. There is no doubt that from a sanitary standpoint certified milk is constantly improving, and it will undoubtedly continue to lead all classes of milk as a food for infants. It seems almost imperative, however, that business principles be more closely applied to the pro- duction of certified milk, so that the price may be kept as low as pos- sible to the consumer and still let the farmers operate at a profit. Upon this one factor depends much of the future growth of the movement. It is very probable that certified-milk producers in the future will apply the same degree of intelligence and care to the economic features of their business as they have in the past to the sanitary side. THE CERTIFIED MILK PRODUCERS’ ASSOCIATION. In order to disseminate information among themselves concerning methods employed in the production of certified milk, producers of this class of dairy products have formed an organization under the name of The Certified Milk Producers’ Association of America. Yearly meetings are held at which papers are read which deal with the production of certified milk, both from a financial standpoint and concerning sanitation. APPENDIX. METHODS AND STANDARDS FOR THE PRODUCTION AND DISTRIBU- TION OF CERTIFIED MILK. (Adopted by the American Association of Medical Milk Commissions, May 1, 1912.) HYGIENE OF THE DAIRY. UNDER THE SUPERVISION AND CONTROL OF THE VETERINARIAN. 1. Pastures or paddocks.—Pastures or paddocks to which the cows have access shall be free from marshes or stagnant pools, crossed by no stream which might become dangerously contaminated, at sufficient distances from offensive conditions to suffer no bad effects from them, and shall be free from plants which affect the milk deleteriously. 2. Surroundings of buildings.——The surroundings of all buildings shall be kept clean and free from accumulations of dirt, rubbish, decayed vegetable or animal matter or animal waste, and the stable yard shall be well drained. 3. Location of buildings.—Buildings in which certified milk is produced and handled shall be so located as to insure proper shelter and good drainage, and at sufficient distance from other buildings, dusty roads, cultivated and dusty fields, and all other possible sources of contamination; provided, in the case of unavoidable proximity to dusty roads or fields, the exposed side shall be screened with cheesecloth. 4. Construction of stables.—The stables shall be constructed so as to facili- tate the prompt and easy removal of waste products. ‘The floors and platforms shall be made of cement or other nonabsorbent material and the gutters of cement only. The floors shall be properly graded and drained, and the manure gutters shall be from 6 to 8 inches deep and so placed in relation to the plat- form that all manure will drop into them. 5. The inside surface of the walls and all interior construction shall be smooth, with tight joints, and shall be capable of shedding water. The ceiling shall be of smooth material and dust tight. All horizontal and slanting surfaces which might harbor dust shall be avoided. 6. Drinking and feed troughs.—Drinking troughs or basins shall be drained and cleaned each day, and feed troughs and mixing floors shall be kept in a clean and sanitary condition. 7. Stanchions.—Stanchions, when used, shall be constructed of iron pipes or hardwood, and throat latches shall be provided to prevent the. cows from lying down between the time of cleaning and the time of milking. 8. Ventilation—The cow stables shall be provided with adequate ventilation either by means of some approved artificial device, or by the substitution of cheesecloth for glass in the windows, each cow to be provided with a minimum of 600 cubic feet of air space. 9. Windows.—A sufficient number of windows shall be installed and so dis- tributed as to provide satisfactory light and a maximum of sunshine, 2 feet 25 26 BULLETIN 1, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. square of window area to each 600 cubic feet of air space to represent the minimum. The coverings of such windows shall be kept free from dust and dirt. \ 10. Haclusion of flies, etc.—All necessary measures should be taken to prevent the entrance of flies and other insects and rats and other vermin into all the buildings. 11. Hxclusion of animals from the herd.—No horses, hogs, dogs, or other ani- mals or fowls shall be allowed to come in contact with the certified herd, either in the stables or elsewhere. 12. Bedding.—No dusty or moldy hay or straw, bedding from horse stalls, or other unclean materials shall be used for bedding the cows. Only bedding which is clean, dry, and absorbent may be used, preferably shavings or straw. 13. Cleaning stable and disposal of manure.—Soiled bedding and manure shall be removed at least twice daily, and the floors shall be swept and kept free from refuse. Such cleaning shall be done at least one hour before the milking time. Manure, when removed, shall be drawn-to the field or temporarily stored in containers so screened as to exclude flies. Manure shall not be even tempo- rarily stored within 300 feet of the barn or dairy building. 14. Cleaning of cows. Wach cow in the herd shall be groomed daily, and no manure, mud, or filth shall be allowed to remain upon her during milking; for cleaning, a vacuum apparatus is recommended. 15. Clipping.—Long hairs shall be clipped from the udder and flanks of the cow and from the tail above the brush. The hair on the tail shall be cut so that the brush may be well above the ground. 16. Cleaning of wdders.—The udders and teats of the cow shall be cleaned be- fore milking; they shall be washed with a cloth and water, and dry wiped with another clean sterilized cloth—a separate cloth for drying each cow. 17. Feeding.—All foodstuffs shall be kept in an apartment separate from and not directly communicating with the cow barn. They shall be brought into the barn only immediately before the feeding hour, which shall follow the milking. 18. Only those foods shall be used which consist of fresh, palatable, or nu- tritious materials, such as will not injure the health of the cows or unfavorably affect the taste or character of the milk. Any dirty or moldy food or food in a state of decomposition or putrefaction shall not be given. 19. A well-balanced ration shall be used, and all changes of food shall be made slowly. The first few feedings of grass, alfalfa, ensilage, green corn, or other green feeds shall be given in small rations and increased gradually to full ration. 20. Haxercise.—All dairy cows shall be turned out for exercise at least 2 hours in each 24 in suitable weather. Exercise yards shall be kept free from manure and other filth. 21. Washing of hands.—Conveniently located facilities shall be provided for the milkers to wash in before and during milking. 22. The hands of the milkers shall be thoroughly washed with soap, water, and brush and carefully dried on a clean towel immediately before milking. The hands of the milkers shall be rinsed with clean water and carefully dried before milking each cow. The practice of moistening the hands with milk is forbidden. 3. Milking clothes.—Clean overalls, jumper, and cap shall be worn during milking. They shall be washed or sterilized each day and used for no other purpose, and when not in use they shall be kept in a clean place, protected from dust and dirt. i ; 24. Things to be avoided by milkers.—While engaged about the dairy or in handling the milk employees shall not use tobacco nor intoxicating liquors. MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. Bil They shall keep their fingers away from their nose and mouth, and no milker shall permit his hands, fingers, lips, or tongue to come in contact with milk intended for sale. 25. During milking the milkers shall be careful not to touch anything but the clean top of the milking stool, the milk pail, and the cow’s teats. 26. Milkers are forbidden to spit upon the walls or floors of stables, or upon the walls or floors of milk houses, or into the water used for cooling the milk or washing the utensils. 27. Fore milk.—The first streams from each teat shall be rejected, as this fore milk contains large numbers of bacteria. Such milk shall be collected into a separate vessel and not milked onto the floors or into the gutters. The milking shall be done rapidly and quietly, and the cows shall be treated kindly. 28. Milk and calving period.—Milk from all cows shall be excluded for a period of 45 days before and 7 days after parturition. 29. Bloody and stringy milk.—If milk from any cow is bloody and stringy or of unnatural appearance, the milk from that cow shall be rejected and the cow isolated from the herd until the cause of such abnormal appearance has been determined and removed, special attention being given in the meantime to the feeding or to possible injuries. If dirt gets into the pail, the milk shall be discarded and the pail washed before it is used. 30. Make-up of herd.—No cows except those receiving the same supervision and care as the certified herd shall be kept in the same barn or brought in eontact with them. 31. Employees other than milkers.—The requirements for milkers, relative to garments and cleaning of hands, shall apply to all other persons handling the milk, and children unattended by adults shall not be allowed in the dairy nor in the stable during milking. 32. Straining and strainers.—Promptly after the milk is drawn it shall be re- moved from the stable to a clean room and then emptied from the milk pail to the can, being strained through strainers made of a double layer of finely meshed cheesecloth or absorbent cotton thoroughly sterilized. Several strainers shall be provided for each milking in order that they may be frequently changed. 33. Dairy building.—A dairy building shall be provided which shall be located at a distance from the stable and dwelling prescribed by the local commission, and there shall be no hogpen, privy, or manure pile at a higher level or within 300 feet of it. 34. The dairy building shall be kept clean and shall not be used for purposes other than the handling and storing of milk and milk utensils. It shall be pro- vided with light and ventilation, and the floors shall be graded and water-tight. 35. The dairy building shall be well lighted and screened and drained through well-trapped pipes. No animals shall be allowed therein. No part of the dairy building shall be used for dwelling or lodging purposes, and the bottling room shall be used for no other purpose than to provide a place for clean milk uten- sils and for handling the milk. During bottling this room shall be entered only by persons employed therein. The bottling room shall be kept scrupulously clean and free from odors. 36. Temperature of milk.—Proper cooling to reduce the temperature to 45° F. shall be used, and aerators shall be so situated that they can be protected from flies, dust, and odors. The milk shall be cooled immediately after being milked, and maintained at a temperature between 35° and 45° F. until delivered to the consumer. 37. Sealing of bottles.—Milk, after being cooled and bottled, shall be immedi- ately sealed in a manner satisfactory to the commission, but such seal shall in- clude a sterile hood which completely covers the lip of the bottle. 28 BULLETIN 1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 38. Cleaning and sterilizing of bottles—The dairy building shall be provided with approved apparatus for the cleansing and sterilizing of all bottles and utensils used in milk production. Alli bottles and utensils shall be thoroughly cleaned by hot water and sal soda, or equally pure agent, rinsed until the cleaning water is thoroughly removed, then exposed to live steam or boiling water at least 20 minutes, and then kept inverted until used, in a place free from dust and other contaminating materials. 39. Utensils ——All utensils shall be so constructed as to be easily cleaned. The milk pail should preferably have an elliptical opening 5 by 7 inches in diameter. The cover of this pail should be so convex as to make the entire interior of the pail visible and accessible for cleaning. The pail shall be made of heavy seamless tin, and with seams which are flushed and made smooth by solder. Wooden pails, galvanized-iron pails, or pails made of rough, porous materials, are forbidden. All utensils used in milking shall be kept in good repair. 40. Water supply.—The entire water supply shall be absolutely free from contamination, and shall be sufficient for all dairy purposes. It shall be pro- tected against flood or surface drainage, and shall be conveniently situated in relation to the milk house. 41. Privies, etc., in relation to water supply.—Privies, pigpens, manure piles, and all other possible sources of contamination shall be so situated on the farm as to render impossible the contamination of the water supply, and shall be so protected by use of screens and other measures as to prevent their becom- ing breeding grounds for flies. 42. Toilet rooms.—Toilet facilities for the milkers shall be provided and located outside of the stable or milk house. These toilets shall be properly screened, shall be kept clean, and shall be accessible to wash basins, water, nail brush, soap and towels, and the milkers shall be required to wash and dry their hands immediately after leaving the toilet room. TRANSPORTATION. 43. In transit the milk packages shall be kept free from dust and dirt. The wagon, trays, and crates shall be kept scrupulously clean. No bottles shall be collected from houses in which communicable diseases prevail, unless a separate wagon is used and under conditions prescribed by the department of health and the medical milk commission. 44, All certified milk shall reach the consumer within 30 hours after milking. VETERINARY SUPERVISION OF THE HERD. 45. Tuberculin test—The herd shall be free from tuberculosis, as shown by the proper application of the tuberculin test. The test shall be applied in accordance with the rules and regulations of the United States Government, and all reactors shall be removed immediately from the farm.* 46. No new animals shall be admitted to the herd without first having passed a satisfactory tuberculin test, made in accordance with the rules and regula- tions mentioned; the tuberculin to be obtained and applied only by the official veterinarian of the commission. 47. Immediately following the application of the tuberculin test to a herd for the purpose of eliminating tuberculous cattle, the cow stable and exercising yards shall be disinfected by the veterinary inspector in accordance with the rules and regulations of the United States Government. 1See Circular of Instructions issued by the Bureau of Animal Industry for making tuberculin tests and for disinfection of premises. MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. 29 48. A second tuberculin test shall follow each primary test after an interval of six months, and shall be applied in accordance with the rules and regulations mentioned. Thereafter, tuberculin tests shall be reapplied annually, but it is recommended that the retests be applied semiannually. 49. Identification of cows.—Hach dairy cow in each of the certified herds shall be labeled or tagged with a number or mark which will permanently identify her. 50. Herd-book record.—Bach cow in the herd shall be registered in a herd book, which register shall be accurately kept so that her entrance and de- parture from the herd and her tuberculin testing can be identified. ; 51. A copy of this herd-book record shall be kept in the hands of the veteri- narian of the medical milk commission under which the dairy farm is operating, and the veterinarian shall be made responsible for the accuracy of this record. 52. Dates of tuberculin tests.—The dates of the annual tuberculin tests shall be definitely arranged by the medical milk commission, and all of the results of such tests shall be recorded by the veterinarian and regularly reported to the secretary of the medical milk commission issuing the certificate. 53. The results of all tuberculin tests shall be kept on file by each medical milk commission, and a copy of all such tests shall be made available to the American Association of Medical Milk Commissions for statistical purposes. 54. The proper designated officers of the American Association of Medical Milk Commissions should receive copies of reports of all of the annual, semi- annual, and other official tuberculin tests which are made and keep copies of the same on file and compile them annually for the use of the association. 55. Disposition of cows sick with diseases other than tuwberculosis.—Cows haying rheumatism, leucorrhea, inflammation of the uterus, severe diarrhea, or disease of the udder, or cows that from any other cause may be a menace to the herd shall be removed from the herd and placed in a building separate from that which may be used for the isolation of cows with tuberculosis, unless such building has been properly disinfected since it was last used for this purpose. The milk from such cows shall not be used nor shall the cows be restored to the herd until permission has been given by the veterinary inspector after a careful physical examination. } 56. Notification of veterinary inspector.—iIn the event of the occurrence of any of the diseases just described between the visits of the veterinary inspector, or if at any time a number of cows become sick at one time in such a way as to suggest the outbreak of a contagious disease or poisoning, it shall be the duty of the dairyman to withdraw such sickened cattle from the herd, toedestroy their milk, and to notify the veterinary inspector by telegraph or telephone imme- diately. 57. Hmaciated cows.—Cows that are emaciated from chronic diseases or from any cause that in the opinion of the veterinary inspector may endanger the quality of the milk, shall be removed from the herd. BACTERIOLOGICAL STANDARDS. 58. Bacterial couwnts.—Certified milk shall contain less than 10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter when delivered. In case a count exceeding 10,000 bacteria per cubic centimeter is found, daily counts shall be made, and if normal counts ‘ are not restored within 10 days the certificate shall be suspended. 59. Bacterial counts shall be made at least once a week. 60. Collection of samples—The samples to be examined shall be obtained from milk as offered for sale and shall be taken by a representative of the milk commission. The samples shall be received in the original packages, in prop- 30 BULLETIN 1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. erly iced containers, and they shall be so kept until examined, so as to limit as far as possible changes in their bacterial content. 61. For the purpose of ascertaining the temperature, a separate original package shall be used, and the temperature taken at the time of collecting the sample, using for the purpose a standardized thermometer graduated in the centigrade scale. 62. Interval between milking and plating—The examinations shall be made as soon after collection of the samples as possible, and in no case shall the interval between milking and plating the samples be longer than 40 hours. 63. Plating—The packages shall be opened with aseptic precautions after the milk has been thoroughly mixed by vigorously reversing and shaking the con- tainer 25 times. 64. Two plates at least shall. be made for each sample of milk, and there shall also be made a control of each lot of medium and apparatus used at each testing. The plates shall be grown at 37° C. for 48 hours. 65. In making the plates there shall be used agar-agar media containing 1.5 per cent agar and giving a reaction of 1.0 to phenolphthalein. The following is the method recommended by a committee of the American Public Health Association for the making of the media, modified, however, as to the agar content and reaction to conform to the requirements specified in section 65: 1. Boil 15 grams of thread agar in 500 ¢. c. of water for half an hour and make up weight to 500 grams or digest for 10 minutes in the autoclave at 110° ©. Let this cool to about 60° C. 2. Infuse 500 grams finely chopped lean beef for 24 hours with its own weight of distilled water in the refrigerator. 3. Make up any loss by evaporation. 4, Strain infusion through cotton flannel, using pressure. 5. Weigh filtered infusion. 6. Add Witte’s peptone, 2 per cent. 7. Warm on water bath, stirring until peptone is dissolved and not allowing temperature to rise above 60° C. 8. To the 500 grams of meat infusion (with peptone) add 500 grams of the 2 per cent agar, keeping the temperature below 60° C. 9. Heat over boiling water (or steam) bath 30 minutes. 10. Restore weight lost by evaporation. 11. Titrate after boiling one minute to expel carbonic acid. 12. Adjust reaction to final point desired +-1 by adding normal sodium hydrate. 13. Boil two minutes over free flame, constantly stirring. 14. Restore weight lost by evaporation. - 15. Filter through absorbent cotton or coarse filter paper, passing the filtrate through the filter repeatedly until clear. 16. Titrate and record the final reaction. 17. Tube (10 «. c. to a tube) and sterilize in autoclave one hour at 15 pounds pressure or in the streaming steam for 20 minutes on three successive days. 66. Samples of milk for plating shall be diluted in the proportion of 1 part of nilk to 99 parts of sterile water; shake 25 times and plate 1 ¢. c of the dilution. The committee on bacterial milk analyses of the American Public Health Association in Part IV of its report presented details with respect to plating apparatus and technique in part as follows: Plating apparatus.—For plating it is best to have a water bath in which to melt the media and a water-jacketed water bath for keeping it at the required temperature; a wire rack which should fit both the water baths for holding the media tubes; a thermometer for recording the temperature of the water in the water-jacketed bath, sterile 1 ¢. c. pipettes, sterile Petri dishes, and sterile dilu- tion water in measured quantities. Dilutions.—Ordinary potable water, sterilized, may be used for dilutions. Occasionally spore forms are found in such water which resist ordinary auto- MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. 31 clave sterilization; in such cases distilled water may be used or the auto- clave pressure increased. With dilution water in 8-ounce bottles calibrated for 99 cubie centimeters * * * all the necessary dilutions may be made. Short, wide-mouthed ‘“‘blakes”’ or wide-mouthed French square bottles are more easily handled and more economical of space than other forms of bottles or flasks. Hight-ounce bottles are the best, as the required amount of dilution water only about half fills them, leaving room for shaking. Long-fiber nonabsorbent cotton should be used for plugs. It is well to use care in selecting cotton for this purpose to avoid short-fiber or dusty cotton, which give a cloud of lint-like particles on shaking. Bottles * * * should be filled a little over -the' 99 ce. * * * to allow for loss during sterilization. Pipettes.—Straight sides 1 ¢. c. pipettes are more easily handled than those with bulbs; they may be made from ordinary three-sixteenths inch glass tubing and should be about 10 inches in length. Plating technique—The agar after melting should be kept in the water- jacketed water bath between 40° C. and 45° C. for at least 15 minutes before using to make sure that the agar itself has reached the temperature of the surrounding water. If used too warm the heat may destroy some of the bacteria or retard their growth. Shake the milk sample 25 times, then with a sterile pipette transfer 1 c. c. to the first dilution water and rinse the pipette by drawing dilution water to the mark and expelling; this gives a dilution 1 to 100. * * * Then with a sterile pipette transfer 1 ¢. c. to the Petri dish, using care to raise the cover only as far as necessary to insert the end of the pipette. Take the tube of agar from the water bath, wipe the water from outside the tube with a piece of cloth, remove the plug, pass the mouth of the tube through a flame, and pour the agar into the plate, using the same care as before to avoid exposure of the plate contents to the air. Carefully and thoroughly mix the agar and diluted milk in the Petri dish by a rotary motion, avoiding the formation of air bubbles or slopping the agar, and after allowing the agar to harden for at least 15 minutes at room tempera- ture, place the dish bottom down in the incubator. Plating should always be done in a place free from dust or currents of air. In order that colonies may have sufficient food for proper development 10 c. ¢. of agar shall be used for each plate. 67. Determination of taste and odor of milk.—After the plates have been pre- pared and placed in the incubator, the taste and odor of the milk shall be deter- mined after warming the milk to 100° F.* 68. Cownts.—The total number of colonies on each plate should be counted, and the results expressed in multiples of the dilution factor. Colonies too small to be seen with the naked eye or with slight magnification shall not be considered in the count. 69. Records of bacteriologic tests.—The results of all bacterial tests shall be kept on file by the secretary of each commission, ccpies of which should be made available annually for the use of the American Association of Medieal Milk Commissions. CHEMICAL STANDARDS AND METHODS. The methods that must be followed in carrying cut the chemical investiga- tions essential to the protection of certified milk are so complicated that in order to keep the fees of the chemist at a reasonable figure, there must be eliminated from the examination those procedures which, whilst they might be helpful and interesting, are in no Sense necessary. For this reason the determination of the water, the total solids and the milk sugar is not required as a part of the routine examination. 70. The chemical analyses shall be made by a competent chemist designated by the medical milk commission. 1 Should it be deemed desirable and necessary to conduct tests for sediment, the pres- ence of special bacteria, or the number of leucocytes, the methods adopted by the com- mittee of the American Public Health Association should be followed. 32 BULLETIN 1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 71. Method of obtaining samples.—The samples to be examined by the chemist’ shall have been examined previously by the bacteriologist designated by the medical milk commission as to temperature, odor, taste, and bacterial content. 72. Fat standards.—The fat standard for certified milk shall be 4 per. cent, with a permissible range of variation of from 3.5 to 4.5 per cent. 73. The fat standard for certified cream shall be not less than 18 per cent. 74. If it is desired to sell higher fat-percentage milks or creams as certified milks or creams, the range of variation for such milks shall be 0.5 per cent on either side of the advertised percentage and the range of variations. for such creams shall be 2 per cent on either side of the advertised percentage. 75. The fat content of certified milks and creams shall be determined at least once each month. 76. The methods recommended for this purpose are the Babcock (a), the Leffmann-Beam (6), and the Gerber (c). (a) Babcock test—The Babcock test is based on the fact that strong sul- phuric acid will dissolve the nonfatty solid constituents of milk, and thus enable the fat to separate on standing. It can be conducted by any of the Babcock outfits which are purchasable in the market. “The test is made by placing in the special test bottle 18 grams (17.6 ¢. ec.) of milk. To this is added, from a pipette, burette, or measuring bottle, 17.5 c. ¢. commercial sulphurie acid of a specific gravity of 1.82 to 1.88. The contents of the bottle are carefully and thoroughly mixed by a rotary motion. The mix- ture becomes brown and heat is generated. The test bottle is now placed in a properly balanced centrifuge and whirled for 5 minutes at a speed of from 800 to 1,200 revolutions per minute. Hot water is then added to fill the bottle to the lower part of the neck, after which it is again whirled for two minutes. Now, enough hot water is added to float the column of fat into the graduated portion of the neck of the bottle, and the whirling is repeated for a minute. The amount of fat is read while the neck of the bcttle is still hot. The read- ing is from the upper limits of the meniscus. A pair of calipers is of assistance in measuring the column of fat.” (Jensen’s Milk Hygiene, Leonard Pearson’s translation. ) (b) Leffmann-Beam test.—The distinctive feature is the use of fusel oil, the effect of which is to produce a greater difference in surface tension between the fat and the liquid in which it is suspended,-and thus promote its readier sepa- ration. This effect has been found to be heightened by the presence of a small amount of hydrochloric acid. The test bottles have a capacity of about 30 c. c. and are provided with a graduated neck, each division of which represents 9.1 per cent by weight of butter fat. Fifteen centimeters of the milk are measured into the bottle, 3 ¢. c of a mixture of equal parts of amyl alcohol and strong hydrochloric acid added and mixed. Then 9 ec. c. of concentrated sulphuric acid is added in portions of about 1 c. c.; after each addition the liquids are mixed by giving the bottle a gyratory motion. If the fluid has not lost all of its milky color by this treat- ment, a little more concentrated acid must be added. The neck of the bottle is now immediately filled at about the zero point with one part sulphuric acid and two parts water, well mixed just before using. Both the liquid in the bot- tle and the diluted acid must be hot. The bottle is then placed at once in the centrifugal machine; after rotation from one to two minutes, the fat will col- lect in the neck of the bottle and the percentage may be read off. (c) Gerber’s test.—This test is applied as follows: The test bottles are put into the stand with the mouths uppermost; then, with the pipette designed for the purpose, or with an automatic measurer, 10 c. ec. of sulphuric acid are filled into the test bottle, care being taken not to allow any to come in contact with the neck. The few drops remaining in the tip of the pipette should not be blown out. Then 11 c. ec. of milk are measured with the proper pipette and allowed to flow slowly onto the acid, so that the two liquids mix as little as possible. Finally, the amyl alcohol is added. (It is important to use the re- agents in the proper order, which is—suiphuriec acid, milk, amyl alcohol. If the sulphuric acid is followed by amyl alcohol and the milk last, then the result is sometimes incorrect.) A rubber stopper, which must not be damaged, is then fitted into the mouth of the test bottle, and the contents are well shaken, MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. 33 the thumb being kept on the stopper to prevent it coming out. As a consider- able amount of heat is generated by the action of the sulphuric acid on the milk, the test bottle should be wrapped in a cloth. The shaking of the sample must be done thoroughly and quickly, and the test bottle inverted several times, so that the liquid in the neck becomes thor- oughly mixed. By pressing in the rubber stopper the height of the liquid can be brought to about the zero point on the scale. If only a few samples have to be analyzed and the room is warm, the test botttles can be put into the centrifuge without any preliminary heating, other- wise the test bottles must be warmed for a few minutes (not longer) in the water bath at a temperature of 60° to 65° C. When the temperature rises higher than this, say above 70° C., the rubber stopper is liable to be blown out of the test bottle. After the test bottles have been heated they are arranged symmetrically in the centrifuge and whirled for 3 to 4 minutes at a speed of about 1,000 revolutions per minute. When the centrifuge has a heating ar- rangement attached to it, the preliminary warming is not, of course, necessary. When the test bottles are taken out of the centrifuge, they are again placed in the water bath at a temperature of 60° to 65° C., and left there for several minutes before being read; where the centrifuge is heated, the tubes can be read off as taken from the centrifuge. By carefully screwing in the rubber stopper, or even by pressing it, the lower limit of the fat column is brought onto one of the main divisions of the scale, and then, by holding the test bottle against the light, the height of the column of fat can be accurately ascertained. The lowest point of the meniscus is taken as the level when reading the upper surface of the fat in a sample of whole milk, and the middle of the meniscus for separated milk. If the column of fat is not clear and sharply defined, the sample must be again whirled in the centrifuge. Each division on the scale is equivalent to 0.1 per cent, so it is very easy to read to 0.05 per cent. or, with a lens, to 0.025 per cent. If the number which is read off is multiplied by 0.1, then the percentage quantity of fat in the milk is obtained ; e. g., if the number on the scale was 36.5, then the percentage of fat is 3.65. (Milk and Dairy Products, Barthel; translated by Goodwin, p. 71.) 77. Before condemning samples of milk which have fallen outside the limits allowed, the chemist shall have determined, by control ether extractions, that his apparatus and his technique are reliable. 78. Protein standard.—The protein standard for certified milk shall be 3.50 per cent, with a permissible range of variation of from 3 to 4 per cent. 79. The protein standard for certified cream shall correspond to the protein standard for certified milk. 80. The protein content shall be determined only when any special considera- tion seems to the medical milk commission to make it desirable. 81. It shall be determined by the Kjeldahl method, using the Gunning or some other reliable modification, and employing the factor 6.25 in reckoning the protein from the nitrogen. Kjeldahl method.—Five cubic centimeters of milk are measured carefully into a flat-bottom 800 ec. ec. Jena flask, 20 c. ce. of concentrated sulphuric acid (C. P.; sp. gr., 1.84) are added, and 0.7 gram of mercuric oxid (or its equivalent in metallic mercury) ; the mixture is then heated over direct flame until it is straw- colored or perfectly white; a few crystals of potassium permanganate are now added till the color of the liquid remains green. All the nitrogen in the milk has then been converted into the form of ammonium sulphate. After cooling, 200 c. ce. of ammonia-free distilled water are added, 20 c. c. of a solution of potassium sulphide (containing 40 grams sulphide per liter), and a fraction of a gram of powdered zinc. A quantity of semi-normal HCl solution more than sufficient to neutralize the ammonia obtained in the oxidation of the milk is now carefully measured out from a delicate burette (divided into z> c. c.) into an Erlenmeyer flask and the flask connected with a distillation apparatus. At the other end the Jena flask containing the watery solution of the am- monium sulphate is connected, after adding 50 c. c. of a concentrated soda solu- tion (1 pound “ pure potash” dissolved in 500 c. c. of distilled water and allowed ——--oo 34 BULLETIN 1, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to settle) ; the contents of the Jena flask are now heated to boiling, and the dis- tillation is continued for 40. minutes to an hour, until all ammonia has been dis- tilled over. The excess of acid in the Erlenmeyer receiving flask is then accurately titrated back by means of a tenth-normal standard ammonia solution, using a cochineal solution as an indicator. From the amount of acid used the per cent of nitrogen is obtained; and from it the per cent of casein and albumen in the milk by multiplying by 6.25. The amount of nitrogen contained in the chemicals used is determined by blank experiments and deducted from the nitro- gen obtained as described. (Farrington and Woll, Testing. Milk and Its Products, p. 221.) 82. Coloring matter and preservatives.—All certified miiks and creams shall be free from adulteration, and coloring matter and preservatives shall not be added thereto. : 83. Tests for the detection of added coloring matter shall be applied whenever the color of the milk or cream is such as to arouse suspicion. Test for coloring matter—The presence of foreign coloring matter in milk is easily shown by shaking 10 ¢c. c. of the milk with an equal quantity of ether; en standing, a clear ether solution will rise to the surface; if artificial coloring matter has been added to the milk, the solution will be yellow colored, the intensity of the color indicating the quantity added; natural fresh milk will give a colorless ether solution. (Testing Milk and Its Products, Farrington and Woll, p. 244.) 84. Tests for the detection of formaldehyde, borax, and boracic acid shall be applied at least once each month. Occasionally application of tests for the detection of salicylic acid, benzoic acid, and the benzoates is also recommended. Test for the detection of formaldehyde.—Five cubic centimeters of milk is measured into a white porcelain dish, and a similar quantity of water added; 10 c. ec. of HC). containing a trace of Fe. Cls, is added, and the mixture is heated very slowly. If formaldehyde is present, a violet color will be formed. (Test- ing Milk and Its Products, Farrington and Woll, p. 249.) Test for boracic acid (borax, borates, preservaline, etc.)—One hundred cubic centimeters of milk are made alkaline with a soda or potash solution, and then evaporated to dryness and incinerated. The ash is dissolved in water, to which a little hydrochloric acid has been added, and the solution filtered. A strip of turmeric paper moistened with the filtrate will be colored reddish brown when dried at 100° ©. on a watch glass, if boracie acid is present. If a little alcohol is poured over the ash to which concentrated sulphuric acid has been added, and fire is set to the alcohol, after a little while this will burn with a yeilowish-green tint, especially noticeable if the ash is stirred with a glass rod and when the flame is about to go out. (Testing Milk and Its Prod- ucts, Farrington and Woll, p. 247.) Test for salicylic acid (salicylates, etc.) —Twenty cubic centimeters of milk are acidulated with sulphuric acid and skaken with ether; the ether solution is evaporated, and the residue treated with alcohol and a little iron-chlorid solu- tion; a deep violet color will be obtained in the presence of salicylic acid. (Testing Milk and Its Products, Farrington and Woll, p. 248.) Test for benzoic acid.—I'wo hundred and fifty to five hundred cubic centi- meters of milk are made alkaline with a few drops of lime or baryta water, and then evaporated to about.a quarter of the bulk. Powdered gypsum is stirred into the remaining liquid until a paste is formed, which is then dried on the water bath. The gypsum only serves to hasten the drying, and pow- dered pumice stone or sand can be used equally well. When the mass is dry, it is finely powdered and mois‘ened with dilute sulphuric acid and shaken out three or four times with about twice the volume of 50 per cent alcohol, in which benzoic acid is easily soluble in the cold. the fat only being dissolved to a very slight extent or not at all. The acid alcoholic liquid from the various extractions, which contains milk sugar and inorganic salts in addition to the benzoic acid, is neutralized with baryta water and evaporated to a small bulk. Dilute sulphuric acid is again added, and the liquid shaken out with small quan- tities of ether. On evaporation of the ether, the benzoic acid is left behind in almost pure state, the only impurities being small quantities of fat or ash. MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. 35 The benzoic acid which is obtained is dissolved in a small quantity of warm water, a drop of sodium acetate and neutral ferric chloride added, and the red precipitate of benzoate of iron indicates the presence of the acid. (Milk and ' Dairy Products, Barthel; translated by Goodwin, p. 121.) 85. Detection of heated milk.—Certified milk or cream shall not be subjected to heat unless specially directed by the commission to meet emergencies. &6. Tests to determine whether such milks and creams have been subjected to heat shall be applied at least once each month. Detection of heated milk—Storch’s method.—Five cubic centimeters of milk are poured into a test tube; a drop of weak solution of hydrogen dioxide. (about 0.2 per cent) which contains about 0.1 per cent sulphuric xcid, is ~dded, and two drops of a 2 per cent solution of paraphenylendiamin (solution should be renewed quite often), then the fluid is shaken. If the milk or the cream be- comes, at once, indigo blue, or the whey violet or reddish brown, then this has not been heated or, at all events, it has not been heated higher than 78° C. (172.5° F.); if the milk becomes ‘a light bluish gray immediately or in the course of half a minute, then it has been heated to 79° to 80° C. (174.2° to 176° F.). If the color remains white, the milk has been heated at least to 80° C. (176° F.). In the examination of sour milk or sour buttermilk, lime water must be added, as the color reaction is not shown in acid solution. Arnold's guaiac method.—A little milk is poured into a test tube and a little tincture of guaiaec is added, drop by drop. If the milk has not been heated to 80° ©. (176° F.) a blue zone is formed between the two fluids; heated milk gives no reaction, but remains white. The guaiac tincture should not be used perfectly fresh, but should have stood a few days and its potency have been determined. Thereafter it can be used indefinitely. ‘These tests for heated milk are only active in the case of milks which have been heated to 176° F. or 80° C, (Jensen’s Milk Hygiene, Pearson’s translation, p. 192.) Microscopic test for heated (pasteurized) milk—Frost and Ravenel.—About 15 ¢c. ec. of milk are centrifuged for 5 minutes, or long enough to throw down the leucocytes. The cream layer is then completely removed with absorbent cotton and the milk drawn off with a pipette, or a fine-pointed tube attached to a Chap- man air pump. Only about 2 mm. of milk are left above the sediment which is in the bottom of the sedimentation tube. The stain, which is an aqueous solution of safranin 0, soluble in water, is then added very slowly from an opsonizing pipette. The important thing is to mix stain and milk so slowly that clotting does not take place. The stain is added until a deep opaque rose color is obtained. After standing 3 minutes, by means of the opsonizing pipette, which has been washed out in hot water, the stained sediment is then transferred to slides. A small drop is placed at the end of each of several slides and spread by means of a glass spreader, as in Wright’s method for opsonic index determinations. In an unheated milk the polymorphonuclear leucocytes have their protoplasm slightly tinged or are unstained. In heated milk the polymorphonuclear leucocytes have their nuclei stained. In milk heated to 63° C. or above, practically all of the leucocytes have their nuclei definitely stained. When milk is heated at a lower temperature the nuclei are not all stained above 60° C. The majority, however, are stained. 87. Specific gravity.—The specific gravity of certified milk shall range from 1.029 to 1.034. 88. The specific gravity shall be determined at least each month. The Quevenne lactodensimeter is recommended for the determination of the specific gravity. It is made like an ordinary aerometer and divided into degrees which correspond to a specific gravity from 1.014 to 1.040, or only 1.022 to 1.088, since by the latter division a greater space is gained between the different degrees without unduly lengthening the instrument. From such a lactoden- simeter one can easily read off four decimal places. The milk the specific gravity of which is to be determined is well shaken and poured into a high glass cylinder of suitable diameter; the aerometer is dropped in slowly, in order to prevent its bobbing up and down. (The bulb should be free from adhering air bubbles.) The figures on the stem are the second and third decimals of the numbers of the specific gravity, so that 34 is to be read 1.034. For this examination, the temperature of the milk must be 15° C. / 36 BULLETIN 1, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (60° F.) ; if it is not, the specifie gravity of the milk at 15° C. must be caleu- lated from the specific gravity found and from the temperature, for in milk inspection and analysis this is the standard. METHODS AND REGULATIONS FOR THE MEDICAL EXAMINATION OF EMPLOYEES _ THEIR HEALTH AND PERSONAL HYGIENE. 89. A medical officer, known as the attending dairy physician, shall be selected by the commission, who should reside near the dairy producing certified milk. He shall be a physician in good standing and authorized by law to practice medicine; he shall be responsible to the commission and subject to its direction. In case more than one dairy is under the control of the commission and they are in different localities, a separate physician should be designated for employment for the supervision of each dairy. 90. Before any person shall come on the premises to live and remain as an employee, such person, before being engaged in milking or the handling of milk, shall be subjected to a complete physical examination by the attending physi- cian. No person shall be employed who kas not been vaccinated recently or who upon examination is found to have a sore throat, or to be suffering from any form of tuberculosis, venereal disease, conjunctivitis, diarrhea, dysentery, or who has recently had typhoid fever or is proved to be a typhoid carrier, or who has any inflammatory disease of the respiratory tract, or any suppurative process or infectious skin eruption, or any disease of an infectious or contagious nature, or who has recently been associated with children sick with contagious disease. 91. In addition to ordinary habits of personal cleanliness all milkers shall have well-trimmed hair, wear close-fitting caps, and have clean-shaven faces. 92. When the milkers live upon the premises their dormitories shall be con- structed and operated according to plans approved by the commission. A separate bed shall be provided for each milker and each bed shall be kept sup- plied with clean bedclothes. Proper bathing facilities shall be provided for all employees on the dairy premises, preferably a shower bath, and frequent bathing shall be enjoined. 93. In case the employees live on the dairy premises a suitable building shall be provided to be used for the isolation and quarantine of persons under sus- picion of having a contagious disease. The following plan of construction is recommened : The quarantine building and hospital should be one story high and contain at least two rooms, each with a capacity of about 6,000 cubic feet and containing not more than three beds each, the rooms to be separated by a closed partition. The doors opening into the rooms should be on opposite sides of the building and provided with locks. The windows should be barred and the sash should be at least 5 feet from the ground and constructed for proper veutilation. The walls should be of a material which will allow proper disinfection. The floor should be of painted or washable wood, preferably of concrete, and so constructed that the floor may be flushed and properly disinfected. Proper heating, lighting, and ventilating facilities should be provided. 94. In the event of any illness of a suspicious nature the attending physician shall immediately quarantine the suspect, notify the health authorities and the secretary of the commission, and examine each member of the dairy force, and in every inflammatory affection of the nose or throat occurring among the employees of the dairy, in addition to carrying out the above-mentioned pro- gram, the attending physician shall take a culture and have it examined at once by a competent bacteriologist approved by the commission. Pending such exam- ination, the affected employee or employees shall be quarantined. 95. It shall be the duty of the secretary, on receiving notice of any suspicious or contagious disease at the dairy, at once to notify the committee having in charge the medical supervision of employees of the dairy farm upon which such MEDICAL MILK COMMISSIONS AND CERTIFIED MILK. 37 disease has developed. On receipt of the notice this committee shall assume charge of the matter, and shall have power to act for the commission as its judgment dictates. As soon as possible thereafter, the committee shall notify the commission, through its secretary, that a special meeting may be called for ultimate consideration and action. 96. When a case of contagious disease is found among the employees of a dairy producing certified milk under the control of a medical milk commission, such employee shall be at once quarantined and as soon as possible removed from the plant, and the premises fumigated. ‘ When a case of contagion is found on a certified dairy it is advised that a printed notice of the facts shall be sent to every householder using the milk, giving in detail the precautions taken by the dairyman under the direction of the commission, and it is further advised that all milk produced at such dairy shall be heated at 145° F. for 40 minutes, or 155° F. for 30 minutes, or 167° F. for 20 minutes, and immediately cooled to 50° F. These facts should also be part of the notice, and such heating of the milk should be continued during the accepted period of incubation for such contagious disease. The following method of fumigation is recommended : After all windows and doors are closed and the cracks sealed by strips of paper applied with flour paste, and the various articles in the room so hung or placed as to be exposed en all sides, preparations should be made to generate formaldehyde gas by the use of 20 ounces of formaldehyde and 10 ounces of permanganate of potash for every 1,000 cubic feet of space to be disinfected. For mixing the formaldehyde and potassium permanganate a large gal- vanized-iron pail or cylinder holding at least 20 quarts and having a flared top should be used for mixing therein 20 ounces of formaldehyde and 10 ounces of permanganate. A cylinder at least 5 feet high is suggested. The containers should be placed about in the rooms and the necessary quantity of permanga- nate weighed and placed in them. The formaldehyde solution for each pail should then be measured into a widemouthed cup and placed by the pail in which it is to be used. Although the reaction takes place quickly, by making preparations as advised all of the pails can be “ set off’ promptly by one person, since there is nothing to do but pour the formaldehyde solution over the. permanganate. The rooms should be kept closed for four hours. As there is a slight danger of fire, the reaction should be watched through a window or the pails placed on a nonin- flammable surface. 97. Following a weekly medical inspection of the employees, a monthly report shall be submitted to the secretary of the medical milk commission, on the same recurring date by the examining visiting physician. The following schedule, filled out in writing and signed by himself, is recom- mended as a Suitable form for the attending physician’s report: This is to certify that, on the dates below indicated, official visits were made to the dairy, owned and conducted by of (indicating town and State), where careful inspections of the dairy employees were made. (a) Number and dates of visits since last report. (6) Number of men employed on the plant. (c) Has a recent epidemic of contagion occurred near the dairy, and what was its nature and extent? (d@) Have any cases of contagious or infectious disease occurred among the men since the last report? ‘ (€) Disposition of such cases. (f) What individual sickness has occurred among the men since the last report? (g) Disposition of such cases. (h) Number of employees now quarantined for sickness. (1) Describe the personal hygiene of the men employed for milking when prepared for and during the process of milking. (7) What facilities are provided for sickness in employees? (k) General hygienic condition of the dormitories or houses of the em- ployees. (1) Suggestions for improvement. ———. 388 BULLETIN 1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (m) What is the hygienic condition of the employees and their surround: ings? : (2) How many employees were examined at each of the foregoing visits? : (0) Remarks. Attending Physician. Date, ee COPIES of this publication may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 10 cents per copy Oe EN Orch HE Be) USDEPARTNENTOFARCULTIRE Contribution from the Bureau of Soils, Milton Whitney, Chief, December 27, 1913. THE FISH-SCRAP FERTILIZER INDUSTRY OF THE ATLANTIC COAST. = By J. W. TURRENTINE, Scientist in Soil Laboratory Investigations, PURPOSE OF THE INVESTIGATION. The present investigation forms a part of the general plan of the Bureau of Soils to survey the Nation’s assets in fertilizer materials. The three elements which constitute the essential ingredients of most of the artificial fertilizers compounded and marketed in this country are phosphorus, potassium, and nitrogen. The former two occur in nature as the salts of phosphoric acid and potassium, re- spectively. The investigation of the Nation’s resources in these, therefore, has had to do with the examination of known deposits and exploration for new. In this connection and under the direction of the Bureau of Soils, the phosphate fields of South Carolina, Ten- nessee, Florida, Utah, Idaho, Arkansas, and Kentucky have been surveyed by W. H. Waggaman;* the desert basins and certain saline lakes of Oregon, California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Nevada have been examined by EK. E. Free,” in collaboration with J. G. Young and A. R. Merz, to determine the occurrence of potassium salts therein; W. H. Ross® has studied the decomposition of the feldspars with a view to the liberation therefrom of the combined potash; Waggaman‘ has investigated the decomposition of alunite and the extraction of potash therefrom; W. C. Crandall,> G. B. Rigg,® and F. M. McFarland,’ have surveyed certain of the kelp groves of the Pacific coast to determine the amounts of those potash carriers avail- able, while the writer has determined the potash content of a number of these sea plants collected from the coast of California, Washing- ton, and Alaska;® the behavior of kelps when subjected to destructive 1Buls. Nos... 69, 76, and 81, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agr. 2 Cire. No. 61, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agr., and a manuscript not yet published. ® Cire. No. 71, and a manuscript not yet published. 4Cire. No. 70, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. of Agr. 5“ Wertilizer Resources of the United States.” Sen. Doc. 190, 62d Cong., 2d sess., 1912; Appen. N, p. 209. 6 Ibid., Appen. L, p. 179. TIbid., Appen. M, p. 194. 8 Turrentine, ibid.. Appen. P, p. 217, The Composition of Kelps, 5781°—13——-1 2 BULLETIN 2, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. distillation has been studied in the experimental laboratories of Mr. John W. Hornsey, consulting engineer, 49 Wall Street, New York, with a view to the possible employment of such a process for the extraction of potash and useful by-products; +‘ the writer,? in col- laboration with W. C. Phalen, of the United States Geological Sur- vey, and W. H. Ross, A. R. Merz, R. F. Gardener, and J. A. Cullen, of this bureau, has studied the composition of the salines, brines, and mother liquors from the principal salt-producing areas of the United States, of natural subterranean brines from various salt wells and oil and gas wells of the various sections of the country explored and prospected for the latter two, of brines and salt crusts from desert sinks or playas, and of mother liquors from certain solar refineries of ocean brine on the Pacific coast, with a view to their potash content and their utilization as a source of potassium salts; Free * has investigated certain desert areas where nitrates have been found; Waggaman has studied the peat beds of Florida, regarded as a possible source of combined nitrogen and of value as a filler for manufactured fertilizers, and has reported* on the production of ammonium sulphate. Nitrogenous compounds, of fertilizer interest, to a greater extent than those of phosphorus and potassium, are of artificial derivation, though they likewise are obtained in natural deposits. The investi- gation has had to do further with the examination of those operations and processes which lead to the production of such nitrogenous com- pounds, generally as by-products, as may be used in the preparation of fertilizers. The information sought in the present study has been in part statistical, to determine the history of the industry in terms of equipment and output, and its present and proposed development. In addition, information has been sought regarding the particulars in which the processes now in vogue could be improved, the means whereby the industry could be put on a more secure economic basis, and its possibilities for enlargement. The Department of Agricul- ture has been organized primarily to effect the advancement of the agricultural interests of the Nation, and it is believed that in ad- vancing the interests of the manufacturers of fertilizers and in help- ing them to increase their output and to reduce the cost of manu- facture, the interests of the farmers are enhanced. In other words, the interests of the manufacturer and of the purchaser of fertilizer 1Turrentine, Proc. 8th Internat. Cong. Appl. Chem., 1912, vol. 15, p. 313. 2 Composition of the Salines of the United States, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 4, 828; ibid., 4, 885 (1912) ; ihid., 6, 19 (1913) ; Bul. No. 94, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. (1913) ; Proc: 8th Internat. Cong. Appl. Chem., 1912, vol. 15, p. 319. % Cire. No. 62, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. 4Sen. Doc. 190, Appen. B, p. 119. FISH-SCRAP FERTILIZER INDUSTRY OF ATLANTIC COAST. 3 are closely allied. The accumulation of full information concerning the fish-scrap industry is essential as a preliminary step toward the furtherance of that industry. HISTORICAL. The fish-scrap industry may be said to have had its inception even before the advent of white settlers on the American Continent. Prac- tices were in vogue which led directly to that industry. The custom existed among the Indians of New England of fertilizing their crops by means of fish. It is stated that for fertilizing corn, one or two fish were placed in each corn hill. This practice was adopted by the colonists, and extended to the scattering of fish broadcast over the fields. In later years, where the latter practice was carried to an ex- treme, it was found that it resulted in serious detriment to the soil because of the accumulation therein of the undecomposed oil from the fish. Later, it was found that the oil could be readily removed from the fish without impairing their usefulness for fertilizer purposes. This was accomplished by placing the fish in hogsheads or barrels, covering with water, compressing with weighted boards, and allow- ing to stand for the putrefaction of the fish to release the oils. The oil rose to the surface and was skimmed off. The residue was spread upon the land. The oil thus obtained was put to various uses in the domestic enterprises of the farms. It was soon found that cooking the fish released the oils as effectually as disintegration through putrefaction, and very much more quickly and less offensively. For the farmers living near the shore it became a part of the year’s routine to prepare fish scrap and, incidentally, oil for the year’s supply. As the spring was regarded as the best time for the application of this fertilizer, a few weeks of the spring were devoted to fishing and rendering. The apparatus necessary, seines and pots, often were owned and operated in common. In time pot cooking was superseded by the adoption of steam cookers; the first factory for cooking by steam was a small one put up near Portsmouth, R. I., in 1841.1 In 1850 Daniel Wells built a factory on Shelter Island, N. Y. That was the first factory of considerable size on the coast, and the quantity of fish handled amounted to 2,000,000 or 3,000,000 in number annually. In 1853 Mr. Wells built a new factory on Shelter Island and the old one was removed to Groton, Conn., being the first steam factory in that State. The first factory in Maine was put up in 18638 at South Bristol, and in 1866 11 factories were built in Maine. In 1869 the factory at South Bristol, Me., was removed to Fair Port, Va., and was the first factory in that State.’ The subsequent development of the industry was marked by the introduction of the purse seine,’ facilitating the capture of fish in 1 Aquatic Products in Arts and Industries, Charles H. Stevenson. Appen. to Rept. of U. S. Fish Comm., 1902, pp. 177-279. 2 Quoted from Stevenson, loc. cit. 8 Further discussed under Technology. 4 BULLETIN 2, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. greatly increased numbers, and the adoption of presses for separating the oil and increasing the yield of it, in the place of the older method of depending on the lighter specific gravity of the oil to effect a separation. Hand presses were introduced in 1856 by Mr. Charles Tuthill, of the Wells factory on Shelter Island. In 1858 hydraulic power was introduced as a substitute for hand power. In more recent years, however, steam presses have been introduced with such success that they are to be found in practically every new factory, and they are rapidly being installed in the old factories to take the place of those operated by hydraulic power. Aedebonnaoses 3. 67 10. 74 11.15 Bish byGoodale’s processs-nsc- eee -\25-- eee ee ne en eeeremeeee 11.45 10. 24 11.56 NEW ANALYSES. A small number of samples of fish scrap were taken for the most part in person by the writer during the fall of 1912. No attempt was made to obtain a complete series from all the plants visited. 1 Atwater, W. O., Ccnn. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rept., 1876, p. 63. 2Conn. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rept., 1877, 41. FISH-SCRAP FERTILIZER INDUSTRY OF ATLANTIC COAST. 30 Those obtained may be regarded as typical. The samples were gotten from open heaps of scrap in the storage house, or from bags by means of samplers, or by opening the bags. They were shipped in canvas sample sacks. Before analysis, the entire sample was ground to a powder that would pass a sieve of 16 apertures per linear inch. METHODS OF ANALYSIS. Samples of 2 grams were dried to constant weight in an electric oven at a temperature of about 100° C. The loss in weight was recorded as moisture. In this connection it should be said that it is believed that possibly some oil also was lost in this operation. Oil was determined by extracting with ether a 2-gram sample, previously dried to constant weight. Following the extraction, the sample again was dried to constant weight and the loss was taken as oils. For the extraction a Soxhlet apparatus was employed. In the de- termination of nitrogen the official, modified Gunning method was applied, and in that of phosphoric acid the official gravimetric method was used. The analyses were made by EK. G. Parker and J. R. Lindemuth, whose results are recorded in the subjoined table. The eleventh analysis 1s reported in this table merely for convenience. It is the analysis of pulverized crab shells used as a filler for mixed fertilizers. The particular adaptability of this ma- terial for that purpose is brought out by the analysis. TABLE XII.—Analysis of fish scrap, by H. G. Parker and J. R. Lindemuth. Phos- No. : sais ee phorie c F of Location. Description. Nitrogen. eal Moisture.| Oils. sample. (P20s5) Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. 1 | Kilmarnock, Va.......| From Eubanks Tankard Co. 8.93 6.17 6.48 5.91 Dry scrap (from 6 sacks). HRD ati bes Viaiet seats Seteae From Taft Fish Co. Dry 8.96 teld 6.18 6.81 scrap (sample of 525 tons). Siieinvanetons Vale eee From Carter’s Creek Fish 7.70 5. 22 11.68 6. 62 Guano Co. Dry scrap, dried in hot air and steam driers (from onesack). Fall product. 4 | Cape Charles, Va.....- | From Atlantic Fish & Oil Co. 9.29 6.12 7.86 5.38 Dry serap, ground (from 3 sacks). Rrligegoe dO sccscccoes? From Dennis Fish & Oil Co. 8.80 5.21 7.17 7.55 Dust from grinders. 6 | Beaufort, N. C......--. From Beaufort Fish-serap & 8.82 5.95 6.13 8.57 Oil Co. Dry serap, hy- draulic presses. Sample from heap. 7 | Morehead City, N.C...| R. W. Taylor. Dry scrap 8.49 5.95 9.12 8. 23 from open heap. neers GOR ecm crake From Chas.S.Wallace. Scrap, 7.76 9.65 8.15 7.56 dry, from hydraulic presses. 9} Lenoxville, N. C...... From C. P. Dey. Ground 7.81 5.85 7.46 7.89 serap, sun dried, hydraulic presses. Sample from heap. HOM Beas ON cacccccseecce ss From C. P. Dey. Serap, dry, 8. 29 9.00 7.00 5. 40 ground, hydraulic presses. Sample from heap. ANVCT ALCS Soars acne |e acme stoc ee eee cee cells sissies 9.13 (eo Beeee sesae 6.99 Wi |Cristields Mdiss22 5-22 c- From L. E. P. Dennis & Son. 3. 82 4,55 6.95 2.1) Ground crab shells, used as filler. 36 BULLETIN 2, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. USES. FERTILIZER. Fish scrap, from the inception of the industry, has met with great success as a fertilizer, until to-day it constitutes one of the main sources of organic nitrogen used in the fertilizer industry. Its nitro- gen is in a form from which it is readily rendered available by the bacterial and other action taking place in the soil. The organic mat- ter, which serves as the carrier for the nitrogen, in fish scrap as in other organic nitrogenous substances is a beneficial adjunct not enjoyed by the inorganic nitrogenous substances. A small amount of fish scrap is used directly as fertilizer without admixture with other fertilizer ingredients or fillers. Its success when used alone has not been unqualified. Its continued applica- tion has led to a condition of the soil in which it would no longer respond to that fertilizer. A larger portion is mixed (“ manipu- lated ”) by the manufacturers of the serap to form a so-called com- plete fertilizer and is sold, generally locally, under brand names. During the past year (1912) about 10,000 tons were thus employed. This practice is growing. By far the larger proportion of the output of the East is sold di- rectly or through the medium of brokers to the larger manufacturers of fertilizers, by whom it is worked up into the various grades of finished goods marketed by them. CHICKEN FEED. This use of fish scrap at present is so slight in the East as scarcely to deserve mention. Only a few tons, and these by a small number of chicken growers, are thus utilized; but the success of those so using it, evidenced by their yearly increasing orders, would seem to justify its exploitation by experiment stations and its trial by other poultry raisers. The following paragraph is quoted, with excisions, from Goode: + At a meeting of the Maine Board of Agriculture and Farmers’ Convention, Mr. Wasson gaye an interesting account of the use of “‘pogy chum” as a food for sheep and poultry, stating that he had used it for five years. * * * Sheep thus fed showed an average increase each of one pound and a quarter of wool, while they were constantly fat and brought heavy lambs. Hens also- ate the scrap with avidity. Boyd stated that hens, ducks, and turkeys preferred it to corn, and became large and heavy when fed upon it. It is customary to discontinue the scrap and feed them on corn three or four weeks previous to killing them. CATTLE FEED. The use of fish scrap as a feed for cattle has met with such success, seemingly, in those instances where it has been tested that it is sur- prising that its adoption for this purpose has not become more 1Loc. cit. Cf. pp. 140-141. FISH-SCRAP FERTILIZER INDUSTRY OF ATLANTIC COAST. 37 general. It is reported that in the Shetland Islands dry salt fish constitute the main feed for cattle and sheep, and are even fed to horses. . The most rational method of utilizing fish for manure, and the one which it seems to me must prove by far the most profitable way of economizing our waste fish products, is by feeding them to stock. The following paragraphs are quoted from a paper by the eminent nutrition expert and food chemist, the late W. O. Atwater, which has been published as a part of the report by Goode: The earliest accounts which I have met of fish as food for domestic, animals is the following extract from the Barnstable (Mass.) Journal of February 7, 1833 : “The cattle at Provincetown feed upon fish with apparently as good relish as upon the best kinds of fodder. It is said that some cows, kept there several years, will, when grain and fish are placed before them at the same time, prefer the latter, eating the whole of the fish before they touch the grain.” In 1853, Mr. J. B. Lawes, of Rothamsted, England, reported several extensive series of experiments “On the Feeding of Pigs,” in which were tested the effects of beans, lentil, Indian corn, and barley meals, bran, and dried New- foundland codfish as foods for fattening. * * * Jn speaking of the series in which the fish was fed with maize, barley, and bran in different proportions, Mr. Lawes says: “In the series * * * where we have * * * a comparatively small amount of nonnitrogenous matter consumed, the food consisted in a large pro- portion of the highly nitrogenous codfish; and in both of these cases, we had not only a very good proportion of increase to food consumed, but the pigs in these pens were very fat and well ripened. * * * ‘This result is in itself interesting, and it may perhaps point to a comparatively greater efficiency in the already animalized protein compounds supplied in the codfish than in those derived, as in the other cases, from the purely vegetable diets.” The value of fish as food for domestic animals has been attested by experi- enced and intelligent farmers in our own country. As early as 1864, if not in fact previous to that date, the attention of mem- bers of the board of agriculture (of Maine), and farmers generally was called to the value of fish pomace or scrap as a feeding stuff for sheep, swine, and poultry. In a communication to the board*® Mr. William D. Dana, of Perry, spoke in high tones of its value as a feed for domestic animals, in which he said : . “Fish pomace, or the residuum of herring after the oil is pressed out, is greedily eaten by sheep, swine, and fowl; and probably pogy chum would be eaten as well. Smoked alewives and frost fish also furnish a food palatable to eattle. Sheep thrive well, get fat, and yield heavier fleeces when fed on this pomace than when fed on anything else produced in this section of the State. Careful and observing farmers, who have fed it, assert that it is of equal value with good hay, ton per ton, and that its value for manure is in no degree di- minished by passing it through the living mill, and thus reducing it to a much more conyenient state for applying. If it could be sufficiently dried, without other substances, to prevent putrefaction, it would form a valuable article of cattle feed in regions from which it is now excluded by the expense of trans- portation and its own odoriferous nature.” 1 Goode, loc. cit. Cf. p. 248. 2 Agriculture of Maine, 1864, p. 43. 88 BULLETIN 9, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, It is apparent that the scrap spoken of here as used in these feed- ing experiments is the undried scrap as taken from the presses. No reason suggests itself why the dried scrap should not be as nutritious as the wet as, theoretically, the drying causes no chemical change in the organic substances of the scrap but merely removes water. The advantages of the dry over the wet scrap as a feed are numerous.and great. Feeding experiments were conducted by Farrington at the experi- mental farm of the Maine College of Agriculture. Two flocks of lambs, of five each, were chosen, and during a period of 16 weeks one flock was fed corn and hay and the other fish scrap and hay. During the first four weeks of the experiment “the corn-fed flock, weighing 3404 pounds, ate 335 pounds of hay and lost 19 pounds in weight. The flock eating fish, weighing 338 pounds, ate 338 pounds hay and lost 1} pounds.” During the 16 weeks of the experiment the sheep were fed about 2 ounces of fish scrap per head per day and the same amount of corn; in that time the corn-fed flock gained 48 pounds, or 154 per cent, and the fish-fed flock 474 pounds, or 15, per cent. As the fish scrap was unground and contained bones, it was not entirely eaten. On the whole, then, these experiments [and others’ described in the report by Atwater, but omitted here*] bear unanimous and convincing testimony in favor of the easy digestibility and high nutritive value of animal foods in gen- eral and of fish guano in particular when fed to sheep and swine. How far they could be made profitable for other herbivorous animals than sheep has not yet been tested. In the nature of the case there is no reason why they should not be as nutritious for neat cattle as for sheep. As Voit has justly observed, all mammals are at one period of their lives, when living upon milk, car- HIVOEOUS. 9 In short, we have every reason, from practical experience, from actual experiment, and from what we know of the nature of the case, to believe that the immense amount of animal waste produced in this country from our slaughterhouses, and especially from our fisheries, can be utilized with the greatest eaSe and profit to supply the most pressing need of a most important part of our agriculture—nitrogenous food for stock. The ingredients of fish may be made more available for plant food and their value for manure increased by * * * feeding to stock, thus putting it through a process similar to that by which Peruvian guano has been formed. In this way it can be used to enrich the manure made on the farm, and thus made one of the best aids to successful farming. Concerning the utilization of fish scrap as cattle feed, Henry, in “ Feeds and Feeding,” says: Along the coasts of Hurope the waste parts of fish as well as entire fishes not used for human food are fed in dried form to animals. Spier, of Scotland, 1By Wolff, Wildt, Kellner, and Weiske, described in Die Landwirthschaftlichen Ver- suchs-Station, J. f. Landwirthschaft and Landwirthschaftliche Jahrbiicher, 1876 and 1877. 2 Note inserted by writer, J. W. T. FISH-SCRAP FERTILIZER INDUSTRY OF ATLANTIC Coast. 39 reports no bad influence on milk when reasonable quantities of dried fish are fed to dairy cows. Nilson found that 80 parts of herring cake could replace 100 parts of linseed cake in the ration for cows. The better grades of dried fish meal should be used for feeding farm animals. In a trial by Schrodt and Peters bran and rape cake were gradually replaced by equal quantities of flesh meal until the allowance of the latter reached 2.2 pounds per head daily. It was found that the customary shrinkage in live weight when in full milk flow did not occur, and there was an increase in the total quantity of milk as well as in the total solids and fat. Flesh meal effected a saving of 2 pounds of feed per head daily, and the cows learned to relish it highly. According to Kuhn, milk and butter of normal quantity were produced on a daily allowance of 2.3 pounds of fat-free fish scrap supplied with a variety of other feed, no deleterious effects resulting. The universally affirmative results of all the recorded experiments with fish scrap as a cattle feed leaves little room for doubt as to its efficiency. It is, indeed, surprising that its use as a feed has not been more generally introduced. This is doubtless due to the lack of ex- ploitation on the part of the manufacturers, the ones most vitally interested financially. It will be recalled that in the beginning of the cottonseed-oil indus- try the expressed cake was a by-product which found use only in the fertilizer industry. Its subsequent exploitation as a cattle feed gave it a much enhanced value. To-day it is produced in immense and constantly increasing quantities, and the portion of it which enters the mixed fertilizer is proportionally less than the amount used as cattle feed. We should not be surprised if in that particular the his- tory of fish scrap will parallel that of cottonseed meal; that the time will soon come when it will be recognized by both manufacturer and farmer that its preparation and use as a cattle feed is more profitable to both than when employed only as a stimulator for growing plants. And fitting, indeed, it would be that even a small part of the mil- lions of pounds of combined nitrogen carried seaward annually by the rivers should be returned, and after a short cycle again should be rendered suitable for man’s consumption. POSSIBILITIES IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE FISH-SCRAP INDUSTRY. A number of elements, all speculative in character, enter into the question of the possible development of the fish-scrap industry. A discussion of this topic should consider the past history of the indus- try and the present supply of fish, and should have regard for the probable future demand for nitrogen, for the probable increased de- mand for fish for food, and for the possibly more complete utilization of waste from canneries. This topic will be considered briefly in the light of the principal influences liable to affect it. The opinions expressed are based on 40 BULLETIN 2, U. S. DEPARTMENT. OF AGRICULTURE. - observations so far made, which in many particulars are necessarily incomplete. A fuller study of the subject doubtless will cause a cer- tain revision of these opinions. IN THE LIGHT OF THE PAST HISTORY OF THE INDUSTRY. From the table on page 7, setting forth the statistics of the fish- scrap industry for the years 1873 to 1898, inclusive, it may be seen that the industry has been on its present basis since 1885. The -annual catch has varied, the variation being determined as much, . perhaps, by the success of the fishermen—* fishermen’s luck ”—as by the status of the industry, and the annual output in oil and scrap has not varied greatly from 70,000 tons of scrap and 35,000 barrels of oil. There has not been that growth in the recent past which would war- rant a belief in a growth in the future. During the last year there was quite an impetus noted in the industry, due largely to the very successful season of the preceding year, 1911. While there were a number of new plants under con- struction or beginning operations in 1912, whose establishment was attributable largely to the prosperous season of 1911, there were others which did not share in this prosperity and were either out of commission or in the hands of receivers. _ The greatest change in the fish-scrap industry of the last 25 years has been the introduction within recent years of improved machinery for manufacturing the scrap. The success of this move has been proneunced. This success has been almost too recent to enable one to say what effect it will have on the industry. But since the main expense involved in the industry lies in the operation of the boats and the main profit in the suecess of the boats, it is evident that changes in the factory proper can not have a far-reaching influence on the industry as a whole. IN THE LIGHT OF THE SUPPLY OF FISH. Repeated inquiries among the menhaden fishermen with respect to the decrease in the number of fish have failed to reveal any impor- tant indication that the menhaden are any less abundant to-day than in times past. Occasionally the opinion is expressed that they have decreased; but frequently this opinion is based on the disappearance of the fish from certain inclosed bodies of water from entering which they are prevented by the large number of fishing steamers operating at the entrance to such bodies of water. As has been pretty conclu- sively indicated, the number of fish caught by the fishermen is hardly significant when compared with those destroyed by the carnivorous fish which prey upon them. It is not to be expected, therefore, that even increasing fishing will impair their numbers, unless, indeed, cer- FISH-SCRAP FERTILIZER INDUSTRY OF ATLANTIC COAST. 41 tain movements or habits of the schools, which in the past have served to protect them from their predatory foes or have. enabled them to reproduce, are interfered with by the fishermen. If fishing off the entrances to the various bays and sounds along the coast pre- vents the menhaden from entering these waters, this fact may assist ‘in their destruction by keeping them on the high seas, where, pre- sumably, they are more open to attack than when feeding in the more sheltered bays and river mouths. So long as the fish are not interfered with at the time of their spawning season, however, there is little danger of their nuniber being impaired seriously by man, since their rate of reproduction is so enormous. It is maintained that but few spawning fish ever are caught by the fishermen, and that the spawning season begins at about the time the fishing season ends. This is not quite true of the season in North Carolina, where the fishing season and spawning sea- son overlap, and is open to doubt at other places. While many fish are caught containing roe, so few are taken from which the spawn is running that it is probably true that the spawning of the menhaden is not seriously interfered with. Doubtless fishing methods will continue to be improved so that more effective fishing will be possible. The development of the fishing end of the industry will have to take place in that direction rather than in an increase in the number of steamers fishing; for the larger the number of the latter, the more will they interfere with each other by frightening and scattering the schools, and to a cor- responding degree will they impair each other’s efficiency. Since the operation of the steamers is the most important part of the industry, a fair catch is imperative if the industry is to pay. It frequently has been suggested that the number of menhaden could be increased by decreasing the number of their foes. This is doubtless true; but if the number of the menhaden is not appreciably decreased from year to year by the most vigorous fishing, 1t would ap- pear equally impossible to decrease their foes by applying the same method. Something, possibly, could be accomplished by attacking the predaceous fish at their spawning beds. Since the most important of the predaceous fish, excepting the dogfish, are among those highly valued for food, it would scarcely be feasible to destroy these food fish to preserve the others commonly not so regarded. The number of menhaden now available doubtless represents a state of equilibrium between their natural tendency to multiply by procreation and their destruction by the hordes of other fish whose main food they constitute. This equilibrium doubtless has existed for ages. It is improbable therefore that it will now be upset by any natural cause. 42 BULLETIN 2, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A word of warning, however, should be given those operators whose crews take menhaden in the late fall and the winter, that if they catch spawning fish they are running the risk of decreasing the supply. Serious interference with the fish at their spawning season means the inevitable depletion of the schools. IN THE LIGHT OF THE FUTURE DEMAND FOR NITROGEN. Certainly it is true that there will continue to be a use for nitrogen compounds for fertilizers for many years to come, and that for a time, at least, this use will be a rapidly increasing one. Whether there always will be such a demand is impossible to say and idle to speculate. The understanding of fertilizers and their action in the stimulation of plant growth now is only in its incipiency. Subse- quent investigation may show, and doubtless will, that some of our agricultural practices are based on misconceptions. Subsequent in- vestigations may show that certain of the materials now used as fer- tilizers are not as good as certain others yet to be tested, for it is known definitely that many other substances besides compounds of nitrogen, potassium, and phosphorous produce a stimulation similar, or, at least, analogous, to that produced by the present ingredients of commercial fertilizers regarded as essential. The general scarcity of nitrogenous compounds has stimulated the investigation of processes for “fixing” the nitrogen of the atmos- phere so that to-day there are at least three distinct methods of bringing about reaction between nitrogen and other substances which have been made the base of nitrogen-fixing industries. These are methods for oxidizing the nitrogen of air to nitric acid, for bringing about a union between the nitrogen of air and calcium carbide to form calcium cyanamide, and for inducing a reaction between the nitrogen of air and hydrogen to form ammonia. These industries are only in their infancy, so to speak, having been in operation only a few years. The rapid development of and improvement in the processes, growth in number and size of plants, and corresponding increase in output show that already they are on a satisfactory commercial basis and be- speak for them a successful future. Whether they will find it com- mercially advantageous or possible to market nitrogenous compounds at a lower price than now obtains or at a price with which the manu- facturers of fish scrap can not compete remains for the future to dis- close. With an unlimited and easily accessible supply of raw mate- rials and a practically inexhaustible source of power for operation FISH-SCRAP FERTILIZER INDUSTRY OF ATLANTIC COAST. 43 the manufacturers of the atmospheric products certainly are in a po- sition to supply immense quantities of nitrogenous fertilizers. The present great source of combined nitrogen in this country is ammonium sulphate from the by-product coke oven. The un- recovered ammonia, liberated in the old form of coke oven, the beehive, is more than enough to supply the fertilizer trade with all the fixed nitrogen it demands. Should this amount be ren- dered available by a sudden improvement in the coking process, the preparation of fish scrap for fertilizer use doubtless would become commercially infeasible. It is more probable that the increase in the output of ammonium sulphate will keep pace with the increase in demand therefor, and that the price fluctuations will be gradual and slight. In recapitulation, then, it may be said that while the demand for nitrogen compounds of animal or vegetable origin undoubtedly will continue to increase, the prospects for the supply of inorganic nitrog- enous compounds are quite bright. While the fertilizer industry, perhaps, prefers the former, it is quite independent of them so long as the supply of the latter is ample. So, should the price of fish scrap be increased, it appears probable that increased amounts of ammonium sulphate, and, in the future, atmospheric products would take its place. In the light of these considerations, then, it does not appear reasonable to believe that the demand for and the price offered for fish scrap for fertilizer purposes will materially increase. IN THE LIGHT OF THE POSSIBLE INCREASED DEMANDS FOR FISH FOR FOOD. The fact is forced upon our attention daily that the cost of food is increasing. This can only mean either that food is becoming more scarce in proportion to population, or that the expense of getting it to the consumer is increasing, or both. The decrease in the exporta- tion of American food products is an indication that the former is true, and the continued elaboration and extension of the middleman system of handling produce undoubtedly makes the latter true. A number of possibilities may be realized which will operate to in- crease the abundance and availability of farm produce, so that the increase in production of food can keep pace with the increase in population for a great many years to come. However, should this increase in production not come to pass, the increasing scarcity of food in general, and of nitrogenous food in particular, will make it imperative that the fish of the sea be more economically utilized. This will mean at first a gradual stimulation of the present fisheries engaged in catching the so-called food fishes, especially those whose catches are preserved for shipment long distances and for consump- tion at times and places in which fresh fish are not available. 44 BULLETIN 2, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, The menhaden commonly are regarded as nonedible fish. The fishermen, when asked why the menhaden are not edible, reply that they are “too boney” or “too oily”; others acknowledge that the menhaden, when freshly caught and properly cooked, have as good a flavor as any other fish. It is true that choicer fish are usually at hand and are chosen at the expense of the menhaden, and in that sense they are not edible.- In short, it appears undoubtedly true that they are edible and palatable, but are not as choice as a number of other fish usually to be had, and therefore as a usual thing they are not eaten. At times they have appeared in the fish markets of the East and have brought prices comparable with those fetched by other fish recognized as food fish. In former years it has been the practice among the people inhabit- ing the coastal sections of the United States to preserve a number of barrels of menhaden in salt for home consumption. At times salted menhaden have been prepared in fairly large quantities for exportation and as a sort of substitute for salt mackerel. This has been true especially in seasons of scarcity of other fish. The sta- tistics of the Bureau of Fisheries of 1905 covering the fishing activi- ties of the New England States show that only 8,600 menhaden, valued at $252, were salted during that year; these were in the State of Massachusetts. Smith* has stated that 25,000 menhaden were salted for their own use by the crews of two steamers of the men- haden fleet of 1895. It is presumable that this was not peculiar to these two steamers alone and that a similar practice was in vogue to a proportionate extent on the other 54 steamers and 28 sailing vessels in use that year. Menhaden have been prepared as sardines and have been declared a complete success when so used. It has been demonstrated that a meat extract can be prepared from their flesh equal in flavor and nutritive value to the well-known extract of beef. While this fact has been known for many years, the process of extraction so far has - failed of development on a commercial scale. The extract is said to equal 20 per cent of the weight of the fish. The expressed flesh and the oil are obtainable as by-products, the former for fertilizer pur- poses and the latter for the uses to which it is now applied. In short, past experience has shown that the menhaden are available as food fish to be used fresh, where marketable, for preserving in oil as sardines, or in salt, as mullets and herring are now preserved, or as a source of meat extract, as the exigencies of the food supply should demand. At present there is no indication that the consumption of men- haden for food for man is on the increase. 1 Notes on an Investigation of the Menhaden Fishing in 1894, with Special Reference to the Food Fishes Taken. Bull, U. S. Fish Comm., 1895, p. 285. : FISH-SCRAP FERTILIZER INDUSTRY OF ATLANTIC COAST. 45 IN THE LIGHT OF THE MORE COMPLETE UTILIZATION OF THE WASTE FROM CANNERIES AND OF WASTE FISH. The aggregate annual waste from the dressing of fish is undoubt- edly great. About 25 per cent of the weight of the “round” or fresh fish is discarded in dressing. With the exception of the canneries, there are few places where enough fish are dressed to make the treat- ment of the cuttings for the preparation of fertilizer economically feasible. Practically all of the small fish to be found on the market fresh are sold “ round ”; the dressing is done by the individual con- sumer. The waste thus produced finds its way into the garbage and is disposed of in that manner. In some fishing centers it is the cus- tom to remove the viscera of the fish before marketing, but not the heads. In this case the fish are usually dressed on board the fishing boats and the waste is thrown overboard. Once the habits of the fishermen in this regard are overcome, and a plant for its treatment established at a convenient point of call for the fishing fleet, it is possible that a great deal of this material could be saved and con- verted into fertilizer. It is the custom at present in this manner of dressing fish to save the livers. The remaining viscera probably are low in their content of oil, possibly too low to make an extraction profitable; and the remainder is of a rather watery natuse, contain- ing little solid matter. However, the solid matter that is present is highly nitrogenous and therefore of fertilizer value. Furthermore, it is believed that to throw this r terial overboard is injurious to the fisheries, causing the desirable fish to forsake the waters thus polluted and attracting large numbers of dogfish inimical to the food fish. This practice is sufficiently undesirable to merit prohibition by law. At the same time, in such a contingency, plants suitable for its dis- posal should be assured by the same power. There is a distinct possibility that enough of this product is re- coverable at certain points to enable small rendering plants to operate ; and at present, it is known to the writer, it is planned to make use in some manner of the offal obtainable from at least one fleet of about 50 fishing boats. But there is not a large enough number of fishing centers where the practices are such as described, nor is there enough material available at any one point to make the amount of fertilizer produced from that source of any great significance. The cuttings from herring and other fish canned at the center of the fish-canning industry on the Atlantic coast, it has been shown in a previous paragraph, amounted to 36,496 hogsheads, yielding 31 tons of wet scrap in 1895, and an amount of cuttings which gave 50 tons of wet scrap in 1905. While data showing the completeness with which the scrap of that neighborhood is utilized are lacking, it is presumable that since the equipment for its rendering has been in- stalled, all that is readily available is so employed. Similar material 46 BULLETIN 2, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is produced in large amount by the extensive fisheries on the Great Lakes, but there again it is so badly scattered that its treatment to any considerable extent is impracticable. These sources then scarcely can be looked to for increasing the Nation’s output in fish scrap. Among the so-called waste fish, fish commonly regarded as unfit for food and applied to no other use, the dogfish are perhaps most numerous in coastal waters and most easily caught. The interest of the various fisheries rather demand that the number of dogfish be reduced; and the experience in Canada, where through Government initiative they are being converted into fertilizer, shows that they are a potentially large source of fish for fish-scrap purposes, and in their utilization one reasonably may expect a development of the fish- scrap industry. This discussion has been confined to conditions as they have been observed on the Atlantic coast and do not apply at all to the Pacific coast. The salmon canneries on the Pacific coast produce very large amounts of refuse, representing, roughly, 30 per cent of the “ round ” weight of the salmon taken. The salmon-canning industry by no means is confined to the States, but is carried on quite extensively in southeastern and southwestern Alaska. A considerable amount of the refuse now produced in the States is made use of in the prepara- tion of fertilizers, a practice which is on the increase. In Alaska practically none of the refuse is saved. A discussion of the salmon- cannery waste is not in place in this report, since it is the intention of this bureau to conduct an investigation during the coming summer with a view to the more complete utilization of this material for fertilizer purposes. Since nature has provided an abundant growth of the self-perpetuating and highly potassic kelp in the neighbor- hood of many of the canneries, it is hoped that the two materials can be combined and a fertilizer, containing the three most desired ingredients—nitrogen, phosphoric acid, and potash—be manufac- tured with profit. OILS. DEVELOPMENT. Fish oils for many years have been among the important products taken from the sea. The whale constituted the first important source of the so-called fish oils and to-day yields about 3,000,000 gallons annually. In addition to these, other aquatic animals, such as the porpoise, the blackfish, seals, walrus, and the livers of cod, have been made a fruitful source of the animal oils. Menhaden oil, the true fish oil, and by far the most important oil produced on the Atlantic coast of the United States, first appeared on the market in considerable quantity in the early sixties. The large prices obtained in the early days of the industry led to a rapid i " FISH-SCRAP FERTILIZER INDUSTRY OF ATLANTIC COAST. 47 development in the industry and a consequent overproduction in oil. In the seventies the annual production exceeded 2,000,000 gallons, a figure which it closely has maintained on the average ever since. The annual production since 1873 is given, by years, in Table III, on page 7. PRICES. The range in prices since 1863 of the various grades of oil is given in the subjoined table. The data for the years 1863 to 1902 : at taken from the report by Stevenson, previously quoted; those for the following years from the Oil, Paint, and Drug Reporter. During the past year the oil has varied in price from 23 cents to 28 cents per gallon. TABLE XIII.—Statement of the range of prices for crude northern menhaden oil in the New York market from 1863 to 1911, inclusive. Year. Lowest. | Highest. Year. Lowest. | Highest. .21 - 30 Contract.) Contract. 378} - 28 TECHNOLOGY. The mixture of oil and water running from the cooked fish in the presses is conducted into the first and uppermost of a set of tanks arranged one somewhat above the other. In this vat the mixture on standing a short time separates into a stratum of oil floating on an aqueous layer. The separation may be assisted by heating the mix- ture. For this purpose steam coils are provided. The oil thence is allowed to flow by a suitable arrangement of weirs successively through the series of receptacles, in which by means of stronger heat- ing by steam it is gradually purified from its contained water and small particles of flesh. The greater part of the fine particles of . flesh separate in the first vat, settling to the bottom. This fine mush is known as “ gurry,” and sometimes is sold to the manufacturers 48 BULLETIN 2, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of soap without further treatment, and in some cases is placed in stout canvas bags and subjected to pressure to recover ihe oil which it still contains. The residual solid matter is added to the scrap. As this is free from bones, its nitrogen content is correspondingly higher than that of the ordinary scrap. The oil that has been put through the simple process of separation and purification described is run directly into barrels for shipment or into large storage tanks from which it is drawn off as desired for shipment. It usually is sold in bulk to oil refiners by whom it is prepared for the various uses to which it is adapted. YIELD. The yield in oil varies (1) with the year, (2) more decidedly with the locality from which the fish are taken, and (3) most widely with the time of the year when taken. The fish taken in northern waters as a rule are fatter than those from southern waters. “In the year 1900, for instance, the yield of oil at the Rhode Island factories was 5.76 gallons per 1,000 fish; in New York it was 6.39 gallons, in Delaware 4.92 gallons, and in Texas 3.51 gallons to the 1,000 fish.” 2 _ When the fish appear in the spring they frequently are so thin that no recoverable oil at all is obtained from them. The fish taken in the fall, on the contrary, yield on the average 12 gallons per 1,000 and frequently 15 gallons per 1,000. The variation in yield per thousand from year to year, therefore, probably is determined by the relative number of fish caught in the spring and fall. PROPERTIES AND USES. Crude menhaden oil varies in color from light amber to dark brown. This wide range in color is due to the variation in the manner of treatment of the fish and the preliminary purification of the oil. Its viscosity is determined largely by temperature. Formerly menhaden oil was used principally as an illuminant and in currying leather. In addition, it long has been used as a paint vehicle, as a lubricant, and as a soap-making grease. Its use in currying leather and as an illuminant has been supplanted to a con- siderable extent by that of mineral oils, while its employment in the other manners mentioned has increased. Large quantities now are used in the paint manufacturing industry and in tempering steel. For the latter purpose a large amount is sold directly to the manu- facturers of steel articles. Important contributions to the knowledge of fish oils as paint vehicles have been made by Toch.2 This paint and oil specialist regards menhaden oil as the best of the fish oils. He differentiates 1 Stevenson, loc. cit. 2Toch, J. Ind. Eng. Chem., 3, 627 (1911). FISH-SCRAP FERTILIZER INDUSTRY OF ATLANTIC COAST, 49 strictly between menhaden oil and other so-called fish oils, such as those obtained from the whale, porpoise, and seals, as those from the latter three sources lack those qualities possessed by menhaden oil to a marked degree, which would classify them as drying oils. Their admixture with drying oils, such as tung and boiled linseed oils, does not avail, for while they may appear to have dried they become sticky again in the presence of humid air. In the subjoined table are given the specific gravities and iodine numbers of several oils commonly classed as fish oils. The iodine numbers are determined by the method of Hubl. TABLE XIV.—Specific gravities and iodine numbers of jish oils. g Specific | Todine : : Specific | Todine Kind of oil. NY anna oe. Kind of oil. Srey aN. No. 1. Crude whale oil......... 0.9195 136.1 || Menhaden oils: No.1. Filtered whale oil... ... . 9168 125.0 Extra bleached winter...| 0.9237 150.4 No. 2. Filtered whale oil. ..... . 9187 142.9 Bleached, refined......... . 9273 161.2 COMO ES eetisce sccce ccc sesclccs . 9196 VATE Se WER OG ULAT Sse a ener ere meer rae . 9249 165.7 Porpoise body oil.............. . 9233 182,83 ||| IDBKA OO less oocacoseacss5 er . 9250 154.5 Seal oil, water white........... 9227 143.0 The authority quoted says further: The oil that gives the best and most lasting results for paint purposes is the menhaden oil, and the winter-bleached variety is the one that should be rec- ommended. This is an oil fairly pale in color, with an iodine number of 150 or over, and with little or no fishy odor; in fact, I might say that in the pur- chasing of fish oils for paint purposes it is well to beware of a fish oil that has the so-called characteristic fishy odor. I have not yet satisfied myself as to the cause of this odor, but, so far as I have reached in my investigation, I am inclined to believe it is due to phosphorous decomposition compounds, The re- sults which I have obtained from the proper grades of fish oil—and I am glad to say that there are several manufacturers sufficiently intelligent to market the oils that are very desirable—warrant me in saying that fish oil in the hands of an intelligent manufacturer, and used up to 75 per cent, produces excellent results for exterior purposes. For interior purposes fish oil does not seem to be desirable, for it gives off noxious gases for a long time. - Tt is recommended that for exterior work three parts of fish oil be mixed with one part of linseed oil. The mixture is nonhygroscopic— when dry it remains dry—and the results obtained with it are de- scribed as excellent and lasting. The iodine number, it is main- tained, is an index of the suitability of fish oils for paint purposes. It profitably may be substituted for linseed oil in a number of appli- cations. It is more resistant to the action of heat than linseed oil, and hence is especially adaptable to use in painting ironwork such as boiler fronts and smokestacks. It holds up better in a moist cli- mate, such as that existing in proximity to the seashore. Its use is 1 Toch, loc, eit. 50 BULLETIN 2, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. recommended especially for replacing linseed oil in the manufacture of patent leather and similar products and printing ink. The patent leather resulting is more flexible and less liable to crack, though it possesses a somewhat less glossy surface. An objection to its use in this manner, however, is a peculiar efflorescence which its presence causes to form on the surface of the preparation. Its moderate use in the manufacture of baked japans also has been found highly advantageous. ; Menhaden oil should, of course, be used with a drier, and for that purpose the best results are obtained by means of a tungate drier. A tungate drier is one in which tung oil, or China wood oil, is boiled with a lead amd manganese oxide, and when the solution is complete this is then mixed with a properly made resinate of lead and manganese. Such a drier becomes soluble in the oil at temperatures over 100° C., and hardens the resulting paint very thoroughly. For fabrics, however, fish oil must be heated to a temperature of over 200° C., and if air is injected at such a temperature the glycerides are expelled and thick oil is produced which, in conjunction with the drier just named, is equally good for printing inks. It is advisable, however, to add at least 25 per cent of either a heavy bodied linseed oil or a raw linseed oil which does not break before the manipulation just referred to is begun.* The manipulation requisite on the part of the manufacturers to render their oils immediately usable for paint vehicles involves merely the addition of the drier and boiled linseed oil to the fish cil. The product should be sold directly to the paint manufacturers. The advantages gained are a higher price gotten because of this manipulation and because of the elimination of the middleman, and the assurance which the paint manufacturer has that the oil pur- chased directly from the manufacturer of fish oils probably is the pure product. In this connection it should be added that undoubtedly there are certain other ways, and probably many more, in which the value of the menhaden oil easily might be enhanced. The considerable portion of the time when, because the fish-rendering plant is lying idle, the employees are unoccupied, should make it possible for the operators to expend more labor on their oil with a view to the im- provement of its quality, and to manipulate it to render it suitable for special purposes, without greatly adding to the cost of manu- facture. 1Toch, loc. cit. | Oe Ee COPIES of this publication may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 10 cents per copy BUEN: OF cb ELE €e ) USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICT No. 3 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. September 23, 1913. A NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. By H. H. Mowry, Assistant Agriculturist, Office of Farm Management, Bureau of Plant Industry. INTRODUCTION. In order that farm work may be planned in advance or performed properly from season to season, it is essential to know what may fairly be expected daily of a workman for each kind of work, of any kind and size of implement, of each unit of power, and of any prac- ticable combination of power, workmen, and tools. Data of this character are peculiarly valuable when a new and unfamiliar enter- prise is to be undertaken by the farmer, and particularly where a partial or general reorganization of the farm business is contemplated. Such data are also necessary to insure that adequate labor and equip- ment are provided for and that the former is occupied to its fullest extent throughout the season, to determine the feasibility of a crop- ping system or rotation, to plan a practicable distribution of labor, and to insure that normal daily efficiency is secured from man and horse or to make certain that they are not overtaxed. The imme- diate demand that at least general averages of this character be made available for the farm-reorganization work of the Office of Farm Management has resulted in the accumulation of the data presented in the following pages. Since the normal daily efficiency of equip- ment and workmen is an element or factor both of the planning and execution of farm work, the average or normal day’s work for each operation is referred to in the text and tables as a “‘daily factor.” RELATION OF FARM EQUIPMENT TO FARM MANAGEMENT. From the practical standpoimt, each individual farm must be con- sidered as a business entity as well as a physical unit, and farm man- agement is concerned with the planning, adjustment, and seasonal manipulation of the elements of farm production (land, crops, live stock, labor, tools, and structures), so that all will mutually operate 5774°—Bul. 3—13——1 2 BULLETIN 3, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to secure the greatest profit without impairing the efficiency of any factor of production. In attempting to bring about and maintain this profitable adjustment, every farmer consciously or otherwise utilizes and is limited by physical and economic factors pease to the farming business. From the investigational viewpoint, the individual farm with its cropping system, practice, equipment, current operations, and general organization 1s a means to an end, and farm management is concerned with the farm unit only in so far as it affords impersonal data from which general principles can be formulated and applied to farms of its type and the conditions and possibilities of its locality. For purposes of investigation as well as use, the elements of farm equip- ment which affect the management of farms have been considered in two classes, which are here briefly referred to and defined in order to develop the relation between the science and practice of farm man- ~ agement and the subject matter of this bulletin. One class of ele- ments relates to the investment in equipment and the other to the operation of equipment, the first bemg termed ‘‘investment factors”’ and the second ‘‘operating factors.’”’ Operating factors are further classified into “‘seasonal”’ and “‘daily”’ factors. INVESTMENT FACTORS. _ By assembling masses of data from many farms, covering either the entire organization of each or selected elements only, useful facts and factors not previously known can be made available. As a com- paratively simple illustration, let it be assumed that it is necessary to determine the optimum investment to be made in outbuildings for a certain 200-acre farm. It is not safe to depend upon direct mathematical calculation on the basis of the physical needs for farm storage, since the investment is limited by the farm income and the physical demands must be to a certain degree subordinated-to the economic. Neither would it be wise to depend upon the example of but one practical farmer who had recently decided the matter for himself, since the individual must have had but little information to guide him and may have made serious errors, such as building in a year of big crops and investing so much that his farm pays no inter- est on the expenditure, or he may have been compelled to build in a “lean” year and may have invested so little as to be unduly cramped for space and may be incurring losses through damage and inconven- lence. If, however, many 200-acre farms in an area are examined, a nor- mal investment factor, representing a considerable period of time and typical of those farms which are both physically adequate and finan- cially solvent, can be taken as the optimum factor desired. Simi- larly, the distribution of investment in all classes of equipment can NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. 3 be obtained. From such data the principles and relationships for wise investment can be worked out, which might possibly be recog- nized by the occasional individual, but which must at best be appre- hended only vaguely by the majority, if they are not quite without the purview of the man confined to the duties and experience of one farm. SEASONAL OPERATING FACTORS. Under practical farm conditions, work can be planned intelligently and successfully executed only when allowance is made for rainy days and other climatic conditions which interrupt the various opera- tions in their respective seasons. Conclusive data of this character for any region can be secured only by long-continued observations of the weather in connection with its interfering effect on farm work. However, approximate seasonal factors for farm operations can often be calculated for any locality from the current practice with any crop." 1 Jn the southern part of the corn belt one man with a 2-horse team can plow, harrow three times, and plant 40 acres in corn from about March 10 to May 10. What fraction of this period is available for field work? A man can plow 1.75 acres, harrow 10 acres, or plant 11 acres per day, Hence, to plow, harrow three times, and plant 1 acre will require— ce stint +i) day. To do 40 acres will require 40 (3 aoe +a) } days. Another expression for this number of days may be found as follows: The whole number of days from March 10 to May 10 is 61; if F represents the fraction of this period available for field work, then F 61 is the number of available days. Thus, we have two expressions for the number of days available for field work, and these two expressions may therefore be equated. This gives us the equation— oo (ae castiot +i) HE. Solving this equation, we find F equals 0.631. That is, 63.1 per cent of the period is available for field work. The following more general formula, based on the above considerations, is useful in many ways: t t’ iA AG ae “he ------- )=Fs. In this formula A stands for the number of acres of land involved; t, t’, t’’, etc., represent the number of times the various operations are performed; a, b, c, etc., represent the area covered in a day in each of the various operations performed; F is the fraction of time available for field work; and S is the number of days in the season during which the work must be done. Another use to which this formula may be put is illustrated in the following problem: Assuming that during March one day in two is available; during April and May, two days in three; that oat land is plowed, harrowed once, and drilled; that corn land is plowed, harrowed three times, and planted; that a day’s work is plowing 1.75 acres, harrowing 10 acres, drilling 8 acres, or planting 11 acres of corn; and that the rotation used calls for equal areas of corn and oats; what area of each of these two crops can one man put in between March 1 and May 10? Our formula now becomes— ite 9 = (FR catists) ve (=z gtioti) = 9X31+3x40. From this we find A equals 24 acres. That is, one man can plant 24 acres each of corn and oats. If in the foregoing problem we omit the plowing and harrowing for the oats and simply drill them in the old corn stubble by means of a disk drill, as many farmers do, how many acres can the man put in of each of these crops? For this problem the formula now becomes— 1 1 2 AG) +4 (G3 atiot ii =5X81+3X40. - BULLETIN 3, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Approximate seasonal factors haying general application to the States of Nebraska, Iowa, Illinois, and Indiana are presented in Table I, being averages of the best judgment of practical farmers for the respective operations in the States named during the growing season from March to November, inclusive. TaBLE [.—Approximate seasonal factors for farm work in four States of the Middle West. PERCENTAGE OF TOTAL DAYS AVAILABLE FOR WORK AT EACH SEASON. Operation, weather, etc. Indiana. | Illinois. | Iowa. | Nebraska. Spring plowing ssons: oc22 sone See eee eeeee. se iseee eee ee 64. 2 69.0 72.1 75.3 Sprin sy hanrowill Sees see eee eer tema nee ee eee 60.7 63. 8 70.5 71.4 Spring Seeding seers esas ace ee eeeee ae ces “eee Oana 60. 4 63. 1 65.7 67.5 Sprang comiplantin eee. .5oe eee emer eee oe eee ese eee 62.5 68.9 71.1 73.5 Cultivating 2Aecere am ee oie alee ce eee eee rer a. eaten ees 73.7 75. Tilo 79.7 TL AVAD Pye meine = Spee cise asec eee eee siete oleae eee 67.8 68. 0 70.1 70.5 (Giiibay EAVES noose neu stosesesScScoce sonnsassseDSTcensonaS> 71.8 73.0 74,9 76.5 (Chyna WEINVES se Coon os osou she ocob pasos ososqoosoasemescodonesoes 74.3 73.0 75.1 76. 2 Phrashing eee.) 522 a sesie laa eee seca Cee ees 72.5 72.3 72.4 74.9 IRDQIGWO IME boss stb oncoseasdacnessesossSscoubadeoos oesgoroce 64.6 67.0 68. 4 70.2 ‘Halliplowine ea -pececkinc snee- tee eee eer eisen 2c ee aes eet 76. 4 78.3 78.5 79. 2 BallharrOwin y= ~seer me nese ae eal eas epee Toe 73-9 73. 8 77.2 78.9 Malliseeding? S226 eee nan \o wise ne mene eee! 2 oes Pcie 70. 5 75.5 75.6 76.2 Husking corn...-.-- sos sboresbocsssen se seo seLouseoescedsaone 73.3 79.5 82.3 82.6 Slalela Vela’ Cases renee eter ee aera pees eee eee 69.0 71.3 73.7 75. 2 AVERAGE MONTHLY WEATHER CONDITIONS, MARCH TO NOVEMBER, INCLUSIVE. Normal temperature. ee pe ee cee ae eee Saka 59.0 59.5 55. 2 BaD) Normalrainfallics << -pacrs jee ete tae tae Sea inches. - 30.6 29.7 29.3 24.0 Rainy days in 1911 (0.01 inch and over).......-...----------- 9.5 8.8 7.8 Fl Hntirelyiclearidaysanvl OUI seen esse eer eer ne i-1-\eeeeeeee eee 12.0 13.9 14.4 15.9 Bntirelyicloudysdays ind Ol eee eeeer ees: Sees eee eae 8.9 8.3 7.3 BND Partly cloudyadaysumel OUle ase eee se eeeeeee oe. eee eee 9.2 8.2 Civ 4 8.9 It will be observed that, except in four instances, there is a regular increase in the percentage of available time for each operation from Indiana to Nebraska. It will also be seen that there is a regular decrease of rainy days and a regular increase of entirely clear days from Indiana westward, according to the weather records for the season of 1911. The normal rainfall also decreases regularly from Indiana westward for the 9-month period. In each percentage in the table from 50 to 100 estimates are submitted in terms of days From this we find that A equals 38.8 acres. Another problem. With the rates of work assumed here it is known that one man can plow, harrow three times, and drill 40 acres of wheat during the months of August and September. What is the per- centage of available time. For this problem we have— 10 (5 = +3 Ae FX61. This gives F equal to 65.3 per cent, or practically two days in three. In all cases where the area is known on which a man can perform certain operations within a given period— that is, when the seasonal duty of a man is known—the use of the above general formula enables us to Goler mine the average percentage of available time for the season and locality concerned. A yery good way of determining the percentage of available time during the early summer is to ascertain the area of corn or other cultivated crop one man can till, the area he can till in a day, and how often the crop should be cultivated. Thus, in the corn-belt States one man can till 40 acres of corn. Hecan cultivate 6 acres a day, and the corn should be cultivated once every 10 days. From these facts it follows that 40 (G) =F 10; whence, R=", which means that two days in three are available.-—W. J. Spillman. NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. 5 available in the respective operating seasons. The farmers reporting used figures of their own choice in expressing their judgment, and the percentages were computed separately from these and averaged. The uniform increase in available working time from Indiana west- ward is so in harmony with the weather conditions recorded by the Weather Bureau that any deviation from the true seasonal factors for these States must be common to all of the figures in the table. While Table I is presented here only for purposes of illustration and definition, it also suggests a rapid method for arriving at general seasonal factors for farm work in any locality. oat DAILY OPERATING FACTORS. METHODS OF INVESTIGATION. Two methods have been followed in obtaining the data presented in this bulletin. The first, which contemplated extreme accuracy and a long period of study of the subject, was based on personal obser- vations in the field by agents of the Department working in limited areas having uniform conditions. These field observations extended over periods varying in length from 30 minutes to one or more hours. During part of each period the speed i motion was observed under the watch, the length of the speed observation being more or less according to the circumstances which determimed convenient dis- tances to be fixed as starting and stoppmg pomts. At the same time the agent recorded the entire length of his observation in each case, measured off the acres covered by the workman, and noted the work- ing size of the implement, depth worked, width of rows, distance between turns, kind and condition of soul, amount of power, size of horses, bulk of product handled, and all other factors tending to affect the amount of work performed, so that all data could be compared and variations accounted for. While, in theory, the method of per- sonal and detailed observations should give absolutely accurate and dependable results, because no vital condition is overlooked and the observations are personally and scientifically made, it was found that the variation in observed speed in motion and in surveyed acres per hour in the same area and under identical conditions was quite as wide as the variation in the estimates for a fair day’s work by practical farmers reporting for every condition in the United States. It was also apparent from experience with personal observations that these should cover not less than a day and that a very great many of them would be necessary before an average of value could be obtained. The very great cost of the more exact method rendered it available only as a means for furnishing limited data with which to check up results secured by more general and inexpensive methods. Many of the activities of the Office of Farm Management are pred- icated on prior experience, from which it has been found that facts 6 BULLETIN 3, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, and principles not generally available and often not recognized by those giving the basic information can be deduced from records obtained from farmers. ALL of the subsequent tables in this bulletin were obtained by taking advantage of this principle. A circular of inquiry covering practically all of the operations of farming was mailed to 25,000 selected farmers distributed throughout every State and Territory. The form wasso prepared that every controlling condition affecting any operation, such as the working size of the implement, width, depth, power used, bulk handled, etc., was given blank space to be filled in by each farmer according to his practice and the local conditions with which he was familiar. The answers, therefore, as a whole represented the best judgment in the light of long experi- ence of those who cooperated by sending in replies. Incidentally, since the method permitted each correspondent to record his own local practice, much supplemental information relating to farm equip- ment and farm management not contemplated by the inquiry was furnished. These features are discussed in connection with the respec- tive tables. The figures represent averages of general conditions in the United States. No attempt has been made to classify the material according to geographic divisions. It is fully realized as regards certain farm operations that the averages of the farmers’ estimates from the several agricultural regions are not strictly appli- cable to any particular district. When sufficient data are obtained from each distinct region, complete tables will be compiled that will take into account differences existing in the time requirements for the several farm operations. On account of certain conditions affecting the method by which the data in the following tables were obtained, it is believed that many of the averages are too high. Whilean equal number of inquir- ies were sent to each State in the Union, the majority of the replies came from the North-Central States, where climate, topography, and short seasons tend relatively to mcrease the daily duty for farm workmen beyond the average. Again, in making estimates of this character, the human tendency to recall ouly the exceptionally large day’s work rather than the unnoticed normal, or average, would also operate to raise the figures. A third influence tending to raise the estimates would be the natural desire of the correspondent to report a generous amount of work as within his own capacity. Stil a fourth influence would be the desire to set high standards for hired help. On account of these biased influences, which are all one sided, it was deemed advisable in presenting the original data of the tables to also include adjustments representing considerable reductions from the reported averages, since for the practical purposes to which these tables will be put it is wiser to use factors which are too low than to make farm plans with factors that are too high. Reductions from NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. 7 5 to 20 per cent have been made in some of the tables, although some are presented without such adjustments. These adjustments are noted in connection with the respective tables. DETERMINING THE Net WorKING Day. In order that the factors obtained might be brought to a uniform basis and so be comparable throughout and with other and similar data, the inquiry was so worded as to develop the net hours actually in the field or at work, during each operation. The time employed in making ready, hitching and unhitching, going and coming, and for meals, has been subtracted and a net working day established in terms of which the respective operations are tabulated and discussed. The respective net hours worked are given in the heading of each appropriate table. ANALYSIS OF THE DATA. In the following tables only a small part of the total number of averages for each operation, respectively, is mcluded. Original averages are given in each table only for those widths, sizes, crews, teams, etc., for which the largest numbers were reported. Adjust- ments and scales of allowances are then included in the respective tables from which the work factor for any feasible width, depth, team, or crew can be computed, using the average for the most common unit of equipment as the standard. These adjustments and allow- ances are based in each case upon analytical tables covering the entire number of reports for the respective operations. In this analysis the original data were tabulated in every pertinent arrangement and factors deduced for each variation in working size of implement, load, crew, and team. From these deduced factors the scales of allowances in the tables have been derived. The analytical tables referred to were too extensive to be included in this discussion. They covered several groupings each for reports on 1,852 walking plows, 1,056 sulky plows, 822 gang plows, 2,075 spike-tooth harrows, 823 spring-tooth harrows, 1,670 disk harrows, 442 fertilizer drills, 860 manure spreaders; 984 reports on spreading manure from a wagon box with a fork, 597 on spreading manure from piles with a fork, 765 on loading, hauling, and dumping manure in piles, 973 on loading manure into spreader, 112 on spreading lime from piles, 119 on spread- ing lime from a wagon box, 480 on scooping grain into a wagon, 1,014 on milking cows, 105 on picking strawberries, 626 on digging and picking up potatoes by hand, 110 on digging Irish potatoes with a an ordinary plow, 1,375 on picking up Irish potatoes after an ordinary plow, 429 on picking up Irish potatoes after an elevator digger, 38 on digging sweet potatoes with a sweet-potato plow, 334 on haulmg potatoes from field to cellar, 306 on planting Irish potatoes with a 8 BULLETIN 3, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. planter, 534 on marking potato rows, 925 on dropping potatoes by hand, 840 on covering seed potatoes, 382 on picking apples, 2,358 on grain binders, 771 on stacking grain from shock, 199 on harvesting grain with header, 1,650 on shocking grain, 153 on thrashing flax, 80 on thrashing alfalfa or clover, 48 on thrashing timothy, 782 on thrashing oats, 895 on thrashing wheat, 760 on harvesting corn with a corn binder, 221 on harvesting corn with a platform cutter, 356 on cutting and shocking corn by hand, 679 on tying and shocking corn after a binder, 778 on husking corn from the shock, 689 on husking standing corn continuously, 969 on husking, hauling, and unloading standing corn, 1,750 on cultivating, 318 on digging Irish potatoes with a digger, 169 on cutting seed potatoes with a cutter, 760 on cutting seed potatoes by hand, 1,493 on grain drills, 1,224 on land rollers, 1,722 on planting corn and cotton with a planter, 386 on planting corn with a hand planter, 358 on planting sweet potatoes, cabbage, and tomatoes by hand, 100 on bean planters, 573 on broadcast seeders, 145 on knapsack sowers, 212 on wheelbarrow sowers, 100 on spreading lime with a spreader, 160 on spraying fruit, 157 on spray- ing field crops, 2,320 on mowing hay, 2,105 on raking, 539 on hay ted- ders, 1,122 on cocking hay, 415 on stacking hay with sweep rakes, 459 on stacking hay without sweep rakes, 1,019 on hauling hay from cocks to a barn, 407 on hauling hay using a hay loader, 427 on baling hay with sweep power, 213 on baling hay with an engine, 226 on plowing with a traction engine, and 4,402 on hauling produce to market. A Normau Day’s Work For GIVEN FARM OPERATIONS. PLOWING. Out of 1,852 reports for walking plows 31 per cent use a 14-inch implement, 27 per cent the 12-inch, about equal numbers use the 10 and 16 inch sizes, and only 19 per cent use other sizes than these. Nearly twice as many report a depth of 6 inches as are reported for any other depth, while nearly equal percentages are reported for 5, 7, and 8 inch depths. This fact may be accounted for by the general tendency of the human mind to employ round numbers in discussing magnitudes not exactly known. In this case the actual practice of farmers, if known, would doubtless cause these percentages to be so distributed as to increase that for 5 and 7 and somewhat reduce that. for 6 inch depths. Teams of two horses are used by 73 per cent of farmers. The 3-horse teams are used chiefly on the 16-inch widths and on the 14-inch widths when plowing 7 or more inches deep. When the walking-plow data were arranged by widths with the depths averaged it was seen that the depth decreased as the width NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. 9 was increased. This was less pronounced with three horses than with two. Only the 10, 12, 14, and 16 inch widths had sufficient numbers reported to warrant conclusions. A progressive increase in the work’ done per day and per horse appeared as the width in- creased, but a much smaller increase per 1,000 pounds of horse was evident, since the heavier horses were used on the wider plows. With a 2-horse walking plow the average load is about 35 square inches in cross section, and 0.72 acre is required daily of each 1,000 pounds of horse. With the 3-horse teams the depth averaged greater except in the case of the 16-inch width, which showed a smaller average depth than the 2-horse plow of the same width and a much greater acreage daily, as would be expected. Variations from what would normally be expected in the averages for these principal widths could nearly always be explained by some other features of the data, a consider- ation which augurs well for the unbiased method used in assembling the material and the general accuracy of the results obtained. With a three-horse walking plow the average load was about 25 square inches in cross section and 0.65 acre was required to be plowed daily by each 1,000 pounds of horse. Where the data for walking plows were arranged by depth with averaged widths, only the 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 10 inch depths contained sufficient numbers in the averages to give them value. There was a progressive decrease in the daily acreage as the depth increased, while peculiarities in the figures were accounted for by other elements of the table. Thus, the daily acreage for the 2-horse, 5-inch depth was greater than that for the 4-inch depth, but the width was 0.72 inch greater and the horses considerably heavier. The averages per 1,000 pounds of horse showed about the same decrease in the daily acreage with the increasing depth as did the acreage per horse, since the horses reported for each depth weighed nearly the same, although there was a slight tendency to increase the weight of the horses for the greater depths. In Table II the reported acreages for walking plows at the 6-inch depth have been arranged by the widths of plows reported and by the number of horses in the team. Adjusted factors for each reported width at the 6-inch depth have been computed and appear in the fourth column opposite the respective plowing units. In the fifth column is a scale of allowances for other depths than 6 inches for each width of plow, expressed in decimal parts of an acre. In the sixth column is shown the depths that can normally be plowed with each width and team without overloading. From columns 4 and 5 the daily duty for any width of plow at any desired depth ‘can be ascertained. Thus, if it is desired to know what may fairly be expected of two horses with a 14-inch plow cutting 9 inches deep, 5774°—Bul, 3—13——2 10 BULLETIN 3, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the daily duty is readily found by subtracting from 1.80, the allow- ance, 0.12 acre, multiplied by the difference between 9 and 6, giving a work factor of 1.44 acres. Tasie II.—A normal day’s work with a walking plow, giving the daily acreages reported at 6-inch depths for each width, adjustments for these widths, and a scale of allowances for other depths. [Net hours in the field, 9.65.] Allow- Plowed | Number | Adjusted | ance per Team and width. per day. |averaged.| acreage. | inch in depths. depth. Two-horse teams: Acres. Acres. Inches. SHUT TOS ste hae etesiee re ors Shae Se EES OS ceeie reels 1.69 18 1.50 0 3 to 12 ILOAMCHES 2 Seo ae ees ie ccie eaeP eaee 1.62 64 1.60 0 3 to 12 MMOH ES 2 ase see ee ae ee EP en teretsenine 1. 67 19 1.65 0 3 to 12 MD iMehes seek ise see eal ee pet ee nee en eae 1.76 143 1.70 -10 3 to 10 PANIC HESS See ies seers nae are aren eee eee 2.00 151 1.80 .12 3to 9 TESCO Geese Sete 1 01. eumeineae 2.11 1.90 15 3to 8 Three-horse teams: Bari Cheskye ch = hae ae eras oem eee 1.50 1 1.70 0. 3 to 12 LOMO ES nee Aerie ee eee ree eee 2.10 5 1.90 0 3 to 12 AMIN Chesa.<. sa Fee Seis Ss Ae eS oe BI ees ~ 1.50 2 2.00 0 3 to 12 AD MMCHES erst aes else oe eis Reece REE 2.40 10 2.10 0 3 toll WASINICHES Hate sei = ae he cys Se ee eras 2.32 38 2.30 -10 3 to 10 GMCS ask eos ae cele ee eae a leia seeiee PAC 65 2.50 12 3to 9 From the tabulation of 1,056 reports on sulky plows it appears that that implement is not in such general use as the walking plow, only half as many of this type being reported. A considerable number reported the 18-inch width, while the 12, 14, and 16 inch widths are the most popular. A 16-inch sulky is used by 57 per cent, the 14-inch by 23 per cent, while only 20 per cent use other widths. As in the case of the walking plow, there was concentration on the 6-inch depth, the percentage for which was the same for both walking and sulky plows, while for depths greater than 6 inches the sulky plows show a smaller percentage than the walking plows. Of those reporting, only 12 per cent plow at depths other than 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9 inches with this implement. It was also found that 76 per cent of sulky plows are drawn by three horses and 10 per cent by four horses. The draft of the implement is so great that only 12 per cent of the users attempt to operate it with two horses. The sulky plow is used for cutting wider furrows, but not for such deep plowing as is the walking plow. When the data for sulky plows were grouped by widths with the depths averaged it was seen that the acreage plowed increased as the width increased and that heavier horses were used on the greater widths. The average load required of each 1,000 pounds of horse was 34 square inches for 2-horse teams, 25 square inches for 3-horse teams, and 21 square inches for 4-horse teams. The respec- tive acreages plowed by these teams per 1,000 pounds of horse was 0.71, 0.72, and 0.64. A team of two horses is necessarily overloaded by a sulky plow, and four horses are not economical except on very hard or unsubdued land, NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. 11 When the sulky plow data were grouped by teams working at reported depths with the widths averaged, the width decreased as the depth increased and the same was true of the acreage per day and per horse. On account of the greater width of sulky plows as com- pared with walking plows, the cross section increases rapidly with increased depth, thus limiting the implement to more shallow work with a given amount of power. When four horses are used, the acreage per 1,000 pounds of horse was practically the same at all depths reported, indicating that a cross section of about 26 inches and a daily acreage of 0.65 acre is a comfortable and reasonable task for each 1,000 pounds of horse with this implement. Comparison of the data for walking and sulky plows indicated that for the same widths and depths with the same number of horses in the teams the sulky plow is somewhat more efficient than the walking plow from the standpoint of area covered in a day, but that the sulky type is limited to more shallow plowing. In Table IIT the data for sulky plows have been brought together by horses in the team and under each team the averages for the 6-inch depths are given for the 12, 14, and 16 inch widths. This table is in all respects similar to Table II. The daily duty of any team, width, and depth can be ascertained by inspection of the fourth and fifth columns. TasLE III.—A normal day’s work with a sulky plow, giving the daily acreages reported at 6-inch depths for each width, adjustments for these widths, and a scale of allowances for other depths. [Net hours in the field, 9.65.] Allow- . pees per| Prac- Plowed | Number | Adjusted nichiniernl aricabie Team and width. per day. |averaged.| acreage. oun depths. depths. Two-horse teams: Acres. Acres. Inches. TASH OE 3 Bo acols Seo te Ge ESE et aoa Soe ees 1.84 11 1. 65 0. 10 3to 8 WANNCHES! yecinceoa= samen oa naee se semesee ese sce 1.93 18 1.75 .12 3to 7 GT COSI. eaters a) einem alae eine cicie slaaeinniens cies ere 2.31 4 1.85 -15 3 to 6 Three-horse teams: PTGS eo toe Sone Ce Ea eD oy OCC Nan Secs SOLE Ee ees 1.93 7 2. 20 0 3 to 10 WANN CHOSE 2 So Spee eaten) eeeystetosm ci sei einetsiceree eye 2.41 59 2.40 10 3to 9 WON eSkracer soem sen ae oe eel oe cee ete gene ee 2.94 171 2. 60 12 3to 8 Four-horse teams: AN CHES Schaerer ict ee ee eens Sasa eos 3.00 1 2.30 0 3 to 12 WAST OM OSE pos ae eae at ese | aekis aie aoe coaeare ay oes 2.83 6 2.50 0 3 to 12 GHTICH ESB eee = Soe eee oe sees oa eisetes senietioe 3.19 25 2.80 10 3 to 10 Compilation of the data for gang plows indicated that 58 per cent of the gang plows used have 14-inch bottoms, 30 per cent use two 12-inch bottoms, while only 12 per cent use other sizes. A limited number use a light gang with two 10-inch bottoms. It was seen also that deep plowing is practiced less with gang plows than with sulky plows, 29 per cent reporting 5 inches deep, which percentage would doubtless be largely increased if correction were made for concentra- tion on the 6-inch depth. Less than 2 per cent reported depths 12 BULLETIN 3, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. greater than 8 inches, whereas for the walking, sulky, and gang plows, respectively, the percentage plowing at 8 inches deep is 17, 12, and 5. Four horses are used by 58 per cent, five horses by 25 per cent, and six horses by 10 per cent. Many find it necessary to use more than six horses where the same horses work all day or on very heavy plowing. In the Central West gang plowing is often done with four horses working half days alternately. This inquiry has not sepa- rated these from the general averages in the table, since it was not feasible to provide space for this practice in the blank on which the information was obtained. When the gang-plow data were brought together by widths with averaged depths and vice versa, it would seem that the users of the wider plows had heavier horses and also did not plow so deep. With increased power at a given width, the depth increased. In gen- eral, the depth decreased as the width increased, while the acreages per day and per horse increased, and conversely. The analysis in- dicated that each 1,000 pounds of horse is loaded with 29 square inches in a cross section of the furrow with four horses, 25 square inches with five horses, and 23 square inches with six horses, and that these teams plow 0.86, 0.79, and 0.68 acre per day per 1,000 pounds of horse, respectively. A comparison of the reported acreages per 1,000 pounds of horse for sulky and gang plows indicates that the gang plows are somewhat more efficient when working at the same widths and depths. The fact that a smaller proportion of farmers use 4-horse teams on gang plows than use 3-horse teams on sulky plows indicates that four horses are much overloaded by a gang plow. This conclusion is also borne out by the fact that plowing deep is not so general with gang plows, as well as by the general opinion of farmers in regions where gang plows are used. The operation of plowing is a severe tax on horses, but its magnitude and cost encourage the tendency to load them to the limit of their capacity. The greater acreages plowed by the gang type are due in part to the more level land, to freedom from obstructions in the soil, and to the greater speed required of horses in the sections where sulky and gang plows are used. They may also be accounted for by the mechanical construction of the sulky frame, which makes it possible to hold the plow to its rated or other desired width more uniformly than can be done with walking plows when the horses are overloaded. In plowing, anything over 25 square inches in cross section and 0.65 acre daily per 1,000 pounds of horse appears generally to be an overload. In Table IV data for gang plows have been compiled in a manner similar to that for Tables IJ and III. The daily duty for any desired unit of equipment and depth can be readily ascertained by inspec- tion of the fourth and fifth columns. NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. 13 Taste 1V.—A normal day’s work with a gang plow, giving the daily acreages reported at 6-inch depths for each width, adjustments for these widths, and a scale of allowances for other depths. [Net hours in the field, 9.65.] Allow- ss oe ance per | _ Prac- Plowed | Number | Adjusted mah tam lt dticable Team and width. per day. |averaged.| acreage. | ““Giner | depths. depths. Four-horse teams: Acres. Acres. Inches. 20 iit GAGS 6 aa SEM eee Se E ae oe Be EE eee ne oe 4.23 71 4.00 0.12 3to 8 US Ma OSE SOS Te RP eer Gee oe er 4.72 73 4.25 = 15) Bi) 7f Five-horse teams: : 2 IRCCS 5 Ae CU OR ODBC OEE: (CRESS Berio meta aera 5.00 8 4. 50 -10 3to 9 PASTURE T OS GOS Lise ti Se Reece SA eRe es Soe 5.14 69 4.80 oily 3to 8 Six-horse teams: DAS CH OG eae eas aoc PO «2 on aa ne be 4.50 4 4.75 0 3 to 10 BUTE CIOS io Siac poe BORE ERO On REE one SE eee Gene 5.05 31 5. 25 .10 3 to 10 Limited data on plowing with traction engines have been assembled in.Table V by the rated horsepower of the engines used. In the last column of the table the adjusted factors have been included, these being based on the average efficiency of the total number reporting, then weighted according to the rated horsepower opposite each, respectively, in the first column, and finally reduced 10 per cent. With this type of equipment the total day in the field is from 1 to 14 hours longer than with horse-drawn plows, while the time actually in motion with engines is nearly as long as the entire day in the field with horses. The depths at which the traction outfits work is considerably less than the practice with the ordinary plows in the humid sections. On sod, the width of cut is less and the depth plowed is about two-thirds of that on stubble. From 20 to 25 per cent greater areas can be plowed daily with the same equipment on stubble than can be turned in sod. From average compilations it appears that the daily efficiency of tractors in plowing is about 0.90 acre on stubble and 0.70 acre on sod for each unit of rated power, while the load for each unit of power is 31 square inches in cross section on stubble and 20 inches in breaking sod. TaBLE V.—A normal day’s work in plowing stubble and sod with traction engine, giving the average acreage reported, according to the horsepower of tractor. PLOWING STUBBLE. [Net hours in the field, 10.97; net hours in motion, 9.25.] ; F Width Reported| Number | Adjusted Horsepower of engine. of cut. Depth. acreage. |averaged.| acreage. Feet. Inches. 7.4 5.9 15.4 5 12 7.9 6.2 18.4 20 16 9.7 5.8 21.0 14 18 3 6.0 22.6 54 20 11.5 6.2 24.7 33 24 14.6 6.3 32.5 26 26 15.3 5.6 33.3 11 32 10.0 5.9 22.0 13 36 12.3 7.0 272 12 42 14 BULLETIN 3, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLeE V.—A normal day’s work in plowing stubble and sod with traction engine, giving the average acreage reported, according to the horsepower of tractor—Continued. PLOWING SOD. [Net hours in the field, 11.32; net hours in motion, 8.83.] 5 Width Reported| Number | Adjusted Horsepower of engine. of cut. | Depth. | acreage. |averaged.| acreage. Feet. Inches. Tr ae Go IE). ee a aioe ARE Wa RO Rat ee tL 5.2 4.4 10.3 4 9.7 20) eh 6 ly NOR SE Sc sa ed La Se ee 6.1 4.4 | 13.5 16 13.0 DD Spite aps SAE si cictaesie ints Wats Se Sie Rie Oe ea Rep ate 7.9 4.2 15.7 12 14.3 PAS i ea ie kN tS A an i ey Se AE 3 Oe ee 9.8 4.4 Saks} 43 16.2 PUAN ee Sed PRS ae ee 2 eae OE eee CS ee eee 9.7 4.5 20.3 27 19.5 Pa Pes ea i ig Ere ecg yl es Araya ARNE Maines 08 | 8 Oe a aS a 13.0 4.7 27.0 24 20.8 gOS Se ene Ste ey pee Be, Bei eee At. ic thane a 13.8 4.3 28. 2 11 26.0 Gam ays cree MRR echt fe eee name thea eines ele SNe re meen Hage 8.4 4.5 17.2 10 29.2 (i104 22 NE Se) ee Ce se See me Rea od ona +n cee OES 9.3 5.4 18. 0 6 35.0 HARROWING. Data were accumulated on the operation of harrowing with the spike-tooth or smoothing type, the spring-tooth type, and the disk or pulverizing type. With the spike-tooth harrow it appears that 41 per cent of farmers use two horses, 29 per cent use four horses, and 23 per cent use three horses. Only 7 per cent use other numbers of horses in their teams. ‘The most popular width of harrow is 10 feet with 17 per cent, the 8-foot width being second with 15 per cent. In other sizes, from 4 to 26 feet, the percentage in use is quite evenly distributed between the limits of 4 to 7 per cent. The draft of this implement is comparatively light for its width, so that the harrowing of large areas daily or the careful preparation of smaller areas is possible and economical. Analysis of the data showed that on freshly plowed land about 20 per cent less can be covered per day than on well-packed fields. The average area reported for 3-horse outfits was less than would be expected from an increase of 50 per cent in power, but the width was not increased in proportion. With the four horses the width reported averaged more than twice that of two horses and showed an acreage more than 100 per cent greater. With the spike-tooth harrow, which is an implement of comparatively light draft, those farms which can economically utilize more horses in the team throughout the season can also secure greater efficiency per horse in harrowing than is commonly obtained by the majority who use the smoothing harrow with one or two horses. When the data for spike-tooth harrows were consolidated by widths, it was seen that the acreage covered per day per horse and per foot in width increased directly in proportion to the width. In general, each foot in width of the harrow should cover from 1.5 to 1.75 acres daily, and each horse could be loaded with 44 feet in width and go once over from 6 to 6.5 acres without inconvenience on freshly plowed land. On well-packed land each foot in width should harrow from 1.75 to 2 acres and each horse could be expected to work from 7.25 to 8 acres. NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. 15 In Table VI the original data for the most common widths of spike-tooth harrows are tabulated by horses in the team. Adjusted acreages have been computed for these widths and allowances indi- cated for other widths. From an inspection of this table the daily duty of any spike-tooth harrow unit and team can be readily ascer- tained, as well as the limit of feasible width for the respective teams. Tasie VI.—A normal day’s work with a spike-tooth harrow, giving the average acreages reported for the widths most frequently used and adjustments for other widths. [Net hours in the field, 9.65.1] Width of harrow. On freshly plowed land. On well-packed land. Num- ber of Most Har- Allow- Har- Allow- horses. | p sane Gonna rowed | Number | Adjusted} ance for | rowed | Number | Adiusted| ance for Be. oil per j|averaged.| acreage. | each foot er j|averaged.| acreage. | each foot ‘| day. in width.|. day. in width. Feet. Feet. Acres. Acres. | Acres. Acres. 2 4-12 8 10.8 224 9. 50 1.2 12.9 194 iis 1.5 3 8-16 10 15.3 149 13.5 1.5 19.0 140 Were 1.8 4 | 10-26 16 28.3 112 25. 0 1.8 35.1 102 32.0 2.0 Analysis of the data for spring-tooth harrows indicated that 49 per cent of farmers use two horses, 33 per cent use three horses, and 11 per cent use four horses. The 6-foot harrow is used by 38 per cent, or twice as many as use any other width, while about equal per- centages use 5, 7, and 8 foot widths, and very limited numbers use any other size. Since the widths used in spring-tooth equipment (Table VIL) average only half that of spike-tooth harrows, it appears that the draft of this type of implement on the soils where it is used is twice that of the smoothing harrow on the soil where the latter is found practical. The spring-tooth harrow is better adapted to stony soils, where the ordinary harrow would not work well. For 2-horse, 3-horse, and 4-horse teams the acreage per horse decreased somewhat and the acreage per foot of width increased to some extent as horses were added, indicating that a width over 24 feet per horse is generally an overload. On freshly plowed land each foot in width should cover from 1.2 to 1.5 acres daily and each horse could conveniently draw from 24 to 2% feet in width and cover 3 to 3.25 acres. On well-packed land each foot in width could be expected to cover from 1.4 to 1.7 acres daily and each horse from 3.5 to 4 acres. About 20 per cent less can be done on freshly plowed than on well-packed soil. This is doubtless due more to the poor footing and consequent high stepping, which tires the horses, than to any difference in draft. With increasing width the daily duty of spring- tooth harrows increases only half as fast as that of the spike-tooth harrow. In Table VII the original data for the most common widths have been brought together by horses in the team. The table is parallel 16 BULLETIN 3, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in all respects to Table VI for spike-tooth harrows. The duty of any team and width can readily be found by inspection. In using these tables it should be borne in mind that the widths most commonly used have doubtless been found from experience to be the most efficient, so that the factors for other widths, if required in practice, would doubtless be underloads in the smaller sizes and overloads in the larger sizes. TaBLE, VII.—A normal day’s work with a spring-tooth harrow, giving the average acreages reported for the widths most frequently used and adjustments for other widths. [Net hours in the field, 9.65.] Width of harrow. On freshly plowed land. On well-packed land. Num- ber of Most Har- Allow- Har- Allow- horses. Ramee, ||conaan rowed | Number | Adjusted] ance for | rowed | Number | Adjusted] ance for & width per |averaged.| acreage. | each foot er |averaged.| acreage. | each foot day. in width.| day. in width. Feet. Feet. | Acres. Acres. | Acres. Acres. 2 4-8 6 7.4 180 6.5 0. 60 8.6 169 7.5 0. 70 3 6-10 6 8.2 120 7.4 -70 10. 2 113 9.2 - 80 4 6-12 8 13.1 22 11.8 75 14.8 23 13.3 -90 Compilation of the data for disk harrows showed it to be an imple- ment of very heavy draft, since 52 per cent of farmers find it neces- sary to use four horses on an implement which is not frequently found in widths over 8 feet. This width is one-half that of the largest practicable size in the spring-tooth type and one-fourth that for the largest spike-tooth harrow. The relative draft per foot of these implements appears to be in the proportion of 4,2,and 1. About the same proportion, 23 per cent, that report using two horses with the spring and spike tooth harrows use three horses in disking. The 8-foot width is somewhat more generally used than the 6-foot width and 75 per cent of the disk harrows reported are from 6 to 8 feet wide. The 16-inch disk is most generally used; 17 per cent have the 18-inch type, and a somewhat smaller proportion use the 12, 14, and 20 inch sizes. Well-packed land is about 20 per cent easier to disk than freshly plowed land from the standpoint of acreage covered in a day. When the power is increased, the average acreage per day increases, while the acres per horse tends slightly to decrease and the acres per foot of width increase, indicating an overload by this implement with the smaller numbers of horses. The area disked by 3-horse teams does not increase over that by 2-horse teams in the proportion that the acreage for four horses increases over that for two horses. The same variation appears as between the 4-horse and 5-horse teams when compared with the difference between 4-horse and 6-horse teams. This is in part explained by the fact that the widths reported for the three and five horse units do not increase in NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. bY. the same proportion as the power, and in part by the apparent ineffi- ciency of 3-horse and 5-horse hitches and the difficulty to the aver- age teamster in handling them. In general, each horse was loaded with 2 feet in width and must harrow 2.5 to 3 acres on freshly plowed land and from 3 to 3.75 acres daily on well-packed land. The duty of each foot in width of harrow is from 1.3 to 1.5 acres daily on freshly plowed land and from 1.5 to 1.8 acres on well-packed land, assuming adequate power at the normal speed of horses. In Table VIII original data for the most commonly used widths and teams in disking are presented, together with adjusted factors for these widths and a scale of allowances for other widths. The daily duty for any team and width can be ascertained from this table by inspection. TABLE VIII.—A normal day’s work with a disk harrow, giving the average daily acreage reported for the widths most frequently used and adjustments for other widths. [Net hours in the field, 9.65. ] Width of harrow. On freshly plowed land. On well-packed land. Num- ber of Most Har- Allow- Har- . Allow- horses. anced (camimon rowed | Number | Adjusted| ance for | rowed | Number | Adjusted | ance for : Be. mali er |averaged.) acreage. | each foot er |averaged.| acreage. | each foot : ay. in width. ay. in width. Feet. Feet. | Acres. Acres. | Acres. Acres. 2 4- 6 oe 159 6.5 0. 50 7:5 147 6.7 0. 60 3 5-10 6 7.5 163 6.8 . 60 9.1 165 8.0 . 70 4 6-10 8 12.8 414 11.5 . 80 15. 4 432 14.0 - 90 5 7-10 8 11.3 i 12.0 . 85 13.4 7 14.5 -95 6 7-10 8 15.4 16 13.5 1.00 18.0 19 16.0 1.10 ROLLING WITH LAND ROLLER. The land roller is not an implement of heavy draft, 83 per cent of users finding two horses adequate for a considerable range in width. The 8-foot width is most generally used, while about equal numbers use 6, 7, and 10 foot widths. Widths of 12 and 14 feet are not uncommon. A 3-horse team is used by 6 per cent and four horses by 8 per cent of farmers. Where three or four horses are used, the acreage per horse is slightly less than with two horses. With the 2-horse teams each foot in width covers less area daily than with larger teams, indicating that the latter move on the average somewhat more rapidly than two horses. With land rollers it appears to be economical to use the larger sizes, since more land can be covered in a given time without adding greatly to the work of the available horses. A width of 4 or 5 feet is a reasonable load per horse and 5 to 7 acres daily per unit of power can be normally expected. The duty of each foot in width is from 1.6 to 1.9 acres daily. 5774°—Bul. 3—13——3 18 BULLETIN 3, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, In Table IX the original averages for the widths most frequently used, shown in the second column, have been given, together with adjustments for these acreages and a scale of allowances for other widths of rollers. From the table, computations can readily be made for determining the daily duty of any team and width of roller. TaBLE IX.—A normal day’s work with a land roller, giving the average daily acreage reported for the widths most frequently used and adjustments for other widths. [Net hours in the field, 9.65.] Width of roller. ee aaa nee 4 plopranice olle umber | Adjuste for eac Number of horses. Most | per day. |averaged.| acreage. | foot in ; Range. | common width idth. Feet Feet. Acres Acres. DER ce eee Sid ae niniaieis x etareae arspeiata eos 5-1 8 2 442 12.0 1.10 Dela esa ae ears See clears Discee eee icra eere 6-14 8 13.5 24 12.5 1.15 ANON ey Reese paar Abuja ne 6) Pos See eR ta 8-18 8 15.2 37 14.0 1.20 PLANTING OPERATIONS. With the grain drill the popular sizes range between 4 and 12 feet in width, a greater number, 23 per cent, using the 8-foot width than any other, with the 6-foot width next. Only 9 per cent use three horses with grain drills, two horses being used by 46 per cent and four horses by 41 per cent of farmers. From the general averages it was seen that the acreage per day per foot of width increased with added power, suggesting a slight overload per horse on the smaller drills with 2-horse teams. The larger teams are used on the larger fields. It was found also that with increasing width and power the acreage planted per day increased, except for the 12-foot width, the limit of practicable width from a mechanical standpoimt doubtless being approached in this size. In general, each horse can be loaded with 24 to 2? feet in width of drill, and should be expected to cover from 4 to 4.5 acres ina day. The duty of each foot in width of drill is from 1.5 to 1.75 acres per day, assuming adequate power. When the grain-drill data were arranged by length of the field it-was found that between lengths of 40 and 160 rods there appeared to be no advantage in favor of larger fields. This was found to be true of other data arranged by distance hauled or length of field, indicating, without exception, that within the limits of 40 to 200 rods distance is not a factor in the day’s work. In Table X, for grain drills, the average acreage for the most common widths and teams is presented, together with adjusted acreages and a table of allowances for other widths. From this table reasonable widths of drills for each size of team can be chosen and the daily duty of any width found from the factors in columns 6 and 7, NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. 19 TABLE X.—A normal day’s work with a grain drill, giving the average daily acreage reported yr the widths most frequently used and adjustments for other widths. [Net hours in the field, 9.62.] Width of drill. Drilled | Number | Adjusted Ene rille umber juste or eac Number of horses. Most | per day. |averaged.| acreage. foot in Range. | common width, width. Feet. Feet Acres. Acres. Lee are eats ay sicie safe a's) cave ce aiviaiaictere scien ase 4-8 6 8.8 239 7.0 1.40 See ie cies edie sciite cg see cmalseeceees 2 6-10 8 ill 7 40 10.5 1.50 AMM fonts ais lets cmvois cisveiae s Steroeiees -ibie < 8-12 8 14.0 178 12.5 1.75 ene tereia ssisincic cic, giarcigicislsrolacie Sie sip 8-12 8 16.3 14.5 2.00 The reported and adjusted data for seeding with a broadcast seeder, a knapsack sower, and a wheelbarrow sower are brought together in Table XI. With the wheelbarrow seed sower the 14-foot width was used by 40 per cent of farmers, the 16-foot width by 23 per cent, and the 12-foot sower by 18 per cent. While the acreage planted daily increased with the increasing width, it was seen that the proportion of increase fell off at the same time, indicating that the 16-foot width approaches the mechanical limit to convenience in manipulation. TaBLeE XI.—A normal day’s work in seeding with the broadcast seeder, knapsack sower, and wheelbarrow sower, giving the average daily acreage reported and adjustments for other widths of sower. [Net hours in the field, 9.68.] Width. q = lige Allow- eede umber }Adjusted |} ance for Implement. Most | per day. |averaged.| acreage. | each foot Range. | common in width. width. Feet Feet Acres Acres IBTOAMEGASTASCC OCD eee sc necins os see No aten| eee cine ch kee 13.5 573 125 Ole Se sore Eesti SAG Ke SOWOL samt abs eens see sie aise eee ei ec ae Ree 22.3 145 20310} |e ee Wheelbarrow sower............------.-- 10-16 14 20.3 82 18.0 1.50 In Table XII there are grouped the original averages for planting corn and cotton in rows 42 inches apart, the most common width. Adjusted acreages are also included and a scale of allowances for each 6 inches difference in width of row. As with other tables in this bulletin, Table XII is based on analytical tables covering the entire number reporting for these operations. It was found that 41 per cent of farmers plant corn and cotton in rows 42 inches wide, while about equal percentages plant in rows 36, 44, and 48 inches apart, respec- tively. Throughout the country the rangeis from 10 to 72 inches. In these operations two horses are used by 61 per cent, and 39 per cent use one horse. The 2-row planter is used by 54 per cent and the 1-row planter by 46 per cent. Comparatively few growers use two horses with a 1-row planter, but the meager data for this group indicated that the addition of one horse and the advantage of the 20 BULLETIN 3, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. high-wheeled type increase the daily efficiency of the implement from 40 to 90 per cent, making this equipment nearly as efficient as the 2-row planter with two horses. On the 2-row planter it is, of course, necessary to take considerable time in changing the check wire. The 2-row planter with two horses is essentially twice as rapid as the 1-row planter with one horse. With an imexpensive hand planter a man can plant from 60 to 75 per cent as much corn as can be done with a man and one horse using the horse-drawn type of imple- ment. ’ Taste XII.—A normal day’s work in planting corn or cotton, giving the average daily acreage reported for the widths of row most frequently used and adjustments for other widths of row. [Net hours in the field, 9.67.] Most . Alea 4 i phomance common | Plante umber |Adjuste for each 6 Power. Planter. width of | per day. |averaged.| acreage. | inches in row. width. Inches. Acres. Acres. One NOrmsesecasncieeses eee ee One row....-.-..- 42 6.9 226 6.25 0. 80 TS WiOWMUIS@S ass case sae seen sees ChUas coatenar re 42 10.9 57 8.75 -90 DOME ec Rae a tate eon cia Two-row.......--- 42 13.6 430 12.25 1.25 am Gees tae ays She cece area lian sce. as ae 42 4.4 162 4.00 -60 Work factors for planting sweet potatoes, cabbage, and tomatoes by hand are arranged by crews in Table XIII. On account of the limited data for each crop, the data for the three crops are averaged in the table. Planting sweet potatoes can be done somewhat more rapidly than planting cabbage, while tomatoes can be set out some- what more rapidly than sweet potatoes. The duty of a man at work of this character is not less than 0.75 acre per day. Compara- tive data for planting these crops with a transplanting machine were not made available because of the limited number reporting trans- planters. Taste XIII.—A normal day’s work in planting sweet potatoes, cabbage, and tomatoes by hand, giving the average daily acreage yee designated crews and adjustments jor each crew and width of row. [Net hours in the field, 9.85.] sed Allowance Number | Width of| Planted bes we Adjusted for each 6 Number of men. ver- inches in ofhorses.| row. per day. aed acreage. Sait f of row. Inches. Acres. Acres LS ae eee a aly ee ee sar ae 1 3 1.0 51 0.90 ee ee OA erie et CORB OOOCEO TC. < 1 38 1.6 61 1.70 12 2 32 1.9 60 1.90 14 BEEN HAGUOR ESC ToPR Ea AME EERE Ro oe 2 40 2.4 28 2.60 16 } In Table XIV are presented the averages for cutting seed potatoes by hand and with the mechanical cutter, respectively. The cutter does the work somewhat more than 100 per cent faster than it can NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. on be done by hand. Only one practical grower in five used the cutter, however, the majority believing that the certainty of having an eye on each seed piece is worth the extra expense in the cutting. The original averages have been adjusted by reducing them about 12 per cent. TaBLE XIV.—A normal day’s work in cutting potatoes for seed, giving the average num- ber of bushels per day for cutting by hand and with cutter and adjustments for each method. [Net hours at work, 9.48.] r Adjusted : Cut per Number Method of cutting. work day. averaged. aevsiay- Bushels DE VMLI ATI Cetera ore tases sisicic ele ncts ais Ae ace See EMRE we ced ed 15. 03 760 13.50 \AV DUD, CTD Pa ele sg Ge ora Se es aS is ee eae Re ee ee i oo 32. 24 169 28.00 The acreages reported for covering seed potatoes after planting are averaged in Table XV according to the number of horses used and these averages adjusted by reducing them about 10 per cent. A 2-horse team covers somewhat more ground than one horse, and 60 per cent of farmers find it more practical to use two horses. TaBLE XV.—A normal day’s work in covering seed potatoes after planting, giving the average daily acreage and adjusted factors. [Net hours in the field, 9.53.] Covered Number | Adjusted Number of horses. per day. | averaged. factors. Acres. Il spec cabidd sStigQ dhs GARE OES Stats SAS reer a eae a Ne Rie eee ea net 4.63 299 4.15 Be cm BSL a edi BOONE ETE TNO ESTERS TEI E CCIE CR cen gee ara ON 5.96 541 5.35 The averages for the operation of marking off land for planting are grouped in Table XVI by horses in the team and the width most frequently used. These averages are reduced about 10 per cent to give the adjusted acreage in the table, while the allowances for each difference of 1 foot in width were determined from analytical tables. The 3, 34, 6, 9, and 12 foot widths are in most general use. The wider markers are in the minority, 31 per cent using a 3-foot marker, and 14 per cent a 34 foot, with smaller percentages for other widths. On the light souls of the Atlantic Coastal Plain, where extensive trucking operations are carried on, the wider markers are in vogue. There appears to be no economy in using more than one horse with markers less than 12 feet wide, although 59 per cent of planters use two horses in this operation. 22 BULLETIN 3, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE XVI.—A normal day’s work in marking rows for planting, giving the daily acre- ages reported for designated widths and adjustments for each width. [Net hours in the field, 9.53.] Marked Width of | Width of fore rat Numb Ad d er i C0) idth of| for each 3 umber juste for eac Number of horses. marker. TOWS. feet in averaged. acreage. foot in width of width. marker. Feet. Feet. Acres. Acres. 1 Fahey sere Nee eI eRe SS Sepa 3-12 3 5. 68 89 5.1 0.75 PAGE Jee ee EI n SA eee aS 3-12 3 6. 81 78 6.2 - 65 The operation of planting Irish potatoes by hand and with the 1-man and 2-man type of potato planter is reported in Table XVII. Out of 925 reports, 31 per cent name two acres as a reasonable day’s work in,dropping potatoes by hand and 26 per cent allow one acre. With the potato planter the 2-man type is somewhat slower than the automatic-feed type. The former is in more general use, since planters feel more certain that seed is placed in every hill with the hand-feed type. The picker (1-man) type of planter also tends to spread disease from one seed tuber to another if disease, such as scab, is present. The original averages have been adjusted by reducing them about 10 per cent. TaBLeE XVII.—A normal day’s work in planting Irish potatoes, giving the average acre- ages reported and adjusted factors for each method. [Net hours in the fleld; 9.53.] Number | Number | Planted | Number | Adjustea Operation. of men. | of horses. | per day. | averaged.| factors. Acres. Droppin e Dy hands oseses eae see aoe eee nena ae ae 1 = et eee 1.98 925 1.8 Planting wath planter:{-224.9 222 eee ee peee ee 1 2 5. 48 132 5.0 2 2 4.91 174 4.4 HANDLING MANURE. In Table XVIII the operation of hauling and spreading manure with a manure spreader is shown for loads of less than 60 cubic feet and for 60 cubic feet and over. The heavy draft of this implement renders the use of three or more horses necessary in 70 per cent of cases. A 2-horse team is used by 30 per cent, three horses by 45 per cent, and four horses by 25 per cent of those owning spreaders. The larger loads and teams are all reported from the Mississippi Valley region. Fewer of the larger loads can be handled in a day, but with the in- creased power used they are unloaded more quickly and spread more evenly. From 14 to 1? more loads daily can be spread on sod than on plowed land. For practical purposes the original averages have been adjusted and reduced about 10 per cent. NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. 23 TaBLeE XVIII.—A normal day’s work in hauling and spreading manure with a spreader, giving the average work factors reported and adjusted factors averaged according to the size of load. [Net hours at work, 9.57.] Size of load. 60 cubic feet and Tent Below 60 cubic feet. aoa Reported|Adjusted | Reported) Adjusted averages.| factors. |averages.| factors. Horses in team....... Fae eS tetera ety Ao ce sera a eee Sissi a 2. 56 2 or 3 2. 88 4 Osim CORAed NOUS” asajateie = a/ctetjee oo ac cing swine oles» taeiee ce (Eee pesos aaae LEE NWeapeense oe IVATGE.GID FOC. dees oeabor eau CC CREO rE RENer COEEErEr EE: oon Soe aaes 13.9 12.0 13.1 11.0 ILGEYGS: OD GLO) 0) Cae eee ers aa ape ea ee 12.7 11.5 7 10.5 OAS M ACEO Meera cece es ee cai os elses dela chiehlon Here hae fare ahh 7.6 7.5 6.6. 6.5 RMN REOMELOMLOA CMe pe pate aes a teies wtare,ainaynieie mew ais cle eie ojo esas eis) aie 23.6 30.0 25.9 35.0 UEIITTE STON MOA see a2 ace eee oes sae asin tose osc epee os ce 10.0 15.0 9.8 14.0 INMUIIDOM AV CLAP COs isis /s<1ssiseteie acsveewslas oi sdsim alsin sesso ad = BPAY) \csanecqober ARS ea ease see In Table XIX, spreading manure from a wagon box with a fork, it appears that the average time to unload a 42-bushel load of manure is about 28 minutes, irrespective of the distance spread. With the spreader much larger loads can be thrown off in a period of 10 minutes. In this operation 54 per cent of farmers cover a strip 16 feet wide or more with each load, 36 per cent spread from 9 to 15 feet, and only 10 per cent unload in strips less than 9 feet wide. TaBLeE XIX.-—A normal day’s work in spreading manure from a wagon with a fork by one man, giving the time to unload averaged according to the distance spread. Distance spread. | Size of | Time to | Number load. spread. |reporting. ange. Average. Feet. Bushels. | Minutes. G1 HEGIE GPSS) Res OB AO BE Car AE eR Ae eae cee nme S So eee 6. 84 42.6 28.11 88 G1) WS IRC Bec Cse ab eS ee Gece Ene are ape Cae A ieee Tile ee 42.10 27.98 323 US GG BiaG! CRG ae nee Oe a ea eee Asean GSteeee 20. 56 43. 94 28. 54 » 465 In Table XX the practice of hauling and dumping manure in piles for later spreading by hand is reported. According to 45 per cent, a fair day’s work is between 8 and 10 loads a day, the average for all conditions being about 12 loads daily. Farmers who practice this method haul loads averaging from 40 to 45 bushels in bulk. TABLE XX.—A normal day’s work in loading, hauling, and dumping manure in piles by one man with a team. Number of loads per day. Size of | Distance | Number Hereeute load. hauled. | averaged. oo Range. Average. P 8. Bushels. | Rods. ONG Ty epeen teeny pee ese a st ta a 5. 74 44 99 120 16 ES Udy DUD es i GES et he ee ah se ea 9, 22 43 77 344 45 UI O Db.e pe cpocedebe fe vob SOS BOr Ene aee See e EE See aemre 12. 87 42 69 207 27 OV ergo me ieee ee eae neo ene we eisee oes Se 20. 92 42 67 94 12 94 BULLETIN 3, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. In Table XXI the subsequent operation of spreading manure from piles previously placed in the field is arranged by the size of the piles, the percentage reporting each size bemg also given. Compari- son of this table with the similar operation of spreading lime from piles (Table XXIII) reveals the same general features. In each an increase in the size of piles is accompanied by a decrease in the number spread and an increase in the number of bushels spread in a day. Piles contaming about 6 bushels are most common, while smaller piles averaging 3 bushels each are more frequent than those containing - over 10 bushels. TaBLE XXI.—A normal day’s work in spreading manure from piles with a fork by one man. [Net hours in the day, 9.57.] Size of piles. Spread per day. ie e P wh Number Percent- averaged. eae Range. Average.| Piles. | Bushels. Pp 8. Bushels. Windenthsbushelscs tess Pee eee reece Eee 2.99 199 595 166 37 Aitowibushels ahs. aye c eee ete seh haaeriey sce ae 5. 70 147 842 200 44 TOON 4s bushels eee ak oe als meee ne | a aS ene ae 19. 18 102 1,047 88 19 In many respects the data for the several operations in handling manure are less satisfactory and lack uniformity to an extent not found in any other operation reported on. For this arduous work there appears to have developed among farmers less definite ideas than might be expected as to what constitutes a fair amount of work for the respective processes. The great variation in the character and weight of the material handled doubtless complicates the problem of forming definite conclusions regarding these operations, while the practice of domg work of this character at times when other work is not pressing doubtless operates to make unnecessary the formation of definite ideas regarding a fair day’s work. SPREADING LIME AND FERTILIZER. The data for spreading lime by hand from a wagon box are pre- sented in Table XXII, averaged according to the size of load. While the number in the respective averages is limited, the table shows anticipated relations between the size of load and the number of loads handled daily. Those hauling the larger loads are able to spread ereater quantities in a day, but can not haul so many loads. ] NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. 25 Tasie XXII.—A normal day’s work in spreading lime from a wagon, giving the number of loads daily, averaged according to the size of the load. [Net hours at work, 9.48.] Size of load. Spread per day. Weight |——————_| Number per load. averaged. Range. Average. Bushels. | Loads. Bushels. | Pounds. PER MMSHOIS OWWLOSS oes -iifaio eis = Sele a weiss Dace Lo aces 22 1, 530 201 9. 23 24 PEON PENIS IG Sepia ates aise Solar cis a wie sie aces onw a oeee 34 2, 033 261 7.71 45 CRORE CIBEAUBEDEL SID Opeth os -a/atiians afaaie-g mist wis. svip'evelc ste sarciniciee 49 2,907 321 6. 52 35 BMMOMMAIUSIGUS oc oc cie sc disc ccies dee w cis cee cisysmcle epee 64 2,700 495 i B ie OEM UISD Ol Siete ccidinya aiciaccn mein se cciciacwavclante ciewlars oats 106 6, 000 500 In Table XXIII the operation of spreading lime from piles previously laid down in the field is arranged by size of piles in terms of bushels. The data were too limited to be arranged into more groups than those chosen. ‘The amount spread in a day increases with the amount used per acre, as was the case with spreading manure from piles in Table XXI. TaBLe XXIII.—A normal day’s work in spreading lime from piles, giving the number of piles spread daily, averaged according to the size of the piles. [Net hours in the field, 9.48.] Size of piles. Spread per day. ii Number averaged. Range. Average.| Piles. | Bushels. Bushels. Nitopeo she lerset< seers est Pee seat akan kth san cee el seecios ee 1 227 227 40 PRUOROMEMISIO IS mtetars ayaa male ara ae ste ess va ti~scslastenin en oaieisiers Sei saiein sls 3.5 136 477 40 CROMOLISH Clam meen omres ene ene Teak tae aie eS ho. Ree 25.6 35 917 21 The essential features of the operation of distributing lime with a lime spreader and fertilizer with a fertilizer drill are shown in Table XXIV. The original averages for the widths most commonly used are given, these‘averages being adjusted by reducing about 10 per cent, and a scale of allowances for each difference of 1 foot from the tabulated width has been deduced. The 8-foot lime spreader is somewhat more popular than the 10-foot size. Lime spreaders are drawn by two horses in 75 per cent of cases. With the fertilizer drill the 6-foot width is preferred by 30 per cent and the 8-foot width by 20 per cent of planters, equal numbers reporting the 5 and 7 foot widths, while 81 per cent of fertilizer drills are drawn by two horses. 26 BULLETIN 8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE XXIV.—A normal day’s work in spreading lime with a lime spreader and ferti- lizer with a fertilizer drill, gwing the average acreages reported for the widths most fre- quently used, adjusted acreages for these widths, and allowances deduced for other widths. [Net hours in the field, 9.81.] ee, ae: yuoeanice Range Os umber | gpread | Number |Adjusted | 0% other Implement. F common | of horses widths of width. akin. lan gear, | 2S day. | averaged.| acreage. (acreage per foot). Feet. Feet. Acres. Lime spreader...............- 4-12 8 2 10. 65 20 9. 50 0.75 Hertilizerarilleess. eee eee. 410 6 2 8. 44 122 7. 50 .70 6-12 8 3 10. 40 15 9.35 -70 CULTIVATING. The averages for cultivating corn, potatoes, beans, cabbage, and cotton, arranged according to the number of horses to the cultivator, are set out in Table XXV. From the standpoint of acreage covered in a day, two horses are about 40 per cent more efficient than one horse. About 40 per cent of those reporting use two horses in culti- vating. A 1-horse cultivator can be expected to cover 4 to 5 acres and a 2-horse cultivator from 6 to 8 acres. Cultivating beans and cabbage is slower work than that for corn and cotton on account of the narrower rows and greater care required with these low plants. The original averages have been adjusted by reducing them about 10 per cent. When the data were assembled by widths of row, no marked relation was found between the width and the amount of work done daily. This may in part be explained by the meager number reported for widths other than 36, 42, and 44 inches, and also by the consideration that the width of planted row is not a factor in cultivating, since the entire surface of the field must be stirred, oD) regardless of the interval between the rows. TaBLeE XXV.—A normal day’s work in cultiwating corn, potatoes, beans, cabbage, and cotton, giving the average daily acreages reported according to the number of horses used and adjustments for each cultwating unit. [Net hours in the field, 9.79.] Culti- Adjusted | Number Number Crop. of horses. ae averaged. paniday. Acres CORME: Presence snc Sees cee oak nn se eee igo eee ee 1 4.8 791 4.30 2 7.72 448 7.00 (Potatoes ek ied. eke ee oe Boe eS. 2 8 ae eee 1 4.25 403 3.8 2 6.53 210 5.90 GATS! Sates ea oe cS ae iS ete eee Sis ee eae 0 ca ae oe ss 1 3.87 228 3.50 2 6.30 163 5.70 (O74) of: ta ae Sa yee Se eS 2 en eS Ne See 1 4.08 220 3.70 : 2 6.06 136 5.45 Cotton age eae clearness tale tae acto MEL mo - - cs Satne ee eels il 4.72 112 4.25 2 7.35 76 6. 80 NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. PAT SPRAYING. The averages for the spraying of fruit trees are shown in Table XXVI by the number of men in the crew for both hand-power and gasoline-power equipment. Striking increases in the number of trees sprayed are shown for each addition to the force of men in the crew, the other conditions for each type of sprayer being comparatively uniform. Greater numbers of trees are reported for the respective crews with the hand-power type than with the sprayer operated by gasoline engine, but the size of the trees for the hand-power equip- ment is seen to be very much less.- In the same table the data for both types of sprayer have been consolidated by height and spread of trees. Increased height is accompanied by a corresponding spread and distance between trees and a reasonably uniform decrease in the number of trees sprayed, the crews being practically the same. There are, of course, many variations in the construction of spraying equipment which affect this operation, such as number of nozzles, leads of hose, pressure used, and type of sprayer. In a more detailed investigation averages in terms of gallons per day or hour, as well as other useful factors, could be made available. Since it was not practicable to cover all of these features in a general inquiry of this kind, further observations are necessary to secure exhaustive data. Taste XXVI.—A normal day’s work with an orchard sprayer, giving the average number of trees sprayed daily. [Net hours at work, 9.6.] SPRAYING BY DESIGNATED CREWS. Number Number | Capacity | Height of | Spread of] of trees | Number Type of sprayer. of men. | of tank. trees. | trees. | sprayed |averaged. per day. Gallons. Feet. | Feet. Gasolinespower 24.225. os2528--5 oes e ee 1 250 25 28 110 1 2 180 20 19 191 20 3 196 20 21 252 24 IETS OWL sini ses -/a)- ite ors 'c a Ses) Sele cas sie ae 1 50 18 13 54 4 2 57 20 19 134 89 3 68 18 16 305 20 NUMBER OF TREES SPRAYED ACCORDING TO THEIR HEIGHT. hk eee Number = i verage | Number | of trees umber Height of trees. spread. | of men. | sprayed | averaged. per day. Feet ER THOMOSS eed au eee einsauc toc leki awe se sess t aoe ceeseese 11 2.4 329 33 eMLOR LOCC Ueno a ates stetayesferctet ne a ete crnytalaicyeraselnia (dia dw ai2 5 sipisrmeetere =iaie 17 2.3 182 83 Ovem20iiceti(average: 28:23) 6-25-26 snscace- cess steed eameec sce 26 Pepe 129 51 Limited data for spraying field crops planted in rows with a knap- sack sprayer and with a horse-drawn field sprayer are reported in Table XXVIII. Knapsack sprayers and poison dusters are used on 28 BULLETIN 3, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. truck and small-fruit crops or in young orchards. In spraying with a field sprayer on potatoes and other field crops there appears to be only a slight gain for 2-horse over 1-horse teams, although most users of this equipment employ two horses. A 4-row sprayer will cover from 12 to 14 acres in a day. The reported averages in the table have been adjusted by reducing them about 10 per cent, and the allowances for each difference in width of 6 inches have been derived from analytical tables. TaBLE XXVII.—A normal day’s work in spraying with a knapsack sprayer and field sprayer, giving the average acreages reported and adjustments for widths sprayed. [Net hours at work, 9.6.] Allowance for each 6 Soren Width | Number| Number| Acres | Number | Adjusted| inches in IPEAYCE- s| Sprayed. | of rows. | of horses.| per day. | averaged.| acreage. width (acreage per day). Feet. IKMA SACK = 2.5. sees ieic aeons 3 Nol Sante cies 3.04 35 2.75 0.40 TT eee Se oS es ce ee ae ek 11.5 4 ~il 12.76 66 11.50 -50 11.0 4 2 18.54 90 12. 25 HARVESTING HAY. In Table XXVIII the original averages for the operations of mow- ing, raking, tedding, and cocking hay for those widths and teams. most frequently used have been brought together. These averages: have been adjusted by reducing them about 10 per cent, and a scale of allowances per foot in width for other feasible widths in each case has been erected. In mowing hay the 2-horse unit 1s practically universal. In the analytical tables there was a slight increase in acreage per foot of width with increase of the width of the sickle for sizes up to 7 feet. The limit of mechanical efficiency appears to be approached at 7 feet wide. From 2,105 reports on raking hay it appears that a 2-horse team is about 45 per cent more efficient than one horse when used with rakes of the widths reported. The duty of each foot in width of rake is from 1.45 to 1.60 acres daily. Each horse should cover from 9 to 14 acres. The 8-foot width is the most used with one horse and the 10-foot width with two horses. In tedding hay with a hay tedder or kicker two horses appear to be 45 per cent more efficient than one, and 82 per cent use 2-horse teams for this work. Each foot in width of tedder should cover from 1.4 to 1.7 acres daily, and each horse could be expected to go over from 7 to 10 acres. The factor for cocking hay after bunching with a rake is for an average yield for the 1,122 reports of 1.87 tons per acre. NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. 29 Tasne XXVIII.—A normal day’s work in mowing, raking, tedding, and cocking hay, giving the average acreages reported for sizes most frequently used, adjustments for these sizes, and allowances deduced for other sizes. [Net hours in the field: For mowing, 9.52; for raking, 8.44; for tedding, 8.26; and for cocking, 9.12.] Allowance Most . Other 4 Number | Acreage | Number | Adjusted for other Operation. een of horses. | per day. | averaged.| acreage. peparied widths per foot. Feet. Feet. Acres. 5 4-7 PRREN WER ie Merete oterarniaja e's inte aur ee a 2 8.85 1, 251 8.0 - ely LOG Una oe ia ae aie ae 8 1 11.99 238 10.8 6-12 15 10 2 17.91 885 17.0 8-16 80 UGG Gite ae eee ee eee 6 1 9.75 36 8.7 5-10 65 10 2 15.88 113 14.3 6-12 85 Mocking ClemMaN)! se )- osc 2a] Jone wed oo | Seislee oe hee 6.29 1, 122 LPR ANVE Peisiate eas Ce as nD es la In hauling hay from windrows to barn, using a hay loader in the field, 36 per cent of farmers do the work with three men, 23 per cent with two men, and 14 per cent with four men, while much smaller percentages use larger crews. It also appears that two horses are used by 38 per cent and four horses by 31 per cent, while 42 per cent use an 8-foot, 17 per cent the 6-foot, and 15 per cent the 10-foot loader. From analytical tables it was also evident that the odd man in three and five man crews adds very little to the amount accom- plished daily, and also that the hay sling or fork increases the efficiency of the equipment from 30 to 40 per cent. Increases in the number of men or horses are not attended by proportional increases in the amount of work done, the smaller units being most efficient. A relative decrease in efficiency per man or per horse with an increas- ing size of crew is uniformly found in all of the tables for crew work. In this operation the duty of a man with the organization stated is from 1.5 to 2.5 acres daily when unloading by hand and from 2.25 to 3 acres when unloading with sling or hay fork. The 2-horse and 4-horse crews are most efficient from the standpoint of total acreage cleared daily, odd horses adding very little to the efficiency of the organization. Those crews having only two men appear to be most effective, owing probably to having the proprietor to set the pace, while the larger crews give opportunity for lost motion through help working only for wages and the limited ability of the average farmer to direct the efforts of others as he can his own. When unloading by hand with the equipment under consideration, the duty of each horse is from 1.75 to 2.25 acres, and when the sling is used this duty should be raised to from 2.5 to 3.5 acres per horse perday. Each foot in width of loader should cover from 0.70 to 1 acre when the loads are thrown off by hand and from 1 to 1.4 acres when unloading with sling or hay fork. In the operation of haying, for distances under 200 rods, the tabulation of the data by distance hauled shows no relation between distance from stack or barn and the acreage cleared in a day. 30 BULLETIN 3, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, In Table X XIX the original averages for the crews most commonly used in hauling hay from windrows to barn with a hay loader are given, with adjusted acreages for these crews. The adjustments were made by reducing the two-man averages 20 per cent, the three-man averages 15 per cent, and the four-man averages less than 10 per cent. From the adjusted acreages the daily duty of crews of any size in this operation can be calculated. TaBLeE XXIX.—A normal day’s work in hauling hay from windrows to barn with a hay loader, giving the average acreages reported for crews most frequently used and adjusted work factors for each crew. [Net hours in the field, 9.53.] Unloading by hand. Unloading with sling or fork. Number Number of men. of horses. Acreage | Number | Adjusted} Acreage | Number | Adjusted per day. | averaged.) acreage. | per day. | averaged.| acreage. Dee com arene iat oe ieee eect te 2 . 29 59 4.25 7. 66 71 6.15 4 6. 50 6 5. 20 6. 62 8 7.30 Shea Goes CUR See aeeSsoneeneeadboses 2 5. 86 69 5.00 7. 84 | 88 6. 70 4 7. 05 37 6. 00 8. 98 48 7.90 BER Sach BES otatelse eden enemas 4 7.81 26 7.00 10. 16 37 15 6 - 66 6 8. 00 10.37 8 10. 25 In hauling hay from cocks to barn the work is done with two men by 41 per cent of farmers, 40 per cent use three men, and 19 per cent use larger crews. Only two horses are used by 73 per cent and 19 per cent use four horses. Although three-man crews are much less efficient from the standpoint of acres cleared in a day than two and four man crews, nearly as many of the former are used in this opera- tion as are reported with two men. Arrangement of the data by length of haul showed no relation between. distance to stack or barn and the amount done daily. Any time that may be lost in hauling 200 rods or less as compared with shorter distances within this limit is apparently regained through increased efficiency of the crew in other directions. The size of the load does not appear to be a factor affecting the acreage cleared in a day, since those reporting larger loads and somewhat increased acreages also used somewhat larger crews, on the average. The hay fork and sling add from 30 to 50 per cent to the efficiency of the crews in this work. It was also found that those who haul hay directly from the field with hay loaders can put away about one-third of an acre more daily per man than those who haul it from cocks, other conditions being equal. With hay loaders the operation of bunching and cocking is also eliminated. In Table XXX the reported acreages for crews used in hauling hay from cocks to barn have been brought together, only the more common crews being presented. In deriving the adjusted acreages the original data for two men were reduced 20 per cent; those for NORMAL DAY’S WORK FOR VARIOUS FARM OPERATIONS. ok three men, 10 per cent; those for four men, 10 per cent; those for five men, 10 per cent for the 6-horse crews; and those for 6 men were raised 10 per cent or more. From the adjusted acreages the daily duty of any combination of men and horses can be ascertained. TaBLE XXX.—A normal day’s work in hauling hay from cocks to barn, giving the average daily acreage reported for the crews most frequently used and adjusted work factors for each crew. [Net hours in the field, 9.38.] Unloading by hand. Unloading with sling or fork. Number of men. aed “-\ Acreage | Number | Adjusted} Acreage | Number | Adjusted per day. | averaged.| acreage. | per day. | averaged.| acreage. as DEERE oe mia cite cicihlaaien- 2 4.39 398 3.50 6.14 287 4.90 4 5.30 15 4.30 7.94 17 6.10 Ree ter cistais seals Scicics Sees. 2 4.55 331 3.90 6.44 315 5. 50 4 6. 14 55 4.75 8. 16 70 6. 65 A Ee tee cin b= Stalian - ryegrass 2222-2 22 15 CULTURAL METHODS. Owing to the difficulty of transportation in many localities, and to the expense involved, the seed was sown broadcast and the soil treatment resorted to in most cases consisted of inexpensive methods 6 BULLETIN 4, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. which did not require agricultural implements, the use of which often results in serious erosion. In some cases wooden or brush har- rows made on the ground were used. In other cases sheep driven in a compact body over the lands after sowing served the purpose of harrowing the seed into the ground. CHARACTER OF THE LANDS. The plots were located where the need for range improvement is greatest. The areas seeded vary in altitude from 2,000 to 10,000 feet. This range in elevation was accompanied by a corresponding diver- sity in the growth conditions and in the character of the native vege- tation. : Among the more common and characteristic trees of the higher ele- vations where studies were carried on may be mentioned: Whitebark pine, foxtail pine, limber pine, subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce, and mountain hemlock. The climatic conditions characteristic of regions in which these trees predominate will.be designated by the use of the term “whitebark pine zone.” Some of the characteristic trees of the lower seeding stations are: Lodgepole pine, western yellow pine, sugar pine, digger pine, western larch, and various species of willow alder, dogwood, aspen, mountain mahogany, maple, and oak. These species are found in successive zones which may be called the “ lodge- pole-pine zone,” the “yellow-pine zone,” and a still lower zone of which no single tree is characteristic, usually known as “ Upper Sonoran.” The great number of shrub species and herbs character- istic of the places where the extensive studies were conducted will be readily understood by anyone familiar with the great range of plant life found where the various trees just mentioned grow. In this wide altitudinal and latitudinal range the more important soil as well as climatic conditions were covered. The main soil types were: Sandy loam, clay loam, decomposed pumice, volcanic ash with varying amounts of organic matter, and soils of various textures originating primarily from basaltic, granitic, sandstone, and calcareous rocks. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE PLOTS. In all cases the seed was scattered broadcast, either with a machine or by hand. The proportion of seed used in mixed sowings was similar to that employed in the detailed reseeding work. The amount of seed required to produce a full stand, when a single species was sown, will be discussed elsewhere. In most situations the soil was given no culture before the seed was scattered. In general, the areas were closely grazed prior to seeding, and in the main inexpensive methods of planting were employed, namely, harrowing in the seed with a brush or wooden peg harrow, or trampling it in by sheep. THE RESEEDING OF DEPLETED GRAZING LANDS. 7 RESULTS. COMPARATIVE SUCCESS OF THE VARIOUS SPECIES. Of the 449 experiments observed during the calendar year 1911, 168, or 37.42 per cent, were failures; 112, or 24.95 per cent, were par- tial successes; 71, or 15.81 per cent, were fully successful; 64, or 14.25 per cent, were undeterminable at the end of the season; and in the case of 84 experiments, or 7.57 per cent of the total, the results were not definitely declared. Grasses were used in most of these experi- ments. The following table is presented to show the results in the case of single or pure sowings. TABLE 1.—Results of seeding to grasses. Number : din é : Successes and par- | Undeterminable at Name of species. oF BIOs Failures. tial successes. end of season. Number. | Per cent. | Number. | Per cent. | Number. | Per cent. AEPOMINGUHY os 080 esses sce 87 22 25. 29 6 64. 37 9 10. 34 2. Kentucky blue grass....-.--- 44 22 50 14 31. 82 8 18.18 3. Smooth brome........-.---- 43 10 23. 26 25 58. 14 8 18. 60 AMBILOG COD icles s cies ses sie eaiseathoe = 36 14 38. 89 12 33. 33 10 27.78 BeaOreMaArd GYASS: ==. 5.555452. 22 il 50 4 18.18 iq 31. 82 Gritalian' tyes. 2:2... -2-5-- ite. 8 5 62.5 3 37. 50 0 0 7. Tall meadow oat grass .....- 5 2 40 0 3 60 8. Canada blue grass. -......... 4 3 75 1 25 0 0 9. Perennial rye..............- 4 2 50 2 50 0 0 10. Grama grass.............-.- 2 2 100 0 (0) 0 0 11. Canadian wheat..........-. 1 1 100 0 0 0 0 Hoe Eardtescue:2 2.2225 .--- ~~ 1 0 0 0 () 1 100 Pe PeBROOM) sass: . 52s s2 ee 1 1 100 0 0 0 0 ANG UELCE Oe eo REN i mee 258 C0 TA (kes eats ESS) [neni mat LD Ud eee AGr| ees pease PAV ELAS ODOR CONG: ae. sse|oniec ce cle eee kee ee BBU Sel nae ees ASO bulbs meee ioet 17. 83 Table 1 shows that by far the best results were secured with timo- thy, 64.37 per cent having been successful or partially successful. It will be observed that this species was employed in 87 projects, from the Canadian to the Mexican boundaries. Despite the fact that the results of a part of these experiments were not declared, over three- fifths gave good returns. Next in the category of successful results are: Smooth brome grass with 58.14 per cent, perennial rye grass with 50 per cent, Italian rye grass with 37.5 per cent, Kentucky blue grass with 31.82 per cent, and redtop with 33.33 per cent. It is interesting to note that the more drought-resistant species, notably smooth brome grass, perennial rye grass, etc., rank among the first in the successful seeding. The figures given in Table 1 are comparable in each case to the results obtained where these species were seeded in mixtures. As far as the returns show, all trials of meadow oat grass and hard fescue gave negative results. Very few of the nongrasses yielded satisfactory returns. Those worthy of consideration are white and alsike clovers and alfilaria. Of the trials with white and alsike clover, 41.67 and 14.82 per cent, 8 BULLETIN 4, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. respectively, gave partly or wholly satisfactory returns. In the case of alfilaria, 28.57 per cent of the experiments gave good results. The alfilaria, however, requires a high temperature during the growing season and therefore it can not be successfully introduced except in the lower elevations. In southern California, where this plant flour- ishes, it fails to produce much herbage above an altitude of 6,000 feet. In the Northwest it should not be sown above 3,000 feet elevation. While the locations at which the best results from reseeding have been obtained are not shown in Table 4, it may be stated, allowing for local variations, that the best returns were secured in the North- west and the poorest in the more arid Southwest. No species yet tried can be economically introduced in the hot, dry foothills of Cali- fornia, Arizona, and New Mexico, where the lands are distinctly arid. SPRING VERSUS AUTUMN SEEDING. The most convenient way in which to note the time at which seed- ing has yielded the best results is by. means of curves showing the percentages of successful and partially successful experiments and of failures during the spring, summer, autumn, and winter periods, classifying the months as follows: Spring—March, April, and May; summer—June, July, and August; autumn—September, October, and November; and winter—December, January, and February. Plate II shows emphatically that autumn is the most satisfactory time to sow, the spring period coming second; the summer and winter periods are the most unsatisfactory. By months, October and May, in the order named, proved the most satisfactory. The reason why fall seeding, and especially the month of October, yields the best results, aside from the more elaborate rcot development pro- ~ duced, is doubtless primarily the fact that all plant activities have ceased at that time, and thus a weak autumnal growth and subsequent winter killing is avoided. Then, too, during the dormant period the seeds are worked into the ground by physical agencies, and when conditions for germination become favorable the seeds are not only well planted but the seed coats are softened and germination takes place promptly and simultaneously. CAUSES OF FAILURE. The causes of failure in the unsuccessful experiments are numer- ous. Often several factors are operative in bringing about unsatis- factory results, and it is sometimes difficult to determine which is the most potent. The six chief causes of failure, in the order of importance, are as follows: 1. Lack of soil treatment. 2. Drought. THE RESEEDING OF DEPLETED GRAZING LANDS. 9 3. Wrong selection of species. 4, Spring sowing. 5. Excessive competition with native vegetation. 6. Wrong time of sowing (other than spring). It is interesting to compare the following statement as to the a. reasons for only partial successes: 1. Spring sowing. . Lack of soil treatment. . Drought. . One or more species unadapted. . Excessive competition with native vegetation. . Wrong time of sowing (other than spring). Overgrazing. . Excessive moisture for species sown. Within the altitudinal limits at which the conditions governing growth are favorable, and on the lands adapted to the growth of cultivated forage plants, the factors which bring about failures are largely preventable. The lack of soil treatment, which, it will be noted, leads as a factor in the causes of failure, is, by the proper handling of the lands, preventable in virtually all cases; the drought factor, except possibly during seasons of unusual weather conditions, may be eliminated by the judicious selection of the lands to be seeded ; wrong selection of species is largely avoidable when the soil, moisture conditions, altitude, and the requirements of the species used are known; failure due to spring and summer seeding should be avoid- able since it is generally known whether or not enough precipitation is received during the growing period to insure continued vigorous growth. It will be noted that. in the main, the same causes which were operative in the case of failures were also responsible for only par- tial successes; and that while the arrangement of the chief causes in the two cases is somewhat different, the lack of soil treatment is of vital importance in both. Consideration of further results of the extensive experiments will be deferred until an account of the intensive studies has been given, when the conclusions reached as a consequence of both series of studies can be most intelligibly presented. Co br {ae INVESTIGATIONS IN THE WALLOWA MOUNTAINS. These investigations, conducted on a series of plots at various ele- vations, were planned with a view to obtaining precise data upon physical and climatic conditions which might be expected to play an important part in determining the success or failure of each experi- ment. 577) —Bull. 413 2 10 BULLETIN 4, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The studies were originally confined to 15 main plots having an average area of about 4 acres, of which 10 were in the whitebark pine and 5 in the lodgepole pine zone. Both in the spring and autumn of 1908, 1909, and 1910 several additional small plots were seeded to grasses and clovers at high and medium elevations. CLIMATIC CONDITIONS. The amount of precipitation during the growing season was nota- bly greater in the high mountains than at lower levels. In 1909, which was about an average season, the mountain bunch-grass ranges in the whitebark pine zone (elevation about 7,500 feet) received 7.45 inches of precipitation during the main growing season, which, at that altitude, is about three months long, mainly July, August, and September. The lands of medium elevation, about 4,500 feet, in the lodgepole pine zone, a region which enjoys a growing season of about four and one-half months, received during July, August, and September 5.51 inches precipitation. On the ranges of the yellow- pine zone (elevation about 3,000 feet), the precipitation received during the same period was 3.63 inches. In subsequent seasons the relative amounts were about the same. The temperature in the whitebark pine zone as compared with the two lower zones was found lower by several degrees; the evaporation also was less, and consequently the transpiration demand on the vegetation was less. DESCRIPTION OF THE PLOTS. The largest plot, 20 acres in area, was selected on a severely over- grazed tract, on what is known as Stanley Range, lying at an alti- tude of about 7,300 feet on a ridge which at one place broadens out into a plateau about a mile in width. The area was seeded to a mixture of timothy, redtop, and Kentucky blue grass. The amount of seed sown per acre was as follows: Timothy, 8 pounds; redtop, 3 pounds; and blue grass, 4 pounds. The seed was worked into the ground by driving a band of sheep in a compact body twice over the area. As shown in figure 2, the topography is smooth, and the whole area slopes westerly from 3° to 6°. The soil is a light clay loam, having a depth of from one to several feet, underlain by a layer of basaltic rock mixed with more or less soil. In places this rocky layer is exposed, forming small “ scabs” or “ scablands.” The water-reten- tive power of this soil is good, though the surface layer becomes rather dry early in the season. The whole area was originally covered with mountain bunch grass (Festuca viridula), but it is now almost barren. The most abundant perennial plant now is sickle sedge (Carex umbellata brevi- THE RESEEDING OF DEPLETED GRAZING LANDS. ‘i yostvis). A number of inconspicuous annuals are scattered over the entire area in more or less profusion. In a number of small patches where moisture is abundant there is a dense growth of alpine redtop (Agrostis rossw), slender hair grass (Deschampsia elon- gata), a number of different species of sedges and rushes, and a small amount of mountain timothy (Phlewm alpinum). Subalpine fir, Engelmann spruce, and whitebark pine occur in restricted clumps over the area, occupying, as shown in figure 2, jess than 5 per cent of the land. 7270! TEOS! TEGS’ G mpsia airgrass) Oa (cars foot) Legend A Coniferous Trees / Logs 98, Scabh Land Fic. 2.—Chart of the largest area selected for reseeding experiments, main pasture, Stanley Range. Three other reseeding plots, one a fourth of an acre and the other two a half acre each in size, were established on Stanley Range, the same species being seeded as on the larger plot, and, in addition, smooth brome grass and alsike and white clovers. The only differ- ence in the physiography of these plots as compared with that of the larger area is in the slope and exposure. The two half-acre areas have a southeastern aspect, one with a gradient of 12° and the other of 15°. The quarter-acre plot has a uniform eastern slope of 6°. 12 BULLETIN 4, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. On Sturgill Range, at an altitude of about 7,600 feet and in the same general type as the Stanley Range, 5 acres were seeded. The area selected is an old bed ground lying in a shallow cove. The ground is smooth, except for occasional narrow ruts caused by erosion in the spring. The general aspect is toward the southwest, with a gradient of 5° to 6°. The area formerly bore a heavy growth of mountain bunch grass (Festuca viridula), but is now bare of vege- tation save for a few scattered tufts of yarrow or wild tansy, sedge, and needle grass (Stipa minor) and a small clump of alpine fir and 32 rods 7: PP? YSNLIG aw esrods VVV & & XH % Q > = Ss Ra ee = 198 eX uN yw! Legend A Coniferous frees / Logs Fic, 3.—Chart of the seeding experiment on the Sturgill Range. whitebark pine in plot 1. (See fig. 3.) Small portions of plot 1 and plot 5 are covered by logs. The soil is a deep basaltic clay loam similar to that on Stanley Range, but richer in organic matter. Soil samples taken at a depth of 8 inches at various times during the main growing season gave an average moisture content of 27 per cent. Although sheep have been bedded on the ground for several years, the soil has not been packed to a great extent. Plot 1 contained 1 acre. It was divided into three subplots, each of one-third acre. Subplot 1 was seeded to timothy at the rate of 9 pounds per acre; subplot 2, to redtop at the rate of 15 pounds per THE RESEEDING OF DEPLETED GRAZING LANDS. 18 acre; and subplot 3, to Kentucky blue grass at the rate of 21 pounds per acre. In each case the seed was planted by the use of a brush harrow. Plots 2, 3, 4, and 5, each 1 acre in area, were seeded to a mixture of timothy 5 pounds, redtop 4 pounds, Kentucky blue grass 5 pounds. No soil treatment was given plots 2 and 3. Plot 4 was trampled by sheep after seeding, and plot 5 was thoroughly brushed with a pine-tree harrow. The arrangement of the plots and the native vegetation are shown, in figure 3. On what is known as the Bear Creek experimental range, an area of 4 acres was seeded to a mixture of 5 pounds timothy, 4 pounds red- IG TOUS No soi/ treatment given Brushed i'n Legend A= Coniferous Trees ESS Fig. 4.—Chart of the seeding experiment at Bear Creek Station, altitude 4,800 feet. top, and 5 pounds Kentucky blue grass. One-half of the area was brushed in and the remaining 2 acres were left untreated. The area selected, as shown in figure 4, is a strip 16 rods wide by 40 rods long, in the bottom of the Bear Creek Canyon, lying within a few rods of the stream. The elevation of Bear Creek at this point is about 4,800 feet. Ridges rise abruptly on both sides to a height of 2,000 feet above the creek. The seeded area is smooth and practically level. The soil is a deep, black, slightly clayey loam of alluvial character. The minimum water contained in the soil taken at a depth of 8 inches during the summers of 1908, 1909, and 1910 was 16 per cent. The land originally bore a heavy stand of timber, of which western larch, Engelmann spruce, yellow pine, 14 BULLETIN 4, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. lodgepole pine, lowland fir, Douglas fir, and aspen were the most abundant species. About 20 years ago practically all the timber was killed by fires, leaving the ground strewn with semidecayed logs. Chaparral, which is very dense on adjoining areas, is rapidly invad- ing some of the land. Coniferous reproduction, consisting chiefly of spruce, lowland fir, tamarack, and lodgepole pine, is abundant, and saplings are making an unusually rapid growth, indicating favorable conditions. There is a sparse stand of grasses and grass-like plants, those most abundant being pine grass (Calamagrostis suksdorfit) , two sedges, and a number of weedy annuals. The herbaceous vege- tation had been closely grazed by cattle at the time that the seed- ing was done. Additional reseeding plots were established in the less rugged portion of the Wallowa Mountains, near what is called the “ Billy Meadow” country. The elevation of this locality (5,000 feet) is shghtly greater than that of the Bear Creek area, but in the same vegetation type. The lands selected had been overgrazed to a marked degree, but the soil was still fertile and capable of high carrying capacity. Timothy, Kentucky blue grass, redtop, and alsike clover, were used. Both pure and mixed seeding was done on these plots, the proportion of seed being virtually the same as that given for other plots where the same species were employed. The alsike clover was seeded at the rate of 8 pounds per acre. In some of the plots the seed was harrowed or brushed in; in other cases no soil treat- ment was given. The viability of the seed of the species used in these studies was determined under controlled conditions in the Seed Testing Laboratory of the United States Department of Agricul- ture. The results of these tests follow: TABLE 2.—Viability of the seeds of the species sown. oes Duration | Germina- Kind of seed. of test. tion. Days. Per cent. Smooth brome sPrass ess ere seco s mie heme acielss eile teeeietteiei eee See eee 14 (25 Kentucky bluegrass: o2 i222... caste no oa tee Se ee eee eee eee 31 44.5 ReOdtOp s522 ists ee ckh eee ace ens bios eene eC eep eres Siesnabe sheet aos e Oe eee 9 88.0 TimOthy:: - 2-2 ese 5 otiee He saecst Sande se sie ae ae See eee ne eee eee 13 81.5 Alsike clover! 2227 oc 2dci'scicand tae cites nee 3a Roc eae ee Eee tee eee eee eee 14 90.0 Whiteclover. 4. 2:02 222 ooh eiel ae a a eee eee 26 88.0 The germination tests show that with the exception of Kentucky blue grass, which germinated only 44.5 per cent after a test of 31 days, the viability of the seeds sown was as good as might be ex- pected. Owing, however, to the likelihood of “heating” at the time of harvesting, viability of Kentucky blue grass is usually below that of the other species here employed. THE RESEEDING OF DEPLETED GRAZING LANDS. 15 In the case of all the plots described the seed was scattered in the. autumn. To test the relative merits of spring and autumn planting additional small plots adjacent to those seeded in the autumn were seeded just as the last snow was disappearing in the spring. In all of this work the seed was scattered broadcast, in some cases with a hand seeder and in other cases by hand. Either when sown pure or to a mixture, the hand seeder, shown in Plate I, figure 1, was highly satisfactory in getting an even distribution of the seed. A machine of the kind shown in this plate does not exceed 5 pounds in weight, is easily portable and compact, and can readily be adjusted to regu- late the amount of seed to be sown. A 10 to 12 foot swath is covered by a machine of this kind, and one man can sow from 25 to-35 acres per day. RESULTS OF THE INTENSIVE STUDIES. In general it may be said that the factors chiefly instrumental in bringing about unsatisfactory results in reseeding are (1) wrong time of sowing; (2) inadequate planting of the seed; (3) use of species unadapted to the conditions; (4) excessive altitude; (5) soil which is either too shallow or of undesirable physical structure and chemical character, or which has too small or too great a supply of moisture. In presenting in detail the results of the intensive experiments there will be discussed: Spring and autumn sowing; the merits of different methods of soil treatment; growth requirements and char- acteristics of the forage species in question during the time of estab- lishment; the restriction of reseeding due to altitude; and how to judge, by the native vegetation, lands suitable for reseeding. SPRING VERSUS AUTUMN SEEDING. A study of spring-seeded and fall-seeded plots established on con- tiguous lands in a number of different situations showed the autumn- sown areas far superior to those sown in the spring (1) in the time of germination, (2) in the period required for all the seed to germi- nate, (3) in the development and vigor of the seedlings, and (4) in the subsequent seedling loss due to adverse conditions, which deter- mines the final stand. The most striking examples of the advantage of autumn sowing were observed on plots established on well-drained mountain meadow lands where the surface layer of soil is friable and has a tendency to dry out excessively early in the season. A measure of the merits of spring and autumn sowing on such lands is shown in Plate II. Under the same climatic and soil conditions grass seed—timothy, Kentucky blue grass. smooth brome grass, redtop, etc.—sown in the 16 BULLETIN 4, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fall germinated from 5 to 12 days earlier than seed sown in the spring on top ofthe snow or on a saturated soil just as the last snow of the season disappeared. With species having thick, hard, and more im- permeable seed coats than grasses, as in the case of clovers, there was much more difference in the time of germination. In some few situ- atjons the seed, both of clover and grasses, sown in spring tided over to the following spring, when good germination was secured. With such delayed germination much of the seed is consumed by birds and rodents or removed by the wind and other agencies. Both the root development and the aerial growth of the plants originating from autumn-sown seed was about double that of plants from seed sown in the spring. The significance of this fact appears in a heavy and relatively early loss of seedlings from spring sowing due to drought. In many situations the difference in the depth of the root system resulting from autumn and spring seeding has resulted in a satisfactory stand on the one hand and complete failure on the other. It may be definitely stated from the results obtained that in the Wallowa Mountains spring seeding, except possibly in the situations where the soil is well supplied with moisture throughout the season and where the seed may decay if allowed to le dormant for a long period, has no advantages over autumn seeding. On the other hand, spring sowing has grave disadvantages. The seed germinates late and over a long period; much of it is lost owing to delayed germina- tion; the seedlings are shallowly rooted and are liable to serious injury from drought; and superabundant moisture interferes with cultural methods of planting, By sowing in the autumn the above difficuicies are virtually elim- inated. Seed should not be sown so early in the autumn that it will germinate before winter. If it germinates in the fall the little seed- lings are likely to succumb to drought, if the season is dry, or their growth is so slight that little reserve food is stored in their roots, and the plants make only a weak growth the following spring. Where winters are severe it is best to sow after vegetative growth ceases and before the heavy winter snows begin. Then the seed will be protected by the snow until the time of germination. ADVANTAGES OF THOROUGH PLANTING. In order to know which of the inexpensive methods of soil treat- ment used will give the most satisfactory results in reseeding it was highly important to secure definite information as to the density of the seedling stands secured on the various plots. The difference in the abundance of seedlings was evident on some of the plots, or on parts of them, by mere observation, but to get definite compari- Bul. 4, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE I. Fic. 2.—A BRUSH HARROW IN USE. WITH MATERIALS AVAILABLE THIS IMPLEMENT CAN BE CONSTRUCTED IN AN Hour. Fia@. 3.—A WOODEN PEG “A” HARROW FOR USE IN PACKED SOILS; IT CAN BE CONSTRUCTED BY ONE MAN IN THREE Hours. PLATE II. Bul. 4, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. “‘SUIMOS Surids WOT] JY STI OY} UO ssoy} ‘SUTALOS [[RF WOIT yUOTAdOTAAOP OSBIOAB MOYS JJ] OY} WO suataToedy "ONIYdS AHL NI NMOS GNV T1IV4 SHL NI NMOS AHLOWIL JO LNSWdO1SAaSq LOOY SHL 4O NOSINVdNOD VY THE RESEEDING OF DEPLETED GRAZING LANDS. 17 sons on the plots as a whole it was necessary to make actual counts. This was done by noting the number of seedlings within a number of sample areas 40 inches square. Table 3, which follows, shows the results, TABLE 3.—Seedling stand on the different plots. Seed sown. Timothy. Redtop. Blue grass. Num- | __ > ber of Somat eas ell peaesy alte Location. ie Treatment.} unit & | Rou & | Son & | Seon Seeded : area a | gos Ss | Aas a | As SR Or counts: % |aa8 8 Ae 3 | 5&4 | mixture. 2 fey ay SS op We OAs Ne oe Ossi a la. 8) 3 |'Sssls|o |eaalS| 3 | ees Ql dirodgia|l 8 jxeotsal a HOD Q 5 oOo! SI e-em Ho} 5 Goo 3 i) An !"s is) ran |'5 is) rnn m| A |< m| a |< mM) |4 Sturgill Range, I Brushed Spy al Cy ye Gr I) a | I alent) Bey PAL PRAOE MSibaked hy elevation 7,600 in. feet. | DOs ete ce- 2. Il | Trampled Wilco. War WES e le Gal) AUB Sou ss 3.6 | Mixture by sheep DOR fo 55: Ti | EES does s- 20 |- 5 18. 2 4 16.0 5 4.2 Do. 1D Se ase eee IV | Untreated 20 |. §| 18.5 4 9.2 5 2) 5 | Do. MOne ote. 2 = V Brushed 15 |. 5 | 43.6 |} 41] 36.8 5| 12.4 Do. in. Bear Creek sta- Tene R owes ae WO eects Bl) Ceey 4] 19.8 By ih alba! Do. tion, elevation 4,800 feet. 1 DOV Ae oS seer eee II Untreated. 10) 555 5) 20.8 4 6.4 5 4.4 Do. Stanley Range, I Trampled Ail local & i IG @ 3 By 8} 4 Peal Do. elevation 7,300 by sheep. feet. | Alsike clover. 10%0)5\., ea ea II | Brushed iil |} al SS) fed Sf gael) cae Re ane oe cee a ec | Singly in. 1D Yah see eae II | Trampled 9 | 2 8 GS ee as ea eae pH id |e ball Rel Do. by sheep. White clover. WOW heise sede II | Brushed 10 | 3 S| a AAR em ek ocr al es Sy) eA acai yh seat Do. in. IDO) eee Ii | Trampled 10} 4 Spe pa wed LG 2) | eae aU eb a Ne A Do. by sheep. The figures show that on the plots sowed to a single species (Plot I, Sturgill Range) the best stand was secured from redtop, the blue- grass plot ranking second in abundance of seedlings. The reason for the sparse stand of timothy, as compared with the other two species on these particular areas, was primarily the superabundance of native vegetation, which prevented much of the seed from coming in contact with the soil. Comparing the brushed, trampled, and untreated plots, it will be seen that in every case the best stand was secured on the brushed areas, the trampled plots ranking second and the untreated plots having the poorest stand. It will be noted, however, that the plots given no treatment have a correspondingly better stand of timothy seedlings than of any other species. In the case of the untreated plots this may be explained by the greater weight of the timothy seed than that of the other species. 5775°—Bull. 4—13 2 > 18 BULLETIN 4, U. S: DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. On Stanley Range the plots were all trampled in, and consequently seedling counts were made only in the large pasture. Here the stand was not as good as on the plots just discussed. This area was much drier during the early part of the summer than the area on Sturgill Range, and a notably larger percentage of the seedlings succumbed as a result of insufficient moisture. However, in all situations the loss of seedlings was greater and occurred earlier in the season where the soil was not treated than where the planting was thorough. The relative merits of the cultural methods used and of no soil treatment, as evinced by the density of the fully established forage stand secured on uniform autumn-sown habitat, are shown in Table 4. TABLE 4.—Relation of forage yield to cultural methods. Forage Species. Soil treatment. cover (10 maximum). IBrushéd . 0522402. S.A ee e 4to6 PiMObAY 3086 se seen see eee Caen eee Trampled =: i.) eek ee eee eee 2to07 INoftreatment.. -.... 26sec ase Sasa ee ee 0 to 4 Brushed sess geek ce ee eae a ee ee 1t0 4.5 Redtop 5200 oS - cee tet ee eee ee eee {eeampiea MepenReHrogacac$séazcoh-séSeaSsctos 1to4 Nowtreatment. 22233-4523 ao ee eee 0 to 2 Brushed: ... 5-4). - senses oe Oe ec eee eee 4to7 Kentucky, blue grass.222--22 5-5 epee se sees {trampled bie Minh eg: See Ree nee ARE 3 to 4.5 No'treatment<: {222 See ee eee ae 1 to2 Table 4 shows markedly that in the case of all three species the best stand was secured on the brushed plots, the areas trampled by sheep after sowing being second. (See Pl. ITI, figs. 1 and 2.) These results are doubtless accounted for by the fact that the seed on the brushed plots is more uniformly and not too deeply covered. On the plots given no soil culture whatever the density of stand secured was very inferior. Both harrowing or brushing and trampling the seed in by the sharp-cutting hoofs of sheep have special advantages. On densely packed and stiff soils brushing or even running over the surface with the A wooden-peg harrow is not nearly so effective as trampling by sheep. On the other hand, using sheep as harrows will not bring about the good results that brushing will, other things being equal, on denuded areas, where there is no vegetation to bind the surface, and where the soil is friable. Other conditions being the same, it is evident that better returns from reseeding are ordinarily obtained on denuded lands than on areas where the soil is tightly bound by roots. While lands that support a dense stand of vegetation indicate a fertile soil and usually good conditions for growth, it is often difficult to get cultivated plants started on such areas, first, because of the difficulty of thor- oughly working the seed into the ground without thorough cultiva- THE RESEEDING OF DEPLETED GRAZING LANDS. 19 tion; and, second, because of the inability of the young plants to compete successfully for moisture and light with the hardy, well- established, and deeply rooted native vegetation. On such lands reseeding will usually not pay. Effective cultural implements—Owing to the character of the land to be seeded, one instrument may be preferable in one locality and another in a different situation. Accordingly, the means of con- struction both of the brush and the A wooden-peg harrow is here given. The brush harrow pictured in Plate I, figure 2, consists of five saplings or tops of whitebark pine or any other available stiff- leafed species, pines or spruces being preferable, cut into lengths of about 6 feet and laid parallel to each other at intervals of about a foot, depending upon the spread of the branches. These tops are held together, as in a vise, between two 5-foot crosspieces, the lighter of which is uppermost. The brush ends are usually trimmed a little to insure a tight fit all around. The crosspieces may either be lashed together by wire or rope or secured by wooden pegs in- serted through bored holes. The whole can be readily dragged over the ground by a rope attached to the saddle horn. A swath of 5 to 6 feet is covered by this harrow. On denuded areas this crude implement did such effective work that usually only one brushing was necessary to cover the seeds, but where there was more or less grass or other vegetation to bind the soil even repeated brushing was not highly effective. On such lands, where the original vegeta- tion is not so dense as to make reseeding impracticable, an A wooden- peg harrow was found more effective. As shown in Plate I, figure 3, this is a simple device, the frame- work of which is composed of three small logs, about 5 or 6 inches in diameter, cut into lengths of about 5 feet. These are hewn down with an ax in order to present a flat surface, and are fitted together into the shape of a letter A, or of a triangle, and the ends secured by spiking with wooden pegs or by wiring. With a brace and bit holes of about 1 inch in diameter are made through the logs at inter- vals of about 5 inches, and teeth, made from such branches as may be available, cut into uniform lengths of about 6 or 7 inches, are driven through. This harrow also may be readily dragged over the ground by a rope attached from the apex to the horn of the saddle. An ax and an inch auger are the only tools needed for its construction. This implement takes about a 4-foot swath. The use of sheep in planting—Sheep are found even more effica- cious in working up partially vegetated and closely packed soils than the A wooden-peg harrow. isame|2222-2--|b---2 Ou eee ee se See 1.30 number pounds. DOs ees ees 1S ie Vai eee lect Cpe SwEAr Sen eere Cesecee Wintreated=s55——2s2—5 1.30 Ossetia Bes Veils Sears |e ara (0 (0) ne ee aoe (eee IBQUSHEdIINes =. s2ss5= 1.55 BEAR CREEK RANGE—4,800 FEET. MUS a IE) coca noooSancd|o2eosass Burned over......__.- LH Fa Ee eae Teaepes ee ee one zi Brushed in.........- $1.75 Kentucky blue grass. - 1D 0 ane Pda ts Bae | ara Same as plot 1; same |....-.-- Wmntreated=--- 22222. 1.50 | number pounds. | : _ The amount of seed per acre given in Table 8, namely, 9 pounds for pure seeding of timothy, 15 for redtop, and 21 for Kentucky blue grass, has proven satisfactory. It is apparent in these sowings that the expense in securing a satisfactory pure stand of Kentucky blue grass and redtop is approximately four times and two times higher, respectively, than in the case of timothy. This is due both to the dif- ference in the cost of the seed and to the amount required to produce a good forage crop; the seeding ratio for blue grass, redtop, and timothy was 5, 34, and 2. In a mixture the expense is decreased in accordance with the proportion of timothy used. INCREASE IN FORAGE PRODUCTION. Timothy when sown at the rate of 8 pounds per acre will cost, for seed, including transportation, not to exceed 10 cents per pound, or 80 cents per acre. To this must be added the cost of 10 cents per 30 BULLETIN 4, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. acre for scattering the seed and 25 cents for harrowing it in, making a total expenditure of $1.15 per acre. The production of forage will vary from about one-half to 14 tons per acre, depending primarily upon the altitude, soil, and climatic conditions. The value of the crop will depend upon local conditions. Even with a minimum of half a ton per acre it is a paying investment to seed. Cotton has shown that where a yield of only half a ton of timothy is secured, an acre of the land upon which his experiments were conducted would carry a. 1,200-pound steer a little more than 30 days longer than it previously would. Thus he shows that if pasture is valued at 25 cents a head per month, it would, after the first year, give a return of more than 25 per cent on the cost of seeding. Be- sides, if the lands are properly handled so that the areas are not prematurely and too closely grazed, an appreciable forage increment of the introduced species may be expected from natural reseeding. This additional increment may often justify reseeding even when a low forage yield is originally obtained. HOW TO GRAZE THE RANGE DURING THE RESTOCKING PERIOD. — During the period immediately following sowing the young plants ordinarily develop neither a sufficiently elaborate height growth nor strong and deep enough roots to furnish an appreciable increase in the forage and to withstand grazing. In the highest elevations, where the season is short and the temperature low, the seedling plants naturally make slower growth than in lower and warmer localities. Even in the lower elevations grazing is more or less seriously de- structive during the first year. The loss from trampling is heaviest early in the season, but even in the autumn moderate grazing results in tearing and uprooting the young growth to a serious degree. Cropping the plants is not disastrous to their development, unless it is done excessively or prematurely, but the seedlings are often pulled up or the roots are partly exposed when grazed, and as a re- sult the plant suffers the following season. The lands seeded should therefore be wholly protected from stock during the first season sub- sequent to seeding. In the second year they may be moderately grazed, but stock should not be allowed on them until fall, when the root system has attained its full development for that season. CONCLUSIONS. WHERE RESEEDING IS PRACTICABLE. The reseeding investigations show that the returns secured from sowing suitable cultivated forage plants on certain ranges fully war- rant the expense. It is not to be presumed, however, that all over- grazed ranges can be successfully reseeded to cultivated plants. On the contrary, it is unquestionably true that existing conditions in the THE RESEEDING OF DEPLETED GRAZING LANDS. Bill major portion of the native grazing lands are antagonistic to the establishment of introduced plants. This is due primarily to one or all of three conditions: Excessive elevation, poor soil, coupled with insufficient moisture, or too much and too aggressive native vegeta- tion. ALTITUDINAL LIMITATIONS. There are three chief causes of failure at high altitudes: First, only the strongest and best seeds can produce vigorous plants, and even this scanty original stand is often materially thinned out during the first season; second, the plants can ramify or stool out and spread only at a very slow rate; third, the plants produce such a small quantity of viable seed (note Table 5 )that the possibility of increas- ing the stand from seed production is practically eliminated. The altitude above which seeding to cultivated species should not be undertaken varies with latitude, and is approximately 3,500 feet higher in southern Arizona than in eastern Oregon. Because of this variation the character of the native vegetation is the best criterion for determining the maximum altitude at which reseeding is justi- fiable. As a concrete example, in the Wallowa Mountains, as pre- viously shown, it has been found that the growing season is so short and the temperature is relatively so low at an altitude slightly exceeding 7,500 feet above the sea that no species thus far tried has made a satisfactory growth. Here is the true timber-line tree— whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis)—mountain bunch grass, heaths, huckleberry, and the lower zonal forms of arctic-alpine species. Where the whitebark pine becomes scrubby—timber line locally usu- ally occurs slightly above 8,500 feet on north slopes—it invariably follows that the altitude exceeds that at which reseeding will pay. (See Pl. VIII, fig. 2.) The same principle applies to high mountain seeding in any locality, and it is safe to say that seeding to cultivated - forage plants will not prove economically successful above the alti- tude at which the true timber-line species attain a good size and grow vigorously. Allowing for the influence of the different slopes and _ exposures on growth, timber-line trees do not usually make their maximum development when grown within 1,000 to 1,500 feet of timber line, and it may therefore be more specifically stated that seeding should not be attempted within 1,000 or 1,500 feet of timber line. SOIL AND VEGETATION COVER. Below 1,000 to 1,500 feet of timber line, then, the only areas suited to artificial: seeding are those which have sufficient moisture and a deep soil with considerable organic matter, such as are found in 1 At more southerly points, as in California, good stands of timothy have been secured at an altitude of 10,000 feet. 32 BULLETIN 4, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. mountain meadows, moist parks meadowlike in character, and moist alluvial bottoms along streams. Soils of coarse physical structure so readily lose their water content through percolation and evapora- tion that in normal years the introduced seedling plants are almost invariably killed before the end of the first growing season. In addition to the fertility of the soil the character and density of the native vegetation will help to determine what lands may profitably be seeded. Ordinarily seeding should not be attempted where the perennial native vegetation, such as a grass association, for example, covers about 60 per cent of the surface, for not only is the soil in poor condition to receive the seed, but the introduced species can rarely replace or compete with the more hardy established vege- tation. Most of the moister and poorly drained mountain meadows are well vegetated with marsh grasses and succulent sedges, rushes, and weeds.. It is often highly desirable to replace this type of vege- tation with cultivated forage plants, owing to the low palatability and nutritiousness of the native species. But because of the dense and matted soil surface, a condition often coupled with sour or acid soil, few cultivated species have chances of becoming established in such habitats. SPECIES RECOMMENDED. On lands of medium moisture conditions and of average soil fer- tility no other species has given as uniformly good results as timothy. This plant can be introduced at the lowest cost of any of the highly desirable species; it gives a better yield under a diversity of range conditions than any species experimented with, and when once estab- lished it will withstand moderately heavy grazing relatively well. Tn habitats of average moisture conditions where timothy flourishes, smooth brome grass, perennial and Italian rye grasses, and Kentucky blue grass, in the order named, are found to give good results. In the moister situations, especially on the poorly drained lands where the soil is inclined to be acid, redtop is far superior to any species so far tried. It will also do well in many situations where timothy thrives, but being less deeply rooted it requires, to attain its highest development, more moisture in the surface layer of soil. Redtop is notably less aggressive than timothy and many other species, but, reproducing as it does, mainly by root stocks, its establishment, while slow, is permanent. It is little lable to injury from trampling, even in wet situations, because of the dense entanglement of roots which bind the soil firmly. Of the nongrasses, only alsike and white clovers can be recom- mended. The lands to be seeded to these species should be carefully selected, as neither very dry nor unusually wet soils are adapted to their growth. Saturated and poorly drained soils, which.are in con- THE RESEEDING OF DEPLETED GRAZING LANDS. 33 sequence badly aerated and sour, are to be avoided or time and money will be wasted. Only the better-drained lands which are well sup- plied with soil moisture throughout the summer should be seeded to clovers. WHEN TO SEED. The climatic conditions, length of the growing season, and the character of the soil in a great measure determine the time that seed- ing should be done. Under natural conditions in the mountains the seed crop is dis- seminated in the autumn and lies dormant until the soil warms up the following spring. Within the altitudes at which temperature is favorable to srowth, a single factor—drought—is instrumental in causing frequent fae ures. The soils of most mountain lands readily dry out near the surface. This condition results in the serious destruction of shallow- rooted seedlings. The deeper-rooted plants resulting from autumn seeding are less liable to serious thinning out than the seedlings with a shallower and less elaborate root system produced from seed sown in the spring. Where the winter does not permit of growth, late autumn sowing should, in general, be resorted to. Care must be exercised to sow late enough so that no germination will take place until spring or the seedlings are likely to be heaved out of the ground and killed. The ideal time to seed is just before permanent snows come in the autumn. If the situation is wet during most of the year, the seed may be dormant for a number of months, and is likely to decay before germi- nation can take place. In such situations spring seeding should be resorted to. Again, in certain situations, especially in parts of the Southwest where the early spring period is habitually followed by dry weather and the inception of summer by heavy precipitation, the seed should not be scattered until late in the spring. In such regions the seed, if sown in the autumn, usually germinates as soon as the temperature is favorable, even though there is a small amount of moisture in the soil, and the tender shallow-rooted plants, being wholly dependent upon the surface soil for moisture, are almost invariably killed before the summer rains come. METHODS OF SOWING. The methods of sowing must be practical and inexpensive. The amount of work justified in sowing, preparing, and working the soil will naturally depend on the carrying capacity of the range and on the effectiveness of the operations. In many localities the moun- tains are so rugged and transportation is so difficult that the use of implements which the farmer relies on for tilling and working the soil is impracticable. 34 BULLETIN 4, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. HOW TO SCATTER THE SEED. Any means of scattering the seed which will distribute it evenly is satisfactory. Ordinarily a compact hand seeder should be used, but an experienced man can broadcast as well by hand; this method is certainly the most convenient, and doubtless the most economical. With either machine or hand method windy days should be avoided for the sowing. It is sometimes desirable to make double sowings, in which half the quantity of seed is sown im passing up and down the area and the other half by crossing at right angles to the first sowing. SOIL TREATMENT. It is too often assumed that grasses and other forage plants will grow anywhere and under all circumstances. The writer has no hesitancy in stating that he has yet to see the range conditions under which it will not pay to give some slight treatment to cover the seed, _regardless of the kind of seed sown and the character of the soil. Of the various causes for failure the lack ef soil treatment, either before or after sowing, was chiefly operative in 61 out of 168 unsatis- factory experiments. More failures were due to not covering the seed after sowing than to drought, wrong selection of species, and wrong time of sowing. It is neither necessary nor desirable to cover the seed deeply, and expensive operations are rarely warranted. The investigations prove that some seeds, when planted more than half an inch deep, tide over the season or fail to germinate. The plants are more likely to become permanently established when the seeds are merely hidden below the surface of the ground than when covered more deeply. Where the soil is friable and free from vegetation the brush har- row should be employed, but where compact and supporting vegeta- tion, which binds the soil surface, the A wooden-peg harrow should be used. On such situations sheep driven in a compact body after sowing will plant the seed more thoroughly than any other of the methods tried. There is danger of too deep planting if sheep are used on the loose soils. PROTECTION AGAINST GRAZING. Regardless of the species sown, the lands should be protected from grazing animals until the plants have made sufficient development to withstand moderate grazing and trampling. In most places graz- ing should be entirely restricted during the first season after seeding, because both sheep and cattle destroy the young plants. In the autumn of the second year there is little danger of serious injury from moderate grazing. a) ma hie tN On TELE; USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE * No. 5 Qe Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief. September 27, 1913. THE SOUTHERN CORN ROOTWORM, OR BUDWORM. By EF. M. WEBSTER, In Charge of Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations. DISTRIBUTION. The parent of the southern corn rootworm (Diabrotica duodecim- punctata Oliv.), or, as it is often termed, the budworm, is a yellow or greenish-yellow beetle having 12 black spots on the back, as shown in figure 1,. a, from which its specific name, meaning “ 12-spotted,” isderived. It is closely allied to the almost equally common striped cucumber beetle (Déa- brotica vittata Fab.), and also to the parent of the even more de- structive western corn rootworm (Diabrotica longicornis SIE) We ae Throughout the coun- try east of the Rocky (aes canta Peichiner Fic, me souupena cone oo ewour CPOE? oe b) 5 decimpunctata) : a. Beetle; b, egg; c, larva; d, anal from southern Canada segment of larva; e, work of larva at base of corn- + stalk; f, pupa. All much enlarged, except e, reduced. southward to North (Reengraved after Riley, except f, after Chittenden. ) Carolina, Tennessee, Arkansas, and Oklahoma, these 12-spotted and striped beetles to- gether frequent squashes and pumpkins, often collecting in num- bers in the blossoms. The 12-spotted species during late summer and fall also frequents, often in conspicuous numbers, the flowers of the various species of goldenrod (Solidago). The larve (fig. 1, ©) do not generally attack growing corn in suf- ficient numbers to cause any considerable injury, except perhaps 6134°—13 2 BULLETIN 5, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. locally, north of the States mentioned in| the preceding paragraph, although in 1890 some damage was done in the southern portions of Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Southward from the latitude of these States to the Gulf, and extending into Mexico, however, serious ray- ages are of more or less frequent occurrence. The author reared the beetles from larve that were attacking late-planted corn at La Fayette, Ind., during July and early August, 1888, though there was no serious injury to the crop as a whole. A larva was also observed by the author in the act of eating into a stem of young wheat in the field, on October 11, 1890, in the same locality, but the species is not of importance as a wheat insect. FOOD PLANTS OF THE LARVA. Tt is probable that the larve have attacked corn in the Southern States for at least a century or more. Prof. A. L. Quaintance re- corded them as feeding not only on corn but also on the roots of rye, garden beans, and southern chess (Bromus unioloides) in Georgia, working serious injury to both corn and beans. The author ob- served the larve attacking young wheat at La Fayette, Ind., October 11, 1890, while Mr. E. O. G. Kelly observed the same thing to occur at Wellington, Kans., October 2, 1907. March 1, 1909, Mr. T. D. Urbahns, at Mercedes, Tex., found larvee one-half inch in length on the roots of young alfalfa and from these reared adults March 19. April 20, 1911, Mr. George G. Ainslie found larve in abundance feeding on the roots of young oats about Jackson, Miss. Adults from these larve emerged May 17. The same observer reared adults from larve found feeding on the roots of barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli) at Hurricane, Tenn., on July 12, 1912, the adults in this case emerging on July 21. The grass upon the roots of which the larvee were feeding grew up among and between corn that had pre- viously been attacked and killed by the pest. Dr. F. H. Chittenden? states that larvee or pup have been ob- served at the roots of corn, wheat, rye, millet (Panicum miliaceum), southern chess (Bromus unioloides), beans, goldenglow (Rudbeckia sp.), and sedges of the genera Cyperus and Scirpus. Larve have been found and reared by him from about the roots of Jamestown weed (Datura stramonium) and pigweed (Amaranthus), and it is not improbable that they feed on these plants. Prof. E. Dwight Sanderson * reported the larve working upon the roots of Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense) where these roots at the time appeared older than those of the corn. Under date of Feb- ruary 19, 1907, Mr. Dick Hatcher, of Fross, Tex., through Repre- 1U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Bul. 26, pp. 38-39, 1900. 2U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. Ent., Circ. 59, p. 4, 1905. 2 Entomological News, vol. 17, p. 213, June, 1906. | | THE SOUTHERN CORN ROOTWORM, OR BUDWORM. 3 sentative Burleson of that State, informed the writer that the larve begin to work on the roots cf Johnson grass during the latter part of July. They eat small holes under each joint, and by the latter part of November the roots are dead, and the Johnson grass, as he expressed it, “looks more like rotten sea grass than anything I can compare it to.” This correspondent refers to their work on John- son grass as being more beneficial than otherwise. FOOD OF THE BEETLES. — The fully developed insect, or beetle (fig. 1, @), is a decidedly gen- eral feeder, eating readily almost any cultivated plant. A list of its food plants would be more interesting for what it did not include and if given in full would be entirely out of place in a publication of this character. Of grain and forage crops it has been observed to feed on corn, wheat, oats, rye, barley, buckwheat (probably), alfalfa, cowpea, soy bean, clover, timothy, milo maize, Kafir, pearl millet, vetch, Johnson grass, and rape. DEPREDATIONS OF THE LARVA IN CORN. Just when the southern corn rootworm, or budworm, as it is termed in the South, first began to attack corn is involved in obscurity. The writer several years ago’ called attention to the fact that it was probably this insect to which a Mr. Charles Yancey,? of Buckingham, Va., referred when he described “a little white worm with copper- colored head ” which, perforating the stalks of young corn “ just. be- low the surface of the ground,” destroyed the growth. The budworm has certainly been accused of attacking corn in Virginia and other Southern Atlantic Coast States since long before the recollection of the oldest inhabitants. Quaintance* found excellent ground for be- lieving that the pest was injurious in the cornfields of Georgia “ many years before we find any reference to it in the literature of economic entomology.” The first exact observations on the ravages of the larvee (fig. 1, ¢) in growing corn, the identity of the pest being known at the time the observations were made, were by the writer and pub- lished shortly afterwards,‘ as follows: While in the South during the spring of 1886 we frequently heard of fields of young corn being seriously injured during some seasons by a small white worm which attacked the roots, usually during April. * * * On April 12 of the present year [1887] we were enabled to solve the problem by finding considerable numbers of these larve in the field of corn in Tensas Parish, La., where they were working considerable mischief by killing the young IU. S. Dept. Agy., Insect Life, vol. 4, p. 264. 1892. 2 American Farmer, vol. 10, p. 3, 1828. $ Loc. cit., p. 36. 4Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1887, p. 148, 1888. / 1 J 4 BULLETIN 5, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. plants. As observed by us, their mode of attack differed from that of their northern congener in that they did not appear to attack the fibrous roots or bury themselyes in longitudinal channels excavated in the larger roots. On the contrary, they burrowed directly into the plants at or near the upper whorl! of roots, which almost invariably resulted in the death of the plant. These larve were much more active than those of longicornis, and on being disturbed would make their way out of their burrows and attempt to escape by crawling slowly into crevices in the soil, or if it were finely pulverized they would work their way down into it out of sight. Often several individuals, varying greatly in size, would be found about a single plant. On the 20th of same month, in another field, we found the larve much more numerous and the crop injured fully 75 per cent. Plants here, 6 to 8 inches high, were withering up and dis- coloring. Both of these fields had produced cotton the preceding year. April 27, 1888, serious attacks to young growing corn were cb- served on Perkins’s plantation, near Somerset Landing, Tensas Par- ish, La.,and on May 12 similar depredations were noted in the vicinity of Madison, Ark. Still later the author found the larve attacking late-planted corn at La Fayette, Ind., July 12, and on July 14 of the same year 595 of these larve were collected and placed in rearing cages, adults from which appeared August 2 and 3. In all of the localities just given, except the last, the ravages were on corn grow- ing in the low damp lands. Throughout the South and even farther north the soil of the lowlands and depressions in fields is of a darker color than that of more elevated areas, hence the statement of farmers and planters that the pest is more destructive on the “ black lands.” Prof. H. Garman? stated that to his personal knowledge corn had been injured during the years 1889 and 1890 in Virginia, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas, Kentucky, [linois, and Ohio. LOSSES CAUSED BY THE LARV. As showing the magnitude of the losses caused by this insect, especially throughout the South, illustrations have been selected from notes and correspondence of the bureau. During May, 1906, the _ writer found that one-fourth to one-third of the young corn grow- ing on the farm of the State Hospital for the Insane, at Columbia, S. C., was being destroyed by these pests. The damage was being done more especially on the low parts of the fields with black or © gray soils. Under date of July 15, 1907, Mr. R. F. Haynes, of Cheoah, N. C., stated that the corn crop had been ruined in many places during the spring by a worm that burrowed into the plant just above the base of the roots. Under date of March 20, 1908, Mr. D. P. High, of Whiteville, N. C., stated that farmers in his neighborhood had difficulty in getting a stand of corn on their bot- tom lands by reason of the attack of these worms. In his opinion it was becoming the greatest cornfield pest, especially in cold, wet 1 Psyche, vol. 6, p. 30, 1891. THE SOUTHERN CORN ROOTWORM, OR BUDWORM. 5 springs, like the one of that year. A similar complaint was received, April 10 of the same year, from Mr. J. L. Hughes, of Chatawa, Miss., who stated that he had replanted his corn three times and the worms were still destroying his crop, although the stalks of corn were 6 inches to a foot in height. Under date of May 24, 1909, Mr. Sidney Johnson, Boydton, Va., sent specimens of the larvee, with com- plaints of serious ravages in his neighborhood. March 21, 1910, Mr. Milton Mountjoy, Shacklett, Va., stated that frequently the corn in his neighborhood was ruined over great areas by this pest. Under date of July 30, 1910, Mr. C. L. Foster, of Dalton, Ga., complained of great damage to the corn crop of his section by this pest, and for- warded specimens. In some instances the corn had been replanted three times and still was so badly injured that there was little pros- pect of acrop. Mr. J. O. Taylor, writing under date of August 17, 1910, from Bastrop, La., stated that early planted corn during that season had been seriously damaged and in many cases destroyed by this rootworm or budworm, which he clearly describes, as well as its method of attack. July 15, 1912, Mrs. A. E. Ballah, of Philippi, W. Va., complained that her corn had been ruined that year by this pest. Writing under date of February 1, 1912, from Brandon, Ky., Mr. Robert B. Parker, statistical agent, stated that corn was dam- aged 50 per cent in his part of the country by these worms. In some fields they had destroyed as high as 75 per cent of the crop. May 27, 1912, Mr. George G. Ainslie found a portion of a cornfield near Hurricane, Tenn., that had been damaged fully 95 per cent by these larve. Under date of December 4, 1912, Mr. G. M. Goforth, county demonstrator, writing from Lenoir, N. C., stated that this worm caused a loss of thousands of dollars every year in his (Caldwell) county. HABITS OF THE LARV. The actions of the very young larve are in a sense forecasted by the observations made by Quaintance on the method of oviposition. No one else appears to have observed the method of oviposition in the open fields, but Quaintance has found that the stylus-like ovi- positor of the female is pushed down into the soil to a depth of from one-eighth to one-fourth of an inch and held there until the egg is forced down the extensible oviduct. This requires usually but a few seconds, and after moving a short distance the beetle may deposit another eg@ in the same manner.t Quaintance further states that larvee, placed on the roots of corn at one end of a root cage, after the destruction of this corn made their way through the soil to a 1Mr. R. A. Vickery, in North Carolina, found that eggs were deposited in the soil by females in confinement without reference to the corn plants growing therein. 6 BULLETIN 5, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. plant 10 inches distant. He also observed that larvee may descend from 8 to 10 inches below the surface of the soil in search of food. These observations are substantiated by Mr. George G. Ainslie, who studied the habits of the larve in the field at Hurricane, Tenn., during May, 1912. In this case, upon digging up the injured corn plants he found that the roots and stem below the ground were grooved, furrowed, and perforated. In many instances there was a distinct perforation into the base of the plant which cut off the crown, thus destroying the central leaves. The larve were found either in the partly decayed kernel or along the underground stem in the earth. Only occasionally were the larve found with their heads in these holes in the stem. Mr. Ainslie experienced difficulty in find- ing these larvee, it being necessary to dig over the earth thoroughly for a considerable distance around each plant, some of the larvee being found 4 inches from the injured plant and at a depth of 3 or 4 inches. The author also had observed this habit in the young larvee in previous years, and there is always difficulty in reconciling the number of larvee one can obtain in badly infested fields with the damage clearly to be charged to them. In many cases the hole made in the plant is not clean-cut, as shown in figure 1, e, but has some- what the appearance of having been simply bruised. This is prob- ably the work of the young larve, while the clean-cut hole is the work of those individuals that are larger and more fully developed. The larvee of the species under consideration, aside from the work while very young, as described by Mr. Ainslie, eat directly through the outer walls of the base of the plant into the heart of the plant, usually just above the base of the roots, as shown in figure 1, e. The term “ rootworm ” is somewhat of a misnomer, because these larvee are not usually found in the roots, and as a rule do not feed within them, as is the case with the allied western corn rootworm (Dia- brotica longicornis). OVIPOSITION. The females, which have passed the winter in the adult stage, com- mence egg laying soon after the first warm weather of spring. The statement of Quaintance that the eggs are usually all deposited within the space of two or three days, while perhaps true as a rule, is not entirely borne out by the observations of others. For instance, Mr. R. A. Vickery at Brownsville, Tex., found that one female deposited 102 eggs during January 18, 19, and 20; another female deposited 22 egos, 9 on January 19 and 13 on January 28. There does, how- ever, appear to be a tendency on the part of the individual female to complete oviposition within a few days; and this feature in the life histcry is of considerable economic importance, as it shows that the egg-laying season for the individual in spring is not long drawn THE SOUTHERN CORN ROOTWORM, OR BUDWORM. 7 out and that therefore remedial measures will be more effective than they would be otherwise. It has been generally observed, however, as between different females, that some contain eggs much less ad- vanced than others, so that while the time required for the oviposition of a single individual may be very short, some individuals may have finished the process before others have begun. Even under such cir- cumstances the egg-laying period can not be said to be exceptionally protracted. SEASONAL HISTORY. While it is possible that the insect may occasionally pass the winter as larva or pupa these instances have been observed too rarely ‘to be considered otherwise than abnormal. Throughout the entire coun- try, from Brownsville, Tex., northward, the insect normally passes the cooler months in the anle stage. In southern Florida and southern Texas, ere the insect remains active throughout the winter, the generations are but indistinctly defined. Northward, however, the species has a definite period of hibernation. Mr. Vickery has observed the sexes pairing in North Coreline in November, and the author observed this at La Fayette, Ind., Sep- tember 18, 1888, while Mr. Kelly made a similar observation at Man- hattan, Kans. Mr. T. D. Urbahns found larve about half an inch in length in the roots of alfalfa at Mercedes, Tex., November 1, 1909, from which two adults developed November 19. Mr. Vickery has observed the males to fight each other most strenuously. From the foregoing it would seem that pairing may sometimes take place during the late fall prior to the spring oviposition. Cer- taim it is that many of the females are filled with fully developed egos in very early spring, and, as will be shown, they have been fre- quently swept from wheat and oats, where they were observed to be feeding, before corn has even been planted. This early appearance and feeding of the adults has been observed by Mr. Vickery at Winston-Salem, N. C., March 23, on rye, and at Statesville, N. C., March 29, on wheat; by Mr. Urbahns at Santa Maria, Tex., March 6, on oats; by Mr. George G. Ainslie at Nashville, Tenn., January 15, on wheat; and by Mr. C. N. Ainslie at Mesilla Park, N. Mex., April 1, on wheat. Adults were also observed by Mr. Urbahns at Mercedes, Tex., February 18, damaging young alfalfa by feeding on the leaves. At Lanes, Ga., March 3, and at Troy and Montgomery, Ala., March 5, they were observed by Mr. Vickery feeding on oats. Mr. George G. Ainslie observed them at Hunts- ville, Ala., April 14, feeding on oats; at Franklin, Tenn., February 15 to 18, feeding on wheat; and at Clemson College, S. C., February 20, feeding on oats. Quaintance reported that adults were in evi- 8 BULLETIN 5, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. dence at Experiment, Ga., March 12, and that they had become abundant on alfalfa by March 28.1 © While all of these data may at first seem of little consequence, they bear directly, as will appear later, on what now seems to be the planter’s only hope of eliminating the ravages of the pest in his cornfields. It is fair to suppose that these females deposit eggs in the fields as soon as there is food for the larve, and it is the larve from these eggs that become so destructive in the fields of young corn, especially in the South. The reason they are not equally in- jurious in the North may perhaps be that by the time oviposition begins in spring and the larve have hatched corn has become too advanced in growth to enable these young larve to penetrate the stem at the usual point of attack. Mr. Vickery, who followed the species through the season at Salis- bury, N. C., in 1909, settled the question of the number of generations that occur annually at that point, finding that there are two. All of the observations of the author and those of several of the men work- ing under his direction have shown that this is generally true throughout the country where the adult hibernates, but may not apply in the far South, where hibernation does not take place. Prof. Quaintance, at Experiment, in central Georgia, noted the first appearance of the larve attacking corn on May 2. The first pupa was found May 8, and the first adult, evidently of the new generation, May 12. Mr. C. L. Foster wrote as follows from Dalton, in northern Georgia, on July 30, 1910: T am mailing you a sample of worm that is causing great damuge to the corn crop of our country. When the corn plant is small these worms bore into the center of the stalk underneath the soil and kill the plant by destroying the “ud.” When the plants are larger they bore into some of the larger roots, but more generally into the stalks among the roots, which does not kill the plant outright, but injures it so that it rarely produces'\corn to amount to anything. The plat where these were found has been planted three times this season, and there are very few stalks now on the plat but what have been injured by the worms. The worms were not so plentiful on July 25 as they were on July 6, when the samples first sent you were collected. From the foregoing letter it would appear that the second genera- tion of larve were at work in late June and July in northern Georgia. Mr. George G. Ainslie studied the larvee, at that time 3 to 6 mill- meters in length, at Hurricane, Tenn., May 27 to 30, 1912. They must have been full grown by the latter date, as none could be found in the fields June 5, and a recently emerged adult was taken on June 14. The author observed full-grown larvee attacking late-planted corn at La Fayette, Ind., July 12, 1888, and in such enormous numbers 1 Loc. cit. | THE SOUTHERN CORN ROOTWORM, OR BUDWORM. ) as to enable him, two days later, to collect nearly 600 for experi- mentation. It was simply impossible that these could belong to the first generation, as he had frequently observed adults feeding on wheat in the fields in April and early May. One beetle was observed eating out the opening buds of a cherry tree, April 17, 1888. Be- sides, adults were secured in early August from these larve found attacking corn in July. Other adults were observed in the same locality feeding on volunteer oats, December 14, 1888. Clearly there are two generations in the latitude of northern Indiana. Prof. Quaintance, in central Georgia, found that in one case the period from egg to adult extended from March 14 to May 21, a total of 68 days. In another case this period extended only from April 25 to June 5, or 41 days. Mr. Kelly, at Wellington, Kans., found that the period from egg to adult was 40 to 45 days, while Mr. Vickery, at Salisbury, in western North Carolina, found that this period extended from August 27 or 29 to October 24, or about 58 days. From all available information it appears that the egg period varies greatly and may require from 7 to 24 days, the larval period from 15 to 35 days, and that of the pupa from 7 to 13 days. NATURAL ENEMIES. The Biological Survey has found Piabrotica 12-punctata in stom- achs of the following 24 species of birds: Bobwhite, Colinus vir- guvanus (found in 15 stomachs, one of which contained 12); scaled quail, Callipepla squamata; California quail, Lophortyx californi- cus; prairie chicken, Zympanuchus americanus; wild turkey, J/ele- agris gallopavo; yellow-bellied sapsucker, Sphyrapicus varius; red- headed woodpecker, Melanerpes erythrocephalus; nighthawk, Chor- deiles virginianus; scissor-tailed flycatcher, JMuscivora forficata; kingbird, Tyrannus tyrannus, phoebe, Sayornis phebe; wood pewee, Ayiochanes virens,; western flycatcher, Hmpidonax difficilis; Acadian flycatcher, Hmpidonax virescens; Traill’s flycatcher, H’mpidonaxr trailli,; least flycatcher, Lmpidonax minimus; red-winged blackbird, Agelaius pheniceus; meadowlark, Sturnella magna; Bullock’s oriole, Icterus bullocki; cardinal, Cardinalis cardinalis, rose-breasted gros- beak, Zamelodia ludoviciana, cliff swallow, Petrochelidon lunifrons ; white-eyed vireo, Vireo griseus; robin, Planesticus migratorius. The most efficient of the insect enemies of this pest is the fly Cela- toria diabrotice Shim. (fig. 2), the maggot of which develops within the body of the adult insect, killing its host. This parasite is not sufficiently abundant, however, to exert much influence in reducing the numbers of the insect. 1 Loe. cit. 10 BULLETIN 5, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. As far back in the past as 1888 the author found larvee of a click- beetle, Dasterius elegans Fab., a close relative of the wireworms, under circumstances that led him to suspect that they were feeding on the budworm. Since that time, also, they have been taken in association with the larve of this species and, though never observed in the act, it is not at all unlikely that they do feed upon and destroy the budworm. Mr. Ainslie also encountered them associated with the budworm in his investigations of the latter at Hurricane, Tenn. REMEDIAL AND PREVENTIVE MEASURES. After having made its way into the crown of the young corn plant there is no remedy for the work of the pest. The shoot is ruined past all recovery, and the plant will only throw up worthless “ suckers,” which produce no ears and scant fodder. Fertility of the soil, or the lack of this, does not appear to have any influence on the amount of damage produced. Garman? states that of the seriously ravaged fields of corn examined by him one had been grown to tobacco and an- other to oats the previous year, while a third had been devoted to corn. The ravaged fields observed in Louisiana and Arkansas by the author had all been de- Fic. 2.—Celatoria diabrotice, 1» voted to cotton the previous year. It pide eae ere would appear, therefore, that crop rota- enlarged. (From Chittenden.) tion has little if any effect in protecting fields of corn from the attack of the larve. In the light of all the information at this time available it would seem that the farmer’s only hope of relief from the ravages of this pest in the cornfields lies in so timing his planting in spring as not to subject his crop to severe attack. Quaintance, in central Georgia, secured eggs in March and April, 1900; Urbahns found young larve at Mercedes, Tex., March 1, 1909; George G. Ainslie observed larvee attacking oats at Jackson, Miss., April 20,1911. The author saw them damaging corn at Somerset Landing, La., April 12, 1887, and April 27, 1888; at Madison, Ark., May 12, 1888, and at Columbia, S. C., on May 4, 1906. At the last point the ravages of the larve were equally as serious as had been observed years before at Somerset Land- ing, La., and Madison, Ark., but at Columbia the writer was informed that corn planted after the middle of May escaped injury from the pest. Nearly all of the complaints of injuries from this budworm coming to us from the South refer to damage to the crop early in the season, March or April, although to the northward early May is 1 Psyche, vol. 9, p. 45, 1891. THE SOUTHERN CORN ROOTWORM, OR BUDWORM. lat included. It would seem, therefore, that there might be a possibility of preventing much of the loss to corn growers in that section of the country by planting corn at a date that would bring the young plants above ground at a time after most of the eggs had been deposited, and not so late as to invite attack from the second generation, which is evidently abroad in the fields in late June and early July in north- ern Georgia and in July in northern Indiana. Unfortunately heretofore the bureau has had neither the funds nor the men to carry out an extended investigation of this insect through- out its range of destruction. Now, with field laboratories at Colum- bia, S. C.; Nashville, Tenn.; Greenwood, Miss.; Brownsville, -Tex. ; and a temporary field station at Lakeland, Fla.—all equipped for this sort of work and in the hands of experienced men—we hope, with the cooperation of farmers and planters, to learn definitely whether it is not possible through practical measures to prevent the greater part of these ravages, and save or greatly reduce the losses caused by the budworm, DDITIONAL COPIES ofthis publication may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1913 cae mee oh a a i ’ BULLETIN OF THE ) USDEPARTNENT OPAGRICULTURE *, Y No. 6 E) Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. September 19, 1913. THE AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF ACID LANDS BY MEANS OF ACID-TOLERANT CROPS. By FREDERICK VY. CovVILLE, Boténist in Charge of Economic and Systematic Botany. INTRODUCTION. In the past 20 years farmers have witnessed the development of what may be called a lime-and-clover literature and the growth of a corresponding agricultural practice. The scientific researches of various investigators published from 1867 to 1888 had demon- strated that leguminous plants through the bacteria of their root tubercles were able to take nitrogen from the atmosphere and that when a crop of these plants was plowed under the land was enriched as if by a corresponding application of manure. In the northeastern United States the principal leguminous plant used in crop rotations had been red clover. The scientific con- firmation of the popular belief that this plant had high value as a green manure greatly stimulated its use, the customary procedure being to plow under the clover turf after taking off one or two cut- tings for hay. It was found, however, that if the land is acid in its chemical reaction red clover makes but feeble growth. If the chemical reaction is neutral or slightly alkaline and other conditions are favorable, heavy crops of red clover are produced. This con- sideration greatly extended the practice of applying lime, in order to neutralize the acidity of the soil and thus increase the manurial use of clover in crop rotations, over large areas of the older lands of the eastern United States. Jt was found also that timothy, the chief hay grass of this region, was much longer hved and more productive in acid land when limed, and that wheat, one of the principal cereals, yielded much more heavily when treated in the same manner. Within the last few years the attempt in the acid East to cultivate alfalfa, the great hay crop of the alkaline West, has conveyed the same lesson in a still more striking manner, for alfalfa can not be grown satisfactorily in -any soil, however fertile, which has an acid reaction. When grown 6183°—13 vr BULLETIN 6, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the eastern United States alfalfa is net successful, except on calcareous soils, unless the natural acidity of the soil has been neu- tralized by suitable applications of lime. One result of this advocacy of lime has been that in our anxiety to neutralize our acid soils and thus make them yield larger crops of such staples as clover, timothy, wheat, and alfalfa we have neg- lected to recognize clearly and to utilize the fact that some agri- cultural plants thrive as well in an acid soil as in an alkaline soil, or even better. It is proposed to discuss in this bulletin the bearing of soil acidity on agriculture and to direct attention to the utilization of part of our cheap acid lands through the development of rota- tions in which all the crops are acid tolerant, and the cost of making frequent and heavy applications of lime is therefore eliminated. These considerations are especially pertinent in sections where lime is expensive because of the remoteness of good commercial deposits of limestone. Where lime is not expensive the use of applications sufficiently heavy to neutralize the acidity of the soil is unques- lionably profitable for many of the staple agricultural crops. SOURCE OF SOIL ACIDITY. One of the principal sources of soil acidity is decaying vegetation. | The fallen leaves that carpet the floor of a forest are exceedingly | acid. Freshly fallen leaves of some of our common trees show the following degrees of acidity, expressed in tons of ground limestone required per acre to neutralize a compact layer 6 inches in depth, estimated to weigh when dry 500,000 pounds, one-fourth as much as ordinary soil. TABLE I.—Acidity of freshly fallen leaves, in terms of lime requirement per acre. 1 ) vi Kind of leaves. Acidity. Kind of leaves. Acidity. Tons. Tons. Wihite Oak ta 22h ese eee eee eee eee 25))|||Sugar meiole see = eee eee eee 22 Riedtoalk:. Ji 6. yd soo: Seeks Ae ea 16}'||| Dilip tree: 5 eae eee ee eee 14 SilvernMaple sss. . ane ope eee PAM) Wanrrauitont:), ps2 ao. = 5/)- 5555 55225-254-4- 22 It is well known to farmers that on newly cleared timberland, not burned over, most crops do not grow well at first.. A few, however, thrive in such situations, notably rye, buckwheat, and potatoes. All these are known to be acid tolerant. Table I, although represent- ing conditions of acidity in excess of that actually existing in a cleared field, shows one of the sources of the acidity with which the plants have to contend and which is fatal to crops that are not acid tolerant. Another source of pronounced acidity in newly cleared timberlands is the freshly killed roots of the trees and underbrush. 1 These acidity determinations were made by Mr. G. II. Baston, of the Bureau of Plant Industry, using phenolphthalein as an indicator, after boiling off the carbon dioxid. AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF ACID LANDS. 3 It is also well known to farmers that, after a few years’ prelimi- hary culture in rye, potatoes, and buckwheat, virgin timberland with its humus-laden soil of a century’s accumulation from rotting leaves and roots will sometimes produce heavy crops of timothy, wheat, and clover for one or two generations. The success of these crops shows that the soil has ceased to be acid. Again, when the store of humus derived from the forest has finally been exhausted after long years of ceaseless cropping, these soils revert to a condition of acidity, when lime is regarded as necessary to further agricultural prosperity. What is this peculiarity of forest leaves by which they make the soil at one time acid, at another alkaline? It is worth while to.con- sider this question, for its answer will throw new lght on the prac- tice of agriculture. DECOMPOSITION OF LEAVES. A layer of freshly fallen leaves on bare ground, moistened by rain, begins at once to decompose. A brown liquid leaches out of the leaves into the underlying soil. This liquid is acid. If the soil itself is naturally acid, its acidity is increased by these leachings. If the soil is sand, neutral in chemical reaction, it 1s made acid by the leachings from the leaves. But if the soil is alkaline from the presence of carbonate of lime, as in the case of ordinary loam of high fertility, the acidity of the leaf water is neutralized and its brown matter is precipitated, forming a portion of the black humus of the soil. On such an alkaline soil leaves decay rapidly from beneath and form a black, mellow, and very fertile leaf mold in which all traces of leaf structure have disappeared. Under such con- ditions the layer of leaf litter is always thin, often not lasting through the summer, and the transition from leaves to underlying mold is abrupt. In sand, however, there is no such acid-neutralizing substance, and both soil and leaves remain in an acid condition unfavorable to complete decay. The next year a fresh fall of leaves brings a new accession of acidity, and the acid condition of the leaf litter becomes permanent. In a sandy oak or pine woods there is thus built up a tough mat of upland peat often several imches in thickness, com- posed of half-rotted leaves interlaced with the rootlets of trees and underbrush. Such peat mats are always acid, like ordinary bog peat. Cne might conclude from what has been said that leaves unless treated with lime would remain acid throughout the process of decomposition. Such a conclusion, however, would be erroneous. Leaves when sufficiently decayed lose their acidity and of them- selves produce a black mold that is not merely neutral in reaction, but sometimes markedly alkaline. 4 BULLETIN 6, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. CHANGE FROM ACIDITY TO ALKALINITY. The reason for this change from acidity to alkalinity hes primarily in the chemical composition of the leaves. From the beginning they are heavily charged with lime, as the following determinations in Table IT will show:* TABLE II.—Percentage of lime in freshly fallen leaves, in terms of calcium car- bonate, or ground limestone. = oon Percentage | rs 7 Fperentaee Ixind of leaves. wR. | Kind of leaves. | of limes: | | White Oak. << 9.25325 222- ose oases 1.12 | Sugarmaples cheese eee eee 4.56 Rigg 0 aie Sues a ee ot ese eves ae 3.08) MBlip trees. 2 -=eeeate so Smee eee ene ae 5.06 Silver Maple ee sere ee eee eee 3. 31 | VALSINI a PIN el Sete nae ne eee eee 16 Soils containing such high percentages of lime as these leaves would be markedly alkaline, yet the leaves, as shown by the table on page 2, are strongly acid. It is evident from a consideration of both facts that the lime existing in the fresh leaves has gone into combina- tion with their acid substances to the full extent of its ability to neu- tralize them, and that the acidity recorded on page 2 represents the acid substances in the leaves in excess of the amount already neutral- ized by the lime. As the decomposition of the leaves progresses these excess acid substances are leached out or disorganized, the lime itself is released from its combinations, and a stage is reached where the lime is more than sufficient in amount to neutralize the remaining acidity. The mass has become an alkaline leaf mold. This change from acidity to alkalinity is often hastened by the development through bacteria of ammonia or other substances having an alkaline reaction. The rapidity with which different kinds of leaves pass from the acid to the alkaline stage varies exceedingly. Leaves of silver maple in some tests have rotted so rapidly as to reach the alkaline state within a year. Red-oak leaves remain acid for several years, and pine leaves for many years. ACIDITY OF GREEN MANURES. Acidity determinations of several of the plants that are commonly plowed under for green manure give the following results, expressed in the weight of ground limestone that would be required per acre to neutralize a compact layer 6 inches in thickness. 1 These lime determinations were made by Mr. J. fF. Breazeale, of the Bureau of Chem- istry, from duplicates of the same samples from which the acidity determinations on page 2 were made. eee ea ee AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF ACID LANDS. 5 TapsLe III.—Acidity of green-manure crops to the acre, in terms of lime require- ment per acre. Crop. | Acidity. | Crop. Acidity. | 13 | RV CREE ites alt. ey ae f 11 OA ABTOOMNIBSCO RO ee oe eno conc cee ee ee ae | iL The excessive acidity of these green manures at the time they are first plowed under may be more clearly appreciated when one consid- ers that the application of 2 to 3 tons of ground limestone per acre usually satisfies the requirements of an ordinary acid soil. The initial acidity of these green manures is thus shown to be several times that of an equal bulk of ordinary acid soil. In the process of decomposition, however, green manures, like the leaves already de- seribed, tend to pass from an acid to an alkaline state, but at rates which have not yet been determined. The lime requirement of green manures as given in Table III must not be understood as the amount of lime actually required to neutralize the acidity of a crop of these plants when plowed under. A compact 6-inch layer of green manure would never be used in actual practice, but a much smaller amount, as estimated in Table IV. This table gives the estimated weight of the dry crop per acre, roots as well as tops; the amount of lime in the crop, expressed in terms of ground limestone; and the acidity, in terms of the additional amount of ground limestone required to neutralize the initial acidity. TABLE LV.—Weight, lime content, and acidity of green manures to the acre. Acidity, expressed Crop. Weight. Lime content. as lime require- ment. Tons. Pounds. Pounds. IM ee ees Ss ee Le bese see 24 139 267 Cont GIOWGI ob eo pean Ee ee ae eee 2 131 142 AW PRGBic 2 cs Seed ee pl 2s 92 200 I Ge anc be oe 2 11 178 PETER E CO Cerner =F aun Ak LES ee Gl: oe 1 4 89 INJURIOUS EFFECTS OF ACIDITY. Although science can not be said to have demonstrated the full details of the various ways in which ordinary crops are injured by — soil acidity, there is known to be one important chemical process which is suspended under acid conditions, namely, the transforma- tion of “unavailable” nitrogen into the form of nitrates. The nitrifying bacteria do not thrive in acid media. In consequence, those crops that require their nitrogen in the form of nitrates suffer 6 BULLETIN 6, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. from nitrogen starvation when growing in acid humus. For such crops the neutralization of the acidity by lime is of vital impor- tance, for not until this is done can the nitrogen of the humus, how- ever abundant, be changed into nitrates. Whatever other direct injurious effect acidity may have on crops, the fact that it checks the nitrification of humus is of itself sufficiently important and sig- nificant to justify all the investigation that the subject has received. SOURCE OF NITROGEN FOR ACID-LAND PLANTS. ‘There is another phase of the acidity question. Many plants thrive in soils which are acid and which therefore theoretically can produce no nitrates. There are three possible methods by which these plants may secure their nitrogen: (1) Although a sample of soil when tested as a whole shows an acid reaction, there may exist in it innumerable minute tracts, sur- rounding particles of lime, where the reaction is alkaline and where nitrates are in process of manufacture. It is to be hoped that inves- tigators will find some means to determine the possibility of such a method of nitrogen nutrition in acid soils. (2) Many acid soils contain a large amount of nitrogen in the form of ammonia, and while hitherto scientific opinion has been much divided over the question whether ordinary crop plants can utilize ammonia nitrogen directly, without transformation by bacteria into nitrates, careful chemical investigation under such conditions as to eliminate the possibility of bacterial action should enable us to determine which of our crop plants can feed on ammonia nitrogen and which can not. Intelligent agriculture needs this information. (3) It is conceivable that a crop plant might utilize nitrogen that existed in organic form in the humus of the soil, having not yet reached the ammonia stage of decomposition. It is agreed by plant physiologists that ordinary plants, those bearing green foliage, are unable to do this. It is also agreed by plant physiologists that fungi not only can but habitually do use organic nitrogen. These two facts warrant the consideration of a remarkable partnership that exists between certain leaf-bearing plants and certain fungi, a partnership the significance of which has only recently begun to be appreciated by botanists and is almost unknown in agricultural literature. The subject is well illustrated in the blueberry. The possibility of the culture of this wild berry has been under investigation for several years, the experiments having now reached a successful conclusion.* 1Experiments in Blueberry Culture, United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 198, 1910; also Directions for Blueberry Culture, United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Circular 122, pages 3 to 11, 1913. AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF ACID LANDS. t THE MYCORHIZAL FUNGI. It has been found that the blueberry requires an acid soil, that it grows luxuriantly in a mixture of peat and sand containing nitrates in extremely minute quantities, if, indeed, they are present at all. The plant bears upon its roots a fungus the microscopic threads of which lie partly on the outside of the root, but penetrate also into the living interior. While the experimental results can not as yet be regarded as furnishing an absolute proof, the evidence strongly indi- eates that the fungus takes up organic nitrogen from the abundant supply existing in the peat and delivers it to the plant in some available form. 22h These mycorhizal fungi exist on the roots of many wild plants inhabiting acid peat. The extent to which they occur on the roots of cultivated plants that grow in acid soil is not yet known. It can hardly be doubted, however, that many such plants will ultimately be found to take their nitrogen through these fungi. Other acid- land plants will doubtless be found to possess the ability to use nitro- gen in the form of ammonia without the help of fungi. This outline of the probable means of nitrogen assimilation in acid-land plants prepares the way for the following survey of crops adapted to acid soils. ; CROPS ADAPTED TO ACID SOILS. BLUEBERRY. The blueberry, to which allusion has already been made, gives every indication of adaptability to commercial culture, now that its soil requirements and its peculiarities of nutrition are known. The establishment of a blueberry-growing industry will mean the utiliza- tion of sandy, acid lands in the pine barrens of New Jersey and similar situations now regarded as almost useless agriculturally. CRANBERRY. The cranberry is an acid-land fruit. It has a root fungus similar to that of the blueberry and doubtless of the same importance to the welfare of the plant. The lands used for cranberry culture are of a special kind, with such an excess of moisture and acidity that in comparatively few instances would they have been used for any other agricultural purpose. STRAWBERRY. The strawberry is now coming to be recognized as a plant that. thrives as well, if not a little better, in soils having an acid reaction. The grower who appreciates this characteristic of the strawberry is relieved of the expense of applying lime to his land unless required _by other plants in his crop rotation. 8 BULLETIN 6, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BLACKBERRY, RASPBERRY, AND BLACKCAP. The blackberry, the American red raspberry, and the blackcap are found wild in acid soils and all thrive in cultivation in such land if the ground is well supplied with humus. POTATO. The potato has long been recognized as yielding especially well when grown on a newly turned sod or on newly cleared land, condi- tions which are now recognized as productive of acidity as well as a later increase of humus. The potato, moreover, furnishes one phe- nomenon of special interest to acid-land agriculture. The potato scab, a disease which reduces the size of the tubers, injures their ap- pearance, and lessens their value, is controlled without difficulty if the soil reaction is acid. The disease is caused by a fungus known as Oospora scabies, the growth of which is inhibited by acidity. SWEET POTATO. - The sweet potato, the cultivation of which extends as far north as New Jersey, yields heavily in acid soils. In the South it is the standard vegetable on such lands. RYE. Rye is a cereal that grows almost as well on acid as on nonacid soils. It is the characteristic grain on the reclaimed acid heather lands of northern Europe. In the United States it is found par- ticularly useful as a cover crop on areas subject to washing in winter, whether the rye is later cut for hay, or plowed under for green manure, or harvested for its grain. OATS. Asa grain for spring sowing, oats do well in acid soils, though this crop is not so acid tolerant as millet. It is often useful in rotations where the crop of the preceding summer can not be harvested early enough to permit the successful sowing of a winter cover crop like rye, MILLET. The different varieties of foxtail millet, including common millet, German millet, and Hungarian millet, are strongly acid tolerant. As they are also drought resistant and reach maturity in a remark- ably short period, they are useful for summer sowing in land tem- porarily vacant between the more important crops of a rotation. BUCKWHEAT. Buckwheat is well known asa pioneer crop on newly cleared timber- land. Its reputation also as a crop for worn-out lands is another AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF ACID LANDS g indication of its resistance to acidity, for such lands are usually acid. If, however, the mineral food is actually insufficient and there is no humus from which nitrogen can be extracted, one can not reasonably expect a heavy yield, even from buckwheat. The plant can with- stand acidity, but not starvation besides. A reasonable amount of humus, such as is easily provided by plowing under a good legumi- nous crop, will ordinarily result in heavy yields of buckwheat. REDTOP. The principal grasses of ordinary agriculture, notably bluegrass and timothy, do poorly in acid land. To this general rule, however, there is one notable exception, redtop. This grass often reaches a luxuriant development in markedly acid lands. The stem growth of redtop, however, is so ight compared with that of timothy that it is not recommended as a substitute so far as the production of hay is concerned, but, like bluegrass, its bottom growth is heavy and it makes an excellent pasture. CORN. Corn yields well under acid conditions if the soil is well provided with humus and the usual mineral nutrients. It may be regarded as a plant having a fair degree of acid tolerance. \ CARROT. The carrot, as might readily be inferred from its common occur- rence as a weed in old and worn-out fields, is decidedly tolerant of acidity. It grows almost equally well in either type of soil. TURNIP. The common turnip produces good though probably not maximum yields on acid land, differing in this respect from the rutabaga, or Swedish turnip, which yields well! only in neutral or alkaline soils. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS FOR ACID SOILS. While the crop plants thus far enumerated furnish material for such agricultural necessities as grain, grain hay, fodder, root crops, cover crops, pasturage, and small fruits, they do not supply the nitrogenous green manures which are necessary to the maintenance of soil fertility under most agricultural conditions and which are _ satisfactorily derived only from leguminous plants. It is admitted that in acid-land agriculture red clover, the ordinary green-manure crop, is not available for this purpose. What, then, are the legumi- nous plants which will produce in an acid soil a heavy growth of tops equal in value to red clover for plowing under as green manure ? The answer is, cowpea and hairy vetch. Crimson clover, soy bean, Jupine, and serradella are also useful under certain conditions. 10 BULLETIN 6, U. S, DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COWPEA. For a century the cowpea, of many varieties, has been the chief leguminous crop of the Southern States, grown for hay, for its edible seeds, and as a green manure. Only recently has its resistance to acidity been recognized. The experiment stations have carried the plant much farther north in the past few years, until now some of the varieties are in successful cultivation in Massachusetts, New York, and Michigan. Sometimes the yield of tops is so dense and heavy that only by the use of special attachments to the plow can the’crop be turned under. SOY BEAN. The soy bean is of much more recent introduction into the United States than the cowpea. In its tolerance of acidity the soy bean probably equals the cowpea, and it has two points of superiority. It grows farther north and its yield of seed is much greater, often being as high as 30 bushels per acre. Some of the varieties have been grown with success as far north as New. Hampshire, Ontario, and Wisconsin. The seed of the soy bean has one remarkable char- acteristic. It contains no starch, but about 35 per cent of nitroge- nous matter. Such a composition ought to give these beans a special value in rations for cattle. -Within tne climatic limits of its profit- able cultivation this ee mney prove to be exceedingly valuable on the acid dairy farms of New England, where enormous sums are spent for the purchase of southern and western nitrogenous cattle feeds. HAIRY VETCH. Hairy vetch differs in one conspicuous feature from the cowpea and soy bean. Both these plants are sown in the spring or early summer and mature and die in the fall of the same year, but the hairy vetch is what is known as a winter annual. It is sown in late summer, germinates at once, passes the winter as a small plant, makes a heavy growth in the following spring, and matures its seed in early summer. It so closely. accords in season with rye that the two form an ideal mixture when the rye is to be plowed under for green manure or cut for early hay. CRIMSON CLOVER. Crimson clover is a leguminous plant that does well in sandy soils from New Jersey southward. It appears to be tolerant of acidity and may come to be definitely recognized as a plant of this class. The seed is sown in late summer, becomes well established before winter, makes a luxuriant growth in early spring, and is ready for the scythe or the plow in May. AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF ACID LANDS. 11 Further experimentation will doubtless result in important add- tions to this list. It is especially desirable that additional legumi- nous plants be found that are hardy far north and otherwise satisfac- tory in rotations. Lupine and serradella, both much employed in the ereat potato-growing districts of Pomerania and other portions of north Germany, ought to be useful in this country, but thus far they have not found favor, perhaps because of the poisonous qualities of Inupine and the rather light yield of serradella. ACID-TOLERANT CROPS IN ROTATION. From the data already given, the farmer who desires to try ar experiment in acid-land agriculture will be able to select the crops that will give him the rotation suited to the requirements of the par- ticular kind of agriculture in which he is engaged. Some of these crop plants are comparatively new and require special handling as to the best time and manner of sowing. When grown for the first time the leguminous plants require soil inoculation with the special bacteria of their root tubercles. Rotations made up from the acid-tolerant crops described above have been very successful on some of the sandy, acid farms in Mary- land, a few miles northeast of Washington. The trees in one newly planted orchard of Grimes Golden apples have been kept in a remarkable condition of growth by one initial application of manure in the year of. their planting, succeeded by the following rotation: In May the ground is sowed to cowpeas. “These are plowed under in September and followed immediately by the sowing of rye mixed with hairy vetch. In the following May the mixed crop is plowed under. The same one-year rotation has been followed year after year. Under this treatment the soil, which has the appearance of almost pure sand, has become so fertile without the application of lime, commercial fertilizer, or manure that an oceasional crop of cowpeas has been cut for hay without serious interference with the progress of the orchard. Another successful combination is a one-year rotation of corn and erimson clover by which a heavy yield of corn is produced every year without lime or fertilizer in a soil that looks almost like beach sand. The land, which is gently sloping, is ridged in contours at each interval of 2 feet in elevation, the corn rows being parallel to the contour next above them. The crop of crimson clover with the corn stubble is plowed under in April a little before corn-planting time. In August after the last cultivation of the corn the crimson clover is sown between the rows. The seeds germinate so readily that when broadcasted a hght shower will start them off. If dry _ weather follows before they have had time to send their roots deep 12 BULLETIN 6, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. enough to reach the permanently moist soil beneath the dry surface layer, the young plants promptly die. It is safer, therefore, either to sow the seed with a drill or to broadcast it during a heavy rain, which will beat the seed into the ground and at the same time fur- nish sufficient moisture to carry the young plants through the period of danger from drought. The turning under of heavy leguminous crops on these sandy soils restocks the land with humus and the humus decomposes to such a stage that a condition of partial or temporary alkalinity appears at times to have been reached, for good crops of even such nonacid plants as wheat and timothy are sometimes secured from these natu- rally acid lands after the treatment here described. BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF SOIL ACIDITY. An actual beneficial effect from soil acidity is likely to be felt in another direction hitherto insufficiently recognized, namely, the con- trol of some of the fungous diseases of cultivated plants. Reference has already been made (p. 8) to the fact that the fungus causing the scab of the potato can not grow if the soil reaction is acid. Another example is furnished by the root-rot of the tobacco plant, caused by a fungus named Thielavia basicola. Briggs has shown that this disease is prevalent in tobacco plantations that have re- celved excessive applications of lime or other alkaline fertilizers an that it is readily controlled by the use of acid fertilizers. In Porto Rico the extension of the pineapple industry has been retarded by a disease known as chlorosis, the principal external mark of which is the yellowing of the foliage and the consequent poor nutrition of the plant. Fronr investigations by Gile and by Loew it appears that the yellow color of the leaves and the accom- panying weakness of the plant are due to the lack of iron, and that where the soil contains an excess of lime the organic acids which are needed to dissolve the iron of the soil are themselves neutralized and the iron, although present, is not available for absorption by the pineapple roots. In the upbuilding of the agriculture of the aati Western States certain diseases of plants have appeared which are commonly called by plant physiologists cases of “ malnutrition.” The causes of these maladies are unknown. The maladies themselves, however, are asso- ciated with pronounced alkalinity of the soil and they occur in plants that were native in humid regions where the soil varies from weak alkalinity to actual acidity. May it not be worth while for investigators to ascertain whether some of these mysterious “ mal- nutrition ” difficulties can not be remedied by an acid treatment of the soil? _— | There is one other feature of the acid-soil question which merits the serious consideration of agriculturists. Recent investigators have shown that various fungi are able to fix and feed upon the nitrogen of the atmosphere, just as do the bacteria of the clover root tubercles and certain free bacteria of alkaline and neutral soils. One Swiss investigator, Charlotte Ternetz, has isolated from acid soils several fungi in which this faculty not only occurs but is Geveloped to a high degree of efficiency. It has not yet been fully demon- strated that true mycorhizal fungi possess this faculty of nitrogen fixation, but there is much evidence that they do. Should this be- come definitely established, agriculture must recognize in the my- corhizal fungi a direct and powerful means of adding to the store of available nitrogen, and the culture of mycorhizal plants in acid soils will have a significance far beyond the mere value of the crops produced by them. AGRICULTURAL UTILIZATION OF ACID LANDS. ils: CONCLUSION. In closing this paper the writer desires to impress on agricultural investigators (1) that soil acidity is not always an objectionable condition which invariably requires an application of hme, (2) that under certain economic conditions a complete system of acid-land agriculture is practicable and desirable, and (3) that. the extent to which our cheap eastern acid lands can be utilized with small appli- cations of lime, or under some conditions without its use, is a legiti- — mate and important subject for detailed investigation, from which may reasonably be expected results of far-reaching economic im- portance. SP ETTO MENG COPIES of this publication may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1913 aie No. 7 October 18, 1913. AGRICULTURAL TRAINING COURSES FOR EMPLOYED TEACHERS With a Suggested Reading Course in Agriculture Based on Farmers’ Bulletins. By Evwin R. Jackson, Assistant in Agricultural Education. INTRODUCTION. Perhaps the most noteworthy feature in the educational progress of the Nation during recent years has been the development of agri- cultural education, particularly in the public schools. From May, 1910, to March, 1912, the total number of institutions giving courses in agriculture increased from 863 to 2,575, or at the rate of more than 76 each month; and this increase is found almost entirely in schools of the secondary grade. This does not take into account the vast number of elementary and rural schools into which some instruction in agriculture has been introduced of which no definite record is obtainable, but of which there must be an enormous number, since in at least 19 States agriculture is required by law to be taught in the common schools. It is altogether probable that the spread of agricultural mstruc- tion would have been even more rapid had it not been for the diffi- culty which has been encountered in procuring teachers able to give instruction in the subject. Responding to the demand for teachers of agriculture, the normal schools are very generally introducing courses in agriculture, while many of the agricultural colleges, on the other hand, are offermg special courses for teachers. This has resulted in providing a limited number of trained teachers—hardly enough, however, to supply the needs of the secondary schools and special schools of agriculture. Few, indeed, of the normal or col- lege trained teachers find employment in the rural common schools. 1 The Statesin which agriculture is required to be taught either in all common schools or at least in rural schools are Alabama, Arkansas, Georgia, lowa, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri, North Carolina, North Dakota, Oklahoma, Ohio, Oregon, South Carolina, South Dakota, Tennessee, Texas, Washington, West Virginia, and Wisconsin. In some of these States the subject is not required by legislative act, but is put into the required course of study prescribed by the State superintendent of public instruction pursuant to authority of law. In addition to these, Idaho, Pennsylvania, and Utah require agriculture taught in all rural high schools. 0773°—Bull. 7—13——1 2 BULLETIN 7, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The result is that while there has been a widespread demand for the teaching of agriculture in the rural schools, the teachers who are found in these schools are generally poorly equipped to give such instruction. Added to the urgent demand from the schools themselves that teachers should have training in agriculture, there has been the spur of legislation in some 19 States in which an examination in agricul- ture is now one of the prerequisites for obtaining a teachers’ cer- tificate.' Thus it will be seen that one of the most urgent things which now needs to be done in order to promote the development of agricultural education is to provide better means of training teachers in agri- _ culture. This need is especially urgent in the case of teachers already in service in elementary schools. The widespread movement toward the development of teacher-training courses in high schools and the parallel growth of agricultural courses in these schools will undoubtedly result in a few years in producing teachers for the com- mon schools who have had considerably more training, both profes- sionally and in scientific agriculture, than those now in service. The immediate need, therefore, seems to be to provide means by which teachers now engaged in regular school work, who have not had the opportunity to study agriculture, and who can not afford to take a year or more away from their employment in order to pursue a course of study at an agricultural school, may still receive a working knowl- edge of the subject in order to keep abreast of the times, as well as to comply with the requirements of the law in those States where agriculture must be taught. With a view to ascertaiming just what means are now open to em- ployed teachers, by which they may acquire agricultural training and at the same time continue in service, this office has undertaken an investigation of the subject among the educational institutions of the country, and the report of this investigation is included in this bulletin. MEANS BY WHICH EMPLOYED TEACHERS MAY ACQUIRE AGRICULTURAL TRAINING. i SUMMER COURSES. Without doubt the most popular as weil as the most efficient means of giving training to employed teachers are the summer courses offered by the colleges and normal schools, and a large proportion of these include more or less complete courses in agriculture. Since these summer sessions are almost without exception intended spe- cifically for the benefit of teachers, it follows that in the majority of 1 These States are: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Georgia, Kansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Missouri. Nebraska, North Carolina, North Dakota (optional), Ohio, Oklahoma, South Carolina (may be required for county certificates), Tennessee, Texas, Virginia (optional), West Virginia, and Wisconsin. AGRICULTURAL TRAINING FOR EMPLOYED TEACHERS. cases courses are presented which aim to help teachers in elementary and secondary schools in the teaching of agriculture, particular attention being given to the pedagogy of the subject. ; Most of the summer sessions continue for at least six weeks. Some are in session for as long as 10 or even 12 weeks. In some it is possi- ble for the student of agriculture who wishes to specialize in that sub- ject to have two lessons each day in agriculture, thus completing in 6 weeks, for example, what amounts to 12 weeks’ work. In most of the. institutions of college grade college credit is allowed for work done at the summer session. In two or three institutions the regular school session continues throughout the summer, the faculty, equip- ment, and methods of the summer quarter being the same as during any other term of the school year. For the teacher who cares to sacrifice the possible pleasures of the vacation period for the oppor- tunity of self-improvement, and who can afford the expense, the ad- _ vantages of the summer school over any form of nonresident study are obvious. The instruction is usually of a high class; there are the inspiration and enthusiasm which come from association with others interested in the same line of work; and.there are usually adequate equipment and apparatus for laboratory and field work, since the sessions are held at some established college or normal school, so that its entire plant is available to the summer students. The following is a list of institutions maintaining summer courses in agriculture : List of institutions maintaining courses in agriculture in summer sessions. State. Institution. Locaticn. Nature of course offered. PADMA «262. - 5-255 | Agricultural and Mechanical | Normal........--. FE]. agr. for teachers. | College for Negroes. " | Alabama Polytechnic Insti- | Auburn........... El, agr., teaching agr., and gar- : tute. dening. Howard College..............- as tlakenes 2 nee Tuskegee Institute (colored)...| Tuskegee Insti- | Several courses in gen. agr. tute. University of Alabama.......- Uiniversitvaees ses: El. and sec. agr., biological nat. study, 6 wks iA phoebe SMS INommmblls ovat ackeceaawac Comweyycsceccego: El. agr. California........-. State Normal School.......... Sein IDO) | sce El. agr., methods of agr. instr., 6 wks. University of California....... Berkeleyees ss see ae El. and sec. agr.; also grad. work. Several special courses | for teachers,6 wks. _ glorado cs: .2 225.5 Colorado Agricultural College. .| Fort Collins.....-. Gen. agr. and gardening, 6 wks. Denver Normal School. -..-....- ID GONG oes cadsose El. and sec. agr., 6 wks. Connecticut........ Agricultural College..........- SiCODES sane es Nature study and agr. for teachers, 4 wks. PNOMG Ao = 2--- 2.2 Normalinstitute: 25-6 sce. Me diSonmene sas El. agr. ollims (Colle ceeeeeenn 25 seer Winter Park. ._... BED OLO Ive oe) University of Georgia......... INTO O RS ee eae Neture study, el. and sec. agr., 5 wks. 1160) ene Lewiston State Normal School.} Lewiston......--- El. agr. and gardening. State Normal School. -......_-- INNO soe Seen eS _ Agr. for teachers. University of Idaho..-..-..... WIGQS@OMsececcceecc Agr. for teachers in el. and sec. . schools, 6 wks. MUITIO IS eee ks Northern Illinois State Nor- | De Kalb.........- El. agr. and nature study for mal School. : teachers. State Normal University...... Nonmialiee senses Two 6 wk. sessions, el. and sec. agr., agrl.nat.study. A series of 6 courses offered; 2 each year for 3 years. = BULLETIN 7, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. List of institutions maintaining courses in agriculture in summer sessions—Continued. Nature of course offered. State. Institution. Location. Tilinois .....- Seas State University .<.--=-.2-.-- Unbanaeeseee seer Several courses in gen. agr. and. | special courses for teachers. Western Illinois State Normal | Macomb......-..- Agr. for teachers of el. and sec. School. schools. indianenesseer es =e Central Normal College... .-..-- Danville =aeeeeee= 12 wk. course, el. agr. GoshentGollesessa ss. eee Goshen@==eeesses= Several courses for teachers. ifanover Collegenessssse-e eee: Elanoverseer eee ee Gen. ae with lab. and field work. Muncie Normal Institute... ..-- Mun cies =e eeeseae Gen. agr. courses. Purdue University.--..+.-:--- Iba) Payette:---=-=- Several gen. agr., courses for teachers, 6 wks. TOW soe ene One State College of Agriculture |; Ames...........-. Several courses, gen. agr. and , and Mechanic Arts. agrl. pedagogy. State Teachers’ College. .....-- Cedar Falls... ..- El. agr. for teachers, 6 wks. Upper lowa University-....-.-- Have tiCse- ee esesee Heer and gardening, agrl. chem. Rabon Colle: eeee==sseeseeEee er Tabor... aeeeeoeeee Lectures in agr., gardening. Western Normal College... -.- Shenandoah.......| El. agr. IRGNSAS# casccee eee State Agricultural College... .. Manhattan........ Gen. agr., agr. for rural teach- ers, 6 wks. State Manual Training Nor- | Pittsburg......... FE). agr. mal School. ; : State Normal School. .:..-..-- IDWANOMA =< aacisens Gen. agr., gardening, methods of teaching agr. Western State Normal School.| Hays...........-- El. agr. for teachers, 9 wks. University of Kansas.......-- Wanyiien Ce eee Two courses only, sci. basis of agr. and insect life, no gen. : ager. offered. iKentuckyeene seer SHBG) WiaihyGrRSliN7s os cssoccecs: eine tOneaeeeeee Agr. for teachers. Western Kentucky State Nor- | Bowling Green....| Nat. study and el. agr., 6 wks. mal School. Wowisianaese eee State Normal School....--...- Natchitoches. -..-- School in session throughout the year. Agr. taught in summer quarter,3mos. Also special summer normal, 6 wks. for teachers. SUA) WHOLIS, > ooo acescases= Baton Rouge.....- Agr. and agr. education, 9 wks. Merylan deems seeee Johns Hopkins University....| Baltimore._....... No gen. agr. but courses nature study as preparation for agr. offered. Morgan College (colored) .....-|.---- Gove a -eee Methods of teaching agr. Massachusetts, ....- Agricultural College.......-- ee Acmlh ers jae Several courses in agr. and country life for teachers, 4 wks. State Normal School-......... Eby Anns ee eseeeee School gard.,- poultry raising, 4 wks. Michi cone ee =e Northern State Normal School.| Marquette.......-- AE ae teachers in rural schools. State Normal School........-- BYG0 Silanes El. agr., 6 wks. University of Michigan.......- Ann Arbor. -----.- Agrl. botany only, 8 wks. Western State Normal School..| Kalamazoo..-.-..-.-- Nature study and agr., 6 wks. Minnesota.........- Northwest Agricultural School | Crookston......-.. 6 wks. teachers’ training school. Courses in el. agr. for teachers. State Normal School.-.......- Mama == eee Fil. agr. and agr’l. nat. study. State Normal School.......... Moorhead .....-.-- El. agr., 12 wks. State Normal School.........- Minonaseesss see Agr. for teachers. Mississippi. .-....-. MiIssounpi=-nee ene eee Nebraskacas.-«..-%: State Normal School. .......-- University of Minnesota (Agri- cultural Coliege). Mississippi Normai College... West Central Agricultural School. Central Wesleyan College... .- First District Normal School. - Massouri Wesleyan. ...-.---.-- Missouri Valley College... ...- Northwest Normal School.. .-- Nebraska Wesleyan Univer- sity. State Normal School.........-. State Normal School......--.--. IMOGnISSseee eee Ne Warrenton........ Kirksville...-..-.- Cameronnes teases Mar sini eee Maryville.....-... Cape Girardeau. . - Columbia........- University Place. - Chadron sass POLL jo cee eee Pl. agr., 6 whks., two ree. per day. .| Several courses, agr. for teach- ers, and gen. agr. 6 wks. course, el. agr. 6 wks. teachers’ training school. Courses in el. agr. for teach- ers. El. agr. Gen. agr. with field work. Gen. agr. Jab. work, 69-day session. El. acr. with lab. work in sum- mer quarter, for teachers. Gen. agr. Gen. and el. agr. Gen. agr.; also special course for teachers, 9 wks. El. agr. Two courses for teachers. Gen. agr. during summer quar- ter. Special course for rural teachers. School continues in regular session during summer quarter. a : / AGRICULTURAL TRAINING FOR EMPLOYED TEACHERS. 5 List of institutions maintaining courses in agriculture in summer sessions—Continued. Nevada. . New Hampshire... . New Mexi (Oi Be aae IMO WODK...~. 2-5 North Carolina. .... North Dakota...... Oklahoma South Carolina. ..-. South Dakota...... Tennessee Institution. Location. 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BMOT “sI9YOBe} 10J 2 suluepivs pue 910} “SUIpvor 9019 *asunoo fs -[nose AIvlUeUIETA | -lejer ‘yxe} Jo Apnjg | [eulIouU UO 4IpeID |--99y QuOUTT[OIUD Gg | T --9UT[XV "VD ‘sold |°7--7 77> UWOIGTV | [OOS ]BULION 93819 | °-* 77-7 > oyepl vA “800.189 NJ 4 10} 989T[OD [VoruBYO a ae eae paw per an SIBIg2itl 100) ANDO GUKS} ||P PSS See a esas s (0) no RRS Sie saoJ ON | T --SunoO A “Gq *N ‘seid | °° >” AISSLYRTRL, |-OW PUBL[RINI[NOLISy | ---- >> - od a Aqyeroeds dINYTNOTIE mh ; “s}usurtiedxe Be tetas Wed «es *sortddns jo 4soo i aS Ayeyueureye “J esimog | +030 ‘s}xeq Jo serpnys op PU UOTYVIISIZOITS | FT “-"WOUWIOA “ff uvIqd |° ~~~ ~“9][IASeUTe) |/Bprlso[y Jo Ayisueatuy) |° ~~~ ~*~ BPO, a uoreiedeid ut *SUOSSO| foe SIdTOve} OJ sasimop peiedeid pue ‘suty “qunyy *BiULI0J 5 *peieyo me! ae ie -oT[Nq ‘s}Xe} JOSeIpMyg |--- 7-7 OD roe Scie SOV} ON [7777 “7 svuloyy, uevoq | ~~---~- Agjeyiog | -118@D Jo Ajisaeatug |--~~ ~~ VIUIOJI[VD A : ay Ayyetoeds amy [NIIse “SsuTJOT ING ‘esejsod pue : “*SeSUBI 5 Areyueueya ‘JT esimog | pus 8}X0} Jo selIpnys |" JIpe1d ON | Syooq yde0xe ‘se1q | OT ~-UOSTIM “Wf ‘JOIg |-°~7* eytAeeAey | -ty jo AjisueaAtuQ | ~ ~~~” sesueyly 2) o = 3 : *sasinod =a *SHIBUIOY “YIOM JO OINYVN “UOATS JIPOIO “4S09 ie aed ‘9s18YO UT UOSI0,T *U01}B907T, “U01}N4LISUT 97819 “UnN |, ‘s[OOOs [BUIOU pu SoSoT[oo ojeAtud pue orfqnd uy] oe pee ee S26 pee =A SES “QIN NIH UA Sasinoo anUapuodsa.lo) BULLETIN 7, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. - ‘em ‘TIT ‘oseoryD ‘Jooysg souepuodsa.i10y 993%4810] 0] “eq ‘WojURIOg ‘sfooyog eouepuodsed10( |VUOT} eUIE}UT ‘sseyy ‘pleysutidg ‘fooysg eouepuodsom0y omoy “‘puy ‘eudeM 410, ‘oINg[NOLISy Jo asaTjop eouepuodsar109 ‘uur, ‘stjodveuurpy ‘fooyog seule, URoTIOUYy :OINJ[NOLIS UL SASMNOd [NJ OST}19A pe S[ooyos sovuepuOdsattoo o7BATId SUTMOTLOF OIL, “s00YaS aDUaPWOMSaLlOd APD *SUTJOT “poaurej}qo oq *SUTUIO -[nq pues}xezjo Apnjyg | Avur yipedo o8a][0D | -~ ~~~ asinoo Jed G$_| Z J SSUOSIeI AS | Old: |r aes ae olmeviey | -AAA Jo AjisiaATUQ |~~~ ~~~ Buluro0d AA *JaYOv} 9} Aq pelpnjs se [joAr se@ JOM jOOYyOS UL sfeyore; Aq pesn oq ABUL Ji YoY) pesueslse “901 POYsiu os ‘ainj]nolIse pure *OSINOd 10} pored -INJSUT}eT[Nq wos Apnjs 91njeu ulesmop | -e1d suosse, [eloedg |-----"---------> QUON | -So] :JUOUTT[OI1Ue T$ | T “-"IVIIG AT SH JOIg | ~~" ~*~" woxeTIsepD |-~- ~~ ~~ [RULION 93839 | --* >> qUOULIO A *YIOM A107 B.10G PT pues *pourej}qo oq *syOLIp prey ‘sixeq Jo Apmgg | Avur 4Ipe1d oseT[0D | ~~~ ~~ asimood Jed Gy | ZI -U9FT “G "08H “JOId j° °° °° °° --- ues0T | a80T[OD [VAMANOTIsW | ~°-* yen “S10 -YoRO} IOJ VINATNOISB “O}0 ‘SUT} 9] BOT}.100 ‘asinood 130d “9801100 [eoruByO Arejueureya ‘[ osan0;) | -sT[nq ‘s}xe9 Jo Apnyg | ydeoxe YipeId ON | 0S°E$010G°0$ UOT | 0 --“SI9[]9S “HO ‘Jord | u0e19 e8e][0H | -eWW puBleimy[noisy |--- ~~ > SbXOL, *S19T]OBO} IOJ *s]usuIIed x9 YIM “yuep ue} uTIedns *$}X0} JO }S00 pepueJuT sesmmoo [Vy | “030 ‘s}xeq Jo serIpnyg | o9v}g Aq poqtioserq | Jdeoxe on uetD ON | F u0JIOYGV “DT Jold | 7- 7-77 UOSIPeW | 7" >” [BULION 038]9 Je od *soijddns *9S1N00 snjd ‘asamoo 10d *asoT[0D [voruByo Shape, “qh Gewgao}g) POereeese ol sos oe (Voie a PES OO ie Qo ee TS 02 OS'OF UOT | OF “WeYyslig “VV Jord |" °° -“sduryooig, |-ej{ puveINj[NoIsy | -BjoyVq yNog *SIOTOVI} 10 J *98b4S0d 19A00 ‘os0] *(as9T[09 wos poepueJyur sesmmod [TV |7°°777- 7 Oar pease ee tos JIpeto ON | 0} JUIMIT[OIUe TF | F --3U0'T "MM ‘JOId | -[09 UWosums{O | -WeTD) [eInj[NoWsy | BUTTOIBD YIN, *91N} [MOIS *90.1d0p *AyUO jo Asosepoed ‘gy asamop |-->~ dj0 ‘s}xo, Jo Apryg | pauwéo}, Atpetd ON | soyjddns Jo 4ysop | Gs “SBA [SOUL Jorg | ~~ eseT]OD a9eI1g | -- >> asaT[OO o7eIg | ~ VIUeATASUUE Oj ‘syooq Jo 4s00 ee aoe se s}xey Jo Apnyg [7-77-77 ops----| sntd yueurpporue Tg | ¢ “-"OVIOH "CQ 'MWJOld |°° 7°77 “sl[[eaArop | eseT[OH [wVmyyNosy |-~ ~~~ ~~~" u0se19 *paseyo “S]IV *S1T[OBO 1OJ -ind eq 03 S}x04 ichal dTUBIpoST_ Puv sing UUM TLS Bie OS 11100) |sieenien a aiaiennie ans OD Reale eee 4Ipedd ON |:08R4S0d 19A00 0} TS | “sIsel ‘IOI °O “Lf |° 77 980]10D 09899 | -[NOLIsW JO eseT[OD | ~~ OdTXe MON *S10YOVO} [BINA 1OJ 9uO ‘silelove} [OOS “poureyqo oq *B1]X0 S}X0} JO *BYSBIG -YsIY 10J Sosumod OMT, |-* > ~~ oy0 “s}.x07 Jo Apngg | Avur yrpesd ose7]0H | 4s00 ‘asumoo sed c¢ | ¢ Bate OO ST Wi saved O Lelia ieee aca ujooury | -eN Jo AjisdeATUy |°~~ ~~ BYSBIqeN *Sosinoo *Syeure}{ "YOM JO OANYBN “UOATS JIPAI) “1S0,.) JO 10q ‘odBYO UL UOS.107 *U0I}RI0T “UOT NLSUT “ayR19 -W0N “panutyuogj—ainp)nNIvbd Wr sasinoo aauapuodsa.iloy i AGRICULTURAL TRAINING FOR EMPLOYED TEACHERS. 13 READING COURSES. Several of the State agricultural colleges, while not conducting regular correspondence work in agriculture, offer assistance by means of reading courses to persons wishing to engage in home study. These reading courses are based either upon standard textbooks sug- gested to the student or upon bulletins issued by the college, in some cases particularly for this purpose. In general, the courses are not imtended for teachers but rather for farmers and farmers’ wives, although teachers are encouraged to enroll and may derive much benefit from the courses pursued. No credit, so far as can be learned, either toward college degree or certification is allowed for the com- pletion of such courses im any instance. List of institutions offering reading courses vn agriculture. State. Institution. Location. Nature of course. » | Fees. BANGIZON Beets rena/e-s 2 | University of Ari- | Tucson.......- “Timely Hints for Farm-| None. | zona. ers.’’ Bulletins. IG HIP AN ee. 222 soe | Agricultural College.) East Lansing .| Based on standard texts.| $1 enrollment for : Written reports re- nonresidents. quired. New Hampshire..... New Hampshire Col-| Durham. ..... Based on standard texts. | None. ; | lege. Organized for farmers, | } but open to teachers. New York... ...-..- ; Cornell University, | Ithaca.......- Special series of bulletins State College of published by college. Agriculture. Questions answered- where desired. Two courses—T he Farm and The Farm Home. OIG Se eee State University, | Columbus..... Farmers’ reading course | None. | College of Agricul- | based on special series | ture. | of bulletins. A SUGGESTED READING COURSE IN AGRICULTURE BASED ON FARMERS’ BULLETINS. The output of agricultural literature in recent years has been pro- digious. Numerous farm papers, textbooks, publications of agri- cultural societies and associations, State and Government publica- tions, all offer opportunity for learning about agriculture. As a rule the information contained in farm papers is more or less scrappy and incomplete, hence it can seldom if ever be used as the basis of syste- matic study. Textbooks are excellent when they can be obtained, but their cost is considerable, hence the average teacher is as a rule unable to procure more than one or two, if any, and these are gen- erally very elementary in character and often not well selected. Since many of the State and Government publications are technical mn character, it 1s often hard to make a proper selection from this source. In the belief that there are many teachers who would be glad to avail themselves of an opportunity to follow out a thorough course in agricultural reading if one were outlined for them and the necessary text material placed within their reach, the following list of the free publications of the United States Department of Agri- culture has been prepared as the basis of such a course. 14 BULLETIN 1, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Unfortunately this hst is complete in some subjects 6n which no publications of a popular character are now available. For example, there are few bulletins to be listed dealing with cattle, none with horses, and none of a general nature treating of cotton. Doubtless these and similar deficiencies in this list will be supplied at some time in the future by the department. In the meantime in many of the States bulletins may be obtained from the State agricultural college or experiment station to supplement this list. With but few exceptions the publications listed are Farmers’ Bulle- tins, since they are generally less technical in character than the bureau circulars and bulletins, and the intention is to select only pub- lications more or less popular in style which may be comprehended easily by the ordinary reader. Even as it is, the Farmers’ Bulletins are themselves unsatisfactory in many instances for this kind of use, since they are more adapted for reference purposes than for general reading and study. On a number of the topics for which publications have been selected and classified in this Jist additional. publications dealmg in a more detailed manner with particular phases of the general topic can be ebtained if desired. For example, under the subject of ‘‘Horticul- ture—Fruits,”’ there are available in addition to those listed a number of Farmers’ Bulletins dealing with particular kinds of fruits, such as strawberries, raspberries, cranberries, and others. Information as to these bulletins may be obtamed by reference to the complete list of available Farmers’ Bulletins issued by the Division of Publications, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. All the publications listed may be obtained free of cost on applica- tion to the United States Department of Agriculture, so long as they are available. Should it happen that any are not available for free distribution when requested they may generally be obtained by purchase from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. His price for all Farmers’ Bulle- tins and circulars is 5 cents each, but bureau bulletins have various prices, depending upon the cost of publication in each instance. Perhaps the best method to be followed by the individual reader in using these bulletins as a systematic reading course is to secure the bulletins listed under some single topic, such as ‘‘Soils,” for example, and thoroughly master all’ that the publications contain on, this subject before going on with the next topic. It will be found very helpful, and a good way to fix important information in the mind as well as to test the reader’s understanding of what he has read, if the student prepares an outline of the important points gleaned from the text matter as the reading proceeds. It is impor- tant, however, that this outline be made in the reader’s own language, avoiding a mere copying of extracts and quotations from the text, since the benefit to be derived from this exercise hes in the possi- ne Le Ee te ee ee we . 7? AGRICULTURAL TRAINING FOR EMPLOYED TEACHERS. 15 bility it affords of testing the reader’s ability to convert the author's thought into such form that it actually becomes his own. Inability to tell in one’s own words what has been read is good evidence that the reading has not been done understandingly. The work of selecting the essential thoughts from the text matter and arranging them in a logical outline will help to organize the ideas in the mind of the reader, and to fix them more permanently i in his memory, than, would be possible if the reading were done without any attempt at picking out and writing down the important facts. Besides, this exercise will act as a sort of brake to safeguard against too rapid and cursory reading. Where there are several persons in the same locality who Heh to pursue the reading course it will be a good plan for them to unite in a reading club, and meet occasionally to quiz one another. In this way the benefits of an exchange of ideas and of the increased enthusi- asm arising from association will be derived. It is suggested that county superintendents might be able to work out a lan whereby a few sets of these publications could be exchanged between groups of teachers in the same county, and thus be used as the basis of sys- tematic agricultural reading-club work. A list of publications of the United States Department of Agriculture suggested for an agricultural reading course. J. AGRONOMY. Topic Title. | Publication. SONS a UR ee eee Sollthentilitvencseetiasec ao see een: aoe eee ae Farmers’ Bulletin 257. The Renovation of Worn-Out Soils........_-..-.----- Farmers’ Bulletin 245. SOUIMCONSCLVATION Es ee eee een acer er arenes Farmers’ Bulletin 406. Wentilizers-c. 5. 2hssees<8 (Cominencialpherhilizers seer eet oe ee eee eee Farmers’ Bulletin 44. Plant production......- Cereal crops........-.-- HIP ETICLODR ye Nees =a Forage crops. . SUNITeKs(GrOPSe= = 2. bs. 2 Miscellaneous field crops. Grop:pests:...-...2.2-22-- IB AniMyardeMantineyssee seco ee nce ane es eee aes Leguminous Crops for Green Manuring...---..------ Aa nheveropacationcoiblambs ee sees ae ee eee Testing Farm Seeds in the Home and in the Rural School. BanleycnGrowaNleuphes Crop acces ene aiiae sel Conn Cultiv atone ees feos sea ee ce cree Deed COL sas ame sere eeee hte Seen ea A ee era cae Harvesting and Storing Corn....-.--..---..-..-------- Oats: Growing HEV CnOD oon sod see sea we = eeeae Oats: Distribution and Uses. - = Rice Cultures. 2s.s2 2-5 Durum W heat Cotton Seed and Its Products. Sea Island Cotton....---.-..-- Bile CM PUTER ee oe eee meee Jase oe The Adulteration of Forage Plant Seeds._.-......----- Our NativereasturerPilantsie - 32.5325 han eee sane Alitalia Shee ad So ee Aen a) i See ye rene 1S) Ofc SoA SS Se nc 5 Ge an ene Bree i ean eee SOV BeANS 4.2.02 Sint ean te SACs case Sat 3 IMETCHE SS Sao era ao emt Se ie Re soko) Good Seed Potatoes and How to Produce Them Rotator ulimres 2p yee eee kee ae NEN c) wantin Doss he gu 2 PUNE SUPATEB Ce tiers mer eo lee Nees alee ie SIWeOL Ota TORS ar cee eis cei ee see e xk seen ae ee BrOOnd COR ses a) eee Ar yee ne ns See eee here Na ere Growing and Curing Hops...---.----.----- Ho gece ues oe MOHACCOOUTIN ae Or eeeR oe ee ae ane eee mere (BResP eats ee saeeeee er see psc. - See Wooten ashsee ess Wieeds- and: How torkall Rhemties 322 Sassen ees -ee nip onan USE ChICIOeSaes sae ee eee ee eee Cleiiioi, Willie oc seeocceocnns Joeetesceeos nesses eeenseees Farmers’ Bulletin 192. Farmers’ Bulletin 278. Farmers’ Bulletin 157. Farmers’ Bulletin 428. | Farmers’ Bulletin 443. Farmers’ Bulletin 414. Farmers’ Bulletia 415. Farmers’ Bulletin 313. Farmers’ Bulletin 424. Farmers’ Bulletin 420. Farmers’ Bulletin 417. .| Farmers’ Bulletin 534. Farmers’ Bulletin 36. Farmers’ Bulletin 302. Farmers’ Bulletin 274 ~ Farmers’ Bulletin 382. Yearbook Sep. 223. Farmers’ Bulletin 339. Farmers’ Bulletin 455. Farmers’ Bulletin 318. Farmers’ Bulletin 101. Farmers’ Bulletin 164. Farmers’ Bulletin 372. Farmers’ Bulletin 515. Farmers’ Bulletin 533. Farmers’ Bulletin 35. Farmers’ Bulletin 52. Farmers’ Bulletin 324. Farmers’ Bulletin 174. Farmers’ Bulletin 304. Farmers’ Bulletin 523. Farmers’ Bulletin 431. Farmers’ Bulletin 28. Farmers’ Bulletin 127. Farmers’ Bulletin 333. Farmers’ Bulletin 512. | Farmers’ Bulletin 507. 16 BULLETIN 7, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A list of publications of the United States Department of Agriculture suggested for an agricultural reading course—Continued. I. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY. Title. WHICED aceite cece ce sear BOGS Fors = Winieis sis Site eis yee jae 2 - |: be ae eeeee Some Common Game, Aquatic, ‘and Rapacious Birds. in Their Relation to Man. Fifty Common Birds of Farm and Orchard...........- Publication. Farmers’ Bulletin 447. Farmers’ Bulletin 54. Farmers’ Bulletin 497. Farmers’ Bulletin 513. Doesit Pay the Farmer to Protect Birds? ...........- Yearbook Sep. 443. Phe DainyMelerd soe ee Na. 2 sales eee eee Breed sioiD any Cattlesepeet eee eee eee eee urbercullOsis 25 22822 sok pe see cbc. Te ee Pig yManagementnsascsssens ten «seater eee osCholerase. 422). oper ane 2. «canes ec RAISIN gS Mee p tOG VEU GO Mp ees see ee Standard Varieties of Chickens.....................-.. Dueks.and ‘Geese: s ..-ceiesenses ase cee ee eee TMUPKe YS =e hae ee ck ERC oo kc cE eee eee eee eee Poultryz Management aeeee sane -- keer eee eee eee eee sthe Bleeding of MarmyAmimals= 92-55 sees eee ree Sheep Heeding..2 fia: Sia sce sels dee cee eee eee PrineiplesioteElorser Hee din eee aa ee Farmers’ Bulletin 55. Farmers’ Bulletin 106. Farmers’ Bulletin 473. Farmers’ Bulletin 205. Farmers’ Bulletin 379. Farmers’ Bulletin 96. Farmers’ Bulletin 51. Farmers’ Bulletin 64. Farmers’ Bulletin 200. Farmers’ Bulletin 234. Farmers’ Bulletin 287. Farmers’ Bulletin 22. Farmers’ Bulletin 79. Farmers’ Bulletin 170. Il. HORTICULTURG. SHR tReet see MOWeYSHeees ene Stee Viepetabless. -2 sheen a Landscaping ....-.----- Small Fruit Culture for Market............--..--.--..- ihe fHomessriwtitiGard enka see ee eee eee eee eee Jejqbuclbal eer EARN Wo AMEE AA ood skeoacs Abhe yA plerand Glows bOlG Tow. ieee ees Grape Propagation, Pruning, and Training......... bee (MhesPearvandsEowacosG TOweliae eee ee eee pneicides and Their Use in Preventing Diseases of ruits. Information about Spraying for Orchard Insects... _._.- ANoaibeNl INMOyerabars IPMS. Bo - ocecos asa os2tscoonseace- Rhestome Weretable: Gard ent= ser eases eee Frames as a Factor in Truck Growing.......--..---..- Beautifyine Home Groundss 2325-525. sees e see eee eee aways oll Syan del ayaa Sees tee Farmers’ Bulletin 47. Farmers’ Bulletin 154. Farmers’ Bulletin 181. Farmers’ Bulletin 113. Farmers’ Bulletin 471. Farmers’ Bulletin 482. Farmers’ Bulletin 243. Yearbook Sep. 480. Farmers’ Bulletin 195. Farmers’ Bulletin 255. Farmers’ Bulletin 460. Farmers’ Bulletin 185. Farmers’ Bulletin 494. IV. FORESTRY. General. 5-2). 5 Pree planting seen ee Forest influences... -.-- WOTESE TES. 2 eo coke Wood preservation. ---- Forest conservation. --- Primer of Forestry, Part I: Lhe Horest.---------=----- Primer of Forestry, Part Il: Practical Forestry. .------ Trees of the United States Important in Forestry -. - -. Forest Planting and Farm Management.....-.---....-- ree pedal ey Diya Hate CS pee eee Surface Conditions and Stream Flow........-.-------- Farmers’ Bulletin 173. Farmers’ Bulletin 358. Yearbook Sep. 112. Farmers’ Bulletin 228. Yearbook Sep. 566. Forest Ser. Cire, 176. Forest Ser. Bul. 82. Forest Ser. Bul. 117. Farmers’ Bulletin 381. Yearbook Sep. 534. V. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. Farm buildings........ Farm mechanics.....-. ESO RUS Mone coe eee cee DOTAINACC see eee nic ationeeee so he | Practical Suggestions for Farm Buildings...-....--..-- Modern Conveniences for the Farm Home....-..-.--.---- The Wse omeoncrete onthe arm) e ene. eee eee Corn Harvesting. Machinery....-.----.--- ate AG See ee The Cream Separator on Western Farms.....--.------ The Use of Alcohol and Gasoline in Farm Engines ..-. VCP Ai CLs Her EUN NE CUMIN TG. == 2 =r eee eer The Use of the Split-Log Drag on Earth Roads..-.-.--- Sand-Clay and Burnt-Clay Roads....-....-.--.-.:.--- MacadampBoads'... 2225. o-.2.e. 2. - 2 ake eee ee Benefits ot improved Roads: =o. nese - a= eee Drainazeof Farm) Wands sh. =. - 2-2-5) eee ne eee Practical Information for Beginners in Irrigation....--. How to Build Small Irrigation Ditches ............-.-- Farmers’ Bulletin 126. Farmers’ Bulletin 270. Farmers’ Bulletin 461. Farmers’ Bulletin 303. Framers’ Bulletin 201. Farmers’ Bulletin 277. Farmers’ Bulletin 347. Farmers’ Bulletin 321. Farmers’ Bulletin 311. Farmers’ Bulletin 338. Farmers’ Bulletin 505. Farmers’ Bulletin 187. Farmers’ Bulletin 263. Farmers’ Bulletin 158. ae AGRICULTURAL TRAINING FOR EMPLOYED TEACHERS. 1 A list of publications of the United States Department of Agriculture suggested for an agricultural reading course—Continued. VI. AGRICULTURAL TECHNOLOGY. Topic. Title. Publication. 1D atl ee Bubbere Makan oOmntheMuenmns oeyatet trent te eee eel oee Cheese Malan onitherkianmss es sccaes- se 42 s22-22525 The Care of Milk and Its Use in the Home...-......... Sirup and sugar making | The Production of Maple Sirup and Sugar...........-. slonedoybsan (Sin biyoy Micha bbe Kolnby Kr oot oak ee wee Se eee eens: Farmers’ Bulletin 241. Farmers’ Bulletin 166. Farmers’ Bulletin 413. Farmers’ Bulletin 516. Farmers’ Bulletin 477. VIl. AGRICULTURAL ECONOMICS. Farm management.....| What Is Farm Management...........-.-.------------ Types of Farming in the United States..........-..... Rieplannin sah anni one er Ofer eee see eae IMATE WON eve ieye= os Se The Supply and Wages of Farm Labor.......--.--...-- Seasonal Distribution of Labor on the Farm.......-.-. Farm accounts......-.- Harmer OOKKeCC DIN Seem noe sso mer fee aaa as Marketing... 2.25. 1-- Menke tiny Hanmi erode nae ase eeeese aes eee eee Cooperation in the Handling and Marketing of Fruit. . Bur. Pl. Ind. Bul. 259. Yearbook Sep. 487. Farmers’ Bulletin 370. Yearbook Sep. 528. Yearbook Sep. 567. Farmers’ Bulletin 511. Farmers’ Bulletin 62. Yearbook Sep. 546. VIII. AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION. General’ nesses sese-= = <2 Mdvicavionkior Countryaileses= esse. see ee eee eee The American System of Agricultural Education.....- The Teaching of Agriculture in the Rural Common ‘ Schools. School gardens.......-.- PERS CHOON Gander sey == eee ees ey erase ores NUTSeries Ons CHOOISS= see eene nee naene eerie Sees Agricultural clubs... .-- Boys’ and Girls’ Agricultural Clubs......-....-...---- Organization and Instruction in Boys’ Corn-Club Work Specukdaycnm schoolss||PArbor Dave see asser fase ic sa Oe see sees ae ese acl IBsiRe) ID Eyy iia NS SOOO) ooo bscatasbececeeeseceeceeaac School equipment. .-..-. The Use of Illustrative Material in Teaching Agricul- ture in Rural Schools. - Office Expt. Stas. Cire. 84 Office Expt. Stas. Cire. 106, Rev. Office Expt. Stas. Cire. 60. Farmers’ Bulletin 218. Farmers’ Bulletin 423. Farmers’ Bulletin 385. Bur. Pl. Ind. Doc. 803. Forest Service Cire. 96. Biolog. Survey Cire. 17. Yearbook Sep. 382. (peu ErONene COPIES of this publication may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1912 BULLETIN“ OF THE USDEPARTMENT OPAGRICULTURE No. 8 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief. September 27, 1913. THE WESTERN CORN ROOTWORM. By I’. M. WEBSTER, : In Charge of Cereal and Forage Insect Investigations. INTRODUCTION. The western corn rootworm (Diabrotica longicornis Say) derives its common name from the fact that the larva (fig. 1) was first observed attacking the roots of corn in the Middle West. Its larval habits, its life cycle, and the appearance of the adult insect (fig. 2) are all entirely different from those of the southern corn rootworm (Diabrotica duodecimpunctata Oliv.), though the worms themselves are exceedingly alike in appearance. In figure 1 the larva is ex- tended at full length, as when feeding, having been drawn from living individuals. The beetles (fig. 2) in life are about the size of the striped cucumber beetle (Diabrotica vittata Fab.), but smaller and less robust than the southern corn rootworm, and are entirely of a green or yellowish-green color, except the eyes, which are black. The farmer will be most likely to observe these feeding among the silk of the ears and the pollen of corn : Iie. 2.—The western corn o A U- during late Au Wie. 1.—The western corn rootworm rootworm: Adult, or oust and Sep- (Diabrotica longicornis) : Larva, cr beetle; a, claw of hind it “worm.” Much enlarged. (Origi- leg. Muen enlarged. tember, though 5.41 ) (Original. ) the writer has seen them enter houses in the country at night, being attracted by the evening lamps. An abundance of these beetles in a cornfield should be a distinct warning that the field should not be planted to corn the following year, but that it should be devoted to wheat, oats, barley, rve, or to any crop other than corn. SEASONAL HISTORY. The eggs (fig. 3) are minute, yellowish-white objects, having to the unaided eye much the appearance of minute grains of white sand. 6135°—13 2 BULLETIN 8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. They are deposited mostly in late August and in September, in shallow crevices in the ground, more often among the brace roots of the corn. These eggs hatch the following May and June, and the larve, always nearly white in color, attack the roots of the corn and never burrow into the lower stem as does the southern budworm. (See fig. 5.) After completing their growth the larve abandon the corn roots and construct earthen cells in the soil, within which they change to pupe (fig. 4), which are white like the larve, and then, during late July and August, to adults or beetles. There is therefore only one genera- tion annually. The beetles may perhaps live over winter in extreme southern Texas, but they do not do so farther north, where they are of the greatest economic importance. DISTRIBUTION. Feo e ne east aenrcorn The species occurs from Nova Scotia south- ge ete aca eee ward to Alabama and Mexico, westward to nal.) southern Minnesota and South Dakota, and thence south to southern New Mexico. Curious enough, but a matter of decided economic importance, is the fact that its area of destructive abundance does not include all of the territory which it inhabits. The greatest destruction has been wrought, so far as known, in Illinois, Indiana, Ohio, Iowa, Mis- souri, South Dakota, Nebraska, Tennessee, and prob- ably Kentucky. HISTORY OF THE INSECT AND ITS RAVAGES. The beetle was described in 1823 by Mr. Thomas Say, from specimens taken by him while connected with the Maj. Long expedition to the Rocky Moun- tains, and its habitat was given by him as the Arkansas Territory.’ ay if No facts concerning the habits of this insect were eo recorded until the year 1866, when specimens of the worm: Pupa. beetles were referred to Mr. B. D. Walsh by Prof. an W. S. Robertson, of Kansas, who found them in large numbers on imphee or sorghum, their natural home being a large thistle. Mr. Walsh, in acknowledging the receipt of the specimens, stated that he had taken three specimens many years before on flowers in central Illinois.? Eight years later, in August, 1874, Mr. H. Webber, of Kirkwood, Mo., sent some larve and pupz to Prof. Riley, with the complaint that the former were burrowing into the roots of his corn and doing considerable damage. In July, 1 Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila., vol. 3, p. 460, 1825. 2 Practical Entomologist, vol. 2, p. 10, 1866. THE WESTERN CORN ROOTWORM. 3 1878, Prof. Riley? again received larve, this time from Mr. G. Pauls, of Kureka, Mo.,? and from these he reared adult beetles on the 14th of the following month. During the spring of 1874 the writer began to collect Coleoptera in the vicinity of Waterman, Dekalb County, IL, but during this and the following two years obtained only a single beetle of this species. This single specimen, taken by the writer in the summer of 1874, was captured in a field of corn, and the failure to secure more individuals during the next two years will indicate the rarity of the insect at that time. Within seven or eight years, however, it had become so abun- dant throughout the neighborhood, and indeed on the same farm, then as now owned by the writer, as to render it impossible to secure more than a single full yield of corn without changing for a year to some other erop. Up to that time corn had gen- erally been success- fully grown on the same ground for a number of consecu- tive years. The writer’s observations in Dekalb County re- flect with surprising accuracy the condi- tions that obtained throughout the corn- growing sections of Illinois, as shown by the information brought together by Dr. S. A. Forbes, then as now State entomologist * of Illinois. May, 1884, the writer ceased to be connected with Dr. Forbes’s office and became associated with the Division of Entomology of this department and was soon thereafter transferred from Illinois to La Fayette, Ind. The principal damage, as previously indicated, is caused by the Jarvee, and since 1882, in localities where no preventive measures have been used, the damage to the corn crop has been very serious. In 1885 Mr. Moses Fowler, of La Fayette, Ind., owner of an exten- sive tract of land, estimated his loss during that season through the ravages of the pest at $16,000, or about 15 per cent of the entire crop. On the basis of this estimate the loss sustained in 24 of the corn- Fic. 5.—Work of the western corn rootworm in roots of corn; at right, rootworm in situ. (Original.) + American Entomologist, vol. 5, p. 247, 1880. (Note.—See “ Roots of corn injured by some unknown insect.’”’ American Entomologist, vol. 2, p. 275, 1870.) '2 Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for 1878, p. 208, 1879. $14th Rept. State Hnt. Ill., pp. 10-31, 1883. 4 BULLETIN 8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. producing counties of that State for that one year would amount to nearly $2,000,000.1 Although the pest is much more destructive on high or tile-drained lands, Prof. Forbes in 1886 reported serious injury toa field in southern Illinois which had been under water for three weeks during the spring.?. There is no indication that the insect is susceptible to meteorological influences, although the effect of its ravages is aggravated by an extremely dry season. In fact, the extreme effect of the larva upon the plants is very similar to that of severe drought. Under date of March 7, 1887, Mr. B. F. Ferris, Sunman, Ind., a close observer, communicated with the writer as follows: There has been for a number of years something, I know not what, working at the roots of our corn, so that in some seasons the corn does not have roots sufficient to support it, anything like a fresh breeze blowing it down, there being scarcely any brace roots. Sunman is in southeastern Indiana, close to the White and Ohio River Valleys, which connect with the lower Big Miami Valley in western Ohio, and when the writer was transferred from Indiana to Ohio, June 1, 1891, he at once became interested in learning whether this corn rootworm had extended its depredations into the cornfields of Ohio. The first report of injuries came from Sater, Hamilton County, in the extreme southwestern part of the State, during Sep- tember, 1892, the charge being that the beetles ate the silk from the ears of sweet corn before the kernels had become fertilized. A careful survey of extreme western Ohio during the summer of 1893 revealed the beetles in cornfields throughout the country drained by tributaries of the upper Wabash River, and throughout the valley of Big Miami River, but not beyond, to the northward or eastward. A similar survey, made in the summer of 1894, revealed the pest in the region of the upper Maumee River in the northwestern part of the State and in the valley of the Little Miami River on the east. In 1895 the pest had reached the Scioto River Valley, almost if not quite halfway from east to west across the State, and from Columbus southward to the Ohio River; while in the opposite direction its range extended from Columbus more or less irregularly northwest- ward to the Michigan line in Fulton County. Still later it appeared farther eastward, in the upper valley of the Muskingum River. There was no guesswork in these surveys, as they were carefully made in person by the writer, who rode over the country each year when the adult insects were abroad, examining fields and noting the pres- ence or absence of the beetles. The following year these observations were verified through larvee found at work by the writer or observed and sent to him by farmers.’ 1J%ndiana Agricultural Report, p. 188, 1885. 2 Entomologica Americana, vol. 2, p. 174, 1886. 2 Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta., Bul. 68. pp. 39-41, maps 1-2. {| THE WESTERN CORN ROOTWORM. 5 It has been thus the writer’s good fortune to follow personally the destructive spread (though not the actual diffusion) of the species throughout three States and from the years 1874 to 1902, both inclusive.* During the years 1911 and 1912 an outbreak of this insect was studied in the Duck River Valley, middle Tennessee, by Mr. George G. Ainslie. In 1913 the same observer found the larvee attacking corn in the bottom lands of the Tennessee River about Chattanooga, Tenn. The pest appears to be making its way into and throughout the bottom lands of rivers flowing through the Southern Atlantic. and Gulf States, precisely as it has been observed to do in Indiana and Ohio. DIFFICULTY IN DETECTING INJURY TO CORN. As will have been noted, the work of the larve is very obscure and few farmers are likely to detect them at work in the roots during June and July, while it would be simply impossible for the farmers, even if they did discover them, to connect them definitely with the little green beetles that swarm in the sill of the ears during summer and early fall. FOOD OF THE BEETLES. In the cornfield the food of these beetles is made up of corn silk and pollen. Rarely do they eat of the unripe kernels at the tips of the ears, and then only when birds have previously pecked into these kernels. Outside the cornfields the writer has found them in the blossoms of thistle, sunflower, goldenrod, cucurbits, cotton, clover, and rose, and on the leaves of cucumber and beans, while the species has been reported to him as eating into ripe apples where the skin had been previously ruptured by other causes. Dr. Forbes has found spores of fungi and pollen of smartweed in their stomachs. More recently Mr. George G. Ainslie has found the beetles feeding on the leaves of corn and on the pollen of the evening primrose and asters. 1 Changed conditions that may have caused a change of habit in the insect.—As the writer well remembers, the principal crop in many portions of Illinois, especially through- out the prairie country, up to 1862 was spring wheat. Influences of the Civil War at that time brought the price of pork up to a point where its production became a most profitable occupation for the farmer. At the same time wheat growing declined rapidly, the acreage being devoted to corn in order to afford food for the increasing number of hogs. In those days crep rotation received scant attention from the ordinary farmer, and corn was more often than otherwise planted year after year on the same ground How soon it was, after this change in the principal crop from wheat to corn, that these beetles, attracted to the cornfields perhaps by the enormous amount of pollen found there as well as by the equally inexhaustible food supply offered by the silk, began to deposit their eggs and develop in these fields, it is not possible to say. We do know, however, from the records already given, that injuries from the larve began to be noticed in 1874, about 10 or 12 years after this change in production of wheat and corn took place, thus giving us at least a clue to the primary causes which seem to have changed the food of the insect to a cultivated crop. 6 BULLETIN 8, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. EFFECTS OF ATTACK OF THE LARVAL. The initial effect of the work of the larve in the roots of corn is a shortening of the ears, leaving long tips devoid of kernels. As the infestation and injury increase, plants fail to develop ears, and finally a dwarfing of the stalks occurs. The appearance of the crop is precisely the same as it would be if the land were impoverished. Indeed many farmers, ignorant of the real trouble, claim that their soil has “run out” and is incapable longer of producing corn. One farmer insisted that his corn was damaged by careless cultivation. For this reason much injury may be done by the pest before it is recognized at all. NATURAL ENEMIES. 3 The Biological Survey has found specimens of Diabrotica longi- cornis in stomachs of the nighthawk (Chordeiles virginianus) and the wood pewee (J/yiochanes virens). The natural enemies of this species are exceedingly few, the prin- cipal one being the parasitic fly Celatoria diabrotice Shim., figured in Bulletin 5 of this department as an enemy of the adult of the bud- worm. Mr. George G. Ainslie, however, has found that the beetles are attacked by the so-called chinch-bug fungus, Sporotrichum globuliferum. The larvee of the click-beetle Drasterius elegans Fab. are also frequently found among those of this species and may destroy some of them. CROP ROTATION AS A PREVENTIVE MEASURE. Tn all of the history of this, one of the most destructive pests in the cornfield, there is not an instance on record in which corn has been injured when planted on land following a crop of small grain, such as wheat, rye, barley, or oats. Except on grounds subject to overflow, which prevents a rotation of crops so that corn is or must be grown for two or more successive years, this pest is one of the easiest to control. Two instances only need be cited in order to prove this fact. In Dekalb County evidence of the protection afforded by the rotation of crops is afforded on a much larger scale. On a farm of 4,600 acres owned by Hon. Lewis Steward, near Plano, rotation of crops has been the regular rule; 1,600 acres of this land was planted to corn this year, and 700 acres were care- fully examined by Mr. Webster. In August only 10 acres of this entire tract was found affected by the corn rootworm, and this was where, in the rear- rangement of the fields, a small tract of ground happened to have been planted to corn the previous year. All about Mr. Steward’s place, on farms where rotation was not systematically practiced, the damage done was serious and general. 1 Quotation from 14th Rept. State Ent. Ill., p. 29, 1885. “THE WESTERN CORN ROOTWORM. 7 The second instance is that of Mr. Moses Fowler, previously men- tioned on page 3. At the time referred to (1885) the Fowler estate, comprising a single tract of about 18,000 acres, near Fowler, Ind., was farmed by tenants and. there were about 10,000 acres of corn growing on the premises. Some of the fields were but slightly in- jured and these were such as had either produced oats or grass within two or three years. Other fields were damaged from 10 to 75 per cent or more. Mr. Fowler, the following spring, directed his tenants to sow 5,000 acres of the worst infested fields to oats and the re- mainder of the 10,000 acres were sown to oats the second year. Thereafter no attempt was made to grow corn two successive ‘years on the same ground, and as a result che pest was eliminated and no further damage was sustained. What one man can do, who has control of thousands of acres, a community can also accomplish if the people combine and follow a similar course of procedure. Dr. Forbes, in his thorough and painstaking investigations of the insect in Illinois, has found many similar instances of the efficiency of crop rotation in eliminating the insect from cornfields. These data have been supplemented by later studies of the writer and by other observations made by him extending over the same period in other States; so that there is no longer the shghtest doubt of the efficiency of this measure, which 1 is now considered essential to good farming. POSSIBLE EXCEPTIONS TO EFFICIENCY OF CROP ROTATION. In this period of nearly 40 years only a few possible exceptions to the effectiveness of crop rotation have come to the writer’s knowledge. One of these came from a farmer in northern Illinois whom the writer knew personally and who in 1886 complained of the attack of these larvee on his corn, which was planted on ground that had been devoted to clover and timothy the year previous. This farmer was familiar with the pest and its work and sent specimens of the larve. The only explanation that could be offered for this unusual injury was that the beetles forsook the cornfields after the pollen had ceased to fall from the tassels and the silk of the ears had become too dead and dry to afford them food, and that some of the females which had not already finished oviposition made their way to the clover field, fed in the blossoms, and oviposited in the soil, thus giving rise to the larve that the next year attacked the corn which followed the clover crop in this field. The second complaint came from a farmer in Indiana who for two years had fed considerable corn fodder to stock in a pasture of blue grass and timothy. After plowing up this ground and planting it~ 8 BULLETIN 8, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to corn he reported that the crop was attacked by these worms. In this case no specimens accompanied the complaint. It goes without saying that the beetles are found and must develop where very little corn is grown, but time has shown that there is little danger to be apprehended from these.* Quite recently Mr. C. N. Ainshe, of this bureau, has found slight injury to corn in fields in Nebraska where this crop has followed small grain. 5 DEPREDATIONS ON LAND SUBJECT TO OVERFLOW. The frequent submergence during fall, winter, or early spring, even for weeks at a time, of fields in which the eges of these beetles have been deposited does not seem to affect such eggs in the least. Throughout the country north of the Ohio and Arkansas Rivers it is these low bottom lands that are kept most continuously in corn, and therefore it is here that in later years the danger from the pest is greatest. This is not, so far as now known, true of the lower Mississippi Valley, for the reason that planters there rotate with cotton, otherwise the ravages of the insect would probably be felt there as well as in the more northern States, as the writer has ob- served the beetles feeding on the pollen of the cotton bloom. Thus we see that throughout the country it is only where crop rotation is neglected that damage is at all to be feared. 1 Possible origin of a corn-feeding race.—It will be noticed that Mr. B. D. Walsh, the first State entomologist of Illinois, found three of these beetles in central Illinois many years prior to 1866 (Practical Entomologist, vol. 2, p. 10, 1866). My. Ottoman Reinecke, of Buffalo, N. Y., wrote the authcr in 1893 that he had, prior to 1880 and for some years, collected the beeties in abundance on willow along the margin of a creek near the city during July and August; while Mr. W. H. Harrington wrote the author years ago of his finding them in Neva Scotia. Thus it is clearly shown that the eastward advance each year, as previously recorded, does not represent the real advance of the species. It rep- resents the advance of a race that feeds on the pollen and silk of corn, some of whose larye develop in the roots, the adults from these spreading from field to field and under favorable conditions giving rise to myriads of worms that feed on the roots and destroy the crop. The origin of this race appears to have been the prairie country in Illinois, which in many places begins at the Mississippi River and extends into northwestern Indiana. It is true that the first reports of injury to the roots of corn by the larve came from Eureka and Kirkwood, Mo., both of which are near|St. Louis; but just across the Mississippi River in Illinois are wide stretches of prairie country which near the river are subject to overflow. DDITIONAL COPIES of this publication may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICH : 1913 BULLEN, QF THE USDEPARIMENT OFAGRICULTURE %, No. 9 Contribution from the Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester. December 5, 1913. AN ECONOMIC STUDY OF ACACIAS. By CHartes Howarp SHINN, Forest Examiner. PURPOSE OF THE STUDY. The acacias are so valuable as a source of tanning material and of timber, and are so well adapted to the reclamation of sandy and semi- desert lands that the introduction and culture of these exotics into certain portions of the United States may prove extremely profitable. To a certain extent parallels exist between the culture, in America. of eucalypts and acacias. Both were introduced in California about the same time, and both have thrived there. Commercially, too, their ranges are practically identical, though acacias do not make as large demand upon the soil. In both cases, however, the lack of frost hardiness limits their range. The aim of this bulletin is to call attention to the economic impor- tance of the leading acacias with the idea of brmging about more general planting. : THE GENUS ACACIA. ITS EXTENT. The acacias form the most characteristic group in the suborder Mimosee, of the great bean family Leguminose, represented in the United States by such trees as black locust (Robinia pseudacacia), honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), coffee tree (Gymnocladus dioicus) , and redbud (Cercis canadensis). They are, in the main, natives of Australia, which has about 300 species. There are 150 other species scattered over the world, principally in Asia, Africa, and America, with one important species, the koa, in the Hawaiian Islands. Of the 450 not more than 75 havé a known economic value, and not more than 50 are in general cultivation, though 150 species are growing in nurseries, gardens, and arboretums in the United States. A com- pilation of California nursery catalogues made in 1911 showed 103 species listed. The authorities of Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, enumerate 60 species growing within the park. 6746°—13——_1 2 BULLETIN 9, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Besides the 450 species there are many varieties developed through cultivation. Further, much confusion exists as to the proper identi- fication, not only of the acacias but of closely related genera, which are sometimes confused with the true acacias. An example of this is found in the so-called Acacia lophantha, which is an albizzia, as is the pink-flowered ‘Constantinople acacia.” The flowers of the true acacias are usually yellow, and are produced in globose heads vari- ously arranged; those of the albizzias are generally borne as spikes, similar to those of the Australian “bottle brush” ( Melaleucas), and are seldom yellow, though some are a greenish white. NOMENCLATURE. The difficulties of identification have led to equal difficulties of nomenclature, or,.rather, the confusion in either case has led to confusion in the other. Except for the species of greatest economic value, which have been longest in cultivation, the nomenclature is so mixed in California that acacias are still being sent to Dr. Maiden, director of the Sydney Botanic Garden, for identification. Mr. Ernest Braunton, of Los Angeles, has done much in recent years to secure the correct identification of the acacias planted for ornament in southern California. Dr. Franceschi and Mr. P. Reidel, of Santa Barbara, and Miss Katherine Jones, of the University of Cali- fornia, at Berkeley, have worked with the acacias to the end that the synonyms may be all weeded out, and that the various species grown in California, where acacias have been most extensively planted in this country, may be accurately known. The chief difficulty has been with the so-called decurrens group, and the problem has been to distinguish between species and mere - varieties. The classification made by Dr. J. H. Maiden* seems to ae both culturally and scientifically correct, and its general adoption offers the best escape from present confusion in American nomenclature. According to this (1) Acacia decurrens, or decurrens var. normalis (Willd. and Benth.), is the ‘‘black wattle” ; (2) Acacia decurrens var. mollis (Benth.) is the Acacia mollissima (Willd.), and is the leading ‘“‘oreen wattle’; (3) Acacia decurrens var. pauciglandulosa (F. von M.) also is known usually as ‘‘green wattle”; (4) Acacia decurrens var. dealbata (F. von M.) is the leading ‘‘silver wattle.” These four wattles and two or three others of lesser importance pass into each other by successive gradations. They show cultural differences, however, and marked variations in yield of tan bark. The nurseryman naturally chooses the more floriferous and shapely form of Acacia decurrens, but the commercial planter must consider bark yields and proportion of tannin. i“ Wattles and Wattle Barks,” third edition, pp. 103, Sydney, 1906. AN ECONOMIC STUDY OF ACACTAS. 3 CHARACTERISTICS OF VARIOUS SPECIES. SOIL AND MOISTURE REQUIREMENTS. Acacias form one of the most conspicuous associations of all those which group themselves close to deserts. While they do not con- stitute a true desert species, they nevertheless carry tree life well into the desert regions, becoming shrubby and scattered. In fact, some species, such as Acacia greggi, one of the most valuable lac-insect bearing species, will thrive -with only 3 inches of rainfall; some grow on inland sand dunes far from ocean influences. With a few notable exceptions, the acacias are preeminently adapted to* poor soil and rainless summers and to semiarid conditions, though most of them respond to good soil and abundant moisture. Their great drought-resisting qualities come from their deep, strong root systems and from their leaves, which are chiefly phyllodes, or flattened stems, with sensitive specialized .powers of movement by which evaporation may be greatly lessened. A light, warm, well-drained soil, if cultivated, will produce rapid growth, and the rich and heavy soils which some of the eucalypts demand for their best development are not necessary for the acacias. The most prominent exception to this is Acacia melanoxylon, or ‘black wood,” which produces choice timber but has little value for tanning unless the tannic acid is concentrated by the extract method. This is a river-bottom species, associated with Fucalyptus globulus and other trees of that type. Acacias readily adapt themselves to a heavier precipitation and more tropic conditions than characterize their native soil, as proved by many years of growth in the Hawaiian Islands and on the Natal coast of Africa. Indeed, many species, as with the eucalypts, when introduced elsewhere, may grow even more rapidly than in their native region. -But mainly the significant fact about the tree, so far as moisture conditions are concerned, is that it does not require a heavy annual rainfall nor any summer rain. It is this character- istic which renders it valuable on the southern Pacific coast and in the Southwest. It must be kept in mind that the trees are only half hardy as regards frost, and will not endure a temperature below 16° F. or 20° where the cold is likely to be sustained. So far as known, no other semitropic trees of high economic value possess to so great an extent the ability to thrive upon and to improve a great variety of arid and sterile soils. Through their agency lage areas of land unfit for ordimary cultivation, and at present producing only a scanty pasturage at best, may be reclaimed and utilized. Recent discoveries in the nitrogen-fixing qualities of the legumes point to the possibility of a hitherto unrecognized value in acacia growing. : 4 BULLETIN 9, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. FORMS. With so many and so varied species there can be no form and no rate of growth common to the whole genus. Some acacias are mere herbaceous plants; others are towering trees; most are shrubs, and some, in fact, are vines or climbers. In certain instances the same plant which has a creeping habit when exposed to cold salt winds on, the seashore will be able, a little farther inland, to assume an erect form and, where still better protected, to become a fully developed tall tree. One authority describes these size variations thus: Some tiny species hardly exceed 3 or 4 inches in height, and may be crushed like the grass of the field. Most of them are shrubs, or trees of moderate size, while at least two species attain the stature of large forest trees, both of them being found to measure up to nearly 4 feet in diameter, while one has been found to attain a height of over 100 feet, and the other the extraordinary height of 150 feet.1 The largest acacia is probably Acacia bakert, of which specimens have been described as over 160 feet high, with a clear length of from 50 to 60 feet and diameters of from 2 to 4 feet. Other large trees are Acacia melanozylon, A. longifolia, A. dealbata, and A. decurrens, all of which may attain a height of 100 feet or more. A. salicina, A. excelsa, A. elata, A. promanens, A. pendula, and A. binervata are also large trees, ranging from 30 to 80 feet in height. Those which are most used for commercial products, and par- ticularly for tannin, do not need to attain large size or great age before the products are merchantable. Thus they can be managed on a shorter rotation than most forest trees. ENEMIES. INSECTS. The acacias first planted in California grew so fast, bloomed so soon and so freely, and were so free from disease that most horti- culturists felt sure that acacias would become the most important shade trees for California. This enthusiasm was particularly marked from 1870 to 1876. It was like the subsequent fad in the Middle West for the hardy catalpa or the more recent furore over eucalypts in California. There followed, however, a sharp reaction because of the ravages of various scale insects, and many trees were cut down. But after the introduction of the vedalia, which destroyed the cottony cushion, scale, and the adoption of the various sprays it was found that the acacias are not peculiarly subject to injury by scale insects, and are no more often a haven for the pests than are ogks, olives, and various orchard trees. The most dangerous insect enemy, 1 J. H. Maiden, ‘‘ Wattles and Wattle Barks,’’ Government Printer, Sydney, New South Wales. 2 For information on insects and methods for their control the reader should apply to the State Experi- ment Station, Berkeley, Cal., or to the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C, AN ECONOMIC STUDY OF ACACIAS. 5 according to various observations, is the cottony cushion scale Ceerya purchasi). The scale insects have sucking mouthparts and subsist on the juices from the inside of the tree; for this reason they are hard to combat, because it is difficult to poison their food supply. Since they live upon the sap, they must necessarily lessen, the vitality of a tree, especially where there is a very dry summer climate. If they are very numerous, trees can not thrive and may even be killed. Seale insects, besides robbing the tree of nourishment, harm the tissues, close the pores by their excretions, and supply conditions under which fungi may get a good start. All these are much less serious with the acacias than the actual loss of sap; and where the water supply is ample the actual harm done by the scale is very slight. But since one of the chief values of the acacias is their adaptability to very arid regions, the scale insects should be destroyed wherever they exist, and care should be taken to establish plantations from seed or from thoroughly disinfected plants. Two insect enemies of the wattle in Natal, reported by Mr. David G. Fairchild, are a bag worm, which destroys great quantities of foliage and checks the growth of the trees, and a more destructive locust, which can retard growth to the equivalent of more than a year. The bag worms are collected and burned, and the plague of locusts is prevented by spreading poisoned molasses about their breeding places. A special locust expert is employed by the Natal Government; with his corps of laborers he poisons all the principal breeding places of the pest. Other insects attack the black wattle (Acacia decurrens) in eee lia.t Of these, one is an undescribed species of weeyil (Bruchus sp.) which was found in seeds purchased in San Francisco, and pre- sumably was introduced into California from Australia or South Africa in the seed. Another is a long-horned beetle (Cyelle crini- cornis) of almost world-wide distribution in the Tropics; several other insects do more or less harm. FIRE. There seem to be various opinions about the fire-resistant qualities of acacias, though they are generally considered very sensitive to fire. Some authors have stated that they do not burn readily, and the wattles in particular have been recommended for planting as fire breaks, not so much because they are not easily ignited but because their growth is so dense, both above and below ground, that no ground cover can thrive, and there is, therefore, beneath the trees an area free of vegetation. On the other hand, Dr. Maiden‘says » 1“The Black Wattle,” by Jared G. Smith, Bulletin No. 11, Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station. 2“Wattles and Wattle Barks,’ Sydney, 1906. . 6 BULLETIN 9, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that wattle plantations must be protected from fire by fire breaks ‘and also by the removal of the inflammable brush from among them. At the same time, the finely divided foliage of Acacia decur- rens makes it the most susceptible of the commercial wattles to destruction by fire.” In Natal, according to Mr. David G. Fair- child— The greatest enemy of the wattle is the grass fire. From the surrounding prairie such fires spread into the plantations and destroy them. To prevent this, nearly 50 miles of fire breaks, made by planting broad strips of prairie, have been constructed about the forests, and the expense of this adds materially to the original cost of estab- lishing a wattle estate. Another author, writing from the Transvaal,? calls attention to the prevailing notion that ‘‘it is commonly supposed that wattles a few years old are safe from fire, and in fact make good fire breaks. This, - however, is not the case, and many disastrous fires have entirely destroyed wattle plantations.” e999 B0559R5 50800 10 CDO09900 00000000 fo OEXperimental Orchard. Qo} 72 S009000000 9O5 ge 19 0 DOS OSBSPEL VOEOK“D rOBEVeCeSRVeGCEssoRD Side Hill Irrigation A IRRIGATION TRACT UNIVERSITY FARM DAVIS,CAL. Wie. 1.—Irrigation tract, University farm, Davis, Cal. One irrigation—tThe alfalfa given one early irrigation showed practically no growth after the first cutting on May 14. Even after the heavy irrigation of June 5 it failed to make a substantial growth, and at the end of the season not more than one-half of it was alive. The explanation of this is that it was given too early an irrigation. The plats were irrigated before the roots had penetrated beyond the surface soil, and when this had dried out, following the first irriga- tion, the roots were stranded in a surface soil without sufficient moisture to forward the growth. 4 BULLETIN 10, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. © The midsummer irrigation of July 14 produced two very light crops and left the plants alive but growing very slowly at the end of the season. Before this first irrigation was applied the root system had time to penetrate well into the subsoil and receive full benefit from the irrigation after it was applied. The late and very late irrigations both produced one fair crop besides the first hght crop cut in May, and at the end of the season all of the alfalfa had shown a vigorous growth, with no apparent effects from the early drought, indications pointing toward a good yield in the spring. Two irrigations.—In the plats given one early and one late irriga- tion only a 2-inch growth was shown between the cutting in the middle of June and the irrigation on August 10. Following the first irrigation the alfalfa made a shght growth, but it was not until after the second application that a substantial growth was made, which produced one fair cutting in September. One midsummer and one late irrigation produced a fair cutting in September, followed by a second and much heavier crop early in November. At the time of this last cutting the stand was in very good condition, the plants being deep-rooted and sturdy. Two late irrigations of 9.4 and 8.9 inches, respectively, applied August 1 and September 9, produced two good crops, the first on September 7 and the last November 12, and at the end of the season these plats had not only produced the heaviest first-season yields, but contained the hardiest and best appearing plants. Three irrigations.—In these plats the first and heaviest irrigation, applied May 29, seemed to have little effect upon the stand aside from keeping it alive; but after the second application, on July 18, the growth was rapid; and following the third application of August 23 a heavy first-year crop was taken off October 12, and a second fair crop in November, and at the end of the season the plants seemed to be very well devaned indicating probable heavy yields the following spring. Late in November plats 35, 36, and 37 were all given a very heavy early-winter irrigation. This was waste water pumped onto the plats during the testing out of the pumping plant, and, all told, the water applied must have amounted to a depth of about 18 inches. This seemed to have a remarkable effect upon the stand and was directly responsible for a heavy yield with small amounts of water the following summer. Although no definite conclusions can be drawn from a single season’s observations, nevertheless the results obtained point to the following facts: (1) Without irrigation spring-sown alfalfa is uncertain in Sacra- mento Valley, and under conditions of normal rainfall and moderate IRRIGATION AT UNIVERSITY FARM, DAVIS, CAL. 5 climate not more than one-half of the stand can be expected to sur- vive through the summer. (2) Heavy spring irrigations, when followed by long periods throughout the summer without water, did not benefit alfalfa. Exam- ination of the root growth under these conditions shows that water applied to the little plants in the early spring produces a root growth outwardly along the surface of the soil rather than downward, and when this is followed by long dry periods, the soil drying out leaves the young plant stranded above the moisture zone. Far better results were obtained by delaying irrigation until the root growth was well established, and even until the little plants seemed to be stunted -and suffering for moisture. -‘ heavier yields. (3) Late and very late summer irrigations tend to produce sturdier plants and heavier yields the following summer. (4) After the root growth is well established, the growth may then be forced by frequent and, if the soil will stand it, heavy irrigations. Well-developed, deep-rooted plants’ mean DUTY OF WATER FOR ALFALFA, 1910, 1911, AND 1912. The investigations during the first year’s growth of the alfalfa had naturally destroyed the uniformity of the stand, making it necessary to reseed the whole area. Early in March the ground was thoroughly disked, cross-disked, and harrowed to a depth of 2 inches. It was then reseeded, 20 pounds of Utah seed per acre being drilled in at right angles to the seeding of the year before. This seed was brought up by the early spring rains and at the time of the first cutting on April 21 a very uniform stand covered the whole area. The previous year’s work had shown that the water supply from the ditch system was inadequate for experimental work, and the pumping plant was installed and used in all subsequent work, the ditch system being abandoned. The following schedule for irrigation was outlined and followed on all but three of the checks in 1910 and 1911: Schedule of irrigation of alfalfa, 1910 and 1911. Schedule. 0. 6 inches after first and second cuttings. 8 after first, second, and third cuttings. 74 after first, second, third, and fourth cuttings. 33 inches one week after first, second, third, and fourth cut- tings; 32 inches before second, third, fourth, and fifth 7% inches one week before second, third, fourth, and fifth 12 inches after first; 8 inches after second, third, and fourth 9 inches after first, second, third, and fourth cuttings. 12 inches after first, second, third, and fourth cuttings. Depth of Number of plat. Area. | - water applied. Acres. Inches |. 2b ig ee ORSO2e Reese See No irrigation. 1) 1) eS 7080) |eewesae ers D ny A . 293 12 , 1S ee . 652 24 C08: OAD ae ee . 960 30 LG USGS Ae ee 920 30 cuttings. ie Pal OLE Ce . 920 30 cuttings. ato Stee es 1.000 36 cuttings. fy 1d) Seeae esse ns 573 36 pemerers See oe L 1. 000 48 Sy, NOSES Sees sere ame 513 48 Do. 6 BULLETIN 10, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, © A winter irrigation applied to checks 35, 36, and 37 produced a marked improvement in the stand which was carried over into the following season, producing much heavier yields. For this reason they were treated separately, the following schedule being used: ; Schedule of irrigation of alfalfa, 1910 and 1911. Number of plat. Area. Season of 1910. | Seasoii of 1911. Acres : Son aoe she ae eee 0.50 | 24 inches applied, 12 inches after first; 6 | 24 inches applied; 12 inches i inches after second and third cuttings. after first; 6 inches after sec- ond and third cuttings. Shae set te .50 | 30 inches applied; 12 inches after first; 6 | 24 inches applied; 8 inches inches after second, third, and fourth cut- after second, third, and tings. fourth cuttings. A SE se oe er .50 | 30 inches applied; 12 inches after first; 6 | 24 inches applied; 6 inches inches after second, third, and fourth cut- after first, second, third, tings. and fourth cuttings. This work was continued during the season of 1912 but on a re- duced area, rectangular checks 17 to 31 being devoted to the work. Application of equal amounts of water to these checks during 1910 and 1911 had produced a very uniform stand over the whole area, and the experiments were started in 1912 under very favorable conditions. Following is the schedule outlined and followed during the season: Schedule of irrigation of alfalfa, 1912. Depth of Never Area. water Schedule. PVE Ae applied. Acres Inches. 17, 30 Oe Ol ep cecemrt No irrigation. 18, 29 46 12 | 6 inches after first and second cuttings. 19, 28 - 46 18 | 6 inches after first, second, and third cuttings. 20-27 - 46 24 | 6 inches after first, second, third, and fourth cuttings. _ 21-26 - 46 30 | 73 inches after first, second, third, and fourth cuttings. 22-25 -46 36 | 9 inches after first, second, third, and fourth cuttings. 23-24 . 50 48 | 12 inches after first, second, third, and fourth cuttings. 31 23 60 | 12 inches after first, second, third, fourth, and fifth cuttings. During each of the three seasons six crops of hay were cut. In liarvesting, the general practice of cutting when about one-third of the alfalfa is in bloom was followed. The hay was generally raked the same day, shocked the day following, and hauled as soon as it was dry enough to be stacked without heating, never waiting until the leaves were dry enough to fali off when handled. The results of these experiments are given in the table following. IRRIGATION AT UNIVERSITY FARM, DAVIS, CAL. is Summary of results of alfalfa irrigation investigations, 1910, 1911, and 1912. Yield ipitons per | V pine pS ct Cost of production. | Net profit per acre. Depth of water applied. a= aa ea | ak 1916 | 1911 | 1912 | 1910 1911 1912 1910 1911 1912 1910 | 1911 1912 Inches. Pieemta ne ts +. -'n 3. 85 | 6.02 | 6.52 |$26.95 |h42. 14 [038.64 | $8.65 |$13. 50 |$12. 40 |R18. 30 |328. 64 | $26, 24 [20 ee 4.75 | 7.52 | 6.51 | 38.25 | 52.64 | 45.57 | 13.40 | 19.60 | 17.35 | 19.85 | 33.04 28. 22 Uo odbc SSS 63556 Ss Seaerec (elle anne ix tea atetcie BO LA Seo eatesSenil sn ayorsin TITS et fed We 8 PN VS a 29. 29 ES ii sia oicw' =o = 6.00 | 8.388 | 8.32 | 42.00 | 58.66 | 58.24 | 18.90 | 24.20 | 24.10 | 23.10 | 34. 46 34. 14 1) oc feb Seen 7.53 | 9.61 | 9.43 | 52.71 | 67.27 | 66.31 | 23.15 | 27.85 | 27.35 | 29.66 | 39. 42 38. 96 Mire Saisie wes Sie ais 7.58 | 9.33 | 9.38 | 53.00 | 65.31 | 65.66 | 24.15 | 28.05 | 28.10 | 28.91 | 37.26 37. 56 CS de oS eee 8.45 | S.64 | 8.87 | 59.15 | 67.48 | 62.09 | 27.80 | 30.25 | 28.80 | 31.35 | 37.23 | 33.29 14 coset Soeeeeeed ASB See Goaeee LONG S eee Wale eee OF 209|4 eee act e BE Ul Sap oc soleadeece 36. 63 Nore.—Labor of production figured at $2.25 per ton. Water figured at $1.70 per acre- foot. Labor for irrigation figured at 50 cents per acre per irrigation. While the value of the hay is figured at $7 per ton for each of the three years 1910, 1911, and 1912, the local value in 1912 was $11 per ton. The accompanying diagram (fig. 2) shows the average yields in tons per acre for the three years, with the corresponding depths of water applied, and figure 3 shows the average yield in tons per acre for each cutting from the unirrigated alfalfa and from the checks a eS HENGE (ome a a TOTAL DEPTH OF WATER IN INCHES plications The first diagram shows a very uniform increase in yield up to 30 inches of water applied, above which the increase is very small, and in the case of 36 inches ap- plied a slight decrease is shown, although the maximum average yield was produced by a total of 48 inches apphed in four 12-inch irrigations. The first half of the diagram shown in figure 3 illustrates the gradual decrease in yield in each succeeding crop where no water is apphed, showing the need of irri- gation after the first crop has been YIELD IN TONS PER ACRE pan i Fig. 2.—Average Field “of alfalfa, 1910, removed. When this first half is 1911, and 1912, using different quan- compared with the other half of Pistesvor waters the diagram the result of irrigation is apparent. In each of the three seasons the maximum yield was produced in the third crop, probably because of more favorable growing conditions during June and the first part of July in which this crop was grown. 8 BULLETIN 10, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, The results, although not absolutely conclusive, point to the fol- lowing facts: (1) In the open, well-drained soil, typical of that found in the floor of the Sacramento Valley, the general tendency is toward an increase in yield of alfalfa with the increased amounts of water ap- plied up to at least 48 inches. (2) There is a limit beyond which the increase in yield will not pay for increased cost of applying the water, and for such conditions as are found on the University farm this limit is in the neighborhood of 30 inches applied as a total for the season. — ea UNIRRIGATED | FouR 7/2 1N.IRRIGATIONS Rea CROP CROP ae aa ee ee eee ee ee ee ie SS pn ee ee ee eee FUMES EEE) to ie oe Be ee Ge ee are Oe ie as ee eo ane GE Be Ree ee ee oo Pa eg oe Re ee eee a ee ee oe oo ee BE Be Be Ree Ee Se ee Pe see ee OS Be Be ee 2 Be SE EE Be ORE Oe Be eee eee a BE BS BE Be Be BG BS Be Be Fic. 3.—Comparative yield of unirrigated and irrigated alfalfa, by crops. In applying these conclusions to other localities, it is well to re- member that local conditions are always the controlling factors. © The character and condition of the soil, the climate, the rainfall, the length of the growing season, and the age of the alfalfa, all have their effect upon the yield, and each general locality will show differ- ent results and a different economic duty of water. WHEN TO IRRIGATE ALFALFA. In order to determine if possible at what stage of growth after cutting the water should be applied to produce the best results, checks 17 to 28, inclusive, were divided into three groups of four checks each, and during 1910 and 1911 they were treated in the following — manner: IRRIGATION AT UNIVERSITY FARM, DAVIS, CAL. 9 Group 1 (checks 22, 23, 24, and 25) received a total of 30 inches, applied in four 74-inch irrigations, immediately following the first, second, third, and fourth cuttings. Group 2 (checks 20, 21, 26, and 27) received a total of 30 inches in eight 3?-inch irrigations, two irrigations being applied between cut- tings, the first one week after cutting and the second two weeks later. Group 3 (checks 18, 19, 28, and 29) received a total of 30 inches in four irrigations of 74 inches each, applied just after cutting the sec- ond, third, fourth, and fifth crops. The results obtained are shown in the following table: Results from irrigating alfalfa at different stages of growth. ; Total yield for season in tons per acre. "Number of group Schedule. ; AVE€I- 1910 1911 age 1 CeSeneaBe Four 7}-inch irrigations applied immediately after cutting..........- 7.53 9. 61 8. 57 Demat si. = Eight 3#-inch irrigations applied in two irrigations between cuttings. - 8. 24 9.91 9. 08 leteieis + s\% four 73-inch irrigations applied just before cutting....-...-.......-- 7.97 8.95 8.46 Each of these seasons shows a small increase in yield to be pro- duced by two irrigations between cuttings. This averages 0.5 ton per acre for the two seasons, and if the extra labor, such as laying the pipe and preparing for the irrigation, is considered, the small additional profit is consumed in labor, and from a financial stand- point no advantage is gained. In heavy soils, subject to cracking after irrigation, frequent ap- plication of small amounts of water shows a decided advantage over the single irrigation between cuttings. It is true also, in light porous soils where the underground drainage is good and the moisture- holding capacity of the soil is small, that one heavy irrigation will not carry the crop through to a good yield and that a second ap- plication will produce good returns. The groups 3 and:1, irrigated before and after cutting, show op- posite results for the two seasons, irrigation before cutting showing the heaviest yield in 1910 and the lightest yield in 1911, but in each case the difference is so small that no conclusions can be drawn favor- ing either method. It was noticed, however, that toward the end of the season of 1911 the checks irrigated just before cutting had a very spotted appearance, the alfalfa standing at a very uneven height, and that after cutting, in spots the alfalfa was slow to start its new growth. A period of five days to a week always elapsed from the time of irrigation until the crop was cut. During this time the growing alfalfa was drawing heavily upon the moisture supply in 6187°—Bull. 10—13——2 10 BULLETIN 10, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the soil and in spots seemed to diminish it to such an extent that not enough remained to produce a vigorous growth in the plants after cutting. IRRIGATION OF GRAIN, 1910, 1911, AND 1912. During these three seasons the east halves of checks 35, 36, and 37, containing one-half acre each and 14 acres of unleveled land lying north of check 37, were given over to experiments with irrigation of barley. During 1909 checks 35, 36, and 37 were planted to sugar beets, which were irrigated, but the amounts of water added were small, and it is safe to assume had no effect upon the crops which followed in 1910. The unleveled area north of check 37 had been cropped to grain for a number of years previous to beginning the experiments, and was typical of much of the so-called “worn-out ” land in the vicinity of the farm. Season of 1910.—During the season of 1910 all plats were plowed in the early spring, harrowed, and drilled to barley on March 12, 85 pounds of seed per acre being used. The following irrigation sched- ule was planned and carried out. Schedule of irrigation of barley, 1910. api El Depth Number of plat. Number of irrigations. Dates. applied. Inches. Unleveled area..... No dimrigation cc nbs23 oo22 kee = Se sce eee ee eee eee ee rR ay ES SS BWHeosaseeodacesuecn- Oneirrigation: Glooged) - 322 22 sees se ne eee e eee eee April 27 3.6 BO ssa re ee nee el aalsaee Two irrigations (shallow furrows)........--.---------------- {nice raz oe yeni aa ee ae T woiirrigations’ (deep furrows) )25.:- a= 2-2 coos ee ee ee ee oon | rae eee sapere Plats 36 and 37 were furrowed immediately after seeding. The shallow furrows of plat 36 were made by a marker consisting of two 6 by 6 inch timbers, 24 feet long, set on edge, 18 inches apart, and fastened parallel to each other by 2 by 4 inch cross strips. This was drawn over the surface parallel with the checks, making shallow furrows 18 inches apart and averaging 14 inches deep. This method is practically the same as flooding, the furrows acting simply as guides for the water. It was intended to irrigate plat 37 by subirrigation from deep furrows, but the method was not successful, and May 1 the check was plowed and seeded to cowpeas, which were turned under as green manure in the fall. The dates of irrigating plats 35 and 36 depended entirely upon the condition of the crop, the water being added when it was thought it would produce the best results and in quantities sufficient to give the soil a good irrigation. ne eit IRRIGATION AT UNIVERSITY FARM, DAVIS, CAL. iui) Season of 1911.—The experiment was repeated in 1911 on the same soil, following as nearly as possible the procedure of 1910, the land being spring plowed and seeded on March 20. The following schedule was followed during the season : Schedule of irrigation, 1911. Number of | F¥: Depth Number of plat. irrigations. | Date. applied. Inches iUmioveled-area-—north half. 2:2... 22: 2222s ecient eee os ecceseeceec eens INONG es | P seiziataenn lotion comers Unleveled area—south half. -.-.......2.22-2-----2--- EEE eee ana Ones =f 2852 June 1 6.4 ey te FE nicl taps iaoSiniso wlnjn- Setar S ase see ee Lette cess oe dos22is May 13 (4.3 SIE et ete cies sicker cle cine oaths cee e Sue nc eas seo (s)) EGS eae ee eS UNMANURED - Fic. 4.—Yield of barley with different quan- tities of water, on manured and unmanured / Irrigation MANURED eral weather conditions. Never- theless, under all of these vary- ing conditions there is not one instance where the increase in yield did not more than pay for the cost of the water which pro- duced it, the yield increasing with the increased amounts of water applied. Tt will be noted that in each of these seasons two irrigations, one of which was applied at about the time the grain came to a head or soon after, or one late irrigation, as in 1911, pro- duced a heavy yield above the single early irrigation. In each of these three years strong, dry- ing north winds occurred about the time the grain was in the dough. The unirrigated and early irrigated grain was badly pinched, while the presence of the moisture in the checks irrigated late seemed to prevent this, pro- ducing full, plump grain. Ae | IRRIGATION AT UNIVERSITY FARM, DAVIS, CAL. 13 Were further conclusions to be drawn each season should be con- sidered separately, but in each case inspection of the value column will show that for each of these three seasons irrigation of grain was made to pay. IRRIGATION EXPERIMENTS WITH INDIAN AND EGYPTIAN CORN IN 1910 AND 1911. For this work, which extended through 1910 and 1911, the 4-acre tract lying directly north of the west end of check 37 was used. During 1909 this tract was in sugar beets, and previous to that, for'a number of years it had been in grain. In the spring of 1910 it was plowed twice—March 1 and April 9— harrowed, and cross-harrowed. On April 29 the west 2 acres were seeded to Yellow Dent Indian corn and the east half to Egyptian corn (white durra), a sorghum. In seeding a corn planter was used and the rows were placed 40 inches apart. During the season of 1910 no definite time for irrigation was set or definite quantities assigned, both being controlled by the needs and conditions of the growing crops. | INDIAN CORN. Immediately after planting the field was divided into four plats, the water being applied as shown in the following schedule: Schedule of irrigation of Indian corn, 1910. Number of plat. Number of irrigations. Date. aatisel Inches PER SIS tes see tte sterea nce TNO Se ct Rm CEE A SE a a We nents eet inn lbs aa COUT ETE GYRO RBG See ea (OEE SABRI Cem tat ays SiR read a ate Cte an Jane 24 3.3 GOs ds 3.3 Bee ee eee ee eee ee eee eee eee eee e eee eee TWO... - 22-2 +222 2e eee eee ee eee eee eee ee eee july 13 2.0 May 26 4.4 Ee iene ee oie ose cisisecikcicla sia cites PETES Sete Sse ora arate ete ota cy staelere mays eamiapte June 24 2a1 July 13 1.5 Thorough cultivation followed each of these irrigations, and at all times the field was kept free from weeds. In the middle of August, when the corn was in the milk, it was cut, weighed, and fed green. After the crop was removed the land was fall plowed, harrowed, and allowed to stand idle through the winter. The following March it was again plowed, harrowed, and seeded to “ Yellow Flint ” corn and the experiment of 1910 repeated. The area was divided into four plats, which received the following amounts of water during the growing season. 14 BULLETIN 10, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Schedule of irrigation of Indian corn, 1911. Depth of Number of plat. ner Date. water Status of corn. 8 i applied. Inches. Deo cas bases oe WS TNUCH a a l Pe ereS AeR Bos. fh ha Onet 2224 June 22 2.3 | Corn 20 inches high. 3 Two June 21 2.2 Do. Bane! ys st ane | 8 ee a ia Apbigye —— it7/ 2.5 | Corn coming in tassel. M4 June 21 2.3 | Corn 20 inches high. pa rahe gee ae A ee Three. .... {oats 17 2.4 | Corn coming in tassel. Aug. 8 2.4 | Corn coming into the milk. In each of these irrigations the furrow method was used, a small stream running in each furrow for a long period, thus avoiding flooding and, as in previous seasons, a thorough cultivation following each irrigation. August 16 and 17 the corn was harvested, weighed, chopped, and stored for winter use. The following table shows thie results obtained for the two seasons: Sunumary of results of irrigation of corn. Value at | Cost of Season. Numbe Number of irrigations. » Depth. Meld’ pet $2.50 irriga- IDEN : per ton. | tion. Inches. Tons. AM SNION GL au eaec se de sais oe eee nal Roce eee 6. 85 ESAs Se ess 1910 2) | Ome ah crits Se srs a apne See eee 3.3 8. 85 22.13 $1. 50 pur gn ae en eee Of PRWOls oe. fo aesen oi. Sues eee eee 5.3 10. 05 25.13 2.60 Als MENT GG Sey erie Geeta in, eee eee 8.0 10. 45 26.13 3.90 A DALE (c) (ea aan erates SUR Rene a eee St el Se eS 3. 67 OS ee ee ay 1911 DONO ILE 22 SOK ere EO ee eae 3.0 4. 86 12.15 1.40 Bean SOR res Big), AERO SEN SS Ole rae 4.8 5. 21 13. 03 2.45 A DMO oie La heise ee Cee aeetereee Toit 6. 59 16. 48 3.65 Note.—Cost of irrigation taken at 30 cents per acre-inch for water and application, plus 50 cents per acre per irrigation for furrowing. The most noticeable feature in these results is the decrease in yield in 1911, when compared with the yield in 1910. This is due entirely to the character of the season. The late spring of 1911 was abnor- mally cold and very unfavorable to the production of a good yield, even in the presence of an abundance of moisture. During 1910 one and two irrigations were applied to advantage, while the third irrigation just before harvesting produced an increase of but 0.4 ton per acre green weight, and was apphed at a loss. The season of 1911 shows light yields and small increases, and if interest on the investment in pumping machinery and cost of leveling the land be added to the cost of irrigation no financial gain would be realized. EGYPTIAN CORN. This investigation followed along the same lines as the investiga- tions with Indian corn, the preparation of the land, time of seeding, and entire procedure being the same up until the time of the first IRRIGATION AT UNIVERSITY FARM, DAVIS, CAL. 15 irrigation. It was noticed, however, that the Egyptian corn (white -durra) was much slower in coming up, and in the early stages of growth developed very slowly, especially during the cold spring weather of 1911. The area originally was divided into three plats, No. 1 containing 0.9 acre; No. 2, 0.46 acre; and No. 3, 0.67 acre. About the middle of June it was seen that the yield from the unirrigated plat, No. 1, was going to be small, and it was then subdivided into plats 1-A, 1-B, and 1—-C, of 0.3 acre each. Plat 1-A was not irrigated, plat 1-B re- ceived one irrigation, and plat 1—-C two irrigations. Following are the dates of irrigation and the quantities of water applied: i . Schedule of irrigation of Egyptian corn, 1910. ‘ Number of plat. ta 188- | Date. | Depth. Status of corn. ~) Y . P | Inches ; eter 3 ose rad NGNIG siete s eS oe ROE OSE sac eae a Hence cies co esc se ONG a eeee seen | une 15 3.75 Cont inches high. ; :.- do. 3.7 0. ‘ 1-C...2. 2. eee esses TWwo.......-.-.--- {ring 14 1.75 | Corn forming heads. Pe ease eet cya ia arcie (Oka SS Beene July 13 3.10 Do. “4 3 é Two . (ay 28 3.25 | Corn 4 inches high. DMG Pts ss eee ee P July 14 2.10 | Corn forming heads. During 1911 the experiment was repeated on the same soil. The first seeding on April 18 was a failure, and only about one-fourth of a stand came up. The plat was replowed, harrowed, and reseeded _ May 13 and a good stand obtained. The area was then divided into : four equal checks and the following irrigation schedule outlined: 4 Schedule of irrigation of Egyptian corn, 1911. Number of irriga- Number of plat. ae Date. Depth. Status of corn. | Inches LoS Gees sREEESaSae INONG See nase eter mie ae ae ames see PN. 2)Se,c(c 2 OneEsae Sos June 21 1.8 | Corn 6 inches high. 3 Two ac OM eens 2.6 Do. A ee et Ua i alia ae tan ao og July 18 2.0 | First heads forming. June 22 2.3 | Corn 6 inches high. Jace noe eae TTC 45 422k ese fouty 18 1.9 | First heads forming. Aug. 8 1.5 | Corn in the dough. In all irrigations the furrow method was practiced, the water being apphed in alternate furrow spaces. A thorough cultivation followed each irrigation, and the whole area was kept free from weeds during both seasons. In harvesting, which occurred the first of October, the heads were picked, hauled, and thrashed, and later the stalks were cut with a mowing machine. 16 BULLETIN 10, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The following table shows the results of the two seasons’ work: Summary of results of irrigation of Egyptian corn. x F Value at | Cost of Season. Number Number of irrigations. Depth. Yield per $1.50 per | irriga- of plat. acre. F : 100 pounds.} tion. Pounds IAS nace. 1,335 S20KOB dere wec ccc Vela sae 2, 670 40. 05 $1. 52 AQID ese alewmsc sees ECR ie 2, 700 40. 50 2.65 PA saps eee 2,510 37. 65 1, 43 Biase boas 3,340 50. 10 2.60 [hee eae ee 1,100 TCG et 0) 3 ea oe ee AOL Se mee eee PASM ha are 1,690 25.35 1.04 i AN ae a 2, 650 39. 75 2.38 qe aren, 2,964 44. 48 3. 20 Norte.—Cost of irrigation is taken as 30 cents per acre-inch for power and attendance, plus 50 cents per acre per irrigation for furrowing. The accompanying diagram (fig. 5) shows the results for 1911, platted graphically, the yields with the corresponding amounts of water applied being shown. si With this crop, as with the Indian corn, a greater yield is pro- duced in 1910, with less amounts of water applied, than in 1911, due entirely to a warmer spring and much more favorable growing season. The results for 1910 show but a small variation in the yields from plats 1-B, 1-C, and 2, and a large increase in plat 3. This is due to the time of irriga- tion, plat 3 receiving one early and one midseason irrigation, the first applied before any effects of drought were shown, thus keeping more or less of a- constant moisture percentage in the soil during the entire period of growth. In 1911 the yields increased quite uni- formly with the increased amounts of water appled, until the third irriga- tion, when there was a slight falling off. When this last irrigation was applied the heads were fully formed and the grain ripening, and the only effect of this irrigation was probably in preventing any pinching or shrinking in the grain. Inspection of the value column for each season shows that the irrigation of this crop may be made to pay, even if 6 per cent interest on an investment of $50 per acre for leveling the land and developing water be added to the cost of irrigation. Here, as in the irrigation of other grain crops, no definite duty of water can be established. The amounts of water required and the time of irrigation will always vary with the season, and the intelli- WATER APPLIED= INCHES us cc 5) < cc ul o 122) a 2). = \e) oa 2 a a ui > ae SH alee h tp u BEI Bi $. = an Sana) Fic, 5.—Yield of Egyptian corn with different quantities of water. TRRIGATION AT UNIVERSITY FARM, DAVIS, CAL. 17 - gence of the irrigator along these lines is always going to be the con- trolling factor in success and failure or profit and loss. That the = time of applying water is of as great importance as the quantity of water applied is shown plainly in 1910, in plat 1-C, where two irri- gations followed in close succession and the increase in yield due to the second irrigation did not pay for the cost of the irrigation. IRRIGATION AND CROP ROTATION EXPERIMENTS IN 1912. It was decided in the fall of 1911 to turn under a part of the alfalfa as green manure, and in the spring of 1912 to start a crop rota- tion of grain, sugar beets, corn, and potatoes, following alfalfa, these crops to be investigated from an irrigation standpoint, showing the increase in yield, with the increased amounts of water apphed. Com- parison also was to be made with the returns obtained from the un- - fertilized soils in previous years. Early in November, 1911, plats 1 to 15 and 32 to 37 were plowed to a depth of 8 inches with a two-gang plow. At this time the alfalfa had about a 6-inch top growth, and a good covering of green manure was turned under. Following this plowing the land was harrowed, cross-harrowed, and disked, leaving it in a finely pulverized condition to receive the winter rains. On February 1, 1912, the land was replowed to a depth of 6 inches, harrowed, and cross-harrowed. Owing to the light winter rains the green manure had not thoroughly rotted, although the soil turned up in a fine, mellow condition, presenting the appearance of recently hav- ing been given a heavy application of rotted stable manure. Owing to the checking system of plats 1 to 15, it was necessary to relevel them for furrow irrigation. This area was later seeded to sugar beets, Indian corn, and Egyptian corn. GRAIN FOLLOWING ALFALFA. Following the replowing and harrowing on February 1, the east halves of checks 32, 33, and 34 were seeded to 60-day oats, 75 pounds of seed per acre being planted. At the same time the west halves of these checks were seeded to Australian white wheat, at the rate of 85 pounds of seed per acre. All of the seed was drilled in, the drills running lengthwise with the checks, and a good stand came ~ up on all of the checks. 18 BULLETIN 10, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ~ The following plan of irrigation was outlined and carried out: a Schedule of irrigation of grain following alfalfa in 1912. OATS. Number of plat. |Number of irrigations. Date. Depth Status of oats. Inches bP Resae Apa eese INONO S532 228-2 | tee.) -6 elon Poe eee BRE errs centenae Seamer Ones aneeees senate April 9... . 13.2 | Oats 12 inches high. 34 nara {ape 13322 13.2 Do. Beas yee Pagel eg ip rae ny gee (May 10...-. 7.2 | Oats heading out. WHEAT. Boe neeessrsaeets ce: | None@s2522 s2e%oo saas| seem: a YORK \ aa ue LY; iMEESOy>s JM eK GRAN). WWwarrRen'S-~.NORTHAMPTON! INgaM\cuR : ; : : : ’ ‘ RI. pm jHALI\ ae cates ; & See / \ 7 PASN SS ZA Regions of commercial importance. RS Limits of botanical distribution. Fic. 1.—Distribution of loblolly pine in Maryland, Delaware, and Virginia. PIEDMONT TyYPEs. In middle or Piedmont Virginia, in the portion contiguous to the western edge of the Coastal Plain region, from Fredericksburg south, loblolly pine occurs in the following types: (1) In pure pine stands (chiefly on old fields) in mixture with shortleaf and scrub pines. Shortleaf usually predominates, though 4 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. on lower slopes loblolly sometimes does. Westward from the eastern edge of the Piedmont, loblolly is gradually displaced by shortleaf and scrub pine, until the western limits of its botanical distribution are reached. (See map, fig. 1.) (2) (a) In mixed pine and hardwood stands on lower slopes and on well-drained bottoms. In the original forests loblolly pine is rarely found, even as stray individual trees. The forests of this type are composed of white oak, yellow poplar, red oak, ash, birch, hickory, walnut, and red maple. (6b) In mixed pine and hardwood stands on the uplands. The original forest is a mixture of oak, hickory, black gum and pine—usually shortleaf, some scrub, and infrequently lob- lolly, the last as a rule occurring only where the soil is fairly moist. Where loblolly pine occurs in middle Virginia it is usually a tree of secondary importance, although occasionally on old fields it is found to limited extent in pure or nearly pure stands. CHARACTERISTICS OF LOBLOLLY PINE. SOIL, MOISTURE, AND LIGHT REQUIREMENTS. Loblolly pine is not fastidious in its soil requirements, and grows on a great variety of sites. It is in fact adapted to a wider range of soil conditions than any of the pines with which it is associated, though it grows best on deep, moist, well-drained, porous soils. The tree depends much more upon soil moisture than upon atmos- pheric moisture, and in fact throughout its range in the United States it is most abundant in regions of lesser precipitation. It grows on soils with all the different degrees of moisture content from wet swamps to dry sandy uplands. It prefers, however, the intermediate flat, moist lands, edges of swamps, and well-drained bottoms, where it is best able to hold its own in competition with other species, and to which virgin stands are almost exclusively confined. Because of its superior reproductive power loblolly has extended itself as second- growth over large areas of comparatively dry upland soils, both heavy and light, where it was rarely found in the original forest. Loblolly pine is intolerant of shade, being intermediate in its light requirements between the less tolerant longleaf and the more tolerant scrub pine. The effects, on different sites, of its light requirements upon reproduction and the development of individual trees and of stands are discussed later. FORM AND DEVELOPMENT. Under favorable forest conditions, with plenty of overhead light but shaded on the sides, loblolly pine develops, by the time it is 50 to 100 years old, a long, straight, cylindrical bole, clear of limbs for from 50 to 75 feet, with a diameter of from 15 to 24 inches breast- high and a height of from 80 to 120 feet. During the period of rapid FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 5 height growth, which continues until the tree is about 40 years old, loblolly pine has a long, broad, conical or ovoid crown. With increas- ing age this gradually dies off at the bottom, and finally becomes somewhat flat and irregular. In comparatively dense stands loblolly pine prunes itself rapidly, because of its intolerance of shade, and develops long, straight and clear boles which produce lumber of the best grades. In open stands, on the other hand, large, wide-spreading lateral branches are devel- oped, and knotty, low-grade lumber is the result. Comparatively open stands characterize the dry soils, on which natural thinning is more rapid and the trees produced are shorter and less clean-boled than on moist situations. GROWTH AND YIELD PER ACRE. The rate of growth of loblolly pine varies considerably with the quality of the soil. The different soils or sites on which it commonly occurs may be conveniently grouped under three quality classes— Pap sand LI. Quality Class I comprises the richest soils, where the rate of growth is most rapid. It includes the very fertile soils, usually rich in organic matter, with a uniformly abundant supply of moisture, but free from standing water, such as bottom land along the edges of streams, ponds, and deep swamps, moist depressions and basins and the very best old-field souls. Quality Class II includes the great bulk of soils on which the _ species occurs. These are fairly moist and are found in broad stretches of flat land between the bottoms and the uplands and in most of the old fields. Quality Class IIT includes all poor and dry upland soils, both heavy and light, dry and sandy flat-land soils and sand hillls, and the poorest of wornout old-field land. Old growth loblolly trees occur almost exclusively as single individ- uals or in small groups in mixture with other species. In second growth following clean cutting and on abandoned fields, however the species has a remarkable tendency to reproduce itself in pure, even-aged, fully stocked stands. Table 2 indicates the rate of growth of such stands and the trees composing them on the three qualities of soil described, including the possbile yield in either cubic feet or board feet at different ages. The cubic-foot yields are given for trees 3 inches in diameter and over, either peeled or with the bark on. The board-foot yields, which, of course, are not in addition to the cubic-foot yields, but merely express the yield for the same stand in another unit, apply when either all trees over 5 inches or all over 7 inches in diameter are counted. This table is based on measurements taken of pure, even-aged, unmanaged, fully stocked stands, found 6 BULLETIN ll, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. chiefly on old fields, and is a conservative indication of the possible yields from properly managed stands. TABLE 2.—Rate of growth and yield of pure, even-aged, fully stocked, unmanaged stands of loblolly pine in Somerset and Worcester Counties, Md. QUALITY I. Perec Average diame- : Trees per acre. ter breasthigh, Yield per acre. Aver- Ss Trees 3 | Trees 3 ' Age eee inches | inches | Trees5 | Trees 7 : 4 alge || Dyaveat: and | and | inches | inches Domk | otal | mantt | aamt All over | over and and nant. Biaitacs freee trees. | in di- | in di- | over over ; ameter | ameter | in di- | in di- (peel- | (with |ameter.|ameter. ed). | bark). Years. : No. No. Feet. | Inches. | Inches.| Cu. ft.| Cu. ft. | Bd. ft. | Bd. ft 1OUMe ees. eee ee ke 1,051 | 1,403 27 3.8 3.5 | 1,020] 1,600] 1,200 ]....-.-. A eases oe cee ge een 742 | 1,071 44 5.4 4.8 | 1,610] 2,390] 4,700] 1,400 20ers asses. Sec eee 540 827 55 6.8 6.0 | 2,250} 3,200} 8,300 5, 200 Psion ES oe er ae 411 611 63 8.1 7.1 | 2,900} 4,000 | 12,100 9, 900 BO eee soe ON Ea oe 343 469 69 9.1 8.2 | 3,570} 4,780 | 15,900 | 14,600 DS oats acs 2 ee 290 387 74| 10.1 9.1 | 4,230] 5,570 | 19,700 | 19,100 AO oe Base Seca ts oasiee vere 253 325 78 11.0 10.0 | 4,920] 6,380 | 23,800 | 23,800 Ae eae a Bo oi eee ee Ae 223 278 83 11.9 10.9 | 5,620] 7,200 | 28,100] 28,100 LO Ones 5) emis Aer eA 201 244 87 IPS) 11.7 | 6,350 | 8,050 | 32,600 | 32,600 QUALITY II.- TO ee Ss eee eee ee eee ee 1,095} 1,518 21 3.4 3.2 670 | 1,070 ANON ectinzise's GREE? ee ee eee has oer 738 | 1,099 34 4.8 4.3] 1,110] 1,680] 2,800 800 DOR ssh eee ies sae Se REE 527 758 44 6.1 5.5 | 1,600} 2,320} 5,400 3, 000 Oye ge ee ee ara 381 587 51 7.4 6.5 | 2,140] 3,000} 8,100 6, 200 BO Beam See on seemacnepeene 293 475 57 8.6 7.4 | 2,700 | 3,690 | 11,000 9, 400 Chat iepe Aai) ee ey ne A Se Oe, 9 eet 241 413 62 9.6 8.1] 3,270 | 4,390 | 13,800 | 12,400 es, See SER CASE ae ae 210 385 66 10. 4 8.6 | 3,840} 5,100 | 16,600 | 15,400 ARR ao Eee Sate MORE eRe El 189 354 70 ililbal 9.1 | 4,430 | 5,830] 19,500} 18, 700 HSE so alee Bee eae EE gee ee cess 174 344 73 11.7 9.4 | 5,040 | 6,600 | 22,600 | 22, 600° QUALITY TIl. LOS Ste eee Ie ee es BD hs eT 15 3.3 31 340 SO PSR Me is Bek 1 SRG S Sot e Aeon ae 656 | 1,089 25 4,2 3.8 630 980 | 1,300 200 D0 Ee Se ae see gee 625} 1,075 33 5.0 4.4 960 | 1,460] 2,800 900 DD pak sys Acie ee eee 538 894 40 5.8 5.1} 1,360} 2,000} 4,400 2, 100 BORE ELAR AS a Cy nL | 480 751 46 6.4 5.7} 1,790 | 2,580 |} 6,000 3, 500 oR eee mee ve te Eee 407 610 50 Zi 6.4 | 2,280] 3,200] 7,700] 5,500 At Ear a ats sees Te CRE Rae 353 517 54 ape: 7.0] 2,770} 3,820] 9,400 7,600 Lae: ele See ae Der nege ae ee ES A 309 441 57 8.3 7.6 | 3,290} 4,480 |} 11,300 | 10,200 $2 OE ek i AGIs SE AL ow he OD 280 381 60 8.8 8.2 | 3,860 | 5,180 | 13,400 | 13,400 1 Predominant trees are considered to be those composing a group of the largest dominant trees, the basal area of the group being equal to one-third of the basal area of all the dominant trees. REPRODUCTION. In ability to reproduce itself loblolly is one of the best, if not the best, of any of the pines in the eastern United States. SEED PRODUCTION AND DISSEMIN‘ATION. In comparison with other species of pine loblolly is very prolific in seed production. Some seed is produced every year, but the amount varies considerably. Heavy seed years occur at intervals of | ee FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE, 7 from 3 to 5 years. In some years hardly sufficient seed is produced to give adequate reproduction. Loblolly takes two seasons to ripen its cones, and because of this the relative amount of seed which will be produced can be foretold a year in advance. The amount of seed produced by any one tree varies normally with its age, size, and amount of growing space. The best seeders are trees 40 or more years old, or which have about completed their principal height growth and which have comparatively isolated crowns and an ample growing space. Trees in crowded stands do not seed so prolifically as trees growing in the open. j The seed falls in late autumn and through the winter and early spring. It is disseminated chiefly by the wind. Trees with many cones will scatter seeds very plentifully to a distance of twice their own height in the direction of the prevailing winter winds. In general loblolly pine can be relied upon for thickly stocking in one season unobstructed areas adjacent to seed trees for a distance of 100 feet to 100 yards, according to the height of the trees and pro- vided it is a good seed year and there is a suitable seed bed. SEED-BED REQUIREMENTS. For germination loblolly pine seed is comparatively independent of seed bed and soil conditions. The seed requires only a slight degree of moisture to cause it to germinate. For seedling establish- ment and growth following germination the seed-bed requirements of loblolly vary with the moisture content of the soil. On fresh to dry soils the seedling demands an open seed bed—that is, with plenty of light and little or no overhead crown cover and the soil exposed, or nearly so, with no layer of leaves and litter to prevent the develop- Ing roots: inom immediately coming in contact with the soil. On moist to wet sites, on the other hand, the seedling is able to exist and develop meer considerable shade on comparatively thick layers of undecomposed pine needles and litter. The most favorable conditions for loblolly reproduction are, in general, found in the open on an exposed loose soil, into which the roots of the seedling can at once enter and where the crown has plenty of light. Where loblolly pine seed trees occur in the vicinity of unused fields the land very quickly becomes seeded up to pine. Loblolly reproduction also takes place readily on a cover of grass, provided it does not form a compact sod. It seeds well on areas covered with tall grass, such as broom grass, which may come in after the forest is cleared. On dry sites in the forest with a thick layer of undecomposed leaf litter there is little chance for reproduction of loblolly because of inadequate moisture, but on moist to wet situations reproduction 8 BULLETIN 11, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. usually takes place in spite of any impeding forest floor. On dry sites the seedling requires a good deal more light for its develop- ment or existence even than on moist to. wet situations, which is one of the main reasons for the lack of loblolly reproduction under the shade of large trees, where the soil is not moist. For this reason Jumbering as a rule improves the seed-bed conditions for loblolly pine and increases its reproduction, provided seed trees of the species are left. The abundance of direct sunlight let in by cutting of the forest also causes the impeding forest floor to decompose rapidly, so that the roots of the seedlings can more readily reach the soil. Another great hindrance to germination and growth of loblolly-pine seed which falls after lumbering, in addition to that of a thick undecom- posed forest floor, is a luxuriant growth of ground cover and under- brush, including hardwood sprouts and seedlings, which in places may be so dense as to preclude pine reproduction entirely. SEEDLING DEVELOPMENT. The growth in height of loblolly seedlings for the first two years is slow, but during this period there is vigorous root development. Under average conditions seedlings in the open reach a height of from 2 to 6 inches the first and from 6 to 12 inches the second season. After this there sets in a rapid height growth of from 1 to 3 feet a year, which continues for from 30 to 50 years before beginning to fall off. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO INJURY. WIND. Loblolly pine is usually windfirm, since it grows mainly on soils conducive to the development of a deep taproot with strong laterals. It is only where there is an impenetrable subsoil that it develops a shallow, flat root system and is easily wind-thrown. It seldom suffers much damage from windbreak, and where broken off will usually show that it has first been killed or weakened by fire, insects, or fungi. Fire. The thick bark of loblolly pine gives it unusually good protection from damage by surface fires. Table 3 shows the average thickness of bark for trees of different diameters and heights 20 to 50 years old, which indicates their relative susceptibility to damage. Fig. 1.—DENSE 8-YEAR-OLD STAND ON COMPARATIVELY MOIST SITE. EFFECT OF MOISTURE ON DENSITY OF STAND. > <= = va) re < Wl E dp) > [a) Zz < ep) > a (a) > a WW > z fe) Wl (} Bde dase eee Bi tase eater eee |e eee Fs DOS| eee eet |B ton Aeon comes See EN ae Ee [NORA Rees eee Aas eS 16.99 15.75 15. 25 15. 25 13. 50 12.75 12.50 Wandraibarkestripsiecsotess so seee nee sceses 5 DSE25) as caeteas| aoe were | nese ees See, [ae els ae BOxg Danke SGU Steere cers lec nelilecie eA caders|| seine Sen oe TOS 50) eo ees Soc tiace (doen atl ees ae ya 1 March, 1912. 2 Logs (not suitable to cut into boards), especially small, crooked logs, are slabbed on three sides and cut into “flitch’’ 2’’, 23’’, or 3’ in thickness, with variable widths on either face in each piece and scaled on the basis of the average width. 3 Mine props seli at $3 a ton, green, f. 0. b. railroad. It takes from 4 to 5 tons, or 8,000 to 10,000 pounds, of green mine props to cut out 1,000 board feet of 4/4 edge lumber, so that the price of $3 per ton amounts to $12 or $15 per thousand board feet. ; 4 Cull mine props sell for $1.75 per ton, green, or $7 to $8.75 per thousand. The cost, figured in 1,000 board feet, of hauling green mine props amounts to about four times that of dry lumber, and for this reason props are cut only within a short haul of from 1 to 2 miles of the railroad. 5 Selling price of wholesalers to retailers would be higher than the above prices. 14 BULLETIN 11, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. COST OF LUMBER PRODUCTION. In most of the region covered by this report the logs are cut by small portable or semiportable mills. The large mills are limited to the southeastern corner of Virginia, but even these are now securing the bulk of their logs by rail or water from North and South Carolina, as the supply in Virginia is largely cut out. In the future there will be only small mills which can be cheaply moved so as to saw up profit- ably isolated lots containing as little as 100,000 feet of standing tim- ber. These, therefore, will deserve chief consideration in the man- agement of loblolly-pine forests. The cost of producing lumber, from the stump to the railroad or to a local market, exclusive of price paid for standing timber or stump- age, includes the following items where the milling is done by portable mills located in or near the timber: (1) Cutting and logging to the mill; (2) milling, including sawing and “sticking up;”’ (3) hauling lumber to the railroad or factory, including loading and unloading; (4) contractor’s profit. For large mills located on the railroad there is in place of the hauling item a small charge for loading on the cars, and the cost item of logging to the mill is always considerably higher. Cost ExciusivE or HavuLine. The cost of producing loblolly pine lumber by small mills in the region, exclusive of hauling, is about as follows: TaBLE 6.—Cost of lumbering (except hauling) per thousand board feet. We | 3 Minimum. | Average. |Maximum. Cupiing 2 4. Sase. do on se B23 Sos Pe ago See ewe oa Se ae ee $0. 50 $0. 75 $1.00 Skiddingevor haulmeVogsitopmilleesa: see eee eee eee eee eee eee eee 1.50 4.75 2.00 Sawingand"stickine ip?) <2 2222 csasceree aceecae solieeee yee 2.00 2.50 3.00 Contractor's profits ja55 She eek ae ee ne eee ee eee Sees 50 1.00 1.50 Motali(except:hamling) 252972 see ee ae eee as ee ee eee 4.50 6.00 7.50 HAULING. The cost of hauling is the most variable factor in the cost of lumber production by small mills, the variation being due to distance of mill from the railroad or local market, as well as to cost of team. A team of three horses (or mules) with driver can haul readily under present average road conditions in the region 2,000 feet of loblolly pine lum- ber a distance of 8 miles and return the same day, at an average speed of 2 miles an hour for the round trip.. The cost of such a team in the region varies from $5 to $7 per day, depending largely on the season of the year. It is the custom for two such teams to work together, so that the two drivers can help each other im loading and unloading FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 15 and in case either of the teams becomes stalled. It takes about an hour to load and unload a wagon. When more than one trip a day is made, 20 cents per trip (10 cents per thousand) extra should be added for additional labor to assist in loading. Taking the above figures as a basis, the cost of hauling different distances is as follows: Tasie 7.—Cost of hauling lumber, including loading and unloading. Hauling cost per M b. f. Distance of mill from rail- Number of trips under average road or local market. conditions. Cost of Cost of Cost of team, $5 team, $6 | team, $7 minimum.| average. ~ | maximum. POMMMES Eman acces caies's 3 Mii s TOMO EN RY SSD - becocaasesoracaee $5. 00 $6. 00 $7. 00 POPEIMLL GS ovis a esye re 2 wc imjsiaie rare’ = oie o| es bE PS INO Cay Ss nae seman. aseeeeme = ae 3.75 4.50 5.25 SEM ES oso s a2 ee Beer USD OGY aca jars ares treaties ae, : 2.50 3.00 3.50 (HPs Se ee eee ere SUIS MN GAYS aeons aaa 1.67 2.00 2.33 BONES pete 2 a ais ce ai~ o'ata sin mises Di ULL S) GAY = sae, < 22 oe eae 1.33 1.60 1.87 PUTS BS ce aoe e cis Sara's ao SACS allivss ops = a yeeinie 2 ere erie 1.00 1.20 1. 40 PAIN GSke ce eco! odes ANTIDS Carly Ree eee ee ss eee ee . 87 1.05 1.13 miles -iersa- 12 Be Se eelejes sce ee OMETMPS! Catliviers nee wees er inerien ae ak 83 1.00 il ure Toran Cost or LUMBER. - Combining the average costs given in Tables 6 and 7 gives Table 8, which shows the average total cost of producing lumber at different distances from the railroad or local markets. TaBLe 8.—Cost of producing loblolly pine lumber, per tiousand board feet. JuS) Teal Eh Se see ae en SiO OOn (RA man eine @ Meet tens chee. SE hiLG60 1.2) 10 L1G Sa eeea e e LOROUEIR 2 umnlles. cer oh ee ob ete etetactetre E he Y GS) TORI H Sys y pa en ee cima meaner (est O(0) tfeel lesan Veber aren coneitetedts - pceer peter a 7. 00 Go TOES Boge ee 8. 00 The cost of producing North Carolina pine in southeastern Virginia for the general lumber market by moder‘ate-sized mills varies much less with the distance of the tunber from the railroad than in the case of small portable mills. The larger mills are located on a railroad or on water affording facilities for direct transportation to the general market, and use narrow-gauge railroads, locally called trams, for transporting logs from the woods to the mill. These mills have a usual capacity of about 15,000 feet per day, and an actual output of from 2 to 3 million feet a year. Where small portable mills can profitably be set up for a cutting of only 50,000 feet, a moderate- sized mill with tram and dry kiln requires a stand of 2 million or more feet to be logged to the mill at a single pomt. The cost of producing North Carolina pine in southeastern Virginia by moderate-sized mills where there is a cut of 5 million feet accessible to one set-up is given in Table 9. For larger cuts from one setting of mill and tram the cost of tramming and milling would be less. 16 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 9.—Cost of producing North Carolina pine lumber vn southeastern Virginia. Tramming distance in miles. Item. 1 2 4 6 8 12 16 Cutting and logging to tram, including load- ING ES o. o Sep tees 5 ect Sestee Berea meee $3.00 | $3.00 | $3.00] $3.00} $3.00] $3.00 $3. 00 PrAmMMiIn G72 S20 Se) ee eevee Rees Cee 50 - 70 1.10 1.50 1.90 2.70 3.50 Milling, including kiln-drying and loading....| 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 4.00 Contractor’s profitee. «sos eee eee eee ener 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Brelght BY fe Ses ere De ON ee re eee ee 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 Total ro SSS ee ee ae ee REE 9.50 9.70} 10.10] 10.50} 10.90} 11.70 12.50 1 Cost of logging within half mile of tram, including cutting, hauling, and loading on cars, is figured at ‘$4 per 1,000, Doyle scale, which amounts to $3 or less mill cut. 2 $750 per mile (15 cents per 1,000 board feet hauled) is allowed for cost of laying tram and depreciation in value of rails, the latter item being insignificant; and 5 cents per 1,000 board feet allowed for each additional mile of tram for increased cost of maintenance and operation. 3 Cost of lumbering is figured f. 0. b. Norfolk or to the nearest point on the railroad that will have an equally low freight rate to the general market. On an average, for mills in southeastern Virginia, this will add about $1 per 1,000 board feet to the cost of North Carolina pine lumber. VALUE OF STANDING TIMBER. The stumpage value or price which a lumber contractor can afford to pay for standing timber represents the difference between the f. o. b. railroad values for lumber and the cost of production. By subtracting from the values given in Table 4 the costs given in Table 8 we obtain the figures given in Table 10, which shows the present stumpage value of standing timber in the Delaware-Maryland- Virginia peninsula at different distances from the railroad. TaBLE 10.— Value of standing loblolly pine per 1,000 board feet to be cut into boards and im flitch. 1 inch | 1 inch square- square- Distance. edged Flitch. Distance. edged Flitch. boards boards (ungraded). (ungraded). oa toamilessee = abe se aaa oe 1b 0elhae ceeeaece se AtmileS. <3 a5 tes aor oreee $5.90 $2.40 LZIMlese seen cece see SLOOP |Per cece QMS eae cel cee Oe Eee 6. 30 2.80 SUAVE AS aes kes age fol aes 4.50 $100 .4||-d.miles 2285 eke ee te 6.50 3.00 (33a 61 (3s age al 5.50 2.00 This table represents pretty well the value of standing loblolly pine in most of the area under consideration. Timber of sufficient size to make first-class mine props and within 1 to 2 miles of the railroad in the Delaware-Maryland-Virginia peninsula commands slightly higher stumpage prices for props than is given above for lumber. Many cases can be found, furthermore, of $5 being paid for stumpage as far as 8 miles from the railroad, so that above values may be considered fairly conservative. The average value, by grades, of standing loblolly pine at different distances from the railroad in the region where the timber is to be sold to the general market as North Carolina pine is shown in Table 11. i ti it ns FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 17 This table is based on the values given.in Table 5! less the cost of production as given in Table 9. TABLE 11.—Stumpage value of grades of standing loblolly pine to be cut into North Carolina pine lumber. Distance from the railroad (miles). Grade. 1 | 2 | 4 a 8 12 | 16 Value per 1,000 board feet. Nike emma cee ee De ee ee ee a $15.75 | $15.55 | $15.15 | $14.75 | $14.35 | $13:55 $12.75 DN Cae ne Sees oo peat hn ee ee een Ses, lk TSO Pe korsOn le t290) |e) ts 50ne T2910 er 1d. 30 10.50 SOI Brite ere eee eee TR ete St Ae 7.75 7.59 7.15 6.75 6. 35 5.55 4.75 NowAiarider JO inches... . oi. ieee eee 5.75 5.55 5.15 4.75 4.35 3.55 Tt IOs nen 2) DAT: SEDIDSss -c ejaseistem cecines conc 8.75 8.55 8.15 7.75 (ects) 6.55 5.75 ESO Ma MRES TTL Saeate ee as cers cnmcnint see ae 1.00 - 80 5C1UF Sere anon DaSaeees tomeeees Me ceeerrs The value of standing loblolly pine timber of different diameters at different distances from the railroad is shown in Tables 12 and 13, the former being for trees cut into inch-thick boards (ungraded) and crate flitch for local consumption, and the latter for trees manufactured into lumber for the general market in accordance with the grading specifications for North Carolina pine lumber. The former includes all trees 5 inches and over in diameter breast-high, while the latter includes only trees 7 inches and over. TABLE 12.—Stumpage value of loblolly pine trees of different diameters and of average height to be cut into wngraded square-edged, inch lumber and crate flitch.? Distance from the local markets (miles). Diameter | Average breasthigh.| height. 1 2 4 6 8 12 16 Inches. Feet Gi eee 37 $0. 02 $0. 02 $0. 01 $0. OL S001 = [a2 ee oes |? Se eee GU 42 04 - 04 -03 - 03 OIE Sees seal ee ee ae esatee = 47 16 eld -14 13 11 $0. 07 $0. 04 Reser a 50 - 20 - 20 -18 = lel 14 09 05 Grete) eos). 54 - 26 -20 «24 22 18 -12 06 Lee eee 57 33 28 30 28 23 15 08 Te So s52% 60 -43 -42 -39 36 30 - 20 10 iP eee 62 aby! =) 5b 48 40 - 26 13 ee Bete 64 . 76 74 . 69 64 53 35 18 Ware Aci 66 98 -95 . 89 83 68 45 23 ae te 68 1.28 1.19 1.12 1.04 85 On 29 LGese ese: 70 1.46 1.41 1.34 1.23 1.01 67 34 ee se ae 71 1.65 1.60 1.50 1.40 1.14 - 76 38 1 eee 72 1.84 1.78 1.67 1.56 127, 85 42 aes ee 74 2.01 1.95 1.82 1.70 1.39 93 46 LOB ES aa 75 2.18 2.12 1.98 1.85 1.51 1.01 50 1 Average prices f. 0. b. Norfolk, for the quarter ending June 30, 1912, were used. Prices have risen con- siderably since June, as shown by Table 5, so values given in Table 11 are conservative. 2 Based on Table 39, Appendix D, showing amount of flitch and inch lumber cut from trees of different diameters, and Table 10, showing values of these grades on the stump at different distances from the market. 6242°—14——3 18 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 13.—Stumpage value of loblolly pine trees of different diameters, of average height, to be manufactured into North Carolina pine lumber. Distance from the railroad (miles). | Diameter. | Average |breasthigh.| height. | 1 2 4 6 8 12 16 Feet. | 47 $0. 14 $0. 14 $0. 13 $0.12 $0. 11 $0. 09 $0. 07 50 -18 -18 17 5 15) 14. 12 09 54 - 26 -25 -23 - 22 - 20 a il7/ 14 57 -33 -33 -o2 -30 - 28 ~25 20 60 -48 - 46 -44 -4L -38 34 28 62 . 63 - 62 - 60 56 anil 45 38 64 88 . 85 - 80 76 offi . 64 5 66 1.17 1.14 1.09 1.02 95 84 73 68 1.53 1.49 1.42 1.34 Lay 1.13 98 70 | 1.87 1.82 1.75 1.66 1&7 1.40 1.22 ila 2.20 2.14 2. 03 1.93 1.83 1.64 1.45 T27) 2.47 2.42 2.30 2.19 2.08 1.87 1.63 7 2.76 2.69 2.57 2.45 2.32 2.08 1.83 75 3.03 2.96 2. 82 2.69 © 2.55 2.29 2.02 1 Based on Table 43, Appendix D, showing the amount of grades cut from trees of different diameters, and Table 11, showing value by grades of standing timber at different distances from the market. The stumpage values per acre of even-aged fully stocked stands of loblolly pine of different ages, on different qualities of soil and at different distances from the railroad, are shown in Tables 14 and 15. TABLE 14.—Stumpage value per acre of even-aged, fully stocked stands of loblolly pine cut into ungraded inch boards and crate flitch. [All trees 5 inches and over in diameter, breasthigh, included.] Distance from railroad (miles). Age | Quality (years).| of site. 1 | 2 4 6 ee Stumpage value per acre of ungraded boards and flitch. 20 ig $43.10 $41. 44 $38. 12 $34. 80 $26. 50 $15. 60 $7. 80 Il 26.70 25. 62 23. 46 21.30 15. 90 9.00 4. 50 Til 11.55 10. 99 9. 87 8.75 5. 95 2.70 1.35 25 I 70. 95 68. 53 63. 69 58. 85 46.75 29. 70 14. 85 II 46. 00 44, 38 41.14 37. 90 ‘29. 80 18. 60 9.30 Til 20. 55 19. 67 Wie e 16.15 11.75 6. 30 3.15 30 I 98. 80 95. 62 89. 26 82. 90 67.00 43. 80 21.90 ° II 65. 90 63. 70 59. 30 54. 90 43. 90 28. 20 14.10 Til 30. 25 29. 05 26. 65 24. 25 18. 25 10. 50 5. 25 30 I 125. 95 122.01 114.13 106. 25 86. 55 57. 30 28. 65 II 84. 80 82. 04 76. 52 71.00 57. 20 37. 20 18. 60 III 42.35 40. 81 37.73 34. 65 26.95 16. 50 8. 25 40 I 154. 70 149. 94 140. 42 130.90 | 107.10° 71. 40 35. 70 II 103.70 100. 38 93. 74 87.10 70. 50 46. 20 23.10 III 54. 80 52. 92 49.16 45. 40 36. 00 22. 80 11. 40 45 I 182. 65 177.03 165. 75 154. 55 126. 45 84. 30 42.15 II 123. 95 120. 05 112. 25 104. 45 84. 95 56. 10 28.05 Til | 69.60 67.34 62. 82 58. 30 47. 00 30. 60 15.30 50 I | 211.90 205. 38 192.34 179.30 146. 70 97. 80 48. 90 II | 146.90 142. 38 133.34 124. 30 101. 70 67. 80 33. 90 | 87.10 84. 42 79. 06 73.70 60. 30 A0. 20 20.10 - 1 Based on Table 2, showing yield of fully stocked stands, and Table 10, showing value of loblolly pine at different distances from the railroad. FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 19 TABLE 15.—Stumpage value per acre of even-aged, fully stocked stands of loblolly pine to be manufactured into graded North Carolina pine lumber.' [Trees 7 inches and over in diameter, breast-high.| Distance from railroad miles. Age Quality r : (years).| of site. : 2 i G g a 16 Stumpage value per acre of graded North Carolina pine lumber. 20 I $32. 83 $31.78 $29. 69 $27. 61 320. 71 $21. 93 $18. 14 II 17.81 17. 23 16. 06 14. 89 13. 85 11.78 chil Til 5.16 4.98 4. 60 4. 26 3.95 3.32 2.69 | 30 I 99. 50 96. 57 90. 72 84. 87 79. 46 68. 65 +57. 84 II 61.14 59. 27 55. 52 51.79 48.35 41.49 34. 63 TIL 22. 52 21.81 20.39 18.98 17. 68 15. 09 12. 50 40 I 175. 05 170. 29 160. 77 151. 25 142. 20 124.13 106. 03 II 108. 91 105. 82 99. 63 93. 46 87. 67 76.13 64, 57 III 52. 66 51.14 48. 09 45.05 42. 22, 36.59 30.95 50 Z I 259. 91 253.38 240. 34 227.30 214. 66 189.37 164.05 II 168. 49 163. 95 154. 93 145. 28 137. 29 120. 12 102. 94 III 97. 64 94. 97 89. 62 84, 25 79. 22 69. 14 59 06 1 Based on Table 23, showing the yield by grades of fully stocked stands, and Table 11, showing value of grades at different distances from the market. PAST AND FUTURE LUMBER VALUES. The following tables are given to show the upward tendency in the past of two important grades of North Carolina pine lumber. They indicate that present prices will in all probability be exceeded in the future, or at least be maintained. Table 16 gives the average wholesale prices at which North Caro- lina pine rough lumber, under 12 inches in width, was actually sold during 13 quarter-year periods. TaBLE 16.—North Carolina pine prices per thousand board feet f. 0. b. Norfolk. ae 1 oone Box edge ; 4l under | 4/4 under Eeriod- 12-inch | 12-inch width. width. Octoper November“). ecemberyl 09m. eases cee e rence: een see ee ec eee $25. 25 $12. 50 anidaryshobnuany Manch hol QU. ee sete s oe sys eee el Satay ya: see see 22.00 13. 00 ANOVA AY Ie ays OTS Coy SII) ae oe as A a el ee SRE re Seer aera 24. 75 12.50 Nuilypaucustaseptember, (LOlO nso. s 0) Pe ee ane ence, Sete oo aces eee Se deaemise sess 24. 00 12. 50 October-November, December, 1910. 2 soe tee es oe cine bene Seeks oe eems 24. 50 12. 50 Januianverhepnuany.wanchrLONEe 22 5 saeco anes deel ce wine ate orale ste einem Sie 24. 75 13. 00 JATOyPIL, IM Banya Ubiay 2) ya heh OS Aa ee eee See eae Seaeee Corea name =s eee 24. 50 12. 50 HElypeAUIcust September. 1OUls see aos. be Saensatiee Soya! seceebe lon eece's- 24. 25 12. 75 October: November; December, 1910s -- 223s aoe eee eee oe seen eases eee 24. 25 13. 50 January, February, March, 1912..._..........-.- EE A Baad 4 ORE eE EGE oe 25. 00 15. 25 PANEL MMA Vi ULTIO eh OU aan cre cero ee eels oecle Memin Hie eee cee Ee oe eens sels Se eee 25. 25 15. 25 iilypeAUIStISG, September; LOL2sis 025 es ys Ses. Seca aee es eee lek SS. Buse 25.75 15. 75 OnrigberuNovember, December, 1912-22 o22..= 42 as sonic a2 meine ace onceeine-soess 27.52 16. 99 1 4/4 refers to the thickness of the lumber. It means that it is four quarter inches or one inch in thickness. Table 17 gives the average listed North Carolina Association prices by grades, for rough lumber under 12 inches in width, for the last 24 years. Prices f. o. b. Norfolk, per thousand board feet. 20 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLe 17.—List prices of the North Carolina Pine Association for lumber of different grades, f. 0. b. Norfolk, Va. Year. No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 3. Bags Year. No. 1. | No. 2. | No. 3. aang 1800 sir. eee Be $15.00 | $13.00 | $9.50 $5001) 190 Tee eae $20.00 | $18.00 | $13.25 | $11.25 TSO ebast Bee 15.00 | 13.00 9. 50 G00] LOO Dee ee ee coe 20.00 | 18.00} 13.00 11. 50 L892 cee 15. 25 13. 00 9. 50 exo: Nel O03 tee es 20. 00 18. 00 13. 50 12, 25 TROD eee eee eS 15.4 13. 25 9. 50 bpm | el AS [Yee eee =e 22. 00 18. 50 14. 50 12. 50 1893 ee ee ees 15. 50 13. 50 9.50 85500) 1905s 22 See 27.50 24. 00 19. 50 14. 75 ROA ee eed 14. 50 13.00 9. 50 85500 190652 eee 30. 09 28. 00 21. 50 16. 50 Ibs! Ss ere ee 13. 75 12. 25 9. 25 S220 0 | bl OO feces 27.60 25.50 | 17.50 14. 75 SOG SEs > gee be 13. 75 12. 00 9.00 Cots | 1908 ee ee eee 27.00 | 24.00 17. 50 13.50 ASOT se ot fae ae ee es 13. 65 ui Nara) 9. 00 eho O0 9. pee eee 27.00 24. 00 17.50 13. 50 1898. ._... iceepae a } 14.60 13. 00 10. 00 85251-19102 eee ee 27. 00 24. 00 17. 50 13. 50 1399 [Renee ee ones 18. 00 16. 25 PATE ECON ROLL ee ee 27.00 24. 00 17. 50 14. 00 1Q00E Fe esa 20. 00 18. 00 14. 00 200) pO 2S es See aes 33. 00 31.00 23.50 |. 119.50 11912 figures 20 to 30 per cent higher than average sale prices. Compare with tables5and16. Thesudden jump in prices in 1912 was due to a revision of the Association’s list prices. These list pricesfurnish only a slight basis for actual prices, being used to maintain and if possible to raise actual prices. It will be noted that these list prices run from 50 cents to $1.25 higher on the No. 4 grade than the actual sale prices, and from $2 to $3 higher on the No. 1 grade. They give a good idea, however, of the upward trend of North Carolina pine lumber prices during the last 24 years. Table 18, which gives the average of the above list prices in five-year periods, emphasizes still more strongly the upward ten- dency of prices, especially for the lower grades. TaBLE 18.—List prices of the North Carolina Pine Association averaged for 5-year periods, f. 0. b. Norfolk per thousand board feet. F x No. 14 F No. 4 Period. No. 1. (edge box.)| Period. No. 1. (edge box.) (ES ee. cscnssscmaececso=S= $15. 00 e004 O01 1900 eee eee ener $22. 00 $12. 50 PSOE RH = cess cesessaese2 ts 15. 00 22200 OOG SOL) =e eee 27.70 14.35 INTIS ernie te detec sooscisae 16. 00 Pray) |i WG See coe es oe 30. 00 16. 75 Despite the constant rise in prices the yellow-pine lumber industry has at frequent intervals been seriously handicapped by over pro- duction of the lower grades. More recently, however, the tendency of the market has been to call for a large and steady supply of low- grade lumber. In any event, conditions in regard to low-grade lumber are appli- cable more to the general lumber market than to lumber produced for local consumption. In the region under consideration, which is rapidly developing along agricultural lines and has immense opportu- nities for further development, the local lumber trade will become of more and more importance, especially so since the supply of standing timber is becoming more and more limited. In the future, however, wherever it is planned to grow timber for production of lumber for the general market, it will undoubtedly be very important to produce a large percentage of the upper grades. FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 21 MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE FORESTS. ADVISABILITY OF MANAGEMENT. The profits to be expected from forest management of loblolly pine are shown in Tables 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, and 24, which indicate the possible money returns and corresponding compound interest rates from properly managed stands. Tables 19, 20, and 21 give returns to be expected from fully stocked stands at different ages on Quality I, II, and III soils, where the product is to be manufactured into North Carolina pine rough lumber, cutting all trees 7 inches and over in diameter breast-high, while Tables 22, 23, and 24 give ihe same where the product is to be cut and sold as ungraded lumber and where all trees 5 inches and over in diameter are cut. * Tae 19.—Net profits per acre and corresponding compound interest rates from loblolly pine, for different initial investmenis, rotations, and distances from market. QuaALity I.—FOR TREES 7 INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH, CUT AND GRADED AS NORTH CAROLINA PINE LUMBER. is Net profit ? and corresponding compound interest rate 4 on Initial investments. totalinitiaiinvestment at different distances from market Cost 2 of ad- or shipping point. ministration Rota- and taxes at tion. 6 per cent ' mile. 4 miles. 8 miles. 16 miles. mince compound Land. tion.! Brocal ee terest: | Inter- | Inter- Inter- Inter- Net | est | Net | ost |_Net | est | Net | est profit. ante profit. wai) profit. rite profit mie Years. Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. $0 $5 $30. 62 | 10.31 |$27. 48 9.81 |$23. 50 9.09 |$15. 93 7.42 $5 3 8 $2. 21 27. 62 7.75 | 24.48 7. 26 20. 50 6.56 | 12.93 4.92 5 10 : 25. 62 6.56 | 22.48 6.07 | 18.50 5.38 | 10.93 3.76 20 7 12 23.62 5.59 | 20.48 5.11 | 16.50 4.42 8.93 2. 82 0 10 29. 52 7.11 | 26.38 6. 67 | 22.40 6.05 | 14.83 4. 65 10 | 3 13 3.31 26. 52 5.72 | 23.38 5.28 | 19.40 4.67 | 11.83 3.29 5 15 S 24. 52 4.96 | 21.38 4.53 | 17.40 3.93 9.83 PLANS) 7 17 22. 52 4.31 | 19.38 3.88 | 15.40 3. 28 7.83 1.91 0 5 94.76 | 10.49 | 85.98 | 10.15 | 74.72 9.67 | 53.10 8. 52 5 3: 8 474 91.76 8.77 | 82.98 8.44 | 71.72 7.97 | 50.10 6. 83 ee 5 10 g 89.76 7.97 | 80.98 7.64 | 69.72 7.17 | 48.10 6. 04 30 | 7 12 87.76 7.31 | 78.98 6.99 | 67.72 6.52 | 46.10 5. 40 ; 0 10 92. 38 8.06 | 83.60 7.74 | 72.34 7.28 | 50.72 6. 20 10 3 13 7.12 89.38 7.12 | 80.60 6.80 | 69.34 6.35 | 47.72 5527 5 15 : 87.38 6.61 | 78.60 6.29 | 67.34 5.84 | 45.72 4.77 7 17 85.38 6.17 | 76.60 5.85 | 65.34 5.40 | 43.72 4.34 0 5 165. 76 9.23 |151. 48 8.99 |132. 91 8.65 | 96.74 7. 82 5 3 8 9.29 162.76 7.95 |148. 48 7.72 |129. 91 7.38 3. 74 6. 56 5 10 3 160. 76 7.35 |146. 48 7.12 |127.91 6.78 | 91.74 5. 97 40 7 12 158. 76 6.86 |144. 48 6.63 |125.91 6.29 | 89.7: 5.49 0 10 161.12 7.36 |146. 84 7.12 }128. 27 6.79 | 92.10 5.98 10 33 13 13.93 158. 12 6.66 |143. 84 6.43 125. 27 6.09 | 89.10 S28) 5 15 te 156. 12 6.28 |141. 84 6.04 (123. 27 5.71 | 87.10 4.91 7 17 154. 12 5.94 |139. 84 Gy fl Wn yle 27/ 5.38 | 85.10 4.58 0 5 242. 49 8.12 |222.92 7.94 |197. 24 7.68 |146. 63 7.06 5 3 8 17.42 239.49 7.11 |219. 92 6.93 |194. 24 6. 67 |143. 63 6.05 : 5 10 z 237.49 6. 63 |217. 92 6.45 |192. 24 6.20 |141. 63 5.59 50 7 12 235. 49 6. 24 1215. 92 6.06 |190. 24 5. 81 |139. 63 5. 20 0 10 233. 78 6.60 |214. 21 6. 42 |188. 53 6.16 |137. 92 5. 54 10 3 13 26.13 230. 78 6.04 |211. 21 5.86 |185. 53 5.60 |134. 92 4.98 5 15 7 228.78 5. 74 |209. 21 5.56 |183. 53 5.30 |132. 92 4.68 7 17 226.78 5.47 |207. 21 5.29 |181. 53 5. 04 |130. 92 4.42 1 Cost of establishing a loblolly pine stand, either by natural or artificial reproduction. 2 Three cents per acre annually for administration (including fire protection), and 6 mills on the dollar (full valuation) annually for taxes, which is above present average tax for the region. 3 Stumpage value as givenin Table 15, less original cost of formation and total cost of administration and taxes. Where no net profit is shown, a loss is indicated. 4Calculated by formula p=100 G pane years or rotation, S=stumpage value at n years, L=cost of land, F=cost of formation, and A =cost of administration and taxes in m years at 6 per cent compound interest. he where p=compound interest rate, n=number of 22 BULLETIN 11, U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Tasie 20.— Vel profits per acre and corresponding compound interest rates from loblolly pine, for different initial investments, rotations, and distances from market. Quality Il.—FOR TREES 7 INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH, CUT AND GRADED AS NORTH CAROLINA PINE LUMBER. Net profit 3 and corresponding compound interest rate 4 on Initial investments. totalinitialinvestment at different distances from market OA EEE or shipping point. ministration |— ; Rota- : and taxes at . F ¢ . Bare | 6 per cent 1 mile. 4 miles. 8 miles. 16 miles. eran compound a int iF | Land. tion.! Total. ae tae Net Inter- Net Inter- Net Inter- Net Inter- est | est est est profit. | rate, | Profit. pate, |Profit.| pate, |Profit.| rate. Years. Per ct. | Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. : $0 $5 $15. 60 7.34 |$13. 85 6.86 |$11.64 | 6.20 | $7.50 4. 68 85 3 8 $2.21 12. 60 4.84 10.85 | 4.38 8.64 | 3.73 4. 50 2.26 . 5 10 cae; 10. 60 3.68 8.85 | 3.22 6. 64 2.58 2. 50 1212 7 12 8. 60 2.74 6.85 | 2.28 4. 64 1.65 50 21 20 0 10 14. 50 4.58 | 12.75 4.20 | 10.54] 3.66 6. 40 2.51 10 3 13 3.31 11.50 BE APs |) 75) 2.84 7.54 |- 2.31 3.40 ely 5 15 ; 9.50 | 2.48) 7.75} 2.10) 5.54} 1.58) 1.40 45 7 17 7.50 1.84 5. 75 1.47 3.54 95) || Pee elise ee G 5 56. 40 8.72 | 50.78 8.37 | 43.61 7.88 | 29.89 6. 69 5 3 8 4.74 3. 40 7.03 | 47.78 6.69 | 40. 61 6.20 | 26.89 5. 03 : 5 10 c | 51.40 6.24 | 45.78 5.90 | 38. 61 5.41 | 24. 89 4.25 7 12 49. 40 5.59 | 43.78 5.25 | 36.61 4.77 | 22.89 3. 62 30 0 10 54. 02 6.38 | 48. 40 6.06 | 41.23 5.60 | 27.51 4.50 10 3 13 7.12 51.02 5.46 | 45. 40 5.14 | 38. 23 4.68 | 24.51 3.59 5 15 49. 02 4.96 | 43.40 | 4.63 | 36.23 4.18 | 22.51 3.10 7 17 47.02 4.52 | 41.40 4.20 | 34.23 3.75 | 20.51 2. 67 0 5 99. 62 7.90 | 90.34 7.65 | 78.38 7.29 | 55.2 6. 42 5 3 8 9.29 |) 96.62 | 6.64 | 87.34 | 6.39 | 75.38 | 6.03 | 52.28 5.18 5 10 ; 94. 62 6.04 | 85.34 5.80 | 73.38 5.45 | 50.28 4.59 i 12 92.62 | 5.56 | 83.34] 5.32] 71.38 | 4.96 | 48.28 4.19 40 0 10 94. 98 6.05.| 85.70 5.81 | 73.74 | 5.46 | 50.64 4.61 10 3 13 13.93 |) 91-98 | 5.36 | 82.70 | 5.12 | 70.74 | 4.77 | 47. 64 3.92 5 15 Norpe 89.98 4.98 | 80.70 4.74 | 68.74 | 4.39 | 45. 64 3.55 7 17 87.98 4.66 | 78.70 4.41 | 66.74 4.07 | 43.64 3.23 0 5 151.07 7.13 \137. 51 6.93 |119. 87 6.65 | 85. 52 5. 96 = 3 8 17.42 148. 07 6.12 |134. 51 5.93 |116. 87 5.65 | 82.52 4.97 ed 5 10 & 146. 07 5.65 1132. 51 5.46 |114. 87 5.18 | 80.52 4. 50 7 12 144.07 5. 26 |180. 51 5.07 |112. 87 4.80 | 78.52 4.12 50 2 0 10 142.36 5. 60 |128. 80 5.40 |111.16 | 5.12 | 76.81 4,42 10 3 13 2.13 139. 26 5.05 |125. 80 4.85 |108.16 | 4.56 | 73.81 3. 87 | 55 15 2S Wile 818 4.75 |123.80 4.55 |106. 16 4.27 | 71.81 3.57 | 7 17 135. 36 4.48 |121.80 4.29 1104.16 4.01 | 69.81 3.31 1 Cost of establishing a loblolly pine stand, either by natural or artificial reproduction. 2 Three cents per acre annually for administration (including fire protection), and 6 mills on the dollar (full valuation) annually for taxes, which is above present average tax for the region. 3 Stumpage value as givenin Table 15, less original cost of formation and total cost of administration and taxes. Where no net profit is shown, a lossis indicated. : nN |S p= 4Caleulated by formula p=100 ( es 4 years or rotation, S=stumpage value at n years, L=cost of land, F=cost of formation, and A=cost of administration and taxesin 7 years at 6 per cent compound interest. 1), where p=compound interest rate, n=number of FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 23 TABLE 21.—Net profits per acre and corresponding compound interest rates from loblolly’ pine, for different initial investments, rotations, and distances from market. Quanity III..—FOR TREES 7 INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREAST HIGH, CUT AND GRADED AS NORTH CAROLINA PINE LUMBER. Net profit 3 and corresponding compound interest rate 4 on Tnitial investment. totalinitialinvestment at different distances from market ~ or shipping point. Cost? of ad- ministration Rota- and taxes at . « Seti 5 eae Give 6 per cent 1 mile. 4 miles. 8 miles. 16 miles. Ronis compound | Saal = Hane. ont | Toul EU ISreSt | Inter- . | Inter- Inter-| 1 Inter- Net : Net = Net s Net fi est fi est est est profit. | rate. | Profit.) pate. |Profit-| pate, | Profit.) rote. Years. Per ct Per ct. Per ct Per ct $0 $5 \( $2.95 2.35 | $2.39 1.97 | $1.74 1.50 | $0.48 0. 46 ie 3 8 BME oe setae | tee Seat ee ceca llene eta acetal eeseets [ese sa s[ Ae cicieee $5 5 10 CoO LA aCe RL nid Uhh eed] old tet Mie aie al ees ATI) WR SG Se 7 TPA PT ee Wa a ITT Sm Sy St Ted bone ed eee | eo | ba eS ed a 20 ce 0 10 f 1.85 85 1.29 61 64 UNG Ao tale tee 10 3 13 rea Le he alma men | tee ican oll chee Biel ee eae [ene sae ale a ALE SARE CARP Te 5 15 ¥ | BSS co CSE | See | Serene | sae cen || SpEReenene ae | ae ener E 7 CL ca Nae et 2 GAM SLRS: Bie ete eee Sore |b = even | otate Sears | rete sesey ce Scio |e he tee 0 (ayn) 17.78 5.18 | 15.65 4.84 | 12.94 4.35 7.76 By 117/ 5 3 8 4.74 14.78 3.56 | 12.65.) 3.21 9.94 2.73 4.76 1.57 5 10 | y 12.78 2.78 | 10.65 2.45 7.94 1.97 2.76 . 82 7 12 | 10.78 2.16] 8.65 1.83 5.94 1.35 . 76 20 30 0 10 15. 40 3.16 | 13.27 2.86 | 10.56 2. 43 5.38 1.44 10 3 13 712 12. 40 2.26 | 10.27 1.96 7.56 1.54 2.38 56 5 15 ecu 10. 40 NG 8. 27 1.47 5.56 1.06 -38 08 7 17 8. 40 1.35 6. 27 1.05 3. 56 Gael eee incest 0 5 43.37 5.84 | 38.80 5.58 | 32.93 5.20 | 21.66 4.27 5 3 8 9.29 40.37 | 4.60} 35.80 | 4.34 | 29.93 | 3.97 | 18.66 3.06 5 10 38.37 4.02 | 33.80 3.76 | 27.93 3.39 | 16.66 2.48 7 12 36. 37 3.55 | 31.80 3.29 | 25.93 2.92 | 14.66 2.02 40 0 10 38. 73 4.04 | 34.16 3.78 | 28.29 3.41 | 17.02 Psp) 10 3 13 13.93 35.73 3.36 | 31.16 3.10 | 25.29 2.74 | 14.02 1.85 5 15 as 33.73 | 2.99 | 29.16 | 2.74 | 23.29} 2.37 | 12.02 1.48 7 17 | 31.73 2.67 | 27.16 2.42 | 21.29 2.05 | 10.02]. 1.16 0 5 | 80. 22 5.83 | 72.20 5.63 | 61.80 5.32 | 41.64 4.57 & 3 8 17.42 Ul. 22 4.84 | 69.20 4.64 | 58.80 4.34 | 38.64 3.59 5 10 ; oe22, 4.38 | 67.20 4.17 | 56.80 3.87 | 36.64 3.13 a 7 12 (B22 4.00 | 65.20 3.79 | 54.80 3.49 | 34.64 2.75 0 10 71.51 4.29 | 63.49 4.07 | 53.09 3.75 | 32.93 2.96 10 3 13 26.13 68. 51 3.74 | 60.49 3.53 | 50.09 3.21 | 29.93 2.42 5 15 é 66. 51 3.44 | 58.49 3.23 | 48.09 2.91 | 27.93} . 2.12 7 NZ 64. 51 3.18 | 56.49 2.97 | 46.09 2.66 | 25.93 1.87 1 Cost of establishing a loblolly pine stand, either by natural or artificial reproduction. 2 Three cents per acre annually for administration (including fire protection), and 6 mills on the dollar (full valuation) annually for taxes, whichis above present average tax for the region. 3 Stumpage value as givenin Table 15, less original cost of formation and total cost of administration and taxes. Where no net profit is shown, a lossisindicated. 4Caleulated by formula p=100 Ge pias) , Where p=compound interest rate, n=number of + years or rotation, S=stumpage value at n years, L=cost of land, F=cost of formation, and A=cost of administration and taxesin n years at 6 per cent compound interest. 24 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 22.—Net profits per acre and corresponding compound interest rates from loblolly pine, for different initial investments, rotations, and distances from market. Quatity I—FOR TREES 5 INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH, LUMBER CUT AND SOLD UNGRADED. Net profit 3 and corresponding compound interest rate 4 on Initial investment. total initialinvestment at different distances from market Gouesnena: or shipping point. ministration Rola eee 1 mile. 4 miles. 8 miles. 16 miles. ee compound Land. tion.! Total.| interest. Inter- Inter- Inter- Inter- Net aS Net ae Net ast Net aS ~ | profit. | rate. | Profit.) rate. | Profit.) rate, | Profit.) pate. Years. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. $0 $5 $40.89 | 11.72 |$35.91 | 11.08 |$24.29 | 9.24 | $5.59 3. 82 $5 3 8 $2, 21 37.89 9.13 | 32.91 8.50 | 21.29 6.70 | 2.59 1.41 5 10 : 35. 89 7.92 | 30.91 7.30 | 19.29 | 5.52 59 29 if 12 33.89 | 6.94 | 28.91 62382329 a ASS Balser ea ae 20 * 0 10 39.79 | 8.36 | 34.81 7.79 | 23.19 | 6.18] 4.49 1.87 10 3 13 3.31 36. 79 6.94 | 31.81 6.38 | 20.19 | 4.80 1.49 54 5 15 5 34. 79 6.18 | 29.81 5.62 | 18.19 LUO | Mees sel leseese ce 7 17 32.79 5.52 | 27.81 4.97 | 16.19 SALON Bocas alee te ee 0 5 ; 94.06 | 10.47 | 84.52 | 10.09 | 62.26 | 9.05 | 17.16 5.09 5 3 8 4.74 91.06 | 8.74] 81.52 | 8.38] 59.26] 7.36 | 14.16 3.45 F 5 10 f 89. 06 7.94 | 79.52 7.58 | 57.26 | 6.56 | 12.16 2.69 7 12 87.06 | 7.29 | 77.52 | 6.93 | 55.26 | 5.91 | 10.16 2.07 30 0; ° 10 if 91.68 | 8.04] 82.14] 7.68 | 59.88] 6.70} 14.78 3.07 10 3 13 7.12 88.68 | 7.10] 79.14] 6.75 | 56.88 | 5.77 | 11.78 2.17 = 5 15 ? 86.68 | 6.59 | 77.14 | .6.24 | 54.88] 5.26] 9.78 1.69 7 17 84.68 | 6.14] 75.14] 5.79 | 52.88 |) 4.83 7.78 1.26 0 5 145.41! 8.88 {131.13 | 8.61 | 97.81 7.85 | 26.41 4.70 5 3 8 9.29 142. 41 7.61 |128. 13 7.34 | 94.81 6.59 | 23.41 3.48 5 10 " 140. 41 7.01 |126.13 6.75 | 92.81 6.00 |. 21. 41 2.90 7 12 138. 41 6.52 |124.13 6. 26 | 90.81 5.52 | 19.41 2.44 40 0 10 140.77 | 7.02 |126.49 |} 6.75 | 93.17] 6.01 | 21.77 2.93 10 3 13 13.93 137.77 6. 32: |123. 49 6.05 | 90.17 5.31 | 18.77 2. 26 5 15 2 135. 77 5.94 |121. 49 5.68 | 88.17 4.94 | 16.77 1.89 7h 17 133.77 | 5.61 |119.49 | 5.35 | 86.17] 4.61 | 14.77 1.58 0 5 194.48 | 7.65 |174.92 | 7.42 |129.28] 6.80 | 31.48 4.06 5 3 8 17. 42 191. 48 6.64 |171.92 6.42 |126.28 | 5.80 | 28.48 3.08 5 10 F 189. 48 6.17 |169.92 | 5.95 |124.28 | 5.33 | 26.48 2.62 a 12 187.48 | 5.78 |167.92 5.56 |122. 28 4.95 | 24.48 2.25 50 0 10 185.77 | 6.13 1166.21 | 5.91 |120.57 | 5.27 | 22.77 2.40 10 3 13 26.13 182.77 5.57 |163. 21 5.35 |117.57 4.72 | 19.77 1.87 5 15 G 180. 77 5.27 |161. 21 5.05 |115. 57 4.42 | 17.77 1.57 7 17 178.77 | 5.01 |159. 21 4.79 |118.57 | 4.16 | 15.77 1.32 1 Cost of establishing a loblolly pine stand, either by natural or artificial reproduction. 2 Three cents per acre annually for administration (including fire protection) and 6 mills on the dollar (full valuation) annually for taxes, which is above present average tax for the region. f q % Stumpage value as givenin Table 14, less original cost of formation and total cost of administration and taxes. Where no net profit is shown, a loss is indicated. 4 Calculated by formula p=100 (e eae = 1), where p = compound interest rate, »=number of years or rotation, S=stumpage value at n years, L=cost of land, F=cost of formation, and A=cost of administration and taxesin 7 years at 6 per cent compound interest. FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE.’ 25 TABLE 23.—WNet profits per acre and corresponding compound interest rates from loblolly pine, for different initial investments, rotations, and distances from market. QUALITY IL—FOR TREES 5 INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH, LUMBER CUT AND SOLD UNGRADED. Net profit * and corresponding compound interest rate 4 on Initial investment. total initial investment at different distances from market or shipping point. Cost 2 of ad- ministration |--— 7 — Rota- and taxes at * : < 4 fide 6 per cent 1 mile. 4 miles. 8 miles. 16 miles. Posie compound |———— a - — Land.| ‘tion,1 | Total. suuerest Inter- Inter- _ | Inter- Inter- Net et Net est Net ect Net act profit. rate. profit rate. profit rate. profit rate. Years. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct. Per ct $0 $5 : $24.49 | 9.28 1$21.25 | 8.64 1$13.69 | 6.82 | $2.29 1 $5 3 8 $2. 21 21.49 | 6.74 | 18.25 6.12 | 10.69 1 Nr kes Sea | ae ooo 5 10 19.49 5.56 | 16.25 4.94 | 8.69 Bye te see Sil bok oe 7 12 17.49 4.60 | 14.25 | 3.99} 6.69 7 Aor SEN No os ae [ie 20 By 0 10 23.39 | 6.21 | 20.15 | 5.67 | 12.59} 4.16] 1.19 56 10 3 13 3.31 20.39 4.83 | 17.15 4.30 9.59 De SO We | ee aes s 5 15 18.39 4.08 | 15.15 3.55 7.59 DA Oder |eie arte acl eines 7 17 16.39 Bei) |) ist 1155 2.91 5. 59 TBAB awk deel ay 0 5 61.16 | 8.99 | 54.56 | 8.61 | 39.16 | 7.53! 9.36 3.58 5 3 8 4.74 58. 16 7.30 | 51.56 6.92 |.36. 16 5. 86 6.36 1,97 5 10 ‘ 56.16 6.50 | 49.56 6.13 | 34.16 5.08 4.36 1.21 7 12 54. 16 5.85 | 47.56 5.49 | 32.16 4.44 | 2.36 . 60 30 0 10 58.78 6.64 | 52.18 6.28 | 36.78 5.28 6.98 1.78 10 3 13 7.12 55.78 5.71 | 49.18 5.36 | 33.78 4.36 3.98 . 89 5 15 é 53.78 5.21 | 47.18 4.85 | 31.78 3.86 1.98 -41 7 17 51.78 4.77 | 45.18 4.42 | 29.78 OFA ees oe 0 5 94.41 7.76 | 84.45 7.48 | 61.21 6.67 | 13.81 3.37 5 3 8 9.29 91.41 6.50 | 81.45 6.22 | 58.21 5.43 | 10.81 2.16 5 10 : 89. 41 5.91 | 79.45 5.63 } 56.21 4.84 8.81 1.59 , 7 12 87.41 5.43 | 77.45 5.15 | 54.21 4.36 6.81 1.13 0 0 10 89.77 | 5.92 | 79.81 | 5.64 | 56.57] 4.85) 9.17 1. 64 10 3 13 13.93 86.77 | 5.23 | 76.81 | 4.95 | 53.57] 4.17] 6.17 -98 5 15 j 84.77 4.85 | 74.81 4.58 | 51.57 3.80 4.17 -61 7 17 82.77 4.52 | 72 81 4.25 | 49.57 3.47 | 2.17 .30 0 5 129. 48 6.81 |115. 92 6.58 | 84.28 5.93 | 16.48 2.96 5 3 8 17.42 126. 48 5.81 |112.92 5.58 | 81.28 4.94 | 13.48 2.00 5 10 : 124. 48 5.34 |110.92 5.11 | 79.28 4.48 | 11.48 1.54 a 7 12 122.48 4.95 |108. 92 4.73 | 77.28 4.10 9.48 1.17 0 10 120.77 | 5.28 |107.21 | 5.05 | 75.57 | 4.39 | 7.77 1 ily 10 3 13 26.13 117.77 4.72 |104.21 4.50 | 72.57 4.08 4.77 - 63 5 15 ; 115. 77 4.43 |102.21 4.20 | 70.57 3.54 Devil 34 7 17 113.77 4.16 |100.21 3.94 | 68.57 3.29 ttl -09 1 Cost of establishing a loblolly pine stand, either by natural or artificial reproduction. 2 Three cents per acre annually for administration (including fire protection), and 6 mills on the dollar (full valuation) annually for taxes, which is above present average tax for the region. 3 Stumpage value as givenin Table 14, less original cost of formation and total cost of administration and taxes. Where no net profit is shown, a loss is indicated. n = 4Calculated by formula p=100 G/ oe = or rotation, S=stumpage value at m years, L=cost of land, F=cost of formation, and A=cost of adminis- tration and taxes in 7 years at 6 per cent compound interest. 6242°—]4—_4 -1) , where p= compound interest rate, n=number of years 26 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ‘Tape 24.—Net profits per acre and corresponding compound interest rates from loblolly - pine, for different initial investments, rotations, and distances from market. “Quatity III—FOR TREES 5 INCHES AND OVER IN DIAMETER BREASTHIGH, LUMBER CUT AND SOLD UNGRADED. Net profit 3 and corresponding compound interest rate 4 on Initial investment. totalinitialinvestment at different distances from market or shipping point. Cost2 of ad- ears ministration Rota- and taxes at ‘] ‘ ; F fon 6 per cent 1 mile. 4 miles. 8 miles. 16 miles. monn compound Land.| tion: | Total.| interest. Inter- Tnter- Tnter- Inter- Net est Net est Net est Net est profit nated profit. aie, profit, aie. profit ato: Years. Per ct. Per ct. $0 $5 $9. 34 5.41 | $7.66 4.75 5 3 8 $2.21 6.34 | 2.96 | 4.66} 2.32 7 5 10 ; A. 34) 1.82) 2.660) ht) } Tf 12 2.34 90 . 66 27 20 | 0 10 8.24 3.05 6. 56 2.55 3 13 5.24 ils 7 3.56 1.22 10 Slim 15 8.31) 3:54] ‘9a| 1.56] .50 7 17 1.24 358): Ss Soul SORE eee Pa 0 5 25.51 | 6.22 | 21.91 | 5.77 | 18.51 | 4.46 | $0.51 0.32 : 3 8 4.74 |) 22-51 | 4-56 1S O10) e4e Se LON oN get S43 eeeeeee ewan ae 5 10 7 PAU SSS oarAs) | CEI Saisy || SG BAO eso eae 7 12 TB VSI 35165 | 14s ONS 2e 73m LG Holle | pete. Gp teen | Deen e 30 : 0 10 Pareles Aye i ates 4) aisle). || MUN) || BS ee jo elleessoes 10 3 13 7.12 205 139 SB Le (UG: S38 e227 eos aesa th mil Oo | Paeeee gets | emmanaga 5 15 ; DS. 13F |) 25681) e14= 535) ee22 2788 eG ali in| rede yy| eee | 7 17 16.13 | 2.25 | 12.53 | 1.86) 4.18 7G (eet a aa 0 ait 45.51 | 5.95 | 39.87] 5.64 | 26.71) 4.73 | 2.11 88 = 3 8 9.29 |) 42-51) 4.71 | 36.87 | 4.41 | 23.71 | 3.50 |.......]....... y 5 10 j AQ 51 || “4e13"| S4°87 ||) Se Soaioler in| tees Oe | meeenenae eee 7 i, 38.51 3.66 | 32.87 3.35 | 19.71 Pe GN ae 5 Sl |e 40 0 10 40. 87 4.15 | 35.23 3.84 | 22.07 2 OG r |p Cae et 10 3 13 13.93 |) 32-87 | 3-47 | 82.23 | 3.17 L073]: 2 2Ru ee eee ee = 5 15 as 35. 87 3.10 | 30.23 2.80 | 17.07 1 Uso Pp erten o a a if 17 38. 87 2.78 | 28.23 2.48 | 15.07 GOI S CR Si aes = | 0 5 69. 68 5.56 | 61.64 5.32 | 42.88 4.62 2.68 86 5 | 3 8 17.42 |) 66.68 | 4.57 | 58.64] 4.33 | 30.88] 3.64 ].............. 5 10 ; 64.68 | 4.10 | 56.64] 38.87 | 37.88 | 3.18 | .--...|_...... 7 12 ' 62568) t3e72)|| 04,64 1 AOR RS bie 8 eos sill eee | eer 4 50 | 0 10 60. 97 4.00 | 52.93 3.75 | 34.17 BA See Sse) eae 10 | 3 13 26.13 |) 57-97 | 3.45 | 49.93 | 3.20 | 31.17 | 2.48 |____..-|_.-..-- | 5 15 ‘ 55. 97 3.16 | 47.93 2.91 | 29.17 DEB ONE eencrag aber | 7 17 53.97 2.90 | 45.93 2.60 | 27-17 PAO SOEs Saey all Bester S 1 Cost of establishing a loblolly pine stand, either by natural or artificial reproduction. 2 Three cents per acre annually for administration (including fire protection), and 6 mills on the dollar (full valuation) annually for taxes, which is above present average tax for the region. 3 Stumpage value as given in Table 14, less original cost of formation and total /cost of administration and taxes. Where no net profit is shown, a loss is indicated. nN a plies 8 4 Calculated by formula p=100 @ eA , where p= compound interest rate, 7 =number of years or rotation, S=stumpage value at n years, L=cost of land, F=cost of formation, and A—=cost of adminis- tration and taxes in 7 years at 6 per cent compound interest. The preceding tables indicate under what conditions of quality of soil, cost of land, cost of establishing crop, and distance from market forest management of loblolly pine will be profitable or advisable as a business proposition. For instance, Table 22 indicates that on 1 acre of Quality I soil, 1 mile from the railroad, where there is no cost for establishing a crop of loblolly pine, it will be possible to realize 10.47 per cent compound interest in 30 years on an initial imvest- FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 27 ment of $5 for the land. If the land costs $10 there would be 8.04 per cent compound interest realized on the initial investment. These represent the most favorable conditions. Under similar conditions on. Quality III land (see Table 24), on the other hand, in 30 years there will be a compound interest of only 6.22 per cent on $5 land and of 4.07 per cent on $10 land; while at 8 miles from the railroad under similar conditions the compound interest rate possible to realize would be 4.46 and 2.53 per cent, respectively, on $5 and $10 land. Loblolly pine occurs almost entirely on land that is potentially agricultural. This includes large areas of poorly drained land which at considerable expense can be converted into good agricultural sites, and land formerly under cultivation but worn out and abandoned. For several generations it will probably pay best to continue to grow crops of timber, at comparatively little expense, on large areas of this land, and to practice intensive agriculture, requiring large out- lays of money, on limited areas best adapted to crops. A properly managed woodlot will always be a necessity to the well-equipped farm, even if the only land available for this purpose is potentially agricultural. In the management of forest types in which loblolly pine occurs it is generally advisable to favor it in the reproduction of a new stand to the exclusion of most of the species associated with it. It is preferable to other pines (shortleaf, pitch, and scrub) because its growth is more rapid, it produces cleaner timber and more seed, and on moist to wet soils, or on light dry soils with an open seed bed, it reproduces better. It is preferable to reproduce to pine rather than to hard- woods, with the exception of yellow poplar, because pine will reach maturity and command a good stumpage price at an earlier age, especially on the poorer soils. On heavy and dry upland soils, where loblolly is comparatively scarce, it is best to favor shortleaf pine, as it is better adapted than loblolly to suchsites. By using the method for securing loblolly pine reproduction described in this bulletin it will be possible to secure pure stands of the species, or at least make it the preponderating species in a future stand. A limited admixture of other species of pine and hardwoods of the same age will never handicap the rapid-growing loblolly, and it will not usually be advisable to go to any considerable expense in order to exclude them entirely. NORMAL STANDS AND ROTATION. In forest management of loblolly pie the aim should be to secure (preferably by natural reproduction, which is less expensive) pure, fully-stocked (uniformly dense), and even-aged stands of the species. These are technically known as normal stands, and produce the 28 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. largest yield of timber per acre on a short rotation, and give the best chance of development to the trees composing them. Cuttings can best be regulated in such stands, both reproduction cuttings in mature and improvement thinnings in immature stands. Moreover, con- ditions for the germination of seed and the growth of seedlings are much better following the cutting of a densely stocked than of an openly stocked stand. Only a small percentage of unmanaged loblolly stands are fully stocked, or normal. It will usually be possible, however, by leaving several good loblolly seed trees per acre, evenly, distributed, to secure sufficient natural reproduction on a cut-over area to form a fully stocked stand of second growth. On areas with an insufficient number of loblolly seed trees, or with seed trees unevenly distributed, sowing or planting to supplement natural reproduction will be necessary if it is wished to get a normal stand. One of the first steps in forest management is to decide the rotation, or age at which the forest is to be considered mature, and at which to cut and reproduce it. On a rotation of from 20 to 30 years for loblolly pine it is only possible to produce round-edge box boards, crating stuff, and lumber of the lowest grades and of small value. On a rotation of from 35 to 45 years considerable medium-grade lumber can be produced which will command a fair stumpage price. But to produce any very considerable percentage of lumber of the best grades a rotation of from 50 to 100 years is necessary. The rotation to obtam the highest rate of mterest on the original invest- ment in a loblolly-pine forest appears from Tables 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, and 24 to be, for the most part, from 30 to 50 years—longer on Quality ITI and shorter on Quality I souls. Although these tables go only to 50 years, it is safe to say that a longer rotation, even after allowing for increase in the board feet yield and stumpage value would not show such a high rate of interest on the money invested There is also to be considered the danger from fire, insects, and disease, which is against a long rotation. A rotation of from 35 to 45 years is also the best silviculturally, because at this age loblolly- pine stands can be most easily reproduced. This is especially true where loblolly occurs as a temporary forest type, which, if left to the course of nature, would gradually revert to the original type. The time for cutting any particular stand, however, should not necessarily be made to coincide with the rotation which has been previously decided upon as the best, but should also be influenced by the condition of the lumber market and the occurrence of seed years. In some cases the market may make it advisable to let the stand grow for a much longer period than the rotation calls for, in order to produce more lumber of the higher grades, or a combination of a good seed year and a good market for low-grade stuff may warrant cutting on a shorter rotation. FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 29 FIRE PROTECTION. Management of loblolly-pine land to secure successive crops of timber is not advisable unless there is a reasonable certainty that forest fires can and will be controlled or kept out entirely. Adequate protection from fire, therefore, must be provided before it becomes worth while to incur any expense connected with forest management. Fire kills the reproduction, thins out existing stands, and lessens the rate of growth of the remaining trees by impairing their vitality and by reducing the productive capacity of the soil. The thinning is done by (1) killing trees outright; (2) weakening trees so that they suc- cumb to attacks of insects or fungi; (3) burning the trunks so.that the trees are broken off or thrown by the wind. 5 In loblolly pine it is best to keep fire out entirely. The only excep- tion to this rule is in burning brush litter and undergrowth after lum- bering to lessen the possibility of future damage from fire and to improve conditions for reproduction. Such burnings, however, should not be carried out unless it is certain that the fire can and will be limited to the area it is wished to stock. It is a comparatively simple and easy matter to keep fire out of small blocks of timber, up to 500 acres in extent, when these are adjacent to farms or bounded by roads, cultivated fields, streams, and other barriers. The owner should be careful, however, not to allow his woods to catch from his own brush fires. He should also post his land with trespass and fire notices, keep a watch for fires continually during dry periods, and extinguish as soon as possible any which may start. The larger the area the more difficult it is to keep fire out. For large areas the principal means of fire protection include: (1) Piling and burning of slash left after lumbering, which will also often assist reproduction; (2) development of roads, trails, and fire lines; (3) organization of a patrol and fire-fighting force, with proper equipment for fighting fires; (4) use of spark arresters on locomotives and donkey engines used in logging; (5) posting of timber-trespass and fire-warning notices and vigorous application of State fire laws, where possible, against setting of forest fires; (6) cooperative fire- protective agreements or understandings with adjacent landowners. For detailed discussion of means and methods to employ where it is aimed to exclude all fire from the forest, and methods of fighting fire, the reader is referred to Bulletin 82 of the Forest Service, ‘ Pro- tection of Forests from Fire,’”’ by Henry S. Graves, Forester. REFORESTATION BY NATURAL REPRODUCTION. To secure natural reproduction of loblolly pine it is necessary to cut the mature stand in such a way that seed will be disseminated evenly over the bed. The subject will be discussed under the general headings of (1) methods of cutting and (2) work following. cutting. 30 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MerrHops oF Curtina. There are three general methods of cutting loblolly-pine forests to provide for the proper seeding of the area cut: (1) Clean cutting except for scattered individuals or groups of loblolly-pine seed trees; (2) clean cutting in strips or patches; (3) successive thinning method. The two last methods are adapted chiefly to pure or nearly pure stands of loblolly, while the first is suitable to all types and mixtures in which the species occurs. SCATTERED SEED TREES AND SCATTERED GROUPS. The scattered seed-tree method consists in clean cutting every- thing except from 4 to 10 loblolly pine seed trees per acre, left evenly distributed over the area to be reproduced. This is the simplest method and the one usually to be recommended, as it is adaptable to both pure stands and to loblolly in mixture with other species. The cutting should preferably be made when it is seen that there will be a good seed year. The number of seed trees which should be left varies with their height; if over 70 feet tall, from 4 to 7 trees per acre will be sufficient; if under 70 feet tall a larger number will be necessary. Tress which will produce the most seed should. be left, 1. e., trees with the largest crowns, which are also the most windfirm. Whenever there is much danger from windfall it will be best to leave scattered groups of from 3 to 9 trees. Seed trees or groups should be left to grow for another rotation, or taken out when an improvement thin- ning is made in the newstand. Incase of mixed stands it is important to cut clean all trees of other species and to leave only loblolly seed trees. CLEAN CUTTING IN STRIPS AND PATCHES. These methods consist in clean cutting in strips from 100 to 150 feet wide, or clean cutting patches from 100 to 300 feet across, to be seeded from the adjacent or surrounding forest which remains intact until the area is reproduced. This method is best adapted to pure or nearly pure stands, and in any case a large proportion of the dominant trees along the edge of the adjacent uncut stand should be loblolly pine. Especial care should be taken to leave the forest intact on the side from which the prevailing fall and winter winds blow, in order to insure dissemination of the seed over the area cut. The cutting should preferably be made when it is seen that there will be a good seed year. The width of the strips should not exceed twice the height of the trees in the adjacent uncut forest, while the width of clean-cut patches can be somewhat greater. Not over two-thirds of the area of the forest should be contained in the strips or patches cut, and preferably not more than half; in the FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 31 latter case the intact areas between the strips or patches would be equal in size to the strips or patches which are clean cut. These methods of cutting can sometimes be advantageously used in conjunction with the scattered seed-tree method. When it is wished to cut in wider strips or larger patches than can be adequately seeded from the adjacent woods, reproduction on remote parts can be provided for by leaving scattered seed trees or groups of trees. SUCCESSIVE THINNINGS. This consists in removing the mature stand in two or three cuttings. It is adapted primarily to fully stocked stands of practically pure loblolly pine. Under this method the reproduction takes place more or less under the shelter of the old trees left. It can best be used on moist or wet situations, where loblolly-pine seedlings are compara- tively tolerant of shade. The first cutting, so called, which may often be omitted, consists in a heavy thinning to give the crowns and roots of the trees left more growing space, thus causing them to pro- duce more seed. Overtopped and small-crowned loblolly trees should be removed in this cutting, but the thinning should not be so heavy as to seriously interrupt the crown cover and cause large openings in the leaf canopy, which.would result in the luxuriant growth of weeds and underbrush. ‘Trees of other species, if any occur, should all be removed at this cutting. The second cutting should be made when it is seen that there is a good seed year at hand. The largest crowned trees should be left, since these produce the most seed. At ~~ this cutting about one-half the volume of the stand should be removed. The third cutting should preferably be made as soon as possible after adequate reproduction has taken place, which should be accomplished within 1 to 5 years. The younger and smaller the seedlings the less” will be the damage done to them in removing the old trees. Where it is wished to take advantage of the incréased growth of trees left after cutting, or where the market conditions warrant, the periods between the first and second and the second and third cuts might be prolonged to 5 or 10 years, though this will usually be disadvantageous to the reproduction. ORDINARY METHODS OF CUTTING. The necessity of properly planned systematic cutting according to one of the methods just described can not too strongly be emphasized whenever it is wished to provide for. adequate seed production. Under ordinary methods of lumbering it is purely a matter of chance whether there will be a sufficient number of properly distributed seed trees left after cutting. Of the ordinary methods the most favorable to reproduction is the diameter-limit method, but even this is a make- shift in providing for a future stand, and only under exceptional con- ditions can it be relied upon to furnish adequate seed production. i De BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Under this method the stand is cut to a rough diameter limit, either because it does not actually pay to cut trees below that limit or because it is wished to leave trees to form the basis for a second cut 10 to 20 years later. If, in pure well-stocked stands, a large number of trees remain after lumbering by the diameter-limit method, excellent results will often be had both in the growth of trees left and in the seeding of a new stand, the cutting, in its effects, amounting to a modified form of the method of successive thinnings. The chief drawback is that the small-crowned overtopped trees, such as would be left under this method, require a number of years to recover from suppression before producing much seed; and, furthermore, a large proportion of them usually die or are windthrown or broken within a few years after lumbering, especially on dry and exposed situations. It some- times happens, however, as shown in Table 25, that the area cut under this method is immediately seeded up from seed produced by the large-crowned trees removed at the cutting, or from seed trees left in the vicinity of the area cut. Table 25 is a summary of the results of cutting a half-acre plot in a 35-year-old fully stocked stand of loblolly pine on fresh, sandy soil, to a diameter limit of 12 inches breasthigh in the winter of 1904. Thestand was measured in 1906, and remeasured 44 years later. It indicates what sometimes happens, under favorable conditions, in cutting by the ordinary diameter-limit method. (See Plate IIT.) TABLE 25.—Effect of a diameter-limit cutting on a half acre of even-aged, fully stocked loblolly pine 35 years old. TREES REMOVED, TREES DYING, AND GROWTH OF TREES REMAINING. . Remaining. Increase Removed, Died, (+) or de- 1904. 1906-1910. | crease (—) 1906 1910 in 44 years. Per cent. Number of:treesis30 =e nck ae oscar eee ee 65 53 44 —17 Average diameter breasthigh ........--...-- 13 (12.8) 8.4 9.1 7.9 + 7.7 Average heightt ss vescne se ccinine Since scenes 70 60 60.3 60 + .05 Volume (without bark) ........-. cubie feet..| 1,638 493 475 69 + 3.7 Volume (mill scale)............. board feet...| 8,450 1, 900 2,400 270 +26.3 AMOUNT AND GROWTH OF LOBLOLLY-PINE REPRODUCTION ON THE HALF ACRE. Number. Size. 1906 1910 0 to 2feet-m height: 52.32 cdj. -aoo = apis eee eisaie nc cite eeceee ack se alice cee he hae Esl eee 720 97 2:to:44eet in height 20.5. 75is0 32 2 oh eee eth SL ein ncce 2k co See See eee 101 125 4'to6teetin Newitt... cpseinon wis ep se Ries ise tiers ops mc cles simone see cee eee eee 32 203 L'inchin diameterwbreasthigh:s..: ft. 2M ea te eee Oe ee eee eee 8 214 2 inches in diameter breasthigh .. 22.1. Sed o.b ice bocce ocoaecielene Cape clei are cep eee Siete | peter 62 S inches in’ diameter breastinigh $0). 2/ essa Ay ae ee ee ee 5 PLATE II. Bul. 11, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. [6% O1dBL UL UDATS UOTONpOIdor JO JUNOWL PUB 9ZIS PUB PUBIS SIU] JO PJOLA ‘sodI} SUIUIVULIT JO [BAOUIAT MO[[OF OF PUBS MOU BLOF UOToONpOider aywnbape sMOYS ‘suUlLequIM] 10{yB suvod 7% udZE ‘ornqord] “SSHON] GL JO LINIT YALAWVIG V OL LND S3NId A1101807] 4O GNVLS GaN00LS ATINY GIO-YV3A-SS V PLATE III. Bul. 11, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. *"3Yu045q SYVSA G GANNIHL [ SUIUUIY} JO OOo OULIUIIOJOp 0} S]}USTI -OINSBOTIOL OININE Ul Wey} sUTATUEpT Jo osodind oy} IOJ o1v sor} UO pojuTVd SIoqWINN Joo} YOG‘L B[Ut Jouqtios oy} Aq pus oiov iod Joo} pxvod 000'g A[UO OATS PMO [Na s[Ao(T oY} AQ Po[BVOS JI PULIS OY] [[BVUIS O1B SoOT) OY Q0UIS “4nd [[IUL pelvos JI o10B Tod JooyF PABO 000'OL USIY JSvoId IoJOULBIP UL IOAO PUB SOUL J $901} JO ppord yuesorg] 10§ | ALINVN® NO ANIq A1101407] 4O GNVLS G10 -UVAA-SC GAOVNVI-113M VW FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 33 Work Foniowine Currinea. The work following cutting consists in preparing the area for the reception. of the seed. Frequently no work at all will be necessary. The work which may have to be done to insure reproduction includes: (1) Brush disposal, which also serves as a fire protective measure and lessens danger from insect infestations; (2) disturbance or destruction of the forest floor, including the leaf litter and unde- composed humus; (3) destruction of ground cover and underbrush including hardwood saplings; (4) cutting of worthless trees still standing, which, preferably, should have been removed at the time of the main cutting. The amount of work to be done varies with the character of the site, whether wet or dry; with the condition of the forest floor; and with the amount and character of the ground cover and underbrush. On moist to wet sites no work at all is usually necessary, except where there is considerable underbrush or worthless trees which it is best to cut out. The growth of loblolly-pine seedlings on such sites is hindered little or not at all by the forest floor, ground cover, and brush left after lumbering. A fire, however, to destroy all under- erowth and brush, is rather beneficial than otherwise on such sites. On fresh to dry sites destruction of the forest floor, ground cover, and brush is advisable and often necessary to insure reproduction. The best method is to burn it. Disturbance of the forest floor during logging operations will also improve conditions for reproduction. In burning, care should be taken not to damage trees left for seed or woods adjacent to the area cut. The time for preparing the seedbed should be governed by the occurrence of adequate seed production, preferably at the same time as the cutting if the two coincide; otherwise not until there is a good seed year. Where the ground is in satisfactory condition for the reproduction of the seed and there are sufficient seed trees, adequate reproduction can be expected by the end of the first or second season after a good seed year. The cost of these rough methods of preparing the ground for the reception of the seed should in no case exceed $3 per acre, and is uniformly cheaper than reforesting artificially. REFORESTING BY ARTIFICIAL REPRODUCTION. Where natural reproduction fails it is always possible to secure fully-stocked stands of loblolly pine by resorting to artificial repro- duction. This can be done more easily and at less expense for this species than for most if not for any other species of pines in the eastern United States. 34 BULLETIN 11, U. S$. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Artificial reproduction of the species may also be profitably used to stock extensive areas on which there are no loblolly-pine seed trees. The first consideration is to determine whether to sow seed direct on the area to be reforested or whether to plant with nursery-grown or with wild-stock seedlings. The first will usually be the cheapest and therefore the best on sites to which it is adapted. Planting, however, is the surer method, and the only one to be recommended for Quality III sites and for all dry and droughty soil. Direct sowing is to be recommended only on uniformly fresh to moist soils, where it should be successful if properly carried out. Direct Sowina. In direct seeding of loblolly pine it is best to sow either in plowed furrows or in well-cultivated seed spots. Another method is broad- casting or scattering seed uniformly over an area, as in sowing wheat. This method is seldom if ever advisable, as it takes about five times as much seed per acre as the seed spot or furrow methods, and, to be successful, usually requires that the ground be harrowed over before and after the sowing. If the area can be plowed the furrow method is best. Shallow fur- rows should be plowed from 6 to 8 feet apart, and from 10 to 15 seeds dropped in spots in the furrows at intervals of from 6 to 8 feet. Where it is impracticable to plow furrows, the next best thing is to sow from 10 to 15 seeds in well-cultivated spots 6 inches to a foot square, dug with a spade or grub hoe, and spaced from 6 to 8 feet apart each way. In each method the seed should be carefully cov- ered with earth to a depth of not more than half an inch. Where the soul is dry and sandy, especial care should be taken to step on the spot after covering the seed, and the soil should be pressed down with the ball of the foot or else tamped with the bottom of a hoe. This will enable the seed to draw more moisture from the soil. The furrow and seed-spot methods require per acre from 6,000 to 18,000 seeds, or from one-third to one pound of seed, while for successful broadcasting from 3 to 5 pounds per acre would be necessary. When planting in furrows, it is best that these be made straight and at a uniform distance apart. When planting in seed spots, the rows can be made straight by placing upright poles on which to sight. The best time for sowing the seed is shortly after growth ‘ceases in the fall, but before the ground is much frozen, or as soon as the frost gets out of the ground in the spring to admit of cultivation. Loblolly seed takes from 1 to 3 months to sprout after suitable tem- perature conditions obtain, and often some of it holds over till the next season before germinating. FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 35 The cost per acre of sowing in plowed furrows or seed spots ranges from $2 to $5, depending upon cost of seed and labor, and spacing used: 50 cents to $1.50 for seed, '$1 to $2 for cultivation, and 50 cents to $1.50 for sowing. PLANTING. In planting loblolly pine it will usually be advisable to use nursery- grown stock. In some cases, however, wild stock seedlings can be advantageously used to supplement incomplete natural reproduc- tion, as in transplanting seedlings from areas overstocked to nearby areas understocked. gst The size and age of nursery stock it is best to use varies. On Qualities I and II soils 1 or 2 year old seedlings are usually successful. : These can be planted either in the fall, at the end of the first or second season’s growth, or set out in the spring following. On site Quality ITT it is always best to use 3-year-old stock which has been trans- planted for two years in the nursery. It is best to use this kind of stock also on the better site qualities if there is a heavy undergrowth or growth of hardwood sprouts and seedlings with which the pine has to compete. In Quality I soils a spacing of 10 by 10 feet each way, or 436 trees per acre, is sufficient; for site Quality II, 8 by 8 feet spacing should be used, or 680 trees per acre; and for site Quality III, 6 by 6 feet, or 1,210 trees per acre. On moist to wet sites plant- ing should not be done in the fall, unless the plants are pretty well mulched, because of the danger that the unrooted plant will be frost-thrown during the winter. On such sites spring planting is always advisable. In the fall the best time for planting is after erowth has ceased; in the spring, as soon as the frost gets out of the ground. The cost of growing loblolly pine nursery stock on a large scale ? should be about as follows: Onesvyeanseedlings waist are hee est i zed es wae $0. 75 dw onwedinsecedlincs i Mat ee eas. ot alas. eee elends 1, 25 Three-year stock (two years transplanted).........----.-.--.----- 3. 00 The cost of handling the stock from the nursery to permanent plantations in the forest should be about as follows per 1,000: Whitey Can NCCOMMGS Hs om warn eee ee ew owes $3. 50 ie vearsecd mes] 2) us fi ARE IEEE a eM Jes 4. 50 Three-year stock (two years transplanted)..-.......-..---------- 6. 00 1Seed to be collected by party using it. If purchased from nursery, price would be much higher. 2Tm a nursery producing 500,000 or more plants a year, as Shown by the work of the P. R. R. nursery at Morrisville, N. J. For a smaller nursery the cost would be somewhat higher, although a farmer will often be in a position to collect his own seed and grow a few thousand loblolly seedlings every year in garden at practically no expense. 36 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The cost per acre, then, of growing and setting out stock of different ages, differently spaced, would be as follows: Spacing. Kind of stock. 6 by 6 8by 8 | 10 by 10 feet. feet. feet. d=year seedlings (5 52 235-5 Soe oe See sete Noe Sede baa Sees ee $4. 99 $3.13 $2.27 2-year SCCdINGS - oe oa gece oe eee ee Se ee ee ee soe aap See ee Eee es 6. 70 4.31 3.21 3-year stock (2' years transplanted) sso ees es eek eee ee teehee 10. 26 7.08 5.61 It will be seen from the foregoing that where wide spacing is practiced and nursery stock is grown on a large scale locally, planting “can sometimes be done as cheaply as direct sowing. Moreover, it is always much the surer method. The cost figures given are, of course, only applicable to operations properly planned and skillfully carried out. ALTERNATION OF FOREST AND FARM CROPS. There are large areas of rather poor sandy land throughout the region in which loblolly pine occurs which will produce good farm | crops for a number of years after cleared of forest and brush, but the fertility of which it is expensive to maintain for any considerable length of time. Such land can sometimes be most profitably worked on a system of alternating a forest crop of loblolly pine, grown on a 40 to 50 year rotation, with the use of the land for farm crops for a period of from 10 to 15 years. The fertilizing effect on the soil in the growing of a timber crop is in this way taken advantage of for agri- cultural crops. In addition to this a new crop of loblolly pine can be established very easily on the area when worn out by farming. If there are sufficient loblolly-pine seed trees in the vicinity, the reproduction will spring up naturally on the abandoned field, and if not, the pine can be planted or sowed. This is a good method of establishing a loblolly-pine forest on land which before cultivation had no loblolly on it, and also one especially adapted for use by resident farmers with woodlands adjacent to their farms. NURSERY WORK.1 Where extensive planting operations are to be carried on it is best to establish a forest nursery. The following are the essential points to be held in mind in this work: SELECTION or NurRSERY SITE. A site should be selected if possible with a light, moderately fertile, well-drained, but uniformly fresh to moist soil, and located in the open where there will be the least danger from disturbance by birds, 1 For detailed information on nursery work the reader is referred to Bulletin 76 of the Forest Service and Yearbook Reprint 376, of the Dept. of Agriculture. FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 37 stock, and rodents. A small nursery can most readily be established by taking a section of a well-cultivated vegetable garden. If the soil is droughty there should be facilities for watering it in dry weather. If the ground selected has not been cultivated for some time it should be thoroughly worked, and if lacking in fertility, should be enriched. SEED BEDS AND PLANTING SEEDS. Before planting tne seed, carefully prepared beds should be made, and the soil thoroughly worked, as for lettuce. Four feet wide and 24 feet long is the most convenient size for the beds. Parallel beds should be separated by walks 2 feet wide. Where the soil is light and dry, or very well drained, the beds can be on the same level with the walks, otherwise they should be elevated several inches. Planting in drills 4 inches apart, running crosswise of the bed, is the best method. By sowing 1 ounce of seed per 24 linear feet of drill, or about three-quarters of a pound per bed, it is safe to count on at least 3,000 one-year seedlings per bed, where proper attention is given to the work. This means 3,000 seedlings per 150 square feet of nursery space, including area in walks, or over 2,000,000 seedlings on a quarter acre. The seed should be sown in the spring, about the same time as early vegetables. CARE OF BEDS. Beds should be kept as uniformly moist as possible, to insure germi- nation. Ten weeks after planting most of the seeds which are going to sprout will be well up; weeding should then commence and be continued through the season. The beds should be provided with lath screens as soon as the seed is planted. These will keep the seed bed uniformly moist and secure early germination. The seed- lings should be kept under partial shade the whole of the first season. Suitable screens can be made in frames “41 by 12 feet, of 2 by 2 inch square sticks, across which laths are nailed, each lath alternating with an open space of the same width.’ These frames should be supported on posts so as to be about 18 inches above the seed bed. They should be removed only during cold, cloudy weather, when the seedlings need all the air possible to lessen the danger of their “damping off.” TRANSPLANTING SEEDLINGS. Where three-year-old stock is desired the seedlings should be trans- planted at the end of the first season into nursery rows, spaced 4 to 6 inches apart in these, and allowed to grow two more seasons. Where two-year seedlings are desired it is unnecessary to transplant, 1 From Yearbook Reprint 376, Dept. of Agriculture. 38 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. but the amount of seed sown in the drills should be reduced one-half, so that the seedlings will have more room in which to grow. Or, instead, the seed might be evenly and thinly broadcasted over the seed bed. GROWING Puant Stock ON A SMALL SCALE. For the farmer who wishes to grow planting stock on a small scale the elaborate bed and its care, while the surest of success, is not altogether necessary. He can more easily establish a single row of seedlings in a fertile, well-drained section of his vegetable garden, cultivating and tending them as he would a crop of peas or beans, and without screening. THINNINGS IN UNIFORM STANDS. The returns possible from intermediate cuttings, or thinnings, of well-stocked uniform stands should be taken advantage of in the management of loblolly pme whenever there is a market for the material. The object of such thinnings is primarily to utilize material which otherwise would be lost through death and decay, and secondarily to improve the stand by removal of overtopped trees and some of the less desirable dominant trees, in this way concen- trating the growth of the stand into a lesser number of the most desirable individuals. Where substantial returns can be realized from thinnings it amounts in effect to ‘“‘eating the cake and at the same time having it,’ while improving its quality. Thinnings in understocked stands, which under present forest conditions are the rule, are not usually advisable. In general, the rapidity of natural thinning, or dying out of over- topped trees, in loblolly-pine stands makes further thinning inadvis- able unless the material cut can be profitably utilized. It is best for the stand to commence thinning at an early age, that is, when 15 to 20 years old, and to repeat the thinning at intervals of from 5 to 10 years. Thinning in stands 15 to 30 years old can be made to include a larger number of undesirable trees from the domi- nant stand than in older stands. In the latter, thimnings should be confined almost exclusively to the removal of overtopped, unhealthy, dying, and dead trees. The thinning of loblolly-pine stands on moist to wet sites is more effective than on dry soul, because the natural dying off of overtopped trees is much slower in the former than in the latter. Table 26 shows the increase in diameter on a wet site of a thinned as compared with an unthinned half-acre plot located in the same stand. The age of the stand in 1906, at the time of the first measurement and thinning, was 18 years, and in 1910, at the time of the second measurement, 22 years. The stand was unusually dense. FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 39 TaBLE 26.—Diameter growth due to thinning and proportion of trees cut and dying on thinned and unthinned plots. Growth in diameter on thinned and unthinned plots. Thinned plot. Unthinned plot. Average Average Tree classes.! Total diameter Total diameter mun- breasthigh. num- breasthigh. ber of ber of trees.2 trees.? 1906 1910 1906 1910 OMIM ATI chs eee ee ee Sea ae Selassie oe sie se 195 4.6 5.8 234 4.6 5.5 COdOmN anitieree nee ee eee ele as ouce sk sy enya 160 3.6 4.2 201 34 5 4.0 aii pple. «hee oes coke Sore seeneouseteeee soeecedsoee 68 3.0 3.3 77 3.0 3.3 Stee pve (Ol Sega nea cede Pecanrs ORS SeEUSHESE = ceyase 49 3.0 3.2 60 | 3.0 |, 3.1 Ofherispeciesss sass d tose cc secs es ate cet ae See tcies 3 3.0 3.6 50 3.4 4.0 RO Gallet re eee se tno Sic a sotete Hae Sethe yet e ALT Ail eel val bee nacre (STN A 2 eal ae ten 1 Under dominant and codominant are included all trees which go to form the upper or main crown cover: (1) Dominant—trees with well-formed crowns, receiving light on all sides; (2) codominant—trees with uneven crowns and crowded on the sides. The intermediate and suppressed classes include over- topped trees below the upper crown cover: (a) Intermediate—receiving some direct sunlight on tips of crowns; (b) suppressed—with tips of crowns shaded. 2 Total number of trees alive in 1910. The average diameter given for 1906 is only for trees still alive in 10. Before the thinning in 1906 the thinned plot had 679 living trees and the unthinned plot 691 trees, as shown in the following classi- fication, showing proportion of trees cut and dying: Thinned plot. . Unthinned plot. Tree classes. . 4 ; ee Died i ; Died 1910. | 1906. | Since | Total. ae nee since | Total. ; : i - | 1906. DOMMNAMGs 6am egeraa= eee ee S85. Ss 195 13 2 210 3 237 @odominants Vso os. 222 160 62 | 8 230 21 222 Wattenmediatess =. setae 2. ve. see sas. 68 33 18 119 26 103 HUppressed nj = 22-22-5222 822 Fels. 49 8 25 82 iy 77 Other species...-.---- Sat a Beery ae ae 2 32 S24 38 2 52 Motaleye ss soseseer cases SERS eae ATA 148 57 679 69 691 The beneficial result of thinning is very evident from the foregoing tables, both in the more rapid growth of the trees left in the thinned stand, and in,the possible returns from the 148 trees cut in the 1906 thinning. As a rule, thinnings in young stands 25 years or less in age should be heavy, that is, removing (1) all dead, dying, and unhealthy trees of all classes; (2) most suppressed and intermediate trees; (3) many codominant; (4) and some poorly formed dominant. In older stands as a rule only moderate thinnings should be made, removing only intermediate and suppressed trees, in addition to the dead, dying, and unhealthy of all classes. In all thinnings two points should be aimed at: (1) To secure an even distribution of the most desirable trees with a suitable amount of growing space for each; (2) to preserve sufficient density of stand 40 BULLETIN 11, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. to insure pruning of lateral branches and to keep the ground fairly well shaded in order to prevent heavy undergrowth from springing up and in order to keep the soil moist. Where large gaps are formed in the upper leaf canopy by the removal of unhealthy or otherwise unde- _ sirable dominant or codominant trees healthy overtopped trees should be left to protect the soil. yale Thinnings should be made in the winter, when there is the least danger from destructive insects breeding in the slash. Further to lessen danger from insects it is always best to lop the tops of the trees and burn the brush. IMPROVEMENT CUTTINGS IN MIXED STANDS. Improvement cuttings in mixed stands, to favor loblolly pine, will often be advisable, especially for farmers with woodlots who can work in their woodlands at spare times during the winter. They are made, as their name implies, primarily to improve the quality com- position of the stand, and may be conveniently classified under (1) cutting in young sapling stands which will yield little or no usable material, and (2) cuttings in older stands where the material removed is large enough to be of some use. Cuttings in sapling stands 5 to 10 years old should consist in weed- ing, or the cutting of undesirable species, and cleanings, or the cutting of inferior individuals of desirable species. These are known as dis- engagement cuttings, the object being to free or disengage the crowns of the more desirable trees from injurious contact with or suppression by the less desirable. This can often be accomplished by simply topping the interfering saplings individually with one slash of a brush ax or acorn knife. It is not necessary to cut back inferior trees which are not interfering with the better individuals. One man should cover from one to two acres a day in this kind of work. Scattering large trees, which have been left in previous cuttings because worth- less for anything but fuel, might also be cut at the same time. In mixed irregular stands, cut over several times but with a large number of inferior trees remaining, under which considerable sapling and small pole growth of loblolly pme and other species has sprung up, there is often an excellent chance to make an improvement cut- ting which will greatly benefit the loblolly. All the large inferior trees should be cut, care being taken not to damage the young lob- lolly pine which it is wished to favor. Sometimes, in fact, it may be best simply to girdle the large trees and leave them standing. All young growth of inferior species which is overtopping the pine should also be cut. Besides benefiting the future stand, these cuttings should at least be productive of a large amount of cordwood. PLATE IV. Bul. 11, U. S, Dept. of Agriculture. 1.—A 9 TO 10 YEAR OLD STAND NOT YET READY FOR THINNING. Fic. Fic. 2.—A 16-YEAR-OLD STAND READY FOR FIRST THINNING. FULLY STOCKED YOUNG LOBLOLLY PINE STANDS. PLATE V. Bul. 11, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. VEO XO: $ oe Os Fla. 1.—TWENTY-ONE-YEAR-OLD STAND UNTHINNED. AN ADJACENT STAND OF THE SAME AGE PROPERLY THINNED 5 YEARS BEFORE, 2 Fia. WHEN 6 CORDS PER ACRE WERE REMOVED. THINNED AND UNTHINNED STANDS OF LOBLOLLY FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 41 SUMMARY OF TREATMENT FOR TYPICAL STANDS. The following is a summary of treatment to be recommended for typical existing stands in which loblolly pine occurs, the object being to favor the species and usually to make it or to maintain it as the predominating tree. Losiotty ON Morst to Wet Sorzs, INctupine Fiats, Borroms, AND Swamps. (1) Mature stands of hardwoods with a slight admixture of loblolly pine.—The object here should be to remove the old stand in such a way as to secure as much natural reproduction as possible of loblolly. The scattered seed tree method (as described on p. —) will be the simplest one to use, clean cutting all the hardwoods and leaving from four to six loblolly seed trees per acre well distributed over the area. Disturbance of the forest floor in logging will assist reproduction of pine. The use of fire to improve seed-bed conditions is also bene- ficial, but not entirely necessary. Surface burning should be carried on before the seed-fall of loblolly pine, which means any time before the first of November. Fires after seed-fall should be confined to piles of brush made in logging. Where the pine is not seeding at the time of the cutting, it will probably be better to remove the hard- woods in two cuttings, the first one opening up around the loblolly trees so as to cause them to produce abundant seed two years or so later, and a second cutting during a good pine seed year, or after the pine reproduction has taken place. The first cutting should leave enough hardwoods to keep the ground uniformly shaded, in order to prevent a luxuriance of hardwood undergrowth from springing up. (2) Culled-over to severely cut-over mixed hardwoods and pine, the former predominating.—In these stands most of the mature pine has been removed, but there is often a considerable number of small pine poles and a good amount of pine reproduction, which should be favored by making general improvement and disengagement cuttings. All mature hardwoods should be cut out; all trees of undesirable species, such as red maple, mature and immature, should be cleaned out, especially where suppressing pine; sapling and small pole hard- woods of good form and desirable species should be left wherever not interfering with. pine; loblolly pine should be planted or sowed in vacant spots. (3) Pure stands of merchantable loblolly pine on old fields or in small groups in original forests—Cut, using the scattered seed-tree method, or else the method of successive thinnings (see pp. 30 and 31). (4) Pure stands of vmmature loblolly pune—Should be thinned as recommended on pages 38 to 40. (5) Miaed immature stands of pine and hardwoods—Should be thinned as recommended on page 40. 42 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (6) Mixed sapling stands of pine and hardwoods.—Give disengage- ment cutting, freeing the tops of the pines by cutting back hard- woods overtopping them. Losiotty PINE on FreEsH To Dry UPLANDs. (1) In mized mature stands with other pines and hardwoods, chiefly oaks.—On light soils cut clean, leaving loblolly seed trees, as described on page 30. Burn area before seed-fall to improve seed bed. On dry heavy soils shortleaf pime should be favored in preference to loblolly, since it will reproduce better on such sites. (2) Cut-over mized pine and hardwoods, with maxed reproduction.— Clean cut all mature trees, and make disengagement cuttings favor- ing pine in the sapling reproduction. Plant or sow with loblolly pine any vacant places which occur on light soils, and with shortleaf pine on heavy soils. (3) Immature stands of pure pine.—Thin as recommended on pages 38 to 40. (4) Mixed immature stands of pune and hardwoods.—Thin as recom- mended on page 40. (5) Idle land with a dry light soil not restockvng naturally to loblolly pine.—Should be planted with 3-year-old nursery stock (2-year transplants). On dry, heavy soils it is better to use shortleaf pine. en eee a 4 APPENDIX A. NOMENCLATURE. Loblolly pine is known by a number of different names in different sections of the country, and frequently even in the same locality, according as it occurs as old growth or second growth, or in the forest or on old fields. The name “‘loblolly” originated in the Gulf States and was applied to a thicket swamp in which this pine is common. Below is given a list of common and local names by which the tree is known in Dela- ware, Maryland, and Virginia, many of which are also often applied to othér species of pines. Longleaf, longstraw, or longtag pine, applied where associated with shortleaf, pitch, or scrub pines. Shortleaf, shortstraw, or shorttag pine, applied where associated with the real longleaf pine (Pinus palustris). = Swamp ‘pine, slash pine, yellow pine, usually applied to old growth. Rosemary pine, applied to good quality old growth. Oldfield pine, where it occurs on, old fields. Black or black-bark pine, sap pine, bastard pine, applied to second growth. Foxtail pine, in Maryland, common on the ‘‘western shore.”’ Indian pine, Virginia pine, North Carolina pine, in Virginia. Delaware pine, in Delaware. Maryland pine, in Maryland. DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERISTICS OF THE TREE. Loblolly pine is one of 13 species of yellow pine native to the eastern United States. The woods of these species are very similar, with no characteristics which can be invariably relied on for distinguishing them, yet the trees themselves have certain distinct botanical characteristics by which they can always be identified. Loblolly pine can readily be distinguished by its foliage and cones; it has a slightly glaucous foliage with three needles, from 4 to 8 inches long, occurring in a close, elongated sheath; the needles are slender, stiff, rigidly pointed, channeled, strongly keeled on the upper side, slightly twisted, and pale green in color; the cones are from 3 to 5 inches long, oblongovate to ovate and broadly conical in shape, occurring on the stem singly or in twos and threes, and nearly sessile; the cones have hard, woody scales with strong recurved prickles on the ends. The salient characteristics of other pine associated with loblolly in the region which serve to readily distinguish them from it are as follows: Shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata) has straight needles (three in a sheath) 14 to 4 inches long, and cones | to 24 inches in length. Pitch pine (Pinus rigida) has needles more decidedly and uniformly ‘twisted than those of loblolly, occurring three in a sheath, from 3 to 5 inches in length, while its cones are shorter, being more than 1 to 3 inches long, and uniformly ovate- conical or broadly conicalin shape. Pitch pine is also apt to have bunches of needles sprouting from the clear bole of the tree, which loblolly never has. Scrub pine (Pinus virginiana) can be easily distinguished from loblolly by the fact that its needles occur in twos instead of threes; they have a decided twist and are from 1 to 24 inches in length, broad and decidedly sessile on the stems. Longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) can never be confused with loblolly pine, on account of its extremely long needles, from 8 to 18 inches in length, while its cones are from 6 to 10 inches long. 43 44 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE: CHARACTERISTICS OF THE WOOD." PHYSICAL PROPERTIES. Average weight of kiln-dried wood, 31 pounds per cubic foot. Average weight of kiln-dried wood lumber, 300 pounds per 1,000 board feet. Specific gravity varies from 0.40 to 0.80. Specific gravity most frequent range, 0.45 to 0.55; spring wood, about 0.40, summer wood, about 0.95; so that the weight of the wood increases with the larger proportion of summer wood. Ash, 0.25 per cent of dry wood. Fuel value, 73 per cent of that of white oak. Breaking strength (modulus of rupture), 5,600 pounds per square inch, average. (77 per cent of that of longleaf yellow pine according to Sargent.) Factor of stiffness (modulus of elasticity), 1,300,000 pounds per square inch, average. (77 per cent of that of longleaf yellow pine according to Sargent.) Appearance of grain seen in cross section, variable, mostly very coarse; 3 to 12 rings, average 6 to the inch in structural lumber, generally wider than short leaf, which averages 12. General character and qualities, medium heavy, strong, and tough; grain coarse, even; summer wood broad, resin more abundant than in shortleaf, but less than in longleaf; resin passages numerous, not prominent; medullary rays numerous, obscure; heartwood orange yellow to light brown, the very thick sapwood light yellow or often nearly white; not at all durable sapwood, but takes preservative treatment readily; wood of “rosemary’’ pine close- grained, less resinous, lighter, with much thinner sap. SHRINKAGE AND KILN DRYING. The wood of loblolly pine, in common with that of other of the southern pines, shrinks about 10 per cent in cross section of volume (neglecting longitudinal shrinkage) when dried from a green to an oven-dry state. From 3 to 4 per cent of this shrinkage occurs along the radius, and from 6 to 7 per cent around the circumference. In green loblolly lumber there is about 25 per cent of moisture. In the usual air-dry condition, from 12 to 15 per cent of moisture still remains in the wood, so that the shrinkage from the green to the air-dry condition is only a trifle over half of that from the green to the absolutely dry state. Wood that has shrunk will return to its original size if soaked. The larger proportion of loblolly pine lumber is kiln dried before leaving the saw- mill yard. This drying prevents “bluing,’’ lessens the shipping weight, and reduces the tendency to further shrinkage. For successful kiln drying, both the wood and the water it contains should be raised to the temperature at which the drying is to take place. If the wood is slowly heated and the surface moisture carried away, the surface will hecome entirely dry before the interior is heated, and the lumber will shrink and check on the surface. Surface drying should be delayed in the kiln by retaining the moisture first vaporized while the heat penetrates to the interior. Steam may be used to wet the wood and raise it to the drying temperature. When the inside as well as the surface of the wood is at the proper temperature, drying may proceed, care being taken to replace the heat, lost from the wood by vaporization by the heat of the kiln. 1 Taken from Bulletin 99 and Circular 164 of the Forest Service. APPENDIX B. TABLES. CUT OF LUMBER IN THE REGION. Table 27 gives in detail by counties the cut of lumber in the region covered by this bulletin. Tasie 27.—Total amount of lumber cut of all species, and the proportion’ of yellow pine, in counties mm which loblolly pine occurs in Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia. -- [Compiled from the census returns for 1909.] State and county. Welawale..-----i: =. Sussex. --.-.-.-- Loblolly counties’ totals... .-- Maryland......-.-.- Anne Arundel... @aliventig--- = - = Caroline.....-.- Charles......-.- Dorchester - - - - Prince Georges. Queen Annes... St. Marys. ---.- Somerset... ---- Ralbotesss-es-- Wicomico..-...- Worcester... ---} Loblolly counties’ totals... ... Accomac....... Amelia......-.-- Charles City...- Chesterfield - - - - Dinwiddie. .... Elizabeth City . Essex. 2... 55552 Land Total | Yellow area. cut. pine cut. Sq. mi. | Mbd.ft.| M0 bd. ft. 1, 960 50440) reese. eee 615 5,118 2, 087 911] 46,849 36, 680 1, 526 51, 967 38, 767 9,860 | 267,939 |.....-.---- 425 2, 707 1, 064 222 8, 244 1, 620 320 19, 017 13, 334 451 8, 038 2, 850 608 20, 193 16, 482 281 1, 474 128 482 5, 043 1,081 376 4,518 2, 383 372 10, 904 8, 507 362 12, 535 9,549 286 6, 673 3, 685 365 | 24,756 22,215 487 | 19, 438 15, 077 5, 037 143, 540 97,975 40, 125 |2, 101,716 | 1,221, 691 478 40, 403 33, 196 355 18, 446 13, 917 529 78, 510 73,010 562 28, 837 25, 802 183 4,070 3, 675 484 39, 599 35, 574 521 84, 138 76, 006 DOL | teaser seyaisallnceeseee 277 28, 331 26, 318 433 15, 413 7,541 253 20, 623 19, 508 State and county. Virginia—Contd. Goochland... .- Greenesville... - Isle of Wight... James City... -- King and Queen.....--- King George... King William. . Lancaster...-.. Louisa.....-.--. Mathews. .....- Middlesex...... New Kent..... Norfolk....-..- Northampton... Northum ber- land=s= eeu" Nottoway...--- Powhatan....-- Prince George. - Princess Anne. Prince William Richmond. .... Southampton. - Spottsylvania. . Stafford.....--- Loblolly counties’ totals...... YIELD PER ACRE BY GRADES. Land area. Sq. mi. 296 288 Total cut. Mod. ft. 6, 262 37, 570 17, 156 22,594 21,615 19, 603 22, 259 6,891 2,330 10, 196 21,351 48, 632 4, 884 47, 415 24, 467 81, 436 18, 148 139, 008 14, 724 33, 742 19, 448 9,396 3, 059 8, 801 24, 074 15, 682 95, 474 34, 466 25,701 70, 483 20, 486 2,229 6, 381 1,020 Yellow pine cut. Mod. ft. 3, 980 37, 228 13, 778 7, 453 19, 445 17, 633 19, 669 5, 030 2,270 8, 643 18, 069 37, 330 4, 538 41, 266 23,176 75, 900 16, 689 120,277 13, 034 25, 119 16, 037 7, 339 2,016 5, 342 18, 081 13, 318 78, 324 31, 995 22, 764 68, 622 19, 162 2,030 5, 347 883 14, 580 |1,295,353 |1, 116, 334 Table 28 shows the yield per acre in board feet by grades to be expected from pure, even-aged, fully stocked, unmanaged stands of loblolly pine at different ages, and on different qualities of land, when cutting all trees 5 inches and over in diameter 45 46 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. breasthigh. Table 29 shows the same thing in per cent of grades instead of in board feet. All trees 5 and 6 inches in diameter, breasthigh, were scaled as entirely flitch, and this grade is confined exclusively to these diameter classes. The other six grades given apply to trees 7 inches and over in diameter, and comprise the main grades used by the North Carolina Pine Association in the manufacture and sale of North Carolina pine rough lumber. ; TABLE 28.— Yield per acre in board feet by grades from pure, even-aged, fully-stocked, unmanaged stands of loblolly pine of different ages. QUALITY T. Yield per acre. Age. Fliteh. Tandolapos “| Basis. No. 1. | No. 2. | No.3. | No. 4. | bark bark | Total. strips. | strips 5 Years. Ba. jt.| Bd. jt.| Bd. ft.| Bd. ft. | Bd. ft. | Bd. ft. | Bd. ft. | Plots. ee ee eS See eS tae E200! Wee sor ape Sls 28a oe a eal ce eae | erg | ee 1,200 | © i Lope Ae bee weecs amare Se 20M RE Sans etree 188 940 94 188 | 4,700 17 20 eee ae mae tee a ecm teeee 3,071 166 83 913 | 3,237 333 498 | 8,300 6 DB atdreecea ar nearer 2,178 363 363 | 1,815 | 6,050 484 847 | 12,100 4 SOE Sete JER aaa eet See eae 1, 272 795 636 | 2,703 | 8,586 795 | 1,113 | 15, 900 2 Se Se BeoS Eee a] aaaen Sea aoube 591 | 1,379 985 | 3,546 | 11, 229 786 | 1,182 | 19,700 4 AQ So 22) A AAO Ra TE aE eee 1,904] 1,666] 4,522 | 13,566 952 | 1,190 | 23, 800 2 DSN AN sa oe et inh ere ee 2,810 | 2,529] 5,339 | 15, 455 843 | 1,124 | 28,100 |...-.-- OS Seats Nie re ee Bas pe ea oral | eens 3,586 | 3,260] 6,520 | 17,278 978 978 | 32,600 |.....-.- fo) 12) Peters ei aoe te Dito et a che eee a Vena LNA MCT ER | See eles Se dal aces celicsocconc 42 QUALITY II. DGS Bee Cee ts bee ts ADO) |tarosesca! sacs DNs ale ees ere eee eam er 400 i . LSS eS obe Sade seeee ss Heese 25296) eee a. oe w 84 308 56 56 2, 800 20 DRE ROSES Oe ee he 25 Bean hee 2, 484 54 54 486] 1,782 216 324 | 5,400 19 Dynes Aye ete tsis ac ate ay biaetie 1,944 162 162 1, 053 3, 807 405 567 8, 100 3 BOR ase a= sete He 2s 32 Seer 1, 650 330 330 1, 760 5, 610 550 770 | 11,000 6 SO Eee See Pi eee ee 1,380 690 552 | 2,346] 7,176 690 966 | 13, 800 2; AQ MERE Es 35) Sams perf Se Lk 1, 162 996 830. 2, 988 8, 798 830 996 | 16, 600 5 : OG ie aaa ear an ae ae ae 780 | 1,365} 1,170} 3,510 | 10,725 780 | 1,170 | 19,500 4 DQ ee eons Sate eye creel es om ae 2, 034 1, 582 4,294 | 12, 656 904 1,130 | 22,600 1 | Total 222325122 ees SSS Pais Ps Bee ae || S| | eee | eee eh 67 QUALITY III 1 | eee See me eer es nme [intone se (es eed I eS Cee Soran et eiallem me Gaelic cease 6 Lee. SE Pee Cee Song ae Ss eee TBI S| Se cereens |S See 26 91 26 26; 1,300 4 DA) ake eA es ae Ee he eee 12 G0 4G) ee RE ee ee 140 560 84 112 | 2,800 4 PAs nts AE ree NS AO ce el ies atc ene 2,332 CY NU ee ie 352 1,320 176 264 4, 400 3 SOE See Bed Se ga at ie cr es 2, 460 120 60 600 2, 220 240 300 6,000 |--..--- Sk ed ci kt OO Le TE 2) 233 308 154 924 | 3,311 308 462 | 7,700 5 AOS} el rol eB 1, 786 470 376 1, 410 4,418 376 564 OF A000) |B aeeins = ADE teeta ee eee eee eee eee 1,130 678 565 | 1,808 | 5,989 452 678 | 11,300 1 Fi eee 8 5 ahrny Siac a ee eee IE ENTE 1,072 938 | 2,412] 7,638 536 804 | 13, 400 1 Total 2. so Sak. A BSS es a ae 2 hw Se ee esc | eo ee nee eats | eee 24 Cut by circular saw, 41-inch kerf. - ete FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. AT TABLE 29.—Per cent of grades to be expected from pure, even-aged, fully-stocked stands of loblolly pine of different ages cut into North Carolina pine rough lumber. QUALITY TI, Grade. Age. Flitch. , No. 1. | No. 2. | No.3. | No. 4. | bark bark 4 OMe aee eee ee emacs ote cnet LOOK Sareea lls Sasare sel | Were sews |Misle cferae sla Beare Aleta teas i ih acho se Poac Gor See C ER Enoee copanee ee Cyan aerate 3 11 2 2 20 20). JS cae SCR OC aGeUe eRe C ESSE eee eee 46 1 1 9 33 4 6 19 A ee ees percoict a Sic cists crsieiewiomaie ars 24 2 ale 13 47 5 7 3 30) cece 6H qe SE CEE C eee ee CE BEC SESE eS 15 3 3 16 51 5 i 6 De etnals Saisicaisee eae ube dcencoes 10 5) 4 17 52 5 i 2 (0) oceboSe eC RSSOS Ee ESSE Epa Sor em eneE 7 6 5 18 53 5 6 5 1 oS cle e BOBS ACES ROR SEES SM TE eet eee 4 7 6 18 55 4 6 4 IC erate at eras oe Sole ie ec oe aniersra nie ce se se. 9 a 19 56 4 5 1 PIS G) ed ene ete Se ce ete ae aa ve SIS aS eee Nore ote oie IE eR elo eno SS Sie eine mei 67 QUALITY III. li) Jepati@onoeen sence SARC eee Spee Eee TKO) I reteset cael leah Bchicr seed RR cei cae pa el bea aes ey [Ps Emi 6 Ub) cecgded speese SoC COE RaRO COA Seas Blin | Geers sols aaa 2, 7 2 2 4 A) Wer rarsete tee lalaisic ie tele fos eic ie tee cts ice Hees Cyt eres Ps ed ees eae 5 20 3 4 4 BS BS CSS OO Ee eT Se ae t aes eae nee 53 i Sasee ees 8 30 3 5 3 0 scomcde 6 ARIS a ak et eee ae 41 2 1 10 37 4 Suleneaeer Glia = Ba SoT cdot POSS eRe Oe ae ena Seem 29 4 2 12 43 4 6 5 (0). coe eece Se SOS CSE Se Gee TeC oe SeSeeEees 19 5 4 15 47 4 Geos Sos Bey ee ee ere satorayas sioenieie eis a a teialere esis oe 10 6 5 16 53 4 6 1 §(\ 3 Se SSE SOC OSCR GCE Se SSE EE arian ee em remser 8 7 18 57 4 6 1 BTR Gy Lck | ape et pees ener eye eon a ee a Sa a TR alert apart BRS NTL ect elt eva yap all iste ar ail Wes hee 24 Cut by circular saw, }-inch kerf. LOG-VOLUME TABLES. Tables 30 to 35 inclusive are log-volume tables (for logs from trees under 50 years in age), based on measurements of logs with corresponding mill tallies of lumber actually sawed out. The North Carolina measurements were taken at a mill only 5 miles from the Virginia line, and are entirely adaptable to the region under consid- eration. Tables 30 and 31 show the actual mill cut in board feet and percentage of the different, North Carolina Pine Association grades cut from butt, middle, and top logs of different, diameters and lengths. Table 32 is based on the cut of a portable mill in Somerset County, Md., and runs slightly higher than Table 30, due largely to the fact that the lumber was not so. carefully manufactured, it being sold ungraded and mill run. Table 33 shows the cut of small logs when sawed into crate flitch—i. e., plank 23- inch thick, having one waney edge. The width measured in scaling is the average width on the narrow face. A comparison of this table with the preceding (Table 32)) shows that logs cut out more board feet of lumber when sawed into flitcln than whem sawed into boards. The value of flitch per 1,000 board feet, however, is only three- quarters that of inch lumber. 48 BULLETIN ll, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Table 34 shows the cut in board feet of flitch and of inch lumber from 4-foot logs for crate and box lumber. Measurements taken on | cord of stacked bolts, the diameter and amount of lumber actually cut being recorded separately for each bolt, give the following results: Bolts ranging 3 to 6 inches in diameter between bark at the small end will cut out 510 board feet of flitch per cord, or if sawed into inch boards will cut out 390 board feet; bolts 6 to 9 inches in diameter will saw out 600 board feet per cord, or if cut into inch hoards will cut 500 board feet; a mill crew of four (one sawyer, one engineer and fireman combined, and two men to help in handling the bolts and the lumber) can readily saw up 5 to 10 cords a day, yielding 2,500 to 3,000 board feet of flitch, or 2,000 to 2.500 board feet of inch lumber in case sawed into the latter. Table 35 indicates how much more lumber can be sawed from logs cut into four sec- tions than when sawed as 12-foot logs. The percentage increase of the former over the latter is especially marked in the case of logs of small diameters. but makes little difference in large diameters. TaBLe 30.— Mill cut in board feet of butt, middle, and top logs of different diameters and lengths by mill in Gates County, N. C. BUTT LOGS. Length of log (feet). Diameter inside bark at small end. 6 | 8 | 10 | 12 14 16 Basis. Volume (board feet). Inches. , : Logs. These figures are based on straight and slightly crooked logs only. Of the logs tallied, 65 were 12-foot, 117 were 14-foot, and 651 were 16-foot logs. Cut by circular saw, }-inch kerf. FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 49 Tasie 31.—Per cent of grades from butt, middle, and top logs of different diameters and lengths cut into North Carolina pine rough lumber by mill in Gates County, N. C. BUTT LOGS. Grade. Diameter inside bark at small end. 1and2| Box | Basis No.1. | No. 2. | No. 3. | No. 4. | bark bark strips. | strips Inches. Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Per ct. | Logs. intr seers a6 sic od oie cies we Se 5.2 3.4 3252 47.8 7.5 3.9 14 OU Se nec DO RSS oes DEAS eee 10.3 8.4 27.4 43.4 6.8 ae 38 Gh oo é Sc: Seta CARRERE Ee SEOSC Eee ea aan 16.5 13.1 PPA | 40.3 5.8 1.6 54 UM oe ore Ca CR, Uae Ais BOR eet Ae Sree 14.6 15.2 32.9 31.5 5.2 .6 49 RI et aren See Ee et es 16.6 10.0 29.0 40.0 3.5 <9, (peor BAS Pee sob nope de an eo oe ee eee a 21.1 16.5 29.4 28.5 2.9 1.6 28 US co io Cui: SAGES SERS ee cee pe ee 23.0 19.0 32.6 22.6 ER Ae Sycreh oe 26 We no So MOG 6 AN Re Hee ES eSB Serene to eae 26.9 15.1 25.1 30.1 BE tase eae 8 1. cad onic SOC O GE COR IES One = anne aa anne 26.7 1125) 36. 5 20.9 Deen eee ene 6 1Nths, 4 cle Bin RE I ey Re ae a Be ee 25.4 28.0 32.0 10.3 3.0 11-83 4 EE ee Si 5 mie Sie one SIS ao EICTS Clete ET TRS eet Elec ceeeie bg (eee ee a eee 270 ‘ MIDDLE LOGS. E05 6 HOS OS HOES SEE IGE el EE Eee a (ene) [ee eee ayaa WG |enaeceeal| 2Bbe! 3 BR ot ni le ae Soe a ein ake aA sae Le Le 6.1 76.9 4.6 12.4 19 2.8 1.1 7.8 80.7 ot 6.9 45 7445) 2.4 9.4 78.4 2.8 4.5 56 4.4 3.6 6.2 80.6 2.8 2.4 63 5.9 6.5 13.0 68. 9 3.8 1.9 37 7.4 6.6 14.1 68.1 Sal he 23 8.2 10.0 16.2 63.2 Use wii 18 13.7 9.8 Bile 2) 47.4 i ere el 8 19.4 18.0 6.4 55.3 Ope Sees 5 5.7 14.5 Dao 69.1 3.6 1.6 2 a his cs Edy fies ec Sia es Al hela hed ah AES Bara | Sag Ag NE (a Oe Te Pare ae 279 TOP LOGS. EI eye tS Sia atelo a a oli esa e ec leterei neal areruersramifelelavs evelarcl|lacs divie ate 79.9. 2.0 18.1 20 On neoanbedor Ses OE re BOERS IOC Te aE Ee Rane pee | RE aae, ||. aameemtee mm mma eta 93.6 .8 5.6 58 Ta Scie tee ean PRO HS Oe Re aCe ae Naeem 0.2 0.2 1.3 90. 2 2.3 5.8 84 Oe ois BORE ee TE erent SS ere a ae ean oe a SO) ea aes .8 94.1 1.3 3.3 63 GUY BS BEBE OAL e CSCIC C A Ee Eee e tee Ener reas 1 .6 BA, 7 91.4 #2 5.0 44 TDs ao Ae Se eer se CL RS es AES aa Mpeg En IR ey a eae Fe Pace 1.5 3oe 92.6 1.1 1.6 18 Le ois ade Sees ad ECON oe ao USES eee epee eet aie 1.0 2.4 3.4 (775 IS I geno 1.1 11 OS So Be DCEO DEG URE R OIC EE ot REIS Hie eae [ee se botieses 3.5 3.8 OP EY fil Aspe nee erases 3 Ota sar eee eee Sane aoa ee a eae Re Eee AME A es lehetstee oor. See eee alles a) Pte 301 Cut by circular saw, 41-inch kerf. 50 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 32.— Mill cut in board feet of butt, middle, and top logs of different diameters and lengths by mill, in Somerset County, Md. BUTT LOGS. Length of log (feet). | | Diameter inside bark, small end. 6 | 8 10 12 14 16 ‘| Basis. | Volume (board feet). Inches. Logs C, EA 98 Te pn (ee Ne ie dis 5, eae Ay et a ty Ne 3 + 5 5 6 7 8 Dee Se eS es Re oe Seen ope ae 4 6 7 8 10 11 4 Gace seen a RS en Se ae ape Be Aree 6 8 11 13 15 17 58 i fog ee OPE OE Rips Bi, Se SING Ng) 0h oe anh a 9 12 16 19 22 25 48 Bite. Bat is. Jee AD Sis ade peel Se Ue 13 17 21 25 30 34 18 cS ey Se ae Scie emer eo apeiie h S Ea Sn i ae 17 22 28 34 39 45 2 Oe eee Cs ee ae, Se | Sa alee 22 29 36 43 50 58 6 TUT ees al ee Ne rt ha RT one ite Sees ee 27 36 45 54 63 Wioia| eee sss NDS St EE et Rete ee ORR OEE po ee ages 32 43 54 65 76 86 1 US RSs MEE Sine pad oak tl el SM RL IS eed lel Sot ect 38 51 64 77 89 LO 2H Pee ee iY. Wee ees Sey ae eae oe ee ey a oan aoc ke 44 59 74 89 104 HSS eee 5G Spa Ph es 2k PER UI ON SEA Eh, cs Drege is iat 51 68 85 102 120 BST eh ae SL Ge ee is Sel hee UR Nell SR aN elles 58 78 97 116 136 LET Wehr tie TOTALS <1 SSE sgh Se Be SS Bosses Re ea SCTE eee ee | Ree | Saran ea eneeenee| eee 182 MIDDLE LOGS. Neer Pe PONS Ree Sn ee eo |e ee 2 3 4 5 6 6 5 tapes oes ee ee ee pos Ot Be RN a te eS oe La 4 5 Uf 8 10 11 18 Cee ee ee eee stereo ey apie ae ae 7 9 11 13 16 18, 59 LPs oe I Es Sei 5 Bet MeN ares 8 hese 10 13 17 20 23 Bil 39 SF Eps) CNS Pee Olea, PRR Ne det arate geo le sen Ses ame 14 19 23 28 33 37 9 ae es eae PE ae es nee alien Se sere os 18 24 30 36 42 48 4 iI) sees ene oe a See) ener eee Ss ok oe 22 30 7 44 52 59 3 TU, ey Se See aa ie Ss Hye A a RASA oe eae 27 36 45 54 63 OP) |\\sa aoe 1A es eel ah ee hae Ny Ns Pe om ae ay Ses ahs MS el 32 43 54 65 76 87 1 ioe ee en eS Ea ne a meas Ait ie 39 51 64 Tl 90 108) lessee a= Ae oe SE BS AS 7 I nS eT SE 45 60 75 90 105 Z(G | ener Potals...2. 32 23-5 ose speed ee ee Beesee | bec ee a eee ees pe ee: 6 Sees ees |e 138 TOP LOGS These figures are based on straight and slightly crooked logs only. Of the logs tallied, 311 were 10-foot, 94 were 12-foot, and 3 were 14-foot logs. Cut by circular saw, 4-inch kerf. FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. All TABLE 33.—Cut of small logs when sawed into crate flitch* by mill in Somerset County, Md. BUTT LOGS. + Length of log (feet). Diameter ay (tages inside bark, 6 ‘Sieve awe Oa || ane Ome ASS. small end. | | Inches. Logs. Ek SEN epee 3 5 6 7 10 Lee 2 eee ae Ret 5 ia 9 10 20 Bure ee 8 10 13 15 5 ATO tala eae 64: | ey gh Sra 2 |e ot a 35 Ce 3 4 5 6 2 Osea See nee 6 7 9 11 14 / Geena ree 8 11 14 17 10 Motalo2) 2 2sc8- 2 | Rake scela ast |Last 26 TOP LOGS Sees eal aes 2 3 4 5 3 i oec Soeeaanon 4 5 6 a 41 Dee ste erat cise 5 a 9 11 11 ANO)EZ) Feet eee eee eye ees err S| ee ae 55 1 Sawed into flitch, i. e., plank 2? inches thick, having one waney edge. The width measured in scaling is the average width on the narrow side. Cut by circular saw, }-inch kerf. TABLE 34.—Cut of flitch and 1-inch boards from logs of different diameters and 4 feet long by a mill in Wicomico County, Md. Diameter VWolnmelon Volume of || Diameter Wolnmelot Volume of inside flitch in 1-inch inside aipiigial seri 1-inch bark, 4-foot logs.1| ,oards in bark, 4-foot logs.1| boards in small end: 8S." | 4-foot logs.2!| small end. 8S-"| 4-foot logs.2 Inches. Board feet. | Board feet. Inches. Board (eat Board feet. 2.0 0.3 0.3 7.5 8.0 2.5 .8 6 8.0 10. 8 9.4 3.0 ios} 1.0 8.5 12.4 10.7 3.5 21.8 1.4 9.0 14.0 12.1 4.0 2.4 1.8 9.5 15.9 13.5 4.5 oe 2.4 10.0 17.9 15.0 5.0 4.0 3.0 10.5 20. 0 16.5 5.5 4.8 Bath 11.0 22.4 18.1 6.0 5.8 4.6 If. 5 25.0 19.7 6.5 7.0 5.6 12.0 28.0 21.4 7.0 8.2 6.7 1 Basis, mill cut of 168 logs. 2 Basis, mill cut of 30 logs. Cut by’ circular saw, 14-inch kerf. Flitch is plank 23 inches thick, having one waney edge. 52 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 35.—Comparison of mill-cut logs cut into 4-foot sections and into 12-foot lengths, by mills in Somerset and Wicomico Counties, Md. BUTT LOGS. Inch boards. Flitch. Diameter inside Increase Tnerease bark Volume | Volume (not Volume | Volume (not small | scaled as | scaled as | curved). | scaled as | scaled as | curved). end. one 12- | three 4- one 12- | three 4- foot log. | foot logs. foot log. | foot logs. Inches. Bd. ft. Bd.ft. | Percent.| Bd. ft. Bd. ft. | Per cent. 5 6. 6 32.0 7 8.9 ieee 5 8 10.8 35.0 10 14.1 41.0 6 13 16.0 23.1 15 19.9 32.7 7 19 23.1 2.6, le dobus Sashes oer ee ees 8 25 30. 6 2204) |edrek 2 25 AE eee eee 9 34 39.9 ‘Viet Seal ee ee ee ae ae co | 10 43 48.8 a es i ee pee termes oe RE 2 ell eh 2 | 11 54 57.9 TDi | Rea eee ee ee eee MIDDLE LOGS. 4 5 8.4 68. 0 6 9.8 63.3 5 8 10.5 31.3 11 13.7 24.5 6 13 16.0 3 Ih 17 19.9 eels = 7 20 21.9 QHD) ~ | Berane Slee eee eee eee 8 28 30.3 SHO Mize sy. beseje a] an ae | eae ere 9 36 38.9 Pal el teenie lee eet old acd soeoe 10 44 47.9 BAO. ei. cae tala ee eee eee eee 11 54 ee DIO: 225s As See eee aes Eee TOP LOGS. 3 1 4.5 350. 0 5 7.0 40.0 4 5 8.3 66. 0 7 11.0 Dieu 5 9 12.1 34.4 11 15.5 40.9 6 | 15 18.0 20/0) *| 252.23 23 -2| seen ae eee ee 7 21 26.1 7) Sealy epee Nee te ces er all= ote, aces 8 29 Bile TiO: “|e ae fee Sell Saye eae Ree 9 37 39.9 FAQs oss Mee elle tee ener eke | ne ee 10 46 50. 0 Bl Tl ALS Aho a | ce eens 1 56 59.2 Doe. APS ee ak ore Eee ee | eee TREE VOLUME TABLES. Tables 36 to 44, inclusive, are tree volume tables (for trees under 50 years in age), based on the taper table (Table 45) and the log volume tables (Tables 30 to35). Tables 36 and 38 give the volume in cubic feet of trees of different diameters and heights, with and without bark. Table 37 gives the per cent of volume subtracted for bark from the figures given in Table 36 to get Table 38. Tables 39, 40, and 41 show the volume in board feet of trees of different diameters and heights, 39 based on actual cut of logs and trees followed through the mill, 40 based on logs and trees scaled by the Scribner log rule, and 41 scaled by the Doyle log rule. It will be seen that the mill-cut table ranges over 10 per cent higher than the Scribner rule table, and in comparison with Doyle rule table ranges 100 to 500 per cent higher on trees under 12 inches in diameter breasthigh, and 25 to 100 per cent higher on trees over 12 inches in diameter. The Doyle rule is commonly used in logging operations in southeastern Virginia, and is very much to the advantage of the mill man when cutting small trees. FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE, 53 Table 42 indicates the actual mill cut of small trees of different diameters and heights when cut into 4-foot lengths and sawed into flitch or into inch boards. A comparison of this table with Table 39 shows how much more lumber can be obtained when cutting small trees into very short sections. Tables 43 and 44 show the grades of North Carolina pine rough lumber, in board feet and per cent, actually cut from trees of different diameters 30 to 50 years in age, based on measurements of logs and trees taken in the woods with corresponding mill tallies of lumber sawed out. These measurements were taken in northeastern North Carolina, 5 miles from the Virginia line. TaBLE 36.— Volume in cubic feet, including bark, of trees of different diameters and heights, from measurements taken in Worcester and Somerset Counties, Md. Height of tree (feet). De = = | poet. | 15 | 20 | 25 | 30 | 35 | 40 | 45 | 50 | 55 | 60 | 65 | 70 | 75 | 80 | Basis. high. |! = ! Merchantable volume, including bark (cubic feet) Inches. | | | Trees. ORM ORD REONG UI ONGR NOSGAIE ONGHIMC Ba Sek CS. colle Salat eee adie 3 Memes salen Gy pleted baal See Sal! OO ase a ee eS ee NPE Te |e ag 2 El ees tolls 1,8.) Dal | DAW Qe le SO Sea sige ee eae Pera e ee Bee ey 9 ‘6 ieee eae | BO | Bet SM ee LEA eZee Tei ee ie oe Led 62 Flee oee eee ANNIE Tal aoe Bec am Gedle | GASulieeTe Sill esol i) Seis 4in eee sane en 77 || oT ey ean a ota RU | iw AON SOW SO wh OL ey | ea GSE L igs 81 Op eee nace e ee sale at TOO || Be) CLO | a |) ey 1 177 ©) 1G | 175} oak a ce AT ii) | eet Ba eal ee BE eri oe Psy 10.5 | 12.1 | 13.8 | 15.3 | 16.9 | 18.5 | 19.8 | 20.9 | 22.0] 31 he Renee |S eS ee lara Sle 14.2 | 16.3 | 18.3 | 20.2 | 22.0 | 23.9 | 25.7] 27.5] 18 1) Ve =r ll a le i Tea leet oe 16.3 | 18.8 | 21.2 | 23.6 | 26.0 | 28.1 | 30.1 | 32.1] 15 13} |] xeouvedl eee cy Nae me (Oe ae ea A eed 19.6 | 22.6 | 25.5 | 28.0 | 30.4 | 32.6 | 34.9 | 37.0 9 Tin Lolo seoeal S Aaea| | Aeeeeae (Came eee Se 26.9 | 29.8 | 32.4 | 35.1 | 37.8 | 40.3 | 42.9 2 TUR «| coll nee el ae | Sakae ne Be bee ies eaeere oS eeee 32.8 | 36.0 | 39.0 | 42.2 | 45.4 | 48.3 5 1G Wises SONNE ES A a a aie esate 41.0 | 44.4 | 47.8 | 51.1 | 54.2 8 iy {loc aE oral Ri pe a a | Rie 47.0 | 50.5 |54.0| 57.6] 61.0| 1 HUSH ese eee |e Be es elf eel al i Mpa em oe 56.2 | 60.2 | 64.1 | 67.8 1 A eee Pye ce te | eave |S 2 alts te cere a elgg bes tee eee 61.0 | 65.6 | 70.2 | 74.7 1 Ai) lies sel eee [Berea aN | eat [egaicclmaecee pa eee iat 71.7 | 77.0 | 82.4 TOHEM cllozic scllse cose sees eee ee eso ene eae | Beate | a mee NLS dive eheeatien elheg ac 372 TaBLE 37.—Per ceni of bark in total volume of trees of different diameters in Worcester and Somerset Counties, Md. Diame- ter 2 ter ter. Le ter preast- | Bark |] preast- | Batk- || breast | BarE- || preast- | Bark: high. high. high. high. Inches. | Per cent. || Inches. | Per cent. || Inches. | Per cent. || Inches. Beer ere i 7 D Ore co (JS) or Ne} Ibo w) Cs Go is is — oO i Ne} = lor) 54 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 38.— Volume in cubic feet, exclusive of bark, of trees of different diameters and heights from measurements of 372 trees in Somerset and Worcester Counties, Md. Height of tree (feet). Diam- | | eter ‘ | < Re | Meee = Hreacte 30 35 40 45 | 50 55 | 60 | 65 | 70 | 75 80 high. Peeled merchantable volume (cubic feet). Inches. : 0. 4 0. 4 Oi eee ewes eee ees ol erie. oo I ae 4 9 1.0 isal IED DBR. ch Sate selacteoos Gass eee eee 5 1.4 1.6 1.8 2.0 DBE) ee o> a | StS 2 Sel ee es eee ee ee |e , 6 Ze 2.4 Ph 3.1 3.4 3.8 Ae) 28 22 tse alee | eee FZ OS SoA Sk SPA A AS Oia lirs S74 |) %5 sO | saeco eee een | ee 8 3.8 4.5 5.2 5.9 6. 6 162 7.9 8.7 Ce ae eral se atee 2 | ees eal ess 6. 4 ad 8.5 G55 9) LOK) USA a eS oe ees | eee eet LO eeeese | Re 8.1} 9.3 | 10.6 | 11.8 | 13.0 | 14.2 | 15.2 | 16.1 | 16.9 1 ee Soot ol See eee ee IDA ase bE Sl aloe) TEE Ze) 0) |) Bale DP leete Sere [eles ae fae se 14.9 | 16.8 | 18.7 | 20.6 | 22.3 | 23.9 | 25.5 5 De eos (Ege eel erected Maen eee ee ea et 20.4 | 22.4 | 24.3 | 26.1 | 27.9 | 29.6 A ee Beste Soe Becerra Metis 24.0 | 26.1 | 28.3 | 30.5 | 32.5 | 34.6 Min eae Joes oe ETS: | Sa eS ee ees 29.5 | 32.0 | 34.6 | 37.2 | 39.6 UG esse ORE E | ohaae Rene oalls seen eenaes 33.9 | 36.7 | 39.5 | 42.2 | 44.8 TYAS Sei ee Seem GRR em etl RE Fhe Re seed a9. 42.1 | 45.0 | 48.0 | 50.8 18. eee | See Sn one a eee RE Rese eae ens eee perk 47.2 | 50.6 | 53.9 | 57.0 OMe Esp ereea [reat ee [act pe pane eels oa ee 51.7 | 55.6 | 59.5 | 63.3 20) | ease igercl ese | Beet eisricts egret ey eel edt, | 61.0 | 65.5 | 70.1 ! Sealed to a top diameter limit of 1.5 inch inside bark. Stump height, 1 foot. Based on taper curves, diameter measurements taken every 4 feet. TABLE 39.— Volume in board feet of trees of different diameters and heights based on actual mill cut in Maryland. 1 Five and six inch trees scaled as if cut into flitch; i. e., plank 23 inches thick, having one waney edge. Width measured in scaling is the average width on narrow face. Based on taper curves, scaled as 8, 12, and 16 foot logs. Diameter inside bark of top, 4.5 inches. Stump height assumed, 1 foot. Circular saw, }-inch kerf. | Height of tree (feet). Diam- | eter ‘ re = 7 . eter, | 30 35 | 40 | 45 50 55 60 65 70 | 75 80 high. | | Volume (board feet). | Inches. | 15 5 6 6 7 8 Biological base bel eee cee eee se laaeeee 16 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 (eee Slee ee ae eee eeeees ai 7 10 12 14 17 19 21 eas clseeeee | aseses eemees 8 lily pe Ws 18 22 25 28 31 33° PSone Peres tee 9 |s.seee 20 26 30 34 39 43 AY) cae Wea al ee eee TO} Eee 34 39 44 50 57 63 69 75 82 iy Hig ey See ES a 48 55 64 72 80 89 98 | 105 P= ADEs. Stelle Se sales oles | 58 67 78 89 99} 110} 120} 130 IR Bl SSoee peeoee| leon ae 68 80 94 107 121 133 145 157 TT Oe ee Sarat i meee (cad oe eae Pega oad 127 | 143} 157 | 170} 185 1 stl en! cee eemeetes |ns seees |2aeers 129 150. 167 182 198 213 LGR eee ere cece | temee abe tea eet | ren 2 178 195 212|) 228 243 Uy eects) erste ace tel eo erae eee Sea. 2 Si 206 | 225 243 261 276 nat | ee ROD a Lao ee ee ele eS eallawoe ae 258 | 276) 294} 311 BSR Lo ee iets | ieee, A ee ae Oe Le eee Se, sl ees oc 290 |. 309 | 330) 350 Pee raat cone eeepc I Serene | Be aise | Rees el pa aaee 344 | 366] 390 Diameter inside bark at top 3.5 inches. FOREST MANAGEMENT or LOBLOLLY PINE. 55 Tasie 40.— Volume in board feet of trees of different diameters and heights in Maryland, scaled by the Scribner log rule. Z Height of tree (feet). Diame- => pean [940 | 45 | 50 | 55 | 60 | 65 | 70 | 75 | 80 high. Volume (board feet). 10 12 Le eal fe ce el (a oe eae eae 20 23 26 29 Bi eras sHeeiowte 30 35 39 43 il Bene eee 41 47 53 58 64 69 74 52 59 66 74 81 90 98 63 72 81 91 100 11 121 74 86 98 109 121 133 145 ace lbeesee 116 130 143 157 170 te oa nies 137 | 152} 167 | 182) 196 345 oe sre siete ie 160 176 194 210 |} 226 Based on taper curves, scaled as 8, 12, and 16 foot logs. Diameter inside bark of top, 5.5 inches. Stump height assumed, 1 foot. TABLE 41. — Volume in board Jeet of trees of different diameters and heights in Maryland, scaled by the Doyle log rule. Height of tree (feet). Diame- ter r areacte 19 45 50 | 55 60 | 65 | 70 | 75 80 high. Volume (board feet). Inches. 8 3 4 HH Bee seal Socace HScbacl CHoess oecs sl acecse 9 a 8 9 11 13 15 VGt| BS aes | eee 10 11 13 15 18 20 23 27 30 33 UL oats Ale tS 22 26 30 34 40 44 49 17g eae ee oa 30 36 42 48 55 62 69 ese ea deaalecroce 40 48 57 65 74 82 90 yh ee ae CO aeeen ears esecce 74 84 94 104 114 US| RS el ne a ek Sate 94) 105} 118} 130] 141 1G ARS AC Eee Seo cal beers 116 | 129} 146} 159] 171 LZ St ole Sen | eer | emer [ee 176 | 189] 201 Na eeeces | Scere imeyies Sl ee ceae ll er orn Mane item 208 | 221} 233 S| pe ae aaa ie gy es CCN Le 240 | 254 | 267 PO Pesctar choral ate repateeel| cree ere al errr | oe ha 272 | 288] 302 Based on taper curves, scaled as 8, 12, and 16 foot logs. Diameter inside bark of top, 5.5 “inches. Stump height assumed, 1 foot. 56 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE 42.— Mill cut in board feet from small trees of different diameters and heights when cut into 4-foot sections and sawed into flitch or into 1-inch boards by mills in Wicomico County, Md. Mill cut of trees cut up into 4-foot logs and sawed into inch boards and flitch. Height of tree (feet). Diam- 7 eter x , ~ a Tneeaiic 30 | 33 40 45 50 | 55 | 60 | 65 70 high. - Volume in board feet, cut into inch boards. Inches. ce , 4 3 5 5 6 9 7 13 8 18 7 8 9 10 12 4 4 4 5 5 | sesscc|eoonscesa5cal[ssosa5 GNI Ore — v bo _ is = for) i oo 20 23 25 17 20 23 26 30 34 38 23 27 32 37 42 47 53 1 Sawed into flitch, i. e., plank, 2? inches thick, having one waney edge. The width measured in scaling is the average width on the narrow side. Based on taper curves, scaled as 4-foot logs. Diameter inside bark of top, 2.5 inches. Stump height assumed, 1 foot. Circular saw, +-inch kerf. TaBLe 43.—Numeber of board feet by grades of North Carolina pine rough lumber sawed | Jrom trees of different diameters by mill in Gates County, N. C | Grade. S i eal ea gS a AE | E g = a or) i i 6 3e ei r= 3 3 3 S 3 S . = = Z Zi Z Ze = = 3 Behe Bers Volume (board feet). ce | a Inches. | Feet. a A alercih sets secrete DEI MP Kes 7 2.0 DEN SEE) oocoae 8 OO ete Salsceese 6.5 | 19.4 Pa Al Syl |p Bile i 1 9 54 3} 0.9 8.4 | 23.5 PAs 3.6 | 40.0 7 10 57 2.8 2.3 9.5 | 30.0 205 4.0 | 51.1 45 11 60 4.8 4.0 | 11.4 | 39.4 2.9 4.3 | 66.8 77 J 12 62 ea} 6.0 | 14.7 | 52.1 3.4 4.6 | 88.1 65 13 64 | 10.8} 8.6] 20.8 | 68.0 4.0) 4.7 |116.9 71 14 66 | 15.6 | 12.6 | 28.8 | 84.9 4.8 4.6 |151.3 | 55 15 68 | 22.5 | 19.1 | 37.3 |100.0 54515) 4.4 |188.8 29 16 70 | 30.9 | 25.0 | 45.6 {112.1 6.2 4.0 |223.8 29 17 71 | 39.8 | 28.2 | 53.7 |122.2| 6.9} 3.5 |254.3 14 18 72 | 49.1 | 29.9 | 62.0 |1381.0] 7.5 3.0 |282.5 6 19 74 | 58.3 | 30.9 | 70.6 |139.0 | 8.1 2.4 |309.3 5 20 75 | 67.5 | 31.7 | 79.5 |146. 4 8.8 1.8 |335. 7 1 FOREST MANAGEMENT OF LOBLOLLY PINE. 57 TaBLE 44.—Per cent of North Carolina pine grades cut from trees of different diameters by mill in Gates County, N. C. Grade. Diam- XL Perel eee alee a eter ol- an breast- 1 and |1 and | ume. |B@sis- high. |No.1.|No.2.|No.3.|No. 4. |2 bark|2 bark strips.|strips. Inches. | P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.| P.ct.|Bd.ft.| Trees. (f Hee eis et ae 10.4 | 69.9 8.4 | 11.3 DAD ae BR ically toe! 20.9 | 62.4 6.7 | 10.0 31 iL 9 84,8) PPA PALACIO Dass te). | eta py 9.0 40 if 10 be Gi |) Gai |) TR Nists 74 ZS) 7.8 51 45 11 Lear 6.0 | 17.1 | 59.0 4.3 6.4 67 77 127) 8:3 6.8 | 16.7 | 59.1 3.9 ye, 88 | 65 ; 13 9.2 7.41) 17.8 | 58.2 3.4 4.0 117 71 14 | 10.3 8.3 | 19.1 | 56.1 Bh 3.0 151 55 ye ON Omen ONS oon Onna On|) caer: 189 29 16 |} 13.8 | 11.2 | 20.4 | 50.1 2.0 1.8 224 29 U7) Sy ee ea al A) ARE) 207 1.4 254 14 18 | 17.4 } 10.6 | 21.9 | 46.4 2.6 ipl 283 6 y 19 | 18.9 | 10.0 } 22.8 | 44.9] 2.6 -8| 309 5 20 | 20.1 9.5 | 23.7 | 43.6 2.6 =f) 336 1 A OKGY FEE | ee el te Re cee | lb eee (aya ee 405 Cut by circular saw, 41-inch kerf. FORM TABLE. Table 45 shows in detail form or taper of trees of different diameters and heights and 10 to 50 years in age. TaBLE 45.—Diameters at different heights above the ground of trees of different diameters and heights, from measurements taken on loblolly pine in Somerset and Worcester Counties, Md. 30-FOOT TREES. Height above ground (feet). Diam- eter a F breast 0.5, 1.0/1.5] 45 | 5 [= 9] aa | a7 | 21| 25| 29| 33 | 37 | 41 | 45 | 49 |Basis. oa Diameter inside bark (inches). Inches Trees lal eOu no 225) Osh oat el eS (tani Patel Osu (On tbaelees (eck les | oe 2 aera 38On |3077| 3.551595 ROROP Peau etn aGll nO) |. <2 |-bocel-etco| soos lace claqecbeces PE aan Ay | Andi leae alice yal) 323 (| Qvraeovoumieo ies) | SCE e a ea 1 Gn Ree eG. 59 7.5.0 ls50On | ee ou lnAO SPS Oe Stee st ee ro 1 AST ERT G75: 97 aS sah Ane eAeOneS Ou Pe Bil Abie ee Se 1 BU eSe tan eMO)| 7-8: || Gat 1 G56) PGxU a y4y| 4. 6: B.5 | Ode le Laie A Te ef eT wes 2 NGG c = nil 2k Oe lSaesss| Bebe eee lee eel ecnael keer eerie See eee acai ieee eee Wee Rese ee 7 40-FOOT TREES. Be se ONGn noe 7io- 3023/20 Test dalle dearth 2 |-0.9) 140, 6 | OvSilesca.foc. c|ooe- 1 PSO Ts 7e |e 09" | 359) 99) 2.7 ORME ORIRTON I 5 Fadl e Gilevs of et 3 2 PAAR On aay (ede) |.) | S575 | 3) Se tees en Oe RAHO. 0) |i Wea | Lae es .|- oc |he ns 5 SMEG SUNS AOnl Save| 5014.9 | 4.6 | 4.21 S79ueses 13L0)|, 9.5, (1.8 | 9) |i ice clec ess [ee 17 ASO GSO" Gi7| 528 | 5.8 | 5.4 | 5.0 | 426:[-4etal 3.6.) 3.0:| 2.1 | Ld 2 |. 22 SaleSetS! Onl uzeSeleGn7. 16.6 | 6.2) | 5.8 |. beso esa 4.219.525 | 1.2 jc |e 16 apo SsSulee Salas 7-0) 6.5.1 GO eo 48 14.0 2911.3 ee | cd 2 5 TOM MORGHHOsla POSS he RA ese 07.71 7.2 | Gimnoad Wb.44|| 405 | O62 | Wed |e ssl co -|ac- |e eee INCU esraslseecellacese| late 54 Eesas|iesee SerBa lease cae) nnaisel Serseset (Secterel ccs Ieee oe) aeeeme im area 68 50-FOOT TREES er 3.90 | a7 Posten tlle? 9) | 2074) eea aoe fat i741 ded | 1-0)| O16 [Oot |e Ey Pan AE || As 7 AU ON ANON S'7|) 326) | SealesL onl RO (7 (141 tO) t4 | e293 6|6.315.915.7/4914.9146)44/42/40/3.7/3.4| 3.0] 2.4/1.7] 1.0] .2| 39 7|7.316.9|6.7|5.8|5.7|5.5|5.2/49/48/45/41/3.6|2.912.1/12].3| 43 8| 8.4/8.0] 7.8| 6.7] 6.7|6.4| 6.0/5.7] 5.5|5.1/4.8|42|3.4/2.5]14].3] 52 9) 9.5/9.1] 8.8] 7.6] 7.6| 7.2| 68] 6.5|6.2)5.8/5.4|4.8|/3.9]/29]16].3] 22 10 |10.6 |10.1| 9.8/8.5] 84] 8.0] 7.6| 7.2|7.0]6.5|6.0|5.4]4.4/3.2]19].4] 15 11 |11.6 |11.2 |10.8 | 9.4| 9.3/8.9] 84] 8.0] 7.717.2|6.7|5.914.9|3.7|2.1].4] 4 12 |12.8 |12.2 |11.8 |10.3 |10.2 | 9.7} 9.1| 8.7] 8.31 7.8|7.216.515.4/4.012.3].5| 3 13 |13.9 |13.3 |12.9 |11.2 {11.1 |10.4| 9.9 | 9.4| 9.0] 8.4] 7.8] 7.0] 5.8] 4.4| 2.6] .5|.....- ARNE. CSSdlodned|lebaor eecod Bocce lbeeee| Seese [Geese Me see sees fees Carte S| (amet |emese ieee) leer 181 BULLETIN 11, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. i Yer) — 1g Bee Aco paaeee| Re ee RCS sivas ee Ue aoa a UC Daa Seni cated | ie tp cane |The ae a | ml ee es a) PE Ss rape ELON Gy T 6% |8% |S9 |62 |G | eOF | SIT | OCI | Or | Tet | Get | Ger | FE | 2FT | Sgt | 6h | Gor | TSE | SBT | 9-6r LoS STE Sa I BG Ser NTO Ok 28) 26s) ONO Pea en 18/cis| Zor iG 80 | Oem Orr iy PL | Oren IsOugne| Os2T9/% | 09 | 9:9 | 19 99 160 | ek) Se) 22 108 | oe | SB | 28 | 28) 86. | LOL | 9°07 ee GCelpallaGuGes PRC ea|ESEGe alm yom Ono IGG a Sec neg |r Oe 2 Die) (60 Teles Reset Sede CR eZ) alee eee areas C6 T Tes SGT al hONG | Gr gl SiGenlah Yan!) SPs al Gi ee Ge e279 8116 sGhs| TO) senOke Is9iea! 20/708 1) 8 Ou ape Ona ik tee aOs8) 9 78 ‘SHTML LOOM. GL eeaataa | een ge Stal es aa | ae aga RS BERS Re Spare ain bitte kepal (EME Eg a || ge ea lies cet trae aaa eerie |e Selassie so oe eae | | ae ib sri. | eat ae ge 18107, 98 |T¢o |FO9 | 22 | 88 | 86 | OO] & TT | GIL | Per | Ber | eer | Ser | 6 eT | OOF ee |8% |0'9 |G2 | e8 | 86 | O'OL | 9OT | TT | 9 Tr | Oe | Ger | Over | Ter | Ost Oe |7? [99 129 | 22 198 | 86 | 66 | HOF} BOL | Str | 2 Ir | Ler} Tr | 6 er 82 |1% |o¢ (39 |Z2 |0'8 | 28 | 26 | 96 | O0OT| FOL | 8 OL} E11 | ETT | 6 er Gea) ale soa | eS O00) rary NOPRen | Guo NS pSNs GuGla | nOnGe oN OONS Te ta(0s eyO gs SanL CG ey) ete ME A IR Se TAROT PS SP OSES I Tt TS) GSS TOE Org | 078) | Gse [Peer A SeG aleecO) | 0) Tee sek WRORL Gees | aR 10.8) O58. eB Reem eG «| Gee ci slnG = |OuGra| TO SIG Ou ORD N|SGaD) eTawenliT ze | 2h Zee Aes a8 GT a seeGe al ONGs 0208: Glamis AG te || HAG OTC ASO ORD RGOnN |e (O; 1 LeO hal yeaGia sg 22 PRE IGT Ne CAE MSY ATR PR 2 OE ih eel is I) haat VIG IE) Ila DE NL te Ps | Te PAAR We ae Acie Ee RG ais “Sayouy *(SOYOUT) JIE OPISUT La},oTUVICG ‘ alee re “ystt sisuq | 42 | €4 | 69 | co | 19 | ug | eo | 6 | Gh | Tr | 2e | e8 | 62 | Se | Te | AT | Sf | 6 | F | SF) ST | OT | $0) +aseorq ‘reourerq om *(J00J) PUNOIS OAOGV YU SIO_L “‘ponurjyUoj—‘pyy ‘sayUnoy uazsa.l04{ PUD Jas.ioUwoy ur oud fiyj0)q0) wo wayn, spuouounsnan wouf ‘srybroy pun suajouoyp juasafip fo seas, fo punoub oy2 edogn spybray quasegip WY SwjUm]— Ch ATV], ‘SHHUL LOOW-09 80-FOOT TREES. FOREST MANAGEMENT tANeAN IDO OI~ DDOMANOD oO naa Cntr Storie aan 10 IED ID OO OMNID 004 SAA AAAAN AAAS COA OID D1 DH HI SAN A od od od sti Hi oti IDO IDAAM~ AHN NN 6d 99 09 H Hid 15 19 ID HOOD COOD I~ HO Moses Hadid Soren | je eneee DOD I OD I~ OD CO H COC 09 HH Hid id OOM 00 HOIDOONDHHD AHO WAG SSMMHASDS SONDHOMNADAHO DIDSS~HOBASH a ONIN OAQDH Eo DSSrHHBSSHS Soon on hoe eet AMIDA MIDN WHOS SCSrHHDSBSSHAN Sl alte all Om ON HHH AMO CH HHSBSSHANGS Se oe oe oe oe ee SHIWNAOMOr~MS Le OHABASANAG Se oe Boe Dee OADM AHHWINADSO KHODABSHANGS bee Be Ee oo oe oe >I MOWDMNNOrI9DN BOSSA sisi OSBSHAAG HS SSK waere 5 oe oe | re ASHAGBIDNSKAD ee ee Col) SAAMHDSKOSSN aAN AND We Soe Spel ABC el Sic SOS eS Ce RCE es coca ees SH ESCs nee Lalita tens I ieee eC pl eee OF LOBLOLLY PINE, tion 1¢a rom the SUPERINTEND- Government Printing ton, D. C., at 15 cents per copy be procured f: DOCUMENTS, Office, Washing DITIONAL COPIES of this publ Ae ENT OF may 59 ms ‘ i ae ise = . + bs ne: ae eed ree bis ETN Or TAE Be) USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICULIRE No. 12 Contribution from the Forest Service, Henry S. Graves, Forester. October 11, 1913. USES OF COMMERCIAL WOODS OF THE © UNITED STATES. “ BEECH, BIRCHES, AND MAPLES. By Hu MAxwet., Hxpert. INTRODUCTION. The three genera, beech, birch, and maple, which include 18 com- mercial species, besides several species or varieties too small or too scarce to be of commercial importance, form a group closely related. This relationship, however, is commercial rather than- botanical. The woods of all have several points of similarity, such as hardness, strength, and susceptibility of fine polish, and in the main their uses are similar. They grow usually in the same regions, and they are often lumbered and milled almost as though they were a single wood, but the resulting lumber is piled and sold separately. It is not unusual in New England, the Appalachian region, and the Lake States for lumbermen to speak of beech, birch, and maple as “ the hardwoods,” thereby placing them in a group by themselves, separate from oak, elm, gum, and the ‘rest. This is especially true when beech, birch, and maple go to chemical plants manufacturing char- coal, wood alcohol, acetates, and other by-products. These woods in 1909 constituted more than 90 per cent of all the hardwoods employed in distillation in the United States. They made up, also, a large but unknown percentage cf the country’s hardwood flooring, material for furniture and agricultural implements, and interior finish for houses. In-a variety of small commodities they hold first place. Though there is a general similarity in the properties and quali- ties of this group of woods, yet each species has its individuality, and in some ways is different from the others, and has different or special uses. 6534°—Bull. 12—13—_1 Le EEE eee 2, - BULLETIN 12, 'U. S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. BEECH. (Fagus atropuniced.) PHYSICAL PROPERTIES.! : Weight of dry wood.—44.71 pounds per cubic foot of dry wood (Sargent). Specific gravity —0.6883 (Sargent). Ash.—0.51 per cent of weight of dry wood (Sargent). Fuel value.—92 per cent that of white oak (Sargent). Breaking strength (modulus of rupture).—16,100 pounds per square inch, or 128 per cent that of white oak (Sargent). Factor of stiffness (modulus of elasticity )—1,697,800 pounds per square inch, or 128 per cent that of white oak (Sargent). Very hard, tough, strong, not durable in contact with the soil; difficult to season; checks in drying; takes beautiful polish; medullary rays broad and very conspicuous; color varies with soil, but is usually dark red; sapwood nearly white. Height, 75 to 100 feet; diameter, 1 to 4 feet. ~ SUPPLY. Only one species of beech (Fagus atropunicea) grows naturally in the United States, but it is known by different names. Red beech and white beech refer, respectively, to the heartwood and sapwood of this tree, the contrast between the two being marked. The name ridge beech should be regarded as local, for the tree is not confined to ridges more than to bottom lands. The tree known as blue beech or water beech belongs to a different genus (Carpinus caroliniana) ; and the purple-leaved, pendulous-branched species frequently seen in parks and cemeteries is not a native of this country, but is the European beech (Fagus sylvatica). _ Few trees in this country have a wider commercial range than beech, and in practically every locality where it grows it is cut for market. It ranges from the Gulf of Mexico into eastern Canada, and is found in most regions east of a line drawn from northern Wis- consin to Trinity River, Texas. In 1909 it was cut for lumber in 29 States, and the total output was 511,240,000 board feet, an increase of nearly 90,000,000 feet since 1907. The total remaining stand in the United States has been roughly estimated at from 17 to 20 bil- lion feet, but from the nature of its distribution anything better than a general approximation is impossible. It occasionally forms pure stands, but it is also widely scattered among other species over an immense region. It was once much more abundant than it now is, for in practically all the forested regions of the eastern half of the United States, where farms have been cleared, beech was destroyed 1 The physical values given for the different woods discussed in this bulletin are largely those of Sargent, and in many cases do not agree with values for similar properties ob- tained in tests by the Forest Service. Since the Forest Service tests are not yet complete, however, Sargent’s data are given in order that a general comparison may be made be- tween the different woods. Engineers and others wishing to obtain accurate values for the mechanical properties will, of course, not use this bulletin for that purpose. USES OF COMMERCIAL WOODS. 3 to make room for crops. It was one of the woods least used by pioneers, and until comparatively recent years little attempt was made to save or utilize it. Though much less abundant than for- merly, the tree is almost as widely distributed. as it ever was. It has not, like shortleaf pine, for example, contracted its limits under the pressure of land clearing and lumber operations. It is a prolific seed bearer, and sprouts vigorously from roots and stumps, character- istics which greatly assist it in holding its ground. The nuts were formerly devoured by countless millions of wild pigeons, and since the annual visits of these migratory birds have ceased the quantity of seed left to germinate is much greater, though it is not possible ‘to determine whether this has resulted in any marked increase in the * number of young beech trees. 2 EARLY USES. Early records in this country do not make frequent mention of the use of beech, though it was abundant nearly everywhere.* The pioneer settlers who fenced their farms with rails had a well-grounded prejudice against beech because it was hard to split and decayed very quickly when exposed to the weather. It was, therefore, generally classed as worthless for fences. The discovery was made, however, that when under water and subjected to friction, as in mills, it lasted longer than almost any other wood. Axles and shafts for water wheels were made of it. It did not decay if sub- merged and the water did not soften the wood where the gudgeons and bearings rubbed on each other. No large quantity was demanded by millwrights, for the mills of those days were small, but the wood filled an important place. Aside from its place in mill wheels the wood had other early uses. In the early glass factories the soldering of handles on carboys, jugs, pitchers, and dishes was performed by aid of a wooden tool, for which beech was the best material because of its freedom from in- jurious acids which would spoil the work. The charcoal burners near old-time iron furnaces were the first to send a beech commodity to market on a somewhat extensive scale. Writing in 1749, Peter Kalm said that, next to black pine (Pinus rigida), the best charcoal for smithing purposes in the vicinity of Albany, N. Y., was made from beech. The wood filled other impor- 1JIn Burope and Asia an earlier record is claimed for beech than for any other wood, even antedating the sycamore and cypress of Egypt. The words “book” and “ beech ” were synonymous in some of the earliest written languages coming into Europe, due to the practice of writing on thin beech strips. ‘The existence of the root of the word in Sarscrit has been taken as strong evidence that the wood was used for writing material in central Asia before the migration of the ancestors of the Germanic and Slavonic races | westward into Europe. .It kas been taken as proof also that the alphabets of northern Europe came across the Caucasus Mountains and not by way of the Meditcrrancan Sea. In beech, therefore, we probably have the oldest existing name of a wood in the world. q 4 BULLETIN 12, U..S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tant places in the primitive blacksmith shop. It is very strong and stiff and was preferred as handles for heavy forge hammers. The wood was frequently demanded in the construction of bellows, an- other indispensable adjunct of the blacksmith shop. Here, too, it was strength and stiffness that gave it a place. The wood is difficult to work in the carpenter shop and is not especially attractive in color or figure, yet it was sometimes selected when a handsome high-grade article was demanded. ‘Among heir- looms, dating from the time of the Dutch settlers in New York, a carved spoon rack cut out of beech has come down to the present time. Doubtless by far the greatest use of beech during the two cen- turies following the earliest settlements on the Atlantic coast was for fuel. It was convenient almost everywhere, and the farmers pro- cured it easily. The large open fireplaces then common consumed enormous quantities of fuel, much of it beech. ARTICLES REQUIRING FREEDOM FROM TASTE. Woods which are free from objectionable taste find place in the manufacture of commodities which come in contact with foodstuffs, and beech has long been one of the chief woods so employed. Buiult- up butchers’ blocks are constructed of beech, though not as many as of maple, and for the same reason meat boards, cutting tables in meat-packing houses, and skewers are made of this wood. Lard tubs, butter boxes and pails, and the beaters for ice-cream freezers are other commodities for which beech serves admirably. For ice- cream beaters the persistent hardness of the wood when subjected to attrition and abrasion while wet gives it peculiar fitness. Sugar hogsheads are made of beech, partly because it is a tasteless wood and partly because it has great strength. It is an excellent material for churns. Refrigerators, kitchen safes, and kitchen tables are made of beech in consideration of its freedom from taste and also because the wood is little affected by water. 1.6 2.1 1.8 1.6 1.4 2.0 ed 1.4 1.3 1.8 1.5 1.3 1.2 1.4 1.2 Tho 1.3 algal - 96 1.2 1.0 88 tal 38) - 82 1.0 8 - 76 -70 . 66 1 From ‘‘Forest Mensuration of White Pine in Massachusetts,’? by Harold O. Cook. The volumes, which were sealed by the Humphrey caliper rule for stacked cordwood, include bark, and are for the por- tion of the tree between a 6-inch stump and a minimum top diameter of 4 inches. TaBLe 29.—Log rule for second-growth white pine.—Southern New Hampshire.’ [Cut into both square and round-edged boards; circular saw, 4-inch kerf.] Length of log (feet). Diameter) ( ae inside bar. number e at small 10 | 12 | 14 of logs end of log. measured). Volume. Inches. Board feet. | Board feet. | Board feet. Logs. hc etstneiete 5 7 9 167 4 patizcios 8 10 12 429 a ue es 13 15 17 530 Gis. 5 hats: ci 18 21 24 606 13:2 ees 24 28 33 613 B35 sRR se 30 36 42 542 94.2 7ee8 38 46 52 456 103.520 oe 47 56 65 395 CP Reese 56 68 80 290 125 eed 66 81 97 248 WS ge sceeece 77 96 115 202 Ces ae 89 112 134 168 (Ge ee 102 130 155 144 RG Ss 2 ee aly. shies 2) bie 149 176 104 1 RES OG ECE: See 169 198 97 THEO a tEsa.- Cee 189 222 64 It esetscalaceo - Sasesee 211 247 40 7 a ey| | ae 235 275 41 PA ape ee (| | gee ae 260 304 17 7p Ab ee AE: ORE 284 333 11 7 ang eee 4 aes eee Re eee ee 364 9 DY Se EAs eno Sees ere arse ese 398 4 Totalaiicts .sceese Gloss race eiee sphere 5,177 1 Prepared by Louis Margolin, Forest Service, in cooperation with the State of New Hampshire. Sixty per cent of the lumber sawed was round-edged and 40 per cent squared; per cent 24-inch plank. 70 per cent 1-inch boards and 30 WHITE PINE UNDER FOREST MANAGEMENT. 69 THICKNESS OF Bark. Table 30 shows the thickness of bark on a radial section for white pine of various diameters in the Southern Appalachians. It also applies very generally throughout the tree’s range. TaBLeE 30.—Thickness of bark—Southern A ppalachians.' Diameter; Thick- || Diameter} Thick- || Diameter) Thick- | Diameter Thick- breast ness of breast ness of breast ness of breast | ness of high. bark. high. bark. high. bark. || high. | bark. | eI E | | Inches. | Inches. Inches. | Inches. Inches. | Inches. || Inches. | Inches. 31 1 ORS 0.14 THES. 1.20 DIG ie: en to) 2.94 3s EE 28 1D ie ae 1.30 Dy ee 2.20 3.04 Si Sak 40 1B Le 1.38 5s ne ee 2898 3.16.°} CERES 52 if aes tee CTE Se 2.36 3.28 Be ae | . 64 15D LES 1.54 ORS} 2. 44 3.40 (eee ai ORG ee 1. 64 DGer eens 2.52 3.50 Hiatal . 86 Lites | saa ltt Piece ee2k60 3.64 Stet 96 1S es estate ORL ye le 2868 3.76 CF eome st 1.02 TOMES | dog Donen: 2.76 3.90 TQuaET 1.10 Doyen bere 2h02 a ae an ORS 4.04 “1 From measurements taken under the direction of F. E. Olmsted. YIELD TABLES. Table 31 shows the average yield per acre of white-pine stands of various ages in the Lake States. The trees were scaled by the Scribner Decimal € rule, and the figures are an average of a large number of acres. The figures are for virgin forest and not for second growth, and for this reason are greatly below the yield given for second-growth white pine in Table 6, page 23. TaBLE 31.— Yield per acre, virgin forest— Minnesota. a | 7 A 2 Yield per | Yield per Yield per es Yield per Age. acre. | Age. acre, | Age. acre. Age. acre. | | Years. Board feet. | Years. Board feet. Years. Board feet. Years. Board feet. 50 8, 000 | 90 23, 500 130 46, 000 170 70,300 60 12, 500 100 28, 000 140 53, 000 180 75,500 7 16, 700 | 110 33, 500 150 59, 300 80 20, 000 ; 120 39, 700 160 65, 000 | 1 Data collected by H. H. Chapman. Computed by Scribner Decimal C rule. Tables 32 and 33 show the yield per acre, in cords, of pure stands of second growth white pine in New England. TaBLE 32.— Yield of fully stocked stands of second-growth white pine in New England. Mer- Mer- Ageof | Average Total chant- Yield Age of | Average Total chant- Yield - trees per able S trees per able stand. height. | acre. trees per per acre. || stand. height. acre. | trees per per acre. acre. acre. | | Years. Feet. Number.| Number. Years Feet Number. | Number Cords 10 5 2, 220 40 54 690 540 38 15 9 1,700 45 62 ie ake) 460 45 20 14 | 1,600 50 68 400 380 53 BASS 22 1,310 55 72 | 300 300 | 65 30 32 1,090 60 76 | 260 260 | 80 35 45 885 | | | i From “The Natural Replacement of White Pine on Old Fields in New England,” by S. N. Spring, Bulletin 63, Forest Service. 70 BULLETIN 138, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 33.— Yield per acre of second-growth white pine in Massachusetts.+ Quality I. Quality II. Quality III. moe | Gubie’l poatas Gupiel momde Cub oards, ubie oards, ubie oards, ubic in board Cords. feet. | in board Cords. feet. | in board Cords. feet. feet. feet. feet. Years 25 10, 825 25.1 | 2,080 6, 750 16.4} 1,300 3,975 10.8 750 30 19, 900 44.0 | 3,750 12,500 31.2 | 2,740 7, 500 18.2 | 1,400 35 31, 150 60.4 | 5,420 24, 400 49.0 | 4,375 16, 950 35.8 | 3,035 40 40, 650 70.6 | 6,590 32, 800 58.0 | 5,300 25, 200 46.2 | 4,080 45 49, 350 78.0 | 7,420 40, 600 64.8 | 6,075 32, 100 51.8 | 4,785 , 50 55,150 84.2 | 8,035 46, 500 70.0 | 6,725 37, 550 56.6 | 5,475 55 59, 650 89.2 | 8,575 50, 550 74.8 | 7,200 42,100 60. 8°| 6,015 60 63,600 | 93.4] 9,075 | 53,200| 79.2| 7,655 | 44,550] 64.6 | 6,340 65 67,050 | 97.2 | 9,550] 56,600 | 83.0] 8,050] 46,150 | 68.4 | 6,550 1 From “Forest Mensuration of the White Pine in Massachusetts,” by Harold O. Cook. Based on measurements of 177 sample plots, one-quarter and one-eighth acre in size, in stands of different ages and qualities. Yields scaled by the use of volume tables 24, 26, and 27. RELATION oF TAXES AND OTHER Costs TO THE STUMPAGE VALUE AND THEIR EFFECT UPON LENGTH or Rotation. Table 34, which is based on the stumpage prices in Table 11 and the cost data in Tables 12 and 13, gives the proportion of the taxes and other expenses to the stumpage value, and shows how the expenses, distance of haul, interest rate, and site quality affect the length of the financial rotation. TABLE 34.—Tazes and other expenses in per cent of the stumpage value, where distance from stand to local market permits a daily haul of 1,000 and 3,000 board feet of lumber per team. (See p. 31.) | Daily haul per team=1,000 Daily haul per team=3,000 | board feet. board feet. Tee est | Age. | Quality. Other expenses when Other expenses when. | HERS cost of formation is— cost of formation is— Taxes. Taxes. | $0 $6 $12 $0 $6 $12 Years. Per ct. | Per ct..| Per ct..| Per ct. | Per ct.\| Per ct.| Per ct. | Per ct. f I 20.0 iris, i 36.2 55. 4 26.7 9.9 20.9 | 31.9 | 50 II 23.4 23.9 50. 7 77.4 24.0 13.6 28.7 | 43.9 | 4 ne | Tit 22.2 37.8 80.0 | 122:2 Ne 2 21.1 44.6 | 68.2 fp Yas es ee T} 69:3 |} 9 2652)|) 5352 |) JS0510) = A740 eels siese eeAREO 70 II 63.5 33), 7 68.2 | 102.7 66.1 19.9 40.4 |} 60.8 | III 55. 4 45.5 92.3 | 139.0 55.9 26. 7 54.1 | 81.5 | { I 34.0 45.6} 95.1 144.7 34.5 26.3 54.9 | 83.5 | 50 II 32.2 63. 7 133.0 | 202.3 31.3 36. 1 75.4 } 114.6 | 6 t | III 33-6 | 100.6} 210.0} 319.5 29.1 56. 1 117.2 | 178.3 ad aes { T|- 110.3 | 97.6] 199.8] 301.9] 116.4] 58.5] 119.6 | 180.8 | 70 II LOU Si |Z bsnl ee Oars tees (eo 102.9 74.1 151.7 |/229.3 | Til 91.6 169. 4 346. 6 523.9 87.4 99.4 | 203.3 | 307.2 eR et COPIES of this publication may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C., at 15 cents per copy BULLETIN OF THE by USoDeTNT OAC No. 14 Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief. February 28, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) THE MIGRATORY HABIT OF HOUSEFLY LARV4 AS INDICAT- ING A FAVORABLE REMEDIAL MEASURE. AN ACCOUNT OF PROGRESS. By Roserr H, Hurcuison, Scientific Assistant. INTRODUCTION. In the proceedings of the third meeting of the General Malarial Committee held at Madras in November, 1912, there is given a summary of a paper on “Insect Psychology” by Prof. L. M. Howlett. From his experiments with fruit flies, the stable fly, and mosquitoes he comes to the conclusion that “we must regard insects not as intelligent beings consciously shaping a path through life, but as being in a sort of active hypnotic trance.’’ Also, that ‘once we discover the stimuli or particular conditions which determine a mosquito’s actions we hold the key to the position, since we can then apply our knowledge to the mosquito’s undoing.’’ The second statement might have been made as general and inclusive as the first. One often hears expressed a general proposition to the effect that the problem of the control of any insect is very largely a prob- lem of its behavior. If its habits are known, some means of control are usually not far to seek. Thus in the warfare against the common housefly there are two important lines of attack based on a knowledge of the habits of the adults. In the first place, advantage is taken of their feeding and drinking habits in the use of such things as sour milk, formalin and milk, beer and sugar, the fly poisons, etc., as bait for traps or as poisons. Secondly, a knowledge of the egg- laying habits of the female leads to the use of covered fly-tight receptacles for manure, garbage, or other fermenting material. Both of these methods are based on a knowledge of the habits of the adults. The question now presents itself, Is there any phase of the behavior of the larve which may afford a line of attack? Do they have any characteristic habit of which advantage may be taken in attempts to destroy them ? 26069°—14 2 BULLETIN 14, U. S.. DEPARTMENT, OF AGRICULTURE. THE MIGRATORY HABIT One need make only a few observations on the behavior of housefly larvee to discover an excellent example of what Prof. Howlett calls “a sort of active hypnotic trance.”’ This is to be found in the migratory habit which is so much in evidence during the prepupal stage. The habit has long been known and repeatedly mentioned in the literature. Thus Newstead (1907)! found that ‘deep’ down at the sides, in the cooler portions of the receptacles, the pupa or chrysalis stage occurred in enormous numbers, looking like small heaps. or collections of reddish berries.’’ Griffith (1908) found that ‘the larvze remained in the: hottest part of the heap, but the pup were all found near the surface where it was cooler.” Jepson (1909), in certain rearing experiments in which moist bread was used as food, found that “the larve rarely left their feeding ground till fully fed, when they left the moist mass of bread for the surrounding dry area and there pupated.”’ Herms (1911) states that “the growing stage requires from four to six days, after which the maggots often crawl away from their breeding places, many of them burrowing into the loose ground just beneath the manure pile, or crawling under boards or stones or into dry manure collected under platforms or the like. * * * The larve often pass three or four days in the prepupal or migrated stage before actually pupating.”’ R. I. Smith (1911) says ‘it was very apparent that the maggots which swarmed through the manure were inclined to congregate in certain corners or crevices and pupate ina mass. * * * Scat- tered pupz were discovered around the edges of the piles of cow manure and even in the soil underneath where the maggots had burrowed before pupating.”’ Hewitt (1912) states that “‘when full grown the mature larva usually leaves the moist situation in which it has developed for one of a drier nature, often crawling for several yards in search of some dry and sheltered crevice. Here it rests for a short time preparatory to changing into the pupal stage.” . If any further evidence were needed to demonstrate such an habitual mode of action I might mention the following observations: During the past few months it has been my duty to assist in carrying out an extensive series of experiments in testing the value of various chemicals in treating manure with a view to the destruction of the larve present. The manure is placed in large cages and the chem- ical to be tested is sprinkled over it. The bottom of the cages con- sists of a galvanized iron pan with sides 1 foot high. In the floor of the pan are nine small holes. The sides of the cages above the 1 Numbers in parentheses refer to dates in the bibliography, p. 11. . THE MIGRATORY HABIT OF HOUSEFLY LARVA, 3 pan are of two layers of screen wire 2 inches apart. Now it was found in the very first experiments that larvae were escaping from the cages, and it was seen that they found their way put through the holes in the floor of the cages and also through the screens at the sides. The numbers so escaping were surprising. It often happened that several hundred crawled out of the cage during 24 hours. They were found in the vessels placed beneath the cages to catch any drippings. By day the light was sufficient stimulus to prevent them from crawling out at the sides, but at night they were actually seen, with the aid of a flash light, making their way through both thicknesses of screen wire and dropping into the vessel below. Moreover, in examining manure heaps on, the open ground I have many records showing this ‘‘tendency to congregate” at the edges of the piles near the ground. About two cartloads of horse manure had been piled out on the open ground for five or six days during August, and at the end of this time 1t was hauled away. I examined the ground where the heap had been and found many pupe, not in the center of the area formerly covered by the heap, but around the margin. Some were found on the surface, doubtless shaken out of the manure at the time of removal; others were found buried a half inch or more in the soil, where the larve had burrowed just previous to pupation. In another case some 50 cubic feet of manure had been heaped up in a pile the base of which covered an area about 4 feet square. After the pile had stood three days larve were found swarming in the warm, moist parts of the heap near the top and some distance in from the sides. After eight days the entire pile was torn apart and gone over carefully in search of pup. None was to be found in the upper parts of the heap where I had previously seen great numbers of larve. In fact none was found until the very lowest layers were exposed. Here about 9,000 were collected. Not more than 100 were found below the soil. The mass of pupz were scattered in little heaps about the margin. They were just outside the moist area of the manure, yet sufficiently protected from drying and sunlight by the overhanging straw. The explanation of their presence in such a position is, of course, that the larve, just before pupating, had migrated from the moist feeding grounds to a drier region more favorable to the resting stage. The examination of many other piles of manure showed the very same conditions existing, the only difference being in the number of pupz collected. Altogether some 50 or more heaps of manure on open ground have been examined. Each one contained from 40 to 50 cubic feet of manure. Some contained much long straw, others very little straw or bedding of any kind.. The puparia are not hard to find nor hard to collect because of their occurrence in masses at the 4 BULLETIN 14, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. edges of piles. Here are some of the figures obtained from a count of the pupz collected from different piles: 7,000, 1,500, 10,000, over 12,000, 4,500, 6,000, 6,700, 30,000, etc. In a recent nrnele in the NSeac ar Journal of Public Health, aig and Tuck make the following statement: ‘‘ We therefore announce the biological fact that the house fly does not pupate in manure if the full-grown larve can find any means of reaching and entering the earth.’ They claim that “the adult larve regularly leave the manure heap” and that they “enter the earth whenever it is possible for them:‘to do so.”’ To be sure, larve may and often do burrow into the ground before pupating—witness Dr. Terry’s observations at: Jack- sonville, Fla., where he found larve and pupe in the ground of soil- floor stables—but that they do so regularly is open to serious question. The figures given above are for puparia collected above the surface of the ground and in the manure. After the removal of the heaps, examination of the ground revealed only a very small percentage beneath the surface. The fact that some were found there shows that it was not the compact nature of the soil which prevented the majority from burrowing and that there was no reason why all could not have done so if such were their regular habit. It would seem that Levy and Tuck have put too much emphasis on this one point. A broader view, including all the phases of the migration of these creatures, is necessary and will not detract from the importance or value of the “‘maggot trap”’ which they have devised. It is quite certain that the migrating habit is deeply ingrained and. highly characteristic of housefly larve. A consideration of the known facts in the case will enable one to draw some inferences as to “‘the | stimuli or particular conditions” which determine this mode of action. It has been noted that a sort of “‘wanderlust” seizes the larvee just before pupation. It must be, therefore, that the migration is initiated in response to internal stimuli incident to the maturing of the larval stage and the onset of the metabolic changes preparatory to the transformation to the pupal stage. The course and direction of their travels are determined largely by external stimuli. It is quite evident that as pupation draws near they flee the very moist regions of a manure heap and seek the comparatively dry regions. Ifnosuch dry places are to be found in the manure, they will leave it to pupate in the ground or in cracks or crevices, under boards or stones, in loose material of any kind. Dr. Terry found both larve and pupe in the soil of dirt-floor stalls. The larvz were found in that part of the floor kept moist by the urine, while the pupez were found in a ring in the drier soil outside the moist center. Further proof that moisture acts as a stimulus in determining nos choice of a place for pupation is given below. THE MIGKATORY HABIT OF HOUSEFLY LARVA. D, It is well known that they avoid light, and the rapidity with which they disappear from view when exposed to light through the disturb- ing of their feeding grounds is a familiar sight. The observation mentioned in which larve were seen crawling out through the screened sides of cages at night, but never during the day, is a case in point. They avoid the extremely hot portions of manure heaps. Ther- mometers inserted from 6 to 12 inches toward the center of a heap will register anywhere from 110° F. to 170° F., which, of course, would be fatal. The hotter the pile the nearer the surface are the larve to be found. They also avoid the moldy parts of the heap. They seek, as it were, the safety of the middle region between the heat and mold of the center and the exposure to sunlight and dryness of the exterior. Doubtless other conditions also have an influence in determining their actions. -The habit of seeking the comparatively dry regions near the edge of manure heaps at the time of pupation is an adaptation of great advantage in that the adult fly at the time of emergence is thus afforded an easy path to freedom. It prevents the drowning of the imagines and insures the quickest possible expansion and drying of the wings. At least this is the teleological explanation. Yet it can not be claimed that these are intelligent acts, nor that the future is consciously provided for. We have here indeed a “battalion of somnambulists’”’ acting in blind response to various internal and external stimuli. THE BEARING OF THE MIGRATORY HABIT ON THE PROBLEM OF CONTROL. So far as I have been able to determine, Levy and Tuck were the first to take advantage of the migratory habit in an attempt to destroy the maggots. In their paper published in July, 1913, they report two experiments. In the first they placed manure in a barrel in the bottom of which several holes had been bored, with the result that on the following day thousands of maggots were found in the tub placed beneath, and the number seemed to increase for three days. In a second experiment the bottom of the barrel was replaced by stout wire gauze. The results of this trial are not given. It was not until the beginning of November that I learned of their work, and it was near the end of the month before I had an oppor- tunity of reading the article. I had already carried out two experi- ments during the summer at Arlington, Va., and others during the fall at Audubon Park, New Orleans, La. The possibility of taking advantage of the migrating habit was suggested to me by experience with larve escaping from cages used in other experiments. The results of the experiments were beyond my best expectations, and 6 BULLETIN 14, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in the hope that they may be of some interest to others they are here reported in some detail. A large galvanized iron pan, measuring 5 by 3 feet, with sides 4 inches high, was made. In this stood a container on legs 8 inches high. This container measured 4 by 2 by 2 feet. The sides and bot- tom were of heavy wire, j-inch mesh, supported by a light wooden framework. Twelve cubic feet of manure well infested with eggs and larvee were placed in this container and sprinkled with water. Water was also poured into the pan below to the depth of about 1 inch. Surrounding and covering both pan and container was a fly-tight inclosure made of a large cage, 6 by 6 by 6 feet. This prevented further infestation of the manure, and an arrangement of traps at the top of the cage made it possible to capture and keep a record of any flies that might emerge. At the time for the emergence of flies the sides of the cage were darkened with black cloth in order to drive the flies into the traps at the top. Each day the larve were collected from the pan and counted, and each day the manure in the container was sprinkled thoroughly with water and the pan was washed out and again partly filled with water to drown the larve which fell into it. The records of Experiment No. 1 are summed up briefly in Table I. TaBLE 1.— Migratory habit of housefly larve; Experiment No. 1. Larve . Larvee Date. collected ees nor Date. collected | Flies from from pan. Bes: from pan. AS 1913 1913 Aug. 27 BAY) Mal leEne sedoeoee Sept. 6 0 88 28 AAS Se Ne ssieteereats ¢ ea see Be es oF 102 29 L550 ye IGE eS ep ee Sale ia See 23 30 W1ONOOO™ Ween ose Oi 5.5 cca oars 19 31 285000) |e cee eres oe NO aabeeenendos 9 Sept. 1 PES) ae ee oc eaG Tole eet eneese 5 2 670 3 SN Re Ae & BE Se 6 3 263 18 4 (2) 8 23, 999 303 5 304 22 1 Approximate. 2 Collected on following day. A few flies at the time of emergence fell into the water of the pan and were drowned. Allowing for these and for the few which may have escaped from the cage during the opening and shutting of the door, the total number of flies may be placed at 350. It will be seen from these figures that out of a possible total of 24,350 24,000, or a little more than 98 per cent, were destroyed Paconed the catching of the larve in the manner eecribem A second experiment was started on September 16. The manure used was from the same source as in the first experiment and con- tained practically the same proportion of straw. The same amount was used, viz, 12 cubic feet. The only respect in which this experi- 7 THE MIGRATORY HABIT OF HOUSEFLY LARVA. ment differed from the first was in the fact that the manure in the container was not sprinkled with water at any time, except for a light shower on September 19 and another on September 22. Much of this rainfall failed to reach the manure in the container because of the covering of the cage. A comparison of the results of this experi- ment with those of the first indicate the importance of moisture as a stimulus. Taste II.—WMigratory habit of housefly larve; Experiment No. 2. Larvee Flies Larve Flies Date. collected caught Date. collected caught from pan. | in traps. from pan. | in traps. 1913 1913 Sept. 17 ay s|lheaaie eae SHV, FD ocdaecascenc 64 18 WQS ees the Se Ci le eae et 80 19 VG S8wiltessceheesc ce 2a ian eee ere 125 21 ROA le career ert. Qilvsee sees 52 22 DA hors S Go OEE Ses ge SPSS Be 78 23 a terse sete cs 65 Peeee sce ccs 84 24 OUp eee (| Se Ee seni 44 Pj e mare ieee 43 Ou Ete esc aeos 22 PAS ee ee eres 43 S22 ao ool 33 1,671 668 Allowing for the few larve and adults which may have escaped, the totals may be given in round numbers as 1,700 larve and 700 adults. Thus from a possible total of 2,400, 1,700, or about 71 per cent, were destroyed. In passing it is unnecessary to point out that here 700 flies did pupate in the manure in spite of the fact that they had every opportunity to leave it. With the approach of cold weather the work against the housefly was transferred to the experiment station at Audubon Park, New Orleans, La. Some other experiments of a similar nature were car- ried out here with smaller contaimers and cages. The strong wire baskets of the kind commonly seen in markets and stores for the display of fruits and vegetables made first-rate “maggot traps.” The baskets used were 16 inches in diameter and 16 inches high and stood on legs 9 inches high. eR See 2 1 2 a) a ae 29) Ale Be Ne 2 17 PCCD | ee a a DOC. AAP NE eae eee 2 18 IY ae ee 2 ii eee ee eee 8 19 AQ ieee ee Eid EN eee en 5 20 (4) 7 Ah Mae eee 6 21 12 0 Eye | ao 15 22 0 0 in om es cea al 10 23 0 0 (AM Smear ets 3 24 0 0 | 25 0 4 6, 710 69 77, 1u| eters les 2 e | 2 1 Collected on following date. Out of a possible total of 6,779 there were destroyed 6,710 larve, that is to say, about 99 per cent were destroyed before they reached the pupal stage. The percentages obtained in these experiments clearly demonstrate the habitual nature of the migration. They also demonstrate the efficiency of the maggot trap which is designed to take advantage of this mode of action. The question immediately arises whether the trap which appears so successful in an experimental way on a small scale can be adapted to the handling of manure im a practical way and onalargescale. Every consideration points to the probability that it can and that it will afford “an additional weapon of great value.” However, the final verdict as to the value of the maggot trap must wait upon the solution of certain practical problems. To point out some of these here is to suggest lines for further investigation. 3 (1) In the first place, there must be determined what form, size, and construction of trap will give the best results. The answer to this will depend largely on the particular conditions obtaining at any given stable, such as the amount of manure produced daily, the arrangements for drainage, etc. It will also depend on the answer to the following problems: ; (2) How deeply may manure be heaped in a trap without inter- fering with the migration? It will probably be found that the depth will make little difference, provided that the manure is kept moist, and provided that avenues of escape are afforded at the sides as well as atthe bottom. The importance of providing a way of escape at the sides was not taken into consideration by Levy and Tuck in their preliminary experiments. (3) How long must manure be kept in a maggot trap before it is entirely free from larve? This is a very important question from a practical standpoint, and one will find scant suggestion as to the answer in the literature on the life history and habits. The housefly THE MIGRATORY HABIT OF HOUSEFLY LARVA, 9 breeds preferably in horse manure, but it has never been determined just how long a given lot of manure continues to be an attractive place for egg laying, nor for how long a period fly larve will continue to appear init. It is obvious that the maggot trap would not be prac- tical if the infestation of the manure were daily renewed for a long time. Under ordinary conditions the dryingeof the surface of a heap of manure probably limits the period of egg laying to the first day or two of exposure. But in a maggot trap the manure must be kept wet in order to insure the greatest amount of migration. Would notsucha moist surface be daily reinfested and maggots continue to appear in the manure as long as any fermentation were in progress? As a matter of fact, the period of infestation appears to be rather short, and even under the most favorable conditions maggots will rarely be found in a given lot of manure after 10 or 12 days’ exposure. In support of this claim some experimental data may be given here. A fourth experiment was carried out in the same manner as exper- iment No. 3, except that no cage was used to cover the trap at any time. The manure in the basket was thus continuously exposed to flies and the surface was kept moist by daily sprinkling. The larve were removed from the pan each day and counted and the pan was again partly filled with water. The manure used was taken from stables on November 12 and the experiment started on the same date. Larve began to appear in the pan on November 13 and continued daily to the 24th, as shown in Table IV. TasBLeE 1V.— Migratory habit of housefly larvxe; Experiment No. 4. Larvee Larvee Date caught. Date caught. Nov. 13 14 || Nov. 20 1,040 14 2, 230 21 560 15 16,000 22 465 17 15,000 23 140 18 2,530 24 36 19 2,070 1 Approximate. The manure contained little straw or other bedding and was very attractive to the flies as evidenced by the heavy infestation (about 20,000 from a little more than a bushel of manure). Yet no larve were to be found in the manure after 12 days. Examination of heaps of manure on open ground has shown in many cases that at the end of eight days only pups were to be found in the manure. Even in cases where the manure was especially attractive to the flies, by reason of active fermentation and the absence of straw, all were found to have reached the pupal stage by the tenth day. Any device for applying the principle of the maggot trap on a large scale must take this time factor into consideration. ~ 10 BULLETIN 14, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (4) The disposal of the maggots is another practical consideration. If the larve were allowed to drop to the ground they would burrow into it to pupate there and nothing would be gained. It would be necessary to have some sort of vessel, e. g., a concrete basin, beneath the trap. This should have vertical sides and contain an inch or more of a weak disinfectant or of water covered with a film of oil. If such a basin were connected with a sewer or cesspool the maggots collecting in it could be flushed out each week without the necessity of handling them in any way and without any offensive decomposi- tion.. That the maggot trap possesses certain advantages is obvious and ought to lead to many attempts to develop it along practical lines. Cheapness would be one of its strong points. Practically the only cost would be the initial one for the construction of the trap and of a basin or receptacle for catching and disposing of the maggots. Very little additional time or labor would be required in operating it. The sprinkling of the manure would be a very small part of the daily routine of removing the manure from the stables. Proper arrangements for the disposal of the maggots would require oa a few minutes’ attention at long intervals. Incidentally it may be noted that the maggot trap offers a conven- ient and easy means to the investigator or teacher who wishes to collect coprophagous larve in large numbers. In the experiments just reported the larvee of Musca domestica L. were the most numer- ous, but in addition there were also collected larvee of Stomozys calcitrans L., of Homalomyia, of certain Sarcophagide, and doubtless of others. The total numbers collected were so large that no attempt was made to determine the relative abundance of the various forms. SUMMARY. Observations and experiments show that the migratory habit is deeply ingrained and highly characteristic of housefly larvee. The migratory habit appears in the prepupal stage in response to various internal and external stimuli. Of the external stimuli, moisture is perhaps the most important in determining the direction of their travels and the choice ef a place for pupation. The migratory habit is an adaptation of great advantage in that it insures to the issuing adult the easiest and quickest escape. This deep-seated habit offers an important point of attack in the attempts to control the pest. Experiments with maggot traps show that 98 or 99 per cent of the total number of larve can be made to leave the manure, provided it is kept moist. Even from comparatively dry manure as many as 70 per cent can be destroyed. THE MIGRATORY HABIT OF HOUSEFLY LARV2. 11 The development of the maggot trap into an efficient weapon in the warfare against the housefly involves the working out of certain practical points, viz, the size and structure of the trap, the time nec- essary to keep the manure in the trap to rid it of maggots, the disposal of the larve, etc. REFERENCES TO LITERATURE. Grirrivn, A. 1908. The life history of house-flies. Pub. Health, London, v. 21, p. 122-127, May. Heros, W.B. 1911. The house fly in its relation to public health. Univ. Cal. Col. Aer. Exp. Sta., Bul. 215, p. 513-548, 15 figs., May. Hewirr, ©. G. 1912. House-flies and How They Spread Disease. Cambridge. 122 p., illus. (Cambridge manuals of science and literature.) Howtetr, L. M. 1913. Insect psychology. Proc. Third Meeting of the General Malaria Committee held at Madras Nov. 18, 19, and 20, 1912. Simla, p. 32-33. Summary of paper read at this meeting. Jepson, J. P. 1909. Some observations on the breeding of Musca domestica during the winter months. Rpts. to the Local Govt. Bd. [Gt. Brit.] on Pub. Health and Med. Subjects, n. s. no. 5, p. 5-8. Levy, E.C., and Tucx, W.T. 1913. The maggot trap—a new weapon in our warfare against the typhoid fly. Amer. Jour. Pub. Health, v. 3, no. 7, p. 657-660, illus., duly. NewstgeapD, Rosert. 1908. On the habits, life-cycle and breeding places of the common house-fly (Musca domestica, Linn.). Ann. Trop. Med., Liverpool, v. 1, no. 4, p. 507-520, pl. 44-49, Feb. 29. Reprinted from Preliminary report issued by the Health Committee of the City of Liverpool, Oct. 3, 1907. Smira, R. 1. 1912. The house fly (Musca domestica), No. Oar. Agr. Exp. Sta., Col. Agr. & Mech. Arts., Ann. Rpt. 34, p. 62-69, figs. 13-14. Terry, C. EH. 1912. Extermination of the housefly in cities; its necessity and possibility. Amer. Jour. Pub. Health, v. 2, p. 14-22, Jan. @) i BULB E TINY OF THT Be) USDEPARTMENTOPACRICLTRE Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief. October 16, 1913. A SEALED PAPER CARTON TO PROTECT CEREALS FROM INSECT ATTACK. By Wititam B. Parxer, Entomological Assistant. = ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF'THE PROBLEM. During an investigation of the insects attacking dried fruits at Sacramento, Cal., during 1912, the infested condition of packed cereals was brought to the writer’s attention. The economic impor- tance of these infestations is greater than at first appears. The pur- chaser usually returns infested packages to the grocer. The grocer returns them to the mill where they were prepared. The mill screens the cereal and sells it as feed. Thus the condition of the cereal itself is the cause of a disagreeable feeling on the part of the consumer and occasions a loss of time to the grocer and a considerable loss finan- cially to the miller. Besides this intrinsic loss, the consumer may demand of the grocer another ‘‘brand”’ in the hope of finding a cereal which is not infested by insects, or, by jumping to the sudden conclusion that all cereals are infested during the summer, may forego the use of breakfast foods for a time. The exact financial loss due to these conditions can not be accurately determined, but extensive observations lead ‘to the belief that it is much greater than most millers suppose. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. Examinations of infested packages taken in grocery stores, ware- houses, and mills showed that the majority of infestations com- menced at the ends of these packages, or where a small hole had been broken in the edge, due to rough handling. The cereal in these pack- ages was sterilized prior to being packed, so that the insects which caused the infestation must have deposited their eggs after, or shortly before, the cereal was packed. The presence of the confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum Duv.) inside of the ends and the presence 6802°—13 2 BULLETIN 15, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of small openings at the corners of many packages led to the con- clusion that if cereals were run directly from the sterilizer into cartons, which in turn were properly sealed, infestation would not in most cases take place. This theory was strengthened by statements from grocers to the effect that certain packages which were carefully sealed were not re- turned to them be- cause of the presence of insects. x KT pha) hs j 4 ‘ —£: INSECTS CON- CERNED. Fig. 1.—The Indian-meal moth (Plodia interpwnctella): a, Moth; b, pupa; c, larva; f, same, dorsal view; d, head, and e, first abdominal There are several segment of larva. {, Somewhat enlarged; d, e, more enlarged. insects which attack (After Chittenden.) stored cereal prod- ucts. Among the more important are the Indian-meal moth (Plodia interpunctella Hitbn.) (fig. 1), the Mediterranean flour moth (Hphestia kuehniella Zell.) (fig. 2), the meal snout-moth (Pyralis farinalis L.), the saw-toothed grain beetle (Silvanus surinamensis L.), the confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum Duv.) (fig. 3), the granary weevil (Calandra granaria 1..), and the rice weevil (Calandra oryza I..). These are the principal insects which are likely toinfest packed cereals. There is an errone- ous opinion with some people that the cereals become infested by Fig. 2.—The Mediterranean flour moth ( Ephestia kuehniella): a, Moth; spontaneous genera- b, same from side, resting; c, larva; d, pupa; e, abdominal segments . : of larva. a-d, Enlarged; e, more enlarged. (After Chittenden. ) tion. This, however, is impossible; and when any insects are found in packages it is because the eggs, larve, or adults have gained access to the cereal after it has been sterilized. EXPERIMENTS IN CALIFORNIA. Using the foregoing observations as a basis, the following experi- ments were conducted, the idea being to test the efficiency of a cheap sealed carton. A cereal was sterilized to such an extent that when it was placed in a package the temperature developed was 180° F. The packages themselves were sterilized before being filled, but had there been any A SEALED PAPER CARTON TO PROTECT CEREALS. 3 insects or eggs in them the heat from the cereal would undoubtedly have killed them. When the ends of the packages were being fastened, the glue was not placed near the corners, so that if it were possible to leave an opening there by accident, the opening would be left in this experiment. All of the packages were regularly closed by gluing the ends, but some of them were covered by a piece of label paper (fig. 7) so that there were no openings where an insect could enter without piercing the label. Some of the labels were put on with glue and some with flour paste. Highteen of these packages, nine labeled and nine not labeled, were distributed in two wooden boxes. Between them flour and meal that Fig. 3.—The confused flour beetle ( Triboliwm confusum): a, Beetle; b, larva; c, pupa; d, lateral lobe of abdomen of pupa; e, head of beetle, showing antenna; f, same of 7’. ferrugineum. a-c, Much enlarged; d-f,more enlarged. (After Chittenden.) were badly infested by the confused flour beetle, the saw-toothed grain beetle, and the Mediterranean flour moth were packed. This infestation of the boxes was very carefully done, and when the experi- ment was observed on November 10, 1912, the outsides of all of the packages were literally alive with insects. The condition of the con- tents of eight of them is recorded in Table I. TaBLE 1.—Recorded conditions of infestation or noninfestation found in packages of cereal opened Nov. 10, 1912. No. of pack- Not labeled. Label pasted. Label glued. age. No infestation. Do. A similar observation was made on January 24, 1913, the results of which are shown in Table II. . 4 BULLETIN 15, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe II.—Conditions of infestation or noninfestation of 10 packages of cereal left until Jan. 24, 1918. pack- Not labeled. Label pasted. Label glued. No infestation. Do. Do. The results of this experiment seem very conclusive. Figure 4 shows therelative infestation on the outside and inside of the labeled and nonlabeled packages. These packages were all placed under the same conditions and given every chance to become infested. The thorough infesta- tion of nonlabeled pack- ages and the absence of infestation in the labeled packages clearly indicate the efficiency of the label in preventing the insects from entering the cartons. These experiments do not prove that insects are in- Fic. 4.—Results of experiments with cartons. The one on capable of boring into the the left shows severe infestation; the one on the right had . : a thin label pasted on the outside and is not infested. The carton, thus infesting the webs and adults of the infesting insects are shown on the cereal but they do prove outside of both cartons. (Original.) ff ‘ es that when placed in regions of severe infestation the ordinary paper carton will become infested while the sealed carton will not. WHERE INFESTATION TAKES PLACE. In the process of sterilization the cereal is heated to a sufficiently high temperature to cause the death of all insect life, but folowing this process there are several ways in which it may become infested. While on an elevator (see fig. 5) the cereal may be infested by eggs, larvee, or adults of the several insects dropping or crawling into it. Warehouses are usually more or less infested by insects which crawl around on the packages. The grocer’s storeroom and shelves are also ee eT Ne OR YT Es be.) USDEPARINENT OPAQRICULIURE No. 15 (A= ; WH Cony / Y A Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief. October 16, 1913. A SEALED PAPER CARTON TO PROTECT CEREALS FROM INSECT ATTACK. By Witi1am B. Parker, Entomological Assistant. ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF THE PROBLEM. During an investigation of the insects attacking dried fruits at Sacramento, Cal., during 1912, the infested condition of packed cereals was brought to the writer’s attention. The economic impor- tance of these infestations is greater than at first appears. The pur- chaser usually returns infested packages to the grocer. The grocer returns them to the mill where they were prepared. The mill screens the cereal and sells it as feed. Thus the condition of the cereal itself is the cause of a disagreeable feeling on the part of the consumer and occasions a loss of time to the grocer and a considerable loss finan- cially to the miller. Besides this intrinsic loss, the consumer may demand of the grocer another ‘‘brand”’ in the hope of finding a cereal which is not infested by insects, or, by jumping to the sudden conclusion that all cereals are infested during the summer, may forego the use of breakfast foods for a time. The exact financial loss due to these conditions can not be accurately determined, but extensive observations lead to the belief that it is much greater than most millers suppose. PRELIMINARY OBSERVATIONS. Examinations of infested packages taken in grocery stores, ware- houses, and mills showed that the majority of infestations com- menced at the ends of these packages, or where a small hole had been broken in the edge, due to rough handling. The cereal in these pack- ages was sterilized prior to being packed, so that the insects which caused the infestation must have deposited their eggs after, or shortly before, the cereal was packed. The presence of the confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum Duv.) inside of the ends and the presence 6802°—13 2 BULLETIN 15, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of small openings at the corners of many packages led to the con- clusion that if cereals were run directly from the sterilizer into cartons, which in turn were properly sealed, infestation would not in most cases take place. This theory was strengthened by statements from grocers to the effect that certain packages which were carefully sealed were not re- turned to them be- cause of the presence of insects. INSECTS CON- CERNED. Fig. 1.—The Indian-meal moth (Plodia interpunctella): a, Moth; 6, pupa; c, larva; f, same, dorsal view; d, head, and e, first abdominal There are several segment of larva. f, Somewhat enlarged; d, e, more enlarged. insects which attack (After Chittenden.) stored cereal prod- ucts. Among the more important are the Indian-meal moth (Plodia interpunctella Hiitbn.) (fig. 1), the Mediterranean flour moth (Hphesiia kuehniella Zell.) (fig. 2), the meal snout-moth (Pyralis farinalis L.), the saw-toothed grain beetle (Silvanus surinamensis L.), the confused flour beetle (Tribolium confusum Duv.) (fig. 3), the granary weevil (Calandra granaria L.), and the rice weevil (Calandra oryza I..). These are the principal insects which are likely toinfest packed cereals. There is an errone- ous opinion with some people that the cereals become infested by Fig. 2.—The Mediterranean flour moth ( Ephestia kwehniella): a, Moth; spontaneous genera- b, same from side, resting; c, larva; d, pupa; e, abdominal segments ° : oflarva. a-d, Enlarged; ec, more enlarged, (After Chittenden. ) tion. This, however, 7 | is impossible; and when any insects are found in packages it is because the eggs, larve, or adults have gained access to the cereal after it has been sterilized. EXPERIMENTS IN CALIFORNIA. Using the foregoing observations as a basis, the following experi- ments were conducted, the idea being to test the efficiency of a cheap: sealed carton. A cereal was sterilized to such an extent that when it was placed in a package the temperature developed was 180° F. The packages themselves were sterilized before being filled, but had there been any A SEALED PAPER CARTON TO PROTECT CEREALS. 3 insects or eggs in them the heat from the cereal would undoubtedly have killed them. When the ends of the packages were being fastened, the glue was not placed near the corners, so that if it were possible to leave an opening there by accident, the opening would be left in this experiment. All of the packages were regularly closed by gluing the ends, but some of them were covered by a piece of label paper (fig. 7) so that there were no openings where an insect could enter without piercing the label. Some of the labels were put on with glue and some with flour paste. Kighteen of these packages, nine labeled and nine not labeled, were distributed in two wooden boxes. Between them flour and meal that Fig. 3.—The confused flour beetle ( Tribolium confusum): a, Beetle; b, larva; c, pupa; d, lateral lobe of abdomen of pupa; ¢, head of beetle, showing antenna; f, same of 7’. ferruginewm. a-c, Much enlarged; d-f, more enlarged. (After Chittenden.) were badly infested by the confused flour beetle, the saw-toothed grain beetle, and the Mediterranean flour moth were packed. This infestation of the boxes was very carefully done, and when the experl- ment was observed on November 10, 1912, the outsides of all of the packages were literally alive with insects. The condition of the con- tents of eight of them is recorded in Table I. TaBLE I.—Recorded conditions of infestation or noninfestation found in packages of cereal opened Nov. 10, 1912. No. of pack- Not labeled. Label pasted. Label glued. age. 1 iniested, containineiwebiand!adultsee- -eeeeesese nee ae aes mntiairan eta eh oue OMe a te ares eeys ems a ens «2 See eee mee aise kmmcwepek acoueseese No infestation. Do. A similar observation was made on January 24, 1913, the results of which are shown in Table II. 4 BULLETIN 15, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TaBLE II.—Conditions of infestation or noninfestation of 10 packages of cereal left until Jan. 24, 1918. pack- Not labeled. Label pasted. Label glued. -| No infestation. Do Do. The results of this experiment seem very conclusive. Figure 4 shows therelative infestation on the outside and inside of the labeled and nonlabeled packages. These packages were all placed under the same conditions and given every chance to become infested. The thorough infesta- tion of nonlabeled pack- ages and the absence of infestation in the labeled packages clearly indicate the efficiency of the label in preventing the insects from entering the cartons. These experiments do not prove that insects are in- Fig. 4.—Results of experiments with cartons. The one on capable of boring into the the left shows severe infestation; the one on the right had t th . f ti th a thin label pasted on the outside and isnot infested. The C@rvon, us infesting e webs and adults of the infesting insects are shown on the cereal but they do prove outside of both cartons. (Original.) ‘ | 5 ie that when placed in regions of severe infestation the ordinary paper carton will become infested while the sealed carton will not. WHERE INFESTATION TAKES PLACE. In the process of sterilization the cereal is heated to a sufficiently high temperature to cause the death of all insect life, but following this process there are several ways in which it may become infested. While on an elevator (see fig. 5) the cereal may be infested by eggs, larve, or adults of the several insects dropping or crawling into it. Warehouses are usually more or less infested by insects which crawl around on the packages. The grocer’s storeroom and shelves are also A SEALED PAPER CARTON TO PROTECT CEREALS. 5 places where infestation takes place. Unless put into insect- proof carton the cereal, therefore, is subject to infestation from the Fic. 5.—Cereal elevator which leads from sterilizer to packing room. Infestation may easily take place here. (Original.) time it comes from the rolls or the sterilizer until it is sold to the consumer. Infestation may, of course, take place after the package 6 BULLETIN 15, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is opened by the purchaser, but this does not concern the manufac- turer. DRYING THE CEREAL. After the cereal has been sterilized it may contain too much moisture to be packed, and a drying process then becomes necessary. In the case of cereals which are not flaky and to which agitation is not injurious, a sterile chute with baffles (fig. 6), through which hot, Fic. 6.—Diagram of chute with baffles for cooling cereal. (Original. ) dry airis blown, would be effective. The air is thus placed in contact with the falling cereal. In the case of flaky cereals a belt elevator is necessary, but this can be inclosed and the hot air used as in the former case. Both elevators should be so constructed that they can be readily sterilized with air at a temperature above 180° F. This should be occasionally done as precaution against infestation. THE SEALED CARTON. The sealed carton may be made of a stiff, though perhaps a cheaper, - grade of cardboard than is used when the cardboard itself is printed. The printed label should be made in three pieces, namely, two ends, which lap over the edges and extend a short distance down the side; and a side piece, which securely covers Fic. 7.—Diagram of carton, showing method of applying label to protect the edges of the inclosed cereal from insect attack. (Original.) end pieces. (See fig. 7.) One sealed carton was observed which had a strip of paper pasted across the corners before the ends were put on. This further insures the resistance of the carton to insect attack and is advisable, provided the cost is not too great. A sealed package was observed on which the ends of the carton were not as firmly glued as they would have been had the package A SEALED PAPER CARTON TO PROTECT CEREALS. ; 7 not been labeled. The looseness of this end caused a break in the label, which, of course, ruined the seal of the package. Care in the proper sealing of the ends of the carton before applying the label will remedy this detect. The extra cost of a sealed package over the ordinary one will vary with the labor or machinery available and the cost of materials. It has been estimated at 1 cent for a 2-pound package, but it is best determined by each miller for his particular locality. With right management the cost should not prove excessive, while the use of the well-made sealed package will minimize the chance of infestation. The improved appearance of such a package, also, renders it more attractive to the prospective buyer. - PACKAGES OTHER THAN SEALED CARTONS. Other forms of packages have been suggested, the most promising one being a sealed paper bag placed inside of an ordinary carton. Fig. 8.—Carton with paper bag inside. Note larva on cover, and loose cereal which it has webbed together. (Original.) Although this forms a barrier to insects which have crawled through the openings in the corners of the carton, it places them with little or no food firmly against 4 thin wall of paper through which they would be very likely to force their way. Furthermore, it was observed that the ends of the paper bags were not readily sealed; small openings were left in many cases. One firm using this package reported that about as many of this type were returned infested as of the old-style packages. Again, the small amount of cereal spilled between the bag and the carton is used by a larva, as shown in figure 8, and, in any event, the presence of insects on the top of the bag would be sufficient cause for the return of the package. 8 BULLETIN 15, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUMMARY. The foregoing observations and experiments have brought out several points: (1) Cereals may become infested before they are packed, after the packages are placed in warehouses, and in the grocery stores. (2) Insects find their way in at the small holes which are usually present at the corners of unsealed packages or at holes accidentally punched in the sides. (3) Thorough sterilization’ at 180° F. kills all insect life; and if the cereal is run from the sterilizer either through a sterile cooler or directly into sterile packages and immediately sealed, it will not become infested unless the package is broken. (4) Sterilization of the knocked-down cartons before packing and cleanliness with regard to the exclusion of insects from the packing room will greatly facilitate the preparation of sterile packages and is strongly recommended. (5) It is absolutely necessary that all machinery connecting the sterilizer and the packages be free from insects. If the cereal is passed through chutes or conveyors which can not be sterilized or are not kept sterile, it will, through these sources, become infested even though the cereal was previously sterile and was packed in sterile packages. 1 The writer has not extensively investigated sterilizers, but the following description, furnished through the kindness of Mr. Bert D. Ingles, of a sterilizer used by a large flour mill in California may be of interest here. ‘‘In this sterilizer the screw conveyor is 6 inches in diameter and handles approximately 500 pounds of cereal per hour. The steam is held at 160 pounds pressure, which is equal to 370.5° F. A machine 8 feet long will heat the cereal under these conditions to 180° F. in two minutes without any difficulty. Sucha sterilization does not injure the cereal.” Ue ee COPIES ofthis publication may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy A SEALED PAPER CARTON TO PROTECT CEREALS. 5 places where infestation takes place. Unless put into insect- proof carton the cereal, therefore, is subject to infestation from the Fig. 5.—Cereal elevator which leads from sterilizer to packing room. Infestation may easily take place here. (Original.) time it comes from the rolls or the sterilizer until it is sold to the consumer. Infestation may, of course, take place after the package 6 BULLETIN 15, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. is opened by the purchaser, but this does not concern the manufac- turer. DRYING THE CEREAL. After the cereal has been sterilized it may contain too much moisture to be packed, and a drying process then becomes necessary. In the case of cereals which are not flaky and to which agitation is not injurious, a sterile chute with baffles (fig. 6), through which hot, Fig. 6.—Diagram of chute with baffles for cooling cereal. (Original.) dry air is blown, would be effective. The air is thus placed in contact with the falling cereal. In the case of flaky cereals a belt elevator is necessary, but this can be inclosed and the hot air used as in the former case. Both elevators should be so constructed that they can be readily sterilized with air at a temperature above 180° F. This should be occasionally done as precaution against infestation. THE SEALED CARTON. The sealed carton may be made of a stiff, though perhaps a cheaper, erade of cardboard than is used when the cardboard itself is printed. The printed label should be made in three pieces, namely, two ends, which lap over the edges and extend a short distance down the side; and a side piece, which securely covers Fic. 7.—Diagram of carton, showing method of applying label to protect the edges of the inclosed cereal from insect attack. (Original.) end pieces. (See fig. 7.) One sealed carton was observed which had a strip of paper pasted across the corners before the ends were put on. This further insures the resistance of the carton to insect attack and is advisable, provided the cost is not too great. A sealed package was observed on which the ends of the carton were not as firmly glued as they would have been had the package A SEALED PAPER CARTON TO PROTECT CEREALS. (i not been labeled. The looseness of this end caused a break in the label, which, of course, ruined the seal of the package. Care in the proper sealing of the ends of the carton before applying the label will remedy this defect. The extra cost of a sealed package over the ordinary one will vary with the labor or machinery available and the cost of materials. It has been estimated at 1 cent for a 2-pound package, but it is best determined by each miller for his particular locality. With right management the cost should not prove excessive, while the use of the well-made sealed package will minimize the chance of infestation. The improved appearance of such a package, also, renders it more attractive to the prospective buyer. - PACKAGES OTHER THAN SEALED CARTONS. Other forms of packages have been suggested, the most promising one being a sealed paper bag placed inside of an ordinary carton. Fig. 8.—Carton with paper bag inside. Note larva on cover, and loose cereal which it has webbed together. (Original.) Although this forms a barrier to insects which have crawled through the openings in the corners of the carton, it places them with little or no food firmly against a thin wall of paper through which they would be very likely to force their way. Furthermore, it was observed that the ends of the paper bags were not readily sealed; small openings were left in many cases. One firm using this package reported that about as many of this type were returned infested as of the old-style packages. Again, the small amount of cereal spilled between the bag and the carton is used by a larva, as shown in figure 8, and, in any event, the presence of insects on the top of the bag would be sufficient cause for the return of the package. 8 BULLETIN 15, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SUMMARY. The foregoing observations and experiments have brought out several points: (1) Cereals may become infested before they are packed, after the packages are placed in warehouses, and in the grocery stores. (2) Insects find their way in at the small holes which are usually: present at the corners of unsealed packages or at holes accidentally punched in the sides. (3), Thorough sterilization! at 180° F. kills all insect life; and if the cereal is run from the sterilizer either through a sterile cooler or directly into sterile packages and immediately sealed, it will not become infested unless the package is broken. (4) Sterilization of the knocked-down cartons before packing and cleanliness with regard to the exclusion of insects from the packing room will greatly facilitate the preparation of sterile packages and is strongly recommended. (5) It is absolutely necessary that all machinery connecting the sterilizer and the packages be free from insects. If the cereal is passed through chutes or conveyors which can not be sterilized or are not kept sterile, it will, through these sources, become infested even though the cereal was previously sterile and was packed in sterile packages. 1 The writer has not extensively investigated sterilizers, but the following description, furnished through the kindness of Mr. Bert D. Ingles, of a sterilizer used by a large flour mill in California may be of interest here. ‘In this sterilizer the screw conveyor is 6 inches in diameter and handles approximately 500 pounds of cereal per hour. The steam is held at 160 pounds pressure, which is equal to 370.5° F. A machine 8 feet long will heat the cereal under these conditions to aa F. in two minutes without any difficulty. Sucha sterilization does not injure the cereal.” DDITIONAL COPIES ofthis publication may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy BULLE TING OF THE 5) USDETARTENT OPAGRCULRE No. 16 Contribution from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Wm. A. Taylor, Chief. October 22, 1913. THE CULTURE OF FLUE-CURED TOBACCO. By HE. H. MATHEWSON, Crop Technologist, Tobacco and Plant-Nutrition Investigations. INTRODUCTION. In its origin the flue-cured type of tobacco is associated closely with the old Virginia dark type and is really an offshoot from the latter, dependent primarily upon soil modification. Later the type was further modified and differentiated by cultural adaptations prompted by trade preferences. As the cultivation of tobacco in Virginia was pushed back to the lighter sandy lands of what is now the southern tier of counties of that State and the adjoining counties of North Carolina, the character of the tobacco produced was naturally some- what changed. It was milder and generally lighter in color and be- ‘came popular for home consumption, particularly as a chewing to- bacco. It was preferred also by a certain class of the export trade, particularly in France, where the milder, lighter tobaccos were more popular. The dark Virginia tobacco was cured by means of open fires ‘and smoke, which gave it a smoky, creosotic odor and flavor. This smoky flavor was objectionable to the trade desiring the milder to- bacco, and the use of open fires in curing was limited as much as pos- sible, and much of the product was merely air cured, fires being used only when necessary to protect it from damage in damp, muggy weather. Charcoal was often substituted for wood in order to keep down the odor of smoke. The use of charcoal grew to be the regular practice until, in turn, it was superseded by the use of flues, which came into use soon after the close of the Civil War. At first these flues were constructed of rock, but later they were made of sheet iron, as is the almost universal practice to-day. The use of flues still further did away with any tendency to smokiness and gave more uniformly satisfactory results in obtaining lighter and more uniform colors, as well as greater convenience in tending the fires. 6907°—Bull. 16—13——1 2 BULLETIN 16, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Up to a time just before the Civil War, however, the production of this yellow type of tobacco was confined principally to Caswell © County, N. C., and Pittsylvania County, Va. The real development in the flue-cured type did not take place until during the decades immediately succeeding that in which the Civil War occurred, and on its present basis, therefore, it is essentially a modern type. A number of important and clearly defined factors are easily discernible as stimulating and promoting this development. From the standpoint of consumption, the demand was rapidly expanded by the growing popularity of pipe smoking in this country, for which this flue-cured type, in the form of granulated..smoking tobacco, proved to be highly satisfactory, and also to the introduc- tion and rapid expansion in use of machine-made cigarettes. The greatly enhanced demand for tobacco of this type also extended to foreign countries, especially to Great Britain and certain of the British possessions. Supplementary to this great expansion in demand, resulting in good prices for the raw leaf, production was also markedly stimulated during this same period by the introduc- tion of commercial fertilizers, upon which the profitable production of flue-cured tobacco now so largely depends. By the middle eighties, therefore, the producing area and use of flue-cured tobacco had greatly enlarged and covered, as a crop of dominant importance, some 20 counties in the northern part of central and western North Carolina and in south central Virginia, thus embracing the Old Belt section about as it is known to-day. Prior to about 1890 little tobacco was grown east of Warren, Franklin, and Wake Counties, N. C. During the nineties the demand for flue-cured tobacco, especially of the brighter types, continued to expand, and in this same period the price of cotton was very low. This combination of circumstances resulted in a widely extended movement on the part of the farmers of eastern North Carolina and South Carolina to try tobacco growing where formerly attention had been given almost exclusively to cotton. So rapidly was the acreage expanded through- out this cotton-growing Coastal Plain section of eastern North Caro- lina and South Carolina, now known as the New Belt, that in 1903 this new section actually produced more tobacco than was grown in the Old Belt section. Because of this large production in the New Belt, the total crop of flue-cured tobacco of that year for both the New Belt and the Old Belt amounted to upward of 250,000,000 pounds, the largest crop produced up to the present time. This great crop year ushered in a period of lower prices, and production dropped off markedly in succeeding years, particularly in the New Belt, where attention was again turned to cotton, for which prices for several years were comparatively good. In 1911 and 1912 the flue-cured tobacco crop was considerably curtailed because of very THE CULTURE OF I'LUE-CURED TOBACCO, 3 unfavorable weather conditions, and prices for the brighter types of leaf again became very high, foreshadowing a greatly increased interest and expansion of acreage, more especially in the New Belt section, where the acreage and production fluctuate much more widely than in the Old Belt because of the opportunity for shifting between cotton and tobacco as conditions seem to warrant. At the present time, the normal annual production of flue-cured tobacco on a farm-weight basis is estimated to be about 215,000,000 pounds. Of this total about 120,000,000 pounds is produced in the Old Belt section and 95,000,000 pounds in the New Belt.t. The aver- age annual production of tobacco in the United States is now close to 1,000,000,000 pounds, of which the flue-cured type is approximately one-fifth. White Burley is the only other type that has had such a ‘apid expapsion in production and popularity in so limited a period of years. As in the case of Burley, the rapid development of flue- cured tobacco is undoubtedly founded largely on its adaptability for meeting the popular demand for light, mild tobacco in the different forms in which it is consumed. All things considered, this flue-cured type of tobacco is unsurpassed in uni- versal popularity and general adaptability to a variety of uses, including granu- lated and cut smoking tobacco, both paper and all-tobacco cigarettes, and plug filler and wrapper; in fact, it is adapted to all the regular forms in which tobacco is used except standard cigars and snuff. In color and general appear- ance it is very attractive, while its low nicotine content, mildness, aromatic sweetness, fragrance, and good keeping qualities render it very satisfying to the user.” It may also be noted that this type is the only one that has had any decided tendency to expand our exports in recent years. Of the total quantity of flue-cured tobacco produced, about 40 per cent, or around 90,000,000 pounds, is exported, and the remainder is used in domestic consumption. SOILS OF THE FLUE-CURED DISTRICT. Speaking broadly, the current trade differentiations of the flue- cured producing area into the Old Belt and the New Belt sections indicate also a fairly well-defined modification in the character of the tobacco produced in these two sections. The best tobacco soils of both the Old Belt and the New Belt are all light and sandy, but those of the New Belt, in the Coastal Plain, are lighter and more sandy as a class than are those of the Old Belt in the Piedmont sec- tion, and these soils, and especially the subsoils, become progressively 1 For additional information concerning the general features of the flue-cured type, including a list of the counties producing flue-cured tobacco, with the estimated average quantity of tobacco produced in each, see Bulletin 244, Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Department of Agriculture. 2U, S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry, Bulletin 244, p. 70, 1912. 4 BULLETIN 16, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, more clayey as one progresses westward toward the mountains. The lighter Coastal Plain soils characteristically produce a brighter and paler type of leaf than the Old Belt soils, but with less body and richness. In the western part of the Old Belt, particularly from about Rockingham County, N. C., and Henry County, Va., the rich ~ waxy filler types predominate, while the colors run in much larger proportion to mahogany or red. Soil adaptation is a very important factor in the production of a satisfactory quality of flue-cured to- bacco. It is an influence of fundamental importance in determining the color of the leaf produced, as well as such other points of quality as fineness, richness, and body. Im general, the soils adapted to the production of flue-cured tobacco may be described as ight and sandy to a depth of 6 to 10 inches, underlain with « sandy-clay subsoil of a yellowish orange color. The whiter soils produce the brightest tobacco, unless offset by some other factor. The clay of the subsoil is an important factor in giving the leaf richness and body, and it is also an aid in retaining fertility. In the Coastal Plain section some of the soils are such loose, deep sands as to constitute an extreme of the bright-tobacco type. Such soils will naturally produce a very bright tobacco, but the leaf is likely to be lacking in body and richness, and the soil itself is at a disadvantage in retaining fertility and is not likely to withstand wet weather well. On the other hand, the soils of the Old Belt section, more especially in the western part, frequently represent the other extreme of being too clayey and too red to pro- duce anything more than a dark tobacco, although, generally, the leaf will be rich and waxy. Between these soil extremes of the New Belt Coastal Plain section, some of them tending to be too ex- - tremely sandy and open, and the clayey soils of the western part of the Old Belt section, there is to be found almost every conceivable variation in shade, depth, and mechanical structure. From a chemical standpoint, bright-tobacco soils are rather weak, as is to be expected from their high content of sand or silica, but most of them are very responsive to artificial enrichment by means of fertilizers, manure, and soil-improving crops... The relatively light soils which predominate in the New Belt section naturally are less well supplied with mineral plant food materials, particularly potash, than are the stronger soils of the Piedmont section. However, a soil possessing ideal mechanical and chemical qualifications may be en- tirely unsuited to tobacco unless it has good natural drainage, as it is ruinous to a tobacco plant to stand for any length of time in a water-logged soil. In the earlier days of tobacco culture, before commercial ferti- lizers came into general use, it was the almost universal custom to plant tobacco on “ fresh,” or recently cleared, land. On such land THE CULTURE OF FLUE-CURED TOBACCO. 5 there is an accumulation of readily available plant food; the tobacco grows quickly, matures and ripens early, and cures well. In the Old Belt, therefore, where much of the soil tends to be too strong and clayey, a given soil, perhaps, will produce a crop of good color and quality when it is “ fresh,” but will not do so after it has been under cultivation for a number of years. But in the case of the light soils in the Coastal Plain section, those which have been longer under cultivation are preferable because the “fresh” land will make the leaves too thin and lifeless and the bottom leaves will begin to waste away prematurely. CROP ROTATION SYSTEMS. Aside from the natural character of the soil itself, there is no more important matter for the tobacco grower to consider than the man- agement of- his fields, so that in regular order they will be in the best shape for tobacco at the proper time. Indeed, the character of the tobacco produced will depend quite as much on how the fields have been handled in rotation between the successive tobacco crops as upon the fertilizer used or the cultivation given directly to the tobacco crop itself. IMPORTANCE OF HUMUS IN THE SOIL. Tobacco land should be so handled as to be kept in good life. A liberal supply of vegetable matter in an advanced stage of decay is highly desirable, but it should be of a kind not excessively rich in ammonia. For this reason the clovers, cowpeas, and other legumes, except in a limited way, generally can not be used with satisfac- tion preceding tobacco unless removed some two or three years from the tobacco, and on the stronger lands of the Old Belt section it would probably be best in most cases to omit them from the rotation altogether. Large quantities of slow-acting organic ammoniates tend decidedly against fineness, sweetness, and color. It is well known that the organic matter of freshly cleared or broom-straw fields is of a kind well suited to tobacco. It consists principally of dead leaves, twigs, roots, pine tags, or broom straw and roots. Such vegetable matter, while poor in ammonia, by its ample volume makes the soil very mellow and friable and of good water- holding capacity. The weed growth that comes in spontaneously on the so-called rested fields is also generally of a kind suited to turn under as a source of vegetable matter for tobacco soils. Supplying the necessary humus in this way perhaps may be con- sidered satisfactory from the standpoint of the tobacco itself. In several other respects, however, it is very unsatisfactory. The rested field system of farming, if it may be called a system, means that a 6 BULLETIN 16, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. part of the farm is at all times out of commission and not producing any profitable crop. It also means that many undesirable weeds and bushes are given every opportunity to reseed or reestablish them- selves, and it gives the country the general aspect of being roughly and poorly farmed. As such it represents an antiquated, crude, and unsatisfactory type of farming from which we are now trying hard to get away. In the New Belt section the growing of tobacco on freshly cleared land is unsatisfactory for the reason already mentioned, while in the Old Belt the proportion of the tobacco crop grown on fresh land is already small, and it is evident that it must in the future constitute a smaller and smaller proportion of the area planted to tobacco. On old land there is no more important problem in the production of fine, bright tobacco than how best to maintain in the soil a sufficient supply of the right kind of decaying vegetable matter, upon which its life and mellowness so largely depend. Among the more satisfactory sources of vegetable matter for to- bacco soils of the flue-cured district we may note the rye (or other small grain) fallow and the herd’s-grass sod. Rye is in every respect satisfactory from the standpoint of its effect on the quality of the tobacco. It is thought well of by tobacco growers generally through- out the entire flue-cured district, but 1t is open to one very serious objection for general use as a crop to immediately precede tobacco. Its use necessitates the spring plowing of the land at a time when the teams are always rushed, and very frequently the land will be either too wet or too dry, or some other cause will too often prevent. the proper fitting of the land early enough, or well enough, for the best results. When rye is used and turned under entire, it should not be allowed to get too tall and hard. It is best to turn it down when it is about knee high, and before being turned under it should be thor- oughly cut into the soil by going over the field two or three times with the disk harrow, lapping halfway each time so as not to throw the field into ridges. The thicker and ranker the growth of rye, the more imperative it is that a thorough job be done with the disk before the land is plowed. If the rye is cut and removed from the field, the stubble should likewise generally be thoroughly cut to pieces with the disk before plowing the land. GRASS IN THE TOBACCO ROTATION. All things considered, there is probably no better humus crop for the tobacco rotation than herd’s-grass or redtop, at least on practi- cally all the tobacco soils of the Old Belt section and the stiffer soils in the New Belt. Aside from its value as a humus-yielding, soil- improving crop, suited to the tobacco rotation, redtop is a very valuable hay grass. It is suited to southern conditions and will give THE CULTURE OF FLUE-CURED TOBACCO. i a good yield of splendid hay, which may be utilized as a secondary source of money income on the tobacco farm, either through direct sale or indirectly through live-stock products. For the best results with herd’s-grass, the seed should be sowed from the middle to the last of August in the Old Belt and not later than September 20 in the New Belt Coastal Plain section. The prepa- ration of the seed bed is a matter of prime importance in securing a good stand of grass. This is best accomplished without the turning plow, unless it be used some weeks or months before the grass is to be seeded. Instead, the field should be gone over with the disk har- row in July or August, followed by the smoothing or drag harrow just before sowing the seed. What is needed is a fine but shallow seed bed (preferably not more than 1 or 2 inches deep) with a firm under soil, and this condition can best be secured if the turning plow is not used. The place of the grass in the rotation, particularly in the Old Belt séction, generally will be after wheat or oats, one of which has, in turn, probably succeeded the tobacco; that is, the grass will be seeded on wheat or oat stubble after the soil has been fitted during July and August, as mentioned. The disk should be started at the first opportunity after the grain is removed, so as to prevent the weeds from getting so large as to interfere with a satisfactory and economical fitting with the disk harrow. Before seeding the grass, from 400 to 800 pounds of 3-8-3 ferti- lizer? or its equivalent should be broadcasted per acre. On the stiffer soils, if already in a fairly good state of fertility, the smaller quantity might suffice, but on the sandier soils, especially if run down in fertility, the larger quantity would be likely to give more satisfactory results. To insure an even stand of grass, the field should be gone over both ways in sowing, using a total of about 15 pounds of seed to the acre. After seeding, the field should be again gone over with the smoothing harrow, to lightly cover the seed, and then thoroughly rolled. Early in the spring, when the young grass begins to start, top-dress the field with about 200 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre, distributed in two applications about two weeks apart. The nitrate is best applied just before or during a rain, so that it will be dissolved, soak into the ground, and begin to feed the grass at once without any danger of injury by burning. After the lumps are crushed, the nitrate can be easily distributed directly by hand without increasing the bulk by mixing with sand or other filler. When making the second application of the nitrate, special attention should be given to any spots which, from the appearance of the grass, seem to have been missed in going over the field the first time. From this procedure a valuable hay crop of 14 to 2 tons or more +The formula “ 3--8—3”’ refers to the percentage of ammonia, phosphoric acid, and potash, respectively. 8 BULLETIN 16, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. per acre should result. Figure 1 shows the effect of nitrate of soda on grass grown in a tobacco rotation. The grass generally should be allowed to stand two years, when the sod may be turned down in the fall or winter in preparation for tobacco the next year. This fall plowing is a very important point, especially in the Old Belt, as it practically assures that the soil will be well fitted and early enough fitted to give the tobacco the best chance to do well. OTHER CROPS OF THE ROTATION. It is impracticable to attempt to lay out any definite rotation plan adapted to the needs of all tobacco farms. For the Old Belt section, however, where there is less diversity in so-called money crops, a rotation in which tobacco is followed directly by oats or wheat and Fic. 1.—A field of grass showing the effect of nitrate of soda. On the right the grass was hardly worth cutting, while on the left, where nitrate of soda was used, a yield of nearly 2 tons to the acre was obtained. then by two years of grass, as suggested above, would undoubtedly be found practicable and suited to the majority of tobacco farms. A number of possible variations from this plan will quickly suggest themselves. For example, if this system of cropping, supplemented perhaps by liberal fertilizing or manuring, tends to make the soil too rich for the best results with tobacco, the difficulty could prob- ably be overcome by introducing corn into the rotation directly on the grass sod in place of the tobacco. A good crop of corn should result, and it would do much in the way of reducing the surplus fertility, for corn is an exhaustive crop, particularly on light land. This would lengthen the rotation to five years and bring the tobacco directly after corn. There is one serious objection to this plan. Corn frequently harbors large numbers of wireworms, which might THE CULTURE OF FLUE-CURED TOBACCO. i) make it difficult to get a stand of tobacco because of the attacks of the wireworms on the young plants as soon as they are set out. This difficulty in turn could be successfully overcome by following the corn with oats, making a six-year rotation, the field coming back to tobacco again in the seventh year. Another variation would be to follow the tobacco with corn and then with oats or wheat, to be followed in turn by the two years of grass, making a five-year rota- tion and putting the tobacco on the grass sod, as in the four-year rotation first mentioned. In the New Belt there is a greater diversity of money crops. Cot- ton, peanuts, and sweet potatoes may be mentioned, and among these cotton would be the one most generally desired because of its ready market and wide adaptability throughout the New Belt sec- tion. Legumes are also much less objectionable on the light Coastal Plain soils, and in many instances a legume could be introduced into the rotation with benefit. In most cases cowpeas probably would be found most satisfactory for this purpose, or, on the stiffer soils where it will hold through the winter, crimson clover also might often be used to advantage. When used, these legumes should gener- ally come in the rotation closely succeeding tobacco, so that any excess of ammonia which they might supply could be used up to some extent by the crops intervening before the field comes to to- bacco again: On some of the very lightest unimproved soils, tobacco might give good results even if directly following a turned-under leguminous crop, such as cowpeas. On the stiffer soils of the New Belt, the four-year rotation sug- gested for the Old Belt, namely, tolneen followed by winter oats anal fhen two years in nerar grass, would be practicable in some cases. If it is desired to put cotton in the rotation, satisfactory results should be obtained by seeding the field to cowpeas as soon as the oats are removed. The peas should be fertilized liberally with phosphoric acid and potash (say, 200 to 400 pounds of 16 per cent acid phosphate and 100 pounds of sulphate of potash), and the peas could either be mowed for hay or turned under, generally the latter when it is de- sired to improve the soil, as the condition of the field or the need for the hay makes most desirable. The cotton could follow the peas, after which the field could be planted in tobacco again, making a three- year rotation. If the pea vines were turned under, this system ought to keep the soil well supphed with vegetable matter, and good crops of both cotton and tobacco should result with the addition of but com- paratively small amounts of nitrogen in the fertilizer. The oat crop should be top-dressed early in the spring with about 200 pounds of nitrate of soda per acre, in the manner recommended for grass. Peanuts or sweet potatoes could be introduced into the rotation if desired, either in place of or succeeding the cotton. Peanuts are 6907°—Bull. 16—18——2 10 BULLETIN 16, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a leguminous crop, but since both the vines and the roots are re- moved in harvesting (unless used for grazing hogs) they~may be considered an exhaustive rather than an improving crop. Sweet potatoes, however, leave practically everything on the field except the potatoes themselves, which are principally starch, and this crop, therefore, tends to improve the soil. The vines decay very rapidly and their plant-food content, although rather small, soon becomes again available. Here again the rotations mentioned are to be con- _ sidered only as suggestive, and any number of variations will readily suggest themselves to the thoughtful farmer; but the importance of maintaining a bountiful supply of vegetable matter of a kind not too rich in nitrogen at the time the field comes in tobacco should always be kept clearly in mind when planning the rotation. FERTILIZERS FOR FLUE-CURED TOBACCO. Bright-tobacco soils as a class are naturally rather infertile; but they are light and friable and of a character to respond readily to fertilizers, particularly in producing a crop of high money value like tobacco. Fertilizers increase the chances of profit from growing bright tobacco in two ways. They greatly increase the yield, some- times by 100 per cent or more, and if properly balanced they generally improve the quality. Because of the natural deficiencies of bright- tobacco soils and because of the special adaptability of commercial fertilizers te bright tobacco there are no other types of tobacco pro- duced in this country on which fertilizers are so freely used, except on some of the high-priced cigar-wrapper types in New England and Florida. A so-called complete fertilizer—that is, one containing each of the three materials, ammonia (nitrogen), phosphoric acid, and potash—is generally needed, and the maximum yield can not be secured unless each is supplied in sufficient quantity. No general rule as to the proper proportion or balance between these materials can be given, and the farmer must exercise judgment in the matter. The best proportion for the three elements is likely to vary considerably on different fields, according to the soil and its state of improve- ment. As stated, each of these elements has its effect in limiting the yield; but, aside from this, there is, broadly speaking, a special effect on the quality of the leaf that may be attributed to each element. Too much ammonia, especially if unsupported by a suffi- ciency of the other fertilizing compounds, particularly phosphoric acid, will make the tobacco coarse, dark, and late in maturing, with a tendency to damage by “red fire” or dead spots here and there on the leaves. Without a sufficient supply of ammonia, however, the tobacco will be small, thin, and poor, although the color may be good. THE CULTURE OF FLUE-CURED TOBACCO. 11 Potash, like ammonia, improves the body of the leaf, and it has a decided value in tending to diminish or prevent “ diseasing” or “specking.” On the light, sandy soils of the New Belt section especially, potash should be applied much more liberally than is now the general custom. Phosphoric acid may be considered the most generally needed plant-food material throughout the tobacco-growing region under consideration. It not only increases growth but hastens maturity, and also strongly tends to brighten the color because of its decided effect in ripening the leaf. By reason of this specific effect in thus improving the quality phosphoric acid should be used liberally in the tobacco fertilizer, particularly on the better improved soils, which, from an accumulation of nitrogenous materials, might tend to produce-a dark, coarse leaf. On the other hand, some caution should be exercised not to use it excessively on unimproved very hght soils. On such soils there is natural danger from premature ripening, or “ firing,” as it is usually called, and such tendency would be increased by an excessive application of phosphoric acid, though increasing the ammonia supplied in the fertilizer or otherwise would tend to overcome this difficulty with probable increased growth as well. This largely explains why the turning under of a leguminous crop immediately preceding tobacco on such unimproved very sandy soils may sometimes result in positive benefit. Generally speaking, phosphates (except as just indicated) and potash may be used freely on flue-cured tobacco without injury to the quality, but it requires nice adjustment of the ammonia supply to give the best results. As stated, too little will make a “ poor,” thin tobacco of small growth, while too much will tend to make the tobacco dark, coarse, and rank smelling. Ammonia in the soil comes almost entirely from decaying vegetable matter or manure, and the quantity of ammonia to be used in the fertilizer will depend largely on how much may be expected from these sources in the soil. A crop of 1,000 pounds of tobacco to the acre, to produce the leaf, stalk, and roots, will need to assimilate about 75 pounds of ammonia (equiva- lent to approximately 62 pounds of nitrogen). On poorly improved sandy soils, generally producing around 600 pounds of tobacco to the acre under ordinary fertilization (say, 500 pounds of 3-8-3 fer- tilizer to the acre), the yield and quality generally could be improved greatly and the crop made more profitable by using an increased amount of ammonia in the fertilizer. On such a soil, out of the 75 pounds of ammonia necessary to produce a 1,000-pound crop it would not be unreasonable to supply in the fertilizer 40 or 50 pounds of this material (equivalent to 250 or 300 pounds of 16 per cent dried blood). 0, 12 BULLETIN 16, U. S DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, Beth phosphoric acid and potash are generally needed on practi- cally all the tobacco soils of the flue-cured distriet, although potash is perhaps of somewhat less importance on the stronger soils of the Old Belt section. Neither of these materials is likely to de harm, and any unused eherten will not be lost by leaching (except possibly on some of the very deep loose sands of the Coastal Plain section) but will remain to benefit succeeding crops of the retation, Tt weuld undoubtedly be wise, therefore, to use these materials somewhat mere freely than has been customary. In the New Belt this recommenda- tion vould apply more particularly to potash, because the soils there are relatively more deficient in that censtituent, while in the Old Belt, particularly on the more clayey soils, phosphates are more urgently needed, although a considerable increase in the potash used, particularly on the lighter soils, would also be desirable. For general use it would seem reasonable to recommend as a base the use of from 400 to 600 pounds of 16 per cent acid phesphate per acre and in the Old Belt about 100 pounds of sulphate of potash (analyzing 48 to 50 per cent actual potash, K,OQ) er fer the lighter soils of the New Belt 150 te 200 pounds of the sulphate of potash per acre, The amount of ammonia te be used with these quantities of phes- phoric acid and potash, as indicated above, would depend largely en the condition of the particular field under consideratien, In gen- eral, it may be stated that preportionately more ammenia can be used profitably on the light sandy seils of the New Belt than on the stronger Old Belt soils, Another factor of importance, particularly in the western part of the Old Belt section, is the time of harvesting and curing. If the crop ripens and is cured in warm weather, say, up to September 10, the tobacco will naturally tend te yellow well and cure bright, as compared with the same tobacco harvested and cured in the cool weather of late September and October. The normal period for curing tobacco in the New Belt is during July and early in August, which are hot-weather months, and this is a facter dis- tinctly favorable to a good bright cure. Tebacco that ripens and cures during hot weather, particularly if the soil be rather dry, can satisfactorily utilize a larger amount of ammonia than when the harvest is in cool weather, and wet weather just before the tobacco is harvested is an additional adverse factor, Increasing the phos- phoric acid, as noted above, will tend to brighten the leaf and thus overcome some of the harmful effects of teo much ammonia, In the Old Belt section under average conditions, particularly on the stronger type of soils of the western part, probably about 150 pounds ef 16 per cent dried bleed (or its equivalent in some other good ammoniate) would give approximately the right propertion of THE CULTURE OF FLUE-CURED TOBACCO. 13 ammonia for the minimum amounts of phosphoric acid and potash mentioned above. The formula would be as follows: Pounds. Dried. blood, analyzing 16 per cert ammonia___._-____-____..-_ 150 Acid phosphate, analyzing 16 per cent phosphorie acid______~ 400 Sulphate of potash, analyzing 50 per cent potash (IkK20)_ ~~~ __ 100 Eee Ce es el 650 Such a mixture, while weighing only 650 pounds for an acre of land, would, in the quantities of plant food carried, be approxi- mately equivalent to an 800-pound application per acre of a fertilizer analyzing 8 per cent ammonia, 8 per cent phosphoric acid, and 6 per cent potash. If desired, cottonseed meal (analyzing 74 per cent ammonia) might be substituted for the blood, using twice the number ef pounds; or nitrate of soda (analyzing 18 to 19 per cent ammonia), at the rate of about two-thirds the number of pounds of blood, could ‘be used. Generally speaking, however, cottonseed mea! is somewhat less active than blood on the basis of equivalent quantities of am- monia, while there may be some question whether nitrate of soda does not affect unfavorably the quality of the leaf produced. The cost of the 650 pounds of fertilizer shown in the formula will vary somewhat from year to year, but will generally be about $10. In certain cases, of course, as when the soil had been consider- ably improved by the use of manure or leguminous crops, even a smaller quantity of ammonia than here mentioned might give better results. In extreme cases, especially when color is an important factor, the ammonia might be omitted altogether. On the other hand, in the case of the lighter types of soil in the Old Belt, particu- larly in the eastern part of that section, where the lighter types of soil predominate, the proportion of ammonia in the fertilizer gen- erally could be somewhat larger than that shown in the above formula. For these conditions 200 pounds of blood, or even more in some cases, might be a better balance and prove more profitable. In the New Belt section, with the combination of still lighter and weaker soils and early harvesting in warmer weather, a materially richer fertilizer could undoubtedly be used to advantage in most cases, and for that section a mixture may be recommended for average conditions composed about as follows: Pounds. Dried blood, analyzing 16 per cent ammonia________________ 250 Acid phosphate, analyzing 16 per cent phosphoric acid________ 500 Sulphate of potash, analyzing 50 per cent potash (Ik.O)_____ 150 1 SX £22 Sia ee eee NL ne igi Wine GSS ee Oe ie eee, 900 This mixture of 900 pounds for an acre of land would be equiva- lent in plant-food value to a 1,000 pound per acre application of a 14 BULLETIN 16, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fertilizer palyzine 8 per cent of phosphoric acid, 4 per cent of ammonia, and 7} per cent of potash. On the very lightest soils of the New Belt ecHien, for reasons already mentioned, better results might be obtained by reducing the phosphoric acid, say, to 400 pounds, or by increasing the blood (ammonia) to 300 pounds or more, thus narrowing the ratio between the ammonia and phosphoric acid to 5 or 54 to 8 instead of 4 to 8 as shown in the formula as given. Fertilizers for tobacco are generally applied in the row, and when used in the ordinary quantities better immediate effects are no doubt realized. When considerable fertilizer is used in the row, however, even in the quantities mentioned above, it should be thoroughly in- corporated with the soil by running a double-shovel plow with nar- row teeth along the row before it is bedded. When large quantities of fertilizer are used, it might be best to apply at least half broadcast. In connection with the use of fertilizers, it is assumed that the humus supply has been given due consideration, thus insuring a good physical condition and moisture-holding capacity. 7078°—Bull. 17—13——2 ae ele da, < SSF CoFSERl ao) & 5 3 es ZN || eet berevelllosrsy| = Sell = 4 e 3 a om Cs) ee oO = 9) a q A |A IA |a®*e. I || <4 ke a |e PypeAs 1 AOLOS | oe He | CoB CR Jers.) Coe, Neel || Mesitel nea Riel ela Oture Cae | Picea nace nie 1017....| Mar. 15 | 43 | 44] 56] 56 20 22 33 28 39 8, 400 8 0.72 1021-...| Apr. 6 45) 53) 56) 56 13 14 34} 28 50 7, 200. 10 72 1025.-..| Apr. 21} 58] 69) 57) 35 14 17 40) 32 54 9,600 10 72 10272 2 May 941 490/521) 520 5D | 14 sia eS ete ae 9, 600 10 .70 1029. ... May 13] 55] 57] 57} 57 15 15 33) 35 | 50 11,900 10 a (i PASAT al Se Sexes alae eae oe see) eect (aeons Domenie aes eres Silas ul Lt Ne ke 71 | Type B: 1911 2056 - June 16} 76) 81} 81] 72 10 25 30 37 52 16, 000 15 60 2060 July 14} 80) 80; 81) 75 32 36 39 37 52 10, 000 10 60 2062 Sept. 1] 74] 7 18 || fo 22 30 39 34 42 12, 000 15 58 2064 Sept.15| 81] 84] 7 i 12 34 38 41 54 10, 000 10 65 2081 Apr. 30| 64] 53] 66] 69 | BB 41 36 48 6, 000 10 63 2083 May 4] 72)! 72) 75) 67 8 27 36 36 46 10, 000 10 64 2084 May 14] 57} 56) 59} 55 Dei) PAL 35 30 44 8, 000 10 65 AL ViRTA ee a3 Sem ce ae lacie nsi| sisdeyall eh neater ce |lei2 Scsee | se ete lee | ee | ee 62 Type C: 1912 | | 2085 . = May 25| 79 | 76) 67] 70 13 24 37 38 50 9,000 10 1.01 2092 Aug. 24.) Tie iie| 7980 18 24 40 38 68 10, 000 10 1.04 2093 Aug. 29} 82; 81| 84) 84 13 24 37 36 46 10, 000 10 1.04 2094 Sept. 20; 63) 67] 70] 63 15 19 38 33 48 8, 000 10 1.04 2096 Sept. 27 | 60] 61] 60] 54 18 20 38 31 47 7,000 10 1.05 2099 Oct. 18 | 63 | 66 | 457] 55 4) 22 36 31 48 7,000 10 1.02 AWentl: 2.2.2.2. pee ako es Se] peo ea Se oe ny | | 1.03 Type D: 1911 2059 =) July 7 | sis 80 8 27 27 41 43 50 10, 000 10 1.19 2063 | Sept. 8| 78) 80| 77 | 77 43 37 39 42 47 6, 000 10 Hoi W/ 1912 2077 Apr: 13: |) 6852 69) 7 V7 16 28 34 41 52 5, 800 10 1522 2078 Apr. 17| 63 | 61} 42) 46 18 25 34 34 48 5, 000 10 1.23 2080 Apr. 16| 64] 66] 64] 55 16 27 36 36 48 5, 000 10 1.17 2082 May 1] 53] 64) 73] 71 27 34 40 31 40 5, 000 10 1.17 2089 July 11} 76] 76) 82) 82 10 26 Bb) 30 50 7, 000 10 1.25 2090 July 26) 84] 77) 74) 76 18 29 40 40 60 7, 000 10 1,17 2091 Aug. 2) %rl* 78) 65) 162 40 28 38 40 58 11, 000 10 1.12 BN S| Seem Re ete = Seed ee Ele Lame (eae |e oe We -— cio. cs Rhea ret SR Bae ® oe a 1.19 COMPARISON OF CAR CONSTRUCTION. With a measure of the gross efficiency of the different types of cars as a working basis, an analysis of the construction of these types will reveal certain features which appear indispensable in effective refrigerator cars. INSULATION. There are many kinds of insulating material now in common use, cork, hair felt, wool felt, mineral wool, and various vegetable fibrous materials. The old-time idea of a dead-air space in refrigerator cars is no longer plausible. The car builder has been unable to con- struct a car with a dead-air space which will remain air and moisture REFRIGERATION OF DRESSED POULTRY IN TRANSIT. 19 proof under the continual stress and strain to which refrigerator cars are subjected. Cracks in the boards and punctures in the paper lining soon appear and, with the resulting air circulation, heat is directly transferred from the outside to the inside. A heat insu- lator is a nonconductor of heat. Heat is a form of energy trans- ferred in waves of extremely small length from one molecule to another. Since the molecules in solid bodies are closer together than those of gases, the solids are the better heat conductors. The more numerous the air spaces in a solid body the more efficient it will be as an insulator. Cork, the best known insulator, contains innumerable air spaces, and its texture renders it almost impervious to water. It contains but small amounts of gums and resins and practically no nitrogenous material which might serve as a medium for bacterial growth and thus produce decay. Cork, however, has not been used to any extent in Gar construction, perhaps on account of its expense and the difliculty of its application. Wool and hair felt are good insulators as long as they are kept dry, but thew high percentage of nitrogenous material makes them good bacterial media when moist. Organic oils and acids also aid in their decomposition. These materials, when once moist, seldom dry out, and the result is putrefaction, giving rise to offensive odors, which contaminate the goods in the car. This decomposition not only destroys the insulator itself but rots the board lining with which it comes in contact. Some of the vegetable o1 cellulose fiber insulators are perhaps slightly more resistant to moisture and bacterial action, but in time they also become moist and their chemical decomposition is hastened by the alkalies present in such material. Of the insu- ators mentioned, mineral wool is the least subject to decay, but, on the other hand, its physical nonadhesive properties hinder the manufacture of strong material, and its insulating qualities are not as good as those of some of the other nonconductors, although it has the advantage of being fireproof. Careful consideration of insulation is therefore one of the prime factors in car construction. The material must be of such a nature that it will remain in position, not settling down and leaving hollow spaces in the upper portion of the side walls. It should be impervious to moisture, or be securely protected by moisture-proof material, and as free as possible from decomposable organic matter. The neces- sary thickness of the insulation depends on the nature of the goods to be transported. Investigations in fruit transportation have shown that temperatures as low as 40° F. are very satisfactory for citrus fruits, but the results with poultry indicate that lower temperatures are essential for a maximum preservation of this class of goods. Aside from the nature of the lading, the question of insulation is one 20 BULLETIN 17, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of economy. Will the saving in ice, resulting from extra insulation, be sufficient to pay for the additional insulation ? Walls.—Figure 5, a, b, ¢, and d, illustrates cross sections through the side walls of the cars of types A, B, C, and D, respectively, Type A is insulated with two thicknesses of half-inch lnofelt, one layer on each side of the main frame. There is but one thickness of paper and one sublining in this wall. Type B is insulated in nearly the same manner, except that wool felt 1s used instead of linofelt. Type C uses one thickness of 1-inch hair felt, compactly arranged between the lining and sublining. There is no attempt in this type to maintain a dead-air space. Type D likewise has a 1-inch layer — FET SUE YUANIASE US LA CST) Z LINING 3 AIR SPACE PAPER WOOL FELT 42." 5/D/NG FIBER PAPER AIR SPACE SEEANTy Fd nes FT Ba lt: al 2° LINOFELT EN iM PAPER 2 BN SUB-LINING i AUR SPACE EN zit Al/= GRACE 1” HAIR FELT Ti Mea nl ill OE EES Suc ine Be ell | {7WO THICKNESSES AlR SPAGE i 1" WOOL FELT AUR SPACE FIBER LINING | Nl PAPER PAPER INSIDE LINING \ Af Alf? SPACE S/DING Fact fi ZB” SIDIN } : I ge 9/OING Facele: LINING PAPER AIP SPACE S° HAIR FELT $” HAIR FELT PAPER SUB-LINING AIP SPACE 4° HAIR FELT LINING AIP SPACE 1” HAIER FELT SUB-LINING AIF SPACE SUB -S5/DING Dy es Sy: SS =>20 iS ; S SSS SSS =Z > Sr AIR SPACE DET = or ae Bobo SSS SG ; £° INSIDE LINING Ni HSS ‘e a Fig. 5.—Cross sections showing wall construction of different types of refrigerator cars. a, Type A; b, type B; c, type C; d, type D; e, wall having a t-inch layer of hair felt; f, wall having three half-inch layers of hair felt. of hair felt, but has not the same solidity; there is an air space on each side of the insulation. Figure 5, e¢, illustrates a side wall with a 1-inch layer of hair felt, supported on one side by a sublining. In this wall there is an additional sublining next to the siding. Figure 5, f, shows three half-inch thicknesses of hair felt, two of which are together on the inside of the frame, the other being on the outside of the frame. . Roof.—Figure 6, a, illustrates the roof insulation of type A cars. Two thicknesses of one-half inch linofelt are separated by a wide air space. The edges of the insulation are turned up along the sides of the car to give a more compact joint. In appearance this roof REFRIGERATION OF DRESSED POULTRY IN TRANSIT. 21 presents a general openness. Type B, with the same thickness of insulation, is more compact, but does not have the upturned edges to protect the corners (fig. 6, b). Type C is characterized by a heavy layer of hair felt, 14 inches thick, packed closely between the ceiling and subceiling with no intervening air space (fig. 6, c). In figure 6, d, is shown a roof with insulation of the same thickness as the preceding one, but separated into three layers with intervening air spaces. Figure 6, e, represents a roof with 2 inches of hair felt insula- tion, each of the two layers being protected on both sides with S—PURLINE PU RLINE SUE-PURLINE SSSSSZZZZA YH SUB-PURL INE FELT FOOFING : SUB-ROO- SUB-ROOF SMR —— 4 “L/NOFELT ee fas DU 2} S"HAIR FELT CEILING OUTSIDE ROOF <—~SHEATHING LAIR FELT = es oF] {7 ————_ aed Ki INSULATION OORT TT SDLP REN LGS Ba Ba a HAIR FELT \ ‘\\\ pee Saget br Pert) RSE Or) CEILING TOO § = SUB-PURLINE ROOF UB- ROOF ae Solos SPACE oa Saal 1 HAIR FELT / HALF FELT A RRR 4 Ee Fate paSe- SUB-CEILING 8 INSULATION et Ie NR ee PAP UL SIS Codd ST BSSSSY 727 SSSI Alf? SPACE 1° 1141 FELT UB-CEILING CAS SSO DOLL LLL SSIES Ts D a 3 Fig. 6.—Cross sections showing roof insulation of different types of refrigerator cars: a, Type A; b, type B; c, type C; d, roof insulation separated into three layers; e, roof insulation with 2 inches of hair felt; f, type D. insulation paper. Type D (fig. 6, f) also has two thicknesses of 1-inch hair felt, with the additional precaution of upturned edges. Floor.—The floors of types A and B (fig. 7, a, b) are equipped with two thicknesses of half-inch insulation separated by air spaces. Types C, D, and F (fig. 7, c, d, f) have one layer 1 inch thick, and type E (fig. 7, e) has three layers one-half inch thick, with well-protected joints. Comparison.—There is but very little difference in the side-wall imsulation of the four types of cars whose efficiency indices are given in Table 5. Each type is provided with 1 inch of the non- conducting material. Although the insulation of A and B is divided into two half-inch layers in contrast to the single 1-inch 22 BULLETIN 17, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. layer of C and D, the difference in side-wall insulation does not seem sufficient to account for the difference in efficiency. The striking difference in the four types of cars is in the roof insulation. Types A and B, with the low efficiency, have but 1 inch of insulation, and that is divided into two layers with intervening air space. Type C has 14 inches of solid insulation, and D has two layers, each 1 inch thick. There are undoubtedly several factors which govern the efficiency of a car, but it is worthy of note that the indices of efficiency of Table 5 seem to vary in about the same way as the MAIN FLOOR << IN FLOOR = ies (She GeO —— 4rER RTEE ee SPACE ec PAPER Se 4 LINOFELT <—____— SUEB-F-LOORIVG 2 eR SPACE vA Ss “LINOFELT a sve -FLOOFING A SPACE ZS LIWOFELT 3 Ses ——— SUB-FLOOF AUP SPACE ( 5 LINOFELT. NSS s SUEB-FLOOFR SUE-FLOOFRING fIAIN FLOOF SSS le IAIN FLOOFK? = ——§— pss — <_—— PAPER . 4 HAIR FELT ———_AU/P SFACE PAPER PAPER <— SUB -FLOORING <———SUB-FLOOR AP SPACE a epee PAPE? I HAIR FELT SUB FLOORING d PAPE? C J SUEB-FLOO? FLOOF? , PAPER <— FLOOR SUB-FLOOR SUB-FLOOP AIP SPACE 5 2 AAR FELT : : sve 5U8-FLOOF pas ae Ree SUB—FLOOF Be z AIP SPACE SUE-FLOOFe AUlfe SPACE SUB-FLOOP PAPER SUE-FLOOF AVP SPACE = 2 LIMNOFELT SUB-FLOOFR Fig. 7.—Cross sections showing floor insulation of different types of refrigerator cars: a, Type A; b, type B; c, type C; d, type D; ¢, floor insulation separated into three layers; f, 1-inch layer of hair felt with two uninsulated subfloors. roof insulation. The floor insulations of the four types are about the same and are very similar in thickness to the walls. ICE BUNKERS. Each of the types A, B, C, and D is equipped with a characteristic ice bunker. Type A uses the siphon bunker shown in figure 8. Type B has the galvanized-iron box shown in figure 9, the box being perforated to allow the air to come in contact with the ice. Type C has two large, reenforced wire baskets (fig. 10), which permit free contact with the air. In front of the basket ice holder there is an insulated wall, with an open space at the top of the car for the admis- sion of warm air and a similar space at the bottom for the escape of the cold air. Type D uses the iron tanks shown in figure 11. With such tanks the ice can be crushed very fine, permitting a uniform , REFRIGERATION OF DRESSED POULTRY IN TRANSIT. 23 and thorough mixing of the salt, which produces very low tempera- tures. These four, together with the simple box arrangement shown in figure 12, are the types of ice bunkers now in common use. Most of the others are minor modifications of these five. The various types of cars studied show that there is a wider diver- gence in the construction of the ice bunkers than in any other single refrigerator-car essential. This is undoubtedly due to a recognition on the part of the car builder of the importance of this fitting in the performance of the car, and the varying forms of the bunker repre- sent the endeavors of SS z== the builders to meet modern requirements in the transporta- tion of refrigerated freight. The ice bunker in a refriger- ated car holds a place analogous to that of the refrigerating machinery in a stationary plant. It must chill every inch of working space in the compart- ment depending upon it. It would seem, from the observations made on h_ the types of cars described, that the aim q of the builder must be to induce a circu- § lation of air which will convey the lower temperatures at the bunker ends to the center of the car. To do this efficiently the bunker must be assisted by proper insulation on the surfaces of the car. Correlating the construction of the bunkers with the table of efficiencies of the four types of cars, two essential principles for the production of low temperatures stand out prominently. First, the bunker must per- mit of the ice being finely crushed and evenly mixed with the salt; and, second, there must be a free admittance of the warm air of the car at the top of the bunker and a free exit of the cold air at the bottom. Such requirements are apparently met most suc- cessfully by the tank on the one hand and the wire basket on the other. In this case simplicity of construction has been compatible with efficiency. Various attempts have been made to use overhead ice bunkers and, in a few instances, brine pipes for circulation have been tried, but in most cases the objectionable features were so numerous that TOTES ELL UIE ITI ET TEA ‘Fic. 8 .—Siphon bunker used in type A car. 24 BULLETIN 17, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. these systems were soon discarded. Even the best arrangements now in common use leave much to be desired in the way of circula- tion. Cars of type B (Table 5) show an average difference of 7 de- grees between the bunker end and center of the car under ordinary icing. The cars of type D, with heavier insulation, maitam a lower average temperature throughout the car, but, even in this case, the center of the car averages 5° F. warmer than the bunker end. otitis These differences | [| |. are sometimes dis- Oy) | ser SSS Sa eS == astrous in their ture at the ends of the car, next to the ice bunkers, is sufficiently low to transport the poultry in an excellent state of preservation. At the same time the temperature at the center, 8 or 10 degrees warmer, is so high that the goods from this part of the car are at a disadvantage of five or six days of market time as compared with the bunker ff eeffects on poultr i P y s fia = shipments. - | TEMPERATURE IN CAR. Ly DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BUNKER AND y CENTER. ( ay In many shipments the tempera- } E ee bea ; “a | bad er | EY os wy AS | RY PAVAPAD hd Bd a SS OSES (ta ia) id BS ee ee. 2 ee In figure 13, a, Fy P22 SBS IIIS. FTES FED IF LIEN ¢ | HS is presented the Fic. 9.—Galvanized-iron bunker used in type B car. temp erature rec- ord for the end and center of the car in Experiment 2078, car type D. The atmos- pheric temperature during the haul averaged 50° F. (10° C.), with a minimum of 42° F. (5.5° C.) and a maximum of 61° F. (16.1° C.). The differences in temperature between the bunker and the center of the car were comparatively small in this shipment, and the analyses of the samples carried at the bunker show good preservation. The findings of the chemical laboratory are in group 1 of Table 2. The efficiency of this car was 1.23. Figure 13, b, shows another shipment, Experiment 2096, car type C, where a wide difference in temperature is manifest between the two positions in the car. The atmospheric temperature averaged 54° F. (12.2° C.), with a minimum of 49° F. (9.4° C.) and a maximum of 61° F. (16.1° C.). The temperature at the bunker was low at the REFRIGERATION OF DRESSED POULTRY IN TRANSIT. 25 beginning of the haul, but failed to hold. Samples from this position fall, by chemical analysis, into group 1, Table 2. The efficiency of the car is represented by 1.05. Figure 13, ¢, d, of cars belonging to type C, are the records of Experiments 2085 and 2099, respectively. Experiment 2085, with an outside temperature averaging 72° F’. (22.2° C.), gave an efficiency of 1.01; Experiment 2099, with the atmosphere averaging 61° F. (16.1° C.), is represented by 1.02. The analyses of the poultry carried at the bunker ends of these cars are found in group 2, Table 2. Figure 13, e, f, pre- ee ee sents records of sam- Ox ————————— , : Gi —————— A les belonging ‘to \ C NERA Se 2 Bs at Iai SIRS ROD ToS: Group IIT, figure iL rIxs Aut ; ali aapiooetl a | The cars were of HOp JO 5 i fee al type D. The records illustrate the 4 HOR ° e| | effect of long service on cars which iH Hl : || Gl were at one time excellent refrigerators. BILIARY ‘| # These two cars are of a very old series sta! bile xt B Vi ey © Hi of this type and seem to have lost { i {| ij their efficiency through the continual A W| wear and tear to which they are sub- Ect lof if fl jected. Their efficiency was 0.56 and Rexs |i t) ( f : y : li N | ¢| Wl 0.87, respectively, as compared with SA PE re 1.19, the average for their type. The AH | We y le N of Jo} atmospheric temperatures averaged We |S oe t70° BET 1%) and. 77°! MaG@s C.), | ‘ WH Enaabhaad ‘respectively. The goods at the bunker Ne | \ea-ans5 end of these cars show the effects of Hs =a a high temperatures, as may be seen by Ne 2) reat reference to group 3 Ua | ee Spel aoe SS ees. of Table 2, or column JD SEES «99 of cure 2. Fig. 10.—Wire basket bunker used in type C car. Figure 13, q; h, shows records of ship- ments which yielded samples of Group IV, figure 1. The cars were of type B, efficiency, 0.60 in each case. The records shown as figure 13, g, were made in a comparatively new car, when the outside temperature averaged 74° F. (23.3° C). It was possible to reduce the bunker to a low temperature at the begin- ning, but as soon as the car started on the trip the temperature began to rise and never receded. The temperature at the center was never low. The records in figure 13, h, were both high at all times. This was an older car of type B. The outside temperature averaged 73° F. (22.7° C.), with a maximum variation of 17° F. The differences between bunker end and center are practicallv lost 26 BULLETIN 17, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. in this shipment, the whole car bemg warmer than is a good refrig- erator,even at the bunker. Itseems impossible during warm weather to reduce the air at the center of thinly insulated cars to the tem- perature best suited to the transportation of dressed poultry. EFFECT OF CAPACITY. The cars of type D, which are the most efficient of those studied, are likewise the smallest in point of cubic capacity. The total available space in these cars is about 1,640 cubic feet. Type C provides about 1,833 cubic feet of space, but with this increased loading capacity there is a decrease in the power to main- tain low tempera- tures. TypeC, how- ever, has one-half inch less insulation on the roof than type D. The cars of type B, which reduce the roof insulation by still another one-half inch, offer about 2,050 cubic feet of space, but at a big ~ sacrifice in efficiency. Type A, with the same insulation as type B, is smaller, 1,909 cubic feet, and is correspondingly higher in efficiency. Another type of car, with insulation as represented in figure 5, f (sides), fig- ure 6, d (roof), and figure 7, e (floor), has an available space of 2,010 cubic feet. Even with the three layers of one-half inch insulation Fig. 11.—Iron tank bunker used in type D car. throu ghout, there is a wide difference in temperature between the center and ends of the car during warm weather (fig. 14). From this figure it is evident that, in the very large cars, one and one-half inches of insulation is not enough to insure the best temperatures for poultry transportation while comparatively high atmospheric temperatures prevail. Figure 15 gives temperature records in cars insulated, as shown in figure 5, e (sides), figure 6, e¢ (roof), and figure 7, f (floor). These cars are of the large type, but with the 2 inches of insulation on the roof the interior temperatures at the bunker were fairly satisfactory. The results, as a whole, indicate that large cars require additional insulation to yield the same efficiency as the small cars. REFRIGERATION OF DRESSED POULTRY IN TRANSIT. 27 TEMPERATURE OF PACKAGES IN CAR. During the late winter and spring of 1912 an investigation was made of the variations in the temperature of the poultry in different parts of the barrel and box packages, of the inequalities in tempera- ture in different parts of the car, and of the fluctuations of car tem- perature as affected by outside atmospheric changes. J. F. Fernald, mechanical assistant, Bureau of Plant Industry, made several trips, accompanying carloads of dressed poultry from Tennessee to the New York and Phila- delphia markets. The necessary thermometer readings were made at intervals of three or four hours during the day, at times when the train happened to be at rest. For these tests a thermograph in a wooden box of three-fourths inch material was suspended from the bottom of the car (see PI. I, fig. 1), to obtain acontinuousrecord of thetem- perature of the outside air. Inside the car five thermographs, in similar wooden boxes, were used—one at the top and one at the bottom of the load next to the bunker, two others ina similar arrangement at the cen- ter of the car midway between the doors, and ee the fifth SER EE TEED E EEE next to the side wall of the car. These thermograph records were supplemented with the readings of eight electric thermometers, located at similar positions in the car (see Pl. I, fig. 2). The conduit wires from the thermometers con- verged in a small holder or box which was suspended just beneath the lid of the ice hatch at a point which would be easily accessible from the top of the car. From this position the thermometers were read by means of an electric apparatus carried by the messenger in charge. This operation was performed without opening the car doors, and was thus. protected against the admission of warm air and artificial air currents. These electric thermometers are about 10 inches long and are APE Ae =r ss Sy ZA Ee Ee I SS ES TO) pA A et ped ed Fic. 12.—Simple box bunker. ‘28 BULLETIN 17, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. one-half inch in diameter, and when used to determine the tempera- ture of the poultry they were inserted entirely into the box or barrel, . and not disturbed during the transit period. 120 HOURS PaO ‘cP cakal [__Ex2beo [PS m—os—O=——= THERMOGRAFYI FECORO AT BUNKER END OF CARS. -=-Or<-0-=— 77 77 27 CENTEF 72 27 Fic. 13.—Typical car records for routine shipments. Data for these shipments will be found in Table _ 2, as follows: a, b, in group 1;c, d, in group 2; e, f, in group 3; g, h, in group 4. COLD WEATHER SHIPMENTS. The chart shown as figure 16 presents the record of a car shipped in February, 1912, from Tennessee to New York City. The weather was cold during the entire trip. The thermographs, in wooden boxes, Bul. 17, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLaTE |. Fic. 1.—RESISTANCE THERMOMETER. a, Thermometer; b, leader; c, plug; d, plug box; e, indicator. Fic. 2.—ELECTRIC THERMOMETERS IN CAR. REFRIGERATION OF DRESSED POULTRY IN TRANSIT. 29 were in immediate contact with the poultry packages containing the electric thermometers. The records are given in pairs, thermograph and thermometer, according to their position in the car. The tem- perature of the air in the car was not appreciably affected by the small changes which occurred in the atmospheric temperature. The tem- perature inside the poultry boxes was almost constant, even in those packages next to the bunker where the temperature of the air was 7 or 8 degrees lower for a day or two. The car in which this shipment was made was of type C (Table 5). Figure 17 presents the records of a shipment made in a type B car in very cold weather. The fluctua- tion in car temperature was marked and was very similar in all parts of the car. WARM WEATHER SHIPMENTS. The records of a shipment made in April are shown as figure 18. The weather was warmer than that which prevailed during the two shipments previously described. ~ This ex- periment again shows that the temperature of the poultry does not fluctuate with the wide changes of the air of the car. Its fluctua- tions are much slower andsmaller. Thelower SS ho Baar 20 chart indicates the Ap EO RE Eos Be CAR po usual prevailing differ- rem PEERS pc Gee Nee s PERS, enceintemperaturebe- ~ 69m 6am 6pm 6am. tween the bunker end Fic. 14.—Temperatures in large car with three layers of half-inch insulation on roof 1] d floor. and center of the car. 7 a ae The charts shown as figure 19 are a detailed representation of the temperature records of a shipment made in April, 1912. This car was accompanied throughout the trip by two messengers. The poul- try was packed in small barrels, or kegs, which were loaded in a single course, one barrel high. Sections J, I, and III of this chart are ther- mograph records, and IV, V, and VI are electric thermometer records. The car, which was of type C, was insulated with hair felt, which in the floor was water soaked and very much decomposed. This faulty floor reduced the efficiency of the car to 0.71 as compared with 1.03, the average for this type. It resulted, in some instances, in eee temperatures at the floor than at the top of the barrel. The temperature (F) of the poultry in the middle of the barrel next to the bunker changed very little, the change being much slower than in the air outside of the barrel (K and L). Thermometers, G and H, 30 BULLETIN 17, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. on the inside of the barrel next to the side wall of the car, half way between the bunker and door, showed a gradual rise of temperature, G reaching 36.5° F. (2.2°C.). It is interesting to note that on account of the wet floor the poultry in the bottom half of the barrel was some- times 2 or 3 degrees warmer than that in the top half. The poultry in the middle portion of the car, away from the side walls, was likewise gradually increasmg in temperature (J), but lagged far behind the temperature of the air in the car. The air in the car became warmer Q. G Yi 6pm. 6am. 6pm. 6am. Fig. 15.—Pemperatures in large cars with 2 inches of insulation on roof. during the day and again colder at night (III, VI). Even the tem- perature inside the poultry barrel along the side of the car was notice- ably influenced (V, G) by the warm atmosphere during the day. CONCLUSIONS. The chemical data obtained by analyzing well-handled, dry-packed, dressed poultry after transportation in refrigerator cars indicate that the condition of this commodity is greatly influenced by the tempera- tures prevailing in the car throughout the transit period. The rail- roads have recognized that ‘dairy freight,” which includes dressed poultry, eggs, and butter, requires refrigerator service for the greater REFRIGERATION OF DRESSED POULTRY IN TRANSIT. or part of the year. Because of the fact that this class of goods is ad- mittedly extremely perishable, the railroads have endeavored to per- fect its transportation, but, lacking definite information concerning either the detriment or the benefit of present equipment and practices, the advances have of necessity been slow. Temperatures for dressed poultry—The experiments indicate that less than 31° F. is the most satisfactory temperature of dressed poultry for long hauls. It will be seen, by referring to figure 2, that 6 FY 6A/. 6PY4. 6AM. 6 F/M. 6 ASM. 6 PY. 6AM. 6 A/7. 6AM. 6PM. LEGEWVO- THERMOGRAPH RECORD, BOTTOM OF LOAD, CENTER OF CAF. —o—0— OUTSIDE ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE. ~O-O ELECTRIC THERMOMETER, 77 77 72 72 77, 27 INVS/DE PACKAGE. Ir THEFIIOGRAPH, TOP OF LOAD, CENTER OF CAFR, /H/DDLE. ~-- ELECTRIC THEF/IO/MIETER, TOP OF LOAD, CENTER OF CAR, /NVSIDE PACKAGE. Il THERIMOGRAFH, BOTTOM OF LOAD, BUNKER END, (7/DDLE. 7-0 ELECTRIC THERMOMETER, SOTTO/T OF LOAD, BUNKER END, /H/DOLE, INSIDE PACKAGE. IV THERIMMOGRAFPH, TOP OF LOAD, BUNKER END, 17/DDLE. ~~ =< ELECTRIC THERIMO/IETER, TOP OF LOAD, BUNKER END, MIDDLE, INSIDE PACKAGE. V THERIMOGRAPH, BOTTO/T OF LOAD, CENTER OF CAR, VEXT TO DOOR. 7 --0- ELECTRIC THERMO/FETER, 8077041 OF LOAD, CENTER OF CAP,NEXT TO DOOR, INSIDE PACKAGE. Fig. 16.—Thermograph and electric thermometer records in cold-weather shipment. a 10-degree rise in the temperature of the car during the haul makes a difference in keeping time of at least five days on the New York mar- ket when the market environment is favorable. Such an observation is worthy of the serious attention of shippers, receivers, and carriers, since all feel the depression that ultimately results from putting poor goods on the market. More far-reaching, however, is the further observation, pictured in figure 3, that even such excellently handled poultry as comprised these experimental shipments, if exposed to 32 BULLETIN 17, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. unfavorable temperatures during transportation, receive an impetus toward decay that can not be overcome by subsequent irreproachable treatment on the market. It is a comparatively simple matter to prevent decay; it is, at the present time, impossible to stop it by the use of low temperatures once a foothold has been gained. Imperfect ne 7? 27 BOTTOM BOTTO/7 77 77 beh 77: 77 77 77 27 77 77 —-- —-8UNKER END OF CAR,NEXT TO WALL, 70P OF LOAD. 7 s—~~—— BUNKER END OF CAR, MT/DDLE, TOP OF LOAD. a7 BOTTOM 7 727 BOTTO/777 77 7? 7? 77 7 2 Fig. 17.—Electric thermometer records inside of packages in cold-weather shipment. 7? 2? 77 7? mm -—— CENTER OF CAR, /I/DDOLE, TOP OF LOAD. ——---CENTEF OF CAFP?,NEXT TO DOOR, TOP OF LOAD. work by the carrier nullifies to a certain extent the work of the ship- per and the wholesaler or retailer handling the goods on the market. The temperatures indicated by this investigation to be most desirable for the transportation of dressed poultry are considerably lower than those generally accepte as satisfactory. They are, however, quite in REFRIGERATION OF DRESSED POULTRY IN TRANSIT. 33 line with scientific findings and practical experience in the preserva- tion of dressed poultry by refrigeration in the packing plants and warehouses. That definite standards have not heretofore been ap- plied to the performance of a refrigerator car is due to the difficulty of accurately determining what takes place between the closing of the car doors and its arrival at its destination. Without such informa- tion car builders were working more or less in the dark. ¥ © 6 PM. A 6 PM. 6AM. 6PM. —|6 A.M. 6PM. 6AM 6AM. 6AM 6PM. 30 ele ee beget peg ip fe a ee Rete SS SSs oS LEGEND - I THEFIMOGRAFH, OUTSIDE ATIIOSPHEFRE. —o—o-— THERMOMETER READINGS. THEFTIOGRAFH, TOP OF LOAD, CEIVTER OF LOAD, /I/DDLE. I —~—o— ELECTRIC THERMO/IETER, TOP OF LOAD, CENTER OF GAR, 17/DDOLE, OUT51DE OF PACKAGE. ------ 7? 77 77 27 27 72 77 77 77 INS/DE 77 77 THERMOGRAPH, TOP OF LOAD, BUNKER END, MIDDLE: Tl _-— 77 LOTTOM 77 77 27 22 77 ——- ELECTRIC THER MO/IETER, TOP OF LOAD, BUNKER END, IMIDDLE, OUTSIDE OF PACKAGE. ------ 27 27 a) ek) 77 77 77 27 INSIDE 7 77 WV ———. FHERMOGRAFPH, BOTTOM OF LOAD, CENTER OF GAR, /7/DDLE. _-— 77 a7 77 WEUNKEREND 7 I 77 Fic. 18.—Thermograph and electric thermometer records (April shipment). Efficiency of cars—If the mformation furnished by 120 car-lot shipments of dressed poultry in 120 individual cars of six different lines can be accepted as conclusive, we must infer that most of the refrigerated carriers of the United States are not able to maintain sufficiently low temperatures during warm weather to transport a low-temperature commodity, such as dressed poultry, under the best of conditions. It is encouraging to observe that certain refrigerator cars are much more efficient than others, and that their increased efficiency apparently depends upon their construction. 34 BULLETIN 17, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The insulation of the car in relation to temperature is its most vul- nerable and its most important part, the construction of the ice bunker coming next in importance. In the past the insulation has not been sufficiently heavy to maintain the low temperatures pro- duced by the refrigerant, and the source of refrigeration, the bunker, has not been able to distribute its product evenly throughout the car. aa XSOOS 76) r_|T 0 mm 42 5 ; A 4O ‘ a ' a 3 Oi 22 1 Cc ot 38 7 K Ae ‘ a ‘ 6 36 7 i ealiegey [eee oe _ Al! 65) \ he \ aS sell yg “ oo y 30 x Aa G 28 6 26 G Nexy 44 x IV a Vv VI 42 fj iS) i 40, x S50 Ny i ~ 1 ~ se [ee - Vy, ¢ v x P x 36 ir ~-— Ps, ~ ; A eat “3 book Ie St! By 0 ! Y 4. -o aeh_+ bine = = + = as 7 Ty wy 0 v ; Is, ae RE AL 3 “] = in (Pee 30 7 a 40) : + 28 4 5 kK } 26 35] 24K ht| Day 2 7 2 ey 4 Si 7 2 3 F S 7 2 3 F 5 pAYS LEGEND. I THERMOGRAPH. TOP OF HN, BUNKER Cie: THEE. SSS BO7T7T0/ » U { THERMOGRAPH TOP OF LOAD, BUNKER END, NEXT 7O.5/DE WALL I THERMOGRAPH. TOP OF LOAD, CENTER OF CAR, (1/DDLE Se Sses 80770 7 7 7 if BAB OTAS THERMOMETER TOP OF LOAD, BD ae PE Berea oP BEE IW 4-1=!='- » BOTTOM » ------ ” 2 INSIDE CENTER OF SRI. BUNKER END, 77/DOLE Vv ELECTRIC WEL AETEE INSIDE TOPHALF OF BARREL, NEXT TO SIDE WALL. HALFWAY BETWEEN BUNKER AND CENTER ------ ” » BOTTOM 7») SANE BARREL. ELECTRIC TELAT ES OW TOP OF BARREL, CENTER OF Cake, Pais VI Soo UNDER 77 fd =<---- ” ” INSIDE CENTER OF SAIIE BARREL We vi ATMOSPHERIC TEMPERATURE. Fig. 19.—Thermograph and electric thermometer records (warm weather), floor insulation of car wet. The insulation in the side walls and floors of the cars used by six different lines shows no radical differences in quantity or quality, though the general construction in certain cases is preferable. The roofs are varied in the essentials of construction. Theoretically it is the roof of the car which is most severely taxed to prevent the trans- mission of heat. A critical study of the types of roof construction as given in the foregoing pages indicates that the most efficient cars studied were those with the roofs which were the best insulated and built. It is probable that im the future more attention will be paid to both roof and floor insulation and that the floor will be built with the insulation more effectively protected against moisture, REFRIGERATION OF DRESSED POULTRY IN TRANSIT. 35D The ice bunker.—Looking into the future through the glasses of the present, one sees trains of classified freight supplied with refrigeration from a portable, mechanical source. Until that dream is a reality it behooves us to raise the work of the ice bunker to its maximum capacity. The types of bunker most commonly used are sketched and described in this report. The most-eflicient would seem to be an emphatic indorsement of simplicity of construction based upon a sound scientific foundation. We know that abundant air access to ice and salt results in increased efficiency; hence the principle of the wire basket is sound. We know also that the brine resulting from the solution of the salt in the melted ice contains available cold; hence the holding back of the brine in the tank bunker increases the ability of the bunker to chill the car. Equality of temperatures in iced cars.—A serious shortcoming of the present types of refrigerator cars is their almost universal inability to equalize the temperature at the center and at the bunker, keeping both sufficiently low. Undoubtedly good bunkers and additional insulation, assisted by a stowing of the load in such a way that run- ways for cold air are left between packages, will materially help to improve results, but whether these remedies will suffice is still an open question. Fortunately for the preservation of the poultry shipped, the well- cooled package does not show fluctuations of temperature correspond- ing to those in the air of the car. A long-continued increase of tem- perature, or a direct contact between the package and the source of the heat, as, for example, the wall of the car, affects the temperature of the goods in the course of time. Sometimes the packages show slight evidences of the daily rise and nightly fall of temperature, but more often it is the gradual but constant or maintained rise in the temperature of the car that is responsible for the objectionable results seen at the expiration of the haul. Future work.—The investigation which is here chronicled is only a small beginning in the solution of the problems confronting the shipper, the carrier, and the receiver in the handling of refrigerated perishable products. It is eminently necessary that such questions as the most efficient and economic size of the refrigerated car, the exact amount of insulation required to insure the maintenance of low temperatures, or, conversely, to protect the contents of the car against frost, the equalization of temperatures in all parts of the car, and many others, be pressed for more exact and far-reaching answers. It is hoped that the present report will stimulate further research in these and in other directions. eee onus COPIES of this publication may be procurcd from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 10 cents per copy Cay : bie tae ' ADS 14) ee) a SS eh. eel iS aunt Fa hod ah, Co ie i “Ok ' ir : pate ras ven Sy ipaliiragieto. rae pee cp ie a ; bs hscedela Ad arabe Secs: rts fi . . i at Me } Whitt met Ay sae’ te f deat! 2m ‘ fe ‘se Hive ‘Sahebamebosn Meath febeeish AL 5 Vel tw ee oe voit aa = maby facapes ao “ied ESR ws: ca Ay ike pe digit Base cra pater he Ly ; ae ss BUBBLE TIN, OF THE USDEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE No. La) gee) Contribution from the Bureau of Soils, Milton Whitney, Chief, October |, 1913. A REPORT ON THE PHOSPHATE FIELDS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. By Wm. H. Wacaaman, Scientist in Investigation of Fertilizer Resources. INTRODUCTION. The first important discoveries of phosphorites or amorphous phos- phates made.in this country were those of South Carolina. For many years these fields furnished most of our supply and much of Europe’s. But during the last 20 years the output has been gradually diminish- ing, owing in part to the exhaustion of the more readily accessible rock, but chiefly to the marketing of higher-grade phosphate from other sources. Although many interesting and valuable articles and papers on these deposits have been published from the time of their first ex’plo- ration in 1868 down to the year 1904, conditions in these fields have changed so materially during the last decade that it is thought advisable to issue the present bulletin. This reviews briefly the his- tory of South Carolina phosphates, describes the present methods of mining and handling the rock, shows what disposal is being made of the product, and discusses the future of the industry. HISTORY. The existence of the phosphate stratum was known for many years before its true nature and value were recognized. As far back as 1839 * the upper portion of the heavy marl (including the phosphate stratum) was known as the ‘“‘Fish Bed” of the Charleston Basin on account of the numerous teeth and bones of marine animals contained therein. In 1842 Edmund Ruffin? made an agricultural survey of South Carolina, but his report, which was issued the following year, dealt chiefly with the occurrence and extent of the marls of the State. Holmes * states that he and some of' his associates submitted samples of the nodular phosphate to Ruffin for examination, but apparently 1 Holmes, F.S. The Phosphate Rocks of South Carolina, p. 65 (1870). 2Chazal. A Sketch of the South Carolina Phosphate Industry, p. 34 (1904). 3 The Phosphate Rocks of South Carolina, p. 57 (1870). 7633°—12 2 BULLETIN 18, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. no determination other than that of their lime content was made. Holmes,’ in 1844, described ‘‘a remarkable bed of nodules or conglom- — erates 12 inches thick bedded in clay which overlaid the heavy beds of marl.” Tuomey,”? who succeeded Ruffin, issued a report in 1848 in which he described the same stratum and called the phosphate nodules “marl stones.””’ He was convinced that they were derived from the underlying marl, for he says, ‘‘There is little more left than the silica and alumina of the marl.’ In the appendix of this same report ? are a number of analyses made by Prof. Charles U. Shepard showing the phosphate content of the marl, but none showing the amount of phos- phoric acid in the nodules. Holmes,‘ in a later publication, also regards the phosphate nodules as silicified fragments of the underlying marl. Chazal® states that Prof. Charles U. Shepard was the first to point out the true value of the phosphate nodules. He quotes from a lec- - ture delivered by Shepard before the medical society in 1859, which indicates that the latter was then acquainted with the nature of the phosphate stratum. Chazal also quotes from letters which show that Shepard had advised the use of the Ashley phosphates in lieu of bones - as far back as 1860. The outbreak of the Civil War, however, put a stop to fertilizer operations, and it was not until 1867 that Dr. St. Julien Ravanel, Dr. F. 5S. Holmes, and Dr. N. A. Pratt revived inter- est in these deposits and obtained capital sufficient for their exploita- tion. To Dr. Pratt belongs the credit of the first recorded analysis of high-grade South Carolina phosphate. From 1868, when 12,262 tons of rock were produced from the South Carolina fields, to the year 1893, which showed a production of 618,569 tons, the industry steadily grew, but since the latter date the production, has diminished, till in 1911 the total amount mined was only 169,156 tons. GEOGRAPHY AND TOPOGRAPHY. The phosphate area of South Carolina les along the coast in a belt, which is in places fully 20 miles wide, extending from the Wando River in Charleston County to the Broad River in Beaufort County. (See fig. 1.) The coast region as a whole is very little above tide level and is intersected with numerous creeks, rivers, and arms of the sea. Most of these streams are navigable and afford the phosphate oper- ators a ready means of transportation for their product. Many of 1 South Carolina Agriculturist (1844). 2 Geology of South Carolina, p. 165 (1848). 2 Geology of South Carolina. Appendix (1848). 4 Post Pliocene Fossils of South Carolina. Introduction, p. 0 (4860). 5 A Sketch of the South Carolina Phosphate Industry (1904). at REPORT ON THE PHOSPHATE, FIELDS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 3 the phosphate properties are reached by the Atlantic Coast Line, the Southern, and the Charleston & Western Carolina Railroads, or spurs from these roads. CLASSES OF PHOSPHATE. The South Carolina phosphate deposits are usually classified under two heads, namely, the “River Rock” and the “Land Rock.” The River Rock was at first the most easily exploited, since 1t was cleaner and after being dredged from the river bed required but little IN ‘e —— Ni == == Wi LAND ROCK RIVER ROCK Fig. 1.—Approximate distribution of the South Carolina phosphates. subsequent treatment to make it a marketable product. It was some time before a satisfactory method of mining and cleaning Land Rock was devised. The two types of phosphate, however, are practically identical, the River Rock bemg merely the Land Rock washed down and concentrated in the river beds. The mining of River phosphate has now ceased and the rock shipped from South Carolina is all from the land and marsh deposits. This report, therefore, deals chiefly with the land deposits. 4 BULLETIN 18, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. he GEOLOGICAL OCCURRENCE AND ORIGIN. The phosphate-bearing stratum belongs to the Tertiary period, but geologists differ considerably regarding the exact age of the phosphate. Toumey' is of the opmion that the phosphate nodules are derived from the fragments of the Eocene marl on which the beds rest. This author, however, was unacquainted with the true nature of the phos- phate. Holmes,’ Shepard,? and Chazal‘ also think the nodules are waterworn fragments of the Eocene marl enriched by the leaching out of the carbonate of lime and absorption of phosphoric acid from solution. These authors assign the phosphate stratum to the post- Phocene formation. Chazal points out that it is hardly likely that the nodules have derived their phosphoric acid from the animal remains with which they are mingled, since these remains themselves have been enriched by phosphatization after deposition. Levat* and Brown *—the latter quoting extensively from the former—agree with the above authors concerning the origin of the phosphate, but say it occurs at the Miocene horizon. Pratt’ thinks it belongs to an even more recent formation and that it is derived from the feces and remains of both terrestrial and marine animals intermingled with disintegrated coral and deposited in the form of a calcareous and ~ phosphatic mud. He considers the present beds the result of fresh- - water rivers cutting through the phosphate strata and separating the more from the less valuable material. This author thinks the forma- tion of these beds is still gomg on. Dall,’ from an examination of the fossils, states without hesitation that the phosphate is derived from rocks of Miocene age and thinks it doubtful if the underlying marl belongs to the Eocene. The phosphate occurs in the form of nodules and bowlders embed- ded in a matrix of sand, clay, and calcareous mud. The beds vary from a few inches to 3 feet in thickness, with an average thickness of approximately 1 foot. The nodules average from 30 to 50 per cent of the phosphate stratum, and the beds will yield from 300 to 1,500 tons of phosphate per acre, with an average of about 850 tons. The beds, as a rule, do not follow the coutour of the land surface, but lie nearly horizontal. The overburden, therefore, varies considerably from place to place. Although only the upper stratum is mined, phosphate nodules are found at more than one horizon. The following table of Prof. | 1 Geology of South Carolina, pp. 164, 165 (1848). 2 Phosphate Rocks of South Carolina, pp. 27-31 (1870). 3 South Carolina Phosphates, pp. 22-24 (1880). 4A Sketch of the South Carolina Phosphate Industry (1904). 5 Industrie des Phosphates et Superphosphates, pp. 83-84. 6 Eng. Assoc. of the South Trans. 15, pp. 58-60 (1904). 7 Native Bone Phosphates of South Carolina, pp. 24-28 (1868). 8 Amer. Jour. Sci., ser. 3, p. 296 (1894). Bul, 18, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture PLATE I, Fig. 2.—LOADING PHOSPHATE ON FLAT CARS BY HAND. REPORT ON THE PHOSPHATE FIELDS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 5 Shepard, published by Chazal,' shows the various strata and their content of phosphoric acid. Tasuie I.—Thickness and character of strata in phosphate regions of South Carolina as determined from a well. . Equivalent Content of } Character of stratum. Pepa oh ena | Speepteto qi of lime. z E 2 2 2 PSE ASSES. eee eae eee Feet Per cent. Per cent. Aap aera atta a leta oy ecaiete|s een ain, <2 nie /ms wieie (= cima shale ici =< we sie seyoeine se deeiat 17- 20 0.42 0.92 LeLiO\s EG Ta (0 WES Se Roe moe Heese cot epee oder adsce oc See eee ceee 26— 30 26.79 58.48 URE td Paneer ra ofa ots i ic late ccia nae! e pinia wielwrec olerapaipspa a's weicinteledaja aie aretcte 26- 30 3.07 6.70 RE See eee SEE Me A SOLER (tyes sfemae eed ace Sa. 34 3.01 6.57 Joy Oli Ii) CBR eae nt AeOe er Baee are orto sans aan rn an me ae omesr 46 2. 03 4.43 1 Tar aspo iE LUG TOG DEEL OFA See ieee rele ger aaa Aen mee a aa ee 8 70 22.72 49.59 A ME COOS ITEM Goes Bh Sp orabeguson. Coes Beede de Spaadee er a oeaa ater Boe e 85 1. 26 2.74 SY Chere Pe late eter ise tat a eat e s Meerae ttle ci bctaainarele = aidicinie ste 90 1.51 3.30 RESTS Tote NC MELO (LULL OS seeye yas yale ats ote ie arate erase Sie (ein fo o)=itista » otels eve Mise Ries, 104 13. 38 29. 20 CANS clacle aia Wore S Hem paealctolete aya Sa eee btetatutetalo. a at sfelaesreids 110-112 23. 60 51.52 AHEM Oo Va ES eae So AC Bae GEE Ee SAREE Sa eaS ae ae eee eae 110-112 10. 65 23. 24 EP eco Spo TRUE: ING OIL MOSS aa eee Pee hae Se ee ee et oe ee el EG 125-128 15. 81 34.91 LENG igi LAS Be ene nem ne eres Ge eae eS ee Re OU OLO OSES Ne 125-128 1. 23 2.68 PHPUMACEOUS MALL sacra Serine oars aaieietteele ctetaine s eb eetea deals site aks 145 ALTA GEStA A see etic a3 DORM Saiole ESI ED RHE DE CORO Sao CEE ASRS Rae ae eee we 170 TET ACeS? Sb raseter oot 1D Dire Geis Eee SR OC SETTLE eH EIS PAE Oe Ea av 228 (MTAGCCS Alex aclec ease’ TO): co Cede igs Sr SEis SEES Bans BRL eb ee ean Beis ep ee 255 IMTACES. |S. Seek ae RaILOST) Peni CMO CLUE Oserersre aie ca oe acta ora inic [ala el atehtes ea al aiersitmra elo esis oie 280 22.47 49.05 BEA ee OCU Sutil cum lise eevee ae ae ee Oe SS iced oer go MN a 286 . 60 1.31 Mann OSD UAUICHETAIMS ct. 26. o es toes aciewcle noe cence ences 287-290 5.96 13. 01 PAOa ben CHOULS UIE AT Weppye james eons olay ci haPeAe ee eet « aclecepyqannee ees 300-305 3.37 7.37 SHON) TM cide Gobel S Oso USER Sag Ieee SE: Bet ees amare At Bete 305-306 90 1.96 IDO) SB RE ea che re ae a ae 307 . 80 1.75 EHEC OT one er pret arses ero ae ao hon se geiews AS 309-311 63 1.37 JP TOS ONNTTS FOE) STO ech be BoA See ee ae ele eee ney ce ea ee 312-313 Qe 60. 52 JStSirGLTOENO) oh Nyaa Gan A eee ee oer Sie en ene ete ee ae ape EN Ses 312-313 2.47 5.39 Sandy limestone... . - Pe oe ale Si atsicke to eiaje Siege jayne Sg Ee Oa ine ee 315-316 1.02 2.22 RMSATTIMIET GSEOM Oem mine oe tee sac ci at eS oaee tise te estes She hmaren cats 321-322 95 2.07 SHE aS ly Lane SONA AM eS Ae ee I hor a eee 323 1.05 2.29 1 Including phosphatic nodules. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL PROPERTIES. The South Carolina phosphates occur in nodules varying from the size of sand grains to bowlders weighing several tons. The rock varies in hardness and texture from soft porous material to hard, lustrous, flintlike pieces. The nodules are sometimes smooth rounded or kidney shaped, closely resembling ‘‘coprolites,’’ but more often they are irregular in shape, pitted, or completely perforated, the holes usually being filled with sand and clay, which has to be removed by washing. In color the rock varies from grayish white to almost jet black, and between these two extremes there are a variety of shades of red, yellow, and brown. The River Rock and that found in the marshes is usually darker in color than that found farther inland, owing probably to a larger percentage of organic matter. The rock varies in specific gravity from 2 to 2.5; and from a large number of determinations made by Shepard the average is 2.4. The nodules are usually denser and harder on their surface than in the interior, but this is not always so. 1 Sketch of the South Carolina Phosphate Industry, p. 26 (1904). 6 BULLETIN 18, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. After calcining, the rock becomes more brittle and can be readily and cheaply ground. Although the South Carolina phosphate is considerably lower in erade than that from many other sources, it makes an acid phosphate - of excellent quality and good mechanical condition for mixing pur- poses. Some farmers prefer this material to the higher grade prod- uct made from Florida or Tennessee phosphate. The rock now marketed contains on the average about 61 per cent of bone phosphate of lime, though individual nodules and fragments are sometimes found which contain as much as 75 per cent. The following table, compiled by Chazal from analyses made by Shepard, gives the composition of South Carolina phosphate from different localities. The samples from which these analyses were made were collected during the early development of the South Carolina phos- phate industry and are of somewhat lower grade than the rock which is now obtained from some of the same localities. TaBLE II.—Phosphate content of South Carolina phosphate rock from various sources. P205, Caz(PO4)s, Cag(PO4)o, dr dried Location. Description. Moisture.| undried | undried basis. basis. basis. ‘ Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. | Per cent. SPONCURIVED = aos cp aeeeleeeeeece mishiticolored esse eee eeeee 3. 68 25. 61 55.91 58. 04 1D Yop ae nee ane Sie Darktcolorede eet sea asec en Saeeee ere 20. 68 Sel ereietbe te i DOF Se aie aoe Beno cee sl eeatee bowlders= se eee 1.50 25.70 56. 21 57. 07 Ashley River, land deposit. . Hot air-dried cargo sample. . - 00 27.01 58. 95 58. 95 Cooper River, land) ideposit...55|ss2eeies bates eee eee eee 10.07 27.11 OOMIS dee eee See se @hisolms Islands non eenee Hot air-dried cargo sample. . . 84 27. 26 59. 51 60. 00 BUlER versa s vec saee ease eee 0 Ko eee Se es areas 5 2s .79 25.14 54. 88 55. 32 Coosa w Rivers. eee | eee ONS aa hsceeeneee eee .o1 27. 26 59. 51 59. 85 DOs eee seenes ee ae CoA. Fa Sees Ee es 66 26.78 58. 46 58. 85 METHODS OF MINING. For many years the mining of South Carolina phosphate was car- ried on by hand labor. For a short time even the washing of the phosphate was done by hand. The product, therefore, was at first regarded rather unfavorably, as it was not clean and produced an acid phosphate of poor quality. The early methods of mining and hand- ling the rock have been largely supplanted by modern and more efficient methods, which turn out a clean, dry product well fitted for the manufacture of acid phosphate. Hand mining is still economi- cally practiced where the overburden is sufficiently light and of such a character as to render the steam shovel unnecessary, but washing by hand has been entirely supplanted by the modern washer plant capable of turning out from 150 to 600 tons of clean rock every day. Hand mining (see PI. J, figs. 1 and 2) is carried out as follows: After thorough prospecting to determine the extent and value of the phosphate property, a ditch is dug through or alongside the tract to be mined and below the level of the phosphate stratum. Laterals REPORT ON THE PHOSPHATE FIELDS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 7 drain into this ditch from the phosphate trenches, which are thus kept comparatively dry. A main line of railroad is established, and spurs from this are run out to the phosphate trenches in such.a way that the material can be loaded easily into flat cars and hauled cheaply to the washer plant. Hand mining is usually performed on contract, a certain price being paid for the rock delivered at the washer. The contractor in turn pays the laborers by the task, assigning each man a section of the phosphate property, from which he removes the overburden and digs out the phosphate and loads it on the cars. Where the overburden is 8 feet or more in thickness steam shovels are employed to remove it. This machine digs a canal about 20 feet wide, depositing the .over- burden on one bank, while a hoist equipped with a single grab bucket, or a series of buckets to be loaded by hand, runs on a track on the opposite bank of the canal. As fast as the steam shovel removes the overburden from the deposit the hoist is used to place the phos- phate thus exposed on the cars. When the limit of the deposit is reached the steam shovel returns, dredging out a canal adjacent to that already dug and depositing the overburden in the old ditch. Many deposits which could not be economically worked by hand are now rendered valuable by the advent of machine mining. (PI. II, figs. 1 and 2.) WASHING THE ROCK. After the washing of the material by hand had been abandoned as entirely inadequate and inefficient, log washers similar to those now used in Floridat were introduced. The matrix in which the South Carolina phosphate is embedded, however, is of such a loose char- acter that an elaborate cleansing process is unnecessary, so that log washers have been supplanted. By the present method the rock is scraped into a hopper, which discharges into a mechanical conveyor composed of units holding one-half ton each. It is carried to the top of the washer, where each unit of the conveyor is automatically dis- charged, and a stream of water washes its contents down to a crusher. From the crusher it is discharged through troughs into the lower end of several cylinder washers, which vary in number from two to eight, depending upon the size of the plant. Each cylinder is 27 feet long and 5 feet in diameter, the discharge end being 14 inches higher than the end where the phosphate material enters. The first part of the lower end and the last 2 feet of the upper end are composed of heavy wire screen, having perforations of a dimension three-sixteenths by three-fourths inch. The interior of the cylinders is fitted with plates arranged in the form of a spiral so that they throw the phosphate forward and toward 1 Waggaman, Bul. No. 76, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. (1910). 8 BULLETIN 18, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the upper end as the cylinder revolves. A 2-inch stream of water under a pressure of 60 pounds to the square inch is played upon the phosphate material from the upper end of the cylinder. This washes the sand, clay, and finely divided phosphate down to the lower end of the cylinder where it escapes through the screen and then flows out through a trough to the wash heap, which is usually located at some distance from the plant. The washed rock falls from the upper end of the cylinder upon a rubber-coated belt 26 to 30 inches in width, along which it is carried to the wet bins. Pickers are stationed along this belt for the purpose of removing clay balls, marl, and any other foreign material which may be mixed with the phosphate. From the wet bins the rock is drawn into cars and sent to the drying sheds, where it is burned on ricks of wood. About 6 cords of wood are re- quired to dry 100 tons of phosphate from a moisture content of 15 per cent down to a moisture content of 0.5 per cent. COST OF PRODUCTION. Unfortunately for the South Carolina phosphate industry, the cost of production has increased without a corresponding advance in the price of phosphate rock. Indeed, the price of this material is now so low that the smaller operators in these fields have entirely ceased mining. The increased cost of mining is largely due to the practical exhaus- tion of the more accessible deposits. It is now frequently necessary to remove an overburden of 15 to 20 feet in order to uncover the phosphate stratum, where formerly there were hundreds of acres of rock lying practically at the surface or covered by only a foot or two of soil. The price of labor has also advanced from 30 to 50 per cent, and frequently it is so difficult to obtain hands that the output of rock is seriously curtailed. The equipment of a modern phosphate plant is both elaborate and costly. Steam shovels for excavation, grab buckets and hoists for taking out the rock, many miles of reel raus, locomotives and flat cars for haulage purposes, heavy machinery for washing the rock, and large sheds for drying and storing the product are essential parts of the present mining system. (PI. III, figs. 1 and 2.) On account of the topography of the South Carolina coast, weather and tide conditions affect the output of phosphate rock. In ramy weather or when the tide is very high the trenches are continually filling with water, the banks caving in, and the continual use of pumps is necessary to make mining possible. The output of rock under such conditions is often cut in half, thus practically doubling the cost of mining per ton. Bul. 18, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, PLATE II. Fic. 1.—MACHINE MINING. REMOVING OVERBURDEN WITH STEAM SHOVEL. Fig. 2.—LOADING UNWASHED PHOSPHATE INTO BUCKETS TO BE HOISTED ONTO FLAT Cars. Bul. 18, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fic. 1.—LOAD OF PHOSPHATE READY FOR THE WASHER. Fic. 2.—DRYING AND STORAGE SHED FOR PHOSPHATE ROCK. REPORT ON THE PHOSPHATE FIELDS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. 9 These numerous and widely varying factors make it very difficult 3 Jus Me to strike an average for the cost of producing high-grade South Carolina phosphate, but the following figures, compiled from data p ) See ’ obtained in these fields and from the author’s own observation, are probably as close approximations as can be obtained. TarxLe II].—Average cost per ton of producing South Carolina phosphate. Ttem. Expense. Item. | Expense. lop \o@ye ia it0bus00 eee ees PEO Oe RNS UITATICR Ha se ee alee ye te ee eee ee oe $0.05 Weabomom washer. —..22---2-----~-------- IG) WN bey See ae maa Soe eee ie iL Bea | 05 AO MOMORVOL sac ecec sass S ec aese cee A> Overhead ehareesse see ea-- ee ee eee } .10 PIS tie inl cn ad == oie 2 = 50g | PW CPLECLALION: eer 3 pl ate n eee e ED uel for power plant..:.-..--------....- 04 ————. MIS tarry OC Kees cond 5 joc wipro ~12 MOA co Hie atc eee ikon Tht so male 3. 46 Interest on investment.........-.--.--.- -40 WASTE MATERIAL. ~ In mining and preparing South Carolina rock for the market the same sources of waste are encountered as in the production of Florida phosphate. The loss of finely divided phosphate (held in suspension and passing through the cylinder screens) incident to the present method of cleaning the rock is very great, though not as great propor- tionally as the loss in washing the Florida product.1 The phosphate stratum will yield on an average about 40 per cent phosphate rock; the remaining 60 per cent, consisting of sand, clay, and finely divided phosphate, is discharged upon the waste heaps. An analysis of mate- rial from the dumps made by the Bureau of Soils showed a content of about 13 per cent bone phosphate of lime, which means that over 20 pen cent of the phosphate taken from the mines is discarded. An- other, though minor, source of waste is at the picking board or belt where the clay balls, marl, etc., are removed by hand Inexperienced and careless pickers frequently throw away much good material. DISPOSAL OF PRODUCT. Although some specimens of South Carolina rock contain as high as 75 per cent of bone phosphate of lime, the average grade of the marketed product is about 61 per cent. Almost the entire output is sold in the State on a guaranty of 60 per cent of bone phosphate and made into acid phosphate by the local factories. The present price of South Carolina rock f. 0. b. at the mines is about $4 per ton. Some rock is shipped to neighboring States and a small amount as far north as Richmond, Va., but the freight rates will hardly admit of its shipment any great distance. The price of the higher grade Tennessee and Florida phosphate f. 0. b. at the mines is so 1 Waggaman, Bul. No. 76, Bureau of Soils, U. S. Dept. Agr. (1911). 10 BULLETIN 18, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. much lower that they can be delivered in Charleston, 8. C., at a price but little above that of the local product. Fimely ground South Carolina phosphate has been tried a number of times on the sous of South Carolina and Georgia. But little success has been — reported, although the increasing use of this form of phosphatic fertilizer in the Middle West indicates the desirability of further investigation. EXTENT OF OPERATIONS. The South Carolina phosphates (Land and River Rock) have been extensively mined in a number of localities—on both sides of the Ashley River, on the banks of the Stono River and in the stream itself, south of the Ashepoo River on Chisolms and Willimans Islands, and in the Coosaw and Beaufort Rivers. The most productive area of Land Rock has been what is ri as the Ashley River Beds, which lie on both sides of tne Ashley River, extending more or less pamieaie over an area of about 200 square iniles. Most of the River Rock marketed in past years was dredged from the Coosaw River, but mining operations there have been dis- continued, owing to the depletion of the richer beds of phosphate | and to the inability of the mining cca to pay the royalty required by the State. PRESENT CONDITION OF ae INDUSTRY. The present condition of the phosphate industry in Sitti Carolina -is not good. The increased cost of mining, together with the low price of the product, has forced the small operator either to abandon his plant or to sell to the larger companies. There are at present only two concerns engaged in miming South Carolina phosphate, and these are operating a total of four washer plants. The largest of these washers is at Lambs, on the Ashley River. Two smaller ones are located on the Stono River, about 9 miles west of Charleston, and the fourth is at Chisolms Island, Beau- fort County. The total output of rock in 1911 was, according to the United States Geological Survey, 169,156 tons. FUTURE OF THE INDUSTRY. Those interested in phosphate mining are rather discouraged at the outlook in South Carolina. There is little mdication of any immediate rise in the price of rock, and the cost of preparmg the phosphate for the market leaves such a narrow margin of profit that mining is only made commercially practicable by the use of up-to-date machinery capable of handling large quantities of material. Adverse weather or labor conditions decrease the margin of profit. a REPORT ON THE PHOSPHATE FIELDS OF SOUTH CAROLINA. li Contrary to general opinion, however, the South Carolina fields are far from exhausted. Thousands of acres of good phosphate land still remain unmined, and though the overburden on much of this property is rather heavy, improvements in mining methods will some day render it all available for fertilizer purposes. An estimate of the actual quantity of phosphate still remaining in South Carolina is necessarily rough, for, though some of the lands have been thoroughly prospected, large areas have not been touched. Chazal,! in 1904, estimated the quantity of South Carolina phosphate still available at from 9,000,000 to 11,000,000 tons. Since that time less than 2,000,000 tons of rock have been marketed, which would leave between 7,000,000 and 9,000,000 tons. Chazal’s estimate seems quite conservative, and the author is inclined to place the available tonnage somewhat higher. Suffice it to say, however, that these South Carolina fields can continue to produce rock at the present rate for many years to come. y & SUMMARY. The South Carolina phosphates were the first important deposits discovered in this country. They have been worked since 1868, and for many years produced most of our supply of phosphatic fertilizer. The phosphate region lies along the coast in a belt extending from the Wando River, in Charleston County, to the Broad River, in Beaufort County. The rock is of Tertiary age and is usually divided into two classes, namely, the land deposits and the river deposits. These classes, however, are practically identical, the latter bemg merely the former washed into the river beds. The rock is mined by first removing the overburden, either by hand or by steam shovels, and then digging out the phosphate stratum thus exposed. The rock is embedded in a matrix of sand and clay, which is removed by a washing process. During this washing much phosphate is discharged and lost in the detritus. The washed rock is afterwards dried by burning on ricks of wood. With the exhaustion of the more accessible deposits and the dis- covery of higher grade phosphates in Florida and Tennessee, the output from South Carolina has fallen off considerably. River min- ing has entirely ceased, and only two companies are mining the Land Rock. The total output mm 1911 was 169,156 tons. The average cost of producing South Carolina phosphate for the market is about $3.46 per ton. This is so little below the present sell- ing price of rock that the rock can not be profitably shipped. Most of it is therefore used locally in the manufacture of acid phosphate. 1 Sketch of the South Carolina Phosphate Industry, p. 18 (1904). 12 BULLETIN 18, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The general opmion has been that the phosphates of South Carolina are practically exhausted. This is far from bemg the case. There are theusands of acres of rich phosphate land still practically un- touched. Although the phosphate on much of this property is covered by a heavy overburden, more efficient. mining methods and improved market and transportation conditions would render it all available. UIT OUT COPIES ofthis publication may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DOCUMENTS, Government Printing Office, Washington, D. C., at 5 cents per copy WASHINGTON : GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE : 1918 BULLEMIN | ORY THE USDEPARTMENT OFAGRICULTURE %:, No. 19 ) Ay HH 6 —aZ7 Q Contribution from the Bureau of Entomology, L. O. Howard, Chief. January 24, 1914. (PROFESSIONAL PAPER.) THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER IN THE LAKE ERIE VALLEY. ie By Frep Jounson, Agent and Expert. INTRODUCTION. For several years past the grape leafhopper, Typhlocyba comes Say (fig. 1), has been increasing in destructive numbers throughout the vine- yards of the Lake Erie Valley, and since 1910 it has been recognized as a serious menace to the grape-growing interests of that region. During the years 1910 and 1911 vineyard experiments for the con- trol of this pest were conducted by the members of the field laboratory force stationed at North Kast, Pa., working under the direction of Mr. A. L. Quaint- ance, in charge of Deciduous Fruit Insect Investiga- tions of the Bureau of Entomology. Owing to the pressure of work involved in the conduct of numer- ous vineyard experiments against this pest, and also against the rose-chafer (Macrodactylus subspinosus Fab.) and the grape-berry moth (Polychrosis viteana Clem.), it was impossible to make a de- tailed study of the life history of the grape leaf- hopper during those seasons. As most of these field experiments had been brought to a success- ful termination at the close of the season of 1911, ‘ the investigations for the season of 1912 were Fic. 1—The grape leaf- _ devoted largely to life-history studies of this pest. Acne ed Bale In this work, which was carried on at the field form. Greatly enlarged. laboratory at North East, Pa., the writer was ‘™!™*!” assisted by Mr. E. R. Selkregeg in the recording of the data bearing upon the various stages of the life history of the insect. The following pages contain a record of these life-history studies, together with a short historical account of the part this insect has played as an enemy of the grapevine in other grape-producing sec- tions of the United States and Canada. A detailed account is given 10037°—Bull, 19—14——_1 2 BULLETIN 19, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of its habits and destructiveness, the kinds of remedies that have been devised for its control, and the nature of the spray equipment and spray material which, in recent experiments, have proved most effective in holding the pest in check. HISTORY.! The first published record of this insect was made in 1825, when specimens from Missouri were described under the name Tettigonia comes by Thomas Say. It was next mentioned by Fessenden in 1828 as being a serious pest in Massachusetts. In 1841 T. M. Harris, jn his Massachusetts report for that year entitled ‘ Insects Spiers to Vegetation,” gives a detailed description of the insect and an account of its habits, life history, and injury to the grapevine. These observations of Harris coincide quite closely with those recorded by the more recent workers who have taken up the study of this pest. Since the date of Harris’s report the grape leafhopper has become in- creasingly prominent as a vineyard pest, and in almost all parts of this country and Canada it has, at some time or other, appeared in suffi- cient numbers to prove a real menace to the grape-growing industry. Although frequent mention of its injurious occurrence in many parts of the country since 1841 is to be found in entomological literature, but little original study, from an economic point of view, seems to have been bestowed upon this insect, for most of the references have the appearance of being taken from Harris’s account. During this time, however, a great variety of forms of this species had been collected, and as a result no less than six different specific names had been given it. In 1898 the subfamily Typhlocybine was the subject of a special study by Prof. C. P. Gillette, who worked out the synonymy of the insect as follows: Typhlocyba comes Say, 1825. Variety basilaris Say, 1825. Variety vitis Harris, 1831. Variety affinis Fitch, 1851. Variety vitifex Fitch, 1856. Variety ziczac Walsh, 1864. Variety octonotata Walsh, 1864. Variety coloradensis Gillette, 1892. Variety maculata Gillette, 1898. Variety scutellaris Gillette, 1898. Variety rubra Gillette, 1898. Variety infuscata Gillette, 1898. By 1897 it had become so serious a vineyard pest in California as to be placed next in destructive importance to the grape Phylloxera (Phyllozera vastatriz Planch.) and was the subject of a detailed 1 The titles of papers and books, and their places of publication, are not given under this and other headings, but may be found in the Bibliography, pp. 43-47, by looking for the year indicated and, under that, for the author. THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER IN THE LAKE ERIE VALLEY. 3 study by Prof. C. W. Woodworth. In 1901 Slingerland made a very complete study of the life history of the eastern form, Typhlocyba comes Say, and of remedial measures for its control, in the vineyards of Chautauqua County, N. Y., publishing the results in 1904. In 1908 Prof. H. J. Quayle conducted a similarly thorough investiga- tion of the western form in the vineyards of California. Investiga- tions of more recent date have been carried on in Chautauqua County, N. Y., by F. Z. Hartzell, in 1912, and by the Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, at North East, Pa. (See Johnson, 1911 and 1912, in Bibliography.) ORIGIN AND DISTRIBUTION. Since T'yphlocyba comes and its several varieties are of common occurrence on native grapevines in the wild state almost everywhere that the grapevine is found throughout the United States and Canada, and since-this species is not recorded as occurring in Europe, it is doubtless a native American species. It was first recorded from Missouri in 1825, and since that date it has been reported as occurring in destructive numbers in nearly every State in which cultivated grapevines are grown, either in a commercial way or for home use. The following statement by Slingerland in regard to its occurrence is taken from Bulletin 215 of the Cornell Experiment Station, pages 84-85: In nearly all discussions of the insect enemies of the grape during the past seventy- five years, the grape leafhopper has been put in the front rank with the most destruc- tive ones. The records show that it has deserved a prominent place in the rogues’ gallery of grape pests in Massachusetts since 1828, in New York since 1856, in Illinois since 1871, in Michigan and California since 1875, in Ohio since 1888, and in New Mexico, Colorado, North Carolina and Minnesota since 1890. Destructive local outbreaks have also occurred in other States. FOOD PLANTS. During the growing season of the grapevine the grape leafhopper apparently confines its attacks entirely to the foliage of this plant. Early in the spring, however, before the grape leaves commence to unfold, the adult leafhoppers feed on the new foliage of almost any and all plants with which they come in contact, whether it be the foliage of trees and shrubs in woodlands or the weeds and grasses in the more open sod and pasture lands. The following is a list of trees, shrubs, and weeds the foliage of which showed evidence of feeding by the adults in the spring of 1912: Beech, maple, wild cherry, wild apple, hawthorn, dogwood, wild plum, hornbeam, hackberry, honey- suckle, wild grape, Virginia creeper, raspberry, thimbleberry, black- berry, strawberry, goldenrod, nettles, wild columbine, and a great variety of weeds and grasses. Along ravines and woodlands border- ing badly infested vineyards, where large numbers of the adults a BULLETIN 19, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. hibernate, the low-growing foliage of underbrush and shrubs will have nearly all of the green coloring matter extracted by this pest and present a whitened or sometimes brown appearance before the spring migration of the insect takes place. Those adults which winter in the vineyards feed upon the green blades and leaves of grasses, weeds, and the various plants that are grown as cover crops. When the leaves of the cultivated grapevine commence to unfold there is a wholesale migration from the foliage of the wild plants, and even from the foliage of wild grapevines, to that of the cultivated vines, amounting in the course of a week or so, from about May 10 to 25 in the region of the Lake Hrie Valley, to a complete desertion of the foliage of all plants other than those of the wild varieties of grape and possibly the Virginia creeper. The percentage of hibernating adults remaining on the wild grapevines is very small compared with the number found there before the spring migration to the vineyards has taken place. Tt has been observed that in seasons when the infestation through- out the vineyard area of the Lake Erie Valley has been light, some of the thinner-leaved varieties, such as Delaware and Brighton, are apparently more heavily infested and suffer more from the attacks of this pest than do the thicker-leaved varieties, such as Concord and Niagara. On the other hand, when these insects are very numerous throughout a large vineyard area but little if any difference in respect to the amount of injury to the different varieties can be observed. Usually vines of weak-growing varieties suffer most from attack by this pest, yet it has been observed, in run-down Concord vineyards in which the foliage was sparse, that reproduction of the leafhopper during the summer of 1912 was not so great on such vines, even where the overwintering adults were very numerous in spring, as in adjacent vineyards where vines of the same variety were more vigorous and the foliage was more dense. Although many observations have been made to determine if this insect reproduces on the foliage of plants other than the wild and the cultivated grape, all the evidence secured has been of a negative nature. Attempts were madetorear nymphson thefoliage of the rasp- berry, which appears to be a favorite food plant of adults when they leave hibernating quarters in the spring. A large number of adults were confined in Riley cages containing raspberry plants. Although much of the foliage was whitened as a result of their feeding and many of the adults lived until about the middle of July, there was no appearance of nymphs at any time during the season upon the foliage of these plants. All observations during this investigation indicate that this msect reproduces only on the foliage of the wild and cul-- tivated grapes, and that where vines of cultivated varieties are avail- able it shows a preference for them and reproduces more freely upon them than upon the wild species, THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER IN THE LAKE ERIE VALLEY. 5 CHARACTER OF INJURY AND DESTRUCTIVENESS. The grape leafhopper injures the grapevine by attacking the foliage. - It is a sucking insect in both the nymphal and adult stages and injures the plant by inserting its threadlike proboscis (fig. 2) into the under- side of the leaf and extracting the juices therefrom. The result of these punctures, and more especially the removal of the juices, is first evidenced by a yellowing or whitening in patches on the upper surface of the leaf (fig. 3), which later turns brown, and finally the leaf falls from the vine prematurely. Where the injury is severe, the whole leaf dries up and becomes almost functionless long before the normal ripening period of the fruit arrives. This arrested func- tioning of the foliage as a result of attack by this pest has a tendency, when the injury is severe, to check the development of the en- tire vine, frequently to such an extent that the cane growth is ~ considerably shortened, the size of the crop of fruit reduced, and the quality rendered inferior by a reduction of its sugar content. During very dry seasons the fruit on heavily infested vines is badly spotted by the dr SPE. of the adult insects. The overwintering winged adults commence to attack the new leaves of the vines when the shoots are a few inches in length. Usually ue ernouts starting from Fig. 2.—Head of grape leafhopper, showing mouth- the base of the vine and the new raise a, Labrum; 5, labium; c, aeerititiles, d, max- growth along the lower trellis are ille; e, maxillary seta. Greatly enlarged. (Origi- the first parts to be attacked. oe When large numbers of the adults are present feeding on this new growth, patches of yellow soon appear on the upper surface of the infested leaves, and in a short time these injured areas dry down and become brown (fig. 4), and the leaves assume a crumpled appearance, the result being a stunting of the badly infested shoots. During this time shoots higher up on the vine, being less heavily infested, have made a stronger growth which, where the vines are vigorous, soon overshadows the stunted, badly infested shoots along the lower trellis. Consequently it frequently happens that this growth on the lower trellis develops few or no long, normal, healthy canes. This condition is of considerable importance, since it is from the healthy, well-ripened canes springing from the lower trellis that the 6 BULLETIN 19, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. fruiting canes for bearing the next season’s crop are selected. For the first season or two that a vigorous vineyard is infested, this stunted condition of the bearing canes is overlooked by all but the most observant vineyardists. With each additional season of heavy in- festation, however, it becomes increasingly difficult to secure well- placed, robust, bearing canes, and there is a corresponding decline in the quantity and quality of the crop until in some instances the Fic. 3.—Grape leaf showing first evidence of whitened spots resulting from feeding of adult grape leaf- hoppers in early summer. (Original.) crop yield is so reduced that it pays little more than the season’s cost of operating the vineyard. OCCURRENCE AND DESTRUCTIVE OUTBREAKS. In speaking of the occurrence of this insect Slingerland has said: “Tt has its periods of great destructiveness and comparative obscu- rity, or its ‘ups and downs,’ like most of our insects.” It may exist on vines in limited numbers in some grape-producing section for several seasons without attracting much attention either in regard to its THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER IN THE LAKE ERIE VALLEY. 7 presence or its injury to the foliage of the vines. During these periods serious injury to the vines or to the crop yield is confined to a few rows of vines adjacent to ravines, woodlots, or rough pasture lands. This limited amount of injury usually attracts little attention and no attempt is made by the vineyardist to hold the insect in check. Then a series of seasons favorable to its development may occur, and there appears to be a steady yearly increase in numbers and fur- ther encroachment into the infested vineyards. Finally it becomes so abundant and thoroughly disseminated throughout the vineyard Fie. 4.—Grape leaf in advanced stages of injury. Areas between veins have turned a reddish brown. (Original.) area, and its destruction is so obvious, that it attracts general atten- tion, and the so-called ‘‘outbreak”’ causes considerable alarm among the vineyardists. Such ‘‘outbreaks’”’ have been recorded from many States, as is indicated in the quotation from Slingerland under the caption ‘‘Origin and distribution.”” The same author states that “outbreaks”” have occurred at frequent intervals in various parts of the State of New York as follows: In Wyoming County in 1860; in the Hudson Valley in 1865, 1867, 1882, 1887, and 1897; on Crooked Lake in 1880; in Jefferson County in 1887 and 1888; in central New York in 1895 and 1899; and in Chautauqua County in 1900 to 1904. 8 BULLETIN 19, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, During the period from 1897 to 1904 the writer of this paper resided at Westfield, N. Y., durimg the summer months and had the opportu- nity to observe the development of the outbreak of 1900 to 1904. There was not a sudden appearance of this pest in a single season, but a steady increase in numbers for several consecutive seasons preced- ing the so-called outbreak of 1900. On the other hand, during the summer of 1903 there was an apparent sudden disappearance of the insect from many vineyards which during the two previous seasons had been badly infested and suffered serious injury to the foliage during the seasons of 1901 and 1902. In fact, after the season of 1904 this pest disappeared from the vineyards of this area of serious infestation to such an extent that treatment was deemed unnecessary. For several years after this disappearance in destructive numbers of the insect from the vineyards in the vicinity of Westfield, N. Y., its occurrence in vineyards throughout the Lake Erie Valley was not considered of sufficient importance to warrant treatment. In 1909, however, during the conduct of vineyard experiments at North East, Pa., the appear- ance of this pest in injurious numbers was again observed in portions of several widely separated vineyards throughout the township. In the latter part of the season of 1910 the area of serious injury was much more widespread and its increase was viewed with alarm by vineyardists, and in the season of 1911 a number of the more pro- gressive growers equipped themselves to fight the pest. During 1911 the injury wrought by the pest was greater than in preceding years, and the infestation was more widespread. ‘The summer was unusually hot, and this resulted in the development of an almost full second brood which worked great injury to the vines late in the season. Immense numbers of adults went into hibernation, and large numbers of them emerged and made their appearance in the vineyards in the spring of 1912. Early in the season of 1912, on account of the pres- ence of so many overwintering adults, there was every indication that the injury by this pest would be very great. There was an appar- ently normal development of the first brood of nymphs, and by the middle of the summer the injury in many vineyards was quite severe. Fortunately, however, the months of July and August were unseason- ably cool. The low temperatures which prevailed during these two months so greatly retarded the development of the nymphs of the ‘rst brood that only a small percentage of the adults transformmg from them deposited eggs for a second brood of nymphs. Hence there was not such a great increase in numbers of the msect during the latter end of the season of 1912 as there was at the end of the hot season of 1911. Nevertheless the injury done by this pest to many vineyards was very great. The injury to the foliage, coupled with the coolness of the summer, resulted in badly infested vineyards, in a retardation of the cane growth, in a lack of proper development of the size of the THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER IN THE LAKE ERIE VALLEY. 9 berries in the cluster, and in a deficiency in the sugar content of the fruit. For these reasons the aggregate injury by this pest during the season of 1912 was fully as great as in that of 1911. Thus far mention of the destructiveness of this pest has been con- fined to the vineyard areas of the Eastern States. For more than 25 years this species, Typhlocyba comes, including a western variety, coloradensis (fig. 5), has caused an enormous amount of injury to the _ grapevines in the vineyards of California, where it has been recorded as an injurious grapevine pest since 1875. Prof. H. J. Quayle, in Bul- letin 198 of the California Experiment Station, states in regard to its destructiveness that ‘with the exception of the Phylloxera, the vine hopper is undoubtedly the most destructive insect pest of the vine in theState. It is more uniformly present than any other insect attacking the vine, and each year in some parts of the State it occurs in very great numbers, and in such sections it levies a heavy tax upon the vineyard interests.” Thus it is evident that, taken in the aggre- gate, the injury sustained by the vineyard industry of the East and the West must amount to an enormous sum. It should be remembered, too, that the injury caused by this pest is not confined to the crop of a single season. It frequently happens that a heavy infestation of one or two seasons’ duration may so stunt the growth of the vine that its full fruitmg capacity may be re- duced for several seasons. In fact, if special efforts for the resuscitation of badly injured 's-°-—4 western variety of the a grape leafhopper, Typhlocyba vines are not undertaken they may never re- comes _ var. coloradensis: Adult. gain their former productive value. Hence dade ee Sy thor’s the loss to the vineyardist not only consists : in the crop shrinkage, but also in the additional cost of the fertiliza- tion and care required to get the vine back into full bearing condition. ALLIED SPECIES. In the region known as the Chautauqua and Erie grape belt, which includes a narrow strip of territory stretching along the southern shore of Lake Erie from Silver Creek, N. Y., to Harbour Creek, Pa., there are approximately 40,000 acres of vineyard, over 90 per cent of which are of the Concord variety. The species of leafhopper found in injurious numbers in the vineyards throughout this region is Typhlocyba comes. Although occasional specimens of other varie- ties and species may be found, their presence in numbers sufficient to 10037°—Bull. 19—14——2 10 BULLETIN 19, U. S.. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. work a great amount of injury has not been observed. The other species most commonly found associated with T. comes is T. tricincta Fitch (fig. 6,5). This species, when present, is more likely to be found on the fohage of Delaware, Catawba, Brighton, and some of the wild species of grapevine growing along ravines or in woodlands. It is readily distinguished from comes by the larger size and by the fact that it has three broad black bars situated as follows: One just back of the head, another about midway across the elytra, and Fic. 6.—The two species of grape leafhopper most common in vineyards of the Great Lakes Region: a, Typhlocyba comes; b, Typhlocyba tricincta. Greatly enlarged. (Original.) the third at the tips of the elytra. Nymphs of tricincta (fig. 7) have two black spots back of the eyes and two on the thorax. While making trips through the vineyard areas along the shore of Lake Erie as far west as Sandusky, Ohio, it was observed that in the Ohio vineyards east of Cleveland Typhlocyba tricincta was present in greater numbers than in the vineyards of Chautauqua County, N. Y., and of Erie County, Pa., although more than 80 per cent were still Typhlocyba comes. In the vineyards west of Cleveland 7. tricuncta THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER IN THE LAKE ERIE VALLEY. er: was present in greater numbers than in the vineyards east of that city. This condition also existed in the vineyards surrounding San- dusky, Ohio. In vineyards on Kelleys Island, North Bass, South Bass, and Middle Bass Islands both 7. comes and T. tricincta were very abundant and there were also a number of other species and varieties in abundance which were not common in vineyards on the mainland, the most common being 7. vulnerata Fitch. It should be stated that in the vineyards east of Cleveland, Ohio, the vines are nearly all of the Concord variety, whereas west of that city there is a considerable percentage of Catawba and of Early Ohio, while around Sandusky, Ohio, and upon the islands the percentage of the Concord variety is small, Catawba being the variety most commonly Fic. 7.—Three nymphs of Typhlocyba tricincta on underside of grape leaf: a, Castskin ofnymph. Enlarged. (Original.) -grown, as also Delaware, Ives Seedling, Elvira, and a number of other varieties used in wine making. In the vineyards on the main- land around Sandusky T. tricincta was the species present in destruc- tive numbers. 7. comes was also present, but only in small numbers. Observations in the vineyards of Michigan during the seasons of 1911 and 1912 showed that 7. tricincta is the predominant species in vine- yards surrounding Lawton and Paw Paw and in the vicinity of Ben- ton Harbor and St. Joseph. In the vineyards of Michigan T. comes is present in even smaller numbers than in the vineyards about San- dusky, Ohio. Although the development of these two species seems to be almost identical, adults of 7. tricincta brought from the vicinity of Dover, 12 BULLETIN 19, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Ohio, in the spring of 1912 produced a brood of nymphs which matured to adults. These adults, in turn, produced nymphs which developed to adults of the second summer brood. Observations in the vineyards of Ohio and Michigan, however, during August of 1911 and of 1912 indicate that this species produced a much smaller number of second-brood nymphs than did T. comes in the vineyards surrounding North Hast, Pa. It should be added that a very large percentage of the grapevines grown in the Michigan vineyards are of the Concord variety, and that on these vines 7”. tricincta is the predominating species, whereas in the vineyards of the Chautauqua and Erie grape belt, where the Concord is the leading variety grown, T. comes is the predominant and destructive species. Little, if any, effort has been made thus far by the vineyardists of Michigan to control T. tricincta, although in the season of 1911 it was quite destructive in many vineyards. Several vineyardists in the vicinity of Lawton and Paw Paw were planning to combat it with a tobacco-extract spray in 1912, but although there was a heavy infestation of overwintering adults in the spring these failed to produce a large enough brood of nymphs to injure the vines seri- ously, thus rendering a spray treatment unnecessary. DESCRIPTION. THE ADULT OR WINGED FORM. The adult grape leafhopper (Typhlocyba comes Say) (see fig. 1, p- 1) is an insect about one-eighth of an inch long. The original description of the insect by Say, made in 1825 (see Bibliography), is as follows: Pale yellowish with sanguineous spots. Inhabits Missouri. Body pale yellowish; head, a transverse sanguineous line, profoundly arcuated in the middle, and a smaller transverse spot before; eyes fuscous; thorax with three sanguineous spots, the lateral ones smaller and the intermediate one arcuated; scutel, a sanguineous spot at tip; hemelytra yellowish white spotted with sanguineous; spots arranged two at base, of which the outer one is small and the inner one elongated and abruptly dilated on the inner side at tip; two upon the middle, of which the outer one is elongated in a very oblique line; the two behind the middie, of which the inner one is obliquely elongated, and the outer one smaller and interrupted; and a transverse linear one near the tip, ramose upon the nervures; feet whitish. Length to the tip of the hemelytra one-ninth of an inch. The line and spot on the head and the spots of the thorax are sometimes obsolete, but are always visible, and the latter are sometimes connected by curving toward the anterior edge of the thorax. The spots of the hemelytra are also sometimes slightly interrupted, or connected into four oblique bands. In winter the color markings are deep salmon-red. After the insects have fed upon the foliage of the grapevine for a short time the color becomes paler and is displaced by a light yellow. In the THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER IN THE LAKE ERIE VALLEY. 13 newly transformed adult these yellow markings are hardly discerni- ble (fig. 8), the whole body being very lhght straw color. In a short time, however, they become more pronounced. Along toward the middle of August the salmon color begins to appear, first as a light tint on the thorax and at the base of the elytra and in a short time extending to the tips of the wings. As the season advances the salmon color deepens until the insect takes on the more pronounced red markings of the wintering adult. THE EGG. The eggs of the grape leafhopper are not more than three-fourths of a millimeter long and are slightly curved (see fig. 10, d). . They are semitransparent, with a yellowish tinge, and are very difficult to locate, since they are deposited beneath the epidermis of the underside of the grape leaf, which in most varieties is covered with a heavy pubes- cence. It.is very difficult to detect them with the naked eye even after the most careful search. They may be located, however, with the aid of a hand lens or dissecting microscope by examining the underside of the leaf in bright sunlght. Under these conditions the eggs appear as shght shiny elevations under the epidermis. By care- fully scraping away the pubescence covering this area the outlne of the egg may be more plainly discerned. Figure 9 is an enlarged photograph showing the outlines of two eggs beneath the epi- 5, gaautt grape leat dermis of a leaf of Concord grape. The eggs are hopper, summer form, extremely delicate and are very easily crushed oe eee cri -when an attempt is made to remove the thin, elytra. Greatly enlarged. semitransparent layer of leaf skin or epidermis ‘0™8™*!” underneath which they have been tucked by means of the slender ovipositor of the female (fig. 11). Figure 12 shows the anal segment of a male of the same species, with its genital armature. The eggs are usually deposited singly over the surface of the leaf, sometimes in or near the ribs and veins, but usually in the spaces between them. They do not appear to be placed in any regular order, but occasionally several may be found in close proximity. In one instance, in the leaf of a Clinton vine, three eggs were found quite close together with the long axis of all extending in the same general direction. Slingerland mentions finding the eggs laid from six to nine in a row 1n leaves of the Clinton grape. In this variety the leaf is less fleshy and has less pubescence than have the leaves of nearly all of the other varieties of grapes grown in the East. Examinations of the location and proximity of eggs in thin-leaved 14 BULLETIN 19, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, species of wild grapevines did not bear out the supposition that deposition in rows is general in the thin-leaved varieties, for in all other cases where eggs were found on them they were deposited with an apparent disregard for regularity of position. — Among vineyardists there is commonly a mistaken idea that the small, transparent globules that are seen on the new growth of the erapevine, especially in the early summer, are the eggs of the grape leafhopper. These are not eggs but are small drops of sap which exude from the rapidly growing leaves and tendrils. THE NYMPH. Y The young grape leafhopper, or nymph, when it hatches from the ege, is very minute, white in color, and of the same general form as Fic. 9.—Outline of eggs, a and 5, of grape leafhopper on underside of grape leaf with pubescence pushed aside. Greatly enlarged. (Original.) the adult, but differing from the mature parent in that it does not possess wings. It attains its growth by casting its skin in a series of five molts. These five nymphal stages are represented in Plate I. The time required for the nymph to reach maturity. varies greatly with the different individuals. During the season of 1912 rearings were made of a large number of nymphs. First stage.—The newly hatched nymph has a white body and red — eyes. It does not run very rapidly at first, but moves over the underside of the leaf with rather an uncertain, “wobbly” gait. The number of days required for this stage, from hatching to the first THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER IN THE LAKE ERIE VALLEY. 15 molt, may vary anywhere from 3 to 15. The majority of the nymphs, however, complete the stage in from 3 to 5 days. Second stage.—In the second nymphal stage the insect becomes more active. The eyes lose some of their red color and the body assumes a yellowish tint, and at the base of the thorax there appear signs of the wing pads in the form of lateral buds. The length of this stage may vary from 1 to 7 days. The majority of nymphs complete the stage in 3 to 4 days. Third stage-—The insect in the third stage moves about very ac- tively when disturbed, running with a sidewise motion. Very rarely can one be made to hop for Ney Ce ae gh even. the shortest distance. The tially’ chow Gate edie egg ene red has disappeared from the eyes, _imte view; d, greatly enlarged egg. Allenlarged. and the yellow markings on the opie thorax have now become quite pronounced. The wing pads extend to about the caudal margin of the first abdominal segment. This stage may occupy from 1 to 11 days. In most cases from 4 to 6 days is required. Fourth stage.—In the fourth stage the spines on the segments of the thorax and on the legs are more pronounced, and the wing pads now extend to the caudal margin of the second ab- dominal segment. This stage may occupy from 3 to 13 days, although the majority of nymphs com- plete it in 3 to 7 days. Fifth *stage-—In the fifth stage the wing pads are considerably length- ened, extending to about Fig. 11.—Anal segments of female grape leafhopper and details: the middle of the fourth a, Anal segments; b, ovipositor in oviposition; c,sheaths of ovi- abdominal se 2 ment. positor; d, sting. Greatly enlarged. (Original.) The legs are much longer, and the insect runs very rapidly. This stage may cover from 4 to 20 days. The majority complete it in from 6 to 9 days. The total length of time required to complete the nymphal stages, from hatching to the last molt, when the mature insect has fully developed wings, may vary from 19 to 37 days. 16 BULLETIN 19, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The number of days required to complete the stages of the nymph were arrived at as a result of rearing 114 nymphs through all of the five nymphal stages from hatching to adult during the season of 1912, and the data given above are based on these rearings. It was observed that variations in temperature greatly influenced the length of the different stages. It was also noted that although there might be a con- siderable variation in the number of days that were required by nymphs of the same age to complete any one of the stages, the total number of days covered oni vary but slightly; since it frequently happened that when one stage was protracted beyond the average period, some other stage would be considerably shortened, and thus the total number of days for the entire nymphal period would be about the same for all nymphs of the same age. (See Table XI.) SEASONAL HISTORY. ACTIVITIES OF ADULTS IN EARLY SPRING. The adult grape leafhoppers become active in their hibernating places beneath accumulations of leaves, trash, and dried grass during the warm days of late winter and early spring. During the warm sunny hours of such days they rise in swarms about one’s feet when tramping through the Fig. 12.—Anal segments of male grape leaves and dried grass of woodlands and leafhopper and details: a, Anal seg- : ae . ° ments; 6, genital hooks; c, superior SWales which adjoin vineyards which were clasper; d, inferior clasper. Greatly heavily infested during the preceding sea- enlarged. (Original.) . 5 als son. During these periods of activity they feed on the green parts of almost any plant that happens to be growing near these places of hibernation. At first the green blades of tufts of grass or the leaves of goldenrod or wild strawberry, and a little’ later the unfolding leaves of wild raspberry and blackberry, appear to form a favorite part of the menu offered by the woodland growth. As the days become warmer the adults extend their flight and feed upon the tender unfolding leaves of nearly all kinds of shrubs and undergrowth. When the new growth of the cultivated grapevine has attained a length of a few inches there is a general migration of the . insect to the vineyards. This migration occurs about the middle of May in the vineyards of the Lake Erie Valley, and if the days are warm and bright the desertion of the woodland food plants for the foliage of the cultivated grapevine in the course of a few days is quite complete. In the spring of 1912 this migration from woodlands com- menced about May 20. On May 24 the leafhoppers were extremely scarce in woodland places, where until four or five days previous they had been present in swarms since the time of first activity in spring. Bul. 19, U, S, Dept. of Agriculture. 7 "GIA, Dts. ff fr mh mye Why Pp Se } oo wey % a i mY (e-nyy IK) Uy) a NS W AN pees \ <7 fh. pa \ i, \\ up La AY ray Uff! Cah NN i ( Wee “mn \ vil “eth é ir nn) I mM) VA ye ee = i ! ‘ a Mug : ih Ny MN) i i WN \ N\ \ ZA Za gk if” THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER. The five nymphal stages and adult of the grape leafhopper ( Typhlocyba comes): a, First stage; b, second stage; ¢, third stage; d, fourth stage; e, fifth stage; f, adult with wings spread. All greatly enlarged. (Original. ) THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER IN THE LAKE ERIE VALLEY. 17 From this date on, the adults confine their feeding and other activi- ties to the foliage of the cultivated grapevine. About this time the red marking on the elytra disappears and is replaced by a light lemon- yellow. After the adults once settle down on the foliage of the vines in the vineyards there is very little evidence of further migration, and they seldom leave the shelter of the vines except when disturbed, in which case they fly but a short distance and return almost imme- diately to the underside of the grape foliage. On bright, warm days they become very active on the slightest disturbance of the vine, whereas on cold wet days it is with the greatest difficulty that they are dislodged from the underside of the leaves. For several days after their appearance on the foliage ot the grape- vines the adults confine their activities to feeding on the underside of the foliage. This they do by inserting their threadlike mouth parts or proboscis into the tissue from the underside of the leaf and sucking out the juices. ‘ TIME OF MATING. It is exceedingly rare to find copulating pairs of adult grape leaf- hoppers before migration to the vineyards takes place. After migra- tion to the vineyards mating is not common until a week or ten days of feeding has elapsed. The first copulating pair seen during the spring of 1912 was on May 23 upon the foliage of a quince bush in the laboratory garden at North East, Pa. Occasional copulating pairs were seen in vineyards as early as May 25, 26, and 27, but mating did not appear to be gen- eral until about June 1. After June 5 mating of overwintering adults was rarely seen in the vineyards, although daily observations were made. OVIPOSITION OF OVERWINTERING ADULTS. No direct observation has been made of females in the act of ovi- position. A number of experiments were made during the summer of 1912 to secure records of egg deposition and the number of eggs deposited by individual females, but without success. This failure was due to the fact that the leaves of all of the varieties of grapes grown in the Lake Erie Valley possess a heavy pubescence or hairy growth on the underside. This makes it extremely difficult to locate the eggs, since they are inserted within the tissue of the leaf beneath this hairy growth and can only be found after a thorough search. Hyen then many of them are doubtless overlooked, since it often hap- pens that a large number of nymphs will hatch from grape leaves upon which it has been possible to locate only a small number of eggs after a prolonged and careful search. On June 10 the first eggs seen in 1912 were located on leaves of a Delaware grapevine. 10037°—Bull. 19—14-——3 18 BULLETIN 19, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. LENGTH OF EGG STAGE. Since we were unable to secure actual records of egg deposition from which to make a starting point in order to determine accurately the length of the egg stage, an approximation of this period was ob- tained in the following manner: During the season of oviposition a number of adults were confined in an air-tight globe cage (Pl. I, fig. 1) upon the uninfested foliage of a small grapevine possessing not more than three or four healthy leaves. After 24 hours all the adults were removed. The vine was protected from further infestation and after seven days had elapsed was examined daily for the appearance of nymphs. A record was made’of the date of the first nymphs to appear. These were removed from the cage and all other nymphs to hatch were removed at inter- vals of 24 hours. In the experiments recorded below the adults were placed on an inclosed grapevine, July 4, at 1 p.m. These adults were removed July 5,at 1 p.m. The newly hatched nymphs were removed on the dates recorded in Table I. TABLE I.—Length of incubation period of eggs of the grape leafhopper. 50 adults placed on vine July 4, 1 p. m.; adults removed from vine July 5, 1p. m. a é Date and hour of removal of newly a Number {neue hatched nymphs. 7 yD oe 2 emoved. period. 1912. Days. Traliysd Zeal gota ye eee eee ee ee 6 11 to 13 July IS peri ee eee ee 46 12 to 14 Urls Oh leper eeieey see ae 58 13 to 15 Je 20S A ee sete ee en eee 7 14 to 16 Tully Diep banG week oe Sal coe 5 15 to 17 50 adults placed on vine June 25, 2p. m.; adults removed from vine June 26, 2p. m. 1912. Days. Tpthy O, MSW {0 We sec sancssccacacascse 15 11 to 13 aly U0) OS. so sans ssec se ocace 45 12 to 14 Maly SE DESO ip eernlee errs aes eee 13 13 to 15 Sly 1222530 fo ane ey ere ene Ret Seceaesemns July 13:/2:30 oxime ese ee 1 15 to 17 100 adults placed on vine June 27, 2 p. m.; adults removed from vine June 28, 2 p. m. | Days. 14 13 to 15 44 14 to 16 19 15 to 17 8 16 to 18 1 17 to 19 50 adults placed on vine July 27, 2 p. m.; adults removed from vine July 28, 2p. m. 1912. Days. AN 86:20 2250 Toh v ne eee as 15 22 to 24 Aug. 21, 2G: Te ca ee ee wee 4 23 to 25 Aug. 22° APO) gE te PS EE Sees pe er 11 24 to 26 50 adults placed on vine August 10, 2 p. m.; adults removed from vine August 11, 2p. m. 1912 Days Alig. 24,2) Dialeee-\2 sore ck bee eh ae ct 2 12 to 14 ATID Osea AD Seles: Nei yoe a eae ee ae 1 13 to 15 SUE 2652 Di Wes cncu.-la.e mance =e 3 14 to 16 LNW OLE ADs on eoienecoddnsss ace WI Weoaneaseecinc PMTs. RON OB 08 Pe aenbin Sate ae EEO ore Os eee AA 29) 2 SS eo Bre 2 17 to 19 Sept; L2p. he selon oe ar eens: 1 20 to 22 THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER IN THE LAKE ERIE VALLEY. 19 NUMBER OF EGGS DEPOSITED BY AN OVERWINTERING FEMALE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER. On account of the great difficulty encountered in locating the eggs of the grape leafhopper, a record of the reproductive capacity of the females was secured by confining pairs of overwintering adults upon small grapevines in an arc-light globe cage similar to that shown in Plate II, figure 1, which had been protected from previous infestation, the object being to determine the number of nymphs that appeared on the vines. The pairs used for this purpose were among the first to be found copulating and at a period before any oviposition had taken place. Each pair of adults “was allowed to remain on the vine until they died. To avoid the probability of the escape of ‘the adults, only a few examinations were made until the nymphs were nearing the last molt. The parent adults were then removed and a careful count was made of the nymphs found upon the foliage; then the parent adults were returned to the cage until later examinations were made, and this process was continued until the death of the par- ent adults occurred. After the death of the adults a period equal to the length of incubation of the eggs was allowed to elapse before the final count for the last nymphs to appear was made. Four separate experiments were started May 27 with copulating pairs of adults. Removal of nymphs took place as shown in Table IT. Tasie I1.—Number of nymphs produced by a female grape leafhopper in confinement. Nymphs 1912. CAGE NO. I. removed. SONG SIU ei ane Rn a AO Ot NR, Meg a 34 AUGUST IU SA SE ole aa eae oat Snes DORIS SL aR 1)" Se ce 33 AOL ay Ce EY SMD VL VENA toate RGR UEVCS Nac 8s ROAR NSS per pets MA Aad yi agtS 36 SIGS EG Sa NES denne era ee amc SC A oe ate Oe i a 108 CAGE NO. Il. iI? UIC eae SC Ree ec TOA tere ea tk eke OU Ale Od er ce 49 UIA IEG es aie es Ree a a er ae ea 0 ea 49 JIGS ZLIB cos ae RRNA AI oe eee Dn cso en ms ae 33 ANTONE TN rene ce eo A A gE ee eer 8 LRG ser lag Nee he aaah mM ke Aa iN gS a 139 CAGE NO. II. alin bya (0 mene es eee nee eee ene UI eR CaN. 2 SR Ree 14 SITUS TEE Sa ee eS ANE i a Sa 56 tle Nal ites ean la RR 3s ea ee ae yA RS ME Seg I OR Rt 34 July 25 Ro pAAiES coe 2s AE Meen Byes easton At AML dle Ame ie doe 0 18 ANUS PALS eM ER ic, Sy RRR RIS Sp ee 1 NONE U2. 5, Rosner Oereemiaeits 2. = ve Me Mates ral cy aCe eng 113 CAGE NO. IV. USUI? TTD oe re i a ees aS ame ea 2 tA 3 pe 34 aI fll ellipses aces eae cease.” | 2s Nera cee Mra a A Were ee ieek Eee 33 CLITULS ye Se NE ec le eR ara 1 9c Ne a a 36 PSSA SYS Tah ety net | Toc exy hyd Maye sey meta eyes ee pti o! 9 PMT Mma Se Mate aay AS os i ngage ee SS Se 2 NOE ets Meals idee es ceve ene he Mets OTOL Sere ene ae” ee Cor 114 1 Four newly molted adults. 20 BULLETIN 19, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Several additional experiments were conducted in the same manner to determine the number of eggs per female. In each case several copulating pairs of leafhoppers were placed in each cage. Tasie IIIl.—Experiment to determine extent of reproduction from four pairs of copu- lating grape leafhoppers placed in a cage with a small grapevine June 19, 1912. Nymphs 1912. removed. July 27 . cc cet cscs Seen ees se goats | Cee ee ee 154 July 30-2. 22ST ee 159 Aug.’ 22 0002 05S Re SEE RISA ee ee ee 8 Ag 27 20 oS EO a ar ae ene 30 Aug. 29 oo. eo dotted Se Pea a etek teed he Be fete ek 2 159 Totaly al it ee S. US e e 510 Average. [212.9 02 So TPs a ee 127.5 Taste [V.—Experiment to determine extent of reproduction from nine pairs of copu- lating grape leafhoppers placed in a cage with a small grapevine June 18, 1912. Nymphs 1912. removed. July 24200020. 2M CRORE A See Be Pa ee eer ee 230 Sully Bl. .8 sess BER es OEE ee ee ee ee 423 Ang. 12 scares ogee gd ate te) ey ree ea Oe seat 172 Aug. 22.02 2.2 Sy bees yt RO Ne Ee ee 131 Aue. 29 2.3 co2 08st ebeeesee oak eee ae 65 Sept. 4.2.05. 22 S22ee ee ae e ee 14 Total ecco55 ao i eee ees 1, 035 Avera@@e. 0. 5.5824. fee Sew et de eee 115 Taste V.—Experiment to determine extent of reproduction from four pairs of copulating grape leafhoppers placed in a cage with a small grapevine June 19, 1912. Nymphs 1912. removed. Jy 24. Js 25s ks SI ee eR Se a 185 Aug. 9.20222. dep ohio Jae ces ee oe eee 153 AUG. 23-2. 025 2 Foose ee ee ek sen Ree Be Bee ae Se 58 Sept. G6: seiss2.2 be bs ve Reale dee Seaeee Seet ete 52 Totals. 2.1.2 eI PRS ne ee ee 448 AVOTAGO sh hoe abe Boek ot sae pee ae eee 112 These experiments show that for 20 females the number of nymphs found ranged from 112 to 139 per female. This method of deter- mining the egg-laying capacity of the females did not, of course, take into consideration the number of eggs that failed to hatch, or the number of fatalities which may have occurred among the nymphs after the hatching period, but the fact that the average number of nymphs reared from each of 15 females varied only from 112 to 115 would indicate that under favorable conditions a female may deposit over a hundred eggs, while the 139 nvmphs obtained in cage 2 would indicate that under the most favorable conditions some females may deposit about 140 eggs, Bul. 19, U.S. Dept. of Agricuiture. PLATE II. Fic. 1.—CaGes USED FOR REARING THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER, AT LABORATORY, NORTH East, Pa., 1912. (ORIGINAL.) Fic. 2.—STEAM-ENGINE POWER SPRAYER USED IN SPRAYING AGAINST THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER, NORTH EAST, PA., 1912. (ORIGINAL.) THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER. THE GRAPD LEAFHOPPER IN THE LAKE BRIE VALLEY. 91 HATCHING OF FIRST-BROOD NYMPHS. After the finding of eggs in the tissue of the leaves on June 10, daily examinations of infested grape foliage were made both in badly infested vineyards and on vines at the laboratory. On June 18 three nymphs were found on the badly infested foliage of a Delaware grape- vine. These nymphs were probably about a day or two old, since they were slightly larger than newly hatched nymphs. They had taken on a yellowish pole, which indicated that some time had been spent in feeding, for the newly hatched nymphs before having taken any food are white. On June 20 a number of newly hatched nymphs were found on Concord vines. After June 20 the hatching of the nymphs became general. By June 26 large numbers of them could be found ‘in all badly infested vineyards in the vicinity of North East, Pa. The process of hatching was observed in several instances and occupies a-period varying from 10 to 25 minutes. The hatching nymph appears as a small white object projecting through the pubescence on the underside of the leaf. At first its movement is almost imperceptible. Then, after three or four min- utes, there is a swaying circular movement of the free end of this white object, each succeeding movement becoming more vigorous. After four or five minutes of this rapid motion the object commences to assume a definite form. The ends of the antenne are freed, the eyes become prominent, and the stricture dividing the thorax from the abdomen may be distinguished. In a few minutes more the proboscis and the legs may be seen moving, then the circulation of the body fluids becomes visible through the transparent skin, and finally the feet clutch the hairy pubescence of the leaf and the tiny insect draws its abdomen free of the eggshell. By this time the body has dried, and the nymph runs with a rather unsteady gait over the underside of the leaf. Usually, however, its first excursion is a very short one, for it soon settles down, inserts its minute proboscis into the leaf tissue, and makes its first meal on the juices of its host plant. APPEARANCE OF FIRST-BROOD ADULTS. During the season of 1912 the first evidence of the appearance of a new brood of adults occurred on July 12, when examinations of nymphs in vineyards about North East, Pa., showed that at this date an occasional nymph was making the last nymphal molt and devel- oping wings. However, winged adults of this new brood were not common in vineyards until from July 16 to 20, and even at the latter date they did not represent more than 25 per cent of the total num- ber of the new brood upon the foliage. In order to secure some of these earliest transforming adults for the purpose of rearing a second summer brood, about 150 of the oldest nymphs that could be found 22 BULLETIN 19, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. were placed on the foliage of a young Concord grapevine on July 12. On July 13 several of these nymphs had transformed to adults. On July 16 about 75 per cent of them had-developed wings. MATING OF FIRST-BROOD ADULTS. On July 22 numerous pairs of adults of the new brood were found copulating on the underside of grape leaves in the vineyards sur- rounding North East, Pa. From July 23 to 27 copulating pairs of new-brood adults were common, both in the vineyards and in cages at the laboratory. After the latter date only occasional mating pairs of adults were observed, either in the rearing cages at the laboratory or in the open vineyards, although observations along this line were continued during the remainder of the active season. NUMBER OF EGGS DEPOSITED BY A FEMALE OF THE FIRST BROOD. On July 26 three copulating pairs of the new-brood adults were placed in separate cages on a Concord grapevine inclosed in an are-light globe cage similar to those in which pairs of overwintering adults had been confined, the object being to ascertain the number of nymphs that could be reared from them in order to see how it compared with the number produced by overwintering females. The number of nymphs reared from these first-brood females is shown in Table VI. TasLeE VI.—Number of nymphs produced by a female leafhopper of the first brood. CAGE NO. fT. Nymphs Date examined (1912). removed. — Sept. 4a. gevtt aise ee ee ree ee Se EpT |. ee re pee 12 Sep bee bn podilge te Reso peee eee sete ea ee 5 Sept. Ws. os woe, eee oe eee es 7 rk) 0) gh 2 aan mee tary wallet Me nN Re eC yI Ee eae Bae cole jest heres 9 Totals 236 8 Ws oe alsa Se SI sy ae nn 33 CAGE NO. I. Sept. 3.05. fee dees oie bree og eee Tere lee 24. Sic) t) it) nes Sma anette: GNM edd SL as ke wee 16 Septr go se a toes ae a Sees 17 Sept. 11. ..2.-.c eee ee ye ee eee ae ire 9 Sept. 15.2. 2.25. S oe ee Sere Ul a ee ec 1 Spee ee 13 Totals: =: seem teint rs seneeae egos oN see cap lab ay 79 CAGE NO. IIL. ; Sept. 4. 22... 2226 base cee ose oe hoe eee 37 DOPte 7 . oo eccke ee ee SIE = See Sete DN ee Santee 35 Sept. Likes Sait tae Ee Re ARNG Ht os Seco ¢ 9 Total oe eee aN ede De Oe Ue en 81 In the case of these three females of the first brood, the average number of nvmphs produced by a single female was only a little more than half the number produced by the overwintering females under similar conditions. THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER IN THE LAKE ERIE VALLEY. 23 TERMINATION OF OVIPOSITION OF ADULTS OF THE FIRST BROOD. Kirst-brood adults placed in cages with grapevines after August 10 gave no evidence of further reproduction, for nymphs failed to appear on the foliage. About 50 adults were placed in each of five separate cages on August 12, 15, 20, and 27, and September 9. No nymphs appeared in any of these cages, indicating that the season of egg deposition for them, at least, had closed. Since there is a long period over which the nymphs of this first brood transform to adults, an endeavor was made to determine the date at which these later transforming adults would fail to reproduce during the same season. With this end in view, on July 24, 1912, 100 nymphs of each of the five nymphal stages were placed in five separate cages on the foliage of a small Concord grapevine in order to ascertain if the adults transforming from any or from all of the nymphs in these five cages would copulate and produce another brood of nymphs. Frequent examinations were made of all of these cages during the remainder of the season. All of the nymphs in the five cages transformed to adults, but no mating of the adults was observed nor did any nymphs of a new brood appear upon the foliage of the vines in the cages. On the other hand, in another cage in which 50 adults were placed on July 22, to determine to what extent and how late in the season they continued to reproduce, nymphs continued to hatch as late as September 15. Below is given the daily hatching record of nymphs from these 50 adults: Taste VII.—Hatching record of nymphs from 50 adult grape leafhoppers placed in. : confinement July 22, 1912. Runtber Nees Number Number (0) : (0) of of Date. nymphs Date. nymphs Date. nymphs Date. nymphs removed. removed. removed. removed. 1912. 1912. | 1912. | 1912. Aug. 12 38 Aug. 22 143 Aug. 31 52 Sept. 9 25 Aug. 13 132 || Aug. 23 76 Sept. 1 96 Sept. 10 13 Aug. 14 172 Aug. 24 83 Sept. 2 108 Sept. 11 2 fs Aug. 15 245 Aug. 25 50 Sept. 3 115 Sept. 12 6 Aug. 16 173 Aug. 26 137 Sept. 4 95 Sept. 13 4 Aug. 17 139 Aug. 27 108 Sept. 5 89 Sept. 14 2 Aug. 19 272 Aug. 28 5 Sept. 6 48 Sept. 15 6 Aug. 20 250 Aug. 29 73 Sept. 7 49 Aug. 21 131 Aug. 30 47 Sept. 8 24 LONGEVITY OF OVERWINTERING ADULTS. An effort was made to determine the length of life of overwintering adults. Owing to the great activity of the adult leafhoppers it was found to be exceedingly difficult to keep a record of each individual. In order to secure some data on this point 100 overwintering adults were placed on a small Concord vine inclosed in an arc-light globe cage on May 31. A black cloth was stretched over the surface of 24 BULLETIN 19, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the ground so that the dead adults falling from the foliage of the vine might be more easily seen. An examination for dead adults was made every few days by looking for them upon the black cloth. No dead adults were observed to July 12. On July 12 the adults were transferred to a new cage to avoid confusing them with newly transforming adults. During this operation 18 adults either escaped or were killed. In this new cage 82 adults were placed. Dead adults were found in the cage on the dates shown in Table VIII. TaBLE VIII.—Longevity of overwintering adults of the grape leafhopper. Date of Num- Date of | Num- examina- ber examina- ber tion. dead. tion. dead. 1912. 1912. July 17 1 Aug. 12 3 July 28 3 Aug. 17 2 Aug. 2 2 Aug. 23 4 Aug. 3 15 Aug. 27 3 Aug. 5 22 Aug. 30 5 Aug. 7 33 1 Escaped. 2 Killed. 3 Killed by spider. On August 30 these adults were again transferred to a new cage to avoid their being confused with newly transforming adults. During this transfer 10 adults were either killed or escaped. In the new cage there were 39 adults. The number of dead adults found in this cage is given in Table IX. TaBLe [X.—Longevity of overwintering adults of the grape leafhopper. Date of Num- Date of Num- examina- ber examina- ber tion. dead. tion. dead. 1912. 1912. Sept. 4 4 Sept. 20 3 Sept. 7 3 Sept. 26 7 Sept. 12 1 Oct. 2 6 Sept. 14 6 The last examination was made on October 2, when there were four adults still living. Hence it is evident that some of the over- wintering adults may remain on the vines during the entire growing season. Yet in vineyards that were the object of frequent visits during the seasons of 1911 and 1912 it was observed that there was a period, about the middle of the summer each season, when a de- crease in the number of hibernating adults was quite noticeable. During the season of 1911 this period of apparent decrease of over- wintering adults was about June 25. In 1912 it was about July 15. In both instances this decrease in number of adults occurred about two weeks before the transformation of the new brood in large numbers to adults. THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER IN THE LAKE ERIE VALLEY. 25 EXPERIMENTS TO REAR A THIRD BROOD OF NYMPHS. Rearing experiments were also conducted to determine if the adults which transformed from the earliest hatching nymphs of the season would produce a second summer brood of nymphs and also if the adults transforming from these second-brood nymphs would mate and produce a third brood of nymphs. On July 2, 100 newly hatched nymphs, the product of overwinter- ing adults, were placed on the foliage of a Delaware grapevine in- closed in an are-light globe cage. By July 28 a few of these nymphs had transformed to adults. By August 14 all of these first-brood nymphs had transformed to adults. On August 26 several nymphs of the second summer brood in the first two nymphal stages were found upon the foliage of the vine. On August 29 all of the adults of the first brood were removed from this cage in order that there might be no confusion with adults transforming from the second-brood nymphs. On September 12 newly transformed adults of the second brood were found in this cage. On September 27 nearly all the nymphs had transformed to adults. The few remaining nymphs were in the last nymphal stage. By October 7 all nymphs had trans- formed to adults. Frequent observations were made after the ap- pearance of the second brood of adults in this cage, but no mating was observed nor did any new nymphs appear on the foliage of the vine. Hence it would appear that reproduction did not occur among the adults of the second brood during the season of 1912. A similar rearing experiment was made on July 3 by taking 75 of the earliest nymphs to hatch and placing them on a grapevine inclosed in an arc-light globe cage. By July 16 nearly all of the nymphs had trans- formed to first-brood adults. On August 15 new nymphs of the second brood were present. On August 28 all first-brood adults were removed from the cage. All of the nymphs transformed to second-brood adults. Although frequent examinations were made of this cage for the remainder of the season, there was no evidence of reproduction by these adults of the second brood. In another rearing experiment the date of transformation of adults of the second brood was secured. ‘The rearings were made by taking nymphs of the first brood that were among the earliest of the season to hatch. They were nearing the last molt when they were placed on a Concord vine in a Riley cage on July 13. By July 16 nearly all of these nymphs had transformed to adults. On July 26 several pairs were observed mating. On August 17 a few nymphs of the second brood in the first and second stages were observed on the grape foliage. On August 28 all adults of the first brood were re- moved from this cage to avoid confusion with newly transforming adults of the second brood. A record of the dates of transformation of adults of the second brood is given in Table X. 26 BULLETIN 19, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste X.—Transformation to adults of second-brood grape leafhoppers. é Number Number D ate of of adults Date a of adults examina- t zs examina- t " tion. ules tion. pes formed. formed. 1912. 1912. Sept. 7 1 Sept. 14 85 Sept. 8 4 Sept. 15 63 Sept. 9 0 Sept. 17 16 Sept. 10 37 Sept. 19 26 Sept. 11 76 Sept. 20 5 Sept. 12 51 Sept. 21 il Sept. 13 51 Sept. 24 3 The last of the nymphs transformed to adults on September 24. This rearing experiment indicates that the transformation of the second-brood adults which were the progeny of the earliest nymphs of the season to appear upon the vines was much too late in the season for the production of a third brood of nymphs. REARING EXPERIMENTS TO DETERMINE LENGTH OF NYMPHAL STAGES. A series of rearing experiments was made to determine the length of the nymphal stages. The newly hatched nymph was placed in a cage made as follows: A hole about an inch in diameter was punched out of the center of a piece of velvet about 2 inches square. The velvet was then placed, nap side against the leaf, on the underside of an uninfested leaf. A square of heavy manila paper of the same size was placed on the upper side of the leaf directly above the square of velvet, to hold the leaf rigid. The newly hatched nymph was then placed on the underside of the leaf in the circular space cut out of the square of velvet. A small watch glass, convex side up, was placed over the circular hole in the velvet so as to overlap about one-fourth of an inch onto the velvet. Then the watch glass, the velvet, the portion of grape leaf, and the square paper were all held tightly together by means of four paper clips, by slipping on one of the clips from each side of the square, making them clasp the paper and the velvet and overlap on to the watch glass and hold the latter firmly in place so that the nymph could not escape. In some instances squares of thin sheets of celluloid were used in place of the watch glasses, but it was found that the small nymphs would sometimes drown in the moisture collecting on the inside of the celluloid. Then, too, the concave of the watch glass made the space larger. Even with the watch glasses, drowning of the nymphs was likely to occur. In order to prevent this, two squares of velvet were glued together with the nap side out. This raised the watch glass a greater distance from the leaf, giving more space between the back of the nymph and the glass, and less drowning of nymphs resulted. Hach cage was examined daily; thus the condition of the nymph was observed and THE GRAPE LEAFHOPPER IN THE LAKE ERIE VALLEY. OG record made of the date of each molt. During this operation the moisture was wiped from the inside of the watch glass. The period covered by these rearing experiments was from June 22 to October 13. During this time 348 newly hatched nymphs were placed on grape leaves confined in cages similar to those just described. Many of the nymphs either died or escaped before they completed all of the nymphal stages. Nevertheless, complete records of the length of the five stages were secured for 114 nymphs. The greater number of fatalities occurred among the young nymphs during the early part of the rearing season before the leaf cage most suitable for the purpose was secured. After the double thickness of velvet was adopted fewer fatalities occurred. The lengths of the several stages for the different Adividuale show a great variation, but it will be noted by an examination of Table XI that the variation of the total length of the five stages for a number-of nymphs hatching on the same date is not very great. Changes in temperature appear to be the important factor in deter- mining the length of time required to complete the entire nymphal period. In the last column of Table XI the average daily temperature for the entire nymphal period of each of the 114 nymphs is given. These average temperatures are computed from the average daily temperatures given in Table XII. The average daily temperatures given in Table XII are derived from daily readings of a maximum and minimum thermometer, located in the garden of the laboratory at North East, Pa., only a few yards distant from the grapevines bearing the individual cages in which the nymphs were reared. Taste XI.—Length of each of the five nymphal stages of the grape leafhopper for 114 nymphs recorded from June 22 to October 13, 1912. ob g |zes i : , 0 a | Som 3 . 3 & as o x & é . ES of a = aS a ro) 3 a 80 ° rs] 6 2 |S] ues ee a 6 = | % e 8 | h 3 el leer iies spear a g 7 cs) 3 A a re r| A Bl oe eeee 2 a a =I is) 9 S = Seba ores c g a a 3 S A= a= 5 5 re paltell= Bas = A A ® 3 q a 5 5 p= S/o |r Seq A Fy Fy n ND a a ey & Fy me 1a . ee a 7 1 \ ey Pye i) ‘ \ vu % a ch TB AM Fig. 1.—Showing dimensions of a crate similar to the one shown in Plate ITI, figure 1. Netting has largely taken the place of hurdles in England. ~ Both cord and wire netting are used. The former has proved the more popular. The cord is water-proofed by a mixture of oil and tar. The netting is fastened to temporary stakes either by the use of ropes or staples. Sheep farming in this country has not been intensive enough to warrant a very extensive use of these appliances, but they may be more in evidence in the future. Hurdles are also convenient in making temporary pens. Lighter hurdles that can be handled readily have a place upon every sheep'farm. They are well worth their cost. 16 BULLETIN 20, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PENS AND LOTS. Sorting pens and lots are very useful, especially if the flock is of any considerable size. It is often desirable to separate the different Fic. 2:—Panel and braces for making a portable sheep fence. Wire fencing is also frequently used in the construction of panels. classes of sheep. A number of lots should be available for this. A chute, with a gate that swings either way, saves much time and mci eS G Y = 7. roars « . te toes es teus Fic. 3—Extension hurdle; convenient for making temporary partitions in the pens. Can be closed up to 6 feet 4 inches or extended to 11 feet 4 inches. trouble in separating the sheep. An arrangement of this kind is illustrated in figure 4. THE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP ON THE FARM. 17 FENCING. The lots and pastures upon a sheep farm require considerable fencing. Lack of adequate fences has been one factor in the decline of the sheep industry in many localities. A woven-wire fence is the cheapest and most satisfactory, all things considered. If it must be dog-proof the meshes should be close enough together to prevent the dogs passing through, and it should be at least 5 feet high, which is a desirable height for all outside fences. Care should be taken in putting up the fence to see that the wire is close enough to the ground Fic. 4——Convenient arrangement of sheep lots with sorting chute. to prevent dogs from crawling under it. For temporary cross fences there are a number manufactured from 32 to 42 inches high. A 36-inch fence is very satisfactory and is used extensively. An advan- tage of wire fencing is that neither sheep nor dogs will jump it so readily. Barbed wire is undesirable, except at the top, because the sheep tear out their wool upon the barbs. HOUSING. It was formerly quite generally thought that the sheep’s wool afforded it all the protection necessary during the winter. If the fleece could be kept dry it probably would retain enough body heat to keep the sheep warm, but this is impossible without shelter. When 7635°—13——3 18 BULLETIN 20, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a fleece once becomes wet it takes a long time for it to dry out, espe- cially in cold weather. Much energy that would otherwise be used for growth or fattening must be used for evaporating this water. The wet fleece also gives rise to unhealthy conditions. In Great Britain little housing is necessary, but in most places in America this would result in undue losses. Now that it is generally agreed that a certain amount of housing is necessary, the question arises as to what kind it shall be. This depends somewhat upon the locality and the product of the flock. If winter or early spring lambs are to be produced, the shelter must naturally be warmer and more pretentious than where late lambs are the rule. The breed may also affect the kind of shelter required, some breeds being more hardy than others. The following conditions should be fulfilled as nearly as possible in a shelter for the flock. It should be located upon a rise of ground sloping away on all sides, or at least to the south and east. It should be protected from and should face the side least exposed to the winter winds. The floors should be dry; there should be plenty of ventila- tion, but also freedom from drafts. An abundance of light is desir- able, as 1s convenience of arrangement, making necessary the least possible amount of work. There should be adjustable divisions forming pens for the different classes of sheep, and it is desirable to have a door leading to the outside from every one of these. The doors should be wide enough so that there will be no danger from crowding, which may result in broken-down hips and abortion. If the doors are closed at all, it should be only in very severe weather. Corners cn posts and beams where the sheep come into contact with them should be rounded, so that the sheep will not rub their fleeces against them. From 10 to 18 square feet of floor space should be allowed for each breeding ewe and about 18 inches should be allowed at the feed troughs and hay rack. The quarters should not be kept too warm, or the sheep will be subject to colds and catarrhal condi- tions. The nearer these ideal conditions are fulfilled the greater will be the amount of feed that can be profitably used in the production of mutton and wool. SHEDS AND BARNS. Either sheds or -barns are desirable under certain conditions. Sheds are less expensive, and where the flock is not too large they serve very well. Some of the best results have been obtained through their use. There is more work connected with caring for the sheep, as their feed will have to be brought from outside the shed, but this may be offset by the lower cost of construction. ‘‘Lean-to” sheds are commonly used upon the farm for sheltering the flock, and can be arranged very satisfactorily. THE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP ON THE FARM. 19 When a barn is built sufficient outlay is justifiable to make it con- venient. Storage should be provided for roughage, grain, and roots. If the haymow is above the sheep it should have a tight floor, so that the hayseed and chaff can not fall down upon the sheep. The root cellar must be frost proof. Barns having two floors for sheep are sometimes built. . The barn should be cleaned out several times during the winter. Slaked lime, gypsum, or disinfectants scattered about dispel the odors that arise at this time. The pens-should be bedded down whenever necessary, so that the sheep are kept clean and dry. Shavings are not a very satisfactory bedding material. They become entangled in the wool, and are troublesome in shearing. . Wheat straw is the most satisfactory material for this purpose, though oat straw is very good. Ordinarily the refuse from the hay racks affords sufficient bedding. An attractive and desirable sheep barn remodeled from an old farm building is shown in Plate II, figure 2, the barn at the United States Morgan Horse Farm, at Middlebury, Vt. CARE OF EWES. Some time between weaning and mating the ewe flock should be culled over. They should be “mouthed,” and any broken-mouthed ewes separated and fattened for the butcher. The age at which sheep lose their teeth varies with a number of things. They lose ‘them sooner upon sandy soil than upon clay or loam. Ewes are culled out at 5 or.6 years of age as a general rule. Sometimes an exceptional individual can be profitably kept after this age; espe- cially is this true of purebred ewes, which are frequently kept until 10 or 12 years of age. Such animals, however, require much more attention and such feeds as they can readily eat, if they are expected to continue useful. Barren ewes, those having defective udders, and those that are inherently poor mothers should also be culled out. FLUSHING. It has been the general belief for a great many years that having the ewes in a gaining condition at mating time increases the per- centage of lambs. This is commonly known as “‘flushing,”’ and is accomplished by turning the ewes upon rape or other such feeds after having been upon short pasture.. Some authorities hold that keeping the ewes in a flourishing condition throughout the year is even more beneficial. However, after three years’ observations upon Scottish flocks, F.H. A. Marshall! reported that some form of extra feeding immediately before the mating period appeared to increase the per- centage of lambs. As to the other, we have no definite information. Having the ewes in flourishing condition also shortens the mating 1 Trans. Highland and Agr. Soe. Scot., 5 ser., 20. 20 BULLETIN 20, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. season and makes conception more sure. This is an advantage in that it shortens the lambing period. Having the lambs as near one age as possible is an advantage when they are to be sold, as uniform lots always sell more readily and at higher prices than uneven ones. TIME OF MATING. Some breeds of sheep mate at any season of the year, such as the Barbados. Others, such as Dorset, Tunis, and Rambouillet, mate either in the fall or spring, -while the other breeds mate only in the fall. The time of mating depends upon the time it is desired to have the lambs dropped. With those that are bred in the fall, there is a grow- ing tendency to have them lamb as early as possible, as the early lambs are not troubled so much with stomach worms. Where ‘‘hothouse”’ lambs are raised the ewes are mated in the spring or late summer. It is common among Dorset breeders to have most of the lambs dropped in the fall. With ewes that lamb in the fall the rams are turned in during the months of April, May, and June, while with ewes that lamb in the spring they are turned in during soon September, and October. GESTATION PERIOD. The gestation period is the time between the effectual service of the ram and the dropping of the lamb when the ewe is in normal condition. The average has been found by the Wisconsin station,’ in making observations on more than 1,200 ewes, to be between 146 and 147 days. The time varies somewhat with the individual and with its health and physical condition. The length of the period does not seem to influence the size of the lamb, but if lambs are carried from five to seven days overtime they are usually weak or dead when delivered. Ram lambs are usually carried for a somewhat longer time than ewe lambs and they weigh slightly heavier at birth. SEPARATING PREGNANT EWES. It is much better if the breeding ewes can be kept separate from the rest of the flock. They require special management and feeding, and this can be more easily done when they are in an mclosure by themselves. Abundant exercise should be given them. They should not be fattened, neither should they be allowed to become thin. FEEDING PREGNANT EWES. Turnips, rutabagas, and swedes are the most desirable roots for breeding ewes, mangels and sugar beets being undesirable before lambing. Frozen roots should not be fed, as it is claimed that they will cause abortion: Frozen or acid silage should never be fed to ewes 1 Kleinheinz, Sheep management. eee THE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP ON THE FARM. 21 or any other class of sheep. Silage of good quality, however, is very desirable. Too large a supply of succulence should not be given ewes before lambing, or weak, unhealthy lambs may be the result. Oats and bran are as good concentrates as can be secured. Corn alone is too fattening. Whether or not the ewes require grain throughout the entire winter, and the amount they will need, depends largely upon their condition and the kind of roughage and succulence fed. In the Willamette Valley, where abundant green forage is avail- able throughout the year, practically no grain is fed before lambing. But under average conditions succulent forage of this nature is unavailable, and a little grain should be fed, beginning several weeks before lambing, to stimulate the milk flow. An average ewe’s daily ration during pregnancy would be about as follows: Two to three pounds of hay, 2 pounds of roots or.silage, and one-half pound to 1 pound of grain. Usually one-half pound of grain is enough before lambing if the ewes enter their winter quarters in good condition. ‘Turning the ewes out after they have eaten their morning feed for water and for a light feed of corn fodder or some similar feed is a good plan when the weather is not too severe. This gives them plenty of xercise and allows the troughs and racks to be readily cleaned out and the evening feed placed in them. Alfalfa, clovers, etc., are the most desirable roughage. Succulence in the form of silage or roots is essential for the best results, as experiments have shown that ewes receiving such feeds produce stronger lambs and have a larger milk flow. Thousands of breeding ewes have died in this country of “blind staggers” brought on by feeding timothy hay without succulence. This particular kind of hay causes constipation and is very undesirable for sheep. ; LAMBING. This is the busiest time of the shepherd’s year. The forward ewes should be picked out and placed in a pen by themselves, where they are allowed to lamb. They should be looked after occasionally and aided if necessary. Generally it is not necessary to watch later than 11 o’clock at night, for if a ewe does not lamb before this time she usually will not before 4 o’clock the next morning. Many a ewe or lamb that would otherwise be lost may be saved by a little extra attention on the part of the shepherd. Malpresentation occurs occasionally in the best-managed flocks, and sometimes a ewe may have a lamb that is too large for her to deliver unaided. The normal presentation of the lamb is head first with the lower jaw resting upon the fore legs. If the lamb is partially delivered under normal conditions, it can usually be helped out by grasping it with one hand by the fore legs and pulling at the same time the ewe strains. If the head or either 29 BULLETIN 20, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. leg is back these must be worked forward before delivery can take place. * Occasionally lambs are delivered backwards. In this case, if either leg is bent back the fetus must be pushed back and the hind legs pulled out first. If there are no indications of delivery and the lamb is considerably overdue it is probably dead, and it must be taken from the ewe if she is to be saved. Before doing this the finger nails should be closely trimmed and the hands and arms should be thoroughly washed in warm water containing from 2 to 3 pér cent of some good disinfectant. If lmseed oil is smeared about the passage the lamb can be removed much easier. The hand is inserted into the vagina until a hold can be secured upon the lamb, which is then slowly and gradually worked out, front feet and head first if possible. . When it is necessary to remove a lamb in this manner, the ewe should be thoroughly washed out with warm water containing a little disin- fectant. This can best be done by means of a small rubber hose and funnel. Some one who has had experience should be on hand in a case like this, as conditions are constantly arising that can not be guarded against by written instructions. If the ewe be a valuable one, it may be advisable to secure the services of a veterinarian. CLAIMING PENS. After lambing, the ewe and her lamb, or lambs as the case may be, should be placed in a claiming pen if she refuses to own her offspring. If left loose the lamb wanders about, becomes lost among the flock, and loses its characteristic smell by which the ewe recognizes it. She will then refuse to claim it, and the trouble begins. By placing them by themselves all of this is avoided and a closer watch can be kept upon them to see that all is well., The length of time they should be kept in the pen will depend upon how long it takes the ewe to become reconciled to her lamb. Usually two or three days are sufficient. If the ewe persists in butting the lamb away, she should be tied so as to allow the lamb to suck. This soon brings about agreeable relations between them. There are two types of pens, temporary and permanent. Tem- porary pens are conveniently made of some light material and consist of two sides that are hinged together and set up in a corner of the barn by the use of hooks (see fig. 5). Rows of these can be placed along the sides, if necessary. They have the advantage that they take up httle room and “they can be removed when not in use. Permanent pens are more desirable in a number of ways. For example, the ewe is more completely isolated from the other members of the flock and consequently becomes reconciled *to her offspring sooner. ‘These pens should be about 4 feet square and boarded up tightly so that the ewe can not see the rest of the flock. Lambing pens, in which the ewes are placed before they lamb, are used to some THE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP ON THE FARM. 23 extent. They are objectionable, however, in that they cause the ewe to become restless and dissatisfied when removed from the flock, which is especially undesirable at this time. If they are so con- structed that the ewe can see the other members of the flock, this will be partially remedied. FEEDING AFTER LAMBING. After lambing, the quantity of roots or silage and of grain should be gradually increased. The grain ration may be increased to 2 pounds per day, if necessary. In exceptional cases, more than this amount has been fed. After the flock is turned out to pasture and Sees SS I — - — > Fia@. 5.—Hinged panels for temporary lambing or claiming pens. the freshness is worn off the grass there is little benefit in feeding grain to ewes, so far as the lambs are concerned. The only difference that it makes is that the ewes do not lose so much flesh. During the summer, if the pasture has become short and parched, additional forage may be necessary. Rape, oats and peas, and green corn are to be recommended for this purpose. During weaning, however, it is advisable to put the ewes upon scant pasture to check the milk flow. TAGGING EWES. Returning to the general management of the flock other than feeding, the ewes should be tagged shortly before lambing. This is merely the clipping off of the filthy locks of wool from the hind quarters. -The wool should also be trimmed away from the teats so 24 BULLETIN 20, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. that the lambs can suck without getting it into their mouths. Swal- lowing wool frequently causes death, as many as 50 wool balls having been found in one lamb. Sore teats and udders are of rather common occurence among ewes suckling lambs. Where an inflamed condition has arisen, the udder should be milked out, bathed in warm water, and treated with some antiseptic ointment that will not injure the lamb if taken into its stomach. Carbolated vaseline is excellent for this purpose. EWES THAT HAVE LOST THEIR LAMBS. Sometimes it happens that a ewe loses her lamb. If she has a good milk flow, she can be taken care of most readily by giving her a lamb from a ewe that has no milk or from one that has had twins. Several methods have been used for making such a ewe claim her lamb. Among these are, tying up the ewe so she can not butt the lamb about, sprinkling some of her milk over the lamb, and ae the skin of the dead lamb over the one to be adopted. il | Mi li | Fic. 6.—Pruning shears or sheep toe clippers used in trimming the feet and also for docking lambs. SHEARING THE EWES. Under ordinary conditions, shearing the ewes should take place after lambing. It is also desirable to shear them before turning out to pasture. Otherwise the. wool becomes unnecessarily dirty and the © ewes remain outside in weather that is too severe for the lambs. Unfortunately, this is not practiced in many flocks. Shearing before lambing is practiced where the ewes are to lamb late, but it requires much more care and experience in handling them, and it is neces- sarily much slower than shearing afterwards. TRIMMING THE FEBT. The feet of the entire flock will ordinarily need attention about twice a year. The hard outer shell grows under the soft part of the feet, inclosing more or less filth and making it difficult for the sheep to walk. This superfluous growth should be trimmed away and care must be taken not to cut back too far into the tender parts. Pruning shears, such as are used in docking lambs and trimming small shrubs are valuable for this purpose (see fig. 6). A sharp knife can also be THE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP ON THE FARM, 25 used to good advantage. Either before or after shearing is an excel- lent time for giving the feet attention. DIPPING. Not only the ewes but the entire flock should be dipped shortly after shearing. They should not be dipped either in extreme hot or cold weather, and if the weather is unfavorable immediately after dipping, protection should be provided them. If dipping is done while the wool is short, 1t will be more quickly and thoroughly done, less material will be required for the dip, and the wool will dry out quicker. A satisfactory sheep dip is one that will destroy ticks, lice, scab, and all external parasites, and yet will not injure the skin or wool. There are a number of good dips upon the market which are CROSS SECTION Fig. 7.—Outline of metal dipping tank suitable for the ordinary farm flock. recognized by the United States Department of Agriculture, any one of which will give satisfaction if directions are carefully followed. It is claimed for some of these that they are an actual benefit to the skin, in that they act as a stimulant. If the flock is badly infected with scab, it becomes necessary to dip twice, with an interval of ten days to two weeks. The second dipping destroys those parasites that were in the egg stage at the time of first dipping. A dipping tank should comprise part of the equipment for every flock. They are constructed of galvanized iron, concrete, and wood. A galvanized-iron tank, such as can be purchased upon the market, has several advantages. It is light enough so that it can readily be moved from one place to another. Several farmers can own one in partnership. With the ordinary flock a small tank, such as shown in figure 7, will answer the purpose. Details of a concrete dipping vat suitable for large flocks are given in Farmers’ Bulletin 481. 7635°—13—4 26 BULLETIN 20, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ATTENTION TO EWES AFTER WEANING. The ewes should be watched carefully for a few days after the lambs are taken away. Most of them, especially the heavy milkers, will have to be partially milked out a few times. Some will not have to be milked more than twice, others perhaps four or five times. As the period of drying up progresses, gradually increase the time between milkings. A ewe can be quickly milked by backing her up against a fence so that she can not go backwards, and pressing the knees against her shoulders so that she can not go forward. Both hands can then be used. Ewes can also be milked out conveniently by settmg them upon their rumps, as the operator can see better what he is doing. Inflammation and caked udders are the result of inattention at this time, and the best ewes of the flock suffer most. CARE DURING REMAINDER OF SEASON. The time between the weaning of the lambs and mating should be a ‘‘resting up”? season for the ewes. As a rule they have lost more or less flesh in nursing the lambs, and their systems need toning up. This can best be brought about by an abundance of good pasture, pure water, and shade. Frequent changes of pasture are essential for best results. The flock should be aided in every way in regaining lost vitality, and put in a flourishing condition for the next season’s work. CARE OF LAMBS. Spring lambs should come early enough so that they will be old enough to eat grass when the ewes are turned out to pasture. Harly lambs seem to have more vigor and vitality and they seem better able to resist the attacks of parasites than late ones. They entirely escape most of the ills common to young lambs, consequently they make more rapid growth and thrive much better. For these reasons it is best to have lambs come early. REVIVING WEAK LAMBS. Sometimes a lamb is born very weak and seems almost dead when delivered. It may not even be breathing. The phlegm should be cleaned out of its mouth and nostrils and artificial respiration started. This may be done by breathing into the lamb’s mouth three or four times, then holding it with one hand upon its belly, patting it with the other just back of the shoulders. It may be necessary to repeat the operation three or four times. Many apparently lifeless lambs have been revived in this way. HELPING LAMBS NURSE. It is often necessary to help the lamb nurse the first time. It may be unable to find the teats itself or the ewe may refuse to allow it to suck. After helping it a few times it is usually able to take care of itself. : 3 THE MANAGEMENT OF SHEEP ON THE FARM. 27 CHILLED LAMBS, Lambs should never be allowed to become chilled, but sometimes it is unavoidable owing to the ewe lambing unexpectedly. When chilled the lamb should be given a bath as quickly as possible in water as hot as the hand can bear. 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Dies Corn chop and buttermilk were fed to hens held for live shipment during the summer months, but in very hot weather the birds did better on a ration of corn chop with 8 per cent of low-grade flour and 5 per cent shorts, which was less heating than the corn chop alone. These lots were only held for a short time in hot weather, and the’ object of feeding was to prevent shrinkage rather than to produce gains. Some lots showed a slight gain, others held their own weigltt, while a few showed a small shrinkage. Corn chop is difficult to feed, as it can not be mixed with milk and poured from a feeding pail, so that the labor of feeding this ration is greater than with the other ration. The corn chop not mixed with other grains is fed by taking up a scoopful of grain and milk together, and stirring the mixture frequently to prevent the corn from settling in the mixing tank or feeding pail. If tallow is used in the chicken mixture, the corn-chop ration might prove as economical as the other ration. The regular chicken mixture prevents shrinkage better in hot weather, is cheaper, requires less labor, and produces slightly more economical gains in feeding hens than the corn-chop ration. LESS PROFIT IN FATTENING HENS THAN IN FATTENING CHICKENS. The average cost of the hens into the feeder was 7.7 cents a pound in 1911 and 10.3 cents in 1912, so that a pound of flesh can be bought more cheaply than produced in the feeding station. Therefore it only pays to feed hens under certain conditions. The object in feed- ing hens at Station 1 was to supply a trade for “‘milk-fed”’ hens and to dispose of the hight hens, which are somewhat of a drug on the market in the ordinary grades of dressed fowl. At Stations 2 and 4 the light hens and those which were covered with small pin feathers were selected for fattening. The latter kind would grow feathers rapidly, so that they would dress as fancy poultry after a week or ten days fattening. A-comparison of the results secured in fattening hens at these three stations is shown in Tables 10 and 11. The feeding was done in November.and December. The average cost of fattening the hens in 1911 was 10.92 and 8.74 cents per pound of gain at Stations 1 and 4, respectively, and 10.43 and 10.83 at Stations 1 and 2, in 1912. This is lower than the corresponding cost of fattening chickens at these stations during the same months, but higher than the average cost of fattening for the season. However, it may be stated that the cost for fattening chickens at Station 4 during the greater part of November (see Table III, appendix) was abnormally high. In gen- eral the difference in the cost, if any, would be more than made up in the selling price. Therefore, as hens are bought and sold at a con- siderably lower price per pound, it is, as a rule, much more profitable to fatten chickens than to fatten hens. 24 BULLETIN 21, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. INDIVIDUAL VARIATION IN FATTENING CHICKENS. A study of Table 12 and of the variation in the summaries of the feeding experiments at the different stations shows that many fac- tors affect the gains in fattening. Variation within a lot is due some- what to the difference in the weight of the birds, but largely to the difference in the ability of the individuals to take on flesh under the existing conditions. This plainly shows how much variation exists in this ability to fatten readily, and the influence which the weather has in fattening. The possible error of conclusions drawn from small lots in fattening experiments is readily noted, and this possibility undoubtedly occurs under other poultry methods, as in the influence of feed and housing on the production of eggs. The marked effects of weather on fattening demonstrates the error which may occur in direct comparison of fattening tests conducted at different periods of the year, or in different seasons. TasB_e 12.—Individual variation in fattening chickens. Average weight.| Nym- Per cent gain. Number mae ber of of head. JeSTHIeh: days High. | Low. fed. High. | Low. | Average. Pounds.| Pounds. Per ct. | Perct.| Per ct. 1,790 | Roasters. . 4.19 2.58 8 36.4 4.5 13 1,400 |..-.do.......| 3.07 2.53 8 25.9 7.6 14 1,216 Go. =e 22 3.05 2.70 8 27.0 9.0 14 1,880 | Springs.. 2.03 1.43 15 55.0 17.0 27 1,080 Oz: 1.95 1.62 14 63.0 18.0 29 768 | Broilers 1.89 1.69 14 56.0 12.0 36 320 Of nanee 1.75 1.23 14 45.0 36.0 39 600 donzeses 1.65 1.50 14 53.0 18.0 38 480 CO-s5552 1.76 1.40 14 39.0 31.0 35 320 do...... 1.75 1.61 14 43.0 25.0 41 1,024 | Springs....} 3.55 2.72 11 29.0 7.0 18 512 | Broilers. 1.47 1.34 15 63.0 31.0 44 1,088 | Springs... 2.28 ifs UL 13 67.0 11.0 35 68 Ones 1.58 1.47 14 45.0 30.0 37 In the above work individual records were kept of each battery containing 64 birds. The variation in average weight and in. per cent of gains was between batteries of birds fed under the same con- ditions. The great variation in birds fattened under the same con- ditions suggests the economical possibility of rejecting certain birds in fattening. A very small per cent of birds called “rangers” were graded out of the receipts at Station 1 and killed without fattening. These birds consisted of black and feather legged stock, Leghorns, and birds out of condition. All black and feather legged birds were kept separate at Station 4 and fed only for a short period during the early part of the feeding season. Much better results could be secured in the fattening stations if only the best birds were selected for fattening, although this would require extra skilled labor for selecting, and involve a different and more complicated system of handling the birds at the packing house. PLATE IV. Bul. 21, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. «Peay YO,, parq 10 ,,‘o[ddio,, ¥— 6 “sl ‘poy Jo odvys oyI[-MOID 0JON ‘Iopodoj JO odAq to100d y—'z “SsIq *SYsdqsas54 3O SadAL *pBolf POLY} aOys oy} VION ‘Inpoey poos AOA Y—'T ‘Sly Bul. 21, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. Fic. 1.—RACK FOR SQUATTED AND HANGING DRESSED POULTRY. Fee gay ar a Fic. 2.—SPRAYING MACHINE, A LABOR-SAVING DEVICE. THE COMMERCIAL FATTENING OF POULTRY. 95 MIXING MACHINES AND OTHER LABOR-SAVING DEVICES. The horizontal mixing machine described in Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 140 was improved by adding one-third more blades. After this change had been made the feed was mixed more quickly, and the operator could put the dry grain directly into the feeder without previous mixing. Another mixer installed at Station 3 was made on the same plan as the previous machine, except that the blades were arranged as a spiral on the shaft so that in mixing the feed worked toward the center from either end. A mixing machine is a good investment when one is fattening a large number of chick- ens. The use of labor-saving mechanical devices in fattening sta- tions has enabled one man to care for 4,000 to 5,000 birds. Results secured at these stations show that mechanical features can be used to good advantage in handling poultry commercially, provided the stations are kept.clean. Mechanical features, besides saving greatly in the amount of labor, make it possible to use unskilled help in a fattening station. Similar features might be used to good advantage in handling poultry under commercial conditions other than fattening. ADVANTAGE OF THE PORTABLE FEEDING BATTERY. On comparing the results in 1911 at. Station 1 (Experiment B), where stationary batteries were used, with those secured at the other stations, we find that the average pound of gain was produced with the smallest amount of feed (3.33 pounds) in this experiment, while the lowest cost of gain was made in Experiment C, due largely to the differences in the price of milk. The cost of labor (per pound gain) in Experiment B averaged considerably higher than at any other station. This increased cost was due to the method of handling the chickens, as the stationary feeding battery involves more handling of the birds than the portable feeding battery (described in Bulletin 140); also to the fact that the manager of this feeding station was a higher paid man than the other managers, and to the cost of an extra man employed to go through the batteries daily, or every day during the poor feeding season in October, November, and December, to remove all the birds “off feed” or sickly. The portable feeding bat- tery unquestionably saves labor and eliminates some of the bruising of the birds caused by rehandling where stationary batteries are used. EXPERT LABOR. An expert manager, who is paid higher wages than the regular labor about a feeding station, is a necessity in the average feeding station, unless the manager of the packing house understands how to fatten chickens and watches the work closely enough so that he 7636°—14—__4 26 BULLETIN 21, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. can successfully direct ordinary help which shows some adaptability in feeding chickens and has had some experience in that work. Under ordinary conditions such help, if well selected and properly advised, may secure very good results; but in case of emergency, such as an over-supply of chickens, or extremely hot or cold weather, the expert manager easily proves his extra worth, as it is impossible for the manager of the average poultry house to always be on hand during such occasions. Conclusions drawn from the season’s work show that in these cases the cost of the expert labor, combined with the different methods of handling the birds and the extra labor of picking out sick birds and “‘cripples,’”’ made the labor cost per pound of gain considerably higher than at any of the other stations, the average cost of labor per 100 pounds of gain at the stations being $1.41 at Station 3, $1.58 at Station 2, $1.75 at Station 4, and $2 at Station 1. GRADING POULTRY. Two grades of dressed poultry were made at Station 1—fancy, or No. 1, and choice, or No. 2—with a very small per cent of culls which are not included in these tables. The variation at this station for each successive 20 lots was as follows, the figures given representing the No. 2 grade: 7.9 per cent, 13.5 per cent, 13.4 per cent, 14.8 per cent, 14.7 per cent, 12.8 per cent. Four grades were made at Station 4, classed as Nos. 1, 2, 3, and 4. The No. 1 grade included all fancy dressed poultry which plainly showed the effect of milk feeding, particularly a bleach, which is so characteristic of milk-fed poultry. The second grade was made up of well-bleached poultry, not as well fleshed as the first grade or which had undesirable market features, such as black or feathered legs, dark pin feathers, or not neatly dressed. The third grade included the well-fleshed birds, which were not well bleached, while the fourth grade bore the same relation to the third as the second did the first. The per cent of the several grades was as follows for each successive two weeks during the season: No. 1, 39, 25, 21, 35, 39, 45, and 24; No. 2, 9, 6, 5, 8, 10, 10, and 8; No. 3, 35, 44, 49, 35, 34, 38, and 13; and No. 4, 17,25, 25,22,17,7,and 55. The per cent of fancy grades varied directly with: the per cent of gains in the feeding station, high gains producing a large per cent of the No. 1 grade. SHRINKAGE IN DRESSING. The shrinkage in killing and picking without drawing at Station 1 averaged 11.4 per cent for lots 1 to 20; 13.5 per cent for lots 21 to 40; 13.4 per cent for lots 41 to 60; 14.3 per cent for lots 61 to 80; 15.4 per cent for lots 81 to 100; and 15.1 per cent for lots 101 to 113. The lowest shrinkage was in the broilers, and gradually increased with THE COMMERCIAL FATTENING OF POULTRY. Pat the size of the chickens as the feeding season advanced. Batteries weighed when received at the poultry house and reweighed the fol- lowing morning before the birds were fed, gave an average shrink of 2 per cent. The shrinkage in killing and picking without drawing at this station in 1912 averaged 11.3 per cent for lots 1 to 20; 12.4 per cent for lots 21 to 40; 13.4 per cent for lots 41 to 60; 14.1 per cent for lots 61 to 80; and 14.6 per cent for lots 81 to 100. The shrinkage on hens was 12.9 per cent. INITIAL COST OF CHICKENS AS AFFECTING PROFIT IN FATTENING. The average cost per pound of the birds into the feeder in Experi- ment B in 1911 was as follows: Lots 1 to 12, 17.6 cents; lots 13 to 19, 15 cents; lots 20 to 30, 13 cents; lots 31 to 49, 12 cents; lots 50 to 63, 11 cents; lots 64 to 80, 10 cents; lots 81 to 108, 9 cents; and lots 109 to 1t8, 9.3 cents. The cost of picking, grading, and packing (including freezing) was about 7 cents per head. The gradual decrease of the average cost into the feeder is the reason for feeding longer early in the season, especially as the cheapest gains are made on these first lots; while later the flesh can be bought more cheaply than pro- duced in fattening. For example, an average lot early in the season cost 17.6 cents per pound into the feeder, and the gain in fattening cost 7 cents per pound; an average lot late in the fall costs 9 cents per pound into the feeder, while the gain costs 10.5 cents per pound. The total cost per pound when dressed and packed for this first lot was 20.5 cents; for the other, 13.1 cents; but the first brought a much higher price in the market than the second. These costs were the average extremes of high and low cost, the total dressed costs eradually dropping as the season advanced. The average cost per pound of the birds into the feeding station in Experiment B in 1912 was as follows: Lots 1 to 21, 18 cents; lots 22 to 42, 16 cents; lots 43 to 57, 14.2 cents; lots 58 to 75, 11 cents; lots 76 to 100, 11.2 cents. Average cost per pound for the season 14.05 cents, as com- pared with 11.5 cents in 1911. RELATION OF GRAIN FED TO MANURE PRODUCED. Table 13 shows the average grain consumed and amount of manure produced daily per 100 head of chickens in fattening. This is a record of 900 head of birds at Station 1, Experiment B, kept from July 18 to November 16, 1911. These birds were fed a ration of 1 part shorts, 2 parts low-grade wheat flour, and 3 parts corn meal, by weight, with 6 per cent of tallow, mixed with ordinary buttermilk. 28 BULLETIN Zik, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasLe 13.—Relative production of poultry droppings and consumption of feed per 100 head. Average Aueiaee manure | Per cent of Dates. 8 per 100 a (wet) daily | manure to heads o/h Cereal era 1911. Pounds. Pounds. Per cent. July WSS 2 See ee ee eh eee SN ten Pine pons eat NE atare eae 12.5 12 96.0 AtngS TH16: 0 sais eee ee Sie ne nee es ie client RR eo eae oe tse 10.9 11 100. 9 Ae V7 =31 ote are ee eee ors ete oben Lopranios Sek beset cere 14.3 11 76.9 SOpt: PEUGe sess Ss see eee pe ee eats te we Re ely eee 13.1 12 91.6 Sepia s7—s0es sss. See eee DEE Soa Ne eI ee, MRA Chee CP 15.4 19 123.4 OCC. AHIG es oie oars See Pee Cee eS eee eee teas ies Daoeeeeie tess 16.7 20 119.8 Oct: L720 sess she See eae a aces sere COR AR Smaart 16. 2 17 104.9 NOW: ISTO se se ete eee oe tae nee ee aor 14.5 16 110.3 IA-VERAPO's cade eo 2h Oe OMENS Rem ee ere ee eee 14.2 TAC Tate 103.5 The figures in the table vary considerably, although it may be stated that the amount of buttermilk in the feed affects the compari- sons by increasing the amount of moisture in the droppings, especially during hot weather. The manure when weighed was soft and wet, so that the dry weight would be very much smaller. The birds eat more feed as they increase in size, especially during cool weather. DIGESTIBLE PROTEIN AND ENERGY VALUES OF THE RATIONS. The protein and the energy values of the various rations used in these fattening experiments show clearly the effect of thick con- densed buttermilk, tallow, and oat flour in fattening. The follow- ing prices of grain and milk per 100 pounds were used: Corn meal, $1.35; low-grade wheat flour, $1.35; wheat shorts, $1.28; oat flour, $2.25; condensed buttermilk, $1; and ordinary buttermilk, $0.25. Farmers’ Bulletin 346, United States Department of Agriculture, entitled ‘‘The Computation of Rations for Farm Animals by the Use of Energy Values,’ was used in deriving the protein and energy values of these feeds. Sixty per cent of the total feed was esti- mated as buttermilk in figuring the effect of the buttermilk on the energy value of the feed. TABLE 14.—Digestible protein and energy value per 100 pounds of rations used. > yt? . . ett Composition of rations (parts by weight). eae ye Cost. Pounds Therms 1 | 3 parts corn meal, 2 parts low-grade wheat flour............... 8.31 86. 41 1.35 2) 3 parts corn meal, 2 parts oat flour (hulls out)...............-- 8.36 87.08 1.71 3 | 3 parts corn meal, 2 parts low-grade wheat flour, 1 part shorts... 9. 06 84. 95 1.34 4 | 4 parts corn meal, 2 parts low-grade wheat flour, 1 part shorts. 8.74 85. 50 1.34 5 | 2 parts corn meal, 1 part oat flour (hulls out), 1 part low-grade Wheaiilouns. 4 ce ime ce Se Po een es ee ih tees 8.72 86. 22 1.58 100 pounds ration No. 1, with condensed buttermilk and diluted LH DARTS WALL WALCE: = 52 Steer © wis cioettars oe e ere tee are te ares 19. 71 117.33 1.95 100 pounds ration No. 2, with ordinary buttermilk and 6 per Cobtitalowsemseece oe ict cee tele Gee ee ea ciecr ee ee EOE 14. 26 114. 59 2.40 100 pounds ration No. 3, with ordinary buttermilk ............ 14, 76 ~ 100. 41 1,71 i \ a . THE COMMERCIAL FATTENING OF POULTRY. 29 Rations Nos. 1, 3, and 4 have a feeding value about equal to ration No. 2 at 36 and 37 cents less per 100 pounds, due largely to the price of oat flour. Ration No. 1 fed with condensed buttermilk diluted with one and one-half parts of water has a much higher feeding value than any of the other rations fed with ordinary buttermilk, at a slightly lower cost than ration No. 2. Rations Nos. 1 and 3 as fed proved in feeding to be the most economical rations, while ration No. 4 gave very good results in cool weather, late in the feeding season. TasLe 15.—Comparison of the different rations on the basis of the cost per pound of gain. es Grain. Buttermilk, Ration : jake Total No. Gain. | cost. Amount.| Cost. |.4mount.| Cost. Pound.| Pounds. Pounds. ib 1 3. 63 $0. 049 12.72 | $0.0272 | $0.0762 = 2 1 3.33 . 0676 4.99 . 0125 - O801 3 1 4.17 . 0559 6. 27 . 0157 . 0716 la 1 4, 20 * 0567 12.52 . 0252 . 0819 1 Condensed. Ration No. 1 was fed with condensed buttermilk diluted with 1 part of water, Nos. 2 and 3 were mixed with ordinary buttermilk, and No. 1a is ration No. 1 fed with condensed buttermilk diluted with one and one-half parts of water. Ration No. 2 was fed with 6 per cent of tallow. These costs are figured on a uniform price of milk and grains at all of the stations, while the costs of gains in each experiment is the actual cost at each feeding station, where the price of buttermilk and grain varied. The amount and cost of the grain and butterrailk per pound of gain at each of the feeding stations is given in Table 16. COMPARISON OF EXPERIMENTS OF 1910, 1911, AND 1912. Table 16 gives the average results of the feeding experiments covering three years at the four feeding stations, during which time 1,196,646 birds were fed. The lotsin Experiment A were fed longer in 1911 than in 1910, which explains the increased cost of the gains during 1911. The ration in Experiment B was cheaper in 1911 than in 1910; the feeding station was run at full capacity during 1911, which reduced the labor cost compared with 1910, when the station was not full. The milk used in Experiment C was much cheaper than that in Experiment B, which lowered the cost of gains in Experi- ment C. The price of the grains was higher in 1912 than in 1911, especially in Experiments C and D, which increased the cost of gain. Feather picking resulted in much loss of gain in Experiments A, C, and D. . The results secured in Experiment C were better, while those in Experiments A and D were not as good as those produced in 1911. 30 BULLETIN 21, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Taste 16.—Comparative data of feeding experiments of 1910, 1911, and 1912. Average | Average | Average | Average Average | grain cost of cost of total Experiment. Year. pe aN ersEe per cent per feed per |labor per| cost per ° MUSEU | Toye gain. | pound. | pound pound pound of gain. | of gain. | of gain. | of gain. Pounds. | Per cent. | Pounds. Cents. Cents. Cents. A 1910 43, 944 2.42 18.1 3. 26 6.45 1.40 7.85 1911 60, 144 2.47 18.6 3.62 7.83 135 9.18 1912 90, 069 2.44 18.6 4.42 8. 74 1.63 10. 37 B 1910 61.706 2. 82 18.7 3. 26 7.74 2.59 10. 33 1911 102, 684 2. 56 26.0 3.33 7. 20 2.00 9. 20 1912 90, 000 2.26 26.7 3. 58 7. 708 1.99 9. 69 Clk ie) ||) Di, Bi |. ee ene 20:24) aU Se | ae ene neta | ee Oe | ell | Aad See ae 1911, 117, 151 2.48 20. 4 4.45 Te 2S) Sil &. 96 1912 211, 560 2. Pil 20.7 eile, 6 IGG 7.98 D | 1910 894319 edasee eee 20: 1 elec eee slseeeee ass | Sooners Se eeer rer a _ 1911 109, 800 2. 68 18.0 4.18 8.71 1. 56 10. 27 1912 107, 052 2. 69 15.7 4.98 9.95 1. 59 11. 54. CONCLUSIONS. The average cost and the amount of feed consumed in fattening 394,744 chickens at the four feeding experiments in alphabetical order during the season of 1911 were, respectively, as follows: Grain per pound of gain, 3.62, 3.33, 4.45, and 4.18 pounds; cost of feed per pound of gain, 7.83, 7.20, 7.15, and 8.71 cents; total cost per pound of gain, 9.18, 9.20, 8.96, and 10.27 cents. The averages in 1912 for 498,681 chickens were: Grain per pound of gain, 4.42, 3.58, 3.72, and 4.98 pounds; cost of feed per pound of gain, 8.74, 7.70, 6.61, and 9.95 cents; total cost per pound of gain, 10.37, 9.69, 7.98, and 11.54 cents. Tallow, while making the fat on the birds more pronounced, in- creased the cost of gains. Thick condensed buttermilk in place of tallow produced better results. Oat flour produced greater gains than low-grade wheat flour, but the latter feed produced cheaper gains. Beef scraps added to the buttermilk in a fattening ration did not increase the gain. The addition of condimental feeds did not increase the appetite of the birds or help the gains. Grit is of no value in fattening for any period under 15 days. vader commercial conditions in the Middle West the best results are secured by fattening for about 14 days until the middle of Sep- tember, and then gradually shortening the period to 6 or 7 days. The birds ate more feed on three feeds a day but used feed more efficiently when fed only twice. Mechanical labor-saving devices reduced the cost of fattening by reducing both the total amount of labor and the proportion of skilled jabor required. The portable feeding battery turned out the birds in better condition and reduced the cost of labor per pound of gain. THE COMMERCIAL FATTENING OF POULTRY. 31 Gains were produced at 1.89 and 1.41 cents, respectively, per pound cheaper in 1911, and 6.30 and 2.68 cents less in 1912 on broilers than on roasters, in two experiments. There was great variation in the results secured in fattening. This was due to the difference in the ability of the birds to take on flesh, to their weight, and to the effect of weather conditions. The variation in birds makes their selection in fattening of considerable importance, if the labor of the extra work can be handled economi- cally. The influence of the weather in fattening allows a chance of error in comparing fattening experiments conducted at different times. Sa) be) The bleach produced by fattening with buttermilk varies according to the amount of milk solids consumed by the birds. The average cost of fattening hens in November and December was 10.92 and 8.74 cents in 1911 and 10.83 and 10.43 cents in 1912, respectively, per pound of gain at two stations. This is higher than the average cost of fattening chickens for the entire season at the same stations but less than the cost of fattening chickens in Novem- ber and December. Hens cost 7.7 cents per pound in 1911 and 10.3 cents in 1912, into the feeder, so that their flesh can be bought cheaper than produced at this time of the year. Cheaper gains were secured in fattening hens in 1911 on the rations used in fattening chickens than on a ration of corn chop with 15 per cent of shorts mixed with buttermilk. Chickens cost 17.6 cents per pound into the feeder in July, 1911, while the gains cost 7 cents per pound at this time; in November, 1911, they cost 9 cents per pound into the feeder, and the gains cost 10.5 cents per pound. This influences the profit in fattening and the best length of time to fatten, making it advisable to feed longer in the first part of the season. The cost of picking, grading, and packing (including freezing) was about 7 cents per head, making the total average cost of a pound of dressed poultry in July, 20.5 cents, which gradually decreased through the season to 13.1 cents in November, HOU: The best results were secured with the following three rations: No. 1, 3 parts of corn meal, 2 parts of low-grade wheat flour, and 1 part of shorts; No. 2, 3 parts of corn meal and 2 parts of low-grade wheat flour, and No. 3, 5 parts of corn meal, 3 parts of low-grade wheat flour, 1 part of shorts, and 5 per cent of tallow. The same feeding value is secured in a ration of 3 parts of corn meal and 2 parts of oat flour but at an increased cost of 37 cents per 100 pounds of gain. Four parts of corn meal, 2 of low-grade wheat flour, and 1 of shorts gave very good results during the latter part of the feeding season, or in cool weather; that is, the proportion of corn meal and low-grade wheat flour may be increased in cool weather. BULLETIN 21, U. S. 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THE COMMERCIAL FATTENING OF POULTRY, SSOMWnM—MD COMDO MNO homed ae BHM Nama oo moO rt sto DOD aati oD ea) SRO h Otte mODNS re . « HOO NO Oooowrs Or~ranr wD INOoONnh as Adoo sed s}us0 07 18 “OQ -q ‘uOISTIYSe mM ‘20.0 SUIULIG JUSMIUIIAOY), ‘SEINGWADOG JO ING -CGNGINIYHINS of} Woy poindoid oq Avur uonearqnd sq} Jo SHIdOO TYNOILIGG Iz 198 ‘¢ 919 ‘T 966 998 “b 918 ‘T 661 PPS‘ 640 ‘T GES Ga “E 6S ‘T 18 86F ‘F 6FS ‘T 16 cer ‘Gg 6FL ‘T 8ce Csr ‘¢ 808 ‘T G0Z 820‘ 80 ‘T 861 662‘ 19¢ ‘T GOT £26 ‘T 662 68P 669 ‘2, 618 ‘¢ 0z¢ £03 ‘2 ZS ‘S GLE ese ‘9 cog ‘s 9€I . | G69'Z C16 928 880 ‘¢ 288 ‘T 662 668 ‘¢ SSI ‘Z ZF P28‘ 288 ‘T C6 920 ‘% 188 rOoomo OOORI OOOO DOr “7"8Z “AON 03 2% “AON “""GZ, “AON 01 61 “AON “""hZ “AON 0} ZT “AON “""FZ "AON 0} OT “AON “8G “AON 04 LT “AON “TG "AON 03 OT “AON ~"06 “AON 0} ST “AON ~“6T AON 0} FT “AON “""6L “AON 0} €T “AON ““"ST “AON 0} ZI “AON “+ LL“AON 04 OT “AON “" PL AON 01 6 “AON “""§T “AON 03 8 “AON “""ZT “AON 0} J “AON ““IT “AON 01 9 “AON “" "QT AON 0} ¢ “AON ie LAO NVONG “AON “"-"9 “AON 0} TE “320 9E°¢ 09°€ 9S 99°€ 66 °€ She 6P°S Spe €o°¢ Ria GEE fhe, te £6°€ PoE Les Té°€ G6 'E 222222-9p7 > soo 2s=-Qpt-- sere esQpr-- terettsopt + --2es-Qpe-- seres-Qptee setss-Qp--- tesses-gp--- an ale Nin Ge gee pie “ Pgee: ie < : Po tmes ects 5 ip ; ' j & ie ae +f | : ; ie soak a iy BULLETIN OF THE 5) USDEARTENT ORACLE & No. 22 Contribution from the Bureau of Biological Survey, Henry W. Henshaw. Chief. September 16, 1913. GAME LAWS FOR 1913 A SUMMARY OF THE PROVISIONS RELATING TO SEASONS, EXPORT, SALE, LIMITS, AND LICENSES. By T..S. Paumer, W. F. Bancrort, and Frank L. EHarnsHaw, Assistants, Biological Survey. INTRODUCTION. SCOPE OF THE BULLETIN. The present bulletin, containing the fourteenth annual summary of the game laws of the United States and Canada, has been prepared on the same general plan as those issued each year since 1902. It contains a summary of the more important features of the new legislation, a brief synopsis of the new game laws enacted in each State and Province, and a series of tables showing the provisions relating to seasons, export, sale, limits, and licenses. It differs from other publications on the game laws in several important points: (1) Inclusion of a brief but comprehensive review of the measures enacted, (2) arrangement of provisions by subjects instead of by States, and (3) adoption of a uniform statement and order of the various details to facilitate ready comparison of similar provisions in different States. Its chief objects are to present in convenient form the restrictions on hunting which affect the enforcement of the Federal statutes regulating interstate commerce in game and the protection of migratory birds, and to show the trend and general condition of legislation from year to year. Provisions relating to methods of capture, game refuges, enforcement of laws, disposition of fines and fees, and matters of special or local application are omitted. These can be found only by reference to the laws them- selves or to the pamphlet editions of the game laws, obtainable in most States from the proper officials.! 1 A directory of these officers, with their addresses, is published as Circular No. 94, Biological Survey U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1913. 2 BULLETIN 22, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, With the rapidly growmg: complexity of regulations—Federal, State, and local—in 50 States and Territories, and the constantly increasing number of persons who hunt, the demand for information concerning game laws is spreading. The problem of how to keep the public informed of the numerous yearly changes taxes the in- genuity of officials, and can be solved only by the fullest cooperation on the part of the press, private associations, and individuals. LEGISLATION IN 1913. The game legislation of 1913, while large in volume, is not much larger than that of 1911 or 1909, owing to the following causes: Codi- fication bills were enacted in Maine, Oregon, and Vermont; practically all the changes made in Illinois, Montana, New York, Utah, Wash- ington, and Wyoming were embodied in single bills; and all legisla- tion failed in Georgia, daho, Nebraska, New Mexico, South Carolina, and Texas. : Legislative sessions were held in 43 States, 8 Canadian Provinces, and Newfoundland. Numerous bills affecting game were under consideration in nearly every State, and regulations for the pro- tection of migratory game and insectivorous birds in the United States and game in Alaska were promulgated by the Department of Agriculture. NOVEL OR IMPORTANT PROVISIONS. Among the various provisions found in the new laws are several novel features directly affecting the hunter or the conditions under which game may be hunted: Ohio and Pennsylvania now require licensees to wear a badge conspicuously exposed, bearing the number of his hunting license. In order to minimize shooting accidents, Manitoba requires hunters to wear a white coat or sweater and cap, and Saskatchewan insists that those who hunt big game must wear a complete outer suit and cap of white. The latter Province has recently made the penalty for accidentally shooting a person a fine ranging from $500 to $1,000, or imprisonment for six months, and suspension of further license privileges for 10 years. To the present list of six States prohibiting the use of silencers—namely, Maine, New Jersey, North Dakota, Washington, Mississippi, and Louisiana—are now added Minnesota and Wyoming. Connecticut has provided that any hunter who shall injure a fence or let down a bar without replacing it shall forfeit his hunting license and the license privilege for two years. Con- necticut, Pennsylvania, and British Columbia require license appli- cants under 16 years of age to furnish the written consent of parent or guardian. Vermont has a similar restriction for those under 15, and Oregon does not permit children under 14 years old to hunt except on the premises of their parents, relatives, or guardians. GAME LAWS FOR 1913. 3: An interesting experiment has been undertaken in Utah, where the game commissioner, with the concurrence of the State board of examiners, is authorized to set aside and maintain a public hunting reserve in the counties of Salt Lake, Davis, and Box Elder. Numerous States are restocking preserves with elk and other big game. In the effort to protect this game Pennsylvania, Vermont, West Virginia, and Wisconsin have protected elk for a term of years, and in Massachusetts, where a few moose have escaped from the Blue Mountain Forest Reserve into the adjoining woodlands, a _ perpetual close season for moose has been provided in the hope that this area may eventually be restocked from this nucleus. REFUGES. One of the marked features of the legislation of the year was the unusual progress in the establishment of bird and game refuges. By Executive order four national bird reserves have been created, the Aleutian Reservation, containing the entire chain of Aleutian Islands, in Alaska, and the smaller reservations of Walker Lake in Arkansas, Petit Bois Island on the coast of Alabama, and Anaho Island in Pyramid Lake, Nevada, thus bringing the total number of national bird reservations up to 64. During recent months the Niobrara Bird Reservation has also been enlarged and stocked with a herd of buffalo, elk, and deer. An item in the act of March 4, 1913, contains an appropriation for the completion and maintenance of the elk refuge in Wyoming. No less than 18 State game preserves were created, 14 in the United States and 4 in Manitoba. In Washington the county game com- missioners were authorized to create game preserves, not to include more than three townships in a county, and the authorities of Michi- gan, Ohio, and Vermont were authorized to establish game preserves by contract on private lands. The Pennsylvania commission set aside a preserve in Center County for the protection of elk, deer, and other game, and this reservation has already been stocked with a herd of 10 elk secured from a private preserve. Montana created the Sun River Game Preserve in the Lewis and Clark National Forest; Oregon, the Imnaha, Deschutes, Steen’s Mountain, Sturgeon Lake, Capitol, and Grass Mountain Preserves; South Dakota, a preserve in Custer County and appropriated $15,000 for fencing and stocking it; Utah, the Strawberry Valley and Fish Lake State game preserves; Washington, a preserve near Commence- ment Bay on Puget Sound; and Wyoming modified the boundaries of the Teton and Big Horn preserves and established three new refuges known as the Laramie, Popo Agie, and Shoshone preserves. In Canada, the Riding Mountain, Spruce Woods, Turtle Mountain, and Duck Mountain game preserves were created in Manitoba. 4 BULLETIN 22, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BIG GAME. Several important changes have been made in provisions protecting big game. Colorado and North Dakota prohibited all killing of deer for a term of years and Saskatchewan has provided a close season throughout the year for all big game south of latitude 52°. Laws protecting does at all seasons were enacted in Florida, Nevada, and Wyoming, but South Dakota repealed a statute of this kind enacted in 1911. The deer seasons were shortened from two weeks to two months in Utah, Wyoming, and Quebec. New Hampshire lengthened the season two weeks in Coos County, Vermont ten days, and Mas- sachusetts opened the season in the few closed counties, thus per- mitting shooting throughout the State. Montana provided that the limit of three deer a season can include only one doe. In 1911 Mich- igan made an experiment of an open season of 45 days on deer but limited the life of an individual hunting license to 25 days from date of issuance. After a trial of two years the season has been restored to the last three weeks in November to correspond with the deer season in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Wyoming and Montana, heretofore affording the principal hunting for elk and sheep, have recently limited the hunting area to a few counties in each State, where the seasons have generally been shortened. Wyoming has adopted the innovation of allowing the lulling of female elk only under ordinary resident licenses and requiring licensees to obtain a special $15 license to kill a bull or an additional cow. Montana also prohibited the killing of ewes and lambs. Other States in which elk or sheep were protected for a term of years or by a perpetual close season are Nevada, Oregon, Utah, and Washington. OPEN SEASONS. The most important changes in seasons are due to the passage of the Federal law protecting migratory birds. Under the regulations as proposed by the Department of Agriculture (see pp. 20-21), spring shooting is entirely eliminated and the open seasons materially shortened in several States. The general trend of State legislation in the matter of seasons seems to have been toward further restriction of hunting and greater uniformity. This fact is ulustrated by the enactment of the general game law in Florida, which repealed all local game laws and made the seasons uniform throughout the State, and the passage of a measure in Wisconsin adopting the same opening date for upland game as is in force in Minnesota and North Dakota. A few important species were removed from the game list or were given protection for GAME LAWS FOR 1913. 5 a term of years. New York placed a close season on quail for five years and Kansas added both quail and prairie chickens to the close- season list until 1918. Ohio suspended hunting of quail, ruffed grouse, and doves for two years, Pennsylvania eliminated the open season on doves, kildeer plover, and blackbirds, while Utah extended complete protection to doves, swans, and all shore birds except snipe. Among the notable examples in the curtailment of open seasons may be mentioned the following: Delaware shortened the season on ducks a month and on geese two weeks; Indiana curtailed the season six weeks on doves and 10 days on quail and ruffed grouse; Michigan, 16 days on woodcock; and Missouri, one month on quail; Oregon: shortened the season 45 days on doves and pigeons, six weeks on shore birds, rail, and geese, and west of the Cascades curtailed the season on ducks 17 days. New Jersey shortened the open season 26 days on upland game and 19 days on woodcock, while Pennsyl- yania cut down the woodcock season two weeks. In Utah, 45 days were taken off the open season on sage hens and in Wyoming one month on sage grouse and two months on ducks and geese. At least six States passed laws lengthening open seasons. [llinois added a week for hunting prairie chickens; Michigan, 15 days for ruffed grouse and spruce hens, and 45 days for shore birds and rail; Oregon, 16 days for ducks east of the Cascades; and Vermont, 16 days for ruffed grouse and woodcock and two weeks for plover. In California several changes in seasons were caused by transfer of certain counties from one game district to another. In this trans- fer a peculiar condition arose in San Joaquin County. The open season on deer in this county began July 1, as in other counties in District No. 4, but on August 11 the new law went into effect trans- ferring the county to District No. 3, where the open season for deer did not begin until August 15: Consequently the season was closed for three days, August 12, 13, and 14, but opened again on the 15th and continued until October 31. These district changes also account for several differences in the open seasons for doves and quail. EXPORT AND SALE. The restrictions on native wild game have a tendency to increase, while those on game imported into the United States or raised in captivity or on private preserves are becoming more liberal. The sale of imported game was permitted or facilitated in Colorado, Montana, New Jersey, Oregon, and Wyoming, while Arizona repealed the provision permitting the sale of imported game by hotels and restaurants. The industry of rearmg game in private preserves received impetus in the form of legislation permitting the sale of game raised in cap- 6 BULLETIN 22, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ° tivity in Minnesota, New Jersey, and Oregon, but Maine repealed the provision permitting sale of game raised in private preserves. The sale of all protected game was prohibited in Nevada, Oregon, and Wyoming, while New Jersey enacted provisions similar to those of the New York law prohibitmg the sale of all game belonging to a family any species or subspecies of which is native to and protected by the State law. Other interesting sale provisions are the continued suspension of sale of deer in southeastern Alaska until August 15, 1914, and the prohibition in Pennsylvania of the sale of quail and ruffed grouse wherever taken. Michigan permitted transportation and sale of rabbits lawfully killed and the sale and export of deerskins or green or mounted buck deer heads under permit; while Vermont permitted deer to be sold during the open season and for a ‘‘reasonable time thereafter”? and rabbits during the open season. The legislation of the year shows a decided tendency to place more stringent restrictions on the export of native game. Wyoming pro- hibited the export of all protected game; Maine reduced the export limit of partridges under a resident license tag from 6 to 5; Ohio reduced the export limit under a nonresident license from 50 to 25 birds and animals, while Maine increased the export limit on ducks under nonresident license from 10 to 15, and permitted a nonresident to export one pair of game birds a month under a 50-cent tag; Michi- gan restored the provision permittmg a nonresident to export one deer under permit and license, and New York required nonresidents to obtain permits to export deer. BAG LIMITS. The changes in bag limits tend as usual toward further restrictions. Some novel features in weekly limits were enacted in the Northwest, where in an effort to forestall large week-end bags of birds, Washington provided that the week should end at midnight Wednesday night, and Oregon provided limits for seven consecutive days. In the case of big game, Washington reduced the limit on sheep - and goats from two to one each, and Wyoming now permits only one female elk under each ordinary resident license. Jn the case of deer, Florida and Oregon reduced the limits from five to three; Montana provided that the limit of three deer shall not include more than one doe; Wyoming reduced the number of deer from two to one, and Maine from two to one in Androscoggin County. With these restrictions, deer hunting, as shown in the accompanying map, is now permitted in 36 States, 12 of which limit the hunter to one deer a season, and 10 to two. In only about a quarter of the GAME LAWS FOR 1913. 4 States is the limit three or more. In Florida, Georgia, Montana, Ore- gon, and Texas, three; in Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Caro- lina, five; in Alaska, six; in Alabama and Missouri, one a day; and in Kentucky, Virginia, Arkansas, and North Carolina, no limits except in a few counties in the last two States. In the case of small game, Vermont reduced the limit on rabbits from six to five a day, and Long Island placed a limit of six a day on varying hares and cottontails: Among the important reductions in bag limits on birds may be mentioned Missouri, which reduced the daily limit from 25 to 10 and the limit allowed in possession at one time from 50 to 15. Ver-' mont reduced the Jimit on ruffed grouse, partridge, and woodcock from Fic. 1.—States and Provinces permitting deer hunting in 1913. [In the shaded States there is no deer hunting. Figures indicate the number of deer allowed each hunter aseason. In the eastern half of Maine and the southern half of New Hampshire, the limit is one a season. In Alabama, Mississippi, and Missouri, the limit is one a day, and in Louisiana, two. In Arkansas and North Carolina limits are provided in a few counties only. No limits are provided in Kentucky and Vir- ginia. Inclosed names indicate the States which protect does at all seasons.] 5 to 4. In Delaware the limit on rail was reduced from 75 to 50 a day, plover from 15 to 5, and sandpipers from 75 to 50. Washington, while repealing the daily limit on waterfowl, reduced the weekly limit from 50 to 20, and on upland game birds from 30 to 25. Wyoming increased the daily bag limit on geese only from 5 to 12. In Canada, Saskatchewan established limits of 50 a day and 250 a season on waterfowl. In new bag limits, Long Island provided a limit of 10 quail a day—a50 a season; and 4 ruffed grouse a day—20 a season; while Utah established limits of 6 a day, and 25 a year on grouse. 8 BULLETIN 22, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ~ LICENSES. License measures received consideration in 16 States and 4 Cana- dian Provinces, and resident licenses were adopted for the first time in Delaware, Florida, Michigan (birds), Ohio, and Pennsylvania. The fee in each instance is $1 with additions of 10 to 25 cents as a clerk fee in Delaware, Ohio, and Pennsylvania. Alberta also required a $1.25 bird license for residents of cities in the southern part of the Province. Other new license requirements were as follows: Maine provided a special nonresident license (fee $5) for hunting birds in certain, counties prior to October 1; Michigan a nonresident and resi- dent alien license (fee $10) for small game; Wyoming withdrew the privilege permitting a nonresident to be afield with a .22-caliber rifle without a license; and Alberta required a resident big game license throughout the Province, but the fee to farmers and their sons residing on. their own land was reduced to $1. License fees were increased in several States. In Vermont the resident license was raised from 50 to 75 cents; the Maine general nonresident license from $15 to $25; in Montana the general alien from $25 to $30; and in Wyoming the spe- cial resident license permitting the killing of one additional elk from $5 to $15. In Canada resident big game licenses were increased from $2 to $3 and from $2 to $5, respectively, in New Brunswick and Saskatchewan. Fees were also reduced in three Western States: in Utah the cost of the alien license was reduced from $100 to $15; in Wyoming, the alien bird license, from $20 to $5, and the resident bird license from $1.50 to $1; and in Washington the $5 nonresident county licenses and the $50 nonresident alien licenses were abolished. Montana and Oregon required $25 alien gun licenses in addition to the prescribed hunting licenses, but on the whole the license legis- lation affecting aliens has been more favorable than usual. Among the miscellaneous provisions the following may be men- tioned: Massachusetts, Wisconsin, and Wyoming strengthened their license laws; New Hampshire authorized town clerks to issue resident licenses, but in order to prevent fraudulent issue of such licenses to nonresidents prohibited issue to any applicant not personally known to the clerk as a resident of the State. WARDEN SERVICE. The warden service of at least 17 States was affected either directly or indirectly by the legislation of the year and in most instances the tendency was to increase its effectiveness. Florida created the office of fish and game commissioner, Maine delegated the protec- tion of game on the islands in the sea and 1 mile inland on the coast GAME LAWS FOR 1913. g to the department of sea and shore fisheries, Wyoming authorized the appointment of employees of the department of agriculture as deputy game wardens without bond or salary, and Wisconsin author- ized the State warden to assign deputies for educational work in regard to fish and game. The service has been reorganized in several States. In Montana, South Dakota, and Illinois commissions, instead of single officers, were formed in charge of the work of game preserva- tion; in Ohio an agricultural commission was established to replace several State departments and the game warden department placed under its charge; in Connecticut the personnel of the fish and game commission was increased to include a member from each of the eight counties of the State, while New Hampshire was the only State which abolished its fish and game commission and placed the work in charge of a single officer. Delaware established the resident and nonresident” license system, thus providing funds for the operation and maintenance of the game commission created in 1911. Arkansas, Mississippi, Nevada, and Virginia are’ now the only States which have no State officials in charge of the work of game protection. Increase in salaries of game officials were granted in several States. In Arizona the compensation of the warden was increased from $1,200 to $1,800, with an allowance of $1,000 for traveling expenses; in Iowa from $1,600 to $2,200; in Utah from $1,800 to $2,400; in Wisconsin from $2,000 to $2,500; and in Illinois the president of the commission was given $4,000. Deputies were also provided for In some cases. Arizona created the position of office deputy at a salary of $1,200, provided that warden salaries and expenses should be paid from the general fund of the State, and authorized the ap- pointment of such per diem deputies as might be necessary. Vermont appropriated $2,500 for clerical assistance for the biennial period, and Utah increased the salary of the chief deputy from $1,200 to $1,400, Washington from $1,500 to $1,800, and Wyoming authorized the appointment of a clerk in the warden department at $1,200 a year and increased the compensation of county wardens from $3 to $5 per day. Iowa authorized the appointment of three assistant game wardei.; at $1,200 per annum each; North Dakota increased the warden force by authorizing the appointment of one regular deputy for each judicial district instead of four for each commission district, while South Dakota provided for the appointment of three salaried wardens and five assistant per diem game wardens in lieu of the former county wardens. In Oklahoma the salaried warden system of 12 deputies was abolished, thus limiting the service to assistant wardens, who serve on a fee basis and without other compensation. 7334°—Bull. 22—13—--2 10 BULLETIN 22, U. S:. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. RETROGRADE LEGISLATION. Among the retrograde legislation of the year may be mentioned the Colorado provision extending spring shooting, the repeal of the | Massachusetts provision allowing dogs chasing deer to be killed, the Maine prohibition of sale of game raised in private preserves, the suspension of salaried warden service in Oklahoma, and the repeal of the South Dakota doe law. Game protection funds were diverted to other purposes in New Hampshire by a provision that the surplus shall be devoted to screening ponds and forestry work, and in Florida by the requirement that funds in excess of $5,000 on March 1 of each year shall be turned over to the State school fund. More than the usual number of game laws have been the subject of vetoes, notably in Wisconsin, where a bill prohibiting aliens from hunting failed to receive the approval of the governor, and in Cali- fornia, where two bills removing the band-tailed pigeon and certain shore birds from the game list were vetoed. The only law apparently in which the referendum was invoked was the California statute prohibiting the sale of game but allowing sale of ducks in November. PRESENT CONDITION OF GAME LEGISLATION. As an illustration of the progress of game legislation and the general adoption of certain provisions in the various States, a comparison may be made between conditions in 1900 (the date of the passage of the Lacey act, the first Federal law) and those of to-day. Every one of the 48 States now prescribes seasons for hunting, prohibits export of game, and requires nonresidents to secure a license. Only one State is without some restriction on sale of game, 4 are with- out State game wardens or commissioners, 5 have no general bag- hmit laws, 9 do not issue resident hunting licenses, and 9 have not yet adopted the so-called ‘‘model law”’ for the protection of nongame birds. The progress in each of these features is shown by the fol- lowing table: Table showing condition of game legislation in 1900 and 1918. Number of States. Provisions. States lacking legislation. 1900 1913 Seasonsse sie ee ae t's 48 48 EXpOCt sop soe eee ae 41 48 Nonresident license. Sah 15 48 ; SIG TH pep pereereaen cs vsbeer cr 28 47 | (1) North Carolina. State warden...-......-...... 31 44 | (4) Arkansas, Mississippi, Nevada, Virginia. Wy bisah ee eee ptie eee Noe 20 43 | (5) Arkansas, Kentucky, North Carolina, Rhode Island, Ede p Virginia. a Resident license.............. 5 39 | (9) Arkansas, Maine, Maryland, Mississippi, North Carolina, South Carolina, Tennessee,' Virginia, West 7 pias Virginia. Nongame birds (model law)... Zi 39 | (9) Arizona, Idaho, Kansas, Maryland, Montana,Nevada, Nebraska, New Mexico, Utah. GAME LAWS FOR 1913. Tt NEW LAWS PASSED IN 1913. FEDERAL LAWS. Two acts: Agricultural appropriation act containing provisions for Federal protection of migratory birds and for the establishment and maintenance of elk refuge in Wyoming (37 Stat., 847); resolu- tion authorizing the President to propose to Governments of other countries the negotiation of a convention for the protection and pres- ervation of birds (S. Res. 25.) FEDERAL REGULATIONS. Proposed regulations of the Department of Agriculture under the law for the protection of migratory birds (Biol. Circ. 92); regulations of August 1 under the Alaska game law suspending the sale of deer in Alaska -until August 15, 1914, and shortening the season on mountain goats. STATE LAWS. Arkansas.—Four acts: Affecting Boone, Calhoun, Grant, Hot Spring, Lonoke, and Monroe counties (Acts 251, 267, 276, 280). Arizona.—One act: Prohibiting the importation of game for sale; repealing the provi- sion authorizing the State warden to appoint per diem State deputies; increasing the salary of the State warden from $1,200 to $1,800, allowing $1,000 per year for traveling expenses, and authorizing the appointment of an office deputy at $1,200 per year, all to be paid from the general fund; making sheriffs, constables, and live-stock sanitary inspectors ex officio game wardens; authorizing the State warden to appoint such county deputy game wardens as may be necesssary at $3 per diem and expenses while under directions from the State warden. California.—Several laws; not received at date of going to press. Colorado.—Two acts: Protecting deer until 1918 and imported pheasants until 1924; lengthening the open season on waterfowl, cranes, and shore birds (except curlew and yellowlegs) 81 days, and on curlews and yellowlegs 112 days; shortening the season on doves two weeks and making it uniform throughout the State (ch. —); memorial- izing Congress to enact Senate bill 6497 for the protection of migratory game and insectivorous birds (H. J. M. No. 3). Connecticut.—Six acts: Providing that any licensed hunter who shall injure fences or let down bars without replacing them shall forfeit his hunting license and the privilege of securing another license for a period of two years (ch. 37); shortening the season on rabbits three weeks, making it open on the same date as the season for upland game (ch. 74); prohibiting use of snares for all game (ch. 79); requiring appli- cants for hunting license to be 16 years old (ch. 103); permitting killing of the star- ling, and red-winged and crow blackbirds when destroying corn (ch. 133); providing sor the appointment of a nonpartisan commission of eight members, one from each county, and the appointment of a superintendent of fisheries and game (ch. 228). Delaware.—Seven acts: Providing resident and nonresident hunting licenses with fees of $1.10 and $10.50, respectively (ch. 152); closing the season indefinitely on Hungarian partridges, pheasants (ch. 156), and swans in the State and on doves in Newcastle County and reducing the daily limit on rail from 75 to 50 (ch. 158); ' shortening the seasons on squirrels two months, on ducks one month, and on geese and brant two weeks, and making the season on waterfowl uniform in the State (ch. 159); authorizing the appointment of a chief game and fish warden, salary $600 per annum (ch. 153); providing that all fines shall be paid into the game protection fund 12 BULLETIN 22, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. (ch. 154); increasing the weekly export limit on birds from | dozen to 20 and on animals from 6 to 10 of each species and repealing the shipping exemption in favor of residents on plover, snipe, and ducks; requiring officers of any court to remit fines collected to the commission, and abolishing the informer’s fee and the provision that part of the fines shall go to the Audubon Society (ch. 155). Florida.—Three acts: A general game law, making seasons on all game uniform throughout the State, prohibiting the killing of does and hen turkeys at any time and ruffed grouse and imported pheasants until December 1, 1915; prohibiting export and sale of all protected game, reducing the bag limit on deer from five to three a year, providing daily and yearly limits on birds, and repealing all local laws (ch. 6534); creating the office of game and fish commissioner at a salary of $2,500 and establishing $1 county and $3 State licenses for residents and a $15 county license for nonresidents and aliens, creating a game and fish protection fund and providing that any surplus above $5,000 in said fund shall be paid March 1 each year into the State school fund (ch. 6535). Extending absolute protection to robins (ch. 6533). A number of local game laws were passed but were all repealed by the provision in ch. 6534. Georgia.—No legislation. Idaho.—No legislation. Illinois.—One act: Replacing the office of State game commissioner by a State game and fish conservation commission of three members, the president to receive a salary of $4,000, the other two members $3,000 each; authorizing the appointment of six wardens at $1,500 and 60 deputy wardens at $1,200 a year each, and additional deputies for temporary services at $100 per month; shortening the open season on squirrels one month and on doves six weeks; lengthening the season on prairie chickens one week; extending the close term until 1918 on partridge, blue, mountain, and valley quail, Hungarian partridge, capercailzie, heath hen, black grouse, and wood- cock, and until 1923 on wild turkey, sand grouse, and imported pheasants and par- tridges; and providing that all license sed: shall be paid into the State treasury (S. B. 617). Indiana.—Four acts: Prohibiting the use of ferrets in hunting rabbits (ch. 12); repealing the provision requiring one-third of the license receipts to be expended for restocking purposes and providing that all license receipts shall be paid into a fish and game fund (ch. 120); shortening the open season on quail and ruffed grouse 10 days, extending protection to rabbits from January 10 to April 1, and prohibiting the anne of any other game from December 20 to April 1; reducing the commis- sioner’s fee taxed against the defendant under the game laws Hou $20 to $5 (ch. 147); removing protection from blackbirds and increasing the maximum penalty for viola- tion of the nongame bird law from $25 to $50 (ch. 197). Iowa.—Two acts: Increasing the salary of the game warden from $1,600 to $2,200 and authorizing the appointment of three assistant game wardens at $1,200 a year each (ch. 203); providing that no deer shall be distrained until it shall be necessary in the opinion of the game warden or his deputies (ch. 206). Kansas.—Two acts: Protecting quail and prairie chicken for five years, adding doves to the game list without a season, but providing a limit of 20 a day; increasing the limit on plover and ducks from 12 each to 20 each a day (ch. —); authorizing the issue of permits to export game birds for scientific or propagating purposes (ch. —). Maine.—One act: General revision and codification of game and fish laws; short- ening the season on bull moose two weeks; protecting deer on Mount Desert Island, shifting the season in Androscoggin County, and making it more uniform in the State; repealing the proyision authorizing the commission to reimburse farmers and tenants for damage done by deer; extending complete protection to Hungarian partridges; pheasants, black game, and capercailzie, (cock of the woods); making the law on ducks uniform throughout the State; reducing the daily bag on plover from 15 to 5. on GAME LAWS FOR 1913. 13 snipe and ducks from 15 to 10, and on sandpipers from 70 to 50; removing protection from the mudhen (bittern), kingfisher, loon, and blue heron; increasing the fee for a * nonresident general license from $15 to $25, and providing special $5 licenses for hunting birds prior to October 1 and November | in certain parts of the State; increas- ing the export limit of ducks under a nonresident license from 10 to 15; permitting nonresident licensee to export one pair of game birds a month, unaccompanied, under a 50-cent tag; making the appointment of inland deputies expire with the calendar year in which made; prohibiting the sale of game raised in private preserves; and extending the jurisdiction of the department of sea and shore fisheries to all islands along the coast of the State and to a distance of 1 mile inland, including all bays and inlets so far as the tide ebbs and flows except on the Kennebec River above the city of Bath (ch. 206). Massachusetts.—Nine acts: Strengthening the license law (ch. 249); shifting the season on gray squirrels to make it uniform with that on upland game birds (ch. 270); authorizing city and town councils to protect insectivorous birds and to appoint bird wardens (ch. 296); extending the license exemption in favor of certain nonresident taxpayers to their minor children over 18 years of age (ch. 479); opening the season throughout the State on deer (ch. 529); prohibiting the use of rifle, revolver, or pistol for hunting any game (ch. 542); providing a penalty of $20 for knowingly permitting a dog to chase deer (ch. 552); prohibiting the poisoning and snaring of wild animals (ch. 626), and extending protection to moose throughout the year (ch. 744). Michigan.—Hight acts: Protecting the snowy heron and prohibiting sale of its plumage (No. 22); removing protection from black bears (No. 83); prescribing $1 resident and $10 nonresident licenses for small game (No. 108); permitting the trans- portation and sale of rabbits lawfully killed, and sale and export of deer skins or green or mounted buck deer heads under permit; reducing the daily bag on plover from 10 to 6; shortening the season on deer 23 days, and on woodcock 16 days; extending the close term on squirrels to 1915, and that on quail, English and Mongolian pheasants, black game, capercailzie, hazel grouse, and wild turkeys to 1917; lengthening the season on rabbits 45 days, on ruffed grouse and spruce hens 15 days; on ducks, snipe, plover, shorebirds, and sora rail 45 days; and on coots and other rail one month, and permitting nonresident licensees to export one deer under permit (No. 167); estab- lishing a game preserve on the new maneuvering grounds of the State militia in Craw- ford County (No. 172); increasing the salary of the chief deputy from $1,500 to $1,800, providing for the appointment of deputies at salaries from $2.50 to $4 a day, with promotions on a merit basis after examination (No. 313); amending form of deer licenses and affidavits and requiring licenses to be issued in stated distinctive colors (No. 328); and authorizing the establishment of game preserves on private holdings and State forests (No. 360). Minnesota.—Eight acts: Repealing the law prohibiting the use of ferrets for rabbits in certain counties (ch. 5); prohibiting the use of silencers (ch. 64); protecting game on lands designated by commission as game propagating and breeding grounds (ch. 95); permitting game birds to be raised in captivity under permit and sold when properly tagged (ch. 131); protecting squirrels on all public grounds and within one-quarter mile thereof (ch. 133); prohibiting shooting of waterfowl from one hour after sunset to one hour before sunrise (ch. 212); permitting big game raised in private preserves to be killed and sold at any time under permit (ch. 485); memorializing Congress to afford protection to migratory game bids (J. Res. No. 13). Missouri.—Four acts: Shortening the season on quail one month (p. 346); on squirrels three weeks (p. 347); reducing the daily limit on birds from 25 to 10 and the number allowed in possession at one time from 50 to 15 (p. 348); and prohibiting the use of dogs for hunting deer (p. 346). 14 BULLETIN 22, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Montana.—Eight acts: Making all licenses expire on April 30 of each year (ch. 31); protecting elk until 1918 except in certain counties, and prohibiting the killing of fawns, ewes, and lambs (ch. 33); establishing the Sun River Game Preserves in Lewis and Clark National Forest (ch. 34); requiring certain aliens to obtain a $25 gun license (ch. 38); classifying hunting and fishing licenses; increasing the fee of an alien general license from $25 to $30; creating the Montana game and fish commission to consist of the State warden, and four unsalaried members appointed by the governor, term four years; permitting common carriers to transport fish, game, and birds for restocking, and agents of State or Federal Government prosecuting such work in the State free of charge or at reduced rates, and providing that not more than one doe shall be included in the limit of deer (ch. 79); authorizing the appointment of six additional special deputy game and fish wardens, at a salary of $1,500 a year each with expenses not to exceed $900 a year (ch. 96); permitting merchants, hotel, or restaurant keepers to sell under transportation receipt game that has been killed outside the State (ch. 100); defining the term ‘‘sale” of game and fish (ch. 126). Wepraska me legislation. Nevada.—Tour acts: Authorizing board of county commissioners, upon receipt of petition of 25 residents, to open the season on sandhill crane, shore birds, and waterfowl September 1| (ch. 78); prohibiting sale of all protected game except sandhill crane and swan (ch. 241); protecting mountain sheep and goats until 1920 (ch. 252); shortening the season on grouse two weeks, shifting the season on deer to open a month later and prohibiting the killing of does, and authorizing county commissioners upon petition to change and shift open seasons (ch. 265). New Hampshire.—Four acts: Lengthening the open season on deer two weeks in Coos County (ch. 63); making it unlawful to allow self-hunting dogs to run at large between April 1 and October 1 in woods or fields inhabited by game (ch. 143); replacing the board of fish and game commissioners by a single commissioner in charge of game and fish preservation at a salary of $1,800 per annum and reducing the term of office from five to three years; authorizing the biennial appointment of one deputy in each county _at a compensation of $3 and expenses for each day of actual service; reducing the fee for issuing resident hunting licenses from 25 to 10 cents; providing that any surplus from the proceeds of fines and hunting licenses shall be devoted to screening ponds and to forestry work (ch. 165); extending the protection on gray squirrels until 1919, but permitting shooting during the month of October outside thickly settled parts of cities and towns (ch. 174). New Jersey.—Seven acts: Prohibiting the hunting of wild fowl from any sand bar not covered with water (ch. 73); shortening the season on upland game 26 days (ch. 120); permitting the sale under tags of game raised in preserves (ch. 135); permitting certain pheasants, ducks, and deer to be raised in inclosed preserves under license (ch. 147); authorizing game commissioners and protectors to file complaints on “infor- mation and belief’’ (ch. 148); prohibiting use of hounds in hunting except during the open season for quail (ch. 157). . New Mexico.—No legislation. New York.—One act: Lengthening the season on varying hares and rabbits one month; shifting the season on squirrels; closing the season on quail until 1918; short- ening the season one month on varying hares and cottontail rabbits on Long Island; permitting nonresident licenses to export one deer under permit; permitting game raised in captivity to be killed and sold at any time under license; providing the following bag limits for Long Island, 10 quail, 4 ruffed grouse, and 6 varying hares or cottontail rabbits a day, 50 quail, and 20 ruffed grouse a season; and making numerous technical amendments to the conservation law (ch. 508). ai ‘ iy North Carolina.—Numerous local laws; not soa at date of going td press. GAME LAWS FOR 1913. 15 North Dakota.—One act: Authorizing the appointment of one regular deputy war- den for each judicial district (instead of four for each commission district); closing the season on deer until 1916, prohibiting spring shooting of geese and cranes, and adding all the year protection to partridge. Ohio.—Three acts: Removing quail, ruffed grouse, and doves from the game list by closing the season until 1915; extending the protection on imported pheasants to 1915; closing the open season on shorebirds, rails, coots, and waterfowl December 1 (No. 79); creating the agricultural commission and delegating to it the work of game preservation (No. 147); providing a resident license, fee $1.25, and requiring licensee to wear a badge conspicuously exposed bearing the number of his hunting license; creating a game-protection fund into which all license receipts shall be paid; authorizing the expenditure of 50 per cent of the game fund for the purposes of restocking, and the establishment of game preserves on private holdings; and ,educing the export, limit under a nonresident license from 50 to 25 birds or animals (No. 249). Oklahoma.—Two acts: Opening the season on male deer in Delaware County (ch. —); abolishing the salaried-warden system and the present force of 12 wardens. Oregon.—Five acts: General revision of the game and fish laws—Dividing the State into two game districts, east and west of the Cascades; extending absolute protection to elk, caribou, and goats; affording protection throughout the year to imported pheasants and partridges, bobwhite, prairie chicken, wild turkey, certain shore birds, and swan; shortening the season on doves and wild pigeons 46 days, on shore birds, rail, coot, and geese 6 weeks, and on ducks west of Cascades 17 days, but east of Cas- cades lengthening the season 16 days; protecting squirrels east of Cascades all the year; reducing the limit on deer from 5 to 3; making numerous changes in local bag limits; providing limits for seven consecutive days instead of individual weekly limits; pro- hibiting the sale of all game, except imported game, between September 1 and Novem- ber 1, and game birds or animals raised in captivity under permit and tag; establishing civil liability for game illegally killed; providing a $25 alien gun license; permitting game to be raised in captivity under permit; removing protection from cormorants, American mergansers, and ravens, and prohibiting use of a gun larger than 10 gauge (ch. 232); creating the Imnaha, Deschutes, Steen’s Mountain, Sturgeon Lake, Capitol, and Grass Mountain game preserves (ch. 189); permitting such exceptions in contracts for the establishment of game preserves on private lands as will protect the property or crops of the owner (ch. 251); resolution requesting Federal protection of migratory game birds (S. J. M. No. 2); resolution requesting enactment of a law establishing Federal refuges for the protection of big game (S. J. M. No. 6). Pennsylvania.—Seven acts: Removing doves, killdeer plover, and blackbirds from the game list (No. 11); protecting elk until 1921, but permitting them to be raised in captivity under the same regulations as apply to deer (No. 26); prescribing a resident license, fee $1.15, and requiring each licensee to wear the number of his license on back of his sleeve (No. 63); shifting the season on squirrels, ruffed grouse, and imported pheasants two weeks earlier; shortening the season on woodcock two weeks, lengthen- ing the season on rabbits and Hungarian partridges two weeks (No. 70); amending the nongame bird law by extending protection to the shrike, eagle, osprey, crane, heron, bittern, and raven, and prohibiting the sale of plumage oi native birds or any foreign birds of the same family, in effect July 1, 1914 (No. 72); protecting wild turkeys until 1915 (No. 123); prohibiting the sale of quail and ruffed grouse wherever taken (No. 134). Rhode Island.—One act: Shifting the season on quail, ruffed grouse, and woodcock two weeks, to open November 1 instead of October 15, and protecting imported pheas- ants and Hungarian partridges until 1920 (ch. 966). South Carolina.—No iegislation. 16 BULLETIN 22, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. © South Dakota.—Five acts: Creating a State game and fish commission to consist of the governor, attorney. general, and the State game warden, and providing for the employment of one clerk, three assistant salaried wardens, and five assistant per diem game wardens (supplanting the county game-warden system), and providing rewards for informers (ch. 223); establishing a State game preserve in Custer County and appropriating $15,000 for fencing and stocking it (ch. 224); extending absolute protection to quail (ch. 225); creating a game fund (ch. 226); repealing the protection afforded does in 1911 and permitting them to be killed during the regular open season (ch. 227). Tennessee.—Four local laws: Protecting game in Haywood, Johnson, Lauderdale, Washington, and Unicoi Counties (chs. 117, 269, 271, 309). Texas.—No legislation. ‘Utah.—Two acts: General revision of the game laws: Increasing salary of the com- missioner from $1,800 to $2,400 and that of the chief deputy from $1,200 to $1,400 per annum; shortening the season two weeks on deer, 45 days on sage hens, on quail in cer- tain counties, and providing an open season of 10 days on grouse and a limit of 6 a day and 25 a year; providing a close season throughout the year for elk, antelope, sheep, doves, shore birds (except snipe), and swans; increasing the daily limit on geese from 5 to 12; affording protection throughout the year to pelicans, bitterns, hawks, black- birds, and kingfishers; reducing the fee for an alien license from $100 to $15; creating the Strawberry Valley and Fish Lake game preserves; authorizing the commissioner with concurrence of the State board of examiners, to set aside and maintain public hunting grounds in Salt Lake, Davis, and Box Elder Counties (ch. 46); and providing ~ for the observance of bird day in the schools on the last Friday in April of each year (ch. 60). Vermont.—Five acts: General revision and codification of the game laws; length- ening the season on deer 10 days, on ruffed grouse and woodcock 16 days, and on plover and English snipe two weeks; providing a close season on other shore birds for the first time, December 1 to September 1, and providing no open season for pheasants, European partridges, upland plover, and wood duck; permitting the sale of deer and rabbits during the open season and of deer for a ‘‘reasonable time thereafter;’’ increas- ing the resident license fee from 50 to 75 cents; reducing the daily bag on rabbits from 6 to 5 and limiting possession of rabbits and squirrels to one day’s bag; reducing the daily limit on quail, ruffed grouse, partridge, and woodcock from 5 to 4 each, and that on plover and English snipe from 5 each a day to 10 of all shore birds combined; authorizing the commissioner to seize and confiscate birds or quadrupeds held in violation of law, and wardens to search without warrant; providing for the establish- ment of private preserves, game refuges, and regulation of propagation farms (No. 201); relating to rabbits (No. 205); trapping and other prohibited methods of taking game (No. 206); protecting elk for 10 years (No. 208); appropriating $2,500 for clerical assistance of the commissioner for the biennial period (J. Res. No. 496). Washington.—Three acts: Creating a county game commission of three resident members for each county and providing for the appointment of a chief game warden west of the Cascades and a chief deputy warden east of the Cascades; county com- mission authorized to appoint wardens and assistants and to set aside by proper publi_ cation county game preserves; shifting the season on big game to open October 1 instead of September 1; protecting moose until 1925, and allowing no open season for caribou and swan, with numerous changes in local seasons, tending slightly toward uniformity; reducing the seasonal limit on sheep and goat from 2 to 1 each, and on upland game birds from 30 a week to 25; omitting the daily limit on waterfowl, reduc- ing the weekly limit from 50 to 20, and defining a week to begin at midnight on Wednesday night; repealing the nonresident $5 county license and the $50 alien license (ch. 120); creating a game refuge in Pierce County, near Commencement Bay, on Puget Sound (ch. 122). GAME LAWS FOR 1913. 7 West Virginia.—One act: Protecting elk until 1928 (ch. 27). Wisconsin.—Nineteen acts: Reimbursing the warden and deputies for certain expenditures incurred in the line of duty (chs. 19, 24, 29, 498, and 499); extending absolute protection to deer in Door, and in Wood County until 1916 (ch. 46); permitting use of ferrets for taking rabbits on hunter’s own land in Door County (ch. 71); authoriz- ing the prosecution of educational work in behalf of fish and game by the game warden and his deputies (ch. 73); more clearly defining the term ‘‘nighttime,’’ during which wild fowl are protected as the period from one hour after sunset to one hour before sunrise central time (ch. 97); granting a clerk fee of 10 cents for issuing resident licenses (ch. 172); permitting shipment or export to a taxidermist of green deer heads when severed from the carcass, under permit from warden (ch. 258); directing superin- tendent of public property to provide suitable quarters for the warden department (ch. 369); regarding local protection of rabbits and squirrels (chs. 403 and. 104); strengthening the license law (ch. 424); authorizing the printing of 3,000 copies of the report of the State fish and game warden (ch. 429); making the seasons for game birds open on the same dates as those in Minnesota and North Dakota (ch. 737); pro- tecting elk indefinitely (ch. 748); and memorializing Congress to set aside unoccupied and unclaimed islands in the Great Lakes for bird reserves (J. Res. 63-A). Wyoming.—One act: General revision; enlarging powers of game warden and deputies, permitting employees of the U. 8. Department of Agriculture to be appointed deputy game wardens without bond or pay; extending term protection to quail and Mongolian pheasants until 1915; shortening the season on deer 2 months, on grouse 4 days, and on sage grouse 1 month; extending term protection to moose, elk, and sheep until 1918, except in three counties in the northwest part of the State, where the season on elk and male sheep was shortened 15 days; repealing the provision permitting nonresidents to be afield with a .22-caliber rifle without a license; reducing the fee for the alien bird license from $20 to $5; prohibiting the sale or possession of game taken in a State, nation, or foreign country when such acts are prohibited in this State; requiring soldiers and sailors stationed at Government posts in the State when hunting to be accompanied by a qualified guide; reducing the clerk fees for issuing licenses; regulating sale and export; modifying the boundary lines of the Teton and Big Horn game preserves and creating the Popo Agie, Shoshone, and Laramie game preserves; increasing the pay of county deputy game wardens from $3 to $5 a day; increasing the fee for a resident special license for one additional elk from $5 to $15; and reducing the fee for a resident bird license from $1.50 to $1; reducing the limit on deer from two to one male, and under a resident ordinary license from two elk to one female elk; authorizing the appointment of a clerk in the office of the State warden at a salary of $1,200; reducing the daily limit of grouse from 12 to 6; and prohibiting the use of a silencer (ch.. 121). CANADIAN LAWS. Alberta.—One act: Protecting elk until 1915; permitting the sale of all game birds except those of the grouse family September 20 to March 1; making the resident big game license apply throughout the Province, but requiring a fee of only $1 of farmers and their sons residing on their own land; reducing the fee for a market hunter’s license from $10 to $5; prescribing a $1.25 bird license for residents of city or town south of township 59; permitting treaty Indians to hunt without license. Manitoba.—One act: Permitting all game except pheasants to be taken at any time north of latitude 54° by persons in actual need of food; prohibiting hunting of water- fowl in yachts or launches propelled by steam, gasoline, or electric motive power; also protecting waterfowl on sand bars or shallow islands in open waters of Whitewater Lake; prohibiting export of big game except by nonresident licensee, lawfully killing same, under permit, fees, deer $2, and moose, elk, and caribou, $5; creating Riding Mountain, Spruce Woods, Turtle Mountain, and Duck Mountain game preserves, and 7334°—Bull. 22—13——3 18 BULLETIN 22, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. prohibiting all hunting on said preserves except that ducks and geese may be taken during the month of October on Turtle Mountain preserve; and requiring persons hunting big game to wear a white coat or sweater and cap (ch. 21). New Brunswick.—One act: Shortening the season two weeks on snipe; repealing the provision permitting residents of Grand Manan Parish, Charlotte County, to kill black ducks until May 1; prohibiting the sale of partridges until 1915; and increasing the fee for a resident big game license from $2 to $3. Newfoundland.—One act: Lengthening the season two weeks on partridge, ptarmi- gan, willow grouse, plover, curlew, snipe, and other migratory birds. Ontario.—One act: Repealing the authority of lieutenant governor in council to require nonresident licensees to employ guides while hunting big game and for making regulations for Rondeau Park, and permitting game animals bred in captivity to be possessed and sold at any time under permit. j Quebec.—One act: Shortening the season on moose and deer two months in Labelle and Temiscaming Counties; lengthening the season on hares six weeks; permitting the killing of any game animal injuring or threatening damage to property (but in the case of big game actual damage must have been caused); prohibiting the sale of all game during the first three days of the open season and of birch or swamp partridge until 1917. Saskatchewan.—One act: Providing no open season for big game south of lati- tude 52° and shifting the season to open two weeks earlier; shortening the season two weeks on shore birds, rail, and waterfowl and six weeks on cranes; lengthening the season one month on grouse; establishing a bag limit of 50 a day and 250 a season on ~ waterfowl; and prohibiting the killing of waterfowl from yacht or launch propelled by steam, gasoline, or electric motive power; increasing the export fee on big game from $1 to $5 a head; permitting the sale of all game except Gallinee under a $5 dealer’s license; increasing the fee for a resident big-game license from $2 to $5 and requiring holder of said license to wear a complete outer suit and cap of white and fixing a penalty of $500 to $1,000, or six months imprisonment for accidentally shooting a person and shall be ineligible to receive a license for 10 years; authorizing complimentary licenses to be granted to certain Canadian officials; and providing that the game laws shall apply to all Indians whether resident upon a reserve or elsewhere. SEASONS. © The most important game legislation during the year was un- doubtedly the act of Congress protecting migratory birds. In accordance with this act regulations were published by the Depart- ment of Agriculture (Cir. No. 92, Bureau of Biological Survey) on June 23, 1913, and if finally adopted will become effective on or after October 1, 1913, when approved by the President. As these regulations modify existing seasons of certain species to a consider- able extent, they are published in full although subject to change before final approval. PROPOSED REGULATIONS FOR THE PROTECTION OF MIGRATORY BIRDS. Pursuant to the provisions of the act of March 4, 1913, authorizing and directing the Department of Agriculture to adopt suitable regulations prescribing and fixing closed seasons for migratory birds (37 Stat., 847), having due regard to zones of temperature, breeding habits, and times and lines of migratory flight, the Department of Agriculture has adopted the following regulations; GAME LAWS FOR 1913. 19 Regulation 1. Definitions. For the purposes of these regulations the following shall be considered migratory game birds: (a) Anatidze or waterfowl, including brant, wild ducks, geese, and swans. (6) Gruidze or cranes, including little brown, sandhill, and whooping cranes. (c) Rallide or rails, including coots, gallinules, and sora and other rails. (d) Limicole or shore birds, including avocets, curlew, dowitchers, godwits, knots, oyster catchers, phalaropes, plover, sandpipers, snipe, stilts, surf birds, turnstones, willet, woodcock, and yellow legs. (e) Columbide or pigeons, including doves and wild pigeons. For the purposes of these regulations the following shall be considered migratory insectivorous birds: (f) Bobolinks, catbirds, chickadees, cuckoos, flycatchers, grosbeaks, humming birds, kinglets, martins, meadow larks, night hawks or bull bats, nuthatches, orioles, robins, shrikes, swallows, swifts, tanagers, titmice, thrushes, vireos, warblers, wax- wings, whippoorwills, woodpeckers, and wrens, nal all other perching birds which feed entirely er chiefly on insects. 3 Regulation 2. Closed seasons at night. A daily closed season on all migratory game and insectivorous birds shall extend from sunset to sunrise. Regulation 3. Closed season on insectivorous birds. A closed season on migratory insectivorous birds shall continue to December 31, 1913, and each year thereafter shall begin January 1 and continue to December 31, both dates inclusive, provided that nothing in this regulation shall be construed to prevent the issue of permits for collecting such birds for scientific purposes in accord- ance with the laws and regulations in force in the respective States and Territories and the District of Columbia; and provided further that the closed season on reed- birds or ricebirds in Delaware, Maryland, the District of Columbia, Virginia, and South Carolina shall begin November 1 and end August 31 next following, both dates inclusive. Regulation 4. Five-year Closed Seasons on Certain Game Birds. A closed season shall continue until September 1, 1918, on the following migratory game birds: Band-tailed pigeons, little brown, sandhill, and whooping cranes, swans, curlew, and all*shorebirds except the black-breasted and golden plover, Wilson or jacksnipe, woodcock, and the greater and lesser yellow legs. A closed season shall also continue until September 1, 1918, on wood ducks in Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Michigan, West Virginia, and Wisconsin; on rails in California and Vermont; and on woodcock in [llinois and Missouri. Regulation 5. Closed Season on Certain Navigable Rivers. A closed season shall continue between January 1 and October 31, both dates inclu- sive, of each year, on all migratory birds passing over or at rest on any of the waters of the main streams of the following navigable rivers, to wit: The Mississippi River between New Orleans, La., and Minneapolis, Minn.; the Ohio River between its mouth and Pittsburgh, Pa.; and the Missouri River between its mouth and Bismarck, N. Dak.; and on the killing or capture of any of such birds on or over the shores of any of said rivers, or at any point within the limits aforesaid, from any boat, raft, or other device, floating or otherwise, in or on any such waters. 20 BULLETIN 22, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Regulation 6. Zones. The following zones for the protection of migratory game and insectivorous birds are hereby established: Zone No. 1, the breeding zone, comprising States lying wholly or in part north of . latitude 40° and the Ohio River, and including Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Wisconsin, Minnesota, Iowa, North Dakota, South Dakota, Nebraska, Colorado, Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington— 25 States. Zone No. 2, the wintering zone, comprising States lying wholly or in part south of latitude 40° and the Ohio River and including Delaware, Maryland, the District of Columbia, West Virginia, Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, Alabama, Mississippi, Tennessee, Kentucky, Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, Texas, Oklahoma, Kansas, New Mexico, Arizona, California, Nevada, and Utah—23 States and the District of Columbia. Regulation 7. Construction. For the purposes of regulations 8 and 9, each period of time therein prescribed as a closed season shall be construed to include the first day and to exclude the last day thereof. ; Regulation 8. Closed Seasons in Zone No. 1. Closed seasons in zone No. 1 shall be as follows: Waterfowl.—The closed season on waterfowl shall be between December 16 and September 1 next following, except as follows: : Exceptions: In Massachusetts the closed season shall be between January 1 and September 15. In Minnesota and North Dakota the closed season shall be between December 16 and September 7. In South Dakota the closed season shall be between December 16 and Sep- tember 10. In New York, other than on Long Island, and in Oregon the closed season shall be between December 16 and September 16. In New Hampshire, Long Island, New Jersey, and Washington the closed season shall be between January 16 and October 1. Rails —The closed season on rails, coots, and gallinules shall be between December 1 and September | next following, except as follows: Exceptions: In Massachusetts and Rhode Island the closed season shall be between December 1 and August 1. In New York and on Long Island the closed season shall be between December 1 and September 16; and On rails in California and Vermont the closed season shall be until September Toile. ; Woodcock.—The closed season. on woodcock shall be between December 1 and October 1 next following, except as follows: Exceptions: In Maine and Vermont the closed season shall be between Decem- ber 1 and September 15. In Massachusetts, Connecticut, and New Jersey the closed season shall be between December 1 and October 10. In Rhode Island, Pennsylvania, and on Long Island the closed season shall be between December 1 and October 15; and In Illinois and Missouri the closed season shall be until September 1, 1918. GAME LAWS FOR 1913. 21 Shore birds —The closed season on black-breasted and golden plover, jacksnipe or Wilson snipe, and greater or lesser yellowlegs shall be between December 16 and September 1 next following, except as follows: Exceptions: In Maine, Massachusetts, and on Long Island the closed season. shall be between December 16 and August 1. In Minnesota and North Dakota the closed season shall be between December 16 and September 7. In South Dakota the closed season shall be between December 16 and Sep- tember 10. In New York, other than Long Island, and in Oregon the closed season shall be between December 16 and September 16; and In New Hampshire and Washington the closed season shall be between Decem- ber 16 and October 1. ake Regulation 9. Closed Seasons in Zone No. 2. Closed seasons in zone No. 2 shall be as follows: Waterfowl.—The closed season on waterfowl shall be between January 16 and October 1 next following, except as follows: Exceptions: In Kansas, Oklahoma, New Mexico, and Arizona the closed sea- son shall be between December 16 and September 1; and In Maryland, Virginia, North Carolina, and South Carolina the closed season shall be between February 1 and November 1. Rails.—The closed season on rails, coots, and gallinules shall be between De- cember 1 and September 1 next following, except as follows: Exceptions: In Tennessee and Louisiana the closed season shall be between December | and October 1; and In Arizona the closed season shall be between December 1 and October 15. Woodcock.—The closed season on woodcock shall be between January 1 and November 1, except as follows: Exceptions: In Louisiana the closed season shall be between January 1 and November 15; and In Georgia the closed season shall be between January 1 and December 1. Shore birds.—The closed season on black-breasted and golden plover, jacksnipe or Wilson snipe, and greater and lesser yellowlegs shall be between December 16 and September 1, next following, except as follows: Exceptions: In Alabama the closed season shall be between December 16 and November 1. In Louisiana and Tennessee the closed season shall be between December 16 and October 1. In Arizona the closed season shall be between December 16 and October 15. In Utah, on snipe the closed season shall be between December 16 and October 1, and on plover and yellowlegs shall be until September 1, 1918. Regulation 10. Hearings. Persons recommending changes in the regulations or desiring to submit evidence in person or by attorney as to the necessity for such changes should make application to the Secretary of Agriculture. Whenever possible hearings will be arranged at central points, and due notice thereof given by publication or otherwise as may be deemed appropriate. Persons reeommending changes should be prepared to show the necessity for such action and to submit evidence other than that based on reasons of personal convenience or a desire to kill game during a longer open season. 22 BULLETIN 22, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. OPEN SEASONS. All the general open seasons for game prescribed by the various States and by the Provinces of Canada are here brought together in one table. For the sake of simplicity a uniform method is used in both the arrangement of species and statement of seasons. In each case deer and other big game are first considered; then rabbits and squirrels; then upland game birds, such as quail, grouse, pheasants, turkeys, and doves; then shore birds; and finally waterfowl, such as ducks, geese, and swans. In stating the seasons the plan of the Ver- mont law, to include the first date but not the last, has been followed consistently... The Vermont scheme has the advantage of showing readily both the open and close seasons, since either may be obtained by reversing the dates of the other. In some States certain days of the week constitute close seasons throughout the time in which killing is permitted. Hunting on Sun- day is prohibited in all of the States and Provinces east of the one hundred and fifth meridian except Illinois, Louisiana, Michigan, Texas, Wisconsin, and Quebec. Mondays constitute a close season for waterfowl in Ohio, and locally in Maryland and North Carolina; and other week days for wild fowl in several favorite ducking grounds - in Delaware, Maryland, Virginia, and North Carolina. Hunting is prohibited on election day in Allegany, Baltimore, Cecil, Frederick, and Harford Counties, Md.; and when snow is on the ground in New Jersey, Delaware, Virginia, and Maryland. The county laws of Maryland and North Carolina, which are too numerous to be included satisfactorily, are not incorporated in the following table,” which otherwise may be regarded as a practically complete résumé of the regulations now in force. The difficulty of securmg absolute accuracy in a table of this kind is very great, and the absence in the laws of many States of express legislation as to the inclusion or exclusion of the date upon which seasons open and close makes exactness almost an impossibility. In the following table all dates in black-faced type are in accordance with the proposed regulations for the protection of migratory birds, which do not take effect until October 1 or on approval by the President. As these regulations have not yet been approved, the opening date of the season for 1913 under State laws has been indi- cated. Names of birds vn black-faced type indicate in most cases that these species are protected only by the Federal law. Species like the curlew, upland plover, swan, the smaller shore birds, and the wood duck in Zone No. 1, which will be protected for five years under the proposed regulations are not included in the table unless mentioned in the State law. All seasons for migratory birds are necessarily provisional and subject to change when the regulations take effect. 1 See discussion of this question in Circular No. 43 of the Biological Survey, U.S. Department of Agricul- ture, 1904, entitled ‘‘ Definitions of the open and close seasons for game. ”’ 2 The county laws of Maryland are shown in Poster No. 28, and those of North Carolina in Poster No.30, copies of which may be had free on application to the Biological Survey, U.S. Department of Agriculture. GAME LAWS FOR 1913. ay PROVISIONAL OPEN SEASONS FOR GAME IN THE UNITED STATES AND CANADA, 1913. [The open seasons include the first date, but not the last. To find the close seasons, reverse the dates. Seasons which apply only to special counties are placed to the left of the column containing those for the State in general. [Future dates, as Aug. 1, 1914, indicate that the season does not open until that time.] Alabama (1907-1911): Open seasons. Malerdeer (does protected all the year). .....-255. 20) ecb b eee eee ee eee ee eee Noy. 1-Jan. 1. patinrel (black, gray, or 1ox))...-----------+----2--- fe Noe a e/a s sae eTS PEE See Oct. 1—-Mar. 1. (Qi OF RTAIGTEG) owe eer ode OS Barre Bee BRB RO ACE DS AS AR AEs He Ae en Sree Eras aa re ..- Nov. 1-Mar. 1. Wild turkey gobblers (hens protected all the year)............-..-..-.------------- Dec. 1—Apr. 1. Ruffled grouse (pheasant), imported pheasant, or other introduced game birds... ... Dec. 1-Dec. 15. IDO Cie seid cae CORE AOE CORRE CLS CB Ap ACE CECE H Ce eee Ane a eS ae Bets eae ae ee as eer Eee Aug. 1-Mar. 1. Plovertsnipe:.<. 22-42. 2-5 Nee dese to eG eee et ee tate oe ae eiscite Sees Sa Noy. 1-Dec. 16. VOICES og sete 6 Steg Petite Nedne SARE ARBOR BSS Sa tee ee os ater Marre sae Se see Sept. 1-Dec. 16. Curlew, sandpiper, other'shore\birds, swan... -.--- ~~~ - nine ne eee een Sept. 1-Mar. 15: Wrandea ate wo oe. oo ae Sa ce eee Oe eg tT Caer ER Ree moon Sept. 1-Jan. 1. IEG, Hotonig, TOUHNe! INCAS: Sis ee oe el ea Sa a Pe tea ERE oe Tete eae Sept. 1-Dee. 1. Divishk, HOUSE. OnBIiS = 4 Sagas seee son eda cna enee ene ne bere ABE reSREe ace bpaorSte ssa Sept. 1Jan. 16. Alaska ! (1910-1913): North of latitude 62°— Moose (femalés and yearlings protected all the year), caribou, sheep-..--.---------- Aug. 1-Dee. 11. South of latitude 62°— I BGI (SE CIOCCMULOM) ors oh rae opiate a crteicteeit ois cpesme Silane le iar AREA Sah acne ieee Aug. 15-Novy. 2. Exception: Deer on Duke, Gravina, Kruzof, Suemez, and Zaremhbo Islands, Aug. 1, 1914; Kodiak and Long Islands, Dec. 10, 1914. MiG Manin ROBTESS Soscocnoe tone aseoboe BEObeahoepeHSee Secor ese uae soe Ces OER SreCerere Aug. 1—-Feb. 2. Moose (females and yearlings protected all the year), caribou (see exception), sheep.. Aug. 20-Jan. 1. Exception: Caribou on the Kenai Peninsula, Aug. 1, 1914. TRTGWAR [OBIE SURE ARES ER rate 6 SRS cre aoe ore ete eg ee eae OE ee EN Oct. 1-July 2. Throughout Territory— Grouse, ptarmigan shore binds, watentowle sss cj 22s) ee ae eater w wei eel la Sept. 1-Mar. 2. Arizona (1912): ; IME CODES Seah oe ese Se GOSS e CBE ORSON HES SCR Oe GS ee nets eee ae ae eee Oct. 1-Dec. 16. Female deer, spotted fawn, ell, antelope, sheep, goat........---.-.----------------- No open season. SOR APRUILE MS ATOUSC up MCAS ENG = ee ercjacteeieteicaae racer aac ce Seen aoe aeein Sele amie No open season. QW sc soso CESSES EMO E Ee e ea Sa a Se Oa Be eer ae een ere ieee Oct. 15-Feb. 2. AWTS EUAN Be SN Be I tea ba ey ea SSS as Sa SS Col eS = Oct. 1—Dee. 16. PG Gegeyth CUmuMitnLL @ uyVELE Opener eee eae. Cis Re eee oN Ios i> GSE IEE pelea eee June 1-Feb. 2. IDE, AOS, Mal lone on Rae ae Nee ASSO e aCe a Sea. CoCr me eects imeem ere Sept. 1-Dec. 16. Supe splovers VelOwleeS!- 2285. . S2)26k.2 iaseon - 5s Ree oes aeslereeiee eleSSee cee Oct. 15-Dec. 16. Rail, coot, gallinule -........- ee ea eee ees SUE ile a crc BRR ne SMe am gs Coe ants he Oct. 15-Dee. 1. Arkansas (1901-1913): IDES Ia SCQORCOMULOUS) bree am tre ae REA si cam See DOE EN ne Ree SiR ee ek CREE wes SORE Sept. 1-Feb. 1. Exceptions: Cinco HC OUN vier sohecee Mee eRe emcee eee cce ee eae Oct. 1-Feb. 1. DeESha COUM pease e ene a kent peee ce aa cease eer cece eek Oct. 1-Jan. 1. Squirrel in Lee, Monroe, Phillips, and St. Francis Counties..........-.....--------- May 1-Dec. 1. Quailorpartnidse: (Seevexcep tions)... e sn eee ae oe iee eae oes Soe eae Nov. 1-Mar. 1. Hauceptions: : ipTadleysand Dallas Counmtiesssssasseeaeseesee ee esse ene Nov. 15-Mar. 1. Carroll, Columbia, Grant, and Lafayette Counties... _.- Dec. 10-Feb. 1. ene. Cowiatiiy, CUR Swe coecoooesesoocescasesecsopoeaccs Mar. 29, 1917. Calhoun county, nonresident not permitted to hunt quail or partridge. Prairie chicken, pinnated grouse (see exception).......-...----------------------- Nov. 1-Dee. 1. IT CEDUOI ERAITIe COUMbY passes oom harem nes see ee = cise Jan. 1, 1917. Wald tirke ve (GECIExCeptiOn) 7A jo0e eee seta cise te ned « en eeciest seh eiemaeee geeeaat Sept. 1-May 1. Mgcenions Chico COUntyasey. Messen -ees-- sae ce eee sees Feb. 1-May 15. Pheasants (Chinese, English) 10 years....-......-- PE Sea ROR a Da Sener arate Caer Mar. 14, 19138. ID) OC eee ees eee aa ret EOS serene eye NE « DESC 2. SRR lo tee a ELISEO 3 No open season. Black=-breasted and golden plover, jacksnipe, Wilson snipe, and yellowlegs? Sept. 1-Dec. 16. SUV OGL C0 Ce ee PI fe PT td ey ee eee eres SL sent SFG k ea Stayer) Nov. 1-Jan. 1. atl Keo te alliniple sce 2 alas ale bls oaysisaemidinide siseaes Sete dmemeas Oct. 16—Mar. 1. GT VaNO UIT lepesetteset ian ss emake Nak ats aint us ciacilecii anaes mena aera, cigne eee Oct. 12-Nov. 13. Quail, ruffed grouse or partridge, woodcock........-.-----------------+-2-2---- eee Oct. 12-Nov. 13. Dove, wild or passenger pigeon, prairie chicken, Hungarian partridge, pheasants (English, golden, Mongolian),? killdeer or piping plover, swan .-.....--.-..-.--.- No open season. IBIGA Ih lal, @) WEEMS pease RES eee onee oper aap ese se AaBuene one Shep eeoeeeee Beene See Hoeae Noy. 1, 1916. (Willa! india CECE RIGS Bec Gate SG oie eee ere an cee eee ee ee ate me Sept. 1, 1915. BaninamMlarmcana piper (plana ploven) aes ss.4 se aaaes ese aeeeeesseicernssteeeeceeeeae July 15, 1915. Plover (except upland and killdeer or piping plover), snipe --.........---..-.- Aug.1-Dec. 16. Raigallinule; quarks (muUudshen) 622. eo ie cae n eciee i ecicnn cc ewennieccueeeese Aug. 1-Dec. 1. Dneck (exceptnwood duck), teal brant. 34522 -s-e5se> ase ce iss) ao ce siege ose ee Sept. 15-Jan. 1. Michigan (1905-1913): MEEre (SCC RCD LIONS) lasawa ace ae sere atc ci ee oe ee nici oe os Se ee ee eee Nov. 10—Dec. 1. Exceptions: Deer in red coat and fawn in spotted coat, and all deer in Berrien, Calhoun, Genesee, Ingham, Jackson, Kalamazoo, Oakland, and St. Clair Countless sac ceeus one ce scan are means seme nes Me eneae ase eM oena ya Motes at Noy. 10, 1920. OS JOE MOIS Ghee Ore ts anonuosenae saaSeboeronaeReracoeeronoogsecoE Bata Nov. 10, 1918. DUNK, TOO URES Chie eselo ose cb aees Lab ne eooeer bade obedb- AEA geeee eeseaceereuecons No open season. 126110) Dili sooS Eg EE eae eeeROb Esc nc ouc dot on Aen] Bnet He CC ate ASR CeRO TEE CB emee acenem artic Sept. 1—Mar. 2. ScumMnrel( (black: fox; OMPSTAY) jo cyOalSa rae ye ee eRe ea a eee ae Oct. 15, 1915. Quail, pheasants (English, Mongolian), black game, capercailzie, hazel grouse, wild HOARY 2coeccouadecdoddedgucdados bocce oes oSsaedemenseobeodseowetoube tosses asasacen Novy. 1, 1917. Ruffed grouse (partridge), spruce hen, woodcock..........-.......----.------------ Oct. 1-Dec. 1. Pinnated grouse (prairie chicken), European partridge, dove, swam ...............- No open season. Plover, snipe, yellowlegs, duck, goose, brant... ....... 2-2-2 22s ee eee dee ete e eee Sept. 1-Dec. 16. et COO bet tLINUL Osemre sneer emcee a cet See aoe Se es cares anne. oy ats a Sept. 15-Dec. 1. 1 The seasons given are the most general. or all seasons under county laws see Poster No. 28, ‘Open seasons for game, District of Columbia, Maryland, and Virginia, 1913,’’ which may be had upon application to the Biological Survey, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. 2 xcept on private preserves under permit of commissioners on fisheries and game. 3 Deer raised in captivity may be killed at any time for owner’s consumption. 28 BULLETIN 22, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Minnesota (1905-1909): Open seasons. Deer, male mMoosersees ashlee nee see See ence Cee ee See ee eee ao eee Seta Nov. 10-Nov. 30. ike female moose, caribou, fawn=-222.---. 2.222 soc FS USe ee ees See ee ee eee No open season. Quail; partridge, ruffed’ grouse (pheasant): - - =~ 20. =. 52-2 sao nscs esse eee ee eee eee Oct. 1-Dec. 1. Sharp-tailed or white-breasted grouse, prairie chicken (pinnated grouse), turtle dove, golden plover, Wilson or jack snipe, woodcock........-.-..--.-.----------------- Sept. 7-Nov. 7. Pheasants (Chinese, English, Mongolian).....-....-.----------------------- eee ee No open season. Dueck, Poose brant sees eee we eie se eee mace esee Seer ee ee Lee ee reE Ee eee eee Sept. 7-Dec. 1. Rail, coot, gallinule..-:.-: 05.2. 322... 2. Seeded eee eee eee ee eee Sept. 1-Dec. 1. Mississippi 1 (1905-1910): Deer (female deer and spotted fawn, no open season), bear...-..--..-.---.----------- Nov. 15-Mar. 1. Quail orpartridge. os ote cose fads Sadek ded sete ese hee EE OEE EE EES EE ee eee ee reeae Nov. 1-Mar. 1. Wilditurkey (hens, nojopen'season))2 2. <2 aac: fece-c see eee nee b eee eee eee eee ae Jan. 1-May 1. DOVOs sce Soe Re SUE See a eae: ieee eae MPR era ales eta Sart July 1-Mar. 1. Plover, tatler, chorook, grosbec, Jacksnipe or Wilson snipe, and yellowlegs.... Sept. 1—Dec. 16. Goot (poule d’eau), rail (mud hen), gallinule...........-..----:---+-2:--+----------- Sept. 1-Dec. 1. 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Py ee ee oe bow e sey SE ee ee a iiss aS etizee te ey ip a pipe eA fal BULLETIN: OF THE he) USDEDARTIENT OF AICTE No. 23 aie y VSS— IVP Seen 7 ——} 4 ‘ = eS ~~, Contribution from the Office of Public Roads, Logan Waller Page, Director. § September 17, 1913. VITRIFIED BRICK AS A PAVING MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS. By VeRNoN M. Peirce, Chief Engineer, and CHartes H. Moorerte.p, Senior Highway Engineer, Office of Public Roads. INTRODUCTION. A clay product closely resembling our present-day brick was among the earliest materials used for paving streets and roads. The first brick pavement constructed in this country, however, dates back no further than 1872; and to Charleston, W. Va., belongs the distinction of having been the first American city to employ brick for paving. For a number of years after being introduced into this country the use of paving brick was principally confined to city streets, and, owing to frequent inferiority in the quality of the brick and lack of care in construction, very few of the early pavements proved satis- factory. Even now, after the experience of 40 years has demon- strated that it is entirely practicable to construct satisfactory brick pavements when proper care is exercised, and that much waste results from the use of poor materials or faulty construction, instances can frequently be found where brick pavements have wholly or par- tially failed from causes which might easily have been prevented. Country roads paved with vitrified brick are becoming quite com- mon in many of our States, and, owing to the general satisfaction which these roads are giving when properly constructed, it is probable that their mileage will continue to increase rapidly. The principal advantages which brick roads possess may be stated briefly as follows: (1) They are durable under heavy traffic conditions; (2) they afford easy traction and good foothold for horses; (3) they are easily main- tained and kept clean; and (4) they present a very pleasing appear- ance. The principal disadvantage is the high first cost. The defects which frequently result from lack of uniformity in the quality of the brick or from poor construction are usually to be traced indirectly to an effort to reduce the first cost or to a popular feeling that local mate- rials should be used, even when of inferior quality. 7709°—13——1 eee en ae Q° BULLETIN 23, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. . This bulletin purposes to furnish information relating to the con- struction of brick roads, and to supply suggestions for aiding engineers in preparing specifications under which such work may be satisfac- torily performed. One of the most essential features of the construc- tion of brick pavements is the selection of the brick, since the success or failure of such pavements depends to a large extent on the char- acter of the material used. In order that the significance of the varying physical characteristics observea in brick manufactured under different conditions may be more readily understood, a brief discussion, of the raw materials and processes used in the manufacture of brick will be given. THE RAW MATERIALS. Paving brick are made from shales and fire clays. The “lean” or less refractory varieties of these materials, which are found in the carboniferous deposits broadly distributed throughout the United States, are best adapted for this purpose. Shales frequently occur in such quantity and are so located that they may be readily excavated by means of a steam shovel or other mechanical device. Occasionally, however, the deposits are com- paratively thin and underlie other material, making it necessary that they be mined. Fire clays are usually found interstratified with coal deposits which may or may not be workable, and must, therefore, generally be mined. The principal difference between fire clays and shales, im so far as the manufacture of brick is concerned, is essen- tially a difference of color in the finished product. The shales always contain iron in some form, and brick made of shale are usually red. Fire clays are free from iron and should produce a light-colored brick. Some low-grade fire clays, however, may be darkened by certain firing conditions too complicated to be discussed in detail here. Shales and fire clays as they occur in nature are not always well suited for use in the manufacture of paving brick, but must fre- quently be subjected to some modifying treatment before bemg used. In general, deposits of these materials occur in layers or strata, and the different strata-are almost always slightly dissimilar in both physical and chemical composition. By carefully mixing the mate- rials from different strata or from different parts of the bank, there- fore, a resulting material of the desired character may usually be obtained. It not infrequently happens, however, that in order to secure the best results sand or surface clay must be added in an amount depending on the relative ‘‘leanness’”’ or ‘‘fatness’” + of the material used. In this connection it may be noted, also, that a chemical analysis of a given fire clay or shale does not necessarily 1“Teanness” and ‘fatness’? refer respectively to the lesser or greater amount of silica present in the material. VITRIFIED BRICK AS MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 3 indicate its fitness or unfitness for paving brick. The reason for this is that the quality of the brick after ‘‘firing”’ is no less dependent on the physical arrangement of the minerals than on the chemical composition of the material. THE MANUFACTURE. The general processes of manufacture are the same for both fire clays and shale. The raw material in either case is crushed to com- paratively small fragments and conveyed by some convenient means to a grinding machine, known in the industry as a dry pan. Briefly,: this machine consists of a solid iron plate, approximately 5 feet in diameter, surrounded by a perforated iron surface about 2 feet wide. Outside the perforated surface is a rm some 15 inches in height which serves to prevent the material from escaping otherwise than through the perforations. Upon the solid plate rest two massive crushers or mullers, each weighing from 24 to 3 tons. The pan is revolved rapidly, causing the mullers to rotate by friction. The material is eround between the mullers and the plate and thrown out by cen- trifugal force toward the rim, where it escapes through the pertorated surface into an elevator, by means of which it is conveyed to the screens. The particles too large to pass the screens, which should not exceed three-sixteenths inch in mesh, are returned to the dry pan, while the screened material is passed to the mixing machine or pug mill by means of conveyors. In the pug mill, water is admixed with the clay to form a stiff mud, which is fed continuously into the brick machine proper. The brick machine is an extremely heavy mechanism. It con- sists essentially of an auger or propeller conveyor, a tapering barrel, and the die or former. The material is forced by means of the auger conveyor into the tapering barrel, which terminates in the die, and issues from the die in a solid column under heavy pressure. For ‘“‘side-cut”’ brick this column is approximately 44 inches by 10 inches in cross section, and the brick are formed by cutting through the column, by means of an automatic device, at intervals of about 34 inches. For ‘‘end-cut” brick the column has a cross section approximately 4 inches by 44 inches and is cut into sections about 10 inches long. . Paving brick, whether end or side cut, have usually in the past been re-pressed. This process smooths and rounds the corners, and forms on one side of each brick small lugs or projecting trademarks which serve to produce uniform spacing between the courses of the pavement. Suitable lugs may also be formed at the time the brick are cut, however, and the process of re-pressing is then omitted. ~ Much discussion has taken place as to which of these methods pro- 4 BULLETIN 23, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. duces the better brick, and each method has many advocates. Entirely satisfactory pavements have been made from both re- pressed and unre-pressed brick, however, and it is very doubtful if the failures which have been observed in connection with either type could rightfully be attributed to this particular feature in the process of manufacture. Special shapes, such as nose bricks for use next to car tracks, and hillside block, which have one side thicker than the other and which are used on steep grades in order to give the pavement a rough sur- face, may be made either by special die or special re-press molds. The next step in the process of manufacture consists in drying the brick. In a properly systematized plant the brick are stacked upon drier cars as they leave the presses in such manner as to permit a free circulation of air between them. The loaded cars are imme- diately run into a tunnel drier, the temperature of which is main- tained at about 100° F. at the entermg end. As cars containing ‘‘ereen’”’ brick enter one end of the tunnel, which is usually more than 100 feet long, other cars containing dry brick are bemg removed at the opposite end. Air circulation in the dryer is effected by means of fans or high stacks. During drying the brick lose an amount of moisture equivalent to from 15 to 20 per cent of their own weight, The brick leave the dryer ready for burning, which is the last and undoubtedly the most important step in the process of manufacture. Upon the burning depends largely the quality of the finished product, and it requires the greatest skill so to regulate the temperatures and firing periods as to obtain the best results from a given material. Experience alone can demonstrate the manner in which the burning must be modified in order to suit varying sets of conditions. The kilns in which the burning is done are made of brick and are provided — with numerous furnaces. The brick are placed in the kilns so as to permit a free circulation of the gases of combustion and the heated air. PHYSICAL CHARACTERISTICS. GENERAL REQUIREMENTS. Paving brick should be uniform in size, reasonably perfect in shape, and free from ragging, due to friction in the die, or kiln marks, caused by impressions from overlying brick in burning. They should be tough in order to resist crushing, hard in order to resist abrasion, and uniformly graded in order that the pavement may wear evenly. Hach brick should be homogeneous in texture and free from objectionable laminations or seams. Fire cracks, caused by too rapid firing, should be limited in number and extent, and the entire brick should be vitrified and should contain neither unfused nor glassy spots, VITRIFIED BRICK AS MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 5 COLOR. The color is a valuable guide in inspecting brick from the same plant, but it is of little importance when the brick to be compared are from different factories. For brick manufactured from a par- ticular raw material the color indicates, in a measure, the tempera- ture to which they have been subjected, provided they have been burned under identical conditions. Ordinarily, the darker the color, ‘the higher the temperatuie and, presumably, the better the brick. The surface color of brick may be very misleading, however, and the color of the interior should be used in making comparisons. SPECIFIC GRAVITY. The specific gravity of paving brick was formerly considered of importance in judging their fitness for use in pavements. It has since been generally conceded, however, that a knowledge of the specific gravity is of comparatively little value. The specific gravity of shale brick is eee between 2.20 and 2.40, and of fire-clay brick between 2.10 and 2 ABSORPTION. The absorptive power of brick, like their color, is a matter of very. slight importance, except for comparing specimens manufactured under identical conditions. It is true that the porosity of the brick increases with the power of absorption, but it is very doubtful if any paving brick possessing an objectionably high absorptive power could pass even a very casual inspection. In other words, a high degree of porosity always manifests itself in other ways more clearly than in the ability of the brick to absorb water. CRUSHING STRENGTH. The crushing strength of good paving brick varies from 10,000 pounds to 20,000 pounds per square inch when the load is applied uniformly over the entire top surface of the test specimen, and may be much greater if the area over which the load is applied is less than that of the top surface. Since paving brick in use are seldom required to withstand a pressure of more than about 2,000 pounds per square inch and since inferior brick may possess relatively very high resist- ance to crushing, a knowledge of the crushing strength is clearly of little value in compating the relative excellence of different makes of brick. It is, therefore, usually considered unnecessary to specify a definite requirement as to the crushing strength of paving brick. TESTING THE BRICK. Definite methods of testing paving brick have been in general use for only a comparatively few years and have only recently under- gone a pronounced change. The object of all tests is to determine 6 BULLETIN 23, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. whether or not a given quality of brick is suitable for use in construct- ing pavements and to furnish a basis for comparing different classes of brick. The methods have, therefore, been repeatedly changed, not only in order to make the results obtamed mdicate more defi- . nitely the quality of the brick, but also with a view to establishing uniformity, so that results obtained in different laboratories may be intelligently compared. A discussion of the most tmportant tests follows in more or less detail. FIELD TEST. The general appearance of a paving brick is, to an experienced eye, a valuable indication of its quality, and will frequently suggest the advisability of applying routine tests to some particular part of a shipment. Unfortunately, however, the knowledge gained from experience with one kind of brick can not be safely relied upon in inspecting other brick made by a different process or from a different class of raw material. A further limitation to this method of testing lies in the fact that the results obtained do not admit of numerical evaluation, and can not, therefore, be very accurately described. This test 1s nevertheless valuable, and since no apparatus other than a hand hammer is needed, it can always be employed. The test consists simply in making a careful inspection of the - brick individually and collectively. The size is tested by making measurements, the shape by arranging a number of brick in the order in which they are intended to be placed, and the quality by an exami- nation of both the exterior and interior of a number of samples. TRANSVERSE TEST. The transverse strength of a brick is determined by supporting it upon two knife edges and applying a load on the opposite side and midway between the supports by means of a third knife edge. The load is gradually increased until rupture occurs, and the result of the test is expressed in terms of the ratio ae , called the modulus of rupture. In the above ratio P represents the breaking load in pounds, while 1, b, and d represent, respectively, the distance between sup- - ports, the breadth of the specimen, and the depth of the specimen, all measured in inches. The modulus of rupture for goed paving brick usually lies between 2,000 and 3,000, and frequently varies considerably even with care- fully selected specimens which have been manufactured under iden- tical conditions. In making this test a considerable number of speci- mens should be used, and the requirements concerning the transverse strength should be no less definite as to uniformity in the results of the test than as. to the average modulus of rupture. VITRIFIED BRICK AS MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS. ff RATTLER OR ABRASION TEST. The rattler or abrasion test is undoubtedly the most important of the tests made on paving brick at present. In making this test the specimen brick are subjected to destructive influences very similar to those encountered in actual service, and the results obtained, therefore, indicate very closely the effect which traffic may be expected to produce on a pavement constructed of similar brick. The methods of making the test, of which there were formerly a ereat many, have undergone repeated changes in order that service conditions may be more nearly approached and also in an effort to bring about uniformity, so that the results obtained may be of the ereatest possible scientific value. The method which has been lately recommended by the subcommittee on paving brick of the American Society forIesting Materials may be briefly described as follows: The apparatus necessary for making the test, ordinarily called the rattler, consists of a 14-sided barrel of regular polygonal cross section supported on a suitable frame and fitted with the necessary driving mechanism. ‘The staves, each of which forms a side of the barrel, are made of 6-inch 15.5-pound structural steel channels 27} inches long. These staves are double bolted to the cast-iron heads of the barrel, which are provided with slotted flanges for holding the bolts. Cast- iron wear plates are bolted to the inside of the barrel heads. The outside diameter of the barrel is 283 inches. | In this barrel is placed what is known as the abrasive charge. ‘This charge consists of two sizes of cast-iron spheres having respective diameters of 32 inches and 1{ inches and weighing, respectively, 7.5 pounds and 0.95 pound when new. ‘Ten of the larger spheres are used, and the number of the smaller spheres is made such that the weight of the entire charge will approximate 300 pounds. The indi- | vidual larger spheres are discarded whenever their weight falls to 7 pounds or less and the smaller spheres when they become sufficiently worn by usage to pass through a circular opening having a diameter of 12 inches. The test is made by placing a charge of ten representative brick, which have been previously dried at a temperature of 100° F. for at least three hours, in the barrel together with the abrasive charge, and then revolving the rattler 1,800 times. The number of revolu- tions per minute is not permitted to fall below 294 nor to exceed 303, and the operation is made continuous from start to finish. The results of the test are reckoned in terms of the loss in weight sustained by the brick, and this loss is expressed as a percentage of the original weight of the brick tested. In determining the loss in — weight, no piece of brick which weighs less than 1 pound is consid- ered as having withstood the test. 8 BULLETIN 23, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Good paving brick will ordinarily lose from 17 per cent to 22 per cent of their original weight in the rattler test, and specifications concerning this loss should be prepared with a view to the character of the traffic for which the pavement is designed. Some reasonable requirement as to the loss sustained by any individual brick should also be made. This loss should ordinarily not exceed 25 per cent, and under severe traffic conditions a smaller percentage should be required. CONSTRUCTION. PREPARING THE SUBGRADE. In forming a roadbed upon which a brick pavement is to be con- structed, the essential features to be considered are (1) thorough drainage, (2) firmness, (3) uniformity m grade and cross section, and (4) adequate Similars: Thorough drainage can be secured for any nate alee road only by means of a careful study of the local conditions which affect the accumulation and ‘‘run-off’’ of both the surface and ground water. These conditions vary considerably even in the same locality, and no — set of rules can be given which would cover all cases. For example, the material composing the roadbed may be springy, and in this case tile underdrains will probably be necessary. On the other hand, extremely flat topography may make it necessary to elevate the grade considerably above the surrounding land. The nature of the soil, the topography, and the rainfall must all be considered if a sys- tem of drainage is to be planned properly. | The second requirement, firmness, can be secured only after the road has been properly drained. Soils which readily absorb moisture can not be properly drained in wet weather and should not be per- mitted to form a part of the subgrade. In order that the subgrade may be unyielding, it is also necessary that the roadbed be eee teal compacted. In forming embankments, the material should be put down in layers not over 8 inches thick, and each layer should be thoroughly rolled. In excavation care should be exercised, if the material is earth, not to permit plows or scrapers to penetrate below the subgrade. The subgrade in both excavation and embankment should be brought to its final shape by means of finish grading with picks and shovels and rolling. When completed the subgrade should be uniform im grade and cross section, or otherwise the foundation must be made unneces- sarily thick where depressions occur, in order that its grade and cross section may be uniform and its thickness not less at any point than that required. The subgrade should be repeatedly rolled and reshaped until the desired shape is secured. The curbs, which should be set before the final finishing, may be made to serve as a guide for this work. VITRIFIED BRICK AS MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 9) The shoulders, while essentially a part of the road surface, should be constructed at the same time that the subgrade is formed. This is necessary in order that the curb may be properly supported while the pavement is being laid and rolled. The shoulders should never be less than 4 feet wide and should consist of some material which compacts readily under the roller and which does not readily absorb water. Not infrequently one of the shoulders is made sufficiently wide to form an earth roadway parallel to the brick pavement. Such an arrangement serves to relieve the pavement of considerable traffic during favorable seasons and thereby adds greatly to its life. The general method of constructing shoulders for brick roads is not essentially different from that employed for other types of pave- ments. CURBING. All brick pavements should be supplied with strong, durable curbing, both on the sides and at the ends. Otherwise, the marginal brick will soon become displaced by the action of traffic, and their displacement will of course expose the brick next adjoining, so that deterioration will soon spread over the entire pavement. Properly constructed curbing, on the other hand, will hold the pavement as in a frame and enable the brick to present their combined resistance to the destructive influences of traffic. Satisfactory curbs may be constructed of stone, Portland cement concrete, or vitrified clay shapes made especially for this purpose. Wood has also been used for curbs to a limited extent, but when it is considered that the life of a brick pavement under ordinary condi- tions should far exceed the life of any wood curb which might be devised, the economy of employing a more durable material !s readily apparent. Stone curbing may be made from any hard tough stone which is sufficiently homogeneous and free from seams to admit being quar- ried into blocks not less than 4 feet long, 5 inches thick, and 18 inches deep. On account of their ordinarily homogeneous structure, granite and sandstone are probably more used for curbs than any other kind of stone. All stone curbing should be hauled, distributed, and set before the subgrade is completed. The individual blocks should be not less than about 4 feet long except at closures, and should have a depth of from 18 to 36 inches, depending on traffic conditions and on whether the curb is to project above the surface forming one side of the gutter. The neat thickness need never be greater than 6 inches and, where the traffic conditions are not severe and the quality of the stone is good, a thickness of 4 inches will ordinarily prove satisfactory. Stone curb should always be set on a firm bed of 7709°—13——2 10 BULLETIN 23, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. gravel, slag, or broken stone, not less than 3 inches thick, and should be provided with a backing of the same material on the shoulder or sidewalk side. Figure 1 shows a typical stone curb in place. Where suitable stone is not-readily available or when from any cause the cost of stone curbing would prove excessive, a curb con- structed of Portland cement concrete may frequently be advan- tageously used. Concrete curbs may be constructed alone or in com- bination with either a concrete gutter or a concrete foundation. The advisability of constructing the curb in combination with the foundation, however, is doubtful. Very little is saved by such an arrangement, and the small saving is probably even more than offset by the additional difficulty involved in preparing the subgrade WITKIFILD BRICK Fig. 1.—Proper method of constructing stone curb. without the curb to serve as a guide. Concrete curbs should have approximately the same cross-sectional dimensions as stone curbs and should be constructed in sections not exceeding about 7 or 8 feet in length. Figures 2'and 3 and Plate I show the three common methods of constructing concrete curbs. . Vitrified clay curbing should be set in much the same manner as that described for stone curbing. The principal additional require- ment is that, since vitrified clay is a lighter material than stone and the curb sections are ordinarily shorter, the bedding must be made correspondingly more secure in order to prevent displacement. THE FOUNDATION. A firm, unyielding foundation is one of the most essential features of a brick pavement. This fact can be more readily appreciated when it is considered that the surface of a brick pavement is made up Bul, 23, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE |. Wand emer grour f With Fo, Sons tile, ~ IN RN N N N BN x S N Q SS ‘1 1066, 6 70 1. A CUslI0n © 50M oe Tor feré/ a 1 5 to grode. of shoulders - at least 149 1° w/ ee es eee aw TYPICAL PLAN AND SECTION FOR BRICK ROAD. Crown varies (017 Gade 70 S/qpe PLATE Il. Bul. 23, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 'YANYOD MO7] ONIAVH XOg LNOYS YOs NVId VITRIFIED BRICK AS MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 11 of small individual blocks, any one of which might be easily forced down, causing unevenness in the surface, if the foundation were poor; and since the ability of the pavement to resist wear depends very largely on the smoothness of the surface, every reasonable precaution should be taken to prevent any unevenness from developing. The proper type of foundation depends largely on the material com- posing the subgrade and the character of traffic for which the road is designed. Where the traffic is comparatively light and the subgrade is composed of some firm material which does not readily absorb water, a, very satisfactory foundation may be constructed of broken stone or gravel filled with sand. Where the traffic is comparatively heavy, however, or where the material composing the subgrade is defective in any way, a monolithic concrete foundation should be used. Foundations consisting of a course of brick laid flat upon a Fig. 2.—Concrete curb and gutter combined. previously compacted layer of gravel or broken stone have also been extensively used, and pavements constructed upon foundations of this kind, ordinarily called ‘‘double-layer”’ pavements, have in gen- eral proved satisfactory, even where the subgrade was composed of an inferior material. At the present time, however, such foundations can rarely be constructed at less cost than the more durable concrete foundations, and they will therefore be given no further consideration here. Gravel and broken-stone foundations may be spread in one or more courses, each of which should be from 5 to 9 inches thick before com- pacting. The materials used should conform in the matter of physical characteristics to the ordinary requirements for similar materials used in constructing macadam roads; that is, the stone or gravel should be clean, hard, tough, and durable, and should be graded in size between certain reasonable, fixed limits. It should be 12 BULLETIN 23, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. uniformly spread on the road, either from dumping boards by means of shovels or from wagons especially designed to spread the mate- rial as it is beng dumped. Where whole loads are dumped in one place and then spread out to the required depth, it 1s very difficult to obtain uniform density. Usually those spots where the loads are dumped are more densely compacted than the rest of the foundation, and this lack of uniformity very soon manifests itself by producing . unevenness in the surface of the pavement. Broken-stone and gravel foundations should be compacted in the usual manner by rolling with a power roller weighing not less than about 10 tons, and suffi- cient clean, coarse sand to fill the voids should be spread and flushed Be Bs EB GRAVEL OR BRONEN STONE Fic. 3.—Making provision for expansion joint. into the foundation while the rolling is in progress. When complete the foundation should present a surface uniform in grade and cross section and parallel to the proposed surface of the finished pavement. Concrete foundations are unquestionably better adapted for brick pavements than any other type. They are practically monolithic in form, nearly impervious to water, and possess a relatively high crushing strength. All of these qualities may be obtained with a relatively ‘‘lean” concrete if the subgrade has been properly prepared. Under ordinary circumstances a satisfactory foundation may be con- structed of concrete composed of 1 part of Portland cement, 3 parts of sand, and from 5 to 7 parts of broken stone or screened gravel. VITRIFIED BRICK AS MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS. ie The sand should be clean and well graded in size, and the stone or gravel should conform to the requirements given above in connection with the discussion of foundations constructed of those materials. Foundations for brick pavements have also been constructed of timber boards laid on sand, and in some instances of sand alone. These foundations have seldom proved satisfactory for any great length of time, however, and can, therefore, be economically used only when the pavement is tg be constructed of an inferior grade of brick. SAND CUSHION. Since it is practically impossible to construct an absolutely smooth foundation, and since there is always a slight variation in the size of paving brick, owing to slight differences in the amount of shrinkage at the time of burning, it is necessary to provide an adjustable cushion of some kind between the foundation and the brick for correcting these slight irregularities, in order to secure an even surface and a uniform bearing for the brick. Sand has been found a most satisfactory material of which to construct this cushion, and is almost exclusively used for this purpose. The proper thickness for the sand cushion will of course depend on the extent of the inequalities above mentioned. Two inches is the most usual thickness, however, and this thickness has generally proved very satisfactory. The sand used in the cushion should be clean, free from pebbles, and preferably fine grained. If dirt or vegetable matter is present, it will soon be leached out and cause unevenness to develop in the pavement, while pebbles prevent the brick from securing a uniform bearing, and ultimately produce the same result. Fine sand adjusts itself to the shape of the brick more readily than coarse sand, and is, therefore, given preference. It is also important that the sand should be dry when spread, because a comparatively small amount of mois- ture increases the volume of fine sand considerably, and moisture when present is not, as a rule, uniformly distributed. Even if it were uniformly distributed at the start, some spots would dry out more .rapidly than others while the spreading was under way, and a lack of uniformity would thus be produced in the cushion. In forming the cushion the sand is uniformly spread over the foundation to a depth shghtly in excess of that desired, and is then smoothed off by drawing over it a template shaped to conform with the cross section of the finished pavement. The length of the tem- plate is ordinarily made equal to the width of the pavement where this is less than about 25 feet, and equal to half the width for wider pavements. Timber guides may be laid in the same direction as the pavement for the template to slide on, or the curbs may be made to serve as guides where this is convenient. After the cushion is spread and uniformly ‘‘struck off’ with the template to a depth slightly in excess of that required, it should be 14 BULLETIN 23, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. thoroughly compacted by rolling with a hand roller weighing from 300 to 400 pounds, and any depressions which form should be corrected. This is necessary in order to secure uniform density and to prevent unequal settlement of the surface. HANDLING AND LAYING THE BRICK. The brick may all be hauled and piled at convenient intervals along the sides of the roadway before grading is begun, or, if more conven- ient, they may be delivered as needed on the work. Hauling over the finished pavement with wagons until it is complete and opened to traffic should be avoided. If the brick are delivered on the work ag needed, they should be unloaded from the wagons outside of the curb and carried to the pavers, either by hand or in wheelbarrows. Plank trackways should also be provided over the newly laid pavement for the wheelbarrows when they are used. The brick should in all cases be uniformly piled by hand on the new yavement conveniently close for the pavers, and each brick should be © so placed that the regular operation of picking it up and placing it in the pavement will bring the best edge up. This method of handling the brick requires somewhat more labor than the common method of dumping them from wheelbarrows, but it eliminates to a great extent the practice of picking out and turning over chipped or kin-marked brick, after the pavement is laid. This is very objectionable on account of the disarrangement of the sand cushion, which is frequently occasioned. The brick should be laid on edge and in uniform courses running at right angles to the line of the pavement, except at intersections; and in order to ‘‘break the joints”’ each alternate course should begin with a half brick. In laying the brick the pavers stand on the pave- ment already laid and, beginning at the curb each time, carry across as many courses together as they can conveniently reach. The courses should be kept straight and close together, and if necessary each block of eight or ten courses should be driyen back by means of a sledge and a piece of straight timber approximately 2 by 4 inches © by 5 or 6 feet long. The brick should also be laid close in the courses and should be crowded together, if necessary, after a course is laid, by means of a crowbar inserted at the curb. After the brick are laid, the pavement should be carefully inspected for the purpose of detecting soft or otherwise defective brick. Mis- shapen or broken brick may be detected by the eye alone and the soft brick by sprinkling the pavement with water. The soft brick appear comparatively dry while the water is being applied and comparatively wet after the sprinkling is stopped, All defective brick should, of course, be replaced by others which meet the requirements of the specifications. VITRIFIED BRICK AS MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 15 TRUING THE SURFACE. After the pavement has been laid and all defective brick have been replaced to the satisfaction of the engineer, the next step is to sweep the surface clean and smooth out all inequalities by means of ramming or rolling. The rolling should be done with a power roller weighing from 3 to 5 tons, and the pavement should ordinarily be rolled in both the longitudinal and transverse directions. The longitudinal rolling should be done first and should begin at the curbs and progress toward the crown. The roller should pass at least twice over every part of the pavement in both transverse and longitudinal directions. In order to neutralize any tendency which the brick may have to careen under the roller, the number of forward trips over any part of the pave- ment, if more than two trips are required, should equal the number of trips backward over the same part. In places where it is impracticable to use the roller for trumg the surface, such, for example, as along the curbs or concrete gutters or around manholes, the brick should be brought to a true surface by means of ramming. For this purpose a wooden rammer loaded with lead and weighing from 80 to 100 pounds may be used. The blows of the rammer should not fall directly upon the brick, but should be transmitted through a 2-inch board laid parallel to the curb. After the pavement has been trued up, as described above, it should be inspected again for broken or otherwise damaged brick, and also for those which have settled excessively, owing to some lack of uni- formity in the sand cushion. All defects should be corrected and the areas distributed in making the corrections should be brought to a true surface by tamping. FILLING THE JOINTS. In order to keep the brick in proper position and protect the edges from chipping, it is necessary to fill the joints with some suitable mate- rial before the road is opened to traffic. The materials which have in the past been most commonly used for this purpose are sand, va- rious bituminous preparations, and a grout made of equal parts of Portland cement and fine sand mixed with water. Sand is the least expensive of these materials, but there are several very serious objections to its use as a joint filler: (1) It does not pro- tect the edges of the brick; (2) it is easily disturbed in cleaning the pavement and is likely to be washed out by rain on steep grades; (8) it does not entirely prevent water from penetrating through to the foundation; and (4) it does not bond the individual brick together, and so enable them to present a concerted resistance to traffic. The bituminous fillers vary considerably in quality and efficiency, but all are more or less unsatisfactory. One of the principal objec- tions to their use is based on their tendency to run out of the joints into the gutters during warm weather and to crack and spall out 16 BULLETIN 23, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. during cold weather. This tendency can, of course, be partially overcome by exercising proper care im selecting the materials. It should also be noted in their favor that brick pavements, the joimts of which have been filled with bituminous preparations, are ordmarily less noisy at first than those in which a Portland cement grout filler has been used. The grout filler is unquestionably very much supe- rior from a standpoint of durability, however, and the excessive noise under traffic which has been frequently observed in connection with its use can be largely eliminated by the use of proper bituminous expansion cushions along the curbs. It is, therefore, recommended as better adapted for fillng the jomts m brick pavements than any other material which has been commonly used for that purpose. When the joints of a brick pavement are properly filled with Portland cement grout the individual brick are firmly bonded together and the pavement is thereby practically converted mto a monolith. Moreover, since the material composing the joints scarcely wears more rapidly than the brick, the edges of the brick are well protected, and the importance of this feature has already been pomted out. _ The most satisfactory method yet devised for mixing and applymg the grout filler may be described as follows: Grout boxes constructed in such manner that, when resting on a level platform, one corner will be lower than the others should first be provided. A suitable design for such boxes is shown in Plate IJ. The number of boxes required depends on the width of the pavement; ordmarily one box to each 10 feet of width will be found sufficient. The grout, which should be put on in two applications, is prepared in batches each of which consists of a quantity of cement not exceeding one sack, a like amount of fine, clean sand, and water. The sand and cement should first be thoroughly mixed dry and sufficient water then admixed to produce a liquid mixture. The consistency of the mixture for the first application should be approximately the same as that of thin cream, and for the second application it should be somewhat thicker. The pavement should be cleaned and thoroughly sprinkled as a preliminary to making the first application of grout, and it should be kept moist by gentle sprinkling while this application is being made. The grout should be removed from the boxes and spread upon the pavement by means of scoop shovels, and it should be immediately swept into the joints. For this purpose a coarse rattan or fiber push broom should be used in the first application, and a squeegee in the second application. The squeegee is made by clamp- ing a piece of four-ply rubber belting or some other similar material, about 6 by 20 inches in size, between two pieces of board and attaching a suitable handle. The grout in the boxes should be continually stirred until the last shovelful is removed, otherwise a separation of the sand and cement will almost certainly occur. VITRIFIED BRICK AS MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS. ial . The first application should proceed about 50 feet in advance of the second. Usually both applications are made by the same crew of laborers. They simply turn back after having covered the allowable distance with the first application and, mixing the grout in the same boxes, bring up the second application. The second application of grout should completely fill the joints flush with the top of the brick. After the joints are filled as described above and the grout has taken its initial set, the entire surface should be covered to a depth of approximately one-half inch with clean sand. ‘This is done to protect the pavement from the weather and to keep it in a moist condition while the grout is hardening. If necessary, in order to keep the sand moist, it should be occasionally sprinkled for several days after it is spread. The sand covering should be permitted to remain on the surface for at least 10 days, and durmg this period the pavement should be kept entirely closed to traffic. If the weather is unfavorable, the length of time during which traffic is kept off the road should be increased. EXPANSION CUSHIONS. It has been customary in the past to provide both longitudinal and * transverse bitumimous expansion cushions in grout-filled brick pave- ments, but recent practice has demonstrated that the transverse cushions may be advantageously omitted if proper longitudinal cushions are provided. The principal objection to the use of trans- verse expansion cushions is based on the fact that the material com- posing the cushions frequently softens during warm weather and runs out toward the curb, thus leaving the edges of the adjoming brick exposed to destructive impact from the wheels of passing vehicles. Even if the cushion consisted of a material which does not run in warm weather, it is necessarily softer than the brick, and the natural result is still the development of unevenness in its immediate vicinity. No such objection can exist concerning longitudinal expansion cushions, however, if they are placed adjacent to the curbs and constructed of proper material. They not only furnish a means for the pavement to expand and contract with changes in tempera- ture but they also eliminate to a large extent the disagreeable rumbling which has been so frequently associated with grout-filled brick pavements. The bituminous material of which the expansion cushions are made should be such as to remain firm in summer and not to become brittle in winter. It should also possess the quality of durability. In order to insure that any given material is suited for such a purpose, it is usually considered necessary to prescribe certain laboratory require- ments to which it must conform, and examples of these, which have 7709°—13——3 18 BULLETIN 23, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. been found to give good results, are contained in the section entitled “Typical specifications.” (Cf. p. 21 et seq.) Expansion cushions should be provided for at the time the brick are laid, by placing a board of the required thickness on edge adjacent to each curb, as shown in figure 3. Small iron wedges, such as are shown in this figure, may be inserted between the curb and the board at the time the board is set. These wedges may be readily loosened and removed after the bricks have been laid and grouted, and may consequently be made to facilitate the removal of the board. ‘ The proper thickness for expansion cushions is a matter concerning which, much difference of opinion exists among highway engineers. Some engineers advocate a minimum thickness of 1 mech, while others claim to have secured their best results by using expansion cushions having a minimum thickness as low as three-eighths inch for very narrow pavements. It is generally agreed, however, that the thickness of the cushion should vary with the width of the pavement. The following suggestions for proportioning the cushion are offered as being fairly representative of the best practice. Taste 1.—Katio of thickness of cushions to width of roadway. Is Thick- Width of roadway | ness of (feet). cushion (inches). 2NOLESSeeseee eee zt 30) to 80s ee eee 8 S0OVADS Se aecees il Over. 402... 2222.22 1} Plates ITT to VII, and Plate VIII, figure 1, show the various steps in the construction of a brick pavement. Plate VIII, figure 2, and Plate IX, figure 1, show the finished pavement as it should appear, and Plate IX, figure 2, shows the advantage possessed by grout-filled joints over joints filled with a soft material. COST OF BRICK PAVEMENTS. The cost of brick pavements varies widely, and is affected by so many influences that it is difficult to attempt to derive a general expression showing the relation between probable cost and local con- ditions. The prices of brick, as also the prices of the various materials entering into the foundation, vary greatly according to the locality and the freight rate. The cost and efficiency of labor is also far from being constant. Furthermore, the material composing the subgrade and the method of preparing it may exert a marked influence on the cost of the pavement. The following statements regarding cost, then, must be considered as representing average conditions, and Bul. 23, U S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE III. Fic. 1.—FINE GRADING. | } | | | | | Fic. 2.—ROLLING. PREPARING THE SUBGRADE FOR A BRICK ROAD. ‘dW ‘S3SVHO AASHO LV GVO IVLNAWIYadxa4 “NOILVGNNO ALAYONOD GSAHSINI4—"? “SI ‘ "NOILVaNNO4 SHL YOs SLAYONOD ONIXII—' | “SIs PLATE IV. Bul. 23, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Bul. 23, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE V. Fic. 1.—SPREADING SAND CUSHION. Fig. 2.—ROLLING SAND CUSHION. EXPERIMENTAL ROAD AT CHEVY CHASE, MD. Bul. 23, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fig. 2.—ROLLING THE PAVEMENT. EXPERIMENTAL ROAD AT CHEVY CHASE, MD. PLATE VI. Bul. 23, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Fig. 1.—FILLING THE JOINTS, FIRST COAT. FIG. 2.—FILLING THE JOINTS, SECOND COAT. EXPERIMENTAL ROAD AT CHEVY CHASE, MD. PLATE VII. Bul. 23, U. S Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE VIII. | t Fia. 2.—SHOWING PROPERLY FILLED GROUT JOINTS. EXPERIMENTAL ROAD AT CHEVY CHASE, MD. Bul. 23, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IX. Fig. 1.—EXPERIMENTAL ROAD AT CHEVY CHASE, MD. 7 ; Finished pavement in service. Fig. 2.—GROUT-FILLED BRICK PAVEMENT, HAVING LONGITUDINAL JOINTS IN CENTER AND OCCASIONAL TRANSVERSE JOINTS FILLED WITH SOFT FILLER. Unsightly appearance at right caused by widening roadway. VITRIFIED BRICK AS MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS, 19 care must be exercised in applying them to special cases. They are intended as a guide in preparing estimates of probable cost. The grading is usually paid for by the cubic yard, and the cost, of course, varies with the character of the soil and the necessary amount -of excavation. In light, easily loosened soils, grading may usually be done at from 25 to 40 cents per cubic yard. In hard earth con- taining more or less loose rock, the cost per cubic yard generally runs from 40 to 75 cents, while grading in solid rock may sometimes cost as much as $1.50 per cubic yard. The cost of the rough grading should be considered entirely apart from the cost of the pavement. The cost of shaping and rolling the subgrade after the rough grad- ing is completed will ordinarily vary from 3 to 5 cents per square yard. This cost should. be included with the other items which make up the cost of the pavement. The cost of the curbs varies with the character of the material used. Stone curbs ordinarily cost from 25 to 75 cents per linear foot, while curbs made of Portland cement. concrete cost, as a rule, from 20 to 50 cents per linear foot. The higher prices for the concrete curbs apply principally to special cases requiring extra‘form work or con- siderable extra material. The cost of the foundation depends largely on the cost of the materials with which it is constructed. Gravel or broken stone can usually be spread and rolled at from 5 te 7 cents per square yard, while the cost of these materials, delivered, varies from $0.60 to $2 per cubic yard. Mixing and placing concrete usually costs from 35 to 75 cents per cubic yard, according to the amount of work to be done and the methods employed, and the cost of the materials, delivered, ordinarily varies from $2.50 to $4.50 per cubic yard of concrete. The cost of paving brick at the kiln varies from about $12 to $14 per thousand. Estimating 45 brick to the square yard, each 1,000 brick cover approximately 22 square yards, which makes the cost at - the kiln per square yard of pavement vary from. 55 cents to about 65 cents. These figures mean very little, however, unless the kiln is located conveniently near where the brick are to be used, for freight charges not infrequently amount to more than the cost of the brick. A force consisting of one paver and five laborers should place on an average about 220 square yards of brick per 10-hour day; while supervision, rolling, and incidental expenses are ordinarily equivalent to the cost of hiring about three and one-half additional laborers. If C = cost of cement per barrel, S = cost of sand per cubic yard, A = cost of coarse aggregate per cubic yard, B = cost of paving brick per 1,000, and L = cost of labor per hour, with all materials considered delrvered on the work and all costs expressed in cents, then the probable cost of constructing a brick pavement, including the Pi 20 BULLETIN 23, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. subgrade, a 6-inch concrete foundation, and suitable curbs, may be estimated by substituting in the formula: Cost per square yard = 1.90 L + .213 C + .138 S + .157 A + .045 B. The cost as estimated from this formula should, however, be increased by about 10 per cent to allow for wear on tools and machin- ery and to guard against unforeseen contingencies. If it is desired to use a different thickness of foundation, it is safe to assume that each inch subtracted or added to the thickness of the foundation will make a corresponding difference of from 8 to 12 on in 1 the cost per square yard. ; MAINTENANCE OF BRICK PAVEMENTS. If brick pavements are properly constructed at the start, the work of maintaining them is very slight. Under the closest inspection, however, some inferior material is likely to become incorporated either in the foundation or in the surface, and it is, therefore, very important that a brick pavement be very carefully watched for the first few years of its life to see that no unevenness develops either © because of defective bricks having been used in the surface or because of insufficient support from the foundation at any point. Whenever any unevenness develops, it should be immediately rectified. Other- wise the pavement will become irregularly worn in the vicinity of the defects and expensive repairs will eventually be necessary. Not infrequently weak spots develop in broken stone or gravel foundations, owing to surface water finding its way through joints in the pavement which have not been properly filled with grout. Careful observation of the jomts should, therefore, constitute a part of the early maintenance work, and any defective joints discovered should be immediately remedied. Where the foundation is con- structed of concrete, however, slight defects in the joints seldom result in any very serious damage. If care is exercised to correct all defects which appear within the first few years of the life of a well-constructed brick pavement, the work of maintaining the pavement proper should thereafter, except for cleaning, be almost negligible. The shoulders and drainage structures, of course, need occasional attention, just as in the case of any other pavement, but if they are properly constructed at the start repairs will usually be very slight. The life of a well-constructed brick pavement can not be estimated with any great degree of exactness, first, because the traffic con- ditions are constantly changing, and, second, because no brick pave- ment which has been constructed in accordance with the best modern practice has yet worn out. The amounts of wear sustained by given pavements during comparatively long periods of years have been |i VITRIFIED BRICK AS MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 21 determined in several instances, but have usually been so small as to make the probable terms of service appear almost indefinite. It is evident, however, that in order to secure the full benefit of this excelient resistance to wear the surface of the pavement must not be permitted to become uneven because of the failure of isolated bricks. TYPICAL SPECIFICATIONS FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF BRICK ROADS. Engineer.—The term ‘engineer,’ as hereinafter employed, shall be understood to mean the engineer authorized by the officials legally responsible for the proposed improvement. The engineer will furnish all lines and grades, set all necessary stakes, and furnish estimates of the work done upon which to base both partial and final payments. All instructions necessary to give effect to any part of these specifications will be furnished by the engineer, and his decision concerning all matters herein left to his judgment shall be final and conclusive. Plans and drawings.—All plans and drawings furnished by the engineer which show the general location, profile, details, and dimen- sions of the proposed road are hereby made a part of these specifica- tions, and the work shall in all respects conform to these plans and drawings, except that such modifications as in the judgment of the engineer are made necessary by the exigencies of construction may be made from time to time. On all drawings figured dimensions are to govern in cases of discrepancy between scale and figures. Grading and subgrade.—All rubbish, stumps, trees, and other encumbrances which occur on the line of the work shall be removed by the contractor at his own expense. The roadbed shall be graded to conform to the lines, cross sections, and grades furnished by the engineer. Embankments shall be con- structed of a good quality of soul or other material satisfactory to the engineer. They shall be built up im layers not exceeding 12 inches in thickness, and each layer shall be thoroughly compacted by means of a roller weighing not less than 10 tons, or by some other means which the engineer has previously approved. All soft, spongy, or otherwise objectionable material encountered im preparing the subgrade shall be removed and replaced by other material satisfactory to the engineer. In excavating the contractor shall exercise care not to disturb any material lying beneath the sub- grade, as shown on the drawings furnished by the engineer, except in removing objectionable material as above provided. The entire subgrade shall be rolled with a roller weighing not less than 10 tons, and when complete shall be firm and hard. It shall conform in cross section to the proposed surface of the finished road- way and be at the required depth below it. 22 BULLETIN 23, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Stone curbing.—A1I stone curbing shall have the shape and size shown on the plans, and shall be hauled and set before the subgrade iscom- pleted. The stone used shall be hard, tough, and of a homogeneous texture, and no section of curbing shall have a length less than 4 feet. Stone curbing shall be set true to line and grade, and shall be securely bedded in either broken stone or gravel. Concrete curbing.—All concrete curbing shall be constructed before the subgrade is completed. It shall have the cross section shown on the plans, and shall be composed of Portland cement concrete, mixed in the proportion 1 part of cement, 2 parts of sand, 4 parts of broken stone or washed gravel, and sufficient water to make a quaky mixture. The specifications as to quality of the materials, mixing and placing the concrete, etc., hereinafter given under ‘‘Concrete foundation,’’ shall apply also to concrete curbs. Forms for concrete curbs shall be constructed of dressed lumber, and the curb shall be constructed in sections not less than 4 feet nor exceeding 12 feet in length. When complete the curb shall present a smooth, neat, uniform appearance, and shall be true to line and grade. : : | Marginal curb.— Marginal curbs shall be constructed at the ends of the pavement and at all intersections with other roads and drive- ways. The marginal curbs shall conform to the specifications given above for the kind of curbmg employed, except that they shall be shaped to conform to the cross section of the pavement. Broken stone or gravel foundation—If a broken stone or gravel foundation is called for, it shall be constructed of sound, durable material, and to the compacted depth shown on the plans. The material shall be well graded in size between that which will just be retained on a screen having }-imch circular openings and that which wil just pass a screen having 14-inch circular openings. After the broken stone or gravel has been spread, sufficient clean sand or stone screenings to fill the voids shall be spread over it and flushed in by means of sprinkling and rolling. When completed the foundation shall be well compacted, free from depressions, and uniform in grade and cross section. Concrete foundation.—If a concrete foundation is called for, it shall be constructed to the depth shown on the plans in the following manner: The subgrade shall be completed for a distance of at least 50 feet in advance of the foundation work. The foundation shall be con- structed of Portland cement concrete mixed in the proportions 1 part of Portland cement, 3 parts of sand, 6 parts of broken stone, and sufficient water to bring the mass to a condition commonly described as quaky. The concrete shall be thoroughly mixed to the satisfac- tion of the engineer, either by hand or in a mechanical mixer approved VITRIFIED BRICK AS MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 23 by the engineer, and the materials composing it shall conform to the following requirements: Cement.—-The cement shall be of some standard brand, and shall conform to the United States Government specifications for Portland cement, as contained in Circular 33 of the Bureau of Standards. Cement shall be delivered in sacks of 94 pounds net weight, and each sack shall be considered as having a volume of 1 cubic foot. All sacks which contain lumps or the contents of which have been dam- aged by exposure to the weather or other cause shall be rejected. Sand.—tThe sand shall consist of dry clean quartz grains, and shall not contain more than 5 per cent of clay, loam, or other foreign mate- rials. The grains shall be well graded and of such size that all will pass a +-inch mesh screen and not more than 20 per cent will pass a No. 50 sieve. Coarse aggregate.—The coarse aggregate may consist of either broken stone or gravel. Stone shall be hard and tough, and shall be broken in such manner that all will be retained on a 14-inch mesh screen and will pass a 14-inch mesh screen. Not more-than,75 per cent of the stone shall pass a ?-inch mesh screen, and not more than 75 per cent shall be retained on such a screen. Gravel shall consist of hard, sound particles of stone, thoroughly clean, and shall conform in size to the above specifications for broken stone. Placing.—The concrete shall be deposited in place immediately after it is mixed and shall be thoroughly compacted as fast as it is placed. The top surface shall be smoothed by troweling with spades or by some other means approved by the engineer, and when com- pleted shall conform to the proposed surface of the finished pavement at the required depth below it. Time of setting.—The concrete shall be carefully protected from the weather and all other disturbing influences, and kept moist by sprinkling for at least 36 hours after it is placed in the foundation. This period may be increased at the discretion of the engineer. Any damage resulting to the foundation before the wearing surface has been laid, no matter what the cause of such damage may be, shall be repaired by the contractor at his own expense. Sand cushion.—After the foundation has been constructed and permitted to set as above provided, a layer of sand shall be uniformly spread over the foundation to such depth that when “struck off” and compacted its thickness shall be 2 inches. The sand composing this layer shall be dry when spread and shall conform in all respects to the requirements given above for the sand to be used in concrete. The cushion shall be struck off with a suitable template which con- forms to the cross section of the finished pavement, and shall be thoroughly compacted by rolling with a hand roller weighing not less 24 BULLETIN 23, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. than 300 pounds. When finished it shall present a smooth, uniform appearance. The brick.—The brick shall be delivered upon the road and neatly piled outside of the curb lines at such points as are approved by the engineer before the grading is started. The loading, hauling, and unloading shall be carefully done, and at no time shall the brick be thrown, dumped, or in any way atl handled. All bake used in the pavement shall be thoroughly vitrified, r egutar in shape and size, evenly burned, and first class in all other respects. The dimensions Shell be 34 inches in width, 4 inches in depth, and 4 inches in length, and any brick varying from these dimensions by more than one-half inch in length or by more than one-eighth inch in width or depth shall be rejected. If the edges are rounded, the radius of the curve shall not exceed one-eighth inch. Each brick shall have projections on one side, formed durimg the process of manufacture, which will serve to produce joints not exceeding one- fourth inch in width and not less than one-eighth inch, when the brick are placed in the pavement. No brick shall be used in which representative specimens, when subjected to the rattler test recommended by the subcommittee on paving brick of the American Society for Testing Materials! lose more than 22 per cent of the original weight of the dried brick com- posing the charge. In making this test 10 representative bricks shall constitute a charge and, in weighing the rattled brick, no part of a brick weighing less than 1 pound shall be included. The modulus of rupture for any one representative brick shall not be less than 2,400, and the average modulus of rupture for all bricks tested shall not be less than 2,600. If this test is employed, at least five bricks shall be tested. Any carload of brick more than 10 per cent of which fails to con- form to any of the above requirements shall be rejected. If not more than 10 per cent of a carload fails to meet the requirements, the defective bricks may be picked out and the remainder of the carload used. Laying the brick.—The brick sual preferably be carried to the pavers on pallets or in clamps and not wheeled in barrows. They shall be laid in straight courses at right angles to the line of the pave- ment, and if a variation in alignment of more than one one-hundred- and-twentieth the width of the pavement occurs, it shall be corrected by taking up and relaying affected courses. No parts of brick shall be employed in the pavement except at the beginning and ending of the courses or at other closures. All brick shall be laid with the best edge exposed and as close as possible. After the brick are laid, they shall be carefully inspected and all those J The ‘cotnplete ppecidea itions for idbieine this test are given as an appendix to this bulletin. VITRIFIED BRICK AS MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 25 which are soft, badly spalled, misshapen, or otherwise defective shall be removed and replaced with perfect brick. Kiln-marked brick may be turned over, and if the reverse edge is smooth and no other fault is found, they may remain in the pavement. The above provision for correcting defects shall not be understood to relieve the contractor from exercising every reasonable precaution to see that only satisfactory brick are correctly placed in the pave- ment when it is first laid. After the brick have been laid and inspected as above provided, they shall be brought to a true surface by means of rolling and tamping. The rolling shall be done with a power roller weighing not less than 3 tons nor more than 5 tons and the pavement shall be rolled in both longitudinal and transverse directions. The longitudinal rolling shall begin. at the curbs and progress toward the center. The roller shall in all cases cover exactly the same area in making its backward trip which was covered in its forward trip, and shall proceed at a very slow rate until the entire pavement has received the first rolling. The longitudinal rollmg shall continue until the brick have been brought to a true surface and are firmly embedded in the sand cushion. The pavement shall then be thoroughly rolled transversely at an angle of 45 degrees with the curb in both directions. Careful inspections shall be made after both the longitudinal and transverse rollings, and all broken or otherwise injured brick shall be removed and replaced to the satisfaction of the engineer. The brick next to the curb and at other points not readily accessible to the roller shall be brought to a true surface by means of ramming with a hand rammer made of wood and loaded to weigh not less than 80 pounds. The blows of the rammer shall be transmitted through a 2-inch board not less than 5 feet long. Filling the joints.—The filler shall consist of a grout composed of equal parts of Portland cement and sand, and shall be applied in two coats. The cement shall conform to the specifications herein- before given for Portland cement. The sand shall also conform to the specification contained herem for sand to be used in concrete, except that the largest grains shall be required to pass a }-inch mesh sereen instead of a 4-inch mesh screen. The grout shall be mixed in small batches and not more than one sack of cement to one batch shall be mixed at any one time. The sand and cement shall be thoroughly mixed dry until the mass assumes an even shade of color. Sufficient clean water shall then be admixed to produce a consistency about equal to that of thin cream for the first application, and slightly thicker for the second application. The materials shall be mixed in suitable boxes, which have been approved by the engineer. The legs of each box shall have different lengths, so that the mixture will readily flow to the lowest corner of 26 BULLETIN 23, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the box, which shall be about 6 inches above the pavement. The grout shall be constantly stirred in the boxes until the last of it has been removed and applied to the pavement. The grout for both applications shall be removed from the boxes and spread over the pavement by means of scoop shovels, and shall be immediately swept into the joints, with a coarse rattan or fiber push broom in the first application and with a squeegee or rubber broom in the second application. The pavement shall have been thoroughly sprinkled before the first application of grout is made and shall be kept moist by means of gentle sprinkling until ue grout is spread. Unless some other arrangement is approved by the engineer, both applications of grout shall be made by the same crew of laborers and with the same appliances. After the first application has ad- vanced about 50 or 60 feet, the second application shall be made. When the second application has been finished, the grout shall entirely fill the joints and shall appear smooth and flush with the surface of the brick. After the jomts have been filled as above provided and the grout. has taken its initial set the entire surface of the pavement shall be covered with a 4-inch layer of sand. This sand layer shall be kept moist by sprinkling for at least 3 days and shall remain on the pavement for at least 10 days, and during this period the street shall be entirely closed to traffic. Any damage resulting from traffic or any other disturbing influence which has been prematurely per- mitted upon the pavement shall be repaired by the contractor at his own expense. Expansion cushion.—An expansion cushion of the thickness imdi- cated on the plans shall be constructed along each curb as follows: Suitable provision for the cushions shall be made at the time the brick are laid by setting boards of the proper thickness on edge in the correct position along the curb. After the brick have been laid, rolled, and grouted and the grout has been permitted to harden, the boards shall be removed and the spaces which they occupied shall be filled with either coal-tar pitch or blown-oil asphalt. If pitch is used, it shall be of such character as to adhere firmly to the paving brick and to the curb and shall be sufficiently plastic to allow for contraction and expansion in the payement without developing cracks in the jomts. It shall contain not less than 25 per cent and not more than 40 per cent of free carbon and shall not contain more than 0.5 per cent of morganic matter. When tested by the cube method, its melting point shall be not less than 55° C. and not greater than 60° C. If oil asphalt is used, it shall be soluble in chemically pure carbon disulphide to at least 99 per cent, and when tested by the cube a VITRIFIED BRICK AS MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 27 method its melting point shall be not less than 90° C. and not greater than 110°C. The penetration at 0° C. of a No. 2 needle acting one minute under a weight of 200 grams shall be not less than 2 milli- meters. The penetration at 46° C. of a No. 2 needle acting five sec- onds under a weight of 50 grams shall not exceed 10 miulimeters.! When grouting, care shall be exercised to prevent the grout from covering and setting up over this cushion. CONCLUSION. Before concluding this discussion of brick pavements, it would seem desirable to emphasize the importance of proper engineering supervision. In the past many communities have expended large sums in efforts to improve their public highways without first having secured the services of some one competent to plan and direct the work. The results have usually been very unsatisfactory under such circunistances and have frequently served to discourage further effort. One of the mistakes most commonly observed consists in constructing some expensive type of pavement on a road where the location is faulty or the grades are impracticable. Not infrequently sharp angles in the alignment or abrupt changes in the grade, which might be easily and. imexpensively remedied by an experienced engineer, are Jeft to impede traffic throughout the life of a costly and perhaps durable pavement. Even in constructing common earth roads it is doubtful economy to dispense with the services of a competent engineer, and if any considerable quantity of work is to be done, such services should certainly be secured. Since brick pavements are probably more expensive to construct than any other type of pavement at present used for country roads, it is all the more important that their con- struction should be carefully planned and well executed. 1 [Instead of making a poured joint, as above described, the cushion may be constructed of some of the specially prepared expansion-joint materials. These consist of thin, flexible boards, built up by successive layers of felt and a soft bituminous material. They can be obtained with a width approximately the depth of a brick, and a sufficient number of them to make the proper thickness of cushion are set en edge along the curb when the brick are laid. APPENDIX. METHOD FOR INSPECTING AND TESTING PAVING BRICK.! The quality and acceptability of paving brick, in the absence of other special tests mutually agreed upon in advance by the seller on the one side and the buyer on the other side, shall be determined by the following procedure, viz: (1) The rattler test, for the purpose of determining whether the material as a whole , possesses to a sufficient degree, strength, toughness, and hardness; a (2) Visual inspection, for the purpose of determining whether the physical proper- ties of the material as to dimensions, accuracy and uniformity of shape and color are in general satisfactory, and for the purpose of culling out from the shipment individu- ally imperfect er unsatisfactory brick. The acceptance of paving bricks as satisfactorily meeting one of these tests shall not be construed as in any way waiving the other. SECTION I.—_THE RATTLER TEST. THE SELECTION OF SAMPLES FOR TEST. Irem 1. Place of sampling.—Ia general where a shipment of bricks involving a quantity of less than 100,000 is under consideration, the sampling may be done either at the brick factory prior to shipment, or on cars at their destination or on the street, when delivered ready for use. When the quantity under consideration exceeds 100,000, the sampling shall be done at the factory prior to shipment. Bricks accepted as the result of tests prior to shipment shall not be liable to subsequent rejection as a whole, but are subject to such culling as is provided for under Section IT (Visual inspection). Irem 2. Method of selecting samples—tIn general the buyer shall select his own samples from the material which the seller proposes to furnish. The seller shall have the right to be present during the selection of asample. The sampler shall endeavor, to the best of his judgment, to select brick representing the average of the lot. No samples shall include bricks which would be rejected by visual inspection as provided in Section II, except that where controversy arises, whole tests may be selected to determine the admissibility of certain types or portions of the lot having a character- istic appearance in common. In cases where prolonged controversy occurs between buyer and seller and samples selected by each party fail to show reasonable concurrence, then both parties shall unite in the selection of a disinterested person to select the samples, and both parties shall be bound by the results of samples thus selected. Irem 3. Number of samples per lot.—In general one sample of ten bricks shall be tested for every 10,000 bricks contained in the lot under consideration, but where the total quantity exceeds 100,000, the number of tests tested may be fewer than one per 10,000, provided that they shall be distributed as uniformly as practicable over the entire lot. Irem 4. Shipment of samples—Samples which must be transported long distances by freight or express must be carefully put up in packages holding not more than 12 bricks each. When more than six bricks are shipped in one package, it must be so ar- ranged as to carry two parallel rows of bricks side by side, and these rows must be separated by a partition. In event of some of the bricks being cracked or broken in transit, the sample shall be disqualified if there are not remaining ten sound undam- aged bricks. 1 Recommended by subcommittee on paving brick of the American Society for Testing Materials. 29 30 BULLETIN 23, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Ivrem 5. Storage and care of samples.—Samples must be carefully handled to avoid breakage or injury. They must be kept dry so far as practicable. If wet when received, or known to have been immersed or subjected to recent prolonged wetting, they shall be dried for at least six hours in a temperature of 100° Fahrenheit before testing. THE CONSTRUCTION OF THE RATTLER. Irem 6. The machine shall be of good mechanical construction, self-contained, and shall conform to the following details of materials and dimensions, and shall consist of barrel, frame and driving mechanism as herein described. Accompanying these specifications is a complete drawing (Pl. X) of a rattler which will meet the require- ments, and to which reference should be made. Irem 7. The barrel_—The barrel of the machine shall be made up of the heads and headliners, and staves and stave-liners. The heads may be cast in one piece with the trunnions, which shall be 24 inches in diameter, and shall have a bearing 6 inches in length, or they may be cast with heavy hubs, which shall be bored out for 27%-inch shafts, and shall be keyseated for two keys, each 4 inch by ? inch and spaced 90 degrees apart. The shaft shall be a snug fit and when keyed shall be entirely free from lost motion. The distance from the end of the shaft or trunnion to the inside face of the head shall be 152 inches in the head for the driving end of the rattler, and 112 inches long for the other head, and the distance from the face of the hubs to the inside face of the heads shall be 54 inches. The heads shall be not less than ? inch nor more than finch thick. In outline, each head shall be a regular 14-sided polygon inscribed in a circle 283 inches in diameter. Each head shall be provided with flanges not less than ? inch thick and extending outward 24 inches from the inside face of the head to afford a means of fastening the staves. The surface of the flanges of the head must be smooth and must give a true and uniform bearing for the staves. To secure the desired true and uniform bearing the surfaces of the flanges of the head must be either ground or machined. The flanges shall be slotted on the outer edge, so as to provide for two 32-inch bolts at each end of each stave, said slots to be +3 inch wide and 2? inches, center to center. Each slot shall be provided with a recess for the bolt head, which shall act to prevent the turning of the same. Between each two slots there shall be a brace 2 inch thick, extending down the outward side of the head not less than 2 inches. There shall be for each head a cast-iron headliner 1 inch in thickness and conform- ing to the outline of the head, but inscribed in a circle 28% inches in diameter. This headliner shall be fastened to the head by seven 3-inch cap screws, through the head from the outside. Whenever these headliners become worn down 4 inch below their initial surface level at any point of their surface, they must be replaced with new ones. The metal of these headliners shall bé hard machinery iron and should contain not less than 1 per cent of combined carbon. The staves shall be made of 6-inch medium steel structural channels 27} inches long and weighing 15.5 pounds per lineal foot. The staves shall have two holes 43 inch in diameter, drilled in each end, the center line of the holes being 1 inch from the end and 12 inches either way from the longitudinal center line. The spaces between the staves shall be as uniform as practicable, but must not exceed =; inch. The interior or flat side of each stave shall be protected by a liner 2 inch thick by 54 inches wide by 19% inches long. The liner shall consist of medium steel plate and shall be riveted to the channel by three 4-inch rivets, one of which shall be on the center line both ways and the other two on the longitudinal center line and spaced 7 inches from the center each way. The rivet holes shall be countersunk on the face of the liner and the rivets shall be driven hot and chipped off flush with the surface of the liners. These liners shall be inspected from time to time, and if found loose shall be at once reriveted, but no liner shall be replaced by a new one except as the whole set is changed. PLATE X. Bul. 23, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture, mR—________——__% 9 NIFLYNOS ai VOW -FARLS Ee! > a la eel eal oo EES) SING h al ‘TD INO I4VN 04M Yo “YSATLLVY YOd NV1d INO THON oa YINIT HILNTZ aad LU SVIS. 7 94/06 ee we A Ve z Se es SEE = = iT i | ke dl\| © ° -@ anh | oc: 29001 f CST | Blecypraell) (ee |_| Sl wo tl BK LAA : Me] Bl" AX Pe oy : = ! = fi G7? 8 -) } = f 7-2l Ss tC ——————— s2- ! a == SS ‘] Ella) [2 ae ene een es 7 (rey a Hl a 2 OML DW A] NX INA INF yf RA | : A No yin mh at \ + nt iE CELE ka ele 2 = Ja = = = Load poo fore = oh oné 70 = x ‘9704, gen af Ww a y90C 724! Lee Od BE OF MLA GNF Ze arr ‘= TT A wy we + A _ 72 OML L/W a oN 27 NOINNYL 7 JERS {' SONG ak” 8) \ 7 “Ys, a tj Sa 1G — Ay 4, Wizz Aaa TS US 2 \< Fo—>| & 0 G9 a av Hell = aN il VITRIFIED BRICK AS MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS. ol Any test at the expiration of which astave-liner is found detached from the stave or seriously out of position shall be rejected. When.a new set of liners has been placed in position, before being used for testing, the rattler shall be charged with 400 pounds of shot of the same sizes, and in the same proportions as provided in Item 9 and shall then be run for 1,800 revolutions at the usual prescribed rate of speed. The shot shall then be removed and a standard shot charge inserted, after which the rattler may be charged with brick for a test. No set of liners shall be used for more than one hundred tests. The record must show the date when each set of liners goes into service, and the number of tests made upon each set. The staves when bolted to the heads shall form a barrel 20 inches long, inside meas- urement, between headliners. The liners of the staves must be so placed as to drop between the headliners. The staves shall be bolted tightly to- the heads by four' 2-inch bolts, and each bolt shall be provided with a lock nut, and shall be inspected at not less frequent intervals than every fifth test and all nuts shall be kept tight. A record shall be made after each inspection showing in what condition the bolts were found. Irem 8. The frame and driving mechanism.—The barrel shall be mounted on a cast- iron frame of sufficient strength and rigidity to support it without undue vibration. It shall rest on a rigid foundation with or without the interposition of wooden plates and shall be fastened thereto by bolts at not less than four points. It shall be driven by gearing whose ratio of driver to driven is not less than one to four. The counter shaft upon which the driving pinion is mounted shall not be less than 143 inches in diameter, with bearings not less than 6 inches in length. It shall be belt-driven, and the pulley shall not be less than 18 inches in diameter and 64 inches in face. A belt of 6-inch double-strength leather, properly adjusted, to avoid unnecessary slipping, should be used. Irem 9. The abrasive charge—The abrasive charge shall consist of cast-iron spheres of two sizes. _When new, the larger spheres shall be 3.75 inches in diameter and shall weigh approximately 7.5 pounds (3.40 kilos) each. Ten spheres of this size shall be used. These shall be weighed separately after each ten tests, and if the weight of any large sphere falls to 7 pounds (3.175 kilos), it shall be discarded and a new one substi- tuted, provided, however, that all of the large spheres shall not be discarded and sub- stituted by new ones at any single time, and that so far as possible the large spheres shall compose a graduated series in various stages of wear. When new, the smaller sized spheres shall be 1.875 inches in diameter and shall weigh approximately 0.95 pound (0.43 kilo) each. In general the number of small spheres in a charge shall not fall below 245 nor exceed 260. The collective weight of the large and small spheres shall be as nearly as possible 300 pounds. No small sphere shall be retained in use after it has been worn down so that it will pass a circular hole 1.75 inches in diameter, driled in an iron plate } inch in thickness, or weigh l2ss than 0.75 pound (0.34 kilo). Further, the small spheres shall be tested by passing them over the above plate, or shall be weighed after every ten tests, and any which pass through or fall below the specified weight shall be replaced by new spheres, and provided, — further, that all of the small spheres shall not be rejected and replaced by new ones at any one time, and that so far as possible the small sphere shali compose a graduated series in various stages of wear. At any time that any sphere is found to be broken » or defective it shall at once be replaced. The iron composing these spheres shall have a chemical composition within the following limits: Wombmmedecarbon. See ke he oe Not less than 2.50 per cent: ap litic GAaRNONK 22 ayo Sbioe oA ise cues Not more than 0.25 per cent. Silicon. =.-..-222.-.5:----5--272+-:.-+--.- Not more than 1.00 per-cent. MoMIDONCRE Eeaye (oF SOS eke oon The Ble Not more than 0.50 per cent. eS pHOrisy OS. Mute) ie) Nt a ees Not more than 0.25 per cent. SEE UPL A. a ae reeeepearay Wage reerGran, nets PILL Not more than 0.08 per cent. 32 BULLETIN 23, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. For each new batch of spheres used, the chemical analysis must be furnished by the maker or be obtained by the user, before introducing into the charge, and unless the analysis meets the above specifications, the batch of spheres shall be rejected. THE OPERATION OF THE TEST. Trem 10. The brick charge-—The number of brick per test shall be ten for all bricks of so-called ‘‘block size,’’ whose dimensions fall between from 8 to 9 inches in length and 32 inches to 44 inches in thickness.!. No brick should be selected as part, of a regular test that would be rejected by any other requirements of the speailiggyors under which the purchase is made. Trem 11. Speed and duration of revolution.—The rattler shall be rotated at a Hine tah rate of not less than 294 nor more than 303 revolutions per minute, and 1 ,809 revolutions shall constitute the test. A counting machine shall be eeched to the rattler for counting the revolutions. A margin of not to exceed ten revolutions will be allowed for stopping. Only one start and stop per test is generally acceptable. If from acci- dental causes, the rattler is stopped and started more than once during a test, and the loss exceeds the maximum permissible under the specifications, the test shall be dis- qualified and another made. Ivem 12. The scales—The scales must have a capacity of not less than 300 pounds, and must be sensitive to one-half of an ounce, and must be tested by a standard test weight at intervals of not less than every ten tests. Irrm 13. The results —The loss shall be calculated in percentage of the initial - weight of the brick composing the charge. In weighing the rattled brick, any piece weighing less thar one pound shall be rejected. Irem 14. The records.—A complete and continuous record shall be kept of the opera- tion of all rattlers working under these specifications. This record shall contain the following data concerning each test made. 1. The name of the person, firm or corporation furnishing each sample tested. . The name of the maker of the brick represented in each sample tested. . The name of the street, or contract which the sample represented. . The brands or marks upon the bricks, by which they were identified. . The number of bricks furnished. . The date on which they were received for test. . The date on which they were tested. . The drying treatment given before testing, if any. . The length, breadth and thickness of the bricks. 10. The collective weight of the 10 large spherical shot used in making the test at the time of their last standardization. 11. The number and collective weight of the small spherical shot used in making the test, at the time of their last standardization. 12. The total weight of the shot charge, after its last standardization. 13. Certificate of the operator that he examined the condition of the machine as to staves, liners, and any other parts affecting the barrel, and found them right at the beginning of the test. 14. Certificate of the operator of the number of charges tested since the last standard- ization of shot charge. 15. Certificate of the operator of the number of charges tested since the stave liners were renewed. 16. Certificate of the operator that the requisite number of revolutions were made, under the prescribed conditions, upon the staves after the last relining, before a brick test was made. Oo CON S&S Ct OO LD 1 Where brick of larger or smaller sizes than the dimensions given above for blocks are to be tested, the same number of bricks per charge should be used, but allowance for the difference in size should be made in setting the limits for average and maximum rattler loss. VITRIFIED BRICK AS MATERIAL FOR COUNTRY ROADS. 33 17. The time of the beginning and ending of each test, and the number of revolutions made by the barrel during the test as shown by the indicator. 18. Certificate of the operator as to number of stops and starts made in each test. | 19. The initial collective weight of the ten bricks composing the charge and their collective weight after rattling. * 20. The loss calculated in percents of the initial weight; and the calculation itself. 21. The number of broken bricks and remarks upon the portions which were included in the final weighing. 22. General remarks upon the test and any irregularities occurring in its execution. 23. The date upon which th2 tast was made. 24. The location of the rattler and name of the owner. 25. The certificate of the operator that the test was made under the specifications of the American Society for Testing Materials and that the record is a true record. — 26. Th2signature of the operator or person responsible for the test. 27. The serial number of the test. In event of more than one copy of the record of any test being required, they may be furnished on separate sheets, and marked duplicates, but the original record shall always be preserved intact and complete. _ ACCEPTANCE AND REJECTION OF MATERIAL. Item 15. Basis of acceptance or rejection.—Paving bricks shall not be judged for acceptance or rejection by the results of individual tests, but by the average of no less than five tests. Where a lot of bricks fail to meet the required average, it shall be optional with the buyer whether the bricks shall be definitely rejected or whether they may be regraded and a portion selected for further test as provided in Item 16. Irem 16. Range of fluctuation.—Some fluctuation in the results of the rattler test, both on account of variation in the bricks and in the machine used in testing, are unavoidable and a reasonable allowance for such fluctuations should be made, wherever the standard may be fixed. In any lot of paving brick, if the loss on a test computed upon its initial weight exceeds the standard loss by more than 2 per cent, then the portion of the lot repre- sented by that test shall at once be resampled and three more tests executed upon it, and if any of these three tests shall again exceed by more than 2 per cent the required standard, then that portion of the lot shall be rejected. If in any lot of brick two or more tests exceed the permissible maximum, then the buyer may at his option reject the entire lot, even though the average of all the tests executed may be within the required limits. Irem 17. Fixing of standards —The percentage of loss which may be taken as the standard will not be fixed in these regulations, and shall remain within the province of the contracting parties. For the information of the public, the following scale of average losses is given, representing what may be expected of tests executed under the foregoing specifications. General | Maximum average | permissible loss. loss. Per cent. Per cent. Homprexs sumtaple forheayy, trafic... i. 5-/ Sd. este Sek sd ose s)- Sis 5e5-4 aa deee 22 HoMmbricks suitable ior mediim trafic. 2.) 222. oe sie eee eee ee eec neces 24 26 HOM bMS SUI Able tOnlsht tramies.26 i262 2.20225. pec l ei toe b et belle te: 26 28 Which of these grades should be specified in any given district and for any given purpose is a matter wholly within the province of the buyer, and should be governed by the kind and amount of traffic to be carried, and the quality of paving bricks available, 34 BULLETIN 23, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Irem 18. Culling and retesting.—Where, under Items 15 and 16 a lot or portion of a lot of brick is rejected, either by reason of failure to show a low enough average test or because of tests above the permissible maximum, the buyer may at his option permit the seller to regrade the rejected brick, separating out that portion which he considers at fault and retaining that which he considers good. When the regrading is com- plete, the good portion shall be then resampled and retested, under the original con- ditions, and if it fails again either in average or in permissible maximum, then the buyer may definitely and finally reject the entire lot of portion under test. Item 19. Payment of cost of testing.—Unless otherwise specified, the cost of testing the material as delivered or prepared for delivery, up to the prescribed number of tests for valid acceptance or rejection of the lot, shall be paid by the buyer. (See also Item 23.) The cost of testing extra samples made necessary by. the failure of the whole lot or any portion of it, shall be paid by the seller, whether the material is finally accepted or not. SECTION II.—VISUAL INSPECTION. It shall be the right of the buyer to inspect the bricks, subsequent to their delivery at the place of use, and prior to or during laying, to cull out and reject upon the follow- ing grounds: Item 20. All bricks which are broken in two or chipped in such a manner that neither wearing surface remains irtact, or that the lower or bearing surface is reduced in area by more than one-fifth. Where brick are rejected upon this ground, it shall be the duty of the purchaser to use them so far as practicable in obtaining the neces- sary half bricks for breaking courses and making closures, instead of breaking other- wise whole and sound brick for this purpose. Item 21. All bricks which are cracked in such a degree as to produce defects such as defined in Item 20, either from shocks received in shipment and handling, or from defective conditions of manufacture, especially in drying, burning or cooling, unless such cracks are plainly superficial and not such as to perceptibly weaken the resistance of the brick to its conditions of use. Irem 22. All bricks which are so off-size, or so misshapen, bent, twisted or kiln- marked, that they will not form a proper surface as defined by the paving specifica- tions, or align with other bricks without making joints other than those permitted in the paving specifications. Ivem 23. All bricks which are obviously too soft and too poorly vitrified to endure street wear. When any disagreement arises between buyer and seller under this Item, it shall be the right of the buyer to make two or more rattler tests of the brick which he wishes to exclude, as provided in Item 2, and if in either or both tests, the bricks fall beyond the maximum rattler losses permitted under the specifications, then all bricks having the same objectionable appearance may be excluded, and the seller must pay for the cost of the test. But if under/such procedure, the bricks which have been tested as objectionable shall pass the rattler test, both tests falling within the permitted maximum, then the buyer cannot exclude the class of material reprasented by this test and he shall pay for the cost of the test. Item 24. All bricks which differ so markedly in color from the type or average of the shipment as to make the resultant pavement checkered or disagreeably mottled in appearance. This Item shall not be held to apply to the normal variations in color which may occur in the product of one plant among bricks which will meet the rattler test as referred to in Items 15, 16, and 17, but shali apply only to differences of color which imply differences in the material of which the bricks are Es or extreme differences in manufacture. pense COPIES of this publication may be procured from the SUPERINTEND- ENT OF DocuMENTS, Government Printing O ffi ce, , Washington, D. C., at 10 cents per copy db usnene acc, December 31, 1913. COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. By A. W. WILLIAMSON, Forest Hxanminer. IMPORTANCE OF COTTONWOOD. Cottonwood is one of the important timber trees native to this country. Twenty years ago it had almost no value; to-day its wood is extensively used and the demand for it is much in excess of the supply. It is a tree of very rapid growth. On rich lands yields of from 4 to 5 cords of wood per acre per year are not uncommon. Yields of over 30,000 feet of merchantable timber can be obtained in 40 years, and 20 years is sufficient to produce timber of fair dimen- sions. Cottonwood is especially valuable in the Mississippi Valley region, where it offers exceptional inducements for the conservative handling of timberlands in which it occurs, or for forest planting. Cottonwood’s importance as a tree for artificial forestation is attested by the fact that it has claimed the attention of forest plant- ers in many foreign countries, such as France, Germany, Belgium, and Argentina. (See Pl. VI, fig. 1.) By careful selection certain French horticulturists have developed from this species improved varieties which are said even to exceed the original form in rapidity of growth. In South America, at the mouth of the Parana River in Argentina, a very extensive and lucrative industry has been developed by growing cottonwood on land subject to frequent in- undations. (See Pl. II.) These plantations furnish saw timber from 10 to 12 inches in diameter. On account of the scarcity of timber there, boards but 3 or 4 inches wide and 6 feet long find a ready market at high prices. Such plantations pay as high as 15 per cent on the money invested. In this country the possibility of growing cottonwood commer- cially, either by planting or by favoring it in natural stands, has not yet received the attention it deserves. Though cottonwood plan- tations as a source of future supply of pulpwood justify considera- tion, the tree’s chief value will lie in the production of fuel and farm timbers, and for windbreaks, for which it has been extensively planted by farmers in the Middle West. (See Pl. VI, fig. 2.) 8471°—Bull. 24—13——1 2 BULLETIN 24, U..S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. A special study has been. made of cottonwood by the Forest Service, to determine more definitely its characteristics and the general prac- ticability of forest management. The investigations were confined largely to the Mississippi Valley region, where cottonwood is com- mercially important. The conclusions reached in this bulletin, there- fore, apply chiefly to this region, and. more particularly to the south- ern part of the valley. The conclusions in regard to planting, how- ever, apply wherever cottonwood can be grown. ANNUAL CUT AND PRESENT SUPPLY. The lumber cut of cottonwood for 1911 approximated 198,630,000 board feet. In addition a considerable amount of cottonwood was used for other purposes. Shghtly over 25,000 cords, or 14,000,000 board feet, were used in 1911 for pulpwood, much of which, however, prob- ably came from the black cottonwood. The veneer industry con- sumed another 35,000,000 feet, and over half as much more is reported to have gone into slack cooperage, while nearly 62,000 cords were used for excelsior. The total cut, therefore, was somewhat over 300,000,000 feet, board measure, exclusive of firewood. As compared with important timber trees the cut of cottonwood is small, yet considering its limited commercial range and its restricted local occurrence it must be regarded as a tree of consid- erable commercial importance. The demand for its lumber is, in fact, in excess of the supply, as reflected by the rise in its mill-run value from $10.37 in 1899 to $18.12 in 1911. The value of the total cut of cottonwood for 1909, the last year for which values of products were obtained by the Bureau of the Census, was over $6,000,000, of which the lumber cut represented $4,794,424. Table 1 shows the cottonwood lumber cut for 1911, together with the estimated average value f. o. b. at the mill, arranged by States. TABLE 1.—Amount and value of cottonwood lumber cut in 1911. Quantity. Value. afer Number A ate. active mills F A reporting. | Thousand |porcent.| ‘Total. | thousand board feet. 5 feet otAlses wavs 2.0525 eee 1,950 198, 629 100.0 | $3, 599, 157 $18. 12 IAS RATISAS Meee tee a. SA oe HEE Cee 80 52, 457 26.4 967, 307 18. 44 TOPE E NEY. 55 sooeS5ce0sudee > topobebecucdods: 41 48,037 ~ 24.2 900, 694 18.75 Mississippisee tes seeceet sae - ac Jonas seenee 51 32, 687 16.5 659, 624 20.18 MRTSSOTAISE Secs te es a 2 ese 265 11, 545 5.8 188, 876 16. 36 AUG Gensco: sone Jecen- . AOBeODerngades¢ 55 8, 308 4.2 129, 854 15. 63 (ON Ss aideebe cdo sepodsdas-.~ -teResEpeeqo se 130 5, 452 2.7 106, 532 19. 54 WARGO (be oe soso bee POC Ee IOC 63 |, 4,339 2.2 62,178 14. 33 IMieHiparie ee ene mens Ls aN) 147 3,713 1.9 54, 952 14. 80 WIR TSS ES 2 jae epedon Iaqcece. bases See oder 72 3, 082 1.6 42, 008 13. 63 Westra (Qt ap Soe apoeaoesaishascapcssepoons 8 3, 056 1.5 53, 025 17.35 ET Eee DOG En 22 ene aa 64 2,620 1.3 37, 833 14.44 (QT HasaacbeA Av ecamabes deaconsdsccnusdageghe 154 2, 288 1.2 41,527 18.15 JG Cee pe GEC On iade BS dob nb san sob addaser 11 2, 248 1.1 39, 902 17.75 INGY SEMI bp aactoaaceganedosenanedpacesenaccna: 16 2,015 1.0 25, 691 12.75 PANT ODMEN BLALES Ee eeates aie) arslatnstolelaein ele aie 793 16, 782 8.4 289,154 17. 23 COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 3 Cottonwood is so widely and irregularly distributed that an esti- “mate of the amount of standing timber would be almost impossible to obtain. Its commercial range is confined principally to the bot- tom lands of the Mississippi River and similar situations for some distance up many of its tributaries, especially the Missouri, Ohio, Arkansas, St. Francis, Yazoo, and Red Rivers. Probably the largest supply of valuable cottonwood timber is in the States of Arkansas, Louisiana, Mississippi, and Missouri. It is also common in the northern Mississippi Valley, especially Minnesota, Iowa, Illinois, | and Indiana, but in this region it attains far less importance than in the South. A large proportion of the cut reported from these States probably comes from planted groves. In the remainder of its _ range it occurs too scatteringly to warrant extensive lumbering oper- ations. Although no estimate is available, there is every indication that the supply is failing.. The output of cottonwood lumber fell off 52 per cent between the years 1899 and 1911. The State of Arkansas, which still leads in the production of cottonwood lumber, manu- factured less than one-half as much in 1911 as in 1899. In all prob- ability the maximum cut of this species has long since been passed. CHARACTER OF THE WOOD. The wood, although relatively not strong, is strong in proportion to its weight. It is tough, and extremely light when well dried, a cubic foot weighing about 24.25 pounds, or nearly the same as white pine. Its specific gravity is 0.3889 (Sargent). The fuel value is 51 per cent of that of white oak, and the amount of ash is 0.96 per cent of the dry weight of the wood (Sargent). The modulus of rupture, which is an index of breaking strength, is 84 per cent, while the modulus of elasticity, which is an index of stiffness, is 67 per cent of that of white oak. ~The wood has a close, even texture, is quite porous, and only moderately hard. It displays numerous although obscure medullary rays. Because of its tendency to warp, it requires care in seasoning, unless properly piled. The heartwood is glossy light brown in color. ‘The sapwood, which seldom is more than 2 or 3 inches thick, is creamy white. When seasoned the wood is almost tasteless and odorless. Asa rule it is easily worked and finished, but occasionally trees seem to produce a tougher fiber which tears badly in sawing and planing,e producing a “brashy ” or “ woolly ” surface. Lumber of this char- acter is often termed “ white” cottonwood, in distinction from the yellow. These two kinds of wood are thought by some lumbermen to come from distinct species. Woodsmen often claim that they can tell eee 4 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. the difference in the tree—-pointing out that the “ white cottonwood ” has a closer, thinner bark of darker color than the thick, rough, gray-_ ish bark of the “ yellow cottonwood.” There seems to be no doubt, however, that both the white and the yellow varieties come from the same species. The yellow cottonwood is not only darker in color, but is said to work more easily and be less subject to warping. It is probably the wood of the older trees. The white cottonwood appears to come usually from comparatively young trees of rapid growth, which, how- ever, may be as large as older, slower-growing individuals.» Yet white cottonwood lumber is by no means typical of the younger stands, which usually saw out wood of excellent quality. USES. Cottonwood has a wide range of uses, and for certain purposes is being used in place of much more costly woods, such as white pine and yellow poplar. It was for a time marketed as “ but was soon accepted by the wood-using industries under its true name. In the manufacture of shipping cases for food products cottonwood is used in large quantities. When properly seasoned it imparts little if any taste or odor to the contained product. For this reason also it is in demand for candy pails and the like. Its toughness and lightness give cottonwood additional fitness for boxes and crates. Experiments by the Forest Service! to determine the comparative strength of packing boxes of various woods demonstrated beyond question that, when taken weight for weight, the cottonwood box outclasses in strength similar containers of practically all other species extensively used—such as white pine, yellow pine, spruce, hemlock, and red gum. Bulk for bulk, cottonwood is surpassed only by red gum. A large amount of cottonwood is manufactured into rotary veneer, which is employed for a wide variety of purposes, cores or filling of built-up lumber, panels, bottoms, sides and backs of drawers, light- weight veneer boxes, cases, egg crates, baskets, and trunks. Such veneer opens up a large field of uses for cottonwood from which it would otherwise be excluded because of its liability to warp. Three- ply veneer three-eighths of an inch thick is much stronger than solid wood five-eighths of an inch thick. Considerable cottonwood veneer, 3 to 5 ply, is exported to Europe for backing upon which to lay more costly woods in the manufacture of musical instruments, cases, and furniture. Since cottonwood in close stands early clears itself of branches, sap poplar,” — select logs cut out a fairly high percentage of clear and upper grades 1 Forest Service Circular 47, ‘‘ Tests of Packing Boxes of Various Woods.” . 4 COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 5 of lumber. Cottonwood is used but is not popular for flooring, parti- tion, siding, and ceiling. When properly stained it makes a remark- ably attractive wainscoting, door panel, balustrade, etc. When ex- posed to weather as siding it warps and decays unless painted. Cot- tonwood is extensively used for barn framing and roof boards, and is employed to some extent in freight cars and as bridge planking. Because of its clean, white, uniform surface, it is excellent for pyrog- raphy. It is used extensively by the manufacturers of slack cooper- age for staves and heading. Cottonwood has for some time been used in the manufacture of pulp. It is reduced usually by either the soda or the mechanical process, but also yields well to the sulphite method. Experiments by the Forest Service show that cottonwood makes a pulp almost identical in character with that from aspen, which is used more than any other wood for the production of soda pulp. At the present time cottonwood is used extensively on the Pacific coast for the production of “news” paper. Cottonwood ground pulp has a com- paratively short fiber and must usually be mixed with about 60 per cent of long-fibered pulp, such as that of spruce, in order to make finished paper. The pulp produced by the soda and sulphite processes is used to some extent in the manufacture of book and magazine paper. Cottonwood has also been used considerably for excelsior, for which it is highly prized. Although statistics are not available to show the quantity of fuel cut from this timber, it is undoubtedly _ large. PRESERVATIVE TREAWMENT. One serious objection to cottonwood is its rapid decay when ex- posed to the weather or when in contact with the soil. To make the wood more durable, preservative treatment will in many cases be necessary. Because of its open, porous texture, cottonwood takes preservatives readily, the treatment requiring comparatively small expense. Treated cottonwood fence posts have given excellent service. It is probable, therefore, that cottonwood can be grown to post size and the posts creosoted at less expense than much more durable species of slower growth which require no treatment. Creosoting tanks of the type described in Farmers’ Bulletin 387, “ The Preserva- tive Treatment of Farm Timbers,” can be easily constructed and will prove thoroughly effective in treating stakes, posts, or small poles for farm use. Although tests are being made with treated cottonwood railroad _ ties, it seems doubtful if they will prove sufficiently strong for use under heavy traffic. 4 iM ae, PL aoRaE oe (8 Bi A ee ee eee 6 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. If properly treated, cottonwood should prove valuable for mine props, especially where only short or moderate lengths are required. The large proportion of the wood now wasted in tops and removed in thinnings could be used for this purpose. Siding or rough lumber exposed to the weather can be made resist- ant to decay by the application of paint containing a large propor- tion of oil. The smooth, hard surface of the cottonwood board takes paint readily without absorbing a large quantity. STUMPAGE VALUES AND LOGGING COSTS. SAW TIMBER. . The greater and wider use of cottonwood has naturally resulted in a gradual and steady upward course of its stumpage value. Twenty- five years ago well-formed cottonwood trees standing almost at the edge of the river and often containing more than 2,000 or 3,000 board feet of high-grade lumber could be purchased for 50 centsatree. Even more recently cottonwood could be obtained almost anywhere along the Mississippi River for 50 cents a thousand feet board measure on the stump, and logs were often delivered at the mill for $4 per thou- sand feet. In the early days the idea was generally prevalent that the cottonwood in the Mississippi Valley bottom lands was almost inexhaustible. Even to-day many stumpage owners are not aware of cottonwood’s true value, and often sell merchantable cottonwood timber, accessibly situated, at extremely low prices. It appears to be a general view among representative millmen in the lower Mississippi Valley that a stumpage price of $5 per thou- sand is none too high for average cottonwood timber accessibly situ- ated near the river bank and requiring no longer hauls than from a quarter of a mile toa mile. Stumpage prices as high as $8 are re- ported as actually being paid for standing timber of the best quality when especially accessible. The money value of timber on the stump, as of any other com- modity, should be determined by the actual cost of producing it, plus a fair profit to the producer. In artificial plantations the true stump- age value can be readily determined. In virgin timber, which is a free gift of nature, the cost of production can not be determined, and the actual stumpage prices are controlled chiefly by demand and sup- ‘ ply. Theoretically the stumpage value of virgin timber is the differ- ence between the actual market value of the lumber and the cost of producing it. The latter figure should include not only the costs of logging and manufacturing, but also the operator’s profit. In other words, if a lumber company must be assured of a profit of p per cent on all money invested in stumpage, logging, and manufacturing, COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. a the stumpage value, S, could be expressed by the following formula, in which J/ represents the market value of the manufactured lumber at the mill, Z the logging costs, and 4/7 the sawmill costs: s-- (L+ Mf) From the data supplied by the principal canine concerns the following lumbering costs per thousand board feet may be considered typical for the lower Mississippi region: Felling, 65 cents; hauling, $4 (for maximum of three-fourths mile) ; rafting, 85 cents (50 to 75 miles), or barging, $1 for average of 100 miles; which makes a total of approximately $5.50. Where the logging operation is within 25 to 30 miles of the mill and the timber comparatively close to the river, the total cost. for logging and transportation may easily fall as low as $4. The cost of sawing is believed by many millmen to be at least $5 per thousand. Often, however, $4.50 will probably cover the mill end of the operation, including the interest on the investment, cost of upkeep, and all overhead charges. Under average conditions, there- fore, the cost of manufactured lumber, f. o. b. at the mill, exclusive of stumpage and manufacturer’s profit, should not exceed $10 per thousand board feet, and may be considerably less. The market value for manufactured cottonwood lumber mill-run in ‘Missouri, Arkansas, Tennessee, Louisiana, and Mississippi was, in 1909, $19.09 per thousand feet, f. 0. b at the mill, varying in different States and at different seasons between $18 and $22. Boxboards practically clear of knots and from 13 to 17 inches wide sold during the same year for from $40 to $50, while wider boards of the same quality, termed panel stock, ran proportionally higher. The lowest grades quoted in the Forest Service Record of Wholesale Prices of Lumber, viz, No. 2 common, ranged from $12 to $15. These quotations, since they in- clude no item for freight charges or selling costs, are, of course, considerably lower than the wholesale prices at the larger lumber markets, such as New York or Chicago. Assuming $19 per thousand board feet as a typical f. o. b. mill value for the manufactured lumber, and logging and milling as $5.50 and $5, respectively, the formula works out as follows, where a profit of 20 per cent to the manufacturer is allowed: =e (L+ Mf) = a ($5.50 + $5.00) = $5.33. If several years are required to complete the logging operation, however, this formula should also include the interest on the money invested in stumpage, and the stumpage value in such an event would be found by deducting the interest at a fair borrowing rate, say 6 per Ce a ae he) ae 8 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. cent, for the average length of time invested. The equation then reduces to the form S= se , where m equals the number of years required for the operation. For a 2-year operation in the case con- 5.33 oy > Se sidered S = 1.067 $5.03. It is believed that this will represent a fair average for cottonwood in the southern part of the valley. In the river bottoms of the Northern States, such as Minnesota and Wisconsin, cottonwood yields — wood of poor quality, and has a comparatively low value. Practically no grade corresponding to the wagon-box boards cut from the south- ern cpttonwood is obtained. The best grades are usually put together and sold locally for heavy shipping cases, the manufacture of cheap furniture, or for the framework, roofing, and siding of farm build- ings. Such lumber is sawed principally by portable mills and brings about $22 per thousand delivered to the consumer. The poorer grades, aggregating possibly one-third of the cut, are usually worth little more than $12 to $14 per thousand for the manufacture of pack- ing boxes or crates, or for use about the farm. An average of $19 per thousand for mill-run delivered would probably be a representa- tive price in this region. From this must be deducted the cost of © transporting the lumber either by wagon, railroad, or both, to the point of delivery. A man and team at $4.50 per day should haul on good roads 1,000 feet per trip and load the lumber on the cars. As- suming a possible distance capacity for the team of 18 miles per day, the cost of hauling should not exceed $1.50, $2.25, and $3, respec- tively, for hauls of 8, 43, and 6 miles, assuming an average day of 10 hours. Freight charges to be deducted will seldom be over 60 cents. per thousand for the short shipments usually necessitated. Deducting $2.75 for hauling (44 miles) and freight, the lumber at the mill should be worth $16.25. Where the mill is set up on the tract to be logged the total cost of delivering logs at the mill should not exceed $2 or $3 per thousand, which would allow one-quarter to one- half mile haul. Portable sawmills will usually saw cottonwood for from $4.50 to $5.50 per thousand. Since in this case the stumpage value itself represents the profit of the owner, the stumpage-value formula would here take the form S=/—(L+WM/f). By substituting in the formula what are considered to be representative values for this region, we get S=16.25— (2.50-++5.00) =$8.75. With no lumber haul, as when the mill is located on a railroad, the value per thousand would be the full $19 and lumber near the mill might easily be worth $10 or more on the stump. This higher stumpage value for cotton- wood in the northern part of the valley, in spite of its poorer quality, is due partly to the lower logging cost from having the mill at the COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 9 source of supply, and partly to the better demand for what in the South would be classed as rather low grades. The stumpage value of planted groves of cottonwood in the prairie regions, especially in southern Minnesota, Iowa, the Dakotas, Kansas, and Nebraska will necessarily be higher than in the natural stands outside this region. The general adaptability of cottonwood for barn framing, roofing, stable flooring, bridge planking, etc., gives it a ready sale at prices ranging from $20 to $22 per thousand mill- run. The cost of sawing, however, is also greater in this region, due to the limited amount of logs available at a given set-up and the few mills operating. It should, however, seldom exceed $7.50 per thousand. The cost of cutting and yarding the logs will, on the other hand, in some degree offset this increase, and should not exceéd $1.50 per thousand. Since generally most of the lumber will be used by the owner himself or his neighbors, it should have a value at the mill of at least $21, with a correspondingly high stumpage value. In this case the formula works out: Soe (5022750) $12. In this region, therefore, we find the highest stumpage value pre- vailing anywhere, and in this figure no account is taken of the pro- tective value of the groves for windbreak purposes. CORDWOOD. Considerable quantities of cottonwood are sold in the form of cordwood—principally as pulpwood stock and as stave and excelsior bolts. In determining the stumpage value of such material, the market value of the final product, whether pulpwood, stave, or ex- celsior, is not considered, for it would entail a very technical study of the costs of manufacture. Instead, the price generally offered for the cordwood delivered is taken as the value per thousand in the stumpage equation, from which is deducted the costs, LZ, of pro- ducing the delivered cordwood. The stave and excelsior companies usually pay about $6 per cord delivered. At present paper companies do not, as a rule, obtain cottonwood from the Mississippi region, but till recently purchased such material at prices that brought the total cost delivered at mills in Ohio and Indiana up to approximately $7 per cord. The woods operations are alike for these various prod- ucts, except that excelsior stock and sometimes pulpwood stock must be peeled in the woods while green. The cost of felling and peeling and cutting into lengths is about $1.25 per cord. A haul of a fourth to a half mile to the river seldom exceeds $1 per cord. Barging is a variable cost, dependent upon the distance, but under average conditions should not exceed $2 per cord for 75 miles, including load- ing and unloading. If a profit of 20 per cent be allowed to the 8471°—Bull. 2413 2 10 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. operator or contractor, the stumpage value per cord for stave or ex- celsior bolts would be worked out as follows: 6 2 = 997 1 OP The costs of transportation either by barge or railroad or both to the paper mills in the North Central States is so great that it is doubt- ful if a much larger stumpage price than the above would be paid for peeled pulpwood in the Mississippi Valley between Cairo and Memphis. Such stock does not seem ever to have been bought farther south. Asa matter of fact, when such stumpage has been bought, it has seldom been considered worth more than 50 cents. On the other hand, if pulpwood should be grown on suitable land within 10 or 20 miles of the mill, and provided the delivered cordwood was worth $7.50 per cord to the company, the stumpage would be far more valuable. Under such conditions the cost of cutting, hauling, and shipping might easily be reduced to $4, giving the following results: 7.50 = 5p 74:00 = £2.25 As a rule, however, a company in need of pulpwood stock would not require that the stumpage return a profit, and unless the opera-- tions took at least half a year probably no interest at all would be charged to the purchase of stumpage. If the company had grown its own trees the determination of the stumpage cost would include all necessary interest charges of this character, but the stumpage value would be merely the difference between the value of the wood delivered at the mill and the cost of cutting and transportation, together with any profit that might be demanded on such costs. The question as to whether or not the growing of the trees has resulted in profit or loss can not affect the actual stumpage value. If the latter is insufficient to cover the costs of growing the wood, the loss must be charged against the planting investment, not against the stumpage. Therefore, the formula should properly be— S= M—(1.0pL) =$7.50—(1.204.00) = $2.70. RANGE. _ The common cottonwood, Populus deltoides Marsh, occurs prin- cipally along the margins of streams from the Province of Quebec and the shores of Lake Champlain down the Connecticut River and along the Atlantic coast south to northern Florida; and westward, except in the higher altitudes of the Appalachians, through the Mississippi Valley to the foothills of the Rocky Mountains in New Mexico; and northward into southern Alberta. East of the Appa- lachians it is very scattering and rare. It follows up the tributaries « COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 1g of the Mississippi River into the Great Plains region, where it is found at altitudes as high as 9,000 feet, but is confined to the river banks. BOTANICAL CHARACTERISTICS. Populus deltoides Marsh is usually known merely as cottonwood, but in certain sections is variously spoken of as Carolina poplar, yellow cottonwood, white -cottonwood, big cottonwood, cotton tree, broadleaved cottonwood, Vermont poplar, necklace poplar, and still other local names. It has been introduced into Europe, where it is variously termed the Swiss white poplar, the black Italian poplar, the Canadian poplar, etc. The leaves, which are usually from 3 to 6 inches long and equally board, are more or less triangular in shape, sharply pointed, prominently veined, and edged with glandular incurved teeth. The leaves on the more vigorous shoots in the top of the tree are frequently more than twice the length of the others. When crushed they emit a pleasant balsamic odor. The leafstalks are flattened on the sides for most of their length, but become more round near their junction with the twig. Cottonwood has long, pointed, greenish or reddish-green winter buds, which are very res- inous and are somewhat flattened. The bark on the younger stems and branches is comparatively thin and of a light grayish-yellow color, tinged with green, but on the trunks of older trees becomes ‘rough, thick, and deeply furrowed and is dark grayish in color. In cottonwood the male and female flowers are borne on different trees (diccious). Seed therefore is borne only on female individuals, whereas the male trees are always barren. The flowers bloom from February to April, according to the latitude, and always before the leaves are out. They occur in long pendulous catkins. The female catkins mature toward the last of April or May, even before the leaves have attained full growth, at which time the 3 or 4 valved capsules open and shed large quantities of “cottony ” seed that is carried far and wide by the wind. To this abundant production of downy-coated seed cottonwood owes its name as well as the disfavor in which it is sometimes held for lawn and street planting. It is a very simple matter, however, to overcome this objection by propa- gating only male trees. (See fig. 1.) Populus deltoides is easily distinguished from the swamp cotton- wood (Populus heterophylla Linn.), which has somewhat the same range, by its distinctly triangular-shaped leaves and its thicker, more closely attached bark.. In the western extension of its range cotton- wood grows with norrow-leaved cottonwood (P. angustifolia James), which is readily disinguished by its narrow lapceolate leaves. 12 BULLETIN 24, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. SILVICAL CHARACTERISTICS. DEMANDS UPON SOIL AND MOISTURE. Cottonwood requires abundant soil moisture. It is not adapted to dry situations, such as ordinary upland sites with thin soil. It UZ MwiNAs Bees Xi ee Ske aS Fic. 1.—Catkins, twigs, and leaf and flower buds of cottonwood. a, Pistillate catkin; b, enlarged scale of staminate catkin; c, staminate catkins; d, twig with leaf-buds; e, twig with flower-buds; f, twig, showing angularity ; g, longitudinal section of leaf-bud ; h, longitudinal section of fiower-bud. seldom establishes itself naturally where surface moisture is lacking, although, if planted on such sites, it frequently makes very satis- COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 13 factory growth, provided the roots can readily penetrate to a moist subsoil. Moisture is especially essential for the germination of cot- tonwood seed. It is this characteristic which accounts for the oc- currence of the species on sandbars and overflow lands along streams and the borders of swamps and lakes. Cottonwood, however, is in no sense a swamp tree, in spite of a rather general impression to the contrary. True, it withstands ex- tremely long periods of inundation by the spring floods of the Mis- sissippi River and its tributaries. Yet such overflows are not com- parable to standing swamp water, which is deficient in the free oxygen essential to root function. In the spring floods to which the cotton- wood is subject there is a continual current of water about the base of the trees. After the recession of the floods the water table descends often many feet below the ground surface. The upper soil strata are then thoroughly drained either toward the river or toward the back sloughs. Cottonwood will not show thrifty development on very poorly drained situations. The quality of the soil itself affects the local occurrence of cotton- wood but little. With abundant moisture the tree appears to thrive on poor, sandy sites as well as on the stiffer clay soils. On typical overflow lands, however, the rich, alluvial deposits of comparatively close, fine texture seem to conserve the moisture better than the coarse, deep sands. The best growth of cottonwood therefore occurs as a general rule on the former sites. Yet if the water table is near the surface during the growing season, very well-developed stands are found on rather infertile sandy or gravelly soils. LIGHT REQUIREMENTS. Cottonwood is extremely exacting in its light requirements. With- out doubt it is the most intolerant species in the Mississippi bottom- lands. Young cottonwoods are seldom found coming up under a normally dense stand of older trees. Even under exceptionally favorable soil and moisture conditions the young growth seldom sur- vives for longer than one summer. Direct overhead light alone is scarcely enough to encourage reproduction. This extreme intoler- ance of shade remains with the tree throughout its life and accounts for the rapid thinning out of pure cottonwood stands with age. The intolerance of cottonwood is also responsible for the ease with which the trees clear themselves of side branches in close stands. Compared with the tolerant pine or spruce, cottonwood of the same age has fewer trees to the acre. Thus at 35 years, when the trees average 20 inches diameter breasthigh, an acre will bear only 50 to 75 trees. The amount of wood produced per acre, however, is as great, if not greater, in white pine or spruce stands. | 14 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. As with all species, the demand of cottonwood upon light varies with the amount of moisture in the soil, and occasionally trees sur- vive under shade, provided moisture*® conditions are exceptionally favorable. SUSCEPTIBILITY TO INJURY. WIND. Cottonwood is fairly windfirm, but in exposed situations it is likely to suffer from breakage on account of the brittleness of its branches. Windfall is common only on rather wet, poorly drained sites, where the roots lie near the surface. In well-drained soils cot- tonwood sends a rather stocky taproot, well reenforced with spread- ing laterals, down to a depth of 4 to 6 feet. FUNGI. Damage from fungi is not serious in the Mississippi River Valley. On unfavorable sites, however, especially in plantations outside its natural habitat, injuries from this source are often more or less pro- nounced. Of the several diseases, the most common and injurious is the “ rust,” caused by a fungus (Uredo melampson meduse Thiim.), which is said materially to check the growth of the tree. This and many other leaf fungi are hkely to do considerable injury to young trees in the nursery. In such instances it is advisable to burn the diseased leaves at the end of the growing season. Spraying with Bordeaux mixture is often effective. Of the fungi attacking the wood of cottonwood, Yomes applanatus (Pers.) Gill? (Llvingia megaloma (Lév.) Murrill),is one of the most noticeable, but seldom gains entrance to perfectly sound trees. It attacks both heartwood and sapwood, causing a white rot that weakens and sometimes kills the tree. Wounded and fire-scarred trees are most liable to such injury. Other fungi attack the twigs and branches of cottonwood. These include species of Cytospora and Nectria, which cause dead spots or cankers in the bark, resulting in the death of branches beyond the point affected. Very little is known of some of these fungi, but as a rule they seldom do serious damage in cottonwood stands, and expensive measures for combat- ing them are rarely justified. The ordinary procedure in case of widespread fungous attacks is to cut out all diseased trees and burn or remove them. The cottonwood in the southern United States is subject to damage by the mistletoe, Phoradendron flavescens (Pursh.) Nutt.2 Injuries 1Heald. Ff. D. A disease of cottonwood due to EHlvingia megaloma, Nebr. Agr. Expt. Sta. Rept., vol. 19, pp. 92-100, 1906. 2 Bray, W. L. The mistletoe pest in the Southwest. Bureau of Plant Industry Bul- letin 166, February, 1910. COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 15 from this source are especially pronounced in the Red River Valley region of Texas and Oklahoma. Although the apparent injury is confined to the branches, the vitality of the whole tree is weakened through loss of nourishment withdrawn by the parasite. INSECTS. Many species of insects attack cottonwood, but with few exceptions cause no serious damage to the trees. The exceptions are found in one or two species, the larvee of which bore into the living bark and sapwood, sometimes doing serious damage. If any serious injury by insects is found, the matter should be reported to the Bureau of Entomology, Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Speci- mens of the insects or of their work should accompany such a report. ANIMALS. The thin bark of young cottonwoods is relished by field mice and rabbits, and at times large numbers of trees are completely girdled by their gnawing. Girdling by mice is most likely to occur under snow or in deep grass. Rodents may destroy most of the young trees or cuttings in a cottonwood plantation, which makes planting on grassy sites a hazardous undertaking. Seedlings, however, usu- ally sprout from the root collar below the injury. In the case of natural reproduction, where the trees come up so densely that the loss of 75 per cent or more during the first two or three years is of little consequence, the damage from this source is but slight. Cattle are very fond of the green shoots and foliage of cottonwood and should be kept out of young growth, either natural or planted, for the first three or four years, after which they will do but little harm. FIRE. Cottonwood is very susceptible to fire injury while young, but by the time it is 15 to 20 years old has produced a fairly fire-resistant bark. Fires are, moreover, not likely to start or become serious on bottoms subject to overflow. Young cottonwood stands should be carefully protected against fire. REPRODUCTION. FROM. SEED. Cottonwood reproduces readily both by seed and by sprouts. Female trees bear seed in abundance practically every year. They begin to seed very early in life, probably when not over 10 years of 16 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. age, and continue to bear vigorously throughout most of their exist- ence. The trees of the two sexes are usually unevenly distributed, and. female trees may sometimes be greatly outnumbered by males. The seed matures, as a rule, during May or early June, when the capsules open. The seeds are very minute, usually about an eighth of an inch long, and sometimes no more than one-twelfth of an inch wide. They are oblong, obovate, rounded at the apex, rather light brown in color, and are surrounded at the large end with a fringe of long, white, silky hairs which gives them a characteristic cottony appearance and renders them extremely light and buoyant. Seed dissemination, therefore, takes place easily, the seed often being carried by the wind miles from the parent tree. Seed dispersion is also effected by the overflow waters, which frequently leave fertile seed on the muddy alluvial deposits far from the parent tree. The germinating power of freshly collected mature cottonwood seed is comparatively high, varying from 60 to 90 per cent. With proper moisture conditions the seed germinates very quickly. The vitality of the seeds, however, is very short-lived, few, if any, ger- minating when more than a month old. Seeds three weeks old have a germination of 50 per cent. : Cottonwood is fastidious with regard to a suitable germinating bed. Reproduction is almost entirely restricted to situations where the mineral soil is exposed, and even on such sites the seed demands abundant moisture. This explains why cottonwood seldom starts on any situations except moist, newly formed sandbars or abandoned cultivated fields. _ Reproduction by seed in the Mississippi bottom lands is probably dependent to a considerable degree on the overflows which saturate the surface soil. Even on areas not inundated the water table may rise so near the surface as to supply the seed with sufficient moisture. Reproduction seems to be surest on situations which have been inun- dated, and every exceptionally high overflow is followed by a rank growth of young cottonwoods wherever the shade and ground cover will permit. It is probable that another benefit of this high water hes in the thin silt deposit left by the receding water, which affords an ideal germinating bed. . FROM SPROUTS. Cottonwood reproduces also from sprouts, both from the stump and from the roots. Root sprouts, however, are comparatively infre- quent and from the standpoint of management are of minor conse- quence. Stump sprouts originate both at the base of the stump and the root collar, and at the top of the stump from the cambium be- tween the bark and the wood. PLATE I. Bul. 24, U, S. Dept. of Agriculture. COTTONWOOD NEARLY 7 FEET IN DIAMETER, SHOWING THICK, DEEPLY FURROWED TYPICAL OF THE SPECIES. BARK PLATE II. of Agriculture. U. S. Dept Bul. 24, ‘VOIUEANY HLNOS ‘ssauly SONANG YVAN NOILVLNV1Id GOOMNOLLOD SAISNSLX4A COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. sa There is an important relation between the height of the stump and the proportion of sprouts arising respectively from the root collar and the top of the stump.' Of the two kinds of sprouts, only the former is of practical importance from the standpoint of renew- ing a stand commercially. Sprouts from the top of the stump are dependent upon the stump for support, as they are unable at once to form an independent root system of their own. Cottonwood stumps, however, decay rapidly, and as the mechanical support of the new sprouts thus becomes weakened they are easily sloughed off and eventually are almost always thrown by the wind. The num- ber of vigorous sprouts from the root collar decreases with the height of the stump; other conditions being favorable, very low stumps (below 6 inches) invariably produce vigorous sprouts. Very little dependence can be placed upon stumps more than 15 inches high to sprout vigorously from the root collar. In fact, stumps higher than 11 inches produce a disproportionately large number of sprouts from the top of the stump. If dependence is to be placed upon sprouts from the root collar, it would therefore seem advisable to cut the stumps as low as 6 inches, if possible, and certainly not higher than 12 to 14 inches. Table 2 shows the relation between the height of stump and the kind and vigor of sprouts. TABLE 2.—Relation between height of stump and kind and vigor of sprouts. eres ren ae eer nee ae age : ver- age Aver- Height | Num- [number he are age || Height) Num- |number puppet Sere age | of ber of of sprouts| orous height of ber of of sprouts] orous height stump. |stumps.| sprouts aia Gayo | SOUDELS of stump. |stumps.|sprouts fia Gin lSaneruis on root | °" oF Ip sv on. (Sprouts. on root| "oF 12) | ie) on. |SProuts. collar. Saran collar p.| Stump. stump. | stump. Inches. Feet. || Inches Feet. 4 11 14 0 14 10. 00 23 9 0 42 31 5.58 5 16 il 0 11 6. 66 24 26 0 26 12 6.25 6 21 12 2 14 7.25 25 16 0 45 20 5.00 7 18 9 5 12 9.16 26 11 0 38 16 4.50 8 12 7 14 20 9.33 27, 14 0 38 18 4.75 9 27 13 20 25 8.75 28 21 1 56 18 4.50 10 31 5 8 13 7.41 29 8 0 46 18 4.66 Il 20 8 2 10 8.25 30 36 - 0 60 20 4.00 12 16 9 30 39 6, 66 31 29 0 51 22 4.16 13 32 5 48 53 7.00 32 31 0 44 15 5.08 14 51 7 21 28 7.16 33 20 0 54 21 4.50 15 42 6 17 23 7.66 34 27 0 63 14 3.66 16 23 3 32 35 6.16 35 18 0 37 8 4,25 17 57 2 36 32 7.08 36 25 0 67 10 3.16 18 37 0 42 35 7.16 37 13 0 74 9 3. 66 19° 7 0 62 20 6. 00 38 9 0 35 10 4.58 20 41 if 44 30 5.50 39 5 0 57 12 3.41 21 23 0 24 18 6.16 40 2 0 65 10 3.16 22 10 0 37 22 5.25 41 3 0 61 16 4.58 1“ The Cottonwood (Populus deltoides) : A Tree Study,’’ Master’s Thesis, by Julius V. Hofmann. University of Minnesota, April, 1912. 8471°—Bull. 24—13——_3 ia : 18 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. The sprouting capacity of stumps also depends upon their age. After 30 years of age it becomes weak and at 45 years almost ceases. Age, however, does not seem to affect the method of sprouting. Appa- rently the most vigorous sprouting capacity, as determined by the number of sprouts per stump, is somewhere between 15 and 25 years of age. It should be realized, however, that the smaller number of sprouts from stumps below this age is not an indication of lack of vigor, since a small stump can not for physical reasons support as many sprouts as a large one. The capacity to sprout, like reproduction from seed, is also gov- erned to a great extent by the light supply. Vigorous sprouts do not develop under the shade of the forest. In stands where only the best trees are cut, coppicing, because of the shade of surrounding trees, is almost sure to fail. Another factor of basic importance in affecting coppice repro- duction is the season of cutting. Sprouts readily form after felling in winter or early spring, whereas stumps cut in summer or early fall seldom give rise to thrifty sprout growth. The conclusions Just given apply particularly to the acne part of the Mississippi Valley in the vicinity of Red Wing, Minn. In the lower Mississippi Valley, where cottonwood is of larger commer-. cial importance, very little evidence of this form of reproduction was found. Comparatively few young, vigorous trees are cut. Lumbering usually removes only the larger mature trees, whose sprouting capacity is limited and whose stumps are partially shaded by trees left standing on the ground. Lumbering, furthermore, is usually carried on most extensively in the summer and fall, when the sprouting capacity of the trees is lowest. Probably this combi- nation of circumstances is responsible for the almost entire absence from the lower Mississippi bottom lands of cottonwoods of sprout origin. The adaptability of this system of coppice reproduction to the Mississippi region can be determined, therefore, only after actual experimentation. There is, however, little reason to doubt that young stands of cottonwood in that region can be readily renewed by coppice, provided logging is carried on during the season of most vigorous sprouting al extended also to young trees. CHARACTER OF STANDS. Cottonwood occurs both in pure stands and in mixture with other species. Either of these conditions is unstable, the pure stand evolv- ing gradually into a mixed one from which the cottonwood may eventually be eliminated. This is due to cottonwood’s demand for full sunlight. As the old trees die they are succeeded by stands of more tolerant species which have come up under partial shade. In fact, the very continuance of cottonwood in natural stands seems “=5 : COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 19 almost dependent upon accidents which result in openings in the stand and thus provide the hght needed for the growth of young cottonwoods. The main agencies of this character in the Mississippi Valley are the river itself, which is continually building up new lands, and destructive winds, whjch often clear wide swaths through the forest. PURE STANDS. Cottonwood when young normally grows in pure stands. Since cottonwood reproduction is so dependent on full overhead light, such stands are restricted to sites that at the time of seeding were unshaded. Pure cottonwood is therefore most common on the fol- lowing situations: (@) Newly formed islands and bars built up by deposition; (0) old lake and river bottoms which have been filled in by sediment; (c) old fields which have been abandoned and have reverted to natural growth; and (d) open areas within the forest caused by hurricanes or fires. Probably 90 per cent of the pure cottonwood. stands are on exposed areas outside of the river levees. The value of cleared farm land in the Mississippi Valley is so great that practically none has been abandoned in recent years, unless subject to overflow. In many cases mature stands of cottonwood have been cut from such areas in order to use them for farming. Pure stands are seldom extensive, although in the southern half of the region they are found in more or less solid bodies cover hun- dreds of acres adjoining the river. Pure stands are always even- aged, or at least consist of even-aged groups. Where several age classes are present their arrangement is usually governed by the order of succession in the formation of new land by the river. The young- est stands lie nearest the river on the ground last built up, and as one progresses from the river toward the levees one passes through successive belts of even-aged cottonwood, each very similar to the preceding, except that the age and consequent size become greater and greater. The regularity of this SHGHESS Oa, however, is usually broken by stands of: black willow. Pure stands of cottonwood are extremely dense. They undergo very rapid thinning with age, however, as might be expected from fast-growing intolerant trees when starting in dense thickets. Tt is not unusual to find two-year-old thickets of this character with probably 40,000 living trees to the acre. The seeds, in fact, fre- quently germinate as close as 2 or 3 inches apart, but thousands of the young plants die from lack of light or moisture very soon after germinating. At the age of 10 years there are seldom more than 700 to 800 trees left, and at 25 years this number is reduced to about 120 trees per acre. (See Pl. III.) 20 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. MIXED HARDWOOD STANDS. Cottonwood grows in mixture either with willow or with other hardwoods. It is more often found with the hardwoods on the better drained glades and ridges throughout the bottom-land areas. The mixture differs in the north and stuth portions of the valley. The predominating species associating with. cottonwood in the upper Mississippi Valley are silver maple, white elm, river birch, sycamore, boxelder, and ash. Other species are butternut, shellbark hickory, black walnut, pin oak, hackberry, and coffeetree. Most of these occur also through much of the lower valley region, especially sycamore, ash, hackberry, and boxelder. Several other species, however, which are abundant in the South, become scarce or entirely disappear from the composition as one proceeds north through the upper valley. This is true particularly of red gum, tupelo, cypress, pecan, willow oak, overcup oak, and cow oak. In addition to those already listed, the following trees of minor value are often found with cottonwood in either or both parts of the valley: Honey locust, black locust, dogwood, mulberry, pawpaw, red elm, redbud, and hawthorn. Per- haps the most characteristic associates of cottonwood in the north- ern part of the valley are the silver maple and white elm, while sycamore, hackberry, and red gum occur most abundantly with it in the south. Nearly all of the associated species are present in the cen- tral sections of the valley, including extensive bottomland areas in Missouri, Arkansas, Illinois, Tennessee, and Kentucky. In certain parts of the bottoms, three classes of situations sup- porting forest growth may be recognized, namely, the “ glades,” the “ridges,” and the “back sloughs.” The sloughs remain under water during the larger part of the growing season and their charac- teristic forest growth is cypress and tupelo gum. Cottonwood prac- tically never grows there. The bottoms subject to overflow for from a few weeks to several months are sometimes spoken of collectively as the “ glades.” These in turn may be irregularly divided by low. “ridges,” which are seldom over 6 feet in elevation, and often slope almost imperceptibly to the level of the glades. The ridges and the glades, however, are often not clearly defined, and even where they are well marked the forest composition seems to be but little goy- erned by them. Sycamore, pecan, shellbark hickory, and boxelder are possibly more common on the better drained ridges. In mixed hardwood stands the cottonwood occurs in all propor- tions from only one to two trees per acre up to nearly a pure stand. Frequently cottonwood occurs in small groups on the lower depres- sions. Such groups may have 10, 20, or more trees. At times the cottonwood, either single trees or groups, seems to be restricted to higher elevations, apparently because at the time of seeding the COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. OT . lower land was under water. This indirect influence of topography accounts for much of the variation in the character of occurrence of cottonwood in this mixed stand. If the cottonwood is well represented in such a mixed stand, there is often almost the appearance of a well-defined two-storied forest, in which the more shade-enduring species, such as elm, sycamore, ash, hackberry, or oak, are partially overtopped by the much faster growing cottonwood. By the fortieth or fiftieth year, however, the stand has usually opened enough to give the associate species room for growth. During the next 50 years these gradually fill in the space left vacant by the death of the cottonwoods. At the age of 100 years such stands may contain less than half a dozen large cot-, tonwoods to the acre. : A pure stand of cottonwoods develops in a similar manner into a mixed stand as the trees reach maturity. In fact, during the early life of the pure cottonwood stands there is often an under- story of small sycamore, ash, elm, maple, and other species, which upon examination will generally show the same age as the cotton- woods. These associates, gradually augmented by others that come in as cottonwoods die, ultimately occupy the ground to the exclusion of the latter. COTTONWOOD-WILLOW STANDS. In the Mississippi Valley cottonwood is frequently associated with various willows, which compete with it in occupying newly made lands and bars. -Black willow (Salia nigra Marsh.) is the principal associate in the lower valley, while in the north the almondleaf or peachleaf willow (Salta amygdaloides Anderss.) appears to be more common. ‘The latter, together with the small longleaf or sandbar willow (Salix fluviatilis Nutt.), which is common throughout the whole region, seems to appropriate nearly all the available epen areas along the upper river, affording very little chance for the reproduction of cottonwood, which apparently seeds some- what later. Cottonwood-willow stands, therefore, are infrequent in the north and usually contain a very small proportion of cotton- wood. They are, however, comparatively common in the lower val- ley. Here the black willow and cottonwood seem to grow on more even terms, and both species make almost equally rapid growth for the first 20 to 25 years. The cottonwood, however, continues to develop, and on many situations may ultimately crowd the willow out of the stand. Since, however, the latter seems to be better adapted to poorly drained land, it is not uncommon to find it crowding out the cottonwood on wet, mucky soils. The cottonwood-willow stands are therefore of a very temporary character, few being over 30 years 22 BULLETIN 24, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. 3 old. For this reason they are of comparatively little importance from the standpoint of management. FORM AND GROWTH OF INDIVIDUAL TREES. Cottonwood is one of the tallest trees east of the Rocky Mountains. Under favorable conditions it attains a height of more than 175 feet, and mature trees within its optimum range are seldom less than 125 feet high. The maximum height recorded by the Forest Service is 190 feet.. Diameters of from 4 to 6 feet are not unusual (PI. 1), and trees on well-drained bottomlands in the Mississippi Valley have measured nearly 10 feet through at the stump. ‘In forest stands of average density, cottonwood prunes itself of branches remarkably well, producing a long, straight bole, clear of limbs for a distance of from 60 to 80 feet, with comparatively little taper. The crown remains narrow and pointed until the trees reach 25 to 40 years of age, after which it becomes more branchy and spreading. In the open or when planted in single rows, cottonwood produces a short, stocky stem, which is likely to divide within 20 or 30 feet of the ground into several large, irregular branches, forming a long, open, wide-spreading crown. Cottonwood develops a stout taproot from. 3 to 6 feet long, re- enforced by numerous wide-spreading laterals. Wherever successive layers of alluvial soil are deposited by the river about the base of the tree, new side roots appear to develop along the buried part of the trunk. The bark of mature trees is extremely thick and rough, and firmly attached. At 10 years the bark at the base of the tree averages about half an inch in thickness; at 35 years, about an inch; and on old trees sometimes more than 2 or 3 inches. The bark is character- ized by rough, narrow ridges, separated by wide, irregular connecting furrows. (PI. 1.) Notwithstanding its large dimensions, cottonwood seldom reaches great age. It is unusual to find sound trees of this species over 125 years old. The maximum age recorded by the Forest Service is 166 _ years, and it is probable that 200 years is about the maximum longev- ity of the species. It is a tree of remarkably fast growth, especially during early life. After about 40 years of age, however, the growth rate in height de- clines rapidly, although the trees continue to increase in girth at a moderate rate. On alluvial bottomland soils which are fairly well drained an average annual height growth of from 4 to 5 feet and a diameter growth of two-thirds of an inch are not at all unusual for the first 25 years. Trees have been measured that were 83 feet tall at 12 years and 100 feet at 15 years. Table 8 shows the average COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 23 height and diameter of bottomland trees at different ages. Even on fresh, well-drained upland situations, where cottonwood seldom occurs naturally, planted trees will easily increase 2 to 3 feet in height annually for the first 20 years. GROWTH AND YIELD OF STANDS. The most important question in considering the growth of a spe- cies is, How much wood will it yield per acre? The growth of cot- tonwood stands was determined by means of 100 sample plots laid off in pure stands of cottonwood on overflow lands in the lower Mis- sissippi Valley. The growth of stands depends on the growth of the individual trees and on the number of trees per acre. Pure stands of cotton- wood are open in character. Table 3 shows the average number of trees per acre at different ages. It is apparent from this table that the rapid growth of individual cottonwoods is to some extent offset by the comparatively small number of trees to the acre. At 35 years 59 trees remain, of which 53 are 14 inches and over in diameter. By 40 years the total has diminished to 48, nearly all of which are at least 14 inches in diameter. The rapid decrease in number is apparent when it is seen that at 10 years there were 699 trees, at 20 years 163, and at 30 years only 80. (See Pl. IV.) because of the open character of cottonwood stands very heavy yields of lumber per acre are rare. By utilizing all trees down to 14 inches on the stump to a top diameter of 12 inches, it is doubtful if even the best pure stands will cut over 40,000 board feet per acre. Yet, considering the early age at which cottonwood reaches mer- chantable size, the yield compares favorably with that of such trees as white pine and Douglas fir, which, though larger, take a much longer time to reach such size. Measurements of a large number of plots in the Mississippi River region show that fully stocked pure stands yield an average of 31,000 feet board measure in 40 years, and that some stands at this age will cut as high as 36,000 feet to the acre. Table 3 gives the average yields from fully stocked stands of cottonwood at different ages in board feet and cubic feet. The: average annual yield of a stand is obtained by dividing the total yield per acre by the age. From Table 3 it is apparent that the number of board feet produced per year is greatest when the stand is about 35 years old, after which the average annual production gradually falls off. Theoretically, therefore, the best time to cut cottonwood is when its average annual production begins to decline. As shown later, however, other factors may affect the time of cutting. ia 24 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ‘ TABLE 3.—Growth and yield of cottonwood (Populus deltoides es im: pure, fully stocked stands in the Mississippi Valley. Number of trees Average annual yield ies per acre. Average size. Yield per acre. Oe. a Diamet Serib 14inches| All [7Jameter| Stem | PCTb- Stem | Scribner and over.| trees. ne a Height.| wood. mene Doyle. | yood. | decimal. | Doyle Years. Inches. | Feet. | Cu.ft.| Bd.ft.| Bd.ft.| Cu.ft.| Bd.ft. Bd. ft. i RC 5-1 tre oes oe 2.0 GOO) |» S22 a ee 130 a ae | Gyles eel eames 2.8 29 Bebe |'"* ce oes ie eae 146 Pee ine 7 | 1, 450 315) BO ie 10200)) Soe el epese :. 146 sie us: 8 | 1, 163 4.2 43 S250 '$|) Savere tao ol nein eres 156 x ee 9 | 900 5.0 49 DOO" acetal gees 167 ae aS 10 699 Saul Caio) Wed A te0 eee es || oes = 180 Be aS | 11 | 558 6.4 G1 to 75a|| elk es 0 eae 198 : a omnes 3 452 Tei 67 | 2,600] ...-.. 200 217 Aas 17 | 13 8 375 7.8 72 | 3,050 800 700 235 62 | 54 | 14 | 15 320 8.5 76 | 3,500} 1,600) 1,300 250 114 93 | 15 22 276 9.2 81 3,850 | 2,400} 1,900 257 160 127 16 29 243 9.8 85 | 4,150] 3,200] 2,600 259 200 163 17 34 217} 10.5 88 | 4,400| 4,000] 3,300 259 235 194 18 37 195 11.1 92 4,575 4,900 4,100 254 272 228 19 40 178 107 95 | 4,750] 5,800) 4,900 250 305 258 20 43 163 12.3 97 4,900 | 6,600 | 5,70C 245 330 285 | 21 45 150 12.8 100 | 5,025 7,600 | 6,500 239 362 310 22 47 140 13.4 102 5, 125 8, 600 7,500 233 391 341 23 49 130 13.9 104 | 5,250| 9,660] 8,400 228 417 365 24 50 121 14.5 106 | 5,350 | 10,700 | 9,500 223 446 396 25 52 114 15.0 108 5,450 | 11,900 | 10, 700 218 476 428 26 53 106 15.5 109 | 5,525 | 13,200 | 12,000 213 508 462 27 54 99 16. 0 111 | 5,600 | 14, 700 | 13, 400 207 544 496 28 55 92 16.5 112 | 5,675 | 16,300 | 15,100 203 582 540 29 55 86 16.9 114 5,750 | 18, 100 | 17,100 198 624 |. 590 | 36 55 80 17.4 115 | 5,825 | 20,300 | 19, 200 194 677 640 31 55 75 17.9 116 | 5,875 | 22,700 | 21, 400 190 732 690 32 55 70 18.3 117 | 5,950 | 24,900 | 23, 500 186 778° 734 33 55 66 18.8 119 | 6,025 | 26,800 | 25,300 183 812 767 34 54 62 19.3 120 | 6,075 | 28,300 | 26, 600 179 832, 782 35 53 59 19.7 121 6,150 | 29, 400 | 27, 500 176 840 786 180, 52 57 20. 2 123 | 6,200 | 30,100 | 28, 200 172 836 733 |®@ 37 51 53 20.6 124 6,275 | 3C, 400 | 28, 700 170 822 776 38 50 51 21.1 125 6,325 | 30, 700 | 29, 100 166 808 766 39 49 50 21.5 126 | 6,375 | 30,900 | 29) 300 163 792 751 40 48 49 22.0 127 6,425 | 31,000 | 29, 300 161 715 733 ’ 41 46 48 22.4 128 6,475 | 31,000 | 29, +00 158 756 717 42 45 45 22.9 129 6,525 | 31,100 | 29, 500 155 740 702 43 44 44 23.4 130 6,575 | 31,000 | 29, 500 153 721 686 44 43 43 23.8 131 | 6,625 | 31,000 | 29, 5CO 151 705 670 45 42 42 24.2 132 6,675 | 38,900 | 29, 000 148 687 656 46 40 40 24.7 133 6,725 | 30,800 | 29, 500 146 670 641 AT 38 38 2521 134 6,775 | 30,700 | 29, 500 144 653 628 48 37 37 25.6 135 | 6,825 | 30,600 | 29,500 142 638 615 49 34 34 26.0 136 | 6,875 | 30,500 | 29,500 140 622 602 5 32] 32 26.5 136 | 6,900 | 30,300 | 29, 400 138 606 | . 588 Similarly, the current annual production in cubic feet or cords per acre culminates at the age of 12 years, at which time approx- imately 500 cubic feet per acre annually is being produced. The average annual growth, however, continues to increase up to 16 years, when it attains 255 cubic feet per year, against only 221 cubic feet at 12 years. It is plain, therefore, that if the object of growing cot- tonwood is to produce the maximum amount of solid wood per acre per year, a rotation of approximately 16 years will give the desired results. The reason why the average annual growth in board feet per acre culminates later than the average rece production in cubic feet is because the board-foot production does not begin until the COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 25 trees are about 12 years old and because the number of board feet to each cubic foot increases as the tree increases in size. In logs of large diameters each cubic foot will saw out more than 7 or 8 board feet, whereas in small logs there may be only 2 or 3 board feet. Table 4 gives the yield of pulpwood for stands from 5 to 20 years old under the most favorable conditions of growth. Older stands are not considered, because the maximum average annual yield in cords per acre occurs at a considerably earlier age than 20 years. TABLE 4.—Yield of pulpwood per acre in the lower Mississippi Valley. Average Average Age. Total yield. | annual || Age. Total yield. | annual yield. yield. | te E Sere i [EP | pon ee | Years. | Cubic fect.| Cords. Cords. Years. | Cubic feet.| Cords. | Cords. 5 630 6.6 | ilo3} 13 4, 460 47.0 | 3.6 6 810 8.3 1.4 14 4,690 49.4 BED 7 1,020 10.7 | 1.5 15 4, 830 50.8 3.4 8 1,320 | 13.9 lee 16 4,910 HUT) 3.2 9 1,700 18.0 2.0 17 4, 960 Oem a), I 10 2, 330 24.5 220) 18 4,990 D2 2.9 11 3, 100 32.6 3.0 19 5,010 5257 | 2.8 12 4,050 42.6 3.5 20 5,020 5.3 || Dod The volumes of the trees were determined up to a top diameter of 4 inches inside the bark, except where the stem was too crooked or branchy. The cubic-foot volume was converted. into cords by divid- ing it by 95, a liberal factor for converting solid cubic feet into stacked measure. The cordwood figures are for peeled wood. Where unpeeled wood is purchased with the intention of running it through a barking machine at the mill these figures will be too low. The bark constitutes about 22 per cent of the total volume. The figures in the table therefore represent only 78 per cent of the total cubic contents. The largest average annual yield is obtained at 13 years, at which time there is a total stand of 47 cords. The growth and yield > tables are naturally restricted in their application to cottonwood stands in the central and southern United States, where the measure- ments were made, and particularly to overflow lands along the rivers and streams. Observations on the growth of cottonwood in Iowa and Minnesota would seem to indicate, as might naturally be ex- pected, that the yield in the northern part of the country would fall considerably below that in the South. It was difficult to find pure cottonwood stands in Iowa and Minne- sota in which normally stocked plots could be laid off. Only a half dozen plots were measured, ranging from 25 to 55 years. The results are given in Table 5. 8471° —Bull. 24—13——4 . . 26 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TasBLe 5.—Yield of cottonwood stands on upland-soil in Iowa and Minnesota. wae per acre, = Average cribner. Number | 3- Location. Age. | of trees seer Te +e Remarks. Der actes| ish. To 12-inch|To 10-inch top. top. Years. Inches. Feet. Bd. ft. Bd. ft. Lee County, Iowa... 25 108 13.0 80 1, 700 5,100 | Scattered, with many associate species. Doe. 223: - Leos 25 88 13.8 82 4,100 6, 600 Do. ‘llamakee County, 45 131 15.3 84 12, 900 15, 600 | Pure stand. lowa. , Jackson County, 50 80 18.3 100 15, 800 18,100 | Very dense pure stand. Iowa. Monona County, 55 88 16.5 94 13, 100 16,800 | In Missouri Valley, less Towa. humidclimate, dense, we 5 Scott County, Minn. 56 25 24.8 107 15, 000 18, 100 aple, elm, ash, etc., in ; mixture. It is probable that some of these stands have been cut to a slight extent, but it is not likely that on upland soil in this region cotton- wood will cut more than 20,000 feet per acre at 50 years of age. At this age, however, it has already reached maturity and is losing rather than gaining. Yields of between 15,000 and 20,000 board feet ought to be possible in 35 to 40 years. One or two plantations in Towa on good bottomland soil have yielded more, as may be seen — from Table 6. : TABLE 6.—Yield of cottonwood on bottomland soil in Towa. | < Average Number | giameter| Average | Yield | Original Location. Age. of trees ¢ | per acre. oe height. | peracre.| spacing. Years. Inches. Feet. Bad. ft. Feet. Harrison County -e2s--ee sss eee meee ee 34 126 14.5 87 23, 850 73 by 6 Monroe;|County ene Saaaeeee oe pee 35 137 13.3 77 24, 500 84 by 8 At least one of the plantations has occasionally been thinned. Moreover, the trees had plenty of room for early growth, and it is probable that they were cultivated for the first few years. In the case of these plantations, however, the estimates take in all straight logs to a top diameter of 6 inches, for even such small-sized material is actually sawed up for farm use. Considering, however, only logs 10 inches and over in diameter, northern stands of cottonwood will probably seldom yield more than two-thirds as much saw timber as stands of the same age in the lower half of the valley. MANAGEMENT. ADAPTABILITY OF COTTONWOOD. If cottonwood stands are to be maintained permanently some sys- tem of management is essential. Its demand for plenty of direct Co ee ee, ae COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 27 light must in particular be fully met. In logging mixed stands the trees which are of little value to the lumbermen, and are therefore commonly left standing after the removal of the cottonwood and. many other merchantable species such as ash, red gum, or oak, should also be taken out. The shade cast by these weed trees and by under- brush tends to prevent the reseeding of the area to the light-demand- ing cottonwood. Mlarely does one find good restocking of this species except on wide clean openings, such as are sometimes made by hurri- : canes or by laying out logging roads, drainage ditches, and the like. Even in pure cottonwood stands it is unusual to find satisfactory restocking after logging, under present methods. Pure stands after 40 or 50 years’ growth thin out and expose the forest floor to sunlight, thereby inducing the entrance of undergrowth, such as poison ivy, pepper vine (“cow itch”), briers, dogwood, and privet, and occa- sional seedlings of the more tolerant species. After logging opera- tions such growth is left in control of the area, and usually prevents the reproduction of cottonwood. Moreover, pure stands on the more recently made land along the river are sometimes culled over for the largest timber before all the trees are merchantable. This serves further to open up the stand. It is customary to cull pure stands on islands and bars along the river several times, at intervals of 5 to 10 years. Under such conditions there is little chance of securing cottonwood reproduction after the final cut, unless all undergrowth is removed and cottonwood is planted. . The opportunity for managing cottonwood conservatively in the Mississippi bottoms is in some respects unparalleled. Nowhere else in the United States are there large areas of overflow bottomland unfit for agriculture which can be bought for from $3 to $5 an acre. Taxes on the land form scarcely any burden. In parts of the valley all un- improved land outside the levees is assessed at a uniform value of $1 per acre. In the South the assessed value rarely exceeds $2 or $3, with a tax rate of about 20 mills. Fire hazard is usually negligible, due to the annual spring floods, which carry away a large proportion of the inflammable material. It is true that much of this material is again deposited along the river banks, but, as a rule, on such situa- | tions growing cottonwood on a commercial scale is out of the ques- | tion. Whatever débris remains in the cottonwood stands after a | flood, being water soaked, decays rapidly. Furthermore, even when fire is a menace, cottonwood at the age of 15 or 20 years has formed comparatively fire-resistant bark from one-third to two-thirds of an inch thick. | Neither insects nor fungi seem to be a serious menace to cottonwood in the Mississippi Valley. This comparative freedom from disease is probably due largely to the favorable conditions for forest growth characteristic of rich, alluvial lands. Trees which are making vigor- 28 = BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ous growth on soils naturally adapted to their requirements are not predisposed to disease. Such trees if accidentally injured by wind, -fire, or other agency, more readily heal over the wound. Cotton- wood, in particular, grows so rapidly that even large wounds do not long remain exposed to infection by fungi. Another important condition favoring management of the bottom- lands is the ease of getting the timber out. The land best suited to the practice of forestry lies for the most part within 2 or 3 miles of the river, which is generally used for transportation. This renders logging inexpensive and obviates the necessity of constructing rail- roads. It also makes it feasible to leave seed trees which can be easily taken out after they have restocked the ground and at a cost per thousand feet but shghtly in excess of that for the first operation. Furthermore, cottonwood is commercially very valuable and is one of the fastest-growing trees in the United States. It yields lumber of good quality within 30 to 35 years. Seed production, moreover, is abundant and frequent. Under such favorable circumstances owners of cottonwood stumpage should give more attention to securing new crops of timber after lumbering on lands unfit for farming. AREAS AVAILABLE FOR GROWING COTTONWOOD. Though large areas of the Mississippi bottomlands, especially in southeastern Missouri and northeastern Arkansas, are being made tillable through extensive drainage projects, and still other areas will be reclaimed for farming by the extension of the present levee sys- tem, there are extensive tracts of rich alluvial land subject to annual overflow of from one or two weeks to several months which afford ideal conditions for the growth of cottonwood. Probably the largest part of this unprotected land is in the lower valley, yet from Cairo, Ill., to the head of the river there are in the aggregate large areas better adapted to forest growth than to agriculture. The total area of such unprotected land south of Cairo, UL, is approximately 1,500,000 acres, distributed as follows: From Cairo to the mouth of the White River, 690,000 acres; from the mouth of the White River to Warrenton, Miss., 500,400 acres; and from Warrenton to the Head of the Passes, 277,000 acres. While a portion of this unprotected land is sufficiently elevated to warrant cultivation, not more than 10 or 15 percent is at present in crops. Back of the levees there is considerable land poorly adapted to agriculture, such as sandy ridges or the beds of old sloughs which may still be inundated in very wet periods. While farm crops may be grown on the ridges for a few years, the soil soon becomes unproductive. In addition, there are bottomlands bordering many tributaries of the Mississippi, such as the Red, Arkansas, Yazoo, and St. Francis Rivers, which because of poor drainage or annual inundation are unsuited for farming. COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 29 Tree growing on lands outside the levees is to some extent bazard- ous on account of the erratic movements of the river. Through the tremendous erosive power of the Mississippi its banks are continu- ally caving in and its course changing. Of the 1,500,000 acres of unprotected land now available for timber production there may be, at the end of 35 years, the period required to produce a merchantable stand of cottonwood, nearly a million acres unaffected by the river's action. Attempts at systematic management of cottonwood in this region should therefore be confined to areas where the river will not encroach upon the timber before it has matured. A fairly close approximation can usually be made of the distance which the river will cut back into the present bank within a given period of years by comparing the distance cut during the same number of years in the past. PURE STANDS. Cottonwood will not tolerate shade. Direct overhead light is essen- tial at all stages of its growth. Cottonwood shpuld therefore be logged clear. The common practice of cutting to a diameter limit, which removes only the largest trees, is entirely unsuitable. Cutting the largest trees enables the stumpage owner to make the first cut earlier, 1. e., while many of the trees are still unmerchantable, and to cut the remainder within from 5 to 6 years, when they have had the benefit of the increased light. Sometimes an area is cut over three times in 10 years. After each cutting vines and low shrubs spring up in abundance and almost entirely preclude natural reproduction. These conditions justify the removal in one cut of all the cottonwood on the ground that can be profitably handled, regardless of its possi- bilities of growth if left for another 5 or 10 years. Twenty or 30 small trees, 15 to 18 inches in diameter breasthigh, yielding perhaps 3,500 or 4,000 board feet, might in another 10 years cut 10,000 board feet. These 10 years, however, represent nearly a third of the time required to grow a stand which will yield 29,000 feet per acre. If it is remembered also that by gradual cutting the initial cost necessary to clear away the excessive undergrowth is much increased the greater profitableness of the clear cutting system is evident. NATURAL REPRODUCTION VERSUS PLANTING. Under the clear cutting system the renewal of the stand may be obtained either by natural reproduction, secured by leaving seed trees on the cut-over area, or by planting. Natural and artificial restocking both have definite advantages. Other things being equal, planting is likely to be more costly, since it entails the rais- ing or purchase of planting stock and the labor of setting it out. The cost of natural reproduction is represented by the value of the 30 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. seed trees if they are never utilized, or by the extra cost of removing them if they are taken out later. Planting, then, requires a cash out- lay. Natural reproduction requires merely a curtailiig of present profits. The greater present returns when no seed trees are left may often go a long way toward defraying the expense of planting. It is questionable if planting would be wise where there is a reasonable certainty of securing new stands from natural seeding. Wherever conditions are favorable to seed germination, as on lands subject to overflow in the spring, but which is only moist when the seed falls, and is free from shrubs, vines, or herbaceous plants, natural reproduction is reasonably certain and less costly than plant- ing. On low ridges or where spring overflow is uncertain, complete dependence can not be placed upon natural reproduction. © Planting insures a uniformly stocked stand; the spacing of the trees can be so regulated as to obtain more rapid growth during early life, thus shortening the rotation, and there is less chance of complete failure due to weeds or undergrowth, the absence of high water, or an unusually late flood which washes away the seed. On land where reproduction by either method is difficult planting is preferable. Planting, therefore, will in the future probably be pre- ferred to natural reproduction in the Mississippi Valley. REPRODUCTION BY SPROUTS. Natural reproduction may be obtained either-from sprouts or from seed. For several reasons sprout or coppice reproduction will prob- ably be of comparatively minor importance in the lower valley. First, few stands of cottonwood less than 35 years old will be cut, by which time the sprouting vigor of the stumps has weakened. It is questionable whether sprouts from stumps of this age, even though originating at the root collar, will produce as large and vigorous trees as the parent stock. The sprouting vigor declines steadily after the tree is 20 to 30 years old. At this age the number of trees per acre is small. Consequently the sprouts would not form a suffi- ciently dense stand to clear themselves readily of side branches. These difficulties may be overcome, as, for example, by supplementing coppice growth by planting or natural seeding. From present indi- cations it would seem that sprout reproduction is applicable only to stands managed for pulpwood on a rotation of 10 or 12 years. Pulpwood companies in the North which are planting this species will undoubtedly find the sprouting of cottonwood of great value in securing second growth. The coppice system of reproduction entails but small initial expense, and because of rapid growth makes pos- sible short rotations. The young age of trees taken for pulpwood and the low stumps which it is possible to cut will insure vigorous sprouting from the root collar. Six inches should be the maximum COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 31 stump height. The trees should be cut during the winter or early spring and the ground be completely cleared in order to allow the coppice full sunlight. The only actual outlay necessary in securing a stand by this method will be that in connection with cutting back in July and August all but the most vigorous, well-formed sprouts on each stump. A system of this kind carried on in certain South American plantations of Carolina poplar (see p. 1), a male form of the cottonwood, is said to result in actually shortening the rota- tion from 10 to 7 years, or 30 per cent. Where timber production is the object of management, reseeding or replanting the area will be the common method. SEED TREES. In a clear-cutting system abundant seed production and uniform seed distribution are of first importance. The next essential is a ground in condition suitable for germination of the seed and growth of the seedlings. Cut-over areas may often be seeded by adjoining timber. This is likely to be the case where the cutting areas are comparatively small, and where there are enough cottonwoods to restock the ground. Since pure stands of cottonwood are seldom more than a few hundred acres in extent and are usually long and narrow, paralleling the course of the river, reproduction from the adjoining stands should be successful wherever there are plenty of seed trees on the windward side of the tract to be seeded. For natural restocking the seed of cottonwood can not be depended — upon to scatter farther than 600 feet from the mother tree. Unless the cut-over area is less than 600 feet in width seed trees should be left on the area itself. Seed trees represent an investment equivalent to the extra cost of logging them later after they have restocked the ground. If of poor quality for lumber, however, and very expensive to handle in a return cutting, they may be sacrificed, in which case the investment is represented by the actual stumpage value of the timber they would cut. Seed trees should be left uniformly scattered over the area. They should be located with reference to the direction of the winds at the time of seeding. To facilitate the subsequent removal of the seed trees they may be located roughly in rows at right angles to the direc- tion of the wind. This arrangement will permit the removal of the timber with the minimum amount of damage to the young growth, since all the logs from a given row may be hauled over the same logging road. One mature seed-bearing tree reserved on each acre of cut-over land should be ample to restock the ground, and would allow for 32 BULLETIN 24, U. 8S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. windfall and breakage. If in the end two seed trees remained to even 3 acres, reproduction should be excellent. Since seed is borne in abundance each year, the trees will rarely be needed for longer than a year or two. One seed tree per acre would be equivalent to leaving parallel rows about 600 feet apart, with the trees approxi- mately 50 feet apart in the rows. In reserving seed trees the following considerations should be taken into account: (a) Only female trees should be selected for seed production. Unfortunately, there seem to be no characteristics other than the flowers by which male and female trees may be readily distinguished. Seed trees should therefore be marked during the flowering or seed- béaring season. The flowers of the seed-producing trees are not conspicuous. They occur in the form of slender catkins, 6 to 10 inches long, on which the budlike flowers appear very small and scattered. During the seeding time the abundance of light “ cotton ” shed by these female catkins readily distinguishes the seed-bearing trees. The flowers of the male trees are, on the other hand, more showy—bright red or yellow in color—and the catkin fuller, wider, and denser, but not as long as the female catkin. (6) In addition to one seed tree per acre, a number of male trees should also be left in order to insure proper fertilization of the female flowers. Fertilization is believed to be effected usually by insects, which carry the pollen from the staminate to the pistillate flowers. About every fourth tree should be a staminate one. (c) Seed trees as far as possible should be the least merchantable individuals, since in this way the investment represented by the stumpage value of the trees left after logging is the least, whether they are later removed or not. Seed trees, however, should be thrifty and vigorous. Crooked, forked, or branchy trees, which would cut out a comparatively small amount of high-grade lumber, are usually just as vigorous and as suitable for seed production as the tall, clear, straight individuals. In fact, the larger the crown, the more seed is produced. . (72) Only windfirm trees should be left. On low, wet sites, where the soil is loose and soft, no seed trees should be reserved. (€) Seed trees should be removed-as soon as possible after young growth has become established, otherwise the shade will check the growth of many of the younger trees. There is less injury to the young growth if the seed trees are cut and removed before it attains much size. Since cottonwood often grows at the start at the rate of from 5 to 7 feet a year, it is advisable to cut the seed trees the year the young growth is established. If for any reason they can not be profitably removed and are likely to deteriorate before the next lumbering operation, it may sometimes be advisable to deaden them ey PLATE III. Bul. 24, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. SHOWING EARLY DENSITY. 44 YEARS OLD, SHOWING CHARACTERISTIC STRAIGHT, FiG. 1.—MERCHANTABLE STAND OF PURE COTTONWOOD, CLEAR GROWTH. Fic. 2.—PURE COTTONWOOD THICKET, 10 YEARS OLD, Bul. 24, U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. PLATE IV. OVERMATURE SCATTERED COTTONWOODS WITH SMALLER UNMERCHANTABLE ASSOCIATES COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. ae so that their shade may not suppress any of the young growth. Most pure stands, however, are accessible to the river, which makes it practicable, as a rule, to return for any seed trees within a year or two of the first cut. With only a few logs to handle it will often be possible to wait till high water and then float them out to the river bank, thus obviating the much greater expense of hauling. In such cases there would probably be no extra expense connected with leay- ing seed trees. If hauling were necessary, however, it might cost fully 50 per cent more to get out this scattered material. After the short interval of only a year or two, little if any additional swamping would be necessary to open up the former logging roads, but the haulers would lose considerable time in locating and loading the scattered logs and would probably get out no more than two-thirds as much per day as when working in heavier stands. If hauling under ordinary conditions costs $3 to $4 per thousand, it might in- crease in the latter instance to from $4.50 to $6 per thousand. The additional $1.50 to $2 per thousand feet would then represent the cost of leaving seed trees. If these are left as recommended, they should not average over 750 board feet per acre, which would make their cost at most run from $1.20 to $1.50 per acre. PREPARATION OF THE GROUND. Pure thickets of cottonwood, up to 20 or 25 years at least, are quite free from undergrowth, but at the age of 30 or 35 years a large variety of shrubs, vines, and weeds usually come up under the main stand. Such growth consists largely of peppervine, poison ivy, briers, privet, dogwood, and innumerable species of herbaceous char- acter. In the more open mature stands undergrowth and weeds often cover most of the ground. In addition, there are often numer- ous suppressed or overtopped trees of less valuable species, such as sycamore, hackberry, and elm. Such trees are usually small, but if left after lumbering would soon develop spreading crowns and shade much of the area. All such growth is detrimental to cotton- _ wood reproduction. To insure natural renewal of the stands, there- fore, it will not be sufficient merely to leave seed trees, but-in addi- tion the ground must be cleared of all undergrowth. If the resulting slash is very abundant, it may be best to pile it with the cottonwood tops. In normally dense stands, however, this will seldom be neces- sary, since here the brush is not rank. Burning the slash will seldom be of benefit, except in the case of a rank growth of cane or weeds, which may be killed off by a carefully controlled surface fire. Sur- face fires do not run rapidly in most parts of the bottoms because of the small amount of inflammable material. Dry cottonwood leaves, moreover, are said to be much less inflammable than those 34 BULLETIN 24, U. §. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of most other hardwoods. In burning cane, briers, grass, and weeds special care is nevertheless advisable to keep the fire under control, and where adjoining stands of young timber might be injured it may even be important to surround the burning area with plowed fur- rows for fire lines. No preparation of the ground is adequate which fails to leave the mineral soil exposed. Burning of slash under some circum- stances may be sufficient, but as a rule it will be necessary to drag the surface with a spike-toothed harrow or similar implement. The cost of dragging should seldom exceed 50 cents per acre. Swamping of small trees and undergrowth can usually be effectually done for $1.50 to $2 per acre, making a total of $2 to $2.50 per acre for the preparation of the ground. In many bottom lands, however, half of this amount will be enough. 7 Grazing of hogs in the bottoms may serve to expose the mineral soil even better than dragging. Cattle, sheep, and goats may like- wise assist in reducing the herbaceous growth. If logging is carried on during the summer, the underbrush and weeds will often get quite a start before the seed ripens the following spring, unless graz- ing is encouraged. As*soon as reproduction starts, however, grazing should cease. From the standpoint of preparing the ground there is plainly an ad- vantage in logging during the late summer and fall, say from August to November, inclusive. Very little growth of weeds, grass, cane, etc., will come up on cleared areas after the first of August, and, moreover, the sprouting capacity of bushes and trees is low during these late months. Conditions in the bottoms will seldom permit of logging in the spring early enough to prepare the ground for the cottonwood seed of the same season. Wherever feasible, winter op- erations are entirely consistent with good management. Proper preparation of the ground, however, will, in many in- stances, be out of the question. Where the undergrowth is especially dense and consists of vines, such as poison ivy or peppervine, the cost of eradicating it will frequently be prohibitive. Such areas can only be planted. MIXED HARDWOOD STANDS. Where cottonwood is the only species of great’ commercial im- portance on an area the aim should be to favor it alone. If, how- ever, valuable species are growing with it, some of these may be favored as well. By favoring other species along with cottonwood the liability of total failure in securing reproduction is reduced. Another advantage is the beneficial effect of the other trees upon the cottonwood itself in shading the forest floor, thus preventing the | = COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 35 verowth of vines and underbrush. They will. also help to clear the cottonwood of side*branches. The most valuable associates of cottonwood are green and white ash, the various red and white oaks, and red gum. Only ash and oak command higher stumpage values. Red gum is now much less valuable on the stump, and, like the other associates, is much slower growing. Assuniing a stumpage value of $5 per thousand for cot- tonwood, the following figures would be typical for its associates, if of good quality: red gum, $2; oak, $5 to $7; ash, $6 to $10; cypress, $5; elm, $2. The less important species, such as hackberry, sycamore. boxelder, river birch, and silver maple, usually have little, if any, value for lumber, although under certain conditions they may some- times be worth from 50 cents to $1 for fuel, especially in the north of the valley. The high value of ash makes it one of the most desirable species to encourage in the bottoms. Measurements in the northeastern section of Arkansas indicate that in comparison with cottonwood the greater value of ash timber is to a large extent offset by its much slower growth. Ash, however, is used in much smaller sizes than cottonwood, as in the manufacture of tool and implement handles and oars. Red gum is more abundant and more extensively used for lumber in the South than is cottonwood. Its use is increasing, and it repro- duces readily. Thus, although its present stumpage value is low and its growth much less rapid than that of cottonwood, it will often be advisable to encourage red gum in restocking logged-over areas. The faster growing oaks, especially red and willow oak, are also of sufficient importance to encourage to a certain extent, particu- larly on the higher portions of the bottoms. They do not grow as fast as cottonwood, but produce more valuable wood. SEED TREES. As in pure cottonwood, a clear cutting system with provision for seed trees is the only means of securing reproduction of cottonwood in mixed stands. It is likewise adapted to the other valuable species, except oak. Red gum’s intolerance of shade is probably exceeded among the bottomland species only by cottonwood itself. Ash when young will endure partial shade, but during most of its life full hght is essential to rapid growth. The prolific regeneration of these three species on old fields and other openings where the mineral soil is exposed confirms the advisability of clear cutting. The selection of seed trees in mixed stands should be governed by the same general considerations as in pure stands. Since all gum and oak trees bear seed, selection of seed trees is easy. Seed 36 BULLETIN 24, U. 8. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of ash and gum are heavier than that of cottonwood, and therefore more seed trees are required per acre to insure dense restocking. Acorns can not be scattered for any distance by the wind, and there- fore natural reproduction of oak can not readily be secured under a clear cutting system with seed trees. The best way to encourage oak in a cottonwood stand is to preserve young, thrifty immature trees wherever they occur. In swamping, or in cutting or deadening inferior species, the aim should be to save the oaks and free them from crowding. Besides forming part of the next cut, they will reproduce to some extent. One cottonwood seed tree per acre will usually be adequate for seed purposes. Where either ash or gum_are present the total number of seed trees per acre of all species should be from three to four. On cut-over areas completely in possession of weed trees it is useless to leave cottonwood to reproduce beneath thin shade. Here ash will sometimes meet the demand, since it will reproduce under moderate shade, but in its absence little can be done to keep boxelder, syca- more, hackberry, and other species of doubtful value from taking complete possession of the ground. ; PREPARATION OF THE GROUND. Preparation of the ground in mixed stands should be about the same as in pure stands. The shade in mixed stands is ordinarily more dense than that in stands of pure cottonwood. Consequently, there is likely to be less underbrush and vines, and slashing of under- growth is correspondingly less troublesome. In mixed stands, however, the problem is usually somewhat com- plicated by the presence of many inferior trees which have no mer- chantable value. Proper ground preparation in these stands will entail an outlay for removing or deadening these undesirable asso- ciates. Where conditions are favorable tc cottonwood reproduction, it would hardly seem justifiable to leave scattered inferior species merely in the hope that within a few years they may acquire com- mercial importance. An expenditure of $2 or $3 at most per acre in deadening these trees should result in the establishment of a valu- able young cottonwood stand, which otherwise might be indefinitely delayed. Where, however, the unmerchantable species are very numerous the cost of deadening will often be prohibitive and the reproduction of cottonwood impracticable. Deadening is often a questionable course, in that numerous dead trees scattered over an area afford breeding places for insects which might later prove injurious to sound trees. Moreover, there is no positive assurrance that satisfactory reproduction will follow. It COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. ot is, however, a very common method of clearing bottom lands the Mississippi Valley for agricultural purposes. On areas subject to overflow cottonwood reproduction is almost certain to follow if seed trees are present. All said, however, deadening is probably preferable to leaving the inferior species eee the owner is pre- pared to make an actual investment for the sake of insuring future cottonwood stands. Only the largest trees, such as could not readily be felled with several strokes of the ax, should be girdled. The cost of deadening, as well as swamping, piling, and burning of the smaller growth, can usually be kept within $2.50 per acre. On many areas from $1 to $2 would put the ground in good condition for cottonwood seeding. Where the cost exceeds $3 deadening will probably, as a rule, be considered inexpedient. In this Granecnon the question of brush disposal should also be considered. There seems to be no possibility at present of utilizing cottonwood tops in any practical manner. They make very little brush and decay quickly, even though left unlopped. Moreover, they may be carried away by high water. There will be little to gain, therefore, in burning the brush, either for the sake of fire protection or the encouragement of repreduction. However, where much ‘undergrowth and small, inferior trees must be swamped out, it may often be advisable to pile such material with the tops and burn it when partly dry. In thick cane or grass, tops and other brush will burn, even if left scattered. If the ground is to be dragged to expose the mineral soil, piling would be advantageous. COTTONWOOD-WILLOW STANDS. Cottonwood and willow are usually associated only in compara- tively young stands. Either cottonwood is crowded out by the willow during the first 20 years or it overtops and kills out the willow. If any willow is left at the time of logging, it should certainly be removed, since it is distinctly inferior for lumber. If it can not be disposed of for pulp wood, charcoal, or woodenware, for which uses it is well suited and frequently in considerable demand, it should be cut or girdled. If cottonwood is cut for pulp in young mixed stands, the willow should also be taken, and any adjacent stands of pure willow removed at the same time. Young willow is generally in demand for revetting the river banks ell should be disposed of without difficulty. CLOSER UTILIZATION. Close utilization is the first step in the proper handling of cotton- wood stands. Every tree that will make a merchantable log should be cut, stumps should be low, and the trees utilized as high as possible into the tops. High stumps are often left because the trees are cut at 388 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. a time when the water is up. Stumps are sometimes from 8 to 16 feet high. Wherever practicable no stumps should be left higher than 30 inches unless the butts are defective. : More material is wasted in tops. Small logs should not be left in the woods if they can be handled profitably. Such logs saw out little above the grade of No. 2 common, which usually sells f. 0. b. at the mill for from $12 to $15 per thousand. On expensive logging opera- tions the actual cost of delivering these logs at the mill and sawing them may so nearly approximate this price as to allow no profit. Most of the mills sawing cottonwood are now taking logs as small as 14 inches and under favorable logging conditions many concerns can utilize straight top logs comparatively free of knots as small as 12 inches at the top. Most of the mills sawing cottonwood which have a daily capacity of over 50,000 board feet are located in the larger towns along the river or at the edge of bottom lands, necessitating a long haul. Small portable mills located on the tract can often utilize with profit logs as small as 10 inches in diameter at the top. Although only one mill of this type was observed in the lower Mississippi Val- ley, it is probable that in the future the small mill may make possible a closer utilization of cottonwood. In the northern part of the valley mills frequently utilize to advantage logs even smaller. Much of the present waste in leaving top logs is due, in part, to the improper marking of log lengths. Moreover, where logging is done by contract, a common method in the lower valley, the contractor leaves much small-sized timber in the woods, as by handling only the larger logs he reduces the cost of getting the logs to the river. The contracts should plainly specify that all trees above 16 inches diameter breasthigh that will cut one or more merchantable logs shall be taken unless designated for seed trees. Tops should be utilized to 12 inches where straight and free from branches, or to 14 inches where they contain no more than four or five small branches not over 4 inches in diameter. To increase the percentage of cottonwood in future stands and gradually eliminate the less valuable species, the latter should be cut whenever possible, even without profit. Actual loss may at times be justified, since it may be considered an investment in restocking the area to cottonwood. Asa rule, however, the removal of these “ weed trees ” will be warranted only where their utilization is possible. For this purpose the erection of cooperage plants on or near logging oper- ations would materially simplify the problem. Such plants could utilize at a profit the larger elm, maple, hackberry, sycamore, and box- elder, as well as much of the cottonwood and gum too small for saw timber. Otherwise, deadening these trees would be the only means of clearing the ground for reproduction. The plants could also utilize a good proportion of the lumber which would ordinarily be left in the COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 39 tops. Where the size of logging operations does not warrant setting up such secondary plants, it will often be possible to barge the logs or bolts of the inferior species to hoop mills, excelsior factories, or cooperage plants located in the principal cities along the river. Even though the price received no more than covers the woods and trans- portation cost, the importance of encouraging cottonwood reproduc- tion will often justify such a disposal. Charcoal burning and wood distillation is another industry which, if it could be profitably conducted in these bottoms, would aid materially in close utilization. Practically every species could be utilized down to a diameter of 2 or 3 inches, including tops and limbs of felled trees. Maple, elm, sycamore, willow, birch, and hack- berry should produce a good grade of charcoal, and be delivered at the pit for $2 per cord. The development of a market for small- sized material would have the additional advantage of making thin- nings from young stands of cottonwood practicable. In many in- stances, however, the utilization of the poorer species will obviously be out of the question. A choice must then be made between leaving them until a market develops or deadening them. THINNINGS. The removal of a portion of the trees from a stand not fully mature is termed a thinning. Thinnings, if properly done at the right time, will result in accelerating the growth of the trees left, and at the same time utilize many of the smaller trees which would otherwise die from supression. A thinning will frequently pay for itself. Cottonwood responds in a marked degree to increased light. Its pronounced light requirement is in itself an unmistakable indica- tion that thinnings will be beneficial. It is evident, further, that in cottonwood stands where in the course of natural development the average number of trees per acre falls from 700 to 50 between the ages of 10 and 40 years there must be great loss in growth rate due to competition. Unfortunately, no example of systematic thinning in young cot- tonwood stands was found in the present study. On one plot, how- ever, a good many of the trees had been removed in a rather hap- hazard and unsystematic manner, most of them apparently of the smaller sizes. The beneficial results of this chance opening up were, however, quite apparent. This particular stand was in south- eastern Arkansas, and occupied good bottomland soil near the present course of the river. Its age was 17 years. It was stated that rivermen had been in the habit of drawing upon this stand from time to time for ship poles, barge braces, and the like. Cuttings were said to have been made for quite a number of years, although apparently none had been made very recently. Over most of the 40 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. area the stand had been opened up too severely, and toward the cen- ter many of the dominant trees appeared to have been taken along with the smaller ones. One half-acre plot was laid off, however, in which there was a fairly even distribution of the remaining trees, and from which the smaller or medium-sized trees were the ones chiefly removed. It happened that this small area was properly thinned. Table 7 shows the condition in this half-acre plot in con- trast to the average for stands of this age. TABLE 7.—LEffect of thinning on cottonwood stands. | 8 le Average Total Treeeueh eae anes of number of ia aavelnes Aine trees above| Stand per trees per F 14 inches: acre. Bere diameter, | of all trees. diamict * | breasthigh. CMEN 5 breasthigh. Inches. Inches. Board feet. Average PlO ts onc a ema eia eae ena oe ee 215 34 10.5 15.5 4,000 ‘Rhinnediplot- <2 Rass eee eee ee 132 50 12.3 15.9 7,500 In the thinned plot there were approximately 40 per cent fewer trees per acre than im the average plot. Of trees over 14 inches in diameter, on the other hand, there were actually 47 per cent more, — and the average diameter of all trees was 17 per cent larger in the thinned than in the average plot. The results in this one thinned stand are corroborated by measure- ments of five 15-year-old plots of cottonwood across the river from Helena, Ark., in which was an understory of sycamore and a few other species, all more tolerant than cottonwood, and of the same age as the latter though only one-third the height. It was therefore apparent that the cottonwood started in mixture with the sycamore, but being of more rapid growth soon overtopped it, thereby freeing itself from crowding and side shade. Thus, while not actually thinned, it had passed through a natural stage in some respects closely paralleling artifical thinning. In these five plots the board- foot yield noticeably exceeds the average for the same age stands. TABLE 8.—Hffect of associate species on form, growth, and yield of cottonwood. Number Average Total of trees re fieincier per acre Average Tees Over . Age 15 years. eee over 14 diameter | 12 inches Sa PDE inches | ofall trees.| diameter, : Pp : diameter breast- ° breasthigh. high. Inches. Inches. Board feet. AW CTASCIO! ADIOS = see eee ae 275 22 9.2 14.9 » 2,40! Average of 5 plots with sycamore under- , : ; SLOLY ee, Meee he tS A oI A 200 27.6 10.4 | 15.1 |~* 3,040 COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 41 e It is fair to assume that artificial thinning would be followed by somewhat similar results. Economic conditions, such as markets for small material, extent of investment, etc., will govern to a large extent the practicability of thinnings. In the lower Mississippi Valley there is at present little if any demand for the small-sized material which thinnings would yield. Pulp companies, with mills in Indiana and Ohio, have fre- quently purchased peeled cordwood of small dimensions as far south as Memphis. If such companies find it profitable to establish plants in the lower valley where there are extensive areas covered with young willow and cottonwood, a market might be expected to develop rapidly for the products of thinnings. While in some instances this small material may now be disposed of for fuel, braces, small poles, ete., as a rule it can not be profitably marketed. There is danger in making thinnings too heavy and so permitting the entrance of objectionable undergrowth. Unless there is an under- story of a more tolerant tree, such as green ash, sycamore, hackberry, or silver maple, only very light thinnings are advisable. In such a case the slower growing trees clear the fast-growing cottonwoods of side branches, shade the ground, and prevent the starting of grass and undergrowth. If the rotation of cottonwood for lumber production may easily be shortened at least five years by thinnings without diminishing the yield per acre, thinnings might in some instances be justified on finan- cial.grounds, even when yielding no direct return. The saving of five years’ interest on the investment in land and taxes with interest would certainly justify, under some conditions, an investment in thinnings. For example, the cost of maturing a crop of cottonwood in 30 and 35 years would approximate $77.97 and $112.07, respec- tively. This represents a saving for 30-year-old stands of $34.10. It is not improbable that two thinnings at the ages of 10 and 18 years, respectively, might shorten the rotation, so as to result in practically the same yield at 30 years as it ordinarily re- quires 35 years to produce. The costs of such thinnings should not exceed $2 and $5 per acre, respectively, which compounded with in- terest at 7 per cent would represent an outlay of $19 at the end of the 30-year rotation. In other words, the investment in thinnings could be expected to return 7 per cent interest like the rest of the investment, provided it lowers the cost of the crop $19 by shortening the rotation. As a matter of fact, an additional profit of $15.10 would result in this case, represented by the difference between $34.10, the saving in the cost of the crop, and $19, the cost of the thinning. With a larger investment, as in the case of planting, the difference in favor of thinning would be still more pronounced. If the cost of ~ 42 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. thinning could be partially or totally met by a market for the mate- rial removed, the possibility of increased returns would, of course, be still further improved. Until markets for small stock improve, how- ever, or until more definite conclusions can be made respecting the actual increase in growth due to thinnings, it is doubtful if thinning operations will generally be considered feasible in natural stands of second-growth cottonwood in the South. ROTATION. LUMBER. A rotation of approximately 35 years is sufficient to yield maxi- mum returns from natural stands of pure cottonwood. This is based on present market requirements, and corresponds almost exactly - to the age at which a stand has attained its maximum mean annual yield of 840 feet per acre board measure, the trees ranging from 10- to 30 inches in diameter, with an average of 19.7 inches (Table 3). An average stumpage value of $5 per thousand feet at 35 years is assumed. Below this age, with present merchantable sizes, the stumpage value of cottonwood decreases very rapidly and few stands — are now being cut much younger. Since all forest investments are reckoned at compound interest, the latter necessarily has an important influence upon the length of rota- tion. This is shown from the following figures, which indicate the necessary increase in stumpage value to warrant extending the rota- tion beyond 35 years, at which age a stumpage of $5 per thousand is assumed.. The investment is reckoned at 7 per cent for a 35-year period. An initial cost of $5 per acre is allowed for establishing the stand by natural reproduction, taxes are assessed at 20 mills on the dollar for a land valuation of $3 per acre, which is assumed to in- crease $1 each succeeding decade. The sale value or cost of the land is placed at $5 per acre. 35 $5.00 40 6.73 45 9.60 50 13. 88 Thus, in order to warrant lengthening the rotation from 35 to 40 years, the value of the timber per thousand feet must increase from $5 to $6.73 during this period. This merely means that a stumpage value of $5 per thousand at 35 years will return a net profit equivalent to a stumpage value of $6.73 per thousand at 40 years. At rotations of 45 and 50 years the stumpage value would have to attain $9.60 and COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 43 $13.88, respectively. Unless the owner were assured that the larger proportion of high grades cut from stands of these greater ages and consequently larger average dimensions would give the standing timber this large increase in value, he would not be justified in deferring the final cut. ; A determination of the rotation necessarily involves some knowl- edge of the manner in which an increase in the size of logs affects the proportion of different grades that can be cut from a given stand. One or two concrete examples will probably make this clear. For instance, one millman kept a detailed record of the grades sawed from certain logs representing the yield of a heavily stocked stand in north- western Mississippi cut clear in 1912. This stand was approximately 46 years old, and the logs for the most part ranged from 14 to 30 inches top diameter inside the bark. The following proportion of different grades, based on a two months’ cut of nearly half a million feet, is believed to be fairly typical of normally stocked pure stands: Per cent, Bia Sa NOHO See ae SEO Nae oe SE Pree ue eee eG Rirsts and seconds 222 oie a= gat LFS AUR aie) ABS cere eas Vee SU (en 18 INOW ARCOM ON === === ea Seer SUF? aT Bras Nb aye ve ee 30 INO Mee pCOLMTN OTIS see ees ae Me See eke beamee st eek I ates eR 42 INOS COMMON E= = =e Eee cE ai ee Ga ee a al! In contrast to this is the actual mill tally for a run of unusually large logs from a stand supposed to be at least. 90 years old. These high-grade logs ranged from 24 to 48 inches in diameter at the top and cut out approximately the following grades of lumber: Per cent. BFS NLD ORT: CL Ge a mene Se eg Se em ase al 7 ESTES EGE MTT Cy SE COT Sue ee eee es 0 eV a ee ce Se Be 40 IND, Wana a CTO Te eS BE eee a eee ees 35 No. 2 common____ Beek pee LIN sith SS oe a SO BOE eh ee Is INOS: COMMONER sets Mure ayaa Sage byes Di pe ye ater Bits oh pt St) This lumber was graded, moreover, in 1901, when grading rules were more rigid than at present. Under present grading rules a large proportion of this material would be put in the next higher grade. In the judgment of some millmen, timber of this quality would run now more nearly as follows: Per cent. BOX OAR Spa EE os ee ok oi Beh Oi SA ee (5) RITEStsang SeCOnd Sa es Se fe ES ee eS 43 JNO TE CONTATT ANG TA A Sy a et I oie ie LUG Pies aa a eee 30s ING OO TUT ©) re eee em ee erect en e twe RPE ee AS 10 NOU SuCOMMOnes sass sir er Le A Spe 8 AMIS 28 LUST as 2 Unfortunately, no records of similar tallies for stands as young as 85 years were found. Several millmen of wide experience, how- ever, gave estimates differing but very little on the probable propor- tion of grades that could be cut from logs ranging from 14 to 24 44 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. inches in diameter, such as could usually be obtained from well- stocked stands of this age. The following figures are believed to be representative of such stands: Per cent. BOxDOatds: = 2s. 2 5 oe 2 ee ee ee 5 Rnsts: andr Seconds. = 2 eee 18 INOSaCOMMION RS 2k LV eS oes ase: See 2EeEh Se ea ie ee 30 INO 59:23 COTM OM ass os Bh ho ed pe Nts caltt Lde pa ih 2 e e 47 Prices for various grades will, of course, vary with the locality, season, or year. The following prices, which were fairly typical for the different grades f. 0. b. at the mill during the fall of 1912, are used as a basis to determine the relative log values for the several instances cited: - Per thousand. Boxboards)224 2225. s22 4201) abies 2ee bee eee $44. SKUTStiSFanar Seconds = 2s. a se eee Mem aren Mamma ds aie 88 LF eel ef INO. al e(COMMM OM Bee acl = ee Cee alee ee se) noe ie, SOARS OIL INO} 2 COTM Waar SSR ee ee 16 INOS 3éecomm Ons = Sa SU ele Be ea re a ee 12 Using these figures, the actual mill-run values per thousand feet for the instances cited are given in Table 9. TABLE 9.—Value of logs of different grades based on actual mill run. He Mill-run Age. ae: values per | Stumpage. ameter I= | 4/000 feet side bark. y é Years. Inches. 35 14-24 $20. 88 $5. 00 46 14-30 21.96 6.08 90 24-48 26.35 10.47 Assuming that logging and milling costs are the same for the three ages cited, it appears that stumpage values will be apt to increase a little more than $1 per thousand between the ages of 35 and 46 years. By comparing the stumpage values given on page 42 it is evident that one can not afford to hold the timber, since the cost increases four times more than the stumpage value. The time for cutting cottonwood stands established to-day must eventually be determined on the basis of future market conditions. From the present indica- tions, however, a maximum of 35 years will be necessary for cotton- wood grown for saw timber in natural unthinned stands. In stands established artificially the same yields can probably be obtained in much shorter time, for the regular spacing in such stands enables the young trees to attain in four or five years the dimensions of six or eight year old trees in dense natural thickets. Where thinnings are COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. be 45 possible the rotation can be further shortened. Planted stands which can be thinned once or twice during the rotation might easily reach maturity at least 5 or 6 years earlier than natural stands which have been given no special attention. If improved market conditions make it possible in the future to harvest unmanaged natural cotton- wood forests in the Mississippi Valley in 30 years, it would be possi- ble to cut well-managed, planted forests in 25 years or even less. CORDWOOD. In average natural stands of cottonwood cordwood can be obtained in about 16 years, with a total yield of approximately 424 cords per acre, or an annual yield of 2.7 cords. Under particularly favorable conditions of growth the time may be shortened to 13 years. In planted stands the time may be reduced even to 12 years, especially where thinning and cultivation are possible. Sincestands cut for cordwood can be most easily renewed by cop- picing, the second rotation should be much shorter than the first be- cause of the more rapid growth of the sprouts. No stands were found in this country to indicate the exact differ- ence in the length of retation for coppice and for seedling forest. In South America, where the coppice system is practiced on short rotations, wood of suitable dimensions for saw purposes is grown from cuttings in 10 years, and a second crop equal to the first is obtained by sprout reproduction 1 in 7 years. In the case of natural stands renewed by sprout reproduction the difference between the lengths of the first and second rotations would be much greater than in the case just mentioned, where the first stand was obtained from cuttings, a form of sprout reproduction. Reproduction by coppicing in the Mississippi Valley therefore ought to make possible a second rotation as short as 10 to 12 years. . | RETURNS FROM GROWING COTTONWOOD. The returns from growing cottonwood will depend upon the man- ner of establishing the stand and the product desired. LUMBER. Where a cottonwood stand is to be established by natural repro- duction, supplemented by planting, the following costs per acre may be taken as conservative: STAB FOU RE Ore NOI, see AE al a se aE A, Dee oan eee ee eee 14a 5 Seed trees__-___- pi Asa: aaa ma 2 ts! BES ee ED eee te Bo Roeee a5 Planting one-third the area_2—-—~--+--=--__2_= es 1. 25 46 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Where the stand is to be established wholly by planting the costs will be: Preparationof tthe sround 2 > 2 ke Se eee $2. 50 Cost of:stock<(S by \S' feet) 2-2-3 ee eee 1. 00 CosivoLsplantine ss See ee eee 95 Lee ee aioe 2. 50 Killing inv blanks: Se a ee 1.00 ° Motalcsso Soy se sures Pee ee Ee eee eee 7. 00 The cost of the land will vary widely under different conditions, but at present $5 per acre will be the average price of unprotected land unsuitable for farming. Such lands are usually valued for taxation purposes at only $1 to $3, and are seldom taxed more than two cents on the dollar. Some allowance for increased taxes in the future should, however, be made. The present land valuation for tax purposes is therefore placed at $3, and an increase of $1 per acre allowed for each succeeding decade. It is a fair assumption that a stand established by natural repro- duction, supplemented by planting one-third of the area, will yield at least three-fourths as much as the fully stocked stands shown in Table 3. On the basis of these figures such a stand would, if the stumpage is worth $5 per thousand board feet, return 7 per cent on | the investment, with a rotation of about 35 years. A planted stand, fully stocked, even though the cost of establishing it may be higher than in the case of a stand secured by natural repro- duction, should return about 7.3 per cent, because of its greater yield per acre. While on the whole at least 6 or 7 per cent can be expected from growing cottonwood, the profitableness of the undertaking must be determined for each particular case by a careful study of local condi- tions. CORDWOOD. The present low stumpage value of cordwood makes it a question- able policy to sacrifice thrifty young cottonwood brakes for this use. Such stands, if established in the same manner and at the same cost as described for saw timber, will show a return of scarcely 6 per cent. This requires a fully stocked stand over the entire area, which can scarcely be secured except by planting. With only three- fourths of a normal yield per acre, as figured for saw timber, the investment would not net more than 4 per cent. If natural reproduc- tion, supplemented by planting, would result in a fully stocked stand, the returns may be increased to 5 per cent. To make the growing of cottonwood for pulp as profitable as for saw timber, the stumpage must bring from 80 to 90 cents per cord, COTTONWOOD IN THE MISSISSIPPI VALLEY. 47 The possibility of pulp companies growing cottonwood near their plants is of special interest. It does not seem unlikely that the much higher stumpage value of pulp wood located within hauling or short shipping distance of such mills may even justify the use of fairly good farm land for this purpose. For example, if a company, by cul- tivation, thinning, etc., could raise a crop of cottonwood in 12 years, with a yield of 47 cords per acre, worth $2 per cord on the stump, it might be feasible to invest as much as $50 per acre in land, pro- vided it were rich, moist, but well-drained bottom land naturally adapted to the tree. Land as expensive as this would be already cleared. It could be put into condition for planting by plowing, etc., for $2 per acre. Assuming that 6 per cent return would satisfy a anaes growing its own pulpwood, the following outlay per acre would be adequate :* Interest on cost of land at $50, 12 years, at 6 per cent________________ $50. 61 Initial outlay (stock $1.50, planting $2.50, soil preparation, $2), $6, 12 ec Sem alte Om CTs, COMM nau wale unl ee ee Weal Bt A RE Ele See ZO Taxes (2-per cent on one-half value), 50 cents per year, 12 years, at Ger neenies. 2) ae pues Baas Le tetede ede ee 8. 43 Thinning at eight years, $2, four years, at 6 per cent______ wae: Spials Dee, 5 Cultivation, $4 per year first two years___-________-_______+__________ 15. 64 89. 27 The gross returns would be represented by 47 cords of pulp wood at $2 per cord, or $94. The crop Pond be renewed by stump sprouts at practically no cost, except cutting back all but the S2st sprout on each stump during ihe summer after felling. This should not exceed $2 per acre. Culti- vation would be necessary, since the renewed stand would be only half as dense. Because of the more branchy growth pruning would doubtless be needed after 3 or 4 years, but no thinning would be required. A 10-year rotation would probably be ample for this cop- pice growth, so that the new crop could easily return 8 per cent, as _ shown by the following costs and returns per acre: Interest on cost of land, at $50, 10 years at 8 per cent__________________ $57. 95 Cutting off sprouts, $2, 10 years, at 8 per cent_____________ giv Aa32 Taxes (2 per cent on one-half valuation), 50 cents, 10 years at 8 per CEH ss apg a ay SA aS yep Ee SR ee ee ly a ELE 7. 24 Cultivation, $4 per year for first two years at 8 per cent_______________ 16. 63 Pruning when 4 years old, $5 at 8 per cent_____________________________ 7.93 1No filling in of blanks will be necessary because of the close planting and thorough prepartion of the ground. 4 7 a Gross returns, 47 cords pulp wood at $2______-- 94. 00 ag te. : 48 BULLETIN 24, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. PLANTING. ADVISABILITY. Wherever fully stocked stands can be secured by natural reproduc- tion no planting need be done. Where seed trees of cottonwood are wanting, on low-lying areas where water stands late in the spring, and on areas where young seedlings might be choked out by vines, briers, or low underbrush, it will be necessary to supplement natural reproduction with planting. Without planting, many portions of the logged-off areas would be only indifferently restocked, while in some places reproduction would be entirely lacking. .Planting, however, is not limited to the restocking of cut-over bottom lands. ....-/.)-22:+:- 21 70 25 14 | Driven 42 miles in 2 days. 4 Grazed 4 hours a day. AS dap GO ss 2342. eee Este we asks 28 67 51 23 Do. BIN ae COE Ries toate coset cs aence 24 67 41 17 Do. AB oe oe 0 sep = sus ee - dase he 9 67 41 32 Do. Grand average........-- 21 68 42 21 | —— 1 Gain in weight instead of a shrinkage. There were three shipments of mixed cattle from Dickinson, N. Dak., to the St. Paul market that are not shown in the tables, as complete records on them were not secured. They should have run into St. Paul within 30 hours, but they were delayed for various reasons, in one case a drawbar pulled out, so that the cattle had to be unloaded and fed in transit. They were 41 hours in transit. The unloading took place at Staples, Minn., and the cattle were on feed 164 hours before reloading. One of these shipments was of 28 head of mixed cattle that had been handled carefully before loading and looked extremely well. At inarket they filled 22 pounds, leaving a net shrink: age of 25 pounds per head, just a little more than the average for the mixed cattle shown in Table 22 The’ other two shipments received exceptional maltreatment for cattle of the Northwest. It is seldom that cattle are handled in such a manner in that section. They were rounded up one day. The fol- lowing day they were driven 20 miles without either feed or water, and were then penned and held all night and until 6 p. m. the follow- SHRINKAGE OF WEIGHT OF BEEF CATTLE IN TRANSIT. 59 ing day without anything to eat or drink. They bad neither feed nor water for 48 hours before being loaded. They naturally looked very bad, almost like shadows, when loaded, and weighed up light. There was 150 pounds of hay put in the racks of each car at Dickinson, and the cattle stayed on feed and water 164 hours at Staples, Minn., where they took an enormous fill. The weights at Staples were not secured, as the cattle were supposed to run into St. Paul without being unloaded. These cattle, instead of showing a shrinkage in transit weighed from 2 to 5 pounds heavier after taking a fill at market than at Dick- inson, N. Dak. This was without doubt due to the abnormal condi- tion they were in when loaded. This method of handling cattle is to be condemned, as it is cruel to the animals in the first place and unprofitable for the shipper as well. Cattle shipped under such con- ditions look bad when they arrive at market and show the large fill to such an extent that their selling price is much lower than for animals with an average fill. This is an instance where the large fill at market.is undesirable. DETAILS OF WORK IN SOUTHWEST. The pastures throughout Texas had been very short during the whole year of 1910. In fact, the grass was so scant in some parts that many cattle would have died had there not been a fair crop of mes- quite beans upon which to feed. Because of the drought very little grass grew along the trails over which cattle traveled to the loading pens, and the cattle driven along these trails usually arrived at the loading point with a very poor fill, and consequently weighed up light at the point of origin. Some of these cattle were so empty when first weighed that the shrinkage in transit was very small, and sometimes was completely overcome by the fill taken at the market. A season of this kind is conducive to a small shrinkage. While the | results obtained from the shrinkage work of 1910-11 (shown in Part J of this bulletin) are applicable to a dry or droughty year, they do not represent the normal shrinkage under average conditions. For this reason, it was decided to duplicate the work of 1910 in the Southwest. During the winter of 1910-11 there were frequent rains, and the grass in Texas was good the following summer. This grazing season was about a normal one for Texas, and the results obtained from the shrinkage work may be taken as an average. Most of the cattle shipped in the.fall were either in good flesh or fat. There were a few exceptions, of course, but taking the cattle that were weighed as a whole, they were about the average of what go to market from Texas during a normal or average year. 60 BULLETIN 25, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. Cattle from Texas may have been driven anywhere from 1 to up- ward of 100 miles to the railroad for shipping. As a rule they are driven from 15 to 20 miles each day and then grazed along the trail for a few hours, and this procedure is kept up until the shipping pens are reached. Few cattlemen feed their cattle on arrival at the ship- ping pens before loading. Many prefer not letting their cattle have any water, or if they do, to let them drink little, as it is said they do not stand up well in the cars. The racks of the cars are seldom filled with hay for the stock to eat while in transit, as some shippers claim that the cattle will eat little of it, while others assert that if the cattle do eat much hay it will diminish their hunger to such an extent that they will not take a good fill at market. However, this was found to be the case in very few instances. The discussion of this will be taken up later. i Unfortunately for the completeness of the work, in the early fall of 1911 practically the entire cattle yards of the Fort Worth Stock Yards Co. burned, destroying all the scales in the yards but one. In consequence of this the weighing of stock after sale caused such a congestion near the scales that it was impossible to weigh the range eattie on arrival at market. For this reason the fill of the animals could not be determined, but as the sale weight was secured the net. shrinkage on each shipment was ascertained. As it is only the net shrinkage which is absolutely important to the cattlemen, the value of the work was not materially lessened. RANGE COWS IN TRANSIT LESS THAN 24 HOURS. Table 23 presents the weights and shrinkage data obtained on 1,307 range cows that were in transit to market less than 24 hours. A study of the table reveals the fact that the shrinkage varied consider- ably with the different lots, there being a range of 26 to 60 pounds on different shipments. The small shrinkages invariably occurred with the cattle that had either been driven a long way to load without having sufficient time to graze along the way, or that had been held for several hours with- out feed or water before weighing. The cattle which showed a large shrinkage were usually ones which had taken a good fill before weigh- ing, or had failed to fill at market, though sometimes it was due to a peor run to market. All of the shipments presented in this table received good runs to market, and the average shrinkage for all the animals, 84 pounds per head, will give a good idea of the shrinkage to be expected from shipping cattle a distance of about 325 miles, or a 22-hour run. The shipment from Colorado, Tex., of 31 head of cows, which were in transit only 194 hours and shrank 60 pounds, was driven but 4 dq SHRINKAGE OF WEIGHT OF BEEF CATTLE IN TRANSIT. 61 miles from the pasture to the loading pens, and had a medium fill. Evidently they failed to fill at the market. The 293 head from Colorado, Tex., forming the last item in the table, were all Mexican cows which had been on grass in Texas be- tween 60 and 90 days. They were very poor, just frames, when brought in, and had put on flesh wonderfully fast. They were driven but 9 miles and showed a shrinkage of 46 pounds per head. TABLE 23.—Range cows in transit less than 24 hours. Aver- | Aver- age age Aver- wan; Time | weight | weight| age ts Point of origin. in | at at des-| net Remarks. Head transit.| point |tination| shrink- Eek of after age. origin. fill. Hours. |Pounds.| Pounds.| Pounds. Bi | Odessa tex .27..04 50.52 234 989 952 37 | Had a medium fill when loaded. BM lay ee aN ae Sone eee 21 868 809 59 | Had grass until loaded. S20 ae ot CLUS Ot BE eas 23 987 961 26 moc ae milesin 2 days. Grass until oaded. 3!) | Colorado, Tex. ......2.- 194 868 808 60 | Driven 4 miles to loading pens. Had a medium fill. 202'|:Odessa, Tex..--....--: 23 861 834 27 | Trailed 25 miles to pens. Plenty of grass and water. Average fill. GURL eR CORRE em ce 23 879 832 47 NG eae (NS Rie eles cree AS 2) 23% 876 850 26 | Trailed 2 days to loading pens, Grass, but no water before loading. 293 | Colorado, Tex.........- 165 606 560 46 | Trailed 9 miles. Mexican cows grazed F in Texas for $0 days. Grand average. . - 22 860 826 34 The grand average of Table 23 shows the run to be of 22 hours’ duration, the average weight to be 860 pounds, and the net shrinkage to be 84 pounds. In other words, the shrinkage on cows of the South- west for an average year was found to be 4 per cent of their live weight when they were in transit 22 hours only. RANGE COWS IN TRANSIT OVER 24 HOURS. In Table 24 are the weights of 17 shipments of cows, totaling 1,383, from Odessa, Tex., to the Fort Worth market. This run should be made within 24 hours, and in Table 23 are shown several shipments which made the run in less than 24 hours, but the time required for the shipments shown here varied from 24% to 334, hours. These cattle were chiefly grade Herefords and Shorthorns, though some were of common breeding. Practically all of them were in good condition, and some were really fat for grass cattle. The weather was good during the whole fall, though some of the days were hot. No storms or “northers” came during the time these cattle were being shipped: The animals ranged in weight from 817 to 1,002 pounds at the loading point, averdging 907 pounds. The shrinkage 62 BULLETIN 25, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. on the different shipments varied greatly, ranging from 4 pounds to 64 pounds per head. The first shipment of 25 cows was driven only 7 miles and was grazed before loading, so they had a good fill. They were in transit 283 hours but did not have a good run. The result was that they shrank 64 pounds per head. The third shipment shrank but 4 pounds ~ each. The fourth shipment of 80 head of cows was in transit 31 hours. These cattle had a very slow run, but still shrank only 6 pounds each. They evidently took a big fill at the market. The shipment of 291 head of cows was driven 110 miles from the ranch to the railroad. They were on the road seven days, being trailed about 16 miles a day and grazed. However, the trip was a hard one because of its great length. ‘The cattle were grazed the day before shipping but had neither feed nor water the day they were shipped, and as they were not loaded until 3 p. m. they looked hollow and were empty. ‘The shrinkage on these cattle was only 16 pounds per head, which was of course due to the poor fill they had when loaded. As there are many cattle loaded in Texas under the same conditions this shipment is an important one and may be taken as an average for shrinkage on such shipments. The difference between the shrinkage of cattie leaded under the ~ above conditions and of cattle leaded where they have had an oppor- tunity to graze and drink before loading is clearly shown by the com- parison of this shipment with the next one below. These 27 cattle were on the road to the loading pens two days, but had grass and water until loading time. They were in transit to market 244 hours, the same time as the 291 head, and were handled the same way after loading, but they shrank 51 pounds per head, as compared with 16 pounds for the previous shipment. The greater part of this shrink- age of 51 pounds was merely the loss of the fill taken before loading. The last shipment shown in the table was composed of 29 cows in medium fiesh. These cattle had a very poor run to market, requiring 334 hours to make the trip. Their shrinkage was 58 pounds per head. As their fill taken at market was not secured it can not be said just how much of this large shrinkage was due to the very poor run and how much to a lack of fill at the market. | The grand averages for the 1,383 cows show their average weight to be 907 pounds, the time in transit to market to be 27 hours, and their net shrinkage to be 32 pounds per head. This is but 3.5 per cent of their live weight. SHRINKAGE OF WEIGHT OF BEEF CATTLE IN TRANSIT. 63 TABLE 24.—Range cows in transit over 24 hours. Aver- | Aver- age age Aver- ‘pe Time | weight | weight} ago of Point of origin. in at | at des-| net Remarks. head transit.| point |tination| shrink- i of after age. origin. fill. | Hours. |Pounds.|Pownds.| Pounds. 25 | Odessa, Tex..........-. 284 | 1,002 938 64 | Trailed 7 miles carefully. V7 0A eee G0 3 ee 28% 876 836 40 24h | eee Coens ai beset ie As 25 907 903 4 | Had a poor fill when loaded. Ove 222% COME EES Sic. deh .c 31 910 904 6 MAS ob CLORME SMES EE eras. eae a 29 | 973 929 44 | Trailed 2 days. Plenty of grass and water on road to pens. OOM ose. GU aoe teres 243 974 924 50 Gilets: Gayesats Se. ce tact.. § 244 905 866 39 moo eee <& GOREN ye Se peak oy 24% 969 943, 26 29) Vis. 3 Ov ests eaess-2 223 27 885 850 35 | Driven 8 miles. Had neither feed nor water before loading. ‘ AB te ¢ Gorrsn. «fence css - 26 895 849 46 C Oo Lele (he)... 244 844 828 16 | Driven 110 miles in 7 days to loading pens. No feed or water 20 hours H before. Oy Weataes GOs Peer fet 522 1 244 | 1,001 950 51 | On road 2 days. Plenty of grazing. Had medium fill. ‘Do eae Chat Baa ete Roe 244 | 885 845 40 | Driven 8 miles. Looked well and had | a good fill. i Wee Ose Set ete ceet 4s ., 25 817 774 43 Do. GOr eee. GOnsaee ace ce es <2 334 868 827 | 41 | Driven 35 miles in 3 days. Had ; | medium fill. Poor run to Fort Worth. SWrlews.. LORE ae he ees ary! ie 304 852 808 | 44 | Trailed 90 miles in 6 days. Medium fill. 21!) ae GO 3 tases 33h 876 818 | 58 | Had a poor run to market. Grand average... 27 907 875 32 A comparison of Table 23 and Table 24 shows that the shrinkage on cows that received a normal run to market is much more uniform than for those that were delayed in transit or that just made slower time. An average of all the shipments of the cows that were from 1 to 10 hours longer in transit than an average good run from the same points shows an increased shrinkage of but 4 pounds, but the shrinkages were much more variable. In some cases, however, a large shrinkage could only be attributed to delayed transportation. The average shrinkage on 983 cattle from Odessa, Tex., in Table 23 that were in transit less than 24 hours was 28 pounds per head, while the shrinkage on those over 24 hours in transit was 32 pounds per head. The cattle were practically the same size in each case, and were handled under similar conditions. : A comparison of the shrinkage of range cows in the Southwest in transit under 36 hours can be made with the shrinkage of range cows in the Northwest for the first period of their journey, averaging 36 hours (see Table 21). In the Northwest the shrinkage for the - first 86 hours was 39 pounds per head, while in the Southwest the shrinkage was 82 pounds. The shrinkage on southwestern cows for the short runs (Table 23) was 34 pounds. These results are seen to be very uniform when we consider the live weights of the 64 BULLETIN 25, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, animals. Thus, the proportion of shrinkage to live weight of the southwestern cows for the short runs (average 22 hours) was 4 per cent and for the longer runs (average 27 hours) 3.5 per cent. The proportion for the northwestern cows for the first portion of their journey (36 hours) was 3.82 per cent. The grand average percentage for all is, therefore, practically the same. MIXED RANGE CATTLE IN TRANSIT LESS TEAN 24 HOURS. Ranchmen like to cut out the cattle that are to be shipped in such manner that the different classes will not be mixed in the cars. This can not always be done, however, and animals of the various classes are sometimes indiscriminately thrown together, giving rise to mixed shipments. These consignments of mixed cattle do not always ship well, as the large ones squeeze and trample the small or the weak , ones, and if the journey is very long there may be several dead or erippled animals in a car when it arrives at the market. The shrink- age on these mixed shipments of cattle may not.be greater than on other classes of live stock, but because of the losses in shipping more lawsuits arise from this class of stuff than any other, and conse- quently the railroad companies have an aversion to it. In Table 25 are displayed the data from shipments of mixed range cattle aggregating 849 head that were in transit less than 24 hours. All of these cattle originated from near Colorado, Tex., or Odessa, Tex. They, of course, varied in weight more than any other class of cattle, this variation depending largely upon the percentage of calves in the shipment. The average weights of the different ship- ments ranged from 415 pounds for a bunch of Mexican heifers to 936 pounds for a shipment of cattle from Odessa, Tex. The time in transit did not vary greatly, being 17 hecurs to 224 hours. There is a greater variation in the shrinkage for this class of ani- mals than any other. In the table this ranged from a gain in weight of 2 pounds per head in a shipment containing 17 cows and 23 calves to a loss in weight of 71 pounds per head on another lot. The 406 cattle which averaged 2 pounds heavier at Fort Worth than they did at Colorado, Tex., were fat, but they had no feed or water before being loaded and were very empty. They took a good fill at market, which more than overcame the light shrinkage in transit. The consignment from Colorado, Tex., of 29 cattle which shrank 71 pounds each had been pastured but 3 miles from town, and was a mixture of steers and cows. They were taken direct from the pas- ture to the loading pens, and were there given a feed of green kafir corn before being loaded and weighed. This gave the cattle an ab- normal fill and also had a bad effect on them, as is shown by the fact that they were in transit but 21 hours and yet shrank 71 pounds per Jj SHRINKAGE OF WEIGHT OF BEEF CATTLE IN TRANSIT. 65 head. An average of all the shipments of Table 25 shows a shrink- age of 26 pounds per head. The 68 bulls from Odessa, Tex., weighed 1,124 pounds each and shrank 38 pounds per head, or 12 pounds more than the average for all the cattle. The five cars of steers, 139 head, shrank but 19 pounds each, or 7 pounds less than the average. The shipment of 40 Mexi- can heifers from Colorado shrank 26 pounds each. These heifers had been shipped in from Mexico 60 days previous and put on pas- ture. While they had gained in weight while on pasture, they were still poor when shipped. The grand average of all the 849 head of cattle showed them to have been in transit 21 hours to market, to have had an average weight of 783 pounds, and to have lost 26 pounds in weight, from shipping. TABLE 25.—WVired range cattle in transit less than 24 hours. fo’ Aver- | Aver- x = age age ver- oe Time | weight | weight | age e Point of origin. in- at | atdes-| net Remarks. Head transit.) point tination) shrink- 3 of | after age. origin. | fill. : Hours. |Pounds.|Pounds.| Pounds. 32) (eCalorado, Mex. . =~. -..<- 18 722 | 722 0 AT WwOdessa, Tem. o2. 7220. 23% 519 497 22 | These were 14 cows and 33 calves. Bae COME a cps sewers saci: 194 950 904 46 | These were 65 cows and 19 bulls. 92 | Colorado, Tex.......... 174 739 714 25 Driven 9 miles slowly. Had medium AQ} | eae C10). 5 i ote Rem seeee 174 508 510 i1+2 | These were 17 cows and 23 calves. Poor fill at Colorado. 25uOdessa,Nex. 2.2.2 25.. | 24 928 910 18 Oiileiae = Os Gta eee 24 936 913 23 17): Aaeee Ge lee mac eeeneeeee 23% 846 820 26 | Cattle were “worked”’ 2 days at ranch. On road 2 days to pens. 43 | Colorado, Tex.........- 18} 521 496 25 | The calves were fat, but the cows were poor and weak. PT Gomens eee Sse 21 886 815 71 | Driven but 3 miles and fed green kafir corn before loading. Gsr|sO dessa Nox. 5-2 23 1,124 | 1,086 38 | 3 cars of bulls. 1S9G |e COME a Anemos so! 193 750 731 19 | 5 cars of steers. 40 | Colorado, Tex.......... 17 415 389 26 | Thin 2-year-old Mexican heifers. Grand average..... 21 783 757 26 1 Gain in weight instead of a shrinkage. MIXED RANGE CATTLE IN TRANSIT OVER 24 HOURS. The shrinkage on mixed range cattle in transit to market over 24 hours is presented in Table 26. All of the 150 head in the table originated near Odessa, Tex., and are shipments which made poor time to market. These shipments should have gone through within 24 hours, but for various reasons were longer. The difference in shrinkage between these cattle and those from Odessa that did make the run within 24 hours may be considered due to delay, etc. Each ‘shipment was made up of but a single car, and was made up largely 8472°— Bull. 25—13——_5 66 BULLETIN 25, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of 2-year-olds, cows, and bulls, with a few steers mixed in. There were very few calves in the shipments. The cattle were in transit from 244 to 31 hours, and ranged from 614 to 878 pounds in weight. The shrinkage was not so variable with these cattle as with those in transit less than 24 hours. Tt will be noticed that the shipment of 30 head, although the heaviest cattle, shrank the least in shipping. This is readily ex- plained by the fact that they were started from the ranch at 3 o’clock in the afternoon and were driven 18 miles to the loadmg point, ar- riving there the next afternoon, where they were penned. They were loaded and weighed at 6 p. m., having had neither feed nor water since they left the ranch 27 hours previous. They were conse- quently very empty and could not shrink as much as cattle under average conditions. Then, too, they were in transit but 244 hours and took a fairly good fill at market. The shipment of 26 head of cattle had been held on good pasture within 6 miles of the loading pens for several days previous to shipping. They were penned at 11 a. m. and held in the pens until ' 5 o'clock in the afternoon without feed or water. They were then weighed, but were not loaded until 10 o’clock that night. They had a poor fill when weighed and shrank only 21 pounds after the fill at - market. On the other hand the two shipments of 28 head each had been trailed a long distance and were watered just previous to weighing. The result was a big shrinkage with each of them—75 pounds per head in one case and 55 pounds per head im the other. The latter shipment had been trailed 52 miles. The grand average of all the shipments shows they were in transit 29 hours, their weight was 751 pounds, and their shrinkage was 42 pounds each. This is 5.6 per cent of their live weight. TABLE 26.—Mizxed range catile in transit over 2h hours. Aver- | Aver- TNE é age age Aver- Wee : at Time | weight | weight} age of Point of origin. in| at at des-| net Remarks. head transit.} point |tination| shrink- i of after age. origin. | fill. Hours. |Pouwnds.|Pownds.| Pounds. aout) Odessa. Lexis. we eae oeae 31 614 573 41 PACs eee ols Genes eR Cee fr 29 814 793 21 | Driven 6 miles and held all day without feed or water. YOM RSS ACS (ce BE BEE Eat ste Bod 29 782 707 75 5 eons coc Pea eee ee a 244 878 859 19 | Driven 18 miles. Had no feed or water | ; for 26 hours before loading. 23 Go Lies ee ae Gee 31 qi 656 55 | Driven 52 miles in 4 days. Were i ' watered before loading. Grand average... _- 29 751 709 42 SHRINKAGE OF WEIGHT OF BEEF CATTLE IN TRANSIT. 67 The average shrinkage per head on the mixed cattle from Odessa that were in transit less than 24 hours was 28 pounds. ‘There were 573 head of these cattle shown in Table 25. A comparison of these with the shipments of Table 26 discloses the fact that the cattle in transit 29 hours shrank 12 pounds more than. those in transit less than 24 hours. As all of them should have made the trip within the 24-hour limit, the excess shrinkage of 12 pounds per head may be attributed to the poor or slow transportation. RANGE CALVES IN TRANSIT TO MARKET. The shrinkage on calves has been found to be more uniform than on any other class of cattle shipped. Regardless of the weather, grazing, and other factors which seriously affect the shrinkage on large cattle, the variation in the shrinkage of calves is small. This is because the cows are always driven to the loading pens with the calves, and the calves stay with their mothers until time to cut them out to load. Their fill therefore is of milk, which is usually small in amount, and the subsequent shrinkage is likewise small. The fill at market also is not large, being but a few pounds as a rule, hence the uniformity in the results obtained. On the 211 calves in Table 27 there is a shrinkage of 11 to 13 pounds for the different shipments. This gave an average of 12 pounds, or 4.8 per cent of their live weight. It is seen, therefore. that while the shrinkage is small it is uniform and in about the same proportion to the weight of the animals as with grown cattle. TasBLE 27.—Range calves in transit less than 86 hours. Aver- | Aver- ; age age Aver- Bre : Time | weight | weight} age MA Point of origin. in | at |atdes-| net Remarks. head transit.| point |tination} shrink- ore of after age. origin. | fill. Hours. |\Pounds.|Pounds.| Pounds. 73 | Odessa, Tex......-.-45 ) > eR 216 205 11 | Driven 7 miles. Loaded without teed | or water. le Ne Sour GEO sebs Se b= chat ek 21 253 240 13 Gon eColorado, Dexe 225 282 194 271 260 i1 | Driven i1milesin2 days. Stayed with cows until loaded. Grand average..... 23 246 234 12 SUMMARY. In Table 28 is presented a summary of the work of 1911. About 5,000 animals were weighed in securing these data. The grazing season of 1911 was about the average for good years, or a little better than the average when all years are considered. The results secured 68 BULLETIN 25, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. are therefore a good indication of what may be expected during a normal season. In column 1 is shown the number of shipments of each of the various classes of cattle. Column 2 shows the number of animals in each of these classes. The third column shows the average weight of the cattle at the point of origin. It is seen that the animals from the Northwest are heavier than those from the Southwest; the south- western cows weighed from 860 to 907 pounds, while the northwest- ern cows averaged 1,020 pounds.. The large difference between the weights of the mixed cattle from the two sections is partially due to the larger proportion of calves among the mixed cattle from the Southwest. The burning of the cattle yards and all of the scales but one at Fort Worth prevented the cattle from being weighed on arrival from the ranch; hence their shrinkage in transit and fill at market can not be shown. The net shrinkage, however, is shown for all of the shipments. In the fourth column is shown the variation in the gross shrinkage. This variation of shrinkage for the different shipments in each class was not great, being. 18, 25, and 26 pounds, respectively, for the range steers, cows, ana mixed ee from the Northwest. The average _ gYOss ap inkage, as recorded in column 5, was 111, 97, and 49 pounds, respectively, for the same classes of cattle. The fill taken at market was very uniform for all classes, the great- est variation being 19 pounds for the mixed cattle. The average fill for the steers, cows, and mixed cattle from the Northwest was 41, 36, and 21 pounds, respectively. The last two columns of the table present figures for the range and the average net shrinkage for the various classes of cattle. It is of interest to nete how much more uniform the shrinkage was on the different shipments of cattle from the Northwest as compared with these of the Southwest, the range of net shrinkages being quite wide with the shipments from the Southwest. The range of net shrinkage on northwestern cows was from 65 to 83 pounds, a difference of 18 pounds, while with the southwestern cows it was 26 to 60 in one case and 4 to 64 in another. The average net shrinkage on all of the cattle was as follows: Calves, 12 pounds; northwestern range steers in transit 68 hours, 70 pounds; cows from the Southwest in transit less than 24 hours, 34 pounds, and those in transit from 2+ to 36 hours, 32 pounds. The mixed cattle of the Southwest shrank 26 pounds per head when in transit less than 24 hours and 42 pounds when in transit from 24 to 36 hours, while the mixed cattle of the Northwest shrank but 21 pounds per head while in transit for about 72 hours. | . SHRINKAGE OF WEIGHT OF BEEF CATTLE IN TRANSIT. 69 TABLE 28.—Summary of northwestern and southwestern work of 1911. dross shrink- | Villat mar- | Net shrink- | Ratio , age. ket. age. of Num-| wum- eve} eek he fy Mie Ser Soa ete | SHYT Kn Trasankotl ber of ap age to escription. ship- pene welght tiie cattle. a ee n 2h hearst easy origin. | Range. mo Range. pis Range. we My goat origin. Southwestern range calves Pounds.|'Pounds.| Lbs. |Pounds.| Lbs. |Pownds.| Lbs. | Per ct. en route less than 36 hours. 3 211 24.6 Weer eee eke e bicmtes Se latins ae 11-13 12 4.9 Northwestern range steers en rovte over 36 hours... -. 5 730 1,193 | 106-124 111 40-41 41 65-83 70 6.0 Southwestern range cows en route less than 24 hours... 8 | 1,307 860) aces See belose ee cheat 26-60 34 4.0 Southwesterm range cows en route 24 to 36 hours .....-. 17 | 1,383 QO Till eielesieigers| Pais os | == oie sini 4-64 32 3.6 Northwestern range cows en route over 36 hours........ 3 126 | 1,020] 85-110 97 | 35-37 36 | 50-72 61 6.0 Southwestern mixed range xe cattle en route less than 24 GIES een ssisc caescce enc 13 849 TSB a craicteialerelltete leis a) isieie1s 57ers |e wr ererere +21-71 26 3.3 Southwesterm mixed range cattle en route 24 to 36 hours. 5 150 7b ease a Aba Hasan Seen reise 19-75 42 5.6 Northwestern mixed range cattle en route over 36 QUES S Peeuchicies dideoetia- 4 180 | 1,066 25-51 42 9-28 21 | 14-32 21 2.0 2 1 Gain in weight instead of a shrinkage. CONCLUSIONS. 1. A big shrinkage may be caused by one of three things, viz., (a) A big fill at the point of origin when weighed; (0) failure to fill at destination; or (c) a poor, slow run to market. 2. The shrinkage for the first 24 hours is always greater than for any succeeding period of the same length, and the rate of shrinkage is also much greater for the first 24-hour period than for any suc- ceeding period. 3. Cattle of the Northwest will shrink from 5 to 6 per cent of their live weight while in transit from 36 to 72 hours. 4, There is practically no difference in the rate of shrinkage of spayed heifers and steers of the same size and quality when shipped under similar conditions. 5. The shrinkage of cattle from Montana and the Dakotas to the Chicago market was not as great as usually predicted by the cattle- men of that section. 6. The careful handling of cattle while driving to the loading pens, and the feeding of some good bright hay just before loading is profitable for the shipper. 7. Too great a fill of water just previous to loading should be avoided, the condition of the cattle should approach the normal as near as possible when ready to ship. 8. The practice of holding cattle off feed and water for a long period before shipping with the idea that they will take an exceed- 70 BULLETIN 25, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. ingly large fill at market is a poor policy, as it is neither profitable nor humane. 9. The shrinkage is more uniform with calves than with any other class of animals. Their shrinkage, however, maintains about the same ratio to their live weight as does the shrinkage on grown ani- mals shipped the same distance. 10. There was a smaller percentage of calves shipped from the ranges of the Northwest than from the Southwest. 11. An average for all of the shipments shows that during the second period of 36 hours in transit the cattle shrank about 40 per cent less than they did during the first 36-hour period. iV. SUMMARY OF THREE YEARS’ SHRINKAGE WORK. By W. I. WARD, Senior Animal Husbandman, Animal Husbandry Division. GENERAL STATEMENT. The cattle used in making this investigation were raised in differ- ent parts of the West. The range cattle work was carried on in the various Western States from Texas to Montana, and the work with the fed cattle was confined chiefly to the States of the Middle West. No discrimination was made against any section, but the work was done where the conditions were most favorable for it. There were many things that had to be considered, but the one of most impor- tance was the scales used in making the weighings. There were no platform scales that could be used in weighing cattle on the hoof in the range country, so the railroad track scales had to be used. Great care was taken in making all weighings that the data should be accurate. The officials of the railroads realized the importance of the work and gave whatever aid was asked of them. The Texas and Pacific road even went so far as to purchase scales for weighing cattle on the hoof and placed them in the alleys of two of their important loading pens, so that all cattle would have to pass over them before being loaded. These scales were large, being 14 by 42 feet, so that a whole car of cattle could get on them at one time without crowding. They were set on a solid concrete foundation and were very accurate. ‘The installation of these scales at Colorado, Tex., and Odessa, Tex., aided very materially in securing the shrink- age data on cattle from the Southwest. The burning of the cattle yards at Fort Worth in 1911 prevented the weights of cattle being taken on arrival, so the fill the animals took at market could not be ascertained for that year. The shrinkage of cattle in transit is such a variable factor that no one can say definitely how much it will be during a journey, but by the use of very large numbers of cattle an average shrinkage will be obtained which may be used as a basis for estimating the amount of shrinkage on cattle shipped under similar conditions. The figures for any class of cattle of the Southwest will be seen to vary widely for the years of 1910 and 1911 because of the great dis- similarity in the two seasons, which caused a difference in the graz- ing, the fatness of the animals, scarcity of water, etc. If the figures Td 72 BULLETIN 25, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. of this bulletin are used, care should be taken to look up the results for shipments of cattle that were made under conditions similar to the ones which are to be used for comparison. The results shown in Part I are typical of a very droughty year in the Southwest, and therefore could not be used in estimating the shrinkage of cattle shipped from Texas during a good grazing season. The figures shown in Part ITI should be used for such. Nor would they be ap- plicable for estimating a shrinkage on cattle in the Northwest. The range cattle of the Southwest principally came from Texas, although there were some from Arizona and Mexico. From the Northwest the range cattle came chiefly from the Dakotas, Montana, Wyoming, and Nebraska. It is interesting to note that in the work of the Northwest there is not a shipment of calves recorded, while they were quite common in the Southwest. Texas has built up a reputation for calves as feeders and stock cattle, while in the North- west they are kept on the range until they are 2 to 4 years old. The northwestern cattle are heavier, usually fatter and shrink more per head in shipping than do Texas cattle, but when the length of the journey to market is considered there is very little difference in the shrinkage. When care is used in trailing the cattle to the loading pens, not driving them too fast nor too far in a day and giving them five or six hours a day to graze on the way, long distances may be covered with no apparent injury to the cattle. On arrival at the pens it is well to give the animais a light feed of hay with a little water, or allow them to graze a short time before loading them, unless the grass is very luxuriant. An excessive fill of water or green fodder or grass just before loading is not good for the cattle, as it may cause them to scour in transit; then, too, they will not stand up as well in the cars. The scouring may affect the intestinal tract to such an extent that the cattle will not take a good fill at the market. All of the corn-fed cattle were finished during the winter or early spring months. While none of them had to be driven long distances to the loading pens, the roads were often in such bad condition because of snow and ice as to make the trip laborious and hard on the cattle. The cattle were usually fed and watered a short time before loading, and many times hay was put in the racks of the cars. The treatment they received in this respect was far better than that which was accorded to the range cattle. There is no doubt that the feed given the cattle before loading increased the shrinkage in transit, but that does not mean that it was not beneficial to the cattle and profitable to the shipper, because the cattle would naturally look better for having been handled this way, and they would sell at the market at a price which would more than offset the increased shrinkage. More care is always taken by the feeder than by the ranchman in SHRINKAGE OF WEIGHT OF BEEF CATTLE IN TRANSIT. 73 preparing cattle for shipping. This is natural, for conditions are such that it is much easier for him to do this; then, too, his stock is more valuable per pound than grass cattle, and the increased shrink- age on them entails a greater financial loss. The feeders of beet-pulp cattle have made a closer study of the shrinkage of their stock than any other class of feeders. This is probably because the operators of sugar mills feed large numbers of cattle and can therefore be better equipped to do the weighing. It must be conceded, however, that usually they are more progressive than the average farmer or stockman. The cattle fed on beet pulp were always taken off the pulp ration about 24 hours previous to shipping and put on a dry ration of hay and grain. This always eaused a shrinkage in weight, varying from a small amount.to as high as 68 pounds per head. This shrinkage for the day before shipping naturaliy decreased the shrinkage which the cattle would undergo, while in the cars. Even then, however, the shrinkage in transit on the pulp cattle was always large. Feeders who finish their cattle on silage follow practically the same plan in regard to giving the cattle dry hay or fodder for the 24 hours preceding shipment. It is not uncommon, also, for the water to be cut off from the silage-fed cattle for about 12 hours before loading. This naturally causes the cattle to undergo a shrinkage just previous to shipping and thus favors a smaller shrinkage in transit. Table 29 follows, showing a general summary of all the shrinkage work recorded in this bulletin. Taste 29.—Cenreral summary of three years’ shrinkage work. Gross oT 2 Ta eet: Ratio a: Aver.| Shrinkage. Fill at market. ) Net shrinkage. ‘ of Num- shrink- Num-| age fre Class. pone ber of |weight age to nip- |. live merit Cater at, Aver- Aver- Aver-} weight origin.| Range. age. Range. age. Range. age. at origin. Range steers in transit Dbs. | Pounds.| Dbs. | Pounds. | Lbs. | Pounds. | Lbs. | Per ct. See than 36 ees oe nl aae LON CE eee cs i es) See eR | | A AU Th 19- 55 29 3. 65 ange steers in transi 36 to 72 hours. .....-. § 882 | 1,186 57-124 89 13-41 25 26- 83 64 5.40 Range steers in transit over 72 hours... .... ee 2 169 | 1,116 85- 99 88 2-36 27 49- 97 61 5.47 Range cows in transit less than 24 hours. ..- 15 | 1,724 838 33-105 60 5-88 30 j1 +12- 60 30 3.58 Range cows in transit 24 to 36 hours....-..- 21 | 1,551 896 38-129 70 9-70 39 j1+ 5- 64 31 3.46 Range cows in transit 36 to 72 hours. ......- 4 275 | 1,034 90-110 96 36-56 46 34- 72 50 4.84 Range cows in transit over 72 hours....--..- 3 177 | 1,010 49- 85 70 28-35 30 21- 56 40 3.96 “sate yas caule in ransit less than NOUNS sce k lak oe 21 | 1,511 700 19- 84 37 1-56 22 |1+12- 71 15 2.14 Mixed range cattle in transit 24 to 36 hours -} 17 872 848 27-118 72 | 2 —8-55 18 19-114 54 6.37 1 The plus sign (-+) indicates a gain in weight instead of a shrinkage. Attention is called to the 16 ship- ments of range calves, whorein the ratio of shrinkage to live weight (last column of table) is unduly low, because the great majority (13) of the shipments occurred in 1910, the droughty year. The 3 shipments in 1911, the normal year, gave a ratio of 4.9 per cent. : 2 The minus sign (—) indicates a icss in weight instead of a fill. 74 BULLETIN 25, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. TABLE 29.—General sununary of three years’ shrinkage work—Continued. Gross . . = yea shrinkage. Fillat market. | Net shrinkage. patie re Num-=|, age | -tes pt |e ee shvink Class. ship- ber ot point age ag -« | cattle a weight ments. ae Aver- Aver- Aver- origin. 1078 at g Range. age, Range. age. Range. Bea eater, Mixed range cattle in Lbs. | Pounds. | Lbs.| Peunds. | Lbs. | Pounds. | Lbs. | Per ct. transit 26 to 72 hours. 10 622 954 go-110 76 §-47 39 i+ I- 51 37 3.88 Mixed range cattle in transit over 72 hours. . 6 988 729 42- 96 80 16-40 29 7 71 51 7.00 Range calves in transit less than 24 hours. ... 8 773 185 jt+2 1- 17 26 2 6-13 27 |}+14- 13 |!+1]1+ .59 Range calves in transit H over 24 hours.....-.-- 8 772 193 3 6- il 36 | #—83-17 | 311 [f+ 9- 13 }14+5 |1+2.45 Mixed corn-fed caitle in transit less than 24 hours eet ee 4 164 | 1,303 59- 95 67 4-48 16 20- 64 51 3.91 Mixed corn-fed cattle ies in transit 24 to 36 OUTS hes eee aes 59 | 1,853 | 1,167 47-128 85 19-52 37 18- 88 48 4,11 Mixed silage-fed cattle in transit less than 24 ROLES oe ce oe 14 665 | 1,168 46-128 76 6-97 52 [i+ 7- 67 24 2.05 Mixed silage-fed cattle in transit 24 to 36 FOUTS Ga ee. oer ge 4 169 | 1,204 84-121 } 101 50-64 58 27- 75 43 3.57 Cottonseed-meal-fed Steers in transit 30 to ASMOUTS {pune ee 10 | 1,296 | 1,074 61— 76 72 9-21 14 41- 73 58 5.40 Beet-pulp-fed cattle in transit 60 to 120 hours. 10 | 1,009 | 1,390 90-111 | 100 11-26 25 16- 99 75 5. 40 Beet-pulp-fed cattle in transit 38 to 120 hours. Yee Wer) El ep eee al eae Mee AIA AIA SAE os Sle ee 14+ 5-132 ye ote 1 The plus sign (+) indicates a gain in weight instead cf shrinkage. Attention is called to the 16 ship- ments of range ‘calves, wherein the ratio of shrinkage to live weight (last column of table) is unduly low, because the great majority (13) of the shipments occurred in 1910, the droughty year. The 3 shipments in 1911, the normal year, gave a ratio of 4.9 per cent. 2 Data on 635 head. 8 Data on 699 head. 4 The minus (—) indicates a loss in weight instead of a fill. Note.—The data were incomplete on the shipments where blank spaces are found. The cattle men tioned in the text but not included in the tables are not shown in this table, nor are the 7 shipments of 1,310 cattle presented in Table 5. CONCLUSIONS. There is no way of entirely preventing shrinkage in the shipping of cattle, but by judicious care in handling and feeding the cattle just previous to shipping the shrinkage may be lessened. If cattle are to be in transit for 24 hours or longer it 1s a good plan to feed about two bales of nice bright hay for each carload a few hours before loading. The reader should understand that the three tests in this bulletin are not directly comparable, but they do in a general way give a good idea of what will occur in vane cattle ee various conditions. The difference in the shrinkage of the cattle of Parts I and IIT was chiefly due to the season and factors which are influenced by it. Dur- ing the season of 1910 most of the shrinkage of the cattle occurred during the drive to the loading pens, because there was little grass and water to be secured along the trails and the cattle were so empty when shipped that the shrinkage was small, and the fill taken at market oftentimes overcame it. SHRINKAGE OF WEIGHT OF BEEF CATTLE IN TRANSIT. 75 When the distance to market is considered, the shrinkage on the cattle from the northwestern ranges was about the same as the shrinkage of Texas cattle during a normal year. The grazing season of 1911 was a normal one over the entire West, so the shrinkages of range cattle for that year are directly comparable. in Part III the shrinkage on cattle from the Southwest was 34 © pounds for cows in transit less than 24 hours; 32 pounds for cows in transit from 24 to 36 hours, and 26 to 42 pounds for mixed cattle in transit for the same periods; while in the Northwest the shrinkage for the first 36-hour period was 39 pounds for cows, 39 pounds for steers, and 18 pounds for mixed cattle. In other words the shrink- age in the Southwest was 3.5 per cent of the live weight for cows and 3.7 per cent for mixed cattle, while in the Northwest the -per- centage was about 3.3 for an average of all the cattle for the first 36 hours en route. In Part II the shrinkage for mixed range cattle in transit over 72 hours is seen to be 53 pounds per head, or 5.1 per cent of their live weight, while in Part Til the shrinkage on range cattle in transit for the same length of time is 70 pounds for steers, 61 pounds for cows, and 21 for mixed cattle, or an average of 60 pounds per head when all are considered. The range cattle used in Part Ii were shipped from Wyoming and Montana, while those recorded in Part Til were from Montana and the Dakotas. The shrinkage on the lat- ter cattle was 5.9 per.cent for the cows and 6 per cent for the steers, which was a little greater than for the cattle recorded in Part II. When all of the cattle from the Northwest are considered which were in transit over 70 hours, the shrinkage ranged from 3.96 to 7 pez cent, or an average of about 54 per cent of their live weight. The shrinkage of all the cattle from the sand hills of Nebraska was about 5.2 per cent of their live weight. In Part IT is shown the shrinkage data on pulp-fed and silage- fed cattle. The pulp-fed cattle shrank very materially when they were put on dry feeds for 24 hours just previous to shipping. In one case this shrinkage was 82 pounds and in ancther case 68 pounds per head. Despite these large losses in weight just previous to load- ing, the shrinkage in transit and the net shrinkage at market were greater per head than for any other class of cattle. They did not take as large a fill as might have been expected. The net shrinkage on the pulp-fed cattle was 5.4 per cent of their live weight. Some very interesting data are found in the table on pulp feed- ing in Part I]. It is shown that the shrinkage on the pulp-fed cattle increased with the length of the journey. The distances and time of shipments in transit from the Colorado feed lots to market were about as follows: To St. Joseph, 520 miles or 57 hours; Karisas City, 580 BULLETIN 25, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. miles or 60 hours; St. Louis, 825 miles or 70 hours; and Chicago, 1.000 miles or 119 hours. The average shrinkage of all cattle to St. Joseph was 37 pounds; to Kansas City, 554 pounds; to St. Louis, 68 pounds; and to Chicago, 884 pounds. The silage-fed cattle were usually put on dry feed the day before shipping, and no doubt there was considerable shrinkage on these cattle during this time, although there are no data to confirm this. This would be especially noticeable where the water was cut off from them for 12 hours before shipping, as was sometimes done. All of the silage-fed cattle shrank heavily in transit, but in every case took a large fill at market. The fills taken were so large that the net shrinkage on silage-fed cattle averaged smaller than for any other class of fed cattle. There was one shipment of 107 head of silage-fed cattle which were held off water but given dry feeds for over 15 hours. before shipping, and consequently shrank so little in transit that the fill taken at market overcame the shrinkage and they showed a gain of 7 pounds each. This lowered the shrinkage on the whole class sev- eral pounds. The shrinkage on the silage-fed cattle was 29 pounds for those in transit less than 24 hours and 43 pounds fer those in transit from 24 to 36 hours. This was equivalent to 2.05 per cent of the live weight in one case and 3.57 per cent in the other. A glance at Table 29, presenting the general summary of the work, brings out the fact that the weights of about 2,500 head of corn-fed cattle were used in determining the shrinkage on this class. The gross shrinkage is seen to vary widely, ranging from 47 to 128 pounds per head. The fill taken at market varied from 4 to 52 pounds per head. The average fill at market was smaller than for any other class of grown cattle except those fed on cottonseed meal and hulls. The net shrinkage of these cattle was 51 pounds for the steers which were in transit less than 24 hours, and 48 pounds for lighter steers which were in transit from 24 to 36 hours. This was a heavier shrinkage than that of the range cattle for the same length of time, but when the weight of the animals is considered the percentage of shrinkage is seen to be about the same, the corn- fed steers in transit less than 24 hours shrinking 3.91 per cent as compared with 4.11 per cent for the steers in transit from 24 to 36 hours. This shrinkage was greater than that of the silage-fed steers, but much smaller than for the puip-fed cattle. The cattle fed on cottonseed hulls and meal shrank very uniformly, and the gross shrinkage was not large; it was, in fact, not as large as that of either pulp or silage fed cattle. However, all of these cattle arrived at market when snow and ice were everywhere in evidence, and the fill taken in every case was small, so that the net shrinkage was comparatively high. Po — SHRINKAGE OF WEIGHT OF BEEF CATTLE IN TRANSIT. (‘/) Cattle shipped in “ feed and water” cars do not seem to shrink any more than cattle handled by the common method of unloading to feed in transit, but they do not look as well at market, since they oftentimes have a drawn appearance. This is only natural, as these cars are usually loaded the same as ordinary cars, and the cattle can not lie down to rest. The shrinkage in transit may be increased by sudden changes of temperature, or by cold rains or snow. The fill at market varies greatly with different cattle, or with various shipments of the same class of cattle when weather conditions are not the same. ‘The fill depends to a large extent upon the time of arrival. If cattle arrive about four to six hours before they are offered for sale they will usually take a good fill. They may take a good fill, however, and then be held until so late in the day before being sold that they will lose most of it. This is especially true with range cattle, as they are usually nervous and do not eat much in the daytime, while crowds of people are about. Cattle that arrive the afternoon before being sold usually take a good fill1i the weather is favorable and they are given the same kind of feed to which they have been accustomed. When cattle have undergone a long journey to market requiring from 60 to 100 hours, the character of the accommodations at the unloading station was found to affect the shrinkage of the animals. Where the pens were sheltered, well drained, and located in a quiet place the cattle took a nice fill and a good rest, and the shrinkage was smaller than when they were unloaded under less favorable conditions. SUMMARY OF CONCLUSIONS. The three years’ work may be briefly summarized as follows: 1. The shrinkage of cattle in transit depends very materially upon: (a) The conditions existing at the time of shipping and upon the treatment received during the drive to the loading pens. (6) The length of time the cattle were held without feed and water before being loaded. (c) The nature of the fill which the cattle had before loading. If it was of succulent grass, beet pulp, or silage, a great loss in weight was experienced. (d) The weather conditions at the time of loading and while in transit. (e) The character of the run to market. Slow, rough runs nat- urally caused a greater shrinkage. (7) The kind of treatment they received at unloading stations. (g) The time of arrival at market. If they arrived just before being sold, the fill was small. Cattle that were shipped a long dis- 78 BULLETIN 25, U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE. tance and arrived at market during the mght usually did not fill well. If they arrived the afternoon before or about daylight of the sale day, they generally took a good fill. (hk) The climatic conditions at the market. 2. An exceedingly large fill at market is not desired, as it will de- tract from the selling price. 3. The shrinkage on calves may seem small, but under normal con- ditions it holds about the same proportion to their weight as is found with grown cattle. 4. The difference between the shrinkage of cows and steers is not as great as is ordinarily supposed. Steers will usually shrink some- what less than cows of the same weight. 5. The shrinkage during the first 24 hours is greater proportion- ately than for any succeeding period of the same duration. 6. The shrinkage of datele = was found to vary in direct proportion to their live weight when conditions were the same and all other factors were equal. 7. The shrinkage of range cattle in transit over 70 hours during a normal year is from 5 to 6 per cent of their live weight. If they are in transit 36 hours or less the shrinkage will range from 3 to 4 per cent of their live weight. 8. The shrmkage of fed cattle does not differ greatly from that of range cattle for equal periods of time. It varied from about 3 per cent with all of the silage-fed cattle and 4.2 per cent with the corn- — fed cattle, when both classes of these animals were in transit for less than 36 owes, to 5.4 per cent for the pulp-fed cattle which were in transit from 60 to 120 hours. 9. Cattle fed on silage have a large gross shrinkage but usually fill so well at market that the net shrinkage is small. 10. Pulp-fed cattle shrink more in transit than any other class of cattle, and also present a greater net shrinkage. 11. The shrinkage on cattle is proportionately smaller for each 12 hours they are in transit after the first 24-hour period is passed. This is shown very clearly in Table 29, which presents a general sum- mary of the work. 12. For a long journey the common method of unfoaditie for feed, water, and rest is to be preferred to the use of “ feed and water ” cars. 13. Cattle should be weighed before being loaded wherever practi- cable, since a comparison of this weight with the sale weight will show the net shrinkage. Moreover this weight at point of origin may be of material benefit to the shipper in case of a wreck or a very poor run to market. O ar), Mae hy -_ oe .”. frm. INDEX. [Black-face figures denote the number of the Department bulletin referred to; light-face figures show the ; page in the bulletin.) Acacia— acuminata, timber, description, note, 9, 27. aneura, growing on California sand dunes, suggestions, 9, 12. aneura, timber, description, 9, 27. arabica, gum production, note, 9, 32. arabica, hedge plant, note, 9, 31. arabica, timber, description, 9, 27. arabica, value in lac culture, 9, 32. armata, hedge plant, value for coast regions, 9, 31. armata, timber, description, 9, 27. aulacocarpa, timber, description, use, 9, 28. bidwilliz, roots as food, note, 9, 34. bidwillit, timber, description, 9, 28. binervata, gum-producing plant, 9, 32. binervata, timber, description, use, 9, 28. capensis, occurrence in California arboretum, 9, 13. eatechu, value for lac culture, 9, 32. coccinea, occurrence in California arboretum, 9, 13. cunninghamt, timber, description, use, 9, 28. i cyclops, use in South Africa in reclamation of sand dunes, 9, 11. cycnantha, culture in Transvaal, 9, 20. decurrens, Australia, cost and profits, 9, 18. decurrens, culture in Africa, 9, 20, 21. decurrens dealbata, California, tannin percentage, 9, 24. decurrens dealbata, description, value, etc., 9, 17. decurrens dealbata, timber, description, value, etc., 9, 27. decurrens group, nomenclature, 9, 2. decurrens group, timber, value, description, etc., 9, 27. decurrens, growth on California sand dunes, 9, 15. decurrens, insect enemies in Australia, 9, 5. decurrens mollis, California, yield, percentage of tannin, etc., 9, 24. decurrens mollis, timber, description, value, etc., 9, 27. decurrens normalis, California, tannin content, note, 9, 24. decurrens normalis, timber, description, value, weight, etc., 9, 27. decurrens normalis, value for tan bark production, comparison with oak bark, 9,16. discolor, occurrence in California arboretum, 9, 13. doratoxylon, timber, description, use, 9, 28. etbiaca, gum-yielding plant, note, 9, 32. falcata, timber, description, use, 9, 28. farnesiana, gum-producing plant, 9, 32. farnesiana, perfume plant, 9, 9. farnesiana, perfume plant, economic value, habitat, etc., 9, 33. farnesiana, timber, description, use, 9, 28. 08836—14——_2 i! | 2 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. , i Acacia—Continued. 1 furox, hedge plant, note, 9, 31. i giraffea, drought resistance, 9, 12. , glaucescens, gum-producing plant, note, 9, 32. . glaucescens, timber, description, use, 9, 28. greggi, drought-resistant qualities, 9, 3. ~ gummifera, gum-producing plant, note, 9, 32. harpophylla, timber, description, use, 9, 28. homalophylla, gum-producing plant, note, 9, 32. homalophyila, timber, description, use, 9, 28. implexa, timber, description, use, 9, 28. koa, timber, description, uses, etc., 9, 29. leiophylla, tannin content, economic value, etc., 9, 11-12. leiophylla, use in South Africa in reclamation of sand dunes, 9, 10-11. longifolia, timber, description, use, 9, 28. ‘longifolia, use in South Africa in reclamation of sand dunes, 9, 10, 11. lophantha, confusion with acacia, 9, 2. . ore macradenia, timber, description, 9, 28. melanoxylon, bark, tannin content, 9, 27. melanoxylon, description, value, etc., 9, 17. melanozylon, frost resistance, comparison with eucalyptus, 9, 27. melanozylon, reproduction habits, 9, 30. melanoxylon, soil requirements, 9, 3. melanoxylon, timber, description, value, growth, etc., 9, 26-27. microbotya, gum-producing plant, note, 9, 33. neriifolia, timber, description, use, 9, 28. pendula, growing on California sand dunes, suggestions, 9, 12. pendula, gum-producing plant, 9, 32. pendula, timber, description, use, 9, 28. penninervis, growing in North Africa, 9, 21. pycnantha, adaptability to California conditions, 9, 22. pycnantha, Australia, cost and profits, 9, 18-19. pycnantha, California, tannin percentage, 9, 24. pycnantha, description, tannin content, 9, 12. pycnantha, perfume plant, note, 9, 33. pycnantha, tannin content, value, etc., 9, 16-17. pycnantha, timber, description, use, 9, 28. pycnantha, use in South Africa in reclamation of sand dunes, 9, 10. pycnantha, value for tanbark production, 9, 16. retinoides, gum-producing plant, note, 9, 32. salicina, growing on California sand dunes, suggestions, 9, 12. salicina, timber, description and use, 9, 29. saligna, culture in South Africa, 9, 19. saligna, use in South Africa in reclamation of sand dunes, 9, 10-11. senegal, gum-producing plant, note, 9, 32. seyal, drought resistance, 9, 12. spp., timber, description, uses, etc., 9, 28, 29. stcnocarpa, gum-producing plant, notes, 9, 32. sienophylla, timber, description and use, 9, 29. suavolens, perfume plant, note, 9, 33. subporosa, timber, description and uses, 9, 29. suma, gum-prodvcing plant, note, 9, 32. verek, gum-producing plant, 9, 32: 7 INDEX. é Acacias— American plantations, species recommended, 9, 15. analysis of bark samples, 9, 21. bark, ground, price 1910, Germany, 9, 21. characteristics of various species, 9, 3. culture, Australia, cost and profits of different species, 9, 18-19. culture, Hawaii, practices, yield, etc., 9, 22. distribution, types, species, etc., 9, 1-2. drought-resistant varieties, 9, 12. economic study, 9, 1-38. economic uses, 9, 9. fire-resistant qualities, discussion, 9, 5. firewood production, note, 9, 12, 13. forage species, four best, 9, 30. forms of growth, 9, 4. growing in California, comparison to Australian-grown plants, 9, 24. erowing, North Africa, 9, 21. gum-yielding species, adaptability to desert conditions, etc., 9, 32. hedges, value, species, etc., 9, 31. host of lac insect, 9, 9. industry in California, history, 9, 6-8. insect enemies, 9, 4. lac-yielding species, 9, 32. large species, 9, 4. moisture requirements, 9, 3. naturalized, California coast, 9, 12. nomenclature, 9, 2. nursery stock, production, cost, etc., 9, 36-37. ornamental, value for hedges, 9, 31. perfume industry, remarks, 9, 33. planters, seed used 1888-1899, 9, 10. propagation and management, 9, 34. publications, 9, 21. seed, description, vitality, preparation for germination, etc., 9, 34-35. seed, gathering, sowing, cost, etc., 9, 11. shade trees in California, demand, 9, 4. shelter belts of, value, species, etc., 9, 31. soil requirements, 9, 3. tanbark, species, tannin content, etc., 9, 16-25. tanbark. See also Wattle. timber species, principal, 9, 25-29. use in sand-dune reclamation, 9, 9-10. Acer— circinatum, uses, notes, 12, 56. macrophyllum, properties, supply, uses, etc., 12, 52-54. negundo, properties, supply, uses, etc., 12, 54-56. rubrum drummondii, habitat, uses, notes, 12, 49. rubrum, properties, supply, uses, etc., 12, 48-49. saccharinum. See Silver maple. saccharum. See Sugar maple. saccharum nigra, form of sugar maple, remarks, 12, 47-48. Acetate— brown, from hardwoods, production, 1909, 12, 10. brown, product of cord of hardwood, cost and value, 12, 10. 4 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. Acetate—Continued. gray, from hardwoods, production, 1909, 12, 10. gray, product of cord of hardwood, cost and value, 12, 10. iron, from hardwoods, production, 1909, 12, 10. iron, product of cord of hardwood, cost and value, 12, 10. Acid— land plants, sources of nitrogen, 6, 6-7. lands, utilization by means of acid-tolerant crops, 6, 1-13. soils. See Soils, acid. Africa— ’ Cape of Good Hope Colony, use of acacias in reclamation of sandy lands 9, 10. desert lands, acacias as forage, 9, 30. North, acacia culture, history, practices, etc., 9, 21. Port Elizabeth, reclamation of drifting sand, 9, 10-11. Port Jackson, use of acacias in reclamation of sand dunes, 9, 11. South, acacia growing, methods and uses in reclamation of sandy lands, 9, 10. South, tanbark acacias, history, practices, etc., 9, 19-21. Agricultural— economics, reading course from Department publications, 7, 17. education, institutions offering special courses for teachers, 7, 8. education, place in teachers’ institutes, 7, 7. education, reading course from Department publications, 7, 13-17. education, States requiring teachers’ certificates, 7, 2. engineering, reading course from Department publications, 7, 16. instruction, correspondence courses, growth, advantages, cost, etc., 7, 8-12. school instruction, States requiring, etc., 7, 1-2. technology, reading course from Department publications, 7, 17. Agriculture— reading course based on Farmers’ Bulletins, with agriculturaltraining“courses, for employed teachers, 7, 1-17. reading courses offered by different institutions, description, fees, etc., 7, 13. special courses, institutions maintaining, 7, 6~7. summer courses, institutions maintaining, 7, 3-6. training courses for employed teachers, with a suggested reading course in agri- culture based on Farmers’ Bulletins, 7, 1-17. Agronomy, reading course from Department publications, 7, 15. Agrostis rose, occurrence on Wallowa Mountains, note, 4, 11.. Ainslie, George C.— notes, western corn rootworm, 8, 5, 6, 7, 8. observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 2, 5, 6, 8, 10. Alabama— agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 3. game laws, 1913, 22, 23, 38, 44, 48, 52. Alaska, game laws, 1913, 22, 23, 38, 44, 48, 52. Alberta, game laws, 1913, 22, 34, 42, 47, 50, 58. Albissias, description, note, 9, 2. Albizia lophantha— forage plant for seacoast regions, 9, 30-31. self-seeded area in California, description, 9, 31. value on California sand dunes, 9, 12, 14, 15. Alcohol, crude— from hardwoods, production, 1909, 12, 10. product of cord of hardwood, cost and value, 12, 10. ‘‘Alewife,’’ name for menhaden, 2, 7. * 5 q INDEX. 5 Alfalfa— growing in northeastern States, 6, 1-2. irrigation schedules, results, etc., California University farm, 10, 2-10. yields, irrigated and unirrigated crops, comparison, 10, 7-10. Alfilaria, reseeding depleted ranges, value, 4, 7. Alpine redtop, occurrence on Wallowa Mountains, note, 4, 11. Ammonia, use on tobacco soils, 16, 11-12. Amophila arenaria, use in sand-dune reclamation, 9, 10. Animal husbandry, reading course from Department publications, 7, 16. Apple orchard, crop rotation for acid soil, 6, 11. Apples, picking, day’s work, 3, 40. Arkansas— agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, etc., 7, 11. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 3. game laws, 1913, 22, 11, 23, 39, 44, 48, 52. Arid lands, value of acacias, 9, 3. Arizona, game laws, 1913, 22, 11, 23, 38, 44, 48, 52. Artists’ materials, woods suitable, notes, 12, 16, 22, 4445. Ash, growing with cottonwood, desirability, 24, 35. Ashes, maple, value, uses, etc., 12, 46-47. Asia, desert lands, acacias as forage, 9, 30. . Athletic goods, birch, demand, note, 12, 45. Atlantic Coast, fish-scrap fertilizer industry, 2, 1-50. Atriplex semibaccata, forage for beef cattle, 9, 30-31. Atwater, W. O.— analysis of commercial fish-scrap, 2, 24. remarks on fish as feed for domestic animals, 2, 37. Australia, acacia culture, cost, and profits of different kinds, 9, 18, 19. Australian forage plants, description and value, 9, 30. Bag worm, enemy of wattle in Natal, control measures, etc., 9, 5. Baling hay, day’s work, 3, 32-33. Ballah, A. E., observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 5. Bancrort, W. F., T. S. Parmer, and Frank L. EarnsHaw, bulletin on ‘‘Game laws for 1913; asummary of the provisions relating to seasons, export, sale, limits and licenses,’ 22, 1-59. Bark, birch, commodities, 12, 28-29. Barley— irrigation experiments, California University farm, 10, 10-13. sowing with acacia seed as sand binder, 9, 11. Barn, sheep, construction and management, 20, 19. Barns, dairy, for production of certified milk, construction, etc., 1, 13. Barnyard, dairy farm, care, 1, 15. Bast, acacia, yield of inner bark, note, 9, 27. Baston, G. H., soil acidity determinations, note, 6, 2. Beans— cultivation, day’s work, 3, 26. feed, for sheep, practices, 20, 44. Beckett, S. H., bulletin on ‘‘ Progress report of cooperative irrigation experiments at California University farm, Davis, Cal., 1909-1912,’’ 10, 1-21. Bedding, dairy cows, kinds suitable, 1, 14. f Beech— by-products, 12, 18-11. habitat, growth habits, etc., 12, 2-3. varieties, 12, 2. 6 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25, Beech wood— commercial uses in United States, 12, 2-11. : properties, supply in United States, uses, preservative treatment, etc., 12, 2-11. use by ancients, note, 12, 3. Beechnuts, uses in Europe, 12, 11. Beef cattle— shrinkage in weight in transit, 25, 1-78. See also Cattle. Beetle, long-horned, enemy of wattle; 9, 5. Beet-pulp fed cattle, shrinkage in transit, 25, 44-47. Beets, sugar— feed for sheep, caution, 20, 42. growing, irrigation, etc., California University farm, 10, 19-21. Betula— ' fontinalis, habitat, note, 12, 30. kanaica, note, 12, 29. lenta. See Birch, sweet. nigra, properties, supply, uses, 12, 30-32. occidentalis, 12, 29. populifolia, description, uses, etc., 12, 29. Bidwell, John, acacia growing, note, 9, 7. ‘Big fish,’’ name for menhaden, 2, 7. Birch— bark, uses, properties, etc., 12, 24-25, 28-29. sawmill cut, 1909, 12, 11. sweet, properties, supply in United States, uses, etc., 12, 11-18. wood, commercial uses, 12, 11-32. Birches, varieties, properties, supply, and uses, United States, 12, 11-32. Birds— enemies of southern corn rootworm, 5, 9. migratory, regulation for protection, proclamation by President, 22, 17-22. reservations, new, establishment, 22, 3. Bird’s-eye maple, uses, demand, process of growth, 12, 38. Black cottonwood, growing in Oregon and Washington, note, 24, 49. Black Italian poplar, name for cottonwood, 24, 11. Black maple. See Sugar maple. Black sugar maple. See Sugar maple. “Black wood ’”’— description, value, etc., 9, 17-18. soil requirements, 9, 3. Blackberry, acid-tolerant crop, 6, 8. Blackcap, acid-tolerant crop, 6, 8. Bloating, sheep, precautions, 20, 40. Blue beech, note, 12, 2. Blueberry— acid-tolerant character, remarks, 6, 7. occurrence of mycorrhizal fungi, 6, 7. Bluefish, destruction of menhaden, 2, 12-14. Boats, fish, menhaden industry, types, description, 2, 22-23. ‘Bony fish,’’ name for menhaden, 2, 7. Box elder, properties, supply, uses, etc., 12, 54-56. Box lumber, beech, birch, and maple, uses, demand, value, 12, 7, 22, 27, 44, 49, 52. Bran, feed for sheep, value, 20, 44. INDEX. fi Braunton, Ernest, identification of acacias, work, note, 9, 2 Breakfast cereals— containers, descriptions, 15, 6-7. infestation, prevention by use of sealed paper cartons, 15, 1-8. Breazeale, J. F., lime determinations in freshly fallen leaves, note, 6, 4 Breeding stock, sheep, selection, importance, etc., 20, 6-10. Brevoortia tyrannus. See Menhaden. Brick— laying, road paving, directions, 23, 14. manufacture for paving, processes, 23, 3-4. pavement, foundation, construction, 23, 10-14. pavements, cost, 23, 18-20. pavements, maintenance, suggestions, 23, 20-21. paving, country roads, foundation, filling joints, etc., 23, 10-18. paving, inspection and testing method, 23, 29-34. paving, materials, manufacture, physical characteristics, etc, 28, 2-5. paving, testing, 23, 5-8. vitrified, paving material for country roads, 238, 1-34. Bricker, Garland A., plan for special extension agricultural schools for teachers, 7, 8. British Columbia, game laws, 1913, 22, 35, 42, 47, 50, 58. Broadleaf maple, properties, supply, uses, etc., 12, 52-54. Brome grass, smooth, reseeding depleted range, value, 4, 7. Bruchus, sp., insect enemy of black wattle, 9, 5. Buckwheat, adaptability to worn-out and acid lands, 6, 8-9. Budworm, southern corn— _ or rootworm, 5, 1-11. See also Rootworm, southern corn. Buildings, dairy farm, for certified milk production, 1, 14. Bunch grass, mountain, occurrence on Wallowa Mountains, note, 4, 10, 12. Buttermilk, use as feed for poultry, experiments, 51, 17. Cabbage—- cultivation, day’s work, 3, 26. feed for sheep, value, practices, 20, 42. planting, day’s work, 3, 20-21. Cabinet— timber, value of acacias, 9, 26-30. work, use of beech, birch, and maple, 12, 6-7, 12-14, 20-21, 35, 38, 49. Bomearonts canadensis, occurrence on Wallowa ican ean range HERO | note, 4, 24. California— acacia industry, history, 9, 6-8. acacias at Santa Monica forest station, analyses, 9, 25. agricultural experiment station, acacia planting, 9, 8. agricultural instruction correspondence schools, location, cost, etc., 7, 11. agricultural instruction for teachers, institutions giving special courses, 7, 8. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 3. Berkeley, acacia planting, 9, 8. game laws, 1913, 22, 11, 24, 39, 45, 48, 52. Golden Gate Park, acacia planting, 9, 8. __ Golden Gate Park, adaptation of Australian acacias, results, etc., 9, 13-15. ~~ Sacramento elon and San Joaquin Valley, adaptation to acacia nrodecion 9,27. Sacramento Valley, climatic conditions, 10, 1-2. sand dunes, reclamation by use of sana, 9, 12-15. tanbark acacias, need of industry, 9, 22-23. | ae ' DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. California—Continued. tanbark acacias, possibilities of industry, 9, 22-23. tanning industry, note, 9, 23. timber acacias, 9, 29-30. ' University farm, cooperative irrigation experiments, 1909-1912, progress report, 10, 1-21. Calves, range, shrinkage in transit, investigations, 25, 10-11, 14-15, 67. Calving period, rejection of milk, requirements in certified-milk production, 1, 27. Canada, game laws, 1913, 22, 8, 34-35, 42-43, 47, 50, 58-59. Canadian poplar, name for cottonwood, 24, 11. Canneries, fish, utilization of waste, discussion, 2, 45-46. Canoe birch. See Paper birch. Canoes, birch-bark, importance in history, ania etc., 12, 24-25. Cape of Good lags, use of acacias in reclamation of somes lands, 9, 10. Carex— exsiccata, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24. festiva, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24. umbellata brevirostris, occurrence on Wallowa Mountains, note, 4, 10-11. Carolina poplar— name for cottonwood, 24, 11. notes, 24, 48-49. Carpinus caroliniana, note, 12, 2. Carrot, acid-tolerant crop, 6, 9. Cartons— paper, use for protection of cereals from insect attack, 15, 1-8. sealed, for breakfast foods, description, advantages, etc., 15, 6-7. sealing to prevent infestation of contents, experiments, 15, 2-4. “Cassie’’— perfume plant, species of acacia, 9, 9. perfume production, economic value, etc., 9, 33. Castration, lambs, management, 20, 29-30. Cattle— cottonseed-meal fed, shrinkage in shipment, 25, 19-20. driving, conditions affecting shrinkage, 25, 7-8. feed, experiments in use of fish scrap, 2, 36-39. feed, use of fish, 2, 36, 37, 38, 39. filling for market, practices, etc., 25, 5-6, 9, 26-27. ration in feeding beet pulp, 25, 46. shrinkage in transit, different classes, 25, 5-6, 31-32. shrinkage in transit, factors, investigations, etc., 25, 7-9, 17-20, 36-47. shrinkage in transit, Northwestern work, 1911-12, 25, 24-49. shrinkage in transit, preventive measures, etc., 25, 2-4, 28-30, 52-53. shrinkage in transit, summary of three years’ work, 25, 71-78. treatment at market, notes, 25, 9-10, 27-28. weighing, warm and cool, investigations, shrinkage while cooling, ete., 25, 30-31. Celatoria diabrotica— enemy of western corn rootworm, note, 8, 6. parasitic enemy of southern corn rootworm, 5, 9. Cereals— breakfast, drying before packing in cartons, methods, 15, 6. - insect attack, use of sealed paper carton for protection, 15, 1-8. insect infestation in cartons, modes, 15, 3-6. : insect-infested, disposal, losses, etc., 15, 1. sterilization before packing into cartons, practices, 15, 2-3. INDEX. 9 “ Certified milk’’— legalization of term, 1, 9-10. origin and meaning of term, 1, 3. producers’ association, purpose, etc., 1, 24. registration in Patent Office, 1, 3. See also Milk, certified. Charcoal— hardwood, production 1909, 12, 10. product of cord of hardwood, cost and value, 12, 10. Chemical pulp, manufacture from loblolly pine, notes, 11, 12-13. Chesapeake Bay, menhaden fishing, range, management, etc., 2, 21-23. Chicken feed, use of fish scrap, 2, 36. Chickens— fattening, individual variation, experiments, 21, 24. ‘feather picking, cause, notes, 21, 19-20. manure production, relation of amount of grain fed, 21, 27-28. See also Poultry. Chittenden, F. H., observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 2. Chordeiles virginianus, enemy of western corn rootworm, note, 8, 6. Cinna latifolia, occurrence-on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24. Claiming pens, necessity in sheep raising, 20, 22. Clay, fire, brick making, deposits, characteristics, etc., 28, 2-3. Click-beetle, probable enemy of western corn rootworm, 8, 6. Clothespins, manufacture, processes, use of beech wood, etc., 12, 5-6. Clover— crimson, acid-tolerant crop, growth habits, etc., 6, 10. red, growing in northeastern States, practices, etc., 6, 1. Clovers, reseeding depleted ranges, value, 4, 7. Coast lands, value of acacias for, 9, 9-15. Codfish industry, Newfoundland, wastes, 2, 16. Coit, Henry L., definition of ‘‘certified milk,”’ 1, 3. Colby, George, analyses of acacias from Santa Monica forest station, 9, 25. Colorado— agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 3. game laws, 1913, 22, 11, 24, 39, 45, 48, 52. Cone flower, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24. Connecticut— agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 3. game laws, 1913, 22, 11, 24, 39, 45, 48, 52. Connoity, E. L., and others, bulletin on ‘‘The refrigeration of dressed poultry in transit,’? 17, 1-35. . Constantinople acacia, confusion with true acacia, 9, 2. Cooking menhaden, fish-scrap and oil production, 2, 25-26, 27-28. Cooperage, woods used, 12, 4, 9, 17, 28, 31, 43, 56. Cordwood, cottonwood— value, transportation, etc., 24, 9-10. yield, rotation, etc., 24, 45. Corn— acid tolerance, note, 6, 9. crop, depredations of southern corn rootworm, history, losses, etc., 5, 3-5. cultivation, day’s work, 3, 26. damage by western corn rootworm, 8, 3-6. effects of attack of western corn rootworm, 8, 6. growing on acid soil, rotation with crimson clover, 6, 11-12. 10 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. Corn—Continued. harvesting, day’s work, 3, 35-37. irrigation experiments, California University farm, 10, 13-17. planter, daily acreage with different kinds, 3, 19-20. rootworm or budworm, southern, 5, 1-11. rootworm, western, 8, 1-8. rootworm, western. See Rootworm, western corn. Cotton— cultivation, day’s work, 3, 26. planter, daily acreage with different kinds, 3, 19-20. seed, meal, cakes, and hulls, feed for sheep, 20, 44. tree. See Cottonwood. Cottonwood— adaptability, areas suitable, 24, 26-29. » Argentina, growing on irediowed lands, value of timber, etc., 24, 1. cut, 1911, and value, by States, 24, 2. damage hon fungi, insects, animals, etc., 24, 14-15. distribution, demand, and ying 24, 1, 2-3. growing, commercial planting, 24, 48-61. growing, costs and returns, 24, 45-47. growth, yield of stands on different soils, 24, 22-26. hardwood mixed stands, 24, 20-21, 34-35. importance as timber tree, yield, etc., 24, 1-2. logging costs, 24, 7-10. lumber, grades from logs of different sizes, value, etc., 24, 48-45. Mississippi Valley, 24, 1-62. nursery, management, treatment of seedlings, etc., 24, 52-55. plantation, sites suitable, 24, 50-51. preservative treatment, 24, 5-6. range, 24, 10-11. reproduction, natural, compared with planting, etc., 24, 15-18, 29-31. reproduction, preparation of ground, 24, 36-37. soil and light requirements, 24, 13-14. sprouting capacity of stumps, relation of height, time of logging, etc., 24, 15-18. stands, character, pure and in mixtures, 24, 18-22. stands, management, 24, 26-45. stands, thinning, 24, 39-42. stumpage values, 24, 6-9. varietal names, botanical and silvical characteristics, etc., 24, 11-18. white, characters, 24, 3-4. willow stands, character, importance and treatment, 24, 21-22, 37. wood, character, uses, 24, 3-6. yellow, characters, 24, 4. CoviLLe, FrepERIcCK V.— bulletin on ‘‘The agricultural utilization of acid lands by means of acid-tolerant crops,’’ 6, 1-13. note on experiments in reseeding depleted grazing lands to forage plants, 4, 1-2. Cowpea, acid-tolerant crop, 6, 10. Cows— dairy, handling in certified milk production, 1, 14-15, 16-17. milch, handling in production of certified milk, 1, 26. range, shrinkage in transit, 25, 11-12, 56-57, 60-64. See also Cattle. a INDEX. rE Cranberry, acid-tolerant crop, 6, 7. Creosote, pharmacopceial, use of beech in manufacture, demand, note, 12, 10. Crimson clover, acid-tolerant crop, growth, habits, etc., 6, 10. Crop rotation— acid-tolerant crops, 6, 11-12. tobacco districts, 16, 5-10. Crops— acid-tolerant, use on acid lands’, 6, 1-13. rotation, irrigation, etc., California University farm, 1912, 10, 17-21. Crossbreeding sheep, practices, purpose, etc., 20, 5. Crustaceans, value for fertilizer, 2, 19. Cucumber beetle, relation to southern corn rootworm, note, 5, 1. Culp, J. M., history of refrigerated carriers in United States, note, 17, 1. Cultivation, corn, cotton, potatoes, beans, cabbage, etc., 3, 26. Curbing, brick-paved roads, construction, 23, 9-10. Curing tobacco, handling, etc., 16, 30-36. Cutch, product of acacia catechu, demand, form, etc., note, 9, 32. Cuttings, cottonwood, sources, treatment, setting, cost, 24, 55-61. Cyelle crinicornia, insect enemy of black wattle, 9, 5. Dairies— certified-milk, sanitary conditions, comparison with other dairies, 1, 20. control by medical-milk commissions, 1, 3-4. Dairy— buildings, requirements in certified milk production, 1, 27. _construction for certified milk production, 1, 14. herd, veterinary supervision, requirements in certified milk production, 1,'28-29, hygiene, methods and standards, 1, 25-28. inspection for production of ‘ ‘inspected milk,’’ 1, 7. utensils, certified-milk production, care, selection, etc., 1, 15-16. Dana, William D., remarks on fish as feed, 2, 37. “Dead finish” hedge plant, note, 9, 31. Delaware— game laws, 1913, 22, 11, 24, 39, 45, 48, 52. loblolly pine, forest management, and in Maryland and Virginia, 11, 1-59, Dendroctonus frontalis, injury to loblolly pine, 11, 10. Deschampsia— cxespitosa, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24. elongata, occurrence on Wallowa Mountains, note, 4, 11. Diabrotica— duodecimpunctata, similarity to western corn rootworm, 8, 1. duodecimpunctata. See also Rootworm, southern corn. - longicornis, relation to southern corn rootworm, note, 5, 1. longicornis. See also Rootworm, western corn. vittata, relation to southern corn rootworm, note, 5, 1. Dipping sheep, tanks, management, etc., 20, 25. Diseases, contagious, precautions to prevent spread from milk bottles, 1, 7. District of Columbia, open seasons for game, 22, 25. Dog laws, enforcement, improvement, etc., suggestions, 20, 12-13. Dogfish— destruction of food fish, 2, 17-18. rendering plants, work, 2, 17-18. reproduction, notes, 2, 18. 12 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. Dogfish—Continued. source of fish-scrap industry, etc., 2, 46. use for fish fertilizer, remarks, 2, 46. utilization for fertilizer, suggestions, experiments, etc., 2, 16-19. . yield of oil and fish-scrap, 2, 17-18. Dogs— | collie, value to shepherd, 20, 11. menace to sheep, preventive measures, 20, 11-13. shepherd, value in sheep raising, 20, 12. DowninG, James E., and W. F. Warp, bulletin on ‘‘The shrinkage in weight of beef cattle in transit,”’ 25, 1-78. Drasterius elegans, probable enemy of western corn rootworm, 8, 6. Drilling, grain, daily acreage for one man, 3, 19. . Drummond maple, habitat, uses, notes, 12, 49. Dyes,, acacia, note, 9, 33. EarnsHaw, Frank L., T. §. Pater, and W. F. Bancrort, bulletin on “Game laws } for 1913; asummary of the provisions relating to seasons, export, sale, limits, and | licenses,’’ 22, 1-59. Education. See Schools. Egyptian corn, irrigation experiments, California University farm, 10, 14-17. | Elvingia megaloma, injury to cottonwoods, 24, 14. i Empusa sp., destruction of grape leafhopper, 19, 34. | Engelmann spruce, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain, note, 4, 11. { Engineering, agricultural, reading course from Department publications, 7, 16. Eucalyptus, frost resistance, comparison with Acacia melanoxylon, 9, 27. Ewes— . care, 20, 19-26. flushing, advantages, 20, 19-20. mating, feeding, lambing, dipping, etc., care, 20, 19-26. pregnant, care, gestation period, etc., 20, 20-21. production of twins, observations, 20, 9. selection, requirements, breeding ages, etc., 20, 6, 8-10. Export game, State laws, 22, 38-42, 50-59. Fairchild, David— note on insect enemies of wattles, 9, 5. remarks on acacia culture in Natal, 9, 20. Fagus— atropunicea. See Beech. sylvatica, note, 12, 2. Farm— equipment, relation to farm management, 3, 1-42. labor, day’s work for various operations, 3, 1-44. management, relation of farm equipment, 3, 1-42. sheep management, 20, 1--52. value of sheep, 20, 2-3. work, daily operating factors, methods of investigation, etc., 3, 5-8. work, days available in each season, 3, 3-5. work, seasonal, operating factors, 3, 3-5. Farmers’ Bulletins— basis for reading course, discussion, list, etc., 7, 13-17. basis for reading courses in agriculture for employed teachers, etc., 7, 1-17. Farrington (Maine College of Agr.), experiments with fish as feed, 2, 38. INDEX. 18 “‘Patback,’’? name for menhaden, 2, 7. Fattening poultry, commercial, 21, 1-55. Federal game laws, 1913, 22, 10-11, 17-22, 37-38. Feed— concentrates, for sheep, value of different kinds, 20, 43-44. gluten meal, value for sheep, note, 20, 44. poultry, prices, 21, 2-3. racks, sheep, descriptions, 20, 38, 39, 40. troughs, sheep, 20, 45. use of fish scrap, 2, 26-39. Feeding— a batteries, portable for poultry, advantages, 21, 25. poultry, commercial fattening, 21, 1-55. poultry for market, details of experiments, 21, 1-55. poultry, labor-saving devices, 21, 25. sheep, value of roots, preparation, ration, suggestions, 20, 35-46. Feeds— condimental, for poultry, 21, 16. sheep, 20, 37-44, 46. Fences, dog-proof, for sheep, 20, 13. Fencing, sheep, suggestions, 20, 13, 17. **Fern hills,’’ South Australia, value of acacias, 9, 19. Ferris, B. F., note on western corn rootworm, 8, 4. Fertilizer— fish, practices, history, 2, 3. fish-scrap industry of Atlantic Coast, 2, 1-50. resources, investigations, work in different lines, 2, 1-3. spreading, day’s work, 3, 26. . Fertilizers, tobacco, flue-cured type, 16, 10-16. Festuca viridula, occurrence on Wallowa Mountains, note, 4, 10, 12. Field peas, value for sheep pasture, 20, 41. Fir, subalpine, occurrence on Wallowa Mountains, note, 4, 11. Fire clay, brick making, deposits, characteristics, etc., 28, 2-3. Fires, forest— advantages, injuries, etc., 11, 9-10. protection of white-pine stands, 13, 59-62. Fish— canneries, waste, yield of oil and fertilizer, 2, 15-19. catch, measuring by factories, menhaden industry, 2, 23-24. menhaden. See Menhaden. oils, development, prices, uses, etc., 2, 46-50. oils, sources, development of industry, etc., 2, 46-47. oils. See also Oil; Oils. scrap, commercial, analyses, methods of analysis, etc., 2, 34-35. scrap, drying methods, 2, 26, 28-30. scrap factories, Atlantic Coast, list, location, etc., 2, 5-6. scrap factories, types, location, equipment, etc., 2, 30-32. scrap factory, floating, description, 2, 32. scrap, fertilizer industry, Atlantic Coast, 2, 1-50. scrap, ‘floating factories,’’ remarks, 2, 4. scrap, grinding and bagging, 2, 30. scrap industry, cooking methods, description, 2, 24-25, 26-27. scrap industry, possibilities of development, 2, 39-46. scrap industry, status, 2, 5-7. | | | 14 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. Fish—Continued. scrap, output, by States, 2, 6. scrap, uses, 2, 36-39. unloading from boat at dock, See industry, 2, 23-24. waste, recovery at fishing centers, suggestions, 2, 45. waste, utilization for fertilizer, 2, 14-19. Fisheries, pollution of water by fish waste, remarks, 2, 45. Fishing boats, menhaden industry, description, equipment, etc., 2, 22-23. Flax, with oats, feed for sheep, 20, 44. Fleeces, care, twine selection, storage, etc., 20, 48-49. Flies, house. See Housefly. Flooring— beech, advantages, notes, 12, 7. birch, notes, 12, 15, 31. maple, demand, value, etc., 12, 36-37. Florida— agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, etc., 75 11. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 3. game laws, 1913, 22, 11, 25, 39, 45, 48, 52. Flue-cure, tobacco, 16, 30-34. Flue-cured tobacco, culture, 16, 1-36. Fly, house. See Housefly. Fomes applanatus, damage to cottonwoods, 24, 14. Food, value of menhaden, discussion, 2, 43-44. Forage— Australia, value of ‘“‘myall’’ with saltbush, for beef cattle, 9, 30-31. crops, acid tolerant, 6, 9-11. crops injury by southern corn rootworm beetle, 5, 3. lands, grazing during restocking period, 4, 30. plants, cultivated, on depleted grazing lands, 4, 1-34. plants, seed, cost per acre, 4, 26. plants, seeds, bluegrass, timothy, and redtop mixture, value, 4, 27-28. plants, species used in revegetation of depleted ranges, results, etc., 4, 5-9. plants, water requirements, 4, 25-26. production, as an investment, 4, 29-30. sheep, crops suitable, 20, 39-41. value of acacias, 9, 30-31. yield, reseeded mountain ranges, relation to cultural caoenee 4, 18-19. yield, reseeded range lands, relation of altitude, 4, 21-22. Forbes, S. A., notes on western corn rootworm, 8, 3, 4, 5, 7. Forest— fires. See Fires, forest. management, loblolly pine, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, 11, 1-59. management, white pine, 13, 1-70. Forestry, reading course from Department publications, 7, 16. Forests— fire protection, management, 11, 29. National, revegetation studies, 4, 2-30. Forrer, Julius, cultivation of acacias in California, species, 9, 7. Foster, C. L., observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 5. Fowler, Moses, experience with western corn rootworm, 8, 3, 7. Franceschi, Dr., identification of acacias, note, 9, 2. FrotuineuaM, E. H., bulletin on ‘‘ White pine under forest management,’’ 13, 1-70. * INDEX. Fungi, mycorrhizal— nitrogen-fixing character, discussion, 6, 13. occurrence on acid-tolerant plants, function, 6, 7. Fungous diseases, inhibition by soil acidity, 6, 12. Furniture— birch, importance, articles, 12, 13-14, 20-21. maple, importance, articles, 12, 38-39, 49. use of beech wood, value for special parts, etc., 12, 7. . Game— bag limits, legislation, new, 22, 6-7. bag limits, State laws, 22, 47-50. big, legislation in 1913, 22, 4. capture, limits, laws for 1913, 22, 48-50. export and sale, legislation, new, 22, 5-6. hunting licenses, State laws, 22, 50-59. laws for 1913, 22, 1-59. laws, new, 1913, 22, 10-17. laws passed in 1913, Federal and State, 22, 10-17. legislation, 1913, condition, etc., 22, 2-10. licenses, legislation, new, 22, 7-8. officials, effect of new legislation, 22, 8-9. open seasons, new Federal laws, discussion, 22, 4-5. preserves, new, establishment, 22, 3. refuges, new, establishment, 22, 3. sale, State larg, 22, 43-47. shipment, regulation, Federal and State laws, 22, 37-38, 50-59. Garman, H., observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 4, 10. Gathering, cael day’s work, 3, 35-37. Georgia— agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 3. game laws, 1913, 22, 25, 39, 45, 48, 53. Gluten meal, value for sheep, note, 20, 44. Goats, injury to wattle plantations, note, 9, 6. Goforth, G. M., observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 5. Golden wattle, tannin yield, remarks, 9, 17. Grain— crops, injury by southern corn rootworm beetle, 5, 3. feed for sheep, value of different kinds, 20, 44-45. harvesting, day’s work, 3, 33-35. irrigation schedules, results, etc., California University farm, 10, 10-17. scooping, day’s work, 3, 40. thrashing, day’s work, 3, 39. Grape— belts, leafhopper damages, observations, 19, 9-12. leafhopper, control measures, 19, 34-42. leafhopper, description, life history, seasonal activities, etc., 19, 12-32. leafhopper, food plants, destructiveness, character of injury, etc., 19, 3-9. leafhopper, history, origin, and distribution, 19, 2-3. leafhopper, Lake Erie Valley, 19, 1-47. leafhopper, natural enemies, 19, 33-34. leafhopper, outbreaks, occurrence, 19, 6-8. leafhopper, parasites, note, 19, 32-33. leafhopper, rearing, experiments, 19, 26-32. 16 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. * Grape—Continued . leafhopper, remedies, 19, 34-41, leafhopper, varieties, 19, 2. region, Chautauqua and Erie, occurrence of grape leafhopper, 19, 9-10. Grass seeds, eeu on depleted mountain ranges, 4, 14. Grasses— species used in revegetation of depleted ranges, results, etc., 4, 5-9. varieties én Wallowa Mountains, 4, 10-11. Gray birch, varietal names, description, uses, 12, 29. Grazing lands, depleted, reseeding to cultivated forage plants, 4, 1-34. Great Britain, dog laws, 20, 12-13. GREENLEE, A. D., and others, bulletin on ‘‘The refrigeration of dressed poultry i transit,’’? 17, 1-35. Gum— arabic, acacia, principal species, 9, 32. red, growing with cottonwood, suggestions, 24, 35. Gums— effect of arid conditions on quality and yield, 9, 33. products of acacia plants, yield of different species, 9, 32. “‘Gurry,”’ production, use, etc., 2, 47. Hair grass— slender, occurrence on Wallowa Mountains, note, 4, 11. tufted, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24. Hairy vetch— acid-resistant crop, 6, 10. mixture with rye, note, 6, 10. Handles, beech, birch, and maple, value, demand, etc., 12, 8, 16, 21, 35, 40-41, 54, 56. Hard maple. See Sugar maple. “‘Hardhead,’’ name for menhaden, 2, 7. Hardwood— acacia, value, description, etc., 9, 26-29. mixed stands with cottonwood, Mississippi Valley, character, 24, 29-31. timber, diminution, 9, 25. Hardwoods— distillation, 1909, products, 12, 10. distillation, products, kinds, and quantities from one cord, 12, 10. Harrow, brush, description, value in reseeding range lands, etc., 4, 19. Harrowing, day’s work with different types of harrow, 3, 14-17. Harvesting— corn, day’s work, 3, 35-37. grain, day’s work, 3, 33-35. hay, day’s work, 3, 28-32. potatoes, day’s work, 3, 37-38. tobacco, methods, comparison, 16, 28-30. Hatcher, Dick, observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 2-3. Hauling— day’s work, in marketing, 3, 40-42. lumber, cost per thousand, 13, 26-27. Hawaii, acacia industry, history and practices, 9, 22. Haward, Alvinza, note on acacia growing, 9, 8. Hay making, hauling, etc., day’s work, 3, 28-33. Haynes, R. F., observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 4. Hedge plants, acacias as, 9, 31. INDEX. 17 Hellebore, false occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24. Hens, fattening experiments, 21, 20-23. Hersurn, J. 8., and others, bulletin on ‘‘The refrigeration of dressed poultry in tran- sit,’? 17, 1-35. Herd’s-grass, value in rotation for Bree | flue-cured type of tobacco, management, 16, 6-8. ' High, D. P., observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 4-5. Hilgrade, Dr., remarks on analysis of acacias, 9, 24. Horticulture, reading course from Department publications, 7, 16. Housefly larvee— migratory habit as indicating a favorable remedial measure; an account of prog- ress, 14, 1-11. migratory habits, experiments, 14, 5-10. pupation, observations by investigators, 14, 2-5. Howlett, L. M., paper on Insect Psychology, note, 14, 1. Hughes, J. L., observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 5. Hurdles, ance) value, construction, etc., 20, 15-16. Hutcuison, Rosert H., bulletin on ‘‘The migratory habit of housefly larvee as indi- cating a favorable remedial measure; an account of progress,’’ 14, 1-11. Ice bunkers, construction, importance in refrigerator cars, 17, 34-35. Icerya purchasi. See Scale, cottony cushion. Idaho— agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, etc., 7, 11. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 3. game laws, 1913, 22, 25, 39, 45, 48, 53. Illinois— agricultural correspondence schools, 7, 12. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 3-4. Dekalb County, ravages of western corn rootworm, 8, 3, 6. game laws, 1913, 22, 12, 25, 39, 45, 48, 53. western corn rootworm, ravages, 8, 3. Implements— agricultural, woods used, articles, etc., 12, 4-5, 13-14, 20-21, 38-89, 42-43, 51-52. reseeding, for ranges, 4, 19. Indiana— agricultural correspondence schools, 7, 12. agricultural instruction for teachers, institutions giving special courses, 7, 8. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 4. game laws, 1913, 22, 12, 26, 39, 45, 48, 53. western corn rootworm, ravages, 8, 3-4. Insects, infestation of cereals in cartons, 15, 2. Iowa— agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, etc., 7, 11. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 4. game laws, 1913, 22, 12, 26, 39, 45, 48, 53. Treland, dog laws, 20, 12-13. — Irrigation— experiments, eeanericive at California University farm, 1909-1912, progress report, 10, 1-21. plant, California University farm, description, management, etc., 10, 2. schedules for different crops, Coittigane: University farm, 2, 2, 5, 6-7, 11-12. Isinglass substitute, wattle gum, note, 9, 32. 58836—14——_3 18 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. Jackson, Epwin R., bulletin on ‘‘Agricultural training courses for employed teachers, with a suggested reading course in agriculture based on Farmers’ Bulletins,”’ fdgptleli(ie Jenxrins, M. K., and others, bulletin on “The refrigeration of dressed poultry in transit,’ 17, 1-35. Johnson, (Connecticut Agr. Ex. Sta.), analysis of fish scrap, 2, 34. JOHNSON, FRED, bulletin on ‘‘The grape leafhopper in the Lake Erie Valley,” 18, 147. Johnson grass, food of southern corn rootworm, 5, 2-3. Johnson, Sidney, observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 5. Jones, Katherine, identification of acacias, note, 9, 2. Juncoides glabratum, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24. “*Kair tree,’’ value in lac culture, 9, 32. . Kale, pasture for sheep, 20, 41. ‘* Kangaroo thorn,’’ hedge plant, note, 9, 31. Kansas— agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, ete., 7, 11. agricultural instruction for teachers, institutions giving special courses, 7, 8. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 4. game laws, 1913, 22, 12,-26, 39, 48, 53. KeLitey, Ernest, bulletin on ‘‘Medical milk commissions and certified milk,’”’ 1» 1-38. Kelly, O. G., observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 2, 9. Kenai birch, note, 12, 29. Kentucky— agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 4. certified milk law, 1, 10. game laws, 1913, 22, 26, 39, 45, 48, 53. Kitchen— furnishings, woods suitable, articles, etc., 12, 4, 34, 39, 43. | furnishings. See also Woodenware. Labor, farm, day’s work, 8, 1-44. Lac— culture, industry, etc., 9, 32. insect, acacia as host, 9, 9. insect, host plants, 9, 32. Lake Erie Valley, grape leafhopper, 19, 1-47. Lamb creeps, construction, suggestions, 20, 32. Lambing, care of ewes, claiming pens, feeding, etc., 20, 21-24. Lambs— castration, methods, management, etc., 20, 29-30. docking, 20, 31. marking, 20, 27-29. raising by hand, suggestions, 20, 27. weaning, feeding grain, care, etc., 20, 31-33. young, care, 20, 26-29. Land, new, cause of acidity, 6, 2-3. i Lands, poor, value of acacias for, 9, 3. j Larvae, housefly— § migratory habits as indicating a favorable remedial measure; an account of prog- 4 ress, 14, 1-11. migratory habits, relation to problem of control, 14, 5-10. ee hk ET ae a tne . INDEX. 19 Lasts, shoe, maple wood, manufacture, processes, demand, etc., 12, 37-38. Laundry appliances, use of beech wood in manufacture, 12, 5-6. Lawes, J. B., experiment in feeding fish to pigs, 2, 37. Laws, game, for 1913, 22, 1-59. Layering, acacias, practice, 9, 37. Leafhopper— grape, Lake Erie Valley, 19, 1-47. grape. See also Grape leafhopper. Leaves— acidity in terms of lime requirement per acre, 6, 2-3. decomposition, change from acidity to alkalinity, 6, 4. decomposition, effect of processes on soil, 6, 3. freshly fallen, lime content, 6, 4. source of acidity in soils, 6, 2. Lez, Atrrep R., bulletin on ‘“‘The commercial fattening of poultry,’’ 21, 1-55. Leguminous plants, acid-tolerant, 6, 9-11. : Licenses, hunting and shipping game, 22, 50-59. Lime— amount needed to neutralize acidity of given quantity of leaves, 6, 2-3. amount required to neutralize acid in green manures, table, 6, 5. spreading, day’s work, 3, 24-26. use on tobacco soils, 16, 15-16. Lindemuth, J. R., and H. G. Parker, analysis of fish scrap, 2, 35. Linseed cake and meal, feed for sheep, note, 20, 44. Live stock, feed, use of fish, 2, 36-39. Livermore, H. P., remarks on acacia plantation in California, 9, 8. Loblolly pine— characteristics, diseases, uses, prices, etc., 11, 4-20. forest management, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, 11, 1-59. See also Pine, loblolly. Locust, insect enemy of wattle in Natal, control measures, 9, 5. Logging— costs, second growth white pine, 18, 26-27. cottonwood, costs, 24, 7-10. Long Island, open season for game, 22, 30. Louisiana— agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 4. game laws, 1913, 22, 26, 39, 45, 48, 53. Lumber— building, loblolly pine, value, extent of use, etc., 11, 11-12. cottonwood, grades from logs of different sizes, value, etc., 24, 43-45. cut, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, 1909, proportion of loblolly pine, 11, 2. cut, loblolly regions, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, 11, 45-59. industry, relation of white pine, 18, 4-7. loblolly pine, prices, cost of production, etc., 11, 14-16. North Carolina pine, cost of production, 11, 16. North Carolina pine, prices for 24 years, 11, 19-20. white pine, cost of different grades, 13, 5-7. Lupine, acid-tolerance, notes, 6, 9, 11. Machine, brick making, description, 238, 3. Maggot trap, factor in control of housefly, 14, 5-10. Mahogany birch, uses, note, 12, 12--13. 20 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. Maiden, J. H— application of term ‘‘wattle,’’ 9, 16. bulletin on ‘‘Wattles and Wattle Barks.’’ 9, 21. classification of acacias, 9, 2 note on protection of acacia plantations from fire, 9, 6. recommendations of forage species of acacia, 9, 30. remarks on Acacia pycnantha, 9, 17. remarks on acacia timber, 9, 26. Maine— agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, ete., 7, 11. game laws, 1913, 22, 12, 26, 39, 45, 48, 54. Manitoba, game laws, 1913, 22, 35, 42, 47, 50, 58. Manure— barnyard, use on tobacco soils, 16, 14-15. ‘chicken, production, relation of amount of grain fed, 21, 27-28. dairy farm, management, 1, 14. handling, spreading, etc., day’s work, 3, 23-24. sheep, value as fertilizer, 20, 2. Manures, green, acidity, 6, 4-5. Maple— sugar. See Sugar maple. wood, commercial, uses, 12, 32-56. woods, commercial uses in United States, 12, 32-56. Maples, varieties, properties, supply and uses, United States, 12, 32-56. Marketing, tobacco, suggestions, 16, 36. Marking lambs, 20, 27-29. Marsh pine grass, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, 4, 24. Maryland— agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 4. game laws, 1913, 22, 27, 39, 45, 48, 54. loblolly pine, forest management, and in Delaware and Virginia, 11, 1-59. Massachusetts— _agricultural instruction, Sorrosnndenee schools, location, cost, etc., 11, 12. agricultural instruction for teachers, institutions giving special courses, 7, 8. agricultural instruction, institutions having summery courses, 7, 4. game laws, 1913, 22, 13, 27, 40, 45, 49, 54. Martuewson, E. H., bulletin on ‘‘The culture of flue-cured tobacco,”’ 16, 1-36. MAXWELL, Hv, bulletin on ‘‘Uses of commercial woods of the United States: Beech, birches, and maples,’’ 12, 1-56. McAteer, H. A., and others, bulletin on ‘‘The refrigeration of dressed poultry in transit,’’? 17, 1-35. Meadow grass, tall, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24. Medical milk commissions and certified milk, 1, 1-38. Medicines, acacia, remarks, 9, 33-34. Menhaden— analysis, fresh and dried, and ash, 2, 32-33. destruction by predaceous fish, 2, 13-14. enemies, 2, 13-14. fertilizer production, 2, 25-26, 27-28. fishing, seasons, methods, etc., 2, 21-23. fish-scrap and oil production, methods, 2, 21-32. food for man, discussion, 2, 12, 43-44. industry, destruction of food fish, investigation by Bureau of Fisheries, 2, 19-21. names, description, etc., 2, 7-8. INDEX, Menhaden—Continued. | occurrence, migratory movements, habits, etc., 2, 8-10. oil production, comparison of spring fish with fall fish, note, 2, 11. oil production, importance of industry, etc., 2, 46-47. oil yield, 2, 48. spawning habits, 2, 12-13. - supply for future use, discussion, 2, 40-42. Michigan— agricultural instruction for teachers, institutions giving special courses, 7, 8. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 4. game laws, 1913, 22, 13, 27, 40, 45, 49, 54. law providing for milk commissions, 1, 10. . vineyards, leafhopper, notes, 19, 11, 12. Milk— bacteria, number in certified milk, 1, 19. bottling, requirements for certified milk, 1, 27-28. certified, and medical milk commissions, 1, 1-38. certified, bacteriological standards, 1, 29-31. certified, chemical standards, 1, 31-36. certified, demand, discussion, 1, 7-8. certified, examination by experts, J, 2. certified, influence on milk consumers and producers, 1, 8-9. certified, information secured from producers, 1, 18-20. certified, keeping qualities, i, 21. certified, prices compared with market milk prices, 1, 8. certified, prices, producers’ reports, 1, 19. certified, production and distribution, methods and standards, 1, 25-38. certified, production, equipment, methods, etc., 1, 13-18. certified, production, first commission, organization, etc., 1, 2. certified, production, regulations for employees, 1, 36-38. certified, production, requirements and standards, 1, 4. certified, production, profit in, 1, 21-24. certified, quality, 1, 20-21. certified, supply by ordinary dairymen, caution, etc., 1, 9. commissions, medical, American Association, organization, 1, 11-13. commissions, methods and work, 1, 5-7. commissions, number, dates of organization, etc., 1, 5. commissions, objects, 1, 2. commissions, remuneration, charges, etc., 1, 10-11. commissions, work, i, 1-24. handling, certified milk production, 1, 17-18 house. See Dairy. inspected, requirements, 1, 6-7. modified, supply for infants, management, 1, 18. pail, sanitary, selection, 1, 15-16. transportation, requirements for certified milk, 1, 28. Milking— cows, day’s work, 8, 40. management in, certified milk production, 1, 17. Milkmen— preparation for milking in certified milk production, 1, 17. requirements in certified milk production, 1, 26-27, 28. -Milk-plants, certified, inspection of employees, 1, 7. 22 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. Millet— acid-tolerant crop, 6, 8. drought-resistant crop, 6, 8. Mills, water, use of beech wood, 12, 3. Mining, phosphate rock, South Carolina, methods, 18, 6-7. Minnesota— agricultural correspondence schools,7, 12. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 4. game laws, 1913, 22, 13, 27, 40, 45, 49, 54. Mississippi— agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, costs, etc., 7, 11. agricultural instruction for teachers, institutions giving special courses, 7, 8. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 4. game laws, 1913, 22, 28, 40, 45, 49, 54. , Valley, cottonwood, 24, 1-62. Missouri— 4 agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, etc., 7, 11. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 4. game laws, 1913, 22, 13, 28, 40, 45, 49, 54. Mistletoe, injury to cottonwoods, 24, 14-15. Mixing machines, poultry feed, notes, 21, 25. Montana, game laws, 1913, 22, 13, 28, 40, 45, 49, 55. MOooREFIELD, CHARLES H., and VERNON M. Prerce#, bulletin on “ Vitrified brick ag a paving material for country roads,’’ 238, 1-34. ‘“Mossbunker,’’ name for menhaden, 2, 7. Mountain— birch, habitat, note, 12, 30. timothy, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24. Mountjoy Milton, observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 5. Mowry, H. H., bulletin on ‘‘A normal day’s work for various farm operations,’? 3, 1-44. ‘‘Mulga,’’ Australian, description and value, 9, 30. ‘“Mulgas,’’ growing on California sand dunes, suggestions, 9, 12. ‘“‘Munnawhatteaug,’’ Indian name for menhaden, 2, 8. Musical instruments, woods suitable. demand, etc., 12, 8, 14, 34, 41-42. Mutton, use on farm, killing, skinning, care, etc., 20, 50-52. ‘‘Myall,’’ Australian, description and value, 9, 30. ‘‘Myalls,’’ growing on California sand dunes, suggestions, 9, 12. Mycorrhizal fungi— nitrogen-fixation, character, discussion, 6, 13. occurrence in acid-tolerant plants, function, 6, 7. Myiochanes virens, enemy of western corn rootworm, note, 8, 6. Natal, acacia culture for tanbark, history of industry, practices, production, etc., 9, 20-21. Nebraska— agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, etc., 7, 12. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 4-5. game laws, 1913, 22, 28, 40, 45, 49, 55. Necklace poplar, name for cottonwood, 24, 11. Nelson amendment, provision for special agricultural schools for teachers, 7, 7. Nevada— ; agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 5. game laws, 1913, 22, 14, 28, 40, 45, 49, 55. INDEX, New Brunswick game laws, 1913, 22, 35, 42, 50, 58. New Hampshire— agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 5. game laws, 1913, 22, 29, 40, 45, 49, 55. New Jersey— certified milk law 1, 10. game laws, 1913, 22, 14, 29, 40, 46, 49, 55. New Mexico— agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, etc., 7, 12. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 5. game laws, 1913, 22, 29, 40, 46, 49, 55. New York— agricultural instruction for teachers, institutions giving special courses, 7, 8. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 5. certified milk law, 1, 9. game laws, 1913, 22, 14, 29, 40, 46, 49, 56. New Zealand, Acacia decurrens, cost and profits, 9, 19. Newfoundland game laws, 1913, 22, 35, 42, 47, 50, 59. Nighthawk, enemy of western corn rootworm, note, 8, 6. Nitrate, soda, application to grass, directions, 16, 7-8. Nitrates, formation in soil, injurious effect of acid, 6, 5-6. Nolan, P., acacia plantation in California, 9, 8. North Carolina— agricultural instruction for teachers, institutions giving special courses, 7, 8. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 5. game laws, 1913, 22, 14, 30, 40, 46, 49, 56. loblolly pine lumber, uses, amount, etc., 11, 12. North Dakota— agricultural instructions, institutions having summer courses, 7, 5. game laws, 22, 14, 30, 41, 46, 49, 56. Northeastern States, hay crops, practices, etc., 6, 1-2. Northwest— cattle industry, decrease, causes, 25, 50-51. shipping cattle, facilities for unloading and feeding, etc., 25, 51. Territories, open seasons for game, 22, 36. Norway poplar, notes, 24, 48-49. Nova Scotia game laws, 1913, 22, 35, 42, 47, 50, 59. Nursery— stock, acacias, production, cost, etc., 9, 36-37. white-pine, management, 13, 49-53. Oak— bark, price in California, 9, 23. growing with cottonwood, note, 24, 35. Oats— acid-tolerant crop, 6, 8. and peas, pasture for sheep, 20, 41. irrigation, California University farm, 10, 18, 19. Ohio— agricultural instruction for teachers, institutions giving special courses, 7, 8. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 5. game laws, 1913, 22, 14, 30, 41, 46, 49, 56. western corn rootworm, ravages, 8, 4. 28 24 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. Oil— birch, substitute for oil of wintergreen, note, 12, 18. birch, yield of wood, substitute for oil of wintergreen, etc., 12, 18. fish, methods of separation, progress, 2, 3-5. eshaden: importance, development of industry, etc., 2, 46-47. menhaden, production, prices, etc., 2, 47. menhaden, production, technology, 2, 47-48. menhaden, properties and uses, 2, 48-50. Oils— fish, development, prices, uses, etc., 2, 46-50. fish, sources, 2, 46-47. hardwood, production, 1909, 12, 10. product of cord of hardwood, cost and value, 12, 10. Oklahoma— agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 5. game laws, 1913, 22, 15, 30, 41, 46, 49, 56. ‘‘Old wite,’’ name for menhaden, 2, 7. Ontario game laws, 1913, 22, 35, 42, 47, 50, 59. Oospora scabies, intolerance of acid in soil, 6, 8. Orchard, apple, on acid soil, crop rotation, 6, 11. Orchards, spraying, day’s work, 3, 27-28. Oregon— agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, etc., 7, 12. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 5. game laws, 1913, 22, 15, 30-31, 41, 46, 49, 56. Overfiowed lands— cottonwood, value, 24, 1. danger from western corn rootworm, 8, 8. Packing boxes, value of cottonwood, 24, 4. Paessler, Johannes, paper on acacia bark grown in North Africa, note, 9, 21. Pater, T.S., W. F. Bancrort, and Frank L. EARNSHAW, filled on ‘‘Game laws for 1913; a summary of the provisions relating to seasons, export, sale, limits, and licenses,’’ 22, 1-59. Panicularia nervata, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, 4, 24. Paper birch, properties, supply, uses, etc., 12, 22-29. Paper pulp, cottonwood, value, 24, 5. Parker, E. G., and J. R. Lindemuth, analysis of fish scrap, 2, 35. Parker, Robert B., observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 5. Parker, Wiiu1AM B., bulletin on ‘‘A sealed paper carton to protect cereals from insect attack,’’ 15, 1-8. Pasture, sheep, crops, management, etc., 20, 38-41. Pauls, G., note on western corn rootworm, 8, 3. Paving— brick. See Brick, paving; Brick, vitrified. roads, use of vitrified brick, 23, 1-34. Peanuts, feed for poultry, experiments, noie, 21, 17. Peas, field, value for sheep pasture, 20, 41. Peirce, VERNON M., and CHartes H. Moorertrexp, bulletin on “Vitrified brick as a paving material for country roads,” 28, 1-34. Penninaton, M. E., and others, bulletin on ‘‘The refrigeration of dressed poultry in transit,’’? 17, 1-35, INDEX. 25 Pennsylvania— agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, etc., 7, 12. agricultural instruction for teachers, institutions giving special courses, 7, 8. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 5. games laws, 1913, 22, 15, 31, 41, 46, 49, 56. Perfume— acacia farnesiana, note, 9, 28. acacia, industry in France, note, 9, 33. . plants, acacia species, 9, 9. Perfumes, acacia, industry, etc., 9, 33. Pewee, wood, enemy of western corn rootworm, 8, 6. Phiewm alpinum— occurrence on Wallowa Mountains, note, 4, 11. See also Mountain timothy. Phoradendron flavescens, injury to cottonwoods, 24, 14-15. Phosphate— classes, 18, 3 fields, South Carolina, history, yield, topography, etc., 18, 1-12. industry, South Carolina, present and future, remarks, 18, 10-11. rock mining, South Carolina, methods, 18, 6-7. rock, South Carolina, phosphate content, 18, 6. rock, washing, method in South Carolina, 18, 7-8. Phosphate-bearving strata, occurrence and origin, South Carolina, 18, 4-5 Phosphates, South Carolina— cost, waste, disposal of product, etc., 18, 9-10. physical and chemical properties, 18, 5-6. Phosphoric acid, use on tobacco soils, 16, 11-14. Pierce, H. C., and others, bulletin on ‘‘The refrigeration of dressed poultry in transit,’ 17, 1-35. Pigs, feed, experiment with fish, 2, 37. Pine— beetle, injury to loblolly pine, 11, 10. cluster, use with acacias on sandy lands in Africa, 9, 10, 11. loblolly, adaptability to forest management, 11, 1. loblolly, distribution and importance, 11, 1-4. loblolly, forest management, Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia, 11, 1-59. loblolly, forest types, 11, 2-4. loblolly, forests, profits on investments, different qualities and oral tions, 11, 21=26. loblolly, growth, yield per acre, reproduction, etc., 11, 5-8. loblolly, lumber, uses, prices, cost of production, etc., 11, 11-16. loblolly, marketing as North Carolina pine, notes, 11, 13. loblolly, nomenclature, characteristics, etc., 11, 43-44. loblolly, nursery stock, cost, growing, etc., 11, 35-38. loblolly, planting, seedlings, 1i, 35. loblolly, resistance to wind and fire, 11, 8-9. loblolly, typical stands, treatment, 11, 38-42. loblolly. See alsa Pine, North Carolina. white. See White pine. whitebark, occurrence on Wallowa Mountains, note, 4, 11. Pineapple growing, beneficial effect of soil acidity, 6, 12. Pinus pinaster, use with acacias on sand dunes, 9, 10, 11. Pissodes strobi, damage to white pine, description, protective measure, 12, 62-63. 26 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. Planters, corn and cotton, daily acreage with different kinds, 3, 19-20. Planting— ‘7 acacia, seeding, experiments, 9, 34-36. cottonwood, commercial, 24, 48-61. day’s work with various seeds and equipment, 3, 18-22. white pine seedling, number to acre, cost, etc., 18, 53-56. Plants, ‘‘ malnutrition” diseases, cause, suggestion, 6, 12. Plowing— day’s work, in stubble with traction engine, 3, 13-14. day’s work, with different plows, 3, 5-8. ““Pogy chum,”’’ use as feed for sheep and poultry, 2, 36. “Pogy,’’ name for menhaden, 2, 7. Poisoning, rodent, notes, 18, 58-59. ““Popinac ” perfume plant, species of acacia, 9, 9. Poplar— black Italian, name for cottonwood, 24, 11. Canadian, name for cottonwood, 24, 11. Carolina, notes, 24, 48-49. necklace, name for cottonwood, 24, 11. Norway, notes, 24, 48-49. Swiss white, name for cottonwood, 24, 11. Vermont, name for cottonwood, 24, 11. 4 | Populus— | angustifolia, note, 24, 11. delioides. See Cottonwood. heterophylla, comparison with Populus deltoides, 24, 11. trichocarpa. See Black cottonwood. Potash, use on tobacco soils, 16, 11-14. Potato, acid-tolerant crop, 6, 8. Potatoes— cultivation, day’s work, 3, 26. cutting for seed, day’s work, 3, 20-21, harvesting, day’s work, 8, 37-38. . planting, day’s work, 3, 21-22. Poultry— dressed, condition after haul in refrigerated cars, chemical analyses, etc., 17, 5-13. j dressed, refrigeration in transit, 17, 1-35. i dressed, shipment in refrigerated cars, temperature requirements, 17, 31. } dressed, transportation in refrigerated cars, investigations, purpose and scope, i 17, 3-4. i} fattening, cost, feed, gain, etc., experiments, 21, 1-14. fattening, factors affecting profits, 21, 27. fattening period, factors, discussion, 21, 15. feed, protein and energy value, 21, 28-29. feeding buttermilk, effect, 21, 17. feeding, fattening for market, details of experiments, 21, 1—55. feeding, number of times daily, experiments, 21, 15-16. feeding salt and grit, effects, experiments, 21, 16. | grading, 21, 26: shipment, preparation, loading, experiments in shipping poultry in refrigerated cars, 17, 5. shrinkage in dressing, per cent of different grades, 21, 26-27. | See also Chickens. Prince Edward Island, game laws, 1913, 22, 36, 42, 50, 59. INDEX. Dif Pulp mills, use of beech, birch, and maple, 12, 9, 28, 56. Pumpkins, feed for sheep, value, 20, 43. Purse boats, description, use in menhaden fishing, etc., 2, 22-23. Quaintance, A. L., observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 2, 3-4, 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, Quebec, game laws, 1913, 22, 36, 42, 47, 50. Quercus densiflora, disappearance in California, 9, 22. Rams— care, 20, 33-35. selection, requirements, breeding ages, etc., 20, 7-8. Range— cattle, shrinkage in transit, factors, investigations, etc., 25, 5-6, 7-9, 10-17, 32-36, 53-59, 60-67. plants, Paleerated: moisture requirements, and root development, comparisons, 4, 20-21. Ranges— depleted, character of land reseeded, 4, 6. depleted, reseeding, causes of failure, 4, 8-9. overgrazed, wohl ane investigation, samenlce, 4, 2-4, Rape, value as ances pasture, 20, 41. Raspberry, acid-tolerant crop, 6, 8. Red— birch, uses, note, 12, 13. heart disease, injury to loblolly pine, 11, 10-11. maple, properties, supply, uses, etc., 12, 48-49. Redtop— acid-tolerant crop, 6, 9. Alpine, occurrence on Wallowa Mountains, note, 4, 11. value as pasture crop, note, 6, 9. value in rotation for growing flue-cured type of tobacco, management, etc., 16, 6-8. Reed grass, slender, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24. Reforestation, loblolly pine, methods, management, 11, 29-36. Refrigeration, dressed poultry in transit, 17, 1-35. Refrigerator cars— construction, 17, 18-22. efficiency, sources of data, calculation, relation to construction and capacity, 17, 13-30. | insulation in relation to temperature, importance, deficiency, 17, 18-22. Reidel, P., identification of acacias, note, 9, 2. Reseeding— loblolly pine forests, 11, 34. ‘ mountain ranges, advantages of thorough planting, 4, 16-20. range lands, cost per acre for different seeds and methods, 4, 27-29. Reservoirs, protection, value of white pine, 13, 47. Revegetation, forest ranges, studies by Department, remarks, 4, 4. Rhode Island, game laws, 1913, 15, 31, 41, 46, 49, 56. Ridge beech, note, 12, 2. River birch— misuse of term, uses, etc., note, 12, 13. properties, supply, uses, etc., 12, 30-32. Road, preparation for brick paving, 23, 8-18. 28 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. Roads— brick-paved, advantages, 238, 1. brick-paved, typical specifications for construction, 23, 21-27. country, paving with vitrified brick, 28, 1-34. subgrade, preparation for brick paving, 23, 8-9. | Roserrson, H. C., and others, bulletin on ‘‘ The refrigeration of dressed poultry in a transit,’’? 17, 1-35. 7 Rodents— injury to cottonwoods, 24, 15. poisoning, notes, 13, 58-59. Rolling land, day’s work, 3, 17-18. Root crops, feeding to sheep, value, caution, etc., 20, 41-42. Root-rot, tobacco, control by acid fertilizers, 6, 12. Rootworm— ‘beetle, southern corn, food plants, 5, 3. beetle, southern corn, oviposition, habits, 5, 6-7. beetle, western corn, description, habits, distributicn, etc., 8, 1-2, 5, 8. pauihern corn, description and distribution, 5, 1-2. southern corn, food plants of larvee, 5, 2-3. southern corn, habits of larve, 5, 5-6. southern corn, natural enemies, 5, 9-10. southern corn, or budworm, 5, 1-11. southern corn, remedial and preventive measures, 5, 10-11. southern corn, seasonal history, 5, 7-9. southern corn, similarity to western corn rootworm, 8, 1. western corn, discussion, 8, 1-8. western corn, habits, distribution, etc., 8, 1-2. western corn, history, ravages, etc., 8, 2-5. western corn, losses from ravages in different localities, 8, 2, 3-5. western corn, natural enemies, 8, 6. western corn, preventive measures, 8, 6-7. western corn, relation to southern corn rootworm, note, 5, 1. Rotation— cottonwood stands, management, 24, 42-45. crop, tobacco districts, 16, 5-10. ; Roughage, sheep feeding, 290, 37. Rudbeckia occidentalis, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24, i Rust, cottonwood, cause, damage, etc., 24, 14. Rutabagas, feed for sheep, 20, 42. Rye— acid-tolerant crop, 6, 8. grass, perennial, reseeding depleted range, value, 4, 7. r mixture with hairy vetch, note, 6, 10. 4 pasture for sheep, 20, 41. sowing with acacia seed as sand binder, 9, 11. value in rotation for growing flue-cured type of tobacco, 16, 6. Salacin, acacia, 9, 34. Salmon-canning industry, extent, waste, etc., remarks, 2, 46. Salting — poultry, effect, experiments, 21, 16. ‘ sheep, practices, caution, etc., 20, 46. Simpson, Arruur W., bulletin on “The reseeding of depleted grazing lands to culti- _ vated forage plants,”’ 4, 1-34. INDEX, Sand-binder, Acacia longifolia, note, 9, 28. Sand-dunes, reclamation by use of acacias, 9, 9-10. Sanderson, E. Dwight, observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 2. Sandy land, crop rotation, 6, 11-12. Saponin, acacia, 9, 34. Saskatchewan, game laws, 1913, 22, 36, 42, 47, 50, 59. Sater, report of injuries from western corn rootworm, 8, 4. Say, Thomas, note on western corn rootworm, 8, 2. Scab, potato, inhibition by acid in soil, 6, 8. Scale, cottony cushion, damage to acacias, 9, 5. Schools— agricultural instruction, demand, increase, etc., 7, 1-2. agricultural instruction, lists, remarks, etc., 7, 3-6, 8, 11-13. “‘Scrub,”’ Australian, descripticn and value, 9, 30. Sedges, occurrence on Wallowa Mountains, notes, 4, 10, 11. Seed— acacia, amount used in Africa, 1888-1899, 9, 10. acacia, description, vitality, preparation for germination, etc., 9, 34-35. acacia, gathering. sowing, cost, etc., 9, 11. bed, tobacco, preparation and care, 16, 18-20. cottonseed, description, germination, etc., 24, 15-16. forage plants. Sce Forage plants. tobacco, selection and care of plants, harvesting, keeping, etc., 16, 17-18, trees, cottonwood, selection, distribution, management, 24, 31-33. white pine, collection, cost, storage, 13, 48-49. white pine, production, distribution, germination, 13, 14-17. Seeding— acacia plantation, experiments, 9, 34-36. acacia, practices, 9, 22. grain, day’s work with different equipment, 3, 18-20. mountain ranges, spring vs. autumn, 4, 15-16. ranges, season suitable, 4, 8. tobacco bed, management, 16, 19-20. white pine, growing methods, 13, 56-59. Seedlings— cottonwood, treatment, planting, spacing, etc., 24, 54-55, 58-61. white pine, growth, singly and in stands, 18, 17-24. Seine, purse, use in menhaden fishing, description, etc., 2, 23. Serradella, acid-tolerance, notes, 6, 9, 11. “‘Shad,’’ name for menhaden, 2, 7. Shade trees, street, value of acacias, 9, 29. Shale, brick making, deposits, characteristics, etc., 28, 2-3. Shearing— ewes, time, 20, 24. sheep, time, methods, etc., 20, 24, 47-48. Sheep— care of flock, 20, 11-35. cost of maintenance, reduction, etc., 20, 50-51. feed, experiments with fish scrap, 2, 36, 37, 38. feeding for wool, 20, 36-37. feeding, remarks, 20, 35-46. grade, comparison with pure bred and crossbred, 20, 4-5. handling, 20, 13-17. housing, necessity, management, 20, 17-19. co 29 30 ’ DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. Sheep—Continued. husbandry, extension of industry, remarks, 20, 1-2. management on the farm, 20, 1-52. parasites, preventive measures, 20, 13. raising, establishing flock, suggestions, 20, 3-10. raising, size of flock, suggestions, 20, 10. store, care, 20, 34-35. trimming feet, management, 20, 24-25. use in reseeding grazing lands, management, 4, 19. value as destroyers of weeds, 20, 3. Shelter belts, acacia, 9, 31. SHINN, CHARLES Howarb, bulletin on ‘‘An economic study of acacias,’’ 9, 1-38. Shoe— lasts, maple wood, manufacture, processes, demand, etc., 12, 37-38. pegs, manufacture, demand, woods used, etc., 12, 25-26, 35, 48. Shoes, wooden, cost, demand, uses, etc., 12, 9, 32. Shorb, J. de Barth, remarks on acacia plantation in California, 9, 8. Sickle sedge, occurrence on Wallowa Mountains, note, 4, 10-11. Silage, feed for sheep, value, experiments, etc., 20, 42. Silage-fed cattle, shrinkage in transit, 25, 43-44. Silver— . | birch. See Paper birch. maple, properties, supply, uses, etc., 12, 49-52. wattle, description, value, etc., 9, 17. Sms, T. R., bulletin on ‘‘The black wattle industry” (Natal), 9, 21. ‘“Skates,’’ use as fertilizer, note, 2, 16. Slash, white pine, disposal, uses, etc., 13, 60-62. Smith, Jared C., remarks on acacia culture in Hawaii, 9, 22. Soap making, use of ashes, practices, 12, 46. Soda nitrate, application to grass, directions, 16, 7-8. Soil— acidity, beneficial effects, 6, 12-13. acidity, injurious effects, 6, 5-6. acidity, reseeded range lands, relation to yield, 4, 23-24. acidity, source, 6, 2-3. fertility, increase, value of sheep, 290, 2. Yolo loam, description, value, etc., 10, 1. Soiling crops, sheep feeding, discussion, 20, 43. o Soils— i acid, crops suitable, 6, 7-12. acid, reseeding with forage plants, selection of species, 4, 25-26. acid, utilization by means of acid-tolerant crops, 6, 1-13. poor, adaptability to acacia perfume industry, 9, 33. poor, value of acacias, 9, 9-15, 19, 30-31, 33. tobacco, flue-cured type, description, requirements, 16, 3-5. South Carolina— agricultural education, institutions having summer courses, 7, 5. agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, etc., 7, 12. game laws, 1913, 22, 31, 41, 46, 49, 56. phosphate fields, report, 18, 1-12. South Dakota— agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, etc., 7, 12. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 5. game laws, 1913, 22, 15, 31, 41, 46, 49, 57. om - me —- =) — —— a i INDEX. 31 Southern corn rootworm or budworm, 5, 1-11. Soy bean— acid-tolerant crop, 6, 10. composition, value in cattle feed, remarks, 6, 10. Spools, woods suitable, manufacture, demand, etc., 12, 12, 20, 22, 26-27. Sporotrichum globuliferum, enemy of western corn rootworm, 8, 6. Spraying— apparatus, vineyard work, 19, 39-41. orchard, day’s work, 3, 27-28. Sprays— application for grape leafhopper, etc., 19, 35, 37-41. liquid, use against grape leafhopper, 19, 35, 37-39. Spruce, Engelmann, occurrence on Wallowa Mountains, note, 4, 11. Stables— cow, for production of certified milk, construction, etc., 1, 13. dairy cows, construction, location, management, etc., 1, 25-26. StarrorpD, M. O., and others, bulletin on ‘‘The refrigeration of dressed poultry in transit,’ 17, 1-35. Standards, certified milk, 1, 29-36. Steers— range, shrinkage in transit, Investigations, 25, 53-55. See also Cattle. Sterilization, dairy utensils, certified milk production, 1, 16. SterReTT, W. D., bulletin on ‘‘Forest management of loblolly pine in Delaware, Maryland, and Virginia,” 11, 1-59. Stewart, Lewis, experience with western corn rootworm, 8, 6. Strawberries, picking, day’s work, 3, 40. Strawberry, acid-tolerant crop, 6, 7. Stubble fields, plowing with traction engine, day’s work, 3, 13-14. Stumpage value, second-growth white pine, 13, 29. Suckering tobacco, directions, 16, 28. Sugar— beets. See Beets, sugar. maple, making, yield, etc., 12, 47. maple, properties, supply, uses, etc., 12, 12, 32-47. maple, stands in different States, Benjamin Rusk to Thomas Jefferson, 12, 33, 34, tree. See Sugar maple. Swamp sedge, tall, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24. Swedes, feed for sheep, value, 20, 42. Sweet— birch. “See Birch, sweet. potato, acid-tolerant crop, 6, 8. Swiss white poplar, name for cottonwood, 24, 11. Tacharia lacea. See Lac. Tanbark— acacia, exports from Natal, 1886, 1902, 9, 20. acacias, species, tannin content, etc., 9, 16-25. oak, California, disappearance, 9, 22. Tanning industry, California, note, 9, 23. Taylor, J. O., observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 5. Taylor, Lionel E., note on fire-resistance of wattles, 9, 6. 32 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. Teachers— agricultural training courses, with a suggested reading course in agriculture based on Farmers’ Bulletins, 7, 1-17. certificates, States requiring examination in agriculture, 7, 2. employed, acquirement of agricultural training, 7, 2-13. institutes, place of agricultural education, 7, 7. special courses in agriculture, institutions offering, 7, 8. Tennessee— agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 5-6. game laws, 1913, 22, 15, 32, 41, 46, 49, 57. Ternetz, Charlotte, isolation of nitrogen-fixing fungi from soils, note, 6, 13. Texas— ; agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, ete:, 7, 12. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 6. game laws, 1913, 22, 32, 41, 46, 49, 57. Thielavia basicola, control by acid fertilizers, 6, 12. Thrashing grain, day’s work, 3, 39. Timber, acacia, value, 9, 25-33. acacias, California, 9, 29-30. acacias, principal species, 9, 25-29. hardwood, diminution, 9, 25. loblolly pine, cutting methods, 11, 30-32. loblolly pine, stumpage values, tables, 11, 16-19. measurement, tables, 18, 64-70. Timothy— growing, northeastern States, practices, 6, 1. mountain, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 11, 24. reseeding depleted range, value, 4, 7. Tobacco— cultivation of crop, 16, 25. curing, handling, etc., 16, 30-36. diseases, 16, 25-26. flue-cured, cost of production, note, 16, 36. flue-cured, culture, 16, 1-36. flue-cured type, development, characters, production, demand, etc., 16, 1-3. flue-cured type, varieties, descriptions, 16, 16-17. grades, 16, 36. growing, ‘‘dead spots,’’ problem, 16, 26. growing, flue-cured type, crop rotation, fertilizers, 16, 5-16. - growing, rotation system for flue-cured type, 16, 6-10. harvesting methods, comparison, 16, 28-30. marketing, suggestions, 16, 36. ordering cellar, building directions, 16, 35. root rot, control by acid fertilizers, 6, 12. seed bed, burning, suggestions, 16, 18-19. seed bed, preparation and care, 16, 18-20. suckering, 16, 28. topping, 16, 28. Toe clippers, sheep, description, 20, 24. Tomatoes, planting, day’s work, 3, 20-21. Toothpick industry, woods used, cost, mauufacture, etc., 12, 22, 27. Topping tobacco, directions, 16, 28. Transplanting tobacco, preparation of soil, distance, etc., 16, 22-25. INDEX. | 33 Transportation— beef cattle, effect on weight, 25, 1-78. dressed poultry in refrigerated cars, investigations, purpose and scope, 17, 3-4, dressed poultry, refrigeration, 17, 1-35. refrigeration of perishable products, historical sketch, 17, 1-3. Transvaal, acacia culture, 9, 20. Trees— growing near gas plants, value of acacias, 9, 29. resistance to fumes of copper smelter, value of Acacia melanozylon, 9, 29. Turnip, acid-tolerance, 6, 9. Turnips, feed for sheep, value, 20, 41, 42. TURRNTINE, J. W., bulletin on ‘‘ The fish-scrap fertilizer industry of the Atlantic Coast,’’ 2, 1-50. Typhlocyba comes. See also Grape leafhopper. Typhlocyba— coloradensis, injury to grapvines in California, 19, 9. comes, allied species, host plants, etc., 19, 9-12. tricincta, description, occurrence, 19, 10, 11, 12. Urbahns, T. D., observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 2, 10. Uredo melampson medusx, damage to cottonwoods, 24, 14. Utah— agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, etc., 7, 12. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 6 game laws, 1913, 22, 15-16, 32, 41, 46, 49, 57. Vehicles— birch wood, notes, 12, 15, 21. use of maple wood, 12, 39-40, 52. Ventilation, tobacco barn, 16, 32-33. Veratrum viride, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24. Vermont— agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, etc., 7, 12. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 6. game laws, 1913, 22, 16, 32, 41, 46, 49, 57. poplar, name for cottonwood, 24, 11. Vetches, pasture for sheep, 20, 41. Vickery, R. A., observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 6, 7, 9. Vine maple, uses, note, 12, 56. Vineyards, Lake Erie Valley, destruction by grape leafhopper, 19, 1-47. Virginia— agricultural pee institutions having summer courses, 7, 6. game laws, 1913, 22, 33, 41, 46, 49, 57. loblolly pine, forest management, cadd in Delaware and Maryland, 11, 1-59. Vitrified brick— as paving material for country roads, 28, 1-34. See also Brick, paving; Brick, vitrified. Von Mueller— experiments with acacia timber, 9, 26. remarks on Acacia melanoxylon, 9, 18. remarks on acacia species, 9, 12, 16, 18. 58836—14—4 ey —E—— rr ver RS ee 84 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE, BULLS. 1-25. Waacaman, Witu14m H., bulletin on ‘‘A report of the phosphate fields of South Carolina,’’ 18, 1-12. ~“*“Waitia bit,’’ hedge plant, note, 9,31. ‘Wallowa Mountains— Bear Creek experimental range, description, reseeding, management, etc., 4, 13-14, 29. reseeding depleted ranges, investigations, 4, 9-25. Stanley Range, description, reseeding, management, etc., 4, 10-11, 29. Sturgill Range, description, reseeding, management, ietc., 4, 12-13, 29. Walsh, D. B., note on western corn rootworm, 8, 2. Warp, W. F., and James E, Downina, bulletin on ‘‘The shrinkage in weight of beef cattle in transit,’’ 25, 1-78. Warren, Col., pioneer in acacia industry in California, 9, 7. Washer, phosphate rock, description, 18, 7-8. Washington— Rep agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses 7, 6. game laws, 1913, 22, 16, 33, 41, 46, 49, 57. Water sedge, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24. Wattle— black, insect enemies in Australia, 9, 5. black, tannin content, comparison with oak bark, 9, 16. golden, tannin yield, remarks, 9, 17. eum, isinglass substitute, note, 9, 32. gum, product of acacias, note, 9, 32. gums, uses, plants producing, ete., 9, 32. origin of term, 9, 16. silver, description, value, etc., 9, 17. See also Acacia. Wattles, varieties, leading, 9, 2. Weaning— lambs, feeding, care, etc., 20, 31-33. time, ewes, attention, 20, 26. Webber, H., note on western ‘corn rootworm, 8, 2. Wesster, F. M.— bulletin on ‘‘The southern corn rootworm or budworm,”’ 5, 1-11. bulletin on ‘‘The western corn rootworm,”’’ 8, 1-8. Weeds, destruction by sheep, observations, 20, 3. Weevil, white pine, description, damage, protective measures, 18, 62-63. Weighing cattle— range States, management, 25, 25. track scales, comparison with platform scales at Fort Worth stock yards, 25, 4-5. Wells, Daniel, fish-scrap factories, development, 2, 3. West Virginia— agricultural instruction for teachers, institutions giving special courses, 7, 8. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 6. game laws, 1913, 22, 16, 33, 41, 46, 49, 57. Western— birch, habitat, uses, 12, 29. corn rootworm, 8, 1-8. corn rootworm. See also Rootworm, western corn. Whale— analysis of flesh and steamed bones, 2, 33. oil, production, annual, 2, 46. INDEX. [nee 35 Wheat— damage by western corn rootworm, 8, 5. irrigation, California University farm, 10, 18-19, pasture for sheep, practices, 2, 41. White— birch, habitat, description, uses, 12, 29. birch, uses, note, 12, 13. birch. See also Paper birch. fish, name for menhaden, 2, 7. pine, Germany, height growth, 138, 64. pine, lumbering, history, practices, 13, 4—7. pine, measurement, tables, 13, 64-70. pine, mixed stands, desirable, treatment, 13, 43-45. pine, planting and sowing, management, 13, 47-63. pine, range, supply, percentage of lumber cut, etc., 13, 1-4. pine, second growth as investment, market value and cost, 13, 24-34. pine, second growth, characteristics, value, 138, 9-10. < pine, seed production, distribution and germination, 138, 14-17. pine, stands, growth, requirements, form, etc., 13, 7-24. ‘pine stands, reproduction, treatment, 13, 45-49. pine:stands, rotation, thinning, pruning, cutting, etc., 13, 36-45. pine stumpage, value, relation of taxes and other expenses, 13, 70. pine under forest management, 138, 1-70. pine, yield per acre, virgin and second growth stands, 18, 69-70. Wriuu1ameon, A. W., bulletin on ‘Cottonwood in the Mississippi Valley,’’ 24, 1-62. Willows, species in cottonwood-willow stands, 24, 21. Windbreaks— use of cottonwood, 24, 49-50. - white-pine, note, 13, 47. Wisconsin— agricultural instruction for teachers, institutions giving special courses, 7, 8. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 6. game laws, 1913, 22, 16-17, 34, 41, 46, 58. Wirmer, E., and others, bulletin-on ‘‘The refrigeration of dressed poultry in transit,” 17, 1-35. Wolleb, acacia collection in California, 9, 7. Wood rush, occurrence on Wallowa Mountain range lands, note, 4, 24. Wooden shoes, cost, demand, uses, 12, 9, 32. Woodenware, woods suitable, use, articles, etc., 12, 4, 21, 27, 31-32, 35, 43-44, 49, 51, 52, 56. Woods, commercial, United States, uses: Beech, birches, and maples, 12, 1-56. Wool sacks, suggestions, 20, 48-49. Wyoming— agricultural instruction, correspondence schools, location, cost, etc., 7, 12. agricultural instruction, institutions having summer courses, 7, 6. game laws, 1913, 22, 17, 34, 42, 46, 50, 58. Yancey, Charles, observations on southern corn rootworm, 5, 3. Yellow birch, properties, supply, uses, etc., 12, 18-22. Yukon, game laws, 1913, 22, 36, 42, 47, 50, 59. O th? " ° = saan ancien a ta ee en et ee a all ak ae a re il Cu Ge IN, core) tad ee east aie bic i aig ae yells Soca ths NLVN wd ie WV 4dHL een iO ~ JONAD SAG i) NOILVOAGA UO J1dOad FHL UOI NN 100159628